,a ,,select ,,list ,,of ,,books1 ,,published ,,by ,,partridge ,,and ,,oakey ,,london3 ,and may be had of all ,booksellers4 ,the ,lamps of the ,temple3 ,shadows from the ,lights of the ,modern ,pulpit4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3--,the ,pulpit and the ,age--,the ,revs4 ,thomas ,binney--,henry ,melville1 ,b4,d4--,dr4 ,edward ,andrews--,dr4 ,richard ,winter ,hamilton--,james ,parsons--,alfred ,j4 ,morris--,dr4 ,robert ,newton--,dr4 ,joseph ,e4 ,beaumont--,benjamin ,parsons--,dr4 ,john ,cumming--,john ,pulsford--,george ,dawson1 ,m4,a4--,the ,welch ,pulpit4--,concluding ,summary4 ,memoirs of ,william ,wordsworth1 compiled from authentic sources2 with numerous quotations from his ,poems1 illustrative of his ,life and ,character3 by ,january ,searle4 #cs4 ,the ,keepsake2 beautifully bound1 and illustrated1 #cs4 ,friendship's ,offering1 illustrated1 handsomely bound1 gilt edges4 #cs4 ,the ,sacred ,garland1 illustrated1 handsomely bound1 gilt edges4 #cs4 ,the ,wreath of ,friendship1 illustrated1 handsomely bound1 gilt edges4 #cs4 ,praise and ,principle2 or1 ,for what shall ,i live8 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,the ,new ,entertaining ,naturalist3 illustrated with numerous cuts1 handsomely bound1 gilt edges1 #cs4 ,the ,wonders of ,nature and ,art2 comprising the most remarkable ,curiosities in the ,known ,world3 illustrated with numerous cuts1 and handsomely bound1 gilt edges4 #cs4 ,the ,history of ,modern ,europe1 from the commencement of the #afth ,century to the year #ahej4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,stewart1 ,m4,a4 ,cloth1 #es4 ,popular ,history of ,ireland1 from the earliest period to the present time3 by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,stuart1 ,m4,a4 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,historical ,sketches of ,feudalism1 ,british and ,continental3 with numerous notices of the doings of the ,feudalry in all ages and ,countries4 ,by ,andrew ,bell4 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,shakspere3 his ,times and ,contemporaries4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,self-,reliance2 a ,book for ,young ,men2 being ,biographic ,sketches of ,men who have risen to ,independence and ,usefulness1 by ,perseverance and ,energy4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,contents3--,sir ,humphrey ,davy--,william ,allen--,william ,hutton--,thomas ,scott--,william ,gifford--,sir ,william ,herschel--,milners1 ,brothers--,alexander ,murray--,benjamin ,west--,james ,brindley--,james ,ferguson4 ,deck and ,port2 or1 ,incidents of a ,cruise to ,california2 with ,sketches of ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,valparaiso1 ,lima1 ,honolulu1 and ,san ,francisco1 by ,colton1 handsomely bound in ,cloth1 #cs4 ,sketches of ,india2 by ,h4 ,moses1 ,esq41 ,m4,d43 embellished with a handsome view of ,bombay4 ,cloth1 #es4 ,the ,wonders of the ,human ,frame3 ,man1--,anatomically and ,physiologically considered4 ,compiled from a ,series of ,lectures in language adapted to all classes of ,readers4 #as4 #f;d4 ,pen ,pictures of ,popular ,english ,preachers4 ,a new and enlarged edition4 ,cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3--,rev4 ,dr4 ,cumming--,w4 ,jay--,j4 ,parsons--,hon4 ,rev4 ,baptist ,w4 ,noel--,dr4 ,m',neile--,j4 ,sortain--,t4 ,winter--,j4 ,jack--,i4 ,roper--,dr4 ,croly--,dr4 ,buckland--,dr4 ,campbell--,dr4 ,fletcher--,a4 ,o4 ,beattie--,t4 ,raffles--,f4 ,close--,dr4 ,candlish--,t4 ,binney--,john ,angel ,james--,henry ,melville1 ,m4,a4--,dr4 ,wolfe--,dr4 ,pusey--,cardinal ,wiseman--,w4 ,j4 ,e4 ,bennett--,father ,gavazzi4 ,pen and ,ink ,sketches of ,authors and ,authoresses4 ,by the author of 8,pen ,pictures of ,popular ,english ,preachers40 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,life of ,thomas ,chatterton2 including his unpublished ,poems and ,correspondence1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,extracts from the ,diary of a ,living ,physician4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,contents3--,the ,broken ,vow--,the ,incurable--,the ,betrayer--,the ,separation--,the ,wanderer--,the ,substitute--,the ,beginning and the ,end of ,intemperance--,the ,monomaniac--,the ,last ,admonition--,the ,poacher's ,story--,the ,soldier's ,death ,bed4 ,rhyme1 ,romance1 and ,revery3 by ,john ,bolton ,rogerson4 ,handsomely bound2 coloured frontispiece1 #cs4 ,shamrock ,leaves3 ,tales and ,sketches of ,ireland4 ,full gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,holly ,wreath2 a ,pleasant ,companion for a ,leisure ,hour4 ,by ,miss ,sargeant4 ,handsomely bound and illustrated4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,poetic ,rosary3 by ,j4 ,critchley ,prince4 ,dedicated by permission to ,charles ,dickens1 ,esq4 ,handsomely gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,john ,milton3 the ,patriot ,poet4 ,illustrations of the ,model ,man4 by ,edwin ,paxton ,hood4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,literature of ,labour2 illustrious ,instances of the ,education of ,poetry in ,poverty1 by ditto4 ,a new and enlarged edition1 dedicated to ,professor ,wilson4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,dark ,days of ,queen ,mary1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,good ,old ,times of ,queen ,bess1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,self-,education2 twelve chapters for young thinkers1 by ditto1 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,genius and ,industry2 the ,achievements of ,mind among the ,cottages1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,old ,england3 ,scenes from ,life1 in the ,hall and the ,hamlet1 by the ,forest and ,fireside1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,mental and ,moral ,philosophy of ,laughter3 ,a ,vista of the ,ludicrous ,side of ,life1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,uses of ,biography3 ,romantic1 ,philosophic1 and ,didactic1 #as4 #f;d4 ,fragments of ,thought and ,composition1 by ditto4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 ,emma ,clifford2 or1 ,true and ,false ,profession4 ,cloth1 #cs4 ,the ,life1 ,character1 and ,genius of ,ebenezer ,elliott1 the ,corn ,law ,rhymer1 by ,january ,searle4 ,cloth1 #as4 ,life at ,home and ,abroad2 an ,autobiography1 by ditto1 ,cloth1 #as4 ,leaves from ,sherwood ,forest1 by ditto1 #as4 ,hours with the ,muses1 by ,j4 ,critchley ,prince4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,dreams and ,realities1 by ditto4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,pictures of the ,living ,authors of ,britain4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,the ,child's ,own ,story ,book2 illustrated1 full gilt1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,illustration3 ,,chain ,,bridge4 ,see page #fh4 ,a ,,historical ,,account ,,of ,,useful ,,inventions ,,and ,,scientific ,,discoveries3 ,,being ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,instruction ,,and ,,entertainment4 ,,by ,,george ,,grant1 ,,author ,,of 8,,panorama ,,of ,,science10 8,,the ,,history ,,of ,,london10 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,london3 ,,partridge ,,and ,,oakey4 ,,mdccclii4 ,,preface4 ,it has been demonstrated that the desire of obtaining knowledge is one of the most natural1 and1 at the same time1 most ennobling attributes of the human mind4 ,there is at the present time a great number of inquiring minds among the working classes of this kingdom1 and a still greater number of the young of all classes thirsting for information1 who in entering upon a course of general reading must be greatly at a loss for many things which are familiarly alluded to in ordinary conversation1 with which everybody is understood to be acquainted1 or would have people to think so1 but which1 in reality1 are only familiar to persons who have been living for a considerable time in intimate converse with the world4 ,the 8,historical ,account of ,useful ,inventions and ,discoveries in ,science10 is intended in some measure to supply such information to the anxious inquirer after knowledge4 ,of the numerous articles here treated of1 it will be perceived that each has been traced to its origin in as lucid a style as possible1 and in so doing we have endeavoured to combine instruction with amusement4 ,as a proof of this we need only refer to the table of ,contents4 ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,printing #aa ,stereotype #be ,engraving on ,wood #bg 0 0 ,copper #bh 0 0 ,steel #cj ,lithography #cb ,paper #cf ,paper ,hanging #da ,painting #de ,statuary #dh ,drawing #ee ,architecture #fb ,chain ,bridges #fh ,clocks #fi ,watches #gd ,water ,clocks #gg ,spinning #hj ,stocking ,manufacture #hd ,coaches #ie ,saddles1 c4 #ajd ,horse-,shoes #ajg ,gunpowder #aaa ,guns #aad ,astronomy #aai ,navigation #aee ,light-,houses #aei ,electricity #afg ,electric ,telegraph #afi ,steam-,engines #aga ,mills #aie ,saw-,mills #baa ,forks #bad ,music #bai ,sealing-,wax1 ,seals1 4 #bbh ,black ,lead ,pencils #bcd ,coloured ,glass #bcf ,etching on ,glass1 and ,glass-cutting #bdj ,hydrometers #bdf ,,useful ,,inventions4 ,,printing4 ,among the many arts and sciences cultivated in society1 some are only adapted to supply our natural wants1 or assist our infirmities2 some are mere instruments of luxury1 calculated to flatter pride1 to gratify vanity1 and to satisfy our desires of every description2 whilst others tend at once to secure1 to accommodate1 delight1 and give consequence to man4 ,of this latter kind1 ,printing undoubtedly stands pre-eminent2 and if viewed in its full extent1 it may be truly said to possess a very considerable portion not only of the comforts1 but the conveniences and positive utilities of life4 ,the advantages derived from this invention must be acknowledged by all1--this art has proved the principal step towards civilization3 by it has ,christianity been propagated2 and by its powerful means are we made acquainted with all that is useful in knowledge1 in art1 and science4 ,it would take the pen of an inspired writer to enumerate all the blessings which flow from it4 ,it is a patent engine which possesses a preponderating influence over the mind of man either for good or evil1 according as it is used4 ,as we proceed we will have frequent occasion to express our feelings in grateful eulogium1 when considering the benefits resulting to society from various ingenious inventions and discoveries2 but when we consider the advantages derived from the typographic art1 it appears like a vortex1 drawing every other sensation into its deep interest1 and engulphing every consideration1 so that we can think of nothing but printing1 and its extensive catalogue of benefits4 ,this interest is wonderfully increased1 whether it be viewed on account of its ingenuity1 the extent of its benefits1 or the benevolence of its objects4 ,in whatever point of view we behold it1 whether as a medium for giving the utmost facility to the despatch of the common concerns of life2 or as affording the eager mind of the philosophic inquirer the ready means to gratify the inquisitive thirst of his knowledge2 in every species of mental intelligence1 the rapid facility which it affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication1 by which knowledge is promulgated in every part of the earth4 ,we are at a loss for a term sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of the infinite importance of those advantages which accrue to mankind from the invention of an art so replete with important consequences1 which we hourly perceive to emanate from typography4 ,we need therefore scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history of this divine art in our pages4 ,the earliest specimens of printing which have been discovered1 consist in the stamped marks on the bricks and tiles used in building the tower and city of ,babel1 and which may be dated as far back as two thousand two hundred years before ,christ4 ,a number of these stamped clay materials of ,babel are still preserved in antiquarian repositories4 ,it is remarkable that they generally differ in shape and appearance1 and that the letters or words1 which are in ancient character1 seem to have been stamped by the hand with moveable blocks4 ,in ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 some curious specimens are preserved1 one of which is a round piece of clay1 seven inches in height1 and three in thickness at the end1 resembling a barrel1 being thickest at the middle4 ,this interesting relic1 this ,chaldean book1 is entirely covered with lines of letters and words running from the one end to the other2 from its portable character it may be called a pocket volume1 and one which cannot be less than four thousand years old4 ,it is mounted on a marble pedestal1 covered with a glass case1 secured by an iron bracket1 and so contrived that the curious inspector may cause it to revolve on its marble base2 but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of antiquity4 ,it appears to have been printed by two moulds1 and at the middle of the circumference a small blank square has been left1 in case as it is supposed1 room should be required for a portion of the clay to escape in the action of compression4 ,next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks1 in point of interest and antiquity1 are specimens of the earliest engraving of letters on stone4 ,we are informed by various historical writers that ,cadmus1 a ,phnician1 who lived one thousand five hundred years before ,christ1 at a period contemporary with ,moses1 and who was esteemed as the builder of the city of ,thebes1 was the first who taught the ,greeks the use of alphabetic symbols1 an art he most likely acquired from the ,hebrews4 ,the most ancient specimen of an engraved inscription now known to be extant1 is the ,sigean ,inscription1 so called from having been disinterred upon a promontory named ,sigeum1 situate near the ancient city of ,troy1 in ,phrygia4 ,it is engraved on a pillar of beautifully white marble1 nine feet high1 two feet broad1 and eight inches thick1 and which1 from the inscription1 served as the pedestal of the heathen god ,hermocrates4 ,the letters used in this inscription are the capitals of the ,grecian language1 though rudely cut1 but read from right to left like the ,hebrew4 ,this specimen of engraving must be about three thousand years old4 ,another not less interesting relic of the earliest age of printing is found in a ,roman signet ring or stamp1 approaching in character to that species of stamp now used by the post-office on letters4 ,this curiosity is preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is the very earliest specimen we possess of printing1 by means of ink or any similar substance4 ,it is made of metal1 a sort of ,roman brass2 the ground of which is covered with a green kind of verdigris rust1 with which antique medals are usually covered4 ,the letters rise flush up to the elevation of the exterior rim which surrounds it4 ,its dimensions are1 about two inches long1 by one inch broad4 ,at the back of it is a small ring for the finger1 to promote the convenience of holding it4 ,as no person of the name which is inscribed upon it is mentioned in ,roman ,history1 he is therefore supposed to have been a functionary of some ,roman officer1 or private steward1 and who1 perhaps1 used this stamp to save himself the trouble of writing his name4 ,a stamp somewhat similar1 in the ,greek character1 is in the possession of the ,antiquarian ,society1 of ,newcastle-upon-,tyne4 ,it will be perceived that however curious these relics of antiquity may be1 they do not bear any connection with the art of printing books4 ,the origin of this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding knowledge of impressing by means of stamps4 ,what is1 however1 worthy of remark1 the art of printing books1 though on a rude principle1 was known and in use among the ,chinese1 at least one thousand four hundred years before it was invented in ,europe4 ,the printing of the ,chinese has never resembled anything of the kind in this country4 ,from the first it has been conducted without moveable types4 ,each page has been1 and continues to be1 a block or cut stamp1 which is thus useful for only one subject--so that every book must have its own blocks4 ,no press is used4 ,the paper being thin1 when laid on the block receives the impression by being smoothed over with a brush4 ,there is reason to infer that the art of printing1 as thus practised by the ,chinese1 may have originated through a knowledge of the still more ancient ,chaldean mode of printing by blocks on clay4 ,but we may expect1 from the well-known ingenuity of the ,chinese1 and their 7in general17 having the organ of imitation so fully developed1 that they will not much longer continue this primitive method of printing1 as an enterprising practical printer has emigrated1 with an excellent assortment of presses1 types1 c41 from ,edinburgh1 to conduct his business in the celestial empire4 ,we wish him all success4 ,the discovery of the art of printing with moveable types1 which took place in the fifteenth century1 in ,germany1 was considerably aided by a fashion1 which had been some time prevalent1 of cutting blocks of wood into pictures1 or representations of scenes illustrative of ,scriptural history1 and printing them on paper1 simply by the pressure of the hand1 a brush1 or cushion behind4 ,one of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant1 and represents the creation of man1 as detailed in the book of ,genesis4 ,in the centre of the picture stands a figure1 intended for the ,divinity1 having the appearance of an old man with flowing garments1 a venerable beard1 and rays proceeding from the head2 on the ground1 before him1 lies a human being1 intended for ,adam1 fast asleep2 and from an opening in his side is seen proceeding the slender figure of a female1 meaning ,eve1 who is taken by the hand by ,god1 and is apparently receiving ,his blessing4 ,the execution of this1 and cuts of a similar nature1 is of the rudest description1 and is a striking testimony of the low scale of art at the time4 ,pictures of this nature1 which were bound up into books1 nevertheless1 were the immediate forerunners of the great invention itself4 ,books of prints1 it will naturally be imagined1 would soon be found imperfect1 for want of descriptive text2 this1 therefore1 urged on the great discovery4 ,the manufacturers of the books1 at first1 cut single sentences or words1 and stamped them below the pictures2 but this not conveying a sufficient idea of the subject represented1 an anxiety arose to give a lengthened description on the opposite pages4 ,this it seems was1 at length1 accomplished2 still the sentences were all cut in a piece1 and the notion of having separate letters1 so as to form words at pleasure1 was unknown at that period4 ,we will now proceed to the introduction of the modern art of printing4 ,ever since the typographic art has been introduced into modern ,europe in its present form1 the best1 and one of the most certain criterions1--which prove the undoubted sense of our species1--exists in the multiplicity of claims which have been made by several cities for the honour of affording the earliest shelter to the infancy of this art4 ,it really appears to be a question yet undecided1 to what city1 individual1 or even era1 to attribute this beneficial invention4 ,however1 there is every reason to believe that in this art1 as well as in most others1 the improvements which have subsequently taken place1 have benefited the art itself1 as much as that has benefited mankind3 therefore1 the question of its origin does not appear to us to be of so much importance4 ,amidst the claims of various individuals1 ,mr4 ,bouzer1 in his 8,origin of ,printing10 says1 that this honour ought to be adjudged to one of the three cities of ,haerlem1 ,mentz1 or ,strasburg2 of which1 in his opinion1 the first named city has best established her legitimate right4 8,but it appears10 to use his own words1 8that all those cities1 in a qualified sense1 may claim it1 considering the improvements they have made upon each other40 ,the real and original inventor of the modern art of printing1 as at first used1 and from whence the improved practice is descended1 was one ,laurentius1 of ,haerlem2 who1 however1 proceeded no further than to cut separate wooden letters4 ,there is every reason to believe that1 at first1 these wooden forms were made upon the principle of the forma literarum of the ,romans4 ,this ,laurentius1 it appears1 made his first essay about the year #adcj2 he died ten years afterwards1 having first printed the 8,horarium10 the 8,speculum ,belgicum10 and two editions of 8,donatus40 ,the individual on whom history most generally places the honour of being the earliest discoverer of the art of printing by means of moveable letters1 or types1 was ,john ,guttenberg1 a citizen of ,mayence1 or ,mentz1 who flourished from the year #adcf to #adff1 in the reign of ,frederick ,,iii4 of ,germany4 ,the ingenious ,guttenburg was born at ,mayence1 in the beginning of the fifteenth century1 and removed to ,strasburg about the year #adbd1 or1 perhaps rather earlier4 ,here he became acquainted with the above-named ,laurentius1 with whom he proceeded to ,haerlem1 and continued in the employment of ,laurentius for some time4 ,however1 he returned to ,strasburg1 where1 in #adce1 he entered into partnership with ,andrew ,dritzehan1 ,john ,riff1 and ,andrew ,heelman1 citizens of ,strasburg1 binding himself to disclose to them some important secrets1 by which they would make their fortunes4 ,the workshop was in the house of ,dritzehan1 who dying1 ,guttenberg immediately sent his servant1 ,lawrence ,beildick1 to ,nicholas1 the brother of the deceased1 and requested that no person might be admitted into the workshop1 lest the secret should be discovered1 and the forms stolen4 ,but they had already disappeared2 and this fraud1 as well as the claims of ,nicholas ,dritzehan1 to succeed to his brother's share1 produced a law-suit among the surviving partners4 ,five witnesses were examined2 and from the evidence of ,guttenburg's servants1 it was incontrovertibly proved that ,guttenberg was the first that practised the art of printing with moveable types in ,strasburg2 and that on the death of ,andrew ,dritzehan1 he had expressly ordered the forms to be broken up1 and the types dispersed1 lest any one should discover his secret4 ,the words given in his order1 which were supported by documentary evidence1 were these--8,go1 take the component parts of the press1 and pull them to pieces2 then1 no one will understand what they mean40 ,in the same document mention is made of four forms1 kept together by two screws1 or press spindles1 and of letters and pages being cut up and destroyed4 ,it has been asserted that ,guttenberg stole the types from ,laurentius1 with which he repaired to ,strasburg1 and commenced business2 but of this we can find no corroboration4 ,it has also been said that upon this occasion1 ,guttenberg stole his own materials1 but this is likewise unauthenticated4 ,the result of this law-suit1 which occurred in #adci1 was a dissolution of partnership2 and ,guttenberg1 after having exhausted his means in the effort1 proceeded1 in #adde1 to his native city of ,mentz1 where he resumed his typographic labours4 ,being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention known1 and of value to himself1 but being at the same time deficient in the means1 he opened his mind to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals1 named ,john ,fust1 or ,faust1 and prevailed on him to advance large sums of money1 in order to make further and more complete trials of the art4 ,guttenberg1 being thus associated with ,faust1 the first regular printing office was begun1 and the business carried on in a style corresponding to the infancy of the art4 ,after many smaller essays in trying the capabilities of a press and moveable types1 ,guttenberg had the hardihood to attempt an edition of the ,bible1 which he succeeded in printing complete between the years #adej and #adee4 ,this celebrated ,bible1 which was the first important specimen of the art of printing1 and which1 judging from what it has led to1 we should certainly esteem as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy of human productions1 was executed with cut metal types1 on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves2 and1 from a copy still in existence in the ,royal ,library of ,berlin1 some appear to have been printed on vellum4 ,the work was printed in the ,latin language4 ,the execution of this--the first printed ,bible--which has justly conferred undying honours on the illustrious ,guttenberg1 was most unfortunately1 the immediate cause of his ruin4 ,the expenses incident to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of workmanship1 for a period of five years1 being much more considerable than what were originally contemplated by ,faust1 he instituted a suit against poor ,guttenberg1 who1 in consequence of the decision against him1 was obliged to pay interest1 and also a part of the capital that had been advanced4 ,this suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership2 and the whole of ,guttenberg's materials fell into the hands of ,john ,faust4 ,besides the above-mentioned ,bible1 some other specimens of the work of ,guttenberg have been discovered to be in existence4 ,one in particular1 which is worthy of notice1 was found some years ago1 among a bundle of old papers1 in the archives of ,mayence4 ,it is an almanack for the year #adeg1 which served as a cover for a register of accounts for that year4 ,this would most likely be printed towards the close of the year #adef1 and may1 consequently1 be deemed the most ancient specimen of typographic printing extant1 with a certain date4 ,antiquaries and ,bibliomaniacs have found considerable difficulty in ascertaining by what process ,guttenberg manufactured types2 but it appears to be the prevalent opinion1 that those which he first used were individually cut by the hand2 and being all made as near a height and thickness as possible1 they were thus put together in the forms4 ,the cutting of these types must have been a tedious1 as well as laborious1 occupation4 ,this ingenious man1 however1 soon discovered the mode of casting his types1 by means of moulds2 for without this great accessory to the art of printing1 he conceived it was next to impossible to carry on his business4 ,the art of type-founding is therefore given to ,john ,guttenberg1 in which it would appear he has had no competitor for the honour2 but1 it is but justice to state that the plan of striking the moulds with punches was a subsequent invention of ,peter ,schoeffer1 his successor1 who became partner with ,faust1 and afterwards his son-in-law4 ,that ,guttenberg was a person of refined taste in the execution of his works1 is sufficiently obvious to every person who has had the opportunity of seeing any of them4 ,adopting a very ancient custom common in the written copies of the ,scriptures and the missals of the church1 he used a large ornamental letter at the commencement of books and chapters1 finely embellished1 and surrounded with a variety of figures as in a frame4 ,the initial letter of the first psalm thus forms a splendid specimen of the art of printing in its early progress4 ,it is richly ornamented with foliage1 flowers1 a bird1 and a greyhound1 and is still more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue colour1 while the embellishments are red1 and of a transparent appearance4 ,what became of ,guttenberg immediately after the unsuccessful termination of his law-suit with ,faust1 is not well known4 ,like the illustrious discoverer of the great ,western ,continent1 he seems to have retired almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful world1 and to have spent most of the remainder of his days in obscurity4 ,it is ascertained1 however1 that1 in #adfe1 he received an annual pension from the ,elector ,adolphus1 but that he only enjoyed this trifling compensation for his extraordinary invention for a period of three years1 and died in ,february #adfh4 ,john ,faust1 who as we have seen1 obtained the materials of ,guttenberg1 laid claim to the invention1 which has been granted to him by several4 ,having sufficient capital at his command1 he pushed the trade with great advantage to himself4 ,in the ,bibles which he printed he frequently omitted the capital and initial letters1 leaving them blank for illumination in gold or azure2 this was designedly done for the purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies for ,m4,s4 transcripts4 ,the report which is in circulation concerning ,faust1 appears to come in support of this assertion3 it being said he was at ,paris1 and offering a quantity of his ,bibles for sale as ,m4,s4 ,the ,french1 considering the number of them1 and also remarking the exact similarity and accuracy of them1 even to a single point1 concluded it was impossible for the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them so correctly4 ,they suspected him of necromancy1 and either actually indicted him1 or threatened to do1 as a magician2 and by this means obtained his secret3 whence came the origin of the popular story of ,dr4 ,faustus1 his dealing with the devil1 and tragical death4 ,in #adfb1 when ,mentz was plundered and disfranchised of its former liberties1 printing rapidly spread through a great part of ,europe1 particularly its artizans in that branch of art1 settled at ,haerlem1 ,hamburgh1 and other places2 from ,haerlem it travelled to ,rome in #adff1 when the ,roman character was adopted in #adfg1 and soon perfected4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 the ,archbishop of ,canterbury sent ,r4 ,turnour1 master of the robes1 and ,w4 ,caxton1 merchant1 to ,haerlem1 to learn the art4 ,these individuals privately prevailed upon one ,corselis1 an under workman to come to ,england3 and a printing press was established at ,oxford4 ,this appears in a ,,ms4 chronicle still preserved2 it informs us1 that the execution of the concern entrusted to ,turnour and ,caxton cost #aejj marks2 and that printing was established at ,oxford before there was any printer or printing presses in ,france1 ,italy1 or ,spain4 ,the ,university of ,oxford press was soon discovered to be too remote from the seat of government1 and too great a distance from the sea1 other presses were speedily established at ,st4 ,alban's and the ,abbey of ,westminster4 ,in #adfg1 printing was established at ,tours1 at ,reuthlingen1 and ,venice1 in #adfi2 and it is likely at the same period at ,paris1 where several of the ,german printers were invited by the ,doctors of the ,sorbonne1 who established a press in that city4 ,all important as the art of printing is acknowledged to be1 yet three centuries elapsed from the date of the invention before it was perfected in many of its most necessary details4 ,at first the art was kept entirely in the hands of learned men1 the greatest scholars often glorying in affixing their names to the works as correctors of the press1 and giving names to the various parts of the mechanism of the printing-office1 as is testified by the classical technicalities still in use among the workmen4 ,from the great improvement of punching moulds for casting types by ,schoeffer1 as formerly mentioned1 till the invention of italic letters by ,aldus ,manutius1 to whom learning is much indebted1 no other improvement of any consequence took place4 ,it does not appear that mechanical ingenuity was at any time directed to the improvement of the presses or any other part of the machinery used in printing1 and the consequence was1 that till far on in the eighteenth century1 the clumsy presses1 which were composed of wood and iron1 and slow and heavy in working1 were allowed to screech on as they had done since the days of ,guttenberg1 ,faust1 and ,caxton1 while the ink continued to be applied by means of two stuffed balls1 at a great expense of time and labour4 ,at length1 an almost entire revolution was effected in the printing office1 both in the appearance of the workmanship and the mechanism of the presses4 ,about the same period the art of stereotyping was discovered1 and developed a completely new feature in the history of printing4 ,one of the chief improvements in typography was1 the discarding of the long s1 and every description of contraction2 while1 at the same time1 the formation of the letters was executed with more neatness1 and greater regularity4 ,among the first improvers of the printing press1 the most honourable place is due to the ,earl of ,stanhope1 a nobleman who will be long remembered for his mechanical genius2 besides applying certain lever powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden press1 by which the labour of the workman was diminished1 and finer work effected2 he constructed a press wholly of iron1 which is known by his name4 ,since the beginning of the present century1 and more especially within the last thirty years1 presses wholly of iron1 on the nicest scientific principles1 have been invented by men of mechanical genius1 so as to simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree2 and the invention of presses composed of cylinders1 and wrought by steam1 has triumphantly crowned the improvements in this art4 ,the alteration effected by steam power has been as great in the printing business1 as in any branch whatever2 for example1 with the old wooden press1 it took a man two days to complete #ajjj sheets1 7that is1 printed on both sides72 whereas the ,london 8,times10 by means of the steam press completes #bd1jjj in one hour6 ,almost every newspaper in the kingdom is printed by cylinder-presses1 although some are worked by hand instead of steam2 they are also used in other departments of the printing business4 ,the introduction of steam-presses would have been of comparatively little benefit1 if it had not been furthered by another invention of a very simple nature1 now of great value to the printer4 ,we here allude to the invention of the roller for applying the ink1 instead of the old clumsy and inefficient balls4 ,the roller1 which is simply a composition of glue and treacle1 cast upon wooden centre-pieces1 was invented by a journeyman printer from ,edinburgh1 about thirty years ago1 and was so much appreciated by the trade1 as at once to spread over the whole of ,europe4 ,were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the illustrious ,guttenburg and his contemporaries within the office of the ,london 8,times10 or some other large printing-office1 where everything is conducted with rapidity1 quietness1 and order1 ,john ,faust might well think that the printers of the nineteenth century had actually consummated what he was only accused of in the fifteenth--completed a compact with the devil6 ,as it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to describe the various processes and materials required in this beautiful art1 as we are aware that1 without actual observation1 no conception can be formed1--this we know from experience1 and though we might1 like many others1 have pretended to give a description1 we are perfectly aware that we would have been unintelligible to the majority of our readers1 and very deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical printer who might happen to read our pages2 as far as we have gone1 however1 in giving a brief historical account of the art of printing1 we have no doubt it will be found correct1 as have consulted the best authorities4 ,,stereotype4 ,stereotype1 as we have mentioned in the former article1 was introduced about the middle of last century2 and as it is so intimately connected with the art of printing1 we could not find a more appropriate place than immediately following that noble art4--,earl ,stanhope has been named as the inventor2 but for this we have not sufficient authority1 and it appears extremely doubtful2 as stereotyping appears to have been invented simultaneously1 in various parts of ,england and ,scotland1 by different persons2 still it was upwards of sixty years before it was brought to such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial purpose4 ,when properly made known1 it was hailed with approbation by those more immediately interested--the printers and publishers3 but as experience more fully developed its powers1 it was found available only for particular work4 ,for the better understanding of this art1 which is comparatively little known1 we will give a description of the process1 which we are enabled to do by the assistance of an experienced workman4 ,in setting the types1 they are lifted from the case1 one by one1 with the right hand1 and built in a small iron form1 called a composing-stick1 held in the left hand of the compositor1 who sets line after line till the stick is filled1 when he empties it upon a galley1 and commences again in the same manner1 till he has got as much up as will make a page2 this page he ties firmly up1 and places upon a smooth stone1 or cast iron table4 ,in this manner he continues1 till he gets as many pages as will make a form1 which consists of #d1 #h1 #ab1 or more pages1 as the case may be4 ,if this form is to be worked off at press without stereotyping1 the pages are all imposed in one chass1 and carried to press for working1 and when the whole of the impression is off1 it is thoroughly washed1 and carried back to the compositor for distribution--that is1 putting the types in their proper places4 ,when these pages are to be stereotyped1 they are imposed separately1 and carried to the stereotype foundry1 where they are examined1 and all dirt taken from the face2 they are then slightly oiled1 and a moulding-frame put round each4 ,the frame is filled with liquid plaster of ,paris1 which is well rubbed into the face of the type to expel the air4 ,as soon as this plaster hardens1 it is removed from the page1 and shows a complete resemblance of the page from which it is taken4 ,the mould is put into an oven to dry1 where it remains till it resembles a piece of pottery2 it is then put into an iron pan1 in which there is a thin plate of the same metal1 called the floating-plate2 it has also an iron lid1 which is firmly screwed down1 and the whole is immersed in a pot of molten type-metal1 which fills the pan by means of small holes in the corners of the lid4 ,the length of time it remains in the pot depends upon the heat of the metal1 but it is generally from ten to fifteen minutes1 when it is taken out1 and put aside to cool4 ,on opening the pan1 nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal1 which1 when carefully broke round the mould1 a thin plate is obtained from the mass1 exhibiting a perfect appearance of the page from which the mould was taken4--,this is called a stereotype plate1 which in general is not above the eighth of an inch thick1 and is printed from in the same manner as a page of types4 ,such is the process of stereotyping1 which has become pretty general throughout the trade1 but is not much known to the public4 ,,engraving4 ,,on ,,wood4 ,as we have shown in our article on ,printing1 ,wood-engraving was in fashion prior to the invention of printing4 ,we are informed by ,albert ,durer that ,engraving on ,wood was invented about the year #aebj2 he may be a good authority in some matters1 but in this he has committed a mistake of nearly one hundred years2 seeing that there is at least an impression of one engraving on wood1 the representation of the ,creation1 which was in existence prior to #adcj4 ,it was undoubtedly a piece of rough workmanship2 but what could be expected at that early period of the art8 ,it has been1 however1 gradually improving ever since1 and it has now attained a point of excellence equal to any of the fine arts1 and calls forth the admiration of every lover of the beautiful4 ,it would be invidious to select any of the numerous artists now flourishing--perhaps it would be difficult to make a selection where so many are upon an equality2 and we are of opinion they themselves are more willing to accept the public approbation as their reward1 than any praise our pen could bestow4 ,all we can do is to recommend our readers to examine for themselves2 they have abundant opportunities in the numerous illustrated publications that are daily issued from the press1 and bestow that meed of praise upon the respective artists they may deem proper4 ,the process of engraving on wood is diametrically distinct and opposite to that of engraving on copper or steel2 as in the former1 the shades are produced by the parts of the work which are made most prominent1 and obtrude upon the surface of the substance2 whence its chief merit has been regarded in leaving broad and well-proportioned lights4 ,the parts to produce this effect being of necessity excavated1 great art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect this1 and at the same time not to weaken the substance1 lest it should be injured in the pressure necessary to produce an impression4 ,the substance usually employed for these engravings is wood of a close grain2 on this account box-wood is generally selected4 ,the impressions are obtained from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle as are the impressions from typography2 and they can also be worked off at the same time with the descriptive text4 ,this is a superiority which wood possesses over other engravings1 and recommends itself to publishers on account of the immense saving in the expense of a double process in procuring copper-plate illustrations for typographical works1 and enables them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this literary era--cheap publications4 ,,on ,,copper4 ,the art of engraving on copper plates1 for impressions1 is alleged to have been invented by ,peter ,schoeffer1 one of the early printers1 and son in-law of ,john ,faust1 about the year #adej4 ,the honour of this invention is also claimed by a ,florentine goldsmith of the name of ,finguires1 who dates his invention in #aedj4 ,this artist having used liquid sulphur to take an impression of some chasing and engraving he had made1 observed a blackness produced by the sulphur left in the deepest parts of his work1 whence he obtained an impression on paper4 ,but we have no hesitation in giving the preference to ,schoeffer1 who1 we have previously remarked1 was of an ingenious turn1 and assisted ,guttenburg in producing moulds for casting his types2 in addition to which1 some of the books printed by him are ornamented with head and tail-pieces1 with other rude attempts at engraving2 and likewise because ,schoeffer's claim to the honour was acknowledged before ,finguires was born4 ,of engraving there are various kinds2 that called by connoisseurs1 the legitimate mode of engraving1 is what is termed the line or stroke mode4 ,numerous have been the ,british artists who have excelled in this style1 in affording the means of multiplying our graphical productions4 ,the next species of engraving we will notice is called the stipple1 or chalk style1--imitations of chalk drawings4 ,portraits and historical pieces are executed in this style1 which the celebrated ,bartolozzi brought to perfection4 ,the third species we will mention1 cannot properly be called engraving2 the effect is produced by scraping and rubbing2 this kind is called chiaro obscuro1 or mezzotinto2 producing prints which have the effect of ,indian ink drawings4 ,a fourth species of engraving is what is commonly used for landscapes1 which produces an effect like a pencil water-colour drawing2 which is called aquatinta4 ,in all of these kinds of engravings upon copper the artists find the sulphuric acid1 or aquafortis1 a most powerful agent4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 it is suffered to execute the whole of the process of the graver1 especially when it is called an etching4 ,for the same reasons as those mentioned with regard to wood engravers1 we shall abstain from naming any of the very eminent artists now living4 ,we have already observed the mode of obtaining similar effects from wood and copper1 are opposite to each other4 ,the manner in which impressions from wood engravings are obtained1 has likewise been noticed2 and it remains that we observe the mode by which impressions are obtained from copper-plates4 ,the plate is covered with appropriate ink2 the surface is then carefully cleansed1 leaving ink only in the excavations or lines in the copper4 ,the plate and paper are passed through a roller press of great power1 the roller being covered with a blanket1 which presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate1 and brings away the ink there deposited4 ,,on ,,steel4 ,for several years steel has been used in great quantities1 instead of copper-plates1 by engravers4 ,by this fortunate application of so durable1 and it may be added1 so economical a material1 not only has a new field been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection the richest and finest graphic productions1 which the ingenuity of modern art can accomplish1 but to do so through an amazingly numerous series of impressions without perceptible deterioration4 ,the art of engraving on iron or steel for purposes of ornament1 and even for printing1 in certain cases1 is by no means a discovery of modern times2 but the substitution of the latter for copper1 which has invited the superiority of the ,british burin to achievements hitherto unattempted by our artists1 is entirely a modern practice4 ,in the year #ahaj1 ,mr4 ,dyer1 an ,american merchant1 residing in ,london1 obtained a patent for certain improvements in the construction and method of using plates and presses1 c41 the principles of which were communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad4 ,this foreigner was ,mr4 ,jacob ,perkin1 an ingenious artist of ,new ,england1 and whose name has become subsequently so extensively known in this country1 in connection with roller-press printing from hardened steel plates4 ,the plates used by ,mr4 ,perkins were1 on the average1 about five-eights of an inch thick2 they were either of steel so tempered as to admit of the operation of the engraver1 or1 as was more generally the case1 of steel decarbonated so as to become very pure soft iron1 in which case1 after they had received the work on the surface1 they were case hardened by cementation4 ,the decarbonating process was performed by enclosing the plate of cast steel properly shaped1 in a cast iron box1 or case1 filled about the plate to the thickness of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty iron filings2 in this state the box is luted close1 and placed on a regular fire1 where it is kept at a red heat during from three to twelve days4 ,generally about nine days is sufficient to decarbonize a plate five-eighths of an inch in thickness2 when the engraving or etching has been executed1 the plate is superficially converted into steel1 by placing it in a box as before1 and surrounding it on all sides by a powder made of equal parts of burned bones1 and the cinders of burned animal matter1 such as old shoes or leather4 ,in this state the box1 with its contents1 closely luted1 must be exposed to a blood-red heat for three hours2 after which1 it is taken out of the fire1 and plunged perpendicularly edgeways into cold water1 7which has been previously boiled7 to throw off the air4 ,by this means the plate becomes hardened without the danger of warping or cracking4 ,it is then tempered or let down by brightening the under surface of the plate with a bit of stone2 after which it is heated by being placed upon a piece of hot iron1 or melted lead1 until the rubbed portion acquire a pale straw-colour4 ,for this purpose1 however1 the patentee expressed himself in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature of #dfj degrees1 or thereabouts of ,fahrenheit's scale4 ,the plate being cooled in water1 and polished on the surface1 was ready for use4 ,a more material peculiarity in ,mr4 ,perkins' invention1 and one which does not seem to have been approached by any preceding artist1 was the contrivance of what are called indenting cylinders4 ,these are rollers of two or three inches in diameter1 and made of steel1 decarbonized by the process above described1 so as to be very soft4 ,in this state they are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful pressure1 over the surface of one of the hardened plates1 until all the figures1 letters1 or indentations are communicated1 with exquisite precision1 in sharp relief upon the cylinder2 which1 being carefully hardened and tempered1 becomes1 by this means1 fitted to communicate an impression to other plates1 by an operation similar to that by which it was originally figured4 ,it will be obvious that one advantage gained by this method must be the entire saving of the labour and expense of re-cutting in every case1 on different plates1 ornaments1 borders1 emblematical designs1 c41 as these can now be impressed with little trouble on any number of plates1 or in any part thereof1 by the application of the cylinder4 ,at first sight1 the performance of such an operation as the one now alluded to may appear difficult1 if not impracticable2 and1 indeed1 many persons on its first announcement were disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether4 ,with a proper and powerful apparatus1 however1 this method of transferring engravings from plates to cylinders1 and vice versa1 is every day performed with facility and success1 not only in the production of bank notes1 labels1 c41 but in works exhibiting very elaborate engravings4 ,,lithography4 ,lithography is the art of printing from stone1 which claims for its author ,aloys ,senelfelder1 a native of ,munich1 in the kingdom of ,bavaria4 ,the history of this useful art is recorded by the only person capable of assigning proper and correct motives1 and of tracing the various means which were employed to arrive at the desired end1 to ultimate success3 had all other useful inventions1 profitable and elegant arts1 had the good fortune which this has happily experienced1 we should not have had so much cause to regret deficiencies as we have frequently experienced in the course of our inquiries2 then would the various illustrious authors of arts have had justice rendered to them1 and still have remained possessed of that glorious immortality so justly the reward of transcendant merit2 for the history of this meritorious invention is given by the author himself1 thereby securing to it those advantages1 which the erudite author of the preface congratulates the public upon1 when in his concise epistle he uses that beautiful expression of his countryman1 ,klopstock1 where he says1 8,covered with eternal darkness are the great names of inventors40 ,this work has been translated into ,english1 and published with the following title3--8,a complete ,course of ,lithography1 containing clear and explicit ,instructions in all the different branches and manners of the ,art2 accompanied by ,illustrative ,specimens of ,drawings2 to which is prefixed a ,history of ,lithography1 from its ,origin1 by ,aloys ,senefelder1 ,inventor of the ,art of ,lithography1 or ,chymical ,printing10 c4 ,the author of the preface to this work1 and friend of the inventor1 states that this is an art1 whereby the artist1 a minister1 a man of letters1 or a merchant1 c41 may multiply his productions at will1 without the assistance of a second person4 ,the author of the above work proceeds to give in detail his motives for the original invention1 in which he has not only been strictly circumstantial1 but no more so than the curiosity of the public requires1 which is always excited in a degree proportioned to the confessed utility of a work1 or that demand which its elegance has upon cultivated and delicate feeling4 ,his labours may be said to be divided naturally into two parts1 of which division the author has availed himself2 first1 adducing its history1 and secondly1 affording the operation of its process4 ,its history appears to have arisen with its origin2 and both to have originated in the necessities of the author4 ,from whence it appears1 that after he had received a scholastic education to qualify him for the jurisprudence of his country1 the death of his father1 who was a votary of the ,thespian art1 deprived him of those resources essential to enable him to pursue his intended honourable vocation2 he was consequently driven to seek support from the previous acquisitions of his mind4 ,he accordingly devoted his earnest attention to solicit the favours of the dramatic muse as an author4 ,after encountering numberless difficulties1 he produced one play1 which was published1 and sold considerably well4 ,but the honourable independence of his mind induced him to reflect upon the certainty of the large expense1 which necessarily attends the practice of an author1 who has not liberal patrons in the public or the trade2 and the uncertainty of adequate remuneration from the public1 for whose amusement they make such large sacrifices of time1 ease1 property1 health1 and often life itself4 ,these reflections induced his ardent and ingenious mind to endeavour to avoid the uncertainty of this contingency4 ,he did not possess property to enable him to establish himself as a printer1 which was his desire2 he was therefore compelled to have recourse to his own ingenuity4 ,he tried various1 and at first1 unsuccessful experiments1 which he ingeniously details2 because1 he considered1 that nearly as much is learned from the failures of an artist1 had he always the honesty to publish them1 as is gained from his most successful discoveries4 ,various were the materials upon which he first essayed to complete his purposes2 till1 at length1 chance directed him to try what could be effected upon stone4 ,for this purpose1 he used a species found in ,germany1 of a beautifully close grained and dense kind1 susceptible of receiving a fine polish1 called ,kellheim stone4 ,knowing the failures which his countrymen had experienced in endeavouring to fix the ink in this stone for etching1 he had recourse to a chemical experiment to obviate this1 which succeeded in the following manner3--,to four or five parts of water1 he added one of rectified vitriol1 which instantly produced an effervescence1 on being poured upon it2 the stone was instantly covered with a coat of gypsum1 which to vitriol is impenetrable2 this is easily wiped off1 and the stone being dried1 it is ready for use4 ,the next want he found1 was a species of ink1 proper to answer the peculiar purposes of the material whereon he had to operate2 for which he discovered none so well adapted as the following mixture3--,a composition of three parts of wax1 with one of yellow soap1 is melted over a fire1 and mixed with a small portion of lamp-black1 dissolved in rain-water4 ,but this is now greatly simplified1 as the lithographic printers generally use the same ink as the copperplate printers4 ,the process of lithography is very simple4 ,the article wanted to be printed is written or drawn upon a piece of transfer paper1 which being wet and laid on the stone1 and put through the press1 the writing or drawing remains on the stone1 and any number of impressions may be taken off4 ,care must be taken1 before inking1 to come over the stone with a damp sponge1 to prevent the ink adhering to the places not wanted1 which it would otherwise do4 ,we understand the ,bath and ,portland stone is successfully used2 but the best yet found in ,britain1 for the purpose1 is what is known by the name of lias1 raised near ,stratford-on-,avon1 in ,warwickshire2 it is a calcareous and partly siliceous stone1 and we think not destitute of magnesia1 having1 when1 polished1 a very silky and somewhat saponaceous feel4 ,this art has flourished to a greater extent than we believe the most sanguine expectations of its inventor could have anticipated4 ,many beautiful specimens of art have been produced equal to the finest copper-plate engravings4 ,it is excellently adapted for drawing of plans1 bill-heads1 circulars1 cards1 and many other light articles1 which used formerly to be printed by means of letter-press2 and on account of the numerous ornaments so easily applied to the lithographic process1 the most of these1 and similar articles1 are principally lithographed1 to the detriment1 we would conceive1 of the letter-press and copper-plate printers4 ,,paper4 ,before the invention of paper1 in ancient times1 a great variety of substances have been used for the purpose of recording events1 or delineating ideas1 of which it becomes our duty to give a somewhat detailed account1 to show our readers the numerous advantages they enjoy1 in having a material which1 like everything in common use1 is but little thought of4 ,but let any one suppose himself to be without this necessary article1 or the means of communicating his ideas1 he would be sensible of the difference4 ,rough stones and stakes were used as the first known records of the ancient ,phnicians1 remains of which are reported to be still visible2 and to confirm this persuasion1 certain heaps of stones have been discovered in the environs of ,cadiz1 which are currently believed to be the remains of those monuments alleged to be made by ,hercules1 in memory of his famous expedition to the gardens of the ,hesperides1 for the golden fruit1 or as others have it1 against ,spain4 ,it is also stated1 that the usual mode of recording great events1 in the north of ,asia and ,europe1 was by placing stones of extraordinary size2 in aid of this1 we have a great variety of instances4 ,since the scriptural art has been introduced1 or invented1 many materials have been1 in a variety of ages1 and in numerous countries1 used for the purpose of recording events to posterity2 characters cut upon rocks1 upon tables of stone1 upon bark1 pieces of wood1 written upon skins of fish and animals1 palm-leaves1 besides a great variety of other articles1 of which we will only enumerate a few4 ,there is a ,bible still preserved1 written on palm-leaves1 in the ,university of ,gottingen1 containing #e1cgf leaves4 ,another ,bible1 of the same material1 is at ,copenhagen4 ,there was also1 in ,sir ,hans ,sloane's collection1 more than twenty manuscripts1 in various languages1 on the same material4 ,the protocols of the ,emperors in early times were written upon bark4 ,in the ,british ,museum are many specimens of this substance2 also in the grand ,duke's gallery at ,florence4 ,to this mode is supposed to have succeeded the practice of painting letters on linen cloth and cotton2 what was the difference in the preparation of that material to the one now employed is not ascertained1 but it is considered that some preparation was necessary in order to use that substance4 ,there have been frequently found in the chests or cases containing the ,egyptian mummies1 very neat characters written on linen4 ,linen being subject to accidents from becoming mouldy1 c41 asbestoes cloth had been occasionally used in small quantities4 ,the accidents to which these species of materials were most of them subject1 and linen particularly so1 induced man to endeavour to remedy those objects2 he accordingly is found to have recourse to the animal creation4 ,in the convent of ,dominican monks at ,bologna1 are two books of ,esdras1 written on asses' skins1 said to have been written by ,esdras himself4 ,the ancient ,persians wrote on hides1 from which the hair was scraped4 ,the shepherds wrote their songs with thorns upon straps of leather1 which they wound round their crooks4 ,the ancient ,welch had a peculiar manner of writing upon small squared oblong pieces of wood1 which they called billets1 which name forms the appellative to numerous of their productions1 as the 8,billett of the ,bard40 ,the ,italian kings1 ,hugo and ,lotharis1 gave a grant to the ,ambrosian church1 at ,milan1 written on the skin of a fish4 ,in the ,alexandrian ,library there were the works of ,homer1 written in golden letters on the skins of animals4 ,in the reign of the ,emperor ,baliskus1 the head and 8,odyssey0 of ,homer1 written in golden letters1 on the intestines of beasts1 one hundred and twenty feet long1 were burned at ,constantinople4 ,in the royal library at ,hanover1 there is a gold plate1 written by an independent prince of ,coromandel to ,george ,,ii41 three feet long and four inches wide1 inlaid on both sides with diamonds4 ,at last we have arrived at the period for the introduction of the ,egyptian papyrus1 a kind of rush of large dimensions1 growing in the marshes on the banks of the ,nile4 ,this plant is described as growing in swamps to the height of fifteen feet2 the stalk triangular1 of a thickness to be spanned1 surrounded near the root by short leaves2 stalk naked1 has on the top a bush resembling the head with hairs1 or long thin straight fibres2 root brown4 ,the ,egyptian papyrus was manufactured into paper from very fine pellicles near its pith1 separated by a pin or pointed mussel-shell spread on a table in such form as was required1 sprinkled with ,nile water2 on the first layer a second layer was laid crosswise to finish the sheet1 then pressed1 hung to dry1 and afterwards polished with a tooth4 ,the ,nile water was very carefully used to prevent spots4 ,twenty skins were the greatest number which could be procured from one plant4 ,those nearest the pith made the finest paper4 ,twenty sheets glued together were called scapus1 but sometimes scapi went to form a volumen4 ,this part of the business was executed by the glutinatoris1 who resembled our bookbinders4 ,this plant yielded materials for making four sorts of paper4 ,with respect to other substances for the same purpose1 there are many1 but as most of these have one generic character1 being manufactured from the bark of trees1 the detail is not here given1 as it might not1 perhaps1 be generally interesting1 especially as nothing new appears in this respect4 ,with respect to the paper now in use1 ,dr4 ,blair says1 the first paper-mill 7in ,england1 we suppose7 was erected at ,dartford1 in the year #aehh1 by a ,german of the name of ,spiellman2 from which period we may1 perhaps1 date its manufacture in this country4 ,it appears1 however1 that it was known in the ,east1 much earlier2 it being observed that most of the ancient manuscripts in ,arabic and other ,oriental languages1 were written upon cotton paper1 and it is thought the ,saracens first introduced it into ,spain4 ,anderson1 in his 8,history of ,commerce10 says1 that till the year #afij1 there was scarcely any paper made in ,england1 but the coarse brown sort4 ,paper was previously imported from ,france1 ,genoa1 and ,holland4--,however1 the improvement of this article in ,england1 in consequence of the ,french war1 produced a saving to this country of #ajj1jjj annually1 which had been paid to ,france for paper alone4 ,after linen and cotton are so much worn as to be unfit for any other purpose1 the several kinds are collected together1 and the hard seams and other accumulations1 which would require a much longer time to prepare proper for the general mass1 than would be consistent with the economy of the whole1 those shreds are then separated and thrown away2 the different kinds are then collected and kept separate from each other4 ,in such a state of separation they are laid in troughs1 which are afterwards filled with water1 where they are suffered to remain till a species of fermentation takes place2 and the separation of the parts formed by art is not only rendered easy1 but also1 a division may be made of the most minute parts2 the separation is then made by machinery4 ,when properly prepared1 a sufficient quantity is placed upon a wire frame1 or otherwise one formed of cloth2 by mechanical pressure1 the moisture is extracted1 after which the sheets are hung up separately on lines to dry1 in a building properly constructed to admit a free circulation of air4 ,manufacturers of paper1 originally1 could only use white rags to make white paper2 but ,mr4 ,campbell1 in #agib1 discovered a method of discharging any colour from rags1 by bleaching with oxi-muriatic acid gas1 for which he obtained a patent4 ,the next considerable improvement which appears to have been made in the manufacture of paper1 consists in using felt or woollen cloth in conjunction with the wire cloth formerly used1 and now of necessity retained1 and other processes too voluminous to be inserted here4 ,the only remaining circumstance we have to mention is1 that in the beginning of the present century there was manufactured1 in the vicinity of ,london1 a very good printing paper1 made entirely from wheat straw2 for which manufacture1 the inventor obtained a patent1 but he did not succeed1 we presume1 because it is now discontinued4 ,considerable quantities of paper is now made from straw in ,france2 but it is of a yellow tinge4 ,paper made from linen is the best4 ,,paper ,,hanging4 ,the desire of man1 for the gratification of his natural wants1 being soon satisfied1 he yet is wanting--those artificial wants which arise in the mind1 and are the source of his comforts1 because their gratification yields him high delight4 ,having built him a house1 to shelter himself from the exigencies of the weather1 to enlarge the sphere of his pleasures1 he is desirous to ornament it2 and because he cannot1 perhaps1 construct his house of silver1 gold1 or costly stones1 he endeavours1 at least1 to have an imitation2 and gilding1 lacquering1 painting1 or staining is substituted4 ,this idea1 we will presume1 to have given origin to every species of decorative ornament in the construction of houses--and among the rest to paper-hanging1 which is carried on to a greater extent in this country1 than at any former period4 ,the ancient ,greeks1 according to ,archbishop ,potter1 constructed not only their arms1 but also their houses1 occasionally of brass1 whilst the ,romans frequently gilt theirs2 they often covered them with costly casings or veneers1 sometimes with precious stones4 ,since they went to such great cost to ornament the outside of their habitations1 we need not wonder that they spared no expense in endeavouring to ornament them within4--,those people1 however1 who could not procure these extravagancies in reality1 thought they would1 at least1 have the nearest imitation of them2 accordingly they had recourse sometimes to veneers of those substances they had seen substantially employed by the rich and luxurious1 as well for outside ornament as interior decoration2 those who could not afford this1 had recourse to pigments and the graphic art2 for this purpose1 the ingenuity of man was employed to devise various modes of ornament and decoration4 ,hence arose the various kinds of painting1 the fresco1 scagliolo1 c41 and lastly1 came staining of paper in use4 ,to enumerate the various kinds of this1 might be attended with very little benefit1 because the principle of all is nearly the same4 ,however1 it has been remarked that three kinds are deserving of notice4 ,the first and plainest is that which has on it figures1 drawn and painted with one or more colours1 consisting only of painted paper4 ,the second contains a woolly stuff1 dyed of various tints1 and made to adhere to the paper1 in certain forms1 by a glutinous matter2 and the third is a species of paper covered with metallic dust4 ,there are other papers used for hangings1 which contain a representation of many kinds of stones1 of which we understand there is a large manufactory in ,leipsic4 ,there is also a species of velvet paper--a paper covered with sham plush1 or wool dyed and cut short1 and made to adhere to the paper by some kind of cement1 said to have been the invention of an ,englishman1 of the name of ,jerome ,lanyer1 in the reign of ,charles ,i41 for which he received a patent4 ,in the specification it is stated1 that he had found out an art and mystery for affixing wool1 silk1 and other materials1 upon linen1 cotton1 leather1 and other substances1 with oil1 size1 and cements1 so as to make them useful and serviceable for hangings and other purposes2 which he called ,londrindina2 and he said it was his own invention1 and formerly used within this realm4 ,however1 it appears that this invention of ,lanyer was afterwards disputed by a ,frenchman of the name of ,tierce1 who said it was the production of a countryman of his1 named ,francois1 who1 he stated1 had made such before #afbj1 and supported his assertion by producing patterns1 and the wooden blocks with which it was printed1 with the dates inscribed upon them4 ,the son of ,francois1 it appeared1 followed his father's business1 at ,rouen1 for more than fifty years1 where he died1 in #agdh4 ,some of his workmen are said to have left him1 and gone to the ,netherlands1 ,germany1 and other places1 where they sold their art4 ,it appears that ,nemetz ascribes the invention of wax-cloth hangings1 with wool chopped and beat fine1 to a ,frenchman1 named ,andran1 who1 he says1 in the beginning of the last century1 was an excellent painter in arabesque and grotesque figures1 and inspector of the palace of the ,luxembourg at ,paris1 in which he had a manufactory for hangings of that kind4 ,it is also stated that a person of the name of ,eccard invented the art of printing1 on paper-hangings1 gold and silver figures1 and that he carried on an extensive manufactory for such works4 ,it certainly does appear that the ,germans cannot claim the privilege of invention here1 but were behind their neighbours in this art4 ,one of the most ingenious of the many new improvements is said to consist in the art of manufacturing paper-hangings by affixing to the substance of the proper metallic dust1 commonly called ,nuremberg dust1 by which it acquires the appearance of various costly metals in a state of fracture1 varied with glittering particles of differently formed parts2 and receiving the light in every direction1 produce certainly a novel effect1 which is rich and beautiful1 while it is obtained at little expense4 ,the ,nuremberg metallic dust is said to have been the invention of an artist of that city1 named ,john ,hautsch1 born in #aeie1 died in #afgj2 his descendants have continued its preparation to the present time4 ,it is produced from filings of metals of several descriptions washed well in a strong lixivious water1 then being placed upon a sheet of copper1 are put upon a strong fire1 and continually stirred till the colour is altered4 ,those of tin1 by this process1 acquire every shade of gold colour1 with its metallic lustre2 those of copper1 different shades of flame colour2 those of iron or steel1 a blue or violet2 of tin and bismuth mixed1 a white or bluish white colour4 ,the dust tinged in this manner is then put through a flatting-mill1 consisting of two rollers of the hardest steel1 like those used by gold and silver wire-drawers2 for the greater convenience a funnel is placed over them4 ,french covered paper manufactured from this material is called papiers avec paillettes4 ,its lustre is so durable that it is said to continue unaltered for many years even on the walls of sitting apartments4 ,this metallic dust is an article of commerce1 being exported from ,germany4 ,as early as the seventeenth century1 the miners of ,silesia collected and sold1 for various purposes1 a material they call glimmer1 being bright1 shining particles of various metals1 which those mines produce in great profusion2 even the black1 we are told1 acquires a gold colour by being exposed to a strong heat4 ,this was manufactured by the holy sisters of ,reichenstein1 into a variety of ornaments2 with it they decorated their images1 strewing over them a shining kind of talc4 ,the silver coloured glimmer had not1 however1 so great a brilliancy or variety as the ,nuremberg metallic dust2 for which purposes that article has a decided superiority4 ,for the various purposes to which these ornaments are to be applied1 different adhesive substances should be used2 in some cases glue would have the effect1 to be first drawn over the substance2 in others1 a strong varnish1 in which wax is dissolved2 and for others1 various kinds of gums4 ,those substances being so covered1 the dust may be put in a common pepper-castor1 and applied by sifting it over the substance to be so covered4 ,different figures may be drawn with a pencil1 and the box of dust shook over them1 as far as the extent of the lines covered with glue2 the dust will only fasten so far as it meets with what produces adhesion4 ,,painting4 ,its origin is to be traced up to that known source1 from whence most of those arts1 which humanise society and lend a polish to life1 first had being4 ,diodorus ,siculus speaks of bricks burnt in the fire with various colours1 representing the natural appearance of men and animals2 which is the first fact upon record4 ,as this occurred during the building of ,babylon1 it is as remote an original as we are1 perhaps1 authorised to depend upon2 although it is extremely probable it might be traced to an anterior date3 which conclusion1 though made from inference alone1 we are allowed to suppose must have been the case2 as a knowledge of the nature of pigments must first have been ascertained before the ,chaldean artists could have been informed what colours would fade1 or what would withstand the operation of the enamelling process in the intense heat necessary to produce the effect4 ,they must at least have understood the difference between vegetable colours1 which are the first presented to the senses1 and most probably were the first which were used1 and those afforded by the mineral kingdom1 which alone were proper for the operation they performed4 ,therefore1 the arts of painting and chemistry1 we would presume must have made considerable progress prior to the erection of the tower of ,babel4 ,the next people1 who1 in point of time as well as of importance1 offer themselves to the notice of modern ,europeans1 are the ,egyptians2 and their perfection in the use of the various colours which constitute the compound idea we entertain when we think of painting1 is well known and appreciated2 when we may any day consult our judgment by inspecting those beautiful specimens of their eternal mode of colouring we have in the exhibition on mummy-cases in the ,british ,museum1 and other depositories of that species of antique preservation4 ,the third people who excelled in giving a beautiful and tasteful variety to surfaces in colouring and effect1 were the ,etrurians1 a people anciently inhabiting a district of ,italy1 now known as ,tuscany4 ,of the perfection to which they brought the art we may form an adequate and proper judgment by inspecting those beautiful vases preserved in the ,hamiltonian collection in the ,british ,museum1 and also in some very curious specimens of ancient painting1 procured from the ruins of ,herculaneum1 collected likewise by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,it cannot be doubted1 that most distinct societies of men have1 after the gratification of their first wants1 and when leisure hours permitted the exercise of their ingenious and inventive faculties1 invented a great variety of useful and ornamental arts2 therefore1 there cannot be a question1 but various arts of utility as well as of ornament1 have been invented by a great variety of people1 who all1 agreeably to our prior definitions1 are well entitled to the distinct appellation of original inventors2 consequently in such a case question must evidently submit to the determination of chronology4 ,eudora1 the daughter of a potter of ,corinth1 is presumed to have introduced the art into ,greece4 ,the art of painting in ,greece is also claimed by ,sicyon as the original4 ,mr4 ,fuseli has beautifully observed in his first lecture illustrative of the former of these two claimants1 that 8,if ever legend deserved our belief1 the amorous tale of the ,corinthian maid1 who traced the shadow of her departing lover by the secret lamp1 appeals to our sympathy to grant it40 ,this invention is becoming doubly interesting in that country1 first1 because of its elegance and utility2 and secondly1 because it is ascribed to one of the noblest and most powerful passions1 which distinguish the human species1 the wonderful effects of which have given to humanity the most exalted and illustrious of actions1 which ennoble the character of man--to delicate1 refined1 and almighty love4 ,numerous artists in the ,grecian school brought the art of painting to great perfection4 ,the restorer of this delightful art in ,europe was ,cimabue1 a native of ,italy1 who first studied under some ,grecian artists1 and furnished some admirable productions in fresco1 in several ,italian churches about the renovation of the arts in modern ,italy2 since which time1 this purely intellectual art has been successfully cultivated in almost all the countries of ,europe1 certain masters in all schools of which have been eminent for some peculiar eminence4 ,an analogy has been drawn by comparison between the fascinating effect of music on the ear1 and colour on the eye1 wherein it is observed the comparison very nearly approximates2 whence the term harmony1 applied to the former1 may correctly1 and with singular propriety be used1 when speaking of the latter4 ,and also1 it is said1 for the same reason1 and proceeding upon the like analogy1 the term tone is applicable to both2 they are accordingly used indiscriminately4 ,without questioning their propriety1 we give in to our sensations1 and as far as our judgment goes1 believe they are not improperly introduced into the pictorial art4 ,it cannot be presumed that we should have the temerity to aspire to the task of giving a full and complete description of every variety which constitutes perfection in the art2 for this would be to infer professional ability1 equal1 or perhaps1 superior to what any one individual ever was1 or1 we may venture to say1 ever will be1 known to possess4 ,besides this inference1 another must be presumed1 because perfection in description must also anticipate the most delicate1 refined1 and1 as termed1 classically correct taste2 neither to these do we assume the possession of such well-known essentials as are positively necessary to its formation4 ,it is1 besides1 altogether difficult1 as the world acknowledges1 to fix a standard to the ideal faculty of taste1 and which1 we hereby take occasion to notice2 therefore we hope to avoid the sin of presumption1 and trust that our readers will observe that what we do state is upon good authority1 if we have not full confidence in our own experience2 but our sin1 if sin there be1 is rather that of omission than of commission--of saying too little1 rather than too much4 ,,statuary4 ,the origin of ,statuary1 or what we would term its parent--modelling1 is of very great antiquity1 as we are authoratively informed by the ,grecian historians1 whose testimony is supported by ,monsieur ,d',anville and ,major ,rennel1 two of the most eminent geographers of modern times4 ,from them we learn that three massy statues of gold were erected to ornament the temple of ,jupiter ,belus4 ,those were erected by the ,chaldeans about two thousand two hundred and thirty years before ,christ4 ,there is also sufficient evidence1 that the most eminent and intellectual people1 subsequent to the ,chaldeans1 were the ,egyptians4 ,every individual1 who is in the slightest degree conversant with the history of the arts1 knows that the ,egyptian artisans had from the earliest periods been in the habit of constructing colossal statues of their numerous deities1 and also of their benefactors1 raised from gratitude and adulation4 ,to name only a single instance1 the immense colossal statue of ,memnon1 who perished before the fall of ,troy1 according to ,homer3 also ,ovid1 who speaking of his mother ,aurora1 says1 8,nor ,troy1 nor ,hecuba could now bemoan1 ,she weeps a sad misfortune now her own2 ,her offspring1 ,memnon1 by ,achilles slain1 ,she saw extended on the ,phrygian plain40 ,professor ,flaxman has informed us1 that this celebrated statue1 had it stood upright1 would have measured ninety-three feet and a half high2 calculating from the dimensions of its ear1 which is three feet long4 ,we are informed by ,dr4 ,rees1 in his valuable ,cyclopedia1 that sculpture in marble was not introduced till eight hundred and seventy-three years before ,christ4 ,but having said this much for the origin1 let us proceed to the art2 and we candidly acknowledge that it is from the lectures of that truly distinguished individual1 ,professsor ,flaxman1 we are principally indebted for our information4 ,sculpture in ,greece remained long in a rude state2 but we need not wonder at that1 when we reflect that art is only an imitation of nature4 ,hence it follows that man1 in a rude state of nature1 for want of proper principles to direct his inquiries1 and determine his judgment1 is continually liable to errors1 physical1 moral1 and religious2--all his productions1 of what kind soever1 partake of this primitive imbecility4 ,the early arts of design in ,greece resembled those of other barbarous nations1 until the successive intellectual and natural1 political and civil advantages of this people raised them above the arts of the surrounding nations4 ,the science employed by the ,greeks may be traced in anatomy1 geometry1 mechanics1 and perspective4 ,from their earlier authors and coeval monuments1 ,homer had described the figure with accuracy1 but insufficient for general purposes4 ,,of ,,anatomy4--,hippocrates was the first who enumerated the bones1 and wrote a compendious account of the principles of the human figure2 he described the shoulders1 the curves of the ribs1 hips and knees2 the characters of the arms and legs1 in the same simple manner in which they are represented in the basso relievo of the ,parthenon1 now in the ,national ,gallery of the ,british ,museum4 ,the ancient artists saw the figure continually exposed in all actions and circumstances1 so as to have little occasion for other assistance to perfect their works2 and they had also the assistance of casting1 drawing1 and other subsidiary means4 ,the succeeding ancient anatomists did not describe the human figure more minutely or advantageously for the artist1 than had been done by ,hippocrates1 till the time of ,galen1 whose external anatomy gave example for that analytical accuracy of arrangement followed by more modern artists4 ,sculpture1 however1 profited little from ,galen's labours1 for the arts of design were in his time in a retrogade motion towards anterior barbarism4 ,the anatomical researches from ,alcmon of ,crotona1 a disciple of ,pythagoras1 to those of ,hippocrates and his scholars1 assisted ,phidias and ,praxiteles1 their contemporaries and successors1 in giving select and appropriate forms of body and limbs to their several divinities1 whose characters were fixed by the artists from the rhapsodies of ,homer1 having then become popular among the ,athenians4 ,phidias was the first in this reformation4 ,minerva1 under his hand1 became young and beautiful1 who had before been harsh and elderly2 and ,jupiter was awful1 as when his nod shook the poles1 but benignant1 as when he smiled on his daughter ,venus4 ,apollo and ,bacchus then assumed youthful resemblances of their sire2 the first more majestic1 the latter more feminine2 whilst ,mercury1 as patron of gymnastic exercises1 was represented as more robust than his brother4 ,hercules became gradually more powerful2 and the forms of inferior heroes displayed a nearer resemblance to common nature2 from which1 both sentiment and beauty can alone be given to imitative art4 ,the near approach of ancient art to nature1 considering their high advance to accuracy of imitation1 should likewise encourage the modern to imitate the ancient artists4 ,the moderns now also enjoy superior auxiliary assistance from engraving1 printed books1 c41 which the ancients did not possess4 ,,mechanism ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,frame4--,the human figure with the limbs extended1 may be inclined and bounded by the circle and square2 the centre of gravity1 its change of situation1 is susceptible of description1 and may be exemplified in rest and motion2--running1 striving1 leaping1 walking1 rising1 and falling4 ,those principles of motion may be exhibited in a skeleton1 by the bending of the backbone backwards and forwards1 whilst the limbs uniformly describe sections of circles in their motions1 constantly moving on their axis4 ,,dimensions ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,figure1 as exhibited in ,grecian ,statuary4--,the height1 eight heads 7or usually ten faces72 two heads across the shoulders2 one head and a half across the hips2 three noses1 the thickest part of the thigh2 two1 to the calf of the leg2 one1 the narrowest part of the shin1 c4 ,the above is the general proportion of the male figure4 ,the female figure is narrower across the shoulders1 and wider across the hips than the male4 ,the beauty of the human figure is found in its proportion1 symmetry1 and expression2 it really appears that the beauty of the human figure is the chief or ultimate of beauty observed in the visible works of creative ,omnipotence4 ,from thence every other species of beauty graduates in just ratios of proportion4 ,from considering the intellectual faculties of man1 we assimilate the idea1 and connect beauty with utility1 as this union of his physical and mental powers unquestionably renders him one of the most beautiful objects in the creation4 ,this consideration leads us involuntarily to a train of thought1 suggested by a principle laid down by ,plato1 8,that nothing is beautiful which is not truly good20 which also induces the following corollary1 and which is confirmed by reason1 and sanctioned by revelation1 that perfection of human beauty consists of the most virtuous soul in the most healthy and perfect body4 ,inasmuch as painters and sculptors adhered to those principles in their work1 they assisted to enforce a popular impression of divine attributes and perfections1 even in ages of gross idolatry4 ,in the highest order of divinities1 the energy of intellect was represented above the material accidents of passion and decay4 ,the statues of the ,saturnian family1 ,jupiter1 ,neptune1 and ,pluto1 were the most sublime and mighty of the superior divinities4 ,apollo1 ,bacchus1 and ,mercury1 were youthful resemblances of the ,saturnian family1 in energetic1 delicate1 and more athletic beauty3 ,apollo-,belvidere supplies ,homer's description to the sight2 he looks indignant1 his hair is agitated2 he steps forward in the discharge of his shafts2 his arrows are hanging on his shoulder4 ,a youthful and infantine beauty of the highest class distinguish the ,cupid of ,praxiteles1 and the group of ,ganymede and the ,eagle4 ,the order of heroes or demigods excel in strength1 activity1 and beauty2 ,achilles1 ,ajax1 ,hmon1 ,zethos1 and ,amphion1 are examples in ,grecian statuary to establish this remark4 ,the ,giants are human to the waist2 their figures terminate in serpentine tails4 ,ocean and the great ,rivers have ,herculean forms1 and faintly resemble the ,saturnian family1 and have reclining positions4 ,the ,tritons resemble the ,fauns in the head1 and upper features1 with finny tails1 and gills on their jaws2 their lower parts terminate in the tails of fish4 ,in the highest class of female characters1 the beauty of ,juno1 is imperious2 that of ,minerva1 wise1 as she presides over peaceful arts2 or warlike1 as the protectress of cities4 ,venus is the example and patroness of milder beauty and the softer arts of reciprocal communication2 of which the ,venus ,praxiteles and ,venus de ,medicis are instances4 ,the ,greeks had also a ,venus ,urania1 the goddess of hymenial rites and the celestial virtues4 ,the ,graces are three youthful1 lovely sisters embracing3 they represent the tender affections1 as their name implies2 while their character gives the epithet graceful to undulatory and easy motion4 ,the universe was peopled by genii1 good and evil demons1 which comprehends every species and gradation from the most sublime and beautiful in ,jupiter and ,venus1 to the most gross in the ,satyr1 resembling a goat1 and in the terrific ,pan4 ,as the public have now an opportunity of consulting many of the objects above referred to1 in our great national gallery in the ,british ,museum1 those of our readers who can obtain this advantage will do well to pay a visit to that celebrated depository for the relics of antiquity1 where they will have it in their power to convince themselves of the truth of the foregoing remarks4 ,the progeny of ,ham1 the son of ,noah1 we find1 peopled ,egypt1 ,medea1 ,chaldea1 ,phnicia1 and several other adjoining countries4 ,it will be remembered that two of the three sons of ,noah possessed these countries which the folly of idolatry overflowed2 whilst it was in the line of ,shem alone1 that the true faith was continued4 ,the ,mosaiac narrative is chiefly descriptive of events which occurred in the posterity of that patriarch1 because from it the righteous line of the faithful in ,abraham1 ,david1 ,solomon1 and ultimately ,christ1 proceeded4 ,thus more than two-thirds of the inhabitants of the world were gross idolators3 we often find the ,omniscience of the ,highest forewarning the sacred line to avoid its fascinations4 ,nay1 when1 upon more occasions than one1 the descendants of the faithful forgot themselves1 and those admonitions of the ,creator were neglected1 we find the sacred race flying before the face of puny foes1 which defeat was declared to be from their having prostrated themselves before strange gods3 they were bowed thus low in battle4 ,not to mention their disobedience immediately beneath ,mount ,sinai1 which protracted their journey through the wilderness to forty years1 which1 perhaps1 under other circumstances1 would not have required as many days4 ,all those troubles1 their subsequent captivities1 and national afflictions1 were the produce of disobedience4 ,this is one of those means which retributive justice resorts to punish wilful sin2 so1 however1 it was with the seed of ,abraham4 ,and so it is presumed to be with the present race of men2 either immediate or remote punishment vindicates the ,omnipotence of ,heaven4 ,from the frequent maledictions we discover in the sacred volume against idol worship1 we cannot doubt that it was peculiarly offensive to the ,deity4 that the great majority of the world were addicted to this proscribed practice is equally certain4 ,and as the ,spirit of ,truth had declared in the decalogue1 that 8,it would not be worshipped under any form in the heavens above1 in the earth below1 or in the waters under the earth20 so was image-worship1 and consequently the construction of such things1 forbidden4 ,we discover that as this mania infected all nations1 tongues1 and people1 so did not the ,israelites escape it2 but immediately after their departure from ,egypt we find an exact similitude of the sacred calf of the ,egyptians1 cast in melted gold1 which they constructed below ,mount ,sinai4 ,in ,egypt1 metallic statues1 as well as those of stone1 must have existed anterior to that event1 as they actually had done to our own knowledge1 and long before idolatry had made its appearance in ,egypt1 it had existed in ,chaldea1 as already shown4 ,as that worship had first its being in ,chaldea1 so had the art of statuary its origin in that country2 it was improved1 perhaps1 in ,egypt1 and perfected in ,greece1 from the time of ,pericles to that of ,alexander1 commonly called the ,great4 ,,drawing4 ,,the ,,human ,,figure4 ,from what has been said in the previous article1 it would appear that drawing of the human figure was nearly coeval with the art of statuary1 or perhaps prior to it in ,greece4 ,as there is ample room to suppose the rude aboriginal inhabitants of ,greece borrowed their art1 as they did their religious and civil policy1 from the ,egyptians1 and in fact from every nation where they discovered anything worthy their attention1 so must we suppose they had also this art1 in its infancy it is true1 from the same people4 ,upon reflecting for a single moment1 we are fully satisfied that the origin of the art now under contemplation came from ,egypt4 ,an ancient philosopher expressed himself with great truth1 when he said1 8,necessity was man's first instructor40 ,we accordingly perceive the necessity of the earliest inhabitants of ,egypt to exercise the art of drawing1 they having determined to record their transactions by hieroglyphical representation4 ,we have not the slightest doubt but we have now in the ,british ,museum some of the earliest specimens of ,egyptian hieroglyphical delineation1 in the sarcophagi2 from its inscription1 it has been discovered that that identical monument cannot be less than three thousand five hundred and ninety-eight years old6 ,previous to this1 we can have no doubt that the art of drawing must have existed4 ,like its sister art1 sculpture1 it received every improvement of which it was susceptible1 from the mature conceptions and the delicate hand of ,grecian artisans2 words are1 perhaps1 inadequate to convey this art to a second person4 ,years of incessant labour1 with an attention to principles established and found to correspond correctly with nature1 are the only means to obtain a just knowledge of its principles1 and to judge tastefully of its correct execution4 ,however1 in addition to the rules laid down in the preceding article1 we add the following1 which have been approved by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 by no means a contemptible judge of the art3-- #a4 ,that from the crown of the head to the forehead is the third part of a face4 #b4 ,the face begins at the root of the lowest hairs that grow on the forehead1 and ends at the bottom of the chin4 #c4 ,the face is divided into three proportionate parts2 the first contains the forehead or brow2 the second1 the nose2 and the third1 the mouth and chin4 #d4 ,from the chin to the pit between the collar-bones1 is two lengths of a nose4 #e4 ,from the pit between the collar-bones to the bottom of the breast1 one face4 #f4 ,from the bottom of the breast to the navel1 one face4 #g4 ,from the navel to the genitories1 one face4 #h4 ,from the genitories to the upper part of the knee1 two faces4 #i4 ,the knee contains half a face4 #aj4 ,from the lower part of the knee to the ancle1 two faces4 #aa4 ,from the ancle to the sole of the foot1 half a face4 #ab4 ,a man with his arms extended1 is from his longest finger on each hand1 as broad as he is long4 #ac4 ,from one side of the breast to the other1 two faces4 #ad4 ,the bone of the arm called humerus1 i4e41 from the shoulder to the elbow joint1 is the length of two faces4 #ae4 ,from the end of the elbow to the joint of the little finger1 the bone called cubitus1 with a part of the hand1 is also two faces4 #af4 ,from the box of the shoulder-blade1 to the pit between the collar-bones1 one face4 #ag4 ,to be satisfied in measures of breadth4 ,from the extremity of one finger to the other1 so that his breadth should be equal to the length1 it should be observed1 that the bones of the elbows with the humerus1 and the humerus with the shoulder-blade1 or scapula1 bear the proportions of a face when the arms are extended4 #ah4 ,the sole of the foot is one-sixth part of the length of the entire figure4 #ai4 ,the hand is the length of a face4 #bj4 ,the thumb contains a nose in length4 #ba4 ,the inside of the arm1 from the place where the muscle disappears1 which is connected with the breast 7called the pectoral muscle17 to the middle of the arm1 four noses long4 #bb4 ,from the middle of the arm1 at the top1 to the beginning of the head1 five noses4 #bc4 ,the longest toe is one nose4 #bd4 ,the outermost parts of the paps1 and the pit between the collar-bones of a female1 form an equilateral triangle4 ,the knowledge of the preceding proportions1 are as mere rudiments essential to the delineation of the human figure2 but they relate to a body in a quiescent state only4 ,the more difficult task remains to become thoroughly acquainted with its actions4 ,to obtain this1 a rudimental and even an intimate acquaintance with the skeleton1 and assiduous and incessant practice are necessary4 ,however1 the lectures delivered to the ,royal ,academy have furnished us with the probable extent to which the motions of the human frame may be carried4 ,first1 premising that the motions of the head and trunk of the body are limited by the several joints of the spine4 #b4 ,the motion of the body upon the lower limbs takes place at the hip-joints1 at the knees1 and at the ancles4 #c4 ,those limbs1 called great limbs 7the whole frame being technically divided1 and denominated the upper and lower extremities71 have rotatory motions at their junctions with the trunk1 by means of a ball and socket joints1 at the shoulders and the hips4 ,the analogy of parts between the upper and lower extremities is not carried through the structure of those limbs in the body4 #d4 ,the fulcrum of the upper limb is itself moveable upon the trunk1 as appears from the extensive motions of the scapula1 which so generally accompany the rotation of the shoulder1 and supply the limb with a great variety of motion1 much more than the lower limb possesses4 #e4 ,the junction of the thigh with the mass without motion1 called the pelvis1 limits its rotation to the ball and socket-joint without farther extension4 #f4 ,the rotation of the head and neck takes place at the joint between the first and second vertebr4 #g4 ,when the nose is parallel with the sternum1 the face may be turned towards either shoulder1 through an angle of #fj deg4 on each side2 the whole range of its motion being #abj degrees4 #h4 ,the lateral bending of the neck is equally divided between the seven vertebr2 but the bowing of the head1 and violently tossing it backward1 are chiefly effected at the joint of the skull1 and the first bone of the vertebral column called the atlas4 #i4 ,although the preceding motions are consistent with an erect stature of the neck1 yet the lateral motions demand a curvature of its whole mass4 #aj4 ,the movements of the trunk are regulated by rotary and lateral motions1 nearly equally divided among the several joints of the vertebr of the back and loins4 #aa4 ,the joints or the dorsal or back vertebr are1 notwithstanding1 more close and compact than those of the loins2 allowing of a wider range for bending and turning in the loins than the back4 #ab4 ,the sternum and ribs move upward1 to assist the chest in the expansion required for respiration2 drawing the clavicles and the shoulders upwards in full inspiration1 and tend to a contrary motion on expiration4 ,such movements also1 characterise strong action and certain passion1 and very apparent in a naked figure4 #ac4 ,in stooping to touch the ground1 the thigh-bone forms an angle of somewhere about #ee degrees with the average direction of the vertebr4 #ad4 ,the leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of about #ge degrees1 and the line of the tibia forms1 with the sole of the foot1 when that is elevated1 an angle of #fe degrees4 #ae4 ,the whole of this limb is susceptible of motion at the hip-joint forwards to a right angle with its perpendicular position2 and backwards to an angle of #bj degrees4 ,the leg will then continue to move by itself to its own angle of #ge degrees with the thigh4 ,its extreme motion does not exceed #de degrees4 #af4 ,when the shoulders are quiescent1 the clavicles usually meet in an angle of #aaj degrees at the sternum4 #ag4 ,the utmost elevation of the upper joint of the arm generally forms an angle of #aee degrees with the vertebr1 and about #abe degrees with the line of its clavicle4 ,the flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper part is confined to an angle of nearly #dj degrees4 #ah4 ,the whole arm is capable of moving forward or outward through nearly #hj degrees1 and backward to nearly the same angle with its perpendicular station4 #ai4 ,the actions of pronation and supination in the hand1 range through all intermediate degrees from a horizontal or perpendicular direction to #bgj degrees2 but #ij degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes from the shoulder joint4 #bj4 ,the palm of the hand admits of flexion and extension to #fe degrees in each direction2 its lateral motions are #ce outward1 and #cj inward4 ,the flexion of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle4 ,but it must be observed that in drawing the joints1 very considerable difference is found in their length1 from inequality of action4 ,the elbow joint1 when bent inward1 lengthens the arm nearly one eighth2 the same general law operates on the knees1 fingers1 c4 ,when a man is at rest1 and standing on both feet1 a line drawn perpendicularly between the clavicles will fall central between his feet4 ,should he stand on one foot1 it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports his weight4 ,if he raises one arm1 it will throw as much of his body on the other side as nature requires to support the equilibrium4 ,one of his legs thrown back brings the breast forward1 to preserve the gravity of the figure3 the same will be observed in all other motions of the parts to keep the central gravitation in its proper place4 ,the equipoise of a figure is of two sorts3 simple1 when its action relates to itself2 and compound1 when it refers to a second object4 ,the equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved2 for in walking1 leaping1 running1 c41 similar precautions are taken4 ,by the flexibility of our bodies in striking1 according to the proportionate force meant to be employed1 the body is first drawn back1 then the limb propelled forward1 bringing with it the weight of the body4 ,in striking1 lifting1 throwing1 c41 a greater proportion of force is employed than may be necessary to effect the intended purpose4 ,this is mentioned because1 in representation1 the force employed in an action should be marked in the muscle producing that action2 if it be marked rather stronger than may be necessary1 the cause is obvious1 for ,nature so employs her powers4 ,in studying this art1 students should have selected for them the best examples to copy from at first2 then they should draw from the figure as soon as possible1 and if it be possible from the best specimens of the antique4 ,their first drawings are recommended to be made with chalk1 and in large proportion2 attention to these will communicate ease and freedom to their future performances4 ,it will be likewise found necessary for them to draw upon geometrical principles2 this communicates a truth1 which greatly adds to their certainty and confidence1 and ultimately to their ease4 ,this is mentioned1 because it will be found that there is no portion of the human frame1 quiescent1 or in an active state1 but what is susceptible of geometrical definition4 ,experience and exercise communicate truths which produce certainty1 whence come ease and grace4 ,,architecture4 ,this is a science most beneficial to humanity4 ,it is very evident that it must have an extremely ancient origin4 ,the origin of this art is presumed to have been imitated by man1 from those natural caves and recesses1 which are discovered in various parts of the earth4 ,for in those1 it is reported1 the first men took shelter from the inclemency of elemental strife1 and to avoid the piercing contingencies of ultimate and precarious uncertainty4 ,the oldest buildings in the world are accordingly said to be beneath the surface of the earth2 among which are reckoned the famous temple of ,elephanta1 in the ,delta of the ,ganges2 the ,catacombs1 in ,egypt2 and upon the surface of the earth1 the tower of ,belus1 at ,babylon2 the ,egyptian ,mausoleum1 and the ,druidical ,temples in ,gaul and ,britain4 ,architecture may well be denominated one of those arts which accommodate1 delight1 and give consequence to the human species2 while at the same time it is calculated to flatter pride1 and gratify vanity4 ,if viewed in its full extent1 it may be truly said to possess a very considerable portion1 not only of the comforts1 but the conveniences1 the positive utilities1 and many of the luxuries of life4 ,the advantages derived from houses only are very great1 being the first step towards civilization1 having great influence both on the body and mind of man4 ,secluded from each other in woods1 caves1 and wretched huts1 the inhabitants of such recesses are generally found to be men1 indolent1 dull1 inactive1 and abject2 their faculties benumbed1 their views limited to the gratification of their individual and most pressing wants4 ,but when societies are formed1 and commodious dwellings provided1 where well sheltered1 they may breathe a temperate air1 amid summer's scorching heat1 and winter's biting cold2 sleep1 when ,nature requires1 in ease and security2 study unmolested2 converse and taste the sweets of social enjoyments2--they are spirited1 active1 ingenious1 and enterprising1 vigorous in body1 and active in mind4 ,if benefits like these previously enumerated result from any art1 then will that of the architect claim a decided pre-eminence4 ,when we reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to which this art is conducive2--that it erects us temples for the worship of our ,creator1 the benevolent dispenser of all good things1 that it provides us with habitations1 where ease and simplicity are agreeably combined2--that it is conducive to our safety1 comfort1 and convenience1 in uniting different districts of the country by the facility of bridges1 roads1 c41 is contributive to the gratification of our natural wants1 and to our safety4 ,as inhabitants of a great commercial country1 the benefits we derive from naval architecture are unspeakably great2 when we reflect that it operates as a medium of communication between us1 an insulated people1 and the whole earth1 in its remotest colonies2 that it serves to convey between our people and the most distant nations the native produce of the respective countries1 with the effects of mutual industry2 that it clothes1 feeds1 and furnishes employment to thousands of our fellow-countrymen2 and1 in a national point of view1 our wooden bulwarks have been the wonder of the world1 and continues to afford us protection from our enemies1 should all other hopes fail4 ,what can surpass its utility in the latter point of view8 what can exceed the assistance derived from it8 ,by the criterions formerly mentioned let us determine4 ,we shall find1 that of all the arts the world has ever boasted1 there are but few1 if any1 that can claim a superiority4 ,there are no other designs1 whether necessary or superfluous1 so certainly productive of their desired object1 so beneficial in consequences1 or so permanent in their effects1 as is the art of the architect4 ,most other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction soon decay2 their fashion fluctuates--their value is lost2 but the productions of architecture command general attention1 and are lasting monuments1 beyond the reach of ephemeral modes3 they proclaim to distant ages the consequence1 genius1 virtues1 achievements1 and munificence of those they commemorate to the latest posterity4 ,the most obvious and immediate advantages of building are1 the employment of numerous ingenious artificers1 industrious workmen1 and labourers of all kinds2 converting materials of small value into the most noble productions1 beautifying countries1 multiplying the comforts and conveniences of life4 ,but not the least desirable effects of the architect's art1 perhaps1 remain yet to be noticed1 in affording to the numerous train of arts and manufactures1 concerned to furnish and adorn the works of architecture1 which employ thousands1 constituting many valuable branches of commerce4 ,also from that certain concourse of strangers to every country celebrated for stately structures1 who extend your fame into other countries1 where otherwise1 it would never have been heard of2 adopt your fashions1 give reputation1 and create a demand for your productions in foreign parts2 these are circumstances which certainly should not be too lightly valued1 and these circumstances result from architecture4 ,at this day1 the ruins of ancient ,rome support the splendour of the modern city1 by inviting travellers1 who flock1 from all nations1 to witness those majestic remains of former grandeur4 ,the same may be said of many other countries famous for architectural remains4 ,thus architecture1 by supplying men with commodious habitations1 procures that health of body and energy of mind1 which facilitates the invention of arts3 when by the exertion of their skill and industry1 productions multiply beyond domestic demand1 she furnishes the means of transporting them to foreign markets3 whenever by commerce they acquire wealth1 she points the way to employ their riches rationally1 nobly1 and benevolently1 in methods honourable and useful to themselves1 and beneficial to posterity1 which add splendour to the state1 and yield benefit to their descendants4 ,she further teaches them to defend her possessions1 to secure their liberties and lives from attempts of lawless violence or unrestrained ambition4 ,so variously conducive to human happiness is this art1 to the wealth and safety of nations1--so1 naturally1 does it demand that protection and encouragement which has ever been yielded it in all well governed states4 ,the perfection of virtuous other arts we have beheld to be a consequence of this2 for when building is encouraged1 painting1 sculpture1 and every species of decorative art will flourish of course4 ,it should not1 however1 be imagined that the heaping of stone upon stone can be of consequence1 or reflect honour on individuals or nations4 ,the practice of architecture infers actual art to be an essential preliminary2 without this1 and having some laudable end in view1 it is apt to raise disgust4 ,this art is generally classed under three distinct heads1 viz41 ,civil1 ,military1 and ,naval ,architecture4 ,in the first attempts of architecture it was extremely rude1 as might naturally be expected4 ,it has1 however1 from time to time1 as improvements have advanced1 been raised to relative importance1 as the education of the people progressed2 and it certainly gives the best record of the mental progress of every people which can be collected4 ,it has always been found to flourish best in free states1 and when the rulers have possessed genius1 virtue1 and good taste4 ,the most eminent era of ,grecian architecture was when the ,athenian republic was under the direction of ,pericles2 at this period1 also1 existed the first of statuaries1 ,praxiteles4 ,where that eminent artist and their admirable architects were employed1 in the words of ,pausanius1 8they rendered the whole of ,acropolis as an entire ornament40 ,there are various characteristic distinctions to be made in the several orders of architecture which distinguish the ,grecian people4 ,the ,doric is eminent for primeval simplicity2 the ,tuscan embraces more ornament2 the ,ionic unites simplicity and elegance2 but the sum of all excellence appears to be united in the ,corinthian4 ,the ,composite is also a most elegant order1 but appears to have added but little to the ,corinthian elegance and majesty4 ,various nations have a great diversity of architecture2 as the ,egyptian1 ,persian 7distinguished by human figures supporting entablatures71 ,hindostanee1 ,arabasque or ,marisquo1 which are very peculiar1 generally having the walls to project most at the top1 which is indicative of the natural jealousy of all oriental people2 they all regarding their women as their chief treasure1 it appears meant for their especial protection4 ,a greater simplicity does not appear anywhere than in the architecture of the ,druids1 consisting of most extensive circles of immense stones1 chiefly raised perpendicularly1 with occasionally a larger stone placed upon the apex of two others horizontally4--,there are in ,great ,britain numerous remains of these constructions3 the chief are ,stonehenge1 near ,salisbury2 at ,avebury1 also in ,wiltshire2 ,pomonca1 in the ,orkneys2 ,rollright1 in ,oxfordshire4 ,but the most eminent spot for ,druid temples was ,mona1 in ,anglesea1 in ,wales4 ,the reason for such apparently unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar belief1 in the religion they professed4 ,the ,saxon is a very heavy order of architecture4 ,it was used in this kingdom much in the erection of religious edifices1 and is frequently found mixed with the ,norman in such structures4 ,the grand and most obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch1 with massy columns1 variously ornamented1 and most frequently the columns which support the same arch are diversely sculptured4 ,the chief sculptures of this kind in ,britain1 are ,gloucester ,cathedral2 ,malmesbury ,abbey1 ,wilts2 ,sedbury ,church1 ,herefordshire2 several churches in ,rutland1 ,lincoln1 ,somerset1 ,devon1 and other counties4 ,there appears to us to be no order of architecture better calculated for the purpose to which it is generally adopted1 than the chaste and pure ,norman style1 barbarously denominated ,gothic4 ,it affords a great variety of light1 airy beauty1 and tasteful grandeur4 ,in this country1 the ,norman order succeeded the ,saxon1 and we lost nothing by the exchange2 for even now1 that we have the entire benefit of a choice of the purest ,grecian 7since its revival by ,inigo ,jones71 it is a matter of taste to be certain2 but in our estimation1 the chaste ,norman is to be preferred to the purest ,grecian1 for the purposes for which it is intended2 and if the means answer the ultimate end1 we submit this to be the proper criterion for preference4 ,we find it usually employed in religious edifices2 it is pure1 light1 airy1 and cheerful3 and we are of opinion that the service of gratitude and thanks to the ,creator demands a disposition of mind which these feelings are best calculated to inspire4 ,domestic architecture is various1 and chiefly regulated by the various purposes for which it is designed4 ,its characteristic is utility4 ,,chain-,,bridges4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,it appears1 from a description of bridges of suspension1 communicated by ,r4 ,stephenson1 civil engineer1 some time ago1 to the 8,philosophical ,journal10 that the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is believed to be one over the ,tees1 forming a communication between the counties of ,durham and ,york4 ,it is supposed1 on good authority1 to have been erected about #agda1 and is described in the 8,antiquities of ,durham0 as 8a bridge suspended on iron chains1 stretched from rock to rock1 over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep1 for the passage of travellers1 particularly miners4 ,this bridge is seventy feet in length1 and little more than two feet broad1 with a hand-rail on one side1 and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all the tremulous motion of the chain1 and sees himself suspended over a roaring gulf1 on an agitated and restless gangway1 to which few strangers dare trust themselves40 ,in #ahaf-ag1 two or three bridges of iron were constructed2 the first1 by ,mr4 ,lees1 an extensive woollen manufacturer1 at ,galashiels1 in ,scotland4 ,this experiment1 although made with slender wire1 and necessarily imperfect in its construction1 deserves to be noticed1 as affording a practical example of the tenacity of iron so applied4--,these wire bridges were suspended not upon the catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the larger works subsequently undertaken1 but by means of diagonal braces1 radiating from their points of suspension on either side towards the centre of the roadway4 ,the unfortunate fabric next mentioned was constructed on this defective principle4 ,among the earliest practical exhibitions of this novel architecture in the ,united ,kingdom1 may be mentioned the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which was thrown over the ,tweed at ,dryburgh1 in #ahag1 by the ,earl of ,buchan1 for the accommodation of foot passengers4 ,its length1 between the points of suspension1 was two hundred and sixty-one feet1 being considered the greatest span of any bridge in the kingdom4 ,this useful structure1 the theme of such just applause1 and which harmonised so finely with the far-famed scenery of ,dryburgh ,abbey1 was entirely destroyed by a tremendous gale of wind1 at the beginning of the year following its erection4--,this bridge was subsequently restored upon a more secure system4 ,,clocks4 ,the invention of clocks1 such as are now in use1 is ascribed to ,pacificus1 ,archdeacon of ,verona1 who died in #hdf2 but they were not known in ,england before the year #acfh4 ,they were ultimately improved by the application of pendulums1 in #afeg1 by ,huygens1 a ,dutch astronomer and mathematician4 ,although ,dr4 ,beckmann differs in some slight degree from the previous relation concerning clocks1 yet he says1 8,it is sufficiently apparent that clocks1 moved by wheels and weights1 began certainly to be used in the monasteries of ,europe1 about the eleventh century40 ,he does not think1 however1 that ,europe has a claim to the honour of the invention1 but that it is rather to be ascribed to the ,saracens2 this conjecture1 he confesses1 is chiefly supported by what ,trithemius tells us1 of one which was sent by the ,sultan of ,egypt to ,frederick ,,ii41 in #abcb4 ,he thinks that the writers of that century speak of clocks as though they had been then well known2 he adds1 that in the fourteenth century1 mention is made of the machine of ,richard de ,wallingford1 which has hitherto been considered as the oldest clock known4 ,the fabricator of this machine called it ,albion4 ,it appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up in monasteries and other religious houses1 and that it was not till after this time they were employed for more general purposes1 as the convenience of cities1 c4 ,the first instance on record1 that has been yet noticed1 occurs where ,herbert1 ,prince of ,carrara1 caused the first clock that was ever publicly exposed1 to be erected at ,padua4 ,it was erected by ,john ,dondi1 whose family afterwards1 in consequence1 had the pronomen of ,horologia assigned them1 in remembrance of this circumstance3 it is also mentioned on the tombstone of the artist4 ,the family of ,dondi now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks2 for his son1 ,john ,dondi1 constructed one upon improved principles4 ,the first clock at ,bologna was put up in the year #acef4 ,some time after the year #acfd1 ,charles ,v41 surnamed the ,wise1 ,king of ,france1 caused a clock to be placed in the tower of his palace1 by ,henry de ,wyck1 whom he had invited from ,germany for the purpose1 because there was then at ,paris no artist of that kind1 and to whom he assigned a salary of six sols per diem1 with free lodgings in the ,tower4 ,towards the end of that century1 probably about the year #acgj1 ,strasburg had a clock4 ,about the same period1 ,courtray was celebrated for its clock1 which the ,duke of ,burgundy carried away1 ,a4 ,d4 #achb4 ,a public clock was erected in the ,altburg gate at ,spire1 in #acie1 the works of which cost fifty-one florins4 ,the greater part of the principal cities of ,europe1 however1 at this period1 had clocks without striking4 ,clocks could not be procured but at a very great expense3 of this1 an instance occurred in the city of ,auxerre1 in the year #adhc1 when the magistrates being desirous of a clock1 but discovering that it would cost more money than they thought themselves justified in expending on their own authority1 applied to the ,emperor ,charles ,,viii4 for leave to employ a portion of the public funds for that purpose4 ,in #adfb1 a public clock was put up in the church of the ,virgin ,mary at ,nuremberg4 ,at ,venice a public clock was put in the year #adig4 ,in the same century an excellent clock was put up for ,cosmo de ,medici1 by ,lorenzo1 a ,florentine4 ,having thus mentioned their origin in various places1 until they came to ornament the religious houses1 the palaces of kings1 and the chief ,european cities1 it now remains for us to take some notice of their existence in our own country for public use4 ,from public documents still extant1 it appears that so great was their expense considered in those early times of their introduction1 that it was only the powerful and the rich who could procure them4 ,we discover that the first clock for public and lay purposes in ,england was one erected on the north side of ,old ,palace ,yard1 ,westminster1 on which was this inscription1 ,discite justitiam moniti2 which inscription is said to have been preserved many years after the clock-house had been decayed4 ,it is asserted that this clock was placed in that situation1 for the purpose of being heard by the members of the courts of law2 and the occasion which produced its existence is thus recorded4 ,it was the produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of the court of ,king's ,bench1 in the reign of ,edward ,i4 ,a4 ,d4 #abhh1 of whom it appears by a book called the 8,year-,book10 that this magistrate had been fined #hjj marks for making an alteration in a record1 wherein a defendant had been fined #acs4 #d;d41 and he1 the chief justice1 made it appear to be #fs4 #h;d4 instead of that1 the larger sum4 ,notoriety1 however1 was attached to this transaction from the following circumstances4 ,first1 it appears to have been one of three questions put by ,richard ,,iii4 to his judges1 with whom he was closeted in the ,inner ,star ,chamber1 to take their opinions on three points of law4 ,the second question was1 8,whether a justice of the peace1 who had enrolled an indictment which had been negatived by the grand jury1 among the true bills1 might be punished for the abuse of his office80 ,on this question a diversity of opinion arose among the judges1 some of whom supposed a magistrate could not be prosecuted for what he might have done2 whilst others contended that he might1 and cited the case of the lord chief justice above mentioned3 so far was the answer of the judges strictly proper and historically true4 ,the third circumstance to which we have alluded1 and which is most material to our present question1 is the application of the fine4 ,it appears that it was expended in the construction of a clock1 which was erected on the north side of ,old ,palace ,yard2 so that the judges1 barristers1 and students could not enter or leave the court1 without having an opportunity of being reminded of the punishment of the chief justice1 for presuming to violate the impartial duty of his high office2 nor could they even hear it strike1 whilst upon the throne of justice1 without having his case repeated in their ears2 thereby acting as a constant remembrancer1 intimating they were to administer justice more than mercy4 ,sir ,edward ,coke observes that #hjj marks were actually entered upon the roll1 so that it is extremely probable he had himself seen the record4 ,this clock was considered so important during the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 that we find that the king gave the charge of keeping it1 with its appurtenances1 to ,william ,warley1 dean of ,st4 ,stephen's1 with the pay of sixpence per diem1 to be received at the exchequer4 ,the clock of ,st4 ,mary's1 ,oxford1 was also furnished in #aebc1 out of fines imposed upon the students of that university4 ,with respect to the clock procured from the fine of the lord chief justice1 we must also observe that its motto appears to relate to that circumstance2 but though it might be said that it might relate to a dial as well as to a clock--a material observation to our present inquiry--yet1 with respect to its present absence1 it should be noticed1 that it is probable that clock was a very indifferent one1 but from its antiquity and the tradition attending it1 was permitted to remain till the time of ,elizabeth2 then being quite decayed1 a dial might have been substituted upon the same clock-house1 bearing the very singular motto which1 however originally applied1 clearly alludes to such a circumstance as reported of the lord chief justice4 ,this dial is placed on the very site where the clock-house stood4 ,but it is said by ,derham1 in his 8,artificial ,clockmaker10 that the oldest clock in this kingdom is in ,hampton ,court ,palace1 marked with the letters ,n4 ,o41 presumed to have been the initials of the maker's name1 of the date of #aedj2 but that author is evidently mistaken1 in alleging that to be the oldest1 because the ,oxford clock bears a date seventeen years anterior to that period4 ,with respect to the initials1 or whatever they may be1 we do not consider them of the smallest importance4 ,from ,shakspeare's 8,othello0 it is proved that the ancient name of this instrument was ,horologe2 which various passages in our poets and old authors establish3-- 8,he'll watch the horologe a double set1 ,if drink rock not his cradle40 ,chaucer also says of a cock1 8,full sickerer was his crowing in his loge1 ,as is a clock1 or any abbey orloge20 which tends to show that1 in his time1 clocks had been confined to religious houses4 ,so ,lydgate's prologue to the story of ,thebes3-- 8,i will myself be your orologere ,to-morrow early40 ,with respect to our modern clocks1 it would be presumption in us to say one word1 as there is not an individual but knows as much about them1 as we could tell him4 ,we have fulfilled our intention in giving this historical account1 which we are persuaded will afford some information4 ,we will now proceed to ,,watches1 ,which are not of so great antiquity2 as it is only about #adij1 mention is made of watches1 which first occurs in the ,italian poems of ,gaspar ,visconti4 ,dominico ,maria ,manni says the inventor was ,lorenzo a ,vulparia1 a native of ,florence4 ,one might naturally be inclined to believe that the honour of original invention is duly demanded by the whole ,germanic people1 from the claim of the invention of watches being aspired to by the ,nurembergians2 as ,doppelenayer gravely alleges they were first invented by a person residing in that city1 in the sixteenth century1 of the name of ,peter ,hale2 and1 perhaps1 he has no better foundation for his conjecture1 than that watches were at first of an oval shape1 and were called ,nuremberg eggs4 ,shakspeare1 in his 8,twelfth ,night10 speaking of a watch1 has the following expression1 used by ,malvolio3 8,i frown the while2 and perchance wind up my watch1 or play with some rich jewel40 ,also1 the ,priest1 in answer to ,olivia1 8,since when1 my watch hath told me1 toward my grave ,i have travelled but two hours40 ,the following observations appear to sanction our opinion of the early existence of those machines in this country4 ,dr4 ,derham1 in his 8,artificial ,clockmaker10 published in #agad1 mentions a watch of ,henry ,,viii41 which at the period he wrote was in good order4 ,indeed1 ,dr4 ,demainbray says that he had heard ,sir ,isaac ,newton and ,demoire both speak of that watch4 ,an anecdote is related of the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 contemporary with ,henry ,,viii41 which it appears has reference to the policy of ,europe at that day4 ,it is said1 the emperor1 after dinner1 used to sit with several watches on the table1 with his bottle in the centre4 ,after the prince's retirement to the abbey of ,st4 ,just1 he still continued to amuse himself with keeping them in order4 ,from his inability to effect this correctly1 it is reported he drew the rational reflection1 that it was impossible to effect what he had attempted--the regulation of the policy of ,europe4 ,it also appears that many watches of that day struck the hours4 ,the 8,memoirs of ,literature0 report that such watches having been stolen from ,charles ,v4 and ,louis ,,xi4 whilst they were in a crowd1 the thieves were detected from their striking4 ,it also appears from the evidence of certain watches of ancient construction formerly held by ,sir ,ashton ,lever1 and also by ,mr4 ,ingham ,forster1 that catgut usually supplied the place of a chain in ancient watches2 also that they were of a smaller size than now made1 and generally of an oval form4 ,imperfections of this nature1 and probably other causes1 might have rendered their truth uncertain1 and this most probably precluded their general use1 until the latter end of the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,the instances we have shown will prove they were generally known1 and perhaps used at the time of ,shakspeare writing the 8,twelfth ,night40 ,and in the first edition of ,harrington's 8,orlando ,furioso10 published in #aeia1 the frontispiece represents the author with what appears to be a watch1 although the engraving is extremely indistinct2 moreover1 the inscription to which engraving1 of ,il ,tempo passo1 clearly indicates the same thing4 ,charles ,i41 in #afca1 incorporated the clockmakers company1 and by charter1 which prohibits clocks1 watches1 and alarums from being imported2 which circumstance proves1 that the ,english at this period1 had no need of the aid of foreign ingenuity in this branch of mechanism4 ,we are told that ,guy ,fawkes and ,percy were detected in the third year of ,james ,i41 with a watch about them1 which they had purchased1 8to try conclusions for the long and short burning of the touchwood10 7in the words of the time7 which was prepared to give fire to the train of gunpowder4 ,the most material improvement introduced in this branch of mechanical knowledge took place in the addition of pendulums1 by ,huygens1 as applied to clocks2 for which conception he was indebted to ,galileo1 which that philosopher adopted for measuring time1 he having taken the idea from observing the vibrations of a lamp in a church4 ,this reign also boasts of the production of repeating-watches in ,england2 first fabricated under the direction of the celebrated ,dr4 ,hook1 and manufactured by ,tompion4 ,an anecdote is related of the attention paid to watches by ,james ,,ii41 recorded by ,derham1 in the 8,artificial ,clockmaker30 ,one ,barlow had procured a patent1 in conjunction with the lord chief justice ,allebone1 for repeaters2 but a person of the name of ,quare making one at the same time1 upon principles he had entertained before the patent was granted to ,barlow1 the king tried both in person1 and gave the preference to ,quare's1 and caused it to be notified in the gazette4 ,in the next reign1 the reputation of ,british watchmakers had increased so much1 that an act was passed by parliament1 enacting that ,british-made watches should be marked with the maker's name1 in order to preserve the reputation of this branch of ,british manufacture from coming to discredit in foreign markets4 ,thus we have given a general outline of the history of this branch of mechanics1 for a period of nearly a thousand years1 from the first invention of clocks by ,pacificus of ,verona1 in #hdf1 to the beginning of last century1 since which period they have become an article of such general use to require no comment from us4 ,we have noticed the various improvements in the order in which they occurred1 among which the most striking feature appears to be the addition of the pendulums1 as serving to regulate the motion of the machine2 from its given length1 certain weight and uniform vibration1 it must be conceived to have been a happy thought in ,galileo1 for the admeasurement of time1 and its application to this branch of mechanics was no less fortunate in ,huygens4 ,to discover the first invention of time1 we will require to look back for upwards of two thousand years1 at which period we will find ,,water-,,clocks4 ,these are called ,clepsydr4 ,vitruvius1 the ,roman architect and mechanist1 attributes the invention of the water-clock to ,ctesibus of ,alexandria1 who flourished in the reign of ,ptolemy ,euergetes1 about two hundred and forty-five years before the ,christian era4 ,the same author says1 the machine was first introduced at ,rome1 two hundred and fifty seven years previous to the ,christian era4 ,there is reason to believe it was first introduced at ,rome into courts of justice1 from ,greece1 as it had been originally used in ,greece for this purpose2 the ,roman orators being guided in the time they occupied the court1 by this instrument1 as we may learn from this expression of ,cicero1 8,latrare ad clepsydram40 ,cicero also informs us1 that it was first introduced into courts of justice1 in the third consulate of ,pompey4 ,it has been discovered that the inventions of ,egypt1 ,chaldea1 and other ,oriental countries constantly travelled to ,rome and the ,west4 ,long since the respective periods previously mentioned1 has the honour of this invention been claimed by ,burgundians1 ,bolognese1 and other ,italians2 sometimes by ,frenchmen1 but chiefly by ,germans4 ,their claim for invention seems to be questionable in numerous instances1 whatever it may be for improvement2 they certainly cannot1 consistently with what we have stated1 be considered as the first inventors2 although there is nothing to be alleged against these respective people being the discoverers of designs which had a previous existence unknown to them4 ,with equal or much more propriety might the ,arabians1 in point of time 7could that be of consequence7 be considered as inventors of this machine2 and they are well known to possess the least claim to original invention of any people4 ,they1 however1 have a merit1 notwithstanding3 but it is of a negative kind2 for those arts1 sciences1 c4 which were 7by chance7 saved from the destruction of their bigoted ignorance1 and which1 when the fortune of war had thrown into their hands those pure designs of intellectual ,greece1 mere accident had wrested from their zealous fury4 ,these they transmitted to a more ingenious people as pure as they had received them2 but upon precisely as good grounds as the before-named ,europeans claimed this original invention1 might the ,arabians have assumed that honour4 ,for we read that ,haroun al ,raschid1 ,caliph of ,bagdad1 then the chief of the ,saracen empire1 sent as a present to ,charlemagne1 a clock of curious workmanship1 which was put into motion by a clepsydra2 which instrument is said1 by ,dr4 ,adams1 8to have been used by the ancients to measure time by water running out of a vessel40 ,it consists of a cylinder divided into small cells1 and suspended by a thread fixed to its axis in a frame1 on which the hour distances1 found by trial1 are marked out4 ,as the water flows from one cell into another1 it changes slowly the centre of gravity of the cylinder1 and puts it in motion4 ,the form of this instrument is thus described by ,dr4 ,beckmann3-- 8,the most common kinds of these water-clocks1 however1 correspond in this1 that the water issued drop by drop through a hole of the vessel1 and fell into another1 in which a light body1 that floated1 marked the height of the water as it rose1 and by these means the time that had elapsed40 ,the most improved form the same instrument has acquired1 is thus described1 by the same author1 from one in his own possession4 8,amongst the newest improvements added to this machine may be reckoned an alarum1 which consists of a bell and small wheels1 like that of a clock that strikes the hours1 screwed to the top of the frame in which the cylinder is suspended4 ,the axis of the cylinder1 at the hour when one is desirous of being awakened1 pushes down a small crank1 which1 by letting fall a weight1 puts the alarum in motion4 ,a dial plate with a handle is also placed over the frame40 ,in respect to the invention of clepsydr1 we should think the original inventor took his first idea from the use of an instrument common in ,egypt1 which that people called a ,canob1 or ,nilometer1 being a large stone vessel of the shape of a sarcophagus1 into which water was daily poured1 by proper officers1 during the increase of the ,nile1 to show the people whether they had a prospect of plenty1 or were to expect a scarcity in the ensuing year4 ,as the fall of the water1 after it had risen to a due height1 was of equal importance to them2 so the water was suffered to run out proportionably to its decrease in the river1 being ascertained by just and equal marks which they generally well understood4 ,vitrum horae had also been invented to describe the progress of time4 ,these were conical hour-glasses1 in which were placed a portion of sand2 the glasses were joined together at the apex of the cone1 with a small aperture of communication between the two4--,from the glass1 in which the sand is deposited1 it dropped1 grain by grain1 into the sand below1 standing upon its flat basis4 ,these machines are called hour-glasses1 and well known4 ,we have been unable to discover any account of the origin of this instrument2 but1 from its simplicity1 it admits of no improvement4 ,it is also believed this had its origin in a convent4 ,,spinning4 ,the necessity for human clothing must be so obvious1 we should think1 at nearly the first existence of our race1 that two opinions upon that subject cannot exist4 ,for1 admitting the region where our first parents were stationed was more genial to life than these1 our northern countries1 yet the difference in temperature between the heat of noon-day1 and the chilly damps of night1 must be obvious to every one who has resided in1 or has read of1 tropical climates4 ,therefore1 from necessity1 we contend1 our first parents could not have dispensed with the benefit of clothing4 ,however1 independent of the necessity of the thing1 the ,jewish ,history informs us that the first man1 ,adam1 and his wife1 in consequence of their unfortunate disobedience and positive violation of the commands of their ,divine ,creator1 knew of their own nakedness2 and1 therefore1 they were ashamed to answer to the sacred summons4 ,this they confessed1 with a simplicity congenial to truth1 and in the same moment1 frankly owned the cause2 answering to the awful interrogatory of 8,who told thee that thou wast naked8 ,hast thou eaten of the tree whereof ,i commanded thee that thou shouldest not eat80--8,the woman1 whom thou gavest to be with me1 she gave me of the tree1 and ,i did eat40 ,however1 we are previously informed that1 8the eyes of them both were opened1 and they knew that they were naked2 and they sewed fig-leaves together1 and made themselves aprons40 ,it should be observed1 that the leaf of the ,banyan1 or ,indian fig1 is probably here meant2 if it is1 the luxurious leaf of this tree is about three feet long1 and proportionably wide2 therefore1 we may rationally conclude1 much art was not required2 probably a thorn might supply the place of a needle1 and a blade of grass would do for a thread4 ,afterwards1 we are told1 in the same chapter1--8,unto ,adam1 also to his wife1 did the ,lord ,jehovah make coats of skins1 and clothed them40 ,the preceding is the earliest account of humanity2 at the same time1 it also furnishes the most ancient relation of the original of human clothing4 ,from hieroglyphical inscriptions still extant1 the most ancient inhabitants of ,egypt wore sometimes clothing made of feathers1 fastened together2 sometimes of shells1 also attached to each other2 but the most general ancient clothing consisted of the skins of various animals4 ,so is ,hercules1 and many of the heroes1 clothed1 in antique statuary4 ,although the sacred history is silent on this head1 we may1 perhaps1 by inference1 arrive at some clue or thread to guide us through the labyrinth of uncertainty4 ,accordingly we find in the first passages1 which will admit of constructive inference1 that thread1 of some sort1 must1 of necessity1 have had existence3--8,and ,ada bare ,jubal3 he was the father of such as dwell in tents1 and of such as have cattle40--,gen4 iv41 #bj4 ,now1 we submit1 the inference of not only spinning1 but also of weaving1 and even sewing1 must be conceded1 before we can conceive the existence of tents4 ,the cloth whereof they were made at that period1 it is probable1 was of the fleece of sheep2 because of the early existence of woollen cloth among the ,greeks1 we have no doubt1 from the following and numerous other passages in their poets2 and also from the practice of ,tyrian artisans1 who were1 we know1 generally and confessedly eminent for their dying the imperial purple1 and other scarce1 valuable1 and beautiful colours2 and no substance better receives1 or so well retains the most splendid of colours than does wool4 ,but ,homer speaks expressively in point1 where1 in his 8,iliad10 he expresses the truce which took place between the belligerent armies of ,greeks and ,trojans4 ,after the defeat of ,paris by ,menelaus1 and where the laughter-loving goddess1 ,venus1 is said to have rescued her favourite from the fate he deserved to find2 after she had conveyed the recreant hero from the field to his apartment1 she then1 like a true friend to matrimonial infidelity1 goes in search of the ,spartan queen1 for the purpose of bringing the lovers together4 ,she discovered the beautiful adultress on the walls of the city1 where she had been describing to ,priam1 and his ancient nobles1 the ,trojan councillors1 the various persons of the heroes of ,greece4 ,upon this occasion1 ,venus1 to use the language of the poet 7as translated by ,pope71 assumes a disguise4 8,to her1 beset by ,trojan beauties1 came1 ,in borrowed form1 the laughter-loving dame2 ,she seemed an ancient maid1 well skill'd to cull ,the snowy fleece1 and wind the twisted wool40 ,the labours of ,penelope1 ,helena herself1 and innumerable passages in the works of the poet1 all tend to confirm the fact4 ,that linen had also an early existence is proved at a very anterior period of the ,jewish history4 ,they had even fine linen previous to the construction of the utensils used in sacred worship2 as1 in ,exodus1 an ephod of linen is expressly mentioned2 likewise in the xxvth chapter1 #dth verse of that book1 fine linen is expressly enumerated among those presents that the people were expected to offer freely to the ,lord ,jehovah4 ,whence we are justified in inferring they had most probably learned in ,egypt to carry its structure to great perfection4 ,we have linen mentioned likewise1 in ,homer1 upon the breach of the truce between the ,grecians and ,trojans with their auxiliary forces4 ,on ,menelaus having been wounded by an arrow from the bow of ,pandarus1 where the poet sweetly sings-- 8,but thee1 ,atrides1 in that dangerous hour1 ,the gods forgot not1 nor thy guardian power1 ,pallas assists1 7and weakened in its force71 ,diverts the weapons from its destined course2 ,so1 from her babe1 when slumber seals his eye1 ,the watchful mother wafts the envenom'd fly4 ,just where his belt1 with golden buckles join'd1 ,where ,,linen folds the double corslet lin'd4 ,she turn'd the shaft1 which1 hissing from above1 ,passed the broad belt1 and through the corslet drove2 ,the folds it pierc'd1 the plaited ,,linen tore ,and raz'd the skin1 and drew the purple gore40 ,from what appears in the subsequent1 as well as the former1 part of this article1 we submit1 that the general manufacture of cloth1 both woollen and linen1 has been established2 and if this is made out1 the prior existence of the other subsidiary arts of spinning1 weaving1 c4 cannot be denied4 ,there are hieroglyphical symbols in the ,british ,museum1 which denote the various operations of the manufacture of cloths2 and upon a monument upwards of three thousand six hundred years old4 ,numerous arts have been discovered by mere accident4 ,we are told1 the very valuable operation of feldtmaking was discovered by a ,british sovereign1 whose feet being always cold in the winter1 he had wool put into his shoes2 the moisture there contracted1 the natural heat of the body1 with the action to which this wool was exposed1 between the foot and the shoe1 caused the fleecy substance to consolidate2 whence the origin of that very necessary article1 the ,hat4 ,,stocking ,,manufacture4 ,the invention to which this article refers1 affords a warm subject for panegyric4 ,that clothing for the feet be warm1 medical writers have in all ages recommended1 and truly upon the most rational as well as philosophic and experimental practice2 the feet1 lying the most remote of any member from the heart1 require1 and particularly by people in years1 to be kept warm1 in order for their present comfort1 as well as to promote the essential evacuation of superfluous humours1 by perspiration1 without which no frame can be healthy4 ,so strongly is this precept impressed in our national moral habits1 that it has formed a general maxim for the preservation of health4 ,even ,thomas ,parr is said to have observed1 upon being asked to what cause he attributed the protraction of his life1 8,to keep the head cool by temperance1 and the feet warm by exercise1 to eat only when hunger required satisfaction1 and to drink only when thirsty40 ,we should suppose that this recipe would be at least worth a waggon load of the puffed quack pills which are palmed upon the public as made from a recipe left by that venerable man4 ,the art of knitting nets is one of great antiquity1 as those nets used by the ,hebrews1 as well as by the ,greeks1 are conceived to be similar to those used in the present day4 ,it was thought by ,ovid1 in his sixth 8,metamorphosis10 that the public were indebted to the spider for the origin of this ingenious invention2 which would indeed seem probable1 as it appears that the insect is prompted to be thus ingenious for the gratification of its natural wants1 the web serving as a net or gin for the capture of flies and other small insects which supply it with food4 ,and if our memory serve us1 we recollect that the poet also1 speaking of flies1 observes that the web of the spider serves to secure the weak flies only1 whilst the strong break it and escape2 alluding to the influence of wealth and power to pierce through those laws which were made for the protection of the weak against the encroachments and violence offered by the strong4 ,the author of ,job1 in the eighteenth chapter and ninth verse1 mentions gins4 ,however1 in knitting stockings1 the operation1 as well as the effect1 is essentially different from knitting nets4 ,in the latter the twine is knotted into distinct meshes1 which are secured by knots2 in the former1 the entire substance is produced without knots4 ,to this distinction is to be ascribed the reason why knit stockings may become unravelled4 ,in the other species the knots not only prevent the material being taken apart1 but they also render the nets sufficiently strong to prevent even vigorous fish from escaping1 yet being so capacious as to permit little fish to escape with the water4 ,the art of knitting is not now1 by any means1 so general as it was formerly4 ,it then unquestionably rated among the number of female accomplishments2 and it is certainly rather wonderful1 because when the mechanism is once obtained1 it requires no exertion of intellect to practise it2 it may be carried on while sitting1 walking1 and talking1 or in almost every situation to which ordinary life is called2 and when it is considered that its produce adds to the comfort of the indigent1 to the advantage of the poor1--and that to persons in easy circumstances habitual industry increases their happiness1 these things considered1 it is with wonder and regret we see it fallen into disuse2 particularly as it is an occupation suited to every age and capacity1 which the infant is strong enough to practise2 and even in the infirmity and weakness of age it is practicable4 ,we certainly do hope and trust these observations may invite the attention of those meritorious individuals who have the direction and management of our scholastic establishments1 to revive the practice4 ,fishing nets are also in use among the most barbarous nations of this period1 as various navigators have satisfactorily proved2 frequently made of rude materials1 it is true--some of the bark of trees1 and others of the beards of whales1 besides a variety of other articles which the more refined inhabitants of civilised countries would never think of using for such a purpose4 ,the art of making nets1 or ornaments of fine yarn1 is said not to be a modern invention1 it having been practised for hangings1 and articles of dress and ornament4 ,in the middle ages1 it appears1 the clergy wore netting of silk over their clerical robes4 ,professor ,beckmann also says1 he suspects those transparent dresses were used by ladies more than four hundred years ago1 to cover those beauties they still wish to be visible4 ,the invention for making coverings for the legs1 of this manufacture1 is1 we understand1 of much later invention4 ,it is well known that the ,romans and the ancient nations had no particular covering for their legs4 ,indeed the necessity was not so urgent with the inhabitants of warm climates1 as with those in our northern regions1 who1 we find1 generally covered not only the feet1 but the legs1 thighs1 and loins1 with the same garment4 ,such1 there is reason to conclude1 were the trews1 or trowsers1 anciently worn by the ,scotch1 but not knit hose1 which the following lines1 from an old song1 will help to prove3 8,in days whan gude ,king ,robert rang1 ,his trews they cost but half a croun3 ,he said they were a groat o'er dear1 ,and ca'd the tailor thief and loun40 ,a celebrated author on antiquities says1 8,it is probable the art of knitting stockings was first found out in the sixteenth century2 but the time of the invention is doubtful40 ,he continues1 8,savary appears to have been the first person who hazarded a conjecture that this art is a ,scottish invention1 because when the ,french stocking-knitters became so numerous as to form a guild1 they made choice of ,st4 ,fiacre1 a native of ,scotland1 to be their patron2 and besides this1 there is a tradition1 that the first knit stockings were brought to ,france from that country40 ,this ,st4 ,fiacre1 it appears1 was the son of ,eugenius1 said to have been a ,scottish king in the seventh century2 and ,fiacre lived as a hermit at ,meaux1 in ,france2 in the ,roman calendar1 his name is opposite to the #cjth of ,august4 ,more probable1 however1 is the opinion in this country which respectable writers support among them4 ,we are informed by the author of the 8,history of the ,world10 that ,henry ,,viii41 who reigned from #aeji to #aedg1 and who was fond of show and magnificence1 at first wore woollen stockings2 till by a singular occurrence he received a pair of silk knit stockings from ,spain4 ,his son ,edward ,,vi41 who succeeded him on the throne1 obtained by means of his merchant1 ,thomas ,gresham1 a pair of long ,spanish knit silk stockings2 this present was at that time highly prized4 ,queen ,elizabeth1 in the third year of her reign1 ,a4 ,d4 #aefa1 received by her silk-woman1 named ,montague1 a pair of knit silk stockings1 and afterwards refused to wear any other kind4 ,stowe also relates1 in his 8,general ,chronicle of ,england10 that the ,earl of ,pembroke was the first nobleman who wore worsted knit stockings4 ,in the year #aefd1 ,william ,ridor1 an apprentice of master ,thomas ,burdet1 having accidentally seen1 in the shop of an ,italian merchant1 a pair of knit worsted stockings1 procured from ,mantua1 having borrowed them1 made a pair exactly like them2 these were the first stockings that were knit in ,england1 from woollen yarn4 ,from this it would appear1 that knit stockings were first introduced into ,england in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and that they were brought from ,spain to this country2 and probability appears to favour the belief that they were originally the produce of either that country or ,italy4 ,should this be the case1 it has been conceived by ,professor ,beckmann1 that they came originally from ,arabia to ,spain4 ,the investigation with respect to the feigned productions of ,rowley1 published by the unfortunate ,thomas ,chatterton1 arose from the mention of knitting1 in a passage of those poems2 it being contended that knit hose were unknown in the days of ,rowley4 ,the passage alluded to occurs in the tragedy of 8,ella30-- 8,she sayde1 as herr whytte hands whytte hosen were knyttinge1 ,whatte pleasure ytt ys to be married60 ,a like ordeal took place with respect to ,macpherson's ,ossian from a similar reason1 the mention of the sun's reflection setting on a glass window3 now the existence of ,ossian being contemporary with that of ,julius ,csar1 it was contended that at that period it was not customary to glaze windows4 ,the ,johnsonian faction set about that business in a very unsystematic manner3 they should have procured some well qualified ,erse scholar to have gone into those wilds where ,macpherson declared he collected his materials from oral traditionary recitals1 and have heard the poems themselves from the mouths of the aged inhabitants4 ,if the traces of them could not have been found1 they might then have ascribed the superior honour to ,macpherson of writing a work that ,greece1 or ,rome1 in the splendour of literary glory1 never surpassed1 for many poetical beauties4 ,the people of ,scotland1 in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 had1 in the proper sense of the word1 breeches2 and wore a kind of stockings1 their hose coming only to the knees2 their stockings were made of linen or woollen1 and breeches of hemp4 ,it is supposed that these particular articles of dress were also common in ,england1 at and after that time1 for in the year #aeaj1 ,henry ,,viii4 appeared upon a public occasion1 with his attendants1 in dresses of the following description3--8,the king and some of the gentlemen had the upper parts of their hosen1 which was of blue and crimson1 powdered with castels and sheafes of arrows of fine ducket gold1 and the nether parts of scarlet1 powdered with timbrels10 c4 ,there may be occasion to suppose the upper parts of the hose were in separate pieces1 as they were of different colours4 ,hollinshed1 also speaking of another festival says1 8,the garments of six of them were of strange cuts1 every cut knit with points of gold1 and tassels of the same1 their hosen cut in and tied likewise40 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #aecj1 the word knit appears to have been quite common in ,england1 for ,john ,palsgrave1 a ,french master to the ,princess ,mary1 daughter of ,henry ,,viii41 published a grammar1 in which he stated1 that this word in ,french was applied to the making of nets as well as of caps and of stockings4 ,in the household book of a noble family in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 kept during the life of ,sir ,thomas ,l',estrange1 ,knight of ,hunstanton1 ,norfolk1 by his ,lady1 ,ann1 daughter of ,lord ,vaux1 there are the following entries1 whence the price of those articles at that period are ascertained3-- #aecc4 #be ,h4 #h4 #g ,sept4 ,peyd for #d peyr of knytt hose--viii s4 #aech4 #cj ,h4 #h4 #c ,oct4 ---- #b peyr of knytt hose--i s4 ,it is observed that the first four pairs were for ,sir ,thomas1 and the latter for his children4 ,nevertheless1 in the reign of ,mary1 i4e4 #aeeh1 many wore cloth hose1 as is evidenced in the following anecdote of ,dr4 ,sands1 who was afterwards ,archbishop of ,york4 ,being in the ,tower1 he had permission for a tailor to come and take an order for a pair of hose4 ,this serves to prove the veracity of ,stowe1 that stockings were not an article manufactured in ,england generally1 we suppose1 till six years afterwards4 8,dr4 ,sands1 on his going to bed in ,hurleston's house1 he had a paire of hose newlie made1 that were too long for him4 ,for while he was in the ,tower1 a tailor was admitted to make him a pair of hose4 ,one came into him whose name was ,beniamin1 dwelling in ,birchin lane2 he might not speak to him or come to him to take measure of him1 but onelie to look upon his leg2 he made the hose1 and they were two inches too long4 ,these hose he praied the good wife of the house to send to some tailor to cut his hose two inches shorter4 ,the wife required the boy of the house to carrie them to the next tailor1 which was ,beniamin that made them4 ,the boy required him to cut the hose4 ,he said1 #8j am not the maister's tailor4' ,saith the boy1 #8,because ye are our next neighbour1 and my maister's tailor dwelleth far off1 j come to you4' ,beniamin took the hose and looked upon them1 he took his handle work in hand1 and said1 #8,these are not thy maister's hose1 but ,doctor ,sands1 them j made in the ,tower4'0 ,in a catalogue of the revenues of the ,bishop of ,st4 ,asaph1 it is stated1 8,the bishop of that diocese was entitled1 as a perquisite1 upon the death of any beneficed clergyman1 to his best coat1 jerkin1 doublet1 and breeches4 ,item1 his hose or nether stockings1 shoes1 and garters40 ,about #aeeg1 knitting must have become common1 for ,harrison1 in his description of the indigenous produce of this island1 says1 the bark of the alder tree was used by the peasants' wives for dying stockings which they had knitted4 ,hollinshed also informs us1 that about #aegi1 when ,queen ,elizabeth was at ,norwich1 8upon the stage there stood at one end eight small women children spinning worsted yarn1 and at the other end as many knitting worsted yarn into hose40 ,silk stockings are said1 in consequence of their high price1 for a long time to have been worn only upon grand occasions4 ,henry ,,ii4 of ,france1 wore them for the first time1 on the marriage of his sister with the ,duke of ,savoy in the year #aeei4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 who ascended the throne in #aege1 the consort of ,geoffroy ,camus de ,pontcarre1 who held a high office in the state1 would not wear silk stockings given to her by a nurse who lived at court1 because she considered them to be too gay4 ,anno #aefi1 when the privy-councillor ,barthold von ,mandelsoh1 who had been envoy to many diets and courts1 appeared on a week-day with silk stockings1 which he had brought from ,italy1 the ,margrave ,john of ,austria said to him1 8,barthold1 ,i have silk stockings also2 but ,i wear them only on ,sundays and holidays40 ,the knitting stockings with wires1 called weaving1 has been thought to bear a resemblance to the wire work in screens of churches4 ,however1 the invention of the stocking loom is thought more worthy of attention1 because it is alleged to have been the production of a single person1 and perfected at one trial2 his name1 and the exact period is ascertained2 and1 because it is founded upon a similar incident to that of the beauteous ,corinthian maid1 elsewhere mentioned1 as the introducer of painting in ,greece2 we bestow a particular attention upon this incident which produced the stocking loom1 trusting our fair readers will favour us with their attention1 when they are informed it is ascribed to ,love4 ,it is a complicated piece of machinery1 consisting of no fewer than two thousand pieces2 it could not have been discovered accidentally1 but must have been the result of deep combination and profound sagacity4 ,under the usurpation of ,cromwell1 the stocking-knitters of ,london presented a petition1 requesting permission to establish a guild4 ,in this petition they gave a circumstantial account of their profession1 of its rise1 progress1 and importance4 ,no doubt can exist but that in this document the petitioners rendered the best1 and probably a true account of the origin and progress of their trade1 that of stocking weaving being then scarcely fifty years old4 ,the circumstances they stated being then within memory1 any misrepresentation would have militated against them1 and could have been easily contradicted4 ,in ,deering's account of ,nottingham1 this petition is found4 ,in that town the loom was first employed1 where it has given wealth to many4 ,from this account it appears the inventor's name was ,william ,lee1 a native of ,woodborough1 a village about seven miles distant from ,nottingham1 in which the following passage occurs3 8,which trade is properly styled frame work-knitting1 because it is direct and absolute knit-work in the stitches thereof1 nothing different therein from the common way of knitting1 7not much more anciently for public use practised in this nation than this17 but only in the number of needles1 at an instant working in this1 more than in the other by a hundred for one1 set in an engine or frame composed of above two thousand pieces of smith's1 joiner's and turner's work1 after so artificial and exact a manner that1 by the judgment of all beholders1 it far excels in the ingenuity1 curiosity1 and subtility of the invention and contexture1 all other frames or instruments of manufacture in use in any known part of the world40 ,the inventor of this ingenious machine was heir to a considerable freehold estate1 and a graduate of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,being1 it is said1 deeply enamoured of a lovely young country-girl1 who1 during his frequent visits1 paid more attention to her work1 which was knitting1 than to her lover or his proposals1 he endeavoured to find out a machine which might facilitate and forward the operation of knitting1 and by these means afford more leisure to the object of his affections to converse with him4 ,love1 indeed1 is confessed to be fertile in inventions1 and has been the efficient passion which has perfected many inventions for which the gratitude of the world is due2 but a machine so complex1 so wonderful in its effects1 would seem to require a longer time than was probably allowed1 and a cooler judgment than a lover's to construct such mechanism4 ,but even should the cause appear problematical1 there cannot exist a doubt but the real inventor was ,mr4 ,william ,lee1 of ,woodborough1 in ,nottinghamshire4 ,deering says expressly1 that ,lee made the first stocking-loom in the year #aehi2 this account has also been adopted by various ,english writers4 ,in the ,stocking-weaver's ,hall1 ,london1 is an old painting1 in which ,lee is represented pointing out his loom to a female knitter1 who is standing near him2 and below is seen an inscription with the date #aehi1 the period of the invention4 8,the ingenious ,william ,lee1 ,master of ,arts of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 devised this profitable art for stockings1 7but being despised1 went to ,france17 yet of iron to himself1 but to us and others of gold2 in memory of whom this is here painted40 ,lee set up an establishment at ,calverton1 a village five miles from ,nottingham1 but met with no success4 ,in this situation he showed his work to ,queen ,elizabeth2 from that princess he requested some assistance1 his work having embarrassed rather than assisted him2 but instead of meeting with that remuneration to which his genius and invention so well entitled him1 he was discouraged and discountenanced4 ,it need not1 therefore1 excite surprise that ,lee accepted the invitation of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 who having heard of the invention1 promised him a magnificent reward if he would carry it to ,france4 ,he took nine journeymen1 and several looms to ,rouen1 where he worked with much approbation2 but the king being shortly after assassinated1 and internal commotions taking place1 the concern got into difficulties1 and ,lee died in poverty at ,paris4 ,a knowledge of the machine was brought back to ,england by some of the workmen who had emigrated with ,lee1 and who established themselves in ,nottinghamshire1 which still continues the principal seat of the manufacture4 ,during the first century after the invention of the stocking-loom1 few improvements were made upon it1 and two men were usually employed to work one frame4 ,but in the course of last century the machine was very greatly improved4 ,the late ingenious ,mr4 ,jedediah ,strut1 of ,belper1 ,derbyshire1 was the first individual who succeeded in adapting it to the manufacture of ribbed stockings4 ,estimating the population of ,great ,britain1 say sixteen millions1 and the average annual expenditure of each individual upon stockings and knit gloves at five shillings1 the total value of the manufacture will be #d1jjj1jjj1 and we consider this rather to be under than over the mark4 ,the effect of this invention was very late in making its appearance in ,scotland4 ,till far on in the eighteenth century1 the use of knitted stockings was universal4 ,mittens1 or woollen gloves for the hands1 and boot-hose1 for drawing over the legs in riding1 were also quite common1 and all were wrought by the hand4 ,the manufacture was carried on solely by women1 the wives and daughters of farmers1 generally1 and the produce was sold as the means of bringing in a small revenue4 ,the introduction of the stocking-loom to ,hawick1 in #agga1 and the change of manners which took place about this period1 soon put an end to this traffic2 but still the greater part of the stockings worn by the country people on ordinary occasions are knitted at home4 ,the art is also still in use in ,shetland1 where knitting forms the only amusement to relieve the tedium of a long winter1 and where the articles produced are exceedingly fine in the texture3 the ,shetland hose bring the highest price of any woollen stocking4 ,,coaches4 ,coach is said to be derived from caroche1 ,italian2 a term first used in the eleventh century1 and invented to designate a military machine1 so called4 ,we intend the word coaches to stand for the generic name of all those machines used for the carriage of persons1 on business or pleasure1 7except1 indeed1 those for the conveyance of the dead17 from the state carriage of the sovereign down to the humble gig4 ,the original inventor of this species of carriage is said to have been an ,athenian monarch1 #adhi years before ,christ1 who being afflicted with lameness in his feet1 first invented a coach for his convenience1 and with a view to conceal his debility4 ,this may be regarded as the first original1 of the kind1 of ,grecian invention4 ,the ancient historian1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 makes mention of a carriage in which ,sesostris was wont to be drawn2 and also1 he says when he entered the city1 or went out to the sacrifice1 had four of his captive kings yoked to his chariot2 but it is conjectured this carriage1 to which that historian alludes1 was a warrior's car4 ,there is1 most assuredly1 ample room to believe that this was the first species of carriage which was introduced2 if so1 those existed long before the ,athenian king above-named2 because all the ,homeric heroes1 ,greeks as well as ,trojans1 and their auxiliaries1 rode in these machines1 called chariots1 or warriors' cars1 which are also known to have existed long antecedent to that period4 ,we remain assured that war chariots were used in the first ages of the world1 by all the great monarchs who possessed dominion4 ,that species of carriage before said to have been invented by the ,athenian monarch1 we therefore presume1 was a covered carriage1 similar to that species designated in the twelve tables of the ,roman law1 and by them called arcera1 which was said to be a carriage of the last presumed description1 and mentioned as being intended for the conveyance of the infirm4 ,to this species of carriage succeeded the soft lectica4 ,but we will leave this part of our subject1 and proceed towards our own times4 ,after the subversion of the ,roman power1 the northern sovereigns1 who had become the barbarous and ignorant oppressors of our species1 introduced and established1 among other political regulations1 the feudal system1 as it was called1 by which all property in land was held by certain fiefs1 whereby the king1 or1 as termed1 lord of the soil1 let certain portions of the land to his nobles1 military officers1 and other great persons1 generally often on condition of certain services required to be performed1 called knights' service1 and other military tenures2 by which custom those tenants of the sovereign had to provide certain men and horses to serve him in his wars4--,these first tenants1 or vassals1 afterwards underlet those lands to villains1 so named1 in contradistinction to the present recognised term1 from their living in villages or hamlets1 and other tenants1 from whom1 in their turn1 similar services and certain provisions were required4--,thus the ,european world1 which had become the prey of effeminacy and luxury1 had1 by this single important circumstance1 their character so radically changed1 that1 like the mysterious power of the ,cadman wand of ,harlequin1 wrought so uncommon a change in the morals of ,european society1 that those who had formerly kept carriages1 and wallowed in all the soft luxurious delicacy of ,asiatic effeminacy1 suddenly1 or1 at least1 progressively1 became a society of hardy equestrian veterans4 ,insomuch1 that masters and servants1 husbands and wives1 clergy and laity1 all rode upon horses1 mules1 or asses1 which latter animals were chiefly used by women1 monks1 and other religious professors4 ,the minister rode to court2 the horse1 without a conductor1 returned to the stable1 till a servant1 regulated by the horologe1 took him back to the court for his master4 ,in this manner1 we are assured1 the magistrates of the imperial cities rode to council1 till as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century2 so that in the year #aejb1 steps to assist in mounting were erected by the ,roman gate at ,frankfort4 ,the members of the council who1 at the diet and other occasions1 were employed as ambassadors1 were1 on this account1 called rittmeister in the language of the country2 at present the expression riding-servant is preserved in some of the imperial cities4 ,the entry of great lords in public into any place1 or their departure from it1 was never in a carriage1 but always on horseback2 in all the pontifical records1 speaking of ceremonials1 no mention is made either of a state coach1 or body coachman1 but of state horses and state mules4 ,in the following regulation1 it is found that the horse which his ,holiness rode 8was necessary to be of an iron-grey colour2 not mettlesome1 but a quiet1 tractable nag4 ,that a stool of three steps should be provided for the assistance of his ,holiness in mounting3 that the emperor1 or kings1 if present1 were obliged to hold his stirrup1 and lead the horse40 ,bishops made their public entry1 on induction1 on horses or asses richly caparisoned4 ,at the coronation of the emperor1 the electors and principal officers of the empire were ordered to make their entry on horseback4--,it was formerly requisite1 that those who received a fief1 or other investiture1 should make their appearance on horseback4 ,the vassal was obliged to ride with two attendants to the court of his lord1 where1 after he had dismounted his horse1 he received his fief4 ,covered carriages were again introduced in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 for the accommodation of women of the very first rank2 the men1 however1 thought it disgraceful to ride in them4 ,at that period1 when the electors1 and other ,germanic princes1 did not choose to be present at the meeting of the ,states1 they excused themselves to the emperor1 that their health would not permit them to ride on horseback1 which was considered as an established point1 that it was unbecoming to them to ride like women4 ,what1 according to their prevailing ideas1 was not permitted to princes1 was much less allowed to their servants4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #aeed1 when ,count ,wolf1 of ,barby1 was summoned by ,john ,frederic1 ,elector of ,saxony1 to go to ,spires1 to attend the convention of the ,states assembled there1 he requested leave1 on account of ill health1 to make use of a close carriage with four horses4 ,when the counts and nobility were invited to attend the solemnity of the elector's half brother1 ,john ,ernest1 the invitation was accompanied with a memorandum1 that such dresses of ceremony as they might be desirous of taking with them1 should be transported in a small waggon2--which notice would have been unnecessary1 had coaches been generally used among those nobles4 ,the use of covered carriages was in fact1 for a long time1 prohibited even to women1 the consorts of princes4 ,about the year #aede1 the wife of a certain duke obtained from him1 with great difficulty1 permission to use a covered carriage in a journey to the baths1 in which permission there was this express stipulation1 that none of her attendants were to be permitted this indulgence3 though much pomp was displayed upon the occasion by the duchess4 ,such is the influence of example in our superiors1 who can mould dependents and inferiors to whatever shape they please4 ,notwithstanding all these ceremonious regulations1 about the end of the fifteenth century1 kings and princes began to employ covered carriages in journeys1 and afterwards on public solemnities4 ,when ,richard ,,ii41 towards the close of the fourteenth century1 was compelled to fly from his rebellious subjects1 himself with all his followers1 were on horseback2 but his mother1 who was weak and sick1 rode in a carriage4 ,but this became afterwards unfashionable here1 for that monarch's queen1 ,anna1 daughter of the ,king of ,bohemia1 showed the ,english ladies how gracefully she could ride on a side-saddle2 and therefore whirlicotes 7the ancient name for coaches in ,england71 and chariots1 were disused in ,england1 except on coronations and other public solemnities4 ,in the year #adga1 after the battle of ,tewkesbury1 which decided the fate of ,henry ,,vi41 and that of the house of ,lancaster1 when others flew in different directions1 the queen was found in her coach1 almost dead with sorrow4 ,in #adgd1 the ,emperor ,frederic ,,iii4 came to ,frankfort in a close carriage2 and as he remained in it on account of the wetness of the weather1 the inhabitants had no occasion to support the canopy which was to have been held over him1 while he went to the council house and returned4 ,in the following year1 the same emperor visited that city in a very magnificent carriage4 ,in #adhg1 on occasion of the celebration of the feast of ,st4 ,george at ,windsor1 the third year of ,henry ,,vii41 the queen and king went in a rich chaise2 they were attended by twenty-one ladies4 ,in the description of the splendid tournament held by the ,elector of ,brandenburg1 at ,ruppin1 in #aeji1 ,beckmann says1 he reads of a carriage all gilt1 which belonged to the ,electress2 of twelve other coaches1 ornamented with crimson2 and of another1 belonging to the ,duchess of ,mecklenburgh1 which was hung with red satin4 ,in the ,northumberland household book1 about this period1 is an order of the duke for the chapel stuff to be sent before in my lord's chariot4 ,at the coronation of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 #aefb1 the ,elector of ,cologne had twelve carriages4 ,in #aeid1 when ,john ,sigismund did homage at ,warsaw1 for ,prussia1 he had in his train thirty-six coaches1 with six horses each4 ,count ,kevenhiller1 speaking of the marriage of ,ferdinand ,,ii4 with a princess of ,bavaria1 says1 8,the bride rode with her sisters in a splendid carriage studded with gold2 her maids of honour in carriages hung with black satin1 and the rest of the ladies in neat leather carriages40 ,mary1 ,infanta of ,spain1 spouse of ,ferdinand ,,iii41 rode1 in #afca1 in a glass carriage1 in which no more than two persons could sit4 ,the wedding carriage of the first wife of the ,emperor ,leopold1 who was a ,spanish princess1 cost1 with the harness1 #ch1jjj florins4 ,the coaches used by that emperor are thus described3--8,in the imperial coaches no great magnificence was to be seen2 they were covered over with red cloth and black nails4 ,the harness was black1 and in the whole work there was no gold4 ,the panels were of glass1 and on that account they were called the imperial glass coaches4 ,on festivals the harness was ornamented with red silk fringes4 ,the imperial coaches were distinguished only by their having leather traces2 but the ladies in the imperial suite were obliged to be content to be conveyed in carriages1 the traces of which were made of ropes40 ,at the magnificent court of ,ernest ,augustus1 at ,hanover1 there were in #afha1 fifty gilt coaches1 with six horses each4 ,so early did ,hanover begin to surpass other cities in the number and splendour of its carriages4 ,the first time that coaches were introduced into ,sweden was towards the end of the sixteenth century1 when ,john of ,finland1 among other articles of luxury1 brought one with him on his return from ,england4 ,beckmann also informs us1 that the great lords of ,germany first imagined that they could suppress the use of coaches by prohibitions4 ,there is still preserved an edict1 in which the feudal nobility and vassals are forbidden the use of coaches1 under pain of incurring the punishment of felony4 ,philip ,,ii41 ,duke of ,pomeranian-,stettin1 reminded his vassals also1 in #afjh1 that they ought not to make so much use of carriages as of horses4 ,all these orders and admonitions1 however1 were of no avail1 and coaches became common all over ,germany4 ,persons of the first rank 7ladies we presume71 in ,france1 frequently sat behind their equerry1 and the horse was often led by servants4 ,when ,charles ,,vi41 wished to see1 incognito1 the entry of the queen1 he placed himself behind his master of the horse1 with whom1 however1 he was incommoded in the crowd4 ,private persons in ,france1 physicians1 for instance1 used no carriages in the fifteenth century4 ,in ,paris1 at all the palaces and public places1 there were steps for mounting on horseback4 ,carriages1 notwithstanding1 appear to have been used very early in ,france1 as appears by an ordinance issued in #abid1 for suppressing luxury1 and in which the citizens were prohibited from using carriages4 ,about #aeej1 there were at ,paris1 for the first time1 only three coaches2 one of which belonged to the queen2 another to ,diana of ,poictiers1 the favourite mistress of two kings1 ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,ii42 and the third to ,ren de ,laval1 a corpulent nobleman1 unable to ride on horseback4 ,henry ,,iv4 was assassinated in a coach2 but he usually rode through the streets of ,paris on horseback4 ,for himself and his queen he had only one coach1 as appears by a letter which he writes to a friend1 which is still preserved3 8,i cannot wait upon you to-day1 because my wife is using my carriage40 ,roubo1 in his costly treatise on joiners' work1 has furnished three figures of carriages used in the time of ,henry ,,iv41 from drawings preserved in the ,king's ,library3 from them it is seen those coaches were not suspended by straps1 that they had a canopy supported by ornamental pillars1 and that the whole body was surrounded by curtains of stuff or leather1 which could be drawn up4 ,the coach in which ,louis ,,iv4 made his public entrance about the middle of the seventeenth century1 appears from a drawing in the same library to have been a suspended carriage4 ,our national chronicler1 ,john ,stowe1 says coaches were first known in ,england about #aehj2 he likewise says1 they were first brought from ,germany by the ,earl of ,arundel1 in #aehi4 ,anderson places the period when coaches began to be used in common here about #afje4 ,it is remarked of the ,duke of ,buckingham1 that he was the first who was drawn by six horses1 in #afai4 ,to ridicule this pomp1 the ,earl of ,northumberland put eight horses to his carriage4 ,things are altered now when we have carriages of every description--for the high and low1 the rich and the poor4 ,vis-a-vis1--an open carriage chiefly constructed for the benefit of conversation1 as its name implies4 ,landau1 landaulets1 phtons1 chaises1 whiskeys1 cabs1 fiacres1 c41 c41 are but names adapted to different purposes1 and constructed nearly upon the same principles as coaches1 but some of them close1 others open1 some to be opened or shut according to the weather1 or taste of the passengers1 and calculated to contain an indefinite number1 from two to six persons2 nay1 there are the jolly good omnibuses running in every town and village in the kingdom1 the generality of which are constructed to carry twelve inside and eight outside passengers4 ,the number of hackney coaches which ply in the streets of ,london have been augmented from time to time1 since their first establishment in #afbe1 when there were only twenty4 ,coaches1 cabs1 omnibuses1 c41 now plying1 amount to nearly three thousand4 ,to prevent imposition1 the proprietors of these carriages are compelled to have their names painted on some conspicuous place of the carriage1 and their number affixed in the inside1 as well as the out4 ,this regulation has become absolutely necessary of late years1 on account of the numerous frauds practised by the coachmen4 ,we read that in ,russia there are employed clumsy1 but very convenient sorts of carriages1 so constructed as to be either closed or open1 and to hold a bed or couch1 called brichka1 with which persons can travel even for two or three thousand miles without much inconvenience1 except it be over the rough stones of their towns1 owing to the superior accommodations of either lying down or sitting2 this change of position renders a journey less irksome1 without which it would prove intolerable4 ,in ,russia1 from ,riga to the ,crimea1 at least1 post horses are furnished by the government1 and entrusted to subalterns in the ,russian army to provide them4 ,coaches for hire were first established by public authority in ,france1 as early as #afga4 ,there are employed in the streets of the capital no fewer than three thousand hackney coaches4 ,as early as the year #afej ,charles ,villerme paid into the royal treasury fifteen thousand livres1 for the exclusive privilege of keeping and using fiacres in ,paris4 ,post chaises were introduced in the year #affd4 ,hackney coaches were established in ,edinburgh in #afgc1 when the number was only twenty4 ,public fiacres were introduced at ,warsaw in #aggh4 ,in ,amsterdam the coaches have no wheels2 nor have they any at ,petersburg in the winter--they are used as sledges4 ,the state-coach of the city of ,london is a species of heir-loom1 or the hereditary property of the city2 it is a very large and apparently extremely heavy machine1 but superbly decorated with large panels of crystal glass1 richly gilt1 and elegantly painted with several appropriate designs4 ,in one of the centre panels1 among a group of figures1 is one supporting a shield bearing the inscription 8,henry ,fitzalwin1 #aahi10 in the old ,english1 character2 therefore we conjecture that the coach was constructed at a period coeval with the above date4 ,,saddles1 ,,bridles1 ,,and ,,stirrups4 ,in the earliest ages it was customary to ride without either bridles or saddles1 if the poet be worthy of credit2 for we observe ,lucan1 speaking of the ,massillians1 says3 8,without a saddle the ,massilians ride1 ,and with a bending switch their horses guide40 ,they regulated the motion of the horses by a switch and their voice4 ,it has been observed1 that the case was the same with the ,numidians1 ,getulians1 ,libyans1 as well as most of the ,grecian people4 ,as the reason of the thing appears to point out the superior expediency of a bridle1 they afterwards came into fashion among the ,greeks1 which they called lupi2 because it is said the bit of the bridle bore a resemblance to the teeth of the wolf1 whence ,lucan says of it3-- 8,nor with the sharper bits ,manage th' unruly horse40 ,in the east it would appear that bridles1 at least1 were used at an early period4 ,for we have a great number of texts in the ,scripture1 which definitely express as much3 in the ,psalms1 and likewise in ,proverbs1 the name and application of the bridle is often particularly mentioned1 and more frequently alluded to4 ,virgil1 indeed1 says1 referring to very early times3 8,the ,lapith of ,pelethronium rode ,with bridles first1--and what their use was show'd40 ,the saddle is also of ancient origin1 for we read in ,i4 ,kings1 xiii41 #ac41--8;,and he said unto his sons1 saddle me the ass4 ,so they saddled him the ass3 and he rode thereon40 ,and before that period1 in the second generation after ,noah1 the ,assyrian empire was established4 ,in its commencement1 even as early as the days of ,semiramis1 the wife of ,ninus1 the first ,assyrian king1 who built ,ninevah1 there were those articles of horse furniture1 called packs and fardles2 for in ancient historians we find the following passage occur in this respect4 8,semiramis ascended from the plain to the top of the mountain1 by laying the packs and fardels of the beasts that followed her1 one upon another40 ,the same author informs us that this was ,mount ,bagistan1 in ,medea1 and that it was seventeen furlongs from the top to the bottom4 ,in the first ages1 among the ,greeks and ,romans1 a cloth or mattrass1 a piece of leather or raw hide1 was all they used for a saddle4 ,such coverings afterwards became more costly3 ,silius ,italicus says1 they were made of costly skins4 ,it1 however1 appears1 that after they were become common1 it was considered as effeminate to use them2 hence the ,romans despised them3 and in his old age1 ,varro boasts of having1 when young1 rode without a covering to his horse4 ,xenophon reproaches the ,persians1 because they put more clothes upon the backs of their horses than upon their beds4 ,from the aspect in which hardy people viewed this practice1 the warlike ,teutones considered it most disgraceful1 and despised the ,roman cavalry4 ,in the fifth century1 saddles were so magnificent1 that a prohibition was issued by ,leo ,i41 that they should not be ornamented with pearls or precious stones4 ,in the sixth century1 the ,emperor ,mauritas directed that they should have coverings of fur1 of large dimensions4 ,from every information we have been able to collect1 we believe that the appendage of stirrups were not added to saddles before the sixth century4 ,it is said1 that previous to the introduction of stirrups1 the young and agile used to mount their horses by vaulting upon them1 which many did in an expert and graceful manner2 of course1 practice was essential to this perfection4 ,that this should be afforded1 wooden horses were placed in the ,campus ,martius1 where this exercise was performed of mounting or dismounting on either side2 first1 without1 and next with arms4 ,cavalry had also1 occasionally1 a strap of leather1 or a metallic projection affixed to their spears1 in or upon which the foot being placed1 the ascent became more practicable4 ,respecting the period of this invention1 ,montfaucon has presumed that the invention must have been subsequent to the use of saddles2 however1 opposed to this opinion1 an ingenious argument has been offered1 that is possible they might have been anterior to that invention2 because1 it is said1 they might have been appended to a girth round the body of the horse4 ,both ,hippocrates and ,galen speak of a disease to which the feet and ancles were subject1 from long riding1 occasioned by suspension of the feet without a resting-place4 ,suetonius1 the ,roman1 informs us that ,germanicus1 the father of ,caligula1 was wont to ride after dinner1 to strengthen his ancles1 by the action of riding affording the blood freer circulation in the part4 ,the ,latin names assigned them have been various1 among which is scal2 in which sense ,mauritius1 in his treatise on the art of war1 is said to have named them4 ,now1 this writer is supposed to have lived in the sixth century2 but we conceive it is pretty evident they had an earlier existence in ,arabia1 ,turkey1 and ,persia1 as there is an alto1 as well as bas-relief of this last country1 still extant1 which is believed to have been as ancient as the days of ,darius1 because it was brought from the city he built1 ,persepolis1 having this representation4 ,the invention and name of stirrup is supposed to have been borrowed from the anatomy of the ear1 where a band is found resembling it in form4 ,,horse-,,shoes4 ,when we consider the vast importance of security to the feet of that useful animal1 the horse1 we cannot but feel surprised that on account of the very rough roads the ancients must occasionally had to travel1 that some metallic shoes had not been invented and introduced previously to the period when they appeared4 ,that the security of the rider necessarily depended upon the safety of the animal he rode1 cannot be questioned4 ,hence1 then1 we do not wonder to observe1 that the sagacious ,aristotle and ,pliny should remark upon the covering placed upon the feet of those animals of draught and burden4 ,from what these authors have said1 however1 we dare not conclude that the feet of horses or camels were faced or shod with iron3 but it should rather seem that in time of war1 or on long journeys1 the feet of both kinds of beasts were prepared with such species of shoes as the common people wore1 and which were generally made of strong ox-leather4 ,we are told that when the hoofs of cattle1 particularly oxen1 had sustained any injury or hurt1 they were furnished with shoes made of ,spanish or ,african broom1 with which linen is often manufactured in the south of ,france and ,italy2 also shoes of some of the plants of the hemp kind1 which were woven or plaited together4 ,although these may be considered as only a species of surgical bandages with regard to oxen2 but such shoes were particularly given to mules1 which in days of old were employed much more than at present for riding2 and from some instances of immoderate extravagance in people of rank1 it appears that they had for their animals very costly shoes of some of the most valuable metals4 ,nero1 when he undertook short journeys1 was drawn always by mules shod with silver1 and those of his wife were shod with gold4 ,the circumstance being barely mentioned1 without any particular detail1 we are anxious to afford any certain information on the mode in which those shoes were constructed4 ,from a passage in ,dio ,cassius1 we have reason to believe that it was only the upper part of the shoe that was made of those costly metals1 or that they were plaited from thin slips4 ,xenophon relates that a certain people in ,asia were in the habit of drawing socks over the feet of their horses1 when the snow lay deep on the ground4 ,the ,kamschatkian employs the same means to preserve the feet of his dogs1 which draw his sledge1 or hunt the seals upon the ice4 ,those species of shoes1 according to ,captain ,cook1 are so ingeniously made as to be bound1 and at the same time to admit the claws of the animal through them4 ,from a passage found in ,suetonius1 we may infer that the ,roman horse-shoes were put on in the manner we have mentioned2 for that author says1 that the coachman of ,vespasian once stopped to put on the shoes of his mules3 this being the case1 the probability appears pretty certain1 that in deep roads and moist soils the animals must have frequently lost their shoes4 ,artemedorus speaks of a shod horse1 and uses the same kind of expression whilst speaking of other cattle4 ,winkelman has described a cut stone in the collection of ,baron ,stosch1 on which is represented the figure of a man holding one foot of a horse1 whilst another1 kneeling1 is employed in fastening a shoe4 ,that it was not usual to shoe the war-horse1 may be gathered from this1--when ,mithridates was besieging ,cyzicus1 he was obliged to send his cavalry to ,bythnia1 because the hoofs of the horses were entirely spoiled and worn out4 ,diodorus ,siculus informs us1 that ,alexander1 in his expedition1 proceeded with uninterrupted marches1 until the feet of his horses were entirely broken and destroyed4 ,a like instance occurs in ,cinnamus1 where the cavalry were obliged to be left behind1 because the horses had suffered considerably in their hoofs1 to which he adds1 they were often liable4 ,hence it may1 perhaps1 appear1 that such horse-shoes as are now in use1 were unknown to the ancients2 and ,chardiu gives no representation of them in ancient ,persian antiquities4 ,in the grave of ,childeric1 a northern chieftain and ,king of ,france1 was discovered a piece of iron1 which the learned antiquarians who saw it1 pronounced1 from that portion of it which the rust had left1 to have been an old horse-shoe2 they saw1 or thought they saw1 four distinct apertures for nails on each side2 but whilst they were endeavouring to remove the corrosive excrescence of rust1 to ascertain with more certainty1 it broke under their hands4 ,the reason why we mentioned this here is1 that if the relic discovered was really a horse-shoe1 it must have been one of the most ancient specimens known2 because1 we find that monarch died in the year #dha2 his grave was discovered at ,tournay in #afhc4 ,the occasion of his having a horse-shoe in his grave1 was from the creed of his religion2 the superstitious belief of the ,scandinavians taught them to place implicit confidence in the power of this amulet1 to prevent the ingress of evil spirits4 ,the remains of this belief is even now often seen in the obscure streets of the ,british metropolis2 and1 indeed1 throughout the country1 where the mystic shoe frequently appears as the faithful guardian of the domestic threshold4 ,it is1 we understand1 the opinion of the ,french historian1 ,daniel1 that1 in the ninth century1 horses were not shod always1 but only in the time of frost1 and on some other very particular occasions4 ,the practice of shoeing horses was introduced into ,england by ,william ,i4 ,we are told that this monarch gave the city of ,northampton as a fief to a certain person1 one of his attendants1 in consideration of his paying a certain sum yearly for the shoeing of horses4 ,and it is also alleged1 that ,henry1 or ,hugh de ,ferres1 or de ,ferrers1 was the same person who held this fief on the above condition1 and who was the ancestor of the family of that name1 and who still bear six horse-shoes in their coat of arms4 ,this was the person whom ,william entrusted to inspect his farriers4 ,we should not omit to observe1 that it is remarked1 that horse-shoes have been found1 with other riding furniture1 in the graves of some of the old inhabitants of ,germany1 and also in those of the ,vandals in the ,north of ,europe4 ,,gunpowder4 ,the express period when nitrum was first discovered is extremely uncertain2 but that this nitrum is an alkaline salt1 there is little difficulty in proving4 ,it has1 indeed1 been conjectured that it was a component part of the ,greek fire1 invented about the year #fgh1 which has been generally believed to be the origin of gunpowder4 ,from the oldest prescriptions which have been found1 and which is said to be that given by the ,princess ,anna ,commena1 in which1 however1 only resin1 sulphur1 and oil are mentioned1 saltpetre does not appear4 ,it is believed by an author very well qualified to form a judgment on the question1 that the first certain account we have of saltpetre by that express name1 occurs in the oldest account of the invention of gunpowder1 which1 according to him 7,professor ,beckmann7 occurred in the thirteenth century4 ,dr4 ,rees1 in his ,cyclopedia1 expressly says1 about the year #acbj2 and that it was first used by the ,venetians employed against the ,genoese in #achj2 also that it was first in ,europe at a place now known as ,chrogia1 against ,laurence de ,medicis2 and the last named authority adds1 8,that all ,italy made complaint against it1 as a contravention of the law of arms40 ,dr4 ,rees gives the following recipe for its manufacture1 without distinguishing the proportionate parts3--8,a composition of nitre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 mixed together1 and usually granulated40 ,he describes its effects by observing1 that 8it easily takes fire1 and when fired1 rarifies and expands with great vehemence by means of its elastic force20 also that 8it may be made without nitre1 by means of marine acid40 ,we have two accounts preserved to us of the original of this invention4 ,the first of which was given by our illustrious countryman1 ,roger ,bacon1 called the ,wonderful ,doctor1 who died ,a4 ,d4 #abgh2 previous to which period1 gunpowder must have existed4 ,the other account is by ,albertus ,magnus1 in a work published in #afab4 ,it is said to be doubted whether ,albertus was the author of the book which bears his name2 but that he1 whoever he may have been1 and ,bacon1 are presumed to have taken their information from the same identical source4 ,about the period of the invention of gunpowder1 it appears the art of making the ,greek fire began to be lost4 ,in the works of ,roger ,bacon1 the term occurs three times4 ,according to ,casiri1 the term pulvis nitratus1 is to be found in an ,arabic ,,ms4 the author of which existed about #abdi4 ,if the work of ,geber1 ,de ,investigatione ,perfectionis1 be genuine1 and if this writer lived1 as has been thought1 in the eighth century1 it would be the oldest where saltpetre is mentioned1 in a prescription for an aqua solutiva1 which appears to be almost aqua regia4 ,we are inclined to believe1 however1 from various authorities1 that gunpowder was invented in ,india1 as it was proved in a paper read before the ,french ,national ,institute1 by ,m4 ,langles1 that the ,arabians obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the ,indians1 who had been acquainted with it from the earliest periods4 ,the use of it in war is said to have been prohibited them in their sacred books4 ,it was employed in #fij at a battle near ,mecca1 by the ,arabians4 ,it was brought by the ,saracens from ,africa to the ,europeans1 who improved the preparation1 and first discovered various ways of employing it in war4 ,in no country could saltpetre and its various uses be more easily discovered than in ,india1 where the soil is so rich in nitrous particles that nothing is necessary but lixiviation to obtain saltpetre2 and where this substance is so abundant1 that almost all the gunpowder used in different wars1 with which ,european sovereigns have tormented themselves1 burdened their subjects with intolerable taxes1 and cursed the world from its invention--has been made from ,indian saltpetre4 ,had not saltpetre been known previous to the thirteenth century1 neither could gunpowder or aquafortis have existed2 and for the best of all reasons1 that neither of them could be made without saltpetre or nitre4 ,but should it appear that this neutral salt was known in ,india long prior to that period1 and used by ,indians as well as ,arabians before they were employed by ,europeans1 and considering the former to have practised chemistry previous to the latter2 should this have been proved1 perhaps a similar proof will necessarily await upon the articles aquafortis and gunpowder4 ,because if this affirmation be established1 it will be discovered that ,europeans knew nothing of aquafortis until after the ,arabian chemists4 ,probability appears to favour the idea1 that at or about the twelfth century the accumulated number of consequents1 from the improvement in ,european science1 the arts we now possess were introduced into our catalogue1 i4 e41 nitre1 aquafortis1 and gunpowder4 ,after the period that saltpetre became necessary to governments for the manufacture of gunpowder1 they endeavoured to obtain it at a cheap rate2 and for that purpose were guilty in some countries of the most violent and oppressive measures1 intruding upon private property of every description to furnish it1 hunting for the effervescence even in old walls1 to the great annoyance of individuals4 ,but after repeated acts of the most flagrant oppression from the public officers1 and from farmers1 to whom this iniquitous practice was entrusted1 they could not procure a sufficiency2 but were obliged to have recourse to traffic in ,india for that purpose4 ,,guns4 ,that these dangerous weapons were not known in ,europe previous to the introduction of gunpowder may be safely inferred2 as without that substance their necessity or utility is wanting4 ,at first the construction of this machine was characterised by that awkward1 rude1 and cumbersome appearance which generally distinguished all inventions in their infancy2 reminding us of those very rude instruments brought from the ,sandwich ,islands1 and deposited in our ,museum4 ,the first portable fire-arms were discharged by a match2 in course of time this was fastened to a cock1 for the greater security of the hand whilst discharging the piece4 ,afterwards a fire-stone was attached1 screwed into a cock1 with a steel plate before it1 and fixed in a small wheel1 which could be wound up by a key1 affixed to the barrel4 ,this fire-stone was not at first of a vitreous nature1 like that now in use for striking fire1 but a compact pyrites1 long known as such1 and called a fire-stone4 ,as an instrument so furnished was often liable to miss fire1 till a late period a match was still continued with the wheel2 and it was not till a considerable time after that1 instead of a friable pyrites1 so much exposed to effloresce1 a vitreous stone was affixed to the improvement of the lock1 somewhat resembling our own gun-lock4 ,but these progressive improvements advanced slowly1 because as recently as the early part of the last century these clumsy contrivances were in use4 ,during that period1 those instruments were denominated by various names1 chiefly ,german and ,dutch1 such as buchse1 hakenbuchse1 arquebuss1 musket1 martinet1 pistol1 c4 ,the first of these names arose from the oldest portable kind of fire-arms having a similarity to a box4 ,there were long and short buchse1 the latter of which were peculiar to cavalry2 the longest kind also1 from their resemblance to a pipe1 were called in ,germany1 rohr4 ,large pieces1 which were conveyed on carriages1 were called ,karren buchse1 from the action of conveyance4 ,soon afterwards cannon were introduced1 at first called canna2 now known as artillery4 ,however1 artillery-men1 and others concerned in those employments1 still use the terms previously mentioned4 ,the hackenbuchse were so very large and unwieldy1 that if carried in the hand1 they could not be used manually alone2 they were1 therefore1 supported by a post or stay1 called a bock1 because it had a forked end1 somewhat resembling the horns of the buck1 between which the piece was fixed by a hook projecting from the stock4 ,there is still preserved in the ,tower of ,london1 an old buchse2 a specimen of every species of our national arms may be seen in the same place4 ,from those terms before-mentioned1 it would appear1 that not only the ,english1 but also the ,french1 and most other ,european nations1 took the names of their fire-arms4 ,it appears that pistols were first used in ,germany2 they had a wheel attached to them4 ,bellay mentions them in the year #aedd1 in the time of ,francis ,i42 and under ,henry ,,ii41 the ,german horsemen were called pistoliers4 ,several historians think that the name came from ,pistolia1 in ,tuscany1 because there they were first made2 and1 if we might hazard an opinion1 we think this conjecture right4 ,hence1 although ,germany might first have generally used them1 we think they were an ,italian invention4 ,muskets are said to have received their name from either the ,french mouchet1 or else from the ,latin muschetus2 however1 we are of opinion that neither of these terms gave its original2 and submit that it is derived from the ,latin muscarium1--the fall of men being as sudden after the explosion of this deadly weapon1 as the death of a fly after it is flapped by that instrument1 which was common in the butcher's shambles of ancient ,rome4 ,daniel proves they were known in ,france as early as the period of ,francis ,i4 ,brandome1 however1 asserts they were introduced by the ,duke of ,alva--that cruel monster in human shape--that tool of a blood-thirsty tyrant--whose name has its full merit when it has eternal execration1 as the exploits of that diabolical character in the ,spanish ,netherlands bear indubitable testimony3 that wretch existed in #aejg2 and they were not known in ,france at that period1 as ,brandome endeavours to prove1 or we should have had more intelligence handed down to posterity by the commentators of one who would so willingly have used such an instrument4 ,the lock is said to have been invented in the city of ,nuremberg1 in ,germany1 about #aeag2 but that cannot be considered as the lock of the present day1 as even in ,germany the fire-lock is known by the name of the ,french-lock1 which certainly militates against the previous assertion1 the one giving the name perhaps to the other4 ,beckmann says1 8,in the history of the ,brunswick military it is stated1 that the soldiers of that ,duchy first obtained flint-locks instead of match-locks in #afhg4 ,it has often been asserted10 he continues1 8that fire-tubes which took fire of themselves were forbidden first in ,bohemia and ,moravia1 and afterwards in the whole ,german empire1 under a severe penalty1 by the ,emperor ,maximilian ,i42 but ,i have not found any allusion to this circumstance in the different police laws of that emperor40 ,that the first fire-stones were pyrites appears from various sources1 and afterwards a vitreous kind of stone was introduced in its stead2 this circumstance is said to have produced some kind of confusion1 as in many instances the properties were applied to that stone which were related by the ,germans of antiquity as belonging to pyrites4 ,in ,germany1 this vitreous stone was called vlint2 in ,sweden and ,denmark1 flinta2 and in ,england1 flint4 ,this appellation is of great antiquity4 ,anciently1 in ,germany1 as it appears from the song of ,hildebrand1 a metrical romance of very early date1 that ,hildebrand and ,hudebrand1 a father and son1 and1 at the moment1 ignorant of their affinity1 agreed to fight for each other's armour2 and it is said 8,they let fly their ashen spears with such force1 that they stuck in the shields1 and they thrust resounding axes of flint against each other1 having uplifted their shields previously2 but the ,lady ,ulta rushed in between them--#8,i know the cross of gold1' said she1 #8which ,i gave him for his shield2 this is my ,hildebrand4 ,you1 ,hudebrand1 sheath your sword2 this is your father6' ,then she led both champions into the hall1 and gave them meat and wine with many embraces40 ,besides these proofs that the ancient name of the stone was known in ,germany by the appellation vlint--which species of stone may1 perhaps1 without hazarding the danger of error1 be conceived to be the same which ,zipporah1 the wife of ,moses1 is represented to have used1 in the #beth verse of the #dth chapter of ,exodus3 8,then ,zipporah took a sharp stone1 and cut off the foreskin of her son1 and cast it at his feet1 and said1--,surely a bloody husband thou art to me40 ,and it is added she said so1 on account of the circumcision4 ,in addition to what has appeared1 let us add1 it cannot be doubted that the instrument fired by this stone first obtained for it1 in ,germany1 the name of vlint2 as the ancient name may1 in general1 be now lost1 it is commonly called flint-stone4 ,those people acquainted with the northern1 ,scandinavian1 and ,german antiquities1 know that the knives employed in ancient sacrifices1 and other sharp instruments1 were made of this stone1 as appears from the remains being yet discovered in old barrows1 and between urns4 ,it is also presumed that the ,ethiopian stone1 mentioned as used by one of the ,egyptian embalmers1 first to open the body to get at the intestines1 was a flint-stone4 ,the soil being in some places siliceous or chalky1 naturally produces such stones in common with that earth4 ,the flint is a stone indigenous in most ,european countries2 they are commonly collected and manufactured by people whose occupation allows them much spare time4 ,the easiest mode to shape them is with a species of pillow of saw-dust1 or some other soft material1 sown up in coarse cloth1 held upon the knees1 and with a hammer having a bevil edge1 they may be broken into almost any form or size by those accustomed to the practice4 ,the great quantity of the material from whence they are composed allows for any waste which accident may produce4 ,in several counties of ,england they are so plentiful1 that they are the common material employed for mending the public roads4 ,but we are informed that this is not the case in ,france1 where1 in time of war1 the people were prohibited from exporting them4 ,the ,dutch are commonly large dealers in this article4 ,flint is a large component in the manufacture of glass4 ,gun flints are now1 however1 comparatively little used1 as percussion caps are generally substituted1 which act with more certainty1 and require a great deal less trouble4 ,,astronomy4 ,not being greedy of delusion ourselves1 neither would we lead others into error2 but1 on the contrary1 are desirous to avoid all deception1 as we may be considered over studious to give the most rational origin1 and where we cannot get at the history of those objects which engage our attention--whenever this is uncertain we resort to nature1 experience1 and reason1 and furnish the most correct explanation our contracted circle of information will permit4 ,whenever we discover the clue of history1 we collect the most satisfactory detail our limits will afford us to insert4 ,guided by the preceding notions1 and directed by those principles1 we have endeavoured correctly to conceive1 and faithfully to portray our own conceptions in the best manner our experience might enable us1 to make a just distinction between metaphorical allusion and literal application2 ever endeavouring to discriminate between serious assertion and studied fable4 ,we fully coincide with the just remark of the learned author of 8,indian ,antiquities10 who says 8that in respect to the early ages of the world1 all the remains of genuine history1 except that contained in the sacred annals1 is only to be obtained through the mazes of ,mythology40 ,it must be confessed1 that to sift this grain of corn from the bushel of chaff with which it is surrounded1 where every effort which the ingenuity of ,greece could devise to render fable as current as truth1 was resorted to1 is no small task2 that it requires the operation of the best exercised reason1 and the assistance of extraordinary judgment1 which is only to be attained through the medium of extensive experience and the exercise of clear and discriminative powers3 then we pretend not to possess the best of possible acquisitions of this kind1 but the best in our power1 we have endeavoured to collect1 and summoned to our assistance2 and the value of our labours we will leave the public to judge4 ,if the application of observations like the preceding ever come apropos1 surely they apply to the present article2 since from the sideral science1 all the errors of an idolatrous race proceeded in the major part of the population of the ancient world3 from thence also proceeded the most sublime imagery which embellishes the syren voice of poetic song1 the grandest metaphors1 and the sweetest allegories1 which ornament the transendent eloquence of the most able rhetoricians of ,greece and ,rome2 the fire of exquisitely natural and most noble allusions which enliven and embellish their historic pages4 ,the sweetest philosophical explications also flowed from thence1 which ornament the various immortal works of their most excellent poets1 orators1 historians1 natural and moral philosophers2 and1 in brief1 of every description of the sublimest genius of ancient ,greece and ,rome1 in their most divine effusions4 ,it will appear1 we believe1 that the first astronomers of ,chaldea1 ,phnicia1 and ,egypt1 are not now known as astronomers1 by name1 if we except the person of the royal ,nimrod1 the founder of the ,chaldean empire1 which name is often confounded with ,belus2 sometimes one is put for the other1 and often ,belus is called the son of ,nimrod4 ,how the truth of this was1 we shall not at present determine3 be it as it may1 it is allowed on all hands that the sideral science claims for its inventor no less a person than the founder of the first monarchy in the world4 ,that this science was first introduced by the founder of the ,tower of ,babel is not questioned1 because it is more evident1 that in that country there must have existed from necessity1 the expediency of the most approved observation1 which could be made upon this eminently useful science2 where1 on account of the excessive solar heat1 people generally travel by night3 where1 for hundreds of miles1 are nothing but pathless deserts1 with a horizon as boundless and little impeded as that of the ocean2 assuredly under such circumstances1 the local situation of the site of the immense ,observatory of ,babel must point out the expediency of procuring some intelligence from the position which the inhabitants discovered the host of heaven to appear in at the rising1 setting1 c42 for from what will appear in the course of this article1 it will be very evident that the ,tower of ,babel was constructed for the purpose of an astronomical observatory2 farther1 that the climate of ,chaldea was most favourable to the exercise of that sublime art1 will not admit of a question1 when we consider the atmosphere is so pure1 so clear1 so free from exhalation1 that at night the sky is said to resemble an immense canopy of black velvet studded with embossed gold1 from the appearance of the stars2 and that it was not only the appearance of the stars1 their rising1 setting1 and motion1 by which they knew time was to be measured2 but also the distinction between one star and another could be correctly ascertained from the usual colour--here it was the various planets1 zodiacal constellations1 and the other asterisms in both hemispheres1 received their primary names4 ,the preceding circumstance1 it is conceived1 fixes the local place where the science had its origin4 ,the ,tower of ,babel was a parallelogram1 with sides of unequal length4 ,herodotus thus describes it4--8,the ,temple of ,jupiter ,belus occupies the other square of the city1 whose huge gates of brass may be seen4 ,it is a square building2 in the midst rises a tower of the height of one furlong1 upon which resting as a base1 seven other turrets are built in regular succession4 ,the ascent is on the outside1 which1 winding from the ground1 is continued to the highest tower3 in the middle of the whole structure there is a convenient resting place40 ,diodorus ,siculus says1 this tower was decayed in his time2 but1 in his description of ,babylon1 he thus speaks of it--describing it as the act of ,semiramis1 who flourished two thousand nine hundred and forty-four years before ,christ3--8,in the middle of the city1 she built a temple to ,jupiter-,belus2 of which1 since writers differ amongst themselves1 and the work is now wholly decayed through length of time1 there is nothing that can with certainty be related concerning it2 yet it is apparent it was of an exceeding great height2 and that1 by the advantage of it1 the ,chaldean astrologers exactly observed the rising and setting of the stars4 ,the whole was built of brick1 cemented with bitumen1 with great art and cost4 ,upon the top she placed three statues of beaten gold1 of ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,rhea3 that of ,jupiter stood upright1 in the posture as if he was walking2 it was forty feet in height1 and weighed one thousand ,babylonish talents4 ,the statue of ,rhea was of the same weight1 sitting on a golden throne1 having two lions standing on either side1 one at her knees1 and near to them were two exceeding great serpents of silver1 weighing thirty talents each4 ,here1 too1 the image of ,juno stood upright1 and weighed eight hundred talents1 grasping a serpent by the head in her right hand1 and holding a sceptre adorned with precious stones in her left4 ,for all these deities there was placed a table made of beaten gold1 forty feet long and fifteen broad1 weighing five hundred talents1 upon which stood two cups1 weighing thirty talents1 and near to them as many censers1 weighing three hundred talents3 there were likewise placed three drinking bowls of gold--the one to ,jupiter weighed two hundred talents1 and the others six hundred each40 ,we have been thus circumstantial in our description of ,babylon1 for obvious reasons4 ,first--that it was the first local situation where1 since the deluge1 men had associated for civil purposes2 and secondly--because it was the original station where the astronomical science was cultivated4 ,from ,chaldea1 ,astronomy travelled to ,egypt1 where she was studied for many ages2 she also went to ,phnicia1 where she was regarded with equal attention4 ,but the peculiar occasion which the ,phnician people had to improve their acquaintance with this science1 will appear1 upon reflecting that these people occupied a narrow and barren tract of land between the ,mediterranean and ,arabian seas2 therefore1 they found it essentially necessary to improve their situation by those means which ,divine ,providence had apparently marked out for them to resort unto2 we accordingly find them applying to mercantile industry2 as a commercial people1 in this character1 they were the ready medium of communication between every part of the then known world4 ,in consequence1 they had factories or mercantile stations up the ,mediterranean2 but particularly on its ,european side1 on the shores of the ,atlantic1 and even in the ,british sea3 we recognise their occupying ,marseilles1 and others1 on the coast of ,france2 ,cadiz1 on that of ,spain2 the ,lizard ,point1 and other places1 in ,cornwall1 where they traded for tin in the ,british ,isles4 ,in brief1 their commercial spirit carried them to every part of the globe3 by the by1 admitting that rational belief be allowed to ,plato and ,solon1 we shall find that they had1 in the first ages1 explored the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and even discovered ,america4 ,a great variety of authorities may be adduced to prove the assertion--that the ,phnicians made three descents on the ,american coast2 and others1 who say that the inhabitants discovered there by the ,spaniards1 gave the same names to the plants as had been assigned them in ,asia2 that their religious rites were similar1 and general customs and manners the same1--we refer to ,joseph ,da ,costa's 8,history of the ,indies10 published in #afid4 ,this author was an eye-witness1 and wrote from actual observation4 ,the ,phnicians1 in the exercise of their mercantile functions1 had the most obvious necessity to cultivate the sideral science4 ,we find that they accordingly did so1 and made various improvements and very important discoveries by their exercise4 ,from the northern hemisphere being more known to them than it was to the ,chaldeans1 they discovered that splendid and beautiful asterism1 ,cynosur1 or the polar-star1--an asterism of the most singular service1 before the properties of the magnet were discovered1 and which star was sometimes called1 from them1 ,phnice4 ,from ,phnicia and ,egypt the celestial science of astronomy was brought into ,greece1 with which people the ,phnicians were intimate2 for they1 by trade1 having occasion to converse with the ,greeks1 and also from uniting in one national resemblance1 the three opposite characteristics of soldiers1 sailors1 and men of science1 the communications between the two people were very frequent4 ,at every period1 from the first establishment of the ,grecian states1 that highly eminent and intellectual people collected from all others every particular they could obtain in all matters having relation to sciences and arts2 those they cultivated with a success worthy of the motive which first induced them to make these collections4--,loving ,knowledge for herself1 they succeeded beyond all others in obtaining her favours4 ,the first ,greek who appears on record to have cultivated the celestial science with success1 was ,thales1 born at ,miletus1 in ,asia ,minor1 six hundred and forty one years before ,christ2 he explained the causes of eclipses1 and predicted one4 ,he also taught that the earth was round1 and divided into five zones2 he discovered the solstices and equinoxes1 and likewise divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five days4 ,he had travelled into ,egypt in search of knowledge1 where he ascertained the height of one of the pyramids1 from its shade4 ,he looked upon water as the principle of all things4 ,from him the sect called the ,ionic had their origin4 ,anaximander1 his pupil1 followed him1 and supported the opinions of his great master2 he was born before ,christ six hundred and ten years2 he invented maps and dials1 and is said to have constructed a sphere4 ,his ideas of the planets were1 however1 erroneous4 ,anaximenes was a scholar of ,anaximander1 and born five hundred and fifty-four years before ,christ4 ,he taught that air was the origin of all things1 and many erroneous notions2 among others1 that the earth was a plane1 and the heavens a solid concave sphere1 with the stars affixed to it like nails4 ,anaxagoras of ,clazomene1 the pupil of1 and successor to1 ,anaximenes1 born before ,christ five hundred and sixty years4 ,the doctrines he supported are a strange association of important truths1 mixed with the most gross absurdities4 ,he taught that the world was made by a being of infinite power2 that mind was the origin of motion2 that the upper regions1 which he called ether1 were filled with fire1 that the rapid revolution of this ether had raised large masses of stone from the earth1 which1 being inflamed1 formed the stars1 which were kept in their places1 and prevented from falling by the velocity of their motion4 ,his ideas of the solar orb were extremely erroneous2 alleging1 according to different authors1 various uncertain positions respecting the materials of which that planet is composed3 one says1 he said it was a vast mass of fire2 another states his opinion1 that it was red-hot iron2 and a third1 that it was of stone4 ,he taught that the comets are an assemblage of planets2 that winds are produced in consequence of highly rarified air2 that thunder and lightning are a collision of clouds2 earthquakes1 by subterraneous air forcing its passage upwards2 that the moon is inhabited1 c4 ,this philosopher removed his school from ,miletus to ,athens1 which was thenceforth the grand seat of all learning4 ,he had taught there for thirty years1 when he was prosecuted for his philosophical opinions1 particularly for his just ideas relative to the ,deity1 and condemned to death4 ,when sentence was pronounced1 he said3--8,it is long since ,nature condemned me to that40 ,however1 according to the laws of ,athens1 he was permitted an appeal to the people1 in which his scholar1 the immortal ,pericles1 saved his life by his eloquence4 ,his sentence of death was changed into banishment4 ,whilst in prison he determined exactly the proportion of the circumference of the circle to its diameter1 denominated 8squaring the circle40 ,he died at ,lampsacus4 ,archelaus1 his scholar1 was the preceptor of the divine ,socrates4 ,pythagoras was another scholar of ,thales4 ,the place of his nativity is uncertain2 but having settled in the island of ,samos1 he is generally reckoned of that place4 ,he travelled in search of knowledge through ,phnicia1 ,chaldea1 ,egypt1 and ,india2 however1 meeting with little encouragement on his return to ,samos1 he passed over to ,italy1 in the time of ,tarquin the ,proud1 and opened a school at ,croto1 a city in the ,gulf of ,tarentum1 where he had a number of students1 and gained much reputation4 ,his pupils were obliged to listen in silence for at least two years2 if talkative1 longer2 sometimes1 for five years1 before they were permitted to ask him any questions2 for which time they were mathematicoi1 because they were set to study geometry1 dialling1 music1 and other high sciences1 called by the ,greeks mathemata4 ,but the name of mathematici was commonly applied to those who cultivated the stellary science1 and who predicted the fortunes of men1 by observing the stars under which they were born4 ,this luminary of science first assumed the appellation of philosopher2 before him1 those whose pursuits have now that title1 were called sages or wise men2 he was the founder of the sect called the ,italic4 ,he was so much honoured whilst living1 and his memory honoured when dead1 by the ,romans1 that they attributed to him the learning of ,numa1 who lived much earlier4 ,about the year of the city #daa1 the ,delphian oracle having directed the ,romans to erect statues to the bravest and wisest of the ,greeks1 they conferred that honour upon ,alcibiades and ,pythagoras4 ,he taught publicly that the earth is the centre of the universe2 but to his scholars he gave his real opinions2 similar to those afterwards adopted by ,copernicus1 that the earth and all the planets moved round the sun1 as their co-centre1 and which doctrine he is presumed to have derived from either the ,chaldeans or ,indians4 ,he thought that the earth is round1 and everywhere inhabited4 ,hence1 he admitted that we might have antipodes1 which name is said to have been invented by ,plato4 ,pythagoras was distinguished for his skill in music1 which he first reduced to certain firm principles1 and likewise for his discoveries in geometry4 ,he first proved1 that in a right-angled triangle1 the square of the hypothenuse1 or side subtending the right angle1 is equal to the two other sides2 also that of all plain figures having equal circumference1 the circle is largest2 and of all solids having equal surfaces1 the sphere is the largest4 ,pythagoras likewise taught that all things were made of fire4 ,that the ,deity animated the universe1 as the soul does the body2 which doctrine1 with that of the metempsychosis1 or transmigration1 he likewise taught2 and which thoughts were adopted by ,plato1 and are most beautifully expressed by ,virgil2 that the sun1 the moon1 the planets1 and fixed stars1 are all actuated by some divinity1 and move each in a transparent solid sphere in the order following3--next to the ,earth1 the ,moon1 then ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,sun1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn2 the sphere of the fixed stars last of all2 that those move with a sound inconceivably beautiful1 which ears cannot comprehend4 ,those eight spheres he imagined to be analogous to the eight notes in music4 ,empedocles1 the chief scholar of ,pythagoras1 entertained the same sentiments with his teacher1 concerning astronomy4 ,he is said to have thrown himself into the crater of ,mount ,etna1 to make himself pass for a god2 or1 perhaps1 which may approach nearer the truth1 because he could not discover the cause of the eruption3 or else in his endeavours to discover the cause4 ,one of his iron sandals being thrown up by the volcano1 revealed the mode in which he had perished4 ,philolaus1 also a scholar of ,pythagoras1 first taught publicly the diurnal motion of the earth upon its axis1 and its annual motion round the sun2 which first suggested to ,copernicus the idea of that system which he established4 ,meteon1 born at ,leucon1 a village near ,athens1 first introduced into ,europe the ,lunar ,cycle1 consisting of nineteen solar years1 or nineteen lunar years1 and seven intercalary months4 ,it had been first adopted by the ,chaldeans4 ,meteon published it at the ,olympic games1 where it was received with so great applause that it was then universally adopted through the ,grecian ,states1 and their colonies1 and got the name of the ,cycle1 or ,golden ,number1 to denote its excellence1 which name it still retains4 ,it was also called the ,great ,year2 which name was likewise applied to various spaces of time by different authors2 by ,virgil1 to the solar year1 to distinguish it from the monthly revolution of the moon2 by ,cicero and others1 to the revolution of six hundred years1 or three thousand six hundred years2 called also several ages1 when all the stars shall come to the same position1 with respect to one another1 as they were in at a certain time before2 called likewise ,annus ,mundanus1 or ,vertens4 ,the lunar cycle begun four hundred and thirty-two years before the commencement of our era1 and according to it1 the ,greek calendars1 which determined the celebration of their annual feasts1 c4 were adjusted4 ,meteon is said to have derived his knowledge of this subject from ,chaldea4 ,the opinions of the subsequently registered astronomer1 ,xonophanes1 founder of the ,eleatic school1 are so truly monstrous1 that after the light which had appeared1 he must have travelled with his eyes shut2 or else the rage for novelty alike affected the scientific of ,greece1 as it did their literati2 choosing to travel a long way for new thoughts1 when they might have found much better at hand4 ,xonophanes1 among other whimsical opinions1 maintained that the stars were extinguished every morning1 and illuminated every evening2 that the sun is an inflamed cloud2 that eclipses happen by the extinction of the sun1 which is afterwards lighted up2 that the moon is ten times larger than the earth2 that there are many suns and moons to illumine different climates4 ,the ,eleatic school was chiefly famous for the study of logic1 or the art of ratiocination1 first invented by ,zeno4 ,those of this sect paid but little attention to science1 or the study of ,nature4 ,philosophy was anciently divided into three parts1 natural1 moral1 and the art of reasoning4 ,xonophanes was succeeded by ,parmenides1 his scholar1 who1 in addition to his master's absurdities1 taught that the earth was habitable in only the two temperate zones2 that the earth was suspended in the middle of the universe1 in a fluid lighter than air2 that all bodies left to themselves light on its surface4 ,this bore a slight resemblance to the ,newtonian doctrine of attraction4 ,democritus1 of ,abdera1 a scholar of ,leucippus1 who flourished four hundred and fifty-six years before ,christ1 was the first publisher of the ,atomic ,cosmogony1 invented by ,mochus1 the ,phnician1 said to have been received by his master ,leucippus4 ,both admitted plurality of worlds4 ,democritus was the first who taught that the milky way is occasioned by the confused light of an infinite number of stars2 which doctrine is still maintained by the best informed of philosophers4 ,he also extended that idea to comets2 the number of which ,seneca says the ,greek philosophers did not know2 and that ,democritus suspected there were more planets than we could see4 ,this was also the opinion of many others1 the truth of which has been verified in the discoveries of ,pallas1 ,juno1 ,vesta1 and the ,georgium ,sidus4 ,democritus is considered as the parent of experimental philosophy2 the greatest part of his time was devoted to it2 and he is said to have made many discoveries4 ,he1 like ,meteon1 and ,newton1 maintained the absurd idea of the existence of a vacuum1 which was denied by ,thales and ,descartes4 ,democritus also maintained that the sea was constantly diminishing4 ,he declared that he would prefer the discovery of one of the causes of the works of ,nature1 to the possession of the ,persian monarchy4 ,often laughing at the follies of mankind1 he was thought by the vulgar to be out of his mind2 but ,hippocrates1 being sent to cure him1 soon found him to be the wisest man of the age2 and ,seneca reckons him the most acute and ingenious of the ancients1 on account of his many useful inventions2 particularly his ingenious making of artificial emeralds1 tinging them of any colour2 of softening ivory1 dissolving stones1 c4 ,although the chief attention of ,plato and ,aristotle was directed to other grand objects1 yet they much contributed to the improvement of astronomy4 ,notwithstanding the most famous in this respect was ,eudoxus1 the scholar of ,plato1 who was famous for his skill in astrology1 natural and judicial1 or the art of foretelling future events by the relative situations of the stars1 of their various influences1 an art which prevailed for many ages among the ancients1 and is yet assiduously cultivated by the modern ,arabians and other orientals1 although in a great measure exploded in ,european nations4 ,by the former or which divisions in this science are foretold the changes of seasons1 rain1 wind1 thunder1 cold1 heat1 famine1 diseases1 c41 from a knowledge of the causes that are believed to act upon the earth and its atmosphere2 whilst the latter foretold the characters1 fortunes1 c41 of men1 from the stellary disposition at the moment of their respective nativities4 ,the philosopher1 ,eudoxus1 spent much of his time on the top of a high mountain1 to observe the motion of the stars4 ,he regulated the ,greek year as ,csar did the ,roman4 ,had the ancient ,grecian astronomers been equally attached to experiment with ,democritus1 they might have arrived at more certain conclusions2 but they were content with speculative theory1 and spoke rather from conjecture than observation2 whence both ,strabio and ,polybius treated as fabulous the since recognised assertion of ,pythius1 a famous navigator to the north1 who had sailed to a country supposed to be ,iceland1 where he said the sun1 in the middle of summer1 never set4 ,the most important improvements in astronomy were made in the school of ,alexandria1 founded by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus2 and which seminary flourished for nine hundred and twenty-three years1 till the invasion of the ,saracen army1 under the command of ,amrou4 ,those astronomers were chiefly ,greeks1 or of ,grecian extraction--the most learned men being invited here by the liberality of the ,ptolemies4 ,the first who distinguished themselves were ,timocarus and ,aristillus1 prior to the foundation of the library1 which was founded three hundred years before ,christ4 ,those two men endeavoured to determine the places of the different stars1 and thus to trace the course of the planets4 ,the next and most eminent man was ,aristarchus1 about two hundred and sixty-four years before ,christ2 who taught1 that the sun was about nineteen times further from the earth than the moon 7which is not the twentieth part of its real distance71 although the philosophers of the ,pythagorean school did not consider it above three times1 and perhaps only one and a half further distant4 ,aristarchus also taught1 that the moon was fifty-six diameters of our earth from this globe1 which opinion comes near to the truth3 he believed it to be scarcely one-third of its real size4 ,he was widely erroneous in his conception of the sun's dimensions4 ,he also1 in conformity to the doctrines of ,pythagorus and ,philolaus1 supposed the sun to be placed in the centre1 and that the earth moved round it2 on which account he was accused of impiety1 as disturbing the repose of the ,vesta and the ,lares4 ,this opinion was not1 however1 retained by his successors in the ,alexandrian school4 ,contrary to the doctrine of the ,greek philosophers1 he taught that the stars were at different distances1 and that the orbit of the earth round the sun was an insensible point1 in consequence of the immense distance of the stars4 ,the only work of ,aristarchus which remains1 is on the magnitude and distance of the sun and moon4 ,very nearly contemporary with ,aristarchus was ,euclid1 the celebrated geometrician of ,alexandria2 ,manetho1 an astrologer and historian2 and ,aratus and ,cleanthus1 disciples of ,zeno1 the stoic philosopher2 all of whom contributed to the enlargement of astronomical knowledge2 but particularly the two first named4 ,eratosthenes1 born at ,cyrene1 succeeded ,aristarchus1 being invited by ,ptolemy ,euergetes4 ,this professor is said to be the inventor of the ,armillary sphere1 an instrument or machine composed of moveable sides1 representing the equator1 the two colures1 with the meridian2 all of which turned round on an axis directed to the two poles of the world1 each of which circles were anciently called armilla1 and the whole machine1 astrolabus4 ,all instruments which could be contrived for the promotion of this science1 were furnished at the public expense1 and placed within the observatory of ,alexandria4 ,assisted by these instruments1 ,eratosthenes first undertook to measure the obliquity of the ecliptics1 or rather the double of that obliquity1 that is1 the distance from the tropics1 which he made to be about #dg degrees2 the obliquity1 or half of this distance1 #bc degrees4 ,this grand attempt was to ascertain the exact distance of a degree of the meridian1 and thus to determine the circumference of the earth2 which he accomplished with wonderful exactness1 considering the period at which he lived2 and he performed this by the same method since adopted by the moderns who have succeeded him4 ,he is also said to have discovered the true distance of the sun from the earth4 ,the great ,archimedes lived contemporary with ,eratosthenes1 that eminent geometrician of ,syracuse1 whose inventive genius in mechanics had constructed engines which protracted the fall of that capital1 with its ,island ,sicily1 to the almost omnipotent power of ,rome for a considerable period4 ,the most illustrious astronomer which had as yet appeared at ,alexandria was ,hipparchus1 who flourished between one hundred and sixty and one hundred and twenty-five years before ,christ4 ,he first brought this science into a tangible elementary form1 rendering it systematic4 ,he discovered1 or was the first who observed the difference between the autumnal and the vernal equinox2 the former being seven days longer than the latter1 which proceeds from the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 first discovered from observing the inequality of the solar motion4 ,he framed tables for what is called equation of time1 or to ascertain the difference between the shade on a well constructed dial and a perfectly regulated clock4 ,he made great progress in explaining the motions and phases of the moon2 however1 he was not so successful with respect to the planets4 ,his greatest work was his ascertaining the number of the stars1 marking their distances1 and arriving at the means by which their precise places on the hemisphere of ,alexandria could be known4 ,he marked one thousand six hundred stars1 in seventy-two signs1 into which the heavens were divided4 ,pliny says this was a labour which must have been difficult even to a god4 ,the appearance of a new star induced him to set about and accomplish this work1 which he did in a catalogue for the benefit of future observers4 ,hipparchus does not mention comets1 whence it has been conjectured he had never seen any2 it has also been suggested1 that he considered them with meteors1 which are not objects of astronomical observation4 ,he divided the heavens into forty-nine constellations1 viz41 twelve in the ecliptic1 twenty-one in the north1 and sixteen in the south4 ,to one of these he gave the name of ,berenice's ,hair1 in honour of the wife of ,ptolemy ,soter1 who had consecrated her hair1 which was very beautiful1 to ,venus ,urania1 if her husband should return from a war in ,asia victorious2 it being hung up in the temple of the goddess1 soon after disappeared1 and is said to have been carried off by the gods4 ,hipparchus likewise constructed a sphere1 or celestial globe1 on which all the stars visible at ,alexandria were depicted2 and thought to have been similar to the ,faranese globe at ,rome1 still extant4 ,in his observations on the stars1 he discovered that1 when viewed from the same spot1 their distance always appeared the same from each other2 but he discovered the distance of the moon to be different in various parts of the heavens2 for instance1 in the horizon and zenith4 ,this he conceived to be owing to the extent of the globe2 he1 therefore1 contrived a method of reducing appearances of this kind1 to what they would be if viewed from the centre of the earth1 which is called a parallax2 and the discovery of it was of the greatest importance to astronomy4 ,he took this idea from observing that a tree1 in the middle of a plain1 appeared in different parts of the horizon1 when viewed from different situations2 so does a star appear in the various points of the heavens1 when viewed in different parts of the globe4 ,hipparchus was the first who connected geography with astronomy1 and this fixed both the sciences on certain principles4 ,after the overthrow of the ,roman empire1 the first encourager of learning was ,charles the ,great1 or ,charlemagne2 but little could be done in his time2 after his death the former ignorance prevailed4 ,beda1 or ,bede1 from his piety and modesty termed venerabilis1 and his scholar1 ,alcinius1 both ,englishmen1 greatly excelled in general literature2 among other qualifications they were eminent in the astronomy of the preceding period4 ,the first step towards the revival of knowledge1 or the translation of the ,astronomical ,elements of ,alfergan1 the ,arab1 by order of ,frederick ,,ii41 chosen ,emperor of ,germany in #abab4 ,about the same time ,alphonso ,x41 ,king of ,castile1 assembled from all parts the most famous astronomers1 who at his desire1 composed what are called the ,alphonsine ,tables1 founded on the hypothesis of ,ptolemy4 ,about the same period ,john ,sacrobosco1 of ,holywood1 a native of ,halifax1 in ,yorkshire1 who was educated at ,oxford1 and taught mathematics and philosophy at ,paris1 made an abridgment of the amalgamist of ,ptolemy1 and of the commentaries of the ,arabs1 which was long famous as an elementary book under the title of 8,de ,sphira ,mundi40 ,he died at ,paris1 in the year #abce4 ,in the same year1 ,roger ,bacon1 an ,english ,franciscan friar1 made astonishing discoveries in science for the time he lived4 ,he perceived the error in the ,kalendar of ,julius ,csar1 and proposed a plan1 for the correction of it1 to ,pope ,clement ,,iv4 in #abfg4 ,he is presumed from his writings to have known the use of optical glasses1 and the composition and effects of gunpowder4 ,he believed in planetary influence on men's fortunes1 and the transmutation of metals4 ,on account of his vast knowledge in astronomy1 mathematics1 and chemistry1 he was called ,doctor ,mirabilis2 but1 for the same reason1 he was suspected of magic4 ,under this pretext1 whilst at ,paris1 he was put in prison by order of the ,pope's legate2 and after a long and severe confinement1 he was at last1 by the interest of several noble persons1 liberated1 returned to ,england1 and died at ,oxford in #abib1 in the seventy-eighth year of his age4 ,in the fifteenth century two events happened which changed the face of the sciences2 the invention of printing1 about #addj1 and the taking of ,constantinople by the ,turks in #adec4 ,the learned men of that city having escaped from the cruelty of the victors1 fled into ,italy1 and again introduced the taste for classical literature2 which was greatly promoted by the munificence of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii41 ,pope ,nicholas ,v41 and particularly of ,cosmo de ,medici1 who justly merited the title of ,father of his ,country1 and ,patron of the ,muses4 ,the restoration of astronomy began in ,germany4 ,the first who distinguished himself1 was ,george ,purbach1 born at ,purbach1 on the confines of ,austria and ,bavaria1 in #adbc1 who was cut off in the flower of his age--only thirty-eight years old4 ,he was succeeded by a scholar more skilful than himself1 ,john ,muller1 born at ,konigsberg1 in #adcf1 who taught mathematics and astronomy with great reputation at ,vienna4 ,in ,february1 #adga1 appeared a comet1 on which he published his observations4 ,being called to ,rome by ,pope ,sextus ,,iv41 to assist in correcting the ,kalender1 he was cut off by the plague1 in #adgf4 ,bernard ,waltherus1 a rich citizen of ,nuremberg1 his friend and associate1 succeeded him1 who is said to have first made use of clocks in his astronomical observations1 in #adhd1 and to have been the first of the moderns who perceived the effects of the refraction of light4 ,fracastorius1 born at ,verona1 in #adhc1 was a celebrated astronomer1 and an eminent poet and good philosopher2 he made considerable discoveries in this science1 and with all his abilities may be considered as the precursor of the celebrated ,copernicus4 ,nicholas ,copernicus1 the restorer of the ,pythagorean philosophy1 and the modern discoverer of the rational and true system of astronomy1 as now universally received1 under the title of his name1 was born at ,thorn1 a city of ,royal ,prussia1 #aith ,february1 #adgc4 ,having learnt the ,latin and ,greek ,languages in his father's house1 he was sent to ,cracow1 to be instructed in philosophy and physic1 where he was honoured with the degree of doctor2 showing a greater predilection for mathematics than medicine4 ,his uncle by his mother's side was a bishop1 who gave him a canonry upon his return from ,italy1 whither he had gone to study astronomy1 under ,dominic ,maria1 at ,bologna1 and had afterwards taught mathematics with success at ,rome4 ,in the repose and solitude of an ecclesiastical life1 he bent his chief attention to the study of astronomy4 ,dissatisfied with the system of ,ptolemy1 which had prevailed fourteen centuries1 he laboured to form a juster one4 ,what led him to discover the mistakes of ,ptolemy was his observations on the motions of ,venus2 he is said to have derived his first notion on this subject from various passages in the classics1 which mention the opinions of ,pythagoras and his followers1 as1 indeed1 he himself acknowledges in his address to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 ,he established the rotation of the earth round its axis1 and its motion round the sun2 but to explain certain irregularities in the motion of the planets1 he retained the epicicles and eccentrics of ,ptolemy4 ,his work was first printed at ,nuremberg1 in #aedc1 a short time before his death4 ,the doctrines of ,copernicus were not at first generally adopted4 ,the most eminent professors in ,europe adhered to the old opinions4 ,among the astronomers of this period1 the ,landgrave of ,hesse deserves particular praise1 who erected a magnificent observatory at the top of the ,castle of ,cassel1 and made many observations himself1 in conjunction with ,christopher ,rothman and ,justus ,burge1 concerning the place of the sun1 of the planets1 and of the stars4 ,but the person who enriched astronomy with the greatest number of facts of any modern who had yet appeared1 was ,tycho ,brahe1 a ,dane of noble extraction1 born in #aedf1 designed by his parents for the study of the law2 but attracted by an eclipse of the sun in #aefj1 at ,copenhagen1 whither he had been sent to learn philosophy1 he was struck with astonishment in observing that the phenomenon happened at the very moment it had been predicted4 ,he admired the art of predicting eclipses1 and wished to acquire it4 ,at first1 for want of proper instruments1 he fell into several mistakes1 which1 however1 he afterwards corrected4 ,having early perceived his future improvements must depend on instruments1 he caused some to be constructed larger than usual1 and thus rendered more exact4 ,on the #aath ,november1 #aegb1 he perceived a new star in ,cassiopeia1 which continued without changing its place till spring #aegd1 equal in splendour to ,jupiter or ,venus4 ,it last it changed colours and entirely disappeared4 ,nothing similar to this had been observed since the days of ,hipparchus4 ,tycho1 in imitation of that illustrious astronomer1 conceived a design of forming a catalogue of the stars4 ,to promote his views1 the ,king of ,denmark ordered a castle to be built in ,hueun1 an island between ,seonia and ,zealand1 which ,tycho called ,uranibourg1 8the city of heaven10 and where he placed the finest collection of instruments that had ever yet appeared2 most of them invented or else improved by himself4 ,he composed a catalogue of seven hundred and seventy-seven stars1 with greater exactness than had ever been done before2 and constructed tables for finding the place of the most remarkable stars at any given time4 ,he was the first who determined the effect of refraction1 whereby we see the sun or any star above the horizon1 before it is so in reality2 as we see the bottom of a vessel when filled with water1 standing at a distance1 which we could not see when empty4 ,he made several other improvements and important discoveries1 which he published in a work entitled 8,progymnasmata40 ,the labours of ,tycho attracted the attention of ,europe2 the learned went to consult him1 and the noble to see him4 ,james ,,vi4 of ,scotland1 when he went to espouse the sister of ,frederic1 ,king of ,denmark1 paid ,tycho a visit1 with all his retinue1 and wrote some ,latin verses in his praise4 ,but these honours were of short continuance4 ,after the death of his protector1 ,king ,frederic1 the pension assigned him was withdrawn1 and he was compelled to exile himself from his native country4 ,having hired a ship1 he transported his furniture1 books1 and instruments to a small place in ,hamburgh1 in #aeig4 ,the ,emperor ,rodolphus invited him into his dominions1 settled a large pension upon him1 gave him a castle near ,prague1 to prosecute his discoveries1 and appointed him ,longomatus1 a native of ,jutland1 and the celebrated ,kepler1 to assist him4 ,but ,tycho was not happy in his new situation2 he died #adth ,october1 #afja1 repeating several times1 8,i have not lived in vain40 ,kepler was one of the greatest philosophers that ever lived1 and ought to be considered as the discoverer of the true system of the world4 ,he was born in ,germany1 at ,wiel1 near ,wirtemberg1 #bgth ,december1 #aega4 ,he early imbibed the principles of ,copernicus4 ,after the death of ,tycho1 he was employed to finish the tables which he had begun to compose from his observations4 ,kepler took twenty years to finish them4 ,he dedicated them to the emperor1 under the title of the 8,rodolphine ,tables40 ,kepler united optics with astronomy1 and thus made the most important discoveries4 ,he was the first who discovered that the planets move not in a circle1 but in an ellipse2 and that altogether they move sometimes faster and sometimes slower1 yet that they describe equal areas in equal times2 that is1 that the spaces through which they move in different parts of their orbit1 are of equal times1 though of unequal length2 yet when two straight lines are drawn from the extremity of either space to the centre of the sun1 they form triangles which include equal areas4 ,he likewise demonstrated that the squares of the periodical times of the revolution of the planets round the sun1 are in proportion to the cubes of their distance from him2 a theorem of the greatest use in astronomical calculations3 for having the periodical times of two planets given1 and if the distance of one of them be known1 by the rule of proportion1 the distance of the other can be ascertained4 ,kepler is said to have used logarithms in framing his 8,rodolphine ,tables40 ,this great man died in poverty1 #aeth ,november1 #afca1 at ,ratisbon1 whither he had gone to solicit the arrears of his pension1 which had been very ill paid3 he left nothing to his wife and children but the remembrance of his virtues4 ,contemporary with ,kepler was ,galileo1 born at ,pisa1 in ,italy1 in #aefd2 illustrious for his improvements in mechanics1 for his application of the effects of gravity1 and for the invention1 or at least1 the improvement of telescopes4 ,the use of spectacles1 or reading glasses 7convex for long-sighted2 and concave for short-sighted persons17 had been invented by one ,spina1 a monk at ,pisa1 in #abij2 or1 as some say1 by our countryman ,roger ,bacon4 ,the use of telescopes or glasses for viewing objects at a distance1 was invented by ,zachary ,janssen1 a spectacle-maker1 at ,middleburg1 or rather1 as it is said1 from the accidental discovery of a child4 ,the honour of this invention is also claimed by others4 ,it is certain that ,galileo first improved them so as to answer astronomical purposes4 ,he also first made use of the single pendulum for measuring time in making his observations2 to which he was led1 by considering one day the vibrations of a lamp suspended from the vaulted roof of a church4 ,he likewise discovered the gravity of the atmosphere from the rising of water in a pump1 by the action of a piston1 which led the way to the invention of the barometer1 by his scholar ,toricelli4 ,the use of telescopes opened1 in a manner1 a new world to ,galileo4 ,he observed with astonishment the increased magnitude and splendour of the planets and their satellites1 formerly invisible3 which afforded additional proofs of the veracity of the ,copernican system1 particularly the satellites of ,jupiter1 and the phasis of ,venus4 ,he discovered an innumerable multitude of fixed stars1 which the naked eye could not discern1 and what greatly excited his wonder1 without the least increase in their size or brightness4 ,about the same time1 ,john ,napier1 of ,merchiston1 in ,scotland1 invented what are called 8,logarithms10 first published at ,edinburgh in #afad1 afterwards improved by ,mr4 ,briggs1 ,professor of ,geometry1 at ,oxford1 in which1 by a very ingenious contrivance1 addition is made to answer for multiplication1 and subtraction for division2 an invention of the greatest utility in astronomical calculations4 ,galileo was not afflicted with poverty1 but with persecution4 ,at seventy years of age he was called before the ,holy ,inquisition1 for supporting opinions contrary to ,scripture1--and was obliged1 on the #aath of ,june1 #afcc1 formally to abjure them1 to avoid being burnt as a heretic4 ,the system of ,copernicus had yet gained but few converts2 and the bulk of professions and learned men in ,europe1 attached to the philosophy of ,aristotle1 supported the old doctrine4 ,galileo was condemned to prison1 and confined to the small city of ,arcem1 with its territory1 where he consoled himself by the study of astronomy4 ,he contrived a method of discovering the longitude by the satellites of ,jupiter1 which1 however1 has not been productive of all the advantages he expected4 ,he died in prison1 or rather in exile1 in #afdb4 ,although there were a great number of astronomers contemporary with ,kepler and ,galileo1 none made any conspicuous figure4 ,john ,bayer1 of ,augsburg1 introduced the ,jewish method of marking the stars with letters of the ,greek and ,latin alphabets2 this the ,jews use because their law does not permit the use of figures1 the produce of fancy4 ,in #agcb1 astronomers were very attentive to observe the transit of ,venus over the disc of the sun1 which ,kepler had predicted1 as a confirmation of the system of ,copernicus4 ,mercury was observed by ,gassendi in ,france1 and some others2 but the transit of ,venus did not then take place for their inspection4 ,the transit of ,venus was first seen by ,jeremiah ,horrox1 of ,hoole1 an obscure village1 fifteen miles north of ,liverpool1 on the #bdth of ,november1 #afci1 and at the same time by his friend1 ,william ,crabtree1 at ,manchester4 ,horrox was born in #afai1 and died in #afda1 in the twenty-third year of his age4 ,he wrote an account of his observations1 which were published after his death1 under the title of 8,venus in ,sole visa10 by ,hevelius4 ,the ,copernican system was first publicly defended in ,england1 by ,dr4 ,wilkins1 in #affj2 in ,france1 by ,gassendi1 the son of a peasant in ,provence1 who published many valuable works on ,philosophy4 ,he was born in #aeib1 and died in #afee4 ,he was violently opposed by ,morin1 a famous astrologer4 ,descartes1 descended from a noble family1 the son of a counsellor of ,brittany1 in ,france1 born at ,haye1 in ,tourraine1 #cast of ,march1 #aeif1 early distinguished himself by his knowledge in algebra and geometry4 ,he attacked and overturned the philosophy of ,aristotle1 in his own country4 ,he attempted to establish certain principles1 which1 though founded in theory1 he took for granted1 by which he accounted for all appearances4 ,like ,mochus and ,democritus1 he imagined all space to be filled with corpuscules1 or atoms1 in continual agitation1 and denied the possibility of a vacuum4 ,he explained everything by supposing vortices1 or motions round a centre1 according to the opinions of ,democritus1 and thus discovered the centrifugal force in the circular motion of the planets4 ,but the system of ,descartes not being founded on facts or experiments1 did not subsist long3 although at first it had many followers4 ,his astronomical opinions were much the same with those of ,copernicus4 ,although the lively notions of ,descartes led him into error1 yet his exalted views greatly contributed to the improvement of science4 ,men were led to observation and experiments1 in order to overturn his system1 and astronomy was cultivated by persons of ability2 viz41 ,bouillard1 at ,paris2 ,ward1 at ,oxford1 #afec2 and by ,helvelius1 at ,dantzic1 #afdc1 who constructed a fine observatory1 and collected a great many facts by his long assiduous observation1 for fifty years1 during which he made many discoveries concerning the planets1 fixed stars1 and particularly comets4 ,colbert1 in the name of ,louis ,,xiv41 sent him a sum of money and a pension4 ,hevelius published a catalogue of fixed stars1 entitled1 8,firmamentum ,sobieskianum10 dedicated to ,john ,sobieski1 ,king of ,poland1 at that time justly famous for having raised the siege of ,vienna1 when attacked by the ,turks1 #afhc4 ,in honour of whom ,helvelius formed a new constellation between ,antinonus and ,serpenterius1 called ,sobieski's ,shield4 ,but the most distinguished astronomer of that time was ,christian ,huygens1 son to the secretary of the ,prince of ,orange1 born at the ,hague1 #adth of ,april1 #afbi1 and educated at ,leyden1 under ,schooten1 the commentator on ,descartes1--famous for the application of pendulums to clocks and springs to watches1 for the improvement of telescopes and microscopes1 and for the great discoveries he made1 in consequence of these improvements in astronomy4 ,the establishment of academies1 or societies1 at this time1 contributed greatly to the advancement of science4 ,the ,royal ,society1 in ,london1 was begun in #afei1 but did not assume a regular form till #affb4 ,its transactions were first published in #affe4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences1 at ,paris1 was founded in #afhf1 by ,louis ,,xiv41 who invited to it ,rmer1 from ,denmark1 ,huygens and ,cassini from ,italy4 ,cassini was born at ,perinaldo1 in the county of ,nice1 on the #hth of ,june1 #afbe1 and was appointed first professor in the ,royal ,observatory at ,paris1 where he prosecuted his discoveries till his death1 in #agab1 and was succeeded by his son4 ,he was assisted by ,picard1 ,auzoul1 and ,la ,hire4 ,by the direction of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris1 a voyage was undertaken by ,riecher and ,meurisse1 at the king's expense1 to the island of ,caienne1 in ,south ,america1 almost under the equator1 in #afgb1 to ascertain several philosophical facts2--the refraction of light1 the parallax of ,mars1 and of the ,sun1 the distance of the tropics1 the variation in the motion of the pendulum1 c4 ,the parallax of the sun is the angle under which an observer at the sun would see the earth3 this ,cassini fixed at #i seconds1 and the angle under which we see the sun1 at #af minutes and #f seconds1 or #iff seconds2 hence he concluded that these semi-diameters1 are as #i to #iff1 or as #aj to #aicb4 ,so that1 according to ,cassini1 the semi-diameter of the earth is one hundred times less than that of the sun2 and consequently the sun is a million times larger than the earth4 ,the parallax of the sun has since1 from the transit of ,venus1 #fth of ,june1 #agfa1 and #crd of ,june1 #agfi1 been discovered to be but about #h seconds1 consequently his comparative bulk to that of the earth1 and his distance from it1 to be proportionably greater4 ,the method of finding the distance of the earth from the sun1 and consequently of the other planets1 was first proposed by ,dr4 ,halley1 who had never seen1 and was morally certain he would never see1 this appearance4 ,meurisse died during the voyage4 ,riecher returned in #afgf4 ,his answer to the parallax of ,mars was not satisfactory4 ,cassini calculated it at #ae seconds4 ,the distance of the tropics was found to be #df degrees1 #eg minutes1 #d seconds4 ,the chief advantage resulting from the voyage was ascertaining the vibration of the pendulum4 ,in #affi1 ,placard remarked that clocks went slower in summer than in winter1 owing to1 as since ascertained1 that it is the property of heat to dilate bodies1 which consequently lengthens the pendulum2 that cold produces an opposite effect4 ,riecher found that the pendulum made forty-eight vibrations less at ,caienne than at ,paris2 that it went two minutes and twenty seconds a day slower2 hence1 to adjust1 he was obliged to shorten the pendulum4 ,the same fact was confirmed by ,halley1 while at ,st4 ,helena1 #afgf4 ,but an additional reason for this variation is presumed to exist1 from the machinery being further removed from the central axis of the earth2 the gravitating principle is presumed to be diminished at the equator more than it is when nearer the poles4 ,about this time the ,french ,jesuit missionaries1 having got admission into ,china1 contributed greatly to the improvement of their astronomy4 ,father ,schaal1 one of their number1 on account of his merit1 and particularly for his skill in astronomy1 was so highly honoured by the court of ,china1 that the emperor1 upon his death-bed1 made him preceptor to his son and successor4 ,schaal reformed the ,kalendar1 a matter of great importance to that country4 ,it was further improved by ,verbiest1 who succeeded ,schaal1 about #afgj4 ,the most eminent astronomers in ,england during this period were ,flamstead1 ,halley1 and ,hook4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton was born at ,woolstrope1 in ,lincoln1 ,december #be1 #afdb2 after due preparation he was admitted in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,the rapidity of his progress in mathematical knowledge was truly astonishing4 ,at the age of twenty-four1 he had laid the foundation of the most important mathematical discoveries4 ,he is the first who gave a rational and complete account of the laws which regulate planetary motion1 on the principles of attraction and gravitation4 ,newton was as remarkable for a modest diffidence of his own abilities1 as for the superiority of his genius4 ,in #agjd1 he published his 8,optics20 in #agaa1 his 8,fluxions20 and in #agbh1 his 8,chronology40 ,he received in his life time the honour due to his singular merit4 ,in #agjc1 he was elected ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,in #agje1 he received the honour of knighthood by ,queen ,anne4--,he was twice member of parliament4 ,in #affi1 he was made master of the mint1 which1 with the presidency of the ,royal ,society1 he held till his death1 in #agbf4 ,he was buried in ,westminster ,abbey1 where there is an appropriate monument to his memory4 ,the system of ,newton had an eminent supporter and able annotator in the very eminent ,scottish professor1 ,colin ,mac ,laurin1 who was born in the month of ,february1 #afih4 ,in #agai1 he travelled to ,london1 where he was introduced to the illustrious ,newton1 whose notice and friendship he obtained1 and ever after reckoned as the greatest honour and happiness of his life4 ,in #agcd1 ,dr4 ,berkeley1 ,bishop of ,cloyne1 published his treatise1 called 8,the ,analyst10 in which he attempted to charge mathematicians with infidelity in matters of religion4 ,this work was the occasion of ,mac ,laurin's elaborate 8,treatise on ,fluxions10 published at ,edinburgh1 in #agdb1 which is reckoned the most ample treatise on that branch of novel mathematics which has yet appeared4 ,so very eminent was ,mac ,laurin's skill in mathematics1 and the principles of anatomical science1 and he possessed such excellent instruments for these purposes1 that a new theory never appeared1 nor did anything transpire in the scientific world1 which was uncommon1 but his friends constantly resorted to him for explanation and experiment1 and their laudable curiosity was sure to be satisfactorily gratified4 ,one of the greatest names in the modern history of astronomical discovery is that of the late ,sir ,william ,herschel2 and1 much to his praise1 he was self-instructed in the science in which he earned his high reputation4 ,herschel was born at ,hanover1 in #agcf1 and was the son of a musician in humble circumstances4 ,brought up to his father's profession1 at the age of fourteen he was placed in the band of the ,hanoverian ,guards4 ,a detachment of this regiment having been ordered to ,england in the year #ageg1 he and his father accompanied it2 but the latter returned to ,germany in a few months1 and left his son to try his fortune in ,london4 ,for a long time he had many difficulties to contend with1 and he passed several years principally in giving lessons in music in the different towns in the ,north of ,england4 ,at last1 in #agfe1 through the interest of a gentleman to whom his merits had become known1 he obtained the situation of organist at ,halifax2 and next year1 having gone to fulfil a short engagement at ,bath1 he gave so much satisfaction by his performances1 that he was appointed to the same office in the ,octagon ,chapel of that city1 upon which he went to reside there4 ,the place which he now held was of some value2 and from the opportunities which he enjoyed of adding to its emoluments1 by engagements at the rooms and private concerts1 as well as by taking pupils1 he had had the prospect of deriving a good income from his profession1 if he had made that his only or his chief object4 ,during his residence at ,bath1 although greatly occupied with professional engagements1 the time he devoted to his mathematical studies was surprising4 ,often1 we are told1 after a fatiguing day's work of fourteen or sixteen hours among his pupils1 he would1 on returning home at night1 repair for relaxation to what many would deem these severer exercises4 ,in this manner1 in the course of time1 he attained a competent knowledge of geometry1 and found himself in a condition to proceed to the study of the different branches of physical science which depend upon the mathematics4 ,among the first of the latter that attracted his attention1 were the kindred departments of astronomy and optics4 ,having applied himself to these sciences1 he became desirous of beholding with his own eyes those wonders of the heavens of which he had read so much1 and for that purpose he borrowed from an acquaintance a two-feet ,gregorian telescope4 ,this instrument interested him so greatly1 that he determined to procure one of his own1 and commissioned a friend in ,london to purchase one for him1 of a somewhat larger size4 ,but he found the price was beyond what he could afford4 ,to make up for this disappointment1 he resolved to construct a telescope for himself2 and after encountering innumerable difficulties in the progress of his task1 he at last succeeded1 in the year #aggd1 in completing a five-feet ,newtonian reflector4 ,this was the commencement of a long and brilliant course of triumphs in the same walk of art1 and also in that of astronomical discovery4 ,herschel now became so much more ardently attached to his philosophical pursuits1 that1 regardless of the sacrifice of emolument he was making1 he begun gradually to limit his professional engagements1 and the number of his pupils4 ,meanwhile he continued to employ his leisure in the fabrication of still more powerful instruments than the one he had first constructed2 and in no long time he produced telescopes of seven1 ten1 and even twenty feet focal distance4 ,in fashioning the mirrors for these instruments1 his perseverance was indefatigable4 ,for his seven-feet reflector1 we have been informed that he actually finished and made trial of no fewer than two hundred mirrors before he found one that satisfied him4 ,when he sat down to prepare a mirror1 his practice was to work at it for twelve or fourteen hours1 without quitting his occupation for a moment4 ,he would not even take his hand from what he was about1 to help himself to food2 and the little he ate on such occasions was put into his mouth by his sister4 ,he gave the mirror a proper shape1 more by a certain natural tact than by rule2 and when his hand was once in1 as the phrase is1 he was afraid that the perfection of the finish might be impaired by the least intermission of his labours4 ,it was on the #acth of ,march1 #agha1 that ,herschel made the discovery to which he owes1 perhaps1 most of his reputation4 ,he had been engaged for nearly a year and a half in making a survey of the heavens1 when1 on the evening of the day that has been mentioned1 having turned his reflector 7an excellent seven feet reflector of his own constructing7 to a particular part of the sky1 he observed among the other stars one which seemed to shine with a more steady radiance than those around it2 and on account of that and other peculiarities in its appearance1 which excited his suspicions1 he determined to observe it more narrowly4 ,on reverting to it after some hours1 he was a good deal surprised to find that it had perceptibly changed its place--a fact which the next day became more indisputable4 ,at first he was somewhat in doubt whether or not it was the same star which he had seen on these different occasions2 but1 after continuing his observations for a few days longer1 all uncertainty upon that head vanished4 ,he now communicated what he had observed to the astronomer royal1 who concluded the luminary could be nothing else than a new comet4 ,continued observation of it1 however1 for a few months1 dissipated this error2 and it became evident that it was in reality a hitherto undiscovered planet4 ,this new world so unexpectedly found to form a part of the system to which our own belongs1 received from ,herschel1 the name of the ,georgium ,sidus1 or ,georgian ,star1 in honour of the ,king of ,england2 but by continental astronomers it has been more generally called either ,herschel1 after its discoverer1 or ,uranus4 ,subsequent observations1 made chiefly by ,herschel himself1 have ascertained many particulars regarding it1 some of which are well calculated to fill us with astonishment at the powers of the sublime science which can wing its way so far into the immensity of space1 and bring us back information so precise and various4 ,in the first place1 the diameter of this new globe has been found to be nearly four and a half times larger than that of our own4 ,its size altogether is about eighty times that of our earth4 ,its year is as long as eighty-three of ours4 ,its distance from the sun is nearly eighteen hundred millions of miles1 or more than nineteen times that of the earth4 ,its density1 as compared with that of the earth1 is nearly as twenty-two to one hundred2 so that its entire weight is more than eighteen times that of our planet4 ,finally the force of gravitation near its surface is such1 that falling bodies descend only through fourteen feet during the first second1 instead of thirty-two feet as with us4 ,herschel afterwards discovered no fewer than six satellites1 or moons1 belonging to his new planet4 ,the announcement of the discovery of the ,georgium ,sidus at once made ,herschel's name universally known4 ,in the course of a few months the king bestowed on him a pension of three hundred pounds a year1 that he might be able entirely to relinquish his engagements at ,bath2 and upon this he came to reside at ,slough1 near ,windsor4 ,he now devoted himself entirely to science2 and the construction of telescopes1 and observations of the heavens1 continued to form the occupations of the remainder of his life4 ,astronomy is indebted to him for many other most interesting discoveries besides the celebrated one of which we have just given an account1 as well as a variety of speculations of the most ingenious1 original1 and profound character4 ,but of these we cannot here attempt any detail4 ,he also introduced some important improvements into the construction of the reflecting telescope--beside continuing to fabricate that instrument of dimensions greatly exceeding any that had been formerly attempted1 with the powers surpassing in nearly a corresponding degree1 what had ever been before obtained4 ,the largest telescope which he ever made1 was his famous one of forty feet long1 which he erected at ,slough for the king4 ,it was begun about the end of the year #aghe1 and on the #bhth of ,august1 #aghi1 the enormous tube was poised on the complicated but ingeniously contrived mechanism by which its movements were to be regulated1 and ready for use4 ,on the same day a new satellite of ,saturn was detected by it1 being the sixth which had been observed attendant upon that planet4 ,a seventh was afterwards discovered by means of the same instrument4 ,this telescope has been taken down and replaced by another of only half the length1 constructed by ,mr4 ,j4 ,herschel1 the distinguished son of the subject of our present sketch4 ,herschel himself eventually became convinced that no telescope could surpass1 in magnifying power1 one of from twenty to twenty-five feet in length4 ,the ,french astronomer1 ,lalande1 states that he was informed by ,george ,,iii4 himself1 that it was at his desire that ,herschel was induced to make the telescope at ,slough of the extraordinary length he did1 his own wish being that it should not be more than thirty feet long4 ,so extraordinary was the ardour of this great astronomer in the study of his favourite science1 that for many years it has been asserted1 he never was in bed at any hour during which the stars were visible4 ,and he made almost all his observations1 whatever was the season of the year1 not under cover1 but in his garden1 in the open air--and generally without an attendant4 ,there was much that was peculiar to himself1 not only in the process by which he fabricated his telescopes1 but also in his manner of using them4 ,one of the attendants in the king's observatory at ,richmond1 who had formerly been a workman in ,ramsden's establishment1 was forcibly reminded1 on seeing ,herschel take an observation1 of a remark which his old master had made4 ,having just completed one of his best telescopes1 ,ramsden1 addressing himself to his workman1 said1 8,this1 ,i believe1 is the highest degree of perfection we opticians by profession will ever arrive at2 if any improvement of importance shall ever after this be introduced in the making of telescopes1 it will be by some one who has not been taught by us40 ,some years before his death1 the degree of ,,ll4,d4 was conferred upon ,herschel by the ,university of ,oxford2 and in #ahaf1 the ,prince ,regent bestowed upon him the ,hanoverian and ,guelphic ,order of ,knighthood4 ,he died on the #bcrd of ,august1 #ahbb1 when he was within a few months of having completed his eighty-fourth year4 ,we have been thus particular in the enumeration of particulars in the lives of those great men1 who have cultivated this sublime science1 for the purpose of availing ourselves of a suggestion furnished by ,dr4 ,priestly1 who observed1 8,that we could only see ,newton in two points of his career3 at the bottom of the ladder1 and at the top2 having left no account of his progress1 it appeared as though he had broken the steps by which he had ascended1 that none should follow40 ,from the facts collected by the many eminent men whose names have ornamented our pages1 we are enabled to state the following particulars concerning that part of the universe denominated the ,solar system4 ,the ,sun1 a luminous body diffusing light and heat2 whose diameter is computed at #hij1jjj miles2 diurnal rotation on axis #be days #f hours2 performs his annual revolution in orbit in #cfe days #f hours2 progressive equatorial motion in orbit per hour1 #chah miles4 ,mercury1 whose diameter is #c1jjj miles1 revolves in an orbit #cf1dha1ddh miles from that of the sun4 ,he performs his annual period round that planet in #hg days #bc hours2 his hourly equatorial motion in orbit is #aji1fii miles4 ,venus1--her diameter is #i1ccj miles2 revolves in an orbit #fh1hia1dhf miles distant from the sun2 performs her annual revolution in #bbd days #ag hours2 diurnal rotation on axis #bd days #h hours3 hourly equatorial motion in orbit #hj1bie miles4 ,the ,earth1--its diameter #gigj miles2 distance of orbit from the sun #ie1agc1jjj miles2 revolves on its axis once in #bd hours2 performs her annual period round the sun in the same time the sun completes his revolution2 hourly equatorial and progressive motion in orbit #hj1bie miles4 ,the ,moon is a satellite to the earth2 her diameter is #bahj miles2 her diurnal rotation on axis is performed in #bi days1 #ab hours1 #dd minutes2 she performs her annual revolution round the sun in precisely the same time as does the earth1 her superior planet2 her motion in orbit per hour is #bb1bij miles4 ,mars1--his diameter is #edjj miles2 distance from the sun1 #ade1jad1adh miles2 annual period round the sun #fga days1 #ag hours2 diurnal rotation on axis #ai days1 #ab hours1 #dd minutes2 hourly motion in orbit #ee1bhg miles4 ,jupiter1--his diameter #id1jjj miles2 distance from the sun #did1iij1igf miles2 annual period in #aa years1 #cad days1 #ah hours2 diurnal rotation on axis #i hours1 #ef minutes2 hourly motion in orbit #bi1hjc miles4 ,saturn1--his diameter #gh1jjj miles2 distance from the sun #ijg1ief1acj miles2 annual revolution in orbit #bb years1 #afg days1 #f hours2 hourly motion in orbit #bb1aja miles4 ,it should be observed that ,jupiter has four moons1 or satellites1 with a large and very luminous belt at a great distance from his surface4 ,saturn also has seven moons1 with a very luminous ring about #ba1jjj miles broad1 from its uppermost to its undermost edge2 and about the same distance from its surface4 ,georgium ,sidus1--the distance of the orbit from the sun1 #a1geh1jjj1jjj miles2 annual revolution #bh years1 #bhi days2 diameter #ef1gbf miles2 has two satellites1 or moons4 ,about #ahja1 #b1 and #d1 there were discovered three other small planets in the system of the sun1 called ,vesta1 ,juno1 and ,pallas4 ,the fixed stars composing the ,zodiacal ,signs1 are divided into twelve constellations1 one to each month2 which asterisms were discovered by ,flamstead to consist of the following number of stars to each3 ,aries1 the ,ram1 #ff2 ,taurus1 the ,bull1 #ada2 ,gemini1 the ,twins1 #he2 ,cancer1 the ,crab1 #hc2 ,leo1 the ,lion1 #ie2 ,virgo1 the ,virgin1 #aaj2 ,libra1 the ,scales1 #ea2 ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion1 #dd2 ,sagitarius1 the ,archer1 #fi2 ,capricornus1 the ,goat1 #ea2 ,aquarius1 the ,water-,carrier1 #ajh2 ,pisces1 the ,fishes1 #aac4 ,a comparative idea of the extent of the works of ,omnipotence may be perhaps collected1 on our being informed1 that the sphere where the fixed stars appear1 is presumed to be placed far beyond the most remote planetary orbit2 and that some of them are supposed to serve as suns to illumine other systems1 or worlds1 to us unknown4 ,,navigation4 ,the sacred records inform us that the ark of ,noah was the first ship1 and produced by the invention of the great ,architect of ,nature himself2 and 8though some men have so believed10 says the learned and ingenious ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 in his 8,history of the ,world10 8yet it is certain the world was planted before the flood1 which could not be performed without some transporting vessels4 ,it is true1 and the success has proved that there was not any so capacious1 nor any so strong1 as to defend themselves against so violent and so continued a pouring down of rain1 as the ark of which ,noah was the builder1 from the invention of ,god himself4 ,of what fashion or fabric soever were the rest1 with all men they perished according to the ordinance of ,god40 ,and it appears extremely probable that those testimonials1 whereof ,ovid speaks of former existence1 were remains of ships wrecked at the general flood4 ,there can be no question that the ,syrians were the first maritime power in the world1 as well in point of time as importance2--but of what species of construction their vessels were1 we are not informed4 ,their merchants trading to the ,eastern ,indies1 as they did for ,solomon2 to ,ophir1 whence they brought gold2 and also to this country for tin1 and their having made three distinct descents upon ,america1 will enable us to maintain this our opinion4 ,after them the ,greeks1 a people living chiefly on the shores of the ,hellespont and gean seas1 with many islands in the ,mediterranean1 ,adriatic1 and ,archipelagion ,seas1 besides their possessions in ,asia ,minor1 and their commerce with the ,european ,continent1 obtained the next power by sea4 ,we read indeed1 that ,minos1 the famous ,cretan sovereign and legislator1 who lived two descents before the ,trojan war1 sent out shipping to free the ,grecian seas of pirates2 which shows1 as ,sir ,walter ,raleigh ingeniously infers1 that there had been trade and war upon the waters before his time also4 ,the next in point of time and importance on record was the highly renowned expedition of the ,argonauts for the golden fleece to ,colchis1 a country of ,asia1 on the ,euxine sea4 ,immediately after this was the colonization of ,cyrene1 in ,africa1 by ,battus1 one of the companions of ,jason1 in his ,colchian expedition4 ,shortly afterwards1 the ,grecian states united against ,phrygian treachery and the abuse of ,grecian hospitality2 forming another most memorable epoch in the history of the world4 ,we are informed the ,grecian ,neptune1 or as mythology styles him a ,god of the ,saturnian family1 for the great service he did his father1 ,saturn1 or ,noah1 against the ,titans1 had the seas given to him4 ,history informs us that the first inventor of rowing vessels was a citizen of ,corinth2 and likewise that the first naval war was between the ,samians and ,corcyrians4 ,the history of ,ithicus1 translated into ,latin by ,st4 ,jerome1 affirms that ,griphon1 the ,scythian1 was the inventor of long-boats2 and ,strabo also gives the honour of the invention of the anchor to another ,scythian1 the famous ,anacharsis1 whilst ,greece herself by her historians1 ascribes its invention to ,eupolemus4 ,also1 it is said1 that ,icarus invented the sail1 and others1 various other pieces of the component parts of ships and boats4 ,the specification of such other imperfect memoirs1 many of fabulous appearance1 may be of no great importance4 ,it appears certain that among the four sons of ,javan1 the son of ,japhet1 the grandson1 and other the posterity of ,noah1 who peopled the 8,isles of the ,gentiles10 the ,grecian ,islands must long before the days of ,minos have used those seas1 from the insular nature of their inhabitants4 ,and it certainly does not appear extravagant to us1 to presume that this people were among the first who navigated the seas4 ,mankind in various parts of the world1 being stimulated by the same necessities1 urged by the same wants1 and possessing the same means1 might probably produce similar inventions to each other4 ,most1 indeed1 had occasion to navigate lakes1 and cross rivers4 ,they accordingly constructed such machines as would answer their purpose of passage or migration4 ,so were rafts and canoes1 formed of canes1 osiers1 twigs1 c41 where they grew1 which they fashioned like boats1 and then covered with skins of various animals2 others formed rafts of wood2 whilst some others fashioned canoes1 having hollowed out trees for that purpose4 ,one way or other1 each people thus possessed a marine1 proper for their purpose it is true1 but in various degrees of excellence4 ,this was the case with ,greeks as well as barbarians of all nations2 all these people1 excepting the immediate descendants of ,noah1 might1 perhaps1 lay a feasible claim to the honour of the original invention of these articles2 and1 having never seen such1 they virtually have each a good title to the distinction4 ,indeed1 many of them might have taken the idea for such invention from the policy of certain animals1 and the nature of others2 to instance the sagacity of the beaver and his raft1 and the little nautilus with his swelling sail3 hence they might have adopted from that animal1 and that piscatory insect1 the idea of a raft1 and also of a vessel with a sail4 ,in latter days we find the ,teutonic ,saxons first came to this country1 according to ,mr4 ,turner1 the ,anglo-,saxon historian1 in vessels they called cyules-kells by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,marine vessels have borne a variety of names1 as well as of numerous figures1 from the gondola of the ,venetian to the canoe of the ,esquimaux1--the ,british man-of-war to the ponderous bonaventure in which the ,doge annually espouses the sea4 ,all those nations1 too1 through whose hands the maritime power has passed1 from time to time1 as they have been instructed by experience1 or taught by necessity1 might repeatedly have made additions and improvements in naval architecture3 some calculated for mercantile utility1 while others have only attended to warlike strength1 and some to answer both purposes1 like our ,indiamen4 ,but now1 the ,british navy1 being supplied with the best materials1 and having as ingenious workmen as any1 with the addition of the warlike children of the soil1 may openly defy all nations1 and proudly claim the sovereignty of the seas where her flag has been flying 'midst the battle and the breeze for so many years4 ,but the most important improvement in ,navigation--propelling vessels by steam--has been left to our own times4 ,the steam-engine was first applied to small vessels for the coasting or river trade2 but it has now increased to vessels of the largest size1--in fact1 the most part of the ,british navy are steamships4 ,in former times before the introduction of this valuable auxiliary1 the passage between ,england and ,america was tedious and uncertain1 sometimes taking months1 but rarely less than from four to six weeks1 according to the state of the weather2 but now the case is altered4 ,there are a regular line of steamships1 one of which leaves ,liverpool every week1 and the voyage is performed with almost positive certainty in from twelve to fourteen days1 independent of the rude ,boreas1 or the boisterous ,atlantic4 ,these vessels are of the largest size and handsomely fitted up for the accommodation of passengers4 ,,light-,,houses4 ,a light-house1 in marine architecture1 is a building1 or watch-tower1 erected on the sea-shore1 to serve as a land-mark to mariners1 on a low coast1 by day1 and1 in any situation1 to inform them of their approach to land in the night2--being of most essential utility in causing them to take soundings1 avoid shoals1 rocks1 c42 or else it is a building erected on a rock in the sea1 which1 from its situation1 would be extremely dangerous to vessels1 were not some intimation given of the existence of a rock1 where it is locally situated4 ,of this latter description is the celebrated ,eddystone light-house1 off ,plymouth4 ,although this species of architecture is not likely to have been so general in extreme antiquity1 because it could not have been essentially necessary to any except to those nations who1 from the proximity of their situation to the coast1 or other circumstances1 pursued maritime concerns2 or to those whose connexions rendered the encouragement of the marine of other nations important4 ,the oldest building of this description1 which we believe to be upon record1 is the famous ,pharos erected on the ,egyptian coast1 which1 being very low land1 and exposed entirely to the almost constant west winds coming up the ,mediterranean from the vast ,atlantic1 must1 of necessity1 have made the port of modern ,alexandria1 anciently called ,dalmietta1 very dangerous4 ,it was originally erected by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 for the encouragement and convenience of the ,phnicians1 who were accounted the foreign factors of that empire2 as the ,egyptians possessed an unconquerable aversion to the sea1 and therefore they never obtained its sovereignty3 whilst the former people were the first who obtained the supremacy of that sea4 ,the island upon which ,pharos stood1 in the time of ,homer1 in his simple geography and estimation1 was said to be one day's sail from the ,delta2 whereas1 since the foundation of ,alexandria1 it was only a mile in distance1 and was even joined to the mainland by a mole1 having a bridge at each end2 or according to some authors1 in the middle4 ,the tower was1 if report be true1 justly entitled to the appellation it obtained--one of the seven wonders of the world2 and it is reported1 that the light from it has been seen at the distance of a hundred miles2 which1 assuredly1 appears improbable1 because the convexity of the earth1 we think1 would not permit4 ,its height must have been1 at least1 #b1djj feet1 or #hjj yards from the base4 ,we are enabled to furnish the following particulars of this famous structure4 ,it was built by order of that patron of learning and the arts1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 by that eminent architect1 ,sostrates1 who constructed many of the public buildings in ,alexandria4 ,it is said to have cost ,ptolemy eight hundred talents6 ,respecting its mode of construction1 it was raised several stories one above another2 each was decorated with columns1 balustrades1 and galleries of the finest marble and most exquisite workmanship2 and some have even said that the architect had furnished the galleries with large mirrors1 by which shipping could be seen at a great distance4 ,however1 respecting this edifice1 once so famous1 that its very name1 ,pharos1 was considered as a common term for all other constructions for the same purpose1 it is now said1 from ,saracenic ignorance and brutality1 aided1 perhaps1 by the assistance of the common leveller1 ,time1 that nothing now remains of this once elegant edifice1 but an unsightly tower rising out of a heap of ruins1 the whole being accommodated to the inequality of the ground on which it stands1 and being1 at present1 no higher than that which it should command4 ,such as it is1 there is now a light1 we understand1 usually maintained4 ,there is also an island1 which was called ,pharos1 in the ,adriatic sea1 on the coast of ,italy1 opposite ,brundusium1 for the same reason3 likewise the celebrated colossal statue of ,apollo1 at ,rhodes1 answered the same purpose1 and occasionally had the same appellation1 as had a river of ,asia1 in the environs of ,cilicia and the ,euphrates4 ,this last consideration brings us to the etymology of the word1 as ,ozanum says1 8,pharos originally signified a strait1 as the ,pharos of ,messina40 ,of every description of light-houses yet known1 there is none more famous than that called ,eddystone1 with a description of which we shall conclude this article4 ,mr4 ,winstanley's light-house was begun upon the ,eddystone rock in #afif1 and was more than four years in building1 from the numerous interruptions of the wind and the element he had to contend with1 the violence whereof is truly alarming1 occasioned by that rock being exposed to every wind which comes up the vast ,atlantic1 and that tumultuous sea1 the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,these obstacles were considerably increased by the shape of the rock itself1 having a regular slope to ,s4,w41 and from the very deep sea in its vicinity1 it1 therefore1 receives the uncontrolled fury of those seas3 meeting with no other object whereon to break their vehement force1 the effect is so great at high water with a ,s4,w4 wind1 which continues for many days1 though a calm may have succeeded1 the violent action of the waters has not ceased1 but break frightfully on ,eddystone4 ,an engraving of ,mr4 ,winstanley's light-house was published at the period of its erection1 from which it appears to have been a stone tower of twelve sides1 rising forty-four feet above the highest point of the rock1 which1 in the dimensions on which it was built1 twenty-four feet in diameter1 was ten feet lower on one side than it was upon the other2 at the top was a balustrade and platform2 upon this were erected eight pillars1 which supported a dome of the same dimensions as the tower2 from the top of which arose an octagon tower1 of a diameter of fifteen feet1 and seven in height4 ,on the summit was placed the lantern1 ten feet in diameter1 and twelve in height3 it had a gallery surrounding it1 which gave access to the windows4 ,the whole was surrounded by fencible iron-work4 ,the entry was by a solid stone door at the bottom2 the whole building was of the same material1 except the aperture for the staircase4 ,at the bottom was a room twelve feet high for a store-room2 the next story was of the same height1 which was the stateroom2 and the third was of a similar height1 which was the kitchen4 ,those compartments occupied the whole height to the platform4 ,the dome above this contained the lodging-room2 the octagon above it1 the look-out4 ,the reason why it occupied so much time in building was1 because the men could only work in the summer months4 ,the first summer was occupied in making holes in the rock1 and fastening irons to hold the future work4 ,the second year was spent in erecting a solid pillar1 of fourteen feet diameter1 and one hundred and twelve feet high1 for the future support of the building4 ,the third year1 it was augmented in diameter and increased in height4 ,this building was eventually finished1 within the time above-mentioned1 at an enormous expense4 ,it stood the opposition of the elements4 ,the violence of the sea was so great1 that ,mr4 ,winstanley said it has been seen to rise upwards of one hundred feet above the vane1 whilst the sides of the building were covered with surf as with a sheet1 so that the whole house and lantern were occasionally under water4 ,this edifice withstood the conflict of elements till #agjc1 when the architect1 being at ,plymouth1 and desirous of visiting it1 for the purpose of inspecting some repairs1 went to it1 but returned no more2 for a storm arose1 which left not a relic of it standing1 except the iron work1 which had been fixed in the rock4 ,the ,corporation of the ,trinity ,house had then to erect another1 for which purpose they employed a ,mr4 ,john ,rudyard1 who was a silk mercer1 on ,ludgate-hill4 ,mr4 ,rudyard's mechanical ingenuity was said to have qualified him well for the undertaking4 ,it appears that he erected a house made chiefly of wood1 which presented many traits of his genius4 ,it was a conical frustrum1 one hundred and fifty-six feet in diameter at the base2 its altitude sixty-two feet4 ,at the top of the building was a balcony1 railed round2 in the centre of its area was the lantern4 ,this building was made quite plain1 excepting the well for the staircase1 which was solid for thirty-two feet4 ,in the centre a strong mast was erected4 ,the building was admirably fixed to the rock1 from the very peculiar manner of making the holes to hold iron cramps1 they being made for the internal cavity to diverge on each side1 by an extreme of one inch at the depth of sixteen inches4 ,the cavity was first filled with tallow2 the hot iron then dipped in the same substance1 put in the rock1 and eventually filled with pewter1 which displaced the tallow1 being heavier1 the grease serving to protect the iron from the corrosive acidity of the salt water4 ,in #agjh1 it was finished so far as to receive a temporary light4 ,it stood forty-four years1 and showed that it was liable to destruction from the very perishable nature of its materials4 ,however1 on the #bnd ,december1 #agee1 the upper part of it taking fire1 burnt downwards to its entire consumption4 ,the concern had been leased to a ,captain ,lovell2 but at a later period his possessions were distributed among a number of people1 when the care of rebuilding it was entrusted to ,mr4 ,robert ,weston1 to whom ,mr4 ,john ,smeaton was recommended by the ,president of the ,royal ,society1 who appears to have been well qualified for the undertaking4 ,he accordingly furnished a plan for1 and superintended the building which now stands4 ,mr4 ,smeaton's conjecture was quite different to that of the late projector2 he conceived that nothing could withstand the action of the wind and water so well1 and at the same time1 prevent such accidents as the past1 as could a building whose gravity should secure its most sure protection1 ,he accordingly constructed his of the most massy stones1 all dovetailed into each other1 formed of ,cornish-moor and ,portland stone2 all the joints breach each other1 as the masons term it1 or on each joint occurs the central stone of the next course4 ,there are fourteen courses of these stones first laid in this manner1 of a great thickness each course4 ,on the #abth ,june1 #ageg1 the first stone was laid in its place1 each stone being pierced when it was laid1 a strong oak pin was driven through to pin it fast to its place3 the dovetails not fitting so close to each other1 because it was necessary to leave some space for the cement1 this pin was calculated to secure the stone till this could be applied and had fixed2 the cement used was composed of ,watchet lime and puzzolana1 or ,dutch terras1 being made at the moment by mixing up in a pail1 with water2 this mixture was poured upon the work1 and run into every cavity and crevice2 this1 however1 was sometimes not exempt from the injury of the sea2 whenever it was injured1 the defect was supplied by having some oakum cut fine1 and mixed with this cement1 introduced into the joints2 then they were secured with a coat of plaster of ,paris1 pro tempore1 and this was never known to fail1 if the work stood for one tide4 ,in this manner the platform was erected1 all of the most solid materials1 and substantial workmanship4 ,on the #cjth of ,september1 #ageh1 the work having been continued from the #aath of the preceding ,may1 had arrived at the store-room floor2 here an iron chain was let into the stone1 as follows3 the recess being made and the chain being well oiled before insertion1 the groove which received it was divided into four separate dams by clay2 two kettles were used1 to hold a sufficiency of melted lead1 eleven hundred weight2 whilst the lead was in a state of fusion1 two men with ladles filled one quarter of the groove2 as soon as it set1 they removed one of the clay dams1 and then filled the next quarter1 pouring the liquid on the middle of the first quarter1 it melted together into the second2 the dam at the opposite end was now filled1 and then the fourth2 by this means the lead was associated into one solid mass4 ,the centring for the floor was next set up1 the outward stones being first set1 and then the inner ones4 ,thus the base floor was finished4 ,the men could work no longer than till the #gth of ,october that year4 ,the winter was spent in preparing the iron1 copper1 and glass work for the lantern2 and the spring in unsuccessful endeavours to discover the moorings for the vessel which attended the works1 for the occasional retreat of the workmen4 ,on the #eth of ,july the work was resumed3 the stones for building had been hitherto raised from the boats by what are called shears1 formed of two poles1 with the lowermost ends extended to a sufficient width1 whilst the upper ends met in a point2 here was fastened tackle1 pulleys1 c41 to raise them to a sufficient height to be swung over the building2 this course was now of necessity altered2 a block with pulleys being suspended from the top1 projected to a sufficient distance1 supported by beams4 ,after the base had been formed as described1 a different mode of operation was necessary to complete the superstructure2 the work being now advanced so high as to be out of the constant wash of the sea4 ,instead of grooves being formed to fasten the stones together1 they were fixed by means of iron clamps and lead4 ,the stones to complete the superstructure were landed1 and first drawn up by machinery1 called a jack1 through the well1 in the interior of the building1 being a cavity for the staircase4 ,the work now proceeded more rapidly1 so that by the #bfth of ,august1 the stairs and all the masonry were finished3 the iron frame for the lantern was next screwed together in its place1 and the lantern soon completed4 ,it should have been noticed1 that after the first entry was closed1 the shears were supported by a tackle called a guy1 attached to the top of the shears1 and hooked so far on the outside of the building2 the stone being drawn up by a windlass1 the guy was drawn in to swing the stone over the building4 ,the balcony rails and the stone basement for the lantern having been completed1 on the #agth of ,september the cupola was set up by a particular kind of shears constructed purposely1 the guy in different places being fastened to booms projecting from the several windows of the upper rooms2 the next day the ball was screwed on1 and on the #aath of ,october1 an electrical conductor was fixed1 which finished the edifice4 ,a light was then exhibited1 which has continued to warn the mariner ever since4 ,an ably constructed cornice throws the spray from off the building1 so that it is often seen at ,plymouth with the appearance of a white sheet1 throwing itself to double the height of the building1 which from low water mark to the apex of the ball is one hundred feet4 ,we have been thus minute1 because this pharos is considered to be the best constructed of all our lighthouses4 ,,electricity4 ,electricity was a property but imperfectly understood by the ancients2 indeed1 it has been said1 they were entirely unacquainted with it4 ,but we propose1 shortly1 to show the extent to which we are informed their sphere of knowledge extended4 ,this much cannot be denied1 that they were acquainted with the electrical properties of amber1 of which fact we are informed by ,pliny4 ,even before ,pliny1 however1 as early as the days of ,thalis1 who lived near six hundred years anterior to the ,roman historian1 the ,miletine philosophers ascribed the attractive power of the magnet and of amber to animation by a vital principle4 ,our word 8electricity0 appears to be derived from the name the ,latins gave to amber1 electrum4 ,it is also evident that they were acquainted with the shock of the torpedo2 although they were ignorant1 as are the moderns1 of the concealed cause of this effect4 ,it has been asserted that the ancients knew how to collect the electrical fire in the atmosphere2 and it is also said1 that it was in an experiment of this nature that ,tullus ,hostilius lost his life4 ,etymologists have carried us still farther back1 and assert that it was from the electrical property in the heavens that ,jove obtained his surname of ,jupiter ,eliaus4 ,this1 however1 may be only conjectural4 ,the first discoveries made of sufficient importance to demand the appellation of 8scientific0 in the science of electricity1 were effected by ,dr4 ,w4 ,gilbert1 the result of which he gave the world1 in the year #affj1 in a book then published1 entitled 8,de ,magneto10 and ,dr4 ,gilbert was followed in his pursuits by that celebrated scientific character1 the honourable and illustrious ,boyle1 and other men eminent for that species of information4 ,this science was successfully cultivated in the last century by many eminent philosophers1 among whom we may mention ,hawkesbee1 ,grey1 ,muschenbrook1 ,doctors ,franklin and ,priestly1 ,bishop ,watson1 ,mr4 ,cavendish1 and several other members of the ,royal ,society of ,england2 whilst those worthy of the true philosophic character in ,france did not neglect its cultivation4 ,many fatal accidents have resulted from experiments made by people ignorant of the science4 ,on the #fth of ,august1 #agec1 at ,petersburg1 ,professor ,richmann lost his life by endeavouring to draw the electric fluid into his house4 ,electricity1 like many others of the arcana of nature1 still retains almost as deeply shaded from human view as when its existence was first made known4 ,nature appears to have certain secret operations1 which are not yet1 perhaps1 to be revealed4 ,,electric ,,telegraph4 ,this is the most surprising invention of modern times1 and of the greatest importance to a commercial people2 by means of it intelligence is conveyed from one end of the kingdom to another1 in the twinkling of an eye4 ,a company was fully organised for the carrying out this invention1 which commenced its operations in #ahdh1 and established a system of no ordinary complication and extent4 ,their wires stretch from ,glasgow on the north1 to ,dorchester1 on the south1 from the east coast1 at ,yarmouth1 to the west1 at ,liverpool4 ,these have brought upwards of one hundred and fifty towns into instant communication with each other4 ,the wires set up for the use of the public alone are upwards of nine thousand eight hundred miles in length1 and extend over a distance of two thousand and sixty miles1 and1 exclusive of those running underground1 and through tunnels or rivers1 are stretched on no fewer than sixty-one thousand eight hundred posts1 varying from sixteen to thirty feet in height1 and of an average square of eight inches1 with an expensive apparatus of insulators and winders attached to each4 ,as the most trifling derangement of the wires or apparatus will stop the communication1 it is obvious that the utmost care and watchfulness is requisite to prevent and detect accidents4 ,accordingly1 the whole distance is divided into districts1 each district having a superintendent1 and under him several inspectors1 and a staff of workmen1 batterymen1 and mechanics1 more or less numerous1 according to the extent over which he presides4--,when we consider these things1 in conjunction with the central staff of engineers1 secretaries1 c41 at the head-establishment in ,london1 a maximum charge of one penny per mile cannot be considered an exorbitant demand for the accommodation afforded to the public in keeping open so many receiving stations1 and the maintenance of the expensive establishments4 ,the telegraphic system is designed for important and urgent messages1 and it may be safely averred that not one despatch in a hundred has been as yet forwarded by it1 which has not been by many times worth more than the sum paid by the sender4 ,a commercial house in ,liverpool will scarcely grudge #hs4 #f;d4 for a communication by which a necessary payment may be made1 an important order given1 or a profitable operation facilitated in ,london2 and the message from ,glasgow1 which traverses a distance of five hundred and twenty miles in an instant1 to summon a son from the metropolis1 it may be1 to the bedside of a dying parent1 cannot be judged exorbitant at a charge of #ads41 considerably less than one halfpenny per mile4 ,messrs4 ,wilmer and ,smith1 of ,liverpool1 publishers of the 8,european ,times10 have arranged the most admirable code of signals in the world2 and by the use of forty-eight letters are capable of transmitting intelligence equal to half a column of an ordinary newspaper4 ,the telegraphic company disapprove of this species of short-hand1 and1 therefore1 charge for the forty-eight letters #acs4 ,this ,messrs4 ,wilmer and ,smith consider excessive1 as they have forwarded similar messages by telegraph1 four thousand miles in ,america1 for #hs41 and from ,philadelphia to ,new ,york for #as4 ,these gentlemen1 therefore1 consider they have cause to find fault with the company in reference to charges for communications in cipher4 ,,steam-,,engines4 ,the ,steam-,engine is one of the most important of human discoveries1 and is certainly one of those which afford the greatest portion of ease and advantage to the human species1 as well in the operation of its cause1 as in its ultimate effects4 ,the most powerful of machines had its origin from the single idea of one individual of our own nation4 ,it has been1 from time to time1 improved by different individuals1 also natives of ,britain1 the precise period of which improvements can be traced1 and their effects fortunately ascertained4 ,although we should observe1 that the first principle of this mechanical power was discovered by some of the ancient nations1 many ages before that which gave the origin to the present practised invention1 but from the state of information1 it is conceived1 to answer no purpose of utility4 ,it may be said to have occurred in a small machine which the ancients called an olipila 7the bull of olus7 consisting of a hollow ball of metal1 with a slender neck1 or pipe1 also of metal1 having a small orifice entering into the ball1 by means of a screw2 this pipe being taken out1 the ball being filled with water1 and the pipe again screwed in1 the ball is heated--there issues from the orifice1 when sufficiently hot1 a vapour1 with great violence and noise2 care was required that this should not be by accident stopped1 if it were1 the machine would infallibly burst1 and perhaps1 to the danger of the lives of all in its vicinity1 so immense is its power4 ,another way of introducing the water was first to heat the ball when empty1 and then suddenly to immerse it in water4 ,descartes1 in particular1 has used this instrument to account for the natural generation of winds4 ,chauvin thinks it might be employed instead of bellows1 to blow a fire4 ,it would admirably serve to fumigate a room1 being filled with perfume instead of common water4 ,it is said to have been applied to clear chimneys of their soot1 a practice still alleged to be common in ,italy4 ,dr4 ,plott1 in his 8,history of ,staffordshire10 records this singular custom1 where the olipila is used to blow the fire4 8,the lord of the mannor of ,essington is bound by his tenure to drive a goose1 every ,new ,year's day1 three times round the hall of the ,lord of ,hilton1 while ,jack of ,hilton1 a brazen olipila1 blows the fire40 ,the last circumstance we shall mention of this instrument1 has relation to an antique one1 discovered whilst digging the ,basingstoke canal1 representing a grotesque metallic figure1 in which the blast proceeded from the mouth4 ,this figure is now in the possession of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london4 ,in this instrument1 the uncommon elastic force of steam was recognised before the suggestion of the ,marquis of ,worcester1 which follows3 8,in #afee1 or subsequent thereto1 the ,marquis of ,worcester published the earliest account of the application of this power for the purposes of utility1 and suggested it as applicable to raising water4 #8,sixty-eight4 ,an admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire2 not by drawing or sucking it upwards1 for that would be what the philosopher calleth it1 intra spherum actroctatis1 which is1 but at such a distance4 ,but this way has no bounder1 if the vessel be strong enough2 for ,i have taken a whole piece of cannon1 whereof the end was burst1 stopping and screwing up the broken end1 as also the touch-hole2 and making a constant fire under it1 within twenty-four hours it burst and made a great crack3 so that having a way to make my vessels1 so that they are strengthened by the force within them1 and the one to fill after the other1 ,i have seen the water run like a constant fountain stream1 forty feet high2 one vessel of cold water being consumed1 another begins to force and refill with cold water1 and so successively2 the fire being tended and kept constant1 which the self-same person may likewise abundantly perform1 in the interim between the necessity of turning the cocks4'0 ,the marquis's ingenuity did not1 it appears1 meet with that attention which it deserved1 from those to whom his communication was addressed4 ,in the article of steam it has been since very much improved1 and is acted upon for the most useful of purposes2 also his ideas for short-hand telegraphs1 floating baths1 escutcheons for locks1 moulds for candles1 and a mode to disengage horses from a carriage1 after they have taken fright2 which1 with several others1 proclaim the originality and ingenuity of the mind of this nobleman--an honour which very few of the ,british nobility aspire to4 ,since his time1 another design upon the same principle has been projected by ,captain ,thomas ,savery1 a commissioner of sick and wounded1 who in the year #afia obtained a patent for 8a new invention for raising water1 and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work1 by the impellant force of fire40 ,this patent bears date the #beth of ,july1 sixteenth of ,william ,,iii41 ,a4 ,d4 #afih4 ,the patent states that the invention will be of great use for drawing of mines1 serving towns with water1 and working all sorts of mills4 8,mr4 ,savery1 ,june #adth1 #afii1 entertained the ,royal ,society with showing a model of his engine for raising water by help of fire1 which he set to work before them2 the experiment succeeded according to expectation40 ,the above memoir is accompanied with a copperplate figure1 with references by way of description2 from whence it appears1 that the engine then shown by ,captain ,savery was for raising water1 not only by the expansive force of steam1 like the ,marquis of ,worcester's1 but also by the condensation of steam1 the water being raised by the pressure of a rarified atmosphere to a given height1 by the expansive force of steam1 in the same manner as the ,marquis proposed4 ,this action was performed alternately in two receivers1 so that while the vacuum formed in one was drawing up water from the well1 the pressure of steam in the other was forcing up water into the reservoir2 but both receivers being supplied by one suction-pipe and one forcing-pipe1 the engine could be made to keep a continual stream1 so as to suffer very little interruption4 ,this engine of ,captain ,savery's displays much ingenuity1 and is almost as perfect in its contrivance as the same engine has been made since his time4 ,we regret1 that without a figure we cannot supply a perfect description of it4 ,however1 it appears that it was necessary to have two boilers1 or vessels of copper1 one large and the other smaller3 those boilers have a gauge-pipe inserted into the smaller boiler1 within about eight inches of its bottom1 and about the centre of the side of the larger boiler2 the small boiler must be quite full of water1 and the larger one only about two-thirds full4 ,the fire is then to be lighted beneath the larger boiler1 to make the water boil1 by which means the steam being confined1 will be greatly compressed1 and will1 therefore1 on opening a way for it to issue out 7which is done by pushing the handle of a regulator from the operator71 rush with great violence through a steam-pipe into a receiver1 driving out all the air before it1 sending it up into a force-pipe through a clack1 as may be perceived from its noise2 when the air is expelled1 the receiver will be very much heated by the steam4 ,when it is thoroughly emptied of atmospheric air1 and grown very hot1 which may be both seen and felt1 then the handle of the regulator is to be drawn towards the operator1 by which means the first steam-pipe will be stopped1 so that no more steam can rise into the first receiver1 by which means a second receiver will be filled in like manner4 ,whilst this is doing1 some cold water must be poured on the first receiver1 by which means the steam in it will be cooled1 and thereby condensed into smaller room3 consequently the pressure in the valve1 or cock1 at the bottom of the receiver--there being nothing to counterbalance the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the receiver in the inner part of the sucking-pipe1 it will be pressed up into the receiver1 driving up before it the valve at the bottom1 which afterwards falling again1 prevents the descent of the water that way4 ,then the first receiver being1 at the same time1 emptied of its air1 push the handle of the regulator1 and the steam which rises from the boiler will act upon the surface of the water contained in the first receiver1 where the force or pressure on it still increasing its elasticity1 till it exceeds the weight of a column of water in another receiving-pipe1 then it will necessarily drive up through the passage into the force-pipe1 and eventually discharge itself at the top of the machinery4 ,after the same manner1 though alternately1 is the first receiver filled and emptied of water1 and by this means a regular stream kept continually running out of the top of a force-pipe1 and so the water is raised very often from the bottom of a mine1 to the place where it is meant to be discharged4 ,it should be added1 that after the machine begins to work1 and the water has risen into and filled the force-pipe1 it fills also a little cistern1 and by that means fills another pipe1 called the condensing-pipe1 which may be turned either way1 over any of the receivers1 when either is thoroughly heated by1 the steam1 to condense it within1 thereby producing a vacuum1 which absorbs the water out of the well into the receiver1 on the principle of a syphon4 ,also a little above the cistern goes another pipe to convey the water from the force-pipe into the lesser boiler1 for the purpose of replenishing the great boiler1 when the water in it begins to be almost consumed4 ,whenever there is occasion for this1 the cock is to be turned which communicates between the force-pipe and the lesser boiler1 to close it effectually2 at the same time having put a little fire beneath the small boiler1 which will grow hot2 its own steam1 which has no vent to escape1 pressing on its surface1 will force the water up another pipe1 through an aperture in the great boiler1 and so long will it run1 till the surface of the water gets so low as to be beneath the bottom of the pipe of communication--then the steam and water running together1 will cause the valve 7called a clack7 to strike1 which will intimate to the operator that it has discharged itself into the greater boiler1 and carried in as much water as is then necessary2 after which1 by turning a cock1 as much fresh water is let in as may be necessary2 and then1 by turning another cock1 new fresh water is let out of a recipient into the less boiler as before2 and thus the engine is supplied without fear of decay1 or any delay in the operations2 and proper attention in the workmen is only necessary to prevent disorder in a machine so expensive and complicated4 ,also1 to know when the great boiler wants replenishing1 turn the gauge-cock2 if water comes out1 it does not need a supply2 but if steam alone1 then the want of water is certain4 ,the like with the cock with which the lesser boiler is prepared for the same purpose1 when the same state will be marked by like results4 ,in working this engine1 very little skill1 and less labour is required3 ,attention is the chief requisite2 it is only to be injured by want of due care1 extreme stupidity1 or wilful neglect4 ,the engine described above1 does not differ essentially from that first designed by the inventor1 ,captain ,savery2 the chief alteration which now occurs1 is only in some few slight particulars4 ,for example1 the original engine had only one boiler1 and there was no ready means for supplying it with water1 to remedy the waste occasioned by evaporation of steam1 without stopping the action of the engine1 whenever the boiler was emptied to such a degree as to risk burning the vessel4 ,after it was replenished the machine had to remain idle till the steam was raised1 thus causing an immense loss of time2 which is remedied by the application of a second boiler4 ,the description of the engine formerly mentioned is transcribed from ,mr4 ,savery's publication1 8,the ,miner's ,friend10 and which had a subsidiary boiler1 with water of a boiling heat1 always ready to supply the large boiler2 and the power of steam raised in it is employed to force the water into the larger boiler1 to replace the waste occasioned by evaporation from that boiler2 by this means the transposition of the feeding water is not only speedily performed1 but being itself of a boiling heat1 it is instantly ready to produce steam for carrying on the work4 ,there is also one more grand improvement in the modern machine3 the first engine was worked by four separate cocks1 which the operator was compelled to turn separately at every change of stroke2 if he turned them wrong1 he was not only liable to damage the engine1 but he prevented its effect1 and1 at the same time1 lost a part of the operation3 whereas1 in the improved engine1 the communications are made by a double sliding valve1 or1 as it has since been termed1 regulator2 that is1 a brass plate1 shaped like a fan1 and moving on a centre within the boiler1 so as to slide horizontally in contact with the under surface of the cover of the boiler1 to which it is accurately fitted by grinding1 and thus1 at pleasure1 opens or shuts the orifices1 or entries1 to the steam pipes of the two receivers alternately4 ,this regulator acts with less friction than a cock of equal bore1 and1 by the motion of a single handle backwards1 at once opens the proper steam pipe from one receiver1 and closes that which belongs to the other receiver4 ,captain ,savery1 in his publication before noticed1 describes the uses to which this machine may be applied1 besides those before described1 viz4--#a1 to serve water for turning all sorts of mills2 #b1 for supplying palaces1 noblemen and gentlemen's houses with water1 and affording the means for extinguishing fires therein1 by the water so raised2 #c1 the supplying cities and towns with water2 #d1 draining fens and marshes2 #e1 for ships2 #f1 for draining mines of water2 and #g1 for preventing damps in mines4 ,dr4 ,desaguliers1 we conceive1 ungenerously attacked ,captain ,savery's reputation1 by alleging that this was not an original invention1 and that he was indebted for the first idea to the previously mentioned plan of the ,marquis of ,worcester4 ,dr4 ,rees1 with a generous liberality worthy his great critical discrimination1 scientific skill1 and general erudition1 has1 we think1 ably defended the captain's character1 by proving his ideas to have originated with himself2 we have only an opportunity to notice the most prominent features in this justification1 where ,dr4 ,rees thus expresses himself4 8,we know that the ,marquis of ,worcester gave no hint concerning the contractibility or condensation of steam1 upon which all the merit of the modern engine depends4 ,the ,marquis of ,worcester's engine was actuated wholly by the elastic power of steam1 which he either found out1 or proved by the bursting of cannon in part filled with water2 and not the least hint that steam so expanded1 is capable of being so far contracted in an instant1 as to leave the space it occupied in a vessel1 and occasion1 in a great measure1 a vacuum40 ,subsequent to the ,marquis of ,worcester's1 and ,captain ,savery's original ideas1 and also1 subsequent to the perfection the captain had brought his machine to1 ,m4 ,amonton1 a native of ,france1 invented a machine which he called a fire-wheel2 but it does not appear that it was ever brought to that perfection to be conducive to real utility1 although it was certainly very ingenious4 ,also1 ,m4 ,papin1 a native of ,germany1 made some pretensions to what he alleged was an invention of his own1 only it happened to appear1 unfortunately for his claim1 that he was in ,london1 and present at the time when ,captain ,savery exhibited the model of his steam-engine to the ,royal ,society4 ,he made some unsuccessful experiments1 by order of his patron1 the ,landgrave of ,hesse1 which sufficiently proved that1 if he was the inventor1 he did not understand the nature of his own machine4 ,not long after ,savery had invented his engine1 ,thomas ,newcomen1 an ironmonger1 and ,john ,calley1 a glazier1 began to direct their attention to the employment of steam as a mechanic power4 ,their first engine was constructed about the year #agaa4 ,this machine still acted on the principle of condensing the steam by means of cold water1 and the pressure of the atmosphere on the piston4 ,it was found of great value in pumping water from deep mines2 but the mode of its construction1 the great waste of fuel1 the continued cooling and heating of the cylinder1 and the limited capacities of the atmosphere in impelling the piston downward1 all tended to circumscribe its utility4 ,the steam-engine was in this state1 when it happily attracted the attention of ,mr4 ,watt1 to whom the merit and honour is due1 of having first rendered this invention available as a mechanical agent4 ,we cannot illustrate the improvements of this ingenious individual better than by giving a short biographical sketch of him to whom the world is so much indebted4 ,james ,watt was born at ,greenock1 an extensive seaport in the west of ,scotland1 on the #aith of ,january1 #agcf4 ,his father was a merchant1 and also one of the magistrates of that town4 ,he received the rudiments of his education in his native place2 but his health being then extremely delicate1 as it continued to be to the end of his life1 his attendance at school was not always very regular4 ,he amply made up1 however1 for what he lost in this way1 by the diligence with which he pursued his studies at home1 where1 without any assistance1 he succeeded1 at a very early age1 in making considerable proficiency in various branches of knowledge4 ,even at this time it is said his favourite study was mechanical science1 to a love of which he was probably in some degree led by the example of his grandfather and his uncle1 both of whom had been teachers of mathematics1 and had left a considerable reputation for learning and ability in that department4 ,young ,watt1 however1 was not indebted to any instruction of theirs for his own acquirements in science1 the former having died two years before1 and the latter one year after he was born4 ,at the age of eighteen he was sent to ,london1 to be apprenticed to a maker of mathematical instruments2 but in little more than a year the state of his health forced him to return to ,scotland2 and he never received any further instruction in his profession4 ,a year or two after this1 however1 a visit which he paid to some relations in ,glasgow1 suggested to him the plan of attempting to establish himself in that city1 in the line for which he had been educated4 ,in #ageg1 he accordingly removed thither1 and was immediately appointed mathematical instrument maker to the ,college4 ,in this situation he remained for some years1 during which1 notwithstanding almost constant ill health1 he continued both to prosecute his profession1 and to labour in the general cultivation of his mind1 with extraordinary ardour and perseverance4 ,here also he enjoyed the intimacy and friendship of several distinguished persons1 who were then members of the ,university1 especially of the celebrated ,dr4 ,black1 the discoverer of the principle of latent heat1 and ,dr4 ,robison1 so well known by his treatises on mechanical science1 who was then a student1 and about the same age as himself4 ,honourable1 however as his present appointment was1 and important as were many of the advantages to which it introduced him1 he probably did not find it a very lucrative one2 and therefore1 in #agfc1 when about to marry1 he removed from his apartments in the ,university1 to a house in the city1 and entered upon the profession of a general engineer4 ,for this his genius and scientific attainments most admirably qualified him4 ,accordingly he soon acquired a high reputation1 and was extensively employed in making surveys and estimates for canals1 harbours1 bridges1 and other public works4 ,his advice and assistance were sought for in almost all the important improvements of this description1 which were now undertaken or proposed in his native country4 ,but another pursuit1 in which he had been for some time privately engaged1 was destined ere long to withdraw him from this line of exertion1 and to occupy his whole mind with an object still more worthy of its extraordinary powers4 ,while yet residing in the ,college1 his attention had been directed to the employment of steam as a mechanical agent1 by some speculations of his friend ,mr4 ,robison1 with regard to the practicability of applying it to the movement of wheel-carriages2 and he had also himself made some experiments with ,papin's digester1 with the view of ascertaining its expansive force4 ,he had not prosecuted the inquiry1 however1 so far as to have arrived at any determinate result1 when the winter of #agfc-d1 a small model of ,newcomen's engine was sent him by the ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy1 to be repaired1 and fitted for exhibition in the class4 ,the examination of this model set ,watt upon thinking anew1 and with more interest than ever1 on the powers of steam4 ,struck with the radical imperfections of the atmospheric engine1 he began to turn in his mind the possibility of employing steam in mechanics1 in some new manner which should enable it to work with much more powerful effect4 ,this idea having got possession of him1 he engaged in an extensive course of experiments1 for the purpose of ascertaining as many facts as possible with regard to the properties of steam2 and the pains he took in this investigation were rewarded with several valuable discoveries4 ,the rapidity with which water evaporates he found1 for instance1 depended simply upon the quantity of heat which was made to enter it2 and this again1 on the extent of the surface exposed to the fire4 ,he also ascertained the quantity of coals necessary for the evaporation of any given quantity of water1 the heat at which water boils1 under various pressures1 and many other particulars of a similar kind1 which had never before been accurately determined4 ,thus prepared by a complete knowledge of the properties of the agent with which he had to work1 he next took into consideration1 with a view to their amendment1 what he deemed the two great defects of ,newcomen's engine4 ,the first of these was the necessity arising from the method employed to concentrate the steam1 of cooling the cylinder1 before every stroke of the piston1 by the water injected into it4 ,on this account1 a much more powerful application of heat than would otherwise have been requisite was demanded for the purpose of again heating that vessel when it was to be refilled with steam4 ,in fact1 ,watt ascertained that there was thus occasioned1 in the feeding of the machine1 a waste of not less than three-fourths of the whole fuel employed4 ,if the cylinder1 instead of being thus cooled for every stroke of the piston1 could be permanently hot1 a fourth part of the heat which had hitherto been applied would be found sufficient to produce steam enough to fill it4 ,how then was this desideratum to be obtained8 ,savery1 the first who really constructed a working engine1 and whose arrangements1 as we have already remarked1 all showed a very superior ingenuity1 employed the method of throwing cold water over the outside of the vessel containing the steam--a perfectly manageable process1 but at the same time a very wasteful one2 inasmuch as every time it was repeated1 it cooled not only the steam1 but the vessel also1 which1 therefore1 had again to be heated1 by a large expenditure of fuel1 before the steam could be produced4 ,newcomen's method of injecting the water into the cylinder was a considerable improvement on this2 but it was still objectionable on the same ground1 though not to the same degree2 it still cooled not only the steam1 on which it was desired to produce that effect1 but also the cylinder itself1 which1 as the vessel in which more steam was to be immediately manufactured1 it was so important to keep hot4 ,it was also a very serious objection to this last mentioned plan1 that the injected water1 itself1 from the heat of the place into which it was thrown1 was very apt to be partly converted into steam2 and the more cold water was used1 the more considerable did this creation of new steam become4 ,in fact1 in the last of ,newcomen's engines1 the rarefaction of the vacuum was so greatly improved from this cause1 that the resistance experienced by the piston in its descent was found to amount to about a fourth part of the whole atmospheric pressure by which it was carried down1 or1 in other words1 the working power of the machine was thereby diminished one-fourth4 ,after reflecting for some time upon all this1 it at last occurred to ,watt to consider whether it might not be possible1 instead of continuing to condense the steam in the cylinder1 to contrive that method of drawing it off1 to undergo that operation in some other vessel4 ,this fortunate idea having presented itself to his mind1 it was not long before his ingenuity suggested to him the means of realising it4 ,in the course of one or two days1 according to his own account1 he had all the necessary apparatus arranged in his mind4 ,the plan which he devised was1 indeed1 an extremely simple one1 and on that account the more beautiful4 ,he proposed to establish a communication by an open pipe1 between the cylinder and another vessel1 the consequence of which evidently would be1 that when the steam was admitted into the former1 it would flow into the other to fill it also4 ,if1 then1 the portion in this latter vessel only should be subjected to a condensing process1 by being brought into contact with cold water1 or any other convenient means1 what would follow8 ,why1 a vacuum would be produced here--into that1 as a vent1 more steam would immediately rush from the cylinder--that likewise would be condensed--and so the process would go on till all the steam had left the cylinder1 and a perfect vacuum had been effected in that vessel1 without so much as a drop of cold water having touched or entered it4 ,the separate vessel alone1 or the condenser1 as ,watt called it1 would be cooled by the water used to condense the steam--and that1 instead of being an evil1 manifestly tended to promote and quicken the condensation4 ,when ,watt reduced his views to the test of experiment1 he found the result to answer his most sanguine expectations4 ,the cylinder1 although emptied of its steam for every stroke of the piston as before1 was now constantly kept at the same temperature with the steam 7or #bab deg4 ,fahrenheit72 and the consequence was1 that one-fourth of the fuel formerly required1 sufficed to feed the engine4 ,but besides this most important saving in the expense of maintaining the engine1 its power was greatly increased by the most perfect vacuum produced in the new construction1 in which the condensing water1 being no longer admitted within the cylinder1 could not1 as before1 create new steam there while displacing the old4 ,such1 then1 was the remedy by which the genius of this great inventor effectually cured the first and most serious defect of the old apparatus4 ,in carrying his ideas into execution1 he encountered1 as was to be expected1 many difficulties1 arising principally from the impossibility of realising theoretical perfection of structure with such materials as human art is obliged to work with2 but his ingenuity and perseverance overcame every obstacle4 ,one of the things which cost him the greatest trouble was1 how to fit the piston so exactly to the cylinder1 as1 without affecting the freedom of its motion1 to prevent the passage of the air between the two4 ,in the old engine this end had been obtained by covering the piston with a small quantity of water1 the dripping down of which into the space below1 where it merely mixed with the stream introduced to effect the condensation1 was of little or no consequence4 ,but in the new construction1 the superiority of which consisted in keeping this receptacle for the steam always both hot and dry1 such an effusion of moisture1 although in very small quantities1 would have occasioned material inconvenience4 ,the air alone1 besides1 which in the old engine followed the piston in its descent1 acted with considerable effect in cooling the lower part of the cylinder4 ,his attempts to overcome this difficulty1 while they succeeded in that object1 conducted ,watt also to another improvement1 which effected the complete removal of what we have called the second radical imperfection of ,newcomen's engine1 namely1 its non-employment for a moving power1 of the expansive force of steam4 ,the effectual way it occurred to him of preventing any air from escaping into the part of the cylinder below the piston1 would be to dispense with the use of that element above the piston1 and to substitute there likewise the same contrivance as below1 of alternate steam and a vacuum4 ,this was1 of course1 to be accomplished by merely opening communications from the upper part of the cylinder to the boiler on the one hand1 and the condenser on the other1 and forming it at the same time into an air-tight chamber1 by means of a cover1 with only a hole in it to admit the rod or shank of the piston1 which might1 besides1 without impeding its freedom of action1 be padded with hemp1 the more completely to exclude the air4 ,it was so contrived accordingly1 by a proper arrangement of the cocks and the machinery connected with them2 that1 while there was a vacuum in one end of the cylinder1 there should be an admission of steam into the other2 and the steam so admitted now served1 not only by its susceptibility of sudden condensation to create the vacuum1 but also1 by its expansive force1 to impel the piston4 ,these were the great improvements which ,watt introduced in what may be called the principle of the steam-engine1 or1 in other words1 in the manner of using and applying the steam4 ,they constitute1 therefore1 the grounds of his claim to be regarded as the true author of the conquest that has been obtained by man over this powerful element4 ,but original and comprehensive as were the views out of which these fundamental inventions arose1 the exquisite and inexhaustible ingenuity which the engine1 as finally perfected by him1 displays in every part of its subordinate mechanism1 is calculated to strike us perhaps with scarcely less admiration4 ,it forms undoubtedly the best exemplification that has ever been afforded of the number and diversity of services which a piece of machinery may be made to render to itself1 by means solely of the various application of its first moving power1 when that has once been called into action4 ,of these contrivances1 however1 we can only notice one or two1 by way of specimen4 ,perhaps the most singular is that called the governor4 ,this consists of an upright spindle1 which is kept constantly turning1 by being connected with a certain part of the machinery1 and from which two balls are suspended1 in opposite directions1 by rods1 attached by joints1 somewhat in the manner of the legs of a pair of tongs4 ,as long as the motion of the engine is uniform1 that of the spindle is so likewise1 and the balls continue steadily revolving at the same distance from each other4 ,but as soon as any alteration in the action of the piston takes place1 the balls1 if it has become more rapid1 fly further apart under the influence of the increased centrifugal force which actuates them2 or approach nearer to each other in the opposite circumstances4 ,this alone would have served to indicate the state of matters to the eye2 but ,watt was not to be so satisfied4 ,he connected the rods with a valve in the tube by which the steam is admitted to the cylinder from the boiler1 in such a way1 that as they retreat from each other1 they gradually narrow the opening which is so guarded1 or enlarge it as they tend to collapse2 thus diminishing the supply of steam when the engine is going too fast1 and when it is not going fast enough1 enabling it to regain its proper speed by allowing it an increase of aliment4 ,again the constant supply of a sufficiency of water to the boiler is secured by an equally simple provision1 namely1 by a float resting on the surface of the water which1 as soon as it is carried down by the consumption of the water to a certain point opens a valve and admits more4 ,and so on through all the different parts of the apparatus1 the various wonders of which cannot be better summed up than in the forcible and graphic language of a recent writer3--8,in the present perfect state of the engine it appears a thing almost endowed with intelligence4 ,it regulates1 with perfect accuracy and uniformity1 the number of its strokes in a given time1 counting1 or recording them moreover1 to tell how much work it has done1 as a clock records the beats of its pendulum2 it regulates the quantity of steam admitted to work2 the briskness of the fire2 the supply of water to the boiler2 the supply of coals to the fire2 it opens and shuts its valves with absolute precision as to time and manner2 it oils its joints2 it takes out any air which may accidentally enter into parts which should be vacuous2 and when any thing goes wrong1 which it cannot of itself rectify1 it warns its attendants by ringing a bell2 yet1 with all these talents and qualities1 and even when exerting the power of six hundred horses1 it is obedient to the hand of a child2 its aliment is coal1 wood1 charcoal1 or other combustible--it consumes none when idle--it never tires1 and wants no sleep2 it is not subject to malady when originally well made1 and only refuses to work when worn out with age2 it is equally active in all climates1 and will do work of any kind2 it is a water-pumper1 a miner1 a sailor1 a cotton-spinner1 a weaver1 a blacksmith1 a miller1 c41 c42 and a small engine1 in the character of a steam pony1 may be seen dragging after it on a rail-road a hundred tons of merchandise1 or a regiment of soldiers1 with greater speed than that of the fleetest coaches4 ,it is the king of machines1 and a permanent realisation of the ,genii of ,eastern fable1 whose supernatural powers were occasionally at the command of man40 ,in addition to those difficulties which his unrivalled mechanical ingenuity enabled him to surmount1 ,watt1 notwithstanding the merit of his inventions1 had to contend for some time with others of a different nature1 in his attempts to reduce them to practice4 ,he had no pecuniary resources of his own1 and was at first without any friend willing to run the risk of the outlay necessary for an experiment on a sufficiently large scale4 ,at last he applied to ,dr4 ,roebuck1 an ingenious and spirited speculator1 who had just established the ,carron iron-works1 not far from ,glasgow1 and held also at the same time a lease of the extensive coal-works at ,kinneal1 the property of the ,duke of ,hamilton4 ,dr4 ,roebuck agreed to advance the requisite funds1 on having two-thirds of the profits made over to him2 and upon this ,mr4 ,watt took out his first patent in the beginning of the year #agfi4 ,an engine with a cylinder of eighteen inches diameter was soon after erected at ,kinneal2 and although1 as a first experiment1 it was necessarily1 in some respects1 of defective construction1 its working completely demonstrated the value of ,watt's improvements4 ,but ,dr4 ,roebuck1 whose undertakings were very numerous and various1 in no long time after forming this connexion1 found himself involved in such pecuniary difficulties1 as to put it out of his power to make any further advances in prosecution of its object4 ,on this ,watt applied himself for some years almost entirely to the ordinary work of his profession as a civil engineer2 but at last1 about the year #aggd1 when all hopes of any farther assistance from ,dr4 ,roebuck were at an end1 he resolved to close with a proposal which had been made to him through his friend1 ,dr4 ,small1 of ,birmingham1 that he should remove to that town1 and enter into partnership with the eminent hardware manufacturer1 ,mr4 ,boulton1 whose extensive establishments at ,soho had already become famous over ,europe1 and procured for ,england an unrivalled reputation for the arts there carried on4 ,accordingly an arrangement having been made with ,dr4 ,roebuck1 by which his share of the patent was transferred to ,mr4 ,boulton1 the firm of ,boulton and ,watt commenced the business of making steam-engines1 in the year #agge4 ,mr4 ,watt now obtained from parliament an extension of his patent for twenty-five years1 in consideration of the acknowledged national importance of his inventions4 ,the first thing which he and his partner did was to erect an engine at ,soho1 which they invited all persons interested in such machines to inspect4 ,they then proposed to erect similar machines wherever required1 on the very liberal principle of receiving1 as payment for each1 only one-third of the saving in fuel which it should effect1 as compared with one of the old construction4 ,but the draining of mines was only one of the many applications of the steam-power now at his command1 which ,watt contemplated1 and in course of time accomplished4 ,during the whole twenty-five years1 indeed1 over which his renewed patent extended1 the perfecting of his invention was his chief occupation1 and notwithstanding a delicate state of health1 and the depressing affliction of severe headaches1 to which he was extremely subject1 he continued throughout this period to persevere with unwearied diligence in adding new improvements to the mechanism of the engine1 and devising the means of applying it to new purposes of usefulness4 ,he devoted1 in particular1 the exertions of many years1 to the contriving of the best methods of making the action of the piston communicate a rotary motion in various circumstances1 and between the years #agha and #aghe1 he took out four different patents for inventions having this in his view4 ,it is gratifying to reflect1 that even while he was yet alive1 ,watt received from the most illustrious contemporaries1 the honours due to his genius4 ,in #aghe1 he was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society2 the degree of ,doctor of ,laws was conferred upon him by the ,university of ,glasgow1 in #ahjf2 and in #ahjh1 he was elected a member of the ,french ,institute4 ,he died on the #beth of ,august1 #ahai1 in the #hdth year of his age4 ,the beneficial results arising from the ingenuity of ,watt have been surprising4 ,the steam-engine has already gone far to revolutionise the whole domain of human industry2 and almost every year is adding to its power and its conquests4 ,in our manufactures1 our arts1 our commerce1 our social accommodations1 it is constantly achieving what1 little more than half a century ago1 would have been accounted miraculous and impossible4 8,the trunk of an elephant10 it has been finely and truly said1 8that can pick up a pin1 or rend an oak1 is as nothing to it4 ,it can engrave a seal1 and crush masses of obdurate metal like wax before it--draw out1 without breaking1 a thread as fine as gossamer1 and lift a ship of war1 like a bauble1 in the air4 ,it can embroider muslins1 and forge anchors2 cut steel into ribbands1 and impel loaded vessels against the fury of the winds and waves40 ,another application of it is perhaps destined to be productive of still greater changes on the condition of society1 than have resulted from many of its previous achievements1--we refer to railroads4 ,the first great experiment was the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway1 which was opened1 we believe1 in #ahca1 and practically demonstrated1 with what hitherto almost undreamt of rapidity travelling by land may be carried on through the aid of steam4 ,carriages1 under the impetus communicated by this the most potent1 and at the same time the most perfectly controllable of all our mechanical agencies1 can be drawn forward at the flying speed of thirty and thirty-five miles an hour4 ,when so much has been already done1 it would be rash to conclude that even this is to be our ultimate limit of attainment4 ,in navigation1 the resistance of the water1 which increases rapidly as the force opposed to it increases1 very soon set bounds to the rate at which even the power of steam can impel a vessel forward4 ,but on land1 the thin medium of the air presents no such insurmountable obstacles to a force making its way through it2 and a rapidity of movement may perhaps be eventually attained here1 which is to us even as yet inconceivable4 ,but even when the rate of land travelling already shown to be quite practicable shall have become universal1 in what a new state of society shall we find ourselves6 ,a nation will then1 indeed1 become a community2 and all the benefits of the highest civilization will be diffused equally over the land1 like the light of heaven4 ,this invention1 in short1 when fully consummated1 will confer upon man as much new power and enjoyment as if he were actually endowed with wings4 ,the commerce of the kingdom has also greatly benefited by the introduction of this valuable auxiliary1 as will be seen from the following extract from the 8,working ,man's ,companion30-- 8,the establishment of steam-boats between ,england and ,ireland has greatly contributed to the prosperity of both countries4 ,how have steam boats done this8 ,they have greatly increased the trade of both countries4 ,on the examination of ,mr4 ,williams1 before a ,committee of the ,house of ,commons1 he stated that #8before steam-boats were established1 there was little trade in the smaller articles of farming production1 such as poultry and eggs4 ,the first trading steam-boat from ,liverpool to ,dublin1 was set up in #ahbd2 there are now 7#ahcb7 forty such boats between ,england and ,ireland4 ,the sailing vessels were from one week to two or three weeks on the passage2 the voyage from ,liverpool to ,dublin is now performed in fourteen hours4 ,reckoning ten mile1 for an hour1 ,dublin and ,liverpool are one hundred and forty miles apart2 with the old vessels taking twelve days as the average time of the voyage1 they were separated as completely as they would be by a distance of two thousand eight hundred and eighty miles4 ,what is the consequence8 ,traders may now have1 from any of the manufacturing towns in ,england1 within two or three days1 even the smallest quantity of any description of goods2' and thus #8one of the effects has been to give a productive employment of the capital of persons in secondary lines of business1 that formerly could not have been brought into action4'0 ,mr4 ,williams adds1 #8,i am a daily witness to the intercourse by means of the small traders themselves between ,england and ,ireland4 ,those persons find their way into the interior of ,england1 and purchase manufactured goods themselves4 ,they are1 of course1 enabled to sell them upon much better terms in ,ireland2 and ,i anticipate that this will shortly lead to the creation of shops and other establishments in the interior of ,ireland for the sale of a great variety of articles which are not now to be had there4' 8,and how do the small dealers in ,english manufactured goods find purchasers in the rude districts of ,ireland for our cloths and our hardware8 ,because the little farmers have sent us their butter and eggs and poultry1 and have either taken our manufactures in exchange1 or have taken back our money to purchase our manufactures1 which is the same thing4 ,many millions of eggs1 collected amongst the very poorest classes1 by the industry of the women and children1 are annually sent from ,dublin to ,liverpool4 ,mr4 ,williams has known fifty tons1 or eight hundred and eighty thousand eggs1 shipped in one day1 as well as ten tons of poultry2 and he says this is quite a new creation of property4 ,it is a creation of property that has a direct tendency to act upon the condition of the poorest classes in ,ireland2 for the produce is laid out in providing clothes for the females and children of the families who engage in rearing poultry and collecting eggs4 ,thus the ,english manufacturer is bettered1 for he has a new market for his manufactures1 which he exchanges for cheap provisions2 and the dealer in eggs and poultry has a new impulse to this branch of industry1 because it enables him to give clothes to his wife and children4 ,this exchange of benefits--this advancement in the condition of both parties--this creation of produce and of profitable labour--this increase of the number of labourers--could not have taken place without machinery4 ,that machinery is the carriage which conveys the produce to the river1 and the steam-boat which makes a port in another country much nearer for practical purposes1 than the market town of a thinly peopled district4 ,a new machinery is added2 the steam-carriage running on the railroad1 as one of the witnesses truly says1 #8is like carrying ,liverpool forty miles into the interior1 and thus extending the circle to which the supply will be applicable4' ,the last invention perfects all the inventions which have preceded it4 ,the village and the city are brought close together in effort1 and yet retain all the advantages of their local situation2 the port and the manufactory are divided only by two hours distance in time1 while their distance in space affords room for all the various occupations which contribute to the perfection of either4 ,the whole territory of ,great ,britain and ,ireland is more compact1 more closely united1 more accessible than was a single county two centuries ago40 ,the communication between ,england and ,ireland has greatly increased since the above remarks were written1 in #ahcb4 ,there are now upwards of four hundred steam-boats sailing between ,ireland and ,great ,britain1 and of late years the largest export from that unfortunate country consists of her starving population1 who1 true enough1 find their way into the interior of ,england1 but not with the intention of purchasing manufactured goods1 but of being employed in the manufacturing of them4 ,we believe that our mechanical readers1 at least1 will agree with us1 when we say that the benefit has not been reciprocal4 ,england1 for her share1 has been burthened with a pauper population1 and her sons deprived of their employment1 by the immense immigration that has of late years taken place4 ,poor rates are multiplied to an extent hitherto unheard of1 and our streets swarming with beggars--and those of the most importunate class4 ,so much was this the case1 that in #ahdg and #ahdh1 ,liverpool was inundated with paupers from the sister country to such a degree1 that her authorities were compelled to petition government to put an end to the nuisance1 and to grant them assistance to prevent the death of so many thousands of their fellow-men from dying for want2 the poor-rates were so increased that the ratepayers with justice complained4 ,and we question much if ever the ,english manufactures have been so much benefited by the commerce as the foregoing quotation would lead us to believe4 ,that we have been supplied with enormous quantities of provisions we cannot deny2 but that the payment of these was taken back in our cloths and our hardware is very questionable4 ,that the money was taken back there can be little doubt1 not for the purpose1 however1 of buying clothes for the wives and children of those families whose industry had supplied us with eggs and poultry1 but for supplying the insatiate wants of their profligate landlords1 who were squandering the subsistence of the needy peasantry in another land4 ,if any class of men have obtained benefit by means of this increased and speedy communication between the two countries1 it assuredly is the absentee ,irish landlord4 ,,mills4 ,corn ,mills are of very ancient origin1 and it may not be uninteresting to our readers to learn something of the customs of our forefathers with regard to them2 to which we will subjoin such modern improvements as the more advanced state of the arts have enabled the moderns to achieve1 and to excel the imperfect information of the ancients in mechanical sciences4 ,in support of the antiquity of grinding corn1 we may go as for back as the days of the patriarch ,abraham1 who1 we are informed in ,genesis xviii4 #f1 8hastened into the tent unto ,sarah1 and said1 ,make ready quickly three measures of fine meal1 knead it1 and make cakes upon the hearth40 ,to this we may add1 that it appears in a subsequent text1 ,numbers xi4 #h1 that manna was ground like corn4 ,the earliest instrument for this purpose seems to have been the mortar1 which was retained long after the introduction of mills1 properly so called3 because they were most probably at first very imperfect4 ,in process of time the mortar was made ridged1 and the pestle notched at the bottom1 by which means the grain was rather grated than pounded4 ,a passage in ,pliny1 which has not as yet had a satisfactory interpretation1 renders this conjecture probable4 ,in time a handle was added to the top of the pestle1 that it might be more easily driven round in a circle1 whence this machine at first was called mortarium1 by this means assuming the name of a hand-mill4 ,such a mill was so called from rubbing backwards and forwards2 and varied but little from those used by our colour-grinders1 apothecaries1 potters1 and other artisans4 ,from expressions in the sacred volume1 we may rationally infer that it was customary to have a mill of this sort in every family4 ,moses having forbidden to take such instruments for a pledge2 for that1 says he1 8,no man shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge3 for he taketh a man's life40 ,it is observed by ,michaelis1 on this passage1 that a man could not then grind1 consequently could not bake the necessary daily bread for the family4 ,grinding was then the employment of the women1 particularly of female slaves1 as at present in those countries which are uncivilised3 the portion of strength required for the operation1 therefore1 could not have been great2 but afterwards the mills were driven by bondsmen1 whose necks were placed in a circular machine of wood1 so that they could not put their hands to their mouths or eat of the meal4 ,this must have been an interesting link between the hand and the horse-mill4 ,in course of time shafts were added to the mill1 that it might be driven by cattle1 which were then blindfolded4 ,the first cattle mills were called molae jumentaria1 which had1 probably1 only a heavy pestle like the hand-mill2 but it is conjectured1 that it must have been soon remarked1 that the labour would be more easily accomplished1 if1 instead of the pestle a large heavy cylinder was employed4 ,a competent judge has1 however1 believed that the first cattle mills had not a spout or trough as ours have2 at least those hand-mills ,tournefort saw at ,nicaria1 consisted only of two stones2 but the meal issued through an opening in the upper one1 and fell upon a board or table1 on which the lower one rested4 ,the upper millstone they called meta1 or turbo2 and the lower one catillus3 the name of the first also signified a cone with a blunt apex1 whence it has been thought by some1 that corn was first rubbed into meal1 by rolling one stone upon another1 as painters now grind colours with a muller4 ,this is not improbable1 as present practice among barbarous people fully proves4 ,it is also apparent that the upper millstone was substituted for the pestle1 which action may have lent it a name1 when they called it meta4 ,professor ,beckmann has followed ,gori in his description of an antique gem1 engraved on red jasper1 upon which appears 8the naked figure of a man1 who in his left hand holds a sheaf of corn1 and in the right a machine that in all probability is a hand-mill4 ,gori considers the figure as a representation of the god ,eunostus1 who was the god of mills4 ,the machine which ,eunostus seems to exhibit1 or to be surveying himself1 is1 as far as one can distinguish1 7for the stone is scarcely half an inch in size71 shaped like a chest1 narrow at the top1 and wide at the bottom4 ,it stands upon a table1 and in the bottom there is a perpendicular pipe1 from which the meal1 also represented by the artist1 appears to be issuing4 ,above1 the chest or body of the mill has either a top with an aperture1 or perhaps a basket sunk into it1 from which the corn falls into the mill4 ,on one side1 nearly about the middle of it1 there projects a broken shank1 which1 without overstraining the imagination1 may be considered as a handle1 or that part of the mill which some call mobile4 ,though this figure is small1 and though it gives very little idea of the internal construction1 one may1 however1 conclude from it that the roller1 whether it was of wood or of iron1 smooth or notched1 did not stand perpendicularly1 like those of our coffee mills1 but lay horizontally1 which gives us reason to conjecture a construction more ingenious than that of the first invention4 ,the axis of the handle had1 perhaps1 within the body of the mill1 a crown wheel1 that turned a spindle1 to the lower end of the perpendicular axis of which the roller was fixed4 ,should this be admitted1 it must be allowed also1 that the hand-mills of the ancients had not so much a resemblance to the before-mentioned colour mills as to the philosophical mills of our chemists2 and ,langelott1 consequently1 will not be the real inventor of the latter4 ,on the other side1 opposite to where the handle is1 there arise from the mill of ,eunostus two shafts1 which ,gori considers as those of a besom and shovel1 two instruments used in grinding2 but as the interior part cannot be seen1 it appears to me doubtful whether these may not be parts of the mill itself40 ,in the commencement of the last century1 the remains of a pair of ,roman millstones were found at ,adel1 in ,yorkshire4 ,one of these stones1 twenty inches in breadth1 is thicker in the middle than at the edge1 consequently one side is convex2 the other was of the same size1 but as thick at the sides as the other was in the centre2 the traces of notching were discoverable4 ,enough1 may1 perhaps1 have been said concerning this original invention2 therefore this article will not be encumbered with quotations of all those passages relative to mills1 which are found in ancient authors1 as they would afford but little additional information4 ,neither will mythological records be disturbed to inquire to which deity or hero the invention was originally attributed2 or to ascertain the descent of ,milantes1 whom ,stephanus distinguishes by that honour1 or how those millstones were constructed which are alleged to have been built by ,myletes1 son of ,lelex1 ,king of ,laconia2 but we shall proceed to the invention of ,water-,mills4 ,these appear to have been introduced about the period of ,mithridates1 contemporary with ,csar and ,cicero4 ,strabo1 relating that there was a water-mill near the residence of the ,pontian king1 that honour has been ascribed to him2 but so far is this remote from certainty1 that nothing can be inferred from thence1 other than that water-mills at that period were known in ,asia4 ,pomponius ,sabinus informs us1 that the first water-mill seen at ,rome was erected on the banks of the ,tiber1 a little before the time of ,augustus2 but of this there is no other proof than his simple assertion3 he having taken the greater part of his remarks from the illustrations of ,servius1 he must have had a more perfect copy of that author than any now remaining1 and from these his information might have come4 ,the most certain proof we have that ,rome had water-mills in the time of ,augustus1 is1 that ,vitruvius has told us so2 but those mills were not corn-mills1 they were hydraulic engines1 which he describes in his works4 ,from whence we learn that the ancients had wheels for raising water1 which were driven by being trod upon by men2 the usual employment for criminals1 as may be learnt from ,artemidorus4 ,also from a pretty epigram of ,antipater2 8,cease your work1 ye maids1 ye who laboured in the mill2 sleep now1 and let the birds sing to the ruddy morning2 for ,ceres has commanded the water nymphs to perform your task2 these1 obedient to her call1 throw themselves on the wheel1 force round the axle-tree1 and by these means the heavy mill40 ,antipater lived at the period of ,cicero4 ,palladius1 also1 with equal clearness1 speaks of water-mills1 which he advises to be built on estates where is running water1 in order to grind corn without men or cattle4 ,it likewise appears that the water-wheels to which ,heliogabalus directed some of his friends and parasites to be tied1 cannot be considered to be mills for the purpose of grinding corn2 for these1 as well as the haustra of ,lucretius were probably like those machines for raising water1 which are spoken of by ,vitruvius as hydraulic4 ,it is1 however1 on the authority of ,pompinius ,sabinus1 before-cited1 that both wind and water mills were known to have been in ,italy1 and even the latter in ,rome1 in the days of ,augustus4 ,however1 about twenty-three years after the death of ,augustus1 when ,caligula seized every horse from the mills1 to convey effects he had in contemplation to take from ,rome1 the public were much distressed for bread2 whence we must infer that water-mills must have been very rare4 ,even three hundred years after ,augustus1 cattle mills were so common in that city1 that their number amounted to three hundred2 mention of them1 and of the hand-mills1 often occurs for a long time after4 ,it is not their use we inquire after1 it is enough for us to know that they existed4 ,we now come to another period1 when we are informed that public mills were first introduced1 which occurs in the year #cih1 mention being made of them in that year1 which also clearly shows that they were then newly-established2 which establishment was found necessary to be protected by laws made in their favour4 ,the orders for that purpose were renewed more than once1 and made more secure by ,zeno1 towards the end of the fifth century4 ,it may be properly remarked1 that in the whole code of ,justinian1 the least mention of wooden pales or posts is not made1 which occurs in all the new laws1--and which1 it appears1 when there were several mills on the same stream1 occasioned so many disputes then1 as well as in after times4 ,the mills at ,rome were erected on those canals which conveyed water to the city2 and because these were employed in several arts1 and for many purposes1 it was ordered that1 by dividing the water1 the mills should always be kept going2 but as they were driven by so small a quantity of water1 they probably executed very little work2 and for this reason1 but probably on account of the great number of slaves1 and the cheap rate at which they were maintained1 these noble machines were not so much used1 nor were so soon brought to perfection1 as under other circumstances they might have been4 ,it appears1 however1 that after the abolition of slavery1 they were much improved1 and more employed1 and to this a particular incident seems1 in some degree1 to have contributed4 ,when ,vitiges1 ,king of the ,goths1 besieged ,belisarius in ,rome1 in the year #ecf1 and caused the fourteen large expensive aqueducts to be stopped1 the city was reduced to great distress2 not from want of water1 in general1 because it was secured against that inconvenience by the ,tiber2 but by the loss of that water which the baths required1 and1 above all1 of that necessary to drive the mills1 which were all situated on these canals4 ,horses and cattle1 which might have been employed upon grinding1 were not to be found2 but ,belisarius fell upon the ingenious contrivance of placing boats upon the ,tiber1 on which he erected mills that were driven by the current4 ,this experiment was attended with complete success2 and as many mills of this kind as were necessary were constructed4 ,to destroy these1 the besiegers threw into the stream logs of wood1 dead bodies1 c41 which floated down the river into the city2 but the besieged1 by making use of booms to stop them1 were enabled to drag them out before they could do any mischief4 ,this seems to have been the origin of floating-mills1 no record of them appearing previously4 ,by these means the use of water-mills became very much extended2 for floating-mills can be constructed almost upon any stream1 without forming an artificial fall2 they may be stationed at the most convenient places1 and they rise and fall of themselves with the water4--,they are1 however1 attended with these inconveniences3 they require to be strongly secured2 they often block up the stream too much1 and move slowly2 and they often stop when the water is too high1 or when it is frozen4 ,after this improvement1 the use of water-mills was never laid aside or forgotten1 but was soon made known all over ,europe2 and passages innumerable might be quoted1 in every century1 to prove their continued use4 ,the ,roman1 ,salic1 and other laws1 constantly provided for the security of these mills1 and defined a punishment for such as destroyed the sluices1 or stole the mill-irons4 ,it is said1 however1 that there were water-mills in ,france and ,germany a hundred years before these laws had existence4 ,at ,venice1 and other places1 there were erected mills which regulated themselves by the motion of the waters1 and which were regulated by the flowing and ebbing of the tide1 and which every six hours changed the motion of the wheels4 ,of this species of mills1 a new invention1 or1 perhaps1 rather an improved one1 was made in ,london1 called a tide-mill1 an engraving of which may be seen in 8,the ,advancement of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,commerce10 ,london1 #aggb4 ,zanetti is said to have shown1 by some old charters1 that such mills existed about the year #ajdd2 but with still more certainty in #ajgh1 #ajgi1 and #aajg4 ,it appears1 however1 that hand and cattle mills were in most places retained1 after the use of proper watermills1 particularly in convents4 ,they were used1 because the otherwise lazy monks found the exercise they afforded beneficial to their health4 ,likewise the legends of popish mythology are full of the miracles which have been wrought at these mills4 ,a modern author of credit impeaches the veracity of ,pomponius ,sabinus after he had previously quoted his authority1 and likewise after he had said that he bore a good character1 in a popular work1 by charging him with improbability1 nay1 positive falsehood1 and alleging that the ,romans had no wind-mills4 ,it should be noticed1 without venturing to decide upon the point1 that he has adduced no authority for such allegation1 and that he only concludes so1 by inference1 as upon the authority of ,vitruvius2 that mechanist1 he says1 in enumerating all moving forces1 does not mention wind-mills4 ,but1 for the sake of candour1 was not the one as liable to err as the other8 ,he also says1 that neither ,seneca nor ,st4 ,chrysostom mention wind-mills2 and is unmercifully severe upon an old ,bohemian annalist who speaks of wind-mills so early as #gah4 ,but he is all along bringing his forces to prove1 that wind-mills had first existence in his own district1 ,germany2 that they were then invented2 and1 perhaps1 because he is of that country4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that scarcely any invention of any consequence has occurred since that of printing1 but the honour has been claimed by the natives of ,germany4 ,mabillon mentions a diploma of the year #aaje1 in which a convent in ,france is allowed to erect water and wind-mills1 molendina ad ventum4 ,bartolomeo ,verde proposed to the ,venetians in #accb1 to build a wind-mill4 ,when his plan had been examined1 he had a piece of ground assigned him1 which he was to retain if his undertaking succeeded within a specified time4 ,in #acgc1 the city of ,spires caused a wind-mill to be erected1 and sent to the ,netherlands for a person acquainted with the method of grinding by it4 ,a wind-mill was also constructed at ,frankfort1 in #addb2 but it does not appear to have been ascertained whether there were any there before4 ,about the twelfth century1 in the pontificate of ,gregory1 when both wind and water-mills became more general1 a dispute arose whether mills were titheable or not4 ,the dispute existed for some time between the persons possessed of mills and the clergy2 when neither would yield4 ,at length1 upon the matter being referred to the pope and sacred college1 the question was1 7as might have been expected when interested persons were made the arbitrators17 determined in favour of the claims of the church4 ,there was one inconvenience attending wind-mills1 which might be obviated in other mills3 the mill was useless unless the wind was in a particular direction4 ,to remedy this1 various modes were tried2 at first1 the mill was fixed on a floating body in the water1 which might be turned to any wind4 ,the next improvement consisted in turning the body of the mill to meet the direction of the wind2 this was effected by two modes3 first1 the whole building is constructed in such a manner as to turn on a pivot below2 this method is said to have been invented in ,germany1 and is called the ,german mode3 second1 the building is formed so as to turn on the roof1 with the shafts supporting the sails only2 this is called the ,dutch mode1 being invented by a ,fleming about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,this is the mode principally adopted in ,england4 ,although in the earliest ages of the world men might have been1 perhaps1 satisfied with having their corn reduced to a mealable form alone2 yet after this had been with care effected1 then they thought of improving upon this conveniency1 and separating the farinaceous part from the bran and husks4 ,this was certainly desirable2 therefore they bolted it in a sieve with a long handle attached to it1 with a hair1 or fine lawn lining2 this was common in this country till within the last sixty or eighty years2 but by degrees1 opportunities of improvement in the mechanism of mills suggested to some mechanic the idea of constructing what is now called bolting mills1 applied to the mill for grinding1 and wrought at the same time by appropriate machinery4 ,it appears that sieves of horse-hair were first used by the ,gauls1 then those of linen by the ,spaniards4 ,the mode of applying a sieve in the form of an extending bag to catch the meal as it fell from the stones1 and of causing it to be turned and shaken1 was first made known in the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the best bolting cloths are universally allowed to be manufactured in ,england2 they are made of wool of the longest and the best kind1 peculiarly prepared2 being first well washed and spun to a fine and equal thread2 which1 before it be scoured1 must be scalded in hot water to prevent its shrinking4 ,the web must be then stiffened2 it is in this we possess an advantage which others cannot attain4 ,our bolting cloth is stiffer1 as well as much smoother1 than any foreign manufacture4 ,so jealous are our ,german neighbours of this1 that they have established manufactories in several places at a great expense1 and under very peculiar regulations1 for its fabrication4 ,after all1 they are compelled to confess1 that theirs will not wear above three weeks in a flour manufactory1 whereas ours will continue well three months in equal exposure to friction and ordinary wear4 ,for some years past1 the ,french have been extolled for a mode of grinding1 called mouture economique2 that were we not aware such had been practised in ancient ,rome1 it might be conceived to form an important epoch in the miller's art4 ,this process1 however1 is not new2 it consists in first grinding the wheat not so fine as might be required for ordinary purposes2 afterwards putting the meal several times through the mill1 and sifting it with various sieves4 ,it should seem this method was practised in ancient ,rome2 for ,pliny1 who took care to inform himself of most things1 tells us1 that in his time they had1 at least1 five different kinds of flour1 all procured from the same corn4 ,it appears1 that the ancient ,romans had advanced very far in this art1 as well as in that of baking1 c41 from what may be collected from its economical polity preserved by ,pliny and others4 ,whence it may be fairly inferred1 they knew how to prepare from corn more kinds of meal1 and from meal more kinds of bread1 than the moderns even now are acquainted with4 ,pliny reckons that bread should be one-third heavier than the meal used for baking it3 this proportion it appears1 was known in ,germany nearly a century and a half ago1 and discovered from experiments on bread made at different times4 ,german bakers1 although they may have been occasionally mistaken1 have always undoubtedly given more bread than meal4 ,it appears that in latter periods1 the art of grinding1 as well as baking1 has declined very much in ,italy2 and their bread1 although produced from the finest grain in the world1 is altogether bad when manufactured by ,italians4 ,on this account1 bakers from ,germany it seems1 are generally employed in public baking-houses1 as well at ,rome as in ,venice4 ,bakers of that people are generally settled at those places1 where they have been in the habit of manufacturing that article for the principal inhabitants1 for upwards of three hundred years4 ,from ,beckmann's ,history1 it would appear that the mouture economique of the ,french has been known to the ,germans for more than two hundred years4 ,many were the attempts1 repeatedly enforced1 to deter the experiments made1 from time to time1 by the ,french experimentalists1 to perfect this article previous to its being accomplished4 ,in this1 the ,french suffered themselves to be taught by prejudice and directed by ignorance4 ,numerous and judicious were the experiments made by the scientific and philosophic of that people to produce the most in quantity and best in quality from a definite quantity of grain1 at which the ignorant of their species suffered their prejudice to revolt1 and the powerful readily come into the mode of thinking of the vulgar1 to whom they lent their aid1 to effect what ,heaven in revelation had commanded1 viz3 8,give not that which is holy unto dogs1 neither cast ye your pearls before swine1 lest they trample them under their feet1 and turn again and rend you40 ,mat4 vii4 #f4 ,it will1 from the succeeding statement1 that in using the language which has just appeared1 circumstances sanctioned us4 ,the clergy of the chapel royal1 and parish church at ,versailles1 sent their wheat in the beginning of last century to be ground at an adjacent mill3 according to custom1 it was put through the mill only once1 and the bran1 which yet contained much flour1 was sold for fattening cattle4 ,this miller having1 however1 in process of time learnt the process of the mouture economique1 purchased the bran from these ecclesiastics1 and found that it yielded him as good flour as they had procured from the whole wheat4 ,the miller1 at length1 is presumed1 in a qualm of conscience1 to have regretted cheating those holy men2 he accordingly discovered to them the secret1 and gave them afterwards fourteen bushels of flour from their wheat1 instead of eight1 which he had only furnished them before4 ,this voluntary discovery of the miller was made in #agfj2 and it is probable the same discovery was made at the same time by others4 ,a baker1 named ,malisset1 proposed to the lieutenant-general of the ,french police to teach a method by which people could grind their corn with more advantage2 and experiments were accordingly made and succeeded4 ,a mealman of ,senlis1 named ,buquet1 having the inspection of the mill belonging to the large hospital at ,paris1 made the same proposal3 the result of his experiments1 made under the direction of the magistrates1 was printed4 ,the investigation of this art was now taken up by men of learning and science1 who gave it a suitable denomination2 explained it1 made experiments and calculations upon it1 and at the same time recommended it so much1 that the mouture economique engaged the attention of all magistrates throughout ,france4 ,its government sent ,buquet to ,lyons in #agfd1 to ,bourdeaux in #agff1 to ,dijon in #agfg1 and to ,mondidier in #agfh4 ,the benefit which ,france derived from that trouble1 shows that it was not taken in vain4 ,previous to that period1 a ,paris setier yielded from eighty to ninety pounds of meal1 and from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty pounds of bran2 but the same quantity now yields one hundred and eighty-five pounds1 and according to the latest improvements1 one hundred and ninety-five pounds of meal4 ,in the time of ,st4 ,louis1 from four to five setiers were reckoned necessary for the annual maintenance of a man2 these were scarcely sufficient2 as many were allowed to the patients in hospitals2 and such were the calculations made in the sixteenth century4 ,when the miller's art was everywhere improved1 the four setiers were reduced to three and a half1 and from the latest improvements1 they do not exceed two4 ,from mills which only force the farinaceous parts from the husk1 thereby rounding the grain1 the common denomination of barley mills comes1 from such mills being used in the manufacture of pearl barley4 ,in their construction1 these mills differ but little from wheat-mills1 and the machinery for the former is generally added to the latter4 ,the grand specific distinction is1 that the millstone is rough hewn round its circumference1 and in the stead of a lower stone1 there is generally a wooden case2 the middle lined with a plate of iron1 pierced like a grater with holes1 the sharp edge of which turns upwards4 ,the barley is thrown upon the stone1 which1 as it turns round1 frees it from the husk1 and rounds it2 after which1 it is put into sieves and sifted4 ,so long as the policy of governments was blind to the interests of men1 and so long as the griping avarice of a few was permitted to lay the free-born of their species under the most severe contributions1 so long were permitted to build mills only1 who had obtained a regal license for that purpose4 ,but1 thank heaven6 that ray of light it has lent generally to man1 has1 in some sort1 illuminated even the minds of ministers and their tyrannical masters1 to curtail that spirit which had cast the fetters of vassalage given by feudal tyranny to its upstart dependants4 ,men were left1 at length1 to improve their property according to their pleasure3 since which period1 more mills have been erected for the convenience of the species4 ,this privilege1 it appears1 was not prohibited by the ,roman laws2 those irradiations of superior intellect well appreciated human rights4 ,it was not till the darkness of the middle ages had obscured the mental hemisphere1 that any person was presumed to possess a superiority over others1 and to abridge the small portion of general happiness that the favoured of fortune might add to his satiety4 ,during those days of universal darkness1 numberless were the evils which men suffered1 and among them the present object of our consideration was not the least2 frequently having to travel for miles to a mill to procure the necessary manufacture of so essential an article to human life as bread4 ,let us not be decoyed1 however1 by the resentment produced by the spirit of human oppression1 beyond the bounds prescribed by reason1 to inveigh against such ordinance when public and general utility ever was consulted2 and certain public streams were by wise laws to be kept free from individual encroachments with impunity4 ,it is not against the dictates of sober reason we declare hostility1 but the gross abuse of power4 ,a time there was1 when human baseness in princes and potentates1 their vassals doubtless aping the manners of their masters1 claimed as their right not only the common element of water1 but also that of air6 ,a curious incident related by ,jargow1 and detailed by ,professor ,beckmann1 as follows1 establishes the insolence of upstart men3--8,in the end of the fourteenth century1 the monks of the celebrated but long since destroyed monastery of ,augustines1 at ,windshiem1 in the province of ,overyssel1 were desirous of erecting a wind-mill not far from ,zwoll2 but a neighouring lord endeavoured to prevent them1 declaring that the wind in that quarter belonged to him4 ,the monks1 unwilling to give up their point1 had recourse to the ,bishop of ,utrecht1 under whose jurisdiction the province had continued since the tenth century4 ,the bishop1 highly incensed against the pretender1 who wished to usurp his authority1 affirmed1 that the wind of the whole province belonged only to him2 and1 in #acia1 gave the convent express permission to build a wind-mill wherever they thought proper40 ,without the convenience of human ingenuity heaven had sent the blessing of life in vain2 we have1 under this impression1 therefore1 bestowed much time on this article1 from a conviction of its vital importance to the necessities of human existence4 ,,saw-,,mills4 ,the invention of the plumb-line and saw1 with other useful articles in mechanics1 and handicrafts1 are usually ascribed to that great--that universal genius--,ddalus3 although others give the merit to one ,talus1 the nephew of ,ddalus1 and say1 that the discovery was made under the following circumstances3--,talus1 they tell us1 having found the jaw-bone of a snake1 cut a piece of wood in two with the teeth2 thence1 they say1 he invented the saw2 his maternal uncle and master1 they add1 was so jealous of this invention1 that he murdered the young man2 and the mode of the discovery of the murder is accounted for in this manner3--some persons saw ,ddalus covering up the grave of his victim1 and asked what he was doing8 8,oh10 says he1 8,i am only burying a snake40 ,how much credit may be due to this relation1 we do not take upon ourselves to determine4 ,pliny1 as well as ,seneca1 were of the former opinion2 whilst ,diodorus ,siculus1 and others1 hold the latter4 ,the youth is named by some ,perdix4 ,however1 it appears to rest between these two1 no other claimant appearing4 ,ovid says1 it was not the jaw of a snake1 but the back-bone of a fish4 ,the former1 however1 appears to be the most rational opinion as to its origin1 as it is conjectured that the vertebr would not be sufficiently strong1 and the joints are too far apart1 as well as too large4 ,the ,grecian saw is said to have been much the same as that instrument which the moderns now use4 ,this idea is corroborated by an ancient painting discovered in ,herculaneum2 likewise from an antique representation of this instrument1 given by the celebrated ,montfaucon4 ,the preceding observations1 however1 have relation to the subject of this article only1 inasmuch as they are introductory to what follows4 ,the most beneficial and ingenious improvement that has been made in saws was the invention and introduction of machinery1 called saw-mills1 which1 in woody countries1 as well as for delicate and fine veneers1 are of the greatest utility2 in the former case1 wood forms the chief article of commerce where labourers are scarce2 in the latter1 it may be cut nearly as thin as a sheet of paper4 ,these saw-mills also finish flooring deals1 grooved1 dovetailed1 and planed on both sides1 at the rate of two deals1 of twenty feet each1 in a minute6 ,they are commonly worked in this country by means of steam-engines2 in woody countries they are generally erected on the banks of rivers1 the water of which propels the machinery4 ,it is said they were invented in ,germany1 as far back as the fourth century1 upon the smaller river ,roer2 for1 although ,ansonius speaks of water-mills1 for cutting stone1 he says nothing of mills to cut timber4 ,the art of cutting marble with a saw is very ancient2 ,pliny thinks it was invented in ,caria2 at least1 he knew of no place or building1 incrusted with marble1 older than the palace of ,king ,mausolus1 at ,helicarnassus4 ,vitruvius also names the circumstances1 although he uses different terms for expressions of the same sense4 ,he commends the beauty of its marble1 whilst ,pliny speaks of its different kinds3 the former viewed it as an architect1 whilst the latter inspected it as a naturalist4 ,it also does appear1 from other writers1 that the harder and precious kinds of stones were cut in the same manner2 as ,pliny speaks of a building adorned with agate1 cornelian1 lapis-lazuli1 and amethysts4 ,yet there is no mention made of mills for cutting wood2 or1 admitting they had been invented1 it is probable they shared the fate of many other useful inventions1--had been forgotten1 or else some considerable modern improvement had been made in their construction4 ,since the period of the first invention1 they have been erected in various parts of ,europe and ,america4 ,there appears to have been one erected in the vicinity of ,augsburg1 as early as #accg2 at ,erlinger1 in #adag4 ,upon the discovery of the island of ,madeira1 in #adbj1 the ,infanta ,henry sent settlers there1 and caused ,european fruits of every kind to be carried there2 and amongst other productions1 saw-mills and other machinery to cut the valuable timber found there into portable pieces1 which were afterwards transported to ,portugal4 ,in #agbd1 the city of ,breslau had a saw-mill which produced the yearly rent of three marks4 ,in #adij1 the magistrates of ,erfurt purchased a forest1 and built a mill of this description4 ,in ,norway1 a country covered with wood1 there was one built in #aecj4 ,this mode of manufacture was called the new art2 and because the exportation of deals was by that means increased1 a royal impost was introduced by ,christian ,,iii4 in #aede1 called the deal-tythe4 ,soon after ,henry ,ranzau caused the first mill to be erected at ,holstein4 ,in the year #aeee1 the ,bishop of ,ely1 being ambassador from the ,princess ,mary of ,england to the court of ,rome1 saw a saw-mill in the neighbourhood of ,lyons3 the writer of his travels thought it worthy of particular description3--8,the saw-mill is driven by an upright wheel2 and the water that makes it go is gathered whole into a narrow trough1 which delivereth the same water to the wheels4 ,this wheel hath a piece of timber put to the axle-tree end1 like the handle of a brooch1 and fastened to the end of the saw1 which being turned with the force of the water1 hoisteth up and down the saw1 that it continually eateth in1 and the handle of the same is kept in a rigall of wood from swerving4 ,also the timber lieth as it were upon a ladder1 which is brought by little and little to the saw with another vice40 ,in the sixteenth century1 there was a grand improvement made in this machine by having several saws affixed to one beam1 by which timber could be cut into several planks or boards1 and of any thickness1 at the same time4 ,there was one of these at ,ratisbon1 upon the ,danube1 in #aege4 ,in ,england saw-mills were at first received with as little encouragement as printing met with in ,turkey1 and from the same motive4 ,when the attempt was made to introduce them it was said the sawyers would be deprived of bread4 ,for this reason it was found necessary to abandon a saw-mill erected by a ,dutchman1 near ,london1 in #affc4 ,however1 in the year #agjj1 a gentleman of the name of ,houghton laid before the nation the advantages to be derived from them2 but he expressed his apprehension that it might cause a commotion among the people4 ,what he feared1 actually came to pass2 for1 on the erection of one by a wealthy timber merchant1 by the desire of the society for the promotion of arts1 in #agfg1 to be propelled by the wind1 under the direction of ,james ,stansfield1 who had learnt the method of constructing them in ,holland and ,norway1 a foolish mob assembled and pulled it to pieces4 ,many years previous to this there had been a similar mill erected in ,scotland4 ,there is now hardly a town of any importance in the kingdom but what has one or more saw-mills in operation4 ,,forks4 ,the fork is an article of every-day use amongst us1 and on that account little thought of2 still the short space we intend to occupy with this subject may1 perhaps1 convey a little information to many of our readers unknown to them before1 or1 at least1 unthought of4 ,there is not the least room to suppose the ancients were at all acquainted with this little table utensil1 now so necessary to our own comfort and convenience1 to say nothing of our ideas of cleanliness4 ,pliny1 who enumerated most things natural1 physical1 philosophical1 and economical1 makes no mention of them2 nor does it occur in any other writer of antiquity2 neither does ,pollux speak of it in the very full catalogue which he has given of things necessary for a table4 ,neither the ,greeks or ,romans had any name in the least applicable to its use1 either direct or by inference1 where it can be asserted that such an instrument was intended4 ,the ancients had1 it is true1 in ,greece1 their creagra4 ,in ,rome1 their furca1 fuscina1 furcilla1 c43 the ,grecian instrument somewhat resembled a rake of an ordinary construction1 and calculated for the purpose of taking meat out of a boiling pot1 constructed in the shape of a hook1 or rather the bent fingers of the hand4 ,with reference to the ,roman names1 the first two were undoubtedly applied to instruments which approached nearer to our furnace and hay forks4--,the trident of ,neptune is also called fuscina4 ,the furcilla was large enough to be employed as a weapon of defence4 ,the present ,latin name for a fork1 fusinula1 is not to be found in any of the old ,latin writers4 ,it is the opinion1 we understand1 of a learned ,italian writer1 that the ancient ,romans used the instruments they called ligul1 instead of forks4 ,now those instruments had some distant resemblance to our teaspoons4 ,hence we must conclude that they and our ancestors used no forks1 because1 had they had anything answering the purpose1 even in effect1 it must undoubtedly have had a name4 ,in the ,east1 we understand it was1 and still is1 customary to dress their victuals until they become so tender as to be easily pulled in pieces4 ,we are told by modern travellers1 that if an animal be dressed before it has lost its natural warmth1 it becomes tender and very savoury4 ,this is the ,oriental custom1 and has been so from the most remote antiquity4 ,fortunately1 all articles of food were cut up in small pieces before they were served up at table2 the necessity for which practice will appear1 when we remember they usually took their meals in a recumbent posture upon beds4 ,originally1 persons of rank kept an officer for the purpose of cutting the meat1 who used a knife1 the only one placed at table1 which1 in opulent families1 had an ivory handle1 and was ornamented with silver4 ,the bread was never cut at table2 it needed it not1 being usually baked thin1 somewhat resembling the ,passover cake of the ,jews2 this is not understood1 however1 to have been universal4 ,the ,chinese use no forks2 however1 to supply them1 they have small sticks of ivory1 often of very fine workmanship1 inlaid with silver and gold1 which each guest employs to pick up the bits of meat1 it being previously cut small4 ,the invention of forks was not known till about two centuries ago in ,europe1 where people eat the same as they do now in ,turkey4 ,in the ,new ,testament we read of putting hands into the dish4 ,homer1 as well as ,ovid1 mention the same custom4 ,in the quotation from the sacred writings1 we observe that the guests had1 it is presumed1 no instrument to help themselves out of the common dish which contained the repast2 for1 upon the question being put of who was to betray the ,saviour1 the answer was given in the following quotation1 8,it is one of the twelve that dippeth with me in the dish40 ,in the passage cited from ,homer1 the phrase1 according to the ,latin translation1 implies the same sense4 ,and had the ,romans been apprised of the utility of this instrument1 or in fact of any substitute1 there could have been no occasion for the master of the amorous art to have given his instructions to his pupils in nearly similar terms which we now use to children4 ,although ,count ,caylus and ,grignon both assert that ancient forks have been found1 we still want further testimony4 ,the former says1 one with two prongs was found among some rubbish in the ,appian ,way1 which he alleges to be of beautiful workmanship1 terminating in the handle with a carved stag's foot4 ,notwithstanding the high reputation of that author1 this assertion is not credited4 ,the latter says1 he found some in the ruins of a ,roman town in ,champagne2 but he does not describe them1 otherwise than to observe that one was of copper or brass1 and the others of iron3 and speaking of the latter1 says1 they appear to be table-forks1 but are very coarsely made4 ,the truth seems to be that table-forks were first used in ,italy1 as appears from the book of ,galeotus ,martius1 an ,italian in the service of ,matthias ,corvinus1 ,king of ,hungary1 who reigned from #adeh to #adij4 ,martius relates that at that period forks were not used at table in ,hungary as in ,italy2 but that at meals each person laid hold of the meat with his fingers1 and on that account they were much stained with saffron1 usually put into sauces and soups4 ,he praises the king for eating without a fork1 conversing at the same time1 and never dirtying his clothes4 ,in ,france1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 forks were quite unknown even at the court of the monarch4 ,neither at that period were they known in ,sweden4 ,from the history of the travels of our countryman1 ,coryate1 entitled 8,crudities10 first published in #afaa1 and afterwards in #aggf1 the author says he first saw them in ,italy1 and he was also the first person who used them in ,england4 ,as his account of them is curious1 we may be excused giving an extract1 slightly altering the orthography4 8,here ,i will mention a thing that might have been spoken of before in discourse of the first ,italian town4 ,i observed a custom in all those ,italian cities and towns through which ,i passed1 that is not used in any other country ,i saw in my travels2 neither do ,i think that any other nation in ,christendom doth use it1 but only ,italy4 ,the ,italian1 and also most strangers that are commorant in ,italy1 do always at their meals1 use a little fork when they cut their meat4 ,for while with their knife1 which they hold in one hand1 they cut the meat out of the dish1 they fasten the fork1 which they hold in their other hand1 upon the same dish2 so that whatsoever he be that1 sitting in the company of any others at meals1 should unadvisedly touch the dish of meat with his fingers1 from which all at the table do cut1 he will give occasion of offence unto the company1 as having transgressed the laws of good manners1 insomuch that for his error he shall be at least brow-beaten if not reprehended in words4 ,this form of feeding ,i understand is generally used in all places of ,italy2 their fork being for the most part made of iron or steel1 and some of silver1 but those are used only by gentlemen4 ,the reason of this their curiosity is1 because the ,italian cannot by any means endure to have his dish touched with fingers--seeing all men's fingers are not alike clean4 ,hereupon ,i myself thought good to imitate the ,italian fashion by this forked cutting of meat1 not only while ,i was in ,italy1 but also in ,germany1 and oftentime in ,england1 since ,i came home1 being once equipped for that frequent using of my fork by a certain learned gentleman1 a familiar friend of mine1 one ,mr4 ,lawrence ,whitaker1 who in his merry humour doubted not to call one at table farsifer1 only for using a fork at feeding1 but for no other cause40 ,in many parts of ,spain1 we understand that1 at present1 drinking-glasses1 spoons1 and forks are rarities4 ,it is also said1 that even in taverns in many countries1 particularly in ,france1 knives are not placed on the table1 because it is expected that each person should have one of his own4 ,this custom the modern ,french appear to have derived from their ancestors the ancient ,gauls4 ,but1 as no person will eat any longer without forks1 the landlords are obliged to furnish these1 together with plates and spoons4 ,among the ,highlanders in ,scotland1 ,dr4 ,johnson asserts1 that knives have been introduced at table since the ,revolution only4 ,before that period the men were accustomed to cut their meat with a knife they carry as a companion to their dirk4 ,the men cut the meat into small morsels for the women1 who used their fingers to put it into their mouths4 ,the use of forks at table was first considered as a superfluous luxury1 and as such forbidden in convents1 as appears from the records of the congregation of ,st4 ,maur4 ,,music4 ,the science of music1 or rather of harmony1 is extremely ancient--insomuch that1 with respect to the latter1 it is said to be coeval with ,nature herself4 ,but as it has relation to the science now in use1 this1 like most other arts1 whose origin is very remote1 is involved in obscurity2 and in proportion to the astonishment and wonder excited by its uncommon powers1 in a commensurate ratio does mystery1 fable1 and obscurity envelope its original4 ,however1 always remembering that it was from harmony1-- --8from heavenly harmony1 this universal frame began40 ,proceeding step by step1 it had eventually attained in ,greece a very early perfection4 ,collins1 who is justly entitled to the distinguished station held by all pupils of nature and of the muses1 who is peculiarly eminent for a just poetical spirit1 thus speaks of the heavenly science in his ,ode on the ,passions-- 8,arise1 as in that elder time1 ,warm1 energetic1 chaste1 sublime2-- ,thy wonders in that god-like age ,fill thy recording sisters' page4-- ',tis said1 and ,i believe the tale1 ,thy humblest reed could more prevail1 ,had more of strength1 diviner rage ,than all that charms this laggard age1 ,even all at once together found ,cecilia's mingled world of sound40 ,it will be remembered1 however1 that the poet calculated as much upon the infant simplicity of nature as upon the uncommon powers of harmony2 this consideration will certainly reconcile the apparent extravagance of the thought4 ,so great were the early powers of verse and harmony1 that at one period the votaries of the muses were regarded as persons divinely inspired2 they were the priests of man1 his legislators1 and his prophets4 ,insomuch was the possessor of the art1 and the art itself reverenced1 that the responses of the most eminent oracles were received in measured verse4 ,witness the response of the ,delphian oracle received by the ,athenian deputation1 when ,greece inquired for her wisest men1 as given by ,xenophon3-- 8,wise is ,sophocles1 more wise ,euripides1 ,but the wisest of all men is ,socrates40 ,music eventually claimed the most unlimited control over the affections of mankind1 as could be proved by an infinity of instances2 we shall mention one only from a well authenticated fact1 and finely illustrated in that of ,timotheus from 8,alexander's ,feast10 by ,dryden4 ,we omit the hyperbolic representation of the raising of the walls of ,thebes by the power of ,amphion's lute1 and the apparently incredible relations of the harmony of the harp of ,orpheus1 which are all personifications of natural effects1 and which we have neither room1 time1 nor opportunity to explain in this place4 ,if its origin was as previously suggested by ,collins1 there is occasion to believe the shepherd's simple life afforded it first existence2 in the native and wild notes of the pastoral reed1 may be discovered the germ of a science as various as its effects are beautiful4 ,we shall for the present presume the simple ,pandean pipe was the first effort of the construction of musical instruments2 its soft tone being analogous to the dulcet harmony of the voice4 ,we are led to suppose this from the evidence of ancient statuary1 where those pipes are frequently discovered2 and this will1 perhaps1 deduce its origin from the invention of the shepherd god1 or oldest ,pan4 ,nevertheless1 the lyre1 or harp1 is alleged from records the most ancient1 having at first but three strings1 analogous to the three seasons of the primeval year2 the treble typical of spring1 the tenor resembling summer1 and the bass representing winter4 ,the invention of that instrument1 and of music altogether1 is claimed in the pagan world by ,amphion1 a successor of ,cadmus1 the first king of ,thebes1 in ,btia1 who is reported1 by the music of his harp or lyre to have built the walls of the city2 ,cadmus having erected the citadel only4 ,flutes were first invented by ,hyognis1 the ,phrygian1 about the year #aejf before ,christ1 and first played on the flute the harmony1 called ,phrygian1 and other tunes of the mother of the gods1 of ,dionysius1 of ,pan1 and of the divinities of the country and the heroes4 ,terpander also1 who was the son of ,derdineus1 the ,lesbian1 directed the flute players to reform the tunes of the ancients1 and changed the old music1 about the year #fde before ,christ1 as we are informed by the ,parian ,chronicle4 ,the same ,terpander1 likewise1 added three more strings to the lyre4 ,when ,timotheus1 the ,spartan musician1 was banished his native country for having increased his strings to the number of ten1 he sought refuge at the court of ,macedon1 and accompanied his patron1 ,alexander1 into ,persia1 when that prince conquered ,darius4 ,from the sacred records of ,judea1 we may also infer the invention of musical instruments at a date long prior to either of the periods above mentioned1 when they inform us in ,genesis iv4 #ba1 that ,adah1 one of the wives of ,lamech1 had two sons1 the name of one of whom was ,jubal1 who is said to have been 8the father of all such who handle the harp and organ40 ,this infers the anterior invention of that instrument4 ,music consists of effects produced by the operation of certain sounds proceeding from the dulcet voice1 or musical instruments1 regulated by certain time1 and a succession of harmonious notes1 natural1 grave1 or flat1 i4 e41 half a note below its proper tone2 and acute or sharp1 i4 e41 half a note above its proper key2 and of such modulation of various tones1 and of different value1 and also of manifold denominations3 the natural tones consisting of eight notes1 with the addition of octaves1 in various keys1 with flats and sharps introduced to afford variety from the skill of the master1 at different periods1 to produce the most agreeable diversity in his composition2 and sometimes according to the subject or words to which his music is adapted4 ,those musical notes1 though proceeding from so small a number of radicals1 are analogous to the incalculable1 the endless forms1 which orthography and rhetoric can afford to a well-informed orator1 or elegant author1 to embellish any subject4 ,thus from the definite number of twenty-four notes1 varied in different degrees1 by sharps1 flats1 semi-tones1 c41 are produced all that is so magical1 enthusiastic1 and transporting in the empire of omnipotent music4 ,like as the alphabetic characters may be varied into myriads of forms suitable to every multifarious species of conversation or composition2 in a word1 a few musical notes in the hands of a master may be made by his skill to produce1 from agreeable interchanges of time1 harmony1 c41 every variety of musical sentiment which can affect the human soul4 ,a stronger proof cannot be adduced than will be found in the before-cited ode of 8,alexander's ,feast10 by the truly poetic ,dryden4 ,in all which harmony and melody form conspicuous characteristics4 ,and of harmony1 according to the learned ,mr4 ,mason4 ,the sense in which the ancient ,greeks viewed harmony is as follows3--8,they by that term understood the succession of simple sounds according to their scale1 with respect to acuteness or gravity40 ,whilst it appears that by harmony1 the moderns understand--8,the succession of simple sounds1 according to the laws of counterpoints40 ,from the same authority--8,by melody1 the ancients understood the succession of simple sounds1 according to the laws of rhythm and metre1 or in other words1 according to time1 measure1 or cadence4 ,whereas1 the moderns understand by the same term what the ancients meant by harmony1 rhythm and metre being excluded40 8,and the modern air is what the ancients understood by melody40 ,hence1 from the preceding definitions1 it appears that what is now called harmony was unknown to the ancients2 and they viewed that term as we now see simple melody1 when we speak of it as a thing distinguished from simple modulated air1 and that their term1 melody1 was applied to what we now call air or song4 ,should this be true1 the long-contested difficulty1 and that train of endless disputes1 which has existed among the learned and scientific world so long1 will instantly vanish4 ,should we suppose an ancient flute-player used an improper tone or semi-tone1 or had he transgressed the mode or key in which he was playing1 he committed an error in harmony2 yet his melody might have been perfect1 with respect to the laws of rhythm or metre2 we should say of a modern musician1 under similar circumstances1 that he played wrong notes1 or was out of tune1 yet kept his time4 ,whoever made such a distinction would be allowed to possess a good ear for music1 though the moderns would be inclined to call it an ear for melody or intonation4 ,by the rules of musical conversation1 we should be justified when we call an instrument out of tune inharmonious1 although the intervals were nearly right4 ,by harmonica1 the ,greeks implied nothing more than that proportion of sound to sound1 which mathematicians call ratio1 or which would be understood in general musical conversation1 by an agreeable succession of musical notes2--as ancient harmony consisted of the succession of simple sounds1 so does modern harmony consist of the succession of chords4 ,whether the diatonic scale be the effect of nature1 or produced by art1 has occasioned disputation between many2 but without losing time or space1 we are1 we think1 authorised1 from general opinion1 to observe1 that compositions formed on it1 and on the plan recommended by a lute organist1 would produce sensations odiously disgusting to any musical ear4 ,the diatonic is the most simple genera in music1 consisting of tones and major semi-tones2 in the scale of which genus the smallest interval is a conjoint degree1 which changes its name and place1 that is1 passing from one to another2 a prominent air in this species of modern music is 8,god save the ,queen10 entirely diatonic1 without modulation1 by the intervention of a single flat or sharp4 ,it may not be unacceptable to our readers to add a few particulars of one of the greatest composers that ever existed2 we allude to the eminently illustrious ,,george ,,frederick ,,handel1 a name dear to science1 and entitled to the grateful veneration of every amateur in this divine art4 ,he was born at ,halle1 in ,upper ,saxony1 on the #bdth of ,february #afhd4 ,scarcely was he able to speak1 before he articulated musical sounds4 ,his father was a professor of the healing art as a surgeon and physician1 then upwards of sixty1 who intended his son for the study of the law4 ,grieved at the child's predeliction1 he banished all musical instruments from his house4 ,but the spark which nature had kindled in his bosom was not to be extinguished by the mistaken views of a blind parent4 ,the child by some means or other contrived to get a little claverchord into a garret1 where1 applying himself after the family had retired to rest1 he discovered means to produce both melody and harmony4 ,before he was seven years of age1 the ,duke of ,weissenfells by accident discovered his genius1 and prevailed on his father to cherish his inclination4 ,he was accordingly placed with ,zachan1 organist of the cathedral of ,halle2 when1 from nine to twelve years of age1 he composed a church service every week4 ,losing his father whilst he was in that city1 he thought he could best support his mother by repairing to ,hamburgh1 where he soon attracted general notice4 ,this wonder of the age was then only fourteen1 when he composed 8,almeria10 his first opera4 ,having quitted ,hamburgh1 he travelled for six years in ,italy1 where1 at both ,florence and ,rome1 he excited much attention3 at both which places he produced new operatic performances4 ,in that clime of the harmonious muse1 he was introduced to1 and cultivated the friendship of1 ,dominico1 ,scarlatti1 ,gaspurini1 and ,zotti1 with other eminent scientific characters4 ,he was particularly caressed and patronised by ,cardinal ,ottoboni1 in whose circle he became acquainted with the elegant and natural ,corelli4 ,it was here he composed the sonata 8,il trionfo del tempo10 the original score of which is now in the ,royal ,collection4 ,after which he went to ,naples1 where he set 8,acis et ,galatea10 in ,italian1 to music4 ,returning to ,germany1 he was patronised by the ,elector of ,hanover1 subsequently ,george the ,first4 ,in #agaj he visited ,london1 by permission of his patron1 who had settled a pension of #bjj per annum on him4 ,in ,london he produced the opera of 8,rinaldo10 universally admired--equal with all his other productions that had preceded4 ,he was compelled to leave1 however reluctantly1 the ,british shore1 consistent with his engagement to his patron the ,elector4 ,he departed1 not without exciting general regret1 two years after his first arrival in this country4 ,he soon appeared here again1 however1 and his return was welcomed like the rising of the genial orb of day before the wrapt ,ignicolist6 ,but now seduced by the favour which awaited him1 he forgot to return4 ,on the death of ,queen ,anne1 who had also settled an annual pension of #bjj upon him--equal to what he received from the ,elector1 his former patron--when that prince ascended the throne1 ,handel was afraid to appear before his majesty1 till1 by an ingenious contrivance of ,baron ,kilmarfyge1 he was restored to favour1 ,queen ,anne's bounty being doubled by the king2 and the chief nobility accepted an academy of music under ,handel's direction1 which flourished for ten years1 till an unfortunate quarrel occurred between him and ,senesino1 which dissolved the institution1 and brought on a contest ruinous to the fortune and the health of our musician4 ,he was particularly patronised by the ,earl of ,burlington1 the ,duke of ,chandos1 and most of the distinguished nobility of ,great ,britain4 ,having restored his health at the baths of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 he for the future chose sacred subjects1 which were performed at his theatre in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 ,covent ,garden1 and ,westminster ,abbey4 ,he died in ,april1 #agei1 aged seventy-five1 and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey1 where he was honoured with a public funeral1 six peers supporting the pall2 the very reverend and truly learned translator of 8,longimus10 ,dr4 ,pearce1 the ,dean1 and then ,bishop of ,rochester1 performed the funeral service with a full choir4 ,he had been a great benefactor to numerous public charities4 ,the funds of the ,foundling ,hospital were improved through him with the amazing sum of #aj1bii4 ,the organ in its chapel1 and the ,,ms4 score of his 8,messiah10 were a present and a donation to the foundation from him4 ,he left an amiable private as well as a good public character behind him4 ,his character as a composer is too well appreciated by the ,british public to require any remarks from our feeble and inharmonious pen4 ,,sealing-,,wax1 ,,seals1 c4 ,besides metals1 five other mediums are enumerated by ancient writers1 wherewith letters and public acts were sealed1 viz41 terra sigillaris1 cement1 paste1 common wax and sealing-wax4 ,that the terra sigillaris was used by the ,egyptians1 we have the evidence of ,herodotus1 and which1 by inference1 is strengthened by that of ,moses who speaks of seal-rings or signets1 whence we may safely infer1 that they had a medium of some sort1 wherewith they sealed4 ,this lacuna ,herodotus supplies1 affirming it in direct terms1 and assigning a name to the substance they used for that purpose4 ,this circumstance was only rendered questionable by ,pliny1 who alleges the ,egyptians did not use those things4 ,herodotus thus expresses himself3 8,the ,egyptian priest bound to the horns of cattle fit for sacrifice pieces of papyrus with sealing-earth1 on which they made an impression with the seal2 and such cattle could only be offered up as victims40 ,lucian speaks of a fortune-teller who ordered those who came to consult him1 to write down on a bit of paper the questions they wished to ask1 to fold it up1 and seal it with clay1 or any other substance of a like kind4 ,such earth appears to have been employed in sealing1 by the ,byzantyne emperors2 for we are told that1 at the second ,nicene ,council1 image worship was defended by one saying1 8,no one believed that those who received written orders from the ,emperor1 and venerated the seal1 worshipped on that account the sealing-earth1 the paper1 or the lead40 ,cicero relates that ,verres1 having seen in the hands of his servants a letter written to his son from ,agrimentum1 and observing on it an impression in sealing-earth1 he was so pleased with it that he caused the seal-ring with which it was made to be taken from the possessor4 ,also1 the same orator1 in his defence of ,flaccus1 produced an attestation sent from ,asia1 and proved its authenticity by its being sealed with ,asiatic sealing-earth2 with which1 he told the judges1 all public and private letters in ,asia were sealed3 and he showed on the other hand1 that the testimony brought by the accuser was false1 because it was sealed with wax1 and for that reason could not have come from ,asia4 ,the scholiast ,servius relates1 that a sybil received a promise from ,apollo1 that she should live as long as she did not see the earth of the island of the ,erythra1 where she resided2 that she therefore quitted the place1 and retired to ,cumae1 where she became old and decrepid2 but that having received a letter sealed with ,erythrn earth1 when she saw the seal1 she instantly expired4 ,no one1 however1 will suppose that this earth was used without preparation1 as was that to which is given the name of creta chalk2 for1 if it was of a natural kind1 it must have been of that kind called potter's clay1 as that clay is susceptible of receiving an impression1 and of retaining it subsequent to hardening by drying4 ,it is believed that the ,romans1 under the indefinite term creta1 often understood to be a kind of potter's earth1 which can be proved by many passages in their numerous writers4 ,columella speaks of a species of chalk of which wine-jars and dishes were made1 of which kind it is conjectured ,virgil speaks when he calls it adhesive4 ,the ancient writers on agriculture give precisely the same name to marl1 which was employed to manure land3 now1 both chalk and marl1 in their natural state1 are extremely inapplicable to the purpose for which we are led to believe the terra sigillaris was used2 therefore1 admitting the ,roman creta was composed of them1 those substances must naturally have undergone some laborious process1 in order to render them proper for the purpose to which they were applied4 ,notwithstanding none can feel a higher respect for ,professor ,beckmann1 to whom we are indebted for many of the preceding observations1 than we do1 yet strongly as we are influenced with this impression1 we cannot help observing1 consistent with that duty we owe to the public1 that we cannot divest ourselves of the opinion that he is only trifling with the public feeling1 perhaps for the ostentatious display of his own learning3 so many objections of so little weight are raised1 that he really appears to write for the purpose of raising new objections to passages1 which1 in our comprehension1 are extremely simple4 ,we cannot help applying to him a passage which occurs in a song of the ,swan of ,twickenham1 who sings3-- 8,gnawed his pen1 then dashed it on the ground1 ,striking from thought to thought1 a vast profound4 ,plunged for the sense1 but found no bottom there1 ,yet wrote1 and floundered on in mere despair40 ,we would not be illiberal or capricious1 nor do we presume to any extra portion of intelligence2 yet1 we think we can in a few words discuss the topic1 and perhaps1 satisfactorily1 on which he has employed so many pages4 ,those terms which have troubled the professor with learned difficulties really appear to us susceptible of an easy interpretation1 and applicable to both or either of the senses in which they are used1 as are any words in the language of ancient ,rome4 ,accordingly1 we find the term creta implies either chalk1 fuller's clay1 loam1 white paint1 or ,asiatic earth1 termed creta ,asiatica2 and1 in brief it appears a mere generic name for any kind of earth1 raised from below the surface of the soil3 this is its true sense4 ,but there cannot be a question1 from what is known of the preparation of clay and earth for terra cotta and other plastic purposes1 which undergo a variety of washings1 kneadings1 c41 that similar preparations were requisite1 in order to bring it to so curious1 so delicate a purpose as that to which the terra sagillaris was applied4 ,and fosse1 in the sense used by ,varre1 admits of nearly a similar description1 it appearing as a pronomen for the same thing2 and indicates either peat1 marl1 loam1 chalk1 or any earthy substance which may be raised from below the terrestrial surface4 ,we have evidence every day in our fruit shops1 that in certain countries this kind of earth is yet employed for closing up jars of dried fruits brought from ,oporto1 ,smyrna1 and other countries2 as these appear to be composed of white chalk of a texture somewhat similar to common mortar4 ,the warmth of the atmosphere1 where it is used1 soon hardens and prevents the passage of air to the contents2 the jars themselves being oftentimes only dried in the sun4 ,thus it appears that prepared earths were first used for the purpose of sealing2 their adhesive1 or1 as ,virgil has it1 their tenacious qualities1 being wonderfully improved for manual labour4 ,next1 paste was employed1 prepared from dough4 ,to paste succeeded common wax1 sometimes slightly tinctured with a green tint1 the effect of endeavouring to give it a blue colour1 as vegetable blues turn green by the process of heat employed in melting2 whilst mineral or earthy blues all sink to the bottom1 from superior gravity4 ,this was the material employed in sealing public acts in ,england1 as early as the fifteenth century4 ,we have an anecdote of the ,duke of ,lancaster having no seal to ratify a deed between him and the ,duke of ,burgoyne1 but from what appears in the attestation1 which1 with the instrument itself1 according to the general custom of the day1 runs in rhyme thus3 8,i1 ,john of ,gaunt1 ,doe gyve and do graunt1 ,to ,john of ,burgoyne ,and the heire of his loyne ,sutton and ,putton ,untill the world's rotten40 ,the attestation runs thus3 8,there being no seal within the roof1 ,in sooth1 ,i seal it wyth my tooth40 ,a good example is this of the simple brevity of the time1 and a severe lecture upon the eternal repetitions of our modern lawyers1 whereby the limitations and special uses of deeds are made1 perhaps1 not according to the necessities of the case1 but are lengthened from selfish purposes4 ,the ,great ,charter1 which gives an assurance of the rights of ,englishmen1 is sealed with white wax2 as may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,the first arms used as a seal in ,england1 were those of the tyrannical subjugator of ,english rights1 ,william1 commonly called the ,conqueror1 and they were brought from ,normandy4 ,although ,fenn1 in his collection of original ,letters of the last half of the fifteenth century1 published in ,london1 #aghg1 has given the size and shape of the seals1 he does not apprise us of what substance they were composed4 ,respecting a letter of #adee1 he says only1 that 8the seal is of red wax10 by which1 it is presumed1 he means common wax2 and though1 perhaps not equal in quality to such as is now used1 yet it was made of nearly similar materials4 ,tavernier1 in his ,travels1 says1 that in ,surat gum-lac is melted and formed into sticks1 like sealing-wax4 ,wecker also gives directions to make an impression with calcined gypsum and a solution of gum or isinglass4 ,porta1 likewise1 knew that this might be done1 and1 perhaps1 to greater perfection with amalgam of quicksilver4 ,among the records of the ,landgrave of ,hesse-,cassel1 are some letters of #aefc1 sealed with red and black wax4 ,in the family of the ,rhingrave1 ,philip ,francis von ,daun1 the oldest letter sealed with wax1 known in ,germany1 is found1 of the date of ,august #c1 #aeed2 it was written from ,london1 by an agent of that family1 of the name of ,gerrard ,herman4 ,the colour of the wax is dark red1 and very shining4 ,the oldest recipe known in ,germany for making sealing-wax1 was found by ,m4 ,von ,murr1 in a work by ,samuel ,zimmerman1 citizen of ,augsburg1 published in #agei4 ,the copy in the library of the university of ,gottingen is signed by the author himself4--8,to make hard sealing-wax1 called ,spanish wax1 with which1 if letters be sealed1 they cannot be opened without breaking the seal2 take beautiful clear resin1 the whitest you can procure1 and melt it over a slow coal fire4 ,when it is properly melted1 take it from the fire1 and for every pound of resin1 add two ounces of cinnabar1 pounded very fine1 stirring it about4 ,then let the whole cool1 or pour it into cold water4 ,thus you will have beautiful red sealing-wax4 8,if you are desirous of having black wax1 add lamp-black to it4 ,with smalt or azure1 you may make blue3 with white-lead1 white2 and with orpiment1 yellow4 8,if1 instead of resin1 you melt purified turpentine in a glass vessel1 and give it any colour you choose1 you will have a harder kind of sealing-wax1 and not so brittle as the former40 ,it may be remarked1 that in these recipes for the fabrication of sealing-wax there is no mention of gum-lac1 which is known at present as a chief ingredient in the composition of this article4 ,zimmerman's sealing-wax approaches very near to the quality of that known as maltha1 whence we may conclude1 that the manufacture of it did not originally come from the ,east ,indies4 ,the most ancient mention of sealing-wax occurs in a botanical work1 treating of the history of aromatics and simples1 by ,garcia ab ,horto1 published at ,antwerp in #aefc1 where the author1 speaking of gum-lac says1 that those sticks used for sealing letters are made of it2 at which time sealing-wax was common among the ,portuguese1 and has since been manufactured chiefly in ,holland4 ,m4 ,spiess1 principal keeper of the ,records at ,plessenberg1 says1 respecting the antiquity of ,wafers1 in ,germany1 that the most ancient use of them he has known1 occurs in a letter written by ,d4 ,krapf1 at ,spires1 in #afbd1 to the government of ,bayreuth4--,the same authority informs us that some years after1 the ,brandenburg factor at ,nuremberg sent such wafers to a bailiff1 at ,osternohe4 ,during the whole of the seventeenth century1 wafers were not used in the ,chancery at ,brandenburg1 and only by private persons there4 ,seals1 it appears1 from certain passages of ,egyptian history1 parallel with1 and perhaps anterior to the ,israelitish ingress1 were formed or cut in emeralds1 the native produce of that country4 ,other precious stones1 metals1 steel1 lead1 and a variety of materials1 but chiefly of a hard and precious kind1 have been always employed for that purpose4 ,,black-,,lead ,,pencils4 ,the period when this semi-metallic substance was introduced1 for the purpose for which it is now applied1 cannot with certainty be ascertained1 as no record is found of the transaction3 by the common expedient of inference1 however1 we certainly may conclude1 it was in very remote ages2 for transcribers of ,,mss4 upwards of one thousand years ago1 used a substance somewhat resembling it in effect4 ,but1 perhaps1 the antiquity of the use of black-lead pencils cannot be so well determined from diplomatiques1 as their frequency might be proved from mineralogical writers4 ,the first mention of this discovery occurs in the works of ,gesner1 who1 in his 8,book of ,fossils10 published in #aefe1 says that the ,british people had pencils for writing1 with wooden-handles inclosing a piece of lead1 which he believed to be an artificial composition2 and it was called stimmi ,anglicanum2 which seems to import that it was a ,british production2 and we should consider1 from the name of ,british antimony being given to it1 that it might have been ,cumberland black-lead4 ,about thirty years afterwards1 ,csalpinus gave a more perfect account of it3--he says it was a lead-coloured1 shining stone1 as smooth as glass1 and appeared as if rubbed over with oil2 it gave to the fingers an ash-grey tint1 with a plumbeous brightness2 and1 he adds1 pointed pencils were made of it1 for the use of painters and draughtsmen4 ,a closer description of the substance than this cannot be discovered4 ,somewhere about three years afterwards1 a still more perfect description was furnished by ,imperatis2 who says1 8,it is much more convenient for drawing than pen and ink1 because the marks made with it appear distinct upon a white ground1 also1 in consequence of its brightness1 show themselves on black1 and can be preserved or rubbed out at pleasure4 ,this mineral is smooth1 appears greasy to the touch1 and has a leaden-colour1 which it communicates with a metallic brightness4 ,it can resist1 for a long time1 the strongest fire1 and even from it requires more hardness2 it has1 in consequence1 been thought to be a species of talc4 ,this1 in the arts to which it is applied1 is a property which greatly enhanceth its value1 being manufactured into crucibles1 c41 with clay4 ,these vessels are capable of enduring the strongest heat of a chemical furnace40 ,sometimes this lead is foliaceous1 and may be crumbled into small pieces or scales2 but frequently found denser and more strong4 ,this latter is what writing pencils should be made of2 but the former being more frequently found1 and1 also1 coming from the refuse of the workmen1 is too often mixed up with some glutinous substance1 and there is every reason to suppose it to be enclosed in the groove in a plastic state2 these pencils are commonly hawked about our streets by pedlars and ,jews2 of purchasing which people should be cautious1 as they are1 in general1 utterly worthless4 ,robinson1 in his ,essay towards a natural ,history of ,westmoreland and ,cumberland states1 that1 at first1 the country people round ,keswick marked their sheep with black-lead4 ,afterwards1 they discovered the art of employing it in their earthenware1 and also to preserve iron from rust4 ,the same writer says1 the ,dutch use it in dyeing1 to render black more durable2 and that they buy it in large quantities for that purpose4 ,but their application of it for dyeing1 we should consider as highly questionable4 ,the mode of eradicating black-lead by means of an elastic gum1 called caoutchouc1 or1 ,indian-rubber1 was1 we have been informed1 first discovered in ,england somewhere about sixty years ago4 ,,coloured ,,glass4 ,the manufacture of glass we find was quite common in ,ethiopia1 ,syria1 ,assyria1 and other ,eastern countries1 in the earliest ages of the world1 as ,diodorus ,siculus informs us1 who says1 the ,ethiopians enclosed in glass1 the bodies of their parents and friends2 we doubt1 however1 that on this point1 the historian was deceived4 ,but it really appears probable that soon after the art of making glass was discovered1 the idea of communicating to it some colours would easily present itself4 ,this probability appears increased1 when it is recollected that much care is requisite to render glass perfectly colourless4 ,as the various metallic particles with which stone and sand abound1 7these being the chief ingredients of which glass is composed1 and which gradually give tints in fusion17 will almost unavoidably communicate some hue or other1 therefore the perfection of glass is to have it perfectly colourless4 ,but with respect to coloured glass2 so frequently have people been imposed upon by having coloured glass sold to them for valuable stones1 that some conscientious authors have very laudably and carefully abstained from lending the benefit of instruction in its manufacture1 by publishing the method4 ,the ,egyptian artists were so famous in the manufacture of glass1 that the ,romans were content to receive this article from the glass-houses in ,alexandria1 and did not interfere in endeavouring to procure the art themselves1 until the latter part of the empire4 ,we read that an ,egyptian priest made a present to the ,emperor ,adrian of several beautiful glass cups1 which sparkled with many colours2 and such value did that august personage place upon these toys1 that he ordered them to be used only on high feasts and solemnities4 ,strabo relates1 that a glass manufacturer of ,alexandria informed him that an earth was found in ,egypt1 without which the valuable coloured glass could not be made4 ,it has been thought by some1 the glass earth here meant was a mineral alkali which was readily found in ,egypt1 serving to make glass2 but this author speaking expressly of coloured glass1 it has been suggested as probable1 the alkali above named could not have reference to what the artisan intended to imply1 but that it must be referred to some metallic earth or manganese4 ,one ,democritus is named by ,seneca1 as having discovered an art of making artificial emeralds2 but it has been conjectured that what the philosopher meant was the art of communicating colour to natural rock crystal1 or colouring glass already made1 so as to resemble stones1 which is a process performed by cementation4 ,directions have been furnished for this purpose by ,porta1 ,neri1 and others2 but it is discovered that the articles so coloured are liable to such accidents in the process1 that it is next to impossible to render things of any size tolerably perfect1 so as to bear cutting afterwards4 ,in the ,museum ,victorium at ,rome1 there are shown a chrysolite and an emerald1 both perfectly well executed1 and thoroughly transparent1 without a blemish4 ,we have not from the ancients an account of what process they employed2 but it must be evident that nothing less than metallic calces could have been used2 and for this evident reason1 that any other substance could not have resisted the influence of the necessary heat4 ,the last century has1 however1 produced certain artists in northern ,european nations1 who have adopted a method of employing the precious metals1 to communicate a tincture to glass in the process of making1 where iron1 c4 were originally only used2 and their endeavours have been attended with singular success4 ,by means of an amalgam of gold1 or a solution in aqua regia1 and precipitated with a solution of tin1 the metal then assuming the appearance of a rich purple coloured powder2 so prepared1 it is mixed with the best frit1 and then called the precipitate or gold calx of ,cassius1 the inventor of gold purple1 or mineral purple4 ,this precipitate communicates a rich ruby coloured purple1 so perfect that it is impossible to discover the deception1 without the substances be tried by the usual means--cut with a diamond or a prepared file4 ,we have had in ,england some very eminent artists in the practice of staining glass1 and also for making artificial representations of various precious stones4 ,although the professed object of alchemy has now met with that contempt it merited--because1 notwithstanding the immense sums which have been expended1 the time lost1 and unprofitable labour employed in the unavailing search after what probably never will be found--yet the labour lost and money expended has not been totally useless1 since it has served to open the seals which secured chemical science to the modern world2 and which is the chief1 if not the sole advantage it can claim over antiquity for superiority of information4 ,painting on glass1 but1 perhaps1 staining had been a more appropriate expression1 or1 properly speaking1 in enamel1 with the preparations for colouring in mosaic work1 may1 to a certain extent1 be justly considered as branches of the art of colouring glass2 in all which there is no colour more difficult to be attained than a beautiful red2 it now is1 and ever has been1 most difficult1 consequently the dearest colour4 ,the presumed ignorance of ancient artists in preparing this colour has afforded some reason1 it is said1 to suppose the ancients knew of no other substance proper for that purpose but calx of iron1 or manganese4 ,to this we may reply1 many specimens are found which show they were not so ignorant in that art1 and that it is more than probable the same jealousy which is found to exist in modern days among artizans might prevent our sagacious predecessors from publishing the secrets of their respective professions to the world4 ,we contend1 that as the materials must then have had existence1 which have been since so successfully employed1 pray what was the reason the ancients should not avail themselves of their benefit8 ,in all the higher speculations of science and arts1 where the great and superior energies of genius were requisite1 this perfection in the ancients far surpassed any exertions which have been since achieved by the moderns4 ,to instance one artist and one art solely1 we name the great ,praxiteles1 so famous in the art of statuary1 whose works were a model of perfection4 ,,etching ,,on ,,glass ,,and ,,glass ,,cutting4 ,without entering into the history of the lapidary's art1 we only propose to speak of those things which ancient and modern authors have said upon the art of engraving on glass1 observing1 that it was an art anciently known to both the ,greeks and ,romans2 although it appears extremely probable1 that from their expressed ignorance of many of those properties which modern chemistry has discovered to belong to matter1 they were ignorant of the art of etching on glass4 ,from antique specimens still preserved1 a doubt cannot for a moment be suffered to exist on our minds1 but that the art of engraving upon glass was familiar to the ,greek artists1 who formed upon glass both linear figures1 and in relievo1 by the same means as are now employed for nearly the same purpose1 if we can place any confidence in an able and learned lapidary1 ,natter1 who has established1 that the ancients employed the same kind of instruments for this purpose1 or nearly such as are now in use2 abating1 perhaps the use of diamonds1 and the dust of that precious material1 for which it is conceived they used emery powder1 and the dust of glass4 ,from what is related by ,pliny1 it certainly appears that they used the lapidary's wheel1 an instrument moving in a horizontal direction over the work-table4 ,some have thought that drinking cups and vessels may have been formed from the glass whilst in a state of fusion1 by means of this wheel2 to this they think those words of ,martial refer1 where he says1 calices audaces1 having reference to the boldness of the artisan's touch2 those vessels he was constructing often broke under the last touch he bestowed upon his transparent labours1 although1 perhaps1 of costly value2 these accidents must of necessity have rendered those articles extremely expensive4 ,there are not wanting many who affirm the art of glass-cutting1 with the instruments necessary for that operation1 to be of modern invention4 ,those assign it to the ingenuity of ,caspar ,lehmann1 originally an engraver on iron and steel1 and who1 as ,beckmann informs us1 made an attempt1 which succeeded1 in cutting crystal1 and afterwards glass in the same manner4 ,this artist1 we are told1 was in the service of ,rodolphus1 the second emperor of that name1 who1 in the year #afji1 besides giving him valuable presents1 conferred on him the title of lapidary and glass-cutter to his court1 and gave him a patent1 allowing him the exclusive privilege of exercising this new art4 ,he worked at ,prague1 where he had an assistant of the name of ,zacharias ,belzer2 but ,george ,schwanhard1 one of his pupils1 carried on the business to a much larger extent4 ,the last named was a son of ,hans ,schwanhard1 a joiner at ,rothenburg1 and was born in #afja2 at the age of seventeen he went to ,prague1 to learn the art of cutting glass from ,lehmann4 ,his good behaviour won so much upon the affections of his master1 that on his death in the year #afbb1 he left him his heir4 ,schwanhard succeeded in obtaining a continuation of the patent from the emperor1 and removed to ,nuremburg1 where he wrought for many of the nobility of that district4 ,this was1 we believe1 the occasion of that city claiming the honour of being the birth-place of this new art4 ,in the year #afeb1 he worked at ,prague1 and also at ,ratisbon1 by command of the ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii42 and he died in #afgf4 ,he left two sons1 who both followed the lucrative employment of their father4 ,afterwards ,nuremburg produced many expert masters in the art1 who1 from the improvement in the tools1 and also from discovering more economical modes of using them1 were enabled to execute the orders of the public at a more moderate rate than had been previously charged for some articles4 ,those latter masters likewise brought this art to a much greater degree of perfection4 ,notwithstanding ,zahn was of the same country1 and must have been apprised of the facts previously stated1 yet he mentions it as a very recent invention at ,nuremberg1 at the time he published his 8,oculus ,artificial40 ,he also furnishes a plate1 giving at the same time a description of the various instruments employed4 ,however1 that this invention is not purely novel1 may be perceived from those facts we have already submitted4 ,it should be stated that before this latter re-introduction1 artists used1 with a diamond1 to cut figures upon glass in almost every form1 as far as the representation by lines went4 ,the history of diamonds has been presented to the public by ,mr4 ,mawe1 in his observations on the diamond districts of ,brazil4 ,it appears to be yet undetermined whether the ancients used that stone for the purpose of cutting others2 upon this point ,pliny appears to be satisfied that they did4 ,solinus and ,isidore both express themselves in a manner the reverse4 ,but although this may leave us in some doubt1 it appears pretty clear that they did not attempt to cut that valuable production with its own dust1 or to give it different faces1 or render it more brilliant by the same means4 ,if this point was settled1 there could be no great difficulty in affirming or negativing the fact of their engraving upon that stone4 ,thus doubts appear to increase on this head1 for ,mariette denies that they did2 ,natter appears uncertain2 and ,klotz asserts with confidence it was certain4 ,his authority1 to be sure1 has been considered not to be of much weight4 ,the proper question1 however1 appears to be1 whether the ,greeks and ,romans used diamonds for cutting and engraving other stones or glass4 ,natter1 in his work already noticed1 thinks they were employed on some antique engravings4 ,his authority is deserving respect4 ,but if they were employed on other stones1 the authority which at present directs us1 confidently alleges they did not employ them in cutting glass2 but he points out the mode in which that article was wont to be divided1 in the following terms3 8,they used for that purpose emery1 sharp-pointed instruments of the hardest steel1 and a red-hot iron1 by which they directed the rents at their pleasure40 ,the first mention which appears to occur of the use of the diamond for this purpose1 is recorded of ,francis ,i4 of ,france1 who1 fond of the arts1 sciences1 and new inventions1 wrote a couple of lines with a diamond1 on a pane of glass in the ,castle of ,chambord1 to let ,anne de ,pisseleu1 ,duchess of ,estampes1 know that he was jealous4 ,about #afeb1 festoons and other ornaments1 cut with a diamond1 were made on ,venetian glasses2 then considered the best4 ,schwanhard was a professed adept in that art2 and since his time an artist of the name of ,john ,rost1 of ,augsburg1 cut some drinking glasses1 which were purchased by the ,emperor ,charles ,,vi41 at an extravagant price4 ,,etching ,,on ,,glass4 ,an acid to dissolve siliceous earth was discovered as late as #agga1 by the celebrated chemist ,scheele1 in sparry fluor4 ,it is conceived that this cannot be of older date than that period2 but it is alleged that an acid was discovered as early as the year #afgj1 by ,henry ,schwanhard4 ,it being said that some aquafortis had dropped1 by accident upon his spectacles1 the glass being corroded by it1 he thence learned to improve the liquid that he could etch figures and write upon glass4 ,how he prepared this liquid is a secret which has not been revealed4 ,the ,teutsche ,akedemie says on this subject1 that he1 by the acuteness of his genius1 proved that which had been considered impossible could be accomplished2 and found out a corrosive so powerful that the hardest crystal glass1 which had hitherto withstood the force of the strongest spirits1 was obliged to yield to it1 as well as metals and stones4 ,by these means he delineated and etched1 on glass1 figures of men1 in various situations1 animals and plants1 in a manner perfectly natural1 and brought them to the highest perfection4 ,the glass proposed to be etched is made perfectly clean and free from grease2 then the figure is covered with a varnish2 then an edge of wax being raised round the glass1 the acid is poured in1 and the whole ground on the exterior of the figures appears rough1 whilst the figure is preserved in its original beauty of outline1 bright and smooth4 ,this is the mode the inventor adopted4 ,professor ,beckmann says1 he mentioned this ancient method of etching upon glass1 to an artist of the name of ,klindworth1 who possessed great dexterity in such arts1 and requested him to try it2 he drew a tree with oil varnish and colours on a plate of glass1 applied the acid on the plate in the usual manner2 after it had been upon the plate for a sufficient time1 poured off1 and the plate afterwards cleaned of the varnish1 a beautiful tree was left bright and smooth1 with a rough back-ground4 ,it is conceived that many great improvements may yet be made in this process4 ,it appears that no other acid than that produced by the sparry fluor is capable of corroding every kind of glass1 though ,baume1 in his 8,chemique ,experimentale10 says1 that many kinds of glass may be corroded by the marine and vitriolic acids4 ,in this state of uncertainty was the public mind till the year #agbe1 when it was thought that a recipe1 older than that previously mentioned1 might possibly be discovered4 ,accordingly1 in that year1 in the month of ,january1 the following is said to have been transmitted to the publisher of the 8konomische ,encyclopedie10 by ,dr4 ,john ,george ,weygand1 of ,goldingen1 which is reported to have belonged to ,dr4 ,matthew ,pauli1 of ,dresden1 then deceased2 with which the last named gentleman had etched1 on glass1 arms1 landscapes1 and figures of various kinds4 ,we find1 that in it1 very strong acid of nitre was used1 which entirely disengages the acid of sparry fluor1 though the vitriolic acid has been commonly employed1 and figures thus produced will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass4 ,this sparry fluor is found abundantly in ,derbyshire1 as well as in the mines of ,germany4 ,theophrastus is the first who notices the effect of sparry fluor1 by observing that there are certain stones which1 when added to silver1 copper1 and iron ores1 become fluid4 ,it appears that ,cronstedt was the first systematic writer who gave it a name4 ,when spiritus nitri per distillationem has passed into the recipient1 ply it with a strong fire1 and when well dephlegmated1 pour it1 7as it corrodes ordinary glass17 into a ,waldenburg flask2 then throw into it a pulverised green ,bohemian emerald1 otherwise called hesphorus1 7which1 when reduced to powder and heated1 emits in the dark a green light17 and place it in warm sand for twenty-four hours4 ,take a piece of glass1 well cleaned1 and freed from all grease by means of a ley2 put a border of wax round it1 about an inch in height1 and cover it equally all over with the above acid4 ,the longer you let it stand1 so much the better2 and at the end of some time the glass will be corroded1 and the figures which have been traced out with sulphur and oil varnish will appear as if raised above the plane of the glass4 ,,hydrometers4 ,the ,hydrometer is an instrument for admeasuring liquids2 by it the strength or specific gravity of different fluids is discovered1 by the depth to which it sinks in them4 ,it has been chiefly used for discovering the contents of different salt waters1 without analysis1 and is now almost entirely used by persons connected with the spirit-trade1 to ascertain the different degrees of strength1 and what alloy they will bear2 hence its utility to the manufacturer and the excise-officer is apparent4 ,the laws respecting the comparative weight of different fluids1 as well as of solid bodies immersed in them1 was first discovered by that great geometrician ,archimedes4 ,it may be far from improbable that ,archimedes constructed that instrument himself2 and if it should appear that he did1 it must have happened two hundred and twelve years before the ,christian era4 ,the most ancient mention of this instrument by its specific name1 occurs in the fifth century of our era1 upon the following occasion4 ,the anecdote is very singular and affecting1 and also evinces the incapacity of humanity to act consistent and as it ought1 when we suffer ourselves to be directed by passions unworthy of the human character4 ,it is first discovered in those letters of ,synesius to the philosophic and beautiful ,hypatia4 ,we trust we may be excused the liberty we propose to take in detailing this circumstance1 which is comparatively little known2 and as its interest also recommends it1 this furnishes an additional motive4 ,hypatia was the daughter of ,theon1 an eminent mathematician of ,alexandria1 some of whose writings are still extant4 ,by her father she was instructed in the mathematics1 and from other great men1 who at that period abounded in ,alexandria1 she learned the ,platonic and ,aristotelian philosophy1 and acquired such a knowledge of these sciences1 that she taught them publicly1 with the greatest applause4 ,she was young and beautiful1 had a personable figure1 was sprightly and agreeable in conversation1 though1 at the same time1 modest2 and she possessed the most rigid virtue1 which was proof against every temptation4 ,she conducted herself with so much propriety towards her lovers1 that they never could obtain more than the pleasure of her company1 and hearing her discourse2 and with this1 which they considered as an honour1 they were contented4 ,those who were so daring as to desire further communion she dismissed2 and even destroyed the appetite of one of her admirers1 who would not suffer her to philosophise1 by means of some strong preparation1 which others appear not to have since imitated4 ,she suffered so cruel a death1 that had she been a ,christian1 and suffered from ,pagan error1 her name would have been ranked among its most honoured victims in the list of martyrology2 but being a ,pagan1 and suffering from the persecution of superstitious and anti-,christian zeal1 she is honoured among the foremost of martyrs to celestial philosophy4 ,the name of the ,christian patriarch1 at that period in ,alexandria1 was ,cyrill1 whose family had1 for upwards of a hundred years before his time1 produced bishops1 who had been much more serviceable to their own family connections than they had ever been towards the propagation of the ,christian faith4 ,the present was proud1 litigious1 and revengeful1 vindictive and intolerant to the last degree2 his ignorance debasing his own character as a man1 and scandalising the religion of which he was so unworthy a minister4 ,he stupidly conceived himself sanctioned in everything which his foolish and mistaken ideas might dictate to be for the glory of ,god1 and acted as a persecutor1 prosecutor1 judge1 and executioner3 he had condemned ,nestorias without hearing his defence4 ,as the city of ,alexandria was then very flourishing on account of its extended commerce1 the emperor had there allowed greater toleration and more peculiar privileges to all religions1 than in any other place3 it consequently contained1 among others1 a great number of ,jews1 who carried on a most extensive trade1 as well as a great many ,pagan families4 ,in the eyes of the bigot ,cyrill this was wrong2 he would have the sheep-fold clean1 and the ,jews must be banished4 ,the governor1 however1 who was a man of prudence and sober discretion1 much better acquainted with the real interests of the city1 opposed a measure he saw replete with mischief1 and even caused to be condemned to death a ,christian profligate1 who had injured the ,jews4 ,this malefactor was1 by the express order of ,cyrill1 buried in the church as a martyr2 and he collected an army of five hundred lazy monks1 who abused the governor in the public streets1 and excited an insurrection among the people against the ,jews1 so that the debased race of ,abraham was expelled from the city where they had so long existed unmolested from the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,cyrill1 one day1 whilst looking for objects of persecution1 saw a number of carriages1 attended with servants1 belonging to the first families in the city1 before a certain house4 ,inquiring what was the cause of the assembly1 he was informed that it was the habitation of the lovely ,hypatia1 who1 on account of her extensive learning and very eminent talents1 was visited by people of the first respectability4 ,this afforded to the malignant priest a sufficient object for the exercise of his jealousy against the meritorious1 the unoffending1 the beautiful ,hypatia4 ,he from that moment resolved upon her destruction4 ,accordingly he lost no time in exciting his myrmidons1 the monks and priests1 those who should have been the ministers of that religion which they professed to teach1 to destroy the fair philosopher4 ,they accordingly1 with diabolical rage1 and instigated by infernal cruelty1 took the earliest opportunity to seize her1 hurried her to the church--the temple of peace and good-will--which they violated by an offence at which humanity must shudder2 having torn the clothes from her delicate form1 they tore the flesh from her bones with potsherds1 then dragged her mangled body about the city1 and afterwards burnt it4 ,this demoniacal tragedy took place in the year #dae1 and was perpetrated by the professed servants of ,him who came into world to save those which were lost--to preach peace and good-will to all men4 ,the impressions which such an event made upon people of every persuasion may be conceived2 they admit not of description from a feeble pen3 but we may ask the question1 was it such a transaction as was calculated to make converts to the doctrines of ,christianity8--whose avowed motive and maxim is1 in the words of ,milton1 8,by winning words1 to conquer willing hearts1 ,and make persuasion do the work of fear40 ,all historians are not agreed in some circumstances of the preceding relation2 but they generally unite in bestowing praise upon ,hypatia1 whose memory was long honoured by her grateful and affectionate scholars1 among whom was ,synesius1 of a noble ,pagan family1 who had cultivated philosophy and the mathematics with the utmost ardour1 and who had been one of her most intimate friends and followers4 ,on account of his learning and virtues1 many eminent talents1 and open disposition1 the inhabitants of ,ptolemais were desirous he should be bishop1 having been previously employed on many public and important concerns with success4 ,after modestly desiring1 for a long period1 that they would fix their choice upon a more worthy object1 they still persisting1 he assented1 upon condition that he was not to believe in the resurrection1 to which he could not at that time bring his internal conviction3 he suffered himself to be baptised1 and became their bishop2 he was confirmed by the orthodox patriarch ,theophilus1 the predecessor of ,cyrill1 to whose jurisdiction ,ptolemais belonged3 he afterwards renounced his error respecting the resurrection4 ,this learned man evinced his gratitude to ,hypatia1 by the honourable mention which he made of her in some of his writings1 still preserved4 ,in his fifteenth letter to her1 he tells ,hypatia1 that he was so unfortunate1 or found himself so ill1 that he wished to use an hydroscopium 7the ,greek for hydrometer71 and he requests that she would cause one to be constructed for him4 ,he says1 8,it is a cylindrical tube1 of the size of a reed or pipe2 a line is drawn upon it lengthways1 which is intersected by others1 and these point out the weight of water4 ,at the end of the tube is a cone1 the base of which is joined to that of the tube1 so that they have both only one base4 ,this part of the instrument is called baryllion4 ,if it be placed in water1 it remains in a perpendicular direction1 so that one can readily discover by it the weight of the fluid40 ,petau1 who published the works of ,synesius1 in the year #afdj1 acknowledges that he did not understand this passage4 ,an old scoliast1 he says1 who had added some illegible words1 thought it was a water-clock2 but the ellepsydra was not immersed in water1 but filled with it4 ,he therefore thought that it might allude to the chorobates1 which ,vitruvius describes as an instrument employed in levelling2 but it appears that ,synesius1 who complained of ill health1 could have no occasion for such an instrument4 ,besides1 no part of that instrument he describes1 has any resemblance to the one described by ,synesius4 ,from the works of ,fermat1 an excellent mathematician1 and a very learned man1 well acquainted with antiquities and the works of the ancients1 we give the following explanation concerning the hydroscopium of ,archimedes1 as this article would be incomplete without it3-- 8,it is impossible10 says he1 8that the hydroscopium could be the level or chorobates of ,vitruvius1 for the lines on the latter were perpendicular to the horizon1 whereas the lines on the former were parallel to it4 ,the hydroscopium was undoubtedly a hydrometer of the simplest construction4 ,the tube may be made of copper1 and open at the top2 but at the other end1 which1 when used1 is the lowest1 it must terminate with a cone1 the base of which is added to that of the tube4 ,lengthwise1 along the tube1 are drawn two lines1 which are intersected by others1 and the more numerous these divisions are1 the instrument will be so much the more correct4--,when placed in water it sinks to a certain depth1 which will be marked by the cross-lines1 and which will be greater1 according to the lightness of the water40 ,a figure which is added1 might have been dispensed with4 ,when a common friend of ,fermat and ,petau showed it to the latter1 he considered it to be so just1 and explanatory of the real meaning of ,synesius1 that he wished to be allowed the opportunity of introducing it in a new edition of the works of ,synesius4 ,,finis4 ,j4 ,s4 ,pratt1 ,stokesley1 ,yorkshire4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,many typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,text uses both 8,guttenberg0 and 8,guttenburg01 8,helvelius0 and 8,hevelius02 both versions retained4 ,page #ah3 8documentary0 was printed as 8documentry02 changed here4 ,page #cc3 8transcendant0 was printed that way4 ,page #cc3 ,the opening quotation mark preceding 8,a complete ,course of ,lithography0 was added by ,transcriber4 ,other punctuation and spelling within that title has not been changed1 but some of it differs from what was printed in the ,english translation of the cited book4 ,page #ed3 ,the period after 8,deity0 in 8offensive to the ,deity4 that the great majority0 probably should be a semi-colon4 ,pages #fc and #bdi3 ,a question mark is followed by a lower-case word4 ,page #aji3 8,chardiu0 was printed that way4 ,page #aci3 8,it last it changed colours0 should begin with 8,at04 ,page #aga3 8the bull of olus0 probably is a misprint for 8ball04