,transcriber's ,notes ,italic text is marked thus4 ,bold text is marked thus ,the spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation is as the original1 with the exception of apparent printer's errors4 ,,hall1 ,,russell ,co4 ,,limited ,shipbuilders1 ,engineers and ,boilermakers ,,aberdeen ,,speciality ,the designing and building of ,,steam ,,trawlers and ,,fishing ,,vessels for ,,north ,,sea ,,icelandic ,,newfoundland ,,and ,,tropical ,,fishing ,,telegrams3 8,,halrussel1 ,,aberdeen0 ,,telegrams4 ,,massey ,,hull ,,telephones3-- ,,hull4 #ebac ,,nat4 7#f ,,lines7 ,,grimsby4 #bfae ,,nat4 ,w4 ,a4 ,,massey ,,sons ,,limited4 ,ship ,salesmen1 ,valuers1 ,,brokers for the ,,sale ,,purchase of every description of ,shipping property4 ,,steam ,,trawlers1 and every kind of ,fishing ,vessel a speciality4 ,contractors to the ,british ,admiralty ,crown ,agents for the ,colonies1 c41 c4 ,head ,office1 ,,alfred ,,gelder ,,street1 ,,hull4 ,branch ,offices at ,,grimsby1 ,,goole and ,,immingham4 ,,the ,,fishing ,,industry ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,series ,each book in crown #hvo1 illustrated1 #c_/-net ,,tea4 ,by ,a4 ,,ibbetson ,,coffee4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,keable ,,sugar4 ,by ,,geo4 ,,martineau1 ,c4,b4 ,,oils4 ,by ,c4 ,,ainsworth ,,mitchell1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,wheat4 ,by ,,andrew ,,millar4 ,,rubber4 ,by ,c4 ,,beadle and ,h4 ,p4 ,,stevens1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,by ,c4 ,,hood ,,copper4 ,by ,h4 ,k4 ,,picard ,,coal4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,,wilson1 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,,timber4 ,by ,w4 ,,bullock ,,cotton4 ,by ,r4 ,j4 ,,peake ,,silk4 ,by ,,luther ,,hooper ,,wool4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,hunter ,,linen4 ,by ,,alfred ,s4 ,,moore ,,tobacco4 ,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,tanner ,,leather4 ,by ,k4 ,j4 ,,adcock ,,knitted ,,fabrics4 ,by ,j4 ,,chamberlain and ,j4 ,h4 ,,quilter ,,clays4 ,by ,,alfred ,s4 ,,searle ,,paper4 ,by ,,harry ,a4 ,,maddox ,,soap4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,simmons1 ,b4,sc4 ,,the ,,motor ,,industry4 ,by ,,horace ,,wyatt1 ,b4,a4 ,,glass ,,and ,,glass ,,making4 ,by ,,percival ,,marson ,,gums ,,and ,,resins4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,parry1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,the ,,boot ,,and ,,shoe ,,industry4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,harding ,,gas ,,and ,,gas ,,making4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,y4 ,,webber ,,furniture4 ,by ,h4 ,e4 ,,binstead ,,coal ,,tar4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,warnes ,,petroleum4 ,by ,a4 ,,lidgett ,,salt4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,,calvert ,,zinc4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,lones1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,,photography4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,gamble ,,asbestos4 ,by ,a4 ,l4 ,,summers ,,silver4 ,by ,,benjamin ,,white ,,carpets4 ,by ,,reginald ,s4 ,,brinton ,,paints ,,and ,,varnishes4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,,jennings ,,cordage ,,and ,,cordage ,,hemp ,,and ,,fibres4 ,by ,t4 ,,woodhouse and ,p4 ,,kilgour ,,acids ,,and ,,alkalis4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,adlam ,,electricity4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,neale1 ,b4,sc41 ,hons4 ,,aluminium4 ,by ,g4 ,,mortimer ,,gold4 ,by ,,benjamin ,,white ,,butter ,,and ,,cheese4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,walker-,,tisdale and ,,jean ,,jones ,,the ,,british ,,corn ,,trade4 ,by ,a4 ,,barker ,,lead4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,,smythe1 ,d4,sc4 ,,engraving4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,lascelles ,,stones ,,and ,,quarries4 ,by ,j4 ,,allen ,,howe1 ,o4,b4,e41 ,b4,sc4 ,,explosives4 ,by ,s4 ,i4 ,,levy1 ,b4,sc4 ,,the ,,clothing ,,industry4 ,by ,b4 ,w4 ,,poole1 ,m4,u4,k4,a4 ,,telegraphy1 ,,telephony1 ,,and ,,wireless4 ,by ,j4 ,,poole ,,perfumery4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,,parry ,,the ,,electric ,,lamp ,,industry4 ,by ,g4 ,,arncliffe ,,percival ,,ice ,,and ,,cold ,,storage4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,,springett ,,gloves ,,and ,,the ,,glove ,,trade4 ,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,ellis ,,jute4 ,by ,t4 ,,woodhouse and ,p4 ,,kilgour ,,drugs ,,in ,,commerce4 ,by ,j4 ,,humphrey ,,the ,,film ,,industry4 ,by ,,davidson ,,boughey ,,cycle ,,industry4 ,by ,w4 ,,grew ,,sulphur4 ,by ,,harold ,a4 ,,auden ,,textile ,,bleaching4 ,by ,,alec ,b4 ,,steven ,,player ,,plano4 ,by ,d4 ,,miller ,,wilson ,,wine ,,and ,,the ,,wine ,,trade4 ,by ,,andre ,l4 ,,simon ,,ironfounding4 ,by ,b4 ,,whiteley ,,cotton ,,spinning4 ,by ,a4 ,s4 ,,wade ,,alcohol ,,in ,,commerce4 ,by ,c4 ,,simmonds1 ,o4,b4,e41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,concrete ,,and ,,reinforced ,,concrete4 ,by ,w4 ,,noble ,,twelvetrees ,,sponges4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,cresswell ,,wall ,,paper4 ,by ,g4 ,,whiteley ,,ward ,,clocks ,,and ,,watches4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,,overton ,,incandescent ,,lighting4 ,by ,s4 ,i4 ,,levy1 ,b4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,the ,,fishing ,,industry4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,gibbs ,,oil ,,for ,,power ,,purposes4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,,north ,,starch ,,and ,,starch ,,products4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,auden1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,talking ,,machines4 ,by ,o4 ,,mitchell ,,nickel4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,,white ,illustration3 ,,hauling ,,the ,,trawl ,frontispiece4 ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,the ,,fishing ,,industry ,,by ,w4 ,e4 ,,gibbs1 ,d4,sc4 ,illustration3 ,printer's mark ,,london ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,parker ,,street1 ,,kingsway1 ,w4,c4#b ,,bath1 ,,melbourne1 ,,toronto1 ,,new ,,york #aibb ,,printed ,,by ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,,bath1 ,,england ,,preface ,in this little book ,i have tried to describe concisely1 yet clearly and comprehensively1 the great work of our sea fisheries4 ,it is notoriously difficult to write a small book on a large subject1 and ,i expect there are many who will detect sins of omission4 ,the book is chiefly concerned with fisheries for edible fish4 ,i have included a chapter on whale fisheries1 since whale oil is now used largely in the manufacture of such food substances as lard substitute and margarine4 ,no account of seal 8fishing0 is included1 as seals are not fished but are generally hunted on shore4 ,i have not included fisheries for pearls1 sponges or seaweed4 ,to its cost the nation knows little of the methods and organization and achievements of the ,fishing ,industry4 ,i sincerely hope that this little book may do something to stimulate a wider and deeper interest in this vitally important ,british industry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,my cordial thanks are due to ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,robertson1 ,o4,b4,e41 of ,fleetwood1 and to ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,sinderson1 of ,grimsby1 who have very kindly read through the manuscript and given me the benefit of their valuable experience and advice4 ,i am indebted to ,prof4 ,james ,johnstone1 of ,liverpool ,university1 for much of the information contained in ,chapters ,i and ,,ii1 and also for permission to use the illustrations on pages #ag and #bi4 ,for other illustrations ,i make grateful acknowledgement as follows3 for ,nos4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ae1 #af1 #ag and #ai1 from ,the ,sea ,fisheries1 to the author1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,travis ,jenkins1 and the publishers1 ,messrs4 ,constable2 for the frontispiece and ,no #ah1 to the ,grimsby ,coal1 ,salt and ,tanning ,co2 for ,nos4 #aa1 #ad and #bj to ,mr4 ,walter ,wood1 of the ,mission to ,deep ,sea ,fishermen4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,fleming1 of ,liverpool ,university1 very kindly copied ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d and #e for me from ,day's ,british ,fishes4 ,chapter ,v is based upon ,bitting's monograph on 8the preparation of the cod and other salt fish for the market40 7,u4,s4 ,dept4 ,agric4 ,bur4 of ,chem4 ,bull4 ,no4 #acc74 ,w4 ,e4 ,g4 ,,runcorn1 #aibb4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,,preface ,v ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,characteristics ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,fishes #af ,,iii4 ,,methods ,,of ,,fishing #db ,,iv4 ,,the ,,herring ,,fishing ,,industry #ed ,v4 ,,the ,,newfoundland ,,cod ,,fishery #fi ,,vi4 ,,trawl ,,fisheries #gg ,,vii4 ,,shellfish #ij ,,viii4 ,,fisheries ,,for ,,whales #ii ,,ix4 ,,the ,,curing ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,fish #ajg ,x4 ,,the ,,food ,,value ,,of ,,fish #aae ,,xi4 ,,fish ,,products #abd ,,index #acc ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page ,,hauling ,,the ,,trawl ,frontispiece #a4 ,,metamorphosis ,,of ,,plaice #ag #b4 ,,cod #bj #c4 ,,lemon ,,sole #bc #d4 ,,skate #bc #e4 ,,herring #bf #f4 ,,plankton #bi #g4 ,,herring ,,eggs #cc #h4 ,,plankton ,,containing ,,fish ,,eggs #cc #i4 ,,trawling 7circa #agej7 #de #aj4 ,,drifting 7circa #agej7 #di #aa4 ,,single-,,boater ,,at ,,folkestone #ea #ab4 ,,herring ,,drifter #eg #ac4 ,,curing ,,yard 7,,yarmouth7 #ei #ad4 ,,scottish ,,fisher ,,girls #fa #ae4 ,,section ,,of ,,modern ,,trawler #gi #af4 ,,plans ,,of ,,modern ,,trawler #hb #ag4 ,,the ,,otter ,,trawl #he #ah4 ,,the ,,catch ,,aboard #hg #ai4 ,,chart ,,of ,,trawling ,,grounds between pp4 #hh and #hi #bj4 ,a ,,whale',s ,,mouth #aja ,,the ,,fishing ,,industry ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,in its essential features the story of the gradual rise and development of the fishing industry closely resembles that of its sister industry1 agriculture4 ,in both cases man became skilled in harvesting long before he understood anything of the art of cultivation4 ,primitive man roamed from place to place in the wake of the annual wave of harvest1 gathering wild crops of grain1 berries and fruits4 ,ultimately he became alive to the significance of seed1 and the nomad settled down to raise crops year after year in the same place4 ,gradually he acquired a knowledge of the conditions of temperature1 moisture1 and quality of soil that favoured the growth of his plants4 ,finally1 he discovered the principle of the rotation of crops1 and1 by this1 not only increased the productivity of his land but also laid the foundations of a systematic agriculture4 ,of recent years agriculture has been rapidly developing into a science4 ,chemistry1 physics1 botany1 plant physiology1 and bacteriology1 all contribute increasingly to a full understanding of the inner processes of the growing plant1 and indicate more and more clearly the exact relations that exist between the conditions of growth and the character and amount of the resulting product4 ,the art of fishing is one of the oldest in the world1 yet even to this day the fisherman is simply a hunter1 gathering where he has not sown1 and differing little1 save in mechanical efficiency1 from his primitive ancestor fishing with spear and trap4 ,only in recent years has any systematic attempt been made to understand something of the forces that produce the annual harvest of the sea4 ,we know very little about the habits of the various fishes that constitute this harvest--their food1 their migrations1 their reproductive processes1 and1 in general1 the conditions upon which their healthy life and development depend4 ,we have developed highly efficient fishing implements1 but we have yet to learn to use them wisely and not too well2 to increase the fertility of the various fishing grounds rather than depopulate them by over-fishing and the destruction of immature fish4 ,the fisherman's harvest differs from that of the farmer in one important respect4 ,fishes grow for three or four1 or more1 years before they are mature4 ,now1 only mature fish as a rule have any considerable commercial value1 and only mature fish are able to reproduce their kind and so maintain the existence of the fishery4 ,on the fishing grounds1 both mature and immature fish are mingled together1 and in capturing the one it is practically impossible to avoid netting the other4 ,to some extent the capture of immature fish is avoided by making the mesh of the net of such a size that the smaller fish can escape4 ,with drift nets only mature fish are caught1 the small ones escaping2 but with trawl nets it is otherwise4 ,the trawl net is essentially a large string bag that is drawn open-mouthed along the sea bottom1 scooping up wholesale all bottom-living fish1 such as cod1 haddock1 sole and plaice4 ,all go into the net1 both large and small1 and1 although the young fish ultimately escape through the meshes1 many of them are damaged in so doing1 while many young1 flat fish1 lying on the sea bottom1 are damaged by the foot rope of the net1 as it passes over them4 ,certain fishing grounds1 such as the ,dogger ,bank1 were almost depopulated of flat fish in the years just previous to the war4 ,fortunately for the future of the fisheries1 the trawl1 can only be worked on smooth ground1 and at depths not exceeding two hundred and fifty fathoms1 so that only a small percentage of the actual fishing grounds is affected by it4 ,also1 when a fishing ground shows signs of becoming exhausted by over-fishing1 it is less frequented by fishermen1 owing to the reduced catches that can be obtained1 and thus it tends automatically to recover4 ,nevertheless1 it is desirable that fishing should be so organized and restrained1 that the fertility of the fishing grounds is not imperilled4 ,in the distant future it may become possible to re-stock partially exhausted grounds with young fish1 artificially reared in a hatchery4 ,oceanography--the study of the ocean and its inhabitants--is one of the youngest of sciences4 ,yet1 to an island people such as we are1 it should be one of the most important1 for it is only by the study of oceanography that we can hope to found a systematic1 organized aquiculture4 ,the beginning of a simple aquiculture is to be seen in the cultivation of shellfish1 such as oysters and mussels1 by the inshore fishermen4 ,of recent years1 experiments have been carried out by the ,fishery ,boards of ,england1 ,scotland1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states of ,america1 with the object of increasing the productivity of certain fishing grounds by adding large numbers of artificially hatched1 young fish4 ,for some years the ,fishery ,board for ,scotland added annually about twenty million plaice larvae to certain confined sea areas 7,upper ,loch ,fyne71 and found1 as a result1 that the number of young plaice on the shallow beaches was doubled4 ,in some cases a new species of fish has been introduced into a particular fishing ground1 with marked success4 ,thus the ,u4,s4,a4 fisheries collected and hatched the eggs of the shad on the ,atlantic coast and introduced the larvae into the ,pacific1 with the result that a profitable shad fishery has now been established on the ,californian coast4 ,the application of science to the fishing industry is not restricted to biological investigations of the food1 habits and development of living fishes4 ,it is developing new processes for the better preservation of edible fish for food purposes1 so that the large quantities of fish caught periodically--for example1 in the summer herring fishery--may be stored up for gradual consumption during the winter4 ,it has shown that fish waste can be manufactured into glue1 cattle food1 and fertilizers4 ,it has developed into a profitable industry the extraction of oils from both edible and inedible fish1 and the conversion of these oils into hard fats1 suitable for the manufacture of soap and margarine4 ,it has demonstrated that the skins of certain fish1 notably the shark1 can be tanned to make excellent leather4 ,with the exception of these pioneer experiments and investigations1 however1 the fishing industry of to-day is simply an organized art--the art of catching wild fish4 ,the story of the industry is essentially a description of the methods that are used for capturing the various species of fish that are of commercial importance1 and for handling1 curing1 and disposing of the catch4 ,great ,britain is situated in the midst of the greatest fishing grounds of the world4 ,the ,british fishing industry is the most efficient and the most highly developed of any4 ,consequently1 since fishing methods are essentially the same everywhere1 it will be sufficient for us to consider1 with few exceptions1 the methods and equipment that are used by our own fishermen around our own shores4 ,there is direct evidence that1 as early as the third century1 ,a4,d41 fish were caught in considerable quantities round the coast of ,britain by the natives and used as food4 ,little is known about the early development of a fishing industry in this country4 ,we know that in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 fish was in demand throughout the country1 partly because of the religious observance of fast days1 and partly1 no doubt1 because it afforded a welcome change in the regular winter diet of salted meat4 ,in those days there was no winter root crop1 so that cattle were killed in autumn and salted down for consumption during the winter4 ,in disposing of their catch1 the fishermen were handicapped by the almost complete lack of transport facilities from the coast inland4 ,their produce would be distributed by pack-horse1 so that fresh fish would be practically unknown beyond a distance of a few miles from the coast4 ,consequently1 all fish for inland markets were salted4 ,the fish were pickled in brine1 as the art of dry-salting was then unknown in this country4 ,to develop a successful fishing industry1 it was necessary1 then1 as it is to-day1 either to dispose of the catch quickly on the spot1 or to preserve the fish so that it could be transported to distant markets4 ,in #acdg1 a ,dutchman1 ,william ,beukels1 of ,biervelt1 invented an improved means of curing and pickling herring1 which was essentially the modern process of gutting the fish and packing them in dry salt4 ,at this time the ,baltic herring fishery1 carried on by the ,hanseatic ,league1 dominated the markets of ,europe4 ,but the new method of curing1 exploited by the ,dutch1 improved the quality and keeping powers of the fish to such an extent that1 by the end of the fifteenth century1 the ,dutch fishing industry was supreme1 and had become a powerful and valuable national enterprise4 ,in the sixteenth century1 as many as two thousand ,dutch herring 8busses0 7as the boats were called7 would gather on ,st4 ,john's day at ,brassa ,sound1 in the ,shetlands1 to begin the summer herring fishery4 ,the fish were caught with drift nets1 were salted and packed in barrels1 and carried home by the fast-sailing1 attendant 8yaggers40 ,ashore they were repacked in fresh salt in new barrels4 ,over a million barrels were packed in a year4 ,when caught1 the fish would be worth about a million pounds1 and when retailed about two million pounds4 ,contemporary illustrations of the methods of curing and salting then in use reveal the astonishing fact that even to the smallest detail the methods that were employed in ,holland in ,elizabeth's day are identical with those that are employed at ,yarmouth to-day4 ,as a direct result of the great development of their trade in salted herrings1 the ,dutch gradually gained a naval and maritime supremacy in ,europe which they maintained until it was wrested from them by the ,english4 ,english sea-power in the early years of the sixteenth century was in a decadent condition4 ,the ports and harbours had been neglected1 and had become silted up1 so that the condition of the shipping industry in general1 and of the ,navy in particular1 had reached a very low ebb4 ,in #aefa1 ,mr4 ,secretary ,cecil1 alarmed by the growing menace of the ,dutch naval ascendancy1 proposed three remedies for restoring the strength and importance of the navy4 ,he proposed3 7#a7 ,that the fishing industry be promoted1 as it provided a valuable recruiting ground for the navy2 7#b7 ,that merchandise be extended1 and so provide increased employment for the shipping industry2 7#c7 ,that piracy be encouraged1 privately-owned privateers forming valuable auxiliaries in time of war4 ,he thought that the fishing industry could be stimulated immediately by renewing the fast days1 which had fallen into disuse since the abolition of the monasteries4 ,he suggested that two days a week--,wednesday and ,friday--should be meatless days4 ,in #aefc1 he tried a measure of ,protection1 a ,navigation ,act being passed1 making it illegal to buy or sell foreign-caught fish1 and attempts were made to prevent ,dutch and other foreigners from fishing in ,english waters4 ,these measures1 although passed by ,parliament1 do not appear to have been enforced4 ,james ,i issued two proclamations1 imposing licences and dues upon foreign fishing vessels fishing in ,british waters4 ,no attention was paid to these1 and it was left to ,charles ,i1 some years later1 to enforce them4 ,other steps taken by both ,charles ,i and ,charles ,,ii consisted mainly in the formation of ,royal ,fishery ,companies4 ,various fishery companies and societies succeeded one another up to the end of the eighteenth century4 ,they do not appear to have been successful in establishing a flourishing fishing industry1 and in #agah 7,george ,i7 an act was passed by which fishermen were to be rewarded for their catch by a bounty4 ,bounties were to be paid for several kinds of fish3 thus1 for every barrel of white herrings of #cb gallons1 exported beyond the seas1 the bounty was #bs4 #h;d42 for full red herrings1 #as4 #i;d4 per barrel2 for empty red herrings1 #as4 per barrel4 ,the conditions upon which the bounty was to be paid were fully set forth in a later act in #agej 7,george ,,ii74 ,the construction of herring vessels was encouraged by a bounty of #cjs4 per ton1 paid out of the ,customs1 for decked fishing vessels of from twenty to eighty tons4 ,the time and place of fishing were stipulated1 as well as rules for the proper management and prosecution of the fishery4 ,each vessel was to have on board twelve ,winchester bushels of salt for every last of fish such vessel was capable of holding1 the salt to be contained in new barrels4 ,in #ageg1 the bounty was increased to #ejs4 per ton1 but was reduced to #cjs4 again in #agga4 ,it was further reduced to #bjs4 in #aghg1 and an additional bounty of #ds4 per barrel added4 ,this was made proportional to the tonnage1 so that no vessel could claim more than #cjs4 per ton--unless the vessel caught over three barrels per ton1 in which case a bounty of #as4 per barrel was granted upon the surplus quantity4 ,while the bounty often undoubtedly encouraged the development of the fishery1 the development was not so rapid or so extensive as it would otherwise have been1 owing to the duty on imported salt4 ,the weight of the duty was such that the fishermen threw fish overboard rather than cure it1 only landing that which could be brought in fresh4 ,in #ahjh the bounty was raised to #c per ton on every ,british built and ,british owned fishing boat of not less than sixty tons burden1 properly manned1 registered1 and navigated and employed in herring fishing4 ,the maximum tonnage on which the bounty was payable was one hundred tons4 ,two shillings per barrel was paid on properly cured and packed herrings4 ,after the peace of #ahae1 the naval wars and the press gangs had reduced the sea fisheries to negligible proportions1 but the existing bounties were continued until #ahbi1 and encouraged the rapid revival of the industry4 ,by #ahbi1 the fishing industry was well established1 and thereafter steadily developed in value and importance4 ,the modern organization and development of the fishing industry began between #ahgj and #ahhj1 following the introduction of steam fishing vessels4 ,the old sailing smacks and drifters were necessarily limited in their scope and capacity4 ,they could only fish in certain weathers2 they required skilled handling2 their effective area of operation was restricted by the necessity for bringing the catch ashore as fresh as possible2 their trawling power depended upon the wind4 ,a sail boat was generally the property of a small family group of fishermen1 who worked the boat and fished1 while one of their number--the ship's husband--stayed ashore to purchase stores and tackle1 and dispose of the catch4 ,the proceeds of the boat were shared among the owners4 ,these privately owned sail boats were to be found in every little harbour on every coast of ,britain4 ,the fishermen themselves were a fine1 sturdy1 independent class of men1 skilful seamen1 and all-round fishermen1 able to turn their hands to any form of fishing1 whether lining1 trawling1 or drifting4 ,the introduction of steam trawlers and drifters has completely changed the character and organization of the fishing industry4 ,instead of being individualistic1 it has become collective1 and instead of being the common industry of every seaside village1 it has become controlled by large limited liability companies1 and centralized in a few large ports4 ,steamers were first used in #ahgj1 to collect the catch from the sail boats on the fishing grounds1 bringing it home with all speed while the fishing boats remained at sea4 ,this naturally enabled the fishing boats to catch more fish1 and also made possible the use of larger boats fishing further afield4 ,a logical development of this step was the construction of actual steam-driven fishing boats--trawlers and drifters4 ,these steamers soon proved to be superior to the sail boats4 ,they were able to fish in all weathers1 even in a calm4 ,owing to their greater power1 also1 they were able to use much larger nets and fish in deeper waters4 ,steam trawlers and drifters are much more expensive than smacks or sailing drifters4 ,they can only be berthed and handled satisfactorily in harbours that are equipped for the unloading and dispatching of large quantities of fish4 ,from the very beginning these steamers were owned by large limited companies rather than by individuals1 and the industry has tended to become more and more centralized at certain large ports1 for example1 ,aberdeen1 ,hull1 ,grimsby1 ,yarmouth1 ,lowestoft1 ,milford ,haven1 and ,fleetwood4 ,the rise and development of many of these ports1 for example1 ,aberdeen and ,fleetwood1 has been in direct response to the demands made upon them by the new steam fishing industry4 ,the introduction of steam fishing made longer voyages possible1 and led to the development of new fishing grounds4 ,steam trawlers from ,british ports now fish as far north as ,iceland and the ,white ,sea1 as far west as ,newfoundland1 and as far south as ,morocco1 making voyages of many week's duration4 ,the re-organization of the fishing industry led to specialization amongst the fishermen themselves4 ,the old sailing fisherman was essentially an all-round man4 ,he was equally expert at lining1 drifting and trawling4 ,the skipper of a steamer1 however1 is a specialist2 he is either a liner-1 a drifter-1 or a trawler-man4 ,generally1 also1 he keeps to a given region--,iceland1 the ,white ,sea1 the ,north of ,scotland1 the ,north ,sea1 or the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,in the three years preceding the war 7#aiaa to #aiad7 the development of the steam fishing industry had become almost stationary4 ,this was probably due in part to over-capitalization1 resulting in lower profits4 ,it was feared also that the greatly increased efficiency of the steam trawlers tended to produce a condition of over-fishing in certain areas1 with the result that catches obtained in those areas progressively diminished2 for example1 the average catch per boat per day in the ,north ,sea during three successive periods was as follows-- #aijc to #aijf #agb cwts4 #aijg to #aiaj #afg #aiaa to #aiac #aec ,the fishermen became alarmed and development was arrested4 ,this tendency to over-fish certain grounds has been effectively checked during the war by the almost complete cessation of offshore fishing4 ,there is thus every probability that such grounds have now recovered1 and further that1 in many cases1 grounds such as the ,dogger ,bank1 that had become almost depopulated1 will have become restocked4 ,the successful development of steam fishing has necessarily reacted upon the prosperity of the individual fishermen in the various fishing villages1 with their smaller1 privately-owned sail boats4 ,they were faced with two alternatives3 either to combine together to acquire steamers1 and so maintain their position in the offshore fisheries1 or to devote their attention to the development of inshore fishing4 ,many of the larger sailing drifters have now been fitted with petrol engines1 which make it possible for them to compete with the steam drifters for herring and mackerel4 ,generally speaking1 however1 the outlook for the small fishermen of the ,english and ,scottish coast villages--the real fisher folk--is discouraging4 ,the tendency of legislation1 however1 just before the war was to encourage this class of fishermen by restricting the operations of the steam trawlers in certain localities4 ,in #aiaj-aiad1 with the object of protecting the inshore fishermen1 the ,fishery ,board of ,scotland prohibited trawling in the ,moray ,firth area1 only drifting and lining being permitted4 ,since this prohibition only applied to ,british subjects1 certain ,east ,coast fishing companies evaded it by transferring their vessels to foreign flags1 registering them in a foreign port and employing a foreigner as a dummy skipper4 ,the ,board secured convictions against these offenders in the ,sheriff's ,court1 but the convictions were upset subsequently by the ,foreign ,office4 ,the original prohibition was then strengthened by a new law which made it illegal to land fish in ,scotland1 if caught by vessels registered in a foreign port4 ,during the war1 the inshore fisherman found himself in a comparatively advantageous position1 as the high price of coal made steam fishing less profitable4 ,further1 the offshore trawling grounds were mostly closed1 and the majority of the steam trawlers and drifters were on war-service4 ,for the time being1 therefore1 inshore fishing with smacks was placed at an advantage4 ,a number of fishermen's co-operative societies were formed to organize the sale and distribution of the produce of these inshore fisheries4 ,this also tended to make the position of the inshore fisherman more secure4 ,the old order changeth1 and although there is that connected with this transformation in the fishing industry which is to be regretted1 yet1 on the whole1 the developments of the past forty years have undoubtedly transformed the fishing industry into a very efficient and valuable national asset4 ,individually1 the present-day steam fisherman is very much inferior to his sailing predecessor4 ,the centralization of the industry in a few big ports1 although undoubtedly making for much greater efficiency1 bears hardly on the type of the old class of expert fishermen2 but these are the almost inevitable consequences of such a transition4 ,but what is the present condition of the industry1 and what is its future likely to be8 ,the prosperity of the inshore fisherman1 as well as that of his offshore rival1 is vitally important to the welfare of this country2 there should be room and opportunity enough for both4 ,the inshore fisherman1 protected by legislation and secured by well-organized co-operation1 can increase very considerably the amount of our available home-grown food supply4 ,the superior power and equipment of the big steam trawlers and drifters1 properly utilized and encouraged1 should be one of the most valuable industrial assets of the ,state4 ,we are not a great food-producing nation2 on the contrary1 in the years before the war1 we actually imported more than #dj per cent of our total food requirements4 ,we are surrounded by seas that teem with every form of edible fish4 ,british enterprise has built up a fishing industry which is the greatest and most efficient in the world4 ,in #aiad1 our fishing boats were practically equal in numbers and equipment to those of all the other countries in ,north-,west ,europe put together4 ,nearly #gj per cent of the fishing boats in the ,north ,sea were ,british4 ,the total produce of our sea fisheries has nearly doubled since the beginning of the century4 ,the annual catch in the last few years before the war averaged over a million tons4 ,it was worth about fifteen million pounds when landed1 and may be valued at nearly fifty million pounds by the time it reached the consumers4 ,of all this splendid food that is obtained at our very doors by our own people1 less than half is retained for consumption in this country4 ,out of #fjj1jjj tons of herrings landed annually in this country before the war1 over #ejj1jjj were exported1 chiefly to ,european countries4 ,herrings have a high food value1 and contain a large amount of easily digested fat1 and if all the herrings landed in this country were consumed at home1 it would only allow two herrings a week to each adult individual in all the population4 ,an increased home consumption of fish1 would effect a corresponding saving in imported meat4 ,owing to this remarkably small home demand for fish1 the fisherman has had to depend upon foreign markets1 chiefly ,germany1 ,poland1 ,russia and the ,levant4 ,the present adverse rate of exchange with these countries1 and the increased cost of fishing operations1 make it impossible for the foreign importer to take our fish1 except on terms which our fishermen cannot consider4 ,these markets are therefore closed1 and unless other outlets are found for its produce1 the industry will be threatened with ruin4 ,in #aibj1 the ,government guaranteed the cure of herrings up to #hhj1jjj barrels2 unfortunately1 they were only able to dispose of them in ,european markets at a great loss4 ,the ,government1 therefore1 have decided this year 7#aiba7 to withdraw their guarantee4 ,it would seem that1 in view of the present failure of the foreign markets1 vigorous steps should be taken to encourage the consumption of fish in this country1 and so preserve this valuable industry from ruin4 ,a national scheme of development should be inaugurated1 having for its objects1 7#a7 the systematic exploitation of local and periodic coastal fisheries2 7#b7 the discovery of methods of preserving for future consumption fish that cannot be disposed of just when it is caught2 7#c7 the education of the public to use more freely the large supplies of excellent fish food that are available at our very doors4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,characteristics ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,fishes ,fishes are the most primitive vertebrate1 i4e4 backboned1 creatures known4 ,all reptiles1 birds1 and animals have gradually evolved from fish-like ancestors by a series of age-long processes1 the stages of which are recorded in fossilized remains that are found in various rock strata throughout the world4 ,a fish lives exclusively in water4 ,it has no lungs1 but extracts oxygen from the water as it passes over the surface of its gills4 ,instead of limbs1 it has fins1 with which it balances itself and propels itself through the water4 ,its skin is either bare1 e4g4 the cat fish1 or is covered with scales1 e4g4 the herring1 or with bony plates1 e4g4 the sturgeon4 ,the skin of certain sharks is studded with minute teeth and produces1 when cured1 the well-known shagreen leather4 ,in nearly all cases the skin of fishes is liberally supplied with small glands which constantly produce a lubricating mucus4 ,this mucus greatly reduces friction between the fish and the water through which it moves4 ,the body of a fish is adapted to move swiftly and smoothly through the water2 it is shaped more or less like a torpedo1 but this form is greatly modified in different species4 ,certain species of fish living at the bottom of the sea1 for example skates and rays1 have become flattened1 as though by a pressure applied vertically downwards4 ,others1 for example plaice1 flounder1 sole1 appear to have been flattened sideways4 ,in the various members of the eel family1 the body is greatly elongated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,the body of a fish is generally coloured and marked in such a way that it becomes practically invisible when seen from above or below1 the under-surface being silvery white1 and the upper surface generally olive or blackish-green4 ,sometimes1 as in the mackerel1 the upper surface is mottled1 resembling rippled water4 ,most small fish in ponds and streams reflect their surroundings so well1 and are coloured and marked in such a way1 that they are almost invisible to the large fish1 for example pike1 that prey upon them4 ,generally1 they reveal their presence by the flash of light reflected from above by their scales1 as they turn suddenly to snap at a morsel of food4 ,in the same way1 many predatory fish1 e4g4 the angler fish1 resemble their surroundings so closely that the fish for which they are lying in wait swim within easy reach of them without perceiving their danger4 ,many fishes1 particularly in tropical waters1 are remarkable for their bright and gorgeous colouring4 ,it is impossible to preserve these colours in their natural brightness after the fish have been taken from the water1 but amongst the brightly coloured corals1 and anemones and seaweeds1 in the crystal clear water of their natural environment1 they flit like gorgeous tropical birds in a tropical forest4 ,distribution4 ,fishes are found in practically every ocean1 lake and river in the world1 with a few notable exceptions1 such as the ,dead ,sea1 in which the concentration of salt is too high4 ,they appear to exist at all depths of water1 and have been found in the sea as deep down as #b1gbj fathoms4 ,fish living at this depth generally possess enormous mouths1 long1 attenuated1 soft bodies1 and are equipped with highly developed phosphorescent organs4 ,the distribution of a particular species appears to depend upon the salinity of the water1 the temperature of the water1 the kind and quantity of food available and the prevailing intensity of sunlight4 ,it is possible to divide fish into four well-defined groups1 according to the salinity of the water in which they are found3 7#a7 ,marine fish3 those that live always in the sea1 for example herring1 haddock1 shark4 7#b7 ,fresh-water fish3 those that live always in fresh water1 for example carp1 trout1 pike4 7#c7 ,many fish live in brackish water1 and appear to be able to accommodate themselves easily to considerable changes in salinity1 e4g4 sticklebacks1 gobies1 grey mullets and blennies4 ,such species naturally are widely distributed2 thus1 a particular kind of grey mullet 7,mugil capito7 is found without any appreciable difference in form on nearly every coast of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 7#d7 ,the fourth group of fish are migratory4 ,some species1 for example salmon and shad1 live and develop in salt water1 but ascend rivers to spawn1 i4e4 to lay their eggs1 in fresh water4 ,others1 such as eels and certain pleuronectids1 for example the flounder1 live and develop in fresh water1 and descend rivers to the sea to spawn4 ,many fresh water fish1 e4g4 trout1 forsake the large streams in the spring and ascend small brooks1 where the young can be reared in greater safety4 ,of these different groups or species1 the marine fishes are industrially by far the most important1 for at least two-thirds of all the fish in the world live in the sea1 and the capture of these sea-fish in enormous quantities constitutes the fishing industry1 with which we are concerned4 ,the different species of marine fishes can be divided into three well-marked groups1 according to their habits and habitats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,cod 7,gadus morrhua7 ,length up to #e ft42 usually caught at about #c ft4 ,food4--,small crustaceans1 molluscs1 and young fish4 ,range4--,north of ,norway and ,iceland to the ,bay of ,biscay1 and from ,greenland to ,new ,york4 7#a7 ,there are the true deep-sea fishes that live at the bottom of the sea1 for example cod1 haddock1 plaice1 sole4 ,these are called 8demersal0 fish4 ,fish1 like birds1 inhabit a medium that is continuous throughout the world4 ,a glance at the map of the world will show that the three great oceans--,atlantic1 ,indian and ,pacific--are united in the southern hemisphere4 ,in ,tertiary times1 it is practically certain that the ,pacific and the ,atlantic oceans were also united at ,darien1 and that the ,mediterranean was united with the ,red ,sea4 ,apart1 therefore1 from differences in local conditions1 for example of temperature and food supply1 there is practically no obstacle to the world-wide distribution of any particular species of fish4 ,at the bottom of the sea1 the temperature1 the food supply1 and the general conditions of life are singularly uniform all over the world1 consequently there are no barriers at all to the dispersion of demersal fish1 and we find various species widely distributed in all seas4 ,demersal fish1 on the whole1 are more primitive in type than those that live nearer the surface4 ,they have well-developed senses of touch and smell by means of which they hunt for their food4 ,they differ markedly in structure and shape from surface or shallow-water fish1 their bodies being designed to resist the greater pressure of deep water4 ,the body is generally lean and is enclosed by a wall of muscular fibre4 ,shallow-water fish1 if introduced into deep water1 would be crushed inward by the pressure4 ,similarly1 the deep-living1 demersal fish are unable to accommodate themselves to shallow water and1 if placed in it1 soon become unhealthy4 ,a cod floats helplessly on its side when placed in shallow water1 owing to the dilatation of its swimming bladder4 ,if the bladder is pricked it collapses1 and the fish is able to regain an upright position4 ,this is done when cod and other similar demersal fish are kept alive in sea-water tanks on board ship1 to be delivered to the markets alive4 ,in ,denmark1 fish are delivered alive to the shops4 ,when fishes from great depths are brought to the surface1 their bodies break into pieces owing to the reduced external pressure1 the scales start from their skin and the eyes from their sockets4 ,there are two distinct types of demersal fish3 the 8round0 and the 8flat40 ,the body of a round fish is more or less circular in cross-section1 for example cod1 while that of a flat fish is flattened1 for example sole1 ray4 ,the most important edible demersal fish can be classified as follows-- 7a7 ,the ,gadidae--related to the cod4 ,cod--inhabits northern waters1 notably the ,north of ,britain1 ,iceland and ,newfoundland4 ,ling--inhabits northern waters3 ,west of ,scotland and ,ireland1 and ,north towards ,iceland and ,newfoundland4 ,haddock--inhabits northern waters4 ,nearly half the total catch is obtained in the ,north ,sea1 from the ,white ,sea to the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,whiting--found in great numbers in the ,north ,sea4 ,it is more coastal than the cod or haddock4 ,hake--found from ,norway to the ,mediterranean4 ,the greater part of the catch is obtained off the south-west of ,ireland4 ,hake is also caught off ,morocco and in the ,bay of ,biscay4 7b7 ,the ,pleuronectidae--related to the plaice and sole4 ,sole--a shallow-water fish1 common in the ,irish ,sea1 and particularly abundant in southern waters down to ,morocco4 ,plaice--inhabits northern waters--all round ,britain and ,iceland4 ,flounder--inhabits estuaries1 for example1 of the ,north ,sea and the ,baltic4 ,halibut--inhabits northern waters4 ,it attains a large size1 six feet or more4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,,lemon ,,sole 7,pleuronectes microcephalus7 ,length up to #af ins4 ,food4--,small crustaceans and worms4 ,range4--,from ,north of ,europe to the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,,skate 7,raia batis7 ,length up to #g ft4 ,food4--,crustaceans and molluscs1 and fish4 ,range4--,round the ,british ,isles and along the coast of ,western ,europe4 ,turbot--not very abundant4 ,it inhabits the deeper parts of the ,north ,sea4 ,brill--inhabits southern waters1 and is fairly abundant4 7c7 ,the ,radac4 ,skates and rays--found all round ,britain1 more particularly the ,western area of the ,english channel4 7#b7 ,the various species of fish that inhabit the surface waters of the sea are called 8pelagic40 ,they include the herring1 mackerel1 tunny1 flying fish1 sword fish1 and many sharks1 also various marine mammals1 such as whales1 grampuses1 porpoises1 dolphins4 ,amongst pelagic fish are included some of the smallest 7plankton7 as well as some of the largest 7whales7 of all living creatures4 ,pelagic fish pass their whole life swimming at or near the surface4 ,they enter the shallow water offshore only for prey or1 in some cases1 periodically to spawn4 ,the majority spawn in the open sea1 far from land4 ,unlike demersal fishes1 the distribution of the different species of pelagic fishes depends very much upon local conditions of light1 water temperature1 and the character and quantity of food available4 ,they do not hunt their food individually to the same extent as demersal fishes1 but generally filter it from the water as it passes through their gill-openings4 ,although not so widely dispersed as demersal fish1 they are1 in favourable circumstances1 dispersed over large areas by swimming and by ocean currents4 ,all pelagic fish are 8round40 ,with the exception of the mackerel1 the important edible pelagic fishes belong to the herring family1 and are known as the ,clupeidae4 ,they include-- ,herring--found from the ,white ,sea to the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,it is the most abundant of all food fishes4 ,sprat--found from the ,north of ,europe to the ,mediterranean4 ,pilchard--ranges from the ,english ,channel to ,madeira and the ,mediterranean4 ,skipper 8sardines0 are young herring1 pilchard1 and brisling4 ,there is also-- ,mackerel--found from the ,north ,sea to ,madeira and the ,mediterranean4 7#c7 ,the shallow-water of the seashore is inhabited by certain animals 7shellfish7 not found elsewhere1 including various mollusca1 e4g4 mussel1 cockle1 oyster and periwinkle1 and crustacea1 e4g4 lobster1 crab1 prawn1 shrimp4 ,in addition to these1 there are various species of immature offshore fish1 e4g4 plaice and dabs4 ,the inhabitants of this shallow1 coastal water are called 8littoral0 fish4 ,the distribution of such littoral fish depends not only upon the water temperature and the amount of light1 but also upon the character of the shore--whether it is rocky1 or soft and sandy--and more especially upon the animal and vegetable products of the adjacent land1 e4g4 plants1 seaweed1 worms4 ,littoral fish do not swim very far1 but become scattered inadvertently over considerable distances by currents and other mechanical means4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,,herring 7,clupea harengus7 ,length slightly above #ab ins4 ,food4--,plankton 7copepoda74 ,range4--,from the ,white ,sea to the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,certain kinds of shellfish1 for example oysters1 mussels1 cockles1 live in the sand or attached to the stones or seaweed on the seashore1 generally between high and low watermarks4 ,they obtain their food from the water as it streams over their gills4 ,they require adequate room for growth and development1 and constant irrigation by water containing sufficient floating food4 ,when mussel beds or oyster beds become overcrowded1 the fish are ill-nourished1 their health is impaired and their growth is arrested4 ,it has been shown that1 if they are transferred to new beds1 their condition rapidly improves and ultimately they increase considerably in size4 ,all edible shellfish need systematic care and attention4 ,their cultivation by man affords the simplest instance of an attempt at a systematic aquiculture4 ,food4 ,the surface water of the sea abounds in minute forms of vegetable and animal life4 ,this vast floating population of microscopic organisms is called the 8plankton40 ,just as man and all land animals depend ultimately for their food supply upon grass and other green-leaved plants which1 under the influence of sunlight1 are able to transform the inorganic constituents of the atmosphere and the soil into organic foodstuffs--albumen1 fat1 carbohydrates--so the minute unicellular marine plants of the plankton are able1 under the influence of sunlight1 to convert the inorganic constituents of their environment into fat1 albumen and carbohydrate4 ,upon these minute organisms1 therefore1 directly or indirectly1 all marine life depends4 ,in addition to these minute plants1 the plankton contains nearly all forms of marine life at some stage or other of their life history4 ,fish are only found in it as eggs1 or larvae4 ,crustacea of all kinds are present1 and form one of its most important constituents4 ,crabs and lobsters spend their larval1 free-swimming career among the plankton1 until they reach the adult stage and settle down to the bottom4 ,various minute crustacea1 known as 8,copepoda0 7lit41 oar-footed7 spend the whole of their lives drifting about in the surface water4 ,they occur in incredibly large numbers1 and are the most abundant of all forms of marine life4 ,these copepoda form the main source of the food of pelagic fish1 such as the herring1 mackerel and sprat4 ,the larvae of the edible molluscs1 oyster1 mussel1 cockle1 develop in the warm surface water until they settle to the bottom and begin their adult life4 ,there are also many larval forms of marine worms and jellyfish1 and many kinds of microscopic1 unicellular organisms1 some of which are vegetable and others are clearly animal4 ,the chief animal forms belong either to the ,infusoria1 the ,foraminifera or the ,radiolaria4 ,the shells of the two latter forms accumulate at the bottom of the sea1 producing the deposits known as the ,globigerina and ,radiolarian oozes4 ,in this way1 chalk deposits were formed in primitive times4 ,the most important vegetable planktonic organisms are the ,diatoms4 ,their accumulated shells form important deep-sea deposits4 ,the numerous varieties of planktonic life can thus be divided into two groups3 those minute animal and vegetable organisms that pass the whole of their existence at the surface of the sea--the true constituents of plankton all the year round--and the eggs and larvae of many species of fish that are found among the plankton only at certain times of the year--notably in spring and summer4 ,the quantity of organic food substances such as albumen1 fat and carbohydrate1 that is contained in the plankton produced annually by a given area of the sea1 has been compared with the quantity of such substances produced by a similar area of land in crops such as pasture1 hay1 lupine and peas4 ,in this way1 it has been estimated that the productivity of the sea is about #bj per cent less than that of average land4 ,illustration3 ,,plankton3 ,,larvae #a4 ,crab zoea2 #b4 ,fish egg2 #c4 ,sea ,urchin pluteus2 #d4 ,barnacle nauplius2 #e4 ,fish larva2 #f4 ,mussel larva2 #g4 ,copepod nauplius2 #h4 ,worm larva4 ,illustration3 ,,plankton3 ,,unicellular ,,organisms #a1 #b1 #c1 #g1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #ah4 ,diatoms2 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i1 ,peridinians #h4 ,an ,algal spore2 #ad4 ,noctiluca2 #ae4 ,a ,radiolarian4 ,,fig4 #f ,unlike that of the land1 the productivity of the sea is greater in colder latitudes than in the tropics4 ,this somewhat unexpected fact is attributable to the action of denitrifying bacteria which1 flourishing more readily in warm1 tropical waters1 effectively reduce the amount of available nitrogen compounds in the water4 ,in colder waters1 denitrifying bacteria are less active1 and nitrates and nitrites are available in larger quantities for the nourishment of the plankton4 ,all the great fisheries of the world are prosecuted in cold or temperate seas2 as examples of this we have the ,banks of ,newfoundland1 the cod fisheries of ,norway1 and the great trawling grounds of the ,north ,sea and the ,north ,atlantic4 ,all fish1 during the larval stage of their development1 feed first upon the contents of the yolk sac which1 when they are hatched1 is attached to their ventral surface4 ,when the yolk is absorbed1 the larvae feed upon the microscopic plankton that abound in the water on every side4 ,the surface water1 with its warm temperature1 high plankton content and sunlight1 forms an ideal nursery for the very young fish of all species4 ,demersal fish1 as they complete the larval stage of their development and descend into deeper water1 have to rely for their food either upon the various species of young shellfish and crustacea that drop from the surface water as they develop1 or hunt for their food amongst the small fish1 mollusca1 crustacea1 worms and seaweeds of the sea-bottom4 ,plaice feed chiefly upon cockles and other mollusca1 which in their turn feed upon diatoms4 ,the cod is almost omnivorous1 greedily devouring small fish1 crustacea1 worms or mollusca2 its favourite food1 however1 is shrimps and prawns4 ,these1 in their turn1 feed upon smaller invertebrates1 for example small jellyfish and larval molluscs1 and these upon microscopic plankton4 ,pelagic fish1 herrings and mackerel1 feed almost entirely upon the larger plankton1 mainly copepoda 7small1 shrimp-like crustacea74 ,these may be present in the surface water in enormous quantities at certain times4 ,in many cases1 shoals of herring or mackerel probably follow special swarms of copepoda4 ,mackerel also feed upon young fish1 hermit crabs1 and prawns4 ,with a few notable exceptions1 the various species of demersal fish feed upon smaller fish4 ,thus-- ,the hake1 normally a deep-water fish1 ventures inshore in pursuit of herrings1 pilchards1 mackerel4 ,the ling1 turbot1 brill1 dog fish live entirely upon small fish4 ,the dog fish swarms on certain fishing grounds and is often a serious pest to the drift-net fishermen1 destroying their nets as well as the fish that are attached to them4 ,the whiting1 like the cod1 feeds upon small fish1 and upon crustacea and mollusca4 ,the food of the haddock consists of mollusca1 crustacea and marine worms1 etc4 ,the sole lives on small crustacea1 for example shrimps1 and marine worms4 ,skates and rays feed upon mollusca and crustacea4 ,most shellfish live in shallow water and feed upon the plankton4 ,the methods by which fish obtain their food differ greatly according to the species of the fish4 ,pelagic fish1 e4g4 herring and mackerel1 sprat and pilchard1 obtain their food almost automatically as they swim open-mouthed through the water in which it abounds4 ,these direct plankton-feeders possess comb-like structures--the gill-rakers--attached behind the gill openings1 and as the food-bearing water streams through the mouth and gill openings of the fish1 these structures strain the food from it4 ,the fish licks the plankton from its gill-rakers with its tongue and swallows it4 ,many pelagic fish1 e4g4 carp1 trout1 salmon1 look for their food while swimming through the well-lighted surface water4 ,demersal fish--flat fish1 cod1 haddock1 etc4--seek their food by scent and touch4 ,the cod possesses a barbel attached to its chin1 by means of which it feels for its food4 ,the ,angler or ,devil fish is a curious creature1 from three to four feet long1 and appearing to consist almost entirely of head4 ,it has a large mouth1 and teeth that are hinged so as to admit food1 but prevent it from escaping4 ,the devil fish has a long feeler on the top of its head1 terminating in a tassel which1 moved by the water1 attracts the attention of small fish and lures them to their fate4 ,this tassel is a sensory organ and1 when it is touched by the small fish1 the angler fish snaps upwards with unerring aim at a point immediately in advance of the tassel4 ,the dog fish seeks its food exclusively by scent4 ,if its sense of smell be destroyed1 it ceases to feed spontaneously4 ,the sole also seeks its food by smell4 ,it is quite unable to recognize a worm by sight or touch1 even when hung just above its head1 but feels aimlessly over the ground seeking it by smell4 ,reproduction4 ,fish are male and female and1 with few exceptions1 reproduce their kind by laying eggs4 ,the number of eggs laid by an individual female fish during a single spawning varies greatly1 according to the species4 ,the average number of eggs spawned by a single female fish in the course of one season1 is-- ,ling #ah1ejj1jjj ,turbot #h1fjj1jjj ,cod #d1ejj1jjj ,flounder #a1jjj1jjj ,sole #egj1jjj ,haddock #dej1jjj ,plaice #cjj1jjj ,herring #cb1jjj ,shark ,a few--not more ,dog fish than a dozen4 ,skate ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g ,,herring ,,eggs--#e ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h ,,plankton ,,containing ,,fish ,,eggs--#c ,the large egg is that of a plaice3 the smaller ones are cod and whiting4 ,the copepod is a calanus4 ,the eggs of the cod1 whiting1 haddock1 fluke1 plaice1 etc41 are relatively small1 varying from #a_/f of an inch in the case of a halibut1 to #a_/be of an inch in a flounder4 ,the eggs are discharged into the water by the female4 ,this process takes place gradually1 and generally occupies many weeks4 ,a few of the eggs come to maturity at a time1 and are extruded4 ,they are fertilized in the water by the spermatazoa of the male1 which are discharged into the water at the same time as the eggs4 ,the fish1 both male and female1 are closely crowded together on the spawning grounds1 so that the fertilization of the eggs is fairly complete4 ,with few exceptions1 the eggs of most species are buoyant and float to the surface1 where they drift in the warm surface water until1 happily1 they hatch4 ,unhappily1 however1 a very large proportion of them never reach maturity1 for1 either as eggs1 embryos or larvae1 or post larval young fishes1 they soon fall a prey to marauding fish4 ,it is estimated that1 of the thirty-two thousand eggs laid annually by each female herring1 not more than two reach maturity4 ,the spawning grounds of the herring are not definitely known4 ,research is being carried out at present with a view to solving this question4 ,haddock are to be caught in various likely parts of the sea1 marked with the place of capture1 and their interiors examined for herring spawn4 ,certain demersal fish1 notably shark1 dog fish and skate1 deposit a few large1 demersal eggs--about a dozen in the year--in a carefully selected spot4 ,the incubation period of these eggs is unusually long1 being from six months to over a year1 according to the species and the temperature of the water4 ,parental care is exhibited by very few fishes in this part of the world1 although many foreign fish build nests and care for their young1 often carrying them in their mouths4 ,certain kinds of dog fish and angel fish keep their young inside their oviducts until they are completely formed4 ,the only notable example of a fish common to ,british waters that exercises parental care is the stickleback4 ,spawn is deposited by a number of different females in a nest constructed of stones and weed1 and is guarded by a male until all the eggs are hatched4 ,the eggs of the crustacea1 for example the lobster1 are found attached in large numbers to the swimmerets--feathery processes that are situated underneath the tail4 ,when in this condition1 the lobster is known as 8berried10 and1 if captured1 should be returned to the sea4 ,the eggs are sticky and are laid while the lobster lies on her back1 and so become attached to the hairs of these feathery processes4 ,berried crabs1 prawns and shrimps may also be observed on the seashore in the spring and early summer4 ,the mollusca1 e4g4 mussels1 periwinkles1 oysters1 deposit their eggs in the sea-water4 ,the eggs float to the surface1 hatch out1 and drift about with the other constituents of the plankton4 ,the fully developed larvae fall to the sea bottom and become attached to seaweed and stones4 ,the period of incubation of fish eggs varies according to the species of fish1 and for the same species is prolonged by a low temperature4 ,plaice eggs1 fertilized in ,january1 hatched in eighteen days2 others1 fertilized in ,april1 were hatched in nine days4 ,all fish1 on emerging from the egg1 enter upon a larval stage in which they resemble each other very closely 7see ,fig4 #a74 7,thus1 the larvae of plaice are quite symmetrical1 like those of the cod or other round fish47 ,the newly hatched larvae drift helpless in the water for two or three weeks1 during which time they subsist upon the contents of the yolk sac1 which they carry attached to their ventral surface4 ,when this is exhausted1 they feed upon the microscopic plankton which abound in the surrounding water4 ,the characteristic forms of the different species of flat fish are gradually assumed by the young fish during the period of their larval development4 ,the appearance of a newly-hatched young plaice exhibits little change during the first week or so1 other than that due to the gradual disappearance of the yolk sac4 ,the young fish grows very slowly1 and1 twenty-one days after hatching1 is only #c_/h of an inch in length4 ,for thirty days the development of the young fish is entirely symmetrical4 ,during the succeeding fifteen days1 the shape and appearance of the fish become profoundly modified4 ,the left eye gradually moves upwards and forwards1 until it attains its final position above and in front of the right eye4 ,at the same time1 the fish gradually acquires a new swimming position1 finally swimming on what is really its left side4 ,this left side becomes colourless4 ,with these changes in form and habit1 there proceeds a transformation in the diet of the fish4 ,at twenty-one days it feeds upon the young stages of various crustacea4 ,gradually it acquires a taste for copepoda and the larvae of mollusca and crustacea4 ,after its metamorphosis is complete1 it feeds upon various worms1 small shrimps and small1 bottom-living crustacea4 ,the adult plaice feeds upon mollusca of the cockle and mussel families4 ,the ,migration of ,fishes4 ,fishes1 like birds1 migrate over great distances at certain seasons of the year4 ,in most cases1 this migration occurs just before spawning1 and is evidently connected directly with the spawning instinct4 ,true marine fishes1 such as the herring1 haddock1 plaice1 cod1 associate in vast numbers at spawning time1 choosing a locality in which the temperature and food supply will be favourable to the development of the young larvae4 ,generally1 the spawning ground is in deep water4 ,the eggs are buoyant1 and drift up to the warm surface water and hatch out amongst the plankton4 ,the herring differs from most other pelagic fish in laying its eggs in relatively shallow water1 over a rocky bottom covered with seaweed4 ,the eggs are denser than sea-water and are covered with an adhesive substance1 so that they sink to the bottom and become attached to the stones and seaweed4 ,it is at the time of this annual migration to the spawning grounds that the fish are most profitably caught1 for not only are they gathered together in large numbers1 but1 just before spawning1 the fat content and general condition of the fish1 and therefore its food value1 reach a maximum4 ,after spawning1 the food value of the fish is at a minimum1 and remains comparatively low until a few months before the next spawning4 ,the plaice migrates in the autumn from the feeding grounds in various parts of the ,north ,sea to the spawning grounds near the ,straits of ,dover4 ,spawning takes place between ,december and ,march4 ,in the spring and summer it returns northwards to the feeding grounds in the centre of the ,north ,sea4 ,in the ,irish ,sea1 there are two distinct annual migrations of plaice4 ,the first occurs in summer 7from ,june to ,september71 the larger plaice moving from the warmer1 shallow water inshore to the deeper1 cooler waters offshore4 ,in winter and spring1 7from ,october to ,may71 the mature plaice migrate from ,morecambe and ,liverpool bays to the spawning ground in deep water to the ,north-,east of ,douglas 7,isle of ,man74 ,in winter1 also 7from ,november to ,january71 a large number of plaice gather in ,red ,wharf ,bay1 off the north coast of ,anglesey1 probably because it is sheltered from the prevailing south-east winds4 ,in ,february they commence their spawning migration round the coast of ,anglesey to ,cardigan ,bay4 ,certain species of fish1 instead of migrating from one part of the sea to another1 migrate from the sea to rivers 7anadromous71 or from rivers to the sea 7katadromous74 ,thus1 in the spring or autumn1 according to species1 the anadromous salmon and shad ascend rivers to spawn4 ,the eggs are deposited on clean gravel in clean water1 where they are likely to remain undisturbed4 ,the salmon does not feed when in the river1 and after spawning1 becomes very thin and in poor condition4 ,the ,alaskan salmon1 from which the bulk of ,american canned salmon comes1 exists in five species4 ,it has a similar spawning habit to the ,british salmon1 except that the same species always tends to use the same rivers4 ,once having spawned1 the fish dies1 so that the parents never see their offspring4 ,the young larvae hatch out in the fresh water and make their way to the sea1 where they pass the whole of their lives until they are mature1 some years later1 and then1 in their turn1 ascend the rivers to spawn4 ,eels are normally fresh-water fish4 ,after living for six or seven years in rivers and ponds and streams1 they become mature and migrate to the sea to spawn4 ,this spawning always takes place in deep water 7over five hundred fathoms71 the particular region chosen depending upon the species4 ,eels from the ,british ,isles and ,north-,west ,europe spawn in deep ,atlantic1 some hundreds of miles west of ,ireland4 ,in the autumn1 the mature eels move down the rivers to the sea4 ,when approaching maturity1 the yellowish coat of the eel changes to silver4 ,these 8silver0 eels pass into the sea and are never seen again4 ,it is probable that the eel only spawns once in its life and then dies4 ,the spawn floats to the surface and hatches out into curious little transparent1 leaf-shaped larvae4 ,these larvae develop rapidly into elvers and commence the return journey to the shores and rivers4 ,in the spring1 the young eels ascend the rivers in enormous swarms4 ,many of them leave the rivers and travel over damp ground and grass to isolated pools and lakes4 ,it is probable that the eels that are found in the ,thames travelled overland from the ,severn4 ,the ,baltic flounder migrates in winter from rivers and estuaries to the open sea1 and spawns in spring in deep water4 ,it returns in the summer when the spawning is over4 ,by observing the movements of marked fish1 it has been shown that the fish move at an average rate of from three to four miles per day4 ,during its seaward migration1 the flounder takes no food1 but uses the material stored up in its tissues for the development of its reproductive organs4 ,in addition to these spawning migrations1 there are migrations that are prompted by a search for food1 or for warmer or colder water4 ,in northern and temperate seas1 the surface water grows warmer with the spring4 ,this warming influence spreads northwards from the equator1 producing what is known as the annual wave of sea temperature4 ,a direct result of the rise of temperature and the increased sunshine is a rapid increase in the amount and quality of the plankton4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that fish migrate in the wake of this annual wave of sea temperature1 attracted by the increased food supply1 and possibly1 also1 by the warmer water4 ,the mackerel is a southern fish1 and prefers the warm water of the ,mediterranean and ,west ,african coast4 ,in spring1 as the wave of rising sea temperature travels northwards1 it migrates to the ,english ,channel and the ,north ,sea4 ,this migration is often directly associated with the presence1 in large quantities at that season1 of a particular kind of copepod in the surface water of the ,english ,channel4 ,phosphorescence4 ,many marine creatures1 ranging from deep-sea fish living in the dark abysses of the ocean to various species of the minute plankton drifting in the surface water1 possess phosphorescent organs1 which emit light of low intensity similar to that of a glow-worm and firefly4 ,in many cases the light appears to possess some important function1 and highly specialized organs are developed4 ,in such cases the light is only emitted in response to some stimulus--thus1 the phosphorescence of the surface water of the sea1 when disturbed by the blade of an oar1 is due to the disturbance of myriads of minute planktonic organisms1 equipped with phosphorescent organs1 either protozoa or protophyta2 many pelagic copepods are phosphorescent4 ,in other cases1 phosphorescence appears to be a more or less accidental by-product of some other process1 and of little or no significance4 ,the substance which produces the glow is contained in the slimy secretion produced by the epidermal glands of the fish1 and1 as phosphorescence can only occur in the presence of oxygen1 it is evident that the light is produced by the slow oxidation of this substance4 ,the colour of the light emitted by marine organisms is generally blue or light green1 but red and lilac also have been observed4 ,the distribution and colour of the light or lights produced by individual fish vary with the different species4 ,in many cases it would appear that these points of light provide the means by which fish recognize each other in the dark depths of the ocean4 ,some fishes possess highly developed phosphorescent organs known as photophores1 consisting essentially of a group of gland cells that secrete the phosphorescent fluid4 ,these organs are generally distributed in rows along the sides and ventral surface of the fish4 ,some fishes possess more complex and highly developed organs containing1 in addition to the gland cells1 a system of blood vessels and nerves1 a transparent1 protecting membrane and reflector1 an iris-like diaphragm and a lens4 ,these more complex organs are generally larger and less numerous than the simpler ones4 ,possibly they are used to search for1 or to attract1 prey4 ,the phosphorescence of decaying fish and meat is due to the presence on the fish or meat of certain bacteria of putrefaction1 which are themselves phosphorescent4 ,when seen under the microscope1 the individual bacteria appear as shining points of light4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,methods ,,of ,,fishing ,fish may be captured with spear1 trap1 line or net4 ,which of these methods is employed necessarily depends very much upon the size and habits of the fish1 and upon the skill and available equipment of the fishermen4 ,spears and traps were used in prehistoric times and survive to this day in various forms1 e4g4 harpoons1 lobster pots1 hedge baulks1 fishing weirs and the various ingenious traps and entanglements that are used by primitive races in all parts of the world4 ,the logical development of the spear and the trap into the line and the net was made possible by the invention of string4 ,to design and construct a trap1 it is generally necessary to know something of the habits of the fish to be caught4 ,hedge-baulks and fishing weirs are fairly extensive enclosures made of brushwood1 basket work1 stakes or stones1 constructed on the foreshore in such a way that at high tide the sea carries the fish into the enclosure and leaves them there when it recedes4 ,these fishing weirs are probably the primitive origin of most forms of fishing nets4 ,the crab or lobster pot or creel is constructed of basket-work1 in shape somewhat like a safety inkpot1 so that the lobster or crab can easily enter it1 but1 once in1 is unable to escape4 ,lobster pots1 suitably baited with fish and weighted1 are distributed over the fishing ground--a rocky bottom full of crevices--from small1 open boats1 and are gathered the next day4 ,fishing with hook and line is also a very ancient method4 ,before the discovery of metals1 the hooks were made of bone4 ,some people--notably the ,chinese--frequently use unbaited hooks1 and rely upon the jerk of the hook at the right moment to secure the fish4 ,generally1 however1 the hook is suitably baited1 the method being used chiefly for fish that seek their food by scent or sight1 e4g4 cod and shark4 ,line fishing for cod is still employed on a large scale off the ,north of ,scotland and the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,in lining1 the fish are caught individually4 ,a 8line0 may be as much as seven miles long4 ,short pieces of line from two to three feet long are attached to it at regular intervals4 ,these lines are called the 8snoods10 and carry the hooks4 ,the line is usually shot at night1 and fished in the morning4 ,in most cases line fishing is rapidly being superseded by trawling4 ,the invention of netting marked a notable advance in the primitive development of the fishing industry4 ,the net in all its various forms and applications is the characteristic and all-important implement of the fishing industry4 ,a net may be used either to surround a fish and drag it out of the water1 as in seining or trawling1 or it may be used to enmesh the fish1 as in drift netting4 ,the rise and development of the sea fishing industry has been due very largely to the gradually improved efficiency of the net4 ,nets were originally used on the shore4 ,a long strip of netting was attached to upright stakes1 to form an enclosure with an opening towards the sea1 constructed like a fishing weir in such a way that the fish enter the enclosure at high tide and are unable to escape4 ,such devices constructed on shore are known as 8fixed engines02 they include stake nets1 poke nets1 stream nets and purse nets4 ,the net may simply form the wall of an enclosure 7stake net74 ,this enclosure may be furnished with a pocket at one corner 7poke net74 ,it may consist essentially of one long1 deep pocket kept open by rings or stakes at intervals 7purse and hose nets74 ,it may be simply a wall of netting into which the fish thrust their heads2 owing to their gill openings they are unable to withdraw and so become entangled 7stream net74 ,the first development of a movable net was the seine or drag net4 ,the seine is a semi-circular drag net1 which is shot in shallow water so as to enclose an area of water close to the shore4 ,it is then hauled ashore1 and gathers up the fish that are in the enclosed area of water4 ,such a net is limited to inshore use4 ,generally1 a line is attached to each end of the net4 ,the free end of one of these lines is made fast to the shore by a stake1 and the net is paid out from a small boat4 ,when the whole of the net has been paid out1 the boat travels round until the net forms a semi-circle of which the diameter is parallel to the shore2 the net is then hauled in4 ,the seine net was used in ancient times by ,phoenicians1 ,greeks1 and other ,mediterranean peoples4 ,various types of seines are in common use to-day4 ,in ,denmark a seine net is employed to catch eels and plaice4 ,on the ,cornish coast pilchards are caught with a large seine up to two hundred fathoms long and eight fathoms deep4 ,in the ,united ,states a seine is used in water of any depth to catch mackerel4 ,rings are attached to the foot-rope of the net1 and by passing a line through these rings and drawing it tight1 the net is transformed into a bowl of netting4 ,this is called the purse seine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,,trawling 7circa #agej7 ,the seine was first improved by the addition of a pocket at its centre4 ,then the sides or wings were gradually lengthened1 until finally it developed into a deep1 conical1 bag-shaped net1 furnished with long arms or wings4 ,this was dragged along the bottom1 behind a boat in full sail4 ,the net was weighted and its mouth kept open by attaching its upper edge to a beam of wood 7beam trawl74 ,when the net was full of fish1 it was run ashore4 ,ultimately1 instead of drawing the net ashore1 the fishermen remained at sea and hauled the net on board with a winch4 ,in this way the seine net gradually developed into the trawl net4 ,the trawl net marked a big improvement1 for it could be fished in deeper water further from shore1 and thus greatly increased the scope of fishing operations1 and led to the rapid growth and improvement of demersal fishing4 ,trawling is said to have been invented at the end of the seventeenth century by the ,brixham fishermen4 ,the first trawlers were quite small vessels1 and were followed towards the end of the eighteenth century by the smack4 ,the smack reached its maximum size and efficiency at about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,some of the smacks that are still fishing from ,brixham--durable1 seaworthy1 and with beautiful lines--are probably a hundred years old4 ,in #ahgj1 there were a thousand first-class smacks in the ,north ,sea1 three hundred in the ,english ,channel1 and over a hundred in the ,irish ,sea4 ,the smacks were fitted with a tank in the well of the ship1 in which the fish were kept in sea-water and brought in alive4 ,in ,denmark to-day1 plaice are brought ashore and sold alive4 ,the subsequent development of trawl fishing has been in the construction of larger nets1 worked by more powerful trawling vessels driven by steam4 ,the size of beam trawl that can be worked by a large sailing smack is limited by the trawling power of the vessel1 and also by the difficulty of constructing and handling very long beams4 ,the maximum length of beam in general use by sailing smacks is fifty feet4 ,the length of the net1 from its mouth to the narrow of 8cod0 end1 rarely exceeds a hundred feet4 ,to each end of the beam is attached a triangular trawl-head of iron1 which moves along the ground and serves to keep the beam about three and a half feet above the ground4 ,these trawl crossheads are attached to the ship by bridles and warp4 ,the upper edge of the net is attached to the beam1 the lower edge being attached to a stout rope--the foot-rope--the ends of which are made fast to the crossheads4 ,this foot-rope1 being considerably longer than the beam1 sweeps along the ground abaft of the beam1 to form a deep curve known as the 8bosom0 of the net4 ,the result is that1 when the foot-rope disturbs the fish so that they leap to avoid it1 the beam has passed on overhead and they leap into the net4 ,pockets are formed in the sides of the net by lacing the top and bottom together for about two-thirds of the distance from the mouth of the net towards the cod end4 ,the mouth of a pocket is at the cod end of the net1 so that fish reaching the cod end and attempting to return to the mouth of the net1 generally enter the pockets4 ,a flap of netting suspended some distance inside the mouth of the net serves as a valve4 ,it is easily lifted by the incoming fish1 but tends to prevent their escape4 ,the netting is of hemp1 the mesh gradually increasing from one inch at the cod end to about two inches near the mouth1 and is preserved with tar4 ,when fishing1 the vessel moves ahead at a steady1 slow rate of from two to three miles per hour1 dragging the trawl behind it4 ,smacks always trawl with the tide4 ,if they trawl against the tide1 the net is lifted from the ground4 ,during fishing the cod end is closed by the cod line1 but at the conclusion of the trawl the net is hoisted aboard1 mouth upwards1 and the contents are discharged upon the deck by drawing the cod line4 ,the otter trawl that is used by modern steam trawlers is from seventy to one hundred and twenty feet wide across the mouth1 according to the character of the fishing1 and a hundred and ten feet long from the mouth to the cod end4 ,the otter trawl is shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,it differs from the beam trawl in that its mouth is kept open1 not by being attached to a beam1 but by otter boards1 which are attached one to each side of the mouth of the net4 ,these are attached to the net and to the warps by which the net is towed in such a way that the pressure of the water upon them causes them to diverge1 thus keeping the mouth of the net open4 ,the size of a beam trawl is necessarily limited by the length of beam obtainable4 ,the size of the otter trawl1 however1 is obviously only limited by the power of the steam trawler4 ,the otter boards measure #aa ft4 by #d ft4 #f ins41 are shod with iron1 and weigh #ae cwts4 each4 ,the warps1 as the ropes are called which attach the otter boards to the ship1 are from three hundred to a thousand fathoms long--generally a little over three times as long as the depth of the water in which the trawl is to be used4 ,each board is attached to the steamer by a separate warp4 ,the upper edge of the mouth of the net is attached to a strong rope1 called the 8head0 rope4 ,the lower edge of the mouth of the net is also attached to a strong rope1 called the 8foot0 rope4 ,as in the beam trawl1 the foot rope is considerably longer than the head line1 and forms a bosom4 ,traps and pockets also are inserted in the sides of the net4 ,when trawling on rough ground1 the foot rope is furnished with large1 heavy1 wooden rollers1 called the 8bobbins40 ,trawl fishing1 until quite recently1 was almost entirely confined to demersal fish1 such as cod1 plaice1 haddock and halibut4 ,in recent years1 however1 considerable quantities of herring have been caught by trawlers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,,drifting 7circa #agej7 ,drifting4 ,the drift net is essentially a completely submerged1 vertical curtain of netting1 one end of which is attached to a boat called a drifter4 ,the net extends in a straight line from the boat1 and may be as much as three miles long4 ,unlike the trawl net1 the drift net generally catches one kind of fish only--either herring or mackerel--drift net fishing being carried on at a time when these fish come together in shoals near the surface for the purpose of spawning4 ,the trawl obviously only captures fish living at the bottom4 ,at the same time1 of course1 it captures all the fish at the bottom1 whether immature1 or useless star fish1 etc4 ,the drift net1 on the other hand1 is generally used for a particular kind of fish--herring1 mackerel1 sprat--and only catches fish above a certain size4 ,a drifter may be as much as #ij ft4 long1 with #bj ft4 beam and #aj ft4 draught4 ,its foremast is so constructed that it may be lowered when the vessel is steaming against a head wind1 or when it is fishing4 ,the ordinary sailing drifter is rapidly being superseded by the steam drifter1 partly because the greater power of the steam driven boat increases its capacity and scope1 and1 further1 owing to the centralization of the industry at a few big ports at certain times of the year1 these harbours are so crowded that it is almost impossible to handle a sailing drifter in them4 ,many of the larger sailing drifters have been equipped with petrol engines which largely discount this disadvantage4 ,a steam drifter can travel at from #aa to #ab knots1 and both steamers and sailers carry a fishing crew of seven men and a boy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa ,a ,,single-,,boater ,,at ,,folkestone ,inshore ,fisheries4 ,the development of steam fishing--trawling and drifting--has resulted in the re-grouping of the fishing industry into two well-marked divisions4 ,fisheries1 whether trawling1 drifting or lining1 that are carried on in deep water far from shore in large steamers1 for the most part owned by limited liability companies1 are known as offshore fisheries4 ,the fisheries of the seashore1 carried on by small1 privately-owned1 sailing smacks and cutters within territorial waters1 are distinguished by the term 8inshore fisheries40 ,the inshore fisheries are mainly for shellfish1 crabs1 lobsters1 shrimps and immature deep sea fish such as plaice1 soles1 flounders1 dabs1 codling and sprats4 ,shrimps and whiting are caught with trawl nets of #be ft4 beam or less1 and of about #a_/d in4 mesh4 ,the net is generally drawn behind a small cutter1 but frequently it is used in shallow water with a horse and cart4 ,these nets are generally made of flax or cotton1 and are either tanned or tarred1 in order to preserve them4 ,smaller1 fine-meshed1 trawl nets are used for catching shrimps and also immature plaice1 soles and dabs4 ,these shrimp nets are either attached to a long handle and pushed through the water in front of the fisherman 7push nets71 or drawn behind a small boat or a horse and cart 7trawl nets74 ,larger fish are sometimes caught in shallow water by casting a net over the fish so as to enclose it 7cast nets74 ,the fisherman of the ,eastern ,mediterranean uses a cast net with conspicuous skill4 ,the net is essentially a circular disc of netting1 to the circumference of which small weights are attached at regular intervals4 ,a cord is attached to the centre of the net1 and the fisherman1 standing knee-deep in the water1 grasps the net by its centre1 swinging it round his head1 and casts it so that as it approaches the water it opens out1 and with a soft splash sinks through the water until it lies outstretched over the fish4 ,it is then drawn up by the string attached to its centre1 and the weighted edges fall together enclosing the fish4 ,fish are often caught on shores and in rivers by causing them to pass between converging walls of stakes or basket work1 until they enter an enclosure1 the floor of which is covered by a net4 ,when the fish have gathered in the enclosure1 the net is pulled up4 ,the simplest form of inshore fishery is that for periwinkles1 in which they are simply picked off the rock4 ,mussels live on the sea bottom1 on the lower half of the foreshore4 ,they generally attach themselves to a stone by a thread4 ,they are usually collected at low tide by hand or1 when submerged1 are raked from the bottom4 ,the rake is from #b to #c ft4 wide1 and is furnished with teeth #aj ins4 long1 the back of the rake being covered with netting4 ,sometimes the mussels are submerged even at low water and then a short rake is used4 ,cockles live about an inch or so below the surface of the sand1 and maintain a connection with the water above by means of small tunnels in the sand4 ,they occur abundantly in many places between high and low watermark4 ,when the cockles are abundant they are raked out of the sand1 the rake being from #aj ins4 to #a ft4 wide1 with teeth #a in4 long4 ,the cockles are riddled1 the small ones being rejected4 ,when the cockles do not exist in such large numbers1 they are obtained by means of a 8jumbo40 ,this is essentially a block of wood1 #c or #d ft4 long1 and #a ft4 wide1 furnished with two upright handles4 ,the jumbo is rocked to and fro on the surface of the sand1 with the result that the cockles are gradually worked up to the surface4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,herring ,,fishing ,,industry ,herrings abound in the waters round the coast of ,great ,britain4 ,ordinarily they are widely scattered in deep water1 but at certain times of the year they come together in shoals in the warmer water near the surface for the purpose of spawning4 ,it is at this time that they are of greatest value for food purposes and1 being gathered together in shoals1 are most economically caught4 ,the herring may spawn at any time of the year4 ,in this respect it differs from all other ,british marine food fishes4 ,most ,british caught herrings spawn during ,september and ,autumn4 ,very little spawning takes place during late winter and spring1 i4e4 just after minimum sea temperature4 ,each local race 7or species7 appears to spawn at a constant time of the year4 ,the date of the annual spawning1 and hence the herring fishing season1 varies from point to point round the coast4 ,herrings caught at different places show well-marked differences in appearance and quality1 which are evidently due to differences in species and feeding ground4 ,the food value of the herring will depend also upon the time of the year at which spawning occurs4 ,thus1 in the ,irish ,sea1 there are two races of herrings--the ,manx and the ,welsh4 ,the ,manx herring spawns in summer 7,september71 and is rich in fat2 the ,welsh herring spawns in winter 7,november and ,december71 and is poor in fat4 ,herrings are first caught off the ,west coast of ,scotland in the waters round the ,hebrides4 ,this fishing begins in the middle of ,may1 its chief centre being ,stornoway4 ,in early ,june herrings are caught in the waters round the ,orkneys and ,shetlands1 and then in succession off ,wick1 ,fraserburgh and ,peterhead1 and the ,northumberland coast 7,eyemouth1 ,berwick and ,sea ,houses74 ,about the middle of ,july the herring fishery season begins at ,blyth and ,shields1 and at ,scarborough and ,grimsby towards the end of ,july4 ,at ,yarmouth and ,lowestoft it begins early in ,october4 ,the last herrings to be caught in ,british waters are caught round ,devon and ,cornwall in ,december4 ,of the various kinds of herring obtained at different places1 the largest and finest fish are those caught in ,downings ,bay off the ,north of ,ireland1 ,castle ,bay off the ,island of ,barra in the ,south ,hebrides1 and off the ,shetlands4 ,herrings differ very much in their suitability for handling1 keeping and curing4 ,most herrings have a small gut which is easily removed without seriously damaging the body of the fish4 ,blyth and ,shields herrings1 however1 are very rich and fat1 and have a specially big1 distended gut4 ,such herrings are difficult to clean because1 when this large gut is removed1 the belly of the fish is so tender that it is often broken4 ,herrings caught off these ports are fat and oily1 so that many are landed in a broken condition4 ,the ,yarmouth herring is firm and hard1 and is the best adapted for handling and curing4 ,unlike that of the cod1 the flesh of the herring is very rich in oil and fat4 ,the body flesh of the herring consists essentially of two well-developed layers of adipose tissue1 alternating with two layers of muscular tissue4 ,the fat in this adipose tissue is very liquid and oily1 and tends to make the fish tender4 ,the actual amount of body fat varies widely throughout the year4 ,it gradually rises to a maximum before spawning takes place1 and diminishes slightly before spawning and afterwards rapidly to a minimum4 ,thus1 the fat content of ,manx summer herrings is about #b per cent during the winter1 and rises rapidly in ,june and ,july1 until in ,august1 just before spawning1 it is over #cj per cent4 ,the herring has a small liver which also contains some oil4 ,fishing is carried out with drifters4 ,practically all drifters to-day are steam-driven1 although recently a number of motor-driven drifters have come into use4 ,motor-driven drifters are mostly sailing boats converted4 ,each drifter carries a crew of seven men1 including the skipper and engineer4 ,the boats are largely privately owned and the crew work on a share basis4 ,a number of boats are owned by companies4 ,the boats from the various fishing ports work round the coast1 following the fishing from port to port4 ,at ,yarmouth during the fishery season there are about #a1bjj drifters from nearly all the fishing ports round the coast4 ,stornoway1 ,wick1 ,fraserburgh1 ,peterhead1 ,aberdeen1 ,berwick1 ,whitby1 and ,yarmouth are all well represented4 ,each boat carries from #gj to #hj nets4 ,the nets are approximately #a in4 mesh4 ,each net is essentially a long rectangular curtain1 hanging vertically in the water4 ,its upper edge1 which is about #ee yds4 long1 is buoyed up by about #hj to #hd corks distributed equidistantly along it from end to end4 ,the net is about #f yds4 wide4 ,each net hangs with its upper edge about #b fathoms below the surface of the water1 being attached at each corner to two pellets or bladders1 resembling large footballs1 and serving as floats4 ,fishing nets and sails are often coated with warm gelatine1 and then immersed in a strong solution of tannin4 ,this renders the gelatine insoluble and preserves the nets against the attacks of destructive organisms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,,herring ,,drifter ,when fishing1 the boat takes up a position stern on to the tide4 ,the nets are paid out over the bow and connected up in line1 and carried by the tide till they form one long line1 one end of which is attached to the drifter4 ,the position of the nets is indicated by the line of bladder floats4 ,the fish swim against the nets1 push their heads through1 and then1 owing to their gill openings1 find that they cannot withdraw their heads1 and in this way are caught in enormous numbers4 ,generally1 fishing goes on all night1 and in the morning the nets are hauled in1 and1 together with the attached fish1 are thrown into the hold situated amidships4 ,the drifters then return with all possible speed to the fish wharf4 ,while the boats are returning to port1 the men draw the nets from the hold and shake them free from any entangled fish4 ,when the drifter reaches port1 she moors alongside the fish wharf1 bow on1 and unloads her cargo of fish1 using her derrick mast4 ,the fish are unloaded in a round basket which is stamped by the ,fishery ,board's officer as holding a quarter of a 8cran40 ,the word 8cran0 is derived from the 8crown0 branded by the ,fishery ,board's officer on each of the two wooden shafts in the basket4 ,the cran is the measure which is universally used in the trade4 ,at ,yarmouth and ,lowestoft originally herrings were counted out and sold by the 8last40 ,a cran averages from #ijj to #a1jjj herrings and weighs approximately #c cwts4 ,a 8last0 equals ten crans1 and originally consisted of #ac1bjj herrings1 counted out4 ,this method1 of course1 was too slow and has now been abandoned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,,curing ,,yard ,,at ,,yarmouth ,the herrings1 as they are removed from the ship1 are put into special baskets called 8swills10 each swill holding half a cran4 ,the swills containing the day's catch are arranged in rows on the fish wharf1 opposite each drifter4 ,it is a great sight to see about four or five hundred drifters lying1 bow on1 alongside the fish wharf for about #b-a_/b miles1 all unloading fish as fast as they can4 ,a good day's catch would consist of about #ij crans4 ,a good catch1 therefore1 would average about #ajj1jjj herrings1 and would weigh about #ac tons4 ,some boats come in with as many as #afj crans of fish1 and the total 8cranage0 for a day may exceed #cj1jjj4 ,the total catch for ,yarmouth on a good day would be about #cj1jjj1jjj herrings1 weighing about #d1jjj tons4 ,sometimes when the catch has been poor1 the drifters remain out on the fishing grounds for another day1 rather than come home with a small catch4 ,in this case1 the two catches are kept separate1 the first catch being called 8overdays40 ,overdays are worth about half the price of fresh fish and are1 of course1 less suitable for high grade curing4 ,after it has been purchased by the curer1 the fresh herring may develop into a salted herring1 a red herring1 a bloater1 or a kipper1 depending upon the degree of salting and smoking to which it is subjected4 ,herrings are sometimes put into cold storage1 to be withdrawn subsequently as occasion demands1 either to be salted or1 more frequently1 to be consumed fresh4 ,cold storage affords a convenient method of preserving herrings when there is a glut1 for at such times it is often impossible to deal with the herrings adequately in the ordinary curing yards4 ,salted ,herrings4 ,the fresh herrings are delivered to the curer's yards4 ,here1 the fish are emptied into broad1 shallow troughs1 which generally run from end to end of the yard4 ,the troughs are about #d ft4 wide1 and are generally made of wood and arranged at a convenient working height4 ,usually1 the trough is situated just inside the boundary wall1 and the fish are delivered into it through large openings in the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,,scottish ,,fisher ,,girls ,the fish are gutted and salted by ,scottish girls--many of them from the ,hebrides--who come to ,yarmouth and other places in the season for this purpose4 ,these girls are all brought up in ,scottish villages1 and are extraordinarily expert in all the operations connected with the cleaning and salting of the fish4 ,they work in crews of three1 and take very good care that each member of the crew is a good worker1 as they are paid according to the amount of work they do4 ,each girl receives #bes4 a week as a kind of subsistence allowance1 and is paid #as4 a barrel for the work she does4 ,as the fish are delivered into the gutting trough1 they are liberally sprinkled with salt1 thus enabling the women to grasp the fish easily1 as otherwise the fish are too slippery for quick handling4 ,the women work standing in a row beside the trough4 ,they pick up a fish1 gut it by inserting a sharp knife just below and behind the gills1 and with a quick1 upward cut1 bring away the gut4 ,the guts drop into small tubs placed in front of each worker1 and are collected periodically and sold to manufacturers of manure4 ,behind each woman are three shallow tubs or baskets1 and after she has gutted a fish1 she throws it behind her into one of the three tubs1 according to its quality and size4 ,in this way1 the two operations of gutting and selecting the fish are combined4 ,as the tubs of gutted fish become filled1 they are taken away by other girls to the barrel packers1 and are packed in separate barrels1 according to quality or size4 ,the barrels are arranged in long rows1 generally parallel to1 and at some distance behind1 the gutting trough4 ,a girl will pack about three barrels in an hour4 ,the gutted fish are first of all emptied into large1 shallow tubs called 8rousing tubs10 placed just behind the row of barrels1 and are again sprinkled with salt4 ,the packer takes an armful of fish from the rousing tub and drops them into the barrel4 ,each time the fish are taken from the rousing tub the contents of the tub are well stirred up4 ,the fish are then packed in the barrel in layers1 bellies upward1 and each layer is liberally sprinkled with salt4 ,in this way each individual fish is first of all thickly coated with salt in the rousing tub1 and adjacent layers of fish in the barrel are also separated by a layer of salt4 ,in this packing process1 it is important that the fishery salt used should be coarse1 reasonably hard1 slow in dissolving and present in considerable excess4 ,it should be coarse enough to prevent the fish from touching each other1 thus enabling the brine to penetrate to every part4 ,it should be hard enough to withstand the pressure of the fish in the barrel4 ,it should dissolve slowly1 so that the salting process takes place gradually1 enough salt remaining undissolved throughout the process to keep the fish from touching4 ,altogether1 about #a cwt4 of salt is used for each barrel of herrings cured4 ,the barrel1 when fully packed1 is covered over and left for about eight days4 ,during this time1 the salt extracts water from the fish and dissolves in it to form a saturated brine4 ,the efficiency of this salting process necessarily depends upon the salt being present in considerable excess1 so that the brine formed is kept saturated1 and consequently continues to withdraw water from the fish4 ,at the end of eight days1 the barrels are opened1 an inch hole is drilled in the side at the bilge1 and the pickle allowed to run out4 ,it is found that1 owing to the withdrawal of water from them1 the herrings have shrunk considerably1 and some more salted herrings are added to the barrel1 until it is full again4 ,it is then fastened down permanently1 turned over on its side and filled with brine pickle1 and corked up4 ,the brine pickle which is formed during the eight days is not allowed to run to waste1 but is used for filling up the barrels after they have been repacked4 ,this brine pickle contains amino bases1 together with small quantities of coagulable proteids1 and is of distinct nutritive value4 ,the ,poles and ,russians1 who are great consumers of these salted herrings1 actually use the pickle as a kind of sauce or gravy1 dipping their bread in it4 ,this1 together with the general demand for salted herrings in these two countries1 may very largely be due to the comparative scarcity and high price of salt there4 ,a cran of herrings 7about #a1jjj fish1 weighing approximately #c cwts47 uses up #a cwt4 of salt and1 when completely salted1 just fills a barrel4 ,the curer estimates that #e to #f tons of salt will be sufficient for #ajj crans of herrings4 ,herrings salted in this proportion should be exported and consumed before the warm weather comes1 as they are liable to decay if the temperature rises above #gj ,f4 ,the herrings that were packed for the ,british ,government 7#aibj-aiba7 were salted more heavily than usual 7#g to #h tons of salt per #ajj crans71 as1 owing to the uncertain condition of the ,russian and ,german markets1 it was necessary to keep some of the fish in stock for a considerable time4 ,such a heavily-salted fish would be unpalatable to the home consumer4 ,in ,yarmouth and ,lowestoft1 and also in ,scotland1 #ajj crans of herrings should fill1 when cured1 from #abe to #acj barrels4 ,herrings are sometimes salted at sea1 #a ton of salt being used to each last 7#aj crans7 of herrings4 ,such herrings are mostly used to make 8red herrings40 ,red ,herrings4 ,a considerable trade in red herrings is done with the ,mediterranean and the ,levant4 ,for this trade1 the fish must be thoroughly smoke-cured1 otherwise they will not keep in the comparatively warm climate4 ,the fish are first of all dry-salted in concrete tanks about #aj ft4 square and #f ft4 deep1 arranged under the floor of the curing house4 ,fresh fish and salt are simply thrown in and mixed up1 and left to develop their own pickle4 ,generally speaking1 #a ton of salt is used to #aj crans of herrings1 and each tank will hold from #bj to #cj crans of the fish4 ,the fish should be left in these salting tanks for five days at least2 sometimes1 of course1 they are left for months1 according to the trade1 in which case the tanks practically serve as storage tanks for the salted fish4 ,the fish are removed from the tank as required1 washed1 and put on 8speets0 and smoked4 ,a 8speet0 is a wooden rod about #c ft4 #f ins4 long and pointed at one end4 ,the fish are threaded on the speet through the gill openings and mouth1 each speet holding from #bj to #cj fish4 ,the speets are then stacked horizontally on racks in the smoke house 8loves0 7lofts71 about #f ins4 apart and about #ab ins4 above each other1 until the smoke house is filled from the roof to within a few feet of the floor4 ,when the smoke-house is filled1 fires are lighted on the floor4 ,generally1 the fuel used is oak turnings1 shavings1 and sawdust4 ,this material burns quickly1 and gives a very resinous smoke which not only dries the fish1 but also permeates it thoroughly4 ,the rate of curing and the character of the finished product depend upon the temperature of the smoke1 and the proportion of antiseptic resinous materials in it4 ,when the oak or other suitable hard wood fuel is in the form of turnings or dust it burns quickly1 and thus produces a fairly hot smoke1 containing antiseptic substances--for example1 guaiacol and creosol4 ,such a smoke will cure the fish quickly4 ,if oak billets or logs are used they burn comparatively slowly4 ,the smoke1 therefore1 is not so hot and1 since slow combustion in this case probably means more complete combustion1 the proportion of resinous constituents in the smoke is liable to be considerably diminished4 ,when oak billets are used1 therefore1 curing takes place much more slowly4 ,the temperature in the smoke house will also depend very much upon the prevailing weather temperature outside4 ,in cold weather it is difficult to keep the temperature up sufficiently4 ,the curing takes longer1 and results in a hard cured product4 ,in very warm weather1 on the other hand1 it is difficult to keep the temperature down1 and a 8fired0 fish is sometimes produced1 i4e4 one which is half-cooked and soft4 ,such a fish is clearly unsuitable for packing for export4 ,generally speaking1 the temperature of the smoke should be such that the curing takes about #aj days4 ,after smoking1 the fish are taken off the speets and selected according to quality4 ,those which are large and perfect fetch a better price1 and command an entirely different market from those which are damaged or broken4 ,during the smoking of red herrings1 the fires are lit each night1 and simply allowed to burn themselves out4 ,bloaters4 ,there are two kinds of bloaters3 those intended for the home trade and those intended for the ,mediterranean trade4 ,for the home trade the herring is lightly salted by immersing it in brine for two hours or less4 ,it is then dried in the smoke-house for one night1 using billets4 ,unlike 8reds0 or kippers1 it is not cured by the smoke1 but simply dried4 ,the bloaters for the ,mediterranean trade are salted in concrete tanks in exactly the same way as red herrings1 but1 instead of being smoke-cured for #aj days or so1 they are simply smoke-dried for two days4 ,kippers4 ,kippering is the only process in the herring industry in which the fish are split before curing4 ,fresh herrings 7sometimes over-day herrings7 are bought early in the morning from the drifters and taken to the curing yard4 ,they are split down the back1 close to the backbone1 and gutted and thrown into large1 open baskets4 ,the basket and its contents 7about #ej herrings7 are then plunged into a tank of running water1 and violently agitated to wash blood and slime from the fish4 ,the fish are then thrown into brine in large tanks about #f ft4 by #e ft4 by #d ft41 until the tank is full4 ,salt is then sprinkled on the surface1 and the fish are left from half to one hour1 according to their size4 ,they are then hung on kipper speets4 ,a kipper speet differs from a bloater speet4 ,it is a square bar of wood about #c-a_/b ft4 long1 and of #a in4 square cross-section4 ,it is supported horizontally4 ,the split herrings are opened out and impaled upon hooks at intervals along each side of the speet4 ,each speet in this way will carry about eight or nine herrings a side4 ,the speets are then stacked on racks in the 8loves0 of the smoke-house1 are smoked over-night1 using fires of oak turnings and sawdust1 and are packed the next morning in boxes4 ,the herring is probably the most abundant food fish known4 ,during the autumn herring fishery of #aibj1 over #a1jjj1jjj crans of herrings were landed at ,yarmouth and ,lowestoft4 ,if we assume that one cran measure contains #a1jjj herrings1 we see that over #a1jjj1jjj1jjj herrings were caught in less than #d months1 and this probably represents only a small fraction of the number present on the fishing grounds4 ,in #aiac1 #aa1gfb1gdh cwts4 of herrings1 of value #d1dab1hch1 were landed in ,great ,britain4 ,in the same year1 the exports of herrings from the ,british ,isles were as follows-- ,fresh herrings #a1dfd1bif cwts4 worth #a1bab1dic ,cured herrings #h1gig1ajf #e1ccc1aac ---------- ---------- ,total #aj1bfa1djb #f1ede1fjf ,the quantity of herrings caught by other ,european countries is as follows-- cwts4 ,france 7#aiaa7 #g1hdf1ejc #ebi1gci ,germany 7#aiac7 ,fresh #adh1ced #ge1gch ,salted #a1jcj1jci #efc1jcc ,holland 7#aiaa7 #a1fhe1gea #iai1igc ,norway 7#aiab7 #d1djd1djj #ehj1egj ,denmark 7#aiab7 #hde1bie #adj1jea ,sweden 7#aiab7 #hfa1dbj #bje1eee ,belgium 7#aiaa7 #ac1jjj #e1jjj ---------- --------- #af1hcd1gfb #c1jai1fei ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,newfoundland ,,cod ,,fishery ,the cod is widely distributed in the northern and temperate seas of ,europe and ,america4 ,it lives close to the bottom1 in from #be to #ej fathoms of water1 and feeds upon fish1 small crustacea1 worms and mollusca4 ,the cod spawns in the ,spring4 ,of the #d1jjj1jjj or so eggs that are spawned by a single female cod1 comparatively few are hatched1 and fewer still reach maturity4 ,the young are about #a in4 long by the beginning of the summer1 and become fit for the market at the end of the second year4 ,usually1 the fish are mature at the end of the third year1 and then measure about #c ft4 in length1 and weigh from #ab to #bj lbs4 ,they are in the finest condition in ,october1 ,november and ,december4 ,in addition to its great value as a food fish1 the cod1 like the sturgeon1 yields isinglass 7a pure fish gelatine7 from its swimming bladder1 and oil from its liver4 ,cod-liver oil is largely used as a remedy for scrofulous complaints--probably owing to its content of vitamins4 ,it is also used effectively in cases of pulmonary consumption4 ,cod is fished along the coasts of ,newfoundland and ,labrador1 and on the ,banks4 ,the ,banks stretch for about #cjj miles in a south-east direction from the coast of ,newfoundland towards the middle of the ,north ,atlantic4 ,they are swept by the cold ,labrador current4 ,a branch of the ,gulf ,stream passes over the southern portion of the ,banks4 ,these currents bring enormous quantities of plankton and small fish1 which provide excellent food for the many varieties of fish and small1 invertebrate1 marine animals that inhabit the ,banks4 ,these1 in their turn1 provide abundant food for the cod4 ,the cod1 together with other demersal fish1 including haddock1 hake and pollack1 is caught with baited hooks and lines4 ,this fishery has continued with unbroken prosperity for nearly four centuries4 ,in addition to the ,newfoundland boats1 a large number of ,american boats set out for the ,banks from ,gloucester 7,mass474 ,most of the boats are sailing boats of about #ce tons capacity1 and of sturdy construction4 ,each boat carries eight dories--small row-boats about #ae ft4 long--amidships4 ,the crew consists of a captain and cook1 and sixteen men--two for each dory4 ,the 8,banks0 stretch for about #cjj miles1 by #bjj miles wide1 in a south-easterly direction1 towards the centre of the ,north ,atlantic4 ,the depths in which the fishing is carried on range from #bj to #abj fathoms off the coast of ,newfoundland1 from #ae to #ij fathoms on the ,banks1 and from #ajj to #ace fathoms at the edge of the ,banks4 ,the vessel starts out for the fishing grounds with about #djj hogsheads of salt1 and from #ae1jjj to #be1jjj lbs4 of bait4 ,the bait is generally frozen squid and herring4 ,capelan is also used as bait1 but has to be obtained at ,miquelon1 the last port of call before putting out to the ,banks4 ,the bait must be well iced1 as the cod will not bite well if the bait be tainted4 ,during the second trip1 squid is used as bait and is caught on the fishing grounds4 ,as the boat approaches the fishing grounds1 the dories are made ready4 ,each dory carries four tubs of baited lines4 ,a tub contains nine lines1 each #ej fathoms long4 ,when fishing1 these lines are all strung together1 so that each dory will run a string #a1hjj fathoms long--about two miles4 ,each line carries about #ij hooks--that is1 #c1bjj hooks to each dory4 ,a vessel with eight dories will thus set about #af miles of line1 carrying about #be1jjj hooks4 ,the hooks are attached to the lines by means of shorter lines called 8gangings0--in ,scotland they are known as 8snoods0--about #b ft4 long4 ,the complete line1 as set by a dory1 is called a 8trawl40 ,on arriving at the fishing grounds1 soundings are made to determine the depth and character of the bottom4 ,the best fishing is obtained over a gravel bottom4 ,the trawls are then set while the vessel is in motion 7a flying set71 and if the fish are found to be abundant the vessel drops anchor4 ,the flying set is carried out as follows3 ,the dories are towed astern and1 when the right spot has been selected1 are dropped at regular intervals until all are away4 ,each dory as it is dropped rows off at right angles to the course of the vessel1 and in the same general direction1 throwing out its trawl as it proceeds until it is all set4 ,the vessel then returns diagonally across the fishing grounds to the starting point1 picking up the dories as their trawls are set4 ,after a time1 the dories are dropped again in the same order as before1 and the men haul up the trawls and take the fish off4 ,each dory is then picked up in succession together with her catch4 ,if this flying set is successful1 and other conditions are favourable1 the vessel drops her anchor and fishing proceeds4 ,the manner in which the trawls are set depends upon the tide4 ,they are always set as far as possible with the tide4 ,thus1 the dories on the side of the vessel against which the tide is flowing row out against the tide1 until they are about a trawl-length from the ship4 ,they then set the end of the trawl at the point1 and work towards the vessel4 ,on the other side of the vessel the trawl is set from the vessel with the tide towards the dory4 ,each end of the trawl is attached to an anchor by a line #a fathom in length1 and to a buoy by a line #be fathoms longer than the depth of the water at that point4 ,thus1 the trawl is situated just above the ground4 ,the trawls are set once a day and drawn three hours afterwards1 or set in the afternoon and drawn the following morning4 ,the shorter the time between setting and drawing1 the better the condition of the fish4 ,in hauling the trawl1 one man stands in the bow of the boat and hauls in the trawl1 detaching the fish1 the other man receiving the trawl and coiling it4 ,a dory carries on an average #a1jjj lbs4 of fish1 and may sometimes make two or three trips before the line is cleared4 ,the fish are 8gaffed0 from the dories to the fishing vessel and are kept on deck1 packed between division boards to prevent sliding or turning of the fish by the movements of the vessel4 ,when the fish are all aboard1 they are split and cleaned and salted down4 ,the crew is divided into splitting gangs1 each consisting of three men--the throater1 the gutter1 and the splitter4 ,the throater grasps the fish by the head with the left hand1 and1 holding it with its back on the edge of a tub1 cuts its throat just behind the gills1 and makes a slit down the belly4 ,the head is then broken off by downward pressure against the edge of the tub1 and the fish is passed on to the gutter4 ,he opens the belly with his left hand1 removes the liver for oil1 and tears out the viscera4 ,the fish then goes to the splitter1 who completes the ventral splitting of the fish and removes the backbone4 ,after being well washed1 care being taken to remove all blood1 the fish are passed down a canvas chute into the hold1 where they are carefully salted and piled in 8kenches40 ,the fish are laid on their backs alternately nape and tail1 salt being liberally sprinkled between the adjacent layers4 ,nearly #a-a_/b bushels of salt are used per #ajj lbs4 of fish4 ,the pickle formed by the salt and the juices of the fish drains away to the bottom of the hold1 from which it is pumped overboard4 ,as the kench or pile settles1 more fish are added1 so as to keep the compartment full4 ,kenching begins in the forward compartment of the hold1 and is carried on from side to side of the vessel4 ,each kench is about #d ft4 by #g ft41 and the full height of the hold4 ,the refuse is thrown overboard4 ,in addition to the 8trawl0 fishing1 many boats use hand-lines4 ,for this purpose1 the lines are somewhat smaller1 and only #ac ft4 long4 ,about #ajj barrels of bait are taken 7slack-salted clams obtained on the coast of ,maine71 any additional bait that may be required being caught on the fishing grounds--squids1 hagdens1 and clams taken from the stomachs of fish4 ,when the vessel reaches the fishing grounds1 the dories row away in all directions1 each man for himself4 ,the dory is anchored in water from #ah to #dj fathoms deep4 ,each fisherman uses two lines carrying two hooks a piece4 ,the boats generally go out at sunrise and return to the fishing boat about six hours later4 ,two boatloads--that is1 #b1jjj lbs4 of fish--make a good day's work4 ,on returning to the vessel the fish are pitched on deck and counted1 only cod of over #bb ins4 length being considered4 ,smaller fish1 and the 8shack0--pollack1 haddock1 cusk and hake--being counted separately4 ,the fish are then dressed and salted1 as already described4 ,in some cases1 hand-line fishing is carried on from the deck of the fishing boat itself1 while the boat drifts4 ,each man uses one line carrying two hooks4 ,the bait consists of iced cockles1 broken with a hammer4 ,the positions on the deck are followed by the crew in rotation1 to give all an equal chance4 ,as the fish are 8landed0 they are thrown on to the deck1 each man keeping his count by cutting out the tongues and keeping them in a separate bucket4 ,on the ,georges ,bank1 south-east of ,gloucester1 which is one of the favourite fishing grounds1 the fish are caught by hand-line from the deck of the ship while at anchor4 ,frozen herring are used as bait1 when possible4 ,all the fish caught on the ,georges ,bank are salted1 except the halibut1 which is iced4 ,some idea of the value of these grounds is gained from the fact that a single fisherman may take #ejj fish in a day4 ,the ,georges ,bank area yields about #gj per cent of the total catch1 the ,grand and ,western ,banks accounting for the remaining #cj per cent4 ,approximately #fj per cent of the fish are brought in iced1 and #dj per cent salted4 ,on returning to port the fish are pitchforked on to the wharf1 and sorted into snappers 7less than #af ins4 from nape to tail71 medium1 and large 7over #bb ins47 ,generally1 they are divided as follows3 #d per cent snappers1 #da per cent medium1 and #ee per cent large4 ,each class is weighed separately and carefully examined for any indication of spoilage4 ,any suspected fish are thrown out4 ,the fish are then washed and put with salt into butts in the store4 ,fish that are brought in iced whole are sorted and weighed1 and then beheaded1 gutted1 and split and salted4 ,about eight bushels of salt are used to each hogshead of fish4 ,the fish are kept1 salted down in hogsheads until required1 care being taken that the fish are kept covered with strong brine4 ,after salting1 the fish are dried4 ,the salting process effects partial drying by extracting a large proportion of the flesh fluids of the fish4 ,the extraction of water by the salt is assisted by kenching1 the fish at the bottom of the kench being pressed down by the weight of those above4 ,the fish are taken from the butts as required1 and are piled in a kench about #d ft4 high1 to express and drain off the pickle4 ,at the end of two days the fish are re-piled1 the top fish becoming the bottom1 and so subjected to full pressure4 ,if the weather is unfavourable for drying1 they are re-kenched every two or three days4 ,the fish are then dried by exposing them to wind and sun on a bed of latticework about #h ft4 wide and #cj ins4 above the ground1 and as long as necessary1 called a 8flake40 ,the drying yard is known as the flake yard4 ,the latticework is constructed of triangular-section1 wooden laths1 placed about #c ins4 apart1 the fish resting on the upper edges of the laths4 ,in the hot weather1 the fish are protected from sunburn by canvas awnings1 and from rain at night by coops4 ,with a warm sun and a good breeze1 drying will be complete in about #aj hours4 ,thorough drying throughout the body of the fish is accomplished by drying on the flakes until the surface is dry and crystallized4 ,the fish is then kenched1 and the dry surface salt extracts more moisture from the interior4 ,the fish is then dried again1 thus ensuring a much more complete result4 ,fish are also dried in some factories in large1 steam-heated shelf driers4 ,this method is inclined to be too rapid1 with the result that the fish are only surface dried instead of being uniformly dried right through4 ,after drying1 the fish are kenched in the store until required4 ,they are then skinned1 the bones are removed1 and they are moulded into blocks which are cut up into cakes for packing and export4 ,it is estimated that the loss in weight during the different operations is as follows-- ,dressing #dj per cent ,salting 7full pickle7 #ag ,drying #d ,skinning and boning #ac ----------- ,total loss #gd ,the fresh waste1 skins1 bones1 etc41 of the fish are worked up for glue1 the residue being manufactured into fertilizer4 ,the best glue is obtained from the skins4 ,the cod and cusk skins are superior in this to the skins of hake and haddock4 ,the oil is extracted from the livers4 ,that from fresh livers is refined and used for medicinal purposes1 while that from old livers is used for tanning chamois leather4 ,the value of this oil is considerable1 as much as #aej being received by a boat in one trip for the oil alone4 ,in #aiad1 ,newfoundland exported #fj1jjj tons of cod meat1 worth #a1fjj1jjj4 ,the chief market is the ,mediterranean4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,trawl ,,fisheries ,unlike the drift net1 which only catches fish of one species and of fairly uniform size when they are swimming near the surface1 the trawl net scoops up practically all the inhabitants of the sea bottom1 including round fish1 e4g4 cod and haddock2 flat fish1 e4g4 sole and plaice1 as well as various invertebrates 7jelly fish71 and marine plants and stones4 ,the trawl is essentially a flattened1 conical net that is dragged open-mouthed along the sea bottom4 ,the two kinds of trawl in common use--the beam trawl and the otter trawl--differ in the method that is adopted for keeping open the mouth of the net4 ,the beam trawl is used by sailing vessels1 the otter trawl by steamers4 ,sailing trawlers are divided into two classes3 first class smacks and second class cutters4 ,the smack is a two masted vessel with fore and aft rig1 generally making a five or six day voyage1 and trawling in depths of up to #dj fathoms4 ,the cutter makes shorter voyages--#bj hours--and generally keeps within territorial waters4 ,to work a beam trawl successfully1 it is necessary to know the character of the sea bottom1 whether rough or smooth1 and also the time and direction of the tide4 ,the net is trawled with the tide a little faster than it is running1 so that sufficient resistance is encountered to keep the net extended4 ,in shooting the trawl1 great care must be taken to make it alight on its runners in the correct position for trawling4 ,if the net be twisted1 or if it alight upside down1 it has been shot 8foul10 and has to be hauled up and shot again4 ,in preparing for a shot the net is lowered over the side by adjusting the bridle ropes1 and the beam is coaxed into its proper position while the net is still near the surface4 ,the net is then gradually lowered1 the boat moving slowly forward4 ,the trawl is generally hauled for the duration of a tide--that is1 six hours--during which time it will travel about #ae miles4 ,the net is generally hauled in by a steam capstan1 driven by a small donkey engine4 ,when the trawl comes alongside1 the beam is secured and the net is gradually hauled over the side by hand until the cod end appears2 this is then made fast to a rope and tackle1 and hauled above the deck4 ,the cod line is untied and the fish are discharged upon the deck4 ,since trawling is generally carried out on smooth ground1 the greater proportion of the catch consists of certain kinds of demersal fishes that frequent sand and gravel4 ,of these1 the most important are cod1 haddock1 whiting1 ling1 hake1 catfish1 sole1 plaice1 turbot1 and brill4 ,certain of these species also frequent rocky ground1 and are taken in such areas by the line fishermen4 ,generally speaking1 line fishermen work in deeper water than trawlers and capture larger fish1 though of fewer species1 e4g4 cod1 halibut1 ling1 skates and rays4 ,the original sailing trawlers are rapidly being superseded by steam trawlers4 ,the first steam trawling company was formed in #ahhb4 ,it had a capital of #bj1jjj and a fleet of four vessels4 ,it trawled on the ,dogger ,bank for three years with marked success4 ,after this the future of steam trawling was assured4 ,the steam trawler is many times more efficient than a smack1 for it can fish in nearly all weathers1 including calm1 and it can trawl over rough bottoms1 owing to its greater power1 and can go much further afield4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae ,,modern ,,steam ,,trawler 7,,section7 ,total length1 #afj ft4 ,length between perpendiculars1 #adhe ft4 ,greatest breadth 7frame71 #bc ft4 ,draught1 #ac-c_/d ft4 ,explanation of ,section4--#a4 ,wheelhouse4 #b4 ,captain's cabin4 #c4 ,collision bulkhead4 #d4 ,crew's quarters4 #e4 ,store for gear1 nets1 etc4 #f4 ,chain locker4 #g4 ,fish-pounds 7on deck74 #h4 ,fish-hold4 #i4 ,cross bunker 7for coal74 #aj4 ,main bunker4 #aa4 ,passage to bunker4 #ab4 ,steam-winch4 #ac4 ,stokehold4 #ad4 ,lifeboat4 #ae4 ,triple expansion engines 7#fej indicated h4p474 #af4 ,bathroom4 #ag4 ,mate's quarters4 #ah4 ,dining-room and berths for engineers4 #ai4 ,storeroom4 ,modern ,british steam trawlers travel as far afield as ,iceland1 ,newfoundland and ,morocco4 ,steam trawling developed rapidly1 and resulted in a correspondingly rapid decrease in the number of sailing trawlers4 ,between #ahic and #aijc1 the number of first class smacks in ,great ,britain decreased from over #b1jjj with an average tonnage 7net7 of #egd to less than #ijj with an average tonnage 7net7 of #dj4 ,from #aijc until the present day1 the number had remained between #ijj and #hjj2 it would seem1 therefore1 that the relative numbers and importance of smacks and steam trawlers gradually attained to a condition of equilibrium4 ,between #aijj and #aijf the increasing importance of steam trawling received a temporary check4 ,a steam trawler in those days would cost about #aj1jjj to construct and about #e1jjj a year to operate2 their commercial success1 therefore1 depended upon correspondingly large and valuable catches of fish being obtained4 ,when first introduced on the fishing grounds round the coast their superior efficiency and speed amply compensated for their high cost4 ,about #aijj1 however1 the catch obtained by these vessels on the home fishing grounds began to diminish1 and the fishermen became alarmed lest the greatly increased efficiency of steam trawling should prove to be its own undoing1 and result in the depopulation of the fishing grounds by over-fishing4 ,between #aijj and #aijf1 the number of steam trawlers fishing from ,british ports only increased by #bjj1 whereas1 during the preceding #aj years1 the numbers had increased from a few hundred to over #b1jjj4 ,the anticipated exhaustion of the home grounds led to the steam trawler prospecting further afield4 ,these longer voyages1 as far as ,iceland and the ,white ,sea and ,morocco1 were very successful4 ,the result of this was that larger steam trawlers were built1 capable of undertaking long voyages of many weeks' duration4 ,between #aijj and #aijf the average net tonnage of the steam trawlers increased from #ed to #fb4 ,the steam trawlers1 in opening up new and more distant fishing grounds1 left the home grounds to the smacks4 ,consequently we find that the smacks confined their operation to the smooth ground in home waters1 leaving the rough and more distant grounds to the steam trawlers4 ,a direct result of this gradual redistribution of the fisheries between sailing smacks and steamers was the development of specialized fishing ports4 ,such ports as ,lowestoft1 ,brixham and ,ramsgate1 off which good fish are obtainable and which are within easy access of good markets1 have retained their importance as smack ports2 on the other hand1 the development of steam trawling has led to the rapid growth of deep water ports1 such as ,fleetwood1 ,grimsby1 ,hull1 ,aberdeen1 and ,milford ,haven4 ,in ,grimsby1 originally one of the greatest strongholds of smack fishing1 smacks have been entirely displaced by steam trawlers1 owing to the special facilities which the port offers in being near cheap coal1 in possessing deep water1 and in being in direct rail communication with large markets for trawl fish4 ,there is no doubt that the rapid development of steam trawling was accelerated by the invention of the otter trawl4 ,this is not only a larger net than the beam trawl1 but is for all but small1 flat fish1 a much more efficient instrument4 ,from the study of market statistics between the years #ahhi and #ahih ,garstang has calculated that a steamer caught on the average between four and seven times as much fish in the year as a sailing smack4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af ,i4--,,plan ,,on ,,deck4 ,,ii4--,,plan ,,below ,,deck4 ,plan of ,arrangements on and below ,deck4--7,i7 ,on deck3 #a4 ,winch4 #b4 ,hatches4 #c4 ,gallows4 #d4 ,bollards4 #e4 ,fish-pounds4 #f4 ,steam-winch 7for trawl74 #g4 ,blocks4 #h4 ,officers' messroom4 #i4 ,galley4 #aj4 ,ventilators4 #aa4 ,funnel4 #ab4 ,bunker-hatches4 #ac4 ,engine-room skylight4 #ad4 ,bathroom4 #ae4 ,mate's cabin4 #af4 ,lifeboat4 7,,ii7 ,below deck3 #a4 ,collision bulkhead4 #b4 ,crew's quarters4 #c4 ,storeroom4 #d4 ,iceroom4 #e4 ,fish-hold4 #f4 ,reserve coal bunker4 #g4 ,main bunker4 #h4 ,side bunkers4 #i4 ,stokehold4 #aj4 ,main pump4 #aa4 ,auxiliary pump4 #ab4 ,engines4 #ac4 ,dynamo4 #ad4 ,cabin4 #ae and #af4 ,chief and second engineers' quarters4 ,a modern steam trawler is from #aej to #afj ft4 long by #be ft4 beam and #ab ft4 depth1 constructed with a high bow and a low1 flat stern4 ,her net tonnage is from #fj to #bjj1 her bunker capacity #bej tons1 with storage room for up to #abj tons of fish4 ,she is fitted with triple expansion engines of from #dj to #he horse power4 ,the forward part of the ship is occupied by the living quarters of the crew1 rope and net store1 iceroom1 and fish-hold4 ,larger vessels1 making trips to distant grounds1 will take as much as #cj tons of broken ice2 this ice is distributed over the fish in layers1 after they have been cleaned and gutted4 ,in practically all modern fishing ports there is a special ice factory situated near the quay1 and ice is manufactured by the ammonia process1 crushed1 and delivered to the ships through zinc-lined chutes4 ,the fish-hold in the forward part of the ship extends right across the ship and is from #i to #aj ft4 high1 divided by a partition into two compartments1 each compartment fitted with two shelves #e ft4 long1 on which the fish are piled4 ,these shelves reduce compression and facilitate the storage of the fish1 the front of each compartment being closed with boards as it becomes full4 ,she generally carries three or four trawl nets1 one on her starboard and the other on her port1 one or two being down below in reserve4 ,the boat is fitted with four gallows1 two forward and two aft1 one on each side of the boat4 ,these gallows are used for lifting the otter boards out of the water when the trawl is hauled in4 ,the ship carries nine hands1 consisting of skipper1 mate1 boatswain1 two deck hands1 cook1 two engineers and a fireman4 ,on the fishing grounds1 fishing is continuous4 ,the net is trawled for from two to four hours1 although on grounds where fish is plentiful 7e4g4 ,iceland7 the trawl is frequently hauled every half-hour4 ,it is then hauled aboard1 and the cod end containing the fish is swung over the deck4 ,the cod line is unfastened so that the cod end of the net opens1 and the fish are discharged into a pound formed on the deck by horizontal #i #c deal boards4 ,the net is cleaned and shot again4 ,on smooth ground trawling is commercially possible at all depths down to #cjj fathoms4 ,in few cases1 however1 is trawling carried on at greater depths than #bjj fathoms4 ,owing to the large amount of stores and repairs1 etc41 connected with the maintenance of a fleet of steam trawlers1 most large owners maintain fairly elaborate premises in the neighbourhood of the fish dock4 ,these premises generally consist of a net-making hall in which nets are made by women working with shuttles1 a large bath of tar or tanning material below in which the net is soaked1 also a wood yard and blacksmith's shop1 containing a steam hammer1 a plumber's shop1 a boat-builder's shop1 a large store-room fitted with the necessary stores and spares4 ,during the war the steam trawlers were commandeered by the ,government for use as patrol boats and mine sweepers4 ,it is estimated that #aj per cent of our steam trawlers and drifters and their crews were lost during the war4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag ,a4--,the otter trawl4 ,b4--,attachment of board to net4 ,,ob4 ,otter board4 ,b4 ,iron brackets4 ,c4 ,chain to connect with warps4 ,m4 ,metal strengthening pieces4 ,m4 ,iron shoe4 ,,hl4 ,head line4 ,,uw4 ,upper wing4 ,,lw4 ,lower wing4 ,,ll4 ,lacing connecting wings4 ,,gr4 ,ground rope4 ,d4 ,balch of lower wing4 ,,sss4 ,twine settings connecting balch to ground rope4 ,a4 ,headline and lacing connected to board by shackle4 ,b4 ,toe of ground rope connected to board by shackle4 ,c4--,bosom of a bobbin foot-rope for use on rough ground4 ,,ab4 ,balch line on head of belly and connecting with bosom of wings4 ,,ss4 ,wire seizings connecting balch to small intermediate bobbins1 #f diameter 7,,ee74 ,large bobbins up to #bd diameter 7,,ff74 ,when steam trawling was first introduced it aroused general opposition1 for there was not only the fear that their efficiency would lead to over-fishing in certain grounds1 but it was said that the trawl1 when dragged along the bottom1 destroyed the eggs and killed the immature fish4 ,the line fisherman found that steam trawling made it more difficult to catch demersal fish with baited hooks4 ,he attributed this to the effect of over-fishing1 but it is probable that contact with the otter trawls had made the fish rather more shy and1 therefore1 more difficult to catch by this method4 ,it is unlikely that steam trawling will lead to serious over-fishing1 except possibly amongst such sedentary fish as soles and plaice4 ,it must be remembered that trawling is only commercially possible on comparatively smooth ground and down to depths of about #bjj fathoms4 ,probably1 therefore1 the actual area trawled is only a small proportion of the total area that is inhabited by fish4 ,it is possible1 of course1 that extensive and long continued trawling in a confined and relatively isolated area may scare the fish away2 it is probable1 however1 that any area in which over-fishing appears to have produced temporary exhaustion will tend to recover automatically1 since it would naturally be abandoned temporarily by the trawlers for more profitable fishing grounds4 ,there is no doubt that trawling1 unless the size of the mesh is carefully controlled1 tends to remove large numbers of immature fish4 ,generally in ordinary beam trawling--cod1 plaice1 haddock1 etc4--the mesh varies from #c ins4 diameter near the mouth of the net to about #a-a_/d ins4 diameter at the cod end4 ,if a much smaller mesh were used the resistance encountered by a full-sized net would be so great that it would be almost impossible to draw the net through the water4 ,smaller trawls of #a_/b in4 mesh are used in shallow coastal waters for catching shrimps1 small plaice and whiting4 ,the size of mesh largely determines the size of fish that will be retained by the net1 since the smaller1 immature fish readily escape through the meshes4 ,of recent years the various fishery boards1 with a view to preventing the catching of such small1 immature fish1 have increased the size of mesh that is to be used--particularly when trawling within the three mile limit1 where the greatest proportion of immature fish is generally encountered4 ,for steam trawlers working in deep water a #b-a_/b in4 mesh is generally used1 but within the three mile limit it is frequently increased from #c to #c-a_/b ins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,,the ,,catch ,,aboard ,herring are caught with drift nets at night near the surface4 ,in the daytime they frequent the sea bottom and can then be caught with a trawl net4 ,trawling for herrings was first practised by the fishermen of ,milford ,haven and ,fleetwood in #aija4 ,they used an ordinary otter trawl lined with a piece of herring net4 ,a specially constructed herring trawl is now used1 of which the cod end is made of #b-a_/b in4 mesh instead of the usual #c-a_/b in4 ,when trawling for herrings the steamer goes at full speed1 generally for two to four hours1 unless a shoal is encountered1 when half-an-hour is frequently sufficient4 ,herrings are trawled in from #gj to #ajj fathoms of water over a soft bottom4 ,the main centre for trawled herrings is ,north-,west of ,ireland1 other fisheries being carried on off the ,south-,west of ,ireland1 the ,west of ,scotland1 and in the ,north ,sea4 ,in #aiac over #ejj1jjj cwts4 of herrings were taken with trawl nets in these areas4 ,this method of catching herrings aroused serious opposition among the drift net fishermen4 ,they asserted that the trawl catches and destroys a high proportion of immature fish1 and also destroys the herring eggs as it passes along the sea bottom4 ,in #aiac the matter was investigated by a ,parliamentary ,committee1 but any ,government action was checked by the outbreak of war4 ,since #aije the trawling grounds frequented by ,british steam trawlers have been divided for statistical purposes into eighteen fishing areas4 ,the names and areas of these regions are shown in the chart of the trawling grounds 7,fig4 #ai74 ,table ,i shows in hundredweights the average catch per day's absence from port in different areas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,,chart ,,showing ,,trawling ,,grounds ,frequented by ,british ,trawlers1 the 8,regions0 into which they are divided for statistical purposes1 and the approximate area of each in square miles 7,nautical7 calculated from the #c mile limit to the #bjj metre line4 ,,no4 ,,of ,,region4 ,,name4 ,,approx4 ,,area ,,in ,,sq4 ,,mls4 ,,nautical ,i4 ,white ,sea #abh1iag ,,ii4 ,coast of ,norway #bi1fdh ,,iii4 ,baltic ,sea #acd1hia ,,iv4 ,north ,sea #abi1hjd99 ,v4 ,north of ,scotland #ah1jif 7,orkney and ,shetland7 ,,vi4 ,westward of ,scotland #cb1jii ,,vii4 ,iceland #cf1fjh ,,viii4 ,fare #d1idi ,,ix4 ,rockall #c1dcj ,x4 ,west of ,ireland #i1jff ,,xi4 ,irish ,sea #ae1gdc ,,xii4 ,southward of ,ireland #ej1daf ,,xiii4 ,bristol ,channel #h1fac ,,xiv4 ,english ,channel #be1bch ,,xv4 ,west of ,france #be1dbb ,,xvi4 ,north of ,spain #e1dfd ,,xvii4 ,coast of ,portugal #i1iig ,,xviii4 ,coast of ,morocco #aj1dii ------- ,total #fgh1ijj ------- 99,excluding ,area ,g1 over #bjj metres1 and the ,moray ,firth ,,table ,i #aijf #aiac #aibj ,white ,sea #djae #ddab #bede ,iceland #ddbb #dfaj #ehed ,fare #caai #bhai #bgjc ,rockall #chih #cibg #diec ,north of ,scotland #beja #begf #bgca ,north ,sea #agfj #adjh #bdid ,english ,channel #aacf #hie #begj ,irish ,sea #aeff #aaid #ahgi ,bristol ,channel #acae #acih #bfch ,west of ,scotland #baah #bhaa #bhag ,west of ,ireland #badh #cjbb #behg ,south of ,ireland #bfig #bcgd #bffc ,biscay #aeih #acbb #ahgc ,portugal and ,morocco #fee #acha #aibi ,in ,england and ,wales more fish is landed by trawlers than by all other methods of fishing combined4 ,trawl-caught fish--soles1 plaice1 turbot1 halibut1 cod--are much more valuable than fish caught by drift nets1 e4g4 herring and mackerel4 ,in ,england and ,wales1 in #aiac1 the weight of pelagic fish caught amounted to #chi1bfb tons1 and of demersal fish #dah1jch tons4 ,although the quantity of the demersal fish was1 therefore1 only little larger than of the pelagic fish1 its value was #g1dfc1jjc1 compared with #b1eca1igi1 the value of the pelagic fish4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,shellfish ,shellfish are divided into two classes3 ,crustacea1 including the lobster1 crab1 shrimp1 prawn1 and mollusca1 including the oyster1 mussel1 cockle and periwinkle4 ,shellfish generally abound in comparatively shallow water near the shore4 ,perhaps the most important members of the crustacea are the various minute1 pelagic copepoda1 of which incalculable myriads form an important constituent of the plankton in all seas4 ,these copepoda live upon the diatoms and other microscopic1 marine vegetable life floating at the surface of the sea4 ,the most important edible members of the crustacea are the lobster and the shrimp4 ,the lobster is found along the coasts of the ,north ,atlantic and ,mediterranean1 particularly along the ,european coasts from ,norway to the ,mediterranean1 and off ,north ,america from ,labrador to ,cape ,hatteras1 ,the lobster lives in shallow water at about #ab fathoms depth1 and frequents a rocky bottom4 ,the lobster's eggs remain attached to the female until the larvae hatch out4 ,from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj eggs are carried in this way by a female lobster4 ,she protects them from the ravages of fish that will otherwise consume them as food1 and by keeping them constantly irrigated with fresh sea-water she promotes their healthy life and development4 ,the eggs may take as long as twelve months to hatch1 and although 8berried0 lobsters are seen in greatest numbers in the spring they are also captured at all seasons of the year4 ,when hatched the young lobster larvae leave their mother and float up to the surface water1 where they develop for a time among the plankton4 ,during the larval period the lobster is a free and active swimmer4 ,the young larvae are consumed in large quantities by fish such as herring1 mackerel and sprat1 especially during the summer months when they are most abundant4 ,while developing into a complete lobster it passes through at least three distinct changes of form4 ,when the larva has attained the length of about #c_/e in4 it already possesses many of the characteristic features of the adult4 ,soon afterwards1 it sinks to the sea bottom and gradually grows into a complete adult4 ,during the growth of the lobster it frequently casts its shell and grows a new one4 ,growth only takes place when the shell is cast and while the new shell is hardening4 ,during the first few weeks of its life the lobster casts its shell about once a week1 but this casting happens less and less frequently as the lobster grows older4 ,the new shell is formed beneath the old one1 and although at first quite soft rapidly hardens when the old one has been cast off4 ,most adult lobsters cast their shells in ,july1 ,august and ,september4 ,a lobster grows slowly1 and when from #i to #aj ins4 long is probably from four to five years old4 ,it becomes mature when about #f ins4 long--that is when about three years old4 ,the lobster is usually caught in creels or 8pots0 baited with portions of stale fish--generally flounder1 skate1 eels1 etc4 ,lobster fisheries tend to deteriorate in value very rapidly4 ,owing to the lobsters' keen sense of smell1 the method of capture by means of creels or pots is very efficient1 so that the lobsters are caught in great numbers1 with the result that the fishery soon shows signs of exhaustion1 the average size of the lobster caught becoming smaller4 ,the lobster fishery is entirely confined to the shallow water near the shore1 and can only be replenished and maintained by the young lobsters that hatch out in that neighbourhood4 ,large quantities of lobster spawn are destroyed every year when berried lobsters are caught4 ,it is estimated that1 on an average1 #cj per cent of the lobsters caught are berried females4 ,the fishermen either remove the spawn and throw it back into the sea--where1 of course1 it almost certainly becomes fish food--or sell it to be used in making certain special sauces4 ,various attempts have been made by legislation in different countries to prevent the capture of berried females1 and so protect the lobster spawn1 but1 since berried females are found all the year round and comprise about #cj per cent of all the lobsters captured1 it is practically impossible to prohibit the capture of berried lobsters without seriously penalizing the fishermen4 ,a better policy would be to hatch lobster eggs in large numbers artificially1 and when the young lobsters are well established add them to the natural stock4 ,this is actually done on a large scale and with excellent results in ,america and ,norway4 ,in ,europe lobsters are generally sent to market in a fresh state1 but in ,america they form the basis of an extensive canning industry4 ,in #aiac over #b1ejj1jjj lobsters were captured round the coasts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the total value of the fish being more than #aaj1jjj4 ,shrimping is one of the most important methods of inshore fishing1 and gives employment to a large number of fishermen round our coasts4 ,the shrimp is found on sandy or muddy ground in shallow water near the coast4 ,a female shrimp1 like the lobster and the crab1 carries its eggs under its tail4 ,shrimps are caught with a fine-meshed trawl net1 drawn by a boat or by horse and cart1 or with push nets or hose nets4 ,one great objection to shrimping is that the shallow1 sandy areas on which it takes place are much frequented by young fish--particularly dabs1 plaice1 soles1 whiting and codling4 ,owing to the small mesh of the shrimp trawl1 these small fish are captured in large numbers and are generally dead or dying when discharged from the net4 ,generally1 the shrimps are separated from the small fish by riddling1 and the smaller shrimps are then separated from the larger ones by a second riddling process1 and are returned to the sea4 ,the shrimps are thrown into boiling salt water1 rapidly stirred for a few seconds1 and spread out on the deck to cool4 ,from three to four hauls are made per day1 a good day's fishing consisting of from #cj to #dj quarts of shrimps4 ,large numbers of shrimps are potted4 ,the other important group of shellfish is the mollusca4 ,molluscs1 i4e4 8soft creatures10 are essentially soft1 mobile animals1 protected by shells4 ,they are classed as bi-valves1 for example oyster and mussel1 and uni-valves1 for example limpet and whelk4 ,there is no real difference between a bi-valve and a uni-valve1 for what appear to be the two shells of the bi-valve are really one shell divided into two parts by a line of soft1 uncalcified material which forms a hinge between the two halves of the shell2 this hinge tends to keep the shell open1 but the muscular action of the living animal inside keeps it closed when required4 ,with the exception of the mussel1 very few shellfish actually live on the shore between the tide marks4 ,most of the seashore shells are brought by the sea from animals that lived in from #aj to #bj fathoms of water4 ,the cockle lives buried in the sand1 about an inch below the surface4 ,the oyster lives on stones and shells below low-water mark4 ,all molluscs are attached tightly to the shell at one or two points1 and cannot be removed from the shell alive4 ,in the case of the bi-valves the animal is attached to the two shells by a muscle which draws the two valves of the bi-valve together4 ,when this muscle is relaxed1 for example in normal circumstances1 when feeding at the bottom of the sea--the shell remains open4 ,some shellfish--notably the scallop--actually swim by opening and shutting the two valves of their shell4 ,the most important uni-valves are the periwinkle1 the limpet and the whelk4 ,uni-valves possess a well-marked head and neck1 a pair of eyes and a mouth4 ,they are remarkable for the possession of a tongue1 formed like a ribbon rasp1 furnished on its upper surface with a large number of small teeth4 ,the number and arrangement of these teeth differ in different species4 ,with this ribbon rasp the uni-valve1 for example a dog-whelk1 can rasp a hole through the shell of an oyster and feed upon the contents4 ,bi-valves do not possess a ribbon rasp1 neither have they a projecting head1 nor in most cases any eye4 ,they possess a mouth1 furnished with four flapper-like lips or gill plates4 ,they feed on microscopic1 floating plants that are drawn within their mouth by currents set up in the water by the rhythmic vibrations--from three to four hundred strokes per minute--of millions of hairs that hang down from soft plates supported under the protecting arch of the shell and called the 8beard40 ,these currents of water not only bring food to the mouth of the bi-valve1 but also irrigate the gill plates and so enable the animal to breathe4 ,the oyster lies on the sea bottom with its muscle relaxed and its shell gaping4 ,a ,north ,european oyster acts alternately as female and male4 ,it produces eggs--as many as a million in a season--and a fortnight after the eggs have been shed1 the same oyster produces millions of spermatazoa1 which form a cloud of fine dust in the water4 ,these spermatazoa rapidly scatter in all directions1 and1 entering the tubular reproductive sacs of oysters that are producing eggs1 fertilize them4 ,american and ,portuguese oysters are definitely male and female1 the eggs being discharged by the female and fertilized subsequently in the sea by the male4 ,the eggs remain attached to the parent's gill plates1 and in a day or so develop into minute1 shell-less oysters4 ,the parent oyster is then said to be 8white-sick40 ,about two days later the young oysters have become dark-coloured and are found to have formed minute convex shells1 rather like those of a cockle4 ,the parent is then 8black-sick40 ,a week later the young oysters escape and rise in thousands to the surface water1 swimming by means of fine hairs or cilia that are attached to the upper edge of the shells4 ,they are carried far and wide by tides and surface currents4 ,many are eaten by young fish and shrimps4 ,as they grow the shells become heavier1 and after a time they sink to the sea bottom4 ,this is known as the 8fall of spat40 ,if they fall on stony ground1 where they will be well irrigated and nourished through the movement of the water1 they will thrive4 ,many1 however1 fall on soft1 unsuitable ground and perish4 ,the ,european oysters spawn in the summer 7from ,may to ,september74 ,they become mature in three years1 are at their prime in from five to seven years1 and rarely live longer than ten years4 ,oysters are gathered from natural beds or from artificial grounds4 ,the oyster breeders place movable tiles or frames for the spat to fall on4 ,when the young have become affixed to these 8stools0 they are frequently carried away to develop in a different locality4 ,the oysters are finally fattened in sea ponds or inlets that contain a large diatom population4 ,at ,marennes1 on the west coast of ,france1 the water in which the oysters are grown contains a particular blue diatom4 ,after feeding upon these diatoms1 the beard of the oyster becomes stained a bluish-green colour--the well-known 8,marennes vertes0 oysters4 ,a natural oyster bed is formed on stony ground free from mud and sand1 so that the oyster1 after becoming attached to a stone1 is completely surrounded by clear sea-water4 ,oysters do not flourish in water containing less salt than ordinary sea-water4 ,thus1 there are no oysters in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,the chief enemies of the oyster are the dog-whelk that bores through the shell1 and the starfish that pulls the valves apart and attacks the oyster inside4 ,the oyster is widely distributed in tropical and temperate seas all over the world4 ,the approximate value of the annual oyster crop of the world is #d1jjj1jjj1 representing a crop of #aj billion oysters4 ,in ,europe up to #ge per cent of the oysters are reared from spat in artificial beds--not more than #g per cent being 8native40 ,in the ,united ,states1 however1 over #dj per cent are still obtained from natural beds4 ,the simplest form of oyster culture is the preservation of the natural bed4 ,these beds are easily destroyed or made unproductive by over-dredging4 ,colonies are broken up4 ,other animals are admitted4 ,breeding oysters are covered up by stones and shells1 and suffocated4 ,ridges suitable for the development of the spat are broken down4 ,after the beds have been properly protected and preserved the next stage is to extend the area of the natural beds4 ,this involves a knowledge of the conditions of depth1 temperature1 salinity and character of bottom that are necessary to the successful growth of the oyster4 ,finally the productivity of an oyster 8park0 and the quality of its produce can be greatly improved by providing artificial 8stools0 for the reception and development of the spat4 ,many substances can be used for this purpose4 ,the ,romans used earthenware tiles1 and similar tiles are used to this day in ,france4 ,brushwood1 trees1 stones and stakes1 and old oyster shells 7cultch7 are also used4 ,the earthenware tiles used in ,france are hollowed on one side to receive the spat1 and are coated with lime to facilitate the removal of the oysters when they are a year old4 ,they are then from #a_/b to #a inch in diameter1 and are picked off the stools and placed on stands where they are thinned out from time to time as they grow4 ,the chief oyster fisheries in ,britain are at ,whitstable1 ,colchester and ,brightlingsea4 ,nearly #dj1jjj1jjj oysters were gathered on the coasts of ,england and ,wales in #aibj1 and were sold for about #bej1jjj4 ,perhaps the next most important edible bi-valve is the mussel4 ,frequently1 mussel beds are situated near the mouth of rivers1 and consequently tend to be contaminated by sewage4 ,it has been established by various investigators--notably ,dr4 ,klein and ,professor ,james ,johnstone--that mussels are able to cleanse themselves of sewage pollution in a comparatively short time if they are re-laid in sterilized water4 ,experiments on a large scale have been carried out with the mussel beds at the mouth of the ,conway river since ,september1 #aiaf4 ,the mussels are gathered from the beds and placed about two deep on wooden grids in a large concrete cleansing tank of #dj1jjj gallons capacity4 ,the mussels are first thoroughly hosed with water at high pressure to remove all adherent mud1 etc4 ,the tank is then filled with sterilized sea-water and the mussels are allowed to remain in it for #bd hours4 ,during this period the mussels effectually free themselves from bacteria4 ,the tank is then emptied1 the mussels are hosed again1 the tank is again filled with sterile water and after a further #bd hours is emptied4 ,the mussels are once more flushed with the hose4 ,after this treatment the mussels reach a high standard of purity4 ,the scheme has proved to be a complete success1 not only from a scientific point of view1 but also as a commercial proposition4 ,the sum of #as4 per bag of mussels 7#adj lbs47 is charged to the fishermen for this treatment4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,fisheries ,,for ,,whales ,whales are the most important members of a large family of land animals including also the seals1 walrus1 and porpoise1 that have gradually become adapted to live in the sea4 ,they have acquired an externally fish-like form1 but in every other respect they retain the characteristic features of mammalian structure4 ,they are warm-blooded1 air-breathing quadrupeds1 that suckle their young4 ,in the whale1 the fore-limbs have become simple five-fingered flippers1 while only isolated1 vestigial bones of the hind-limbs remain buried uselessly in the body4 ,unlike fishes1 the tail is set horizontally1 thus enabling the creature to rise easily to the surface to breathe4 ,the warm-blooded body is kept warm by a layer of fat placed immediately beneath the skin1 and varying in thickness from #h to #bj ins41 and known as the blubber4 ,the nostrils1 instead of being situated at the end of the snout1 are placed far back at the apex of the head to form the blowhole4 ,whales are divided into two well-marked groups1 known as the whaleboned and the toothed whales respectively1 according to the particular form of their dentition4 ,the most important of the whaleboned whales is the ,greenland1 or ,arctic ,right1 whale4 ,it attains a length of upwards of #de to #ej ft41 and is remarkable for the enormous extent of its head and mouth cavity4 ,the head extends for a third of the length of the body1 so that the mouth cavity may be as much as #ah ft4 long1 #ab ft4 broad and #aa ft4 in height1 the dimensions of a small chapel6 ,the upper jaw is narrower than the lower and arches backwards1 thus increasing the actual height of the mouth cavity and providing ample room for the blades of whalebone with which the jaws are furnished in place of teeth4 ,these blades of whalebone number about #chj1 and range in length from #h ft4 to1 in exceptional cases1 #ab ft4 ,they are suspended in the mouth of the whale like stalactites1 set fairly close together1 and1 since the edges of each blade are fringed with fine whalebone1 the whole arrangement forms a very efficient strainer4 ,this enables the whale to feed upon the plankton--or 8krill10 as it is called by the whalers--and small fish1 e4g4 herring and capelan4 ,the whale fills his enormous cavern of a mouth with water containing the floating food particles1 and then1 by raising his tongue1 slowly expels the water through the whalebone sieve4 ,the food particles are retained by the whalebone1 and are then licked off and swallowed4 ,the ,greenland whale inhabits the ,arctic seas north of latitude #ed,n4 ,a closely related variety1 the ,bowhead whale1 forms the basis of a fishery in the ,behring ,sea4 ,the largest whales known are the so-called ,rorqual whales4 ,the name of these whales is derived from the large number of longitudinal folds or pleatings that form a characteristic feature of their throat4 ,rorqual whales attain a length of from #hj to #he ft4 ,the head is relatively small1 and the long1 slender body carries a distinct dorsal fin4 ,the whalebone is coarse and short4 ,the ,rorqual whales are the most abundant and widely distributed of all whales4 ,they are found in all open seas1 with the exception of those in the extreme ,arctic and ,antarctic regions4 ,the ,southern ,right whale1 or ,black whale1 is found in the temperate seas of both ,northern and ,southern hemispheres4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj ,a ,,whale',s ,,mouth ,the carcass is ready for cutting up at a ,shetland whaling station4 ,of the toothed whales1 the most important is the ,cachalot or ,sperm whale4 ,it is chiefly captured in ,southern seas1 and is killed in large numbers for the sake of the spermaceti and sperm oil that occur in large quantities in its head cavity4 ,sperm and other toothed whales feed upon fish and cuttlefish4 ,the breeding habits and migrations of the different species of whales are at present little understood4 ,during the summer1 when the water in the ,polar circles swarms with certain varieties of pelagic crustacea1 the whales congregate in these regions and are then most profitably hunted4 ,at the end of the summer they appear to migrate towards warmer water nearer the ,equator4 ,they bring forth their young in warm1 shallow water1 and return to the whaling grounds in the spring4 ,a young whale calf may be as much as #bj ft4 long at birth4 ,whales were captured by the ,norwegians over #a1jjj years ago4 ,in the ,middle ,ages--from the ninth to the seventeenth centuries--the ,basques hunted the ,black whale in the ,bay of ,biscay1 and supplied ,europe with oil and whalebone4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century1 as the ,biscay whales became rare and more difficult to find1 the whalers ventured further afield1 and in #afab discovered the ,greenland whale4 ,the ,black or ,biscay whale is now almost extinct1 and there is every likelihood that the ,greenland ,right whale will also soon be exterminated4 ,the capture of ,sperm and ,rorqual whales1 although equally important1 is a comparatively modern development4 ,modern whale fishing has become a very efficient art1 owing largely to the invention of the shot-harpoon by a ,norwegian1 ,sven ,foyn1 in #ahgj4 ,this harpoon is discharged from a gun from the deck of a fast steamship4 ,it penetrates the body of the whale in the vital region just behind the flipper4 ,the invention of this weapon has made the killing of whales a matter of comparative ease and certainty4 ,the inevitable consequence of this is that the whales are being killed in such large numbers that they are in danger of general extermination4 ,even before the introduction of the shot-harpoon1 whales were being destroyed at an astonishing rate4 ,thus1 during #dj years in the middle of the last century1 over #cjj1jjj whales were captured by the ,united ,states whale fisheries alone4 ,the value of these whales was #fe1jjj1jjj1 so that each whale realized on an average #baf4 ,of recent years--before #aiad--;a single large ,greenland whale has realized as much as #ijj for whalebone and #cjj for oil4 ,at the present time1 over #bj1jjj whales are killed each year4 ,the old eighteenth century whaler of about #djj tons burden carried about #cj officers and men1 and was equipped for a three years' voyage4 ,each whaler carried six whale boats4 ,these whaleboats were about #bg ft4 long and built sharp at each end4 ,each boat was furnished with mast and sails1 and was provided with two #bjj-;fathom whale lines4 ,when a whale was sighted four of these boats1 each manned by six men1 started in pursuit4 ,the boats ranged themselves alongside the whale and a harpoon was driven into it from each boat4 ,the whale immediately dived to the bottom of the sea and remained there sometimes for as long as forty minutes4 ,when he returned to the surface to breathe1 more harpoons were thrown and he dived again4 ,ultimately1 owing to loss of blood1 the whale kept near the surface and was then dispatched by a lance thrust behind the flipper into the vital parts4 ,the modern ,greenland whaler is an iron vessel of about #ejj tons4 ,she is fitted with auxiliary engines of #ge horse-power4 ,she carries from fifty to sixty hands and eight whaleboats4 ,she is fitted with tanks for #bej tons of oil4 ,before the war she would cost about #ag1ejj to build and #ejj a month to maintain4 ,each whaleboat carries a harpoon gun in order to make sure of the first harpoon getting a good hold4 ,in ,rorqual fishing1 off ,newfoundland1 the harpoon is tipped with a bomb and time fuse4 ,this explosive harpoon is discharged into the whale from the deck of the whaler--a fast steamer--and explodes with fatal effect4 ,the chief whale fisheries are carried on off ,greenland for the ,greenland whale1 off the coast of ,newfoundland for ,rorquals4 ,there is the ,norwegian bottlenosed-whale fishery around ,iceland1 and the ,american ,bowhead-whale fishery in the ,behring ,sea4 ,in ,southern ,seas the ,humpback1 ,fin whale1 and ,blue whale 7,sibbald's ,rorqual7 constitute an overwhelming majority of the whales captured4 ,the ,right whale and the ,sperm whale1 although captured in relatively small numbers1 are individually more valuable4 ,other smaller species1 e4g4 the ,sei whale 7,rudolph's ,rorqual71 the lesser ,rorqual and the ,killer or ,grampus1 are also found in large numbers in the ,antarctic4 ,when the whale has been killed it is either made fast alongside the whaler and cut up1 or it is towed ashore to a 8factory0 to be cut up and stripped4 ,the blubber is stripped off1 cut up into small pieces1 and boiled down with water to separate the oil4 ,the yield of oil varies for different species1 as shown in ,table ,,ii4 ,the whalebone is removed and1 if a ,sperm whale1 the oil is removed from the skull cavity with buckets4 ,an average large ,sperm whale will yield from #b-a_/b to #c tons of ,sperm oil4 ,,table ,,ii ,average ,yield of ,oil in ,barrels ,species of ,whale4 7#f ,barrels #a ,ton74 ,right #fj to #gj ,blue #gj #hj ,fin #ce #ej ,sei #aj #ae ,humpback #be #ce ,sperm #fj #fe ,whale oil is marketed in five grades3 ,nos4 #j1 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,nos4 #j and #a are made entirely from blubber2 ,no4 #b from tongues and kidney fat and from the residue of the blubber boilings2 ,no4 #c is made from the flesh and bones1 and ,no4 #d from refuse4 ,the different grades contain progressively from #a_/b to #a per cent water and dirt1 and from #b to #cj per cent free fatty acid4 ,grades #j1 #a and #b of whale oil are used in the manufacture of soap1 glycerine being obtained from it as a by-product4 ,in its natural condition the oil is soft1 and has to be 8hardened0 before it can be used for soap making4 ,the hardened whale oil is white1 odourless and tasteless1 and is an excellent substitute for tallow4 ,in this condition it is also used as a substitute for lard and1 to a small extent1 is used in making margarine4 ,grades #c and #d are used in the manufacture of lubricating greases4 ,whale oil alone is used for shafting and machinery bearings4 ,when mixed with mineral oil1 it is used for looms1 spindles and textile machinery4 ,whale oil is also used as an illuminant1 for currying leather1 and in making chamois leather1 for batching flax and other vegetable fibres1 and in oiling wool for combing4 ,in #aiac1 the world's annual catch of whale oil had reached #hjj1jjj barrels4 ,during the war the supply was considerably less1 for example in #aiag it was only #ceh1jjj barrels4 ,whalebone4 ,whalebone from the mouths of the ,right or whaleboned whales is in considerable demand among dressmakers and milliners4 ,its principal use is in the brush trade1 chiefly in making brushes for mechanical purposes4 ,it is prepared for use by being boiled in water for about #ab hours until it is quite soft4 ,it is then cut into strips or bristles or filaments1 according to the use for which it is intended4 ,it is light1 flexible1 tough and fibrous4 ,sperm ,oil4 ,sperm oil is really a liquid wax4 ,it is an excellent lubricant--particularly for rapidly moving machinery1 e4g4 spinning spindles1 or for delicate machinery such as watches4 ,it does not become gummy or rancid1 and retains its viscosity at high temperatures4 ,it has no corrosive action4 ,when cooled to low temperatures1 it deposits a solid wax--spermaceti--which is used in the manufacture of high grade candles4 ,sperm oil is also used for dressing leather1 in oil tempering steel1 and as an illuminant4 ,ambergris4 ,ambergris is a solid1 fatty1 inflammable substance1 dull grey in colour1 which occurs as a concretion in the intestines of sperm whales4 ,it is generally found floating in the sea or on the shore4 ,it is used in the perfume industry mixed with other perfumes4 ,the development of the whaling industry in the south seas has led to the industrial development of previously uninhabited islands4 ,on ,south ,georgia1 which was previously uninhabited1 actual industrial villages have been established4 ,a church has been erected1 and there are three slips for cutting up the whales1 two guano factories1 reservoirs for the oil1 and houses for the staff4 ,this ,antarctic island has a floating population of many hundreds of sailors and workmen4 ,a doctor resides there during the whaling season and1 since #aijh1 the ,british ,government has established a post office in this polar land4 ,in #aibb the eyes of all the world were turned to this far-away land1 the ,gate of the ,antarctic1 as the body of ,sir ,ernest ,shackleton1 the hero of the ,antarctic1 was laid to rest there4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,curing ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,fish ,the preservation of fishes for use as food long after they have been caught is a matter of constantly increasing importance to the prosperity of the fishing industry4 ,in most other food supplying industries the produce can be kept fresh for the market comparatively easily4 ,dry grain will keep indefinitely2 vegetables and fruits with proper care will generally remain 8fresh0 long enough to reach distant markets4 ,oxen1 sheep and pigs may be transported to the market alive1 and then slaughtered as required4 ,but a fish as soon as it is taken from the water dies and speedily begins to decay4 ,fish1 like other foodstuffs1 whether animal or vegetable1 decays as a result of the growth in it and on it of certain micro-organisms 7bacteria1 moulds74 ,these micro-organisms swarm in the air and on exposed surfaces all the world over4 ,generally speaking1 they flourish best at ordinary temperatures and in a moist environment4 ,foodstuffs can be preserved from decay only by preventing the growth and development of these decay organisms4 ,they can be killed outright by any of the ordinary sterilizing processes such as exposure to sufficient extremes of heat or cold1 or by treatment with disinfectant substances 7germicides7 such as carbolic acid or hypochlorites4 ,clearly1 however1 foodstuffs cannot be preserved indefinitely by the simple process of killing all the organisms that are resident on the foodstuff at the time of treatment1 for1 as soon as the foodstuff is exposed to the air1 it will become infected afresh4 ,they can be preserved-- 7#a7 ,by boiling1 and packing immediately afterwards in air-free containers4 ,this process is1 of course1 the basis of the great meat packing industry4 ,the meat is packed in a tin1 the tin and its contents are heated in steam or boiling water until the meat is cooked and all the decay organisms are destroyed4 ,the tin is then sealed1 air-free and air-tight4 7#b7 ,by freezing4 ,cold storage is a widely used method of preserving foodstuffs4 ,the low temperature prevents the growth and development of decay organisms and1 as long as the foodstuff is kept sufficiently cold1 arrests decay4 ,prehistoric animals long extinct are sometimes found firmly embedded in the ,polar ice1 as fresh as they were on the day they were drowned4 ,it is found that the stability and subsequent quality of frozen meat or fish depend directly upon the manner in which it has been frozen4 ,it may be frozen in air1 or when immersed in brine4 ,of these two methods the latter is much quicker1 because brine is over twenty-five times as good a conductor of heat as air is4 ,during the slower air-freezing process the quality of the flesh is impaired by the separation of the contained water into comparatively large crystals of ice4 ,this leads to the displacement of the membrane and tissues of the meat1 so that in thawing again the meat drips and becomes tough4 ,when immersed in brine freezing occurs too rapidly for this separation of water to occur to any marked extent4 ,the keeping qualities of brine-frozen fish also are greater than those of air-frozen fish1 owing to the protecting coating of ice which effectively prevents contact with bacteria or mould spores4 7#c7 ,by drying4 ,primitive man preserved his meat by drying it in the sun1 or in the smoke of a fire4 ,to-day the preparation of fish1 dried fruits1 desiccated vegetables1 etc41 is a world-wide industry4 ,generally speaking1 decay organisms can only develop in a moist environment4 ,all fresh foodstuffs contain a large proportion of water4 ,the removal of this water effectively checks decay4 ,drying alone1 however1 does not always produce a permanent 8cure10 as the foodstuff is always liable to get moist again4 ,for that reason it is customary to combine the drying process with treatment with an antiseptic substance such as salt4 ,smoke drying is better than sun drying1 for although the ultra-violet rays of the direct sunlight effectively kill bacteria and mould spores wood smoke contains antiseptic substances with which the meat becomes impregnated1 so that even the chance of any subsequent infection is greatly reduced4 7#d7 ,by treating with an antiseptic substance such as salt4 ,antiseptic substances differ from disinfectant substances in that they do not kill micro-organisms1 but only arrest their development4 ,as a rule1 they are effective preserving agents1 and do not make the food poisonous or unpalatable4 ,all these methods can be1 and are1 used for preserving fish1 the method most commonly used being treatment with salt4 ,fish1 however1 are often kept in ice on board during a fishing trip and are then either packed in ice for transit under special storage conditions 7if required fresh7 or they are salted down4 ,methods of ,salting4 ,different methods of salting are used1 according to the character of the fish and the locality4 ,the fish are either cleaned 7split and gutted7 or salted 8round0 7whole74 ,in general1 the method used is one of the following-- 7#a7 ,,dry-,,salting4 ,the fish are cleaned1 rolled in dry salt1 and packed in layers in open casks4 ,each layer of fish is covered with a layer of salt4 7#b7 ,,brine ,,pickling4 ,the fish are immersed in saturated brine1 salt being added from day to day to restore the strength of the brine as it becomes weakened by the water which it extracts from the fish4 7#c7 ,,kenching4 ,the fish1 either split or round1 are piled in layers in the hold of the ship1 or on the floor of the warehouse1 each layer being covered in turn with a layer of salt4 ,the brine1 as it forms1 is allowed to drain away4 ,of all these three methods1 the first is undoubtedly more effective1 more economical1 and requires less attention than the second4 ,the third method is often used on board ship and sometimes on shore as a temporary expedient when the catch is too large for the number of containers available4 ,in the dry-salt method1 the fish are packed tightly in the casks1 and are not afterwards disturbed4 ,when cured they possess a characteristic dry1 shrunken appearance4 ,fish pickled in brine need attention every day4 ,the brine has to be closely watched so that it shall not become too weak4 ,fresh salt has to be added daily1 and the fish stirred up with wooden paddles to ensure uniform pickling4 ,fish cured in this way are softer and more plump than those cured by the dry-salting method4 ,when a fish is packed in salt the salt rapidly extracts water from the flesh and a strong brine results4 ,the salt dissolves in the remaining flesh juices of the fish1 and rapidly diffuses throughout the fish1 thoroughly permeating it4 ,by this process1 therefore1 the fish is partially dried and becomes thoroughly impregnated with salt4 ,the gradual change in the composition of the flesh is reflected in the following analysis-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,sample4 ,water4 ,na,cl4 ,fat4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,fresh herring1 ungutted #fgcc #jfc #acgh ,herring lightly salted1 before gutting #ffcc #abg #abaa ,herring from rousing tub1 gutted and salted1 ready to pack into barrel #faji #ada #afad ,herring1 after #g days salted in barrel #ebfg #gdc #agaj ,herring1 after #h days salted in barrel #dfij #aadi #bbej ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the efficiency of the cure and the appearance of the finished product will be influenced by the following factors-- 7a7 ,the temperature--whether summer or winter2 7b7 ,the freshness of the fish2 7c7 ,the quality of the salt--its purity and grain2 7d7 ,the quantity of salt used2 7e7 ,the duration of the process4 7a7 ,the ,temperature4 ,as soon as a fish is dead1 it commences to decay4 ,in hot weather1 decay proceeds more rapidly and the interior portion of the meat may become soured before the salt reaches it4 ,clearly1 if the rate at which the salt penetrates the fish is retarded by the salt being impure1 or of too fine a grain1 or by the brine being too weak1 the probability of the fish being spoilt is very much increased4 ,the dry salt method leads to a much quicker penetration of the fish than the brine method1 and should always be used in warm weather4 7b7 ,the ,freshness of the ,fish4 ,the decay processes gather impetus day by day4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that in order to avoid the possibility of 8souring10 the fish should be salted with the least possible delay4 7c7 ,the ,quality of the ,salt4 7#a7 ,its ,purity4 ,the impurities commonly present in ,fishery ,salt are the sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium4 ,the following analysis show the composition of typical samples of ,fishery ,salt4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,german ,composition4 ,rock ,italian4,spanish4,french4 ,english4 ,salt4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,salt 7,sodium chloride7 #igbh #ifei #iffc #iehf #ihi ,calcium chloride -- #jcb -- #jaf -- ,magnesium chloride #jbe #aai #jif #jce #jjh ,magnesium sulphate -- #age #jgc -- -- ,sodium sulphate #jdd -- -- -- #jjd ,sodium bicarbonate #jja -- -- -- -- ,insoluble 7,calcium sulphate1 sand1 etc47 #bjb #jae #afh #cfc #jih ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj ---------------------------------------- ,moisture #jbj #fed #ddg #aci #cbe ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the ,spanish and ,italian salts are solar salts1 obtained by evaporating sea-water by the heat of the sun4 ,solar salt nearly always contains more magnesium salts than brine salt does4 ,this constitutes a serious disadvantage to the fish curer4 ,of the calcium salts which occur as impurities in ,fishery ,salt1 the sulphate is practically insoluble in brine1 and is probably without action upon the salting process4 ,calcium chloride1 on the other hand1 resembles magnesium chloride and is an undesirable constituent of ,fishery ,salt1 for calcium chloride1 and to a lesser extent magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate1 diminish the rate at which the salt penetrates the fish4 ,curing will1 therefore1 be delayed1 and in warm weather 7above #gj;,f47 this may result in the souring of the fish4 ,to obtain rapid and thorough curing1 therefore1 it is necessary--especially in warm weather--to use salt which contains as little calcium and magnesium salts as possible4 ,pure salt1 used dry1 produces a soft1 yellow-meated fish which is flexible in the hand4 ,salt containing calcium chloride or magnesium chloride produces a harder and stiffer fish with a markedly whiter colour4 ,salted fish can only be stored satisfactorily in a dry place4 ,fish which has been cured with impure salt is hygroscopic and will run wet in the store4 ,this hygroscopic moisture weakens the preserving action of the salt4 ,fish that has been cured with a pure salt will keep much drier under ordinary storage conditions4 7#b7 ,its ,grain4 ,the crystals of ,fishery ,salt should be coarse and hard4 ,coarse crystals dissolve slowly1 and so produce a more gradual cure than fine-grained salt does4 ,fine-grained salt extracts the water so rapidly from the surface tissues that it coagulates them4 ,this retards the further penetration of the salt into the fish1 so that the fish has the appearance of being slack salted4 ,round versus ,cleaned ,fish4 ,the thoroughness with which a cut fish is cleaned and washed influences the temperature at which the fish can be salted successfully1 and materially affects the quality and taste of the product4 ,tressler#a has shown that the chief cause of fish spoiling when salted in hot weather is the decomposition of the blood which remains in the flesh4 ,even in cold weather1 it is found that the extra washing and cleaning greatly improve the quality of the fish4 ,as the presence of blood in the fish also leads to discolouration during the salting process1 a thoroughly cleaned and washed fish is1 after salting1 much whiter in appearance and has a finer taste4 ,many fish are skinned before they are salted4 ,it has been observed that a skinned fish will cure almost twice as quickly as an unskinned fish4 ,this is because salt penetrates the meat of the fish at approximately twice the rate at which it penetrates the skin4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 particularly in hot climates1 to skin the fish before salting4 ,this1 of course1 is only commercially practicable with certain large kinds of fish such as cod4 ,the ,reddening of ,salted ,fish4 ,salted fish sometimes undergo a change1 either during the salting process if improperly carried out1 or more generally in the store1 which is characterized by the development on the surface of the fish of irregular red and brown patches4 ,this reddening occurs not only on the fish1 but also on the floors and walls of the curing factories1 on the sides and decks of fishing boats1 and even on the salt itself4 ,it occurs most readily in warm weather4 ,the reddening has been shown to be due to the growth of a micro-organism 7a micro-coccus74 ,with this micro-coccus are generally associated a bacillus and a micro-fungus which produce the brown mould on the fish4 ,fish become infected with these micro-organisms by contact with boats or docks or warehouses4 ,every precaution should be taken to keep such places clean and properly disinfected4 ,the 8rusting0 of fatty fish1 e4g4 herring1 is due to the oxidation of certain free1 fatty acids split off from the fats by enzyme action4 ,footnote #a3 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries1 ,document ,no4 #hhd 7#aibj74 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,food ,,value ,,of ,,fish ,with few exceptions1 the different species of fishes that are caught industrially are important because of their food value4 ,some fishes are unsuitable for food because they have an unattractive taste2 others are directly poisonous4 ,thus1 in the ,japanese fish of the genus tetrodon1 the roe is poisonous1 although the remainder of the fish is edible4 ,some fishes are poisonous during the spawning season4 ,others are provided with a special poison gland connected with special spines or barbs4 ,in edible fishes1 given the suitable conditions1 poisons may be formed by bacterial activity in the flesh of the fish4 ,poisons so formed give rise to the kind of fish poisoning known as botulism4 ,cases of botulism have resulted from eating canned salmon and sardines that have become spoiled4 ,in some cases1 bacteria present in a diseased fish may produce poisonous substances in the body of the fish4 ,bacillus paratyphosus has been isolated from some poisonous fish1 and certain poison-producing bacteria have been found in others4#b ,certain shellfish are notoriously liable to be poisonous4 ,the exact nature of the microbes concerned in the production of poisonous substances in shellfish is at present unknown2 it is clear1 however1 that such poisonous substances may be produced in shellfish in three ways-- 7#a7 ,microbes of various infectious diseases1 such as typhoid fever1 may be absorbed by the shellfish from sewage4 7#b7 ,the shellfish may be diseased1 or be seriously contaminated1 by living in dirty water4 7#c7 ,decomposition may set in after the shellfish have been removed from the water--particularly if they have been kept too long in a warm place4 ,it has been found recently that shellfish that have been deliberately fattened on sewage can be effectively cleansed in such a way as to get rid of ingested sewage bacteria4 ,this process has been carried out successfully on a commercial scale at ,conway by the ,ministry of ,agriculture and ,fisheries4 ,danger from infected shellfish may also be safely avoided by boiling them4 ,when shellfish are gathered at the right season of the year and from suitable localities1 they are a perfectly safe and wholesome food4 ,of the many species of edible fishes that are known and used1 the number is by no means complete1 and new species are added from time to time4 ,thus1 in #aiaf1 the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,fisheries introduced a new edible fish 7,lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps71 which they christened the tile fish4 ,after this fishery had been in existence for twelve months1 the known catch of tile fish amounted to over #aj1jjj1jjj lbs41 valued at more than #djj1jjj4 ,in #aiag1 the same ,bureau introduced the dog-fish under a new name4 ,as people were prejudiced against the name 8dog fish10 the ,bureau altered it to 8gray fish10 8which is descriptive1 not preoccupied1 and altogether unobjectionable40 ,the fish is now caught in large numbers1 and forms the basis of a very flourishing canning industry4 ,attempts have been made recently to utilize as food the edible portions of the shark 7which is closely related to the dog fish7 and the porpoise4 ,the food value of most fishes varies very much according to the condition of the fish when it is caught--that is whether it is spawning or not4 ,further1 it may be considerably modified by the changes that take place subsequently in the composition of the flesh during the processes of curing1 cooking or preserving4 ,generally speaking1 all marine fish annually pass through a well-marked series of seasonal changes1 the stages of which appear to depend upon changes in the temperature1 salinity and alkalinity of the sea4 ,these changes are directly connected with the development of roe and milt1 with the fluctuation in the percentage of oil and fat in the liver and body tissues1 and also with the rate of growth4 ,thus the chemical composition of the fish1 and hence its food value1 varies greatly according to the season at which it is caught4 ,norwegian brisling 78,skipper ,sardines07 are caught in the summer just before spawning time4 ,at this time the fat content is high2 in winter the fat content is low1 and the fish possesses small commercial value4 ,the gradual change in the composition and food value 7in calories per pound7 of the herring as spawning time approaches is well shown in ,table ,,iii4 7,prof4 ,j4 ,johnstone1 ,trans41 ,liverpool ,biolog4 ,soc41 ,vol4 xxxiii 7#aiai71 p4 #ajf47 ,,table ,,iii ,,manx ,,summer ,,herrings1 #aiaf ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,flesh ,,of ,,the ,,fish3 ,,monthly ,,means ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,date4,condition4,water4,oil and,proteid4 ,ash4 ,total4 ,food ,fat4 ,value4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,may ,empty #gej #be #baa #bc #ajji #a1ajj ,june ,filling #ffa #aad #ahf #bj #iha #a1hjf ,july ,filling #eeh #baf #ahd #bc #iha #b1gfb ,august,half full #dhd #cae #afe #bc #ihg #c1fjh ,sept4 ,full #eai #beb #agc #bf #igj #c1jej ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the herrings are caught in ,september when they assemble in shoals for the purpose of spawning4 ,they are thus most easily caught at the time when their food value is at a maximum4 ,the flesh of clupeoid fish--herrings1 sprats1 pilchards1 sardines--contains a quantity of oil disseminated throughout the flesh in the form of fine globules4 ,from the above table it will be seen that the percentage of oil in the flesh of the herring may be as low as #be per cent in ,may1 and as much as #cae per cent in ,august4 ,in summer the adipose tissue forms two distinct layers1 one situated just below the skin1 the other being parallel to the first1 but separated from it by a layer of muscular tissue4 ,in winter the oil content becomes so small that these layers of adipose tissue disappear4 ,a comparatively small amount of oil is contained in the liver of the fish4 ,in gadoid fishes1 e4g4 cod1 as well as in skates and rays1 the oil is almost entirely confined to the liver4 ,during the summer the liver grows larger and richer in oil1 until sometimes the oil amounts to more than half the total weight of the liver4 7,when cod are caught the livers are removed and kept apart1 to be treated subsequently for their oil47 ,the percentage of oil in the flesh of the cod varies from #ja per cent to #aj per cent4 ,unlike that of the herring1 therefore1 the food value of the flesh of the cod does not fluctuate markedly according to the season4 ,when fish are dry-salted a certain proportion of the proteins and mineral salts in the flesh is extracted by the brine pickle that is formed4 ,in ,russia and ,poland1 where the greater proportion of salted herrings are consumed1 the peasants eat them without further cooking1 and also consume the pickle4 ,a great gain in food value per pound results from the removal of so much water from the flesh of the fish4 ,freshly caught cod flesh contains about #hj per cent water and #ag per cent protein2 after being dry-salted for export it contains about #be per cent of water and #ee per cent protein4 ,thus1 #a lb4 of dry cod is equal in food value to about #c lbs4 of fresh cod4 ,the increased food value of salted fish will be seen from the following analyses-- ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,curing ,,and ,,drying ,,upon ,,the ,,food ,,value ,,of ,,different ,,fishes ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,food4 ,protein4 ,fat4 ,carbohydrate4 ,ash4,water4,food ,value4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,cal4 per lb4 ,haddock 7fresh7 #abj #jb -- #ji #eaf #bcb 7smoked7 #adi #jb -- #cd #egd #bhf ,herring 7fresh7 #adj #ajd -- #ae #deg #fii 7salted7 #bab #aed -- #gg #cji #idd 7bloater7 #aeg #if -- #ae #ebj #fig 7kipper7 #ada #aaa -- #cd #dfi #gcj ,sprats 7fresh7 #abf #ajg -- #ac #did #fhf 7smoked7 #bab #adi -- #cb #cid #a1jbc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,thus1 the food value of salted sprats or herrings per pound is #ej per cent more than that of the same fish when fresh4 ,the original food value of a fish is generally diminished by the cooking process4 ,the fish may be boiled or broiled for direct consumption1 or it may be steam cooked in cans and sealed up for future consumption1 as in the canning industry4 ,when oily fishes1 such as herrings1 are cooked1 the oil globules burst and some of the oil is lost1 and the food value of the fish becomes correspondingly less4 ,when salted fish is soaked in fresh water before being cooked1 some of the gelatin and other coagulable proteins are extracted from the flesh4 ,this loss of protein can be checked either by broiling the fish1 when the protein near the surface becomes coagulated and so prevents the loss of protein from the interior of the fish1 or by placing the fish that is to be boiled direct into boiling water1 and not into the cold water before the heating has begun4 ,in addition to this diminution of the food content of the fish1 the process of cooking1 contrary to general expectation1 also diminishes slightly its digestibility4 ,in the canning process the fish to be canned are cleaned 7gutted7 and boned1 and packed into tins1 together with the necessary sauce or seasoning4 ,the tins are then closed1 a small hole being left temporarily in the lid4 ,the tins are placed on steam-heated racks1 and the contents thoroughly cooked4 ,in this way the contents are sterilized as well as cooked1 and the air originally present in the tin is all driven out by the steam through the small hole in the lid4 ,this hole is sealed with a spot of solder while the contents of the tin are still at boiling point4 ,the tin and its contents are allowed to cool down1 and are dispatched to the store-room4 ,during storage the contents of the sealed tin gradually 8mature40 ,this maturing process may last from six months to ten years4 ,during this period the bones soften1 the flesh becomes soft and pasty1 and the taste becomes richer4 ,the precise nature of the changes that take place during this maturing process is not fully understood2 probably maturing is partly due to the action of certain enzymes in the flesh of the fish1 and partly to the slow but continuous chemical action of the various juices present in the tin4 ,attempts to pickle herrings from the ,zuyder ,zee have been unsuccessful owing to a lack of the enzyme action that makes other herrings tender when pickled4 ,the enzyme1 although present1 is apparently rendered inactive by the presence of an anti-enzyme4 ,the last1 but by no means the least1 important factor to be considered in estimating the food value of any particular fish is its retail price4 ,the price of the different kinds of fishes is by no means proportional to their individual food values4 ,it is determined primarily by the abundance or otherwise of the available supply of each individual species4 ,thus1 the various pelagic fish--mackerel1 herring1 sprat--that are easily caught in enormous quantities at certain seasons of the year are by far the most valuable4 ,of trawl-caught fish1 cod and whiting are more plentiful and are1 therefore1 cheaper than hake1 although1 again1 the cheaper fish has the greater food value4 ,in some cases certain fish1 although fairly abundant1 are in poor demand owing to some prejudice on the part of the public1 and are generally sold in poorer districts1 or to the fried fish trade1 at a disproportionately low price1 for example skate1 dog-fish1 angler fish1 john dory4 ,taste and appearance also contribute to the popularity and1 therefore1 indirectly to the retail price of fish1 such as the sole and the salmon4 ,in ,table ,,iv the present retail prices 7,sept41 #aiba7 and the food values of a number of different fishes are compared4 ,from these figures1 the actual food value per shillingsworth of each fish has been calculated4 ,the cheapest fish1 therefore1 are also those possessing the greatest food value1 e4g4 the herring in all its forms1 dried cod and ling1 and mackerel4 ,these compare favourably both in cost and food value with meat1 such as beef and mutton4 ,,table ,,iv ,,food ,,value ,,per ,,shillingsworth ,,of ,,different ,,fishes ---------------------------------------- ------- ,retail ,food ,value ,fish4 ,food ,price per ,value4 ,sept4 #aiba ,shilling4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,cals4 per lb4 per lb4 s4 d4 ,halibut 7cuts7 #beh #b #c #aae ,sole #cdf #b #f #ach ,turbot #bgj #a #f #ahj ,brill #cbg #a #h #aif ,haddock #bcb #a #b #aih ,hake #bef #a #c #bjd ,smoked haddock #bhf #a #c #bbh ,plaice #cfg #a #f #bdd ,cod 7section7 #bif #a #a #beb ,whiting #bae - #aj #beh ,salmon 7section7 #hdg #c - #bhb ,eels #gii #a #aj #dcf ,dried ling #efj #a - #efj ,mackerel #eae - #aj #fah ,dried cod #gej #a - #gej ,kippered herring #gcj - #i #igb ,herring #gji - #h #ajfb ,bloaters #gae - #h #ajgb ,red herrings #abbj - #h #ahcj ,salt herrings #aabi - #e #bgab ---------------------------------------- ------- ,finally1 the popularity or otherwise of any foodstuff necessarily depends upon its flavour4 ,fishes differ greatly in this respect4 ,in many cases the flavour of a fish can be seriously impaired by an unsuitable method of cooking4 ,a full-flavoured fish like the mackerel lends itself to a variety of methods of cooking1 equally good results being obtained by baking1 grilling1 frying in fillets or boiling4 ,the plaice1 sole1 ling1 hake1 mullet1 and turbot are essentially fish for frying1 while cod1 haddock and whiting are best boiled4 ,to prepare a fish for the table requires considerable skill1 but it is an art that1 once acquired1 can be used to render even what are regarded as inferior varieties both wholesome and palatable4 ,in this country1 fishes have long been a neglected form of food4 ,they have a high food value1 they are easily digestible1 and are cheap and plentiful4 ,it has been shown recently that edible fish contain vitamins4 ,vitamins are complex chemical compounds of hitherto unknown composition1 and of little understood properties1 that occur in minute quantities in a great variety of natural food stuffs4 ,these vitamins appear to be essential to healthy animal existence4 ,without them1 the body rapidly becomes attacked by certain diseases1 e4g4 rickets1 beri-beri1 scurvy1 and unless this deficiency of the diet is corrected1 death soon follows4 ,three different vitamins have been discovered1 known as vitamins ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,vitamin ,a is contained in the oily part of most fish1 while ,vitamin ,b is present in certain fish roes4 ,footnote #b3 ,marshall1 ,microbiology4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,fish ,,products ,the industrial value and importance of fishes is by no means limited to their use as food4 ,they yield large quantities of valuable oil4 ,the fish waste1 or offal1 chiefly heads1 skins1 bones and viscera--that is discarded by the fish curer1 is worked up to yield fish glue1 fertilizers and cattle food4 ,the skins of certain large fishes1 for example the shark1 are tanned and manufactured into a valuable leather4 ,the story of the fishing industry would not be complete without a brief description of the methods by which these products are manufactured4 ,fish ,oils4 ,the various kinds of oil that are obtained from different species of fish and other marine animals1 such as whales and seals1 may be divided into three classes1 according to the part of the fish from which they are extracted4 7#a7 ,fish oils proper are disseminated throughout the flesh of the fish in the form of fine globules4 ,they are extracted from the entire fish1 e4g4 herring1 sardine1 sprat1 menhaden4 7#b7 ,liver oils are located in the fish liver1 e4g4 cod1 shark4 7#c7 ,blubber oils constitute a thick layer of adipose tissue just under the skin of the marine mammalia1 e4g4 whale1 seal1 dolphin1 porpoise4 ,in oily fish1 such as herrings and sprats1 each minute globule of oil is enclosed within a thin skin4 ,it is practically impossible to rupture this skin and liberate the oil simply by the application of pressure4 ,when1 however1 these globules are heated the skin shrivels1 the oil globules expand and burst the skin1 and the liquid oil is liberated and can then be extracted from the flesh by pressure4 ,to obtain the oil1 therefore1 the fish are boiled or steam heated in large vats until the oil is set free4 ,the hot mass is then placed in a press and the oil squeezed out4 ,the residue is made into cattle food and fertilizer4 ,in obtaining the best sorts of liver oils1 e4g4 codliver oil1 the livers are taken from the fish as soon as they are caught1 and are heated in steam-jacketed vessels until the cell membranes burst and the oil exudes4 ,the oil is then separated by pressure4 ,inferior qualities of oil are obtained by treating putrid livers in the same way at the end of the voyage4 ,these tainted liver oils are unfit for medicinal purposes1 but are used in large quantities in the leather industry4 ,blubber 7which is from #h to #bj ins4 thick7 is stripped from the whale as soon after capture as possible4 ,generally the dead whale is made fast alongside the whaler1 a deep1 spiral cut is made round its body1 and the blubber is stripped off and hauled aboard4 ,this is then cut into pieces1 chopped up in mincing machines and fed into melting pans and heated with steam1 often under pressure4 ,the oil gradually exudes and collects upon the water1 the cell membranes1 etc4--the greaves--settling to the bottom4 ,at the conclusion of the boil1 the oil is drawn off from above the aqueous 7gluey7 layer1 and is clarified by straining through sieves or filters4 ,the 8greaves0 is placed in hair or woollen bags and submitted to hydraulic pressure1 by which means a further quantity of oil is obtained4 ,fish oils1 unless specially purified for medicinal purposes1 are dark-coloured liquids1 with a characteristic1 unpleasant1 fishy smell1 due to the presence of small quantities of fishy decomposition products1 for example trimethylamine4 ,when cooled1 many samples of fish oil deposit solid masses of fish tallow 7fish stearine74 ,fish oils1 and1 to a less extent1 the marine animal oils1 e4g4 whale1 seal1 porpoise1 are drying oils like linseed oil1 that is they possess to a very marked degree a capacity for absorbing oxygen from the air1 and so become thickened and viscous4 ,this thickening is generally induced by blowing air through the warm oil4 ,oils that have been thickened in this way are known as 8blown0 oils4 ,blown fish oils are mixed with mineral oils for use as lubricants for heavy machinery4 ,they have been used as vehicles for paints in place of linseed oil1 but with somewhat disappointing results4 ,they are used successfully in place of linseed oil in the manufacture of printers' ink1 and in making paints for painting smoke stacks4 ,such paints resist successfully the action of heat and light4 ,more particularly1 they are used in the leather industry4 ,fish oils are used chiefly in the manufacture of chamois leather4 ,ordinary chamois or wash-leather is made from the flesh-splits of sheep skins4 ,the skin is well washed and softened1 and freed from hair by treatment with lime4 ,it is then split1 and the loose and fatty middle layer removed by a sharp knife4 ,the lime is removed by a short bran-drench and the superfluous moisture is pressed out4 ,the skin is thus rendered porous and easily able to absorb the oil4 ,it is stretched on a table and oiled with fish or whale oil4 ,the oiled skin is folded up and worked for two or three hours in the faller stocks and then shaken out and hung up for a short time to cool and partially dry4 ,the process is repeated a number of times1 until all the water originally present in the skin has been replaced by oil4 ,the oiled skins are then piled in a warm place4 ,the oil gradually oxidizes--probably owing to some fermentation process--and the skins become yellow and very hot4 ,from time to time the skins are strewn on the floor to cool and then re-piled1 the process being repeated until the oxidation of the oil is complete4 ,in ,france the freshly-oiled skins are hung in hot stoves1 and the oxidation of the oil is completed in one operation4 ,the skins are then dipped in water and passed through hydraulic presses1 by which the surplus oil is removed4 ,this surplus thick1 oxidized oil is known as 8degras0 or 8moellon10 and is used for stuffing leathers that have already been tanned4 ,stuffed leathers are supple and impervious to water1 and are used for harness1 belting1 etc4 ,a further quantity of oil may be removed from the 8chamoised0 leather by treating it with potash or carbonate of soda1 8sod0 oil being recovered from the extract by neutralization with sulphuric acid4 ,the value of sod oil for oiling dressed leather is due to a resinous acid of unknown composition1 that is soluble in alkali but insoluble in petroleum ether4 ,enamel or patent leather is generally coated1 after tanning1 with a linseed oil varnish1 boiled with prussian blue1 and dried in a steam heated chest at #gj to #hj;,c41 the process being repeated until a sufficiently thick coat is produced4 ,fish oils are now used successfully in place of linseed oil4 ,the enamel leather produced1 although not quite so glossy as that made with linseed oil1 is said to be more pliable4 ,fish oils are also employed in the manufacture of such closely-related1 although happily diverse1 substances as soap and margarine4 ,all animal and vegetable fats and oils are essentially compounds of glycerine1 with one or other of three acids3 palmitic1 stearic and oleic4 ,palmitic and stearic acids and their compounds are solids at the ordinary temperature1 whereas oleic acid and its compounds are liquid4 ,this difference appears to be connected in some way with the molecular structure of these substances4 ,when oleic acid is heated with hydrogen gas under pressure1 in the presence of finely-divided nickel1 it absorbs hydrogen and is transformed into stearic acid4 ,oleic acid1 therefore1 is said to be unsaturated with respect to hydrogen1 whereas stearic acid is called a saturated acid4 ,this process1 whereby a liquid oil is transformed into a solid fat1 is called hydrogenation1 or hardening4 ,both the margarine industry and the soap industry require large quantities of hard fats4 ,originally the soap industry absorbed the available supplies of hard animal fats such as beef suet1 hog's lard1 and mutton suet4 ,the margarine industry depended upon these same supplies of animal fats1 and the rapid growth in the production of margarine during recent years has seriously diminished the supply of hard fats necessary for the manufacture of soap4 ,the hydrogenation of whale oil and various fish oils has now made it possible to supply this demand1 and has also made possible the industrial utilization of substances1 such as fish oils1 for which formerly comparatively little use could be found4 ,hardened whale oil melts at #dj to #ej;,c41 and is a white solid entirely devoid of taste or smell4 ,it is used for making soap1 and as a lard substitute for cooking purposes4 ,fish ,glue4 ,fish glue is the most important liquid glue on the market4 ,the bulk of the fish glue manufactured to-day is made from the waste and offal that are discarded by the curers4 ,this waste consists of heads1 bones1 viscera and skins4 ,the best glue is obtained from the skins of non-oily1 demersal fish1 for example cod1 haddock1 soles1 plaice and hake4 ,the waste is washed in running water to free it from salt4 ,sometimes the waste--particularly the heads--is decomposed with hydrochloric acid and afterwards neutralized with lime4 ,it is then charged into a cooker provided with a perforated1 false bottom4 ,the stock is covered with water and heated with steam4 ,the glue is extracted and gradually concentrates in the water4 ,when this glue liquor is sufficiently concentrated 7from #e to #f per cent71 it is run off 7the first run7 and more water is added to the waste and the cooking continued4 ,after about #aj hours cooking1 nearly all the glue has been extracted and the liquor is again run off 7the second run74 ,the cooked waste is then withdrawn1 and any remaining glue liquor is pressed out of it and added to the second run4 ,from #b to #d per cent of phenol or boric acid are added to prevent decomposition by bacteria4 ,the glue liquor is evaporated down to a concentration of #cb per cent in open vats or closed evaporators1 and is bleached with sulphurous acid4 ,a small amount of some essential oil1 e4g4 cassia1 clove1 wintergreen1 is added to check mould growth and mask the fishy odour4 ,glue is also made in a similar way from the 8greaves0 obtained from whale blubber4 ,fish glue is manufactured in three grades4 ,,grade ,i is made from skins1 only the first run being used4 ,it is used for photo-engraving work1 for the production of half-tone plates4 ,,grade ,,ii is made from second run skin liquors and fish waste4 ,it is sold in small cans and bottles for general repair work4 ,,grade ,,iii is prepared from fish heads1 and is sold in large cans and barrels for sizing1 box making1 cabinet making1 and general joiner work4 ,the glue is sometimes made more flexible by the addition of glycerine and glucose4 ,the flexibility of fish glue makes it useful for the manufacture of court plaster1 labels1 stamps1 and in book-binding4 ,the residue from the press is dried and sold as chicken feed or fertilizer4 ,for the latter purpose it is frequently mixed with ,carnallite4 ,fish ,gelatine4 ,fish gelatine or isinglass is obtained from the swimming bladder of the sturgeon and also of the cod4 ,the bladders are exported1 either opened 7pipe isinglass7 or washed1 split open and dried 7purse1 lump or leaf isinglass74 ,isinglass is the purified and dried inner skin of the bladder4 ,it has but feeble adhesive power4 ,it is used for clarifying wines1 ciders and beers1 and for making jellies and plasters4 ,fertilizers4 ,in many places near the sea1 fish are employed whole as manure4 ,sprats particularly are caught in large numbers and distributed over the fields1 and left to decompose4 ,fresh sprats contain #fcg per cent of water1 #aid per cent nitrogen1 #ba per cent ash 7#jdc potash and #jij phosphoric acid74 ,fish guano or fish manure is generally prepared from the fish waste discarded by the curer4 ,an average sample of this manufactured fish manure will contain #ab per cent water1 #fj per cent organic matter1 yielding #aj per cent ammonia1 #af per cent of calcium phosphate1 and a residue of salt1 sand1 magnesia and potash1 the amount of potash being inconsiderable4 ,fish guano is mainly valuable as a source of ammonia1 the ammonia content ranging from #f to #aa per cent1 according to the kind of fish used and its previous history1 e4g4 whether fresh or salted4 ,in many places1 such as ,london1 the fish offal from the shops and restaurants is collected1 dried and ground up for use as manure4 ,in ,germany in #aiah herrings' heads were removed by the curers to be utilized for the production of oil1 albumen1 and phosphate of lime4 ,the herring meal contained up to #ej per cent of albumen and calcium phosphate1 the latter being obtained from the bones and heads4 ,the albumen was extracted chemically and prepared for human consumption4 ,the oil was extracted with benzol or other solvents1 and1 after hardening1 was used in the manufacture of butter substitutes4 ,fish waste or offal is fed into a continuous cooker4 ,this cooker consists essentially of a long1 cylindrical vessel1 through which runs a hollow steel shaft on which are mounted perforated radial vanes in such a way that the whole arrangement forms a spiral conveyor4 ,by means of the hollow shaft and vanes1 steam is blown into the mass of fish waste as it travels slowly through the vessel1 so that it is completely cooked and disintegrated by the time that it emerges at the other end4 ,the cooked mass is then fed into a press in which a screw conveyor urges it through a gradually tapering cylinder with perforated sides4 ,in this way the oil is extracted from it1 and it is then dried and disintegrated by a rotary drier4 ,there is always a little residual oil in fish manure that tends to delay its decomposition in the soil4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that the oil be removed as completely as possible4 ,dry fish manure requires careful storing1 as the presence of this small amount of oxidizable oil tends to promote spontaneous combustion4 ,in addition to its value as a fertilizer1 the high content of protein 7albumen7--namely1 #ej per cent--makes fish meal a suitable food for live-stock and poultry4 ,the commercial importance of this industry will be realized when we remember that practically half of the total catch of fish in the world is discarded by the curers as waste4 ,fish ,leather4 ,the hides of such marine mammals as the walrus and the seal have long formed the basis of a regular tanning industry4 ,of recent years1 however1 particularly in ,america1 successful attempts have been made to tan the skins of certain fish1 notably the shark4 ,the skins are treated with alkali to remove fat and oil1 the alkali is then neutralized with acid1 after which the skins are washed and tanned4 ,the leather is said to be soft and pliable1 and well adapted for many uses4 ,shark skins are also tanned hard1 and used to print a grain on imitation pigskin4 ,shark fishing was commenced off the ,american coast in ,october1 #aiah4 ,the fish are hunted from fast1 powerful motor boats1 with specially constructed nets4 ,a small shark #e ft4 long will yield a hide #aj sq4 ft4 in area4 ,shark skin is naturally very tough and durable1 and in its untanned condition is used by jewellers as a natural emery paper for grinding and polishing metal surfaces4 ,it is also used as an abrasive in working hard woods and ivory4 ,a method has been devised by which a shark skin can be split into three4 ,the first split1 after tanning1 is strong and thick1 and suitable for high grade1 heavy shoes4 ,the second furnishes leather suitable for second grade foot wear1 and the third resembles suede and is used in making fancy articles4 ,in addition to the shark's skin1 the fins1 blood1 teeth1 flesh1 and oil of the fish are also utilized commercially and yield a satisfactory profit4 ,,index ,ambergris1 #ajf ,anadromous fish1 #ch ,angler 7devil7 fish1 #ah1 #cb ,beam trawl1 #df1 #gg1 #hf ,berried lobsters1 etc41 #ce ,bivalve1 #id ,black 7southern right7 whale1 #ajj1 #ajb ,bloater1 #fj1 #ff ,blue whale1 #ajd ,brill1 #bd1 #ca1 #gh ,brine pickling1 #e1 #aaj ,cachalot 7sperm7 whale1 #ajj1 #ajd ,canning of fish1 #ib1 #ic1 #ajh1 #abj ,capelan1 #gj1 #ajj ,cast net1 #eb ,cat-fish1 #af ,clams1 #gc ,cockle1 #be1 #bg1 #ec1 #gd1 #ij1 #ic ,cod1 #b1 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #cg1 #dc1 #dh1 #fi1 #gh1 #hf1 #hi ---- fishing1 #fi-gf ---- liver oil1 #fi1 #gf ,cold storage1 #ajh ,cooking of fish1 #abb ,copepoda1 #bg1 #cj1 #cf1 #ij ,crab1 #be1 #ce1 #eb1 #ij ,cran1 #eh1 #fd ,crustacea1 #be1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #cf1 #ij1 #ajb ,cutter1 #gg ,demersal fish1 #ai1 #ba1 #ca1 #hi ,diatom1 #bh1 #ij1 #if ,distribution of fishes1 #ah-bg ,dog-fish1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #aaf ---- whelk1 #id1 #if ,dolphin1 #bd ,dory fishing1 #gj ,drifter1 #aj1 #ej1 #ef ,drifting1 #ej1 #ef-h1 #hh ,drift net1 #ej1 #ef1 #gg ,drying of fish1 #ge1 #ajh ,eel1 #af1 #ch1 #dd ,eggs of fishes1 #bg1 #bh1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #fi1 #ij ,fin whale1 #ajd ,fish fertilizer1 #d1 #fb1 #gf1 #acj ---- glue1 #d1 #gf1 #abh ---- hatching1 #c1 #d1 #ib ---- leather1 #d1 #acb ---- meal1 #d ---- oil1 #d1 #gf1 #abd-h ,fishery salt1 #aab-aad ,fishing grounds1 #aj1 #cj1 #fi1 #hj-ha1 #hc ---- traps1 #db ---- weirs1 #db ,fixed engines1 #dc ,flake drying1 #ge ,flounder1 #af1 #ai1 #bb1 #cb1 #ci ,food of fishes1 #be1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #fi1 #id ---- value of fish1 #cg1 #ed1 #aae ,gills1 #af1 #bd1 #be1 #ca1 #id1 #ie ,grampus whale1 #bd1 #ajd ,grayfish1 #aaf ,greenland 7,arctic right7 whale1 #ii1 #ajb ,gutting fish1 #gb1 #aac ,haddock1 #b1 #ai1 #bb1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #cg1 #dh1 #gj1 #gh1 #hf1 #aai ,hake1 #bb1 #ca1 #gj1 #gh ,halibut1 #bb1 #dh1 #hi ,harpoon1 #db1 #ajb1 #ajd ,herring1 #ai1 #bd1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #cf1 #cg1 #ej1 #ed1 #ee1 #gj1 #gd1 #hi1 #ia1 #ajj1 #aaa1 #aag1 #aai ---- fishing1 #e1 #i1 #ad1 #dh1 #ej1 #ed1 #fj1 #fg1 #fh1 #hh ,hose net1 #dd ,humpback whale1 #ajd ,ice1 #hc ,immature fish1 #c1 #eb1 #hf1 #hh ,incubation period of fish eggs1 #ce ,inshore fisheries1 #aa-ac1 #ae1 #ej ,isinglass1 #fi1 #acj ,jelly fish1 #bh1 #cj1 #gg ,katadromous fish1 #ch ,kenching1 #gb1 #aaj ,kipper1 #fj1 #ff ,larvae of fishes1 #bg1 #cj1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #ia 0,last0 of herrings1 #eh ,limpet1 #id ,line fishing1 #db1 #dc1 #gj-gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #gh ,ling1 #bb1 #ca1 #cb1 #gh ,littoral fishes1 #ba ,lobster1 #be1 #ce1 #eb1 #ij-ib ,lobster pots 7creels71 #db1 #ia ,mackerel1 #ah1 #be1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #ci1 #dd1 #ej1 #hi ,mesh of nets1 #dg1 #eb1 #hf1 #hh ,migration of fishes1 #cf-dj ,mollusca1 #be1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #cf1 #ij1 #ic1 #id ,mullet1 #ai ,mussel1 #be1 #bg1 #ce1 #ec1 #ij1 #ic1 #ig-ih ,nets1 #dc ,otter trawl1 #dh1 #ha ,overday herrings1 #fj1 #ff ,overfishing1 #c1 #aa1 #hj1 #hd1 #hf1 #ia1 #if ,oyster1 #be1 #bg1 #ce1 #ij1 #ic1 #id-ig ---- culture1 #ie-ig ,pelagic fishes1 #bd1 #cj1 #ca1 #hi ,periwinkle1 #be1 #ce1 #ec1 #id ,phosphorescence1 #ah1 #dj1 #da ,pilchard1 #be1 #ca1 #dd ,plaice1 #b1 #af1 #ai1 #bb1 #be1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dd1 #df1 #dh1 #gh1 #hf1 #hi ,plankton1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh-ca1 #cc1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj1 #fi1 #ij1 #id1 #ajj ,poke net1 #dd ,porpoise1 #bd1 #ii ,prawn1 #be1 #cj1 #ce1 #ij ,preservation of fish1 #ae1 #ajg 7,see also canning1 drying1 salting47 ,productivity of the sea1 #bh ,purse net1 #dd ---- seine1 #dd ,push net1 #eb ,red herring1 #fj1 #fd ,reddening of salted fish1 #aad ,reproduction of fishes1 #cb1 #ie1 #ajb ,rorqual whale1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajd ,salmon1 #ai1 #ca1 #ch ,salt herring1 #fj ,salting of fish1 #e1 #f1 #fb-fd1 #gb1 #gd1 #aji ,seal1 #ii ,sei whale1 #ajd ,seine1 #dd ,shad1 #d1 #ai1 #ch ,shark1 #d1 #af1 #ai1 #bd1 #cb1 #cd1 #dc1 #acb ,shellfish1 #ij-ii ,shrimp1 #be1 #cj1 #ce1 #eb1 #hf1 #ij1 #ib1 #ic ,skate 7ray71 #f1 #bb1 #bd1 #cb1 #cd1 #gh ,skin of fishes1 #d1 #af1 #acb ,smack1 #i1 #df1 #gg ,smoking of fish1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,sole1 #b1 #af1 #ai1 #bb1 #ca1 #cb1 #gh1 #hf1 #hi ,spawning of fishes1 #ai1 #bd1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #ej1 #ed-ee1 #ij1 #ie1 #aag ,spermaceti1 #ajb1 #ajf ,sperm oil1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #ajf ,sperm whale1 #ajj1 #ajd ,sprat1 #be1 #bg1 #ej1 #ia1 #aai ,squid1 #gj ,stake net1 #dc ,starfish1 #ej1 #if ,steam fishing1 #i1 #gh1 #hj1 #hd ,steam trawler1 #aj1 #gg1 #ha ,stickleback1 #ai1 #ce ,sturgeon1 #af ,tile fish1 #aaf ,trawl 7line fishing71 #ga ---- net 7,see beam trawl1 otter trawl47 ---- ---- 7shrimps71 #b1 #eb1 #ic ,trawling1 #b1 #c1 #i1 #aj1 #df1 #gg-hi ---- for herrings1 #hh-hi ,tunny1 #bd ,turbot1 #bd1 #ca1 #cb1 #gh1 #hi ,univalve1 #id ,vitamins1 #abc ,walrus1 #ii ,war service of fishermen1 #hd ,whale1 #bd1 #ii ---- bone1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje ---- fisheries1 #ii ---- oil 7blubber71 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje ,whaler1 #ajc ,whaling1 #ajc ,whelk1 #id ,whiting1 #bb1 #ca1 #cd1 #eb1 #gh1 #hf ,printed in ,bath1 ,england1 by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd4