,historic ,ornament4 ,illustration3 ,,page ,,from ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,harleian ,,manuscripts4 ,,british ,,museum4 ,,french1 ,,early #ae,,th ,,century4 ,a ,manual of ,,historic ,,ornament ,,treating ,,upon ,,the ,,evolution1 ,,tradition ,,and ,,development ,,of ,,architecture ,,and ,,other ,,applied ,,arts4 ,,prepared ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,students ,,and ,,craftsmen4 ,illustration ,,by ,,richard ,,glazier1 ,associate of the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects2 ,head ,master of the ,municipal ,school of ,art1 ,manchester4 ,illustration ,with #dgj illustrations by the ,author4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,b4 ,t4 ,,batsford1 #id1 ,,high ,,holborn4 #ahii4 ,,manchester3 ,,printed ,,by ,,chorlton ,,knowles1 ,,mayfield ,,press4 ,preface4 ,this manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an elementary knowledge of ,architecture and ,historic ,ornament1 of awakening a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and interesting remains of ancient and medival civilization1 and lastly of directing the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty1 suggestiveness and vitality of the ,industrial ,arts of the past1 and their intimate relation to the social and religious life of the people4 ,the advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study are manifold1 for1 by a careful study of these arts1 we may see the capabilities and limitations of material1 the appropriateness and application of ornament1 the continuity of line and form--yet with a marked diversity of enrichment and treatment--the interest and significance of detail1 and the customs1 myths and traditions of the past with their continuity of thought and expression4 ,the illustrations1 which have been chosen expressly for this work1 are typical examples of each period or style and are produced in line as being the method best suited to the requirements of students1 giving definition1 emphasis and the constructive qualities of design rather than pictorial effect4 ,in the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of reference1 which may be studied with considerable advantage by students desiring further information upon this important subject4 ,,richard ,,glazier4 ,,manchester1 #ahii4 ,contents4 ,,page4 ,ornament of ,oceania #c ,egyptian ,ornament #e ,assyrian ,ornament #g ,greek ,architecture #i ,greek ,ornament #ac ,roman ,architecture #ba ,roman ,ornament #be ,pompeian ,ornament #bi ,byzantine ,ornament #ca ,scandinavian ,ornament #cc ,celtic ,ornament #ce ,norman and ,gothic ,architecture #cf ,norman ,details #dc ,early ,gothic ,details #de ,renascence ,ornament #di ,french ,renascence #eh ,english ,renascence #fj ,mahometan and ,moresque #fc ,persian ,ornament #fe ,indian ,ornament #fi ,chinese and ,japanese ,ornament #ga ,ivories #gc ,mosaics #ge ,greek ,ceramics #gg ,ceramic ,art #gi ,maiolica #hg ,terra ,cotta #hh ,enamels #ia ,glass #ie ,stained ,glass #ig ,gold and ,silver #aja ,bronzes #ajc ,wrought ,iron #aje ,furniture #ajf ,textile ,fabrics #aji ,frets #abc ,continuity of ,style #abe ,terms used in ,ornamental ,art #aca ,list of ,plates ,,plate4 ,,page4 #a ,ornament of ,oceania #b #b ,egyptian ,ornament #d #c ,assyrian ,ornament #f #d ,greek ,architecture #h #e ,greek ,ornament #ab #f ,greek ,ornament #ah #g ,roman ,architecture #bj #h ,roman ,ornament #bd #i ,roman ,ornament #bf #aj ,pompeian ,ornament #bh #aa ,byzantine ,ornament #cj #ab ,scandinavian ,ornament #cb #ac ,celtic ,ornament #cd #ad ,the ,triforium and ,clearstory #da #ae ,norman ,details #db #af ,early ,gothic ,details #dd #ag ,decorated ,perpendicular ,gothic ,details #df #ah ,renascence ,ornament #dh #ai ,renascence ,ornament #ee #bj ,arabian ,ornament #fb #ba ,persian ,ornament #fd #bb ,persian ,ornament #fg #bc ,indian ,ornament #fh #bd ,chinese and ,japanese ,ornament #gj #be ,ivories #gb #bf ,mosaics #gd #bg ,greek ,ceramics #gf #bh ,ceramics #gh #bi ,maiolica #hf #cj ,glass #id #ca ,stained ,glass #if #cb ,gold and ,silver #ajj #cc ,bronzes #ajb #cd ,wrought ,iron #ajd #ce ,textile ,fabrics #ajh #cf ,sicilian ,fabric #aaa #cg ,indian ,palampore #aab #ch ,persian ,carpet #aad #ci ,textile ,fabrics #aag #dj ,peruvian ,textiles #aai #da ,peruvian ,textiles #abj #db ,frets #abb #dc ,polynesian ,paddle #abd ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,,page4 ,ornament of ,oceania #c ,plan of the ,parthenon #i ,plan of the ,erectheum #aj ,the two ,fates1 from the ,eastern ,pediment of the ,parthenon #ad ,doric ,frieze of the ,parthenon #ad ,north ,frieze of the ,parthenon #ae ,frieze from ,phigaleia #ae ,relief from ,nike ,apteros #af ,frieze from ,pergamos #af ,frieze from ,susa #ag ,greek ,scroll #ag ,greek ,coins #ai ,arch of ,septimius ,severus #ba ,theatre of ,marcellus #bb ,plan of the ,pantheon #bb ,plan of the ,house of ,pansa #bc ,roman ,scroll #be ,coffered ,ceiling #be ,frieze from ,tivoli #bg ,plan of ,st4 ,mark's #ca ,plan of ,st4 ,sophia #ca ,lismore ,crosier #ce ,gothic ,piers #cg ,plan of ,lincoln ,cathedral #cg ,early ,gothic ,window #ch ,grisaille ,glass1 ,salisbury #ci ,gothic ,crockets #de ,gothic ,borders #de ,tomb of ,ilaria del ,carretto #ej ,bas-relief1 by ,donatello #ea ,monument to ,conte ,ugino #ea ,italian ,velvet #eb ,fresco1 by ,michel-,angelo #eb ,a ,sibyl1 by ,michel-,angelo #ec ,arabesque ,decorations #ec ,renascence ,scroll #ed ,renascence ,marble ,inlay #ed ,frieze1 by ,mantegna #ef ,an ,italian ,etching #ef ,venetian ,well-head #eg ,wood ,carving1 period of ,francis ,i4 #eh ,decoration1 period of ,francis ,,ii4 #eh ,relief1 by ,jean ,goujon #ei ,wood ,carving1 by ,jean ,goujon #ei ,frieze1 by ,le ,pautre #ei ,wood ,carving1 period of ,louis ,,xv4 #ei ,elizabethan ,frieze #fj ,elizabethan ,strap-work #fj ,ceiling1 ,audley ,end #fj ,persian ,plate #fe ,peruvian ,pottery #he ,greek ,terra ,cotta #hi ,the ,annunciation1 by ,andrea della ,robbia #hi ,relief1 by ,andrea della ,robbia #ij ,painted ,enamel by ,pierre ,raymond #ic ,battersea ,enamel #ic ,early ,gothic ,glass #ig ,early ,french ,glass #ih ,late ,gothic ,glass #ih ,chairs #ajf ,italian ,carved ,chest #ajg ,carved ,wood ,screen #ajg ,italian ,fabrics #aae ,flower ,vase ,pattern #aaf ,spitalsfield ,silk #aaf ,flemish ,fabrics #aaf ,frets #abc ,egyptian ,capital #abf ,corinthian ,capital #abg ,early ,french ,capital #abg ,composite ,capital #abg ,byzantine ,capital #abh ,french ,romanesque ,capital #abh ,siculo-,norman ,capital #abi ,early ,english ,capital #abi ,arabian ,capital #abi ,decorated ,gothic ,capital #acj ,renascence ,capital #acj ,roman ,scroll #acj ,illustration3 ,,ornament ,,of ,,oceania4 ,plate #a4 ,,ornament ,,of ,,oceania4 ,the ornamentation of the people of the ,pacific ,isles is full of interest and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive people1 with myths and traditions purely local and in no way influenced by other nations4 ,it is a style of ornament full of meaning and symbolism1 yet simple in detail and arrangement1 not founded upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands but upon abstract forms derived from the human figure1 and arranged with a pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into provinces1 each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and traditions1 ,new ,zealand showing the highest development and ,australia the lowest in the ornament of ,polynesia and ,melanesia4 ,much of the ornament is purely linear1 consisting of parallel and zig-zag lines2 that of ,australia consists almost entirely of these lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour4 ,in ,new ,guinea a higher development is reached1 the ornament1 of straight and curved lines1 being carved in flat relief4 ,in the province of ,tonga-,samoa1 the surface is divided into small fields1 and the linear ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields4 ,the ,hervey and ,austral ,islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of the human female figure1 the illustrations given here showing the original type and its ornamental development4 ,these examples1 together with the circular eye pattern form the elements of the ,hervey province1 of which the ,heape collection contains many fine examples4 ,in the ,solomon ,island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl4 ,the ,new ,zealand province is distinguished by its skilful pierced carving1 the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the human figure1 fig4 #a4 #ab41 and the constant use of the border here given4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,ornament4 ,plate #b4 ,,egyptian ,,ornament4 ,the history of ,egypt1 extending from #ddjj ,b4,c4 to #cdj ,b4,c41 during which #cj dynasties existed1 is usually divided into three groups3 7#a7 ,the ,ancient ,empire1 ,i4-,,xi4 dynasties1 #ddjj-bdff ,b4,c4 7#b7 ,the ,middle ,empire1 ,,xii4-,,xix41 #bdff-abjj2 and 7#c7 the ,new ,empire1 ,,xx4-,,xxx4 dynasties1 #abjj-cdj ,b4,c4 ,the capitals of the ,ancient ,empire comprised ,memphis and ,abydos2 of the ,middle ,empire1 ,thebes1 ,luxor and ,tanis3 and of the ,new ,empire1 ,sais and ,bubastes4 ,the remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are attested by the many fine remains of architecture1 sculpture and decorative arts that enrich our national museums4 ,the ,great ,pyramids were built during the fourth dynasty1 the largest by ,kheops1 #cgcc-cgjj ,b4,c41 is #gef ft4 #gef ft41 and #dhj ft4 high2 the second1 by ,kephren1 #cfff-cfcc ,b4,c41 is #gjg ft4 #gjg ft4 and #ded ft4 high3 and the third1 #ccc ft4 #ccj ft41 and #bah ft4 high1 was erected by ,mykerinos1 #cfcc-cfjj ,b4,c4 ,the ,sphinx1 half animal and half human1 is the oldest sculpture known1 and is probably of the #ast and #bnd dynasties1 yet it is singular that all the earliest sculptures of the #crd and #dth dynasties with which we are acquainted1 were realistic portraiture1 remarkable for its fidelity to nature4 ,kings1 queens1 and individuals of note1 were finely sculptured1 frequently of a colossal size4 ,but the ,deities1 ,amen ,sckhet1 ,horus1 ,hathor1 ,iris1 and ,osiris1 were represented in the later dynasties by small votive statuettes1 noticeable for their number rather than for their artistic qualities1 never reaching the excellence or vitality of the earlier period4 ,much of the architectural enrichment was in ,cavo ,relievo1 a peculiarly ,egyptian mode of ornamentation1 the outline of the figures1 birds1 or flowers1 being sunk into the surface of the granite or basalt1 and then carved within this sunk outline1 leaving the ground or bed raised1 these reliefs being invariably painted red1 blue1 green1 and yellow4 ,the frieze1 which1 in the hands of the ,greeks at a later period1 became their principal ornamental field1 was used by the ,egyptians in superposed bands1 showing1 in cavo relievo1 the industrial arts and pursuits1 weaving1 glass blowing1 and the making of pottery2 ploughing1 sowing1 and reaping1 also hunting and fishing4 ,the composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple1 refined and purely decorative1 with a navet and unaffection so appropriate to the architectonic conditions4 ,mingled with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs1 or picture writing of the ,egyptians4 ,figs4 #g-ac are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of lines1 together with the symbolic treatment of the ,lotus1 the latter being regarded by the ,egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life1 hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative work4 ,great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural capitals with the ,lotus1 the ,papyrus1 and the ,palm4 ,a singular feature introduced during the #ahth dynasty was the ,hathor ,capital surmounted by a small ,naos4 ,during the ,ptolemaic period1 ,b4,c4 #cjj1 the ,hathor ,capital was placed upon the vertical bell-shaped capital 7fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,assyrian ,,ornament4 ,plate #c4 ,,assyrian ,,ornament4 ,the early history of ,babylonia and ,assyria is one long series of wars and conquests4 ,originally one nation1 they became divided1 and the younger ,assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that period under ,tiglath ,pileser ,i41 ,b4,c4 #aajj1 ,ashur-nasir-pal1 ,b4,c4 #hhe-fj1 ,shalmaneser ,,ii41 ,b4,c4 #hfj-be1 ,tiglath-,pileser ,,iii41 ,b4,c4 #gde-bg1 the ,great ,sargon1 ,b4,c41 #gbb-gje1 ,sennacherib1 ,b4,c4 #gje-fha1 ,esarhaddon1 ,b4,c4 #fha-ffh1 and ,ashur-ban-pal1 ,b4,c4 #ffh-fbf4 ,in ,b4,c4 #fji the capital1 ,nineveh1 was destroyed by ,cyaxares the ,mede1 and ,babylon arose again to power under ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,b4,c4 #fjd-efb2 this city was destroyed by ,cyrus the ,persian1 ,b4,c4 #eci4 ,assyrian art with its racial influences1 religious beliefs and climatic conditions1 differs in a remarkable degree from ,egyptian art4 ,though stone is found in ,assyria1 the great cities were built of brick1 no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from ,chaldea1 where stone was scarce and clay plentiful4 ,both at ,babylon in ,chaldea1 and ,nineveh in ,assyria1 the traditional type of building was rectangular1 with arched openings and vaults1 built of sun-dried bricks2 the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs1 carved in low relief with scenes representing the ,king and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting 7fig4 #a74 ,the upper part of the wall was in enamelled brick or in coloured stucco1 with details of the ,lotus and ,bud1 together with the rosette1 which was often carried round the archivolt4 ,the representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture1 which is so admirably illustrated upon the ,egyptian reliefs1 is entirely absent in ,assyria4 ,the enamelled bricks of ,chaldea1 were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue1 yellow1 white and black1 of fine quality and colour1 one splendid example is the ,frieze of ,archers from the ,palace of ,susa4 ,the enamelled bricks of ,assyria were usually flat1 or modelled but slightly1 and the enamels were less pure4 ,the external walls were similar to the internal ones1 but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs1 and usually with religious subjects 7fig4 #i74 ,the portals of the doors were enriched with colossal winged and human headed bulls1 of alabaster1 finely carved in relief4 ,typical examples of ,assyrian ornament are the ,lotus and ,bud 7figs4 #b and #c71 the ,patera or ,rosette 7figs4 #f and #g71 and the ,horn or ,tree of ,life 7fig #h74 ,the ,lotus enrichment shows ,egyptian influence1 and only came into use during the #gth century ,b4,c41 when intercourse between the two nations was established4 ,it is differentiated from the ,egyptian lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile1 and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud 7fig4 #b74 ,the ,anthemion or ,hom1 with its alternate bud and fir-cone1 and with strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass 7fig4 #c74 ,the ,hom is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree1 a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later ,persian and ,sicilian textile fabrics4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,architecture4 ,plate #d4 ,,greek ,,architecture4 ,classic or columnar architecture is divided into the ,greek and ,roman styles1 and each style comprises several orders of architecture2 the ,grecian orders are the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 and the ,corinthian1 and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in ,greece and her colonies3--,asia ,minor1 ,southern ,italy1 and ,sicily4 ,from a comparison of these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be present1 and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or order1 which comprises the base1 7except in the ,grecian ,doric1 which has no base7 column and capital1 and the ,entablature1 which consists of the ,architrave1 ,frieze1 and ,cornice4 ,the proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the column which is divided into #b modules or #fj parts2 the height of the column always including the base and capital4 ,the ,,doric order was used for the early ,greek temples from ,b4,c4 #fjj and culminated in the ,parthenon ,b4,c4 #dch4 ,the ,,columns in this order are #d-a_/b to #f diameters in height with #bj shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises2 the ,,capital is half a diameter in height and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below1 and a large square abacus above4 ,the ,,architrave is plain2 the ,,frieze is enriched by rectangular blocks1 with #c vertical channellings in the face1 termed triglyphs1 alternately with square metopes which were frequently sculptured4 ,the ,,cornice1 composed of simple mouldings1 and enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes1 projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze4 ,illustration ,the ,,ionic order has columns of from #i to #i-a_/b diameters in height1 with #bd flutings divided by narrow fillets2 the base is half a diameter in height and composed of a plinth1 torus1 fillet1 cavetto1 fillet1 torus1 and fillet4 ,the ,,capital is #g_/aj of a diameter high and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes1 supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue1 with an astragal below4 ,the ,,entablature is #a_/d the height of the columns1 the ,,architrave of one or more fascias1 the ,,frieze continuous and frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief2 the ,,cornice has simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band4 ,caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order2 they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the ,ionic column4 ,these caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns2 a beautiful example of this feature is the south portico of the ,erechtheum at ,athens4 ,the ,,corinthian order was not much used by the ,greeks2 the examples however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details4 ,the ,,columns are #aj diameters in height with #bd flutings2 the ,,base is #a_/b diameter high2 the ,,capital is a little greater than a diameter in height and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes4 ,the ,,entablature is richer2 and the ,,cornice deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders4 ,a table is here given showing the relative height in parts 7a part is #a_/fj of the diameter7 of the entablature in some typical ,grecian examples4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total ,architrave ,frieze ,cornice ,entablature ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,doric ,parthenon #dc #dc #cb #aah ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,theseus #ej #dh #ai #ajg ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,ionic ,erechtheum #dc #dh #dg #adj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,priene #cg #di #dg #acc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,corinthian ,lysicrates #ec #da #di #adc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,jupiter ,olympius #dj #bf #df #aab ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the principal ,doric buildings in ,greece are3--,the ,temples at ,corinth ,b4,c4 #fej1 gina ,b4,c4 #eej1 the ,parthenon and the ,theseum ,b4,c4 #dch1 the ,temples of ,jupiter at ,olympia1 ,apollo ,epicurius at ,bass ,b4,c4 #dcf1 ,minerva at ,sunium1 and the ,propyla at ,athens ,b4,c4 #dca4 ,the ,parthenon is the only octastyle temple in ,greece4 ,ionic buildings in ,greece are3--,temples at ,ilyssus1 ,nike ,apteros1 and the ,erectheum4 ,in ,asia ,minor1 the ,temples at ,samos1 ,priene1 ,teos1 and of ,diana at ,ephesus1 and of ,apollo at ,miletos4 ,illustration ,corinthian buildings in ,greece are3--,monument of ,lysicrates1 the ,tower of ,winds1 and ,jupiter ,olympius1 all in ,athens4 ,during the #eth century ,b4,c4 the ,doric order was extensively used in the ,greek colonies of ,sicily4 ,at ,acragas or ,agrigentum the remains of #f fine hexastyle and peripteral ,doric ,temples are found1 of which the ,temple of ,zeus ,b4,c4 #dej is the largest1 being #ced by #agc feet4 ,in this temple were found the ,telemones or ,atlantes1 male figures #be feet in height1 with their arms raised1 probably supporting the roof of the temple4 ,at ,selinus there are six large ,doric temples1 five being hexastyle and peripteral1 the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral1 #cgb by #age feet4 ,this temple has columns #eg feet in height with an entablature of #ai feet4 ,at ,egesta1 there is a hexastyle1 peripteral1 ,doric temple with the columns not fluted1 and at ,pstum in ,southern ,italy there are two ,doric temples1 the temple of ,neptune1 and the temple of ,vesta1 of the usual hexastyle and peripteral form1 but the ,basilica is pseudo-dipteral and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each4 ,all these buildings in ,sicily and ,pstum date between ,b4,c4 #ejj and #dcj4 ,classification of ,classic ,temples3-- #ast4 ,the arrangements of the columns and walls 7a7 ,when the side walls have no colonnade ,apteral 7b7 ,when there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls ,peripteral 7c7 ,when the colonnade is attached to the side of the side walls ,pseudo-peripteral 7d7 ,when there is a double colonnade standing from the wall ,dipteral #bnd4 ,the relation of the ends of the temple 7a7 ,when the columns do not project beyond the walls ,in ,antis 7b7 ,when a portico stood in front of the temple ,prostyle 7c7 ,when there was a portico at each end ,amphi-prostyle 7d7 ,if the portico was one column in depth,mono-prostyle 7e7 ,if the portico was two columns in depth ,di-prostyle #crd4 ,the number of columns in the portico 7a7 ,if of #b columns ,distyle 7b7 ,if of #d columns ,tetrastyle 7c7 ,if of #f columns exastyle 7d7 ,if of #h columns ,octastyle #dth4 ,the ,intercolumniation 7a7 ,if #a-a_/b diameters apart ,pycnostyle 7b7 ,if #b diameters apart ,systyle 7c7 ,if #b-a_/d diameters apart ,eustyle 7d7 ,if #c diameters apart ,diastyle 7e7 ,if #d diameters apart rostyle ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,ornament4 ,plate #e4 ,,greek ,,ornament4 ,greece1 or ,hellas1 consisted of a number of small states1 speaking the same language1 and worshipping the same gods4 ,almost the whole of the gean coast of ,asia ,minor was occupied in early times by ,greek ,colonies1 which supplanted those of the ,phnicians of ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,the southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the ,dorians1 and the northern by ,ionians4 ,in the course of time other ,greek settlements were made on the ,black ,sea and ,mediterranean ,coast of ,asia ,minor2 as well as at ,syracuse1 ,gela and ,agrigentum1 in ,sicily1 and in ,etruria and ,magna ,grecia in ,italy4 ,these colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than ,greece itself4 ,the ascendency in art in ,greece was enjoyed by the ,dorians circa1 #hjj ,b4,c42 after which ,sparta took the lead1 but was in turn excelled by the ,ionians1 when ,athens became the focus of ,greek art1 and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day4 ,athens was destroyed by the ,persians under ,xerxes1 #dhj ,b4,c42 but under ,pericles 7#dgj-bi ,b4,c47 ,greek art reached its culmination4 ,the abundant1 although fragmentary1 remains of ,grecian architecture1 sculpture1 and the industrial arts1 show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early ,greeks1 with their great personality and religious sentiment1 in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the people4 ,their myths and traditions1 their worship of legendary heroes1 the perfection of their physical nature1 and their intense love of the beautiful1 were characteristic of the ,greek people1 from the siege of ,troy to their subjection by ,rome1 ,b4,c4 #adj4 ,the almost inexhaustible store of ,greek art1 now gathered in the ,british ,museum1 and in other ,european museums1 furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past4 ,the vitality of conception1 the dignity and noble grace of the gods1 the consummate knowledge of the human figure1 and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship1 are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident4 ,the work of ,phidias1 the most renowned of ,greek sculptors1 is largely represented in the ,british ,museum by noble examples1 showing his great personality1 wonderful power1 and his remarkable influence1 upon contemporary and later plastic art4 ,the ,parthenon1 or temple of the goddess ,athene1 which was built upon the ,acropolis at ,athens by ,ictinus and ,callicrates1 ,b4,c4 #ded-dch1 was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by ,phidias4 ,many of the originals are now in the ,british ,museum1 forming part of the ,elgin ,marbles1 which were purchased from the ,earl of ,elgin1 in #ahae4 ,the two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round1 larger than life size4 ,the ,eastern group represents the birth of ,athene1 and the western group the contest of ,athene and ,poseidon for the soil of ,attica4 ,the fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the ,british ,museum1 and1 though sadly mutilated1 show the perfection of sculpture during the ,phidian age4 ,an illustration of the 8,fates0 from the ,western pediment is given here1 showing a perfect mastery of the human figure1 with rare selective power of composition4 ,the appropriateness of line and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and architectonic in character4 ,of the #ib square metopes sculptured in high relief1 that enriched the ,doric frieze1 #ae are included in the ,elgin ,marbles4 ,the subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the ,centaurs and ,lapith1 or ,greeks1 and are fine examples of composition of line and mass1 and dramatic power of expression4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall1 under the colonnade or ,peristyle1 was #dj feet from the ground1 #dj inches in height1 and #ebc feet in length4 ,it was carved in low relief1 the subject being the ,panathenic procession1 the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of the ,ancient ,greeks4 ,this frieze1 with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition1 its groups of beautiful youths and maidens1 sons and daughters of noble citizens1 its heroes and deities1 heralds and magistrates2 its sacrificial oxen1 and its horses and riders are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor's art4 ,each figure is full of life and motion1 admirable in detail1 having an individuality of action and expression1 yet with a unity of composition1 appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band4 ,the ,parthenon1 however1 was but the shrine of the standing figure or statue of the goddess ,athene1 which was #cg feet high1 and formed of plates of gold and ivory1 termed ,chryselephantine sculpture4 ,probably owing to the intrinsic value of the material1 this work of ,phidias disappeared at an early date4 ,illustration ,among the examples of sculptured marbles in the ,british ,museum is the beautiful frieze from the interior of the ,temple of ,apollo at ,phigaleia1 erected by ,ictinus1 ,b4,c4 #dej-dcj4 ,this frieze1 which shows an extraordinary vitality and movement1 is #aja feet long1 and consists of #bc slabs #be-a_/b inches in width1 the incidents depicted being the battle of the ,greeks and the ,amazons1 and the contest between the ,centaurs and the ,lapith4 ,the dignity and reserve of the ,parthenon frieze is here replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling4 ,illustration ,some of the marbles in the ,british ,museum are from the ,nereid ,monument of ,xanthos1 ,b4,c4 #cgb1 so called because the female figures display moist clinging garments1 and have fishes and seabirds between their feet4 ,these sculptures show a high degree of perfection1 and were probably the work of the ,athenian sculptor1 ,bryaxis4 ,among other examples of the ,greek treatment of the frieze1 is that of the ,erectheum1 ,b4,c4 #dji1 with its black ,eleusinian stone background1 and white marble reliefs4 ,the ,temple of ,nike ,apteros1 of about the same date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands4 ,an example of ,nike or victory1 adjusting her sandal is here given4 ,these reliefs are remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment1 and the exquisite rendering of the draped female figure4 ,other friezes now in the ,british ,museum are from the ,mausoleum erected by ,artemisia to her husband ,mausolus ,b4,c4 #ceg-cdh4 ,this tomb consisted of a solid basement of masonry1 supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of #cf columns4 ,the upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze1 illustrating the battle of the ,centaurs and ,lapith2 the frieze of the cella was illustrated with funeral games in honour of ,mausolus4 ,seventeen slabs of the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the ,british ,museum2 they represent the battle of the ,greeks and ,amazons4 ,in their composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and richness of invention4 ,this frieze differs absolutely from the ,parthenon frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action4 ,bryaxis1 the sculptor of the ,nereid monument executed the north frieze1 while the south was by ,timotheus1 the east by ,scopas1 and the west by ,leochares4 ,illustration ,illustration ,a remarkable building1 where again the frieze was an important feature1 was the great altar at ,pergamos1 erected by ,eumenes ,,ii41 ,b4,c4 #afh4 ,this had a basement of masonry #afj ft4 by #afj ft41 and #af ft4 high1 enriched with a sculptured frieze #g-a_/b ft4 high4 ,the subject is the ,gigantomachia1 or battle of the gods and giants2 the treatment being characterised by passionate energy and expression1 and daring skill in grouping and technique4 ,ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze are now in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,the frieze was an important decorative feature with the ,assyrians and ,greeks4 ,the continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was possible with the continuous frieze1 together with its functional use of banding1 no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form1 hence we have many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment4 ,an early and fine example is the frieze of ,archers from the palace of ,darius at ,persepolis1 ,b4,c4 #ecb1 now in the ,louvre4 ,this frieze1 of which an illustration is here given1 was executed in glazed and enamelled bricks4 ,a dignity of conception and unity of composition were here combined with skilful modelling of relief work1 and fine colouring of blue1 turquoise and yellow4 ,this treatment of the frieze no doubt influenced the later work of the ,greeks1 who so nobly carried on this tradition of the frieze4 ,illustration ,greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line1 refinement of detail1 radiation of parts1 unity of composition and perfect symmetry4 ,the anthemion1 which is the typical form1 is derived from the traditional lotus and bud of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,india4 ,it differs however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism1 having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts1 yet lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many periods of art4 ,illustration ,the anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele1 7figs4 #a1 #b1 and #e1 plate #d71 upon the architrave of doorways 7fig4 #f71 and above the necking of the ,ionic columns 7plate #f72 or painted upon the panels of the deep coffered ceilings4 ,it was also used in a thousand ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period4 ,the simplicity and ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,ornament4 ,plate #f4 beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability1 has doubtless rendered it one of the best known types of ornament4 ,like the ,egyptian and ,assyrian prototype the ,greek anthemion is usually arranged with alternate flower and bud1 connected by a curved line or more frequently by a double spiral4 ,illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a few typical examples1 where the rhythm and beauty of composition are indicative of the culture and perfection of ,greek craftsmanship4 ,another feature1 which at a later period received considerable development1 was the scroll given on the preceding page1 which is a fine example from the roof of the monument to ,lysicrates4 ,the scroll cut with ,v shaped sections1 springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage1 the same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the tripod upon the apex of the roof 7plate #f74 ,this scroll is formed of a series of spirals springing from each other1 the junction of the spiral being covered by a sheath or flower2 the spiral itself being often broken by a similar sheath4 ,this spiral form1 with its sheathing1 is the basis of the ,roman and ,italian ,renascence styles1 and sharply differentiates them from the ,gothic ornament1 in which the construction line is continuous and unbroken4 ,the rosette1 a survival of the traditional ,assyrian form was frequently used upon the architrave 7fig4 #f71 and the funeral stele 7fig4 #e plate #e7 where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with the functional straight lines of architectural design4 ,the extraordinary vitality and versatility of the ,greek craftsmen may be traced through a magnificent series of coins dating from ,b4,c4 #gjj to ,b4,c4 #bhj4 ,the interest of subject1 beauty of composition and largeness of style1 combined with the utmost delicacy of technique1 of these gold1 silver and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of the early ,greeks4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,architecture4 ,plate #g4 ,,roman ,,architecture4 ,roman ,architecture is differentiated from that of ,greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders4 ,the many fine remains of ,roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and conception of the ,roman architects1 their constructive skill1 and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations4 ,the ,roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the ,greek prototypes1 but usually without the side colonnade1 larger in scale1 and with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament1 less refined in contour and detail4 ,illustration ,a typical example is given here of a triumphal arch1 namely1 that of ,septimus ,severus1 ,a4,d4 #baa4 ,other examples are the ,arch of ,titus1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 and the ,arch of ,constantine1 ,a4,d4 #cbf4 ,trajan's ,arch1 ,a4,d4 #aad1 was destroyed by ,constantine1 who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch4 ,the superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed illustration from the ,theatre of ,marcellus1 where the lower order is of the ,doric and the upper of the ,ionic4 ,the ,colosseum has a third story1 having the ,corinthian order1 and an attic story1 with ,corinthian pilasters2 the whole reaching to a height of #aef feet4 ,illustration ,one of the best preserved buildings of the ,roman period is the ,pantheon1 with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels1 enriched with bronze ornaments4 ,the portico1 octastyle and di-prostyle1 is of the ,corinthian order1 beautifully proportioned and enriched4 ,the finest example of the ,corinthian order was used in the temple of ,castor and ,pollux1 frequently called ,jupiter ,stator2 some #ej examples of this ,corinthian order date from the ,roman period4 ,the ,tuscan and ,composite orders were added by the ,romans to the ,doric1 ,ionic and the ,corinthian1 forming the five orders of architecture4 ,illustration ,the following table gives the relative proportions of the typical ,roman orders1 the columns in modules1 and the capital1 entablature1 c41 in parts3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,columns,capital,architrave,frieze,corni ce,entablature ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,doric4 ,theatre of #ae-a_/b #bd #ca #df #cg #aac ,marcellus ,baths of #a #bb #cb #de #df #abc ,diocletia ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ionic4 ,theatre of #ah #ca #dc #cf #ff #ade ,marcellus ,temple of #ag-a_/b #cc-c_/d #ch #bh #gj #acg ,virilis ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,corinthian4,jupiter #bj #ff #dc #dc #fi #aef ,stator ,pantheon #ai-a_/b #fg #db #ci #ed #acf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the ,romans rarely used the peristyle temple1 consequently the cella was of the same width as the portico4 ,in the civic buildings and palaces the ,romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendour of embellishment4 ,the skilful planning and appropriateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the practical nature of the ,romans4 ,the ,basilica or ,hall of ,justice was an important architectural feature1 rectangular in plan1 with a semi-circular apse at one end1 where the ,tribunal was placed2 roofed with timber framing1 or vaulted with concrete1 and supported with rows of columns or biers4 ,the remains of two typical ,roman basilicas are still in existence3 the ,basilica of ,trajan1 ,a4,d4 #aad1 rectangular1 #ahj #afj feet1 five aisles1 the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof1 and enriched with bronze plates1 is typical of one class2 and the basilica of ,maxentinus1 ,a4,d4 #caj1 with a width of #aie feet and a length of #bfj feet1 is typical of a vaulted ,basilica1 the two side aisles with an arched roof1 and the centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof4 ,these ,roman basilicas were adopted by the early ,christians to their service1 and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the #abth century in the ,romanesque provinces4 ,illustration ,the ,roman houses were of two types3 the ,domus1 or houses clustered together1 and the ,insular1 houses which were surrounded by streets4 ,most of the finest ,pompeian houses were of the ,insular type4 ,the usual plan of a ,roman house consisted of the ,ostium or entrance1 sometimes called the ,vestibule1 which opened into the ,atrium1 which was a large room or court partly roofed over1 with an opening in the centre called the ,conpluvium1 under which was the ,impluvium1 or cistern of water1 placed below the level of the ground4 ,small chambers surrounded the ,atrium1 and at the further end was the ,tablinum or private room1 frequently leading to the ,peristylium or private part of the house1 an open court1 with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain1 with flowers1 shrubs and trees1 forming a ,viridarium4 ,surrounding the ,peristylium were private rooms1 one of which was the ,triclinium or dining room4 ,from the ,peristylium1 fauces or passages led to the ,porticus1 a colonnade which overlooked the garden4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,ornament4 ,plate #h ,,roman ,,ornament4 ,rome1 founded by ,romulus1 ,b4,c4 #ghc1 became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world1 absorbing the arts and the architecture of the ,etruscans ,b4,c4 #efg1 the ,samnites ,b4,c4 #cdj1 and of ,corinth and ,carthage ,b4,c4 #adf4 ,from these varied sources arose the style termed ,roman1 assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the ,greeks2 the arch1 the vault1 the mural paintings and the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the ,etruscans1 with the sculpture1 ornament1 mosaics and coinage of the ,greeks and ,carthaginians4 ,these varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the ,romans during the period ,b4,c4 #ajj to #ccg ,a4,d4 ,roman ornament is the continuity of the ,greek and ,etruscan styles1 consisting of the anthemion1 the acanthus and the scroll2 the ,romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration1 together with bold and vigorous carving1 yet lacking the simplicity1 refinement and graceful contour of the ,greek and ,etruscan forms4 ,illustration ,illustration ,roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage1 the various spirals terminating in a rosette4 ,these main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines1 clothed with acanthus or other foliation1 such as the vine1 olive and ivy4 ,birds and reptiles and cupids1 and the chimera or griffin 7fig4 #a7 are often interspersed with the ornament1 thus giving that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic of ,roman art4 ,the ,therm1 or baths and public buildings1 displayed fine decorative ceilings1 having deep sunk panels called ,lacunaria2 or coffers1 square1 hexagonal or octagonal in form1 with a centre rosette in high relief and the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart or the water leaf4 ,these exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces4 ,the ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,ornament4 ,plate #i4 with circular and square panels1 richly decorated with arabesques or mythical figures1 and cupids in low relief of fine stucco2 the mouldings or divisions in higher relief1 and having the water leaf or the egg and dart enrichment 7plate #i47 ,illustration ,the architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this period were often decorated with festoons 7figs4 #d and #e1 plate #i71 and were supported by cupids or by candelabra 7plate #i71 or by the skulls of oxen1 as on the frieze from the ,temple of ,vesta at ,tivoli1 here given1 which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship4 ,the architectural basilica and forum of ,trajan1 erected ,a4,d4 #aad1 by ,apollodorus1 a ,greek of ,damascus1 was of the utmost magnificence1 the remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the ,romans4 ,apollodorus also erected the marble column of ,trajan1 having a rectangular pedestal #ah feet high1 and richly sculptured with the dresses1 armour and standards of the ,roman army4 ,this pedestal supports a column of the ,tuscan order of architecture #ig-a_/d feet high and #ab feet in diameter1 enriched with a series of spiral bands1 having bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the ,dacian ,war by the ,emperor ,trajan4 ,this magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period4 ,another well-preserved column1 similar to that of ,trajan1 was erected in ,rome by ,marcus ,aurelius ,a4,d4 #agd1 the subjects of its reliefs being the war with the ,marcomans4 ,large marble urns1 or ,tazzas1 enriched with ,bacchanalian figures1 surrounded with foliage and birds and animals2 magnificent tables1 chairs1 couches1 and candelabra1 of bronze1 enriched with silver damascening1 together with the choice remains of sculpture and mosaics1 all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of the wealthy ,roman citizens4 ,in ,roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of foliage1 repeated in their painted decorations 7see ,pompeian74 ,this elaboration of the typical ,greek ornamentation and the rounded serrations of the ,acanthus1 forms the chief characteristic of ,roman ornament1 which is wonderfully bold1 and vigorous in conception and execution1 but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of ,greek art4 ,illustration3 ,,pompeian ,,ornament4 ,plate #aj4 ,,pompeian ,,ornament4 ,pompeii1 ,herculaneum and ,stabia1 ,roman cities1 were buried by an eruption of ,vesuvius in the year ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,these cities had already suffered from an earthquake in ,a4,d4 #fc1 and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption4 ,the younger ,pliny1 the historian1 was a spectator of the event at ,pompeii1 and wrote two letters to his friend ,tacitus1 describing the event and his flight from the doomed city1 which remained buried for seventeen centuries1 with the treasures of gold and silver1 bronzes of rare workmanship1 mural paintings on a most magnificent scale1 and floors of mosaics of marvellous execution and design2 everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the ,romans of the #ast century ,a4,d4 ,herculaneum was discovered in #agji1 and ,pompeii in #agdh ,a4,d41 and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken4 ,in the museum at ,naples there are over #a1jjj mural paintings1 some #ac1jjj small bronzes1 over #aej large bronzes of figures and busts1 #gj fine large mosaics1 together with a splendid collection of marble statuary4 ,a plan of a ,roman house is given on page #bc showing the arrangement of and use of the rooms4 ,the floors covered with mosaics1 those of the vestibule1 corridors1 and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern1 or the ,guilloche in black1 red1 grey1 and white tesserie4 ,the triclinium1 or dining room floor was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject4 ,the walls were painted in colour1 usually with a dado #a_/fth the height of the wall1 with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above 7plate #aj74 ,the general scheme of colour was1 the dado and pilasters black1 the panels red1 and the frieze white2 or black dado1 red pilasters and frieze1 with white or yellow panels4 ,the decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful1 and painted with great delicacy4 ,representations of architectural forms1 such as columns and entablatures1 are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls4 ,a small panel painted with a classical subject usually occupies the centre of each wall panel4 ,the painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the ,roman relief work1 but is usually much more delicate in treatment4 ,the spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage1 upon which birds are placed4 ,stucco enrichments1 such as ornamental string courses and mouldings1 were frequently combined with the painted ornament2 they consist of small details1 such as the water-leaf1 the egg and dart1 and the anthemion1 and are repeated in a regular series4 ,illustration3 ,,byzantine ,,ornament4 ,plate #aa4 ,,byzantine4 ,when the ,emperor ,constantine1 removed the seat of ,government from ,rome to ,byzantium1 in the year ,a4,d4 #ccj1 he inaugurated a new era in art1 viz43 the ,byzantine4 ,the traditional ,greek and ,roman arts were now assimilated with the arts of ,persia and ,syria1 but moulded and influenced by the new religion1 giving the strong personal vitality1 deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the ,byzantine period4 ,illustration ,the change of style did not take place immediately1 for most of the buildings erected by ,constantine were in the traditional ,roman style1 but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of ,s4 ,sophia by ,anthemius of ,tralles1 and ,isidorus of ,miletus1 during the reign of ,justinian1 ,a4,d4 #ech4 ,this building is remarkable for its splendid dome1 supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan1 its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours1 and the great inventiveness and symbolism of the detail4 ,the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the ,greeks was united with the emblems of ,christianity such as the circle1 the cross1 the vine1 and the dove2 the peacock also is frequently seen4 ,figure sculpture was rarely used1 but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnificent ,byzantine buildings4 ,the churches of ,ravenna in ,italy1 have somewhat similar characteristics2 ,s4 ,vitale1 the basilica churches of ,s4 ,apollinare ,nuovo1 ,a4,d4 #dic-ebe1 ,s4 ,apollinare in ,classe1 ,a4,d4 #ech-dd1 together with the ,baptisteries are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the #fth and #gth centuries4 ,in the cathedrals of ,torcello1 ,a4,d4 #fgj1 and ,murano and the beautiful ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion4 ,the two sketch plans here given are typical of ,byzantine planning in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features4 ,this symbolism is a marked feature in ,byzantine ornament2 interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine1 and are cut with a peculiar ,v-shaped section4 ,the circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves1 and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period4 ,illustration3 ,,scandinavian ,,ornament4 ,plate #ab4 ,,scandinavian ,,ornament4 ,the beautiful bronze and silver jewellery1 and implements of war of the early ,viking period1 found in ,norway1 ,sweden and ,denmark1 display no trace of plant forms in their ornamentation1 the latter consisting wholly of interlacing animal forms1 chiefly the dragon4 ,the viking ship found at ,sandifiord in #ahhj1 although destitute of ornament1 shows traces of the 8,bronze ,dragon ,prow10 referred to in the early ,scandinavian ,sagas4 ,at the commencement of the #abth century1 plant forms are found mingled with the dragons1 and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of the gods2 ,frey1 ,woden1 ,thor and ,fyr1 of the pagan period1 being influenced by the newer cult in religion4 ,this is shown by the ,sigurd ,overlap4 ,hreimar had three sons1 ,otter1 ,fafni and ,regan4 ,otter was killed one day by ,loki1 one of the three ,scandinavian gods--,loki1 ,hni and ,woden--these being seized by ,hreimar1 who would only release them when the skin of ,otter should be covered with gold4 ,thereupon ,loki seized the dwarf ,andwan1 who was made to give up his treasure of gold1 and a ring of magical properties1 carrying with it a curse1 that the treasure should be the death of those who held it4 ,loki then returned and covered the skin of ,otter with the gold 7fig4 #c71 after which the gods were set at liberty4 ,then ,hreimar was slain by his sons for the treasure4 ,fafni1 after seizing the latter1 took the form of a dragon1 and lay guarding the plunder at ,gnita ,heath4 ,regan1 his brother1 in order to obtain the treasure1 prompted ,sigurd1 his foster son1 to slay the dragon4 ,sigurd1 in testing his sword1 broke it in twain1 thereupon ,regan made him a magic sword1 with which he lay in the trail of the dragon1 and pierced it through 7figs4 #a-d74 ,then ,regan took out the heart of the dragon1 which ,sigurd cut into slices and toasted while ,regan slept4 ,sigurd1 burning his fingers1 places them in his mouth1 and tasted the blood of ,fafni1 the dragon 7fig4 #a71 and1 lo6 he heard the voice of birds saying that ,regan was plotting to kill him4 ,then ,sigurd killed ,regan1 eat the heart of ,fafni1 placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse ,grani1 and departed1 only to be slain for the gold by ,gunnar1 who for this crime was cast into the pit of serpents 7fig4 #a74;,a ,this myth explains much of the ,scandinavian ornament1 for in figs4 #a and #b the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation4 ,halton ,cross1 in ,lancashire1 and a slab at ,kirk ,andreas1 ,isle of ,man1 illustrate the same subjects1 dating from the #aath century4 ,in later times the dragon becomes more pronounced in character1 until in the #adth century it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament 7fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,,celtic ,,ornament4 ,plate #ac4 ,,celtic ,,ornament4 ,no period in the history of ,art is more remarkable than the ,celtic4 ,the carved stone architecture and crosses1 the bronzes1 enamels and silversmith's work1 the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and borders1 full of imagery and intricacy of detail1 and the clear and accurate writing of the text1 are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early ,irish people4 ,the incised ornament upon the stone tumuli of the #crd and #dth centuries ,b4,c4 show simple forms such as chequers1 chevrons1 circles and spirals which are used by almost all primitive people1 yet even at this early stage the ,celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms4 ,the bronze shield 7fig4 #f71 with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern 8,fylfot0 is a typical example of the #bnd or #crd century1 ,a4,d4 ,then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral1 which1 seen in its infancy on the bronze shield1 reached a great degree of elaboration in the #hth and #ith centuries 7figs4 #b to #g71 being typical of ,celtic work up to the middle of the #aath century when all trace of this spiral is lost4 ,the interlacing bird and animal forms used from the #hth to the #adth centuries are doubtless derived from ,byzantine and ,lombardic sources4 ,the serpent or dragon1 which is such a marked feature from the #gth to the #aeth century must have been borrowed from the north1 as ,ireland had no traditions of dragons1 and it is to ,scandinavia1 with its legend of ,fafni1 that we must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment4 ,it is this ,zormorpic character that distinguishes the ,celtic from all other styles of ornament except ,scandinavian4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the illustrations given here from the ,lismore crosier are typical examples of this ,celtic dracontine treatment4 ,the early or ,pagan period is noted for its bronze work1 cast and wrought1 and enriched with ,champlev enamels4 ,the fine chalice of ,ardagh 7plate #cd7 and the ,tara ,brooch 7#gth century7 are splendid examples of the ,christian period dating from ,st4 ,patrick1 ,a4,d4 #ddj-dfj4 ,the beautiful ,book of ,kells1 ,a4,d4 #fej-fij1 the ,book of ,armagh1 ,a4,d4 #hjg1 the ,book of ,durrow1 ,a4,d4 #gej 7,trinity ,college1 ,dublin71 and the ,book of ,durham1 ,a4,d4 #fhi-gba1 written by ,eadfrith and illuminated by ,ethelwald1 are a tribute to the vitality1 assimilation of ideas1 and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of the early ,irish people4 ,,norman ,,and ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,english ,gothic ,architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles1 the following being the most generally accepted4 ,by ,,sharpe4,b ,a4,d4 ,romanesque ,saxon #ajff4 ,norman #ajff-aade4 ,transitional #aade-aaij4 ,gothic ,lancet #aaij-abde4 ,curvilinear #abde-acfj4 ,rectilinear #acfj-aeej4 ,by ,,rickman4,c ,a4,d4 ,norman #ajff-aahi4 ,early ,english #aahi-acjg4 ,decorated #acjg-acgi4 ,perpendicular #acgi-adhc4 ,tudor #adhc-aedf4 ,french ,classification by ,,de ,,caumont4 ,primordiale #eth to #ajth century4 ,romanesque ,secondaire #ajth to #abth 8 ,tertiaire #abth 8 ,primitive #acth century4 ,pointed ,secondaire or ,rayonnant #adth 8 ,tertiaire or ,flamboyant #aeth 8 ,most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded ,a4,d4 #ajff-aagj by ,norman bishops1 some upon the old ,saxon foundations1 such as ,canterbury and ,york1 or near the original ,saxon buildings as at ,winchester1 or upon new sites such as ,norwich and ,peterborough1 and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period1 portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals1 showing the fusion of ,roman and ,byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the ,celtic1 ,saxon1 and ,scandinavian peoples4 ,the plan1 given on next page1 of ,lincoln ,cathedral shows no trace of the apsidial arrangement so universal in ,norman and ,french cathedrals1 and is therefore considered a typical ,english cathedral4 ,each vertical division in the nave1 the choir1 and transept is termed a bay4 ,on plate #ad is an illustration of four typical bays of ,english cathedrals1 showing the development of style from the #abth to the #aeth century4 ,the general characteristic of each bay is given separately1 but obviously it can only be approximate1 as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considerations1 each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor1 thus forming a transitional style4 ,for instance1 in the choir of ,ripon ,cathedral1 the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular ,norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches4 ,in the ,triforium and ,clerestory arcading1 round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch4 ,the ,,piers 7sometimes termed columns7 of these bays have distinctive features which are characteristic of each period of the ,gothic development4 ,sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took place in the shape of the pier from #ajff to #aejj4 ,the same general characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses4 ,illustration ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,norman ,,period4 ,,nave ,,arcading4 ,the universal use of the round arch1 cylindrical or rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face4 ,capitals cubical and cushion shaped4 ,arch mouldings enriched with concentric rows of ,chevron and ,billet ornament4 ,illustration ,,triforium4 ,in early work1 of one arch4 ,in later work1 two or four small arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch4 ,,clearstory4 ,one window with an open arcading in front1 of three arches1 the centre one larger and often stilted4 ,this arcade forms a narrow gallery in the thickness of the ,clearstory wall4 ,the roof of the nave1 of wood1 flat and panelled1 roof of the aisles1 semi-circular quadra partite vaulting4 ,an arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall1 under the aisle windows4 ,early windows are narrow1 flush with the external wall1 and deeply splayed on the inside4 ,later windows are recessed externally1 with jamb shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch4 ,a few semi-circular rose windows still remain1 of which a fine example is to be found in ,barfrestone ,church1 ,kent4 ,,early ,,english ,,or ,,lancet ,,period4 ,the ,lancet or pointed arch universal4 ,,capitals1 of three lobed foliage and circular abacus4 ,the pier arch mouldings1 alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog's tooth ornament4 ,a hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings4 ,this moulded hood when used externally is termed a 8,dripstone10 and when used horizonally over a square headed window a 8,label40 ,the ,,triforium has a single or double arch1 which covers the smaller or subordinate arches1 the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil4 ,the ,triforium piers are solid1 having delicate shafts attached to them1 carrying arch mouldings of three orders1 and enriched with the ,dog's tooth ornament or trefoil foliage4 ,the ,,clearstory lancet windows are in triplets1 with an arcading on the inner face of the wall4 ,the vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor1 but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals1 and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital1 from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite in form4 ,early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and at the east end1 usually in triplets1 with grisaille stained glass similar to the example given on the next page from ,salisbury ,cathedral4 ,the annexed example from the east end of ,rievaulx ,abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrangement4 ,illustration ,figure sculpture1 beautiful and refined in treatment1 was frequently used upon external walls4 ,the figures of ,saints and ,bishops were placed singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches1 of which there are fine examples at ,wells1 ,lichfield1 ,exeter1 and ,salisbury 7fig4 #e1 plate #ad74 ,splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of ,lincoln ,cathedral1 also at ,york1 but they are comparatively rare in ,england1 while ,france possesses over #ajj of the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical adornment4 ,they are to be seen in the ,cathedrals of ,notre ,dame1 ,rouen1 ,chartres1 and ,rheims4 ,illustration ,,decorated ,,or ,,geometric ,,period4 ,in this1 the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak1 maple1 or mallow4 ,the pier arches have mouldings of three orders1 also enriched1 usually with the characteristic ball flower1 or foliage similar to that upon the capitals4 ,the ,,triforium consists of double arches1 with subordinate cusped arches1 adorned with ,geometric tracery4 ,the inner arcading of the ,clearstory is absent1 the one large window being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery1 or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery 7fig4 #c1 plate #ad74 ,above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts1 terminating with a richly carved capital under the ,clearstory string4 ,the aisle arcading1 as a rule1 is very beautiful1 having geometric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings1 the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery4 ,the circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period4 ,,perpendicular ,,and ,,tudor4 ,the ,,piers of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch1 where capitals are introduced1 they frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch1 or occasionally they are octagonal in form1 and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine4 ,in some instances1 the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement4 ,the latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular screens1 or for relieving the clearstory strings4 ,the ,,triforium is absent in this period1 the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only4 ,the ,,clearstory1 owing to the suppression of the ,triforium becomes of more importance4 ,the windows are large and often in pairs1 with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head4 ,the aisle windows are similar1 and when lofty have horizontal transoms1 on which the battlement ornament is displayed4 ,the aisle arcading being also suppressed1 all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery4 ,enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls1 parapets1 buttresses1 and arches1 also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways4 ,this1 together with the use of the four-centred arch1 forms the characteristic features of the ,perpendicular or ,tudor period4 ,english cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contemporary ,french buildings4 ,the ,english nave and choir is less in height and width but greater in length than ,french cathedrals4 ,for instance1 ,westminster is the highest of our ,english cathedrals1 with its nave and choir #ajc ft4 from floor to roof1 #cj ft4 wide1 and #eje feet in length4 ,york is next with #aja ft4 from floor to roof1 #de ft4 wide1 and #dhf ft4 in length4 ,salisbury is #hd ft4 from floor to roof1 #cb ft4 wide1 and #dej ft4 in length1 and ,canterbury #hj ft4 from floor to roof1 #ci ft4 wide1 and #ead ft4 in length4 ,lincoln with #hb ft4 and ,peterborough with #ha ft4 are the only other examples reaching #hj ft4 in height2 ,york with #de ft4 being the only one reaching above #dj ft4 in width of nave4 ,the measurements of contemporary ,french cathedrals on the other hand1 being as follows3--,chartres1 #ajf ft4 from floor to roof1 #df ft4 wide1 and #dae ft4 in length2 ,notre ,dame1 #aab ft4 from floor to roof1 #df ft4 wide1 and #daj ft4 in length2 ,rheims1 #abc ft4 from floor to roof1 #da ft4 wide1 and #dhe ft4 in length1 while that at ,beauvais reaches the great height of #aec ft4 in the nave1 #de ft4 in width1 and only #bfc ft4 in length4 ,the remarkable growth of the ,gothic style during the #acth and #adth centuries was contemporary in ,england1 ,france1 ,flanders1 ,germany1 and in a less degree in ,italy4 ,one of the most beautiful churches in ,italy1 is1 ,s4 ,maria della ,spina1 at ,pisa1 with its rich crocketed spires and canopies1 features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous ,scaligers at ,verona4 ,at ,venice1 the ,gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils4 ,it was in ,france and ,england where ,gothic architecture reached its culmination2 the abbeys and cathedrals1 with pinnacles1 spires1 and towers1 enriched with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture2 the arcadings and canopies with crockets1 finials1 and cusps1 vibrating with interest and details1 and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass1 are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages4 ,on the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that took place in the evolution of church architecture from the #abth to the #aeth century4 ,the triforium in the ,norman period was fundamental1 but in the ,perpendicular period this feature was absent4 ,the change of style may also be observed in the windows of each bay1 from the simple ,norman one 7fig4 #a7 to the vertical mullioned #aeth century window1 figs4 #d and #h4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,triforium ,,clearstory4 ,plate #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,norman ,,details4 ,plate #ae4 ,,norman ,,details4 ,norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch1 superseded by the pointed arch of the early ,gothic period4 ,these semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings1 cut or worked with the axe4 ,later ,norman work is very rich1 the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the ,chevron1 the ,cable ,pallet1 ,star1 ,fret or ,key ,patterns2 the lozenge and the beading or pearling4 ,characteristic features of this period also are the beak-head 7fig4 #e7 and the corbel-table1 which was a series of heads of men or animals1 from which spring small arches supporting the parapet4 ,many rich examples of ,norman surface ornament are still extant2 at ,christchurch1 ,hants1 a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs1 the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern2 at ,st4 ,peter's1 ,northampton1 a very rich example of surface ornamentation may be seen 7fig #f74 ,floral forms are but rarely used in ,norman ornament2 instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple1 but they are the exception and not the rule4 ,early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular arch mouldings1 decorated with the ,chevron1 ,key1 or ,beak-head4 ,the semi-circular ,tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief4 ,later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings1 which are often carried down the jamb mouldings4 ,the recessed columns are also enriched with the ,chevron1 or diagonal lines of pearling 7fig4 #a71 and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute4 ,fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of ,lincoln ,cathedral 7fig4 #a71 the ,galilee porch at ,durham1 and the west door of ,iffley ,church1 ,oxfordshire4 ,the ,norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped1 with a square abacus1 enriched with the ,chevron1 star pattern1 or the anthemion 7fig4 #i74 ,the capital itself was decorated with the anthemion1 or with rude volutes or segments of circles4 ,the architecture of this period in ,france1 differing from contemporary work in ,england1 shows a strong ,roman influence1 hence its name--,romanesque4 ,st4 ,trophine at ,arles is a fine example of this style1 beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail4 ,the west front of ,angouleme ,cathedral1 with its profusion of semi-circular arcading1 displays more affinity to contemporary work in ,england4 ,in the two ,french capitals 7figs4 #i and #aj7 a characteristic treatment of animals and birds may be seen1 showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art of that period4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,gothic ,,details4 ,plate #af4 ,,early ,,gothic ,,details4 ,the ,,norman style was succeeded by the pointed1 or ,,gothic style1 remarkable for its variety1 its beauty of proportion1 and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament4 ,showing no traditions1 beyond ,sicilian and ,arabian influence1 it grew rapidly1 and reached a high degree of perfection in ,france and ,england4 ,the massive and barbaric character of the ,norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early ,english ,gothic1 with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus1 and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts1 thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus4 ,this tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early ,gothic1 and differentiates it from the ,decorated and ,perpendicular ,period4 ,the diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of ,english ,gothic ornament4 ,illustration3 ,a ,illustration3 ,b ,illustration3 ,c ,a4 ,early ,gothic1 three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines4 ,b4 ,decorated ,gothic1 with natural types of foliage1 such as the oak and maple1 with a flowing indulating line4 ,c4 ,perpendicular ,gothic1 showing the vine and leaves as elements1 and arranged in a square and angular manner4 ,the same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,the beautiful carved spandril from the stone church1 ,kent 7fig4 #a71 is remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve1 its recurring forms of ornamentation1 and admirable spacing1 typical of much of our early ,english foliage4 ,the type of foliage in early ,english stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work1 but showing more of the ,illustration3 ,,decorated ,,and ,,perpendicular ,,gothic ,,details4 ,plate #ag4 profile of the leaf1 and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage4 ,early ,french work 7figs4 #g and #h71 with its square abacus1 differs from the early ,english1 in having less of the spiral arrangement1 and a rounder type of leaf1 together with the absence of the mid rib1 which is so characteristic of contemporary early ,english ,gothic4 ,the plain moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in ,france4 ,illustration ,,decorated ,,perpendicular ,,gothic ,,details4 ,decorated ,gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery1 its natural types of foliage1 and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details4 ,the foliage of the oak1 the vine1 the maple1 the rose1 and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion1 being carved with great delicacy and accuracy4 ,lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of the early ,gothic foliage1 it surpassed it in brilliancy and inventiveness of detail4 ,the ,capitals1 enriched with adaptations from nature1 carved with admirable precision1 were simply attached round the bell1 giving variety and charm of modelling1 but lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early work4 ,diaper work1 crockets and finials1 introduced in the early ,english1 were now treated with exceeding richness1 and used in great profusion4 ,the ball flower so characteristic of the ,decorated period replaced the equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style4 ,french ,contemporary ,work has similar characteristics1 but displays more reserve and affinity for architectural forms4 ,this brilliant ,decorated period reached its culminating point within half a century and then rapidly gave place to the ,perpendicular ,style1 with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface panelling1 and the prevalent use of the four centred arch--of octagonal capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine1--of heraldic shields and arms1 and of the four-leaved flower2 all typical of the period4 ,illustration3 ,,renascence ,,ornament4 ,plate #ah4 ,,renascence ,,ornament4 ,the arts of ,rome and ,byzantium lingered in ,italy until the #abth century1 losing their vitality and vigour1 except at ,venice1 where the ,byzantine style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at ,murano and of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,lombardy1 in the north1 had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the ,longobards and the symbolisms of the old ,byzantine1 thus producing the architecture known as ,lombardic1 with its multiplicity of small columns and arches1 quaint imagery of sculpture1 and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns4 ,these are features of the early art at ,lucca1 and at ,bergamo1 ,padua1 ,verona1 and other towns in ,lombardy2 a beautiful illustration from ,lucca is given in the appendix to ,ruskin's 8,stones of ,venice10 ,vol4 #a4 ,contemporary with this period came the ,gothic influence with its clustered columns1 pointed arches1 its cusps and crockets1 and its strong vitality1 impressing the arts and architecture with this ,gothic personality2 hence1 during the #abth and #acth centuries in ,italy1 this intermingling of styles1 traditions1 religious beliefs and myths1 produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character1 the imagery full of suggestiveness1 and the detail rich and varied in conception4 ,yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the ,renascence1 a style where symmetry was to play an important part1 as in classic art1 where refinement of line and detail1 of culture and craftsmanship1 are found2 and which1 though beautiful in proportion1 unity of parts1 and perfect adaptability1 yet lacked that symbolism1 suggestiveness1 inventiveness1 and rugged personality of the early ,byzantine1 ,lombardic and ,gothic styles4 ,,italian ,renascence is broadly divided into three periods4 ,tre-cento1 ,a4,d4 #acjj to #adjj2 ,quattro-cento1 ,a4,d4 #adjj to #aejj2 and ,cinque-cento1 ,a4,d4 #aejj to #afjj4 ,in the ,tre-cento style this intermingling of the classic details with the ,lombardic and ,gothic constructions produced such remarkable buildings as ,s4 ,maria della ,spina1 and the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa1 by ,giovanni ,pisano #abdj-acbj2 the ,palazzo ,vecchio1 the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 and the ,cathedral of ,florence1 by ,arnolfo di ,cambio 7#abcb-acaj71 with its alternate courses of black and white marble1 and its ,gothic arches and tracery2 the beautiful ,campanile by ,giotto 7#abgf-accf7 is a noble accessory to ,arnolfo's ,cathedral4 ,a charming illustration of this ,tre-cento period1 from ,giotto's ,campanile1 is the frontispiece to ,ruskin's 8,seven ,lamps of ,architecture40 ,the sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity of conception1 and a mingling of ,gothic and classical traditions4 ,perhaps the earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the ,baptistery at ,pisa1 a similar one in the ,cathedral at ,siena1 and the fountain at ,perugia1 all by ,nicolo ,pisano 7#abjf-gf74 ,he was assisted in much of his work by his son ,giovanni1 who also executed the pulpit in the ,cathedral at ,pisa4 ,andrea ,pisano 7#abgc-acdd71 a pupil of ,giovanni executed a beautiful bronze gate or door1 cast in #accb1 for the ,baptistery at ,florence4 ,a fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of ,st4 ,peter the ,martyr1 in the ,church of ,st4 ,eustorgio at ,milan1 by ,balducco di ,pisa1 #acjh-dg4 ,the ,,quattro-,,cento period1 of which ,lorenzo ,ghiberti 7#acha-adfe71 was the great master1 is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism4 ,ghiberti's chief works are the two bronze gates for the ,florentine ,baptistery2 the first gate is dated #adjc-bd1 and the second #adbe-ej4 ,both have panels modelled in low relief1 the first with incidents from the ,new1 and the second from the ,old ,testament4 ,the frame-work of these gates has a series of single figures in niches1 with circular medallions between them4 ,the bronze architrave round each of the ,ghiberti gates1 in addition to the one he placed round the earlier gate1 by ,andrea ,pisano1 are rich examples of ,quattro-cento design4 ,the details are natural fruits1 flowers1 and foliage1 banded-together with ribbons1 with the introduction of birds1 squirrels1 c4 ,the egg-plant and pomegranate portion 7fig4 #a7 is a familiar example4 ,illustration ,other masters of this period were ,jacopo della ,quercia 7#acga-adch7 who executed the beautiful monument here shown1 to ,ilaria di ,carretto1 in the cathedral at ,lucca4 ,the recumbent figure of ,ilaria is sculptured in white marble with perfect simplicity and beauty2 another famous work of ,jacopo was the fountain at ,siena4 ,luca della ,robbia 7#adjj-hb7 executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble for the ,cathedral at ,florence1 with admirable singing and dancing figures in relief4 ,but beautiful as this work is1 ,luca's reputation rests upon his ,enamelled ,terra ,cotta1 which he perfected to a remarkable degree4 ,modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel 7see ,maiolica71 he produced a marvellous series of these reliefs1 which were invariably surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of modelled fruit and flowers1 enamelled in bright colours4 ,his nephew1 ,andrea della ,robbia 7#adde-aebe7 continued the traditions1 methods1 and skill1 with marked success2 and also ,andrea's son ,giovanni 7#aebd7 who executed a beautiful frieze upon the faade of the hospital at ,pistoja4 ,andrea's other sons1 ,girolamo and ,luca carried the art into ,france under ,francis ,i4 7#aeca47 ,donatello 7#achf-adff7 was remarkable for the singular grace and sincerity of his portraiture1 especially of children2 the dancing figures in relief on the panels of the singing gallery of the ,cathedral of ,florence1 are perfect examples of his art4 ,donatello also carried the art of low flat relief called 8,stiacciato0 to the greatest perfection4 ,an illustration of ,donatello's work1 from the high altar of ,st4 ,antonio at ,padua1 is here given4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the art of the medallist1 which had declined since the ,roman period1 now took its position among the arts of the quattro-cento period1 under ,vittore ,pisano1 called ,pisanello 7#achj-adea74 ,the vigour of his modelling1 and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary ,princes of ,italy1 are exceedingly fine4 ,among other remarkable medallists were ,sperandio of ,verona 7#adbc-ij72 ,caradosso1 of ,milan 7#adhj-aede72 ,vincentine1 of ,vicenza 7#adfh-aedf72 ,benvenuto ,cellini1 of ,florence 7#aejj-ga72 ,lione ,leoni 7#adih-aefj72 ,pompeoni ,leoni 7#aecj-afaj72 and ,pastorino1 of ,siena 7#aeaj-ia74 ,the great dome of ,arnolfo's ,cathedral at ,florence was designed by ,brunelleschi 7#acgg-addf71 who was a competitor with ,ghiberti for the bronze gates of the ,baptistery at ,florence4 ,other names of this period were ,desiderio da ,settignano 7#adbh-fd17 his masterpiece being the tomb of ,carlo ,marzuppini1 in the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 ,florence2 ,mino da ,fiesole 7#adcj-hd72 ,andrea ,verrocchio 7#adce-hh72 the author of the fine equestrian statue of ,bartolommeo ,colleone at ,venice 7see ,bronzes72 ,matteo ,civitali 7#adce-aeja72 and the ,rossellini1 a remarkable family of five brothers1 of which the most famous was ,antonio ,rossellini 7#adbg-gi71 who executed a charming tomb to ,cardinal ,jacopo di ,portogallo in the ,church of the ,nunziata1 ,florence4 ,the ,,cinque-,,cento period was the culmination of the ,renascence1 when architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and the decorative arts1 were under the magnificent patronage of the ,popes and ,princes of ,italy4 ,palaces1 churches1 and public buildings were completed and embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations2 hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the ,venetian1 ,florentine1 and ,genoese looms2 decorated with altar paintings and mural decorations1 by the most renowned of painters2 and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and silversmiths' art1 and the loveliest of intarsia or inlaid woodwork4 ,illustration ,illustration ,michel ,angelo ,buonarroti 7#adgd-afec71 by his great intellect and power1 stands above his many contemporaries4 ,the colossal figure of ,david1 and the ,madonna and ,child at ,bruges1 are familiar examples of this great artist's work4 ,the magnificent tombs of ,lorenzo and ,giuliano de ,medici at ,florence1 show his noble power and conceptions of art4 ,the splendid decorative work on the ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel in the ,vatican is another example where unity of conception and marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree4 ,two illustrations of this ceiling are given--one of the panels1 with the expulsion from ,eden1 and one of the ,sibyls or ,prophets1 both showing beautiful harmony of incident and composition4 ,illustration ,contemporary with ,michel ,angelo was ,raphael 7#adhc-aebj71 who displayed the highest capacity for grace and refinement in painting4 ,his principal mural paintings are in the stanze of the ,vatican1 where four rooms are painted in fresco1 almost entirely by ,raphael4 ,the ,loggia of the ,vatican1 by ,bramante1 was also decorated by ,raphael and his pupils4 ,the then-recent discoveries of the ,baths of ,titus and ,house of ,livia1 with their ,roman mural painting1 influenced in a remarkable degree the decorative painting of the ,cinque-,cento period4 ,these arabesques 7or1 as they were termed1 ,grotteschi1 being found in the supposed caves or grottos of ,roman gardens71 were utilised by ,raphael in the decoration of the pilasters1 piers1 and walls of this ,loggia4 ,the designs were painted with a fine range of colour upon white ground1 and enclosed within borders of modelled stucco ornaments4 ,in the panels upon the ceiling1 ,raphael painted a series of #eb incidents of the ,bible4 ,these are spoken of as 8,raphael's ,bible40 ,illustration ,raphael was assisted in this work of the ,loggia by many contemporary artists3 ,giovanni da ,udine 7#adid-aefd71 ,giulio ,romano 7#adib-aedf71 ,francesco ,penni 7#adhh-aebh71 ,perino del ,vaga 7#aejj-dg71 and ,primaticcio 7#adij-aehj71 who completed much of the work after ,raphael's death4 ,these artists carried his traditions and methods to other parts of ,italy4 ,giulio ,romano executed some fine mural decorations at the ,villa ,madama in ,rome2 and for ,federigo ,gonzaga1 ,duke of ,mantua1 he enriched with beautiful decorative paintings and arabesques1 the ,palazzo ,ducale and the ,palazzo del ,te4 ,these arabesques were upon richly coloured or parti-coloured grounds 7see plates #hf-i 8,grammar of ,ornament10 by ,owen ,jones74 ,illustration ,these arabesques of ,raphael's1 which were excelled by later ones of ,giulio ,romano1 show a great inventiveness and skilful combination of parts1 but they are not to be compared with the refined and beautiful modelling and harmonious composition of the contemporary carved work of ,andrea ,sansovino 7#adfj-aebh71 ,jacopo ,sansovino 7#adhf-aegj71 ,agostino ,busti1 ,pietro ,lombardo 7#aejj71 and his sons ,tullio and ,antonio4 ,these delicate reliefs have the traditional ,roman acanthus1 but treated with a fine feeling for relief modelling1 and beauty of line2 vases1 masks1 shields1 and similar accessories are found in profusion in some examples 7fig4 #c1 plate #ai74 ,the composition of the ,cinque-cento ornament is symmetrical1 the details being varied and most interesting in the best work1 and whilst lacking the vigour and symbolism of the ,lombardic and ,byzantine styles1 it excelled them in its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions1 with perfection of design and craftsmanship4 ,illustration ,andrea ,mantegna 7#adca-aeag7 executed nine paintings or cartoons in tempera upon linen1 representing the triumphs of ,julius ,csar1 which are a portion of the cartoons for a frieze #i feet high and #hj feet long1 painted for ,lodovico ,gonzaga's ,palace of ,st4 ,sebastian at ,mantua1 they were purchased by ,charles ,i41 and are now at ,hampton ,court4 ,an illustration of this frieze1 from an engraving upon copper in the ,british ,museum1 is given on page #ee2 they were also engraved on wood by ,andrea ,andreani in #aeii4 ,many beautiful examples of the ,cinque-,cento ornament may be found in contemporary printed and illuminated books4 ,the advent of printing in ,italy 7#adfe7 by the ,germans1 ,conrad ,sweynheym and ,arnold ,pannitz at the ,benedictine ,monastery of ,subiaco1 near ,rome1 gave a great impetus to ,literature1 and printing rapidly progressed in ,italy1 more especially at ,venice1 where in #adii ,aldus ,manutius produced the ,hypnerotomachia1 or dream of ,poliphilus ,illustration3 ,,renascence ,,ornament4 ,plate #ai4 with illustrations ascribed to ,mantegna4 ,good reproductions of many of these early illustrated books are given in the 8,italian ,book ,illustrations10 by ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard1 ,no4 #ab of the ,portfolio1 ,december1 #ahid2 and in 8,the ,decorative ,illustration of ,books10 by ,walter ,crane4 ,illustration ,the study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publication at ,rome in #adhf1 of the treatise by ,vitruvius1 an architect of the time of ,augustus2 an edition was also published at ,florence in #adif1 and at ,venice in #aeaa4 ,in #aegj1 ,fra ,giocondo1 at ,venice1 published 8,the ,five ,books of ,architecture10 by ,andrea ,palladio 7#aeah-hj74 ,another treatise upon architecture1 by ,serlio 7#aejj-eb71 was also published at ,venice in #aecg and #aedj4 ,illustration ,beautiful types of the ,renascence decorative art were the ,venetian well-heads1 situated as they were in most of the public squares of ,venice1 and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces4 ,designed with details of the most varied and beautiful character by such artists as ,andrea ,sansovino1 ,pietro ,lombardo1 and his sons ,tullio and ,antonio1 the ,venetian well-head became a type of beauty1 diversified in its treatment1 but never losing its characteristics or its usefulness4 ,venetian well-heads display a great variety of form and decoration4 ,the earlier examples are square or circular1 with enrichments of ,byzantine character1 consisting largely of interlacing1 circular1 and angular lines1 enclosing quaint bird and animal forms4 ,in the later examples the ,renascence treatment is used with singular richness and appropriateness1 the grace1 delicacy and diversity of detail being a tribute to the vivacity and artistic feeling of the ,venetian ,republic4 ,these well-heads1 worked mostly in white marble and evincing good judgment in the quality of relief1 now show comparatively little injury after centuries of usefulness4 ,occasionally they were of bronze1 of which two fine examples are still in position in the court-yard of the ,doge's ,palace4 ,many of these well-heads are carefully treasured in our ,european ,museums1 teaching us that beauty of form1 and perfection and delicacy of ornament are quite compatible with usefulness1 when used by an artistic people4 ,illustration ,the ,renascence in ,italy was remarkable for the many magnificent secular buildings erected during the #aeth and #afth centuries in the chief cities in ,italy4 ,in ,,florence the palaces have a severe dignity of treatment1 with bold rusticated courses of stone-work1 circular-headed windows1 and finely-proportioned cornices4 ,the first ,renascence palace was the ,riccardi 7#adcj7 by ,michelozzi 7#acgj-addj72 and it was followed by the ,pitti 7#adce71 by ,brunelleschi 7#acgg-addd71 the ,rucellai 7#adfj71 by ,leon ,battista ,alberti 7#achi-adgb71 the ,strozzi 7#adhi71 by ,cronaca 7#aded-aeji71 the ,gondi 7#adij71 by ,giuliano ,sangallo 7#addc-aejg71 the ,guadagni and the ,nicolini1 by ,bramante 7#addd-aead71 the ,pandolfini 7#aebj71 by ,raphael 7#adhc-aebj71 and the ,bartolini 7#aebj71 by ,baccio d',agnolo 7#adfj-aedc74 ,in ,,rome the palaces were characterised by largeness of scale and the frequent use of ,ionic and ,corinthian pilasters or columns1 and square-headed windows with triangular or curved pediments4 ,the chief palaces in ,rome are the ,cancelleria 7#adie7 and the ,giraud 7#aejf7 by ,bramante 7#addd-aead71 the ,farnesina 7#aejf71 the ,massimi 7#aeaj71 and the ,villa ,ossoli 7#aebe71 by ,baldassare ,peruzzi 7#adha-aecf71 the ,palma and the ,farnese1 by ,antonio ,sangallo 7#adgf-aedf71 the ,borghese 7#aeij71 by ,martino ,lunghi1 the ,laterano1 by ,fontana 7#aedc-afaj71 and the ,barberini1 by ,carlo ,maderno 7#aeef-afbi71 ,borromini 7#aeii-affg71 and ,bernini 7#aeih-afhj74 ,in ,,venice the palaces were rich and varied2 with the frequent use of pilasters1 semi-columns and circular-headed mullioned windows suggested by the earlier ,gothic palaces4 ,the ,renascence period commenced here with the re-building of the court-yard of the ,doge's ,palace 7#adhf7 by ,antonio ,bregno1 and completed in #aeej by ,scarpagnino4 ,then came a beautiful series of buildings1 the chief being3--the ,vendramini1 the ,trevisani1 and the ,gradenigo ,palaces1 by ,sante ,lombardo 7#aejd-aefj72 the ,cornaro ,palace and the ,library of ,st4 ,mark's1 by ,sansovino 7#adgi-aegj71 and the ,grimani ,palace by ,san ,michele 7#adhd-aeei74 ,,french ,,renascence4 ,towards the close of the #aeth century1 the vigorous and beautiful ,gothic architecture of ,france1 with its rich traceried and mullioned windows1 its niches and canopies1 its crocketed spires and varied treatment of floral enrichment1 lost its vitality2 and was succeeded by the ,renascence style1 which at first was purely ,italian1 but afterwards1 with the intermingling of ,gothic traditions and craftsmanship1 became a distinct phase of the ,renascence4 ,illustration ,illustration ,french ,renascence may be broadly divided into distinctive periods3 #ast4 ,the earlier or transitional1 #adec-aeae1 when the influence of the ,renascence began to be felt4 #bnd4 #aeae-dg1 ,,fran,,ois ,,premier4 ,this period is remarkable for the number of ,italians engaged by ,francis ,i4 for the embellishment of the ,chteau ,fontainbleau1 the principal being ,rosso1 painter2 ,serlio and ,vignola1 architects2 ,primaticcio and ,penni1 ornamentists1 ,benvenuto ,cellini1 with his beautiful goldsmiths' art2 and ,girolamo della ,robbia1 who produced enamelled ,terra ,cotta4 ,the work of these renowned craftsmen necessarily had a marked influence upon the traditional ,french art4 ,of the architecture of this period1 there is the south-west angle of the ,louvre1 commenced in #aedh by ,pierre ,lescot 7#aeaj-gh71 and enriched with sculpture by ,jean ,goujon 7#aeae-gb71 who also executed the sculptures that embellished the beautiful ,chteau ,ecouen1 by ,jean ,bullant 7#aeae-fj71 and the beautiful fountain of the ,innocents at ,paris1 of which an illustration of one of the panels is here given4 ,the tomb of ,louis ,,xii41 at ,st4 ,denis1 by ,jean ,juste 7#aeah71 is remarkable for the purity of its enrichments4 #crd4 ,,henri ,,deux and ,,henri ,,quatre period1 #aedg-afaj1 when the building of the ,tuileries was commenced in #aefd by ,philibert de ,lorme 7#aejj-gh71 the building of the ,louvre being continued by ,de ,carreau and ,duperac2 the ,luxembourg being subsequently built by ,de ,brosse1 #afaj4 ,this period was also represented by the exquisite ,ceramics of ,oiron or ,henri ,deux ,ware1 and the fine geometrical interlacings and arabesques of the bookbindings of ,grolier4 ,illustration ,illustration #dth period1 #afaj-dc1 under ,,louis ,,treize1 when considerable skill was shown in the carved and painted shell and scroll ornament1 and in the bookbindings of ,le ,gascon4 ,illustration #eth4 ,,louis ,,quatorze period1 #afdc-agae1 of which the palace of ,versailles and the ,chteau ,maison1 by ,franois ,mansard 7#aeih-afff71 are typical examples of architecture4 ,the decorative compositions of le ,pautre 7see annexed illustrations71 and the richly-decorated furniture1 with marquetry in tortoise-shell and brass1 by ,andr ,boule 7#afdb-agcb72 the magnificent ,gobelins tapestry1 so liberally encouraged by the ,minister ,colbert 7#affg72 and the beautiful ,rouen pottery2 are characteristic of the industrial and decorative arts4 ,illustration #fth4 ,,louis ,,quinze period1 #agae-gd1 when the ,rococo style was paramount1 the vitality of the preceding periods being lost4 ,the pastoral scenes by the painter ,watteau 7#afhd-agba71 and the inlaid furniture of ,jean ,franois ,ochen 7#aged-fe71 for ,madame de ,pompadour1 are typical of this period4 #gth4 ,,louis ,,seize1 #aggd-hi4 ,the arts of this period are more refined and reserved in line1 as evinced in the fine marquetry furniture of ,riesener and ,david ,roentgen with the ormolu mountings by ,gouthire 7#agdj-ahaj71 for ,marie ,antoinette4 ,the last period1 ,,empire ,,style1 #ahjd-gj1 when purely classical forms and ,greek enrichments prevailed throughout the whole of the decorative arts4 ,,english ,,renascence4 ,the ,english ,renascence period began during the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and was contemporary with that of ,france under ,francis ,i4 ,it was ,torrigiano1 a contemporary of ,michel ,angelo1 who about #aeai brought this new ,renascence style into repute by erecting the tomb of ,henry ,,vii41 and that of the ,countess of ,richmond1 in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,illustration ,illustration ,english ,renascence was further developed by ,hans ,holbein 7#adih-aeed71 who came into this country in #aebf1 followed by craftsmen from ,flanders1 ,germany and ,italy4 ,this intermingling of ,flemish1 ,german and ,italian styles with the traditional ,gothic of our own country1 distinguishes ,english ,renascence from that of ,france and ,italy4 ,the marked prevalence of interlacing strap-work1 which is so characteristic of ,elizabethan and ,jacobean ornament1 had its origin in ,flemish sources4 ,illustration ,of ,english ,renascence architecture1 ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 7#aefe-gd71 by ,theodore ,hare1 of ,cleves1 and ,longleat ,house 7#aefg-gi71 by ,john ,thorp1 are the earliest examples extant4 ,the ,wonderful ,palace of ,nonsuch 7of which no trace remains7 was erected by ,henry ,,viii4 about #aecj-dj1 doubtless in the ,renascence style1 as we know that it was embellished with beautifully enriched stucco ornaments and figures by ,tolo del ,nunziato4 ,robert ,smithson built ,wollaton ,house in #aehj4 ,hardwicke ,hall and ,haddon ,hall are of the later ,elizabethan age 7#aeib-ig74 ,typical buildings of the ,jacobean period are ,holland ,house 7#afjg71 ,hatfield 7#afaa71 ,bolsover 7#afac71 ,audley ,end 7#afaf71 ,crewe ,hall and ,aston ,hall 7#afbj74 ,these are all enriched with many beautiful examples of modelled plaster work4 ,that at ,longleat and ,hardwicke being executed by ,charles ,williams1 and at ,audley ,end1 by ,bernard ,jansen 7#afae74 ,english stucco-work of this period often consisted of geometrical panelling similar in style to the ,tudor fan-tracery and the pendentives of the preceding century4 ,these richly-moulded pendentives were connected together by bands of pierced strap-work decorated with arabesques in low relief4 ,from #afae to #afej the panels were composed of purely geometrical forms1 such as circles1 squares1 lozenges and interlacing quatre-foils1 enriched with delicate arabesques1 the ribs or mouldings frequently having a repeating pattern impressed in the soft plaster4 ,the many fine friezes of this period were remarkable for their boldness of conception and their skilful craftsmanship2 frequently a double frieze was used1 the lower part consisting of delicate arabesques and interlacing strap-work1 while the upper part was of boldly modelled cartouche and delicate arabesques4 ,during the latter part of the #agth century1 owing to ,french influence1 the stucco enrichment usually consisted of acanthus foliage and festoons4 ,from ,charles ,i41 7#afbe71 to ,queen ,anne1 7#agjb71 the purely ,italian ,renascence prevailed2 the ,banqueting ,house at ,whitehall1 by ,inigo ,jones1 7#aegb-afeb71 being a fine example of this period4 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral 7#afge-agaj7 by ,sir ,christopher ,wren 7#afcb-agbc7 and his many beautiful churches in ,london1 mark a distinct epoch of ,english ,renascence2 the tradition being carried-on by ,vanbrugh 7#afff-agcf7 who built ,blenheim ,palace and ,castle ,howard4 ,other architects of this period were ,hawksmoor 7#afff-agbf71 ,kent 7#afhd-aged71 ,gibbs 7#afgd-aged71 ,chambers 7#agbf-if71 who built ,somerset ,house1 and ,robert ,adam 7#agbe-ib71 who carried on the traditional method of stucco enrichment1 but in a more rigid and formal classic manner4 ,his geometrical panelling of hexagons1 octagons1 and ovals1 was enriched with conventional renderings of the acanthus and olive leaf arranged in small units and repeated without variation over the whole of the surface4 ,these enrichments were cast in plaster or compo and were mechanical in treatment1 lacking the beautiful decorative quality of the modelled stucco of the early #agth century4 ,the ,wellington ,monument in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 by ,alfred ,stevens1 is distinguished from much of the modern work by its strong vitality and architectonic treatment of the composition1 and the beauty and singular grace of its detail4 ,illustration3 ,,mahometan ,,ornament4 ,plate #bj4 ,,mahometan ,,moresque4 ,of medival history as associated with the decorative arts1 the rise and development of the ,arabs is the most remarkable4 ,the wide appreciation and liberal patronage of the arts by the ,khalifs2 the influence of its religion and precepts upon contemporary and later periods of art2 the distinct individuality and geometrical arrangement of its ornamentation2 all had a most marked effect upon tradition and craftsmanship4 ,the history commences with ,mohammed1 ,a4,d4 #egj-fcb1 who founded and consolidated the empire1 of which1 under ,omar1 ,a4,d4 #fce1 ,damascus became the capital2 in ,a4,d4 #fch ,kufa and ,bassora were founded in ,persia4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fda ,egypt was conquered and the ,mahometan capital1 ,fustt1 founded4 ,persia was conquered in ,a4,d4 #fdb1 ,spain invaded in ,a4,d4 #gaa1 ,bagdad in ,persia became the capital of the ,arabian ,khalifs in ,a4,d4 #gfb1 and in ,a4,d4 #hbg ,sicily was conquered2 but it was not until the dynasty of ,ibu-,tln1 ,a4,d4 #hfh-iad1 that the history of ,cairene art begins1 of which the mosque of ,ibu-,tln in ,fustt1 or old ,cairo1 is the earliest example4 ,under the ,fatimy dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #hfg-aaga1 ,cairo was founded1 and the arts1 receiving further encouragement1 were now introduced into ,sicily and ,europe4 ,in ,a4,d4 #iig the ,mahometan invasion of ,india took place4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gif-ife the mosque of ,cordova was built1 and in ,a4,d4 #abcf the kingdom of ,granada was founded and the ,alhambra was built by ,mohammed ben ,alhamar1 ,a4,d4 #abdh1 and ,mahometan art1 as exemplified in the architectural decorations1 arms and armour1 woodwork1 ivory1 textile fabrics1 and illuminated books1 reached its culmination under the ,mamlk dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #abej-aeaf4 ,thus the ,arabs1 from a roving tribe1 became1 by religious zeal and conquests1 the most powerful and wealthiest nation of medival times1 assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different nations and provinces4 ,the term ,,mahometan ,,art includes ,,arabian1 ,,moresque1 ,,persian1 ,,indian1 and ,,sicilian1 all having the same characteristics yet distinguished by the racial influence and custom4 ,the ,arabian is marked by its flowing1 interlacing1 and symmetrical lines1 geometrical arrangement 7doubtless derived from ,byzantine sources71 and its prevalence of inscriptions or texts from the ,koran4 ,in ,spain a more complex geometrical arrangement is found1 intermingled with a flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely conventional type4 ,this style is noticeable for its entire absence of any natural forms and its abundant use of inscriptions1 and glazed and enamelled tiles1 distinctly influenced of ,persian tradition though purely geometric and formal4 ,these tiles cover the lower part of the wall1 the upper portion1 as also the ceiling being decorated with arabesques of modelled plaster in flat relief1 of two or more planes1 enriched with red1 blue1 white and gold2 this is typical of the ,moresque style4 ,the ,sicilian work is remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk and the prevalence in its ornament of birds1 animals1 and heraldic forms1 showing the continuity of the traditions of ,persia4 ,illustration3 ,,persian ,,ornament4 ,plate #ba4 ,,persian ,,ornament4 ,the early art of ,persia was similar to that of ,assyria and ,babylon1 having the same forms1 materials1 and traditions4 ,with the accession of the ,sassanides 7,a4,d4 #bbc7 came the introduction of the elliptical dome1 so typical of eastern architecture4 ,this dome rested on pendentives which occupied the angles of the square base4 ,these pendentives and the elliptical dome are distinctive features in ,mahometan architecture4 ,the industrial arts of ,persia were largely influenced by the traditional arts of ,assyria and ,chaldea2 this tradition was carried on with rare skill and selective power by the ,persians1 culminating in the splendid period of ,shah ,abbas ,a4,d4 #aehf to #afbe4 ,the vitality1 beauty1 and interest of detail1 combined with perfect decorative adaptation to material1 are characteristic of the textiles1 pottery1 metal work1 and illuminated manuscripts of the #aeth1 #afth1 and #agth centuries4 ,the ,mahometan conquest of ,persia1 ,a4,d4 #fcb to #fcg1 by ,abu ,bekr1 the successor of ,mohammed1 largely influenced the development of the arts of the ,persians1 who adopted the customs and habits of contemporary races1 yet preserved all the characteristics of their art2 and there is no doubt that the art of the ,arabs was founded upon the traditional arts of ,persia4 ,illustration ,persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and colour1 and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants1 such as the pink1 hyacinth1 tulip1 rose1 iris1 and the pine and date4 ,these are used with perfect sincerity and frankness1 and are essentially decorative in treatment1 combining harmony of composition of mass1 beauty of form1 and purity of colour4 ,it was doubtless owing to these qualities1 together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to material1 that the ,persian style so largely influenced contemporary work1 and especially the ,european textile fabrics of the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,the illustrations given are of some familiar types of ,persian adaptations of natural flowers1 doubtless chosen for their significance1 beauty of growth and form1 and appropriateness of decorative treatment4 ,purely ,arabian forms1 as given in plate #ba1 are frequently associated with the ,persian floral treatment1 showing the influence of the ,artists of ,damascus4 ,many fine examples of lustred wall tiles1 dating from the #ajth and #aath centuries1 are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 of which the blue1 brown1 and turquoise colouring is of a splendid quality4 ,they often have ,arabic inscriptions interspersed with the floral enrichments4 ,examples of wall tiles of the #hth century have been found in the ruins of ,rhages4 ,these lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or hereditary proclivity4 ,this art1 beginning with the enamelled bricks of ,babylon1 and the later frieze of ,susa1 page #af1 with its brilliant enamel and fine colour1 was continued by the ,persians1 and1 passing to the ,arabs1 the tradition was carried to ,cairo1 ,spain and ,majorca2 thence into ,italy1 where enamelled lustred ware was made1 differing from the original ,persian by its frequent absence of utility1 which was fundamental to the art of the ,persians4 ,mahometan ornament has four broad divisions1 viz43 ,arabian1 ,moresque1 ,indian1 and ,persian2 and they are characterised by strongly-marked compartments or fields which are filled with finer and more delicate enrichments4 ,these compartments are most pronounced in the ,moresque with its complex geometric interlacing and entire absence of natural forms 7figs4 #d1 #f1 #g1 and #h1 page #fb74 ,the ,arabian style is somewhat similar1 but less formal4 ,the ,indian has a conventional rendering of plants1 and the introduction of the lion1 tiger1 and the elephant 7fig4 #b1 plate #bc72 while in the ,persian work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement1 with floral forms clearly defined in line and mass1 and the introduction of the human figure with the horse1 the lion1 the tiger and birds4 ,note the illustration in ,textiles which is taken from a fine carpet in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,in this carpet1 animal forms1 chosen with rare selective power and judgment1 are combined with the typical floral enrichment of ,persia1 with the wealth of colour1 admirable spacing of detail and mass1 beauty of incident and vigour1 and appropriateness of treatment4 ,these are features that distinguish the industrial designs of ,persia1 and it is doubtless due to the interest and vitality of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of ,persian art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,persian ,,ornament4 ,plate #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,ornament4 ,plate #bc4 ,,indian ,,ornament4 ,the civilization of ,india dates from the remote past1 but the oldest remains of its art and architecture are connected with the ,buddhist religion1 introduced by the prophet ,sakya ,muni1 ,b4,c4 #fch4 ,this influenced the arts of ,india till ,a4,d4 #bej1 when the ,jaina style was adopted4 ,the examples of ,buddhist architecture consist of ,topes 7which were sacred or monumental temples1 either detached or rock-cut71 and monasteries4 ,the rock-cut temples usually consist of a nave and aisles1 and a semi-circular recess containing a statue of the seated ,buddha4 ,the hall has square or octagonal columns1 with bracket capitals 7fig4 #a74 ,the finest examples of these temples are those at ,ajanta1 which are richly-decorated in colour with incidents of ,hindoo mythology4 ,the fine temples at ,ellora1 which are cut entirely out from the rock1 are of the ,jaina period1 ,a4,d4 #bej4 ,the pagodas at ,chedombaram are of the ,brahmin period1 as is also the great hall of #a1jjj pillars1 which is #aijcdj feet1 containing the sacred image of the god ,siva4 ,alexander the ,great conquered ,india ,b4,c4 #cbg1 and doubtless left the influence of the ,persian tradition in ,india4 ,this influence was still further developed by the commercial intercourse of ,persia and ,india1 and by the ,arabian invasion of ,india in ,a4,d4 #gaa1 when a ,mahometan dynasty was established1 #gaa to #aaeb4 ,this largely controlled and influenced the arts under the ,mogul dynasty1 #aebe-ahcg1 when the decorative arts and the manufacture of the beautiful woven brocades and silks were fully developed4 ,the splendid carpets and rugs1 printed cottons1 metal work1 and fine enamels of this dynasty bear a remarkable tribute to the vitality1 originality of ideas1 and the practical utility of the industrial arts of ,india4 ,indian ornament has the typical ,mahometan division of spaces1 but is more flowing and graceful than the pure ,arabian style4 ,these divisions are filled with fine conventional floral forms1 as the lotus1 the date or hom1 the iris1 the rosette and the pine4 ,this pine is treated occasionally as a single flower1 but more frequently as a cluster of flowers1 which still retains the distinctive form of the pine 7figs4 #b1 #d and #f74 ,typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the elephant1 lion1 tiger1 peacock1 and the human figure1 as accessories in the decorative arts of ,india4 ,they were applied with rare knowledge and skill1 combined with an artistic perception of applied art1 showing a very strong affinity with contemporary ,persian ornament4 ,indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural forms1 than the frank treatment of ,persian ornament4 ,block printing upon silk and cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection during the last century4 ,the inventiveness and significance of detail2 the charm of composition of line and mass1 and the beautiful colour of these printed fabrics are a reflex of the decorative feeling for beauty by the people of ,india4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,and ,,japanese ,,ornament4 ,plate #bd4 ,,chinese ,,and ,,japanese ,,ornament4 ,the early bronzes1 enamels1 porcelain and textile fabrics of ,china are indicative of the perfection and luxuriance of the decorative arts of that ancient ,empire4 ,this perfection is shown by a ,splendid technic and a fine appreciation of colour and ornamentation1 differentiated from the western nations by myths1 traditions1 and the remarkable persistency of a few typical forms through many centuries1 doubtless owing to the profound ancestral worship and veneration for the past4 ,the ,dragon was represented under many aspects1 frequently forming vigorous lines of composition 7fig4 #c1 #d74 ,the beautiful flora of the country largely influenced ,chinese art4 ,the peony and chrysanthemum 7frequently highly conventionalized71 are typical examples1 forming the elements of decorative design4 ,geometric forms1 such as the hexagon1 octagon1 and the circle1 enriched with flowers or the fret1 are largely used4 ,the many splendid examples of bells1 gongs1 and incense-burners in bronze and iron3--the carvings in wood1 ivory1 and jade3--the beautiful woven silks and embroidered fabrics1 and the richness and purity of their porcelain1 all testify to the versatility and vitality of the ,chinese decorative arts in the past4 ,their architecture was usually of wood1 distinguished by complexity and quaintness of form rather than beauty of proportion and detail1 but their pagodas or temples were of brick encased with glazed tiles1 the most remarkable of these erections being the ,nankin ,pagoda of the ,ming dynasty 7,a4,d4 #adab-ca71 with its imperial yellow tiles4 ,the arts of ,japan1 though doubtless owing their origin to ,china1 are differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal treatment of landscape1 bird and animal life1 and the beautiful flora of the country--the 8kiki0 or chrysanthemum1 the 8botan0 or peony1 the 8kosai0 or iris1 the 8yuri0 or lily1 the 8kiri0 or paulawina imperialis 7somewhat resembling our horse chestnut71 the 8ume0 or plum1 the 8matsi0 or fir1 and the 8taki0 or bamboo1--likewise the peacock1 the crane1 the duck1 the pheasant and many smaller beautiful birds1 together with reptiles1 insects1 and fishes2 all are elements in the decorative arts1 being rendered with remarkable fidelity and delicacy of touch1 united with a fine feeling for composition of line4 ,it is this literal treatment of natural types1 the marvellous technic and especially the significance of the forms chosen that constitutes the charm of the earlier ,japanese art4 ,it is singular that the materials used by the ,japanese should be of little intrinsic value4 ,having no jewellery1 they use little of the precious metals2 iron1 bronze1 enamels1 wood and lac1 being the chief materials utilised in the decorative arts of ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,,ivories4 ,plate #be4 ,,ivory1 doubtless owing to its beautiful texture1 colour and adaptability for delicate carving1 has been in use from a remote period4 ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,india have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine craftsmanship1 indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries preceding the ,christian ,era4 ,of ,solomon we read in ,i ,kings1 #ah1 x3 8,moreover the king made a great throne of ivory and overlaid it with the best gold40 ,this traditional use of ivory was most probably derived from ,egypt1 the source of so many of the decorative arts4 ,in the ,periclean age of ,greece1 ivory was used for the figure of ,athene ,parthenos by ,pheidias1 placed inside the ,parthenon4 ,this statue of the standing goddess1 #dj feet high1 was of gold and ivory 7called chryselephantine sculpture71 the drapery being of beaten gold and the exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory4 ,a seated chryselephantine figure of ,jupiter1 about #eh feet high1 in the temple of ,olympia1 was also by ,pheidias4 ,pausanias the ,roman traveller enumerates some ten chryselephantine statues which he saw in his travels1 ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,the ,roman period is noted for the many beautiful ,consular diptychs1 which may now be seen in our national museums4 ,they consist of two ivory leaves usually #ab by #e inches1 the inside having a slightly sunk plane covered with wax for writing upon1 the outside being enriched with delicate carved reliefs 7figs4 #g1 #h1 and #i74 ,these diptychs were given by new consuls on their appointment1 to their friends and officers of the state4 ,the consul is usually represented seated on the cushioned curule chair1 or chair of state1 and his name is generally written across the top of one leaf4 ,the ,byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory1 of which an illustration is given in fig4 #f2 the ivory throne of ,maximian1 ,archbishop of ,ravenna1 ,a4,d4 #edf-eef1 is also of this period4 ,a beautiful treatment of ivory was used in the #acth and #adth centuries by the ,saracens of ,egypt2 they frequently worked a fine geometric inlay of ivory upon ebony2 in other examples ivory panels were pentagonal1 hexagonal1 or star-shaped1 and carved with delicate arabesques1 the framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony4 ,in ,india ivory carving reached a high degree of perfection1 especially in the many ivory combs1 with pierced and relief work representing the figure of ,buddha surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned elephants4 ,in the ,carlovingian period1 #hth to #ajth centuries1 ivory was largely used for coffers or small chests4 ,during the early ,gothic period in ,italy and ,france1 ivory crucifixes1 pastoral staffs1 croziers1 statuettes and triptychs were made in large numbers2 and the ivory combs and mirror cases of the ,renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary or allegorical subjects4 ,of pictorial ivories the modern ,japanese craftsmen show the highest technical skill1 combined with a keen perception of nature and movement1 yet their ivories lack the beauty and dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early and ,medival ivories4 ,illustration3 ,,mosaics4 ,plate #bf4 ,,mosaics4 ,the durability1 range of colour1 and appropriateness of material and treatment to architectural conditions1 has placed the art of ,mosaic as the chief decorative enrichment of architecture4 ,its antiquity is unquestionable1 for in the ,book of ,esther1 i1 #f1 we read 8of a pavement of red1 and blue1 and white1 and black marble40 ,mosaic is the art of forming patterns by means of pieces of variously-coloured materials1 fitted together1 and is broadly divided into three classes3 7#a7 ,,opus ,,tesselatum1 or clay mosaic2 7#b7 ,,opus ,,lithostratum1 or stone mosaic2 7#c7 ,,opus ,,miserum1 or glass mosaic4 ,these divisions are again sub-divided into3 7#a7 ,opus ,figlinum1 or ceramic mosaic1 formed of a vitreous composition and coloured with metallic oxides2 7#b7 ,opus ,signinum1 small pieces of tile2 7#c7 ,opus ,vermiculatum1 sub-divided into 7a7 ,majus1 black and white marble1 7b7 ,medium1 in which all materials and colours were used1 and 7c7 ,minus1 of minute tesser1 principally used for furniture inlay2 7#d7 ,opus ,sculpturatum1 slabs of marble hollowed out and filled in with grey or black marble2 7#e7 ,opus ,alexandrinum1 inlay of porphyry and serpentine2 and 7#f7 ,opus ,sectile1 formed of different lamin or slices of marble of various colours4 ,it was in ,rome that the art of ,mosaic was brought to its greatest perfection1 during the #ast and #bnd centuries1 ,a4,d41 and many splendid examples of this period are now in the museums of the ,vatican and at ,naples4 ,the finest example came from the ,house of the ,faun1 ,pompeii1 and represents the battle of ,issus1 between ,alexander and ,darius4 ,this mosaic1 of the #crd century ,b4,c41 is probably a copy of a ,greek painting4 ,many fine ,roman mosaics have been found in ,england at ,cirencester1 ,london1 ,lincoln 7fig4 #f71 ,leicester1 and at ,brading in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,the tradition was carried on in ,italy at ,ravenna and ,venice1 where the ,opus ,miserum reached its culmination4 ,of the ,ravenna mosaics1 those of the ,baptistery1 ,a4,d4 #dej1 and of ,s4 ,apollinare are typical examples of the earlier ,byzantine mosaics1 having dark green and gold back-grounds with tesser about #c_/h inch square4 ,the beautiful frieze of male and female saints in ,s4 ,apollinare extends along both sides of the nave1 and is #aj feet high4 ,the vaulting and domes of ,st4 ,mark are entirely covered with the characteristic #aath century ,byzantine gold ground mosaic1 formed by fusing two pieces of glass together with gold leaf between4 ,at ,santa ,sophia1 ,constantinople1 other fine mosaics exist of the #fth and #gth centuries4 ,in ,italy under the ,cosmati 7a family of mosaicists of the #acth and #adth centuries71 fine geometrical inlaid mosaics were used for the enrichment of marble tombs and altars2 some good examples of this style are in ,westminster ,abbey on the tomb of ,edward the ,confessor 7finished under ,henry ,,iii1 ,a4,d4 #abgj74 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,ceramics4 ,plate #bg4 ,,greek ,,ceramics4 ,it is difficult in the #aith century to realise the importance of vases in ancient life4 ,to the ,greeks a vase was a receptacle for food1 liquid1 or storage1 and for the adornment of the home4 ,it was used in the daily life of the living and buried with the dead4 ,most of the finer ,greek vases have been found in ,etruscan tombs1 but of ,greek workmanship1 imported from ,greece or ,grecian ,colonies4 ,some black unglazed ,etruscan vases have been found1 but painted vases of ,etruscan origin are rare4 ,early ,greek pottery1 dating probably from the #ajth century ,b4,c41 has been found in ,greece1 the ,colonies of ,rhodes1 ,cyrene in ,africa1 and ,naucratis in the delta of ,egypt--these1 showing an historic development1 are arranged in groups1 each with its distinctive characteristic3--7#ast7 ,primitive vases1 simple in shape1 handles small or absent1 decorations in simple line1 punctured or incised1 or in raised slip4 7#bnd7 ,,mycen or ,,colonial 7,b4,c4 #ijj-gjj7 vases1 often covered with a creamy slip2 the designs painted in brown and black1 being derived from geometric patterns with marine and animal forms4 7#crd7 ,,dipylon or ,,geometric 7,b4,c4 #gjj71 with fret pattern enrichment1 and panels with rude figures of men and animals in black and brown4 7#dth7 ,,phaleron ,,ware 7,b4,c4 #gjj-eej71 with continuous bands of animals1 probably derived from ,phnicia or ,assyria 7fig4 #d74 ,among the animals depicted1 are placed portions of the fret pattern1 a survival of the previous style4 ,the details are incised through the black or brown figure1 showing the colour of the clay body4 ,a development of this ,phaleron ,ware was the introduction of the rosette1 taking the place of the fret pattern1 between the figures or the animals4 7#eth7 ,,black ,,figure ,,period 7,b4,c4 #fjj-dhj71 vases1 fine in profile1 and with good handles1 the body of the vase1 in red ware1 being painted with subjects of ,grecian mythology in black1 and the details incised2 the faces1 arms1 and legs of the female figures afterwards painted in white or red slip1 and fired at a lower heat4 ,the ,,amphora 7fig4 #e7 was the chief form of this black figure period1 some fine examples are signed by ,exekias and ,amasis4 7#fth7 the ,transitional period 7,b4,c4 #ejj-dgj71 when the black silhouette figures on a red ground gave way to the ,,red ,,figure ,,period on a black ground4 ,artists of this style were ,epiktetos1 ,pamphios1 ,nicosthenes1 and ,pythos4 ,many of the vases by ,nicosthenes resemble contemporary metal work in their shape and handles4 ,the #gth group 7,b4,c4 #dgj-ccf71 also red figures on the black ground1 was the period when ,greek fictiles reached their highest perfection1 the chief form employed being the ,,kylix4 ,a fine series of these ,kylikes1 signed by ,cachrylion1 ,euphronios1 ,duris1 ,pethenos1 and ,hieron1 are in the ,british ,museum4 ,a vase produced specially for funeral purposes was the ,,athenian ,,lekythos1 the body of which was covered with white slip1 then painted in polychrome with subjects of singular appropriateness4 ,illustration3 ,,ceramics4 ,plate #bh4 ,,ceramic ,,art4 ,the antiquity of ,ceramic ,art and its scientific and artistic qualities1 render this subject one of considerable interest to art students4 ,the plasticity of clay and its hardening qualities under the influence of intense heat1 its adaptability to the most refined and appropriate forms1 its affinity for the beautiful glazes and enamels so often associated with pottery1 and its splendid traditions of craftsmanship1 of colour1 form and decorations1 so beautiful and varied in character1--all combine to invest the subject with a charm or fascination of its own4 ,intrinsically valueless in its natural state1 it is capable of being rendered almost priceless by scientific workmanship and artistic skill4 ,the history of this material1 and of its easy adaptation to the most refined and intricate1 as well as the simplest of forms1 affords invaluable lessons for present day artistic students4 ,pottery clay may be classified under three divisions or headings3 7#a7 ,,earthenware4 7#b7 ,,stoneware4 7#c7 ,,porcelain4 ,under the first are grouped the largest number of ,ceramic ,wares4 ,the pottery of ,egypt1 the faience of ,assyria and ,persia1 the ,greek and ,etruscan vases1 the famous red ware from the ,isle of ,samoa1 and its counterpart the ,roman ,samian ware1 the beautiful maiolica of ,spain and ,italy1 the pottery of ,rouen1 ,st4 ,porchaire1 ,delft1 and most of our ,english pottery are earthenwares2 the paste or body consists of natural clays selected for their plasticity1 their hardening qualities1 their fusibility or their colour1 and when burnt have a porous opaque body1 usually dull in colour4 ,this dulness was usually overcome by coating the ware with a slip of fine white clay1 which1 whilst not possessing inherent qualities to form pottery by itself1 would adhere to the coarser coloured body of the earthenware1 thereby forming a smooth white ground4 ,the early ,greek vases of ,nancrates1 the later ,lekythos of the ,greeks1 the faience of ,persia1 the ,mezza ,maiolica and the ,sgraffito of the early ,italian ,renascence1 and our ,english slip ware are examples of this method of giving a smooth white surface to coarse coloured earthenware4 ,a similar result to the slip covering was also produced by the use of a silicious glaze1 rendered white and opaque by the addition of oxide of tin4 ,early ,assyrian faience1 ,della ,robbia ware1 the ,maiolica of ,spain and ,italy1 and the wares of ,delft and ,rouen are earthenwares coated with a tin enamel4 ,the silicious glaze here referred to is prepared by fusing silicious materials with soda or potash1 and is known as ,vitreous1 or glass glaze4 ,plumbeous1 or lead glaze1 is produced by the addition of oxide of lead to the silicious glaze1 rendering it more fusible1 and still transparent4 ,a white opaque enamel formed by using oxide of tin with the vitreous glaze1 is termed ,stanniferous1 or tin enamel4 ,these different processes of covering the porous body of the earthenware largely influenced the decorations and scheme of colouring4 ,the beautiful faience of ,damascus and ,rhodes is covered with the silicious slip or glaze1 the colours being rich blues1 produced by cobalt1 turquoise and green1 by cobalt and copper1 and purple by the use of manganese2 and then covered with an ,alkaline glaze4 ,in the ,rhodian ,ware the same scheme of colour prevails1 except that the purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body1 called ,rhodian red1 produced from ,armenian bole4 ,on the ,italian ,maiolica1 with its tin enamel and plumbeous glaze1 there are fine blue1 turquoise and green1 but red is very poor in colour1 and is generally replaced by rich yellow from antimony1 and orange from iron4 ,this white tin enamel was undoubtedly introduced into ,europe by the ,moors1 as some tiles in the ,alhambra date from #abgc-acjb4 ,a large number of bowls and dishes1 called ,samian ,ware1 of ,roman importation1 have been found in ,england4 ,the paste is usually of a fine sealing wax red1 with a good glaze4 ,these bowls are enriched with a series of horizontal bands1 containing the festoon1 the scroll1 birds1 animals1 and figures4 ,the bands or friezes are often divided by the traditional egg and tongue moulding 7fig4 #a74 ,clay moulds1 impressed with stamps1 were made and then fired4 ,the red paste having been pressed into the mould1 the interior was smoothly turned in the lathe4 ,a mould of this character was found at ,york in #ahgd1 so it is possible that some of this ware was made in ,england1 by ,roman potters4 ,roman pottery has also been found at ,castor1 near ,peterborough1 doubtless made at the former place1 kilns for firing having been found on the same site4 ,this ,castor ware is usually brown1 with a black glaze1 being ornamented with indented tool marks1 and raised slip patterns of pipe clay 7fig4 #c74 ,many ,roman dishes and vases of a dark grey colour1 ornamented with incised lines and raised bosses of clay1 have been found in the ,upchurch ,marshes in ,kent4 ,little artistic pottery of the medival period however is known to exist4 ,early in the #acth century beautiful encaustic tiles were made for the great monasteries1 abbeys and cathedrals4 ,about #aejj1 the production of tiles was introduced into ,holland1 quantities of small blue and white ones decorated with scriptural subjects1 being made at ,delft1 and thence exported to ,england for the lining of fire places1 c4 ,some fine painted tiles or 8,azulejos0 were made at ,valencia about the #agth century4 ,in the #afth century1 the porcelain of ,china was introduced into ,europe by the ,dutch and ,portuguese traders1 and much of the ,delft and ,rouen ware subsequently produced1 was in imitation of this oriental porcelain4 8,delft0 ware which takes its name from the small town of that name in ,holland1 dating from #aejj ,a4,d41 is a ceramic coated with stanniferous enamel1 decorated with a full and liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel ground1 and then glazed with a plumbeous glaze4 ,some of this ,delft ware is very fine in quality1 the cobalt blues under the glaze being remarkably soft and rich in colour4 ,early examples were decorated with historical subjects1 often containing numerous figures1 the middle period being notable for its imitation of ,chinese porcelain1 and the application of coloured enamels on coloured grounds4 ,vast quantities of this kind of ware were manufactured up to #agfj and exported to all parts of ,europe4 ,the production of ,delft ware was first introduced into ,england at ,lambeth by some ,dutch potters in #afgf1 being subsequently extended to ,fulham1 ,bristol and ,liverpool4 ,the use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into ,france by ,girolamo della ,robbia1 son of ,andrea della ,robbia1 during the reign of ,francis ,i41 #aeaf1 and enamelled ware similar to the later productions of ,urbino was made at ,nevers1 where also was produced a fine ware decorated with ,persian ,motifs in yellow and blue4 ,at ,rouen1 also1 a fine earthenware covered with tin enamel was manufactured1 the decorations consisting of the lambrequins or scallop pattern1 symmetrical in arrangement1 and converging to the centre of the plate or dish4 ,the ornament was based upon ,chinese examples1 influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of ,france4 ,the decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze painting1 i4e41 after the white enamel was fired1 finer and more delicate detail being obtained by this process1 but at the cost of the purity and liquid softness of colour which is so characteristic of ,delft and ,oriental underglaze painting4 ,in ,rouen ware1 the ground is generally white1 but some fine examples at ,south ,kensington have a soft yellow ground1 a rich ,indian yellow being sometimes introduced with the blue decoration4 ,it was under the directions of ,louis ,poterat1 #afgc1 that this most beautiful faience was perfected4 ,bernard ,palissy1 #aeaj-ij1 by repeated experiments discovered the stanniferous or tin enamel4 ,his first productions were ,jasper ware1 warm and brilliant in colour and richly enamelled4 ,in the second period1 rustic dishes elaborately decorated with carefully modelled fishes1 reptiles1 and plants or natural foliage1 covered with an enamel of great brilliancy and purity1 were the chief productions4 ,the later pottery of ,palissy consisted of salt cellars1 inkstands1 ewers1 c41 the elaborate figure decorations of which were probably executed by some contemporary artist4 ,henri-,deux or ,st4 ,porchards ware1 now more properly described as ,oiron ware1 originated at ,st4 ,porchard in #aebd1 perhaps by the hand1 certainly under the patronage of ,hlne de ,hangest1 widow of ,a4 ,gouffier1 a former ,governor under ,francis ,i4 ,this ,oiron ware1 of a pale straw colour1 is enriched with inlays of yellow1 blue1 green1 and brown coloured pastes1 the interlacing and arabesque ornamentation carried out under the direction of ,jehan ,bernart and ,franois ,charpentier1 being similar in type to the contemporary bookbinding of ,grolier and was probably executed with similar tools4 ,many early examples of ,staffordshire slip ware are to be found in ,england1 consisting chiefly of candlesticks1 cups1 tygs1 posset pots1 piggins and plates1 the slip decorations being in yellow1 white and brown4 ,this ware was made at ,wrotham as early as #afdi1 and by ,thomas ,toft1 at ,shilton1 #affj 7fig4 #i74 ,marbled1 combed and tortoise-shell ware were formed by using colour slips or clays4 ,agate and onyx ware were formed by layers of different coloured clays1 crossed1 cut1 and pressed into moulds4 ,these methods were perfected by ,thomas ,wheildon1 #agdj-ih1 and ,josiah ,wedgwood1 #agcj-ie1 who perfected both the ,queen's and the variegated ware4 ,queen's ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for dinner and dessert services1 being decorated with painted flowers in enamel4 ,in #agha1 ,wedgwood introduced his famous ,jasper ware1 and ,jasper dip or washed ,jasper4 ,this latter ware was dipped into admixtures of metallic oxides1 producing blue1 lilac1 pink1 sage green1 olive1 yellow1 and black colours as desired4 ,the decorations in low relief1 are of the purest white 7fig4 #aj7 and in the traditional classic style1 the figures being arranged as cameo medallions1 or in bands with the scroll1 the festoon1 and the vine in delicate relief4 ,many of these beautiful cameos were designed or modelled by ,flaxman1 #agee-ahbf2 ,pacetti and ,angelini1 #aghg2 ,bacon1 #agdj-ii2 ,hackwood1 #aggj2 ,roubiliac1 #afie-agfb2 ,stothard1 #agee-ahcd2 ,tassie1 #agce-ii2 and ,webber1 #aghb4 ,stone-wares differ from earthenwares1 owing to the presence of a larger percentage of silicia in the plastic material1 which1 being fired at a greater degree of heat1 vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of glass1 thus ensuring a closeness and hardness of material not possessed by ordinary earthenware4 ,stoneware is usually glazed during the firing by throwing common salt into the kiln1 which being volatilized1 re-acts upon the silicia in the body1 forming with it a silicate of soda or glass1 having a minute granular texture4 ,the usefulness and the artistic character of stoneware was perfected by the ,flemish and ,german potters of the #afth century4 ,the principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white 8,canette0 of ,siegburg1 near ,bonn1 and the pale brown or grey ware of ,raeren1 near ,aix-la-,chapelle1 with its incised and stamped enrichments1 sometimes with blue decoration4 ,frechen1 near ,cologne1 probably supplied the 8,bellarmines0 or 8,grey beards10 largely imported into ,england under the name of 8,cologne ,pots40 ,examples of this ,frechen ware were frequently ornamented with a raised scroll of oak leaves4 ,grenzhausen1 in ,nassau1 produced a beautiful grey ware1 having delicately moulded reliefs filled in with blue and purple4 ,many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of ,william ,,iii41 ,queen ,anne1 and ,george ,i41 were imported into ,england from the ,nassau kilns4 ,a peculiar kind of stoneware1 also termed 8,cologne ware0 was produced at ,fulham by ,john ,dwight1 about #afgj4 ,some fine jugs and a few cleverly modelled unglazed statuettes1 believed to have been made at this place1 are to be seen in the ,british ,museum 7fig4 #aa74 ,another peculiar red stoneware1 porcelain1 or ,red ,china as it was called1 was made near ,burslem by the ,brothers ,elers1 #afhh-agaj1 the ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper moulds upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware4 ,fine examples1 characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments are exhibited in the ,museum of ,geology1 ,jermyn ,street4 ,astbury1 #agaj-ci1 continued the traditions of ,elers1 producing a fine white stoneware1 which largely influenced the ,staffordshire pottery of that period4 ,a stoneware was also made at ,nottingham from #agjj to #agej4 ,porcelain is technically known under the terms 8hard paste0 78pte dure07 and 8soft0 78pte tendre074 ,hard porcelain is made from clays containing much aluminia and felspar or decomposed granite1 having but little plasticity1 which necessarily influenced the shape or profile of the vessel4 ,the beauty of form1 which is so typical of the ,greek earthenware vase1 is absent in porcelain1 where the cylindrical or octagonal form is principally used4 8,pte tendre0 is a soft and vitreous porcelain1 having a great affinity for the beautiful coloured glazes and enamels used in the early examples of ,svres4 ,porcelain was known in ,china about #bjj ,b4,c41 and it was in common use during the #afth century4 ,during the ,ming dynasty1 #aefh-afdj1 porcelain reached its highest development in the perfection of its body1 ornamentation1 colour and glazes1 blue and turquoise being the chief colours of this period2 this limited range of colour was owing to the intense heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard porcelain4 ,it is uncertain at what date ,chinese porcelain was first brought to ,europe4 ,amongst the earliest known pieces in ,england are some bowls given by ,philip of ,austria to ,sir ,thomas ,trenchard in #aejf4 ,but whatever the date1 it was inevitable that attempts should be made to imitate this beautiful ceramic4 ,florentine or ,medician porcelain was made #aege-hj4 ,it was not however until #afij or #agjj1 that a similar manufacture was established at ,rouen and ,st4 ,cloud4 ,in #agji1 ,bottcher commenced making hard porcelain at ,meissen1 in ,saxony1 subsequently producing some excellent examples about #agae4 ,this was the commencement of the well-known ,dresden china4 ,in #agfh1 the manufacture of hard porcelain was adopted at ,svres1 replacing that of 8pte tendre0 which had been in use from #afgj4 ,both 8pte dure0 and 8pte tendre0 were made at ,buen ,retiro in ,madrid1 ,a4,d4 #agei1 all the porcelain manufactured for the first #bj years being kept for the exclusive use of the ,royal family4 ,there are some finely modelled ,buen ,retiro tiles in the ,royal ,palace at ,madrid4 ,about the year #agdj the manufacture of porcelain was established at ,bow1 ,chelsea1 ,derby1 ,plymouth1 ,bristol1 and ,worcester4 ,the shapes and ornamentation of these ,english porcelains1 having no traditions beyond the oriental influence1 were of a low artistic order1 being simply copies of natural forms1 without any controlling influence as regards design or harmonious arrangements4 ,a lavish use of gilding was also characteristic of this period1 the ornament being very largely misapplied4 ,this continued to grow worse until the middle of the last century1 when it reached its culminating point of absurdity and extravagance of form and decorations4 ,the best examples of ,english porcelain of this period are obviously copies of oriental porcelain1 chiefly ,persian and ,chinese4 ,a great advance in the technic of the porcelain produced in this country took place after the discovery of ,kaolin1 in ,cornwall1 by ,william ,cookworthy1 #agee4 ,transfer printing over the glaze was adopted at ,worcester about #ageg1 the transfers being taken from copper plates engraved by ,robert ,hancock1 a pupil of ,ravenet1 who was employed at the ,battersea enamel works1 about #agej4 ,sadler and ,green in #agef also adopted over glaze printing on the ,liverpool delft4 ,about #aggj1 under glaze printing on the biscuit ware superseded the over glaze process4 ,of early ,english porcelains1 those of ,derby are1 perhaps1 the most refined in form and in treatment of decoration1 the plates1 cups1 and saucers having borders of blue or turquoise1 with enrichments of festoons1 leaves1 and flowers2 many of the cups were pressed with fluted1 ribbed1 or imbricated patterns4 ,the ,derby works were founded in #ageg by ,william ,duesbury1 who in #agfi purchased the ,chelsea works and carried on the two simultaneously until #aghd1 when the ,chelsea plant was transferred to ,derby4 ,from #agfi-gc the ware called 8,chelsea-,derby0 was produced1 and between #aggc-hb 8,crown-,derby0 was introduced4 ,porcelain of an excellent quality was made at ,nantgario about #ahac1 and at ,swansea #ahad-ag1 the decorations in enamel colours consisting of a natural rendering of flowers1 birds1 butterflies1 and shells4 ,porcelain was also made about #ahjj at the ,herculaneum potteries at ,liverpool4 ,rockingham1 in ,yorkshire1 produced during the years #agei-hh a brown china1 which1 however1 was but a fine earthenware1 of a hard and compact body1 covered with a rich brown or chocolate glaze4 ,in #ahbj1 porcelain was made at ,rockingham1 comprising dinner and dessert services1 richly enamelled and gilt1 together with vases1 flower baskets1 and busts in white biscuit ware4 ,in #ahcb1 a dessert service of #bjj pieces was made for ,william ,,iv4 at a cost of #e1jjj1 the decorations consisting of natural fruit and flowers1 with landscapes and the royal arms in enamel colours4 ,in some of the earlier ,rockingham ware the outlines of the flowers and butterflies were in transfer printing1 and the colouring was added by hand4 ,the illustrations given on plates #ba1 #bg1 #bh and #bi1 show the universality of the potter's art1 which may be traced through many beautiful examples differentiated by racial customs and material4 ,the beauty of form in the ,greek vase 7plate #bg7 was but the natural outcome of a fine earthenware in the hands of an artistic people1 with traditions and architecture of the highest order4 ,in ,persian pottery1 form is subservient to colour1 blue1 turquoise and white being used in charming combination1 together with a frank yet decorative treatment of natural forms4 ,illustration ,the ,hispano-,moresque and ,italian ,maiolica 7plate #bi7 are remarkable for the technical excellence of their white enamel1 rich blue1 yellow and orange1 the iridescence of their gold and ruby lustre1 and their high technical skill in painting4 ,english earthenware of the #agth and #ahth centuries1 though traditional1 showed a remarkable diversity in treatment and conception4 ,the picturesque platter of the ,toft school1 with its quaint enrichment of trailing lines and heraldic forms in coloured slip1 the fine red stoneware of ,elers1 with its graceful enrichments in delicate relief1 and the varied and beautiful jasper ware of ,wedgwood mark a distinct phase of the potter's art1 and bear a tribute to the vitality and personality of the founders of the 8,potteries40 ,illustration3 ,,maiolica4 ,plate #bi4 ,,maiolica4 ,maiolica or ,italian faience is an earthenware1 coated with a stanniferous or tin glaze1 termed enamel4 ,this is formed by the addition of oxide of tin to a silicious glaze or slip1 thus rendering it white and opaque1 hence its name1 enamel4 ,the origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to ,persia4 ,from ,persia the art was carried by the ,arabians to ,fustat1 or old ,cairo1 which was destroyed #aafh ,a4,d41 and amongst the ruins many fragments of gold and copper lustered ware have been found4 ,this enamelled ware was introduced into ,spain in the #acth century1 and perfected there by the ,moors1 giving rise to the ,,hispano-,,moresque ware4 ,this ware was enriched with central heraldic arms1 surrounded by concentric bands of foliage1 arabesques1 or inscriptions in blue1 with a copper lustre4 ,this ,hispano-,moresque ware was manufactured chiefly at ,malaga1 ,talavera1 ,triana and ,valencia1 and dates from the ,moorish occupation of ,granada ,a4,d4 #abce-adib4 ,in the island of ,majorca1 from which this beautiful ware derives its name1 fine examples were manufactured at an early date by ,persian and ,arabian potters4 ,after the conquest of ,majorca by the ,pisans1 ,a4,d4 #aaae1 many of these examples were introduced into ,italy1 the art being subsequently cultivated in some of the smaller central states4 ,the early ,,italian ,,maiolica was usually covered with a thin white 8slip0 or engobe of clay which served as a ground for the coloured patterns4 ,it was then coated with a lead glaze and was known as mezza or mixed maiolica4 ,in some examples the design was scratched or engraved through the upper layer or white engobe1 showing the darker body underneath4 ,this type of ware1 known as 8sgraffito0 was also glazed with the lead glaze1 forming1 when fired1 the beautiful iridescent lustre4 ,no remains of a tin enamel of ,italian workmanship have been found in ,italy prior to the time of ,luca della ,robbia1 #adjj-adha1 who discovered an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence4 ,the secret of its composition was kept by him1 his nephew ,andrea1 and his great-nephews ,giovanni1 ,luca and ,girolamo1 until #aejg4 ,the ,mezza ,maiolica was then superseded by the true ,maiolica or the tin enamelled wares of ,caffaggiolo1 ,castel ,uurante1 ,urbino1 ,pesaro1 ,faenza1 ,forli1 ,diruta1 ,siena and ,gubbio1 with their remarkable brilliance of blues1 greens1 yellows and orange4 ,the ,gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and golden lustre and was signed by ,maestro ,georgio 7,georgio ,andreoli1 #adib-aecg74 ,the same artist also lustred many wares made by the potters of ,urbino and ,castel ,durante4 ,other examples of ,urbino ware are signed by ,niccola da ,urbino1 #adij-aecj1 ,orazio ,fontano1 #aedj-gj1 ,francesco ,xanto ,avelli1 #aecj-dj4 ,faenza ware was produced at the ,casa ,pirota ,botega1 and ,siena ware was signed by ,maestro ,benedetto4 ,the chief characteristics of ,caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures in white1 grey or yellow on a rich dark blue ground4 ,urbino has small medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white ground1 called ,raffaelesque1 being from designs by ,raffaelle del ,colle4 ,faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques4 ,in brief1 the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited1 consisting of blue1 turquoise1 yellow and orange4 ,these colours are of great depth and translucency1 and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of ,china1 ,persia and ,india4 ,gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called 8,gadroons10 a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby lustre of ,maestro ,giorgio4 ,this ,gubbio tradition was continued by ,giorgio's son1 ,vincentio1 called ,maestro ,cencio1 and many beautiful lustre works are signed by him4 ,this lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke during the firing in the kiln2 the smoke1 being carbon in a highly divided state1 reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze1 forming a thin film of metal upon the surface1 the beautiful iridescent lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film4 ,castel ,durante was frequently enriched1 on white or grey borders1 with delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel1 a process called 8,lavoro di sopra bianco0 or 8bianco sopra bianco40 ,faenza ,maiolica has1 frequently1 the whole surface of the ground covered with a dark blue enamel1 enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in blue1 heightened with white 8,sopra ,azzurro40 ,a frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions1 and doubtless intended as lover's presents4 ,they are known as 8,amatorii ,maiolica40 ,,terra ,,cotta4 ,terra ,cotta is usually made from pure clay1 which will burn to a white or yellow colour1 or from impure1 which will burn to a red colour1 owing to the presence of oxide of iron4 ,pure clay is a hydrous silicate of alumina1 containing #dg parts per cent4 of silica1 #dj of alumina1 and #ac of water4 ,clay1 in this proportion1 is the ,kaoline or china clay4 ,fire clay1 which is found in the coal measures1 has a larger proportion of silica than ,kaoline1 and from it much of the terra cotta is made4 ,when first dug out1 it is hard and compact1 and of a greenish grey colour1 deepening to black4 ,it is often weathered before using4 ,this causes it to 8fall0 and facilitates grinding4 ,old fire clay1 previously burnt 78grog0 as it is called7 is added to the new clay to counteract the excessive shrinkage to which all close-grained clays are liable4 ,the coarser the clay1 the less the shrinkage4 ,the colour of the clay varies according to the quantity of lime1 iron1 or bitumen it contains4 ,pure clay contracts as much as one-eighth from the size of the mould2 one half of this contraction takes place in drying1 the other half in burning4 ,clay mixed with 8grog0 will contract about one-twelfth4 ,illustration ,the moulds for terra cotta are usually piece moulds1 made of plaster of ,paris1 which absorbs much of the moisture of the clay4 ,sheet clay about two inches thick is used4 ,this is carefully pressed into the mould and supported by webs of clay of the same thickness4 ,it is essential to the clay to be uniform throughout1 or the shrinkage would be unequal4 ,it is then placed upon a flue to dry from two to six hours1 when the clay will have contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be taken off4 ,it is then dried for a further period and burnt in a kiln4 ,for fine work1 the kiln is 8muffled0--the 8muffle0 being a lining of bricks to keep the clay from actual contact with fire and smoke4 ,the dry1 or semi-dry process1 is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds1 which obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process4 ,encaustic tiles are made in this way1 the ornament being run into the incised pattern with 8slip40 ,many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary earthenware1 that is1 painted and glazed4 ,terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity1 especially by the ,assyrians1 whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon ,assyrian history4 ,with the ,greek1 terra cotta was extensively used for 8antefixa10 and the many beautiful ,tanagra figures now treasured in our museums show the exquisite modelling by the ,greeks1 in such a material as terra cotta4 ,illustration3 ,,terra ,,cotta ,,by ,,andrea ,,della ,,robbia4 ,this material was used by the ,etruscans for their sarcophagi and recumbent figures4 ,the ,pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta4 ,it was used for votive statues and offerings1 and for lamps1 some of which were dipped in molten glass4 ,during the revival of art in ,italy in the #aeth and #afth centuries1 terra cotta was extensively used by the ,della ,robbia family4 ,,luca ,,della ,,robbia1 #adjj-hb1 produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs coated with the white tin enamel and enriched with coloured enamels4 ,among his numerous works were the following3--,the marble ,cantoria in the cathedral2 five bas-reliefs in marble on the ,campanile at ,florence2 his two first terra cotta reliefs in the tympanans of the doorway1 and the doors of the sacristry of the cathedral at ,florence 7#addc-df72 with the two kneeling angels holding candelabra2 the splendid monument to ,l',evque ,federighi 7#adee7 with its beautiful recumbent figure1 in the church of ,s4 ,trinit1 ,florence2 and the many fine medallions enriched with heraldic forms executed for the church of ,or ,san ,michele and the palace ,quarateri in ,florence4 ,fine examples are the medallions with the arms of ,king ,ren ,d',anjou1 now in the ,south ,kensington museum4 ,in ,santa ,croce at ,florence1 there are a series of medallions of the four evangelists and the twelve apostles1 and in the ,south ,kensington museum there are twelve medallions representing the months4 ,many splendid examples of ,luca della ,robbia's work are now treasured in the national museums4 ,andrea della ,robbia 7#adce-aebe7 the nephew of ,luca carried on the traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill2 among his early works are the medallions for ,l',hospital des ,innocent1 or the ,children's ,hospital4 ,the ,adoration and the ,annunciation were familiar subjects with ,andrea1 the illustrations given of the ,annunciation in the ,children's ,hospital1 and the ,virgin and child in the national museum at ,florence being typical examples of his work4 ,there is a splendid 8,adoration0 by ,andrea in the ,south ,kensington museum4 ,illustration3 ,,enamelled ,,terra ,,cotta ,,andrea ,,della ,,robbia4 ,giovanni della ,robbia 7#adfi-aebg7 son of ,andrea continued this splendid tradition3 his principal works being the ,lavabo in ,s4 ,maria ,novella1 the tabernacle in ,s4 ,apostles1 and the virgin and saints in ,santa ,croce1 all in ,florence4 ,many other beautiful works still remain which attest to the remarkable traditions of craftsmanship of the ,della ,robbia family4 ,girolamo1 brother of ,giovanni1 carried this tradition into ,france under ,francis ,i4 ,,enamels4 ,of the many decorative arts1 enamelling is one of the most beautiful1 having a singular charm of limpid or opalescent colour of great purity1 richness and durability1 and being capable of a most refined and varied treatment for the enrichment of metals4 ,enamel is a vitreous or glass compound1 translucent1 semi-translucent or opaque1 owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides1 or sulphides1 a fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin4 ,these enamels require different degrees of heat in order to fuse them and to cause their adhesion to the metal4 ,enamels are divided into three classes1 ,,cloisonn1 ,,champlev and ,,painted ,,enamels4 ,,cloisonn enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed by soldering thin1 flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper1 the cloisons1 being filled with the various enamels1 in powder or in paste1 then1 in order to vitrify the enamel1 exposed to heat in a kiln1 if upon a flat surface1 or by the aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface4 ,cloisonn was in use from the early dynasties in ,egypt1 many fine large pectorals having been found in the tombs4 ,these usually have the form of a hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined cloisons1 which were filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass1 and this undoubtedly was the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonn enamel4 ,byzantine enamel is invariably cloisonn and one of the most beautiful examples of this period is the ,pala d',oro of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 ,a4,d4 #igf4 ,perhaps the ,chinese and ,japanese have carried this cloisonn to its greatest perfection in softness of colour and beauty of technic4 ,the earliest ,chinese cloisonn is of the ,ming dynasty1 #acfh-afdc2 this has heavy cast metal grounds with low toned colours and deep reds and blues4 ,under the ,thsing dynasty1 which commenced in #afdc1 the colours became brighter and the designs more refined4 ,early ,japanese cloisonn or 8,shippo0 was doubtless derived from ,chinese or ,persian sources1 and it is characterised by extremely thin beaten copper grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground in place of the dark blue of the ,chinese cloisonn4 ,the ,japanese cloisonn reached its culmination during the last century1 when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels were produced1 remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and translucent colour4 ,gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels were frequently inserted in iron or silver objects by the ,japanese of this period4 ,an early example of ,english cloisonn is the jewel of ,king ,alfred1 now in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford3 this has a rich setting of opaque and translucent enamels4 ,a fine ,celtic cloisonn treatment may be seen in the ,ardage chalice1 where the cloisons were cut out of a plate of silver and embedded in the enamel while soft4 ,these ,celtic craftsmen also had a beautiful treatment of enamelling by engraving or pressing a pattern in intaglio1 or sunk relief1 on an enamelled ground1 and then filling these intaglios with other enamels4 ,a most exquisite kind of enamel called 8,plique ,jour10 was used by the ,byzantines2 this was composed of open filigree cloisons1 filled with translucent enamels4 ,,champlev enamel is formed by engraving1 casting or scooping out the cloisons from a metal plate1 leaving a thin wall or boundary between each cloison1 which is then filled with the various enamels as in the cloisonn method4 ,this ,champlev method was practised in ,britain before the ,roman conquest1 and was probably derived from the ,phnicians1 who1 centuries before the ,romans came to ,england1 had traded with ,cornwall for tin4 ,the beauty of colour and perfect adaptability of these early enamelled brooches1 fibul and trappings of horses of the early ,britons and ,celts1 are remarkable1 showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony of line and mass4 ,a splendid bronze ,celtic shield 7fig4 #d1 plate #ac71 now in the ,british ,museum1 is enriched with fine red bosses of enamel4 ,these ,champlev enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during firing4 ,champlev enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the ,middle ,ages2 the ,chalice1 the ,paten1 the ,reliquary1 the ,thurible1 the ,crozier1 and the bookcovers of the ,churches1 especially1 were enriched with beautiful enamels4 ,classed among the ,champlev enamels is that method called ,,jeweller',s ,,enamel or 8,baisse ,taille10 in which the plate is engraved in low relief or beaten up in repouss and then flooded with translucent enamel4 ,the ,lynn cup of the time of ,richard ,,ii4 is one of the oldest pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine translucent blue and green enamels4 ,in ,india1 where fine colour is a splendid tradition1 ,champlev enamel soon attained a remarkable perfection of technic and purity and brilliance of colour almost unknown to the ,western nations4 ,the ,champlev enamels of ,,jaipur have most beautiful lustrous and transparent blues1 greens and reds laid on a pure gold ground4 ,,pertubghur is renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of gold2 while the enamel was still soft a plate of pierced gold was pressed into the enamel4 ,this pierced plate was afterwards engraved with incidents of history or hunting4 ,in ,,ratain1 in ,central ,india1 a similar enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the ,pertubghur green4 ,the fine monumental brasses1 of which many still remain in our ,english cathedrals and churches1 are a survival of the ,champlev process1 the cloisons1 being usually filled with a black ,,niello1 but occasionally the heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels4 ,during the #aath and #abth centuries1 ,,limoges was renowned for its fine ,champlev enamels1 but early in the #aeth century ,,painted ,,enamels were introduced and ,limoges became the centre of this art1 called late ,limoges or ,,grisaille ,,enamel4 ,the enamel colours were now used as a pigment1 and were painted and fired upon a copper plate4 ,the enrichments in grisaille1 or grey and white1 were used upon a black1 violet or dark blue ground1 the grisaille afterwards being enriched with details of fine gold lines4 ,these ,limoges enamels have a splendid technic1 but they lack the charms of the luminous colour and judicious use of enamels of the early ,champlev period4 ,the most renowned masters of the painted enamels of ,limoges were ,penicand1 #aejc1 ,courtois1 #aeaj1 ,pierre ,raymond1 #aecj-aegj1 and ,leonard ,limousin1 #aecb-aegd4 ,about #afjj-afej1 ,jean ,toutin and his pupil ,petitot produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque enamels upon gold1 remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling4 ,in #agej1 painted enamel was introduced into ,england and produced for about #cj years at ,battersea by ,janssen4 ,the enrichment consisted of flowers painted in natural colours on a white ground4 ,a similar enamel was also produced at ,bilston in ,staffordshire4 ,illustration ,the finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the enamel is used in small quantities1 such as in the ,celtic jewellery1 the bookcovers1 and the ,church and ,corporation plate of the ,gothic and early ,renascence period1 and the early ,byzantine cloisonn1 such as the ,hamilton brooch in the ,british ,museum1 and the ,pala d',oro of ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 which was made at ,constantinople for the ,doge ,orseolo in #igf ,a4,d41 and has #hc panels of fine cloisonn enamel set in a framework of gold4 ,illustration ,the 8,plique jour10 the 8,baisse taille0 and the ,pertubghur enamels are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or opalescence and richness of colour4 ,the ,japanese cloisonn with its literal treatment of natural forms1 and the painted enamel portraits of ,francis ,i4 and contemporary princes by ,leonard ,limousin1 clever as they undoubtedly are1 lack the depth and purity of colour obtained by the early methods4 ,frequently1 however1 the ,penicauds1 ,nardou1 and ,jean ,i4 and ,,ii4 obtained some richness in the painted enamels by the use of 8,paillons0 or pieces of metallic foil which were afterwards flooded with translucent enamel4 ,illustration3 ,,glass4 ,plate #cj4 ,,glass4 ,the purity of glass1 its adaptability to colour1 and its remarkable ductility while hot for blowing1 twisting or drawing into threads1 differentiates it from all other materials and methods of treatment4 ,its tradition dates from the remote past1 for glass-blowing is represented on the tombs at ,thebes1 ,b4,c4 #bejj4 ,it was also used in ,egypt for vitreous pastes for bronze and gold cloisonn jewellery1 and for the small bottles or ,stibium1 with chevron patterns1 in yellow1 turquoise and white on a coloured ground4 ,similar patterns1 colours and forms were used by ,phnicia and her colonies1 the usual forms being the ,alabastra and ,amphorae4 ,many remains of bowls were found in ,assyria1 one 7now in the ,british museum7 of transparent green glass1 having the name of ,sargon1 ,b4,c4 #gbb4 ,greece seems to have imported most of her glass from ,phnicia1 but the ,romans carried on the tradition1 producing fine ,,mosaic or ,,millefiori4 ,this was made by fusing rods of white and coloured glass together1 then drawing it out to fine threads and slicing it transversely2 the section is then placed in a mould and a bubble blown1 uniting the mosaic1 which is then blown into various shapes4 ,the ,romans also used the interlacing of white and coloured rods called ,,laticinio1 but they excelled in the ,,cameo ,,glass1 of which the ,portland vase is the finest known example4 ,this vase is of dark blue glass1 covered with white opaque glass1 which was ground away with the wheel1 leaving the figures in delicate relief4 ,it was found in #afdd in the sarcophagus of ,alexander ,severus1 ,a4,d4 #cbe1 the subject of its relief being the myth of ,peleus and ,thetis4 ,another ,roman example of cameo glass in the ,british museum is the ,auldjo vase or ,oinocho with beautiful reliefs of vine leaves4 ,frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into moulds1 and a good example of this treatment is in the ,south ,kensington museum 7fig4 #f74 ,the tradition then declined until the #adth century1 when the ,venetians in the island of ,murano1 perfected the art of glass making4 ,the earliest examples of ,,venetian ,,glass were massive1 richly gilt and enamelled in colours2 one fine example in the ,british museum is signed by its maker1 8,magister ,aldrevandini40 ,in the #aeth and #afth centuries the most delicate and beautiful blown glass was made1 often uncoloured and with enrichments of knots and wings in blown and shaped blue glass4 ,the ,venetians used with equal skill all the old methods of glassmaking2 the ,,millefiori2 the ,,laticinio or threads of opaque white enclosing pattern2 ,,reticelli1 a network of white lines enclosing at the intersections a bubble of air2 and the beautiful ,,vitro ,,di ,,trina1 filigree or lace glass1 formed by canes or threads of white or coloured glass being placed in a mould1 a bubble being then blown in1 and the glass afterwards taken from the mould and blown or twisted to the shape required4 ,the artistic bronze mirrors of ancient and medival times now give way to the glass mirrors of the ,venetians1 ,a4,d4 #aejj4 ,illustration3 ,,stained ,,glass4 ,plate #ca4 ,,stained ,,glass with its depth and translucency1 owes its intrinsic qualities to metallic oxides1 such as cobalt1 giving fine blues1 silver1 pale and deep yellows1 pink from iron and antimony1 and ruby from gold and copper1 which also yields fine greens4 ,when these oxides are mixed with the glass1 in its fused state1 it is termed pot metal1 but if the coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only1 it is termed flashed or cased glass4 ,ruby1 owing to its depth of colour1 is usually cased glass4 ,fine blues are often flashed1 and splendid effects are produced by flashing ruby over yellow1 or blue pot metal glass4 ,cased glass is of the greatest value owing to the variety of tint that can be produced on a single sheet of glass1 and also that the colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of fluoric acid4 ,the rationale of the glass painter is--#ast1 ,the scheme of composition and colour shown on a small scale4 #bnd1 ,a full sized cartoon in charcoal or monochrome1 with all the details carefully drawn1 and showing the lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the window4 #crd1 ,a tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only1 called the cut line1 on which is cut the selected pieces of glass4 #dth1 ,tracing all details from the cartoon1 with brown enamel on each piece of glass1 the pieces after firing being then fixed in the leading1 and kept together with ,h shaped leads4 ,a diagram is given here showing the leading of an example of #acth century glass4 ,illustration ,the brown enamel1 which is used entirely for outline1 detail or shading1 is a fusible glass in combination with opaque manganic or ferric oxide1 and tar oil4 ,with this enamel1 smear shading or stipple shading is worked4 ,this may be removed as required1 before firing1 by means of a pointed stick or quill1 so as to give the details of embroidery1 or of heraldic forms4 ,silver stain 7oxide of silver7 introduced at the beginning of the #adth century is largely used in stained glass1 and usually on the back thereof4 ,according to the different degrees of heat in the firing1 a pale yellow or deep orange of great transparency is produced4 ,coloured glass was made by the ,egyptians #djjj years ago1 but the earliest stained glass windows recorded1 were those of ,brionde ,a4,d4 #ebe4 ,none however are known to be in existence prior to those of ,st4 ,denis ,a4,d4 #aajh4 ,other examples are found in ,norman windows1 with small medallions of figures and ornament of a decided ,byzantine type1 extremely deep in colour1 being1 by its style of treatment1 termed mosaic glass4 ,the #acth century1 or early ,gothic period1 has single lancet lights1 with medallions containing small figures surrounded by the typical #acth century foliage2 or the windows were entirely of ornament in grisaille1 arranged symmetrically1 having narrow bands of ruby or blue1 with wide borders4 ,these grisaille windows are of a greenish white glass1 with the ornament in outline1 and the ground hatched with brown enamel in fine cross lines 7fig4 #a-b74 ,the north transept window at ,york cathedral1 called the five sisters1 is typical of this grisaille glass4 ,the finest examples however1 are at ,salisbury and ,chartres cathedrals4 ,later in the period1 single figures were introduced under a simple canopy or gabling1 plain or crocketed1 with an ordinary trefoil arch4 ,illustration3 #ac,,th ,,century ,,glass4 ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 8,quarry glass10 square or diamond in shape1 with brown enamel details1 was frequently used1 where simple masses were desired4 ,in the #adth century1 the figures were larger and placed under canopies in each light of the mullioned windows1 such figures in rich colours forming a bright belt across the window1 surmounted by the canopies1 cusped and crocketed1 and in strong yellow pot metal1 or yellow-cased glass4 ,the borders were narrow1 with a somewhat natural rendering of the rose1 the maple and the oak4 ,in the #aeth century1 a further change took place1 figures became more numerous and the canopy or shrine larger1 and chiefly in white glass1 with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain4 ,the coloured border of the earlier glass is entirely absent1 its place being taken by the shaft of the canopy1 and the crockets1 finials and ornaments are square in treatment and based chiefly on the vine leaf4 ,illustration ,fairford church1 perhaps1 contains the finest series of late ,gothic glass ,a4,d4 #aejj-cj4 ,like the contemporary architecture of the #afth century1 the ,renascence now influenced stained glass4 ,the canopy still survived1 but was horizontal or pedimental in form1 with purely classical columns and details4 ,good examples of this period are the windows of ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge 7#aebj71 where rich ,renascence work is introduced into late ,gothic mullioned windows4 ,about #aedj1 transparent enamels were introduced with skill and reticence1 but gradually glass painters began to vie with pictorial oil painting in effects of light and shade1 the ground work or material losing that beautiful translucent or transmitted colour1 which is the chief glory of stained glass4 ,an example showing the degradation of this art is the west window of ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 painted by ,jervas1 #aggg1 from designs by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,the ornamentation of stained glass naturally followed contemporary architecture in the treatment of style1 differentiated only by the technical necessities of material4 ,for instance1 in the early ,english glass 7plate #ca71 the details of the ornament have the characteristic spiral arrangement and the trefoil foliage of contemporary architectural ornament1 only the foliage is treated more in profile1 as being more suited to the technical necessities of leading and brush work4 ,most of the detail1 however1 shows a strong affinity to ,french contemporary ornament1 this doubtless was owing to the influence of ,french craftsmanship and tradition in the stained glass of that period4 ,in the #adth century1 the ,english craftsman attained a thorough mastery over his materials1 and consequently the type of ornament followed ,english contemporary architecture more closely4 ,to sum up1 stained glass changed through the different periods from the rich coloured mosaic of the ,normans--the equally rich coloured medallions and grisaille glass of the early ,gothic--the decorated ,gothic1 with glass in lighter colours1 and a prevalence of yellow stain1 culminating in the later ,gothic period1 when largeness of mass1 lightness1 and silvery colour1 were the characteristics4 ,a beautiful treatment of stained glass1 dating from the #aeth century was used by the ,arabians2 this glass1 which has a singular gem-like quality1 and without enamel or stain1 was let into a framework of plaster1 which had been cut and pierced with geometrical or floral patterns4 ,modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in design and material under ,burne ,jones1 ,walter ,crane1 ,frederic ,shields and ,henry ,holiday1 with glass such as that produced by ,morris1 ,powell and ,sparrow1 and the ,american opalescent glass of ,la ,farge and ,tiffany4 ,the individuality of their work1 appropriateness of treatment1 based upon the splendid tradition of the past1 mark a distinct epoch in history of stained glass4 ,splendid heraldic glass by ,a4 ,w4 ,pugin may be seen in the ,houses of ,parliament1 ,westminster2 and in the hall and staircase of the ,rochdale ,town ,hall1 there is a fine series of windows by ,heaton1 ,butler1 and ,baine1 remarkable for dignity of style and unity of conception4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver4 ,plate #cb4 ,,gold ,,and ,,silver4 ,of all treasure trove1 those of gold and silver are the most valuable1 showing us the riches1 culture and the decorative arts of the people who centuries ago used these beautiful objects of jewellery or of utility4 ,one of the earliest and most valuable of these treasures was found in #ahei with the mummy of ,queen ,aah-,hotep1 #ahjj ,b4,c4 7,cairo ,museum71 and consisted of3 bracelets1 armlets1 rings1 chains1 a diadem 7fig4 #a71 a small model of a twelve-oared war galley1 and a poniard1 all of exquisite workmanship1 and of pure gold1 enriched with jasper and turquoise vitreous pastes4 ,at ,petrossa in #ahcg 7,bukarest ,museum71 twenty-two beautiful gold objects were found1 but only twelve were recovered1 consisting of two neck-rings or ,torques2 a large salver1 hammered and chased2 a ewer2 a bowl with figures in repouss2 four fibula enriched with precious stones2 a gorget2 and two double-handled cups 7fig4 #d7 all of which are ,byzantine work of the #eth century4 ,at ,guarrazar in ,spain1 ten gold votive crowns of ,gothic workmanship were found2 one inscribed with the name of ,king ,suintila1 #fcj ,a4,d41 is now in the museum at ,madrid1 the others in the ,htel ,cluny1 ,paris1 the largest having the name of ,king ,rescesvinthus1 #fgj ,a4,d4 in pendive letters 7fig4 #c74 ,of silversmith's work1 the most important is the 8,treasure of ,hildesheim10 found in #ahfh 7now in the ,berlin ,museum7 consisting of thirty objects1 cups1 vases1 and dishes1 beautiful in contour and admirably enriched with delicate repouss work of the ,greco-,roman period 7fig4 #e74 ,the ,british ,museum contains many fine examples of ,greek and ,etruscan goldsmith's art2 some early ,greek work has the typical ,mycen spiral enrichment4 ,beautiful ,greek plaques of the #dth and #eth centuries ,b4,c4 were obtained by pressing the gold into stone moulds1 and were afterwards enriched with threads of gold or 8filigree10 which developed later into the ,byzantine filigree work4 ,the beautiful ,etruscan ,fibul are enriched with minute globules of gold soldered on1 a process brought to a remarkable degree of perfection by the ,etruscans in the #gth1 #fth and #eth centuries ,b4,c4 ,of the gold and silver vessels used by ,solomon in the temple1 we have the description in the ,books of ,kings and ,chronicles1 but no trace of the originals1 except that on the ,arch of ,titus1 #gi ,a4,d41 we find a representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick 7fig4 #i74 ,of the ,medival period1 many fine examples of church and corporation plate are still treasured in our museums4 ,they are of great intrinsic value1 of beautiful workmanship1 chased and engraved1 and enriched with cast and repouss work and the choicest enamels4 ,of the craftsman or goldsmith we know but little1 but his delicacy of touch1 his just appreciation of appropriateness of treatment to his material1 and the singular grace and charm of his design are a tribute to his culture and personality4 ,cellini produced many beautiful works1 yet perhaps not more beautiful than his many contemporary goldsmiths4 ,in our museums there are some charming specimens of engraving upon silver1 filled in with black enamel called ,niello1 by ,maso ,finiguerre1 about #adej1 who produced some early prints from an engraved plate4 ,illustration3 ,,bronzes4 ,plate #cc4 ,,bronze4 ,bronze1 an alloy of copper and tin1 has been in use from a remote period in the history of the arts4 ,its adaptability for casting1 its durability1 utility and colour have rendered this material one of the most useful and valuable4 ,of the many fine examples of the early ,egyptian and ,assyrian bronze now in the ,british ,museum1 the most beautiful are the bronzes of ,siris1 two fragments of armour1 with reliefs in repouss 7fig4 #d74 ,the many ,greek statues in the round1 of their ,gods and heroes1 show the most skilful technique and beauty of form4 ,the ,etruscans were clever workers in this material1 and they used a most expressive treatment of incised lines1 which differentiates their decorative bronzes from those of ,greece1 with their delicate low reliefs4 ,the bronze mirrors 7fig4 #b7 and the ,cista are typical examples of the ,etruscan treatment4 ,the finest known cista is that called the 8,ficoroni ,cista10 by ,morios ,plantios 7#crd century ,b4,c47 and is now in the ,collegio ,romano2 a description1 with illustrations of this example is in the 8,magazine of ,art10 ,april1 #ahhd4 ,descriptions of this cista and of the many fine examples in the ,british ,museum are given in 8,murray's ,handbook of ,greek ,archology40 ,of small decorative bronzes1 ,naples ,museum alone has over #ac1jjj examples1 consisting of candelabra1 tripods1 tables1 chairs and couches1 which1 eighteen centuries ago1 were used by the wealthy ,roman citizens4 ,of bronze equestrian statues1 the most renowned are those of ,marcus ,aurelius1 at ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #age2 ,bartolomeo ,coleone1 at ,venice1 ,a4,d4 #adhh1 by ,andrea ,verrocchio2 and ,alessandro ,leopardo2 and that of ,gattamelata1 at ,padua1 #adec ,a4,d41 by ,donatello4 ,a remarkable bronze figure of the ,renascence period is that of ,perseus1 by ,benvenuto ,cellini1 #aejj-aegj1 at ,florence1 and the figure of ,neptune on the fountain at ,bologna by ,giovanni da ,bologna1 #aebd-ij4 ,the bronze doors of ,san ,zenone1 at ,verona1 7see plates #a and #c in 8,aratra ,pentelici0 by ,john ,ruskin71 and those of the ,baptistery1 at ,florence1 by ,andrea ,pisano and ,ghiberti 7see ,renascence7 are typical examples of early ,renascence bronzes4 ,the casting of these ,bronzes was by the 8,cire ,perdu0 method1 that is1 by forming a core of firm material nearly the size and shape required1 then covering with sheet wax and finishing with the detail required1 with sticks of wax projecting to form vents for the escape of steam in casting4 ,the wax is then brushed over with a composition of fine clay and ground crucibles to some thickness and the mould thus formed is connected with the inner one by bronze rods4 ,the wax is then melted out1 leaving a cavity ,into which the liquid bronze is poured1 the core and mould being afterwards removed4 ,bronze is also cast in piece moulds taken from the model2 the piece mould is then lined with sheet clay and put together and the core run in4 ,the clay is then removed and the bronze run in as in the former process4 ,the sand process for casting has now reached a high degree of perfection in which the core and mould are formed by pressure in a fine tenacious sand4 ,illustration3 ,,wrought ,,iron4 ,plate #cd4 ,,wrought ,,iron4 ,the decorative qualities of iron1 with its strength1 durability and comparative cheapness1 have rendered it one of the most useful metals in the applied arts4 ,used from an early period for implements of war and the chase1 it gradually became associated with architecture and furniture1 reaching in the #aeth and #afth centuries a remarkable degree of beauty and skilful craftsmanship that has never been excelled4 ,many fine ,norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence1 having a straight central bar or strap1 with small scroll terminations2 these central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces1 terminating in small serpent forms1 probably a survival of the ,viking traditions4 ,this form of hinge was succeeded by the ,early ,gothic hinge1 which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap1 the spiral being welded or fastened with collars2 these spirals were enriched with the three-lobed foliage or trefoil1 typical of the ,early ,gothic period2 fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of ,notre ,dame1 ,paris1 where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf1 with birds1 dragons and small rosettes in stamped iron4 ,this stamped characteristic may be seen1 but in a less degree1 in the fine hinges of ,leighton ,buzzard ,church1 ,eaton ,bray ,church1 ,bedfordshire1 and the ,eleanor grill in ,westminster ,abbey1 by ,thomas de ,leghton1 in #abid4 ,in the #adth and #aeth centuries1 when panelled doors took the place of the earlier doors1 this ,early ,gothic style of hinge was not needed 7fig4 #e7 so that we find no trace of it in that period1 but the art of wrought iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship1 which enriched the beautiful ,gothic chests of the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,the simple wrought screen1 which was so largely used in the #acth century was now elaborated1 especially in ,italy1 and fine examples of quatre-foil grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage1 cupids and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the cathedrals of ,orvieto1 ,prato and ,siena1 dating from about #accg to #acej1 and at ,santa ,croce1 ,florence1 #acga2 but it was in ,spain and ,france that the screen reached its culmination4 ,the ,spanish screens or 8,rjas0 in the cathedrals of ,seville1 ,toledo and ,granada have a fine range of turned and chiselled vertical bars some #cj to #ej feet high1 with an elaborate frieze and cresting4 ,beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in ,france about #afeh1 for the ,louvre and the ,royal ,chateaux of ,anet and ,econeu4 ,there are some fine wrought gates at ,hampton ,court by ,jean ,tijon1 who published some drawings of them in #afic1 and many good simple gates of the last century are still in position in many parts of the country4 ,the wrought iron gate piers in ,st4 ,george's ,chapel1 ,windsor1 with their architectural treatment of open panelling1 cresting1 and massive buttresses1 in filed1 bolted and riveted1 are splendid examples of ,flemish workmanship1 and are probably by ,quintin ,matsys 7#adej-aebi74 ,,furniture4 ,the adaptability and universality of wood for domestic and public purposes1 its susceptibility to carving and enrichment1 its beautiful texture1 grain and colour1 have made it one of the most useful of materials in the constructive and decorative arts4 ,the many chairs1 tables and chests of ancient times1 and the beautiful choir stalls1 cabinets and screens of the middle ages are a tribute to the vitality1 inventiveness and artistic perception of the old craftsman4 ,illustration ,the universality of the chair has tended to preserve the form through many centuries4 ,the chair has undergone various modifications1 from the ornate ,egyptian one to the ,assyrian example with the supports of fir-cones4 ,in the ,greek example1 the beauty and simplicity of profile is remarkable1 while the ,chair of ,st4 ,peter1 #ast century ,a4,d41 is purely architectonic with enrichments of gold and ivory4 ,illustration ,the ,coronation ,chair in ,westminster ,abbey1 of the time of ,edward ,i41 is one of the earliest in ,england1 offering a strong contrast to the chairs of the #ahth century by ,chippendale and ,sheraton4 ,illustration ,a ,venetian chair of the #afth century shows a skilful but inappropriate treatment4 ,the ,arabians at ,cairo1 in the #aeth century1 produced some beautiful geometrical wood panelling1 frequently inlaid with ebony and ivory1 and having a marvellous intricacy of line and detail4 ,in ,italy1 during the #afth century1 many beautifully carved cassone or chests1 in walnut1 enriched with gilding1 were produced1 similar to the one here figured from ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,in ,italy the beautiful carved choir stalls of the #afth century were frequently enriched with ,,intarsia1 a light wood inlay upon a dark ground1 this intarsia being afterwards slightly etched and black rubbed in1 or scorched with hot sand or irons4 ,the choir stalls at ,st4 ,organo1 ,verona1 and the ,certosa1 at ,pavia1 are fine examples of ,intarsia4 ,illustration3 ,,cassone ,,or ,,chest ,s ,k ,m ,,italian #af,,th ,,century ,in the ,renascence of ,france we meet with many examples of beautiful furniture1 great skill1 taste and ingenuity being brought to bear upon this work4 ,jean ,goujon1 ,bachelier and ,philibert de l',orme were famed for their wood carvings in the #afth century4 ,in #afdb1 ,andr ,charles ,boule introduced a veneered work composed of thin tortoise-shell and brass1 frequently chased or engraved2 this is now termed ,,boule work4 ,in some of the later work the shell is laid on a vermilion or gold ground1 which greatly enhances its effect4 ,in the #ahth century1 ,boule work was still made in ,france1 but new methods and new men came to the front1 amongst others were ,riesener and ,david ,roentgen1 who produced splendid ,,marquetry of flowers1 festoons and diaper patterns inlaid in various coloured woods4 ,both these men worked in mahogany and ebony1 and their lighter marquetry was frequently shaded by scorching with hot sand4 ,these pieces of furniture were usually enriched with gilt1 bronze or metal mountings by ,gouthire1 a contemporary craftsman4 ,a beautiful mode of enriching woodwork was introduced by ,vernis ,martin1 #agjf-gj2 this was the use of a gold and green lac1 which was transparent and brilliant1 and similar to the beautiful lac work of ,japan4 ,illustration ,of ,english men of this period1 ,thomas ,chippendale produced some good furniture and published a book of designs in #agfd1 which undoubtedly influenced much of the furniture of that period2 ,mathias ,lock was another noted cabinet maker4 ,in #aghi1 ,a4 ,hepplewhite published a book on furniture1 and1 in #agie1 ,thomas ,sheraton published a work on the same subject4 ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,screen4 #af,,th ,,century4 ,,french ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum ,the beautiful panelling and carved mantels of the many fine halls of the time of ,elizabeth and ,james are characteristic of ,english work4 ,contemporary with this are the beautiful ,english panelled chests with quaint imagery and enrichments1 and the curious ,jacobean bed-foot with its pierced pedestal and baluster pillar4 ,with ,grinling ,gibbons1 who died in #agba1 wood carving reached its culmination for delicacy and skilful craftsmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,textile ,,fabrics4 ,plate #ce4 ,,textiles4 ,the utility1 universality1 construction1 texture1 ornamentation and colour of textile fabrics are full of interest and suggestiveness1 for in the remarkable development of textile fabrics we may trace the continuity of style and tradition1 the intermingling of races and customs1 and the grafting of religious ideas with the wealth and luxuriance of the past4 ,all fabrics wrought in the loom are called textiles4 ,they are broadly divided into three classes3 #ast1 plain fabrics in which the warp and weft alternate equally2 #bnd1 those fabrics in which a pattern is produced by the warp and weft intermingling in different proportions or colours1 figured cloths and tapestries being included in this class2 #crd1 those fabrics in which the plain textile ,,no4 #a is enriched with the needle or by printing1 termed embroideries or printed fabrics4 ,owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile fabrics are in existence4 ,the oldest examples are found in the tombs of ,egypt1 where1 owing to the dryness of the climate1 some fabrics of the early dynasties still remain4 ,they are usually of fine linen and without enrichment1 yet upon the same tombs are many painted patterns that undoubtedly show a woven origin4 ,the oldest figured fabrics found in ,egypt are of the #fth century ,a4,d41 and they show a remarkable similarity to the early patterns of ,persia and ,byzantium1 for it was in ,india1 ,persia and ,arabia that textiles reached their perfection of workmanship and their wealth of material4 ,this splendid tradition was carried from ,persia and ,india to ,byzantium in the #eth century1 and in the #hth century the ,arabians absorbed and assimilated the arts of ,persia1 ,india1 ,egypt and ,spain and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,the ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and periods are characterised by well-defined forms1 differentiated by racial influence1 climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of the people4 ,yet the traditional ,eastern origin may be traced through many textile designs1 for there is no doubt that ,india1 ,persia and ,arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than any other nations4 ,this was due no doubt partly to the ,eastern weavers carrying their art and traditions with them to various parts of ,europe1 and also to the exportation of their splendid fabrics1 but principally to the beautiful and interesting designs which were perfectly adapted to the process of weaving4 ,it is due no doubt to this frank adaptation of natural forms and their appropriateness to the technical necessities of woven fabrics1 that has rendered this ,eastern influence so persistent through many centuries in different parts of ,europe4 ,it is remarkable that even in ,italy during the whole of the ,renascence period1 with the characteristic scroll forms and acanthus foliation of its architecture and decorative arts1 the textiles are quite distinct in style1 having the characteristics of the ,sicilian1 ,persian and ,indian ornament4 ,among the earliest figured fabrics must be placed those of ,assyria1 of which representations may be seen in ,layard's ,book on ,nineveh4 ,the patterns consisted of symmetrically placed winged figures with the ,hom or ,tree of ,life and the rosette1 which was used as a symbol by ,zoraster4 ,it is probable that many of these patterns were embroidered1 as the ,babylonians were reported to be skilful in the art of embroidery1 but it is also certain that some of the patterns were woven4 ,the figured fabrics found in ,egypt only date from the #eth and #fth centuries ,a4,d41 and show a marked ,byzantine and ,persian influence 7figs4 #a-g1 plate #ce74 ,characteristic ,byzantine examples have medallions and symmetrically placed figures and ornament of the 8,hom40 ,at ,alexandria and ,antioch1 many fine green and gold silk fabrics with ornament in brown outline were produced from the #fth to the #ajth centuries4 ,under the ,saracens1 textile fabrics reached their highest development2 splendour of colour1 beauty and perfection of material and the singularly interesting beauty of the designs being the chief characteristics4 ,the conquest of ,persia1 in #fcb ,a4,d41 by ,abu ,bekr1 the successor of ,mahomet1 the establishment of ,bagdad in #gfb as the capital of the ,arabian ,khalifs1 and the invasion of ,india1 in #gaa1 gave a remarkable impetus to the decorative arts1 more especially the arts of dyeing1 weaving and embroidery4 ,these arts culminated in the splendid period of the ,fatimy ,khalifs1 #iji-aaga ,a4,d4 ,though ,mahomet forbade his followers to wear silk1 it was largely used by the ,saracens and1 to evade the injunction1 cotton was frequently interwoven with it1 and1 in ,india especially1 the fabrics often have a cotton warp as a foundation for the weft patterns of coloured silks and gold thread4 ,many fine examples of ,saracenic fabrics of the #aath to the #aeth centuries are now in our national museums4 ,the larger portion are from ,sicily1 and are termed ,sicilian or ,siculo-,saracenic4 ,they have bands of birds1 animals1 foliage and inscriptions in blue1 green and gold on a red ground4 ,if wholly of silk the fabric was termed ,holosericum1 and if of silk and gold1 ,chrysoclavum fundatum4 ,drawn gold thread was not used in early fabrics1 but gold leaf laid on paper or skin and then rolled round a fine thread of silk was largely used by the ,saracenic weavers4 ,the patterns in some of the later ,sicilian fabrics of the #acth and #adth centuries have a purple ground in twilled silk1 with birds and foliage formed by a weft of gold thread4 ,these patterns were usually symmetrical in arrangement1 no doubt partly due to the traditional art of ,assyria1 but also to the simple necessities of weaving1 for in the early looms the turnover of the pattern was frequently used4 ,the ,saracenic fabrics produced in ,spain are called ,hispano-,moresque and are distinguished by splendid crimson or dark blue conventional patterns of silk upon a yellow ground of a fine quality1 and a frequent use of strips of gilded parchment in place of the rolled gilt thread4 ,in this period1 many fine velvets raised on a satin ground with gold ,illustration3 ,plate #cf4 ,,sicilian ,,fabric ,,in ,,gold ,,thread ,,on ,,purple ,,ground4 #ac,,th ,,century4 ,,bock ,,collection4 ,,manchester ,illustration3 ,plate #cg4 ,,printed ,,cotton4 ,,indian #ah,,th ,,cent4 ,s4,k4,m4 and silver threads1 were made4 ,in the #abth century1 ,roger ,,ii41 the ,norman ,king of ,northern ,sicily1 took ,corinth and ,argos1 and carried many weavers and embroiderers from ,greece to ,sicily1 and established them at ,palermo1 where they quickly assimilated the ,sicilian style and produced many fine fabrics during the #acth and #adth centuries4 ,the crusades now began to influence the arts2 in #ajih1 ,antioch was taken and the spoil distributed through ,europe2 in #abjd1 ,constantinople was taken by ,baldwin1 ,count of ,flanders1 and the ,venetian ,doge1 ,dandolo1 and the vast spoil of textiles distributed4 ,it was doubtless under the influence of the crusades that the ,sicilian weavers of the #acth and #adth centuries produced the many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged lions1 foliated crosses and crowns1 rayed stars1 harts and birds linked together1 and with the introduction of armorial bearings4 ,early in the #adth century1 this splendid tradition was introduced into ,italy1 and at ,lucca many beautiful fabrics were produced1 having the same characteristics and technique as the ,sicilian fabrics4 ,the cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of ,richard ,,ii4 in ,westminster ,abbey has a pattern of foliage with couchant harts and rayed stars1 and was most probably copied from the original silk made for ,richard at ,lucca or ,palermo4 ,the beautiful materials and designs of ,indian textile fabrics are indicative of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a remote antiquity4 ,though influenced at various times by ,greek1 ,persian and ,arabian traditions1 ,india still preserved an indigenous ornamental art of remarkable freshness and vitality1 the designers choosing their own flora and fauna with rare selective power and adaptive qualities4 ,with an instinctive feeling for ornamental art1 aided by the splendid colourings of the native dyes1 they produced textile fabrics of silks1 brocades1 and gold and silver lace remarkable for richness and perfection of material1 beauty of design and harmony of colour4 ,the ,indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment differentiated from the cypress of ,persia 7fig4 #a1 plate #bb71 by the spiral at the apex4 ,this typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail 7figs4 #d1 #e and #f1 plate #bc74 ,the splendid carpets of ,india were doubtless influenced by the ,persian tradition and they follow the same methods and ornamental arrangements1 adapting1 conventionalizing and emphasising plants1 flowers and seeds1 and rendering them with a fine feeling for form and colour4 ,block printing was largely used for silks and cottons1 and many splendid examples are now treasured in our museums2 an illustration of a printed cotton ,palampore from ,south ,kensington is given here1 showing the beautiful floral treatment1 diversity of detail1 and contrast of line and mass4 ,the gold and silver ,brocades or 8,kincobs0 of ,ahmedabad and ,benares1 with patterns of animals1 flowers and foliage richly spangled2 the delicate muslins of ,dacca1 the gold and silver primed muslins of ,jaipur1 and the woollen ,illustration3 ,plate #ch4 ,,persian ,,carpet4 #af,,th ,,century4 ,s4,k4,m shawls of ,kashmir1 with the well-known pine pattern1 are splendid examples of richness of material1 delicacy and skilfulness of technic1 and beauty and appropriateness of ornamentation4 ,the ,pile carpets of ,persia1 especially those of ,kurdistan1 ,khorassan1 ,kirman1 and ,ferahan1 are the finest in the world1 being magnificent in colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful flora1 with birds and animals interspersed with the ornament1 giving a largeness of mass and interest and vitality of detail4 ,the illustration on the opposite page is from a fine #afth century ,persian carpet1 and is a good example of their methods and traditions4 ,the hyacinth1 tulip1 iris and the pink1 are frequently introduced1 together with the hom or tree of life4 ,an illustration is given 7fig4 #b1 plate #bb7 of a ,genoa fabric but of ,persian design1 showing the typical 8pink0 with its simplicity and beauty of line4 ,this traditional art of ,persia had a most marked influence upon the textile fabrics of ,europe from the #abth to the #agth centuries4 ,this was no doubt due to many causes1 but the perfect adaptability to the process of weaving1 the interest1 inventiveness and beauty of the ornament1 and the singular frank treatment of form and colour1 doubtless appealed to the craftsmen of ,europe1 and hence we find many ,persian designs produced in ,sicily1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,france and ,flanders4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,mullion ,,pattern1 ,,italian4 ,the finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the looms of ,florence show a distinct ,persian influence in their bold artichoke and pomegranate patterns of the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,in ,genoa1 similar patterns in many coloured velvets were produced1 and it is singular how largely this persistency of type prevails in all countries4 ,illustration3 ,,silk ,,italian #afth ,,century ,in #adhj1 ,louis ,,xi4 introduced the art into ,france1 when looms were established at ,tours1 and in #aebj they were established at ,lyons by ,francis ,i41 and the art of weaving rapidly spread4 ,the earliest fabrics of these looms have patterns similar to the ,persian and ,italian fabrics2 but soon the vase pattern1 which no doubt had its origin in ,byzantine textiles and which had been used by the ,persians and ,italians1 began to influence ,french designs4 ,however1 this rapidly gave place towards the middle of the #agth century to the imitations of ribbons and laces in textile fabrics1 together with a more naturalistic treatment of floral forms1 and the beauty1 suggestiveness and interest of the early patterns now gave way to prettiness1 affectation and a naturalistic treatment which culminated in the period of ,madame ,pompadour4 ,the remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the weaving of figured fabrics was introduced by ,bonchon1 #agbe1 and continued by ,falcon in #agbh1 by ,vancanson in #agde1 and perfected by ,joseph ,marie ,jacquard1 #ageb-ahcd4 ,the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe by ,louis the ,,xiv41 caused large numbers of weavers to come to ,england1 bringing their art and tradition with them1 and many established themselves at ,spitalfields which soon rose to some importance4 ,the patterns1 necessarily1 were purely ,french in treatment1 consisting of natural arrangements of flowers2 a sketch is here given of a ,spitalfields design for silk damask4 ,illustration3 ,,flower ,,vase ,,pattern ,the textile fabrics of ,flanders reached a high degree of perfection in the #afth and #agth centuries1 ,bruges being famous for its silk damasks and velvets1 the patterns showing the traditional ,persian or the pomegranate and artichoke type of the ,florentine textiles4 ,block printing had been introduced into ,flanders in the #aeth century and many fine patterns with ,indian motives were produced up to the #agth century4 ,illustration3 ,,design ,,for ,a ,,spitalsfield ,,silk ,,fabric ,,dated #agci ,,skm ,at ,ypres1 fine diapered linen was manufactured1 and ,ghent was famous for its woollens1 but the remarkable prosperity of ,flanders was destroyed by the ,spanish occupation 7#aeef-afdh74 ,illustration3 ,,single ,,mullion ,,pattern ,then large numbers of ,flemish weavers came to ,england and settled in many parts of the country1 bringing their traditions and craftsmanship1 which have undoubtedly had a most marked influence upon the production of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in ,england4 ,tapestry1 of which many fine examples of the #afth and #agth centuries are treasured in our museums and palaces1 differs from most woven fabrics in its method of production1 which consists of interweaving and knotting short pieces of coloured wefts1 which form the pattern1 to a strong warp1 a ground weft being thrown across each pick to bind the material well together2 ,illustration3 ,,textile ,,fabrics4 ,plate #ci4 this is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture of the ,indian and ,persian carpets4 ,it was during the #adth and #aeth centuries1 at ,arras in ,flanders1 that storied tapestries were brought to their culmination and the tapestry workers became a most powerful guild4 ,from about #adhj1 ,brussels produced many magnificent hangings from designs by the great masters of the ,italian ,renascence4 ,raphael's famous cartoons which are now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum are the original designs for the ten tapestries manufactured at ,brussels for ,pope ,leo ,x4 for the enrichment of the ,sistine chapel in the ,vatican2 the seven cartoons1 three being lost1 were purchased by ,charles ,i4 ,many of the great ,flemish painters also designed for the ,brussels tapestries1 such as ,van ,orley1 ,van ,leyden and ,jan ,mabuse4 ,francis ,i4 caused tapestry looms to be set up at ,fontainbleau in #acci1 under the direction of the ,italian1 ,serlio1 but it was not until the ,gobelin tapestry manufactory was established in #afjc in the ,faubourg ,saint ,marcel by the ,fleming1 ,marc de ,comans1 and ,franois de la ,planche1 that ,french tapestry reached any importance4 ,under the ,minister ,colbert in #affg1 the ,royal ,gobelin manufactory produced many fine tapestries designed by the head of the establishment1 ,charles le ,brun4 ,about #aeij1 some carpets called ,savonnerie were made in the ,louvre1 the technique being somewhat similar to the ,persian carpets but the patterns were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment2 fine tapestries were also produced at ,beauvais and ,aubusson4 ,tapestry had been manufactured in ,england as early as the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 but it was not until the time of ,james ,i4 that it assumed any importance1 when a tapestry manufactory was established at ,mortlake by ,francis ,crane4 ,some fine ,flemish tapestries are in the ,south ,kensington museum and eight large pieces by ,bernard ,van ,orley are in the ,great ,hall of ,hampton ,court4 ,the coloured cartoons by ,mantegna in ,hampton ,court1 representing the ,triumph of ,csar1 were to be reproduced in tapestry for the ,duke of ,mantua4 ,there are some fine ,gobelin and ,beauvais tapestries in ,windsor ,castle which were gifts from the ,court of ,france1 and they all show the most consummate technique1 beauty of material and harmony of colour4 ,the well-known ,bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a white linen ground4 ,it is #bad feet in length and #bb inches in width and divided in #gb compartments with incidents representing the ,norman invasion of ,england by ,william ,i4 ,though reputed to be the work of ,queen ,matilda1 the probability is that it is the work of ,english hands some few years after the invasion4 ,this embroidery or tapestry is still preserved in the cathedral of ,bayeux4 ,the remarkable civilization of the ,incas or ,peruvians1 is shown in the many splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our museums4 ,of these relics of a vanished civilization1 the textile ,illustration3 ,,peruvian ,,textiles4 ,plate #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,peruvian ,,textiles4 ,plate #da4 fabrics are1 perhaps1 the most instructive and interesting4 ,the high technical skill of the craftsmanship1 the fine spinning of the wool and cotton1 and the perfection of the dyeing of the yarn1 together with the skilful weaving of the figured cloths and tapestries are a tribute to the vitality and civilization of a people remote from all ,asiatic or ,european influences4 ,many of the fabrics are of double cloth1 of deep brown and pale straw colour1 and show the same colour and pattern on both sides of the cloth4 ,some of the fabrics are tapestry woven1 having short strands of coloured wool inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle1 and they somewhat resemble the ,gobelin tapestry in their method of production4 ,a few of these ,peruvian cotton fabrics are ornamented by means of tied or knotted work1 identical with the ,bandhana or knotted work termed ,chunti ,cloth1 of the ,north-west province of ,india4 ,these knotted patterns consist of simple spots arranged in square1 zig-zag or curved lines4 ,the pattern is first marked with a red earth on the plain fabric2 then the pattern or spots are tied up tightly with cotton thread and the whole dipped in the dye which only acts on the untied portions of the cloth2 a white pattern on a coloured ground is thus produced1 both sides being alike4 ,these ,peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the beautiful flora of ,peru as elements for decoration4 ,the fylfot or fret is a frequent form of enrichment 7plates #dj-da47 ,the wave scroll so typical of ,greek work is also a remarkable element in ,peruvian ornament1 and illustrates the singular development of the same ideas and aspect of form among people so remote from each other as the ,greeks and ,peruvians4 ,but the patterns that sharply differentiate ,peruvian examples from all other styles are the conventional treatments of figures1 birds1 fishes and animals4 ,the llama is conspicuous in many patterns1 but the bird forms are the most remarkable1 having many variations of type and treatment4 ,illustrations are given in plates #dj and #da1 all taken from the ,smithies ,loan ,collection at ,manchester4 ,other examples of these interesting fabrics may be seen in the ,smithies collection at ,south ,kensington1 showing the wonderful diversity of the treatment of pattern designing by a people so remote as the ,peruvians4 ,it is difficult to fix any date for these ,peruvian examples1 but as it is known that during the reign of ,inca ,pachacutic 7circa #acij71 the ceramic art was at its best1 we may assume that the sister art of weaving reached its perfection about the same period1 and continued until the ,spanish ,conquest in the #afth century4 ,illustration3 ,,frets4 ,plate #db4 ,,frets4 ,the remarkable universality of the fret1 the simplicity and rhythm of detail1 its adaptability and usefulness for surface enrichment1 have made the fret one of the best known forms of ornamentation4 ,it was used in the surface decorations of the tombs of ,egypt1 the temples of ,greece1 and the civic and domestic buildings of ,rome4 ,the ,greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys was used on the simple abacus and plain fascias of the ,dorian architecture1 in bands upon the painted vases1 and in a concentric form when used in the interior of the red-figured circular cylix4 ,the ,romans1 without imparting freshness1 used the same right-angled key pattern1 chiefly as borders for mosaic pavements and upon the horizontal soffits of their architecture4 ,the ,byzantine using the same type in conjunction with the cross and circle gave more significance to the fret4 ,the ,arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line together with the right-angled key1 obtaining a wonderful degree of complexity and richness4 ,the ,celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one1 but the recurrent angle is rounded to a curve4 ,chinese and ,japanese frets are usually right-angled1 and are used in great profusion1 often in a secondary field or background4 ,illustration3 ,,wall ,,mosaic ,,of ,,coloured ,,marbles ,the ,japanese key or 8,fret diaper0 is used in the greatest profusion2 it is used alike on silks and brocades1 damascened in metal1 in cloisonn enamel and in lacquered work1 and is frequently arranged in irregular shaped compartments or medallions4 ,the ,greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the ,japanese1 who generally use the disconnected or irregular fret4 ,a similar irregular fret border was used by the ,peruvians 7plate #da71 by the ,mexicans1 and by the natives of ,polynesia4 ,the ,assyrian and ,byzantine guilloche is but a curved fret1 but additional interest is given by the introduction of radiating forms in the principal interstices of the fret 7fig4 #e1 plate #aa47 ,illustration3 ,plate #dc4 ,,continuity ,,of ,,style in architecture and ornament has always been influenced by tradition1 racial influence1 and the myths and religious beliefs of the people1 and it developed with the progress of the nation1 often culminating in some great epoch4 ,frequently the continuity was carried on by some contemporary or succeeding race1 modified by different conditions and environments1 yet still retaining the style in its general characteristics1 or1 this thread of continuity was occasionally lost for a time1 only to spring into new life1 endowed with fresh vitality and beauty1 culminating again in splendour4 ,then fresh religious ideas and conditions engrafted their symbolism and traditions upon the style1 thus forming a new period in the history of art4 ,ornament is the expression of the people or of the priestcraft1 and in its primitive state was used symbolically4 ,the ornament of ,polynesia and ,melanesia probably shows this primitive state of ornamentation4 ,isolated as these islanders were from the influence of ,eastern or ,western art1 and with but little communication among the various islands1 the ornamental art of these people has its own traditions and characteristics1 each province or group of islands showing different ideas and details in proportion to its culture or state of civilization1 ,new ,zealand showing the highest development and ,australia the lowest1 while with the ,marquesans the ornament is almost pure picture writings4 ,the illustration of the beautiful paddle in the ,heape collection1 with its geometric ornamentation1 shows the continuity and ornamental development of the representation of the human figure1 which was originally chosen by the priesthood for its significance or divinity4 ,in ,europe and ,asia all trace of this primitive stage has ceased to exist4 ,the development and continuity of ideas and customs1 the traditions of style and craftsmanship carried on through many centuries of the world's history have obliterated the early or primitive style of ornament1 chosen first for its significance or emblematic character4 ,some remarkable examples of pottery and woven textile fabrics have been recently found in the ancient cemeteries of ,peru--relics of the ,incas--long anterior to the ,spanish conquest4 ,many fine examples of these woven textiles of cotton and wool are now in the ,south ,kensington museum1 forming the ,smithies collection1 and1 as in the ornament of ,polynesia1 floral forms are entirely absent1 the ornament consisting of conventional representations of the human figure1 with the owl1 condor and the toucan1 mingled with the wave scroll and the fret1 elements doubtless chosen for their significance4 ,many beautiful illustrations could be chosen from the history of ornament1 showing this continuity and persistency of line and form and its remarkable influence upon contemporary and succeeding races4 ,perhaps the form and enrichment of the ,architectural ,capital offer one of the most interesting and instructive fields of study in the history and evolution of architecture4 ,the remarkable persistency of the capital as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many centuries1 though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial influences1 yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and enrichment among the various nations of the earth4 ,the function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the columns the weight of the entablature or archivolt1 and the beauty and appropriateness of the capital depends3-- ,first1 upon this functional treatment of strength2 ,second1 upon the beauty of profile or mass2 ,third1 upon the enrichment and proportion of the capital4 ,the dignified ,doric capital of the ,greeks illustrates these functions and conditions by its perfect adaptability1 simple functional strength1 beauty of profile1 appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and harmony of parts1 qualities which are essential to beauty of architecture4 ,in the ,parthenon1 ,b4,c4 #dch1 we have the finest treatment of this capital--a treatment full of dignity1 reserve1 and unison of profile 7plate #f74 ,the many examples of the ,doric ,order in ,greece and her colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the ,greeks4 ,the ,indian capital 7plate #bd7 exhibits the same functional treatment by the use of brackets or modillions1 which undoubtedly are a survival of a wooden construction1 and which are typical of ,eastern architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,capital ,,from ,,phil4 ,the remarkable persistency of the profile1 and enrichment of the capital extending through a period of #d1jjj years1 may be illustrated by a series of diagrams of typical examples4 ,the profile of the capital has not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given1 and the enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency1 though differentiated by racial influences4 ,the ,corinthian capital1 with its volutes and acanthus foliage1 is but the architectural continuity of the ,egyptian capital4 ,the only pure ,greek example of this order is from the monument of ,lysicrates1 but the ,romans continued the tradition1 assimilating and elaborating until they produced the magnificent capitals of the portico of the ,pantheon and the temple of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,in these examples the leaves are arranged in series of two rows of eight leaves each1 the volutes springing from sheaths and stems between the leaves1 which support the angle of the volutes4 ,the example of early ,french ,gothic has similar characteristics and illustrates the continuity of style4 ,the ,ionic capital1 though one of the most persistent in the history of architecture1 never reached the architectonic perfection of other capitals4 ,this was undoubtedly owing to the wooden origin being incompatible with the necessities of stone and marble4 ,there is a want of unity between the volutes and ovolo of the capital2 in brief1 it has neither coherence nor harmony of parts4 ,the exquisite craftsmanship of the capitals of the ,erectheum1 with their anthemion enrichment of the greatest purity1 the beauty of the ovolo and the subtility of the volutes compensates to some extent for the lack of unison 7plate #f74 ,the enrichment of the architectural capital is no doubt a survival of the primitive custom of binding floral forms round the simple functional capital1 these forms being afterwards perpetuated in stone or marble4 ,illustration3 ,,corinthian ,,capital ,,from ,,the ,,pantheon ,,rome4 ,in early ,corinthian examples these floral forms were frequently of beaten metal1 which1 in turn1 gave place to the beautiful marble foliage of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,french4 ,,early ,,gothic4 ,that the ancients used metal work in their capitals we have abundant proof4 ,in the descriptions of the building of ,solomon's ,temple we read of 8,two chapiters of molten brass to set upon the pillars1 and nets of chequer work and wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the pillars40 ,illustration3 ,,composite ,,capital ,,from ,,pompeii4 ,the ,composite capital is deficient in coherence and unity of parts1 having the same defects as its prototype the ,ionic4 ,the annexed illustration from ,ancient ,rome gives an unusual treatment by the introduction of the human figure in the centre of the face of the capital4 ,the ,byzantine capital differs from those of the ,greeks and ,romans in its marked symbolism of detail and the prevalence of the cushion form4 ,functionally1 this type of capital is admirable1 yet it lacks the vigorous upward growth of the ,egyptian and early ,gothic capitals4 ,the ,byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety of detail1 such as interlacing circles and crosses with their mystic symbolism1 basket work1 chequered details1 and the traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the ,greeks4 ,illustration3 ,,byzantine4 ,s,t ,,marks ,,venice4 ,these features are seen in the greatest profusion at ,s4 ,sophia at ,constantinople2 ,s4 ,apollinare and ,s4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 and ,s4 ,marco at ,venice4 ,these splendid capitals of a splendid period are exceedingly beautiful in fertile inventiveness of enrichment1 and show the assimilative power of the ,byzantine craftsmen4 ,the abundant use of chequer work1 wreaths of chain work1 and of lily work in ,byzantine capitals1 many of which are figured in ,ruskin's 8,stones of ,venice10 show the continuity of style and tradition in architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,byzantine ,s,t ,,marks ,,venice4 ,the ,byzantine capitals have the square abacus1 usually consisting of a simple fillet and chamfer enriched with the billet1 dentil or star pattern4 ,the ,dosseret1 a singular adjunct to the capital was introduced during this period2 it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed upon the abacus of the capital to give additional height 7plate #aa74 ,illustration3 ,,byzantine ,,capital ,s,t ,,mark',s ,,venice4 ,the ,byzantine influence is seen upon the ,norman capitals with their square abacus of fillet and chamfer1 and the cushion profile of capital4 ,some remarkable ,siculo-,norman capitals are in the cloisters of the ,benedictine ,monastery of ,monreale in ,sicily1 ,a4,d4 #aagd-aahd4 ,the great fertility of inventiveness in the #bjj capitals1 their storiation1 the intermingling of figures1 birds and animals with the classic and ,byzantine foliage makes this cloister one of the most remarkable in the history of the world4 ,the ,arabian capital1 which frequently shows the traditional volute1 differs from the typical bell-shaped form in its marked squareness of profile with flat or low reliefs enriched with colour4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,romanesque ,,capital4 ,the ,early ,gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful4 ,the perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving1 the significance of its detail as emblematic of the ,trinity1 the spiral growth of its foliage and the vigorous contrast of light and shade are the chief characteristics of this period4 ,lacking1 perhaps1 the delicacy or variety of detail of the ,byzantine period or the later ,gothic work1 it excelled them in the appropriateness of its enrichment1 which is more beautiful in the ,early ,english examples with their circular abacus than in contemporary ,french capitals where the square abacus was prevalent4 ,the transition from the circular column to the square abacus was always felt to be a difficulty1 and was rarely overcome1 but in the circular abacus of the ,early ,english capitals we have a break in the continuity of the style of the capital4 ,illustration3 ,,capitals ,,from ,,the ,,cloisters ,,montreale4 ,illustration3 ,,capitals ,,from ,,the ,,cloisters ,,of ,,montreale4 ,the ,english foliage of this period differs from the ,french in the use of a deep mid-rib and simple trefoil leaf4 ,the ,french examples have a less pronounced mid-rib1 and the leaf is convex in form and divided into three lobes1 and the foliage adheres more closely to the bell1 consequently the brilliant play of light and shade which is so characteristic of ,early ,english work1 is generally absent from ,french examples 7fig4 #ab1 plate #af74 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,english ,,capital ,,ely ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,arabian ,,capital ,,from ,,the ,,alhamora ,illustration3 ,,south-,,westminster ,,decorated ,,capitals ,the ,decorated ,gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the ,early ,gothic period1 a more natural type of foliage being used1 consisting of the briony1 maple1 mallow and oak4 ,this foliage was carved with singular delicacy of touch and grace of profile1 and is beautiful in its modelling and play of light and shade1 yet frequently the capitals are trivial in conception and arrangement1 lacking that architectonic character which is so essential to all architectural constructive features4 ,illustration3 ,,renascence ,,capital ,,venice4 ,the perpendicular or late ,gothic capital was usually octagonal in form with square conventional foliage of the vine1 showing a marked decadence in tradition and craftsmanship 7fig4 #i1 plate #ag74 ,the ,renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling for profile1 splendid craftsmanship1 diversity of enrichment1 and vitality of conception1 more especially in ,italy1 where the tradition of architecture culminated in the works of such remarkable men as ,leon ,battista ,alberti1 ,bramante1 ,baldassare ,peruzzi1 ,san ,micheli1 ,serlio1 ,palladio1 and ,sansovenio4 ,the tradition was worthily carried on in ,france by ,pierre ,lescot1 ,jean ,bullant1 ,philipert de ,lorme1 and ,de ,brosse1 and in ,england by ,inigo ,jones1 ,wren1 and ,chambers4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,scroll4 ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,ornamental ,,art4 ,ornament is the means by which ,beauty or ,significance is imparted to ,utility4 ,it is either ,symbolical or ,aesthetic4 ,symbolic ornament consists of elements or forms chosen for the sake of their significance--,aesthetic ornament consists of forms or elements chosen for their ,beauty alone1 or their power of appealing to the senses4 ,of the historic styles of ornament1 the ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,byzantine1 ,scandinavian1 ,persian1 ,indian1 ,gothic1 ,polynesian1 and much of the ,chinese and ,japanese are symbolical1 having elements and ornamental details chosen for their significance2 while in the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,renascence ornament1 the purely aesthetic motive is characteristic4 ,ornament1 again1 may be natural or conventional--,imitative or ,inventive4 ,the terms 8natural0 and 8imitative0 have the same significance--viz41 the exact copying of natural forms1 so that they become principal--not secondary as perfect ornament should be4 ,conventional ornament is the adaptation of natural forms to ornamental and technical requirements1 and is seen in its greatest beauty in the frank treatment by the ,indians and ,persians of their flora and fauna for the decorative enrichment of their textile fabrics1 pottery1 and jewellery4 ,inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived from any natural source2 the ,moresque style is a good example of this type4 ,the elements of ornament are the details or forms chosen for ornamental motives1 and the principals of ornament are the arrangement of these forms and details2 they comprise repetition1 alternation1 symmetry1 radiation1 balance1 proportion1 variety1 eurythmy1 contrast1 intersection1 complication1 fitness1 and utility4 ,repetition is the use of elements in a continuous series2 ,alternation is the repetition of an element at intervals1 with others intervening2 ,symmetry3 when the leading lines are equal or similar 7or reciprocal7 on both sides2 ,radiation3 when the lines spring from a centre1 for example1 a bird's wing and the flower of the daisy2 ,balance and ,proportion3 when the relation and harmony of parts is based upon natural laws2 ,variety implies difference in the details1 with respect to form or type2 ,eurythmy signifies rhythms or harmony in ornament2 ,contrast is the arrangement in close proximity of colours or forms of opposite characters1 as the straight line with the curve1 or light with dark2 ,intersection is the crossing of the leading lines1 the ,arabian1 ,moresque and ,celtic styles are examples of this principle2 ,complication is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be more or less difficult to trace with the eye alone3 as in the ,japanese key and the ,moresque star pattern4 ,fitness and utility as their names imply are essentials in all good periods of ornamentation4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,scroll4 99 99 99 99 99 ,text ,books upon ,architecture and ,ornament4 ,classic and ,early ,christian ,architecture ,roger ,smith1 #e_/- ,gothic and ,renascence ,roger ,smith1 #e_/- ,glossary of ,architecture ,j4 ,parker1 #g_/f ,handbook of ,architectural ,styles ,rosengarten1 #g_/f ,introduction to ,gothic ,architecture ,j4 ,parker1 #e_/- ,three ,manuals of ,gothic ,ornament ,j4 ,parker1 each #a_/- ,classic and ,early ,christian ,sculpture ,g4 ,redford1 #e_/- ,gothic and ,renascence ,sculpture ,leader ,scott1 #e_/- ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture1 #b vols4 ,ed4 ,gardner1 #aj_/- ,history of ,greek ,art ,tarbell1 #e_/- ,analysis of ,ornament ,j4 ,wornum1 #h_/- ,handbook of ,ornament ,meyer1 #aj_/f ,an excellent series of illustrated ,handbooks upon the ,industrial ,arts by writers of repute1 is published by the ,science and ,art ,department1 and may be obtained at the ,bookstall of the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 at a cost of #a_/-;each part 7paper covers71 or they may be purchased through ,messrs4 ,chapman and ,hall1 at #b_/f each part1 bound in cloth1 they include3 ,the ,industrial ,arts of ,india ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood 8 8 ,spain ,juan ,f4 ,riano 8 8 ,denmark ,j4 ,j4 ,worsaae 8 8 ,scandinavia ,hans ,hildebrand ,the ,saracens of ,egypt ,stanley ,lane ,poole each in ,early ,christian ,art in ,ireland ,margaret ,stokes two parts4 ,english ,earthenware ,a4 ,h4 ,church 8 ,porcelain ,a4 ,h4 ,church ,french ,pottery ,p4 ,gasnault ,e4 ,garnier ,wrought ,iron ,work ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner ,bronzes ,drury ,e4 ,fortnum ,college and ,corporation ,plate ,wilfred ,cripps ,furniture ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen ,gold and ,silversmith's ,work ,j4 ,h4 ,pollen ,glass ,a4 ,nesbitt ,ivories ,w4 ,maskell complete ,japanese ,pottery ,a4 ,w4 ,franks in ,maiolica ,drury ,e4 ,fortnum one part4 ,persian ,art ,r4 ,murdoch ,smith ,textile ,fabrics ,rev4 ,daniel ,rock ,tapestry ,alfred de ,champeaux ,the ,industrial ,arts 99 99 99 99 99 ,works of ,reference4 ,architecture3-- ,antiquities of ,rome ,taylor ,cresy4 ,antiquities of ,athens ,stuart ,revett4 ,analysis of ,gothic ,architecture ,brandon4 ,architecture for ,general ,readers ,h4 ,h4 ,statham4 ,byzantine ,architecture ,texies ,pullan4 ,constantinople ,salzenberg4 ,civil ,architecture ,chambers4 ,decorated ,window ,tracery ,e4 ,sharpe4 ,encyclopdia of ,architecture ,gwilt4 ,english ,renascence ,architecture ,j4 ,a4 ,gotch4 ,gothic ,mouldings ,f4 ,a4 ,paley4 ,gothic ,architecture ,t4 ,rickman4 ,gothic ,architecture in ,france ,e4 ,corroyer4 ,gothic ,architecture in ,spain ,g4 ,e4 ,street4 ,gothic ,foliage ,j4 ,k4 ,collings4 ,handbook of ,architecture ,j4 ,fergusson4 ,history of ,architecture ,j4 ,fergusson4 ,indian and ,eastern ,architecture ,j4 ,fergusson4 ,mansions of ,england ,j4 ,nash4 ,old ,english ,mansions ,c4 ,richardson4 ,orders of ,architecture ,r4 ,phne ,spiers4 ,orders of ,architecture ,c4 ,norman4 ,orders of ,architecture ,j4 ,m4 ,manch4 ,spanish ,renascence ,d4 ,n4 ,prentice4 ,stones of ,venice ,j4 ,ruskin4 ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture ,j4 ,ruskin4 ,the ,seven ,periods of ,church ,architecture ,e4 ,sharpe4 ,ornament and ,sculpture3-- ,art of the ,old ,english ,potter ,l4 ,m4 ,solon4 ,ancient ,pottery ,s4 ,birch4 ,alphabets ,e4 ,strange4 ,alphabets ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 ,basis of ,design ,walter ,crane4 ,fresco ,decoration in ,italy ,l4 ,gruner4 ,grammar of ,ornament ,owen ,jones4 ,greek and ,roman ,sculpture ,w4 ,g4 ,perry4 ,greek ,vase ,painting ,jane ,harrison4 ,glass ,painting ,c4 ,winston4 ,stained ,glass ,windows ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 ,handbook of ,greek ,archology ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 ,primitive ,greece ,persia ,phrygia ,george ,perrot and ,sardinia and ,asia ,minor ,c4 ,chipiez4 ,chaldea and ,assyria ,egypt ,keramic ,art of ,japan ,audsley ,bowles4 ,nineveh ,layard4 ,ornamental ,metal ,work ,digby ,wyatt4 ,ornamental ,art ,gruner4 ,ornamental ,textiles ,fischbach4 ,ornament of ,textile ,fabrics ,dupont ,auberville4 ,pompeii ,zahn4 ,polychromatic ,ornament ,racinet4 ,the ,alhambra ,owen ,jones4 ,alfred ,stevens1 his life and work ,hugh ,stannus4 ,many excellent 8,,cantor ,,lectures10 by experts1 upon the practical application of the ,industrial ,arts1 will be found in the ,society of ,arts ,journal4 ,the following ,lectures may be studied with advantage3 ,april1 #ahia ,cloisonn ,clement ,heaton4 ,feb41 #ahid ,decorative ,treatment of ,artificial ,foliage ,hugh ,stannus4 ,april1 #ahia ,decorative ,treatment of ,natural ,foliage ,hugh ,stannus4 ,june1 #ahig ,delft ,ware ,j4 ,w4 ,l4 ,glaisher4 ,march1 #ahia ,enamels ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 ,jan41 #ahib ,indian ,art ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood4 ,feb41 #ahib ,japanese ,pottery ,e4 ,hart4 ,feb41 #ahia ,lithography ,w4 ,simpson4 ,jan41 #ahig ,material and ,design in ,pottery ,william ,burton4 ,april1 #ahia ,plaster ,work ,a4 ,robinson4 ,feb41 #ahia ,storiation ,hugh ,stannus4 ,feb41 #ahia ,s'graffito ,heywood ,sumner4 ,march1 #ahii ,vitreous ,enamels ,c4 ,davenport4 ,feb41 #ahih ,some ,laws of ,form in ,applied ,art ,hugh ,stannus4 ,in the transactions of the ,rochdale ,literary ,society for #ahia 7,aldine ,press7 is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on 8,the ,ornamental ,art of ,savage ,people10 by ,dr4 ,hjalmar ,stolpe1 translated by ,mrs4 ,h4 ,c4 ,march4 ,the transactions of the ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,antiquarian ,society 7#ahia7 contains an excellent article upon 8,the ,pagan ,christian ,overlap in the ,north10 by ,h4 ,colley ,march1 ,m4,d4 ,the illustrated articles in the transactions of the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects1 may also be studied with advantage1 they include3 #ahib ,byzantine ,architecture ,george ,aitchison4 #ahib ,casting in ,metals ,d4 ,graham1 ,h4 ,longden ,h4 ,singer4 #ahia ,decorative ,plaster ,work ,g4 ,robinson1 ,heywood ,sumner and ,stephen ,webb4 #ahig ,heraldry in ,english ,medival ,architecture ,w4 ,h4 ,st4 ,john ,hope4 #ahig ,heraldry of the ,renascence in ,england ,alfred ,gotch4 #ahih ,heraldic ,drawing ,j4 ,d4 ,crace4 #ahid ,mosaics ,c4 ,h4 ,harrison ,j4 ,c4 ,powell4 #ahih ,sculptured ,columns of the ,temple at ,ephesus ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 #ahia ,sculpture in relation to ,architecture ,g4 ,simonds4 #ahib ,stained ,glass ,h4 ,charpenter1 ,j4 ,powell1 ,h4 ,westlake and ,c4 ,heaton4 #ahia ,wrought ,iron ,work1 ,medival ,period ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 #ahia ,wrought ,iron ,work1 ,renascence ,period ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 ,good articles are found in the ,magazine of ,art1 they include3 #ahig ,chippendale ,furniture ,c4 ,dempsey4 #ahic ,design ,walter ,crane4 #ahij ,embroidered ,bookcovers ,s4 ,e4 ,prideaux4 #ahif ,ironwork ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 #ahhh ,language of ,line ,walter ,crane4 #ahhb-c ,stained ,glass ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 #ahhc ,sheraton ,furniture ,e4 ,balfour4 #ahia ,the ,use of ,metals in ,bookbinding ,s4 ,e4 ,prideaux4 #ahhd ,the ,ficoroni ,dressing ,case #ahif ,the ,influence of ,architecture ,style upon ,design ,walter ,crane4 ,in the ,art ,journal1 there is3 #ahhh ,ancient ,glass in the ,british ,museum ,henry ,wallis4 #ahhi ,antique ,glass in the ,naples ,museum ,henry ,wallis4 #ahhh ,textile ,fabrics in the ,south ,kensington ,museum ,gilbert ,r4 ,redgrave4 #ahhg ,meaning in ,ornament ,lewis ,f4 ,day4 #ahhh ,the ,boulaq ,museum ,henry ,wallis4 ,in the ,portfolio1 there is3 #ahic ,old ,english ,pottery ,a4 ,h4 ,church4 #ahic ,english ,enamels ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 #ahic ,english ,bookbinding ,w4 ,y4 ,fletcher4 #ahid ,bookbinding in ,france ,w4 ,y4 ,fletcher4 #ahid ,italian ,book ,illustrations ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard4 #ahid ,josiah ,wedgwood ,a4 ,h4 ,church4 #ahih ,greek ,bronzes ,a4 ,s4 ,murray4 #ahig ,armour in ,england ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 #ahih ,foreign ,armour in ,england ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner4 ,in the ,builder1 there are the ,royal ,academy ,lectures upon ,architecture given by ,george ,aitchison1 ,r4,a4 ,they include3 #ahia ,roman ,architecture4 #ahib ,saracenic ,architecture4 #ahic ,byzantine ,architecture4 #ahid ,renascence ,architecture4 #ahif ,romanesque ,architecture4 ,index4 ,,page4 ,alberti1 ,leon1 ,battista1 #eg ,aldus ,manutius1 #ed ,alhambra1 #fc ,amasis1 #gg ,anthemion1 #g-ag ,andreani1 ,andrea1 #ed ,apollodorus1 #bg ,arabesque1 #ec-ed ,arch of ,septimus ,severus1 #ba ,architecture ,capitals1 #abf ,composite1 #bb ,corinthian1 #aj ,decorated ,gothic1 #ci-df-acj ,doric1 #i ,early ,gothic1 #ch-de-abi ,english ,renascence1 #fj ,french ,renascence1 #eh ,ionic1 #i ,italian ,renascence1 #ef ,perpendicular ,gothic1 #df ,tuscan1 #bb ,atrium1 #bc ,baccio d',agnolo1 #eg ,balducco di ,pisa1 #ej ,baptistery at ,pisa1 #di ,baptistery at ,florence1 #ej-ajc ,basilica of ,trajan1 #bg ,black ,figure ,vases1 #gg ,boule1 ,andr1 #ei-ajg ,bramante1 #eg ,bronzes1 #ajc ,brunelleschi1 #ea-eg ,buen ,retiro1 #hc ,bullant1 ,jean1 #eh ,busti1 ,agostino1 #ed ,cachrylion1 #gg ,cambio1 ,arnolfo di1 #di ,caradosso1 #ea ,caryatides1 #i ,castor ,ware1 #hj ,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 #ea ,celtic ,ornament1 #ce ,ceramic ,art1 #gh ,chairs1 #ajf ,chaldea1 #g ,champlev ,enamels1 #ce ,chinese ,ornament1 #ga ,chippendale1 #ajf ,chryselephantine ,sculpture1 #gc ,cinque-,cento ,ornament1 #di-eb ,classification of ,temples1 #aa ,classification of ,gothic ,architecture1 #cf ,cloisonn ,enamels1 #ia ,coleone1 ,bartolomeo1 #ajc ,cologne ,pots1 #hb ,column of ,trajan1 #bg ,column of ,marcus ,aurelius1 #bg ,compluvium1 #bc ,continuity of ,style1 #abe ,crockets1 #de ,cronaca1 #eg ,decorated ,gothic ,details1 #df ,delft ,ware1 #hj ,dipylon ,ware1 #gg ,domus1 #bc ,donatello1 #ea ,duris1 #gg ,early ,gothic ,details1 #de ,earthenware1 #gi ,egyptian ,ornament1 #e ,elgin ,marbles1 #ac ,elizabethan ,ornament1 #fj ,elizabethan ,mansions1 #fj ,enamels1 #ia ,english ,cathedrals1 #dj ,english ,renascence1 #fj ,epiktetos1 #gg ,euphronios1 #gg ,exekias1 #gg ,fauces1 #bc ,flaxman1 #hb ,fontana1 #eg ,fontano1 ,orazio1 #hg ,french ,cathedrals1 #dj ,frets1 #abc ,frieze of the ,parthenon1 #ae ,frieze at ,phigaleia1 #ae ,frieze at ,pergamos1 #af ,frieze from ,susa1 #ag ,georgio1 ,maestro1 #hg-hh ,ghiberti1 ,lorenzo1 #ej-ajc ,giotto1 #di ,glass1 #ie-ig ,gobelin ,tapestry1 #ei ,goldsmith's ,work1 #aja ,gothic ,architecture1 #cf ,goujon1 ,jean1 #ei-ajg ,gouthire1 #ei-ajg ,greek ,architecture1 #i ,greek ,ceramics1 #gg ,grisaille ,enamel1 #ic ,grisaille ,glass1 #ih ,grinling ,gibbons1 #ajg ,grolier1 #ei ,henri ,deux ,period1 #eh ,henri ,deux ,pottery1 #ha ,henri ,quatre1 #eh ,hepplewhite1 #ajg ,hieron1 #gg ,hispano-,moresque ,pottery1 #hg ,impluvium1 #bc ,indian ,ornament1 #fi ,insular1 #bc ,ivories1 #gc ,jacobean1 #fj ,japanese ,ornament1 #ga ,jean1 ,juste1 #eh ,jeweller's ,enamel1 #ib ,lacunaria1 #be ,lancet ,period1 #ch ,leoni1 ,lione1 #ea ,leoni1 ,pompeoni1 #ea ,lescot1 ,pierre1 #eh ,lombardo1 ,pietro1 ,tullio and ,antonio1 #ed-ef ,lotus1 #g ,louis ,quatorze1 #ei ,louis ,quinze1 #ei ,louis ,seize1 #ei ,maiolica1 #hg ,mantegna1 ,andrea1 #ed ,marquetry1 #ajg ,matteo ,civitali1 #ea ,mausoleum1 #af ,melanesia1 #c ,michel ,angelo1 #eb ,michelozzi1 #eg ,mino da ,fiesole1 #ea ,mosaics1 #ge ,mycen or ,colonial ,ware1 #gg ,nicosthenes1 #gg ,nineveh1 #g ,norman ,architecture1 #cg ,oiron ,pottery1 #ha ,opus ,tesselatum1 #ge ,opus ,lithostratum1 #ge ,opus ,miserum1 #ge ,painted ,enamels1 #ia ,palaces in ,italy1 #eg ,palissy1 ,bernard1 #ha ,palladio1 ,andrea1 #ef ,pamphios1 #gg ,pantheon1 #bb ,pannitz1 ,arnold1 #ed ,parthenon1 #ac ,pastorino1 #ea ,patera1 #g ,penni1 ,francesco1 #ec ,perino del ,vaga1 #ec ,perpendicular ,gothic1 #df ,persian ,ornament1 #fe ,peristylium1 #bc ,pethenos1 #gg ,peruvian ,textiles1 #aah ,peruzzi1 ,baldassare1 #eg ,phaleron ,ware1 #gg ,phidias1 #ac ,pisanello1 #ea ,pisano1 ,nicolo1 #di 8 ,giovanni1 #di 8 ,andrea1 #ej 8 ,vittore1 #ea ,plaster ,work1 #fa ,plique ,jour1 #ib ,polynesian ,ornament1 #b ,pompeian ,ornament1 #bi ,porcelain1 #gi-hc ,portland ,vase1 #ie ,primaticcio1 #ed ,printing in ,italy1 #ed ,pythos1 #gg ,quercia1 ,jacopo della1 #ej ,raphael1 #ec ,red ,figured ,ware1 #gg ,renascence ,ornament1 #di ,renascence ,palaces1 #eg ,rhodian ,pottery1 #hj ,riesener1 #ajg ,robbia1 ,luca della1 #ea-hg-ij 8 ,andrea 81 #ea-ij 8 ,giovanni 81 #ea-ij ,roentgen1 ,david1 #ajg ,romano1 ,giulio1 #ec-ed ,roman ,ornament1 #be ,rosette1 #g ,rossellini1 #ea ,rouen ,pottery1 #ha ,samian ,ware1 #hj ,sangallo1 ,antonio1 #eg 8 ,giuliano1 #eg ,sansovino1 ,andrea1 #ed 8 ,jacopo1 #ed ,scandinavian ,ornament1 #cc ,serlio1 #ef ,settignano1 ,desiderio da1 #ea ,sgraffito1 #hg ,sheraton1 ,thomas1 #ajg ,sicilian ,fabrics1 #aaa ,silversmith's ,work1 #aja ,sperandio1 #ea ,stained ,glass1 #ig ,stiacciato1 #ea ,stoneware1 #hb ,st4 ,mark's1 #ca 8 ,apollinare ,nuovo1 #ca 8 8 in ,classe1 #ca ,st4 ,sophia1 #ca 8 ,vitale1 #ca 8 ,paul's1 #fa ,sweynheym1 ,conrad1 #ed ,tablinum1 #bc ,tapestry1 #aah ,terra ,cotta1 #hi ,terms used in ,ornamental ,art1 #aca ,textile ,fabrics1 #aji ,theatre of ,marcellus1 #ba ,therm1 #be ,tijon1 ,jean1 #aje ,toft1 ,thomas1 #hb ,torrigiano1 #fj ,trajan1 #bg ,trecento1 #di ,triforium1 #da ,triclinium1 #bc ,udine1 ,giovanni da1 #ec ,verrocchio1 ,andrea del1 #ea ,vestibule1 #bc ,vignola1 #eh ,vincentine1 #ea ,viridarium1 #bc ,vitruvius1 #ef ,watteau1 #ei ,wedgwood1 #hb ,well-heads1 #eg ,wheildon1 ,thomas1 #hb ,wrought ,iron1 #aje ,zormorpic ,ornament1 #ce 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,standard ,,books ,,on ,,architecture ,,and ,,the ,,decorative ,,arts ,,published ,,by ,b4 ,t4 ,,batsford1 #id1 ,,high ,,holborn1 ,,london4 ,forwarded ,carriage ,paid at the ,discount ,prices affixed4 ,,nature ,,in ,,ornament4 ,by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day4 ,with #abc full-page ,plates and #aib ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,third ,edition1 revised 7,fifth ,thousand74 ,thick crown #hvo1 in handsome cloth binding1 richly gilt1 from a special design by the ,author4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 ,net #ajs4 ,,contents3--,i4 ,introductory4 ,,ii4 ,ornament in ,nature4 ,,iii4 ,nature in ,ornament4 ,,iv4 ,the ,simplification of ,natural ,forms4 ,v4 ,the ,elaboration of ,natural ,forms4 ,,vi4 ,consistency in the ,modification of ,nature4 ,,vii4 ,parallel ,renderings4 ,,viii4 ,more ,parallels4 ,,ix4 ,tradition in ,design4 ,x4 ,treatment4 ,,xi4 ,animals in ,ornament4 ,,xii4 ,the ,element of the ,grotesque4 ,,xiii4 ,still ,life in ,ornament4 ,,xiv4 ,symbolic ,ornament4 8,amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is ,mr4 ,lewis ,f4 ,day1 who is the author of several books on ornamental art4 #8,nature in ,ornament' is the latest of these1 and is probably the best4 ,the treatise should be in the hands of every student of ornamental design4 ,it is profusely and admirably illustrated1 and well printed40--,magazine of ,art4 8,a book more beautiful for its illustrations1 or one more helpful to students of art1 can hardly be imagined40--,queen4 ,,some ,,principles ,,of ,,every ,,day ,,art4--,,introductory ,,chapters ,,on ,,the ,,arts ,,not ,,fine4 ,forming a ,prefatory ,volume to the ,series of ,text ,books4 ,second ,edition 7,fourth ,thousand71 revised1 containing #gj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 art linen4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,net #cs4 8,authoritative as coming from a writer whose mastery of the subjects is not to be disputed1 and who is generous in imparting the knowledge he acquired with difficulty4 ,mr4 ,day has taken much trouble with the new edition40--,architect4 8,a good artist1 and a sound thinker1 ,mr4 ,day has produced a book of sterling value40--,magazine of ,art4 ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,pattern4--,fourth ,edition 7,ninth ,thousand71 revised1 with #da full-page ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 art linen4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,net #cs4 ,,contents3--,i4 ,introductory4 ,,ii4 ,pattern ,dissections4 ,,iii4 ,practical ,pattern ,planning4 ,,iv4 ,the 8,drop0 ,pattern4 ,v4 ,skeleton ,plans4 ,,vi4 ,appropriate ,pattern4 8 444 ,there are few men who know the science of their profession better or can teach it as well as ,mr4 ,lewis ,day2 few also who are more gifted as practical decorators2 and in anatomising pattern in the way he has done in this manual--a way beautiful as well as useful--he has performed a service not only to the students of his profession1 but also to the public40--,academy4 ,,the ,,planning ,,of ,,ornament4--,third ,edition 7,fifth ,thousand71 further revised1 with #da full-page ,illustrations1 many of which have been re-drawn4 ,crown #hvo1 art linen4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,net #cs4 ,,contents3--,i4 ,introductory4 ,,ii4 ,the use of the ,border4 ,,iii4 ,within the ,border4 ,,iv4 ,some ,alternatives in ,design4 ,v4 ,on the ,filling of the ,circle and other ,shapes4 ,,vi4 ,order and ,accident4 8,contains many apt and well-drawn illustrations2 it is a highly comprehensive1 compact1 and intelligent treatise on a subject which is more difficult to treat than outsiders are likely to think4 ,it is a capital little book1 from which no tyro 7it is addressed to improvable minds7 can avoid gaining a good deal40--,athenum4 ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,ornament4--,third ,edition 7,sixth ,thousand71 further revised1 with #dh full-page ,illustrations and #g ,woodcuts in the ,text4 ,crown #hvo1 art linen4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 ,net #cs4 ,,contents3--,i4 ,the ,rationale of the ,conventional4 ,,ii4 ,what is implied by ,repetition4 ,,iii4 ,where to stop in ,ornament4 ,,iv4 ,style and ,handicraft4 ,v4 ,the ,teaching of the ,tool4 ,,vi4 ,some ,superstitions4 8,a most worthy supplement to the former work1 and a distinct gain to the art student who has already applied his art knowledge in a practical manner1 or who hopes yet to do so40--,science and ,art4 ,,ornamental ,,design4--,comprising the ,three ,books1 8,,anatomy ,,of ,,pattern10 8,,planning ,,of ,,ornament10 and 8,,application ,,of ,,ornament10 handsomely bound in one volume1 cloth gilt4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,net #hs4 #f;d4 ,,windows4--,a ,,book ,,about ,,stained ,,and ,,painted ,,glass4 ,by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day4 ,,book ,i41 8,,the ,,course ,,of ,,craftsmanship02 ,,book ,,ii41 8,,the ,,course ,,of ,,design02 ,,book ,,iii41 8,,by ,,the ,,way40 ,containing #daj pages1 including #ej full-page ,plates1 and upwards of #bjj ,illustrations in the ,text1 all of ,old ,examples4 ,large #hvo1 cloth gilt4 ,price #bas4 net4 8,contains a more complete popular account--technical and historical--of stained and painted glass than has previously appeared in this country40--,the ,times4 8,the book is a masterpiece in its way 444 amply illustrated and carefully printed2 it will long remain an authority on its subject40--,the ,art ,journal4 8,all for whom the subject of stained glass possesses an interest and a charm1 will peruse these pages with pleasure and profit40--,the ,morning ,post4 8,mr4 ,day has done a worthy piece of work in more than his usual admirable manner 444 the illustrations are all good and some the best black-and-white drawings of stained glass yet produced40--,the ,studio4 ,in ,preparation4 ,to be published shortly4 ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,embroidery4--,by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day and ,,miss ,,mary ,,buckle4 ,being a handbook on the ,art for ,designers1 ,needleworkers1 ,students1 ,teachers1 c4 ,both artistic and practical sides of the subject are thoroughly treated1 and the work is illustrated with ,photographs of ,stitches1 and ,historic ,examples1 c4 ,now published1 the most handy1 useful1 and comprehensive work on the subject4 ,,alphabets1 ,,old ,,and ,,new4--,containing #aej complete ,alphabets1 #cj ,series of ,numerals1 ,numerous ,facsimiles of ,ancient ,dates4 ,selected and arranged by ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day4 ,preceded by a short account of the ,development of the ,alphabet4 ,with ,modern ,examples specially designed by ,,walter ,,crane1 ,,patten ,,wilson1 ,a4 ,,beresford ,,pite1 the ,author1 and others4 ,crown #hvo1 art linen4 ,second ,impression1 completing ,fifth ,thousand4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 8,mr4 ,day's explanation of the growth of form in letters is particularly valuable4444 ,many excellent alphabets are given in illustration of his remarks40--,the ,studio4 8,every one who employs practical lettering will be grateful for #8,alphabets1 ,old and ,new4' ,mr4 ,day has written a scholarly and pithy introduction1 and contributes some beautiful alphabets of his own design40--,the ,art ,journal4 8,a practical resum of all that is to be known on the subject1 concisely and clearly stated40--,st4 ,james's ,gazette4 8,it goes without saying that whatever ,mr4 ,batsford publishes and ,mr4 ,day has to do with is presented in a good artistic form1 complete1 and wherever that is possible1 graceful40--,the ,athenum4 ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,ornament4--,with #cjj ,plates1 containing about #c1jjj ,illustrations of the ,elements and ,application of ,decoration to ,objects4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,,meyer1 ,professor at the ,school of ,applied ,art1 ,karlsruhe4 ,second ,english ,edition1 revised by ,,hugh ,,stannus1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,lecturer on ,applied ,art at the ,royal ,college of ,art1 ,south ,kensington4 ,thick #hvo1 cloth gilt1 gilt top4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 ,net #ajs4 8,a library1 a museum1 an encyclopdia1 and an art school in one4 ,to rival it as a book of reference1 one must fill a book case4 ,the quality of the drawings is unusually high1 the choice of examples is singularly good4444 ,the work is practically an epitome of a hundred works on ,design40--,studio4 8,the author's acquaintance with ornament amazes1 and his three thousand subjects are gleaned from the finest which the world affords4 ,as a treasury of ornament drawn to scale in all styles1 and derived from genuine concrete objects1 we have nothing in ,england which will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with ,professor ,meyer's book40--,architect4 8,the book is a mine of wealth even to an ordinary reader1 while to the student of art and archology it is simply indispensable as a reference book4 ,we know of no one work of its kind that approaches it for comprehensiveness and historical accuracy40--,science and ,art4 ,,the ,,historic ,,styles ,,of ,,ornament4--,containing #a1ejj examples from all countries and all periods1 exhibited on #ajj ,plates1 mostly printed in gold and colours4 ,with historical and descriptive text translated from the ,german of ,h4 ,,dolmetsch4 ,folio1 handsomely bound in cloth1 gilt4 ,price #a #es4 net4 ,this work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the purpose of showing the development of ,ornament1 and the application of colour to it in various countries through the epochs of history4 ,the work illustrates not only ,flat ,ornament1 but also many ,,decorative ,,objects1 such as ,,metal-,,work1 ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain1 ,,lace1 ,,enamel1 ,,mosaic1 ,,illumination1 ,,stained ,,glass1 ,,jewellery1 ,,bookbinding1 c4 showing the application of ,ornament to ,industrial ,art4 ,a small remainder1 just reduced in price4 ,,animals ,,in ,,ornament4--,by ,professor ,g4 ,,sturm4 ,containing #cj large ,collotype ,plates1 printed in tint1 of ,designs suitable for ,friezes1 ,panels1 ,borders1 ,wall-papers1 ,carving1 and all kinds of ,surface ,decoration1 c4 ,large folio in portfolio4 ,price #ahs4 net 7published #a #ajs474 ,a new and useful series of clever designs1 showing how animal form may be adapted to decorative purposes with good effect4 ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,art ,,smithing4--,for the use of ,practical ,smiths1 ,designers and others1 and in ,art and ,technical ,schools4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,,meyer1 ,author of 8,a ,handbook of ,ornament40 ,translated from the ,second ,german ,edition4 ,with an ,introduction by ,j4 ,,starkie ,,gardner4 ,containing #bad ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 ,price #fs4 ,net #es4 ,both the ,artistic and the ,practical ,branches of the subject are dealt with1 and the ,illustrations give selected ,examples of ,ancient and ,modern ,ironwork4 ,the ,volume thus fills the long-existing want of a ,manual on ,ornamental ,ironwork1 and it is hoped will prove of value to all interested in the subject4 8,charmingly produced4444 ,it is really a most excellent manual1 crowded with examples of ancient work1 for the most part extremely well selected40--,the ,studio4 8,professor ,meyer's work is a useful historical manual on ,art ,smithing1 based on a scientific classification of the subject1 that will be of service to all smiths1 designers1 and students of technical and art schools4 ,the illustrations are well drawn and numerous40--,building ,news4 ,a ,facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable ,books of ,designs ever published in ,england4 ,a ,,new ,,booke ,,of ,,drawings ,,of ,,iron ,,worke4--,invented and ,designed by ,,john ,,tijou4 ,containing severall sortes of ,iron ,worke1 as ,gates1 ,frontispieces1 ,balconies1 ,staircases1 ,pannells1 c41 of which the most part hath been wrought at the ,royal ,building of ,hampton ,court1 c4 ,,all ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,them ,,that ,,worke ,,iron ,,in ,,perfection ,,and ,,with ,,art4 7,sold by the ,author in ,london1 #afic47 ,containing #bj folio ,plates4 ,with an ,introductory ,note and ,descriptions of the ,plates by ,j4 ,,starkie ,,gardner4 ,folio1 bound in boards1 old style4 ,price #bes4 net4 ,only #aej copies were printed for ,england1 and but #bj now remain4 ,early application is therefore necessary to secure copies4 ,an original copy is priced at #dh in a recent catalogue of ,mr4 ,bernard ,quaritch1 the renowned bookseller4 ,,decorative ,,wrought ,,ironwork ,,of ,,the #ag,,th ,,and #ah,,th ,,centuries4--,by ,d4 ,j4 ,,ebbetts4 ,containing #af large ,lithographic ,plates1 illustrating #gj ,english ,examples of ,screens1 ,grilles1 ,panels1 ,balustrades1 c4 ,folio1 boards1 cloth back4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 ,net #ajs4 ,just ,published4 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,practical ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,brass ,,repouss ,,for ,,amateurs4--,by ,,gawthorp 7,art ,metal ,worker to ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince of ,wales74 ,second and ,enlarged ,edition4 ,with #cb ,illustrations1 many from photographs of executed designs4 ,crown #hvo1 in wrapper4 ,price #as4 net4 ,,examples ,,of ,,english ,,medi,,val ,,foliage ,,and ,,coloured ,,decoration4--,by ,,jas4 ,k4 ,,colling1 ,architect1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,taken from ,buildings of the ,x,i,ith to the ,x,vth ,century4 ,containing #gf ,lithographic ,plates and #gi ,woodcut ,illustrations1 with ,text4 ,royal #dto1 cloth1 gilt top4 ,price #ahs41 net #aes4 7published at #b #bs474 ,published with the ,sanction of the ,science and ,art ,department4 ,,french ,,wood ,,carvings ,,from ,,the ,,national ,,museums4--,a ,series of ,examples printed in ,collotype from ,photographs specially taken from the ,carvings direct4 ,edited by ,,eleanor ,,rowe4 ,part ,i4 ,late #aeth and ,early #afth ,century ,examples2 ,part ,,ii4 #afth ,century2 ,part ,,iii4 #agth and #ahth ,centuries4 ,the ,three ,series complete1 each containing #ah large folio ,plates1 with ,descriptive ,letterpress4 ,folio1 in portfolios1 price #abs4 each net1 or handsomely half bound1 in one volume1 price #b #es4 net4 8,students of the art of ,wood ,carving will find a mine of inexhaustible treasures in this series of illustrations of ,french ,wood ,carvings4444 ,each plate is a work of art in itself2 the distribution of light and shade is admirably managed1 and the differences in relief are faithfully indicated1 while every detail is reproduced with a clearness that will prove invaluable to the student4444 ,sections are given with several of the plates40--,the ,queen4 8,needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the craft1 whether archologically or practically40--,the ,studio4 ,,hints ,,on ,,wood ,,carving ,,for ,,beginners4--,by ,,eleanor ,,rowe1 with a ,preface by ,j4 ,h4 ,,pollen4 ,fourth ,edition1 revised and enlarged1 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 sewed4 ,price #as4 in paper covers1 or bound in cloth1 price #as4 #f;d4 8,the most useful and practical small book on ,wood ,carving we know of40--,builder4 8 444 ,is a useful little book1 full of sound directions and good suggestions40--,magazine of ,art4 ,,hints ,,on ,,chip ,,carving4--7,class ,teaching and other ,northern ,styles47 ,by ,,eleanor ,,rowe1 with a ,preface by ,t4 ,r4 ,,ablett4 #dj ,illustrations4 #hvo1 sewed4 ,price #as4 in paper covers1 or in cloth1 price #as4 #f;d4 8,a capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most popular40--,saturday ,review4 ,,details ,,of ,,gothic ,,wood ,,carving4--,being a ,series of ,drawings from ,original ,work of the #adth and #aeth ,centuries4 ,by ,,franklyn ,a4 ,,crallan4 ,containing #cd large ,photo-lithographic ,plates1 illustrating some of the finest specimens of ,gothic ,wood ,carving extant1 with ,introductory and ,descriptive ,text4 ,large #dto1 in handsome cloth portfolio1 or bound in cloth gilt4 ,price #bhs4 ,net #bds4 8,the examples are carefully drawn to a large size 444 well selected and very well executed40--,the ,builder4 8,this admirable work is one of great interest and value4444 ,every variety of ,gothic detail is here illustrated4 ,hitherto no full-sized details have been published1 so that the present work will be invaluable to the wood carver1 as the drawings possess all the strength and vigour of the original work40--,education4 ,,progressive ,,studies ,,and ,,designs ,,for ,,wood ,,carvers4--,by ,,miss ,e4 ,r4 ,,plowden4 ,with a ,preface by ,,miss ,,rowe4 ,consisting of seven large folding sheets of ,illustrations 7drawn full size71 of a variety of objects suitable for ,wood ,carving4 ,with ,descriptive ,text4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged4 #dto1 in portfolio4 ,price #es4 net4 ,,remains ,,of ,,ecclesiastical ,,wood-,,work4--,a ,series of ,examples of ,stalls1 ,screens1 ,book-,boards1 ,roofs1 ,pulpits1 c41 containing #ba ,plates beautifully engraved on ,copper1 from drawings by ,t4 ,,talbot ,,bury1 ,archt4 #dto1 half-bound4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d41 net #hs4 #f;d4 ,,hepplewhite',s ,,cabinet-,,maker ,,and ,,upholsterer',s ,,guide2 or ,repository of ,designs for every article of ,household ,furniture in the newest and most approved taste4--,a complete facsimile reproduction of this rare work1 containing nearly #cjj charming ,designs on #abh ,plates4 ,small folio1 bound in speckled cloth1 gilt1 old style4 ,price #b #ajs4 net4 7#agid47 ,original ,copies when met with fetch from #ae to #ah4 8,a beautiful replica1 which every admirer of the author and the period should possess40--,the ,building ,news4 ,,chippendale',s ,,the ,,gentleman ,,and ,,cabinet-,,maker',s ,,director4--,a complete ,facsimile of the ,third and rarest ,edition1 containing #bjj ,plates of ,designs of ,chairs1 ,sofas1 ,beds and ,couches1 ,tables1 ,library ,book ,cases1 ,clock ,cases1 ,stove ,grates1 c41 c4 ,folio1 strongly bound in half-cloth4 ,price #c #aes4 net4 7#agfb47 ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,houses4--,by ,,edith ,,wharton1 and ,,ogden ,,codman1 ,architect4 #bjd pages of text1 with #ef full-page ,photographic ,plates of ,views of ,rooms1 ,doors1 ,ceilings1 ,fireplaces1 various pieces of ,furniture1 c41 from the ,renaissance period4 ,large square #hvo1 cloth gilt4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 net4 8 444 has illustrations which are beautiful 444 because they illustrate the sound and simple principle of decoration which the authors put forward4444 ,the book is one which should be in the library of every man and woman of means1 for its advice is characterised by so much common sense as well as by the best of taste40--,the ,queen4 ,,old ,,clocks ,,and ,,watches ,,and ,,their ,,makers4--,by ,f4 ,j4 ,,britten1 ,secretary of the ,horological ,institute4 ,being an ,account of the ,history of ,clocks and ,watches1 with a ,list of #h1jjj ,old ,makers1 with descriptive ,notes4 ,containing over #djj ,illustrations1 many from photographs1 of choice and curious examples1 of ,clocks and ,watches of the past1 including the finely-ornamented ,bracket ,clocks of the ,x,v,i,ith ,century1 and the tall cases of the ,x,v,i,i,ith ,century4 #eab pages4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth gilt4 ,price #ajs4 net4 ,,flat ,,ornament2 ,a ,,pattern ,,book ,,for ,,designers ,,of ,,textiles1 ,,embroideries1 ,,wall ,,papers1 ,,inlays1 ,c41 ,c4--#aej ,plates1 some printed in colours1 exhibiting upwards of #ejj ,examples of ,textiles1 ,embroideries1 ,paper ,hangings1 ,tile ,pavements1 ,intarsia ,work1 c4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,fischbach4 ,imperial #dto boards1 cloth back4 ,price #bes4 ,net #bjs4 ,,examples ,,of ,,old ,,furniture1 ,,english ,,and ,,foreign4--,drawn and described by ,,alfred ,,ernest ,,chancellor4 ,containing #dj ,photo-lithographic ,plates exhibiting some #ajj examples of ,elizabethan1 ,stuart1 ,queen ,anne1 ,georgian and ,chippendale furniture2 and an interesting variety of ,continental work4 ,with historical and descriptive notes4 ,large #dto1 gilt4 ,price #a #es4 ,net #a #as4 8,in publishing his admirable collection of drawings of old furniture1 ,mr4 ,chancellor secures the gratitude of all admirers of the consummate craftsmanship of the past4 ,his examples are selected from a variety of sources with fine discrimination1 all having an expression and individuality of their own--qualities that are so conspicuously lacking in the furniture of our own day4 ,it forms a very acceptable work40--,the ,morning ,post4 ,,plastering3 ,,plain ,,and ,,decorative4--,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,art and ,craft of ,plastering and ,modelling4 ,including full description of the various ,tools1 ,materials1 ,processes and ,appliances employed4 ,with over #ej full-page ,plates1 and about #ejj smaller ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,by ,,william ,,millar4 ,with an ,introduction of the ,history of the ,art1 by ,g4 ,t4 ,,robinson1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,thick #dto1 cloth1 containing #fjj pages of ,text4 ,price #ahs4 net4 8,this new and in many senses remarkable treatise 444 unquestionably contains an immense amount of valuable first-hand information4444 #8,millar on ,plastering' may be expected to be the standard authority on the subject for many years to come4444 ,a truly monumental work40--,the ,builder4 ,a ,,grammar ,,of ,,japanese ,,ornament ,,and ,,design4--,illustrated by #fe ,plates1 many in gold and colours1 representing all classes of ,natural and ,conventional ,forms1 drawn from the originals1 with ,introductory1 ,descriptive1 and ,analytical ,text4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,cutler1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,imperial #dto1 in elegant cloth binding4 ,price #b #fs4 ,net #a #ahs4 ,,native ,,printed ,,japanese ,,art ,,books4 ,,japanese ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,design4 ,,book ,i4--,containing over #a1ejj engraved ,curious and most ingenious ,geometric ,patterns of ,circles1 ,medallions1 c41 comprising ,conventional ,details of ,plants1 ,flowers1 ,leaves1 ,petals1 also ,birds1 ,fans1 ,animals1 ,key ,patterns1 c41 c4 ,oblong #abmo1 fancy covers4 ,price #bs4 net4 ,,book ,,ii4--,containing over #fjj most original and effective ,designs for ,diaper ,ornament1 giving the base lines to the design1 also ,artistic ,miniature ,picturesque ,sketches4 ,oblong #abmo1 fancy covers4 ,price #bs4 net4 ,these books exhibit the varied charm and originality of conception of ,japanese ,ornament1 and form an inexhaustible field of ,design4 ,a ,,delightful ,,series ,,of ,,studies ,,of ,,birds ,,in ,,most ,,characteristic ,,and ,,life-,,like ,,attitudes1 ,,surrounded ,,with ,,appropriate ,,foliage ,,and ,,flowers4--,by the celebrated ,japanese ,artist1 ,,bairei ,,kono4 ,in three ,books1 #hvo1 each containing #cf pages of highly artistic and decorative ,illustrations printed in tints4 ,bound in fancy paper covers4 ,price #ajs4 net4 ,these books are of the greatest value to ,artists1 ,screen and ,china ,painters1 ,decorators1 and ,designers in all branches of ,art ,manufacture1 and of much interest to the admirers of ,japanese ,art4 8,in attitude and gesture and expression1 these birds1 whether perching or soaring1 swooping or brooding1 are admirable40--,magazine of ,art4 ,,japanese ,,studies ,,of ,,birds ,,and ,,flowers1 ,a ,,new ,,series ,,of4--,by ,,watanabe ,,sietei1 the acknowledged leading living ,artist in ,japan4 #c volumes1 containing numerous exceedingly ,artistic ,sketches in various tints1 #hvo1 fancy covers4 ,price #ajs4 net4 8,contain a wealth of exquisite xylographic impressions1 which cannot be beaten by any ,european attempts40--,the ,studio4 ,,the ,,architecture ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,italy4--,a ,general ,view for the use of ,students and others4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,anderson1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,director of ,architecture1 ,glasgow ,school of ,art4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,containing #gd full-page ,plates1 mostly reproduced from ,photographs1 and #ih ,illustrations in ,text4 ,large #hvo1 cloth gilt4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 net4 8,a delightful and scholarly work 444 very fully illustrated40--,journal ,r4,i4,b4,a4 8,it is the work of a scholar taking a large view of his subject4444 ,the book affords easy and intelligible reading1 and the arrangement of the subject is excellent1 though this was a matter of no small difficulty40--,the ,times4 8,should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the day40--,the ,edinburgh ,review4 8,we know of no book which furnishes such information and such illustrations in so compact and attractive a form4 ,for greater excellence with the object in hand there is not one more perspicuous40--,the ,building ,news4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,architecture ,,for ,,the ,,student1 ,,craftsman ,,and ,,amateur4--,being a ,comparative ,view of the ,historical ,styles from the ,earliest ,period4 ,by ,,banister ,,fletcher1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 ,professor of ,architecture in ,king's ,college1 ,london1 and ,b4 ,f4 ,,fletcher1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,containing upwards of #cjj pages1 with #aae ,collotype ,plates1 mostly reproduced from large ,photographs1 and other ,illustrations in the ,text4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 gilt4 ,price #abs4 #f;d4 ,net #ajs4 8,we shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognised and adopted as par excellence ,,the ,,student',s ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,architecture40--,the ,architect4 ,,the ,,orders ,,of ,,architecture3 ,,greek1 ,,roman ,,and ,,italian4--,selected from ,normand's ,parallels1 c4 ,with #d new ,plates specially prepared4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 by ,r4 ,,phen ,,spiers1 ,f4,s4,a41 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,third ,edition1 with #b new ,plates4 ,containing in all #bf ,plates4 #dto1 cloth4 ,price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,net #hs4 #f;d4 8,a most useful work for architectural students4444 ,mr4 ,spiers has done excellent service in editing this work1 and his notes on the plates are very appropriate and useful40--,british ,architect4 ,,architecture ,,among ,,the ,,poets4--,by ,h4 ,,heathcote ,,statham4 ,with #ac ,illustrations4 ,square #hvo1 artistically bound4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 8,this little work does for architecture in relation to ,english poetry what ,mr4 ,phil ,robinson has done for the birds and beasts4 ,the poet's appreciation of architecture is a delightful subject with which ,mr4 ,statham has become infected1 not only illustrating his points with quotations and his judgments with his reasons1 but the whole with a series of fanciful or suggestive sketches which add considerably to the attractiveness of the book40--,the ,magazine of ,art4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,and ,,ornament ,,in ,,spain4--,a ,series of ,examples selected from the purest executed between the years #aejj-aefj4 ,by ,,andrew ,n4 ,,prentice1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,containing #fj beautiful ,plates1 reproduced by ,photo-lithography and ,photo ,process1 from the ,author's ,drawings1 of ,perspective ,views and ,geometrical ,drawings1 and ,details1 in ,stone1 ,wood1 and ,metal4 ,with short ,descriptive ,text4 ,folio1 handsomely bound in cloth1 gilt4 ,price #b #ajs4 ,net #b #bs4 8,for the drawing and production of this book one can have no words but praise4444 ,it is a pleasure to have so good a record of such admirable architectural drawing1 free1 firm and delicate40--,british ,architect4 ,b4 ,t4 ,,batsford1 #id1 ,,high ,,holborn1 ,,london4 ,,footnotes3 ,a 8,the ,pagan-,christian ,overlap in the ,north10 by ,h4 ,colley ,march1 ,m4,d4 7,lond47 ,b 8,the seven periods of ,church ,architecture10 by ,edmund ,sharpe4 ,c 8,gothic ,architecture10 by ,thomas ,rickman4 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 ,arch of ,septimius ,severus #ba ,arch of ,septimus ,severus #ba was the typical forms used was the typical form used pg #bc from ,rome to ,byzantine from ,rome to ,byzantium pg #ca ,girolama della ,robbia ,girolamo della ,robbia pg #ha