,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,cookery ,,opinions ,,of ,,the ,,press ,,on ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,cookery4 #8,the reader who wants to satisfy himself as to the value of this book1 and the novelty which its teaching possesses1 need not go beyond the first chapter1 on 8,the ,boiling of ,water40 ,but if he reads this he certainly will go further1 and will probably begin to think how he can induce his cook to assimilate some of the valuable lessons which ,mr4 ,williams gives4 ,if he can succeed in that he will have done a very good day's work for his health and house4 4 4 4 ,about the economical value of the book there can be no doubt4'--,,spectator4 #8,will be welcomed by all who wish to see the subject of the preparation of food reduced to a science4 4 4 4 ,perspicuously and pleasantly ,mr4 ,williams explains the why and the wherefore of each successive step in any given piece of culinary work4 ,every mistress of a household who wishes to raise her cook above the level of a mere automaton will purchase two copies of ,mr4 ,williams's excellent book--the one for the kitchen1 and the other for her own careful and studious perusal4'--,,knowledge4 #8,thoroughly readable1 full of interest1 with enough of the author's personality to give a piquancy to the stories told4'--,,westminster ,,review4 #8,mr4 ,williams is a good chemist and a pleasant writer3 he has evidently been a keen observer of dietaries in various countries1 and his little book contains much that is worth reading4'--,,athen,,um4 #8,there is plenty of room for this excellent book by ,mr4 ,mattieu ,williams4 4 4 4 ,there are few conductors of cookery classes who are so thoroughly grounded in the science of the subject that they will not find many valuable hints in ,mr4 ,williams's pages4'--,,scotsman4 #8,throughout the work we find the signs of care and thoughtful investigation4 4 4 4 ,mr4 ,williams has managed most judiciously to compress into a very small compass a vast amount of authoritative information on the subject of food and feeding generally--and the volume is really quite a compendium of its subject4'--,,food4 #8,the ,british cook might derive a good many useful hints from ,mr4 ,williams's latest book4 4 4 4 ,the author of 8,the ,chemistry of ,cookery0 has produced a very interesting work4 ,we heartily recommend it to theorists1 to people who cook for themselves1 and to all who are anxious to spread abroad enlightened ideas upon a most important subject4 4 4 4 ,hereafter1 cookery will be regarded1 even in this island1 as a high art and science4 ,we may not live to those delightful days2 but when they come1 and the degree of ,master of ,cookery is granted to qualified candidates1 the 8,chemistry of ,cookery0 will be a text-book in the schools1 and the bust of ,mr4 ,mattieu ,williams will stand side by side with that of ,count ,rumford upon every properly-appointed kitchen dresser4'--,,pall ,,mall ,,gazette4 #8,housekeepers who wish to be fully informed as to the nature of successful culinary operations should read 8,the ,chemistry of ,cookery40'--,,christian ,,world4 #8,in all the nineteen chapters into which the work is divided there is much both to interest and to instruct the general reader1 while deserving the attention of the 8dietetic reformer40 4 4 4 ,the author has made almost a life-long study of the subject4'--,,english ,,mechanic4 ,,other ,,works ,,by ,,mr4 ,,mattieu ,,williams4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth extra1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,science ,,in ,,short ,,chapters4 #8,few writers on popular science know better how to steer a middle course between the ,scylla of technical abstruseness and the ,charybdis of empty frivolity than ,mr4 ,mattieu ,williams4 ,he writes for intelligent people who are not technically scientific1 and he expects them to understand what he tells them when he has explained it to them in his perfectly lucid fashion without any of the embellishments1 in very doubtful taste1 which usually pass for popularisation4 ,the papers are not mere rchauffs of common knowledge4 ,almost all of them are marked by original thought1 and many of them contain demonstrations or aperus of considerable scientific value4'--,,pall ,,mall ,,gazette4 #8,there are few writers on the subjects which ,mr4 ,williams selects whose fertility and originality are equal to his own4 ,we read all he has to say with pleasure1 and very rarely without profit4'--,,science ,,gossip4 #8,mr4 ,mattieu ,williams is undoubtedly able to present scientific subjects to the popular mind with much clearness and force3 and these essays may be read with advantage by those1 who1 without having had special training1 are yet sufficiently intelligent to take interest in the movement of events in the scientific world4'--,,academy4 ,crown #hvo4 cloth limp1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,simple ,,treatise ,,on ,,heat4 #8,this is an unpretending little work1 put forth for the purpose of expounding1 in simple style1 the phenomena and laws of heat4 ,no strength is vainly spent in endeavouring to present a mathematical view of the subject4 ,the ,author passes over the ordinary range of matter to be found in most elementary treatises on heat1 and enlarges upon the applications of the principles of his science--a subject which is naturally attractive to the uninitiated4 ,mr4 ,williams's object has been well carried out1 and his little book may be recommended to those who care to study this interesting branch of physics4'--,,popular ,,science ,,review4 #8,we can recommend this treatise as equally exact in the information it imparts1 and pleasant in the mode of imparting it4 ,it is neither dry nor technical1 but suited in all respects to the use of intelligent learners4'--,,tablet4 #8,decidedly a success4 ,the language is as simple as possible1 consistently with scientific soundness1 and the copiousness of illustration with which ,mr4 ,williams's pages abound1 derived from domestic life and from the commonest operations of nature1 will commend this book to the ordinary reader as well as to the young student of science4'--,,academy4 ,london 3 ,,chatto ,,windus1 ,piccadilly1 ,w4 ,demy #hvo4 cloth extra1 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,fuel ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 #8,the work is well deserving of careful study1 especially by the astronomer1 too apt to forgot the teachings of other sciences than his own4'--,,fraser',s ,,magazine4 #8,it is characterised throughout by a carefulness of thought and an originality that command respect1 while it is based upon observed facts and not upon mere fanciful theory4'--,,engineering4 #8,mr4 ,williams's interesting and valuable work called 8,the ,fuel of the ,sun40'--,,popular ,,science ,,review4 ,london3 ,,simpkin1 ,,marshall1 ,,co4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,cookery ,,by ,w4 ,,mattieu ,,williams ,,author ,,of #8,,the ,,fuel ,,of ,,the ,,sun' #8,,science ,,in ,,short ,,chapters' #8,a ,,simple ,,treatise ,,on ,,heat' ,,etc4 ,illustration ,,second ,,edition ,london ,,chatto ,,windus1 ,,piccadilly #ahib ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,london ,,preface4 ,,during the infancy of the ,birmingham and ,midland ,institute1 when my classes in ,cannon ,street constituted the whole of its teaching machinery1 ,i delivered a course of lectures to ladies on #8,household ,philosophy1' in which #8,the ,chemistry of ,cookery' was included4 ,in collecting material for these lectures1 ,i was surprised at the strange neglect of the subject by modern chemists4 ,on taking it up again1 after an interval of nearly thirty years1 ,i find that 7excepting the chemistry of wine cookery71 absolutely nothing further1 worthy of the name of research1 has in the meantime been brought to bear upon it4 ,this explanation is demanded as an apology for what some may consider the egotism that permeates this little work4 ,i have been continually compelled to put forth my own explanations of familiar phenomena1 my own speculations1 concerning the changes effected by cookery1 and my own small contributions to the experimental investigation of the subject4 ,under these difficult circumstances ,i have endeavoured to place before the reader a simple and readable account of what is known of #8,the ,chemistry of ,cookery1' explaining technicalities as they occur1 rather than abstaining from the use of them by means of cumbrous circumlocution or patronising baby-talk4 ,with a moderate effort of attention1 any unlearned but intelligent reader of either sex may understand all the contents of these chapters2 and ,i venture to anticipate that scientific chemists may find in them some suggestive matter4 ,if these expectations are justified by results1 this preliminary essay will fulfil its double object4 ,it will diffuse a knowledge of what is at present knowable of #8,the ,chemistry of ,cookery' among those who greatly need it1 and will contribute to the extension of such knowledge by opening a wide and very promising field of scientific research4 ,i should add that the work is based on a series of papers that appeared in #8,knowledge' during the years #ahhc and #ahhd4 ,w4 ,,mattieu ,,williams4 ,,stonebridge ,,park1 ,,london1 ,n4,w4 ,march #ahhe4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,boiling ,,of ,,water #h ,,iii4 ,,albumen #ai ,,iv4 ,,gelatin1 ,,fibrin1 ,,and ,,the ,,juices ,,of ,,meat #cb ,v4 ,,roasting ,,and ,,grilling #dg ,,vi4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,roaster #fc ,,vii4 ,,frying #hd ,,viii4 ,,stewing #aaa ,,ix4 ,,cheese #abg ,x4 ,,fat--,,milk #aef ,,xi4 ,,the ,,cookery ,,of ,,vegetables #agc ,,xii4 ,,gluten--,,bread #aid ,,xiii4 ,,vegetable ,,casein ,,and ,,vegetable ,,juices #baa ,,xiv4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,cookery ,,and ,,cheap ,,dinners #bbg ,,xv4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,substitute ,,for ,,tea ,,and ,,coffee #bde ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,cookery ,,of ,,wine #bfe ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,vegetarian ,,question #bid ,,xviii4 ,,malted ,,food #cjc ,,xix4 ,,the ,,physiology ,,of ,,nutrition #cac ,,index #cbe ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,cookery4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,the philosopher who first perceived and announced the fact that all the physical doings of man consist simply in changing the places of things1 made a very profound generalisation1 and one that is worthy of more serious consideration than it has received4 ,all our handicraft1 however great may be the skill employed1 amounts to no more than this4 ,the miner moves the ore and the fuel from their subterranean resting-places1 then they are moved into the furnace1 and by another moving of combustibles the working of the furnace is started2 then the metals are moved to the foundries and forges1 then under hammers1 or squeezers1 or into melting-pots1 and thence to moulds4 ,the workman shapes the bars1 or plates1 or castings by removing a part of their substance1 and by more and more movings of material produces the engine1 which does its work when fuel and water are moved into its fireplace and boiler4 ,the statue is within the rough block of marble2 the sculptor merely moves away the outer portions1 and thereby renders his artistic conception visible to his fellow-men4 ,the agriculturist merely moves the soil in order that it may receive the seed1 which he then moves into it1 and when the growth is completed1 he moves the result1 and thereby makes his harvest4 ,the same may be said of every other operation4 ,man alters the position of physical things in such wise that the forces of ,nature shall operate upon them1 and produce the changes or other results that he requires4 ,my reasons for this introductory digression will be easily understood1 as this view of the doings of man and the doings of ,nature displays fundamentally the business of human education1 so far as the physical proceedings and physical welfare of mankind are concerned4 ,it clearly points out two well-marked natural divisions of such education--education or training in the movements to be made1 and education in a knowledge of the consequences of such movements--i4e4 in a knowledge of the forces of ,nature which actually do the work when man has suitably arranged the materials4 ,the education ordinarily given to apprentices in the workshop1 or the field1 or the studio--or1 as relating to my present subject1 the kitchen--is the first of these1 the second and equally necessary being simply and purely the teaching of physical science as applied to the arts4 ,i cannot proceed any further without a protest against a very general 7so far as this country is concerned7 misuse of a now very popular term1 a misuse that is rather surprising1 seeing that it is accepted by scholars who have devoted the best of their intellectual efforts to the study of words4 ,i refer to the word technical as applied in the designation #8technical education4' ,so long as our workshops are separated from our science schools and colleges1 it is most desirable1 in order to avoid continual circumlocution1 to have terms that shall properly distinguish between the work of the two1 and admit of definite and consistent use4 ,the two words are ready at hand1 and1 although of ,greek origin1 have become1 by analogous usage1 plain simple ,english4 ,i mean the words technical and technological4 ,the ,greek noun techne signifies an art1 trade1 or profession1 and our established usage of this root is in accordance with its signification4 ,therefore1 #8technical education' is a suitable and proper designation of the training which is given to apprentices1 c41 in the strictly technical details of their trades1 arts1 or professions--i4e4 in the skilful moving of things4 ,when we require a name for the science or the philosophy of anything1 we obtain it by using the ,greek root logos1 and appending it in ,english form to the ,greek name of the general subject1 as geology1 the science of the earth2 anthropology1 the science of man2 biology1 the science of life1 c4 ,why not then follow this general usage1 and adopt #8technology' as the science of trades1 arts1 or professions1 and thereby obtain consistent and convenient terms to designate the two divisions of education--technical education1 that given in the workshop1 c41 and technological education1 that which should be given as supplementary to all such technical education8 ,in accordance with this1 the present work will be a contribution to the technology of cookery1 or to the technological education of cooks1 whose technical education is quite beyond my reach4 ,the kitchen is a chemical laboratory in which are conducted a number of chemical processes by which our food is converted from its crude state to a condition more suitable for digestion and nutrition1 and made more agreeable to the palate4 ,it is the rationale or ology of these processes that ,i shall endeavour to explain2 but at the outset it is only fair to say that in many instances ,i shall not succeed in doing this satisfactorily1 as there still remain some kitchen mysteries that have not yet come within the firm grasp of science4 ,the whole story of the chemical differences between a roast1 a boiled1 and a raw leg of mutton has not yet been told4 ,you and ,i1 gentle reader1 aided by no other apparatus than a knife and fork1 can easily detect the difference between a cut out of the saddle of a three-year-old ,southdown and one from a ten-months-old meadow-fed ,leicester1 but the chemist in his laboratory1 with all his reagents1 test-tubes1 beakers1 combustion-tubes1 potash-bulbs1 c4 c41 and his balance turning to one-thousandth of a grain1 cannot physically demonstrate the sources of these differences of flavour4 ,still ,i hope to show that modern chemistry can throw into the kitchen a great deal of light that shall not merely help the cook in doing his or her work more efficiently1 but shall also elevate both the work and the worker1 and render the kitchen far more interesting to all intelligent people who have an appetite for knowledge1 as well as for food2 more so than it can be while the cook is groping in rule-of-thumb darkness--is merely a technical operator unenlightened by technological intelligence4 ,in the course of these papers ,i shall draw largely on the practical and philosophical work of that remarkable man1 ,benjamin ,thompson1 the ,massachusetts 'prentice-boy and schoolmaster2 afterwards the ,british soldier and diplomatist1 ,colonel ,sir ,benjamin ,thompson2 then ,colonel of ,horse and ,general ,aide-de-,camp of the ,elector ,charles ,theodore of ,bavaria2 then ,major-,general of ,cavalry1 ,privy ,councillor of ,state and head of ,war ,department of ,bavaria2 then ,count ,rumford of the ,holy ,roman ,empire and ,order of the ,white ,eagle2 then ,military ,dictator of ,bavaria1 with full governing powers during the absence of the ,elector2 then a private resident in ,brompton ,road1 and founder of the ,royal ,institution in ,albemarle ,street2 then a ,parisian citoyen1 the husband of the #8,goddess of ,reason1' the widow of ,lavoisier2 but1 above all1 a practical and scientific cook1 whose exploits in economic cookery are still but very imperfectly appreciated1 though he himself evidently regarded them as the most important of all his varied achievements4 ,his faith in cookery is well expressed in the following1 where he is speaking of his experiments in feeding the ,bavarian army and the poor of ,munich4 ,he says3 #8,i constantly found that the richness or quality of a soup depended more upon the proper choice of the ingredients1 and a proper management of the fire in the combination of these ingredients1 than upon the quantity of solid nutritious matter employed2 much more upon the art and skill of the cook than upon the sums laid out in the market4' ,a great many fallacies are continually perpetrated1 not only by ignorant people1 but even by eminent chemists and physiologists1 by inattention to what is indicated in this passage4 ,in many chemical and physiological works may be found elaborately minute tables of the chemical composition of certain articles of food1 and with these the assumption 7either directly stated or implied as a matter of course7 that such tables represent the practical nutritive value of the food4 ,the illusory character of such assumption is easily understood4 ,in the first place the analysis is usually that of the article of food in its raw state1 and thus all the chemical changes involved in the process of cookery are ignored4 ,secondly1 the difficulty or facility of assimilation is too often unheeded4 ,this depends both upon the original condition of the food and the changes which the cookery has produced--changes which may double its nutritive value without effecting more than a small percentage of alteration in its chemical composition as revealed by laboratory analysis4 ,in the recent discussion on whole-meal bread1 for example1 chemical analyses of the bran1 c41 are quoted1 and it is commonly assumed that if these can be shown to contain more of the theoretical bone-making or brain-making elements1 that they are1 therefore1 in reference to these requirements1 more nutritious than the fine flour4 ,but before we are justified in asserting this1 it must be made clear that these outer and usually rejected portions of the grain are as easily digested and assimilated as the finer inner flour4 ,i think ,i shall be able to show that the practical failure of this whole-meal bread movement 7which is not a novelty1 but only a revival7 is mainly due to the disregard of the cookery question2 that whole-meal prepared as bread by simple baking is less nutritious than fine flour similarly prepared2 but that whole-meal otherwise prepared may be1 and has been1 made more nutritious than fine white bread4 ,another preliminary example4 ,a pound of biscuit contains more solid nutritive matter than a pound of beefsteak1 but may not1 when eaten by ordinary mortals1 do so much nutritive work4 ,why is this8 ,it is a matter of preparation--not exactly what is called cooking1 but equivalent to what cooking should be4 ,it is the preparation which has converted the grass food of the ox into another kind of food which we can assimilate very easily4 ,the fact that we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep1 oxen1 c41 for the preparation of our food1 is merely a transitory barbarism1 to be ultimately superseded when my present subject is sufficiently understood and applied to enable us to prepare the constituents of the vegetable kingdom in such a manner that they shall be as easily assimilated as the prepared grass which we call beef and mutton1 and which we now use only on account of our ignorance of the subject treated in the following chapters4 ,i do not presume to assert or suggest that my efforts towards the removal of this ignorance will transport us at once into a vegetarian millennium1 but if they only open the gate and show us that there is a road on which we may travel towards great improvements in the preparation of our food as regards flavour1 economy1 and wholesomeness1 my reasonable readers will not be disappointed4 ,so much of cookery being effected by the application of heat1 a sketch of the general laws of heat might be included in this introductory chapter1 but for the necessary extent of the subject4 ,i omit it without compunction1 having already written #8,a ,simple ,treatise on ,heat1' which is divested of technical difficulties by presenting simply the phenomena and laws of ,nature without any artificial scholastic complications4 ,messrs4 ,chatto ,windus have brought out this little essay in a cheap form1 and1 in spite of the risk of being accused of puffing my own wares1 ,i recommend its perusal to those who are earnestly studying the whole philosophy of cookery4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,boiling ,,of ,,water4 ,,as this is one of the most rudimentary of the operations of cookery1 and the most frequently performed1 it naturally takes a first place in treating the subject4 ,water is boiled in the kitchen for two distinct purposes3 #ast1 for the cooking of itself2 #bnd1 for the cooking of other things4 ,a dissertation on the difference between raw water and cooked water may appear pedantic1 but1 as ,i shall presently show1 it is considerable1 very practical1 and important4 ,the best way to study any physical subject is to examine it experimentally1 but this is not always possible with everyday means4 ,in this case1 however1 there is no difficulty4 ,take a thin#a glass vessel1 such as a flask1 or1 better1 one of the #8beakers1' or thin tumbler-shaped vessels1 so largely used in chemical laboratories2 partially fill it with ordinary household water1 and then place it over the flame of a spirit-lamp1 or ,bunsen's1 or other smokeless gas-burner4 ,carefully watch the result1 and the following will be observed3 first of all1 little bubbles will be formed1 adhering to the sides of the glass1 but ultimately rising to the surface1 and there becoming dissipated by diffusion in the air4 ,this is not boiling1 as may be proved by trying the temperature with the finger4 ,what1 then1 is it8 ,it is the yielding back of the atmospheric gases which the water has dissolved or condensed within itself4 ,these bubbles have been collected1 and by analysis proved to consist of oxygen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic acid1 obtained from the air2 but in the water they exist by no means in the same proportions as originally in the air1 nor in constant proportions in different samples of water4 ,i need not here go into the quantitative details of these proportions1 nor the reasons of their variation1 though they are very interesting subjects4 ,proceeding with our investigation1 we shall find that the bubbles continue to form and rise until the water becomes too hot for the finger to bear immersion4 ,at about this stage something else begins to occur4 ,much larger bubbles1 or rather blisters1 are now formed on the bottom of the vessel1 immediately over the flame1 and they continually collapse into apparent nothingness4 ,even at this stage a thermometer immersed in the water will show that the boiling-point is not reached4 ,as the temperature rises1 these blisters rise higher and higher1 become more and more nearly spherical1 finally quite so1 then detach themselves and rise towards the surface2 but the first that make this venture perish in the attempt--they gradually collapse as they rise1 and vanish before reaching the surface4 ,the thermometer now shows that the boiling-point is nearly reached1 but not quite4 ,presently the bubbles rise completely to the surface and break there4 ,now the water is boiling1 and the thermometer stands at #bab ,fahr4 or #ajj ,cent4 ,with the aid of suitable apparatus it can be shown that the atmospheric gases above named continue to be given off along with the steam for a considerable time after the boiling has commenced2 the complete removal of their last traces being a very difficult1 if not an impossible1 physical problem4 ,after a moderate period of boiling1 however1 we may practically regard the water as free from these gases4 ,in this condition ,i venture to call it cooked water4 ,our experiment so far indicates one of the differences between cooked and raw water4 ,the cooked water has been deprived of the atmospheric gases that the raw water contained4 ,by cooling some of the cooked water and tasting it1 the difference of flavour is very perceptible2 by no means improved1 though it is quite possible to acquire a preference for this flat1 tasteless liquid4 ,if a fish be placed in such cooked water it swims for a while with its mouth at the surface1 for just there is a film that is reacquiring its charge of oxygen1 c41 by absorbing it from the air2 but this film is so thin1 and so poorly charged1 that after a short struggle the fish dies for lack of oxygen in its blood2 drowned as truly and completely as an air-breathing animal when immersed in any kind of water4 ,spring water and river water that have passed through or over considerable distances in calcareous districts suffer another change in boiling4 ,the origin and nature of this change may be shown by another experiment as follows3 ,buy a pennyworth of lime-water from a druggist1 and procure a small glass tube of about quill size1 or the stem of a fresh tobacco-pipe may be used4 ,half fill a small wine-glass with the lime-water1 and blow through it by means of the tube or tobacco-pipe4 ,presently it will become turbid4 ,continue the blowing1 and the turbidity will increase up to a certain degree of milkiness4 ,go on blowing with #8commendable perseverance1' and an inversion of effect will follow2 the turbidity diminishes1 and at last the water becomes clear again4 ,the chemistry of this is simple enough4 ,from the lungs a mixture of nitrogen1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid is exhaled4 ,the carbonic acid combines with the soluble lime1 and forms a carbonate of lime which is insoluble in mere water4 ,but this carbonate of lime is to a certain extent soluble in water saturated with carbonic acid1 and such saturation is effected by the continuation of blowing4 ,now take some of the lime-water that has been thus treated1 place it in a clean glass flask1 and boil it4 ,after a short time the flask will be found incrusted with a thin film of something4 ,this is the carbonate of lime which has been thrown down again by the action of boiling1 which has driven off its solvent1 the carbonic acid4 ,this crust will effervesce if a little acid is added to it4 ,in this manner our tea-kettles1 engine-boilers1 c41 become incrusted when fed with calcareous waters1 and most waters are calcareous2 those supplied to ,london1 which is surrounded by chalk1 are largely so4 ,thus1 the boiling or cooking of such water effects a removal of its mineral impurities more or less completely4 ,other waters contain such mineral matter as salts of sodium and potassium4 ,these are not removable by mere boiling1 being equally soluble in hot or cold1 aerated1 or non-aerated water4 ,usually we have no very strong motive for removing either these or the dissolved carbonate of lime1 or the atmospheric gases from water1 but there is another class of impurities of serious importance4 ,these are the organic matters dissolved in all water that has run over land covered with vegetable growth1 or1 more especially1 that which has received contributions from sewers or any other form of house drainage4 ,such water supplies nutriment to those microscopic abominations1 the micrococci1 bacilli1 bacteria1 c41 which are now shown to be connected with blood poisoning4 ,these little pests are harmless1 and probably nutritious1 when cooked1 but in their raw and growing state are horribly prolific in the blood of people who are in certain states of what is called #8receptivity4' ,they 7the bacteria1 c47 appear to be poisoned or somehow killed off by the digestive secretions of the blood of some people1 and nourished luxuriantly in the blood of others4 ,as nobody can be quite sure to which class he belongs1 or may presently belong1 or whether the water supplied to his household is free from blood-poisoning organisms1 cooked water is a safer beverage than raw water4 ,i should add that this germ theory of disease is disputed by some who maintain that the source of the diseases attributed to such microbia is chemical poison1 the microbia 7i4e4 little living things7 are merely accidental1 or creatures fed on the disease-producing poison4 ,in either case the boiling is effectual1 as such organic poisons when cooked lose their original virulent properties4 ,the requirement for this simple operation of cooking increases with the density of our population1 which1 on reaching a certain degree1 renders the pollution of all water obtained from the ordinary sources almost inevitable4 ,reflecting on this subject1 ,i have been struck with a curious fact that has hitherto escaped notice1 viz4 that in the country which over all others combines a very large population with a very small allowance of cleanliness1 the ordinary drink of the people is boiled water1 flavoured by an infusion of leaves4 ,these people1 the ,chinese1 seem in fact to have been the inventors of boiled-water beverages4 ,judging from travellers' accounts of the state of the rivers1 rivulets1 and general drainage and irrigation arrangements of ,china1 its population could scarcely have reached its present density if ,chinamen were drinkers of raw instead of cooked water4 ,this is especially remarkable in the case of such places as ,canton1 where large numbers are living afloat on the mouths of sewage-laden rivers or estuaries4 ,the ordinary everyday domestic beverage is a weak infusion of tea1 made in a large teapot1 kept in a padded basket to retain the heat4 ,the whole family is supplied from this reservoir4 ,the very poorest drink plain hot water1 or water tinged by infusing the spent tea-leaves rejected by their richer neighbours4 ,next to the boiling of water for its own sake1 comes the boiling of water as a medium for the cooking of other things4 ,here1 at the outset1 ,i have to correct an error of language which1 as too often happens1 leads by continual suggestion to false ideas4 ,when we speak of #8boiled beef1' #8boiled mutton1' #8boiled eggs1' #8boiled potatoes1' we talk nonsense2 we are not merely using an elliptical expression1 as when we say1 #8the kettle boils1' which we all understand to mean the contents of the kettle1 but we are expounding a false theory of what has happened to the beef1 c4--as false as though we should describe the material of the kettle that has held boiling water as boiled copper or boiled iron4 ,no boiling of the food takes place in any such cases as the above-named--it is merely heated by immersion in boiling water2 the changes that actually take place in the food are essentially different from those of ebullition4 ,even the water contained in the meat is not boiled in ordinary cases1 as its boiling-point is higher than that of the surrounding water1 owing to the salts it holds in solution4 ,thus1 as a matter of chemical fact1 a #8boiled leg of mutton' is one that has been cooked1 but not boiled2 while a roasted leg of mutton is one that has been partially boiled4 ,much of the constituent water of flesh is boiled out1 fairly driven away as vapour during roasting or baking1 and the fat on its surface is also boiled1 and1 more or less1 dissociated into its chemical elements1 carbon and water1 as shown by the browning1 due to the separated carbon4 ,as ,i shall presently show1 this verbal explanation is no mere verbal quibble1 but it involves important practical applications4 ,an enormous waste of precious fuel is perpetrated every day1 throughout the whole length and breadth of ,britain and other countries where ,english cookery prevails1 on account of the almost universal ignorance of the philosophy of the so-called boiling of food4 ,when it is once fairly understood that the meat is not to be boiled1 but is merely to be warmed by immersion in water raised to a maximum temperature of #bab1 and when it is further understood that water cannot 7under ordinary atmospheric pressure7 be raised to a higher temperature than #bab by any amount of violent boiling1 the popular distinction between #8simmering' and boiling1 which is so obstinately maintained as a kitchen superstition1 is demolished4 ,the experiment described on pages #h and #i showed that immediately the bubbles of steam reach the surface of the water and break there--that is1 when simmering commences--the thermometer reaches the boiling-point1 and that however violently the boiling may afterwards occur1 the thermometer rises no higher4 ,therefore1 as a medium for heating the substances to be cooked1 simmering water is just as effective as #8walloping' water4 ,there are exceptional operations of cookery1 wherein useful mechanical work is done by violent boiling2 but in all ordinary cookery simmering is just as effective4 ,the heat that is applied to do more than the smallest degree of simmering is simply wasted in converting water into useless steam4 ,the amount of such waste may be easily estimated4 ,to raise a given quantity of water from the freezing to the boiling point demands an amount of heat represented by #ahj in ,fahrenheit's thermometer1 or #ajj ,centigrade4 ,to convert this into steam1 #iij ,fahr4 or #eej ,cent4 is necessary--just five-and-a-half times as much4 ,on a properly-constructed hot-plate or sand-bath a dozen saucepans may be kept at the true cooking temperature1 with an expenditure of fuel commonly employed in ,england to #8boil' one saucepan4 ,in the great majority of so-called boiling operations1 even simmering is unnecessary4 ,not only is a #8boiled leg of mutton' not itself boiled1 but even the water in which it is cooked should not be kept boiling1 as we shall presently see4 ,the following1 written by ,count ,rumford nearly #ajj years ago1 remains applicable at the present time1 in spite of all our modern research and science teaching3 #8,the process by which food is most commonly prepared for the table--,,boiling--is so familiar to everyone1 and its effects are so uniform and apparently so simple1 that few1 ,i believe1 have taken the trouble to inquire how or in what manner these effects are produced2 and whether any and what improvements in that branch of cookery are possible4 ,so little has this matter been an object of inquiry that few1 very few indeed ,i believe1 among the millions of persons who for so many ages have been daily employed in this process1 have ever given themselves the trouble to bestow one serious thought upon the subject4 #8,the cook knows from experience that if his joint of meat be kept a certain time immersed in boiling water it will be done1 as it is called in the language of the kitchen2 but if he be asked what is done to it1 or how or by what agency the change it has undergone has been effected--if he understands the question--it is ten to one but he will be embarrassed4 ,if he does not understand he will probably answer without hesitation1 that 8,the meat is made tender and eatable by being boiled40 ,ask him if the boiling of the water be essential to the process4 ,he will answer1 8,without doubt40 ,push him a little further by asking him whether1 were it possible to keep the water equally hot without boiling1 the meat would not be cooked as soon and as well as if the water were made to boil4 ,here it is probable he will make the first step towards acquiring knowledge by learning to doubt4' ,in another place he points to the fact that at ,munich1 where his chief cookery operations were performed1 water boils at #bji 7on account of its elevation71 while in ,london the boiling-point is #bab4 #8,yet nobody1 ,i believe1 ever perceived that boiled meat was less done at ,munich than at ,london4 ,but if meat may without the least difficulty be cooked with a heat of #bji at ,munich1 why should it not be possible to cook it with the same degree of heat in ,london8 ,if this can be done in ,london 7which ,i think can hardly admit of a doubt71 then it is evident that the process of cookery1 which is called boiling1 may be performed in water which is not boiling hot4' ,he proceeds to say1 #8,i well know1 from my own experience1 how difficult it is to persuade cooks of this truth1 but it is so important that no pains should be spared in endeavouring to remove their prejudices and enlighten their understandings4 ,this may be done most effectually in the case before us by a method ,i have several times put in practice with complete success4 ,it is as follows3 ,take two equal boilers1 containing equal quantities of boiling hot water1 and put into them two equal pieces of meat taken from the same carcase--two legs of mutton1 for instance--and boil them during the same time4 ,under one of the boilers make a small fire1 just barely sufficient to keep the water boiling hot1 or rather just beginning to boil2 under the other make as vehement a fire as possible1 and keep the water boiling the whole time with the utmost violence4 ,the meat in the boiler in which the water has been kept only just boiling hot will be found to be quite as well done as that in the other4 ,it will even be found to be much better cooked1 that is to say tenderer1 more juicy1 and much higher flavoured4' ,rumford at this date 7#ahjb7 understood perfectly that the water just boiling hot had the same temperature as that which was boiling with the utmost violence1 but did not understand that the best result is obtained at a much lower temperature1 for in another place he states that if the meat be cooked in water under pressure1 so that the temperature shall exceed #bab1 it will be done proportionally quicker and as well4 ,my reasons for controverting this will be explained in the following chapters4 ,,footnote3 #a ,in applying heat to glass vessels1 thickness is a source of weakness or liability to fracture1 on account of the unequal expansion of the two sides1 due to inequality of temperature1 which1 of course1 increases with the thickness of the glass4 ,besides this1 the thickness increases the leverage of the breaking strain4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,albumen4 ,,in order to illustrate some of the changes which take place in the cooking of animal food1 ,i will first take the simple case of cooking an egg by means of hot water4 ,these changes are in this case easily visible and very simple1 although the egg itself contains all the materials of a complete animal4 ,bones1 muscles1 viscera1 brain1 nerves1 and feathers of the chicken--all are produced from the egg1 nothing being added1 and little or nothing taken away4 ,i should1 however1 add that in eating an egg we do not get quite so much of it as the chicken does4 ,liebig found by analysis that in the white and the yolk there is a deficiency of mineral matter for supplying the bones of the chick1 and that this deficiency is supplied by some of the shell being dissolved by the phosphoric acid which is formed inside the egg by the combination of the oxygen of the air 7which passes through the shell7 with the phosphorus contained in the soft matter of the egg4 ,by comparing the shell of a hen's egg after the chicken is hatched from it with that of a freshly-laid egg1 the difference of thickness may be easily seen4 ,when we open a raw egg1 we find enveloped in a stoutish membrane a quantity of glairy1 slimy1 viscous1 colourless fluid1 which1 as everybody now knows1 is called albumen1 a ,latin translation of its common name1 #8the white4' ,within the white of the egg is the yolk1 chiefly composed of albumen1 but with some other constituents added--notably a peculiar oil4 ,at present ,i will only consider the changes which cookery effects on the main constituent of the egg1 merely adding that this same albumen is one of the most important1 if not the one most important1 material of animal food1 and is represented by a corresponding nutritious constituent in vegetables4 ,we all know that when an egg has been immersed during a few minutes in boiling water1 the colourless1 slimy liquid is converted into the white solid to which it owes its name4 ,this coagulation of albumen is one of the most decided and best understood changes effected by cookery1 and therefore demands especial study4 ,place some fresh1 raw white of egg in a test-tube or other suitable glass vessel1 and in the midst of it immerse the bulb of a thermometer4 7,cylindrical thermometers1 with the degrees marked on the glass stem1 are made for such laboratory purposes47 ,place the tube containing the albumen in a vessel of water1 and gradually heat this4 ,when the albumen attains a temperature of about #acd ,fahr41 white fibres will begin to appear within it2 these will increase until about #afj is attained1 when the whole mass will become white and nearly opaque4#b ,it is now coagulated1 and may be called solid4 ,now examine some of the result1 and you will find that the albumen thus only just coagulated is a tender1 delicate1 jelly-like substance1 having every appearance to sight1 touch1 and taste of being easily digestible4 ,this is the case4 ,having settled these points1 proceed with the experiment by heating the remainder of the albumen 7or a new sample7 up to #bab1 and keeping it for awhile at this temperature4 ,it will dry1 shrink1 and become horny4 ,if the heat is carried a little further1 it becomes converted into a substance which is so hard and tough that a valuable cement is obtained by simply smearing the edges of the article to be cemented with white of egg1 and then heating it to a little above #bab4c ,this simple experiment teaches a great deal of what is but little known concerning the philosophy of cookery4 ,it shows in the first place that1 so far as the coagulation of the albumen is concerned1 the cooking temperature is not #bab1 or that of boiling water1 but #afj1 i4e4 #eb below it4 ,everybody knows the difference between a tender1 juicy steak1 rounded or plumped out in the middle1 and a tough1 leathery abomination1 that has been so cooked as to shrivel and curl up4 ,the contraction1 drying up1 and hornifying of the albumen in the test tube represents the albumen of the latter1 while the tender1 delicate1 trembling1 semi-solid that was coagulated at #afj1 represents the albumen in the first4 ,but this is a digression1 or rather anticipation1 seeing that the grilling of a beefsteak is a problem of profound complexity that we cannot solve until we have mastered the rudiments4 ,we have not yet determined how to practically apply the laws of albumen coagulation as discovered by our test-tube experiment to the cooking of a breakfast egg4 ,the non-professional student may do this at the breakfast fireside4 ,the apparatus required is a saucepan large enough for boiling a pint of water--the materials1 two eggs4 ,cook one in the orthodox manner by keeping it in boiling water three-and-a-half minutes4 ,then place the other in this same boiling water2 but1 instead of keeping the saucepan over the fire1 place it on the hearth and leave it there1 with the egg in it1 about ten minutes or more4 ,a still better way of making the comparative experiment is to use1 for the second egg1 a water-bath1 or bain-marie of the ,french cook--a vessel immersed in boiling1 or nearly boiling water1 like a glue-pot1 and therefore not quite so hot as its source of heat4 ,in this case a thermometer should be used1 and the water surrounding the egg be kept at or near #ahj ,fahr4 ,time of immersion about ten or twelve minutes4 ,a comparison of results will show that the egg that has been cooked at a temperature of more than #cj below the boiling-point of water is tender and delicate1 evenly so throughout1 no part being hard while another part is semi-raw and slimy4 ,i said #8ten minutes or more1' because1 when thus cooked1 a prolonged exposure to the hot water does no mischief2 if the temperature of #afj is not exceeded1 it may remain twice as long without hardening4 ,the #ahj is above-named because the rising of the temperature of the egg itself is due to the difference between its own temperature and that of the water1 and when that difference is very small1 this takes place very slowly1 besides which the temperature of the water is1 of course1 lowered in raising that of the cold egg4 ,in order to test this principle severely1 ,i made the following experiment4 ,at #aj4cj ,p4,m4 ,i placed a new-laid egg in a covered stoneware jar1 of about one-pint capacity1 and filled this with boiling water2 then wrapped the jar in many folds of flannel--so many that1 with the egg1 they filled a hat-case1 in which ,i placed the bundle and left it there until breakfast-time next morning1 ten hours later4 ,on unrolling1 ,i found the water cooled down to #ie2 the yolk of the egg was hard1 but the white only just solidified and much softer than the yolk4 ,on repeating the experiment1 and leaving the egg in its flannel coating for four hours1 the temperature of the water was #abc and the egg in similar condition--the white cooked in perfection1 delicately tender1 but the yolk too hard4 ,a third experiment of twelve hours1 water at #bjj on starting1 gave a similar result as regards the state of the egg4 ,i thus found that the yolk coagulates firmly at a lower temperature than the white4 ,whether this is due to a different condition of the albumen itself or to the action of the other constituents on the albumen1 requires further research to determine4 ,the albumen of the yolk has received the name of #8vitellin1' and is usually described as another variety differing from that of the white1 as it is differently affected by chemical reagents2 but ,lehmann#d regards it as a mixture of albumen and casein1 and describes experiments which justify his conclusion4 ,the difference of the temperature of coagulation does not appear to have been observed1 and ,i cannot understand how the admixture of casein can effect it4 ,when eggs are cooked in the ordinary way1 the #c minutes' immersion is insufficient to allow the heat to pass fully to the middle of the egg1 and therefore the white is subjected to a higher temperature than the yolk4 ,in my experiment there was time for a practically uniform diffusion of the heat throughout4 ,i shall describe hereafter what is called the #8,norwegian' cooking apparatus1 wherein fowls1 c41 are cooked as the eggs were in my hat-case4 ,albumen exists in flesh as one of its juices1 rather than in a definitely-organised condition4 ,it is distributed between the fibres of the lean 7i4e4 the muscles71 and it lubricates the tissues generally1 besides being an important constituent of the blood itself--of that portion of the blood which remains liquid when the blood is dead--i4e4 the serum4 ,as blood is not an ordinary article of food1 excepting in the form of #8black puddings1' its albumen need not be here considered1 nor the debated question of whether its albumen is identical with the albumen of the flesh4 ,existing thus in a liquid state in our ordinary flesh meats1 it is liable to be wasted in the course of cookery1 especially if the cook has only received the customary technical education and remains in technological ignorance4 ,to illustrate this1 let us suppose that a leg of mutton1 a slice of cod1 or a piece of salmon is to be cooked in water1 #8boiled1' as the cook says4 ,keeping in mind the results of the previously-described experiments on the egg-albumen1 and also the fact that in its liquid state albumen is diffusible in water1 the reader may now stand as scientific umpire in answering the question whether the fish or the flesh should be put in hot water at once1 or in cold water1 and be gradually heated4 ,the #8big-endians' and the #8little-endians' of ,liliput were not more definitely divided than are certain cookery authorities on this question in reference to fish4 ,referring at random to the cookery-books that come first to hand1 ,i find them about equally divided on the question4 ,confining our attention at present to the albumen1 what must happen if the fish or flesh is put in cold water1 which is gradually heated8 ,obviously a loss of albumen by exudation and diffusion through the water1 especially in the case of sliced fish or of meat exposing much surface of fibres cut across4 ,it is also evident that such loss of albumen will be shown by its coagulation when the water is sufficiently heated4 ,practical readers will at once recognise in the #8scum' which rises to the surface of the boiling water1 and in the milkiness that is more or less diffused throughout it1 the evidence of such loss of albumen4 ,this loss indicates the desirability of plunging the fish or flesh at once into water hot enough to immediately coagulate the superficial albumen1 and thereby plug the pores through which the inner albuminous juice otherwise exudes4 ,but this is not all4 ,there are other juices besides the albumen2 these are the most important of the flavouring constituents1 and1 with the other constituents of animal food1 have great nutritive value2 so much so1 that animal food is quite tasteless and almost worthless without them4 ,i have laid especial emphasis on the above qualification1 lest the reader should be led into an error originated by the bone-soup committee of the ,french ,academy1 and propagated widely by ,liebig--that of regarding these juices as a concentrated nutriment when taken alone4 ,they constitute collectively the extractum carnis1 which1 with the addition of more or less gelatine 7the less the better71 is commonly sold as ,liebig's #8,extract of ,meat4' ,it is prepared by simply mincing lean meat1 exposing it to the action of cold water1 and then evaporating down the solution of extract thus obtained4 ,i shall return to this on reaching the subjects of clear soups and beef-tea1 at present merely adding as evidence of the importance of retaining these juices in cooked meat1 that the extracts of beef1 mutton1 and pork may be distinguished by their specific flavours4 ,some ,extract of ,kangaroo1 sent to me many years ago from ,australia by the ,ramornie ,company1 made a soup that was curiously different in flavour from the other extract similarly prepared by the same company4 ,epicures pronounced it very choice and #8gamey4'#e ,when these juices are removed from the meat1 mutton1 beef1 pork1 c41 the remaining solids are all alike1 so far as the palate alone can distinguish4 ,let us now apply these principles practically to the case of a leg of mutton4 ,first1 in order to seal the pores1 the meat should be put into boiling water2 the water should be kept boiling for five or ten minutes4 ,a coating of firmly-coagulated albumen will thus envelop the joint4 ,now1 instead of boiling or #8simmering' the water1 set the saucepan aside1 where the water will retain a temperature of about #ahj1 or #cb below the boiling-point4 ,continue this about half as long again1 or double the usual time given in the cookery-books for boiling a leg of mutton1 and try the effect4 ,it will be analogous to that of the egg cooked on the same principles1 and appreciated accordingly4 ,the usual addition of salt to the water is very desirable4 ,it has a threefold action3 first1 it directly acts on the superficial albumen with coagulating effect2 second1 it slightly raises the boiling-point of the water2 and third1 by increasing the density of the water1 the #8exosmosis' or oozing out of the juices is less active4 ,these actions are slight1 but all co-operate in keeping in the juices4 ,i should add that a leg of mutton for boiling should be fresh1 and not #8hung' as for roasting4 ,the reasons for this hereafter4 #8,please1 mum1 the fish would break to pieces1' would be the probable reply of the unscientific cook1 to whom her mistress had suggested the desirability of cooking fish in accordance with the principles expounded above4 ,many kinds of fish would thus break if the popular notions of #8boiling' were carried out1 and the fish suddenly immersed in water that was agitated by the act of ebullition4 ,but this difficulty vanishes when the true theory of cookery is understood and practically applied by cooking the fish from beginning to end without ever boiling the water at all4 ,in the case of the leg of mutton1 chosen as a previous example1 the plunging in boiling water and maintenance of boiling-point for a few minutes was unobjectionable1 as the most effectual means of obtaining the firm coagulation of a superficial layer of albumen2 but1 in the case of fragile fish1 this advantage can only be obtained in a minor degree by using water just below the boiling-point2 the breaking of the fish by the agitation of the boiling water does more than merely disfigure it when served--it opens outlets to the juices1 and thereby depreciates the flavour1 besides sacrificing some of the nutritious albumen4 ,to demonstrate this experimentally1 take two equal slices from the same salmon1 cook one according to ,mrs4 ,beeton and other authorities by putting it into cold water1 or pouring cold water over it1 then heating up to the boiling-point4 ,cook the other slice by putting it into water nearly boiling 7about #bjj ,fahr471 and keeping it at about #ahj to #bjj1 but never boiling at all4 ,then dish up1 examine1 and taste4 ,the second will be found to have retained more of its proper salmon colour and flavour2 the first will be paler and more like cod1 or other white fish1 owing to the exosmosis or oozing out of its characteristic juices4 ,when two similar pieces of split salmon are thus cooked1 the difference between them is still more remarkable4 ,i should add that the practice of splitting salmon for boiling1 once so fashionable1 is now nearly obsolete1 and justly so4 ,i was surprised1 and at first considerably puzzled1 at what ,i saw of salmon-cooking in ,norway4 ,as this fish is so abundant there 7#a;d4 per lb4 would be regarded as a high price in the ,tellemark71 ,i naturally supposed that large experience1 operating by natural selection1 would have evolved the best method of cooking it1 but found that1 not only in the farmhouses of the interior1 but at such hotels as the #8,victoria1' in ,christiania1 the usual cookery was effected by cutting the fish into small pieces and soddening it in water in such wise that it came to table almost colourless1 and with merely a faint suggestion of what we prize as the rich flavour of salmon4 ,a few months' experience and a little reflection solved the problem4 ,salmon is so rich1 and has so special a flavour1 that when daily eaten it soon palls on the palate4 ,everybody has heard the old story of the clause in the indentures of the ,aberdeen apprentices1 binding the masters not to feed the boys on salmon more frequently than twice a week4 ,if the story is not true it ought to be1 for full meals of salmon every day would1 ere long1 render the special flavour of this otherwise delicious fish quite sickening4 ,by boiling out the rich oil of the salmon1 the ,norwegian reduces it nearly to the condition of cod-fish1 concerning which ,i learned a curious fact from two old ,doggerbank fishermen1 with whom ,i had a long sailing cruise from the ,golden ,horn to the ,thames4 ,they agreed in stating that cod-fish is like bread1 that they and all their mates lived upon it 7and sea-biscuits7 day after day for months together1 and never tired1 while richer fish ultimately became repulsive if eaten daily4 ,this statement was elicited by an immediate experience4 ,we were in the ,mediterranean1 where bonetta were very abundant1 and every morning and evening ,i amused myself by spearing them from the martingale of the schooner1 and so successfully that all hands 7or rather mouths7 were abundantly supplied with this delicious dark-fleshed1 full-blooded1 and high-flavoured fish4 ,i began by making three meals a day on it1 but at the end of about a week was glad to return to the ordinary ship's fare of salt junk and chickens4 ,the following account of an experiment of ,count ,rumford's is very interesting and instructive4 ,he says3 #8,i had long suspected that it could hardly be possible that precisely the temperature of #bab 7that of boiling water7 should be that which is best adapted for cooking all sorts of food2 but it was the unexpected result of an experiment that ,i made with another view which made me particularly attentive to this subject4 ,desirous of finding out whether it would be possible to roast meat on a machine that ,i had contrived for drying potatoes1 and fitted up in the kitchen of the ,house of ,industry at ,munich1 ,i put a shoulder of mutton into it1 and after attending to the experiment three hours1 and finding that it showed no signs of being done1 ,i concluded that the heat was not sufficiently intense1 and despairing of success ,i went home1 rather out of humour at my ill success1 and abandoned my shoulder of mutton to the cookmaids4 #8,it being late in the evening and the cookmaids thinking1 perhaps1 that the meat would be as safe in the drying machine as anywhere else1 left it there all night4 ,when they came in the morning to take it away1 intending to cook it for their dinner1 they were much surprised at finding it already cooked1 and not merely eatable1 but perfectly well done1 and most singularly well tasted4 ,this appeared to them the more miraculous1 as the fire under the machine was quite gone out before they left the kitchen in the evening to go to bed1 and as they had locked up the kitchen when they left it1 and taken away the key4 #8,this wonderful shoulder of mutton was immediately brought to me in triumph1 and though ,i was at no great loss to account for what had happened1 yet it certainly was quite unexpected2 and when ,i tasted the meat ,i was very much surprised indeed to find it very different1 both in taste and flavour1 from any ,i had ever tasted4 ,it was perfectly tender2 but though it was so much done it did not appear to be in the least sodden or insipid2 on the contrary1 it was uncommonly savoury and high flavoured4' ,what ,i have already explained concerning the coagulation of albumen will render this result fairly intelligible4 ,it will be still more so after what follows concerning the effect of heat on the other constituents of a shoulder of mutton4 ,the ,norwegian cooking apparatus1 to which ,i have already alluded1 and which is now commercially supplied in ,england1 does its work in a somewhat similar manner4 ,it consists of an inner tin pot with well-fitting lid1 which fits into a box1 having a thick lining of ill-conducting material--such as felt1 wool1 or sawdust 7it should be two or three inches thick bottom and sides74 ,a fowl1 for example1 is put into the tin1 which is then filled up with boiling water and covered with a close-fitting cover lined like the box1 and firmly strapped down4 ,this may be left for ten or twelve hours1 when the fowl will be found most delicately cooked4 ,for yachtsmen and #8camping-out' parties1 c41 it is a very luxurious apparatus4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,tarchnoff has recently discovered the curious fact that the white of the eggs of birds that are hatched without feathers remains transparent when coagulated1 while the eggs which produce chickens and other birds already fledged become opaque when coagulated4 ,this is familiarly illustrated by the difference between plovers' eggs and hens' eggs when cooked4 #c #8,egg-cement1' made by thickening white of egg with finely-powdered quicklime1 has long been used for mending alabaster1 marble1 c4 ,for joining fragments of fossils and mineralogical specimens1 it will be found very useful4 ,white of egg alone may be used1 if carefully heated afterwards4 #d ,physiological ,chemistry1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cef4 #e ,it was given to me in #ahfh4 ,i have just found that some of it remains unused 7,december #ahhd71 and that it still retains its characteristic flavour4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,gelatin1 ,,fibrin1 ,,and ,,the ,,juices ,,of ,,meat4 ,,gelatin is a very important element of animal food2 it is1 in fact1 the main constituent of the animal tissues1 the walls of the cells of which animals are built up being composed of gelatin4 ,i will not here discuss the question of whether ,haller's remark1 #8,dimidium corporis humani gluten est' 7#8half of the human body is gelatin'71 should or should not now1 as ,lehmann says1 #8be modified to the assertion that half of the solid parts of the animal body are convertible1 by boiling with water1 into gelatin4' ,lehmann and others give the name of #8glutin' to the component of the animal tissue as it exists there1 and gelatin to it when acted upon by boiling water4 ,others indicate this difference by naming the first #8gelatin1' and the second #8gelatine4' ,the difference upon which these distinctions are based is directly connected with my present subject1 as it is just the difference between the raw and the cooked material1 which1 as we shall presently see1 consists mainly in solubility4 ,even the original or raw gelatin varies materially in this respect4 ,there is a decidedly practical difference between the solubility of the cell-walls of a young chicken and those of an old hen4 ,the pleasant fiction which describes all the pretty gelatine preparations of the table as #8calf's-foot jelly1' is founded on the greater solubility of the juvenile hoof1 as compared to that of the adult ox or horse1 or to the parings of hides about to be used by the tanner4 ,all these produce gelatin by boiling1 the calves' feet with comparatively little boiling4 ,besides these differences there are decided varieties1 or1 ,i might say1 species of gelatin1 having slight differences of chemical composition and chemical relations4 ,there is ,chondrin1 or cartilage gelatin1 which is obtained by boiling the cartilages of the ribs1 larynx1 or joints for eighteen or twenty hours in water4 ,then there is ,fibroin1 obtained by boiling spiders' webs and the silk of silkworms or other caterpillars4 ,these exist as a liquid inside the animal1 which solidifies on exposure4 ,the fibres of sponge contain this modification of gelatin4 ,another kind is ,chitin1 which constituted the animal food of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 when he fed upon locusts and wild honey4 ,it is the basis of the bodily structure of insects2 of the spiral tubes which permeate them throughout1 and are so wonderfully displayed when we examine insect anatomy by aid of the microscope2 also of their intestinal canal1 their external skeleton1 scales1 hairs1 c4 ,it similarly forms the true skeleton and bodily framework of crabs1 lobsters1 shrimps1 and other crustacea1 bearing the same relation to their shells1 muscles1 c41 that ordinary gelatin does to the bones and softer tissues of the vertebrata2 it is #8the bone of their bones1 and the flesh of their flesh4' ,it is obtainable by boiling these creatures down1 but is more difficult of solution than the ordinary gelatin of beef1 mutton1 fish1 and poultry4 ,to this difficulty of solution in the stomach1 the nightmare that follows lobster suppers is probably attributable4 ,i once had an experience of the edibility of the shells of a crustacean4 ,when travelling1 ,i always continue the pursuit of knowledge in restaurants by ordering anything that appears on the bill of fare that ,i have never heard of before1 or cannot translate or pronounce4 ,at a ,neapolitan restaurant ,i found #8,gambero di ,mare' on the ,carta1 which ,i translated #8,leggy things of the sea1' or sea-creepers1 and ordered them accordingly4 ,they proved to be shrimps fried in their shells1 and were very delicious--like whitebait1 but richer4 ,the chitin of the shells was thus cooked to crispness1 and no evil consequences followed4 ,if reduced to locusts1 ,i should1 if possible1 cook them in the same manner1 and1 as they have similar chemical composition1 they would doubtless be equally good4 ,should any epicurean reader desire to try this dish 7the shrimps1 ,i mean71 he should fry them as they come from the sea1 not as they are sold by the fishmonger1 these being already boiled in salt water2 usually in sea water by the shrimpers who catch them1 the chitin being indurated thereby4 ,the introduction of fried and tinned locusts as an epicurean delicacy would be a boon to suffering humanity1 by supplying industrial compensation to the inhabitants of districts subject to periodical plagues of locust invasion4 ,the idea of eating them appears repulsive at first1 so would that of eating such creepy-crawly things as shrimps1 if no adventurous hero had made the first exemplary experiment4 ,chitin is chitin1 whether elaborated on the land or secreted in the sea4 ,the vegetarian locust and the cicala are free from the pungent essential oils of the really unpleasant cockchafer4 ,that curious epicurean food1 the edible birds'-nests1 which has been a subject of much controversy concerning its composition1 is commonly described as a delicate kind of gelatin4 ,this does not appear to be quite correct4 ,it is certainly gelatinous in its mechanical properties1 but it more nearly resembles the material of the slime and organic tissue of snails1 a substance to which the name of mucin has been given4 ,thus the birds'-nest soup of the ,east and the snail soup of the ,west are nearly allied1 and that made from callipash and callipee supplies an intermediate reptilian link4 ,the birds'-nests1 when cleaned for cooking1 are entirely composed of the dried saliva of swallows1 or rather swiftlets 7collocalia71 and this saliva probably contains some amount of digestive ferment or pepsin1 which may render it more digestible than the vulgar product from shin of beef1 and consequently more acceptable to feeble epicures4 ,those who have sufficient vital energy to supply their own saliva will probably prefer the vulgar concoction to the costly secretion4 ,the bird saliva sells for its own weight in silver1 when freed from adhering impurities4#f ,those who are disposed to bow too implicitly to mere authority in scientific matters will do well to study the history and the treatment which gelatin has received from some of the highest of these authorities4 ,our grandmothers believed it to be highly nutritious1 prepared it in the form of jellies for invalids1 and estimated the nutritive value of their soups by the consistency of the jelly which they formed on cooling1 which thickness is due to the gelatin they contain4 ,isinglass1 which is simply the swim-bladder of the sturgeon and similar fishes cut into shreds1 was especially esteemed1 and sold at high prices4 ,this is the purest natural form of gelatin4 ,everybody believed that the callipash and callipee of the alderman's turtle soup contributed largely to his proverbial girth1 and those who could not afford to pay for the gelatin of the reptile1 made mock turtle from the gelatinous tissues of calves'-heads and pigs'-feet4 ,about fifty or sixty years ago1 the ,french ,academy of ,sciences appointed a bone-soup commission1 consisting of some of the most eminent savants of the period4 ,they worked for above ten years upon the problem submitted to them1 that of determining whether or not the soup made by boiling bones until only their mineral matter remained solid1 is1 or is not1 a nutritious food for the inmates of hospitals1 c4 ,in the voluminous report which they ultimately submitted to the ,academy1 they decided in the negative4 ,baron ,liebig became the popular exponent of their conclusions1 and vigorously denounced gelatin1 as not merely a worthless article of food1 but as loading the system with material that demands wasteful effort for its removal4 ,the ,academicians fed dogs on gelatin alone1 found that they speedily lost flesh1 and ultimately died of starvation4 ,a multitude of similar experiments showed that gelatin alone will not support animal life1 and hence the conclusion that pure gelatin is worthless as an article of food1 and that ordinary soups containing gelatin owed their nutritive value to their other constituents4 ,according to the above-named report1 and the statements of ,liebig1 the following1 which ,i find on a wrapper of ,liebig's #8,extract of ,meat1' is justifiable3 #8,this ,extract of ,meat differs essentially from the gelatinous product obtained from tendons and muscular fibre1 inasmuch as it contains #hj per cent4 of nutritive matter1 while the other contains #d or #e per cent4' ,here the #d or #e per cent4 allowed to exist in the #8gelatinous product' 7i4e4 ordinary kitchen stock or glaze71 is attributed to the constituents it contains over and above the pure gelatin4 ,the following1 from a text-book largely used by medical students1#g shows the estimation in which gelatin was held at that date3 #8,but there is another azotised compound1 ,gelatin1 that is furnished by animals1 to which nothing analogous exists in ,plants2 and this is commonly reputed to possess highly nutritious properties4 ,it may be confidently affirmed1 however1 as a result of experiments made upon a large scale1 that ,gelatin is incapable of being converted into ,albumen in the animal body1 so that it cannot be applied to the nutrition of the albuminous tissues4 ,and1 although it might priori be thought not unlikely that ,gelatin1 taken in as food1 should be applied to the nutrition of the gelatinous tissues1 yet neither observation nor experiment bears out such a probability4' ,further on1 ,dr4 ,carpenter says3 #8,the use of gelatin as food would seem to be limited to its power of furnishing a certain amount of combustive material that may assist in maintaining the heat of the body4' ,subsequent experiments1 however1 have refuted these conclusions4 ,i must not be tempted to describe them in detail1 but only to state the general results1 which are1 that while animals fed on gelatin soup1 formed into a soft paste with bread1 lost flesh and strength rapidly1 they recovered their original weight when to this same food only a very small quantity of the sapid and odorous principles of meat were added4 ,thus1 in the experiments of ,,mm4 ,edwards and ,balzac1 a young dog that had ceased growing1 and had lost one-fifth of its original weight when fed on bread and gelatin for thirty days1 was next supplied with the same food1 but to which was added1 twice a day1 only two tablespoonfuls of soup made from horseflesh4 ,there was an increase of weight on the first day1 and1 #8in twenty-three days the dog had gained considerably more than its original weight1 and was in the enjoyment of vigorous health and strength4' ,all this difference was due to the savoury constituents of the four tablespoonfuls of meat soup1 which soup contained the juices of the flesh1 to which1 as already stated1 its flavour is due4 ,the inferences drawn by ,m4 ,edwards from the whole of the experiments are the following3 #8#a4 ,that gelatin alone is insufficient for alimentation4 #b4 ,that1 although insufficient1 it is not unwholesome4 #c4 ,that gelatin contributes to alimentation1 and is sufficient to sustain it when it is mixed with a due proportion of other products which would themselves prove insufficient if given alone4 #d4 ,that gelatin extracted from bones1 being identical with that extracted from other parts--and bones being richer in gelatin than other tissues1 and able to afford two-thirds of their weight of it--there is an incontestable advantage in making them serve for nutrition in the form of soup1 jellies1 paste1 c41 always1 however1 taking care to provide a proper admixture of the other principles in which the gelatin-soup is defective4 #e4 ,that to render gelatin-soup equal in nutritive and digestible qualities to that prepared from meat alone1 it is sufficient to mix one-fourth of meat-soup with three-fourths of gelatin-soup2 and that1 in fact1 no difference is perceptible between soup thus prepared and that made solely from meat4 #f4 ,that in preparing soup in this way1 the great advantage remains1 that while the soup itself is equally nourishing with meat-soup1 three-fourths of the meat which would be requisite for the latter by the common process of making soup are saved and made useful in another way--as by roasting1 c4 #g4 ,that jellies ought always to be associated with some other principles to render them both nutritive and digestible4'#h ,the reader may make a very simple experiment on himself by preparing first a pure gelatin-soup from isinglass1 or the prepared gelatin commonly sold1 and trying to make a meal of this with bread alone4 ,its insipidity will be evident with the first spoonful4 ,if he perseveres1 it will become not merely insipid1 but positively repulsive2 and1 should he struggle through one meal and then another1 without any other food between1 he will find it1 in the course of time 7varying with constitution and previous alimentation71 positively nauseous4 ,let him now add to it some of ,liebig's #8,extract of ,meat1' and he will at once perceive the difference4 ,here the natural appetite foreshadows the result of continuing the experiment1 and points the way to correcting the errors of the ,academicians and ,baron ,liebig4 ,the jellies that we take at evening parties1 or the jujubes used as sweetmeats1 are flavoured with something positive4 ,i have tasted #8,blue-,ribbon' jellies that were wretchedly insipid4 ,this was not merely owing to the absence of alcohol1 of which very little can remain in such preparations1 but rather to the absence of the flavouring ingredients of the wine4 ,i venture to suggest the further1 deliberate1 and scientific extension of this principle1 by adding to bone-soup1 or other form of insipid gelatin1 the potash1 salts1 phosphates1 c41 which are found in the juices of meat and vegetables4 ,they may either be prepared in the manufacturing laboratory1 like ,parrish's #8,chemical ,food1' or #8,syrup of phosphates1' or extracted from fruits1 as commercial limejuice is extracted4 ,i recommend those who are interested to manufacture and offer for sale a good preparation of limejuice gelatin4 ,it would seem that gelatin alone1 although containing the elements required for nutrition1 requires something more to render it digestible4 ,we shall probably be not far from the truth if we picture it to the mind as something too smooth1 too neutral1 too inert1 to set the digestive organs at work1 and that it therefore requires the addition of a decidedly sapid something that shall make these organs act4 ,i believe that the proper function of the palate is to determine our selection of such materials2 that its activity is in direct sympathy with that of all the digestive organs2 and that if we carefully avoid the vitiation of our natural appetites1 we have in our mouths1 and the nervous apparatus connected therewith1 a laboratory that is capable of supplying us with information concerning some of the chemical relations of food which is beyond the grasp of the analytical machinery of the ablest of our scientific chemists4 ,what is the chemistry of the cookery of gelatin8 ,what are the chemical changes effected by cookery upon gelatin8 ,or1 otherwise stated1 what is the chemical difference or differences between cooked and raw gelatin8 ,i find no satisfactory answer to these questions in any of our text-books1 and therefore will do what ,i can towards supplying my own solution of the problem4 ,in the first place1 it should be understood that raw gelatin1 or animal membrane as it exists in its organised condition1 is not soluble in cold water1 and not immediately in hot water4 ,genuine isinglass is the membrane of the swim-bladder of the sturgeon 7that of other fishes is said to be sometimes substituted74 ,in its unprepared form it is not easily dissolved1 but if soaked in water1 especially in warm water1 for some time1 it swells4 ,the same with other forms of membrane4 ,this swelling ,i regard as the first stage of the cookery4 ,on examination1 ,i find that it is not only increased in bulk but also in weight1 and that the increase of weight is due to some water that it has taken into itself4 ,here1 then1 we have crude gelatin plus water1 or hydrated gelatin4 ,proceeding further1 by boiling this until it all dissolves1 and then allowing it to harden by very slow evaporation1 ,i find that it still contains some of its acquired water1 and that ,i cannot drive away this newly-acquired water without destroying some of its characteristic properties--its solubility and gluey character4 ,before returning to its original weight as crude isinglass1 it becomes somewhat carbonised4 ,hence1 ,i infer that the cookery of gelatin consists in converting the original membrane more or less completely into a hydrate of its former self4 ,according to this1 the #8prepared gelatin' sold in the shops is hydrated gelatin1 completely hydrated1 seeing that it is completely and readily soluble4 ,the membranes of our ordinary cooked meat are1 if ,i am right1 partially hydrated1 in varying degrees1 and thereby prepared for solution in the course of digestion4 ,the varying degrees are illustrated by the differences in a knuckle of veal or a calf's head1 according to the length of time during which it has been stewed1 i4e4 subjected to the hydrating process4 ,the second stage of the cookery of gelatin is the solution of this hydrate1 as in soups1 c4 ,carpenters' glue is crude hydrated gelatin1 made by stewing or hydrating hoofs of horses1 cattle1 c41 or the waste cuttings of hides4 ,the carpenter knows that if he allows his solution of glue to boil 7such a solution boils at a higher temperature than pure water71 it loses its tenacity1 becomes cindery1 or1 as ,i should say1 dehydrated or dissociated1 without returning to the original condition of the organised membranes4 ,even a frequent reheating at the glue-pot temperature #8weakens' the glue1 and therefore he prefers fresh glue1 and puts but a little at a time into his glue-pot4 ,the applications of this theory will appear as ,i proceed4 ,a sheep or an ox1 a fowl or a rabbit1 is made up1 like ourselves1 of organic structures and blood1 the organs continually wasting as they work1 and being renewed by the blood2 or1 otherwise described1 the component molecules of these organs are continually dying of old age as their work is done1 and replaced by new-born successors generated by the blood4 ,these molecules are1 for the most part1 cellular1 each cell living a little life of its own1 generated with a definite individuality1 doing its own life-work1 then shrivelling in decay1 dying in the midst of vital surroundings1 suffering cremation1 and thereby contributing to the animal heat necessary for the life of its successors1 and even giving up a portion of its substance to supply them with absorption-food4 ,the cell walls are mainly composed of gelatin1 or the substance which produces gelatin1 as already explained1 while the contents of the cell are albuminous matter or fat1 or the special constituents of the particular organ it composes4 ,a description of all these constituents would carry me too far into details4 ,i must1 therefore1 only refer to those which constitute the bulk of animal food1 and which are altered in the process of cooking4 ,in the lean of meat1 i4e4 the muscles of the animal1 we have the albuminous juices already described1 the gelatinous membranes1 sheaths1 and walls of the muscle fibre1 and the fibre itself4 ,this is composed of muscle-fibrin1 or syntonin1 as ,lehmann has named it4 ,living blood consists of a complex liquid1 in which are suspended a multitude of minute cells1 some red1 others colourless4 ,when the blood is removed and dies1 it clots or partially solidifies1 and is found to contain a network of extremely fine fibre1 to which the name of fibrin is applied4 ,a similar change takes place in the substance of the muscle after death4 ,it stiffens1 and this stiffening1 or rigor mortis1 is effected by the formation of a clot analogous to the coagulation of the blood4 ,the chief difference between blood-fibrin and muscle-fibrin or syntonin is1 that the latter is readily soluble in water1 to which only #a_/ajjj of hydrochloric acid has been added1 while in such a solution blood-fibrin only becomes swollen4 ,if the gastric juice contains a little free hydrochloric acid1 this difference is important in reference to food4 ,i should1 however1 add that the existence of such free acid in the human gastric juice is disputed1 especially by ,gruenewaldt and ,schroeder4 ,the conflict of able chemists on this point and others concerning the composition of this fluid leads me to suppose that the secretions of the human stomach vary with the food habitually taken2 that flesh-eaters acquire a gastric juice similar to that of carnivorous animals1 while vegetable feeders are supplied with digestive solvents more suitable to their food4 ,this idea is supported by the testimony of rigid vegetarians4 ,they tell me that at first the pure vegetarian diet did not appear to satisfy them1 but after a while it became as sustaining as their former food4 ,this is explained if1 in consequence of the modification of the gastric and other digestive juices1 the vegetarian food became more completely digested after vegetarian habits became established4 ,the properties of fibrin1 so far as cookery is concerned1 place it between albumen and gelatin2 it is coagulable like albumen1 and soluble like gelatin1 but in a minor degree4 ,like gelatin1 it is tasteless and non-nutritious alone4 ,this has been proved by feeding animals on lean meat1 which has been cut up and subjected to the action of cold water1 which dissolves out the albumen and other juices of the flesh1 and leaves only the muscular fibre and its envelopes4 ,the experiment has been made in laboratories1 and also on a larger scale in ,australia1 where the lean beef from which the #8,extract of ,meat' had been taken out by cold water was given to dogs1 pigs1 and other animals2 but1 after taking a few mouthfuls1 they all rejected it1 and suffered starvation when it was forced upon them without other food4 ,the same is the case with the spontaneously coagulated fibrin of the blood2 it is1 when washed1 a yellowish opaque fibrous mass1 without smell or taste1 insoluble in cold water1 alcohol1 or ether1 but imperfectly soluble if digested for a considerable time in hot water4 ,the following is the chemical composition of these three constituents of lean meat1 according to ,mulder3 -------------------------------------- -- ,albumen ,gelatine ,fibrin -------------------------------------- ,carbon #ece #ejdj #ebg ,hydrogen #gj #ffd #fi ,nitrogen #aee #ahcd #aed ,oxygen #bbj #bdfb #bce ,sulphur #af -- #ab ,phosphorus #jd -- #jc --------------------------- #ajjj #ajjjj #ajjj -------------------------------------- ,there are two other constituents of lean meat which are very different from either of these1 viz4 ,kreatine and ,kreatinine1 otherwise spelled #8creatine' and #8creatinine4' ,they exist in the juice of the flesh1 and are freely soluble in cold or hot water1 from which solution they may be crystallised by evaporating the solvent1 just as we may crystallise common salt1 alum1 c4 ,they thus have a resemblance to mineral substances1 and still more so to some of the active constituents of plants1 such as the alkaloids theine and caffeine1 upon which depend the stimulating or #8refreshing' properties of tea and coffee4 ,like these1 they are highly nitrogenous1 and many theories have been based upon this1 both as regards their exceptionally nutritious properties and their functions in the living muscle4 ,one of these theories is that they are the dead matter of muscle1 the first and second products of the combustion which accompanies muscular work1 urea being the final product4 ,according to this their relation to the muscle is exactly the opposite of that of the albuminous juice1 this being probably the material from which the muscle is built up or renewed4 ,the following is their composition1 according to ,liebig's analyses1 and does not support this hypothesis3 -------------------------------- -- ,kreatine ,kreatinine -------------------------------- ,carbon #cffd #dbdh ,hydrogen #fhg #fai ,nitrogen #cbjf #cgag ,oxygen #bddc #adaf ---------------------- #ajjjj #ajjjj -------------------------------- ,they appear to undergo no change in cooking unless excessively heated2 may be used uncooked1 as in cold-drawn extract of meat4 ,the juices of lean flesh also contain a little lactic acid--the acid of milk--but this does not appear to be an absolutely essential constituent4 ,besides these there are mineral salts of considerable nutritive importance1 though small in quantity4 ,these1 with the kreatine and kreatinine1 are the chief constituents of beef-tea properly so-called1 and will be further treated when ,i come to that preparation4 ,at present it is sufficient to keep in view the fact that these juices are essential to complete the nutritive value of animal food4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,the following1 from ,francatelli's ,modern ,cook1 is amusing1 if not instructive3 #8,take two dozen garden snails1 add to these the hind quarters only of two dozen stream frogs1 previously skinned2 bruise them together in a mortar1 after which put them into a stewpan with a couple of turnips chopped small1 a little salt1 a quarter of an ounce of hay-saffron1 and three pints of spring water4 ,stir these on the fire until the broth begins to boil1 then skim it well and set it by the side of the fire to simmer for half an hour2 after which it should be strained1 by pressure through a tammy cloth1 into a basin for use4 ,this broth1 from its soothing qualities1 often counteracts1 successfully1 the straining effects of a severe cough1 and alleviates1 more than any other culinary preparation1 the sufferings of the consumptive4' #g ,carpenter's ,manual of ,physiology1 #crd edition1 #ahdf1 p4 #bfg4 #h ,londe1 ,nouveaux lments d',hygine1 #bnd edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gc4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,roasting ,,and ,,grilling4 ,i ,,may now venture to state my own view of a somewhat obscure subject--viz4 the difference between the roasting or grilling of meat and the stewing of meat4 ,it appears to me that1 as regards the nature of the operation1 it consists simply in the difference between the cooking media2 that a grilled steak or chop1 or a roasted joint is meat that has been stewed in its own juices instead of stewed in water2 that in both cases the changes taking place in the solid parts of the meat are the same in kind1 provided always that the roasting or grilling is properly performed4 ,the albumen is coagulated in all cases1 and the gelatinous and fibrous tissues are softened by being heated in a liquid solvent4 ,i shall presently apply this definition in distinguishing between good and bad cookery4 ,in the roasted or grilled meat the juices are retained in the meat 7with the exception of those which escape as gravy on the dish71 while in stewing the juices go more or less completely into the water1 and the loosening of the fibres and solution of the gelatin and fibrin may be carried further1 inasmuch as a larger quantity of solvent is used4 ,roasting and grilling may be regarded as our national methods of flesh cookery1 and stewing in water that of our continental neighbours4 ,the difference between the flavour of ,english roast beef and ,french bouilli or ,italian manzo is due to the retention or the removal of the saline and highly-flavoured soluble materials4 7,concentrated kreatine and kreatinine are pungently sapid47 ,the ,frenchman takes them out of his bouilli1 or boiled meat1 and transfers them to his bouillon1 or soup1 which1 with him1 is an essential element of a meal4 ,if he ate his meat without soup1 he would be like the dogs fed on gelatin by the bone-soup commissioners4 ,to the ,englishman1 with his roast or grilled meat1 soup is merely a luxury1 not an absolutely necessary element of a complete dietary4 ,what we call boiled meat1 as a boiled leg of mutton or round of beef1 is an intermediate preparation4 ,the heat is here communicated by water1 and the juices partially retained4 ,not only do we1 in roasting and grilling our meat1 keep the juices within it1 but we concentrate them considerably by evaporating away some of the water by which they are naturally diluted4 ,this is my explanation of the rationale of the chief difference between boiled meat and roasted or grilled meat4 ,a further difference--that due to browning--is discussed in the chapter on ,frying4 ,those accustomed to such concentration of flavour regard the milder results of boiling as insipid1 for1 by this process and by stewing1 where much water is used1 the juices are further diluted instead of being concentrated4 ,it is a fairly debatable question whether the simplicity of taste which finds satisfaction in the milder diet is better and more desirable than the appetite for strong meat4 ,the difference has some analogy to that between the thirst for light wine and that for stiff grog4 ,the application of the principles above expounded to the processes of grilling and roasting is simple enough4 ,as the meat is to be stewed in its own juices1 it is evident that these juices must be retained as completely as possible1 and that in order to succeed in this1 we have to struggle with the evaporating energy of the #8dry heat' which effects the cookery1 and may not only concentrate the juices by driving off some of their solvent water1 but may volatilise or decompose the flavouring principles themselves4 ,we must always remember that these organic compounds are very unstable1 most of them being decomposed when raised to a temperature above the boiling-point of water4 ,the repulsive energy of heat drives apart or #8dissociates' their loosely-combined elements1 and when thus wholly or partially dissociated1 all the characteristic properties of the original compound vanish1 and others take their place4 ,it should be clearly understood that the so-called #8dry heat' may be communicated by convection or by radiation1 or both4 ,when water is the heating medium1 there is convection only--i4e4 heating by actual contact with the heated body4 ,in roasting and grilling there is also some convection-heating due to the hot air which actually touches the meat2 but this is a very small element of efficiency1 the work being chiefly done1 when well done1 by the heat which is radiated from the fire directly to the surface of the meat1 and which1 in the case of roasting in front of a fire1 passes through the intervening air with very little heating effect thereon4 ,i am not perpetrating any far-fetched pedantry in pointing out this difference1 as will be understood at once by supposing a beefsteak to be cooked by suspending it in a chamber filled with hot dry air4 ,such air is actively thirsting for the vapour of water1 and will take into itself1 from every humid substance it touches1 a quantity proportionate to its temperature4 ,the steak receiving its heat by convection--i4e4 the heat conveyed by such hot air1 and communicated by contact--would be desiccated1 but not cooked4 ,this distinction is so important1 that ,i will illustrate it still further1 my chief justification for such insistence being that even ,rumford himself evidently failed to understand it1 and it has been generally misunderstood or neglected4 ,let us suppose the hot air used for convection cooking to be at the cooking-point1 as the hot water in stewing should be1 what will follow its application to the meat8 ,evaporation of the water in the juices1 and with that evaporation a lowering of temperature at the surface of the meat1 keeping it below the cooking-point4 ,if the air be heated above this1 the evaporation will go on with proportionate rapidity4 ,as nearly #a1jjj degrees of heat are lost as temperature1 and converted into expansive force whenever and wherever evaporation of water occurs1 the film of hot1 dry air touching the meat is cooled by this evaporation1 and sinks immediately1 to be replaced by a rising film of lighter1 hotter1 and drier air4 ,this drinks in more vapour1 cools and sinks1 to give place to another1 and so on till the inner juices gradually ooze between the fibres to the porous surface1 where they are carried away by the hot1 dry air1 and a hard1 leathery1 unmasticable mass of desiccated gelatin1 albumen1 fibrin1 c41 is produced4 ,now1 let us suppose a similar beefsteak to be cooked by radiant heat1 with the least possible co-operation of convection4 ,to effect this1 our source of heat must be a good radiator4 ,glowing solids are better radiators than ordinary flames2 therefore coke1 or charcoal1 or ordinary coal1 after its bituminous matter has done its flaming1 should be used1 and the steak or chop may be placed in front or above a surface of such glowing carbon4 ,in ordinary domestic practice it is placed on a gridiron above the coal1 and therefore ,i will consider this case first4 ,the object to be attained is to raise the juices of the meat throughout to about the temperature of #ahj ,fahr4 as quickly as possible1 in order that the cookery may be completed before the water of these juices shall have had time to evaporate excessively2 therefore the meat should be placed as near to the surface of the glowing carbon as possible4 ,but the practical housewife will say that1 if placed within two or three inches1 some of the fat will be melted and burn1 and then the steak will be smoked4 ,now1 here we require a little more chemistry4 ,there is smoking and smoking2 smoking that produces a detestable flavour1 and smoking that does no mischief at all beyond appearances4 ,the flame of an ordinary coal fire is due to the distillation and combustion of tarry vapours4 ,if such a flame strikes a comparatively cool surface like that of the meat1 it will condense and deposit thereon a film of crude coal tar and coal naphtha1 most nauseous and rather mischievous2 but if the flame be that which is caused by the combustion of its own fat1 the deposit on a mutton-chop will be a little mutton juice1 on a beefsteak a little beef juice1 more or less blackened by mutton-carbon or beef-carbon4 ,but these have no other flavour than that of cooked mutton and cooked beef2 therefore they are perfectly innocent1 in spite of their black1 guilty appearances4 ,if any of my readers are sceptical1 let them appeal to experiment by putting a mutton-chop to the torture1 and taking its own confession4 ,to do this1 divide the chop in equal halves1 then hold one half over a flaming coal1 immersing it in the flame1 and thus cook it4 ,now cut a bit of fat off the other1 throw this fat on a surface of clear1 glowing1 flameless coal or coke1 and1 when a good blaze is thus obtained1 immerse the half chop recklessly and unmercifully into this flame2 there let it splutter and fizz1 let it drop more fat and make more flame1 but hold it there nevertheless for a few minutes1 and then taste the result4 ,in spite of its blackness1 it will be 7if just warmed through to the above-named cooking temperature7 a deliciously-cooked1 juicy1 nutritious1 digestible morsel1 apparently raw1 but actually more completely cooked than if it had been held twice as long1 at double the distance1 from the surface of the fire4 ,for further instruction1 make a third experiment by imitating the cautious unscientific cook1 who1 ignorant of the difference between the condensation products of coal and those from beef and mutton fat1 carefully raises the gridiron directly the flame from the dropping fat threatens the object of her solicitude4 ,the result will be an ordinary domestic chop or steak4 ,i apply this adjective1 because in this particular effort of cookery1 the grilling of chops and steaks1 domestic cookery is commonly at fault4 ,the majority of our ,city men find that while the joint cooked at home is better than that they usually get at restaurants and hotels1 the chops and steaks are inferior4 ,i believe that this inferiority is due1 in the first place1 to the want of understanding of the difference between coal-flame and fat-flame2 and in the second1 to the advantage afforded to the #8grill-room' cook by his specially-constructed fire1 with a large surface of glowing coke surmounted by a sloping grill1 whereon he can expose his chops and steaks to a maximum of radiant heat with a minimum of convection heat2 the hot air which passes in a current over the coke surface having such small depth that it barely touches the bars of the grill4 7,this may be seen by watching the course of flame produced by the droppings of the fat47 ,the same obliquity of draught prevents the serious blacking of the meat1 which1 although harmless1 is unsightly and calculated to awaken prejudice4 ,the high temperature rapidly imparted by radiation to the surface of the meat forms a thin superficial crust of hardened and semi-carbonised albumen and fibre1 that resists the outrush of vapour1 and produces within a certain degree of high pressure1 which probably acts in loosening the fibres4 ,a well-grilled chop or steak is #8puffed' out--made thicker in the middle2 an ill-cooked1 desiccated specimen is shrivelled1 collapsed1 and thinned by the slow departure or dissociation of its juices4 ,happy little couples1 living in little houses with only one little servant--or1 happier still1 with no servant at all--complain of their little joints of meat1 which1 when roasted1 are so dry1 as compared with the big succulent joints of larger households4 ,a little reflection on the principles above applied to the grilling of steaks and chops will explain the source of this little difficulty1 and show how it may be overcome4 ,i will here venture upon a little of the mathematics of cookery1 as well as its chemistry4 ,while the weight or quantity of material in a joint increases with the cube of its through-measured dimensions1 its surface only increases with their square--or1 otherwise stated1 we do not nearly double or treble the surface of a joint of given form when we double or treble its weight2 and vice vers1 the less the weight1 the greater the surface in proportion to the weight4 ,this is obvious enough when we consider that we cannot cut a single lump of anything into halves without exposing or creating two fresh surfaces where no surfaces were exposed before4 ,as the evaporation of the juices is1 under given conditions1 proportionate to the surface exposed1 it is evident that this process of converting the inside middle into two outside surfaces must increase the amount of evaporation that occurs in roasting4 ,what1 then1 is the remedy for this8 ,it is twofold4 ,first1 to seal up the pores of these additional surfaces as completely as possible2 and secondly1 to diminish to the utmost the time of exposure to the dry air4 ,logically following up these principles1 ,i arrive at a practical formula which will probably induce certain orthodox cooks to denounce me as a culinary paradoxer4 ,it is this3 ,that the smaller the joint to be roasted1 the higher the temperature to which its surface should be exposed4 ,the roasting of a small joint should1 in fact1 be conducted in nearly the same manner as the grilling of a chop or steak described in my last4 ,the surface should be crusted or browned--burned1 if you please--as speedily as possible1 in such wise that the juices within shall be held there under high pressure1 and only allowed to escape by burst and splutters1 rather than by steady evaporation4 ,the best way of doing this is a problem to be solved by the practical cook4 ,i only expound the principles1 and timidly suggest the mode of applying them4 ,in a metallurgical laboratory1 where ,i am most at home1 ,i could roast a small joint beautifully by suspending it inside a large red-hot steel-smelter's crucible1 or1 better still1 in an apparatus called a #8muffle1' which is a fireclay tunnel open in front1 and so arranged in a suitable furnace as to be easily made red-hot all round4 ,a small joint placed on a dripping-pan and run into this would be equally heated by all-round converging radiation1 and exquisitely roasted in the course of ten to thirty minutes1 according to its size4 ,some such an apparatus has yet to be invented in order that we may learn the flavour and tenderness of a perfectly-roasted small joint of beef or mutton4 ,for roasting large masses of meat1 a different proceeding is necessary4 ,here we have to contend1 not with excessive surface in proportion to bulk--as in the grilling of chops and steaks1 and the roasting of small joints--but with the contrary1 viz4 excessive bulk in proportion to surface4 ,if a baron of beef were to be treated according to my prescription for a steak1 or for a single small wing rib1 or other joint of three to five pounds weight1 it would be charred on its surface long before the heat could reach its centre4 ,a considerable time is here inevitably demanded4 ,of course1 the higher the initial outside temperature1 the more rapidly the heat will penetrate2 but we cannot apply this law to a lump of meat as we may to a mass of iron4 ,we may go on heating the outside of the iron to redness1 but not so the meat4 ,so long as the surface of the meat remains moist1 we cannot raise it to a higher temperature than the boiling-point of the liquid that moistens it4 ,above this1 charring commences4 ,a little of such charring1 such as occurs to the steak or small joint during the short period of its exposure to the great heat1 does no harm2 it simply #8browns' the surface2 but if this were continued during the roasting of a large joint1 a crust of positively black charcoal would be formed1 with ruinous waste and general detriment4 ,as ,rumford proved long ago1 liquids are very bad conductors1 and when their circulation is prevented by confinement between fibres1 as in the meat1 the rate at which heat will travel through the humid mass is very slow indeed4 ,as few of my readers are likely to fully estimate the magnitude of this difficulty1 ,i will state a fact that came under my own observation1 and at the time surprised me4 ,about five-and-twenty years ago ,i was visiting a friend at ,warwick during the #8mop1' or #8statute fair'--the annual slave market of the county4 ,in accordance with the old custom1 an ox was roasted whole in the open public market-place4 ,the spitting of the carcass and starting the cookery was a disgusting sight4 ,we are accustomed to see the neatly-cut joints ordinarily brought to the kitchen2 but the handling and impaling of the whole body of a huge beast by half a dozen rough men1 while its stiffened limbs were stretching out from its trunk1 presented the carnivorous character of our ordinary feeding very grossly indeed4 ,nevertheless ,i watched the process1 partook of some of its result1 and found it good4 ,the fire was lighted before midnight1 the rotation of the beast on the horizontal spit began shortly after1 and continued until the following midday1 all this time being necessary for the raising of the inner parts of the flesh to the cooking temperature of about #ahj ,fahr4 ,compare this with the grilling of a steak1 which1 when well done1 is done in a few minutes1 or the roasting of the small joint as above within thirty minutes1 and you will see that ,i am justified in dwelling on the great differences of the two processes1 and the necessity of very varied proceeding to meet these different conditions4 ,the difference of time is so great that the smaller relative surface is insufficient to compensate for the evaporation that must occur if the grilling principle1 or the pure and simple action of radiant heat1 were only made available1 as in the above ideal roasting of the small joint4 ,what1 then1 is added to this8 ,how is the desiccating difficulty overcome in the large-scale roasting8 ,simply by basting4 ,all night long and all the next morning men were continuously at work pouring melted fat over the surface of the slowly-rotating carcass of the ,warwick ox1 skilfully directing a ladleful to any part that indicated undue dryness4 ,by this device the meat is more or less completely enveloped in a varnish of hot melted fat1 which assists in the communication of heat1 while it checks the evaporation of the juices4 ,in such roasting the heat is partially communicated by convection through the medium of a fat-bath1 as in stewing it is all supplied by a water-bath4 ,i have made some experiments wherein this principle is fully carried out4 ,in a suitably-sized saucepan ,i melted a sufficient quantity of mutton-dripping to form a bath1 wherein a small joint of mutton could be completely immersed4 ,the fat was then raised to a high temperature1 #cej 7as shown by ,davis' tryometer1 presently to be described74 ,then ,i immersed the joint in this1 keeping up the high temperature for a few minutes4 ,afterwards ,i allowed it to fall below #bjj1 and thus cooked the joint4 ,it was good and juicy1 though a little of the gravy had escaped and was found in the fat after cooling4 ,the experiment was repeated with variations of temperature2 the best result obtained when it was about #djj at the beginning1 and kept up to above #bjj afterwards4 ,i used loins and half-legs of mutton1 exposing considerable surface4 ,i find that ,sir ,henry ,thompson1 in a lecture delivered at the ,fisheries ,exhibition1 and now reprinted1 has invaded my subject1 and has done this so well that ,i shall retaliate by annexing his suggestion1 which is that fish should be roasted4 ,he says that this mode of cooking fish should be general1 since it is applicable to all varieties4 ,i fully agree with him1 but go a little further in the same direction by including1 not only roasting in a ,dutch or ,american oven before the fire1 but also in the side-ovens of kitcheners and in gas-ovens1 which1 when used as ,i have explained1 are roasters--i4e4 they cook by radiation1 without any of the drying anticipated by ,sir ,henry4 ,the practical housewife will probably say this is not new1 seeing that people who know what is good have long been in the habit of enjoying mackerel and haddocks 7especially ,dublin ,bay haddocks7 stuffed and baked1 and cods' heads similarly treated4 ,the ,jews do something of the kind with halibut's head1 which they prize as the greatest of all piscine delicacies4 ,the ,john ,dory is commonly stuffed and cooked in an oven by those who understand his merits4 ,the excellence of ,sir ,henry ,thompson's idea consists in its breadth as applicable to all fish1 on the basis of that fundamental principle of scientific cookery on which ,i have so continually and variously insisted1 viz4 the retention and concentration of the natural juices of the viands4 ,he recommends the placing of the fish entire1 if of moderate size1 in a tin or plated copper dish adapted to the form and size of the fish1 but a little deeper than its thickness1 so as to retain all the juices1 which on exposure to the heat will flow out2 the surface to be lightly spread with butter with a morsel or two added1 and the dish placed before the fire in a ,dutch or ,american oven1 or the special apparatus made by ,burton of ,oxford ,street1 which was exhibited at the lecture4 ,to this ,i may add1 that if a closed oven be used1 ,rumford's device of a false bottom1 shown in ,fig4 #c1 p4 #gb 7see next chapter71 should be adopted1 which may be easily done by simply standing the above-described fish-dish1 on any kind of support to raise it a little1 in a larger tin tray or baking-dish1 containing some water4 ,the evaporation of the water will prevent the drying up of the fish or of its natural gravy2 and if the oven ventilation is treated with the contempt ,i shall presently recommend1 the fish1 if thick1 will be better cooked and more juicy than in an open-faced oven in front of the fire4 ,this reminds me of a method of cooking fish which1 in the course of my pedestrian travels in ,italy1 ,i have seen practised in the rudest of osterias1 where my fellow-guests were carbonari 7charcoal burners71 waggoners1 road-making navvies1 c4 ,their staple #8magro1' or fast-day material1 is split and dried codfish imported from ,norway1 which in appearance resembles the hides that are imported to the ,bermondsey tanneries4 ,a piece is hacked out from one of these1 soaked for awhile in water1 and carefully rolled in a piece of paper saturated with olive oil4 ,a hole is then made in the white embers of the charcoal fire1 the paper parcel of fish inserted and carefully buried in ashes of selected temperature4 ,it comes out wonderfully well cooked considering the nature of the raw material4 ,luxurious cookery en papillote is conducted on the same principle and especially applied to red mullets1 the paper being buttered and the sauce enveloped with the fish4 ,in all these cases the retention of the natural juices is the primary object4 ,i should add that ,sir ,henry ,thompson directs1 as a matter of course1 that the roasted fish should be served in the dish wherein it was cooked4 ,he suggests that #8portions of fish1 such as fillets1 may be treated as well as entire fish2 garnishes of all kinds1 as shell-fish1 c41 may be added1 flavouring also with fine herbs and condiments according to taste4' #8,fillets of plaice or skate with a slice or two of bacon2 the dish to be filled or garnished with some previously-boiled haricots1' is wisely recommended as a savoury meal for a poor man1 and one that is highly nutritious4 ,a chemical analysis of six-pennyworth of such a combination would prove its nutritive value to be equal to fully eighteen-pennyworth of beefsteak4 ,some people may be inclined to smile at what ,i am about to say1 viz4 that such savoury dishes1 serving to vary the monotony of the poor hard-working man's ordinary fare1 afford considerable moral1 as well as physical1 advantage4 ,an instructive experience of my own will illustrate this4 ,when wandering alone through ,norway in #ahef1 ,i lost the track in crossing the ,kjolen fjeld1 struggled on for twenty-three hours without food or rest1 and arrived in sorry plight at ,lom1 a very wild region4 ,after a few hours' rest ,i pushed on to a still wilder region and still rougher quarters1 and continued thus to the great ,jostedal table-land1 an unbroken glacier of #ejj square miles2 then descended the ,jostedal itself to its opening on the ,sogne fjord--five days of extreme hardship with no other food than flatbrod 7very coarse oatcake71 and bilberries gathered on the way1 varied on one occasion with the luxury of two raw turnips4 ,then ,i reached a comparatively luxurious station 7,ronnei71 where ham and eggs and claret were obtainable4 ,the first glass of claret produced an effect that alarmed me--a craving for more and for stronger drink1 that was almost irresistible4 ,i finished a bottle of ,st4 ,julien1 and nothing but a violent effort of will prevented me from then ordering brandy4 ,i attribute this to the exhaustion consequent upon the excessive work and insufficient unsavoury food of the previous five days2 have made many subsequent observations on the victims of alcohol1 and have no doubt that overwork and scanty1 tasteless food is the primary source of the craving for strong drink that so largely prevails with such deplorable results among the class that is the most exposed to such privation4 ,i do not say that this is the only source of such depraved appetite4 ,it may also be engendered by the opposite extreme of excessive luxurious pandering to general sensuality4 ,the practical inference suggested by this experience and these observations is1 that speech-making1 pledge-signing1 and blue-ribbon missions can only effect temporary results unless supplemented by satisfying the natural appetite of hungry people by supplies of food that are not only nutritious1 but savoury and varied4 ,such food need be no more expensive than that which is commonly eaten by the poorest of ,englishmen1 but it must be far better cooked4 ,comparing the domestic economy of the poorer classes of our countrymen with that of the corresponding classes in ,france and ,italy 7with both of which ,i am well acquainted71 ,i find that the raw material of the dietary of the ,french and ,italians is inferior to that of the ,english1 but a far better result is obtained by better cookery4 ,the ,italian peasantry are better fed than the ,french4 ,in the poor osterias above referred to1 not only the ,friday salt fish1 but all the other viands1 were incomparably better cooked than in corresponding places in ,england1 and the variety was greater than is common in many middle-class houses4 ,the ordinary supper of the #8roughs' above-named was of three courses3 first1 a #8minestra1' i4e4 a soup of some kind1 continually varied1 or a savoury dish of macaroni2 then a ragot or savoury stew of vegetables and meat1 followed by an excellent salad2 the beverage1 a flask of thin but genuine wine4 ,when ,i come to the subject of cheese1 ,i will describe their mode of cooking and using it4 ,my first walk through ,italy extended from the ,alps to ,naples1 and from ,messina to ,syracuse4 ,i thus spent nearly a year in ,italy during a season of great abundance1 and never saw a drunken ,italian4 ,a few years after this ,i walked through a part of ,lombardy1 and found the little osterias as bad as ,english beershops or low public-houses4 ,it was a period of scarcity and trouble1 #8the three plagues1' as they called them--the potato disease1 the silkworm fungus1 and the grape disease--had brought about general privation4 ,there was no wine at all2 potato spirit and coarse beer had taken its place4 ,monotonous #8polenta1' a sort of paste or porridge made from ,indian corn meal1 to which they give the contemptuous name of #8miserabile1' was then the general food1 and much drunkenness was the natural consequence4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,roaster4 ,,in the third volume of his #8,essays1 ,political1 ,economical1 and ,philosophical1' page #abi1 ,count ,rumford introduces this subject1 with the following apology1 which ,i repeat and adopt4 ,he says3 #8,i shall1 no doubt1 be criticised by many for dwelling so long on a subject which to them will appear low1 vulgar1 and trifling2 but ,i must not be deterred by fastidious criticisms from doing all ,i can do to succeed in what ,i have undertaken4 ,were ,i to treat my subject superficially1 my writing would be of no use to anybody1 and my labour would be lost2 but by investigating it thoroughly1 ,i may1 perhaps1 engage others to pay that attention to it which1 from its importance1 it deserves4' ,this subject of roasting occupied a large amount of ,count ,rumford's attention while he was in ,england residing in ,brompton ,road1 and founding the ,royal ,institution4 ,his efforts were directed not merely to cooking the meat effectively1 but to doing so economically4 ,like all others who have contemplated thoughtfully the habits of ,englishmen1 he was shocked at the barbaric waste of fuel that everywhere prevailed in this country1 even to a greater extent then than now4 ,the first fact that necessarily presented itself to his mind was the great amount of heat that is wasted1 when an ordinary joint of meat is suspended in front of an ordinary coal fire to intercept and utilise only a small fraction of its total radiation4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 there is no other country in ,europe where such a process is indigenous4 ,i say #8indigenous1' because there certainly are hotels where this or any other ,english extravagance is perpetrated to please ,englishmen who choose to pay for it4 ,what is usually called roast meat in countries not inhabited by ,english-speaking people1 is what we should call #8baked meat1' the very name of which sets all the gastronomic bristles of an orthodox ,englishman in a position of perpendicularity4 ,i have a theory of my own respecting the origin of this prejudice4 ,within the recollection of many still living1 the great middle class of ,englishmen lived in town2 their sitting-rooms were back parlours behind their shops1 or factories1 or warehouses2 their drawing-rooms were on the first-floor1 and kitchens in the basement4 ,they kept one general servant of the #8,marchioness' type4 ,the corresponding class now live in suburban villas1 keep cook1 housemaid1 and parlour-maid1 besides the gardener and his boy1 and they dine at supper-time4 ,in the days of the one marchioness and the basement kitchen1 these citizens #8of credit and renown' dined at dinner-time1 and were in the habit of placing a three-legged open iron triangle in a brown earthenware dish1 then spreading a stratum of peeled potatoes on said dish1 and a joint of meat above1 on the open triangular support4 ,this edifice was carried by the marchioness to the bakehouse round the corner at about #aa ,a4,m41 and brought back steaming and savoury at #a ,p4,m4 ,this was especially the case on ,sundays2 but there were exceptions1 as when1 for example1 the condition of the mistress's wardrobe offered no particular motive for going to church1 and she stayed at home and roasted the ,sunday dinner4 ,the experience thus obtained demonstrated a material difference between the flavour of the roasted and the baked meat very decidedly in favour of the home roasted4 ,why8 ,the principal reason was1 ,i believe1 that the baker's large bread-oven contained at dinner-time a curious medley of meats--mutton1 beef1 pork1 geese1 veal1 c41 including stuffing with sage and onions1 besides the possibility of a joint or two that had been hung longer than was necessary for procuring tenderness4 ,the vapours of these would induce a confusion of flavours in the milder meats1 fully accounting for the observed superiority of the home-roasted joints4 ,a little reflection on the principles already expounded will show that1 theoretically regarded1 a given piece of meat would be better roasted in a closed chamber radiating heat from all sides towards the meat than it could be when suspended in front of a fire and heated only on one side1 while the other side was turned away to cool more or less1 according to the rate of rotation4 ,if ,i agreed with the popular belief in the advantage of open-air exposure to direct radiation from glowing coal1 ,i should suggest that for large joints a special roasting fire be constructed1 by building an upright cylinder of fire-brick1 and erecting within this a smaller cylinder or grating of iron bars1 so that the fuel should be placed between these1 and thus form an upright cylindrical ring or shirt of fire1 enclosed outside by the bricks1 but open and glowing towards the inside of the hollow cylinder1 in the midst of which the meat should be suspended to receive the radiation from all sides4 ,the whole apparatus might stand under a dome1 terminating in an ordinary chimney1 like a glass-house or a steel-maker's cementing furnace2 or1 in this respect1 like those wondrous kitchens of the old seraglio at ,constantinople1 where each apartment is a huge chimney1 outspreading downwards1 so that the cooks1 and their materials and apparatus1 as well as the huge fires themselves1 are all under the great central chimney shaft4 ,i do not1 however1 recommend such an apparatus1 even to the most wealthy and luxurious epicure1 because ,i am convinced1 not merely from theoretical considerations1 but also from practical experiments1 that all kinds of meat may be not merely as well roasted in a close oven as before an open fire1 but that the close chamber1 properly managed1 produces better results in every respect than can possibly be obtained by roasting in the open air4 ,to obtain such results there must be no compromise1 no concession to any false theory respecting a necessity for special ventilation1 excepting in the case of semi-putrid game or venison1 which require to be carbonised and disinfected as well as cooked1 and1 of course1 also demand the speedy removal of their noxious vapours4 ,not so with fresh meats4 ,there is nothing in the vapour of beef that can injure the flavour of beef1 nor in the vapour of mutton that is damaging to mutton1 and so on with the rest4 ,but there is much that can1 and does actually improve them2 or1 more strictly speaking1 prevents the deterioration to which they are liable when roasted before an open fire4 ,i will endeavour to explain this4 ,carefully-conducted experiments have demonstrated the general law that atmospheric air is a vacuum to the vapour of water and other similar vapours1 while each particular vapour is a plenum to itself1 though not to other vapours2 or1 otherwise stated1 if a given space1 at a given temperature1 be filled with air1 the quantity of aqueous vapour that it is capable of holding is the same as though this space contained no air at all1 nor anything else4 ,but this same space may contain a much smaller quantity of aqueous vapour1 and yet be absolutely impenetrable to aqueous vapour1 provided its temperature is unaltered4 ,thus1 if a bell-glass1 filled with air1 under ordinary pressure1 at the temperature of #ajj ,fahr41 be placed over a dish of water at the same temperature1 a quantity of vapour1 equal to #a_/cjth 7in round numbers7 of the weight of the air1 will rise into the bell-glass1 and there remain diffused throughout4 ,if there were less air1 or no air at all 7temperature remaining the same71 the bell-glass would obtain and hold the same quantity of vapour4 ,if1 instead of being filled with air1 it contained at the outset only this #a_/cjth of aqueous vapour1 it would now be an impenetrable plenum1 behaving like a solid to aqueous vapour--no more could be forced into it while its temperature remained the same4 ,but while thus charged with aqueous vapour1 there would still be room for vapour of alcohol1 or turpentine1 or ether1 or chloroform1 c4 ,it would be a vacuum to these1 though a plenum to itself4 ,on the other hand1 if the alcohol1 turpentine1 ether1 or chloroform were allowed to evaporate into the bell-glass1 a certain quantity of either of these vapours would presently enter it1 and then this vapour would act like a solid mass in resisting the entry of any more of its own kind1 while it would be freely pervious to the vapour of water or that of the other liquids4 ,a practical example will further illustrate this4 ,some years ago ,i was engaged in the distillation of paraffin oil1 and had a few thousand gallons of the crude liquid in a still with a tall head and a rising condenser4 ,in spite of severe firing1 the distillation proceeded very slowly4 ,then ,i threw into the still1 just above the surface of the oil1 a jet of steam4 ,the rate of distillation immediately increased with the same firing1 although the steam was of much lower temperature than the boiling oil1 and1 therefore1 wasted much heat4 ,the rationale of this was1 that at first an atmosphere of oil vapour stood over the oil1 and this was impervious to more oil vapour1 but on sweeping this out and replacing it by steam1 the atmosphere above the liquid oil was permeable by oil vapour4 ,this principle is largely applied in similar distillations4 ,always keeping in view that the primary problem in roasting is to raise the temperature throughout to the cooking heat without desiccation of the natural juices of the meat1 and applying to this problem the laws of vapour diffusion expounded in my last1 it is easy enough to understand the theoretical advantages of roasting in a closed oven1 the space within which speedily becomes saturated with those particular vapours that resist further vaporisation of these juices4 ,in all open-air roasting1 whether by the one-sided fire of ordinary construction or the surrounding fire that ,i have suggested1 convection currents are necessarily at work desiccating and toughening the meat in spite of the basting1 though tempered thereby4 ,i say #8theoretical1' because ,i despair of practically convincing any thoroughbred ,englishman that baked meat is better than roasted meat by any reasoning whatever4 ,if1 however1 he is sufficiently #8un-,english' to test the question experimentally1 he may possibly convince himself4 ,to do this fairly1 a large joint of meat should be equally divided1 one half roasted in front of the fire1 the other in a non-ventilated oven over a little water by a cook who knows how to heat the oven4 ,this condition is essential1 as some intelligence is demanded in regulating the temperature of an oven1 while any barbarian can carry out the modern modification of the ordinary device of the savage1 who skewers a bit of meat1 and holds this near enough to a fire to make it frizzle4 ,having settled this question to my own satisfaction more than twenty years ago1 ,i now amuse myself occasionally by experimenting upon others1 and continually find that the most uncompromising theoretical haters of baked meat practically prefer it to orthodox roasted meat1 provided always that they eat it in ignorance4 ,part ,,ii4 of ,count ,rumford's #8,tenth ,essay' is devoted to his roaster and roasting generally1 and occupies ninety-four pages1 including the special preface4 ,this preface is curious now1 as it contains the following apology for delay of publication3 #8,during several months1 almost the whole of my time was taken up with the business of the ,royal ,institution2 and those who are acquainted with the objects of that noble establishment will1 no doubt1 think that ,i judged wisely in preferring its interest to every other concern4' ,to those who attend the fashionable gatherings held on ,friday evenings in #8that noble establishment' during the ,london season1 it is almost comical to read what its founder says concerning the object for which it was instituted--viz4 the noble purpose of ,,diffusing ,,the ,,knowledge ,,and ,,facilitating ,,the ,,general ,,introduction ,,of ,,new ,,and ,,useful ,,inventions ,,and ,,improvements4' ,the capitals are ,rumford's1 and he illustrates their meaning by reference to #8the repository of this new establishment1' where specimens of pots and kettles1 ovens1 roasters1 fireplaces1 gridirons1 tea-kettles1 kitchen-boilers1 c41 might be inspected4 ,some years ago1 when ,i was sufficiently imprudent to accept an invitation to describe ,rumford's scientific researches in one ,friday evening lecture1 rigidly limited to fifty-seven minutes 7and consequently muddled my subject in the vain struggle to condense it71 ,i tried to find the original roaster1 but failed2 all that remained of the original #8repository' being a few models put out of the way as though they were empty wine-bottles4 ,i am not finding fault1 as the noble work that has been done there by ,davy1 ,faraday1 and ,tyndall must have profoundly gladdened the supervising soul of ,rumford 7supposing that it does such spiritual supervision71 in spite of his neglected roaster1 which ,i must now describe without further digression4 ,it is shown open and out of its setting in ,fig4 #a1 and there seen as a hollow cylinder of sheet-iron1 which1 for ordinary use1 may be about #ah inches in diameter and #bd inches long1 closed permanently at one end1 and by a hinged double door of sheet-iron 7dd7 at the other4 ,the doubling of the door is for the purpose of retaining the heat by means of an intervening lining of ill-conducting material4 ,or a single door of sheet-iron1 with a panel of wood outside1 may be used4 ,the whole to be set horizontally in brickwork1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 the door-front being flush with the front of the brickwork4 ,the flame of the small fire below plays freely all round it by filling the enveloping flue-space indicated by the dotted lines on ,fig4 #d4 ,inside the cylinder is a shelf to support the dripping-pan 7d7 ,fig4 #a1 which is separately shown in ,figs4 #b and #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,this dripping-pan is an important element of the apparatus4 ,fig4 #c shows it in cross section1 made up of two tin-plate dishes1 one above the other1 arranged to leave a space 7w7 between4 ,this space contains water1 half to three-quarters of an inch in depth4 ,above is a gridiron1 shown in plan1 ,fig4 #b1 on which the meat rests2 the bars of this are shown in section in ,fig4 #c4 ,the object of this arrangement is to prevent the fat which drips from the meat from being overheated and filling the roaster with the fumes of burnt--i4e4 partially decomposed1 fat and gravy1 to the tainting influence of which ,rumford attributed the ,english prejudice against baked meat4 ,so long as any water remains the dripping cannot be raised more than two or three degrees above #bab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the tube v1 ,fig4 #a1 is for carrying away vapour1 if necessary4 ,this tube may be opened or closed by means of a damper moved by the little handle shown on the right4 ,the heat of the roaster is regulated by means of the register c1 ,fig4 #d1 in the ash-pit door of the fire-place1 its dryness by the above-named damper of the steam tube v1 and also by the blowpipes1 b p4 ,these are iron tubes1 about #b in4 in diameter1 placed underneath1 so as to be in the midst of the flame as it ascends from the fire into the enveloping flue1 shown by the dotted lines1 ,fig4 #d1 where their external openings are shown at b p1 b p1 and the plugs by which they may be opened or closed in ,fig4 #a4 ,it is evident that by removing these plugs1 and opening the damper of the steam pipe1 a blast of hot dry air will be delivered into the roaster at its back part1 and it must pass forward to escape by the steam pipe4 ,as these blowpipes are raised to a red heat when the fire is burning briskly1 the temperature of this blast of air may be very high2 with even a very moderate fire1 sufficiently high to desiccate and spoil the meat if they were kept open during all the time of cooking4 ,they are accordingly to be kept closed until the last stage of the roasting is reached2 then the fire is urged by opening the ash-pit register1 and when the blowpipes are about red-hot1 their plugs are removed1 and the steam-pipe damper is opened for a few minutes to brown the meat by means of the hot wind thus generated4 ,it will be observed that a special fire directly under the roaster is here designed1 and that this fire is enclosed in brickwork4 ,this is a general feature of ,rumford's arrangements4 ,the economy of the whole device will be understood by the fact that in a test experiment at the ,foundling ,institution of ,london1 he roasted #aab lbs4 of beef with a consumption of only #bb lbs4 of coal 7three pennyworth1 at #bes4 per ton74 ,rumford tells us that #8when these roasters were first proposed1 and before their merit was established1 many doubts were entertained respecting the taste of the food prepared in them1' but that1 after many practical trials1 it was proved that #8meat of every kind1 without any exception1 roasted in a roaster1 is better tasted1 higher flavoured1 and much more juicy and delicate than when roasted on a spit before an open fire4' ,these italics are in the original1 and the testimony of competent judges is quoted4 ,i must describe one experiment in detail4 ,two legs of mutton from the same carcass made equal in weight before cooking were roasted1 one before the fire and the other in a roaster4 ,when cooked1 both were weighed1 and the joint roasted in the roaster proved to be heavier than the other by #f per cent4 ,they were brought upon table at the same time1 #8and a large and perfectly unprejudiced company was assembled to eat them4' ,both were found good1 but a decided preference given to that cooked in the roaster2 #8it was much more juicy1 and was thought better tasted4' ,both were fairly eaten up1 nothing remaining of either that was eatable1 and the fragments collected4 #8,of the leg of mutton which had been roasted in the roaster1 hardly anything visible remained1 excepting the bare bone1 while a considerable heap was formed of scraps not eatable which remained of that roasted on a spit4' ,this was an eloquent experiment2 the gain of #f per cent4 tells of juices retained with consequent gain of flavour1 tenderness1 and digestibility1 and the subsequent testimony of the scraps describes the difference in the condition of the tendonous1 integumentary portions of the joints1 which are just those that present the toughest practical problems to the cook1 especially in roasting4 ,but why are these roasters not in general use8 ,why did they die with their inventor1 notwithstanding the fact1 mentioned in his essay1 that ,mr4 ,hopkins1 of ,greek ,street1 ,soho1 had sold above #bjj1 and others were making them8 ,those of my readers who have had practical experience in using hot air or in superheating steam1 will doubtless have already detected a weak point in the #8blowpipes4' ,when iron pipes are heated to redness1 or thereabouts1 and a blast of air or steam passes through them1 they work admirably for a while1 but presently the pipe gives way1 for iron is a combustible substance1 and burns slowly when heated and supplied with abundant oxygen1 either by means of air or water2 the latter being decomposed1 its hydrogen set free1 while its oxygen combines with the iron1 and reduces it to friable oxide4 ,rumford does not appear to have understood this1 or he would have made his blowpipes of fire-clay or other refractory non-oxidisable material4 ,the records of the ,great ,seal ,office contain specifications of hundreds of ingenious inventions that have failed most vexatiously from this defect2 and ,i could tell of joint-stock companies that have been #8floated' to carry out inventions involving the use of heated air or super-heated steam that have worked beautifully and with apparent economy while the shares were in the market1 and then collapsed just when the calls were paid up1 the cost of renewal of superheaters and hot-air chambers having worse than annulled the economy of working fuel described in the prospectus4 ,thus a vessel driven by heated air1 as a substitute for steam1 was fitted up with its caloric engine1 and crossed the ,atlantic with passengers on board4 ,the voyage practically demonstrated a great saving of coal2 the patent rights were purchased accordingly for a very large amount1 and shares went up buoyantly until the oxidation of the great air chamber proved that the engine burned iron as well as coal at a ruinous cost4 ,although no mention is made by ,rumford of such destruction of the blowpipes1 he was evidently conscious of the costliness of his original roaster1 as he describes another which may be economically substituted for it4 ,this has an air chamber formed by bringing down the body of the oven so as to enclose the space occupied by the blowpipes shown in ,fig4 #a1 and placing the dripping-pan on a false bottom joined to the front face of the roaster just below the door1 but not extending quite to the back4 ,an adjustable register door opens at the front into this air chamber1 and when this is opened the air passes along from front to back under the false bottom1 and rises behind to an outlet pipe like that shown at v1 ,fig4 #a4 ,in thus passing along the hot bottom of the oven the air is heated1 but not so greatly as by the blowpipes1 which being surrounded by the flame on all sides1 are heated above as well as below1 and the air in passing through them is much more exposed to heat than in passing through the air-chamber4 ,to increase the heat transmitted in the latter1 ,rumford proposes that #8a certain quantity of iron wire1 in loose coils1 or of iron turnings1 be put into the air chamber4' ,this modification he called a #8roasting-oven1' to distinguish it from the first described1 the #8roaster4' ,he states that the roasting-oven is not quite so effective as the roaster1 but from its greater cheapness may be largely used4 ,this anticipation has been realised4 ,the modern #8kitchener1' which in so many forms is gradually and steadily supplanting the ancient open range1 is an apparatus in which roasting in the open air before a fire is superseded by roasting in a closed chamber or roasting-oven4 ,having made three removals within the last twelve years1 each preceded by a tedious amount of house-hunting1 ,i have seen a great many kitchens of newly-built houses1 and find that about #ij per cent4 of these have closed kitcheners1 and only about #aj per cent4 are fitted with open ranges of the old pattern4 ,bottle-jacks1 like smoke-jacks and spits1 are gradually falling into disuse4 ,when these kitcheners were first introduced1 a great point was made by the manufacturer of the distinction between the roasting and the baking-oven2 the first being provided with a special apparatus for effecting ventilation by devices more or less resembling that in ,rumford's roasting-oven4 ,gradually these degenerated into mere shams1 and now in the best kitcheners even a pretence to ventilation is abandoned4 ,having reasoned out my own theory of the conditions demanded for perfect roasting some time ago 7about #ahfj1 when ,i lectured on #8,household ,philosophy1' to a class of ladies at the ,birmingham and ,midland ,institute71 ,i have watched the gradual disappearance of these concessions to popular prejudice with some interest1 as they show how practical experience has confirmed my theory1 which1 as already expounded1 is that fresh meat should be cooked by the action of radiant heat1 projected towards it from all sides1 while it is immersed in an atmosphere nearly saturated with its own vapours4 ,let it be clearly understood that ,i refer to the vapours as they rise from the meat1 and not to the vapour of burnt dripping1 which ,rumford describes4 ,the acrid properties of the products of such partial dissociation are far better understood by modern chemists than they were in ,rumford's time4 ,his water dripping-pan effectually prevents their formation4 ,it is still manufactured of the precise pattern shown in the drawing1 copied from ,rumford's1 and cooks who understand their business at all use it as a matter of course4 ,the few domestic fireplace-ovens that existed in ,rumford's time were clumsily heated by raking some of the fire from the grate into a space left below the oven4 ,those of the best modern kitcheners are heated by flues going round them1 generally starting from the top1 which thus attains the highest temperature4 ,the radiation from this does the #8browning' for which ,rumford's blowpipes were designed4 ,here ,i differ from my teacher1 as1 according to my view of the philosophy of roasting1 the browning1 or the application of the highest temperature1 should take place at the beginning rather than the end of the process1 in order that a crust of firmly coagulated albumen may surround the joint and retain the juices of the meat4 ,all that is necessary to obtain this effect in a sufficient degree is to raise the roasting-oven to an excessive temperature before the meat is put in4 ,supposing an equal fire is maintained all the while1 this excessive initial temperature will presently decline1 because1 when the meat is in the oven1 the radiant heat from its sides is intercepted by the joint and doing work upon it2 heat cannot do work without a corresponding fall of temperature4 ,while the oven is empty the radiations from each side cross the open space to reinforce the temperature of the other sides4 ,when ,i first decided to write on this subject ,i made some designs for kitchen thermometers intending to have them made1 and to recommend their use2 but was not successful4 ,when a man condemns his own inventions1 his verdict may be safely accepted without further inquiry4 ,i afterwards learned that ,messrs4 ,davis ,co4 had already constructed special oven thermometers1 to be so attached to the oven-door that the bulb should be inside and the tube having the expansion of the mercury outside1 and therefore readable without opening the door1 as shown in ,fig4 #e1 and another for standing inside the oven1 ,fig4 #f4 ,i learned by these thermometers the cause of my own failure4 ,i tried to do too much--to construct one form of thermometer to do all kinds of kitchen work4 ,a thermometer suitable for the oven is not applicable to trying the temperature of a fat-bath used in frying4 ,i accordingly wrote to ,messrs4 ,davis asking them to devise a thermometer for this purpose4 ,they have done so4 ,it is described in the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,is there1 then1 any difference at all between roasting and baking8 ,there is4 ,in roasting1 the temperature1 after the first start1 is maintained about uniformly throughout2 while in baking bread by the old-fashioned method1 the temperature continually declines from the beginning to the end of the process2 but in order that a dweller in cities1 or the cook of an ordinary town household1 may understand this difference1 some explanation is necessary4 ,the old-fashioned oven1 such as was generally used in ,rumford's time1 and is still used in country houses and by old-fashioned bakers1 is an arched cavity of brick with a flat brick floor4 ,this cavity is closed by a suitable door1 which in its primitive1 and perhaps its best form1 was a flat tile pressed against the opening and luted round with clay4 ,such ovens were1 and still are1 heated by simply spreading on the brick floor a sufficient quantity of wood--preferably well-dried twigs2 these1 being lighted1 raise the temperature of the arched roof to a glowing heat1 and that of the floor in a somewhat lower degree4 ,when this heating is completed 7the judgement of which constitutes the chief element of skill in thus baking7 the embers are carefully brushed out from the floor1 the loaves1 c41 inserted by means of a flat battledore with a long handle1 called a #8peel1' and the door closed and firmly luted round1 not to be opened until the operation is complete4 ,baked clay is an excellent radiator1 and therefore the surface of bricks forming the arched roof of the oven radiates vigorously upon its contents below1 which are thus heated at top by radiation from the roof1 and at bottom by direct contact with the floor of the oven4 ,the difference between the compact bottom crust1 and the darker bubble-bearing top crust of an ordinary loaf is thus explained4 ,as the baking of a large joint of meat is a longer operation than the baking of bread1 there is another reason besides that already given for the inferiority of meat when baked in a baker's oven constructed on this principle4 ,the slow cooling-down must tend to produce a flabbiness and insipidity similar to that of the roast meat which is served at restaurants where a joint remains #8in cut' for two or three hours4 ,of this ,i speak theoretically1 not having had an opportunity of tasting a joint that has been cooked in a brick oven of the construction above described2 but ,i have observed the advantage of maintaining a steady heat throughout the process of roasting 7after the first higher heating above described71 in the iron oven of a kitchener1 or ,american stove1 or gas oven4 ,another and somewhat original method of roasting is that which is carried out in #8,captain ,warren's ,cooking ,pot1' concerning the practical result of which ,i hear conflicting opinions4 ,it is a large pot containing water1 inside which is suspended--like the glue chamber of a glue-pot--an inner vessel4 ,the meat to be cooked is placed without water in this inner closed vessel1 which dips into the water of the outer vessel1 the steam from which is led away by a side opening or pipe4 ,this outer water being kept boiling1 the meat is surrounded only by its own vapour1 in the midst of which it is cooked at a low temperature4 ,the result is similar to boiled meat1 with the advantage of retaining those juices that pass away into the water in ordinary boiling4 ,this advantage is unquestionable1 and so far the apparatus may be safely recommended4 ,but some of the claims made in the prospectuses that are freely distributed are questionable4 ,the method of roasting with ,warren's pot is to cook the meat as above described in its own vapour1 then dredge with flour1 and hang before the fire twenty minutes4 ,the result is a tender imitation of roast meat1 but more like boiled than roasted meat in flavour4 ,this is much approved by many1 but ,i am told that meat thus cooked and eaten daily palls upon the appetite4 ,i know one1 a youth 7not one of our fastidious fops of the period71 who1 fed upon this at school during a few years1 has thereby acquired a fixed aversion to boiled meat of all kinds4 ,regarding the subject theoretically1 it appears to me that the method recommended by ,captain ,warren1 and followed by those who use his cooker1 should be reversed for roasting2 that the meat should have the twenty minutes before the fire--or in a hot oven--before1 instead of after1 its stewing in its own vapour4 ,some experiments ,i have made confirm this view so far as they go1 but are not sufficiently numerous to settle the question4 ,for stewing of all kinds1 and for such concoctions as ,rumford's soup 7see ,chapter ,,xiv471 it is an admirable apparatus1 and the contrivances for carrying the steam from the outer vessel to a vegetable steamer above the cooking chamber1 before described1 is very ingenious and effective4 ,the statement in the prospectus1 that the #8nourishing juices' otherwise wasted #8are by that mode condensed1 and form at the bottom of the vessel a rich gelatinous body1' is misleading4 ,gelatin is not volatile2 the gelatinous body at the bottom of the vessel is not composed of condensed vapours1 though condensed vapour of water is concerned in its formation4 ,it is simply some of the gelatin of the joint dissolved by the water which condenses upon it1 and finally drips down from the joint1 carrying with it the dissolved gelatin4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,frying4 ,,the process of frying follows next in natural order to those of roasting and grilling4 ,a little reflection will show that in frying the heat is not communicated to the food by radiation from a heated surface at some distance1 but by direct contact with the heating medium1 which is the hot fat commonly1 but erroneously1 described as #8boiling fat4' ,as ,i am writing for intelligent readers who desire to understand the philosophy of the common processes of cookery1 so far as they are understandable1 this fallacy concerning boiling fat should be pushed aside at once4 ,generally speaking1 ordinary animal fats are not boilable under the pressure of our atmosphere 7one of the constituent fatty acids of butter1 butyric acid1 is an exception2 it boils at #cad ,fahr474 ,before reaching their boiling-point1 i4e4 the temperature at which they pass completely into the state of vapour1 their constituents are more or less dissociated or separated by the repulsive agency of the heat1 new compounds being in many cases formed by recombinations of their elements4 ,when water is heated to #bab it is converted completely into a gas1 which gas1 on cooling below #bab1 returns to the fluid state without any loss4 ,in like manner if we raise an essential oil1 such as turpentine1 to #cbj1 or oil of peppermint to #cdj1 or orange-peel oil to #cde1 or patchouli to #dhi1 and other such oils to certain other temperatures1 they pass into a state of vapour1 and these vapours1 when cooled1 recondense into their original form of liquid oil without alteration4 ,hence they are called #8volatile oils1' while the greasy oils which cannot thus be distilled 7in which class animal fats are included7 are called #8fixed oils4' ,a very simple practical means of distinguishing these is the following3 make a spot of the oil to be tested on clean blotting-paper4 ,heat this by holding it above a spirit-lamp flame1 or by toasting before a fire4 ,if the oil is volatile the spot disappears2 if fixed1 it remains as a spot of grease until the heat is raised high enough to char the paper1 of which charring 7a result of the dissociation above-named7 the oil partakes4 ,but the practical cook may say1 #8,this is wrong1 for the fat in my frying-pan does boil4 ,i see it boil1 and ,i hear it boil4' ,the reply to this is1 that the lard1 or dripping1 or butter that you put into your frying-pan is oil mixed with water1 and that it is not the oil but the water that you see boiling4 ,to prove this1 take some fresh lard1 as usually supplied1 and heat it in any convenient vessel1 raising the temperature gradually4 ,presently it will begin to splutter4 ,if you try it with a thermometer you will find that this spluttering-point agrees with the boiling-point of water1 and if you use a retort you may condense and collect the splutter-matter1 and prove it to be water4 ,so long as the spluttering continues the temperature of the melted fat1 i4e4 the oil1 remains about the same1 the water vapour carrying away the heat4 ,when all the water is driven off the liquid becomes quiescent1 in spite of its temperature rising from #bab to above #djj1 when a pungent smoky vapour comes off and the oil grows darker2 this vapour is not vapour of lard1 but vapour of separated and recombined constituents of the lard1 which is now suffering dissociation1 the volatile products passing off while the non-volatile carbon 7i4e4 lard-charcoal7 remains behind1 colouring the liquid4 ,if the heating be continued1 a residuum of this carbon1 in the form of soft coke or charcoal1 will be all that remains in the heated vessel4 ,we may now understand what happens when something humid--say a sole--is put into a frying-pan which contains fat heated above #bab4 ,water1 when suddenly heated above its boiling-point1 is a powerful explosive1 and may be very dangerous1 simply because it expands to #a1gbh times its original bulk when converted into steam4 ,steam-engine boilers and the boilers of kitchen stoves sometimes explode by becoming red-hot while dry1 and then receiving a little water which suddenly expands to steam4 ,the noise and spluttering that is started immediately the sole is immersed in the hot fat is due to the explosion of a multitude of small bubbles formed by the confinement of the suddenly expanding steam in the viscous fat1 from which it releases itself with a certain degree of violence4 ,it is evident that to effect this amount of eruptive violence1 the temperature must be considerably above the boiling-point of the exploding water4 ,if it were only just at the boiling-point1 the water would boil quietly4 ,as we all know1 the flavour and appearance of a boiled sole or mackerel are decidedly different from those of a fried sole or mackerel1 and it is easy to understand that the different results of these cooking processes are to some extent due to the difference of temperature to which the fish is subjected4 ,it will be at once understood that my theory of the chief difference between roasted or grilled meat and boiled meat applies to fried fish2 that the flavouring juices are retained when the fish is fried1 while more or less of them escape into the water when boiled4 ,besides this1 the surface of the fried fish1 like that of the roasted or grilled meat1 is #8browned4' ,what is the nature1 the chemistry of this browning8 ,i have endeavoured to find some answer to this question1 that ,i might quote with authority1 but no technological or purely chemical work within my reach supplies such answer4 ,rumford refers to it as essential to roasting1 and provides for it in the manner already described1 but he goes no farther into the philosophy of it than admitting its flavouring effect4 ,i must therefore struggle with the problem in my own way as ,i best can4 ,has the gentle reader ever attempted the manufacture of #8hard-bake1' or #8toffy1' or #8butter-scotch1' by mixing sugar with butter1 fusing the mixture1 and heating further until the well-known hard1 brown confection is produced8 ,i venture to call this fried sugar4 ,if heated simply without the butter it may be called baked sugar4 ,the scientific name for this baked sugar is caramel4 ,the chemical changes that take place in the browning of sugar have been more systematically studied than those which occur in the constituents of flesh when browned in the course of ordinary cookery4 ,believing them to be nearly analogous1 ,i will state1 as briefly as possible1 the leading facts concerning the sugar4 ,ordinary sugar is crystalline1 i4e4 when it passes from the liquid to the solid state it assumes regular geometrical forms4 ,if the solidification takes place undisturbed and slowly1 the geometric crystals are large1 as in sugar-candy2 if the water is rapidly evaporated with agitation1 the crystals are small1 and the whole mass is a granular aggregation of crystals1 such as we see in loaf sugar4 ,if this crystalline sugar be heated to about #cbj ,fahr4 it fuses1 and without any change of chemical composition undergoes some sort of internal physical alteration that makes it cohere in a different fashion4 7,the learned name for this action is allotropism1 and the substance is said to be allotropic1 other conditioned2 or dimorphic1 two-shaped74 ,instead of being crystalline the sugar now becomes vitreous1 it solidifies as a transparent amber-coloured glass-like substance1 the well-known barley-sugar1 which differs from crystalline sugar not only in this respect1 but has a much lower melting-point2 it liquefies between #aij and #bab1 while loaf-sugar does not fuse below #cbj4 ,left to itself1 vitreous sugar returns gradually to its original condition1 loses transparency1 and breaks up into small crystals4 ,in doing this it gives out the heat which during its vitreous condition had been doing the work of breaking up its crystalline structure1 and therefore was not manifested as temperature4 ,this return to the crystalline condition is retarded by adding vinegar or mucilaginous matter to the heated sugar2 hence the confectioners' name of #8barley-sugar1' which1 in one of its old-fashioned forms1 was prepared by boiling down ordinary sugar in a decoction of pearl barley4 ,the ,french cooks and confectioners carry on the heating of sugar through various stages bearing different technical names1 one of the most remarkable of which is a splendid crimson variety1 largely used in fancy sweetmeats1 and containing no foreign colouring matter1 as commonly supposed4 ,though nothing is added1 something is taken away1 and this is some of the chemically-combined water of the original sugar1 in the parting with which not only a change of colour occurs1 but also a modification of flavour1 as anybody may prove by experiment4 ,when the temperature is gradually raised to #dbj1 the sugar loses two equivalents of water1 and becomes caramel--a dark-brown substance1 no longer sweet1 but having a new flavour of its own4 ,it further differs from sugar by being incapable of fermentation4 ,the first stage of this cookery of sugar has now an archological interest in connection with one of the lost arts of the kitchen1 viz4 the #8spinning' of sugar4 ,within the reach of my own recollection no evening party could pretend to be stylish unless the supper-table was decorated with a specimen of this art--a temple1 a pagoda1 or something of the sort done in barley-sugar4 ,these were made by raising the sugar to #cbj1 when it fused and became amorphous1 or vitreous1 as already described4 ,the cook then dipped a skewer into it2 the melted vitreous sugar adhered to this1 and was drawn out as a thread1 which speedily solidified by cooling4 ,while in the act of solidification it was woven into the desired form1 and the skilful artist did this with wonderful rapidity4 ,i once witnessed with childish delight the spinning of a great work of art by the ,duke of ,cumberland's ,french cook in ,st4 ,james's ,palace4 ,it was a ship in full sail1 the sails of edible wafer1 the hull a basketwork of spun sugar1 the masts of massive sugar-sticks1 and the rigging of delicate threads of the same4 ,as nearly as ,i can remember1 the whole was completed in about an hour4 ,but to return from high art below stairs to chemical science4 ,the conversion of sugar into caramel is1 as already stated1 attended with a change of flavour2 a kind of bitterness replaces the sweetness4 ,this peculiar flavour1 judiciously used1 is a powerful adjunct to cookery1 and one which is shamefully neglected in our ordinary ,english domestic kitchens4 ,to test this1 go to one of those ,swiss restaurants originally instituted in this country by that enterprising ,ticinese1 the late ,carlo ,gatti1 and which are now so numerous in ,london and our other large towns2 call for maccheroni al sugo2 notice the rich brown gravy1 the #8sugo4' ,many an ,english cook would use half a pound of gravy beef to produce the like2 but the basis of this is a halfpennyworth or less of what ,i call a caramel compound1 as an example of which ,i copy the following recipe from the ,household ,edition of ,gouff's #8,royal ,cookery ,book3' #8,melt half a pound of butter2 add one pound of flour2 mix well1 and leave on a slow fire1 stirring occasionally until it becomes of a light mahogany colour4 ,when cool it may be kept in the larder ready for use4' ,gouff calls this #8,liaison au ,roux2' the ,english for liaison is a thickening4 ,it is really fried flour4 ,burnt onion is another form of caramel1 with a special flavour superadded4 ,plain sugar caramel is improved by the use of a little butter1 as in making toffee4 ,thus prepared it is really a fried sugar rather than a baked sugar4 ,beurre noir 7black butter7 is another of the caramelised preparations used by continental cooks4 ,while engaged upon your macaroni1 look around at the other dishes served to other customers4 ,instead of the pale slices of meat spread out in a little puddle of pale watery liquid1 that are served in ,english restaurants of corresponding class1 you will see dainty morsels1 covered with rich brown gravy1 or surrounded by vegetables immersed in the same4 ,this #8sugo' is greatly varied according to the requirements1 by additions of stock-broth1 tarragon vinegar1 ketchup1 c41 but burnt flour1 burnt sugar1 or burnt onions1 or burnt something is the basis of it all4 ,to further test the flavouring properties of browning1 take some eels cut up as usual for stewing2 divide into two portions2 stew one brutally--by this ,i mean simply in a little water--serving them with this water as a pale gravy or juice4 ,let the second portion be well fried1 fully caramelised or browned1 then stewed1 and served with brown gravy4 ,compare the result4 ,make a corresponding experiment with a beefsteak4 ,cut it in two portions2 stew one brutally in plain water2 fry the other1 then stew it and serve brown4 ,take a highly-baked loaf--better one that is black outside2 scrape off the film of crust that is quite black1 i4e4 completely carbonised1 and you will come to a rich brown layer1 especially if you operate upon the bottom crust4 ,slice off a thin shaving of this and eat it critically4 ,mark its high flavour as compared with the comparatively insipid crumb of the same loaf1 and note especially the resemblance between this flavour and that of the caramel from sugar1 and that of the browned eels and browned steak4 ,a delicate way of detecting the flavour due to the browning of bread is to make two bowls of bread and milk in the same manner1 one with the crust the other with the crumb of the same loaf4 ,i am not suggesting these as examples of better or worse flavour1 but as evidence of the fact that much flavour of some sort is generated4 ,it may be out of place1 as ,i think it is1 in the bread and milk1 or it may be added with much advantage to other things1 as it is by the cook who manipulates caramel and its analogues skilfully4 ,the largest constituent of bread is starch4 ,excluding water1 it constitutes about three-fourths of the weight of good wheaten flour4 ,starch differs but little from sugar in composition4 ,it is easily converted into sugar by simply heating it with a little sulphuric acid1 and by other means1 of which ,i shall have to speak more fully hereafter1 when ,i come to the cookery of vegetables4 ,when simply heated1 it is converted into dextrin or #8,british gum1' largely used as a substitute for gum arabic4 ,if the heat is continued a change of colour takes place2 it grows darker and darker1 until it blackens just as sugar does1 the final result being nearly the same4 ,water is driven off in both cases1 but in carbonising sugar we start with more water1 sugar being starch plus water or the elements of water4 ,thus the brown material of bread-crust or toast is nearly identical with sugar caramel4 ,i have often amused myself by watching what occurs when toast and water is prepared1 and ,i recommend my readers to repeat the observation4 ,toast a small piece of bread to blackness1 and then float it on water in a glass vessel4 ,leave the water at rest1 and direct your attention to the under side of the floating toast4 ,little threadlike streams of brown liquid will be seen descending in the water4 ,this is a solution of the substance which1 if ,i mistake not1 is a sort of caramel1 and which ultimately tinges all the water4 ,some years ago ,i commenced a course of experiments with this substance1 but did not complete them4 ,in case ,i should never do so1 ,i will here communicate the results attained4 ,i found that this starch caramel is a disinfectant1 and that sugar caramel also has some disinfecting properties4 ,i am not prepared to say that it is powerful enough to disinfect sewage1 though at the time ,i had a narrow escape from the ,great ,seal ,office1 where ,i thought of patenting it for this purpose as a non-poisonous disinfectant that may be poured into rivers in any quantity without danger4 ,though it may not be powerful enough for this1 it has an appreciable effect on water slightly tainted with decomposing organic matter4 ,this is a very curious fact4 ,we do not know who invented toast and water1 nor1 so far as ,i can learn1 has any theory of its use been expounded1 yet there is extant a vague popular impression that the toast has some sort of wholesome effect on the water4 ,i suspect that this must have been originally based on experience1 probably on the experience of our forefathers or foremothers1 living in country places where stagnant water was a common beverage1 and various devices were adopted to render it potable4 ,gelatin1 fibrin1 albumen1 c4--i4e4 all the materials of animal food--as already shown1 are composed1 like starch and sugar1 of carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen1 with1 in the case of these animal substances1 the addition of nitrogen2 but this does not prevent their partial carbonisation 7or #8caramelising1' if ,i may invent a name to express the action which stops short of blackening74 ,animal fat is a hydrocarbon which may be similarly browned1 and1 if ,i am right in my generalisation of all these browning processes1 an important practical conclusion follows1 viz4 that cheap soluble caramel made by skilfully heating common sugar or flour is really1 as well as apparently1 as valuable an element in gravies1 c41 as the far more expensive colouring matter of brown meat gravies1 and that our ,english cooks should use it far more liberally than they usually do4 ,the preparation of sugar caramel is easy enough2 the sugar should be gradually heated till it assumes a rich brown colour and has lost its original sweetness4 ,if carried just far enough1 the result is easily soluble in hot water1 and the solution may be kept for a long time1 as it is by cooks who understand its merits4 ,in connection with the idea of its disinfecting action1 ,i may refer to the cookery of tainted meat or #8high' game4 ,a hare that is repulsively advanced when raw may1 by much roasting and browning1 become quite wholesome2 and such is commonly the case in the ordinary cooking of hares4 ,if it were boiled or merely stewed 7without preliminary browning7 in this condition1 it would be quite disgusting to ordinary palates4 ,a leg of mutton for roasting should be hung until it begins to become odorous2 for boiling it should be as fresh as possible4 ,this should be especially remembered now that we have so much frozen meat imported from the antipodes4 ,when duly thawed it is in splendid condition for roasting1 but is not usually so satisfactory when boiled4 ,i may here mention incidentally that such meat is sometimes unjustly condemned on account of its displaying a raw centre when cooked4 ,this arises from imperfect thawing4 ,the heat required to thaw a given weight of ice and bring it up to #fj is about the same as is demanded for the cookery of an equal quantity of meat1 and therefore1 while the thawed portion of the meat is being cooked1 the frozen portion is but just thawed1 and remains quite raw4 ,a much longer time is demanded for thawing--i4e4 supplying #adb of latent heat--than might be supposed4 ,to ascertain whether the thawing is completed1 drive an iron skewer through the thickest part of the joint4 ,if there is a core of ice within it will be distinctly felt by its resistance4 ,a correspondent asks me which is the most nutritious--a slice of ,english beef in its own gravy or the browned morsel as served in an ,italian restaurant with the caramel addition to the gravy8 ,this is a very fair question1 and not difficult to answer4 ,if both are equally cooked1 neither overdone nor underdone1 they must contain1 weight for weight1 exactly the same constituents in equally digestible form1 so far as chemical composition is concerned4 ,whether they will actually be digested with equal facility and assimilated with equal completeness depends upon something else not measurable by chemical analysis1 viz4 the relish with which they are respectively eaten4 ,to some persons the undisguised fleshiness of the ,english slice1 especially if underdone1 is very repugnant4 ,to these the corresponding morsel1 cooked according to ,gouff rather than ,mrs4 ,beeton1 would be more nutritious4 ,to the carnivorous ,john ,bull1 who regards such dishes as #8nasty ,french messes' of questionable composition1 the slice of unmistakable ox-flesh1 from a visible joint1 would obtain all the advantages of appreciative mastication1 and that sympathy between the brain and the stomach which is so powerful that1 when discordantly exerted1 it may produce the effects that are recorded in the case of the sporting traveller who was invited by a ,red ,indian chief to a #8dog-fight1' and ate with relish the savoury dishes at what he supposed to be a preliminary banquet4 ,digestion was tranquilly and healthfully proceeding1 under the soothing influence of the calumet1 when he asked the chief when the fight would commence4 ,on being told that it was over1 and that1 in the final ragot he had praised so highly1 the last puppy-dog possessed by the tribe had been cooked in his honour1 the normal course of digestion of the honoured guest was completely reversed4 ,before leaving the subject of caramel1 ,i should say a few words about ,french coffee1 or #8,coffee as in ,france1' of which we hear so much4 ,there are two secrets upon which depend the excellence of our neighbours in the production of this beverage4 ,first1 economy in using the water2 second1 flavouring with caramel4 ,as regards the first1 it appears that ,english housewives have been demoralised by the habitual use of tea1 and apply to the infusion of coffee the popular formula for that of tea1 #8a spoonful for each person and one for the pot4' ,the ,french after-dinner coffee-cup has about one-third of the liquid capacity of a full-sized ,english breakfast-cup1 but the quantity of solid coffee supplied to each cupful is more than equal to that ordinarily allowed for the larger ,english measure of water4 ,besides this1 the coffee is commonly1 though not universally1 flavoured with a specially and skilfully-prepared caramel1 instead of the chicory so largely used in ,england4 ,much of the so-called #8,french coffee' now sold by our grocers in tins is caramel flavoured with coffee rather than coffee flavoured with caramel1 and many shrewd ,english housewives have discovered that by mixing the cheapest of these ,french coffees with an equal quantity of pure coffee they obtain a better result than with the common domestic mixture of three parts coffee and one of chicory4 ,a few months ago a sample of #8coffee-finings' was sent to me for chemical examination1 that ,i might certify to its composition and wholesomeness4 ,i described it in my report as #8a caramel1 with a peculiarly rich aroma and flavour1 evidently due to the vegetable juices or extractive matter naturally united with the saccharine substance from which it is prepared4' ,i had no definite information of the exact nature of this saccharine substance1 but have since learned that it was a bye-product of sugar refining4 ,neither the juice of the beetroot nor the sap of the sugar-cane consists entirely of pure sugar dissolved in pure water4 ,they both contain other constituents common to vegetable juices1 and some peculiar to themselves4 ,these mucilaginous matters1 when roughly separated1 carry down with them some sugar1 and form a sort of coarse sweetwort1 capable by skilful treatment of producing a rich caramel well suited for mixing with coffee4 ,returning to the subject of frying1 we encounter a good illustration of the practical importance of sound theory4 ,a great deal of fish and other kinds of food is badly and wastefully cooked in consequence of the prevalence of a false theory of frying4 ,it is evident that many domestic cooks 7not hotel or restaurant cooks7 have a vague idea that the metal plate forming the bottom of the frying-pan should directly convey the heat of the fire to the fried substance1 and that the bit of butter or lard or dripping put into the pan is used to prevent the fish from sticking to it or to add to the richness of the fish by smearing its surface4 ,the theory which ,i have propounded above is that the melted fat cooks by convection of heat1 just as water does in the so-called boiling of meat4 ,if this is correct1 it is evident that the fish1 c41 should be completely immersed in a bath of melted fat or oil1 and that the turning over demanded by the greased-plate theory is unnecessary4 ,well educated cooks understand this distinctly1 and use a deeper vessel than our common frying-pan1 charge this with a quantity of fat sufficient to cover the fish1 which is simply laid upon a wire support1 or frying-basket and left in the hot fat until the browning of its surface1 or of the flour or bread-crumbs with which it is coated indicates the sufficiency of the cookery4 ,the illustration is from ,gouff's excellent cookery-book already quoted1 and is introduced because ,i have found it so little understood by ,english housewives4 ,frying-kettles may now be purchased at all our best ,english ironmongers1 though until recently they were difficult to obtain4 ,my lectures and papers have largely extended the demand and consequent supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,at first sight the deep fat bath appears extravagant1 as compared with the practice of greasing the bottom of the pan with a little dab of fat1 but any housewife who will apply to the frying of sprats1 herrings1 c41 the method of quantitative inductive research1 described and advocated by ,lord ,bacon in his #8,novum ,organum ,scientiarum1' may prove the contrary4 #8,must ,i read the 8,novum ,organum10 and buy another dictionary1 in order to translate all this8' she may exclaim in despair4 #8,no6' is my reply4 ,this ,baconian inductive method1 to which we are indebted for all the triumphs of modern science1 is nothing more nor less than the systematic and orderly application of common sense and definite measurement to practical questions4 ,in this case it may be applied simply by frying a weighed quantity of any kind of fish or cutlet1 c41 in a weighed quantity of fat used as a bath2 then weighing the fat that remains and subtracting the latter weight from the first1 to determine the quantity consumed4 ,if the frying be properly performed1 and this quantity compared with that which is consumed by the method of merely greasing the pan-bottom1 the bath frying will be proved to be the more economical as well as the more efficient method4 ,the reason of this is simply that much or all of the fat is burnt and wasted when only a thin film is spread on the bottom of the pan1 while no such waste occurs when the bath of fat is properly used4 ,the temperature at which the dissociation of fat commences is below that required for delicately browning the surface of the fish itself1 or of the flour or bread-crumbs1 and therefore no fat is burnt away from the bath1 as it is by the over-heated portions of a merely greased frying-pan2 and as regards the quantity adhering to the fish itself1 this may be reduced to a minimum by withdrawing it from the bath when the whole is uniformly at the maximum cooking temperature1 and allowing the fluid fat to drain off at once4 ,it may be supposed that by complete immersion of the fish in the fat-bath1 more fat will soak into it1 but such is not the case2 the water amidst the fibres of the fish is boiling and driving out steam so rapidly that no fat can enter if the heat is well maintained to the last moment1 and the frying not continued too long4 ,when cooked on the greased plate1 one side is necessarily cooling1 and the fat settling down into the fish to occupy the pores left vacuous by the condensing steam1 while the other is being heated from below4 ,the temperature of the fat-bath may be tested by the ordinary cook's method--that of throwing into it a small piece of bread-crumb about the size of a nut4 ,if it frizzles and produces large bubbles of steam1 the full temperature of frying in the hottest of fat is reached2 if it frizzles slightly1 and only gives out small steam-bubbles1 you have the temperature demanded for slow frying4 ,the bath-frying demands separate supplies of fat#i--one for fish1 another for cutlets and other similar kinds of meat1 a third for such goody-goodies as apple-fritters--a most wholesome and delicious dish1 too rarely seen on ,english tables4 ,i suspect that the prevalence of the greased frying-pan is the reason of its rarity4 ,cooked by this barbaric device1 apples are scarcely eatable1 but when thin slices are immersed in a bath of melted fat at a temperature of about #cjj ,fahr41 the water of their juice is suddenly boiled1 and as this water is contained in a multitude of little bladderlike cells1 they burst1 and the whole structure is puffed out to a most delicate lightness1 far more suitable for following solid meats than soddened fruit enveloped in heavy indigestible pudding-paste4 ,another advantage is that with proper apparatus 7wire basket1 kettle1 and store of special fat7 the fritters can be prepared and cooked in about one-tenth of the time demanded for the preparation and cookery of an apple pudding or pie4 ,a few seconds of immersion in the fat-bath is sufficient4 ,the fat used in frying requires occasional purification4 ,i may illustrate the principle on which it should be conducted by describing the method adopted in the refining of mineral oils1 such as petroleum or the paraffin distillates of bituminous shales4 ,these are dark1 tarry liquids of treacle-like consistency1 with a strong and offensive odour4 ,nevertheless they are1 at but little cost1 converted into the #8crystal oil' used for lamps1 and that beautiful pearly substance1 the solid1 translucent paraffin now so largely used in the manufacture of candles4 ,besides these1 we obtain from the same dirty source an intermediate substance1 the well-known #8,vaseline1' now becoming the basis of most of the ointments of the pharmacopia4 ,this purification is effected by agitation with sulphuric acid1 which partly carbonises and partly combines with the impurities1 and separates them in the form of a foul and acrid black mess1 known technically as #8acid tar4' ,when ,i was engaged in the distillation of cannel and shale in ,flintshire1 this acid tar was a terrible bugbear4 ,it found its way mysteriously into the ,alyn river and poisoned the trout2 but now1 if ,i am correctly informed1 the ,scotch manufacturers have turned it to profitable account4 ,animal fat and vegetable oils are similarly purified4 ,very objectionable refuse fat of various kinds is thus made into tallow1 or material for the soap-maker1 and grease for lubricating machinery4 ,unsavoury stories have been told about the manufacture of butter from ,thames mud or the nodules of fat that are gathered therefrom by the mudlarks1 but they are all false 7see paper on #8,the ,oleaginous ,product of ,thames ,mud' in #8,science in ,short ,chapters'74 ,it may be possible to purify fatty matter from the foulest of admixtures1 and do this so completely as to produce a soft1 tasteless fat1 i4e4 a butter substitute1 but such a curiosity would cost more than half a crown per pound1 and therefore the market is safe1 especially as the degree of purification required for soap-making and machinery grease costs but little and the demand for such fat is very great4 ,these methods of purification are not available in the kitchen1 as oil of vitriol is a vicious compound4 ,during the siege of ,paris some of the ,academicians devoted themselves very earnestly to the subject of the purification of fat in order to produce what they termed #8siege butter' from the refuse of slaughter-houses1 c41 and edible salad oils from crude colza oil1 from the rancid fish oils used by the leather-dresser1 c4 ,those who are specially interested in the subject may find some curious papers in the #8,comptes ,rendus' of that period4 ,in vol4 lxxi41 page #cf1 ,m4 ,boillot describes his method of mixing kitchen-stuff and other refuse fat with lime-water1 agitating the mixture when heated1 and then neutralising with an acid4 ,the product thus obtained is described as admirably adapted for culinary operations1 and the method is applicable to the purpose here under consideration4 ,further on in the same volume is a #8,note on ,suets and ,alimentary ,fats' by ,m4 ,dubrunfaut1 who tells us that the most tainted of alimentary fats and rancid oils may be deprived of their bad odours by #8appropriate frying4' ,his method is to raise the temperature of the fat to #adj to #aej ,cent4 7#bhd to #cjb ,fahr47 in a frying-pan2 then cautiously sprinkle upon it small quantities of water4 ,the steam carries off the volatile fatty acids which produce the rancidity in such as fish oils1 and also removes the neutral offensive fatty matters that are decomposable by heat4 ,in another paper by ,m4 ,fua this method is applied to the removal of cellular tissue of crude fats from slaughter-houses4 ,it is really nothing more than the old farmhouse proceeding of #8rendering' lard1 by frying the membranous fat until the membranous matter is browned and aggregated into small nodules1 which constitute the #8scratchings'--a delicacy greatly relished by our ,british ploughboys at pig-killing time1 but rather too rich in pork-fat to supply a suitable meal for people of sedentary vocations4 ,the action of heat thus applied and long-continued is similar to that of the strong sulphuric acid4 ,the impurities of the fat are organic matters more easily decomposable than the fat itself1 or otherwise stated1 they are dissociated into carbon and water at about #cjj ,fahr41 which is a lower temperature than that required for the dissociation of the pure oil or fat4 ,by maintaining this temperature1 these compounds become first caramelised1 then carbonised nearly to blackness1 when all their powers of offensiveness vanish4 ,in the more violent factory process of purification by sulphuric acid the similar action which occurs is due to the powerful affinity of this acid for water3 this may be strikingly shown by adding to thick syrup or pounded sugar about its own bulk of oil of vitriol1 when a marvellous commotion occurs1 and a magnified black cinder is produced by the separation of the water from the sugar4 ,the following simple practical formula may be reduced from these data4 ,when a considerable quantity of much-used frying-fat is accumulated1 heat it to about #cjj ,fahr41 as indicated by the crackling of water when sprinkled on it1 or1 better still1 by a properly-constructed thermometer4 ,then pour the melted fat on hot water4 ,this must be done carefully1 as a large quantity of fat at #cjj poured upon a small quantity of boiling water will illustrate the fact that water when suddenly heated is an explosive compound4 ,the quantity of water should exceed that of the fat1 and the pouring be done gradually4 ,then agitate the fat and water together1 and1 if the operator is sufficiently skilful and intelligent1 the purification may be carried further by carefully boiling the water under the fat and allowing its steam to pass through2 but this is a little dangerous1 on account of the possibility of what the practical chemist calls #8bumping1' or the sudden formation of a big bubble of steam that would kick a good deal of the superabundant fat into the fire4 ,whether this supplementary boiling is carried out or not1 the fat and the water should be left together to cool gradually1 when a dark layer of carbonised impurities will be found resting on the surface of the water1 and adhering to the bottom of the cake of fat4 ,this may be peeled off and put into the waste grease-pot to be further refined with the next operation4 ,ultimately the worst of it will sink to the bottom of the water4 ,a careful cook may keep the supply of frying fat continually good1 by simply pouring it into a basin 7a deep pudding-basin with small area at bottom is best71 letting it solidify there1 and then paring away the bottom sediment4 ,even this dirty-looking sediment need not be altogether wasted4 ,when a considerable quantity has accumulated it may be purified by the method of ,dubrunfaut and ,fua above described4 ,as ordinary thermometers register but little above #bab1 and laboratory thermometers are too delicately constructed for kitchen use1 ,i requested ,messrs4 ,davis ,co4 to construct a special thermometer for testing the temperature of heated fat4 ,they have accordingly made an instrument that answers the purpose very well4 ,it is like a laboratory thermometer1 i4e4 a glass tube with long bulb and the degrees engraved on the glass itself1 but the bulb is turned at right angles to the tube1 so that it is horizontal when the tube stands perpendicular1 and lies under a stand just above the level of the bottom of the kettle4 ,the instrument thus stands alone firmly1 with its bulb fully immersed even in a very shallow bath of fat4 ,gouff says3 #8,fat is the best for frying2 the light-coloured dripping of roast meat1 and the fat taken off broth are to be preferred4 ,these failing1 beef suet1 chopped fine and melted down on a slow fire1 without browning1 will do very well2 when the bottom of the stewpan can be seen through the suet1 it is sufficiently melted4' ,he is no advocate for lard1 #8as it always leaves an unpleasant coating of fat on whatever is fried in it4' ,olive oil of the best quality is almost absolutely tasteless1 and having as high a boiling point as animal fats it is the best of all frying media4 ,in this country there is a prejudice against the use of such oil4 ,i have noticed at some of those humble but most useful establishments where poor people are supplied with penny or twopenny portions of well-cooked1 good fish1 that in the front is an inscription stating #8only the best beef-dripping is used in this establishment4' ,this means a repudiation of oil4 ,on my first visit to ,arctic ,norway ,i arrived before the garnering and exportation of the spring cod harvest was completed4 ,the packet stopped at a score or so of stations on the ,lofodens and the mainland4 ,foggy weather was no impediment1 as an experienced pilot free from catarrh could steer direct to the harbour by #8following his nose4' ,huge cauldrons stood by the shore in which were stewing the last batches of the livers of codfish caught a month before and exposed in the meantime to the continuous ,arctic sunshine4 ,their condition must be imagined1 as ,i abstain from description of details4 ,the business then proceeding was the extraction of the oil from these livers4 ,it is1 of course1 #8cod-liver oil1' but is known commercially as #8fish oil1' or #8cod oil4' ,that which is sold by our druggists as cod-liver oil is described in ,norway as #8medicine oil1' and though prepared from the same raw material1 is extracted in a different manner4 ,only fresh livers are used for this1 and the best quality1 the #8cold-drawn' oil1 is obtained by pressing the livers without stewing4 ,those who are unfortunately familiar with this carefully-prepared1 highly-refined product1 know that the fishy flavour clings to it so pertinaciously that all attempts to completely remove it without decomposing the oil have failed4 ,this being the case1 it is easily understood that the fish oil stewed so crudely out of the putrid or semi-putrid livers must be nauseous indeed4 ,it is nevertheless used by some of the fish-fryers1 and refuse #8,gallipoli' 7olive oil of the worst quality7 is sold for this purpose4 ,the oil obtained in the course of salting sardines1 herrings1 c41 is also used4 ,such being the case1 it is not surprising that the use of oil for frying should1 like the oil itself1 be in bad odour4 ,i dwell upon this because we are probably on what1 if a fine writer1 ,i should call the #8eve of a great revolution' in respect to frying media4 ,two new materials1 pure1 tasteless1 and so cheap as to be capable of pushing pig-fat 7lard7 out of the market1 have recently been introduced4 ,these are cotton-seed oil and poppy-seed oil4 ,the first has been for some time in the market offered for sale under various fictitious names1 which ,i will not reveal1 as ,i refuse to become a medium for the advertisement of anything--however good in itself--that is sold under false pretences4 ,as every bale of cotton yields half a ton of seed1 and every ton of seed may be made to yield #bh lbs4 to #cb lbs4 of crude oil1 the available quantity is very great4 ,at present only a small quantity is made1 the surplus seed being used as manure4 ,its fertilising value would not be diminished by removing the oil1 which is only a hydro-carbon1 i4e4 material supplied by air and water4 ,all the fertilising constituents of the seed are left behind in the oil-cake from which the oil has been pressed4 ,hitherto cotton-seed oil has fallen among thieves4 ,it is used as an adulterant of olive oil2 sardines and pilchards are packed in it4 ,the sardine trade has declined lately1 some say from deficient supplies of the fish4 ,i suspect that there has been a decline in the demand due to the substitution of this oil for that of the olive4 ,many people who formerly enjoyed sardines no longer care for them1 and they do not know why4 ,the substitution of cotton-seed oil explains this in most cases4 ,it is not rancid1 has no decided flavour1 but still is unpleasant when eaten raw1 as with salads or sardines4 ,it has a flat1 cold character1 and an after taste that is faintly suggestive of castor oil2 but faint as it is1 it interferes with the demand for a purely luxurious article of food4 ,this delicate defect is quite inappreciable in the results of its use as a frying medium4 ,the very best lard or ordinary kitchen butter1 eaten cold1 has more of objectionable flavour than refined cotton-seed oil4 ,i have not tasted poppy-seed oil1 but am told that it is similar to that from the cotton-seed4 ,as regards the quantities available1 some idea may be formed by plucking a ripe head from a garden poppy and shaking out the little round seeds through the windows on the top4 ,those who have not tried this will be astonished at the numbers produced by each flower4 ,as poppies are largely cultivated for the production of opium1 and the yield of the drug itself by each plant is very small1 the supplies of oil may be considerable2 #ega1edb cwt4 of seeds were exported from ,india last year1 of which #cdf1jca cwt4 went to ,france4 ,palm oil1 though at present practically unknown in the kitchen1 may easily become an esteemed material for the frying-kettle4 ,at present1 the familiar uses of palm oil in candle-making and for railway grease will cause my suggestion to shock the nerves of many delicate people1 but these should remember that before palm oil was imported at all1 the material from which candles and soap were made1 and by which cart wheels and heavy machinery were greased1 was tallow--i4e4 the fat of mutton and beef4 ,the reason why our grandmothers did not use candles for frying when short of dripping or suet was that the mutton fat constituting the candle was impure1 so are the yellow candles and yellow grease in the axle-boxes of the railway carriages4 ,this vegetable fat is quite as inoffensive in itself1 quite as wholesome1 and--sentimentally regarded--less objectionable1 than the fat obtained from the carcass of a slaughtered animal4 ,when common sense and true sentiment supplant mere unreasoning prejudice1 vegetable oils and vegetable fats will largely supplant those of animal origin in every element of our dietary4 ,we are but just beginning to understand them4 ,chevreul1 who was the first to teach us the chemistry of fats1 is still living1 and we are only learning how to make butter 7not #8inferior ,dorset1' but #8choice ,normandy'7 without the aid of dairy produce4 ,there is1 therefore1 good reason for anticipating that the inexhaustible supplies of oil obtainable from the vegetable world--especially from tropical vegetation--will ere long be freely available for kitchen uses1 and the now popular product of the ,chicago hog factories will be altogether banished therefrom1 and used only for greasing cart-wheels and other machinery4 ,as a practical conclusion of this part of my subject1 ,i will quote from the #8,oil ,trade ,review' of this month1 ,december #ahhd1 the current wholesale prices of some of the oils possibly available for frying purposes3 olive oil1 from #dcl4 to #ijl4 per tun of #beb gallons2 cod oil1 #cfl4 per tun2 sardine or train 7i4e4 the oil that drains from pilchards1 herrings1 sardines1 c41 when salted71 #bgl4 #ajs4 to #bhl4 per tun2 cocoanut1 from #cel4 to #chl4 per ton of #bj cwt4 7,this1 in the case of oil1 is nearly the same as the measured tun47 ,palm1 from #chl4 to #djl4 #ajs4 per ton2 palm-nut or copra1 #cal4 #ajs4 per ton2 refined cotton-seed1 #cjl4 #ajs4 to #cal4 per ton2 lard1 #ecl4 to #eel4 per ton4 ,the above are the extreme ranges of each class4 ,i have not copied the technical names and prices of the intermediate varieties4 ,one penny per lb4 is #il4 #fs4 #h;d4 per ton1 or1 in round numbers1 #al4 per ton may be reckoned as #a_/ith of a penny per lb4 ,thus the present price of best refined cotton-seed oil is #c;d4 per lb42 of cocoanut oil1 #c;d42 palm oil1 from #c;d4 to #d;d41 while lard costs #f;d4 per lb4 wholesale4 ,i should add1 in reference to the seed-oils1 that there is a possible objection to their use as frying media4 ,oils extracted from seeds contain more or less of linoleine 7so named from its abundance in linseed oil71 which1 when exposed to the air1 combines with oxygen1 swells and dries4 ,if the oil from cotton-seed or poppy-seed contains too much of this1 it will thicken inconveniently when kept for a length of time exposed to the air4 ,palm oil is practically free from it1 but ,i am doubtful respecting palm-nut oil1 as most of the nut oils are #8driers4' ,extravagant cooks delude confiding mistresses by demanding butter for ordinary frying4 ,a veneration for costliness is one of the vulgar vices1 especially dominant below stairs4 ,in many cases a worse motive induces the denunciation of the dripping and skimmed fat recommended by ,gouff as above1 and the substitution of lard or butter for it4 ,this is the practice of selling the dripping as #8kitchen stuff4' ,,footnote3 #i ,the necessity for this is not so great as may appear theoretically4 ,i have tried the experiment of having veal cutlets fried in a bath previously used for fish1 and was not able to detect any fishy flavour as ,i expected ,i should4 ,this was the case even when ,i knew that the fish fat had been used1 and ,i was consequently far more critical than under ordinary circumstances4 ,even apple-fritters may be cooked in fat that has been used for fish4 ,i have tried this since the above was written and am surprised at the result4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,stewing4 ,,some of my readers may think that ,i ought to have treated this in connection with the boiling of meat1 as boiling and stewing are commonly regarded as mere modifications of the same process4 ,according to my mode of regarding the subject1 i4e4 with reference to the object to be attained1 they are opposite processes4 ,the object in the so-called #8boiling' of1 say1 a leg of mutton1 is to raise the temperature of the meat throughout just up to the cooking temperature in such a manner that it shall as nearly as possible retain all its juices2 the hot water merely operating as a vehicle or medium for conveying the heat4 ,in stewing nearly all this is reversed4 ,the juices are to be extracted more or less completely1 and the water is required to act as a solvent as well as a heat-conveyor4 ,instead of the meat itself surrounding and enveloping the juices as it should when boiled1 roasted1 grilled1 or fried1 we demand in a stew that the juices shall surround or envelop the meat4 ,in some cases the separation of the juices is the sole object1 as in the preparation of certain soups and gravies1 of which #8beef-tea' may be taken as a typical example4 ,extractum carnis1 or ,liebig's #8,extract of ,meat' is beef-tea 7or mutton-tea7 concentrated by evaporation4 ,the juices of lean meat may be extracted very completely without cooking the meat at all1 merely by mincing it and then placing it in cold water4 ,maceration is the proper name for this treatment4 ,the philosophy of this is interesting1 and so little understood in the kitchen that ,i must explain its rudiments4 ,if two liquids capable of mixing together1 but of different densities1 be placed in the same vessel1 the denser at the bottom1 they will mix together in defiance of gravitation1 the heavy liquid rising and spreading itself throughout the lighter1 and the lighter descending and diffusing itself through the heavier4 ,thus1 concentrated sulphuric acid 7oil of vitriol7 which has nearly double the density of water1 may be placed under water by pouring water in a tall glass jar1 and then carefully pouring the acid down a funnel with a long tube1 the bottom end of which touches the bottom of the jar4 ,at first the heavy liquid pushes up the lighter1 and its upper surface may be distinctly seen with that of the lighter resting upon it4 ,this is better shown if the water be coloured by a blue tincture of litmus1 which is reddened by the acid4 ,a red stratum indicates the boundaries of the two liquids4 ,gradually the reddening proceeds upwards and downwards1 the whole of the water changes from blue to red1 and the acid becomes tinged4 ,graham worked for many years upon the determination of the laws of this diffusion1 and the rates at which different liquids diffused into each other4 ,his method was to fill small jars of uniform size and shape 7about #d oz4 capacity7 with the saline or other dense solution1 place upon the ground mouth of the jar a plate-glass cover1 then immerse it1 when filled1 in a cylindrical glass vessel containing about #bj oz4 of distilled water4 ,the cover being very carefully removed1 diffusion was allowed to proceed for a given time1 and then by analysis the amount of transfer into the distilled water was determined4 ,i must resist the temptation to expound the very interesting results of these researches1 merely stating that they prove this diffusion to be no mere accidental mixing1 but an action that proceeds with a regularity reducible to simple mathematical laws4 ,one curious fact ,i may mention--viz4 that on comparing the solutions of a number of different salts1 those which crystallise in the same forms have similar rates of diffusion4 ,the law that bears the most directly upon cookery is that #8the quantity of any substance diffused from a solution of uniform strength increases as the temperature rises4' ,the application of this will be seen presently4 ,it may be supposed that if the jar used in ,graham's diffusion experiments were tied over with a mechanically air-tight and water-tight membrane1 the brine or other saline solution thus confined in the jar could not diffuse itself into the pure water above and around it2 people who are satisfied with anything that #8stands to reason' would be quite sure that a bladder which resists the passage of water1 even when the water is pressed up to the bursting-point1 cannot be permeable to a most gentle and spontaneous flow of the same water4 ,the true philosopher1 however1 never trusts to any reasoning1 not even mathematical demonstration1 until its conclusions are verified by observations and experiment4 ,in this case all rational preconceptions or mathematical calculations based upon the amount of attractive force exerted between the particles of the different liquids are outraged by the facts4 ,if a stout1 well-tied bladder that would burst rather than allow a drop of water to be squeezed mechanically through it be partially filled with a solution of common washing soda1 and then immersed in distilled water1 the soda will make its way out of the bladder by passing through its walls1 and the pure water will go in at the same time2 for if1 after some time is allowed1 the outer water be tested by dipping into it a strip of red litmus paper1 it will be turned blue1 showing the presence of the alkali therein1 and if the contents of the bladder be weighed or measured1 they will be found to have increased by the inflow of fresh water4 ,this inflow is called endosmosis1 and the outflow of the solution is called exosmosis4 ,if an indiarubber bottle be filled with water and immersed in alcohol or ether1 the endosmosis of the spirit will be so powerfully exerted as to distend the bottle considerably4 ,if the bottle be filled with alcohol or ether1 and surrounded by water1 it will nearly empty itself4 ,the force exerted by this action is displayed by the rising of the sap from the rootlets of a forest giant to the cells of its topmost leaves4 ,not only plants1 but animals also1 are complex osmotic machines4 ,there is scarcely any vital function--if any at all--in which this osmosis does not play an important part4 ,i have no doubt that the mental effort ,i am at this moment exerting is largely dependent upon the endosmosis and exosmosis that is proceeding through the delicate membranes of some of the many miles of blood-vessels that ramify throughout the grey matter of my brain4 ,but ,i must wander no farther beyond the kitchen1 having already said enough to indicate that diosmosis 7which is the general term used for expressing the actions of endosmosis and exosmosis as they occur simultaneously7 does the work of extracting the permanent juices of meat when it is immersed in either hot or cold water4 ,i say permanent juices with intent1 in order to exclude the albumen1 which being coagulable at the lowest cooking temperature is not permanent4 ,it is one of that class of bodies to which ,graham gave the name of colloids 7glue-like71 such as starch1 dextrin1 gum1 c41 to distinguish them from another class1 the crystalloids1 or bodies that crystallise on solidification4 ,the latter diffuse and pass through membranes by diosmosis readily1 the colloids very sluggishly4 ,thus a solution of ,epsom salts diffuses seven times as rapidly as albumen1 and fourteen times as rapidly as caramel4 ,the difference is strikingly illustrated by the different diffusibility of a solution of ordinary crystalline sugar and that of barley-sugar and caramel1 the latter being amorphous or formless colloids that dry into a gummy mass when their solutions are evaporated1 instead of forming crystals as the original sugar did4 ,some of the juices of meat1 as already explained1 exist between its fibres1 others are within those fibres or cells1 enveloped in the sheath or cell membrane4 ,it is evident that the loose or free juices will be extracted by simple diffusion1 those enveloped in membranes by exosmosis through the membrane4 ,the result must be the same in both cases2 the meat will be permeated by the water1 and the surrounding water will be permeated by the juices that originally existed within the meat4 ,as the rate of diffusion--other conditions being equal--is proportionate to the extent of the surfaces of the diverse liquids that are exposed to each other1 and as the rate of diosmosis is similarly proportioned to the exposure of membrane1 it is evident that the cutting-up of the meat will assist the extraction of its juices by the creation of fresh surfaces2 hence the well-known advantage of mincing in the making of beef-tea4 ,it is interesting to observe the condition of lean meat that has thus been minced and exposed for a few hours to these actions by immersion in cold water4 ,on removing and straining such minced meat it will be found to have lost its colour1 and if it is now cooked it is insipid1 and even nauseous if eaten in any quantity4 ,it has been given to dogs and cats and pigs2 these1 after eating a little1 refuse to take more1 and when supplied with this juiceless meat alone1 they languish1 become emaciated1 and die of starvation if the experiment is continued4 ,experiments of this kind contributed to the fallacious conclusions of the ,french ,academicians4 ,although the meat from which the juices are thus completely extracted is quite worthless alone1 and meat from which they are partially extracted is nearly worthless alone1 either of them becomes valuable when eaten with the juices4 ,the stewed beef of the ,frenchman would deserve the contempt bestowed upon it by the prejudiced ,englishman if it were eaten as the ,englishman eats his roast beef2 but when preceded by a potage containing the juices of the beef it is quite as nutritious as if roasted1 and more easily digested4 ,graham found that increase of temperature increases the rate of diffusion of liquids1 and in accordance with this the extraction of the juices of meat is effected more rapidly by warm than by cold water2 but there is a limit to this advantage1 as will be easily understood from what has already been explained in ,chapter ,,iii4 concerning the coagulation of albumen1 which at the temperature of #acd ,fahr4 begins to show signs of losing its fluidity2 at #afj becomes a semi-opaque jelly2 at the boiling point of water is a rather tough solid2 and if kept at this temperature1 shrinks1 and becomes harder and harder1 tougher and tougher1 till it attains a consistence comparable to that of horn tempered with gutta-percha4 ,i have spoken of beef-tea1 or ,extractum carnis 7,liebig's #8,extract of ,meat'71 as an extreme case of extracting the juices of meat1 and must now explain the difference between this and the juices of an ordinary stew4 ,supposing the juices of the meat to be extracted by maceration in cold water1 and the broth thus obtained to be heated in order to alter its raw flavour1 a scum will be seen to rise upon the surface2 this is carefully removed in the manufacture of ,liebig's #8,extract1' or in the preparation of beef-tea for an invalid1 but in thus skimming we remove a highly-nutritious constituent--viz4 the albumen1 which has coagulated during the heating4 ,the pure beef-tea1 or ,extractum carnis1 contains only the kreatine1 kreatinine1 the soluble phosphates1 the lactic acid1 and other non-coagulable saline constituents1 that are rather stimulating than nutritious1 and which1 properly speaking1 are not digested at all--i4e4 they are not converted into chyme in the stomach1 do not pass through the pylorus into the duodenum1 c41 but1 instead of this1 their dilute solution passes1 like the water we drink1 directly into the blood by endosmosis through the delicate membrane of that marvellous network of microscopic blood-vessels which is spread over the surface of every one of the myriads of little upstanding filaments which1 by their aggregation1 constitute the villous or velvet coat of the stomach4 ,in some states of prostration1 where the blood is insufficiently supplied with these juices1 this endosmosis is like pouring new life into the body1 but it is not what is required for the normal sustenance of the healthy body4 ,for ordinary food1 all the nutritious constituents should be retained1 either in the meat itself or in its liquid surrounding4 ,regarding it theoretically1 ,i should demand the retention of the albumen in the meat1 and insist upon its remaining there in the condition of tender semi-solidity1 corresponding to the white of an egg when perfectly cooked1 as described in page #bb4 ,also that the gelatin and fibrin be softened by sufficient digestion in hot water1 and that the saline juices 7those constituting beef-tea7 be partially extracted4 ,i say #8partially1' because their complete extraction1 as in the case of the macerated minced-meat1 would too completely rob the meat of its sapidity4 ,how1 then1 may these theoretical desiderata be attained8 ,it is evident from the principles already expounded that cold extraction takes out the albumen1 therefore this must be avoided2 also that boiling water will harden the albumen to leathery consistence4 ,this may be shown experimentally by subjecting an ordinary beefsteak to the action of boiling water for about half an hour4 ,it will come out in the abominable condition too often obtained by ,english cooks when they make an attempt at stewing--an unknown art to the majority of them4 ,such an ill-used morsel defies the efforts of ordinary human jaws1 and is curiously curled and distorted4 ,this toughening and curling is a result of the coagulation1 hardening1 and shrinkage of the albumen as already described4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that neither cold water nor boiling water should be used in stewing1 but water at the temperature at which albumen just begins to coagulate--i4e4 about #acd1 or between this and #afj as the extreme4 ,my definition of stewing demands a qualification as regards the albumen4 ,although this is one of the juices of the meat when cold1 it should not be extracted in ordinary stewing1 as it is in the maceration for beef-tea1 and thereby appear as a scum to be rejected4 ,it should be barely coagulated1 and thus retained in the meat in as tender a condition as possible4 ,being a colloid 7see ante1 page #aae7 its liability to diffusion is small4 ,but here we encounter a serious difficulty4 ,how is the unscientific cook to determine and maintain this temperature8 ,if you tell her that the water must not boil1 she shifts her stewpan to the side of the fire1 where it shall only simmer1 and she firmly believes that such simmering water has a lower temperature than water that is boiling violently over the fire4 #8,it stands to reason' that it must be so1 and if the experimental philosopher appeals to fact and the evidence of the thermometer1 he is a #8theorist4' ,the ,french cook escapes this simmering delusion by her common use of the bain-marie or #8water-bath1' as we call it in the laboratory1 where it is also largely used for #8digesting' at temperatures below #bab4 ,this is simply a vessel immersed in an outer vessel of water4 ,the water in the outer vessel may boil1 but that in the inner vessel cannot1 as its evaporation keeps it below the temperature of the water from which its heat is derived4 ,a carpenter's glue-pot is a very good and compact form of water-bath4 ,some ironmongers keep in stock a form of water-bath which they call a #8milk-scalder4' ,this resembles the glue-pot1 but has an inner vessel of earthenware which is1 of course1 a great improvement upon the carpenter's device1 as it may be so easily cleaned4 ,captain ,warren's1 and other similar #8cooking-pots1' may be used as water-baths by removing the cover of the inner vessel4 ,one of the incidental advantages of the bain-marie is that the stewing may be performed in earthenware or even glass vessels1 seeing that they are not directly exposed to the fire4 ,other forms of such double vessels are obtainable at the best ironmongers4 ,i have lately seen a very neat apparatus of this kind1 called #8,dolby's ,extractor1' made by ,messrs4 ,griffiths ,browett of ,birmingham4 ,this consists of an earthenware vessel that rests on a ledge1 and thus hangs in an outer tin-plate vessel2 but1 instead of water1 there is an air space surrounding the earthenware pot4 ,a top screws over this1 and the whole stands in an ordinary saucepan of water4 ,the heat is thus very slowly and steadily communicated through an air-bath1 and it makes excellent beef-tea4 ,at temperatures below the boiling point evaporation proceeds superficially1 and the rate of evaporation at a given temperature is proportionate to the surface exposed1 irrespective of the total quantity of water2 therefore1 the shallower the inner vessel of the bain-marie1 and the greater its upper outspread1 the lower will be the temperature of its liquid contents when its sides and bottom are heated by boiling water4 ,the water in a basin-shaped inner vessel will have a lower temperature than that in a vessel of similar depth1 with upright sides1 and exposing an equal water surface4 ,a good water-bath for stewing may be extemporised by using a common pudding-basin 7,i mean one with projecting rim1 as used for tying down the pudding-cloth71 and selecting a saucepan just big enough for this to drop into1 and rest upon its rim4 ,put the meat1 c41 to be stewed into the basin1 pour hot water over them1 and hot water into the saucepan1 so that the basin shall be in a water-bath2 then let this outer water simmer--very gently1 so as not to jump the basin with its steam4 ,stew thus for about double the time usually prescribed in ,english cookery-books1 and compare the result with similar materials stewed in boiling or #8simmering' water4 ,i have already 7page #ia7 referred to the frying that1 in most cases1 should precede stewing4 ,it not only supplies the caramel browning there described1 but moderates the extraction of the juices which1 as ,i have said above1 is desirable on the part of the meat itself when gravy is not the primary object4 ,some further explanation is here necessary1 as it is quite possible to obtain what commonly passes for tenderness by a very flagrant violation of the principles above expounded4 ,this is done on a large scale and in extreme degree in the preparation of ordinary ,australian tinned meat4 ,a number of tins are filled with the meat1 and soldered down close1 all but a small pin-hole4 ,they are then placed in a bath charged with a saline substance1 such as chloride of zinc1 which has a higher boiling point than water4 ,this is heated up to its boiling point1 and consequently the water which is in the tins with the meat boils vigorously1 and a jet of steam mixed with air blows from the pin-hole4 ,when all the air is expelled1 and the jet is of pure steam only 7a difference detected at once by the trained expert71 the tin is removed1 and a little melted solder skilfully dropped on the hole to seal the tin hermetically4 ,an examination of one of these tins will show this final soldering with1 in some1 a flap below to prevent any solder from falling in amongst the meat4 ,the object of this is to exclude all air1 for if only a very small quantity remains1 oxidation and putrefaction speedily ensues1 as shown by a bulging of the tins instead of the partial collapse that should occur when the steam condenses1 the display of which collapse is an indication of the good quality of the contents4 ,by #8good quality' ,i mean good of its kind2 but1 as everybody knows who has tried beef and mutton thus prepared1 it is not satisfactory4 ,the preservation from putrefactive decomposition is perfectly successful1 and all the original constituents of the meat are there4 ,it is apparently tender1 but practically tough--i4e4 it falls to pieces at a mere touch of the knife1 but these fragments offer to the teeth a peculiar resistance to proper mastication4 ,i may describe their condition as one of pertinacious fibrosity4 ,the fibres separate1 but they are stubborn fibres still4 ,this is a very serious matter1 for1 were it otherwise1 the great problem of supplying our dense population with an abundance of cheap animal food would have been solved about twenty years ago4 ,as it is1 the plain tinned-meat enterprise has not developed to any important extent beyond affording a variation with salt junk on board ship4 ,what is the rationale of this defect8 ,beyond the general statement that the meat is #8overdone1' ,i have met with no attempt at explanation1 but am not1 therefore1 disposed to give up the riddle without attempting a solution4 ,reverting to what ,i have already said concerning the action of heat on the constituents of flesh1 it is evident that in the first place the long exposure to the boiling point must harden the albumen4 ,syntonin1 or muscle-fibrin1 the material of the ultimate contractile fibres of the muscle1 is coagulated by boiling water1 and further hardened by continuous boiling1 in the same manner as albumen4 ,thus the muscle-fibres themselves1 and the lubricating liquor#aj in which they are imbedded1 must be simultaneously toughened by the method above described1 and this explains the pertinacious fibrosity of the result4 ,but how is the apparent tenderness1 the facile separation of the fibres of the same meat produced8 ,a little further examination of the anatomy and chemistry of muscle will1 ,i think1 explain this quite satisfactorily4 ,the ultimate fibres of the muscles are enveloped in a very delicate membrane2 a bundle of these is again enveloped in a somewhat stronger membrane 7areolar tissue72 and a number of these bundles of fasciculi are further enveloped in a proportionally stronger sheath of similar membrane4 ,all these binding membranes are mainly composed of gelatin1 or the substance which produces gelatin when boiled4 ,the boiling that is necessary to drive out all the air from the tins is sufficient to dissolve this1 and effect that easy separability of the muscular fibres1 or fasciculi of fibres1 that gives to such overcooked meat its fictitious tenderness4 ,i am1 however1 doubtful whether all the gelatin of these membranes is thus dissolved4 ,the jelly existing in the tins shows that some is dissolved and hydrated1 if my theory of the cookery is right2 but there does not appear to be as much of this jelly as would be formed by the stewing of a corresponding quantity of meat at a lower temperature4 ,some of the membranous gelatin is1 ,i suspect1 dehydrated when the highest temperature of the process is attained--i4e4 when the concentration of the juices raises the boiling point of their solution considerably above that of pure water4 ,this1 if ,i am right1 would check further solution of the membrane1 would hydrate and harden the remainder1 and thus contribute to the hardening of the fibre above described4 ,i have entered into these anatomical and chemical details because it is only by understanding them that the difference between true tenderness and spurious tenderness of stewed meat can be soundly understood1 especially in this country1 where stewed meats are despised because scientific stewing is practically and generally an unknown art4 ,ask an ,english cook the difference between boiled beef or mutton and stewed beef or mutton1 and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred her reply will be to the effect that stewed meat is that which has been boiled or simmered for a longer time than the boiled meat4 ,she proceeds1 in accordance with this definition1 when making an ,irish stew or similar dish1 by #8simmering' at #bab until1 by the coagulation and hardening of the albumen and syntonin1 a leathery mass is obtained2 then she continues the simmering until the gelatin of the areolar tissue is partially dissolved1 and the toughened fibres separate or become readily separable4 ,having achieved this disintegration1 she supposes the meat to be tender1 the fact being that the fibres individually are tougher than they were at the leathery stage4 ,the mischief is not limited to the destruction of the flavour of the meat1 but includes the destruction of the nutritive value of its solid portion by rendering it all indigestible1 with the exception of the gelatin1 which is dissolved in the gravy4 ,this exception should be duly noted1 inasmuch as it is the one redeeming feature of such proceeding that renders it fairly well adapted for the cookery of such meat as cow-heels1 sheeps'-trotters1 calves'-heads1 shins of beef1 knuckles of veal1 and other viands which consist mainly of membranous1 tendinous1 or integumentary matter composed of gelatin4 ,to treat the prime parts of good beef or mutton in this manner is to perpetrate a domestic atrocity4 ,i may here mention an experiment that ,i have made lately4 ,i killed a superannuated hen--more than six years old1 but otherwise in very good condition4 ,cooked in the ordinary way she would have been uneatably tough4 ,instead of being thus cooked1 she was gently stewed about four hours4 ,i cannot guarantee to the maintenance of the theoretical temperature1 having suspicion of some simmering4 ,after this she was left in the water until it cooled1 and on the following day was roasted in the usual manner--i4e4 in a roasting oven4 ,the result was excellent2 as tender as a full-grown chicken roasted in the ordinary way1 and of quite equal flavour1 in spite of the very good broth obtained by the preliminary stewing4 ,this surprised me4 ,i anticipated the softening of the tendons and ligaments1 but supposed that the extraction of the juices would have spoiled the flavour4 ,it must have diluted it1 and that so much remained was probably due to the fact that an old fowl is more fully flavoured than a young chicken4 ,the usual farmhouse method of cooking old hens is to stew them simply1 the rule in the ,midlands being one hour in the pot for every year of age4 ,the feature of the above experiment was the supplementary roasting4 ,as the laying season comes to an end1 old hens become a drug in the market2 and those among my readers who have not a hen-roost of their own will much oblige their poulterers by ordering a hen that is warranted to be four years old or upwards4 ,if he deals fairly he will supply a specimen upon which they may repeat my experiment very cheaply4 ,it offers the double economy of utilising a nearly waste product1 and obtaining chicken-broth and roast fowl simultaneously4 ,another experiment on the cooking of old hens was recently made by a neighbour at my suggestion1 and proved very successful4 ,the bird was cut up and gently stewed in fat like the small joints of my experiments described in p4 #eg4 ,i have not yet repeated this experiment1 but when ,i do shall use bacon liquor 7the surplus fat from grilled bacon7 for the bath1 and hope thereby to obtain an approach to the effect of #8larding1' as practised in luxurious cookery4 ,one of the great advantages of stewing is that it affords a means of obtaining a savoury and very wholesome dish at a minimum of cost4 ,a small piece of meat may be stewed with a large quantity of vegetables1 the juice of the meat savouring the whole4 ,besides this1 it costs far less fuel than roasting4 ,the wife of the ,french or ,swiss landed proprietor--i4e4 a working peasant--cooks the family dinner with less than a tenth of the expenditure of fuel used in ,england for the preparation of an inferior meal4 ,a little charcoal under her bain-marie does it all4 ,the economy of time corresponds to the economy of fuel1 for the mixture of viands required for the stew once put into the pot is left to itself until dinner-time1 or at most an occasional stirring of fresh charcoal into the embers is all that is demanded4 ,,footnote3 #aj ,i have ventured to ascribe this lubricating function to the albumen which envelopes the fibres1 though doubtful whether it is quite orthodox to do so4 ,its identity in composition with the synovial liquor of the joints1 and the necessity for such lubricant1 justify this supposition4 ,it may act as a nutrient fluid at the same time4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,cheese4 ,i ,,now come to a very important constituent of animal food1 although it is not contained in beef1 mutton1 pork1 poultry1 game1 fish1 or any other organised animal substance1 unless in egg yolk1 as ,lehmann states 7see page #bc74 ,it is not even proved satisfactorily to exist in the blood1 although it is somehow obtained from the blood by special glands at certain periods4 ,i refer to casein1 the substantial basis of cheese1 which1 as everybody knows1 is the consolidated curd of milk4 ,it is evident at once that casein must exist in two forms1 the soluble and insoluble1 so far as the common solvent1 water1 is concerned4 ,it exists in the soluble form1 and completely dissolved in milk1 and insoluble in cheese4 ,when precipitated in its insoluble or coagulated form as the curd of new milk it carries with it the fatty matter or cream1 and therefore1 in order to study its properties in a state of purity1 we must obtain it otherwise4 ,this may be done by allowing the fat globules of the milk to float to the surface1 and then removing them by separating the cream as by the ordinary dairy method4 ,we thus obtain in the skimmed milk a solution of casein1 but there still remains some of the fat4 ,this may be removed by evaporating the solution down to solidity1 and then dissolving out the fat by means of ether1 which leaves the soluble casein behind4 ,the adhering ether being evaporated1 we have a fairly pure specimen of casein in its original or soluble form4 ,this1 when dry1 is an amber-coloured translucent substance1 devoid of odour1 and insipid4 ,the insipidity and absence of odour of the pure and separated casein are noteworthy1 as showing that the condition in which it exists in milk is very different from that of the casein of cheese4 ,my object in pointing this out is to show that in the course of the manufacture of cheese new properties are developed4 ,skim-milk--a solution of casein--is tasteless and inodorous1 while fresh cheese1 whether made from skimmed or whole milk1 has a very decided flavour and odour4 ,if we now add some of our dry casein to water1 it dissolves1 forming a yellowish viscid fluid1 which1 on evaporation1 becomes covered with a slight film of insoluble casein1 which may be readily drawn off4 ,some of my readers will recognise in this description the resemblance of a now well-known domestic preparation of soluble casein1 condensed milk1 where it is mixed with much cream1 and in the ordinary preparation also much sugar4 ,the cream dilutes the yellowness1 but does not quite mask it1 and the viscidity is shown by the strings which follow the spoon when a spoonful is lifted4 ,if a concentrated solution of pure casein is exposed to the air it rapidly putrefies1 and passes through a series of changes that ,i must not tarry to describe1 beyond stating that ammonia is given off1 and some crystalline substances1 such as leucine1 tyrosine1 c41 very interesting to the physiological chemist1 but not important in the kitchen1 are formed4 ,a solution of casein in water is not coagulated by boiling2 it may be repeatedly evaporated to dryness and redissolved4 ,upon this depends the practicability of preserving milk by evaporating it down1 or #8condensing4' ,this condensed milk1 however1 loses a little2 its albumen is sacrificed1 as everybody will understand who has dipped a spoon in freshly-boiled milk and observed the skin which the spoon removes from the surface4 ,this is coagulated albumen4 ,if alcohol is added to a concentrated solution of casein in water1 a pseudo-coagulation occurs2 the casein is precipitated as a white substance like coagulated albumen1 but if only a little alcohol is used1 the solid may be redissolved in water2 if1 however1 it is thus treated with strong alcohol1 the casein becomes difficult of solution1 or even quite insoluble4 ,alcohol added to solid soluble casein renders it opaque1 and gives it the appearance of coagulated albumen4 ,the alcohol itself dissolves a little of this4 ,the characteristic coagulation of casein1 or its conversion from the soluble to the insoluble form1 is produced rather mysteriously by rennet4 ,acids generally precipitate it either from aqueous solution or from milk4 ,the coagulation effected by mineral acids from aqueous solutions is not so complete as that produced by lactic acid from milk1 or vinegar1 the former coagulum being more readily redissolved by alkalies or weaker basic substances than the latter4 ,a calf has four stomachs1 the fourth being that which corresponds to ours1 both in structure and functions4 ,it is lined with a membrane from which is secreted the gastric juice and other fluids concerned in effecting the conversion of food into chyme4 ,a weak infusion made from a small piece of this #8mucous membrane' will coagulate the casein of three thousand times its own quantity of milk1 or the coagulation may be effected by placing a small piece of the stomach 7usually salted and dried for the purpose7 in the milk1 and warming it for a few hours4 ,many theoretical attempts have been made to explain this action of the rennet4 ,simon and ,liebig suppose that it acts primarily as a ferment1 converting the sugar of milk into lactic acid1 and that this lactic acid coagulates the casein4 ,this theory has been controverted by ,selmi and others1 but the balance of evidence is decidedly in its favour4 ,the coagulation which occurs in the living stomach when milk is taken as food appears to be due to the lactic acid of the gastric juice4 ,casein1 when thoroughly coagulated by rennet1 then purified and dried1 is a hard and yellowish hornlike substance4 ,it softens and swells in water1 but does not dissolve therein1 nor in alcohol nor weak acids4 ,strong mineral acids decompose it4 ,alkalies dissolve it readily1 and if concentrated1 decompose it on the application of heat4 ,when moderately heated1 it softens and may be drawn into threads1 and becomes elastic2 at a higher temperature it fuses1 swells up1 carbonises1 and develops nearly the same products of distillation as the other protein compounds4 ,note the differences between this and the soluble casein above described1 viz4 that obtained by simply removing the fat from the milk1 then evaporating away the water1 but using no rennet4 ,i have good and sufficient reasons for thus specifying the properties of this constituent of food4 ,i regard it as the most important of all that ,i have to describe in connection with my subject--the science of cookery4 ,it contains 7as ,i shall presently show7 more nutritious material than any other food that is ordinarily obtainable1 and its cookery is singularly neglected1 is practically an unknown art1 especially in this country4 ,we commonly eat it raw1 although in its raw state it is peculiarly indigestible1 and in the only cooked form familiarly known among us here1 that of a ,welsh rabbit1 or rarebit1 it is too often rendered still more indigestible1 though this need not be the case4 ,here1 in this densely-populated country1 where we import so much of our food1 cheese demands our most profound attention4 ,the difficulties and cost of importing all kinds of meat1 fish1 and poultry are great1 while cheese may be cheaply and deliberately brought to us from any part of the world where cows or goats can be fed1 and it can be stored more readily and kept longer than other kinds of animal food4 ,all that is required to render it1 next to bread1 the staple food of ,britons is scientific cookery4 ,if ,i shall be able1 in what is to follow1 to impart to my fellow-countrymen1 and more especially countrywomen1 my own convictions concerning the cookability1 and consequent improved digestibility1 of cheese1 ,i shall have #8done the ,state some service6' ,taking muscular fibre without bone--i4e4 selected best part of the meat--beef contains on an average #gb per cent4 of water2 mutton1 #gc2 veal1 #gd2 pork1 #fi2 fowl1 #gc2 while ,cheshire cheese contains only #cj1 and other cheeses about the same4 ,thus1 at starting1 we have in every pound of cheese rather more than twice as much solid food as in a pound of the best meat1 or comparing with the average of the whole carcass1 including bone1 tendons1 c41 the cheese has an advantage of three to one4 ,the following results of ,mulder's analysis of casein1 when compared with those by the same chemist of albumen1 gelatin and fibrin1 show that there is but little difference in the ultimate chemical composition of these1 so far as the constituents there named are concerned3 ,casein ,carbon #echc ,hydrogen #gae ,nitrogen #aefe ,oxygen ,sulphur #bccg ,albumen ,gelatin ,fibrin ,carbon #ece #ejdj #ebg ,hydrogen #gj #ffd #fi ,nitrogen #aee #ahcd #aed ,oxygen #bbj #bdfb #bce ,sulphur #af 0 #ab ,phosphorus #jd 0 #jc ,we may therefore conclude that1 regarding these from the point of view of nitrogenous or flesh-forming1 and carbonaceous or heat-giving constituents1 these chief materials of flesh and of cheese are about equal4 ,the same is the case as regards the fat4 ,the quantity in the carcass of oxen1 calves1 sheep1 lambs1 and pigs varies1 according to ,dr4 ,edward ,smith1 from #af per cent4 to #cac per cent4 in moderately fatted animals2 while in whole-milk cheeses it varies from #bafh per cent4 to #cbca per cent41 coming down in skim-milk cheeses as low as #fc4 ,dr4 ,smith includes ,neufchtel cheese1 containing #ahgd per cent41 among the whole-milk cheeses4 ,he does not seem to be aware that the cheese made up between straws and sold under that name is a ricotta1 or crude curd of skim-milk cheese4 ,its just value is about threepence per pound4 ,in ,italy1 where it forms the basis of some delicious dishes 7such as budino di ricotta#aa71 it is sold for about twopence per pound1 or less4 ,there is a discrepancy in the published analyses of casein which demands explanation here1 as it is of great practical importance4 ,they generally correspond to the above of ,mulder within small fractions1 as shown below in those of ,scherer and ,dumas3 ,scherer ,dumas ,carbon #edffe #ecg ,hydrogen #gdfe #gb ,nitrogen #aegbd #aff ,oxygen1 sulphur #bbadf #bbe ------- ----- #ajjjjj #ajjj ,in these the #ajj parts are made up without any phosphate of lime1 while1 according to ,lehmann 7#8,physiological ,chemistry1' vol4 i4 p4 #cgi1 ,cavendish ,edition71 #8casein that has not been treated with acids contains about #f per cent4 of phosphate of lime2 more1 consequently1 than is contained in any of the protein compounds we have hitherto considered4' ,from this it appears that we may have casein with1 and casein without1 this necessary constituent of food4 ,in precipitating casein for laboratory analysis1 acids are commonly used1 and thus the phosphate of lime is dissolved out2 but ,i am unable at present to tell my readers the precise extent to which this actually occurs in practical cheese-making where rennet is used4 ,what ,i have at present learned only indicates generally that this constituent of cheese is very variable2 and ,i hereby suggest to those chemists who are professionally concerned in the analysis of food1 that they may supply a valuable contribution to our knowledge of this subject by simply determining the phosphate of lime contained in the ash of different kinds of cheese4 ,i would do this myself1 but1 having during some ten years past nearly forsaken the laboratory for the writing-table1 ,i have not the leisure for such work2 and1 worse still1 have not that prime essential to practical research 7especially of endowed research71 a staff of obedient assistants to do the drudgery4 ,the comparison specially demanded is between cheeses made with rennet1 and those ,dutch and factory cheeses the curd of which has been precipitated by hydrochloric acid4 ,theoretical considerations point to the conclusion that in the latter much or even all of the phosphate of lime may be left in solution in the whey1 and thus the food-value of the cheese seriously lowered4 ,we must1 however1 suspend judgment in the meantime4 ,in comparing the nutritive value of cheese with that of flesh1 the retention of this phosphate of lime corresponds with the retention of some of the juices of the meat1 among which are the phosphates of the flesh4 ,these phosphates of lime are the bone-making material of food1 and have something to do in building up the brain and nervous matter1 though not to the extent that is supposed by those who imagine that there is a special connection between phosphorus and the brain1 or phosphorescence and spirituality4 ,bone contains about eleven per cent4 of phosphorus1 brain less than one per cent4 ,the value of food in reference to its phosphate of lime is not merely a matter of percentage1 as this salt may exist in a state of solution1 as in milk1 or as a solid very difficult of assimilation1 as in bones4 ,that retained in cheese is probably in an intermediate condition--not actually in solution1 but so finely divided as to be readily dissolved by the acid of the gastric juice4 ,i may mention1 in reference to this1 that when a child or other young animal takes its natural food in the form of milk1 the milk is converted into unpressed cheese1 or curd1 prior to its digestion4 ,supposing that1 on an average1 cheese contains only one-half of the #f per cent4 of phosphate of lime found1 as above1 in the casein1 and taking into consideration the water contained in flesh1 the bone1 c41 we may conclude generally that one pound of average cheese contains as much nutriment as three pounds of the average material of the carcass of an ox or sheep as prepared for sale by the butcher2 or otherwise stated1 a cheese of #bj lbs4 weight contains as much food as a sheep weighing #fj lbs4 as it hangs in the butcher's shop4 ,now comes the practical question4 ,can we assimilate or convert into our own substance the cheese-food as easily as we may the flesh-food8 ,i reply that we certainly cannot1 if the cheese is eaten raw2 but have no doubt that we may1 if it be suitably cooked4 ,hence the paramount importance of this part of my subject4 ,a ,swiss or ,scandinavian mountaineer can and does digest and assimilate raw cheese as a staple article of food1 and proves its nutritive value by the result2 but feebler bipeds of the plains and towns cannot do the like4 ,i may here mention that ,i have recently made some experiments on the dissolving of cheese by adding sufficient alkali 7carbonate of potash7 to neutralise the acid it contains1 in order to convert the casein into its original soluble form as it existed in the milk1 and have partially succeeded both with water and milk as solvents2 but before reporting these results in detail ,i will describe some of the practically-established methods of cooking cheese that are so curiously unknown or little known in this country4 ,in the fatherland of my grandfather1 ,louis ,gabriel ,mattieu1 one of the commonest dishes of the peasant who tills his own freehold and grows his own food is a fondu4 ,this is a mixture of cheese and eggs1 the cheese grated and beaten into the egg as in making omelettes1 with a small addition of new milk or butter4 ,it is placed in a little pan like a flower-pot saucer1 cooked gently1 served as it comes off the fire1 and eaten from the vessel in which it is cooked4 ,i have made many a hearty dinner on one of these1 plus a lump of black bread and a small bottle of genuine but thin wine2 the cost of the whole banquet at a little auberge being usually less than sixpence4 ,the cheese is in a pasty condition1 and partly dissolved in the milk or butter4 ,i have tested the sustaining power of such a meal by doing some very stiff mountain climbing and long fasting after it4 ,it is rather too good--over nutritious--for a man only doing sedentary work4 ,a diluted and delicate modification of this may be made by taking slices of bread1 or bread and butter1 soaking them in a batter made of eggs and milk--without flour--then placing the slices of soaked bread in a pie-dish1 covering each with a thick coating of grated cheese1 and thus building up a stratified deposit to fill the dish4 ,the surplus batter may be poured over the top2 or if time is allowed for saturation1 the trouble of preliminary soaking may be saved by simply pouring all the batter thus4 ,this1 when gently baked1 supplies a delicious and highly nutritious dish4 ,we call it #8cheese pudding' at home1 but my own experience convinces me that we make a mistake in using it to supplement the joint4 ,it is far too nutritious for this2 its savoury character tempts one to eat it so freely that it would be far wiser to use it as the ,swiss peasant uses his fondu--i4e4 as the substantial dish of a wholesome dinner4 ,i have tested its digestibility by eating it heartily for supper4 ,no nightmare has followed4 ,if ,i sup on a corresponding quantity of raw cheese my sleep is miserably eventful4 ,a correspondent writes as follows from the ,charlotte ,square ,young ,ladies' ,institution3 #8,i have been trying the various ways of cooking cheese mentioned in your articles in 8,knowledge10 and have one or two improvements to suggest in the making of cheese pudding4 ,i find the result is much better when the bread is grated like the cheese1 and thoroughly mixed with it2 then the batter poured over both4 ,i think you will also find it better when baked in a shallow tin1 such as is used for ,yorkshire pudding4 ,this gives more of the browned surface1 which is the best of it4 ,another improvement is to put some of the crumbled bread 7on paper7 in the oven till brown1 and eat with it 7as for game74 ,i have not succeeded in making any improvement in the fondu 7see page #aci71 which is delightful4' ,my recollections of the fondu of the ,swiss peasant being so eminently satisfactory on all points--nutritive or sustaining value1 appetising flavour and economy--,i have sought for a recipe in several cookery-books1 and find at last a near approach to it in an old edition of ,mrs4 ,rundell's #8,domestic ,cookery4' ,a similar dish is described in that useful book #8,cre-,fydd's ,family ,fare1' under the name of #8,cheese ,souffl or ,fondu4'#ab ,i had looked for it in more pretentious works1 especially in the most pretentious and the most disappointing one ,i have yet been tempted to purchase1 viz4 the #bgth edition of ,francatelli's #8,modern ,cook1' a work which ,i cannot recommend to anybody who has less than #bj1jjjl4 a year and a corresponding luxury of liver4 ,amidst all the culinary monstrosities of these #8high-class' manuals1 ,i fail to find anything concerning the cookery of cheese that is worth the attention of my readers4 ,francatelli has1 under the name of #8,eggs la ,suisse1' a sort of fondu1 but decidedly inferior to the common fondu of the humble ,swiss osteria1 as ,francatelli lays the eggs upon slices of cheese1 and prescribes especially that the yolks shall not be broken2 omits the milk1 but substitutes 7for high-class extravagance' sake1 ,i suppose7 #8a gill of double cream1' to be poured over the top4 ,thus the cheese is not intermingled with the egg1 lest it should spoil the appearance of the unbroken yolks1 its casein is made leathery instead of being dissolved1 and the substitution of sixpenny worth of double cream for a halfpenny worth of milk supplies the high-class victim with fivepence halfpenny worth of biliary derangement4 ,in ,gouff's #8,royal ,cookery ,book' 7the ,household ,edition of which contains a great deal that is really useful to an ,english housewife7 ,i find a better recipe under the name of #8,cheese ,souffls4' ,he says3 #8,put two ounces and a quarter of flour in a stewpan1 with one pint and a half of milk2 season with salt and pepper2 stew over the fire till boiling1 and should there be any lumps1 strain the souffl paste through a tammy cloth2 add seven ounces of grated ,parmesan cheese1 and seven yolks of eggs2 whip the whites till they are firm1 and add them to the mixture2 fill some paper cases with it1 and bake in the oven for fifteen minutes4' ,cre-,fydd says3 #8,grate six ounces of rich cheese 7,parmesan is the best72 put it into an enamelled saucepan1 with a teaspoonful of flour of mustard1 a saltspoonful of white pepper1 a grain of cayenne1 the sixth part of a nutmeg1 grated1 two ounces of butter1 two tablespoonfuls of baked flour1 and a gill of new milk2 stir it over a slow fire till it becomes like smooth1 thick cream 7but it must not boil72 add the well-beaten yolks of six eggs1 beat for ten minutes1 then add the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth2 put the mixture into a tin or a cardboard mould1 and bake in a quick oven for twenty minutes4 ,serve immediately4' ,here is a true cookery of cheese by solution1 and the result is an excellent dish4 ,but there is some unnecessary complication and kitchen pedantry involved4 ,the souffl part of the business is a mere puffing up of the mixture for the purpose of displaying the cleverness of the cook1 being quite useless to the consumer1 as it subsides before it can be eaten4 ,it further involves practical mischief1 as it cannot be obtained without toasting the surface of the cheese into an air-tight leathery skin that is abnormally indigestible4 ,the following is my own simplified recipe3 ,take a quarter of a pound of grated cheese2 add it to a gill of milk in which is dissolved as much powdered bicarbonate of potash as will stand upon a threepenny-piece2 mustard1 pepper1 c41 as prescribed above by ,cre-,fydd4#ac ,heat this carefully until the cheese is completely dissolved4 ,then beat up three eggs1 yolks and whites together1 and add them to this solution of cheese1 stirring the whole4 ,now take a shallow metal or earthenware dish or tray that will bear heating2 put a little butter on this1 and heat the butter till it frizzles4 ,then pour the mixture into the tray1 and bake or fry it until it is nearly solidified4 ,a cheaper dish may be made by increasing the proportion of cheese--say1 six to eight ounces to three eggs1 or only one egg to a quarter of a pound of cheese for a hard-working man with powerful digestion4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,girdlestone writes as follows 7,i quote with permission73 #8,as regards the 8cheese fondu10 your recipe for which has enabled me to turn cheese to practical account as food1 you may be glad to hear that it has become a common dish in our microscopic mnage4 ,indeed cheese1 which formerly was poison to me1 is now alike pleasant and digestible4 ,but some of your readers may like to know that the addition of bread-crumbs is1 in my judgment at least1 a great improvement1 giving greater lightness to the compost1 and removing the harshness of flavour otherwise incidental to a mixture which comprises so large a proportion of cheese4 ,we 7my wife and ,i7 think this a great improvement4' ,i have received two other letters making1 quite independently1 the same suggestion concerning the bread-crumbs4 ,i have tried the addition1 and agree with ,mr4 ,girdlestone that it is a great improvement as food for such as ourselves1 who are brain-workers1 and for all others whose occupations are at all sedentary4 ,the undiluted fondu is too nutritious for us1 though suitable for the mountaineer4 ,the chief difficulty in preparing this dish conveniently is that of obtaining suitable vessels for the final frying or baking1 as each portion should be poured into1 and fried or baked in1 a separate dish1 so that each may1 as in ,switzerland1 have his own fondu complete1 and eat it from the dish as it comes from the fire4 ,as demand creates supply1 our ironmongers1 c41 will soon learn to meet this demand if it arises4 ,i have written to ,messrs4 ,griffiths ,browett1 of ,birmingham1 large manufacturers of what is technically called #8hollow ware'--i4e4 vessels of all kinds knocked up from a single piece of metal without any soldering--and they have made suitable fondu dishes according to my specification1 and supply them to the shopkeepers4 ,the bicarbonate of potash is an original novelty that will possibly alarm some of my non-chemical readers4 ,i advocate its use for two reasons3 first1 it effects a better solution of the casein by neutralising the free lactic acid that inevitably exists in milk supplied to towns1 and any free acid that may remain in the cheese4 ,at a farmhouse1 where the milk is just drawn from the cow1 it is unnecessary for this purpose1 as such new milk is itself slightly alkaline4 ,my second reason is physiological1 and of greater weight4 ,salts of potash are necessary constituents of human food4 ,they exist in all kinds of wholesome vegetables and fruits1 and in the juices of fresh meat1 but they are wanting in cheese1 having1 on account of their great solubility1 been left behind in the whey4 ,this absence of potash appears to me to be the one serious objection to the free use of cheese diet4 ,the ,swiss peasant escapes the mischief by his abundant salads1 which eaten raw contain all their potash salts1 instead of leaving the greater part in the saucepan1 as do cabbages1 c41 when cooked in boiling water4 ,in ,norway1 where salads are scarce1 the bonder and his housemen have at times suffered greatly from scurvy1 especially in the far north1 and would be severely victimised but for special remedies that they use 7the mottebeer1 cranberry1 c41 grown and preserved especially for the purpose74 ,the ,laplanders make a broth of scurvy-grass and similar herbs2 ,i have watched them gathering these1 and observed that the wild celery was a leading ingredient4 ,scurvy on board ship results from eating salt meat1 the potash of which has escaped by exosmosis into the brine or pickle4 ,the sailor now escapes it by drinking citrate of potash in the form of lime-juice1 and by alternating salt junk with rations of tinned meats4 ,i once lived for six days on bread and cheese only1 tasting no other food4 ,i had1 in company with ,c4 ,m4 ,clayton 7son of the ,senator of ,delaware1 who negotiated the ,clayton-,bulwer ,treaty71 taken a passage from ,malta to ,athens in a little schooner1 and expecting a three days' journey we took no other rations than a lump of ,cheshire cheese and a supply of bread4 ,bad weather doubled the expected length of our journey4 ,we were both young1 and proud of our hardihood in bearing privations1 were staunch disciples of ,diogenes2 but on the last day we succumbed1 and bartered the remainder of our bread and cheese for some of the boiled horse-beans and cabbage-broth of the forecastle4 ,the cheese1 highly relished at first1 had become positively nauseous1 and our craving for the forecastle vegetable broth was absurd1 considering the full view we had of its constituents and of the dirtiness of its cooks4 ,i attribute this to the lack of potash salts in the cheese and bread4 ,it was similar to the craving for common salt by cattle that lack necessary chlorides in their food4 ,i am satisfied that cheese can never take the place in an economic dietary1 otherwise justified by its nutritious composition1 unless this deficiency of potash is somehow supplied4 ,my device of using it with milk as a solvent supplies it in a simple and natural manner4 ,the milk is not necessary1 though preferable4 ,i find that a solution of cheese may be made in water by simply grating or thinly slicing the cheese1 and adding it to about its own bulk of water in which the bicarbonate of potash is dissolved4 ,the proportion of bicarbonate1 which ,i theoretically estimate as demanded for supplying the deficiency of potash1 is at the rate of about a quarter of an ounce to the pound of cheese2 and ,i find that it will bear this quantity without the flavour of the potash being detected4 ,the proportion of potash in cows' milk is more than double the quantity thus supplied1 but ,i assume that the cheese loses about half of its original supply1 and base this assumption on the fact that ordinary cheese contains an average of about #d per cent4 of saline matter1 while the proportion of saline matter to the casein and fat of the milk amounts to #e per cent4 ,this is a rough practical estimate1 kept rather below the actual quantity demanded2 therefore more than the quarter ounce may be used with impunity4 ,i have doubled it in some of my experiments1 and thus have just detected the bitter flavour of the salt4 ,as regards the solubility of the cheese1 ,i should add that there are great differences in different samples4 ,generally speaking1 the newer and milder the cheese the more soluble4 ,some that ,i have tried leave a stubbornly insoluble residuum1 which is detestably tough4 ,i found the same cheese to be unusually indigestible when eaten with bread in the ordinary raw state1 and have reason to believe that it is what ,i have called #8bosch cheese1' to be described presently4 ,the successful solution1 in either alkalised milk or alkalised water1 cools into a custard-like mass1 the thickness or viscosity varying1 of course1 with the quantity of solvent4 ,it may be kept for use a short time 7from two or three days to two or three weeks1 according to the weather71 after which it becomes putrescent4 ,as now well known to all concerned1 a great deal of #8butterine1' or #8oleomargarine1' or #8margarine1' or #8bosch1' is made by extracting from the waste fat of oxen and sheep some of its harder constituents1 the palmitic and stearic acids1 then working up the softer remainder with a little milk1 or even without the milk1 into a resemblance to butter4 ,when properly prepared and honestly sold for what it is1 no fair grounds for objection exist2 but it is too commonly sold for what it is not--i4e4 as butter4 ,for cookery purposes a fair sample of #8bosch' is quite as good as #8inferior dosset4' ,i have tasted some that is scarcely distinguishable from best ,devonshire fresh4 ,more recently this enterprise has been further developed4 ,genuine butter is made from cream skimmed from the milk4 ,the skimmed milk is then curdled1 and to the whey thus precipitated a sufficient quantity of bosch is added to replace the butter that has been sent to market4 ,a still more objectionable compound is made by using hogs' lard as a substitute for the natural cream4 ,these extraneous fats render the cheese more indigestible4 ,the curd precipitated from skim-milk is harder and tougher than that thrown down from whole milk1 and these added fats merely envelop the broken fragments of this4 ,hence my suspicion that the cheese leaving the above-described insoluble residuum was a sample of #8bosch' cheese4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since the above was written ,i have met with the following in the ,times1 bringing the subject up to latest date1 and ,i take the liberty of reprinting the larger part of this interesting and clearly-written communication3 #8,,imitated ,,dairy ,,products4 #8,the profitable utilisation of refuse products has always been one of the most difficult problems which have confronted manufacturers4 ,until recently the disposal of skim-milk was one of the difficulties of the managers of butter factories1 or 8creameries0 as they are termed in the ,united ,states4 ,similarly1 the sale of the internal fat of animals slaughtered for food1 with the exception of lard1 was practically restricted to the manufacturers of soap and candles4 ,it was reserved to a ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,mge-,mauries1 to discover the first step towards a more profitable use of these substances4 ,he showed that by a judicious combination of milk and the clarified fat of animals a substance could be produced which closely resembled butter4 ,so close1 indeed1 is the resemblance of imitation butter to the real article that the skill of the chemist must be invoked to render detection positive1 if the artificial butter is good of its kind4 ,so recondite1 indeed1 is the test of the chemist that it depends upon the percentage of volatile oils in butter-fat and in caul-fat respectively4 #8,artificial butter is the result of several processes4 ,the internal fat of cattle is first chopped into small pieces1 and then passed through a huge and somewhat modified sausage-machine4 ,the finely-divided suet is afterwards placed in suitable vessels1 and heated up to #abb ,fahr41 but a higher temperature must be avoided1 otherwise a portion of the stearine1 or true tallow of the suet1 becomes inextricably mixed with the oleomargarine4 ,it need scarcely be added that the tallow taste would be fatal to the manufacture of a first-class article4 ,the melted fat is transferred to casks and left to cool2 afterwards it is put in small quantities into coarse bags1 several of which are made into a pile with iron plates between them1 and placed in a hydraulic press4 ,the result is the expression of the pure oleomargarine as a clear yellow oil1 the solid stearine remaining in the bags4 #8,the next step is the manufacture of this oleomargarine into the substance which has been designated 8butterine10 and which is quoted on the ,london market as 8bosch40 ,the 8oleo0 is remelted at the lowest possible temperature1 mixed with a certain proportion of milk and of butter1 and then churned4 ,the result is the production of a material closely resembling butter1 in fact practically identical so far as appearance is concerned4 ,it is washed1 worked1 and otherwise treated like real butter1 and packed to simulate the kinds of butter which are most in demand on the market to which it is sent4 ,in ,london all kinds of butter are sold1 and we believe that they are all more or less imitated4 #8,unfortunately for the consumer of butterine1 not all that is sold1 even as butter1 is made with so much regard to care and cleanliness1 or with such comparatively unobjectionable materials4 ,the demand for oleomargarine1 which constitutes about #fj per cent4 of the mass that is churned1 has naturally raised its price1 and various substitutes have been tried with more or less success4 ,lard has been extensively used1 and is said to answer fairly well4 ,oils of various kinds have also had their trial1 but used alone their melting point is too low4 ,earth-nut oil is used in small quantities by some makers in order to impart an agreeable flavour1 especially in cases where the artificial butter has been 8weighted0 by the addition of water to the milk1 or meal to an inferior oil4 #8,the adaptation of ,m4 ,mge's process to the imitation of other dairy products is a natural sequence to the success1 in a commercial sense1 which has attended the manufacture of artificial butter4 ,the skim-milk difficulty in the ,american butter factories has set their managers to work at the problem of its conversion into something saleable for some time past4 ,this difficulty has been increased of late years by the invention of the cream separator1 which deprives the milk of practically all its cream2 but on the large dairy farms of ,denmark1 where from #ajj to #cjj cows are kept and these separators are used1 the skim-milk is made into skim-cheese1 and the working classes in that country do not object to eat a nutritious article of diet which they can buy at about fourpence per pound4 ,but neither the ,american nor the ,english labourer1 as a general rule1 likes a cheese that is at the same time exceedingly poor in fat and excessively hard to bite4 #8,obviously the first step was to add fat to the skim-milk so as to replace the cream which had been taken off4 ,this1 however1 was no easy matter1 for neither oleomargarine nor lard would mix with the skim-milk when directly applied4 ,the imitation cheese attempted to be made in this way was wretchedly bad2 and1 when cut1 the added fatty matter was found in streaks1 and to a great extent oozed out in its original condition4 8,lard-cheese10 in fact1 soon became a by-word and a reproach1 and it is stated that last year a large quantity of poor1 unsophisticated cheese was sold under that name1 and thus increased its evil reputation4 #8,but the utilisation of the skim-milk still remained a necessity to the managers of the 8creameries10 if they were to be commercially successful4 ,the question was1 therefore1 considered whether it would not be possible to make an artificial cream which should replace the natural cream which had been taken off the milk4 ,this idea was soon put to a practical test1 and with most remarkable results4 #8,the process now adopted begins with the manufacture of artificial cream as follows3 ,a certain quantity of skim-milk is heated to about #he ,fahr41 and one-half the quantity of either lard1 oleomargarine1 or olive oil1 as the case may be4 ,these substances are conveyed through separate pipes into an 8emulsion0 machine1 which subdivides both materials to a surprising degree1 while it mixes them thoroughly together--the arrangement insuring that the machine is regularly fed with the due proportions of the substances which are being used4 ,it is stated that the artificial cream made with olive oil in this way is not objected to in the ,united ,states for use in tea and coffee4 #8,for the manufacture of imitation cheese1 about #d per cent4 of this imitation cream is added to the skim-milk4 ,the latter being raised to #he ,fahr41 and the former to #ace ,fahr4 or upwards1 the mixture attains a temperature of about #ij ,fahr4 ,the remainder of the process is identical with that used in the manufacture of ,american ,cheddar cheese1 except that a special mechanical agitator is used to insure that the curd shall be evenly stirred and cooked1 so as to avoid any loss of fat in the whey4 ,success or failure in the manufacture of imitation cheese seems to depend chiefly upon the perfect emulsion of the skim-milk with the fat in the preliminary process of making artificial cream4 ,that having been accomplished1 the remaining processes are said to be perfectly easy and satisfactory4 ,it has been asserted by competent judges that the best descriptions of oleomargarine cheese can with difficulty1 if at all1 be detected from the ordinary ,american ,cheddar of commerce2 but the imitation product has nevertheless a tendency to become rapidly mouldy after having been cut4 #8,the trade in imitation butter is now something enormous and increases every year2 in the ,netherlands alone there are sixty or seventy factories4 ,imitation cheese is only just beginning to appear on the ,london market1 but there can be little doubt that before long it will compete successfully with all but the best and most delicate descriptions of the real article1 unless it is branded so as to show its true character4 ,one firm alone1 in ,new ,york ,state1 made #bjj1jjj lbs4 of imitation cheese last year1 and their factories are in full work again this year4' ,my first acquaintance with the rational cookery of cheese was in the autumn of #ahdb1 when ,i dined with the monks of ,st4 ,bernard4 ,being the only guest1 ,i was the first to be supplied with soup1 and then came a dish of grated cheese4 ,being young and bashful1 ,i was ashamed to display my ignorance by asking what ,i was to do with the cheese1 but made a bold dash1 nevertheless1 and sprinkled some of it into my soup4 ,i then learned that my guess was quite correct2 the prior and the monks did the same4 ,on walking on to ,italy ,i learned that there such use of cheese is universal4 ,minestra without ,parmesan would in ,italy be regarded as we in ,england should regard muffins and crumpets without butter4 ,during the forty years that have elapsed since my first sojourn in ,italy1 my sympathies are continually lacerated when ,i contemplate the melancholy spectacle of human beings eating thin soup without any grated cheese4 ,not only in soups1 but in many other dishes1 it is similarly used4 ,as an example1 ,i may name #8,risotto la ,milanese1' a delicious1 wholesome1 and economical dish--a sort of stew composed of rice and the giblets of fowls1 usually charged about twopence to threepence per portion at ,italian restaurants4 ,this1 ,i suppose1 is the reason why ,i find no recipe for it in the #8high-class' cookery-books4 ,it is always served with grated ,parmesan4 ,the same with the many varieties of paste1 of which macaroni and vermicelli are the best known in this country4 ,in all these the cheese is sprinkled over1 and then stirred into the soup1 c41 while it is hot4 ,the cheese being finely divided is fused at once1 and thus delicately cooked4 ,this is quite different from the #8macaroni cheese' commonly prepared in ,england by depositing macaroni in a pie-dish1 then covering it with a stratum of grated cheese1 and placing this in an oven or before a fire until the cheese is desiccated1 browned1 and converted into a horny1 caseous form of carbon that would induce chronic dyspepsia in the stomach of a wild boar if he fed upon it for a week4 ,in all preparations of ,italian pastes1 risottos1 pures1 c41 the cheese is intimately mixed throughout1 and softened and diffused thereby in the manner above described4 ,the ,italians themselves imagine that only their own ,parmesan cheese is fit for this purpose1 and have infected many ,englishmen with the same idea4 ,thus it happens that fancy prices are paid in this country for that particular cheese1 which nearly resembles the cheese known in our midland counties as #8skim dick'--sold there at about fourpence per pound1 or given by the farmers to their labourers4 ,it is cheese #8that has sent its butter to market1' being made from the skim-milk which remains in the dairy after the pigs have been fully supplied4 ,i have used this kind of cheese as a substitute for ,parmesan1 and ,i find it answers the purpose1 though it has not the fine flavour of the best qualities of ,parmesan4 ,the only fault of our ordinary whole-milk ,english and ,american cheeses is that they are too rich1 and cannot be so finely grated on account of their more unctuous structure1 due to the cream they contain4 ,i note that in the recipes of high-class cookery-books1 where ,parmesan is prescribed1 cream is commonly added4 ,sensible ,english cooks1 who use ,cheshire1 ,cheddar1 or good ,american cheese1 are practically including the ,parmesan and the cream in natural combination4 ,by allowing these cheeses to dry1 or by setting aside the outer part of the cheese for the purpose1 the difficulty of grating is overcome4 ,i have now to communicate another result of my cheese-cooking researches1 viz4 a new dish--cheese-porridge--or1 ,i may say1 a new class of dishes--cheese-porridges4 ,they are not intended for epicures1 who only live to eat1 but for men and women who eat in order to live and work4 ,these combinations of cheese are more especially fitted for those whose work is muscular1 and who work in the open air4 ,sedentary brain-workers should use them carefully1 lest they suffer from over-nutrition1 which is but a few degrees worse than partial starvation4 ,my typical cheese-porridge is ordinary oatmeal-porridge made in the usual manner1 but to which grated cheese1 or some of the cheese solution above described1 is added1 either while in the cookery-pot or after it is taken out1 and yet as hot as possible4 ,it should be sprinkled gradually and well stirred in4 ,another kind of cheese-porridge or cheese-pudding is made by adding cheese to baked potatoes--the potatoes to be taken out of their skins and well mashed while the grated cheese is sprinkled and intermingled4 ,a little milk may or may not be added1 according to taste and convenience4 ,this is better suited for those whose occupations are sedentary1 potatoes being less nutritious and more easily digested than oatmeal4 ,they are chiefly composed of starch1 which is a heat-giver or fattener1 while the cheese is highly nitrogenous1 and supplies the elements in which the potato is deficient1 the two together forming a fair approach to the theoretically demanded balance of constituents4 ,i say baked potatoes rather than boiled1 and perhaps should explain my reasons1 though in doing so ,i anticipate what ,i shall explain more fully when on the subject of vegetable food4 ,raw potatoes contain potash salts which are easily soluble in water4 ,i find that when the potato is boiled some of the potash comes out into the water1 and thus the vegetable is robbed of a very valuable constituent4 ,the baked potato contains all its original saline constituents which1 as ,i have already stated1 are specially demanded as an addition to cheese-food4 ,hasty pudding made1 as usual1 of wheat flour1 may be converted from an insipid to a savoury and highly nutritious porridge by the addition of cheese in like manner4 ,the same with boiled rice1 whether whole or ground1 also sago1 tapioca1 and other forms of edible starch4 ,supposing whole rice is used--and ,i think this is the best--the cheese may be sprinkled among the grains of rice and well stirred or mashed up with them4 ,the addition of a little brown gravy to this1 with or without chicken giblets1 gives us an ,italian risotto4 ,the ,indian-corn stirabout of the poor ,irish cottier would be much improved both in flavour and nutritive value by the addition of a little grated cheese4 ,pease pudding is not improved by cheese4 ,the chemistry of this will come out when ,i explain the composition of peas1 beans1 c4 ,the same applies to pea soup4 ,i might enumerate other methods of cooking cheese by thus adding it in a finely-divided state to other kinds of food1 but if ,i were to express my own convictions on the subject ,i should stir up prejudice by naming some mixtures which many people would denounce4 ,as an example ,i may refer to a dish which ,i invented more than twenty years ago--viz4 fish and cheese pudding1 made by taking the remains from a dish of boiled codfish1 haddock1 or other white fish1 mashing it with bread-crumbs1 grated cheese1 and ketchup1 then warming in an oven and serving after the usual manner of scalloped fish4 ,any remains of oyster sauce may be advantageously included4 ,i find this delicious1 but others may not4 ,i frequently add grated cheese to boiled fish as ordinarily served1 and have lately made a fish sauce by dissolving grated cheese in milk with the aid of a little bicarbonate of potash1 and adding this to ordinary melted butter4 ,i suggest these cheese mixtures to others with some misgivings as regards palatability1 after learning the revelations of ,darwin on the persistence of heredity4 ,it is quite possible that1 being a compound of the ,swiss ,mattieu with the ,welsh ,williams 7cheese on both sides71 ,i may inherit an abnormal fondness for this staple food of the mountaineers4 ,be this as it may1 so far as the mere palate is concerned2 but in the chemistry of all my advocacy of cheese and its cookery ,i have full confidence4 ,rendered digestible by simple and suitable cookery1 and added with a little potash salt to farinaceous food of all kinds1 it affords exactly what is required to supply a theoretically complete and a most economical dietary1 without the aid of any other kind of animal food4 ,the potash salts may be advantageously supplied by a liberal second course of fruit or salad4 ,one more of my heretical applications of grated cheese must be specified4 ,it is that of sprinkling it freely over ordinary stewed tripe1 which thus becomes extraordinary stewed tripe4 ,or a solution of cheese may be mixed with liquor of the stew4 ,it may not be generally known that stewed tripe is the most easily digestible of all solid animal food4 ,this was shown by the experiments of ,dr4 ,beaumont on his patient1 ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 who was so obliging 7from a scientific point of view7 as to discharge a gun in such a manner that it shot away the front of his own stomach and left there1 after the healing of the wound1 a valved window through which1 with the aid of a simple optical contrivance1 the work of digestion could be watched4 ,dr4 ,beaumont found that while beef and mutton required three hours for digestion1 tripe was digested in one hour4#ad ,i add by way of postscript a recipe for a dish lately invented by my wife4 ,it is vegetable marrow au gratin1 prepared by simply boiling the vegetable as usual1 slicing it1 placing the slices in a dish1 covering them with grated cheese1 and then browning slightly in an oven or before the fire1 as in preparing the well-known #8cauliflower au gratin4' ,i have modified this 7with improvement1 ,i believe7 by mashing the boiled marrow and stirring the grated cheese into the midst of it whilst as hot as possible2 or1 better still1 by adding a little of the solution of cheese above described to the pure of mashed marrow and stirring it well in while hot4 ,to please the ladies1 and make it look pretty on the table1 a little more grated cheese may be sprinkled on the top of this and browned in the oven or with a salamander4 ,people with weak digestive powers should set aside the pretty4 ,turnips may be similarly treated as #8mashed turnips au gratin4' ,i recommend this especially to my vegetarian friends1 who have no objection to cheese1 but do not properly appreciate it4 ,taking as ,i do great interest in their efforts1 regarding them as pioneers of a great and certainly approaching reform1 ,i have frequently dined at their restaurants 7always do so when within reach1 as ,i am only a flesh-eater for convenience' sake71 and by the experience thus afforded of their cookery1 am convinced that they are losing many converts by the lack of cheese in many of their most important dishes4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,i am greatly disgusted with the cookery-books1 especially the pretentious volume of ,francatelli's1 on being unable to find any recipe for this delicious ,italian dish1 and a similar absence of a dozen or two of equally common and excellent preparations familiar to all who have dined at the ,lepre 7,rome71 or other good ,italian restaurants4 #ab ,forty or fifty years ago these cheese fondus were one of the usual courses at many-course banquets1 but now they are rarely found in the menu of such dinners4 ,there is good reason for this4 ,they are far too nutritious to be eaten with a dozen other things4 ,their proper use is to substitute the joint in an ordinary respectable meal of meat and pudding4 #ac ,before the ,adulteration ,act was passed1 mustard flour was usually mixed with well-dried wheaten flour1 whereby the redundant oil was absorbed1 and the mixture was a dry powder4 ,now it is different1 being pure powdered mustard seed1 and usually rather damp4 ,it not only lies closer1 but is much stronger4 ,therefore1 in following any recipe of old cookery-books1 only about half the stated quantity should be used4 #ad ,the reader who desires further information on this and kindred subjects will find it clearly and soundly treated 7without any of the noxious pedantry that too commonly prevails in such treatises7 in ,dr4 ,andrew ,combe's ,physiology of ,digestion1 which1 although written by a dying man nearly half a century ago1 still remains1 like his ,principles of ,physiology1 the best popular work on the subject4 ,subsequent editions have been edited and brought up to date by his nephew1 ,sir ,james ,coxe4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fat--,,milk4 ,,we all know that there is a considerable difference between raw fat and cooked fat2 but what is the rationale of this difference8 ,is it anything beyond the obvious fusion or semi-fusion of the solid8 ,these are very natural and simple questions1 but in no work on chemistry or technology can ,i find any answer to them1 or even any attempt at an answer4 ,i will therefore do the best ,i can towards solving the problem in my own way4 ,all the cookable and eatable fats fall into the class of #8fixed oils1' so named by chemists to distinguish them from the #8volatile oils1' otherwise described as #8essential oils4' ,the distinction between these two classes is simple enough4 ,the volatile oils 7mostly of vegetable origin7 may be distilled or simply evaporated away like water or alcohol1 and leave no residue4 ,the fixed oils similarly treated are dissociated more or less completely4 ,this has been already explained in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,otherwise expressed1 the boiling point of the volatile oils is below their dissociation point4 ,the fixed oils are those which are dissociated at a temperature below their boiling point4 ,my object in thus expressing this difference will be understood upon a little reflection4 ,the volatile oils1 when heated1 being distilled without change are uncookable2 while the fixed oils if similarly heated suffer various degrees of change as their temperature is raised1 and may be completely decomposed by steady application of heat in a closed vessel without the aid of any other chemical agent than the heat itself4 ,this #8destructive distillation' converts them into solid carbon and hydro-carbon gases1 somewhat similar to those we obtain by the destructive distillation of coal4 ,if we watch the changes occurring as the heat advances to this complete dissociation point we may observe a minor or partial dissociation proceeding gradually onward1 resembling that which ,i have already described as occurring when sugar is similarly treated 7,chapter ,,vii4 page #hg74 ,but in ordinary cooking we do not go so far as to carbonise the fat itself1 though we do brown or partially carbonise the membrane which envelopes the fat4 ,what then is the nature of this minor dissociation1 if such occurs8 ,before giving my answer to this question ,i must explain the chemical constitution of fat4 ,it is a compound of a very weak base with very weak acids4 ,the basic substance is glycerine1 the acids 7not sour at all1 but so named because they combine with bases as the actually sour acids do7 are stearic acid1 palmitic acid1 oleic acid1 c41 and bear the general name of #8fatty acids4' ,they are solid or liquid1 according to temperature4 ,when solid they are pearly crystalline substances1 when fused they are oily liquids4 ,to simplify1 ,i will take one of these as a type1 and that the one which is the chief constituent of animal fats1 viz4 stearic acid4 ,i have a lump of it before me4 ,newly broken through1 it might at a distance be mistaken for a piece of ,carrara marble4 ,it is granular1 like the marble1 but not so hard1 and1 when rubbed with the hand1 differs from the marble in betraying its origin by a small degree of unctuousness1 but it can scarcely be described as greasy4 ,i find by experiment that this may be mixed with glycerine without combination taking place1 that when heated with glycerine just to its fusing point1 and the two are agitated together1 the combination is by no means complete4 ,instead of obtaining a soft1 smooth fat1 ,i obtain a granular fat small stearic crystals with glycerine amongst them4 ,it is a mixture of stearic acid and glycerine1 not a chemical compound2 it is stearic acid and glycerine1 but not a stearate of glycerine or glycerine stearate4 ,a similar separation is what ,i suppose to occur in the cooking of animal fat4 ,i find that mutton-fat1 beef-fat1 or other fat when raw is perfectly smooth1 as tested by rubbing a small quantity1 free from membrane1 between the finger and thumb1 or by the still more delicate test of rubbing it between the tip of the tongue and the palate4 ,but dripping1 whether of beef1 or mutton1 or poultry1 is granular1 as anybody who has ever eaten bread and dripping knows well enough1 and the manufacturers of #8butterine1' or #8bosch1' know too well1 the destruction or prevention of this granulation being one of the difficulties of their art4 ,my theory of the cookery of fat is simply that heat1 when continued long enough1 or raised sufficiently high1 effects an incipient dissociation of the fatty acids from the glycerine1 and thus assists the digestive organs by presenting the base and the acids in a condition better fitted 7or advanced by one stage7 for the new combinations demanded by assimilation4 ,some physiologists have lately asserted that the fat of our food is not assimilated at all--not laid down again as fat1 but is used directly as fuel for the maintenance of animal heat4 ,if this is correct1 the advantage of the preliminary dissociation is more decided1 for the combustible portion of the fat is its fatty acids2 the glycerine is an impediment to combustion1 so much so that the modern candle-maker removes it1 and thereby greatly improves the combustibility of his candles4 ,it may be that the glycerine of the fat we eat is assimilated like sugar1 while the fatty acids act directly as fuel4 ,this view may reconcile some of the conflicting facts 7such as the existence of fat in the carnivora7 that stand in the way of the theory of the uses of fat food above referred to1 according to which fat is not fattening1 and those who would #8,bant' should eat fat freely to maintain animal heat1 while very abstemious in the consumption of sugar and farinaceous food4 ,the difference between tallow and dripping is instructive4 ,their origin is the same2 both are melted fats--beef or mutton fats--and both contain the same fatty acids and glycerine1 but there is a visible and tangible difference in their molecular condition4 ,tallow is smooth and homogeneous1 dripping decidedly granular4 ,i attribute this difference to the fact that in rendering tallow1 the heat is maintained no longer than is necessary to effect the fusion2 while1 in the ordinary production of dripping1 the fat is exposed in the dripping-pan to a long continuance of heat1 besides being highly heated when used in basting4 ,therefore the dissociation is carried farther in the case of the dripping1 and the result becomes sensible4 ,i have observed that home-rendered lard1 that obtained in ,english farmhouses1 where the #8scratchings' 7i4e4 the membranous parts7 are frizzled1 is more granular than the lard we now obtain in such abundance from ,chicago and other wholesale hog regions4 ,i have not witnessed the lard rendering at ,chicago1 but have little doubt that economy of fuel is practised in conducting it1 and therefore less dissociation would be effected than in the domestic retail process4 ,some of the early manufacturers of #8bosch' purified their fat by the process recommended and practised by the ,french ,academicians ,,mm4 ,dubrunfaut and ,fua 7see page #ajb74 ,i wrote about it in #ahga1 and consequently received some samples of artificial butter thus made in the ,midlands4 ,it was pure fat1 perfectly wholesome1 but1 although coloured to imitate butter1 had the granular character of dripping4 ,since that time great progress has been made in this branch of industry4 ,i have lately tasted samples of pure #8bosch' or #8oleomargarine' undistinguishable from churned cream or good butter1 though offered for sale at #h;d4 per lb4 in wholesale packages4 ,in the preparation of this the high temperatures of the process of the ,academicians are carefully avoided1 and the smoothness of pure butter is obtained4 ,i mention this now merely in confirmation of my theory of the rationale of fat cookery1 but shall return to this subject of #8bosch' or butterine again1 as it has considerable intrinsic interest in reference to our food supplies1 and should be better understood than it is4 ,if this theory of fat cookery and the preceding theoretical explanations of the cookery of gelatin and fibrin are correct1 a broad practical deduction follows1 viz4 that in the cookery of fat the full temperature of #bab or even a much higher temperature does no mischief1 or may be desirable1 while all the other constituents of meat are better cooked at a temperature not exceeding #bab2 the albumen especially at a considerably lower temperature4 ,there is neither coagulation nor dehydration to be feared as regards the fat1 unless the heat is raised to that of the dissociation of the fixed oils1 which1 as already explained1 is much above #bab2 the change which then takes place in the fat 7analogous to that caramelising sugar7 is not dehydration properly so called1 although the elements of water or hydrogen may be driven off4 ,hydration is a combining of water as water1 not with the elements of water as elements1 and the water of most hydrates becomes dissociated at a temperature a little above the boiling point of water4 ,my own experiments on gelatin show that hydration occurs when crude gelatin is exposed to the action of water at or below the boiling point1 and that dehydration takes place at and above the boiling point1 or otherwise stated1 the boiling point is the critical temperature where either hydration or dehydration may occur according to the circumstances4 ,the original membrane immersed in water at #bab becomes hydrated1 while hydrated gelatin heated to #bab and exposed to the air is dehydrated4 ,fat is only dissociated as regards its glycerine1 and is cooked thereby4 ,the dietetic value of milk is obvious enough from the fact that the young of the human species and all the mammalia1 whether carnivorous1 graminivorous1 or herbivorous1 are entirely fed upon it during the period of their most rapid growth4 ,this1 however1 does not justify the practice of describing milk as a model diet and tabulating its composition as that which should represent the composition of food for adults4 ,the fallacy of this is evident from the fact that grass is the model food of the cow1 and milk that of the calf4 ,although the grass contains all the constituents of the milk1 their proportions are widely different2 besides this the grass contains a very great deal of material that does not exist in milk--silica for example4 ,the constituents of milk are first water1 constituting from #fe to #ij per cent4 ,nitrogenous matter1 consisting of the casein above described and a little albumen4 ,fat1 sugar1 and saline substances4 ,the proportions of these vary so greatly in the milk from different animals of the same species1 and in that from the same animal at different times that tabular statements of the percentage composition of the milk of different animals are very variable4 ,i have five such tables before me1 assembled for the purpose of supplying material for my readers1 but they are so contradictory1 though all by good chemists1 that ,i am at a loss in making a choice4 ,the following is ,dr4 ,miller's statement of the mean result of several analyses3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,woman ,cow ,goat ,ass ,sheep ,bitch ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,water #hhf #hgd #hbj #ije #hef #ffc ,fat #bf #dj #de #ad #de #adh ,sugar and soluble salts #di #ej #de #fd #db #bi ,nitrogenous compounds and insoluble salts #ci #cf #ij #ag #eg #afj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the fat exists in the form of minute globules of oil suspended in the water4 ,the rising of these to the surface forms the cream4 ,when the milk is new it is slightly alkaline1 and this assists in the admixture of the oil with the water1 forming an emulsion which may be imitated by whipping olive or other similar oil in water4 ,if the water is slightly alkaline the milky-looking emulsion is more easily obtained than in neutral water1 still more so than when there is acid in the water4 ,as milk becomes older lactic acid is formed2 at first alkalinity is exchanged for neutrality1 and afterwards the milk becomes acid4 ,this assists in the separation of the cream4 ,butter is merely the oil globules aggregated by agitation or churning4 ,the condition of the casein has been already described4 ,the sugar of milk or #8lactine' is much less sweet than cane sugar4 ,the cookery of milk is very simple1 but by no means unimportant4 ,that there is an appreciable difference between raw and boiled milk may be proved by taking equal quantities of each 7the boiled sample having been allowed to cool down71 adding them to equal quantities of the same infusion of coffee1 then critically tasting the mixtures4 ,the difference is sufficient to have long since established the practice among all skilful cooks of scrupulously using boiled milk for making caf au lait4 ,i have tried a similar experiment on tea1 and find that in this case the cold milk is preferable4 ,why this should be--why boiled milk should be better for coffee and raw milk for tea--,i cannot tell4 ,if any of my readers have not done so already1 let them try similar experiments with condensed milk1 and ,i have no doubt that the verdict of the majority will be that it is passable with coffee1 but very objectionable in tea4 ,this is milk that has been very much cooked4 ,the chief definable alteration effected by the boiling of milk is the coagulation of the small quantity of albumen which it contains4 ,this rises as it becomes solidified1 carrying with it some of the fat globules of the milk1 and a little of its sugar and saline constituents1 thus forming a skin-like scum on the surface1 which may be lifted with a spoon and eaten1 as it is perfectly wholesome1 and very nutritious4 ,if all the milk that is poured into ,london every morning were to flow down a single channel1 it would form a respectable little rivulet4 ,an interesting example of the self-adjusting operation of demand and supply is presented by the fact that1 without any special legislation or any dictating official1 the quantity required should thus flow with so little excess that1 in spite of its perishable qualities1 little or none is spoiled by souring2 and yet at any moment anybody may buy a pennyworth within two or three hundred yards of any part of the great metropolis4 ,there is no record of any single day on which the supply has failed1 or even been sensibly deficient4 ,this is effected by drawing the supplies from a great number of independent sources1 which are not likely to be simultaneously disturbed in the same direction4 ,coupled with this advantage is a serious danger4 ,it has been demonstrated that certain microbia 7minute living abominations71 which are said to disseminate malignant diseases1 may live in milk1 feed upon it1 increase and multiply therein1 and by it be transmitted to human beings with possibly serious and even fatal results4 ,this general germ theory of disease has been recently questioned by some men whose conclusions demand respect4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson stoutly opposes it1 and in the particular instance of the #8comma-shaped' bacillus1 so firmly described as the origin of cholera1 the refutation is apparently complete4 ,the alternative hypothesis is that the class of diseases in question are caused by a chemical poison1 not necessarily organised as a plant or animal1 and therefore not to be found by the microscope4 ,i speak the more feelingly on this subject1 having very recently had painful experience of it4 ,one of my sons went for a holiday to a farm-house in ,shropshire1 where many happy and health-giving holidays have been spent by all the members of my family4 ,at the end of two or three weeks he was attacked by scarlet fever1 and suffered severely4 ,he afterwards learned that the cowboy had been ill1 and further inquiry proved that his illness was scarlet fever1 though not acknowledged to be such2 that he had milked before the scaling of the skin that follows the eruption could have been completed1 and it was therefore most probable that some of the scales from his hands fell into the milk4 ,my son drank freely of uncooked milk1 the other inmates of the farm drinking home-brewed beer1 and only taking milk in tea or coffee hot enough to destroy the vitality of fever germs4 ,he alone suffered4 ,this infection was the more remarkable1 inasmuch as a few months previously he had been assisting a medical man in a crowded part of ,london where scarlet fever was prevalent1 and had come into frequent contact with patients in different stages of the disease without suffering infection4 ,had the milk from this farm been sent to ,london in the usual manner in cans1 and the contents of these particular cans mixed with those of the rest received by the vendor1 the whole of his stock might have been infected4 ,as some thousands of farms contribute to the supplying of ,london with milk1 the risk of such contact with infected hands occurring occasionally in one or another of them is very great1 and fully justifies me in urgently recommending the manager of every household to strictly enforce the boiling of every drop of milk that enters the house4 ,at the temperature of #bab the vitality of all dangerous germs is destroyed1 and the boiling point of milk is a little above #bab4 ,the temperature of tea or coffee1 as ordinarily used1 may do it1 but is not to be relied upon4 ,i need only refer generally to the cases of wholesale infection that have recently been traced to the milk of particular dairies1 as the particulars are familiar to all who read the newspapers4 ,the necessity for boiling remains the same1 whether we accept the germ theory or that of chemical poison1 as such poison must be of organic origin1 and1 like other similar organic compounds1 subject to dissociation or other alteration when heated to the boiling point of water4 ,it is an open question whether butter may or may not act as a dangerous carrier of such germs2 whether they rise with the cream1 survive the churning1 and flourish among the fat4 ,the subject is of vital importance1 and yet1 in spite of the research fund of the ,royal ,society1 the ,british ,association1 c41 we have no data upon which to base even an approximately sound conclusion4 ,we may theorise1 of course2 we may suppose that the bacteria1 bacilli1 c41 which we see under the microscope to be continually wriggling about or driving along are doing so in order to obtain fresh food from the surrounding liquid1 and therefore that if imprisoned in butter they would languish and die4 ,we may point to the analogies of ferment germs which demand nitrogenous matter1 and therefore suppose that the pestiferous wanderers cannot live upon a mere hydro-carbon like butter4 ,on the other hand1 we know that the germs of such things can remain dormant under conditions that are fatal to their parents1 and develop forthwith when released and brought into new surroundings4 ,these speculations are interesting enough1 but in such a matter of life and death to ourselves and our children we require positive facts--direct microscopic or chemical evidence4 ,in the meantime the doubt is highly favourable to #8bosch4' ,to illustrate this1 let us suppose the case of a cow grazing on a sewage-farm1 manured from a district on which enteric fever has existed4 ,the cow lies down1 and its teats are soiled with liquid containing the chemical poison or the germs which are so fearfully malignant when taken internally4 ,in the course of milking a thousandth part of a grain of the infected matter containing a few hundred germs enters the milk1 and these germs increase and multiply4 ,the cream that rises carries some of them with it1 and they are thus in the butter1 either dead or alive--we know not which1 but have to accept the risk4 ,now1 take the case of #8bosch4' ,the cow is slaughtered4 ,the waste fat--that before the days of palm oil and vaseline was sold for lubricating machinery--is skilfully prepared1 made up into #b lb4 rolls1 delicately wrapped in special muslin1 or prettily moulded and fitted into #8,normandy' baskets4 ,what is the risk in eating this8 ,none at all provided always the #8bosch' is not adulterated with cream-butter4 ,the special disease germs do not survive the chemistry of digestion1 do not pass through the glandular tissues of the follicles that secrete the living fat1 and therefore1 even though the cow should have fed on sewage grass1 moistened with infected sewage water1 its fat would not be poisoned4 ,what we require in connection with this is commercial honesty3 that the thousands of tons of #8bosch' now annually made shall be sold as #8bosch1' or1 if preferred1 as #8oleomargarine1' or #8butterine1' or any other name that shall tell the truth4 ,in order to render such commercial honesty possible to shopkeepers1 more intelligence is demanded among their customers4 ,a dealer1 on whom ,i can rely1 told me lately that if he offered the #8bosch' or #8butterine' to his other customers as he was then offering it to me1 at #h;d4 per lb4 in #bd-lb4 box1 or #i;d4 retail1 he could not possibly sell it1 and his reputation would be injured by admitting that he kept it2 but that the same people who would be disgusted with it at #i;d4 will buy it freely at double the price as prime ,devonshire fresh butter2 and1 he added1 significantly1 #8,i cannot afford to lose my business and be ruined because my customers are fools4' ,to pastrycooks and others in business it is sold honestly enough for what it is1 and used instead of butter4 ,in the #8,journal of the ,chemical ,society' for ,january #ahdd1 page #ib1 is an account of experiments made by ,a4 ,mayer in order to determine the comparative nutritive value of #8bosch' and cream-butter4 ,they were made on a man and a boy4 ,the result was that on an average a little above #a per cent4 less of the #8bosch' was absorbed into the system than of the cream-butter4 ,this is a very trifling difference4 ,before leaving the subject of animal food ,i may say a few words on the latest1 and perhaps the greatest1 triumph of science in reference to food supply--i4e4 the successful solution of the great problem of preserving fresh meat for an almost indefinite length of time4 ,it has long been known that meat which is frozen remains fresh4 ,the ,aberdeen whalers were in the habit of feasting their friends on returning home on joints that were taken out fresh from ,aberdeen1 and kept frozen during a long ,arctic voyage4 ,in ,norway game is shot at the end of autumn1 and kept in a frozen state for consumption during the whole winter and far into the spring4 ,the early attempts to apply the freezing process for the carriage of fresh meat from ,south ,america and ,australia by using ice1 or freezing mixtures of ice and salt1 failed1 but now all the difficulties are overcome by a simple application of the great principle of the conservation of energy1 whereby the burning of coal may be made to produce a degree of cold proportionate to the amount of heat it gives out in burning4 ,carcasses of sheep are thereby frozen to stony hardness immediately they are slaughtered in ,new ,zealand and ,australia1 then packed in close refrigerated cars1 carried to the ship1 and there stowed in chambers refrigerated by the same means1 and thus brought to ,england in the same state of stony hardness as that originally produced4 ,i dined to-day on one of the legs of a sheep that ,i bought a week ago1 and which was grazing at the ,antipodes three months before4 ,i prefer it to any ,english mutton ordinarily obtainable4 ,the grounds of this preference will be understood when ,i explain that ,english farmers1 who manufacture mutton as a primary product1 kill their sheep as soon as they are full grown1 when a year old or less4 ,they cannot afford to feed a sheep for two years longer merely to improve its flavour without adding to its weight4 ,country gentlemen1 who do not care for expense1 occasionally regale their friends on a haunch or saddle of three-year-old mutton1 as a rare and costly luxury4 ,the ,antipodean graziers are wool growers4 ,until lately mutton was merely used as manure1 and even now it is but a secondary product4 ,the wool crop improves year by year until the sheep is three or four years old2 therefore it is not slaughtered until this age is attained2 and thus the sheep sent to ,england are similar to those of the country squire1 and such as the ,english farmer could not send to market under eighteenpence per pound4 ,there is1 however1 one drawback2 but ,i have tested it thoroughly 7having supplied my own table during the last six months with no other mutton than that from ,new ,zealand71 and find it so trifling as to be imperceptible unless critically looked for4 ,it is simply that1 in thawing1 a small quantity of the juice of the meat oozes out4 ,this is more than compensated by the superior richness and fulness of flavour of the meat itself1 which is much darker in colour than young mutton4 ,legs of frozen mutton should be hung with the thick cut part upwards4 ,with this precaution the loss of juice is but nominal4 ,if the frozen sheep is not cut up until completely thawed and required for cooking there is no loss4 ,another successful method of meat-preserving has been more lately introduced4 ,it is based upon the remarkable antiseptic properties of boric acid 7or boracic acid as it is sometimes named72 this is the characteristic constituent of borax1 and1 like the fatty acids above described1 has no sour flavour4 ,the speciality of this process1 invented by ,mr4 ,jones1 a ,gloucestershire surgeon1 is the method by which a small quantity of the antiseptic is made to permeate the whole of the carcass4 ,the animal is rendered insensible1 either by a stunning blow or by an ansthetic1 with the heart still beating4 ,a vein--usually the jugular--is opened1 and a small quantity of blood let out4 ,then a corresponding quantity of a solution of boric acid1 raised to blood heat1 is made to flow into the vein from a vessel raised to a suitable height above it4 ,the action of the heart carries this through all the capillary vessels into every part of the body of the animal4 ,the completeness of this diffusion may be understood by reflecting on the fact that we cannot puncture any part of the body with the point of a needle without drawing blood from some of these vessels4 ,after the completion of this circulation the animal is bled to death in the usual manner4 ,from three to four ounces of boric acid is sufficient for a sheep of average weight1 and much of this comes away with the final bleeding4 ,on ,april #b1 #ahhd1 ,i made a hearty meal on the roasted1 boiled1 and stewed flesh of a sheep that was killed on ,february #h1 the carcass hanging in the meantime in the basement of the ,society of ,arts4 ,it was perfectly fresh1 and without any perceptible flavour of the boric acid3 very tender1 and full-flavoured as fresh meat4 ,on ,july #ai1 #ahhd1 ,i purchased a haunch of the prepared mutton1 and hung it in an ill-constructed larder during the excessively hot weather that followed4 ,on ,august #aj1 after twenty-two days of this severe ordeal1 it was still in good condition4 ,the #aath and #abth were two of the hottest days of the present century in ,england4 ,on the #acth ,i examined the haunch very carefully1 and detected symptoms of giving way4 ,it had become softer1 and was pervaded throughout with a slight malodour4 ,on the #adth it became worse1 and then ,i had it roasted4 ,it was decidedly gamey2 the fat1 or rather the membranous junction between fat and lean1 and the membranous sheaths of the muscles had succumbed1 but the substance of the muscles1 the firm lean parts of the meat1 were quite eatable1 and eaten by myself and other members of my family4 ,there was no taste of boric acid1 and the meat was unusually tender4 ,the curious element of this process is the very small quantity of the boric acid which does the work so effectually4 ,for some time past most of the milk that is supplied to ,london has been similarly treated by adding borax or a preparation chiefly composed of borax1 and named #8glacialine4' ,this suppresses the incipient lactic fermentation1 which1 in the course of a few hours1 otherwise produces the souring of milk1 and thus prepared the milk remains for a long time unaltered4 ,the small quantity of borax that we thus imbibe with our tea1 coffee1 c41 is quite harmless4 ,m4 de ,cyon1 who has studied this subject experimentally1 affirms that it is very beneficial4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,cookery ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,,my readers will remember that ,i referred to ,haller's statement1 #8,dimidium corporis humani gluten est1' which applies to animals generally1 viz4 that half of their substance is gelatin1 or that which by cookery becomes gelatin4 ,this abundance depends upon the fact that the walls of the cells and the frame-work of the tissues are composed of this material4 ,in the vegetable structure we encounter a close analogy to this4 ,cellular structure is still more clearly defined than in the animal1 as may be easily seen with the help of a very moderate microscopic power4 ,pluck one of the fibrils that you see shooting down into the water of hyacinth glasses1 or1 failing one of these1 any other succulent rootlet4 ,crush it between two pieces of glass and examine4 ,at the end there is a loose spongy mass of rounded cells2 these merge into oblong rectangular cells surrounding a central axis of spiral tube or tubes or greatly elongated cell structure4 ,take a thin slice of stem1 or leaf1 or flower1 or bark1 or pith1 examine in like manner1 and cellular structure of some kind will display itself1 clearly demonstrating that whatever may be the contents of these round1 oval1 hexagonal1 oblong1 or otherwise regular or irregular cells1 we cannot cook and eat any whole vegetable1 or slice of vegetable1 without encountering a large quantity of cell wall4 ,it constitutes far more than half of the substance of most vegetables1 and therefore demands prominent consideration4 ,it exists in many forms with widely differing physical properties1 but with very little variation in chemical composition1 so little that in many chemical treatises cellular tissue1 cellulose1 lignin1 and woody fibre are treated as chemically synonymous4 ,thus1 ,miller says3 #8,cellular tissue forms the groundwork of every plant1 and when obtained in a pure state1 its composition is the same1 whatever may have been the nature of the plants which furnished it1 though it may vary greatly in appearance and physical characters2 thus1 it is loose and spongy in the succulent shoots of germinating seeds1 and in the roots of plants1 such as the turnip and the potato2 it is porous and elastic in the pith of the rush and the elder2 it is flexible and tenacious in the fibres of hemp and flax2 it is compact in the branches and wood of growing trees2 and becomes very hard and dense in the shells of the filbert1 the peach1 the cocoanut1 and the ,phytelephas or vegetable ivory4' ,its composition in all these cases is that of a carbo-hydrate1 i4e4 carbon united with the elements of water1 which1 by the way1 should not be confounded with a hydro-carbon1 or compound of carbon with hydrogen simply1 such as petroleum1 fats1 essential oils1 and resins4 ,there is1 however1 some little chemical difference between wooden tissue and the pure cellulose that we have in finely carded cotton1 in linen1 and pure paper pulp1 such as is used in making the filtering paper for chemical laboratories1 which burns without leaving a weighable quantity of ash4 ,the woody forms of cellular tissue owe their characteristic properties to an incrustration of lignin1 which is often described as synonymous with cellulose1 but is not so4 ,it is composed of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 like cellulose1 but the hydrogen is in excess of the proportion required to form water by combination with the oxygen4 ,my own view of the composition of this incrustation 7lignin properly is called7 is that it consists of a carbo-hydrate united with a hydro-carbon1 the latter having a resinous character2 but whether the hydro-carbon is chemically combined with the carbo-hydrate 7the resin with the cellulose71 or whether the resin only mechanically envelopes and indurates the cellulose ,i will not venture to decide1 though ,i incline to the latter theory4 ,as we shall presently see1 this view of the constitution of the indurated forms of cellular tissue has an important practical bearing upon my present subject4 ,to indicate this in advance1 ,i will put it grossly as opening the question of whether a very great refinement of scientific cookery may or may not enable us to convert nutshells1 wood shavings1 and sawdust into wholesome and digestible food4 ,i have no doubt whatever that it may4 ,it could be done at once if the incrusting resinous matter were removed2 for pure cellulose in the form of cotton and linen rags has been converted into sugar artificially in the laboratory of the chemist2 and in the ripening of fruits such conversion is effected on a large scale in the laboratory of nature4 ,a ,jersey pear1 for example1 when full grown in autumn is little better than a lump of acidulated wood4 ,left hanging on the leafless tree1 or gathered and carefully stored for two or three months1 it becomes by nature's own unaided cookery the most delicious and delicate pulp that can be tasted or imagined4 ,certain animals have a remarkable power of digesting ligneous tissue4 ,the beaver is an example of this4 ,the whole of its stomach1 and more especially that secondary stomach the ccum1 is often found crammed or plugged with fragments of wood and bark4 ,i have opened the crops of several ,norwegian ptarmigans1 and found them filled with no other food than the needles of pines1 upon which they evidently feed during the winter4 ,the birds1 when cooked1 were scarcely eatable on account of the strong resinous flavour of their flesh4 ,if my theory of the constitution of such woody tissues is correct1 these animals only require the power of secreting some solvent for the resin1 on the removal of which their food would consist of the same material as the tissue of the succulent stems and leaves eaten by ordinary herbivorous animals4 ,the resinous flavour of the flesh of the ptarmigan indicates such solution of resin4 ,i may here1 by the way1 correct the commonly accepted version of a popular story4 ,we are told that when ,marie ,antoinette was informed of a famine in the neighbourhood of the ,tyrol1 and of the starving of some of the peasants there1 she replied1 #8,i would rather eat pie-crust' 7some of the story-tellers say #8pastry'7 #8than starve4' ,thereupon the courtiers giggled at the ignorance of the pampered princess1 who could suppose that starving peasants had such an alternative food as pastry4 ,the ignorance1 however1 was all on the side of the courtiers and those who repeat the story in its ordinary form4 ,the princess was the only person in the ,court who really understood the habits of the peasants of the particular district in question4 ,they cook their meat1 chiefly young veal1 by rolling it in a kind of dough made of sawdust mixed with as little coarse flour as will hold it together2 then place this in an oven or in wood embers until the dough is hardened to a tough crust1 and the meat is raised throughout to the cooking point4 ,marie ,antoinette said that she would rather eat crotons than starve1 knowing that these crotons1 or meat pie-crusts1 are given to the pigs2 that the pigs digest them1 and are nourished by them in spite of the wood sawdust4 ,when on the subject of cooking animal food1 ,i had to define the cooking temperature as determined by that at which albumen coagulates1 and to point out the mischief arising from exceeding that temperature and thus rendering the albumen horny and indigestible4 ,no such precautions are demanded in the boiling of vegetables4 ,the work to be done in cooking a cabbage or a turnip1 for example1 is to soften the cellular tissue by the action of hot water2 there is nothing to avoid in the direction of over-heating4 ,even if the water could be raised above #bab1 the vegetable would be rather improved than injured thereby4 ,the question that now naturally arises is whether modern science can show us that anything more can be done in the preparation of vegetable tissue than the mere softening in boiling water4 ,i have already said that the practice of using the digestive apparatus of sheep1 oxen1 c41 for the preparation of our food is merely a transitory barbarism1 to be ultimately superseded by scientific cookery1 by preparing vegetables in such a manner that they shall be as easily digested as the prepared grass we call beef and mutton4 ,i do not mean by this that the vegetable we should use shall be grass itself1 or that grass should be one of the vegetables4 ,we must1 for our requirement1 select vegetables that contain as much nutriment in a given bulk as our present mixed diet1 but in doing so we encounter the serious difficulty of finding that the readily soluble cell wall or main bulk of animal food--the gelatin--is replaced in the vegetable by the cellulose1 or woody fibre1 which is not only more difficult of solution1 but is not nitrogenous1 is only a compound of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen4 ,next to the enveloping tissue1 the most abundant constituent of the vegetables we use as food is starch4 ,laundry associations may render the ,latin name #8fecula'1 or #8farina'1 more agreeable when applied to food4 ,we feed very largely on starch1 and take it in a multitude of forms4 ,excluding water1 it constitutes above three-fourths of our #8staff of life1' a still larger proportion of rice1 which is the staff of ,oriental life1 and nearly the whole of arrowroot1 sago1 and tapioca1 which may be described as composed of starch and water4 ,peas1 beans1 and every kind of seed and grain contain it in preponderating proportions2 potatoes the same1 and even those vegetables which we eat raw1 all contain within their cells considerable quantities of starch4 ,take a small piece of dough1 made in the usual manner by moistening wheat flour1 put it in a piece of muslin and work it with the fingers under water4 ,the water becomes milky1 and the milkiness is seen to be produced by minute granules that sink to the bottom when the agitation of the water ceases4 ,these are starch granules4 ,they may be obtained by similar treatment of other kinds of flour4 ,viewed under a microscope they are seen to be ovoid particles with peculiar concentric markings that ,i must not tarry to describe4 ,the form and size of these granules vary according to the plant from which they are derived1 but the chemical composition is in all cases the same1 excepting1 perhaps1 that the amount of water associated with the actual starch varies1 producing some small differences of density or other physical variations4 ,arrowroot may be taken as an example4 ,to the chemist arrowroot is starch in as pure a form as can be found in nature1 and he applies this description to all kinds of arrowroot2 but1 looking at the #8price current' in the #8,grocer' of the current week1 ,november #bb1 #ahhd1 ,i find under the first item1 which is #8,arrowroot1' the following3 #8,bermuda1 per lb4 #aj;d4 to #as4 #e;d42' #8,st4 ,vincent and ,natal1 #a;d4 to #g;d42' and this is a fair example of the usual differences of price of this commodity4 ,five farthings to #ec farthings is a wide range1 and should express a wide difference of quality4 ,i have on several occasions1 at long intervals apart1 obtained samples of the highest-priced ,bermuda1 and even #8,missionary' arrowroot1 supposed to be perfect1 brought home by immaculate missionaries themselves1 and therefore worth #cs4 #f;d4 per lb41 and have compared this with the #8,st4 ,vincent and ,natal4' ,i find that the only difference is that on boiling in a given quantity of water the ,bermuda produces a somewhat stiffer jelly1 the which additional tenacity is easily obtainable by using a little more of the #a;d4 7or say #c;d4 to allow a profit on retailing7 to the same quantity of water4 ,both are starch1 and starch is neither more nor less than starch1 unless it be that the best ,bermuda1 sold at #cs4 per lb41 is starch plus humbug4#ae ,the ultimate chemical composition of starch is the same as that of cellulose--carbon and the elements of water1 and in the same proportions2 but the difference of chemical and physical properties indicates some difference in the arrangement of these elements4 ,it would be quite out of place here to discuss the theories of molecular constitution which such differences have suggested1 especially as they are all rather cloudy4 ,the percentage is--carbon #ddd1 oxygen #did1 and hydrogen #fb4 ,the difference between starch and cellulose that most closely affects my present subject1 that of digestibility1 is considerable4 ,the ordinary food-forms of starch1 such as arrowroot1 tapioca1 rice1 c41 are among the most easily digestible kinds of food1 while cellulose is peculiarly difficult of digestion2 in its crude and compact forms it is quite indigestible by human digestive apparatus4 ,neither of them are capable of sustaining life alone2 they contain none of the nitrogenous material required for building up muscle1 nerve1 and other animal tissue4 ,they may be converted into fat1 and may supply fuel for maintaining animal heat1 and may possibly supply some of the energies demanded for organic work4 ,serious consequences have resulted from ignorance of this4 ,the popular notion that anything which thickens to a jelly when cooked must be proportionally nutritious is very fallacious1 and many a victim has died of starvation by the reliance of nurses on this theory1 and consequently feeding an emaciated invalid on mere starch in the form of arrowroot1 c4 ,the selling of a fancy variety at ten times its proper value has greatly aided this delusion1 so many believing that whatever is dear must be good4 ,i remember when oysters were retailed in ,london at fourpence per dozen4 ,they were not then supposed to be exceptionally nutritious1 were not prescribed by fashionable physicians to invalids1 as they have been lately1 since their price has risen to threepence each4 ,more than half a century has elapsed since ,dr4 ,beaumont published the results of his experiments on ,alexis ,st4 ,martin4 ,these showed that fresh raw oysters required #b hours #ee minutes1 and stewed fresh oysters #c hours for digestion1 against #a hour for boiled tripe and #c hours for roast or boiled beef or mutton4 ,oysters contain more than #hj per cent4 of water1 and are1 weight for weight1 far less nutritious than beef or mutton2 less than the easily digestible tripe4 ,but tripe is cheap and vulgar1 therefore kitchenmaids1 footmen1 and fashionable physicians despise it4 ,the change which takes place in the cookery of starch may1 ,i think1 be described as simple hydration1 or union with water2 not that definite chemical combination which may be expressed in terms of chemical equivalents1 but a sort of hydration of which we have so many other examples1 where something unites with water in any quantity1 the union being accompanied with an evolution of some amount of heat4 ,striking illustrations of this are presented on placing a piece of hydrated soda or potash in water1 or mixing sulphuric acid1 already combined chemically with an equivalent of water1 with more water4 ,here we have aqueous adhesion and considerable evolution of heat1 without the definitive quantitative chemical combination demanded by atomic theories4 ,in the experiment above described for separating the starch from wheat flour1 the starch thus liberated sinks to the bottom of the water and remains there undissolved4 ,the same occurs if arrowroot be thrown into water4 ,this insolubility is not entirely due to the intervention of the envelope of the granules1 as may be shown by crushing the granules1 while dry1 and then dropping them into water4 ,such a mixture of starch and cold water remains unchanged for a long time--,miller says #8an indefinite time4' ,when heated to a little above #adj ,fahr41 an absorption of water takes place through the enveloping membrane of the granules1 they swell considerably1 and the mixture becomes pasty or viscous4 ,if this paste be largely diluted with water1 the swollen granules still remain as separate bodies and slowly sink1 though a considerable exosmosis of the true starch has occurred1 as shown by the thickening of the water4 ,i suppose that in their original state the enveloping membrane is much folded1 and that these folds form the curious marking of concentric rings which constitutes the characteristic microscopic structure of starch granules1 and that when cooked1 at the temperature named1 the very delicate membrane becomes fully distended by the increased bulk of the hydrated and diluted starch1 and thus the rings disappear4 ,a very little mechanical violence1 mere stirring1 now breaks up these distended granules1 and we obtain the starch paste so well known to the laundress1 and to all who have seen cooked arrowroot4 ,if this paste be dried by evaporation it does not regain its former insolubility1 but readily dissolves in hot or cold water4 ,this is what ,i should describe as cooked starch4 ,if the heat is now raised from #adj to the boiling point1 and the boiling continued1 the gelatinous mass becomes thicker and thicker2 and if there are more than fifty parts of water to one of starch a separation takes place1 the starch settling down with its fifty parts of water1 the excess of water standing above it4 ,carefully dried starch may be heated to above #cjj without becoming soluble1 but at #djj a remarkable change commences4 ,the same occurs to ordinary commercial starch at #cbj1 the difference evidently depending on the water retained by it4 ,if the heat is continued a little beyond this it is converted into dextrin1 otherwise named #8,british gum1' #8gommeline1' #8starch gum1' and #8,alsace gum1' from its resemblance to gum-arabic1 for which it is now very extensively substituted4 ,solutions of this in bottles are sold in the stationers' shops under various names for desk uses4 ,the remarkable feature of this conversion of starch into dextrin is1 that it is accompanied by no change of chemical composition4 ,starch is composed of six equivalents of carbon1 ten of hydrogen1 and five of oxygen--,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 i4e4 six of carbon and five of water or its elements4 ,dextrin has exactly the same composition2 so also has gum-arabic when purified4 ,but their properties differ considerably4 ,starch1 as everybody knows1 when dried is white and opaque and pulverent2 dextrin1 similarly dried1 is transparent and brittle2 gum-arabic the same4 ,if a piece of starch1 or a solution of starch1 is touched by a solution of iodine1 it becomes blue almost to blackness1 if the solution is strong2 no such change occurs when the iodine solution is added to dextrin or gum4 ,a solution of dextrin when mixed with potash changes to a rich blue colour when a little sulphate of copper is added2 no such effect is produced by gum-arabic1 and thus we have an easy test for distinguishing between true and fictitious gum-arabic4 ,the technical name for describing this persistence of composition with changes of properties is isomerism1 and bodies thus related are said to be isomeric with each other4 ,another distinguishing characteristic of dextrin is that it produces a right-handed rotation on a ray of polarised light1 hence its name1 from dexter1 the right4 ,the conversion of starch into dextrin is a very important element of the subject of vegetable cooking1 inasmuch as starch food cannot be assimilated until this conversion has taken place1 either before or after we eat it4 ,i will therefore describe other methods by which this change may be effected4 ,if starch be boiled in a dilute solution of almost any acid1 it is converted into dextrin4 ,a solution containing less than one per cent4 of sulphuric or nitric acid is sufficiently strong for this purpose4 ,one method of commercial manufacture 7,payen's7 is to moisten #aj parts of starch with #c of water1 containing #a_/aejth of its weight of nitric acid1 spreading the paste upon shelves1 allowing it to dry in the air1 and then heating it for an hour-and-a-half at about #bdj ,fahr4 ,but the most remarkable and interesting agent in effecting this conversion is diastase4 ,it is one of those mysterious compounds which have received the general name of #8ferments4' ,they are disturbers of chemical peace1 molecular agitators that initiate chemical revolutions1 which may be beneficent or very mischievous4 ,the morbific matter of contagious diseases1 the venom of snake-bite1 and a multitude of other poisons1 are ferments4 ,yeast is a familiar example of a ferment1 and one that is the best understood4 ,i must not be tempted into a dissertation on this subject1 but may merely remark that modern research indicates that many of these ferments are microscopic creatures1 linking the vegetable with the animal world2 they may be described as living things1 seeing that they grow from germs and generate other germs that produce their like4 ,where this is proven1 we can understand how a minute germ may1 by falling upon suitable nourishment1 increase and multiply1 and thus effect upon large quantities of matter the chemical revolution above named4 ,i have already described the action of rennet upon milk1 and the very small quantity which produces coagulation4 ,there appears to be no intercession of living microbia in this case1 nor have any been yet demonstrated to constitute the ferment of diastase1 though they may be suspected4 ,be this as it may1 diastase is a most beneficent ferment4 ,it communicates to the infant plant its first breath of active life1 and operates in the very first stage of animal digestion4 ,in a grain of wheat1 for example1 the embryo is surrounded with its first food4 ,while the seed remains dry above ground there is no assimilation of the insoluble starch or gluten1 no growth1 nor other sign of life4 ,but when the seed is moistened and warmed1 the starch is changed to dextrin by the action of diastase1 and the dextrin is further converted into sugar4 ,the food of the germ thus gradually rendered soluble penetrates its tissues2 it is thereby fed and grows1 unfolds its first leaf upwards1 throws downward its first rootlet1 still feeding on the converted starch until it has developed the organs by which it can feed on the carbonic acid of the air and the soluble minerals of the soil4 ,but for the original insolubility of the starch it would be washed away into the soil1 and wasted ere the germ could absorb it4 ,the maltster1 by artificial heat and moisture1 hastens this formation of dextrin and sugar2 then by a roasting heat kills the baby plant just as it is breaking through the seed-sheath4 ,blue ,ribbon orators miss a point in failing to notice this4 ,it would be quite in their line to denounce with scathing eloquence such heartless infanticide4 ,diastase may be obtained by simply grinding freshly germinated barley or malt1 moistening it with half its weight of warm water1 allowing it to stand1 and then pressing out the liquid4 ,one part of diastase is sufficient to convert #b1jjj parts of starch into dextrin1 and from dextrin to sugar1 if the action is continued4 ,the most favourable temperature for this is #adj ,fahr4 ,the action ceases if the temperature be raised to the boiling point4 ,the starch which we take so abundantly as food appears to have no more food-value to us than to the vegetable germ until the conversion into dextrin or sugar is effected4 ,from what ,i have already stated concerning the action of heat upon starch1 it is evident that this conversion is more or less effected in some processes of cookery4 ,in the baking of bread an incipient conversion probably occurs throughout the loaf1 while in the crust it is carried so far as to completely change most of the starch into dextrin1 and some into sugar4 ,those of us who can remember our bread-and-milk may not have forgotten the gummy character of the crust when soaked4 ,this may be felt by simply moistening a piece of crust in hot water and rubbing it between the fingers4 ,a certain degree of sweetness may also be detected1 though disguised by the bitterness of the caramel1 which is also there4 ,the final conversion of starch food into dextrin and sugar is effected in the course of digestion1 especially1 as already stated1 in the first stage--that of insalivation4 ,saliva contains a kind of diastase1 which has received the name of salivary diastase and mucin4 ,it does not appear to be exactly the same substance as vegetable diastase1 though its action is similar4 ,it is most abundantly secreted by herbivorous animals1 especially by ruminating animals4 ,its comparative deficiency in carnivorous animals is shown by the fact that if vegetable matter is mixed with their food1 starch passes through them unaltered4 ,some time is required for the conversion of the starch by this animal diastase1 and in some animals there is a special laboratory or kitchen for effecting this preliminary cookery of vegetable food4 ,ruminating animals have a special stomach cavity for this purpose in which the food1 after mastication1 is held for some time and kept warm before passing into the cavity which secretes the gastric juice4 ,the crop of grain-eating birds appears to perform a similar function4 ,it is there mixed with a secretion corresponding to saliva1 and is thus partially malted--in this case before mastication in the gizzard4 ,at a later stage of digestion1 the starch that has escaped conversion by the saliva is again subjected to the action of animal diastase contained in the pancreatic juice1 which is very similar to saliva4 ,it is a fair inference from these facts that creatures like ourselves1 who are not provided with a crop or compound stomach1 and manifestly secrete less saliva than horses or other grain-munching animals1 require some preliminary assistance when we adopt graminivorous habits2 and one part of the business of cookery is to supply such preliminary treatment to the oats1 barley1 wheat1 maize1 peas1 beans1 c41 which we cultivate and use for food4 ,i may add that the stomach itself appears to do very little1 possibly nothing1 towards the digestion of starch4 ,the primary conversion into dextrin is effected by the saliva1 and the subsequent digestion of this takes place in the duodenum and following portions of the intestinal canal4 ,this applies equally to the less easily digested material of the vegetable tissue described in the preceding chapter4 ,hence the greater length of the intestinal canal in herbivorous animals as compared with the carnivora4 ,having described the changes effected by heat upon starch1 and referred to its further conversion into dextrin and sugar1 ,i will now take some practical examples of the cookery of starch foods1 beginning with those which are composed of pure1 or nearly pure1 starch4 ,when arrowroot is merely stirred in cold water1 it sinks to the bottom undissolved and unaltered4 ,when cooked in the usual manner to form the well-known mucilaginous or jelly-like food1 the change is a simple case of the swelling and breaking up of the granules already described as occurring in water at the temperature of #adj ,fahr4 ,there appears to be no reason for limiting the temperature1 as the same action takes place from #adj upwards to the boiling point of water4 ,i may here mention a peculiarity of another form of nearly pure starch food1 viz4 tapioca1 which is obtained by pulping and washing out the starch granules of the root of the ,manihot1 then heating the washed starch in pans1 and stirring it while hot with iron or wooden paddles4 ,this cooks and breaks up the granules1 and agglutinates the starch into nodules which1 as ,mr4 ,james ,collins explains 7#8,journal of ,society of ,arts1' ,march #ad1 #ahhd71 are thereby coated with dextrin1 to which gummy coating some of the peculiarities of tapioca pudding are attributable4 ,it is a curious fact that this ,manihot root1 from which our harmless tapioca is obtained1 is terribly poisonous4 ,the plant is one of the large family of nauseous spurgeworts 7,euphorbiace74 ,the poison resides in the milky juice surrounding the starch granules1 but being both soluble in water and volatile1 most of it is washed away in separating the starch granules1 and any that remains after washing is driven off by the heating and stirring1 which has to reach #bdj in order to effect the changes above described4 ,i suspect that the difference between the forms of tapioca and arrowroot has arisen from the necessity of thus driving off the last traces of the poison1 with which the aboriginal manufacturers are so well acquainted as to combine the industry of poisoning their arrows with that of extracting the starch-food from the same root4 ,no certificate from the public analyst is demanded to establish the absence of the poison from any given sample of tapioca1 as the juice of the ,manihot root1 like that of other spurges1 is unmistakably acrid and nauseous4 ,sago1 which is a starch obtained from the pith of the stem of the sago-palm and other plants1 is prepared in grains like tapioca1 with similar results4 ,both sago and tapioca contain a little gluten1 and therefore have more food-value than arrowroot4 ,the most familiar of our starch foods is the potato4 ,i place it among the starch foods as next to water2 starch is its prevailing constituent1 as the following statement of average compositions will show3 ,water1 #ge per cent42 starch1 #ahh2 nitrogenous materials1 #b2 sugar1 #c2 fat1 #jb2 salts1 #a4 ,the salts vary considerably with the kind and age of the potato1 from #jh to #ac in full-grown4 ,young potatoes contain more4 ,in boiling potatoes1 the change effected appears to be simply a breaking up or bursting of the starch granules1 and a conversion of the nitrogenous gluten into a more soluble form1 probably by a certain degree of hydration4 ,as we all know1 there are great differences among potatoes2 some are waxy1 others floury2 and these1 again1 vary according to the manner and degree of cooking4 ,i cannot find any published account of the chemistry of these differences1 and must1 therefore1 endeavour to explain them in my own way4 ,as an experiment1 take two potatoes of the floury kind2 boil or steam them together until they are just softened throughout1 or1 as we say1 #8well done4' ,now leave one of them in the saucepan or steamer1 and very much over-cook it4 ,its floury character will have disappeared1 it will have become soft and gummy4 ,the reader can explain this by simply remembering what has already been explained concerning the formation of dextrin4 ,it is due to the conversion of some of the starch into dextrin4 ,my explanation of the difference between the waxy and floury potato is that the latter is so constituted that all the starch granules may be disintegrated by heat in the manner already described before any considerable proportion of the starch is converted into dextrin1 while the starch of the waxy potatoes for some reason1 probably a larger supply of diastase1 is so much more readily convertible into dextrin1 that a considerable proportion becomes gummy before the whole of the granules are broken up1 i4e4 before the potato is cooked or softened throughout4 ,i must here throw myself into the great controversy of jackets or no jackets4 ,should potatoes be peeled before cooking1 or should they be boiled in their jackets8 ,i say most decidedly in jackets1 and will state my reasons4 ,from #ec to #ef per cent4 of the above-stated saline constituents of the potato is potash1 and potash is an important constituent of blood--so important that in ,norway1 where scurvy once prevailed very seriously1 it has been banished since the introduction of the potato1 and1 according to ,lang and other good authorities1 this is owing to the use of potatoes by a people who formerly were insufficiently supplied with saline vegetable food4 ,potash salts are freely soluble in water1 and ,i find that the water in which potatoes have been boiled contains potash1 as may be proved by boiling it down to concentrate1 then filtering and adding the usual potash test1 platinum chloride4 ,it is evident that the skin of the potato must resist this passage of the potash into the water1 though it may not fully prevent it4 ,the bursting of the skin only occurs at quite the latter stage of the cookery4 ,the greatest practical authorities on the potato1 ,irishmen1 appear to be unanimous4 ,i do not remember to have seen a pre-peeled potato in ,ireland4 ,i find that ,i can at once detect by the difference of flavour whether a potato has been boiled with or without its jacket1 and that this difference is evidently saline4 ,these considerations lead to another conclusion1 viz4 that baked potatoes and fried potatoes1 or potatoes cooked in such a manner as to be eaten with their own broth1 as in ,irish stew 7in which cases the previous peeling does no mischief71 are preferable to boiled potatoes4 ,steamed potatoes probably lose less of their potash juices than when boiled2 but this is uncertain1 as the modicum of distilled water condensed upon the potato and continually renewed may wash away as much as the larger quantity of hard water in which the boiled potato is immersed4 ,those who eat an abundance of fruit1 of raw salads1 and other vegetables supplying a sufficiency of potash to the blood1 may peel and boil their potatoes2 but the poor ,irish peasant1 who depends upon the potato for all his sustenance1 requires that they shall supply him with potash4 ,when travelling in ,ireland 7,i explored every county of that country rather exhaustively during three successive summers when editing the #dth edition of ,murray's #8,handbook'71 ,i was surprised at the absence of fruit-trees in the small farms where one might expect them to abound4 ,on speaking of this the reason given was that all trees are the landlord's property2 that if a tenant should plant them they would suggest luxury and prosperity1 and therefore a rise of rent2 or otherwise stated1 the tenant would be fined for thus improving the value of his holding4 ,this was before the passing of the ,land ,act1 which we may hope will put an end to such legalised brigandage4 ,with the abolition of rack-renting the ,irish peasant may grow and eat fruit2 may even taste jam without fear and trembling2 may grow rhubarb and make pies and puddings in defiance of the agent4 ,when this is the case1 his craving for potato-potash will probably diminish1 and his children may actually feed on bread4 ,i have been told by an ,american lady that in the fatherland of potatoes1 as well as in their adopted country1 they are always boiled or steamed in their jackets3 that ,american cooks1 like those of ,ireland1 would consider it an outrage to cut off the protecting skin of the potato before cooking it2 that they are more commonly mashed there than here1 and that the mashing is done by rapidly removing the skins and throwing the stripped potato into a supplementary saucepan or other vessel1 in which they may be kept hot until the preparation is completed4 ,as regards the nutritive value of the potato1 it is well to understand that the common notion concerning its cheapness as an article of food is a fallacy4 ,taking ,dr4 ,edward ,smith's figures1 #gfj grains of carbon and #bd grains of nitrogen are contained in #a lb4 of potatoes2 #b lbs4 of potatoes are required to supply the amount of carbon contained in #a lb4 of bread2 and #c lbs4 of potatoes are necessary for supplying the nitrogen of #a lb4 of bread4 ,with bread at #a;d4 per lb41 potatoes should cost less than d4 per lb4 in order to be as cheap as bread for the hard-working man who requires an abundance of nitrogenous food4 ,potatoes contain #ag per cent4 of carbon2 oatmeal has #gc per cent4 ,taking nitrogenous matter also into consideration1 #a lb4 of oatmeal is worth #f lbs4 of potatoes4 ,my own observations in ,ireland have fully convinced me of the wisdom of ,william ,cobbett's denunciation of the potato as a staple article of food4 ,the bulk that has to be eaten1 and is eaten1 in order to sustain life1 converts the potato feeder into a mere assimilating machine during a largo part of the day1 and renders him unfit for any kind of vigorous mental or bodily exertion4 ,if ,i were the autocratic ,czar of ,ireland1 my first step towards the regeneration of the ,irish people would be the introduction1 acclimatising1 and dissemination of the ,colorado beetle1 in order to produce a complete and permanent potato famine4 ,the effect of potato feeding may be studied by watching the work of a potato-fed ,irish mower or reaper who comes across to work upon an ,english farm where the harvestmen are fed in the farmhouse and the supply of beer is not excessive4 ,the improvement of his working powers after two or three weeks of ,english feeding is comparable to that of a horse when fed upon corn1 beans1 and hay1 after feeding for a year on grass only4 ,my strictures on the potato do not apply to them as used in ,england1 where the prevailing vice of our ordinary diet is that it is too carnivorous4 ,the potatoes we eat with our meat serve to dilute it1 and supply the farinaceous element in which flesh is deficient4 ,the reader may have observed that most of the starch foods are derived from the roots or stems of plants4 ,many others are used in tropical climates where little labour is demanded or done1 and1 therefore1 but little nitrogenous food required4 ,,footnote3 #ae ,in fairness to retailers ,i should state that the price of arrowroot just now is unusually low2 the ordinary range is from twopence to two shillings4 ,people who are afraid of having their arrowroot adulterated should ask themselves what can be used to cheapen the ,st4 ,vincent at the above-quoted prices1 which are those of the unquestionably genuine article4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,gluten--,,bread4 ,,having treated the cookery of the chief constituents of the roots and stems of the plant1 the fibre and the starch1 ,i now come to food obtained from the seeds and the leaves4 ,taking the seeds first1 as the more important1 it becomes necessary to describe the nitrogenous constituents which are more abundant in them than in any other part of the plant1 though they also contain starch and cell material1 or woody fibre1 as already stated4 ,in the preceding chapter ,i described a method of separating starch from flour by washing a piece of dough in water1 and thereby removing the starch granules1 which fall to the bottom of the water4 ,if this washing is continued until no further milkiness of the water is produced1 the piece of dough will be much reduced in dimensions1 and changed into a grey1 tough1 elastic1 and viscous or glutinous substance1 which has been compared to bird-lime1 and has received the appropriate name of gluten4 ,when dried1 it becomes a hard1 horny1 transparent mass4 ,it is insoluble in cold water1 and partly soluble in hot water4 ,it is soluble in strong vinegar1 and in weak solutions of potash or soda4 ,if the alkaline solution is neutralised by an acid1 the gluten is precipitated4 ,if crude gluten1 obtained as above1 is subjected to the action of hot alcohol1 it is separated into two distinct substances1 one soluble and the other insoluble4 ,as the solution cools1 a further separation takes place of a substance soluble in hot alcohol but not in cold1 and another soluble in either hot or cold alcohol4 ,the first1 viz4 that insoluble in either hot or cold alcohol1 has been named gluten-fibrin2 that soluble in hot alcohol1 but not in cold1 gluten-casein2 and that soluble in either hot or cold alcohol1 glutin4 ,i give these names and explain them1 as my readers may be otherwise puzzled by meeting them in books where they are used without explanation1 especially as there is another substance presently to be described1 to which the name of #8vegetable casein' has also been applied4 ,the gluten-fibrin is supposed to correspond with blood-fibrin1 gluten-casein with animal-casein1 and glutin with albumen4 ,their composition is as follows1 which ,i append for what it is worth in connection with this theory1 but mainly to show how small is the difference between the chemical composition of the nitrogenous constituents of animals and those of plants4 ,i shall come to this subject again3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ -- ,gluten-,fibrin ,gluten-,casein ,glutin ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,carbon #ecbc #ecdf #ecbg ,hydrogen #gja #gac #gag ,nitrogen #afda #afjd #aeid ,oxygen and sulphur #bcce #bccg #bcfb ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,blood-,fibrin -- 7,scherer7 ,animal-,casein ,albumen ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,carbon #eceg #echc #ecej ,hydrogen #fij #gae #gjj ,nitrogen #aegb #aefe #aeej ,oxygen and sulphur #bbha #bccg #bdjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,gluten is usually described as #8partly soluble in hot water4' ,my own examination of this substance suggests that #8partially soluble' is a better description than #8partly soluble' 7,miller7 or #8very slightly soluble' 7,lehmann74 ,this difference is not merely a verbal quibble1 but very real and practical in reference to the rationale of its cookery4 ,a partially soluble substance is one which is composed of soluble and also of insoluble constituents1 which1 as already stated1 is strictly the case with gluten in reference to the solvent action of hot alcohol4 ,a very slightly soluble substance is one that dissolves completely1 but demands a very large quantity of the solvent4 ,i find that the action of hot water on gluten1 as applied in cookery1 is to effect what may be described as a partial solution--that is1 it effects a loosening of the bonds of solidity without going so far as to render it completely fluid4 ,it appears to be a sort of hydration similar to that which is effected by hot water on starch1 but less decided4 ,to illustrate this1 wash some flour in cold water so as to separate the gluten in the manner already described2 then boil some flour as in making ordinary bill-stickers' paste1 and wash this in cold water4 ,the gluten will come out with difficulty from this1 and1 when separated1 will be softer and less tenacious than the cold-washed specimen4 ,this difference remains until some of the water it contains is driven out1 for which reason ,i regard it as hydrated1 though ,i am not prepared to say that the hydration is of a truly chemical character--a definite chemical combination of gluten with water2 it may be only a mechanical combination--a loosening of solidity by a molecular intermingling of water4 ,the importance of this in the cookery of grain-food is very great1 as anybody who aspires to the honour of becoming a martyr to science may prove by simply making a meal on raw wheat1 masticating the grains until reduced to small pills of gluten1 and then swallowing them4 ,mild indigestion or acute spasms will follow1 according to the quantity taken and the digestive energies of the experimenter4 ,raw flour will act similarly1 but less decidedly4 ,bread-making is the most important1 as well as a typical example1 of the cookery of grain-food4 ,the grinding of the grain is the first process of such cookery2 it vastly increases the area exposed to the subsequent actions4 ,the next stage is that of surrounding each grain of the flour with a thin film of water4 ,this is done in making the dough by careful admixture of a modicum of water and kneading1 in order to squeeze the water well between all the particles4 ,the effect of insufficient enveloping in water is sometimes seen in a loaf containing a white powdery kernel of unmixed flour4 ,if nothing more than this were done1 and such simple dough were baked1 the starch granules would be duly broken up and hydrated1 the gluten also hydrated1 but1 at the same time1 the particles of flour would be so cemented together as to form a mass so hard and tough when baked1 that no ordinary human teeth could crush it4 ,among all our modern triumphs of applied science1 none can be named that is more refined and elegant than the old device by which this difficulty is overcome in the everyday business of making bread4 ,who invented it1 and when1 ,i do not know4 ,its discovery was certainly very far anterior to any knowledge of the chemical principles involved in its application1 and probably accidental4 ,the problem has a very difficult aspect4 ,here are millions of particles1 each of which has to be moistened on its surface1 but each1 when thus moistened1 becomes remarkably adhesive1 and therefore sticks fast to all its surrounding neighbours4 ,we require1 without altogether suppressing this adhesiveness1 to interpose a barrier that shall sunder these millions of particles from each other so delicately as neither to separate them completely nor allow them to completely adhere4 ,it is evident that1 if the operation that supplies each particle with its film of moisture can simultaneously supply it with a partial atmosphere of gaseous matter1 the difficult and delicate problem will be effectively solved4 ,it is thus solved in making bread4 ,as already explained1 the seed which is broken up into flour contains diastase as well as starch1 and this diastase1 when aided by moisture and moderate warmth1 converts the starch into dextrin and sugar4 ,this action commences when the dough is made2 this alone would only increase the adhesiveness of the mass1 if it went no further1 but the sugar thus produced may1 by the aid of a suitable ferment1 be converted into alcohol4 ,as the composition of alcohol corresponds to that of sugar1 minus carbonic acid1 the evolution of carbonic acid gas is an essential part of this conversion4 ,with these facts before us1 their practical application in bread-making is easily understood4 ,to the water with which the flour is to be moistened some yeast is added1 and the yeast-cells1 which are very much smaller than the grains of flour1 are diffused throughout the water4 ,the flour is moistened with this liquid1 which only demands a temperature of about #gj ,fahr4 to act with considerable energy on every granule of flour that it touches4 ,instead1 then1 of the passive1 lumpy1 tenacious dough produced by moistening the flour with mere water1 a lively #8sponge1' as the baker calls it1 is produced1 which #8rises' or grows in bulk by the evolution and interposition of millions of invisibly small bubbles of gas4 ,this sponge is mixed with more flour and water1 and kneaded and kneaded again to effect a complete and equal diffusion of the gas bubbles1 and finally1 the porous mass of dough is placed in an oven previously raised to a temperature of about #dej4 ,the baker's old-fashioned method of testing the temperature of his oven is instructive4 ,he throws flour on the floor4 ,if it blackens without taking fire1 the heat is considered sufficient4 ,it might be supposed that this is too high a temperature1 as the object is to cook the flour1 not to burn it4 ,but we must remember that the flour which has been prepared for baking is mixed with water1 and the evaporation of this water will materially lower the temperature of the dough itself4 ,besides this1 we must bear in mind that another object is to be attained4 ,a hard shell or crust has to be formed1 which will so encase and support the lump of dough as to prevent it from subsiding when the further evolution of carbonic acid gas shall cease1 which will be the case some time before the cooking of the mass is completed4 ,it will happen when the temperature reaches the point at which the yeast-cells can no longer germinate1 which temperature is considerably below the boiling point of water4 ,in spite of this high outside temperature1 that of the inner part of the loaf is kept down to a little above #bab by the evaporation of the water contained in the bread4 ,the escape of this vapour and the expansion of the carbonic acid bubbles by heat combine to increase the porosity of the loaf4 ,the outside being heated considerably above the temperature of the inner part1 this variation produces the differences between the crust and the crumb4 ,the action of the high temperature in directly converting some of the starch into dextrin will be understood from what ,i have already stated1 and also the partial conversion of this dextrin into caramel1 which was described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,thus we have in the crust an excess of dextrin as compared with the crumb1 and the addition of a variable quantity of caramel4 ,in lightly-baked bread1 with a crust of uniform pale yellowish colour1 the conversion of the dextrin into caramel has barely commenced1 and the gummy character of the dextrin coating is well displayed4 ,some such bread1 especially the long staves of life common in ,france1 appear as though they had been varnished1 and their crust is partially soluble in water4 ,this explains the apparent paradox that hard crust1 or dry toast1 is more easily digested than the soft crumb of bread2 the cookery of the crumb not having been carried beyond the mere hydration of the gluten and the starch1 and such degree of dextrin formation as was due to the action of the diastase of the grain during the preliminary period of #8rising4' ,in the crust some of the work of insalivation is already done by the baker4 ,the digestibility of toast is doubtless aided by its brittleness1 causing it to be more broken up and mixed with the saliva4 ,everybody has1 of course1 heard of #8unfermented bread1' and many have tasted it4 ,several methods have been devised1 some patented1 for effecting an evolution of gas in the dough without having recourse to the fermentation above described4 ,one of these is that of adding a little hydrochloric acid to the water used in moistening the flour1 and mixing bicarbonate of soda in powder with the flour 7to every #d lbs4 of flour oz4 bicarbonate and #d fluid drachms of hydrochloric acid of #aaf specific gravity74 ,these combine and form sodium chloride1 common salt1 with evolution of carbonic acid4 ,the salt thus formed takes the place of that usually added in ordinary bread-making1 and the carbonic acid gas evolved acts like that given off in fermentation2 but the rapidity of the action of the acid and carbonate presents a difficulty4 ,the bread must be quickly made1 as the action is soon completed4 ,it does not go on steadily increasing and stopping just at the right moment1 as in the case of fermentation4 ,other methods similar in principle have been adopted1 such as adding ammonia carbonate with the soda carbonate4 ,the ammonia salt is volatile itself1 besides evolving carbonic acid by its union with the acid4 ,in spite of the great amount of ingenuity expended upon the manufacture of such unfermented bread1 and the efforts to bring it into use1 but little progress has been made4 ,the general verdict appears to be that the unfermented bread is not so #8sweet1' that it lacks some element of flavour1 is #8chippy' or tasteless as compared with good old-fashioned wheaten bread1 free from alum or other adulteration4 ,my theory of this difference is that it is due to the absence of those changes which take place while the sponge or dough is rising1 when1 if ,i am right1 the diastase of the grain is operating1 as in germination1 to produce a certain quantity of dextrin and sugar1 and possibly acting also on the gluten4 ,deficiency of dextrin is1 ,i think1 the chief cause of the chippy character of aerated bread4 ,it must be remembered that1 in ordinary bread-making1 the fermentation is protracted over several hours1 during which the temperature most favourable to germination is steadily maintained4 ,the practical importance of the fermentation is strikingly shown by the fact that1 in the course of sponge rising1 dough rising1 and baking1 a loaf becomes about four times as large as the original mixture of flour1 water1 c41 of which it was made2 or1 otherwise stated1 an ordinary loaf is made up of one part of solid bread to more than three parts of air bubbles or pores4 ,french rolls and some other kinds of fancy bread are still more gaseous4 ,so far ,i have only named the flour1 water1 salt1 and yeast4 ,these1 with a little sugar or milk1 added according to taste and custom1 are the ingredients of home-made bread1 but #8bakers' bread' is commonly1 though not necessarily1 somewhat more complex4 ,there is the material technically known as #8fruit1' and another which bears the equivocal name of #8stuff1' or #8rocky4' ,the fruit are potatoes4 ,the quantity of these prescribed in ,knight's #8,guide to ,trade' is one peck to the sack of flour4 ,this proportion is so small 7about #c per cent4 by weight7 that1 if not exceeded1 it cannot be regarded as a fraudulent adulteration1 for the additional cost involved in the boiling1 skinning1 and general preparing of the small addition exceeds the saving in the price of raw material4 ,the fruit1 therefore1 is not added merely because it is cheaper than flour1 as many people suppose4 ,the instructions concerning its use given in the work above named clearly indicate that the potato flour is used to assist fermentation4 ,these instructions prescribe that the peck of potatoes shall be boiled in their skins1 mashed in the #8seasoning tub1' then mixed with two or three quarts of water1 the same quantity of patent yeast1 and three or four pounds of flour4 ,the mixture is left to stand for six or twelve hours1 when it will have become what is called a ferment4 ,after straining through a sieve1 to separate the skins of the fruit1 it is mixed with the sack of flour1 water1 c4 ,it is evident from this that it would not pay to add such a quantity in such a manner as a mere adulterant4 ,the baker uses it for improving the bread1 from his point of view4 ,the stuff or rocky consists1 according to ,tomlinson1 of one part of alum to three parts of common salt4 ,the same authority tells us that the bakers buy this at #b;d4 per packet1 containing #a lb4 in each1 and that they believe it to be ground alum4 ,they buy it thus for immediate use1 being subject to a heavy fine if they keep alum on the premises4 ,the quantity of the mixture ordinarily used is #h oz4 to each sack of flour weighing #bhj lbs41 so that the proportion of alum is but #b oz4 to #bhj lbs4 ,as one sack of flour is 7with water7 made into eighty loaves weighing #d lbs4 each1 the quantity of alum in #a lb4 of bread amounts to #a_/afjth of an oz4 ,the rationale of the action of this small quantity of alum is still a chemical puzzle4 ,that it has an appreciable effect in improving the appearance of the bread is unquestionable1 and it may actually improve the quality of bread made from inferior flour4 ,one of the baker's technical tests of quality is the manner in which the loaves of a batch separate from each other4 ,that they should break evenly and present a somewhat silky rather than a lumpy fracture1 is a matter of trade estimation4 ,when the fracture is rough and lumpy1 one loaf pulling away some of the just belongings of its neighbour1 the feelings of the orthodox baker are much wounded4 ,the alum is said to prevent this impropriety1 while an excess of salt aggravates it4 ,it appears to be a fact that this small quantity of alum whitens the bread4 ,in this1 as in so many other cases of adulteration1 there are two guilty parties--the buyer who demands impossible or unnatural appearances1 and the manufacturer or vendor who supplies the foolish demand4 ,the judging of bread by its whiteness is a mistake which has led to much mischief1 against which the recent agitation for #8whole meal' is1 ,i think1 an extreme reaction4 ,if the husk1 which is demanded by the whole-meal agitators1 were as digestible as the inner flour1 they would unquestionably be right1 but it is easy to show that it is not1 and that in some cases the passage of the undigested particles may produce mischievous irritation in the intestinal canal4 ,my own opinion on this subject 7it still remains in the region of opinion rather than of science7 is that a middle course is the right one1 viz4 that bread should be made of moderately-dressed or #8seconds' flour rather than over-dressed #8firsts' or undressed #8thirds'--i4e4 unsifted whole-meal flour4 ,such seconds flour does not fairly produce white bread1 and consumers are unwise in demanding whiteness4 ,in my household we make our own bread1 but occasionally1 when the demand exceeds ordinary supply1 a loaf or two is bought from the baker4 ,i find that1 with corresponding or identical flour1 the baker's bread is whiter than the home-made1 and proportionally inferior4 ,i may describe it as colourless in flavour1 it lacks the characteristic of wheaten sweetness4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions to this1 as certain bakers are now doing a great business in supplying what they call #8home-made' or #8farmhouse' bread4 ,it is darker in colour than ordinary bread1 but is sold nevertheless at a higher price1 and ,i find that it has the flavour of the bread made in my own kitchen4 ,when their customers become more intelligent1 all the bakers will doubtless cease to incur the expense of buying packets of #8stuff' or #8rocky1' or any other bleaching abomination4 ,liebig asserts that in certain cases the use of lime-water improves the quality of bread4 ,tomlinson says that #8in the time of bad harvests1 when the wheat is damaged1 the flour may be considerably improved1 without any injurious result whatever1 by the addition of from #bj to #dj grains of carbonate of magnesia to every pound of flour4' ,it is also stated that chalk has been used for the same purpose4 ,these would all act in nearly the same manner by neutralising any acid1 such as acetic1 that might already exist or be generated in the course of fermentation4 ,when gluten is kept in a moist state1 it slowly loses its soft1 elastic1 and insoluble condition2 if kept in water for a few days1 it gradually runs down into a turbid1 slimy solution1 which does not form dough when mixed with starch4 ,the gluten of imperfectly-ripened wheat1 or of flour or wheat that has been badly kept in the midst of humid surroundings1 appears to have fallen partially into this condition1 the gluten being an actively hygroscopic substance4 ,liebig's experiments show that flour in which the gluten has undergone this partial change may have its original qualities restored by mixing #ajj parts of flour with #bf or #bg parts of saturated lime-water and a sufficiency of ordinary water to work it into dough4 ,i suspect that the action of the alum is of a similar kind1 though this does not satisfactorily account for the bleaching4 ,the action of sulphate of copper1 which has been used in ,belgium and other places for improving the appearance and sponginess of loaves1 is still more mysterious than that of alum4 ,kuhlmann found that a single grain in a #d-lb4 loaf produced a marked alteration in the appearance of the bread4 ,fortunately this adulteration1 if perpetrated to a mischievous extent1 may be easily detected by acidulating the crumb1 and then moistening with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium4 ,the brown colour thus produced betrays the presence of copper4 ,the detection of alum in small quantities is extremely difficult4 ,i should add that the ancient method of effecting the fermentation of bread1 which ,i understand is still employed to some extent in ,france1 differs somewhat from the ordinary modern ,english practice4 ,when flour made into dough is kept for some time moderately warm1 it undergoes spontaneous fermentation1 formerly described as #8panary fermentation1' and supposed to be of a different nature from the fermentation which produces yeast4 ,dough in this condition is called leaven1 and when kneaded with fresh flour and water its fermentation is communicated to the whole lump2 hence the ancient metaphors4 ,in practice the leaven was obtained by setting aside some of the dough of a previous batch1 and adding this to the next when its fermentation had reached its maximum activity4 ,one reason why the modern method has superseded this appears to be that the leaven is liable to proceed onward beyond the first stage of fermentation1 or that producing alcohol1 and run into the acetous1 or vinegar-forming fermentation1 producing sour bread4 ,another reason may be that the potato mixture above described1 which is but another kind of leaven1 is more effectual and convenient4 ,dr4 ,dauglish's method 7patented in #ahef1 #aheg1 and #aheh7 is based on the fact that water under pressure absorbs and holds in solution a large quantity of carbonic acid gas1 which escapes when the pressure is diminished1 as in uncorking soda-water1 c4 ,dr4 ,dauglish places the flour in a strong1 air-tight iron vessel1 then forces water saturated with carbonic acid under high pressure into this2 kneading-knives mix the dough by their rotation4 ,when the mixture is completed a trap at the lower part of the globular iron vessel is opened4 ,the pressure of the confined carbonic acid above forces the dough through this in a cylindrical jet or flat ribbon as required1 and this squirted cylinder or ribbon is fashioned by suitable cutters1 c41 into loaves4 ,the compressed gas expands1 and the loaves are smartly baked before the expansive energy of the gas is exhausted4 ,it is justly claimed for this process that it is far more cleanly than the ordinary method of making bread1 as with suitable machinery such #8aerated bread' can be made without handling4 ,the difference between new and stale bread is familiar enough1 but the nature of the difference is by no means so commonly understood4 ,it is generally supposed to be a simple result of mere drying4 ,that this is not a true explanation may be easily proved by repeating the experiments of ,boussingault1 who placed a very stale loaf 7six days old7 in an oven for an hour1 during which time it was1 of course1 being further dried2 but1 nevertheless1 it came out as a new loaf4 ,he found that during the six days1 while becoming stale1 it only lost #a per cent4 of its weight by drying1 and that during the one hour in the oven it lost #c per cent4 in becoming new1 and apparently more moist4 ,by using an air-tight case instead of an ordinary oven1 he repeated the experiment several times in succession on the same piece of bread1 making it alternately stale and new each time4 ,for this experiment the oven should be but moderately heated--#bfj to #cjj ,fahr4 is sufficient4 ,i am fond of hot rolls for breakfast1 and frequently have them la ,boussingault1 by treating stale bread-crusts in this manner4 ,my wife tells me that when the crusts have been long neglected1 and are thin1 the ,boussingault hot rolls are improved by dipping the crust in water before putting it into the oven4 ,this is not necessary in experimenting with a whole loaf or a thick piece of stale bread4 ,the crumb of bread1 whether new or stale1 contains about #de per cent4 of water4 ,miller says #8the difference in properties between the two depends simply upon difference in molecular arrangement4' ,this #8molecular arrangement' is the customary modern method of explaining a multitude of similar physical and chemical problems1 or1 as ,i would rather say1 of evading explanation under the cover of a vague conventional phrase4 ,i have made some simple experiments which supply a visible explanation of the facts without invoking the aid of any invisible atoms or molecules1 or any imaginary arrangements or rearrangements of these imaginary entities4 ,i find that1 as bread becomes stale1 its porosity appears to increase1 and that when renewed by reheating1 it returns to its original apparently smaller degree of porosity4 ,that this change can be only apparent is evident from the facts that the total quantity of solid material in the loaf remains the same1 and its total dimensions are retained more or less completely by the rigidity of the crust4 ,i say #8more or less1' because this depends upon the thickness and hardness of the crust1 and also upon the completeness of its surrounding4 ,lightly-baked loaves shrink a little in dimensions in becoming stale1 and partly regain the loss on reheating1 but this difference only exaggerates the apparent paradox of varying porosity1 as the diminished bulk of a given quantity of material displays increased porosity1 and the increase of total dimensions accompanies the diminished porosity4 ,i have obtained a reconciliation of this paradox by careful examination of the structure of the crumb4 ,this shows that the larger or decidedly visible pores are cells having walls of somewhat silky appearance4 ,the silky lustre and structure is1 ,i have no doubt1 due to a varnish of dextrin1 the gummy nature of which ,i have already described4 ,on looking a little more closely at this inner surface of the big blow-holes with the aid of a hand-lens of moderate power1 ,i find that it is not a continuous varnish of gum1 but a net-work or agglomeration of gummy fibres and particles1 barely touching each other4 ,my theory of the change that takes place as the bread becomes stale is1 that these fibres and particles gradually approach each other either by shrinkage or adhesive attraction1 and thus consolidate and harden the walls of each of the millions of easily visible pores1 these walls forming the solid material of which the loaf is made up4 ,in doing so they naturally increase the dimensions of the visible pores1 while the microscopic interstices or spaces between the minute fibres of the cell walls are diminished by the approximation or adhesion of the fibres to each other4 ,this adhesion is probably aided by an oozing out or efflorescence of the vapour held by the fibres1 and its condensation on their surfaces4 ,this point1 be it understood1 is merely hypothetical1 as the efflorescence is not visible4 ,all the other phenomena ,i have just described are visible either with the naked eye or by the aid of a lens4 ,when the stale bread is again heated1 a general expansion occurs by the conversion of liquid water into aqueous vapour1 every grain of water thus converted expanding to #a1gjj times its former bulk4 ,as this happens throughout1 i4e4 upon the surface of every one of the countless fibres or particles1 there must be a general elbowing in the crowd1 breaking up the recent adhesion between these fibres and thrusting them all apart in the directions of least resistance2 i4e4 towards the open spaces of the larger and visible pores1 producing that apparent diminution of porosity that ,i have observed as the easily visible characteristic of the change4 ,this explanation may be further demonstrated by cutting a loaf through the middle from top to bottom1 and exposing the cut surfaces4 ,in this case the bread becomes unequally stale1 more so near the cut surface than within4 ,the unequal pull due to the greater approximation and adhesion of the fibres and small particles causes a rupture of the exposed surface of the crumb1 which becomes cracked or fissured without any perceptible alteration of the size of the visible pores4 ,if the two broken faces be now accurately placed together1 the halves thus closely joined1 firmly tied1 and placed for an hour in the oven1 it will be seen on separating them that the chasms are considerably closed1 though not quite healed4 ,careful examination of the structure of the inside1 by breaking out a portion of the crumb1 will reveal that loosening which ,i have described4 #8,popped corn' is a peculiar example of starch cookery4 ,here a certain degree of porosity is given to an originally close-compacted structure of starch by the simple operation of explosive violence due to the sudden conversion into vapour of the water naturally associated with the starch4 ,the operation is too rapid for the production of much dextrin4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,vegetable ,,casein ,,and ,,vegetable ,,juices4 ,,as most of my readers doubtless know1 peas1 beans1 lentils and other seeds of leguminous plants are more nutritious1 theoretically1 than the seeds of grasses1 such as wheat1 barley1 oats1 maize1 c4 ,i was glad to see at the ,health ,exhibition a fine series of the ,south ,kensington cases1 displaying in the simplest and most demonstrative manner the proximate analyses of the chief materials of animal and vegetable food4 ,i refer to them now because they did not receive the attention they deserve4 ,on the opening day there was1 out of all the crowd1 only one other besides myself bestowing any attention upon them4 ,these cases show #a lb4 of wheat1 oats1 potatoes1 peas1 c4 c41 on trays2 by the side of these are bottles1 containing the quantity of water in the #a lb41 and other trays1 containing the other constituents of the same quantity2 the starch1 gluten1 casein1 the mineral matter1 c41 thus displaying at a glance the nutritious value of each so far as chemical analysis can display it4 ,those ,irishmen and others who think ,i have been too hard upon the potato1 will do well to take its nutritive measure thus1 and compare it with that of other vegetable foods4 ,i should add that these cases form a part of the permanent collection of the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and therefore may be studied at any time4 ,all the leguminous seeds1 the ground-nuts1 c41 have their nitrogenous constituents displayed under the name of #8casein4' ,the use of this term is rather confusing4 ,in many modern books it does not appear at all in connection with the vegetable kingdom1 but is replaced by #8legumin4' ,liebig regarded this nitrogenous constituent of the leguminous seeds1 almonds1 c41 as identical with the casein of milk1 and it was a pupil and friend of ,liebig's--the late ,prince ,consort--who devised and originally supervised this graphic method of displaying the chemistry of food4#af ,i will not here discuss the vexed question of whether the analyses of ,liebig1 identifying legumin with casein1 or rather those of ,dumas and ,cahours1 who state that the vegetable casein is not of the same composition as animal casein1 are correct4 ,the following figures display my justification for thus lightly treating the discussion3 ---------------------------------------- --------------- -- ,casein ,legumin ,legumin ,legumin ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,carbon #ecg #ejej #eeje #efbd ,hydrogen #gb #fgh #gei #gig ,nitrogen #aff #ahag #aehi #aehc ,oxygen and ,sulphur #bbe #bdee #badg #aiif ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the first column shows the results of ,dumas for animal casein2 the second1 those of ,dumas and ,cahours for legumin2 the third1 those of ,jones for the same2 and the fourth1 those of ,rochleder2 all as quoted by ,lehmann4 ,here it will be seen that the differences upon which ,dumas and ,cahours base their supposed refutation of the identity of the animal with the vegetable principle are much smaller than the differences between the results of different analyses of the latter4 ,these differences ,i suspect are all due to the difficulty of isolating the substances in question1 especially of the vegetable substance1 which is so intimately mixed with the starch1 c41 in its natural condition that complete separation is of questionable possibility4 ,the difficulty 7or impossibility7 of driving off all the adhering water1 without removing the combined elements of water1 is a further source of discrepancy4 ,this will be understood by the following description of the method of separation as given by ,miller 7#8,elements of ,chemistry1' vol4 iii474 #8,legumin is usually extracted from peas or from almonds1 by digesting the pulp of the crushed seeds in warm water for two or three hours4 ,the undissolved portion is strained off by means of linen1 and the turbid liquid allowed to deposit the starch which it holds in suspension2 it is then filtered and mixed with dilute acetic acid4 ,a white flocculent precipitate is thus formed1 which must be collected on a filter and washed4' ,this is but a mechanical process1 and its liability to variation in result may be learned by anybody who will repeat it1 or who has separated the gluten of flour by similar treatment4 ,practically regarded in relation to our present subject1 casein and legumin may be considered as the same4 ,their nutritive values are equal1 and exceptionally high1 supposing they can be digested and assimilated4 ,one is the most difficult of digestion of the nitrogenous constituents of vegetable food1 and the other enjoys the same distinction among those of animal food4 ,both primarily exist in a soluble form2 both are rendered solid and insoluble in water by the action of acids2 both are precipitated as a curd by rennet1 and both are rendered soluble after precipitation1 or are retained in their original soluble form by the action of alkalies4 ,they nearly resemble in flavour1 and ,john ,chinaman makes actual cheese from peas and beans4 ,pease-pudding hot1 pease-pudding cold1 ,pease-pudding in the pot1 nine days old4 ,i leave to ,mr4 ,clodd the historical problem of determining whether this notable couplet is of ,semitic1 ,aryan1 ,neolithic1 or ,paleolithic origin4 ,regarded from my point of view1 it expresses a culinary and chemical principle of some importance1 and indicates an ancient practice that is worthy of revival4 ,i have lately made some experiments on the ensilage of human food1 whereby the cellular tissue of the vegetable may be gradually subjected to that breaking up of fibre already described4 ,one of the curious achievements of chemical metamorphoses that is often quoted as a matter for wonderment is the conversion of old rags into sugar by treating them with acid4 ,the wonderment of this is diminished1 and its interest increased1 when we remember that the cellulose or woody fibre of which the rags are composed has the same composition as starch1 and thus its conversion into sugar corresponds to the every-day proceedings described in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,all that ,i have read and seen in connection with the recent ensilage experiments on cattle fodder indicate that it is a process of slow vegetable cookery1 a digesting or maceration of fibrous vegetables in their own juices1 which loosens the fibre1 renders it softer and more digestible1 and not only does this1 but1 to some extent1 converts it into dextrin and sugar4 ,i hereby recommend those gentlemen who have ensilage-pits and are sufficiently enterprising to try bold experiments1 to water the fodder1 as it is being packed down1 with dilute hydrochloric acid or acetic acid1 which1 if ,i am not deluded by plausible theory1 will materially increase the sugar-forming action of the ensilage4 ,the acid1 if not over-supplied1 will find ammonia and other bases with which to neutralise itself4 ,such ensilage will correspond to that which occurs when we gather ,jersey or other superlatively fine pears in autumn as soon as they are full grown4 ,they are then hard1 woody1 and acid1 quite unfit for food1 but by simply storing them for a month1 or two1 or three1 they become lusciously tender and sweet2 the woody fibres are converted into sugar1 the acid neutralised1 and all this by simply fulfilling the conditions of ensilage1 viz4 close packing of the fibre1 exclusion of air by the thick rind of the fruit1 plus the other condition which ,i have just suggested1 viz4 the diffusion of acid among the well-packed fibres of the ensilage material4 ,in my experiments on the ensilage of human food ,i have encountered the same difficulty as that which has troubled graziers in their experiments1 viz4 that small-scale results do not fairly represent those obtained with large quantities4 ,there is besides this another element of imperfection in my experiments respecting which ,i am bound to be candid to my readers1 viz4 that the idea of thus extending the principle was suggested in the course of writing this series1 and1 therefore1 a sufficient time has not yet elapsed to enable me 7with much other occupation7 to do practical justice to the investigation4 ,i find that oatmeal-porridge is greatly improved by being made some days before it is required1 then stored in a closed jar1 brought forth and heated for use4 ,the change effected is just that which theoretically may be expected1 viz4 a softening of the fibrous material1 and a sweetening due to the formation of sugar4 ,this sweetening ,i observed many years ago in some gruel that was partly eaten one night and left standing until next morning1 when ,i thought it tasted sweeter2 but to be assured of this ,i had it warmed again two nights afterwards1 so that it might be tasted under the same conditions of temperature1 palate1 c41 as at first4 ,the sweetness was still more distinct1 but the experiment was carried no further4 ,i have lately learned that my ensilage notion is not absolutely new4 ,a friend who read my ,cantor ,lectures tells me that he has long been accustomed to have his porridge made some days before eating it1 then having it warmed up when required4 ,he finds the result more digestible than newly-made porridge4 ,the classical nine days' old pease-pudding is a similar anticipation1 and ,i find1 rather curiously1 that nine days is about the limit to which it may be practically kept in a cool place before mildew--mouldiness--is sufficiently established to spoil the pudding4 ,i have not yet tried a barrel full of pease-pudding or moistened pease-meal1 closely covered and powerfully pressed down1 but hope to do so4 ,besides these we have a notable example of ensilage in sour-kraut--a foreign luxury that ,john ,bull1 with his usual blindness1 denounces1 as a matter of course4 #8,horrid stuff6' #8beastly mess6' and such-like expressions ,i hear whenever ,i name it to certain persons4 ,who are these persons8 ,simply ,english men and ,english women who have never seen1 never tasted1 and know nothing whatever of what they denounce so violently1 in spite of the fact that it is a staple article of food among millions of highly-intelligent people4 ,common sense 7to say nothing of that highest result of true scientific training1 the faculty of suspending judgment until the arrival of knowledge7 should suggest that some degree of investigation should precede the denunciation4 ,in the cases of the sour-kraut and the ripening pear there is acid at work upon the fibre1 which1 as ,i have before stated1 assists in the conversion of this indigestible constituent into soluble and digestible dextrin and sugar4 ,the demand for the solution of the vegetable casein or legumin1 which has such high nutritive value and is so abundant in peas1 c41 is of the opposite kind4 ,acids solidify and harden casein1 alkalies soften and dissolve it4 ,therefore the chemical agent suggested as a suitable aid in the ensilage or slow cookery1 or the boiling or rapid cookery1 of leguminous food is such an alkali as may be wholesome and compatible with the demands for nutrition4 ,the analyses of peas1 beans1 lentils1 c41 show a deficiency of potash salts as compared with the quantity of nitrogenous nutriment they contain2 therefore ,i propose1 as in the case of cheese food1 that we should add this potash in the convenient and safe form of bicarbonate--not merely add it to the water in which the vegetables may be boiled1 and which water is thrown away 7as in the common practice of adding soda when boiling greens71 but add the potash to the actual pease-porridge1 pease-pudding1 lentil soup1 c41 and treat it as a part of the food as well as an adjunct to the cookery4 ,this is especially required when we use dried peas1 dried beans of any kind1 such as haricots1 dried lentils1 c4 ,i find that taking the ordinary yellow split-peas and boiling them in a weak solution of bicarbonate of potash for two or three hours1 a partial solution of the casein is effected1 producing pease-pudding1 or pease-porridge1 or pure 7according to the quantity of water used71 which is softer and more gelid than that which is obtained by similarly boiling without the potash4 ,the undissolved portion evidently consists of the fibrous tissue of the peas1 the gelatinous or dissolved portion being the starch1 with more or less of casein4 ,i say #8more or less1' because at present ,i have not been able to determine whether or not the casein is all rendered soluble4 ,the flavour of the clear pea-soup which ,i obtained by filtering through flannel shows that some of the casein is dissolved2 this is further demonstrated by adding an acid to the clear solution1 which at once precipitates the dissolved casein4 ,the filtered pea-soup sets to a stiff jelly on cooling1 and promises to be a special food of some value1 but for the reasons above stated1 ,i am not yet able to speak positively as to its quantitative value4 ,the experience of any one person is not sufficient for this1 the question being1 not whether it contains nutritive material--this is unquestionable--but whether it is easily digested and assimilated4 ,as we all know1 a food of this kind may #8agree' with some persons and not with others--i4e4 it may be digested and assimilated with ease or with difficulty according to personal idiosyncrasies4 ,the cheesy character of the abundant precipitate which ,i obtain by acidulating this solution is very interesting and instructive1 regarded from a chemical point of view4 ,the solubility of the casein is increased by soaking the peas for some hours1 or1 better still1 a few days1 in the solution of bicarbonate of potash4 ,another question is opened by these experiments1 viz4 what is the character and the value of the fibrous solid matter remaining behind after filtering out the clear pea-soup8 ,has the alkali acted in an opposite manner to the acid in the ripening pear8 ,is it merely a fibrous refuse only fit for pig-food1 or is it deserving of further attention in the kitchen8 ,should it be treated with dilute acid--say a little vinegar--to break up the fibre1 and thereby be made into good porridge8 ,other questions crop up here as they have been cropping continually since ,i committed myself to the writing of these papers1 and so abundantly that if ,i could afford to set up a special laboratory1 and endow it with a staff of assistants1 there would be some years' work for myself and staff before ,i could answer them exhaustively1 and1 doubtless1 the answers would suggest new questions1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,i state this in apology for the merely suggestive crudity of many of the ideas that ,i have thrown out4 ,before leaving the subject of peas1 ,i must here repeat a practical suggestion that ,i published in the #8,birmingham ,journal1' about twenty years ago1 viz4 that the water in which green peas are boiled should not be thrown away4 ,it contains much of the saline constituents of the peas1 some soluble casein1 and has a fine flavour1 the very essence of the peas4 ,if to this1 as it comes from the saucepan1 be added a little stock1 or some ,liebig's #8,extract1' a delicious soup is at once produced1 requiring nothing more than ordinary seasoning4 ,with care1 it may form a clear soup such as just now is in fashion among the fastidious1 but prepared however roughly1 it is a very economical1 wholesome1 and appetising soup1 and costs a minimum of trouble4 ,i must here add a few words in advocacy of the further adoption in this country of the ,french practice of using as potage the water in which vegetables generally 7excepting potatoes7 have been boiled4 ,when we boil cabbages1 turnips1 carrots1 c41 we dissolve out of them a very large proportion of their saline constituents2 salts which are absolutely necessary for the maintenance of health2 salts without which we become victims of gout1 rheumatism1 lumbago1 neuralgia1 gravel1 and all the ills that human flesh with a lithic acid diathesis is heir to2 i4e4 about the most painful series of all its inheritances4 ,the potash of these salts existing therein in combination with organic acids is separated from these acids by organic combustion1 and is then and there presented to the baneful lithic acid of the blood and tissues1 the stony torture-particles of which it converts into soluble lithate of potash1 and thus enables them to be carried out of the system4 ,i know not which of the ,fathers of the ,church invented fast-day and soupe maigre1 but could almost suppose that he was a scientific monk1 a profound alchemist1 like ,basil ,valentine1 who1 in his seekings for the aurum potabile1 the elixir of life1 had learned the beneficent action of organic potash salts on the blood1 and therefore used the authority of the ,church to enforce their frequent use among the faithful4 ,the above remarks when published in #8,knowledge' invoked much correspondence1 including many inquiries for further information concerning the salts that should be contained in our food1 and in what other form they might be obtained4 ,i therefore add the following1 especially as ,i can speak from practical experience of the miseries that may be escaped by understanding and applying it4 ,i inherit what is called a #8lithic acid diathesis4' ,my father and his brothers were martyrs to rheumatic gout1 and died early in consequence4 ,i had a premonitory attack of gout at the age of twenty-five1 and other warning symptoms at other times1 but have kept the enemy at bay during forty years by simply understanding that this lithic acid 7stony acid7 combines with potash1 forming thus a soluble salt1 which is safely excreted4 ,otherwise it is deposited here or there1 producing gout1 rheumatism1 stone1 gravel1 and other dreadfully painful diseases1 which are practically incurable when the deposit is fairly established4 ,by effecting the above-named combination in the blood the deposition is prevented4 ,the potash required for the purpose exists in several conditions4 ,first1 in its uncombined state as caustic potash4 ,this is poison1 for the simple reason that it combines so vigorously with organic matter that it would decompose the digestive organs themselves if presented to them4 ,the lower carbonate is less caustic1 the bicarbonate nearly1 but not quite1 neutral4 ,even this1 however1 should not be taken as food1 because it is capable of combining with the acid constituents of the gastric juice4 ,the proper compounds to be used are those which correspond to the salts existing in the juices of vegetables and flesh1 viz4 compounds of potash with organic acids1 such as tartaric acid1 which forms the potash salt of the grape2 such as citric acid1 with which potash is combined in lemons and oranges2 malic acid1 with which it is combined in apples and many other fruits2 the natural acids of vegetables generally2 lactic acid in milk1 c4 ,all these acids1 and many others of similar origin1 are composed of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 held together with such feeble affinity that they are easily dissociated or decomposed by heat4 ,this may be shown by heating some cream of tartar or tartaric acid on a strip of metal or glass4 ,it will become carbonised to a cinder1 like other organic matter4 ,if the heat is raised sufficiently this cinder will all burn away to carbonic acid and water in the case of the pure acid1 or will leave carbonate of potash if cream of tartar or other potash salt is thus burned4 ,unless ,i am mistaken1 this represents violently what occurs gradually and mildly in the human body1 which is in a continuous state of slow combustion so long as it is alive4 ,the organic acids of the potash salts suffer slow combustion1 give off their excess of carbonic acid and water to be breathed out1 evaporated1 and ejected1 leaving behind their potash1 which combines with the otherwise stony lithic acid just when and where it comes into separate existence by the organic actions which effect the above-described slow combustion4 ,if we take potash in combination with a mineral acid1 such as the sulphuric1 nitric1 or hydrochloric1 no such decomposition is possible2 the bonds uniting the elements of the mineral acid are too strong to be sundered by the mild chemistry of the living body1 and the mineral acid1 if separated from its potash base1 would be most mischievous1 as it precipitates the lithic acid in its worst form4 ,for this reason1 all free mineral acids are poisons to those who have a lithic acid diathesis2 they may even create it where it did not previously exist4 ,hence the iniquity of cheapening the manufacture of lemonade1 ginger-beer1 c41 by using dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid as a substitute for citric or tartaric acid4 ,i shall presently come to the cookery of wines1 and have something to say about the mineral acids used in producing the choicer qualities of some very #8dry1' high-priced samples which1 according to my view of the subject1 have caused the operations of lithotomy and lithotrity to be included among the luxuries of the rich4 ,it should be understood that when ,i recommended the use of bicarbonate of potash for the solution of casein1 all these principles were kept in view1 including the objection to the bicarbonate itself4 ,in the case of the cheese1 the quantity recommended was based on an estimate of the quantity of lactic acid existing in the cheese and capable of leaving the casein to go over to the potash4 ,in the case of the peas the quantity is difficult to estimate1 owing to its variability4 ,the more correct determination of such quantities is among the objects of further research to which ,i have before alluded4 ,speaking generally it is not to the laboratory of the chemist that we should go for our potash salts1 but to the laboratory of nature1 and more especially to that of the vegetable kingdom4 ,they exist in the green parts of all vegetables4 ,this is illustrated by the manufacture of commercial potash from the ashes of the twigs and leaves of timber trees4 ,the more succulent the vegetable the greater the quantity of potash it contains1 though there are some minor exceptions to this4 ,as ,i have already stated1 we extract and waste a considerable proportion of these salts when we boil vegetables and throw away the potage1 which our wiser and more thrifty neighbours add to their every-day menu4 ,when we eat raw vegetables1 as in salads1 we obtain all their potash4 ,fruits generally contain important quantities of potash salts1 and it is upon these especially that the possible victims of lithic acid should rely4 ,lemons and grapes contain them most abundantly4 ,those who cannot afford to buy these as articles of daily food may use cream of tartar1 which1 when genuine1 is the natural salt of the grape1 thrown down in the manner ,i shall describe when on the subject of the cookery of wines4 ,at the risk of being accused of presumption1 ,i must here protest1 as a chemist1 against one of #8the fallacies of the faculty1' or of certain members of the faculty1 viz4 that of indiscriminately prohibiting to gouty and rheumatic patients the use of acids or anything having an acid taste4 ,this has probably arisen from experience of the fact that mineral acids do serious mischief1 and that alkaline carbonate of potash affords relief4 ,the difference between the organic acids1 which are decomposed in the manner ,i have described1 and the fixed composition of the mineral acids1 does not appear to have been sufficiently studied by those who prohibit fruit and vegetables on account of their acidity4 ,it must never be forgotten that nearly all the organic compounds of potash1 as they exist in vegetables and fruit1 are acid4 ,it may be desirable1 in some cases1 to add a little bicarbonate of potash to neutralise this excess of acid and increase the potash supply4 ,i have found it advantageous to throw a half-saltspoonful of this into a tumbler of water containing the juice of a lemon1 and have even added it to stewed or baked rhubarb and gooseberries4 ,in these it froths like whipped cream1 and diminishes the demand for sugar1 an excess of which appears to be mischievous to those who require much potash4 ,i must conclude this sermon on the potash text by adding that it is quite possible to take an excess of this solvent4 ,such excess is depressing2 its action is what is called #8lowering4' ,i will not venture upon an explanation of the rationale of this lowering1 or discuss the question of whether or not the blood is made watery1 as sometimes stated4 ,intimately connected with this part of my subject is another vegetable principle that ,i have not yet named4 ,this is vegetable jelly1 or pectin1 the jelly of fruits1 of turnips1 carrots1 parsnips1 c4 ,fremy has named it pectose4 ,like the saline juices of meat it is very little changed by cookery4 ,an acid may be separated from it which has been named #8pectic acid1' the properties and artificial compounds of which appear to me to suggest the theory that the natural jelly of fruits largely consists of compounds of this acid with potash or soda or lime4 ,we all know the appearance and flavour of currant jelly1 apple jelly1 c41 which are composed of natural vegetable jelly plus sugar4 ,the separation of these jellies is an operation of cookery1 and one that deserves more attention than it receives4 ,i shall never forget the rahat lakoum1 prepared for the ,sultana1 which ,i once had the privilege of eating in the kitchen of the ,seraglio of ,stamboul1 where it was presented to me by his ,excellency the ,grand ,confectioner as a sample of his masterpiece4 ,its basis was the pure pectose of many fruits1 the inspissated juices of grapes1 peaches1 pine-apples1 and ,i know not what others4 ,the sherbet was similar1 but liquid4 ,well may they obey the ,prophet and abstain from the grosser concoctions that we call wine when such ambrosial nectar as this is supplied in its place6 ,it is to ,imperial ,tokay as tokay is to table-beer6 ,i tasted many other choice confections there1 and when ,i find myself defending the ,turk against his many enemies1 my conscience sometimes asks whether my politics have been influenced by the remembrance of that visit4 ,the #8lumps of delight' sold by our confectioners are imitations made of flavoured gelatin4 ,similar substitutes are sold in ,constantinople4 ,the same as regards the sherbet4 ,i conclude this part of my subject by re-echoing ,mr4 ,gladstone's advocacy of the extension of fruit culture4 ,we shamefully neglect the best of all food1 in eating and drinking so little fruit4 ,as regards cooked fruit1 ,i say jam for the million1 jelly for the luxurious1 and juice for all4 ,with these in abundance1 the abolition of alcoholic drinks will follow as a necessary result of natural nausea4 ,i may add that besides the letters asking for the further information here given1 ,i have since received several others from readers who have adopted the diet above prescribed with good practical results4 ,i have further learned that vegetarians are remarkably free from the lithic acid troubles above named1 and that many who were sufferers before they became vegetarians have subsequently escaped4 ,the testimony of a large number is demanded in such subjects1 as individual examples may depend upon individual peculiarities of constitution4 ,,footnote3 #af ,shortly after the close of the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 when the ,south ,kensington ,museum was only in embryo1 ,i had occasion to call on ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair at the #8boilers1' and there found the ,prince hard at work giving instructions for the arrangement and labelling of these analysed food products and the similarly displayed materials of industry1 such as whalebone1 ivory1 c4 ,i then1 by inquiry1 learned how much time and labour he was devoting1 not only to the general business of the collection1 but also to its minor details4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,cookery ,,and ,,cheap ,,dinners4 ,i ,,must not leave the subject of vegetable cookery without describing ,count ,rumford's achievements in feeding the paupers1 rogues1 and vagabonds of ,munich4 ,an account of this is the more desirable1 from the fact that the #8soup' which formed the basis of his dietary is still misunderstood in this country1 for reasons that ,i shall presently state4 ,after reorganising the ,bavarian army1 not only as regards military discipline1 but in the feeding1 clothing1 education1 and useful employment of the men1 in order to make them good citizens as well as good soldiers1 he attacked a still more difficult problem--that of removing from ,bavaria the scandal and burden of the hordes of beggars and thieves which had become intolerable4 ,he tells us that #8the number of itinerant beggars of both sexes1 and all ages1 as well foreigners as natives1 who strolled about the country in all directions1 levying contributions from the industrious inhabitants1 stealing and robbing1 and leading a life of indolence and most shameless debauchery1 was quite incredible2' and1 further1 that #8these detestable vermin swarmed everywhere1 and not only their impudence and clamorous importunity were without any bounds1 but they had recourse to the most diabolical acts and most horrid crimes in the prosecution of their infamous trade4 ,young children were stolen from their parents by these wretches1 and their eyes put out1 or their tender limbs broken and distorted1 in order1 by exposing them thus maimed1 to excite the pity and commiseration of the public4' ,he gives further particulars of their trading upon the misery of their own children1 and their organisation to obtain alms by systematic intimidation4 ,previous attempts to cure the evil had failed1 the public had lost all faith in further projects1 and therefore no support was to be expected for ,rumford's scheme4 #8,aware of this1' he says1 #8,i took my measures accordingly4 ,to convince the public that the scheme was feasible1 ,i determined first1 by a great exertion1 to carry it into complete execution1 and then to ask them to support it4' ,he describes the military organisation by which he distributed the army throughout the country districts to capture all the strolling provincial beggars1 and how1 on ,jan4 #a1 #agij1 he bagged all the beggars of ,munich in less than an hour by means of a well-organised civil and military battue1 ,new ,year's ,day being the great festival when all the beggars went abroad to enforce their customary black-mail upon the industrious section of the population4 ,though very interesting1 ,i must not enter upon these details1 but cannot help stepping a little aside from my proper subject to quote his weighty words on the ethical principles upon which he proceeded4 ,he says that #8with persons of this description1 it is easy to be conceived that precepts1 admonitions1 and punishments would be of little avail4 ,but where precepts fail1 habits may sometimes be successful4 ,to make vicious and abandoned people happy1 it has generally been supposed necessary1 first1 to make them virtuous4 ,but why not reverse this order8 ,why not make them first happy and then virtuous8 ,if happiness and virtue be inseparable1 the end will as certainly be attained by one method as by the other2 and it is most undoubtedly much easier to contribute to the happiness and comfort of persons in a state of poverty and misery than1 by admonitions and punishments1 to improve their morals4' ,he applied these principles to his miserable material with complete success1 and1 referring to the result1 exclaims1 #8,would to ,god that my success might encourage others to follow my example6' ,further examination of his proceedings shows that1 in order to follow such example1 a knowledge of first principles and a determination to carry them out in bold defiance of vulgar ignorance1 general prejudice1 and1 vilest of all1 polite sneering1 is necessary4 ,having captured the beggars thus cleverly1 he proceeded to carry out the above-stated principle by taking them to a large building already prepared1 where #8everything was done that could be devised to make them really comfortable4' ,the first condition of such comfort1 he maintains1 is cleanliness1 and his dissertation on this1 though written so long ago1 might be quoted in letters of gold by our sanitarians of to-day4 ,describing how he carried out his principles1 he says of the prisoners thus captured3 #8,most of them had been used to living in the most miserable hovels1 in the midst of vermin and every kind of filthiness1 or to sleep in the streets and under the hedges1 half naked and exposed to all the inclemencies of the seasons4 ,a large and commodious building1 fitted up in the neatest and most comfortable manner1 was now provided for their reception4 ,in this agreeable retreat they found spacious and elegant apartments kept with the most scrupulous neatness2 well warmed in winter and well lighted2 a good warm dinner every day1 gratis1 cooked and served up with all possible attention to order and cleanliness2 materials and utensils for those that were able to work2 masters gratis for those who required instruction2 the most generous pay1 in money1 for all the labour performed2 and the kindest usage from every person1 from the highest to the lowest1 belonging to the establishment4 ,here in this asylum for the indigent and unfortunate1 no ill-usage1 no harsh language is permitted4 ,during five years that the establishment has existed1 not a blow has been given to anyone1 not even to a child by his instructor4' ,this appears like the very expensive scheme of a benevolent utopian2 but1 to set my readers at rest on this point1 ,i will anticipate a little by stating that1 although at first some expense was incurred1 all this was finally repaid1 and1 at the end of six years1 there remained a net profit of #ajj1jjj florins1 #8after expenses of every kind1 salaries1 wages1 repairs1 c41 had been deducted4' ,when will our workhouses be administered with similar results8 ,i must not dwell upon his devices for gradually inveigling the lazy creatures into habits of industry1 for he understood human nature too well to adopt the gaoler's theory1 which assumes that every able-bodied man can do a day's work daily1 in spite of previous habits4 ,rumford's patients became industrious ultimately1 but were not made so at once4 ,this development of industry was one of the elements of financial and moral success1 and the next in importance was the economy of the commissariat1 which depended on ,rumford's skilful cookery of the cheapest viands1 rendering them digestible1 nutritious1 and palatable4 ,had he adopted the dietary of an ,english workhouse or an ,english prison1 his financial success would have been impossible1 and his patients would have been no better fed1 nor better able to work4 ,the staple food was what he calls a #8soup1' but ,i find1 on following out his instructions for making it1 that ,i obtain a porridge rather than a soup4 ,he made many experiments1 and says3 #8,i constantly found that the richness or quality of a soup depended more upon a proper choice of the ingredients1 and a proper management of the fire in the combination of these ingredients1 than upon the quantity of solid nutritious matter employed2--much more upon the art and skill of the cook than upon the sum laid out in the market4' ,our vegetarian friends will be interested in learning that at first he used meat in the soup provided for the beggars1 but gradually omitted it1 and the change was unnoticed by those who ate1 and no difference was observable as regards its nutritive value4 ,in #agij1 little1 or rather nothing1 was known of the chemistry of food4 ,oxygen had been discovered only sixteen years before1 and chemical analysis1 as now understood1 was an unknown art4 ,in spite of this ,rumford selected as the basis of his soup just that proximate element which we now know to be one of the most nutritious that he could have obtained from either the animal or vegetable kingdom--viz4 casein4 ,he not only selected this1 but he combined it with those other constituents of food which our highest refinements of modern practical chemistry and physiology have proved to be exactly what are required to supplement the casein and constitute a complete dietary4 ,by selecting the cheapest form of casein and the cheapest sources of the other constituents1 he succeeded in supplying the beggars with good hot dinners daily at the cost of less than one halfpenny each4 ,the cost of the mess for the ,bavarian soldiers under his command was rather more1 viz4 twopence daily1 three farthings of this being devoted to pure luxuries1 such as beer1 c4 ,some of his chemical speculations1 however1 have not been confirmed4 ,the composition of water had just been discovered1 and he found by experience that a given quantity of solid food was more satisfying to the appetite and more effective in nutrition when made into soup by long boiling with water4 ,this led him to suppose that the water itself was decomposed by cookery1 and its elements recombined or united with other elements1 and thus became nutritious by being converted into the tissues of plants and animals4 ,thus1 speaking of the barley which formed an important constituent of his soup1 he says3 #8,it requires1 it is true1 a great deal of boiling2 but when it is properly managed1 it thickens a vast quantity of water1 and1 as ,i suppose1 prepares it for decomposition' 7the italics are his own74 ,we now know that this idea of decomposing water by such means is a mistake2 but1 in my own opinion1 there is something behind it which still remains to be learned by modern chemists4 ,in my endeavours to fathom the rationale of the changes which occur in cookery1 ,i have been 7as my readers will remember7 continually driven into hypotheses of hydration1 i4e4 of supposing that some of the water used in cookery unites to form true chemical compounds with certain of the constituents of the food4 ,as already stated1 when ,i commenced this subject ,i had no idea of its suggestiveness1 of the wide field of research which it has opened out4 ,one of these lines of research is the determination of the nature of this hydration of cooked gelatin1 fibrin1 cellulose1 casein1 starch1 legumin1 c4 ,that water is with them when they are cooked is evident enough1 but whether that water is brought into actual chemical combination with them in such wise as to form new compounds of additional nutritive value proportionate to the chemical addition of water1 demands so much investigation that ,i have been driven to merely theorise where ,i ought to have demonstrated4 ,the fact that the living body which our food is building up and renewing contains about #hj per cent4 of water1 some of it combined1 and some of it uncombined1 has a notable bearing on the question4 ,we may yet learn that hydration and dehydration have more to do with the vital functions than has hitherto been supposed4 ,the following are the ingredients used by ,rumford in #8,soup ,no4 #a'3 ,weight ,avoirdupois4 ,cost4 lbs4 oz4 s4 d4 #d viertels of pearl barley1 equal to about #bj gallons #ada #b #j #aa #g #d viertels of peas #aca #d #j #g #c ,cuttings of fine wheaten bread #fi #aj #j #aj #b ,salt #ai #ac #j #a #b #bd maass1 very weak beer1 vinegar1 or rather small beer turned sour1 about #bd quarts #df #ac #j #a #e ,water1 about #efj quarts #a1jgg #j -- --------- --------- #a1dhe #aj #a #aa #i ,fuel1 #hh lbs4 dry pine wood #j #j #b ,wages of three cook maids1 at #bj florins a year each #j #j #c ,daily expense of feeding the three cook maids1 at #aj creutzers 7#c pence sterling7 each1 according to agreement #j #j #aa ,daily wages of two men servants #j #a #g ,repairs of kitchen furniture 7#ij florins per ann47 daily #j #j #e --------- ,total daily expenses when dinner is provided for #a1bjj persons #a #ae #b ,this amounts to #dbb_/abjj1 or a trifle more than of a penny for each dinner of this ,no4 #a soup4 ,the cost was still further reduced by the use of the potato1 then a novelty1 concerning which ,rumford makes the following remarks1 now very curious4 #8,so strong was the aversion of the public1 particularly the poor1 against them at the time when we began to make use of them in the public kitchen of the ,house of ,industry in ,munich1 that we were absolutely obliged1 at first1 to introduce them by stealth4 ,a private room in a retired corner was fitted up as a kitchen for cooking them2 and it was necessary to disguise them1 by boiling them down entirely1 and destroying their form and texture1 to prevent their being detected4' ,the following are the ingredients of #8,soup ,no4 #b1' with potatoes3 ,weight ,avoirdupois4 ,cost4 lbs4 oz4 s4 d4 #b viertels of pearl barley #gj #i #j #e #i-ac_/bb #b viertels of peas #fe #aj #j #c #g #h viertels of potatoes #bcj #d #j #a #i-i_/aa ,cuttings of bread #fi #aj #j #aj #b-d_/aa ,salt #ai #ac #j #a #b ,vinegar #df #ac #j #a #e ,water #ihb #ae -- ,fuel1 servants1 repairs1 c41 as before #j #c #e-e_/ab ----------- ,total daily cost of #a1bjj dinners #a #g #f ,this reduces the cost to a little above one farthing per dinner4 ,in the essay from which the above is quoted1 there is another account1 reducing all the items to what they would cost in ,london in ,november #agie1 which raises the amount to #b farthings per portion for ,no4 #a1 and #b farthings for ,no4 #b4 ,in this estimate the expenses for fuel1 servants1 kitchen furniture1 c4 are stated at three times as much as the cost at ,munich1 and the other items at the prices stated in the printed report of the ,board of ,agriculture of ,november #aj1 #agie4 ,but since #agie we have made great progress in the right direction4 ,bread then cost one shilling per loaf1 barley and peas about #ej per cent4 more than at present1 salt is set down by ,rumford at #a;d4 per lb4 7now about one farthing74 ,fuel was also dearer4 ,but wages have risen greatly4 ,as stated in money1 they are about doubled 7in purchasing power--i4e4 real wages--they are threefold74 ,making all these allowances1 charging wages at six times those paid by him1 ,i find that the present cost of ,rumford's ,no4 #a soup would be a little over one halfpenny per portion1 and ,no4 #b just about one halfpenny4 ,i here assume that ,rumford's directions for the construction of kitchen fireplaces and economy of fuel are carried out4 ,we are in these matters still a century behind his arrangements of #agij1 and nothing short of a coal-famine will punish and cure our criminal extravagance4 ,the cookery of the above-named ingredients is conducted as follows3 #8,the water and pearl barley first put together in the boiler and made to boil1 the peas are then added1 and the boiling is continued over a gentle fire about two hours2 the potatoes are then added 7peeled71 and the boiling is continued for about one hour more1 during which time the contents of the boiler are frequently stirred about with a large wooden spoon or ladle1 in order to destroy the texture of the potatoes1 and to reduce the soup to one uniform mass4 ,when this is done1 the vinegar and salt are added2 and1 last of all1 at the moment that it is to be served up1 the cuttings of bread4' ,no4 #a is to be cooked for three hours without the potatoes4 ,as already stated1 ,i have found1 in carrying out these instructions1 that ,i obtain a pure or porridge rather than a soup4 ,i found the ,no4 #a to be excellent1 ,no4 #b inferior4 ,it was better when very small potatoes were used2 they became more jellied1 and the pure altogether had less of the granular texture of mashed potatoes4 ,i found it necessary to conduct the whole of the cooking myself2 the inveterate kitchen superstition concerning simmering and boiling1 the belief that anything rapidly boiling is hotter than when it simmers1 and is therefore cooking more quickly1 compels the non-scientific cook to shorten the tedious three-hour process by boiling4 ,this boiling drives the water from below1 bakes the lower stratum of the porridge1 and spoils the whole4 ,the ordinary cook1 were she #8at the strappado1 or all the racks in the world1' would not keep anything barely boiling for three hours with no visible result4 ,according to her positive and superlative experience1 the mess is cooked sufficiently in one-third of the time1 as soon as the peas are softened4 ,she don't1 and she won't1 and she can't1 and she shan't understand anything about hydration4 #8,when it's done1 it's done1 and there's an end to it1 and what more do you want8' ,hence the failures of the attempts to introduce ,rumford's porridge in our ,english workhouses1 prisons1 and soup kitchens4 ,i find1 when ,i make it myself1 that it is incomparably superior and far cheaper than the #8skilly' at present provided1 though the sample of skilly that ,i tasted was superior to the ordinary slop4 ,the weight of each portion1 as served to the beggars1 c41 was #aii oz4 7#a ,bavarian pound72 the solid matter contained was #f oz4 of ,no4 #b1 or #d oz4 of ,no4 #a1 and ,rumford states that this #8is quite sufficient to make a good meal for a strong1 healthy person1' as #8abundantly proved by long experience4' ,he insists1 again and again1 upon the necessity of the three-hours' cooking1 and ,i am equally convinced of its necessity1 though1 as above explained1 not on the same theoretical grounds4 ,no repetition of his experience is fair unless this be attended to4 ,i have no hesitation in affirming that the #d oz4 of ,no4 #a1 when thus boiled for #c hours1 will supply more nutriment than #f oz4 boiled only #a hour4 ,the bread should not be cooked1 but added just before serving the soup4 ,in reference to this he has published a very curious essay1 entitled #8,of the ,pleasure of ,eating1 and of the ,means that may be ,employed for ,increasing it4' ,rumford used wood as fuel1 and his kitchen-ranges were constructed of brickwork with a separate fire for each pot1 the pot being set in in the brickwork immediately above the fireplace in such manner that the flame and heated products of combustion surrounded the pot on their way to the exit flue4 ,the quantity of fuel was adjusted to each operation1 and with wood embers a long sustained moderate heat was easily obtained4 ,with coal-fires such separate firing would be troublesome1 as coal cannot be so easily kindled on requirement as wood4 ,with our roaring1 wasteful kitchen furnaces and still more wasteful cooks1 the long-sustained moderate heat is not practicable without some further device4 ,i found that1 by using a #8milk scalder1' which is a water-bath similar to a glue-pot1 but on a large scale1 ,i could obtain ,rumford's results over a common kitchen-range with very little trouble1 and no risk of baking the bottom part of the porridge4 ,i further found that even a longer period of stewing than he prescribes is desirable4 ,i made a hearty meal on ,no4 #a soup1 and found it as satisfactory as any dinner of meat1 potatoes1 c41 of any number of courses2 and1 as a chemist1 ,i assert without any hesitation1 that such a meal is demonstrably of equal or superior nutritive value to an ordinary ,englishman's slice of beef diluted with potatoes4 ,the ,no4 #b soup is not so satisfactory4 ,rumford was wrong in his estimate of the value of potatoes4 ,in the formula for ,rumford's soup it is stated that the bread should not be cooked1 but added just before serving the soup4 ,like everything else in his practical programmes1 this was prescribed with a philosophical reason4 ,his reasons may have been fanciful sometimes1 but he never acted stupidly1 as the vulgar majority of mankind usually do when they blindly follow an established custom without knowing any reason for so doing1 or even attempting to discover a reason4 ,in his essay on #8,the ,pleasure of ,eating1 and of the ,means that may be ,employed for ,increasing it1' he says3 #8,the pleasure enjoyed in eating depends1 first1 on the agreeableness of the taste of the food2 and1 secondly1 upon its power to affect the palate4 ,now1 there are many substances extremely cheap1 by which very agreeable tastes may be given to food1 particularly when the basis or nutritive substance of the food is tasteless2 and the effect of any kind of palatable solid food 7of meat1 for instance7 upon the organs of taste may be increased1 almost indefinitely1 by reducing the size of the particles of such food1 and causing it to act upon the palate by a larger surface4 ,and if means be used to prevent its being swallowed too soon1 which may easily be done by mixing it with some hard and tasteless substance1 such as crumbs of bread rendered hard by toasting1 or anything else of that kind1 by which a long mastication is rendered necessary1 the enjoyment of eating may be greatly increased and prolonged4' ,he adds that #8the idea of occupying a person a great while1 and affording him much pleasure at the same time in eating a small quantity of food1 may perhaps appear ridiculous to some2 but those who consider the matter attentively will perceive that it is very important4 ,it is perhaps as much so as anything that can employ the attention of the philosopher4' ,further on he adds3 #8,if a glutton can be made to gormandise two hours upon two ounces of meat1 it is certainly much better for him than to give himself an indigestion by eating two pounds in the same time4' ,this is amusing as well as instructive2 so also are his researches into what ,i may venture to describe as the specific sapidity of different kinds of food1 which he determined by diluting or intermixing them with insipid materials1 and thereby ascertaining the amount of surface over which they might be spread before their particular flavour disappeared4 ,he concluded that a red herring has the highest specific sapidity--i4e4 the greatest amount of flavour in a given weight of any kind of food he had tested1 and that1 comparing it on the basis of cost for cost1 its superiority is still greater4 ,he tells us that #8the pleasure of eating depends very much indeed upon the manner in which the food is applied to the organs of taste1' and that he considers #8it necessary to mention1 and even to illustrate in the clearest manner1 every circumstance which appears to have influence in producing these important effects4' ,as an example of this1 ,i may quote his instructions for eating hasty pudding3 #8,the pudding is then eaten with a spoon1 each spoonful of it being dipped into the sauce before it is carried to the mouth1 care being had in taking it up to begin on the outside1 or near the brim of the plate1 and to approach the centre by regular advances1 in order not to demolish too soon the excavation which forms the reservoir for the sauce4' ,his solid ,indian-corn pudding is1 in like manner1 #8to be eaten with a knife and fork1 beginning at the circumference of the slice1 and approaching regularly towards the centre1 each piece of pudding being taken up with the fork and dipped into the butter1 or dipped into it in part only1 before it is carried to the mouth4' ,as a supplement to the cheap soup recipes ,i will quote one which ,rumford gives as the cheapest food which in his opinion can be provided in ,england3 ,take of water #h gallons1 mix it with #e lbs4 of barley-meal1 boil it to the consistency of a thick jelly4 ,season with salt1 vinegar1 pepper1 sweet herbs1 and four red herrings pounded in a mortar4 ,instead of bread1 add #e lbs4 of ,indian corn made into a samp1 and stir it together with a ladle4 ,serve immediately in portions of #bj oz4 ,samp is #8said to have been invented by the savages of ,north ,america1 who have no corn-mills4' ,it is ,indian corn deprived of its external coat by soaking it ten or twelve hours in a lixivium of water and wood ashes4#ag ,this coat or husk1 being separated from the kernel1 rises to the surface of the water1 while the grain remains at the bottom4 ,the separated kernel is stewed for about two days in a kettle of water placed near the fire4 #8,when sufficiently cooked1 the kernels will be found to be swelled to a great size and burst open1 and this food1 which is uncommonly sweet and nourishing1 may be used in a great variety of ways2 but the best way of using it is to mix it with milk1 and with soups and broths as a substitute for bread4' ,he prefers it to bread because #8it requires more mastication1 and consequently tends more to prolong the pleasure of eating4' ,the cost of this soup he estimates as follows3 s4 d4 #e lbs4 barley meal1 at #a;d4 per4 lb41 or #es4 #f;d4 per bushel #j #g #e lbs4 ,indian corn1 at #a;d4 per lb4 #j #f #d red herrings #j #c ,vinegar #j #a ,salt #j #a ,pepper and sweet herbs #j #b ----- #a #h ,this makes #fd portions1 which thus cost rather less than one-third of a penny each4 ,as prices were higher then than now1 it comes down to little more than one farthing1 or one-third of a penny1 as stated1 when cost of preparation in making on a large scale is included4 ,i have not been successful in making this soup2 failed in the #8samp1' as explained in the foot-note4 ,by substituting #8raspings' 7the coarse powder rasped off the surface of rolls or over-baked loaves7 or bread-crumbs browned in an oven1 ,i obtain a fair result for those who have no objection to a diffused flavour of red herring4 ,by using grated cheese instead of the herring1 as well as substituting bread-crumbs or raspings for the ,indian corn1 ,i have completely succeeded2 but for economy and quality combined1 the ,no4 #a soup1 as supplied at ,munich1 is preferable4 ,the feeding of the ,bavarian soldiers is stated in detail in vol4 i4 of ,rumford's #8,essays4' ,i take one characteristic example4 ,it is from an official report on experiments made #8in obedience to the orders of ,lieut4-,general ,count ,rumford1 by ,sergeant ,wickelhof's mess1 in the first company of the first 7or ,elector's ,own7 regiment of ,grenadiers at ,munich4' ,,june #aj1 #agie4--;,,bill ,,of ,,fare4 ,boiled beef1 with soup and bread dumplings4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,expense4 ,first1 for the boiled beef and the soup4 lb4 loths4 ,creutzers4 #b #j beef #af #j #a sweet herbs #a #j #j pepper #j #j #f salt #j #a #ad ammunition bread cut fine #b #i #bj water #j ------------ ---- ,total #ac #i ,cost #bj ,the ,bavarian pound is a little less than #a lb4 avoirdupois1 and is divided into #cb loths4 ,all these were put into an earthenware pot and boiled for two hours and a quarter2 then divided into twelve portions of #bf-g_/ab loths each1 costing #a creutzer4 ,second1 for the bread dumpling4 lb4 loths4 ,creutzers4 #aj #ac f fine semel bread #aj #a #j of fine flour #d #j #f salt #j #c #j water #j ----- --- ,total #e #ai ,cost #ae ,this mass was made into dumplings1 which were boiled half an hour in clear water4 ,upon taking them out of the water they were found to weigh #e lbs4 #bd loths1 giving #ae loths to each portion1 costing #a creutzer4 ,the meat1 soup1 and dumplings were served all at once1 in the same dish1 and were all eaten together at dinner4 ,each member of the mess was also supplied with #aj loths of rye bread1 which cost #e_/af of a creutzer4 ,also with #aj loths of the same for breakfast1 another piece of same weight in the afternoon1 and another for his supper4 ,a detailed analysis of this is given1 the sum total of which shows that each man received in avoirdupois weight daily3 lb4 oz4 #b #b-cd_/ajj of solids #a #b-hd_/ajj of #8prepared water' ------------- #c #e-ah_/ajj total solids and fluids4 which cost #e-ag_/dh creutzers1 or twopence sterling1 very nearly4 ,other bills of fare of other messes1 officially reported1 give about the same4 ,this is exclusive of the cost of fuel1 c41 for cooking4 ,all who are concerned in soup-kitchens or other economic dietaries should carefully study the details supplied in these #8,essays' of ,count ,rumford2 they are thoroughly practical1 and1 although nearly a century old1 are highly instructive at the present day4 ,with their aid large basins of good1 nutritious soup might be supplied at one penny per basin1 leaving a profit for establishment expenses2 and if such were obtainable at ,billingsgate1 ,smithfield1 ,leadenhall1 ,covent ,garden1 and other markets in ,london and the provinces1 where poor men are working at early hours on cold mornings1 the dram-drinking which prevails so fatally in such places would be more effectually superseded than by any temperance missions1 which are limited to mere talking4 ,such soup is incomparably better than tea or coffee4 ,it should be included in the bill of fare of all the coffee-palaces and such-like establishments4 ,since the above appeared in #8,knowledge1' ,i have had much correspondence with ladies and gentlemen who are benevolently exerting themselves in the good work of providing cheap dinners for poor school-children and poor people generally4 ,i may mention particularly the ,rev4 ,w4 ,moore ,ede1 ,rector of ,gateshead-on-,tyne1 a pioneer in the #8,penny ,dinner' movement1 and who has published a valuable penny tract on the subject1 #8,cheap ,food and ,cheap ,cookery1' which ,i recommend to all his fellow-workers4 7,he supplies distribution copies at #f;d4 per #ajj47 ,his #8,penny ,dinner ,cooker1' now commercially supplied by ,messrs4 ,walker and ,emley1 ,newcastle1 overcomes the difficulties ,i have described in the slow cookery of ,rumford's soup4 ,it is a double vessel on the glue-pot principle1 heated by gas4 ,,footnote3 #ag ,such lixivium is essentially a dilute solution of carbonate of potash in very crude form1 not conveniently obtained by burners of pit coal4 ,i tried the experiment of soaking some ordinary ,indian corn in a solution of carbonate of potash1 exceeding the ten or twelve hours specified by ,count ,rumford4 ,the external coat was not removed even after two days' soaking1 but the corns were much swollen and softened4 ,i suspect that this difference is due to the condition of the corn which is imported here4 ,it is fully ripened1 dried1 and hardened1 while that used by the ,indians was probably fresh gathered1 barely ripe1 and much softer4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,count ,,rumford',s ,,substitute ,,for ,,tea ,,and ,,coffee4 ,,take eight parts by weight of meal 7,rumford says #8wheat or rye meal1' and ,i add1 or oatmeal71 and one part of butter4 ,melt the butter in a clean iron frying-pan1 and1 when thus melted1 sprinkle the meal into it2 stir the whole briskly with a broad wooden spoon or spatula till the butter has disappeared and the meal is of a uniform brown colour1 like roasted coffee1 great care being taken to prevent burning on the bottom of the pan4 ,about half an ounce of this roasted meal boiled in a pint of water1 and seasoned with salt1 pepper1 and vinegar1 forms #8burnt soup1' much used by the wood-cutters of ,bavaria1 who work in the mountains far away from any habitations4 ,their provisions for a week 7the time they commonly remain in the mountains7 consist of a large loaf of rye bread 7which1 as it does not so soon grow dry and stale as wheaten bread1 is always preferred to it72 a linen bag1 containing a small quantity of roasted meal1 prepared as above2 another small bag of salt1 and a small wooden box containing some pounded black pepper2 and sometimes1 but not often1 a small bottle of vinegar2 but black pepper is an ingredient never omitted4 ,the rye bread1 which eaten alone or with cold water would be very hard fare1 is rendered palatable and satisfactory1 ,rumford thinks also more wholesome and nutritious1 by the help of a bowl of hot soup1 so easily prepared from the roasted meal4 ,he tells us that this is not only used by the wood-cutters1 but that it is also the common breakfast of the ,bavarian peasant1 and adds that #8it is infinitely preferable1 in all respects1 to that most pernicious wash1 tea1 with which the lower classes of the inhabitants of this island drench their stomachs and ruin their constitutions4' ,he adds that #8when tea is taken with a sufficient quantity of sugar and good cream1 and with a large quantity of bread-and-butter1 or with toast and boiled eggs1 and1 above all1 when it is not drunk too hot1 it is certainly less unwholesome2 but a simple infusion of this drug1 drunk boiling hot1 as the poor usually take it1 is certainly a poison1 which1 though it is sometimes slow in its operation1 never fails to produce fatal effects1 even in the strongest constitutions1 where the free use of it is continued for a considerable length of time4' ,this may appear to many a very strong condemnation of their favourite beverage2 nevertheless1 ,i am satisfied that it is sound2 and my opinion is not hastily adopted1 nor borrowed from ,rumford1 but a conclusion based upon many observations1 extending over a long period of years1 and confirmed by experiments made upon myself4 ,i therefore strongly recommend this substitute1 especially as so many of us have to submit to the beneficent domestic despotism of the gentler and more persevering sex1 one of the common forms of this despotism being that of not permitting its male victim to drink cold water at breakfast4 ,this burnt soup has the further advantage of rendering imperative the boiling of the water1 a most important precaution against the perils of sewage contamination1 not removable by mere filtration4 ,the experience of every confirmed tea-drinker1 when soundly interpreted1 supplies condemnation of his beverage2 the plea commonly urged on its behalf being1 when understood1 an eloquent expression of such condemnation4 #8,it is so refreshing2' #8,i am fit for nothing when tea-time comes round until ,i have had my tea1 and then ,i am fit for anything4' ,the #8fit for nothing' state comes on at #e ,p4,m41 when the drug is taken at the orthodox time1 or even in the early morning1 in the case of those who are accustomed to have a cup of tea brought to their bedside before rising4 ,some will even plead for tea by telling that by its aid one can sit up all night long at brain-work without feeling sleepy1 provided ample supplies of the infusion are taken from time to time4 ,it is unquestionably true that such may be done2 that the tea-drinker is languid and weary at tea-time1 whatever be the hour1 and that the refreshment produced by #8the cup that cheers' and is said not to inebriate1 is almost instantaneous4 ,what is the true significance of these facts8 ,the refreshment is certainly not due to nutrition1 not to the rebuilding of any worn-out or exhausted organic tissue4 ,the total quantity of material conveyed from the tea-leaves into the water is ridiculously too small for the performance of any such nutritive function2 and besides this1 the action is far too rapid1 there is not sufficient time for the conversion of even that minute quantity into organised working tissue4 ,the action cannot be that of a food1 but is purely and simply that of a stimulating or irritant drug1 acting directly and abnormally on the nervous system4 ,the five-o'clock lassitude and craving is neither more nor less than the reaction induced by the habitual abnormal stimulation2 or otherwise1 and quite fairly1 stated1 it is the outward symptom of a diseased condition of brain produced by the action of a drug2 it may be but a mild form of disease1 but it is truly a disease nevertheless4 ,the active principle which produces this result is the crystalline alkaloid1 the theine1#ah a compound belonging to the same class as strychnine and a number of similar vegetable poisons4 ,these1 when diluted1 act medicinally--that is1 produce disturbance of normal functions as the tea does1 and1 like theine1 most of them act specially on the nervous system2 when concentrated they are dreadful poisons1 very small doses causing death4 ,the volatile oil1 of which tea contains about #a per cent41 probably contributes to this effect4 ,johnston attributes the headaches and giddiness to which tea-tasters are subject to this oil1 and also #8the attacks of paralysis to which1 after a few years1 those who are employed in packing and unpacking chests of tea are found to be liable4' ,as both the alkaloid and the oil are volatile1 ,i suspect that they jointly contribute to these disturbances1 the narcotic business being done by the volatile oil1 the paralysis supplied by the alkaloid4 ,the non-tea-drinker does not suffer any of the five-o'clock symptoms1 and1 if otherwise in sound health1 remains in steady working condition until his day's work is ended and the time for rest and sleep arrives4 ,but the habitual victim of any kind of drug or disturber of normal functions acquires a diseased condition1 displayed by the loss of vitality or other deviation from normal function1 which is temporarily relieved by the usual dose of the drug1 but only in such wise as to generate a renewed craving4 ,i include in this general statement all the vice-drugs 7to coin a general name71 such as alcohol1 opium1 tobacco 7whether smoked1 chewed1 or snuffed71 arsenic1 haschisch1 betel-nut1 coca-leaf1 thorn-apple1 ,siberian fungus1 mat1 c41 all of which are excessively #8refreshing' to their victims1 and of which the use may be1 and has been1 defended by the same arguments as those used by the advocates of habitual tea-drinking4 ,speaking generally1 the reaction or residual effect of these on the system is nearly the opposite of that of their immediate effect1 and thus larger and larger doses are demanded to bring the system to its normal condition4 ,the non-tea-drinker or moderate drinker is kept awake by a cup of tea or coffee taken late at night1 while the hard drinker of these beverages scarcely feels any effect1 especially if accustomed to take it at that time4 ,the practice of taking tea or coffee by students1 in order to work at night1 is downright madness1 especially when preparing for an examination4 ,more than half of the cases of breakdown1 loss of memory1 fainting1 c41 which occur during severe examinations1 and far more frequently than is commonly known1 are due to this4 ,i continually hear of promising students who have thus failed2 and1 on inquiry1 have learned--in almost every instance--that the victim has previously drugged himself with tea or coffee4 ,sleep is the rest of the brain2 to rob the hard-worked brain of its necessary rest is cerebral suicide4 ,my old friend1 the late ,thomas ,wright 7the archologist71 was a victim of this terrible folly4 ,he undertook the translation of the #8,life of ,julius ,csar1' by ,napoleon ,,iii41 and to do it in a cruelly short time4 ,he fulfilled his contract by sitting up several nights successively by the aid of strong tea or coffee 7,i forget which74 ,i saw him shortly afterwards4 ,in a few weeks he had aged alarmingly1 had become quite bald2 his brain gave way and never recovered4 ,there was but little difference between his age and mine1 and but for this dreadful cerebral strain1 rendered possible only by the stimulant 7for otherwise he would have fallen to sleep over his work1 and thereby saved his life71 he might still be amusing and instructing thousands of readers by fresh volumes of popularised archological research4 ,i need scarcely add that all ,i have said above applies to coffee as to tea1 though not so seriously in this country4 ,the active alkaloid is the same in both1 but tea contains weight for weight above twice as much as coffee4 ,in this country we commonly use about #ej per cent4 more coffee than tea to each given measure of water4 ,on the ,continent they use about double our quantity 7this is the true secret of #8,coffee as in ,france'71 and thus produce as potent an infusion as our tea4 ,i need scarcely add that the above remarks are exclusively applied to the habitual use of these stimulants4 ,as medicines1 used occasionally and judiciously1 they are invaluable1 provided always that they are not used as ordinary beverages4 ,in ,italy1 ,greece1 and some parts of the ,east1 it is customary1 when anybody feels ill with indefinite symptoms1 to send to the druggist for a dose of tea4 ,from what ,i have seen of its action on non-tea-drinkers1 it appears to be specially potent in arresting the premonitory symptoms of fever1 the fever headache1 c4 ,since the publication of the above in #8,knowledge1' ,i have been reminded of the high authorities who have defended the use of the alkaloids1 and more particularly of ,liebig's theory1 or the theory commonly attributed to ,liebig1 but which is ,lehmann's1 published in ,liebig's #8,annalen1' vol4 lxxxvii41 and adopted and advocated by ,liebig with his usual ability4 ,lehmann watched for some weeks the effects of coffee upon two persons in good health4 ,he found that it retarded the waste of the tissues of the body1 that the proportion of phosphoric acid and of urea excreted by the kidneys was diminished by the action of the coffee1 the diet being in all other respects the same4 ,pure caffeine 7which is the same as theine7 produced a similar effect2 the aromatic oil of the coffee1 given separately1 was found to exert a stimulating effect on the nervous system4 ,johnston 7#8,chemistry of ,common ,life'7 closely following ,liebig1 and referring to the researches of ,lehmann1 says3 #8,the waste of the body is lessened by the introduction of theine into the stomach--that is1 by the use of tea4 ,and if the waste be lessened1 the necessity for food to repair it will be lessened in an equal proportion4 ,in other words1 by the consumption of a certain quantity of tea1 the health and strength of the body will be maintained in an equal degree upon a smaller quantity of ordinary food4 ,tea1 therefore1 saves food--stands to a certain extent in the place of food--while1 at the same time1 it soothes the body and enlivens the mind4' ,he proceeds to say that #8in the old and infirm it serves also another purpose4 ,in the life of most persons a period arrives when the stomach no longer digests enough of the ordinary elements of food to make up for the natural daily waste of the bodily substance4 ,the size and weight of the body1 therefore1 begin to diminish more or less perceptibly4 ,at this period tea comes in as a medicine to arrest the waste1 to keep the body from falling away so fast1 and thus to enable the less energetic powers of digestion still to supply as much as is needed to repair the wear and tear of the solid tissues4' ,no wonder1 therefore1 says he1 #8that the aged female1 who has barely enough income to buy what are called the common necessaries of life1 should yet spend a portion of her small gains in purchasing her ounce of tea4 ,she can live quite as well on less common food when she takes her tea along with it2 while she feels lighter at the same time1 more cheerful1 and fitter for her work1 because of the indulgence4' 7,the italics are my own for comparison with those that follow47 ,all this is based upon the researches of ,lehmann and others1 who measured the work of the vital furnace by the quantity of ashes produced--the urea and phosphoric acid excreted4 ,but there is also another method of measuring the same1 that of collecting the expired breath and determining the quantity of carbonic acid given off by combustion4 ,this method is imperfect1 inasmuch as it only measures a portion of the carbonic acid which is given off4 ,the skin is also a respiratory organ1 co-operating with the lungs in evolving carbonic acid4 ,dr4 ,edward ,smith adopted the method of measuring the respired carbonic acid only4 ,his results were first published in #8,the ,philosophical ,transactions' of #ahei1 and again in ,chapter ,,xxxv4 of his volume on #8,food1' ,international ,scientific ,series4 ,after stating1 in the latter1 the details of the experiments1 which include depth of respiration as well as amount of carbonic acid respired1 he says3 #8,hence it was proved beyond all doubt that tea is a most powerful respiratory excitant4 ,as it causes an evolution of carbon greatly beyond that which it supplies1 it follows that it must powerfully promote those vital changes in food which ultimately produce the carbonic acid to be evolved4 ,instead1 therefore1 of supplying nutritive matter1 it causes the assimilation and transformation of other foods4' ,now1 note the following practical conclusions1 which ,i quote in ,dr4 ,smith's own words1 but take the liberty of rendering in italics those passages that ,i wish the reader to specially compare with the preceding quotations from ,johnston3 #8,in reference to nutrition1 we may say that tea increases waste1 since it promotes the transformation of food without supplying nutriment1 and increases the loss of heat without supplying fuel1 and it is therefore especially adapted to the wants of those who usually eat too much1 and after a full meal1 when the process of assimilation should be quickened1 but is less adapted to the poor and ill-fed1 and during fasting4' ,he tells us very positively that #8to take tea before a meal is as absurd as not to take it after a meal1 unless the system be at all times replete with nutritive material4' ,and1 again3 #8,our experiments have sufficed to show how tea may be injurious if taken with deficient food1 and thereby exaggerate the evils of the poor2' and1 again3 #8,the conclusions at which we arrived after our researches in #aheh were1 that tea should not be taken without food1 unless after a full meal2 or with insufficient food2 or by the young or very feeble2 and that its essential action is to waste the system or consume food1 by promoting vital action which it does not support1 and they have not been disproved by any subsequent scientific researches4' ,this final assertion may be true1 and to those who #8go in for the last thing out1' the latest novelty or fashion in science1 literature1 or millinery1 the absence of any refutation of later date is quite enough4 ,but how about the previous #8scientific researches' of ,lehmann1 who1 on all such subjects1 is about the highest authority that can be quoted4 ,his three volumes on #8,physiological ,chemistry1' translated and republished by the ,cavendish ,society1 stand pre-eminent as the best-written1 most condensed1 and complete work on the subject1 and his original researches constitute a lifetime's work1 not of mere random change-ringing among the elements of obscure and insignificant organic compounds1 but of judiciously selected chemical work1 having definite philosophical aims and objects4 ,it is evident from the passages ,i have emphatically quoted that ,dr4 ,smith flatly contradicts ,lehmann1 and arrives at directly contradictory physiological results and practical inferences4 ,are we1 therefore1 to conclude that he has blundered in his analysis1 or that ,lehmann has done so8 ,on carefully comparing the two sets of investigations1 ,i conclude that there is no necessary contradiction in the facts3 that both may be1 and in all probability are1 quite correct as regards their chemical results2 but that ,dr4 ,smith has only attacked half the problem1 while ,lehmann has grasped the whole4 ,all the popular stimulants1 refreshing drugs1 and #8pick-me-ups' have two distinct and opposite actions--an immediate exaltation which lasts for a certain period1 varying with the drug and the constitution of its victim1 and a subsequent depression proportionate to the primary exaltation1 but1 as ,i believe1 always exceeding it either in duration or intensity1 or both1 thus giving as a nett or mean result a loss of vitality4 ,dr4 ,smith's experiments only measured the carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs during the first stage1 the period of exaltation4 ,his experiments were extended to #ej minutes1 #ga minutes1 #fe minutes1 and in one case to #a hour and #ej minutes4 ,it is worthy of note that1 in ,experiment #a1 #ajj grains of black tea were given to two persons1 and the duration of the experiment was #ej and #ga minutes2 the average increase was #ga and #fh cubic inches per minute1 while in ,no4 #f1 with the same dose and the carbonic acid collected during #a hour and #ej minutes1 the average increase per minute was only #dge cubic inches4 ,these indicate a decline of the exaltation1 and the curves on his diagrams show the same4 ,his coffee results were similar4 ,we all know that the #8refreshing' action of tea often extends over a considerable period4 ,my own experiments on myself show that it continues about three or four hours1 and that of beer or wine less than one hour 7moderate doses in each case74 ,i have tested this by walking measured distances after taking the stimulant and comparing with my walking powers when taking no other beverage than cold water4 ,the duration of the tea stimulation has been also measured 7painfully so7 by the duration of sleeplessness when female seduction has led me to drink tea late in the evening4 ,the duration of coffee is about one-third less than tea4 ,lehmann's experiments extending over weeks 7days instead of minutes71 measured the whole effect of the alkaloid and oil of the coffee during both the periods of exaltation and depression1 and1 therefore1 supplied a mean or total result which accords with ordinary everyday experience4 ,it is well known that the pot of tea of the poor needlewoman subdues the natural craving for food2 the habitual smoker claims the same merit for his pipe1 and the chewer for his quid4 ,wonderful stories are told of the long abstinence of the drinkers of mat1 chewers of betel-nut1 ,siberian fungus1 coca-leaf1 and pepper-wort1 and the smokers and eaters of haschisch1 c4 ,not only is the sense of hunger allayed1 but less food is demanded for sustaining life4 ,it is a curious fact that similar effects should be produced1 and similar advantages claimed1 for the use of a drug which is totally different in its other chemical properties and relations4 #8,white arsenic1' or arsenious acid1 is the oxide of a metal1 and far as the poles asunder from the alkaloids1 alcohols1 and aromatic resins in chemical classification4 ,but it does check the waste of the tissues1 and is eaten by the ,styrians and others with physiological effects curiously resembling those of its chemical antipodeans above named4 ,foremost among these physiological effects is that of #8making the food appear to go farther4' ,it is strange that ,liebig or any physiologist who accepts his views of vital chemistry1 should claim this diminution of the normal waste and renewal of tissue as a merit1 seeing that1 according to ,liebig1 life itself is the product of such change1 and death the result of its cessation4 ,but in the eagerness that has been displayed to justify existing indulgences1 this claim has been extensively made by men who ought to know better than to admit such a plea4 ,i speak1 as before1 of the habitual use of such drugs1 not of their occasional medicinal use4 ,the waste of the body may be going on with killing rapidity1 as in fever1 and then such medicines may save life1 provided always that the body has not become #8tolerant1' or partially insensible1 to them by daily usage4 ,i once watched a dangerous case of typhoid fever4 ,acting under the instructions of skilful medical attendants1 and aided by a clinical thermometer and a seconds watch1 ,i so applied small doses of brandy at short intervals as to keep down both pulse and temperature within the limits of fatal combustion4 ,the patient had scarcely tasted alcohol before this1 and therefore it exerted its maximum efficacy4 ,i was surprised at the certain response of both pulse and temperature to this most valuable medicine and most pernicious beverage4 ,the argument that has been the most industriously urged in favour of all the vice-drugs1 and each in its turn1 is that miserable apology that has been made for every folly1 every vice1 every political abuse1 every social crime 7such as slavery1 polygamy1 c471 when the time has arrived for reformation4 ,i cannot condescend to seriously argue against it1 but merely state the fact that the widely-diffused practice of using some kind of stimulating drug has been claimed as a sufficient proof of the necessity or advantage of such practice4 ,i leave my readers to bestow on such a plea the treatment they may think it deserves4 ,those who believe that a rational being should have rational grounds for his conduct will treat this customary refuge of blind conservatism as ,i do4 ,i recommend tea drinkers who desire to practically investigate the subject for themselves to repeat the experiment that ,i have made4 ,after establishing the habit of taking tea at a particular hour1 suddenly relinquish it altogether4 ,the result will be more or less unpleasant1 in some cases seriously so4 ,my symptoms were a dull headache and intellectual sluggishness during the remainder of the day--and if compelled to do any brain-work1 such as lecturing or writing1 ,i did it badly4 ,this1 as ,i have already said1 is the diseased condition induced by the habit4 ,these symptoms vary with the amount of the customary indulgence and the temperament of the individual4 ,a rough1 lumbering1 insensible navvy may drink a quart or two of tea1 or a few gallons of beer1 or several quarterns of gin1 with but small results of any kind4 ,i know an omnibus-driver who makes seven double journeys daily1 and his #8reglars' are half a quartern of gin at each terminus--i4e4 #a pints daily1 exclusive of extras4 ,this would render most men helplessly drunk1 but he is never drunk1 and drives well and safely4 ,assuming1 then1 that the experimenter has taken sufficient daily tea to have a sensible effect1 he will suffer on leaving it off4 ,let him persevere in the discontinuance1 in spite of brain languor and dull headache4 ,he will find that day by day the languor will diminish1 and in the course of time 7about a fortnight or three weeks in my case7 he will be weaned4 ,he will retain from morning to night the full1 free1 and steady use of all his faculties2 will get through his day's work without any fluctuation of working ability 7provided1 of course1 no other stimulant is used74 ,instead of his best faculties being dependent on a drug for their awakening1 he will be in the condition of true manhood--i4e4 able to do his best in any direction of effort1 simply in reply to moral demand2 able to do whatever is right and advantageous1 because his reason shows that it is so4 ,the sense of duty is to such a free man the only stimulus demanded for calling forth his uttermost energies4 ,if he again returns to his habitual tea1 he will again be reduced to more or less of dependence upon it4 ,this condition of dependence is a state of disease precisely analogous to that which is induced by opium and other drugs that operate by temporary abnormal cerebral exaltation4 ,the pleasurable sensations enjoyed by the opium-eater or smoker or morphia injector are more intense than those of the tea-drinker1 and the reaction proportionally greater4 ,i must not leave this subject without a word or two in reference to a widely prevailing and very mischievous fallacy4 ,many argue and actually believe that because a given drug has great efficiency in curing disease1 it must do good if taken under ordinary conditions of health4 ,no high authorities are demanded for the refutation of this4 ,a little common sense properly used is quite sufficient4 ,it is evident that a medicine1 properly so-called1 is something which is capable of producing a disturbing or alterative effect on the body generally or some particular organ4 ,the skill of the physician consists in so applying this disturbing agency as to produce an alteration of the state of disease1 a direct conversion of the state of disease to a state of health1 if possible 7which is rarely the case71 or more usually the conversion of one state of disease into another of milder character4 ,but1 when we are in a state of sound health1 any disturbance or alteration must be a change for the worse1 must throw us out of health to an extent proportionate to the potency of the drug4 ,i might illustrate this by a multitude of familiar examples1 but they would carry me too far away from my proper subject4 ,there is1 however1 one class of such remedies which are directly connected with the chemistry of cookery4 ,i refer to the condiments that act as #8tonics1' excluding common salt1 which is an article of food1 though often miscalled a condiment4 ,salt is food simply because it supplies the blood with one of its normal and necessary constituents1 chloride of sodium1 without which we cannot live4 ,a certain quantity of it exists in most of our ordinary food1 but not always sufficient4 ,cayenne pepper may be selected as a typical example of a condiment properly so-called4 ,mustard is a food and condiment combined2 this is the case with some others4 ,curry powders are mixtures of very potent condiments with more or less of farinaceous materials1 and sulphur compounds1 which1 like the oil of mustard1 of onions1 garlic1 c41 may have a certain amount of special nutritive value4 ,the mere condiment is a stimulating drug that does its work directly upon the inner lining of the stomach1 by exciting it to increased and abnormal activity4 ,a dyspeptic may obtain immediate relief by using cayenne pepper4 ,among the advertised patent medicines is a pill bearing the very ominous name of its compounder1 the active constituent of which is cayenne4 ,great relief and temporary comfort is commonly obtained by using it as a #8dinner pill4' ,if thus used only as a temporary remedy for an acute and temporary1 or exceptional1 attack of indigestion all is well1 but the cayenne1 whether taken in pills or dusted over the food or stewed with it in curries or any otherwise1 is one of the most cruel of slow poisons when taken habitually4 ,thousands of poor wretches are crawling miserably towards their graves1 the victims of the multitude of maladies of both mind and body that are connected with chronic1 incurable dyspepsia1 all brought about by the habitual use of cayenne and its condimental cousins4 ,the usual history of these victims is1 that they began by over-feeding1 took the condiment to force the stomach to do more than its healthful amount of work1 using but a little at first4 ,then the stomach became tolerant of this little1 and demanded more2 then more1 and more1 and more1 until at last inflammation1 ulceration1 torpidity1 and finally the death of the digestive powers1 accompanied with all that long train of miseries to which ,i have referred4 ,india is their special fatherland4 ,englishmen1 accustomed to an active life at home1 and a climate demanding much fuel-food for the maintenance of animal heat1 go to ,india1 crammed1 maybe1 with ,latin1 but ignorant of the laws of health2 cheap servants promote indolence1 tropical heat diminishes respiratory oxidation1 and the appetite naturally fails4 ,instead of understanding this failure as an admonition to take smaller quantities of food1 or food of less nutritive and combustive value1 such as carbohydrates instead of hydrocarbons and albumenoids1 they regard it as a symptom of ill-health1 and take curries1 bitter ale1 and other tonics or appetising condiments1 which1 however mischievous in ,england1 are far more so there4 ,i know several men who have lived rationally in ,india1 and they all agree that the climate is especially favourable to longevity1 provided bitter beer1 and all other alcoholic drinks1 all peppery condiments1 and flesh foods are avoided4 ,the most remarkable example of vigorous old age ,i have ever met was a retired colonel eighty-two years of age1 who had risen from the ranks1 and had been fifty-five years in ,india without furlough2 drunk no alcohol during that period2 was a vegetarian in ,india1 though not so in his native land4 ,i guessed his age to be somewhere about sixty4 ,he was a ,scotchman1 and an ardent student of the works of both ,george and ,dr4 ,andrew ,combe4 ,a correspondent inquires whether ,i class cocoa amongst the stimulants4 ,so far as ,i am able to learn1 it should not be so classed1 but ,i cannot speak absolutely4 ,mere chemistry supplies no answer to this question4 ,it is purely a physiological subject1 to be studied by observation of effects4 ,such observations may be made by anybody whose system has not become #8tolerant' of the substance in question4 ,my own experience of cocoa in all its forms is that it is not stimulating in any sensible degree4 ,i have acquired no habit of using it1 and yet ,i can enjoy a rich cup or bowl of cocoa or chocolate just before bed-time without losing any sleep4 ,when ,i am occasionally betrayed into taking a late cup of coffee or tea1 ,i repent it for some hours after going to bed4 ,my inquiries among other people1 who are not under the influence of that most powerful of all arguments1 the logic of inclination1 have confirmed my own experience4 ,i should1 however1 add that some authorities have attributed exhilarating properties to the theobromine or nitrogenous alkaloid of cocoa4 ,its composition nearly resembles that of theine1 as the following 7from ,johnston7 shows3 ,theine ,theobromine ,carbon #dihj #dfdc ,hydrogen #ejh #dbj ,nitrogen #bhhc #cehe ,oxygen #afbi #aceb ------ ------ #ajjjj #ajjjj ,it exists in the cocoa bean in about the same proportion as the theine in tea1 but in making a cup of cocoa we use a much greater weight of cocoa than of tea in a cup of tea4 ,if1 therefore1 the properties of theobromine were similar to those of theine1 we should feel the stimulating effects much more decidedly4 ,the alkaloid of tea and coffee in its pure state has been administered to animals1 and found to produce paralysis1 but ,i am not aware that theobromine has acted similarly4 ,another essential difference between cocoa and tea or coffee is that cocoa is1 strictly speaking1 a food4 ,we do not merely make an infusion of the cacao bean1 but eat it bodily in the form of a soup4 ,it is highly nutritious1 one of the most nutritious foods in common use4 ,when travelling on foot in mountainous and other regions1 where there was a risk of spending the night al fresco and supperless1 ,i have usually carried a cake of chocolate in my knapsack1 as the most portable and unchangeable form of concentrated nutriment1 and have found it most valuable4 ,on one occasion ,i went astray on the ,kjolenfjeld1 in ,norway1 and struggled for about twenty-four hours without food or shelter4 ,i had no chocolate then1 and sorely repented my improvidence4 ,many other pedestrians have tried chocolate in like manner1 and all ,i know have commended its great #8staying' properties1 simply regarded as food4 ,i therefore conclude that ,linnus was not without strong justification in giving it the name of theobroma 7food for the gods71 but to confirm this practically the pure nut1 the whole nut1 and nothing but the nut 7excepting the milk and sugar added by the consumer7 should be used4 ,some miserable counterfeits are offered--farinaceous paste1 flavoured with cocoa and sugar4 ,the best sample ,i have been able to procure is the ship cocoa prepared for the ,navy4 ,this is nothing but the whole nut unsweetened1 ground1 and crushed to an impalpable paste4 ,it requires a little boiling1 and when milk alone is used1 with due proportion of sugar1 it is a theobroma4 ,condensed milk diluted1 and without further sweetening1 may be used4 ,the following are the results of the analyses of two samples of cocoa by ,payen3 ,cacao butter #dh #ej ,albumen1 fibrin1 and other nitrogenous matter #ba #bj ,theobromine #d #b ,starch1 with traces of sugar #aa #aj ,cellulose #c #b ,colouring matter1 aromatic essence traces ,mineral matter #c #d ,water #aj #ab --- --- #ajj #ajj ,the very large proportion of fat shows that the ,italians are right in their mode of using their breakfast cup of chocolate4 ,they cut their roll into #8fingers1' and dip it in the #8aurora' instead of spreading butter on it4 ,vegetable food generally contains an excess of cellulose and a deficiency of fat2 therefore cocoa1 with its excess of fat and deficiency of cellulose1 is theoretically indicated as a very desirable adjunct to an ordinary vegetarian dietary4 ,the few experiments ,i have made by perpetrating the culinary heresy of adding cocoa to oatmeal-porridge and other pures1 to mashed potatoes1 turnips1 carrots1 boiled rice1 sago1 tapioca1 c41 prove that vegetarians have much to learn in the cookery of cocoa4 ,during two months' sojourn in ,milan my daily breakfast consisted of bread1 grapes1 and powdered chocolate4 ,each grape was bitten across1 one-half eaten pure and simple1 then the cut and pulpy face of the other half was dipped in the chocolate powder1 and eaten with as much as adhered to it4 ,i have never been better fed4 ,,footnote3 #ah ,ordinary tea contains about #b per cent4 of this4 ,it may easily be obtained by making a strong infusion and slowly evaporating it to dryness1 then placing this dried extract on a watch-glass or evaporating-dish1 covering it with an inverted wineglass1 tumbler1 or conical cap of paper4 ,a white fume rises and condenses on the cool cover in the form of minute colourless crystals4 ,the tea itself may be used in the same manner as the dried extract1 but the quantity of crystals will be less4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,cookery ,,of ,,wine4 ,,in an unguarded moment ,i promised to include the above in this work1 and will do the best ,i can to fulfil the rash promise2 but the utmost result of this effort can only be a contribution to a subject which is too profoundly mysterious to be fully grasped by any intellect that is not sufficiently clairvoyant to penetrate paving-stones1 and see through them to the interiors of the closely-tiled cellars wherein the mysteries are manipulated4 ,i will first define what ,i mean by the cookery of wine4 ,grape juice in its unfermented state may be described as #8raw wine1' or this name may be applied to the juice after fermentation4 ,i apply it in the latter sense1 and shall use it as describing grape juice which has been spontaneously and recently fermented without the addition of any foreign materials1 or altered by keeping1 or heating1 or any other process beyond fermentation4 ,all such processes and admixture which affect any chemical changes on the raw material ,i shall describe as cookery1 and the result as cooked wine4 ,when ,i refer to wine made from other juice than that of the grape it will be named specifically4 ,at the outset a fallacy1 very prevalent in this country1 should be controverted4 ,the high prices charged for the cooked material sold to ,englishmen has led to absurdly exaggerated notions of the original value of wine4 ,i am quite safe in stating that the average market value of rich wine in its raw state1 in countries where the grape grows luxuriantly1 and where1 in consequence1 the average quality of the wine is the best1 does not exceed sixpence per gallon1 or one penny per bottle4 ,i speak now of the newly-made wine4 ,allowing another sixpence per gallon for barrelling and storage1 the value of the commodity in portable form becomes twopence per bottle4 ,i am not speaking of thin1 poor wines1 produced by a second or third pressing of the grapes1 but of the best and richest quality1 and1 of course1 ,i do not include the fancy wines--those produced in certain vineyards of celebrated chteaux--that are superstitiously venerated by those easily-deluded people who suppose themselves to be connoisseurs of choice wines4 ,i refer to ninety-nine per cent4 of the rich wines that actually come into the market4 ,wines made from grapes grown in unfavourable climates naturally cost more in proportion to the poorness of the yield4 ,as some of my readers may be inclined to question this estimate of average cost1 a few illustrative facts may be named4 ,in ,sicily and ,calabria ,i usually paid at the roadside or village #8osterias' an equivalent to one halfpenny for a glass or tumbler holding nearly half a pint of common wine1 thin1 but genuine4 ,this was at the rate of less than one shilling per gallon1 or twopence per bottle1 and included the cost of barrelling1 storage1 and innkeeper's profit on retailing4 ,in the luxuriant wine-growing regions of ,spain1 a traveller halting at a railway refreshment station and buying one of the sausage sandwiches that there prevail1 is allowed to help himself to wine to drink on the spot without charge1 but if he fills his flask to carry away he is subjected to an extra charge of one halfpenny4 ,it is well known to all concerned that at vintage-time of fairly good seasons1 in all countries where the grape grows freely1 a good empty cask is worth more than the new wine it contains when filled2 that much wine is wasted from lack of vessels1 and anybody sending two good empty casks to a vigneron can have one of them filled in exchange for the other4 ,those who desire further illustrations and verification should ask their friends--outside of the trade--who have travelled in ,southern wine countries1 and know the language and something more of the country than is to be learned by being simply transferred from one hotel to another under the guidance of couriers1 ciceroni1 valets de place1 c4 ,thus the five shillings paid for a bottle of rich port is made up of one penny for the original wine1 one penny more for cost of storage1 c41 about sixpence for duty and carriage to this country1 and twopence for bottling1 making tenpence altogether2 the remaining four shillings and twopence is paid for cookery and wine-merchant's profits4 ,under cookery ,i include those changes which may be obtained by simply exposing the wine to the action of the temperature of an ordinary cellar1 or the higher temperature of #8,pasteuring1' to be presently described4 ,in the youthful days of chemistry the first of these methods of cookery was the only one available1 and wine was kept by wine-merchants with purely commercial intent for a considerable number of years4 ,a little reflection will show that this simple and original cookery was very expensive1 sufficiently so to legitimately explain the rise in market value from tenpence to five shillings or more per bottle4 ,wine-merchants require a respectable profit on the capital they invest in their business--at least ten per cent4 per annum on the prime cost of the wine laid down4 ,then there is the rental of cellars and offices1 the establishment expenses--such as wages1 sampling1 sending out1 advertising1 losses by bad debts1 c4--to be added4 ,the capital lying dead in the cellar demands compound interest4 ,at ten per cent4 the principal doubles in about seven and one-third years4 ,calling it seven years1 to allow very meagrely for establishment expenses1 we get the following result3 s4 d4 ,when #g years old the tenpenny wine is worth #j #a #h per bottle4 0 #ad 0 0 0 #j #c #d 0 0 #ba 0 0 0 #j #f #h 0 0 #bh 0 0 0 #j #ac #d 0 0 #ce 0 0 0 #a #f #h 0 ,here1 then1 we have a fair commercial explanation of the high prices of old-fashioned old wines2 or of what ,i may now call the traditional value of wine4 ,of course1 this is less when a man lays down his own wine in his own cellar1 in obedience to the maxim1 #8,lay down good port in the days of your youth1 and when you are old your friends will not forsake you4' ,he may be satisfied with a much smaller rate of interest than the man engaged in business fairly demands4 ,still1 when wine thus aged was thrown into the market1 it competed with commercially cellared wine1 and obtained remarkable prices1 especially as it has a special value for #8blending' purposes1 i4e4 for mixing with newer wines and infecting them with its own senility4 ,but why do ,i say that now such values are traditional8 ,simply because the progress of chemistry has shown us how the changes resulting from years of cellarage may be effected by scientific cookery in a few hours or days4 ,we are indebted to ,pasteur for the most legitimate--,i might say the only legitimate--method of doing this4 ,the process is accordingly called #8,pasteuring4' ,it consists in simply heating the wine to the temperature of #fj ,c4 #adj ,fahr41 the temperature at which1 as will be remembered1 the visible changes in the cookery of animal food commences4 ,it is worthy of note that this is also the exact temperature at which diastase acts most powerfully in converting starch into dextrin4 ,pasteuring is a process demanding considerable skill2 no portion of the wine during its cookery must be raised above #adj1 yet all must reach it2 nor must it be exposed to the air4 ,the apparatus designed by ,rossignol is one of the best suited for this purpose4 ,it is a large metallic vat or boiler with air-tight cover and a false bottom1 from which rises a trumpet-shaped tube through the middle of the vat1 and passing through an air-tight fitting in the cover4 ,the chamber formed by the false bottom is filled with water by means of this tube1 the object being to prevent the wine at the lower part from being heated directly by the fire which is below the water chamber4 ,a thermometer is also inserted air-tight in the lid1 with its bulb half-way down the vat4 ,to allow for expansion a tube is similarly fitted into the lid4 ,this is bent syphon-like1 and its lower end dipped into a flask containing wine or water1 so that air or vapour may escape and bubble through1 but none enter4 ,even in drawing off from the vat the wine is not allowed to flow through the air1 but is conveyed by a pipe which bends down1 and dips to the bottom of the barrel4 ,the apparatus is bulky and expensive4 ,if heated with exposure to air1 the wine acquires a flavour easily recognised as the #8got de cuit1' or flavour of cooking4 ,when ,pasteur's method is properly conducted the only changes effected are those which would be otherwise produced by age4 ,i have heard of many failures made by ,english wine-merchants in their attempts at ,pasteuring1 and am not at all surprised1 seeing how secretly and clumsily these attempts have been made4 ,the changes thus produced are somewhat obscure4 ,one effect is probably that which more decidedly occurs in the maturing of whisky and other spirits distilled from grain1 viz4 the reduction of the proportion of amylic alcohol or fusel oil1 which1 although less abundantly produced in the fermentation of grape juice than in grain or potato spirit1 is formed in varying quantities4 ,caproic alcohol and caprylic alcohol are also produced by the fermentation of grape juice or the #8marc' of grapes--i4e4 the mixture of the whole juice and the skins4 ,these are acrid1 ill-flavoured spirits1 more conducive to headache than the ethylic alcohol1 which is proper spirit of good wine4 ,every wine-drinker knows that the amount of headache obtainable from a given quantity of wine1 or a given outlay of cash1 varies with the sample1 and this variation appears to be due to these supplementary alcohols or ethers4 ,another change appears to be the formation of ethers having choice flavours and bouquets2 nanthic ether1 or the ether of wine1 is the most important of these1 and it is probably formed by the action of the natural acid salts of the wine upon its alcohol4 ,johnston says3 #8,so powerful is the odour of this substance1 however1 that few wines contain more than one forty-thousandth part of their bulk of it4 ,yet it is always present1 can always be recognised by its smell1 and is one of the general characteristics of all grape wines4' ,this ether is stated to be the basis of ,hungarian wine oil1 which1 according to the same authority1 has been sold for flavouring brandy at the rate of sixty-nine dollars per pound4 ,i am surprised that up to the present time it has not been cheaply produced in large quantities4 ,chemical problems that appear far more difficult have been practically solved4 ,the paternal tenderness with which wine is regarded1 both by its producers and consumers1 is amusing4 ,they speak of it as being #8sick1' describe its #8diseases1' and their remedies as though it were a sentient being2 and these diseases1 like our own1 are now attributed to bacilli1 bacteria1 or other microbia4 ,pasteur1 who has worked out this question of the origin of diseases in wine as he is so well known to have done in animals1 recommends 7in papers read before the ,french ,academy in ,may and ,august #ahfe71 that these microbia be #8killed' by filling the bottles close up to the cork1 which is thrust in just with sufficient firmness to allow the wine on expanding to force it out a little1 but not entirely1 thus preventing any air from entering the bottle4 ,the bottles are then placed in a chamber heated to temperatures ranging from #de to #ajj ,c4 7#aac to #bab ,fahr471 where they remain for an hour or two4 ,they are then set aside1 allowed to cool1 and the cork driven in4 ,it is said that this treatment kills the microbia1 gives to the wine an increased bouquet and improved colour--in fact1 ages it considerably4 ,both old and new wines may be thus treated4 ,i simply state this on the authority of ,pasteur1 having made no direct experiments or observations on these diseases1 which he describes as resulting in acetification1 ropiness1 bitterness1 and decay or decomposition4 ,there is1 however1 another kind of sickness which ,i have studied1 both experimentally and theoretically4 ,i refer to the temporary sickness which sometimes occurs to rich wines when they are moved from one cellar to another1 and to light wines when newly exported from their native climate to our own4 ,genuine wines are the most subject to such sickness2--the natural1 unsophisticated wines1 those that have not been subjected to #8fortification1' to #8vinage1' to #8plastering1' #8sulphuring1' c4--processes of cookery to be presently described4 ,this sickness shows itself by the wine becoming turbid1 or opalescent1 then throwing down either a crust or a loose1 troublesome sediment4 ,those of my readers who are sufficiently interested in this subject to care to study it practically should make the following experiment3 ,dissolve in distilled water1 or1 better1 in water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid1 as much cream of tartar as will saturate it4 ,this is best done by heating the water1 agitating an excess of cream of tartar in it1 then allowing the water to cool1 the excess of salt to subside1 and pouring off the clear solution4 ,now add to this solution1 while quite clear and bright1 a little clear brandy1 whisky1 or other spirit1 and mix them by shaking4 ,the solution will become #8sick1' like the wine4 ,why is this8 ,it depends upon the fact that the bitartrate of potash1 or cream of tartar1 is soluble to some extent in water1 but almost insoluble in alcohol4 ,in a mixture of alcohol and water its solubility is intermediate--the more alcohol the smaller the quantity that can be held in solution 7hydrochloric and most other acids1 excepting tartaric1 increase its solubility in water74 ,thus1 if we have a saturated solution of this salt either in pure water or acidulated water1 or wine1 the addition of alcohol throws some of it down in solid form1 and this makes the solution sick or turbid4 ,when pure water or acidulated water is used1 as in the above-described experiment1 crystals of the salt are freely formed1 and fall down readily2 but with a complex liquid like wine1 containing saccharine and mucilaginous matter1 the precipitation takes place very slowly2 the particles are excessively minute1 become entangled with the mucilage1 c41 and thus remain suspended for a long time1 maintaining the turbidity accordingly4 ,now1 this bitartrate of potash is the characteristic natural salt of the grape1 and its unfermented juice is saturated with it4 ,as fermentation proceeds1 and the sugar of the grape-juice is converted into alcohol1 the capacity of the juice for holding the salt in solution diminishes1 and it is gradually thrown down4 ,but it does not fall alone4 ,it carries with it some of the colouring and extractive matter of the grape-juice4 ,this precipitate1 in its crude state called argol1 or roher ,weinstein1 is the source from which we obtain the tartaric acid of commerce1 the cream of tartar1 and other salts of tartaric acid4 ,now let us suppose that we have a natural1 unsophisticated wine4 ,it is evident that it is saturated with the tartrate1 since only so much argol was thrown down during fermentation as it was unable to retain4 ,it is further evident that if such a wine has not been exhaustively fermented1 i4e4 if it still contains some of the original grape-sugar1 and if any further fermentation of this sugar takes place1 the capacity of the mixture for holding the tartrate in solution becomes diminished1 and a further precipitation must occur4 ,this precipitation will come down very slowly1 will consist not merely of pure crystals of cream of tartar1 but of minute particles carrying with it some colouring matter1 extractives1 c41 and thus spoiling the brilliancy of the wine1 making it more or less turbid4 ,but this is not all4 ,boiling water dissolves th of its weight of cream of tartar1 cold water only #a_/ahjth1 and1 at intermediate temperatures1 intermediate quantities4 ,therefore1 if we lower the temperature of a saturated solution1 precipitation occurs4 ,hence1 the sickening of wine due to change of cellars or change of climate1 even when no further fermentation occurs4 ,the lighter the wine1 i4e4 the less alcohol it contains naturally1 the more tartrate it contains1 and the greater the liability to this source of sickness4 ,this1 then1 is the temporary sickness to which ,i have referred4 ,i have proved the truth of this theory by filtering such sickened wine through laboratory filtering paper1 thereby rendering it transparent1 and obtaining on the paper all the guilty disturbing matter4 ,i found it to be a kind of argol1 but containing a much larger proportion of extractive and colouring matter1 and a smaller proportion of tartrate than the argol of commerce4 ,i operated upon rich new ,catalan wine4 ,this brings me at once to the source or origin of a sort of wine-cookery by no means so legitimate as the ,pasteuring already described1 as it frequently amounts to serious adulteration4 ,the wine-merchants are here the victims of their customers1 who demand an amount of transparency that is simply impossible as a permanent condition of unsophisticated grape-wine4 ,to anybody who has any knowledge of the chemistry of wine1 nothing can be more ludicrous than the antics of the pretending connoisseur of wine who holds his glass up to the light1 shuts one eye 7even at the stage before double vision commences71 and admires the brilliancy of the liquid1 this very brilliancy being1 in nineteen samples out of twenty1 the evidence of adulteration1 cookery1 or sophistication of some kind4 ,genuine wine made from pure grape-juice without chemical manipulation is a liquid that is never reliably clear1 for the reasons above stated4 ,partial precipitation1 sufficient to produce opalescence1 is continually taking place1 and therefore the unnatural brilliancy demanded is obtained by substituting the natural and wholesome tartrate by salts of mineral acids1 and even by the free mineral acid itself4 ,at one time ,i deemed this latter adulteration impossible1 but have been convinced by direct examination of samples of high-priced 7mark this1 not cheap7 dry sherries that they contained free sulphuric and sulphurous acid4 ,the action of this free mineral acid on the wine will be understood by what ,i have already explained concerning the solubility of the bitartrate of potash4 ,this solubility is greatly increased by a little of such acid1 and therefore the transparency of the wine is by such addition rendered stable1 unaffected by changes of temperature4 ,but what is the effect of such free mineral acid on the drinker of the wine8 ,if he is in any degree pre-disposed to gout1 rheumatism1 stone1 or any of the lithic acid diseases1 his life is sacrificed1 with preceding tortures of the most horrible kind4 ,it has been stated1 and probably with truth1 that the late ,emperor ,napoleon ,,iii4 drank dry sherry1 and was a martyr of this kind4 ,i repeat emphatically that1 generally speaking1 high-priced dry sherries are far worse than cheap ,marsala1 both as regards the quantity they contain of sulphates and free acid4 ,anybody who doubts this may convince himself by simply purchasing a little chloride of barium1 dissolving it in distilled water1 and adding to the sample of wine to be tested a few drops of this solution4 ,pure wine1 containing its full supply of natural tartrate1 will become cloudy to a small extent1 and gradually4 ,a small precipitate will be formed by the tartrate4 ,the wine that contains either free sulphuric acid or any of its compounds will yield immediately a copious white precipitate like chalk1 but much more dense4 ,this is sulphate of baryta4 ,the experiment may be made in a common wine-glass1 but better in a cylindrical test-tube1 as1 by using in this a fixed quantity in each experiment1 a rough notion of the relative quantity of sulphate may be formed by the depth of the white layer after all has come down4 ,to determine this accurately1 the wine1 after applying the test1 should be filtered through proper filtering paper1 and the precipitate and paper burnt in a platinum or porcelain crucible and then weighed2 but this demands apparatus not always available1 and some technical skill4 ,the simple demonstration of the copious precipitation is instructive1 and those of my readers who are practical chemists1 but have not yet applied this test to such wines1 will be astonished1 as ,i was1 at the amount of precipitation4 ,i may add that my first experience was upon a sample of dry sherry1 brought to me by a friend who bought his wine of a respectable wine-merchant1 and paid a high price for it1 but found that it disagreed with him2 it contained an alarming quantity of free sulphuric acid4 ,since that ,i have tested scores of samples1 some of the finest in the market1 sent to me by a conscientious importer as the best he could obtain1 and these contained sulphate of potash instead of bitartrate4 ,my friend1 the sherry-merchant1 could not account for it1 though he was most anxious to do so4 ,this was about three years ago4 ,by dint of inquiry and cross-examination of experts in the wine trade1 ,i have1 ,i believe1 discovered the origin of the sulphate of potash that is contained in the samples that the ,british wine-merchant sells as he buys1 and conscientiously believes to be pure4 ,at first ,i hunted up all the information ,i could obtain from books concerning the manufacture of sherry2 learned that the grapes are usually sprinkled with a little powdered sulphur as they are placed in the vats prior to stamping4 ,the quantity thus added1 however1 is quite insufficient to account for the sulphur compounds in the samples of wine ,i examined4 ,another source is described in the books--that from sulphuring the casks4 ,this process consists simply of burning sulphur inside a partially-filled or empty cask1 until the exhaustion of free oxygen and its replacement by sulphurous acid renders further combustion impossible4 ,the cask is then filled with the wine4 ,this would add a little of sulphurous acid1 but still not sufficient4 ,then comes the #8plastering1' or intentional addition of gypsum 7plaster of ,paris74 ,this1 if largely carried out1 is sufficient to explain the complete conversion of the natural tartrates into sulphates of potash1 and such plastering is admitted to be an adulteration or sophistication4 ,i obtained samples of sherry from a reliable source1 which ,i have no doubt the shipper honestly believed to have been subjected to no such deliberate plastering2 still1from these came down an extravagantly excessive precipitate on the addition of chloride of barium solution4 ,i afterwards learned that #8,spanish earth' was used in the fining4 ,why ,spanish earth in preference to isinglass or white of egg1 which are quite unobjectionable and very efficient8 ,to this question ,i could get no satisfactory answer directly1 but learned vaguely that the fining produced by the white of egg1 though complete at the time1 was not permanent1 while that effected by ,spanish earth1 containing much sulphate of lime1 is permanent4 ,the brilliancy thus obtained is not lost by age or variations of temperature1 and the dry sherries thus cooked are preferred by ,english wine-drinkers4 ,the sulphate of potash which1 by the action of sulphate of lime1 is made to replace bitartrate1 is so readily soluble that neither changes of temperature nor increase of alcohol1 due to further fermentation1 will throw it down2 and thus the wine-maker and wine-merchant1 without any guilty intent1 and ignorant of what he is really doing1 sophisticates the wine1 alters its essential composition1 and adds an impurity in doing what he supposes to be a mere clarification or removal of impurities4 ,i have heard of genuine sherries being returned as bad to the shipper because they were genuine1 and had been fined without sophistication4 ,my own experience of genuine wines in wine-growing countries teaches me that such wines are rarely brilliant2 and the variations of solubility of the natural salt of the grape1 which ,i have already explained1 shows why this is the case4 ,if the drinkers of sherry and other white and golden wines would cease to demand the conventional brilliancy1 they would soon be supplied with the genuine article1 which really costs the wine-merchant less than the cooked product they now insist upon having4 ,this foolish demand of his customers merely gives him a large amount of unnecessary trouble and annoyance4 ,so far1 the wine-merchant2 but how about the consumer8 ,simply that the substitution of a mineral acid--the sulphuric for a vegetable acid 7the tartaric7--supplies him with a precipitant of lithic acid in his own body2 that is1 provides him with the source of gout1 rheumatism1 gravel1 stone1 c41 with which ,english wine-drinkers are proverbially tortured4 ,i am the more urgent in propounding this view of the subject1 because ,i see plainly that not only the patients1 but too commonly their medical advisers1 do not understand it4 ,when ,i was in the midst of these experiments ,i called upon a clerical neighbour1 and found him in his study with his foot on a pillow1 and groaning with gout4 ,a decanter of pale1 choice1 very dry sherry was on the table4 ,he poured out a glass for me and another for himself4 ,i tasted it1 and then perpetrated the unheard-of rudeness of denouncing the wine for which my host had paid so high a price4 ,he knew a little chemistry1 and ,i accordingly went home forthwith1 brought back some chloride of barium1 added it to his choice sherry1 and showed him a precipitate which made him shudder4 ,he drank no more dry sherry1 and has had no serious relapse of gout4 ,in this case his medical adviser prohibited port and advised dry sherry4 ,the following from #8,the ,brewer1 ,distiller1 and ,wine ,manufacturer1' by ,john ,gardner 7,churchill's #8,technological ,handbooks1' #ahhc71 supports my view of the position of the wine-maker and wine-merchant4 #8,dupr and ,thudicum have shown by experiment that this practice of plastering1 as it is called1 also reduces the yield of the liquid1 as a considerable part of the wine mechanically combines with the gypsum and is lost4' ,when an adulteration--justly so-called--is practised1 the object is to enable the perpetrator to obtain an increased profit on selling the commodity at a given price4 ,in this case an opposite result is obtained4 ,the gypsum1 or ,spanish earth1 is used in considerable quantity1 and leaves a bulky residuum1 which carries away some of the wine with it1 and thus increases the cost to the seller of the saleable result4 ,having referred so often to dry wines1 ,i should explain the chemistry of this so-called dryness4 ,the fermentation of wine is the result of a vegetable growth1 that of the yeast1 a microscopic fungus 7,penicillium glaucum74 ,the must1 or juice of the grape1 obtains the germ spontaneously--probably from the atmosphere4 ,two distinct effects are produced by this fermentation or growth of fungus3 first1 the sugar of the must is converted into alcohol2 second1 more or less of the albuminous or nitrogenous matter of the must is consumed as food by the fungus4 ,if uninterrupted1 this fermentation goes on either until the supply of sufficient sugar is stopped1 or until the supply of sufficient albuminous matter is stopped4 ,the relative proportions of these determine which of the two shall be first exhausted4 ,if the sugar is exhausted before the nitrogenous food of the fungus1 a dry wine is produced2 if the nitrogenous food is first consumed1 the remaining unfermented sugar produces a sweet wine4 ,if the sugar is greatly in excess1 a vin de liqueur is the result1 such as the ,frontignac1 ,lunel1 ,rivesaltes1 c41 made from the muscat grape4 ,the varieties of grape are very numerous4 ,rusby1 in his #8,visit to the ,vineyards of ,spain and ,france1' gives a list of #egj varieties1 and1 as far back as #ahbg1 ,cavalow enumerated more than #a1ejj different wines in ,france alone4 ,from the above it will be understood that1 cteris paribus1 the poorer the grape the drier the wine2 or that a given variety of grape will yield a drier wine if grown where it ripens imperfectly1 than if grown in a warmer climate4 ,but the quantity of wine obtainable from a given acreage in the cooler climate is less than where the sun is more effective1 and thus the naturally dry wines cost more to produce than the naturally sweet wines4 ,the reader will understand1 from what has already been stated concerning the origin of the difference between natural sweet wines and natural dry wines1 that the conversion of either one into the other is not a difficult problem4 ,wine is a fashionable beverage in this country1 and fashions fluctuate4 ,these fluctuations are not accompanied with a corresponding variation in the chemical composition of any particular class of grapes1 but somehow the wine produced therefrom obeys the laws of supply and demand4 ,for some years past the demand for dry sherry has dominated in this country1 though1 as ,i am informed1 the weathercock of fashion is now on the turn4 ,one mode of satisfying this demand for dry wine is1 of course1 to make it from a grape which has little sugar and much albuminous matter1 but in a given district this is not always possible4 ,another is to gather the grapes before they are fully ripened1 but this involves a sacrifice in the yield of alcohol1 and probably of flavour4 ,another method1 obvious enough to the chemist1 is to add as much albuminous or nitrogenous material as shall continue to feed the yeast fungus until all1 or nearly all1 the sugar in the grape shall be converted into alcohol1 thus supplying strength and dryness 7or salinity7 simultaneously4 ,should these be excessive1 the remedy is simple and cheap wherever water abounds4 ,it should be noted that the quantity of sugar naturally contained in the ripe grape varies from #aj to #cj per cent4--a very large range4 ,the quantity of alcohol varies proportionally when the must is fermented to dryness4 ,according to ,pavy1 #8there are dry sherries to be met with that are free from sugar1' while in other wines the quantity of remaining sugar amounts to as much as #bj per cent4 ,white of egg and gelatin are the most easily available and innocent forms of nitrogenous material that may be used for sustaining or renewing the fermentation of wines that are to be artificially dried4 ,my inquiries in the trade lead me to conclude that this is not understood as well as it should be4 ,both white of egg and gelatin 7in the form of isinglass or otherwise7 are freely used for fining1 and it is well enough known that wines that have been freely subjected to such fining keep better and become drier with age1 but ,i have never yet met a wine-merchant who understood why1 nor any sound explanation of the fact in the trade literature4 ,when thus added to the wine already fermented1 the effect is doubtless due to the promotion of a slow1 secondary fermentation4 ,the bulk of the gelatin or albumen is carried down with the sediment1 but some remains in solution4 ,there may be some doubt as to the albumen thus remaining1 but none concerning the gelatin1 which is freely soluble both in water and alcohol4 ,the truly scientific mode of applying this principle would be to add the nitrogenous material to the must4 ,i dwell thus upon this because1 if fashion insists so imperatively upon dryness as to compel artificial drying1 this method is the least objectionable1 being a close imitation of natural drying1 almost identical2 while there are other methods of inducing fictitious dryness that are mischievous adulterations4 ,generally described1 these consist in producing an imitation of the natural salinity of the dry wine by the addition of factitious salts and fortifying with alcohol4 ,the sugar remains1 but is disguised thereby4 ,it was a wine thus treated that first brought the subject of the sulphates1 already referred to1 under my notice4 ,it contained a considerable quantity of sugar1 but was not perceptibly sweet4 ,it was very strong and decidedly acid2 contained free sulphuric acid and alum1 which1 as all who have tasted it know1 gives a peculiar sense of dryness to the palate4 ,the sulphuring1 plastering1 and use of ,spanish earth increase the dryness of a given wine by adding mineral acid and mineral salts4 ,in a paper recently read before the ,french ,academy by ,l4 ,magnier de la ,source 7#8,comptes ,rendus1' vol4 xcviii4 page #aaj71 the author states that #8plastering modifies the chemical characters of the colouring matter of the wine1 and not only does the calcium sulphate decompose the potassium hydrogen tartrate 7cream of tartar71 with formation of calcium tartrate1 potassium sulphate1 and free tartaric acid1 but it also decomposes the neutral organic compounds of potassium which exist in the juice of the grape4' ,i quote from abstract in #8,journal of the ,chemical ,society' of ,may #ahhd4 ,in the ,french #8,journal of ,pharmaceutical ,chemistry1' vol4 vi4 pp4 #aah-abc 7#ahhb71 is a paper1 by ,p4 ,carles1 in which the chemical and hygienic results of plastering are discussed4 ,his general conclusion is1 that the use of gypsum in clearing wines #8renders them hurtful as beverages2' that the gypsum acts #8on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of the grape1 forming calcium tartrate1 tartaric acid1 and potassium sulphate1 a large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in the wine4' ,unplastered wines contain about two grammes of free acid per litre2 after plastering1 they contain #8double or treble that amount1 and even more4' ,a ,german chemist1 ,griessmayer1 and more recently another1 ,kaiser1 have also studied this subject1 and arrive at similar conclusions4 ,kaiser analysed wines which were plastered by adding gypsum to the must1 that is to the juice before fermentation1 and also samples in which the gypsum was added to the #8finished wine1' i4e4 for fining1 so-called4 ,he found that #8in the finished wine1 by the addition of gypsum1 the tartaric acid is replaced by sulphuric acid1 and there is a perceptible increase in the calcium2 the other constituents remain unaltered4' ,his conclusion is that the plastering of wine should be called adulteration1 and treated accordingly1 on the ground that the article in question is thereby deprived of its characteristic constituents1 and others1 not normally present1 are introduced4 ,this refers more especially to the plastering or gypsum fining of finished wines4 7,biedermann's #8,centralblatt1' #ahha1 pp4 #fcb1 #fcc47 ,in the paper above named1 by ,p4 ,carles1 we are told that #8owing to the injurious nature of the impurities of plastered wines1 endeavours have been made to free them from these by a method called 8deplastering10 but the remedy proves worse than the defect4' ,the samples analysed by ,carles contained barium salts1 barium chloride having been used to remove the sulphuric acid4 ,in some cases excess of the barium salt was found in the wine1 and in others barium sulphate was held in suspension4 ,closely following the abstract of this paper1 in the #8,journal of the ,chemical ,society1' is another from the ,french #8,journal of ,pharmaceutical ,chemistry1' vol4 v4 pp4 #eha-c1 to which ,i now refer1 by the way1 for the instruction of claret-drinkers1 who may not be aware of the fact that the phylloxera destroyed all the claret grapes in certain districts of ,france1 without stopping the manufacture or diminishing the export of claret itself4 ,in this paper1 by ,j4 ,lefort1 we are told1 as a matter of course1 that #8owing to the ravages of the phylloxera among the vines1 substitutes for grape-juice are being introduced for the manufacture of wines2 of these1 the author specially condemns the use of beet-root sugar1 since1 during its fermentation1 besides ethyl alcohol and aldehyde1 it yields propyl1 butyl1 and amyl alcohols1 which have been shown by ,dujardin and ,audig to act as poisons in very small quantities4' ,in connection with this subject ,i may add that the ,french ,government carefully protects its own citizens by rigid inspection and analysis of the wines offered for sale to ,french wine-drinkers2 but does not feel bound to expend its funds and energies in hampering commerce by severe examination of the wines that are exported to #8,john ,bull et son le1' especially as ,john ,bull is known to have a robust constitution4 ,thus1 vast quantities of brilliantly coloured liquid1 flavoured with orris root1 which would not be allowed to pass the barriers of ,paris1 but must go somewhere1 is drunk in ,england at a cost of four times as much as the ,frenchman pays for genuine grape-wine4 ,the coloured concoction being brighter1 skilfully cooked1 and duly labelled to imitate the products of real or imaginary celebrated vineyards1 is preferred by the ,english gourmet to anything that can be made from simple grape-juice4 ,i should add that a character somewhat similar to that of natural dryness is obtained by mixing with the grape-juice wine a secondary product1 obtained by adding water to the marc 7i4e4 the residue of skins1 c41 that remains after pressing out the must or juice72 a minimum of sugar is dissolved in the water1 and this liquor is fermented4 ,the skins and seeds contain much tannic acid or astringent matter1 and this roughness imposes upon many wine-drinkers1 provided the price charged for the wine thus cheapened be sufficiently high4 ,some years ago1 while resident in ,birmingham1 an enterprising manufacturing druggist consulted me on a practical difficulty which he was unable to solve4 ,he had succeeded in producing a very fine claret 7,chteau ,digbeth1 let us call it7 by duly fortifying with silent spirit a solution of cream of tartar1 and flavouring this with a small quantity of orris root4 ,tasted in the dark it was all that could be desired for introducing a new industry to ,birmingham2 but the wine was white1 and every colouring material that he had tried producing the required tint marred the flavour and bouquet of the pure ,chteau ,digbeth4 ,he might have used one of the magenta dyes1 but as these were prepared by boiling aniline over dry arsenic acid1 and my ,birmingham friend was burdened with a conscience1 he refrained from thus applying one of the recent triumphs of chemical science4 ,this was previous to the invasion of ,france by the phylloxera4 ,during the early period of that visitation1 ,french enterprise being more powerfully stimulated and less scrupulous than that of ,birmingham1 made use of the aniline dyes for colouring spurious claret to such an extent that the ,french ,government interfered1 and a special test paper named nokrine was invented by ,,mm4 ,lainville and ,roy1 and sold in ,paris for the purpose of detecting falsely-coloured wines4 ,the mode of using the nokrine is as follows3 #8,a slip of the paper is steeped in pure wine for about five seconds1 briskly shaken1 in order to remove excess of liquid1 and then placed on a sheet of white paper to serve as a standard4 ,a second slip of the test-paper is then steeped in the suspected wine in the same manner1 and laid beside the former4 ,it is asserted that #a_/ajj1jjj of magenta is sufficient to give the paper a violet shade1 whilst a larger quantity produces a carmine red4 ,with genuine red wine the colour produced is a greyish blue1 which becomes lead-coloured on drying4' ,i copy the above from the #8,quarterly ,journal of ,science' of ,april #ahgg4 ,the editor adds that the inventors of this paper have discovered a method of removing the magenta from wines without injuring their quality1 #8a fact of some importance1 if it be true that several hundred thousand hectolitres of wine sophisticated with magenta are in the hands of the wine-merchants' 7a hectolitre is #bb gallons74 ,another simple test that was recommended at the time was to immerse a small wisp of raw silk#ai in the suspected wine1 keeping it there at a boiling heat for a few minutes4 ,aniline colours dye the silk permanently2 the natural colour of the grape is easily washed out4 ,i find on referring to the #8,chemical ,news1' the #8,journal of the ,chemical ,society1' the #8,comptes ,rendus1' and other scientific periodicals of the period of the phylloxera plague1 such a multitude of methods for testing false colouring materials that ,i give up in despair my original intention of describing them in detail4 ,it would demand far more space than the subject deserves4 ,i will1 however1 just name a few of the more harmless colouring adulterants that are stated to have been used1 and for which special tests have been devised by ,french and ,german chemists3 ,beet-root1 peach-wood1 elderberries1 mulberries1 log-wood1 privet-berries1 litmus1 ammoniacal cochineal1 ,fernambucca-wood1 phytolacca1 burnt sugar1 extract of rhatany1 bilberries2 #8jerupiga' or #8geropiga1' a compound of elder juice1 brown sugar1 grape juice1 and crude ,portuguese brandy' 7for choice tawny port72 #8tincture of saffron1 turmeric1 or safflower' 7for golden sherry72 red poppies1 mallow flowers1 c4 ,those of my readers who have done anything in practical chemistry are well acquainted with blue and red litmus1 and the general fact that such vegetable colours change from blue to red when exposed to an acid1 and return to blue when the acid is overcome by an alkali4 ,the colouring matter of the grape is one of these4 ,mulder and ,maumen have given it the name of nocyan or wine-blue1 as its colour1 when neutral1 is blue2 the red colour of genuine wines is due to the presence of tartaric and acetic acid acting upon the wine-blue4 ,there are a few purple wines1 their colour being due to unusual absence of acid4 ,the original vintage which gave celebrity to port wine is an example of this4 ,the bouquet of wine is usually described as due to the presence of ether1 nanthic ether1 which is naturally formed during the fermentation of grape juice1 and is itself a variable mixture of other ethers1 such as caprilic1 caproic1 c4 ,the oil of the seed of the grape contributes to the bouquet4 ,the fancy values of fancy wines are largely due1 or more properly speaking were largely due1 to peculiarities of bouquet4 ,these peculiar wines became costly because their supply was limited1 only a certain vineyard1 in some cases of very small area1 producing the whole crop of the fancy article4 ,the high price once established1 and the demand far exceeding the possibilities of supply from the original source1 other and resembling wines are now sold under the name of the celebrated locality with the bouquet or a bouquet artificially introduced4 ,it has thus come about in the ordinary course of business that the dearest wines of the choicest brands are those which are the most likely to be sophisticated4 ,the flavouring of wine1 the imparting of delicate bouquet1 is a high art1 and is costly4 ,it is only upon high-priced wines that such costly operations can be practised4 ,simple ordinary grape-juice--as ,i have already stated--is so cheap when and where its quality is the highest1 i4e4 in good seasons and suitable climates1 that adulteration with anything but water renders the adulterated product more costly than the genuine4 ,when there is a good vintage it does not pay even to add sugar and water to the marc or residue1 and press this a second time4 ,it is more profitable to use it for making inferior brandy1 or wine oil1 huile de marc1 or even for fodder or manure4 ,this1 however1 only applies where the demand is for simple genuine wine1 a demand almost unknown in ,england1 where connoisseurs abound who pass their glasses horizontally under their noses1 hold them up to the light to look for beeswings and absurd transparency1 knowingly examine the brand on the cork1 and otherwise offer themselves as willing dupes to be pecuniarily immolated on the great high altar of the holy shrine of costly humbug4 ,some years ago ,i was at ,frankfort1 on my way to the ,tyrol and ,venice1 and there saw1 at a few paces before me1 an unquestionable ,englishman1 with an ill-slung knapsack4 ,i spoke to him1 earned his gratitude at once by showing him how to dispense with that knapsack abomination1 the breast-strap4 ,we chummed1 and put up at a genuine ,german hostelry of my selection1 the ,gasthaus zum ,schwanen4 ,here we supped with a multitude of natives1 to the great amusement of my new friend1 who had hitherto halted at hotels devised for ,englishmen4 ,the handmaiden served us with wine in tumblers1 and we both pronounced it excellent4 ,my new friend was enthusiastic2 the bouquet was superior to anything he had ever met with before1 and if it could only be fined--it was not by any means bright--it would be invaluable4 ,he then took me into his confidence4 ,he was in the wine trade1 assisting in his father's business2 the #8governor' had told him to look out in the course of his travels1 as there were obscure vineyards here and there producing very choice wines that might be contracted for at very low prices4 ,this was one of them2 here was good business4 ,if ,i would help him to learn all about it1 presentation cases of wine should be poured upon me for ever after4 ,i accordingly asked the handmaiden1 #8,was fr ,wein8' c4 ,her answer was1 #8,apfel-,wein4' ,she was frightened at my burst of laughter1 and the young wine-merchant also imagined that he had made acquaintance with a lunatic1 until ,i translated the answer1 and told him that we had been drinking cider4 ,we called for more1 and then recognised the #8curious' bouquet at once4 ,the manufacture of bouquets has made great progress of late1 and they are much cheaper than formerly4 ,their chief source is coal-tar1 the refuse from gas-works4 ,that most easily produced is the essence of bitter almonds1 which supplies a #8nutty' flavour and bouquet4 ,anybody may make it by simply adding benzol 7the most volatile portion of the coal-tar71 in small portions at a time1 to warm1 fuming nitric acid4 ,on cooling and diluting the mixture1 a yellow oil1 which solidifies at a little above the freezing point of water1 is formed4 ,it may be purified by washing first with water1 and then with a weak solution of carbonate of soda to remove the excess of acid4 ,it is now largely used in cookery as essence of bitter almonds4 ,its old perfumery name was ,essence of ,mirbane4 ,by more elaborate operations on the coal-tar product1 a number of other essences and bouquets of curiously imitative character are produced4 ,one of the most familiar of these is the essence of jargonelle pears1 which flavours the #8pear drops' of the confectioner so cunningly2 another is raspberry flavour1 by the aid of which a mixture of fig-seeds and apple-pulp1 duly coloured1 may be converted into a raspberry jam that would deceive our ,prime ,minister4 ,i do not say that it now is so used 7though ,i believe it has been71 for the simple reason that wholesale jam-makers now grow their own fruit so cheaply that the genuine article costs no more than the sham4 ,raspberries can be grown and gathered at a cost of about twopence per pound4 ,with wine at #fjs4 to #ajjs4 per dozen the case is different4 ,the price leaves an ample margin for the conversion of #8,italian reds1' ,catalans1 and other sound ordinary wines into any fancy brands that may happen to be in fashion4 ,such being the case1 the mere fact that certain emperors or potentates have bought up the whole produce of the chteau that is named on the labels does not interfere with the market supply1 which is strictly regulated by the demand4#bj ,visiting a friend in the trade1 he offered me a glass of the wine that he drank himself when at home1 and supplied to his own family4 ,he asked my opinion of it4 ,i replied that ,i thought it was genuine grape-juice1 resembling that which ,i had been accustomed to drink at country inns in the ,cte d',or 7,burgundy7 and in ,italy4 ,he told me that he imported it directly from a district near to that ,i first named1 and could supply it at #abs4 per dozen with a fair profit4 ,afterwards1 when calling at his place of business in the ,west-end1 he told me that one of his best customers had just been tasting the various samples of dinner claret then remaining on the table1 some of them expensive1 and that he had chosen the same as ,i had1 but what was my friend to do8 ,had he quoted #abs4 per dozen1 he would have lost one of his best customers1 and sacrificed his reputation as a high-class wine-merchant2 therefore he quoted #eds41 and both buyer and seller were perfectly satisfied3 the wine-merchant made a large profit1 and the customer obtained what he demanded--a good wine at a #8respectable price4' ,he could not insult his friends by putting cheap #abs4 trash on his table4 ,here arises an ethical question4 ,was the wine-merchant justified in making this charge under the circumstances2 or1 otherwise stated1 who was to blame for the crookedness of the transaction8 ,i say the customer2 my verdict is1 #8,sarve him right6' ,in reference to wines1 and still more to cigars1 and some other useless luxuries1 the typical ,englishman is a victim to a prevalent commercial superstition4 ,he blindly assumes that price must necessarily represent quality1 and therefore shuts his eyes and opens his mouth to swallow anything with complete satisfaction1 provided that he pays a good price for it at a respectable establishment1 i4e4 one where only high-priced articles are sold4 ,if any reader thinks ,i speak too strongly1 let him ascertain the market price per lb4 of the best ,havanna tobacco leaves where they are grown1 also the cost of twisting them into cigar shape 7a skilful workwoman can make a thousand in a day71 then add to the sum of these the cost of packing1 carriage1 and duty4 ,he will be rather astonished at the result of this arithmetical problem4 ,if these things were necessaries of life1 or contributed in any degree or manner to human welfare1 ,i should protest indignantly2 but seeing what they are and what they do1 ,i rather rejoice at the limitation of consumption effected by their fancy prices4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,in repeating these experiments ,i find that the best form of silk is that which the ,coventry dyers technically call #8boiled silk1' i4e4 raw silk boiled in potash to remove its resinous varnish4 ,in this state the aniline dyes attach themselves to the fibre very readily and firmly4 #bj ,the following is from ,knowledge of ,august #ae1 #ahhd4 ,it is editorial1 not mine1 though ,i have heard these #8,spirit ,flavours' spoken of by experts as ordinary merchandise4 ,the ,hungarian wine oil is one of them3 #8,i have just obtained what is expressively known as 8a wrinkle0 from a wholesale price-list of a distiller which has fallen 7no matter how7 into my hands4 ,that it was never intended to be seen by any mortal eyes outside of 8the trade0 goes without saying4 ,in this highly instructive document ,i find1 under the head of 8,spirit ,flavours10 8the attention of consumers in ,australia and ,india0 7we needn't say anything about ,england7 8is particularly called to these very useful and excellent flavours4 ,one pound of either of these essences to fifty gallons of plain spirit0 7let us suppose potato spirit7 8will make immediately a fine brandy or old tom1 c41 without the use of a still4--,see ,lancet report40 ,this is followed by a list of prices of these 8flavours10 and then follows a similar one of 8,wine ,aromas40 ,a cheerful look-out all this presents1 upon my word6 ,the confiding traveller calls at his inn for some old brandy1 and they make it in the bar while he is waiting4 ,he orders a pint of claret or port1 and straightway he is served with some that has been two and a half minutes in bottle6 ,after the perusal of this price-list1 ,i have come to the conclusion that in the case of no articles of consumption whatever is the motto ,caveat emptor more needful to be attended to than in that of 7so called7 wines and spirits4' ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,vegetarian ,,question ,,in my introductory chapter ,i said1 #8,the fact that we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep1 oxen1 c41 for the preparation of our food is merely a transitory barbarism1 to be ultimately superseded when my present subject is sufficiently understood and applied to enable us to prepare the constituents of the vegetable kingdom to be as easily assimilated as the prepared grass which we call beef and mutton4' ,this sentence1 when it appeared in #8,knowledge1' brought me in communication with a very earnest body of men and women1 who at considerable social inconvenience are abstaining from flesh food1 and doing it purely on principle4 ,some people sneer at them1 call them #8crotchetty1' #8faddy1' c41 but1 for my own part1 ,i have a great respect for crotchetty people1 having learned long ago that every first great step that has ever been taken in the path of human progress was denounced as a crotchet by those it was leaving behind4 ,this respect is quite apart from the consideration of whether ,i agree or disagree with the crotchets themselves4 ,i therefore willingly respond to the request that ,i should explain more fully my view of this subject4 ,the fact that there are now in ,london eight exclusively vegetarian restaurants1 and all of them flourishing1 shows that it is one of wide interest4 ,at the outset it is necessary to brush aside certain false issues that are commonly raised in discussing this subject4 ,the question is not whether we are herbivorous or carnivorous animals4 ,it is perfectly certain that we are neither4 ,the carnivora feed on flesh alone1 and eat that flesh raw4 ,nobody proposes that we should do this4 ,the herbivora eat raw grass4 ,nobody suggests that we should follow their example4 ,it is perfectly clear that man cannot be classed with the carnivorous animals1 nor the herbivorous animals1 nor with the graminivorous animals4 ,his teeth are not constructed for munching and grinding raw grain1 nor his digestive organs for assimilating such grain in this condition4 ,he is not even to be classed with the omnivorous animals4 ,he stands apart from all as ,,the ,,cooking ,,animal4 ,it is true that there was a time when our ancestors ate raw flesh1 including that of each other4 ,in the limestone caverns of this and other ,european countries we find human bones gnawed by human teeth1 and split open by flint implements for the evident purpose of extracting the marrow1 according to the domestic economy of the period4 ,the shell mounds that these prehistoric bipeds have left behind1 show that mussels1 oysters1 and other mollusca were also eaten raw1 and they doubtless varied the menu with snails1 slugs1 and worms1 as the remaining ,australian savages still do4 ,besides these they probably included roots1 succulent plants1 nuts1 and such fruit as then existed4 ,there are many among us who are very proud of their ancient lineage1 and who think it honourable to go back as far as possible and to maintain the customs of their forefathers2 but they all seem to draw a line somewhere1 none desiring to go as far back as to their inter-glacial troglodytic ancestors1 and1 therefore1 ,i need not discuss the desirability of restoring their dietary4 ,all human beings became cooks as soon as they learned how to make a fire1 and have all continued to be cooks ever since4 ,we should1 therefore1 look at this vegetarian question from the point of view of prepared food1 which excludes nearly all comparison with the food of the brute creation4 ,i say #8nearly all1' because there is one case in which all the animals that approach the nearest to ourselves--the mammalia--are provided naturally with a specially prepared food1 viz4 the mother's milk4 ,the composition of this preparation appears to me to throw more light than anything else upon this vegetarian controversy1 and yet it seems to have been entirely overlooked4 ,the milk prepared for the young of the different animals in the laboratory or kitchen of ,nature is surely adapted to their structure as regards natural food requirements4 ,without assuming that the human dietetic requirements are identical with either of the other mammals1 we may learn something concerning our approximation to one class or another by comparing the composition of human milk with that of the animals in question4 ,i find ready to hand in ,dr4 ,miller's #8,chemistry'1 vol4 iii41 a comparative statement of the mean of several analyses of the milk of woman1 cow1 goat1 ass1 sheep1 and bitch4 ,the latter is a moderately carnivorous animal1 nearly approaching the omnivorous character commonly ascribed to man4 ,the following is the statement3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,woman ,cow ,goat ,ass ,sheep ,bitch ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,water #hhf #hgd #hbj #ije #hef #ffc ,fat #bf #dj #de #ad #de #adh ,sugar and soluble salts #di #ej #de #fd #db #bi ,nitrogenous compounds and insoluble salts #ci #cf #ij #ag #eg #afj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,according to this it is quite evident that ,nature regards our food requirements as approaching much nearer to the herbivora than to the carnivora1 and has provided for us accordingly4 ,if we are to begin the building-up of our bodies on a food more nearly resembling that of the herbivora than that of the carnivora1 it is only reasonable to assume that we should continue on the same principle4 ,the particulars of the difference are instructive4 ,the food which ,nature provides for the human infant differs from that provided for the young carnivorous animal1 just in the same way as flesh food differs from the cultivated and cooked vegetables and fruit within easy reach of man4 ,these contain less fat1 less nitrogenous matter1 more water1 and more sugar 7or starch1 which becomes sugar during digestion7 than animal food4 ,those who advocate the use of flesh food usually do so on the ground that it is more nutritious1 contains more nitrogenous material and more fat than vegetable food4 ,so much the worse for the human being1 says ,nature1 when she prepares the food4 ,but as a matter of practical fact there are no flesh-eaters among us1 none who avail themselves of this higher proportion of albuminoids and fat4 ,we all practically admit every day in eating our ordinary ,english dinner1 that this excess of nitrogenous matter and fat is bad2 we do so by mixing the meat with that particular vegetable which contains an excess of the carbo-hydrates 7starch7 with the smallest available quantity of albuminoids and fat4 ,the slice of meat1 diluted with the lump of potato1 brings the whole down to about the average composition of a fairly-arranged vegetarian repast4 ,when ,i speak of a vegetarian repast1 ,i do not mean mere cabbages and potatoes1 but properly selected1 well cooked1 nutritious vegetable food4 ,as an example1 ,i will take ,count ,rumford's ,no4 #a soup1 already described1 without the bread1 and in like manner take beef and potatoes without bread4 ,taking original weights1 and assuming that the lump of potato weighed the same as the slice of meat1 we get the following composition according to the table given by ,pavy1 page #daj3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,water ,albumen ,starch ,sugar ,fat ,salts ---------------------------------------- ---- ,lean beef #gbjj #aicj -- -- #cfj #eaj ,potatoes #gejj #baj #ahhj #cbj #jbj #jgj ---------------------------------------- ---- #adgjj #badj #ahhj #cbj #chj #ehj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,mean composition of mixture #gcej #ajgj #idj #afj #aij #bij ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,rumford's soup 7without the bread afterwards added7 was composed of equal measures of peas and pearl barley1 or barley meal1 and nearly equal weights4 ,their percentage composition as stated in the above-named table is as follows3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,water ,albumen ,starch ,sugar ,fat ,salts ---------------------------------------- ---- ,peas #aejj #bcjj #eedj #bjj #baj #bej ,barley meal #aejj #fcj #fidj #dij #bdj #bjj ---------------------------------------- ---- #cjjj #bicj #acdhj #fij #dej #dej ---------------------------------------- ---- ,mean composition of mixture #aejj #adfe #fbdj #cde #bbe #bbe ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,here1 then1 in #ajj parts of the material of ,rumford's halfpenny dinner1 as compared with the #8mixed diet1' we have #dj per cent4 more of nitrogenous food1 more than six and a half times as much carbo-hydrate in the form of starch1 more than double the quantity of sugar1 about #ag per cent4 more of fat1 and only a little less of salts 7supplied by the salt which ,rumford added74 ,thus the #8mixed diet' falls short in all the costly constituents1 and only excels by its abundance of very cheap water4 ,this analysis supplies the explanation of what has puzzled many inquirers1 and encouraged some sneerers at this work of the great scientific philanthropist1 viz4 that he allowed less than five ounces of solids for each man's dinner4 ,he did so and found it sufficient1 because he was supplying far more nutritious material than beef and potatoes2 his five ounces was more satisfactory than a pound of beef and potatoes1 three-fourths of which is water1 for which water ,john ,bull blindly pays a shilling or more per pound when he buys his prime steak4 ,rumford added the water at pump cost1 and1 by long boiling1 caused some of it to unite with the solid materials 7by the hydration ,i have described71 and then served the combination in the form of porridge1 raising each portion to #ai ounces4 ,i might multiply such examples to prove the fallacy of the prevailing notions concerning the nutritive value of the #8mixed diet1' a fallacy which is merely an inherited epidemic1 a baseless physical superstition4 ,i will1 however1 just add one more example for comparison--viz4 the ,highlander's porridge4 ,the following is the composition of oatmeal--also from ,pavy's table3 ,water #aejj ,albumen #abfj ,starch #ehdj ,sugar #edj ,fat #efj ,salts #cjj ,compare this with the beef and potatoes above1 and it will be seen that it is superior in every item excepting the water4 ,one hundred ounces of oatmeal contain #ai ounce more of albumen than is contained in #ajj ounces of beef and potatoes mixed in equal proportions4 ,the #ajj ounces of oatmeal supplies #cif ounces more of carbo-hydrate 7starch74 ,the #ajj ounces of oatmeal is superior to the extent of #ch ounces in sugar4 ,it has the advantage by #cg ounces in fat1 and #ji ounce in salts1 but the mixed diet beats the oatmeal by containing #eh ounces more water2 nearly four times as much4 ,this deficiency is readily supplied in the cookery4 ,these figures explain a puzzle that may have suggested itself to some of my thoughtful readers--viz4 the smallness of the quantity of dry oatmeal that is used in making a large portion of porridge4 ,if we could1 in like manner1 see our portion of beef or mutton and potatoes reduced to dryness1 the smallness of the quantity of actually solid food required for a meal would be similarly manifest4 ,an alderman's banquet in this condition would barely fill a breakfast cup4 ,i cannot at all agree with those of my vegetarian friends who denounce flesh-meat as a prolific source of disease1 as inflaming the passions1 and generally demoralising4 ,neither am ,i at all disposed to make a religion of either eating1 or drinking1 or abstaining4 ,there are certain albuminoids1 certain carbo-hydrates1 certain hydro-carbons1 and certain salts demanded for our sustenance4 ,excepting in fruit1 these are not supplied by nature in a fit condition for our use4 ,they must be prepared4 ,whether we do all the preparation in the kitchen by bringing the produce of the earth directly there1 or whether1 on account of our ignorance and incapacity as cooks1 we pass our food through the stomach1 intestines1 blood-vessels1 c41 of sheep and oxen1 as a substitute for the first stages of scientific cookery1 the result is about the same as regards the dietic result4 ,flesh feeding is a nasty practice1 but ,i see no grounds for denouncing it as physiologically injurious1 excepting in the fact that the liability to gout1 rheumatism1 and neuralgia is increased by it4 ,in my youthful days ,i was on friendly terms with a sheep that belonged to a butcher in ,jermyn ,street4 ,this animal1 for some reason1 had been spared in its lamb-hood1 and was reared as the butcher's pet4 ,it was well-known in ,st4 ,james's by following the butcher's men through the streets like a dog4 ,i have seen this sheep steal mutton-chops and devour them raw4 ,it preferred beef or mutton to grass4 ,it enjoyed robust health1 and was by no means ferocious4 ,it was merely a disgusting animal1 with excessively perverted appetite2 a perversion that supplies very suggestive material for human meditation4 ,my own experiments on myself1 and the multitude of other experiments that ,i am daily witnessing among men of all occupations who have cast aside flesh food after many years of mixed diet1 prove incontestably that flesh food is quite unnecessary2 and also that men and women who emulate the aforesaid sheep to the mild extent of consuming daily about two ounces of animal tissue combined with six ounces of water1 and dilute this with such weak vegetable food as the potato1 are not measurably altered thereby so far as physical health is concerned4#ba ,on economical grounds1 however1 the difference is enormous4 ,if all ,englishmen were vegetarians and fish-eaters1 the whole aspect of the country would be changed4 ,it would be a land of gardens and orchards1 instead of gradually reverting to prairie grazing-ground as at present4 ,the unemployed miserables of our great towns1 the inhabitants of our union workhouses1 and all our rogues and vagabonds1 would find ample and suitable employment in agriculture4 ,every acre of land would require three or four times as much labour as at present1 and feed five or six times as many people4 ,no sentimental exaggeration is demanded for the recommendation of such a reform as this4 ,,footnote3 #ba ,since the above was written ,i have met with some alarming revelations concerning the increasing prevalence of cancer1 which1 if confirmed1 will force me to withdraw this conclusion4 ,this horrible disease has increased in ,england with increase of prosperity--with increase of luxury in feeding--which in this country means more flesh food4 ,in the ten years from #ahej to #ahfj1 the deaths from cancer had increased by #b1jjj2 from #ahfj to #ahgj the increase was #b1djj2 from #ahgj to #ahhj it reached #c1bjj1 above the preceding ten years4 ,the proportion of deaths is far higher among the well-to-do classes than among the poorer classes4 ,it seems to be the one disease that increases with improved general sanitary conditions4 ,the evidence is not yet complete1 but as far as it goes it points most ominously to a direct connection between cancer and excessive flesh feeding among people of sedentary habits4 ,the most abundant victims appear to be women who eat much meat and take but little out-of-door exercise4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,malted ,,food4 ,a ,,few years ago the #8farmers' friends' were very sanguine on the subject of using malt as cattle food4 ,at agricultural meetings throughout the country the iniquitous malt-tax was eloquently denounced because it stood in the way of this great fodder reform4 ,then the malt-tax was repealed1 and forthwith the subject fell out of hearing4 ,why was this8 ,the idea of malt feeding was theoretically sound4 ,by the malting of barley or other grain its diastase is made to act upon its insoluble starch1 and to convert this more or less completely into soluble dextrin1 a change which is absolutely necessary as a part of the business of digestion4 ,therefore1 if you feed cattle on malted grain instead of raw grain1 you supply them with a food so prepared that a part of the business of digestion is already done for them1 and their nutrition is thereby advanced4 ,from what ,i am able to learn1 the reason why this hopeful theory has not been carried out is simply that it does not #8pay4' ,the advantage in fattening the cattle is not sufficient to remunerate the farmers for the extra cost of the malted food4 ,this may be the case with oxen1 but it does not follow that it should be the same with human beings4 ,cattle feed on grass1 mangold-wurzels1 c41 in their raw state1 but we cannot2 and1 as ,i have already shown1 we are not graminivorous in the manner they are2 we cannot digest raw wheat1 barley1 oats1 or maize4 ,we cannot do this because we are not supplied with such effective natural grinding apparatus as they have in their mouths1 and1 further1 because we have a much smaller supply of saliva and a shorter alimentary canal4 ,we can easily supply our natural deficiencies in the matter of grinding1 and do so by means of our flour mills1 but at first thought the idea of finding an artificial representative of the saliva of oxen does not recommend itself4 ,when1 however1 it is understood that the chief active principle of the saliva so closely resembles the diastase of malt that it has received the name of #8animal diastase1' and is probably the same compound1 the aspect of the problem changes4 ,not only is this the case with the secretion from the glands surrounding the mouth1 but the pancreas which is concerned in a later stage of digestion is a gland so similar to the salivary glands that in ordinary cookery both are dressed and served as #8sweetbreads2' the #8pancreatic juice' is a liquid closely resembling saliva1 and contains a similar diastase1 or substance that converts starch into dextrin1 and from dextrin to sugar4 ,lehmann says1 #8,it is now indubitably established that the pancreatic juice possesses this sugar-forming power in a far higher degree than the saliva4' ,besides this1 there is another sugar-forming secretion1 the #8intestinal juice1' which operates on the starch of the food as it passes along the intestinal canal4 ,this being the case1 we should1 in exercising our privilege as cooking animals1 be able to assist the digestive functions of the saliva1 the pancreatic and intestinal secretions1 just as we help our teeth by the flour mill1 and the means of doing this is offered by the diastase of malt4 ,in accordance with this reasoning ,i have made some experiments on a variety of our common vegetable foods1 by simply raising them--in contact with water--to the temperature most favourable to the converting action of diastase 7#adj to #aej ,fahrenheit71 and then adding a little malt extract or malt flour4 ,this extract may be purchased ready made1 or prepared by soaking crushed or ground malt in warm water1 leaving it for an hour or two or longer1 and then pressing out the liquid4 ,i find that oatmeal-porridge when thus treated is thinned by the conversion of the bulk of its insoluble starch into soluble dextrin2 that boiled rice is similarly thinned2 that a stiff jelly of arrowroot is at once rendered watery1 and its conversion into dextrin is demonstrated by its altered action when a solution of iodine is added to it4 ,it no longer becomes suddenly of a deep blue colour as when it was starch4 ,sago and tapioca are similarly changed1 but not so completely as arrowroot4 ,this is evidently because they contain a little nitrogenous matter and cellulose1 which1 when stirred1 give a milkiness to the otherwise clear and limpid solution of dextrin4 ,pease-pudding when thus treated behaves very instructively4 ,instead of remaining as a fairly uniform paste1 it partially separates into paste and clear liquid1 the paste being the cellulose and vegetable casein1 the liquid a solution of the dextrin or converted starch4 ,mashed turnips1 carrots1 potatoes1 c41 behave similarly1 the general results showing that so far as starch is concerned there is no practical difficulty in obtaining a conversion of the starch into dextrin by means of a very small quantity of maltose4 ,hasty pudding made of boiled flour is similarly altered4 ,generally speaking1 the degree of visible alteration is proportionate to the amount of starch1 but the more intimately it is mixed with the cellulose1 the more slowly the change occurs4 ,i have made malt-porridge by using malt flour instead of oatmeal4 ,i found it rather too sweet1 but on mixing about one part of malt flour with four to eight parts of oatmeal1 an excellent and easily digestible porridge is obtained1 and one which ,i strongly recommend as a most valuable food for strong people and invalids1 children and adults4 ,further details of these experiments would be tedious1 and are not necessary1 as they display no chemical changes that are new to science1 and the practical results may be briefly stated without such details1 as follows4 ,i recommend1 first1 the production of malt flour by grinding and sifting malted wheat1 malted barley1 or malted oats1 or all of these1 and the retailing of this at its fair value as a staple article of food4 ,every shopkeeper who sells flour or meal of any kind should sell this4 ,secondly1 that this malted flour1 or the extract made from it as above described1 be mixed with the ordinary flour used in making pastry1 biscuits1 bread1 c41#bb and with all kinds of porridge1 pastry1 pea-soup1 and other farinaceous preparations1 and that when these are cooked they should be slowly heated at first1 in order that the maltose may act upon the starch at its most favourable temperature 7#adj to #aej ,fahr474 ,thirdly1 when practicable1 such preparations as porridge1 pea-soup1 pastry1 c41 should be prepared by first cooking them in the usual manner1 then stirring the malt meal or malt extract into them1 and allowing the mixture to remain for some time4 ,this time may vary from a few minutes to several hours or days--the longer the better4 ,i have proved by experiments on boiled rice1 oatmeal-porridge1 pease-pudding1 c41 that complete conversion may thus be effected4 ,when the temperature of #adj to #aej is carefully obtained1 the work of conversion is done in half an hour or less4 ,at #bab it is arrested4 ,at temperatures below #adj1 it proceeds with a slowness varying with the depression of temperature4 ,the most rapid result is obtained by first cooking the food as above1 then reducing the temperature to #aej1 and adding the malt flour or malt extract1 and maintaining the temperature for a short time4 ,the advantage of previous cooking is due to the preliminary breaking-up and hydration of the starch granules4 ,fourthly1 besides the malt meal or malt flour1 ,i recommend the manufacture of what ,i may call #8pearl malt1' that is1 malt treated as barley is treated in the manufacture of pearl barley4 ,this pearl malt may be largely used in soups1 puddings1 and for other purposes evident to the practical cook4 ,it may be found preferable to the malt flour for some of the above-named purposes1 especially for making a pure like ,rumford's soup4 ,i strongly recommend such a soup to vegetarians--i4e4 the ,rumford soup ,no4 #a1 already described1 but with the admixture of a little pearl malt with the pearl barley 7or malt flour failing the pearl malt74 ,a small proportion of malt 7one-twentieth1 for example7 has a considerable effect1 but a larger amount is desirable4 ,in all cases this quantity may be regulated by experience and according to whether a decided malt flavour is or is not preferred4 ,i have not yet met with any malted maize commercially prepared1 but my experiments on a small scale show that it is a very desirable product4 ,as regards the action of vegetable diastase on cellulose1 whether it is capable of breaking it up or effecting its hydration and conversion into digestible sugar1 ,i am not yet able to speak positively1 but the following facts are promising4 ,i treated sago1 tapioca1 and rice with the maltose as above1 and found that at a temperature of #adj to #aej all the starch disappears in about half an hour1 as proved by the iodine test4 ,still the liquid was not clear3 flocculi of cellulose1 c41 were suspended in it4 ,i kept this on the top of a stove several days1 where the temperature of the liquid varied from #ajj to #ahj while the fire was burning1 but fell to that of the atmosphere during the night4 ,the quantity of the insoluble matter considerably diminished1 but it was not entirely removed4 ,this led me to make further experiments1 still in progress1 on the ensilage of human food with the aid of diastase4 ,these experiments are on a small scale1 and are sufficiently satisfactory to justify more effective trials on a larger scale4 ,it is well known that ordinary ensilage succeeds much better on a large than on a small scale1 and ,i have no doubt that such will be the case with my diastase ensilage of oatmeal1 pease-pudding1 mashed roots1 c4 ,i am also treating such vegetable food material with various acids for the same purpose4 ,when by these or other means we convert vegetable tissue into dextrin and sugar1 as it is naturally converted in the ripening pear1 and as it has been artificially converted in our laboratories1 we shall extend our food supplies in an incalculable degree4 ,swedes1 turnips1 mangold-wurzels1 c41 will become delicate diet for invalids2 horse beans1 far more nutritious than beef2 delicate biscuits and fancy pastry1 as well as ordinary bread1 will be produced from sawdust and wood shavings1 plus a little leguminous flour to supplement the nitrogenous requirement4 ,this may even be done now4 ,long ago ,i converted an old pocket-handkerchief and part of an old shirt into sugar1 but not profitably as a commercial transaction4 ,other chemists have done the like in their laboratories4 ,it is yet to be done in the kitchen4 ,i should add that the sugar referred to in all the above is not cane sugar1 but the sugar corresponding to that in the grape and in honey4 ,it is less sweet than cane or beet sugar1 but is a better food4 ,i have already spoken of the difficulty presented by the opposite nature of the solvents demanded by the casein and the cellulose in my experiments on the ensilage of pease-pudding4 ,the action of diastase indicates a possible solution of this difficulty4 ,let us suppose that a sufficient amount of potash is used to dissolve the casein1 its solution separated as described 7pages #bah-bai71 the insoluble fibrous remainder treated with maltose or malt flour1 and its action allowed to proceed to fermentation and effecting the formation of acetic acid4 ,will this acid1 by means of ensilage1 act upon the cellulose as the acid of the unripe pear acts upon its cellulose8 ,this is another of the questions that ,i can only suggest1 not having had time and opportunity to supply experimental answer4 ,do fruits contain diastase8 ,two kinds of food are described by ,pavy 7#8,treatise on ,food and ,dietetics1' page #bbg71 in the preparation of which the conversion of starch into dextrin appears to be effected4 ,as ,i have no acquaintance with these1 never met with them either in ,scotland or ,wales1 ,i will quote his description3 #8,sowans1 seeds1 or flummery1 which constitutes a very popular article of diet in ,scotland and ,south ,wales1 is made from the husks of the grain 7oats74 ,the husks1 with the starchy particles adhering to them1 are separated from the other parts of the grain and steeped in water for one or two days1 until the mass ferments and becomes sourish4 ,it is then skimmed and the liquid boiled down to the consistence of gruel4 ,in ,wales this food is called sucan4 ,budrum is prepared in the same manner1 except that the liquid is boiled down to a sufficient consistency to form1 when cold1 a firm jelly4 ,this resembles blancmange1 and constitutes a light1 demulcent1 and nutritious article of food1 which is well suited for the weak stomach4' ,here it is evident that solution takes place and a gummy substance is formed2 this and the fermentation and sourish taste all indicate the action of the diastase of the seed converting the starch into dextrin and sugar1 the latter passing at once into acetic fermentation4 ,having only just met with this passage1 ,i am unable to supply any experimental evidence1 but suggest to any of my readers who may be on the spot where either of these preparations are made1 the simple experiment of adding a little diluted tincture of iodine to the sowans or budrum1 preferably to the latter4 ,if any of the starch remains as starch1 a deep blue tint will be immediately struck2 if this is not the case it is all converted4 ,i have just received a letter 7while the proofs of this sheet are in course of correction7 from a retired barrister in his seventy-third year1 who1 after a successful career in ,india1 #8retired in #ahgj to enjoy the otium cum dig4' ,among other interesting particulars relating to animal and vegetable diet1 he tells me that #8somehow ,i did not1 with a purely vegetable diet1 excite saliva sufficient for digestion1 and being constitutionally a gouty subject1 ,i have suffered very much from gout until comparatively lately 7say the last eight months71 when an idea came into my head that by the use of potash ,i might get rid of the calcareous deposit accompanying gout1 and have been taking #cj drops of liquor potass in my tea with very good effect4 ,but within the last ten days1 thanks to your article in 8,knowledge0 of ,january #af1 #ahhe1 ,i have1 as it were by magic1 become young again4 ,i was not aware that the diastase of malt had the same powers as the salivary secretions4 ,when ,i read your article1 ,i commenced the experiment on my morning food1 namely1 oatmeal-porridge1 of which for several years ,i have cooked daily four ounces1 of which ,i could never eat more than half without feeling distended for an hour or two1 and then again feeling hungry and a craving for more food4 ,since ,i followed your directions ,i have been able to eat comfortably nearly the whole 7five ounces with the malt74 ,i feel no distension for the time nor craving afterwards2 ,i am comfortably satisfied for hours2 but what is more1 the diastased porridge has had the effect of removing the tendency to costiveness1 which was sore trouble1 and it has rendered my joints supple1 and destroyed the tendency of my finger and toe-nails to grow rapidly and brittle4 ,all this seems to have changed1 as if by magic4 ,i1 therefore1 write to you as a public benefactor1 to thank you for your seasonable hints4' ,i quote this letter 7with the permission of the writer1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,t4 ,t4 ,petersen7 the more willingly and confidently from the fact that ,i have lately adopted as a regular supper diet a porridge made of oatmeal1 to which about one-sixth or one-eighth of malt flour is added4 ,i find it in every respect advantageous1 far better than ordinary simple oatmeal-porridge4 ,the following from ,pavy1 p4 #bbi1 indicates further the desirability of assisting the salivary glands and pancreas in digesting this otherwise excellent food4 ,speaking of oatmeal-porridge1 he says3 #8,it is apt to disagree with some dyspeptics1 having a tendency to produce acidity and pyrosis1 and cases have been noticed among those who have been in the daily habit of consuming it1 where dyspeptic symptoms have subsided upon temporarily abandoning its use4' ,my readers should try the following experiment4 ,it supplies a striking demonstration of the potency of the diastase of malt4 ,make a portion of oatmeal-porridge in the usual manner1 but unusually thick--a pudding rather than a porridge2 then1 while it is still hot 7#aej or thereabouts7 in the saucepan1 add some dry malt flour 7equal to one-eighth to one-fourth of the oatmeal used74 ,stir this dry flour into it and a curious transformation will take place4 ,the dry flour instead of thickening the mixture acts like the addition of water1 and converts the thick pudding into a thin porridge4 ,i find that this paradox greatly astonishes the practical cook4 ,,footnote3 #bb ,i have lately learned that a patent was secured some years ago for #8malt bread1' and that such bread is obtainable from bakers who make it under a license from the patentee4 ,the #8revised formula' for #ahhd1 which ,i have just obtained1 says3 #8,take of wheat meal #f lbs41 wheat flour #f lbs41 malt flour #f oz41 ,german yeast #b oz41 salt #b oz41 water sufficient4 ,make into dough 7without first melting the malt71 prove well1 and bake in tins4' ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,physiology ,,of ,,nutrition4 ,i ,,have repeatedly spoken of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents of food1 assuming that the nitrogenous are the more nutritious1 are the plastic or flesh-building materials1 and that the non-nitrogenous materials cannot build up flesh or bone or nervous matter1 can only supply the material of fat1 and by their combustion maintain the animal heat4 ,in doing so ,i have been treading on loose ground--,i may say on a scientific quicksand4 ,when ,i first taught practical physiology to children in ,edinburgh1 many years ago1 this part of the subject was much easier to teach than now4 ,the simple and elegant theory of ,liebig was then generally accepted1 and appeared quite sound4 ,according to this1 every muscular effort is performed at the expense of muscular tissue2 every mental effort1 at the expense of cerebral tissue2 and so on with all the forces of life4 ,this consumption or degradation of tissue demands continual supplies of food for its renewal1 and as all the working organs of the animal are composed of nitrogenous tissue1 it is clearly necessary1 according to this1 that we should be supplied with nitrogenous food to renew them1 seeing that the nitrogen of the air cannot be assimilated by animals at all4 ,but besides doing mechanical and mental work1 the animal body is continually giving out heat1 and its temperature must be maintained4 ,food is also demanded for this1 and the non-nitrogenous food is the most readily combustible1 especially the hydro-carbons or fats2 the carbo-hydrates--starch1 sugar1 c4--also1 but in lower degree4 ,these1 then1 were described as fuel food1 or heat-producers4 ,this view is strongly confirmed by a multitude of familiar facts4 ,men1 horses1 and other animals cannot do continuous hard work without a supply of nitrogenous food2 the harder the work the more they require1 and the greater becomes their craving for it4 ,on the other hand1 when such food is eaten in large quantities by idle people1 they become victims of inflammatory disease1 or their health otherwise suffers1 according1 probably1 to whether they assimilate or reject it4 ,man is a cosmopolitan animal1 and the variations of his natural demand for food in different climates affords very direct support to ,liebig's theory4 ,enormous quantities of hydro-carbon1 in the form of fat1 are consumed by the ,esquimaux and by ,europeans when they winter in the ,arctic regions4 ,they cannot live there without it4 ,in hot climates some fuel food is required1 and the milder form of carbo-hydrates is chosen1 and found to be most suitable2 rice1 which is mainly composed of starch1 is an example4 ,sugar also4 ,offer an ,esquimaux a tallow candle and a rice or tapioca pudding2 he will reject the latter1 and eat the former with great relish4 ,a multitude of other facts might be stated1 all supporting ,liebig's theory4 ,there is one that just occurs to me as ,i write1 which ,i will state1 as it appears to have been hitherto unnoticed4 ,some organs which act in such wise that we can see their mode of action are visibly disintegrated and consumed by their own activity1 and may be seen to demand the perpetual renewal described by ,liebig4 ,there are glands of cellular structure which cast off their terminal cells containing the fluid they secrete2 do their work by giving up their own structural substance at their peripheral working surface4 ,where1 then1 is the quicksand8 ,it is here4 ,if muscular and mental work were done at the expense of the nitrogenous muscular and cerebral tissues1 the quantity of nitrogen excreted should vary with the amount of work done4 ,this was formerly stated to be the case without hesitation1 as the following passage from ,carpenter's #8,manual of ,physiology' 7#crd edition1 #ahef1 page #bef71 shows3 #8,every action of the nervous and muscular systems involves the death and decay of a certain amount of the living tissue1 as is indicated by the appearance of the products of that decay in the excretions4' ,more recent experiments by ,fick and ,wislicenus1 ,parkes1 ,houghton1 ,ranke1 ,voit1 ,flint1 and others are said to contradict this by showing that the waste nitrogen varies with the quantity of nitrogenous food that is eaten1 but not with the muscular work done4 ,for the details of these experiments ,i must refer the reader to standard modern physiological treatises1 as a full description of them would carry me too far away from my immediate subject4 7,dr4 ,pavy's #8,treatise on ,food' has an introductory chapter on #8,the ,dynamic ,relations of ,food1' in which this subject is clearly treated in sufficient detail for popular reading47 ,it is quite the fashion now to rely upon these later experiments2 but for my own part1 ,i am by no means satisfied with them--and for this reason1 that the excretions from the skin and from the lungs were not examined4 ,it is just these which are greatly increased by exercise1 and their normal quantity is very large1 especially those from the skin1 which are threefold1 viz4 the insensible perspiration1 which is transpired by the skin as invisible vapour2 the sweat1 which is liquid1 and the solid particles of exuded cuticle4 ,lavoisier and ,seguin long ago made very laborious experiments upon themselves in order to determine the amount of the insensible perspiration4 ,seguin enclosed himself in a bag of glazed taffeta1 which was tied over him with no other opening than a hole corresponding to his mouth2 the edges of this hole were glued to his lips with a mixture of turpentine and pitch4 ,he carefully weighed himself and the bag before and after his enclosure therein4 ,his own loss of weight being partly from the lungs and partly from the skin1 the amount gained by the bag represented the quantity of the latter2 the difference between this and the loss of his own weight gave the amount exhaled from the lungs4 ,he thus found that the largest quantity of insensible exhalation from the lungs and skin together amounted to #c oz4 per hour1 or at the rate of #e lbs4 per day4 ,the smallest quantity was #a lb4 #ad oz41 and the mean was #c lbs4 #aa oz4 ,three-fourths of this was cutaneous4 ,these figures only show the quantity of insensible perspiration during repose4 ,valentin found that his hourly loss by cutaneous exhalation while sitting amounted to #cbh grammes1 or rather less than #a oz4 ,on taking exercise1 with an empty stomach1 in the sun1 the hourly loss increased to #hic grammes1 or nearly three times as much4 ,after a meal followed by violent exercise1 with the temperature of the air at #gb ,f41 it amounted to #acbg grammes1 or nearly #d times as much as during repose4 ,a robust man1 taking violent exercise in hot weather1 may give off as much as #e lbs4 in an hour4 ,the third excretion from the skin1 the epithelial or superficial scales of the epidermis1 is small in weight1 but it is solid1 and of similar composition to gelatin4 ,it should be understood that this increases largely with exercise4 ,the practice of sponging and #8rubbing down' of athletes removes the excess2 but ,i am not aware of any attempt that has been made to determine accurately the quantity thus removed4 ,does the skin excrete nitrogenous matter that may be1 like urea1 a product of the degradation or destruction of muscular tissue8 ,the following passage from ,lehmann's #8,physiological ,chemistry' 7vol4 ii4 p4 #chi71 shows that the skin throws out plenty of nitrogen obtained from somewhere3 #8,it has been shown by the experiments of ,milly1 ,jurine1 ,ingenhouss1 ,spallanzani1 ,abernethy1 ,barruel1 and ,collard di ,martigny1 that gases1 and especially carbonic acid and nitrogen1 are likewise exhaled with the liquid secretion of the sudiparious glands4 ,according to the last-named experimentalist the ratio between these two gases is very variable2 thus1 in the gas developed after vegetable food there is a preponderance of carbonic acid1 and1 after animal food1 there is an excess of nitrogen4 ,abernethy found that on an average the collective gas contained rather more than two-thirds of carbonic acid and rather less than one-third of nitrogen4' ,but it appears that less gas is exhaled when there is much liquid perspiration4 ,lehmann's summary of the experiments of ,abernethy1 ,brunner1 and ,valentin 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cia71 gives the amount of hourly exudation1 under ordinary circumstances1 as #ejga grammes of water1 #jbe of a gramme of carbon1 and #jib of a gramme of nitrogen4 ,this amounts to #ba grammes of nitrogen per day in the insensible perspiration2 three-quarters of an ounce avoirdupois1 or as much nitrogen as is contained in one pound and a half of natural living muscle4 ,that the liquid perspiration contains compounds of nitrogen1 and just such compounds as would result from the degradation of nitrogenous tissue1 is unquestionable4 ,as ,lehmann says 7vol4 ii4 p4 #chi71 #8the sweat very easily decomposes1 and gives rise to the secondary formation of ammonia4' ,simon and ,berzelius found salts of ammonia in the sweat3 that the ammonia is combined both with hydrochloric acid and with organic acids3 that it probably exists as carbonate of ammonia in alkaline sweat4 ,the existence of urea in sweat appears to be uncertain2 some chemists assert its presence1 others deny it4 ,favre and ,schottin1 for example1 who have both studied the subject very carefully1 are at direct variance4 ,i suspect that both are right1 as its presence or absence is variable1 and appears to depend on the condition of the subject of the experiment4 ,favre describes a special nitrogenous acid which he discovered in sweat1 and names it hydrotic or sudoric acid4 ,its composition corresponds1 according to his analysis1 to the formula ,c#aj;,h#h,,no#ac4 ,i have summarised these facts1 as they show clearly enough that conclusions based on an examination of the quantity of nitrogen excreted by the kidneys alone 7and such is the sole basis of the modern theories71 are of little or no value in determining whether or not muscular work is accompanied with degradation of muscular tissue4 ,the well known fact that the total quantity of excretory work done by the skin increases with muscular work1 while that from the kidneys rather diminishes1 indicates in the plainest possible manner that an examination of the skin secretion should be primary in connection with this question4 ,to entirely neglect this in such a research is a scientific parallel to the histrionic feat of performing the tragedy of #8,hamlet' with the ,prince of ,denmark omitted4 ,seeing that it has been entirely neglected1 ,i am justified in expressing1 very plainly and positively1 my opinion of the worthlessness of all the modern research upon which the alleged refutation of ,liebig's theory of the destruction and renewal of living tissue in the performance of vital work is based1 and my rejection of the modern alternative hypothesis concerning the manner in which food supplies the material demanded for muscular and mental work4 ,i may be accused of rashness and presumption in thus attempting to stem the overwhelming current of modern scientific progress4 ,such1 however1 is not the case4 ,it is modern scientific fashion1 rather than scientific progress1 that ,i oppose4 ,we have too much of this millinery spirit in the scientific world just now2 too much eagerness to run after #8the last thing out1' and assume1 with undue readiness1 that the #8latest researches' are1 of course1 the best--especially where fashionable physicians are concerned4 ,having summarised ,liebig's theory of the source of vital power1 and its supposed refutation by modern experiments1 ,i will now endeavour to state the alternative modern hypothesis1 though not without difficulty1 nor with satisfactory result1 seeing that the recent theorists are vague and self-contradictory4 ,all agree that vital power or liberated force is obtained at the expense of some kind of chemical action of a destructive or oxidising character1 and is1 therefore1 theoretically analogous to the source of power in a steam-engine2 but when they come to the practical question of the demand for working fuel or food1 they abandon this analogy4 ,pavy says 7#8,treatise on ,food and ,dietetics1' page #f73 #8,in the liberation of actual force1 a complete analogy may be traced between the animal system and a steam-engine4 ,both are media for the conversion of latent into actual force4 ,in the animal system1 combustible material is supplied under the form of the various kinds of food1 and oxygen is taken in for the process of respiration4 ,from the chemical energy due to the combination of these1 force is liberated in an active state2 and1 besides manifesting itself as heat1 and in other ways peculiar to the animal system1 is capable of performing mechanical work4' ,in another place 7page #ei of same work71 after describing ,liebig's view1 ,dr4 ,pavy says3 #8,the facts which have been already adduced' 7those above described on the nitrogen eliminated by the kidneys71 #8suffice to refute this doctrine4 ,indeed1 it may be considered as abundantly proved that food does not require to become organised tissue before it can be rendered available for force-production4' ,on page #ha he says3 #8,while nitrogenous matter may be regarded as forming the essential basis of structures possessing active or living properties1 the non-nitrogenous principles may be looked upon as supplying the source of power4 ,the one may be spoken of as holding the position of the instrument of action1 while the other supplies the motive power4 ,nitrogenous alimentary matter may1 it is true1 by oxidation contribute to the generation of the moving force1 but1 as has been explained1 in fulfilling this office there is evidence before us to show that it is split up into two distinct portions1 one containing the nitrogen1 which is eliminated as useless1 and a residuary non-nitrogenous portion which is retained and utilised in force-production4' ,the italics are mine1 for reasons presently to be explained4 ,pavy's work contains repetitions and further illustrations of this attribution of the origin of force to the non-nitrogenous elements of food4 ,then we have a statement of the experiments of ,joule on the mechanical equivalent of heat1 connected with experiments of ,frankland with the apparatus that is used for determining the calorific value of coal1 c4--viz4 a little tubular furnace charged with a mixture of the combustible to be tested1 and chlorate of potash4 ,this being placed in a tube1 open below1 and thrust under water1 is fired1 and gives out all its heat to the surrounding liquid1 the rise of temperature of which measures the calorific value of the substance 7see fig4 #g1 page #ba1 #8,simple ,treatise on ,heat'74 ,from this result is calculated the mechanical work obtainable from a given quantity of different food materials4 ,that from a gramme is given as follows3 ,beef fat #bg1ggh ,units of work1 ,starch 7arrowroot7 #aa1ihc or number of ,lump sugar #aj1bed pounds lifted ,grape sugar #aj1jch one foot4 ,in ,dr4 ,edward ,smith's treatise on #8,food1' the foot-pound equivalent of each kind of food is specifically stated in such a manner as to lead the student to conclude that this represents its actual working efficiency as food4 ,other modern writers represent it in like manner4 ,here1 then1 comes the bearing of these theories on my subject4 ,a practical dietary or menu is demanded1 say1 for navvies or for athletes in full work2 another for sedentary people doing little work of any kind4 ,according to the new theory1 the best possible food for the first class is fat1 butter being superior to lean beef in the proportion of #ad1dba to #b1hbi 7,smith71 and beef fat having nearly eight times the value of lean beef4 ,ten grains of rice give #g1ded foot-pounds of working-power1 while the same quantity of lean beef gives only #b1hbi2 according to which #a lb4 of rice should supply as much support to hard workers as #b lbs4 of beefsteak4 ,none of the modern theorists dare to be consistent when dealing with such direct practical applications4 ,i might quote a multitude of other palpable inconsistencies of the theory1 which is so slippery that it cannot be firmly grasped4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,pavy 7page #djc71 immediately after describing bacon fat as #8the most efficient kind of force-producing material1' and stating that #8the non-nitrogenous alimentary principles appear to possess a higher dietetic value than the nitrogenous1' tells us that #8the performance of work may be looked upon as necessitating a proportionate supply of nitrogenous alimentary matter1' and his reason for this admission being that such nitrogenous material is required for the nutrition of the muscles themselves4 ,a pretty tissue of inconsistencies is thus supplied6 ,non-nitrogenous food is the best force-producer--it corresponds to the fuel of the steam-engine2 the nitrogenous is necessary only to repair the machine4 ,nevertheless1 when force production is specially demanded1 the food required is not the force-producer1 but the special builder of muscles1 the which muscles1 according to theory1 are not used up and renewed in doing the work4 ,it must be remembered that the whole of this modern theoretical fabric is built upon the experiments which are supposed to show that there is no more elimination of nitrogenous matter during hard work than during rest4 ,yet we are told that #8the performance of work may be looked upon as necessitating a proportionate supply of nitrogenous alimentary matter1' and that such material #8is split up into two distinct portions1 one containing the nitrogen1 which is eliminated as useless4' ,this thesis is proved by experiments showing 7as asserted7 that such elimination is not so proportioned4 ,in short1 the modern theory presents us with the following pretty paradox4 ,the consumption of nitrogenous food is proportionate to work done4 ,the elimination of nitrogen is not proportionate to work done4 ,the elimination of nitrogen is proportionate to the consumption of nitrogenous food4 ,i have tried hard to obtain a rational physiological view of the modern theory4 ,when its advocates compare our food to the fuel of an engine1 and maintain that its combustion directly supplies the moving power1 what do they mean8 ,they cannot suppose that the food is thus oxidised as food1 yet such is implied4 ,the work cannot be done in the stomach1 nor in the intestinal canal1 nor in the mesenteric glands1 nor in their outlet1 the thoracic duct4 ,after leaving this1 the food becomes organised living material1 the blood being such4 ,the question1 therefore1 as between the new theory and that of ,liebig1 must be whether work is effected by the combustion of the blood itself or by the degradation of the working tissues1 which are fed and renewed by the blood4 ,although this is so obviously the only rational physiological question1 ,i have not found it thus stated4 ,such being the case1 the supposed analogy to the steam-engine breaks down altogether2 the food is certainly assimilated1 is converted into the living material of the animal itself before it does any work1 and therefore it must be the wear and tear of the machine itself which supplies the working power1 and not that of the food as mere fuel material shovelled directly into the animal furnace4 ,i thus agree with ,playfair1 who says that the modern theory involves a #8false analogy of the animal body to a steam-engine1' and that #8incessant transformation of the acting parts of the animal machine forms the condition for its action1 while in the case of the steam-engine it is the transformation of fuel external to the machine which causes it to move4' ,pavy says that #8,dr4 ,playfair1 in these utterances1 must be regarded as writing behind the time4' ,he may be behind as regards the fashion1 but ,i think he is in advance as regards the truth4 ,my readers1 therefore1 need not be ashamed of clinging to the old-fashioned belief that their own bodies are alive throughout1 and perform all the operations of working1 feeling1 thinking1 c41 by virtue of their own inherent self-contained vitality1 and that in doing this they consume their own substance1 which has to be perpetually replaced by new material1 its quality depending upon the manner of working and the matter and manner of replacement4 ,the course of our own evolution thus depends upon ourselves2 we may1 according to our own daily conduct1 be building up a better body and a better mind1 or one that shall be worse than the fair promise of the original germ4 ,therefore the philosophy of the preparation of the material of which the body and brain are built up and renewed must be worthy of careful study4 ,this philosophy is #8,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,cookery4' ,,index4 ,,acids1 mineral and vegetable1 #bbd ,arated bread1 #bjf ,albumen1 #ai coagulation of1 #bj of flesh1 #bd loss of in boiling fish and meat1 #bd ,allotropism1 #hh ,alum in bread1 #bjc ,animal diastase1 #ahf ,apple fritters1 #aja ,argol1 #bgc ,arrowroot1 #agi ,arsenic eating1 #bef ,,bain-,,marie1 #bb1 #aai ,baked meat1 prejudice against1 #fd ,baking versus roasting of meat1 #fe ,barley sugar1 #hh ,basting1 #eg ,bavarian beggars and ,count ,rumford1 #bbi ,birds'-nests1 edible1 #ce ,blood-fibrin1 #dc #8,boiled meat' is not boiled1 #ad ,boiling of fat1 #hd of water1 #h ,bone-soup ,commission of ,french ,academy1 #cf ,borized meat1 #agj milk1 #aga ,bosch v4 butter1 #afg v4 butterine1 #add ,boussingault's experiments on bread1 #bjg ,bread1 #aig ,british gum1 #ahb ,browning of roasted meat1 #gh rationale of1 #hg ,budrum1 #caj ,butter1 #afc and infection1 #aff ,,calcareous ,,water1 #aj ,cancer and flesh eating1 #cja ,caramel1 #hg-hi a disinfectant1 #ib ,carnivorous1 a sheep1 #cja ,casein1 #abg changes of1 #abh vegetable1 #baa ,cayenne pepper1 #bfj ,cellular tissue1 #agd1 #ahj ,cheese1 cookery of1 #acf digestibility of1 #ace in soup1 #adi nutritive value of1 #aca phosphates in1 #acc porridge1 #aea pudding1 #acf solubility of1 #adc ,chemical analysis and nutritive value of food1 #f ,chinese and cooked water1 #ac ,chitin1 #cc ,chondrin1 #cc ,cocoa1 #bfa #8,coffee as in ,france1' #if ,colloids and crystalloids1 #aae ,composition of albumen1 gelatin1 and fibrin1 #de kreatine and kreatinine1 #df ,condensed milk1 #abi ,condiments1 #bei ,convection in roasting1 #di ,cooked water1 #aj ,cream1 #afb ,crust of bread1 #ia1 #acf1 #bjj ,curd of milk1 #abg ,,dextrin1 #ahb1 #ahe in bread1 #bjj ,diastase1 #ahd1 #cjc ,diastased porridge1 #cje1 #cjf1 #caa1 #cab ,difference between vegetable and animal food1 #agg1 #big ,diffusion of liquids1 #aab ,digestion of starch1 #ahf ,dinner of a ,french or ,swiss peasant1 #abf ,diosmosis1 #aad ,disinfection of water by boiling1 #ab by toast1 #ib ,dissociation of flavours1 #di ,dolby's extractor1 #abj ,domestic chops and steaks1 #eb ,dough1 #aig ,dripping1 #aei ,drunkenness and cookery1 #fa ,,economical ,,frying1 #ih ,effects of diastased porridge1 #caa ,eggs1 cookery of1 #bb nutritive value of1 #ai of feathered and featherless young birds1 #bj ,endosmosis and exosmosis1 #aad ,english stewing1 #abd ,ensilage of human food1 #bad by means of diastase1 #cjh ,excretion of nitrogen from the skin1 #caf ,expansion of well-grilled meat1 #ec ,experiment with ,rumford's roaster1 #gd ,explosion of water1 #hf ,extract of meat1 #aag ,,fat1 #aef action of heat on1 #hd1 #aeh bath for joints1 #eg for frying1 #aja ,fermentation of bread1 #aih ,ferments1 #ahd ,fibrin1 #dc ,fish1 boiling of1 #bd1 #bg cooked in paper1 #fj roasting1 #eh with cheese1 #aec ,flames1 different kinds of1 and grilling1 #ea ,flavouring power of the juices of meat1 #bf ,flesh feeding1 a temporary barbarism1 #g ,flummery1 #caj ,fondu1 #acf ,forces of nature co-operating with man1 #b ,frozen meat1 #id1 #afh ,fruit jelly1 #bbe ,frying1 #hd kettle1 #ih theory of1 #ig ,fuel wasted in boiling1 #ae ,,gastric ,,juice1 modification of1 #dd ,gelatin1 fibrin1 and the juices of meat1 #cb hydration of1 #da solubility of1 #cb ,gluten1 #aid fibrin and gluten casein1 #aie ,glycerine1 #aeg ,green-pea clear soup1 #bai ,grilling of chops and steaks1 #eb ,gum arabic1 #ahc ,,hasty ,,pudding ,,and ,,cheese1 #aeb ,hot rolls from stale bread1 #bjh ,hydration of gelatin1 #da of starch1 #aha ,,incrustation ,,of ,,boilers1 kettles1 c41 #aa ,isinglass1 #cf1 #da ,italian cookery1 #ij of cheese1 #adi ,,johnston ,,on ,,tea ,,and ,,coffee1 #bea ,juices of meat1 #be1 #dj1 #de ,,kitchen ,a ,,chemical ,,laboratory1 the1 #d ,kitchener-ovens and roasters1 #g ,kreatine and kreatinine1 #de ,,lard1 #aei dissociation of1 #he ,leaven1 #bjf ,leg of mutton1 how to boil1 #bf ,legumin1 #bab ,lehmann on coffee1 #bea #8,liaison au roux1' #ij ,liebig on gelatin1 #cf on tea and coffee1 #bea ,liebig's extract of meat1 #be1 #cg ,lignin1 #agd ,lime in bread1 #bje ,lobster suppers1 #cc ,locusts as food1 #cd ,,maceration1 #aab ,magnesia in bread1 #bfe ,malt1 action on various foods1 #cje directions for using1 #cjf1 #cab ,malted food1 #cjc ,man1 the cooking animal1 #bie ,man's work on earth1 #a ,marie ,antoinette's pie-crust1 #agf ,milk1 a carrier of infection1 #afd composition of1 #afb cooking of1 #afc dietetic value of1 #afa for herbivora1 carnivora1 and man1 #bif supply to ,london1 #afc ,muscle fibrin1 #dc ,,new ,,and ,,stale ,,bread1 #bjg ,nitrogenous principles of plants and animals compared1 #aie ,norwegian cooking apparatus1 #bd1 #cj ,nutrition1 fashionable theory of1 #cae inconsistencies of fashionable theory of1 #cai ,liebig's theory of1 #cac ,playfair on the physiology of1 #cbd the physiology of1 #cac ,nutritive value of food as affected by cookery1 #f of gelatin1 #cf ,,nanthic ,,ether1 #bgj ,oils for frying1 #ajg volatile and fixed1 #hd ,old hens1 how to roast1 #abe1 #abf ,oleomargarine1 #adf ,oven1 construction of1 #hj ,oysters and invalids1 #ahj ,,parmesan ,,cheese1 #aea1 #bbj ,pasteuring of wine1 #bfi ,peasants' food in ,italy and ,france1 #fa1 #abf ,pease-pudding1 #bad-bah ,pectin1 #bbe ,penny dinners1 #bdd ,phosphates in milk and cheese1 #acc ,phosphorus in bones and brain1 #acd ,popped corn1 #baj ,porridge v4 flesh1 #bii ,potage and stewed meat1 #aaf value of1 #bai ,potash bitartrate1 solubility of1 #bgb food1 #bba in cheese cookery1 #ada in potatoes1 #aij scurvy1 gout1 c41 #adb ,potatoes in bread1 #bjb a curse of ,ireland1 #aic and cheese porridge1 #aeb and scurvy1 #aij cookery of1 #ahi nutritive value of1 #aib ,purification of fat1 #aja ,,radiation ,,and ,,convection ,,in ,,roasting1 #di in grilling1 #dg ,rahat ,lakoum1 #bbe ,rationale of roasting1 #dh ,reaction from tea1 #beg ,rennet1 #abi ,rice and cheese1 #aec #8,risotto la ,milanese1' #aej ,roasting an ox1 #ef and grilling1 #dg before open fire1 evils of1 #fj large joints1 #ee small joints1 #ec ,rumford1 ,count of1 #e on boiling meat1 #af on military rations1 #bda on the pleasure of eating1 #bch ,rumford's cookery1 #bbg ,rumford's experiment on low temperature roasting1 #bi roaster1 #fc1 #gj roasting oven1 #gf soup1 #bca soup compared with flesh food1 #bih ,,sago1 #ahi ,saliva and diastase1 #cjd ,salivary diastase1 #ahf ,salmon cooking in ,norway1 #bh ,samp1 #bdj ,sauer-kraut1 #baf ,sawdust as food1 #age ,science in the kitchen1 #d ,seeds as food1 #aid ,sheep1 a carnivorous and cannibal1 #cja ,sherbet1 #bbe ,shrimps1 fried1 #cd ,simmering and boiling1 #ad ,small joints and their cookery1 #ec ,smith1 ,dr41 on tea1 #bed ,snail soup1 #ce ,soluble and insoluble casein1 #acj ,solution of vegetable casein1 #bag ,south ,kensington food exhibits1 #baa ,sowans1 #caj ,specific sapidity of food1 #bci ,spinning of sugar1 #hi ,starch1 #agh1 #aha ,stearic acid1 #aeg ,stewing1 #aaa and albumen1 #aai ,stirabout and cheese1 #aec ,sulphate of copper in bread1 #bje ,super-heaters1 cost of1 #ge ,syntonin1 #dc ,,tapioca1 #ahh ,tea and coffee1 ,rumford's substitute for1 #bde physiological action of1 #bdf ,technical and technological education1 #c ,temperature for stewing1 #aah of vegetable cookery1 #agg ,tenderness1 true and false1 #aba ,testing the temperature of fat bath1 #ajj ,thermometers for the kitchen1 #gi for fat bath1 #aje ,thomson1 ,sir ,henry1 on roasting of fish1 #eh ,tinned meat1 #aba ,toast and water1 #ib ,tripe and cheese1 #aed ,,unfermented ,,bread1 #bjj ,,vapours ,,of ,,roasting ,,meat1 #gh ,vegetable casein1 #baa diet1 economy of1 #cja fibrin1 casein and gluten1 #aie food and mixed diet compared1 #big juices1 #baa -marrow au gratin1 #aee tissue1 #agc ,vegetables1 the cookery of1 #agc ,vegetarian question1 the1 #bid ,,warren',s ,,cooking-,,pot1 #ha ,waste of fuel in boiling1 #ae ,water-bath cookery1 #aai ,water in fish1 #hf ,whole-meal bread1 #f1 #bjd ,wine1 artificial bouquet of1 #bia artificial colour of1 #bhh bouquet of1 #bhh cookery of1 #bfe cost of1 #bfe-bib drying of1 #bhj natural colour of1 #bhh ,pasteuring of1 #bfi plastering of1 #bgg sickness of1 #bga sulphuric acid in1 #bgf ,,yolk ,,of ,,egg1 ,,its ,,coagulation1 #bc ,spottiswoode ,co4 ,printers1 ,new-street ,square1 ,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,obvious punctuation errors repaired4 ,larger vulgar fractions had been printed with a hyphen instead of a slash4 ,this was changed to a slash for conformity4 7#a-cjth is now #a_/cjth7 ,page #ed1 8is0 changed to 8it0 7exposed1 it is evident7 ,page #ha1 8judgment0 changed to 8judgement0 7the judgement of which7 ,page #ajh1 while it seems that this sentence is missing an object3 ,when common sense and true sentiment supplant mere unreasoning prejudice1 vegetable oils and vegetable fats will largely supplant those of animal origin in every element of our dietary4 ,it has been quoted in just that manner across numerous publications4 ,page #aji1 8facts0 changed to 8fats0 7the chemistry of fats7 ,page #cbh1 the text refers to the now more usually spelled 8sauerkraut0 as 8sour-kraut0 in the text and 8,sauer-kraut0 in the index4 ,these usages were retained as printed4 ,page #cbh1 8fath0 changed to 8fat0 7for fat bath7