,illustration3 ,the ,historical ,department4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,museum ,,gazette4 ,,no4 #b4 ,,june1 #aijf4 ,,vol4 #a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,history ,,room4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,a department of our ,museum to which1 as regards its educational usefulness1 we attach very great importance1 is that which attempts the illustration of ,human ,history4 ,it is displayed in a separate division of the main building1 and is arranged1 as far as possible1 on 8the space-for-time method40 ,this method1 which1 following the pattern of an ordinary diary1 allots to every period of time the same amount of space1 is1 of course1 possible only where the time-periods and dates are fairly well established4 ,it is not well adapted1 excepting as a sort of open and1 to some extent speculative1 framework for the illustration of prehistoric times4 ,a courageous example of such use of it we ventured to offer in our last number in reference to prehistoric man in ,britain4 ,it was not history in any other sense than that the periods of time were real2 the events assigned to them were largely conjectural4 ,in the ,museum itself we do not attempt to deal with very remote periods in this manner4 ,our space-for-time arrangement begins only with #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,it might now1 perhaps1 fairly begin with #djjj ,b4,c41 but1 unfortunately1 we have not space enough4 ,in this ,schedule1 which occupies the whole of one side of a long room 7#gj feet71 a measured space on the wall1 of nearly two feet1 is allotted to each century4 ,the centuries are marked out by strong black lines1 drawn vertically from roof to the table-shelf below4 ,this table-shelf is #ah inches wide1 and runs the whole length of the room4 ,it is upon it that the busts shown in our frontispiece are standing4 ,each bust is supposed to be in its appropriate century1 and with it are placed any other illustrative objects belonging to the period--medals1 coins1 small architectural models 7when we have them71 and the like4 ,for instance1 a model of ,stonehenge stands in the century in which it seems probable that that most remarkable structure was built1 and portions of ,roman pavement and other relics mark the period of the ,italian occupation of ,britain4 ,upon the wall itself are placed engravings1 photographs1 and the like1 illustrative of the century1 and representing either human personality or some results of human effort4 ,in order to aid the memory each century is designated by the name of some prominent person of the time1 to whom other associations may conveniently cling4 ,these names1 painted in bold characters1 head the columns which represent the centuries4 ,beneath these prominent names we have 7in the case of a considerable number of the most recent centuries7 put up schedules of the principal events1 and lists of some of the principal persons4 ,the appended schedule is one of them and will illustrate what is meant3-- ,,fourteenth ,a4,d4 ,,chaucer4 ,the ,three ,edwards4 ,bannockburn4 ,famine in ,england4 ,the ,hundred ,years' ,war begins4 ,battle of ,crecy4 ,the ,black ,death 7,plague74 ,battle of ,poictiers4 ,bolingbroke dethrones ,richard ,,ii4 ,froissart's ,chronicle4 ,wallace and ,bruce4 ,dante4 ,john of ,gaunt4 ,rienzi4 ,van ,artevelde4 ,wickliffe4 ,huss4 ,boccaccio4 ,petrarch4 ,william ,tell4 ,it will1 if what we have tried to describe has conveyed its intended meaning1 be seen that an observer passing slowly down the length of the room1 may appreciate at a glance the relative position of the principal events in the world's history4 ,he can hardly avoid noticing1 with fair accuracy1 the distance between ,homer and ,socrates1 between ,socrates and ,paul1 and between the ,christian epoch and the times of ,milton and ,shakespeare4 ,he will be impressed at once1 as1 possibly1 he never was before1 with a perception of the brief and very recent portion of time which contains the whole of the annals of our own nation4 ,if1 in addition to thus obtaining a sort of bird's-eye view of the progress of the world1 it is desired to go into detail and devote time to the enquiry1 a certain amount of help will be found to have been provided on the table-shelf4 ,detailed schedules taken from the 8,the ,centuries0 7see advertisement7 have been mounted on board conveniently for hand use1 and are placed on the table-shelf at the foot of each century4 ,a few books of reference in biography and history1 and numerous maps1 have also been suitably placed1 and there are chairs4 ,the 8,historical ,schedule0 described takes up1 as we have said1 the whole of one side of the long room4 ,the other side of it1 as well as much of the floor-space1 is occupied by somewhat miscellaneous illustrations of prehistoric times1 and of nations and races which have not as yet attained to history4 ,the anthropoids1 anthropology and ethnology in general here find illustration1 in large part1 but not wholly1 by pictorial aid4 ,we have also a few interesting objects suitable1 as illustrating social progress1 for what is now known as a ,folk-,museum4 ,it is believed that this department of the ,museum offers special facilities to teachers1 who bring their classes into it and give explanations on the spot1 and that by enabling the pupil to obtain a wide purview of historical times1 it may do somewhat to obviate the inevitably cramping influence of the too detailed study of single epochs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,famous ,,women ,,at ,,the ,,national ,,portrait ,,gallery4 ,we have climbed to the third landing4 ,let us turn into the left-hand gallery and we shall come to one of the most interesting groups in the whole ,museum4 ,it is that which contains portraits of ,english women whose names have become famous in literature4 ,here we have ,mrs4 ,browning1 ,sarah ,austin1 ,mrs4 ,carter1 ,miss ,strickland1 ,george ,eliot1 ,mary ,somerville1 and many others4 ,the collection is not nearly so complete as could be wished--for ,jane ,austen1 ,anne and ,jane ,taylor1 ,hannah ,more1 the ,bronts1 and many others are wanting--still1 it is very good4 ,but few males are admitted4 ,robert ,browning is very properly allowed to accompany his wife1 and the fact1 we presume1 that his wife was with him1 has also gained access for ,thomas ,hood4 ,a portrait of ,lady ,hamilton strikes us as a little out of place1 but the ,museum has as yet no department for female charm1 and as this is by ,romney it may have been difficult to refuse it4 ,with the exception of it and one of ,elizabeth ,fry1 all the others have more or less direct claim to be associated with literature or science4 ,to ,mrs4 ,opie1 ,mrs4 ,browning and ,miss ,strickland no one will hesitate to accord the praise of good looks1 and many others exhibit in a remarkable degree the bright-eyed intelligence which we expect from authoresses4 ,several show a splendid breadth of forehead1 the accompaniment1 no doubt1 of a brachycephalic or broad head4 ,mrs4 ,carter1 ,miss ,mitford 7of 8,our village071 ,mrs4 ,trimmer1 ,miss ,strickland and ,george ,eliot are the best1 but not the only instances of this4 ,it might be hardly good manners to describe too exactly the various features of feminine faces1 and the fact that but few show the profile makes it difficult to judge accurately as to size and shape of nose and chin4 ,few are1 in any sense1 disappointing4 ,that of ,mrs4 ,carlisle might have been kept back without loss1 since1 if it is in the least true to life1 it gives a too painful sense of justification to the rumours of married unhappiness1 which were probably to a large extent unfounded4 ,the portrait of ,sarah ,austin1 when old and ill1 might also perhaps be spared1 since there is a very pleasing one of her in earlier life4 ,at any rate1 the two ought to be placed together4 ,declining1 as we do1 in reference to almost the whole1 the task of detailed analysis of features1 we cannot1 in the interests of physiognomical research1 exempt those behind which lay the most profound intellect ever possessed by a woman4 ,mrs4 ,carter in classical and literary attainments1 and ,mary ,somerville in the domain of science1 must be accorded foremost places4 ,mrs4 ,browning is second1 perhaps1 to none in depth of human sympathy and beauty of poetic expression2 but if we estimate character by profundity of insight1 we shall probably accord to ,george ,eliot amongst women much the same position as that which ,shakespeare holds amongst men4 ,we do not for a moment compare her with ,shakespeare4 ,of ,george ,eliot the ,museum possesses three portraits4 ,most fortunately1 it has also one of her father4 ,it would add enormously to the value of portraits as a means to the illustration of character1 if we might always have associated with that of a distinguished individual those of his parents1 and even of his brothers and sisters4 ,the portrait of ,robert ,evans 7,george ,eliot's father7 is a very pleasing one--a grave1 serious face1 with a large ,roman nose1 well-formed lips and chin1 and a really magnificent forehead4 ,the nose probably gives a clue to his family descent4 ,of those of the authoress herself1 the first1 taken when she was #bc1 by a lady friend 7,mrs4 ,bray71 is a poor work of art1 and exhibits a commonplace face1 surmounted by a very large rounded forehead4 ,it is impossible to judge of the nose4 ,a second is of some years older1 and is much better executed4 ,the forehead is still there1 and the nose is shown of good size and shapely1 and the lips and chin are well formed4 ,the face is a shorter one than in the next1 and the hair is of a much lighter tint4 ,the face is pleasing and attractive1 not much unlike1 if we remember rightly1 one which represented ,jenny ,lind4 ,lastly1 we come to the often copied and well-known portrait at age #df1 by ,sir ,f4 ,burton4 ,in this the nose and face are long1 almost suggesting an approach to what is called a horse face4 ,the chin is good1 but as the fine forehead is much concealed by folds of hair1 the balance of features is not perfect1 and the whole result not pleasing4 ,all the three show the eyes light grey or blue4 ,there can be no doubt that ,george ,eliot had a large forehead and a fairly large nose and chin1 but further than this these somewhat disaccording portraits do not take us4 ,we must fall back on her father's ,roman nose and really beautifully balanced features4 ,mary ,somerville's face is a very intellectual one1 but a trifle cold as regards mouth and chin4 ,looking at ,mrs4 ,carter's width of forehead1 no one can doubt that she had 8skull-room0 for many languages and what had been written in them4 ,there is a most pleasant expression on her face1 suggesting a genial companion and ready conversation1 but her chin is weak and small4 ,mrs4 ,browning's face is alive with graceful vigour1 and her forehead1 as we have already said1 is full and round4 ,it is held that the heads of women are dolichocephalic 7long in proportion to breadth7 in larger average than those of men4 ,there is certainly nothing in this collection of portraits which would oppose the supposition that the higher developments of intellect in women1 as in men1 are usually met with in heads unusually broad4 ,such an inference must1 however1 be accepted with some caution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,brain ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,intellect4 ,when we speak of size of brain in reference to intellectual endowments we must draw a clear distinction between the eminence of a specialist and that of one of wide attainments4 ,a man may become famous as a specialist by the sedulous cultivation of one branch of knowledge1 whilst far from being distinguished by wide grasp of thought4 ,indeed1 the absence of interest in some branches of knowledge may greatly favour the exclusive devotion to a single one4 ,peschell quotes the weights of the brains of some ,gttingen professors which were considerably below the average3 ,gauss1 ,fuchs 7pathologist71 ,hermann 7philologist71 ,haussmann 7mineralogist74 ,cuvier and ,lord ,byron are usually cited as having had brains much heavier than the average1 but there is some uncertainty1 especially as to the latter4 ,none of his lordship's portraits suggest a large head4 ,although there are considerable discrepancies in the statements of those who have examined the matter1 there can be little or no doubt that the brain increases somewhat with the advance of civilisation1 and that it was smaller in the prehistoric races of man than in the more advanced ones of the present age4 ,the differences are probably not so great as many may expect1 but they are real4 ,the ,australian natives stand the lowest1 and the ,europeans the highest4 ,the ,american ,indian had a larger brain than the ,asiatic1 and the ,asiatic than the ,african4 ,the ,chinese stand between the ,european and the ,negro4 ,two ,irish skulls are perhaps the largest on record4 ,the size of the skull may possibly not be always a safe indication of the amount of useful brain matter contained in it4 ,it is said that the large-skulled ,germans have brains which are of lower specific gravity than those of others4 ,there are many sources of fallacy as regards the weight of the brain in different persons1 different races1 and in the two sexes4 ,we must not trust too implicitly to statistics or to tabulated records4 ,it is better to be content with general results1 and to state even these with great caution4 ,there can1 however1 be but little doubt that the brain of woman weighs less than that of man1 and that this difference is greatest in highly civilised races4 ,the brains of the broad-headed are1 as a rule1 somewhat heavier than those of the long-headed4 ,this conclusion has been arrived at by comparing the brains of different individuals of the same race1 not those of different races 7,peschell1 p4 #gj74 ,there are some observations which support the conclusion that the brain attains its greatest weight before #cj years of age1 and then undergoes diminution4 ,at the age of #hj this diminution is supposed to reach #aj per cent4 ,the diminution concerns the brain proper and the cerebellum1 but not their connecting part1 the pons1 which increases up to the fiftieth year4 ,whilst it is1 however1 difficult to imagine methods by which1 without risk of great fallacy1 such conclusions could be arrived at1 we may safely believe that the advance of age is attended by some reduction in the size of the skull cavity and the weight of its contents4 ,it appears to be a constant law that with advance of civilisation the differences between the sexes in general become increased4 ,this is seen in measurements of the skull and in the weight of the brain4 ,in the brains of negroes the woman is but little below that of the man1 #ihd to #a1jjj1 but in the ,english it is only #hfj1 and ,germans #hch4 ,these figures indicate1 of course1 proportions only1 and like all other calculations in this difficult subject1 must be received with caution2 but they probably indicate1 if they do not precisely express1 the fact4 ,the height of the skull is usually in inverse ratio to its breadth4 ,the variation in height is far less than is common in breadth4 ,the brachycephalic have heavier brains than the dolichocephalic4 ,in ,hottentots both indices1 breadth and height1 are low4 ,the following may be mentioned as examples of remarkably broad heads 7wide foreheads71 in association with genius3 ,shakespeare1 ,beranger1 ,mirabeau1 ,peacock 7the novelist71 ,miss ,austen1 ,blackmore 78,lorna ,doone071 ,tennyson1 ,erskine4 ,the following had heads both tall and broad3 ,scott1 ,goethe1 ,cervantes1 ,ambrose ,par1 ,john ,foster1 ,father ,paul1 ,galileo1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,machiavelli1 ,benjamin ,west4 ,we shall be indebted to any of our readers who may direct our attention to other well-marked examples4 ,the following afford instances of remarkably tall heads3 ,motley 7the historian of the ,netherlands71 ,remin 7engineer71 ,richard ,roberts 7engineer74 ,the following had remarkably long faces3 ,francis ,i41 ,inigo ,jones1 ,george ,eliot 7,miss ,evans71 ,savonorola4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,egg ,,market ,,in ,,england4 ,a wholesale dealer gives us the following items as to the consumption of eggs in ,london3 ,when eggs are #af for a shilling the sale amongst the working classes is enormous4 ,when they are #ab a shilling it falls at once #dj per cent41 and when only #h it drops very low4 ,the bulk of ,london eggs are imported2 ,italy supplies many1 ,france many1 and some even come from ,turkey4 ,they will travel from ,trebizond and be perfectly fresh when they arrive in ,london4 ,we are assured that most of the new-laid eggs consumed in ,haslemere come from ,italy1 and this at all periods of the year4 ,our ,english housewives are not clever at preserving eggs1 and the witty classification of eggs into new-laid eggs1 fresh eggs1 and eggs1 is but too often illustrated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,outgrowths ,,and ,,appendages4 7,part of a ,museum ,lecture47 ,let us draw a clear distinction between 8,appendages0 and 8,outgrowths40 ,the prickles which are formed on the branch of a rose are appendages2 they may be detached without really breaking any part of the bush4 ,the spines which grow on the blackthorn are outgrowths1 and cannot be so detached4 ,i wish that some better word than 8appendages0 could be found1 for it seems almost to imply insignificance1 and many of the appendages to plants are of the utmost importance4 ,still1 it is true of them all that they may be removed and yet leave the plant1 as a plant1 complete1 and many or most of them have only a transitory life1 which does not by any means equal that of the plant itself4 ,they are like the luncheon basket at the summer day's ramble1 not absolutely essential1 but very conducive to perfection4 ,now most forms of leaf1 flower1 fruit and prickle are in this sense merely appendages4 ,from the very earliest stages of their formation arrangements exist for their separation1 in whole or part1 from the plants on which they are produced4 ,you will see that ,i am cautious in my terms1 and say in part or in whole1 for in truth some appendages never are detached as wholes1 and very great variety exists in the ways in which they are dealt with4 ,for the most part they are susceptible of death1 and have their fixed duration of life quite independently of the plant which bears them4 ,in many this independent death is the cause of their being cast off4 ,in some instances1 however1 it is not death1 nor even sickness1 but the fulness of life and the attainment of adult age which causes them to leave the parental home4 ,i hold in my hand an oak twig with two empty acorn cups4 ,the acorns having attained maturity1 have fallen out4 ,shall we say they have detached themselves1 or that the tree has detached them8 ,they have not fallen by mere weight1 for they were doubtless nearly1 if not quite1 as heavy whilst still green1 and they were then firmly fixed4 ,you see at the bottom of the empty cup the large round scar which marks the site of former attachment4 ,it is brown and dry4 ,it was by changes which took place here that the acorn was loosened4 ,the acorn had ripened and ceased its growth4 ,it no longer attracted sap through its base of attachment1 and the latter consequently became dry and brittle4 ,possibly its feeding tubes were choked2 at any rate1 it is certain that it underwent a sort of death and was no longer able to keep the acorn in place4 ,the process was much like that which occurs in the shedding of leaves1 with1 however1 the very noteworthy difference that the acorn itself was still alive4 ,we have not1 however1 done with our oak twig4 ,the acorns which it bore were only appendages to an appendage1 and it now becomes the turn of the cups themselves and the whole of the long foot-stalk on which they are mounted to become detached4 ,these are no part of the tree1 and are of no use to it4 ,they were developed in order to bear flowers and fruit2 that function they have now discharged1 and they must die4 ,life is preserved only by the discharge of function1 or at any rate the effort to discharge it4 ,utter inactivity leads to death1 and death leads to separation from the living and to decay4 ,you see that the whole foot-stalk is brown and shrunken and evidently dead4 ,this condition ends abruptly where the foot-stalk joins the stem4 ,at this spot1 if you look carefully1 you will see that there is a ring of constriction1 marking definitely where detachment is in progress4 ,this was the spot at which the production of the whole appendage began1 and here a sort of joint was left at which the final detachment was destined to occur4 ,just one word of caution1 that we must not carry our distinctions too far4 ,after all1 they are to some extent matters of degree4 ,the joint which separates the appendage from the twig on which it is produced can hardly be termed a true joint1 for certain structures run in unbroken continuity from the stem to the appendage4 ,these are the fibro-vascular bundles by which the appendage is fed and also fixed in place4 ,these bundles are usually quite visible in the scar-surface left when a leaf or fruit is broken off4 ,they are 8the nails in the horse-shoe0 of the leaf-scar of the horse chestnut4 ,still1 it is certain that a sort of joint is present1 and that the structures are continuous in a very different sense from that of a stem or true branch4 ,you may observe this difference in my acorn-bearing twig1 for there are two acorn cups1 and one has been produced by a branching out from the stem of the other4 ,this little branch is smoothly continuous with the parent branch1 and shows no preparation for detachment whatever4 ,thus we have seen that the arrangements under which leaves are shed are exactly repeated in the case of fruits1 and that it is by no means needful that the object to be detached should be dead or dying4 ,it may perhaps surprise you to be told that sometimes appendages are shed which have by no means accomplished their prospective work4 ,some plants shed their flowers and do this deliberately1 having made their arrangements for a step which is apparently suicidal4 ,in reality it is not suicidal1 nor is it one of limitation of population1 but simply of preferential employment of capital4 ,the potato gives a good example of this4 ,every spring you may see on the heads of this plant beautiful flowers produced1 which are destined in the course of another week to be only flowerless foot-stalks4 ,the flowers break off at a pre-existing joint1 just as leaves are shed4 ,the influence which causes them to fall is inability to attract sap1 in consequence of inability to proceed to the further stage of producing fruit4 ,the young tubers underground make such overpowering demands upon the sap-furnishing capabilities of the roots that the flowers cannot obtain sufficient for their seed forming4 ,thus they at once die3 if not obviously1 at any rate practically1 and detachment follows as a natural result4 ,it is a case of competitive growth and the tubers win4 ,after a time the plant will in the course of inheritance learn that it is useless to produce flowers1 will give up the attempt2 indeed1 many varieties have already done so to a considerable extent4 ,no better instance could perhaps be given of the law which goes through all animated ,nature that activity is almost essential to continuance of life1 whether in individuals or their parts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,oldest ,,fossils 7,lingula74--,it is a noteworthy fact that these1 the oldest fossil animals known1 belong to species by no means low in the scale4 ,yet every trace of the many millions which must have preceded them1 and have gradually led up to their development1 have perished4 ,the period of time which must have elapsed subsequent to the advent of life upon the planet and the development of the lingula mollusc was probably quite as long as that which has passed since the lingula left its shell in the mud of the ,portmadoc slate4 ,the oldest fossils which are known are found in the lower ,cambrian rocks4 ,they are small oval shells1 which were1 during life1 the protection of small soft-bodied sea animals of highly complex structure3 they had red blood4 ,their descendants are still found in great numbers burrowing in sand on the shores of tropical oceans4 ,they have received the name of ,lingula1 and have in turn conferred that name on certain hard rocks in which their shells occur in abundance1 the 8,lingula flags0 of ,wales 7,,ray ,,lankester74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,huge ,,shark',s ,,teeth4--,ray ,lankester figures1 in his interesting lectures on extinct animals from which we have quoted the above a gigantic shark's tooth4 ,it is that of the ,carharodon megalodon1 and is three times the length of the tooth of any living shark4 ,specimens of this fossil tooth of smaller dimensions are common1 and one should be found in every museum4 ,they are obtained from the bone bed of the ,red ,crag at ,felixstowe1 but were not originally deposited in it4 ,many of them have fragments of a yet older sandstone adhering to them4 ,lankester calculates that his shark was #ajj feet long4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,great ,,family ,,of ,,the ,,camels ,,and ,,deer4 ,the ,camel1 the ,camelopard1 the ,musk-deer and the ,deer are all more or less nearly related4 ,they constitute a branch of the great family of ,ruminants1 and all chew the cud4 ,with the ,camel are associated the ,bactrian or two-humped ,camel1 the ,alpaca1 the ,llama and the ,vicuna4 ,with the ,giraffe we have the ,okapi1 and several extinct animals4 ,the ,musk-deer stands almost alone4 ,of ,deer there are a great many species4 ,it is easy enough to distinguish these various animals the one from the other when seen living in a ,zoological ,garden or stuffed in a museum4 ,indeed1 at first sight1 there might seem to be no great similarity between a ,camel1 a ,giraffe1 and a ,fallow-deer4 ,to the student of natural history1 however1 it becomes of great interest to observe the essential peculiarities of each4 ,these may be grouped as those which prove relationship and those which show differences4 ,we will leave aside the very important peculiarities in the stomach1 because but few of our readers will have opportunities for examining them1 and will confine our attention to the feet1 horns1 skull and teeth4 ,all have two hoofs or more1 and the ,camel group have behind their hoofs a pad which covers the sole4 ,none of them have hollow horns1 and in none are their weapons of offence--horns1 teeth1 tusks1 c4--very effective4 ,in all when adult the cutting teeth 7incisors7 in the upper jaw are absent1 and in most the canines are either absent or much modified4 ,the ,camel tribe differ from ,giraffes in possessing a pad1 and in having1 when young1 incisor teeth in the upper jaw1 and fewer lower incisors by two4 ,they have also strong canines in both jaws1 no trace of horns1 and nothing to be called tusks4 ,the ,giraffes have two1 three1 or even five abortive horns of very peculiar development4 ,they have very long necks1 no pads1 no tusks4 ,the canine teeth in the lower jaw1 which look like incisors1 are much specialised in being cleft or notched4 ,the little ,musk-deer has no sort of horn2 but his upper canine teeth are large and form tusks4 ,the true ,deer have antlers 7in the male71 which they shed every year4 ,the males1 and sometimes the females1 have canine teeth in the upper jaw4 ,the antlers are dermal bones1 that is1 are formed in the skin1 and do not grow from the skull4 ,they have two rudimentary digits above the hoofs4 ,the whole of this group1 which we may call the ,camel and ,deer family1 are almost wholly defenceless1 the ,giraffe the most so of all1 and1 excepting those which are useful in domestication1 are threatened with extinction4 ,the ,camels and the ,llamas1 although separated as distantly as ,peru and ,arabia1 have in common the very peculiar habit of snorting most offensively at those who oppress or annoy them4 ,this large family of ,camels and ,deer stands between a small one which comprises ,pigs1 and a very large one1 to which ,cattle1 ,sheep1 ,goats and ,antelopes are assigned4 ,pigs are not ruminants1 and have incisor teeth in the upper jaws4 ,cattle1 sheep1 c41 like camels and deer1 ruminate1 and have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw4 ,their distinctive features are hollow horns 7which are present in both sexes71 and the invariable absence of tusks4 ,the canine teeth in all members of the ,giraffe group are peculiar1 in that they show a cleft in the free edge which divides them into two lobes4 ,these teeth look as if they belonged to the incisors1 but various facts prove them to be really the canines4 ,those of the extinct ,sivatherium1 and those of the recently discovered ,okapi1 have similar peculiarities1 and thus prove their relationship4 ,it is curious that our natural history authorities are not yet agreed as to whether the ,giraffe has his fore limbs longer than the hind ones or not4 ,claus and ,sedgwick say1 8hind legs much shorter1 and therefore the back slopes backwards40 ,those who have measured the bones1 however1 say that there is no difference1 and that the slope depends entirely upon the setting of the shoulder blade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,english ,,edible ,,snails4 8,,wall-,,fish40 ,the term 8wall-fish0 will be unknown to many of our readers4 ,it is applied by dealers in ,covent ,garden and other markets to the common garden snail 7,helix aspersa74 ,this mollusc is held in especial esteem by the poor in ,bristol1 and in consequence is now very scarce in the environs of that city4 ,there are men who make a livelihood during the winter by collecting these snails from their hybernating places4 ,in ,november1 #ahif1 the writer met a 8wall-fish0 collector in a remote village in ,somerset1 and had an interesting conversation with him4 ,he was collecting for a ,bristol dealer1 his home being in ,kent1 where he worked as a carpenter in summer and autumn4 ,for many winters past he had regularly visited ,somerset to collect snails4 ,according to his experience these snails seldom hybernate in banks facing east or north1 but usually seek winter quarters in those facing south-west4 ,they generally congregate in some numbers1 and appear to have a predilection for certain spots4 ,from an hybernaculum near the village he had that morning taken a gallon and a half of them1 but this was very unusual2 his 8takings0 as a rule did not exceed a gallon per day4 ,ash stumps1 or crannies at the base of ash-trees1 are very favourite haunts4 ,they seldom hybernate under oaks1 and although old walls are favourite places in summer1 whence they probably owe their name of 8wall-fish10 they seldom hybernate in them4 ,our 8wall fisherman0 carried an iron rod about #b feet long1 slightly crooked at one end for probing likely nooks and corners4 ,h4 aspersa is quite the most nearly domesticated of the snail tribe4 ,it loves the haunts of man1 and is seldom found in any numbers in places remote from villages and roadsides4 ,a conchologist should never miss an opportunity of examining the bag of a wall-fish collector4 ,occasionally rare varieties--scalariforme for instance--may be secured in this way4 ,i asked my friend to allow me to inspect his 8catch10 and he very obligingly turned out the contents of his creel4 ,i found nothing better than three or four examples of the variety exalbida1 which is greenish-white4 ,it is1 however1 widely distributed in the southern counties4 ,it is stated by ,forbes and ,hanley 78,hist4 ,brit4 ,moll410 vol4 iv41 p4 #df71 that 8owing to its being an article of food in some countries1 or else a supposed remedy for pulmonary affections1 ,h4 aspersa has been transported and distributed by the agency of man to all parts of the world4 ,it is especially abundant in the neighbourhood of gardens40 ,in #ahdj1 according to ,turton1 ,h4 aspersa was sold in ,covent ,garden and elsewhere as a cure for diseases of the chest1 and was sent to the ,united ,states as a delicacy4 8,the glassmen at ,newcastle once a year have a snail feast2 they generally collect the snails themselves in the fields and hedges the ,sunday before the feast day40 ,this feast is1 we believe1 now given up4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dormant ,,life4--,the conditions under which vital activity may become dormant obtained a curious illustration in the instance of a beetle which was taken alive out of the wood of a desk which had been in the office of the ,london ,guildhall for twenty years4 ,the wood was deal from the ,baltic1 the beetle was the ,buprestis splendens4 ,it was alive and in beautiful colour4 ,the observation was confirmed by ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,the description is given by ,mr4 ,thos4 ,wrenham in the tenth volume of ,transactions of ,linnan ,society1 #ahaj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dodder ,,and ,,ivy4--,ivy is a climber only1 ,dodder is a true parasite4 ,ivy does not in any degree derive nourishment from the trees on which it grows4 ,it is obvious that it cannot get any from walls4 ,it may be plausibly disputed whether it does any injury to the trees to which it clings1 for it is often seen on very large ones4 ,it is reputed to be wholesome for sheep and deer in spite of its rank odour1 and pheasants are fond of its seed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,form ,a ,,temporary ,,museum4 ,a temporary museum will1 in all probability1 be a ,vacation- or ,summer-museum2 there will1 therefore1 be no need for stoves or fires1 and scarcely any for artificial light4 ,the sun rises in summer as early as any members of the museum committee are likely to be stirring1 and by sunset it will be time to close4 ,we will suppose1 then1 that the season is summer and the place a small town in the country4 ,in the first place a small local committee of those interested in the scheme should be formed1 and a small sum of money guaranteed4 ,the next step should be to borrow a set of school premises1 or hire for a couple of months an empty house4 ,if only a small cottage were obtainable it should have a back garden in which a large wooden shed could be put up4 ,the essentials are plenty of room1 plenty of light1 and good protection from weather4 ,if the premises secured be those of a school1 the next thing will be to arrange with some carpenter for the hire of a quantity of boards which1 laid across the desks1 will make tables4 ,it may be possible1 on similar terms1 to obtain from a draper a quantity of baize1 or its very cheapest equivalent1 but this would not be absolutely necessary4 ,having secured plenty of table-space1 the next point is to prepare the walls4 ,it will be required to display on these1 ,portraits1 ,maps1 ,illustrations1 c41 c41 and for pinning these up some sort of framework is desirable4 ,the carpenter will soon put this together and cover it with baize or flannel4 ,the rooms being made ready1 the next step is to fill them1 and about this there will be no difficulty4 ,as a preliminary measure a circular will have been sent out1 inviting all residents to contribute their curiosities on loan4 ,it will be strange if this be not bountifully responded to by cases of stuffed animals and birds1 collections of eggs and of shells1 and boxes of minerals4 ,ammonites1 elephants' teeth1 mammalian skulls1 butterflies1 wasps' nests1 flint implements1 and ,missionaries' curios will be brought in great abundance4 ,all these1 properly arranged1 with descriptive labels1 may be made most interesting and instructive4 ,a certain number of glass-covered display-cases1 with locks1 will now be required in order that fragile or valuable specimens1 and especially those on loan1 may be properly taken care of4 ,such cases may be made inexpensively1 and our ,haslemere ,museum will be glad to supply patterns1 or even1 if wished1 to loan the cases themselves4 ,at this stage the ,committee should remember that a museum has been well defined as 8a collection of labels illustrated by specimens10 and should obtain1 if it has not already done so1 a set of our printed labels1 and ascertain for how many of them illustrative specimens can be produced4 ,steps should next be taken to obtain elsewhere any specially desirable exhibits which may not be forthcoming4 ,some ,horns1 ,antlers1 ,skulls1 c41 are sure to be wanted1 and no doubt the ,geological series and the ,flint implements will need to be supplemented4 ,these deficiencies may be supplied in some instances by borrowing from other adjacent museums1 or they may be purchased at various dealers4 ,a very important and attractive department of the temporary museum will be the display of ,pictures1 ,maps and ,portraits4 ,these1 like those just mentioned1 may be hired1 if they cannot be begged or borrowed4 ,a diligent ladies' sub-committee1 well supplied with bundles of old unbound copies of ,the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 ,graphic1 ,vanity ,fair and ,punch would soon construct an attractive portrait gallery1 as well as sundry most interesting series in illustration of social history1 scenery1 geography and natural science4 ,there is not anywhere a small town in which material of this kind may not be brought to light from the cupboards in which it is uselessly stowed away4 ,the best way of dealing with it would be to procure some false-backed frames1 such as we have in use at ,haslemere4 ,in many instances portraits1 maps1 c41 will not need to be put into frames1 but may be at once pinned up in well-classified series on the walls4 ,we have said nothing as yet as to a department which ought to be made one of the most important1 especially at a sea-side resort4 ,a ,vivarium for the display of local specimens in their fresh and living states should be arranged either in an ante-room or hall1 or in a shed1 or under a verandah outside the building4 ,in this should be a stand for flowers 7all named71 and bell glasses and large saucers for the reception of shell-fish1 sea anemones1 sponges au naturel1 sea-weeds and corallines4 ,illustrations and explanatory labels for most of these our ,haslemere press can supply4 ,the charges for admission to the show should be3 before its completion1 sixpence each person2 when complete and in good order1 threepence for adults1 half-price for children2 and on ,saturdays a penny all round4 ,books of tickets1 making a very liberal reduction1 should be available4 ,the result would be1 if circumstances were favourable and zeal abounded1 that the guarantors would lose nothing and might possibly carry forward a modest balance to begin next year with4 ,meanwhile the prosperity and reputation of the sea-side resort would have been helped and a large number of persons would have been entertained and instructed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following paragraph appeared a short time ago in one of the daily papers3-- ,the complaint is often made that there is little opportunity to learn anything about the specimens exhibited in museums4 ,at ,brooklyn the experiment has been tried of placing for the use of visitors books bearing upon the subjects exhibited alongside the cases4 ,this experiment seems to have been most successful4 ,the ,brooklyn experiment is not a new one4 ,it has been practised for many years past in our museum 7vide ,museums' ,journal1 vol4 ii41 #aijb74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,british ,,snakes4 ,illustration3 ,the ,viper4 ,the ,common ,snake4 ,we have in ,great ,britain only three representatives of the class ,reptilia which come under the name of ,snake4 ,they are the ,common ,snake1 the ,smooth ,snake and the ,viper4 ,in ,ireland there are--as the result of events to which we referred in our previous number--none at all4 ,of the three ,british ,snakes1 one1 the ,smooth ,snake1#a is so rare that it is of interest only to the naturalist4 ,it is met with in ,hampshire and ,dorset1 and perhaps in ,scotland1 but it is nowhere frequent4 ,it is more nearly allied to the ,common ,snake than to the ,viper1 and is quite harmless4 ,it is much smaller than the others4 ,we will concern ourselves for the present only with the other two4 ,the ,common ,snake#b is quite harmless and should never be injured by any humane person4 ,the ,viper#c is venomous1 and should be destroyed without mercy4 ,it is easy enough to distinguish between the two even when in movement4 ,the ,common ,snake is always1 when full grown1 much longer than the ,viper4 ,it may measure #d feet and is usually #c1 whilst the ,viper is never more than #b4 ,the ,common ,snake tapers off very gradually at its tail1 whilst the ,viper has a short tail1 which is abruptly constricted at its base4 ,the ,viper is usually brown1 often deeply coloured1 whilst the ,snake is much lighter coloured1 of a light grey-brown tinged with green4 ,the ,common ,snake has only spots of black1 whilst the ,viper is marked down the whole of its back with large zig-zag black lozenges4 ,this is a most important feature1 is characteristic at all ages of the animal1 and is easily seen under all conditions4 ,we have named the characters which are most easily seen when the animal is gliding about on the sward or path1 there are others which are available when the animal is dead or in captivity4 ,under such conditions it will be seen that the scales which clothe the ,viper are much smaller in size than those of the ,snake1 more especially on the head1 and further1 that the head of the ,viper is marked with black1 somewhat in the form of the letter ,v4 ,snakes1 as well as ,vipers1 have sharp teeth1 but they use them only for seizing their prey1 and they have no poison fangs4 ,the venom apparatus of the ,viper consists of a gland which secretes the poison1 a receptacle which stores it1 and a long1 sharp fang1 which can be extruded and through a groove in which the poison is conveyed4 ,the animal darts open-mouthed at its enemy rather than bites4 ,its fang being in its upper jaw it becomes well exposed when the mouth is agape4 ,as there is a fang on each side there will usually be two punctures in the skin about a third of an inch apart4 ,no doubt there occur every year in ,england a good many instances of viper-bites in men and boys4 ,there are1 however1 exceedingly few deaths1 and many persons of considerable experience have doubted whether the bite is ever actually fatal4 ,a very urgent and severe illness is almost invariably the result2 but the patient just pulls through4 ,in a case in which the writer was1 in boyhood1 a particeps1 two fine vipers were captured in mistake4 ,they were put into a botanical box and were repeatedly inspected1 and their tongues freely touched4 ,it was only when on arrival at home that one of them1 during an attempt to transfer it to a cage1 made a dart and struck the finger of a boy of fourteen4 ,the accident was concealed until1 about a quarter of an hour later in attempting to cross the floor1 the victim fell down in a deadly faint4 ,he became very sick and having been got to bed remained in collapse1 apparently near death for several hours4 ,brandy was of course freely given4 ,the medical adviser who had been summoned1 arrived in hot haste with a big volume under his arm1 in order to make reference to 8snake-bite0 and its treatment4 ,it was1 however1 too late to do anything more than give stimulants1 and happily these were successful4 ,a fortnight's illness ensued1 during the early part of which the whole arm was enormously swollen1 and later partly covered with boils4 ,this case affords1 we believe1 a very fair example of what usually follows the incautious capture of the ,english adder4 ,the reptile does not attack willingly1 but only after much provocation1 and he cannot1 as a rule1 destroy the life of his human enemy4 ,his poison fangs are designed for other purposes1 and for much smaller animals4 ,within the last few weeks a case at ,folkestone has attracted much attention1 in which two school-boys in pursuit of what is called 8,nature ,study10 were bitten by a viper1 with the result that one of them died4 ,several other well-authenticated instances of death have been recorded4 ,we repeat1 however1 that they are very rare4 ,the early summer is the best time for killing vipers1 since the males1 which at other seasons hide themselves1 may now often be found4 ,warm heaths and banks exposed to the sun are the places which they frequent4 ,the common snake1 on the other hand1 loves water1 or may be found in a hay-field or near an old barn or on a dung-heap4 ,the snake lays eggs and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the dung or the rays of the sun1 taking no care whatever for her progeny4 ,the viper1 on the contrary1 brings forth her young alive and tends them carefully1 even allowing them1 according to fairly well-accredited narratives1 to retreat in case of danger into her mouth and gullet4 ,the first aid in case of viper-bite should consist in placing a tight ligature 7string or a boot-lace7 around the limb above the punctures4 ,this should be as tight as possible so as to prevent the circulation of the blood and passage of the venom towards the heart4 ,next1 incisions should be made across the punctures1 or if circumstances are favourable1 the bit of skin comprising the two punctures may be cut out4 ,the wound thus made should be sucked or well bathed so as to favour bleeding1 and to remove as much of the poison as can be got away4 ,if ammonia or potash1 or ,jeye's fluid or ,condy's fluid be at hand the wound should be continuously bathed with a weak solution of it4 ,the ligature1 if tight1 should not be kept on for more than an hour1 but by this time medical advice will probably have been obtained4 ,to combat the faintness1 c41 brandy1 or still better ammonia 7that is1 sal volatile or hartshorn well diluted71 should be given4 #a ,coronella lvis1 or austriaca4 #b ,tropidonotus natrix1 or ,natrix vulgaris4 #c ,pelias berus1 or ,coluber verus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,vivarium4 7,,haslemere ,,museum47 ,during ,june and ,july the botany of a district may be very fully illustrated in the ,museum-vivarium4 ,mr4 ,douglas ,taylor1 who has charge of that department in our ,museum1 experiences no difficulty in exhibiting one hundred species simultaneously4 ,no very rare species are exhibited4 ,at the present time the only plants in our collection to which the term 8uncommon0 may be applied are herb ,paris1 bird's nest orchis1 ,solomon's seal1 and climbing corydalis4 ,the flowers are arranged1 in zinc cylinders1 on an ordinary florist's stand4 ,for the printed labels now in use we are indebted to the generosity of ,e4 ,e4 ,lowe1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 of the ,plymouth ,museum4 ,vipers and grass snakes are not difficult to obtain 7see page #ec74 ,the former1 when discovered1 should be carefully pinned with a stick1 whilst a vasculum 7or large bottle7 containing leaves and heather is placed before it4 ,upon release the viper1 judiciously guided by the stick1 will take refuge in the receptacle prepared for it4 ,grass-snakes thrive well in captivity1 their chief food being frogs and mice4 ,on the other hand1 the ,english viper nearly always refuses food under such conditions4 ,our vivarium contains1 in addition to the above1 two of the three ,british newts1 viz41 ,lophinus punctatus and ,l4 palmatus4 ,the former1 though usually spoken of as the 8common newt0 is in many districts 7as at ,haslemere7 not so common as the palmate newt4 ,the latter is smaller1 and the tail terminates abruptly in a threadlike filament1 instead of gradually tapering to a point4 ,an ants' nest contained between sheets of glass1 on the plan devised by ,sir ,john ,lubbock 7,lord ,avebury7 and described in his 8,ants1 ,bees1 and ,wasps0 7p4 #b71 always proves a source of attraction to visitors in the winter1 as well as summer months4 ,we have had for two seasons past a nest of the amber-coloured meadow ant 7,formica flava7 displayed under these conditions4 ,it is probably the most intelligent of ,european species1 forming the grassy hillocks from #i to #ah inches high1 so commonly seen in some districts4 ,the queen1 which is much larger than either workers or males1 requires very careful searching for upon opening a nest2 but the peculiar little white woodlice 7which delights in the long name of ,platyarthous hoffmanseggii1 they are a sort of guest of the ants7 may be always easily discerned4 ,every spring we take out of the ,museum and arrange in this department a series of our summer migrants1 accompanied with general notes on bird migration4 ,the following may be seen now3 ,swallow1 martin1 swift1 sand martin1 cuckoo1 corncrake1 nightingale1 wryneck1 nightjar1 redstart1 yellow wagtail1 garden warbler1 wheatear1 chiffchaff and whinchat4 ,kept under a bell glass and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves are some half a dozen examples of the large edible or vine snail 7,helix pomatia71 the largest of our native land molluscs4 ,this species occurs chiefly on the chalk in the southern counties4 ,at one time it was supposed to have been introduced by the ,romans1 but of late years the opinion has gained ground that it was indigenous4 ,in the same quarters is an example of a shell-slug1 the ,testacella haliotidea1 sent from ,torquay4 ,the shell-slugs differ from ordinary slugs in having a shell on the tail4 ,they are carnivorous and feed upon earth-worms1 which they pursue in their burrows2 hence may be considered as gardeners' friends4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,gilbert ,,white ,,page4 7,continued from p4 #bg47 ,the curious effect of insect attacks in stimulating the growth of certain parts of the plant which they have damaged may be found illustrated in hundreds of instances4 ,we have just mentioned the pine-apples on the spruce fir1 but the currant gall on the male catkin of the oak is yet more striking4 ,in this case a structure which is naturally very shortlived has its vigour enhanced and its life prolonged by the presence of the parasite4 ,in this instance the fly attacks the pollen-bearing flowers and deposits its eggs4 ,these flowers would1 in the ordinary course1 wither and fall as soon as the pollen has ripened and been blown away4 ,under the stimulating influence of the larv1 however1 sap is attracted1 their stems thicken and become fleshy1 and instead of withering1 they produce what looks like a handsome bunch of currants4 ,another instructive instance of parasitism stimulating growth may be observed at this season in any patch of the common field thistle4 ,some of the plants are almost sure to be affected by a parasitic fungus4 ,it is present in the stole of the plant1 and its influence will cause the affected plants to put forth leaves earlier than the healthy ones4 ,they will also grow faster1 and in the course of a month be twice the height of their fellows4 ,the fungus grows in the stem1 and finally it will flower out on the surface of the leaves4 ,when this happens the plant will die1 but up to that period its growth has been notably vigorous4 ,the fungus is the ,puccinia suaveoleus 7see ,plowright1 p4 #ahc47 ,in some plants it is visible even in early spring1 and if abundant will dwarf the plant so affected instead of stimulating its growth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,seasonal ,,notes4 ,,june4 ,it is scarcely too much to say that 8leafy ,june0 is the month in the year least favourable to natural history observation4 ,its glorious beauty is distracting and the profusion of objects of interest hinders attention to any4 ,we hope1 however1 that our last month's ,notes may have directed the attention of some of our readers to certain special topics and particularly to the wonders of ,gall-formation now in progress4 ,the pine-apple galls on the spruce firs are now in full growth4 ,two varieties will be abundantly found4 ,some are small1 not bigger than large peas1 and remain green4 ,these are covered with spines rather than scales4 ,others much larger have scales1 which at their margins are beautifully tinged with various shades of red and crimson4 ,these are the 8pine-apples0 and these alone simulate true cones4 ,their changes will advance rapidly and already their valves may have opened and allowed the aphis larva1 which has escaped from its egg at their base1 to crawl up and enter4 ,this most remarkable process may be verified by any one who will watch carefully4 ,those objects of universal disgust1 the ,cuckoo-spits1 may be shown to have features of interest which will to some extent counteract the repugnance of all juvenile naturalists4 ,hidden in a mass of iridescent spume there will be found a little greenish insect revelling in the double luxury of warmth and moisture1 to which perhaps is added a paradise of many-coloured light4 ,the observer's attention may be attracted to the fact that the insect has chosen chiefly thistles and nettles as its hosts1 these not being likely to be eaten by cattle4 ,later in the season it will be less careful4 ,the insect here concerned1 although a relative of the 8plant lice10 is not a true aphis4 ,june is the month for the ,orchis tribe4 ,the ,bee must be looked for in its earliest weeks or never4 ,so also of the ,spider and the ,frog4 ,others continue in flower much longer1 but almost all are in their perfection in ,june4 ,rhododendrons are now plentiful1 and the very interesting arrangement by which their anthers open at their points to discharge their pollen may easily be observed4 ,it is characteristic of the whole family of heaths1 but as the anthers of rhododendrons are far larger than those of our ,english heaths1 it is best seen in them4 ,those who have never observed it before will be amused to be shown the jack-in-the-box manner in which the curled up stamens of the ,broom spring out when the bee touches the shoulders of the petals4 ,june is the month for ,broom and both will soon be past4 ,amongst our summer visitants the pretty little ,turtle-dove is one of the last to arrive4 ,it waits until the season is well settled and rarely comes to us before the middle of ,may4 ,as perhaps a result of this caution its numbers remain each year much the same4 ,we have now plenty of turtle-doves at ,haslemere1 whilst all representatives of the ,swallow tribe are scarce4 ,some observers think that ,nightingales also have been less frequently heard this spring than usual4 ,their song1 which ceases when the young are hatched and the business of feeding begins1 will soon be over for #aijf4 ,speaking of ,birds of ,passage1 we may say that we shall be glad to receive from any readers in different parts of the kingdom1 estimates of the year's abundance of the various species4 ,the spring was remarkably variable1 and much of it cold1 and this may have had the result of much diminishing the supply of food which would await our guests4 ,so far as our enquiries have gone we believe that there is a general impression that the early spring migrants are this year somewhat defective in number4 ,peach and ,almond trees1 with their leaves curled1 distorted and thickened1 some yellowish-green1 others rosy or purplish1 are infested with a fungus1 scientifically known as ,exoascus deformans4 ,it is one of the ascomycetes2 in the same genus is included the fungus responsible for the 8witches' besoms0 of our birch-trees4 ,at maturity the fungus bursts through the cuticle of the leaf1 coming to the surface to disperse its spores or seeds4 ,the part of the leaf with the ripe spores upon it1 is minutely velvety2 the whitish bloom may be easily seen with the unaided eye1 but of course individual spores could not be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope4 ,it is said that this disease is very rarely seen in seasons following an uniformly mild spring4 ,at the moment of writing we have not observed many oaks defoliated by caterpillars4 ,the following note is taken from the ,museum ,record ,book1 ,june #a1 #ahii3 8,oak-trees badly attacked by the larv of the green leaf-roller 7,tortrix viridana71 which cause much damage to the foliage4 ,the continuous falling of the excreta of these small caterpillars sounds like paper being pricked by a fine pin1 and is very noticeable in a quiet wood40 ,in #aijb these larv were again equally troublesome in this district4 ,the ingenious work of the leaf-rolling ,beetles 7,genera apoderus1 ,attelabus and ,rhynchites7 may be observed at this time of the year4 ,the female1 in some species1 rolls a leaf into a tube1 in others she makes a compact little thimble of the upper half of the leaf1 in the centre of which she puts an egg4 ,hazel1 oak and chestnut leaves so folded are not uncommonly seen in this district4 ,specimens may be usually seen in the vivarium towards the end of the month4 ,june is a good month for the observation of what are termed ,social ,flowers4 ,the veronica1 in many meadows1 especially those in which the grass is kept short by grazing1 now exhibits round patches of several yards in diameter1 which are beautifully blue4 ,the little mouse ear 7,myosotis7 makes similar patches1 but in much less conspicuous tints4 ,these plants appear to have the power not only of spreading themselves1 but of excluding intruders1 and their territories sometimes show no other form of vegetation4 ,the common daisy is also a social flower1 but much less able to keep others at a distance4 ,so also the wild strawberry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,for ,,answers4 7,continued from p4 #ca1 which see47 7#ad7 ,give the meanings of the following prefixes3 7#a7 sub1 7#b7 pseudo1 7#c7 ob1 7#d7 hypo1 7#e7 hyper1 7#f7 para1 7#g7 ab1 7#h7 aero1 7#i7 con1 7#aj7 amphi1 7#aa7 ana1 7#ab7 pro4 7#ae7 ,the late ,mr4 ,holyoake tells us that as the result of a street accident in which he was much bruised he remembers 8squalling for a fortnight on being taken out of bed40 ,in another place we read respecting an accident that 8a huge dog had loitered behind1 and suddenly discovered his master had driven ahead1 and he1 like a ,leming rat1 made straight for his master1 quite regardless of our being in his way40 ,explain the reference to the ,leming rat1 and rewrite both quotations so as to make them express what you think that the author intended that they should4 7#af7 ,what is meant by 8a rootless tooth08 7#ag7 ,when the number of digits differs on the front and hinder feet of a quadruped1 which has usually the most8 7#ah7 ,amongst the principal divisions of the mammalian kingdom are ,rodentia1 ,carnivora1 ,insectivora1 ,cheiroptera1 ,primates and ,ungulata4 ,name an ,english representative of each4 7#ai7 ,why are ,bees named ,anthophila8 7#bj7 ,was ,captain ,cook killed at ,owhyhee or in ,hawaii8 7#ba7 ,what do the figures #babc mean when applied to the teeth1 and how many teeth would the animal possess to which that formula would be suitable8 7#bb7 ,at what time in the morning do ,daisies open their flowers8 7#bc7 ,in the ,times of ,september #ac1 we read1 respecting the ,sakhalin coast1 8,the number of walruses and sea-beavers have been greatly reduced by the destructive methods of the ,american fishers40 ,what animals are meant by the term 8sea-beavers10 and is the name a suitable one8 7#bd7 ,if you have watched a stableman washing the wheels of a carriage1 you will have seen him use an implement for lifting the vehicle from the ground4 ,why does he use it8 ,what is its name8 ,explain its mechanism4 7#be7 ,if you pour hot water upon a dry sponge it will sink down to half its size1 whereas if the water were cold it would swell up4 ,try the experiment and explain the different results4 7#bf7 ,when a man's hands are cold he will swing his arms so as to strike the hands violently against the sides of his shoulders4 ,what is this action called1 and why is it practised8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notices ,,of ,,books ,,received4 ,,ornithology4--,messrs4 ,west1 ,newman and ,co41 have recently published a very handy and useful 8,pocket ,book of ,british ,birds10 which we have much pleasure in recommending to field ornithologists4 ,the arrangement followed is that given in ,howard ,saunders' well-known 8,manual of ,british ,birds40 ,species 8of which only a few specimens have been observed or obtained in this country0 are omitted4 ,the notes are arranged under the heads of localities1 haunts1 observation1 plumage1 language1 habits1 food1 nest1 site1 material1 eggs4 ,the size is very convenient for the pocket4 ,price1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,mycological ,,society for the season #aije 7published1 ,may #ai1 #aijf7 contain a full account of the ,fungus ,foray held at ,haslemere during the week ending ,september #cj1 #aije4 ,the specimens collected were exhibited in the ,museum4 ,the exhibition was a record one as regards the number of species1 as no less than four hundred and eighty-five were identified during the foray1 including twenty-five mycetozoa4 ,four plates1 three coloured1 accompany the ,transactions4 ,amongst the species depicted we may mention ,polystictus montagnei1 a new ,british species found near ,haslemere in #ahih1 and ,sparassis laminosa 7also a new ,british record7 found by ,mr4 ,douglas ,taylor on the occasion of the ,society's visit to ,woolmer ,forest on ,september #bf1 last4 ,full particulars respecting the ,society may be obtained of the ,hon4 ,secretary1 ,carelton ,rea1 ,esq41 ,b4,c4,l41 ,m4,a41 at #cd1 ,foregate ,street1 ,worcester4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,descriptions ,,of ,,museum ,,specimens4 ,these descriptions are adapted for ,museum ,labels1 and they may be had separately4 ,,skull ,,of ,,montjac1 ,,or ,,barking ,,deer4 ,the skull of the little ,montjac1 or ,barking deer1 is of interest as showing better than any other the relation of the antler to its pedestal4 ,the pedestal is very long and the antler very small4 ,the latter usually possesses only two tines1 the main one and a short stout one which grows near its base4 ,from the front of the pedestal there runs a strong bony ridge down the outer border of the frontal bone as far as the junction with the nasal4 ,this evidently gives strength to the prolonged and rather slender pedestal4 ,,skull ,,of ,a ,,llama 7,camel of ,america74 ,the skull of the ,llama resembles that of the ,camel1 and both differ from those of the other ruminants in having incisor teeth in the upper jaw4 8,these teeth are placed at the side of the intermaxillary bone close to the canines1 and agree with them in form0 7,van der ,hoven1 vol4 ii41 #fdd74 8,there are six incisors only in the lower jaw1 and this jaw is undivided40 ,the camels and llamas form transition species between horses and oxen 7ruminants and solid-ungulates74 ,,the ,,horns ,,of ,a ,,gnu4 ,the ,gnu's horns are alike in both species and may be known at a glance by their hook-like curves4 ,they pass outwards and downwards and then suddenly curve upwards and forwards4 ,they resemble those of buffaloes and perhaps most closely those of the ,american bison4 ,they are never very large1 and always black4 ,they are of fibrous structure and of large girth at their bases1 emulating those of the buffaloes4 ,the ,gnu in some of its features resembles a little horse1 possessing a mane and having its face1 tail1 and hindquarters much like those of a pony4 ,it has1 however1 a cleft hoof and a beard which1 as well as its horns1 distinguish it from the horse family4 ,one of the gnus has a brindled neck and forequarters1 pale streaks on a dark ground1 and a black and tufted tail2 another has a white tail covered with long hair from its base1 and shows no brindling4 ,the latter has an almost straight back1 whilst the former stands higher in its forequarters like the bison4 ,the horns of the brindled black-tailed gnu do not pass forwards nearly so much as those of the other4 ,all the ,gnus are ,south ,african and would appear to bear the same relation to the buffaloes of that continent that the ,north ,american bison does to the ,american buffalo4 ,they are active but rather awkward animals1 and their self-important airs are sometimes amusing4 ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,dugong1 ,,or ,,halicore4 ,this animal is allied to the ,manati1 both belonging to the order ,sirenia4 ,they are water-living mammals4 ,the dugong occurs only in ,eastern and ,australian seas1 the manati on the coasts of ,south ,america and ,africa4 ,the grotesquely misshapen aspect of the skull of the dugong is due to the enormous development of the bones in its upper jaw which carry the cutting teeth 7premaxillary bones and incisor teeth71 and its clumsy lower jaw4 ,the former bear a tusk in the male1 which in the female is present but is never cut4 ,there are no canine teeth1 and in the massive lower jaw no incisor teeth are ever cut4 ,the rudiment of one is1 however1 present in the jaw4 ,it may be noted that the bones carrying the upper incisors do not become united to those of the upper jaw4 ,the back teeth 7chewing teeth71 are only four1 five1 or six in number in the dugong1 whereas in the manati there may be twenty4 ,a remarkable tendency to vary in their dentition is characteristic of this group of animals1 and is no doubt in relation with differences in food4 ,a recently extinct member of the family 7,steller's sea-cow7 had no teeth at all1 but masticated the soft sea-weeds on which it fed by the aid of a horny palate 7,rhytina ,stelleri74 ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,wart ,,hog 7,phacochrus thiopicus74 ,the ,wart ,hog is a native of ,africa4 ,his name makes reference to a pair of wart-like excrescences1 which are formed1 one under each eye4 ,these may be an inch and a half in length4 ,there is an enormous development of the base of the zygoma4 ,the incisor teeth in the upper jaw are often wanting1 and sometimes those in the lower also4 ,the snout is short and square4 ,the so-called warts are fleshy skin-growths and may be large enough to look like ears4 ,there is another ,wart ,hog 7liani71 met with in ,abyssinia4 ,it differs from the ,cape ,wart ,hog in that its incisor teeth in both jaws are more persistent4 ,it has two 8warts40 ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,a ,,pig 7,sus scrofa74 ,the skulls of most of the swine family may be recognised by the long face1 and the large size1 in both jaws1 of their dog-teeth or tusks4 ,these are especially large in the male sex1 and are often curiously curved1 those of the upper jaw upwards1 and those of the lower outwards and upwards4 ,the incisor1 or biting1 teeth vary very much in different species and at different ages4 ,they are often shed early1 especially those of the upper jaw4 ,in some pigs the lower incisors are strong and slope directly forwards1 as if for digging4 ,the incisor teeth are of less service in the pig than in most animals1 and are only exceptionally used for biting or grazing4 ,the pig makes great use of the snout1 and the nasal bones are strong and prominent4 ,the molar teeth are well adapted for chewing1 and are usually worn flat on their surfaces4 ,pigs champ but do not ruminate4 ,they are1 for the most part1 root-eaters4 ,the rim of the orbit is always imperfect4 ,the normal dentition is three incisors1 one canine1 and seven molars in each jaw4 ,if the upper canine is extracted the lower one will grow into a complete circle and reach the gum close to the root of the tooth4 ,when thus curved it forms an ornament much valued in ,fiji4 ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,babirussa4 ,note especially that the tusk of the upper jaw grows upward from the first4 ,no part of it is directed into the mouth4 ,this tusk is of extraordinary size1 and it curves upwards so as to touch1 and sometimes even to pierce1 the skull4 ,they are1 as compared with those of other swine1 slender tusks1 more especially the under ones4 ,the upper tusk grows through the skin of the upper lip4 ,in old animals1 when it is well curved1 it must be useless as a weapon4 ,it may serve to protect the eyes when the animal rushes through brushwood4 ,in the female the tusks are small4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,answers ,,to ,,correspondents1 c4 ,,conchologist4--,your shells are ,helix nemoralis 7immature71 ,hyalinia 7,vitrea7 pura1 and ,buliminus obscurus4 ,vitrea pura is a much smaller shell than ,v4 nitidula1 the latter may be distinguished from ,v4 radiatula by the stri not being continued from whorl to whorl4 ,b4 obscurus is much smaller than any member of the genus ,clausilia4 ,if you examine in ,may the trunks of beech trees growing on calcareous soils you will find ,b4 obscurus and ,clausilia laminata ascending them in large numbers to spend the summer aloft1 coming down again in ,october to go into hybernation at the base of the trees during the winter months4 ,you will find ,c4 rugosa 7in modern terminology1 ,c4 bidentata7 equally common on the trees1 it is smaller and thinner than ,c4 laminata4 ,b4 obscurus is a short1 stout little shell1 seldom exceeding #i millimetres in height4 ,,gardener4 ,diseases of the ,cultivated ,chrysanthemum4--,at the present time three diseases are recorded for this country1 viz41 sclerotium disease 7,sclerotinia sclerotiorum1 ,massee72 corticium disease 7,peniophora chrysanthemi1 ,c4 ,b4 ,plowright71 and the only too familiar ,rust 7,puccinia hieracii1 ,mart74 ,the sclerotium1 which first appears as a white mould on the stem just above the ground1 forms black lumps within the stem4 ,the stem becomes very brittle and falls4 ,from the black nodules in the following spring1 small funnel-shaped brownish fungi with long1 weak1 dark stems appear4 ,the spores from these settle upon dead organic matter1 forming an abundant mycelium which ultimately attacks the base of the stems of chrysanthemums4 ,it is said that fresh stable manure favours the spread of the disease4 ,diseased stems should be carefully collected and burnt4 ,the corticium disease also appears on the lower part of the stem1 forming a white growth in autumn2 ,dr4 ,plowright1 who first discovered it1 says it resembles a splash of whitewash4 ,it is not confined to the stems but extends into the adjacent soil4 ,diseased plants are shorter in height and thinner in the stem than healthy2 they always die within the year4 ,this disease has hitherto been observed only at ,king's ,lynn in ,norfolk1 but it is very possible it occurs in other parts of the country4 ,dr4 ,plowright remarks that the only treatment is burning the diseased plant4 ,it is useless to separate the apparently healthy shoots4 ,the well-known chrysanthemum rust first appeared in #ahig1 and spread with great rapidity in the very dry summer of #ahih4 ,the snuff-coloured uredo spores 7summer form7 are familiar to all cultivators of chrysanthemums4 ,this fungus occurs on many wild plants of the order ,composit1 notably the hawk-weeds 7,hieracium74 ,all diseased plants should be burnt4 ,the disease may be prevented by spraying the new leaves with potassium sulphide solution4 ,it is to be hoped that the chrysanthemum leaf blight 7,cylindrosporium chrysanthemi71 which has caused so much damage to cultivated plants in ,ontario1 ,canada1 will not find its way into this country4 ,it forms large dark patches on the leaves1 which turn yellow and hang down2 the flower buds do not expand4 ,it is stated that fungicides are useless4