,a ,,select ,,li/ ,,( ,,books1          
,,publi%$ ,,by ,,p>tridge ,,& ,,oakey   
,,london3    ,& may be _h ( all         
,booksell]s4        ,! ,lamps ( !       
,temple3 ,%ad[s f ! ,lights ( ! ,mod]n  
,pulpit4 ,clo?1 #cs4 #f;d4              
,,cont5ts3--,! ,pulpit & ! ,age--,!     
,revs4 ,?omas ,b9ney--,h5ry             
,melville1 ,b4,d4--,dr4 ,edw>d          
,&rews--,dr4 ,ri*>d ,w9t]               
,hamilton--,james ,p>sons--,alfr$ ,j4   
,morris--,dr4 ,rob]t                    
,newton--,dr4 ,joseph ,e4               
,beaumont--,b5jam9 ,p>sons--,dr4 ,john  
,cumm+--,john ,puls=d--,george ,dawson1 
,m4,a4--,! ,wel*                        
,pulpit4--,conclud+ ,summ>y4            
,memoirs ( ,william ,wordswor?1 compil$ 
f au!ntic s\rces2        ) num]\s       
quotations f 8 ,poems1 illu/rative ( 8  
,life & ,"*3 by ,janu>y ,se>le4 #cs4    
,! ,keepsake2 beautifully b\nd1 &       
illu/rat$1 #cs4      ,fri5d%ip's ,(f]+1 
illu/rat$1 h&somely b\nd1 gilt edges4   
#cs4      ,! ,sacr$ ,g>l&1 illu/rat$1   

h&somely b\nd1 gilt edges4 #cs4      ,! 
,wrea? ( ,fri5d%ip1 illu/rat$1 h&somely 
b\nd1 gilt        edges4 #cs4           
,praise & ,pr9ciple2 or1 ,= :at %all ,i 
live8 ,clo?1 #cs4      ,! ,new ,ent]ta9+
 ,naturali/3 illu/rat$ ) num]\s cuts1   
h&somely b\nd1 gilt edges1 #cs4      ,! 
,wond]s ( ,nature & ,art2 compris+ ! mo/
 rem>kable        ,curiosities 9 ! ,kn[n
 ,_w3 illu/rat$ ) num]\s cuts1        & 
h&somely b\nd1 gilt edges4 #cs4      ,! 
,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,europe1 f ! comm5cem5t
 ( ! #af?        ,c5tury to ! ye> #ahej4
 ,by ! ,rev4 ,r4 ,/ew>t1 ,m4,a4 ,clo?1  
#es4      ,popul> ,hi/ory ( ,irel&1 f ! 
e>lie/ p]iod to ! pres5t        "t3 by !
 ,rev4 ,r4 ,/u>t1 ,m4,a4 ,clo?1 #cs4    
,hi/orical ,sket*es ( ,feudalism1       
,briti% & ,cont95tal3 )        num]\s   
notices ( ! do+s ( ! ,feudalry 9 all    
ages &        ,c\ntries4 ,by ,&rew      
,bell4 ,clo?1 #cs4      ,%aksp]e3 8     
,times & ,contempor>ies4 ,clo?1 #as4    
#f;d4      ,self-,reliance2 a ,book =   
,"y ,m52 be+ ,biographic ,sket*es       

( ,m5 :o h ris5 to ,indep5d5ce &        
,usefulness1 by        ,p]sev]ance &    
,en]gy4 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4               
,,cont5ts3--,sir ,humphrey              
,davy--,william ,all5--,william         
,hutton--,?omas        ,scott--,william 
,gif=d--,sir ,william ,h]s*el--,miln]s1 
,bro!rs--,alex&] ,murray--,b5jam9       
,we/--,james        ,br9dley--,james    
,f]guson4      ,deck & ,port2 or1       
,incid5ts ( a ,cruise to ,cali=nia2 )   
,sket*es ( ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,valp>aiso1
 ,lima1 ,honolulu1 & ,san               
,francisco1 by ,colton1 h&somely b\nd 9 
,clo?1 #cs4      ,sket*es ( ,india2 by  
,h4 ,moses1 ,esq41 ,m4,d43 embelli%$ ) a
        h&some view ( ,bombay4 ,clo?1   
#es4      ,! ,wond]s ( ! ,human ,frame3 
,man1--,anatomically &                  
,physiologically consid]$4 ,compil$ f a 
,s]ies ( ,lectures        9 language    
adapt$ to all classes ( ,read]s4 #as4   
#f;d4        ,p5 ,pictures ( ,popul>    
,engli% ,prea*]s4 ,a new & enl>g$       
edition4 ,clo?1 #cs4 #f;d4              

,,cont5ts3--,rev4 ,dr4 ,cumm+--,w4      
,jay--,j4 ,p>sons--,hon4  ,rev4         
,bapti/ ,w4 ,noel--,dr4 ,m',neile--,j4  
,sorta9--,t4 ,w9t]--,j4                 
,jack--,i4 ,rop]--,dr4 ,croly--,dr4     
,buckl&--,dr4 ,campbell--,dr4           
,flet*]--,a4 ,o4 ,beattie--,t4          
,raffles--,f4 ,close--,dr4 ,c&li%--,t4  
,b9ney--,john ,angel ,james--,h5ry      
,melville1 ,m4,a4--,dr4 ,wolfe--,dr4    
,pusey--,c>d9al ,wiseman--,w4 ,j4 ,e4   
,b5nett--,fa!r ,gavazzi4      ,p5 & ,ink
 ,sket*es ( ,au?ors & ,au?oresses4 ,by !
 au?or (        8,p5 ,pictures ( ,popul>
 ,engli% ,prea*]s40 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4   
,! ,life ( ,?omas ,*att]ton2 includ+ 8  
unpubli%$ ,poems &                      
,correspond5ce1 by ditto4 ,clo?1 #as4   
#f;d4      ,extracts f ! ,di>y ( a ,liv+
 ,physician4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,cont5ts3--,! ,brok5 ,v[--,!           
,incurable--,! ,betray]--,!             
,sep>ation--,! ,w&]]--,! ,sub/itute--,! 
,beg9n+ & !        ,end (               
,intemp]ance--,! ,monomaniac--,! ,la/   

,admonition--,!        ,poa*]'s         
,/ory--,! ,soldi]'s ,dea? ,b$4          
,rhyme1 ,romance1 & ,rev]y3 by ,john    
,bolton ,rog]son4 ,h&somely        b\nd2
 col\r$ frontispiece1 #cs4      ,%amrock
 ,leaves3 ,tales & ,sket*es ( ,irel&4   
,full gilt1 #bs4        #f;d4      ,!   
,holly ,wrea?2 a ,pleasant ,companion = 
a ,leisure ,h\r4 ,by ,miss              
,s>geant4 ,h&somely b\nd & illu/rat$4   
#bs4 #f;d4      ,! ,poetic ,ros>y3 by   
,j4 ,crit*ley ,pr9ce4 ,d$icat$ by       
p]mission        to ,*>les ,dick5s1     
,esq4 ,h&somely gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4        
,john ,milton3 ! ,patriot ,poet4        
,illu/rations ( ! ,model ,man4 by       
,edw9 ,paxton ,hood4 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4  
,! ,lit]ature ( ,lab\r2 illu/ri\s       
,in/ances ( ! ,education        (       
,poetry 9 ,pov]ty1 by ditto4 ,a new &   
enl>g$ edition1        d$icat$ to       
,pr(essor ,wilson4 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4    
,! ,d>k ,days ( ,que5 ,m>y1 by ditto4   
,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4      ,! ,good ,old    
,times ( ,que5 ,bess1 by ditto4 ,clo?1  

#as4 #f;d4      ,self-,education2 twelve
 *apt]s = "y ?9k]s1 by ditto1           
,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4      ,g5ius &         
,indu/ry2 ! ,a*ievem5ts ( ,m9d among !  
,cottages1        by ditto4 ,clo?1 #as4 
#f;d4      ,old ,engl&3 ,sc5es f ,life1 
9 ! ,hall & ! ,hamlet1 by !        ,=e/ 
& ,fireside1 by ditto4 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4
      ,! ,m5tal & ,moral ,philosophy (  
,laught]3 ,a ,vi/a ( !        ,ludicr\s 
,side ( ,life1 by ditto4 ,clo?1 #as4    
#f;d4      ,! ,uses ( ,biography3       
,romantic1 ,philosophic1 & ,didactic1   
#as4        #f;d4      ,fragm5ts (      
,?\ght & ,composition1 by ditto4 ,clo?4 
#as4 #f;d4      ,emma ,clif=d2 or1 ,true
 & ,false ,pr(ession4 ,clo?1 #cs4       
,! ,life1 ,"*1 & ,g5ius ( ,eb5ez]       
,elliott1 ! ,corn ,law        ,rhym]1 by
 ,janu>y ,se>le4 ,clo?1 #as4      ,life 
at ,home & ,abroad2 an ,autobiography1  
by ditto1 ,clo?1 #as4      ,leaves f    
,%]wood ,=e/1 by ditto1 #as4      ,h\rs 
) ! ,muses1 by ,j4 ,crit*ley ,pr9ce4    
,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4      ,dreams &        

,realities1 by ditto4 ,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4 
,pictures ( ! ,liv+ ,au?ors ( ,brita94  
,clo?1 #as4 #f;d4      ,! ,*ild's ,own  
,/ory ,book2 illu/rat$1 full gilt1 #bs4 
#f;d4          ,illu/ration3 ,,*a9      
,,bridge4            ,see page #fh4     
,a      ,,hi/orical ,,acc\nt      ,,(   
,,useful ,,inv5tions      ,,&           
,,sci5tific ,,discov]ies3        ,,be+  
,a ,,manual ,,( ,,in/ruction ,,&        
,,ent]ta9m5t4        ,,by ,,george      
,,grant1      ,,au?or ,,( 8,,panorama   
,,( ,,sci5ce10 8,,! ,,hi/ory ,,(        
,,london10      ,,etc4 ,,etc4           
,,london3      ,,p>tridge ,,& ,,oakey4  
,,mdccclii4          ,,preface4      ,x 
has be5 demon/rat$ t ! desire ( obta9+ k
 is "o  ( ! mo/ natural1 &1 at ! same   
"t1 mo/ ennobl+ attributes  ( ! human   
m9d4 ,!re is at ! pres5t "t a great     
numb] (  inquir+ m9ds among ! work+     
classes ( ?is k+dom1 & a /ill  great]   
numb] ( ! "y ( all classes ?ir/+ =      
in=mation1  :o 9 ent]+ ^u a c\rse (     
g5]al read+ mu/ be greatly at  a loss = 

_m ?+s :i* are famili>ly allud$ to 9    
ord9>y  conv]sation1 ) :i* ev]ybody is  
und]/ood to be acqua9t$1 or  w\ld h p to
 ?9k s1 b :i*1 9 reality1 are only      
famili>  to p]sons :o h be5 liv+ = a    
consid]able "t 9 intimate  conv]se ) !  
_w4    ,! 8,hi/orical ,acc\nt ( ,useful 
,inv5tions & ,discov]ies 9  ,sci5ce10 is
 int5d$ 9 "s measure to supply su*      
in=mation to !  anxi\s inquir] aft] k4  
,( ! num]\s articles "h treat$  (1 x w  
be p]ceiv$ t ea* has be5 trac$ to its   
orig9 9  z lucid a /yle z possible1 & 9 
s do+ we h endeav\r$ to  comb9e         
in/ruction ) amusem5t4 ,z a pro( ( ?is  
we ne$ only  ref] to ! table ( ,cont5ts4
          ,,cont5ts4                    
,,page4      ,pr9t+                     
#aa      ,/]eotype                      
#be      ,engrav+ on ,wood              
#bg          0     0  ,copp]            
#bh          0     0  ,/eel             
#cj      ,li?ography                    
#cb      ,pap]                          
#cf      ,pap] ,hang+                   

#da      ,pa9t+                         
#de      ,/atu>y                        
#dh      ,draw+                         
#ee      ,ar*itecture                   
#fb      ,*a9 ,bridges                  
#fh      ,clocks                        
#fi      ,wat*es                        
#gd      ,wat] ,clocks                  
#gg      ,sp9n+                         
#hj      ,/ock+ ,manufacture            
#hd      ,coa*es                        
#ie      ,saddles1 c4                   
#ajd      ,horse-,%oes                  
#ajg      ,gunp[d]                      
#aaa      ,guns                         
#aad      ,a/ronomy                     
#aai      ,navigation                   
#aee      ,light-,h\ses                 
#aei      ,electricity                  
#afg      ,electric ,telegraph          
#afi      ,/eam-,eng9es                 
#aga      ,mills                        
#aie      ,saw-,mills                   
#baa      ,=ks                          
#bad      ,music                        

#bai      ,seal+-,wax1 ,seals1 4        
#bbh      ,black ,lead ,p5cils          
#bcd      ,col\r$ ,glass                
#bcf      ,et*+ on ,glass1 &            
,glass-cutt+         #bdj               
,hydromet]s                             
#bdf          ,,useful ,,inv5tions4     
,,pr9t+4      ,among ! _m arts & sci5ces
 cultivat$ 9 society1 "s are  only      
adapt$ to supply our natural wants1 or  
assi/ our infirmities2  "s are m]e      
in/rum5ts ( luxury1 calculat$ to flatt] 
pride1  to gratify vanity1 & to satisfy 
our desires ( e description2  :il/ o!rs 
t5d at once to secure1 to accommodate1  
delight1 & give  consequ5ce to man4 ,(  
?is latt] k9d1 ,pr9t+ und\bt$ly /&s     
pre-em95t2 & if view$ 9 its full ext5t1 
x may be truly said to  possess a v     
consid]able portion n only ( ! com=ts1 b
 !  conv5i5ces & positive utilities (   
life4 ,! advantages d]iv$  f ?is        
inv5tion mu/ be ackn[l$g$ by all1--?is  
art has prov$  ! pr9cipal /ep t[>ds     
civilization3 by x has ,*ri/ianity be5  

propagat$2 & by its p[]ful means are we 
made acqua9t$ ) all  t is useful 9 k1 9 
art1 & sci5ce4 ,x w\ld take ! p5  ( an  
inspir$ writ] to enum]ate all ! bless+s 
:i* fl[ f  x4 ,x is a pat5t eng9e :i*   
possesses a prepond]at+ influ5ce  ov] ! 
m9d ( man ei!r = good or evil1 accord+ z
 x is us$4    ,z we proce$ we w h       
frequ5t occasion to express our feel+s  
9 grateful eulogium1 :5 consid]+ !      
b5efits result+ to  society f v>i\s     
+5i\s inv5tions & discov]ies2 b :5  we  
consid] ! advantages d]iv$ f !          
typographic art1 x  appe>s l a vortex1  
draw+ e o!r s5sation into its deep      
int]e/1 & engulph+ e consid]ation1 s t  
we c ?9k (  no?+ b pr9t+1 & its ext5sive
 catalogue ( b5efits4 ,?is  int]e/ is   
wond]fully increas$1 :e!r x be view$ on 
acc\nt (  its +5uity1 ! ext5t ( its     
b5efits1 or ! b5evol5ce ( its  objects4 
,9 :atev] po9t ( view we behold x1 :e!r 
z a m$ium  = giv+ ! utmo/ facility to ! 
despat* ( ! common conc]ns  ( life2 or z
 af=d+ ! eag] m9d ( ! philosophic       

inquir]  ! ready means to gratify !     
inquisitive ?ir/ ( 8 k2  9 e species (  
m5tal intellig5ce1 ! rapid facility :i* 
x  af=ds to ! multiplication ( ^? m$iums
 ( communication1 by  :i* k is          
promulgat$ 9 e "p ( ! e>?4 ,we are at  a
 loss = a t]m suffici5tly compreh5sive  
to express our s5se (  ! inf9ite        
importance ( ^? advantages :i* accrue to
 mank9d  f ! inv5tion ( an art s replete
 ) important consequ5ces1  :i* we h\rly 
p]ceive to emanate f typography4 ,we ne$
 !re=e  sc>cely (f] an apology = ins]t+ 
a brief hi/ory ( ?is div9e  art 9 our   
pages4    ,! e>lie/ specim5s ( pr9t+ :i*
 h be5 discov]$1 consi/  9 ! /amp$ m>ks 
on ! bricks & tiles us$ 9 build+ ! t[]  
& city ( ,babel1 & :i* may be dat$ z f> 
back z two ?\s&  two hundr$ ye>s be=e   
,*ri/4 ,a numb] ( ^! /amp$ clay         
mat]ials ( ,babel are /ill pres]v$ 9    
antiqu>ian repositories4 ,x  is         
rem>kable t !y g5]ally diff] 9 %ape &   
appe>ance1 &  t ! lett]s or words1 :i*  
are 9 anci5t "*1 seem to h  be5 /amp$ by

 ! h& ) moveable blocks4 ,9 ,tr9ity     
,college1  ,cambridge1 "s curi\s        
specim5s are pres]v$1 "o ( :i* is a     
r\nd piece ( clay1 sev5 in*es 9 height1 
& ?ree 9 ?ickness  at ! end1 resembl+ a 
b>rel1 be+ ?icke/ at ! middle4 ,?is     
int]e/+ relic1 ?is ,*aldean book1 is    
entirely cov]$ ) l9es  ( lett]s & words 
runn+ f ! "o end to ! o!r2 f its        
portable "* x may be call$ a pocket     
volume1 & "o :i*  _c be less ?an f\r    
?\s& ye>s old4 ,x is m\nt$ on a m>ble   
p$e/al1 cov]$ ) a glass case1 secur$ by 
an iron bracket1 &  s contriv$ t !      
curi\s inspector may cause x to revolve 
on its  m>ble base2 b ! greate/ c>e is  
tak5 ( ?is valuable relic (  antiquity4 
,x appe>s to h be5 pr9t$ by two m\lds1 &
 at !  middle ( ! circumf]5ce a small   
blank squ>e has be5 left1 9 case  z x is
 suppos$1 room %\ld be requir$ = a      
portion ( ! clay to  escape 9 ! action (
 compression4    ,next to ^! extremely  
anci5t /amp$ bricks1 9 po9t ( int]e/  & 
antiquity1 are specim5s ( ! e>lie/      

engrav+ ( lett]s on  /one4 ,we are in=m$
 by v>i\s hi/orical writ]s t ,cadmus1 a 
,phnician1 :o liv$ "o ?\s& five hundr$  
ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 at  a p]iod contempor>y
 ) ,moses1 & :o 0 e/eem$ z ! build]  ( !
 city ( ,!bes1 0 ! fir/ :o taught !     
,greeks ! use (  alphabetic symbols1 an 
art he mo/ likely acquir$ f ! ,hebrews4 
,! mo/ anci5t specim5 ( an engrav$      
inscription n[ kn[n to  be extant1 is ! 
,sigean ,inscription1 s call$ f hav+ be5
  dis9t]r$ ^u a promontory nam$ ,sigeum1
 situate ne> ! anci5t  city ( ,troy1 9  
,phrygia4 ,x is engrav$ on a pill> (    
beautifully  :ite m>ble1 n9e feet high1 
two feet broad1 & eight in*es ?ick1  &  
:i*1 f ! inscription1 s]v$ z ! p$e/al ( 
! hea!n  god ,h]mocrates4 ,! lett]s us$ 
9 ?is inscription are ! capitals  ( !   
,grecian language1 ?\gh rudely cut1 b   
read f "r to  left l ! ,hebrew4 ,?is    
specim5 ( engrav+ mu/ be ab\t ?ree  ?\s&
 ye>s old4    ,ano!r n less int]e/+     
relic ( ! e>lie/ age ( pr9t+ is  f\nd 9 
a ,roman signet r+ or /amp1 approa*+ 9  

"* to t  species ( /amp n[ us$ by !     
po/-(fice on lett]s4 ,?is curiosity  is 
pres]v$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,x is ! v  
e>lie/ specim5 we  possess ( pr9t+1 by  
means ( ink or any simil> sub/ance4 ,x  
is  made ( metal1 a sort ( ,roman brass2
 ! gr\nd ( :i* is cov]$  ) a gre5 k9d ( 
v]digris ru/1 ) :i* antique m$als are   
usually cov]$4 ,! lett]s rise flu% up to
 ! elevation ( !  ext]ior rim :i*       
surr\nds x4 ,its dim5sions are1 ab\t two
 in*es  long1 by "o in* broad4 ,at !    
back ( x is a small r+ = !  f+]1 to     
promote ! conv5i5ce ( hold+ x4 ,z no    
p]son ( !  "n :i* is inscrib$ ^u x is   
m5tion$ 9 ,roman ,hi/ory1 he is  !re=e  
suppos$ to h be5 a function>y ( "s      
,roman (fic]1  or private /ew>d1 & :o1  
p]haps1 us$ ?is /amp to save himself  ! 
tr\ble ( writ+ 8 "n4 ,a /amp some:at    
simil>1 9 !  ,greek "*1 is 9 !          
possession ( ! ,antiqu>ian ,society1 (  
,newca/le-^u-,tyne4    ,x w be p]ceiv$ t
 h[ev] curi\s ^! relics ( antiquity may 
be1 !y d n be> any connection ) ! art ( 

pr9t+ books4 ,!  orig9 ( ?is inv5tion   
seems to be q indep5d5t ( a prec$+  k ( 
impress+ by means ( /amps4 ,:at is1     
h[ev]1 wor?y  ( rem>k1 ! art ( pr9t+    
books1 ?\gh on a rude pr9ciple1 0  kn[n 
& 9 use among ! ,*9ese1 at lea/ "o ?\s& 
f\r hundr$  ye>s be=e x 0 inv5t$ 9      
,europe4 ,! pr9t+ ( ! ,*9ese  has nev]  
resembl$ any?+ ( ! k9d 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,f 
!  fir/ x has be5 conduct$ )\t moveable 
types4 ,ea* page has  be51 & cont9ues to
 be1 a block or cut /amp1 :i* is ?us    
useful  = only "o subject--s t e book   
mu/ h its own blocks4 ,no  press is us$4
 ,! pap] be+ ?91 :5 laid on ! block     
receives  ! impression by be+ smoo!d ov]
 ) a bru%4 ,!re is reason  to inf] t !  
art ( pr9t+1 z ?us practis$ by ! ,*9ese1
  may h orig9at$ ?r\gh a k ( ! /ill m   
anci5t  ,*aldean mode ( pr9t+ by blocks 
on clay4 ,b we may expect1 f  !         
well-kn[n +5uity ( ! ,*9ese1 & _! 79    
g5]al17 hav+  ! organ ( imitation s     
fully develop$1 t !y w n mu*  long]     
cont9ue ?is primitive me?od ( pr9t+1 z  

an ent]pris+  practical pr9t] has       
emigrat$1 ) an excell5t assortm5t (     
presses1 types1 c41 f ,ed9burgh1 to     
conduct 8 bus9ess 9 !  cele/ial empire4 
,we wi% him all success4    ,! discov]y 
( ! art ( pr9t+ ) moveable types1 :i*   
took  place 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 9       
,g]many1 0 consid]ably aid$ by a        
fa%ion1 :i* _h be5 "s "t preval5t1 (    
cutt+ blocks ( wood  into pictures1 or  
repres5tations ( sc5es illu/rative (    
,scriptural  hi/ory1 & pr9t+ !m on pap]1
 simply by ! pressure ( !  h&1 a bru%1  
or cu%ion beh9d4    ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ( ^! 
wood-cuts is /ill extant1 & repres5ts  !
 creation ( man1 z detail$ 9 ! book (   
,g5esis4 ,9 ! c5tre  ( ! picture /&s a  
figure1 int5d$ = ! ,div9ity1 hav+ !     
appe>ance ( an old man ) fl[+ g>m5ts1 a 
v5]able be>d1 &  rays proce$+ f ! head2 
on ! gr\nd1 be=e him1 lies a human  be+1
 int5d$ = ,adam1 fa/ asleep2 & f an op5+
 9 8 side  is se5 proce$+ ! sl5d] figure
 ( a female1 mean+ ,eve1 :o is  tak5 by 
! h& by ,god1 & is app>5tly receiv+ ,8  

bless+4  ,! execution ( ?is1 & cuts ( a 
simil> nature1 is ( ! rude/             
description1 & is a /rik+ te/imony ( !  
l[ scale ( art at  ! "t4 ,pictures ( ?is
 nature1 :i* 7 b\nd up into books1      
nev]!less1 7 ! imm$iate =]unn]s ( !     
great inv5tion  itself4 ,books ( pr9ts1 
x w naturally be imag9$1 w\ld soon be   
f\nd imp]fect1 = want ( descriptive     
text2 ?is1 !re=e1 urg$  on ! great      
discov]y4 ,! manufactur]s ( ! books1 at 
fir/1 cut  s+le s5t5ces or words1 &     
/amp$ !m bel[ ! pictures2 b  ?is n      
convey+ a suffici5t idea ( ! subject    
repres5t$1 an  anxiety arose to give a  
l5g!n$ description on ! opposite pages4 
,?is x seems 01 at l5g?1 accompli%$2    
/ill ! s5t5ces 7  all cut 9 a piece1 & !
 notion ( hav+ sep>ate lett]s1 s z to   
=m words at pleasure1 0 unkn[n at t     
p]iod4 ,we w n[ proce$  to !            
introduction ( ! mod]n art ( pr9t+4     
,ev] s9ce ! typographic art has be5     
introduc$ into mod]n  ,europe 9 its     
pres5t =m1 ! be/1 & "o ( ! mo/ c]ta9    

crit]ions1--:i* prove ! und\bt$ s5se (  
our species1--exi/s  9 ! multiplicity ( 
claims :i* h be5 made by sev]al cities  
= ! hon\r ( af=d+ ! e>lie/ %elt] to !   
infancy ( ?is  art4 ,x really appe>s to 
be a "q yet undecid$1 to :at city1      
individual1 or ev5 era1 to attribute ?is
 b5eficial inv5tion4    ,h[ev]1 !re is e
 reason to believe t 9 ?is art1 z well z
  9 mo/ o!rs1 ! improvem5ts :i* h       
subsequ5tly tak5 place1  h b5efit$ ! art
 itself1 z mu* z t has b5efit$ mank9d3  
!re=e1 ! "q ( its orig9 does n appe> to 
u to be ( s  mu* importance4    ,amid/ !
 claims ( v>i\s individuals1 ,mr4 ,b\z]1
 9 8 8,orig9 (  ,pr9t+10 says1 t ?is    
hon\r ought to be adjudg$ to "o ( !     
?ree cities ( ,ha]lem1 ,m5tz1 or        
,/rasburg2 ( :i*1 9 8 op9ion1  ! fir/   
nam$ city has be/ e/abli%$ h] legitimate
 "r4 8,b x  appe>s10 to use 8 own words1
 8t all ^? cities1 9 a qualifi$  s5se1  
may claim x1 consid]+ ! improvem5ts !y h
 made ^u  ea* o!r40    ,! real & orig9al
 inv5tor ( ! mod]n art ( pr9t+1 z at    

fir/ us$1 & f :5ce ! improv$ practice is
 desc5d$1 0  "o ,laur5tius1 ( ,ha]lem2  
:o1 h[ev]1 proce$$ no fur!r ?an to  cut 
sep>ate wood5 lett]s4 ,!re is e reason  
to believe t1 at  fir/1 ^! wood5 =ms 7  
made ^u ! pr9ciple ( ! =ma  lit]>um ( ! 
,romans4 ,?is ,laur5tius1 x appe>s1 made
 8 fir/  essay ab\t ! ye> #adcj2 he di$ 
t5 ye>s aft]w>ds1 hav+ fir/  pr9t$ !    
8,hor>ium10 ! 8,speculum ,belgicum10 &  
two editions (  8,donatus40    ,!       
individual on :om hi/ory mo/ g5]ally    
places ! hon\r (  be+ ! e>lie/ discov]] 
( ! art ( pr9t+ by means (  moveable    
lett]s1 or types1 0 ,john ,gutt5b]g1 a  
citiz5 ( ,may5ce1  or ,m5tz1 :o fl\ri%$ 
f ! ye> #adcf to #adff1 9 ! reign  (    
,fr$]ick ,,iii4 ( ,g]many4 ,! +5i\s     
,gutt5burg 0 born at  ,may5ce1 9 !      
beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 & remov$ to  
,/rasburg ab\t ! ye> #adbd1 or1 p]haps r
 e>li]4 ,"h he  became acqua9t$ ) !     
above-nam$ ,laur5tius1 ) :om he  proce$$
 to ,ha]lem1 & cont9u$ 9 ! employm5t (  
,laur5tius  = "s "t4 ,h[ev]1 he return$ 

to ,/rasburg1 :]e1 9 #adce1 he  ent]$   
into p>tn]%ip ) ,&rew ,dritzehan1 ,john 
,riff1 & ,&rew  ,heelman1 citiz5s (     
,/rasburg1 b9d+ himself to disclose to  
!m  "s important secrets1 by :i* !y w\ld
 make _! =tunes4  ,! work%op 0 9 ! h\se 
( ,dritzehan1 :o dy+1 ,gutt5b]g         
imm$iately s5t 8 s]vant1 ,lawr5ce       
,beildick1 to ,ni*olas1 !  bro!r ( !    
deceas$1 & reque/$ t no p]son might be  
admitt$  into ! work%op1 le/ ! secret   
%\ld be discov]$1 & !  =ms /ol54 ,b !y  
_h already disappe>$2 & ?is fraud1 z    
well z ! claims ( ,ni*olas ,dritzehan1  
to succe$ to 8 bro!r's  %>e1 produc$ a  
law-suit among ! surviv+ p>tn]s4 ,five  
witnesses  7 exam9$2 & f ! evid5ce (    
,gutt5burg's s]vants1 x 0               
incontrov]tibly prov$ t ,gutt5b]g 0 !   
fir/ t practis$  ! art ( pr9t+ )        
moveable types 9 ,/rasburg2 & t on  !   
dea? ( ,&rew ,dritzehan1 he _h expressly
 ord]$ ! =ms to  be brok5 up1 & ! types 
disp]s$1 le/ any "o %\ld discov]  8     
secret4 ,! words giv5 9 8 ord]1 :i* 7   

support$ by  docum5t>y evid5ce1 7       
^!--8,g1 take ! compon5t p>ts (  !      
press1 & pull !m to pieces2 !n1 no "o w 
und]/& :at  !y mean40 ,9 ! same docum5t 
m5tion is made ( f\r =ms1 kept  toge!r  
by two screws1 or press sp9dles1 & (    
lett]s & pages  be+ cut up & de/roy$4   
,x has be5 ass]t$ t ,gutt5b]g /ole !    
types f ,laur5tius1  ) :i* he repair$ to
 ,/rasburg1 & comm5c$ bus9ess2 b (  ?is 
we c f9d no corroboration4 ,x has also  
be5 said t ^u ?is  occasion1 ,gutt5b]g  
/ole 8 own mat]ials1 b ?is is likewise  
unau!nticat$4    ,! result ( ?is        
law-suit1 :i* occurr$ 9 #adci1 0 a      
dissolution  ( p>tn]%ip2 & ,gutt5b]g1   
aft] hav+ exhau/$ 8 means 9  ! ef=t1    
proce$$1 9 #adde1 to 8 native city (    
,m5tz1 :]e he  resum$ 8 typographic     
lab\rs4    ,be+ ambiti\s ( mak+ 8       
extraord9>y inv5tion kn[n1 & (  value to
 himself1 b be+ at ! same "t defici5t 9 
! means1 he  op5$ 8 m9d to a weal?y     
goldsmi? & work] 9 preci\s metals1  nam$
 ,john ,fu/1 or ,fau/1 & prevail$ on him

 to advance l>ge sums  ( money1 9 ord]  
to make fur!r & m complete trials ( !   
art4 ,gutt5b]g1 be+ ?us associat$ )     
,fau/1 ! fir/ regul>  pr9t+ (fice 0     
begun1 & ! bus9ess c>ri$ on 9 a /yle    
correspond+ to ! infancy ( ! art4 ,aft] 
_m small] essays 9  try+ ! capabilities 
( a press & moveable types1 ,gutt5b]g _h
  ! h>dihood to attempt an edition ( !  
,bible1 :i* he succe$$  9 pr9t+ complete
 betwe5 ! ye>s #adej & #adee4 ,?is      
celebrat$  ,bible1 :i* 0 ! fir/         
important specim5 ( ! art ( pr9t+1  &   
:i*1 judg+ f :at x has l$ to1 we %\ld   
c]ta9ly e/eem  z ! mo/ extraord9>y &    
praisewor?y ( human productions1 0      
execut$ ) cut metal types1 on six hundr$
 & ?irty-sev5 leaves2  &1 f a copy /ill 
9 exi/5ce 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y ( ,b]l91   
"s appe> to h be5 pr9t$ on vellum4 ,! "w
 0 pr9t$ 9 !  ,lat9 language4    ,!     
execution ( ?is--! fir/ pr9t$           
,bible--:i* has ju/ly  conf]r$ undy+    
hon\rs on ! illu/ri\s ,gutt5b]g1 0 mo/  
un=tunately1 ! imm$iate cause ( 8 ru94  

,! exp5ses incid5t  to c>ry+ on a       
fatigu+ & elaborate process (           
workman%ip1 =  a p]iod ( five ye>s1 be+ 
mu* m consid]able ?an :at 7  orig9ally  
contemplat$ by ,fau/1 he in/itut$ a suit
 aga9/ poor  ,gutt5b]g1 :o1 9 consequ5ce
 ( ! decision aga9/ him1 0  oblig$ to   
pay int]e/1 & also a "p ( ! capital t _h
 be5  advanc$4 ,?is suit 0 foll[$ by a  
dissolution ( p>tn]%ip2 &  ! :ole (     
,gutt5b]g's mat]ials fell into ! h&s (  
,john ,fau/4    ,besides ! above-m5tion$
 ,bible1 "s o!r specim5s ( ! "w (       
,gutt5b]g h be5 discov]$ to be 9        
exi/5ce4 ,"o 9 p>ticul>1  :i* is wor?y (
 notice1 0 f\nd "s ye>s ago1 among a    
bundle  ( old pap]s1 9 ! ar*ives (      
,may5ce4 ,x is an almanack = !  ye>     
#adeg1 :i* s]v$ z a cov] = a regi/] (   
acc\nts = t  ye>4 ,?is w\ld mo/ likely  
be pr9t$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ye>  #adef1 &
 may1 consequ5tly1 be deem$ ! mo/ anci5t
 specim5 (  typographic pr9t+ extant1 ) 
a c]ta9 date4    ,antiqu>ies &          
,bibliomaniacs h f\nd consid]able       

difficulty  9 asc]ta9+ by :at process   
,gutt5b]g manufactur$ types2 b  x appe>s
 to be ! preval5t op9ion1 t ^? :i* he   
fir/  us$ 7 individually cut by ! h&2 & 
be+ all made z ne> a  height & ?ickness 
z possible1 !y 7 ?us put toge!r 9 !     
=ms4 ,! cutt+ ( ^! types mu/ h be5 a    
t$i\s1 z well z  labori\s1 occupation4  
,?is +5i\s man1 h[ev]1 soon discov]$  ! 
mode ( ca/+ 8 types1 by means ( m\lds2 =
 )\t ?is  great accessory to ! art (    
pr9t+1 he conceiv$ x 0 next to          
impossible to c>ry on 8 bus9ess4 ,! art 
( type-f\nd+ is  !re=e giv5 to ,john    
,gutt5b]g1 9 :i* x w\ld appe> he has _h 
no competitor = ! hon\r2 b1 x is b      
ju/ice to /ate t !  plan ( /rik+ ! m\lds
 ) pun*es 0 a subsequ5t inv5tion  (     
,pet] ,s*oeff]1 8 successor1 :o became  
p>tn] ) ,fau/1 &  aft]w>ds 8 son-9-law4 
,t ,gutt5b]g 0 a p]son ( ref9$ ta/e 9 ! 
execution (  8 works1 is suffici5tly    
obvi\s to e p]son :o has _h !           
opportunity ( see+ any ( !m4 ,adopt+ a v
 anci5t cu/om  common 9 ! writt5 copies 

( ! ,scriptures & ! missals ( !  *ur*1  
he us$ a l>ge ornam5tal lett] at !      
comm5cem5t ( books  & *apt]s1 f9ely     
embelli%$1 & surr\nd$ ) a v>iety (      
figures z 9 a frame4 ,! initial lett] ( 
! fir/ psalm ?us =ms  a spl5did specim5 
( ! art ( pr9t+ 9 its e>ly progress4 ,x 
is  ri*ly ornam5t$ ) foliage1 fl[]s1 a  
bird1 & a greyh\nd1 &  is /ill m        
beautiful f be+ pr9t$ 9 a pale blue     
col\r1 :ile  ! embelli%m5ts are r$1 & ( 
a transp>5t appe>ance4    ,:at became ( 
,gutt5b]g imm$iately aft] ! unsuccessful
  t]m9ation ( 8 law-suit ) ,fau/1 is n  
well kn[n4 ,l !  illu/ri\s discov]] ( ! 
great ,we/]n ,cont95t1 he seems to h    
retir$ almo/ brok5-he>t$ f ! s]vice ( an
 ungrateful _w1  & to h sp5t mo/ ( !    
rema9d] ( 8 days 9 obscurity4 ,x  is    
asc]ta9$1 h[ev]1 t1 9 #adfe1 he receiv$ 
an annual p5sion  f ! ,elector          
,adolphus1 b t he only enjoy$ ?is trifl+
  comp5sation = 8 extraord9>y inv5tion =
 a p]iod ( ?ree  ye>s1 & di$ 9 ,febru>y 
#adfh4    ,john ,fau/1 :o z we h se51   

obta9$ ! mat]ials ( ,gutt5b]g1  laid    
claim to ! inv5tion1 :i* has be5 grant$ 
to him by  sev]al4 ,hav+ suffici5t      
capital at 8 comm&1 he pu%$ !  trade )  
great advantage to himself4 ,9 ! ,bibles
 :i* he pr9t$  he frequ5tly omitt$ !    
capital & initial lett]s1 leav+ !m      
blank = illum9ation 9 gold or azure2 ?is
 0 design$ly done  = ! purpose ( impos+ 
^u ! public pr9t$ copies = ,m4,s4       
transcripts4 ,! report :i* is 9         
circulation conc]n+ ,fau/1  appe>s to   
come 9 support ( ?is ass]tion3 x be+    
said he 0  at ,p>is1 & (f]+ a quantity (
 8 ,bibles = sale z ,m4,s4 ,!  ,fr5*1   
consid]+ ! numb] ( !m1 & also rem>k+ !  
exact  simil>ity & accuracy ( !m1 ev5 to
 a s+le po9t1 conclud$ x  0 impossible =
 ! mo/ accurate copyi/ to h transcrib$  
!m  s correctly4 ,!y suspect$ him (     
necromancy1 & ei!r actually  indict$    
him1 or ?reat5$ to d1 z a magician2 & by
 ?is means  obta9$ 8 secret3 :5ce came !
 orig9 ( ! popul> /ory ( ,dr4  ,fau/us1 
8 deal+ ) ! devil1 & tragical dea?4     

,9 #adfb1 :5 ,m5tz 0 plund]$ &          
disfran*is$ ( its =m]  lib]ties1 pr9t+  
rapidly spread ?r\gh a great "p (       
,europe1  p>ticul>ly its artizans 9 t   
bran* ( art1 settl$ at ,ha]lem1         
,hamburgh1 & o!r places2 f ,ha]lem x    
travell$ to ,rome 9 #adff1  :5 ! ,roman 
"* 0 adopt$ 9 #adfg1 & soon p]fect$4    
,9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,vi41 ! ,ar*bi%op ( 
,cant]bury s5t ,r4  ,turn\r1 ma/] ( !   
robes1 & ,w4 ,caxton1 m]*ant1 to        
,ha]lem1  to le>n ! art4 ,^! individuals
 privately prevail$ ^u "o  ,corselis1 an
 "u workman to come to ,engl&3 & a pr9t+
 press 0  e/abli%$ at ,ox=d4 ,?is appe>s
 9 a ,,ms4 *ronicle /ill pres]v$2  x    
in=ms u1 t ! execution ( ! conc]n       
entru/$ to ,turn\r  & ,caxton co/ #aejj 
m>ks2 & t pr9t+ 0 e/abli%$ at ,ox=d     
be=e !re 0 any pr9t] or pr9t+ presses 9 
,france1 ,italy1 or  ,spa94    ,!       
,univ]sity ( ,ox=d press 0 soon discov]$
 to be too remote  f ! seat ( gov]nm5t1 
& too great a di/ance f ! sea1  o!r     
presses 7 spe$ily e/abli%$ at ,/4       

,alban's & ! ,abbey (  ,we/m9/]4    ,9  
#adfg1 pr9t+ 0 e/abli%$ at ,t\rs1 at    
,reu?l+51 & ,v5ice1  9 #adfi2 & x is    
likely at ! same p]iod at ,p>is1 :]e    
sev]al (  ! ,g]man pr9t]s 7 invit$ by ! 
,doctors ( ! ,sorbonne1 :o  e/abli%$ a  
press 9 t city4    ,all important z !   
art ( pr9t+ is ackn[l$g$ to be1 yet     
?ree c5turies elaps$ f ! date ( !       
inv5tion be=e x 0  p]fect$ 9 _m ( its   
mo/ necess>y details4 ,at fir/ ! art  0 
kept entirely 9 ! h&s ( le>n$ m51 !     
greate/ s*ol>s  (t5 glory+ 9 affix+ _!  
names to ! works z correctors (  !      
press1 & giv+ names to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! 
me*anism (  ! pr9t+-(fice1 z is te/ifi$ 
by ! classical te*nicalities  /ill 9 use
 among ! workm54 ,f ! great improvem5t (
 pun*+  m\lds = ca/+ types by ,s*oeff]1 
z =m]ly m5tion$1 till  ! inv5tion (     
italic lett]s by ,aldus ,manutius1 to   
:om le>n+  is mu* indebt$1 no o!r       
improvem5t ( any consequ5ce took place4 
,x does n appe> t me*anical +5uity 0 at 
any "t direct$  to ! improvem5t ( !     

presses or any o!r "p ( ! ma*9]y  us$ 9 
pr9t+1 & ! consequ5ce 01 t till f> on 9 
!  eighte5? c5tury1 ! clumsy presses1   
:i* 7 compos$ ( wood &  iron1 & sl[ &   
heavy 9 work+1 7 all[$ to scree* on z !y
  _h done s9ce ! days ( ,gutt5b]g1      
,fau/1 & ,caxton1 :ile !  ink cont9u$ to
 be appli$ by means ( two /uff$ balls1  
at a great  exp5se ( "t & lab\r4    ,at 
l5g?1 an almo/ entire revolution 0      
effect$ 9 ! pr9t+  (fice1 bo? 9 !       
appe>ance ( ! workman%ip & ! me*anism  (
 ! presses4 ,ab\t ! same p]iod ! art (  
/]eotyp+ 0  discov]$1 & develop$ a      
completely new feature 9 ! hi/ory  (    
pr9t+4 ,"o ( ! *ief improvem5ts 9       
typography 01 !  disc>d+ ( ! long s1 & e
 description ( contraction2 :ile1  at ! 
same "t1 ! =mation ( ! lett]s 0 execut$ 
) m  neatness1 & great] regul>ity4      
,among ! fir/ improv]s ( ! pr9t+ press1 
! mo/ hon\rable  place is due to ! ,e>l 
( ,/anhope1 a nobleman :o w be long     
rememb]$ = 8 me*anical g5ius2 besides   
apply+ c]ta9 lev]  p[]s to ! screw &    

h&le ( ! old wood5 press1 by :i* !      
lab\r ( ! workman 0 dim9i%$1 & f9] "w   
effect$2 he  con/ruct$ a press :olly (  
iron1 :i* is kn[n by 8 "n4    ,s9ce !   
beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & m especially
 )9  ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 presses :olly (  
iron1 on ! nice/ sci5tific  pr9ciples1 h
 be5 inv5t$ by m5 ( me*anical g5ius1 s z
 to  simplify ! process ( pr9t+ 9 an    
extraord9>y degree2 & !  inv5tion (     
presses compos$ ( cyl9d]s1 & wr\ght by  
/eam1 has  triumphantly cr[n$ !         
improvem5ts 9 ?is art4 ,! alt]ation     
effect$ by /eam p[] has be5 z great 9 ! 
pr9t+ bus9ess1  z 9 any bran* :atev]2 = 
example1 ) ! old wood5 press1  x took a 
man two days to complete #ajjj %eets1 7t
 is1 pr9t$ on  bo? sides72 :]eas !      
,london 8,times10 by means ( ! /eam     
press  completes #bd1jjj 9 "o h\r6      
,almo/ e newspap] 9 ! k+dom is  pr9t$ by
 cyl9d]-presses1 al?\gh "s are work$ by 
h& in/ead  ( /eam2 !y are also us$ 9 o!r
 dep>tm5ts ( ! pr9t+  bus9ess4    ,!    
introduction ( /eam-presses w\ld h be5 (

 comp>atively  little b5efit1 if x _h n 
be5 fur!r$ by ano!r inv5tion ( a  v     
simple nature1 n[ ( great value to !    
pr9t]4 ,we "h allude  to ! inv5tion ( ! 
roll] = apply+ ! ink1 in/ead ( ! old    
clumsy & ineffici5t balls4 ,! roll]1 :i*
 is simply a composition  ( glue &      
treacle1 ca/ ^u wood5 c5tre-pieces1 0   
inv5t$ by a  j\rneyman pr9t] f          
,ed9burgh1 ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 & 0 s   
mu* appreciat$ by ! trade1 z at once to 
spread ov] ! :ole (  ,europe4    ,7 x   
possible to conjure up ! spirits ( !    
illu/ri\s  ,gutt5burg & 8 contempor>ies 
)9 ! (fice ( ! ,london  8,times10 or "s 
o!r l>ge pr9t+-(fice1 :]e ev]y?+ is     
conduct$ ) rapidity1 quietness1 & ord]1 
,john ,fau/ might  well ?9k t ! pr9t]s (
 ! n9ete5? c5tury _h actually           
consummat$ :at he 0 only accus$ ( 9 !   
fifte5?--complet$ a  compact ) ! devil6 
,z x w\ld be a wa/e ( "t = u to pret5d  
to describe !  v>i\s processes &        
mat]ials requir$ 9 ?is beautiful art1 z 
we are aw>e t1 )\t actual obs]vation1 no

 conception c be  =m$1--?is we "k f     
exp]i5ce1 & ?\gh we might1 l _m  o!rs1 h
 pret5d$ to give a description1 we are  
p]fectly aw>e  t we w\ld h be5          
un9telligible to ! majority ( our       
read]s1  & v des]v$ly laugh$ at = our   
tr\ble by any practical pr9t]  :o might 
happ5 to read our pages2 z f> z we h    
gone1 h[ev]1 9  giv+ a brief hi/orical  
acc\nt ( ! art ( pr9t+1 we h no  d\bt x 
w be f\nd correct1 z h consult$ ! be/   
au?orities4          ,,/]eotype4        
,/]eotype1 z we h m5tion$ 9 ! =m]       
article1 0 introduc$  ab\t ! middle (   
la/ c5tury2 & z x is s intimately       
connect$  ) ! art ( pr9t+1 we c\ld n f9d
 a m appropriate place  ?an imm$iately  
foll[+ t noble art4--,e>l ,/anhope has  
be5  nam$ z ! inv5tor2 b = ?is we h n   
suffici5t au?ority1  & x appe>s         
extremely d\btful2 z /]eotyp+ appe>s to 
h be5  inv5t$ simultane\sly1 9 v>i\s    
p>ts ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1  by diff]5t    
p]sons2 /ill x 0 upw>ds ( sixty ye>s    
be=e x  0 br\ght to su* p]fection z to  

be applicable = any b5eficial  purpose4 
,:5 prop]ly made kn[n1 x 0 hail$ )      
approbation by ^? m  imm$iately         
int]e/$--! pr9t]s & publi%]s3 b z       
exp]i5ce  m fully develop$ its p[]s1 x 0
 f\nd available only =  p>ticul> "w4 ,= 
! bett] und]/&+ ( ?is art1 :i* is       
comp>atively little kn[n1 we w give a   
description ( ! process1  :i* we are    
enabl$ to d by ! assi/ance ( an exp]i5c$
 workman4    ,9 sett+ ! types1 !y are   
lift$ f ! case1 "o by "o1  ) ! "r h&1 & 
built 9 a small iron =m1 call$ a        
compos+-/ick1 held 9 ! left h& ( !      
compositor1 :o sets  l9e aft] l9e till !
 /ick is fill$1 :5 he empties x ^u a    
galley1 & comm5ces aga9 9 ! same mann]1 
till he has got z  mu* up z w make a    
page2 ?is page he ties firmly up1 &     
places  ^u a smoo? /one1 or ca/ iron    
table4 ,9 ?is mann] he cont9ues1  till  
he gets z _m pages z w make a =m1 :i*   
consi/s (  #d1 #h1 #ab1 or m pages1 z ! 
case may be4 ,if ?is =m is to be  work$ 
(f at press )\t /]eotyp+1 ! pages are   

all impos$  9 "o *ass1 & c>ri$ to press 
= work+1 & :5 ! :ole  ( ! impression is 
(f1 x is ?or\ghly wa%$1 & c>ri$ back  to
 ! compositor = di/ribution--t is1 putt+
 ! types 9  _! prop] places4 ,:5 ^!     
pages are to be /]eotyp$1 !y are  impos$
 sep>ately1 & c>ri$ to ! /]eotype       
f\ndry1 :]e !y  are exam9$1 & all dirt  
tak5 f ! face2 !y are !n slightly  oil$1
 & a m\ld+-frame put r\nd ea*4 ,! frame 
is fill$ )  liquid pla/] ( ,p>is1 :i* is
 well rubb$ into ! face ( ! type  to    
expel ! air4 ,z soon z ?is pla/] h>d5s1 
x is remov$ f  ! page1 & %[s a complete 
resemblance ( ! page f :i* x is  tak54  
,! m\ld is put into an ov5 to dry1 :]e x
 rema9s till x  resembles a piece (     
pott]y2 x is !n put into an iron pan1 9 
:i*  !re is a ?9 plate ( ! same metal1  
call$ ! float+-plate2  x has also an    
iron lid1 :i* is firmly screw$ d[n1 & ! 
:ole is  imm]s$ 9 a pot ( molt5         
type-metal1 :i* fills ! pan by means (  
small holes 9 ! corn]s ( ! lid4 ,! l5g? 
( "t x rema9s 9  ! pot dep5ds ^u ! heat 

( ! metal1 b x is g5]ally f  t5 to      
fifte5 m9utes1 :5 x is tak5 out1 & put  
aside to cool4  ,on op5+ ! pan1 no?+ is 
se5 b a solid lump ( metal1 :i*1  :5    
c>efully broke r\nd ! m\ld1 a ?9 plate  
is obta9$ f !  mass1 exhibit+ a p]fect  
appe>ance ( ! page f :i* ! m\ld  0      
tak54--,?is is call$ a /]eotype plate1  
:i* 9 g5]al is n  above ! eigh? ( an in*
 ?ick1 & is pr9t$ f 9 ! same  mann] z a 
page ( types4 ,su* is ! process (       
/]eotyp+1 :i*  has become pretty g5]al  
?r\gh\t ! trade1 b is n mu* kn[n  to !  
public4          ,,engrav+4      ,,on   
,,wood4    ,z we h %[n 9 our article on 
,pr9t+1 ,wood-engrav+ 0 9  fa%ion prior 
to ! inv5tion ( pr9t+4 ,we are in=m$ by 
,alb]t  ,dur] t ,engrav+ on ,wood 0     
inv5t$ ab\t ! ye> #aebj2 he may  be a   
good au?ority 9 "s matt]s1 b 9 ?is he   
has committ$ a  mi/ake ( ne>ly "o hundr$
 ye>s2 see+ t !re is at lea/  an        
impression ( "o engrav+ on wood1 !      
repres5tation ( !  ,creation1 :i* 0 9   
exi/5ce prior to #adcj4 ,x 0 und\bt$ly a

  piece ( r\gh workman%ip2 b :at c\ld be
 expect$ at t e>ly  p]iod ( ! art8 ,x   
has be51 h[ev]1 gradually improv+ ev]   
s9ce1 & x has n[ atta9$ a po9t (        
excell5ce equal to any  ( ! f9e arts1 & 
calls =? ! admiration ( e lov] (  !     
beautiful4 ,x w\ld be invidi\s to select
 any ( ! num]\s  arti/s n[              
fl\ri%+--p]haps x w\ld be difficult to  
make a  selection :]e s _m are ^u an    
equality2 & we are ( op9ion  !y !mselves
 are m will+ to accept ! public         
approbation z  _! rew>d1 ?an any praise 
our p5 c\ld be/[4 ,all we c d is  to    
recomm5d our read]s to exam9e =         
!mselves2 !y h abundant  opportunities 9
 ! num]\s illu/rat$ publications t are  
daily issu$ f ! press1 & be/[ t me$ (   
praise ^u !  respective arti/s !y may   
deem prop]4    ,! process ( engrav+ on  
wood is diametrically di/9ct &  opposite
 to t ( engrav+ on copp] or /eel2 z 9 ! 
=m]1  ! %ades are produc$ by ! p>ts ( ! 
"w :i* are made mo/  prom95t1 & obtrude 
^u ! surface ( ! sub/ance2 :5ce its     

*ief m]it has be5 reg>d$ 9 leav+ broad &
 well-proportion$  lights4 ,! p>ts to   
produce ?is effect be+ ( necessity      
excavat$1  great art & a ma/]ly judgm5t 
are necess>y to effect ?is1 & at  ! same
 "t n to weak5 ! sub/ance1 le/ x %\ld be
 injur$ 9  ! pressure necess>y to       
produce an impression4    ,! sub/ance   
usually employ$ = ^! engrav+s is wood ( 
a close  gra92 on ?is acc\nt box-wood is
 g5]ally select$4 ,! impressions  are   
obta9$ f wood-engrav+s ^u exactly ! same
 pr9ciple z  are ! impressions f        
typography2 & !y c also be work$ (f  at 
! same "t ) ! descriptive text4 ,?is is 
a sup]iority  :i* wood possesses ov] o!r
 engrav+s1 & recomm5ds itself to        
publi%]s on acc\nt ( ! imm5se sav+ 9 !  
exp5se ( a d\ble  process 9 procur+     
copp]-plate illu/rations = typographical
  works1 & enables !m to keep pace ) !  
rul+ passion ( ?is  lit]>y era--*eap    
publications4      ,,on ,,copp]4    ,!  
art ( engrav+ on copp] plates1 =        
impressions1 is alleg$  to h be5 inv5t$ 

by ,pet] ,s*oeff]1 "o ( ! e>ly pr9t]s1  
& son 9-law ( ,john ,fau/1 ab\t ! ye>   
#adej4 ,! hon\r ( ?is  inv5tion is also 
claim$ by a ,flor5t9e goldsmi? ( ! "n ( 
,f+uires1 :o dates 8 inv5tion 9 #aedj4  
,?is arti/ hav+ us$  liquid sulphur to  
take an impression ( "s *as+ & engrav+  
he  _h made1 obs]v$ a blackness produc$ 
by ! sulphur left 9 !  deepe/ p>ts ( 8  
"w1 :5ce he obta9$ an impression on     
pap]4    ,b we h no hesitation 9 giv+ ! 
pref]5ce to ,s*oeff]1 :o1  we h         
previ\sly rem>k$1 0 ( an +5i\s turn1 &  
assi/$  ,gutt5burg 9 produc+ m\lds =    
ca/+ 8 types2 9 addition to  :i*1 "s ( !
 books pr9t$ by him are ornam5t$ ) head 
& tail-pieces1 ) o!r rude attempts at   
engrav+2 & likewise  because ,s*oeff]'s 
claim to ! hon\r 0 ackn[l$g$ be=e       
,f+uires 0 born4    ,( engrav+ !re are  
v>i\s k9ds2 t call$ by connoisseurs1 !  
legitimate mode ( engrav+1 is :at is    
t]m$ ! l9e or /roke  mode4 ,num]\s h be5
 ! ,briti% arti/s :o h excell$ 9 ?is    
/yle1 9 af=d+ ! means ( multiply+ our   

graphical productions4    ,! next       
species ( engrav+ we w notice is call$ !
 /ipple1  or *alk /yle1--imitations (   
*alk draw+s4 ,portraits & hi/orical     
pieces are execut$ 9 ?is /yle1 :i* !    
celebrat$ ,b>tolozzi  br\ght to         
p]fection4    ,! ?ird species we w      
m5tion1 _c prop]ly be call$ engrav+2  ! 
effect is produc$ by scrap+ & rubb+2 ?is
 k9d is call$  *i>o obscuro1 or         
mezzot9to2 produc+ pr9ts :i* h ! effect 
( ,indian ink draw+s4    ,a f\r? species
 ( engrav+ is :at is commonly us$ =     
l&scapes1  :i* produces an effect l a   
p5cil wat]-col\r draw+2 :i* is  call$   
aquat9ta4    ,9 all ( ^! k9ds ( engrav+s
 ^u copp] ! arti/s f9d !  sulphuric     
acid1 or aqua=tis1 a mo/ p[]ful ag5t4   
,sometimes1  inde$1 x is suff]$ to      
execute ! :ole ( ! process ( !  grav]1  
especially :5 x is call$ an et*+4    ,= 
! same reasons z ^? m5tion$ ) reg>d to  
wood engrav]s1  we %all ab/a9 f nam+ any
 ( ! v em95t arti/s n[ liv+4    ,we h   
already obs]v$ ! mode ( obta9+ simil>   

effects f  wood & copp]1 are opposite to
 ea* o!r4 ,! mann] 9 :i*  impressions f 
wood engrav+s are obta9$1 has likewise  
be5  notic$2 & x rema9s t we obs]ve !   
mode by :i* impressions  are obta9$ f   
copp]-plates4 ,! plate is cov]$ )       
appropriate  ink2 ! surface is !n       
c>efully cleans$1 leav+ ink only 9 !    
excavations or l9es 9 ! copp]4 ,! plate 
& pap] are pass$  ?r\gh a roll] press ( 
great p[]1 ! roll] be+ cov]$ ) a        
blanket1 :i* presses ! pap] into all !  
crevices ( ! plate1  & br+s away ! ink  
!re deposit$4      ,,on ,,/eel4    ,=   
sev]al ye>s /eel has be5 us$ 9 great    
quantities1 in/ead  ( copp]-plates1 by  
engrav]s4 ,by ?is =tunate application ( 
s  durable1 & x may be add$1 s          
economical a mat]ial1 n only has  a new 
field be5 discov]$ admirably suit$ to   
yield 9 p]fection  ! ri*e/ & f9e/       
graphic productions1 :i* ! +5uity (     
mod]n art c accompli%1 b to d s ?r\gh an
 amaz+ly num]\s  s]ies ( impressions )\t
 p]ceptible det]ioration4 ,! art (      

engrav+ on iron or /eel = purposes (    
ornam5t1 & ev5 =  pr9t+1 9 c]ta9 cases1 
is by no means a discov]y ( mod]n times2
  b ! sub/itution ( ! latt] = copp]1 :i*
 has invit$ !  sup]iority ( ! ,briti%   
bur9 to a*ievem5ts hi!rto unattempt$  by
 our arti/s1 is entirely a mod]n        
practice4    ,9 ! ye> #ahaj1 ,mr4 ,dy]1 
an ,am]ican m]*ant1 resid+ 9 ,london1   
obta9$ a pat5t = c]ta9 improvem5ts 9 !  
con/ruction &  me?od ( us+ plates &     
presses1 c41 ! pr9ciples ( :i* 7        
communicat$ to him by a =eign] resid+   
abroad4 ,?is =eign]  0 ,mr4 ,jacob      
,p]k91 an +5i\s arti/ ( ,new ,engl&1 &  
^:  "n has become subsequ5tly s         
ext5sively kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry1 9         
connection ) roll]-press pr9t+ f h>d5$  
/eel plates4 ,!  plates us$ by ,mr4     
,p]k9s 71 on ! av]age1 ab\t five-eights 
(  an in* ?ick2 !y 7 ei!r ( /eel s      
temp]$ z to admit (  ! op]ation ( !     
engrav]1 or1 z 0 m g5]ally ! case1  (   
/eel dec>bonat$ s z to become v pure s(t
 iron1 9 :i*  case1 aft] !y _h receiv$ !

 "w on ! surface1 !y 7 case  h>d5$ by   
cem5tation4    ,! dec>bonat+ process 0  
p]=m$ by enclos+ ! plate ( ca/  /eel    
prop]ly %ap$1 9 a ca/ iron box1 or case1
 fill$ ab\t !  plate to ! ?ickness (    
ab\t an in* ) oxide ( iron or ru/y  iron
 fil+s2 9 ?is /ate ! box is lut$ close1 
& plac$ on a  regul> fire1 :]e x is kept
 at a r$ heat dur+ f ?ree to  twelve    
days4 ,g5]ally ab\t n9e days is         
suffici5t to dec>bonize  a plate        
five-eigh?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness2 :5 !   
engrav+  or et*+ has be5 execut$1 !     
plate is sup]ficially conv]t$  into     
/eel1 by plac+ x 9 a box z be=e1 &      
surr\nd+ x on  all sides by a p[d] made 
( equal p>ts ( burn$ bones1 & !  c9d]s (
 burn$ animal matt]1 su* z old %oes or  
lea!r4 ,9 ?is  /ate ! box1 ) its        
cont5ts1 closely lut$1 mu/ be expos$ to 
a  blood-r$ heat = ?ree h\rs2 aft] :i*1 
x is tak5 out ( !  fire1 & plung$       
p]p5dicul>ly edgeways into cold wat]1   
7:i* has  be5 previ\sly boil$7 to ?r[ (f
 ! air4 ,by ?is means ! plate  becomes  

h>d5$ )\t ! dang] ( w>p+ or crack+4 ,x  
is !n  temp]$ or let d[n by bright5+ !  
"u surface ( ! plate )  a bit ( /one2   
aft] :i* x is heat$ by be+ plac$ ^u a   
piece  ( hot iron1 or melt$ lead1 until 
! rubb$ portion acquire a pale          
/raw-col\r4 ,= ?is purpose1 h[ev]1 !    
pat5tee express$ himself  9 fav\r ( a   
ba? ( oil heat$ to ! temp]ature ( #dfj  
degrees1 or  !reab\ts ( ,fahr5heit's    
scale4 ,! plate be+ cool$ 9 wat]1 &     
poli%$ on ! surface1 0 ready = use4     
,a m mat]ial peculi>ity 9 ,mr4 ,p]k9s'  
inv5tion1 & "o :i*  does n seem to h be5
 approa*$ by any prec$+ arti/1 0  !     
contrivance ( :at are call$ ind5t+      
cyl9d]s4 ,^!  are roll]s ( two or ?ree  
in*es 9 diamet]1 & made ( /eel1         
dec>boniz$ by ! process above describ$1 
s z to be v s(t4 ,9  ?is /ate !y are    
made to roll backw>d & =w>d "u a p[]ful 
pressure1 ov] ! surface ( "o ( ! h>d5$  
plates1 until all  ! figures1 lett]s1 or
 ind5tations are communicat$1 )         
exquisite  precision1 9 %>p relief ^u ! 

cyl9d]2 :i*1 be+ c>efully  h>d5$ &      
temp]$1 becomes1 by ?is means1 fitt$ to 
communicate  an impression to o!r       
plates1 by an op]ation simil> to t by   
:i* x 0 orig9ally figur$4 ,x w be obvi\s
 t "o advantage  ga9$ by ?is me?od mu/  
be ! entire sav+ ( ! lab\r &  exp5se (  
re-cutt+ 9 e case1 on diff]5t plates1   
ornam5ts1  bord]s1 emblematical designs1
 c41 z ^! c n[ be impress$ )  little    
tr\ble on any numb] ( plates1 or 9 any  
"p !re(1 by !  application ( ! cyl9d]4  
,at fir/ sight1 ! p]=mance ( su*  an    
op]ation z ! "o n[ allud$ to may appe>  
difficult1 if n  impracticable2 &1      
inde$1 _m p]sons on its fir/ ann\ncem5t 
7  dispos$ to d\bt or d5y its           
possibility altoge!r4 ,) a prop] &      
p[]ful app>atus1 h[ev]1 ?is me?od (     
transf]r+ engrav+s  f plates to cyl9d]s1
 & vice v]sa1 is e day p]=m$ )  facility
 & success1 n only 9 ! production ( bank
 notes1 labels1  c41 b 9 works exhibit+ 
v elaborate engrav+s4                   
,,li?ography4      ,li?ography is ! art 

( pr9t+ f /one1 :i* claims = its  au?or 
,aloys ,s5elfeld]1 a native ( ,muni*1 9 
! k+dom (  ,bav>ia4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is     
useful art is record$ by ! only p]son   
capable ( assign+ prop] & correct       
motives1 & ( trac+ !  v>i\s means :i* 7 
employ$ to arrive at ! desir$ end1 to   
ultimate success3 _h all o!r useful     
inv5tions1 pr(itable &  elegant arts1 _h
 ! good =tune :i* ?is has happily       
exp]i5c$1  we %\ld n h _h s mu* cause to
 regret defici5cies z we h  frequ5tly   
exp]i5c$ 9 ! c\rse ( our inquiries2 !n  
w\ld  ! v>i\s illu/ri\s au?ors ( arts h 
_h ju/ice r5d]$ to  !m1 & /ill h rema9$ 
possess$ ( t glori\s immortality  s     
ju/ly ! rew>d ( transc5dant m]it2 = !   
hi/ory ( ?is  m]itori\s inv5tion is giv5
 by ! au?or himself1 !reby secur+  to x 
^? advantages1 :i* ! erudite au?or ( !  
preface  congratulates ! public ^u1 :5 9
 8 concise epi/le he uses  t beautiful  
expression ( 8 c\ntryman1 ,klop/ock1 :]e
 he says1  8,cov]$ ) et]nal d>kness are 
! great names ( inv5tors40    ,?is "w   

has be5 translat$ into ,engli%1 &       
publi%$ ) !  foll[+ title3--8,a complete
 ,c\rse ( ,li?ography1 conta9+ cle>  &  
explicit ,in/ructions 9 all ! diff]5t   
bran*es & mann]s  ( ! ,art2 accompani$  
by ,illu/rative ,specim5s ( ,draw+s2 to 
:i* is prefix$ a ,hi/ory ( ,li?ography1 
f its ,orig91 by ,aloys  ,s5efeld]1     
,inv5tor ( ! ,art ( ,li?ography1 or     
,*ymical ,pr9t+10  c4    ,! au?or ( !   
preface to ?is "w1 & fri5d ( ! inv5tor1 
/ates t ?is is an art1 :]eby ! arti/1 a 
m9i/]1 a man (  lett]s1 or a m]*ant1 c41
 may multiply 8 productions at w1  )\t !
 assi/ance ( a second p]son4    ,! au?or
 ( ! above "w proce$s to give 9 detail 8
 motives  = ! orig9al inv5tion1 9 :i* he
 has n only be5 /rictly  circum/antial1 
b no m s ?an ! curiosity ( ! public     
requires1 :i* is always excit$ 9 a      
degree proportion$ to !  confess$       
utility ( a "w1 or t dem& :i* its       
elegance has ^u  cultivat$ & delicate   
feel+4 ,8 lab\rs may be said to be      
divid$  naturally into two p>ts1 ( :i*  

division ! au?or has avail$  himself2   
fir/1 adduc+ its hi/ory1 & secondly1    
af=d+ !  op]ation ( its process4    ,its
 hi/ory appe>s to h aris5 ) its orig92 &
 bo? to h  orig9at$ 9 ! necessities ( ! 
au?or4 ,f :5ce x appe>s1  t aft] he _h  
receiv$ a s*ola/ic education to qualify 
him =  ! jurisprud5ce ( 8 c\ntry1 ! dea?
 ( 8 fa!r1 :o 0 a  vot>y ( ! ,!spian    
art1 depriv$ him ( ^? res\rces ess5tial 
to enable him to pursue 8 int5d$        
hon\rable vocation2 he 0  consequ5tly   
driv5 to seek support f ! previ\s       
acquisitions  ( 8 m9d4 ,he accord+ly    
devot$ 8 e>ne/ att5tion to solicit  !   
fav\rs ( ! dramatic muse z an au?or4    
,aft] enc\nt]+  numb]less difficulties1 
he produc$ "o play1 :i* 0 publi%$1 &    
sold consid]ably well4 ,b ! hon\rable   
indep5d5ce ( 8 m9d  induc$ him to       
reflect ^u ! c]ta9ty ( ! l>ge exp5se1   
:i*  necess>ily att5ds ! practice ( an  
au?or1 :o has n lib]al  patrons 9 !     
public or ! trade2 & ! unc]ta9ty (      
adequate  remun]ation f ! public1 = ^:  

amusem5t !y make su* l>ge  sacrifices ( 
"t1 ease1 prop]ty1 heal?1 & (t5 life    
itself4  ,^! reflections induc$ 8 ard5t 
& +5i\s m9d to endeav\r to  avoid !     
unc]ta9ty ( ?is cont+5cy4 ,he did n     
possess prop]ty  to enable him to       
e/abli% himself z a pr9t]1 :i* 0 8      
desire2  he 0 !re=e compell$ to h       
rec\rse to 8 own +5uity4  ,he tri$      
v>i\s1 & at fir/1 unsuccessful          
exp]im5ts1 :i* he  +5i\sly details2     
because1 he consid]$1 t ne>ly z mu* is  
le>n$ f ! failures ( an arti/1 _h he    
always ! hone/y to  publi% !m1 z is ga9$
 f 8 mo/ successful discov]ies4         
,v>i\s 7 ! mat]ials ^u :i* he fir/      
essay$ to complete  8 purposes2 till1 at
 l5g?1 *ance direct$ him to try :at c\ld
  be effect$ ^u /one4 ,= ?is purpose1 he
 us$ a species f\nd 9  ,g]many1 ( a     
beautifully close gra9$ & d5se k9d1     
susceptible (  receiv+ a f9e poli%1     
call$ ,kellheim /one4 ,kn[+ ! failures  
:i* 8 c\ntrym5 _h exp]i5c$ 9 endeav\r+  
to fix ! ink  9 ?is /one = et*+1 he _h  

rec\rse to a *emical exp]im5t  to       
obviate ?is1 :i* succe$$ 9 ! foll[+     
mann]3--,to f\r  or five p>ts ( wat]1 he
 add$ "o ( rectifi$ vitriol1 :i*        
in/antly produc$ an eff]vesc5ce1 on be+ 
p\r$ ^u x2 !  /one 0 in/antly cov]$ ) a 
coat ( gypsum1 :i* to vitriol is        
imp5etrable2 ?is is easily wip$ (f1 & ! 
/one be+ dri$1 x  is ready = use4 ,!    
next want he f\nd1 0 a species ( ink1   
prop]  to answ] ! peculi> purposes ( !  
mat]ial :]eon he _h to  op]ate2 = :i* he
 discov]$ none s well adapt$ z ! foll[+ 
mixture3--,a composition ( ?ree p>ts (  
wax1 ) "o ( yell[ soap1  is melt$ ov] a 
fire1 & mix$ ) a small portion (        
lamp-black1  dissolv$ 9 ra9-wat]4 ,b ?is
 is n[ greatly simplifi$1 z !           
li?ographic pr9t]s g5]ally use ! same   
ink z ! copp]plate  pr9t]s4    ,!       
process ( li?ography is v simple4 ,!    
article want$ to be  pr9t$ is writt5 or 
drawn ^u a piece ( transf] pap]1 :i* be+
  wet & laid on ! /one1 & put ?r\gh !   
press1 ! writ+ or  draw+ rema9s on !    

/one1 & any numb] ( impressions may be  
tak5 (f4 ,c>e mu/ be tak51 be=e ink+1 to
 come ov] ! /one  ) a damp sponge1 to   
prev5t ! ink adh]+ to ! places n  want$1
 :i* x w\ld o!rwise d4    ,we und]/& !  
,ba? & ,portl& /one is successfully us$2
 b !  be/ yet f\nd 9 ,brita91 = !       
purpose1 is :at is kn[n by !  "n ( lias1
 rais$ ne> ,/rat=d-on-,avon1 9          
,w>wick%ire2 x is a  calc>e\s & p>tly   
silice\s /one1 & we ?9k n de/itute (    
magnesia1 hav+1 :51 poli%$1 a v silky & 
some:at saponace\s  feel4    ,?is art   
has fl\ri%$ to a great] ext5t ?an we    
believe ! mo/  sangu9e expectations (   
its inv5tor c\ld h anticipat$4 ,_m      
beautiful specim5s ( art h be5 produc$  
equal to ! f9e/  copp]-plate engrav+s4  
,x is excell5tly adapt$ = draw+ (       
plans1 bill-heads1 circul>s1 c>ds1 & _m 
o!r light articles1  :i* us$ =m]ly to be
 pr9t$ by means ( lett]-press2 & on     
acc\nt ( ! num]\s ornam5ts s easily     
appli$ to ! li?ographic  process1 ! mo/ 
( ^!1 & simil> articles1 are pr9cipally 

li?ograph$1 to ! detrim5t1 we w\ld      
conceive1 ( ! lett]-press  & copp]-plate
 pr9t]s4          ,,pap]4      ,be=e !  
inv5tion ( pap]1 9 anci5t times1 a great
 v>iety (  sub/ances h be5 us$ = !      
purpose ( record+ ev5ts1 or  del9eat+   
ideas1 ( :i* x becomes our duty to give 
a some:at  detail$ acc\nt1 to %[ our    
read]s ! num]\s advantages !y  enjoy1 9 
hav+ a mat]ial :i*1 l ev]y?+ 9 common   
use1 is  b little ?\ght (4 ,b let any "o
 suppose himself to be )\t  ?is necess>y
 article1 or ! means ( communicat+ 8    
ideas1 he  w\ld be s5sible ( ! diff]5ce4
    ,r\gh /ones & /akes 7 us$ z ! fir/  
kn[n records ( !  anci5t ,phnicians1    
rema9s ( :i* are report$ to be /ill     
visible2  & to confirm ?is p]suasion1   
c]ta9 heaps ( /ones h be5  discov]$ 9 ! 
environs ( ,cadiz1 :i* are curr5tly     
believ$ to  be ! rema9s ( ^? monum5ts   
alleg$ to be made by ,h]cules1 9  memory
 ( 8 fam\s exp$ition to ! g>d5s ( !     
,hesp]ides1 =  ! gold5 fruit1 or z o!rs 
h x1 aga9/ ,spa94 ,x is also  /at$1 t ! 

usual mode ( record+ great ev5ts1 9 !   
nor? (  ,asia & ,europe1 0 by plac+     
/ones ( extraord9>y size2 9 aid (  ?is1 
we h a great v>iety ( in/ances4    ,s9ce
 ! scriptural art has be5 introduc$1 or 
inv5t$1 _m  mat]ials h be51 9 a v>iety (
 ages1 & 9 num]\s c\ntries1  us$ = !    
purpose ( record+ ev5ts to po/]ity2     
*>act]s cut  ^u rocks1 ^u tables ( /one1
 ^u b>k1 pieces ( wood1 writt5  ^u sk9s 
( fi% & animals1 palm-leaves1 besides a 
great v>iety (  o!r articles1 ( :i* we w
 only enum]ate a few4    ,!re is a      
,bible /ill pres]v$1 writt5 on          
palm-leaves1 9 !  ,univ]sity ( ,gott+51 
conta9+ #e1cgf leaves4 ,ano!r ,bible1 ( 
!  same mat]ial1 is at ,cop5hag54 ,!re 0
 also1 9 ,sir ,hans ,sloane's           
collection1 m ?an tw5ty manuscripts1 9  
v>i\s languages1 on !  same mat]ial4    
,! protocols ( ! ,emp]ors 9 e>ly times 7
 writt5 ^u b>k4 ,9  ! ,briti% ,museum   
are _m specim5s ( ?is sub/ance2 also 9 !
  gr& ,duke's gall]y at ,flor5ce4    ,to
 ?is mode is suppos$ to h succe$$ !     

practice ( pa9t+  lett]s on l95 clo? &  
cotton2 :at 0 ! diff]5ce 9  ! prep>ation
 ( t mat]ial to ! "o n[ employ$ is n    
asc]ta9$1 b x is consid]$ t "s          
prep>ation 0 necess>y  9 ord] to use t  
sub/ance4 ,!re h be5 frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! 
*e/s or cases conta9+ ! ,egyptian       
mummies1 v neat *>act]s  writt5 on l954 
,l95 be+ subject to accid5ts f becom+   
m\ldy1 c41 asbe/oes clo? _h be5         
occasionally us$ 9 small  quantities4   
,! accid5ts to :i* ^! species ( mat]ials
 7 mo/ ( !m  subject1 & l95 p>ticul>ly  
s1 induc$ man to endeav\r to rem$y  ^?  
objects2 he accord+ly is f\nd to h      
rec\rse to ! animal  creation4    ,9 !  
conv5t ( ,dom9ican monks at ,bologna1   
are two books ( ,esdras1  writt5 on     
asses' sk9s1 said to h be5 writt5 by    
,esdras himself4  ,! anci5t ,p]sians    
wrote on hides1 f :i* ! hair 0 scrap$4  
,! %eph]ds wrote _! songs ) ?orns ^u    
/raps ( lea!r1  :i* !y w\nd r\nd _!     
crooks4    ,! anci5t ,wel* _h a peculi> 
mann] ( writ+ ^u small squ>$  oblong    

pieces ( wood1 :i* !y call$ billets1 :i*
 "n =ms  ! appellative to num]\s ( _!   
productions1 z ! 8,billett (  ! ,b>d40  
,! ,italian k+s1 ,hugo & ,lo?>is1 gave a
 grant to ! ,ambrosian  *ur*1 at ,milan1
 writt5 on ! sk9 ( a fi%4    ,9 !       
,alex&rian ,libr>y !re 7 ! works (      
,hom]1 writt5 9  gold5 lett]s on ! sk9s 
( animals4 ,9 ! reign ( ! ,emp]or       
,baliskus1 ! head & 8,odyssey0 ( ,hom]1 
writt5 9 gold5 lett]s1  on ! inte/9es ( 
bea/s1 "o hundr$ & tw5ty feet long1 7   
burn$ at ,con/ant9ople4    ,9 ! royal   
libr>y at ,hanov]1 !re is a gold plate1 
writt5 by an  indep5d5t pr9ce (         
,corom&el to ,george ,,ii41 ?ree feet   
long &  f\r in*es wide1 inlaid on bo?   
sides ) diamonds4    ,at la/ we h arriv$
 at ! p]iod = ! introduction ( !        
,egyptian papyrus1 a k9d ( ru% ( l>ge   
dim5sions1 gr[+ 9 !  m>%es on ! banks ( 
! ,nile4 ,?is plant is describ$ z gr[+  
9 swamps to ! height ( fifte5 feet2 !   
/alk triangul>1 ( a  ?ickness to be     
spann$1 surr\nd$ ne> ! root by %ort     

leaves2  /alk nak$1 has on ! top a bu%  
resembl+ ! head ) hairs1 or  long ?9    
/raight fibres2 root br[n4    ,!        
,egyptian papyrus 0 manufactur$ into    
pap] f v f9e  pellicles ne> its pi?1    
sep>at$ by a p9 or po9t$ mussel-%ell    
spread on a table 9 su* =m z 0 requir$1 
spr9kl$ ) ,nile  wat]2 on ! fir/ lay] a 
second lay] 0 laid crosswise to f9i%  ! 
%eet1 !n press$1 hung to dry1 & aft]w>ds
 poli%$ )  a too?4 ,! ,nile wat] 0 v    
c>efully us$ to prev5t spots4  ,tw5ty   
sk9s 7 ! greate/ numb] :i* c\ld be      
procur$ f "o  plant4 ,^? ne>e/ ! pi?    
made ! f9e/ pap]4 ,tw5ty %eets  glu$    
toge!r 7 call$ scapus1 b sometimes scapi
 w5t to  =m a volum54 ,?is "p ( !       
bus9ess 0 execut$ by !  glut9atoris1 :o 
resembl$ our bookb9d]s4    ,?is plant   
yield$ mat]ials = mak+ f\r sorts ( pap]4
    ,) respect to o!r sub/ances = ! same
 purpose1 !re are _m1  b z mo/ ( ^! h "o
 g5]ic "*1 be+ manufactur$  f ! b>k (   
trees1 ! detail is n "h giv51 z x might 
n1  p]haps1 be g5]ally int]e/+1         

especially z no?+ new appe>s 9  ?is     
respect4    ,) respect to ! pap] n[ 9   
use1 ,dr4 ,blair says1 ! fir/  pap]-mill
 79 ,engl&1 we suppose7 0 erect$ at     
,d>t=d1 9 !  ye> #aehh1 by a ,g]man ( ! 
"n ( ,spiellman2 f :i* p]iod we  may1   
p]haps1 date its manufacture 9 ?is      
c\ntry4    ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t x 0 kn[n 
9 ! ,ea/1 mu* e>li]2 x  be+ obs]v$ t mo/
 ( ! anci5t manuscripts 9 ,arabic & o!r 
,ori5tal languages1 7 writt5 ^u cotton  
pap]1 & x is ?\ght  ! ,s>ac5s fir/      
introduc$ x into ,spa94    ,&]son1 9 8  
8,hi/ory ( ,comm]ce10 says1 t till ! ye>
  #afij1 !re 0 sc>cely any pap] made 9  
,engl&1 b ! co>se  br[n sort4 ,pap] 0   
previ\sly import$ f ,france1 ,g5oa1 &   
,holl&4--,h[ev]1 ! improvem5t ( ?is     
article 9 ,engl&1 9  consequ5ce ( !     
,fr5* w>1 produc$ a sav+ to ?is c\ntry (
  #ajj1jjj annually1 :i* _h be5 paid to 
,france = pap] alone4    ,aft] l95 &    
cotton are s mu* worn z to be unfit =   
any o!r  purpose1 ! sev]al k9ds are     
collect$ toge!r1 & ! h>d seams  & o!r   

accumulations1 :i* w\ld require a mu*   
long] "t to  prep>e prop] = ! g5]al     
mass1 ?an w\ld be consi/5t ) !  economy 
( ! :ole1 ^? %r$s are !n sep>at$ & ?r[n 
away2  ! diff]5t k9ds are !n collect$ & 
kept sep>ate f ea*  o!r4 ,9 su* a /ate (
 sep>ation !y are laid 9 tr\ghs1 :i*    
are aft]w>ds fill$ ) wat]1 :]e !y are   
suff]$ to rema9  till a species (       
f]m5tation takes place2 & ! sep>ation ( 
!  p>ts =m$ by art is n only r5d]$ easy1
 b also1 a division  may be made ( ! mo/
 m9ute p>ts2 ! sep>ation is !n made by  
ma*9]y4 ,:5 prop]ly prep>$1 a suffici5t 
quantity is plac$  ^u a wire frame1 or  
o!rwise "o =m$ ( clo?2 by me*anical     
pressure1 ! moi/ure is extract$1 aft]   
:i* ! %eets are hung up  sep>ately on   
l9es to dry1 9 a build+ prop]ly         
con/ruct$ to admit  a free circulation (
 air4    ,manufactur]s ( pap]1          
orig9ally1 c\ld only use :ite rags to   
make :ite pap]2 b ,mr4 ,campbell1 9     
#agib1 discov]$ a me?od (  dis*>g+ any  
col\r f rags1 by blea*+ ) oxi-muriatic  

acid  gas1 = :i* he obta9$ a pat5t4     
,! next consid]able improvem5t :i*      
appe>s to h be5 made 9  ! manufacture ( 
pap]1 consi/s 9 us+ felt or wooll5 clo? 
9  conjunction ) ! wire clo? =m]ly us$1 
& n[ ( necessity  reta9$1 & o!r         
processes too volum9\s to be ins]t$ "h4 
,! only rema9+ circum/ance we h to      
m5tion is1 t 9 !  beg9n+ ( ! pres5t     
c5tury !re 0 manufactur$1 9 !  vic9ity (
 ,london1 a v good pr9t+ pap]1 made     
entirely f  :eat /raw2 = :i*            
manufacture1 ! inv5tor obta9$ a pat5t1  
b he did n succe$1 we presume1 because x
 is n[ discont9u$4  ,consid]able        
quantities ( pap] is n[ made f /raw 9   
,france2 b  x is ( a yell[ t+e4 ,pap]   
made f l95 is ! be/4          ,,pap]    
,,hang+4      ,! desire ( man1 = !      
gratification ( 8 natural wants1 be+    
soon satisfi$1 he yet is want+--^?      
artificial wants :i*  arise 9 ! m9d1 &  
are ! s\rce ( 8 com=ts1 because _!      
gratification yields him high delight4  
,hav+ built him a h\se1 to  %elt]       

himself f ! exig5cies ( ! wea!r1 to     
enl>ge !  sph]e ( 8 pleasures1 he is    
desir\s to ornam5t x2 & because he  _c1 
p]haps1 con/ruct 8 h\se ( silv]1 gold1  
or co/ly /ones1  he endeav\rs1 at lea/1 
to h an imitation2 & gild+1 lacqu]+1    
pa9t+1 or /a9+ is sub/itut$4 ,?is idea1 
we w presume1  to h giv5 orig9 to e     
species ( decorative ornam5t 9 !        
con/ruction ( h\ses--& among ! re/ to   
pap]-hang+1 :i* is  c>ri$ on to a great]
 ext5t 9 ?is c\ntry1 ?an at any =m]     
p]iod4    ,! anci5t ,greeks1 accord+ to 
,ar*bi%op ,pott]1 con/ruct$ n  only _!  
arms1 b also _! h\ses1 occasionally (   
brass1 :il/  ! ,romans frequ5tly gilt   
!irs2 !y (t5 cov]$ !m ) co/ly  cas+s or 
v5e]s1 sometimes ) preci\s /ones4 ,s9ce 
!y w5t  to su* great co/ to ornam5t !   
outside ( _! habitations1  we ne$ n     
wond] t !y sp>$ no exp5se 9 endeav\r+ to
  ornam5t !m )94--,^? p1 h[ev]1 :o c\ld 
n procure  ^! extravagancies 9 reality1 
?\ght !y w\ld1 at lea/1 h  ! ne>e/      
imitation ( !m2 accord+ly !y _h rec\rse 

sometimes  to v5e]s ( ^? sub/ances !y _h
 se5 sub/antially employ$  by ! ri* &   
luxuri\s1 z well = outside ornam5t z    
int]ior  decoration2 ^? :o c\ld n af=d  
?is1 _h rec\rse to pigm5ts  & ! graphic 
art2 = ?is purpose1 ! +5uity ( man 0    
employ$ to devise v>i\s modes ( ornam5t 
& decoration4 ,h5ce  arose ! v>i\s k9ds 
( pa9t+1 ! fresco1 scagliolo1 c41 &     
la/ly1 came /a9+ ( pap] 9 use4    ,to   
enum]ate ! v>i\s k9ds ( ?is1 might be   
att5d$ ) v  little b5efit1 because !    
pr9ciple ( all is ne>ly ! same4  ,h[ev]1
 x has be5 rem>k$ t ?ree k9ds are des]v+
 ( notice4  ,! fir/ & pla9e/ is t :i*   
has on x figures1 drawn &  pa9t$ ) "o or
 m col\rs1 consi/+ only ( pa9t$ pap]4   
,! second conta9s a woolly /uff1 dy$ (  
v>i\s t9ts1 & made  to adh]e to ! pap]1 
9 c]ta9 =ms1 by a glut9\s matt]2 &  !   
?ird is a species ( pap] cov]$ )        
metallic du/4 ,!re are  o!r pap]s us$ = 
hang+s1 :i* conta9 a repres5tation ( _m 
k9ds ( /ones1 ( :i* we und]/& !re is a  
l>ge manufactory 9  ,leipsic4    ,!re is

 also a species ( velvet pap]--a pap]   
cov]$ ) %am  plu%1 or wool dy$ & cut    
%ort1 & made to adh]e to ! pap] by  "s  
k9d ( cem5t1 said to h be5 ! inv5tion ( 
an ,engli%man1  ( ! "n ( ,j]ome ,lany]1 
9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,i41 = :i* he        
receiv$ a pat5t4 ,9 ! specification x is
 /at$1 t he _h f\nd  out an art & my/]y 
= affix+ wool1 silk1 & o!r mat]ials1  ^u
 l951 cotton1 lea!r1 & o!r sub/ances1 ) 
oil1 size1 &  cem5ts1 s z to make !m    
useful & s]viceable = hang+s &  o!r     
purposes2 :i* he call$ ,londr9d9a2 & he 
said x 0 8 own  inv5tion1 & =m]ly us$ )9
 ?is realm4    ,h[ev]1 x appe>s t ?is   
inv5tion ( ,lany] 0 aft]w>ds  disput$ by
 a ,fr5*man ( ! "n ( ,ti]ce1 :o said x 0
 !  production ( a c\ntryman ( 81 nam$  
,francois1 :o1 he /at$1  _h made su*    
be=e #afbj1 & support$ 8 ass]tion by    
produc+  patt]ns1 & ! wood5 blocks ) :i*
 x 0 pr9t$1 ) !  dates inscrib$ ^u !m4  
,! son ( ,francois1 x appe>$1 foll[$  8 
fa!r's bus9ess1 at ,r\51 = m ?an fifty  
ye>s1 :]e he  di$1 9 #agdh4 ,"s ( 8     

workm5 are said to h left him1 & gone   
to ! ,ne!rl&s1 ,g]many1 & o!r places1   
:]e !y sold _!  art4    ,x appe>s t     
,nemetz ascribes ! inv5tion ( wax-clo?  
hang+s1  ) wool *opp$ & beat f9e1 to a  
,fr5*man1 nam$ ,&ran1 :o1 he  says1 9 ! 
beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury1 0 an excell5t    
pa9t]  9 arabesque & grotesque figures1 
& inspector ( ! palace ( !  ,luxemb\rg  
at ,p>is1 9 :i* he _h a manufactory =   
hang+s ( t  k9d4 ,x is also /at$ t a    
p]son ( ! "n ( ,ecc>d inv5t$  ! art (   
pr9t+1 on pap]-hang+s1 gold & silv]     
figures1 &  t he c>ri$ on an ext5sive   
manufactory = su* works4    ,x c]ta9ly  
does appe> t ! ,g]mans _c claim !       
privilege (  inv5tion "h1 b 7 beh9d _!  
neighb\rs 9 ?is art4    ,"o ( ! mo/     
+5i\s ( ! _m new improvem5ts is said to 
consi/ 9 ! art ( manufactur+ pap]-hang+s
 by affix+ to !  sub/ance ( ! prop]     
metallic du/1 commonly call$ ,nuremb]g  
du/1  by :i* x acquires ! appe>ance (   
v>i\s co/ly metals 9 a /ate  ( fracture1
 v>i$ ) glitt]+ p>ticles ( diff]5tly =m$

  p>ts2 & receiv+ ! light 9 e direction1
 produce c]ta9ly  a novel effect1 :i* is
 ri* & beautiful1 :ile x is obta9$ at   
little exp5se4    ,! ,nuremb]g metallic 
du/ is said to h be5 ! inv5tion ( an    
arti/ ( t city1 nam$ ,john ,hauts*1 born
 9 #aeie1 di$ 9 #afgj2  8 desc5dants h  
cont9u$ its prep>ation to ! pres5t "t4  
,x is produc$ f fil+s ( metals ( sev]al 
descriptions wa%$  well 9 a /rong       
lixivi\s wat]1 !n be+ plac$ ^u a %eet ( 
copp]1 are put ^u a /rong fire1 &       
cont9ually /irr$ till !  col\r is alt]$4
 ,^? ( t91 by ?is process1 acquire e    
%ade  ( gold col\r1 ) its metallic      
lu/re2 ^? ( copp]1 diff]5t  %ades (     
flame col\r2 ^? ( iron or /eel1 a blue  
or violet2 (  t9 & bismu? mix$1 a :ite  
or blui% :ite col\r4 ,! du/ t+$  9 ?is  
mann] is !n put ?r\gh a flatt+-mill1    
consi/+ (  two roll]s ( ! h>de/ /eel1 l 
^? us$ by gold & silv]  wire-draw]s2 = !
 great] conv5i5ce a funnel is plac$ ov] 
!m4  ,fr5* cov]$ pap] manufactur$ f ?is 
mat]ial is call$ papi]s  avec           

paillettes4 ,its lu/re is s durable t x 
is said to cont9ue  unalt]$ = _m ye>s   
ev5 on ! walls ( sitt+ ap>tm5ts4 ,?is   
metallic du/ is an article ( comm]ce1   
be+ export$ f ,g]many4    ,z e>ly z !   
sev5te5? c5tury1 ! m9]s ( ,silesia      
collect$  & sold1 = v>i\s purposes1 a   
mat]ial !y call glimm]1 be+  bright1 %9+
 p>ticles ( v>i\s metals1 :i* ^? m9es   
produce  9 great pr(usion2 ev5 ! black1 
we are told1 acquires a gold col\r  by  
be+ expos$ to a /rong heat4 ,?is 0      
manufactur$ by ! holy  si/]s (          
,rei*5/e91 into a v>iety ( ornam5ts2 ) x
 !y  decorat$ _! images1 /rew+ ov] !m a 
%9+ k9d ( talc4  ,! silv] col\r$ glimm] 
_h n1 h[ev]1 s great a brilliancy or    
v>iety z ! ,nuremb]g metallic du/2 = :i*
 purposes t article  has a decid$       
sup]iority4    ,= ! v>i\s purposes to   
:i* ^! ornam5ts are to be appli$1       
diff]5t adhesive sub/ances %\ld be us$2 
9 "s cases glue w\ld  h ! effect1 to be 
fir/ drawn ov] ! sub/ance2 9 o!rs1 a    
/rong v>ni%1 9 :i* wax is dissolv$2 & = 

o!rs1 v>i\s  k9ds ( gums4    ,^?        
sub/ances be+ s cov]$1 ! du/ may be put 
9 a common  pepp]-ca/or1 & appli$ by    
sift+ x ov] ! sub/ance to be s  cov]$4  
,diff]5t figures may be drawn ) a p5cil1
 & ! box (  du/ %ook ov] !m1 z f> z !   
ext5t ( ! l9es cov]$ )  glue2 ! du/ w   
only fa/5 s f> z x meets ) :at produces 
adhesion4          ,,pa9t+4      ,its   
orig9 is to be trac$ up to t kn[n s\rce1
 f :5ce mo/ (  ^? arts1 :i* humanise    
society & l5d a poli% to life1 fir/ _h  
be+4 ,diodorus ,siculus speaks ( bricks 
burnt 9 ! fire ) v>i\s  col\rs1         
repres5t+ ! natural appe>ance ( m5 &    
animals2 :i*  is ! fir/ fact ^u record4 
,z ?is occurr$ dur+ ! build+ (          
,babylon1 x is z remote an orig9al z we 
are1 p]haps1 au?oris$ to  dep5d ^u2     
al?\gh x is extremely probable x might  
be trac$ to an  ant]ior date3 :i*       
conclusion1 ?\gh made f inf]5ce alone1  
we  are all[$ to suppose mu/ h be5 !    
case2 z a k ( !  nature ( pigm5ts mu/   
fir/ h be5 asc]ta9$ be=e ! ,*aldean     

arti/s c\ld h be5 in=m$ :at col\rs w\ld 
fade1 or :at w\ld  )/& ! op]ation ( !   
enamell+ process 9 ! int5se heat        
necess>y to produce ! effect4 ,!y mu/ at
 lea/ h und]/ood !  diff]5ce betwe5     
vegetable col\rs1 :i* are ! fir/ pres5t$
  to ! s5ses1 & mo/ probably 7 ! fir/   
:i* 7 us$1 &  ^? af=d$ by ! m9]al k+dom1
 :i* alone 7 prop] =  ! op]ation !y     
p]=m$4 ,!re=e1 ! arts ( pa9t+ &         
*emi/ry1 we w\ld presume mu/ h made     
consid]able progress prior  to !        
erection ( ! t[] ( ,babel4    ,! next p1
 :o1 9 po9t ( "t z well z ( importance1 
(f]  !mselves to ! notice ( mod]n       
,europeans1 are ! ,egyptians2 &  _!     
p]fection 9 ! use ( ! v>i\s col\rs :i*  
con/itute !  comp\nd idea we ent]ta9 :5 
we ?9k ( pa9t+1 is well kn[n  &         
appreciat$2 :5 we may any day consult   
our judgm5t by inspect+  ^? beautiful   
specim5s ( _! et]nal mode ( col\r+ we h 
9 ! exhibition on mummy-cases 9 !       
,briti% ,museum1 & o!r  depositories ( t
 species ( antique pres]vation4 ,! ?ird 

p  :o excell$ 9 giv+ a beautiful &      
ta/eful v>iety to surfaces 9  col\r+ &  
effect1 7 ! ,etrurians1 a p anci5tly    
inhabit+  a di/rict ( ,italy1 n[ kn[n z 
,tuscany4 ,( ! p]fection to :i*  !y     
br\ght ! art we may =m an adequate &    
prop] judgm5t  by inspect+ ^? beautiful 
vases pres]v$ 9 ! ,hamiltonian          
collection 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 & also 9
 "s v curi\s  specim5s ( anci5t pa9t+1  
procur$ f ! ru9s ( ,h]culaneum1         
collect$ likewise by ,sir ,william      
,hamilton4    ,x _c be d\bt$1 t mo/     
di/9ct societies ( m5 h1  aft] !        
gratification ( _! fir/ wants1 & :5     
leisure h\rs  p]mitt$ ! ex]cise ( _!    
+5i\s & inv5tive faculties1  inv5t$ a   
great v>iety ( useful & ornam5tal arts2 
!re=e1  !re _c be a "q1 b v>i\s arts (  
utility z well z (  ornam5t1 h be5      
inv5t$ by a great v>iety ( p1 :o all1   
agreeably to our prior def9itions1 are  
well entitl$ to ! di/9ct  appellation ( 
orig9al inv5tors2 consequ5tly 9 su* a   
case "q  mu/ evid5tly submit to !       

det]m9ation ( *ronology4    ,eudora1 !  
daught] ( a pott] ( ,cor9?1 is presum$  
to h  introduc$ ! art into ,greece4 ,!  
art ( pa9t+ 9 ,greece is also  claim$ by
 ,sicyon z ! orig9al4 ,mr4 ,fuseli has  
beautifully obs]v$  9 8 fir/ lecture    
illu/rative ( ! =m] ( ^! two claimants1 
t 8,if ev] leg5d des]v$ our belief1 !   
amor\s tale ( !  ,cor9?ian maid1 :o     
trac$ ! %ad[ ( h] dep>t+ lov] by !      
secret lamp1 appeals to our sympa?y to  
grant x40 ,?is inv5tion is  becom+ d\bly
 int]e/+ 9 t c\ntry1 fir/1 because ( its
  elegance & utility2 & secondly1       
because x is ascrib$ to "o (  ! noble/ &
 mo/ p[]ful passions1 :i* di/+ui% !     
human  species1 ! wond]ful effects ( :i*
 h giv5 to humanity ! mo/  exalt$ &     
illu/ri\s ( actions1 :i* ennoble ! "* ( 
man--to delicate1 ref9$1 & almighty     
love4 ,num]\s arti/s 9 !  ,grecian s*ool
 br\ght ! art ( pa9t+ to great          
p]fection4    ,! re/or] ( ?is delightful
 art 9 ,europe 0 ,cimabue1 a native (   
,italy1 :o fir/ /udi$ "u "s ,grecian    

arti/s1 & furni%$ "s  admirable         
productions 9 fresco1 9 sev]al ,italian 
*ur*es ab\t !  r5ovation ( ! arts 9     
mod]n ,italy2 s9ce :i* "t1 ?is purely   
intellectual art has be5 successfully   
cultivat$ 9 almo/ all !  c\ntries (     
,europe1 c]ta9 ma/]s 9 all s*ools ( :i* 
h be5  em95t = "s peculi> em95ce4    ,an
 analogy has be5 drawn by comp>ison     
betwe5 ! fasc9at+ effect  ( music on !  
e>1 & col\r on ! eye1 :]e9 x is obs]v$ !
  comp>ison v ne>ly approximates2 :5ce !
 t]m h>mony1 appli$  to ! =m]1 may      
correctly1 & ) s+ul> propriety be us$1  
:5  speak+ ( ! latt]4 ,& also1 x is     
said1 = ! same reason1 &  proce$+ ^u ! l
 analogy1 ! t]m tone is applicable to   
bo?2 !y are accord+ly us$               
indiscrim9ately4 ,)\t que/ion+  _!      
propriety1 we give 9 to our s5sations1 &
 z f> z our  judgm5t goes1 believe !y   
are n improp]ly introduc$ into !        
pictorial art4    ,x _c be presum$ t we 
%\ld h ! tem]ity to aspire to  ! task ( 
giv+ a full & complete description ( e  

v>iety  :i* con/itutes p]fection 9 !    
art2 = ?is w\ld be to inf]  pr(essional 
ability1 equal1 or p]haps1 sup]ior to   
:at any "o  individual ev] 01 or1 we may
 v5ture to say1 ev] w be1 kn[n to       
possess4 ,besides ?is inf]5ce1 ano!r mu/
 be presum$1 because  p]fection 9       
description mu/ also anticipate ! mo/   
delicate1  ref9$1 &1 z t]m$1 classically
 correct ta/e2 nei!r to ^!  d we assume 
! possession ( su* well-kn[n ess5tials z
 are  positively necess>y to its        
=mation4 ,x is1 besides1 altoge!r       
difficult1 z ! _w ackn[l$ges1 to fix a  
/&>d to ! ideal  faculty ( ta/e1 & :i*1 
we h]eby take occasion to notice2  !re=e
 we hope to avoid ! s9 ( presumption1 & 
tru/ t our  read]s w obs]ve t :at we d  
/ate is ^u good au?ority1 if  we h n    
full confid5ce 9 our own exp]i5ce2 b our
 s91 if s9  !re be1 is r t ( omission   
?an ( commission--( say+ too  little1 r 
?an too mu*4          ,,/atu>y4      ,! 
orig9 ( ,/atu>y1 or :at we w\ld t]m its 
p>5t--modell+1  is ( v great antiquity1 

z we are au?oratively in=m$ by !        
,grecian hi/orians1 ^: te/imony is      
support$ by ,monsieur ,d',anville  &    
,major ,r5nel1 two ( ! mo/ em95t        
geograph]s ( mod]n times4  ,f !m we le>n
 t ?ree massy /atues ( gold 7 erect$  to
 ornam5t ! temple ( ,jupit] ,belus4 ,^? 
7 erect$ by !  ,*aldeans ab\t two ?\s&  
two hundr$ & ?irty ye>s be=e ,*ri/4     
,!re is also suffici5t evid5ce1 t ! mo/ 
em95t &  intellectual p1 subsequ5t to ! 
,*aldeans1 7 ! ,egyptians4    ,e        
individual1 :o is 9 ! slighte/ degree   
conv]sant ) !  hi/ory ( ! arts1 kn[s t !
 ,egyptian artisans _h f !  e>lie/      
p]iods be5 9 ! habit ( con/ruct+        
colossal /atues  ( _! num]\s deities1 & 
also ( _! b5efactors1 rais$ f  gratitude
 & adulation4    ,to "n only a s+le     
in/ance1 ! imm5se colossal /atue (      
,memnon1  :o p]i%$ be=e ! fall ( ,troy1 
accord+ to ,hom]3 also ,ovid1  :o speak+
 ( 8 "m ,aurora1 says1       8,nor      
,troy1 nor ,hecuba c\ld n[ bemoan1      
,%e weeps a sad mis=tune n[ h] own2     

,h] (fspr+1 ,memnon1 by ,a*illes sla91  
,%e saw ext5d$ on ! ,phrygian pla940    
,pr(essor ,flaxman has in=m$ u1 t ?is   
celebrat$ /atue1 _h x  /ood upright1    
w\ld h measur$ n9ety-?ree feet & a half 
high2  calculat+ f ! dim5sions ( its e>1
 :i* is ?ree feet long4  ,we are in=m$  
by ,dr4 ,rees1 9 8 valuable ,cyclop$ia1 
t sculpture  9 m>ble 0 n introduc$ till 
eight hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree ye>s  be=e   
,*ri/4 ,b hav+ said ?is mu* = ! orig91  
let u proce$  to ! art2 & we c&idly     
ackn[l$ge t x is f ! lectures  ( t truly
 di/+ui%$ individual1 ,pr(esssor        
,flaxman1 we are  pr9cipally indebt$ =  
our in=mation4    ,sculpture 9 ,greece  
rema9$ long 9 a rude /ate2 b we ne$ n   
wond] at t1 :5 we reflect t art is only 
an imitation (  nature4 ,h5ce x foll[s t
 man1 9 a rude /ate ( nature1 =  want ( 
prop] pr9ciples to direct 8 inquiries1 &
 det]m9e  8 judgm5t1 is cont9ually      
liable to errors1 physical1 moral1 &    
religi\s2--all 8 productions1 ( :at k9d 
soev]1 p>take ( ?is  primitive          

imbecility4    ,! e>ly arts ( design 9  
,greece resembl$ ^? ( o!r b>b>\s        
nations1 until ! successive intellectual
 & natural1 political &  civil          
advantages ( ?is p rais$ !m above ! arts
 ( !  surr\nd+ nations4 ,! sci5ce       
employ$ by ! ,greeks may be trac$  9    
anatomy1 geometry1 me*anics1 &          
p]spective4 ,f _! e>li]  au?ors & coeval
 monum5ts1 ,hom] _h describ$ ! figure ) 
accuracy1 b insuffici5t = g5]al         
purposes4    ,,(                        
,,anatomy4--,hippocrates 0 ! fir/ :o    
enum]at$ ! bones1 &  wrote a comp5di\s  
acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples ( ! human figure2  
he  describ$ ! %\ld]s1 ! curves ( !     
ribs1 hips & knees2 !  *>act]s ( ! arms 
& legs1 9 ! same simple mann] 9 :i*  !y 
are repres5t$ 9 ! basso relievo ( !     
,p>!non1 n[ 9 !  ,national ,gall]y ( !  
,briti% ,museum4    ,! anci5t arti/s saw
 ! figure cont9ually expos$ 9 all       
actions  & circum/ances1 s z to h little
 occasion = o!r assi/ance  to p]fect _! 
works2 & !y _h also ! assi/ance ( ca/+1 

draw+1 & o!r subsidi>y means4 ,! succe$+
 anci5t anatomi/s  did n describe !     
human figure m m9utely or advantage\sly 
= ! arti/1 ?an _h be5 done by           
,hippocrates1 till ! "t (  ,gal51 ^:    
ext]nal anatomy gave example = t        
analytical accuracy  ( arrangem5t foll[$
 by m mod]n arti/s4 ,sculpture1 h[ev]1  
pr(it$ little f ,gal5's lab\rs1 = ! arts
 ( design 7 9  8 "t 9 a retrogade motion
 t[>ds ant]ior b>b>ism4    ,! anatomical
 rese>*es f ,alcmon ( ,crotona1 a       
disciple (  ,py?agoras1 to ^? (         
,hippocrates & 8 s*ol>s1 assi/$ ,phidias
  & ,praxiteles1 _! contempor>ies &     
successors1 9 giv+ select  & appropriate
 =ms ( body & limbs to _! sev]al        
div9ities1  ^: *>act]s 7 fix$ by !      
arti/s f ! rhapsodies (  ,hom]1 hav+ !n 
become popul> among ! ,a!nians4         
,phidias 0 ! fir/ 9 ?is re=mation4      
,m9]va1 "u 8 h&1  became "y & beautiful1
 :o _h be=e be5 h>% & eld]ly2 &  ,jupit]
 0 awful1 z :5 8 nod %ook ! poles1 b    
b5ignant1 z  :5 he smil$ on 8 daught]   

,v5us4 ,apollo & ,bac*us !n assum$      
y\?ful resemblances ( _! sire2 ! fir/ m 
maje/ic1 !  latt] m fem99e2 :il/        
,m]cury1 z patron ( gymna/ic ex]cises1  
0 repres5t$ z m robu/ ?an 8 bro!r4      
,h]cules became  gradually m p[]ful2 & !
 =ms ( inf]ior h]oes display$  a ne>]   
resemblance to common nature2 f :i*1 bo?
 s5tim5t  & beauty c alone be giv5 to   
imitative art4 ,! ne> approa* (  anci5t 
art to nature1 consid]+ _! high advance 
to accuracy (  imitation1 %\ld likewise 
enc\rage ! mod]n to imitate ! anci5t    
arti/s4 ,! mod]ns n[ also enjoy sup]ior 
auxili>y assi/ance f  engrav+1 pr9t$    
books1 c41 :i* ! anci5ts did n possess4 
,,me*anism ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,frame4--,! 
human figure ) ! limbs  ext5d$1 may be  
incl9$ & b\nd$ by ! circle & squ>e2  !  
c5tre ( gravity1 its *ange ( situation1 
is susceptible (  description1 & may be 
exemplifi$ 9 re/ & motion2--runn+1      
/riv+1 leap+1 walk+1 ris+1 & fall+4 ,^? 
pr9ciples (  motion may be exhibit$ 9 a 
skeleton1 by ! b5d+ ( ! backbone        

backw>ds & =w>ds1 :il/ ! limbs uni=mly  
describe sections (  circles 9 _!       
motions1 con/antly mov+ on _! axis4     
,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,figure1 z 
exhibit$ 9 ,grecian ,/atu>y4--,!        
height1 eight heads 7or usually t5      
faces72 two heads across !  %\ld]s2 "o  
head & a half across ! hips2 ?ree noses1
 !  ?icke/ "p ( ! ?igh2 two1 to ! calf (
 ! leg2 "o1 !  n>r[e/ "p ( ! %91 c4 ,!  
above is ! g5]al proportion (  ! male   
figure4 ,! female figure is n>r[] across
 ! %\ld]s1  & wid] across ! hips ?an !  
male4    ,! beauty ( ! human figure is  
f\nd 9 its proportion1 symmetry1  &     
expression2 x really appe>s t ! beauty (
 ! human figure  is ! *ief or ultimate (
 beauty obs]v$ 9 ! visible works  (     
creative ,omnipot5ce4 ,f !nce e o!r     
species ( beauty  graduates 9 j ratios (
 proportion4 ,f consid]+ !  intellectual
 faculties ( man1 we assimilate ! idea1 
& connect  beauty ) utility1 z ?is union
 ( 8 physical & m5tal p[]s              
unque/ionably r5d]s him "o ( ! mo/      

beautiful objects 9 !  creation4 ,?is   
consid]ation leads u involunt>ily to a  
tra9 (  ?\ght1 sugge/$ by a pr9ciple    
laid d[n by ,plato1 8,t no?+ is         
beautiful :i* is n truly good20 :i* also
 induces ! foll[+  coroll>y1 & :i* is   
confirm$ by reason1 & sanction$ by      
revelation1 t p]fection ( human beauty  
consi/s ( ! mo/  virtu\s s\l 9 ! mo/    
heal?y & p]fect body4    ,inasmu* z     
pa9t]s & sculptors adh]$ to ^? pr9ciples
 9  _! "w1 !y assi/$ to en=ce a popul>  
impression ( div9e  attributes &        
p]fections1 ev5 9 ages ( gross idolatry4
    ,9 ! highe/ ord] ( div9ities1 !     
en]gy ( intellect 0  repres5t$ above !  
mat]ial accid5ts ( passion & decay4     
,! /atues ( ! ,saturnian family1        
,jupit]1 ,neptune1 & ,pluto1  7 ! mo/   
sublime & mighty ( ! sup]ior div9ities4 
,apollo1 ,bac*us1 & ,m]cury1 7 y\?ful   
resemblances ( !  ,saturnian family1 9  
en]getic1 delicate1 & m a?letic beauty3 
,apollo-,belvid]e supplies ,hom]'s      
description to ! sight2 he looks        

indignant1 8 hair is agitat$2 he /eps   
=w>d 9 ! dis*>ge (  8 %afts2 8 arr[s are
 hang+ on 8 %\ld]4    ,a y\?ful &       
infant9e beauty ( ! highe/ class di/+ui%
 !  ,cupid ( ,praxiteles1 & ! gr\p (    
,ganym$e & ! ,eagle4 ,!  ord] ( h]oes or
 demigods excel 9 /r5g?1 activity1 &    
beauty2  ,a*illes1 ,ajax1 ,hmon1 ,ze?os1
 & ,amphion1 are examples 9 ,grecian    
/atu>y to e/abli% ?is rem>k4    ,!      
,giants are human to ! wai/2 _! figures 
t]m9ate 9  s]p5t9e tails4 ,ocean & !    
great ,riv]s h ,h]culean =ms1 &  fa9tly 
resemble ! ,saturnian family1 & h recl9+
 positions4  ,! ,tritons resemble !     
,fauns 9 ! head1 & upp] features1 )     
f9ny tails1 & gills on _! jaws2 _! l[]  
p>ts t]m9ate 9  ! tails ( fi%4    ,9 !  
highe/ class ( female *>act]s1 ! beauty 
( ,juno1 is  imp]i\s2 t ( ,m9]va1 wise1 
z %e presides ov] peaceful  arts2 or    
w>like1 z ! protectress ( cities4 ,v5us 
is ! example  & patroness ( mild] beauty
 & ! s(t] arts ( reciprocal             
communication2 ( :i* ! ,v5us ,praxiteles

 & ,v5us de ,m$icis are  in/ances4 ,!   
,greeks _h also a ,v5us ,urania1 !      
goddess ( hym5ial  rites & ! cele/ial   
virtues4    ,! ,graces are ?ree y\?ful1 
lovely si/]s embrac+3 !y repres5t  !    
t5d] affections1 z _! "n implies2 :ile  
_! "*  gives ! epi!t graceful to        
undulatory & easy motion4 ,!  univ]se 0 
peopl$ by g5ii1 good & evil demons1 :i* 
compreh5ds  e species & gradation f !   
mo/ sublime & beautiful 9  ,jupit] &    
,v5us1 to ! mo/ gross 9 ! ,satyr1       
resembl+ a goat1  & 9 ! t]rific ,pan4   
,z ! public h n[ an opportunity (       
consult+ _m ( ! objects  above ref]r$   
to1 9 our great national gall]y 9 !     
,briti% ,museum1  ^? ( our read]s :o c  
obta9 ?is advantage w d well to pay  a  
visit to t celebrat$ depository = !     
relics ( antiquity1  :]e !y w h x 9 _!  
p[] to conv9ce !mselves ( !  tru? ( !   
=ego+ rem>ks4    ,! prog5y ( ,ham1 ! son
 ( ,noah1 we f9d1 peopl$ ,egypt1 ,m$ea1 
,*aldea1 ,phnicia1 & sev]al o!r adjo9+  
c\ntries4 ,x w be  rememb]$ t two ( !   

?ree sons ( ,noah possess$ ^! c\ntries  
:i* ! folly ( idolatry ov]fl[$2 :il/ x 0
 9 ! l9e (  ,%em alone1 t ! true fai? 0 
cont9u$4 ,! ,mosaiac n>rative  is *iefly
 descriptive ( ev5ts :i* occurr$ 9 !    
po/]ity (  t patri>*1 because f x !     
righte\s l9e ( ! fai?ful 9  ,abraham1   
,david1 ,solomon1 & ultimately ,*ri/1   
proce$$4 ,?us m  ?an two-?irds ( !      
inhabitants ( ! _w 7 gross idolators3   
we (t5 f9d ! ,omnisci5ce ( ! ,highe/    
=ew>n+ ! sacr$  l9e to avoid its        
fasc9ations4 ,nay1 :51 ^u m occasions   
?an  "o1 ! desc5dants ( ! fai?ful =got  
!mselves1 & ^?  admonitions ( ! ,creator
 7 neglect$1 we f9d ! sacr$ race  fly+  
be=e ! face ( puny foes1 :i* defeat 0   
decl>$ to be  f _! hav+ pro/rat$        
!mselves be=e /range gods3 !y 7  b[$ ?us
 l[ 9 battle4 ,n to m5tion _! disob$i5ce
 imm$iately  b5ea? ,m\nt ,s9ai1 :i*     
protract$ _! j\rney ?r\gh !  wild]ness  
to =ty ye>s1 :i*1 p]haps1 "u o!r        
circum/ances1  w\ld n h requir$ z _m    
days4 ,all ^? tr\bles1 _!  subsequ5t    

captivities1 & national afflictions1 7 !
 produce (  disob$i5ce4 ,?is is "o ( ^? 
means :i* retributive ju/ice  resorts to
 puni% wilful s92 s1 h[ev]1 x 0 ) ! se$ 
(  ,abraham4 ,& s x is presum$ to be ) !
 pres5t race ( m52  ei!r imm$iate or    
remote puni%m5t v9dicates ! ,omnipot5ce 
(  ,heav54 ,f ! frequ5t mal$ictions we  
discov] 9 ! sacr$ volume  aga9/ idol    
wor%ip1 we _c d\bt t x 0 peculi>ly      
(f5sive  to ! ,deity4 t ! great majority
 ( ! _w 7 addict$ to  ?is proscrib$     
practice is equally c]ta94 ,& z ! ,_s ( 
,tru? _h decl>$ 9 ! decalogue1 t 8,x    
w\ld n be wor%ipp$  "u any =m 9 ! heav5s
 above1 9 ! e>? bel[1 or 9 !  wat]s "u !
 e>?20 s 0 image-wor%ip1 & consequ5tly !
  con/ruction ( su* ?+s1 =bidd54    ,we 
discov] t z ?is mania infect$ all       
nations1 tongues1 &  p1 s did n !       
,israelites escape x2 b imm$iately aft] 
_! dep>ture f ,egypt we f9d an exact    
similitude ( ! sacr$  calf ( !          
,egyptians1 ca/ 9 melt$ gold1 :i* !y    
con/ruct$  bel[ ,m\nt ,s9ai4 ,9 ,egypt1 

metallic /atues1 z well z ^? (  /one1   
mu/ h exi/$ ant]ior to t ev5t1 z !y     
actually  _h done to our own k1 & long  
be=e idolatry _h made its  appe>ance 9  
,egypt1 x _h exi/$ 9 ,*aldea1 z already 
%[n4    ,z t wor%ip _h fir/ its be+ 9   
,*aldea1 s _h ! art (  /atu>y its orig9 
9 t c\ntry2 x 0 improv$1 p]haps1 9      
,egypt1 & p]fect$ 9 ,greece1 f ! "t (   
,p]icles to t (  ,alex&]1 commonly call$
 ! ,great4          ,,draw+4      ,,!   
,,human ,,figure4    ,f :at has be5 said
 9 ! previ\s article1 x w\ld appe>  t   
draw+ ( ! human figure 0 ne>ly coeval ) 
! art (  /atu>y1 or p]haps prior to x 9 
,greece4 ,z !re is ample room  to       
suppose ! rude aborig9al inhabitants (  
,greece borr[$ _!  art1 z !y did _!     
religi\s & civil policy1 f ! ,egyptians1
  & 9 fact f e nation :]e !y discov]$   
any?+ wor?y  _! att5tion1 s mu/ we      
suppose !y _h also ?is art1 9 its       
infancy x is true1 f ! same p4 ,^u      
reflect+ = a s+le  mom5t1 we are fully  
satisfi$ t ! orig9 ( ! art n[ "u        

contemplation came f ,egypt4 ,an anci5t 
philosoph] express$ himself  ) great    
tru?1 :5 he said1 8,necessity 0 man's   
fir/ in/ructor40  ,we accord+ly p]ceive 
! necessity ( ! e>lie/ inhabitants  (   
,egypt to ex]cise ! art ( draw+1 !y hav+
 det]m9$ to  record _! transactions by  
hi]oglyphical repres5tation4 ,we h  n ! 
slighte/ d\bt b we h n[ 9 ! ,briti%     
,museum "s (  ! e>lie/ specim5s (       
,egyptian hi]oglyphical del9eation1 9 ! 
s>cophagi2 f its inscription1 x has be5 
discov]$ t t  id5tical monum5t _c be    
less ?an ?ree ?\s& five hundr$ &        
n9ety-eight ye>s old6    ,previ\s to    
?is1 we c h no d\bt t ! art ( draw+ mu/ 
h exi/$4    ,l its si/] art1 sculpture1 
x receiv$ e improvem5t ( :i*  x 0       
susceptible1 f ! mature conceptions & ! 
delicate h&  ( ,grecian artisans2 words 
are1 p]haps1 inadequate to convey ?is   
art  to a second p]son4 ,ye>s (         
incessant lab\r1 ) an att5tion to       
pr9ciples e/abli%$ & f\nd to correspond 
correctly ) nature1  are ! only means to

 obta9 a j k ( its pr9ciples1 & to      
judge ta/efully ( its correct execution4
    ,h[ev]1 9 addition to ! rules laid  
d[n 9 ! prec$+ article1  we add !       
foll[+1 :i* h be5 approv$ by ,sir ,jo%ua
 ,reynolds1  by no means a contemptible 
judge ( ! art3--    #a4 ,t f ! cr[n ( ! 
head to ! =ehead is ! ?ird "p (  a face4
    #b4 ,! face beg9s at ! root ( ! l[e/
 hairs t gr[ on !  =ehead1 & ends at !  
bottom ( ! *94    #c4 ,! face is divid$ 
into ?ree proportionate p>ts2 ! fir/    
conta9s ! =ehead or br[2 ! second1 !    
nose2 & ! ?ird1 !  m\? & *94    #d4 ,f !
 *9 to ! pit betwe5 ! coll>-bones1 is   
two l5g?s (  a nose4    #e4 ,f ! pit    
betwe5 ! coll>-bones to ! bottom ( !    
brea/1  "o face4    #f4 ,f ! bottom ( ! 
brea/ to ! navel1 "o face4    #g4 ,f !  
navel to ! g5itories1 "o face4    #h4 ,f
 ! g5itories to ! upp] "p ( ! knee1 two 
faces4    #i4 ,! knee conta9s half a    
face4    #aj4 ,f ! l[] "p ( ! knee to ! 
ancle1 two faces4    #aa4 ,f ! ancle to 
! sole ( ! foot1 half a face4    #ab4 ,a

 man ) 8 arms ext5d$1 is f 8 longe/ f+] 
on ea*  h&1 z broad z he is long4       
#ac4 ,f "o side ( ! brea/ to ! o!r1 two 
faces4    #ad4 ,! bone ( ! arm call$    
hum]us1 i4e41 f ! %\ld] to  ! elb[ jo9t1
 is ! l5g? ( two faces4    #ae4 ,f ! end
 ( ! elb[ to ! jo9t ( ! little f+]1 !   
bone call$ cubitus1 ) a "p ( ! h&1 is   
also two faces4    #af4 ,f ! box ( !    
%\ld]-blade1 to ! pit betwe5 !          
coll>-bones1 "o face4    #ag4 ,to be    
satisfi$ 9 measures ( bread?4 ,f !      
extremity ( "o  f+] to ! o!r1 s t 8     
bread? %\ld be equal to ! l5g?1  x %\ld 
be obs]v$1 t ! bones ( ! elb[s ) !      
hum]us1  & ! hum]us ) ! %\ld]-blade1 or 
scapula1 be> !  proportions ( a face :5 
! arms are ext5d$4    #ah4 ,! sole ( !  
foot is "o-six? "p ( ! l5g? ( ! entire  
figure4    #ai4 ,! h& is ! l5g? ( a     
face4    #bj4 ,! ?umb conta9s a nose 9  
l5g?4    #ba4 ,! inside ( ! arm1 f !    
place :]e ! muscle disappe>s1  :i* is   
connect$ ) ! brea/ 7call$ ! pectoral    
muscle17 to !  middle ( ! arm1 f\r noses

 long4    #bb4 ,f ! middle ( ! arm1 at !
 top1 to ! beg9n+ ( !  head1 five noses4
    #bc4 ,! longe/ toe is "o nose4      
#bd4 ,! out]mo/ p>ts ( ! paps1 & ! pit  
betwe5 !  coll>-bones ( a female1 =m an 
equilat]al triangle4    ,! k ( ! prec$+ 
proportions1 are z m]e rudim5ts         
ess5tial to ! del9eation ( ! human      
figure2 b !y relate to  a body 9 a      
quiesc5t /ate only4 ,! m difficult task 
rema9s  to become ?or\ghly acqua9t$ )   
its actions4 ,to obta9 ?is1 a  rudim5tal
 & ev5 an intimate acqua9tance ) !      
skeleton1 &  assidu\s & incessant       
practice are necess>y4    ,h[ev]1 !     
lectures deliv]$ to ! ,royal ,academy h 
furni%$ u  ) ! probable ext5t to :i* !  
motions ( ! human frame may be  c>ri$4  
,fir/1 premis+ t ! motions ( ! head &   
trunk ( ! body are  limit$ by ! sev]al  
jo9ts ( ! sp9e4    #b4 ,! motion ( !    
body ^u ! l[] limbs takes place at !    
hip-jo9ts1 at ! knees1 & at ! ancles4   
#c4 ,^? limbs1 call$ great limbs 7! :ole
 frame be+ te*nically  divid$1 &        

d5om9at$ ! upp] & l[] extremities71 h   
rotatory motions at _! junctions ) !    
trunk1 by means ( a ball  & socket      
jo9ts1 at ! %\ld]s & ! hips4 ,! analogy 
( p>ts  betwe5 ! upp] & l[] extremities 
is n c>ri$ ?r\gh !  /ructure ( ^? limbs 
9 ! body4    #d4 ,! fulcrum ( ! upp]    
limb is itself moveable ^u ! trunk1 z   
appe>s f ! ext5sive motions ( ! scapula1
 :i* s g5]ally  accompany ! rotation ( !
 %\ld]1 & supply ! limb ) a  great      
v>iety ( motion1 mu* m ?an ! l[] limb   
possesses4    #e4 ,! junction ( ! ?igh )
 ! mass )\t motion1 call$ !  pelvis1    
limits its rotation to ! ball &         
socket-jo9t )\t  f>!r ext5sion4    #f4  
,! rotation ( ! head & neck takes place 
at ! jo9t betwe5  ! fir/ & second       
v]tebr4    #g4 ,:5 ! nose is p>allel ) !
 /]num1 ! face may be turn$  t[>ds ei!r 
%\ld]1 ?r\gh an angle ( #fj deg4 on ea* 
side2 !  :ole range ( its motion be+    
#abj degrees4    #h4 ,! lat]al b5d+ ( ! 
neck is equally divid$ betwe5 !  sev5   
v]tebr2 b ! b[+ ( ! head1 & viol5tly    

toss+ x  backw>d1 are *iefly effect$ at 
! jo9t ( ! skull1 & ! fir/  bone ( !    
v]tebral column call$ ! atlas4    #i4   
,al?\gh ! prec$+ motions are consi/5t ) 
an erect /ature  ( ! neck1 yet ! lat]al 
motions dem& a curvature ( its :ole     
mass4    #aj4 ,! movem5ts ( ! trunk are 
regulat$ by rot>y & lat]al  motions1    
ne>ly equally divid$ among ! sev]al     
jo9ts ( !  v]tebr ( ! back & lo9s4      
#aa4 ,! jo9ts or ! dorsal or back v]tebr
 are1 not)/&+1  m close & compact ?an ^?
 ( ! lo9s2 all[+ ( a wid]  range = b5d+ 
& turn+ 9 ! lo9s ?an ! back4    #ab4 ,! 
/]num & ribs move upw>d1 to assi/ ! *e/ 
9 !  expansion requir$ = respiration2   
draw+ ! clavicles & !  %\ld]s upw>ds 9  
full inspiration1 & t5d to a contr>y    
motion on  expiration4 ,su* movem5ts    
also1 *>act]ise /rong action & c]ta9    
passion1 & v app>5t 9 a nak$ figure4    
#ac4 ,9 /oop+ to t\* ! gr\nd1 !         
?igh-bone =ms an angle (  some:]e ab\t  
#ee degrees ) ! av]age direction ( !    
v]tebr4    #ad4 ,! leg b5ds ^u ! ?igh at

 an angle ( ab\t #ge degrees1 &  ! l9e (
 ! tibia =ms1 ) ! sole ( ! foot1 :5 t is
  elevat$1 an angle ( #fe degrees4      
#ae4 ,! :ole ( ?is limb is susceptible (
 motion at ! hip-jo9t  =w>ds to a "r    
angle ) its p]p5dicul> position2 &      
backw>ds to an angle ( #bj degrees4 ,!  
leg w !n cont9ue to move  by itself to  
its own angle ( #ge degrees ) ! ?igh4   
,its extreme  motion does n exce$ #de   
degrees4    #af4 ,:5 ! %\ld]s are       
quiesc5t1 ! clavicles usually meet 9 an 
angle ( #aaj degrees at ! /]num4    #ag4
 ,! utmo/ elevation ( ! upp] jo9t ( !   
arm g5]ally =ms  an angle ( #aee degrees
 ) ! v]tebr1 & ab\t #abe degrees )  !   
l9e ( its clavicle4 ,! flexion ( !      
=e-arm ^u its upp]  "p is conf9$ to an  
angle ( ne>ly #dj degrees4    #ah4 ,!   
:ole arm is capable ( mov+ =w>d or      
outw>d ?r\gh  ne>ly #hj degrees1 &      
backw>d to ne>ly ! same angle ) its     
p]p5dicul> /ation4    #ai4 ,! actions ( 
pronation & sup9ation 9 ! h&1 range     
?r\gh  all int]m$iate degrees f a       

horizontal or p]p5dicul> direction  to  
#bgj degrees2 b #ij degrees ( its rot>y 
motion 9 pronation comes  f ! %\ld]     
jo9t4    #bj4 ,! palm ( ! h& admits (   
flexion & ext5sion to #fe degrees  9 ea*
 direction2 its lat]al motions are #ce  
outw>d1 & #cj inw>d4  ,! flexion ( !    
f+]s at ea* phalanx is a "r angle4    ,b
 x mu/ be obs]v$ t 9 draw+ ! jo9ts1 v   
consid]able  diff]5ce is f\nd 9 _! l5g?1
 f inequality ( action4 ,!  elb[ jo9t1  
:5 b5t inw>d1 l5g!ns ! arm ne>ly "o     
eigh?2 !  same g5]al law op]ates on !   
knees1 f+]s1 c4 ,:5 a man is at  re/1 & 
/&+ on bo? feet1 a l9e drawn            
p]p5dicul>ly betwe5  ! clavicles w fall 
c5tral betwe5 8 feet4 ,%\ld he /& on  "o
 foot1 x falls ^u ! heel ( t foot :i*   
supports 8 weight4    ,if he raises "o  
arm1 x w ?r[ z mu* ( 8 body on ! o!r    
side z nature requires to support !     
equilibrium4 ,"o ( 8 legs  ?r[n back    
br+s ! brea/ =w>d1 to pres]ve ! gravity 
( !  figure3 ! same w be obs]v$ 9 all   
o!r motions ( ! p>ts to  keep ! c5tral  

gravitation 9 its prop] place4    ,!    
equipoise ( a figure is ( two sorts3    
simple1 :5 its action  relates to       
itself2 & comp\nd1 :5 x ref]s to a      
second object4    ,! equilibrium (      
nature is con/antly pres]v$2 = 9 walk+1 
leap+1 runn+1 c41 simil> precautions are
 tak54 ,by !  flexibility ( our bodies 9
 /rik+1 accord+ to ! proportionate  =ce 
meant to be employ$1 ! body is fir/     
drawn back1 !n ! limb  propell$ =w>d1   
br++ ) x ! weight ( ! body4    ,9 /rik+1
 lift+1 ?r[+1 c41 a great] proportion ( 
=ce is  employ$ ?an may be necess>y to  
effect ! int5d$ purpose4 ,?is is        
m5tion$ because1 9 repres5tation1 ! =ce 
employ$ 9 an action  %\ld be m>k$ 9 !   
muscle produc+ t action2 if x be m>k$  r
 /rong] ?an may be necess>y1 ! cause is 
obvi\s1 = ,nature  s employs h] p[]s4   
,9 /udy+ ?is art1 /ud5ts %\ld h select$ 
= !m ! be/  examples to copy f at fir/2 
!n !y %\ld draw f ! figure  z soon z    
possible1 & if x be possible f ! be/    
specim5s  ( ! antique4 ,_! fir/ draw+s  

are recomm5d$ to be made )  *alk1 & 9   
l>ge proportion2 att5tion to ^! w       
communicate  ease & fre$om to _! future 
p]=mances4    ,x w be likewise f\nd     
necess>y = !m to draw ^u geometrical    
pr9ciples2 ?is communicates a tru?1 :i* 
greatly adds to _!  c]ta9ty & confid5ce1
 & ultimately to _! ease4    ,?is is    
m5tion$1 because x w be f\nd t !re is no
 portion  ( ! human frame1 quiesc5t1 or 
9 an active /ate1 b :at is  susceptible 
( geometrical def9ition4    ,exp]i5ce & 
ex]cise communicate tru?s :i* produce   
c]ta9ty1  :5ce come ease & grace4       
,,ar*itecture4      ,?is is a sci5ce mo/
 b5eficial to humanity4 ,x is v evid5t t
  x mu/ h an extremely anci5t orig94 ,! 
orig9 ( ?is art is  presum$ to h be5    
imitat$ by man1 f ^? natural caves &    
recesses1 :i* are discov]$ 9 v>i\s p>ts 
( ! e>?4 ,= 9  ^?1 x is report$1 ! fir/ 
m5 took %elt] f ! inclem5cy  ( elem5tal 
/rife1 & to avoid ! pi]c+ cont+5cies (  
ultimate & prec>i\s unc]ta9ty4 ,! olde/ 
build+s 9 ! _w  are accord+ly said to be

 b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>?2 among  :i* are
 reckon$ ! fam\s temple ( ,elephanta1 9 
! ,delta ( !  ,ganges2 ! ,catacombs1 9  
,egypt2 & ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 !  t[] (
 ,belus1 at ,babylon2 ! ,egyptian       
,mausoleum1 & ! ,druidical  ,temples 9  
,gaul & ,brita94    ,ar*itecture may    
well be d5om9at$ "o ( ^? arts :i*       
accommodate1 delight1 & give consequ5ce 
to ! human species2  :ile at ! same "t x
 is calculat$ to flatt] pride1 & gratify
  vanity4 ,if view$ 9 its full ext5t1 x 
may be truly said to possess  a v       
consid]able portion1 n only ( ! com=ts1 
b !  conv5i5ces1 ! positive utilities1 &
 _m ( ! luxuries ( life4  ,! advantages 
d]iv$ f h\ses only are v great1 be+ !   
fir/ /ep t[>ds civilization1 hav+ great 
influ5ce bo? on !  body & m9d ( man4    
,seclud$ f ea* o!r 9 woods1 caves1 &    
wret*$ huts1 ! inhabitants ( su*        
recesses are g5]ally f\nd to  be m51    
indol5t1 dull1 inactive1 & abject2 _!   
faculties b5umb$1  _! views limit$ to ! 
gratification ( _! individual &  mo/    

press+ wants4 ,b :5 societies are =m$1 &
 commodi\s  dwell+s provid$1 :]e well   
%elt]$1 !y may brea! a temp]ate  air1   
amid summ]'s scor*+ heat1 & w9t]'s bit+ 
cold2 sleep1  :5 ,nature requires1 9    
ease & security2 /udy unmole/$2 conv]se 
& ta/e ! sweets ( social enjoym5ts2--!y 
are spirit$1 active1  +5i\s1 &          
ent]pris+1 vigor\s 9 body1 & active 9   
m9d4  ,if b5efits l ^! previ\sly        
enum]at$ result f any art1  !n w t ( !  
ar*itect claim a decid$ pre-em95ce4 ,:5 
we  reflect on ! almo/ inf9ity ( useful 
purposes to :i* ?is art is              
conducive2--t x erects u temples = !    
wor%ip ( our ,creator1  ! b5evol5t      
disp5s] ( all good ?+s1 t x provides u )
  habitations1 :]e ease & simplicity are
 agreeably comb9$2--t  x is conducive to
 our safety1 com=t1 & conv5i5ce1 9 unit+
  diff]5t di/ricts ( ! c\ntry by !      
facility ( bridges1 roads1  c41 is      
contributive to ! gratification ( our   
natural wants1 & to  our safety4    ,z  
inhabitants ( a great comm]cial c\ntry1 

! b5efits we d]ive  f naval ar*itecture 
are unspeakably great2 :5 we reflect t  
x op]ates z a m$ium ( communication     
betwe5 u1 an insulat$  p1 & ! :ole e>?1 
9 its remote/ colonies2 t x s]ves  to   
convey betwe5 our p & ! mo/ di/ant      
nations ! native  produce ( ! respective
 c\ntries1 ) ! effects ( mutual         
indu/ry2 t x clo!s1 fe$s1 & furni%es    
employm5t to ?\s&s  ( our               
fell[-c\ntrym52 &1 9 a national po9t (  
view1 our wood5  bulw>ks h be5 ! wond] (
 ! _w1 & cont9ues to af=d  u protection 
f our enemies1 %\ld all o!r hopes fail4 
,:at c  surpass its utility 9 ! latt]   
po9t ( view8 :at c exce$ !  assi/ance   
d]iv$ f x8 ,by ! crit]ions =m]ly m5tion$
 let  u det]m9e4 ,we %all f9d1 t ( all !
 arts ! _w has ev]  boa/$1 !re are b    
few1 if any1 t c claim a sup]iority4    
,!re are no o!r designs1 :e!r necess>y  
or sup]flu\s1 s  c]ta9ly productive ( _!
 desir$ object1 s b5eficial 9           
consequ5ces1 or s p]man5t 9 _! effects1 
z is ! art ( !  ar*itect4 ,mo/ o!r      

inv5tions :i* af=d pleasure &           
satisfaction  soon decay2 _! fa%ion     
fluctuates--_! value is lo/2 b !        
productions ( ar*itecture comm& g5]al   
att5tion1 & are la/+  monum5ts1 beyond !
 rea* ( ephem]al modes3 !y proclaim to  
di/ant ages ! consequ5ce1 g5ius1        
virtues1 a*ievem5ts1 &  munific5ce ( ^? 
!y commemorate to ! late/ po/]ity4 ,!   
mo/ obvi\s & imm$iate advantages (      
build+ are1 ! employm5t  ( num]\s +5i\s 
artific]s1 indu/ri\s workm51 & lab\r]s  
( all k9ds2 conv]t+ mat]ials ( small    
value into ! mo/ noble  productions1    
beautify+ c\ntries1 multiply+ ! com=ts &
  conv5i5ces ( life4    ,b n ! lea/     
desirable effects ( ! ar*itect's art1   
p]haps1  rema9 yet to be notic$1 9 af=d+
 to ! num]\s tra9 (  arts &             
manufactures1 conc]n$ to furni% & adorn 
! works (  ar*itecture1 :i* employ      
?\s&s1 con/itut+ _m valuable  bran*es ( 
comm]ce4 ,also f t c]ta9 conc\rse (     
/rang]s to  e c\ntry celebrat$ = /ately 
/ructures1 :o ext5d y\r fame  into o!r  

c\ntries1 :]e o!rwise1 x w\ld nev] h be5
 he>d  (2 adopt y\r fa%ions1 give       
reputation1 & create a dem& = y\r       
productions 9 =eign p>ts2 ^! are        
circum/ances :i* c]ta9ly  %\ld n be too 
lightly valu$1 & ^! circum/ances result 
f  ar*itecture4    ,at ?is day1 ! ru9s (
 anci5t ,rome support ! spl5d\r ( !     
mod]n city1 by invit+ travell]s1 :o     
flock1 f all nations1  to witness ^?    
maje/ic rema9s ( =m] gr&eur4 ,! same may
  be said ( _m o!r c\ntries fam\s =     
ar*itectural rema9s4  ,?us ar*itecture1 
by supply+ m5 ) commodi\s habitations1  
procures t heal? ( body & en]gy ( m9d1  
:i* facilitates !  inv5tion ( arts3 :5  
by ! ex]tion ( _! skill & indu/ry1      
productions multiply beyond dome/ic     
dem&1 %e furni%es ! means (  transport+ 
!m to =eign m>kets3 :5ev] by comm]ce !y 
acquire  weal?1 %e po9ts ! way to employ
 _! ri*es rationally1 nobly1  &         
b5evol5tly1 9 me?ods hon\rable & useful 
to !mselves1 &  b5eficial to po/]ity1   
:i* add spl5d\r to ! /ate1 & yield      

b5efit to _! desc5dants4 ,%e fur!r      
tea*es !m to def5d h]  possessions1 to  
secure _! lib]ties & lives f attempts ( 
lawless viol5ce or unre/ra9$ ambition4  
,s v>i\sly conducive to  human happ9ess 
is ?is art1 to ! weal? & safety (       
nations1--s1  naturally1 does x dem& t  
protection & enc\ragem5t :i* has  ev]   
be5 yield$ x 9 all well gov]n$ /ates4   
,! p]fection ( virtu\s o!r arts we h    
beheld to be a  consequ5ce ( ?is2 = :5  
build+ is enc\rag$1 pa9t+1  sculpture1 &
 e species ( decorative art w fl\ri% (  
c\rse4 ,x %\ld n1 h[ev]1 be imag9$ t !  
heap+ ( /one  ^u /one c be ( consequ5ce1
 or reflect hon\r on individuals  or    
nations4 ,! practice ( ar*itecture inf]s
 actual art to be an  ess5tial          
prelim9>y2 )\t ?is1 & hav+ "s laudable  
end 9  view1 x is apt to raise disgu/4  
,?is art is g5]ally class$ "u  ?ree     
di/9ct heads1 viz41 ,civil1 ,milit>y1 & 
,naval ,ar*itecture4    ,9 ! fir/       
attempts ( ar*itecture x 0 extremely    
rude1 z  might naturally be expect$4 ,x 

has1 h[ev]1 f "t to "t1 z  improvem5ts h
 advanc$1 be5 rais$ to relative         
importance1 z !  education ( ! p        
progress$2 & x c]ta9ly gives ! be/      
record ( ! m5tal progress ( e p :i* c be
 collect$4  ,x has always be5 f\nd to   
fl\ri% be/ 9 free /ates1 & :5  ! rul]s h
 possess$ g5ius1 virtue1 & good ta/e4 ,!
 mo/  em95t era ( ,grecian ar*itecture 0
 :5 ! ,a!nian republic 0  "u ! direction
 ( ,p]icles2 at ?is p]iod1 also1 exi/$ !
  fir/ ( /atu>ies1 ,praxiteles4 ,:]e t  
em95t arti/ & _!  admirable ar*itects 7 
employ$1 9 ! words ( ,pausanius1 8!y    
r5d]$ ! :ole ( ,acropolis z an entire   
ornam5t40 ,!re are  v>i\s *>act]i/ic    
di/9ctions to be made 9 ! sev]al ord]s (
  ar*itecture :i* di/+ui% ! ,grecian p4 
,! ,doric is em95t  = primeval          
simplicity2 ! ,tuscan embraces m        
ornam5t2 ! ,ionic  unites simplicity &  
elegance2 b ! sum ( all excell5ce appe>s
  to be unit$ 9 ! ,cor9?ian4 ,!         
,composite is also a mo/ elegant  ord]1 
b appe>s to h add$ b little to !        

,cor9?ian elegance  & maje/y4 ,v>i\s    
nations h a great div]sity (            
ar*itecture2  z ! ,egyptian1 ,p]sian    
7di/+ui%$ by human figures support+     
entablatures71 ,h9do/anee1 ,arabasque or
 ,m>isquo1 :i* are v  peculi>1 g5]ally  
hav+ ! walls to project mo/ at ! top1   
:i*  is indicative ( ! natural jeal\sy (
 all ori5tal p2 !y all  reg>d+ _! wom5 z
 _! *ief treasure1 x appe>s meant =  _! 
especial protection4    ,a great]       
simplicity does n appe> any:]e ?an 9 !  
ar*itecture  ( ! ,druids1 consi/+ ( mo/ 
ext5sive circles ( imm5se /ones1  *iefly
 rais$ p]p5dicul>ly1 ) occasionally a   
l>g] /one plac$  ^u ! apex ( two o!rs   
horizontally4--,!re are 9 ,great ,brita9
  num]\s rema9s ( ^! con/ructions3 !    
*ief are ,/oneh5ge1 ne>  ,salisbury2 at 
,avebury1 also 9 ,wilt%ire2 ,pomonca1 9 
! ,orkneys2  ,rollright1 9 ,ox=d%ire4 ,b
 ! mo/ em95t spot = ,druid temples  0   
,mona1 9 ,anglesea1 9 ,wales4 ,! reason 
= su* app>5tly  unmean+ erections w be  
f\nd 9 _! peculi> belief1 9 !  religion 

!y pr(ess$4    ,! ,saxon is a v heavy   
ord] ( ar*itecture4 ,x 0 us$ 9 ?is      
k+dom mu* 9 ! erection ( religi\s       
edifices1 & is frequ5tly  f\nd mix$ ) ! 
,norman 9 su* /ructures4 ,! gr& & mo/   
obvi\s di/9ction is a semi-circul> ar*1 
) massy columns1  v>i\sly ornam5t$1 &   
mo/ frequ5tly ! columns :i* support !   
same ar* are div]sely sculptur$4 ,! *ief
 sculptures ( ?is k9d  9 ,brita91 are   
,gl\ce/] ,ca!dral2 ,malmesbury ,abbey1  
,wilts2 ,s$bury  ,*ur*1 ,h]e=d%ire2     
sev]al *ur*es 9 ,rutl&1 ,l9coln1        
,som]set1  ,devon1 & o!r c\nties4       
,!re appe>s to u to be no ord] (        
ar*itecture bett] calculat$  = ! purpose
 to :i* x is g5]ally adopt$1 ?an ! *a/e 
&  pure ,norman /yle1 b>b>\sly d5om9at$ 
,go?ic4 ,x af=ds a great  v>iety (      
light1 airy beauty1 & ta/eful gr&eur4   
,9 ?is c\ntry1 ! ,norman ord] succe$$ ! 
,saxon1 & we lo/  no?+ by ! ex*ange2 =  
ev5 n[1 t we h ! entire b5efit  ( a     
*oice ( ! pure/ ,grecian 7s9ce its      
revival by ,inigo ,jones71  x is a matt]

 ( ta/e to be c]ta92 b 9 our e/imation1 
!  *a/e ,norman is to be pref]r$ to !   
pure/ ,grecian1 = !  purposes = :i* x is
 int5d$2 & if ! means answ] ! ultimate  
end1 we submit ?is to be ! prop]        
crit]ion = pref]5ce4 ,we f9d  x usually 
employ$ 9 religi\s edifices2 x is pure1 
light1 airy1  & *e]ful3 & we are (      
op9ion t ! s]vice ( gratitude  & ?anks  
to ! ,creator dem&s a disposition ( m9d 
:i* ^!  feel+s are be/ calculat$ to     
inspire4    ,dome/ic ar*itecture is     
v>i\s1 & *iefly regulat$ by ! v>i\s     
purposes = :i* x is design$4 ,its       
*>act]i/ic is utility4                  
,,*a9-,,bridges4    7,see               
,frontispiece47      ,x appe>s1 f a     
description ( bridges ( susp5sion1      
communicat$  by ,r4 ,/eph5son1 civil    
eng9e]1 "s "t ago1 to ! 8,philosophical 
,j\rnal10 t ! fir/ *a9-bridge con/ruct$ 
9 ?is c\ntry is  believ$ to be "o ov] ! 
,tees1 =m+ a communication betwe5 !     
c\nties ( ,durham & ,york4 ,x is        
suppos$1 on good au?ority1 to  h be5    

erect$ ab\t #agda1 & is describ$ 9 !    
8,antiquities  ( ,durham0 z 8a bridge   
susp5d$ on iron *a9s1 /ret*$ f  rock to 
rock1 ov] a *asm ne>ly sixty feet deep1 
= ! passage  ( travell]s1 p>ticul>ly    
m9]s4 ,?is bridge is sev5ty feet 9      
l5g?1 & little m ?an two feet broad1 ) a
 h&-rail on "o  side1 & plank$ 9 su* a  
mann] t ! travell] exp]i5ces all  !     
tremul\s motion ( ! *a91 & sees himself 
susp5d$ ov]  a ro>+ gulf1 on an agitat$ 
& re/less gangway1 to :i* few  /rang]s  
d>e tru/ !mselves40 ,9 #ahaf-ag1 two or 
?ree bridges (  iron 7 con/ruct$2 !     
fir/1 by ,mr4 ,lees1 an ext5sive wooll5 
manufactur]1 at ,gala%iels1 9 ,scotl&4  
,?is exp]im5t1 al?\gh  made ) sl5d]     
wire1 & necess>ily imp]fect 9 its       
con/ruction1  des]ves to be notic$1 z   
af=d+ a practical example ( !  t5acity (
 iron s appli$4--,^! wire bridges 7     
susp5d$ n  ^u ! catem>ian pr9ciple s    
successfully adopt$ 9 ! l>g]  works     
subsequ5tly und]tak51 b by means (      
diagonal braces1  radiat+ f _! po9ts (  

susp5sion on ei!r side t[>ds !  c5tre ( 
! roadway4 ,! un=tunate fabric next     
m5tion$ 0  con/ruct$ on ?is defective   
pr9ciple4 ,among ! e>lie/ practical     
exhibitions ( ?is novel ar*itecture 9 ! 
,unit$ ,k+dom1 may be  m5tion$ !        
uncommonly elegant & light *a9-bridge   
:i* 0  ?r[n ov] ! ,twe$ at ,dryburgh1 9 
#ahag1 by ! ,e>l ( ,bu*an1 =  !         
accommodation ( foot pass5g]s4 ,its     
l5g?1 betwe5 ! po9ts  ( susp5sion1 0 two
 hundr$ & sixty-"o feet1 be+ consid]$  !
 greate/ span ( any bridge 9 ! k+dom4   
,?is useful /ructure1  ! !me ( su* j    
applause1 & :i* h>monis$ s f9ely )  !   
f>-fam$ sc5]y ( ,dryburgh ,abbey1 0     
entirely de/roy$ by a  trem5d\s gale (  
w9d1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> foll[+ its     
erection4--,?is bridge 0 subsequ5tly    
re/or$ ^u a m secure  sy/em4            
,,clocks4      ,! inv5tion ( clocks1 su*
 z are n[ 9 use1 is ascrib$ to          
,pacificus1 ,ar*deacon ( ,v]ona1 :o di$ 
9 #hdf2 b !y 7 n  kn[n 9 ,engl& be=e !  
ye> #acfh4 ,!y 7 ultimately improv$ by  

! application ( p5dulums1 9 #afeg1 by   
,huyg5s1 a ,dut* a/ronom]  &            
ma!matician4 ,al?\gh ,dr4 ,beckmann     
diff]s 9 "s slight degree  f ! previ\s  
relation conc]n+ clocks1 yet he says1   
8,x is  suffici5tly app>5t t clocks1    
mov$ by :eels & weights1 began  c]ta9ly 
to be us$ 9 ! mona/]ies ( ,europe1 ab\t 
! elev5?  c5tury40 ,he does n ?9k1      
h[ev]1 t ,europe has a claim to !  hon\r
 ( ! inv5tion1 b t x is r to be ascrib$ 
to !  ,s>ac5s2 ?is conjecture1 he       
confesses1 is *iefly support$ by :at    
,tri!mius tells u1 ( "o :i* 0 s5t by !  
,sultan ( ,egypt to  ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 9  
#abcb4 ,he ?9ks t ! writ]s ( t c5tury   
speak ( clocks z ?\gh !y _h be5 !n well 
kn[n2 he adds1 t  9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1   
m5tion is made ( ! ma*9e ( ,ri*>d de    
,wall+=d1 :i* has hi!rto be5 consid]$ z 
! olde/ clock  kn[n4 ,! fabricator ( ?is
 ma*9e call$ x ,albion4    ,x appe>s t  
clocks _h be5 hi!rto %ut up 9 mona/]ies 
&  o!r religi\s h\ses1 & t x 0 n till   
aft] ?is "t  !y 7 employ$ = m g5]al     

purposes1 z ! conv5i5ce (  cities1 c4 ,!
 fir/ in/ance on record1 t has be5 yet  
notic$1  occurs :]e ,h]b]t1 ,pr9ce (    
,c>r>a1 caus$ ! fir/ clock t  0 ev]     
publicly expos$1 to be erect$ at ,padua4
 ,x 0 erect$ by  ,john ,dondi1 ^: family
 aft]w>ds1 9 consequ5ce1 _h ! pronom5  (
 ,horologia assign$ !m1 9 remembrance ( 
?is circum/ance3 x  is also m5tion$ on !
 tomb/one ( ! arti/4 ,! family ( ,dondi 
n[ foll[$ ! pr(ession ( manufactur+     
clocks2 = 8 son1 ,john  ,dondi1         
con/ruct$ "o ^u improv$ pr9ciples4    ,!
 fir/ clock at ,bologna 0 put up 9 ! ye>
 #acef4 ,"s "t aft]  ! ye> #acfd1 ,*>les
 ,v41 surnam$ ! ,wise1 ,k+ ( ,france1   
caus$ a  clock to be plac$ 9 ! t[] ( 8  
palace1 by ,h5ry de ,wyck1 :om  he _h   
invit$ f ,g]many = ! purpose1 because   
!re 0 !n at  ,p>is no arti/ ( t k9d1 &  
to :om he assign$ a sal>y ( six  sols p]
 diem1 ) free lodg+s 9 ! ,t[]4 ,t[>ds ! 
end ( t  c5tury1 probably ab\t ! ye>    
#acgj1 ,/rasburg _h a clock4 ,ab\t  !   
same p]iod1 ,c\rtray 0 celebrat$ = its  

clock1 :i* ! ,duke  ( ,burgundy c>ri$   
away1 ,a4 ,d4 #achb4 ,a public clock 0  
erect$ 9  ! ,altburg gate at ,spire1 9  
#acie1 ! works ( :i* co/ fifty-"o       
flor9s4    ,! great] "p ( ! pr9cipal    
cities ( ,europe1 h[ev]1 at ?is  p]iod1 
_h clocks )\t /rik+4 ,clocks c\ld n be  
procur$ b  at a v great exp5se3 ( ?is1  
an in/ance occurr$ 9 ! city (  ,aux]re1 
9 ! ye> #adhc1 :5 ! magi/rates be+      
desir\s ( a  clock1 b discov]+ t x w\ld 
co/ m money ?an !y ?\ght  !mselves      
ju/ifi$ 9 exp5d+ on _! own au?ority1    
appli$ to  ! ,emp]or ,*>les ,,viii4 =   
leave to employ a portion ( ! public    
funds = t purpose4    ,9 #adfb1 a public
 clock 0 put up 9 ! *ur* ( ! ,virg9 ,m>y
 at  ,nuremb]g4    ,at ,v5ice a public  
clock 0 put 9 ! ye> #adig4 ,9 ! same    
c5tury  an excell5t clock 0 put up =    
,cosmo de ,m$ici1 by ,lor5zo1 a         
,flor5t9e4    ,hav+ ?us m5tion$ _! orig9
 9 v>i\s places1 until !y came  to      
ornam5t ! religi\s h\ses1 ! palaces (   
k+s1 & ! *ief  ,european cities1 x n[   

rema9s = u to take "s notice ( _!       
exi/5ce 9 our own c\ntry = public use4  
,f public docum5ts  /ill extant1 x      
appe>s t s great 0 _! exp5se consid]$ 9 
^? e>ly times ( _! introduction1 t x 0  
only ! p[]ful  & ! ri* :o c\ld procure  
!m4 ,we discov] t ! fir/ clock  = public
 & lay purposes 9 ,engl& 0 "o erect$ on 
! nor?  side ( ,old ,palace ,y>d1       
,we/m9/]1 on :i* 0 ?is inscription1     
,discite ju/itiam moniti2 :i*           
inscription is said to h be5  pres]v$ _m
 ye>s aft] ! clock-h\se _h be5 decay$4  
,x is ass]t$ t ?is clock 0 plac$ 9 t    
situation1 = !  purpose ( be+ he>d by ! 
memb]s ( ! c\rts ( law2 & !  occasion   
:i* produc$ its exi/5ce is ?us record$4 
,x 0 !  produce ( a f9e levi$ ^u ! "l   
*ief ju/ice ( ! c\rt (  ,k+'s ,b5*1 9 ! 
reign ( ,edw>d ,i4 ,a4 ,d4 #abhh1 ( :om 
x appe>s  by a book call$ !             
8,ye>-,book10 t ?is magi/rate _h be5 f9$
  #hjj m>ks = mak+ an alt]ation 9 a     
record1 :]e9 a def5dant _h  be5 f9$     
#acs4 #d;d41 & he1 ! *ief ju/ice1 made x

 appe> to  be #fs4 #h;d4 in/ead ( t1 !  
l>g] sum4    ,notoriety1 h[ev]1 0 atta*$
 to ?is transaction f ! foll[+          
circum/ances4 ,fir/1 x appe>s to h be5  
"o ( ?ree que/ions  put by ,ri*>d ,,iii4
 to 8 judges1 ) :om he 0 closet$ 9 !    
,inn] ,/> ,*amb]1 to take _! op9ions on 
?ree po9ts ( law4 ,!  second "q 01      
8,:e!r a ju/ice ( ! peace1 :o _h enroll$
  an indictm5t :i* _h be5 negativ$ by ! 
gr& jury1 among !  true bills1 might be 
puni%$ = ! abuse ( 8 (fice80 ,on ?is  "q
 a div]sity ( op9ion arose among !      
judges1 "s ( :om  suppos$ a magi/rate   
c\ld n be prosecut$ = :at he might h    
done2 :il/ o!rs cont5d$ t he might1 &   
cit$ ! case (  ! "l *ief ju/ice above   
m5tion$3 s f> 0 ! answ] ( !  judges     
/rictly prop] & hi/orically true4 ,!    
?ird circum/ance  to :i* we h allud$1 & 
:i* is mo/ mat]ial to our pres5t  "q1 is
 ! application ( ! f9e4 ,x appe>s t x 0 
exp5d$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a clock1 :i* 0 
erect$ on ! nor?  side ( ,old ,palace   
,y>d2 s t ! judges1 b>ri/]s1 & /ud5ts   

c\ld n ent] or leave ! c\rt1 )\t hav+ an
 opportunity (  be+ rem9d$ ( ! puni%m5t 
( ! *ief ju/ice1 = presum+  to violate !
 imp>tial duty ( 8 high (fice2 nor c\ld 
!y ev5  he> x /rike1 :il/ ^u ! ?rone (  
ju/ice1 )\t hav+ 8  case repeat$ 9 _!   
e>s2 !reby act+ z a con/ant remembranc]1
  intimat+ !y 7 to adm9i/] ju/ice m ?an 
m]cy4    ,sir ,edw>d ,coke obs]ves t    
#hjj m>ks 7 actually ent]$ ^u !  roll1 s
 t x is extremely probable he _h himself
 se5 ! record4    ,?is clock 0 consid]$ 
s important dur+ ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,vi41 
t we f9d t ! k+ gave ! *>ge ( keep+ x1 )
 its  appurt5ances1 to ,william ,w>ley1 
dean ( ,/4 ,/eph5's1 ) ! pay  ( sixp5ce 
p] diem1 to be receiv$ at ! ex*equ]4    
,! clock ( ,/4 ,m>y's1 ,ox=d1 0 also    
furni%$ 9 #aebc1 out (  f9es impos$ ^u !
 /ud5ts ( t univ]sity4    ,) respect to 
! clock procur$ f ! f9e ( ! "l *ief     
ju/ice1 we mu/ also obs]ve t its motto  
appe>s to relate to t  circum/ance2 b   
?\gh x might be said t x might relate to
 a  dial z well z to a clock--a mat]ial 

obs]vation to our pres5t  inquiry--yet1 
) respect to its pres5t abs5ce1 x %\ld  
be  notic$1 t x is probable t clock 0 a 
v indiff]5t "o1  b f its antiquity & !  
tradition att5d+ x1 0 p]mitt$  to rema9 
till ! "t ( ,elizabe?2 !n be+ q decay$1 
a dial  might h be5 sub/itut$ ^u ! same 
clock-h\se1 be>+ ! v  s+ul> motto :i*1  
h[ev] orig9ally appli$1 cle>ly alludes  
to  su* a circum/ance z report$ ( ! "l  
*ief ju/ice4 ,?is dial is  plac$ on ! v 
site :]e ! clock-h\se /ood4    ,b x is  
said by ,d]ham1 9 8 8,artificial        
,clockmak]10 t !  olde/ clock 9 ?is     
k+dom is 9 ,hampton ,c\rt ,palace1 m>k$ 
)  ! lett]s ,n4 ,o41 presum$ to h be5 ! 
initials ( ! mak]'s  "n1 ( ! date (     
#aedj2 b t au?or is evid5tly mi/ak51 9  
alleg+ t to be ! olde/1 because ! ,ox=d 
clock be>s a date  sev5te5 ye>s ant]ior 
to t p]iod4 ,) respect to ! initials1   
or :atev] !y may be1 we d n consid] !m (
 ! smalle/  importance4    ,f           
,%akspe>e's 8,o!llo0 x is prov$ t !     
anci5t "n ( ?is  in/rum5t 0 ,horologe2  

:i* v>i\s passages 9 our poets & old    
au?ors e/abli%3--       8,he'll wat* !  
horologe a d\ble set1      ,if dr9k rock
 n 8 cradle40    ,*auc] also says ( a   
cock1       8,full sick]] 0 8 cr[+ 9 8  
loge1      ,z is a clock1 or any abbey  
orloge20    :i* t5ds to %[ t1 9 8 "t1   
clocks _h be5 conf9$ to  religi\s h\ses4
    ,s ,lydgate's prologue to ! /ory (  
,!bes3--       8,i w myself be y\r      
orolog]e      ,to-morr[ e>ly40    ,)    
respect to our mod]n clocks1 x w\ld be  
presumption 9 u to  say "o ^w1 z !re is 
n an individual b kn[s z mu* ab\t  !m1 z
 we c\ld tell him4 ,we h fulfill$ our   
int5tion 9 giv+  ?is hi/orical acc\nt1  
:i* we are p]suad$ w af=d "s  in=mation4
 ,we w n[ proce$ to          ,,wat*es1  
,:i* are n ( s great antiquity2 z x is  
only ab\t #adij1 m5tion  is made (      
wat*es1 :i* fir/ occurs 9 ! ,italian    
poems ( ,gasp>  ,visconti4 ,dom9ico     
,m>ia ,manni says ! inv5tor 0 ,lor5zo a 
,vulp>ia1 a native ( ,flor5ce4    ,"o   
might naturally be incl9$ to believe t !

 hon\r ( orig9al  inv5tion is duly dem&$
 by ! :ole ,g]manic p1 f ! claim  ( !   
inv5tion ( wat*es be+ aspir$ to by !    
,nuremb]gians2  z ,doppel5ay] gravely   
alleges !y 7 fir/ inv5t$ by a p]son     
resid+ 9 t city1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 ( !
 "n ( ,pet]  ,hale2 &1 p]haps1 he has no
 bett] f\ndation = 8 conjecture1  ?an t 
wat*es 7 at fir/ ( an oval %ape1 & 7    
call$  ,nuremb]g eggs4    ,%akspe>e1 9 8
 8,twelf? ,night10 speak+ ( a wat*1 has 
!  foll[+ expression1 us$ by ,malvolio3 
8,i fr[n ! :ile2 &  p]*ance w9d up my   
wat*1 or play ) "s ri* jewel40 ,also1 ! 
,prie/1 9 answ] to ,olivia1       8,s9ce
 :51 my wat* ha? told me1 t[>d my grave 
,i h travell$ b two h\rs40    ,! foll[+ 
obs]vations appe> to sanction our op9ion
 ( !  e>ly exi/5ce ( ^? ma*9es 9 ?is    
c\ntry4 ,dr4 ,d]ham1 9 8  8,artificial  
,clockmak]10 publi%$ 9 #agad1 m5tions a 
wat* ( ,h5ry  ,,viii41 :i* at ! p]iod he
 wrote 0 9 good ord]4 ,inde$1 ,dr4      
,dema9bray says t he _h he>d ,sir ,isaac
 ,newton & ,demoire bo?  speak ( t wat*4

    ,an anecdote is relat$ ( ! ,emp]or  
,*>les ,v41 contempor>y )  ,h5ry        
,,viii41 :i* x appe>s has ref]5ce to !  
policy ( ,europe  at t day4 ,x is said1 
! emp]or1 aft] d9n]1 us$ to sit )       
sev]al wat*es on ! table1 ) 8 bottle 9 !
 c5tre4 ,aft] !  pr9ce's retirem5t to ! 
abbey ( ,/4 ,j1 he /ill cont9u$ to      
amuse himself ) keep+ !m 9 ord]4 ,f 8   
inability to effect  ?is correctly1 x is
 report$ he drew ! rational reflection1 
t  x 0 impossible to effect :at he _h   
attempt$--! regulation (  ! policy (    
,europe4    ,x also appe>s t _m wat*es (
 t day /ruck ! h\rs4 ,!  8,memoirs (    
,lit]ature0 report t su* wat*es hav+ be5
 /ol5  f ,*>les ,v4 & ,l\is ,,xi4 :il/  
!y 7 9 a cr[d1 ! ?ieves  7 detect$ f _! 
/rik+4    ,x also appe>s f ! evid5ce (  
c]ta9 wat*es ( anci5t  con/ruction =m]ly
 held by ,sir ,a%ton ,lev]1 & also by   
,mr4 ,+ham  ,=/]1 t catgut usually      
suppli$ ! place ( a *a9 9 anci5t        
wat*es2 also t !y 7 ( a small] size ?an 
n[ made1 &  g5]ally ( an oval =m4       

,imp]fections ( ?is nature1 & probably  
o!r causes1 might h  r5d]$ _! tru?      
unc]ta91 & ?is mo/ probably preclud$  _!
 g5]al use1 until ! latt] end ( ! reign 
( ,elizabe?4  ,! in/ances we h %[n w    
prove !y 7 g5]ally kn[n1 &  p]haps us$  
at ! "t ( ,%akspe>e writ+ ! 8,twelf?    
,night40 ,&  9 ! fir/ edition (         
,h>r+ton's 8,orl&o ,furioso10 publi%$ 9 
#aeia1 ! frontispiece repres5ts ! au?or 
) :at appe>s to be  a wat*1 al?\gh !    
engrav+ is extremely indi/9ct2 moreov]1 
!  inscription to :i* engrav+1 ( ,il    
,tempo passo1 cle>ly indicates  ! same  
?+4    ,*>les ,i41 9 #afca1 incorporat$ 
! clockmak]s company1 & by  *>t]1 :i*   
prohibits clocks1 wat*es1 & al>ums f be+
  import$2 :i* circum/ance proves1 t !  
,engli% at ?is p]iod1  _h no ne$ ( ! aid
 ( =eign +5uity 9 ?is bran* ( me*anism4 
,we are told t ,guy ,fawkes & ,p]cy 7   
detect$ 9 ! ?ird ye>  ( ,james ,i41 ) a 
wat* ab\t !m1 :i* !y _h pur*as$1 8to    
try conclusions = ! long & %ort burn+ ( 
! t\*wood10 79  ! words ( ! "t7 :i* 0   

prep>$ to give fire to ! tra9 (         
gunp[d]4    ,! mo/ mat]ial improvem5t   
introduc$ 9 ?is bran* ( me*anical  k    
took place 9 ! addition ( p5dulums1 by  
,huyg5s1 z  appli$ to clocks2 = :i*     
conception he 0 indebt$ to ,galileo1    
:i* t philosoph] adopt$ = measur+ "t1 he
 hav+ tak5  ! idea f obs]v+ ! vibrations
 ( a lamp 9 a *ur*4 ,?is  reign also    
boa/s ( ! production ( repeat+-wat*es 9 
,engl&2  fir/ fabricat$ "u ! direction (
 ! celebrat$ ,dr4 ,hook1 &  manufactur$ 
by ,tompion4    ,an anecdote is relat$ (
 ! att5tion paid to wat*es by ,james    
,,ii41  record$ by ,d]ham1 9 !          
8,artificial ,clockmak]30 ,"o ,b>l[ _h  
procur$ a pat5t1 9 conjunction ) ! "l   
*ief ju/ice ,allebone1  = repeat]s2 b a 
p]son ( ! "n ( ,qu>e mak+ "o at ! same  
"t1 ^u pr9ciples he _h ent]ta9$ be=e !  
pat5t 0 grant$  to ,b>l[1 ! k+ tri$ bo? 
9 p]son1 & gave ! pref]5ce to  ,qu>e's1 
& caus$ x to be notifi$ 9 ! gazette4    
,9 ! next reign1 ! reputation ( ,briti% 
wat*mak]s _h increas$  s mu*1 t an act 0

 pass$ by p>liam5t1 enact+ t            
,briti%-made wat*es %\ld be m>k$ ) !    
mak]'s "n1 9 ord]  to pres]ve !         
reputation ( ?is bran* ( ,briti%        
manufacture f  com+ to discr$it 9 =eign 
m>kets4    ,?us we h giv5 a g5]al outl9e
 ( ! hi/ory ( ?is bran* (  me*anics1 = a
 p]iod ( ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s1 f ! fir/    
inv5tion ( clocks by ,pacificus (       
,v]ona1 9 #hdf1 to ! beg9n+ (  la/      
c5tury1 s9ce :i* p]iod !y h become an   
article ( su*  g5]al use to require no  
comm5t f u4 ,we h notic$ ! v>i\s        
improvem5ts 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y occurr$1  
among :i* !  mo/ /rik+ feature appe>s to
 be ! addition ( ! p5dulums1 z  s]v+ to 
regulate ! motion ( ! ma*9e2 f its giv5 
l5g?1  c]ta9 weight & uni=m vibration1 x
 mu/ be conceiv$ to h  be5 a happy ?\ght
 9 ,galileo1 = ! admeasurem5t ( "t1 &   
its application to ?is bran* ( me*anics 
0 no less =tunate 9  ,huyg5s4 ,to       
discov] ! fir/ inv5tion ( "t1 we w      
require to  look back = upw>ds ( two    
?\s& ye>s1 at :i* p]iod we w  f9d       

,,wat]-,,clocks4      ,^! are call$     
,clepsydr4 ,vitruvius1 ! ,roman ar*itect
 &  me*ani/1 attributes ! inv5tion ( !  
wat]-clock to ,ctesibus (  ,alex&ria1 :o
 fl\ri%$ 9 ! reign ( ,ptolemy ,eu]getes1
 ab\t  two hundr$ & =ty-five ye>s be=e !
 ,*ri/ian era4 ,! same  au?or says1 !   
ma*9e 0 fir/ introduc$ at ,rome1 two    
hundr$ &  fifty sev5 ye>s previ\s to !  
,*ri/ian era4 ,!re is reason to  believe
 x 0 fir/ introduc$ at ,rome into c\rts 
( ju/ice1 f  ,greece1 z x _h be5        
orig9ally us$ 9 ,greece = ?is purpose2 !
  ,roman orators be+ guid$ 9 ! "t !y    
occupi$ ! c\rt1 by ?is  in/rum5t1 z we  
may le>n f ?is expression ( ,cic]o1     
8,latr>e  ad clepsydram40 ,cic]o also   
in=ms u1 t x 0 fir/ introduc$  into     
c\rts ( ju/ice1 9 ! ?ird consulate (    
,pompey4    ,x has be5 discov]$ t !     
inv5tions ( ,egypt1 ,*aldea1 &  o!r     
,ori5tal c\ntries con/antly travell$ to 
,rome & ! ,we/4  ,long s9ce ! respective
 p]iods previ\sly m5tion$1 has ! hon\r  
( ?is inv5tion be5 claim$ by            

,burgundians1 ,bolognese1 & o!r         
,italians2 sometimes by ,fr5*m51 b      
*iefly by ,g]mans4    ,_! claim =       
inv5tion seems to be que/ionable 9      
num]\s  in/ances1 :atev] x may be =     
improvem5t2 !y c]ta9ly _c1  consi/5tly )
 :at we h /at$1 be consid]$ z ! fir/    
inv5tors2 al?\gh !re is no?+ to be      
alleg$ aga9/ ^!  respective p be+ !     
discov]]s ( designs :i* _h a previ\s    
exi/5ce unkn[n to !m4    ,) equal or mu*
 m propriety might ! ,arabians1 9 po9t (
 "t  7c\ld t be ( consequ5ce7 be        
consid]$ z inv5tors ( ?is  ma*9e2 & !y  
are well kn[n to possess ! lea/ claim to
 orig9al  inv5tion ( any p4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 
h a m]it1 not)/&+3  b x is ( a negative 
k9d2 = ^? arts1 sci5ces1 c4 :i* 7  7by  
*ance7 sav$ f ! de/ruction ( _! bigot$  
ignorance1 &  :i*1 :5 ! =tune ( w> _h   
?r[n into _! h&s ^? pure  designs (     
intellectual ,greece1 m]e accid5t _h    
wre/$ f _!  zeal\s fury4 ,^! !y         
transmitt$ to a m +5i\s p z pure  z !y  
_h receiv$ !m2 b ^u precisely z good    

gr\nds z !  be=e-nam$ ,europeans claim$ 
?is orig9al inv5tion1 might !  ,arabians
 h assum$ t hon\r4 ,= we read t ,h>\n al
 ,ras*id1  ,caliph ( ,bagdad1 !n ! *ief 
( ! ,s>ac5 empire1 s5t z a  pres5t to   
,*>lemagne1 a clock ( curi\s workman%ip1
 :i* 0 put  into motion by a clepsydra2 
:i* in/rum5t is said1 by ,dr4 ,adams1   
8to h be5 us$ by ! anci5ts to measure "t
 by wat] runn+ out  ( a vessel40    ,x  
consi/s ( a cyl9d] divid$ into small    
cells1 & susp5d$ by  a ?read fix$ to its
 axis 9 a frame1 on :i* ! h\r di/ances1 
f\nd by trial1 are m>k$ out4 ,z ! wat]  
fl[s f "o cell into  ano!r1 x *anges    
sl[ly ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! cyl9d]1 &   
puts x 9 motion4    ,! =m ( ?is in/rum5t
 is ?us describ$ by ,dr4 ,beckmann3--   
8,! mo/ common k9ds ( ^! wat]-clocks1   
h[ev]1 correspond 9  ?is1 t ! wat] issu$
 drop by drop ?r\gh a hole ( ! vessel1  
& fell into ano!r1 9 :i* a light body1 t
 float$1 m>k$ !  height ( ! wat] z x    
rose1 & by ^! means ! "t t _h  elaps$40 
,! mo/ improv$ =m ! same in/rum5t has   

acquir$1 is ?us  describ$1 by ! same    
au?or1 f "o 9 8 own possession4         
8,among/ ! newe/ improvem5ts add$ to ?is
 ma*9e may be reckon$  an al>um1 :i*    
consi/s ( a bell & small :eels1 l t ( a 
clock t /rikes ! h\rs1 screw$ to ! top (
 ! frame 9 :i*  ! cyl9d] is susp5d$4 ,! 
axis ( ! cyl9d]1 at ! h\r :5  "o is     
desir\s ( be+ awak5$1 pu%es d[n a small 
crank1 :i*1 by  lett+ fall a weight1    
puts ! al>um 9 motion4 ,a dial plate ) a
  h&le is also plac$ ov] ! frame40    ,9
 respect to ! inv5tion ( clepsydr1 we   
%\ld ?9k ! orig9al  inv5tor took 8 fir/ 
idea f ! use ( an in/rum5t common 9     
,egypt1 :i* t p call$ a ,canob1 or      
,nilomet]1 be+ a l>ge  /one vessel ( !  
%ape ( a s>cophagus1 into :i* wat] 0    
daily  p\r$1 by prop] (fic]s1 dur+ !    
increase ( ! ,nile1 to %[  ! p :e!r !y  
_h a prospect ( pl5ty1 or 7 to expect a 
sc>city 9 ! ensu+ ye>4 ,z ! fall ( !    
wat]1 aft] x _h  ris5 to a due height1 0
 ( equal importance to !m2 s ! wat]  0  
suff]$ to run out proportionably to its 

decrease 9 ! riv]1  be+ asc]ta9$ by j & 
equal m>ks :i* !y g5]ally well          
und]/ood4    ,vitrum horae _h also be5  
inv5t$ to describe ! progress ( "t4  ,^!
 7 conical h\r-glasses1 9 :i* 7 plac$ a 
portion (  s&2 ! glasses 7 jo9$ toge!r  
at ! apex ( ! cone1 )  a small ap]ture (
 communication betwe5 ! two4--,f !      
glass1  9 :i* ! s& is deposit$1 x       
dropp$1 gra9 by gra91 into !  s& bel[1  
/&+ ^u its flat basis4 ,^! ma*9es are   
call$  h\r-glasses1 & well kn[n4 ,we h  
be5 unable to discov] any  acc\nt ( !   
orig9 ( ?is in/rum5t2 b1 f its          
simplicity1 x  admits ( no improvem5t4  
,x is also believ$ ?is _h its orig9 9 a 
conv5t4          ,,sp9n+4      ,!       
necessity = human clo?+ mu/ be s obvi\s1
 we %\ld ?9k1  at ne>ly ! fir/ exi/5ce (
 our race1 t two op9ions ^u  t subject  
_c exi/4 ,=1 admitt+ ! region :]e our   
fir/  p>5ts 7 /ation$ 0 m g5ial to life 
?an ^!1 our nor!rn  c\ntries1 yet !     
diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! heat (   
noon-day1 & ! *illy damps ( night1 mu/  

be obvi\s to e "o  :o has resid$ 91 or  
has read (1 tropical climates4 ,!re=e1 f
  necessity1 we cont5d1 our fir/ p>5ts  
c\ld n h disp5s$ )  ! b5efit ( clo?+4   
,h[ev]1 indep5d5t ( ! necessity ( !  ?+1
 ! ,jewi% ,hi/ory in=ms u t ! fir/ man1 
,adam1 & 8  wife1 9 consequ5ce ( _!     
un=tunate disob$i5ce & positive         
violation ( ! comm&s ( _! ,div9e        
,creator1 knew ( _! own  nak$ness2 &1   
!re=e1 !y 7 a%am$ to answ] to ! sacr$   
summons4 ,?is !y confess$1 ) a          
simplicity cong5ial to tru?1  & 9 ! same
 mom5t1 frankly own$ ! cause2 answ]+ to 
!  awful int]rogatory ( 8,:o told !e t  
?\ wa/ nak$8 ,ha/ ?\  eat5 ( ! tree :]e(
 ,i comm&$ !e t ?\ %\lde/ n  eat80--8,! 
woman1 :om ?\ gave/ to be ) me1 %e gave 
me ( !  tree1 & ,i did eat40 ,h[ev]1 we 
are previ\sly in=m$ t1 8!  eyes ( !m bo?
 7 op5$1 & !y knew t !y 7 nak$2 &  !y   
sew$ fig-leaves toge!r1 & made !mselves 
aprons40    ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 t ! leaf 
( ! ,banyan1 or ,indian fig1 is         
probably "h meant2 if x is1 ! luxuri\s  

leaf ( ?is tree is ab\t  ?ree feet long1
 & proportionably wide2 !re=e1 we may   
rationally  conclude1 mu* art 0 n       
requir$2 probably a ?orn might supply ! 
place ( a ne$le1 & a blade ( grass w\ld 
d = a ?read4    ,aft]w>ds1 we are told1 
9 ! same *apt]1--8,unto ,adam1 also to 8
  wife1 did ! ,"l ,jehovah make coats ( 
sk9s1 & clo!d !m40  ,! prec$+ is !      
e>lie/ acc\nt ( humanity2 at ! same "t1 
x also furni%es ! mo/ anci5t relation ( 
! orig9al ( human  clo?+4 ,f            
hi]oglyphical inscriptions /ill extant1 
! mo/  anci5t inhabitants ( ,egypt wore 
sometimes clo?+ made ( fea!rs1  fa/5$   
toge!r2 sometimes ( %ells1 also atta*$  
to ea* o!r2  b ! mo/ g5]al anci5t clo?+ 
consi/$ ( ! sk9s ( v>i\s  animals4 ,s is
 ,h]cules1 & _m ( ! h]oes1 clo!d1 9     
antique  /atu>y4 ,al?\gh ! sacr$ hi/ory 
is sil5t on ?is head1 we may1  p]haps1  
by inf]5ce1 arrive at "s clue or ?read  
to guide u  ?r\gh ! labyr9? ( unc]ta9ty4
    ,accord+ly we f9d 9 ! fir/ passages1
 :i* w admit (  con/ructive inf]5ce1 t  

?read1 ( "s sort1 mu/1 ( necessity1  h  
_h exi/5ce3--8,& ,ada b>e ,jubal3 he 0 !
 fa!r ( su* z  dwell 9 t5ts1 & ( su* z h
 cattle40--,g54 iv41 #bj4 ,n[1 we       
submit1 ! inf]5ce ( n only sp9n+1 b also
 ( weav+1 &  ev5 sew+1 mu/ be conc$$1   
be=e we c conceive ! exi/5ce (  t5ts4 ,!
 clo? :]e( !y 7 made at t p]iod1 x is   
probable1  0 ( ! fleece ( %eep2 because 
( ! e>ly exi/5ce ( wooll5  clo? among ! 
,greeks1 we h no d\bt1 f ! foll[+ &     
num]\s o!r passages 9 _! poets2 & also f
 ! practice (  ,tyrian artisans1 :o 71  
we "k1 g5]ally & confess$ly em95t  = _! 
dy+ ! imp]ial purple1 & o!r sc>ce1      
valuable1  & beautiful col\rs2 & no     
sub/ance bett] receives1 or s well      
reta9s ! mo/ spl5did ( col\rs ?an does  
wool4 ,b ,hom] speaks  expressively 9   
po9t1 :]e1 9 8 8,iliad10 he expresses ! 
truce  :i* took place betwe5 ! bellig]5t
 armies ( ,greeks & ,trojans4  ,aft] !  
defeat ( ,p>is by ,m5elaus1 & :]e !     
laught]-lov+  goddess1 ,v5us1 is said to
 h rescu$ h] fav\rite f ! fate he       

des]v$ to f9d2 aft] %e _h convey$ !     
recreant h]o f !  field to 8 ap>tm5t1 %e
 !n1 l a true fri5d to matrimonial      
infidelity1 goes 9 se>* ( ! ,sp>tan     
que51 = ! purpose (  br++ ! lov]s       
toge!r4 ,%e discov]$ ! beautiful        
adultress  on ! walls ( ! city1 :]e %e  
_h be5 describ+ to ,priam1 &  8 anci5t  
nobles1 ! ,trojan c\ncillors1 ! v>i\s   
p]sons ( !  h]oes ( ,greece4 ,^u ?is    
occasion1 ,v5us1 to use ! language ( !  
poet 7z translat$ by ,pope71 assumes a  
disguise4       8,to h]1 beset by       
,trojan beauties1 came1      ,9 borr[$  
=m1 ! laught]-lov+ dame2      ,%e seem$ 
an anci5t maid1 well skill'd to cull    
,! sn[y fleece1 & w9d ! twi/$ wool40    
,! lab\rs ( ,p5elope1 ,hel5a h]self1 &  
innum]able passages 9  ! works ( ! poet1
 all t5d to confirm ! fact4    ,t l95 _h
 also an e>ly exi/5ce is prov$ at a v   
ant]ior  p]iod ( ! ,jewi% hi/ory4 ,!y _h
 ev5 f9e l95 previ\s to !  con/ruction (
 ! ut5sils us$ 9 sacr$ wor%ip2 z1 9     
,exodus1 an  ephod ( l95 is expressly   

m5tion$2 likewise 9 ! xxv? *apt]1  #d?  
v]se ( t book1 f9e l95 is expressly     
enum]at$ among ^?  pres5ts t ! p 7      
expect$ to (f] freely to ! ,"l          
,jehovah4 ,:5ce we are ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+ 
!y _h mo/ probably  le>n$ 9 ,egypt to   
c>ry its /ructure to great p]fection4   
,we h l95 m5tion$ likewise1 9 ,hom]1 ^u 
! brea* ( !  truce betwe5 ! ,grecians & 
,trojans ) _! auxili>y =ces4  ,on       
,m5elaus hav+ be5 w\nd$ by an arr[ f !  
b[ ( ,p&>us1  :]e ! poet sweetly s+s--  
8,b !e1 ,atrides1 9 t dang]\s h\r1      
,! gods =got n1 nor ?y gu>dian p[]1     
,pallas assi/s1 7& weak5$ 9 its =ce71   
,div]ts ! weapons f its de/9$ c\rse2    
,s1 f h] babe1 :5 slumb] seals 8 eye1   
,! wat*ful "m wafts ! env5om'd fly4     
,j :]e 8 belt1 ) gold5 buckles jo9'd1   
,:]e ,,l95 folds ! d\ble corslet l9'd4  
,%e turn'd ! %aft1 :i*1 hiss+ f above1  
,pass$ ! broad belt1 & ?r\gh ! corslet  
drove2      ,! folds x pi]c'd1 ! plait$ 
,,l95 tore      ,& raz'd ! sk91 & drew !
 purple gore40    ,f :at appe>s 9 !     

subsequ5t1 z well z ! =m]1 "p (  ?is    
article1 we submit1 t ! g5]al           
manufacture ( clo?1 bo?  wooll5 & l951  
has be5 e/abli%$2 & if ?is is made out1 
!  prior exi/5ce ( ! o!r subsidi>y arts 
( sp9n+1 weav+1 c4  _c be d5i$4    ,!re 
are hi]oglyphical symbols 9 ! ,briti%   
,museum1 :i* d5ote  ! v>i\s op]ations ( 
! manufacture ( clo?s2 & ^u a  monum5t  
upw>ds ( ?ree ?\s& six hundr$ ye>s old4 
,num]\s arts h be5 discov]$ by m]e      
accid5t4 ,we are told1 !  v valuable    
op]ation ( feldtmak+ 0 discov]$ by a    
,briti%  sov]eign1 ^: feet be+ always   
cold 9 ! w9t]1 he _h wool put  into 8   
%oes2 ! moi/ure !re contract$1 ! natural
 heat ( !  body1 ) ! action to :i* ?is  
wool 0 expos$1 betwe5 ! foot  & ! %oe1  
caus$ ! fleecy sub/ance to consolidate2 
:5ce !  orig9 ( t v necess>y article1 ! 
,hat4          ,,/ock+ ,,manufacture4   
,! inv5tion to :i* ?is article ref]s1   
af=ds a w>m subject =  panegyric4 ,t    
clo?+ = ! feet be w>m1 m$ical writ]s h  
9 all ages recomm5d$1 & truly ^u ! mo/  

rational z well z  philosophic &        
exp]im5tal practice2 ! feet1 ly+ ! mo/  
remote  ( any memb] f ! he>t1 require1 &
 p>ticul>ly by p 9  ye>s1 to be kept    
w>m1 9 ord] = _! pres5t com=t1 z well  z
 to promote ! ess5tial evacuation (     
sup]flu\s hum\rs1 by  p]spiration1 )\t  
:i* no frame c be heal?y4 ,s /rongly is 
?is precept impress$ 9 our national     
moral habits1 t x has =m$  a g5]al maxim
 = ! pres]vation ( heal?4 ,ev5 ,?omas   
,p>r is  said to h obs]v$1 ^u be+ ask$  
to :at cause he attribut$ !  protraction
 ( 8 life1 8,to keep ! head cool by     
temp]ance1 & !  feet w>m by ex]cise1 to 
eat only :5 hung] requir$ satisfaction1 
& to dr9k only :5 ?ir/y40 ,we %\ld      
suppose t ?is recipe  w\ld be at lea/   
wor? a waggon load ( ! puff$ quack pills
 :i*  are palm$ ^u ! public z made f a  
recipe left by t v5]able  man4    ,! art
 ( knitt+ nets is "o ( great antiquity1 
z ^? nets us$  by ! ,hebrews1 z well z  
by ! ,greeks1 are conceiv$ to be simil> 
to ^? us$ 9 ! pres5t day4 ,x 0 ?\ght by 

,ovid1 9 8 six?  8,metamorphosis10 t !  
public 7 indebt$ to ! spid] = !  orig9 (
 ?is +5i\s inv5tion2 :i* w\ld inde$ seem
 probable1  z x appe>s t ! insect is    
prompt$ to be ?us +5i\s = !             
gratification ( its natural wants1 ! web
 s]v+ z a net or g9 =  ! capture ( flies
 & o!r small insects :i* supply x )     
food4  ,& if our memory s]ve u1 we      
recollect t ! poet also1 speak+  (      
flies1 obs]ves t ! web ( ! spid] s]ves  
to secure !  weak flies only1 :il/ !    
/rong break x & escape2 allud+ to  !    
influ5ce ( weal? & p[] to pi]ce ?r\gh ^?
 laws :i*  7 made = ! protection ( !    
weak aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts &  viol5ce (f]$
 by ! /rong4 ,! au?or ( ,job1 9 !       
eighte5?  *apt] & n9? v]se1 m5tions g9s4
 ,h[ev]1 9 knitt+ /ock+s1  ! op]ation1 z
 well z ! effect1 is ess5tially diff]5t 
f  knitt+ nets4 ,9 ! latt] ! tw9e is    
knott$ into di/9ct me%es1  :i* are      
secur$ by knots2 9 ! =m]1 ! entire      
sub/ance is  produc$ )\t knots4 ,to ?is 
di/9ction is to be ascrib$ !  reason :y 

knit /ock+s may become unravell$4 ,9 !  
o!r species  ! knots n only prev5t !    
mat]ial be+ tak5 ap>t1 b !y  also r5d] !
 nets suffici5tly /rong to prev5t ev5   
vigor\s fi%  f escap+1 yet be+ s        
capaci\s z to p]mit little fi% to       
escape ) ! wat]4    ,! art ( knitt+ is n
 n[1 by any means1 s g5]al z x 0  =m]ly4
 ,x !n unque/ionably rat$ among ! numb] 
( female  accompli%m5ts2 & x is c]ta9ly 
r wond]ful1 because :5 !  me*anism is   
once obta9$1 x requires no ex]tion (    
intellect to  practise x2 x may be c>ri$
 on :ile sitt+1 walk+1 & talk+1  or 9   
almo/ e situation to :i* ord9>y life is 
call$2 &  :5 x is consid]$ t its produce
 adds to ! com=t ( !  indig5t1 to !     
advantage ( ! poor1--& t to p]sons 9    
easy  circum/ances habitual indu/ry     
increases _! happ9ess1 ^!  ?+s consid]$1
 x is ) wond] & regret we see x fall5   
into  disuse2 p>ticul>ly z x is an      
occupation suit$ to e age &  capacity1  
:i* ! infant is /rong en\gh to practise2
 & ev5 9  ! infirmity & weakness ( age x

 is practicable4 ,we c]ta9ly d  hope &  
tru/ ^! obs]vations may invite !        
att5tion ( ^?  m]itori\s individuals :o 
h ! direction & managem5t ( our         
s*ola/ic e/abli%m5ts1 to revive !       
practice4    ,fi%+ nets are also 9 use  
among ! mo/ b>b>\s nations ( ?is  p]iod1
 z v>i\s navigators h satisfactorily    
prov$2 frequ5tly  made ( rude mat]ials1 
x is true--"s ( ! b>k ( trees1 &  o!rs (
 ! be>ds ( :ales1 besides a v>iety ( o!r
 articles  :i* ! m ref9$ inhabitants (  
civilis$ c\ntries w\ld nev]  ?9k ( us+ =
 su* a purpose4    ,! art ( mak+ nets1  
or ornam5ts ( f9e y>n1 is said n to be a
  mod]n inv5tion1 x hav+ be5 practis$ = 
hang+s1 & articles  ( dress & ornam5t4  
,9 ! middle ages1 x appe>s1 ! cl]gy wore
  nett+ ( silk ov] _! cl]ical robes4    
,pr(essor ,beckmann also  says1 he      
suspects ^? transp>5t dresses 7 us$ by  
ladies m  ?an f\r hundr$ ye>s ago1 to   
cov] ^? beauties !y /ill wi% to  be     
visible4    ,! inv5tion = mak+ cov]+s = 
! legs1 ( ?is manufacture1  is1 we      

und]/&1 ( mu* lat] inv5tion4 ,x is well 
kn[n t !  ,romans & ! anci5t nations _h 
no p>ticul> cov]+ = _!  legs4 ,inde$ !  
necessity 0 n s urg5t ) ! inhabitants ( 
w>m climates1 z ) ^? 9 our nor!rn       
regions1 :o1 we f9d1  g5]ally cov]$ n   
only ! feet1 b ! legs1 ?ighs1 & lo9s1  )
 ! same g>m5t4 ,su*1 !re is reason to   
conclude1 7 !  trews1 or tr[s]s1        
anci5tly worn by ! ,scot*1 b n knit     
hose1  :i* ! foll[+ l9es1 f an old song1
 w help to prove3       8,9 days :an    
gude ,k+ ,rob]t rang1      ,8 trews !y  
co/ b half a cr\n3      ,he said !y 7 a 
groat o'er de>1      ,& ca'd ! tailor   
?ief & l\n40    ,a celebrat$ au?or on   
antiquities says1 8,x is probable ! art 
(  knitt+ /ock+s 0 fir/ f\nd out 9 !    
sixte5? c5tury2 b  ! "t ( ! inv5tion is 
d\btful40 ,he cont9ues1 8,sav>y appe>s  
to h be5 ! fir/ p]son :o haz>d$ a       
conjecture t ?is art  is a ,scotti%     
inv5tion1 because :5 ! ,fr5*            
/ock+-knitt]s  became s num]\s z to =m a
 guild1 !y made *oice ( ,/4 ,fiacre1  a 

native ( ,scotl&1 to be _! patron2 &    
besides ?is1 !re is a  tradition1 t !   
fir/ knit /ock+s 7 br\ght to ,france f  
t c\ntry40 ,?is ,/4 ,fiacre1 x appe>s1 0
 ! son ( ,eug5ius1  said to h be5 a     
,scotti% k+ 9 ! sev5? c5tury2 & ,fiacre 
liv$ z a h]mit at ,meaux1 9 ,france2 9 !
 ,roman cal5d>1 8 "n  is opposite to !  
#cj? ( ,augu/4    ,m probable1 h[ev]1 is
 ! op9ion 9 ?is c\ntry :i*  respectable 
writ]s support among !m4 ,we are in=m$  
by ! au?or  ( ! 8,hi/ory ( ! ,_w10 t    
,h5ry ,,viii41 :o reign$ f #aeji  to    
#aedg1 & :o 0 fond ( %[ & magnific5ce1  
at fir/ wore  wooll5 /ock+s2 till by a  
s+ul> occurr5ce he receiv$ a pair (     
silk knit /ock+s f ,spa94 ,8 son ,edw>d 
,,vi41 :o succe$$ him  on ! ?rone1      
obta9$ by means ( 8 m]*ant1 ,?omas      
,gre%am1 a  pair ( long ,spani% knit    
silk /ock+s2 ?is pres5t 0 at t "t       
highly priz$4 ,que5 ,elizabe?1 9 ! ?ird 
ye> ( h] reign1 ,a4 ,d4  #aefa1 receiv$ 
by h] silk-woman1 nam$ ,montague1 a pair
 ( knit silk  /ock+s1 & aft]w>ds refus$ 

to we> any o!r k9d4    ,/[e also        
relates1 9 8 8,g5]al ,*ronicle (        
,engl&10 t  ! ,e>l ( ,pembroke 0 ! fir/ 
nobleman :o wore wor/$ knit  /ock+s4 ,9 
! ye> #aefd1 ,william ,ridor1 an        
appr5tice ( ma/]  ,?omas ,burdet1 hav+  
accid5tally se51 9 ! %op ( an ,italian  
m]*ant1 a pair ( knit wor/$ /ock+s1     
procur$ f ,mantua1  hav+ borr[$ !m1 made
 a pair exactly l !m2 ^! 7 !  fir/      
/ock+s t 7 knit 9 ,engl&1 f wooll5 y>n4 
,f ?is  x w\ld appe>1 t knit /ock+s 7   
fir/ introduc$ into ,engl&  9 ! reign ( 
,h5ry ,,viii41 & t !y 7 br\ght f ,spa9  
to  ?is c\ntry2 & probability appe>s to 
fav\r ! belief t !y  7 orig9ally !      
produce ( ei!r t c\ntry or ,italy4 ,%\ld
  ?is be ! case1 x has be5 conceiv$ by  
,pr(essor ,beckmann1 t  !y came         
orig9ally f ,arabia to ,spa94    ,!     
inve/igation ) respect to ! feign$      
productions ( ,r[ley1  publi%$ by !     
un=tunate ,?omas ,*att]ton1 arose f !   
m5tion  ( knitt+1 9 a passage ( ^?      
poems2 x be+ cont5d$ t knit  hose 7     

unkn[n 9 ! days ( ,r[ley4 ,! passage    
allud$ to occurs  9 ! trag$y (          
8,ella30--       8,%e sayde1 z h]r :ytte
 h&s :ytte hos5 7 knytt+e1      ,:atte  
pleasure ytt ys to be m>ri$60    ,a l   
ordeal took place ) respect to          
,macph]son's ,ossian f a  simil> reason1
 ! m5tion ( ! sun's reflection sett+ on 
a glass  w9d[3 n[ ! exi/5ce ( ,ossian   
be+ contempor>y ) t (  ,julius ,cs>1 x 0
 cont5d$ t at t p]iod x 0 n cu/om>y  to 
glaze w9d[s4    ,! ,johnsonian faction  
set ab\t t bus9ess 9 a v unsy/ematic    
mann]3 !y %\ld h procur$ "s well        
qualifi$ ,erse s*ol> to  h gone into ^? 
wilds :]e ,macph]son decl>$ he collect$ 
8  mat]ials f oral tradition>y recitals1
 & h he>d ! poems  !mselves f ! m\?s ( !
 ag$ inhabitants4 ,if ! traces (  !m    
c\ld n h be5 f\nd1 !y might !n h ascrib$
 !  sup]ior hon\r to ,macph]son ( writ+ 
a "w t ,greece1 or ,rome1  9 ! spl5d\r (
 lit]>y glory1 nev] surpass$1 = _m      
poetical  beauties4    ,! p ( ,scotl&1 9
 ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury1  _h1 9 !  

prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 bree*es2 & wore a k9d
 (  /ock+s1 _! hose com+ only to !      
knees2 _! /ock+s 7  made ( l95 or       
wooll51 & bree*es ( hemp4    ,x is      
suppos$ t ^! p>ticul> articles ( dress 7
 also common  9 ,engl&1 at & aft] t "t1 
= 9 ! ye> #aeaj1 ,h5ry ,,viii4  appe>$  
^u a public occasion1 ) 8 att5dants1 9  
dresses ( !  foll[+ description3--8,! k+
 & "s ( ! g5tlem5 _h !  upp] p>ts ( _!  
hos51 :i* 0 ( blue & crimson1 p[d]$  )  
ca/els & %eafes ( arr[s ( f9e ducket    
gold1 & ! ne!r  p>ts ( sc>let1 p[d]$ )  
timbrels10 c4 ,!re may be occasion  to  
suppose ! upp] p>ts ( ! hose 7 9 sep>ate
 pieces1 z  !y 7 ( diff]5t col\rs4      
,holl9%$1 also speak+ ( ano!r  fe/ival  
says1 8,! g>m5ts ( six ( !m 7 ( /range  
cuts1 e  cut knit ) po9ts ( gold1 &     
tassels ( ! same1 _! hos5  cut 9 & ti$  
likewise40    ,9 ,a4 ,d4 #aecj1 ! ^w    
knit appe>s to h be5 q common 9  ,engl&1
 = ,john ,palsgrave1 a ,fr5* ma/] to !  
,pr9cess ,m>y1  daught] ( ,h5ry ,,viii41
 publi%$ a gramm>1 9 :i* he /at$1 t  ?is

 ^w 9 ,fr5* 0 appli$ to ! mak+ ( nets z 
well z (  caps & ( /ock+s4    ,9 !      
h\sehold book ( a noble family 9 ! reign
 ( ,h5ry ,,viii41  kept dur+ ! life (   
,sir ,?omas ,l',e/range1 ,knight (      
,hun/anton1  ,norfolk1 by 8 ,lady1 ,ann1
 daught] ( ,"l ,vaux1 !re are !  foll[+ 
entries1 :5ce ! price ( ^? articles at t
 p]iod  are asc]ta9$3--    #aecc4 #be   
,h4 #h4 #g ,sept4 ,peyd = #d peyr (     
knytt hose--viii s4    #aech4 #cj ,h4   
#h4 #c ,oct4 ---- #b peyr ( knytt       
hose--i s4    ,x is obs]v$ t ! fir/ f\r 
pairs 7 = ,sir ,?omas1 & !  latt] = 8   
*ildr54    ,nev]!less1 9 ! reign ( ,m>y1
 i4e4 #aeeh1 _m wore clo? hose1 z  is   
evid5c$ 9 ! foll[+ anecdote ( ,dr4 ,s&s1
 :o 0 aft]w>ds  ,ar*bi%op ( ,york4 ,be+ 
9 ! ,t[]1 he _h p]mission = a tailor  to
 come & take an ord] = a pair ( hose4   
,?is s]ves to prove !  v]acity ( ,/[e1 t
 /ock+s 7 n an article manufactur$ 9    
,engl& g5]ally1 we suppose1 till six    
ye>s aft]w>ds4 8,dr4 ,s&s1  on 8 go+ to 
b$ 9 ,hurle/on's h\se1 he _h a paire (  

hose newlie  made1 t 7 too long = him4  
,= :ile he 0 9 ! ,t[]1 a  tailor 0      
admitt$ to make him a pair ( hose4 ,"o  
came into him ^:  "n 0 ,b5iam91 dwell+ 9
 ,bir*9 lane2 he might n speak to him   
or come to him to take measure ( him1 b 
onelie to look ^u 8  leg2 he made !     
hose1 & !y 7 two in*es too long4 ,^!    
hose  he prai$ ! good wife ( ! h\se to  
s5d to "s tailor to cut  8 hose two     
in*es %ort]4 ,! wife requir$ ! boy ( !  
h\se  to c>rie !m to ! next tailor1 :i* 
0 ,b5iam9 t made !m4  ,! boy requir$ him
 to cut ! hose4 ,he said1 #8j am n !    
mai/]'s  tailor4' ,sai? ! boy1          
#8,because ye are our next neighb\r1 &  
my  mai/]'s tailor dwelle? f> (f1 j come
 to y4' ,b5iam9 took !  hose & look$ ^u 
!m1 he took 8 h&le "w 9 h&1 & said1     
#8,^! are n ?y mai/]'s hose1 b ,doctor  
,s&s1 !m j made 9 !  ,t[]4'0    ,9 a    
catalogue ( ! rev5ues ( ! ,bi%op ( ,/4  
,asaph1 x is  /at$1 8,! bi%op ( t       
diocese 0 entitl$1 z a p]quisite1  ^u ! 
dea? ( any b5efic$ cl]gyman1 to 8 be/   

coat1 j]k91  d\blet1 & bree*es4 ,item1 8
 hose or ne!r /ock+s1 %oes1 &  g>t]s40  
,ab\t #aeeg1 knitt+ mu/ h become common1
 = ,h>rison1 9 8  description ( !       
indig5\s produce ( ?is isl&1 says1 ! b>k
  ( ! ald] tree 0 us$ by ! peasants'    
wives = dy+ /ock+s  :i* !y _h knitt$4   
,holl9%$ also in=ms u1 t ab\t #aegi1 :5 
,que5 ,elizabe? 0  at ,norwi*1 8^u !    
/age !re /ood at "o end eight small wom5
  *ildr5 sp9n+ wor/$ y>n1 & at ! o!r end
 z _m knitt+  wor/$ y>n into hose40     
,silk /ock+s are said1 9 consequ5ce ( _!
 high price1 = a long  "t to h be5 worn 
only ^u gr& occasions4 ,h5ry ,,ii4 (    
,france1  wore !m = ! fir/ "t1 on !     
m>riage ( 8 si/] ) !  ,duke ( ,savoy 9 !
 ye> #aeei4    ,9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iii4
 :o asc5d$ ! ?rone 9 #aege1 ! consort  (
 ,ge(froy ,camus de ,pontc>re1 :o held a
 high (fice 9 ! /ate1  w\ld n we> silk  
/ock+s giv5 to h] by a nurse :o liv$ at 
c\rt1 because %e consid]$ !m to be too  
gay4 ,anno #aefi1 :5 !  privy-c\ncillor 
,b>?old von ,m&elsoh1 :o _h be5 envoy to

 _m  diets & c\rts1 appe>$ on a week-day
 ) silk /ock+s1 :i*  he _h br\ght f     
,italy1 ! ,m>grave ,john ( ,au/ria said 
to him1  8,b>?old1 ,i h silk /ock+s     
also2 b ,i we> !m only on ,sundays  &   
holidays40    ,! knitt+ /ock+s ) wires1 
call$ weav+1 has be5 ?\ght  to be> a    
resemblance to ! wire "w 9 scre5s (     
*ur*es4 ,h[ev]1  ! inv5tion ( ! /ock+   
loom is ?\ght m wor?y ( att5tion1       
because x is alleg$ to h be5 !          
production ( a s+le p]son1  & p]fect$ at
 "o trial2 8 "n1 & ! exact p]iod is     
asc]ta9$2 &1 because x is f\nd$ ^u a    
simil> incid5t to  t ( ! beaute\s       
,cor9?ian maid1 else:]e m5tion$1 z !    
introduc] ( pa9t+ 9 ,greece2 we be/[ a  
p>ticul> att5tion  ^u ?is incid5t :i*   
produc$ ! /ock+ loom1 tru/+ our fair    
read]s w fav\r u ) _! att5tion1 :5 !y   
are in=m$ x  is ascrib$ to ,love4    ,x 
is a complicat$ piece ( ma*9]y1 consi/+ 
( no few] ?an two  ?\s& pieces2 x c\ld n
 h be5 discov]$ accid5tally1 b  mu/ h   
be5 ! result ( deep comb9ation & pr(\nd 

sagacity4    ,"u ! usurpation (         
,cromwell1 ! /ock+-knitt]s ( ,london    
pres5t$ a petition1 reque/+ p]mission to
 e/abli% a guild4 ,9  ?is petition !y   
gave a circum/antial acc\nt ( _!        
pr(ession1  ( its rise1 progress1 &     
importance4 ,no d\bt c exi/ b t 9  ?is  
docum5t ! petition]s r5d]$ ! be/1 &     
probably a true  acc\nt ( ! orig9 &     
progress ( _! trade1 t ( /ock+  weav+   
be+ !n sc>cely fifty ye>s old4 ,!       
circum/ances !y  /at$ be+ !n )9 memory1 
any misrepres5tation w\ld h  militat$   
aga9/ !m1 & c\ld h be5 easily           
contradict$4 ,9  ,de]+'s acc\nt (       
,nott+ham1 ?is petition is f\nd4 ,9 t   
t[n  ! loom 0 fir/ employ$1 :]e x has   
giv5 weal? to _m4    ,f ?is acc\nt x    
appe>s ! inv5tor's "n 0 ,william ,lee1  
a native ( ,woodbor\gh1 a village ab\t  
sev5 miles di/ant f  ,nott+ham1 9 :i* ! 
foll[+ passage occurs3 8,:i* trade is   
prop]ly /yl$ frame "w-knitt+1 because x 
is direct & absolute  knit-"w 9 ! /it*es
 !re(1 no?+ diff]5t !re9 f  ! common way

 ( knitt+1 7n mu* m anci5tly = public   
use  practis$ 9 ?is nation ?an ?is17 b  
only 9 ! numb] ( ne$les1  at an in/ant  
work+ 9 ?is1 m ?an 9 ! o!r by a hundr$ =
  "o1 set 9 an eng9e or frame compos$ ( 
above two ?\s& pieces  ( smi?'s1 jo9]'s 
& turn]'s "w1 aft] s artificial & exact 
a mann] t1 by ! judgm5t ( all behold]s1 
x f> excels 9 !  +5uity1 curiosity1 &   
subtility ( ! inv5tion & contexture1    
all o!r frames or in/rum5ts (           
manufacture 9 use 9 any kn[n "p  ( !    
_w40    ,! inv5tor ( ?is +5i\s ma*9e 0  
heir to a consid]able  freehold e/ate1 &
 a graduate ( ,/4 ,john's ,college1     
,cambridge4  ,be+1 x is said1 deeply    
enam\r$ ( a lovely "y c\ntry-girl1  :o1 
dur+ 8 frequ5t visits1 paid m att5tion  
to h] "w1 :i*  0 knitt+1 ?an to h] lov] 
or 8 proposals1 he endeav\r$ to  f9d out
 a ma*9e :i* might facilitate & =w>d !  
op]ation  ( knitt+1 & by ^! means af=d m
 leisure to ! object (  8 affections to 
conv]se ) him4 ,love1 inde$1 is confess$
 to be  f]tile 9 inv5tions1 & has be5 ! 

effici5t passion :i* has  p]fect$ _m    
inv5tions = :i* ! gratitude ( ! _w is   
due2  b a ma*9e s complex1 s wond]ful 9 
its effects1 w\ld seem to  require a    
long] "t ?an 0 probably all[$1 & a cool]
 judgm5t  ?an a lov]'s to con/ruct su*  
me*anism4 ,b ev5 %\ld ! cause  appe>    
problematical1 !re _c exi/ a d\bt b !   
real inv5tor  0 ,mr4 ,william ,lee1 (   
,woodbor\gh1 9 ,nott+ham%ire4    ,de]+  
says expressly1 t ,lee made ! fir/      
/ock+-loom 9 !  ye> #aehi2 ?is acc\nt   
has also be5 adopt$ by v>i\s ,engli%    
writ]s4 ,9 ! ,/ock+-weav]'s ,hall1      
,london1 is an old pa9t+1 9  :i* ,lee is
 repres5t$ po9t+ out 8 loom to a female 
knitt]1 :o  is /&+ ne> him2 & bel[ is   
se5 an inscription ) ! date  #aehi1 !   
p]iod ( ! inv5tion4 8,! +5i\s ,william  
,lee1 ,ma/]  ( ,arts ( ,/4 ,john's      
,college1 ,cambridge1 devis$ ?is        
pr(itable art  = /ock+s1 7b be+ despis$1
 w5t to ,france17 yet ( iron to         
himself1 b to u & o!rs ( gold2 9 memory 
( :om ?is is "h  pa9t$40    ,lee set up 

an e/abli%m5t at ,calv]ton1 a village   
five miles f  ,nott+ham1 b met ) no     
success4 ,9 ?is situation he %[$  8 "w  
to ,que5 ,elizabe?2 f t pr9cess he      
reque/$ "s  assi/ance1 8 "w hav+        
emb>rass$ r ?an assi/$ him2 b  in/ead ( 
meet+ ) t remun]ation to :i* 8 g5ius &  
inv5tion s well entitl$ him1 he 0       
disc\rag$ & disc\nt5anc$4  ,x ne$ n1    
!re=e1 excite surprise t ,lee accept$ ! 
invitation ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 ( ,france1 :o  
hav+ he>d ( ! inv5tion1  promis$ him a  
magnific5t rew>d if he w\ld c>ry x to   
,france4 ,he  took n9e j\rneym51 &      
sev]al looms to ,r\51 :]e he work$ )    
mu* approbation2 b ! k+ be+ %ortly aft] 
assass9at$1 &  int]nal commotions tak+  
place1 ! conc]n got into difficulties1  
& ,lee di$ 9 pov]ty at ,p>is4 ,a k ( !  
ma*9e 0  br\ght back to ,engl& by "s ( !
 workm5 :o _h emigrat$ )  ,lee1 & :o    
e/abli%$ !mselves 9 ,nott+ham%ire1 :i*  
/ill  cont9ues ! pr9cipal seat ( !      
manufacture4    ,dur+ ! fir/ c5tury aft]
 ! inv5tion ( ! /ock+-loom1 few         

improvem5ts 7 made ^u x1 & two m5 7     
usually employ$ to  "w "o frame4 ,b 9 ! 
c\rse ( la/ c5tury ! ma*9e 0 v  greatly 
improv$4 ,! late +5i\s ,mr4 ,j$$iah     
,/rut1 ( ,belp]1  ,d]by%ire1 0 ! fir/   
individual :o succe$$ 9 adapt+ x to  !  
manufacture ( ribb$ /ock+s4 ,e/imat+ !  
population (  ,great ,brita91 say sixte5
 millions1 & ! av]age annual exp5diture 
( ea* individual ^u /ock+s & knit gloves
 at five %ill+s1  ! total value ( !     
manufacture w be #d1jjj1jjj1 & we       
consid]  ?is r to be "u ?an ov] ! m>k4  
,! effect ( ?is inv5tion 0 v late 9 mak+
 its appe>ance 9  ,scotl&4 ,till f> on 9
 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! use ( knitt$      
/ock+s 0 univ]sal4 ,mitt5s1 or wooll5   
gloves = ! h&s1  & boot-hose1 = draw+   
ov] ! legs 9 rid+1 7 also q  common1 &  
all 7 wr\ght by ! h&4 ,! manufacture 0  
c>ri$  on solely by wom51 ! wives &     
daught]s ( f>m]s1 g5]ally1 &  ! produce 
0 sold z ! means ( br++ 9 a small       
rev5ue4 ,!  introduction ( ! /ock+-loom 
to ,hawick1 9 #agga1 & ! *ange  ( mann]s

 :i* took place ab\t ?is p]iod1 soon put
 an end to  ?is traffic2 b /ill ! great]
 "p ( ! /ock+s worn by !  c\ntry p on   
ord9>y occasions are knitt$ at home4 ,! 
art is  also /ill 9 use 9 ,%etl&1 :]e   
knitt+ =ms ! only amusem5t  to relieve !
 t$ium ( a long w9t]1 & :]e ! articles  
produc$  are exce$+ly f9e 9 ! texture3 !
 ,%etl& hose br+ !  highe/ price ( any  
wooll5 /ock+4          ,,coa*es4        
,coa* is said to be d]iv$ f c>o*e1      
,italian2 a t]m fir/ us$  9 ! elev5?    
c5tury1 & inv5t$ to designate a milit>y 
ma*9e1  s call$4    ,we int5d ! ^w      
coa*es to /& = ! g5]ic "n ( all ^?      
ma*9es us$ = ! c>riage ( p]sons1 on     
bus9ess or pleasure1  7except1 inde$1 ^?
 = ! conveyance ( ! dead17 f ! /ate     
c>riage ( ! sov]eign d[n to ! humble    
gig4 ,! orig9al inv5tor  ( ?is species (
 c>riage is said to h be5 an ,a!nian    
mon>*1  #adhi ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 :o be+   
afflict$ ) lam5ess 9 8  feet1 fir/      
inv5t$ a coa* = 8 conv5i5ce1 & ) a view 
to  conceal 8 debility4 ,?is may be     

reg>d$ z ! fir/ orig9al1 (  ! k9d1 (    
,grecian inv5tion4    ,! anci5t         
hi/orian1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 makes     
m5tion ( a c>riage  9 :i* ,seso/ris 0   
wont to be drawn2 & also1 he says :5 he 
ent]$ ! city1 or w5t out to ! sacrifice1
 _h f\r ( 8 captive  k+s yok$ to 8      
*>iot2 b x is conjectur$ ?is c>riage1 to
  :i* t hi/orian alludes1 0 a w>rior's  
c>4 ,!re is1 mo/  assur$ly1 ample room  
to believe t ?is 0 ! fir/ species (     
c>riage :i* 0 introduc$2 if s1 ^? exi/$ 
long be=e !  ,a!nian k+ above-nam$2     
because all ! ,hom]ic h]oes1 ,greeks z  
well z ,trojans1 & _! auxili>ies1 rode 9
 ^! ma*9es1 call$  *>iots1 or w>riors'  
c>s1 :i* are also kn[n to h exi/$ long  
antec$5t to t p]iod4 ,we rema9 assur$ t 
w> *>iots 7  us$ 9 ! fir/ ages ( ! _w1  
by all ! great mon>*s :o  possess$      
dom9ion4    ,t species ( c>riage be=e   
said to h be5 inv5t$ by !  ,a!nian      
mon>*1 we !re=e presume1 0 a cov]$      
c>riage1 simil>  to t species designat$ 
9 ! twelve tables ( ! ,roman law1  & by 

!m call$ arc]a1 :i* 0 said to be a      
c>riage ( !  la/ presum$ description1 & 
m5tion$ z be+ int5d$ = !  conveyance ( !
 infirm4 ,to ?is species ( c>riage      
succe$$ !  s(t lectica4 ,b we w leave   
?is "p ( our subject1 & proce$  t[>ds   
our own times4    ,aft] ! subv]sion ( ! 
,roman p[]1 ! nor!rn sov]eigns1  :o _h  
become ! b>b>\s & ignorant oppressors ( 
our species1  introduc$ & e/abli%$1     
among o!r political regulations1 !      
feudal sy/em1 z x 0 call$1 by :i* all   
prop]ty 9 l& 0 held  by c]ta9 fiefs1    
:]eby ! k+1 or1 z t]m$1 "l ( ! soil1    
let c]ta9 portions ( ! l& to 8 nobles1  
milit>y (fic]s1  & o!r great p]sons1    
g5]ally (t5 on condition ( c]ta9        
s]vices requir$ to be p]=m$1 call$      
knights' s]vice1 & o!r  milit>y t5ures2 
by :i* cu/om ^? t5ants ( ! sov]eign _h  
to  provide c]ta9 m5 & horses to s]ve   
him 9 8 w>s4--,^! fir/  t5ants1 or      
vassals1 aft]w>ds und]let ^? l&s to     
villa9s1 s  nam$1 9 contradi/9ction to !
 pres5t recognis$ t]m1 f _!  liv+ 9     

villages or hamlets1 & o!r t5ants1 f    
:om1 9 _!  turn1 simil> s]vices & c]ta9 
provisions 7 requir$4--,?us  ! ,european
 _w1 :i* _h become ! prey ( effem9acy & 
luxury1 _h1 by ?is s+le important       
circum/ance1 _! "* s  radically *ang$1  
t1 l ! my/]i\s p[] ( ! ,cadman w&  (    
,h>lequ91 wr\ght s uncommon a *ange 9 ! 
morals ( ,european  society1 t ^? :o _h 
=m]ly kept c>riages1 & wall[$ 9  all !  
s(t luxuri\s delicacy ( ,asiatic        
effem9acy1 sudd5ly1 or1 at  lea/1       
progressively1 became a society ( h>dy  
eque/rian vet]ans4  ,insomu*1 t ma/]s & 
s]vants1 husb&s & wives1 cl]gy &  laity1
 all rode ^u horses1 mules1 or asses1   
:i* latt] animals  7 *iefly us$ by wom51
 monks1 & o!r religi\s pr(essors4  ,!   
m9i/] rode to c\rt2 ! horse1 )\t a      
conductor1 return$  to ! /able1 till a  
s]vant1 regulat$ by ! horologe1 took him
  back to ! c\rt = 8 ma/]4 ,9 ?is mann]1
 we are assur$1 !  magi/rates ( !       
imp]ial cities rode to c\ncil1 till z   
late z !  beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury2 s t

 9 ! ye> #aejb1 /eps  to assi/ 9 m\nt+ 7
 erect$ by ! ,roman gate at ,frank=t4   
,! memb]s ( ! c\ncil :o1 at ! diet & o!r
 occasions1 7  employ$ z ambassadors1 71
 on ?is acc\nt1 call$ rittmei/] 9  !    
language ( ! c\ntry2 at pres5t !        
expression rid+-s]vant  is pres]v$ 9 "s 
( ! imp]ial cities4 ,! entry ( great    
lords  9 public into any place1 or _!   
dep>ture f x1 0 nev] 9  a c>riage1 b    
always on horseback2 9 all ! pontifical 
records1  speak+ ( c]emonials1 no m5tion
 is made ei!r ( a /ate coa*1 or  body   
coa*man1 b ( /ate horses & /ate mules4  
,9 ! foll[+  regulation1 x is f\nd t !  
horse :i* 8 ,hol9ess rode 80  necess>y  
to be ( an iron-grey col\r2 n           
mettlesome1 b a quiet1  tractable nag4  
,t a /ool ( ?ree /eps %\ld be provid$ = 
!  assi/ance ( 8 ,hol9ess 9 m\nt+3 t !  
emp]or1 or k+s1 if  pres5t1 7 oblig$ to 
hold 8 /irrup1 & lead ! horse40         
,bi%ops made _! public entry1 on        
induction1 on horses or asses  ri*ly    
cap>ison$4 ,at ! coronation ( ! emp]or1 

! electors &  pr9cipal (fic]s ( ! empire
 7 ord]$ to make _! entry on            
horseback4--,x 0 =m]ly requisite1 t ^?  
:o receiv$ a fief1  or o!r inve/iture1  
%\ld make _! appe>ance on horseback4 ,! 
vassal 0 oblig$ to ride ) two att5dants 
to ! c\rt ( 8  "l1 :]e1 aft] he _h      
dism\nt$ 8 horse1 he receiv$ 8 fief4    
,cov]$ c>riages 7 aga9 introduc$ 9 !    
beg9n+ ( !  sixte5? c5tury1 = !         
accommodation ( wom5 ( ! v fir/  rank2 !
 m51 h[ev]1 ?\ght x disgraceful to ride 
9 !m4 ,at  t p]iod1 :5 ! electors1 & o!r
 ,g]manic pr9ces1 did n  *oose to be    
pres5t at ! meet+ ( ! ,/ates1 !y excus$ 
!mselves to ! emp]or1 t _! heal? w\ld n 
p]mit !m to  ride on horseback1 :i* 0   
consid]$ z an e/abli%$ po9t1  t x 0     
unbecom+ to !m to ride l wom54 ,:at1    
accord+ to  _! prevail+ ideas1 0 n      
p]mitt$ to pr9ces1 0 mu* less  all[$ to 
_! s]vants4 ,9 ,a4 ,d4 #aeed1 :5 ,c\nt  
,wolf1 ( ,b>by1  0 summon$ by ,john     
,fr$]ic1 ,elector ( ,saxony1 to g to    
,spires1 to  att5d ! conv5tion ( !      

,/ates assembl$ !re1 he reque/$  leave1 
on acc\nt ( ill heal?1 to make use ( a  
close c>riage )  f\r horses4 ,:5 ! c\nts
 & nobility 7 invit$ to att5d !         
solemnity ( ! elector's half bro!r1     
,john ,erne/1 ! invitation  0 accompani$
 ) a memor&um1 t su* dresses ( c]emony z
  !y might be desir\s ( tak+ ) !m1 %\ld 
be transport$ 9 a  small waggon2--:i*   
notice w\ld h be5 unnecess>y1 _h coa*es 
be5 g5]ally us$ among ^? nobles4 ,! use 
( cov]$ c>riages  0 9 fact1 = a long "t1
 prohibit$ ev5 to wom51 ! consorts  (   
pr9ces4 ,ab\t ! ye> #aede1 ! wife ( a   
c]ta9 duke obta9$  f him1 ) great       
difficulty1 p]mission to use a cov]$    
c>riage  9 a j\rney to ! ba?s1 9 :i*    
p]mission !re 0 ?is express  /ipulation1
 t none ( h] att5dants 7 to be p]mitt$  
?is  indulg5ce3 ?\gh mu* pomp 0 display$
 ^u ! occasion by !  du*ess4 ,su* is !  
influ5ce ( example 9 our sup]iors1 :o c 
m\ld dep5d5ts & inf]iors to :atev] %ape 
!y please4    ,not)/&+ all ^! c]emoni\s 
regulations1 ab\t ! end ( !  fifte5?    

c5tury1 k+s & pr9ces began to employ    
cov]$ c>riages  9 j\rneys1 & aft]w>ds on
 public solemnities4 ,:5 ,ri*>d ,,ii41  
t[>ds ! close ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 0     
compell$ to fly  f 8 rebelli\s subjects1
 himself ) all 8 foll[]s1 7 on          
horseback2 b 8 "m1 :o 0 weak & sick1    
rode 9 a c>riage4  ,b ?is became        
aft]w>ds unfa%ionable "h1 = t mon>*'s   
que51 ,anna1 daught] ( ! ,k+ ( ,bohemia1
 %[$ ! ,engli%  ladies h[ gracefully %e 
c\ld ride on a side-saddle2 & !re=e     
:irlicotes 7! anci5t "n = coa*es 9      
,engl&71 & *>iots1  7 disus$ 9 ,engl&1  
except on coronations & o!r public      
solemnities4    ,9 ! ye> #adga1 aft] !  
battle ( ,tewkesbury1 :i* decid$ !  fate
 ( ,h5ry ,,vi41 & t ( ! h\se ( ,lanca/]1
 :5 o!rs flew  9 diff]5t directions1 !  
que5 0 f\nd 9 h] coa*1 almo/ dead  )    
sorr[4    ,9 #adgd1 ! ,emp]or ,fr$]ic   
,,iii4 came to ,frank=t 9 a close       
c>riage2 & z he rema9$ 9 x on acc\nt ( !
 wetness ( !  wea!r1 ! inhabitants _h no
 occasion to support ! canopy :i*  0 to 

h be5 held ov] him1 :ile he w5t to !    
c\ncil h\se &  return$4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1
 ! same emp]or visit$ t city 9  a v     
magnific5t c>riage4 ,9 #adhg1 on        
occasion ( ! celebration (  ! fea/ ( ,/4
 ,george at ,w9dsor1 ! ?ird ye> ( ,h5ry 
,,vii41 !  que5 & k+ w5t 9 a ri* *aise2 
!y 7 att5d$ by tw5ty-"o  ladies4 ,9 !   
description ( ! spl5did t\rnam5t held by
 !  ,elector ( ,br&5burg1 at ,rupp91 9  
#aeji1 ,beckmann says1 he reads (  a    
c>riage all gilt1 :i* belong$ to !      
,electress2 ( twelve o!r  coa*es1       
ornam5t$ ) crimson2 & ( ano!r1 belong+  
to !  ,du*ess ( ,meckl5burgh1 :i* 0 hung
 ) r$ sat94    ,9 ! ,nor?umb]l& h\sehold
 book1 ab\t ?is p]iod1 is an ord] (  !  
duke = ! *apel /uff to be s5t be=e 9 my 
"l's *>iot4    ,at ! coronation ( !     
,emp]or ,maximilian1 #aefb1 ! ,elector (
  ,cologne _h twelve c>riages4 ,9 #aeid1
 :5 ,john ,sigismund did homage  at     
,w>saw1 = ,prussia1 he _h 9 8 tra9      
?irty-six coa*es1 )  six horses ea*4    
,c\nt ,kev5hill]1 speak+ ( ! m>riage (  

,f]d9& ,,ii4 ) a pr9cess ( ,bav>ia1     
says1 8,! bride rode )  h] si/]s 9 a    
spl5did c>riage /udd$ ) gold2 h] maids (
  hon\r 9 c>riages hung ) black sat91 & 
! re/ ( ! ladies  9 neat lea!r          
c>riages40    ,m>y1 ,infanta ( ,spa91   
sp\se ( ,f]d9& ,,iii41 rode1 9 #afca1  9
 a glass c>riage1 9 :i* no m ?an two    
p]sons c\ld sit4  ,! w$d+ c>riage ( !   
fir/ wife ( ! ,emp]or ,leopold1 :o  0 a 
,spani% pr9cess1 co/1 ) ! h>ness1       
#ch1jjj flor9s4 ,!  coa*es us$ by t     
emp]or are ?us describ$3--8,9 ! imp]ial 
coa*es no great magnific5ce 0 to be se52
 !y 7 cov]$ ov]  ) r$ clo? & black      
nails4 ,! h>ness 0 black1 & 9 !  :ole "w
 !re 0 no gold4 ,! panels 7 ( glass1 &  
on t  acc\nt !y 7 call$ ! imp]ial glass 
coa*es4 ,on fe/ivals !  h>ness 0        
ornam5t$ ) r$ silk fr+es4 ,! imp]ial    
coa*es  7 di/+ui%$ only by _! hav+ lea!r
 traces2 b ! ladies  9 ! imp]ial suite 7
 oblig$ to be cont5t to be convey$ 9    
c>riages1 ! traces ( :i* 7 made (       
ropes40 ,at ! magnific5t  c\rt ( ,erne/ 

,augu/us1 at ,hanov]1 !re 7 9 #afha1    
fifty gilt  coa*es1 ) six horses ea*4 ,s
 e>ly did ,hanov] beg9 to surpass  o!r  
cities 9 ! numb] & spl5d\r ( its        
c>riages4    ,! fir/ "t t coa*es 7      
introduc$ into ,sw$5 0 t[>ds  ! end ( ! 
sixte5? c5tury1 :5 ,john ( ,f9l&1 among 
o!r  articles ( luxury1 br\ght "o ) him 
on 8 return f ,engl&4    ,beckmann also 
in=ms u1 t ! great lords ( ,g]many fir/ 
imag9$ t !y c\ld suppress ! use ( coa*es
 by prohibitions4  ,!re is /ill pres]v$ 
an edict1 9 :i* ! feudal nobility &     
vassals are =bidd5 ! use ( coa*es1 "u   
pa9 ( incurr+ !  puni%m5t ( felony4     
,philip ,,ii41 ,duke (                  
,pom]anian-,/ett91 rem9d$ 8 vassals     
also1  9 #afjh1 t !y ought n to make s  
mu* use ( c>riages z (  horses4 ,all ^! 
ord]s & admonitions1 h[ev]1 7 ( no      
avail1  & coa*es became common all ov]  
,g]many4    ,p]sons ( ! fir/ rank       
7ladies we presume71 9 ,france1         
frequ5tly  sat beh9d _! equ]ry1 & !     
horse 0 (t5 l$ by s]vants4  ,:5 ,*>les  

,,vi41 wi%$ to see1 incognito1 ! entry (
 ! que51  he plac$ himself beh9d 8 ma/] 
( ! horse1 ) :om1 h[ev]1  he 0 incommod$
 9 ! cr[d4 ,private p]sons 9 ,france1   
physicians1  = in/ance1 us$ no c>riages 
9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,9 ,p>is1 at  all ! 
palaces & public places1 !re 7 /eps =   
m\nt+ on  horseback4    ,c>riages1      
not)/&+1 appe> to h be5 us$ v e>ly 9    
,france1 z appe>s by an ord9ance issu$ 9
 #abid1 = suppress+  luxury1 & 9 :i* !  
citiz5s 7 prohibit$ f us+ c>riages4     
,ab\t #aeej1 !re 7 at ,p>is1 = ! fir/   
"t1 only ?ree  coa*es2 "o ( :i* belong$ 
to ! que52 ano!r to ,diana (  ,poicti]s1
 ! fav\rite mi/ress ( two k+s1 ,francis 
,i4 & ,h5ry  ,,ii42 & ! ?ird to ,r5 de  
,laval1 a corpul5t nobleman1 unable  to 
ride on horseback4 ,h5ry ,,iv4 0        
assass9at$ 9 a coa*2 b he  usually rode 
?r\gh ! /reets ( ,p>is on horseback4 ,= 
himself  & 8 que5 he _h only "o coa*1 z 
appe>s by a lett] :i* he  writes to a   
fri5d1 :i* is /ill pres]v$3 8,i _c wait 
^u y  to-day1 because my wife is us+ my 

c>riage40    ,r\bo1 9 8 co/ly treatise  
on jo9]s' "w1 has furni%$ ?ree  figures 
( c>riages us$ 9 ! "t ( ,h5ry ,,iv41 f  
draw+s  pres]v$ 9 ! ,k+'s ,libr>y3 f !m 
x is se5 ^? coa*es  7 n susp5d$ by      
/raps1 t !y _h a canopy support$ by     
ornam5tal pill>s1 & t ! :ole body 0     
surr\nd$ by curta9s  ( /uff or lea!r1   
:i* c\ld be drawn up4 ,! coa* 9 :i*     
,l\is  ,,iv4 made 8 public entrance ab\t
 ! middle ( ! sev5te5?  c5tury1 appe>s f
 a draw+ 9 ! same libr>y to h be5 a     
susp5d$ c>riage4    ,our national       
*ronicl]1 ,john ,/[e1 says coa*es 7 fir/
 kn[n 9  ,engl& ab\t #aehj2 he likewise 
says1 !y 7 fir/ br\ght f  ,g]many by !  
,e>l ( ,arundel1 9 #aehi4 ,&]son places 
! p]iod  :5 coa*es began to be us$ 9    
common "h ab\t #afje4 ,x is rem>k$  ( ! 
,duke ( ,buck+ham1 t he 0 ! fir/ :o 0   
drawn by six  horses1 9 #afai4 ,to      
ridicule ?is pomp1 ! ,e>l ( ,nor?umb]l& 
put  eight horses to 8 c>riage4    ,?+s 
are alt]$ n[ :5 we h c>riages ( e       
description--=  ! high & l[1 ! ri* & !  

poor4 ,vis-a-vis1--an op5 c>riage       
*iefly con/ruct$ = ! b5efit (           
conv]sation1 z its "n  implies4 ,l&au1  
l&aulets1 phtons1 *aises1 :iskeys1 cabs1
  fiacres1 c41 c41 are b names adapt$ to
 diff]5t purposes1 &  con/ruct$ ne>ly ^u
 ! same pr9ciples z coa*es1 b "s (  !m  
close1 o!rs op51 "s to be op5$ or %ut   
accord+ to !  wea!r1 or ta/e ( !        
pass5g]s1 & calculat$ to conta9 an      
indef9ite numb]1 f two to six p]sons2   
nay1 !re are ! jolly  good omnibuses    
runn+ 9 e t[n & village 9 ! k+dom1 !    
g5]ality ( :i* are con/ruct$ to c>ry    
twelve inside & eight  outside pass5g]s4
    ,! numb] ( hackney coa*es :i* ply 9 
! /reets ( ,london h  be5 augm5t$ f "t  
to "t1 s9ce _! fir/ e/abli%m5t 9  #afbe1
 :5 !re 7 only tw5ty4 ,coa*es1 cabs1    
omnibuses1 c41 n[  ply+1 am\nt to ne>ly 
?ree ?\s&4    ,to prev5t imposition1 !  
proprietors ( ^! c>riages are compell$  
to h _! names pa9t$ on "s conspicu\s    
place ( ! c>riage1  & _! numb] affix$ 9 
! inside1 z well z ! out4 ,?is          

regulation has become absolutely        
necess>y ( late ye>s1 on acc\nt (  !    
num]\s frauds practis$ by ! coa*m54     
,we read t 9 ,russia !re are employ$    
clumsy1 b v conv5i5t  sorts ( c>riages1 
s con/ruct$ z to be ei!r clos$ or op51  
& to hold a b$ or c\*1 call$ bri*ka1 )  
:i* p]sons c  travel ev5 = two or ?ree  
?\s& miles )\t mu* inconv5i5ce1  except 
x be ov] ! r\gh /ones ( _! t[ns1 ow+ to 
!  sup]ior accommodations ( ei!r ly+ d[n
 or sitt+2 ?is *ange (  position r5d]s a
 j\rney less irksome1 )\t :i* x w\ld    
prove  intol]able4 ,9 ,russia1 f ,riga  
to ! ,crimea1 at lea/1 po/ horses  are  
furni%$ by ! gov]nm5t1 & entru/$ to     
subalt]ns 9 !  ,russian army to provide 
!m4    ,coa*es = hire 7 fir/ e/abli%$ by
 public au?ority 9 ,france1  z e>ly z   
#afga4 ,!re are employ$ 9 ! /reets ( !  
capital no  few] ?an ?ree ?\s& hackney  
coa*es4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #afej  ,*>les   
,vill]me paid into ! royal treasury     
fifte5 ?\s& livres1  = ! exclusive      
privilege ( keep+ & us+ fiacres 9 ,p>is4

    ,po/ *aises 7 introduc$ 9 ! ye>     
#affd4    ,hackney coa*es 7 e/abli%$ 9  
,ed9burgh 9 #afgc1 :5 ! numb]  0 only   
tw5ty4 ,public fiacres 7 introduc$ at   
,w>saw 9 #aggh4 ,9  ,am/]dam ! coa*es h 
no :eels2 nor h !y any at ,pet]sburg  9 
! w9t]--!y are us$ z sl$ges4    ,!      
/ate-coa* ( ! city ( ,london is a       
species ( heir-loom1 or  ! h]$it>y      
prop]ty ( ! city2 x is a v l>ge &       
app>5tly  extremely heavy ma*9e1 b      
sup]bly decorat$ ) l>ge panels  ( cry/al
 glass1 ri*ly gilt1 & elegantly pa9t$ ) 
sev]al  appropriate designs4 ,9 "o ( !  
c5tre panels1 among a gr\p (  figures1  
is "o support+ a %ield be>+ !           
inscription 8,h5ry  ,fitzalw91 #aahi10 9
 ! old ,engli%1 "*2 !re=e we  conjecture
 t ! coa* 0 con/ruct$ at a p]iod coeval 
) !  above date4          ,,saddles1    
,,bridles1 ,,& ,,/irrups4      ,9 !     
e>lie/ ages x 0 cu/om>y to ride )\t ei!r
 bridles  or saddles1 if ! poet be wor?y
 ( cr$it2 = we obs]ve ,lucan1  speak+ ( 
! ,massillians1 says3       8,)\t a     

saddle ! ,massilians ride1      ,& ) a  
b5d+ swit* _! horses guide40    ,!y     
regulat$ ! motion ( ! horses by a swit* 
& _! voice4  ,x has be5 obs]v$1 t ! case
 0 ! same ) ! ,numidians1  ,getulians1  
,libyans1 z well z mo/ ( ! ,grecian p4  
,z !  reason ( ! ?+ appe>s to po9t out !
 sup]ior exp$i5cy (  a bridle1 !y       
aft]w>ds came into fa%ion among !       
,greeks1 :i*  !y call$ lupi2 because x  
is said ! bit ( ! bridle bore a         
resemblance to ! tee? ( ! wolf1 :5ce    
,lucan says ( x3--       8,nor ) ! %>p] 
bits      ,manage ?' unruly horse40     
,9 ! ea/ x w\ld appe> t bridles1 at     
lea/1 7 us$ at an  e>ly p]iod4 ,= we h a
 great numb] ( texts 9 ! ,scripture1    
:i* def9itely express z mu*3 9 !        
,psalms1 & likewise 9  ,prov]bs1 ! "n & 
application ( ! bridle is (t5 p>ticul>ly
  m5tion$1 & m frequ5tly allud$ to4     
,virgil1 inde$1 says1  ref]r+ to v e>ly 
times3       8,! ,lapi? ( ,pele?ronium  
rode      ,) bridles fir/1--& :at _! use
 0 %['d40    ,! saddle is also ( anci5t 

orig91 = we read 9 ,i4 ,k+s1 xiii41     
#ac41--8;,& he said unto 8 sons1 saddle 
me ! ass4 ,s !y saddl$  him ! ass3 & he 
rode !reon40 ,& be=e t p]iod1 9 !       
second g5]ation aft] ,noah1 ! ,assyrian 
empire 0 e/abli%$4 ,9  its comm5cem5t1  
ev5 z e>ly z ! days ( ,semiramis1 ! wife
 (  ,n9us1 ! fir/ ,assyrian k+1 :o built
 ,n9evah1 !re 7 ^?  articles ( horse    
furniture1 call$ packs & f>dles2 = 9    
anci5t hi/orians we f9d ! foll[+ passage
 occur 9 ?is respect4  8,semiramis      
asc5d$ f ! pla9 to ! top ( ! m\nta91 by 
lay+ ! packs & f>dels ( ! bea/s t foll[$
 h]1 "o ^u  ano!r40 ,! same au?or in=ms 
u t ?is 0 ,m\nt ,bagi/an1 9  ,m$ea1 & t 
x 0 sev5te5 furlongs f ! top to !       
bottom4    ,9 ! fir/ ages1 among !      
,greeks & ,romans1 a clo? or mattrass1  
a piece ( lea!r or raw hide1 0 all !y   
us$ = a saddle4 ,su*  cov]+s aft]w>ds   
became m co/ly3 ,silius ,italicus says1 
!y  7 made ( co/ly sk9s4    ,x1 h[ev]1  
appe>s1 t aft] !y 7 become common1 x 0  
consid]$ z effem9ate to use !m2 h5ce !  

,romans despis$ !m3  & 9 8 old age1     
,v>ro boa/s ( hav+1 :5 "y1 rode )\t a   
cov]+ to 8 horse4 ,x5ophon reproa*es !  
,p]sians1 because !y  put m clo!s ^u !  
backs ( _! horses ?an ^u _! b$s4  ,f !  
aspect 9 :i* h>dy p view$ ?is practice1 
! w>like  ,teutones consid]$ x mo/      
disgraceful1 & despis$ ! ,roman cavalry4
    ,9 ! fif? c5tury1 saddles 7 s       
magnific5t1 t a prohibition  0 issu$ by 
,leo ,i41 t !y %\ld n be ornam5t$ )     
pe>ls or  preci\s /ones4 ,9 ! six?      
c5tury1 ! ,emp]or ,mauritas direct$  t  
!y %\ld h cov]+s ( fur1 ( l>ge          
dim5sions4    ,f e in=mation we h be5   
able to collect1 we believe t  !        
app5dage ( /irrups 7 n add$ to saddles  
be=e ! six?  c5tury4 ,x is said1 t      
previ\s to ! introduction ( /irrups1  ! 
"y & agile us$ to m\nt _! horses by     
vault+ ^u !m1  :i* _m did 9 an exp]t &  
graceful mann]2 ( c\rse1 practice  0    
ess5tial to ?is p]fection4 ,t ?is %\ld  
be af=d$1 wood5  horses 7 plac$ 9 !     
,campus ,m>tius1 :]e ?is ex]cise 0      

p]=m$ ( m\nt+ or dism\nt+ on ei!r side2 
fir/1 )\t1  & next ) arms4 ,cavalry _h  
also1 occasionally1 a /rap ( lea!r1  or 
a metallic projection affix$ to _!      
spe>s1 9 or ^u :i* !  foot be+ plac$1 ! 
asc5t became m practicable4 ,respect+ ! 
p]iod ( ?is inv5tion1 ,montfaucon has   
presum$ t ! inv5tion  mu/ h be5         
subsequ5t to ! use ( saddles2 h[ev]1    
oppos$ to  ?is op9ion1 an +5i\s argum5t 
has be5 (f]$1 t is possible  !y might h 
be5 ant]ior to t inv5tion2 because1 x is
 said1  !y might h be5 app5d$ to a gir? 
r\nd ! body ( ! horse4  ,bo?            
,hippocrates & ,gal5 speak ( a disease  
to :i* ! feet &  ancles 7 subject1 f    
long rid+1 occasion$ by susp5sion ( !   
feet )\t a re/+-place4 ,suetonius1 !    
,roman1 in=ms u t  ,g]manicus1 ! fa!r ( 
,caligula1 0 wont to ride aft] d9n]1 to 
/r5g!n 8 ancles1 by ! action ( rid+     
af=d+ ! blood  fre] circulation 9 ! "p4 
,! ,lat9 names assign$ !m h be5 v>i\s1  
among :i* is  scal2 9 :i* s5se          
,mauritius1 9 8 treatise on ! art ( w>1 

is said to h nam$ !m4 ,n[1 ?is writ] is 
suppos$ to h liv$  9 ! six? c5tury2 b we
 conceive x is pretty evid5t !y _h an   
e>li] exi/5ce 9 ,arabia1 ,turkey1 &     
,p]sia1 z !re is an alto1  z well z     
bas-relief ( ?is la/ c\ntry1 /ill       
extant1 :i* is  believ$ to h be5 z      
anci5t z ! days ( ,d>ius1 because x 0   
br\ght f ! city he built1 ,p]sepolis1   
hav+ ?is repres5tation4    ,! inv5tion &
 "n ( /irrup is suppos$ to h be5 borr[$ 
f ! anatomy ( ! e>1 :]e a b& is f\nd    
resembl+ x 9  =m4                       
,,horse-,,%oes4      ,:5 we consid] !   
va/ importance ( security to ! feet (  t
 useful animal1 ! horse1 we _c b feel   
surpris$ t on  acc\nt ( ! v r\gh roads !
 anci5ts mu/ occasionally _h to  travel1
 t "s metallic %oes _h n be5 inv5t$ &   
introduc$  previ\sly to ! p]iod :5 !y   
appe>$4    ,t ! security ( ! rid]       
necess>ily dep5d$ ^u ! safety  ( !      
animal he rode1 _c be que/ion$4 ,h5ce1  
!n1 we d n  wond] to obs]ve1 t !        
sagaci\s ,ari/otle & ,pl9y %\ld  rem>k  

^u ! cov]+ plac$ ^u ! feet ( ^? animals 
(  draught & burd54 ,f :at ^! au?ors h  
said1 h[ev]1 we  d>e n conclude t ! feet
 ( horses or camels 7 fac$ or  %od )    
iron3 b x %\ld r seem t 9 "t ( w>1 or   
on long j\rneys1 ! feet ( bo? k9ds (    
bea/s 7 prep>$  ) su* species ( %oes z !
 common p wore1 & :i* 7  g5]ally made ( 
/rong ox-lea!r4 ,we are told t :5 ! ho(s
  ( cattle1 p>ticul>ly ox51 _h su/a9$   
any injury or hurt1 !y  7 furni%$ ) %oes
 made ( ,spani% or ,african broom1 ) :i*
  l95 is (t5 manufactur$ 9 ! s\? (      
,france & ,italy2 also  %oes ( "s ( !   
plants ( ! hemp k9d1 :i* 7 wov5 or      
plait$ toge!r4 ,al?\gh ^! may be        
consid]$ z only a species (  surgical   
b&ages ) reg>d to ox52 b su* %oes 7     
p>ticul>ly  giv5 to mules1 :i* 9 days ( 
old 7 employ$ mu* m ?an at  pres5t =    
rid+2 & f "s in/ances ( immod]ate       
extravagance  9 p ( rank1 x appe>s t !y 
_h = _! animals v  co/ly %oes ( "s ( !  
mo/ valuable metals4 ,n]o1 :5 he        
und]took %ort j\rneys1 0 drawn always by

 mules %od ) silv]1  & ^? ( 8 wife 7 %od
 ) gold4    ,! circum/ance be+ b>ely    
m5tion$1 )\t any p>ticul> detail1  we   
are anxi\s to af=d any c]ta9 in=mation  
on ! mode 9 :i*  ^? %oes 7 con/ruct$4 ,f
 a passage 9 ,dio ,cassius1 we h  reason
 to believe t x 0 only ! upp] "p ( ! %oe
 t 0  made ( ^? co/ly metals1 or t !y 7 
plait$ f ?9 slips4    ,x5ophon relates t
 a c]ta9 p 9 ,asia 7 9 ! habit (  draw+ 
socks ov] ! feet ( _! horses1 :5 ! sn[  
lay deep  on ! gr\nd4 ,! ,kams*atkian   
employs ! same means to pres]ve  ! feet 
( 8 dogs1 :i* draw 8 sl$ge1 or hunt !   
seals ^u  ! ice4 ,^? species ( %oes1    
accord+ to ,capta9 ,cook1 are s  +5i\sly
 made z to be b\nd1 & at ! same "t to   
admit !  claws ( ! animal ?r\gh !m4     
,f a passage f\nd 9 ,suetonius1 we may  
inf] t ! ,roman  horse-%oes 7 put on 9 !
 mann] we h m5tion$2 = t  au?or says1 t 
! coa*man ( ,vespasian once /opp$ to put
 on !  %oes ( 8 mules3 ?is be+ ! case1 !
 probability appe>s pretty  c]ta91 t 9  
deep roads & moi/ soils ! animals mu/ h 

frequ5tly lo/ _! %oes4    ,artem$orus   
speaks ( a %od horse1 & uses ! same k9d 
(  expression :il/ speak+ ( o!r cattle4 
,w9kelman has describ$ a  cut /one 9 !  
collection ( ,b>on ,/os*1 on :i* is     
repres5t$  ! figure ( a man hold+ "o    
foot ( a horse1 :il/ ano!r1  kneel+1 is 
employ$ 9 fa/5+ a %oe4    ,t x 0 n usual
 to %oe ! w>-horse1 may be ga!r$ f      
?is1--:5 ,mi?ridates 0 besieg+ ,cyzicus1
 he 0 oblig$ to s5d  8 cavalry to       
,by?nia1 because ! ho(s ( ! horses 7    
entirely  spoil$ & worn out4 ,diodorus  
,siculus in=ms u1 t ,alex&]1 9  8       
exp$ition1 proce$$ ) un9t]rupt$ m>*es1  
until ! feet  ( 8 horses 7 entirely     
brok5 & de/roy$4 ,a l in/ance  occurs 9 
,c9namus1 :]e ! cavalry 7 oblig$ to be  
left beh9d1  because ! horses _h suff]$ 
consid]ably 9 _! ho(s1 to :i*  he adds1 
!y 7 (t5 liable4 ,h5ce x may1 p]haps1   
appe>1 t  su* horse-%oes z are n[ 9 use1
 7 unkn[n to ! anci5ts2 &  ,*>diu gives 
no repres5tation ( !m 9 anci5t ,p]sian  
antiquities4  ,9 ! grave ( ,*ild]ic1 a  

nor!rn *iefta9 & ,k+ ( ,france1 0       
discov]$ a piece ( iron1 :i* ! le>n$    
antiqu>ians :o saw x1  pron\nc$1 f t    
portion ( x :i* ! ru/ _h left1 to h  be5
 an old horse-%oe2 !y saw1 or ?\ght !y  
saw1 f\r di/9ct  ap]tures = nails on ea*
 side2 b :il/ !y 7 endeav\r+  to remove 
! corrosive excresc5ce ( ru/1 to asc]ta9
 ) m  c]ta9ty1 x broke "u _! h&s4 ,!    
reason :y we m5tion$  ?is "h is1 t if ! 
relic discov]$ 0 really a horse-%oe1 x  
mu/ h be5 "o ( ! mo/ anci5t specim5s    
kn[n2 because1 we  f9d t mon>* di$ 9 !  
ye> #dha2 8 grave 0 discov]$ at  ,t\rnay
 9 #afhc4 ,! occasion ( 8 hav+ a        
horse-%oe 9 8 grave1  0 f ! cre$ ( 8    
religion2 ! sup]/iti\s belief ( !       
,sc&9avians taught !m to place implicit 
confid5ce 9 ! p[]  ( ?is amulet1 to     
prev5t ! +ress ( evil spirits4 ,! rema9s
  ( ?is belief is ev5 n[ (t5 se5 9 !    
obscure /reets ( !  ,briti% metropolis2 
&1 inde$1 ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 :]e !  my/ic
 %oe frequ5tly appe>s z ! fai?ful       
gu>dian ( ! dome/ic  ?re%old4    ,x is1 

we und]/&1 ! op9ion ( ! ,fr5* hi/orian1 
,daniel1  t1 9 ! n9? c5tury1 horses 7 n 
%od always1 b only 9  ! "t ( fro/1 & on 
"s o!r v p>ticul> occasions4    ,!      
practice ( %oe+ horses 0 introduc$ into 
,engl& by ,william  ,i4 ,we are told t  
?is mon>* gave ! city ( ,nor?ampton z a 
fief to a c]ta9 p]son1 "o ( 8 att5dants1
 9 consid]ation (  8 pay+ a c]ta9 sum   
ye>ly = ! %oe+ ( horses4 ,& x is  also  
alleg$1 t ,h5ry1 or ,hugh de ,f]res1 or 
de ,f]r]s1 0 !  same p]son :o held ?is  
fief on ! above condition1 & :o 0 !     
ance/or ( ! family ( t "n1 & :o /ill be>
 six horse-%oes  9 _! coat ( arms4 ,?is 
0 ! p]son :om ,william entru/$ to       
inspect 8 f>ri]s4    ,we %\ld n omit to 
obs]ve1 t x is rem>k$1 t horse-%oes  h  
be5 f\nd1 ) o!r rid+ furniture1 9 !     
graves ( "s (  ! old inhabitants (      
,g]many1 & also 9 ^? ( ! ,v&als 9 !     
,nor? ( ,europe4          ,,gunp[d]4    
,! express p]iod :5 nitrum 0 fir/       
discov]$ is extremely  unc]ta92 b t ?is 
nitrum is an alkal9e salt1 !re is little

  difficulty 9 prov+4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5
 conjectur$ t x 0 a  compon5t "p ( !    
,greek fire1 inv5t$ ab\t ! ye> #fgh1 :i*
  has be5 g5]ally believ$ to be ! orig9 
( gunp[d]4 ,f !  olde/ prescriptions :i*
 h be5 f\nd1 & :i* is said to be  t giv5
 by ! ,pr9cess ,anna ,comm5a1 9 :i*1    
h[ev]1 only res91  sulphur1 & oil are   
m5tion$1 saltpetre does n appe>4    ,x  
is believ$ by an au?or v well qualifi$  
to =m a judgm5t on  ! "q1 t ! fir/ c]ta9
 acc\nt we h ( saltpetre by  t express  
"n1 occurs 9 ! olde/ acc\nt ( ! inv5tion
 (  gunp[d]1 :i*1 accord+ to him        
7,pr(essor ,beckmann7 occurr$ 9  !      
?irte5? c5tury4 ,dr4 ,rees1 9 8         
,cyclop$ia1 expressly says1  ab\t ! ye> 
#acbj2 & t x 0 fir/ us$ by ! ,v5etians  
employ$ aga9/ ! ,g5oese 9 #achj2 also t 
x 0 fir/ 9 ,europe  at a place n[ kn[n z
 ,*rogia1 aga9/ ,laur5ce de ,m$icis2 & !
  la/ nam$ au?ority adds1 8,t all ,italy
 made compla9t aga9/ x1  z a            
contrav5tion ( ! law ( arms40 ,dr4 ,rees
 gives ! foll[+  recipe = its           

manufacture1 )\t di/+ui%+ !             
proportionate  p>ts3--8,a composition ( 
nitre1 sulphur1 & *>coal1 mix$ toge!r1  
& usually granulat$40 ,he describes its 
effects by obs]v+1 t  8x easily takes   
fire1 & :5 fir$1 r>ifies & exp&s ) great
  vehem5ce by means ( its ela/ic =ce20  
also t 8x may be made  )\t nitre1 by    
means ( m>9e acid40    ,we h two acc\nts
 pres]v$ to u ( ! orig9al ( ?is         
inv5tion4  ,! fir/ ( :i* 0 giv5 by our  
illu/ri\s c\ntryman1 ,rog]  ,bacon1     
call$ ! ,wond]ful ,doctor1 :o di$ ,a4   
,d4 #abgh2 previ\s to  :i* p]iod1       
gunp[d] mu/ h exi/$4 ,! o!r acc\nt is by
  ,alb]tus ,magnus1 9 a "w publi%$ 9    
#afab4    ,x is said to be d\bt$ :e!r   
,alb]tus 0 ! au?or ( ! book  :i* be>s 8 
"n2 b t he1 :oev] he may h be51 &       
,bacon1  are presum$ to h tak5 _!       
in=mation f ! same id5tical  s\rce4     
,ab\t ! p]iod ( ! inv5tion ( gunp[d]1 x 
appe>s  ! art ( mak+ ! ,greek fire began
 to be lo/4 ,9 ! works (  ,rog] ,bacon1 
! t]m occurs ?ree times4 ,accord+ to    

,casiri1 !  t]m pulvis nitratus1 is to  
be f\nd 9 an ,arabic ,,ms4 ! au?or (    
:i* exi/$ ab\t #abdi4 ,if ! "w ( ,geb]1 
,de ,inve/igatione  ,p]fectionis1 be    
g5u9e1 & if ?is writ] liv$1 z has be5   
?\ght1 9 ! eigh? c5tury1 x w\ld be !    
olde/ :]e saltpetre  is m5tion$1 9 a    
prescription = an aqua solutiva1 :i*    
appe>s  to be almo/ aqua regia4    ,we  
are incl9$ to believe1 h[ev]1 f v>i\s   
au?orities1  t gunp[d] 0 inv5t$ 9       
,india1 z x 0 prov$ 9 a pap]  read be=e 
! ,fr5* ,national ,in/itute1 by ,m4     
,langles1 t !  ,arabians obta9$ a k (   
gunp[d] f ! ,indians1 :o _h  be5        
acqua9t$ ) x f ! e>lie/ p]iods4 ,! use (
 x 9  w> is said to h be5 prohibit$ !m 9
 _! sacr$ books4 ,x  0 employ$ 9 #fij at
 a battle ne> ,mecca1 by ! ,arabians4 ,x
 0  br\ght by ! ,s>ac5s f ,africa to !  
,europeans1 :o improv$  ! prep>ation1 & 
fir/ discov]$ v>i\s ways ( employ+  x 9 
w>4 ,9 no c\ntry c\ld saltpetre & its   
v>i\s uses be  m easily discov]$ ?an 9  
,india1 :]e ! soil is s ri* 9  nitr\s   

p>ticles t no?+ is necess>y b           
lixiviation to obta9  saltpetre2 & :]e  
?is sub/ance is s abundant1 t almo/ all 
!  gunp[d] us$ 9 diff]5t w>s1 ) :i*     
,european sov]eigns h  torm5t$ !mselves1
 burd5$ _! subjects ) intol]able taxes1 
& curs$ ! _w f its inv5tion--has be5    
made f ,indian  saltpetre4 ,_h n        
saltpetre be5 kn[n previ\s to ! ?irte5? 
c5tury1 nei!r c\ld gunp[d] or aqua=tis h
 exi/$2 & =  ! be/ ( all reasons1 t     
nei!r ( !m c\ld be made )\t  saltpetre  
or nitre4 ,b %\ld x appe> t ?is neutral 
salt 0  kn[n 9 ,india long prior to t   
p]iod1 & us$ by ,indians z well  z      
,arabians be=e !y 7 employ$ by          
,europeans1 & consid]+  ! =m] to h      
practis$ *emi/ry previ\s to ! latt]2    
%\ld  ?is h be5 prov$1 p]haps a simil>  
pro( w necess>ily await  ^u ! articles  
aqua=tis & gunp[d]4 ,because if ?is     
affirmation  be e/abli%$1 x w be        
discov]$ t ,europeans knew no?+ (       
aqua=tis until aft] ! ,arabian *emi/s4  
,probability appe>s to fav\r ! idea1 t  

at or ab\t ! twelf?  c5tury ! accumulat$
 numb] ( consequ5ts1 f ! improvem5t  9  
,european sci5ce1 ! arts we n[ possess 7
 introduc$ into our  catalogue1 i4 e41  
nitre1 aqua=tis1 & gunp[d]4    ,aft] !  
p]iod t saltpetre became necess>y to    
gov]nm5ts =  ! manufacture ( gunp[d]1 !y
 endeav\r$ to obta9 x at a *eap  rate2 &
 = t purpose 7 guilty 9 "s c\ntries ( ! 
mo/  viol5t & oppressive measures1      
intrud+ ^u private prop]ty (  e         
description to furni% x1 hunt+ = !      
eff]vesc5ce ev5 9  old walls1 to ! great
 annoyance ( individuals4 ,b aft]       
repeat$  acts ( ! mo/ flagrant          
oppression f ! public (fic]s1 & f       
f>m]s1 to :om ?is iniquit\s practice 0  
entru/$1 !y c\ld n  procure a           
suffici5cy2 b 7 oblig$ to h rec\rse to  
traffic 9  ,india = t purpose4          
,,guns4      ,t ^! dang]\s weapons 7 n  
kn[n 9 ,europe previ\s to !             
introduction ( gunp[d] may be safely    
inf]r$2 z )\t t  sub/ance _! necessity  
or utility is want+4    ,at fir/ !      

con/ruction ( ?is ma*9e 0 *>act]is$ by t
  awkw>d1 rude1 & cumb]some appe>ance   
:i* g5]ally di/+ui%$  all inv5tions 9 _!
 infancy2 rem9d+ u ( ^? v rude          
in/rum5ts br\ght f ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 &   
deposit$ 9 our  ,museum4    ,! fir/     
portable fire-arms 7 dis*>g$ by a mat*2 
9 c\rse (  "t ?is 0 fa/5$ to a cock1 = !
 great] security ( ! h&  :il/ dis*>g+ ! 
piece4 ,aft]w>ds a fire-/one 0 atta*$1  
screw$ into a cock1 ) a /eel plate be=e 
x1 & fix$ 9 a small  :eel1 :i* c\ld be  
w\nd up by a key1 affix$ to ! b>rel4    
,?is  fire-/one 0 n at fir/ ( a vitre\s 
nature1 l t n[ 9  use = /rik+ fire1 b a 
compact pyrites1 long kn[n z su*1 &     
call$ a fire-/one4 ,z an in/rum5t s     
furni%$ 0 (t5 liable  to miss fire1 till
 a late p]iod a mat* 0 /ill cont9u$ ) ! 
:eel2 & x 0 n till a consid]able "t aft]
 t1 in/ead (  a friable pyrites1 s mu*  
expos$ to effloresce1 a vitre\s /one  0 
affix$ to ! improvem5t ( ! lock1 some:at
 resembl+ our  own gun-lock4 ,b ^!      
progressive improvem5ts advanc$ sl[ly1  

because z rec5tly z ! e>ly "p ( ! la/   
c5tury ^! clumsy  contrivances 7 9 use4 
,dur+ t p]iod1 ^? in/rum5ts 7  d5om9at$ 
by v>i\s names1 *iefly ,g]man & ,dut*1  
su* z  bu*se1 hak5bu*se1 arquebuss1     
musket1 m>t9et1 pi/ol1 c4 ,!  fir/ ( ^! 
names arose f ! olde/ portable k9d (    
fire-arms  hav+ a simil>ity to a box4   
,!re 7 long & %ort bu*se1 !  latt] ( :i*
 7 peculi> to cavalry2 ! longe/ k9d     
also1 f  _! resemblance to a pipe1 7    
call$ 9 ,g]many1 rohr4    ,l>ge pieces1 
:i* 7 convey$ on c>riages1 7 call$ ,k>r5
  bu*se1 f ! action ( conveyance4 ,soon 
aft]w>ds cannon 7  introduc$1 at fir/   
call$ canna2 n[ kn[n z artill]y4 ,h[ev]1
  artill]y-m51 & o!rs conc]n$ 9 ^?      
employm5ts1 /ill use !  t]ms previ\sly  
m5tion$4 ,! hack5bu*se 7 s v l>ge &     
unwieldy1 t if c>ri$ 9 ! h&1 !y c\ld n  
be us$ manually  alone2 !y 71 !re=e1    
support$ by a po/ or /ay1 call$ a  bock1
 because x _h a =k$ end1 some:at        
resembl+ ! horns (  ! buck1 betwe5 :i* !
 piece 0 fix$ by a hook project+ f  !   

/ock4 ,!re is /ill pres]v$ 9 ! ,t[] (   
,london1 an old  bu*se2 a specim5 ( e   
species ( our national arms may be se5  
9 ! same place4    ,f ^? t]ms           
be=e-m5tion$1 x w\ld appe>1 t n only !  
,engli%1 b also ! ,fr5*1 & mo/ o!r      
,european nations1 took !  names ( _!   
fire-arms4    ,x appe>s t pi/ols 7 fir/ 
us$ 9 ,g]many2 !y _h a :eel  atta*$ to  
!m4 ,bellay m5tions !m 9 ! ye> #aedd1 9 
!  "t ( ,francis ,i42 & "u ,h5ry ,,ii41 
! ,g]man horsem5 7  call$ pi/oli]s4     
,sev]al hi/orians ?9k t ! "n came f     
,pi/olia1 9 ,tuscany1 because !re !y 7  
fir/ made2 &1 if  we might haz>d an     
op9ion1 we ?9k ?is conjecture "r4 ,h5ce1
  al?\gh ,g]many might fir/ h g5]ally   
us$ !m1 we ?9k !y  7 an ,italian        
inv5tion4    ,muskets are said to h     
receiv$ _! "n f ei!r ! ,fr5*  m\*et1 or 
else f ! ,lat9 mus*etus2 h[ev]1 we are (
  op9ion t nei!r ( ^! t]ms gave its     
orig9al2 & submit t  x is d]iv$ f !     
,lat9 musc>ium1--! fall ( m5 be+ z      
sudd5 aft] ! explosion ( ?is deadly     

weapon1 z ! dea? ( a  fly aft] x is     
flapp$ by t in/rum5t1 :i* 0 common 9 !  
but*]'s %ambles ( anci5t ,rome4         
,daniel proves !y 7 kn[n 9 ,france z    
e>ly z ! p]iod (  ,francis ,i4 ,br&ome1 
h[ev]1 ass]ts !y 7 introduc$ by !  ,duke
 ( ,alva--t cruel mon/] 9 human %ape--t 
tool ( a  blood-?ir/y tyrant--^: "n has 
its full m]it :5 x has et]nal           
execration1 z ! exploits ( t diabolical 
"* 9 !  ,spani% ,ne!rl&s be> indubitable
 te/imony3 t wret* exi/$ 9  #aejg2 & !y 
7 n kn[n 9 ,france at t p]iod1 z ,br&ome
  endeav\rs to prove1 or we %\ld h _h m 
intellig5ce h&$  d[n to po/]ity by !    
comm5tators ( "o :o w\ld s will+ly  h   
us$ su* an in/rum5t4 ,! lock is said to 
h be5 inv5t$  9 ! city ( ,nuremb]g1 9   
,g]many1 ab\t #aeag2 b t _c be  consid]$
 z ! lock ( ! pres5t day1 z ev5 9       
,g]many !  fire-lock is kn[n by ! "n ( !
 ,fr5*-lock1 :i* c]ta9ly  militates     
aga9/ ! previ\s ass]tion1 ! "o giv+ ! "n
  p]haps to ! o!r4    ,beckmann says1   
8,9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,brunswick milit>y x is

 /at$1  t ! soldi]s ( t ,du*y fir/      
obta9$ fl9t-locks in/ead  ( mat*-locks 9
 #afhg4 ,x has (t5 be5 ass]t$10 he      
cont9ues1  8t fire-tubes :i* took fire (
 !mselves 7 =bidd5 fir/ 9  ,bohemia &   
,moravia1 & aft]w>ds 9 ! :ole ,g]man    
empire1 "u  a sev]e p5alty1 by ! ,emp]or
 ,maximilian ,i42 b ,i h n f\nd  any    
allusion to ?is circum/ance 9 ! diff]5t 
police laws ( t  emp]or40    ,t ! fir/  
fire-/ones 7 pyrites appe>s f v>i\s     
s\rces1  & aft]w>ds a vitre\s k9d ( /one
 0 introduc$ 9 its /ead2  ?is           
circum/ance is said to h produc$ "s k9d 
( confusion1 z  9 _m in/ances !         
prop]ties 7 appli$ to t /one :i*  7     
relat$ by ! ,g]mans ( antiquity z       
belong+ to pyrites4 ,9  ,g]many1 ?is    
vitre\s /one 0 call$ vl9t2 9 ,sw$5 &    
,d5m>k1  fl9ta2 & 9 ,engl&1 fl9t4 ,?is  
appellation is ( great  antiquity4      
,anci5tly1 9 ,g]many1 z x appe>s f !    
song ( ,hildebr&1 a  metrical romance ( 
v e>ly date1 t ,hildebr& & ,hudebr&1 a  
fa!r & son1 &1 at ! mom5t1 ignorant ( _!

 aff9ity1 agre$  to fight = ea* o!r's   
arm\r2 & x is said 8,!y let fly _!  a%5 
spe>s ) su* =ce1 t !y /uck 9 ! %ields1 &
 !y  ?ru/ res\nd+ axes ( fl9t aga9/ ea* 
o!r1 hav+ uplift$  _! %ields previ\sly2 
b ! ,lady ,ulta ru%$ 9 betwe5 !m--#8,i  
"k ! cross ( gold1' said %e1 #8:i* ,i   
gave him = 8 %ield2  ?is is my          
,hildebr&4 ,y1 ,hudebr&1 %ea? y\r sword2
 ?is is y\r  fa!r6' ,!n %e l$ bo?       
*ampions into ! hall1 & gave !m meat  & 
w9e ) _m embraces40    ,besides ^! pro(s
 t ! anci5t "n ( ! /one 0 kn[n  9       
,g]many by ! appellation vl9t--:i*      
species ( /one may1  p]haps1 )\t haz>d+ 
! dang] ( error1 be conceiv$ to be !    
same :i* ,zipporah1 ! wife ( ,moses1 is 
repres5t$ to h us$1  9 ! #be? v]se ( !  
#d? *apt] ( ,exodus3 8,!n ,zipporah took
 a  %>p /one1 & cut (f ! =esk9 ( h] son1
 & ca/ x at 8  feet1 & said1--,surely a 
bloody husb& ?\ art to me40 ,& x is     
add$ %e said s1 on acc\nt ( !           
circumcision4    ,9 addition to :at has 
appe>$1 let u add1 x _c be d\bt$ t  !   

in/rum5t fir$ by ?is /one fir/ obta9$ = 
x1 9 ,g]many1  ! "n ( vl9t2 z ! anci5t  
"n may1 9 g5]al1 be n[ lo/1  x is       
commonly call$ fl9t-/one4 ,^? p acqua9t$
 ) !  nor!rn1 ,sc&9avian1 & ,g]man      
antiquities1 "k t ! knives  employ$ 9   
anci5t sacrifices1 & o!r %>p in/rum5ts1 
7 made  ( ?is /one1 z appe>s f ! rema9s 
be+ yet discov]$ 9 old  b>r[s1 & betwe5 
urns4    ,x is also presum$ t !         
,e?iopian /one1 m5tion$ z us$ by  "o ( !
 ,egyptian embalm]s1 fir/ to op5 ! body 
to get at !  inte/9es1 0 a fl9t-/one4 ,!
 soil be+ 9 "s places silice\s  or      
*alky1 naturally produces su* /ones 9   
common ) t e>?4    ,! fl9t is a /one    
indig5\s 9 mo/ ,european c\ntries2 !y   
are  commonly collect$ & manufactur$ by 
p ^: occupation all[s  !m mu* sp>e "t4  
,! easie/ mode to %ape !m is ) a species
  ( pill[ ( saw-du/1 or "s o!r s(t      
mat]ial1 s[n up 9 co>se  clo?1 held ^u !
 knees1 & ) a hamm] hav+ a bevil edge1  
!y  may be brok5 into almo/ any =m or   
size by ^? accu/om$ to !  practice4     

,! great quantity ( ! mat]ial f :5ce !y 
are compos$  all[s = any wa/e :i*       
accid5t may produce4 ,9 sev]al c\nties  
( ,engl& !y are s pl5tiful1 t !y are !  
common mat]ial  employ$ = m5d+ ! public 
roads4 ,b we are in=m$ t ?is  is n !    
case 9 ,france1 :]e1 9 "t ( w>1 ! p 7   
prohibit$ f export+ !m4 ,! ,dut* are    
commonly l>ge deal]s 9  ?is article4    
,fl9t is a l>ge compon5t 9 ! manufacture
 ( glass4    ,gun fl9ts are n[1 h[ev]1  
comp>atively little us$1 z p]cussion    
caps are g5]ally sub/itut$1 :i* act ) m 
c]ta9ty1 &  require a great deal less   
tr\ble4          ,,a/ronomy4      ,n be+
 gre$y ( delusion ourselves1 nei!r w\ld 
we lead o!rs  into error2 b1 on !       
contr>y1 are desir\s to avoid all       
deception1  z we may be consid]$ ov]    
/udi\s to give ! mo/ rational  orig91 & 
:]e we _c get at ! hi/ory ( ^? objects  
:i*  engage our att5tion--:5ev] ?is is  
unc]ta9 we resort to nature1  exp]i5ce1 
& reason1 & furni% ! mo/ correct        
explanation our  contract$ circle (     

in=mation w p]mit4 ,:5ev] we discov] !  
clue ( hi/ory1 we collect ! mo/         
satisfactory detail our limits  w af=d u
 to ins]t4 ,guid$ by ! prec$+ notions1 &
 direct$  by ^? pr9ciples1 we h         
endeav\r$ correctly to conceive1  &     
fai?fully to portray our own conceptions
 9 ! be/ mann]  our exp]i5ce might      
enable u1 to make a j di/9ction betwe5  
metaphorical allusion & lit]al          
application2 ev] endeav\r+ to           
discrim9ate betwe5 s]i\s ass]tion &     
/udi$ fable4    ,we fully co9cide ) ! j 
rem>k ( ! le>n$ au?or ( 8,indian        
,antiquities10 :o says 8t 9 respect to !
 e>ly ages ( ! _w1  all ! rema9s ( g5u9e
 hi/ory1 except t conta9$ 9 ! sacr$     
annals1 is only to be obta9$ ?r\gh !    
mazes ( ,my?ology40    ,x mu/ be        
confess$1 t to sift ?is gra9 ( corn f ! 
bu%el  ( *aff ) :i* x is surr\nd$1 :]e e
 ef=t :i* !  +5uity ( ,greece c\ld      
devise to r5d] fable z curr5t z tru?1  0
 resort$ to1 is no small task2 t x      
requires ! op]ation  ( ! be/ ex]cis$    

reason1 & ! assi/ance ( extraord9>y     
judgm5t1 :i* is only to be atta9$ ?r\gh 
! m$ium ( ext5sive  exp]i5ce & ! ex]cise
 ( cle> & discrim9ative p[]s3 !n  we    
pret5d n to possess ! be/ ( possible    
acquisitions ( ?is  k9d1 b ! be/ 9 our  
p[]1 we h endeav\r$ to collect1 &       
summon$ to our assi/ance2 & ! value (   
our lab\rs we w leave  ! public to      
judge4    ,if ! application (           
obs]vations l ! prec$+ ev] come         
apropos1 surely !y apply to ! pres5t    
article2 s9ce f !  sid]al sci5ce1 all ! 
errors ( an idolatr\s race proce$$ 9  ! 
major "p ( ! population ( ! anci5t _w3 f
 !nce also  proce$$ ! mo/ sublime imag]y
 :i* embelli%es ! syr5 voice  ( poetic  
song1 ! gr&e/ metaphors1 & ! sweete/    
allegories1  :i* ornam5t ! trans5d5t    
eloqu5ce ( ! mo/ able rhetoricians  (   
,greece & ,rome2 ! fire ( exquisitely   
natural & mo/ noble  allusions :i*      
enliv5 & embelli% _! hi/oric pages4 ,!  
sweete/ philosophical explications also 
fl[$ f !nce1 :i*  ornam5t ! v>i\s       

immortal works ( _! mo/ excell5t poets1 
orators1 hi/orians1 natural & moral     
philosoph]s2 &1 9 brief1 (  e           
description ( ! sublime/ g5ius ( anci5t 
,greece & ,rome1  9 _! mo/ div9e        
effusions4    ,x w appe>1 we believe1 t 
! fir/ a/ronom]s ( ,*aldea1  ,phnicia1 &
 ,egypt1 are n n[ kn[n z a/ronom]s1 by  
"n1 if we  except ! p]son ( ! royal     
,nimrod1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,*aldean  empire1  
:i* "n is (t5 conf\nd$ ) ,belus2        
sometimes "o is  put = ! o!r1 & (t5     
,belus is call$ ! son ( ,nimrod4 ,h[  ! 
tru? ( ?is 01 we %all n at pres5t       
det]m9e3 be x z x  may1 x is all[$ on   
all h&s t ! sid]al sci5ce claims = its  
inv5tor no less a p]son ?an ! f\nd] ( ! 
fir/ mon>*y 9 !  _w4 ,t ?is sci5ce 0    
fir/ introduc$ by ! f\nd] ( !  ,t[] (   
,babel is n que/ion$1 because x is m    
evid5t1 t 9  t c\ntry !re mu/ h exi/$ f 
necessity1 ! exp$i5cy (  ! mo/ approv$  
obs]vation1 :i* c\ld be made ^u ?is     
em95tly  useful sci5ce2 :]e1 on acc\nt (
 ! excessive sol> heat1 p  g5]ally      

travel by night3 :]e1 = hundr$s ( miles1
 are no?+  b pa?less des]ts1 ) a horizon
 z b\ndless & little imp$$  z t ( !     
ocean2 assur$ly "u su* circum/ances1 !  
local  situation ( ! site ( ! imm5se    
,obs]vatory ( ,babel mu/ po9t  out !    
exp$i5cy ( procur+ "s intellig5ce f !   
position  :i* ! inhabitants discov]$ !  
ho/ ( heav5 to appe> 9 at  ! ris+1      
sett+1 c42 = f :at w appe> 9 ! c\rse (  
?is article1 x w be v evid5t t ! ,t[] ( 
,babel 0  con/ruct$ = ! purpose ( an    
a/ronomical obs]vatory2 f>!r1  t !      
climate ( ,*aldea 0 mo/ fav\rable to !  
ex]cise (  t sublime art1 w n admit ( a 
"q1 :5 we consid] !  atmosph]e is s     
pure1 s cle>1 s free f exhalation1 t at 
night ! sky is said to resemble an      
imm5se canopy ( black velvet  /udd$ )   
emboss$ gold1 f ! appe>ance ( ! />s2 & t
  x 0 n only ! appe>ance ( ! />s1 _!    
ris+1 sett+1  & motion1 by :i* !y knew  
"t 0 to be measur$2 b also !  di/9ction 
betwe5 "o /> & ano!r c\ld be correctly  
asc]ta9$  f ! usual col\r--"h x 0 !     

v>i\s planets1 zodiacal  con/ellations1 
& ! o!r a/]isms 9 bo? hemisph]es1       
receiv$  _! prim>y names4    ,! prec$+  
circum/ance1 x is conceiv$1 fixes !     
local place  :]e ! sci5ce _h its orig94 
,! ,t[] ( ,babel 0 a p>allelogram1 )    
sides ( unequal l5g?4  ,h]odotus ?us    
describes x4--8,! ,temple ( ,jupit]     
,belus occupies !  o!r squ>e ( ! city1  
^: huge gates ( brass may be se54 ,x  is
 a squ>e build+2 9 ! mid/ rises a t[] ( 
! height ( "o  furlong1 ^u :i* re/+ z a 
base1 sev5 o!r turrets are built 9      
regul> succession4 ,! asc5t is on !     
outside1 :i*1 w9d+ f  ! gr\nd1 is       
cont9u$ to ! highe/ t[]3 9 ! middle ( ! 
:ole /ructure !re is a conv5i5t re/+    
place40    ,diodorus ,siculus says1 ?is 
t[] 0 decay$ 9 8 "t2 b1 9 8  description
 ( ,babylon1 he ?us speaks ( x--describ+
 x z ! act  ( ,semiramis1 :o fl\ri%$ two
 ?\s& n9e hundr$ & =ty-f\r  ye>s be=e   
,*ri/3--8,9 ! middle ( ! city1 %e built 
a temple to  ,jupit]-,belus2 ( :i*1 s9ce
 writ]s diff] among/ !mselves1 &  ! "w  

is n[ :olly decay$ ?r\gh l5g? ( "t1 !re 
is no?+  t c ) c]ta9ty be relat$ conc]n+
 x2 yet x is app>5t  x 0 ( an exce$+    
great height2 & t1 by ! advantage ( x1  
! ,*aldean a/rolog]s exactly obs]v$ !   
ris+ & sett+ ( !  />s4 ,! :ole 0 built (
 brick1 cem5t$ ) bitum51 ) great  art & 
co/4 ,^u ! top %e plac$ ?ree /atues (   
beat5 gold1 (  ,jupit]1 ,juno1 & ,rhea3 
t ( ,jupit] /ood upright1 9 ! po/ure  z 
if he 0 walk+2 x 0 =ty feet 9 height1 & 
weigh$ "o  ?\s& ,babyloni% tal5ts4 ,!   
/atue ( ,rhea 0 ( ! same weight1  sitt+ 
on a gold5 ?rone1 hav+ two lions /&+ on 
ei!r side1  "o at h] knees1 & ne> to !m 
7 two exce$+ great s]p5ts  ( silv]1     
weigh+ ?irty tal5ts ea*4 ,"h1 too1 !    
image ( ,juno  /ood upright1 & weigh$   
eight hundr$ tal5ts1 grasp+ a s]p5t by  
! head 9 h] "r h&1 & hold+ a sceptre    
adorn$ ) preci\s  /ones 9 h] left4 ,=   
all ^! deities !re 0 plac$ a table  made
 ( beat5 gold1 =ty feet long & fifte5   
broad1 weigh+ five  hundr$ tal5ts1 ^u   
:i* /ood two cups1 weigh+ ?irty tal5ts1 

& ne> to !m z _m c5s]s1 weigh+ ?ree     
hundr$ tal5ts3 !re  7 likewise plac$    
?ree dr9k+ b[ls ( gold--! "o to ,jupit] 
weigh$ two hundr$ tal5ts1 & ! o!rs six  
hundr$ ea*40    ,we h be5 ?us           
circum/antial 9 our description (       
,babylon1  = obvi\s reasons4 ,fir/--t x 
0 ! fir/ local situation  :]e1 s9ce !   
deluge1 m5 _h associat$ = civil         
purposes2 &  secondly--because x 0 !    
orig9al /ation :]e ! a/ronomical  sci5ce
 0 cultivat$4 ,f ,*aldea1 ,a/ronomy     
travell$ to ,egypt1  :]e %e 0 /udi$ = _m
 ages2 %e also w5t to ,phnicia1 :]e  %e 
0 reg>d$ ) equal att5tion4 ,b ! peculi> 
occasion :i*  ! ,phnician p _h to       
improve _! acqua9tance ) ?is  sci5ce1 w 
appe>1 ^u reflect+ t ^! p occupi$ a     
n>r[ & b>r5 tract ( l& betwe5 !         
,m$it]ranean & ,arabian  seas2 !re=e1 !y
 f\nd x ess5tially necess>y to improve  
_!  situation by ^? means :i* ,div9e    
,provid5ce _h app>5tly m>k$  out = !m to
 resort unto2 we accord+ly f9d !m apply+
 to  m]cantile indu/ry2 z a comm]cial p1

 9 ?is "*1 !y  7 ! ready m$ium (        
communication betwe5 e "p ( ! !n  kn[n  
_w4 ,9 consequ5ce1 !y _h factories or   
m]cantile /ations  up ! ,m$it]ranean2 b 
p>ticul>ly on its ,european side1 on !  
%ores ( ! ,atlantic1 & ev5 9 ! ,briti%  
sea3 we recognise _!  occupy+           
,m>seilles1 & o!rs1 on ! coa/ ( ,france2
 ,cadiz1 on  t ( ,spa92 ! ,liz>d ,po9t1 
& o!r places1 9 ,cornwall1 :]e  !y trad$
 = t9 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,9 brief1 _!  
comm]cial  _s c>ri$ !m to e "p ( !      
globe3 by ! by1 admitt+  t rational     
belief be all[$ to ,plato & ,solon1 we  
%all f9d t  !y _h1 9 ! fir/ ages1       
explor$ ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 & ev5       
discov]$ ,am]ica4 ,a great v>iety (     
au?orities may be adduc$ to  prove !    
ass]tion--t ! ,phnicians made ?ree      
desc5ts on !  ,am]ican coa/2 & o!rs1 :o 
say t ! inhabitants discov]$  !re by !  
,spani>ds1 gave ! same names to ! plants
 z _h be5  assign$ !m 9 ,asia2 t _!     
religi\s rites 7 simil>1 &  g5]al cu/oms
 & mann]s ! same1--we ref] to ,joseph   

,da ,co/a's  8,hi/ory ( ! ,indies10     
publi%$ 9 #afid4    ,?is au?or 0 an     
eye-witness1 & wrote f actual           
obs]vation4 ,!  ,phnicians1 9 ! ex]cise 
( _! m]cantile functions1 _h ! mo/      
obvi\s necessity to cultivate ! sid]al  
sci5ce4 ,we f9d t !y  accord+ly did s1 &
 made v>i\s improvem5ts & v important   
discov]ies by _! ex]cise4 ,f ! nor!rn   
hemisph]e be+  m kn[n to !m ?an x 0 to !
 ,*aldeans1 !y discov]$ t  spl5did &    
beautiful a/]ism1 ,cynosur1 or !        
pol>-/>1--an  a/]ism ( ! mo/ s+ul>      
s]vice1 be=e ! prop]ties ( !  magnet 7  
discov]$1 & :i* /> 0 sometimes call$1 f 
!m1  ,phnice4    ,f ,phnicia & ,egypt ! 
cele/ial sci5ce ( a/ronomy 0 br\ght     
into ,greece1 ) :i* p ! ,phnicians 7    
intimate2 = !y1  by trade1 hav+ occasion
 to conv]se ) ! ,greeks1 & also f  unit+
 9 "o national resemblance1 ! ?ree      
opposite *>act]i/ics  ( soldi]s1        
sailors1 & m5 ( sci5ce1 ! communications
 betwe5  ! two p 7 v frequ5t4 ,at e     
p]iod1 f ! fir/  e/abli%m5t ( ! ,grecian

 /ates1 t highly em95t &  intellectual p
 collect$ f all o!rs e p>ticul> !y  c\ld
 obta9 9 all matt]s hav+ relation to    
sci5ces & arts2 ^?  !y cultivat$ ) a    
success wor?y ( ! motive :i* fir/ induc$
  !m to make ^! collections4--,lov+ ,k =
 h]self1 !y  succe$$ beyond all o!rs 9  
obta9+ h] fav\rs4    ,! fir/ ,greek :o  
appe>s on record to h cultivat$ !       
cele/ial  sci5ce ) success1 0 ,?ales1   
born at ,miletus1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 six    
hundr$ & =ty "o ye>s be=e ,*ri/2 he     
expla9$ ! causes (  eclipses1 & pr$ict$ 
"o4 ,he also taught t ! e>? 0 r\nd1  &  
divid$ into five zones2 he discov]$ !   
sol/ices & equ9oxes1  & likewise divid$ 
! ye> into ?ree hundr$ & sixty-five     
days4 ,he _h travell$ into ,egypt 9 se>*
 ( k1 :]e he  asc]ta9$ ! height ( "o ( !
 pyramids1 f its %ade4 ,he  look$ ^u    
wat] z ! pr9ciple ( all ?+s4 ,f him !   
sect  call$ ! ,ionic _h _! orig94       
,anaxim&]1 8 pupil1 foll[$ him1 &       
support$ ! op9ions ( 8  great ma/]2 he 0
 born be=e ,*ri/ six hundr$ & t5 ye>s2  

he  inv5t$ maps & dials1 & is said to h 
con/ruct$ a sph]e4 ,8  ideas ( ! planets
 71 h[ev]1 errone\s4    ,anaxim5es 0 a  
s*ol> ( ,anaxim&]1 & born five hundr$ & 
fifty-f\r ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,he taught t 
air 0 ! orig9 (  all ?+s1 & _m errone\s 
notions2 among o!rs1 t ! e>?  0 a plane1
 & ! heav5s a solid concave sph]e1 ) !  
/>s  affix$ to x l nails4    ,anaxagoras
 ( ,clazom5e1 ! pupil (1 & successor to1
 ,anaxim5es1  born be=e ,*ri/ five      
hundr$ & sixty ye>s4 ,! doctr9es he     
support$ are a /range association (     
important tru?s1 mix$ )  ! mo/ gross    
absurdities4 ,he taught t ! _w 0 made by
 a  be+ ( inf9ite p[]2 t m9d 0 ! orig9 (
 motion2 t !  upp] regions1 :i* he call$
 e!r1 7 fill$ ) fire1 t !  rapid        
revolution ( ?is e!r _h rais$ l>ge      
masses ( /one f  ! e>?1 :i*1 be+        
inflam$1 =m$ ! />s1 :i* 7 kept  9 _!    
places1 & prev5t$ f fall+ by ! velocity 
( _!  motion4    ,8 ideas ( ! sol> orb 7
 extremely errone\s2 alleg+1  accord+ to
 diff]5t au?ors1 v>i\s unc]ta9 positions

 respect+  ! mat]ials ( :i* t planet is 
compos$3 "o says1 he said  x 0 a va/    
mass ( fire2 ano!r /ates 8 op9ion1 t x  
0 r$-hot iron2 & a ?ird1 t x 0 ( /one4  
,he taught t  ! comets are an assemblage
 ( planets2 t w9ds are produc$ 9        
consequ5ce ( highly r>ifi$ air2 t ?und] 
& lightn+ are a  collision ( cl\ds2     
e>?quakes1 by subt]rane\s air =c+ its   
passage upw>ds2 t ! moon is inhabit$1 c4
    ,?is philosoph] remov$ 8 s*ool f    
,miletus to ,a!ns1 :i* 0  !nce=? ! gr&  
seat ( all le>n+4 ,he _h taught !re =   
?irty ye>s1 :5 he 0 prosecut$ = 8       
philosophical op9ions1  p>ticul>ly = 8 j
 ideas relative to ! ,deity1 & condemn$ 
to  dea?4 ,:5 s5t5ce 0 pron\nc$1 he     
said3--8,x is long s9ce ,nature         
condemn$ me to t40 ,h[ev]1 accord+ to ! 
laws ( ,a!ns1 he 0  p]mitt$ an appeal to
 ! p1 9 :i* 8 s*ol>1 ! immortal         
,p]icles1 sav$ 8 life by 8 eloqu5ce4 ,8 
s5t5ce ( dea?  0 *ang$ into bani%m5t4   
,:il/ 9 prison he det]m9$ exactly  !    
proportion ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle to

 its diamet]1  d5om9at$ 8squ>+ !        
circle40 ,he di$ at ,lampsacus4         
,ar*elaus1 8  s*ol>1 0 ! preceptor ( !  
div9e ,socrates4    ,py?agoras 0 ano!r  
s*ol> ( ,?ales4 ,! place ( 8 nativity is
  unc]ta92 b hav+ settl$ 9 ! isl& (     
,samos1 he is g5]ally  reckon$ ( t      
place4 ,he travell$ 9 se>* ( k ?r\gh    
,phnicia1 ,*aldea1 ,egypt1 & ,india2    
h[ev]1 meet+ ) little  enc\ragem5t on 8 
return to ,samos1 he pass$ ov] to       
,italy1 9 !  "t ( ,t>qu9 ! ,pr\d1 & op5$
 a s*ool at ,croto1 a city 9 !  ,gulf ( 
,t>5tum1 :]e he _h a numb] ( /ud5ts1 &  
ga9$ mu*  reputation4 ,8 pupils 7 oblig$
 to li/5 9 sil5ce = at lea/  two ye>s2  
if talkative1 long]2 sometimes1 = five  
ye>s1 be=e  !y 7 p]mitt$ to ask him any 
que/ions2 = :i* "t !y 7  ma!maticoi1    
because !y 7 set to /udy geometry1      
diall+1  music1 & o!r high sci5ces1     
call$ by ! ,greeks ma!mata4 ,b  ! "n (  
ma!matici 0 commonly appli$ to ^? :o    
cultivat$  ! /ell>y sci5ce1 & :o pr$ict$
 ! =tunes ( m51 by  obs]v+ ! />s "u :i* 

!y 7 born4    ,?is lum9>y ( sci5ce fir/ 
assum$ ! appellation (  philosoph]2 be=e
 him1 ^? ^: pursuits h n[ t title1  7   
call$ sages or wise m52 he 0 ! f\nd] ( !
 sect call$  ! ,italic4 ,he 0 s mu*     
hon\r$ :il/ liv+1 & 8 memory  hon\r$ :5 
dead1 by ! ,romans1 t !y attribut$ to   
him !  le>n+ ( ,numa1 :o liv$ mu* e>li]4
 ,ab\t ! ye> ( ! city  #daa1 ! ,delphian
 oracle hav+ direct$ ! ,romans to erect 
/atues to  ! brave/ & wise/ ( ! ,greeks1
 !y conf]r$ t hon\r ^u  ,alcibiades &   
,py?agoras4    ,he taught publicly t !  
e>? is ! c5tre ( ! univ]se2 b  to 8     
s*ol>s he gave 8 real op9ions2 simil> to
 ^? aft]w>ds  adopt$ by ,cop]nicus1 t ! 
e>? & all ! planets mov$ r\nd  ! sun1 z 
_! co-c5tre1 & :i* doctr9e he is presum$
 to h  d]iv$ f ei!r ! ,*aldeans or      
,indians4 ,he ?\ght t ! e>?  is r\nd1 & 
ev]y:]e inhabit$4 ,h5ce1 he admitt$ t we
 might  h antipodes1 :i* "n is said to h
 be5 inv5t$ by ,plato4    ,py?agoras 0  
di/+ui%$ = 8 skill 9 music1 :i* he fir/ 
r$uc$ to c]ta9 firm pr9ciples1 &        

likewise = 8 discov]ies  9 geometry4 ,he
 fir/ prov$1 t 9 a "r-angl$ triangle1 ! 
squ>e ( ! hypo!nuse1 or side subt5d+ !  
"r angle1 is  equal to ! two o!r sides2 
also t ( all pla9 figures hav+  equal   
circumf]5ce1 ! circle is l>ge/2 & ( all 
solids hav+  equal surfaces1 ! sph]e is 
! l>ge/4 ,py?agoras likewise taught  t  
all ?+s 7 made ( fire4 ,t ! ,deity      
animat$ !  univ]se1 z ! s\l does ! body2
 :i* doctr9e1 ) t (  ! metempsy*osis1 or
 transmigration1 he likewise taught2 &  
:i*  ?\ghts 7 adopt$ by ,plato1 & are   
mo/ beautifully express$ by  ,virgil2 t 
! sun1 ! moon1 ! planets1 & fix$ />s1   
are all  actuat$ by "s div9ity1 & move  
ea* 9 a transp>5t solid sph]e  9 ! ord] 
foll[+3--next to ! ,e>?1 ! ,moon1 !n    
,m]cury1  ,v5us1 ! ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 
,saturn2 ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s  la/ (    
all2 t ^? move ) a s\nd inconceivably   
beautiful1  :i* e>s _c compreh5d4 ,^?   
eight sph]es he imag9$ to be  analog\s  
to ! eight notes 9 music4    ,emp$ocles1
 ! *ief s*ol> ( ,py?agoras1 ent]ta9$ !  

same  s5tim5ts ) 8 tea*]1 conc]n+       
a/ronomy4 ,he is said to h  ?r[n himself
 into ! crat] ( ,m\nt ,etna1 to make    
himself pass =  a god2 or1 p]haps1 :i*  
may approa* ne>] ! tru?1 because he     
c\ld n discov] ! cause ( ! eruption3 or 
else 9 8 endeav\rs  to discov] ! cause4 
,"o ( 8 iron s&als be+ ?r[n up by !     
volcano1 reveal$ ! mode 9 :i* he _h     
p]i%$4    ,philolaus1 also a s*ol> (    
,py?agoras1 fir/ taught publicly !      
diurnal motion ( ! e>? ^u its axis1 &   
its annual motion r\nd  ! sun2 :i* fir/ 
sugge/$ to ,cop]nicus ! idea ( t sy/em  
:i* he e/abli%$4    ,meteon1 born at    
,leucon1 a village ne> ,a!ns1 fir/      
introduc$ into  ,europe ! ,lun> ,cycle1 
consi/+ ( n9ete5 sol> ye>s1 or n9ete5   
lun> ye>s1 & sev5 int]cal>y mon?s4 ,x _h
 be5 fir/ adopt$ by  ! ,*aldeans4       
,meteon publi%$ x at ! ,olympic games1  
:]e x 0  receiv$ ) s great applause t x 
0 !n univ]sally adopt$  ?r\gh ! ,grecian
 ,/ates1 & _! colonies1 & got ! "n ( !  
,cycle1 or ,gold5 ,numb]1 to d5ote its  

excell5ce1 :i* "n x /ill  reta9s4    ,x 
0 also call$ ! ,great ,ye>2 :i* "n 0    
likewise appli$ to  v>i\s spaces ( "t by
 diff]5t au?ors2 by ,virgil1 to ! sol>  
ye>1 to di/+ui% x f ! mon?ly revolution 
( ! moon2 by  ,cic]o & o!rs1 to !       
revolution ( six hundr$ ye>s1 or ?ree   
?\s& six hundr$ ye>s2 call$ also sev]al 
ages1 :5 all !  />s %all come to ! same 
position1 ) respect to "o ano!r1  z !y 7
 9 at a c]ta9 "t be=e2 call$ likewise   
,annus  ,mundanus1 or ,v]t5s4    ,! lun>
 cycle begun f\r hundr$ & ?irty-two ye>s
 be=e !  comm5cem5t ( our era1 & accord+
 to x1 ! ,greek cal5d>s1  :i* det]m9$ ! 
celebration ( _! annual fea/s1 c4 7     
adju/$4 ,meteon is said to h d]iv$ 8 k (
 ?is subject  f ,*aldea4    ,! op9ions (
 ! subsequ5tly regi/]$ a/ronom]1        
,xonophanes1  f\nd] ( ! ,eleatic s*ool1 
are s truly mon/r\s1 t aft]  ! light :i*
 _h appe>$1 he mu/ h travell$ ) 8 eyes  
%ut2 or else ! rage = novelty alike     
affect$ ! sci5tific (  ,greece1 z x did 
_! lit]ati2 *oos+ to travel a long way  

= new ?\ghts1 :5 !y might h f\nd mu*    
bett] at h&4  ,xonophanes1 among o!r    
:imsical op9ions1 ma9ta9$ t ! />s  7    
ext+ui%$ e morn+1 & illum9at$ e ev5+2 t 
! sun is an inflam$ cl\d2 t eclipses    
happ5 by ! ext9ction  ( ! sun1 :i* is   
aft]w>ds light$ up2 t ! moon is t5 times
  l>g] ?an ! e>?2 t !re are _m suns &   
moons to illum9e  diff]5t climates4     
,! ,eleatic s*ool 0 *iefly fam\s = !    
/udy ( logic1 or !  art ( ratioc9ation1 
fir/ inv5t$ by ,z5o4 ,^? ( ?is sect paid
  b little att5tion to sci5ce1 or ! /udy
 ( ,nature4 ,philosophy  0 anci5tly     
divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 natural1 moral1 &
 ! art (  reason+4 ,xonophanes 0 succe$$
 by ,p>m5ides1 8 s*ol>1 :o1  9 addition 
to 8 ma/]'s absurdities1 taught t ! e>? 
0  habitable 9 only ! two temp]ate      
zones2 t ! e>? 0 susp5d$  9 ! middle ( !
 univ]se1 9 a fluid light] ?an air2 t   
all  bodies left to !mselves light on   
its surface4 ,?is bore a slight         
resemblance to ! ,newtonian doctr9e (   
attraction4    ,democritus1 ( ,abd]a1 a 

s*ol> ( ,leucippus1 :o fl\ri%$ f\r      
hundr$ & fifty-six ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 0 ! 
fir/ publi%]  ( ! ,atomic ,cosmogony1   
inv5t$ by ,mo*us1 ! ,phnician1 said to  
h be5 receiv$ by 8 ma/] ,leucippus4 ,bo?
 admitt$ plurality  ( worlds4           
,democritus 0 ! fir/ :o taught t ! milky
 way is  occasion$ by ! confus$ light ( 
an inf9ite numb] ( />s2 :i*  doctr9e is 
/ill ma9ta9$ by ! be/ in=m$ (           
philosoph]s4 ,he  also ext5d$ t idea to 
comets2 ! numb] ( :i* ,s5eca says !     
,greek philosoph]s did n "k2 & t        
,democritus suspect$ !re  7 m planets   
?an we c\ld see4 ,?is 0 also ! op9ion ( 
_m  o!rs1 ! tru? ( :i* has be5 v]ifi$ 9 
! discov]ies (  ,pallas1 ,juno1 ,ve/a1 &
 ! ,georgium ,sidus4    ,democritus is  
consid]$ z ! p>5t ( exp]im5tal          
philosophy2 !  greate/ "p ( 8 "t 0      
devot$ to x2 & he is said to h  made _m 
discov]ies4 ,he1 l ,meteon1 & ,newton1  
ma9ta9$ !  absurd idea ( ! exi/5ce ( a  
vacuum1 :i* 0 d5i$ by ,?ales  &         
,desc>tes4 ,democritus also ma9ta9$ t ! 

sea 0 con/antly  dim9i%+4 ,he decl>$ t  
he w\ld pref] ! discov]y ( "o (  !      
causes ( ! works ( ,nature1 to !        
possession ( ! ,p]sian  mon>*y4 ,(t5    
laugh+ at ! follies ( mank9d1 he 0 ?\ght
 by  ! vulg> to be out ( 8 m9d2 b       
,hippocrates1 be+ s5t to cure  him1 soon
 f\nd him to be ! wise/ man ( ! age2 &  
,s5eca reckons  him ! mo/ acute & +5i\s 
( ! anci5ts1 on acc\nt ( 8  _m useful   
inv5tions2 p>ticul>ly 8 +5i\s mak+ (    
artificial  em]alds1 t++ !m ( any col\r2
 ( s(t5+ ivory1 dissolv+  /ones1 c4     
,al?\gh ! *ief att5tion ( ,plato &      
,ari/otle 0 direct$ to  o!r gr& objects1
 yet !y mu* contribut$ to ! improvem5t (
  a/ronomy4 ,not)/&+ ! mo/ fam\s 9 ?is  
respect 0 ,eudoxus1  ! s*ol> ( ,plato1  
:o 0 fam\s = 8 skill 9 a/rology1        
natural & judicial1 or ! art ( =etell+  
future ev5ts by  ! relative situations (
 ! />s1 ( _! v>i\s influ5ces1  an art   
:i* prevail$ = _m ages among ! anci5ts1 
& is yet  assidu\sly cultivat$ by !     
mod]n ,arabians & o!r ori5tals1  al?\gh 

9 a great measure explod$ 9 ,european   
nations4 ,by !  =m] or :i* divisions 9  
?is sci5ce are =etold ! *anges (        
seasons1 ra91 w9d1 ?und]1 cold1 heat1   
fam9e1 diseases1 c41 f a  k ( ! causes t
 are believ$ to act ^u ! e>? & its      
atmosph]e2 :il/ ! latt] =etold !        
*>act]s1 =tunes1 c41  ( m51 f ! /ell>y  
disposition at ! mom5t ( _! respective  
nativities4    ,! philosoph]1 ,eudoxus1 
sp5t mu* ( 8 "t on ! top ( a high       
m\nta91 to obs]ve ! motion ( ! />s4 ,he 
regulat$ ! ,greek  ye> z ,cs> did !     
,roman4 ,_h ! anci5t ,grecian a/ronom]s 
be5  equally atta*$ to exp]im5t )       
,democritus1 !y might h arriv$  at m    
c]ta9 conclusions2 b !y 7 cont5t )      
speculative  !ory1 & spoke r f          
conjecture ?an obs]vation2 :5ce bo?     
,/rabio & ,polybius treat$ z fabul\s !  
s9ce recognis$ ass]tion  ( ,py?ius1 a   
fam\s navigator to ! nor?1 :o _h sail$  
to a  c\ntry suppos$ to be ,icel&1 :]e  
he said ! sun1 9 ! middle (  summ]1 nev]
 set4    ,! mo/ important improvem5ts 9 

a/ronomy 7 made 9 ! s*ool  ( ,alex&ria1 
f\nd$ by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus2 & :i*  
sem9>y  fl\ri%$ = n9e hundr$ &          
tw5ty-?ree ye>s1 till ! invasion  ( !   
,s>ac5 army1 "u ! comm& ( ,amr\4 ,^?    
a/ronom]s  7 *iefly ,greeks1 or (       
,grecian extraction--! mo/ le>n$ m5  be+
 invit$ "h by ! lib]ality ( !           
,ptolemies4 ,! fir/  :o di/+ui%$        
!mselves 7 ,timoc>us & ,ari/illus1 prior
 to  ! f\ndation ( ! libr>y1 :i* 0 f\nd$
 ?ree hundr$ ye>s  be=e ,*ri/4 ,^? two  
m5 endeav\r$ to det]m9e ! places ( !    
diff]5t />s1 & ?us to trace ! c\rse ( ! 
planets4 ,! next  & mo/ em95t man 0     
,ari/>*us1 ab\t two hundr$ & sixty-f\r  
ye>s be=e ,*ri/2 :o taught1 t ! sun 0   
ab\t n9ete5 times  fur!r f ! e>? ?an !  
moon 7:i* is n ! tw5tie? "p  ( its real 
di/ance71 al?\gh ! philosoph]s ( !      
,py?agorean  s*ool did n consid] x above
 ?ree times1 & p]haps only "o  & a half 
fur!r di/ant4 ,ari/>*us also taught1 t !
 moon  0 fifty-six diamet]s ( our e>? f 
?is globe1 :i* op9ion  comes ne> to !   

tru?3 he believ$ x to be sc>cely "o-?ird
 (  its real size4 ,he 0 widely errone\s
 9 8 conception ( ! sun's  dim5sions4   
,he also1 9 con=mity to ! doctr9es (    
,py?agorus &  ,philolaus1 suppos$ ! sun 
to be plac$ 9 ! c5tre1 & t !  e>? mov$  
r\nd x2 on :i* acc\nt he 0 accus$ (     
impiety1 z  di/urb+ ! repose ( ! ,ve/a &
 ! ,l>es4 ,?is op9ion 0 n1  h[ev]1      
reta9$ by 8 successors 9 ! ,alex&rian   
s*ool4 ,contr>y  to ! doctr9e ( ! ,greek
 philosoph]s1 he taught t ! />s  7 at   
diff]5t di/ances1 & t ! orbit ( ! e>?   
r\nd !  sun 0 an ins5sible po9t1 9      
consequ5ce ( ! imm5se di/ance  ( ! />s4 
,! only "w ( ,ari/>*us :i* rema9s1 is on
 !  magnitude & di/ance ( ! sun & moon4 
,v ne>ly contempor>y ) ,ari/>*us 0      
,euclid1 ! celebrat$  geometrician (    
,alex&ria2 ,mane?o1 an a/rolog] &       
hi/orian2 &  ,aratus & ,clean?us1       
disciples ( ,z5o1 ! /oic philosoph]2 all
  ( :om contribut$ to ! enl>gem5t (     
a/ronomical k2 b  p>ticul>ly ! two fir/ 
nam$4    ,erato/h5es1 born at ,cyr5e1   

succe$$ ,ari/>*us1 be+ invit$ by        
,ptolemy ,eu]getes4 ,?is pr(essor is    
said to be ! inv5tor ( !  ,armill>y     
sph]e1 an in/rum5t or ma*9e compos$ (   
moveable sides1  repres5t+ ! equator1 ! 
two colures1 ) ! m]idian2 all (  :i*    
turn$ r\nd on an axis direct$ to ! two  
poles ( ! _w1  ea* ( :i* circles 7      
anci5tly call$ armilla1 & ! :ole  ma*9e1
 a/rolabus4 ,all in/rum5ts :i* c\ld be  
contriv$ =  ! promotion ( ?is sci5ce1 7 
furni%$ at ! public exp5se1  & plac$ )9 
! obs]vatory ( ,alex&ria4 ,assi/$ by ^! 
in/rum5ts1 ,erato/h5es fir/ und]took to 
measure ! obliquity (  ! ecliptics1 or r
 ! d\ble ( t obliquity1 t is1 !  di/ance
 f ! tropics1 :i* he made to be ab\t #dg
 degrees2 !  obliquity1 or half ( ?is   
di/ance1 #bc degrees4 ,?is gr& attempt  
0 to asc]ta9 ! exact di/ance ( a degree 
( ! m]idian1 &  ?us to det]m9e !        
circumf]5ce ( ! e>?2 :i* he accompli%$  
) wond]ful exactness1 consid]+ ! p]iod  
at :i* he liv$2  & he p]=m$ ?is by !    
same me?od s9ce adopt$ by ! mod]ns  :o h

 succe$$ him4 ,he is also said to h     
discov]$ ! true  di/ance ( ! sun f !    
e>?4    ,! great ,ar*im$es liv$         
contempor>y ) ,erato/h5es1 t  em95t     
geometrician ( ,syracuse1 ^: inv5tive   
g5ius 9 me*anics  _h con/ruct$ eng9es   
:i* protract$ ! fall ( t capital1  ) its
 ,isl& ,sicily1 to ! almo/ omnipot5t p[]
 ( ,rome = a  consid]able p]iod4    ,!  
mo/ illu/ri\s a/ronom] :i* _h z yet     
appe>$ at ,alex&ria  0 ,hipp>*us1 :o    
fl\ri%$ betwe5 "o hundr$ & sixty & "o   
hundr$ & tw5ty-five ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,he
 fir/ br\ght ?is  sci5ce into a tangible
 elem5t>y =m1 r5d]+ x sy/ematic4 ,he    
discov]$1 or 0 ! fir/ :o obs]v$ !       
diff]5ce betwe5 !  autumnal & ! v]nal   
equ9ox2 ! =m] be+ sev5 days long]  ?an !
 latt]1 :i* proce$s f ! ecc5tricity ( ! 
e>?'s  orbit1 fir/ discov]$ f obs]v+ !  
inequality ( ! sol>  motion4 ,he fram$  
tables = :at is call$ equation ( "t1 or 
to  asc]ta9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! %ade on 
a well con/ruct$ dial  & a p]fectly     
regulat$ clock4 ,he made great progress 

9 expla9+  ! motions & phases ( ! moon2 
h[ev]1 he 0 n s successful  ) respect to
 ! planets4    ,8 greate/ "w 0 8        
asc]ta9+ ! numb] ( ! />s1 m>k+  _!      
di/ances1 & arriv+ at ! means by :i* _! 
precise  places on ! hemisph]e (        
,alex&ria c\ld be kn[n4 ,he m>k$ "o     
?\s& six hundr$ />s1 9 sev5ty-two signs1
 into :i* !  heav5s 7 divid$4 ,pl9y says
 ?is 0 a lab\r :i* mu/ h be5  difficult 
ev5 to a god4 ,! appe>ance ( a new />   
induc$ him to  set ab\t & accompli% ?is 
"w1 :i* he did 9 a catalogue = !  b5efit
 ( future obs]v]s4    ,hipp>*us does n  
m5tion comets1 :5ce x has be5 conjectur$
 he  _h nev] se5 any2 x has also be5    
sugge/$1 t he consid]$  !m ) meteors1   
:i* are n objects ( a/ronomical         
obs]vation4  ,he divid$ ! heav5s into   
=ty-n9e con/ellations1 viz41 twelve 9  !
 ecliptic1 tw5ty-"o 9 ! nor?1 & sixte5 9
 ! s\?4 ,to "o  ( ^! he gave ! "n (     
,b]5ice's ,hair1 9 hon\r ( ! wife (     
,ptolemy ,sot]1 :o _h consecrat$ h]     
hair1 :i* 0 v beautiful1  to ,v5us      

,urania1 if h] husb& %\ld return f a w> 
9 ,asia  victori\s2 x be+ hung up 9 !   
temple ( ! goddess1 soon aft]           
disappe>$1 & is said to h be5 c>ri$ (f  
by ! gods4    ,hipp>*us likewise        
con/ruct$ a sph]e1 or cele/ial globe1 on
 :i*  all ! />s visible at ,alex&ria 7  
depict$2 & ?\ght to h  be5 simil> to !  
,f>anese globe at ,rome1 /ill extant4 ,9
 8  obs]vations on ! />s1 he discov]$ t1
 :5 view$ f !  same spot1 _! di/ance    
always appe>$ ! same f ea* o!r2  b he   
discov]$ ! di/ance ( ! moon to be       
diff]5t 9 v>i\s  p>ts ( ! heav5s2 =     
in/ance1 9 ! horizon & z5i?4 ,?is  he   
conceiv$ to be ow+ to ! ext5t ( ! globe2
 he1 !re=e1  contriv$ a me?od ( r$uc+   
appe>ances ( ?is k9d1 to :at !y  w\ld be
 if view$ f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 :i* is     
call$ a  p>allax2 & ! discov]y ( x 0 ( !
 greate/ importance to  a/ronomy4 ,he   
took ?is idea f obs]v+ t a tree1 9 !    
middle  ( a pla91 appe>$ 9 diff]5t p>ts 
( ! horizon1 :5 view$  f diff]5t        
situations2 s does a /> appe> 9 ! v>i\s 

po9ts  ( ! heav5s1 :5 view$ 9 diff]5t   
p>ts ( ! globe4 ,hipp>*us  0 ! fir/ :o  
connect$ geography ) a/ronomy1 & ?is    
fix$  bo? ! sci5ces on c]ta9 pr9ciples4 
,aft] ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,roman empire1 ! fir/
 enc\rag] (  le>n+ 0 ,*>les ! ,great1 or
 ,*>lemagne2 b little c\ld be  done 9 8 
"t2 aft] 8 dea? ! =m] ignorance         
prevail$4  ,b$a1 or ,b$e1 f 8 piety &   
mode/y t]m$ v5]abilis1 &  8 s*ol>1      
,alc9ius1 bo? ,engli%m51 greatly excell$
 9 g5]al  lit]ature2 among o!r          
qualifications !y 7 em95t 9 !  a/ronomy 
( ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds !   
revival  ( k1 or ! translation ( !      
,a/ronomical ,elem5ts (  ,alf]gan1 !    
,arab1 by ord] ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 *os5   
,emp]or (  ,g]many 9 #abab4 ,ab\t ! same
 "t ,alphonso ,x41 ,k+ ( ,ca/ile1       
assembl$ f all p>ts ! mo/ fam\s         
a/ronom]s1 :o at 8  desire1 compos$ :at 
are call$ ! ,alphons9e ,tables1 f\nd$ on
 !  hypo!sis ( ,ptolemy4    ,ab\t ! same
 p]iod ,john ,sacrobosco1 ( ,holywood1 a
 native (  ,halifax1 9 ,york%ire1 :o 0  

educat$ at ,ox=d1 & taught  ma!matics & 
philosophy at ,p>is1 made an abridgm5t (
 !  amalgami/ ( ,ptolemy1 & ( !         
comm5t>ies ( ! ,arabs1 :i* 0  long fam\s
 z an elem5t>y book "u ! title ( 8,de   
,sphira ,mundi40  ,he di$ at ,p>is1 9 ! 
ye> #abce4 ,9 ! same ye>1 ,rog] ,bacon1 
an  ,engli% ,franciscan fri>1 made      
a/oni%+ discov]ies 9 sci5ce =  ! "t he  
liv$4 ,he p]ceiv$ ! error 9 ! ,kal5d> ( 
,julius  ,cs>1 & propos$ a plan1 = !    
correction ( x1 to ,pope ,clem5t  ,,iv4 
9 #abfg4 ,he is presum$ f 8 writ+s to h 
kn[n ! use  ( optical glasses1 & !      
composition & effects ( gunp[d]4  ,he   
believ$ 9 planet>y influ5ce on m5's     
=tunes1 & !  transmutation ( metals4 ,on
 acc\nt ( 8 va/ k 9 a/ronomy1           
ma!matics1 & *emi/ry1 he 0 call$ ,doctor
 ,mirabilis2 b1 =  ! same reason1 he 0  
suspect$ ( magic4 ,"u ?is pretext1 :il/ 
at ,p>is1 he 0 put 9 prison by ord] ( ! 
,pope's legate2 &  aft] a long & sev]e  
conf9em5t1 he 0 at la/1 by ! int]e/  (  
sev]al noble p]sons1 lib]at$1 return$ to

 ,engl&1 & di$ at  ,ox=d 9 #abib1 9 !   
sev5ty-eigh? ye> ( 8 age4    ,9 !       
fifte5? c5tury two ev5ts happ5$ :i*     
*ang$ ! face (  ! sci5ces2 ! inv5tion ( 
pr9t+1 ab\t #addj1 & ! tak+  (          
,con/ant9ople by ! ,turks 9 #adec4 ,!   
le>n$ m5 ( t city  hav+ escap$ f !      
cruelty ( ! victors1 fl$ into ,italy1 & 
aga9 introduc$ ! ta/e = classical       
lit]ature2 :i* 0 greatly  promot$ by !  
munific5ce ( ! ,emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,iii41 
,pope  ,ni*olas ,v41 & p>ticul>ly (     
,cosmo de ,m$ici1 :o ju/ly m]it$  !     
title ( ,fa!r ( 8 ,c\ntry1 & ,patron ( !
 ,muses4    ,! re/oration ( a/ronomy    
began 9 ,g]many4 ,! fir/ :o  di/+ui%$   
himself1 0 ,george ,purba*1 born at     
,purba*1 on !  conf9es ( ,au/ria &      
,bav>ia1 9 #adbc1 :o 0 cut (f 9 !  fl[] 
( 8 age--only ?irty-eight ye>s old4 ,he 
0 succe$$ by  a s*ol> m skilful ?an     
himself1 ,john ,mull]1 born at          
,konigsb]g1  9 #adcf1 :o taught         
ma!matics & a/ronomy ) great reputation 
at  ,vi5na4 ,9 ,febru>y1 #adga1 appe>$ a

 comet1 on :i* he publi%$ 8             
obs]vations4 ,be+ call$ to ,rome by     
,pope ,sextus ,,iv41 to assi/ 9         
correct+ ! ,kal5d]1 he 0 cut (f by !    
plague1 9 #adgf4 ,b]n>d  ,wal!rus1 a ri*
 citiz5 ( ,nuremb]g1 8 fri5d &          
associate1  succe$$ him1 :o is said to h
 fir/ made use ( clocks 9 8  a/ronomical
 obs]vations1 9 #adhd1 & to h be5 ! fir/
 ( !  mod]ns :o p]ceiv$ ! effects ( !   
refraction ( light4    ,fraca/orius1    
born at ,v]ona1 9 #adhc1 0 a celebrat$  
a/ronom]1 &  an em95t poet & good       
philosoph]2 he made consid]able         
discov]ies  9 ?is sci5ce1 & ) all 8     
abilities may be consid]$ z !  precursor
 ( ! celebrat$ ,cop]nicus4    ,ni*olas  
,cop]nicus1 ! re/or] ( ! ,py?agorean    
philosophy1 &  ! mod]n discov]] ( !     
rational & true sy/em ( a/ronomy1  z n[ 
univ]sally receiv$1 "u ! title ( 8 "n1 0
 born at  ,?orn1 a city ( ,royal        
,prussia1 #ai? ,febru>y1 #adgc4 ,hav+   
le>nt !  ,lat9 & ,greek ,languages 9 8  
fa!r's h\se1 he 0 s5t to ,crac[1  to be 

in/ruct$ 9 philosophy & physic1 :]e he 0
 hon\r$ )  ! degree ( doctor2 %[+ a     
great] pr$ilection = ma!matics  ?an     
m$ic9e4 ,8 uncle by 8 "m's side 0 a     
bi%op1 :o gave  him a canonry ^u 8      
return f ,italy1 :i!r he _h gone to     
/udy a/ronomy1 "u ,dom9ic ,m>ia1 at     
,bologna1 & _h aft]w>ds  taught         
ma!matics ) success at ,rome4 ,9 !      
repose & solitude (  an ecclesia/ical   
life1 he b5t 8 *ief att5tion to ! /udy (
  a/ronomy4 ,dissatisfi$ ) ! sy/em (    
,ptolemy1 :i* _h prevail$  f\rte5       
c5turies1 he lab\r$ to =m a ju/] "o4    
,:at l$ him to  discov] ! mi/akes (     
,ptolemy 0 8 obs]vations on ! motions  (
 ,v5us2 he is said to h d]iv$ 8 fir/    
notion on ?is subject  f v>i\s passages 
9 ! classics1 :i* m5tion ! op9ions (    
,py?agoras & 8 foll[]s1 z1 inde$1 he    
himself ackn[l$ges 9  8 address to ,pope
 ,paul ,,iii4 ,he e/abli%$ ! rotation ( 
! e>?  r\nd its axis1 & its motion r\nd 
! sun2 b to expla9 c]ta9  irregul>ities 
9 ! motion ( ! planets1 he reta9$ !     

epicicles  & ecc5trics ( ,ptolemy4 ,8 "w
 0 fir/ pr9t$ at ,nuremb]g1 9  #aedc1 a 
%ort "t be=e 8 dea?4    ,! doctr9es (   
,cop]nicus 7 n at fir/ g5]ally adopt$4  
,!  mo/ em95t pr(essors 9 ,europe adh]$ 
to ! old op9ions4    ,among ! a/ronom]s 
( ?is p]iod1 ! ,l&grave ( ,hesse des]ves
  p>ticul> praise1 :o erect$ a          
magnific5t obs]vatory at ! top  ( !     
,ca/le ( ,cassel1 & made _m obs]vations 
himself1 9  conjunction ) ,*ri/oph]     
,ro?man & ,ju/us ,burge1 conc]n+ !      
place ( ! sun1 ( ! planets1 & ( ! />s4  
,b ! p]son :o enri*$ a/ronomy ) !       
greate/ numb] ( facts  ( any mod]n :o _h
 yet appe>$1 0 ,ty*o ,brahe1 a ,dane (  
noble  extraction1 born 9 #aedf1 design$
 by 8 p>5ts = ! /udy ( !  law2 b        
attract$ by an eclipse ( ! sun 9 #aefj1 
at ,cop5hag51  :i!r he _h be5 s5t to    
le>n philosophy1 he 0 /ruck )  a/oni%m5t
 9 obs]v+ t ! ph5om5on happ5$ at ! v    
mom5t x _h be5 pr$ict$4    ,he admir$ ! 
art ( pr$ict+ eclipses1 & wi%$ to       
acquire x4 ,at  fir/1 = want ( prop]    

in/rum5ts1 he fell into sev]al mi/akes1 
:i*1 h[ev]1 he aft]w>ds correct$4 ,hav+ 
e>ly p]ceiv$ 8  future improvem5ts mu/  
dep5d on in/rum5ts1 he caus$ "s to be   
con/ruct$ l>g] ?an usual1 & ?us r5d]$ m 
exact4 ,on !  #aa? ,novemb]1 #aegb1 he  
p]ceiv$ a new /> 9 ,cassiopeia1 :i*     
cont9u$ )\t *ang+ its place till spr+   
#aegd1 equal 9  spl5d\r to ,jupit] or   
,v5us4 ,x la/ x *ang$ col\rs & entirely 
disappe>$4 ,no?+ simil> to ?is _h be5   
obs]v$ s9ce ! days  ( ,hipp>*us4        
,ty*o1 9 imitation ( t illu/ri\s        
a/ronom]1 conceiv$ a design  ( =m+ a    
catalogue ( ! />s4 ,to promote 8 views1 
! ,k+ (  ,d5m>k ord]$ a ca/le to be     
built 9 ,hueun1 an isl& betwe5 ,seonia  
& ,zeal&1 :i* ,ty*o call$ ,uranib\rg1 8!
 city ( heav510 &  :]e he plac$ ! f9e/  
collection ( in/rum5ts t _h ev]  yet    
appe>$2 mo/ ( !m inv5t$ or else improv$ 
by himself4 ,he  compos$ a catalogue (  
sev5 hundr$ & sev5ty-sev5 />s1 )  great]
 exactness ?an _h ev] be5 done be=e2 &  
con/ruct$  tables = f9d+ ! place ( ! mo/

 rem>kable />s at any  giv5 "t4 ,he 0 ! 
fir/ :o det]m9$ ! effect ( refraction1  
:]eby we see ! sun or any /> above !    
horizon1 be=e x is  s 9 reality2 z we   
see ! bottom ( a vessel :5 fill$ )      
wat]1 /&+ at a di/ance1 :i* we c\ld n   
see :5 empty4 ,he  made sev]al o!r      
improvem5ts & important discov]ies1 :i* 
he  publi%$ 9 a "w entitl$              
8,progymnasmata40 ,! lab\rs ( ,ty*o     
attract$ ! att5tion ( ,europe2 ! le>n$  
w5t to consult him1 &  ! noble to see   
him4 ,james ,,vi4 ( ,scotl&1 :5 he w5t  
to esp\se  ! si/] ( ,fr$]ic1 ,k+ (      
,d5m>k1 paid ,ty*o a visit1 ) all  8    
ret9ue1 & wrote "s ,lat9 v]ses 9 8      
praise4    ,b ^! hon\rs 7 ( %ort        
cont9uance4 ,aft] ! dea? ( 8  protector1
 ,k+ ,fr$]ic1 ! p5sion assign$ him 0    
)drawn1 &  he 0 compell$ to exile       
himself f 8 native c\ntry4 ,hav+ hir$  a
 %ip1 he transport$ 8 furniture1 books1 
& in/rum5ts to a small  place 9         
,hamburgh1 9 #aeig4 ,! ,emp]or          
,rodolphus invit$ him into 8  dom9ions1 

settl$ a l>ge p5sion ^u him1 gave him a 
ca/le ne>  ,prague1 to prosecute 8      
discov]ies1 & appo9t$ him ,longomatus1  
a native ( ,jutl&1 & ! celebrat$ ,kepl]1
 to assi/ him4 ,b  ,ty*o 0 n happy 9 8  
new situation2 he di$ #ad? ,octob]1     
#afja1  repeat+ sev]al times1 8,i h n   
liv$ 9 va940    ,kepl] 0 "o ( ! greate/ 
philosoph]s t ev] liv$1 & ought  to be  
consid]$ z ! discov]] ( ! true sy/em ( !
 _w4  ,he 0 born 9 ,g]many1 at ,wiel1   
ne> ,wirtemb]g1 #bg? ,decemb]1  #aega4  
,he e>ly imbib$ ! pr9ciples (           
,cop]nicus4 ,aft] ! dea?  ( ,ty*o1 he 0 
employ$ to f9i% ! tables :i* he _h begun
 to  compose f 8 obs]vations4 ,kepl]    
took tw5ty ye>s to f9i% !m4  ,he d$icat$
 !m to ! emp]or1 "u ! title ( !         
8,rodolph9e  ,tables40    ,kepl] unit$  
optics ) a/ronomy1 & ?us made ! mo/     
important  discov]ies4 ,he 0 ! fir/ :o  
discov]$ t ! planets move  n 9 a circle1
 b 9 an ellipse2 & t altoge!r !y move   
sometimes fa/] & sometimes sl[]1 yet t  
!y describe equal  areas 9 equal times2 

t is1 t ! spaces ?r\gh :i* !y  move 9   
diff]5t p>ts ( _! orbit1 are ( equal    
times1 ?\gh  ( unequal l5g?2 yet :5 two 
/raight l9es are drawn f !  extremity ( 
ei!r space to ! c5tre ( ! sun1 !y =m    
triangles  :i* include equal areas4 ,he 
likewise demon/rat$ t ! squ>es (  !     
p]iodical times ( ! revolution ( !      
planets r\nd ! sun1  are 9 proportion to
 ! cubes ( _! di/ance f him2 a !orem  ( 
! greate/ use 9 a/ronomical             
calculations3 = hav+ !  p]iodical times 
( two planets giv51 & if ! di/ance ( "o 
(  !m be kn[n1 by ! rule ( proportion1 !
 di/ance ( ! o!r c  be asc]ta9$4        
,kepl] is said to h us$ log>i?ms 9 fram+
 8 8,rodolph9e  ,tables40 ,?is great man
 di$ 9 pov]ty1 #ae? ,novemb]1 #afca1 at 
,ratisbon1 :i!r he _h gone to solicit ! 
arre>s ( 8 p5sion1  :i* _h be5 v ill    
paid3 he left no?+ to 8 wife & *ildr5  b
 ! remembrance ( 8 virtues4             
,contempor>y ) ,kepl] 0 ,galileo1 born  
at ,pisa1 9 ,italy1 9 #aefd2  illu/ri\s 
= 8 improvem5ts 9 me*anics1 = 8         

application  ( ! effects ( gravity1 & = 
! inv5tion1 or at lea/1 !  improvem5t ( 
telescopes4    ,! use ( spectacles1 or  
read+ glasses 7convex = long-sight$2 &  
concave = %ort-sight$ p]sons17 _h be5   
inv5t$ by "o ,sp9a1 a  monk at ,pisa1 9 
#abij2 or1 z "s say1 by our c\ntryman   
,rog] ,bacon4  ,! use ( telescopes or   
glasses = view+ objects at a di/ance1  0
 inv5t$ by ,za*>y ,janss51 a            
spectacle-mak]1 at ,middleburg1 or  r1 z
 x is said1 f ! accid5tal discov]y ( a  
*ild4 ,!  hon\r ( ?is inv5tion is also  
claim$ by o!rs4 ,x is c]ta9 t  ,galileo 
fir/ improv$ !m s z to answ] a/ronomical
 purposes4  ,he also fir/ made use ( !  
s+le p5dulum = measur+ "t 9  mak+ 8     
obs]vations2 to :i* he 0 l$1 by consid]+
 "o day  ! vibrations ( a lamp susp5d$ f
 ! vault$ ro( ( a *ur*4  ,he likewise   
discov]$ ! gravity ( ! atmosph]e f !    
ris+ (  wat] 9 a pump1 by ! action ( a  
pi/on1 :i* l$ ! way to !  inv5tion ( !  
b>omet]1 by 8 s*ol> ,toricelli4    ,!   
use ( telescopes op5$1 9 a mann]1 a new 

_w to ,galileo4  ,he obs]v$ ) a/oni%m5t 
! increas$ magnitude & spl5d\r  ( !     
planets & _! satellites1 =m]ly          
invisible3 :i*  af=d$ additional pro(s (
 ! v]acity ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1        
p>ticul>ly ! satellites ( ,jupit]1 & !  
phasis ( ,v5us4 ,he  discov]$ an        
innum]able multitude ( fix$ />s1 :i* !  
nak$ eye  c\ld n disc]n1 & :at greatly  
excit$ 8 wond]1 )\t !  lea/ increase 9  
_! size or brightness4    ,ab\t ! same  
"t1 ,john ,napi]1 ( ,m]*i/on1 9 ,scotl&1
 inv5t$  :at are call$ 8,log>i?ms10 fir/
 publi%$ at ,ed9burgh 9 #afad1  aft]w>ds
 improv$ by ,mr4 ,briggs1 ,pr(essor (   
,geometry1 at ,ox=d1  9 :i*1 by a v     
+5i\s contrivance1 addition is made to  
answ]  = multiplication1 & subtraction =
 division2 an inv5tion ( !  greate/     
utility 9 a/ronomical calculations4     
,galileo 0 n afflict$ ) pov]ty1 b )     
p]secution4 ,at  sev5ty ye>s ( age he 0 
call$ be=e ! ,holy ,inquisition1 =      
support+ op9ions contr>y to             
,scripture1--& 0 oblig$1 on !  #aa? (   

,june1 #afcc1 =mally to abjure !m1 to   
avoid be+ burnt z  a h]etic4 ,! sy/em ( 
,cop]nicus _h yet ga9$ b few conv]ts2  &
 ! bulk ( pr(essions & le>n$ m5 9       
,europe1 atta*$ to  ! philosophy (      
,ari/otle1 support$ ! old doctr9e4      
,galileo 0  condemn$ to prison1 & conf9$
 to ! small city ( ,arcem1 ) its        
t]ritory1 :]e he consol$ himself by !   
/udy ( a/ronomy4 ,he  contriv$ a me?od (
 discov]+ ! longitude by ! satellites ( 
,jupit]1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has n be5          
productive ( all ! advantages  he       
expect$4 ,he di$ 9 prison1 or r 9 exile1
 9 #afdb4    ,al?\gh !re 7 a great numb]
 ( a/ronom]s contempor>y )  ,kepl] &    
,galileo1 none made any conspicu\s      
figure4 ,john ,bay]1  ( ,augsburg1      
introduc$ ! ,jewi% me?od ( m>k+ ! />s ) 
lett]s ( ! ,greek & ,lat9 alphabets2 ?is
 ! ,jews use because  _! law does n     
p]mit ! use ( figures1 ! produce (      
fancy4    ,9 #agcb1 a/ronom]s 7 v       
att5tive to obs]ve ! transit (  ,v5us   
ov] ! disc ( ! sun1 :i* ,kepl] _h       

pr$ict$1 z a  confirmation ( ! sy/em (  
,cop]nicus4 ,m]cury 0 obs]v$ by         
,gass5di 9 ,france1 & "s o!rs2 b !      
transit ( ,v5us did n  !n take place =  
_! inspection4    ,! transit ( ,v5us 0  
fir/ se5 by ,j]emiah ,horrox1 ( ,hoole1 
an obscure village1 fifte5 miles nor? ( 
,liv]pool1 on ! #bd? (  ,novemb]1 #afci1
 & at ! same "t by 8 fri5d1 ,william    
,crabtree1  at ,man*e/]4 ,horrox 0 born 
9 #afai1 & di$ 9 #afda1 9 !  tw5ty-?ird 
ye> ( 8 age4 ,he wrote an acc\nt ( 8    
obs]vations1  :i* 7 publi%$ aft] 8 dea?1
 "u ! title ( 8,v5us 9 ,sole  visa10 by 
,hevelius4    ,! ,cop]nican sy/em 0 fir/
 publicly def5d$ 9 ,engl&1 by ,dr4      
,wilk9s1 9 #affj2 9 ,france1 by         
,gass5di1 ! son ( a peasant 9  ,prov5ce1
 :o publi%$ _m valuable works on        
,philosophy4 ,he 0 born  9 #aeib1 & di$ 
9 #afee4 ,he 0 viol5tly oppos$ by ,mor91
 a fam\s  a/rolog]4    ,desc>tes1       
desc5d$ f a noble family1 ! son ( a     
c\nsellor (  ,brittany1 9 ,france1 born 
at ,haye1 9 ,t\rra9e1 #ca/ ( ,m>*1      

#aeif1  e>ly di/+ui%$ himself by 8 k 9  
algebra & geometry4  ,he attack$ &      
ov]turn$ ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle1 9 8  
own  c\ntry4 ,he attempt$ to e/abli%    
c]ta9 pr9ciples1 :i*1 ?\gh  f\nd$ 9     
!ory1 he took = grant$1 by :i* he       
acc\nt$ = all  appe>ances4 ,l ,mo*us &  
,democritus1 he imag9$ all space to be  
fill$ ) corpuscules1 or atoms1 9        
cont9ual agitation1 & d5i$  !           
possibility ( a vacuum4 ,he expla9$     
ev]y?+ by suppos+  vortices1 or motions 
r\nd a c5tre1 accord+ to ! op9ions (    
,democritus1 & ?us discov]$ ! c5trifugal
 =ce 9 ! circul>  motion ( ! planets4 ,b
 ! sy/em ( ,desc>tes n be+ f\nd$ on     
facts or exp]im5ts1 did n subsi/ long3  
al?\gh at fir/ x _h  _m foll[]s4 ,8     
a/ronomical op9ions 7 mu* ! same ) ^?  (
 ,cop]nicus4    ,al?\gh ! lively notions
 ( ,desc>tes l$ him into error1 yet 8   
exalt$ views greatly contribut$ to !    
improvem5t ( sci5ce4 ,m5  7 l$ to       
obs]vation & exp]im5ts1 9 ord] to       
ov]turn 8  sy/em1 & a/ronomy 0 cultivat$

 by p]sons ( ability2 viz41  ,b\ill>d1  
at ,p>is2 ,w>d1 at ,ox=d1 #afec2 & by   
,helvelius1 at  ,dantzic1 #afdc1 :o     
con/ruct$ a f9e obs]vatory1 & collect$ a
  great _m facts by 8 long assidu\s     
obs]vation1 = fifty ye>s1  dur+ :i* he  
made _m discov]ies conc]n+ ! planets1   
fix$  />s1 & p>ticul>ly comets4 ,colb]t1
 9 ! "n ( ,l\is ,,xiv41  s5t him a sum (
 money & a p5sion4 ,hevelius publi%$ a  
catalogue  ( fix$ />s1 entitl$1         
8,firmam5tum ,sobieskianum10 d$icat$ to 
,john ,sobieski1 ,k+ ( ,pol&1 at t "t   
ju/ly fam\s = hav+  rais$ ! siege (     
,vi5na1 :5 attack$ by ! ,turks1 #afhc4  
,9 hon\r  ( :om ,helvelius =m$ a new    
con/ellation betwe5 ,ant9onus &         
,s]p5t]ius1 call$ ,sobieski's ,%ield4   
,b ! mo/ di/+ui%$ a/ronom] ( t "t 0     
,*ri/ian  ,huyg5s1 son to ! secret>y ( !
 ,pr9ce ( ,orange1 born at !  ,hague1   
#ad? ( ,april1 #afbi1 & educat$ at      
,leyd51 "u ,s*oot51 !  comm5tator on    
,desc>tes1--fam\s = ! application (     
p5dulums to  clocks & spr+s to wat*es1 =

 ! improvem5t ( telescopes &            
microscopes1 & = ! great discov]ies he  
made1 9 consequ5ce (  ^! improvem5ts 9  
a/ronomy4    ,! e/abli%m5t ( academies1 
or societies1 at ?is "t1 contribut$     
greatly to ! advancem5t ( sci5ce4    ,! 
,royal ,society1 9 ,london1 0 begun 9   
#afei1 b did n assume a  regul> =m till 
#affb4 ,its transactions 7 fir/ publi%$ 
9 #affe4  ,! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 at    
,p>is1 0 f\nd$ 9 #afhf1 by ,l\is ,,xiv41
  :o invit$ to x ,rm]1 f ,d5m>k1 ,huyg5s
 & ,cass9i f ,italy4    ,cass9i 0 born  
at ,p]9aldo1 9 ! c\nty ( ,nice1 on ! #h?
 (  ,june1 #afbe1 & 0 appo9t$ fir/      
pr(essor 9 ! ,royal ,obs]vatory  at     
,p>is1 :]e he prosecut$ 8 discov]ies    
till 8 dea?1 9 #agab1  & 0 succe$$ by 8 
son4 ,he 0 assi/$ by ,pic>d1 ,auz\l1 &  
,la  ,hire4    ,by ! direction ( !      
,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,p>is1 a voyage 0
  und]tak5 by ,rie*] & ,meurisse1 at !  
k+'s exp5se1 to !  isl& ( ,cai5ne1 9    
,s\? ,am]ica1 almo/ "u ! equator1 9     
#afgb1  to asc]ta9 sev]al philosophical 

facts2--! refraction ( light1  ! p>allax
 ( ,m>s1 & ( ! ,sun1 ! di/ance ( !      
tropics1 !  v>iation 9 ! motion ( !     
p5dulum1 c4    ,! p>allax ( ! sun is !  
angle "u :i* an obs]v] at !  sun w\ld   
see ! e>?3 ?is ,cass9i fix$ at #i       
seconds1 & !  angle "u :i* we see ! sun1
 at #af m9utes & #f seconds1 or #iff    
seconds2 h5ce he conclud$ t ^!          
semi-diamet]s1 are z #i to  #iff1 or z  
#aj to #aicb4 ,s t1 accord+ to ,cass9i1 
! semi-diamet]  ( ! e>? is "o hundr$    
times less ?an t ( ! sun2 &  consequ5tly
 ! sun is a million times l>g] ?an !    
e>?4    ,! p>allax ( ! sun has s9ce1 f !
 transit ( ,v5us1 #f? (  ,june1 #agfa1 &
 #crd ( ,june1 #agfi1 be5 discov]$ to be
 b ab\t #h  seconds1 consequ5tly 8      
comp>ative bulk to t ( ! e>?1 &  8      
di/ance f x1 to be proportionably       
great]4 ,! me?od (  f9d+ ! di/ance ( !  
e>? f ! sun1 & consequ5tly ( !  o!r     
planets1 0 fir/ propos$ by ,dr4 ,halley1
 :o _h nev] se51  & 0 morally c]ta9 he  
w\ld nev] see1 ?is appe>ance4           

,meurisse di$ dur+ ! voyage4 ,rie*]     
return$ 9 #afgf4 ,8 answ]  to ! p>allax 
( ,m>s 0 n satisfactory4 ,cass9i        
calculat$ x at  #ae seconds4    ,!      
di/ance ( ! tropics 0 f\nd to be #df    
degrees1 #eg m9utes1 #d  seconds4 ,!    
*ief advantage result+ f ! voyage 0     
asc]ta9+  ! vibration ( ! p5dulum4 ,9   
#affi1 ,plac>d rem>k$ t clocks  w5t sl[]
 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]1 ow+ to1 z s9ce     
asc]ta9$1  t x is ! prop]ty ( heat to   
dilate bodies1 :i* consequ5tly  l5g!ns !
 p5dulum2 t cold produces an opposite   
effect4 ,rie*]  f\nd t ! p5dulum made   
=ty-eight vibrations less at ,cai5ne    
?an at ,p>is2 t x w5t two m9utes & tw5ty
 seconds a day  sl[]2 h5ce1 to adju/1 he
 0 oblig$ to %ort5 ! p5dulum4    ,! same
 fact 0 confirm$ by ,halley1 :ile at ,/4
 ,hel5a1 #afgf4 ,b  an additional reason
 = ?is v>iation is presum$ to exi/1 f ! 
ma*9]y be+ fur!r remov$ f ! c5tral axis 
( ! e>?2 !  gravitat+ pr9ciple is       
presum$ to be dim9i%$ at ! equator m    
?an x is :5 ne>] ! poles4    ,ab\t ?is  

"t ! ,fr5* ,jesuit mission>ies1 hav+ got
 admission  into ,*9a1 contribut$       
greatly to ! improvem5t ( _! a/ronomy4  
,fa!r ,s*aal1 "o ( _! numb]1 on acc\nt (
 8 m]it1 &  p>ticul>ly = 8 skill 9      
a/ronomy1 0 s highly hon\r$ by  ! c\rt (
 ,*9a1 t ! emp]or1 ^u 8 dea?-b$1 made   
him  preceptor to 8 son & successor4    
,s*aal re=m$ ! ,kal5d>1 a  matt] ( great
 importance to t c\ntry4 ,x 0 fur!r     
improv$  by ,v]bie/1 :o succe$$ ,s*aal1 
ab\t #afgj4 ,! mo/ em95t  a/ronom]s 9   
,engl& dur+ ?is p]iod 7 ,flam/ead1      
,halley1 &  ,hook4    ,sir ,isaac       
,newton 0 born at ,wool/rope1 9 ,l9coln1
 ,decemb] #be1 #afdb2  aft] due         
prep>ation he 0 admitt$ 9 ! ,univ]sity (
 ,cambridge4  ,! rapidity ( 8 progress 9
 ma!matical k 0 truly  a/oni%+4 ,at !   
age ( tw5ty-f\r1 he _h laid ! f\ndation 
(  ! mo/ important ma!matical           
discov]ies4 ,he is ! fir/ :o gave  a    
rational & complete acc\nt ( ! laws :i* 
regulate planet>y  motion1 on !         
pr9ciples ( attraction & gravitation4   

,newton 0 z  rem>kable = a mode/        
diffid5ce ( 8 own abilities1 z = !      
sup]iority ( 8 g5ius4 ,9 #agjd1 he      
publi%$ 8 8,optics20 9 #agaa1  8        
8,fluxions20 & 9 #agbh1 8 8,*ronology40 
,he receiv$ 9 8 life  "t ! hon\r due to 
8 s+ul> m]it4 ,9 #agjc1 he 0 elect$     
,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,9 #agje1
 he receiv$ ! hon\r (  knigh?ood by     
,que5 ,anne4--,he 0 twice memb] (       
p>liam5t4 ,9 #affi1  he 0 made ma/] ( ! 
m9t1 :i*1 ) ! presid5cy ( ! ,royal      
,society1 he held till 8 dea?1 9 #agbf4 
,he 0 buri$ 9 ,we/m9/]  ,abbey1 :]e !re 
is an appropriate monum5t to 8 memory4  
,! sy/em ( ,newton _h an em95t support] 
& able annotator 9  ! v em95t ,scotti%  
pr(essor1 ,col9 ,mac ,laur91 :o 0 born  
9 ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 #afih4 ,9 #agai1 he
 travell$ to ,london1  :]e he 0         
introduc$ to ! illu/ri\s ,newton1 ^:    
notice &  fri5d%ip he obta9$1 & ev] aft]
 reckon$ z ! greate/ hon\r  & happ9ess (
 8 life4 ,9 #agcd1 ,dr4 ,b]keley1 ,bi%op
 ( ,cloyne1  publi%$ 8 treatise1 call$  

8,! ,analy/10 9 :i* he attempt$  to *>ge
 ma!maticians ) infidelity 9 matt]s (   
religion4 ,?is  "w 0 ! occasion ( ,mac  
,laur9's elaborate 8,treatise on        
,fluxions10  publi%$ at ,ed9burgh1 9    
#agdb1 :i* is reckon$ ! mo/ ample       
treatise on t bran* ( novel ma!matics   
:i* has yet appe>$4 ,s  v em95t 0 ,mac  
,laur9's skill 9 ma!matics1 & !         
pr9ciples  ( anatomical sci5ce1 & he    
possess$ su* excell5t in/rum5ts =  ^!   
purposes1 t a new !ory nev] appe>$1 nor 
did any?+  transpire 9 ! sci5tific _w1  
:i* 0 uncommon1 b 8 fri5ds  con/antly   
resort$ to him = explanation & exp]im5t1
 & _!  laudable curiosity 0 sure to be  
satisfactorily gratifi$4    ,"o ( !     
greate/ names 9 ! mod]n hi/ory (        
a/ronomical  discov]y is t ( ! late ,sir
 ,william ,h]s*el2 &1 mu* to 8  praise1 
he 0 self-in/ruct$ 9 ! sci5ce 9 :i* he  
e>n$ 8  high reputation4 ,h]s*el 0 born 
at ,hanov]1 9 #agcf1 & 0 !  son ( a     
musician 9 humble circum/ances4 ,br\ght 
up to 8 fa!r's  pr(ession1 at ! age (   

f\rte5 he 0 plac$ 9 ! b& ( !  ,hanov]ian
 ,gu>ds4 ,a deta*m5t ( ?is regim5t hav+ 
be5 ord]$  to ,engl& 9 ! ye> #ageg1 he &
 8 fa!r accompani$ x2 b  ! latt] return$
 to ,g]many 9 a few mon?s1 & left 8 son 
to  try 8 =tune 9 ,london4 ,= a long "t 
he _h _m difficulties  to cont5d )1 & he
 pass$ sev]al ye>s pr9cipally 9 giv+    
lessons 9 music 9 ! diff]5t t[ns 9 !    
,nor? ( ,engl&4 ,at  la/1 9 #agfe1 ?r\gh
 ! int]e/ ( a g5tleman to :om 8 m]its   
_h become kn[n1 he obta9$ ! situation ( 
organi/ at ,halifax2 &  next ye>1 hav+  
gone to fulfil a %ort engagem5t at ,ba?1
 he gave  s mu* satisfaction by 8       
p]=mances1 t he 0 appo9t$ to !  same    
(fice 9 ! ,octagon ,*apel ( t city1 ^u  
:i* he w5t to  reside !re4 ,! place :i* 
he n[ held 0 ( "s value2 & f  !         
opportunities :i* he enjoy$ ( add+ to   
its emolum5ts1 by  engagem5ts at ! rooms
 & private conc]ts1 z well z by tak+    
pupils1 he _h _h ! prospect ( d]iv+ a   
good income f 8  pr(ession1 if he _h    
made t 8 only or 8 *ief object4    ,dur+

 8 resid5ce at ,ba?1 al?\gh greatly     
occupi$ )  pr(essional engagem5ts1 ! "t 
he devot$ to 8 ma!matical  /udies 0     
surpris+4 ,(t51 we are told1 aft] a     
fatigu+ day's  "w ( f\rte5 or sixte5    
h\rs among 8 pupils1 he w\ld1 on        
return+ home at night1 repair =         
relaxation to :at _m w\ld  deem ^! sev]]
 ex]cises4 ,9 ?is mann]1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1
  he atta9$ a compet5t k ( geometry1 &  
f\nd himself 9 a  condition to proce$ to
 ! /udy ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( physical  
sci5ce :i* dep5d ^u ! ma!matics4 ,among 
! fir/ ( !  latt] t attract$ 8 att5tion1
 7 ! k9dr$ dep>tm5ts (  a/ronomy &      
optics4 ,hav+ appli$ himself to ^!      
sci5ces1 he  became desir\s ( behold+ ) 
8 own eyes ^? wond]s ( !  heav5s ( :i*  
he _h read s mu*1 & = t purpose he      
borr[$  f an acqua9tance a two-feet     
,gregorian telescope4 ,?is in/rum5t     
int]e/$ him s greatly1 t he det]m9$ to  
procure "o ( 8  own1 & commission$ a    
fri5d 9 ,london to pur*ase "o = him1 ( a
  some:at l>g] size4 ,b he f\nd ! price 

0 beyond :at he c\ld  af=d4 ,to make up 
= ?is disappo9tm5t1 he resolv$ to       
con/ruct a  telescope = himself2 & aft] 
enc\nt]+ innum]able difficulties  9 !   
progress ( 8 task1 he at la/ succe$$1 9 
! ye> #aggd1 9  complet+ a five-feet    
,newtonian reflector4 ,?is 0 !          
comm5cem5t  ( a long & brilliant c\rse (
 triumphs 9 ! same walk ( art1 &  also 9
 t ( a/ronomical discov]y4 ,h]s*el n[   
became s mu*  m ard5tly atta*$ to 8     
philosophical pursuits1 t1 reg>dless  ( 
! sacrifice ( emolum5t he 0 mak+1 he    
begun gradually to  limit 8 pr(essional 
engagem5ts1 & ! numb] ( 8 pupils4       
,mean:ile he cont9u$ to employ 8 leisure
 9 ! fabrication (  /ill m p[]ful       
in/rum5ts ?an ! "o he _h fir/ con/ruct$2
  & 9 no long "t he produc$ telescopes (
 sev51 t51 & ev5  tw5ty feet focal      
di/ance4 ,9 fa%ion+ ! mirrors = ^!      
in/rum5ts1 8 p]sev]ance 0 indefatigable4
 ,= 8 sev5-feet  reflector1 we h be5    
in=m$ t he actually f9i%$ & made  trial 
( no few] ?an two hundr$ mirrors be=e he

 f\nd "o t  satisfi$ him4 ,:5 he sat d[n
 to prep>e a mirror1 8 practice  0 to "w
 at x = twelve or f\rte5 h\rs1 )\t      
quitt+ 8  occupation = a mom5t4 ,he w\ld
 n ev5 take 8 h& f :at he  0 ab\t1 to   
help himself to food2 & ! little he ate 
on su*  occasions 0 put into 8 m\? by 8 
si/]4 ,he gave ! mirror a  prop] %ape1 m
 by a c]ta9 natural tact ?an by rule2 & 
:5 8  h& 0 once 91 z ! phrase is1 he 0  
afraid t ! p]fection  ( ! f9i% might be 
impair$ by ! lea/ int]mission ( 8       
lab\rs4    ,x 0 on ! #ac? ( ,m>*1 #agha1
 t ,h]s*el made ! discov]y to  :i* he   
owes1 p]haps1 mo/ ( 8 reputation4 ,he _h
 be5 engag$  = ne>ly a ye> & a half 9   
mak+ a survey ( ! heav5s1 :51  on ! ev5+
 ( ! day t has be5 m5tion$1 hav+ turn$ 8
  reflector 7an excell5t sev5 feet      
reflector ( 8 own con/ruct+7  to a      
p>ticul> "p ( ! sky1 he obs]v$ among !  
o!r />s "o  :i* seem$ to %9e ) a m /eady
 radiance ?an ^? ar\nd x2  & on acc\nt (
 t & o!r peculi>ities 9 its appe>ance1  
:i*  excit$ 8 suspicions1 he det]m9$ to 

obs]ve x m n>r[ly4 ,on  rev]t+ to x aft]
 "s h\rs1 he 0 a good deal surpris$ to  
f9d  t x _h p]ceptibly *ang$ its        
place--a fact :i* ! next day  became m  
indisputable4 ,at fir/ he 0 some:at 9   
d\bt :e!r  or n x 0 ! same /> :i* he _h 
se5 on ^! diff]5t  occasions2 b1 aft]   
cont9u+ 8 obs]vations = a few days      
long]1 all unc]ta9ty ^u t head vani%$4  
,he n[ communicat$  :at he _h obs]v$ to 
! a/ronom] royal1 :o conclud$ !  lum9>y 
c\ld be no?+ else ?an a new comet4      
,cont9u$ obs]vation  ( x1 h[ev]1 = a few
 mon?s1 dissipat$ ?is error2 & x became 
evid5t t x 0 9 reality a hi!rto         
undiscov]$ planet4 ,?is new  _w s       
unexpect$ly f\nd to =m a "p ( ! sy/em to
 :i* our  own belongs1 receiv$ f        
,h]s*el1 ! "n ( ! ,georgium ,sidus1  or 
,georgian ,/>1 9 hon\r ( ! ,k+ ( ,engl&2
 b by cont95tal  a/ronom]s x has be5 m  
g5]ally call$ ei!r ,h]s*el1 aft]  its   
discov]]1 or ,uranus4 ,subsequ5t        
obs]vations1 made *iefly by  ,h]s*el    
himself1 h asc]ta9$ _m p>ticul>s reg>d+ 

x1 "s  ( :i* are well calculat$ to fill 
u ) a/oni%m5t at ! p[]s  ( ! sublime    
sci5ce :i* c w+ its way s f> into !     
imm5sity  ( space1 & br+ u back         
in=mation s precise & v>i\s4 ,9  ! fir/ 
place1 ! diamet] ( ?is new globe has be5
 f\nd to be  ne>ly f\r & a half times   
l>g] ?an t ( our own4 ,its size         
altoge!r is ab\t eighty times t ( our   
e>?4 ,its ye> is z long  z eighty-?ree (
 ours4    ,its di/ance f ! sun is ne>ly 
eighte5 hundr$ millions ( miles1  or m  
?an n9ete5 times t ( ! e>?4 ,its d5sity1
 z comp>$  ) t ( ! e>?1 is ne>ly z      
tw5ty-two to "o hundr$2 s  t its entire 
weight is m ?an eighte5 times t ( our   
planet4  ,f9ally ! =ce ( gravitation ne>
 its surface is su*1 t fall+  bodies    
desc5d only ?r\gh f\rte5 feet dur+ !    
fir/ second1  in/ead ( ?irty-two feet z 
) u4 ,h]s*el aft]w>ds discov]$  no few] 
?an six satellites1 or moons1 belong+ to
 8 new planet4    ,! ann\ncem5t ( !     
discov]y ( ! ,georgium ,sidus at once   
made  ,h]s*el's "n univ]sally kn[n4 ,9 !

 c\rse ( a few mon?s !  k+ be/[$ on him 
a p5sion ( ?ree hundr$ p\nds a ye>1 t   
he might be able entirely to rel9qui% 8 
engagem5ts at ,ba?2 &  ^u ?is he came to
 reside at ,sl\gh1 ne> ,w9dsor4 ,he n[  
devot$  himself entirely to sci5ce2 & ! 
con/ruction ( telescopes1 &  obs]vations
 ( ! heav5s1 cont9u$ to =m ! occupations
 ( !  rema9d] ( 8 life4 ,a/ronomy is    
indebt$ to him = _m o!r mo/  int]e/+    
discov]ies besides ! celebrat$ "o ( :i* 
we h  j giv5 an acc\nt1 z well z a      
v>iety ( speculations ( ! mo/  +5i\s1   
orig9al1 & pr(\nd "*4 ,b ( ^! we _c  "h 
attempt any detail4 ,he also introduc$  
"s important improvem5ts  into !        
con/ruction ( ! reflect+                
telescope--beside cont9u+  to fabricate 
t in/rum5t ( dim5sions greatly exce$+   
any t  _h be5 =m]ly attempt$1 ) ! p[]s  
surpass+ 9 ne>ly a  correspond+ degree1 
:at _h ev] be5 be=e obta9$4 ,! l>ge/    
telescope :i* he ev] made1 0 8 fam\s "o 
( =ty feet long1  :i* he erect$ at      
,sl\gh = ! k+4 ,x 0 begun ab\t ! end  ( 

! ye> #aghe1 & on ! #bh? ( ,augu/1      
#aghi1 ! enorm\s tube  0 pois$ on !     
complicat$ b +5i\sly contriv$ me*anism  
by  :i* its movem5ts 7 to be regulat$1 &
 ready = use4 ,on !  same day a new     
satellite ( ,saturn 0 detect$ by x1 be+ 
! six?  :i* _h be5 obs]v$ att5dant ^u t 
planet4 ,a sev5? 0  aft]w>ds discov]$ by
 means ( ! same in/rum5t4 ,?is telescope
  has be5 tak5 d[n & replac$ by ano!r ( 
only half ! l5g?1  con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,j4
 ,h]s*el1 ! di/+ui%$ son ( ! subject  ( 
our pres5t sket*4 ,h]s*el himself       
ev5tually became conv9c$  t no telescope
 c\ld surpass1 9 magnify+ p[]1 "o ( f   
tw5ty to tw5ty-five feet 9 l5g?4 ,!     
,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,lal&e1  /ates t he 0   
in=m$ by ,george ,,iii4 himself1 t x 0  
at 8  desire t ,h]s*el 0 induc$ to make 
! telescope at ,sl\gh ( !  extraord9>y  
l5g? he did1 8 own wi% be+ t x %\ld n be
  m ?an ?irty feet long4    ,s          
extraord9>y 0 ! ard\r ( ?is great       
a/ronom] 9 ! /udy  ( 8 fav\rite sci5ce1 
t = _m ye>s x has be5 ass]t$1  he nev] 0

 9 b$ at any h\r dur+ :i* ! />s 7       
visible4  ,& he made almo/ all 8        
obs]vations1 :atev] 0 ! season (  ! ye>1
 n "u cov]1 b 9 8 g>d51 9 ! op5 air--&  
g5]ally )\t an att5dant4 ,!re 0 mu* t 0 
peculi> to  himself1 n only 9 ! process 
by :i* he fabricat$ 8 telescopes1  b    
also 9 8 mann] ( us+ !m4 ,"o ( !        
att5dants 9 !  k+'s obs]vatory at       
,ri*mond1 :o _h =m]ly be5 a workman 9   
,ramsd5's e/abli%m5t1 0 =cibly rem9d$1  
on see+ ,h]s*el  take an obs]vation1 ( a
 rem>k :i* 8 old ma/] _h made4  ,hav+ j 
complet$ "o ( 8 be/ telescopes1 ,ramsd51
 address+  himself to 8 workman1 said1  
8,?is1 ,i believe1 is ! highe/ degree  (
 p]fection we opticians by pr(ession w  
ev] arrive at2 if any  improvem5t (     
importance %all ev] aft] ?is be         
introduc$ 9 !  mak+ ( telescopes1 x w be
 by "s "o :o has n be5 taught by  u40   
,"s ye>s be=e 8 dea?1 ! degree (        
,,ll4,d4 0 conf]r$ ^u  ,h]s*el by !     
,univ]sity ( ,ox=d2 & 9 #ahaf1 ! ,pr9ce 
,reg5t  be/[$ ^u him ! ,hanov]ian &     

,guelphic ,ord] ( ,knigh?ood4 ,he  di$  
on ! #bcrd ( ,augu/1 #ahbb1 :5 he 0 )9 a
 few mon?s (  hav+ complet$ 8           
eighty-f\r? ye>4    ,we h be5 ?us       
p>ticul> 9 ! enum]ation ( p>ticul>s 9 ! 
lives ( ^? great m51 :o h cultivat$ ?is 
sublime sci5ce1  = ! purpose ( avail+   
ourselves ( a sugge/ion furni%$ by ,dr4 
,prie/ly1 :o obs]v$1 8,t we c\ld only   
see ,newton 9 two po9ts (  8 c>e]3 at ! 
bottom ( ! ladd]1 & at ! top2 hav+ left 
no  acc\nt ( 8 progress1 x appe>$ z ?\gh
 he _h brok5 ! /eps  by :i* he _h       
asc5d$1 t none %\ld foll[40    ,f !     
facts collect$ by ! _m em95t m5 ^: names
 h  ornam5t$ our pages1 we are enabl$ to
 /ate ! foll[+ p>ticul>s  conc]n+ t "p (
 ! univ]se d5om9at$ ! ,sol> sy/em4    ,!
 ,sun1 a lum9\s body diffus+ light &    
heat2 ^: diamet]  is comput$ at #hij1jjj
 miles2 diurnal rotation on axis #be    
days #f  h\rs2 p]=ms 8 annual revolution
 9 orbit 9 #cfe days #f h\rs2           
progressive equatorial motion 9 orbit p]
 h\r1 #chah miles4    ,m]cury1 ^:       

diamet] is #c1jjj miles1 revolves 9 an  
orbit  #cf1dha1ddh miles f t ( ! sun4   
,he p]=ms 8 annual p]iod  r\nd t planet 
9 #hg days #bc h\rs2 8 h\rly equatorial 
motion 9  orbit is #aji1fii miles4      
,v5us1--h] diamet] is #i1ccj miles2     
revolves 9 an orbit #fh1hia1dhf  miles  
di/ant f ! sun2 p]=ms h] annual         
revolution 9 #bbd days  #ag h\rs2       
diurnal rotation on axis #bd days #h    
h\rs3 h\rly equatorial  motion 9 orbit  
#hj1bie miles4    ,! ,e>?1--its diamet] 
#gigj miles2 di/ance ( orbit f ! sun    
#ie1agc1jjj miles2 revolves on its axis 
once 9 #bd h\rs2 p]=ms h]  annual p]iod 
r\nd ! sun 9 ! same "t ! sun completes 8
  revolution2 h\rly equatorial &        
progressive motion 9 orbit #hj1bie      
miles4    ,! ,moon is a satellite to !  
e>?2 h] diamet] is #bahj miles2 h]      
diurnal rotation on axis is p]=m$ 9 #bi 
days1 #ab h\rs1 #dd m9utes2  %e p]=ms h]
 annual revolution r\nd ! sun 9         
precisely ! same  "t z does ! e>?1 h]   
sup]ior planet2 h] motion 9 orbit p]    

h\r is #bb1bij miles4    ,m>s1--8       
diamet] is #edjj miles2 di/ance f ! sun1
 #ade1jad1adh  miles2 annual p]iod r\nd 
! sun #fga days1 #ag h\rs2 diurnal      
rotation  on axis #ai days1 #ab h\rs1   
#dd m9utes2 h\rly motion 9 orbit #ee1bhg
  miles4    ,jupit]1--8 diamet] #id1jjj 
miles2 di/ance f ! sun  #did1iij1igf    
miles2 annual p]iod 9 #aa ye>s1 #cad    
days1 #ah h\rs2  diurnal rotation on    
axis #i h\rs1 #ef m9utes2 h\rly motion 9
 orbit  #bi1hjc miles4    ,saturn1--8   
diamet] #gh1jjj miles2 di/ance f ! sun  
#ijg1ief1acj  miles2 annual revolution 9
 orbit #bb ye>s1 #afg days1 #f h\rs2    
h\rly  motion 9 orbit #bb1aja miles4    
,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,jupit] has f\r     
moons1 or satellites1 )  a l>ge & v     
lum9\s belt at a great di/ance f 8      
surface4  ,saturn also has sev5 moons1 )
 a v lum9\s r+ ab\t #ba1jjj  miles      
broad1 f its upp]mo/ to its und]mo/     
edge2 & ab\t !  same di/ance f its      
surface4    ,georgium ,sidus1--! di/ance
 ( ! orbit f ! sun1  #a1geh1jjj1jjj     

miles2 annual revolution #bh ye>s1 #bhi 
days2 diamet]  #ef1gbf miles2 has two   
satellites1 or moons4    ,ab\t #ahja1   
#b1 & #d1 !re 7 discov]$ ?ree o!r small 
planets  9 ! sy/em ( ! sun1 call$ ,ve/a1
 ,juno1 & ,pallas4    ,! fix$ />s       
compos+ ! ,zodiacal ,signs1 are divid$  
into twelve  con/ellations1 "o to ea*   
mon?2 :i* a/]isms 7 discov]$ by         
,flam/ead to consi/ ( ! foll[+ numb] (  
/>s to ea*3    ,aries1 ! ,ram1 #ff2     
,taurus1 ! ,bull1 #ada2 ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1
 #he2  ,canc]1 ! ,crab1 #hc2 ,leo1 !    
,lion1 #ie2 ,virgo1 ! ,virg91 #aaj2     
,libra1 ! ,scales1 #ea2 ,scorpio1 !     
,scorpion1 #dd2 ,sagit>ius1 !  ,ar*]1   
#fi2 ,capricornus1 ! ,goat1 #ea2        
,aqu>ius1 ! ,wat]-,c>ri]1  #ajh2        
,pisces1 ! ,fi%es1 #aac4    ,a          
comp>ative idea ( ! ext5t ( ! works (   
,omnipot5ce may be  p]haps collect$1 on 
our be+ in=m$1 t ! sph]e :]e !  fix$ />s
 appe>1 is presum$ to be plac$ f> beyond
 ! mo/ remote  planet>y orbit2 & t "s ( 
!m are suppos$ to s]ve z suns to        

illum9e o!r sy/ems1 or worlds1 to u     
unkn[n4          ,,navigation4      ,!  
sacr$ records in=m u t ! ark ( ,noah 0 !
 fir/ %ip1  & produc$ by ! inv5tion ( ! 
great ,ar*itect ( ,nature himself2  &   
8?\gh "s m5 h s believ$10 says ! le>n$ &
 +5i\s  ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh1 9 8       
8,hi/ory ( ! ,_w10 8yet x is c]ta9  ! _w
 0 plant$ be=e ! flood1 :i* c\ld n be   
p]=m$  )\t "s transport+ vessels4 ,x is 
true1 & ! success has  prov$ t !re 0 n  
any s capaci\s1 nor any s /rong1 z to   
def5d !mselves aga9/ s viol5t & s       
cont9u$ a p\r+ d[n (  ra91 z ! ark ( :i*
 ,noah 0 ! build]1 f ! inv5tion (  ,god 
himself4 ,( :at fa%ion or fabric soev] 7
 ! re/1 ) all  m5 !y p]i%$ accord+ to ! 
ord9ance ( ,god40 ,& x appe>s  extremely
 probable t ^? te/imonials1 :]e( ,ovid  
speaks (  =m] exi/5ce1 7 rema9s ( %ips  
wreck$ at ! g5]al flood4    ,!re c be no
 "q t ! ,syrians 7 ! fir/ m>itime p[]  9
 ! _w1 z well 9 po9t ( "t z             
importance2--b ( :at  species (         
con/ruction _! vessels 71 we are n      

in=m$4 ,_!  m]*ants trad+ to ! ,ea/]n   
,indies1 z !y did = ,solomon2 to        
,ophir1 :5ce !y br\ght gold2 & also to  
?is c\ntry = t91 &  _! hav+ made ?ree   
di/9ct desc5ts ^u ,am]ica1 w enable u   
to ma9ta9 ?is our op9ion4 ,aft] !m !    
,greeks1 a p liv+  *iefly on ! %ores ( !
 ,hellespont & gean seas1 ) _m  isl&s 9 
! ,m$it]ranean1 ,adriatic1 &            
,ar*ipelagion ,seas1 besides  _!        
possessions 9 ,asia ,m9or1 & _! comm]ce 
) ! ,european  ,cont95t1 obta9$ ! next  
p[] by sea4 ,we read inde$1 t ,m9os1  ! 
fam\s ,cretan sov]eign & legislator1 :o 
liv$ two desc5ts  be=e ! ,trojan w>1 s5t
 out %ipp+ to free ! ,grecian seas (    
pirates2 :i* %[s1 z ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh
 +5i\sly inf]s1 t  !re _h be5 trade & w>
 ^u ! wat]s be=e 8 "t also4    ,! next 9
 po9t ( "t & importance on record 0 !   
highly  r5[n$ exp$ition ( ! ,argonauts =
 ! gold5 fleece to ,col*is1  a c\ntry ( 
,asia1 on ! ,eux9e sea4 ,imm$iately aft]
 ?is 0 !  colonization ( ,cyr5e1 9      
,africa1 by ,battus1 "o ( ! companions  

( ,jason1 9 8 ,col*ian exp$ition4       
,%ortly aft]w>ds1 ! ,grecian  /ates     
unit$ aga9/ ,phrygian trea*]y & ! abuse 
( ,grecian  hospitality2 =m+ ano!r mo/  
memorable epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( !  _w4 ,we  
are in=m$ ! ,grecian ,neptune1 or z     
my?ology /yles him  a ,god ( !          
,saturnian family1 = ! great s]vice he  
did 8 fa!r1  ,saturn1 or ,noah1 aga9/ ! 
,titans1 _h ! seas giv5 to him4 ,hi/ory 
in=ms u t ! fir/ inv5tor ( r[+ vessels 0
 a citiz5  ( ,cor9?2 & likewise t ! fir/
 naval w> 0 betwe5 !  ,samians &        
,corcyrians4 ,! hi/ory ( ,i?icus1       
translat$ into ,lat9  by ,/4 ,j]ome1    
affirms t ,griphon1 ! ,scy?ian1 0 !     
inv5tor  ( long-boats2 & ,/rabo also    
gives ! hon\r ( ! inv5tion (  ! an*or to
 ano!r ,scy?ian1 ! fam\s ,ana*>sis1 :il/
 ,greece  h]self by h] hi/orians1       
ascribes its inv5tion to ,eupolemus4    
,also1  x is said1 t ,ic>us inv5t$ !    
sail1 & o!rs1 v>i\s o!r  pieces ( !     
compon5t p>ts ( %ips & boats4 ,!        
specification (  su* o!r imp]fect       

memoirs1 _m ( fabul\s appe>ance1 may be 
( no  great importance4    ,x appe>s    
c]ta9 t among ! f\r sons ( ,javan1 ! son
 (  ,japhet1 ! gr&son1 & o!r ! po/]ity (
 ,noah1 :o peopl$  ! 8,isles ( !        
,g5tiles10 ! ,grecian ,isl&s mu/ long   
be=e !  days ( ,m9os h us$ ^? seas1 f ! 
insul> nature ( _!  inhabitants4 ,& x   
c]ta9ly does n appe> extravagant to u1  
to  presume t ?is p 7 among ! fir/ :o   
navigat$ ! seas4  ,mank9d 9 v>i\s p>ts (
 ! _w1 be+ /imulat$ by ! same           
necessities1 urg$ by ! same wants1 &    
possess+ ! same means1  might probably  
produce simil> inv5tions to ea* o!r4    
,mo/1 inde$1  _h occasion to navigate   
lakes1 & cross riv]s4 ,!y accord+ly     
con/ruct$ su* ma*9es z w\ld answ] _!    
purpose ( passage or  migration4 ,s 7   
rafts & canoes1 =m$ ( canes1 osi]s1     
twigs1  c41 :]e !y grew1 :i* !y fa%ion$ 
l boats1 & !n  cov]$ ) sk9s ( v>i\s     
animals2 o!rs =m$ rafts ( wood2  :il/ "s
 o!rs fa%ion$ canoes1 hav+ holl[$ out   
trees = t  purpose4 ,"o way or o!r1 ea* 

p ?us possess$ a m>9e1 prop]  = _!      
purpose x is true1 b 9 v>i\s degrees (  
excell5ce4  ,?is 0 ! case ) ,greeks z   
well z b>b>ians ( all nations2  all ^!  
p1 except+ ! imm$iate desc5dants (      
,noah1 might1  p]haps1 lay a feasible   
claim to ! hon\r ( ! orig9al inv5tion  (
 ^! articles2 &1 hav+ nev] se5 su*1 !y  
virtually h  ea* a good title to !      
di/9ction4 ,inde$1 _m ( !m might h  tak5
 ! idea = su* inv5tion f ! policy (     
c]ta9 animals1  & ! nature ( o!rs2 to   
in/ance ! sagacity ( ! beav] &  8 raft1 
& ! little nautilus ) 8 swell+ sail3    
h5ce !y  might h adopt$ f t animal1 & t 
piscatory insect1 !  idea ( a raft1 &   
also ( a vessel ) a sail4    ,9 latt]   
days we f9d ! ,teutonic ,saxons fir/    
came to ?is c\ntry1  accord+ to ,mr4    
,turn]1 ! ,anglo-,saxon hi/orian1 9     
vessels !y  call$ cyules-kells by ,sir  
,walt] ,raleigh4 ,m>9e vessels h borne  
a v>iety ( names1 z well z ( num]\s     
figures1 f ! gondola (  ! ,v5etian to ! 
canoe ( ! ,esquimaux1--! ,briti%        

man-(-w> to  ! pond]\s bonav5ture 9 :i* 
! ,doge annually esp\ses ! sea4    ,all 
^? nations1 too1 ?r\gh ^: h&s ! m>itime 
p[] has  pass$1 f "t to "t1 z !y h be5  
in/ruct$ by exp]i5ce1  or taught by     
necessity1 might repeat$ly h made       
additions &  improvem5ts 9 naval        
ar*itecture3 "s calculat$ = m]cantile   
utility1 :ile o!rs h only att5d$ to     
w>like /r5g?1 & "s  to answ] bo?        
purposes1 l our ,indiam54 ,b n[1 !      
,briti% navy1  be+ suppli$ ) ! be/      
mat]ials1 & hav+ z +5i\s workm5  z any1 
) ! addition ( ! w>like *ildr5 ( ! soil1
 may  op5ly defy all nations1 & pr\dly  
claim ! sov]eignty ( ! seas  :]e h] flag
 has be5 fly+ 'mid/ ! battle & ! breeze 
= s  _m ye>s4    ,b ! mo/ important     
improvem5t 9 ,navigation--propell+      
vessels  by /eam--has be5 left to our   
own times4 ,! /eam-eng9e 0 fir/  appli$ 
to small vessels = ! coa/+ or riv]      
trade2 b x has  n[ increas$ to vessels (
 ! l>ge/ size1--9 fact1 ! mo/  "p ( !   
,briti% navy are /eam%ips4 ,9 =m] times 

be=e !  introduction ( ?is valuable     
auxili>y1 ! passage betwe5 ,engl&  &    
,am]ica 0 t$i\s & unc]ta91 sometimes    
tak+ mon?s1 b  r>ely less ?an f f\r to  
six weeks1 accord+ to ! /ate (  ! wea!r2
 b n[ ! case is alt]$4 ,!re are a regul>
 l9e (  /eam%ips1 "o ( :i* leaves       
,liv]pool e week1 & ! voyage  is p]=m$ )
 almo/ positive c]ta9ty 9 f twelve to   
f\rte5  days1 indep5d5t ( ! rude        
,boreas1 or ! boi/]\s ,atlantic4  ,^!   
vessels are ( ! l>ge/ size & h&somely   
fitt$ up = !  accommodation ( pass5g]s4 
,,light-,,h\ses4      ,a light-h\se1 9  
m>9e ar*itecture1 is a build+1 or       
wat*-t[]1  erect$ on ! sea-%ore1 to s]ve
 z a l&-m>k to m>9]s1 on a l[  coa/1 by 
day1 &1 9 any situation1 to in=m !m ( _!
 approa*  to l& 9 ! night2--be+ ( mo/   
ess5tial utility 9 caus+ !m  to take    
s\nd+s1 avoid %oals1 rocks1 c42 or else 
x is a build+  erect$ on a rock 9 ! sea1
 :i*1 f its situation1 w\ld be          
extremely dang]\s to vessels1 7 n "s    
intimation giv5 ( !  exi/5ce ( a rock1  

:]e x is locally situat$4 ,( ?is latt]  
description is ! celebrat$ ,eddy/one    
light-h\se1 (f ,plym\?4    ,al?\gh ?is  
species ( ar*itecture is n likely to h  
be5  s g5]al 9 extreme antiquity1       
because x c\ld n h be5  ess5tially      
necess>y to any except to ^? nations :o1
 f !  proximity ( _! situation to !     
coa/1 or o!r circum/ances1  pursu$      
m>itime conc]ns2 or to ^? ^: connexions 
r5d]$ !  enc\ragem5t ( ! m>9e ( o!r     
nations important4    ,! olde/ build+ ( 
?is description1 :i* we believe to be ^u
  record1 is ! fam\s ,ph>os erect$ on ! 
,egyptian coa/1 :i*1  be+ v l[ l&1 &    
expos$ entirely to ! almo/ con/ant we/  
w9ds com+ up ! ,m$it]ranean f ! va/     
,atlantic1 mu/1 (  necessity1 h made !  
port ( mod]n ,alex&ria1 anci5tly call$  
,dalmietta1 v dang]\s4 ,x 0 orig9ally   
erect$ by ,ptolemy  ,philadelphus1 = !  
enc\ragem5t & conv5i5ce ( ! ,phnicians1 
:o 7 acc\nt$ ! =eign factors ( t empire2
 z ! ,egyptians  possess$ an            
unconqu]able av]sion to ! sea1 & !re=e  

!y  nev] obta9$ its sov]eignty3 :il/ !  
=m] p 7 ! fir/  :o obta9$ ! supremacy ( 
t sea4    ,! isl& ^u :i* ,ph>os /ood1 9 
! "t ( ,hom]1 9 8 simple  geography &   
e/imation1 0 said to be "o day's sail f 
!  ,delta2 :]eas1 s9ce ! f\ndation (    
,alex&ria1 x 0 only a mile  9 di/ance1 &
 0 ev5 jo9$ to ! ma9l& by a mole1 hav+ a
  bridge at ea* end2 or accord+ to "s   
au?ors1 9 ! middle4 ,!  t[] 01 if report
 be true1 ju/ly entitl$ to ! appellation
 x  obta9$--"o ( ! sev5 wond]s ( ! _w2 &
 x is report$1  t ! light f x has be5   
se5 at ! di/ance ( a hundr$  miles2 :i*1
 assur$ly1 appe>s improbable1 because ! 
convexity (  ! e>?1 we ?9k1 w\ld n      
p]mit4 ,its height mu/ h be51 at  lea/1 
#b1djj feet1 or #hjj y>ds f ! base4     
,we are enabl$ to furni% ! foll[+       
p>ticul>s ( ?is fam\s  /ructure4 ,x 0   
built by ord] ( t patron ( le>n+ & !    
arts1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 by t em95t
 ar*itect1 ,so/rates1 :o  con/ruct$ _m (
 ! public build+s 9 ,alex&ria4 ,x is    
said  to h co/ ,ptolemy eight hundr$    

tal5ts6 ,respect+ its mode (            
con/ruction1 x 0 rais$ sev]al /ories "o 
above ano!r2 ea*  0 decorat$ ) columns1 
balu/rades1 & gall]ies ( ! f9e/  m>ble &
 mo/ exquisite workman%ip2 & "s h ev5   
said t  ! ar*itect _h furni%$ ! gall]ies
 ) l>ge mirrors1 by :i*  %ipp+ c\ld be  
se5 at a great di/ance4 ,h[ev]1 respect+
 ?is  edifice1 once s fam\s1 t its v "n1
 ,ph>os1 0 consid]$  z a common t]m =   
all o!r con/ructions = ! same purpose1 x
  is n[ said1 f ,s>ac5ic ignorance &    
brutality1 aid$1 p]haps1  by ! assi/ance
 ( ! common levell]1 ,"t1 t no?+ n[     
rema9s ( ?is once elegant edifice1 b an 
unsightly t[] ris+  out ( a heap ( ru9s1
 ! :ole be+ accommodat$ to ! inequality 
( ! gr\nd on :i* x /&s1 & be+1 at       
pres5t1 no high]  ?an t :i* x %\ld      
comm&4 ,su* z x is1 !re is n[ a  light1 
we und]/&1 usually ma9ta9$4 ,!re is also
 an isl&1  :i* 0 call$ ,ph>os1 9 !      
,adriatic sea1 on ! coa/ ( ,italy1      
opposite ,brundusium1 = ! same reason3  
likewise ! celebrat$  colossal /atue (  

,apollo1 at ,rhodes1 answ]$ ! same      
purpose1 &  occasionally _h ! same      
appellation1 z _h a riv] ( ,asia1 9 !   
environs ( ,cilicia & ! ,euphrates4 ,?is
 la/ consid]ation br+s  u to ! etymology
 ( ! ^w1 z ,ozanum says1 8,ph>os        
orig9ally  signifi$ a /rait1 z ! ,ph>os 
( ,mess9a40 ,( e description (          
light-h\ses yet kn[n1 !re is none m     
fam\s ?an t call$  ,eddy/one1 ) a       
description ( :i* we %all conclude ?is  
article4    ,mr4 ,w9/anley's light-h\se 
0 begun ^u ! ,eddy/one rock 9  #afif1 & 
0 m ?an f\r ye>s 9 build+1 f ! num]\s   
int]ruptions ( ! w9d & ! elem5t he _h to
 cont5d )1 !  viol5ce :]e( is truly     
al>m+1 occasion$ by t rock be+  expos$  
to e w9d :i* comes up ! va/ ,atlantic1 &
 t  tumultu\s sea1 ! ,bay ( ,biscay4 ,^!
 ob/acles 7 consid]ably  increas$ by !  
%ape ( ! rock itself1 hav+ a regul>     
slope  to ,s4,w41 & f ! v deep sea 9 its
 vic9ity1 x1 !re=e1  receives !         
uncontroll$ fury ( ^? seas3 meet+ ) no  
o!r  object :]eon to break _! vehem5t   

=ce1 ! effect is s great  at high wat] )
 a ,s4,w4 w9d1 :i* cont9ues = _m days1  
?\gh  a calm may h succe$$1 ! viol5t    
action ( ! wat]s has n  ceas$1 b break  
frightfully on ,eddy/one4 ,an engrav+ ( 
,mr4  ,w9/anley's light-h\se 0 publi%$  
at ! p]iod ( its erection1  f :i* x     
appe>s to h be5 a /one t[] ( twelve     
sides1  ris+ =ty-f\r feet above ! highe/
 po9t ( ! rock1 :i*1 9  ! dim5sions on  
:i* x 0 built1 tw5ty-f\r feet 9 diamet]1
 0  t5 feet l[] on "o side ?an x 0 ^u ! 
o!r2 at ! top 0  a balu/rade & plat=m2  
^u ?is 7 erect$ eight pill>s1 :i*       
support$ a dome ( ! same dim5sions z !  
t[]2 f ! top (  :i* arose an octagon    
t[]1 ( a diamet] ( fifte5 feet1 & sev5  
9 height4 ,on ! summit 0 plac$ ! lant]n1
 t5 feet 9 diamet]1  & twelve 9 height3 
x _h a gall]y surr\nd+ x1 :i* gave      
access to ! w9d[s4 ,! :ole 0 surr\nd$ by
 f5cible iron-"w4  ,! entry 0 by a solid
 /one door at ! bottom2 ! :ole build+  0
 ( ! same mat]ial1 except ! ap]ture = ! 
/aircase4 ,at !  bottom 0 a room twelve 

feet high = a /ore-room2 ! next /ory  0 
( ! same height1 :i* 0 ! /at]oom2 & !   
?ird 0 (  a simil> height1 :i* 0 !      
kit*54 ,^? comp>tm5ts occupi$  ! :ole   
height to ! plat=m4 ,! dome above ?is   
conta9$ !  lodg+-room2 ! octagon above  
x1 ! look-out4    ,! reason :y x occupi$
 s mu* "t 9 build+ 01 because  ! m5 c\ld
 only "w 9 ! summ] mon?s4 ,! fir/ summ] 
0  occupi$ 9 mak+ holes 9 ! rock1 &     
fa/5+ irons to hold !  future "w4 ,!    
second ye> 0 sp5t 9 erect+ a solid      
pill>1  ( f\rte5 feet diamet]1 & "o     
hundr$ & twelve feet high1 =  ! future  
support ( ! build+4 ,! ?ird ye>1 x 0    
augm5t$  9 diamet] & increas$ 9 height4 
,?is build+ 0 ev5tually  f9i%$1 )9 ! "t 
above-m5tion$1 at an enorm\s exp5se4 ,x 
/ood ! opposition ( ! elem5ts4 ,!       
viol5ce ( ! sea 0 s  great1 t ,mr4      
,w9/anley said x has be5 se5 to rise    
upw>ds (  "o hundr$ feet above ! vane1  
:il/ ! sides ( ! build+ 7  cov]$ ) surf 
z ) a %eet1 s t ! :ole h\se & lant]n  7 
occasionally "u wat]4 ,?is edifice )/ood

 ! conflict (  elem5ts till #agjc1 :5 ! 
ar*itect1 be+ at ,plym\?1 & desir\s  (  
visit+ x1 = ! purpose ( inspect+ "s     
repairs1 w5t to  x1 b return$ no m2 = a 
/orm arose1 :i* left n a relic  ( x /&+1
 except ! iron "w1 :i* _h be5 fix$ 9 !  
rock4 ,! ,corporation ( ! ,tr9ity ,h\se 
_h !n to erect ano!r1  = :i* purpose !y 
employ$ a ,mr4 ,john ,rudy>d1 :o 0 a    
silk  m]c]1 on ,ludgate-hill4 ,mr4      
,rudy>d's me*anical +5uity 0 said  to h 
qualifi$ him well = ! und]tak+4 ,x      
appe>s t he  erect$ a h\se made *iefly (
 wood1 :i* pres5t$ _m traits (  8 g5ius4
 ,x 0 a conical fru/rum1 "o hundr$ &    
fifty-six feet  9 diamet] at ! base2 its
 altitude sixty-two feet4 ,at ! top (  !
 build+ 0 a balcony1 rail$ r\nd2 9 !    
c5tre ( its area  0 ! lant]n4 ,?is      
build+ 0 made q pla91 except+ !  well = 
! /aircase1 :i* 0 solid = ?irty-two     
feet4 ,9 !  c5tre a /rong ma/ 0 erect$4 
,! build+ 0 admirably fix$ to  ! rock1 f
 ! v peculi> mann] ( mak+ ! holes to    
hold  iron cramps1 !y be+ made = !      

int]nal cavity to div]ge on  ea* side1  
by an extreme ( "o in* at ! dep? (      
sixte5 in*es4  ,! cavity 0 fir/ fill$ ) 
tall[2 ! hot iron !n dipp$  9 ! same    
sub/ance1 put 9 ! rock1 & ev5tually     
fill$ )  pewt]1 :i* displac$ ! tall[1   
be+ heavi]1 ! grease s]v+  to protect ! 
iron f ! corrosive acidity ( ! salt     
wat]4 ,9  #agjh1 x 0 f9i%$ s f> z to    
receive a tempor>y light4 ,x /ood       
=ty-f\r ye>s1 & %[$ t x 0 liable to     
de/ruction f !  v p]i%able nature ( its 
mat]ials4 ,h[ev]1 on ! #bnd ,decemb]1   
#agee1 ! upp] "p ( x tak+ fire1 burnt   
d[nw>ds to its entire  consumption4 ,!  
conc]n _h be5 leas$ to a ,capta9        
,lovell2 b at a  lat] p]iod 8           
possessions 7 di/ribut$ among a numb] ( 
p1  :5 ! c>e ( rebuild+ x 0 entru/$ to  
,mr4 ,rob]t ,we/on1 to  :om ,mr4 ,john  
,smeaton 0 recomm5d$ by ! ,presid5t ( ! 
,royal  ,society1 :o appe>s to h be5    
well qualifi$ = ! und]tak+4  ,he        
accord+ly furni%$ a plan =1 & sup]9t5d$ 
! build+  :i* n[ /&s4 ,mr4 ,smeaton's   

conjecture 0 q diff]5t to t  ( ! late   
projector2 he conceiv$ t no?+ c\ld )/& !
  action ( ! w9d & wat] s well1 & at !  
same "t1 prev5t  su* accid5ts z ! pa/1 z
 c\ld a build+ ^: gravity %\ld  secure  
its mo/ sure protection1 ,he accord+ly  
con/ruct$ 8 (  ! mo/ massy /ones1 all   
dovetail$ into ea* o!r1 =m$ (           
,corni%-moor & ,portl& /one2 all ! jo9ts
 brea* ea* o!r1 z  ! masons t]m x1 or on
 ea* jo9t occurs ! c5tral /one ( !  next
 c\rse4 ,!re are f\rte5 c\rses ( ^!     
/ones fir/ laid 9  ?is mann]1 ( a great 
?ickness ea* c\rse4 ,on ! #ab? ,june1   
#ageg1  ! fir/ /one 0 laid 9 its place1 
ea* /one be+ pi]c$ :5  x 0 laid1 a /rong
 oak p9 0 driv5 ?r\gh to p9 x fa/ to its
  place3 ! dovetails n fitt+ s close to 
ea* o!r1 because x 0  necess>y to leave 
"s space = ! cem5t1 ?is p9 0 calculat$  
to secure ! /one till ?is c\ld be appli$
 & _h fix$2 !  cem5t us$ 0 compos$ (    
,wat*et lime & puzzolana1 or ,dut*      
t]ras1 be+ made at ! mom5t by mix+ up 9 
a pail1 ) wat]2  ?is mixture 0 p\r$ ^u !

 "w1 & run into e cavity &  crevice2    
?is1 h[ev]1 0 sometimes n exempt f !    
injury ( !  sea2 :5ev] x 0 injur$1 !    
defect 0 suppli$ by hav+ "s  oakum cut  
f9e1 & mix$ ) ?is cem5t1 introduc$ into 
! jo9ts2  !n !y 7 secur$ ) a coat (     
pla/] ( ,p>is1 pro tempore1  & ?is 0    
nev] kn[n to fail1 if ! "w /ood = "o    
tide4 ,9  ?is mann] ! plat=m 0 erect$1  
all ( ! mo/ solid mat]ials1  &          
sub/antial workman%ip4    ,on ! #cj? (  
,septemb]1 #ageh1 ! "w hav+ be5 cont9u$ 
f  ! #aa? ( ! prec$+ ,may1 _h arriv$ at 
! /ore-room floor2  "h an iron *a9 0 let
 into ! /one1 z foll[s3 ! recess be+    
made & ! *a9 be+ well oil$ be=e         
ins]tion1 ! groove :i*  receiv$ x 0     
divid$ into f\r sep>ate dams by clay2   
two kettles  7 us$1 to hold a suffici5cy
 ( melt$ lead1 elev5 hundr$ weight2     
:il/ ! lead 0 9 a /ate ( fusion1 two m5 
) ladles fill$  "o qu>t] ( ! groove2 z  
soon z x set1 !y remov$ "o ( !  clay    
dams1 & !n fill$ ! next qu>t]1 p\r+ !   
liquid on !  middle ( ! fir/ qu>t]1 x   

melt$ toge!r into ! second2 !  dam at ! 
opposite end 0 n[ fill$1 & !n ! f\r?2 by
 ?is  means ! lead 0 associat$ into "o  
solid mass4 ,! c5tr+ =  ! floor 0 next  
set up1 ! outw>d /ones be+ fir/ set1 &  
!n ! inn] ones4 ,?us ! base floor 0     
f9i%$4 ,! m5 c\ld  "w no long] ?an till 
! #g? ( ,octob] t ye>4 ,! w9t] 0  sp5t 9
 prep>+ ! iron1 copp]1 & glass "w = !   
lant]n2  & ! spr+ 9 unsuccessful        
endeav\rs to discov] ! moor+s  = !      
vessel :i* att5d$ ! works1 = !          
occasional retreat  ( ! workm54 ,on !   
#e? ( ,july ! "w 0 resum$3 ! /ones  =   
build+ _h be5 hi!rto rais$ f ! boats by 
:at are  call$ %e>s1 =m$ ( two poles1 ) 
! l[]mo/ ends ext5d$  to a suffici5t    
wid?1 :il/ ! upp] ends met 9 a po9t2 "h 
0  fa/5$ tackle1 pulleys1 c41 to raise  
!m to a suffici5t height to  be swung   
ov] ! build+2 ?is c\rse 0 n[ ( necessity
 alt]$2  a block ) pulleys be+ susp5d$ f
 ! top1 project$ to a  suffici5t        
di/ance1 support$ by beams4 ,aft] ! base
 _h be5 =m$  z describ$1 a diff]5t mode 

( op]ation 0 necess>y to complete  !    
sup]/ructure2 ! "w be+ n[ advanc$ s high
 z to be out (  ! con/ant wa% ( ! sea4  
,in/ead ( grooves be+ =m$ to fa/5  !    
/ones toge!r1 !y 7 fix$ by means ( iron 
clamps & lead4  ,! /ones to complete !  
sup]/ructure 7 l&$1 & fir/ drawn  up by 
ma*9]y1 call$ a jack1 ?r\gh ! well1 9 ! 
int]ior (  ! build+1 be+ a cavity = !   
/aircase4 ,! "w n[ proce$$  m rapidly1 s
 t by ! #bf? ( ,augu/1 ! /airs & all !  
masonry 7 f9i%$3 ! iron frame = ! lant]n
 0 next screw$  toge!r 9 its place1 & ! 
lant]n soon complet$4 ,x %\ld h  be5    
notic$1 t aft] ! fir/ entry 0 clos$1 !  
%e>s 7  support$ by a tackle call$ a    
guy1 atta*$ to ! top ( !  %e>s1 & hook$ 
s f> on ! outside ( ! build+2 ! /one    
be+ drawn up by a w9dlass1 ! guy 0 drawn
 9 to sw+ ! /one  ov] ! build+4 ,!      
balcony rails & ! /one basem5t = !      
lant]n hav+ be5 complet$1 on ! #ag? (   
,septemb] ! cupola 0  set up by a       
p>ticul> k9d ( %e>s con/ruct$ purposely1
 ! guy 9  diff]5t places be+ fa/5$ to   

booms project+ f ! sev]al  w9d[s ( !    
upp] rooms2 ! next day ! ball 0 screw$  
on1  & on ! #aa? ( ,octob]1 an          
electrical conductor 0 fix$1 :i*  f9i%$ 
! edifice4 ,a light 0 !n exhibit$1 :i*  
has cont9u$  to w>n ! m>9] ev] s9ce4 ,an
 ably con/ruct$ cornice ?r[s !  spray f 
(f ! build+1 s t x is (t5 se5 at ,plym\?
 )  ! appe>ance ( a :ite %eet1 ?r[+     
itself to d\ble ! height  ( ! build+1   
:i* f l[ wat] m>k to ! apex ( ! ball is 
"o hundr$ feet4    ,we h be5 ?us m9ute1 
because ?is ph>os is consid]$ to be !   
be/ con/ruct$ ( all our ligh?\ses4      
,,electricity4      ,electricity 0 a    
prop]ty b imp]fectly und]/ood by !      
anci5ts2  inde$1 x has be5 said1 !y 7   
entirely unacqua9t$ ) x4 ,b  we propose1
 %ortly1 to %[ ! ext5t to :i* we are    
in=m$ _!  sph]e ( k ext5d$4 ,?is mu* _c 
be d5i$1 t !y  7 acqua9t$ ) ! electrical
 prop]ties ( amb]1 ( :i* fact  we are   
in=m$ by ,pl9y4    ,ev5 be=e ,pl9y1     
h[ev]1 z e>ly z ! days ( ,?alis1 :o liv$
  ne> six hundr$ ye>s ant]ior to !      

,roman hi/orian1 ! ,milet9e  philosoph]s
 ascrib$ ! attractive p[] ( ! magnet & (
 amb]  to animation by a vital pr9ciple4
 ,our ^w 8electricity0 appe>s to  be    
d]iv$ f ! "n ! ,lat9s gave to amb]1     
electrum4 ,x is  also evid5t t !y 7     
acqua9t$ ) ! %ock ( ! torp$o2  al?\gh !y
 7 ignorant1 z are ! mod]ns1 ( !        
conceal$ cause  ( ?is effect4    ,x has 
be5 ass]t$ t ! anci5ts knew h[ to       
collect !  electrical fire 9 !          
atmosph]e2 & x is also said1 t x 0  9 an
 exp]im5t ( ?is nature t ,tullus        
,ho/ilius lo/ 8 life4  ,etymologi/s h   
c>ri$ u /ill f>!r back1 & ass]t t x  0 f
 ! electrical prop]ty 9 ! heav5s t ,jove
 obta9$ 8  surname ( ,jupit] ,eliaus4   
,?is1 h[ev]1 may be only conjectural4   
,! fir/ discov]ies made ( suffici5t     
importance to dem& !  appellation (     
8sci5tific0 9 ! sci5ce ( electricity1 7 
effect$ by ,dr4 ,w4 ,gilb]t1 ! result ( 
:i* he gave ! _w1 9  ! ye> #affj1 9 a   
book !n publi%$1 entitl$ 8,de ,magneto10
 &  ,dr4 ,gilb]t 0 foll[$ 9 8 pursuits  

by t celebrat$ sci5tific  "*1 !         
hon\rable & illu/ri\s ,boyle1 & o!r m5  
em95t  = t species ( in=mation4    ,?is 
sci5ce 0 successfully cultivat$ 9 ! la/ 
c5tury by _m  em95t philosoph]s1 among  
:om we may m5tion ,hawkesbee1 ,grey1    
,mus*5brook1 ,doctors ,frankl9 &        
,prie/ly1 ,bi%op ,watson1 ,mr4          
,cav5di%1 & sev]al o!r memb]s ( ! ,royal
 ,society ( ,engl&2  :il/ ^? wor?y ( !  
true philosophic "* 9 ,france did n     
neglect its cultivation4    ,_m fatal   
accid5ts h result$ f exp]im5ts made by p
  ignorant ( ! sci5ce4 ,on ! #f? (      
,augu/1 #agec1 at ,pet]sburg1  ,pr(essor
 ,ri*mann lo/ 8 life by endeav\r+ to    
draw ! electric  fluid into 8 h\se4     
,electricity1 l _m o!rs ( ! arcana (    
nature1 /ill reta9s  almo/ z deeply %ad$
 f human view z :5 its exi/5ce 0 fir/   
made kn[n4 ,nature appe>s to h c]ta9    
secret op]ations1 :i*  are n yet1       
p]haps1 to be reveal$4      ,,electric  
,,telegraph4    ,?is is ! mo/ surpris+  
inv5tion ( mod]n times1 & ( !  greate/  

importance to a comm]cial p2 by means ( 
x intellig5ce  is convey$ f "o end ( !  
k+dom to ano!r1 9 ! tw9kl+  ( an eye4 ,a
 company 0 fully organis$ = ! c>ry+ out 
?is  inv5tion1 :i* comm5c$ its op]ations
 9 #ahdh1 & e/abli%$ a  sy/em ( no      
ord9>y complication & ext5t4 ,_! wires  
/ret*  f ,glasg[ on ! nor?1 to ,dor*e/]1
 on ! s\?1 f ! ea/  coa/1 at ,y>m\?1 to 
! we/1 at ,liv]pool4 ,^! h br\ght       
upw>ds ( "o hundr$ & fifty t[ns into    
in/ant communication  ) ea* o!r4 ,!     
wires set up = ! use ( ! public alone   
are  upw>ds ( n9e ?\s& eight hundr$     
miles 9 l5g?1 & ext5d ov]  a di/ance (  
two ?\s& & sixty miles1 &1 exclusive (  
^?  runn+ und]gr\nd1 & ?r\gh tunnels or 
riv]s1 are /ret*$ on  no few] ?an       
sixty-"o ?\s& eight hundr$ po/s1 v>y+ f 
sixte5 to ?irty feet 9 height1 & ( an   
av]age squ>e ( eight  in*es1 ) an       
exp5sive app>atus ( insulators & w9d]s  
atta*$  to ea*4 ,z ! mo/ trifl+         
d]angem5t ( ! wires or app>atus  w /op !
 communication1 x is obvi\s t ! utmo/   

c>e &  wat*fulness is requisite to      
prev5t & detect accid5ts4 ,accord+ly1  !
 :ole di/ance is divid$ into di/ricts1  
ea* di/rict hav+  a sup]9t5d5t1 & "u him
 sev]al inspectors1 & a /aff (  workm51 
batt]ym51 & me*anics1 m or less num]\s1 
accord+ to  ! ext5t ov] :i* he          
presides4--,:5 we consid] ^! ?+s1 9     
conjunction ) ! c5tral /aff ( eng9e]s1  
secret>ies1 c41 at  ! head-e/abli%m5t 9 
,london1 a maximum *>ge ( "o p5ny p]    
mile _c be consid]$ an exorbitant dem& =
 ! accommodation  af=d$ to ! public 9   
keep+ op5 s _m receiv+ /ations1  & !    
ma9t5ance ( ! exp5sive e/abli%m5ts4 ,!  
telegraphic  sy/em is design$ =         
important & urg5t messages1 & x may be  
safely av]r$ t n "o despat* 9 a hundr$  
has be5 z yet  =w>d$ by x1 :i* has n be5
 by _m times wor? m ?an !  sum paid by !
 s5d]4 ,a comm]cial h\se 9 ,liv]pool w  
sc>cely  grudge #hs4 #f;d4 = a          
communication by :i* a necess>y paym5t  
may be  made1 an important ord] giv51 or
 a pr(itable op]ation facilitat$  9     

,london2 & ! message f ,glasg[1 :i*     
trav]ses a di/ance  ( five hundr$ &     
tw5ty miles 9 an in/ant1 to summon a son
 f  ! metropolis1 x may be1 to ! b$side 
( a dy+ p>5t1 _c  be judg$ exorbitant at
 a *>ge ( #ads41 consid]ably less ?an "o
  halfp5ny p] mile4    ,messrs4 ,wilm] &
 ,smi?1 ( ,liv]pool1 publi%]s ( !       
8,european  ,times10 h arrang$ ! mo/    
admirable code ( signals 9 ! _w2  & by !
 use ( =ty-eight lett]s are capable (   
transmitt+  intellig5ce equal to half a 
column ( an ord9>y newspap]4 ,!         
telegraphic company disapprove ( ?is    
species ( %ort-h&1 &1  !re=e1 *>ge = !  
=ty-eight lett]s #acs4 ,?is ,messrs4    
,wilm]  & ,smi? consid] excessive1 z !y 
h =w>d$ simil> messages  by telegraph1  
f\r ?\s& miles 9 ,am]ica1 = #hs41 & f   
,philadelphia to ,new ,york = #as4 ,^!  
g5tlem51 !re=e1 consid]  !y h cause to  
f9d fault ) ! company 9 ref]5ce to *>ges
  = communications 9 ciph]4             
,,/eam-,,eng9es4      ,! ,/eam-,eng9e is
 "o ( ! mo/ important ( human           

discov]ies1 &  is c]ta9ly "o ( ^? :i*   
af=d ! greate/ portion ( ease  &        
advantage to ! human species1 z well 9 !
 op]ation ( its  cause1 z 9 its ultimate
 effects4 ,! mo/ p[]ful ( ma*9es _h  its
 orig9 f ! s+le idea ( "o individual (  
our own nation4 ,x  has be51 f "t to "t1
 improv$ by diff]5t individuals1 also   
natives ( ,brita91 ! precise p]iod ( :i*
 improvem5ts c be  trac$1 & _! effects  
=tunately asc]ta9$4    ,al?\gh we %\ld  
obs]ve1 t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?is         
me*anical  p[] 0 discov]$ by "s ( !     
anci5t nations1 _m ages be=e  t :i* gave
 ! orig9 to ! pres5t practis$ inv5tion1 
b  f ! /ate ( in=mation1 x is conceiv$1 
to answ] no purpose  ( utility4 ,x may  
be said to h occurr$ 9 a small ma*9e :i*
  ! anci5ts call$ an olipila 7! bull (  
olus7 consi/+ (  a holl[ ball ( metal1 )
 a sl5d] neck1 or pipe1 also ( metal1   
hav+ a small orifice ent]+ into ! ball1 
by means ( a screw2  ?is pipe be+ tak5  
out1 ! ball be+ fill$ ) wat]1 & !  pipe 
aga9 screw$ 91 ! ball is heat$--!re     

issues f !  orifice1 :5 suffici5tly hot1
 a vap\r1 ) great viol5ce &  noise2 c>e 
0 requir$ t ?is %\ld n be by accid5t    
/opp$1  if x 71 ! ma*9e w\ld infallibly 
bur/1 & p]haps1 to !  dang] ( ! lives ( 
all 9 its vic9ity1 s imm5se is its p[]4 
,ano!r way ( introduc+ ! wat] 0 fir/ to 
heat ! ball  :5 empty1 & !n sudd5ly to  
imm]se x 9 wat]4 ,desc>tes1  9 p>ticul>1
 has us$ ?is in/rum5t to acc\nt = !     
natural  g5]ation ( w9ds4 ,*auv9 ?9ks x 
might be employ$ in/ead (  bell[s1 to   
bl[ a fire4 ,x w\ld admirably s]ve to   
fumigate a room1  be+ fill$ ) p]fume    
in/ead ( common wat]4 ,x is said to h   
be5 appli$ to cle> *imneys ( _! soot1 a 
practice /ill alleg$  to be common 9    
,italy4 ,dr4 ,plott1 9 8 8,hi/ory (     
,/af=d%ire10  records ?is s+ul> cu/om1  
:]e ! olipila is us$ to bl[ !  fire4 8,!
 "l ( ! mannor ( ,ess+ton is b\nd by 8  
t5ure to  drive a goose1 e ,new ,ye>'s  
day1 ?ree times r\nd ! hall ( !  ,"l (  
,hilton1 :ile ,jack ( ,hilton1 a braz5  
olipila1 bl[s !  fire40 ,! la/          

circum/ance we %all m5tion ( ?is        
in/rum5t1 has  relation to an antique   
"o1 discov]$ :il/ digg+ ! ,bas+/oke     
canal1 repres5t+ a grotesque metallic   
figure1 9 :i* ! bla/  proce$$ f ! m\?4  
,?is figure is n[ 9 ! possession ( !    
,society ( ,antiqu>ies ( ,london4 ,9 ?is
 in/rum5t1 ! uncommon  ela/ic =ce ( /eam
 0 recognis$ be=e ! sugge/ion ( !       
,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 :i* foll[s3    8,9  
#afee1 or subsequ5t !reto1 ! ,m>quis (  
,worce/] publi%$  ! e>lie/ acc\nt ( !   
application ( ?is p[] = !  purposes (   
utility1 & sugge/$ x z applicable to    
rais+ wat]4  #8,sixty-eight4 ,an        
admirable & mo/ =cible way to drive up  
wat] by  fire2 n by draw+ or suck+ x    
upw>ds1 = t w\ld be :at  ! philosoph]   
calle? x1 intra sph]um actroctatis1 :i* 
is1  b at su* a di/ance4 ,b ?is way has 
no b\nd]1 if ! vessel be  /rong en\gh2 =
 ,i h tak5 a :ole piece ( cannon1 :]e( !
  end 0 bur/1 /opp+ & screw+ up ! brok5 
end1 z also !  t\*-hole2 & mak+ a       
con/ant fire "u x1 )9 tw5ty-f\r  h\rs x 

bur/ & made a great crack3 s t hav+ a   
way to make  my vessels1 s t !y are     
/r5g!n$ by ! =ce )9 !m1  & ! "o to fill 
aft] ! o!r1 ,i h se5 ! wat] run l a     
con/ant f\nta9 /ream1 =ty feet high2 "o 
vessel ( cold wat]  be+ consum$1 ano!r  
beg9s to =ce & refill ) cold wat]1  & s 
successively2 ! fire be+ t5d$ & kept    
con/ant1 :i*  ! self-same p]son may     
likewise abundantly p]=m1 9 ! int]im    
betwe5 ! necessity ( turn+ ! cocks4'0   
,! m>quis's +5uity did n1 x appe>s1 meet
 ) t att5tion  :i* x des]v$1 f ^? to :om
 8 communication 0 address$4  ,9 !      
article ( /eam x has be5 s9ce v mu*     
improv$1 &  is act$ ^u = ! mo/ useful ( 
purposes2 also 8 ideas =  %ort-h&       
telegraphs1 float+ ba?s1 escut*eons =   
locks1 m\lds  = c&les1 & a mode to      
dis5gage horses f a c>riage1 aft] !y  h 
tak5 fright2 :i*1 ) sev]al o!rs1        
proclaim ! orig9ality  & +5uity ( ! m9d 
( ?is nobleman--an hon\r :i* v few (  ! 
,briti% nobility aspire to4    ,s9ce 8  
"t1 ano!r design ^u ! same pr9ciple has 

be5  project$ by ,capta9 ,?omas ,sav]y1 
a commission] ( sick &  w\nd$1 :o 9 !   
ye> #afia obta9$ a pat5t = 8a new       
inv5tion  = rais+ wat]1 & occasion+     
motion to all sorts ( mill-"w1  by !    
impellant =ce ( fire40 ,?is pat5t be>s  
date ! #be? (  ,july1 sixte5? ( ,william
 ,,iii41 ,a4 ,d4 #afih4 ,! pat5t /ates t
 !  inv5tion w be ( great use = draw+ ( 
m9es1 s]v+ t[ns )  wat]1 & work+ all    
sorts ( mills4 8,mr4 ,sav]y1 ,june #ad?1
 #afii1  ent]ta9$ ! ,royal ,society )   
%[+ a model ( 8 eng9e =  rais+ wat] by  
help ( fire1 :i* he set to "w be=e !m2 !
  exp]im5t succe$$ accord+ to           
expectation40    ,! above memoir is     
accompani$ ) a copp]plate figure1 )     
ref]5ces by way ( description2 f :5ce x 
appe>s1 t !  eng9e !n %[n by ,capta9    
,sav]y 0 = rais+ wat]1 n only by  !     
expansive =ce ( /eam1 l ! ,m>quis (     
,worce/]'s1 b also  by ! cond5sation (  
/eam1 ! wat] be+ rais$ by ! pressure  ( 
a r>ifi$ atmosph]e to a giv5 height1 by 
! expansive =ce (  /eam1 9 ! same mann] 

z ! ,m>quis propos$4 ,?is action 0      
p]=m$ alt]nately 9 two receiv]s1 s t    
:ile ! vacuum =m$  9 "o 0 draw+ up wat] 
f ! well1 ! pressure ( /eam 9  ! o!r 0  
=c+ up wat] into ! res]voir2 b bo?      
receiv]s  be+ suppli$ by "o suction-pipe
 & "o =c+-pipe1 ! eng9e  c\ld be made to
 keep a cont9ual /ream1 s z to suff] v  
little  int]ruption4 ,?is eng9e (       
,capta9 ,sav]y's displays mu* +5uity1  &
 is almo/ z p]fect 9 its contrivance z !
 same eng9e has be5  made s9ce 8 "t4 ,we
 regret1 t )\t a figure we _c supply  a 
p]fect description ( x4    ,h[ev]1 x    
appe>s t x 0 necess>y to h two boil]s1  
or  vessels ( copp]1 "o l>ge & ! o!r    
small]3 ^? boil]s h  a gauge-pipe ins]t$
 into ! small] boil]1 )9 ab\t eight     
in*es ( its bottom1 & ab\t ! c5tre ( !  
side ( ! l>g]  boil]2 ! small boil] mu/ 
be q full ( wat]1 & ! l>g]  "o only ab\t
 two-?irds full4 ,! fire is !n to be    
light$ b5ea?  ! l>g] boil]1 to make !   
wat] boil1 by :i* means ! /eam  be+     
conf9$1 w be greatly compress$1 & w1    

!re=e1 on  op5+ a way = x to issue out  
7:i* is done by pu%+ ! h&le  ( a        
regulator f ! op]ator71 ru% ) great     
viol5ce ?r\gh a  /eam-pipe into a       
receiv]1 driv+ out all ! air be=e x1    
s5d+  x up into a =ce-pipe ?r\gh a      
clack1 z may be p]ceiv$ f its  noise2 :5
 ! air is expell$1 ! receiv] w be v mu* 
heat$  by ! /eam4 ,:5 x is ?or\ghly     
empti$ ( atmosph]ic air1 &  gr[n v hot1 
:i* may be bo? se5 & felt1 !n ! h&le (  
! regulator is to be drawn t[>ds !      
op]ator1 by :i* means !  fir/ /eam-pipe 
w be /opp$1 s t no m /eam c rise into  !
 fir/ receiv]1 by :i* means a second    
receiv] w be fill$  9 l mann]4 ,:il/ ?is
 is do+1 "s cold wat] mu/ be p\r$  on ! 
fir/ receiv]1 by :i* means ! /eam 9 x w 
be cool$1  & !reby cond5s$ into small]  
room3 consequ5tly ! pressure  9 ! valve1
 or cock1 at ! bottom ( ! receiv]--!re  
be+  no?+ to c\nt]balance ! atmosph]ic  
pressure at ! surface (  ! receiv] 9 !  
inn] "p ( ! suck+-pipe1 x w be press$   
up into ! receiv]1 driv+ up be=e x !    

valve at ! bottom1  :i* aft]w>ds fall+  
aga91 prev5ts ! desc5t ( ! wat] t  way4 
,!n ! fir/ receiv] be+1 at ! same "t1   
empti$ ( its  air1 pu% ! h&le ( !       
regulator1 & ! /eam :i* rises f  ! boil]
 w act ^u ! surface ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 !
  fir/ receiv]1 :]e ! =ce or pressure on
 x /ill increas+ its  ela/icity1 till x 
exce$s ! weight ( a column ( wat] 9     
ano!r  receiv+-pipe1 !n x w necess>ily  
drive up ?r\gh ! passage  into !        
=ce-pipe1 & ev5tually dis*>ge itself at 
! top ( !  ma*9]y4    ,aft] ! same      
mann]1 ?\gh alt]nately1 is ! fir/       
receiv]  fill$ & empti$ ( wat]1 & by ?is
 means a regul> /ream kept  cont9ually  
runn+ out ( ! top ( a =ce-pipe1 & s !   
wat] is  rais$ v (t5 f ! bottom ( a m9e1
 to ! place :]e x is  meant to be       
dis*>g$4    ,x %\ld be add$1 t aft] !   
ma*9e beg9s to "w1 & !  wat] has ris5   
into & fill$ ! =ce-pipe1 x fills also a 
little ci/]n1 & by t means fills ano!r  
pipe1 call$ !  cond5s+-pipe1 :i* may be 
turn$ ei!r way1 ov] any ( !  receiv]s1  

:5 ei!r is ?or\ghly heat$ by1 ! /eam1 to
 cond5se  x )91 !reby produc+ a vacuum1 
:i* absorbs ! wat] out  ( ! well into ! 
receiv]1 on ! pr9ciple ( a syphon4 ,also
 a  little above ! ci/]n goes ano!r pipe
 to convey ! wat] f !  =ce-pipe into !  
less] boil]1 = ! purpose ( repl5i%+  !  
great boil]1 :5 ! wat] 9 x beg9s to be  
almo/ consum$4  ,:5ev] !re is occasion =
 ?is1 ! cock is to be turn$ :i*         
communicates betwe5 ! =ce-pipe & ! less]
 boil]1 to close  x effectually2 at !   
same "t hav+ put a little fire b5ea? !  
small boil]1 :i* w gr[ hot2 its own     
/eam1 :i* has no v5t to  escape1 press+ 
on its surface1 w =ce ! wat] up ano!r   
pipe1  ?r\gh an ap]ture 9 ! great boil]1
 & s long w x run1 till  ! surface ( !  
wat] gets s l[ z to be b5ea? ! bottom ( 
!  pipe ( communication--!n ! /eam &    
wat] runn+ toge!r1 w  cause ! valve     
7call$ a clack7 to /rike1 :i* w intimate
 to !  op]ator t x has dis*>g$ itself   
into ! great] boil]1 &  c>ri$ 9 z mu*   
wat] z is !n necess>y2 aft] :i*1 by     

turn+  a cock1 z mu* fre% wat] is let 9 
z may be necess>y2 & !n1 by  turn+ ano!r
 cock1 new fre% wat] is let out ( a     
recipi5t into  ! less boil] z be=e2 &   
?us ! eng9e is suppli$ )\t fe>  ( decay1
 or any delay 9 ! op]ations2 & prop]    
att5tion 9 !  workm5 is only necess>y to
 prev5t disord] 9 a ma*9e s exp5sive  & 
complicat$4    ,also1 to "k :5 ! great  
boil] wants repl5i%+1 turn !            
gauge-cock2 if wat] comes out1 x does n 
ne$ a supply2 b if /eam  alone1 !n !    
want ( wat] is c]ta94 ,! l ) ! cock )   
:i* ! less] boil] is prep>$ = ! same    
purpose1 :5 !  same /ate w be m>k$ by l 
results4 ,9 work+ ?is eng9e1  v little  
skill1 & less lab\r is requir$3         
,att5tion is !  *ief requisite2 x is    
only to be injur$ by want ( due c>e1    
extreme  /upidity1 or wilful neglect4   
,! eng9e describ$ above1 does n diff]   
ess5tially f t fir/  design$ by !       
inv5tor1 ,capta9 ,sav]y2 ! *ief         
alt]ation :i*  n[ occurs1 is only 9 "s  
few slight p>ticul>s4 ,= example1 !     

orig9al eng9e _h only "o boil]1 & !re 0 
no ready means =  supply+ x ) wat]1 to  
rem$y ! wa/e occasion$ by evaporation  (
 /eam1 )\t /opp+ ! action ( ! eng9e1    
:5ev] !  boil] 0 empti$ to su* a degree 
z to risk burn+ ! vessel4  ,aft] x 0    
repl5i%$ ! ma*9e _h to rema9 idle till !
 /eam  0 rais$1 ?us caus+ an imm5se loss
 ( "t2 :i* is rem$i$ by  ! application (
 a second boil]4    ,! description ( !  
eng9e =m]ly m5tion$ is transcrib$ f     
,mr4 ,sav]y's publication1 8,! ,m9]'s   
,fri5d10 & :i* _h a  subsidi>y boil]1 ) 
wat] ( a boil+ heat1 always ready to    
supply  ! l>ge boil]2 & ! p[] ( /eam    
rais$ 9 x is employ$ to  =ce ! wat] into
 ! l>g] boil]1 to replace ! wa/e        
occasion$  by evaporation f t boil]2 by 
?is means ! transposition (  ! fe$+ wat]
 is n only spe$ily p]=m$1 b be+ itself (
  a boil+ heat1 x is in/antly ready to  
produce /eam = c>ry+  on ! "w4 ,!re is  
also "o m gr& improvem5t 9 ! mod]n      
ma*9e3 ! fir/ eng9e 0 work$ by f\r      
sep>ate cocks1 :i* !  op]ator 0 compell$

 to turn sep>ately at e *ange ( /roke2  
if he turn$ !m wrong1 he 0 n only liable
 to damage ! eng9e1  b he prev5t$ its   
effect1 &1 at ! same "t1 lo/ a "p (  !  
op]ation3 :]eas1 9 ! improv$ eng9e1 !   
communications  are made by a d\ble     
slid+ valve1 or1 z x has s9ce be5 t]m$1 
regulator2 t is1 a brass plate1 %ap$ l a
 fan1 & mov+ on a  c5tre )9 ! boil]1 s z
 to slide horizontally 9 contact )  ! "u
 surface ( ! cov] ( ! boil]1 to :i* x is
 accurately  fitt$ by gr9d+1 & ?us1 at  
pleasure1 op5s or %uts ! orifices1  or  
entries1 to ! /eam pipes ( ! two        
receiv]s alt]nately4 ,?is  regulator    
acts ) less friction ?an a cock ( equal 
bore1 &1 by  ! motion ( a s+le h&le     
backw>ds1 at once op5s ! prop] /eam     
pipe f "o receiv]1 & closes t :i*       
belongs to ! o!r  receiv]4 ,capta9      
,sav]y1 9 8 publication be=e notic$1    
describes  ! uses to :i* ?is ma*9e may  
be appli$1 besides ^? be=e  describ$1   
viz4--#a1 to s]ve wat] = turn+ all sorts
 ( mills2 #b1  = supply+ palaces1       

noblem5 & g5tlem5's h\ses ) wat]1 &     
af=d+ ! means = ext+ui%+ fires !re91 by 
! wat] s  rais$2 #c1 ! supply+ cities & 
t[ns ) wat]2 #d1 dra9+ f5s  & m>%es2 #e1
 = %ips2 #f1 = dra9+ m9es ( wat]2 & #g1 
=  prev5t+ damps 9 m9es4    ,dr4        
,desaguli]s1 we conceive1 ung5]\sly     
attack$ ,capta9 ,sav]y's  reputation1 by
 alleg+ t ?is 0 n an orig9al inv5tion1 &
  t he 0 indebt$ = ! fir/ idea to !     
previ\sly m5tion$  plan ( ! ,m>quis (   
,worce/]4 ,dr4 ,rees1 ) a g5]\s         
lib]ality  wor?y 8 great critical       
discrim9ation1 sci5tific skill1 &  g5]al
 erudition1 has1 we ?9k1 ably def5d$ !  
capta9's  "*1 by prov+ 8 ideas to h     
orig9at$ ) himself2 we  h only an       
opportunity to notice ! mo/ prom95t     
features 9 ?is  ju/ification1 :]e ,dr4  
,rees ?us expresses himself4 8,we "k t !
  ,m>quis ( ,worce/] gave no h9t conc]n+
 ! contractibility or  cond5sation (    
/eam1 ^u :i* all ! m]it ( ! mod]n eng9e 
dep5ds4 ,! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]'s eng9e 0 
actuat$ :olly by !  ela/ic p[] ( /eam1  

:i* he ei!r f\nd out1 or prov$ by !     
bur/+ ( cannon 9 "p fill$ ) wat]2 & n ! 
lea/ h9t  t /eam s exp&$1 is capable (  
be+ s f> contract$ 9 an  in/ant1 z to   
leave ! space x occupi$ 9 a vessel1 &   
occasion1  9 a great measure1 a vacuum40
    ,subsequ5t to ! ,m>quis (           
,worce/]'s1 & ,capta9 ,sav]y's orig9al  
ideas1 & also1 subsequ5t to ! p]fection 
! capta9 _h br\ght  8 ma*9e to1 ,m4     
,amonton1 a native ( ,france1 inv5t$ a  
ma*9e  :i* he call$ a fire-:eel2 b x    
does n appe> t x 0 ev]  br\ght to t     
p]fection to be conducive to real       
utility1 al?\gh  x 0 c]ta9ly v +5i\s4   
,also1 ,m4 ,pap91 a native ( ,g]many1   
made "s pret5sions to :at  he alleg$ 0  
an inv5tion ( 8 own1 only x happ5$ to   
appe>1  un=tunately = 8 claim1 t he 0 9 
,london1 & pres5t at !  "t :5 ,capta9   
,sav]y exhibit$ ! model ( 8 /eam-eng9e  
to !  ,royal ,society4 ,he made "s      
unsuccessful exp]im5ts1 by ord] ( 8     
patron1 ! ,l&grave ( ,hesse1 :i*        
suffici5tly prov$ t1 if he  0 ! inv5tor1

 he did n und]/& ! nature ( 8 own ma*9e4
    ,n long aft] ,sav]y _h inv5t$ 8     
eng9e1 ,?omas ,newcom51 an  ironmong]1 &
 ,john ,calley1 a glazi]1 began to      
direct _! att5tion  to ! employm5t (    
/eam z a me*anic p[]4 ,_! fir/ eng9e  0 
con/ruct$ ab\t ! ye> #agaa4 ,?is ma*9e  
/ill act$ on !  pr9ciple ( cond5s+ !    
/eam by means ( cold wat]1 & !  pressure
 ( ! atmosph]e on ! pi/on4 ,x 0 f\nd (  
great value  9 pump+ wat] f deep m9es2 b
 ! mode ( its con/ruction1 !  great wa/e
 ( fuel1 ! cont9u$ cool+ & heat+ ( !    
cyl9d]1  & ! limit$ capacities ( !      
atmosph]e 9 impell+ ! pi/on  d[nw>d1 all
 t5d$ to circumscribe its utility4    ,!
 /eam-eng9e 0 9 ?is /ate1 :5 x happily  
attract$ !  att5tion ( ,mr4 ,watt1 to   
:om ! m]it & hon\r is due1 ( hav+  fir/ 
r5d]$ ?is inv5tion available z a        
me*anical ag5t4 ,we  _c illu/rate !     
improvem5ts ( ?is +5i\s individual bett]
  ?an by giv+ a %ort biographical sket* 
( him to :om ! _w is  s mu* indebt$4    
,james ,watt 0 born at ,gre5ock1 an     

ext5sive seaport 9 ! we/ (  ,scotl&1 on 
! #ai? ( ,janu>y1 #agcf4 ,8 fa!r 0 a    
m]*ant1 &  also "o ( ! magi/rates ( t   
t[n4 ,he receiv$ ! rudim5ts (  8        
education 9 8 native place2 b 8 heal?   
be+ !n extremely  delicate1 z x cont9u$ 
to be to ! end ( 8 life1 8 att5dance  at
 s*ool 0 n always v regul>4 ,he amply   
made up1 h[ev]1 =  :at he lo/ 9 ?is way1
 by ! dilig5ce ) :i* he pursu$ 8  /udies
 at home1 :]e1 )\t any assi/ance1 he    
succe$$1 at a  v e>ly age1 9 mak+       
consid]able pr(ici5cy 9 v>i\s bran*es  (
 k4 ,ev5 at ?is "t x is said 8 fav\rite 
/udy 0  me*anical sci5ce1 to a love (   
:i* he 0 probably 9 "s degree  l$ by !  
example ( 8 gr&fa!r & 8 uncle1 bo? ( :om
 _h  be5 tea*]s ( ma!matics1 & _h left a
 consid]able reputation  = le>n+ &      
ability 9 t dep>tm5t4 ,"y ,watt1 h[ev]1 
0  n indebt$ to any in/ruction ( !irs = 
8 own acquirem5ts 9  sci5ce1 ! =m] hav+ 
di$ two ye>s be=e1 & ! latt] "o  ye>    
aft] he 0 born4 ,at ! age ( eighte5 he 0
 s5t to ,london1  to be appr5tic$ to a  

mak] ( ma!matical in/rum5ts2 b 9  little
 m ?an a ye> ! /ate ( 8 heal? =c$ him to
 return  to ,scotl&2 & he nev] receiv$  
any fur!r in/ruction 9 8  pr(ession4 ,a 
ye> or two aft] ?is1 h[ev]1 a visit :i* 
he paid  to "s relations 9 ,glasg[1     
sugge/$ to him ! plan ( attempt+  to    
e/abli% himself 9 t city1 9 ! l9e = :i* 
he _h be5  educat$4 ,9 #ageg1 he        
accord+ly remov$ ?i!r1 & 0 imm$iately   
appo9t$ ma!matical in/rum5t mak] to !   
,college4 ,9 ?is  situation he rema9$ = 
"s ye>s1 dur+ :i*1 not)/&+  almo/       
con/ant ill heal?1 he cont9u$ bo? to    
prosecute 8  pr(ession1 & to lab\r 9 !  
g5]al cultivation ( 8 m9d1  )           
extraord9>y ard\r & p]sev]ance4 ,"h also
 he enjoy$ !  intimacy & fri5d%ip (     
sev]al di/+ui%$ p]sons1 :o 7 !n  memb]s 
( ! ,univ]sity1 especially ( ! celebrat$
 ,dr4 ,black1 !  discov]] ( ! pr9ciple (
 lat5t heat1 & ,dr4 ,robison1 s well    
kn[n by 8 treatises on me*anical sci5ce1
 :o 0 !n a /ud5t1  & ab\t ! same age z  
himself4 ,hon\rable1 h[ev] z 8 pres5t   

appo9tm5t 01 & important z 7 _m ( !     
advantages to  :i* x introduc$ him1 he  
probably did n f9d x a v lucrative  "o2 
& !re=e1 9 #agfc1 :5 ab\t to m>ry1 he   
remov$ f 8  ap>tm5ts 9 ! ,univ]sity1 to 
a h\se 9 ! city1 & ent]$ ^u  ! pr(ession
 ( a g5]al eng9e]4    ,= ?is 8 g5ius &  
sci5tific atta9m5ts mo/ admirably       
qualifi$ him4 ,accord+ly he soon acquir$
 a high reputation1 &  0 ext5sively     
employ$ 9 mak+ surveys & e/imates =     
canals1  h>b\rs1 bridges1 & o!r public  
works4 ,8 advice & assi/ance  7 s\ght = 
9 almo/ all ! important improvem5ts (   
?is  description1 :i* 7 n[ und]tak5 or  
propos$ 9 8 native  c\ntry4 ,b ano!r    
pursuit1 9 :i* he _h be5 = "s "t        
privately engag$1 0 de/9$ ere long to   
)draw him f ?is l9e  ( ex]tion1 & to    
occupy 8 :ole m9d ) an object /ill m    
wor?y ( its extraord9>y p[]s4    ,:ile  
yet resid+ 9 ! ,college1 8 att5tion _h  
be5 direct$ to  ! employm5t ( /eam z a  
me*anical ag5t1 by "s speculations (  8 
fri5d ,mr4 ,robison1 ) reg>d to !       

practicability ( apply+  x to ! movem5t 
( :eel-c>riages2 & he _h also himself   
made  "s exp]im5ts ) ,pap9's dige/]1 ) !
 view ( asc]ta9+  its expansive =ce4 ,he
 _h n prosecut$ ! inquiry1 h[ev]1 s  f> 
z to h arriv$ at any det]m9ate result1  
:5 ! w9t]  ( #agfc-d1 a small model (   
,newcom5's eng9e 0 s5t him by !         
,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy1 to be 
repair$1 & fitt$ =  exhibition 9 !      
class4 ,! exam9ation ( ?is model set    
,watt ^u  ?9k+ anew1 & ) m int]e/ ?an   
ev]1 on ! p[]s (  /eam4 ,/ruck ) !      
radical imp]fections ( ! atmosph]ic     
eng9e1  he began to turn 9 8 m9d !      
possibility ( employ+ /eam 9  me*anics1 
9 "s new mann] :i* %\ld enable x to "w )
  mu* m p[]ful effect4 ,?is idea hav+   
got possession ( him1  he engag$ 9 an   
ext5sive c\rse ( exp]im5ts1 = ! purpose 
(  asc]ta9+ z _m facts z possible )     
reg>d to ! prop]ties  ( /eam2 & ! pa9s  
he took 9 ?is inve/igation 7 rew>d$  )  
sev]al valuable discov]ies4 ,! rapidity 
) :i* wat]  evaporates he f\nd1 =       

in/ance1 dep5d$ simply ^u ! quantity  ( 
heat :i* 0 made to ent] x2 & ?is aga91  
on ! ext5t (  ! surface expos$ to !     
fire4 ,he also asc]ta9$ ! quantity (    
coals necess>y = ! evaporation ( any    
giv5 quantity ( wat]1  ! heat at :i*    
wat] boils1 "u v>i\s pressures1 & _m o!r
  p>ticul>s ( a simil> k9d1 :i* _h nev] 
be=e be5 accurately  det]m9$4    ,?us   
prep>$ by a complete k ( ! prop]ties ( !
 ag5t  ) :i* he _h to "w1 he next took  
into consid]ation1 ) a view  to _!      
am5dm5t1 :at he deem$ ! two great       
defects ( ,newcom5's  eng9e4 ,! fir/ (  
^! 0 ! necessity aris+ f ! me?od        
employ$ to conc5trate ! /eam1 ( cool+ ! 
cyl9d]1 be=e  e /roke ( ! pi/on1 by !   
wat] inject$ into x4 ,on ?is  acc\nt1 a 
mu* m p[]ful application ( heat ?an w\ld
 o!rwise  h be5 requisite 0 dem&$ = !   
purpose ( aga9 heat+ t  vessel :5 x 0 to
 be refill$ ) /eam4 ,9 fact1 ,watt      
asc]ta9$  t !re 0 ?us occasion$1 9 !    
fe$+ ( ! ma*9e1 a wa/e  ( n less ?an    
?ree-f\r?s ( ! :ole fuel employ$4 ,if ! 

cyl9d]1 in/ead ( be+ ?us cool$ = e /roke
 ( ! pi/on1  c\ld be p]man5tly hot1 a   
f\r? "p ( ! heat :i* _h hi!rto  be5     
appli$ w\ld be f\nd suffici5t to produce
 /eam en\gh to fill  x4 ,h[ !n 0 ?is    
desid]atum to be obta9$8 ,sav]y1 ! fir/ 
:o  really con/ruct$ a work+ eng9e1 & ^:
 arrangem5ts1 z we h  already rem>k$1   
all %[$ a v sup]ior +5uity1 employ$ !   
me?od ( ?r[+ cold wat] ov] ! outside ( !
 vessel conta9+  ! /eam--a p]fectly     
manageable process1 b at ! same "t a v  
wa/eful "o2 inasmu* z e "t x 0 repeat$1 
x cool$ n  only ! /eam1 b ! vessel also1
 :i*1 !re=e1 _h aga9 to  be heat$1 by a 
l>ge exp5diture ( fuel1 be=e ! /eam c\ld
 be  produc$4 ,newcom5's me?od ( inject+
 ! wat] into ! cyl9d]  0 a consid]able  
improvem5t on ?is2 b x 0 /ill           
objectionable  on ! same gr\nd1 ?\gh n  
to ! same degree2 x /ill cool$ n  only !
 /eam1 on :i* x 0 desir$ to produce t   
effect1 b  also ! cyl9d] itself1 :i*1 z 
! vessel 9 :i* m /eam 0  to be          
imm$iately manufactur$1 x 0 s important 

to keep hot4 ,x  0 also a v s]i\s       
objection to ?is la/ m5tion$ plan1 t  ! 
inject$ wat]1 itself1 f ! heat ( ! place
 into :i* x  0 ?r[n1 0 v apt to be p>tly
 conv]t$ into /eam2 & !  m cold wat] 0  
us$1 ! m consid]able did ?is creation ( 
new /eam become4 ,9 fact1 9 ! la/ (     
,newcom5's eng9es1 !  r>efaction ( !    
vacuum 0 s greatly improv$ f ?is cause1 
t ! resi/ance exp]i5c$ by ! pi/on 9 its 
desc5t 0 f\nd  to am\nt to ab\t a f\r?  
"p ( ! :ole atmosph]ic pressure by  :i* 
x 0 c>ri$ d[n1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! work+ 
p[] ( !  ma*9e 0 !reby dim9i%$ "o-f\r?4 
,aft] reflect+ = "s "t ^u all ?is1 x at 
la/ occurr$  to ,watt to consid] :e!r x 
might n be possible1 in/ead (  cont9u+  
to cond5se ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d]1 to        
contrive t  me?od ( draw+ x (f1 to      
und]go t op]ation 9 "s o!r  vessel4 ,?is
 =tunate idea hav+ pres5t$ itself to 8  
m9d1 x 0  n long be=e 8 +5uity sugge/$  
to him ! means ( realis+  x4 ,9 ! c\rse 
( "o or two days1 accord+ to 8 own      
acc\nt1 he  _h all ! necess>y app>atus  

arrang$ 9 8 m9d4 ,! plan :i*  he devis$ 
01 inde$1 an extremely simple "o1 & on t
 acc\nt  ! m beautiful4 ,he propos$ to  
e/abli% a communication by an  op5 pipe1
 betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ano!r vessel1 !      
consequ5ce (  :i* evid5tly w\ld be1 t :5
 ! /eam 0 admitt$ into !  =m]1 x w\ld   
fl[ into ! o!r to fill x also4 ,if1 !n1 
!  portion 9 ?is latt] vessel only %\ld 
be subject$ to a cond5s+  process1 by   
be+ br\ght into contact ) cold wat]1 or 
any o!r  conv5i5t means1 :at w\ld foll[8
 ,:y1 a vacuum w\ld be produc$  "h--into
 t1 z a v5t1 m /eam w\ld imm$iately ru% 
f !  cyl9d]--t likewise w\ld be         
cond5s$--& s ! process w\ld  g on till  
all ! /eam _h left ! cyl9d]1 & a p]fect 
vacuum  _h be5 effect$ 9 t vessel1 )\t s
 mu* z a drop ( cold  wat] hav+ t\*$ or 
ent]$ x4 ,! sep>ate vessel alone1 or !  
cond5s]1 z ,watt call$ x1 w\ld be cool$ 
by ! wat] us$ to  cond5se ! /eam--& t1  
in/ead ( be+ an evil1 manife/ly  t5d$ to
 promote & quick5 ! cond5sation4 ,:5    
,watt r$uc$ 8  views to ! te/ (         

exp]im5t1 he f\nd ! result to answ] 8   
mo/  sangu9e expectations4 ,! cyl9d]1   
al?\gh empti$ ( its /eam  = e /roke ( ! 
pi/on z be=e1 0 n[ con/antly kept at  ! 
same temp]ature ) ! /eam 7or #bab deg4  
,fahr5heit72 &  ! consequ5ce 01 t       
"o-f\r? ( ! fuel =m]ly requir$1  suffic$
 to fe$ ! eng9e4 ,b besides ?is mo/     
important sav+ 9  ! exp5se ( ma9ta9+ !  
eng9e1 its p[] 0 greatly increas$  by ! 
mo/ p]fect vacuum produc$ 9 ! new       
con/ruction1 9 :i*  ! cond5s+ wat]1 be+ 
no long] admitt$ )9 ! cyl9d]1  c\ld n1 z
 be=e1 create new /eam !re :ile displac+
 ! old4    ,su*1 !n1 0 ! rem$y by :i* ! 
g5ius ( ?is great inv5tor  effectually  
cur$ ! fir/ & mo/ s]i\s defect ( ! old  
app>atus4 ,9 c>ry+ 8 ideas into         
execution1 he enc\nt]$1 z  0 to be      
expect$1 _m difficulties1 aris+         
pr9cipally f !  impossibility ( realis+ 
!oretical p]fection ( /ructure )  su*   
mat]ials z human art is oblig$ to "w )2 
b 8 +5uity  & p]sev]ance ov]came e      
ob/acle4 ,"o ( ! ?+s :i* co/  him !     

greate/ tr\ble 01 h[ to fit ! pi/on s   
exactly to !  cyl9d]1 z1 )\t affect+ !  
fre$om ( its motion1 to prev5t  !       
passage ( ! air betwe5 ! two4 ,9 ! old  
eng9e ?is end _h  be5 obta9$ by cov]+ ! 
pi/on ) a small quantity ( wat]1  !     
dripp+ d[n ( :i* into ! space bel[1 :]e 
x m]ely mix$  ) ! /ream introduc$ to    
effect ! cond5sation1 0 ( little or  no 
consequ5ce4 ,b 9 ! new con/ruction1 !   
sup]iority ( :i*  consi/$ 9 keep+ ?is   
receptacle = ! /eam always bo? hot &    
dry1 su* an effusion ( moi/ure1 al?\gh 9
 v small quantities1  w\ld h occasion$  
mat]ial inconv5i5ce4 ,! air alone1      
besides1  :i* 9 ! old eng9e foll[$ !    
pi/on 9 its desc5t1 act$ )  consid]able 
effect 9 cool+ ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d]4 ,8  
attempts to ov]come ?is difficulty1 :ile
 !y succe$$ 9 t  object1 conduct$ ,watt 
also to ano!r improvem5t1 :i* effect$ ! 
complete removal ( :at we h call$ !     
second radical imp]fection  ( ,newcom5's
 eng9e1 namely1 its non-employm5t = a   
mov+ p[]1 (  ! expansive =ce ( /eam4 ,! 

effectual way x occurr$ to him (        
prev5t+ any air f escap+ into ! "p ( !  
cyl9d] bel[  ! pi/on1 w\ld be to disp5se
 ) ! use ( t elem5t above  ! pi/on1 & to
 sub/itute !re likewise ! same          
contrivance z  bel[1 ( alt]nate /eam & a
 vacuum4 ,?is 01 ( c\rse1 to be         
accompli%$ by m]ely op5+ communications 
f ! upp] "p (  ! cyl9d] to ! boil] on ! 
"o h&1 & ! cond5s] on !  o!r1 & =m+ x at
 ! same "t into an air-tight *amb]1 by  
means ( a cov]1 ) only a hole 9 x to    
admit ! rod or %ank  ( ! pi/on1 :i*     
might1 besides1 )\t imp$+ its fre$om (  
action1 be padd$ ) hemp1 ! m completely 
to exclude ! air4  ,x 0 s contriv$      
accord+ly1 by a prop] arrangem5t ( !    
cocks  & ! ma*9]y connect$ ) !m2 t1 :ile
 !re 0 a vacuum  9 "o end ( ! cyl9d]1   
!re %\ld be an admission ( /eam  into ! 
o!r2 & ! /eam s admitt$ n[ s]v$1 n only 
by its  susceptibility ( sudd5          
cond5sation to create ! vacuum1 b also1 
by its expansive =ce1 to impel ! pi/on4 
,^! 7 ! great improvem5ts :i* ,watt     

introduc$ 9 :at may be  call$ ! pr9ciple
 ( ! /eam-eng9e1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 !   
mann] ( us+ & apply+ ! /eam4 ,!y        
con/itute1 !re=e1 !  gr\nds ( 8 claim to
 be reg>d$ z ! true au?or ( ! conque/  t
 has be5 obta9$ by man ov] ?is p[]ful   
elem5t4 ,b orig9al  & compreh5sive z 7 !
 views out ( :i* ^! fundam5tal          
inv5tions arose1 ! exquisite &          
inexhau/ible +5uity :i* !  eng9e1 z     
f9ally p]fect$ by him1 displays 9 e "p (
 its  subord9ate me*anism1 is calculat$ 
to /rike u p]haps ) sc>cely  less       
admiration4 ,x =ms und\bt$ly ! be/      
exemplification t  has ev] be5 af=d$ ( !
 numb] & div]sity ( s]vices :i* a  piece
 ( ma*9]y may be made to r5d] to itself1
 by means solely (  ! v>i\s application 
( its fir/ mov+ p[]1 :5 t has once  be5 
call$ into action4 ,( ^! contrivances1  
h[ev]1 we c only  notice "o or two1 by  
way ( specim54 ,p]haps ! mo/ s+ul> is  t
 call$ ! gov]nor4 ,?is consi/s ( an     
upright sp9dle1 :i*  is kept con/antly  
turn+1 by be+ connect$ ) a c]ta9 "p (  !

 ma*9]y1 & f :i* two balls are susp5d$1 
9 opposite  directions1 by rods1 atta*$ 
by jo9ts1 some:at 9 ! mann] (  ! legs ( 
a pair ( tongs4 ,z long z ! motion ( !  
eng9e is  uni=m1 t ( ! sp9dle is s      
likewise1 & ! balls cont9ue  /eadily    
revolv+ at ! same di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,b 
z soon  z any alt]ation 9 ! action ( !  
pi/on takes place1 ! balls1  if x has   
become m rapid1 fly fur!r ap>t "u !     
influ5ce (  ! increas$ c5trifugal =ce   
:i* actuates !m2 or approa* ne>]  to ea*
 o!r 9 ! opposite circum/ances4 ,?is    
alone w\ld h  s]v$ to indicate ! /ate ( 
matt]s to ! eye2 b ,watt 0 n  to be s   
satisfi$4 ,he connect$ ! rods ) a valve 
9 ! tube by  :i* ! /eam is admitt$ to ! 
cyl9d] f ! boil]1 9 su* a  way1 t z !y  
retreat f ea* o!r1 !y gradually n>r[ !  
op5+ :i* is s gu>d$1 or enl>ge x z !y   
t5d to collapse2  ?us dim9i%+ ! supply (
 /eam :5 ! eng9e is go+ too fa/1  & :5 x
 is n go+ fa/ en\gh1 enabl+ x to rega9  
its prop]  spe$ by all[+ x an increase (
 alim5t4    ,aga9 ! con/ant supply ( a  

suffici5cy ( wat] to ! boil] is  secur$ 
by an equally simple provision1 namely1 
by a float re/+ on  ! surface ( ! wat]  
:i*1 z soon z x is c>ri$ d[n by !       
consumption ( ! wat] to a c]ta9 po9t    
op5s a valve & admits  m4 ,& s on ?r\gh 
all ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! app>atus1  !     
v>i\s wond]s ( :i* _c be bett] summ$ up 
?an 9 !  =cible & graphic language ( a  
rec5t writ]3--8,9 ! pres5t  p]fect /ate 
( ! eng9e x appe>s a ?+ almo/ end[$ )   
intellig5ce4 ,x regulates1 ) p]fect     
accuracy & uni=mity1 !  numb] ( its     
/rokes 9 a giv5 "t1 c\nt+1 or record+   
!m moreov]1 to tell h[ mu* "w x has     
done1 z a clock records  ! beats ( its  
p5dulum2 x regulates ! quantity ( /eam  
admitt$ to "w2 ! briskness ( ! fire2 !  
supply ( wat]  to ! boil]2 ! supply (   
coals to ! fire2 x op5s & %uts  its     
valves ) absolute precision z to "t &   
mann]2 x oils  its jo9ts2 x takes out   
any air :i* may accid5tally ent] into   
p>ts :i* %\ld be vacu\s2 & :5 any ?+    
goes wrong1 :i* x  _c ( itself rectify1 

x w>ns its att5dants by r++ a bell2     
yet1 ) all ^! tal5ts & qualities1 & ev5 
:5 ex]t+ !  p[] ( six hundr$ horses1 x  
is ob$i5t to ! h& ( a *ild2  its alim5t 
is coal1 wood1 *>coal1 or o!r           
combu/ible--x consumes  none :5 idle--x 
nev] tires1 & wants no sleep2 x is n    
subject  to malady :5 orig9ally well    
made1 & only refuses to "w :5 worn  out 
) age2 x is equally active 9 all        
climates1 & w d "w (  any k9d2 x is a   
wat]-pump]1 a m9]1 a sailor1 a          
cotton-sp9n]1  a weav]1 a blacksmi?1 a  
mill]1 c41 c42 & a small eng9e1 9  ! "* 
( a /eam pony1 may be se5 dragg+ aft] x 
on a  rail-road a hundr$ tons ( m]*&ise1
 or a regim5t ( soldi]s1  ) great] spe$ 
?an t ( ! fleete/ coa*es4 ,x is ! k+ (  
ma*9es1 & a p]man5t realisation ( !     
,g5ii ( ,ea/]n fable1  ^: sup]natural   
p[]s 7 occasionally at ! comm& ( man40  
,9 addition to ^? difficulties :i* 8    
unrivall$ me*anical  +5uity enabl$ him  
to surm\nt1 ,watt1 not)/&+ ! m]it  ( 8  
inv5tions1 _h to cont5d = "s "t ) o!rs (

 a  diff]5t nature1 9 8 attempts to     
r$uce !m to practice4 ,he _h  no        
pecuni>y res\rces ( 8 own1 & 0 at fir/  
)\t any fri5d  will+ to run ! risk ( !  
outlay necess>y = an exp]im5t  on a     
suffici5tly l>ge scale4 ,at la/ he      
appli$ to ,dr4 ,roebuck1  an +5i\s &    
spirit$ speculator1 :o _h j e/abli%$ !  
,c>ron iron-works1 n f> f ,glasg[1 &    
held also at ! same  "t a lease ( !     
ext5sive coal-works at ,k9neal1 !       
prop]ty (  ! ,duke ( ,hamilton4 ,dr4    
,roebuck agre$ to advance ! requisite   
funds1 on hav+ two-?irds ( ! pr(its made
 ov] to him2 &  ^u ?is ,mr4 ,watt took  
out 8 fir/ pat5t 9 ! beg9n+ ( !  ye>    
#agfi4 ,an eng9e ) a cyl9d] ( eighte5   
in*es diamet] 0  soon aft] erect$ at    
,k9neal2 & al?\gh1 z a fir/ exp]im5t1  x
 0 necess>ily1 9 "s respects1 (         
defective con/ruction1 its  work+       
completely demon/rat$ ! value ( ,watt's 
improvem5ts4 ,b  ,dr4 ,roebuck1 ^:      
und]tak+s 7 v num]\s & v>i\s1 9  no long
 "t aft] =m+ ?is connexion1 f\nd himself

 involv$ 9  su* pecuni>y difficulties1 z
 to put x out ( 8 p[] to make any  fur!r
 advances 9 prosecution ( its object4   
,on ?is ,watt appli$  himself = "s ye>s 
almo/ entirely to ! ord9>y "w ( 8       
pr(ession z a civil eng9e]2 b at la/1   
ab\t ! ye> #aggd1  :5 all hopes ( any   
f>!r assi/ance f ,dr4 ,roebuck 7 at an  
end1 he resolv$ to close ) a proposal   
:i* _h be5 made to him  ?r\gh 8 fri5d1  
,dr4 ,small1 ( ,birm+ham1 t he %\ld     
remove  to t t[n1 & ent] into p>tn]%ip )
 ! em95t h>dw>e  manufactur]1 ,mr4      
,b\lton1 ^: ext5sive e/abli%m5ts at     
,soho  _h already become fam\s ov]      
,europe1 & procur$ = ,engl& an          
unrivall$ reputation = ! arts !re c>ri$ 
on4 ,accord+ly an  arrangem5t hav+ be5  
made ) ,dr4 ,roebuck1 by :i* 8 %>e (  ! 
pat5t 0 transf]r$ to ,mr4 ,b\lton1 !    
firm ( ,b\lton & ,watt  comm5c$ !       
bus9ess ( mak+ /eam-eng9es1 9 ! ye>     
#agge4    ,mr4 ,watt n[ obta9$ f        
p>liam5t an ext5sion ( 8 pat5t =        
tw5ty-five ye>s1 9 consid]ation ( !     

ackn[l$g$ national  importance ( 8      
inv5tions4 ,! fir/ ?+ :i* he & 8 p>tn]  
did 0 to erect an eng9e at ,soho1 :i* !y
 invit$ all p]sons  int]e/$ 9 su* ma*9es
 to inspect4 ,!y !n propos$ to erect    
simil> ma*9es :]ev] requir$1 on ! v     
lib]al pr9ciple (  receiv+1 z paym5t =  
ea*1 only "o-?ird ( ! sav+ 9 fuel  :i* x
 %\ld effect1 z comp>$ ) "o ( ! old     
con/ruction4    ,b ! dra9+ ( m9es 0 only
 "o ( ! _m applications ( !  /eam-p[] n[
 at 8 comm&1 :i* ,watt contemplat$1 & 9 
c\rse  ( "t accompli%$4 ,dur+ ! :ole    
tw5ty-five ye>s1 inde$1 ov]  :i* 8 r5ew$
 pat5t ext5d$1 ! p]fect+ ( 8 inv5tion 0 
8 *ief occupation1 & not)/&+ a delicate 
/ate ( heal?1  & ! depress+ affliction (
 sev]e heada*es1 to :i* he 0  extremely 
subject1 he cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ?is p]iod to
 p]sev]e  ) unwe>i$ dilig5ce 9 add+ new 
improvem5ts to ! me*anism (  ! eng9e1 & 
devis+ ! means ( apply+ x to new        
purposes (  usefulness4 ,he devot$1 9   
p>ticul>1 ! ex]tions ( _m ye>s1 to  !   
contriv+ ( ! be/ me?ods ( mak+ ! action 

( ! pi/on  communicate a rot>y motion 9 
v>i\s circum/ances1 & betwe5 !  ye>s    
#agha & #aghe1 he took out f\r diff]5t  
pat5ts = inv5tions  hav+ ?is 9 8 view4  
,x is gratify+ to reflect1 t ev5 :ile he
 0 yet alive1 ,watt  receiv$ f ! mo/    
illu/ri\s contempor>ies1 ! hon\rs due to
  8 g5ius4 ,9 #aghe1 he 0 elect$ a      
,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society2 !  degree ( 
,doctor ( ,laws 0 conf]r$ ^u him by !   
,univ]sity (  ,glasg[1 9 #ahjf2 & 9     
#ahjh1 he 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,fr5*    
,in/itute4 ,he di$ on ! #be? ( ,augu/1  
#ahai1 9 ! #hd? ye> ( 8  age4    ,!     
b5eficial results aris+ f ! +5uity (    
,watt h be5  surpris+4 ,! /eam-eng9e has
 already gone f> to revolutionise !     
:ole doma9 ( human indu/ry2 & almo/ e   
ye> is add+ to its  p[] & its conque/s4 
,9 our manufactures1 our arts1 our      
comm]ce1  our social accommodations1 x  
is con/antly a*iev+ :at1 little  m ?an  
half a c5tury ago1 w\ld h be5 acc\nt$   
miracul\s &  impossible4 8,! trunk ( an 
elephant10 x has be5 f9ely & truly      

said1 8t c pick up a p91 or r5d an oak1 
is z no?+ to x4 ,x  c engrave a seal1 & 
cru% masses ( obdurate metal l wax be=e 
x--draw out1 )\t break+1 a ?read z f9e z
 gossam]1 & lift  a %ip ( w>1 l a       
bauble1 9 ! air4 ,x c embroid] musl9s1  
& =ge an*ors2 cut /eel into ribb&s1 &   
impel load$ vessels  aga9/ ! fury ( !   
w9ds & waves40    ,ano!r application ( x
 is p]haps de/9$ to be productive ( /ill
  great] *anges on ! condition (        
society1 ?an h result$ f  _m ( its      
previ\s a*ievem5ts1--we ref] to         
railroads4 ,! fir/  great exp]im5t 0 !  
,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway1 :i* 0    
op5$1 we believe1 9 #ahca1 & practically
 demon/rat$1 ) :at  hi!rto almo/        
undreamt ( rapidity travell+ by l& may  
be c>ri$  on ?r\gh ! aid ( /eam4        
,c>riages1 "u ! impetus communicat$  by 
?is ! mo/ pot5t1 & at ! same "t ! mo/   
p]fectly  controllable ( all our        
me*anical ag5cies1 c be drawn =w>d at  !
 fly+ spe$ ( ?irty & ?irty-five miles an
 h\r4 ,:5 s mu*  has be5 already done1 x

 w\ld be ra% to conclude t ev5 ?is is   
to be our ultimate limit ( atta9m5t4 ,9 
navigation1 ! resi/ance  ( ! wat]1 :i*  
increases rapidly z ! =ce oppos$ to x   
increases1 v soon set b\nds to ! rate at
 :i* ev5 ! p[] (  /eam c impel a vessel 
=w>d4 ,b on l&1 ! ?9 m$ium ( !  air     
pres5ts no su* insurm\ntable ob/acles to
 a =ce mak+ its  way ?r\gh x2 & a       
rapidity ( movem5t may p]haps be        
ev5tually  atta9$ "h1 :i* is to u ev5 z 
yet inconceivable4 ,b ev5 :5  ! rate (  
l& travell+ already %[n to be q         
practicable %all  h become univ]sal1 9  
:at a new /ate ( society %all we f9d    
ourselves6 ,a nation w !n1 inde$1 become
 a community2 & all !  b5efits ( !      
highe/ civilization w be diffus$ equally
 ov] !  l&1 l ! light ( heav54 ,?is     
inv5tion1 9 %ort1 :5 fully  consummat$1 
w conf] ^u man z mu* new p[] & enjoym5t 
z if  he 7 actually end[$ ) w+s4    ,!  
comm]ce ( ! k+dom has also greatly      
b5efit$ by !  introduction ( ?is        
valuable auxili>y1 z w be se5 f !       

foll[+ extract f ! 8,work+ ,man's       
,companion30--    8,! e/abli%m5t (      
/eam-boats betwe5 ,engl& & ,irel& has   
greatly contribut$ to ! prosp]ity ( bo? 
c\ntries4 ,h[ h  /eam boats done ?is8   
,!y h greatly increas$ ! trade ( bo?    
c\ntries4 ,on ! exam9ation ( ,mr4       
,williams1 be=e a ,committee  ( ! ,h\se 
( ,commons1 he /at$ t #8be=e /eam-boats 
7  e/abli%$1 !re 0 little trade 9 !     
small] articles ( f>m+  production1 su* 
z p\ltry & eggs4 ,! fir/ trad+ /eam-boat
  f ,liv]pool to ,dubl91 0 set up 9     
#ahbd2 !re are n[ 7#ahcb7  =ty su* boats
 betwe5 ,engl& & ,irel&4 ,! sail+       
vessels 7  f "o week to two or ?ree     
weeks on ! passage2 ! voyage f          
,liv]pool to ,dubl9 is n[ p]=m$ 9 f\rte5
 h\rs4 ,reckon+ t5  mile1 = an h\r1     
,dubl9 & ,liv]pool are "o hundr$ & =ty  
miles  ap>t2 ) ! old vessels tak+ twelve
 days z ! av]age "t (  ! voyage1 !y 7   
sep>at$ z completely z !y w\ld be by a  
di/ance ( two ?\s& eight hundr$ & eighty
 miles4 ,:at is !  consequ5ce8 ,trad]s  

may n[ h1 f any ( ! manufactur+ t[ns  9 
,engl&1 )9 two or ?ree days1 ev5 !      
smalle/ quantity ( any  description (   
goods2' & ?us #8"o ( ! effects has be5  
to give a  productive employm5t ( !     
capital ( p]sons 9 second>y l9es (      
bus9ess1 t =m]ly c\ld n h be5 br\ght    
into action4'0 ,mr4  ,williams adds1    
#8,i am a daily witness to ! int]c\rse  
by means ( !  small trad]s !mselves     
betwe5 ,engl& & ,irel&4 ,^? p]sons  f9d 
_! way into ! int]ior ( ,engl&1 &       
pur*ase manufactur$  goods !mselves4 ,!y
 are1 ( c\rse1 enabl$ to sell !m ^u mu* 
bett] t]ms 9 ,irel&2 & ,i anticipate t  
?is w %ortly lead  to ! creation ( %ops 
& o!r e/abli%m5ts 9 ! int]ior (  ,irel& 
= ! sale ( a great v>iety ( articles :i*
 are n n[  to be _h !re4'    8,& h[ d ! 
small deal]s 9 ,engli% manufactur$ goods
 f9d  pur*as]s 9 ! rude di/ricts (      
,irel& = our clo?s & our  h>dw>e8       
,because ! little f>m]s h s5t u _! butt]
 & eggs  & p\ltry1 & h ei!r tak5 our    
manufactures 9 ex*ange1 or  h tak5 back 

our money to pur*ase our manufactures1  
:i* is !  same ?+4 ,_m millions ( eggs1 
collect$ among/ ! v poore/  classes1 by 
! indu/ry ( ! wom5 & *ildr51 are        
annually s5t  f ,dubl9 to ,liv]pool4    
,mr4 ,williams has kn[n fifty tons1 or  
eight  hundr$ & eighty ?\s& eggs1 %ipp$ 
9 "o day1 z well z t5  tons ( p\ltry2 & 
he says ?is is q a new creation (       
prop]ty4  ,x is a creation ( prop]ty t  
has a direct t5d5cy to act ^u !         
condition ( ! poore/ classes 9 ,irel&2 =
 ! produce is laid  out 9 provid+ clo!s 
= ! females & *ildr5 ( ! families  :o   
engage 9 re>+ p\ltry & collect+ eggs4   
,?us ! ,engli%  manufactur] is bett]$1 =
 he has a new m>ket = 8 manufactures1   
:i* he ex*anges = *eap provisions2 & !  
deal] 9 eggs &  p\ltry has a new impulse
 to ?is bran* ( indu/ry1 because x      
enables him to give clo!s to 8 wife &   
*ildr54 ,?is ex*ange  ( b5efits--?is    
advancem5t 9 ! condition ( bo?          
p>ties--?is  creation ( produce & (     
pr(itable lab\r--?is increase ( !  numb]

 ( lab\r]s--c\ld n h tak5 place )\t     
ma*9]y4  ,t ma*9]y is ! c>riage :i*     
conveys ! produce to ! riv]1  & !       
/eam-boat :i* makes a port 9 ano!r      
c\ntry mu* ne>]  = practical purposes1  
?an ! m>ket t[n ( a ?9ly peopl$         
di/rict4 ,a new ma*9]y is add$2 !       
/eam-c>riage runn+ on  ! railroad1 z "o 
( ! witnesses truly says1 #8is l c>ry+  
,liv]pool =ty miles into ! int]ior1 &   
?us ext5d+ ! circle  to :i* ! supply w  
be applicable4' ,! la/ inv5tion p]fects 
all ! inv5tions :i* h prec$$ x4 ,!      
village & ! city are  br\ght close      
toge!r 9 ef=t1 & yet reta9 all !        
advantages (  _! local situation2 ! port
 & ! manufactory are divid$ only  by two
 h\rs di/ance 9 "t1 :ile _! di/ance 9   
space af=ds  room = all ! v>i\s         
occupations :i* contribute to !         
p]fection  ( ei!r4 ,! :ole t]ritory (   
,great ,brita9 & ,irel& is m  compact1 m
 closely unit$1 m accessible ?an 0 a    
s+le c\nty  two c5turies ago40    ,!    
communication betwe5 ,engl& & ,irel& has

 greatly increas$  s9ce ! above rem>ks 7
 writt51 9 #ahcb4 ,!re are n[ upw>ds  ( 
f\r hundr$ /eam-boats sail+ betwe5      
,irel& & ,great ,brita91  & ( late ye>s 
! l>ge/ export f t un=tunate c\ntry     
consi/s ( h] />v+ population1 :o1 true  
en\gh1 f9d _! way  into ! int]ior (     
,engl&1 b n ) ! int5tion ( pur*as+      
manufactur$ goods1 b ( be+ employ$ 9 !  
manufactur+ ( !m4  ,we believe t our    
me*anical read]s1 at lea/1 w agree )  u1
 :5 we say t ! b5efit has n be5         
reciprocal4 ,engl&1  = h] %>e1 has be5  
bur!n$ ) a paup] population1 & h]  sons 
depriv$ ( _! employm5t1 by ! imm5se     
immigration t  has ( late ye>s tak5     
place4 ,poor rates are multipli$ to an  
ext5t  hi!rto unhe>d (1 & our /reets    
sw>m+ ) begg>s--& ^?  ( ! mo/           
importunate class4 ,s mu* 0 ?is ! case1 
t 9  #ahdg & #ahdh1 ,liv]pool 0 inundat$
 ) paup]s f ! si/]  c\ntry to su* a     
degree1 t h] au?orities 7 compell$ to   
petition gov]nm5t to put an end to !    
nuisance1 & to grant  !m assi/ance to   

prev5t ! dea? ( s _m ?\s&s ( _!         
fell[-m5 f dy+ = want2 ! poor-rates 7 s 
increas$ t  ! ratepay]s ) ju/ice        
compla9$4 ,& we "q mu* if ev]  ! ,engli%
 manufactures h be5 s mu* b5efit$ by !  
comm]ce  z ! =ego+ quotation w\ld lead u
 to believe4 ,t we h be5  suppli$ )     
enorm\s quantities ( provisions we _c   
d5y2 b  t ! paym5t ( ^! 0 tak5 back 9   
our clo?s & our h>dw>e  is v            
que/ionable4 ,t ! money 0 tak5 back !re 
c be little  d\bt1 n = ! purpose1 h[ev]1
 ( buy+ clo!s = ! wives  & *ildr5 ( ^?  
families ^: indu/ry _h suppli$ u ) eggs 
& p\ltry1 b = supply+ ! insatiate wants 
( _! pr(ligate  l&lords1 :o 7 squ&]+ !  
subsi/5ce ( ! ne$y peasantry  9 ano!r   
l&4 ,if any class ( m5 h obta9$ b5efit  
by means (  ?is increas$ & spe$y        
communication betwe5 ! two c\ntries1 x  
assur$ly is ! abs5tee ,iri% l&lord4     
,,mills4      ,corn ,mills are ( v      
anci5t orig91 & x may n be un9t]e/+  to 
our read]s to le>n some?+ ( ! cu/oms (  
our =efa!rs  ) reg>d to !m2 to :i* we w 

subjo9 su* mod]n improvem5ts  z ! m     
advanc$ /ate ( ! arts h enabl$ ! mod]ns 
to  a*ieve1 & to excel ! imp]fect       
in=mation ( ! anci5ts 9  me*anical      
sci5ces4    ,9 support ( ! antiquity (  
gr9d+ corn1 we may g z = back  z ! days 
( ! patri>* ,abraham1 :o1 we are in=m$ 9
 ,g5esis  xviii4 #f1 8ha/5$ into ! t5t  
unto ,s>ah1 & said1 ,make ready  quickly
 ?ree measures ( f9e meal1 knead x1 &   
make cakes ^u !  he>?40 ,to ?is we may  
add1 t x appe>s 9 a subsequ5t text1     
,numb]s xi4 #h1 t manna 0 gr\nd l corn4 
,! e>lie/ in/rum5t  = ?is purpose seems 
to h be5 ! mort>1 :i* 0 reta9$ long     
aft] ! introduction ( mills1 prop]ly s  
call$3 because !y 7  mo/ probably at    
fir/ v imp]fect4 ,9 process ( "t ! mort>
  0 made ridg$1 & ! pe/le not*$ at !    
bottom1 by :i* means  ! gra9 0 r grat$  
?an p\nd$4    ,a passage 9 ,pl9y1 :i*   
has n z yet _h a satisfactory           
int]pretation1 r5d]s ?is conjecture     
probable4 ,9 "t a h&le 0  add$ to ! top 
( ! pe/le1 t x might be m easily driv5  

r\nd 9 a circle1 :5ce ?is ma*9e at fir/ 
0 call$ mort>ium1  by ?is means assum+ !
 "n ( a h&-mill4 ,su* a mill 0 s  call$ 
f rubb+ backw>ds & =w>ds2 & v>i$ b      
little f  ^? us$ by our col\r-gr9d]s1   
apo!c>ies1 pott]s1 & o!r  artisans4 ,f  
expressions 9 ! sacr$ volume1 we may    
rationally  inf] t x 0 cu/om>y to h a   
mill ( ?is sort 9 e  family4 ,moses hav+
 =bidd5 to take su* in/rum5ts = a pl$ge2
  = t1 says he1 8,no man %all take !    
ne!r or ! upp] mill/one  to pl$ge3 = he 
take? a man's life40 ,x is obs]v$ by    
,mi*aelis1 on  ?is passage1 t a man c\ld
 n !n gr9d1 consequ5tly c\ld n  bake !  
necess>y daily bread = ! family4        
,gr9d+ 0 !n ! employm5t ( ! wom51       
p>ticul>ly ( female  slaves1 z at pres5t
 9 ^? c\ntries :i* are uncivilis$3 !    
portion ( /r5g? requir$ = ! op]ation1   
!re=e1 c\ld n  h be5 great2 b aft]w>ds !
 mills 7 driv5 by bondsm51  ^: necks 7  
plac$ 9 a circul> ma*9e ( wood1 s t !y  
c\ld n put _! h&s to _! m\?s or eat ( ! 
meal4 ,?is mu/  h be5 an int]e/+ l9k    

betwe5 ! h& & ! horse-mill4    ,9 c\rse 
( "t %afts 7 add$ to ! mill1 t x might  
be  driv5 by cattle1 :i* 7 !n bl9dfold$4
 ,! fir/ cattle mills  7 call$ molae    
jum5t>ia1 :i* _h1 probably1 only a heavy
  pe/le l ! h&-mill2 b x is conjectur$1 
t x mu/ h  be5 soon rem>k$1 t ! lab\r   
w\ld be m easily accompli%$1  if1 in/ead
 ( ! pe/le a l>ge heavy cyl9d] 0        
employ$4 ,a  compet5t judge has1 h[ev]1 
believ$ t ! fir/ cattle mills  _h n a   
sp\t or tr\gh z ours h2 at lea/ ^?      
h&-mills  ,t\rne=t saw at ,nic>ia1      
consi/$ only ( two /ones2 b ! meal      
issu$ ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! upp] "o1 & fell 
^u a bo>d or  table1 on :i* ! l[] "o    
re/$4    ,! upp] mill/one !y call$ meta1
 or turbo2 & ! l[] "o  catillus3 ! "n ( 
! fir/ also signifi$ a cone ) a blunt   
apex1 :5ce x has be5 ?\ght by "s1 t corn
 0 fir/ rubb$  into meal1 by roll+ "o   
/one ^u ano!r1 z pa9t]s n[ gr9d  col\rs 
) a mull]4 ,?is is n improbable1 z      
pres5t practice  among b>b>\s p fully   
proves4 ,x is also app>5t t ! upp]      

mill/one 0 sub/itut$ = ! pe/le1 :i*     
action may h l5t x  a "n1 :5 !y call$ x 
meta4    ,pr(essor ,beckmann has foll[$ 
,gori 9 8 description ( an antique  gem1
 engrav$ on r$ jasp]1 ^u :i* appe>s 8!  
nak$ figure (  a man1 :o 9 8 left h&    
holds a %eaf ( corn1 & 9 ! "r  a ma*9e t
 9 all probability is a h&-mill4 ,gori  
consid]s !  figure z a repres5tation ( !
 god ,euno/us1 :o 0 ! god (  mills4 ,!  
ma*9e :i* ,euno/us seems to exhibit1 or 
to be survey+  himself1 is1 z f> z "o c 
di/+ui%1 7= ! /one is sc>cely  half an  
in* 9 size71 %ap$ l a *e/1 n>r[ at !    
top1 &  wide at ! bottom4 ,x /&s ^u a   
table1 & 9 ! bottom !re  is a p]p5dicul>
 pipe1 f :i* ! meal1 also repres5t$ by  
! arti/1 appe>s to be issu+4 ,above1 !  
*e/ or body ( !  mill has ei!r a top )  
an ap]ture1 or p]haps a basket sunk into
  x1 f :i* ! corn falls into ! mill4 ,on
 "o side1 ne>ly  ab\t ! middle ( x1 !re 
projects a brok5 %ank1 :i*1 )\t         
ov]/ra9+ ! imag9ation1 may be consid]$ z
 a h&le1 or t  "p ( ! mill :i* "s call  

mobile4 ,?\gh ?is figure is small1  &   
?\gh x gives v little idea ( ! int]nal  
con/ruction1  "o may1 h[ev]1 conclude f 
x t ! roll]1 :e!r x 0 (  wood or ( iron1
 smoo? or not*$1 did n /& p]p5dicul>ly1 
l ^? ( our c(fee mills1 b lay           
horizontally1 :i* gives  u reason to    
conjecture a con/ruction m +5i\s ?an t (
  ! fir/ inv5tion4 ,! axis ( ! h&le _h1 
p]haps1 )9 !  body ( ! mill1 a cr[n     
:eel1 t turn$ a sp9dle1 to ! l[]  end ( 
! p]p5dicul> axis ( :i* ! roll] 0 fix$4 
,%\ld  ?is be admitt$1 x mu/ be all[$   
also1 t ! h&-mills ( !  anci5ts _h n s  
mu* a resemblance to ! be=e-m5tion$     
col\r  mills z to ! philosophical mills 
( our *emi/s2 & ,langelott1             
consequ5tly1 w n be ! real inv5tor ( !  
latt]4 ,on !  o!r side1 opposite to :]e 
! h&le is1 !re arise f ! mill  (        
,euno/us two %afts1 :i* ,gori consid]s z
 ^? ( a besom &  %ovel1 two in/rum5ts   
us$ 9 gr9d+2 b z ! int]ior "p  _c be    
se51 x appe>s to me d\btful :e!r ^! may 
n be  p>ts ( ! mill itself40    ,9 !    

comm5cem5t ( ! la/ c5tury1 ! rema9s ( a 
pair ( ,roman  mill/ones 7 f\nd at      
,adel1 9 ,york%ire4 ,"o ( ^! /ones1     
tw5ty in*es 9 bread?1 is ?ick] 9 !      
middle ?an at ! edge1  consequ5tly "o   
side is convex2 ! o!r 0 ( ! same size1 b
  z ?ick at ! sides z ! o!r 0 9 ! c5tre2
 ! traces (  not*+ 7 discov]able4       
,en\gh1 may1 p]haps1 h be5 said conc]n+ 
?is orig9al  inv5tion2 !re=e ?is article
 w n be encumb]$ )  quotations ( all ^? 
passages relative to mills1 :i* are f\nd
  9 anci5t au?ors1 z !y w\ld af=d b     
little additional  in=mation4 ,nei!r w  
my?ological records be di/urb$ to       
inquire  to :i* deity or h]o ! inv5tion 
0 orig9ally attribut$2 or to  asc]ta9 ! 
desc5t ( ,milantes1 :om ,/ephanus       
di/+ui%es by t  hon\r1 or h[ ^?         
mill/ones 7 con/ruct$ :i* are alleg$ to 
h be5 built by ,myletes1 son ( ,lelex1  
,k+ ( ,laconia2 b we %all  proce$ to !  
inv5tion ( ,wat]-,mills4    ,^! appe> to
 h be5 introduc$ ab\t ! p]iod (         
,mi?ridates1  contempor>y ) ,cs> &      

,cic]o4 ,/rabo1 relat+ t !re 0 a        
wat]-mill ne> ! resid5ce ( ! ,pontian   
k+1 t hon\r has be5  ascrib$ to him2 b s
 f> is ?is remote f c]ta9ty1 t no?+  c  
be inf]r$ f !nce1 o!r ?an t wat]-mills  
at t p]iod  7 kn[n 9 ,asia4 ,pomponius  
,sab9us in=ms u1 t ! fir/  wat]-mill se5
 at ,rome 0 erect$ on ! banks ( ! ,tib]1
 a little  be=e ! "t ( ,augu/us2 b ( ?is
 !re is no o!r pro( ?an  8 simple       
ass]tion3 he hav+ tak5 ! great] "p ( 8  
rem>ks  f ! illu/rations ( ,s]vius1 he  
mu/ h _h a m p]fect copy  ( t au?or ?an 
any n[ rema9+1 & f ^! 8 in=mation  might
 h come4    ,! mo/ c]ta9 pro( we h t    
,rome _h wat]-mills 9 ! "t  ( ,augu/us1 
is1 t ,vitruvius has told u s2 b ^?     
mills 7  n corn-mills1 !y 7 hydraulic   
eng9es1 :i* he describes 9  8 works4 ,f 
:5ce we le>n t ! anci5ts _h :eels =     
rais+ wat]1 :i* 7 driv5 by be+ trod ^u  
by m52 ! usual  employm5t = crim9als1 z 
may be le>nt f ,artemidorus4 ,also f  a 
pretty epigram ( ,antipat]2 8,cease y\r 
"w1 ye maids1 ye :o  lab\r$ 9 ! mill2   

sleep n[1 & let ! birds s+ to ! ruddy   
morn+2 = ,c]es has comm&$ ! wat] nymphs 
to p]=m y\r  task2 ^!1 ob$i5t to h]     
call1 ?r[ !mselves on ! :eel1 =ce  r\nd 
! axle-tree1 & by ^! means ! heavy      
mill40 ,antipat]  liv$ at ! p]iod (     
,cic]o4 ,palladius1 also1 ) equal       
cle>ness1  speaks ( wat]-mills1 :i* he  
advises to be built on e/ates :]e is    
runn+ wat]1 9 ord] to gr9d corn )\t m5  
or cattle4    ,x likewise appe>s t !    
wat]-:eels to :i* ,heliogabalus  direct$
 "s ( 8 fri5ds & p>asites to be ti$1 _c 
be  consid]$ to be mills = ! purpose (  
gr9d+ corn2 = ^!1 z  well z ! hau/ra (  
,lucretius 7 probably l ^? ma*9es  =    
rais+ wat]1 :i* are spok5 ( by          
,vitruvius z hydraulic4    ,x is1 h[ev]1
 on ! au?ority ( ,pomp9ius ,sab9us1     
be=e-cit$1  t bo? w9d & wat] mills 7    
kn[n to h be5 9 ,italy1 &  ev5 ! latt] 9
 ,rome1 9 ! days ( ,augu/us4 ,h[ev]1    
ab\t  tw5ty-?ree ye>s aft] ! dea? (     
,augu/us1 :5 ,caligula seiz$  e horse f 
! mills1 to convey effects he _h 9      

contemplation  to take f ,rome1 ! public
 7 mu* di/ress$ = bread2 :5ce  we mu/   
inf] t wat]-mills mu/ h be5 v r>e4 ,ev5 
?ree  hundr$ ye>s aft] ,augu/us1 cattle 
mills 7 s common 9 t city1  t _! numb]  
am\nt$ to ?ree hundr$2 m5tion ( !m1 & ( 
! h&-mills1 (t5 occurs = a long "t aft]4
 ,x is n _! use  we inquire aft]1 x is  
en\gh = u to "k t !y exi/$4    ,we n[   
come to ano!r p]iod1 :5 we are in=m$ t  
public mills  7 fir/ introduc$1 :i*     
occurs 9 ! ye> #cih1 m5tion be+  made ( 
!m 9 t ye>1 :i* also cle>ly %[s t !y 7  
!n newly-e/abli%$2 :i* e/abli%m5t 0 f\nd
 necess>y to be  protect$ by laws made 9
 _! fav\r4 ,! ord]s = t purpose  7 r5ew$
 m ?an once1 & made m secure by ,z5o1   
t[>ds  ! end ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,x may be 
prop]ly rem>k$1 t 9 !  :ole code (      
,ju/9ian1 ! lea/ m5tion ( wood5 pales or
 po/s is  n made1 :i* occurs 9 all ! new
 laws1--& :i*1 x appe>s1  :5 !re 7      
sev]al mills on ! same /ream1 occasion$ 
s _m  disputes !n1 z well z 9 aft]      
times4 ,! mills at ,rome 7  erect$ on ^?

 canals :i* convey$ wat] to ! city2 &   
because  ^! 7 employ$ 9 sev]al arts1 & =
 _m purposes1 x 0  ord]$ t1 by divid+ ! 
wat]1 ! mills %\ld always be kept  go+2 
b z !y 7 driv5 by s small a quantity (  
wat]1 !y  probably execut$ v little "w2 
& = ?is reason1 b probably  on acc\nt ( 
! great numb] ( slaves1 & ! *eap rate at
 :i*  !y 7 ma9ta9$1 ^! noble ma*9es 7 n 
s mu* us$1  nor 7 s soon br\ght to      
p]fection1 z "u o!r circum/ances  !y    
might h be54 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t aft] ! 
abolition  ( slav]y1 !y 7 mu* improv$1 &
 m employ$1 & to ?is a  p>ticul> incid5t
 seems1 9 "s degree1 to h contribut$4   
,:5 ,vitiges1 ,k+ ( ! ,go?s1 besieg$    
,belis>ius 9 ,rome1 9 !  ye> #ecf1 &    
caus$ ! f\rte5 l>ge exp5sive aqu$ucts to
 be  /opp$1 ! city 0 r$uc$ to great     
di/ress2 n f want (  wat]1 9 g5]al1     
because x 0 secur$ aga9/ t inconv5i5ce  
by ! ,tib]2 b by ! loss ( t wat] :i* !  
ba?s requir$1  &1 above all1 ( t        
necess>y to drive ! mills1 :i* 7 all    
situat$ on ^! canals4 ,horses & cattle1 

:i* might h be5  employ$ ^u gr9d+1 7 n  
to be f\nd2 b ,belis>ius fell ^u  !     
+5i\s contrivance ( plac+ boats ^u !    
,tib]1 on :i*  he erect$ mills t 7 driv5
 by ! curr5t4 ,?is exp]im5t 0  att5d$ ) 
complete success2 & z _m mills ( ?is k9d
 z 7  necess>y 7 con/ruct$4 ,to de/roy  
^!1 ! besieg]s ?rew into  ! /ream logs (
 wood1 dead bodies1 c41 :i* float$ d[n !
 riv]  into ! city2 b ! besieg$1 by mak+
 use ( booms to /op !m1  7 enabl$ to    
drag !m out be=e !y c\ld d any mis*ief4 
,?is  seems to h be5 ! orig9 (          
float+-mills1 no record ( !m  appe>+    
previ\sly4 ,by ^! means ! use (         
wat]-mills became v  mu* ext5d$2 =      
float+-mills c be con/ruct$ almo/ ^u any
  /ream1 )\t =m+ an artificial fall2 !y 
may be /ation$ at  ! mo/ conv5i5t       
places1 & !y rise & fall ( !mselves )  !
 wat]4--,!y are1 h[ev]1 att5d$ ) ^!     
inconv5i5ces3 !y  require to be /rongly 
secur$2 !y (t5 block up ! /ream too     
mu*1 & move sl[ly2 & !y (t5 /op :5 !    
wat] is too high1  or :5 x is froz54    

,aft] ?is improvem5t1 ! use ( wat]-mills
 0 nev] laid aside  or =gott51 b 0 soon 
made kn[n all ov] ,europe2 & passages   
innum]able might be quot$1 9 e c5tury1  
to prove _! cont9u$  use4 ,! ,roman1    
,salic1 & o!r laws1 con/antly provid$ = 
!  security ( ^! mills1 & def9$ a       
puni%m5t = su* z de/roy$  ! sluices1 or 
/ole ! mill-irons4 ,x is said1 h[ev]1 t 
!re  7 wat]-mills 9 ,france & ,g]many a 
hundr$ ye>s be=e ^!  laws _h exi/5ce4   
,at ,v5ice1 & o!r places1 !re 7 erect$  
mills :i* regulat$  !mselves by ! motion
 ( ! wat]s1 & :i* 7 regulat$ by  ! fl[+ 
& ebb+ ( ! tide1 & :i* e six h\rs *ang$ 
! motion ( ! :eels4 ,( ?is species (    
mills1 a new inv5tion1  or1 p]haps1 r an
 improv$ "o1 0 made 9 ,london1 call$ a  
tide-mill1 an engrav+ ( :i* may be se5 9
 8,! ,advancem5t (  ,arts1              
,manufactures1 & ,comm]ce10 ,london1    
#aggb4    ,zanetti is said to h %[n1 by 
"s old *>t]s1 t su* mills  exi/$ ab\t ! 
ye> #ajdd2 b ) /ill m c]ta9ty 9 #ajgh1  
#ajgi1 & #aajg4    ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t  

h& & cattle mills 7 9 mo/ places        
reta9$1 aft] ! use ( prop] wat]mills1   
p>ticul>ly 9 conv5ts4  ,!y 7 us$1       
because ! o!rwise lazy monks f\nd !     
ex]cise  !y af=d$ b5eficial to _! heal?4
 ,likewise ! leg5ds (  popi% my?ology   
are full ( ! miracles :i* h be5 wr\ght  
at  ^! mills4    ,a mod]n au?or ( cr$it 
impea*es ! v]acity ( ,pomponius ,sab9us 
aft] he _h previ\sly quot$ 8 au?ority1 &
 likewise aft] he  _h said t he bore a  
good "*1 9 a popul> "w1 by *>g+  him )  
improbability1 nay1 positive falsehood1 
& alleg+ t  ! ,romans _h no w9d-mills4  
,x %\ld be notic$1 )\t v5tur+  to decide
 ^u ! po9t1 t he has adduc$ no au?ority 
= su*  allegation1 & t he only concludes
 s1 by inf]5ce1 z ^u  ! au?ority (      
,vitruvius2 t me*ani/1 he says1 9       
enum]at+  all mov+ =ces1 does n m5tion  
w9d-mills4 ,b1 = ! sake  ( c&\r1 0 n !  
"o z liable to err z ! o!r8 ,he also    
says1 t nei!r ,s5eca nor ,/4 ,*ryso/om  
m5tion w9d-mills2 &  is unm]cifully     
sev]e ^u an old ,bohemian annali/ :o    

speaks (  w9d-mills s e>ly z #gah4 ,b he
 is all along br++ 8 =ces  to prove1 t  
w9d-mills _h fir/ exi/5ce 9 8 own       
di/rict1  ,g]many2 t !y 7 !n inv5t$2 &1 
p]haps1 because he is (  t c\ntry4 ,x is
 some:at rem>kable t sc>cely any        
inv5tion (  any consequ5ce has occurr$  
s9ce t ( pr9t+1 b ! hon\r has  be5      
claim$ by ! natives ( ,g]many4          
,mabillon m5tions a diploma ( ! ye>     
#aaje1 9 :i* a conv5t 9  ,france is     
all[$ to erect wat] & w9d-mills1 mol5d9a
 ad v5tum4    ,b>tolomeo ,v]de propos$  
to ! ,v5etians 9 #accb1 to build a      
w9d-mill4 ,:5 8 plan _h be5 exam9$1 he  
_h a piece ( gr\nd  assign$ him1 :i* he 
0 to reta9 if 8 und]tak+ succe$$  )9 a  
specifi$ "t4 ,9 #acgc1 ! city ( ,spires 
caus$ a w9d-mill  to be erect$1 & s5t to
 ! ,ne!rl&s = a p]son acqua9t$  ) !     
me?od ( gr9d+ by x4 ,a w9d-mill 0 also  
con/ruct$ at  ,frank=t1 9 #addb2 b x    
does n appe> to h be5 asc]ta9$  :e!r !re
 7 any !re be=e4    ,ab\t ! twelf?      
c5tury1 9 ! pontificate ( ,gregory1 :5  

bo?  w9d & wat]-mills became m g5]al1 a 
dispute arose :e!r mills  7 ti!able or  
n4 ,! dispute exi/$ = "s "t betwe5 !    
p]sons possess$ ( mills & ! cl]gy2 :5   
nei!r w\ld yield4 ,at  l5g?1 ^u ! matt] 
be+ ref]r$ to ! pope & sacr$ college1  !
 "q 01 7z might h be5 expect$ :5 int]e/$
 p]sons  7 made ! arbitrators17 det]m9$ 
9 fav\r ( ! claims ( !  *ur*4    ,!re 0 
"o inconv5i5ce att5d+ w9d-mills1 :i*    
might be  obviat$ 9 o!r mills3 ! mill 0 
useless unless ! w9d 0 9  a p>ticul>    
direction4 ,to rem$y ?is1 v>i\s modes 7 
tri$2 at  fir/1 ! mill 0 fix$ on a      
float+ body 9 ! wat]1 :i* might  be     
turn$ to any w9d4 ,! next improvem5t    
consi/$ 9 turn+ !  body ( ! mill to meet
 ! direction ( ! w9d2 ?is 0 effect$  by 
two modes3 fir/1 ! :ole build+ is       
con/ruct$ 9 su* a mann]  z to turn on a 
pivot bel[2 ?is me?od is said to h be5  
inv5t$  9 ,g]many1 & is call$ ! ,g]man  
mode3 second1 ! build+ is  =m$ s z to   
turn on ! ro(1 ) ! %afts support+ !     
sails  only2 ?is is call$ ! ,dut* mode1 

be+ inv5t$ by a ,flem+ ab\t  ! middle ( 
! sixte5? c5tury4 ,?is is ! mode        
pr9cipally  adopt$ 9 ,engl&4    ,al?\gh 
9 ! e>lie/ ages ( ! _w m5 might h be51  
p]haps1 satisfi$ ) hav+ _! corn r$uc$ to
 a mealable =m  alone2 yet aft] ?is _h  
be5 ) c>e effect$1 !n !y ?\ght  (       
improv+ ^u ?is conv5i5cy1 & sep>at+ !   
f>9ace\s  "p f ! bran & husks4 ,?is 0   
c]ta9ly desirable2 !re=e  !y bolt$ x 9 a
 sieve ) a long h&le atta*$ to x1 )  a  
hair1 or f9e lawn l9+2 ?is 0 common 9   
?is c\ntry till  )9 ! la/ sixty or      
eighty ye>s2 b by degrees1 opportunities
  ( improvem5t 9 ! me*anism ( mills     
sugge/$ to "s me*anic  ! idea (         
con/ruct+ :at is n[ call$ bolt+ mills1  
appli$ to  ! mill = gr9d+1 & wr\ght at !
 same "t by appropriate  ma*9]y4    ,x  
appe>s t sieves ( horse-hair 7 fir/ us$ 
by ! ,gauls1 !n  ^? ( l95 by !          
,spani>ds4 ,! mode ( apply+ a sieve 9 ! 
=m ( an ext5d+ bag to cat* ! meal z x   
fell f ! /ones1  & ( caus+ x to be turn$
 & %ak51 0 fir/ made kn[n 9 !  beg9n+ ( 

! sixte5? c5tury4    ,! be/ bolt+ clo?s 
are univ]sally all[$ to be manufactur$  
9 ,engl&2 !y are made ( wool ( ! longe/ 
& ! be/ k9d1  peculi>ly prep>$2 be+ fir/
 well wa%$ & spun to a f9e &  equal     
?read2 :i*1 be=e x be sc\r$1 mu/ be     
scald$ 9 hot wat]  to prev5t its %r9k+4 
,! web mu/ be !n /iff5$2 x is 9 ?is  we 
possess an advantage :i* o!rs _c atta94 
,our bolt+ clo?  is /iff]1 z well z mu* 
smoo!r1 ?an any =eign manufacture4 ,s   
jeal\s are our ,g]man neighb\rs ( ?is1 t
 !y h e/abli%$  manufactories 9 sev]al  
places at a great exp5se1 & "u v        
peculi> regulations1 = its fabrication4 
,aft] all1 !y are  compell$ to confess1 
t !irs w n we> above ?ree weeks 9  a    
fl\r manufactory1 :]eas ours w cont9ue  
well ?ree mon?s 9  equal exposure to    
friction & ord9>y we>4    ,= "s ye>s    
pa/1 ! ,fr5* h be5 extoll$ = a mode (   
gr9d+1 call$ m\ture economique2 t 7 we n
 aw>e su*  _h be5 practis$ 9 anci5t     
,rome1 x might be conceiv$ to =m an     
important epo* 9 ! mill]'s art4 ,?is    

process1 h[ev]1 is n  new2 x consi/s 9  
fir/ gr9d+ ! :eat n s f9e z might be    
requir$ = ord9>y purposes2 aft]w>ds     
putt+ ! meal sev]al  times ?r\gh ! mill1
 & sift+ x ) v>i\s sieves4 ,x %\ld  seem
 ?is me?od 0 practis$ 9 anci5t ,rome2 = 
,pl9y1 :o took  c>e to in=m himself (   
mo/ ?+s1 tells u1 t 9 8 "t !y  _h1 at   
lea/1 five diff]5t k9ds ( fl\r1 all     
procur$ f !  same corn4 ,x appe>s1 t !  
anci5t ,romans _h advanc$ v f> 9  ?is   
art1 z well z 9 t ( bak+1 c41 f :at may 
be collect$  f its economical polity    
pres]v$ by ,pl9y & o!rs4 ,:5ce x may  be
 fairly inf]r$1 !y knew h[ to prep>e f  
corn m k9ds (  meal1 & f meal m k9ds (  
bread1 ?an ! mod]ns ev5 n[ are  acqua9t$
 )4    ,pl9y reckons t bread %\ld be    
"o-?ird heavi] ?an ! meal  us$ = bak+ x3
 ?is proportion x appe>s1 0 kn[n 9      
,g]many  ne>ly a c5tury & a half ago1 & 
discov]$ f exp]im5ts on  bread made at  
diff]5t times4 ,g]man bak]s1 al?\gh !y  
may h  be5 occasionally mi/ak51 h always
 und\bt$ly giv5 m bread  ?an meal4 ,x   

appe>s t 9 latt] p]iods1 ! art ( gr9d+1 
z well z bak+1 has decl9$ v mu* 9       
,italy2 & _! bread1  al?\gh produc$ f ! 
f9e/ gra9 9 ! _w1 is altoge!r bad  :5   
manufactur$ by ,italians4 ,on ?is       
acc\nt1 bak]s f ,g]many  x seems1 are   
g5]ally employ$ 9 public bak+-h\ses1 z  
well at  ,rome z 9 ,v5ice4 ,bak]s ( t p 
are g5]ally settl$ at ^?  places1 :]e !y
 h be5 9 ! habit ( manufactur+ t article
  = ! pr9cipal inhabitants1 = upw>ds (  
?ree hundr$ ye>s4    ,f ,beckmann's     
,hi/ory1 x w\ld appe> t ! m\ture        
economique  ( ! ,fr5* has be5 kn[n to ! 
,g]mans = m ?an two hundr$  ye>s4 ,_m 7 
! attempts1 repeat$ly en=c$1 to det] !  
exp]im5ts made1 f "t to "t1 by ! ,fr5*  
exp]im5tali/s1  to p]fect ?is article   
previ\s to its be+ accompli%$4 ,9 ?is1  
! ,fr5* suff]$ !mselves to be taught by 
prejudice & direct$  by ignorance4      
,num]\s & judici\s 7 ! exp]im5ts made by
  ! sci5tific & philosophic ( t p to    
produce ! mo/ 9  quantity & be/ 9       
quality f a def9ite quantity ( gra91 at 

:i* ! ignorant ( _! species suff]$ _!   
prejudice to revolt1  & ! p[]ful readily
 come into ! mode ( ?9k+ ( ! vulg>1  to 
:om !y l5t _! aid1 to effect :at ,heav5 
9 revelation _h  comm&$1 viz3 8,give n t
 :i* is holy unto dogs1 nei!r ca/ ye    
y\r pe>ls be=e sw9e1 le/ !y trample !m  
"u _! feet1 &  turn aga9 & r5d y40 ,mat4
 vii4 #f4    ,x w1 f ! succe$+ /atem5t1 
t 9 us+ ! language  :i* has j appe>$1   
circum/ances sanction$ u4 ,! cl]gy ( !  
*apel royal1 & p>i% *ur* at ,v]sailles1 
s5t _! :eat 9 !  beg9n+ ( la/ c5tury to 
be gr\nd at an adjac5t mill3 accord+  to
 cu/om1 x 0 put ?r\gh ! mill only once1 
& ! bran1 :i*  yet conta9$ mu* fl\r1 0  
sold = fatt5+ cattle4 ,?is mill]  hav+1 
h[ev]1 9 process ( "t le>nt ! process ( 
! m\ture  economique1 pur*as$ ! bran f  
^! ecclesia/ics1 & f\nd  t x yield$ him 
z good fl\r z !y _h procur$ f ! :ole    
:eat4 ,! mill]1 at l5g?1 is presum$1 9 a
 qualm ( consci5ce1  to h regrett$ *eat+
 ^? holy m52 he accord+ly discov]$  to  
!m ! secret1 & gave !m aft]w>ds f\rte5  

bu%els ( fl\r  f _! :eat1 in/ead (      
eight1 :i* he _h only furni%$ !m  be=e4 
,?is volunt>y discov]y ( ! mill] 0 made 
9 #agfj2 & x  is probable ! same        
discov]y 0 made at ! same "t by o!rs4   
,a bak]1 nam$ ,malisset1 propos$ to !   
lieut5ant-g5]al ( !  ,fr5* police to    
tea* a me?od by :i* p c\ld gr9d _!  corn
 ) m advantage2 & exp]im5ts 7 accord+ly 
made &  succe$$4 ,a mealman ( ,s5lis1   
nam$ ,buquet1 hav+ ! inspection  ( !    
mill belong+ to ! l>ge hospital at      
,p>is1 made ! same  proposal3 ! result (
 8 exp]im5ts1 made "u ! direction  ( !  
magi/rates1 0 pr9t$4 ,! inve/igation (  
?is art 0  n[ tak5 up by m5 ( le>n+ &   
sci5ce1 :o gave x a suitable            
d5om9ation2 expla9$ x1 made exp]im5ts & 
calculations ^u  x1 & at ! same "t      
recomm5d$ x s mu*1 t ! m\ture           
economique engag$ ! att5tion ( all      
magi/rates ?r\gh\t  ,france4 ,its       
gov]nm5t s5t ,buquet to ,lyons 9 #agfd1 
to ,b\rdeaux 9  #agff1 to ,dijon 9      
#agfg1 & to ,mondidi] 9 #agfh4 ,! b5efit

 :i*  ,france d]iv$ f t tr\ble1 %[s t x 
0 n tak5 9 va94  ,previ\s to t p]iod1 a 
,p>is seti] yield$ f eighty to  n9ety   
p\nds ( meal1 & f "o hundr$ & fifty to  
"o hundr$  & sixty p\nds ( bran2 b !    
same quantity n[ yields "o hundr$  &    
eighty-five p\nds1 & accord+ to ! late/ 
improvem5ts1 "o  hundr$ & n9ety-five    
p\nds ( meal4 ,9 ! "t ( ,/4 ,l\is1  f   
f\r to five seti]s 7 reckon$ necess>y = 
! annual  ma9t5ance ( a man2 ^! 7       
sc>cely suffici5t2 z _m 7  all[$ to !   
pati5ts 9 hospitals2 & su* 7 !          
calculations  made 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4  
,:5 ! mill]'s art 0 ev]y:]e  improv$1 ! 
f\r seti]s 7 r$uc$ to ?ree & a half1 & f
  ! late/ improvem5ts1 !y d n exce$ two4
    ,f mills :i* only =ce ! f>9ace\s    
p>ts f ! husk1  !reby r\nd+ ! gra91 !   
common d5om9ation ( b>ley mills  comes1 
f su* mills be+ us$ 9 ! manufacture (   
pe>l b>ley4  ,9 _! con/ruction1 ^! mills
 diff] b little f :eat-mills1  & !      
ma*9]y = ! =m] is g5]ally add$ to !     
latt]4  ,! gr& specific di/9ction is1 t 

! mill/one is r\gh hewn  r\nd its       
circumf]5ce1 & 9 ! /ead ( a l[] /one1   
!re is  g5]ally a wood5 case2 ! middle  
l9$ ) a plate ( iron1 pi]c$  l a grat] )
 holes1 ! %>p edge ( :i* turns upw>ds4  
,!  b>ley is ?r[n ^u ! /one1 :i*1 z x   
turns r\nd1 frees x  f ! husk1 & r\nds  
x2 aft] :i*1 x is put into sieves &     
sift$4    ,s long z ! policy ( gov]nm5ts
 0 bl9d to ! int]e/s (  m51 & s long z !
 grip+ av>ice ( a few 0 p]mitt$ to lay  
! free-born ( _! species "u ! mo/ sev]e 
contributions1  s long 7 p]mitt$ to     
build mills only1 :o _h obta9$ a regal  
lic5se = t purpose4 ,b1 ?ank heav56 t   
ray ( light x has  l5t g5]ally to man1  
has1 9 "s sort1 illum9at$ ev5 ! m9ds  ( 
m9i/]s & _! tyrannical ma/]s1 to curtail
 t _s  :i* _h ca/ ! fett]s ( vassalage  
giv5 by feudal tyranny to its  up/>t    
dep5dants4 ,m5 7 left1 at l5g?1 to      
improve _! prop]ty  accord+ to _!       
pleasure3 s9ce :i* p]iod1 m mills h be5 
erect$ = ! conv5i5ce ( ! species4 ,?is  
privilege1 x appe>s1  0 n prohibit$ by !

 ,roman laws2 ^? irradiations ( sup]ior 
intellect well appreciat$ human rights4 
,x 0 n till ! d>kness  ( ! middle ages  
_h obscur$ ! m5tal hemisph]e1 t any     
p]son  0 presum$ to possess a sup]iority
 ov] o!rs1 & to abridge !  small portion
 ( g5]al happ9ess t ! fav\r$ ( =tune    
might  add to 8 satiety4 ,dur+ ^? days (
 univ]sal d>kness1 numb]less  7 ! evils 
:i* m5 suff]$1 & among !m ! pres5t      
object (  our consid]ation 0 n ! lea/2  
frequ5tly hav+ to travel =  miles to a  
mill to procure ! necess>y manufacture (
 s ess5tial  an article to human life z 
bread4    ,let u n be decoy$1 h[ev]1 by 
! res5tm5t produc$ by !  _s ( human     
oppression1 beyond ! b\nds prescrib$ by 
reason1 to  inveigh aga9/ su* ord9ance  
:5 public & g5]al utility ev]  0        
consult$2 & c]ta9 public /reams 7 by    
wise laws to be kept  free f individual 
encroa*m5ts ) impunity4 ,x is n aga9/ ! 
dictates ( sob] reason we decl>e        
ho/ility1 b ! gross abuse (  p[]4    ,a 
"t !re 01 :5 human bas5ess 9 pr9ces &   

pot5tates1 _!  vassals d\btless ap+ !   
mann]s ( _! ma/]s1 claim$ z _!  "r n    
only ! common elem5t ( wat]1 b also t ( 
air6 ,a  curi\s incid5t relat$ by ,j>g[1
 & detail$ by ,pr(essor ,beckmann1  z   
foll[s1 e/abli%es ! insol5ce ( up/>t    
m53--8,9 ! end (  ! f\rte5? c5tury1 !   
monks ( ! celebrat$ b long s9ce  de/roy$
 mona/]y ( ,augu/9es1 at ,w9d%iem1 9 !  
prov9ce (  ,ov]yssel1 7 desir\s ( erect+
 a w9d-mill n f> f ,zwoll2  b a neigh\r+
 "l endeav\r$ to prev5t !m1 decl>+ t !  
w9d 9 t qu>t] belong$ to him4 ,! monks1 
unwill+ to give  up _! po9t1 _h rec\rse 
to ! ,bi%op ( ,utre*t1 "u ^:            
jurisdiction ! prov9ce _h cont9u$ s9ce !
 t5? c5tury4 ,!  bi%op1 highly inc5s$   
aga9/ ! pret5d]1 :o wi%$ to usurp 8     
au?ority1 affirm$1 t ! w9d ( ! :ole     
prov9ce belong$ only  to him2 &1 9      
#acia1 gave ! conv5t express p]mission  
to build a  w9d-mill :]ev] !y ?\ght     
prop]40    ,)\t ! conv5i5ce ( human     
+5uity heav5 _h s5t ! bless+  ( life 9  
va92 we h1 "u ?is impression1 !re=e1    

be/[$  mu* "t on ?is article1 f a       
conviction ( its vital importance to  ! 
necessities ( human exi/5ce4            
,,saw-,,mills4      ,! inv5tion ( !     
plumb-l9e & saw1 ) o!r useful articles 9
  me*anics1 & h&icrafts1 are usually    
ascrib$ to t great--t  univ]sal         
g5ius--,ddalus3 al?\gh o!rs give ! m]it 
to "o  ,talus1 ! nephew ( ,ddalus1 &    
say1 t ! discov]y 0 made  "u ! foll[+   
circum/ances3--,talus1 !y tell u1 hav+  
f\nd  ! jaw-bone ( a snake1 cut a piece 
( wood 9 two ) ! tee?2  !nce1 !y say1 he
 inv5t$ ! saw2 8 mat]nal uncle & ma/]1  
!y add1 0 s jeal\s ( ?is inv5tion1 t he 
murd]$ ! "y  man2 & ! mode ( ! discov]y 
( ! murd] is acc\nt$ = 9  ?is mann]3--"s
 p]sons saw ,ddalus cov]+ up ! grave ( 8
  victim1 & ask$ :at he 0 do+8 8,oh10   
says he1 8,i am only bury+  a snake40   
,h[ mu* cr$it may be due to ?is         
relation1 we d n take  ^u ourselves to  
det]m9e4 ,pl9y1 z well z ,s5eca1 7 ( !  
=m] op9ion2 :il/ ,diodorus ,siculus1 &  
o!rs1 hold ! latt]4  ,! y\? is nam$ by  

"s ,p]dix4 ,h[ev]1 x appe>s to re/      
betwe5  ^! two1 no o!r claimant appe>+4 
,ovid says1 x 0 n ! jaw  ( a snake1 b ! 
back-bone ( a fi%4 ,! =m]1 h[ev]1 appe>s
  to be ! mo/ rational op9ion z to its  
orig91 z x is conjectur$  t ! v]tebr    
w\ld n be suffici5tly /rong1 & ! jo9ts  
are  too f> ap>t1 z well z too l>ge4    
,! ,grecian saw is said to h be5 mu* !  
same z t in/rum5t  :i* ! mod]ns n[ use4 
,?is idea is corroborat$ by an anci5t   
pa9t+ discov]$ 9 ,h]culaneum2 likewise f
 an antique  repres5tation ( ?is        
in/rum5t1 giv5 by ! celebrat$           
,montfaucon4    ,! prec$+ obs]vations1  
h[ev]1 h relation to ! subject (  ?is   
article only1 inasmu* z !y are          
introductory to :at foll[s4    ,! mo/   
b5eficial & +5i\s improvem5t t has be5  
made 9  saws 0 ! inv5tion & introduction
 ( ma*9]y1 call$ saw-mills1  :i*1 9     
woody c\ntries1 z well z = delicate &   
f9e v5e]s1  are ( ! greate/ utility2 9 !
 =m] case1 wood =ms ! *ief  article (   
comm]ce :]e lab\r]s are sc>ce2 9 !      

latt]1 x may  be cut ne>ly z ?9 z a %eet
 ( pap]4 ,^! saw-mills also f9i%  floor+
 deals1 groov$1 dovetail$1 & plan$ on   
bo? sides1 at !  rate ( two deals1 (    
tw5ty feet ea*1 9 a m9ute6 ,!y are      
commonly  work$ 9 ?is c\ntry by means ( 
/eam-eng9es2 9 woody c\ntries  !y are   
g5]ally erect$ on ! banks ( riv]s1 !    
wat] ( :i*  propels ! ma*9]y4    ,x is  
said !y 7 inv5t$ 9 ,g]many1 z f> back z 
! f\r?  c5tury1 ^u ! small] riv] ,ro]2  
=1 al?\gh ,ansonius speaks (            
wat]-mills1 = cutt+ /one1 he says no?+ (
 mills to cut timb]4  ,! art ( cutt+    
m>ble ) a saw is v anci5t2 ,pl9y ?9ks  x
 0 inv5t$ 9 ,c>ia2 at lea/1 he knew ( no
 place or build+1  incru/$ ) m>ble1 old]
 ?an ! palace ( ,k+ ,mausolus1 at       
,helic>nassus4 ,vitruvius also names !  
circum/ances1 al?\gh he uses  diff]5t   
t]ms = expressions ( ! same s5se4 ,he   
comm5ds !  beauty ( its m>ble1 :il/     
,pl9y speaks ( its diff]5t k9ds3 !  =m] 
view$ x z an ar*itect1 :il/ ! latt]     
inspect$ x z a  naturali/4 ,x also does 

appe>1 f o!r writ]s1 t ! h>d]  & preci\s
 k9ds ( /ones 7 cut 9 ! same mann]2 z   
,pl9y  speaks ( a build+ adorn$ ) agate1
 cornelian1 lapis-lazuli1 &  ame?y/s4   
,yet !re is no m5tion made ( mills =    
cutt+ wood2 or1  admitt+ !y _h be5      
inv5t$1 x is probable !y %>$ ! fate  (  
_m o!r useful inv5tions1--_h be5 =gott51
 or else "s  consid]able mod]n          
improvem5t _h be5 made 9 _! con/ruction4
    ,s9ce ! p]iod ( ! fir/ inv5tion1 !y 
h be5 erect$ 9  v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe &  
,am]ica4 ,!re appe>s to h be5 "o  erect$
 9 ! vic9ity ( ,augsburg1 z e>ly z      
#accg2 at ,erl+]1 9  #adag4    ,^u !    
discov]y ( ! isl& ( ,madeira1 9 #adbj1 !
 ,infanta  ,h5ry s5t settl]s !re1 &     
caus$ ,european fruits ( e k9d to  be   
c>ri$ !re2 & among/ o!r productions1    
saw-mills & o!r  ma*9]y to cut !        
valuable timb] f\nd !re into portable   
pieces1  :i* 7 aft]w>ds transport$ to   
,portugal4 ,9 #agbd1 ! city (  ,breslau 
_h a saw-mill :i* produc$ ! ye>ly r5t ( 
?ree m>ks4  ,9 #adij1 ! magi/rates (    

,erfurt pur*as$ a =e/1 & built a mill  (
 ?is description4 ,9 ,norway1 a c\ntry  
cov]$ ) wood1 !re  0 "o built 9 #aecj4  
,?is mode ( manufacture 0 call$ ! new   
art2 & because ! exportation ( deals 0  
by t means increas$1  a royal impo/ 0   
introduc$ by ,*ri/ian ,,iii4 9 #aede1   
call$ !  deal-ty!4 ,soon aft] ,h5ry     
,ranzau caus$ ! fir/ mill to be erect$  
at ,hol/e94 ,9 ! ye> #aeee1 ! ,bi%op (  
,ely1 be+ ambassador f  ! ,pr9cess ,m>y 
( ,engl& to ! c\rt ( ,rome1 saw a       
saw-mill 9  ! neighb\rhood ( ,lyons3 !  
writ] ( 8 travels ?\ght x wor?y  (      
p>ticul> description3--8,! saw-mill is  
driv5 by an upright  :eel2 & ! wat] t   
makes x g is ga!r$ :ole into a n>r[     
tr\gh1 :i* deliv]e? ! same wat] to !    
:eels4 ,?is :eel  ha? a piece ( timb]   
put to ! axle-tree end1 l ! h&le ( a    
broo*1 & fa/5$ to ! end ( ! saw1 :i* be+
 turn$ ) !  =ce ( ! wat]1 hoi/e? up &   
d[n ! saw1 t x cont9ually  eate? 91 & ! 
h&le ( ! same is kept 9 a rigall ( wood 
f  sw]v+4 ,also ! timb] lie? z x 7 ^u a 

ladd]1 :i* is  br\ght by little & little
 to ! saw ) ano!r vice40 ,9 !  sixte5?  
c5tury1 !re 0 a gr& improvem5t made 9   
?is ma*9e  by hav+ sev]al saws affix$ to
 "o beam1 by :i* timb] c\ld be  cut into
 sev]al planks or bo>ds1 & ( any        
?ickness1 at ! same  "t4 ,!re 0 "o ( ^! 
at ,ratisbon1 ^u ! ,danube1 9 #aege4    
,9 ,engl& saw-mills 7 at fir/ receiv$ ) 
z little  enc\ragem5t z pr9t+ met ) 9   
,turkey1 & f ! same motive4  ,:5 !      
attempt 0 made to introduce !m x 0 said 
! sawy]s  w\ld be depriv$ ( bread4 ,=   
?is reason x 0 f\nd necess>y  to ab&on a
 saw-mill erect$ by a ,dut*man1 ne>     
,london1 9 #affc4  ,h[ev]1 9 ! ye>      
#agjj1 a g5tleman ( ! "n ( ,h\ghton laid
  be=e ! nation ! advantages to be d]iv$
 f !m2 b he  express$ 8 appreh5sion t x 
might cause a commotion among !  p4 ,:at
 he fe>$1 actually came to pass2 =1 on !
 erection  ( "o by a weal?y timb]       
m]*ant1 by ! desire ( ! society  = !    
promotion ( arts1 9 #agfg1 to be        
propell$ by ! w9d1  "u ! direction (    

,james ,/ansfield1 :o _h le>nt ! me?od  
( con/ruct+ !m 9 ,holl& & ,norway1 a    
fooli% mob assembl$  & pull$ x to       
pieces4 ,_m ye>s previ\s to ?is !re _h  
be5  a simil> mill erect$ 9 ,scotl&4    
,!re is n[ h>dly a t[n (  any importance
 9 ! k+dom b :at has "o or m saw-mills 9
  op]ation4          ,,=ks4      ,! =k  
is an article ( e-day use among/ u1 & on
 t acc\nt  little ?\ght (2 /ill ! %ort  
space we int5d to occupy ) ?is  subject 
may1 p]haps1 convey a little in=mation  
to _m ( our  read]s unkn[n to !m be=e1  
or1 at lea/1 un?\ght (4    ,!re is n !  
lea/ room to suppose ! anci5ts 7 at all 
acqua9t$ ) ?is little table ut5sil1 n[ s
 necess>y to our own  com=t & conv5i5ce1
 to say no?+ ( our ideas ( cleanl9ess4  
,pl9y1 :o enum]at$ mo/ ?+s natural1     
physical1 philosophical1 &  economical1 
makes no m5tion ( !m2 nor does x occur 9
 any o!r  writ] ( antiquity2 nei!r does 
,pollux speak ( x 9 ! v full  catalogue 
:i* he has giv5 ( ?+s necess>y = a      
table4    ,nei!r ! ,greeks or ,romans _h

 any "n 9 ! lea/ applicable to  its use1
 ei!r direct or by inf]5ce1 :]e x c be  
ass]t$ t  su* an in/rum5t 0 int5d$4 ,!  
anci5ts _h1 x is true1 9  ,greece1 _!   
creagra4 ,9 ,rome1 _! furca1 fusc9a1    
furcilla1  c43 ! ,grecian in/rum5t      
some:at resembl$ a rake ( an ord9>y     
con/ruction1 & calculat$ = ! purpose (  
tak+ meat out ( a  boil+ pot1 con/ruct$ 
9 ! %ape ( a hook1 or r ! b5t  f+]s ( ! 
h&4    ,) ref]5ce to ! ,roman names1 !  
fir/ two 7 und\bt$ly  appli$ to         
in/rum5ts :i* approa*$ ne>] to our      
furnace & hay  =ks4--,! trid5t (        
,neptune is also call$ fusc9a4 ,!       
furcilla  0 l>ge en\gh to be employ$ z a
 weapon ( def5ce4 ,! pres5t  ,lat9 "n = 
a =k1 fus9ula1 is n to be f\nd 9 any ( !
 old  ,lat9 writ]s4    ,x is ! op9ion1  
we und]/&1 ( a le>n$ ,italian writ]1 t  
! anci5t ,romans us$ ! in/rum5ts !y     
call$ ligul1 in/ead  ( =ks4 ,n[ ^?      
in/rum5ts _h "s di/ant resemblance to   
our  teaspoons4 ,h5ce we mu/ conclude t 
!y & our ance/ors us$ no  =ks1 because1 

_h !y _h any?+ answ]+ ! purpose1 ev5 9  
effect1 x mu/ und\bt$ly h _h a "n4    ,9
 ! ,ea/1 we und]/& x 01 & /ill is1      
cu/om>y to dress  _! victuals until !y  
become s t5d] z to be easily pull$ 9    
pieces4 ,we are told by mod]n travell]s1
 t if an animal be dress$  be=e x has   
lo/ its natural w>m?1 x becomes t5d] & v
  sav\ry4 ,?is is ! ,ori5tal cu/om1 &   
has be5 s f ! mo/  remote antiquity4    
,=tunately1 all articles ( food 7 cut up
 9 small pieces be=e  !y 7 s]v$ up at   
table2 ! necessity = :i* practice w     
appe>1 :5 we rememb] !y usually took _! 
meals 9 a recumb5t  po/ure ^u b$s4      
,orig9ally1 p]sons ( rank kept an (fic] 
= !  purpose ( cutt+ ! meat1 :o us$ a   
knife1 ! only "o plac$  at table1 :i*1 9
 opul5t families1 _h an ivory h&le1 & 0 
ornam5t$ ) silv]4    ,! bread 0 nev] cut
 at table2 x ne$$ x n1 be+ usually bak$ 
?91 some:at resembl+ ! ,passov] cake ( !
 ,jews2 ?is is n  und]/ood1 h[ev]1 to h 
be5 univ]sal4    ,! ,*9ese use no =ks2  
h[ev]1 to supply !m1 !y h small  /icks (

 ivory1 (t5 ( v f9e workman%ip1 inlaid )
 silv] &  gold1 :i* ea* gue/ employs to 
pick up ! bits ( meat1 x be+  previ\sly 
cut small4 ,! inv5tion ( =ks 0 n kn[n   
till ab\t  two c5turies ago 9 ,europe1  
:]e p eat ! same z !y d n[  9 ,turkey4  
,9 ! ,new ,te/am5t we read ( putt+ h&s  
into ! di%4 ,hom]1 z  well z ,ovid1     
m5tion ! same cu/om4    ,9 ! quotation f
 ! sacr$ writ+s1 we obs]ve t ! gue/s    
_h1 x is presum$1 no in/rum5t to help   
!mselves out ( ! common  di% :i* conta9$
 ! repa/2 =1 ^u ! "q be+ put (  :o 0 to 
betray ! ,savi\r1 ! answ] 0 giv5 9 !    
foll[+  quotation1 8,x is "o ( ! twelve 
t dippe? ) me 9 ! di%40    ,9 ! passage 
cit$ f ,hom]1 ! phrase1 accord+ to !    
,lat9  translation1 implies ! same s5se4
 ,& _h ! ,romans be5 appris$  ( !       
utility ( ?is in/rum5t1 or 9 fact ( any 
sub/itute1 !re  c\ld h be5 no occasion =
 ! ma/] ( ! amor\s art to h  giv5 8     
in/ructions to 8 pupils 9 ne>ly simil>  
t]ms :i* we  n[ use to *ildr54          
,al?\gh ,c\nt ,caylus & ,grignon bo?    

ass]t t anci5t =ks h  be5 f\nd1 we /ill 
want fur!r te/imony4 ,! =m] says1 "o  ) 
two prongs 0 f\nd among "s rubbi% 9 !   
,appian ,way1 :i*  he alleges to be (   
beautiful workman%ip1 t]m9at+ 9 ! h&le  
) a c>v$ /ag's foot4 ,not)/&+ ! high    
reputation ( t  au?or1 ?is ass]tion is n
 cr$it$4 ,! latt] says1 he f\nd "s  9 ! 
ru9s ( a ,roman t[n 9 ,*ampagne2 b he   
does n describe  !m1 o!rwise ?an to     
obs]ve t "o 0 ( copp] or brass1 &  !    
o!rs ( iron3 & speak+ ( ! latt]1 says1  
!y appe> to be  table-=ks1 b are v      
co>sely made4    ,! tru? seems to be t  
table-=ks 7 fir/ us$ 9 ,italy1 z  appe>s
 f ! book ( ,galeotus ,m>tius1 an       
,italian 9 ! s]vice  ( ,mat?ias         
,corv9us1 ,k+ ( ,hung>y1 :o reign$ f    
#adeh to #adij4  ,m>tius relates t at t 
p]iod =ks 7 n us$ at table 9  ,hung>y z 
9 ,italy2 b t at meals ea* p]son laid   
hold ( !  meat ) 8 f+]s1 & on t acc\nt  
!y 7 mu* /a9$ )  saffron1 usually put   
into sauces & s\ps4 ,he praises ! k+ =  
eat+ )\t a =k1 conv]s+ at ! same "t1 &  

nev] dirty+  8 clo!s4    ,9 ,france1 at 
! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 =ks 7 q       
unkn[n ev5 at ! c\rt ( ! mon>*4 ,nei!r  
at t p]iod 7  !y kn[n 9 ,sw$54    ,f !  
hi/ory ( ! travels ( our c\ntryman1     
,coryate1 entitl$  8,crudities10 fir/   
publi%$ 9 #afaa1 & aft]w>ds 9 #aggf1 !  
au?or says he fir/ saw !m 9 ,italy1 & he
 0 also ! fir/  p]son :o us$ !m 9       
,engl&4 ,z 8 acc\nt ( !m is curi\s1 we  
may be excus$ giv+ an extract1 slightly 
alt]+ ! or?ography4    8,"h ,i w m5tion 
a ?+ t might h be5 spok5 ( be=e 9       
disc\rse ( ! fir/ ,italian t[n4 ,i      
obs]v$ a cu/om 9 all ^?  ,italian cities
 & t[ns ?r\gh :i* ,i pass$1 t is n us$ 9
  any o!r c\ntry ,i saw 9 my travels2   
nei!r d ,i ?9k t any  o!r nation 9      
,*ri/5dom do? use x1 b only ,italy4 ,!  
,italian1  & also mo/ /rang]s t are     
commorant 9 ,italy1 d always at  _!     
meals1 use a little =k :5 !y cut _!     
meat4 ,= :ile  ) _! knife1 :i* !y hold 9
 "o h&1 !y cut ! meat out  ( ! di%1 !y  
fa/5 ! =k1 :i* !y hold 9 _! o!r  h&1 ^u 

! same di%2 s t :atsoev] he be t1 sitt+ 
9  ! company ( any o!rs at meals1 %\ld  
unadvis$ly t\* ! di%  ( meat ) 8 f+]s1 f
 :i* all at ! table d cut1 he w  give   
occasion ( (f5ce unto ! company1 z hav+ 
transgress$  ! laws ( good mann]s1      
insomu* t = 8 error he %all be at  lea/ 
br[-beat5 if n repreh5d$ 9 words4 ,?is  
=m ( fe$+ ,i  und]/& is g5]ally us$ 9   
all places ( ,italy2 _! =k be+  = ! mo/ 
"p made ( iron or /eel1 & "s ( silv]1 b 
^?  are us$ only by g5tlem54 ,! reason (
 ?is _! curiosity is1  because !        
,italian _c by any means endure to h 8  
di% t\*$  ) f+]s--see+ all m5's f+]s are
 n alike clean4 ,h]eupon  ,i myself     
?\ght good to imitate ! ,italian fa%ion 
by ?is =k$  cutt+ ( meat1 n only :ile ,i
 0 9 ,italy1 b also 9 ,g]many1  &       
(t5time 9 ,engl&1 s9ce ,i came home1 be+
 once equipp$ =  t frequ5t us+ ( my =k  
by a c]ta9 le>n$ g5tleman1 a  famili>   
fri5d ( m9e1 "o ,mr4 ,lawr5ce ,:itak]1  
:o 9 8 m]ry  hum\r d\bt$ n to call "o at
 table f>sif]1 only = us+ a  =k at fe$+1

 b = no o!r cause40    ,9 _m p>ts (     
,spa91 we und]/& t1 at pres5t1          
dr9k+-glasses1 spoons1 & =ks are        
r>ities4 ,x is also said1  t ev5 9      
tav]ns 9 _m c\ntries1 p>ticul>ly 9      
,france1 knives  are n plac$ on ! table1
 because x is expect$ t ea* p]son  %\ld 
h "o ( 8 own4 ,?is cu/om ! mod]n ,fr5*  
appe> to  h d]iv$ f _! ance/ors ! anci5t
 ,gauls4 ,b1 z no p]son  w eat any long]
 )\t =ks1 ! l&lords are oblig$ to furni%
  ^!1 toge!r ) plates & spoons4         
,among ! ,highl&]s 9 ,scotl&1 ,dr4      
,johnson ass]ts1 t knives  h be5        
introduc$ at table s9ce ! ,revolution   
only4 ,be=e t  p]iod ! m5 7 accu/om$ to 
cut _! meat ) a knife !y  c>ry z a      
companion to _! dirk4 ,! m5 cut ! meat  
into small  morsels = ! wom51 :o us$ _! 
f+]s to put x into _!  m\?s4    ,! use (
 =ks at table 0 fir/ consid]$ z a       
sup]flu\s luxury1  & z su* =bidd5 9     
conv5ts1 z appe>s f ! records ( !       
congregation ( ,/4 ,maur4               
,,music4      ,! sci5ce ( music1 or r ( 

h>mony1 is extremely  anci5t--insomu* t1
 ) respect to ! latt]1 x is said to be  
coeval ) ,nature h]self4 ,b z x has     
relation to ! sci5ce  n[ 9 use1 ?is1 l  
mo/ o!r arts1 ^: orig9 is v remote1  is 
involv$ 9 obscurity2 & 9 proportion to !
 a/oni%m5t &  wond] excit$ by its       
uncommon p[]s1 9 a comm5surate ratio    
does  my/]y1 fable1 & obscurity envelope
 its orig9al4 ,h[ev]1 always  rememb]+ t
 x 0 f h>mony1--        --8f heav5ly    
h>mony1 ?is univ]sal frame began40      
,proce$+ /ep by /ep1 x _h ev5tually     
atta9$ 9 ,greece a v  e>ly p]fection4   
,coll9s1 :o is ju/ly entitl$ to !       
di/+ui%$  /ation held by all pupils (   
nature & ( ! muses1 :o is  peculi>ly    
em95t = a j poetical _s1 ?us speaks ( ! 
heav5ly sci5ce 9 8 ,ode on ! ,passions--
       8,arise1 z 9 t eld] "t1          
,w>m1 en]getic1 *a/e1 sublime2--        
,?y wond]s 9 t god-l age      ,fill ?y  
record+ si/]s' page4--      ',tis said1 
& ,i believe ! tale1      ,?y humble/   
re$ c\ld m prevail1      ,_h m ( /r5g?1 

div9] rage      ,?an all t *>ms ?is     
lagg>d age1      ,ev5 all at once toge!r
 f\nd      ,cecilia's m+l$ _w ( s\nd40  
,x w be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! poet       
calculat$ z mu* ^u  ! infant simplicity 
( nature z ^u ! uncommon p[]s ( h>mony2 
?is consid]ation w c]ta9ly reconcile !  
app>5t extravagance  ( ! ?\ght4    ,s   
great 7 ! e>ly p[]s ( v]se & h>mony1 t  
at "o p]iod  ! vot>ies ( ! muses 7      
reg>d$ z p]sons div9ely inspir$2  !y 7 !
 prie/s ( man1 8 legislators1 & 8       
prophets4  ,insomu* 0 ! possessor ( !   
art1 & ! art itself rev]5c$1  t !       
responses ( ! mo/ em95t oracles 7       
receiv$ 9  measur$ v]se4 ,witness !     
response ( ! ,delphian oracle receiv$ by
  ! ,a!nian deputation1 :5 ,greece      
inquir$ = h] wise/ m51 z  giv5 by       
,x5ophon3--       8,wise is ,sophocles1 
m wise ,euripides1      ,b ! wise/ ( all
 m5 is ,socrates40    ,music ev5tually  
claim$ ! mo/ unlimit$ control ov] !     
affections  ( mank9d1 z c\ld be prov$ by
 an inf9ity ( in/ances2 we %all  m5tion 

"o only f a well au!nticat$ fact1 &     
f9ely illu/rat$  9 t ( ,timo!us f       
8,alex&]'s ,fea/10 by ,dryd54 ,we omit !
  hyp]bolic repres5tation ( ! rais+ ( ! 
walls ( ,!bes by !  p[] ( ,amphion's    
lute1 & ! app>5tly incr$ible relations (
  ! h>mony ( ! h>p ( ,orpheus1 :i* are  
all p]sonifications (  natural effects1 
& :i* we h nei!r room1 "t1 nor          
opportunity  to expla9 9 ?is place4     
,if its orig9 0 z previ\sly sugge/$ by  
,coll9s1 !re is occasion  to believe !  
%eph]d's simple life af=d$ x fir/       
exi/5ce2 9  ! native & wild notes ( !   
pa/oral re$1 may be discov]$ !  g]m ( a 
sci5ce z v>i\s z its effects are        
beautiful4 ,we %all =  ! pres5t presume 
! simple ,p&ean pipe 0 ! fir/ ef=t (  ! 
con/ruction ( musical in/rum5ts2 its s(t
 tone be+ analog\s  to ! dulcet h>mony (
 ! voice4 ,we are l$ to suppose ?is f  !
 evid5ce ( anci5t /atu>y1 :]e ^? pipes  
are frequ5tly  discov]$2 & ?is w1       
p]haps1 d$uce its orig9 f !  inv5tion ( 
! %eph]d god1 or olde/ ,pan4 ,nev]!less1

 ! lyre1  or h>p1 is alleg$ f records ! 
mo/ anci5t1 hav+ at fir/ b  ?ree /r+s1  
analog\s to ! ?ree seasons ( ! primeval 
ye>2 !  treble typical ( spr+1 ! t5or   
resembl+ summ]1 & ! bass  repres5t+     
w9t]4    ,! inv5tion ( t in/rum5t1 & (  
music altoge!r1 is claim$  9 ! pagan _w 
by ,amphion1 a successor ( ,cadmus1 !   
fir/ k+  ( ,!bes1 9 ,btia1 :o is        
report$1 by ! music ( 8 h>p or lyre  to 
h built ! walls ( ! city2 ,cadmus hav+  
erect$ ! citadel  only4    ,flutes 7    
fir/ inv5t$ by ,hyognis1 ! ,phrygian1   
ab\t ! ye>  #aejf be=e ,*ri/1 & fir/    
play$ on ! flute ! h>mony1 call$        
,phrygian1 & o!r tunes ( ! "m ( ! gods1 
( ,dionysius1 (  ,pan1 & ( ! div9ities (
 ! c\ntry & ! h]oes4 ,t]p&]  also1 :o 0 
! son ( ,d]d9eus1 ! ,lesbian1 direct$ ! 
flute  play]s to re=m ! tunes ( !       
anci5ts1 & *ang$ ! old music1  ab\t !   
ye> #fde be=e ,*ri/1 z we are in=m$ by !
 ,p>ian  ,*ronicle4 ,! same ,t]p&]1     
likewise1 add$ ?ree m /r+s to  ! lyre4  
,:5 ,timo!us1 ! ,sp>tan musician1 0     

bani%$ 8 native c\ntry  = hav+ increas$ 
8 /r+s to ! numb] ( t51 he s\ght refuge 
at ! c\rt ( ,mac$on1 & accompani$ 8     
patron1 ,alex&]1 into  ,p]sia1 :5 t     
pr9ce conqu]$ ,d>ius4    ,f ! sacr$     
records ( ,judea1 we may also inf] !    
inv5tion (  musical in/rum5ts at a date 
long prior to ei!r ( ! p]iods above     
m5tion$1 :5 !y in=m u 9 ,g5esis iv4 #ba1
 t ,adah1 "o ( !  wives ( ,lame*1 _h two
 sons1 ! "n ( "o ( :om 0 ,jubal1 :o  is 
said to h be5 8! fa!r ( all su* :o h&le 
! h>p &  organ40 ,?is inf]s ! ant]ior   
inv5tion ( t in/rum5t4    ,music consi/s
 ( effects produc$ by ! op]ation ( c]ta9
 s\nds  proce$+ f ! dulcet voice1 or    
musical in/rum5ts1 regulat$ by  c]ta9   
"t1 & a succession ( h>moni\s notes1    
natural1 grave1 or  flat1 i4 e41 half a 
note bel[ its prop] tone2 & acute or    
%>p1  i4 e41 half a note above its prop]
 key2 & ( su* modulation  ( v>i\s tones1
 & ( diff]5t value1 & also ( manifold   
d5om9ations3 ! natural tones consi/+ (  
eight notes1 ) !  addition ( octaves1 9 

v>i\s keys1 ) flats & %>ps introduc$  to
 af=d v>iety f ! skill ( ! ma/]1 at     
diff]5t p]iods1  to produce ! mo/       
agreeable div]sity 9 8 composition2 &   
sometimes accord+ to ! subject or words 
to :i* 8 music is  adapt$4 ,^? musical  
notes1 ?\gh proce$+ f s small a numb]  (
 radicals1 are analog\s to !            
incalculable1 ! endless =ms1  :i*       
or?ography & rhetoric c af=d to a       
well-in=m$ orator1 or  elegant au?or1 to
 embelli% any subject4 ,?us f ! def9ite 
numb]  ( tw5ty-f\r notes1 v>i$ 9 diff]5t
 degrees1 by %>ps1 flats1  semi-tones1  
c41 are produc$ all t is s magical1     
en?usia/ic1  & transport+ 9 ! empire (  
omnipot5t music4 ,l z !  alphabetic     
*>act]s may be v>i$ into myriads ( =ms  
suitable  to e multif>i\s species (     
conv]sation or composition2 9 a  ^w1 a  
few musical notes 9 ! h&s ( a ma/] may  
be made by 8  skill to produce1 f       
agreeable int]*anges ( "t1 h>mony1 c41  
e v>iety ( musical s5tim5t :i* c affect 
! human s\l4 ,a  /rong] pro( _c be      

adduc$ ?an w be f\nd 9 ! be=e-cit$  ode 
( 8,alex&]'s ,fea/10 by ! truly poetic  
,dryd54 ,9 all :i*  h>mony & melody =m  
conspicu\s *>act]i/ics4    ,& ( h>mony1 
accord+ to ! le>n$ ,mr4 ,mason4 ,! s5se 
9  :i* ! anci5t ,greeks view$ h>mony is 
z foll[s3--8,!y by t  t]m und]/ood !    
succession ( simple s\nds accord+ to _! 
scale1 ) respect to acut5ess or         
gravity40 ,:il/ x appe>s t  by h>mony1 !
 mod]ns und]/&--8,! succession ( simple 
s\nds1  accord+ to ! laws ( c\nt]po9ts40
 ,f ! same au?ority--8,by  melody1 !    
anci5ts und]/ood ! succession ( simple  
s\nds1  accord+ to ! laws ( rhy?m &     
metre1 or 9 o!r words1 accord+  to "t1  
measure1 or cad5ce4 ,:]eas1 ! mod]ns    
und]/& by !  same t]m :at ! anci5ts     
meant by h>mony1 rhy?m & metre be+      
exclud$40 8,& ! mod]n air is :at !      
anci5ts und]/ood by  melody40 ,h5ce1 f !
 prec$+ def9itions1 x appe>s t :at  is  
n[ call$ h>mony 0 unkn[n to ! anci5ts2 &
 !y view$  t t]m z we n[ see simple     
melody1 :5 we speak ( x z a ?+  di/+ui%$

 f simple modulat$ air1 & t _! t]m1     
melody1  0 appli$ to :at we n[ call air 
or song4    ,%\ld ?is be true1 !        
long-conte/$ difficulty1 & t tra9 (     
endless disputes1 :i* has exi/$ among ! 
le>n$ & sci5tific  _w s long1 w in/antly
 vani%4 ,%\ld we suppose an anci5t      
flute-play] us$ an improp] tone or      
semi-tone1 or _h he transgress$  ! mode 
or key 9 :i* he 0 play+1 he committ$ an 
error 9  h>mony2 yet 8 melody might h   
be5 p]fect1 ) respect to !  laws ( rhy?m
 or metre2 we %\ld say ( a mod]n        
musician1 "u  simil> circum/ances1 t he 
play$ wrong notes1 or 0 out ( tune1  yet
 kept 8 "t4 ,:oev] made su* a di/9ction 
w\ld be all[$  to possess a good e> =   
music1 ?\gh ! mod]ns w\ld be incl9$  to 
call x an e> = melody or intonation4 ,by
 ! rules ( musical  conv]sation1 we %\ld
 be ju/ifi$ :5 we call an in/rum5t out (
  tune inh>moni\s1 al?\gh ! int]vals 7  
ne>ly "r4    ,by h>monica1 ! ,greeks    
impli$ no?+ m ?an t proportion (  s\nd  
to s\nd1 :i* ma!maticians call ratio1 or

 :i* w\ld be  und]/ood 9 g5]al musical  
conv]sation1 by an agreeable succession 
( musical notes2--z anci5t h>mony       
consi/$ ( ! succession (  simple s\nds1 
s does mod]n h>mony consi/ ( !          
succession (  *ords4    ,:e!r ! diatonic
 scale be ! effect ( nature1 or produc$ 
by art1 has occasion$ disputation betwe5
 _m2 b )\t los+  "t or space1 we are1 we
 ?9k1 au?oris$1 f g5]al op9ion1 to      
obs]ve1 t compositions =m$ on x1 & on ! 
plan recomm5d$  by a lute organi/1 w\ld 
produce s5sations odi\sly disgu/+ to any
  musical e>4    ,! diatonic is ! mo/   
simple g5]a 9 music1 consi/+ ( tones  & 
major semi-tones2 9 ! scale ( :i* g5us !
 smalle/ int]val  is a conjo9t degree1  
:i* *anges its "n & place1 t is1  pass+ 
f "o to ano!r2 a prom95t air 9 ?is      
species ( mod]n  music is 8,god save !  
,que510 entirely diatonic1 )\t          
modulation1  by ! int]v5tion ( a s+le   
flat or %>p4    ,x may n be unacceptable
 to our read]s to add a few p>ticul>s  (
 "o ( ! greate/ compos]s t ev] exi/$2 we

 allude to !  em95tly illu/ri\s ,,george
 ,,fr$]ick ,,h&el1 a "n de> to sci5ce1  
& entitl$ to ! grateful v5]ation ( e    
amateur 9 ?is div9e  art4 ,he 0 born at 
,halle1 9 ,upp] ,saxony1 on ! #bd? (    
,febru>y  #afhd4 ,sc>cely 0 he able to  
speak1 be=e he articulat$ musical       
s\nds4 ,8 fa!r 0 a pr(essor ( ! heal+   
art z a surgeon &  physician1 !n upw>ds 
( sixty1 :o int5d$ 8 son = ! /udy (  !  
law4 ,griev$ at ! *ild's pr$eliction1 he
 bani%$ all musical  in/rum5ts f 8 h\se4
 ,b ! sp>k :i* nature _h k9dl$ 9  8     
bosom 0 n to be ext+ui%$ by ! mi/ak5    
views ( a bl9d  p>5t4 ,! *ild by "s     
means or o!r contriv$ to get a little   
clav]*ord into a g>ret1 :]e1 apply+     
himself aft] ! family  _h retir$ to re/1
 he discov]$ means to produce bo? melody
 &  h>mony4 ,be=e he 0 sev5 ye>s ( age1 
! ,duke ( ,weiss5fells by  accid5t      
discov]$ 8 g5ius1 & prevail$ on 8 fa!r  
to *]i%  8 incl9ation4 ,he 0 accord+ly  
plac$ ) ,za*an1 organi/ (  ! ca!dral (  
,halle2 :51 f n9e to twelve ye>s ( age1 

he  compos$ a *ur* s]vice e week4 ,los+ 
8 fa!r :il/ he 0  9 t city1 he ?\ght he 
c\ld be/ support 8 "m by repair+  to    
,hamburgh1 :]e he soon attract$ g5]al   
notice4 ,?is wond] (  ! age 0 !n only   
f\rte51 :5 he compos$ 8,alm]ia10 8  fir/
 op]a4 ,hav+ quitt$ ,hamburgh1 he       
travell$ = six ye>s 9  ,italy1 :]e1 at  
bo? ,flor5ce & ,rome1 he excit$ mu*     
att5tion3  at bo? :i* places he produc$ 
new op]atic p]=mances4 ,9 t  clime ( !  
h>moni\s muse1 he 0 introduc$ to1 &     
cultivat$  ! fri5d%ip (1 ,dom9ico1      
,sc>latti1 ,gaspur9i1 & ,zotti1 )  o!r  
em95t sci5tific *>act]s4 ,he 0          
p>ticul>ly c>ess$ &  patronis$ by       
,c>d9al ,ottoboni1 9 ^: circle he became
 acqua9t$  ) ! elegant & natural        
,corelli4 ,x 0 "h he compos$ !  sonata  
8,il trionfo del tempo10 ! orig9al score
 ( :i* is n[ 9  ! ,royal ,collection4   
,aft] :i* he w5t to ,naples1 :]e he set 
8,acis et ,galatea10 9 ,italian1 to     
music4 ,return+ to ,g]many1 he 0        
patronis$ by ! ,elector ( ,hanov]1      

subsequ5tly ,george ! ,fir/4 ,9  #agaj  
he visit$ ,london1 by p]mission ( 8     
patron1 :o _h settl$ a  p5sion ( #bjj p]
 annum on him4 ,9 ,london he produc$ !  
op]a (  8,r9aldo10 univ]sally           
admir$--equal ) all 8 o!r productions  t
 _h prec$$4 ,he 0 compell$ to leave1    
h[ev] reluctantly1  ! ,briti% %ore1     
consi/5t ) 8 engagem5t to 8 patron !    
,elector4 ,he dep>t$1 n )\t excit+ g5]al
 regret1 two ye>s  aft] 8 fir/ arrival 9
 ?is c\ntry4 ,he soon appe>$ "h aga91   
h[ev]1 & 8 return 0 welcom$ l ! ris+ ( !
 g5ial  orb ( day be=e ! wrapt          
,ignicoli/6 ,b n[ s$uc$ by ! fav\r  :i* 
await$ him1 he =got to return4 ,on !    
dea? ( ,que5 ,anne1  :o _h also settl$  
an annual p5sion ( #bjj ^u him--equal to
 :at  he receiv$ f ! ,elector1 8 =m]    
patron--:5 t pr9ce  asc5d$ ! ?rone1     
,h&el 0 afraid to appe> be=e 8 maje/y1  
till1 by an +5i\s contrivance ( ,b>on   
,kilm>fyge1 he 0 re/or$  to fav\r1 ,que5
 ,anne's b\nty be+ d\bl$ by ! k+2 & !   
*ief  nobility accept$ an academy (     

music "u ,h&el's direction1 :i*  fl\ri%$
 = t5 ye>s1 till an un=tunate qu>rel    
occurr$ betwe5  him & ,s5es9o1 :i*      
dissolv$ ! in/itution1 & br\ght on a    
conte/ ru9\s to ! =tune & ! heal? ( our 
musician4    ,he 0 p>ticul>ly patronis$ 
by ! ,e>l ( ,burl+ton1 ! ,duke (  ,*&os1
 & mo/ ( ! di/+ui%$ nobility ( ,great   
,brita94    ,hav+ re/or$ 8 heal? at !   
ba?s ( ,aix-la-,*apelle1 he = !  future 
*ose sacr$ subjects1 :i* 7 p]=m$ at 8   
!atre 9  ,l9coln's ,inn ,fields1 ,cov5t 
,g>d51 & ,we/m9/] ,abbey4 ,he di$ 9     
,april1 #agei1 ag$ sev5ty-five1 & 0     
buri$ 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey1  :]e he 0      
hon\r$ ) a public fun]al1 six pe]s      
support+ !  pall2 ! v rev]5d & truly    
le>n$ translator ( 8,longimus10 ,dr4    
,pe>ce1 ! ,dean1 & !n ,bi%op ( ,ro*e/]1 
p]=m$ ! fun]al  s]vice ) a full *oir4   
,he _h be5 a great b5efactor to num]\s  
public *>ities4 ,! funds  ( ! ,f\ndl+   
,hospital 7 improv$ ?r\gh him ) ! amaz+ 
sum ( #aj1bii4 ,! organ 9 its *apel1 & !
 ,,ms4 score ( 8  8,messiah10 7 a pres5t

 & a donation to ! f\ndation f him4 ,he 
left an amiable private z well z a good 
public "* beh9d him4    ,8 "* z a       
compos] is too well appreciat$ by !     
,briti%  public to require any rem>ks f 
our feeble & inh>moni\s p54             
,,seal+-,,wax1 ,,seals1 c4      ,besides
 metals1 five o!r m$iums are enum]at$ by
 anci5t  writ]s1 :]e) lett]s & public   
acts 7 seal$1 viz41 t]ra  sigill>is1    
cem5t1 pa/e1 common wax & seal+-wax4 ,t 
!  t]ra sigill>is 0 us$ by ! ,egyptians1
 we h ! evid5ce (  ,h]odotus1 & :i*1 by 
inf]5ce1 is /r5g!n$ by t ( ,moses  :o   
speaks ( seal-r+s or signets1 :5ce we   
may safely inf]1 t  !y _h a m$ium ( "s  
sort1 :]e) !y seal$4 ,?is lacuna        
,h]odotus supplies1 affirm+ x 9 direct  
t]ms1 & assign+ a "n  to ! sub/ance !y  
us$ = t purpose4    ,?is circum/ance 0  
only r5d]$ que/ionable by ,pl9y1 :o     
alleges  ! ,egyptians did n use ^? ?+s4 
,h]odotus ?us expresses himself3 8,!    
,egyptian prie/ b\nd to !  horns (      
cattle fit = sacrifice pieces ( papyrus 

) seal+-e>?1  on :i* !y made an         
impression ) ! seal2 & su* cattle c\ld  
only be (f]$ up z victims40    ,lucian  
speaks ( a =tune-tell] :o ord]$ ^? :o   
came to consult  him1 to write d[n on a 
bit ( pap] ! que/ions !y wi%$ to ask1   
to fold x up1 & seal x ) clay1 or any   
o!r sub/ance ( a l  k9d4    ,su* e>?    
appe>s to h be5 employ$ 9 seal+1 by !   
,byzantyne  emp]ors2 = we are told t1 at
 ! second ,nic5e ,c\ncil1 image  wor%ip 
0 def5d$ by "o say+1 8,no "o believ$ t  
^? :o  receiv$ writt5 ord]s f ! ,emp]or1
 & v5]at$ ! seal1  wor%ipp$ on t acc\nt 
! seal+-e>?1 ! pap]1 or ! lead40        
,cic]o relates t ,v]res1 hav+ se5 9 !   
h&s ( 8 s]vants  a lett] writt5 to 8 son
 f ,agrim5tum1 & obs]v+ on x an         
impression 9 seal+-e>?1 he 0 s pleas$ ) 
x t he caus$  ! seal-r+ ) :i* x 0 made  
to be tak5 f ! possessor4    ,also1 !   
same orator1 9 8 def5ce ( ,flaccus1     
produc$ an  atte/ation s5t f ,asia1 &   
prov$ its au!nticity by its be+  seal$ )
 ,asiatic seal+-e>?2 ) :i*1 he told !   

judges1  all public & private lett]s 9  
,asia 7 seal$3 & he %[$ on  ! o!r h&1 t 
! te/imony br\ght by ! accus] 0 false1  
because x 0 seal$ ) wax1 & = t reason   
c\ld n h  come f ,asia4 ,! s*olia/      
,s]vius relates1 t a sybil receiv$ a    
promise f ,apollo1 t %e %\ld live z long
 z %e did n see  ! e>? ( ! isl& ( !     
,ery?ra1 :]e %e resid$2 t %e  !re=e     
quitt$ ! place1 & retir$ to ,cumae1 :]e 
%e became old  & decrepid2 b t hav+     
receiv$ a lett] seal$ ) ,ery?rn  e>?1 :5
 %e saw ! seal1 %e in/antly expir$4     
,no "o1 h[ev]1 w suppose t ?is e>? 0 us$
 )\t  prep>ation1 z 0 t to :i* is giv5 !
 "n ( creta *alk2  =1 if x 0 ( a natural
 k9d1 x mu/ h be5 ( t k9d  call$ pott]'s
 clay1 z t clay is susceptible ( receiv+
 an  impression1 & ( reta9+ x subsequ5t 
to h>d5+ by dry+4 ,x  is believ$ t !    
,romans1 "u ! indef9ite t]m creta1 (t5  
und]/ood to be a k9d ( pott]'s e>?1 :i* 
c be prov$ by _m  passages 9 _! num]\s  
writ]s4 ,columella speaks ( a species  (
 *alk ( :i* w9e-j>s & di%es 7 made1 (   

:i* k9d x  is conjectur$ ,virgil speaks 
:5 he calls x adhesive4 ,! anci5t       
writ]s on agriculture give precisely !  
same "n to m>l1 :i* 0  employ$ to manure
 l&3 n[1 bo? *alk & m>l1 9 _! natural   
/ate1 are extremely inapplicable to !   
purpose = :i* we are l$  to believe !   
t]ra sigill>is 0 us$2 !re=e1 admitt+ !  
,roman creta 0 compos$ ( !m1 ^?         
sub/ances mu/ naturally  h und]gone "s  
labori\s process1 9 ord] to r5d] !m     
prop]  = ! purpose to :i* !y 7 appli$4  
,not)/&+ none c feel a high] respect =  
,pr(essor ,beckmann1  to :om we are     
indebt$ = _m ( ! prec$+ obs]vations1 ?an
 we  d1 yet /rongly z we are influ5c$ ) 
?is impression1 we _c  help obs]v+1     
consi/5t ) t duty we owe to ! public1 t 
we  _c dive/ ourselves ( ! op9ion t he  
is only trifl+ )  ! public feel+1 p]haps
 = ! o/5tati\s display ( 8 own  le>n+3 s
 _m objections ( s little weight are    
rais$1 t he  really appe>s to write = ! 
purpose ( rais+ new objections to       
passages1 :i*1 9 our compreh5sion1 are  

extremely simple4 ,we _c  help apply+ to
 him a passage :i* occurs 9 a song ( !  
,swan (  ,twick5ham1 :o s+s3--          
8,gnaw$ 8 p51 !n da%$ x on ! gr\nd1     
,/rik+ f ?\ght to ?\ght1 a va/ pr(\nd4  
,plung$ = ! s5se1 b f\nd no bottom !re1 
,yet wrote1 & fl\nd]$ on 9 m]e despair40
    ,we w\ld n be illib]al or caprici\s1
 nor d we presume to any extra  portion 
( intellig5ce2 yet1 we ?9k we c 9 a few 
words discuss  ! topic1 & p]haps1       
satisfactorily1 on :i* he has employ$ s 
_m pages4 ,^? t]ms :i* h tr\bl$ !       
pr(essor ) le>n$  difficulties really   
appe> to u susceptible ( an easy        
int]pretation1  & applicable to bo? or  
ei!r ( ! s5ses 9 :i* !y are  us$1 z are 
any words 9 ! language ( anci5t ,rome4  
,accord+ly1  we f9d ! t]m creta implies 
ei!r *alk1 full]'s clay1 loam1  :ite    
pa9t1 or ,asiatic e>?1 t]m$ creta       
,asiatica2 &1 9 brief x  appe>s a m]e   
g5]ic "n = any k9d ( e>?1 rais$ f bel[  
! surface ( ! soil3 ?is is its true     
s5se4 ,b !re _c be a  "q1 f :at is kn[n 

( ! prep>ation ( clay & e>? =  t]ra     
cotta & o!r pla/ic purposes1 :i* und]go 
a v>iety (  wa%+s1 knead+s1 c41 t simil>
 prep>ations 7 requisite1  9 ord] to br+
 x to s curi\s1 s delicate a purpose z t
 to  :i* ! t]ra sagill>is 0 appli$4 ,&  
fosse1 9 ! s5se us$  by ,v>re1 admits ( 
ne>ly a simil> description1 x appe>+ z a
  pronom5 = ! same ?+2 & indicates ei!r 
peat1 m>l1 loam1  *alk1 or any e>?y     
sub/ance :i* may be rais$ f bel[ !      
t]re/rial surface4    ,we h evid5ce e   
day 9 our fruit %ops1 t 9 c]ta9         
c\ntries ?is k9d ( e>? is yet employ$ = 
clos+ up j>s (  dri$ fruits br\ght f    
,oporto1 ,smyrna1 & o!r c\ntries2 z ^!  
appe> to be compos$ ( :ite *alk ( a     
texture some:at simil> to  common mort>4
 ,! w>m? ( ! atmosph]e1 :]e x is us$1   
soon  h>d5s & prev5ts ! passage ( air to
 ! cont5ts2 ! j>s  !mselves be+ (t5times
 only dri$ 9 ! sun4    ,?us x appe>s t  
prep>$ e>?s 7 fir/ us$ = ! purpose  (   
seal+2 _! adhesive1 or1 z ,virgil has x1
 _! t5aci\s  qualities1 be+ wond]fully  

improv$ = manual lab\r4 ,next1 pa/e  0  
employ$1 prep>$ f d\gh4    ,to pa/e     
succe$$ common wax1 sometimes slightly  
t9ctur$ ) a  gre5 t9t1 ! effect (       
endeav\r+ to give x a blue col\r1 z     
vegetable blues turn gre5 by ! process (
 heat employ$ 9 melt+2  :il/ m9]al or   
e>?y blues all s9k to ! bottom1 f       
sup]ior  gravity4 ,?is 0 ! mat]ial      
employ$ 9 seal+ public acts 9  ,engl&1 z
 e>ly z ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,we h an      
anecdote ( !  ,duke ( ,lanca/] hav+ no  
seal to ratify a de$ betwe5 him & !     
,duke ( ,burgoyne1 b f :at appe>s 9 !   
atte/ation1 :i*1 )  ! in/rum5t itself1  
accord+ to ! g5]al cu/om ( ! day1 runs  
9 rhyme ?us3       8,i1 ,john ( ,gaunt1 
,doe gyve & d graunt1      ,to ,john (  
,burgoyne      ,& ! heire ( 8 loyne     
,sutton & ,putton      ,untill ! _w's   
rott540    ,! atte/ation runs ?us3      
8,!re be+ no seal )9 ! ro(1      ,9     
soo?1 ,i seal x wy? my too?40    ,a good
 example is ?is ( ! simple brevity ( !  
"t1 & a sev]e  lecture ^u ! et]nal      

repetitions ( our mod]n lawy]s1 :]eby ! 
limitations & special uses ( de$s are   
made1 p]haps1 n accord+  to !           
necessities ( ! case1 b are l5g!n$ f    
selfi%  purposes4    ,! ,great ,*>t]1   
:i* gives an assurance ( ! rights (     
,engli%m51 is seal$ ) :ite wax2 z may be
 se5 9 ! ,briti%  ,museum4    ,! fir/   
arms us$ z a seal 9 ,engl&1 7 ^? ( !    
tyrannical  subjugator ( ,engli% rights1
 ,william1 commonly call$ ! ,conqu]or1  
& !y 7 br\ght f ,norm&y4    ,al?\gh     
,f5n1 9 8 collection ( orig9al ,lett]s (
 ! la/ half  ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 publi%$
 9 ,london1 #aghg1 has giv5 ! size  &   
%ape ( ! seals1 he does n apprise u (   
:at sub/ance !y  7 compos$4 ,respect+ a 
lett] ( #adee1 he says only1 t 8!  seal 
is ( r$ wax10 by :i*1 x is presum$1 he  
means common wax2 &  ?\gh1 p]haps n     
equal 9 quality to su* z is n[ us$1 yet 
x 0  made ( ne>ly simil> mat]ials4      
,tav]ni]1 9 8 ,travels1 says1 t  9      
,surat gum-lac is melt$ & =m$ into      
/icks1 l seal+-wax4  ,weck] also gives  

directions to make an impression )      
calc9$ gypsum  & a solution ( gum or    
is+lass4 ,porta1 likewise1 knew t ?is   
might be done1 &1 p]haps1 to great]     
p]fection ) amalgam (  quicksilv]4      
,among ! records ( ! ,l&grave (         
,hesse-,cassel1 are "s lett]s (  #aefc1 
seal$ ) r$ & black wax4 ,9 ! family ( ! 
,rh+rave1  ,philip ,francis von ,daun1 !
 olde/ lett] seal$ ) wax1 kn[n 9        
,g]many1 is f\nd1 ( ! date ( ,augu/ #c1 
#aeed2 x 0 writt5 f  ,london1 by an ag5t
 ( t family1 ( ! "n ( ,g]r>d ,h]man4 ,! 
col\r ( ! wax is d>k r$1 & v %9+4    ,! 
olde/ recipe kn[n 9 ,g]many = mak+      
seal+-wax1 0 f\nd  by ,m4 ,von ,murr1 9 
a "w by ,samuel ,zimm]man1 citiz5 (     
,augsburg1  publi%$ 9 #agei4 ,! copy 9 !
 libr>y ( ! univ]sity (  ,gott+5 is     
sign$ by ! au?or himself4--8,to make h>d
 seal+-wax1  call$ ,spani% wax1 ) :i*1  
if lett]s be seal$1 !y _c be  op5$ )\t  
break+ ! seal2 take beautiful cle> res91
 !  :ite/ y c procure1 & melt x ov] a   
sl[ coal fire4 ,:5 x is  prop]ly melt$1 

take x f ! fire1 & = e p\nd ( res91  add
 two ounces ( c9nab>1 p\nd$ v f9e1 /irr+
 x ab\t4 ,!n  let ! :ole cool1 or p\r x 
into cold wat]4 ,?us y w h  beautiful r$
 seal+-wax4    8,if y are desir\s ( hav+
 black wax1 add lamp-black to x4 ,)     
smalt or azure1 y may make blue3 )      
:ite-lead1 :ite2 & )  orpim5t1 yell[4   
8,if1 in/ead ( res91 y melt purifi$     
turp5t9e 9 a glass vessel1  & give x any
 col\r y *oose1 y w h a h>d] k9d (      
seal+-wax1 & n s brittle z ! =m]40    ,x
 may be rem>k$1 t 9 ^! recipes = !      
fabrication (  seal+-wax !re is no      
m5tion ( gum-lac1 :i* is kn[n at pres5t 
z a *ief +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( ?is   
article4    ,zimm]man's seal+-wax       
approa*es v ne> to ! quality ( t  kn[n z
 mal?a1 :5ce we may conclude1 t !       
manufacture ( x  did n orig9ally come f 
! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,! mo/ anci5t m5tion  ( 
seal+-wax occurs 9 a botanical "w1      
treat+ ( ! hi/ory (  aromatics &        
simples1 by ,g>cia ab ,horto1 publi%$ at
 ,antw]p 9  #aefc1 :]e ! au?or1 speak+ (

 gum-lac says1 t ^? /icks  us$ = seal+  
lett]s are made ( x2 at :i* "t seal+-wax
 0  common among ! ,portuguese1 & has   
s9ce be5 manufactur$ *iefly 9  ,holl&4  
,m4 ,spiess1 pr9cipal keep] ( ! ,records
 at ,pless5b]g1 says1  respect+ !       
antiquity ( ,waf]s1 9 ,g]many1 t ! mo/  
anci5t use ( !m he has kn[n1 occurs 9 a 
lett] writt5 by ,d4  ,krapf1 at ,spires1
 9 #afbd1 to ! gov]nm5t ( ,bayreu?4--,! 
same  au?ority in=ms u t "s ye>s aft]1 !
 ,br&5burg factor at  ,nuremb]g s5t su* 
waf]s to a bailiff1 at ,o/]nohe4 ,dur+ !
 :ole  ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 waf]s 7 n   
us$ 9 ! ,*anc]y at  ,br&5burg1 & only by
 private p]sons !re4    ,seals1 x       
appe>s1 f c]ta9 passages ( ,egyptian    
hi/ory1 p>allel  )1 & p]haps ant]ior to 
! ,israeliti% +ress1 7 =m$ or  cut 9    
em]alds1 ! native produce ( t c\ntry4   
,o!r preci\s  /ones1 metals1 /eel1 lead1
 & a v>iety ( mat]ials1 b *iefly (  a   
h>d & preci\s k9d1 h be5 always employ$ 
= t purpose4          ,,black-,,lead    
,,p5cils4      ,! p]iod :5 ?is          

semi-metallic sub/ance 0 introduc$1 =  !
 purpose = :i* x is n[ appli$1 _c )     
c]ta9ty be  asc]ta9$1 z no record is    
f\nd ( ! transaction3 by ! common       
exp$i5t ( inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 we c]ta9ly may
 conclude1 x 0 9  v remote ages2 =      
transcrib]s ( ,,mss4 upw>ds ( "o ?\s&   
ye>s ago1 us$ a sub/ance some:at        
resembl+ x 9 effect4    ,b1 p]haps1 !   
antiquity ( ! use ( black-lead p5cils _c
  be s well det]m9$ f diplomatiques1 z  
_! frequ5cy might  be prov$ f           
m9]alogical writ]s4 ,! fir/ m5tion ( ?is
  discov]y occurs 9 ! works ( ,gesn]1   
:o1 9 8 8,book (  ,fossils10 publi%$ 9  
#aefe1 says t ! ,briti% p _h p5cils  =  
writ+1 ) wood5-h&les inclos+ a piece (  
lead1 :i* he  believ$ to be an          
artificial composition2 & x 0 call$     
/immi  ,anglicanum2 :i* seems to import 
t x 0 a ,briti% production2  & we %\ld  
consid]1 f ! "n ( ,briti% antimony be+  
giv5  to x1 t x might h be5 ,cumb]l&    
black-lead4    ,ab\t ?irty ye>s         
aft]w>ds1 ,csalp9us gave a m p]fect     

acc\nt  ( x3--he says x 0 a lead-col\r$1
 %9+ /one1 z smoo? z  glass1 & appe>$ z 
if rubb$ ov] ) oil2 x gave to ! f+]s  an
 a%-grey t9t1 ) a plumbe\s brightness2  
&1 he adds1 po9t$  p5cils 7 made ( x1 = 
! use ( pa9t]s & draughtsm54 ,a  clos]  
description ( ! sub/ance ?an ?is _c be  
discov]$4    ,some:]e ab\t ?ree ye>s    
aft]w>ds1 a /ill m p]fect  description 0
 furni%$ by ,imp]atis2 :o says1 8,x is  
mu* m  conv5i5t = draw+ ?an p5 & ink1   
because ! m>ks made )  x appe> di/9ct ^u
 a :ite gr\nd1 also1 9 consequ5ce (  its
 brightness1 %[ !mselves on black1 & c  
be pres]v$ or  rubb$ out at pleasure4   
,?is m9]al is smoo?1 appe>s greasy to ! 
t\*1 & has a lead5-col\r1 :i* x         
communicates ) a metallic  brightness4  
,x c resi/1 = a long "t1 ! /ronge/ fire1
 &  ev5 f x requires m h>dness2 x has1 9
 consequ5ce1 be5  ?\ght to be a species 
( talc4 ,?is1 9 ! arts to :i* x  is     
appli$1 is a prop]ty :i* greatly        
enhance? its value1 be+  manufactur$    
into crucibles1 c41 ) clay4 ,^! vessels 

are capable  ( endur+ ! /ronge/ heat ( a
 *emical furnace40    ,sometimes ?is    
lead is foliace\s1 & may be crumbl$ into
 small  pieces or scales2 b frequ5tly   
f\nd d5s] & m /rong4 ,?is  latt] is :at 
writ+ p5cils %\ld be made (2 b ! =m] be+
  m frequ5tly f\nd1 &1 also1 com+ f !   
refuse ( !  workm51 is too (t5 mix$ up )
 "s glut9\s sub/ance1 & !re  is e reason
 to suppose x to be enclos$ 9 ! groove 9
 a pla/ic  /ate2 ^! p5cils are commonly 
hawk$ ab\t our /reets by p$l>s  & ,jews2
 ( pur*as+ :i* p %\ld be cauti\s1 z !y  
are1  9 g5]al1 utt]ly wor?less4         
,rob9son1 9 8 ,essay t[>ds a natural    
,hi/ory ( ,we/morel& &  ,cumb]l& /ates1 
t1 at fir/1 ! c\ntry p r\nd ,keswick    
m>k$ _! %eep ) black-lead4 ,aft]w>ds1 !y
 discov]$ !  art ( employ+ x 9 _!       
e>!nw>e1 & also to pres]ve iron  f ru/4 
,! same writ] says1 ! ,dut* use x 9     
dye+1 to r5d]  black m durable2 & t !y  
buy x 9 l>ge quantities = t  purpose4 ,b
 _! application ( x = dye+1 we %\ld     
consid] z  highly que/ionable4    ,!    

mode ( eradicat+ black-lead by means (  
an ela/ic gum1 call$  ca\t*\c1 or1      
,indian-rubb]1 01 we h be5 in=m$1 fir/  
discov]$ 9 ,engl& some:]e ab\t sixty    
ye>s ago4          ,,col\r$ ,,glass4    
,! manufacture ( glass we f9d 0 q common
 9 ,e?iopia1 ,syria1  ,assyria1 & o!r   
,ea/]n c\ntries1 9 ! e>lie/ ages ( !    
_w1 z ,diodorus ,siculus in=ms u1 :o    
says1 ! ,e?iopians  enclos$ 9 glass1 !  
bodies ( _! p>5ts & fri5ds2 we  d\bt1   
h[ev]1 t on ?is po9t1 ! hi/orian 0      
deceiv$4 ,b  x really appe>s probable t 
soon aft] ! art ( mak+ glass  0         
discov]$1 ! idea ( communicat+ to x "s  
col\rs w\ld  easily pres5t itself4 ,?is 
probability appe>s increas$1 :5 x  is   
recollect$ t mu* c>e is requisite to    
r5d] glass p]fectly  col\rless4 ,z !    
v>i\s metallic p>ticles ) :i* /one &  s&
 ab\nd1 7^! be+ ! *ief +r$i5ts ( :i*    
glass is  compos$1 & :i* gradually give 
t9ts 9 fusion17 w almo/  unavoidably    
communicate "s hue or o!r1 !re=e !      
p]fection (  glass is to h x p]fectly   

col\rless4    ,b ) respect to col\r$    
glass2 s frequ5tly h p be5  impos$ ^u by
 hav+ col\r$ glass sold to !m = valuable
 /ones1  t "s consci5ti\s au?ors h v    
laudably & c>efully  ab/a9$ f l5d+ !    
b5efit ( in/ruction 9 its manufacture1  
by publi%+ ! me?od4    ,! ,egyptian     
arti/s 7 s fam\s 9 ! manufacture (      
glass1 t  ! ,romans 7 cont5t to receive 
?is article f ! glass-h\ses  9          
,alex&ria1 & did n int]f]e 9 endeav\r+  
to procure ! art  !mselves1 until !     
latt] "p ( ! empire4    ,we read t an   
,egyptian prie/ made a pres5t to !      
,emp]or ,adrian  ( sev]al beautiful     
glass cups1 :i* sp>kl$ ) _m col\rs2 &   
su* value did t augu/ p]sonage place ^u 
^! toys1 t he  ord]$ !m to be us$ only  
on high fea/s & solemnities4    ,/rabo  
relates1 t a glass manufactur] (        
,alex&ria in=m$ him  t an e>? 0 f\nd 9  
,egypt1 )\t :i* ! valuable col\r$  glass
 c\ld n be made4 ,x has be5 ?\ght by "s1
 ! glass e>?  "h meant 0 a m9]al alkali 
:i* 0 readily f\nd 9 ,egypt1  s]v+ to   

make glass2 b ?is au?or speak+ expressly
 ( col\r$  glass1 x has be5 sugge/$ z   
probable1 ! alkali above nam$ c\ld  n h 
ref]5ce to :at ! artisan int5d$ to      
imply1 b t x  mu/ be ref]r$ to "s       
metallic e>? or manganese4    ,"o       
,democritus is nam$ by ,s5eca1 z hav+   
discov]$ an art (  mak+ artificial      
em]alds2 b x has be5 conjectur$ t :at ! 
philosoph] meant 0 ! art ( communicat+  
col\r to natural  rock cry/al1 or col\r+
 glass already made1 s z to resemble    
/ones1 :i* is a process p]=m$ by        
cem5tation4 ,directions h  be5 furni%$ =
 ?is purpose by ,porta1 ,n]i1 & o!rs2 b 
x is  discov]$ t ! articles s col\r$ are
 liable to su* accid5ts  9 ! process1 t 
x is next to impossible to r5d] ?+s (   
any  size tol]ably p]fect1 s z to be>   
cutt+ aft]w>ds4    ,9 ! ,museum         
,victorium at ,rome1 !re are %[n a      
*rysolite & an  em]ald1 bo? p]fectly    
well execut$1 & ?or\ghly transp>5t1  )\t
 a blemi%4    ,we h n f ! anci5ts an    
acc\nt ( :at process !y employ$2  b x   

mu/ be evid5t t no?+ less ?an metallic  
calces c\ld  h be5 us$2 & = ?is evid5t  
reason1 t any o!r sub/ance  c\ld n h    
resi/$ ! influ5ce ( ! necess>y heat4 ,! 
la/  c5tury has1 h[ev]1 produc$ c]ta9   
arti/s 9 nor!rn ,european  nations1 :o h
 adopt$ a me?od ( employ+ ! preci\s     
metals1 to  communicate a t9cture to    
glass 9 ! process ( mak+1 :]e iron1  c4 
7 orig9ally only us$2 & _! endeav\rs h  
be5 att5d$  ) s+ul> success4    ,by     
means ( an amalgam ( gold1 or a solution
 9 aqua regia1 &  precipitat$ ) a       
solution ( t91 ! metal !n assum+ !      
appe>ance ( a ri* purple col\r$ p[d]2 s 
prep>$1 x is mix$  ) ! be/ frit1 & !n   
call$ ! precipitate or gold calx (      
,cassius1 ! inv5tor ( gold purple1 or   
m9]al purple4    ,?is precipitate       
communicates a ri* ruby col\r$ purple1 s
 p]fect  t x is impossible to discov] ! 
deception1 )\t ! sub/ances  be tri$ by !
 usual means--cut ) a diamond or a      
prep>$ file4    ,we h _h 9 ,engl& "s v  
em95t arti/s 9 ! practice (  /a9+ glass1

 & also = mak+ artificial repres5tations
 (  v>i\s preci\s /ones4    ,al?\gh !   
pr(ess$ object ( al*emy has n[ met ) t  
contempt x m]it$--because1 not)/&+ !    
imm5se sums :i*  h be5 exp5d$1 ! "t lo/1
 & unpr(itable lab\r employ$  9 !       
unavail+ se>* aft] :at probably nev] w  
be f\nd--yet  ! lab\r lo/ & money exp5d$
 has n be5 totally useless1 s9ce  x has 
s]v$ to op5 ! seals :i* secur$ *emical  
sci5ce to !  mod]n _w2 & :i* is ! *ief1 
if n ! sole advantage x c  claim ov]    
antiquity = sup]iority ( in=mation4     
,pa9t+ on glass1 b1 p]haps1 /a9+ _h be5 
a m appropriate  expression1 or1 prop]ly
 speak+1 9 enamel1 ) ! prep>ations  =   
col\r+ 9 mosaic "w1 may1 to a c]ta9     
ext5t1 be ju/ly  consid]$ z bran*es ( ! 
art ( col\r+ glass2 9 all :i*  !re is no
 col\r m difficult to be atta9$ ?an a   
beautiful r$2  x n[ is1 & ev] has be51  
mo/ difficult1 consequ5tly ! de>e/      
col\r4 ,! presum$ ignorance ( anci5t    
arti/s 9 prep>+ ?is  col\r has af=d$ "s 
reason1 x is said1 to suppose ! anci5ts 

knew ( no o!r sub/ance prop] = t purpose
 b calx ( iron1  or manganese4 ,to ?is  
we may reply1 _m specim5s are f\nd :i*  
%[ !y 7 n s ignorant 9 t art1 & t x is m
 ?an  probable ! same jeal\sy :i* is    
f\nd to exi/ 9 mod]n days among         
artizans might prev5t our sagaci\s      
pr$ecessors f publi%+ !  secrets ( _!   
respective pr(essions to ! _w4 ,we      
cont5d1 t  z ! mat]ials mu/ !n h _h     
exi/5ce1 :i* h be5 s9ce s  successfully 
employ$1 pray :at 0 ! reason ! anci5ts  
%\ld n  avail !mselves ( _! b5efit8 ,9  
all ! high] speculations (  sci5ce &    
arts1 :]e ! great & sup]ior en]gies (   
g5ius 7  requisite1 ?is p]fection 9 !   
anci5ts f> surpass$ any ex]tions  :i* h 
be5 s9ce a*iev$ by ! mod]ns4 ,to in/ance
 "o arti/  & "o art solely1 we "n !     
great ,praxiteles1 s fam\s 9 ! art  (   
/atu>y1 ^: works 7 a model ( p]fection4 
,,et*+ ,,on ,,glass ,,& ,,glass ,,cutt+4
      ,)\t ent]+ into ! hi/ory ( !      
lapid>y's art1 we only  propose to speak
 ( ^? ?+s :i* anci5t & mod]n au?ors h   

said ^u ! art ( engrav+ on glass1       
obs]v+1 t x 0 an art  anci5tly kn[n to  
bo? ! ,greeks & ,romans2 al?\gh x appe>s
  extremely probable1 t f _! express$   
ignorance ( _m (  ^? prop]ties :i* mod]n
 *emi/ry has discov]$ to belong to      
matt]1 !y 7 ignorant ( ! art ( et*+ on  
glass4    ,f antique specim5s /ill      
pres]v$1 a d\bt _c = a mom5t  be suff]$ 
to exi/ on our m9ds1 b t ! art ( engrav+
 ^u  glass 0 famili> to ! ,greek arti/s1
 :o =m$ ^u glass bo?  l9e> figures1 & 9 
relievo1 by ! same means z are n[       
employ$  = ne>ly ! same purpose1 if we c
 place any confid5ce 9 an able  & le>n$ 
lapid>y1 ,natt]1 :o has e/abli%$1 t !   
anci5ts  employ$ ! same k9d ( in/rum5ts 
= ?is purpose1 or ne>ly su*  z are n[ 9 
use2 abat+1 p]haps ! use ( diamonds1 & !
 du/  ( t preci\s mat]ial1 = :i* x is   
conceiv$ !y us$ em]y  p[d]1 & ! du/ (   
glass4    ,f :at is relat$ by ,pl9y1 x  
c]ta9ly appe>s t !y us$ !  lapid>y's    
:eel1 an in/rum5t mov+ 9 a horizontal   
direction ov]  ! "w-table4    ,"s h     

?\ght t dr9k+ cups & vessels may h be5  
=m$  f ! glass :il/ 9 a /ate ( fusion1  
by means ( ?is :eel2 to  ?is !y ?9k ^?  
words ( ,m>tial ref]1 :]e he says1      
calices  audaces1 hav+ ref]5ce to !     
boldness ( ! artisan's t\*2  ^? vessels 
he 0 con/ruct+ (t5 broke "u ! la/ t\* he
  be/[$ ^u 8 transp>5t lab\rs1 al?\gh1  
p]haps1 ( co/ly  value2 ^! accid5ts mu/ 
( necessity h r5d]$ ^? articles         
extremely exp5sive4    ,!re are n want+ 
_m :o affirm ! art ( glass-cutt+1  ) !  
in/rum5ts necess>y = t op]ation1 to be (
 mod]n  inv5tion4 ,^? assign x to !     
+5uity ( ,casp> ,lehmann1  orig9ally an 
engrav] on iron & /eel1 & :o1 z         
,beckmann  in=ms u1 made an attempt1 :i*
 succe$$1 9 cutt+ cry/al1 &  aft]w>ds   
glass 9 ! same mann]4 ,?is arti/1 we are
 told1 0 9  ! s]vice ( ,rodolphus1 !    
second emp]or ( t "n1 :o1 9  ! ye>      
#afji1 besides giv+ him valuable        
pres5ts1 conf]r$ on him  ! title (      
lapid>y & glass-cutt] to 8 c\rt1 & gave 
him a  pat5t1 all[+ him ! exclusive     

privilege ( ex]cis+ ?is new  art4 ,he   
work$ at ,prague1 :]e he _h an assi/ant 
( ! "n (  ,za*>ias ,belz]2 b ,george    
,s*wanh>d1 "o ( 8 pupils1 c>ri$  on !   
bus9ess to a mu* l>g] ext5t4 ,! la/ nam$
 0 a son (  ,hans ,s*wanh>d1 a jo9] at  
,ro!nburg1 & 0 born 9 #afja2 at !  age (
 sev5te5 he w5t to ,prague1 to le>n !   
art ( cutt+ glass  f ,lehmann4 ,8 good  
behavi\r won s mu* ^u ! affections (  8 
ma/]1 t on 8 dea? 9 ! ye> #afbb1 he left
 him 8 heir4  ,s*wanh>d succe$$ 9 obta9+
 a cont9uation ( ! pat5t f  ! emp]or1 & 
remov$ to ,nuremburg1 :]e he wr\ght = _m
 (  ! nobility ( t di/rict4 ,?is 01 we  
believe1 ! occasion (  t city claim+ !  
hon\r ( be+ ! bir?-place ( ?is new  art4
 ,9 ! ye> #afeb1 he work$ at ,prague1 & 
also at ,ratisbon1 by  comm& ( ! ,emp]or
 ,f]d9& ,,iii42 & he di$ 9 #afgf4 ,he   
left  two sons1 :o bo? foll[$ !         
lucrative employm5t ( _! fa!r4          
,aft]w>ds ,nuremburg produc$ _m exp]t   
ma/]s 9 ! art1 :o1  f ! improvem5t 9 !  
tools1 & also f discov]+ m  economical  

modes ( us+ !m1 7 enabl$ to execute !   
ord]s (  ! public at a m mod]ate rate   
?an _h be5 previ\sly *>g$  = "s         
articles4 ,^? latt] ma/]s likewise      
br\ght ?is art to a  mu* great] degree (
 p]fection4 ,not)/&+ ,zahn 0 ( ! same   
c\ntry1 & mu/ h be5 appris$ ( ! facts   
previ\sly /at$1  yet he m5tions x z a v 
rec5t inv5tion at ,nuremb]g1 at ! "t  he
 publi%$ 8 8,oculus ,artificial40 ,he   
also furni%es a plate1 giv+  at ! same  
"t a description ( ! v>i\s in/rum5ts    
employ$4  ,h[ev]1 t ?is inv5tion is n   
purely novel1 may be p]ceiv$  f ^? facts
 we h already submitt$4    ,x %\ld be   
/at$ t be=e ?is latt] re-introduction1  
arti/s  us$1 ) a diamond1 to cut figures
 ^u glass 9 almo/ e =m1  z f> z !       
repres5tation by l9es w5t4 ,! hi/ory (  
diamonds has  be5 pres5t$ to ! public by
 ,mr4 ,mawe1 9 8 obs]vations on !       
diamond di/ricts ( ,brazil4 ,x appe>s to
 be yet undet]m9$ :e!r  ! anci5ts us$ t 
/one = ! purpose ( cutt+ o!rs2 ^u  ?is  
po9t ,pl9y appe>s to be satisfi$ t !y   

did4    ,sol9us & ,isidore bo? express  
!mselves 9 a mann] ! rev]se4  ,b al?\gh 
?is may leave u 9 "s d\bt1 x appe>s     
pretty cle>  t !y did n attempt to cut t
 valuable production ) its  own du/1 or 
to give x diff]5t faces1 or r5d] x m    
brilliant  by ! same means4 ,if ?is po9t
 0 settl$1 !re c\ld be no great         
difficulty 9 affirm+ or negativ+ ! fact 
( _! engrav+ ^u  t /one4 ,?us d\bts     
appe> to increase on ?is head1 =        
,m>iette  d5ies t !y did2 ,natt] appe>s 
unc]ta92 & ,klotz ass]ts  ) confid5ce x 
0 c]ta94 ,8 au?ority1 to be sure1 has   
be5  consid]$ n to be ( mu* weight4     
,! prop] "q1 h[ev]1 appe>s to be1 :e!r !
 ,greeks &  ,romans us$ diamonds = cutt+
 & engrav+ o!r /ones or glass4  ,natt]1 
9 8 "w already notic$1 ?9ks !y 7 employ$
 on "s  antique engrav+s4 ,8 au?ority is
 des]v+ respect4 ,b if !y  7 employ$ on 
o!r /ones1 ! au?ority :i* at pres5t     
directs  u1 confid5tly alleges !y did n 
employ !m 9 cutt+ glass2 b  he po9ts out
 ! mode 9 :i* t article 0 wont to be    

divid$1 9  ! foll[+ t]ms3 8,!y us$ = t  
purpose em]y1 %>p-po9t$  in/rum5ts ( !  
h>de/ /eel1 & a r$-hot iron1 by :i* !y  
direct$ ! r5ts at _! pleasure40    ,!   
fir/ m5tion :i* appe>s to occur ( ! use 
( ! diamond =  ?is purpose1 is record$ (
 ,francis ,i4 ( ,france1 :o1 fond ( !   
arts1 sci5ces1 & new inv5tions1 wrote a 
c\ple ( l9es ) a  diamond1 on a pane (  
glass 9 ! ,ca/le ( ,*ambord1 to let     
,anne de  ,pisseleu1 ,du*ess ( ,e/ampes1
 "k t he 0 jeal\s4    ,ab\t #afeb1      
fe/oons & o!r ornam5ts1 cut ) a diamond1
 7  made on ,v5etian glasses2 !n        
consid]$ ! be/4 ,s*wanh>d 0  a pr(ess$  
adept 9 t art2 & s9ce 8 "t an arti/ ( ! 
"n ( ,john ,ro/1 ( ,augsburg1 cut "s    
dr9k+ glasses1 :i* 7  pur*as$ by !      
,emp]or ,*>les ,,vi41 at an extravagant 
price4      ,,et*+ ,,on ,,glass4    ,an 
acid to dissolve silice\s e>? 0 discov]$
 z late z #agga1 by  ! celebrat$ *emi/  
,s*eele1 9 sp>ry fluor4 ,x is conceiv$ t
  ?is _c be ( old] date ?an t p]iod2 b x
 is alleg$ t  an acid 0 discov]$ z e>ly 

z ! ye> #afgj1 by ,h5ry ,s*wanh>d4  ,x  
be+ said t "s aqua=tis _h dropp$1 by    
accid5t ^u 8  spectacles1 ! glass be+   
corrod$ by x1 he !nce le>n$ to  improve 
! liquid t he c\ld et* figures & write  
^u glass4 ,h[  he prep>$ ?is liquid is a
 secret :i* has n be5 reveal$4 ,!       
,teuts*e ,ak$emie says on ?is subject1 t
 he1 by ! acut5ess (  8 g5ius1 prov$ t  
:i* _h be5 consid]$ impossible c\ld be  
accompli%$2 & f\nd out a corrosive s    
p[]ful t ! h>de/  cry/al glass1 :i* _h  
hi!rto )/ood ! =ce ( ! /ronge/  spirits1
 0 oblig$ to yield to x1 z well z metals
 & /ones4 ,by  ^! means he del9eat$ &   
et*$1 on glass1 figures ( m51 9  v>i\s  
situations1 animals & plants1 9 a mann] 
p]fectly natural1  & br\ght !m to !     
highe/ p]fection4    ,! glass propos$ to
 be et*$ is made p]fectly clean & free f
  grease2 !n ! figure is cov]$ ) a      
v>ni%2 !n an edge ( wax  be+ rais$ r\nd 
! glass1 ! acid is p\r$ 91 & ! :ole     
gr\nd on ! ext]ior ( ! figures appe>s   
r\gh1 :il/ ! figure  is pres]v$ 9 its   

orig9al beauty ( outl9e1 bright & smoo?4
 ,?is  is ! mode ! inv5tor adopt$4      
,pr(essor ,beckmann says1 he m5tion$ ?is
 anci5t me?od ( et*+  ^u glass1 to an   
arti/ ( ! "n ( ,kl9dwor?1 :o possess$   
great  dext]ity 9 su* arts1 & reque/$   
him to try x2 he drew a tree  ) oil     
v>ni% & col\rs on a plate ( glass1      
appli$ ! acid on  ! plate 9 ! usual     
mann]2 aft] x _h be5 ^u ! plate = a     
suffici5t "t1 p\r$ (f1 & ! plate        
aft]w>ds clean$ ( !  v>ni%1 a beautiful 
tree 0 left bright & smoo?1 ) a r\gh    
back-gr\nd4 ,x is conceiv$ t _m great   
improvem5ts may yet be  made 9 ?is      
process4    ,x appe>s t no o!r acid ?an 
t produc$ by ! sp>ry fluor  is capable (
 corrod+ e k9d ( glass1 ?\gh ,baume1 9 8
  8,*emique ,exp]im5tale10 says1 t _m   
k9ds ( glass may be  corrod$ by ! m>9e &
 vitriolic acids4    ,9 ?is /ate (      
unc]ta9ty 0 ! public m9d till ! ye>     
#agbe1 :5 x 0 ?\ght t a recipe1 old] ?an
 t previ\sly  m5tion$1 might possibly be
 discov]$4 ,accord+ly1 9 t ye>1 9  !    

mon? ( ,janu>y1 ! foll[+ is said to h   
be5 transmitt$  to ! publi%] ( !        
8konomis*e ,encyclop$ie10 by ,dr4 ,john 
,george ,weyg&1 ( ,gold+51 :i* is       
report$ to h belong$ to  ,dr4 ,mat!w    
,pauli1 ( ,dresd51 !n deceas$2 ) :i* !  
la/  nam$ g5tleman _h et*$1 on glass1   
arms1 l&scapes1 & figures  ( v>i\s k9ds4
 ,we f9d1 t 9 x1 v /rong acid ( nitre 0 
us$1 :i* entirely dis5gages ! acid (    
sp>ry fluor1 ?\gh !  vitriolic acid has 
be5 commonly employ$1 & figures ?us     
produc$  w appe> z if rais$ above !     
plane ( ! glass4    ,?is sp>ry fluor is 
f\nd abundantly 9 ,d]by%ire1 z well z 9 
!  m9es ( ,g]many4 ,!ophra/us is ! fir/ 
:o notices ! effect (  sp>ry fluor1 by  
obs]v+ t !re are c]ta9 /ones :i*1 :5    
add$ to silv]1 copp]1 & iron ores1      
become fluid4 ,x appe>s t  ,cron/$t 0 ! 
fir/ sy/ematic writ] :o gave x a "n4    
,:5 spiritus nitri p] di/illationem has 
pass$ into ! recipi5t1  ply x ) a /rong 
fire1 & :5 well dephlegmat$1 p\r x1 7z  
x corrodes ord9>y glass17 into a        

,wald5burg flask2 !n ?r[ into  x a      
pulv]is$ gre5 ,bohemian em]ald1 o!rwise 
call$ hesphorus1  7:i*1 :5 r$uc$ to p[d]
 & heat$1 emits 9 ! d>k a gre5  light17 
& place x 9 w>m s& = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4    
,take a piece  ( glass1 well clean$1 &  
fre$ f all grease by means ( a ley2  put
 a bord] ( wax r\nd x1 ab\t an in* 9    
height1 & cov] x  equally all ov] ) !   
above acid4 ,! long] y let x /&1  s mu* 
! bett]2 & at ! end ( "s "t ! glass w be
  corrod$1 & ! figures :i* h be5 trac$  
out ) sulphur &  oil v>ni% w appe> z if 
rais$ above ! plane ( ! glass4          
,,hydromet]s4      ,! ,hydromet] is an  
in/rum5t = admeasur+ liquids2 by x !    
/r5g? or specific gravity ( diff]5t     
fluids is discov]$1 by  ! dep? to :i* x 
s9ks 9 !m4 ,x has be5 *iefly us$ =      
discov]+ ! cont5ts ( diff]5t salt wat]s1
 )\t analysis1  & is n[ almo/ entirely  
us$ by p]sons connect$ ) !  _s-trade1 to
 asc]ta9 ! diff]5t degrees ( /r5g?1 &   
:at  alloy !y w be>2 h5ce its utility to
 ! manufactur] & !  excise-(fic] is     

app>5t4    ,! laws respect+ ! comp>ative
 weight ( diff]5t fluids1 z well  z (   
solid bodies imm]s$ 9 !m1 0 fir/        
discov]$ by t great  geometrician       
,ar*im$es4 ,x may be f> f improbable t  
,ar*im$es  con/ruct$ t in/rum5t himself2
 & if x %\ld appe> t he  did1 x mu/ h   
happ5$ two hundr$ & twelve ye>s be=e !  
,*ri/ian era4    ,! mo/ anci5t m5tion ( 
?is in/rum5t by its specific "n1  occurs
 9 ! fif? c5tury ( our era1 ^u ! foll[+ 
occasion4  ,! anecdote is v s+ul> &     
affect+1 & also ev9ces !  incapacity (  
humanity to act consi/5t & z x ought1 :5
 we  suff] ourselves to be direct$ by   
passions unwor?y ( ! human  "*4    ,x is
 fir/ discov]$ 9 ^? lett]s ( ,synesius  
to ! philosophic  & beautiful ,hypatia4 
,we tru/ we may be excus$ ! lib]ty we   
propose to take 9 detail+ ?is           
circum/ance1 :i* is comp>atively  little
 kn[n2 & z its int]e/ also recomm5ds x1 
?is furni%es an  additional motive4     
,hypatia 0 ! daught] ( ,!on1 an em95t   
ma!matician (  ,alex&ria1 "s ( ^: writ+s

 are /ill extant4 ,by h] fa!r  %e 0     
in/ruct$ 9 ! ma!matics1 & f o!r great   
m51  :o at t p]iod ab\nd$ 9 ,alex&ria1  
%e le>n$ ! ,platonic  & ,ari/otelian    
philosophy1 & acquir$ su* a k ( ^!      
sci5ces1 t %e taught !m publicly1 ) !   
greate/ applause4  ,%e 0 "y & beautiful1
 _h a p]sonable figure1 0 sprightly  &  
agreeable 9 conv]sation1 ?\gh1 at ! same
 "t1 mode/2 &  %e possess$ ! mo/ rigid  
virtue1 :i* 0 pro( aga9/ e  temptation4 
,%e conduct$ h]self ) s mu* propriety   
t[>ds  h] lov]s1 t !y nev] c\ld obta9 m 
?an ! pleasure (  h] company1 & he>+ h] 
disc\rse2 & ) ?is1 :i* !y  consid]$ z an
 hon\r1 !y 7 cont5t$4 ,^? :o 7 s d>+  z 
to desire fur!r communion %e dismiss$2 &
 ev5 de/roy$  ! appetite ( "o ( h]      
admir]s1 :o w\ld n suff] h] to          
philosophise1 by means ( "s /rong       
prep>ation1 :i* o!rs appe>  n to h s9ce 
imitat$4    ,%e suff]$ s cruel a dea?1 t
 _h %e be5 a ,*ri/ian1 &  suff]$ f      
,pagan error1 h] "n w\ld h be5 rank$    
among its  mo/ hon\r$ victims 9 ! li/ ( 

m>tyrology2 b be+ a ,pagan1  & suff]+ f 
! p]secution ( sup]/iti\s &             
anti-,*ri/ian  zeal1 %e is hon\r$ among 
! =emo/ ( m>tyrs to cele/ial            
philosophy4    ,! "n ( ! ,*ri/ian       
patri>*1 at t p]iod 9 ,alex&ria1 0      
,cyrill1 ^: family _h1 = upw>ds ( a     
hundr$ ye>s be=e 8  "t1 produc$ bi%ops1 
:o _h be5 mu* m s]viceable to _! own    
family connections ?an !y _h ev] be5    
t[>ds ! propagation (  ! ,*ri/ian fai?4 
,! pres5t 0 pr\d1 litigi\s1 & rev5geful1
  v9dictive & intol]ant to ! la/ degree2
 8 ignorance debas+  8 own "* z a man1 &
 sc&alis+ ! religion ( :i* he  0 s      
unwor?y a m9i/]4 ,he /upidly conceiv$   
himself sanction$  9 ev]y?+ :i* 8 fooli%
 & mi/ak5 ideas might dictate to be  = !
 glory ( ,god1 & act$ z a p]secutor1    
prosecutor1 judge1 &  execution]3 he _h 
condemn$ ,ne/orias )\t he>+ 8 def5ce4   
,z ! city ( ,alex&ria 0 !n v fl\ri%+ on 
acc\nt ( its  ext5d$ comm]ce1 ! emp]or  
_h !re all[$ great] tol]ation &  m      
peculi> privileges to all religions1 ?an

 9 any o!r place3  x consequ5tly        
conta9$1 among o!rs1 a great numb] (    
,jews1 :o  c>ri$ on a mo/ ext5sive      
trade1 z well z a great _m ,pagan       
families4 ,9 ! eyes ( ! bigot ,cyrill   
?is 0 wrong2 he w\ld h  ! %eep-fold     
clean1 & ! ,jews mu/ be bani%$4 ,!      
gov]nor1  h[ev]1 :o 0 a man ( prud5ce & 
sob] discretion1 mu* bett]  acqua9t$ ) !
 real int]e/s ( ! city1 oppos$ a measure
 he  saw replete ) mis*ief1 & ev5 caus$ 
to be condemn$ to dea? a  ,*ri/ian      
pr(ligate1 :o _h injur$ ! ,jews4 ,?is   
malefactor 01 by  ! express ord] (      
,cyrill1 buri$ 9 ! *ur* z a m>tyr2 & he 
collect$ an army ( five hundr$ lazy     
monks1 :o abus$ ! gov]nor  9 ! public   
/reets1 & excit$ an insurrection among !
 p  aga9/ ! ,jews1 s t ! debas$ race (  
,abraham 0 expell$ f  ! city :]e !y _h s
 long exi/$ unmole/$ f ! "t (  ,alex&] !
 ,great4    ,cyrill1 "o day1 :il/ look+ 
= objects ( p]secution1 saw a  numb] (  
c>riages1 att5d$ ) s]vants1 belong+ to !
 fir/  families 9 ! city1 be=e a c]ta9  

h\se4 ,inquir+ :at 0 !  cause ( !       
assembly1 he 0 in=m$ t x 0 ! habitation 
(  ! lovely ,hypatia1 :o1 on acc\nt ( h]
 ext5sive le>n+ & v  em95t tal5ts1 0    
visit$ by p ( ! fir/ respectability4    
,?is af=d$ to ! malignant prie/ a       
suffici5t object = !  ex]cise ( 8       
jeal\sy aga9/ ! m]itori\s1 ! un(f5d+1 ! 
beautiful ,hypatia4 ,he f t mom5t       
resolv$ ^u h] de/ruction4  ,accord+ly he
 lo/ no "t 9 excit+ 8 myrmidons1 ! monks
 &  prie/s1 ^? :o %\ld h be5 ! m9i/]s ( 
t religion  :i* !y pr(ess$ to tea*1 to  
de/roy ! fair philosoph]4  ,!y          
accord+ly1 ) diabolical rage1 & in/igat$
 by inf]nal  cruelty1 took ! e>lie/     
opportunity to seize h]1 hurri$ h] to ! 
*ur*--! temple ( peace & good-w--:i* !y 
violat$ by an  (f5ce at :i* humanity mu/
 %udd]2 hav+ torn ! clo!s f  h] delicate
 =m1 !y tore ! fle% f h] bones )        
pot%]ds1  !n dragg$ h] mangl$ body ab\t 
! city1 & aft]w>ds burnt x4    ,?is     
demoniacal trag$y took place 9 ! ye>    
#dae1 & 0 p]petrat$  by ! pr(ess$       

s]vants ( ,him :o came into _w to save  
^?  :i* 7 lo/--to prea* peace & good-w  
to all m54 ,!  impressions :i* su* an   
ev5t made ^u p ( e p]suasion  may be    
conceiv$2 !y admit n ( description f a  
feeble p53 b  we may ask ! "q1 0 x su* a
 transaction z 0 calculat$ to  make     
conv]ts to ! doctr9es ( ,*ri/ianity8--^:
 av[$ motive  & maxim is1 9 ! words (   
,milton1       8,by w9n+ words1 to      
conqu] will+ he>ts1      ,& make        
p]suasion d ! "w ( fe>40    ,all        
hi/orians are n agre$ 9 "s circum/ances 
( ! prec$+  relation2 b !y g5]ally unite
 9 be/[+ praise ^u ,hypatia1  ^: memory 
0 long hon\r$ by h] grateful &          
affectionate  s*ol>s1 among :om 0       
,synesius1 ( a noble ,pagan family1 :o  
_h  cultivat$ philosophy & ! ma!matics )
 ! utmo/ ard\r1  & :o _h be5 "o ( h] mo/
 intimate fri5ds & foll[]s4 ,on  acc\nt 
( 8 le>n+ & virtues1 _m em95t tal5ts1 & 
op5  disposition1 ! inhabitants (       
,ptolemais 7 desir\s he %\ld be  bi%op1 
hav+ be5 previ\sly employ$ on _m public 

& important  conc]ns ) success4 ,aft]   
mode/ly desir+1 = a long p]iod1  t !y   
w\ld fix _! *oice ^u a m wor?y object1  
!y /ill  p]si/+1 he ass5t$1 ^u condition
 t he 0 n to believe  9 ! resurrection1 
to :i* he c\ld n at t "t br+ 8  int]nal 
conviction3 he suff]$ himself to be     
baptis$1 & became  _! bi%op2 he 0       
confirm$ by ! or?odox patri>* ,!ophilus1
  ! pr$ecessor ( ,cyrill1 to ^:         
jurisdiction ,ptolemais belong$3  he    
aft]w>ds r5\nc$ 8 error respect+ !      
resurrection4 ,?is  le>n$ man ev9c$ 8   
gratitude to ,hypatia1 by ! hon\rable   
m5tion  :i* he made ( h] 9 "s ( 8       
writ+s1 /ill pres]v$4    ,9 8 fifte5?   
lett] to h]1 he tells ,hypatia1 t he 0 s
  un=tunate1 or f\nd himself s ill1 t he
 wi%$ to use an  hydroscopium 7! ,greek 
= hydromet]71 & he reque/s t  %e w\ld   
cause "o to be con/ruct$ = him4 ,he     
says1 8,x is a  cyl9drical tube1 ( !    
size ( a re$ or pipe2 a l9e is drawn ^u 
x l5g?ways1 :i* is int]sect$ by o!rs1 & 
^! po9t out !  weight ( wat]4 ,at ! end 

( ! tube is a cone1 ! base ( :i*  is    
jo9$ to t ( ! tube1 s t !y h bo? only "o
 base4  ,?is "p ( ! in/rum5t is call$   
b>yllion4 ,if x be plac$ 9  wat]1 x     
rema9s 9 a p]p5dicul> direction1 s t "o 
c readily  discov] by x ! weight ( !    
fluid40    ,petau1 :o publi%$ ! works ( 
,synesius1 9 ! ye> #afdj1  ackn[l$ges t 
he did n und]/& ?is passage4 ,an old    
scolia/1  he says1 :o _h add$ "s        
illegible words1 ?\ght x 0 a            
wat]-clock2 b ! ellepsydra 0 n imm]s$ 9 
wat]1 b fill$  ) x4 ,he !re=e ?\ght t x 
might allude to ! *orobates1  :i*       
,vitruvius describes z an in/rum5t      
employ$ 9 levell+2 b  x appe>s t        
,synesius1 :o compla9$ ( ill heal?1 c\ld
 h no  occasion = su* an in/rum5t4      
,besides1 no "p ( t in/rum5t he         
describes1 has any resemblance to ! "o  
describ$ by ,synesius4    ,f ! works (  
,f]mat1 an excell5t ma!matician1 & a v  
le>n$ man1 well acqua9t$ ) antiquities &
 ! works ( !  anci5ts1 we give ! foll[+ 
explanation conc]n+ ! hydroscopium  (   

,ar*im$es1 z ?is article w\ld be        
incomplete )\t x3--    8,x is           
impossible10 says he1 8t ! hydroscopium 
c\ld be !  level or *orobates (         
,vitruvius1 = ! l9es on ! latt] 7       
p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 :]eas ! l9es on
 ! =m] 7  p>allel to x4 ,! hydroscopium 
0 und\bt$ly a hydromet] ( !  simple/    
con/ruction4 ,! tube may be made (      
copp]1 & op5 at !  top2 b at ! o!r end1 
:i*1 :5 us$1 is ! l[e/1 x mu/  t]m9ate )
 a cone1 ! base ( :i* is add$ to t ( !  
tube4  ,l5g?wise1 along ! tube1 are     
drawn two l9es1 :i* are int]sect$  by   
o!rs1 & ! m num]\s ^! divisions are1 !  
in/rum5t  w be s mu* ! m correct4--,:5  
plac$ 9 wat] x s9ks to a  c]ta9 dep?1   
:i* w be m>k$ by ! cross-l9es1 & :i* w  
be great]1 accord+ to ! lightness ( !   
wat]40 ,a figure :i* is  add$1 might h  
be5 disp5s$ )4 ,:5 a common fri5d (     
,f]mat  & ,petau %[$ x to ! latt]1 he   
consid]$ x to be s j1  & explanatory ( !
 real mean+ ( ,synesius1 t he wi%$ to be
  all[$ ! opportunity ( introduc+ x 9 a 

new edition ( ! works  ( ,synesius4     
,,f9is4      ,j4 ,s4 ,pratt1 ,/okesley1 
,york%ire4          ,transcrib]'s ,notes
      ,punctuation1 hyph5ation1 & spell+
 7 made consi/5t :5 a  pr$om9ant        
pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 o!rwise !y 7
 n  *ang$4    ,_m typographical errors 7
 correct$2 occasional unbalanc$         
quotation m>ks reta9$4    ,text uses bo?
 8,gutt5b]g0 & 8,gutt5burg01            
8,helvelius0 &  8,hevelius02 bo? v]sions
 reta9$4    ,page #ah3 8docum5t>y0 0    
pr9t$ z 8docum5try02 *ang$ "h4    ,page 
#cc3 8transc5dant0 0 pr9t$ t way4       
,page #cc3 ,! op5+ quotation m>k prec$+ 
8,a complete ,c\rse (  ,li?ography0 0   
add$ by ,transcrib]4 ,o!r punctuation & 
spell+  )9 t title has n be5 *ang$1 b "s
 ( x diff]s f  :at 0 pr9t$ 9 ! ,engli%  
translation ( ! cit$ book4    ,page #ed3
 ,! p]iod aft] 8,deity0 9 8(f5sive to ! 
,deity4 t !  great majority0 probably   
%\ld be a semi-colon4    ,pages #fc &   
#bdi3 ,a "q m>k is foll[$ by a l[]-case 
^w4    ,page #aji3 8,*>diu0 0 pr9t$ t   

way4    ,page #aci3 8,x la/ x *ang$     
col\rs0 %\ld beg9 ) 8,at04    ,page     
#aga3 8! bull ( olus0 probably is a     
mispr9t = 8ball04