file which includes the original illustrations1 many of which are in color4 ,see #ecdie-;h4htm or #ecdie-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ecdie_/pg#ecdie-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ec die_/ecdie-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/italianv illasthe#jjwhar ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,,italian ,,villas ,,and ,,their ,,gardens ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,campi1 ,,near ,,florence ,,italian ,,villas ,,and ,,their ,,gardens by ,,edith ,,wharton ,illustrated with ,pictures by ,maxfield ,parrish and by ,photographs ,illustration ,new ,york ,the ,century ,co4 #aije ,copyright1 #aijc1 #aijd1 by ,,the ,,century ,,co4 ,published ,november1 #aijd ,the ,de ,vinne ,press ,,to ,,vernon ,,lee ,,who1 ,,better ,,than ,,any ,,one ,,else1 ,,has ,,understood ,,and ,,interpreted ,,the ,,garden-,,magic ,,of ,,italy ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction #e ,i ,,florentine ,,villas #ai ,,ii ,,sienese ,,villas #fc ,,iii ,,roman ,,villas #ha ,,iv ,,villas ,,near ,,rome ,i ,,caprarola ,,and ,,lante #abg ,,ii ,,villa ,d',,este #aci ,,iii ,,frascati #adh ,v ,,genoese ,,villas #agc ,,vi ,,lombard ,,villas #aig ,,vii ,,villas ,,of ,,venetia #bca ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,villa ,campi1 near ,florence ,frontispiece ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,the ,reservoir1 ,villa ,falconieri1 ,frascati #d ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,the ,cascade1 ,villa ,torlonia1 ,frascati #i ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,fountain of ,venus1 ,villa ,petraja1 ,florence #ah ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,gamberaia at ,settignano1 near ,florence #bj ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,vanderhoof1 from a ,photograph4 ,boboli ,garden1 ,florence #bd ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,entrance to ,upper ,garden1 ,boboli ,garden1 ,florence #bg ,from a ,photograph4 ,cypress ,alley1 ,boboli ,garden1 ,florence #ca ,from a ,photograph4 ,ilex-walk1 ,boboli ,garden1 ,florence #cf ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,gamberaia1 near ,florence #ci ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,view of ,amphitheatre1 ,boboli ,garden1 ,florence #dd ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,corsini1 ,florence #di ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,vicobello1 ,siena #fb ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,la ,palazzina 7,villa ,gori71 ,siena #fg ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,the ,theatre at ,la ,palazzina1 ,siena #gc ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,the ,dome of ,st4 ,peter's1 from the ,vatican ,gardens #hj ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,entrance to ,forecourt1 ,villa ,borghese1 ,rome #hg ,from a ,photograph4 ,grotto1 ,villa di ,papa ,giulio1 ,rome #ia ,from a ,photograph4 ,temple of sculapius1 ,villa ,borghese1 ,rome #if ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,medici1 ,rome #ajj ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,courtyard ,gate of the ,villa ,pia1 ,vatican ,gardens #ajb ,drawn by ,e4 ,denison1 from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,pia--,in the ,gardens of the ,vatican #aje ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,gateway of the ,villa ,borghese #ajh ,drawn by ,e4 ,denison1 from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,chigi1 ,rome #aaa ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,parterres on ,terrace1 ,villa ,belrespiro 7,pamphily-,doria71 #aaf ,rome ,from a ,photograph4 ,view from ,lower ,garden1 ,villa ,belrespiro #aba 7,pamphily-,doria71 ,rome ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa d',este1 ,tivoli #abf ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,villa ,caprarola #abi ,from a retouched ,photograph4 ,the ,casino1 ,villa ,farnese1 ,caprarola #acc ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,lante1 ,bagnaia #ach ,from a ,photograph4 ,the ,pool1 ,villa d',este1 ,tivoli #ada ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,villa ,lante1 ,bagnaia #adf ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,cascade and ,rotunda1 ,villa ,aldobrandini1 ,frascati #adi ,from a ,photograph4 ,garden of ,villa ,lancellotti1 ,frascati #aec ,from a ,photograph4 ,casino1 ,villa ,falconieri1 ,frascati #aeg ,from a ,photograph4 ,the ,entrance1 ,villa ,falconieri1 ,frascati #afa ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,lancellotti1 ,frascati #afe ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,scassi1 ,genoa #agb ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,a ,garden-niche1 ,villa ,scassi1 ,genoa #aha ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,villa ,cicogna1 ,bisuschio #aif ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,villa ,isola ,bella1 ,lake ,maggiore #bjc ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,in the ,gardens of ,isola ,bella1 ,lake ,maggiore #baj ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,villa ,cicogna1 from the ,terrace above the ,house #baf ,from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,pliniana1 ,lake ,como #bba ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,iron ,gates of the ,villa ,alario 7now ,visconti di #bbd ,saliceto7 ,drawn by ,e4 ,denison1 from a ,photograph4 ,railing of the ,villa ,alario #bbe ,drawn by ,malcolm ,fraser1 from a ,photograph4 ,gateway of the ,botanic ,garden1 ,padua #bcj ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,view at ,val ,san ,zibio1 near ,battaglia #bce ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,plan of the ,botanic ,garden1 ,padua #bci ,drawn by ,e4 ,denison1 from ,sketch by the ,author4 ,val ,san ,zibio1 near ,battaglia #bda ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,gateway1 ,villa ,pisani1 ,str #bdd ,drawn by ,e4 ,denison1 from a ,photograph4 ,villa ,valmarana1 ,vicenza #bdg ,drawn by ,maxfield ,parrish4 ,,italian ,,villas ,,and ,,their ,,gardens ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reservoir1 ,,villa ,,falconieri1 ,,frascati ,,italian ,,villas ,,and ,,their ,,gardens ,,introduction ,,italian ,,garden-,,magic ,though it is an exaggeration to say that there are no flowers in ,italian gardens1 yet to enjoy and appreciate the ,italian garden-craft one must always bear in mind that it is independent of floriculture4 ,the ,italian garden does not exist for its flowers2 its flowers exist for it3 they are a late and infrequent adjunct to its beauties1 a parenthetical grace counting only as one more touch in the general effect of enchantment4 ,this is no doubt partly explained by the difficulty of cultivating any but spring flowers in so hot and dry a climate1 and the result has been a wonderful development of the more permanent effects to be obtained from the three other factors in garden-composition--marble1 water and perennial verdure--and the achievement1 by their skilful blending1 of a charm independent of the seasons4 ,it is hard to explain to the modern garden-lover1 whose whole conception of the charm of gardens is formed of successive pictures of flower-loveliness1 how this effect of enchantment can be produced by anything so dull and monotonous as a mere combination of clipped green and stonework4 ,the traveller returning from ,italy1 with his eyes and imagination full of the ineffable ,italian garden-magic1 knows vaguely that the enchantment exists2 that he has been under its spell1 and that it is more potent1 more enduring1 more intoxicating to every sense than the most elaborate and glowing effects of modern horticulture2 but he may not have found the key to the mystery4 ,is it because the sky is bluer1 because the vegetation is more luxuriant8 ,our midsummer skies are almost as deep1 our foliage is as rich1 and perhaps more varied2 there are1 indeed1 not a few resemblances between the ,north ,american summer climate and that of ,italy in spring and autumn4 ,some of those who have fallen under the spell are inclined to ascribe the ,italian garden-magic to the effect of time2 but1 wonder-working as this undoubtedly is1 it leaves many beauties unaccounted for4 ,to seek the answer one must go deeper3 the garden must be studied in relation to the house1 and both in relation to the landscape4 ,the garden of the ,middle ,ages1 the garden one sees in old missal illuminations and in early woodcuts1 was a mere patch of ground within the castle precincts1 where 8simples0 were grown around a central wellhead and fruit was espaliered against the walls4 ,but in the rapid flowering of ,italian civilization the castle walls were soon thrown down1 and the garden expanded1 taking in the fish-pond1 the bowling-green1 the rose-arbour and the clipped walk4 ,the ,italian country house1 especially in the centre and the south of ,italy1 was almost always built on a hillside1 and one day the architect looked forth from the terrace of his villa1 and saw that1 in his survey of the garden1 the enclosing landscape was naturally included3 the two formed a part of the same composition4 ,the recognition of this fact was the first step in the development of the great garden-art of the ,renaissance3 the next was the architect's discovery of the means by which nature and art might be fused in his picture4 ,he had now three problems to deal with3 his garden must be adapted to the architectural lines of the house it adjoined2 it must be adapted to the requirements of the inmates of the house1 in the sense of providing shady walks1 sunny bowling-greens1 parterres and orchards1 all conveniently accessible2 and lastly it must be adapted to the landscape around it4 ,at no time and in no country has this triple problem been so successfully dealt with as in the treatment of the ,italian country house from the beginning of the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century2 and in the blending of different elements1 the subtle transition from the fixed and formal lines of art to the shifting and irregular lines of nature1 and lastly in the essential convenience and livableness of the garden1 lies the fundamental secret of the old garden-magic4 ,however much other factors may contribute to the total impression of charm1 yet by eliminating them one after another1 by thinking away the flowers1 the sunlight1 the rich tinting of time1 one finds that1 underlying all these1 there is the deeper harmony of design which is independent of any adventitious effects4 ,this does not imply that a plan of an ,italian garden is as beautiful as the garden itself4 ,the more permanent materials of which the latter is made--the stonework1 the evergreen foliage1 the effects of rushing or motionless water1 above all the lines of the natural scenery--all form a part of the artist's design4 ,but these things are as beautiful at one season as at another2 and even these are but the accessories of the fundamental plan4 ,the inherent beauty of the garden lies in the grouping of its parts--in the converging lines of its long ilex-walks1 the alternation of sunny open spaces with cool woodland shade1 the proportion between terrace and bowling-green1 or between the height of a wall and the width of a path4 ,none of these details was negligible to the landscape-architect of the ,renaissance3 he considered the distribution of shade and sunlight1 of straight lines of masonry and rippled lines of foliage1 as carefully as he weighed the relation of his whole composition to the scene about it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cascade1 ,,villa ,,torlonia1 ,,frascati ,then1 again1 any one who studies the old ,italian gardens will be struck with the way in which the architect broadened and simplified his plan if it faced a grandiose landscape4 ,intricacy of detail1 complicated groupings of terraces1 fountains1 labyrinths and porticoes1 are found in sites where there is no great sweep of landscape attuning the eye to larger impressions4 ,the farther north one goes1 the less grand the landscape becomes and the more elaborate the garden4 ,the great pleasure-grounds overlooking the ,roman ,campagna are laid out on severe and majestic lines3 the parts are few2 the total effect is one of breadth and simplicity4 ,it is because1 in the modern revival of gardening1 so little attention has been paid to these first principles of the art that the garden-lover should not content himself with a vague enjoyment of old ,italian gardens1 but should try to extract from them principles which may be applied at home4 ,he should observe1 for instance1 that the old ,italian garden was meant to be lived in--a use to which1 at least in ,america1 the modern garden is seldom put4 ,he should note that1 to this end1 the grounds were as carefully and conveniently planned as the house1 with broad paths 7in which two or more could go abreast7 leading from one division to another2 with shade easily accessible from the house1 as well as a sunny sheltered walk for winter2 and with effective transitions from the dusk of wooded alleys to open flowery spaces or to the level sward of the bowling-green4 ,he should remember that the terraces and formal gardens adjoined the house1 that the ilex or laurel walks beyond were clipped into shape to effect a transition between the straight lines of masonry and the untrimmed growth of the woodland to which they led1 and that each step away from architecture was a nearer approach to nature4 ,the cult of the ,italian garden has spread from ,england to ,america1 and there is a general feeling that1 by placing a marble bench here and a sun-dial there1 ,italian 8effects0 may be achieved4 ,the results produced1 even where much money and thought have been expended1 are not altogether satisfactory2 and some critics have thence inferred that the ,italian garden is1 so to speak1 untranslatable1 that it cannot be adequately rendered in another landscape and another age4 ,certain effects1 those which depend on architectural grandeur as well as those due to colouring and age1 are no doubt unattainable2 but there is1 none the less1 much to be learned from the old ,italian gardens1 and the first lesson is that1 if they are to be a real inspiration1 they must be copied1 not in the letter but in the spirit4 ,that is1 a marble sarcophagus and a dozen twisted columns will not make an ,italian garden2 but a piece of ground laid out and planted on the principles of the old garden-craft will be1 not indeed an ,italian garden in the literal sense1 but1 what is far better1 a garden as well adapted to its surroundings as were the models which inspired it4 ,this is the secret to be learned from the villas of ,italy2 and no one who has looked at them with this object in view will be content to relapse into vague admiration of their loveliness4 ,as ,browning1 in passing ,cape ,st4 ,vincent and ,trafalgar ,bay1 cried out3 8,here and here did ,england help me3 how can ,i help ,england80--say1 so the garden-lover1 who longs to transfer something of the old garden-magic to his own patch of ground at home1 will ask himself1 in wandering under the umbrella-pines of the ,villa ,borghese1 or through the box-parterres of the ,villa ,lante3 ,what can ,i bring away from here8 ,and the more he studies and compares1 the more inevitably will the answer be3 8,not this or that amputated statue1 or broken bas-relief1 or fragmentary effect of any sort1 but a sense of the informing spirit--an understanding of the gardener's purpose1 and of the uses to which he meant his garden to be put40 ,,florentine ,,villas ,illustration3 ,,fountain ,,of ,,venus1 ,,villa ,,petraja1 ,,florence ,i ,,florentine ,,villas ,for centuries ,florence has been celebrated for her villa-clad hills4 ,according to an old chronicler1 the country houses were more splendid than those in the town1 and stood so close-set among their olive-orchards and vineyards that the traveller 8thought himself in ,florence three leagues before reaching the city40 ,many of these houses still survive1 strongly planted on their broad terraces1 from the fifteenth-century farmhouse-villa1 with its projecting eaves and square tower1 to the many-windowed maison de plaisance in which the luxurious nobles of the seventeenth century spent the gambling and chocolate-drinking weeks of the vintage season4 ,it is characteristic of ,florentine thrift and conservatism that the greater number of these later and more pretentious villas are merely additions to the plain old buildings1 while1 even in the rare cases where the whole structure is new1 the baroque exuberance which became fashionable in the seventeenth century is tempered by a restraint and severity peculiarly ,tuscan4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,gamberaia1 ,,at ,,settignano1 ,,near ,,florence ,so numerous and well preserved are the buildings of this order about ,florence that the student who should attempt to give an account of them would have before him a long and laborious undertaking2 but where the villa is to be considered in relation to its garden1 the task is reduced to narrow limits4 ,there is perhaps no region of ,italy so rich in old villas and so lacking in old gardens as the neighbourhood of ,florence4 ,various causes have brought about this result4 ,the environs of ,florence have always been frequented by the wealthy classes1 not only ,italian but foreign4 ,the ,tuscan nobility have usually been rich enough to alter their gardens in accordance with the varying horticultural fashions imported from ,england and ,france2 and the ,english who have colonized in such numbers the slopes above the ,arno have contributed not a little to the destruction of the old gardens by introducing into their horticultural plans two features entirely alien to the ,tuscan climate and soil1 namely1 lawns and deciduous shade-trees4 ,many indeed are the parterres and terraces which have disappeared before the ,britannic craving for a lawn1 many the olive-orchards and vineyards which must have given way to the thinly dotted 8specimen trees0 so dear to the ,english landscape-gardener1 who is still1 with rare exceptions1 the slave of his famous eighteenth-century predecessors1 ,repton and 8,capability ,brown10 as the ,english architect is still the descendant of ,pugin and the ,gothic revival4 ,this ,anglicization of the ,tuscan garden did not1 of course1 come only from direct ,english influence4 ,the jardin anglais was fashionable in ,france when ,marie ,antoinette laid out the ,petit ,trianon1 and ,herr ,tuckermann1 in his book on ,italian gardens1 propounds a theory1 for which he gives no very clear reasons1 to the effect that the naturalistic school of gardening actually originated in ,italy1 in the ,borghese gardens in ,rome1 which he supposes to have been laid out more or less in their present form by ,giovanni ,fontana1 as early as the first quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,it is certain1 at any rate1 that the ,florentines adopted the new fashion early in the nineteenth century1 as is shown--to give but one instance--in the vast ,torrigiani gardens1 near the ,porta ,romana1 laid out by the ,marchese ,torrigiani about #ahcj in the most approved 8landscape0 style1 with an almost complete neglect of the characteristic ,tuscan vegetation and a corresponding disregard of ,italian climate and habits4 ,the large ,english colony has1 however1 undoubtedly done much to encourage1 even in the present day1 the alteration of the old gardens and the introduction of alien vegetation in those which have been partly preserved4 ,it is1 for instance1 typical of the old ,tuscan villa that the farm1 or podere1 should come up to the edge of the terrace on which the house stands2 but in most cases where old villas have been bought by foreigners1 the vineyards and olive-orchards near the house have been turned into lawns dotted with plantations of exotic trees4 ,under these circumstances it is not surprising that but few unaltered gardens are to be found near ,florence4 ,to learn what the old ,tuscan garden was1 one must search the environs of the smaller towns1 and there are more interesting examples about ,siena than in the whole circuit of the ,florentine hills4 ,illustration3 ,,boboli ,,garden1 ,,florence ,the old ,italian architects distinguished two classes of country houses3 the villa suburbana1 or maison de plaisance 7literally the pleasure-house71 standing within or just without the city walls1 surrounded by pleasure-grounds and built for a few weeks' residence2 and the country house1 which is an expansion of the old farm1 and stands generally farther out of town1 among its fields and vineyards--the seat of the country gentleman living on his estates4 ,the ,italian pleasure-garden did not reach its full development till the middle of the sixteenth century1 and doubtless many of the old ,florentine villas1 the semi-castle and the quasi-farm of the fourteenth century1 stood as they do now1 on a bare terrace among the vines1 with a small walled enclosure for the cultivation of herbs and vegetables4 ,but of the period in which the garden began to be a studied architectural extension of the house1 few examples are to be found near ,florence4 ,the most important1 if not the most pleasing1 of ,tuscan pleasure-gardens lies1 however1 within the city walls4 ,this is the ,boboli garden1 laid out on the steep hillside behind the ,pitti ,palace4 ,the plan of the ,boboli garden is not only magnificent in itself1 but interesting as one of the rare examples1 in ,tuscany1 of a ,renaissance garden still undisturbed in its main outlines4 ,eleonora de' ,medici1 who purchased the ,pitti ,palace in #aedi1 soon afterward acquired the neighbouring ground1 and the garden was laid out by ,il ,tribolo1 continued by ,buontalenti1 and completed by ,bartolommeo ,ammanati1 to whom is also due the garden faade of the palace4 ,the scheme of the garden is worthy of careful study1 though in many respects the effect it now produces is far less impressive than its designers intended4 ,probably no grounds of equal grandeur and extent have less of that peculiar magic which one associates with the old ,italian garden--a fact doubtless due less to defects of composition than to later changes in the details of planting and decoration4 ,still1 the main outline remains and is full of instruction to the garden-lover4 ,the palace is built against the steep hillside1 which is dug out to receive it1 a high retaining-wall being built far enough back from the central body of the house to allow the latter to stand free4 ,the ground floor of the palace is so far below ground that its windows look across a paved court at the face of the retaining-wall1 which ,ammanati decorated with an architectural composition representing a grotto1 from which water was meant to gush as though issuing from the hillside4 ,this grotto he surmounted with a magnificent fountain1 standing on a level with the first-floor windows of the palace and with the surrounding gardens4 ,the arrangement shows ingenuity in overcoming a technical difficulty1 and the effect1 from the garden1 is very successful1 though the well-like court makes an unfortunate gap between the house and its grounds4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,upper ,,garden1 ,,boboli ,,garden1 ,,florence ,behind the fountain1 and in a line with it1 a horseshoe-shaped amphitheatre has been cut out of the hillside1 surrounded by tiers of stone seats adorned with statues in niches and backed by clipped laurel hedges1 behind which rise the ilex-clad slopes of the upper gardens4 ,this amphitheatre is one of the triumphs of ,italian garden-architecture4 ,in general design and detail it belongs to the pure ,renaissance1 without trace of the heavy and fantastic barocchismo which1 half a century later1 began to disfigure such compositions in the villas near ,rome4 ,indeed1 comparison with the grotesque garden-architecture of the ,villa d',este at ,tivoli1 which is but little later in date1 shows how long the ,tuscan sense of proportion and refinement of taste resisted the ever-growing desire to astonish instead of charming the spectator4 ,on each side of the amphitheatre1 clipped ilex-walks climb the hill1 coming out some distance above on a plateau containing the toy lake with its little island1 the ,isola ,bella1 which was once the pride of the ,boboli garden4 ,this portion of the grounds has been so stripped of its architectural adornments and of its surrounding vegetation that it is now merely forlorn2 and the same may be said of the little upper garden1 reached by an imposing flight of steps and commanding a wide view over ,florence4 ,one must revert to the architect's plan to see how admirably adapted it was to the difficulties of the site he had to deal with1 and how skilfully he harmonized the dense shade of his ilex-groves with the great open spaces and pompous architectural effects necessary in a garden which was to form a worthy setting for the pageants of a ,renaissance court4 ,it is interesting to note in this connection that the flower-garden1 or giardino segreto1 which in ,renaissance gardens almost invariably adjoins the house1 has here been relegated to the hilltop1 doubtless because the only level space near the palace was required for state ceremonials and theatrical entertainments rather than for private enjoyment4 ,it is partly because the ,boboli is a court-garden1 and not designed for private use1 that it is less interesting and instructive than many others of less importance4 ,yet the other ,medicean villas near ,florence1 though designed on much simpler lines1 have the same lack of personal charm4 ,it is perhaps owing to the fact that ,florence was so long under the dominion of one all-powerful family that there is so little variety in her pleasure-houses4 ,pratolino1 ,poggio a ,caiano1 ,cafaggiuolo1 ,careggi1 ,castello and ,petraia1 one and all1 whatever their origin1 soon passed into the possessorship of the ,medici1 and thence into that of the ,austrian grand dukes who succeeded them2 and of the three whose gardens have been partly preserved1 ,castello1 ,petraia and ,poggio ,imperiale1 it may be said that they have the same impersonal official look as the ,boboli4 ,illustration3 ,,cypress ,,alley1 ,,boboli ,,garden1 ,,florence ,castello and ,petraia1 situated a mile apart beyond the village of ,quarto1 were both built by ,buontalenti1 that brilliant pupil of ,ammanati's who had a share in the planning of the gardens behind the ,pitti4 ,castello stands on level ground1 and its severely plain faade1 with windows on consoles and rusticated doorway1 faces what is now a highway1 though1 according to the print of ,zocchi1 the eighteenth-century engraver1 a semicircular space enclosed in a low wall once extended between the house and the road1 as at the neighbouring ,villa ,corsini and at ,poggio ,imperiale4 ,it was an admirable rule of the old ,italian architects1 where the garden-space was small and where the site permitted1 to build their villas facing the road1 so that the full extent of the grounds was secured to the private use of the inmates1 instead of being laid open by a public approach to the house4 ,this rule is still followed by ,french villa-architects1 and it is exceptional in ,france to see a villa entered from its grounds when it may be approached directly from the highroad4 ,behind ,castello the ground rises in terraces1 enclosed in lateral walls1 to a high retaining-wall at the back1 surmounted by a wood of ilexes which contains a pool with an island4 ,montaigne1 who describes but few gardens in his ,italian diary1 mentions that the terraces of ,castello are en pante 7sic72 that is1 they incline gradually toward the house1 with the slope of the ground4 ,this bold and unusual adaptation of formal gardening to the natural exigencies of the site is also seen in the terraced gardens of the beautiful ,villa ,imperiali 7now ,scassi7 at ,sampierdarena1 near ,genoa4 ,the plan of the garden at ,castello is admirable1 but in detail it has been modernized at the cost of all its charm4 ,wide steps lead up to the first terrace1 where ,il ,tribolo's stately fountain of bronze and marble stands surrounded by marble benches and statues on fine rusticated pedestals4 ,unhappily1 fountain and statues have lately been scrubbed to preternatural whiteness1 and the same spirit of improvement has turned the old parterres into sunburnt turf1 and dotted it with copper beeches and pampas-grass4 ,montaigne alludes to the berceaux1 or pleached walks1 and to the close-set cypresses which made a delicious coolness in this garden2 and as one looks across its sun-scorched expanse one perceives that its lack of charm is explained by lack of shade4 ,as is usual in ,italian gardens built against a hillside1 the retaining-wall at the back serves for the great decorative motive at ,castello4 ,it is reached by wide marble steps1 and flanked at the sides by symmetrical lemon-houses4 ,on the central axis of the garden1 the wall has a wide opening between columns1 and on each side an arched recess1 equidistant between the lemon-houses and the central opening4 ,within the latter is one of those huge grottoes#a which for two centuries or more were the delight of ,italian garden-architects4 ,the roof is decorated with masks and arabesques in coloured shell-work1 and in the niches of the tufa of which the background is formed are strange groups of life-sized animals1 a camel1 a monkey1 a stag with real antlers1 a wild boar with real tusks1 and various small animals and birds1 some made of coloured marbles which correspond with their natural tints2 while beneath these groups are basins of pink-and-white marble1 carved with sea-creatures and resting on dolphins4 ,humour is the quality which soonest loses its savour1 and it is often difficult to understand the grotesque side of the old garden-architecture2 but the curious delight in the representations of animals1 real or fantastic1 probably arose from the general interest in those strange wild beasts of which the travellers of the ,renaissance brought home such fabulous descriptions4 ,as to the general use of the grotto in ,italian gardens1 it is a natural development of the need for shade and coolness1 and when the long-disused waterworks were playing1 and cool streams gushed over quivering beds of fern into the marble tanks1 these retreats must have formed a delicious contrast to the outer glare of the garden4 ,footnote #a3 ,this grotto and its sculptures are the work of ,il ,tribolo1 who also built the aqueduct bringing thither the waters of the ,arno and the ,mugnone4 ,illustration3 ,,ilex-,,walk1 ,,boboli ,,garden1 ,,florence ,at ,petraia the gardens are less elaborate in plan than at ,castello1 and are1 in fact1 noted chiefly for a fountain brought from that villa4 ,this fountain1 the most beautiful of ,il ,tribolo's works1 is surmounted by the famous ,venus-like figure of a woman wringing out her hair1 now generally attributed to ,giovanni da ,bologna4 ,like the other ,florentine villas of this quarter1 where water is more abundant1 ,petraia has a great oblong vasca1 or tank1 beneath its upper terrace2 while the house itself1 a simple structure of the old-fashioned ,tuscan type1 built about an inner quadrangle1 is remarkable for its very beautiful tower1 which1 as ,herr ,gurlitt#b suggests1 was doubtless inspired by the tower of the ,palazzo ,vecchio4 ,footnote #b3 8,geschichte des ,barockstils in ,italien40 ,according to ,zocchi's charming etching1 the ducal villa of ,poggio ,imperiale1 on a hillside to the south of ,florence1 still preserved1 in the eighteenth century1 its simple and characteristic ,tuscan faade4 ,this was concealed by the ,grand ,duke ,peter ,leopold behind a heavy pillared front1 to which the rusticated porticoes were added later2 and externally nothing remains as it was save the ilex and cypress avenue1 now a public highway1 which ascends to the villa from the ,porta ,romana1 and the semicircular entrance-court with its guardian statues on mighty pedestals4 ,poggio ,imperiale was for too long the favourite residence of the grand-ducal ,medici1 and of their successors of ,lorraine1 not to suffer many changes1 and to lose1 one by one1 all its most typical features4 ,within there is a fine court surrounded by an open arcade1 probably due to ,giulio ,parigi1 who1 at the end of the sixteenth century1 completed the alterations of the villa according to the plans of ,giuliano da ,sangallo2 and the vast suites of rooms are interesting to the student of decoration1 since they are adorned1 probably by ,french artists1 with exquisite carvings and stucchi of the ,louis ,,xv and ,louis ,,xvi periods4 ,but the grounds have kept little besides their general plan4 ,at the back1 the villa opens directly on a large level pleasure-garden1 with enclosing walls and a central basin surrounded by statues2 but the geometrical parterres have been turned into a lawn4 ,to the right of this level space1 a few steps lead down to a long terrace planted with ilexes1 whence there is a fine view over ,florence--an unusual arrangement1 as the bosco was generally above1 not below1 the flower-garden4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,gamberaia1 ,,near ,,florence ,if1 owing to circumstances1 the more famous pleasure-grounds of ,florence have lost much of their antique charm1 she has happily preserved a garden of another sort which possesses to an unusual degree the flavour of the past4 ,this is the villa of the ,gamberaia at ,settignano4 ,till its recent purchase1 the ,gamberaia had for many years been let out in lodgings for the summer1 and it doubtless owes to this obscure fate the complete preservation of its garden-plan4 ,before the recent alterations made in its gardens1 it was doubly interesting from its unchanged condition1 and from the fact that1 even in ,italy1 where small and irregular pieces of ground were so often utilized with marvellous skill1 it was probably the most perfect example of the art of producing a great effect on a small scale4 ,the villa stands nobly on a ridge overlooking the village of ,settignano and the wide-spread valley of the ,arno4 ,the house is small yet impressive4 ,though presumably built as late as #afaj1 it shows few concessions to the baroque style already prevalent in other parts of ,italy1 and is yet equally removed from the classic or ,palladian manner which held its own so long in the ,venetian country4 ,the ,gamberaia is distinctly ,tuscan1 and its projecting eaves1 heavily coigned angles and windows set far apart on massive consoles1 show its direct descent from the severe and sober school of sixteenth-century architects who produced such noble examples of the great ,tuscan villa as ,i ,collazzi and ,fonte all' ,erta4 ,nevertheless1 so well proportioned is its elevation that there is no sense of heaviness1 and the solidity of the main building is relieved by a kind of flying arcade at each end1 one of which connects the house with its chapel1 while the other1 by means of a spiral stairway in a pier of the arcade1 leads from the first floor to what was once the old fish-pond and herb-garden4 ,this garden1 an oblong piece of ground1 a few years ago had in its centre a round fish-pond1 surrounded by symmetrical plots planted with roses and vegetables1 and in general design had probably been little changed since the construction of the villa4 ,it has now been remodelled on an elaborate plan1 which has the disadvantage of being unrelated in style to its surroundings2 but fortunately no other change has been made in the plan and planting of the grounds4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,amphitheatre1 ,,boboli ,,garden1 ,,florence ,before the faade of the house a grassy terrace bounded by a low wall1 set alternately with stone vases and solemn-looking stone dogs1 overhangs the vineyards and fields1 which1 as in all unaltered ,tuscan country places1 come up close to the house4 ,behind the villa1 and running parallel with it1 is a long grass alley or bowling-green1 flanked for part of its length by a lofty retaining-wall set with statues1 and for the remainder by high hedges which divide it on one side from the fish-pond garden and on the other from the farm4 ,the green is closed at one end by a grotto of coloured pebbles and shells1 with nymphs and shepherds in niches about a fountain4 ,this grotto is overhung by the grove of ancient cypresses for which the ,gamberaia is noted4 ,at its opposite end the bowling-green terminates in a balustrade whence one looks down on the ,arno and across to the hills on the southern side of the valley4 ,the retaining-wall which runs parallel with the back of the house sustains a terrace planted with cypress and ilex4 ,this terraced wood above the house is very typical of ,italian gardens3 good examples may be seen at ,castello and at the ,villa ,medici in ,rome4 ,these patches of shade1 however small1 are planted irregularly1 like a wild wood1 with stone seats under the dense ilex boughs1 and a statue placed here and there in a deep niche of foliage4 ,just opposite the central doorway of the house the retaining-wall is broken1 and an iron gate leads to a slit of a garden1 hardly more than twenty feet wide1 on a level with the bowling-green4 ,this narrow strip ends also in a grotto-like fountain with statues1 and on each side balustraded flights of steps lead to the upper level oh which the ilex-grove is planted4 ,this grove1 however1 occupies only one portion of the terrace4 ,on the other side of the cleft formed by the little grotto-garden1 the corresponding terrace1 formerly laid out as a vegetable-garden1 is backed by the low faade of the lemon-house1 or stanzone1 which is an adjunct of every ,italian villa4 ,here the lemon and orange trees1 the camellias and other semi-tender shrubs1 are stored in winter1 to be set out in ,may in their red earthen jars on the stone slabs which border the walks of all old ,italian gardens4 ,the plan of the ,gamberaia has been described thus in detail because it combines in an astonishingly small space1 yet without the least sense of overcrowding1 almost every typical excellence of the old ,italian garden3 free circulation of sunlight and air about the house2 abundance of water2 easy access to dense shade2 sheltered walks with different points of view2 variety of effect produced by the skilful use of different levels2 and1 finally1 breadth and simplicity of composition4 ,here1 also1 may be noted in its fullest expression that principle of old gardening which the modern 8landscapist0 has most completely unlearned1 namely1 the value of subdivision of spaces4 ,whereas the modern gardener's one idea of producing an effect of space is to annihilate his boundaries1 and not only to merge into one another the necessary divisions of the garden1 but also to blend this vague whole with the landscape1 the old garden-architect proceeded on the opposite principle1 arguing that1 as the garden is but the prolongation of the house1 and as a house containing a single huge room would be less interesting and less serviceable than one divided according to the varied requirements of its inmates1 so a garden which is merely one huge outdoor room is also less interesting and less serviceable than one which has its logical divisions4 ,utility was doubtless not the only consideration which produced this careful portioning off of the garden4 sthetic impressions were considered1 and the effect of passing from the sunny fruit-garden to the dense grove1 thence to the wide-reaching view1 and again to the sheltered privacy of the pleached walk or the mossy coolness of the grotto--all this was taken into account by a race of artists who studied the contrast of sthetic emotions as keenly as they did the juxtaposition of dark cypress and pale lemon-tree1 of deep shade and level sunlight4 ,but the real value of the old ,italian garden-plan is that logic and beauty meet in it1 as they should in all sound architectural work4 ,each quarter of the garden was placed where convenience required1 and was made accessible from all the others by the most direct and rational means2 and from this intelligent method of planning the most varying effects of unexpectedness and beauty were obtained4 ,it was said above that lawns are unsuited to the ,italian soil and climate1 but it must not be thought that the ,italian gardeners did not appreciate the value of turf4 ,they used it1 but sparingly1 knowing that it required great care and was not a characteristic of the soil4 ,the bowling-green of the ,gamberaia shows how well the beauty of a long stretch of greensward was understood2 and at the ,villa ,capponi1 at ,arcetri1 on the other side of ,florence1 there is a fine oblong of old turf adjoining the house1 said to be the only surviving fragment of the original garden4 ,these bits of sward were always used near the house1 where their full value could be enjoyed1 and were set like jewels in clipped hedges or statue-crowned walls4 ,though doubtless intended chiefly for games1 they were certainly valued for their sthetic effect1 for in many ,italian gardens steep grass alleys flanked by walls of beech or ilex are seen ascending a hillside to the temple or statue which forms the crowning ornament of the grounds4 ,in ,florence a good example of this tapis vert1 of which ,le ,ntre afterward made such admirable use in the moist climate of ,france1 is seen at the ,villa ,danti1 on the ,arno near ,campiobbi4 ,close to the ducal villas of ,castello lies a country-seat possessing much of the intimate charm which they lack4 ,this is ,prince ,corsini's villa1 the finest example of a baroque country house near ,florence4 ,the old villa1 of which the typical ,tuscan elevation may still be seen at the back1 was remodelled during the latter half of the seventeenth century1 probably by ,antonio ,ferri1 who built the state saloon and staircase of the ,palazzo ,corsini on the ,lungarno4 ,the ,villa ,corsini lies in the plain1 like ,castello1 and has before it the usual walled semicircle4 ,the front of the villa is frankly baroque1 a two-storied elevation with windows divided by a meagre order1 and a stately central gable flanked by balustrades surmounted by vases4 ,the whole treatment is interesting1 as showing the manner in which the seventeenth-century architect overlaid a plain ,tuscan structure with florid ornament2 and the effect1 if open to criticism1 is at once gay and stately4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,corsini1 ,,florence ,the house is built about a quadrangle enclosed in an open arcade on columns4 ,opposite the porte-cochre is a doorway opening on a broad space bounded by a balustrade with statues4 ,an ilex avenue extends beyond this space1 on the axis of the doorway4 ,at one end of the house is the oblong walled garden1 with its box-edged flower-beds grouped in an intricate geometrical pattern about a central fountain4 ,corresponding with this garden1 at the opposite end of the house1 is a dense ilex-grove with an alley leading down the centre to a beautiful fountain1 a tank surmounted by a kind of voluted pediment1 into which the water falls from a large ilex-shaded tank on a higher level4 ,here again the vineyards and olive-orchards come up close to the formal grounds1 the ilex-grove being divided from the podere by a line of cypresses instead of a wall4 ,not far from the ,gamberaia1 on the hillside of ,san ,gervasio1 stands another country house which preserves only faint traces of its old gardens1 but which1 architecturally1 is too interesting to be overlooked4 ,this is the villa of ,fonte all' ,erta4 ,originally a long building of the villa-farmhouse order1 with chapel1 offices and outhouses connected with the main house1 it was transformed in the sixteenth century1 probably by ,ammanati1 into one of the stateliest country houses near ,florence4 ,a splendid rusticated loggia1 approached by a double flight of steps1 forms an angle of the main house1 and either then or later the spacious open court1 around three sides of which the villa is built1 was roofed over and turned into a great central saloon like those of the ,venetian and ,milanese villas4 ,this two-storied saloon is the finest and most appropriate feature of the interior planning of ,italian villas1 but it seems never to have been as popular in ,tuscany as it was farther north or south4 ,the ,tuscan villas1 for the most part1 are smaller and less pretentious in style than those erected in other parts of ,italy1 and only in exceptional instances did the architect free himself from the traditional plan of the old farmhouse-villa around its open court4 ,a fine example of this arcaded court may be seen at ,petraia1 the ,medicean villa near ,castello4 ,at ,fonte all' ,erta the former court faced toward what was once an old flower-garden1 raised a few feet above the grass terrace which runs the length of the faade4 ,behind this garden1 and adjoining the back of the villa1 is the old evergreen grove2 but the formal surroundings of the house have disappeared4 ,the most splendid and stately villa in the neighbourhood of ,florence stands among the hills a few miles beyond the ,certosa of ,val d',ema1 and looks from its lofty ridge across the plain toward ,pistoia and the ,apennines4 ,this villa1 called ,ai ,collazzi 7now ,bombicci71 from the wooded hills which surround it1 was built for the ,dini family in the sixteenth century1 and1 as tradition avers1 by no less a hand than ,michelangelo's4 ,he is known to have been a close friend of the ,dini1 and is likely to have worked for them2 and if1 as some experts think1 certain details of the design1 as well as the actual construction of the villa1 are due to ,santi di ,tito1 it is impossible not to feel that its general conception must have originated with a greater artist4 ,the ,villa ,bombicci has in fact the ,michelangelesque quality3 the austerity1 the breadth1 the peculiar majesty which he imparted to his slightest creations4 ,the house is built about three sides of a raised stone-flagged terrace1 the enclosing elevation consisting of a two-storied open arcade roofed by widely projecting eaves4 ,the wings are solid1 with the exception of the sides toward the arcade1 and the windows1 with their heavy pediments and consoles1 are set far apart in true ,tuscan fashion4 ,a majestic double flight of steps1 flanked by shield-bearing lions1 leads up to the terrace about which the house is built4 ,within is a high central saloon opening at the back on a stone perron1 with another double flight of steps which descend in a curve to the garden4 ,on this side of the house there is1 on the upper floor1 an open loggia of great beauty1 consisting of three arches divided by slender coupled shafts4 ,very fine1 also1 is the arched and rusticated doorway surmounted by a stone escutcheon4 ,the villa is approached by a cypress avenue which leads straight to the open space before the house4 ,the ridge on which the latter is built is so narrow1 and the land falls away so rapidly1 that there could never have been much opportunity for the development of garden-architecture2 but though all is now ,anglicized1 it is easy to trace the original plan3 in front1 the open space supported by a high retaining-wall1 on one side of the house the grove of cypress and ilex1 and at the back1 where there was complete privacy1 the small giardino segreto1 or hedged garden1 with its parterres1 benches and statues4 ,the purpose of this book is to describe the ,italian villa in relation to its grounds1 and many villas which have lost their old surroundings must therefore be omitted2 but near ,florence there is one old garden which has always lacked its villa1 yet which cannot be overlooked in a study of ,italian garden-craft4 ,even those most familiar with the fascinations of ,italian gardens will associate a peculiar thrill with their first sight of the ,villa#c ,campi4 ,laid out by one of the ,pucci family1 probably toward the end of the sixteenth century1 it lies beyond ,lastra-,signa1 above the ,arno1 about ten miles from ,florence4 ,it is not easy to reach1 for so long is it since any one has lived in the melancholy villino of ,villa ,campi that even in the streets of ,lastra1 the little walled town by the ,arno1 a guide is hard to find4 ,but at last one is told to follow a steep country road among vines and olives1 past two or three charming houses buried in ilex-groves1 till the way ends in a lane which leads up to a gateway surmounted by statues4 ,ascending thence by a long avenue of cypresses1 one reaches the level hilltop on which the house should have stood4 ,two pavilions connected by a high wall face the broad open terrace1 whence there is a far-spreading view over the ,arno valley3 doubtless the main building was to have been placed between them4 ,but now the place lies enveloped in a mysterious silence4 ,the foot falls noiselessly on the grass carpeting of the alleys1 the water is hushed in pools and fountains1 and broken statues peer out startlingly from their niches of unclipped foliage4 ,from the open space in front of the pavilions1 long avenues radiate1 descending and encircling the hillside1 walled with cypress and ilex1 and leading to rond-points set with groups of statuary1 and to balustraded terraces overhanging the valley4 ,the plan is vast and complicated1 and appears to have embraced the whole hillside1 which1 contrary to the usual frugal ,tuscan plan1 was to have been converted into a formal park with vistas1 quincunxes and fountains4 ,footnote #c3 ,villa1 in ,italian1 signifies not the house alone1 but the house and pleasure-grounds4 ,entering a gate in the wall between the pavilions1 one comes on the terraced flower-gardens1 and here the same grandeur of conception is seen4 ,the upper terrace preserves traces of its formal parterres and box-hedges4 ,thence flights of steps lead down to a long bowling-green between hedges1 like that at the ,gamberaia4 ,a farther descent reveals another terrace-garden1 with clipped hedges1 statues and fountains2 and thence sloping alleys radiate down to stone-edged pools with reclining river-gods in the mysterious shade of the ilex-groves4 ,statues are everywhere3 in the upper gardens1 nymphs1 satyrs1 shepherds1 and the cheerful fauna of the open pleasance2 at the end of the shadowy glades1 solemn figures of ,titanic gods1 couched above their pools or reared aloft on mighty pedestals4 ,even the opposite hillside must have been included in the original scheme of this vast garden1 for it still shows1 on the central axis between the pavilions1 a tapis vert between cypresses1 doubtless intended to lead up to some great stone ,hercules under a crowning arch4 ,but it is not the size of the ,campi gardens which makes them so remarkable2 it is the subtle beauty of their planning1 to which time and neglect have added the requisite touch of poetry4 ,never perhaps have natural advantages been utilized with so little perceptible straining after effect1 yet with so complete a sense of the needful adjustment between landscape and architecture4 ,one feels that these long avenues and statued terraces were meant to lead up to a 8stately pleasure-house02 yet so little are they out of harmony with the surrounding scene that nature has gradually taken them back to herself1 has turned them into a haunted grove in which the statues seem like sylvan gods fallen asleep in their native shade4 ,there are other ,florentine villas which preserve traces of their old gardens4 ,the beautiful ,villa ,palmieri has kept its terrace-architecture1 ,lappeggi its fine double stairway1 the ,villa ,danti its grass-walk leading to a giant on the hilltop1 and ,castel ,pulci its stately faade with a sky-line of statues and the long cypress avenue shown in ,zocchi's print2 even ,pratolino1 so cruelly devastated1 still preserves ,giovanni da ,bologna's colossal figure of the ,apennines4 ,but where so much of greater value remains to be described1 space fails to linger over these fragments which1 romantic and charming as they are1 can but faintly suggest1 amid their altered surroundings1 the vanished garden-plans of which they formed a part4 ,,sienese ,,villas ,illustration3 ,,vicobello1 ,,siena ,,ii ,,sienese ,,villas ,in the order of age1 the first country-seat near ,siena which claims attention is the fortress-villa of ,belcaro4 ,frequent mention is made of the castle of ,belcaro in early chronicles and documents1 and it seems to have been a place of some importance as far back as the eleventh century4 ,it stands on a hilltop clothed with oak and ilex in the beautiful wooded country to the west of ,siena1 and from its ancient walls one looks forth over the plain to the hill-set city and its distant circle of mountains4 ,it was perhaps for the sake of this enchanting prospect that ,baldassare ,peruzzi1 to whom the transformation of ,belcaro is ascribed1 left these crenellated walls untouched1 and contented himself with adorning the inner court of the castle with a delicate mask of ,renaissance architecture4 ,a large bare villa of no architectural pretensions was added to the medival buildings1 and ,peruzzi worked within the enclosed quadrangle thus formed4 ,a handsome architectural screen of brick and marble with a central gateway leads from a stone-paved court to a garden of about the same dimensions1 at the back of which is an arcaded loggia1 also of brick and marble1 exquisitely light and graceful in proportion1 and frescoed in the ,raphaelesque manner with medallions and arabesques1 fruit-garlands and brightly plumed birds4 ,adjoining this loggia is a small brick chapel1 simple but elegant in design1 with a frescoed interior also ascribed to ,peruzzi1 and still beautiful under its crude repainting4 ,the garden itself is the real hortus inclusus of the medival chronicler3 a small patch of ground enclosed in the fortress walls1 with box-edged plots1 a central well and clipped shrubs4 ,it is interesting as a reminder of what the medival garden within the castle must have been1 and its setting of ,renaissance architecture makes it look like one of those little marble-walled pleasances1 full of fruit and flowers1 in the backgrounds of ,gozzoli or ,lorenzo di ,credi4 ,several miles beyond ,belcaro1 in a pleasant valley among oak-wooded hills1 lies the ,marchese ,chigi's estate of ,cetinale4 ,a huge clipped ilex1 one of the few examples of ,dutch topiary work in ,italy1 stands at the angle of the road which leads to the gates4 ,across the highway1 facing the courtyard entrance1 is another gate1 guarded by statues and leading to a long tapis vert which ascends between double rows of square-topped ilexes to a statue on the crest of the opposite slope4 ,the villa looks out on this perspective1 facing it across an oblong courtyard flanked by low outbuildings4 ,the main house1 said to have been built 7or more probably rebuilt7 in #afhj by ,carlo ,fontana for ,flavio ,chigi1 nephew of ,pope ,alexander ,,vii1 is so small and modest of aspect that one is surprised to learn that it was one of the celebrated pleasure-houses of its day4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that with the exception of the great houses built near ,rome by the ,princes of the ,church1 and the country-seats of such reigning families as the ,medici1 the ,italian villa was almost invariably a small and simple building1 the noble proprietor having usually preferred to devote his wealth and time to the embellishment of his gardens4 ,the house at ,cetinale is so charming1 with its stately double flight of steps leading up to the first floor1 and its monumental doorway opening on a central salone1 that it may well be ascribed to the architect of ,san ,marcello in ,rome1 and of ,prince ,lichtenstein's 8,garden ,palace0 in ,vienna4 ,the plan of using the low-studded ground floor for offices1 wine-cellar and store-rooms1 while the living-rooms are all above-stairs1 shows the hand of an architect trained in the ,roman school4 ,all the ,tuscan and mid-,italian villas open on a level with their gardens1 while about ,rome the country houses1 at least on one side1 have beneath the living-rooms a ground floor generally used for the storage of wine and oil4 ,but the glory of ,cetinale is its park4 ,behind the villa a long grass-walk as wide as the house extends between high walls to a fantastic gateway1 with statues in ivy-clad niches1 and a curious crowning motive terminating in obelisks and balls4 ,beyond this the turf-walk continues again to a raised semicircular terrace1 surrounded by a wall adorned with busts and enclosed in clipped ilexes4 ,this terrace abuts on the ilex-clothed hillside which bounds the valley4 ,a gateway leads directly into these wild romantic woods1 and a steep irregular flight of stone steps is seen ascending the wooded slope to a tiny building on the crest of the hill4 ,this ascent is called the ,scala ,santa1 and the building to which it leads is a hermitage adorned with circular niches set in the form of a cross1 each niche containing the bust of a saint4 ,the hermitage being directly on the axis of the villa1 one looks out from the latter down the admirable perspective of the tapis vert and up the ,scala ,santa to the little house at its summit4 ,it is interesting to note that this effect of distance and grandeur is produced at small cost and in the simplest manner2 for the grass-walk with its semicircular end forms the whole extent of the ,cetinale garden4 ,the olive-orchards and corn-fields of the farm come up to the boundary walls of the walk1 and the wood is left as nature planted it4 ,fontana1 if it was indeed he who laid out this simple but admirable plan1 was wise enough to profit by the natural advantage of the great forest of oak and ilex which clothes this part of the country1 and to realize that only the broadest and simplest lines would be in harmony with so noble a background4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,palazzina 7,,villa ,,gori71 ,,siena ,as charming in its way1 though less romantic and original1 is the ,marchese ,chigi's other seat of ,vicobello1 a mile or two beyond the ,porta ,ovile1 on the other side of ,siena4 ,vicobello lies in an open villa-studded country in complete contrast to the wooded hills about ,cetinale4 ,the villa is placed on a long narrow ridge of land1 falling away abruptly at the back and front4 ,a straight entrance avenue runs parallel to the outer walls of the outbuildings1 which form the boundary of the court1 the latter being entered through a vaulted porte-cochre4 ,facing this entrance 7as at ,cetinale7 is a handsome gateway guarded by statues and set in a semicircular wall4 ,passing through this gate1 one descends to a series of terraces planted with straight rows of the square-topped ilexes so characteristic of the ,sienese gardens4 ,these densely shaded terraces descend to a level stretch of sward 7perhaps an old bowling-green7 bordered by a wall of clipped ilexes1 at the foot of the hill on which the villa stands4 ,on entering the forecourt1 one faces the villa1 a dignified oblong building of simple ,renaissance architecture1 ascribed in the local guide-book to ,baldassare ,peruzzi1 and certainly of earlier construction than the house at ,cetinale4 ,on the left1 a gate in a high wall leads to a walled garden1 bounded by a long lemon-house which continues the line of the outbuildings on the court4 ,opposite1 a corresponding gateway opens into the bosco which is the indispensable adjunct of the ,italian country house4 ,on the other side of the villa are two long terraces1 one beneath the other1 corresponding in dimensions with the court1 and flanked on each hand by walled terrace-gardens1 descending on one side from the grove1 on the other from the upper garden adjoining the court4 ,the plan1 which is as elaborate and minutely divided as that of ,cetinale is spacious and simple1 shows an equally sure appreciation of natural conditions1 and of the distinction between a villa suburbana and a country estate4 ,the walls of the upper garden are espaliered with fruit-trees1 and the box-edged flower-plots are probably laid out much as they were in the eighteenth century4 ,all the architectural details are beautiful1 especially a well in the court1 set in the wall between ,ionic columns1 and a charming garden-house at the end of the upper garden1 in the form of an open archway faced with ,doric pilasters1 before a semicircular recess with a marble seat4 ,the descending walled gardens1 with their different levels1 give opportunity for many charming architectural effects--busts in niches1 curving steps1 and well-placed vases and statues2 and the whole treatment of ,vicobello is remarkable for the discretion and sureness of taste with which these ornamental touches are added4 ,there is no excess of decoration1 no crowding of effects1 and the garden-plan is in perfect keeping with the simple stateliness of the house4 ,about a mile from ,vicobello1 on an olive-clad hillside near the famous monastery of the ,osservanza1 lies another villa of much more modest dimensions1 with grounds which1 though in some respects typically ,sienese1 are in one way unique in ,italy4 ,this is ,la ,palazzina1 the estate of the ,de' ,gori family4 ,the small seventeenth-century house1 with its adjoining chapel and outbuildings1 lies directly on the public road1 and forms the boundary of its own grounds4 ,the charming garden-faade1 with its voluted sky-line1 and the two-storied open loggia forming the central motive of the elevation1 faces on a terrace-like open space1 bounded by a wall1 and now irregularly planted l',anglaise1 but doubtless once the site of the old flower-garden4 ,before the house stands an old well with a beautiful wrought-iron railing1 and on the axis of the central loggia a gate opens into one of the pleached ilex-alleys which are the glory of the ,palazzina4 ,this ancient tunnel of gnarled and interlocked trees1 where a green twilight reigns in the hottest summer noon1 extends for several hundred feet along a ridge of ground ending in a sort of circular knoll or platform1 surrounded by an impenetrable wall of square-clipped ilexes4 ,the platform has in its centre a round clearing1 from which four narrow paths radiate at right angles1 one abutting on the pleached walk1 the others on the outer ilex-wall4 ,between these paths are four small circular spaces planted with stunted ilexes and cypresses1 which are cut down to the height of shrubs4 ,in these dwarf trees blinded thrushes are tied as decoys to their wild kin1 who are shot at from the circular clearing or the side paths4 ,this elaborate plantation is a perfectly preserved specimen of a species of bird-trap once1 alas6 very common in this part of ,italy1 and in which one may picture the young gallants of ,folgore da ,san ,gimignano's ,sienese sonnets 8,of the ,months0 taking their cruel pleasure on an autumn day4 ,another antique alley of pleached ilexes1 as densely shaded but not quite as long1 runs from the end of the terrace to a small open-air theatre which is the greatest curiosity of the ,villa de' ,gori4 ,the pit of this theatre is a semicircular opening1 bounded by a low wall or seat1 which is backed by a high ilex-hedge4 ,the parterre is laid out in an elaborate broderie of turf and gravel1 above which the stage is raised about three feet4 ,the pit and the stage are enclosed in a double hedge of ilex1 so that the actors may reach the wings without being seen by the audience2 but the stage-setting consists of rows of clipped cypresses1 each advancing a few feet beyond the one before it1 so that they form a perspective running up to the back of the stage1 and terminated by the tall shaft of a single cypress which towers high into the blue in the exact centre of the background4 ,no mere description of its plan can convey the charm of this exquisite little theatre1 approached through the mysterious dusk of the long pleached alley1 and lying in sunshine and silence under its roof of blue sky1 in its walls of unchanging verdure4 ,imagination must people the stage with the sylvan figures of the ,aminta or the ,pastor ,fido1 and must place on the encircling seats a company of nobil donne in pearls and satin1 with their cavaliers in the black ,spanish habit and falling lace collar which ,vandyke has immortalized in his ,genoese portraits2 and the remembrance of this leafy stage will lend new life to the reading of the ,italian pastorals1 and throw a brighter sunlight over the woodland comedies of ,shakspeare4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,theatre ,,at ,,la ,,palazzina1 ,,siena ,,roman ,,villas ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dome ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s1 ,,from ,,the ,,vatican ,,gardens ,,iii ,,roman ,,villas ,in studying the villas near the smaller ,italian towns1 it is difficult to learn much of their history4 ,now and then some information may be gleaned from a local guide-book1 but the facts are usually meagre or inaccurate1 and the name of the architect1 the date of the building1 the original plan of the garden1 have often alike been forgotten4 ,with regard to the villas in and about ,rome1 the case is different4 ,here the student is overwhelmed by a profusion of documents4 ,illustrious architects dispute the honour of having built the famous pleasure-houses on the seven hills1 and historians of art1 from ,vasari downward1 have recorded their annals4 ,falda engraved them in the seventeenth century1 and ,percier and ,fontaine at the beginning of the nineteenth2 and they have been visited and described1 at various periods1 by countless travellers from different countries4 ,one of the earliest ,roman gardens of which a description has been preserved is that which ,bramante laid out within the ,vatican in the last years of the fifteenth century4 ,this terraced garden1 with its monumental double flight of steps leading up by three levels to the ,giardino della ,pigna1 was described in #aebc by the ,venetian ambassador to ,rome1 who speaks of its grass parterres and fountains1 its hedges of laurel and cypress1 its plantations of mulberries and roses4 ,one half of the garden 7the court of the ,belvedere7 had brick-paved walks between rows of orange-trees2 in its centre were statues of the ,nile and the ,tiber above a fountain2 while the ,apollo1 the ,laocoon and the ,venus of the ,vatican were placed about it in niches4 ,this garden was long since sacrificed to the building of the ,braccio ,nuovo and the ,vatican ,library2 but it is worth mentioning that ,burckhardt1 whose least word on ,italian gardens is more illuminating than the treatises of other writers1 thought that ,bramante's terraced stairway first set the example of that architectural magnificence which marks the great ,roman gardens of the ,renaissance4 ,next in date comes the ,villa ,madama1 ,raphael's unfinished masterpiece on the slope of ,monte ,mario4 ,this splendid pleasure-house1 which was begun in #aeaf for ,cardinal ,giuliano de' ,medici1 afterward ,pope ,clement ,,vii1 was intended to be the model of the great villa suburbana1 and no subsequent building of the sort is comparable to what it would have been had the original plans been carried out4 ,but the villa was built under an evil star4 ,raphael died before the work was finished1 and it was carried on with some alterations by ,giulio ,romano and ,antonio da ,sangallo4 ,in #aebg the troops of ,cardinal ,colonna nearly destroyed it by fire2 and1 without ever being completed1 it passed successively into the possession of the ,chapter of ,st4 ,eustace1 of the ,duchess of ,parma 7whence its name of ,madama71 and of the ,king of ,naples1 who suffered it to fall into complete neglect4 ,the unfinished building1 with its mighty loggia stuccoed by ,giovanni da ,udine1 and the semicircular arcade at the back1 is too familiar to need detailed description2 and the gardens are so dilapidated that they are of interest only to an eye experienced enough to reconstruct them from their skeleton4 ,they consist of two long terraces1 one above the other1 cut in the side of the wooded slope overhanging the villa4 ,the upper terrace is on a level with ,raphael's splendid loggia1 and seems but a roofless continuation of that airy hall4 ,against the hillside and at the end it is bounded by a retaining-wall once surmounted by a marble balustrade and set with niches for statuary1 while on the other side it looks forth over the ,tiber and the ,campagna4 ,below this terrace is another of the same proportions1 its retaining-wall broken at each end by a stairway descending from the upper level1 and the greater part of its surface taken up by a large rectangular tank1 into which water gushes from the niches in the lateral wall4 ,it is evident from the breadth of treatment of these terraces that they are but a fragment of the projected whole4 ,percier and ,fontaine1 in their 8,maisons de ,plaisance de ,rome0 7#ahji71 published an interesting 8reconstitution0 of the ,villa ,madama and its gardens1 as they conceived it might have been carried to completion2 but their plan is merely the brilliant conjecture of two artists penetrated with the spirit of the ,renaissance1 for they had no documents to go by4 ,the existing fragment is1 however1 well worthy of study1 for the purity of its architecture and the broad simplicity of its plan are in marked contrast to the complicated design and overcharged details of some of the later ,roman gardens4 ,third in date among the early ,renaissance gardens comes another1 of which few traces are left3 that of the ,vigna del ,papa1 or ,villa di ,papa ,giulio1 just beyond the ,porta del ,popolo4 ,here1 however1 the building itself1 and the architectural composition which once united the house and grounds1 are fortunately well preserved1 and so exceptionally interesting that they deserved a careful description4 ,the ,villa di ,papa ,giulio was built by ,pope ,julius ,,iii1 whose pontificate extends from #aeej to #aeee4 ,the villa therefore dates from the middle of the sixteenth century2 but so many architects were associated with it1 and so much confusion exists as to their respective contributions1 that it can only be said that the ,pope himself1 ,michelangelo1 ,vignola1 ,vasari and ,ammanati appear all to have had a hand in the work4 ,the exterior elevation1 though it has been criticized1 is not as inharmonious as might have been expected1 and on the garden side both plan and elevation have a charm and picturesqueness which disarm criticism4 ,above all1 it is felt at once that the arrangement is perfectly suited to a warm climate4 ,the villa forms a semicircle at the back1 enclosing a paved court4 ,the ground floor is an open vaulted arcade1 adorned with ,zucchero's celebrated frescoes of putti peeping through vine-wreathed trellises2 and the sides of the court1 beyond this arcade1 are bounded by two-storied lateral wings1 with blind arcades and niches adorned with statues4 ,facing the villa1 a colonnaded loggia terminates the court2 and thence one looks down into the beautiful lower court of the bath1 which appears to have been designed by ,vasari4 ,from the loggia1 steps descend to a semicircular court enclosed in walls1 with a balustraded opening in its centre2 and this balustrade rests on a row of caryatids which encircle the lowest court and form a screen before the grotto-like bath under the arches of the upper terrace4 ,the plan is too complicated1 and the architectural motives are too varied1 to admit of clear description3 both must be seen to give an idea of the full beauty of the composition4 ,returning to the upper loggia above the bath1 one looks across the latter to a corresponding loggia of three arches on the opposite side1 on the axis of which is a gateway leading to the actual gardens--gardens which1 alas6 no longer exist4 ,it will thus be seen that the flagged court1 the two open loggias1 and the bath are so many skilfully graduated steps in what ,percier and ,fontaine call the 8artistic progression0 linking the gardens to the house1 while the whole is so planned that from the central hall of the villa 7and in fact from its entrance-door7 one may look across the court and down the long vista of columns1 into what were once the shady depths of the garden4 ,in all ,italian garden-architecture there is nothing quite comparable for charm and delicately reminiscent classicalism with this grotto-bath of ,pope ,julius's villa4 ,here we find the tradition of the old ,roman villa-architecture1 as it had been lovingly studied in the letters of ,pliny1 transposed into ,renaissance forms1 with the sense of its continued fitness to unchanged conditions of climate and a conscious return to the splendour of the old patrician life4 ,it is instructive to compare this natural reflowering of a national art with the frigid archological classicalism of ,winckelmann and ,canova4 ,here there is no literal transcription of uncomprehended detail3 the spirit is preserved1 because it is still living1 but it finds expression in subtly altered forms4 ,above all1 the artist has drawn his inspiration from ,roman art1 the true source of modern architecture1 and not from that of ,greece1 which1 for all its beauty and far-reaching sthetic influences1 was not the starting-point of modern artistic conceptions1 for the plain historical reason that it was utterly forgotten and unknown when the medival world began to wake from its lethargy and gather up its scattered heritage of artistic traditions4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,forecourt1 ,,villa ,,borghese1 ,,rome ,when ,john ,evelyn came to ,rome in #afdd and alighted 8at ,monsieur ,petit's in the ,piazza ,spagnola10 many of the great ,roman villas were still in the first freshness of their splendour1 and the taste which called them forth had not yet wearied of them4 ,later travellers1 with altered ideas1 were not sufficiently interested to examine in detail what already seemed antiquated and out of fashion2 but to ,evelyn1 a passionate lover of architecture and garden-craft1 the ,italian villas were patterns of excellence1 to be carefully studied and minutely described for the benefit of those who sought to imitate them in ,england4 ,it is doubtful if later generations will ever be diverted by the aquatic 8surprises0 and mechanical toys in which ,evelyn took such simple pleasure2 but the real beauties he discerned are once more receiving intelligent recognition after two centuries of contempt and indifference4 ,it is worth noting in this connection that1 at the very height of the reaction against ,italian gardens1 they were lovingly studied and truly understood by two men great enough to rise above the prejudices of their age3 the ,french architects ,percier and ,fontaine1 whose volume contains some of the most suggestive analyses ever written of the purpose and meaning of ,renaissance garden-architecture4 ,probably one of the least changed among the villas visited by ,evelyn is 8the house of the ,duke of ,florence upon the brow of ,mons ,pincius40 ,the ,villa ,medici1 on being sold by that family in #ahja1 had the good fortune to pass into the hands of the ,french government1 and its 8facciata incrusted with antique and rare basso-relievos and statues0 still looks out over the statued arcade1 the terrace 8balustraded with white marble0 and planted with 8perennial greens10 and the 8mount planted with cypresses10 which ,evelyn so justly admired4 ,the villa1 built in the middle of the sixteenth century by ,annibale ,lippi1 was begun for one cardinal and completed for another4 ,it stands in true ,italian fashion against the hillside above the ,spanish ,steps1 its airy upper stories planted on one of the mighty bastion-like basements so characteristic of the ,roman villa4 ,a villa above1 a fortress below1 it shows that1 even in the polished cinque-cento1 life in the ,papal ,states needed the protection of stout walls and heavily barred windows4 ,the garden-faade1 raised a story above the entrance1 has all the smiling openness of the ,renaissance pleasure-house1 and is interesting as being probably the earliest example of the systematic use of fragments of antique sculpture in an architectural elevation4 ,but this faade1 with its charming central loggia1 is sufficiently well known to make a detailed description superfluous1 and it need be studied here only in relation to its surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,,grotto1 ,,villa ,,di ,,papa ,,giulio1 ,,rome ,falda's plan of the grounds1 and that of ,percier and ,fontaine1 made over a hundred and fifty years later1 show how little succeeding fashions have been allowed to disturb the original design4 ,the gardens are still approached by a long shady alley which ascends from the piazza before the entrance2 and they are still divided into a symmetrically planted grove1 a flower-garden before the house1 and an upper wild-wood with a straight path leading to the 8mount planted with cypresses40 ,it is safe to say that no one enters the grounds of the ,villa ,medici without being soothed and charmed by that garden-magic which is the peculiar quality of some of the old ,italian pleasances4 ,it is not necessary to be a student of garden-architecture to feel the spell of quiet and serenity which falls on one at the very gateway2 but it is worth the student's while to try to analyze the elements of which the sensation is composed4 ,perhaps they will be found to resolve themselves into diversity1 simplicity and fitness4 ,the plan of the garden is simple1 but its different parts are so contrasted as to produce1 by the fewest means1 a pleasant sense of variety without sacrifice of repose4 ,the ilex-grove into which one first enters is traversed by hedged alleys which lead to rond-points with stone seats and marble ,terms4 ,at one point the enclosing wall of ilex is broken to admit a charming open loggia1 whence one looks into the depths of green below4 ,emerging from the straight shady walks1 with their effect of uniformity and repose1 one comes on the flower-garden before the house1 spreading to the sunshine its box-edged parterres adorned with fountains and statues4 ,here garden and house-front are harmonized by a strong predominance of architectural lines1 and by the beautiful lateral loggia1 with niches for statues1 above which the upper ilex-wood rises4 ,tall hedges and trees there are none2 for from the villa one looks across the garden at the wide sweep of the ,campagna and the mountains2 indeed1 this is probably one of the first of the gardens which ,gurlitt defines as 8gardens to look out from10 in contradistinction to the earlier sort1 the 8gardens to look into40 ,mounting to the terrace1 one comes to the third division of the garden1 the wild-wood with its irregular levels1 through which a path leads to the mount1 with a little temple on its summit4 ,this is a rare feature in ,italian grounds3 in hilly ,italy there was small need of creating the artificial hillocks so much esteemed in the old ,english gardens4 ,in this case1 however1 the mount justifies its existence1 for it affords a wonderful view over the other side of ,rome and the ,campagna4 ,finally1 the general impression of the ,medici garden resolves itself into a sense of fitness1 of perfect harmony between the material at hand and the use made of it4 ,the architect has used his opportunities to the utmost2 but he has adapted nature without distorting it4 ,in some of the great ,french gardens1 at ,vaux and ,versailles for example1 one is conscious1 under all the beauty1 of the immense effort expended1 of the vast upheavals of earth1 the forced creating of effects2 but it was the great gift of the ,italian gardener to see the natural advantages of his incomparable landscape1 and to fit them into his scheme with an art which concealed itself4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,of ,,sculapius1 ,,villa ,,borghese1 ,,rome ,while ,annibale ,lippi1 an architect known by only two buildings1 was laying out the ,medici garden1 the ,palatine ,hill was being clothed with monumental terraces by a master to whom the ,italian ,renaissance owed much of its stateliest architecture4 ,vignola1 who transformed the slopes of the ,palatine into the sumptuous ,farnese gardens1 was the architect of the mighty fortress-villa of ,caprarola1 and of the garden-portico of ,mondragone2 and tradition ascribes to him also the incomparable ,lante gardens at ,bagnaia4 ,in the ,farnese gardens he found full play for his gift of grouping masses and for the scenic sense which enabled him to create such grandiose backgrounds for the magnificence of the great ,roman prelates4 ,the ,palatine gardens have been gradually sacrificed to the excavations of the ,palace of the ,csars1 but their almost theatrical magnificence is shown in the prints of ,falda and of ,percier and ,fontaine4 ,in this prodigal development of terraces1 niches1 porticoes and ramps1 one perceives the outcome of ,bramante's double staircase in the inner gardens of the ,vatican1 and ,burckhardt justly remarks that in the ,farnese gardens 8the period of unity of composition and effective grouping of masses0 finally triumphs over the earlier style4 ,no villa was ever built on this site1 and there is consequently an air of heaviness and over-importance about the stately ascent which leads merely to two domed pavilions2 but the composition would have regained its true value had it been crowned by such a palace as the ,roman cardinals were beginning to erect for themselves4 ,it is especially interesting to note the contrast in style and plan between this garden and that of the contemporaneous ,villa ,medici4 ,one was designed for display1 the other for privacy1 and the success with which the purpose of each is fulfilled shows the originality and independence of their creators4 ,it is a common error to think of the ,italian gardens of the ,renaissance as repeating endlessly the same architectural effects3 their peculiar charm lies chiefly in the versatility with which their designers adapted them to different sites and different requirements4 ,as an example of this independence of meaningless conventions1 let the student turn from the ,villa ,medici and the ,orti ,farnesiani to a third type of villa created at the same time--the ,casino of ,pope ,pius ,,iv in the ,vatican gardens1 built in #aefj by the ,neapolitan architect ,pirro ,ligorio4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,medici1 ,,rome ,this exquisite little garden-house lies in a hollow of the outer ,vatican gardens near the ,via de' ,fondamenti4 ,a hillside once clothed with a grove rises abruptly behind it1 and in this hillside a deep oblong cut has been made and faced with a retaining-wall4 ,in the space thus cleared the villa is built1 some ten or fifteen feet away from the wall1 so that its ground floor is cool and shaded without being damp4 ,the building1 which is long and narrow1 runs lengthwise into the cut1 its long faades being treated as sides1 while it presents a narrow end as its front elevation4 ,the propriety of this plan will be seen when the restricted surroundings are noted4 ,in such a small space a larger structure would have been disproportionate2 and ,ligorio hit on the only means of giving to a house of considerable size the appearance of a mere garden-pavilion4 ,percier and ,fontaine say that ,ligorio built the ,villa ,pia 8after the manner of the ancient houses1 of which he had made a special study40 ,the influence of the ,roman fresco-architecture is in fact visible in this delicious little building1 but so freely modified by the personal taste of the architect that it has none of the rigidity of the 8reconstitution10 but seems rather the day-dream of an artist who has saturated his mind with the past4 ,the faade is a mere pretext for the display of the most exquisite and varied stucco ornamentation1 in which motives borrowed from the ,roman stucchi are harmonized with endless versatility4 ,in spite of the wealth of detail1 it is saved from heaviness and confusion by its delicacy of treatment and by a certain navet which makes it more akin 7fantastic as the comparison may seem7 with the stuccoed faade of ,san ,bernardino at ,perugia than with similar compositions of its own period4 ,the angels or genii in the oblong panels are curiously suggestive of ,agostino da ,duccio1 and the pale-yellow tarnished surface of the stucco recalls the delicate hues of the ,perugian chapel4 ,illustration3 ,,courtyard ,,gate ,,of ,,the ,,villa ,,pia ,the ground floor consists of an open loggia of three arches on columns1 forming a kind of atrium curiously faced with an elaborate mosaic-work of tiny round pebbles1 stained in various colours and set in arabesques and other antique patterns4 ,the coigns of the faade are formed of this same mosaic--a last touch of fancifulness where all is fantastic4 ,the barrel-vault of the atrium is a marvel of delicate stuccature1 evidently inspired by the work of ,giovanni da ,udine at the ,villa ,madama2 and at each end stands a splendid marble basin resting on winged griffins4 ,the fragile decorations of this exquisite loggia are open on three sides to the weather1 and many windows of the upper rooms 7which are decorated in the same style7 are unshuttered and have broken panes1 so that this unique example of cinque-cento decoration is gradually falling into ruin from mere exposure4 ,the steps of the atrium1 flanked by marble ,cupids on dolphins1 lead to an oval paved court with a central fountain in which the ,cupid-motive is repeated4 ,this court is enclosed by a low wall with a seat running around it and surmounted by marble vases of a beautiful tazza-like shape4 ,facing the loggia1 the wall is broken 7as at the ,villa di ,papa ,giulio7 by a small pavilion resting on an open arcade1 with an attic adorned with stucco panels2 while at the sides1 equidistant between the villa and the pavilion1 are two vaulted porticoes1 with faades like arches of triumph1 by means of which access is obtained to curving ramps that lead to the lower level of the gardens4 ,these porticoes are also richly adorned with stucco panels1 and lined within with a mosaic-work of pebbles1 forming niches for a row of busts4 ,from the central pavilion one looks down on a tank at its base 7the pavilion being a story lower on its outer or garden side74 ,this tank is surmounted by a statue of ,thetis on a rock-work throne1 in a niche formed in the basement of the pavilion4 ,the tank encloses the pavilion on three sides1 like a moat1 and the water1 gushing from three niches1 overflows the low stone curb and drips on a paved walk slightly hollowed to receive it--a device producing a wonderful effect of coolness and superabundance of water4 ,the old gardens of the villa were on a level with the tank1 and ,falda's print shows the ingenuity of their planning4 ,these gardens have now been almost entirely destroyed1 and the bosco above the villa has been cut down and replaced by bare grass-banks dotted with shrubs4 ,the ,villa ,pia has been thus minutely described1 first1 because it is seldom accessible1 and consequently little known2 but chiefly because it is virtually not a dwellinghouse1 but a garden-house1 and thus forms a part of the actual composition of the garden4 ,as such it stands alone in ,italian architecture1 and ,burckhardt1 who notes how well its lavish ornament is suited to a little pleasure-pavilion in a garden1 is right in describing it as the 8most perfect retreat imaginable for a midsummer afternoon40 ,the outer gardens of the ,vatican1 in a corner of which the ,villa ,pia lies1 were probably laid out by ,antonio da ,sangallo the ,younger1 who died in #aedf2 and though much disfigured1 they still show traces of their original plan4 ,the sunny sheltered terrace1 espaliered with lemons1 is a good example of the 8walk for the cold season0 for which ,italian garden-architects always provided2 and the large sunken flower-garden surrounded by hanging woods is one of the earliest instances of this effective treatment of the giardino segreto4 ,in fact1 the ,vatican may have suggested many features of the later ,renaissance garden1 with its wide-spread plan which gradually came to include the park4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,pia--,,in ,,the ,,gardens ,,of ,,the ,,vatican ,the seventeenth century saw the development of this extended plan1 but saw also the decline of the architectural restraint and purity of detail which mark the generation of ,vignola and ,sangallo4 ,the ,villa ,borghese1 built in #afah by the ,flemish architect ,giovanni ,vasanzia 7,john of ,xanten71 shows a complete departure from the old tradition4 ,its elevation may indeed be traced to the influence of the garden-front of the ,villa ,medici1 which was probably the prototype of the gay pleasure-house in which ornamental detail superseded architectural composition2 but the garden-architecture of the ,villa ,borghese1 and the treatment of its extensive grounds1 show the complete triumph of the baroque4 ,the grounds of the ,villa ,borghese1 which include a park of several hundred acres1 were laid out by ,domenico ,savino and ,girolamo ,rainaldi1 while its waterworks are due to ,giovanni ,fontana1 whose name is associated with the great jeux d'eaux of the villas at ,frascati4 ,falda's plan shows that the grounds about the house have been little changed4 ,at each end of the villa is the oblong secret garden1 not sunken but walled2 in front an entrance-court1 at the back an open space enclosed in a wall of clipped ilexes against which statues were set1 and containing a central fountain4 ,beyond the left-hand walled garden are various dependencies1 including an aviary4 ,these little buildings1 boldly baroque in style1 surcharged with stucco ornament1 and not without a certain ,flemish heaviness of touch1 have yet that gaiety1 that imprvu1 which was becoming the distinguishing note of ,roman garden-architecture4 ,on a larger scale they would be oppressive2 but as mere garden-houses1 with their leafy background1 and the picturesque adjuncts of high walls1 wrought-iron gates1 vases and statues1 they have an undeniable charm4 ,illustration3 ,,gateway ,,of ,,the ,,villa ,,borghese ,the plan of the ,borghese park has been the subject of much discussion4 ,falda's print shows only the vicinity of the villa1 and it has never been decided when the outlying grounds were laid out and how much they have been modified4 ,at present the park1 with its romantic groves of umbrella-pine1 its ilex avenues1 lake and amphitheatre1 its sham ruins and little buildings scattered on irregular grassy knolls1 has the appearance of a jardin anglais laid out at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,herr ,tuckermann1 persuaded that this park is the work of ,giovanni ,fontana1 sees in him the originator of the 8sentimental0 ,english and ,german landscape-gardens1 with their hermitages1 mausoleums and temples of ,friendship2 but ,percier and ,fontaine1 from whose plan of the park his inference is avowedly drawn1 state that the grounds were much modified in #aghi by ,jacob ,moore1 an ,english landscape-gardener1 and by ,pietro ,camporesi of ,rome4 ,herr ,gurlitt1 who seems to have overlooked this statement1 declares himself unable to pronounce on the date of this 8creation already touched with the feeling of sentimentality02 but ,burckhardt1 who is always accurate1 says that the hippodrome and the temple of sculapius are of late date1 and that the park was remodelled in the style of ,poussin's landscapes in #ahdi4 ,about thirty years later than the ,villa ,borghese there arose its rival among the great ,roman country-seats1 the ,villa ,belrespiro or ,pamphily1 on the ,janiculan4 ,the ,villa ,pamphily1 designed by ,alessandro ,algardi of ,bologna1 is probably the best known and most admired of ,roman maisons de plaisance1 and its incomparable ilex avenues and pine-woods1 its rolling meadows and wide views over the ,campagna1 have enchanted many to whom its architectural beauties would not appeal4 ,the house1 with its incrustations of antique bas-reliefs1 cleverly adapted in the style of the ,villa ,medici1 but with far greater richness and license of ornament1 is a perfect example of the seventeenth-century villa1 or rather casino2 for it was really intended1 not for a residence1 but for a suburban lodge4 ,it is flanked by lateral terraces1 and the garden-front is a story lower than the other1 so that the balcony of the first floor looks down on a great sunken garden1 enclosed in the retaining-walls of the terraces1 and richly adorned with statues in niches1 fountains and parterres de broderie4 ,thence a double stairway descends to what was once the central portion of the gardens1 a great amphitheatre bounded by ilex-woods1 with a thtre d'eaux and stately flights of steps leading up to terraced ilex-groves2 but all this lower garden was turned into an ,english park in the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,one of the finest of ,roman gardens fell a sacrifice to this senseless change2 for in beauty of site1 in grandeur of scale1 and in the wealth of its ,roman sculpture1 the ,villa ,pamphily was unmatched4 ,even now it is full of interesting fragments2 but the juxtaposition of an undulating lawn and dotty shrubberies to the stately garden-architecture about the villa has utterly destroyed the unity of the composition4 ,there is a legend to the effect that ,le ,ntre laid out the park of the ,villa ,pamphily when he came to ,rome in #afgh2 but ,percier and ,fontaine1 who declare that there is nothing to corroborate the story1 point out that the ,villa ,pamphily was begun over thirty years before ,le ,ntre's visit4 ,absence of proof1 however1 means little to the average ,french author1 eager to vindicate ,le ,ntre's claim to being the father not only of ,french1 but of ,italian landscape-architecture2 and ,m4 ,riat1 in 8,l',art des ,jardins10 repeats the legend of the ,villa ,pamphily1 while ,dussieux1 in his 8,artists ,franais l',etranger10 anxious to heap further honours on his compatriot1 actually ascribes to him the plan of the ,villa ,albani1 which was laid out by ,pietro ,nolli nearly two hundred years after ,le ,ntre's visit to ,rome6 ,apparently the whole story of ,le ,ntre's laying out of ,italian gardens is based on the fact that he remodelled some details of the ,villa ,ludovisi2 but one need only compare the dates of his gardens with those of the principal ,roman villas to see that he was the pupil and not the master of the great ,italian garden-architects4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,chigi1 ,,rome ,the last great country house built for a ,roman cardinal is the villa outside the ,porta ,salaria which ,carlo ,marchionne built in #agdf for ,cardinal ,albani4 ,in spite of its late date1 the house still conforms to the type of ,roman villa suburbana which originated with the ,villa ,medici2 and it is interesting to observe that the ,roman architects1 having hit on so appropriate and original a style1 did not fear to continue it in spite of the growing tendency toward a lifeless classicalism4 ,cardinal ,albani was a passionate collector of antique sculpture1 and the villa1 having been built to display his treasures1 is appropriately planned with an open arcade between rusticated pilasters1 which runs the whole length of the faade on the ground floor1 and is continued by a long portico at each end4 ,the grounds1 laid out by ,antonio ,nolli1 have been much extolled4 ,burckhardt sees in them traces of the reaction of ,french eighteenth-century gardening on the ,italian school2 but may it not rather be that1 the ,villa ,albani being1 by a rare exception1 built on level ground1 the site inevitably suggested a treatment similar to the ,french8 ,it is hard to find anything specifically ,french1 any motive which has not been seen again and again in ,italy1 in the plan of the ,albani gardens2 and their most charming feature1 the long ilex-walk connecting the villa with the bosco1 exemplifies the ,italian habit of providing shady access from the house to the wood4 ,dussieux1 at any rate1 paid ,le ,ntre no compliment in attributing to him the plan of the ,villa ,albani2 for the great ,french artist contrived to put more poetry into the flat horizons of ,vaux and ,versailles than ,nolli has won from the famous view of the ,campagna which is said to have governed the planning of the ,villa ,albani4 ,the grounds are laid out in formal quincunxes of clipped ilex1 but before the house lies a vast sunken garden enclosed in terraces4 ,the farther end of the garden is terminated by a semicircular portico called the ,caff1 built later than the house1 under the direction of ,winckelmann2 and in this structure1 and in the architecture of the terraces1 one sees the heavy touch of that neo-,grecianism which was to crush the life out of eighteenth-century art4 ,the gardens of the ,villa ,albani seem to have been decorated by an archologist rather than an artist4 ,it is interesting to note that antique sculpture1 when boldly combined with a living art1 is one of the most valuable adjuncts of the ,italian garden2 whereas1 set in an artificial evocation of its own past1 it loses all its vitality and becomes as lifeless as its background4 ,illustration3 ,,parterres ,,on ,,terrace1 ,,villa ,,belrespiro 7,,pamphily-,,doria71 ,,rome ,one of the most charming of the smaller ,roman villas lies outside the ,porta ,salaria1 a mile or two beyond the ,villa ,albani4 ,this is the country-seat of ,prince ,don ,lodovico ,chigi4 ,in many respects it recalls the ,sienese type of villa4 ,at the entrance1 the highroad is enlarged into a semicircle1 backed by a wall with busts2 and on the axis of the iron gates one sees first a court flanked by box-gardens1 then an open archway running through the centre of the house1 and beyond that1 the vista of a long walk enclosed in high box-hedges and terminating in another semicircle with statues1 backed by an ilex-planted mount4 ,the plan has all the compactness and charm of the ,tuscan and ,umbrian villas4 ,the level ground about the house is subdivided into eight square box-hedged gardens1 four on a side1 enclosing symmetrical box-bordered plots4 ,beyond these are two little groves with statues and benches4 ,the ground falls away in farm-land below this level1 leaving only the long central alley which appears to lead to other gardens1 but which really ends in the afore-mentioned semicircle1 behind which is a similar alley1 running at right angles1 and leading directly to the fields4 ,at the other end of ,rome lies the only small ,roman garden comparable in charm with ,prince ,chigi's4 ,this is the ,priorato1 or ,villa of the ,knights of ,malta1 near ,santa ,sabina1 on the ,aventine4 ,piranesi1 in #agfe1 remodelled and decorated the old chapel adjoining the house2 and it is said that he also laid out the garden4 ,if he did so1 it shows how late the tradition of the ,renaissance garden lingered in ,italy2 for there is no trace of romantic influences in the ,priorato4 ,the grounds are small1 for the house stands on a steep ledge overlooking the ,tiber1 whence there is a glorious view of ,st4 ,peter's and the ,janiculan4 ,the designer of the garden evidently felt that it must be a mere setting to this view2 and accordingly he laid out a straight walk1 walled with box and laurel and running from the gate to the terrace above the river4 ,the prospect framed in this green tunnel is one of the sights of ,rome2 and1 by a touch peculiarly ,italian1 the keyhole of the gate has been so placed as to take it in4 ,to the left of the pleached walk lies a small flower-garden1 planted with square-cut box-trees1 and enclosed in a high wall with niches containing statues3 a real 8secret garden10 full of sunny cloistered stillness1 in restful contrast to the wide prospect below the terrace4 ,the grounds behind the ,palazzo ,colonna belong to another type1 and are an interesting example of the treatment of a city garden1 especially valuable now that so many of the great gardens within the walls of ,rome have been destroyed4 ,the ,colonna palace stands at the foot of the ,quirinal ,hill1 and the gardens are built on the steep slope behind it1 being entered by a stately gateway from the ,via ,quirinale4 ,on this upper level there is a charming rectangular box-garden1 with flower-plots about a central basin4 ,thence one descends to two narrow terraces1 one beneath the other1 planted with box and ilex1 and adorned with ancient marbles4 ,down the centre1 starting from the upper garden1 there is an elaborate chteau d'eau of baroque design1 with mossy urns and sea-gods1 terminating in a basin fringed with ferns2 and beneath this central composition the garden ends in a third wide terrace1 planted with square-clipped ilexes1 which look from above like a level floor of verdure4 ,graceful stone bridges connect this lowest terrace with the first-floor windows of the palace1 which is divided from its garden by a narrow street2 and the whole plan is an interesting example of the beauty and variety of effect which may be produced on a small steep piece of ground4 ,of the other numerous gardens which once crowned the hills of ,rome1 but few fragments remain4 ,the ,villa ,celimontana1 or ,mattei1 on the ,clian1 still exists1 but its grounds have been so ,anglicized that it is interesting chiefly from its site and from its associations with ,st4 ,philip ,neri1 whose seat beneath the giant ilexes is still preserved4 ,the magnificent ,villa ,ludovisi has vanished1 leaving only1 amid a network of new streets1 the ,casino of the ,aurora and a few beautiful fragments of architecture incorporated in the courtyard of the ugly ,palazzo ,margherita2 and the equally famous ,villa ,negroni was swept away to make room for the ,piazza delle ,terme and the ,grand ,htel4 ,the ,villa ,sacchetti1 on the slope of ,monte ,mario1 is in ruins2 in ruins the old hunting-lodge of ,cecchignola1 in the ,campagna1 on the way to the ,divino ,amore4 ,these and many others are gone or going2 but at every turn the watchful eye still lights on some lingering fragment of old garden-art--some pillared gateway or fluted vasca or broken statue cowering in its niche--all testifying to what ,rome's crown of gardens must have been1 and still full of suggestion to the student of her past4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,from ,,lower ,,garden1 ,,villa ,,belrespiro 7,,pamphily-,,doria71 ,,rome ,,villas ,,near ,,rome ,illustration3 ,,villa ,d',,este1 ,,tivoli ,,iv ,,villas ,,near ,,rome ,i ,,caprarola ,,and ,,lante ,the great cardinals did not all build their villas within sight of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,one of them1 ,alexander ,farnese1 chose a site above the mountain village of ,caprarola1 which looks forth over the ,etrurian plain strewn with its ancient cities--,nepi1 ,orte and ,civit ,castellana--to ,soracte1 rising solitary in the middle distance1 and the encircling line of snow-touched ,apennines4 ,there is nothing in all ,italy like ,caprarola4 ,burckhardt calls it 8perhaps the highest example of restrained majesty which secular architecture has achieved02 and ,herr ,gurlitt makes the interesting suggestion that ,vignola1 in building it1 broke away from the traditional palace-architecture of ,italy and sought his inspiration in ,france4 8,caprarola10 he says1 8shows the northern castle in the most modern form it had then attained4444 ,we have to do here with one of the fortified residences rarely seen save in the north1 but doubtless necessary in a neighbourhood exposed to the ever-increasing dangers of brigandage4 ,italy1 indeed1 built castles and fortified works1 but the fortress-palace1 equally adapted to peace and war1 was almost unknown40 ,the numerous illustrated publications on ,caprarola make it unnecessary to describe its complex architecture in detail4 ,it is sufficient to say that its five bastions are surrounded by a deep moat1 across which a light bridge at the back of the palace leads to the lower garden4 ,to pass from the threatening faade to the wide-spread beauty of pleached walks1 fountains and grottoes1 brings vividly before one the curious contrasts of ,italian country life in the transition period of the sixteenth century4 ,outside1 one pictures the cardinal's soldiers and bravi lounging on the great platform above the village2 while within1 one has a vision of noble ladies and their cavaliers sitting under rose-arbours or strolling between espaliered lemon-trees1 discussing a ,greek manuscript or a ,roman bronze1 or listening to the last sonnet of the cardinal's court poet4 ,the lower garden of ,caprarola is a mere wreck of overgrown box-parterres and crumbling wall and balustrade4 ,plaster statues in all stages of decay stand in the niches or cumber the paths2 fruit-trees have been planted in the flower-beds1 and the maidenhair withers in grottoes where the water no longer flows4 ,the architectural detail of the fountains and arches is sumptuous and beautiful1 but the outline of the general plan is not easy to trace2 and one must pass out of this enclosure and climb through hanging oak-woods to a higher level to gain an idea of what the gardens once were4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,caprarola ,beyond the woods a broad tapis vert leads to a level space with a circular fountain sunk in turf4 ,partly surrounding this is an architectural composition of rusticated arcades1 between which a chteau d'eau descends the hillside from a grotto surmounted by two mighty river-gods1 and forming the central motive of a majestic double stairway of rusticated stonework4 ,this leads up to the highest terrace1 which is crowned by ,vignola's exquisite casino1 surely the most beautiful garden-house in ,italy4 ,the motive of the arcades and stairway1 though fine in itself1 may be criticized as too massive and important to be in keeping with the delicate little building above2 but once on the upper terrace1 the lack of proportion is no longer seen and all the surroundings are harmonious4 ,the composition is simple3 around the casino1 with its light arcades raised on a broad flight of steps1 stretches a level box-garden with fountains1 enclosed in a low wall surmounted by the famous ,canephor seen in every picture of ,caprarola--huge sylvan figures half emerging from their stone sheaths1 some fierce or solemn1 some full of rustic laughter4 ,the audacity of placing that row of fantastic terminal divinities against reaches of illimitable air girdled in mountains gives an indescribable touch of poetry to the upper garden of ,caprarola4 ,there is a quality of inevitableness about it--one feels of it1 as of certain great verse1 that it could not have been otherwise1 that1 in ,vasari's happy phrase1 it was born1 not built4 ,not more than twelve miles from ,caprarola lies the other famous villa attributed to ,vignola1 and which one wishes he may indeed have built1 if only to show how a great artist can vary his resources in adapting himself to a new theme4 ,the ,villa ,lante1 at ,bagnaia1 near ,viterbo1 appears to have been the work not of one cardinal1 but of four4 ,raphael ,riario1 ,cardinal ,bishop of ,viterbo1 began it toward the end of the fifteenth century1 and the work1 carried on by his successors in the see1 ,cardinals ,ridolfi and ,gambara1 was finally completed in #aehh by ,cardinal ,montalto1 nephew of ,sixtus ,v1 who bought the estate from the bishops of ,viterbo and bequeathed it to the ,holy ,see4 ,percier and ,fontaine believe that several architects collaborated in the work1 but its unity of composition shows that the general scheme must have originated in one mind1 and ,herr ,gurlitt thinks there is nothing to disprove that ,vignola was its author4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,casino1 ,,villa ,,farnese1 ,,caprarola ,lante1 like ,caprarola1 has been exhaustively sketched and photographed1 but so perfect is it1 so far does it surpass1 in beauty1 in preservation1 and in the quality of garden-magic1 all the other great pleasure-houses of ,italy1 that the student of garden-craft may always find fresh inspiration in its study4 ,if ,caprarola is 8a garden to look out from10 ,lante is one 8to look into10 not in the sense that it is enclosed1 for its terraces command a wide horizon2 but the pleasant landscape surrounding it is merely accessory to the gardens1 a last touch of loveliness where all is lovely4 ,the designer of ,lante understood this1 and perceived that1 the surroundings being unobtrusive1 he might elaborate the foreground4 ,the flower-garden occupies a level space in front of the twin pavilions2 for instead of one villa there are two at ,lante1 absolutely identical1 and connected by a rampe douce which ascends between them to an upper terrace4 ,this peculiar arrangement is probably due to the fact that ,cardinal ,montalto1 who built the second pavilion1 found there was no other way of providing more house-room without disturbing the plan of the grounds4 ,the design of the flower-garden is intricate and beautiful1 and its box-bordered parterres surround one of the most famous and beautiful fountains in ,italy4 ,the abundance of water at ,lante enabled the designer to produce a great variety of effects in what ,germans call the 8water-art10 and nowhere was his invention happier than in planning this central fountain4 ,it stands in a square tank or basin1 surrounded by a balustrade1 and crossed by four little bridges which lead to a circular balustraded walk1 enclosing an inner basin from the centre of which rises the fountain4 ,bridges also cross from the circular walk to the platform on which the fountain is built1 so that one may stand under the arch of the water-jets1 and look across the garden through a mist of spray4 ,lante1 doubly happy in its site1 is as rich in shade as in water1 and the second terrace1 behind the pavilions1 is planted with ancient plane-trees4 ,above this terrace rise three others1 all wooded with plane and ilex1 and down the centre1 from the woods above1 rushes the cascade which feeds the basin in the flower-garden4 ,the terraces1 with their balustrades and obelisks and double flights of steps1 form a stately setting to this central chteau d'eau1 through which the water gushes by mossy steps and channels to a splendid central composition of superimposed basins flanked by recumbent river-gods4 ,all the garden-architecture at ,lante merits special study4 ,the twin pavilions seem plain and insignificant after the brilliant elevations of the great ,roman villas1 but regarded as part of the garden-scheme1 and not as dominating it1 they fall into their proper place1 and are seen to be good examples of the severe but pure style of the early cinque-cento4 ,specially interesting also is the treatment of the retaining-wall which faces the entrance to the grounds2 and the great gates of the flower-gardens1 and the fountains and garden-houses on the upper terraces1 are all happy instances of ,renaissance garden-art untouched by barocchismo4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,lante1 ,,bagnaia ,at ,lante1 also1 one sees one of the earliest examples of the inclusion of the woodland in the garden-scheme4 ,all the sixteenth-century villas had small groves adjacent to the house1 and the shade of the natural woodland was used1 if possible1 as a backing to the gardens2 but at the ,villa ,lante it is boldly worked into the general scheme1 the terraces and garden-architecture are skilfully blent with it1 and its recesses are pierced by grass alleys leading to clearings where pools surrounded by stone seats slumber under the spreading branches4 ,the harmonizing of wood and garden is one of the characteristic features of the villas at ,frascati2 but as these are mostly later in date than the ,lante grounds1 priority of invention may be claimed for the designer of the latter4 ,it was undoubtedly from the ,italian park of the ,renaissance that ,le ,ntre learned the use of the woodland as an adjunct to the garden2 but in ,france these parks had for the most part to be planted1 whereas in ,italy the garden-architect could use the natural woodland1 which was usually hilly1 and the effects thus produced were far more varied and interesting than those possible in the flat artificial parks of ,france4 ,,ii ,,villa ,d',,este ,of the three great villas built by cardinals beyond the immediate outskirts of ,rome1 the third and the most famous is the ,villa d',este at ,tivoli4 ,begun before #aedj by the ,cardinal ,bishop of ,cordova1 the villa became the property of ,cardinal ,ippolito d',este1 son of ,alfonso ,i of ,ferrara1 who carried on its embellishment at the cost of over a million ,roman scudi4 ,thence it passed successively to two other cardinals of the house of ,este1 who continued its adornment1 and finally1 in the seventeenth century1 was inherited by the ducal house of ,modena4 ,the villa1 an unfinished barrack-like building1 stands on a piazza at one end of the town of ,tivoli1 above gardens which descend the steep hillside to the gorge of the ,anio4 ,these gardens have excited so much admiration that little thought has been given to the house1 though it is sufficiently interesting to merit attention4 ,it is said to have been built by ,pirro ,ligorio1 and surprising as it seems that this huge featureless pile should have been designed by the creator of the ,casino del ,papa1 yet one observes that the rooms are decorated with the same fantastic pebble-work used in such profusion at the ,villa ,pia4 ,in extenuation of the ugliness of the ,villa d',este it should1 moreover1 be remembered that its long faade is incomplete1 save for the splendid central portico2 and also that1 while the ,villa ,pia was intended as shelter for a summer afternoon1 the great palace at ,tivoli was planned to house a cardinal and his guests1 including1 it is said1 8a suite of two hundred and fifty gentlemen of the noblest blood of ,italy40 ,when one pictures such a throng1 with their innumerable retainers1 it is easy to understand why the ,villa d',este had to be expanded out of all likeness to an ordinary country house4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pool1 ,,villa ,d',,este1 ,,tivoli ,the plan is ingenious and interesting4 ,from the village square only a high blank wall is visible4 ,through a door in this wall one passes into a frescoed corridor which leads to a court enclosed in an open arcade1 with fountains in rusticated niches4 ,from a corner of the court a fine intramural stairway descends to what is1 on the garden side1 the piano nobile of the villa4 ,on this side1 looking over the gardens1 is a long enfilade of rooms1 gaily frescoed by the ,zuccheri and their school2 and behind the rooms runs a vaulted corridor built against the side of the hill1 and lighted by bull's-eyes in its roof4 ,this corridor has lost its frescoes1 but preserves a line of niches decorated in coloured pebbles and stucco-work1 with gaily painted stucco caryatids supporting the arches2 and as each niche contains a semicircular fountain1 the whole length of the corridor must once have rippled with running water4 ,the central room opens on the great two-storied portico or loggia1 whence one descends by an outer stairway to a terrace running the length of the building1 and terminated at one end by an ornamental wall1 at the other by an open loggia overlooking the ,campagna4 ,from this upper terrace1 with its dense wall of box and laurel1 one looks down on the towering cypresses and ilexes of the lower gardens4 ,the grounds are not large1 but the impression produced is full of a tragic grandeur4 ,the villa towers above so high and bare1 the descent from terrace to terrace is so long and steep1 there are such depths of mystery in the infinite green distances and in the cypress-shaded pools of the lower garden1 that one has a sense of awe rather than of pleasure in descending from one level to another of darkly rustling green4 ,but it is the omnipresent rush of water which gives the ,este gardens their peculiar character4 ,from the ,anio1 drawn up the hillside at incalculable cost and labour1 a thousand rills gush downward1 terrace by terrace1 channelling the stone rails of the balusters1 leaping from step to step1 dripping into mossy conchs1 flashing in spray from the horns of sea-gods and the jaws of mythical monsters1 or forcing themselves in irrepressible overflow down the ivy-matted banks4 ,the whole length of the second terrace is edged by a deep stone channel1 into which the stream drips by countless outlets over a quivering fringe of maidenhair4 ,every side path or flight of steps is accompanied by its sparkling rill1 every niche in the retaining-walls has its water-pouring nymph or gushing urn2 the solemn depths of green reverberate with the tumult of innumerable streams4 8,the ,anio10 as ,herr ,tuckermann says1 8throbs through the whole organism of the garden like its inmost vital principle40 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,lante1 ,,bagnaia ,the gardens of the ,villa d',este were probably begun by ,pirro ,ligorio1 and1 as ,herr ,gurlitt thinks1 continued later by ,giacomo della ,porta4 ,it will doubtless never be known how much ,ligorio owed to the taste of ,orazio ,olivieri1 the famous hydraulic engineer1 who raised the ,anio to the hilltop and organized its distribution through the grounds4 ,but it is apparent that the whole composition was planned about the central fact of the rushing ,anio3 that the gardens were to be1 as it were1 an organ on which the water played4 ,the result is extraordinarily romantic and beautiful1 and the versatility with which the stream is used1 the varying effects won from it1 bear witness to the imaginative feeling of the designer4 ,when all has been said in praise of the poetry and charm of the ,este gardens1 it must be owned that from the architect's standpoint they are less satisfying than those of the other great cinque-cento villas4 ,the plan is worthy of all praise1 but the details are too complicated1 and the ornament is either trivial or cumbrous4 ,so inferior is the architecture to that of the ,lante gardens and ,caprarola that ,burckhardt was probably right in attributing much of it to the seventeenth century4 ,here for the first time one feels the heavy touch of the baroque4 ,the fantastic mosaic and stucco temple containing the water-organ above the great cascade1 the arches of triumph1 the celebrated 8grotto of ,arethusa10 the often-sketched fountain on the second terrace1 all seem pitiably tawdry when compared with the garden-architecture of ,raphael or ,vignola4 ,some of the details of the composition are absolutely puerile--such as the toy model of an ancient city1 thought to be old ,rome1 and perhaps suggested by the miniature 8,valley of ,canopus0 in the neighbouring ,villa of ,hadrian2 and there are endless complications of detail1 where the earlier masters would have felt the need of breadth and simplicity4 ,above all1 there is a want of harmony between the landscape and its treatment4 ,the baroque garden-architecture of ,italy is not without charm1 and even a touch of the grotesque has its attraction in the flat gardens of ,lombardy or the sunny ,euganeans2 but the cypress-groves of the ,villa d',este are too solemn1 and the ,roman landscape is too august1 to suffer the nearness of the trivial4 ,,iii ,,frascati ,the most famous group of villas in the ,roman country-side lies on the hill above ,frascati4 ,here1 in the middle of the sixteenth century1 ,flaminio ,ponzio built the palace of ,mondragone for ,cardinal ,scipione ,borghese4#d ,aloft among hanging ilex-woods rises the mighty pile on its projecting basement4 ,this fortress-like ground floor1 with high-placed grated windows1 is common to all the earlier villas on the brigand-haunted slopes of ,frascati4 ,an avenue of ancient ilexes 7now cruelly cut down7 leads up through the park to the villa1 which is preceded by a great walled courtyard1 with fountains in the usual rusticated niches4 ,to the right of this court is another1 flanked by the splendid loggia of ,vignola1 with the ,borghese eagles and dragons alternating in its sculptured spandrels1 and a vaulted ceiling adorned with stucchi--one of the most splendid pieces of garden-architecture in ,italy4 ,footnote #d3 ,the villa was begun by ,martino ,lunghi the ,elder1 in #aefg1 for the ,cardinal ,marco d',altemps1 enlarged by ,pope ,gregory ,,vii1 and completed by ,paul ,v and his nephew1 ,cardinal ,scipione ,borghese4 ,see ,gustav ,ebe1 8,die ,sptrenaissance40 ,illustration3 ,,cascade ,,and ,,rotunda1 ,,villa ,,aldobrandini1 ,,frascati ,at the other end of this inner court1 which was formerly a flower-garden1 ,giovanni ,fontana1 whose name is identified with the fountains of ,frascati1 constructed a thtre d'eau1 raised above the court1 and approached by a double ramp elaborately inlaid in mosaic4 ,this ornate composition1 with a series of mosaic niches simulating arcaded galleries in perspective1 is now in ruins1 and the most impressive thing about ,mondragone is the naked majesty of its great terrace1 unadorned save by a central fountain and two tall twisted columns1 and looking out over the wooded slopes of the park to ,frascati1 the ,campagna1 and the sea4 ,on a neighbouring height lies the more famous ,villa ,aldobrandini1 built for the cardinal of that name by ,giacomo della ,porta in #aeih1 and said by ,evelyn1 who saw it fifty years later1 8to surpass the most delicious places 444 for its situation1 elegance1 plentiful water1 groves1 ascents and prospects40 ,the house itself does not bear comparison with such buildings as the ,villa ,medici or the ,villa ,pamphily4 ,in style it shows the first stage of the baroque1 before that school had found its formula4 ,like all the hill-built villas of ,frascati1 it is a story lower at the back than in front2 and the roof of this lower story forms at each end a terrace level with the first-floor windows4 ,these terraces are adorned with two curious turrets1 resting on baroque basements and crowned by swallow-tailed crenellations--a fantastic reversion to medivalism1 more suggestive of 8,strawberry ,hill ,gothic0 than of the ,italian seventeenth century4 ,orazio ,olivieri and ,giovanni ,fontana are said to have collaborated with ,giacomo della ,porta in designing the princely gardens of the villa4 ,below the house a series of splendid stone terraces lead to a long tapis vert1 with an ilex avenue down its centre1 which descends to the much-admired grille of stone and wrought-iron enclosing the grounds at the foot of the hill4 ,behind the villa1 in a semicircle cut out of the hillside1 is ,fontana's famous water-theatre1 of which ,evelyn gives a picturesque description3 8,just behind the ,palace 444 rises a high hill or mountain all overclad with tall wood1 and so formed by nature as if it had been cut out by art1 from the summit of which falls a cascade 444 precipitating into a large theatre of water4 ,under this is an artificial grot wherein are curious rocks1 hydraulic organs1 and all sorts of singing birds1 moving and chirping by force of the water1 with several other pageants and surprising inventions4 ,in the centre of one of these rooms rises a copper ball that continually dances about three feet above the pavement1 by virtue of a wind conveyed secretly to a hole beneath it2 with many other devices for wetting the unwary spectators4444 ,in one of these theatres of water is an ,atlas spouting1 444 and another monster makes a terrible roaring with a horn2 but1 above all1 the representation of a storm is most natural1 with such fury of rain1 wind and thunder as one would imagine oneself in some extreme tempest40 ,illustration3 ,,garden ,,of ,,villa ,,lancellotti1 ,,frascati ,atlas and the monster are silent1 and the tempest has ceased to roar2 but the architecture of the great water-theatre remains intact4 ,it has been much extolled by so good a critic as ,herr ,gurlitt1 yet compared with ,vignola's loggia at ,mondragone or the terrace of the ,orti ,farnesiani1 it is a heavy and uninspired production4 ,it suffers also from too great proximity to the villa1 and from being out of scale with the latter's modest elevation3 there is a distinct lack of harmony between the two faades4 ,but even ,evelyn could not say too much in praise of the glorious descent of the cascade from the hilltop4 ,it was in the guidance of rushing water that the ,roman garden-architects of the seventeenth century showed their poetic feeling and endless versatility2 and the architecture of the upper garden at the ,aldobrandini merits all the admiration which has been wasted on its pompous theatre4 ,another example of a thtre d'eau1 less showy but far more beautiful1 is to be seen at the neighbouring ,villa ,conti 7now ,torlonia74 ,of the formal gardens of this villa there remain only the vast terraced stairways which now lead to an ilex-grove level with the first story of the villa4 ,this grove is intersected by mossy alleys1 leading to circular clearings where fountains overflow their wide stone basins1 and benches are ranged about in the deep shade4 ,the central alley1 on the axis of the villa1 leads through the wood to a great grassy semicircle at the foot of an ilex-clad hill4 ,the base of the hillside is faced with a long arcade of twenty niches1 divided by pilasters1 and each containing a fountain4 ,in the centre is a great baroque pile of rock-work1 from which the spray tosses into a semicircular basin1 which also receives the cascade descending from the hilltop4 ,this cascade is the most beautiful example of fountain-architecture in ,frascati4 ,it falls by a series of inclined stone ledges into four oval basins1 each a little wider than the one above it4 ,on each side1 stone steps which follow the curves of the basins lead to a grassy plateau above1 with a balustraded terrace overhanging the rush of the cascade4 ,the upper plateau is enclosed in ilexes1 and in its centre is one of the most beautiful fountains in ,italy--a large basin surrounded by a richly sculptured balustrade4 ,the plan of this fountain is an interesting example of the variety which the ,italian garden-architects gave to the outline of their basins4 ,even in the smaller gardens the plan of these basins is varied with taste and originality2 and the small wall-fountains are also worthy of careful study4 ,illustration3 ,,casino1 ,,villa ,,falconieri1 ,,frascati ,among the villas of ,frascati there are two1 less famous than the foregoing1 but even more full of a romantic charm4 ,one is the ,villa ,muti1 a mile or two beyond the town1 on the way to ,grotta ,ferrata4 ,from the gate three ancient ilex avenues lead to the villa1 the central one being on the axis of the lowest garden4 ,the ground rises gradually toward the house1 and the space between the ilex avenues was probably once planted in formal boschi1 as fragments of statuary are still seen among the trees4 ,the house1 set against the hillside1 with the usual fortress-like basement1 is two stories lower toward the basse-cour than toward the gardens4 ,the avenue to the left of the entrance leads to a small garden1 probably once a court1 in front of the villa1 whence one looks down over a mighty retaining-wall at the basse-cour on the left4 ,on the right1 divided from the court by a low wall surmounted by vases1 lies the most beautiful box-garden in ,italy1 laid out in an elaborate geometrical design1 and enclosed on three sides by high clipped walls of box and laurel1 and on the fourth by a retaining-wall which sustains an upper garden4 ,nothing can surpass the hushed and tranquil beauty of the scene4 ,there are no flowers or bright colours--only the contrasted tints of box and ilex and laurel1 and the vivid green of the moss spreading over damp paths and ancient stonework4 ,in the upper garden1 which is of the same length but narrower1 the box-parterres are repeated4 ,this garden1 at the end nearest the villa1 has a narrow raised terrace1 with an elaborate architectural retaining-wall1 containing a central fountain in stucco-work4 ,steps flanked by statues lead up to this fountain1 and thence one passes by another flight of steps to the third1 or upper1 garden1 which is level with the back of the villa4 ,this third garden1 the largest of the three1 was once also laid out in formal parterres and bosquets set with statues1 and though it has now been remodelled in the landscape style1 its old plan may still be traced4 ,before it was destroyed the three terraces of the ,villa ,muti must have formed the most enchanting garden in ,frascati1 and their plan and architectural details are worthy of careful study1 for they belong to the rare class of small ,italian gardens where grandeur was less sought for than charm and sylvan seclusion1 and where the ,latin passion for the monumental was subordinated to a desire for moderation and simplicity4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,entrance1 ,,villa ,,falconieri1 ,,frascati ,the ,villa ,falconieri1 on the hillside below ,mondragone1 is remarkable for the wealth of its garden-architecture4 ,the grounds are entered by two splendid stone gateways1 the upper one being on an axis with the villa4 ,a grass avenue leads from this gate to an arch of triumph1 a rusticated elevation with niches and statues1 surmounted by the inscription 8,horatius ,falconieris10 and giving access to the inner grounds4 ,hence a straight avenue runs between formal ilex-groves to the court before the house4 ,on the right1 above the bosco1 is a lofty wall of rock1 picturesquely overgrown by shrubs and creepers1 with busts and other fragments of antique sculpture set here and there on its projecting ledges4 ,this natural cliff sustains an upper plateau1 where there is an oblong artificial water 7called 8the lake07 enclosed in rock-work and surrounded by a grove of mighty cypresses4 ,from this shady solitude the wooded slopes of the lower park are reached by a double staircase so simple and majestic in design that it harmonizes perfectly with the sylvan wildness which characterizes the landscape4 ,this staircase should be studied as an example of the way in which the ,italian garden-architects could lay aside exuberance and whimsicality when their work was intended to blend with some broad or solemn effect of nature4 ,the grounds of the ,villa ,falconieri were laid out by ,cardinal ,ruffini in the first half of the sixteenth century1 but the villa was not built till #afdh4 ,it is one of the most charming creations of ,borromini1 that brilliant artist in whom baroque architecture found its happiest expression2 and the ,villa ,falconieri makes one regret that he did not oftener exercise his fancy in the construction of such pleasure-houses4 ,the elevation follows the tradition of the ,roman villa suburbana4 ,the centre of the ground floor is an arcaded loggia1 the roof of which forms a terrace to the recessed story above2 while the central motive of this first story is another semicircular recess1 adorned with stucco ornament and surmounted by a broken pediment4 ,the attic story is set still farther back1 so that its balustraded roof-line forms a background for the richly decorated faade1 and the building1 though large1 thus preserves the airy look and lightness of proportion which had come to be regarded as suited to the suburban pleasure-house4 ,to the right of the villa1 the composition is prolonged by a gateway with coupled columns surmounted by stone dogs1 and leading from the forecourt to the adjoining basse-cour4 ,about the latter are grouped a number of low farm-buildings1 to which a touch of the baroque gives picturesqueness4 ,in the charm of its elevation1 and in the happy juxtaposition of garden-walls and outbuildings1 the ,villa ,falconieri forms the most harmonious and successful example of garden-architecture in ,frascati4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,lancellotti1 ,,frascati ,the elevation which most resembles it is that of the ,villa ,lancellotti4 ,here the house1 which is probably nearly a century earlier1 shows the same happy use of the open loggia1 which in this case forms the central feature of the first story1 above a stately pedimented doorway4 ,the loggia is surmounted by a kind of square-headed gable crowned by a balustrade with statues1 and the faade on each side of this central composition is almost ,tuscan in its severity4 ,before the house lies a beautiful box-garden of intricate design1 enclosed in high walls of ilex1 with the inevitable thtre d'eau at its farther end4 ,this is a semicircular composition1 with statues in niches between rusticated pilasters1 and a central grotto whence a fountain pours into a wide balustraded basin2 the whole being surmounted by another balustrade1 with a statue set on each pier4 ,it is harmonious and dignified in design1 but unfortunately a fresh coating of brown and yellow paint has destroyed that exquisite patina by means of which the climate of ,italy effects the gradual blending of nature and architecture4 ,,genoese ,,villas ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,scassi1 ,,genoa ,v ,,genoese ,,villas ,genoa1 one of the most splendour-loving cities in ,italy1 had almost always to import her splendour4 ,in reading ,soprani's 8,lives of the ,genoese ,painters1 ,sculptors and ,architects10 one is struck by the fact that1 with few exceptions1 these worthies were ,genoese only in the sense of having placed their talents at the service of the merchant princes who reared the marble city above its glorious harbour4 ,the strength of the race lay in other directions2 but1 as is often the case with what may be called people of secondary artistic instincts1 the ,genoese pined for the beauty they could not create1 and in the sixteenth century they called artists from all parts of ,italy to embody their conceptions of magnificence4 ,two of the most famous of these1 ,fra ,montorsoli and ,pierin del ,vaga1 came from ,florence1 ,galeazzo ,alessi from ,perugia1 ,giovanni ,battista ,castello from ,bergamo2 and it is to the genius of these four men1 sculptor1 painter1 architect1 and stuccatore 7and each more or less versed in the crafts of the others71 that ,genoa owes the greater part of her magnificence4 ,fra ,giovanni ,angelo ,montorsoli1 the ,florentine1 must here be named first1 since his chief work1 the ,palazzo ,andrea ,doria1 built in #aebi1 is the earliest of the great ,genoese villas4 ,it is also the most familiar to modern travelers1 for the other beautiful country houses which formerly crowned the heights above ,genoa1 from ,pegli to ,nervi1 have now been buried in the growth of manufacturing suburbs1 so that only the diligent seeker after villa-architecture will be likely to come upon their ruined gardens and peeling stucco faades among the factory chimneys of ,sampierdarena or the squalid tenements of ,san ,fruttuoso4 ,the great ,andrea ,doria1 8,admiral of the ,navies of the ,pope1 the ,emperor1 the ,king of ,france and the ,republic of ,genoa10 in #aeba bought the villas ,lomellini and ,giustiniani1 on the western shore of the port of ,genoa1 and throwing the two estates together1 created a villa wherein 8to enjoy in peace the fruits of an honoured life0--so runs the inscription on the outer wall of the house4 ,fra ,montorsoli was first and foremost a sculptor1 a pupil of ,michelangelo's1 a plastic artist to whom architecture was probably of secondary interest4 ,partly perhaps for this reason1 and also because the ,villa ,doria was in great measure designed to show the frescoes of ,pierin del ,vaga1 there is little elaboration in its treatment4 ,yet the continuous open loggia on the ground floor1 and the projecting side colonnades enclosing the upper garden1 give an airy elegance to the water-front1 and make it1 in combination with its mural paintings and stucco-ornamentation1 and the sculpture of the gardens1 one of the most villa-like of ,italian villas4 ,the gardens themselves descend in terraces to the shore1 and contain several imposing marble fountains1 among them one with a statue of ,neptune1 executed in #afjj by the ,carloni1 and supposed to be a portrait of the great ,admiral4 ,the house stands against a steep terraced hillside1 formerly a part of the grounds1 but now unfortunately divided from them by the railway cutting4 ,a wide tapis vert still ascends the hill to a colossal ,jupiter 7under which the ,admiral's favourite dog is said to be buried72 and when the villa is seen from the harbour one understands how necessary this stately terraced background was to the setting of the low-lying building4 ,beautiful indeed must have been the surroundings of the villa when ,evelyn visited it in #afdd1 and described the marble terraces above the sea1 the aviary 8wherein grew trees of more than two feet in diameter1 besides cypress1 myrtles1 lentiscuses and other rare shrubs10 and 8the other two gardens full of orange-trees1 citrons and pomegranates1 fountains1 grots and statues40 ,all but the statues have now disappeared1 yet much of the old garden-magic lingers in the narrow strip between house and sea4 ,it is the glory of the ,italian garden-architects that neglect and disintegration cannot wholly mar the effects they were skilled in creating3 effects due to such a fine sense of proportion1 to so exquisite a perception of the relation between architecture and landscape1 between verdure and marble1 that while a trace of their plan remains one feels the spell of the whole4 ,when ,rubens came to ,genoa in #afjg he was so impressed by the magnificence of its great street of palaces--the lately built ,strada ,nuova--that he recorded his admiration in a series of etchings1 published in ,antwerp in #afbb under the title 8,palazzi di ,genova10 a priceless document for the student of ,renaissance architecture in ,italy1 since the ,flemish master did not content himself with mere impressionist sketches1 like ,canaletto's fanciful ,venetian etchings1 but made careful architectural drawings and bird's-eye views of all the principal ,genoese palaces4 ,as many of these buildings have since been altered1 ,rubens's volume has the additional value of preserving a number of interesting details which might never have been recovered by subsequent study4 ,the ,strada ,nuova of ,genoa1 planned by ,galeazzo ,alessi between #aeej and #aefj1 is the earliest example in ,europe of a street laid out by an architect with deliberate artistic intent1 and designed to display the palaces with which he subsequently lined it4 ,hitherto1 streets had formed themselves on the natural lines of traffic1 and individual houses had sprung up along them without much regard to the site or style of their nearest neighbors4 ,the ,strada ,nuova1 on the contrary1 was planned and carried out homogeneously1 and was thus the progenitor of all the great street plans of modern ,europe--of the ,place ,royale and the ,place ,vendme in ,paris1 the great ,place at ,nancy1 the grouping of ,palladian palaces about the ,basilica of ,vicenza1 and all subsequent attempts to create an organic whole out of a number of adjacent buildings4 ,even ,lenfant's plan of ,washington may be said to owe its first impulse to the ,perugian architect's conception of a street of palaces4 ,when ,alessi projected this great work he had open ground to build on1 though1 as ,evelyn remarked1 the rich ,genoese merchants had1 like the ,hollanders1 8little or no extent of ground to employ their estates in40 ,still1 there was space enough to permit of spreading porticoes and forecourts1 and to one of the houses in the ,strada ,nuova ,alessi gave the ample development and airy proportions of a true villa suburbana4 ,this is the ,palazzo ,parodi1 which1 like the vanished ,sauli palace1 shows1 instead of the block plan of the city dwelling1 a central corps de btiment with pavilions crowned by open loggias1 and a rusticated screen dividing the court from the street4 ,it is curious that1 save in the case of the beautiful ,villa ,sauli 7now completely rebuilt71 ,alessi did not repeat this appropriate design in the country houses with which he adorned the suburbs of ,genoa--those 8ravishing retirements of the ,genoese nobility0 which prolonged the splendour of the city for miles along the coast4 ,of his remaining villas1 all are built on the block plan1 or with but slight projections1 and rich though they are in detail1 and stately in general composition1 they lack that touch of fantasy which the ,roman villa-architects knew how to impart4 ,before pronouncing this a defect1 however1 one must consider the different conditions under which ,alessi and his fellow-architects in ,genoa had to work4 ,annibale ,lippi1 ,pirro ,ligorio1 ,giacomo della ,porta and ,carlo ,borromini reared their graceful loggias and stretched their airy colonnades against masses of luxuriant foliage and above a far-spreading landscape1 wonderful ,to the sea's edge for gloss and gloom1 while ,alessi and ,montorsoli had to place their country houses on narrow ledges of waterless rock1 with a thin coating of soil parched by the wind1 and an outlook over the serried roofs and crowded shipping of a commercial city4 ,the ,genoese gardens are mere pockets of earth in coigns of masonry1 where a few olives and bay-trees fight the sun-glare and sea-wind of a harsh winter and a burning summer4 ,the beauty of the prospect consists in the noble outline of the harbour1 enclosed in exquisitely modelled but leafless hills1 and in the great blue stretch of sea on which1 now and then1 the mountains of ,corsica float for a moment4 ,it will be seen that1 amid such surroundings1 the architectural quality must predominate over the picturesque or naturalistic4 ,not only the natural restrictions of site and soil1 but the severity of the landscape and the nearness of a great city1 made it necessary that the ,genoese villa-architects should produce their principal effects by means of masonry and sculpture1 rather than of water and verdure4 ,the somewhat heavy silhouette of the ,genoese country houses is thus perhaps partly explained2 for where the garden had to be a stone monument1 it would have been illogical to make the house less massive4 ,the most famous of ,alessi's villas lies in the once fashionable suburb of ,sampierdarena1 to the west of ,genoa4 ,here1 along the shore1 were clustered the most beautiful pleasure-houses of the merchant princes4 ,the greater number have now been turned into tenements for factory-workers1 or into actual factories1 while the beautiful gardens descending to the sea have been cut in half by the railway and planted with cabbages and mulberries4 ,amid this labyrinth of grimy walls1 crumbling loggias and waste ground heaped with melancholy refuse1 it is not easy to find one's way to the ,villa ,imperiali 7now ,scassi71 the masterpiece of ,alessi1 which stands as a solitary witness to the former 8ravishments0 of ,sampierdarena4 ,by a happy chance this villa has become the property of the municipality1 which has turned the house into a girls' school1 while the grounds are used as a public garden2 and so well have house and grounds been preserved that the student of architecture may here obtain a good idea of the magnificence with which the ,genoese nobles surrounded even their few weeks of villeggiatura4 ,to match such magnificence1 one must look to one of the great villas of the ,roman cardinals2 and1 with the exception of the ,villa ,doria ,pamphily 7which is smaller7 and of the ,villa ,albani1 it would be difficult to cite an elevation where palatial size is combined with such lavish richness of ornament4 ,alessi was once thought to have studied in ,rome under ,michelangelo2 but ,herr ,gurlitt shows that the latter was absent from ,rome from #aeaf to #aece--that is1 precisely during what must have been the formative period of ,alessi's talent4 ,the ,perugian architect certainly shows little trace of ,michelangelesque influences1 but seems to derive rather from the school of his own great contemporary1 ,palladio4 ,the ,villa ,scassi1 with its ,tuscan order below and fluted ,corinthian pilasters above1 its richly carved frieze and cornice1 and its beautiful roof-balustrade1 is perhaps more familiar to students than any other example of ,genoese suburban architecture4 ,almost alone among ,genoese villas1 it stands at the foot of a hill1 with gardens rising behind it instead of descending below it to the sea4 ,herr ,gurlitt thinks these grounds are among the earliest in ,italy in which the narrow medival hortus inclusus was blent with the wider lines of the landscape2 indeed1 he makes the somewhat surprising statement that 8all the later garden-craft has its source in ,alessi1 who1 in the ,scassi gardens1 has shown to the full his characteristic gift for preserving unity of conception in multiplicity of form40 ,illustration3 ,a ,,garden-,,niche1 ,,villa ,,scassi1 ,,genoa ,there could be no better definition of the garden-science of the ,italian ,renaissance2 and if1 as it seems probable1 the ,scassi gardens are earlier in date than the ,boboli and the ,orti ,farnesiani1 they certainly fill an important place in the evolution of the pleasure-ground2 but the ,vatican gardens1 if they were really designed by ,antonio da ,sangallo1 must still be regarded as the source from which the later school of landscape-architects drew their first inspiration4 ,it was certainly here1 and in the unfinished gardens of the ,villa ,madama1 that the earliest attempts were made to bring the untamed forms of nature into relation with the disciplined lines of architecture4 ,herr ,gurlitt is1 however1 quite right in calling attention to the remarkable manner in which the architectural lines of the ,scassi gardens have been adapted to their site1 and also to the skill with which ,alessi contrived the successive transition from the formal surroundings of the house to the sylvan freedom of the wooded hilltop beneath which it lies4 ,a broad terrace1 gently sloping with the natural grade of the land1 leads up to a long level walk beneath the high retaining-wall which sustains the second terrace4 ,in the centre of this retaining-wall is a beautifully designed triple niche1 divided by ,atlantides supporting a delicately carved entablature1 while a double flight of steps encloses this central composition4 ,niches with statues and marble seats also adorn the lateral walls of the gardens1 and on the upper terrace is a long tank or canal1 flanked by clipped shrubs and statues4 ,thence an inclined path leads to a rusticated temple with colonnes torses1 and statues in niches above fluted basins into which water once flowed2 and beyond this there is a winding ascent to the grove which crowns the hill4 ,all the architectural details of the garden are remarkable for a classical purity and refinement1 except the rusticated temple1 of which the fantastic columns are carved to resemble tree-trunks4 ,this may be of later date2 but if contemporary1 its baroque style was probably intended to mark the transition from the formality of the lower gardens to the rustic character of the naturalistic landscape above--to form1 in fact1 a gate from the garden to the park4 ,the end of the sixteenth century saw this gradual recognition of nature1 and adoption of her forms1 in the architecture and sculpture of the ,italian pleasure-house1 and more especially in those outlying constructions which connected the formal and the sylvan portions of the grounds4 8,in mid-,renaissance garden-architecture10 as ,herr ,tuckermann puts it1 8the relation between art and landscape is reversed4 ,previously the garden had had to adapt itself to architecture2 now architectural forms are forced into a resemblance with nature40 ,bernini was the great exponent of this new impulse1 though it may be traced back as far as ,michelangelo4 ,it was ,bernini who first expressed in his fountains the tremulous motion and shifting curves of water1 and who put into his garden-sculpture that rustle of plein air which the modern painter seeks to express in his landscapes4 ,to trace the gradual development of this rapprochement to nature at a period so highly artificial would be beyond the scope of these articles2 but in judging the baroque garden architecture and sculpture of the late ,renaissance1 it should be remembered that they are not the expression of a wilful eccentricity1 but an attempted link between the highly conventionalized forms of urban art and that life of the fields and woods which was beginning to charm the imagination of poets and painters4 ,on the height above the ,acqua ,sola gardens1 on the eastern side of ,genoa1 lies ,alessi's other great country house1 the ,villa ,pallavicini alle ,peschiere--not to be confounded with the ridiculous ,villa ,pallavicini at ,pegli1 a brummagem creation of the early nineteenth century1 to which the guide-books still send throngs of unsuspecting tourists1 who come back imagining that this tawdry jumble of weeping willows and ,chinese pagodas1 mock ,gothic ruins and exotic vegetation1 represents the typical 8,italian garden10 of which so much is said and so little really known4 ,the ,villa ,pallavicini alle ,peschiere 7a drawing of which may be seen in ,rubens's collection7 is in site and design a typical ,genoese suburban house of the sixteenth century4 ,the lower story has a series of arched windows between ,ionic pilasters2 above are square-headed windows with upper lights1 divided by fluted ,corinthian pilasters and surmounted by a beautiful cornice and a roof-balustrade of unusual design1 in which groups of balusters alternate with oblong panels of richly carved openwork4 ,the very slightly projecting wings have1 on both stories1 arched recesses in which heroic statues are painted in grisaille4 ,the narrow ledge of ground on which the villa is built permits only of a broad terrace in front of the house1 with a central basin surmounted by a beautiful winged figure and enclosed in stone-edged flower-beds4 ,stately flights of steps lead down to a lower terrace1 of which the mighty retaining-wall is faced by a ,doric portico1 with a recessed loggia behind it4 ,from this level other flights of steps1 flanked by great balustraded walls nearly a hundred feet high1 descend to a third terrace1 narrower than the others1 whence one looks down into lower-lying gardens1 wedged into every projecting shelf of ground between palace roofs and towering slopes of masonry2 while directly beneath this crowded foreground sparkles the blue expanse of the ,mediterranean4 ,on a higher ledge1 above the ,villa ,pallavicini1 lies the ,villa ,durazzo-,grapollo1 perhaps also a work of ,alessi's4 ,here the unusual extent of ground about the house has permitted an interesting development of landscape-architecture4 ,a fine pedimented gateway with rusticated piers gives admission to a straight avenue of plane-trees leading up to the house1 which is a dignified building with two stories1 a mezzanine and an attic4 ,the windows on the ground floor are square-headed1 with oblong sunk panels above2 while on the first floor there is a slightly baroque movement about the architraves1 and every other window is surmounted by a curious shell-shaped pediment4 ,on the garden side a beautiful marble balcony forms the central motive of the piano nobile1 and the roof is enclosed in a balustrade with alternate solid panels and groups of balusters4 ,the plan is oblong1 with slightly projecting wings1 adorned on both stories with coupled pilasters1 which on the lower floor are rusticated and above are fluted ,corinthian1 painted on the stucco surface of the house4 ,this painting of architectural ornament is very characteristic of ,genoese architecture1 and was done with such skill that1 at a little distance1 it is often impossible to distinguish a projecting architectural member from its frescoed counterfeit4 ,in front of the villa is a long narrow formal garden1 supported on three sides by a lofty retaining-wall4 ,down the middle of this garden1 on an axis with the central doorway of the faade1 runs a canal terminated by reclining figures of river-gods and marble dolphins spouting water4 ,an ilex-walk flanks it on each side1 and at the farther end a balustrade encloses this upper garden1 and two flights of steps1 with the usual central niche1 lead to the next level4 ,here there is a much greater extent of ground1 and the old formal lines have been broken up into the winding paths and shrubberies of a jardin anglais4 ,even here1 however1 traces of the original plan may be discovered1 and statues and fountains are scattered with charming effect among the irregular plantations1 while paths between clipped walls of green lead to beautiful distant views of the sea and mountains4 ,specially interesting is the treatment of the lateral retaining-walls of the upper garden4 ,in these immense ramparts of masonry have been cut tunnels decorated with shell-work and stucco ornament1 which lead up by a succession of wide steps to the ground on a level with the house4 ,one of these tunnels contains a series of pools of water1 which finally pour into a stream winding through a romantic boschetto on a lower level4 ,here1 as at the ,villa ,scassi1 all the garden-architecture is pure and dignified in style1 and there is great beauty in the broad and simple treatment of the upper terrace1 with its canal and ilex-walks4 ,from the terraces of the ,villa ,durazzo one looks forth over the hillside of ,san ,francesco d',albaro1 the suburb which balances ,sampierdarena on the east4 ,happily this charming district is still a fashionable villeggiatura1 and the houses which ,alessi built on its slopes stand above an almost unaltered landscape of garden and vineyard4 ,a fine road crosses the ,bisagno and leads up between high walls and beautiful hanging gardens1 passing at every turn some charming villa-faade in its setting of cypresses and camellias4 ,among these1 one should not overlook the exquisite little ,paradisino1 a pale-green toy villa with ,ionic pilasters and classic pediment1 perched above a high terrace on the left of the ascent4 ,just above stands the ,paradiso 7or ,villa ,cambiaso71 another masterpiece of ,alessi's1#e to which it is almost impossible to obtain admission4 ,unfortunately1 the house stands far back from the road1 above intervening terraces and groves1 and one can obtain only an imperfect glimpse of its beautiful faade1 which is as ornate and imposing as that of the ,villa ,scassi1 and of garden-walks lined with clipped hedges and statues4 ,footnote #e3 ,in his 8,baukunst der ,renaissance in ,italien0 7,part ,,ii1 ,vol4 ,v7 ,dr4 ,josef ,durm1 without citing his authority1 says that the ,villa ,paradiso was built in #afjj by ,andrea ,ceresola1 called ,vanove4 ,at ,alessi's other ,villa ,cambiaso1 higher up the hill of ,san ,francesco d',albaro1 a more hospitable welcome awaits the sight-seer4 ,here admission is easily obtained1 and it is possible to study and photograph at leisure4 ,this villa is remarkable for the beauty of the central loggia on the ground floor of the faade3 a grand ,doric arcade1 leading into a two-storied atrium designed in the severest classical spirit4 ,so suggestive is this of the great loggia of the ,villa ,bombicci1 near ,florence1 that one understands why ,alessi was called the pupil of ,michelangelo4 ,at the back of the house there is 7as at the ,villa ,bombicci7 a fine upper loggia1 and the wide spacing of the windows on the ground floor1 and the massiveness and simplicity of all the architectural details1 inevitably recall the ,tuscan style4 ,little is left of the old gardens save a tapis vert flanked by clipped hedges1 which descends to an iron grille on a lower road2 but the broad grassy space about the house has a boundary-wall with a continuous marble bench1 like that at the ,villa ,pia in the ,vatican gardens4 ,in the valley between ,san ,francesco d',albaro and the ,bisagno lies the dismal suburb of ,san ,fruttuoso4 ,here one must seek1 through a waste of dusty streets lined with half-finished tenements1 for what must once have been the most beautiful of ,genoese pleasure-houses--the ,villa ,imperiali1 probably built by ,fra ,montorsoli4 ,it stands high above broad terraced grounds of unusual extent1 backed by a hanging wood2 but all the old gardens have been destroyed1 save the beautiful upper terrace1 and even the house has suffered some injury1 though not enough to detract greatly from its general effect4 ,here at last one finds that union of lightness and majesty which characterizes the ,villa ,medici and other ,roman houses of its kind4 ,the long elevation1 with wings set back1 has a rusticated basement1 surmounted by two stories and an attic above the cornice4 ,there is no order1 but the whole faade is richly frescoed in a severe architectural style1 with niches1 statues in grisaille1 and other ornaments1 all executed by a skilful hand4 ,the windows on the first floor have broken pediments with a shell-like movement1 and those above show the same treatment1 alternating with the usual triangular pediment4 ,but the crowning distinction of the house consists in the two exquisite loggias which form the angles of the second story4 ,these tall arcades1 resting on slender columns1 give a wonderful effect of spreading lightness to the faade1 and break up its great bulk without disturbing the general impression of strength and dignity4 ,as a skilful distribution of masses the elevation of the ,villa ,imperiali deserves the most careful study1 and it is to be regretted that it can no longer be seen in combination with the wide-spread terraces which once formed a part of its composition4 ,,lombard ,,villas ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,cicogna1 ,,bisuschio ,,vi ,,lombard ,,villas ,on the walls of the muniment-room of the old ,borromeo palace in ,milan1 ,michelino1 a little-known painter of the fifteenth century1 has depicted the sports and diversions of that noble family4 ,here may be seen ladies in peaked hennins and long drooping sleeves1 with their shock-headed gallants in fur-edged tunics and pointed shoes1 engaged in curious games and dances1 against the background of ,lake ,maggiore and the ,borromean ,islands4 ,it takes the modern traveller an effort of mental readjustment to recognize in this 8clump of peakd isles0--bare ,leonardesque rocks thrusting themselves splinter-wise above the lake--the smiling groves and terraces of the ,isola ,bella and the ,isola ,madre4 ,for in those days the ,borromei had not converted their rocky islands into the hanging gardens which to later travellers became one of the most important sights of the 8grand tour02 and one may learn from this curious fresco with what seemingly hopeless problems the ,italian garden-art dealt1 and how1 while audaciously remodelling nature1 it contrived to keep in harmony with the surroundings amid which it worked4 ,the ,isola ,madre1 the largest of the ,borromean group1 was the first to be built on and planted4 ,the plain ,renaissance palace still looks down on a series of walled gardens and a grove of cypress1 laurel and pine2 but the greater part of the island has been turned into an ,english park of no special interest save to the horticulturist1 who may study here the immense variety of exotic plants which flourish in the mild climate of the lakes4 ,the ,isola ,bella1 that pyramid of flower-laden terraces rising opposite ,stresa1 in a lovely bend of the lake1 began to take its present shape about #afcb1 when ,count ,carlo ,,iii built a casino di delizie on the rocky pinnacle4 ,his son1 ,count ,vitaliano ,,iv1 continued and completed the work4 ,he levelled the pointed rocks1 filled their interstices with countless loads of soil from the mainland1 and summoned ,carlo ,fontana and a group of ,milanese architects to raise the palace and garden-pavilions above terraces created by ,castelli and ,crivelli1 while the waterworks were entrusted to ,mora of ,rome1 the statuary and other ornamental sculpture to ,vismara4 ,the work was completed in #afga1 and the island1 which had been created a baronial fief1 was renamed ,isola ,isabella1 after the count's mother--a name which euphony1 and the general admiration the place excited1 soon combined to contract to ,isola ,bella4 ,the island is built up in ten terraces1 narrowing successively toward the top1 the lowest resting on great vaulted arcades which project into the lake and are used as a winter shelter for the lemon-trees of the upper gardens4 ,each terrace is enclosed in a marble balustrade1 richly ornamented with vases1 statues and obelisks1 and planted with a profusion of roses1 camellias1 jasmine1 myrtle and pomegranate1 among which groups of cypresses lift their dark shafts4 ,against the retaining-walls oranges and lemons are espaliered1 and flowers border every path and wreathe every balustrade and stairway4 ,it seems probable1 from the old descriptions of the ,isola ,bella1 that it was originally planted much as it now appears2 in fact1 the gardens of the ,italian lakes are probably the only old pleasure-grounds of ,italy where flowers have always been used in profusion4 ,in the equable lake climate1 neither cold in winter1 like the ,lombard plains1 nor parched in summer1 like the ,south1 the passion for horticulture seems to have developed early1 and the landscape-architect was accustomed to mingle bright colours with his architectural masses1 instead of relying on a setting of uniform verdure4 ,the topmost terrace of the ,isola ,bella is crowned by a mount1 against which is built a water-theatre of excessively baroque design4 ,this architectural composition faces the southern front of the palace1 a large and not very interesting building standing to the north of the gardens2 while the southern extremity of the island terminates in a beautiful garden-pavilion1 hexagonal in shape1 with rusticated coigns and a crowning balustrade beset with statues4 ,even the narrow reef projecting into the lake below this pavilion has been converted into another series of terraces1 with connecting flights of steps1 which carry down to the water's edge the exuberant verdure of the upper gardens4 ,the palace is more remarkable for what it contains in the way of furniture and decoration than for any architectural value4 ,its great bulk and heavy outline are quite disproportionate to the airy elegance of the gardens it overlooks1 and house and grounds seem in this case to have been designed without any regard to each other4 ,the palace has1 however1 one feature of peculiar interest to the student of villa-architecture1 namely1 the beautiful series of rooms in the south basement1 opening on the gardens1 and decorated with the most exquisite ornamentation of pebble-work and seashells1 mingled with delicately tinted stucco4 ,these low vaulted rooms1 with marble floors1 grotto-like walls1 and fountains dripping into fluted conchs1 are like a poet's notion of some twilight refuge from summer heats1 where the languid green air has the coolness of water2 even the fantastic consoles1 tables and benches1 in which cool-glimmering mosaics are combined with carved wood and stucco painted in faint greens and rose-tints1 might have been made of mother-of-pearl1 coral and seaweed for the adornment of some submarine palace4 ,as examples of the decoration of a garden-house in a hot climate1 these rooms are unmatched in ,italy1 and their treatment offers appropriate suggestions to the modern garden-architect in search of effects of coolness4 ,to show how little the gardens of the ,isola ,bella have been changed since they were first laid out1 it is worth while to quote the description of ,bishop ,burnet1 that delightful artist in orthography and punctuation1 who descended into ,italy in the year #afhe1 with his 8port-mangles0 laden upon 8mullets40 8,from ,lugane10 the bishop's breathless periods begin1 8,i went to the ,lago ,maggiore1 which is a great and noble ,lake1 it is six and fifty ,miles long1 and in most places six ,miles broad1 and a hundred ,fathoms deep about the middle of it1 it makes a great ,bay to the ,westward1 and there lies here two ,islands called the ,borromean ,islands1 that are certainly the loveliest spots of ground in the ,world1 there is nothing in all ,italy that can be compared to them1 they have the full view of the ,lake1 and the ground rises so sweetly in them that nothing can be imagined like the ,terraces here1 they belong to two ,counts of the ,borromean family4 ,i was only in one of them1 which belongs to the head of the ,family1 who is ,nephew to the famous ,cardinal known by the name of ,st ,carlo4444 ,the whole ,island is a garden 444 and because the figure of the ,island was not made regular by ,nature1 they have built great ,vaults and ,portica's along the ,rock1 which are all made ,grotesque1 and so they have brought it into a regular form by laying earth over those ,vaults4 ,there is first a ,garden to the ,east that rises up from the ,lake by five rows of ,terrasses1 on the three sides of the ,garden that are watered by the ,lake1 the ,stairs are noble1 the ,walls are all covered with ,oranges and ,citrons1 and a more beautiful spot of a ,garden cannot be seen3 ,there are two buildings in the two corners of this ,garden1 the one is only a ,mill for fetching up the ,water1 and the other is a noble ,summer-,house the hexagonal pavilion all ,wainscotted1 if ,i may speak so1 with ,alabaster and ,marble of a fine colour inclining to red1 from this ,garden one goes in a level to all the rest of the ,alleys and ,parterres1 ,herb-,gardens and ,flower-,gardens1 in all which there are ,varieties of ,fountains and ,arbors1 but the great ,parterre is a surprizing thing1 for as it is well furnished with ,statues and ,fountains1 and is of a vast extent1 and justly situated to the ,palace1 so at the further-end of it there is a great ,mount1 that face of it that looks to the ,parterre is made like a ,theatre all full of ,fountains and ,statues1 the height rising up in five several rows 444 and round this ,mount1 answering to the five rows into which the ,theatre is divided1 there goes as ,many ,terrasses of noble ,walks1 the ,walls are all as close covered with ,oranges and ,citrons as any of our ,walls in ,england are with ,laurel3 the top of the ,mount is seventy foot long and forty broad1 and here is a vast ,cistern into which the ,mill plays up the water that must furnish all the ,fountains4444 ,the freshness of the ,air1 it being both in a ,lake and near the ,mountains1 the fragrant smell1 the beautiful ,prospect1 and the delighting ,variety that is here makes it such a habitation for ,summer that perhaps the whole ,world hath nothing like it40 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,isola ,,bella1 ,,lake ,,maggiore ,seventeenth-century travellers were unanimous in extolling the ,isola ,bella1 though1 as might have been expected1 their praise was chiefly for those elaborations and ingenuities of planning and engineering which give least pleasure in the present day4 ,toward the middle of the eighteenth century a critical reaction set in4 ,tourists1 enamoured of the new 8,english garden10 and of ,rousseau's descriptions of the 8bosquet de ,julie10 could see nothing to admire in the ordered architecture of the ,borromean ,islands4 ,the sentimental sight-seer1 sighing for sham ,gothic ruins1 for glades planted 8after ,poussin10 and for all the laboured naturalism of ,repton and ,capability ,brown1 shuddered at the frank artifice of the old ,italian garden-architecture4 ,the quarrel then begun still goes on1 and sympathies are divided between the artificial-natural and the frankly conventional4 ,the time has come1 however1 when it is recognized that both these manners are manners1 the one as artificial as the other1 and each to be judged1 not by any ethical standard of 8sincerity10 but on its own sthetic merits4 ,this has enabled modern critics to take a fairer view of such avowedly conventional compositions as the ,isola ,bella1 a garden in comparison with which the grounds of the great ,roman villas are as naturalistic as the age of ,rousseau could have desired4 ,thus impartially judged1 the ,isola ,bella still seems to many too complete a negation of nature2 nor can it appear otherwise to those who judge of it only from pictures and photographs1 who have not seen it in its environment4 ,for the landscape surrounding the ,borromean ,islands has precisely that quality of artificiality1 of exquisitely skilful arrangement and manipulation1 which seems to justify1 in the garden-architect1 almost any excesses of the fancy4 ,the ,roman landscape1 grandiose and ample1 seems an unaltered part of nature2 so do the subtly modelled hills and valleys of central ,italy3 all these scenes have the deficiencies1 the repetitions1 the meannesses and profusions1 with which nature throws her great masses on the canvas of the world2 but the lake scenery appears to have been designed by a lingering and fastidious hand1 bent on eliminating every crudeness and harshness1 and on blending all natural forms1 from the bare mountain-peak to the melting curve of the shore1 in one harmony of ever-varying and ever-beautiful lines4 ,the effect produced is undoubtedly one of artificiality1 of a chosen exclusion of certain natural qualities1 such as gloom1 barrenness1 and the frank ugliness into which nature sometimes lapses4 ,there is an almost forced gaiety about the landscape of the lakes1 a fixed smile of perennial loveliness4 ,and it is as a complement to this attitude that the ,borromean gardens justify themselves4 ,are they real8 ,no2 but neither is the landscape about them4 ,are they like any other gardens on earth8 ,no2 but neither are the mountains and shores about them like earthly shores and mountains4 ,they are ,armida's gardens anchored in a lake of dreams1 and they should be compared1 not with this or that actual piece of planted ground1 but with a page of ,ariosto or ,boiardo4 ,from the garden-student's point of view1 there is nothing in ,lombardy as important as the ,isola ,bella4 ,in these rich ,northern provinces1 as in the environs of ,florence1 the old gardens have suffered from the affluence of their owners1 and scarcely any have been allowed to retain their original outline4 ,the enthusiasm for the ,english garden swept over ,lombardy like a tidal wave1 obliterating terraces and grottoes1 substituting winding paths for pleached alleys1 and transforming level box-parterres into rolling lawns which turn as brown as door-mats under the scorching ,lombard sun4 ,on the lakes1 where the garden-architect was often restricted to a narrow ledge of ground between mountains and water1 these transformations were less easy1 for the new style required a considerable expanse of ground for its development4 ,along the shores of ,como especially1 where the ground rises so abruptly from the lake1 landscape effects were difficult to produce1 nor was it easy to discover a naturalistic substitute for the marble terraces built above the water4 ,even here1 however1 the narrow gardens have been as much modified as space permitted1 the straight paths have been made to wind1 and spotty flower-beds in grass have replaced the ordered box-gardens with their gravelled walks and their lemon-trees in earthen vases4 ,the only old garden on ,como which keeps more than a fragment of its original architecture is that of the ,villa d',este at ,cernobbio1 a mile or two from the town of ,como1 at the southern end of the lake4 ,the villa1 built in #aebg by ,cardinal ,gallio 7who was born a fisher-lad of ,cernobbio71 has passed through numerous transformations4 ,in #ahaf it was bought by ,caroline of ,brunswick1 who gave it the name of ,este1 and turned it into a great structure of the ,empire style4 ,here for several years the ,princess of ,wales held the fantastic court of which ,bergami1 the courier1 was ,high ,chamberlain if not ,prince ,consort2 and1 whatever disadvantages may have accrued to herself from this establishment1 her residence at the ,villa d',este was a benefit to the village1 for she built the road connecting ,cernobbio with ,moltrasio1 which was the first carriage-drive along the lake1 and spent large sums on improvements in the neighbourhood of her estate4 ,since then the villa has suffered a farther change into a large and fashionable hotel2 but though ,queen ,caroline anglicized a part of the grounds1 the main lines of the old ,renaissance garden still exist4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,gardens ,,of ,,isola ,,bella1 ,,lake ,,maggiore ,behind the ,villa d',este the mountains are sufficiently withdrawn to leave a gentle acclivity1 which was once laid out in a series of elaborate gardens4 ,adjoining the villa is a piece of level ground just above the lake1 which evidently formed the 8secret garden0 with its parterres and fountains4 ,this has been replaced by a lawn and flower-beds1 but still keeps its boundary-wall at the back1 with a baroque grotto and fountain of pebbles and shell-work4 ,above this rises a tapis vert shaded by cypresses1 and leading to the usual ,hercules in a temple4 ,the peculiar feature of this ascent is that it is bordered on each side with narrow steps of channelled stone1 down which the water rushes under overlapping ferns and roses to the fish-pool below the grotto in the lower garden4 ,beyond the formal gardens is the bosco1 a bit of fine natural woodland climbing the cliff-side1 with winding paths which lead to various summer-houses and sylvan temples4 ,the rich leafage of walnut1 acacia and cypress1 the glimpses of the blue lake far below1 the rush of a mountain torrent through a deep glen spanned by a romantic ivy-clad bridge1 make this bosco of the ,villa d',este one of the most enchanting bits of sylvan gardening in ,italy4 ,scarcely less enchanting is the grove of old plane-trees by the water-gate on the lake1 where1 in a solemn twilight of over-roofing branches1 woodland gods keep watch above the broad marble steps descending to the water4 ,in the gardens of the ,villa d',este there is much of the ,roman spirit--the breadth of design1 the unforced inclusion of natural features1 and that sensitiveness to the quality of the surrounding landscape which characterizes the great gardens of the ,campagna4 ,just across the lake1 in the deep shade of the wooded cliffs beneath the ,pizzo di ,torno1 lies another villa still more steeped in the ,italian garden-magic4 ,this is the ,villa ,pliniana1 built in #aegj by the ,count ,anguissola of ,piacenza1 and now the property of the ,trotti family of ,milan4 ,the place takes its name from an intermittent spring in the court1 which is supposed to be the one described by ,pliny in one of his letters2 and it is farther celebrated as being the coolest villa on ,como4 ,it lies on a small bay on the east side of the lake1 and faces due north1 so that1 while the villas of ,cernobbio are bathed in sunlight1 a deep green shade envelops it4 ,the house stands on a narrow ledge1 its foundations projecting into the lake1 and its back built against the almost vertical wooded cliff which protects it from the southern sun4 ,down this cliff pours a foaming mountain torrent from the ,val di ,calore1 just beneath the peak of ,torno2 and this torrent the architect of the ,villa ,pliniana has captured in its descent to the lake and carried through the central apartment of the villa4 ,the effect produced is unlike anything else1 even in the wonderland of ,italian gardens4 ,the two wings of the house1 a plain and somewhat melancholy-looking structure1 are joined by an open arcaded room1 against the back wall of which the torrent pours down1 over stonework tremulous with moss and ferns1 gushing out again beneath the balustrade of the loggia1 where it makes a great semicircle of glittering whiteness in the dark-green waters of the lake4 ,the old house is saturated with the freshness and drenched with the flying spray of the caged torrent4 ,the bare vaulted rooms reverberate with it1 the stone floors are green with its dampness1 the air quivers with its cool incessant rush4 ,the contrast of this dusky dripping loggia1 on its perpetually shaded bay1 with the blazing blue waters of the lake and their sun-steeped western shores1 is one of the most wonderful effects in sensation that the ,italian villa-art has ever devised4 ,the architect1 not satisfied with diverting a part of the torrent to cool his house1 has led the rest in a fall down the cliff immediately adjoining the villa1 and has designed winding paths through the woods from which one may look down on the bright rush of the waters4 ,on the other side of the house lies a long balustraded terrace1 between the lake and the hanging woods1 and here1 on the only bit of open and level ground near the house1 are the old formal gardens1 now much neglected1 but still full of a melancholy charm4 ,after the ,villa ,pliniana1 the other gardens of ,como seem almost commonplace4 ,all along both shores are villas which1 amid many alterations1 have preserved traces of their old garden-architecture1 such as the ,bishop of ,como's villa1 south of ,leno1 with its baroque saints and prophets perched along the garden-balustrade1 and the more famous ,villa ,carlotta at ,cadenabbia1 where the fine gateways and the architectural treatment of the terraces bear witness to the former beauty of the grounds4 ,but almost everywhere the old garden-magic has been driven out by a fury of modern horticulture4 ,the pleached alleys have made way for lawns dotted with palms and bananas1 the box-parterres have been replaced by star-shaped beds of begonias and cinerarias1 and the groves of laurel and myrtle by thickets of pampas-grass and bamboo4 ,this description applies to all the principal gardens between ,como and ,bellagio4 ,here and there1 indeed1 in almost all of them1 some undisturbed corner remains--a flight of steps wreathed in ,banksian roses and descending to a shady water-gate2 a fern-lined grotto with a stucco ,pan or ,syrinx2 a clipped laurel-walk set with marble benches1 or a classic summer-house above the lake--but these old bits are so scattered and submerged under the new order of gardening that it requires an effort of the imagination to reconstruct from them an image of what the old lake-gardens must have been before every rich proprietor tried to convert his marble terraces into an ,english park4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,cicogna1 ,,from ,,the ,,terrace ,,above ,,the ,,house ,almost to be included among lake-villas is the beautiful ,villa ,cicogna at ,bisuschio4 ,this charming old place lies in the lovely but little-known hill-country between the ,lake of ,varese and the southern end of ,lugano4 ,the house1 of which the history appears to be unknown to the present owners1 is an early ,renaissance building of great beauty1 with a touch of ,tuscan austerity in its design4 ,the plain front1 with deep projecting eaves and widely spaced windows1 might stand on some village square above the ,arno2 and the interior court1 with its two-storied arcade1 recalls1 in purity and lightness of design1 the inheritors of ,brunelleschi's tradition4 ,so few country houses of the early sixteenth century are to be found in the ,milanese that it would be instructive to learn whether the ,villa ,cicogna is in fact due to a ,tuscan hand1 or whether this mid-,italian style was at that time also prevalent in ,lombardy4 ,the villa is built against a hillside1 and the interior court forms an oblong1 enclosed on three sides by the house1 and continued on the fourth by a beautiful sunken garden1 above which runs a balustraded walk on a level with the upper story4 ,on the other side of the house is another garden1 consisting of a long terrace bounded by a high retaining-wall1 which is tunnelled down its whole length to form a shady arcaded walk lined with ferns and dripping with runnels of water4 ,at the back of the house the ground continues to rise1 and a chteau d'eau is built against the hillside2 while beyond the terrace-garden already described1 a gate leads to a hanging woodland1 with shady walks from which1 at every turn1 there are enchanting views across the southern bay of ,lake ,lugano4 ,the house itself is as interesting as the garden4 ,the walls of the court are frescoed in charming cinque-cento designs1 and the vaulted ceiling of the loggia is painted in delicate trellis-work1 somewhat in the manner of the semicircular arcade at the ,villa di ,papa ,giulio4 ,several of the rooms also preserve their wall-frescoes and much of their ,renaissance furniture1 while a series of smaller apartments on the ground floor are exquisitely decorated with stucco ornament in the light style of the eighteenth century2 so that the ,villa ,cicogna still gives a vivid idea of what an old ,italian country house must have been in its original state4 ,from the hill-villas of the lakes to the country places of the ,milanese rice-fields the descent is somewhat abrupt2 but the student of garden-architecture may mitigate the transition by carrying on his researches from the southern end of ,como through the smiling landscape of the ,brianza4 ,here there are many old villas1 in a lovely setting of vineyard and woodland1 with distant views of the ,alps and of the sunny ,lombard plain2 but of old gardens few are to be found4 ,there is one of great beauty1 belonging to the ,villa ,crivelli1 near the village of ,inverigo2 but as it is inaccessible to visitors1 only tantalizing glimpses may be obtained of its statues and terraces1 its cypress-walks and towering 8,gigante40 ,not far from ,inverigo is the ,rotonda ,cagnola1 now the property of the ,marchese d',adda1 and built in #ahac by the ,marchese ,luigi ,cagnola in imitation of the ,propyla of the ,acropolis4 ,the house is beautifully placed on a hilltop1 with glorious views over the ,alps and ,apennines1 and is curious to the student as an example of the neo-classicism of the ,empire2 but it has of course no gardens in the old sense of the term4 ,the flat environs of ,milan were once dotted with country houses1 but with the growth of the city and the increased facilities of travel1 these have been for the most part abandoned for villas in the hills or on the lakes1 and to form an idea of their former splendour one must turn to the pages of ,alberto del ,r's rare volumes4 ,here one may see in all its detail that elaborate style of gardening which the ,french landscape-gardeners developed from the 8grand manner0 acquired by ,le ,ntre in his study of the great ,roman country-seats4 ,this style1 adapted to the flat ,french landscape1 and complicated by the mannerisms and elaborations of the eighteenth century1 came back to ,italy with the ,french fashions which ,piedmont and ,lombardy were so fond of importing4 ,the time had passed when ,europe modelled itself on ,italy3 ,france was now the glass of fashion1 and1 in northern ,italy especially1 ,french architecture and gardening were eagerly reproduced4 ,in ,lombardy the natural conditions were so similar that the ,french geometrical gardens did not seem out of place2 yet even here a difference is felt1 both in the architecture and the gardens4 ,italy1 in spite of ,palladio and the ,palladian tradition1 never freed herself from the baroque4 ,her artistic tendencies were all toward freedom1 improvisation1 individual expression1 while ,france was fundamentally classical and instinctively temperate4 ,just as the ,french cabinet-makers and bronze-chisellers and modellers in stucco produced more delicate and finished1 but less personal1 work than the ,italian craftsmen1 so the ,french architects designed with greater precision and restraint1 and less play of personal invention4 ,to establish a rough distinction1 it might be said that ,french art has always been intellectual and ,italian art emotional2 and this distinction is felt even in the treatment of the pleasure-house and its garden4 ,in ,italy the architectural detail remained baroque till the end of the eighteenth century1 and the architect permitted himself far greater license in the choice of forms and the combination of materials4 ,the old villas of the ,milanese have a very strong individuality1 and it is to be regretted that so few remain intact to show what a personal style they preserved even under the most obvious ,french influences4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,pliniana1 ,,lake ,,como ,the ,naviglio1 the canal which flows through ,milan and sends various branches to the ,ticino and the ,adda1 was formerly lined for miles beyond the city with suburban villas4 ,few remain unaltered1 and even of these few the old gardens have disappeared4 ,one of the most interesting houses in ,del ,r's collection1 the ,villa ,alario 7now ,visconti di ,saliceto71 on the ,naviglio near ,cernusco1 is still in perfect preservation without and within2 and though its old gardens were replaced by an ,english park early in the nineteenth century1 their general outline is still discoverable4 ,the villa1 a stately pile built by ,ruggieri in #agcf1 looks on a court divided from the highway by a fine wall and beautiful iron gates4 ,low wings containing the chapel and offices1 and running at right angles to the main building1 connect the latter with the courtyard walls2 and arched passages through the centre of the wings lead to outlying courts surrounded by stables and other dependencies4 ,the house1 toward the forecourt1 has a central open loggia or atrium1 and the upper windows are framed in baroque architraves and surmounted by square attic lights4 ,the garden elevation is more elaborate4 ,here there is a central projection1 three windows wide1 flanked by two-storied open loggias1 and crowned by an attic with ornamental pilasters and urns4 ,this central bay is adorned with beautiful wrought-iron balconies1 which are repeated in the wings at each end of the building4 ,all the wrought-iron of the ,villa ,visconti is remarkable for its elegance and originality1 and as used on the terraces1 and in the balustrade of the state staircase1 in combination with heavy baroque stone balusters1 it is an interesting example of a peculiarly ,lombard style of decoration4 ,between the house and the ,naviglio there once lay an elaborate parterre de broderie1 terminated above the canal by a balustraded retaining-wall adorned with statues1 and flanked on each side by pleached walks1 arbours1 trellis-work and fish-ponds4 ,of this complicated pleasance little remains save the long terraces extending from each end of the house1 the old flower-garden below one of these1 and some bits of decorative sculpture incorporated in the boundary-walls4 ,the long tank or canal shown in ,del ,r's print has been turned into an irregular pond with grass-banks1 and the parterre de broderie is now a lawn2 even the balustrade has been removed from the wall along the ,naviglio4 ,still1 the architectural details of the forecourt and the terraces are worthy of careful study1 and the unusual beauty of the old villa1 with its undisturbed group of dependencies1 partly atones for the loss of its original surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,,iron ,,gates ,,of ,,the ,,villa ,,alario 7,,now ,,visconti ,,di ,,saliceto7 ,many eighteenth-century country houses in the style of the ,villa ,visconti are scattered through the ,milanese1 though few have retained so unaltered an outline1 or even such faint traces of their formal gardens4 ,the huge villa of the ,duke of ,modena at ,varese--now the ,municipio--is a good example of the same architecture1 and has a beautiful stone-and-iron balustrade and many wrought-iron balconies in the same style as those at ,cernusco2 and its gardens1 ascending the hillside behind the house1 and now used as a public park1 must once have been very fine4 ,the ,grand ,htel of ,varese is also an old villa1 and its architectural screen and projecting wings form an unusually characteristic faade of the same period4 ,here1 again1 little remains of the old garden but a charming upper terrace2 but the interior decorations of many of the rooms are undisturbed1 and are exceptionally interesting examples of the more delicate ,italian baroque4 ,another famous country house1 ,castellazzo d',arconate1 at ,bollate1 is even more palatial than the ,duke of ,modena's villa at ,varese1 and1 while rather heavy in general outline1 has an interesting interior faade1 with a long arcade resting on coupled columns1 and looking out over a stately courtyard with statues4 ,this villa is said to have preserved a part of its old gardens1 but it is difficult of access1 and could not be visited at the time when the material for these chapters was collected4 ,illustration3 ,,railing ,,of ,,the ,,villa ,,alario ,,villas ,,of ,,venetia ,illustration3 ,,gateway ,,of ,,the ,,botanic ,,garden1 ,,padua ,,vii ,,villas ,,of ,,venetia ,writers on ,italian architecture have hitherto paid little attention to the villa-architecture of ,venetia4 ,it is only within the last few years that ,english and ,american critics have deigned to recognize any architectural school in ,italy later than that of ,vignola and ,palladio1 and even these two great masters of the sixteenth century have been held up as examples of degeneracy to a generation bred in the ,ruskinian code of art ethics4 ,in ,france1 though the influence of ,viollet-le-,duc was nearly as hostile as ,ruskin's to any true understanding of ,italian art1 the ,latin instinct for form has asserted itself in a revived study of the classic tradition2 but ,french writers on architecture have hitherto confined themselves chiefly to the investigation of their national styles4 ,it is only in ,germany that ,italian architecture from ,palladio to ,juvara has received careful and sympathetic study4 ,burckhardt pointed the way in his 8,cicerone0 and in 8,the ,architecture of the ,renaissance in ,italy02 ,herr ,gustav ,ebe followed with an interesting book on the late ,renaissance throughout ,europe2 and ,herr ,gurlitt has produced the most masterly work yet written on the subject1 his 8,history of the ,baroque ,style in ,italy40 ,these authors1 however1 having to work in a new and extensive field1 have necessarily been obliged to restrict themselves to its most important divisions4 ,burckhardt's invaluable 8,renaissance ,architecture10 though full of critical insight1 is rather a collection of memoranda than a history of the subject2 and even ,herr ,gurlitt1 though he goes into much greater detail1 cannot forsake the highroad for the by-paths1 and has consequently had to pass by many minor ramifications of his subject4 ,this is especially to be regretted in regard to the villa-architecture of ,venetia1 the interest and individuality of which he fully appreciates4 ,he points out that the later ,venetian styles spring from two sources1 the schools of ,palladio and of ,sansovino4 ,the former1 greatly as his work was extolled1 never had the full sympathy of the ,venetians4 ,his art was too pure and severe for a race whose taste had been formed on the fantastic mingling of ,gothic and ,byzantine and on the glowing decorations of the greatest school of colourists the world has known4 ,it was from the warm and picturesque art of ,sansovino and ,longhena that the ,italian baroque naturally developed2 and though the authority of ,palladio made itself felt in the official architecture of ,venetia1 its minor constructions1 especially the villas and small private houses1 seldom show any trace of his influence save in the grouping of their windows4 ,so little is known of the ,venetian villa-builders that this word as to their general tendencies must replace the exact information which still remains to be gathered4 ,many delightful examples of the ,venetian maison de plaisance are still to be found in the neighbourhood of ,padua and ,treviso1 along the ,brenta1 and in the country between the ,euganeans and the ,monti ,berici4 ,unfortunately1 in not more than one or two instances have the old gardens of these houses been preserved in their characteristic form2 and1 by a singular perversity of fate1 it happens that the villas which have kept their gardens are not typical of the ,venetian style4 ,one of them1 the castle of ,cattajo1 at ,battaglia in the ,euganean ,hills1 stands in fact quite apart from any contemporary style4 ,this extraordinary edifice1 built for the ,obizzi of ,venice about #aeej1 is said to have been copied from the plans of a castle in ,tartary brought home by ,marco ,polo4 ,it shows1 at any rate1 a deliberate reversion1 in mid-cinque-cento1 to a kind of ,gothicism which had become obsolete in northern ,italy three hundred years earlier2 and the mingling of this rude style with classic detail and ,renaissance sculpture has produced an effect picturesque enough to justify so quaint a tradition4 ,cattajo stands on the edge of the smiling ,euganean country1 its great fortress-like bulk built up against a wooded knoll with a little river at its base4 ,crossing the river by a bridge flanked by huge piers surmounted with statues1 one reaches a portcullis in a massive gatehouse1 also adorned with statues4 ,the portcullis opens on a long narrow court planted with a hedge of clipped euonymus2 and at one end a splendid balustraded stairway cordon leads up to a flagged terrace with yew-trees growing between the flags4 ,to the left of this terrace is a huge artificial grotto1 with a stucco ,silenus lolling on an elephant1 and other life-size animals and figures1 a composition recalling the zological wonders of the grotto at ,castello4 ,this ,italian reversion to the grotesque1 at a time when it was losing its fascination for the ,northern races1 might form the subject of an interesting study of race sthetics4 ,when the coarse and sombre fancy of medival ,europe found expression in grinning gargoyles and baleful or buffoonish images1 ,italian art held serenely to the beautiful1 and wove the most tragic themes into a labyrinth of lovely lines2 but in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 when the classical graces had taken possession of northern ,europe1 the chimerical animals1 the gnomes and goblins1 the gargoyles and broomstick-riders1 fled south of the ,alps1 and reappeared in the queer fauna of ,italian grottoes and in the leering dwarfs and satyrs of the garden-walk4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,at ,,val ,,san ,,zibio1 ,,near ,,battaglia ,from the yew-tree terrace at ,cattajo an arcaded loggia gives access to the interior of the castle1 which is a bewilderment of low-storied passageways and long flights of steps hewn in the rock against which the castle is built4 ,from a vaulted tunnel of stone one passes abruptly into a suite of lofty apartments decorated with seventeenth-century frescoes and opening on a balustraded terrace guarded by marble divinities2 or1 taking another turn1 one finds one's self in a sham ,gothic chapel or in a medival chemin de ronde on the crenelated walls4 ,this fantastic medley of styles1 in conjunction with the unusual site of the castle1 has produced several picturesque bits of garden1 wedged between the walls and the hillside1 or on the terraces overhanging the river2 but from the architectural point of view1 the most interesting thing about ,cattajo is the original treatment of the great stairway in the court4 ,six or seven miles from ,battaglia1 in a narrow and fertile valley of the ,euganeans1 lies one of the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in ,italy4 ,this is the garden of the villa at ,val ,san ,zibio4 ,on approaching it1 one sees1 across a grassy common1 a stately and ornate arch of triumph with a rusticated faade and a broken pediment enriched with statues4 ,this arch1 which looks as though it were the principal entrance-gate1 appears to have been placed in the high boundary-wall merely in order to afford from the highway a vista of the chteau d'eau which is the chief feature of the gardens4 ,the practice of breaking the wall to give a view of some special point in the park or garden was very common in ,france1 but is seldom seen in ,italy1 though there is a fine instance of it in the open grille below the ,villa ,aldobrandini at ,frascati4 ,the house at ,val ,san ,zibio is built with its back to the highroad1 and is an unpretentious structure of the seventeenth century1 not unlike the ,villa de' ,gori at ,siena1 though the ,palladian grouping of its central windows shows the nearness of ,venice4 ,it looks on a terrace enclosed by a balustrade1 whence a broad flight of steps descends to the gently sloping gardens4 ,they are remarkable for their long pleached alleys of beech1 their wide tapis verts1 fountains1 marble benches and statues charmingly placed in niches of clipped verdure4 ,in one direction is a little lake1 in another a 8mount0 crowned by a statue1 while a long alley leads to a well-preserved maze with a raised platform in its centre4 ,these labyrinths are now rarely found in ,italian gardens1 and were probably never as popular south of the ,alps as in ,holland and ,england4 ,the long chteau d'eau1 with its couchant ,nereids and conch-blowing ,tritons1 descends a gentle slope instead of a steep hill1 and on each side high beech-hedges enclose tall groves of deciduous trees4 ,these hedges are characteristic of the north ,italian gardens1 where the plane1 beech and elm replace the 8perennial greens0 of the south2 and there is one specially charming point at ,val ,san ,zibio1 where four grass-alleys walled with clipped beeches converge on a stone basin sunk in the turf1 with four marble putti seated on the curb1 dangling their feet in the water4 ,an added touch of quaintness is given to the gardens by the fact that the old waterworks are still in action1 so that the unwary visitor1 assailed by fierce jets of spray darting up at him from the terrace steps1 the cracks in the flagstones1 and all manner of unexpected ambushes1 may form some idea of the aquatic surprises which afforded his ancestors such inexhaustible amusement4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,botanic ,,garden ,,of ,,padua ,there are few gardens in ,italy comparable with ,val ,san ,zibio2 but in ,padua there is one of another sort which has kept something of the same ancient savor4 ,this is the famous ,botanic ,garden1 founded in #aede1 and said to be the oldest in ,italy4 ,the accompanying plan1 though roughly sketched from memory1 will give some idea of its arrangement4 ,outside is a grove of exotic trees1 which surrounds a large circular space enclosed in a beautiful old brick wall surmounted by a marble balustrade and adorned alternately with busts and statues4 ,the wall is broken by four gateways1 one forming the principal entrance from the grove1 the other three opening on semicircles in which statues are set against a background of foliage4 ,in the garden itself the beds for 8simples0 are enclosed in low iron railings1 within which they are again subdivided by stone edgings1 each subdivision containing a different species of plant4 ,padua1 in spite of its flat surroundings1 is one of the most picturesque cities of upper ,italy2 and the seeker after gardens will find many charming bits along the narrow canals1 or by the sluggish river skirting the city walls4 ,indeed1 one might almost include in a study of gardens the beautiful ,prato della ,valle1 the public square before the church of ,santa ,giustina1 with its encircling canal crossed by marble bridges1 its range of baroque statues of 8worthies10 and its central expanse of turf and trees4 ,there is no other example in ,italy of a square laid out in this park-like way1 and the ,prato della ,valle would form an admirable model for the treatment of open spaces in a modern city4 ,illustration3 ,,val ,,san ,,zibio1 ,,near ,,battaglia ,a few miles from ,padua1 at ,ponte di ,brenta1 begins the long line of villas which follows the course of the river to its outlet at ,fusina4 ,dante speaks in the 8,inferno0 of the villas and castles on the ,brenta1 and it continued the favourite villeggiatura of the ,venetian nobility till the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,there dwelt the ,signor ,pococurante1 whom ,candide visited on his travels2 and of flesh-and-blood celebrities many might be cited1 from the famous ,procuratore ,pisani to ,byron1 who in #ahai carried off the ,guiccioli to his villa at ,la ,mira on the ,brenta4 ,the houses still remain almost line for line as they were drawn in ,gianfrancesco ,costa's admirable etchings1 8,le ,delizie del ,fiume ,brenta10 published in #agej2 but unfortunately almost all the old gardens have disappeared4 ,one1 however1 has been preserved1 and as it is the one most often celebrated by travellers and poets of the eighteenth century1 it may be regarded as a good example of a stately ,venetian garden4 ,this is the great villa built at ,str1 in #agcf1 for ,alvise ,pisani1 procurator of ,st4 ,mark's1 by the architects ,prati and ,frigimelica4 ,in size and elegance it far surpasses any other house on the ,brenta4 ,the prevailing note of the other villas is one of simplicity and amenity4 ,they stand near each other1 either on the roadside or divided from it by a low wall bordered with statues and a short strip of garden1 also thickly peopled with nymphs1 satyrs1 shepherdesses1 and the grotesque and comic figures of the ,commedia dell' ,arte2 unassuming villini for the most part1 suggesting a life of suburban neighbourliness and sociability4 ,but the ,villa ,pisani is a palace4 ,its majestic faade1 with pillared central corps de btiment and far-reaching wings1 stands on the highway bordering the ,brenta2 behind are the remains of the old formal gardens1 and on each side1 the park extends along the road1 from which it is divided by a high wall and several imposing gateways4 ,the palace is built about two inner courts1 and its innumerable rooms are frescoed by the principal ,italian decorative painters of the day1 while the great central saloon has one of ,tiepolo's most riotously splendid ceilings4 ,fortunately for the preservation of these treasures1 ,str1 after being the property of ,eugne ,beauharnais1 was acquired by the ,italian government1 and is now a 8villa nazionale10 well kept up and open to the public4 ,illustration3 ,,gateway--,,villa ,,pisani1 ,,str ,in the etching of ,costa1 an elaborate formal garden with parterres de broderie is seen to extend from the back of the villa to the beautifully composed stables which face it4 ,this garden has unfortunately been replaced by a level meadow1 flanked on both sides by boschi1 with long straight walks piercing the dense green leafage of elm1 beech and lime4 ,here and there fragments of garden-architecture have survived the evident attempt to convert the grounds into a jardin anglais of the sentimental type4 ,there is still a maze1 with a fanciful little central tower ascended by winding stairs2 there is a little wooded 8mount10 with a moat about it1 and a crowning temple2 and there are various charming garden-pavilions1 orangeries1 gardeners' houses1 and similar small constructions1 all built in the airy and romantic style of which the ,italian villa-architect had not yet lost the secret4 ,architecturally1 however1 the stables are perhaps the most interesting buildings at ,str4 ,their classical central faade is flanked by two curving wings1 forming charmingly proportioned lemon-houses1 and in the stables themselves the stalls are sumptuously divided by columns of red marble1 each surmounted by the gilded effigy of a horse4 ,from ,str to ,fusina the shores of the ,brenta are lined with charming pleasure-houses1 varying in size from the dignified villa to the little garden-pavilion1 and all full of interest and instruction to the student of villa-architecture2 but unhappily no traces of their old gardens remain1 save the statues which once peopled the parterres and surmounted the walls4 ,several of the villas are attributed to ,palladio1 but only one is really typical of his style3 the melancholy ,malcontenta1 built by the ,foscari1 and now standing ruinous and deserted in a marshy field beside the river4 ,the ,malcontenta has all the chief characteristics of ,palladio's manner3 the high basement1 the projecting pillared portico1 the general air of classical correctness1 which seems a little cold beside the bright and graceful villa-architecture of ,venetia4 ,burckhardt1 with his usual discernment1 remarks in this connection that it was a fault of ,palladio's to substitute for the recessed loggia of the ,roman villa a projecting portico1 thus sacrificing one of the most characteristic and original features of the ,italian country house to a not particularly appropriate adaptation of the ,greek temple porch4 ,but ,palladio was a great artist1 and if he was great in his civic architecture rather than in his country houses1 if his stately genius lent itself rather to the grouping of large masses than to the construction of pretty toys1 yet his most famous villa is a distinct and original contribution to the chief examples of the ,italian pleasure-house4 ,the ,villa ,capra1 better known as the ,rotonda1 which stands on a hill above ,vicenza1 has been criticized for having four fronts instead of one front1 two sides and a back4 ,it is1 in fact1 a square building with a projecting ,ionic portico on each face--a plan open to the charge of monotony1 but partly justified in this case by the fact that the house is built on the summit of a knoll from which there are four views1 all equally pleasing1 and each as it were entitled to the distinction of having a loggia to itself4 ,still1 it is certain that neither in the ,rotonda nor in his other villas did ,palladio hit on a style half as appropriate or pleasing as the typical manner of the ,roman villa-architects1 with its happy mingling of freedom and classicalism1 its wonderful adaptation to climate and habits of life1 its capricious grace of detail1 and its harmony with the garden-architecture which was designed to surround it4 ,illustration3 ,,villa ,,valmarana1 ,,vicenza ,the ,villa ,capra has not preserved its old gardens1 and at the ,villa ,giacomelli1 at ,maser1 ,palladio's other famous country house1 the grounds have been so modernized and stripped of all their characteristic features that it is difficult to judge of their original design2 but one feels that all ,palladio's rural architecture lacked that touch of fancy and freedom which1 in the ,roman school1 facilitated the transition of manner from the house to the garden-pavilion1 and from the pavilion to the half-rustic grotto and the woodland temple4 ,the ,villa ,valmarana1 also at ,vicenza1 on the ,monte ,berico1 not far from the ,rotonda1 has something of the intimate charm lacking in the latter4 ,the low and simply designed house is notable only for the charming frescoes with which ,tiepolo adorned its rooms2 but the beautiful loggia in the garden is attributed to ,palladio1 and this1 together with the old beech-alleys1 the charming frescoed fountain1 the garden-wall crowned by ,venetian grotesques1 forms a composition of exceptional picturesqueness4 ,the beautiful country-side between ,vicenza and ,verona is strewn with old villas1 many of which would doubtless repay study2 but there are no gardens of note in this part of ,veneto1 except the famous ,giusti gardens at ,verona1 probably better known to sightseers than any others in northern ,italy4 ,in spite of all their charm1 however1 the dusky massing of their old cypresses1 and their winding walks along the cliff-side1 the ,giusti gardens preserve few traces of their original design1 and are therefore not especially important to the student of ,italian garden-architecture4 ,more interesting in this connection is the ,villa ,cuzzano1 about seven miles from ,verona1 a beautiful old house standing above a terrace-garden planted with an elaborate parterre de broderie4 ,behind the villa is a spacious court bounded by a line of low buildings with a central chapel4 ,the interior of the house has been little changed1 and is an interesting example of north ,italian villa planning and decoration4 ,the passion of the ,italian architects for composition and continuity of design is seen in the careful placing of the chapel1 which is exactly on an axis with the central saloon of the villa1 so that1 standing in the chapel1 one looks across the court1 through this lofty saloon1 and out on the beautiful hilly landscape beyond4 ,it was by such means that the villa-architects obtained1 with simple materials and in a limited space1 impressions of distance1 and sensations of the unexpected1 for which one looks in vain in the haphazard and slipshod designs of the present day4 ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,mentioned ,,italian ,gianfrancesco ,costa ,le ,delizie del ,fiume ,brenta4 #agej4 ,giovanni ,falda ,giardini di ,roma4 ,n4 d4 ,peter ,paul ,rubens ,palazzi di ,genova4 #afbb4 ,rafaello ,soprani ,vite de' ,pittori1 ,scultori ed ,architetti ,genovesi4 7,second edition1 revised1 enlarged and supplied with notes by ,c4 ,g4 ,ratti4 #agfh47 ,giuseppe ,zocchi ,vedute delle ,ville e d'altri luoghi della ,toscana4 #agdd4 ,,french ,le ,prsident de ,brosses ,lettres ,familires crites d',italie en #agci et #agdj4 ,l4 ,dussieux ,artistes ,franais a l',etranger4 ,michel de ,montaigne ,journal du ,voyage en ,italie par la ,suisse et l',allemagne en #aehj et #aeha4 ,percier et ,fontaine ,choix des plus clbres ,maisons de ,plaisance de ,rome et de ses ,environs4 #ahji4 ,marc ,antonio del ,r ,maisons de ,plaisance de l',etat de ,milan4 ,milan4 #agdc4 ,georges ,riat ,l',art des ,jardins4 ,n4 d4 ,eugne ,emmanuel ,dictionnaire ,raisonn de l',architecture ,viollet-le-,duc ,franaise4 #aheh4 ,,german ,jacob ,burckhardt ,der ,cicerone4 #aija4 ,jacob ,burckhardt ,geschichte der ,renaissance in ,italien4 #ahia4 ,josef ,durm ,die ,baustile3 ,die ,baukunst der ,renaissance in ,italien4 #aijc4 ,gustav ,ebe ,die ,sptrenaissance4 #ahhf4 ,cornelius ,gurlitt ,geschichte des ,barockstils in ,italien4 #ahhg4 ,w4 ,c4 ,tuckermann ,die ,gartenkunst der ,italienischen ,renaissance-,zeit4 #ahhd4 ,,english ,michael ,bryan ,dictionary of ,painters and ,engravers1 biographical and critical4 ,revised and enlarged by ,robert ,edmund ,graves1 ,b4,a41 #ahhf4 ,g4 ,burnet1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop ,some ,letters1 containing an ,account of what of ,salisbury4 seemed most remarkable in ,switzerland1 ,italy1 etc4 #afhf4 ,john ,evelyn ,diary1 #afdd4 ,,architects ,,and ,,landscape-,,gardeners ,,mentioned ,,alessi 7,,galeazzo7 #aeab-aegb ,though ,alessi was a native of ,perugia his best-known buildings were erected in ,genoa4 ,among them are the ,villa ,pallavicini alle ,peschiere1 the ,villa ,imperiali 7now ,scassi71 the ,villa ,giustiniani 7now ,cambiaso71 the ,palazzo ,parodi1 the public granaries1 and the church of the ,madonna di ,carignano4 ,he also laid out the ,strada ,nuova in ,genoa4 ,his chief works in other places are3 the ,palazzo ,marin 7now the ,municipio7 in ,milan2 the ,palazzo ,antinori1 and the front of the church of ,s4 ,maria del ,popolo at ,perugia2 and the church of the ,madonna degli ,angeli near ,assisi4 ,,algardi 7,,alessandro7 #afjb-afed ,algardi1 a ,bolognese architect1 was also distinguished as an engraver and sculptor1 and was noted for his figures of children4 ,he built the ,villa ,belrespiro or ,pamphily on the ,janiculan1 and the ,villa ,sauli1 both in ,rome4 ,,ammanati 7,,bartolommeo7 #aeaa-aeib ,ammanati1 the pupil of ,bandinelli and ,sansovino1 was one of the most distinguished ,florentine architects of the sixteenth century1 and was also noted for his garden-sculpture4 ,in ,florence some of his best work is seen in the ,boboli garden and in the court of the ,palazzo ,pitti1 while the bridge of the ,s4 ,trinit is considered his masterpiece4 ,in ,rome he built the fine faades of the ,palazzo ,ruspoli and of the ,collegio ,romano4 ,the rusticated loggia of the ,villa ,fonte all' ,erta is ascribed to him4 ,,bernini 7,,giovanni ,,lorenzo7 #aeih-afhj ,bernini1 a ,neapolitan by birth1 was the greatest ,italian architect and sculptor of the seventeenth century4 ,one of his masterpieces in architecture is the church of ,s4 ,andrea al ,noviziato on the ,quirinal1 and among his other works in ,rome are3 the piazza and colonnade of ,st4 ,peter's1 the ,scala ,regia in the ,vatican1 the ,palazzo di ,monte ,citorio1 and the fountains of ,trevi and the ,tritone2 at ,pistoja the ,villa ,rospigliosi1 at ,terni the cathedral1 and at ,ravenna the ,porta ,nuova4 ,,borromini 7,,francesco7 #aeii-affg ,borromini1 a pupil of ,maderna1 was1 next to ,bernini1 the most original and brilliant exponent of baroque architecture in ,italy4 ,he was born in ,lombardy1 but worked principally in ,rome4 ,among his best-known buildings are the church of ,st4 ,agnes on the ,piazza ,navona1 that of ,san ,carlo alle quattro fontane1 and the ,college of the ,propaganda ,fide4 ,in conjunction with ,bernini and ,maderna1 he built the ,palazzo ,barberini in ,rome4 ,some of his best work is seen in the ,villa ,falconieri at ,frascati4 ,,bramante 7,,donato7 #addd-aead ,bramante was born at ,urbino1 but executed all his early work in ,milan1 producing the church of ,s4 ,maria delle ,grazie1 the ,ospedale ,maggiore1 and the sacristy of ,san ,satiro1 which he not only built1 but decorated internally4 ,in ,lombardy the early ,renaissance of building is called the ,bramantesque style4 ,bramante's works in ,rome are3 the ,tempietto of ,san ,pietro in ,montorio1 the palace of the ,cancelleria1 a part of the ,vatican1 and a part of the ,palazzo di ,san ,biagio4 ,,brown 7,,lancelot7 #agae-aghc ,lancelot ,brown1 known as 8,capability ,brown10 a native of ,northumberland1 began his career in a kitchen-garden1 but1 though without artistic training and unable to draw1 he became for a time a popular designer of landscape-gardens4 ,he was appointed ,royal ,gardener at ,hampton ,court1 and laid out the lake at ,blenheim4 ,he was considered to excel in water-gardens4 ,,buontalenti 7,,bernardo ,,timante7 #aecf-afjh ,buontalenti1 one of the leading ,florentine architects of the sixteenth century1 was also distinguished as a sculptor and painter4 ,he built the villa of ,pratolino and carried on the planning of the ,boboli garden4 ,his other works in ,florence are3 the faades of the ,palazzi ,strozzi and ,riccardi1 the ,palazzo ,acciajuoli 7now ,corsini71 the corridor leading from the ,uffizi to the ,pitti ,palace1 and the casino behind ,san ,marco4 ,at ,siena1 ,buontalenti built the ,palazzo ,reale1 and at ,pisa1 the ,loggia de' ,banchi4 ,,camporesi 7,,pietro7 ,b4 ----1 d4 #agha ,camporesi1 a ,roman architect1 is mentioned as working with 8,moore of ,rome0 on the grounds of the ,villa ,borghese4 ,,carlone ,several brothers of this name lived in ,genoa between #aeej and #afej4 ,they were known as sculptors1 painters and gilders1 and workers in stucco4 ,the beautiful ceiling of the church of the ,santissima ,annunziata in ,genoa is known to be by one of the ,carloni4 ,,castelli 7,,carlo7 ,,xvii ,century ,castelli1 who completed the faade of ,santa ,maria alla ,porta1 in ,milan1 was an architect of the school of ,maderna4 ,with ,crivelli he laid out the gardens of the ,isola ,bella1 near ,como4 ,,castello 7,,giovanni ,,battista7 ,,called ,,il ,,bergamasco #aeji-aegi ,giovanni ,castello of ,bergamo was a pupil of ,alessi's and distinguished himself in fresco-painting and sculpture4 ,in ,genoa he remodelled the ,palazzo ,pallavicini 7now ,cataldi7 and built the ,palazzo ,imperiali4 ,soprani 78,vite de' ,pittori1 ,scultori ed ,architetti ,genovesi07 says that ,il ,bergamasco was court-architect to ,philip ,,ii of ,spain and worked on the ,escorial4 ,bryan1 in his ,dictionary of ,painters and ,engravers1 states that ,il ,bergamasco was employed on the ,prado by ,charles ,v1 while his son worked for ,philip ,,ii4 ,,crivelli ,,xvii ,century ,this landscape-gardener worked with ,carlo ,castelli on the grounds of the ,isola ,bella1 near ,como4 ,,ferri 7,,antonio7 ,,xvii ,century ,ferri1 a ,florentine architect1 built the ,villa ,corsini near ,florence1 and remodelled the ,palazzo ,corsini on the ,lungarno4 ,,fontana 7,,carlo7 #afcd-agad ,fontana1 one of the most versatile and accomplished architects of his day1 was born at ,bruciato1 near ,milan4 ,he was called to ,rome as architect of ,st4 ,peter's1 and collaborated with ,bernini on several occasions4 ,in ,rome he built the palace of ,monte ,citorio1 the faade of ,san ,marcello1 and the ,palazzo ,torlonia4 ,as a villa-architect his most famous creation is the ,garden ,palace of ,prince ,liechtenstein in ,vienna4 ,he built the palace on the ,isola ,bella1 and the ,villa ,chigi1 at ,cetinale1 near ,siena1 is also attributed to him4 ,he was the author of works on the ,vatican and on the antiquities of ,rome4 ,,fontana 7,,giovanni7 #aedf-afad ,giovanni ,fontana1 of ,melide1 near ,lugano1 excelled in everything relating to hydraulic work4 ,at the ,villa ,borghese in ,rome1 and in the principal villas at ,frascati 7,aldobrandini1 ,taverna1 ,mondragone71 he introduced original designs for the waterworks4 ,in ,rome he built the ,palazzi ,giustiniani and de' ,gori1 and made the design for the ,fontana dell' ,acqua ,paola1 though he did not live to carry it out4 ,,frigimelica 7,,count ,,girolamo7 ,,xviii ,century ,count ,frigimelica1 an accomplished ,venetian nobleman1 built the church of ,s4 ,gaetano at ,vicenza1 and collaborated with ,prati in the construction of the ,villa ,pisani at ,str4 ,,juvara 7,,filippo7 #afhe-agce ,juvara1 the most original and interesting ,italian architect of the eighteenth century1 was a pupil of ,carlo ,fontana's4 ,his most important work is the church of the ,superga near ,turin1 and his principal buildings are found in or near ,turin3 among them being the hunting-lodge of ,stupinigi and the churches of ,santa ,cristina and ,santa ,maria in ,carmine4 ,the church of ,san ,filippo in ,turin was rebuilt by ,juvara1 and the royal villa at ,rivoli1 as well as other villas in the environs of ,turin1 show his hand4 ,he remodelled the ,palazzo ,madama in ,rome2 at ,lucca he finished the ,palazzo ,reale2 at ,mantua the dome on the church of ,s4 ,andrea is by him1 and in ,lisbon and ,madrid1 respectively1 he built the royal palaces4 ,,le ,n,,tre 7,,andr7 #afac-agjj ,le ,ntre1 the greatest of ,french landscape-gardeners1 first studied painting under ,simon ,vouet1 together with ,mignard1 ,lebrun and ,lesueur1 then succeeded his father as superintendent of the royal gardens4 ,among his great works are the gardens at ,vaux-le-,vicomte1 at ,sceaux1 at ,chantilly1 and the cascades and park at ,saint-,cloud4 ,the park of ,versailles1 the gardens of the ,trianon1 of ,clagny and of ,marly1 are considered his masterpieces4 ,when he visited ,italy he remodelled the grounds of the ,villa ,ludovisi4 ,he was frequently consulted by the ,elector of ,brandenburg and other notable foreigners4 ,,ligorio 7,,pirro7 #adic-aehj ,ligorio1 the ,neapolitan architect1 was also distinguished as antiquary1 sculptor and engineer2 he worked much in sgraffiti4 ,he built the beautiful ,villa ,pia in the ,vatican gardens1 and the ,villa d',este at ,tivoli1 and made additions to the ,vatican4 ,the ,library in ,turin possesses his numerous manuscripts1 some of which have been published4 ,his best-known works are 8,an ,attempt to ,restore ,ancient ,rome0 and 8,the ,restoration of ,hadrian's ,villa10 the plates for which were engraved on copper by ,francesco ,contini in #agea4 ,,lippi 7,,annibale7 ,b4 ----1 d4 #aeha ,lippi is generally said to have been the son of ,nanni di ,baccio ,bigio1 the architect and sculptor1 though some biographers declare them to have been the same person4 ,assuming ,lippi to have had a separate identity1 only two of his works are known3 the church of ,s4 ,maria di ,loreto1 near ,spoleto1 and the ,villa ,medici in ,rome4 ,his fame rests on the latter1 which became the model of the ,roman maison de plaisance4 ,,longhena 7,,baldassare7 #afjd-afhb ,longhena1 the most distinguished architect of the late ,renaissance in ,venetia1 gave all his time and work to his native city4 ,among the buildings he erected there are3 ,s4 ,maria della ,salute1 ,s4 ,maria al ,scalzi1 the ,ospedaletto1 the cloister and staircase in ,san ,giorgio ,maggiore1 the ,palazzo ,pesaro1 and the ,palazzo ,rezzonico 7now ,zelinsky74 ,,lunghi ,,or ,,longhi 7,,martino7 ,,the ,,elder ,,xvi ,century ,lunghi1 born at ,viggi in the ,milanese1 in the second half of the sixteenth century1 built the ,villa ,mondragone at ,frascati1 in #aefg1 for ,cardinal ,marco d',altemps4 ,the villa was enlarged by ,gregory ,,vii1 and later by ,paul ,v and his nephew1 ,cardinal ,scipione ,borghese4 ,,marchionne 7,,carlo7 #agjd-aghj ,marchionne was the architect of the ,villa ,albani near ,rome1 built in #agdf4 ,,michelangelo 7,,simone ,,buonarroti7 #adge-aefd ,the great architect1 sculptor and painter1 was born in ,florence1 where he built the ,laurentian ,library and the chapel of ,s4 ,lorenzo1 with the cupola of the sacristy4 ,in ,rome he built the ,palazzo de' ,conservatorii on the ,capitoline hill1 the cornice of the ,palazzo ,farnese1 the ,porta del ,popolo and the ,porta ,pia4 ,his model for the dome of ,st4 ,peter's was carried out except as to the lantern4 ,tradition assigns to him the ,villa ai ,collazzi 7now ,bombicci7 near ,florence4 ,,montorsoli 7,,fra ,,giovanni ,,angelo7 #aejg-aefc ,fra ,giovanni ,montorsoli1 a ,florentine monk of the ,servite ,order1 was a sculptor1 and studied under ,michelangelo4 ,he was early called to ,genoa1 where he decorated the church of ,san ,matteo 7the church of the ,doria family7 and built the famous villa in the harbour for the ,admiral ,andrea ,doria4 ,the ,villa ,imperiali1 at ,san ,fruttuoso1 near ,genoa1 is also attributed to ,montorsoli4 ,one of his best works is the high altar in the church of the ,servi at ,bologna4 ,,moore 7,,jacob7 #agdj-agic ,moore1 a ,scotch landscape-painter--known as 8,moore of ,rome0--was patronized by ,prince ,borghese1 and remodelled the grounds of the ,villa ,borghese in the style of the jardin anglais4 ,,mora ,,xvii ,century ,a ,roman engineer of the name built some of the waterworks on the ,isola ,bella1 near ,como1 in the seventeenth century4 ,,nolli 7,,antonio7 ,,xviii ,century ,nolli laid out the grounds of the ,villa ,albani near ,rome1 in #agdf4 ,,nolli 7,,pietro7 ,,xviii ,century ,pietro ,nolli is also mentioned as one of the landscape-gardeners who laid out the ,villa ,albani4 ,,olivieri 7,,orazio7 ,,of ,,tivoli ,,xvi ,century ,olivieri was employed as an engineer of the waterworks at the ,villa d',este at ,tivoli and the ,villa ,aldobrandini at ,frascati4 ,,palladio 7,,andrea7 #aejh-aehj ,palladio1 the great ,venetian architect1 was born at ,vicenza4 ,he turned the development of ,italian ,renaissance architecture in the direction of pure classicalism1 and was a master of proportion in building4 ,at ,vicenza he rebuilt the ,sala della ,ragione1 and built the ,palazzi ,tiene and ,valmarana and the ,teatro ,olimpico2 while the ,villa ,capra or ,rotonda1 near ,vicenza1 is his work1 and also the ,villa ,giacomelli at ,maser4 ,in ,venice he erected the churches of ,san ,giorgio ,maggiore and ,il ,redentore1 also the ,villa ,malcontenta near ,fusina on the ,brenta4 ,palladio published a 8,treatise on ,architecture0 and 8,the ,antiquities of ,rome40 ,,parigi 7,,giulio7 ,b4 ----1 d4 #afce ,parigi was a ,florentine architect1 engineer and designer4 ,as far as is known1 he worked entirely in ,florence and its environs4 ,he is the architect of the court and arcade of ,poggio ,imperiale1 the cloister of ,s4 ,agostino1 the ,palazzo ,marucelli 7now ,fenci71 the ,palazzo ,scarlatti1 and a part of the ,uffizi4 ,,peruzzi 7,,baldassare7 #adha-aecg ,peruzzi1 who was both architect and painter1 divided his time between ,rome and ,siena1 where he was born4 ,he built the ,villa ,vicobello near ,siena1 as well as that of ,belcaro4 ,the well-known ,palazzo ,massimi alle ,colonne in ,rome is his work1 also the ,villa ,trivulzio near ,rome4 ,,piranesi 7,,giovanni ,,battista7 #agbj-aggh ,piranesi1 the famous ,venetian etcher and engraver1 was specially noted for his etchings of famous buildings1 and has been called 8,the ,rembrandt of ,architecture40 ,he was also an architect1 and worked on the church of ,s4 ,maria del ,popolo in ,rome4 ,while there he also remodelled the chapel of the ,priory of the ,knights of ,malta1 and probably laid out the grounds4 ,piranesi published over twenty folio volumes of engravings and etchings4 ,,ponzio 7,,flaminio7 #aege-afbj ,ponzio1 a ,lombard architect1 built the loggia of the ,villa ,mondragone at ,frascati1 and the ,palazzo ,sciarra1 and finished the ,borghese ,chapel in the church of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore in ,rome4 ,,porta 7,,giacomo ,,della7 #aeda-afjd ,della ,porta1 a ,milanese architect1 was a pupil of ,vignola's4 ,his great work was the finishing of the dome of ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome1 in doing which he followed ,michelangelo's plan1 but improved the curve4 ,his other works in ,rome were3 the churches of ,il ,ges1 ,s4 ,luigi de' ,francesi1 ,s4 ,catarina de' ,funari1 the ,palazzo ,paluzzi1 the faade of the ,palazzo ,chigi1 the famous fountains in the ,piazza d',araceli and the ,piazza ,navona 7for which ,bernini supplied the sculpture71 and the ,fontana delle ,tartarughe4 ,in ,genoa he finished the church of the ,s4 ,s4 ,annunziata1 and he was employed on the ,villa d',este at ,tivoli and the ,villa ,aldobrandini at ,frascati4 ,,prati ,,xviii ,century ,prati collaborated with ,count ,frigimelica in building the ,villa ,pisani1 at ,str near ,venice1 in the eighteenth century4 ,,rainaldi 7,,girolamo7 #aegj-afee ,rainaldi was a ,roman and his principal works are in ,rome4 ,he planned the church of ,s4 ,agnese2 built the faade of ,s4 ,andrea della ,valle1 the faade of ,s4 ,maria in ,campitelli1 and the ,palazzo ,pamphily on the ,piazza ,navona4 ,he added two pavilions to the ,farnesina1 and designed the grounds of the ,villa ,borghese and the gardens of the ,villa ,mondragone at ,frascati4 ,in ,bologna he built the church of ,s4 ,lucia4 ,,raphael ,,sanzio #adhc-aebj ,raphael succeeded ,bramante as chief architect of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,his most important villa is the famous ,villa ,madama near ,rome4 ,the ,farnesina in ,rome was built by him1 and he laid out the gardens of the ,vatican4 ,his other works in ,rome are the ,palazzo ,caffarelli 7now ,stoppani7 and the ,capella ,chigi4 ,in ,florence he designed the faades of the church of ,san ,lorenzo and of the ,palazzo ,pandolfini 7now ,nencini74 ,,repton 7,,humphrey7 #ageb-ahah ,repton1 who was born at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 began life as a merchant1 but having failed in his business1 became a landscape-gardener4 ,he published 8,observations on ,landscape ,gardening0 7#ahjc71 and is the best-known successor of 8,capability ,brown0 in the naturalistic style of gardening4 ,,romano 7,,giulio ,,dei ,,giannuzzi--,,also ,,called ,,giulio ,,pippi7 #adib-aedf ,as ,raphael's pupil1 ,giulio ,romano painted the architectural backgrounds of ,raphael's frescoes in the ,vatican1 and this led to his studying architecture4 ,his masterpiece is the ,palazzo del ,t at ,mantua1 where he also built a part of the ,palazzo ,ducale4 ,he carried out ,raphael's decorations in the ,villa ,madama4 ,,ruggieri 7,,antonio ,,maria7 ,,xviii ,century ,ruggieri built the ,villa ,alario 7now ,visconti di ,saliceto7 on the ,naviglio near ,milan1 and the faade of the church of ,s4 ,firenze in ,florence4 ,he also remodelled the interior of ,santa ,felicit in ,florence1 and in ,milan he built the ,palazzo ,cusani4 ,,sangallo 7,,antonio ,,giamberti ,,da7 #adee-aecd ,antonio da ,sangallo was a brother of ,giuliano1 and famous as a carver of crucifixes4 ,he altered ,hadrian's tomb in ,rome into the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 and laid out a part of the ,vatican gardens4 ,the church of the ,madonna di ,s4 ,biagio in ,montepulciano and the fortress of ,civit ,castellana were built by him4 ,,sangallo1 ,,the ,,younger 7,,antonio ,,cordiani ,,da7 #adhc-aedf ,this ,sangallo was a nephew of the other ,antonio1 and a pupil of ,bramante's4 ,after ,raphael's death he became the leading architect of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the fortress at ,civit ,vecchia is his work4 ,in ,rome he planned the outer gardens of the ,vatican and built the right-hand chapel in ,s4 ,giacomo degli ,spagnuoli1 the beautiful ,palazzo ,marchionne ,baldassini1 the ,palazzo ,sacchetti1 and the greater part of the ,palazzo ,farnese4 ,,sangallo 7,,giuliano ,,giamberti ,,da7 #adde-aeaf ,giuliano da ,sangallo1 the ,florentine architect1 was also noted as an engineer and a carver in wood4 ,his great work is the villa at ,poggio a ,caiano near ,florence1 with a hall having the widest ceiling then known4 ,he also built the ,villa ,petraia at ,castello1 near ,florence1 and in or near ,florence the sacristy and cloister of ,san ,spirito1 the cloister for the ,frati ,eremitani di ,s4 ,agostino1 and the villa of ,poggio ,imperiale4 ,among his other works are3 the ,palazzo ,rovere near ,san ,pietro in ,vincoli1 in ,rome1 and the ,palazzo ,rovere at ,savona4 ,sangallo also constructed many fortresses4 ,after ,bramante's death he worked with ,raphael on ,st4 ,peter's4 ,,sansovino 7,,jacopo ,,tatti7 #adhg-aegj ,sansovino1 though a ,florentine by birth1 worked principally in ,venice4 ,he was equally distinguished as sculptor and architect4 ,in the latter capacity he built in ,venice the ,zecca or ,mint1 the ,loggietta1 the ,palazzo ,cornaro1 the ,palazzo ,corner della ,c ,grande1 the ,scala d',oro in the ,doge's palace1 the churches of ,san ,martino and ,san ,fantino1 and his masterpiece1 the ,library of ,san ,marco4 ,in ,rome the ,palazzo ,gaddi 7now ,nicolini7 was built by him4 ,,savino 7,,domenico7 ,,xviii ,century ,savino is mentioned among the landscape-gardeners who remodelled the grounds of the ,villa ,borghese4 ,,tito 7,,santi ,,di7 ,,of ,,florence #aecf-afjc ,santi di ,tito of ,florence was known as an historical painter1 and also as a builder of villas at ,casciano and ,monte ,oliveto4 ,an octagonal villa at ,peretola was built by him1 and he did some decorative work in the ,villa ,pia4 ,in ,florence he built the ,palazzo ,dardinelli4 ,,il ,,tribolo 7,,niccol ,,pericoli7 #adhe-aeej ,il ,tribolo1 the ,florentine sculptor1 studied under ,sansovino4 ,he became known for his beautiful designs in tile-work1 of which the ,villa ,castello near ,florence shows many examples4 ,he collaborated with ,ammanati in laying out the ,boboli garden1 and the great grotto at ,castello is his work4 ,,udine 7,,giovanni ,,da7 #adhg-aefd ,giovanni da ,udine1 born1 as his name indicates1 in the chief city of the province of ,friuli1 was one of the most celebrated decorative artists of his day4 ,he studied under ,giorgione and ,raphael1 and became noted for his stained glass and for the invention of a stucco as durable as that of the ,romans4 ,his stucco-work in the ,villa ,madama and in the loggias of the ,vatican is famous1 and part of the decoration of the ,borgia rooms in the ,vatican is his work4 ,michelangelo's chapel of the ,medici in ,florence was painted and decorated in stucco by ,udine1 and he carried out1 in painting1 some of ,raphael's designs for the great hall of the ,farnesina4 ,the ,palazzo ,grimani in ,venice and the ,palazzo ,massimi alle ,colonne in ,rome were partly decorated by him4 ,,vaga 7,,pierin ,,del7 #aejj-aedg ,del ,vaga1 whose real name was ,pietro ,buonaccorsi1 was born near ,florence4 ,he was a pupil of ,raphael's1 and after the latter's death was employed in finishing a part of his work in the ,vatican4 ,almost all del ,vaga's work was done in ,genoa1 where he painted the state apartments in the ,villa ,doria4 ,the charming plaster decorations in the ,palazzo ,pallavicini 7now ,cataldi7 are by him1 and also the ,hercules cycle in the ,palazzo ,odero 7now ,mari74 ,,vasanzio 7,,giovanni7 ,b4 ----1 d4 #afbb ,vasanzio1 known also as ,il ,fiammingo1 but whose real name was ,john of ,xanten1 was a ,flemish architect who came to ,italy and had considerable success in ,rome4 ,he built the ,villa ,borghese in ,rome and designed the fountains of the inner court of the ,villa ,pia4 ,he also worked on the ,villa ,mondragone at ,frascati and succeeded ,flaminio ,ponzio as architect of the ,palazzo ,rospigliosi in ,rome4 ,,vasari 7,,giorgio7 #aeaa-aegd ,vasari1 who was born at ,arezzo1 was a pupil of ,michelangelo and ,andrea del ,sarto4 ,though he considered himself a better painter than architect1 it is chiefly as the latter that he interests the modern student4 ,he built the court of the ,uffizi in ,florence and planned the ,villa di ,papa ,giulio in ,rome2 painted the ceiling of the great hall of the ,palazzo ,vecchio in ,florence1 and carved the figure of ,architecture on the tomb of ,michelangelo in ,santa ,croce4 ,he is1 however1 chiefly famous for his lives of the ,italian painters and architects4 ,,vignola 7,,giacomo ,,barozzi ,,da7 #aejg-aegc ,vignola1 one of the greatest architects of the sixteenth century1 born at ,vignola1 in the province of ,modena1 followed ,michelangelo as the architect of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the ,villa ,lante at ,bagnaia1 near ,viterbo1 is attributed to him4 ,in ,rome he built the celebrated ,villa di ,papa ,giulio1 though the plan was ,vasari's2 also the garden-architecture of the ,orti ,farnesiani on the ,palatine4 ,his masterpiece is the palace at ,caprarola1 near ,viterbo4 ,he also built the great ,palazzo ,farnese at ,piacenza1 various buildings at ,bologna1 and the loggia of the ,villa ,mondragone at ,frascati4 ,his church of the ,ges in ,rome greatly influenced other architects4 ,his text-book on the ,orders of ,architecture is one of the best-known works on the subject4 ,,index ,acqua ,sola1 gardens of1 #db1 #ec ,albani1 ,cardinal1 #aac ,albani1 ,villa1 ,pietro ,nolli's work on1 #aaj2 ,antonio ,nolli's work on1 #aac d',albaro1 ,san ,francesco1 villas at1 #ahh ,alessi1 ,galeazzo3 ,strada ,nuova1 #agf2 ,villa ,imperiali 7,scassi71 #agi2 ,villa ,paradiso1 #ahi2 ,villa ,cambiaso1 #ahi ,algardi1 ,alessandro1 #aji ,ammanati1 ,bartolommeo1 ,boboli garden1 #be2 ,villa di ,papa ,giulio1 #hd ,anguissola1 ,count1 #bab ,arethusa1 grotto of1 at ,villa d',este1 #adg ,battaglia1 castle of ,cattajo at1 #bcc ,bernini1 #ahe ,bisuschio3 see ,villa ,cicogna ,boboli garden1 #be2 ,isola ,bella in1 #bi ,bologna1 ,giovanni da1 #cg2 figure of the ,apennines1 #eg ,bombicci1 ,villa1 #ec ,borghese1 ,cardinal ,scipione1 #adh ,borghese1 ,villa1 #ajg ,borromean ,islands1 #aig ,borromeo1 ,cardinal ,charles1 #bja ,borromeo1 ,count ,vitaliano ,,iv1 #aih ,borromini1 #afc ,botanic ,garden at ,padua1 #bci ,bramante3 ,vatican gardens1 #ha2 double staircase in the ,vatican1 #ig ,brenta1 the1 #bcc1 #bdc ,brown1 8,capability10 #bje ,brunswick1 ,caroline of1 #ahd ,buonaccorsi3 see ,vaga ,buontalenti1 #be ,burnet1 ,bishop3 description of ,isola ,bella1 ,cadenabbia1 #bad ,cafaggiuolo1 ,villa1 #cj ,caff at the ,villa ,albani1 #aad ,cagnola1 ,villa1 #bai ,cambiaso1 ,villa1 #ahi ,cambiaso1 ,villa3 see ,paradiso ,campi1 ,villa1 #ed ,campiobbi1 #dh ,camporesi1 #ajh ,canopus1 ,valley of1 at ,villa of ,hadrian1 #adh ,capra1 ,villa1 at ,vicenza1 #bdf ,caprarola1 #ig2 ,vignola's casino1 #aca2 chteau d'eau1 #aca ,careggi1 ,villa1 #cj ,carloni1 the3 statue of ,neptune in ,villa ,doria1 #age ,carlotta1 ,villa1 at ,cadenabbia1 #bad ,casino of the ,aurora1 #aai ,casino del ,papa3 see ,villa ,pia ,castelli3 terraces on the ,isola ,bella1 #aih ,castello1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #agc ,castello1 ,villa1 #cj ,cattajo1 castle of1 #bcc ,cecchignola1 hunting-lodge of1 #aai ,celimontana1 ,villa1 #aai ,cetinale1 ,villa1 #fd2 hermitage at1 #ff ,chteaux d'eau at the ,villa ,aldobrandini1 #aeb2 ,villa ,borghese1 #ajg2 ,caprarola1 #aca2 ,villa ,cicogna1 #bag2 ,palazzo ,colonna1 #aai2 ,villa ,conti1 #aee2 ,villa d',este at ,tivoli1 #add2 ,villa ,lante1 #acf2 ,lancellotti1 #afd2 ,mondragone1 #aea2 ,val ,san ,zibio1 #bcg ,chigi1 ,flavio1 #fe ,chigi1 ,villa1 #aag ,cicogna1 ,villa1 #bad2 chteau d'eau1 #bag ,clement ,,vii3 see ,medici1 ,giuliano de' ,colonna1 ,cardinal1 #hc ,colonna1 ,palazzo1 #aah2 chteau d'eau1 #aai ,como1 villa of ,bishop of1 #bac ,conti1 ,villa3 see ,torlonia 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,villa3 ,ai ,collazzi3 see ,bombicci ,alario3 see ,visconti di ,saliceto ,albani1 #aaj1 #aac ,aldobrandini1 #aea ,belcaro1 #fc ,belrespiro3 see ,pamphily ,bombicci1 #ec ,borghese1 #ajg ,cafaggiuolo1 #cj ,cagnola1 #bai ,cambiaso 7,paradiso71 #ahi ,cambiaso1 by ,alessi1 #ahi ,campi1 #ed ,capponi at ,arcetri1 #dh ,capra1 #bdf ,caprarola1 #ig ,careggi1 #cj ,carlotta1 #bad ,castel ,pulci1 #eg ,celimontana1 #aai ,cetinale1 #fd ,chigi1 #aag ,cicogna1 #bad ,conti3 see ,torlonia ,corsini1 #dh ,crivelli1 #bah ,cuzzano1 #bej ,danti1 #dh1 #eg ,de' ,gori3 see ,palazzina1 ,la ,doria in ,genoa1 #age ,durazzo-,grapollo1 #ahf d',este at ,cernobbio1 #ahd d',este at ,tivoli1 #aci ,falconieri1 #afj ,fonte all' ,erta1 #ea ,gamberaia1 #da ,giacomelli1 #bdi ,giustiniani1 #agd ,imperiali at ,san ,fruttuoso1 #aij ,imperiali3 see ,scassi ,isola ,bella1 #aih ,lancellotti1 #afd ,lante1 #ig ,lappeggi1 #eg ,lomellini1 #agd ,ludovisi1 #aai ,madama1 #hb ,malcontenta1 #bde ,malta1 of the ,knights of1 #aag ,medici1 #hi ,mondragone1 #ig ,muti1 #aei ,negroni1 #aai ,palazzina1 ,la1 #ga ,pallavicini at ,pegli1 #ahe ,pallavicini alle ,peschiere1 #ahe ,palmieri1 #eg ,pamphily1 #aji di ,papa ,giulio1 #hd ,paradisino1 #ahi ,paradiso3 see ,cambiaso ,petraia1 #cj ,pia1 #adj ,pisani1 #bdd ,pliniana1 #bab ,poggio a ,caiano1 #cj ,poggio ,imperiale1 #cj ,pratolino1 #eg ,priorato1 del3 see ,malta ,rotonda3 see ,cagnola and ,capra ,sacchetti1 #aai ,scassi1 #agi ,torlonia1 #aee ,valmarana1 #bdi ,val ,san ,zibio1 #bcg ,vicobello1 #fi ,visconti di ,saliceto1 #bbj ,villa suburbana1 the1 #bb ,villas of the ,brenta1 #bdj2 of the ,brianza1 #bah2 ,florentine1 #ai2 ,genoese1 #agc2 ,milanese1 #aig2 ,roman1 #ha2 ,sienese1 #fc2 ,venetian1 #bca ,vismara1 #aih ,xanten1 ,john of3 see ,vasanzio ,zocchi1 etchings by1 #cc ,zuccheri1 the1 #he1 #adc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's note3 #a4 ,silently corrected typographical errors4 #b4 ,retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed4