,,nietzsche ,,and ,,art by ,,anthony ,m4 ,,ludovici ,author of ',who is to be ,master of the ,world8' ,rien n'est beau que le vrai1 dit un vers respect2 et moi1 je lui rponds1 sans crainte d'un blasphme3 ,rien n'est vrai sans beaut4 --,alfred de ,musset4 ,,constable ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,,london #aiaa ,illustration3 ,sekhet 7,louvre7 ,preface ,we philosophers are never more delighted than when we are taken for artists4#a ,in this book1 which embodies a course of lectures delivered in a somewhat condensed and summarized form at ,university ,college1 ,london1 during ,november and ,december1 #aiaj1 ,i have done two things4 ,i have propounded ,nietzsche's general ,art doctrine1 and1 with the view of illustrating it and of defining it further1 ,i have also applied its leading principles to one of the main branches of ,art4 ,as this has not been done before1 either in ,english or in any ,continental language1 my book is certainly not free from the crudeness and inadvertences which are inseparable from pioneer efforts of this nature4 ,nevertheless it is with complete confidence1 and a deep conviction of its necessity1 that ,i now see it go to print2 for1 even if here and there its adventurous spirit may ultimately require modification1 ,i feel certain that1 in the main1 time itself1 together with the help of other writers1 will fully confirm its general thesis1 if ,i should be unable to do so4 ,sooner or later it will be brought home to us in ,europe that we cannot with impunity foster and cultivate vulgarity and mob qualities in our architecture1 our sculpture1 our painting1 our music and literature1 without paying very dearly for these luxuries in our respective national politics1 in our family institutions1 and even in our physique4 ,to connect all these things together1 and to show their inevitable interdependence1 would be a perfectly possible though arduous undertaking4 ,in any case1 this is not quite the task ,i have set myself in this work4 ,i have indeed shown that to bestow admiration on a work of extreme democratic painting and at the same time to be convinced of the value of an aristocratic order of society1 is to be guilty of a confusion of ideas which ultimately can lead only to disastrous results in practical life2 but further than this ,i have not gone1 simply because the compass of these lectures did not permit of my so doing4 ,confining myself strictly to ,nietzsche's sthetic1 ,i have been content merely to show that the highest ,art1 or ,ruler ,art1 and therefore the highest beauty1--in which culture is opposed to natural rudeness1 selection to natural chaos1 and simplicity to natural complexity1--can be the flower and product only of an aristocratic society which1 in its traditions and its active life1 has observed1 and continues to observe1 the three aristocratic principles1--culture1 selection and simplicity4 ,following ,nietzsche closely1 ,i have sought to demonstrate the difference between the art which comes of inner poverty 7realism1 or democratic art71 and that which is the result of inner riches 7,ruler ,art74 ,identifying the first with the reflex actions which respond to external stimuli1 ,i have shown it to be slavishly dependent upon environment for its existence1 and1 on that account1 either beneath reality 7,incompetence71 on a level with reality 7,realism71 or fantastically different from reality 7,romanticism74 ,i have1 moreover1 associated these three forms of inferior art with democracy1 because in democracy ,i find three conditions which are conducive to their cultivation1 viz4--7#a7 ,the right of self-assertion granted to everybody1 and the consequent necessary deterioration of world-interpretations owing to the fact that the function of interpretation is claimed by mediocrity2 7#b7 the belief in a general truth that can be made common to all1 which seems to become prevalent in democratic times1 and which perforce reduces us to the only truth that can be made common to all1 namely ,reality2 and 7#c7 a democratic dislike of recognizing the mark or stamp of any particular human power in the things interpreted1 and man's consequent return to ,nature untouched by man1 which1 once again1 is ,reality4 ,identifying ,ruler ,art1 or the ,art of inner riches1 with the function of giving1 ,i have shown it to be dependent upon four conditions which are quite inseparable from an aristocratic society1 and which ,i therefore associate1 without any hesitation1 as ,nietzsche does1 with ,higher ,man1 with ,nature's rare and lucky strokes among men4 ,these conditions are --7#a7 ,long tradition under the sway of noble and inviolable values1 resulting in an accumulation of will power and a superabundance of good spirits2 7#b7 leisure which allows of meditation1 and therefore of that process of lowering pitchers into the wells of inner riches2 7#c7 the disbelief in freedom for freedom's sake without a purpose or without an aim2 and 7#d7 an order of rank according to which each is given a place in keeping with his value1 and authority and reverence are upheld4 ,in the course of this exposition1 it will be seen that ,i have to lay realism also at the door of ,ruler ,art2 but ,i am careful to point out that1 although such realism 7,i call it militant realism in respect to the art both of the ,middle ,ages and of the later ,renaissance1 as well as of ,greece7 is a fault1 of ,ruler ,art which very much reduces the latter's rank among the arts2 it is nevertheless above that other realism of mediocrity which1 for the want of a better term1 ,i call poverty realism4 7,see ,lecture ,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 end47 ,in order firmly to establish the difference between the ,ruler and ,democratic styles ,i ought1 perhaps1 to have entered with more thoroughness than ,i have done into the meditative nature of the one1 and the empirical nature of the other4 ,this1 apart from a few very unmistakable hints1 ,i have unfortunately been unable to do4 ,i found it quite impossible to include all the detail bearing upon the main thesis1 in this first treatise2 and1 though ,i have resolved to discuss these important matters very soon1 in the form of supplementary essays1 ,i can but acknowledge here that ,i recognize their omission as a blemish4 ,the wide field covered by this book1 and the small form in which ,i was compelled to cast it1 have thus led to many questions remaining inadequately answered and to many statements being left insufficiently substantiated4 ,in the end ,i found it quite impossible to avail myself even of a third of the material ,i had collected for its production1 and ,i should therefore be grateful if it could be regarded more in the light of a preliminary survey of the ground to be built upon1 rather than as a finished building taking its foundation in ,nietzsche's philosophy of ,art4 ,with regard to all my utterances on ,egypt1 ,i should like the reader kindly to bear only this in mind3 that my choice of ,egyptian art1 as the best example of ,ruler ,art we possess1 is neither arbitrary nor capricious2 but1 because it is neither arbitrary nor capricious1 it does not follow that ,i regard a return to the types of ,egypt as the only possible salvation of the graphic arts4 ,this would be sheer ,romanticism and sentimentality4 ,a thousand paths are there which have never yet been trodden2 a thousand salubrities and hidden islands of life4 ,unexhausted and undiscovered is still man and man's world 7,z41 ,i1 ,,xxii474 ,it is rather the spirit which led to this ,egyptian ,art1 which ,i regard as so necessary to all great achievements1 either in legislation1 art1 or religion2 and whether this spirit happens to be found on the banks of the ,nile1 in the ,vatican1 or in ,mexico4 ,i point to it merely as something which we ought to prize and cherish1 and which we now possess only in an extremely diluted and decadent form4 ,it is the spirit which will establish order at all costs1 whose manner of exploiting higher men is to look upon the world through their transfiguring vision1 and which believes that it is better for mankind to attain to a high level1 even in ones1 twos1 or threes1 than that the bulk of humanity should begin to doubt that man can attain to a high level at all4 ,this spirit might produce any number of types2 it is not necessary1 therefore1 that the ,egyptian type should be regarded as precisely the one to be desired4 ,i do but call your attention to these granite and diorite sculptures1 because behind them ,i feel the presence and the power of that attitude towards life which the ancient ,pharaohs held and reverenced1 and which ,i find reflected in ,nietzsche's ,art values4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in quoting from ,german authorities1 where ,i have not been able to give reference to standard ,english translations1 ,i have translated the extracts from the original myself1 for the convenience of ,english readers2 while1 in the case of ,french works1 ,i have deliberately given the original text1 only when ,i felt that the sense might suffer by translation4 ,i should now like to express my deep gratitude to ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy1 who has always been ready to place his valuable time and wide knowledge at my disposal whenever ,i have expressed the smallest desire of consulting him on any difficult point that may have arisen during the preparation of these lectures4 ,and ,i should also like to acknowledge the help afforded me by both ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy and ,dr4 ,mgge1--the one through his extensive acquaintance with ,eastern literature1 and the other through his valuable bibliography of works relating to ,nietzsche's life and philosophy4 ,it only remains for me to thank the ,committee and the ,provost of ,university ,college1 ,gower ,street1 for their kindness1 and for the generous hospitality which they have now extended to me on two separate occasions2 and1 finally1 to avail myself of this opportunity in order to express my grateful recognition of the trouble taken on my behalf by ,professor ,robert ,priebsch and ,mr4 ,walter ,w4 ,seton of ,london ,university1 on both occasions when ,i had the honour of delivering a course of lectures at their ,college4 ,,anthony ,m4 ,,ludovici4 ,february #aiaa4 #a ,friedrich ,nietzsche's ,gesmmelte ,briefe1 vol4 #aaa1 p4 #cje4 ,,contents ,,lecture ,i ,,part ,i ,anarchy in ,modern ,art ,the ,state of ,modern ,art ,the ,fine ,arts3 #a4 ,the ,artists #b4 ,the ,public #c4 ,the ,critics #d4 ,some ,art-,criticisms ,,part ,,ii ,suggested ,causes of the ,anarchy in ,modern ,art #a4 ,morbid ,irritability #b4 ,misleading ,systems of sthetic #c4 ,our ,heritage3-- 7a7 ,christianity 7b7 ,protestantism 7c7 ,philosophical ,influences 7d7 ,the ,evolutionary ,hypothesis ,,lecture ,,ii ,government in ,art--,nietzsche's ,definition of ,art ,,part ,i ,divine ,art and the ,man--,god #a4 ,the ,world ,without ,form and ,void #b4 ,the ,first ,artists #c4 ,the ,people and their ,man-,god #d4 ,the ,danger #e4 ,the ,two ,kinds of ,artists ,,part ,,ii ,deductions from ,part ,i--,nietzsche's ,art ,principles #a4 ,the ,spirit of the ,age incompatible with ,ruler ,art #b4 ,a ,thrust parried4 ,police or ,detective ,art defined #c4 ,the ,purpose of ,art ,still the ,same as ,ever #d4 ,the ,artist's and the ,layman's ,view of ,life #e4 ,the ,confusion of the ,two ,points of ,view #f4 ,the ,meaning of ,beauty of ,form and of ,beauty of ,content in ,art #g4 ,the ,meaning of ,ugliness of ,form and of ,ugliness of ,content in ,art #h4 ,the ,ruler-,artist's ,style and ,subject ,,part ,,iii ,landscape and ,portrait ,painting #a4 ,the ,value ,ugly in the ,mouth of the ,dionysian ,artist #b4 ,landscape ,painting #c4 ,portrait ,painting ,,lecture ,,iii ,nietzsche's art principles in the history of art ,,part ,i ,christianity and the ,renaissance #a4 ,rome and the ,christian ,ideal #b4 ,the ,pagan ,type appropriated and transformed by ,christian ,art #c4 ,the ,gothic ,building and ,sentiment #d4 ,the ,renaissance ,,part ,,ii ,greece and ,egypt #a4 ,greek ,art 7a7 ,the ,parthenon 7b7 ,the ,apollo of ,tenea 7c7 ,the ,two ,art-,wills of ,ancient ,greece 7d7 ,greek ,painting #b4 ,egyptian ,art 7a7 ,king ,khephrn 7b7 ,the ,lady ,nophret 7c7 ,the ,pyramid ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,sekhet 7,louvre7 ,frontispiece ,the ,marriage of ,mary1 by ,raphael 7,brera1 ,milan7 ,saskia1 by ,rembrandt 7,dresden ,royal ,picture ,gallery7 ,the ,canon of ,polycleitus 7,rome7 ,the ,apollo of ,tenea 7,glyptothek1 ,munich7 ,the ,medusa ,metope of ,selinus 7,palermo7 ,king ,khephrn 7,cairo ,museum7 ,the ,lady ,nophret 7,cairo ,museum7 ,abbreviations ,used in ,referring to ,nietzsche's ,works ,e4 ,i4 ,the ,future of our ,educational ,institutions4 ,b4 ,t4 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy4 ,h4 ,a4 ,h4 ,human ,all-too-,human4 ,d4 ,d4 ,dawn of ,day4 ,j4 ,w4 ,joyful ,wisdom4 ,z4 ,thus spake ,zarathustra4 ,g4 ,e4 ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,g4 ,m4 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,c4 ,w4 ,the ,case of ,wagner and ,nietzsche contra ,wagner4 ,t4 ,i4 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols4 ,a4 ,antichrist4 ,w4 ,p4 ,the ,will to ,power4 ,the ,english renderings given in this book are taken from the ,complete and ,authorized ,translation of ,nietzsche's ,works edited by ,oscar ,levy4 7,this edition in #ah volumes is entirely being made available at ,project ,gutenberg too1 also with a linked index to all works as last volume1 and will be completed soon4--,transcriber's ,note47 ,nietzsche and ,art ,lecture ,i#a ,part ,i ,anarchy in ,modern ,art ,therefore is the name of it called ,babel2 because the ,lord did there confound the language of all the earth3 and from thence did the ,lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth4--,genesis xi4 #i4 ,concerning great things1 said ,nietzsche1 one should either be silent1 or one should speak loftily3--loftily1 that is to say1 cynically and innocently4#b ,art is a great thing4 ,maybe it is the greatest thing on earth4 ,wherever and whenever ,nietzsche speaks about it he always does so loftily1 and with reverence2 while his position as an anchorite1 and as an artist who kept aloof from the traffic for fame1 allowed him to retain that innocence in his point of view1 which he maintains is so necessary in the treatment of such a subject4 ,as the children of an age in which ,art is rapidly losing its prestige1 we modern ,europeans may perhaps feel a little inclined to purse our lips at the religious solemnity with which ,nietzsche approaches this matter4 ,so large a number of vital forces have been applied to the object of giving us entertainment in our large cities1 that it is now no longer a simple matter to divorce ,art altogether in our minds from the category of things whose sole purpose is to amuse or please us4 ,some there are1 of course1 who would repudiate this suggestion indignantly1 and who would claim for ,art a very high moral purpose4 ,these moralists apart1 however1 it seems safe to say1 that in the minds of most people to-day1 ,art is a thing which either leaves them utterly unmoved1 or to which they turn only when they are in need of distraction1 of decoration for their homes1 or of stimulation in their thought4 ,leaving the discussion of ,nietzsche's personal view of ,art to the next lecture1 ,i shall now first attempt1 from his standpoint1 a general examination of the condition of ,art at the present day1 which1 though it will be necessarily rapid and sketchy1 will1 ,i hope1 not prove inadequate for my purpose4 ,before ,i proceed1 however1 ,i should like to be allowed to call your attention to the difficulties of my task4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 mine is the first attempt that has been made1 either here or abroad1 to place an exhaustive account of ,nietzsche's ,art doctrine before any audience4 ,but for one or two ,german writers1 who have discussed ,nietzsche --the artist--tentatively and hesitatingly1 ,i know of no one who has endeavoured to do so after having had recourse to all his utterances on the subject1 nor do ,i know of anybody who has applied his sthetic principles to any particular branch or branches of ,art4 ,it is therefore with some reason that ,i now crave your indulgence for my undertaking and beg you to remember that it is entirely of a pioneer nature4 ,many of you here1 perhaps1 are already acquainted with ,nietzsche's philosophy1 and are also intimately associated with one of the branches of ,art4 ,nevertheless1 let me warn you before ,i begin1 that you may have to listen to heresies that will try your patience to the utmost4 ,i also am intimately associated with one of the branches of ,art1 and my traditions are ,art traditions4 ,i can well imagine1 therefore1 how some of you will receive many of the statements ,i am about to make2 and ,i can only entreat you to bear with me patiently until the end1 if only with the hope that1 after all1 there may be something worth thinking about1 if not worth embracing1 in what you are going to hear4 ,two years ago1 in this same hall1 ,i had the honour of addressing an audience on the subject of ,nietzsche's moral and evolutionary views1 and1 since then1 ,i have wondered whether ,i really selected the more important side of his philosophy for my first lectures4 ,if it were not for the fact that the whole of his thought is1 as it were1 of one single piece1 harmoniously and consistently woven1 ,i should doubt that ,i had selected the more vital portion of it2 for it is impossible to overrate the value of his ,art doctrine--especially to us1 the children of an age so full of perplexity1 doubt and confusion as this one is4 ,in taking ,nietzsche's ,art principles and ,art criticism as a basis for a new valuation of ,art1 ,i am doing nothing that is likely to astonish the careful student of ,nietzsche's works4 ,friends and foes alike have found themselves compelled to agree upon this point1 that ,nietzsche1 whatever he may have been besides1 was at least a great artist and a great thinker on ,art4 ,on the ground that he was solely and purely an artist some have even denied his claim to the title ,philosopher4 ,among the more celebrated of modern writers who have done this1 is the ,italian critic ,benedetto ,croce2#c while ,julius ,zeitler declares that ,nietzsche's artistic standpoint should be regarded as the very basis of all his thought1 and that no better access could be discovered to his spirit than by way of his sthetic4#d ,certainly1 from the dawn of his literary career1 ,art seems to have been one of ,nietzsche's most constant preoccupations4 ,even the general argument of his last work1 ,the ,will to ,power1 is an entirely artistic one2 while his hatred of ,christianity was the hatred of an artist long before it became the hatred of an aristocratic moralist1 or of a prophet of ,superman4 ,in ,the ,birth of ,tragedy1 a book in which1 by the bye1 he declares that there can be but one justification of the world1 and that is as an sthetic phenomenon1#d we find the following words-- ,to the purely sthetic world interpretation 444 taught in this book1 there is no greater antithesis than the ,christian dogma1 which is only and will be only moral1 and which1 with its absolute standards1 for instance1 its truthfulness of ,god1 relegates--that is1 disowns1 convicts1 condemns--,art1 all ,art1 to the realm of falsehood4 ,behind such a mode of thought and valuation1 which1 if at all genuine1 must be hostile to ,art1 ,i always experienced what was hostile to life1 the wrathful vindictive counter will to life itself3 for all life rests on appearance1 ,art1 illusion1 optics1 and necessity of perspective and error4#e ,nietzsche's works are1 however1 full of the evidences of an artistic temperament4 ,who but an artist1 knowing the joy of creating1 for instance1 could have laid such stress upon the creative act as the great salvation from suffering and an alleviation of life8#f ,who but an artist could have been an atheist out of his lust to create8 ,for what could be created1 if there were ,gods6 cries ,zarathustra4#g ,but1 above all1 who save an artist could have elevated taste to such a high place as a criterion of value1 and have made his own personal taste the standard for so many grave valuations8 ,and ye tell me1 my friends1 says ,zarathustra1 that there is to be no dispute about taste and tasting8 ,but all life is a dispute about taste and tasting6 ,taste3 that is weight at the same time1 and scales and weigher2 and alas for every living thing that would live without dispute about weight and scales and weighing6#h ,but it is more particularly in ,nietzsche's understanding of the instinct which drove him to expression1 and in his attitude towards those whom he would teach1 that we recognize the typical artist1 in the highest acceptation of the word--that is to say1 as a creature of abundance1 who must give thereof or perish4 ,out of plenitude and riches only1 do his words come to us4 ,with him there can be no question of eloquence as the result of poverty1 vindictiveness1 spite1 resentment1 or envy2 for such eloquence is of the swamp4#i ,where he is wrath1 he speaks from above1 where he despises his contempt is prompted by love alone1 and where he annihilates he does so as a creator4#aj ,mine impatient love1 he says1 floweth over in streams1 down towards the sunrise and the sunset4 ,from out silent mountains and tempests of affliction1 rusheth my soul into the valleys4 ,too long have ,i yearned and scanned the far horizon4 ,too long hath the shroud of solitude been upon me3 thus have ,i lost the habit of silence4 ,a tongue have ,i become and little else besides1 and the brawling of a brook1 falling from lofty rocks3 downward into the dale will ,i pour my words4 ,and let the torrent of my love dash into all blocked highways4 ,how could a torrent help but find its way to the sea6 ,verily1 a lake lies within me1 complacent and alone2 but the torrent of my love draws this along with it1 down--into the ocean6 ,new highways ,i tread1 new worlds come unto me2 like all creators ,i have grown weary of old tongues4 ,no longer will my spirit walk on worn-out soles4 ,too slow footed is all speech for me3--,into thy chariot1 ,o storm1 do ,i leap6 ,and even thee will ,i scourge with my devilry4 ,thus spake ,zarathustra4#aa #a ,delivered at ,university ,college on ,dec4 #ast1 #aiaj4 #b ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #a4 #b sthetic 7translation by ,douglas ,ainslie71 p4 #cej4 #c ,nietzsches sthetik1 p4 #e4 #d ,b4 ,t41 p4 #ahc4 #e ,b4 ,t41 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #f ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxiv4 #g ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxiv4 #h ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxxv4 ,see also ,la ,bruyre's reply to his countrymen's popular belief1 des gots et des couleurs on ne peut discuter1 in ,les ,caractres3 ,des ouvrages de l'esprit1 ,aph4 #aj4 #i ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,lvi4 #aj ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxxiv4 #aa ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,state of ,modern ,art4 ,the ,art of to-day1 unholy and undivine as the ,tower of ,babel1 seems to have incurred the wrath of a mighty godhead1 and those who were at work upon it have abandoned it to its fate1 and have scattered apart--all speaking different tongues1 and all filled with confusion4 ,precisely on account of the disorder which now prevails in this department of life1 sincere and honest people find it difficult to show the interest in it1 which would be only compatible with its importance4 ,probably but few men1 to-day1 could fall on their knees and sob at the deathbed of a great artist1 as ,pope ,leo ,x once did4 ,maybe there are but one or two who1 like the ,taiko's generals1 when ,teaism was in the ascendancy in ,japan1 would prefer the present of a rare work of art to a large grant of territory as a reward of victory2#ab and there is certainly not one individual in our midst but would curl his lips at the thought of a mere servant sacrificing his life for a precious picture4 ,and yet1 says the ,japanese writer1 ,okakura-,kakuzo1 many of our favourite dramas in ,japan are based on the loss and subsequent recovery of a noted masterpiece4#ac ,in this part of the world to-day1 not only the author1 but also the audience for such dramas is entirely lacking4 ,the layman1 as well as the artist1 knows perfectly well that this is so4 ,appalled by the disorder1 contradictoriness1 and difference of opinion among artists1 the layman has ceased to think seriously about ,art2 while artists themselves are so perplexed by the want of solidarity in their ranks1 that they too are beginning to question the wherefore of their existence4 ,not only does every one arrogate to himself the right to utter his word upon ,art2 but ,art's throne itself is now claimed by thousands upon thousands of usurpers--each of whom has a free personality which he insists upon expressing1#ad and to whom severe law and order would be an insuperable barrier4 ,exaggerated individualism and anarchy are the result4 ,but such results are everywhere inevitable1 when all sthetic canons have been abolished1 and when there is no longer anybody strong enough to command or to lead4 ,knowest thou not who is most needed of all8 says ,zarathustra4 ,he who commandeth great things4 ,to execute great things is difficult2 but the more difficult task is to command great things4#ae ,direct commanding of any sort1 however1 as ,nietzsche declares1 has ceased long since4 ,in cases1 he observes1 where it is believed that the leader and bell-wether cannot be dispensed with1 attempt after attempt is made nowadays to replace commanders by the summing together of clever gregarious men3 all representative constitutions1 for example1 are of this origin4#af ,although1 in this inquiry1 the ,fine ,arts will be the subject of my particular attention1 it should not be supposed that this is necessarily the department in modern life in which ,nietzsche believed most disorder1 most incompetence1 and most scepticism prevails4 ,i selected the ,fine ,arts1 in the first place1 merely because they are the arts concerning which ,i am best informed1 and to which the ,nietzschean doctrine can be admirably applied2 and secondly1 because sculpture and painting offer a wealth of examples known to all1 which facilitates anything in the way of an exposition4 ,for even outsiders and plain men in the street must be beginning to have more than an inkling of the chaos and confusion which now reigns in other spheres besides the ,fine ,arts4 ,it must be apparent to most people that1 in every department of modern life where culture and not calculation1 where taste and not figures1 where ability and not qualifications1 are alone able to achieve anything great--that is to say1 in religion1 in morality1 in law1 in politics1 in music1 in architecture1 and finally in the plastic arts1 precision and government are now practically at an end4 ,disintegration1 says ,nietzsche1--that is to say1 uncertainty--is peculiar to this age3 nothing stands on solid ground or on a sound faith4444 ,all our road is slippery and dangerous1 while the ice which still bears us has grown unconscionably thin3 we all feel the mild and gruesome breath of the thaw-wind--soon1 where we are walking1 no one will any longer be able to stand6#ag ,we do not require to be told that in religion and moral matters1 scarcely any two specialists are agreed--the extraordinarily large number of religious sects in ,england alone needs but to be mentioned here2 in law we divine that things are in a bad state2 in politics even our eyes are beginning to give us evidence of the serious uncertainty prevailing2 while in architecture and music the case is pitiable4 ,if we really wished1 if we actually dared to devise a style of architecture which corresponded to the state of our souls1 says ,nietzsche1 a labyrinth would be the building we should erect4 ,but1 he adds1 we are too cowardly to construct anything which would be such a complete revelation of our hearts4#ah ,however elementary our technical knowledge of the matter may be1 we1 as simple inquirers1 have but to look about our streets to-day1 in order to convince ourselves of the ignominious muddle of modern architecture4 ,here we find structural expedients used as ornaments1#ai the most rigid parts of buildings1 in form 7the rectangular parts1 etc471 placed near the roof instead of in the basement1#bj and pillars standing supporting1 and supported by1 nothing4#ba ,elsewhere we see solids over voids1#bb mullions supporting arches1#bc key-stones introduced into lintels1#bd real windows appearing as mere holes in the wall1 while the ornamental windows are shams1#be and pilasters resting on key-stones4#bf ,and1 everywhere1 we see recent requirements masked and concealed behind ,greek1 ,roman1 ,gothic1 ,renaissance1 ,rococo1 and ,baroque embellishments1 thrown together helter-skelter1 and with a disregard of structural demands which must startle even the uninitiated4#bg ,our streets are ugly in the extreme4#bh ,only at night1 as ,camille ,mauclair says1 does the artificial light convert their hideousness into a sort of lugubrious grandeur1#bi and that is perhaps why1 to the sensitive artistic ,londoner1 the darkness of night or the pale glow of the moon is such a solace and relief4 ,as to the state of modern music1 this is best described perhaps1 though with perfectly unconscious irony1 by ,mr4 ,henry ,davey1 in the opening words of his ,student's ,musical ,history4 ,music has indeed been defined1 he says1 as 'sound with regular vibrations1' other sounds being called noise4 ,this definition1 the author adds1 is only suited to undeveloped music2 modern music may include noise and even silence4#cj ,people are mistaken if they suppose that ,nietzsche1 in attacking ,wagner as he did1 was prompted by any personal animosity or other considerations foreign to the question of music4 ,in ,wagner1 ,nietzsche saw a ,romanticist of the strongest possible type1 and he was opposed to the ,romantic ,school of ,music1 because of its indifference to form4 ,always an opponent of anarchy1 despite all that his critics may say to the contrary1 ,nietzsche saw with great misgiving the decline and decay of melody and rhythm in modern music1 and in attacking ,wagner as the embodiment of the ,romantic ,school1 he merely personified the movement to which he felt himself so fundamentally opposed4 ,and in this opposition he was not alone4 ,the ,romantic movement1 assailed by many1 will continue to be assailed1 until all its evil influences are exposed4 ,since the days of ,beethoven1 says ,emil ,naumann1 instrumental music1 generally speaking1 has retrograded as regards spontaneity of invention1 thematic working1 and mastery of art form1#ca and the same author declares that he regards all modern masters as the natural outcome of the ,romantic era4#cb ,nietzsche has told us in his ,wagner pamphlets what he demands from music1#cc and this he certainly could not get from the kind of music which is all the rage just now4 ,what it lacks in invention it tries to make up in idiosyncrasy1 intricacy1 and complexity1 and that which it cannot assume in the matter of form1 it attempts to convert into a virtue and a principle4#cd ,bombast and complexity in music1 says ,p4 von ,lind1 as in any other art1 are always a sign of inferiority2 for they betray an artist's incapacity to express himself simply1 clearly1 and exhaustively--three leading qualities in our great heroes of music 7,tonheroen74 ,in this respect the whole of modern music1 including ,wagner's1 is inferior to the music of the past4#ce ,but of all modern musical critics1 perhaps ,richard ,hamann is the most desperate concerning the work of recent composers4 ,his book on ,impressionism and ,art entirely supports ,nietzsche's condemnation of the drift of modern music1 and in his references to ,wagner1 even the words lie uses seem to have been drawn from the ,nietzschean vocabulary4#cf ,briefly what he complains of in the music of the day is its want of form1#cg its abuse of discord1#ch its hundred and one different artifices for producing nerve-exciting and nerve-stimulating effects1#ci its predilection in favour of cacophonous instruments1#dj its unwarrantable sudden changes in rhythm or tempo within the same movement1#da its habit of delaying the solving chord1 as in the love-death passage of ,tristan and ,isolde1#db and1 finally1 its realism1 of which a typical example is ,strauss's ,by a ,lonely ,brook--all purely ,nietzschean objections6 ,well might ,mr4 ,allen cry out3 ,oh for the classic simplicity of a bygone age1 the golden age of music that hath passed away6#dc ,but the trouble does not end here2 for1 if we are to believe a certain organ-builder1 bell-founder and pianoforte-maker of ripe experience1 it has actually descended into the sphere of instrument-making as well4#dd #ab ,okakura-,kakuzo1 ,the ,book of ,tea1 pp4 #aab1 #aac4 #ac ,the ,book of ,tea1 p4 #aab4 #ad ,see in this regard ,b4 ,t41 pp4 #ed1 #ee4 #ae ,z41 ,,ii4 ,,xlvi4 #af ,g4 ,e41 p4#aba4 #ag ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ee4 #ah ,d4 ,d41 ,aph4 #afi4 #ai ,this is such a common fault that it is superfluous to give particular examples of it1 but the ,new ,war ,office in ,whitehall is a good case in point4 #bj ,local ,government ,board building2 ,piccadilly ,hotel 7,regent ,st4 side74 #ba ,piccadilly ,hotel 7,piccadilly side71 and the ,sicilian ,avenue1 ,bloomsbury4 #bb ,new ,scotland ,yard4 #bc ,gaiety ,theatre2 the new ,y4,m4,c4,a4 building1 ,tottenham ,court ,road4 #bd ,local ,government ,board4 #be ,gaiety ,theatre4 #bf ,marylebone ,workhouse4 #bg ,see ,fergusson's ,introduction to his ,history of ,modern ,architecture4 #bh ,see ,w4 ,morris's ,address on the ,decorative ,arts1 pp4 #ah1 #ai4 #bi ,trois crises de l'art actuel1 p4 #bdc4 #cj ,the ,student's ,musical ,history1 p4 #a4 #ca ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ibg4 ,see also ,the ,student's ,musical ,history1 by ,henry ,davey1 p4 #ig4 ,weakness of rhythm is the main reason of the inferiority of the romantic composers to their predecessors4 #cb ,history of ,music1 p4 #aaie4 ,see also ,p4 v4 ,lind1 ,moderner ,geschmack und moderne ,musik1 in which the author complains of the excessive virtuosity1 want of faith and science of modern music1 while on p4 #cd he1 too1 calls all modern musicians romanticists4 #cc ,see especially ,c4 ,w41 pp4 #ei1 #fj4 #cd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgf4 #ce ,moderner ,geschmack und moderne ,musik1 p4 #ed4 #cf ,der ,impressionismus in ,leben und ,kunst4 #cg ,ibid41 pp4 #ec1 #eg4 #ch ,ibid41 p4 #fd4 #ci ,ibid41 p4 #fg4 #dj ,ibid41 p4 #fi4 #da ,ibid41 p4 #gd4 #db ,ibid41 p4 #fa4 #dc ,the ,fallacy of ,modern ,music1 p4 #aj4 #dd ,a ,protest against the ,modern ,development of ,unmusical ,tone1 by ,thomas ,c4 ,lewis4 ,the ,fine ,arts4--#a4 ,the ,artists4 ,turning1 now1 to ,painting and ,sculpture1 what is it precisely that we see8 ,in this branch of ,art1 chaos and anarchy are scarcely the words to use4 ,the condition is rather one of complete and hopeless dissolution4 ,there is neither a direction1 a goal1 nor a purpose4 ,slavish realism side by side with crude conventions1 incompetence side by side with wasted talent1 coloured photography side by side with deliberate eccentricity1 and scientific principles applied to things that do not matter in the least3 these are a few of the features which are noticeable at a first glance4 ,going a little deeper1 we find that the whole concept of what ,art really is seems to be totally lacking in the work of modern painters and sculptors1 and1 if we were forced to formulate a ,broad definition for the painting and sculpture of our time1 we should find ourselves compelled to say that they are no more than a field in which more or less interesting people manifest their more or less interesting personalities4 ,there is nothing in this definition which is likely to offend the modern artist4 ,on the contrary1 he would probably approve of it all too hastily4 ,but1 in approving of it1 he would confess himself utterly ignorant of what ,art actually is1 and means1 and purposes in our midst4 ,or to state the case differently3 it is not that the modern artist has no notion at all of what ,art is2 but1 that his notion is one which belittles1 humiliates and debases ,art1 root and branch4 ,to have gazed with understanding at the divine ,art of ,egypt1 to have studied ,egyptian realism and ,egyptian conventionalism2 to have stood doubtfully before ,greek sculpture1 even of the best period1 and to have known how to place it in the order of rank among the art-products of the world2 finally1 to have learnt to value the ,art of the ,middle ,ages1 not so much because of its form1 but because of its content3 these are experiences which ultimately make one stand aghast before the work of our modern men1 and even before the work of some of their predecessors1 and to ask oneself into whose hands could ,art have passed that she should have fallen so low8 ,whether one look on a ,sargent or on a ,poynter1 on a ,rodin or on a ,brock1 on a ,vuillard or on a ,maurice ,denis1 on an ,alfred ,east or on a ,monet1 the question in one's heart will be2 not1 why are these men so poor8 but1 why are they so modest8--why are they so humble8--why1 in fact1 are their voices so obsequiously servile and faint8 ,one will ask3 not1 why do these men paint or mould as they do8 but1 why do they paint or mould at all8 ,ugliness1 in the sense of amorphousness1 one will be able to explain4 ,ugliness1 in this sense1 although its position in ,art has not yet been properly accounted for1 one will be able to classify perfectly well4 ,but this tremulousness1 this plebeian embarrassment1 this democratic desire to please1 above all1 this democratic disinclination to assume a position of authority1--these are things which contradict the very essence of ,art1 and these are the things which are found in the productions of almost every ,european school to-day4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 to do artists justice1 beneath all the tremendous activity of modern times in both branches of the art we are discussing1 there is1 among the thinking members of the profession1 a feeling of purposelessness1 of doubt and pessimism1 which is ill concealed1 even in their work4 ,the best of these artists know1 and will even tell you1 that there are no canons1 that individuality is absolute1 and that the aim of all their work is extremely doubtful1 if not impossible to determine4 ,there is not much quarrelling done1 or hand-to-hand scuffling engaged in2 because no one feels sufficiently firm on his own legs to stand up and oppose the doctrine that there is no accounting for tastes4 ,a clammy1 deathlike stillness reigns over the whole of this seething disagreement and antagonism in principles4 ,not since ,whistler fired his bright missiles into the press has the report of a decent-sized gun been heard2 and this peace in chaos1 this silence in confusion1 is full of the suggestion of decomposition and decay4 ,art appears to be surrounded by the magic influence of death1 says ,nietzsche1 and in a short time mankind will be celebrating festivals of memory in honour of it4#de ,with but one or two brilliant exceptions1 that which characterizes modern painting and modern sculpture is1 generally speaking1 its complete lack of ,art in the sense in which ,i shall use this word in my next lecture4 ,this indeed1 as you will see1 covers everything4 ,for the present purpose1 however1 let it be said that1 from the ,nietzschean standpoint1 the painters and sculptors of the present age are deficient in dignity1 in pride1 in faith1 and1 above all1 in love4 ,they are too dependent upon environment1 upon ,nature1 to give a direction and a meaning to their exalted calling2 they are too disunited and too lawless to be leaders2 they are in an age too chaotic and too sceptical to be able to find a wherefore and a whither for themselves2 and1 above all1 there are too many pretenders in their ranks--too many who ought never to have painted or moulded at all--to make it possible for the greatest among them to elevate the ,cause of ,art to its proper level4 ,no sthetic canon is to be seen or traced anywhere2 nobody knows one1 nobody dares to assert one4 ,the rule that tastes cannot be disputed is now the only rule that prevails1 and1 behind this rule1 the basest1 meanest and most preposterous individual claims are able to make their influence felt4 ,certainly1 it is true1 there is no accounting for tastes2 but1 once a particular taste has revealed itself it ought to be possible to classify it and to point out where it belongs and whither it is going to lead4 ,undoubtedly a man's taste cannot be taken from him1 because its roots are in his constitution2 but1 once he has identified himself with a particular form of taste1 it ought to be possible to identify him too1--that is to say1 to realize his rank and his value4 ,if it is impossible to do this nowadays1 it is because there is no criterion to guide us4 ,it will therefore be my endeavour to establish a criterion1 based upon ,nietzsche's sthetic1 and1 in the course of these lectures1 to classify a few forms of taste in accordance with it4 ,meanwhile1 however1 the inquiry into the present condition of the ,fine ,arts must be continued2 and this shall now be done by taking up the public's standpoint4 #de ,h4 ,a4 ,h41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bje1 #bjf4 #b4 ,the ,public4 ,the man who goes to a modern exhibition of pictures and sculptures1 experiences visually what they experience aurally who stand on a ,sunday evening within sight of the ,marble ,arch1 just inside ,hyde ,park4 ,not only different voices and different subjects are in the air2 but fundamentally different conceptions of life1 profoundly and utterly antagonistic outlooks4 ,the ,academy1 ,the ,international ,society of ,sculptors1 ,painters and ,gravers1 ,the ,royal ,society of ,british ,artists1 ,the ,new ,english ,art ,club1 ,the ,salon des ,artistes ,franais1 and the ,salon des ,beaux ,arts1 are all alike in this2 and the ,international's scorn of the ,academy1#df xvi or the ,academy's scorn of it1 is as ridiculous as the ,beaux ,arts' scorn of the ,salon1 or vice vers4 ,it is quite foolish1 therefore1 to inveigh against the public for their bad taste1 ,philistinism and apathy4 ,how can they be expected to know1 where there are no teachers8 ,how can they be otherwise than apathetic where keen interest must perforce culminate in confusion8 ,how can they have good taste or any taste at all1 where there is no order of rank in tastes8 ,we know the torments of the modern lay student of ,art1 when he asks himself uprightly and earnestly whether he should say yes or no before a picture or a piece of sculpture4 ,we know the moments of impotent hesitancy during which he racks his brains for some canon or rule on which to base his judgment1 and we sympathize with his blushes when finally he inquires after the name of the artist1 before volunteering to express an opinion4 ,at least a name is some sort of a standard nowadays4 ,in the absence of other standards it is something to cling to2 and the modern visitor to an ,art exhibition has precious little to cling to1 poor soul6 ,still1 even names become perplexing in the end2 for it soon occurs to the lay student in question that1 not only ,millais1 but also ,leighton1 ,whistler1 ,rodin1 ,frith1 ,watts1 ,gauguin1 ,john1 and ,vuillard have names in the ,art world4 ,now1 it is generally at this stage that such a student of ,art either retires disconcerted from his first attempts at grappling with the problem1 and takes refuge in indifference2 or else1 from the depth of his despair1 draws a certain courage which makes him say that1 after all1 he knows what he likes4 ,even if he does utter a heresy at times against fashion or against culture1 he knows what pleases him4 ,and thus is formed that large concourse of people who set up what they like and dislike as the standard of taste4 ,it is in vain that painters and sculptors deplore the existence of this part of their audience4 ,it is they themselves who are responsible for its existence4 ,it is the anarchy in their own ranks that has infected the bravest of their followers4 ,the taste of the masses1 endowed with self-confidence in this way1 is now a potent force in ,european ,art1 and among those so-called artists who do not suffer under the existing state of affairs1 there are many who actually conform and submit to this mob-rule4 ,in my next lecture ,i shall show how even the art-canons of the lay masses have been adopted by some painters and sculptors in perfect good faith4 ,too long have we acknowledged them to be right1 these petty people1 says ,zarathustra4 ,thus we have at last given them power as well2--and now they teach that 'good' is only what petty people call 'good4' ,it is on this account that many sincere and refined natures turn reluctantly away from ,art altogether nowadays1 and begin to doubt whether it serves any good purpose in the world at all4 ,they grow weary of the humbug of the studios1 the affectation of gushing amateurs1 and the snobbery of the lionizing disciple of one particular school1 and doubt the honesty even of his leader4 ,they grow timid and renounce all judgment in ,art1 wondering whether any of it really matters4 ,in a gingerly fashion they still hold on to generally accepted views1-- views that time seems to have endorsed1--and thus they very often give all their attention to the ,old ,masters4#dh ,and yet1 it is in thus turning away with contempt from modern ,art1 that sincere people tacitly acknowledge how profoundly serious the question is on which they have turned their backs4 ,for1 it is the horror of its disorder that makes them disconsolate3 they could continue facing this disorder only if the matter were less important4 ,passing over that unfortunately large percentage of up-to-date people1 in whose minds ,art in general is associated with jewellery1 ,french pastry and goldfish1 as a more or less superfluous1 though pleasing1 luxury1 the rest of the civilized world certainly feels with varying degrees of conviction that ,art has some essential bearing upon life2 and1 though few will grant it the importance that ,nietzsche claims for it1 a goodly number will realize that it is quite impossible to reckon without it4 ,now1 if by chance1 one of the last-mentioned people1 having grown disgusted at the prevailing degeneration of ,art1 should start out in quest of a canon1 or a standard whereby he might take his bearings in the sea of confusion around him1 what are we to suppose would await him8 ,unfortunately1 we know only too well what awaits him6 ,he may turn to the art-critics--the class of men which society sustains for his special benefit in art matters1--or he may turn to the philosophers4 ,he may spend years and years of labour in studying the ,art and thought of ,antiquity1 of the ,middle ,ages1 and of the ,renaissance2 but1 unless he have sufficient independence of spirit to distrust not only the ,art1 but every single manifestation of modern life1 and to try to find what the general corrosive is which seems to be active everywhere1 it is extremely doubtful whether he will ever succeed in reaching a bourne or a destination of any sort whatsoever4 ,he will still be asking3 ,what is a good poem8 ,what is good music8 --and1 above all1 ,what is a good picture or a good statue8 ,we know the difficulties of the layman1 and even of the artist in this matter2 for most of us who have thought about ,art at all have experienced these same difficulties4 ,the general need1 then1 ,i repeat1 is a definite canon1#di a definite statement as to the aim and purpose of ,art1 and the establishment of an order of rank among tastes4 ,once more1 ,i declare that ,i have attempted to arrive at these things by the principles of ,nietzsche's sthetic2 but1 in order to forestall the amusement which an announcement of this sort is bound to provoke nowadays1 let me remind you of two things3 ,first1 that any artistic canon must necessarily be relative to a certain type of man2 and secondly1 that the most that an establishment of an order of rank among tastes can do for you1 is to allow you the opportunity of exercising some choice--a choice of type in manhood1 therefore a choice as to a mode of life1 and therefore a choice of values1 and the customs and conditions that spring from them4 ,at present you have no such choice4 ,you certainly have the option of following either ,rodin and ,renoir1 or ,whistler and ,manet1 or ,sargent and ,boldini1 or ,john and ,gauguin1 or ,herkomer and ,lavery2 but not one of you can say1 ,if ,i follow the first couple ,i shall be going in such and such a direction1 or1 ,if ,i follow the second couple ,i shall be travelling towards this or that goal1--this you would scarcely be able to say2 neither could your leaders help you4 #df ,for some amusing1 and1 at the same time1 shrewd1 remarks concerning the ,international ,society1 ,i would refer the reader to ,mr4 ,wake ,cook's ,anarchism in ,art 7,cassell ,co474 ,i agree on the whole with what ,mr4 ,wake ,cook says1 but cannot appreciate his remarks on ,whistler4 #dg ,z41 ,,iv1 ,,lxvii4 #dh ,in a ,times leader of the #bjth ,december1 #aiji1 the writer puts the case very well4 ,after referring to the heated controversy which was then raging round the ,berlin wax bust that ,dr4 ,bode declared to be a ,leonardo1 the writer goes on to say3 444 it is amusing to see how the merit of the work is forgotten in the dispute about its origin4 ,it seems to be assumed that if it is by ,leonardo it must be a great work of art1 and if by ,lucas nothing of the kind4444 ,this fact proves what needs no proving1 that there are many wealthy connoisseurs who buy works of art not for their intrinsic merit1 but for what is supposed to be their authenticity4444 ,this state of things reveals an extraordinary timidity in buyers of works of art4 ,if they all trusted their own taste that is to say1 if they had a taste of their own based upon some reliable canon names would have no value4 ,the intrinsic merit of a work of art is not affected by the name it bears4444 ,yet in the market the name of a great painter is worth more than the inspiration of a lesser one4444 ,hence many people believe that it is far more difficult to understand pictures than literature4444 ,but there is no more mystery about pictures than about literature4 ,it is only the market that makes a mystery of them1 and the market does this because it is timid4 ,in other words3 because it does not know4 #di ,on this point see ,questionings on ,criticism and ,beauty1 by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,a4 ,j4 ,balfour4 7,oxford ,university ,press47 ,mr4 ,balfour entirely agrees that to-day we are driven to a kind of anarchy of individual preferences1 and he acknowledges that he is not satisfied to remain in this position4 ,he does not seem to recognize1 however1 how curiously and almost perfectly this anarchy in ,art coincides with a certain anarchy in other departments of life1 and thus1 although it displeases him1 he sees in it no imminent danger1 or no hint that ,art and life react in any way upon each other4 #c4 ,the ,critics4 ,now1 to return to our lay-student of ,art1 let us suppose that he first approaches the art-critics of the day for guidance4 ,will there be one among these men who will satisfy him8 ,is there a single art-critic either of the nineteenth or twentieth century who knew1 or who knows1 his business8 ,it is possible to point to one or two1 and even so1 in doing this1 one is prompted more by a sense of kindness than by a sense of accuracy4 ,some ,continental critics1 ,camille ,mauclair and ,muther among them1 and here and there an ,english critic like ,r4 ,a4 ,m4 ,stevenson1 occasionally seem to hit a nail on the head2 but as a rule1 one can say with ,coventry ,patmore3 ,there is little that is conclusive or fruitful in any of the criticism of the present day4#ej ,for the most part it is written by men who know absurdly little of their subject1 and who1 if they do know it1 are acquainted much more with its chronological and encyclopdic than with its philosophical side4 ,there is not much conscience either1 or much acumen1 in these men2 and they are as a rule concerned with questions that are irrelevant to the point at issue4 ,like a certain kind of insect1 as ,nietzsche very justly remarks1 they live by stinging2 but their stings serve no purpose save that of providing them with their food4#ea ,they are1 perhaps1 less to blame than the artists themselves for the state of affairs that exists to-day2 but1 while the artists have betrayed only themselves1 the critics have betrayed the reading public4 ,they have neither resisted nor condemned the flood of anarchy that has swept over the art-world2 they have rather promoted it in every way in their power1 abetting and applauding artists in their lawlessness4 ,in fairness to some of them1 however1 it should be said1 that in encouraging the confusion and disorder around them they very often acted with almost religious sincerity4 ,this reservation applies to ,ruskin1 for instance1 and to many other critics writing for the better-class papers4 ,lest this be considered as an overstatement of the case1 hear what one of these men himself actually says concerning his own profession6 ,mr4 ,frank ,rutter1 writing in #aijg1 expressed himself as follows3-- ,in olden days the press used to lead public opinion2 now it meekly follows because its courage has been sapped by servile cringing to the advertiser1 because its antics and sensational inaccuracy have brought it into contempt4 ,no longer commanding the authority of a parent or guardian1 it seeks to attract attention by the methods of the cheap-jack4 ,the few exceptions surviving only prove the rule4#eb ,finding themselves forced to speak of other things than ,the ,purpose of ,art1 ,the ,standard of ,beauty1 and ,the ,canons of ,art--simply because nobody now knows anything about these matters1 or dares to assert anything concerning them1--the better-class art-critics1 feeling that they must do something more than state merely their opinions concerning the work under notice--in fact1 that they must give their reasons for their praise or blame--have lately been compelled to have recourse to the only field that is open to them1 and that is technique4 ,now1 while ,mr4 ,clutton ,brock seems perfectly justified in deprecating these tactics on the part of some of his brother critics1 and while ,mr4 ,rutter seems quite wrong in upholding them1 the question which naturally arises out of the controversy is3 what is there left to the critic to talk about8 ,if he is no longer able to judge of the general tendency and teaching of a play1 and if he is no longer able to regard it sthetically1 what can he do but analyse the playwright's grammar1 and seek out the latter's split infinitives1 his insufficient use of the subjunctive mood1 his ,cockney idioms and ,cockney solecisms8 ,we agree with ,mr4 ,clutton ,brock that 444 the public has no concern with the process of production but only with the product2 and that if ,art were in a healthy state#ec the public would know this and would not ask for technical criticism4 ,we also agree that the critic's proper business is with the product1 not with the process of production2 to explain their own understanding and enjoyment of the meaning and beauty of works of art1 and not the technical means by which they have been made4#ed ,but1 while we agree with all this1 we cannot help sympathizing with the late ,r4 ,a4 ,m4 ,stevenson and his admirer ,mr4 ,frank ,rutter2 for their dilemma is unique4 ,when ,monsieur ,domergue of the ,french ,academy assured his friend ,beauze confidentially that he had discovered that ,voltaire didn't know grammar1 ,beauze very rightly replied with some irony3 ,i am much obliged to you for telling me2 now ,i know that it is possible to do without it4#ee ,and this is the only reply that ought to be made to any criticism which analyses the technique of a real work of ,art2 since it is obvious1 that if technical questions are uppermost1 the work is by implication unworthy of consideration in all other respects4#ef #ej ,principles in ,art1 p4 #d4 #ea ,h4 ,a4 ,h41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,aph4 #afd4 #eb ,the ,academy1 ,august #bdth1 #aijg4 ,article1 ,the ,pursuit of ,taste4 #ec ,the italics are mine4 #ed ,the ,academy1 ,oct4 #bfth1 #aijg4 ,article1 ,the ,hypochondria of ,art4 #ee ,monsieur de ,saint ,ange's ,reception ,speech1 #ahaj4 #ef ,there is1 however1 a further excuse for ,mr4 ,rutter and his school of critics1 and that is1 that in an age like this one1 in which ,amateurism is rampant1 the critic very often performs a salutary office in condemning a work on purely technical grounds4 ,i1 for my part1 am quite convinced that the morbid attention which is now paid to technique is simply a result of the extraordinary preponderance of the art-student element in our midst4 #d4 ,some ,art ,criticisms4 ,in order further to establish my contention1 it might perhaps be an advantage to refer to some criticisms that have actually been made4 ,it will not be necessary to give more than one or two of these1 because everybody must know that similar instances could be multiplied indefinitely2 but while ,i shall limit the selection1 ,i should not like it to be thought that the cases ,i present are not absolutely typical4 ,quite recently the art-world has been staring with something akin to amazement1 not unmingled here and there with indignation1 at the work of one ,augustus ,john1 in whose pictures they have found at once a problem and an innovation4 ,now1 without for the present wishing to express any opinion at all upon ,mr4 ,john's work1 this at least seemed quite clear to me when ,i first saw it2 namely1 that it challenged profound analysis4 ,unconsciously or consciously1 ,mr4 ,john seemed to re-question a whole number of things afresh4 ,the direction of ,art1 the purpose of ,art1 the essence of ,art1 the value of ,art--these are some of the subjects into which he provoked me to inquire4 ,here was an opportunity for the more wise among the critics to show their wisdom4 ,this was essentially a case in which the public required expert guidance4 ,augustus ,john comes forward with a new concept of what is beautiful4 ,he says pictorially this and that is beautiful4 ,are we to follow him or to reject him8 ,hear one or two critics3-- ,commenting upon one of ,mr4 ,max ,beerbohm's caricatures in the ,spring ,exhibition of the ,new ,english ,art ,club1 #aiji1 the ,times critic writes as follows--,here an art-critic meets a number of ,mr4 ,john's strange females with long necks and bent1 unlovely heads1 like a child's copy of a ,primitive2 and the puzzled critic ejaculates1 ',how odd it seems that thirty years hence ,i may be desperately in love with these ladies6' ,odd1 indeed1 but perfectly possible1 continues the ,timesexpert4 ,some of us have learned1 in twenty years1 to find nature in ,claude ,monet1 and the time may come when the women in ,mr4 ,john's ',going to the ,sea1' or in the ',family ,group' at the ,grafton1 will seem as beautiful as the ,venus de ,milo4 ,the 'return of ,night primeval and of old chaos' may be nearer than we think4 ,then after paying ,mr4 ,john's drawing a compliment1 the writer continues3 ,but can any one1 for all that1 whose mind is not warped by purely technical prepossession in favour of a technician1 say that the picture would not have been enormously improved if the artist had thought more of nature and less of his 'types' ,if ,mr4 ,john would throw his types to the winds1 look for a beautiful model1 and paint her as she is1 we should not have to wait the thirty years of ,mr4 ,max ,beerbohm's critic1 but might begin to fall in love with her at once4#eg ,and this1 let me assure you1 is a comparatively able criticism6 ,but1 what guidance does it give8 ,why is it so timid and non-committing8 ,and1 where it is committing1 why is it so vague8 ,the words beautiful model mean absolutely nothing nowadays4 ,how1 then1 can the critic employ them without defining the particular sense in which he wishes them to be understood8 ,i examined this picture of ,mr4 ,john's1 as also the one at the ,grafton4 ,both of them were full of his personal solution of the deepest problems associated with the ideas of ,art and beauty2 but how can we know whether to accept these solutions unless they are made quite plain by our critics8 ,it may be suggested that ,mr4 ,john's solutions of these problems is not sufficiently important4 ,why1 then1 discuss them at all8 ,the ,daily ,telegraph also contained a so-called criticism of ,mr4 ,john4 ,after commenting1 as the previous critic did1 upon ,mr4 ,max ,beerbohm's caricature and the words accompanying it1 the writer proceeds3 ,how true--to give the most obvious of all instances--with respect to ,wagner6 ,and yet ,mr4 ,max ,beerbohm1 the satirist1 is as regards the actual moment1 not quite1 quite up to date4 ,to-day1 for fear of being accused of a ,botian denseness1 we hasten to acclaim1 if not necessarily to enjoy1 ,czanne1 ,maurice ,denis1 the neo-,impressionists1 etc41 etc4#eh ,for fear of being accused of ,botian denseness6 ,yes1 that is the whole trouble6 ,apparently1 then1 if we are to believe the ,daily ,telegraph critic1 ,mr4 ,john has been acclaimed1 simply in order that his critics may escape the gibe of being classically dense6 ,possessing neither the necessary knowledge1 nor the necessary values1 nor yet the necessary certainty1 to take up a definite stand for or against1 these critics acclaim novelty1 in whatever garb it may come1 lest1 perchance1 their intelligence be for one instant doubted4 ,very good6--at least this is a confession which reveals both their humility and their honesty1 and1 since it entirely supports my contention1 ,i am entirely grateful for it4 ,but what ought to be said to the implied1 ingenuous and perfectly unwarrantable assumption1 that that which posterity endorses must of necessity have been right all along8 ,why should ,wagner be vindicated simply because an age subsequent to his own happens to rave about him8 ,before such posthumous success can vindicate a man1 surely the age in which it occurs must be duly valued4 ,in the event of its being more lofty1 more noble1 and more tasteful than the age which preceded it1 then certainly posthumous fame is a vindication2 but if the case be otherwise1 then it is a condemnation4 ,in an ascending culture the classic of yesterday becomes the primitive of to-morrow1 and in a declining culture the decadent of yesterday becomes the classic of to-morrow4 ,thus in valuing1 say1 ,michelangelo1 it all depends whence you come4 ,if you come from ,egypt and walk down towards him1 your opinion will be very different from that of the man who comes from twentieth-century ,europe and who walks up towards him4 ,but we are not ascending so rapidly or so materially--if we are ascending at all--as to make posthumous success a guarantee of excellence4 ,in fact1 precisely the converse might be true1 and men who are now quickly forgotten1 may be all the greater on that account alone4 ,in any case1 however1 the matter is not so obvious as to allow us to make the broad generalizations we do concerning it4 ,perhaps1 in order to be quite fair1 ,i ought now to refer to other critics1 as well as to other criticisms concerning ,john written by the critics already quoted4 ,true1 in the ,times for ,october #adth1 #aije1 there appears a more elaborate discussion of ,mr4 ,john's powers4 7,i say more elaborate1 but ,i mean more lengthy67 ,and the ,daily ,telegraph has also given us more careful views1 as1 for instance1 in their issues of ,october #agth1 #aije1 and ,november #bcrd1 #aiji4 ,i doubt1 however1 whether it could be honestly said that one really understands any better how to place ,mr4 ,john after having read the articles in question1 though1 in making this objection1 ,i should like it to be understood1 that ,i regard it as applying not only to the art-criticism of the two particular papers to which ,i have referred1 but to art-criticism in general4#ei ,most of what we read on this matter in the sphere of journalism is pure badinage1 and little besides--entertainingly and ably written it is true1 but generally very wide of the fundamental principles at stake1 and of that consciousness of dealing with a deeply serious question1 which the subject ,art ought to awaken4 ,no one seems to feel nowadays that a picture1 like a sonnet1 like a sonata1 and like a statue1 if it claim attention at all1 should claim the attention of all those who are most deeply concerned with the problems of ,life1 ,humanity1 and the ,future2 and that every breath of ,art comes from the lungs of ,life herself1 and is full of indications as to her condition4 ,when one says these things nowadays1 people are apt to regard one as a little peculiar1 a little morbid1 and perhaps a little too earnest as well4 ,only two or three months ago1 a certain critic1 commenting upon a sentence of mine in my ,introduction to ,nietzsche's ,case of ,wagner1#fj in which ,i declared that the principles of ,art are inextricably bound up with the laws of ,life1 assured the readers of the ,nation that the plainest facts of everyday life contradict this theory of non-artistic philosophers in their arm-chairs4#fa ,and thus the fundamental questions are shelved1 year after year1 while ,art withers1 and real artists become ever more and more scarce4 ,i loathe this great city1 cried ,zarathustra4 ,woe to this great city6--,and ,i would that ,i already saw the pillar of fire in which it will be consumed6 ,for such pillars of fire must precede the great noontide4 ,but this hath its time and its own fate4#fb #eg ,the ,times1 ,may #bbnd1 #aiji4 #eh ,the ,daily ,telegraph1 ,may #cast1 #aiji4 #ei ,a further example of what ,i mean can be found in the ,morning ,post's article 7#dth ,april71 on the ,international ,society's #aiaj ,show4 ,here the writer's only comments on a ,simon ,bussy 7,no4 #adi71 which really required serious treatment1 or no treatment at all1 are3 ,could any ,english tourist at ,mentone see that resort in the terms of ,m4 ,bussy8 ,and his comments on an important ,monet 7,no4 #acc7 are3 ,what happy ,idler at ,antibes other than a ,frenchman could record the particular impression of ,monet 7,no4 #acc71 even in enjoying the hospitalities of ,eilenroe8 #fj ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy's ,authorized ,english ,edition of ,nietzsche's ,complete ,works4 #fa ,the ,nation1 ,july #ith1 #aiaj4 #fb ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,li4 ,part ,,ii ,suggested ,causes ,of ,the ,anarchy ,in ,modern ,art 444 ,to them gave he power to become the sons of ,god1 even to them that do believe in his name4--,john i4 #ab4 ,and now1 what are the causes of this depression and this madness in ,art8 ,for ,nietzsche was not alone in recognizing it4 ,many voices1 some wholly trustworthy1 have been raised in support of his view4 ,it could only have been the unsatisfactory conditions1 even in his time1 that made ,hegel regard ,art as practically dead2 for1 as ,croce and ,monsieur ,bnard rightly observe1 ,hegel's ,vorlesungen ber sthetik are ,art's dirge4#a ,schopenhauer's extraordinary misunderstanding of ,art1 also1 precisely like ,plato's1#b can be explained only by supposing that the examples of ,art which he saw about him misled his otherwise penetrating judgment4 ,even ,ruskin's vague and wholly confused utterances on the subject are evidence of his groping efforts to find his way in the disorder of his time4 ,and1 as to the voices of lesser men1 their name is legion4 ,two eminent ,englishmen of the last century1 however1 were both clear and emphatic in their denunciation of the age in which they lived4 ,i refer to ,matthew ,arnold and ,william ,morris4 ,the former made a most illuminating analysis of some of the influences which have conduced to bring about the regrettable state of modern life1 while ,william ,morris--less philosophical perhaps1 and more direct1 though totally wrong in the remedies he advocates--bewailed ,art's unhappy plight as follows-- ,i must in plain words say of the ,decorative ,arts1 of all the arts1 that it is not merely that we are inferior in them to all who have gone before us1 but also that they are in a state of anarchy and disorganization1 that makes a sweeping change necessary and certain4#c ,there can be no doubt1 therefore1 that what ,nietzsche saw was a plain fact to very many thinking men besides2 but1 in tracing the conditions to precise and definite causes1 ,nietzsche by far excelled any of his contemporaries4 ,before proceeding1 however1 to examine the more general causes that he suggests1 ,i should like to pause here a moment1 in order to dispose of one particular cause which1 although of tremendous importance for us moderns1 can scarcely be regarded as having been active for a very long period4 ,i refer to the manner in which ,nietzsche accounts for a good deal that is incompetent and futile1 in the ,art of the present day only1 by pointing to a psychological misapprehension which is1 alas1 but all too common4 ,i should not have broken my general narrative with the consideration of this particular cause1 had it not been that ,i feel sure it will help laymen1 and artists as well1 to account for much that will still remain obscure1 even after the more general causes have been discussed4 #a ,benedetto ,croce1 sthetic 7translated by ,douglas ,ainslie71 p4 #cjh1 and ,monsieur ,bnard's critical survey of ,hegel's sthetik in ,cours d',esthtique1 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #dic4 #b ,on this point see ,schelling1 ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,vorlesungen ber die ,methode des akademischen ,studiums1 pp4 #cdf-dg4 #c ,the ,decorative ,arts1 an address delivered before the ,trades ,guild of ,learning1 p4 #aa4 #a4 ,morbid ,irritability4 ,nietzsche recognized that this age is one in which ,will is not merely diseased1 but almost paralyzed4 ,everywhere he saw men and women1 youths and girls1 who are unable to resist a stimulus1 however slight2 who react with excessive speed in the presence of an irritant1 and who bedeck this weakness and this irritability with all the finest gala dresses and disguises that they can lay their hands on4#d ,in ,determinism he saw the philosophical abstract of this fact2 in our novels and plays he saw its representation under the cloak of passion and emotion2 in the ,darwinian theory of the influence of environment1 he saw it logged out in scientific garb1 and in the modern artist's dependence upon an appeal to ,nature for inspiration--i4 e4 for a spur to react upon1 he recognized its unhealthiest manifestation4 ,the power of resisting stimuli is on the wane1 he says2 the strength required in order to stop action1 and to cease from reacting1 is most seriously diseased4#e ,man unlearns the art of doing1 and all he does is to react to stimuli coming from his environment4#f ,speaking of the modern artist1 he refers to the absurd irritability of his system1 which makes a crisis out of every one of his experiences1 and deprives him of all calm reflection1#g and1 while describing ,europeans in general1 he lays stress upon their spontaneous and changeable natures4#h ,in calling our attention to these things1 ,nietzsche certainly laid his finger on the root of a good deal for which the other more general causes which ,i shall adduce fail to account4 ,there can be no doubt that this irritability does exist1 and that it causes large numbers of unrefined and undesirable men and women to enter the arts to-day1 who are absolutely mistaken in their diagnosis of their condition4 ,we are all only too ready to conceal our defects beneath euphemistic interpretations of them1 and we most decidedly prefer1 if we have the choice1 to regard any morbid symptoms we may reveal1 as the sign of strength rather than of weakness4 ,there is some temptation1 therefore1 both for our friends and ourselves1 to interpret our natures kindly and if possible flatteringly2 and1 if we suffer from a certain sickly irritability and sensitiveness in the presence of what we think beautiful1 we prefer to ascribe this to an artistic temperament rather than to a debilitated will4 ,we are acquainted with the irascible nerve patient who pours his curses on the head of a noisy child2 and in his case we are only too ready to suspect a morbid condition of the body4 ,but when we ourselves1 or our young friends1 or our brothers1 sister1 or cousins1 suddenly display1 when still in their teens1 a sort of gasping enthusiasm before a landscape1 a peasant child1 or a sunset2 when they show an inability to bide their time1 to pause1 and to remain inactive in the presence of what they consider beautiful1 we immediately conclude from their conduct1 not that they have little command of themselves1 but that they must of necessity have strong artistic natures4 ,our novels are full of such people with weak wills1 so are our plays2 so1 too1 unfortunately1 are our ,art ,schools4 ,we know the ,art student who1 the moment he sees what he would call a glorious view1 or a dramatic sunset or sunrise1 hurls his materials together helter-skelter and dashes off1 ventre terre1 to the most convenient spot whence he can paint it4 ,we have seen him seize the thing he calls an impression1 his teeth clenched the while1 and his nostrils dilated4 ,but how often does it occur to us that such a creature has got a bad temper8 ,how often do we realize that he is irritable1 self-indulgent1 sick in fact8 ,only in an age like our own could this ridiculous travesty of an artist pass for an artist4 ,it is only in our age that his neurotic touchiness could possibly be mistaken for strength and vigour2 and yet there are hundreds of his kind among the painters and sculptors of the day4 ,many a student's call to ,art1 at present1 is merely a reminder1 on the part of ,nature1 that he should cultivate restraint and forbearance1 and should go in for commerce2 for there is a whole universe between such a man and the artist of value4 ,not that sensitiveness is absent in the real artist2 but it is of a kind which has strength to wait1 to reflect1 to weigh1 and1 if necessary1 to refrain from action altogether4 ,slow is the experience of all deep wells1 says ,zarathustra4 ,long must they wait ere they know what hath sunk into their depths4#i ,but the people ,i have just described have only a skin1 and any itch upon it they call ,art4 ,no lasting good1 no permanent value can come of these irascible people who will be avenged on all that they call beauty1 right away2 who will1 so to speak1 pay beauty out1 and who cannot contain themselves in its presence4 ,they can but help to swell the ranks of the incompetent1 and even if they are successful1 as they sometimes are nowadays1 all they do is to wreck the sacred calling in which they are but pathological usurpers4 ,now1 in turning to the more general causes1 we find that in accounting for the prevailing anarchy in ,europe and in countries like ,europe1 and particularly in ,england and in countries like ,england1 ,nietzsche pointed to the whole heritage of traditional thought which prevailed and still does prevail in the civilized parts of the ,western world1 and declared that it was in our most fundamental beliefs1 in our most unquestioned dogmas1 and in our most vaunted birthrights that this anarchy takes its source4 ,if ,art had lost its prestige in our midst1 and even its justification2 and if individualism1 incompetence1 eccentricity1 mediocrity and doubt were rife1 we must seek the causes of all this neither in ,diderot's somewhat disappointing essay on painting1 nor in the slur that ,rousseau had once cast upon the culture of man1 nor in ,john ,stuart ,mill's arguments in favour of individualism1 nor yet in ,spencer's declaration that the activities we call play are united with the sthetic activities by the trait that neither subserves in any direct way the processes conducive to life4#aj ,all these things are merely symptomatic4 ,diderot1 ,rousseau1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 and ,spencer were only symptoms of still deeper influences which have been at work for centuries1 and those influences are to be sought in the most vital values upon which our civilization is based4 #d ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ade4 #e ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cf4 #f ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fc4 #g ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beh4 #h ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cci4 #i ,z41 ,i1 ,,xii4 #aj ,the ,principles of ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fbg4 #b4 ,misleading ,systems of sthetic4 ,it is perfectly true that from classic times onward the guidance of ,european thought1 on matters of ,art1 has been almost entirely inadequate if not misleading4 ,but for the subconscious motives of artists and their spectators there seems to have been very little comprehension of what ,art actually means and aspires to1 and even these subconscious motives have been well-nigh stifled1 thanks to the false doctrines with which they have been persistently and systematically smothered4 ,perhaps1 however1 the very nature of the subject condemns it to false theoretical treatment2 for it has almost always been at the mercy of men who were not themselves performers in the arts4 ,of the few artists who have written on ,art1 how many have given us an adequate expression of what they themselves must have felt and aspired to8 ,not one4 ,ghiberti1 ,vasari1 ,leonardo1 ,michelangelo1 ,mengs1 ,hogarth and ,reynolds--to mention the most famous1 teach us scarcely anything at all concerning the essence of their life passion1 and this is1 as ,nietzsche observes1 perhaps a necessary fault2 for1 he continues1 the artist who would begin to understand himself would therewith begin to mistake himself--he must not look backwards1 he must not look at all2 he must give4--,it is an honour for an artist to have no critical faculty2 if he can criticize he is mediocre1 he is modern4#aa ,still1 the greater part of this faulty guidance may1 in itself1 be but another outcome of the erroneous and rooted beliefs which lie even deeper in the heart of life than ,art itself1 and for these beliefs we must seek deep down in the foundations of ,european thought for the last two or three hundred years4 ,in fact1 we must ask ourselves what our heritage from by-gone ages has been4 ,since ,art is the subject of our inquiry1 and ,art is the only task of life1#ab it seems moderately clear that everything that has tended to reduce the dignity of ,art must1 in the first place1 have reduced the dignity of man4 ,is our heritage of thought of a kind that exalts man1 or is it of a kind that debases him8 ,what are1 in fact1 its chief characteristics8 #aa ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bef4 #ab ,ibid41 p4 #bib4 #c4 ,our ,heritage4--,a4 ,christianity4 ,we shall find that the one definite and unswerving tendency of the traditional thought of ,europe has been1 first1 to establish on earth that equality between men which from the outset ,christianity had promised them in ,heaven2 secondly1 to assail the prestige of man by proving that other tenet of the ,faith which maintains the general depravity of human nature2 and thirdly1 to insist upon truth in the ,christian sense2 that is1 as an absolute thing which can be1 and must be1 made common to all4 ,at the root of all our science1 all our philosophy1 and all our literature1 the three fundamental doctrines of ,christianity3 the equality of all souls1 the insuperable depravity of human nature1 and the insistence upon ,truth1 are the ruling influences4 ,by means of the first and third doctrines equality was established in the spirit1 and by means of the second it was established in the flesh4#ac ,by means of the first1 each individual1 great or small1 was granted an importance#ad undreamt of theretofore1#ae while the lowest were raised to the highest power2 by means of the second1 in which the pride of mankind received a snub at once severe and merciless1 the highest were reduced to the level of the low1 while the low were by implication materially raised2 and by means of the third1 no truth or point of view which could not be made general could be considered as a truth or a point of view at all4 ,practically it amounted to this1 that in one breath mankind was told1 first1 ,thy ,lord for thee the ,cross endured ,to save thy soul from ,death and ,hell2#af secondly1 ,thou shalt have no other ,god before ,me2 and thirdly1 ,from ,greenland's icy mountains ,to ,india's coral strand1 444 every prospect pleases1 ,and only man is vile4#ag ,but in each case1 as ,i have pointed out1 it was the higher men who suffered4 ,because they alone had something to lose4 ,the first notion --that of equality1 threatened at once to make them doubt their own privileges and powers1 to throw suspicion into the hearts of their followers1 and to make all special1 exceptional and isolated claims utterly void4 ,the third--the insistence upon a truth which could be general and absolute1 denied their right to establish their own truths in the hearts of men1 and to rise above the most general truth which was reality2 while in the second--the ,semitic doctrine of general sin1 which held that man was not only an imperfect1 but also a fallen being1 and that all his kind shared in this shame--there was not alone the ring of an absence of rank1 but also of a universal depreciation of human nature which was ultimately to lead1 by gradual stages1 from a disbelief in man himself to a disbelief in nobles1 in kings and finally in gods4#ah ,at one stroke1 not one or two human actions1 but all human performances1 inspirations and happy thoughts1 had been stripped of their glory and condemned4 ,man could raise himself only by ,god's grace --that is to say1 by a miracle1 otherwise he was but a fallen angel1 aimlessly beating the air with his broken wings4 ,these three blows levelled at the head of higher men were fatal to the artist2 for it is precisely in the value of human inspirations1 in the efficiency of human creativeness1 and in the irresistible power of human will1 that he1 above all1 must and does believe4 ,it is his mission to demand obedience and to procure reverence2 for1 as we shall see1 every artist worthy the name is at heart a despot4#ai ,fortunately1 the ,holy ,catholic ,church intervened1 and by its rigorous discipline and its firm establishment upon a hierarchical principle1 suppressed for a while the overweening temper of the ,christian soul1 and all claims of individual thought and judgment1 while it also recognized an order of rank among men2 but the three doctrines above described remained notwithstanding at the core of the ,christian ,faith1 and awaited only a favourable opportunity to burst forth and blight all the good that the ,church had done4 ,this favourable opportunity occurred in the person of ,martin ,luther4 ,the ,reformation1 in addition to reinstating1 with all their evil consequences1 the three doctrines mentioned above1 also produced a certain contempt for lofty things and an importunate individualism which has done nought but increase and spread from that day to this4 ,individualism1 on a large scale1 of course1 had been both tolerated and practised in ,gothic architecture1 and on this account the buildings of the ,middle ,ages might be said to breathe a more truly ,christian spirit#bj than most of the sculpture and the painting of the same period1 which are more hieratic4#ba ,but it was not until the ,reformation began to spread that the most tiresome form of individualism1 which we shall call ,amateurism1#bb received1 as it were1 a ,divine sanction2 and there can be no doubt that it is against this element in modern life that not only ,art1 but all forces which aim at order1 law and discipline1 will eventually have to wage their most determined and most implacable warfare4 #ac ,the ,judaic story of the fall of man is at bottom an essentially democratic one4 ,this absence of rank in sin had no parallel in the aristocratic ,pagan world4 ,likewise1 in the manner of the fall1 there is a total absence of noble qualities4 ,curiosity1 beguilement1 seductibility and wantonness--in short1 a whole series of pre-eminently feminine passions--were regarded as the origin of evil4 ,see ,b4 ,t41 pp4 #gh1 #gi4 #ad ,bury1 ,history of the ,later ,roman ,empire1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cc4 #ae ,a41 ,aph4 #dc and #fd4 #af ,hymns ,ancient and ,modern1 ,no4 #dce4 #ag ,ibid41 ,no4 #ebb4 #ah ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cab3 ,when it occurs to inferior men to doubt that higher men exist1 then the danger is great1 etc4 ,see1 in fact1 the whole of ,aph4 #hgd4 #ai ,see ,a41 ,aph4 #di3 ,the concept of guilt and punishment1 inclusive of the doctrine of 'grace1' of 'salvation1' and of 'forgiveness'--lies through and through1 without a shred of psychological truth4 ,sin1444 this form of human self-violation par excellence1 was invented solely for the purpose of making all science1 all culture1 and every kind of elevation and nobility utterly impossible4 #bj ,ruskin1 ,on the ,nature of ,gothic ,architecture 7p4 #g71 contrasting the classic and ,gothic style1 says3 444 ,in the medival1 or especially ,christian1 system of ornament1 this slavery i4e4 the slavery imposed by the classic canon is done away with altogether2 ,christianity having recognized1 in small things as well as great1 the individual value of every soul4 #ba ,in a good deal of the painting and sculpture of the pre-,renaissance period1 too1 signs were not lacking which showed that the ,christian ideal of truth was beginning to work its effects by leading to a realism which ,i have classified in ,lecture ,,ii as ,police ,art4 ,of course1 a good deal of this realism may also be accounted for by the reasons which ,i suggest at the end of ,part ,i of ,lecture ,,iii2 be this as it may1 however1 as it is difficult to decide the actual proportion of either of these influences1 the weight of the ,christian doctrine of ,truth must not be altogether overlooked in such productions as ,donatello's ,crucifixion 7,capella ,bardi1 ,s4 ,croce1 ,florence72 ,masolino's ,raising of ,tabitha 7,carmine1 ,florence72 ,masaccio's ,fresco 7,s4 ,maria del ,carmine1 ,florence72 ,ucello's ,rout of ,s4 ,romano 7,uffizi72 ,andrea del ,castagno's ,crucifixion 7in the ,monastery of the ,angeli1 ,florence72 and the really beautiful statues of the ,founders in the ,cathedral of ,naumburg4 #bb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #big3 ,the terrible consequences of 'freedom'--in the end everybody thinks he has the right to every problem4 ,all order of rank is banished4 ,b4 ,protestantism4 ,for ,protestantism was nothing more nor less than a general rebellion against authority4#bc ,by means of it the right of private judgment was installed once more1 and to the individual was restored that importance which ,christianity had acknowledged from the first1 and which only the attitude of the ,church had been able to modify4 ,the layman1 with his conscience acknowledged to be the supreme tribunal1 was declared a free man1 emancipated even from the law1#bd or1 as ,luther said1 free ,lord of all1 subject to none4#be ,now1 not only the immortal soul of every individual became important2 but also every one of his proclivities1 desires and aspirations4 ,he was told that he could be his own priest if he chose1#bf and that ,christ had obtained this prerogative for him4 ,megalomania1 in fact1 as ,nietzsche declares1 was made his duty4#bg ,let men so account of us1 as of the ministers of ,christ1 and stewards of the mysteries of ,god4#bh ,with these words ,st4 ,paul had addressed the ,corinthians1 and ,luther did not fail to base his strongest arguments upon the text4#bi ,even the ,reformation1 says ,nietzsche1 was a movement for individual liberty2 ',every one his own priest' is really no more than a formula for libertinage4,as a matter of fact1 the words1 ',evangelical freedom' would have sufficed--and all instincts which had reasons for remaining concealed broke out like wild hounds1 the most brutal needs suddenly acquired the courage to show themselves1 everything seemed justified4#cj ,was it at all likely that the formula1 ,every one his own priest1 was going to lead to trouble only in ecclesiastical matters8 ,as a matter of fact we know that ,luther himself extended the principle still further in his own lifetime4 ,by his radical alterations in the church service ,luther gave the laity a much more prominent place in ,divine worship than they had ever had before2 for1 in addition to the fact that the liturgy as compiled by him was written almost entirely in the native tongue1 the special attention he gave to the singing of hymns#ca allowed the people an opportunity of displaying their individual powers to such an extent that it has even been said that they sang themselves into enthusiasm for the new faith4#ca ,but these remarkable changes were only symbolic of the changes that followed elsewhere2 for1 once this spirit of individual liberty and judgment had invaded that department of life which theretofore had been held most sacred1 what was there to prevent it from entering and defiling less sacred sanctuaries8 ,bearing in mind the condition of the arts at the present day1 and taking into account a fact which we all very well know2 namely1 that thousands upon thousands are now practising these arts who have absolutely no business to be associated with them in any way1 we are almost inclined to forgive ,protestantism and ,puritanism their smashing of our images1 and their material iconoclasm2 so light does this damage appear1 compared with the other indirect damage they have done to the spirit of ,art1 by establishing the fatal precedent of allowing everybody to touch and speak of everything--however sacred4 ,we may argue with ,buckle that the ,english spirit is of a kind which is essentially ,protestant in temper2 but this only seems to make the matter worse4 ,when ,cardinal ,newman and ,matthew ,arnold point1 the one to the evils of ,liberalism1 and the other to the evils of anarchy1 we know to what they are referring4 ,they are referring to the impossibility1 nowadays1 of awakening reverence for anything or for anybody4 ,may not every man in ,england say what he likes8 ,matthew ,arnold exclaims4 ,but1 he continues1 the aspirations of culture1 which is the study of perfection1 are not satisfied1 unless what men say1 when they may say what they like1 is worth saying4444 ,culture indefatigably tries1 not to make what each raw person may like1 the rule by which he fashions himself2 but to draw ever nearer to a sense of what is indeed beautiful1 graceful1 and becoming1 and to get the raw person to like that4#cb ,but what is fatal to culture is no less fatal to art1 and thus we find ,nietzsche saying-- ,once spirit was ,god1 then it became man1 and now it becometh mob4#cc ,if in the ,europe1 and especially in the ,england of to-day1 everybody has a right to every judgment and to every joy2 if a certain slavish truthfulness to nature and reality1 rawness and ruggedness1 have well-nigh wrecked higher aspirations1 and if everybody can press his paltry modicum of voice1 of thought1 of draughtsmanship1 of passion and impudence to the fore1 and thus spread his portion of mediocrity like dodder over the sacred field of ,art2 it is because the fundamental principles of the ,christian faith are no longer latent or suppressed in our midst2 but active and potent--if not almighty4 ,it might almost be said that they have reared a special instinct--the instinct of liberty and of taking liberties1 without any particular aim or purpose2 and1 by so doing1 have thrown all virtue1 all merit1 all ambition1 not on the side of culture1 but on the side of that free personality#cd and rude naturalness1 or truth to man's original savagery1 which it seems the triumph of every one1 great or small1 to produce4 ,no one any longer claims the kind of freedom that ,pope ,paul ,,iii claimed for his protg ,benvenuto ,cellini3#ce this would be too dangerous1 because1 in a trice1 it would be applied to all4 ,therefore the insignificant majority get more freedom than is good for them1 and the noble minority are deprived of their birthright4 ,thus do ,i speak unto you in parable1 cries ,zarathustra1 ye who make the soul giddy1 ye preachers of equality6 ,tarantulas are ye unto me1 and secretly revengeful ones6 ,but ,i will soon bring your hiding-places to the light1 therefore do ,i laugh in your faces my laughter of the height4 ,and ',will to ,equality'--that itself shall henceforth be the name of virtue2 and against all that hath power will we raise an outcry6 ,ye preachers of equality1 the tyrant frenzy of impotence crieth thus in you for 'equality'3 your most secret tyrant longings disguise themselves in words of virtue6#cf ,and now recapitulating a moment1 what have we found our heritage to consist of1 in the realm of the religious spirit8 ,in the first place3 a certain universal acknowledgment and claim of liberty1 which has no special purpose or direction1 and which is too fair to some and unfair to many4 ,secondly1 a devotion to a truth that could be general1 which perforce has reduced us to vulgar reality2 thirdly1 a prevailing depression in the value and dignity of man1 resulting from the suspicion that has been cast upon all authority and all loftiness2 and fourthly1 a wanton desecrating and befingering of all sanctuaries by anybody and everybody1 which is the inevitable outcome of that amateur priesthood introduced and sanctified by ,martin ,luther4 #bc ,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization in ,england1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #adj3 ,whatever the prejudices of some may suggest1 it will be admitted1 by all unbiassed judges1 that the ,protestant ,reformation was neither more nor less than an open rebellion4 ,indeed1 the mere mention of private judgment1 on which it was avowedly based1 is enough to substantiate this fact4 ,to establish the right of private judgment was to appeal from the ,church to individuals1 etc4 7,see also p4 #ach in the same volume47 ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aff3 ,in the ,edict of ,worms1 ,luther had been branded as a revolutionary1 then as a heretic1 and the burden of the complaints preferred against him by the ,catholic humanists was1 that his methods of seeking a reformation would be fatal to all order1 political or ecclesiastical4 ,they painted him as the apostle of revolution1 a second ,catiline4 ,and p4 #agd3 ,the most frequent and damaging charge levelled at ,luther between #aebj and #aebe reproached him with being the apostle of revolution and anarchy1 and predicted that his attacks on spiritual authority would develop into a campaign against civil order unless he were promptly suppressed4 #bd ,a ,treatise ,touching the ,libertie of a ,christian1 by ,martyne ,luther 7translated from the ,latin by ,james ,bell1 #aegi4 ,edited by ,w4 ,bengo' ,collyer1 #ahag71 p4 #ag3 ,so that it is manifest that to a ,christian man faith sufficeth only for all1 and that he needeth no works to be justified by4 ,now1 if he need no works1 then also he needs not the law3 if he have no need of the law1 surely he is then free from the law4 ,so this also is true4 ,the law is not made for the righteous man1 and this is the same ,christian libertie4 #be ,ibid41 p4 #c4 #bf ,ibid41 p4 #ca4 #bg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #baa4 #bh #a ,cor4 iv4 #a4 #bi ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bja4 #cj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ge4 #ca ,emil ,naumann1 ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dbi3 ,with the ,catholics1 hymns in the mother tongue were only used at processions and on high festivals1 and were then sung by the congregation only at ,christmas1 ,easter1 and certain other high feast days4 ,with these exceptions1 the ,catholic congregational song consisted of short musical phrases chanted by the priests1 to which the people either responded1 or added their voices to the refrain sung by the choristers from the altar4 ,the part assigned to the people then was but a very subordinate one4 ,see also the ,introduction to ,c4 von ,winterfeld's ,sacred ,songs of ,luther 7,leipzig1 #ahdj74 #cb ,the ,beginnings of ,art1 by ,ernst ,grosse1 pp4 #bii1 #cjj2 and ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bja4 #cc ,culture and ,anarchy 7,smith1 ,elder1 #aiji71 pp4 #aa1 #ab4 #cd ,z41 ,i1 ,,vii4 #ce ,e4 ,i41 pp4 #ed1 #ee4 #cf ,sandro ,botticelli1 by ,emile ,gebhart 7#aijg71 p4 #i3 ,paul ,,iii me trs haute1 rpond aux personnes qui lui dnoncent les vices de son spirituel spadassin3 ',les hommes uniques dans leur art1 comme ,cellini1 ne doivent pas tre soumis aux lois1 et lui moins que tout autre4' ,c4 ,philosophical ,influences4 ,now1 turning to our heritage in philosophy and science1 do we find that it tends to resist1 or to thwart in any way the principles of our religious heritage8 ,not in the slightest degree6 ,at every point and at every stage it has confirmed and restated1 with all the pomp of facts and statistics to support it1 what the religious spirit had laid down for our acceptance4 ,it is superficial and ridiculous to suppose1 as ,dr4 ,draper once supposed1 that there has been a conflict between ,religion and ,science4 ,i take it that he means the ,christian ,religion alone4 ,such a conflict has never taken place2 what has taken place1 however1 is a conflict between ,science and the ,catholic ,church4 ,the ,christian ,religion and ,science together1 however1 have never had any such antagonism1 and least of all in ,england1 where1 from the time of ,roger ,bacon1#cg the first ,english ,experimentalist1 to the present day1 nothing has been left undone1 no stone has been left unturned1 which might establish scientifically that which ,christianity1 as we have seen1 wished to establish emotionally4 ,universal liberty1 without a purpose or a direction2 the free and plebeian production of thoughts and theories divorced from all aim or ideal1 after the style in which children are born in the slums2 devotion to a truth that can be common to all2 the depression of the value and dignity of man1 and a certain lack of reverence for all things--these four aspirations of ,christianity and ,protestantism have been the aspirations of science1 and at the present moment they are practically attained4 ,unfortunately1 it is in the nature of human beings to imitate success1 and ,england's success as a colonizing and constitutional nation has undoubtedly been a potent force in spreading not only her commercial1 but also her philosophical views among all ambitious and aspiring ,western nations1 who guilelessly took the evil with the good4 ,the empiricists1 ,francis ,bacon1 ,hobbes and ,locke1 were among the first1 by their teaching1 to level a decisive blow at genuine thought1 at the man who knows and who is the measure of all things2#ch and this they did by arriving at a conception of knowledge and thought that converted the latter into possessions which might be common to everybody--that is to say1 by reducing all knowledge to that which can be made immediately the experience of all4 ,this was the greatest blasphemy against the human spirit that has ever been committed4 ,by means of it1 every one1 whatever he might be1 could aspire to intellectuality and wisdom2 for experience belongs to everybody1 whereas a great spirit is the possession only of the fewest4 ,the ,frenchmen1 ,helvetius1 ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,maupertius1 ,condillac1 ,diderot1 d',alembert1 ,la ,mettrie and ,baron ,holbach1 were quick to become infected1 and in ,germany1 despite the essentially aristocratic influence of ,leibnitz1#ci ,kant was the first to follow suit4 ,begun in this way1 ,english philosophical speculation1 as ,dr4 ,max ,schasler says1 was forced to grow ever more and more materialistic#dj in character1 and1 if ,science has already come very generally to mean1 not that which may be known1 but only such knowledge as every animal with faculties a little above those of an ant or a beaver can be induced to admit1 and if incommunicable knowledge1 or knowledge which can be communicated at present only to a portion--perhaps a small portion--of mankind1 is already affirmed to be no knowledge at all1#da it is thanks to the efforts of the fathers of ,english thought4 ,hence ,nietzsche's cry1 that ,european ignobleness1 the plebeian ism of modern ideas--is ,england's work and invention4#db ,but it is not alone in its vulgarization of the concept of knowledge1 or in its materialistic tendency1 that ,english influence has helped to reduce the dignity of man and to level his kind2 the utilitarians from ,bentham to ,john ,stuart ,mill and ,sidgwick1 by taking the greatest number as the norm1 as the standard and measurement of all things1 ably reflected the ,christian principle1 of the equality of souls1 in their works1 and1 incidentally1 by so doing1 treated the greatest number exceedingly badly4 ,for what is mediocre can neither be exalted nor charmed by values drawn from mediocrity1 and is constantly in need of values drawn from super-mediocrity1 for its joy1 for its love of life1 and for its reconciliation with drabby reality4#dc #cg ,it is important here to note1 first1 that ,roger ,bacon was an ,aristotelian through his intimate study of the ,arabian treatises on the ,greek philosopher1 and1 secondly1 that although ,greek speculation was governed more by insight than experience1 ,aristotle forms a striking exception to this rule4 #ch ,g4 ,e41 p4 #baj3 ,what is lacking in ,england1 and has always been lacking1 that half-actor and rhetorician knew well enough1 the absurd muddle-head ,carlyle1 who sought to conceal under passionate grimaces what he knew about himself3 namely1 what was lacking in ,carlyle--real power of intellect1 real depth of intellectual perception1 in short1 philosophy4 #ci ,in reply to those who said1 ,nothing exists in the intellect but what has before existed in the senses1 ,leibnitz replied3 ,yes1 nothing but the intellect4 #dj ,kritische ,geschichte der sthetik 7#ahgb74 ,speaking of the ,english stheticians1 he says 7p4 #bhe71 ,the fact that there is no decrease1 but rather an increase of ,materialism in their thought1 no purification in their meditation from the coarseness of experience1 but rather a gradual immersion in the same1 may also be regarded as characteristic of the development of the ,english spirit in general4 #da ,coventry ,patmore1 ,principles in ,art1 p4 #bji4 #db ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bac4 #dc ,even ,j4 ,s4 ,mill saw the flaw in his own teaching in this respect1 and acknowledged it openly4 ,see his ,liberty1 chapter ,the ,elements of ,well-,being1 paragraph #ac4 ,d4 ,the ,evolutionary ,hypothesis4 ,finally1 in the latter half of the last century1 these two tendencies at last reached their zenith1 and culminated in a discovery which1 by some1 is considered as the proudest product of the ,english mind4 ,this discovery1 which was at once a gospel and a solution of all world riddles1 and which infected the whole atmosphere of ,europe from ,edinburgh to ,athens1 was the ,evolutionary ,hypothesis as expounded by ,darwin and ,spencer4 ,a more utterly vulgar1 mechanistic1 and depressing conception of life and man cannot be conceived than this evolutionary hypothesis as it was presented to us by its two most famous exponents2 and its immediate popularity and rapid success1 alone1 should have made it seem suspicious1 even in the eyes of its most ardent adherents4 ,and yet it was acclaimed and embraced by almost everybody1 save those1 only1 whose interests it assailed4 ,how much more noble was the origin of the world as described even in ,genesis1 ,disraeli was one of the first to see and to declare2#dd and yet1 so strong was the faith in a doctrine which1 by means of its popular proof through so-called facts1 could become the common possession of every tinker1 tailor and soldier1 that people preferred to think they had descended from monkeys1 rather than doubt such an overwhelming array of data1 and regard themselves still as fallen angels4 ,in its description of the prime motor of life as a struggle for existence2 in its insistence upon adaptation to environment and mechanical adjustment to external influences2#de in its deification of a blind and utterly inadequate force which was called ,natural ,selection2 and above all in its unprincipled optimism1 this new doctrine bore the indelible stamp of shallowness and vulgarity4 ,according to it1 man was not only a superior monkey1 but he was also a creature who sacrificed everything in order to live2 he was not only a slave of habit1 but he was a yielding jelly1 fashioned by his surroundings2 he was not only a coward1 but a cabbage2 and1 with it all1 he was invoked to do nothing to assist the world process and his own improvement2 for1 he was told by his unscrupulous teachers1 that evil tended perpetually to disappear1#df and that progress was therefore not an accident1 but a necessity4#dg ,thus not only was man debased1 but we could now fold our arms apathetically1 and look on while he dashed headlong to his ruin4#dh ,no1 said the evolutionists1 we do not believe in a moral order of things1 although our doctrine does indeed seem to be a reflection of such an order2 neither do we believe in ,god3 but we certainly pin our faith to our little idol ,evolution1 and feel quite convinced that it is going to make us muddle through to perfection somehow--look at our proofs6 ,and what are these proofs8 ,on all sides they are falling to bits1 and we are quickly coming to the conclusion that an assembly of facts can prove nothing--save the inability of a scientist to play the rle of a creative poet4 ,nietzsche was one of the first to see1 that if ,becoming were a reliable hypothesis1 it must be supported by different principles from those of the ,darwinian school1 and he spared no pains in sketching out these different principles4#di ,these ,english psychologists--what do they really mean8 ,nietzsche demands4 ,we always find them voluntarily or involuntarily at the same task of pushing to the front the partie honteuse of our inner world1 and looking for the efficient1 governing and decisive principle in that precise quarter where the intellectual self-respect of the race would be the most reluctant to find it--that is to say1 in slothfulness of habit1 or in forgetfulness1 or in blind and fortuitous mechanism and association of ideas1 or in some factor that is purely passive1 reflex1 molecular1 or fundamentally stupid1--what is the real motive power which always impels these psychologists in precisely this direction8#ej ,not one of these advocates of mechanism1 however1 realized how profoundly he was degrading man1 and how seriously he had therefore sullied all human achievement4 ,in their scientific rchauff of the ,christian concept of man's depravity1 they all had the most hearty faith1 and1 as there was little in their over-populated and industrial country to contradict their conclusions1 they did not refrain from passing these conclusions into law4 ,we can detect nothing in this greatest scientific achievement of the last century which seriously resists or opposes our heritage in the realm of the religious spirit4 ,in their fundamentals1 the two are one2 ,and when we take them both to task1 and try to discover their influence upon the world1 we wonder not so much why ,art is so bad1 but why ,art has survived at all4 ,for1 though for the moment we may exclude the influence of earlier ,english thought upon general artistic achievement1 at least the degraded condition of ,art at the present day cannot be divorced in this manner from more recent ,english speculation1 for even ,mr4 ,bosanquet counts ,darwin and ,lyell among those who have ushered in the new renaissance of art in ,england6#ea ,at present1 says ,nietzsche1 nobody has any longer the courage for separate rights1 for rights of domination1 for a feeling of reverence for himself and his equals1--for pathos of distance1444 and even our politics are morbid from this want of courage6#eb ,to-day1 when all reverence has vanished1 even before kings and gods1 when to respect oneself overmuch is regarded with undisguised resentment1 what can we hope from a quarter in which self-reverence and reverence in general are the first needs of all8 ,we can only hope to find what we actually see1 and that1 as we all very well know and cannot deny1 is a condition of anarchy1 incompetence1 purposelessness and chaos4 ,culture 444 has a very important function to fulfil for mankind1 said ,matthew ,arnold4 ,and this function is particularly important in our modern world1 of which the whole civilization is1 to a much greater degree than the civilization of ,greece and ,rome1 mechanical and external1 and tends constantly to become more so4 ,but1 above all1 in our own country has culture a weighty part to perform1 because1 here1 that mechanical character1 which civilization tends to take everywhere1 is shown in the most eminent degree4444 ,the idea of perfection as an inward condition of the mind and spirit is at variance with the mechanical and material civilization in esteem with us1 and nowhere1 as ,i have said1 so much in esteem as with us4#ec ,we may trust that it is not in vain that men like ,matthew ,arnold and ,nietzsche raised their voices against the spirit of the age4 ,and we may hope that it is not in vain that lesser men have taken up their cry4 ,in any case ,nietzsche did not write in utter despair4 ,his words do not fall like faded autumn leaves announcing the general death that is imminent4 ,on the contrary1 he saw himself approaching a new century1 this century1 and he drew more than half his ardour from the hope that we might now renounce this heritage of the past1 the deleterious effects of which he spent his lifetime in exposing4 ,awake and listen1 ye lonely ones6 he says4 ,from the future winds are coming with a gentle beating of wings1 and there cometh good tidings for fine ears4 ,ye lonely ones of to-day1 ye who stand apart1 ye shall one day be a people1 and from you who have chosen yourselves1 a chosen people shall arise4 ,verily a place of healing shall the earth become6 ,and already a new odour lieth around it1 an odour which bringeth salvation--and a new hope4#ed #dd ,see ,froude's ,the ,earl of ,beaconsfield 7#ith ,edition71 pp4 #agf1 #agg3 ,the discoveries of science are not1 we are told1 consistent with the teachings of the ,church4444 ,it is of great importance when this tattle about science is mentioned1 that we should attach to the phrase precise ideas4 ,the function of science is the interpretation of nature1 and the interpretation of the highest nature is the highest science4 ,what is the highest nature8 ,man is the highest nature4 ,but ,i must say that when ,i compare the interpretation of the highest nature by the most advanced1 the most fashionable school of modern science with some other teaching with which we are familiar ,i am not prepared to admit that the lecture room is more scientific than the ,church4 ,what is the question now placed before society1 with a glib assurance the most astounding8 ,the question is this3 ,is man an ape or an angel8 ,i1 my ,lord1 ,i am on the side of the angels4 ,i repudiate with indignation and abhorrence the contrary view1 which ,i believe foreign to the conscience of humanity4 #de ,see p4 #cg4 #df ,spencer1 ,social ,statics 7,ed4 #ahib71 p4 #bg4 #dg ,ibid41 p4 #ca4 #dh ,two ,christian principles are concealed here3 #a4 ,the depravity of man4 #b4 ,faith in a moral order of things4 #di ,i have discussed this question1 with as much detail as the space would allow1 in ,nietzsche1 his ,life and ,works1 ,chap4 ,,iv4 7,constable's ,philosophies ,ancient and ,modern74 ,see also my letter1 ,nietzsche and ,science1 in the ,spectator of #hth ,january1 #aiaj4 #ej ,g4 ,m41 p4 #ag4 #ea ,a ,history of sthetic1 p4 #dde4 #eb ,a41 ,aph4 #dc4 #ec ,culture and ,anarchy 7,smith1 ,elder1 #aiji71 p4 #aj4 #ed ,z41 ,i1 ,,xxii4 ,lecture ,,ii#a ,government in ,art4 ,nietzsche's ,definition of ,art ,part ,i ,divine ,art and the ,man-,god ,and ,god blessed them1 and ,god said unto them1 ,be fruitful1 and multiply1 and replenish the earth1 and subdue it3 and have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth4--,genesis i4 #bh4 ,man has ceased from believing in miracles1 because he is convinced that the divine power of the miracle-worker has departed from him4 ,at last he has proclaimed the age of wonders to be at an end1 because he no longer knows himself capable of working wonders4 ,he acknowledges that miracles are still needed4 ,he hears the distressing cry for the super-natural everywhere4 ,all about him to-day he feels that wonders will have to be worked if the value of ,life1 of his fellows1 and of himself is to be raised1 by however little2 and yet he halts like one paralyzed before the task he can no longer accomplish1 and finding that his hand has lost its cunning and that his eye has lost its authority1 he stammers helplessly that the age of miracles has gone by4 ,everything convinces him of the fact4 ,everybody1 from his priest to his porter1 from his wife to his astrologer1 from his child to his neighbour1 tells him plainly that he is no longer divine1 no longer a god1 no longer even a king6 ,not only has the age of miracles gone by2 but with it1 also1 has vanished that age in which man could conceive of god in his own image4 ,there are no gods now2 because man himself has long since doubted that man is godlike4 ,soon there will be no kings1#b finally there will be no greatness at all1 and this will mean the evanescence of man himself4 ,to speak of all this as the advance of knowledge1 as the march of progress1 as the triumph of science1 and as the glories of enlightenment1 is merely to deck a corpse1 to grease-paint a sore1 and to pour rose-water over a cesspool4 ,if the triumph of science mean ,the ,descent of ,man2 if the glories of enlightenment mean1 again1 the descent of man2 and if progress imply1 once more1 the descent of man2 then the question to be asked is3 in whose hands have science1 enlightenment and the care of progress fallen8 ,this world is here for us to make of it what we will4 ,it is a field of yielding clay1 in which1 like sandboys1 we can build our castles and revel in our creations4 ,but what are these people doing8 ,in building their castles they grow ever more like beavers1 and ants1 and beetles4 ,in laying out their gardens they grow ever more like slugs1 and worms1 and centipedes4 ,and their joy seems to be to feel themselves small and despised4 ,once1 for instance1 their sky was the mighty god ,indra2 the clouds were his flock1 and he drove his flock across his vast fields--blue and fragrant with delicate flowers4 ,their fruitful rain was the milk which their god ,indra obtained from his herd of cows1 and their seasons of drought were times when the god ,indra was robbed by brigands of his flock4 ,now1 their sky is infinite space4 ,their clouds are masses of vapour in a state of condensation more or less considerable1 and their rain is the outcome of that condensation becoming too considerable4 ,not so many years ago their ,heaven and their ,earth were the father and mother of all living things1 who had become separated in order that their offspring might have room to live and breathe and move4 ,and thus their mists were the passionate sighs of the loving wife1 breathing her love heavenwards2 and the dew1 the tearful response of her affectionate and sorrowful spouse4 ,now1 their ,heaven is a thing that no one knows anything at all about4 ,their ,earth is an oblate spheroid revolving aimlessly through a hypothetical medium called ether2 their mists are vaporous emanations2 while their dew is a discharge of moisture from the air upon substances that have irradiated a sufficient quantity of heat4 ,their ,sun was once a god with long1 shining streams of golden hair1 of which every year their goddess ,night would rob him1 thus leaving ,winter mistress of the earth4 ,now1 their sun is the central orb of their ,solar system4 ,it consists of a nucleus1 it is surrounded by a photosphere and a chromosphere1 and has a disease of the face called spots4 ,the facts remain the same2 the mist still rises1 the dew still falls1 and the canopy of ,heaven still spans the two horizons4 ,whatever the interpretation of these phenomena may be1 this at least is certain1 that they are still with us4 ,but there is one thing that changes2 one thing that cannot remain indifferent to interpretation--even though the facts do not alter1--and that is the soul of man4 ,a million times more sensitive to changes in interpretation than the column of mercury is to changes in the atmosphere1 the soul of man rises or falls according to the nobility or the baseness of the meaning which he himself puts into things2 and1 just as1 in this matter1 he may be his own regenerator1 so1 also1 may he be his own assassin4 #a ,delivered at ,university ,college on ,dec4 #hth1 #aiaj4 #b ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ahg3 ,the time of kings has gone by1 because people are no longer worthy of them4 ,they do not wish to see the symbol of their ideal in a king1 but only a means to their own ends4 ,see also ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,lvi4 #a4 ,the ,world without form and void4 ,for1 in the beginning1 the world was without form and void1 things surrounded man2 but they had no meaning4 ,his senses received probably the same number of impressions as they do now--and perhaps more--but these impressions had no co-ordination and no order4 ,he could neither calculate them1 reckon with them1 nor communicate#c them to his fellows4 ,before he could thus calculate1 reckon with1 and communicate the things of this world1 a vast process of simplification1 co-ordination1 organization and ordering had to be undertaken1 and this process1 however arbitrarily it may have been begun1 was one of the first needs of thinking man4 ,everything had to be given some meaning1 some interpretation1 and some place2 and in every case1 of course1 this interpretation was in the terms of man1 this meaning was a human meaning1 and this place was a position relative to humanity4 ,perhaps no object is adequately defined until the relation to it of every creature and thing in the universe has been duly discovered and recorded4#d ,but no such transcendental meaning of a thing preoccupied primeval man4 ,all he wished was to understand the world1 in order that he might have power over it1 reckon with it1 and communicate his impressions concerning it4 ,and1 to this end1 the only relation of a thing that he was concerned with was its relation to himself4 ,it must be given a name1 a place1 an order1 a meaning--however arbitrary1 however fanciful1 however euphemistic4 ,facts were useless1 chaotic1 bewildering1 meaningless1 before they had been adjusted1#e organized1 classified1 and interpreted in accordance with the desires1 hopes1 aims and needs of a particular kind of man4 ,thus interpretation was the first activity of all to thinking humanity1 and it was human needs that interpreted the world4#f ,the love of interpreting and of adjusting--this primeval love and desire1 this power of the sandboy over his castles2 how much of the joy in ,life1 the love of ,life1 and1 at the same time1 the sorrow in ,life1 does not depend upon it6 ,for we can know only a world which we ourselves have created4#g ,there was the universe--strange and inscrutable2 terrible in its strangeness1 insufferable in its inscrutability1 incalculable in its multifariousness4 ,with his consciousness just awaking1 a cloud or a shower might be anything to man--a godlike friend or a savage foe4 ,the dome of blue behind was also prodigious in its volume and depth1 and the stars upon it at night horrible in their mystery4 ,what1 too1 was this giant's breath that seemed to come from nowhere1 and which1 while it cooled his face1 also bent the toughest trees like straws8 ,the sun and moon were amazing--the one marvellously eloquent1 communicative1 generous1 hot and passionate3 the other silent1 reserved1 aloof1 cold1 incomprehensible4#h ,but there were other things to do1 besides interpreting the stars1 the sun1 the moon1 the sea1 and the sky above4 ,there was the perplexing multiplicity of changes and of tides in ,life1 to be mastered and simplified4 ,there was the fateful flow of all things into death and into second birth1 the appalling fact of ,becoming and never-resting1 of change and instability1 of bloom and of decay1 of rise and of decline4 ,what was to be done8 ,it was impossible to live in chaos4 ,and yet1 in its relation to man ,nature was chaotic4 ,there was no order anywhere4 ,and1 where there is no order1 there are surprises1#i ambushes1 lurking indignities4 ,the unexpected could jump out at any minute4 ,and a masterful mind abhors surprises and loathes disorder4 ,his ,will to ,power is humiliated by them4 ,to man1--whether he be of yesterday1 of to-day or of to-morrow-- unfamiliarity1 constant change1 and uncertainty1 are sources of great anxiety1 great sorrow1 great humiliation and sometimes great danger4 ,hence everything must be familiarized1 named and fixed4 ,values must be definitely ascertained and determined4 ,and thus valuing becomes a biological need4 ,nietzsche even goes so far as to ascribe the doctrine of causality to the inherent desire in man to trace the unfamiliar to the familiar4 ,the so-called instinct of causality1 he says1 is nothing more than the fear of the unfamiliar1 and the attempt at finding something in it which is already known4#aj ,in the torrent and pell-mell of ,becoming1 some milestones must be fixed for the purpose of human orientation4 ,in the avalanche of evolutionary changes1 pillars must be made to stand1 to which man can hold tight for a space and collect his senses4 ,the slippery soil of a world that is for ever in flux1 must be transformed into a soil on which man can gain some foothold4#aa ,primeval man stood baffled and oppressed by the complexity of his task4 ,facts were insuperable as facts2 they could1 however1 be overcome spiritually--that is to say1 by concepts4 ,and that they must be overcome1 man never doubted for an instant--he was too proud for that4 ,for his aim was not existence1 but a certain kind of existence--an existence in which he could hold his head up1 look down upon the world1 and stare defiance even at the firmament4 ,and thus all humanity began to cry out for a meaning1 for an interpretation1 for a scheme1 which would make all these distant and uncontrollable facts their property1 their spiritual possessions4 ,this was not a cry for science1 or for a scientific explanation1 as we understand it2 nor was it a cry for truth in the ,christian sense4#ab ,for the bare truth1 the bare fact1 the bald reality of the thing was obvious to everybody4 ,all who had eyes to see could see it4 ,all who had ears to hear could hear it4 ,and all who had nerves to feel could feel it4 ,if ever there was a time when there was a truth for all1 this was the time2 and it was ugly1 bare and unsatisfying4 ,what was wanted was a scheme of life1 a picture of life1 in which all these naked facts and truths could be given some place and some human significance--in fact1 some order and arrangement1 whereby they would become the chattels of the human spirit1 and no longer subjects of independent existence and awful strangeness4#ac ,only thus could the dignity and pride of humanity begin to breathe with freedom4 ,only thus could life be made possible1 where existence alone was not the single aim and desire4 ,the purpose of 'knowledge1' says ,nietzsche1 in this case1 as in the case of 'good1' or 'beautiful1' must be regarded strictly and narrowly from an anthropocentric and biological standpoint4 ,in order that a particular species may maintain and increase its power1 its conception of reality must contain enough which is calculable and constant to allow of its formulating a scheme of conduct4 ,the utility of preservation--and not some abstract or theoretical need to eschew deception--stands as the motive force behind the development of the organs of knowledge4444 ,in other words1 the measure of the desire for knowledge depends upon the extent to which the ,will to ,power grows in a certain species3 a species gets a grasp of a given amount of reality in order to master it1 in order to enlist that amount into its service4#ad ,and thus the object was1 not to know1 but to schematize1 to impose as much regularity and form upon chaos as our practical needs required4#ae ,the whole apparatus of knowledge1 says ,nietzsche1 is an abstracting and simplifying apparatus--not directed at knowledge1 but at the appropriation of things4#af ,no physical thirst1 no physical hunger1 has ever been stronger than this thirst and hunger1 which yearned to make all that is unfamiliar1 familiar2 or in other words1 all that is outside the spirit1 inside the spirit4#ag ,life without food and drink was bad enough2 but ,life without nourishment for this spiritual appetite1 this famished wonder1#ah this starving amazement1 was utterly intolerable6 ,the human system could appropriate1 and could transform into man1 in bone and flesh1 the vegetation and the animals of the earth2 but what was required was a process1 a ,weltanschauung1 a general concept of the earth which would enable man to appropriate also ,life's other facts1 and transform them into man the spirit4 ,hence the so-called thirst for knowledge may be traced to the lust of appropriation and conquest1#ai and the will to truth to a process of establishing things1 to a process of making things true and lasting4444 ,thus truth is not something which is present and which has to be found and discovered2 it is something which has to be created and which gives its name to a process1 or better still1 to the will to overpower4#bj ,for what is truth8 ,it is any interpretation of the world which has succeeded in becoming the belief of a particular type of man4#ba ,therefore there can be many truths2 therefore there must be an order of rank among truths4 ,let this mean ,will to ,truth unto you1 says ,zarathustra1 that everything be made thinkable1 visible1 tangible unto man6 ,and what ye have called the world1 shall have first to be created by you3#bb your reason1 your image1 your will1 your love shall the world be6 ,and1 verily1 for your own bliss1 ye knights of ,knowledge6#bc ,the purpose was to deceive oneself in a useful way2 the means thereto was the invention of forms and signs1 with the help of which1 the confusing multifariousness of ,life could be reduced to a useful and wieldly scheme4#bd ,this was the craving4 ,not only must a meaning1 a human meaning1 be given to all things1 in order to subordinate them to man's power2 but ,life itself must also be schematized and arranged4 ,and1 while all humanity cried aloud for this to be done1 it was humanity's artists and higher men who set to and did it4#be #c ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gb3 444 ,communication is necessary1 and for it to be possible1 something must be stable1 simple and capable of being stated precisely4 #d ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fe4 #e ,okakura-,kakuzo1 ,the ,book of ,tea1 p4 #eh3 ,adjustment is ,art4 #f ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ac4 ,see also ,th4 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #be4 ,speaking of interpretation1 he says3 ,and this tendency was notably strengthened by the suspicious circumstances of external life1 which awoke the desire for clearness1 distinctness and a logical sequence of ideas4 #g ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ba4 ,see also ,max ,mller1 ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 pp4 #aih-bjg1 ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #ai4 #h ,hegel1 in his ,vorlesungen ber sthetik 7,vol4 ,i1 p4 #djf71 says3 ,if we should wish to speak of the first appearance of symbolic ,art as a subjective state1 we should remember that artistic meditation in general1 like religious meditation--or rather the two in one--and even scientific research1 took their origin in wonderment4 #i ,hegel makes some interesting remarks on this point4 ,see his ,vorlesungen ber sthetik1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cai4 ,he shows that the extreme regularity of gardens of the seventeenth century was indicative of their owners' masterful natures4 #aj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eh4 ,see also p4 #aa3 to 'understand' means simply this3 to be able to express something new in the terms of something old or familiar4 #aa ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hh4 #ab ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bf3 ,the prerequisite of all living things and of their lives is3 that there should be a large amount of faith1 that it should be possible to pass definite judgments on things1 and that there should be no doubt at all concerning values4 ,thus it is necessary that something should be assumed to be true1 not that it is true4 #ac ,felix ,clay1 ,the ,origin of the ,sense of ,beauty1 p4 #ie3 ,the mind or the eye1 brought face to face with a number of disconnected and apparently different facts1 ideas1 shapes1 sounds or objects1 is bothered and uneasy2 the moment that some central conception is offered or discovered by which they all fall into order1 so that their due relation to one another can be perceived and the whole grasped1 there is a sense of relief and pleasure which is very intense4 #ad ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ab4 #ae ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bi4 #af ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bd4 #ag ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gf4 ,hegel was also approaching this truth when he said1 in his introduction to the ,vorlesungen ber sthetik 7pp4 #eh1 #ei of the translation of that ,introduction by ,b4 ,bosanquet73 ,man is realized for himself by poetical activity1 inasmuch as he has the impulse1 in the medium which is directly given to him1 and externally presented before him1 to produce himself4 ,this purpose he achieves by the modification of external things upon which he impresses the seal of his inner being4 ,man does this in order1 as a free subject1 to strip the outer world of its stubborn foreignness1 and to enjoy1 in the shape and fashion of things1 a mere external reality of himself4 #ah ,hegel again seems to be on the road to ,nietzsche's standpoint1 when he says3 ,wonderment arises when man1 as a spirit separated from his immediate connection with ,nature1 and from the immediate relation to his merely practical desires1 steps back from ,nature and from his own singular existence1 and then begins to seek and to see generalities1 permanent qualities1 and absolute attributes in things 7,vorlesungen ber sthetik1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #djf74 #ai ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cci4 ,see also ,hegel 7,vorlesungen ber sthetik1 p4 #abh73 ,the instinct of curiosity and the desire for knowledge1 from the lowest stage up to the highest degree of philosophical insight1 is the outcome only of man's yearning to make the world his own in spirit and concepts4 #bj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fj4 #ba ,truth is that kind of error without which a certain species of living being cannot exist 7,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bj74 ,see also ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #h1 #i3 ,a belief might be false and yet life-preserving4 ,see also ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cf1 #cg3 ,we should not interpret this constraint in ourselves to imagine concepts1 species1 forms1 purposes1 and laws as if we were in a position to construct a real world2 but as a constraint to adjust a world by means of which our existence is ensured3 we thereby create a world which is determinable1 simplified1 comprehensible1 etc41 for us4 #bb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gf4 #bc ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxiv4 ,see also ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cc3 ,truth is the will to be master over the manifold sensations that reach consciousness2 it is the will to classify phenomena according to definite categories4 #bd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 ,m4 ,see also ,schelling1 ,system des transcendentalen ,idealismus1 p4 #dfh1 where the author says1 ,science1 in the highest interpretation of this term1 has one and the same mission as ,art4 #be ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bh1 #ij1 #ajc4 #b4 ,the ,first ,artists4 ,for it was then that man's strongest instinct became creative in man's highest product--the artist--and the discovery was made that the world1 although without form and void1 as a fact1 could be simplified and made calculable and full of form and attractions1 as a valuation1 as an interpretation1 as a spiritual possession4 ,with the world at a distance from him1 unfamiliar and unhuman1 man's existence was a torment4 ,with it beneath him1 inside him1 bearing the impress of his spirit1 and proceeding from him1 he became a lord1 casting care to the winds1 and terror to the beasts around4 ,man1 the bravest animal on earth1 thus conceived the only possible condition of his existence2 namely1 to become master of the world4 ,and1 when we think of the miracles he then began to perform1 we cease from wondering why he once believed in miracles1 why he thought of ,god as in his own image1 and why he made his strongest instinct ,god1 and thereupon made ,him say3 ,replenish the earth and subdue it6 ,it was therefore the powerful who made the names of things into law4#bf ,it was their ,will to ,power that simplified1 organized1 ordered and schematized the world1 and it was their will to prevail which made them proclaim their simplification1 their organization1 their order and scheme1 as the norm1 as the thing to be believed1 as the world of values which must be regarded as creation itself4 ,these early artists conceived of no other way of subduing the earth than by converting it into concepts2 and1 as time soon showed that there actually was no other way1 interpretation came to be regarded as the greatest task of all4#bg ,naming1 adjusting1 classifying1 qualifying1 valuing1 putting a meaning into things1 and1 above all1 simplifying--all these functions acquired a sacred character1 and he who performed them to the glory of his fellows became sacrosanct4 ,so great were the relief and solace that these functions bestowed upon mankind1 and so different did ugly reality appear1 once it had been interpreted by the artist mind1 that creating and naming actually began to acquire much the same sense4 ,for to put a meaning into things was clearly to create them afresh#bh--;in fact1 to create them literally4 ,and so it came to pass that1 in one of the oldest religions on earth1 the religion of ,egypt1 ,god was imagined as a ,being who created things by naming them2#bi while1 in the ,judaic notion of the creation of the world1 which was probably derived from the ,egyptians themselves1 ,jehovah is also said to have brought things into existence merely by pronouncing their names4#cj ,the world thus became literally man's ,work of ,art1#ca man's ,sculpture4#cb ,miracle after miracle at last reduced ,nature to man's chattel1 and it was man's lust of mastership1 his will to power1 which thus became creative in his highest specimen--the artist--and which1 fighting for the higher worthiness and meaning of mankind1#cctransfigured reality by means of human valuations1 and overcame ,becoming by falsifying it as ,being4#cd ,we are in need of lies1 says ,nietzsche1 in order to rise superior to reality1 to truth--that is to say1 in order to live4444 ,that lies should be necessary to life1 is part and parcel of the terrible and questionable character of existence4 ,metaphysics1 morality1 religion1 science--all these things are merely different forms of falsehood1 by means of them we are led to believe in life4 ',life must inspire confidence2' the task which this imposes upon us is enormous4 ,in order to solve this problem man must already be a liar in his heart4 ,but he must1 above all1 be an artist4 ,and he is that4 ,metaphysics1 religion1 morality1 science--all these things are but an offshoot of his will to ,art1 to falsehood1 to a flight from 'truth1' to a denial of 'truth4' ,this ability1 this artistic capacity1 par excellence1 of man--thanks to which he overcomes reality with lies--is a quality which he has in common with all other forms of existence4444 ,to be blind to many things1 to see many things falsely1 to fancy many things4 ,oh1 how clever man has been in those circumstances in which he believed that he was anything but clever6 ,love1 enthusiasm1 ',god'--are but subtle forms of ultimate self-deception2 they are but seductions to life and to the belief in life6 ,in those moments when man was deceived1 when he befooled himself and when he believed in life3 ,oh1 how his spirit swelled within him6 ,oh1 what ecstasies he had6 ,what power he felt6 ,and what artistic triumphs in the feeling of power6444 ,man had once more become master of 'matter'--master of truth6444 ,and whenever man rejoices1 it is always in the same way3 he rejoices as an artist1 his ,power is his joy1 he enjoys falsehood as his power4#ce ,subdue it6 said the ,jehovah of the ,old ,testament1 speaking to man1 and pointing to the earth3 have dominion over the fish of the sea1 and over the fowl of the air1 and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth4 ,this was man's original concept of his task on earth1 and with it before him he began to breathe at last1 and to feel no longer a worm1 entangled in a mysterious piece of clockwork mechanism4 ,what is it that created esteeming and despising and value and will8 ,zarathustra asks4 ,the creating self created for itself esteeming and despising1 it created for itself joy and woe4 ,the creating body created for itself spirit1 as a hand to its will4#cf ,to appraise a thing was to create it for ever in the minds of a people4 ,but to create a thing in the minds of a people was to create that people too2 for it is to have values in common that constitutes a people4#cg ,creators were they who created peoples1 and hung one belief and one love over them1 says ,zarathustra2 thus they served life4#ch ,values did man stamp upon things only that he might preserve himself --he alone created the meaning of things--a human meaning6 ,therefore calleth he himself man--that is1 the valuing one4 ,valuing is creating3 listen1 ye creators6 ,valuation itself is the treasure and jewel of valued things4 ,through valuing alone can value arise2 and without valuing1 the nut of existence would be hollow4 ,listen1 ye creators6 ,change of values--that is1 change of creators4#ci ,verily a prodigy is this power of praising and blaming4 ,tell me1 ye brethren1 who will master it for me8 ,who will put a yoke on the thousand necks of this animal8#dj ,all the beauty and sublimity with which we have invested real and imagined things1 says ,nietzsche1 ,i will show to be the property and product of man1 and this should be his most beautiful apology4 ,man as a poet1 as a thinker1 as a god1 as love1 as power4 ,oh1 the regal liberality with which he has lavished gifts upon things6444 ,hitherto this has been his greatest disinterestedness1 that he admired and worshipped1 and knew how to conceal from himself that he it was who had created what he admired4#da ,man as a poet1 as a thinker1 as a god1 as love1 as power--this man1 following his divine inspiration to subdue the earth and to make it his1 became the greatest stimulus to ,life itself1 the greatest bond between earth and the human soul2 and1 in shedding the glamour of his personality1 like the sun1 upon the things he interpreted and valued1 he also gilded1 by reflection1 his fellow creatures4 ,there is not a thing we call sacred1 beautiful1 good or precious1 that has not been valued for us by this man1 and when we1 like children1 call out for the ,truth about the riddles of this world1 it is not for the truth of reality which is the object of ,christianity and of science for which we crave2 but for the simplifications#db and values of this man-god1 who1 by the art-form1 into which he casts reality1 makes us believe that reality is as he says it is4 ,if this man is lacking1 then we succumb to the blackest despair4 ,if he is with us1 we voluntarily yield to boundless joy and good cheer4 ,his function is the divine principle on earth2 his creation ,art is the highest task and the properly metaphysical activity of this life4#dc #bf ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bh2 also ,c4,e41 p4 #bhh4 ,see also ,schelling1 ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,vorlesungen ber die ,methode des akademischen ,studiums1 p4 #bhf3 ,the first origin of religion in general1 as of every other kind of knowledge and culture1 can be explained only as the teaching of higher natures4 #bg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hi3 ,the ,will to ,truth at this stage is essentially the art of interpretation4 #bh ,thus ,schiller1 in one of his happy moments1 called beauty our second creator 7zweite ,schpferin74 #bi ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #fg4 #cj ,that those who successfully determined values even in comparatively recent times should have been regarded almost universally as enjoying some closer intimacy with the ,deity than ordinary mortals1 proves how very godlike and sacred the establishment of order was thought to be4 ,see ,max ,mller1 ,introduction to the ,science of ,religion1 p4 #hh4 #ca ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajb4 #cb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajg4 #cc ,h4 ,a4 ,h41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aed4 #cd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajh3 ,art is the will to overcome ,becoming1 it is a process of eternalizing4 ,and p4 #ajg3 ,to stamp ,becoming with the character of ,being--this is the highest ,will to ,power4 ,see also ,g4 ,m41 p4 #aii4 #ce ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhi1 #bij4 ,see also ,h4,a4,h41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aed4 #cf ,z41 ,i1 ,,iv4 #cg ,schelling and ,hegel both held this view2 the one expressed it quite categorically in his lectures on ,philosophy and ,mythology1 and the other in his ,philosophy of ,history4 #ch ,z41 ,i1 ,,xi4 #ci ,z41 ,i1 ,,xv4 #dj ,z41 ,i1 ,,xvi4 #da ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aac4 #db ,see ,th4 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 p4 #df1 who1 speaking of the old ,ionian ,nature-philosophers1 says3 ,the bold flight of their imagination did not stop at the assumption of a plurality of indestructible elements2 it never rested till it reached the conception of a single fundamental or primordial matter as the essence of natural diversity4444 ,the impulse to simplification1 when it had once been aroused1 was like a stone set in motion1 which rolls continuously till it is checked by an obstacle4 ,see also ,dr4 ,w4 ,worringer1 ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 p4 #bj4 #dc ,b4 ,t41 p4 #bj4 #c4 ,the ,people and their ,man-,god4 ,think of the joy that must have spread through a wondering people like the ,greeks1 when they were told that ,earth1 as the bride of ,heaven1 and fertilized by his life-giving rain1 became the mother not only of deep eddying ,ocean1 but also of all that lives and dies upon her broad bosom6 ,imagine the jubilation1 the feeling of power and the sense of extreme relief that must have filled the hearts of the ancient ,new ,zealanders1 when the first great ,maori artist arose and said to his brothers and sisters that it was the god of the forests1 ,tane ,mahuta1 with his tall trees that had wrenched the sky by force from mother ,earth1 where once upon a time he used to crush her teeming offspring to death4#dd ,with what superior understanding could they now gaze up into the sky1 and snap their fingers scornfully at its former azure mystery6 ,no wonder that the artist who could come forward with such an interpretation became a god6 ,and no wonder that in strong nations gods and men are one6 ,the fact that the explanation was not a true one1 according to our notions1 did not matter in the least4 ,history not only reveals1 but also proves that lies are not necessarily hostile to existence4 ,for thousands of years the human race not only lived1 but also flourished with the lie of the ,ptolemaic theory of the heavens on their tongue4 ,for centuries men thrived and multiplied1 believing that the lightning was ,jehovah's anger1 and that the rainbow was ,jehovah's reminder of a certain solemn covenant by which ,he promised never again to destroy all life on earth by a flood4 ,i do not wish to imply that these two beliefs are false4 ,for my part1 ,i would prefer to believe them1 rather than accept the explanations of these phenomena which modern science offers me4 ,still1 the fact remains that these two ,judaic explanations have been exploded by modern science1 though the question whether1 as explanations1 they are superior to modern science1 scarcely requires a moment's consideration4 ,at any rate they were the work of an artist1 and when we think of the joy they must have spread among wondering mankind1 we cannot wonder that such an artist was made a god4 ,it was an artist1 too1 who created the unchanging thing2#de who created every kind of permanency1 i4e4 ,stability out of ,evolution1 and among other unchangeable things1 the soul of man1 which was perhaps the greatest artistic achievement that has ever been accomplished4 ,and this ,man-,god who created ,being--that is to say1 a stable world1 a world which can be reckoned with1 and in which the incessant kaleidoscopic character of things is entirely absent--this same ,man-,god who found the earth without form and void1 and whose magnificent ,spirit moved upon the face of the waters2 when people grew too weak to look upon him as their brother and ,god at the same time1#df was relegated to his own world1 and from a great distance they now pray to him and worship him and say3 ,for ,thine is the ,kingdom1 the ,power and the ,glory1 ,for ever and ever4 ,amen4 ,for ever and ever2 this was something they could not say of the world as it is2 and the thought of stability and of ,being was a delight to them4 ,it may be difficult for us to picture how great the rejoicings must have been which followed upon every fresh ordering and arranging of the universe1 every fresh interpretation of the world in the terms of man4 ,perhaps only a few people to-day1 who are beginning to cast dubious glances at ,life1 and to question even the justification of man's existence1 may be able to form some conception of the thrill that must have passed through an ancient community1 when one of its higher men uprose and ordered and adjusted ,life for them1 and1 in so ordering it1 transfigured it4 ,how much richer they must have felt6 ,and how inseparable the two notions artist and giver must have appeared to them6 ,if indeed this is ,life1 they must have said2 if ,life is really as he orders it--and his voice and eye allowed them to prefix no such if with genuine scepticism--then of a truth it is a well of delight and a fountain of blessedness4 ,thus ,art--this function which is with us in order that we may not perish through truth1#dg this enhancement of the feeling of ,life and ,life's stimulant1#dh which acts as a tonic1 increases strength and kindles desire#di--;became the great seducer to earth and to the world2#ej and we can imagine the gratitude that swelled in the hearts of men for him whose function it was4 ,how could he help but become a god6 ,even tradition was not necessary for this4 ,for at the very moment when his creative spirit lent its glory to the earth1 man must have been conscious of his divinity or of his use as a mouthpiece by a ,divinity4#ej ,o1 ,lord ,varuna1 may this song go well to thy heart6 sang the ancient ,hindus4 ,thou who knowest the place of the birds that fly through the sky1 who on the waters knowest the ships4 ,thou the upholder of order1 who knowest the twelve months with the offspring of each1 and who knowest the month that is engendered afterwards4 ,thou who knowest the track of the wind1 of the wide1 the bright1 the mighty2 and knowest those who reside on high4 ,thou the upholder of order1 ,varuna1 sit down among thy people1 thou1 the wise1 sit there to govern4 ,from thence perceiving all wondrous things1 thou seest what has been and what will be done4 ,thou who givest to men glory1 and not half glory1 who givest it even to our own selves4 ,thou1 ,o wise god1 art ,lord of all1 of heaven and earth6#ea ,we can follow every word of this heartfelt worship with perfect sympathy now4 ,thou1 the upholder of order1 who knowest the twelve months with the offspring of each--this is no empty praise4 ,it is the cry of those who feel inexpressibly grateful to their great artist2 to him who has put some meaning1 some order into the world4 ,and ,thou who givest men glory1 and not half glory--here is the sincere recognition of a people who have been raised and who not only rejoice in their elevation1 but also recognize that it has been a creative act--a gift and a blessing from one who had something to give4 ,for the soul of man is a million times more sensitive to changes in interpretation than the column of mercury is to changes in the atmosphere1 and nothing can be more grateful than the soul of man when it is raised1 however little1 and thereby glorified4 #dd ,see ,max ,mller1 ,india4 ,what can it teach us8 pp4 #aed4 #aee2 also pp4 #aej and #aea4 #de ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #hh1 #hi3 ,happiness can be promised only by ,being3 change and happiness exclude each other4 ,the loftiest desire is thus to be one with ,being4 ,that is the formula for the way to happiness4 #df ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cac4 #dg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfd4 #dh ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdd4 #di ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beb4 #ej ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bij4 ,see also p4 #bib3 ,art is more divine than truth4 #ea ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #acc4 ,see also ,schopenhauer1 ,parerga und ,paralipomena1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,xv1 ,ueber ,religion1 para4 #agf1 where this view is ably upheld4 #eb ,rig-,veda1 ,i1 #bc4 #d4 ,the ,danger4 ,now1 having reached this point1 and having established--,first3 that it is our artists who value and interpret things for us1 and who put a meaning into reality which1 without them1 it would never possess2 and1 secondly3 that it is their will to power that urges them thus to appropriate ,nature in concepts1 and their will to prevail which gives them the ardour to impose their valuation with authority upon their fellows1 thus forming a people2 the thought which naturally arises is this3 ,the power that artists can exercise1 and the prerogative they possess1 is one which might prove exceedingly dangerous2 for while it may work for good1 it may also work very potently for evil4 ,does it matter who interprets the world8 who gives a meaning to things8 who adjusts and systematizes ,nature8 and who imposes order upon chaos8 ,most certainly it matters4 ,for a thousand meanings are possible1 and men may have a thousand been aiming for years1 other interpretations are still possible4 ,listen to your artistic friend's description of the most trifling excursion he has made1 and then set your inartistic friend to relate --say1 his journey round the world4 ,whereupon ask yourself whether it matters who sees things and who interprets life for you4 ,the first1 even with his trifling excursion in his mind1 will make you think that life is really worth living1 that the world is full1 of hidden treasure4 ,the second will make you conclude that this earth is an uninteresting monster1 and that boredom can be killed only by the dangers of motor racing1 aerial navigation and glacier climbing4 ,a thousand paths are there which never have been trodden1 says ,zarathustra1 a thousand salubrities and hidden islands of life4 ,still unexhausted and undiscovered is mankind and man's world4#ec ,this interpreting of ,nature and this making and moulding of a people might therefore have brilliant or sinister results4 ,there are many who wish to prevail2 there are many who wish to lure their fellows on1 and not all are standing on a superior plane4 ,for though artists1 as a rule1 are men of strong propensities#ed and surplus energy1 there is an instinct of chastity in the best of them1#ee which impels them to devote all their power to prevailing in concepts rather than in offspring1 and which makes them avoid precisely that quarter whither other men turn when they wish to prevail4#ef ,the question as to what kind of man it is who walks up to ,life and orders and values her for us1 is therefore of the most extraordinary importance4 ,nothing could be more important than this4 ,because1 as we have seen1 the question is not one of truth in the ,christian and modern scientific sense4 ,a belief is often life-preserving and still false from the standpoint of reality4#eg ,it is a matter1 rather1 of finding that belief1 whether true or false1 which most conduces to the love of an exalted form of ,life4 ,and if we ask1 ,who is the man who is interpreting life for us8 ,what is he8 ,what is his rank8 we practically lay our finger upon the very worth of our view of the world4 ,there is no greater delight or passionate love on earth for the artist than this3 to feel that he has stamped his hand on a people and on a millennium1 to feel that his eyes1 his ears1 and his touch have become their eyes1 and their ears1 and their touch4 ,there is no deeper enjoyment than this for him3 to feel that as he sees1 hears and feels1 they also will be compelled to see1 hear and feel4 ,only thus is he able to prevail4 ,a people becomes his offspring4#eh ,while their elation and blessedness consisted in being raised in concepts to his level1 and in seeing the world through his artistic prisms--in fact1 in scoring materially by allowing him1 their higher man1 to establish their type2 it was his solitary and unfathomable glory to prevail for ever through their minds1 and to lay the foundation of his hazar1 his thousand years of life on earth1 in the spirit of his fellows4 ,utilitarian1 if you will1 are both points of view3 the one giving from his abundance1 simply because he must discharge some of his plenitude or perish1 found his meaning in giving4 ,the others1 stepping up on the gifts bestowed1 found their meaning in receiving4#ei ,the artist1 then1 as the highest manifestation of any human community1 justifies his existence merely by living his life1 and by imparting some of his magnificence to the things about him4 ,to use a metaphor of ,george ,meredith's1 he gilds his retainers as the sun gilds1 with its livery1 the small clouds that gather round it4 ,this is the artist's power and it is also his bliss4 ,from a lower and more economical standpoint1 he justifies his life by raising the community to its highest power2 by binding it to ,life with the glories which he alone can see1 and by luring it up to heights which he is the first to scale and to explore4#fj #ec ,z41 ,i1 ,,xxii4 #ed ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdc4 #ee ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bei4 ,also ,g4 ,m41 p4 #ada4 #ef ,in this regard it is interesting to note that3 ,the ,teutonic ',kunst' 7,art7 is formed from knnen1 and knnen is developed from a primitive ,ich kann4 ,ich kann philology recognizes a preterite form of a lost verb1 of which we find the traces in ,kin-d1 a child2 and the form ,ich kann1 thus meaning originally1 ',i begot1' contains the germ of the two developments--knnen1 'to be master1' 'to be able1' and 'kennen' to know 7,sidney ,colvin1 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith ,edition4 ,article1 ,art74 #eg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ad4 ,see also ,g4 ,e41 pp4 #h1 #i4 #eh ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfh3 ,the great man is conscious of his power over a people1 and of the fact that he coincides temporarily with a people or with a century--this magnifying of his self-consciousness as causa and voluntas is misunderstood as 'altruism'3 he feels driven to means of communication3 all great men are inventive in such means4 ,they want to form great communities in their own image2 they would fain give multiformity and disorder definite shape2 it stimulates them to behold chaos4 #ei ,w4 ,p41 pp4 #bee1 #bef4 #fj ,even ,fichte recognizes this power in ,art to stamp values upon a people4 ,see the ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,vol1 ,,iv1 p4 #cec3 ,art converts the transcendental standpoint into the general standpoint4444 ,the philosopher can raise himself and others to this standpoint only with great effort4 ,but the artistic spirit actually finds himself there1 without having thought about it2 he knows no other standpoint1 and those who yield to his influence are drawn so imperceptibly over to his side1 that they do not even notice how the change takes place4 #e4 ,the ,two ,kinds of ,artists4 ,up to the present ,i have spoken only of the desirable artist1 of him who1 from the very health and fulness that is in him1 cannot look on ,life without transfiguring her2 of the man who naturally sees things fuller1 simpler1 stronger and grander#fa than his fellows4#fb ,when this man speaks of ,life1 his words are those of a lover extolling his bride4#fc ,there is a ring of ardent desire and deep longing in his speech1 which is infectious because it is so sincere1 which is convincing because it is so authoritative1 and which is beautiful because it is so simple4 ,intoxicated#fd by his love1 giddy with enthusiasm1 he rhapsodizes about her1 magnifies her2 points to vast unknown qualities and beauties in her1 to which he is the first to give some lasting names2 and stakes his life upon her myriad charms4 ,this ,dionysian artist1 the prototype of all gods and demi-gods that have ever existed on earth1 exalts ,life when he honours her with his love2 and in exalting her1 exalts humanity as well4#fe ,for the mediocre1 simply because they cannot transfigure ,life in that way1 benefit extremely from looking on the world through the ,dionysian artist's personality4 ,it is his genius which1 by putting ugly reality into an art-form1 makes life desirable4 ,beneath all his dithyrambs1 however1 there is still the will to power and the will to prevail-- just as these instincts are to be found behind the magnificats of the everyday lover2 but1 in the case of the former1 it is the power in the spirit4 ,there is1 however1 another kind of man who walks towards ,life to value and to order her4 ,the kind of man who1 as we saw in my last lecture1 declares that man is born in sin1--that depravity is universal1 --that nothing exists in the intellect but what has before existed in the senses2 and that every man is his own priest2 the man who defines ,life as the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations2 and who says3 it is only the cultivation of individuality which produces1 or can produce1 well-developed human beings2 the man who declares that we are all equal1 that there is one truth for all1 if only it can be found2 and who thus not only kills all higher men1 but also deprives his fellow creatures of all the beauty that these higher men have brought1 and might still bring1 into the world2 finally1 the man who values humanity with figures and in the terms of matter1 who values progress in the terms of the engineer's workshop1 and who denies that ,art can have any relation to ,life4 ,this man is a sort of inverted ,midas at whose touch all gold turns to tinsel1 all pearls turn to beads1 and all beauty withers and fades1 ,his breath is that of the late autumn1 and his words are hoarfrost4 ,having nothing to give1#ff he merely robs things of the beauty that was once laid in them1 by insisting upon the truth of their reality2 and he sees ,life smaller1 thinner1 weaker1 and greyer than it is even to the people themselves4 ,he is the antithesis of the ,dionysian artist4 ,he comes from the people1 and very often from a substratum lower than they4 ,how1 therefore1 can he give the people anything they do not already possess8 ,he is a housewives have not already seen or felt8 ,people have no use for him1 therefore1 and whenever they are drawn to his side by his seditious songs about equality1 they find1 when it is too late1 that he has made the world drabbier1 uglier1 colder1 and stranger for them than it was before4 ,this is the man who insists upon truth4 ,forgetting that truth is ugly#fg and that humanity has done little else1 since it first became conscious1 than to master and overcome truth1 he wishes to make this world what it was in the beginning1 without form and void1 and to empty things of the meaning that has been put into them1 simply because he is unable to create a world for himself4#fh ,aiming at a general truth for all1 he is reduced to naked reality1 to ,nature as it was before ,god's ,spirit moved upon the face of the waters1 and this is his world of facts1 stripped of all that higher men have put into them4 ,this man of science without ,art1 is gradually reducing us to a state of absolute ignorance2 for while he takes from us what we know about things1 he gives us nothing in return4 ,how often do we not hear people who are influenced by his science1 exclaim that the more they learn the less they feel they know4 ,this exclamation contains a very profound truth2 for science is robbing us inch by inch of all the groundfield-labourer among field-labourers1 a housewife among housewives--how could he point to any beauty or desire which field-labourers and that was once conquered for us by bygone artists4#fi ,such a man1 if he can be really useful in garnering and accumulating facts1 and in devising and developing novel mechanical contrivances1 ought in any case to be closeted apart1 so that none of his breath can reach the ,art-made world4 ,and when he begins valuing1 all windows and doors ought speedily to be barred and bolted against him4 ,he is the realist4 ,it is he who sees spots on the sun's face2 it is he who denies that mist is the passionate sigh of mother ,earth1 yearning for her spouse the sky2 it is he who will not believe that the god of the forest with his tallest trees separated the earth and the heavens by force1 and the explanations he gives of things1 though they are doubtless useful to him in his laboratory1 are empty and colourless4 ,granting1 as ,i say1 that he does anything useful in the department of facts1 let his profession at least be a strictly esoteric one4 ,for his interpretations are so often ignoble1 in addition to being colourless1 that his business1 like that of a certain ,paris functionary1 ought to be pursued in the most severe and most zealous secrecy4 ,if the world grows ugly1 and ,life loses her bloom2 if all winds are ill winds1 and the sunshine seems sickly and pale2 if we turn our eyes dubiously about us1 and begin to question the justification of our existence1 we may be quite certain that this man1 this realist1 and his type1 are in the ascendancy1 and that he it is who is stamping his ugly fist upon our millennium4 ,for the function of ,art is the function of the ruler4 ,it relieves the highest of their burden1 so that mediocrity may be twice blessed1 and it makes us a people by luring us to a certain kind of ,life4 ,its essence is riches1 its activity is giving and perfecting1#gj and while it is a delight to the highest1 it is also a boon to those beneath them4 ,the attempt of the ,dionysian artist#ga to prevail1 therefore1 is sacred and holy4 ,in his efforts to make his eyes our eyes1 his ears our ears1 and his touch our touch1 though he does not pursue any altruistic purpose1 he confers considerable benefits upon mankind4 ,whereas the attempt of that other man to prevail--the realist and devotee of so-called truth--is barbarous and depraved4 ,by his egoism he depresses1 depreciates and dismantles ,life in great things as in small4 ,woe to the age whose values allow his voice to be heard with respect6 ,there are necessary grey studies to be made1 necessary uglinesses to be described1 perhaps4 ,but let these studies and descriptions be kept within the four walls of a laboratory until the time comes when1 by their collective means1 man can be raised and not depressed by them4 ,science is not with us to promulgate values4 ,it is with us to be the modest handmaiden of ,art1 working in secrecy until all its ugliness can be collected1 transfigured1 and used for the purpose of man's exaltation by the artist4 ,it may be useful for our science-slaves1 working behind the scenes of ,life1 to know that the sky is merely our limited peep into an infinite expanse of ether--whatever that is4 ,but when we ask to hear about it1 let us be told as follows-- ,o heaven above me6 ,thou pure6 ,thou deep6 ,thou abyss of light6 ,gazing on ,thee1 ,i quiver with godlike desires4 ,to cast myself up unto thy height--that is my profundity6 ,to hide myself in thy purity--that is mine innocence4 ,we have been friends from the beginning1 thou and ,i4 ,sorrow and horror and soil we share3 even the sun is common to us4 ,we speak not to each other1 for we know too many things4 ,we stare silently at each other2 by smiles do we communicate our knowledge4 ,and all my wanderings and mountain-climbings--these were but a necessity and a makeshift of the helpless one4 ,to fly is the one thing that my will willeth1 to fly into thee4 ,and what have ,i hated more than passing clouds and all that defileth thee6 ,the passing clouds ,i loathe--those stealthy cats of prey4 ,they take from thee and me what we have in common--that immense1 that infinite saying of ,yea and ,amen4 ,these mediators and mixers we loathe--the passing clouds4 ,rather would ,i sit in a tub1 with the sky shut out2 rather would ,i sit in the abyss without a sky1 than see thee1 sky of ,light1 denied by wandering clouds6 ,and oft have ,i longed to pin them fast with the jagged gold wires of lightning1 that ,i might1 like the thunder1 beat the drum upon their bellies4 ,an angry drummer1 because they bereave me of thy ,yea and ,amen ,i-- thou heaven above me1 thou pure1 thou bright1 thou abyss of ,light6 ,and because they bereave thee of my ,yea and ,amen4 ,thus spake ,zarathustra4#gb #fa ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdc3 ,artists should not see things as they are2 they should see them fuller1 simpler1 stronger4 ,to this end1 however1 a kind of youthfulness1 of vernality1 a sort of perpetual elation1 must be peculiar to their lives4 ,see also ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #h4 #fb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdc4 ,see also ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #i4 #fc ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdh4 #fd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bda3 ,the feeling of intoxication 7elation7 is1 as a matter of fact1 equivalent to a sensation of surplus strength4 ,see also p4 #bed4 #fe ,schelling also recognized the transfiguring power of ,art2 but he traced it to the fact that the artist invariably paints ,nature at her zenith4 ,see p4 ,,ii1 ,the ,philosophy of ,art 7translation by ,a4 ,johnson73 ,every growth of nature has but one moment of perfect beauty1 444 ,art1 in that it presents the object in this moment1 withdraws it from time1 and causes it to display its pure being in the form of eternal beauty4 ,this is making the natural object itself the adequate source of its own transfiguration1 and the theory overlooks the power of the artist himself to see things as they are not4 #ff ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdd3 ,the sober-minded man1 the tired man1 the exhausted and dried-up man1 can have no feeling for ,art1 because he does not possess the primitive force of ,art1 which is the tyranny of inner riches4 #fg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aja4 #fh ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hi3 ,the belief that the world which ought to be1 is1 really exists1 is a belief proper to the unfruitful1 who do not wish to create a world4 ,they take it for granted1 they seek for ways and means of attaining it4 ',the will to truth' in the ,christian and scientific sense is the impotence of the will to create4 #fi ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajd3 ,the development of science tends ever more to transform the known into the unknown3 its aim1 however1 is to do the reverse1 and it starts out with the instinct of tracing the unknown to the known4 ,in short1 science is laying the road to sovereign ignorance1 to a feeling that knowledge does not exist at all1 that it was merely a form of haughtiness to dream of such a thing4 #gj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfc3 ,the essential feature in art is its power of perfecting existence1 its production of perfection and plenitude4 ,art is essentially the affirmation1 the blessing1 and the deification of existence4 #ga ,fichte comes near to ,nietzsche1 here1 with his idea of the beautiful spirit which sees all nature full1 large and abundant1 as opposed to him who sees all things thinner1 smaller1 and emptier than they actually are4 ,see ,fichte's ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ced4 ,see also ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bgc4 #gb ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,xlviii4 ,part ,,ii ,deductions from ,part ,i4 ,nietzsche's ,art ,principles ,for he taught them as one having authority1 and not as the scribes4-- ,matthew vii4 #bi4 #a4 ,the ,spirit of the ,age ,incompatible with ,ruler-,art4 ,with ,nietzsche's concept of ,art before me ,i feel as if ,i had left the arts of the present day many thousand leagues behind1 and it is almost a hardship to be obliged to return to them4 ,for unless most of that which is peculiar to this age be left many thousand leagues to the rear1 all hope of making any headway must be abandoned4 ,we live in a democratic age4 ,it is only natural1 therefore1 that all that belongs to the ruler should have been whittled down1 diluted1 and despoiled of its dignity2 and we must feel no surprise at finding that no pains have been spared which might reduce ,art also to a function that would be compatible with the spirit of the times4 ,all that savours of authority has become the work of committees1 assemblies1 herds1 crowds1 and mobs4 ,how could the word of one man be considered authoritative1 now that the ruling principle1 to use a phrase of ,mr4 ,chesterton's1 is that twelve men are better than one8#a ,the conception of ,art as a manifestation of the artist's will to power and his determination to prevail1 is a much too dangerous one for the present day4 ,it involves all kinds of things which are antagonistic to democratic theory1 such as3 ,command1 ,reverence1 ,despotism1 ,obedience1 ,greatness and ,inequality4 ,therefore1 if artists are to be tolerated at all1 they must have a much more modest1 humble1 and pusillanimous comprehension of what their existence means1 and of the purpose and aim of their work2 and their claims1 if they make any1 must be meek1 unprivileged1 harmless and unassuming4 ,while1 therefore1 the artist1 as ,nietzsche understood him1 scarcely exists at all to-day1 another breed of man has come to the fore in the graphic arts1 whose very weakness is his passport1 who makes no claims at establishing new values of beauty1 and who contents himself modestly with exhibiting certain baffling dexterities1 virtuosities and tricks1 which at once amaze and delight ordinary spectators or ,art-students1 simply because they themselves have not yet overcome even the difficulties of a technique4 ,monet's pointillisme1 ,sargent's visible and nervous brush strokes1 ,rodin's wealth of anatomical detail1 the ,impressionist's scientific rendering of atmosphere1 ,peter ,graham's gauzy mists1 ,lavery's post-,whistlerian portraits of pale people1 and the touching devotion of all modern artists to ,truth1 in the ,christian and scientific sense1 are all indications of the general funk--the universal paralysis of will that has overtaken the ,art-world4 ,but ,i am travelling too fast4 ,i said that no pains have been spared which might reduce ,art also to a function that would be compatible with the democratic spirit of the times4 ,now in what form have these pains been taken8 ,their form has invariably been to turn the tables upon ,art1 and to make its beauty dependent upon ,nature1 instead of ,nature's beauty dependent upon it4#b ,tradition1 of course1 very largely laid the foundation of this mode of thinking1 and1 from the ,greeks to ,ruskin1 few seem to have realized how much beauty ,art had already laid in ,nature1 before even the imitative artist could consider ,nature as beautiful4 ,as ,croce rightly observes3 ,antiquity seems generally to have been entrammelled in the meshes of the belief in mimetic1 or the duplication of natural objects by the artist2#c but when we remember that1 as ,schelling points out1 in ,greece speculation about ,art began with ,art's decline1#d we ought to feel no surprise at this remote underestimation of the artistic fact4#e ,in reviewing the work of stheticians from ,plato to ,croce1 however1 what strikes me as so significant is the fact that1 from the time of ,plotinus--who practically marks the end of the declension which started in ,plato's time--to the end of the seventeenth century1 scarcely a voice of any magnitude was raised in ,europe on the subject of ,art4#f ,that there was no real talk about ,art1 at the time when it was revived in the ,middle ,ages1 and at the time when it flourished in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and that all the old ,hellenic discussions on the subject should have been taken up again at a period when the last emaciated blooms of the ,renaissance and of the counter-,renaissance were bowing their heads1 only shows how very sorry the plight of all great human functions must be when man begins to hope that he may set them right by talking about them4 ,when it is remembered1 however1 that1 from the end of the seventeenth century onward1 ,art was regarded either as imitation pure and simple or as idealized imitation by no less than fifteen thinkers of note--that is to say1 roughly speaking1 by the ,earl of ,shaftesbury1 ,hutcheson1 ,home1 ,burke and ,hume in ,england1 by ,batteux and ,diderot in ,france1 by ,pagano and ,spaletti in ,italy1 by ,hemsterhuis in ,holland1 and by ,leibnitz1 ,baumgarten1 ,kant1 ,schiller and ,fichte in ,germany2 and that if ,winckelmann and ,lessing opposed these ideas1 it was rather with the recommendation of another kind of imitation--that of the antique-- than with a new valuation of ,art2 we can feel scarcely any surprise at all at the sudden and total collapse of the dignity of ,art in the nineteenth century1 under the deadly influence of the works of men like ,semper and his followers4 ,it is all very well to point to men like ,goethe1 ,heydenreich1 ,schelling1 ,hegel1 ,hogarth and ,reynolds--all of whom certainly did a good deal to brace the self-respect of artists2 but it is impossible to argue that any one of them took up either such a definite or such a determined attitude against the fifteen others whom ,i have mentioned1 as could materially stem the tide of democratic ,art which was rising in ,europe4 ,and if in the latter half of the nineteenth century we have ,ruskin telling us that the art which makes us believe what we would not otherwise have believed1 is misapplied1 and in most instances very dangerously so2#g and if we find that his first principle is1 that our graphic art1 whether painting or sculpture1 is to produce something which shall look as like ,nature as possible1#h and that1 in extolling the ,gothic1 he says it was the love of natural objects for their own sake1 and the effort to represent them frankly1 unconstrained by artistic laws2#i we realize how very slight the effect of those exceptional spirits1 headed by ,goethe1 must have been4 #a ,see his evidence before the ,joint ,committee on the ,stage ,censorship4--,daily ,press1 ,september #bdth1 #aiji4 #b ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #ai3 ,man believes the world itself to be overcharged with beauty1--he forgets that he is the cause of it4 ,he alone has endowed it with beauty4444 ,in reality man mirrors himself in things2 he counts everything beautiful which reflects his likeness4444 ,is the world really beautiful1 just because man thinks it is8 ,man has humanized it1 that is all4 #c sthetic 7,douglas ,ainslie's translation71 p4 #bei4 ,see also ,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,a ,history of sthetic1 pp4 #ae-ah4 #d ,smmtliche ,werke1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,vorlesungen ber die ,methode des akademischen ,studiums1 pp4 #cdf1 #cdg4 #e ,dr4 ,max ,schasler 7,kritische ,geschichte der sthetik1 p4 #gc7 agrees that the understanding of ,art in classical antiquity seems to be quite barbaric in its stupidity 7von einer geradezu barbarischen ,bornirtheit72 but he adds that this may be an argument in favour of the antique2 for it may prove the unconsciousness of the artists and the absolute unity of the artistic life and of artistic appreciation in antiquity4 #f ,aristotle was1 of course1 studied and commentated to a very great extent during these fifteen centuries2 but in all the branches of science save sthetic4 ,where his ,poetic was examined1 the philological or literary-historical interest was paramount4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas do not differ materially from ,plotinus and ,plato4 #g ,lectures on ,art 7#ahgj71 p4 #ej4 #h ,aratra ,pentelici 7#ahgj71 p4 #aah4 ,it is true that this is followed by a restriction2 but what does this restriction amount to8 ,ruskin says3 ,we must produce what shall look like ,nature to people who know what ,nature is4 #i ,on the ,nature of the ,gothic 7,smith1 ,elder1 #ahed71 p4 #ai4 #b4 ,a ,thrust parried4 ,police or ,detective ,art defined4 ,but to return to the movement initiated by ,semper#aj--;here we certainly have the scientific and ,christian coup de grce levelled at the expiring spirit of nineteenth-century ,art4 ,for the actors in this movement not only maintained that ,art is imitation1 but that it actually took its origin in imitation--and of the basest sort--that is to say1 of accidental combinations of lines and colours produced in basket-work1 weaving and plaiting4 ,this conclusion1 which was arrived at1 once more1 by means of a formidable array of facts1 and which called itself ,evolution in ,art1 was1 like its first cousin1 ,evolution in the ,organic ,world1 absolutely democratic1 ignoble1 and vulgar2 seeking the source of the highest human achievements either in automatic mimicry1 slavish and even faulty copying1 or involuntary adoption of natural or purely utilitarian forms4 ,taking the beauty of ,nature for granted--an assumption which1 as the first part of this lecture shows1 is quite unwarrantable--these ,art-,evolutionists sought to prove that all artistic beauty was the outcome of man's ,simian virtues working either in the realm of ,nature or in the realm of his own utilitarian handiwork4 ,and from the purely imitative productions found in the ,madeleine ,cavern in ,la ,dordogne1 to the repetitive patterns worked on wooden bowls by the natives in ,british ,new ,guinea1 the origin of all art lay in schoolboy cribbing4 ,this was a new scientific valuation of ,art--foreshadowed1 as ,i have shown1 by philosophical sthetic1 but arriving independently1 as it were1 at the conclusion that ,art was no longer a giver1 but a robber4 ,volumes were written to show the origin in technical industry of individual patterns and ornaments on antique vases4 ,and as ,alois ,riegl rightly observes1 the authors of these works spoke with such assurance1 that one might almost have believed that they had been present when the vases were made4#aa ,even ,semper1 however1 as ,riegl points out1 did not go so far as his disciples1 and though he believed that art-forms had been evolved--a fact any one would be ready to admit--he did not press the point that technical industry had always been their root4 ,when we find such delicate and beautifully rhythmic patterns as those which ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon gives us in his interesting work on ,evolution in ,art1 and are told that they originated in the frigate birds1 or in woodlarks1 which infest the neighbourhood from which these patterns hail2#ab when we are shown a ,chinese ornament which resembles nothing so much as the ,egyptian honeysuckle and lotus ornament1#ac and we are told that it is derived from the ,chinese bat1 and when we are persuaded that an ordinary fish-hook can lead to a delightful bell-like#ad design2 then our knowledge of what ,art is protests against this desecration of its sanctity--more particularly after we have been informed that any beauty that the original ,skeuomorph#ae may ultimately possess is mostly due to rapid and faulty copying by inexpert draughtsmen1 or to a simplifying process which repeated drawings of the same thing must at length involve4 ,this is nonsense1 and of a most pernicious sort4 ,no mechanical copying or involuntary simplification will necessarily lead to designs of great beauty4 ,one has only to set a class of children to make dozens of copies of an object--each more removed than the last from the original --in order to discover that if any beauty arises at all1 it is actually given or imparted to the original by one particular child1 who happens to be an artist1 and that the rest of the class will be quite innocent of anything in the way of embellishments1 or beauty of any kind4 ,it would be absurd to argue that the beak of a frigate bird had not been noticed by particular natives in those parts of the world where the creature abounds2 but the creative act of making an ornamental design based upon a pot-hook unit1 such as the frigate bird's beak is1 bears no causal relation whatsoever to the original fact in the artist's environment1 and to write books in order to show that it does1 is as futile as to try and show that pneumonia or bronchitis or pleurisy was the actual cause of ,poe's charming poem1 ,annabel ,lee4 ,riegl1 ,lipps1 and ,dr4 ,worringer very rightly oppose this view of ,semper and others4 ,in his book1 ,stilfragen1 ,riegl successfully disposes of the theory that repetitive patterns have invariably been the outcome of technical processes such as weaving and plaiting1 and points out that1 very often1 a vegetable or animal form is given to an original ornamental figure1 only after it has been developed to such an extent that it actually suggests that vegetable or animal form4#af ,dr4 ,worringer goes to great pains in order to show that there is an ,art-will which is quite distinct from mimicry of any kind1 and that this ,art-will1 beginning in the graphic arts with rhythmic and repetitive geometrical designs1 such as zigzags1 cross-hatchings and spirals1 has nothing whatsoever to do with natural objects or objects of utility1 such as baskets and woven work1 which these designs happen to resemble4#ag ,he points out that there is not only a difference of degree1 but actually a marked difference of kind1 between the intensely realistic drawing of the ,madeleine finds and of some ,australian cave painting and rock sculptures1#ah which are the work of the rudest savages1 and the rhythmic decoration of other races2 and that whereas the former are simply the result of a truly imitative instinct which the savage does well to cultivate for his own self-preservation--since the ability to imitate also implies sharpened detective senses#ai--the latter is the result of a genuine desire for order and simple and organized arrangement1 and an attempt in a small way to overcome confusion4 ,it is man's only possible way of emancipating himself from the accidental and chaotic character of reality4#bj ,the author also shows very ably that1 even where plant forms are selected by the original geometric artist1 it is only owing to some peculiarly orderly or systematic arrangement of their parts1 and that the first impulse in the selective artist is not to imitate ,nature1 but to obtain a symmetrical and systematic arrangement of lines1#ba to gratify his will to be master of natural disorder4 ,these objections of ,riegl and ,worringer are both necessary and important2 for1 as the former declares3 ,it is now high time that we should retreat from the position in which it is maintained that the roots of ,art lie in purely technical prototypes4#bb ,even in the camp of the out-and-out evolutionists1 however1 there seems always to have been some uncertainty as to whether they were actually on the right scent4 ,one has only to read ,grosse1 where he throws doubt on the technical origin of ornament1 and acknowledges that he clings to it simply because he can see no other1#bc and the concluding word of ,dr4 ,haddon's book1 ,evolution in ,art1#bd in order to understand how very much a proper concept of the ,art-instinct would have helped these writers to explain a larger field of facts than they were able to explain1 and to do so with greater accuracy4 ,nobody1 of course1 denies that the patterns on alligators' backs1 the beaks of birds1 and even the regular disposition of features in the human face1 have been incorporated into designs2 but what must be established1 once and for all1 is the fact that there is a whole ocean of difference between the theory which would ascribe such coincidences to the imitative faculty1 and that which would show them to be merely the outcome of an original desire for rhythmic order1 simplification1 and organization1 which may or may not avail itself of natural or technical forms suggestive of symmetrical arrangement that happen to be at hand4 ,it is an important controversy1 and one to which ,i should have been glad to devote more attention4 ,in summing up1 however1 ,i don't think ,i could do better than quote the opening lines of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,f4 ,rowbotham's excellent ,history of ,music1 in which the same questions1 although applied to a different branch of ,art1 are admirably stated and answered4 ,in this book the author says-- ,the twittering of birds1 the rustling of leaves1 the gurgling of brooks1 have provoked the encomiums of poets4 ,yet none of these has ever so powerfully affected man's mind that he has surmised the existence of something deeper in them than one hearing would suffice to disclose1 and has endeavoured by imitating them to familiarize himself with their nature1 so that he may repeat the effect at his own will and pleasure in all its various shades4 ,these sounds1 with that delicate instinct which has guided him so nicely through this universe of tempting possibilities1 he chose deliberately to pass over4 ,he heard them with pleasure maybe4 ,but pleasure must possess some sthetic value4 ,there must be a secret there to fathom1 a mystery to unravel1 before we would undertake its serious pursuit4 ,and there is a kind of sound which exactly possesses these qualities--a sound fraught with seductive mystery--a sound which is ,nature's magic1 for by it can dumb things speak4 ,the savage who1 for the first time in our world's history1 knocked two pieces of wood together1 and took pleasure in the sound1 had other aims than his own delight4 ,he was patiently examining a mystery2 he was peering with his simple eyes into one of ,nature's greatest secrets4 ,the something he was examining was rhythmic sound1 on which rests the whole art of music4#be ,thus1 as you see1 there is a goodly array of perfectly sensible people on the other side4 ,still1 the belief that graphic art took its origin in imitation must undoubtedly have done a good deal of damage2 for the numbers that hold it and act upon it at the present day are1 ,i am sorry to say1 exceedingly great4 ,by identifying the will to imitate with the instinct of self-preservation pure and simple1 however1 we immediately obtain its order of rank2 for having already established that the will to ,art is the will to exist in a certain way--that is to say1 with power1 all that which ministers to existence alone must of necessity fall below the will to ,art4 ,in helping us to make this point1 ,dr4 ,worringer and ,mr4 ,felix ,clay have done good service1 while ,riegl's contribution to the side opposed to the ,art-,evolutionists cannot be estimated too highly4 ,we are now able to regard the realistic rockdrawings and cave-paintings of rude ,bushmen1 as also the finds in the ,madeleine ,cavern1 with an understanding which has not been vouchsafed us before1 and in comparing these examples of amazing truth to ,nature--which1 for want of a better name1 we shall call ,detective or ,police ,art#bf--with the double twisted braid1 the palmette1 and the simple fret in ,assyrian ornament1 we shall be able to assign to each its proper order of rank4 ,it seems a pity1 before laying down the principles of an art1 that it should be necessary to clear away so many false doctrines and prejudices heaped upon it in perfect good faith by scientific men4 ,it is only one proof the more1 if such were needed1 of the vulgarizing influence science has exercised over everything it has touched1 since it began to become almost divinely ascendant in the nineteenth century4 #aj ,der ,stil in der technischen und tektonischen ,knsten1 oder praktische sthetik4 #aa ,see the excellent work1 ,stilfragen1 p4 #aa4 #ab ,evolution in ,art1 by ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon4 ,see especially figures #bf1 #bg1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 pp4 #di-eb4 ,see also figure #ajf1 p4 #aha4 #ac ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art1 by ,henry ,j4 ,balfour1 p4 #ej4 #ad ,evolution in ,art1 by ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 p4 #gf4 #ae ,a word ,dr4 ,colley ,march introduced to express the idea of an ornament due to structure4 #af ,stilfragen1 p4 #bjh et seq4 ,see also ,dr4 ,w4 ,worringer's really valuable contribution to this subject3 ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 p4 #eh4 #ag ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 pp4 #d1 #h1 #i1 #aa4 #ah ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 p4 #ea4 ,see also ,grosse1 ,the ,beginnings of ,art1 pp4 #aff-afi et seq4 #ai ,for confirmation of this point see ,felix ,clay1 ,the ,origin of the ,sense of ,beauty1 p4 #ig4 #bj ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 p4 #dd4 #ba ,abstraktion und ,einfhlung1 p4 #eh4 #bb ,stilfragen1 p4 #ab4 #bc ,the ,beginnings of ,art1 pp4 #ade-adg4 #bd p4 #cji3 ,there are certain styles of ornamentation which1 at all events in particular cases1 may very well be original1 taking that word in its ordinary sense1 such1 for example1 as zigzags1 cross-hatching1 and so forth4 ,the mere toying with any implement which could make a mark on any surface might suggest the simplest ornamentation ,n4,b4--,it is characteristic of this school that even original design1 according to them1 must be the result of toying with an instrument1 and of a suggestion from chance markings it may make to the most savage mind4 ,this may or may not have been the case1 and it is entirely beyond proof either way1 and therefore we must not press our analogy too far4 ,it is1 however1 surprising and is certainly very significant that the origin of so many designs can be determined although they are of unknown age4 #be ,the ,history of ,music1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,rowbotham1 #ahic1 pp4 #g1 #h4 ,see also ,dr4 ,wallaschek's ,anfnge der ,tonkunst 7,leipzig1 #aijc74 #bf ,the ,bertillon system of identification and ,madame ,tussaud's1 together with a large number of modern portraits and landscapes1 are the highest development of this art4 #c4 ,the ,purpose of ,art ,still the ,same as ,ever4 ,but in spite of all the attempts that have been made to democratize ,art1 and to fit it to the ,procrustes bed of modernity1 two human factors have remained precisely the same as they ever were1 and show no signs of changing4 ,i refer to the general desire to obey and to follow1 in the mass of mankind1 and to the general desire to prevail in concepts1 if not in offspring1 among higher men4 ,wherever one may turn1 wherever one inquires1 one will discover that1 at the present day1 however few and weak the commanders may be1 there is among the vast majority of people an insatiable thirst to obey1 to find opinions ready-made1 and to believe in some one or in some law4 ,the way the name of science is invoked when a high authority is needed--just as the ,church or the ,bible used to be invoked in years gone by--the love of statistics and the meekness with which a company grows silent when they are quoted2 the fact that the most preposterous fashions are set in clothing1 in tastes1 and in manners2 the sheep-like way in which people will follow a leader1 whether in politics1 literature1 or in sport1 not to dilate upon the love of great names and the faith in the daily ,press which nowadays1 so ,i hear1 even prescribes schemes for dinner-table conversation--all these things show what a vast amount of instinctive obedience still remains the birthright of the ,greatest ,number4 ,for even advertisement hoardings and the excessive use of advertisements in this age1 in addition to the fact that they point unmistakably to the almost omnipotent power of the commercial classes 7a power which vouchsafes them even the privilege of self-praise1 which scarcely any other class of society could claim without incurring the charge of bad-taste71 also show how docilely the greatest number must ultimately respond to repeated stimuli1 and finally obey if they be told often enough to buy1 or to go to see1 any particular thing4 ,and1 in this respect1 the ,nietzschean attitude towards the greatest number is one of kindness and consideration4 ,this instinct to obey1 says ,nietzsche1 is the most natural thing in the world1 and it must be gratified4 ,by all means it must be gratified4 ,what is fatal is not that it should be fed with commands1 but that it should be starved by the lack of commanders1 and so be compelled to go in search of food on its own account4 ,inasmuch as in all ages1 says ,nietzsche1 as long as mankind has existed1 there have always been human herds 7family alliances1 communities1 tribes1 peoples1 states1 churches71 and always a great number who obey in proportion to the small number who command--in view1 therefore1 of the fact that obedience has been most practised and fostered among mankind hitherto1 one may reasonably suppose that1 generally speaking1 the need thereof is now innate in every one1 as a kind of formal conscience which gives the command3 ',thou shalt unconditionally do something1 unconditionally refrain from something4' ,in short1 ',thou shalt4' ,this need tries to satisfy itself and to fill its form with a content2 according to its strength1 impatience and eagerness1 it thereby seizes1 as an omnivorous appetite1 with little selection1 and accepts whatever is shouted into its ear by all sorts of commanders--parents1 teachers1 laws1 class prejudices1 or public opinion4#bg ,everywhere1 then1 he who would command finds those who must obey#bh-- this is obvious to the most superficial observer2 because it is easier to obey than to command4 ,wherever ,i found living things1 says ,zarathustra1 there heard ,i also the language of obedience4 ,all living things are things that obey4 ,and this ,i heard secondly3 whatever cannot obey itself1 is commanded4 ,such is the nature of living things4 ,this1 however1 is the third thing ,i heard3 to command is more difficult than to obey4 ,and not only because the commander beareth the burden of all who obey1 and because this burden easily crusheth him3-- ,an effort and a risk seemed all commanding unto me2 and whenever it commandeth1 the living thing risketh itself4 ,yea1 even when it commandeth himself1 then also must it atone for its commanding4 ,of its own law must it become the judge and avenger and victim4#bi ,for opinions are a matter of will2 they are always1 or ought to be always1 travelling tickets implying a certain definite aim and destination1 and the opinions we hold concerning ,life must point to a certain object we see in ,life2--hence there is just as great a market for opinions1 and just as great a demand for fixed values to-day as there ever was1 and the jealous love with which men will quote well-established views1 or begin to believe when they hear that a view is well established--a fact which is at the root of all the fruits of modern popularity--shows what a need and what a craving there is for authority1 for authoritative information1 and for unimpeachable coiners of opinions4 ,now all the arts either determine values or lay stress upon certain values already established4#cj ,what1 then1 are the particular values that the graphic arts determine or accentuate8 ,it must be clear that they determine what is beautiful1 desirable1 in fact1 imperative1 in form and colour4 ,the purpose of the graphic arts1 then1 has remained the same as it ever was4 ,it is to determine the values ugly and beautiful for those who wish to know what is ugly and what is beautiful4 ,the fact that painters and sculptors have grown so tremulous and so little self-reliant as to claim only the right to imitate1 to please and to amuse1 does not affect this statement in the least2 it is simply a reflection upon modern artists and sculptors4 ,since1 however1 these values beautiful and ugly are themselves but the outcome of other more fundamental values which have ruled and moulded a race for centuries1 it follows that the artist who would accentuate or determine the qualities beautiful or ugly1 must bear some intimate relation to the past and possible future of the people4 ,place the ,hermes of ,praxiteles and especially the canon of ,polycletus in any part of a cathedral of the late ,gothic1 and you will see to what extent the values which gave rise to ,gothic ,art were incompatible with1 and antagonistic to1 those which reared ,praxiteles and ,polycletus4 ,now1 if you want a still greater contrast1 place an ,egyptian granite sculpture inside a building like le ,petit ,trianon1 and this intimate association between the ,art and the values of a people will begin to seem clear to you4 ,you may ask1 then1 why or how such an art as ,ruler-art can please8 ,since it introduces something definitely associated with a particular set of values1 and commands an assent to these values1 how is it that one likes it8 ,the reply is that one does not necessarily like it4 ,one often hates it4 ,one likes it only when one feels that it reveals values which are in sympathy with one's own aspirations4 ,the ,ruler-art of ,egypt1 for instance1 can stir no one who1 consciously or unconsciously1 is not in some deep secret sympathy with the society which produced it2 and as an example of this sympathy--if you wish to know why the realism which comes from poverty#ca tends to increase and flourish in democratic times1 it is only because there is that absence of particular human power in it which is compatible with a society in which a particular human power is completely lacking4 ,for it is absolute nonsense to speak of l'art pour l'art and of the pleasure of art for art's sake as acceptable principles4#cb ,i will show later on how this notion arose4 ,suffice it to say1 for the present1 that this is the death of ,art4 ,it is separating ,art from ,life1 and it is relegating it to a sphere--a ,beyond--where other things1 stronger than ,art1 have already been known to die4 ,the notion of art for art's sake can only arise in an age when the purpose of ,art is no longer known1 when its relation to ,life has ceased from being recognized1 and when artists have grown too weak to find the realization of their will in their works4 #bg ,g4 ,e41 p4 #abj4 #bh ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aje4 #bi ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxxiv4 #cj ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #bd3 ,a psychologist asks what does all art do8 does it not praise8 does it not glorify8 does it not select8 does it not bring into prominence8 ,in each of these cases it strengthens or weakens certain valuations4 444 ,is this only a contingent matter8--an accident1 something with which the instinct of the artist would not at all be concerned8 ,or rather1 is it not the pre-requisite which enables the artist to do something8 ,is his fundamental instinct directed towards art8--or is it not rather directed towards the sense of art1 namely1 life8 towards desirableness of life8 #ca ,see p4 #aai4 #cb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bdf4 ,see also ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #bd1 and ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ade4 #d4 ,the ,artist's and the ,layman's ,view of ,life4 ,if the artist's view of ,life can no longer affect ,life1 if his ordering1 simplifying and adjusting mind can no longer make ,life simpler1 more orderly and better adjusted1 then all his power has vanished1 and he has ceased from counting in our midst1 save1 perhaps1 as a decorator of our homes--that is to say1 as an artisan2 or as an entertainer--that is to say1 as a mere illustrator of our literary men's work4 ,what is so important in the artist is1 that disorder and confusion are the loadstones that attract him4#cc ,though1 in stating this1 ,i should ask you to remember that he sees disorder and confusion where1 very often1 the ordinary person imagines everything to be admirably arranged4 ,still1 the fact remains that he finds his greatest proof of power only where his ordering and simplifying mind meets with something whereon it may stamp its two strongest features3 ,order and ,simplicity2 and where he is strong1 relative disorder is his element1 and the arrangement of this disorder is his product4#cd ,stimulated by disorder1 which he despises1 he is driven to his work2 spurred by the sight of anarchy1 his inspiration is government2 fertilized by rudeness and ruggedness1 his will to power gives birth to culture and refinement4 ,he gives of himself--his business is to make things reflect him4 ,thus1 even his will to eternalize1 and to stamp the nature of stability on ,becoming1 must not be confounded with that other desire for ,being which is a desire for rest and repose and opiates1#ce and which has found its strongest expression in the idea of the ,christian ,heaven4 ,it is1 rather1 a feeling of gratitude towards ,life1 a desire to show thankfulness to ,life1 which makes him desire to rescue one beautiful body from the river of ,becoming1 and fix its image for ever in this world1#cf whereas the other is based upon a loathing of ,life and a weariness of it4 ,defining ugliness provisionally as disorder1 it may have a great attraction for the artist1 it may even be the artist's sole attraction1 and in converting it--the thing he despises most--into beauty1 which we shall define provisionally as order1 he reaches the zenith of his power4#cg ,where is beauty8 ,zarathustra asks4 ,where ,i must will with my whole will2 where ,i will love and perish1 that an image may not remain merely an image4#ch ,for to create desireth the loving one1 because he despiseth4#ci ,it follows from this1 therefore1 that the realistic artist--the purveyor of ,police ,art--who goes direct to beauty or ugliness and1 after having worked upon either1 leaves it just as it was before1#dj shows no proof of power at all1 and ranks with the bushmen of ,australia and the troglodytes of ,la ,dordogne1 as very much below the hierophantic artist who transforms and transfigures4 ,all realists1 therefore1 from ,apelles#da in the fourth century ,b4,c4 to the modern impressionists1 portrait painters and landscapists1 must step down4 ,like the scientists1 they merely ascertain facts1 and1 in so doing1 leave things precisely as they are4#db ,photography is rapidly outstripping them1 and will outstrip them altogether once it has mastered the problem of colour4 ,photography could never have vied with the artist of ,egypt1 or even of ,china and ,japan2 because in the arts of each of these nations there is an element of human power over ,nature or reality1 which no mechanical process can emulate4 ,now1 what is important in the ideal and purely hypothetical layman is1 that he has a horror of disorder1 of confusion1 and of chaos1 and flees from it whenever possible4 ,he finds no solace anywhere1 except where the artist has been and left things transformed and richer for him4 ,bewildered by reality1 he extends his hands for that which the artist has made of reality4 ,he is a receiver4 ,he reaches his zenith in apprehending4#dc ,his attitude is that of a woman1 as compared with the attitude of the artist which is that of the man4 ,logical and geometrical simplification is the result of an increase of power3 conversely1 the mere aspect of such simplification increases the sense of power in the beholder4#dd ,to see what is ugliness to him1 represented as what is beauty to him1 also impresses the spectator with the feeling of power2 of an obstacle overcome1 and thereby stimulates his activities4 ,moreover1 the spectator may feel a certain gratitude to ,life and ,mankind4 ,it often happens1 even in our days1 that another world is pictured as by no means a better world1#de and the healthy and optimistic layman may feel a certain thankfulness to ,life and to ,humanity4 ,it is then once more that he turns to the artist who has felt the same in a greater degree1 who can give him this thing--be it a corner of ,life or of ,humanity--who can snatch it from the eternal flux and torrent of all things into decay or into death1 and who can carve or paint it in a form unchanging for him1 in spite of a world of ,becoming1 of ,evolution1 and of ebb and flow4 ,just as the musician cries ,time6 ,time6 ,time6 to the cacophonous medley of natural sounds that pour into his ears from all sides1 and assembles them rhythmically for our ears hostile to disorder2 so the graphic artist cries ,time6 ,time6 ,time6 to the incessant and kaleidoscopic procession of things from birth to death1 and places in the layman's arms the eternalized image of that portion of ,life for which he happens to feel great gratitude4 #cc ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfh4 #cd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bda4 #ce ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhj4 #cf ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bha4 #cg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdd4 #ch ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxxvii4 #ci ,z41 ,i4 ,,xviii4 #dj ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 ,nature1 estimated artistically1 is no model4 ,it exaggerates1 it distorts1 it leaves gaps4 ,nature is accident4 ,studying 'according to nature' seems to me a bad sign2 it betrays subjection1 weakness1 fatalism2 this lying-in-the-dust before petit fails is unworthy of a complete artist4 ,seeing what is--that belongs to another species of intellects1 to the anti-artistic1 to the practical4 #da ,see ,woltmann and ,woermann1 ,history of ,painting1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fb4 #db ,b4 ,t41 p4 #ei4 ,see also ,schopenhauer1 ,parerga und ,paralipomena1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ddg4 #dc ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bee4 #dd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bda4 #de ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ie3 ,a people that are proud of themselves1 and who are on the ascending path of ,life1 always picture another existence as lower and less valuable than theirs4 #e4 ,the ,confusion of the ,two ,points of ,view4 ,it is obvious that if both pleasures are to remain pure and undefiled-- if the artist is to attain to his zenith in happiness1 and the layman to his also--their particular points of view must not be merged1 dulled1 or blunted by excessive spiritual intercourse4#df ,for a very large amount of the disorder in the arts of the present can easily be traced to a confusion of the two points of view4 ,in an ideal society1 the artist's standpoint would be esoteric1 and the layman's exoteric4 ,nowadays1 of course1 owing to the process of universal levelling which has been carried so far that it is invading even the department of sex1 it is hard to find such distinctions as the artist's and the layman's standpoint in art sharply and definitely juxtaposed4 ,and this fact accounts for a good deal of the decrease in sthetic pleasure1 which is so characteristic of the age4 ,in fact1 it accounts for the decrease of pleasure in general1 for only where there are sharp differences can there be any great pleasure4 ,pessimism and melancholia can arise only in inartistic ages1 when a process of levelling has merged all the joys of particular standpoints into one4 ,let me give you a simple example1 drawn from modern life and the pictorial arts1 in order to show you to what extent the standpoint of the people or of the layman has become corrupted by the standpoint of the artist1 and vice-vers4 ,strictly speaking1 artists in search of scope for their powers should prefer ,hampstead ,heath or the ,forest of ,fontainebleau#dg to the carefully laid-out gardens of our parks and of ,versailles4 ,conversely1 if their taste were still uncorrupted1 the public ought to prefer the carefully arranged gardens of our parks and of ,versailles to ,hampstead ,heath or the ,forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,some of the public1 of course1 still do hold the proper views on these points1 but their number is rapidly diminishing1 and most of them assume the airs of artists now1 and speak with sentimental enthusiasm about the beautiful ruggedness of craggy rocks1 the glorious beauty of uncultivated ,nature1 and the splendour of wild scenery4#dh ,illustration3 ,the ,marriage of ,mary4 ,by ,raphael4 7,brera1 ,milan47 ,artists1 on the other hand1 having become infected by the public's original standpoint--the desire for order--either paint pictures like ,raphael's ,marriage of ,mary1#di his ,virgin and ,child attended by ,st4 ,john the ,baptist and ,st4 ,nicholas of ,bari1#ej and ,perugino's ,vision of ,st4 ,bernard1#ea in which the perfectly symmetrical aspect and position of the architecture is both annoying and inartistic1 owing to the fact that it was looked at by the artist from a point at which it was orderly and arranged before he actually painted it1 and could not therefore testify to his power of simplifying or ordering--but simply to his ability to avail himself of another artist's power1 namely1 the architect's2 or else1 having become infected by the public's corrupt standpoint--the desire for disorder and chaos as an end in itself-- they paint as ,ruysdael1 ,hobbema and ,constable painted--that is to say1 without imparting anything of themselves1 or of their power to order and simplify1 to the content of the picture1 lest the desire for disorder or chaos should be thwarted4#eb ,this is an exceedingly important point1 and its value for art criticism cannot be overrated4 ,if one can trust one's taste1 and it is still a purely public taste1 it is possible to tell at a glance why one cannot get oneself to like certain pictures in which either initial regularity has been too great1 thus leaving no scope for the artist's power1 or in which final irregularity is too great1 thus betraying no evidence of the artist's power4 ,looking at ,rubens' ,ceres1#ec in which the architecture is viewed also in a frontal position1 you may be tempted to ask why such a picture is not displeasing1 despite the original symmetry of the architecture in the position in which the painter chose to paint it4 ,the reply is simple4 ,here ,rubens certainly placed the architecture full-face2 but besides dissimulating the greater part of it in shadow-- which in itself produces unsymmetrical shapes that have subsequently to be arranged by tone composition--lie carefully disordered it by means of garlands and festoons1 and only then did he exercise his artistic mind in making a harmonious and orderly pictorial arrangement of it1 which also included some cupids skilfully placed4 ,all realism1 or ,police ,art1 therefore1 in addition to being the outcome of the will to truth which ,christianity and its offshoot ,modern ,science have infused into the arts1 may also be the result of the artist's becoming infected either with the public's pure taste1 or with the public's corrupted or artist-infected taste1 and we are thus in possession of one more clue as to what constitutes a superior work of graphic art4 #df ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bee1 #bef4 #dg ,in regard to this point it is interesting to note that ,kant1 in his ,kritik der ,urteilskraft1 actually called landscape-painting a process of gardening4 #dh ,i do not mean to imply here that all the sentimental gushing that is given vent to nowadays over rugged and wild scenery is the outcome only of a confusion of the artist's and layman's standpoints4 ,the influence of the ,christian and ,protestant worship of pointless freedom1 together with that of their contempt of the work of man1 is largely active here2 and the sight of unhandseled and wild shrubs1 and of tangled and matted grasses1 cheers the heart of the fanatical believer in the purposeless freedom and anarchy which ,christianity and ,protestantism have done so much to honour and extol4 ,that the same man who honours government and an aristocratic ideal may often be found to-day dilating upon the charms of chaotic scenery1 only shows how muddle-headed and confused mankind has become4 #di ,the ,brera at ,milan4 #ej ,the ,national ,gallery1 ,london4 ,raphael was very much infected with the people's point of view1 hence the annoying stiltedness of many of his pictures4 #ea ,pinakothek1 ,munich4 #eb ,see particularly1 ,ruysdael's ,rocky ,landscape1 ,landscape with a ,farm 7,wallace collection72 ,hobbema's ,outskirts of a ,wood and many others in the ,wallace collection2 and ,constable's ,flatford ,mill and ,the ,haywain 7,national ,gallery74 #ec ,hermitage ,gallery1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 #f4 ,the ,meaning of ,beauty of ,form and of ,beauty of ,content in ,art4 ,so far1 then1 ,i have arrived at this notion of beauty in ,ruler-,art1 namely3 that it may be regarded almost universally as that order1 simplicity and transfiguration which the artist mind imparts to the content of his production4 ,this notion seems to allow of almost universal application1 because1 as ,i showed in the first part of this lecture1 it involves one of the primary instincts of man--the overcoming of chaos and anarchy by adjustment1 simplification and transfiguration4 ,it is only in democratic ages1 or ages of decline1 when instincts become disintegrated1 that beauty in ,art is synonymous with a lack of simplicity1 of order and of transfiguration4 ,i have shown1 however1 that the second kind of beauty1 or democratic beauty1 is of an inferior kind to that of the first beauty1 or ,ruler beauty1 because1 while the former takes its root in the will to live1 the latter arises surely and truly out of the will to power4#ed ,either beauty1 however1 constitutes ugliness in its opponent's opinion4 ,but there is another aspect of ,beauty in ,art which has to be considered1 and that is the intrinsic beauty of the content of an artistic production4 ,you may say that1 ex hypothesi1 ,i have denied that there could be any such beauty4 ,not at all6 ,since the ruler-artist transfigures by enhancement1 by embellishment and by ennoblement1 his mind can be stimulated perfectly well by an object or a human being which to the layman is vertiginously beautiful1 and which to himself is exceedingly pleasing4 ,in fact1 if his mind is a mind which1 like that of most master-artists1 adores that which is difficult1 it will go in search of the greatest natural beauty it can find1 in order1 by a stupendous effort in transfiguration1 to outstrip even that2 for the embellishment of the downright ugly and the downright revolting presents a task too easy to the powerful artist--a fact which explains a good deal of the ugly contents of many a modern picture4 ,what1 then1 constitutes the beauty of the content in an artistic production1 as distinct from the beauty of the treatment8 ,in other words1 what is beauty in a subject8 ,for the notion that the subject does not matter in a picture is one which should be utterly and severely condemned4 ,it arose at a time when art was diseased1 when artists themselves had ceased from having anything of importance to say1 when the subjects chosen had no meaning1 and when technique was bad4 ,and it must be regarded more in the light of a war-cry coming from a counter-movement1 aiming at an improved technique and rebelling against an abuse of literature in the graphic arts1 than in the light of sound doctrine1 taking its foundation in normal and healthy conditions4 ,the intrinsic beauty of the content or substance of a picture or sculpture may therefore be the subject of legitimate inquiry1 and in determining what it consists of1 we raise the whole question of content beauty4 ,volumes1 stacks of volumes1 have been written on this question4 ,the most complicated and incomprehensible answers have been given to it1 and not one can be called satisfactory2 for all of them would be absolute4 ,when1 however1 we find a modern writer defining the beautiful as that which has characteristic or individual expressiveness for sense perception or imagination1 subject to the conditions of general or abstract expressiveness in the same medium1#ee we feel1 or at least ,i feel1 that something must be wrong4 ,it is definitions such as these which compel one to seek for something more definite and more lucid in the matter of explanation1 and if1 in finding the latter1 one may seem a little too prosaic and terre--terre1 it is only because the transcendental and metaphysical nature of the kind of definition we have just quoted makes anything which is in the slightest degree clearer1 appear earthly and material beside it4 ,it is obvious that1 if we could only arrive at a subject-beauty which was absolute1 practically all the difficulties of our task would vanish4 ,for having established the fact that the purpose of the graphic arts is to determine the values beautiful and ugly1 it would only remain for us to urge all artists to advocate that absolute subject-beauty with all the eloquence of line and colour that our concept of ,art-form would allow1 and all the problems of ,art would be solved4 ,but we can postulate no such absolute in subject-beauty4 ,absolute beauty exists just as little as absolute goodness and truth4#ef ,the term beautiful1 like the term good1 is only a means to an end4 ,it is simply the arbitrary self-affirmation of a certain type of man in his struggle to prevail4#eg ,he says ,yea to his type1 and calls it beautiful4 ,he cannot extend his power and overcome other types unless with complete confidence and assurance he says ,yea to his own type4 ,you and ,i1 therefore1 can speak of the beautiful with an understanding of what that term means1 only on condition that our values1 our traditions1 our desires1 and our outlook are exactly the same4 ,if you agree with me on the question of what is good1 our agreement simply means this1 that in that corner of the world from which you and ,i hail1 the same creator of values prevails over both of us4 ,likewise1 if you and ,i agree on the question of what is beautiful1 this fact merely denotes that as individuals coming from the same people1 we have our values1 our tradition and our outlook in common4 ,beautiful1 then1 is a purely relative term which may be applied to a host of dissimilar types and which every people must apply to its own type alone1 if it wishes to preserve its power4 ,biologically1 absolute beauty exists only within the confines of a particular race4 ,that race which would begin to consider another type than their own as beautiful1 would thereby cease from being a race4 ,we may be kind1 amiable1 and even hospitable to the ,chinaman or the ,negro2 but the moment we begin to share the ,chinaman's or the ,negro's view of beauty1 we run the risk of cutting ourselves adrift from our own people4 ,but assuming1 as we must1 that all people1 the ,chinese1 the ,negroes1 the ,hindus1 the ,red ,indians1 and the ,arabs between themselves apply the word beautiful only to particular individuals among their own people1 in order to distinguish them from less beautiful or mediocre individuals--what meaning has the term in that case8 ,obviously1 since the spirit of the people1 its habits1 prejudices and prepossessions are determined by their values1 and values may fix a type1 that creature will be most beautiful among them who is the highest embodiment and outcome of all their values1 and who therefore corresponds most to the ideal their sthetic legislator had in mind when he created their values4#eh ,thus even morality can be justified sthetically4#ei ,and in legislating for primeval peoples1 higher men and artist-legislators certainly worked like sculptors on a yielding medium which was their own kind4 ,the most beautiful negro or ,chinaman thus becomes that individual negro or ,chinaman who is rich in those features which the life-spirit of the ,ethiopian or ,chinese people is calculated to produce1 and who1 owing to a long and regular observance of the laws and traditions of his people1 by his ancestors for generations1 has inherited that regularity of form in his type1 which all long observance of law and order is bound to cultivate and to produce4#fj ,and in reviewing the peoples of ,europe alone1 we can ascribe the many and different views which they have held and still hold of beauty1 only to a difference in the values they have observed for generations in their outlook1 their desires and their beliefs4 ,it is quite certain1 therefore1 that1 in the graphic arts1 which either determine or accentuate the values ugly and beautiful1 every artist who sets up his notion of what is subject-beauty1 like every lover about to marry1 either assails or confirms and consolidates the values of his people4#fa ,examples of this1 if they were needed1 are to be found everywhere4 ,see how the ,gothic school of painting1 together with men like ,fra ,angelico1 ,filippo ,lippi1 ,botticelli1 ,el ,greco1 and subsequently ,burne-,jones1 set up the soulful person1 the person of tenuous1 nervous and heaven-aspiring slenderness1 as the type of beauty1 thus advocating and establishing ,christian values in a very seductive and often artistic manner2 while the ,pagans1 with ,michelangelo1 ,titian1 and even ,rubens1 represented another code of values--perhaps even several other codes-- and sought to fix their type also4 ,note1 too1 how hopeless are the attempts of artists who stand for the ,pagan ideal1 when they paint ,christian saints and martyrs1 and how singularly un-,pagan those figures are which appear in the pictures of the advocates of the ,christian ideal when they attempt ,pagan types4 ,christ by ,rubens is not the emaciated1 tenuous ,person suffering from a wasting disease that ,segna represents him to be2 while the ,mars and ,venus of ,botticelli in the ,national ,gallery would have been repudiated with indignation by any ,greek of antiquity4 ,when values are beginning to get mixed1 then1 owing to an influx of foreigners from all parts of the world1 we shall find the strong biological idea of absolute beauty tending to disappear1 and in its place we shall find the weak and wholly philosophical belief arising that beauty is relative4 ,thus1 in ,attica of the fifth century ,b4,c41 when #cjj1jjj slaves1 chiefly foreigners1 were to be counted among the inhabitants1 the idea that beauty was a relative term first occurred to the talker ,socrates4 ,still1 in all concepts of beauty1 however widely separated and however diametrically opposed1 there is this common factor3 that the beautiful person is the outcome of a long observance through generations of the values peculiar to a people4 ,a certain regularity of form and feature1 whether this form and feature be ,arab1 ,ethiopian or ,jewish1 is indicative of a certain regular mode of life which has lasted for generations2 and in calling this indication beautiful1 a people once more affirms itself and its values4 ,if the creature manifesting this regularity be a ,chinaman1 he will be the most essential ,chinaman that the ,chinese values can produce2 his face will reveal no fighting and discordant values2 there will be no violent contrasts of type in his features1 and1 relative to ,chinese values1 his face will be the most regular and harmonious that can be seen1 and therefore the most beautiful4#fb ,the ,chinese ruler-artist1 in representing a mediocre ,chinaman1 would therefore exercise his transfiguring powers to overcome any discordant features in the face before him1 and would thus produce a beautiful type4#fc ,or1 if his model happened to be the highest product of ,chinese values1 his object would be to transcend even that1 and to point to something higher4 ,once again1 therefore1 though it is impossible to posit a universal concept of subject-beauty1 various concepts may be given an order of rank1 subject to the values with which they happen to be associated4 #ed ,if this book be read in conjunction with my monograph on ,nietzsche3 his ,life and ,works 7,constable71 or my ,who is to be ,master of the ,world8 7,foulis71 there ought to be no difficulty in understanding this point4 #ee ,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,a ,history of sthetic1 p4 #d4 #ef ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdf4 ,see also ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #ai3 ,the 'beautiful in itself' is merely an expression1 not even a concept4 #eg ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,apr4 #ai3 ,in the beautiful1 man posits himself as the standard of perfection2 in select cases he worships himself in that standard4 ,a species cannot possibly do otherwise than thus say yea to itself4 #eh ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfa3 ,legislative moralities are the principal means by which one can form mankind1 according to the fancy of a creative and profound will3 provided1 of course1 that such an artistic will of the first order gets the power into its own hands1 and can make its creative will prevail over long periods in the form of legislation1 religions1 and morals4 ,see p4 #gi in the first part of this lecture4 #ei ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ahe4 #fj ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ajg3 ,the essential thing 'in heaven and earth' is1 apparently1 that there should be long obedience in the same direction2 there thereby results1 and has always resulted in the long run1 something which has made life worth living2 for instance1 virtue1 art1 music1 dancing1 reason1 spirituality--anything whatever that is transfiguring1 refined1 foolish1 or divine4 #fa ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #bd4 #fb ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #dg3 ,even the beauty of a race or family1 the pleasantness and kindness of their whole demeanour1 is acquired by effort2 like genius1 it is the final result of the accumulated labour of generations4 ,there must have been great sacrifices made to good taste2 for the sake of it1 much must have been done1 and much refrained from--the seventeenth century in ,france is worthy of admiration in both ways2 good taste must then have been a principle of selection1 for society1 place1 dress1 and sexual gratification1 beauty must have been preferred to advantage1 habit1 opinion1 indolence4 ,supreme rule3--we must not 'let ourselves go1' even when only in our own presence4--,good things are costly beyond measure1 and the rule always holds1 that he who possesses them is other than he who acquires them4 ,all excellence is inheritance2 what has not been inherited is imperfect1 it is a beginning4 #fc ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bde3 ',beauty1' therefore1 is1 to the artist1 something which is above order of rank1 because in beauty contrasts are overcome1 the highest sign of power thus manifesting itself in the conquest of opposites2 and achieved without a feeling of tension4 ,see also ,hegel1 ,vorlesungen ber sthetik1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #acj1 #add4 #g4 ,the ,meaning of ,ugliness of ,form and of ,ugliness of ,content in ,art4 ,ugliness in ,art1 therefore1 is ,art's contradiction4#fg ,it is the absence of ,art4 ,it is a sign that the simplifying1 ordering and transfiguring power of the artist has not been successful1 and that chaos1 disorder and complexity have not been overcome4 ,ugliness of form in ,art1 therefore1 will tend to become prevalent in democratic times2 because it is precisely at such times that a general truth for all is believed in1 and1 since reality is the only truth which can be made common to all1 democratic art is invariably realistic1 and therefore1 according to my definition of the beautiful in form1 ugly4 ,in this matter1 ,i do not ask you to take my views on trust4 ,a person who will seem to you very much more authoritative than myself--a man who once had the honour of influencing ,whistler1 and who1 by the bye1 is also famous for having flung down the ,colonne ,vendme in ,paris-- once expressed himself quite categorically on this matter4 ,at the ,congress of ,antwerp in #ahfa1 after he had criticized other artists and other concepts of art1 this man concluded his speech as follows3 ,by denying the ideal and all that it involves1 ,i attain to the complete emancipation of the individual1 and finally to democracy4 ,realism is essentially democratic4#fh ,as you all must know1 this man was ,gustave ,courbet1 of whom ,muther said that he had a predilection for the ugly4#fi ,artists infected with the pure or the corrupt layman's view of ,art1 as described in the previous section1 and artists obsessed by the ,christian or scientific notion of truth1 will consequently produce ugly work4 ,they will be realists1 or ,police-artists1 and consequently ugly4 ,but how can content- or subject-ugliness be understood8 ,content- or subject-ugliness is the decadence of a type4#gj ,it is the sign that certain features1 belonging to other peoples 7hitherto called ugly according to the absolute biological standard of beauty of a race71 are beginning to be introduced into their type4 ,or it may mean that the subject to be represented does not reveal that harmony and lack of contrasts which the values of a people are capable of producing4 ,in each case it provokes hatred1 and this hatred is inspired by the most profound instinct of the species2 there is horror1 foresight1 profundity1 and far-reaching vision in it--it is the profoundest of all hatreds4 ,on account of it art is profound4#ga ,the hatred amounts to a condemnation of usurping values1 or of discordant values2 in fact1 to a condemnation of dissolution and anarchy1 and the judgment ugly is of the most serious import4 ,thus1 although few of us can agree to-day as to what constitutes a beautiful man or woman1 there is still a general idea common to us all1 that a certain regularity of features constitutes beauty1 and that1 with this beauty1 a certain reliable1 harmonious1 and calculable nature will be present4 ,spencer said the wisest thing in all his philosophy when he declared that the saying that beauty is but skin deep1 is but a skin-deep saying4#gb ,for beauty in any human creature1 being the result of a long and severe observance by his ancestors of a particular set of values1 always denotes some definite attitude towards ,life2 it always lures to some particular kind of life and joy--as ,stendhal said1 ,beauty is a promise of happiness--and as such it seduces to ,life and to this earth4 ,this explains why beauty is regarded with suspicion by negative religions1 and why it tends to decline in places where the sway of a negative religion is powerful4 ,because a negative religion cannot tolerate that which lures to life1 to the body1 to joy and to voluptuous ecstasy4 ,it is upon their notion of spiritual beauty1 upon passive virtues1 that the negative religions lay such stress1 and thus they allow the ugly to find pedestals in their sanctuaries more easily than the beautiful4 #fg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beb4 #fh ,a4 ,estignard1 ,gustave ,courbet 7,paris1 #ahif71 p4 #aah4 #fi ,geschichte der ,malerei1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bjd4 #gj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bda1 #bdb1 #bde4 ,see also ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #bj3 ,the ugly is understood as a sign and symptom of degeneration2 that which reminds us in the remotest manner of degeneracy prompts us to pronounce the verdict 'ugly4' ,every indication of exhaustion1 gravity1 age or lassitude2 every kind of constraint1 such as cramp or paralysis2 and above all the odour1 the colour1 and the likeness of decomposition or putrefaction1 be it utterly attenuated even to a symbol3--all these things call forth a similar reaction1 the evaluation 'ugly4' ,a hatred is there excited3 whom does man hate there8 ,there can be no doubt3 the decline of his type4 #ga ,t4 ,i41 ,part #aj1 ,aph4 #bj4 #gb ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,ii 7#aija ,edition71 p4 #cid4 #h4 ,the ,ruler-,artist's ,style and ,subject4 ,up to the present1 you have doubtless observed that ,i have spoken only of man as the proper subject-matter of the graphic ,arts4 ,in maintaining this1 ,nietzsche not only has ,goethe and many lesser men on his side1 but he has also the history of ,art in general4 ,i cannot1 however1 show you yet how1 or in what manner1 animal-painting1 landscape-painting1 and1 in some respects1 portrait-painting are to be placed lower than the art which concerns itself with man4 ,let it therefore suffice1 for the present1 simply to recognize the fact that ,nietzsche did take up this attitude1 and leave the more exhaustive discussion of it to the next part of this lecture4 ,now1 eliminating for a moment all those pseudo-artists who have been reared by the two strongest public demands on the ,art of the present age--,i speak of portrait-painting and dining-room pictures--there remains a class of artists which still shows signs of raising its head here and there1 though every year with less frequency1 and this is the class which1 for want of a better term1 we call ,ruler-artists4 ,as ,i say1 they are becoming extremely rare2 their rarity1 which may be easily accounted for1#gc is one of the evil omens of the time4 ,the ruler-artist is he who1 elated by his own health and love of ,life1 says ,yea to his own type and proclaims his faith or confidence in it1 against all other types2 and who1 in so doing1 determines or accentuates the values of that type4 ,if he prevails in concepts in so doing1 he also ennobles and embellishes the type he is advocating4 ,he is either the maker or the highest product of an aspiring and an ascending people4 ,in him their highest values find their most splendid bloom4 ,in him their highest values find their strongest spokesman4 ,and in his work they find the symbol of their loftiest hopes4 ,by the beauty which his soul reflects upon the selected men he represents in his works1 he establishes an order of rank among his people1 and puts each in his place4 ,the spectator who is very much beneath the beauty of the ruler-artist's masterpieces feels his ignominious position at a glance4 ,he realizes the impassable gulf that is for ever fixed between himself and that6 ,and this sudden revelation tells him his level4 ,such a man1 after he has contemplated the ruler-artist's work1 may rush headlong to the nearest river and drown himself4 ,his despair may be so great when he realizes the impossibility of ever reaching the heights he has been contemplating1 that he may immolate himself on the spot4 ,only thus can the world be purged of the many-too-many4 ,unto many life is a failure1 says ,zarathustra1 a poisonous worm eating through into their heart4 ,these ought to see to it that they succeed better in dying4 ,many-too-many live4444 ,would that preachers of swift death might arise6 ,they would be the proper storms to shake the trees of life4#gd ,in the presence of beauty1 alone1 can one know one's true rank1 and this explains why the ,japanese declare that until a man has made himself beautiful he has no right to approach beauty1#ge for great art is that before which we long to die4#gf ,but1 to those who see but the smallest chance of approaching it1 beauty is an exhortation1 a stimulus1 a bugle-call4 ,it may drive them to means for pruning themselves of ugliness2 it may urge them to inner harmony1 to a suppression of intestinal discord4 ,beauty alone should preach penitence1#gg says ,zarathustra4 ,and in this sentence you have the only utilitarian view of beauty that has any aristocratic value1 besides that which maintains that beauty lures to ,life1 and to the body4 ,hence1 beauty need not impel all men to the river4 ,there are some who1 after contemplating it1 will feel just near enough to it not to despair altogether of attaining to its level1 and this thought will lend them both hope and courage4 ,the ruler-artist1 therefore1 in order that his subject-beauty may have some meaning1 must be the synthesis of the past and the future of a people4 ,up to his waist in their spirit1 he must mould or paint them the apotheosis of their type4 ,only thus can he hope to prevail with his subject--,man4 ,the ,german philosopher1 ,karl ,heinrich ,heydenreich1 was one of the first to recognize this power of the ruler-artist1 and the necessity of his being intimately associated with a particular people1 although above them2 and in his little book1 ,system der sthetik1 he makes some very illuminating remarks on this matter4#gh ,thus ,benedetto ,croce rightly argues that in order to appreciate the artistic works of bygone and extinct nations1 it is necessary to have a knowledge and understanding of their life and history--in other words1 of their values4#gi ,what he does not point out1 however1 and what seems very important1 is1 that such historical research would be quite unnecessary to one who by nature was a priori in sympathy with the values of an extinct nation2 and also1 that all the historical knowledge available could not make any one whose character was not a little ,periclean or ,egyptian from the start1 admire1 or even appreciate1 either the ,parthenon1 or the brilliant diorite statue of ,king ,khephrn in the ,cairo ,museum4 ,all great ruler-art1 then1 is1 as it were1 a song of praise1 a magnificat1 appealing only to those1 and pleasing only those1 who feel in sympathy with the values which it advocates4 ,and that is why all art of any importance1 and of any worth1 must be based upon a certain group of values--in other words1 must have a philosophy or a particular view of the world as its foundation4 ,otherwise it is pointless1 meaningless1 and divorced from life4 ,otherwise it is acting1 sentimental nonsense1 or l'art pour l'art4 ,all great ruler-art also takes ,man as its content2 because human values are the only values that concern it4 ,all great ruler-art also takes beauty within a certain people as its aim2 because the will-to-power is its driving instinct1 and beauty1 being the most difficulty thing to achieve1 is the strongest test of power4 ,finally1 all great ruler-art is optimistic2 because it implies the will of the artist to prevail4 ,but what constitutes the form of the ruler-artist's work8 ,in what way must he give us his content8 ,the ruler-artist's form is the form of the commander4 ,it must scorn to please4#hj ,it must brook no disobedience and no insubordination1 save among those of its beholders about whom it does not care1 from whom it would fain separate itself1 and among whom it is not with its peers4 ,it must be authoritative1 extremely simple1 irrefutable1 full of restraint1 and as repetitive as a ,mohammedan prayer4 ,it must point to essentials1 it must select essentials1 and it must transfigure essentials4 ,the presence of non-essentials in a work of art is sufficient to put it at once upon a very low plane4 ,for what matters above all is that the ruler-artist should prevail in concepts1 and in order to do this his work must contain the definite statement of the value he sets upon all that he most cherishes4 ,hence the belief all through the history of sthetic that high art is a certain unity in variety1 a certain single idea exhaled from a more or less complex whole1 or1 as the ,japanese say1 repetition with a modicum of variation4#ha ,symmetry1 as denoting balance1 and as a help to obtaining a complete grasp of an idea2 ,sobriety1 as revealing that restraint which a position of command presupposes2 ,simplicity1 as proving the power of the great mind that has overcome the chaos in itself1#hb to reflect its order and harmony upon other things1#hc and to select the most essential features from among a host of more or less essential features2 ,transfiguration1 as betraying that ,dionysian elation and elevation from which the artist gives of himself to reality and makes it reflect his own glory back upon him2 ,repetition1 as a means of obtaining obedience2 and ,variety1 as the indispensable condition of all living ,art--all ,art which is hortatory and which does not aim at repose alone1 at sleep1 and at soothing and lulling jaded and exasperated nerves1--these are the principal qualities of ruler-art1 and any work which would be deficient in one of these qualities would thereby be utterly and deservedly condemned to take its place on a lower plane4 ,perhaps the greatest test of all1 however1 in regard to the worth of an artistic production is to inquire whence it came1 what was its source4 ,has hunger or superabundance created it8#hd ,if the first1 the work will make nobody richer4 ,it will rather rob them of what they have4 ,it is likely to be either 7,a7 true to ,nature1 7,b7 uglier than ,nature1 or 7,c7 absurdly unnatural4 ,a is the product of the ordinary man1 ,b is the product of the man below mediocrity1 save in a certain manual dexterity1 and ,c is the outcome of the tyrannical will of the sufferer1#he who wishes to wreak his revenge on all that thrives1 and is beautiful and happy1 and which bids him weave fantastic worlds of his own1 away from this one1 where people of his calibre can forget their wretched ailments and evil humours1 and wallow in their own feverish nightmares of overstrained1 palpitating and neuropathic yearnings4 ,a is poverty-realism or ,police ,art4 ,b is pessimism and incompetent ,art4 ,c is ,romanticism4 ,where superabundance is active1 the work is the gift and the blessing of the will to power of some higher man4 ,it will seem as much above ,nature to mediocre people as its creator is above them4 ,but1 since it will brook no contradiction1 it will actually value ,nature afresh1 and stimulate them to share in this new valuation4 ,where poverty is active1 the work is an act of robbery4 ,it is what psychologists call a reflex action resulting from a stimulus--the only kind of action that we understand nowadays3 hence our belief in ,determinism1 ,darwinism1 and such explanations of ,art as we find in books by ,taine and other writers who share his views4 ,the ,art which must have experience and which is not the outcome of inner riches brought to the surface by meditation--this is the art of poverty4 ,the general modern belief in experience and in the necessity of furnishing the mind by going direct to ,nature and to reality shows to what extent the ,art of to-day has become reactive instead of active4 ,the greater part of modern realism is the outcome of this poverty4 ,it is reactive art1 resulting from reflex actions2 and1 as such1 is an exceedingly unhealthy sign4 ,not only does it show that the power of resisting stimuli is waning or altogether absent2 but it also denotes that that inner power which requires no stimulus to discharge itself is either lacking or exceedingly weak4 ,with these words upon the subject of realism1 ,i shall now conclude this part of ,lecture ,,ii4 ,i shall return to realism in my next lecture2 but you will see that it will be of a different kind from that of which ,i have just spoken4 ,it will be superior1 and will be the outcome of riches rather than of poverty4 ,although beneath genuine ,ruler-art1 which transfigures reality1 it will nevertheless be superior to the poverty-realism which ,i have just discussed2 for it will be of a kind which is forced upon the powerful artist who1 in the midst of a world upholding other values than his own1 is obliged to bring forward his ideal with such a preponderance of characteristic features as would seem almost to represent a transcript of reality4 ,this realism ,i call militant realism1 to distinguish it from the former kind4 ,in discussing medival4 ,renaissance and ,greek ,art1 in my next lecture1 this distinction will1 ,i hope1 be made quite plain to you4 #gc ,g4 ,e41 p4 #abj #gd ,z41 ,i1 ,,xxi4 #ge ,the ,book of ,tea1 p4 #aeb4 #gf ,ibid4 #aii4 #gg ,z41 ,i1 ,,xxvi4 #gh ,system der sthetik 7#agij71 pp4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 where1 in replying to the question why the arts were not only pursued with more perfection by the ancients1 but also judged with more competence by them1 he says3 ,their material was drawn from the heart of their nation1 and from the life of their citizens1 and the manner of representing it and of framing it was in keeping with the character and needs of the people4444 ,if the ,greek lent his ear to the poet1 or his eye to the painter and sculptor1 of his age1 he was shown subjects which were familiar to his soul1 intimately related to his imagination1 and1 as it were1 bound by blood-relationship to his heart4 ,on pp4 #ab1 #ac1 he also shows that if ,art is less thrilling nowadays1 it is because peoples are too mixed1 and a single purpose no longer characterizes their striving4 #gi sthetic 7translated by ,douglas ,ainslie71 p4 #baj et seq4 #hj ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgg3 ,the greatness of an artist is not to be measured by the beautiful feelings which he evokes3 let this belief be left to the girls4 ,it should be measured according to the extent to which he approaches the grand style1 according to the extent to which he is capable of the grand style4 ,this style and great passion have this in common--that they scorn to please2 that they forget to persuade2 that they command2 that they will4444 ,see also p4 #bda4 #ha ,this was first brought to my notice by my friend1 ,dr4 ,wrench4 ,see ,the ,grammar of ,life1 by ,g4 ,t4 ,wrench 7,heinemann1 #aijh71 p4 #bah4 ,although the development of this idea really belongs to a special treatise on the laws of ,style in painting1 it is interesting to note here that this excellent principle is quickly grasped if the powerfully alliterative phrases3 ,where there's a will there's a way1 or ,goodness gracious6 or ,to-morrow1 to-morrow1 and not to-day1 be spoken before certain pictures1 or written beneath them4 ,the first phrase1 for instance1 written beneath the ,aldobrindini ,marriage1 or ,botticelli's ,birth of ,venus1 is seen immediately to be next of kin to these pictures as an art-form2 and the same holds good of the second written beneath ,reynolds's ,john ,dunning 7,first ,lord ,ashburton7 and his ,sister1 or ,manet's ,olympia4 #hb ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgg4 #hc ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhh4 ,the most convincing artists are those who make harmony ring out of every discord1 and who benefit all things by the gift of their power and their inner harmony3 in every work of art they merely reveal the symbol of their inmost experiences--their creation is gratitude for their life4 ,see also p4 #cjg4 #hd ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhj3 ,in regard to all sthetic values ,i now avail myself of this fundamental distinction3 in every individual case ,i ask myself has hunger or has superabundance been creative here8 #he ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bha4 ,part ,,iii ,,landscape ,,and ,,portrait ,,painting ,he causeth the grass to grow for the cattle1 and herb for the service of man3 that he may bring forth fruit out of the earth4--,psalms civ4 #ad4 #a4 ,the ,value ,ugly in the ,mouth of the ,creator4 ,in the last section of this lecture1 ,i told you of three kinds of ugliness4 ,i said there was the ugliness of chaos and disorder1 which provokes the hate of the layman1 and which the artist overcomes4 ,i spoke of the ugliness of form in ,art1 which appeared when the artist had failed in his endeavour to master disorder1 or when he had selected a subject already ordered1 in which he has left himself no scope for manifesting his power2 and ,i also pointed to that ugliness of subject in ,art1 in which the ordinary beholder1 as well as the artist1 recognizes the degeneration of his type or a low example of it4 ,there is1 however1 a fourth aspect of ugliness1 and that is the esoteric postulation of the value ugly by the creator4 ,i have shown how creating also involves giving1 and therefore loss--just as procreation does2 but what is the precise meaning of the word ugly in the mouth of the ,dionysian artist8 ,we must remember that his eyes are not our eyes1 and that his mind is not our mind4 ,he cannot look at ,life without enriching her4 ,but what is his attitude to the transfigurations of former artists8 ,before these the ,dionysian artist can feel only loathing1 and1 in a paroxysm of hatred1 he raises his axe and shatters the past into fragments4 ,all around him1 a moment before1 people said3 ,the world is beautiful6 ,but he1 thoroughly alone1 groans at its unspeakable ugliness4 ,he rejoices as he sees the fragments fly beneath his mighty weapon1 and the greater the beauty of the thing he destroys1 the higher is his exultation4 ,for1 to him1 the joy in the destruction of the most noble thing and at the sight of its gradual undoing1 is the joy over what is coming and what lies in the future1 and this triumphs over actual things1 however good they may be4#a ,what he calls ugly1 then1 has nothing whatsoever in common with any other concept of ugliness2 it is simply the outcome of his creative spirit which compels him to regard what has existed hitherto as no longer acceptable1 but as botched1 worthy of being suppressed--ugly6#b ,and thus it is peculiar to him alone4 ,i have shown you that ,nietzsche explains pleasure1 sthetically1 as the appropriation of the world by man's ,will to ,power4 ,pain1 or evil1 now obtains its sthetic justification4 ,it is the outcome of the destruction that the creator spreads in a world of ,becoming2 it is the periodical smashing of ,being by the ,dionysian creator who can endure ,becoming4 ,no creator can tolerate the past save as a thing which once served as his schooling4 ,but a people are usually one with their past4 ,to them it is at once a grandfather1 a father1 and an elder brother4 ,in a trice the creator deprives them of these relatives4 ,through him they are made orphans1 brotherless and alone4 ,hence the pain that is inevitably associated with the joy of destruction and of creation4 ,not only a creative genius1 however1 but also a creative age1 may use the word ugly in this ,dionysian sense4 ,for a robust and rich people scorn to treasure and to hoard that which has gone before4 ,and thus our museums1 alone1 are perhaps the greatest betrayal of our times4 ,when the ,athenians returned to their ruined ,acropolis in the first half of the fifth century before ,christ1 they did not even scratch the ground to recover the masterpieces that lay broken1 though not completely destroyed1 all around them4 ,and1 as ,professor ,gardner observes1 it is fortunate for us that no mortar was required for the buildings which were being erected to take the place of those that had been destroyed2 otherwise these fragments of marble sculpture and architecture1 instead of being buried to help in filling up the terraced area of the ,acropolis1 would certainly have gone to the lime-kiln4#c ,the men of the ,renaissance1 in the same way1 regarded the buildings of ancient ,rome merely as so many quarries whence they might bear away the materials for their own constructions4 ,and whether ,paul ,,ii wished to build the ,palazzo di ,venezia1 or ,cardinal ,riario the ,cancellaria1 the same principle obtained4 ,at the same period we also find ,raphael destroying the work of earlier painters by covering it with his own compositions1#d and ,michelangelo not hesitating to obliterate even ,perugino's altar frescoes in the ,sixtine ,chapel in order to paint his ,judgment4 ,while in comparatively recent times1 at a moment when a great future seemed to be promised to modern ,egypt1 ,mehemet ,ali sent his architect to the sacred ,pyramids of ,gizeh1 to rob them of the alabaster which he required for his magnificent mosque on the citadel of ,cairo4#e ,from a purely archological and scholastic point of view1 therefore1 it is possible to justify our museums--the ,british ,museum1 for instance4 ,but from the creative or artistic standpoint1 they are simply a confession of impotence1 of poverty1 and of fear2 and1 as such1 are utterly contemptible4 ,in any case1 however1 ,i think that1 for the sake of public taste and sanity1 some of the ugly fragments--such as two-thirds of the maimed and mutilated parts of bodies from the ,eastern and ,western pediments of the ,parthenon--ought never to have been allowed to stand outside a students' room in a school of archology or of art1 and even in such institutions as these1 ,i very much question the value of the pieces to which ,i have referred4 #a ,w4 ,p41 ,vol ,i1 p4 #ccc4 ,see also ,b4 ,t41 pp4 #bg1 #bh4 #b ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ccc4 #c ,a ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,m4,a41 p4 #bab4 #d ,piero della ,francesca's decorations in the ,vatican1 painted under the direction of ,pope ,nicholas ,v1 were ultimately destroyed by ,raphael4 ,see ,w4 ,s4 ,waters1 ,m4,a41 ,piero della ,francesca1 pp4 #bc1 #bd1 #ajh4 #e ,see also ,fergusson1 ,a ,history of ,architecture1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dh3 444 ,if we had made the same progress in the higher that we have in the lower branches of the building art1 we should see a ,gothic ,cathedral pulled down with the same indifference1 content to know that we could easily replace it by one far nobler and more worthy of our age and intelligence4 ,no architect during the ,middle ,ages ever hesitated to pull down any part of a cathedral that was old and going to decay2 and to replace it with something in the style of the day1 however incongruous that might be2 and if we were progressing as they were1 we should have as little compunction in following the same course4 #b4 ,landscape ,painting4 ,up to the present1 ,i have spoken only of ,man as the proper subject of ,ruler-,art4 ,i have done this because ,man is the highest subject of ,art in general1 and because the moment humanity ceases from holding the first place in our interest1 something must be amiss1 either with humanity1 or with ourselves4 ,still1 there are degrees and grades among ruler-artists4 ,all of them cannot aspire to the exposition of the highest human values4 ,and just as some turn to design and to ornament1 and thus1 in a small way1 arrange and introduce order into a small area of the world1 so others --standing halfway between these designers and the valuers of humanity --apply their powers quite instinctively to ,nature away from ,man4 ,they have a thought to express--let us say it is3 ,order is the highest good1 or ,power is the source of all pleasure and beauty1 or ,anarchy contends in vain against the governing power of light which is genius1 and in the case of this last thought they paint a rugged scene which they reveal as arranged1 simplified and transfigured by the power of the sun4 ,in each of these cases they use ,nature merely as a symbol1 or a vehicle1 by means of which their thought or valuation is borne in upon their fellows2 and they do not start out as actual admirers of mere scenery1 wishing only to repeat it as carefully as possible4 ,even when it uses ,nature merely as a symbol or a vehicle1 however1 there can be little doubt that this kind of ,ruler-,art is a degree lower in rank than the art which concerns itself with man2 and when this kind of art becomes realistic1 as it did with ,constable and all his followers1 it is literally superfluous4 ,only when the landscape is a minor element1 serving but to receive and convey the mood or aspiration of the artist1 is it a subject for ,ruler-,art1 and then the hand of man should be visible in it everywhere4 ,with the artist's arranging1 simplifying and transfiguring power observable in ,nature1 landscape painting1 as ,kant very wisely observed in his ,kritik der ,urteilskraft1 becomes a process of pictorial gardening1 and as such can teach very great lessons4 ,still1 all landscapes ought to be approached with caution by the lover of ,ruler-,art2 for unless they are treated with an extreme ruler-spirit1 they point too imperatively away from man1 to promise a development that can be wholesomely human4 ,when it is remembered that landscape painting only became a really important and serious branch of art when all the turmoil and contradiction which three successive changes of values had brought about were at their height--,i refer to the blow levelled at ,medival values by the ,renaissance1 to 'the blow levelled at the ,renaissance by the ,counter-,renaissance and ,protestantism 7in its ,german form of ,evangelism and in its ,english form as ,puritanism71 and to the blow levelled at the artistic spirit of ,europe in general by the rise of modern science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--and when1 therefore1 doubt and confusion had already entered men's minds as to what was to be believed about ,man and ,life2 when it is remembered also that it was precisely in the north1 where1 as we shall see1 culture was less a matter of tradition than in the south1 that landscape found its most energetic and most realistic exponents--from ,joachim ,patenier#f to ,ruysdael2 and that it was in the north1 even after the ,renaissance1 that the negative character of ,christianity1 in regard to humanity and to ,life1 found its strongest adherents2 the importance of establishing a very severe canon in regard to all landscape painting1 and of insisting upon very high ruler qualities in this branch of the art1 ought to be clear to all who take this subject to heart4 ,for1 difficult as it may seem to realize it1 there is nothing whatsoever artistically beautiful in landscape4#g ,only sentimental#h townspeople1 compelled by their particular mode of existence to gaze daily on their own hideous homes and streets1 ever manifest a senselessly ardent and determined affection for green fields and hills1 for their own sake2 and with ,english psychologists1 it would be quite admissible here to say that all beauty that particular people believe to exist in country scenery1 is the outcome of association4 ,the ancients liked the sunlit and fruitful valley because of its promise of sustenance and wealth2 but they showed no love of nature as such4#i ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,butcher1#aj for instance1 points out how landscape painting only became a serious and independent branch of art among the ,greeks after the fourth century ,b4,c4--that is to say1 long over a century after the date when1 according to ,freeman1 the decline of ,hellas began2 and1 in speaking of the ,greeks in their best period1 he says3 ,they do not attach themselves to nature with that depth of feeling1 with that gentle melancholy1 that characterizes the moderns4444 ,their impatient imagination only traverses nature to pass beyond it to the drama of human life4 ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds tells us that ,conciseness1 simplicity and an almost prosaic accuracy are the never-failing attributes of classical descriptive art--moreover1 humanity was always more present to their minds than to ours4 ,nothing evoked sympathy from the ,greek unless it appeared before him in human shape1 or in connection with some human sentiment4 ,the ancient poets do not describe inanimate nature as such1 or attribute a vague spirituality to fields and clouds4 ,that feeling for the beauty of the world which is embodied in such poems as ,shelley's ,ode to the ,west ,wind gave birth in their imagination to definite legends1 involving some dramatic interest and conflict of passions4#aa ,and ,mahaffy and ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,hardie tell the same story4#ab ,but even among sensible moderns1 uninfected by sentimental fever1 the love of nature is mostly of a purely utilitarian kind1 as witness the love of cornfields1 hayfields and orchards4 ,the farmer at certain times gazes kindly at the purple hills behind his acres of cultivated land1 because their colour indicates the coming rain4 ,the cattle-breeder smiles as he surveys the ,romney marshes1 and thinks of the splendid pastureland they would make4 ,in fact1 the attitude of sensible mankind in general towards landscape1 as landscape1 seems to have been pretty well summarized by the writer of the #ajdth ,psalm1 from whom1 according to ,w4 ,h4 ,rhiel1 the ,christian world1 and especially the ,teutonic part of it1 seems to have derived much of their love of the beauties of ,nature4#ac ,what constitutes the artistic beauty in a painted landscape1 then1 is the mood1 the particular human quality1 that the artist throws into it4 ,as the ,french painters say1 a landscape is a state of the soul2 and unless the particular mood or idea with which the artist invests a natural scene have some value and interest1 and be painted in a commanding or ruler manner1 it is a mere piece of superfluous foolery1 which may1 however1 find its proper place on a great railway poster or in an estate agent's illustrated catalogue4 ,there is1 on the other hand1 another kind of love of nature1 which dates only from the eighteenth century1 and which is thoroughly and unquestionably contemptible4 ,this also1 like the above1 is the result of association1 and has nothing artistic in its constitution2 but this time it is an association which is misanthropic and negative4 ,i refer to what is generally known as the love of the ,romantic in ,nature1 the love of mountains1 torrents1 unhandseled copses1 virgin woods1 and rough and uncultivated country4 ,in this love a new element enters the appreciation of ,nature1 and that is a dislike and mistrust of everything that bears the stamp of man's power or his labour1 and therefore an exaltation of everything untutored1 uncultured1 free1 unconstrained and wild4 ,this attitude of mind seems to have been unknown not only to the ,greeks and to the ,romans1#ad but1 practically1 to all ,european nations up to the time of ,rousseau4 ,as ,friedlnder says1 it would be difficult to find evidence of travellers going to mountain country in quest of beauty1 before the eighteenth century1#ae and the majority of those who were forced to visit such country1 before that time1 in their ,journeys to foreign cities1 describe it as horrible1 ugly and depressing4 ,oliver ,goldsmith is a case in point4 ,riehl declares that in guidebooks1 even as late as #agej1 ,berlin1 ,leipzig1 ,augsburg1 ,darmstadt1 ,mannheim1 etc41 are spoken of as lying in nice and cheerful surroundings1 whilst the most picturesque parts 7according to modern notions7 of the ,black ,forest1 of the ,harz1 and the ,thuringian woods are described as very gloomy1 barren1 and monstrous1 or at least as not particularly pleasant4 ,and then he adds3 ,this is not the private opinion of the individual topographists3 it is the standpoint of the age4#af ,even in the ,bible illustrations of the eighteenth century1 we also find the same spirit prevailing4 ,paradise--that is to say1 the original picture of virgin glory in natural beauty--is made to look like what moderns would call a monotonously flat garden1 devoid of any indication of a hill1 in which the ,almighty1 or ,adam1 or somebody1 has already clipped all the trees and hedges1 and carefully trimmed the grass4 ,you may argue with ,riehl#ag that medival painters must have thought rough1 wild and barren country beautiful2 otherwise1 why did they put it in their pictures8 ,one low-,german painter of the ,middle ,ages1 for instance1 painted a picture of ,cologne1 and1 contrary to the genuine nature of the surrounding country1 introduced a background of jagged and rocky mountains4 ,why did he do this1 if he did not think jagged and rocky mountains beautiful8 ,in reply to this ,i cannot do better than quote ,friedlnder again1 who on this very question writes as follows-- ,at least the lack of a sense for the beauty of mountain scenery1 which is noticeable in the poetry and travels of the ,middle ,ages1 viewed as a whole1 ought to lead us to suspect that this same sense could have been only very slightly apparent in the realm of pictorial art4 ,but ought we not to ascribe the fantastic and romantic art ideal of the old masters1 in landscape1 rather to their endeavour to transfer the scene and figures of their pictures from reality to an imaginary world8444 ,even if historical painters like ,john van ,eyck and ,memling eagerly introduced jagged rocks and sharp mountain 7which apparently they had never seen7 into their backgrounds 444 it is difficult to recognize any real understanding or even knowledge of the nature of mountains in all this2 but simply an old and therefore very conventional form of heroic landscape which was considered as the only suitable one for a large number of subjects4#ah ,but there is other evidence1 besides that to be found in medival poetry and travels1 which shows to what extent the particular sense for natural beauty1 which ,i am now discussing1 was lacking in the ,middle ,ages4 ,its absence is also illustrated by the arrangement of castles and other buildings4 ,mr4 d',auvergne1 in his work ,the ,english ,castles1 more than once calls attention to this1 and instances a tower at ,dunstanburgh ,castle1#ai which1 though commanding a wildly romantic prospect1 was selected for the vilest domestic uses4 ,suddenly1 all this is contradicted and reversed4 ,precisely where man's hand has been1 everything is supposed to be polluted1 unclean1 and ugly2 and rough1 uncultivated nature1 however rugged1 however unkempt1 is exalted above all that which the human spirit has shaped and trained4 ,how did this change come about8 ,to begin with1 let it be said1 that it was not quite so sudden as ,friedlnder would have us suppose4 ,long before the dawn of the eighteenth century1 the very principles that were at the base of ,european life and aspirations--the principle of the depravity of man1 the principle of liberty for liberty's sake1 the principle of the pursuit of general truth2 and finally1 the principle that experience --that is to say1 a direct appeal to nature--was the best method of furnishing the mind--all these principles had been leading steadily to one conclusion1 and this conclusion ,rousseau was the first to embody in his energetic and fulminating protest against culture1 tradition1 human power and society4 ,and the fact that his doctrine spread so rapidly1 that within fifty years of its exposition1 with the help of men like ,coxe1 ,ramond de ,carbonnires1 tienne de ,snancour1 ,tppefer1 ,saussure and ,bourit1 it had practically become the credo and the passion of ,europe1 shows how ready the age must have been for the lessons ,rousseau taught it4 ,all of you who have read the fulsome and bombastic praise of ,nature1 together with the bitter disparagement of the work of man1 in such works as ,la ,nouvelle ,hloise1 the ,confessions1 his letters to ,monsieur de ,malesherbes1 and his ,reveries of a lonely ,rambler1 will not require to be told the gospel ,rousseau preaches4#bj ,suffice it to say1 that he successfully created a love of the rough1 of the rugged1 the unhandseled and the uncultivated in the minds of almost all ,europeans--especially ,northerners1 and that this love was rapidly reflected in landscape painting4 ,this new feeling for the romantic1 for the unconstrained and for the savage in ,nature1 although it soon dominated art1 was1 in its essentials1 quite foreign to art and to the artist4 ,it had nothing in common with the motives that prompt and impel the artist to his creations4 ,its real essence was moral and not artistic2 its fundamental feature was its worship of the abstract principles of liberty1 anarchy and the absence of culture1 which rude nature exemplifies on all sides2 and it was a moral or scientific spirit that animated it1 whether in ,rousseau or in his followers4 ,friedrich ,schiller1 who entirely supports ,rousseau's particular kind of love for ,nature1 frankly admits this#ba in his able and profound analysis of the sentiment in question2 whatever self-contempt1 and contempt of adult manhood1 may have lain behind ,rousseau's valuations1 ,schiller brings all of it openly into the light of day1 and in his efforts to support the ,frenchman's school of thought1 literally exposes it to ridicule4 ,one or two voices1 such as ,hegel's#bb and ,chateaubriand's1 were raised in protest against this thoroughly vulgar and sentimental attitude towards savage and wild phenomena2 but they were unable to resist a movement1 the strength of which had been accumulating for so many centuries in the hearts of almost all ,europeans2 and1 ultimately1 numbers triumphed4 ,even the hand of man--of the artist--in a painted landscape1 got to be a thing of the past4 ,realism--because it most conscientiously repeated that unconstrained and anarchical spirit which the romantic age loved to detect in matted weeds1 in tangled and impenetrable coppices1 in thick festoons of parasitic plants1 in unhandseled brambles and in babbling brooks--became the ruling principle4 ,classical influence alone was able for a while to resist too rapid a decline2 but soon we find ,constable declaring in the early part of the nineteenth century1 that there is nothing ugly1 and addressing aspiring artists in these words3 ,observe that thy best director1 thy perfect guide is ,nature4 ,copy from her4 ,in her paths is thy triumphal arch4 ,she is above all other teachers2 and ever confide in her with a bold heart3#bc and a whole host of people following in his wake and applauding his principles4 ,just as ,england by her influence had created ,rousseau and his peculiar mode of thinking1#bd so1 again1 ,british influence was to show its power in the world of ,art4 ,the parallel is striking1 but nevertheless true4 ,in the years #ahbd1 #ahbf and #ahbi1 ,constable1 whom ,muther calls the father of landscape painting1#be and whom ,meier ,graefe calls the father of modern painting1#bf exhibited in ,paris1 and his style soon became a dominant force4#bg ,stendhal1 though very much too moderate1 was one of the first to raise1 his voice against the lack of idealism 7transfiguration1 simplification7 in these ,english pictures2 but his efforts were of no avail1 and he might just as well have shouted in the face of a hurricane4 #f ,according to ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,lbke1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,art 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #deb71 ,patenier might almost be called the founder of the modern northern school of landscape painting4 ,see also p4 #ege in the same volume4 ,on this subject see also ,muther1 ,geschichte der ,malerei1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gb3 ,although in a way it is possible to establish in what respect the painting of the ,netherlands in the sixteenth century ran parallel with that of ,italy1 it is also necessary to emphasize the fact1 on the other hand1 that painting4 ,muther mentions ,hendrik ,met de ,bles1 ,joachim de ,patenier and ,bosch as the leaders of this tendency4 #g ,see ,w4 ,h4 ,riehl1 ,culturstudien aus drei ,jahrhunderten1 p4 #fg4 #h ,this use of the word sentimental in regard to the love of nature for its own sake1 is not by any means unprecedented4 ,schiller1 in his essay ,ueber naive und sentimentale ,dichtung1 as an advocate in favour of the love in question1 constantly refers to it as sentimental4 7,see #ahch ,edition of ,works1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 pp4 #afg-bha47 #i ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,hardie1 ,lectures in ,classical ,subjects1 pp4 #af-ag3 ,what are the scenes in ,nature which had the greatest attraction for the ancients8 ,the landscape which a ,greek would choose for his environment was a tranquil one1 a cultivated spot or a spot capable of cultivation2 and p4 #ba3 444 apart from the work of one or two exceptional poets like schylus or ,pindar1 it must be allowed that the ancient view of ,nature was somewhat prosaic and practical1 showing a decided preference for fertile1 habitable and accessible country4 #aj ,some ,aspects of ,greek ,genius1 p4 #beb4 ,see also his remarks1 pp4 #bdf-bdh1 concluding thus3 ,the great period1 indeed1 of the ,attic drama1 when the dialectic movement of thought was in full operation1 can hardly be called 'simple' in ,schiller's sense he is quoting ,schiller on ,simple and ,sentimental ,poetry1 where in the opening paragraph ,schiller applies the word naiv1 simple1 to a natural object1 as meaning that state in which nature and art stand contrasted and the former shames the latter2 yet even then1 as in ,homer1 nature is but the background of the picture1 the scene in which man's activity displays itself4 ,the change of sentiment sets in only from the time of ,alexander onwards4 ,nature is then sought for her own sake2 artists and poets turn to her with disinterested love2 her moods are lovingly noted1 and she is brought into close relationship with man4 #aa ,studies of the ,greek ,poets1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beh4 #ab ,see ,social ,life in ,greece 7,mahaffy71 p4 #dbf1 and ,what have the ,greeks done for ,modern ,civilization8 7,mahaffy1 #aiji71 p4 #aa3 ,external nature was the very thing that the ,greeks1 all through their great history1 felt less keenly than we should have expected4 ,their want of a sense of the picturesque has ever been cited as a notable defect4 ,see also ,w4 ,r4 ,hardie1 ,lectures on ,classical ,subjects 7#aijc71 p4 #h3 ,to what extent do the modern feelings and fancies about ,nature appear in the ancient poets8444 ,the usual and substantially true answer is that they appear to a very slight extent4 ,like ,whitehead1 the ,greek is slow to recognize 'a bliss that leans not to mankind4' #ac ,culturstudien aus drei ,jahrhunderten 7#bnd ,edition1 #ahei71 p4 #fc4 #ad ,see ,s4 ,h4 ,butcher1 ,some ,aspects of the ,greek ,genius1 pp4 #bfe1 #bff3 ,mountains and lonely woods and angry seas1 in all periods of ,greek literature1 so far from calling out a sublime sense of mystery and awe1 raise images of terror and repulsion1 of power divorced from beauty and alien to art4 ,homer1 when for the moment he pauses to describe a place1 chooses one in which the hand of man is visible2 which he has reclaimed from the wild1 made orderly1 subdued to his own use4 ,up to the last days of ,greek antiquity man has not yet learnt so to lose himself in the boundless life of ,nature1 as to find a contemplative pleasure in her wilder and more majestic scenes4 ,see also ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #beg3 ,the ,greeks and ,romans paid less attention to inanimate nature than we do1 and were beyond all question repelled by the savage grandeur of marine and mountain scenery1 preferring landscapes of smiling and cultivated beauty to rugged sublimity or the picturesqueness of decay4444 ,see also ,w4 ,r4 ,hardie1 ,lectures on ,classical ,subjects1 pp4 #c1 #i1 #ag1 and ,friedlander1 ,roman ,life and ,manners1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cia1 #cib1 #cic1 #cie4 #ae ,ueber die ,entstehung und ,entwicklung des ,gefhls fr das ,romantische in der ,natur1 pp4 #d1 #aj4 #af ,culturstudien aus drei ,jahrhunderten1 p4 #eg4 #ag ,ibid41 pp4 #ei1 #fj4 #ah ,ueber die ,entstehung und ,entwicklung des ,gefhls fr das ,romantische in der ,natur1 pp4 #b1 #c4 #ai ,e4 ,b4 d',auvergne1 ,the ,english ,castles1 pp4 #baf1 #bag4 #bj ,see ,lettres ,nouvelles addresses ,monsieur de ,malesherbes 7,geneva1 #aghj71 #crd letter1 p4 #dc4 ,speaking of a lonely walk in the neighbourhood of his country house1 he says3 ,j'allois alors d'un pas plus tranquille chercher quelque lieu sauvage dans la fort1 quelque lieu dsert1 o rien ne me montrant la main de l'homme ne m'annont la servitude et la domination1 enfin quelqu' asyle o je pusse croire avoir pntr le premier1 et o nul tiers importun ne vint s'entreposer entre la nature et moi4 ,c'tait l qu'elle sembloit dployer mes yeux une magnificence toujours nouvelle4 ,l'or des gents et la pourpre des bruyres frappoient mes yeux d'un luxe qui touchoit mon cur2 la majest des arbres--and so on in the same romantic strain for twenty lines4 ,it is impossible to reproduce every passage ,i should like to quote1 in order to reveal the full range of ,rousseau's passion for nature and his bitter contempt of man and man's work2 but the above is typical1 and other equally gushing passages may be found in ,les ,rveries du ,promeneur ,solitaire 7,paris1 #ahhb71 pp4 #aai1 #ach1 etc41 etc42 ,la ,nouvelle ,hloise1 especially the #aath letter2 ,les ,confessions 7,ed4 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,i71 ,bk4 ,,vi1 pp4 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bch1 #bde1 and ,bk4 ,,iv1 p4 #afi3 444 on sait dj ce que j'entends par un beau pays4 ,jamais pays de plaine1 quelque beau qu'il ft1 ne parut tel mes yeux4 ,il me faut des torrents1 des rochers1 des sapins1 des bois noirs1 des montagnes1 des chemins raboteux monter et descendre1 des prcipices mes cots1 qui me fassent peur4444 ,j'eus ce plaisir 444 en approchant de ,chambri 444 car ce qu'il y a de plaisir dans mon got pour des lieux escarps1 est qu'ils me font tourner la tte3 et j'aime beaucoup ce tournoiement pourvu que je sois en suret4 #ba ,smmtliche ,werke 7,stuttgart and ,tbingen1 #ahch71 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,ueber naive und sentimentale ,dichtung1 p4 #afh1 #afi3 ,this kind of pleasure at the sight of ,nature is not an sthetic pleasure1 but a moral one3 for it is arrived at by means of an idea1 and it is not felt immediately the act of contemplation has taken place1 neither does it depend for its existence upon beauty of form4 ,and1 p4 #ahi1 after pointing out that the ,greeks completely lacked this feeling for ,nature1 he says3 ,whence comes this different sense8 ,how is it that we who1 in everything related to ,nature1 are inferior to the ancients1 should pay such homage to her1 should cling so heartily to her1 and be able to embrace the inanimate world with such warmth of feeling8 ,it is not our greater conformity to ,nature1 but1 on the contrary1 the opposition to her1 which is inherent in our conditions and our customs1 that impels us to find some satisfaction in the physical world for our awakening instinct for truth and primitive rudeness1 which1 like the moral tendency from which that instinct arises1 lies incorruptible and indestructible in all human hearts and can find no satisfaction in the moral world4 #bb ,see ,hegels ,leben1 by ,karl ,rosenkranz1 especially pp4 #dge1 #dgf and #dhb1 #dhc4 #bc ,see ,the ,life and ,letters of ,john ,constable1 by ,c4 ,r4 ,leslie1 ,r4,a41 pp4 #cdc1 #cdi4 #bd ,see ,j4 ,morley's ,rousseau1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #he1 #hf3 ,according to his own account1 it was ,voltaire's ,letters on the ,english which first drew him seriously to study1 and nothing which that illustrious man wrote at this time escaped him4 ,and p4 #adf3 ,locke was ,rousseau's most immediate inspirer1 and the latter affirmed himself to have treated the same matters exactly on ,locke's principles4 ,rousseau1 however1 exaggerated ,locke's politics as greatly as ,condillac exaggerated his metaphysics4 ,and p4 #adg3 ,we need not quote passages from ,locke to demonstrate the substantial correspondence of assumption between him and the author of the ,social ,contract4 ,they are to be found in every chapter4 #be ,geschichte der ,malerei1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #age4 #bf ,modern ,art1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #adj4 #bg ,ibid41 p4 #ach3 ,what his fatherland neglected was taken over by the ,continent4 ,strange as this neglect may seem1 the rapidity with which ,europe assimilated ,constable is even more remarkable4 ,the movement began in ,paris4444 ,france needed what ,constable had to give4444 ,the young ,frenchmen saw the traditional ,english freedom with eyes sharpened by enthusiasm4 #c4 ,portrait ,painting4 ,when one now adds to these influences1 the steady rise of the power of the bourgeoisie in ,europe1 from the seventeenth century onward1 and1 as a result of this increasing power1 an uninterrupted growth in the art of portrait painting--a growth that attained such vast proportions that it cast all attainments of a like nature in any other age or continent into the shade--one can easily understand what factors have been the most formidable opponents of ,ruler-,art in the ,occident1 since the event of the ,renaissance4 ,after all that ,i have said concerning the principles of ,ruler-,art1 it will scarcely be necessary for me to expatiate upon those elements in portrait painting which are antagonistic to these principles2 for when you think of portrait painting as it has been developed by the claims of the bourgeoisie in ,europe1 you must not have ,leonardo da ,vinci's ,mona ,lisa in mind4 ,neither must you consider that portrait work in which1 by chance1 the artist has had before him a model who1 in every feature of face or of figure1 corresponded to his ideal2 nor that in which the artist has been able to allow himself to exercise his simplifying and transfiguring power4 ,otherwise some of the best of ,rubens' and ,rembrandt's work would of necessity come under the ban which we must set upon by far the greater number of portraits4 ,illustration3 ,saskia ,by ,rembrandt4 ,when ,rembrandt painted his bride ,saskia1#bh for instance1 the extent to which he exercised his simplifying and transfiguring power is amazing1 and precludes all possibility of our classing this work among the portraits which should be condemned4 ,he knew perfectly well that poor ,saskia was not beautiful--what beautiful girl would have condescended to look at ,rembrandt8--so what did he do8 ,he cast all the upper and right side of her face in shadow1 and deliberately concentrated all his attention1 and consequently the attention of the beholder as well1 upon three or four square inches of nice round muscle in the lower part of ,saskia's young cheek and neck4 ,but how many plain daughters of rich bourgeois would allow three or four square inches of their cheek and neck to be exalted in this way1 at the cost of their eyes and their nose and their brow8 ,the same remarks also apply to ,rembrandt's ,jewish ,rabbi in the ,national ,gallery4 ,there he had to deal with an emaciated1 careworn old ,jew4 ,how did he overcome the difficulty8 ,all of you who know this picture will be able to answer this question for yourselves1 and ,i need not1 therefore1 go into the matter4 ,this1 then1 is not the class of portrait work which need necessarily deteriorate the power of art4 ,what does deteriorate this power1 is that other and more common class of portrait painting which began in ,holland in the seventeenth century1 and in which each sitter insisted upon discovering all his little characteristics and individual peculiarities2 in which1 as ,muther says1 each sitter wished to find a counterfeit of his personality1 and in which no artistic effect1 but resemblance alone was the object desired4#bi ,it was the insistence upon this kind of portrait work by the wealthy bourgeoisie of ,england1 which well-nigh drove ,whistler1 with his ruler spirit1 out of his mind1 and it is precisely this portrait work which is dominant to-day4 ,in order to be pleasing and satisfactory to the people who demand it1 this class of painting presupposes the suppression of all those first principles upon which ,ruler-,art relies in order to flourish and to soar2 and where it is seriously and earnestly pursued1 art is bound to suffer4 ,this was recognized three hundred years ago by the ,spanish theoretician ,vincenti ,carducho1 and his judgment still remains the wisest that has ever been written on the subject4 ,in formulating the credo of the sixteenth century1 he wrote as follows-- ,no great and extraordinary painter was ever a portraitist1 for such an artist is enabled by judgment and acquired habit to improve upon nature4 ,in portraiture1 however1 he must confine himself to the model1 whether it be good or bad1 with sacrifice of his observation and selection2 which no one would like to do who has accustomed his mind and his eye to good forms and proportions4#cj ,our art at the present day is1 unfortunately1 very largely the development and natural outcome of the two influences ,i have just described1 and that accounts for a good deal for which ,i have failed to account hitherto4 ,art no longer gives3 it takes4 ,it no longer reflects beauty on reality3 it seeks its beauty in reality4 ,and that is why it falls to pieces judged by the standard of ,ruler-,art4 ,it cannot bear the fierce light of an art that is intimate with ,life and inseparable from ,life4 ,in its death-throes it has decked itself with all kinds of metaphysical plumes1 in order that it may thus1 perhaps1 live after death4 ,but these plumes have been used before by dying gods and have proved of no avail4 ,virtue for virtue's sake1 was the cry of a dying religion4 ,art for art's sake1 is now the cry of an expiring godlike human function4 ,but unless this cry be altered very quickly into a cry of art for the sake of ,life1 there will be no chance of saving it4 ,before this art for ,life's sake can be discovered1 however2 before the purpose after which it will strive can be determined and established1 the first thing to which we shall have to lend our attention is not art1 but mankind4 ,the purpose of man is a thousand times more important than the purpose of art4 ,the one determines the other4 ,and as a proof of how intimately the two are connected1 see how much doubt there is as to the purpose of art1 precisely at a moment when men also1 owing to the terrible civil war which is raging among their values1 are beginning to doubt the real purpose of human existence4 ,it would be useless to indulge in a detailed criticism of individual artists4 ,to all those who have followed my arguments closely1 no such clumsy holding up of particular modern artists to ridicule will seem necessary4 ,in some of your minds these men are idols still1 and it pleases only the envious and the unsuccessful to see niche-statues stoned4 ,the great artist1 as ,i have shown you1 is the synthetic and superhuman spirit that apotheosizes the type of a people and thereby stimulates them to a higher mode of life4 ,but where should we go to-day1 if we wished to look for a type or for a desirable code of values which that type would exemplify8 ,we know that we can go nowhere2 for such things do not exist4 ,they are utterly and hopelessly extinct4 ,our first duty1 then1 is not to mend the arts--you cannot mend a cripple4 ,but it is rather to mend the parents who bring forth this cripple--to mend ,life itself1 and above all ,man4 ,away from ,god and ,gods did my will allure me1 says ,zarathustra2 what would there be to create if there were ,gods6 ,but to man doth it ever drive me anew1 my burning will2 thus doth it drive the hammer unto the stone4 ,alas1 ye fellow-men1 within the stone slumbereth an image for me1 the image of all my visions6 ,alas that it should perforce slumber in ugliest stone6 ,now rageth my hammer1 ruthlessly against its prison4 ,from the stone fly the fragments3 what's that to me8 ,i shall end the work3 for a shadow came unto me--the stillest and lightest of all things once came unto me4 ,the beauty of the ,superman came unto me as a shadow4 ,alas my brethren1 what are the gods to me now6#ca #bh ,dresden ,royal ,picture ,gallery4 #bi ,history of ,painting 7,eng4 ,trans471 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #egb1 #egf4 #cj ,muther1 ,history of ,painting 7,english ,translation71 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dha4 #ca ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxiv4 ,lecture ,,iii#a ,nietzsche's ,art ,principles in the ,history of ,art ,part ,i ,christianity and the ,renaissance ,for if ye live after the flesh ye shall die3 but if ye through the ,spirit do mortify the deeds of the body1 ye shall live4--,romans viii4 #ac4 ,i shall now endeavour to show you when and where ,nietzsche's ,art doctrine1 or part of it1 has raised its head in the past1 and to touch lightly upon the conditions which led to its observance4 ,in doing this ,i shall travel backwards1 zigzag fashion1 from ,rome1 vi ,greece to ,egypt1 and beginning with ,christianity1 ,i shall show how the ,holy ,catholic ,church succeeded in establishing one of the conditions necessary to all great ,art1 which1 as ,i have said1 is unity and solidarity lasting over a long period of time1 and forming men according to a definite and severe scheme of values4 #a ,delivered at ,university ,college on ,dec4 #aeth1 #aiaj4 #a4 ,rome and the ,christian ,ideal4 ,the compass of these lectures does not allow me to say anything concerning the ,art of ,rome4 ,there are many aspects of this ,art which are both interesting and important from the historical standpoint2 but1 from the particular point of view which ,i am now representing1 temporal ,rome does not concern me nearly as much as sacred ,rome and its provincial ,government4 ,for the first act of the ,christian power was not to volatilize the stone bulwarks of the monuments of antiquity1 neither was it to spiritualize the citizen of the ,roman ,empire2 but it was to convert ,rome the secular administration into ,rome the ,eternal ,city4 ,long before the exterior of the ,grco-,roman column was divided up and sub-divided1 until1 despite its volume1 it seemed to have no solidity whatever2 and long before men's eyes and bodies were transformed from broad1 spacious wells of life into narrow1 tenuous cylinders of fire1 a teaching was spread broadcast over the ,roman ,empire1 the devouring power of which was astounding1 and the like of whose digestion has not been paralleled in history4 ,the ,romans in their latter days had degenerated through the decline among them of that very principle which is the basis of all great art--restraint4 ,always utilitarians1 in the end they had become materialists1 and finally their will power had disintegrated4 ,then1 suddenly--perhaps through the very fact that their will power had declined1 and through a preponderance among them of a class of people who were unfit to allow themselves any material enjoyment1 and who were conscious of this shortcoming--the pendulum of ,life swung back with a force so great to the opposite extreme1 that the ,pagan world was shaken to its foundations1 and in its death-agony stretched out its arms and embraced the foreign creed which said-- ,flesh is death2 ,spirit is life and peace4 ,the body is dead because of sin2 but the ,spirit is life because of righteousness4 ,if ye live after the flesh ye shall die2 but if ye through the ,spirit do mortify the deeds of the body1 ye shall live4#b ,here was a fundamentally new valuation1 a totally novel outlook upon the world of man4 ,some extraordinarily magnetic creator of values had spread his will over an empire1 and stamped his hand upon a corner of the globe1 and the blessedness to write upon the will of millenniums as upon brass1#c promised to be his4 ,here was a principle which obviously must have found its origin in a class of mind which1 in order to overcome the flesh at all1 knew of no better means thereto than to cut it right away and for ever4 ,it was not a matter of contriving some sort of desirable inner harmony2 the will of the people in whom this creed took its roots was incapable of such an achievement4 ,the order went3 ,if thy right eye offend thee1 pluck it out1 and cast it from thee 444 if thy right hand offend thee1 cut it off6 ,whenever the ,spirit was mentioned it was spelt in capital letters and uttered in exalted tones2 while the body1 on the other hand1 as the great obstacle to salvation1 was written small4 ,states of the soul became surer indices to the qualities good1 beautiful1 and virtuous1 than states of the body1 and the paradox that ,life was the denial of ,life1 was honestly believed to be an attainable ideal4 ,in ,lbke's words3 ,christianity disturbed the harmony between man and nature1 and introduced a sense of discordance by proclaiming to man a higher spiritual law1 in the light of which his inborn nature became a sinful thing which he was to overcome4#d ,the people who acclaimed this teaching by instinct ultimately organized themselves1 conquered the ,pagan world1 enlisted ,pagan elements into their organization--,pagan spirit and ,pagan order--and gradually accomplished a task which no other ,european values seem to have been able to do4 ,they established one idea1 one thought1 one hope1 in the breasts of almost all great ,western peoples1 from ,ireland to ,constantinople1 from the ,mediterranean to the ,baltic4 ,the power of their creation--the ,church--was such that it co-ordinated the most heterogeneous elements1 the most conflicting factors1 and the most absurd contrasts4 ,and1 however much one may deprecate the nature of the type they advocated1 and the ignoble valuation of humanity upon which their religion was based1 as a ,nietzschean1 one can but acknowledge the power they wielded1 the might with which they made one ideal prevail1 and the art with which for a while they united and harmonized such discordant voices as those of the people of ,europe4 ,one can admire all this1 ,i say1 even though it is but a spiritual reflection of ,rome's former power1 her former victories1 and her former law and order4#e ,for1 soon1 however un-,pagan the ideal may have been which the ,church made to prevail1 the methods it employed were purely ,pagan methods4 ,fearing nothing1 respecting nothing that was opposed to it1 and not losing heart before the difficulty of vanquishing even the most formidable enemies of the expiring ,empire--the ,teutons away in the ,north--spiritual ,rome thus set about its task of appropriating humanity2 and all the art of the organizer1 of the orator1 of the painter1 sculptor and architect1 was speedily ordered into its service4 ,if the type to which its ideal aspired were not already a general fact1 then it must be made a general fact4 ,it must be reared1 cultivated and maintained4 ,strangely enough1 the feat of vanquishing the ,german nation proved a thousand times easier to ,rome the ,eternal ,city1 than it had done to ,rome the ,metropolis of the ,greatest ,empire of antiquity4 ,the ancient ,germans1 with their strong tendency to subjectivity1 to fantastic brooding and to cobweb spinning1 and with their coarse1 brutal natures unused either to restraint or to the culture that arises from it1 fell easy victims to this burning teaching of the spirit1 of faith1 and of sentiment2#f and it was in their susceptible and untutored breasts that ,christianity laid its firmest foundation4 ,in its work of appropriation and consumption1 as ,i say1 the ,church halted at nothing4 #b ,romans viii4 #f1 #aj1 #ac4 #c ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,lvi4 #d ,outlines of the ,history of ,art1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dde4 #e ,see ,h4 ,h4 ,milman1 ,d4,d41 ,history of ,latin ,christianity 7,ed4 #ahfd71 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aj4 ,speaking of ,catholicism1 he says3 ,it was the ,roman ,empire1 again extended over ,europe by a universal code1 and a provincial government2 by a hierarchy of religious prtors or proconsuls1 and a host of inferior officers1 each in strict subordination to those immediately above them1 and gradually descending to the very lowest ranks of society1 the whole with a certain degree of freedom of action1 but a restrained and limited freedom1 and with an appeal to the spiritual ,csar in the last resort4 #f ,see ,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,a ,history of the ,roman ,empire1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ag3 ,it has been said that the function of the ,german nations was to be the bearers of ,christianity4 ,the growth of the new religion was indeed contemporary with the spread of the new races in the ,empire1 but at this time in the external events of history1 so far from being closely attached to the ,germans1 ,christianity is identified with the ,roman ,empire4 ,it is long afterwards that we see the mission fulfilled4 ,the connection lies on a psychological basis3 the ,german character was essentially subjective4 ,the ,teutons were gifted with that susceptibility which we call heart1 and it was to the needs of the heart that ,christianity possessed endless potentialities of adaptation4444 ,christianity and ,teutonism were both solvents of the ancient world1 and as the ,german nations became afterwards entirely ,christian1 we see that they were historically adapted to one another4 #b4 ,the ,pagan ,type appropriated and transformed by ,christian ,art4 ,just as ,st4 ,paul had not refrained from taking possession of the ,unknown ,god whom the ,athenians ignorantly worshipped1 by declaring ,him to be precisely the ,god whom he had come among them to proclaim1 so ,christianity did not refrain from incorporating all the suitable features of the ,pagan faith into its own creed4 ,the ,pagan type was thus the first thing to be assimilated and absorbed1 and in the early ,christian paintings of the catacombs you must not be surprised to find the ,saviour depicted with all the beauties and charms of the classical god or hero4 ,here he appears as a ,hermes1 there as an ,apollo1 and yonder as an ,orpheus4#g ,beardless1 young1 and strong1 ,christ stalks towards you4 ,his gait is free his carriage majestic4 ,across his shoulders you will sometimes see1 as in the catacombs of the ,via ,appia in ,rome1 that he bears a sheep1 and he looks for all the world like a young ,hermes1 who1 as you know1 was the ,greek god of flocks4 ,elsewhere he looks like a ,roman senator1 as in the catacomb of ,st4 ,callixtus1 for instance2 his mother ,mary looks like a ,roman matron1 praying with uplifted hands1 and the apostles ,peter and ,paul1 together with the prophets1 appear as peripatetic philosophers1 grasping learned-looking scrolls of manuscript1 while ,daniel is presented as a ,hercules4#h ,even the famous bronze statue of ,st4 ,peter in his great church at ,rome is in fact an antique statue of a consul which has been transformed into a ,peter1 and the original of this monument was probably quite innocent of the sanctity which has caused the foot of his effigy to be worn away by the kisses of the faithful4#i ,this bold manner of appropriating the ,pagan ideal in ,art was but the symbol of what was actually occurring in the outside world2 for the object was not to glorify the ,pagan type1 but to overthrow it1 to transform it by degrees into the type which was compatible with ,christian values1 and thus to obliterate it4 ,we can watch this process4 ,we can see the classic features and form of body surely and permanently vanishing from the wall decorations of the fourth1 fifth and sixth centuries ,a4,d41 and the ,christian type asserting itself with ever greater assurance4 ,already in ,san ,paolo fuori-le-mura in ,rome1 which had been decorated about the middle of the fifth century1#aj ,christ appears bearded1#aa ugly and gloomy1 and his apostles reflect his appearance and mood4 ,in the ,church of ,san ,vitale in ,ravenna1 of the sixth century1 the spirit of the antique had almost passed away2#ab in the basilica of ,san ,lorenzo fuori-le-mura the bearded ,christ is no longer sublime and dignified1 but wan and emaciated2#ac while in the ,church of ,,ss4 ,nazarus and ,celsus at ,ravenna1 there is a mosaic of the fifth century in which even the sheep are beginning to look with gloomy and dissatisfied eyes upon the world about them4 ,examples could be multiplied almost indefinitely to prove how slow but sure was this gradual self-assertion of the type that was compatible with ,christian values1 and the early period of medival art is well described by ,woltmann and ,woermann as one in which the classical cast of figure and features gets swallowed up in ugliness4#ad ,finally1 in the seventh century1 the most daring and most extraordinary artistic feat of all was accomplished4 ,the greatest paradox the world had ever seen--a god on a cross--was portrayed for men's eyes to behold4 ,the ,crucifixion became one of the loftiest subjects of ,christian art1 and the god of the ,christians was painted in his death agony4 ,i will not dwell upon the manifold influences exercised by this class of picture2 ,i simply record the fact1 in order to show with what steadily increasing audacity the ,church ultimately realized and exhibited its type4 ,for1 the fact that ,christian ,art was didactic1 as all art is which is associated with the will and idea of a fighting cause1 and which is born on a soil of clashing values1 nobody seems to deny4#ae ,paulinus of ,nola1 ,gregory the ,great1 ,bishop ,germanus1 ,gregory the ,second1#af ,john of ,damascus and ,basil the ,great were all agreed as to the incalculable worth of images in the propagation of the ,christian doctrine1 and their attitude1 subsequently adopted by the ,franciscans and ,dominicans1 lasted1 according to ,milman1 until very late in the ,middle ,ages4 ,when it is remembered1 moreover1 that illuminated manuscripts1 which were destined to remain in the hands of single individuals1 retained the classical mould of body and features much later than did the work for church decoration1 it is not difficult to discover the strong motive which lay behind the production of public art4#ag ,with ,roman culture and art1 the western and northern provinces of ,gaul1 ,spain1 ,germany and ,britain thus received their religion and their ideal type2 and if to-day1 in our ball-rooms and drawing-rooms we are often confronted with tenuous1 flamelike1 swan-necked creatures1 that recall ,burne-,jones1 ,botticelli1 ,duccio and ,segna to our minds1 we know to which values these people owe their slender1 heaven-aspiring stature1 and their long1 sensitive fingers4 ,for the attitude of the ,christian ideal to ,life1 to the body1 and to the world was an entirely negative one4 ,the command from on high was1 that the deeds of the body should be mortified through the ,spirit4 ,all beauty1 all voluptuousness1 smoothness and charm were very naturally regarded with suspicion by the promoters of such an ideal2 for beauty1 voluptuousness and shapeliness lure back to ,life1 lure back to the flesh1 and ultimately back to the body4 ,what else1 then1 could possibly have been expected from such an ideal than the ultimate decline and uglification of the body8 ,to what else did such an ideal actually aspire8 ,for was not ugliness the strongest obstacle in the way of the loving one1 in the way of him who wished only to affirm and to promote life8 ,when the student of medival miniatures1 wall-paintings and stained-glass windows finds bodily charm almost completely eliminated1 when he sees ugliness prevailing1 and even made seductive by a host of the most subtle art-forms1 by a gorgeous wealth of ornament and repetitive design2 and when he perceives a certain guilty self-consciousness in regard to the attributes of sex revealing itself in such paintings as that on the ceiling of the ,church of ,st4 ,michael at ,hildesheim1 where ,adam and ,eve are represented as naked human monstrosities1 exactly alike in frame and limbs1 and with all indications as to sex1 save ,eve's long tresses and ,adam's beard1 carefully suppressed1#ah what can be concluded from all this irrefutable and unimpeachable evidence8 ,when he finds the ,gothic type of figure growing ever more tenuous1 ever more emaciated and more sickly as the centuries roll on2 when he hears of a ,byzantine canon of the eleventh century in which the human body is actually declared to be a monstrosity measuring nine heads2 when he finds strength and manhood gradually departing from the faces and the limbs of the men1 and an expression of tender sentiment1 culminating in puling sentimentality becoming the rule2 finally1 when he stands opposite ,segna's appalling picture of ,christ on the ,cross at the ,national ,gallery2 what1 under these circumstances1 is he to say1 save that he is here concerned with an art which is antagonistic and hostile to beauty1 to ,life and the world8 ,for the qualities of this art1 qua art1 although they never once attain to the excellence of ,ruler-,art1 are sometimes exceedingly great4 ,with ,meier ,graefe ,i should be willing to agree that there has been no real style since the ,gothic1#ai or certainly not one that can claim anything like such general distribution4 ,and1 if it had not been for the fact that the more the paradox at the root of ,christian doctrine was realized1 the more paradoxical it appeared--a fact which called forth the energies of scores of apologists1 commentators1 and dialecticians1 and which made pictures retain to the very end a rhetorical1 persuasive1 and therefore more or less realistic manner1 sometimes assisted 7more especially towards the close of the ,middle ,ages7 by almost lyrical ornament and charm2 there is no saying to what simple power ,christian art might not have attained4 ,for behind it were all the conditions which go to produce the greatest artistic achievements4 ,as a style1 apart from its subject--or content beauty2 as the manifestation of a mighty will--who can help admiring this art of ,christianity8 ,if only its ideal had been a possible one1 and one which would have required no rhetoric1 seduction1 or emotional oratory1 accompanied by the ringing of all the precious metals1 to support it until the end2 it might have ascended to the highest pinnacle of art in simplicity1 restraint and order4 ,into simplicity1 however1 it was never able to develop1 while its constant need of explaining made it to the very last retain more or less realism in the presentation of its ideal type4 #g ,on this point see ,kraus1 ,geschichte der christlichen ,kunst1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #da1 #df et seq4 ,muther1 ,geschichte der ,malerei1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ac4 ,woltmann and ,woermann1 ,history of ,painting1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #aea-aef4 ,paul ,lacroix1 ,les ,arts au ,moyen ,age et l',epoque de la ,renaissance 7,ed4 #ahgg1 ,paris71 p4 #bed4 #h ,see ,j4 ,a4 ,crowe and ,g4 ,b4 ,cavalcaselle1 ,the ,history of ,painting in ,italy 7,ed4 #aijc71 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #d4 ,woltmann and ,woermann1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aef4 #i ,woltmann and ,woermann1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aef4 #aj ,j4 ,a4 ,crowe and ,g4 ,b4 ,cavalcaselle1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 #aa ,for a discussion of the material causes of the change of type1 see ,milman1 op4 cit44 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #cbd4 #ab ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 #ac ,woltmann and ,woermann1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahe4 #ad ,woltmann and ,woermann1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bcj4 #ae ,see an interesting discussion on the early ,christian attitude towards art in ,kraus1 ,geschichte der christlichen ,kunst1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eh et seq4 ,see also ,milman's conclusions on the subject1 ,history of ,latin ,christianity1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cde1 #cdf4 #af ,see his letter to ,leo the ,isaurian1 quoted by ,milman1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ceh-cfa4 ,see also the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,black's article on ,images in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7#ith ,edition74 #ag ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,black says1 in his article on ,images1 above referred to1 that even as early as the fourth or fifth centuries there is evidence of the tendency to enlist art in the service of the ,church1 while ,woltmann and ,woermann 7op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #afg7 quote the following instance3 ,when ,st4 ,nilus 7,a4,d4 #dej7 was consulted about the decoration of a church1 he rejected as childish and unworthy the intended design of plants1 birds1 animals1 and a number of crosses1 and desired the interior to be adorned with pictures from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 with the same motive that ,gregory ,,ii expressed afterwards4444 #ah ,kraus seems to be of the opinion that this suppression of primary sexual characteristics in paintings was not at all uncommon in the ,middle ,ages4 ,see ,geschichte der christlichen ,kunst1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bhj4 #ai ,modern ,art1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bd4 #c4 ,the ,gothic ,building and ,sentiment4 ,but the hierarchy of the ,church1 although it left no doubt in the minds of its followers as to the genuine type which was the apotheosis of ,christian values1 was nevertheless unable completely to impose its culture upon the barbarians under its sway4 ,and soon1 somewhere towards the end of the twelfth century1 there began to appear in ,europe1 in things that did not seem to matter from the moral or didactic standpoint1 a certain uncouth and uncultured spirit1 which showed to what extent the despotic rule of ,rome was beginning to be flouted4 ,in architecture1 which1 like music1 has for some reason or other always seemed to ,europeans to be less intimately connected with the thought and will of man than the graphic arts1 an un-,catholic spirit was preparing its road to triumph4 ,when ,i say un-,catholic1 ,i mean emancipated from the law and order of the ,universal ,church4#bj ,and in the ,gothic edifice1 from its early stages to its development into the flamboyant style1 all the impossibilities1 all the terrible self-immolations imposed by the ,christian ideal upon man1 begin to make themselves openly felt4 ,now churches begin to tower aloft into heights undreamt of heretofore4 ,huge columns spring heavenwards1 bearing up a roof that seems almost ethereal because it is so high4 ,spires are thrust right into the very breasts of clouds1 and acres are covered by constructions which1 mechanically speaking1 are alive4 ,kicks from the vaulted arches against the hollowed-out walls below1 necessitate counter-kicks2 buttresses and flying buttresses strive and struggle against the crushing pressure of the stone or brick skies of these fantastic architectural feats4 ,all the parts of this mass of stone on baked clay are at loggerheads and at variance with each other1 and their strife never ceases4 ,typical of the contest going on within the body of the medival ,christian1 and the vain aspirations of his soul1 the lofty buildings are also symbolic of the discord and lack of equilibrium which1 as ,lbke says1 ,christianity introduced into man's relations to ,nature and to himself4 ,and when we find the columns of these buildings carved and moulded to look like groups of pillars embracing each other to gain strength1 the salient parts of the construction grooved and striped1 and the extremities of the clustered pillars spreading after the manner of a fan1 over our heads2 we are amazed at the manner in which mass and volume have been volatilized1 spiritualized1 and apparently dissipated4 ,elsewhere1 too1 there is variegated glass1 gigantic filigree work1 festive decoration1 as elaborated as that of a queen or a bride2 infinite grandeur and infinite littleness4#ba ,the ornament is nervous and excited1 festoons1 trefoils1 gables1 gargoyles and niches1 all thrust themselves at you2 all strive for individual effect1 individual attention1 and individual value1 with a restlessness and an importunacy which knows no limits2 until your eyes1 bewildered and dazzled by the jutting1 projecting and budding details1 and out-startled by surprise1 instinctively drop at last1 and perhaps close in a paroxysm of despair1 before the ,high ,altar4#bb ,this was the germ of ,protestantism in stone4 ,long before ,martin ,luther burned the ,papal ,bull in the market-place of ,wittenberg1 the elements of ,protestantism had already found expression in ,gothic architecture4 ,true the ,pagan and ,catholic spirit was still sufficiently master to dominate them1 just as it did the heretics1 by a tremendous force of style2 but they are nevertheless present1 and it is in this architecture1 if we choose to seek it1 that we shall find1 at once1 all the beauty1 all the ugliness1 and all the incompatible elements of the ,christian ideal4 ,its beauty and the fact for which we ought to be grateful to it1 is1 that by its one-sided and earnest advocacy of the spiritual in man1 it extended the domain of his spirit over an area so much greater than that which had been covered theretofore1 that only now can it be said that he knows exactly where he stands and who he is4 ,its ugliness lies in its contempt of the body and of ,life2 and its incompatible elements are its negation of ,life and the necessary attitude of affirmation towards ,life which all living creatures are bound to assume4 ,if1 however1 the above description of the ,gothic may seem unfair1 hear what one of the greatest friends of the ,gothic has said on the subject6 ,john ,ruskin1 in the early days of the last half of the nineteenth century1 wrote as follows-- ,i believe that the characteristic or moral elements of the ,gothic are the following1 placed in order of their importance3 7#a7 ,savageness1 7#b7 ,changefulness1 7#c7 ,naturalism1 7#d7 ,grotesqueness1 7#e7 ,rigidity1 7#f7 ,redundance4#bc ,he speaks of it as being instinct with work of an imagination as wild and wayward as the ,northern ,sea2#bd lays stress upon its rudeness1#be and declares that it is that strange disquietude of the ,gothic spirit--that is its greatness1 that restlessness of the dreaming mind1 that wanders hither and thither among the niches1 and flickers feverishly around1 and yet is not satisfied1 nor shall be satisfied4#bf ,in fact1 in no instance could the saying1 preserve me from my own friends1 be more aptly applied than in ,ruskin's defence of the ,gothic4 ,for ,ruskin was a conscientious student1 and things which even enemies of his subject would be likely to overlook1 he brings forward proudly and ingenuously1 like a truculent mother presenting an ugly child to a friend1 and with a broad smile in his forcible prose which sometimes throws even the experienced reader quite off his guard4 ,hippolyte ,taine speaks of the people of the ,middle ,ages as being possessed of delicate and over-excited imaginations1 of morbid fancy unto whom vivid sensation--manifold1 changing1 bizarre and extreme --are necessary4 ,in referring to their taste in ornament1 he says1 ,it is the adornment of a nervous1 over-excited woman1 similar to the extravagant costumes of the day1 whose delicate and morbid poesy denotes by its excess the singular sentiments1 the feverish1 violent1 and impotent aspiration peculiar to an age of knights and monks4#bg ,illustration3 ,the ,canon of ,polycleitus 7,rome7 ,and if you think of the physical and spiritual operations they had been made to undergo1 you will not feel very much inclined to question these conclusions4 ,it must not be supposed that the canon of ,polycletus1 measuring seven heads1 was transformed into the ,byzantine canon1 measuring nine heads1 without some one's suffering--even though it took centuries to effect the change4 ,it must not be believed that the calm ,pagan idea of death was converted into the ,christian terror of death without the sacrifice of something2 nor must these emaciated1 careworn1 and neurotic faces in ,medival paintings be conceived as mere inventions of morbid phantasy4 ,the deeds of the body are not mortified through the ,spirit with impunity4 ,such brilliant achievements have their accounts to pay1 and the ,church never once deceived itself or its followers as to what was paying1 what was suffering1 or where the amputations and vivisections were taking place4 ,look at the type of which the monks approved6 ,examine it in ,cimabue's1 ,duccio's1 ,segna's and the ,cologne painters' pictures4 ,examine it in the tapestry of ,berne1 known as the ,adoration of the ,kings2 look at it in countless stained glass windows1 and see its repetition in hundreds of illuminated manuscripts1 some of which1 like the ,latin missal of the ,church of ,st4 ,bavon at ,ghent1 and the ,lives of the ,saints by ,simeon ,metaphrasi1 have found their way into the ,british ,museum4 ,then ask yourself whether or not humanity was suffering in conforming itself to this holy creed4 ,like those mothers1 says ,lecky1 who govern their children by persuading them that the dark is crowded with spectres that' will seize the disobedient1 and who often succeed in creating an association of ideas which the adult man is unable altogether to dissolve1 the ,catholic priests1 by making the terrors of death for centuries the nightmare of the imagination1 resolved to base their power upon the nerves4#bh ,and1 now that all this is known and realized1 what is the meaning of the ,renaissance1 what is its explanation8 #bj ,speaking of ,gothic buildings in general1 ,fergusson1 in ,a ,history of ,architecture1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #da1 says3 ,it is in ,nature's highest works that we find the symmetry of proportion most prominent4 ,when we descend to the lower types of animals we find we lose it to a great extent1 and among trees and vegetables generally find it only in a far less degree1 and sometimes miss it altogether4 ,in the mineral kingdom among rocks and stones it is altogether absent4 ,so universal is this principle in ,nature that we may safely apply it to our criticism on art1 and say that a building is perfect as a whole in proportion to its motived regularity1 and departs from the highest type in the ratio in which symmetrical arrangement is neglected4 ,it may1 however1 be incorrect to say that an oak-tree is a less perfect work of creation than a human body1 but it is certain that a picturesque group of ,gothic buildings may be as perfect as the stately regularity of an ,egyptian or classic temple2 but if it is so1 it is equally certain that it belongs to a lower and inferior class of design4 ,page #cd3 ,the revival of the rites and ceremonies of the ,medival ,church1 our reverent love of our own national antiquities1 and our admiration of the rude but vigorous manhood of the ,middle ,ages1 all have combined to repress the classical element1 both in our literature and in our art1 and to exalt in their place ,gothic feelings and ,gothic art to an extent which cannot be justified on any grounds of reasonable criticism4 #ba ,see ,hippolyte ,taine1 ,on the ,nature of the ,work of ,art 7translated by ,john ,durand71 pp4 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd4 #bb ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,lbke1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ad1 #ae1 says1 speaking of the ,gothic3 ,what a contrast to the quiet1 sober masses of the ,romanesque style 4446 ,here1 on the other hand1 everything thrusts itself into prominence1 everything strives for outward effect1 everything endeavours to work out its individuality with spirit and energy4 444 ,at the choir 444 a positive sense of disquiet and confusion is produced1 which may indeed excite the fancy1 but cannot satisfy the sense of beauty4 #bc ,on the ,nature of ,gothic ,architecture 7#ahed71 p4 #d4 #bd ,on the ,nature of ,gothic ,architecture1 p4 #f4 #be ,ibid41 p4 #aa4 #bf ,ibid41 p4 #ai4 #bg ,on the ,nature of the ,work of ,art1 pp4 #aca-cc1 #acd4 #bh ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #baa4 #d4 ,the ,renaissance4 ,the ,renaissance1 in its early stages1 at least1 was a period neither of pure realism nor of classicalism2 it was neither a revival of learning nor a revival of antiquity4 ,these words are mere euphemisms1 mere drawing-room phrases4 ,for1 at its inception1 the ,renaissance was nothing more nor less than man's convalescence1 after an illness that had lasted centuries4 ,it was his first walk into the open1 after leaving his bed and his sick-room4 ,according to the ,nietzschean doctrine of art1 this realism of ,van ,eyck1 of ,van der ,weyden1 ,quintin ,massys1 ,donatello1 ,pisanello1 ,masolino1 ,ucello and others ought to disgust you4 ,it is not art1 or if it is1 its rank is inferior4 ,why1 then1 does it claim attention8 ,why is it far superior to the realism of the present day1 despite some appallingly ugly features8#bi ,it is superior only in this sense1 that it is the work of convalescents4 ,after they had been laid on the rack in the attempt to stretch their limbs and bodies to infinity1 you must not be surprised that these men could only limp along4 ,how could they be expected to walk majestically and with grace8 ,that they could stand at all was a mercy4 ,that they were able to hobble along as they did was a triumph4 ,to expect these recovering invalids to impart something of themselves to ,life1 to enrich her and to transfigure her1 would be to expect the impossible4 ,but if you applaud them at all1 applaud them for their recovery1 for the fact that it is well that they can give us even drabby reality as it is4 ,do not congratulate them yet on their health4 ,for their realism1 as realism1 is as hopeless1 as uninteresting and as unelevating as any realism ever was and ever will be4 ,it is deceptive1 too1 for what seem to be beauties in their pictures are borrowed from such of their predecessors of the late ,gothic period as were already overloading their pictures with ornamental art forms1 in order to disguise the ugliness of the type they presented4 ,where they beguile you1 it is often with a wealth of sweet ornament4#cj ,in ,ucello's ,battle of ,sant' ,eglidio1 at the ,national ,gallery1 it is impossible not to recognize the pains the artist has taken to make your eye dwell on the dainty trappings and accoutrements of the knights and their steeds1 on the distracting balls of gold in the shrubbery1 artfully repeated in the bridles of the horses1 and on the complex maze of pikes1 spears and lances1 which makes the glimpse of hills in the distance all the more restful and pleasing4 ,also in ,pisanello's ,st4 ,anthony and ,st4 ,george 7,national ,gallery71 whatever charm there is to be seen is still a ,gothic charm1 and the same holds good of this painter's remarkable picture of the ,vision of ,st4 ,eustace1 in which the deliberately ornamental purpose of the animals in the background charms you more than their startling realism4 ,if you leave these pictures1 in the ,national ,gallery1 and walk over to ,orcagna's ,coronation of the ,virgin1 you will see where the ornamental charm of the early ,renaissance realists probably found its origin4 ,for these convalescent men made no sudden and unanticipated appearance4 ,they were preceded by painters like ,orcagna1 who were beginning to feel the impossibility of making a beautiful image out of the ,christian type1 and who therefore crammed their pictures with ornament in a manner so prodigal that the human portion of them assumed quite a subordinate place4 ,look at this picture of ,orcagna's4 ,it seems positively to ring with gold4 ,massed halos of the precious metal convert the faces of the people into mere decorative discs of colour4 ,the golden embroidery on the dresses and on the hangings in the background give you a feeling of sunshine1 of wealth and of luxury1 which makes you forget the ideal for which all this lavish display is acting but as a subtle impresario4 ,and the utilization of every square inch of room by filigrees1 festoons1 frills and fretwork of gorgeousness1 almost convinces you at last that you are in front of an art which says ,yea to the glory of sunshine1 beauty and life4 ,in this very need of extravagant ornament1 however1 ,orcagna confesses quite openly to you that1 as far as humanity is concerned1 he1 as an artist1 is bankrupt and destitute4 ,his picture1 like most things connected with the art of ,christianity1 is a pictorial paradox2 and when you leave it1 to wander through the other rooms1 your mind must be of a singularly ingenuous stamp if it feels no suspicion with regard to ,orcagna's use of such a deafening brass band in the exaltation of his ideal4 ,if you doubt all this1 how can you explain the fact that those painters of the early ,renaissance who remained faithful to the ,christian type--such men1 ,i mean1 as ,fra ,angelico1 ,fra ,filippo ,lippi1 ,alesso ,baldovinetti1 ,botticelli and ,ghirlandaio--all remained more or less faithful1 too1 to ,orcagna's belief in ornament and pretty accessories2 while all those painters who either carried on or developed the new spirit in ,pisanello's1 ,ucello's1 ,masolino's and ,masaccio's work-- such men as ,pollajuolo1 ,verrochio1 ,perugini1 ,bellini1 and ultimately ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,michelangelo1 ,titian and ,raphael--all discarded pretty and seductive accessories1 or1 when they did use them1 made them completely subordinate to the human element in their work8 ,the gradual growth in the importance of the human body and of the ,pagan type1 in the ,renaissance painters1 from ,masaccio to ,michelangelo1 with whom there can no longer be any question of convalescence1 the rapid return to a healthy life-affirming type1 and the ultimate triumph of this type in the very heart of the ,vatican--the headquarters of the greatest negative religion on earth1--these are the facts which make the art of this age so admirable and so thrilling4 ,it represents the greatest stand which ,europe has ever made against the denial of life1 humanity and beauty2 and if some of the artists1 like ,pisanello1 ,piero della ,francesca1 and ultimately ,titian1 in their great zeal1 returned to nature with almost as much interest as to man1 this is easily accounted for when it is remembered how long nature and man had been separated4#ca ,but the fact that makes the final glory of the ,renaissance type all the more glorious is the extraordinary circumstance that almost every one of the artists who fought for it1 and for the principles it involved1 from ,piero della ,francesca to ,titian1 were one after the other captured and enchained by the ,church itself4 ,often it was in the very atmosphere of the high altar1 with the fumes of the incense about them1 that they asserted their positive faith in ,life and ,man4 ,the greatest dangers1 the greatest temptations surrounded them ,but they planted their banner1 notwithstanding1 in the centre of their true enemy's camp1 and1 for a while1 their true enemy acquiesced1 because the command was in the hands of men who were artists and pagans themselves1 and who consequently did not believe in one single tenet of the negative creed which they professed4 ,just as the realism of some of the early ,renaissance artists1 however1 was the inevitable outcome of their convalescent state1 so the strong realism of many of the painters and sculptors of the late ,renaissance was the natural result of their combative attitude4 ,fighting for a particular kind of man1 against centuries of false and unhealthy tradition1 it was necessary to bring forward the new ideal with every characteristic plainly1 emphatically and powerfully expressed2 for every characteristic of a new ideal is of the highest importance4 ,these new values of the ,renaissance spirit were scarcely one hundred years old1 when ,michelangelo set himself the task of embodying them in his sculpture and painting4 ,would it be fair to criticize him from the standpoint of ,egypt or even of ,greece8 ,from the standpoint of ,egypt he is disappointing4 ,the preponderance of characteristic traits over simplicity in his work spoils the power of his conceptions4 ,his prevailing lack of simplicity makes you guess at the youth of the values on which he stood1 and his tortuous bodies often make you question whether his types have entirely left the nerves of the ,gothic period behind them4 ,but are not all these defects precisely of a kind which are unfortunately inseparable from the position which ,michelangelo assumed8 ,he was the greatest of the ,renaissance artists4 ,in criticizing him1 ,i have said all that can be said1 from this particular standpoint1 of his predecessors and contemporaries4 ,his power lies in the forcibleness1 the exhilaration1 the exuberance and the wealth with which he brings forward his type4 ,it lies in his absolute contempt of seductive prettiness1 his sometimes terrible strength1 his vehemence and his energy1 and above all in his magnificent conceptions and the types with which he illustrates them4 ,compared with the art from which it had sprung1 his art was stupendous4 ,and where he is weak1 compared with a higher--and by no means a modern --concept of art1 he suffers from the virtues of his position as a fighter and as an innovator4 ,in valuing him1 as ,i said in my first lecture1 it all depends whence you come4 ,if you hail from ,europe of the nineteenth and twentieth century1 you can but go on your knees before him4 ,if you hail from ,memphis of the year #djjj ,b4,c41 you can but criticize and feel ill at ease before his work4 ,i have not yet said anything concerning the relation of the ,renaissance artists to ,greece1 simply because1 taking in view the circumstances of their development1 the relation seems fairly obvious4 ,in discussing the art of ,greece itself1 however1 the matter will probably appear quite clear to you4 ,how much of the transfiguration in late ,renaissance art is actually due to ,greek influence1 or to the ,dionysian spirit of the age1 it is difficult to determine4 ,in my opinion1 the latter influence was more potent1 and to the ,greek influence ,i should be more prepared to ascribe the spur which originally led to the adoption of a thoroughly ,pagan type4 #bi ,kraus1 in his ,geschichte der christlichen ,kunst1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 denies that the revival of the antique was predominant in the ,renaissance1 and argues that individualism and nature study were the prominent notes4 ,venturi1 the ,italian art-historian1 declares that the antique began to be paramount only in the sixteenth century1 and that with it the decadence began4 ,while ,eugne ,mntz1 in his monumental work1 ,l',histoire de l',art pendant la ,renaissance1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #db1 speaking of the two movements of the period1 says3 ,deux voies s'ouvraient aux novateurs1 ou le naturalisme outrance1 un naturalisme qui1 n'tant plus soutenu par les hautes aspirations du moyen ge1 risquait fort de sombrer dans la vulgarit 7l'exemple de ,paolo ,ucello1 d',andrea del ,castagna1 de ,pollajuolo l'a bien prouv7 ou bien la nature contrle1 purifie1 ennoblie par l'tude des modles anciens4 ,the latter was the later movement4 ,see also ,woltmann and ,woermann1 ,history of ,painting1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,introduction4 #cj ,muther1 in his ,history of ,painting1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #hg1 actually declares that ,jan van ,eyck and ,pisanello in their dainty manner remained ,gothic4 #ca ,of ,piero della ,francesca1 ,muther says1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ig3 ,he created the grammar of modern painting4444 ,four hundred years ago he proposed the problem of realism1 and endeavoured1 as the forerunner of the most modern artists1 to establish in what manner atmosphere changes colour impressions4 ,part ,,ii ,greece and ,egypt ,the land of ,egypt is before thee2 in the best of the land make thy father and brethren to dwell4--,genesis xlvii4 #f4 #a4 ,greek ,art4 ,i have now spoken to you of ,christian ,art1 and you have not been taken altogether by surprise2 because1 in ,england at least1 people are not unacquainted with the fight ,art has had with ,puritanism4 ,and you were1 therefore1 partly prepared for what ,i had to say4 ,the views ,i have expressed concerning the ,renaissance were not entirely new to you either1 and1 if they were1 ,i can only hope that they will assist you in giving to the ,art of that period its proper valuation4 ,now1 however1 ,i fear ,i am going to level a blow at what must seem to you even more sacred1 even more invulnerable and even more thoroughly established than either ,christian or ,renaissance ,art4 ,i refer to the ,art of ,greece4 ,albeit1 before ,i proceed with my task1 do not be surprised if1 like ,charles the ,first's executioner1 ,brandon1 ,i kneel to kiss the hand of my victim1 if only by so doing ,i may seem to you to understand the grave nature of my business1 and satisfy you that the blow ,i am about to deliver is prompted more by conviction than by that cheap irreverence for great things which is1 alas1 only too prevalent to-day4 ,goethe says somewhere that1 if we find fault with ,euripides at all we should do so on bended knees4 ,it seems to me that this ought also to be the attitude of people and critics in this age who attempt to value what the ,greeks achieved in the graphic arts4 ,for the earnestness and vigour wherewith1 collectively1 they set up their triumphs and ideals in stone and marble1 the moment any opportunity arose for them to affirm and exalt their type1 is deserving of the utmost praise and admiration4 ,too many great writers have exalted the ,greeks1 however1 to make it necessary for me to edify you with any long and enthusiastic praise of those qualities which ,nietzsche admired in them4 ,fairness alone1 therefore1 compels me to acknowledge the grandeur of the type their art advocates4 ,with ,nietzsche ,i can but extol the yea-saying of this type to the passions1 to beauty1 to health1 in fact to life4 ,the fearlessness of the ,greeks before beauty was their acknowledgment that life was a blessing to which it was worth while to be lured and seduced4 ,and their innocent acceptance of the strongest passions is sufficient to show to what extent they had not only mastered them1 but had also enlisted them into their service4 ,nevertheless1 though it is only decent to exercise some reserve in this matter1 it certainly is necessary to point to a curious fact in regard to ,greek ,art in general1 and that is1 that1 with the exception of some of its archaic examples1 it has been revered with ever-increasing fervour by strangers1 from the second century before ,christ to the present day1--when ,i say strangers1 ,i mean people whose thought and aspirations were not necessarily the outcome of ,hellenic values1--and that this general appreciation of ,greek ,art by foreigners implies that there is some quality in it which is only too common to everybody and to anybody1 irrespective of nationality and education4 ,if it were asked what this common factor was1 ,i should reply1 it is ,nature herself1 to which ,greek ,art1 in its so-called best period1 is undeniably in close and intimate relationship4 ,in examining the works of the seventh1 sixth and fifth centuries before ,christ1 it is well to bear in mind the peculiar state of the country in which they appeared1 its division into states1 and its mixed population4 ,it is well to think of the many ideals that dominated these people1 and of the fact that the citizen of one city was often regarded as an alien1 without any political rights whatever1 if he ventured to transfer his abode to another city but a few miles distant from his own2 and allowances should be made for the rivalry and competition this state of affairs conduced to bring about4 ,it is also well to remember the individual lives the colonists lived1 and the altered outlook on life to which their independent positions were bound to lead1 and which1 when they returned to their mother city1 as many of them used to do1 must have shed a new and strange light upon what they saw4 ,although a certain uniformity can be traced in the political history of most ,greek states1 no one would dare to maintain that the ,greeks1 at any time in their history1 were a perfectly united people observing the same values2 whilst even in the history of each separate state1 changes occurred so constantly that a stable political type is a rare and practically negligible fact4 ,in spite of the many heroes and geniuses which arose from time to time1 there never seems to have been that power1 either human or superhuman1 which might have welded these peoples indissolubly together1 or which1 taking its root in one of the contending races1 could have made that race completely absorb and digest the others4 ,even the games of ,greece1 which1 it might be argued1 tended to unite the various peoples1 cannot be said to have gone very far in this respect1 since the very fact that the ,hellenic nation enforced a sacred armistice during the month of the games1 between states that were at war1 shows that the most this institution could achieve was a suspension of arms4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 the fact that one can talk of different types as characteristic of particular schools or ideals is amply accounted for1 and when the general spirit of rivalry that animated the whole nation for centuries is duly taken into consideration it is not difficult to explain a certain preponderance of manifold characteristics over simplicity1 which is observable in the greater part of ,greek sculpture--a preponderance which sometimes led very rapidly to the crudest realism1 and which at other times approached realism only after a considerable lapse of time4 ,such phenomena are the inevitable result of that lack of the powerful master or ruler spirit who unifies and co-ordinates heterogeneity1 and who thereby makes simplification and powerful art possible1 as the outcome of relative permanency4#cb ,for1 when technique is largely mastered1 realism1 as ,i have shown in the case of ,medival and ,renaissance ,art1 may in a great measure be the outcome of a desire to make one's own particular ideal unmistakably plain1 and although this kind of truth to nature always reveals a clashing of values or types1 it is of a kind which may be regarded as infinitely superior to the realism which has nothing to say at all1 and which merely copies out of poverty of invention4 ,when talking to strangers about an ideal they do not share with you1 it is necessary to bring all your powers to bear upon an adequate and perfectly vivid representation of what you have in your mind4 ,i1 on this platform1 assuming that ,nietzsche as an art valuer was strange to you1 had to present him to you with all the realism and detail ,i could dispose of4 ,if ,i had been talking to people who knew the ,nietzschean views of art perfectly well1 ,i might have indulged in certain artistic simplifications and poetical transfigurations which ,i considered unsuited to the present circumstances4 ,this same feeling1 ,i believe1 partly explains the tendency to realism in ,greek art4 ,and it is precisely to this tendency to realism that ,i think it is now high time to call attention1 after all the fulsome praise which has for ages been lavished upon the products of the ,hellenic spirit4 ,when you turn to the granite statue of the ,egyptian goddess ,sekhet in the ,louvre1 or to the lions of ,gebel ,barkal in the ,egyptian ,gallery of the ,british ,museum1 you are conscious of a sensation of great strangeness1 of humiliating unfamiliarity1 of almost incalculable distance4 ,you may look at these things for a moment and wonder what they mean2 you may even pass on with a feeling of indifference amounting to scorn2#cc but whatever your sensations are1 you will be quite unable to deny that what you have seen does not belong to your world1 that it is utterly and completely separated from you1 and that you felt in need of a guide and of an initiator in its presence4 ,you may laugh at the lions of ,gebel ,barkal1 you may deny that they are beautiful2 but1 whoever you are1 scholar1 poet1 painter or layman1 you will admit that they are cruelly distant and strange1 terribly remote and uncommunicative4 ,a4 ,the ,parthenon4 ,now1 if you turn round and bear to the right in the ,egyptian ,gallery at the ,british ,museum1 you will find a broad passage lined with statues that seem very much more familiar to you than those which you are just leaving behind2 and1 in the distance1 you will espy the maimed figures of the ,eastern pediment of the ,parthenon4 ,in a moment you will be in the ,elgin ,room1 and everywhere about you you will see all that remains of the ancient temple of ,athens which is worth seeing4 ,if you have not been to ,athens1 you must not suppose that you have missed much1 as far as the ,parthenon is concerned4 ,unless you are very modern and very romantic1 and can take pleasure in visiting a gruesome ruin by moonlight1 you would be only depressed and disappointed by the decayed and ugly mass of stones that now stands like a battered skeleton on the ,acropolis4 ,you may take it1 therefore1 that1 as you stand in the ,elgin ,room1 you have around you the best that the ,parthenon could yield after its partial destruction and dismantlement in #afhg by the victorious ,veneto-,german army4 ,and what is it that you see8 ,remember that you are a man of the twentieth century ,a4,d41 and that you have just been bored to extinction by a walk in the ,egyptian ,gallery4 ,remember1 too1 that you have very few fixed opinions about ,art1 and that the artistic condition of your continent is one of chaos and anarchy4 ,in spite of all this1 however1 you will walk up to the horse's head at the extreme right of the ,eastern pediment of the ,parthenon1 and the two thousand and four hundred years that separate you from it will vanish as by magic4 ,for years ,i have taken men1 women and children up to this horse's head4 ,in some cases these people have been technical connoisseurs of a horse's points2 in others they have been mere bourgeois people1 indifferent both to the art of ,greece and to equine anatomy2 and with the children ,i was concerned with raw manhood that cared not a jot for ,art1 and whose one sole1 savage instinct was to recognize and classify what was before them4 ,if you supposed1 however1 that the verdict of these different people was anything but unanimous1 you would be vastly mistaken4 ,the children cried with delight4 ,their powers of recognizing things was stimulated to the utmost4 ,one of them told me it was like a real bus-horse4 ,the connoisseurs of a horse's points began to draw plausible conclusions from the existing head as to the probable conformation of the body which the artist had deliberately omitted1 and the bourgeois people declared that they loved the fascinating softness and convincing looseness of the mouth4--,all of them were charmed4 ,all of them understood4 ,not one of them felt that this horse held itself aloof from them and kept its distance1 as the austere ,egyptian lions had done4 ,and all of them were children of the twentieth century ,a4,d41 and over two thousand years separated them from the objects they were inspecting4 ,their comments on the ,parthenon ,frieze were much the same4 ,once or twice one of them would say that there was a monotonous similarity of feature in the men and in the horses--a comment which immediately revealed to me that #b1djj years had indeed wrought some change4 ,on the whole1 however1 the attitude of those ,i escorted amazed me2 for1 with but few exceptions1 it was one of sympathy and understanding4 ,i will not say that ,i did not stimulate their interest a good deal1 by making them feel that their criticism was valuable to me2 ,i will not pretend that if they had been alone they would have troubled to concentrate their minds to any great extent upon the exhibits around them2 but this ,i will affirm1 with absolute confidence3 that if all the men1 women and children who stream through the ,elgin ,room daily were given the same stimulus to exercise their critical faculty1 and were similarly induced to give particular attention to all they saw1 the sympathy and understanding which ,i observed among the groups of visitors ,i escorted would be found to be a fairly general1 if not a common occurrence4 ,illustration3 ,the ,apollo of ,tenea1 ,glyptothek1 ,munich4 ,b4 ,the ,apollo of ,tenea4 ,take the same people down to the ,cast ,room and show them the ,apollo of ,tenea1 and what will they say8 ,when ,i first halted before this bewilderingly beautiful statue in the ,glyptothek at ,munich1 ,i felt ,i was in the presence of something very much more masterful1 very much more impressive1 and infinitely more commanding than anything ,greek ,i had ever seen in ,london1 ,paris1 or ,athens4 ,here was a style which was strange4 ,but it was evidently a style which was the product of a will1 and of a long observance of particular values that had at last culminated in a type2 for this ,apollo resembled nothing modern1 ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,medival1 or of the ,renaissance4 ,this statue scorns to make a general appeal4 ,it is the apotheosis of a type4 ,of this there can be no question4 ,it is the work of a loving and powerful artist1 who could simplify the human frame1 and express stenographically1 so to speak1 the essential features of the people he represented1 because he knew the essential features to which their values aspired4 ,the arms1 alone1 transcend everything that ,i have ever seen in ,hellenic ,art for consummate skill in transfiguring and retaining bare essentials alone2 and although1 here and there1 particularly in the breast1 there is a broadness and a sweeping ease1 which ,i admit ought to be attributed more to incomplete control of essentials than to their actual simplification1 the whole figure breathes a spirit so pure1 so certain and so sound1 that it is the nearest approach ,i can find in ,greek ,art to that ideal artistic fact in which the particular values of a people find their apotheosis in the transfigured and simplified example of their type4 ,i would deny that the qualities of this statue are not ultimate qualities4 ,i would deny that there is anything transitional or archaic in them4 ,what is archaic1 what is transitional1 is the weak treatment of the chest and abdomen4 ,compared with the simplified chest and abdomen of an ,egyptian statue of the fourth or fifth dynasty1 it shows a minimum rather than a maximum of command of1 and superiority over1 reality4 ,any healthy development of such an art1 however1 ought only to have led to greater perfection in the treatment of the parts mentioned1 and ,i seriously question the general belief that it marks a progress in sculpture which must ultimately lead to the rendering of the athletic types for which the sculptors of ,argos and ,sicyon became famous4 ,there is something strange and foreign in this statue which does not reappear in the ,hellenic ,art of the ,periclean age4#cd ,like the vases of the sixth century and some of the ante-,periclean ,acropolis statues1 there is a ,ruler form in its execution that makes quite a limited appeal-- a fact which would be consistent with its having been the apotheosis of a type4 ,its exhortation is not directed at mankind in general4 ,it communicates little to the modern ,european1 and the crowds that stream through the ,elgin ,room of the ,british ,museum would probably pass it by without either sympathy or understanding4 ,and yet1 as ,i have shown1 it cannot be regarded as a perfect specimen of ,ruler-art2 there are too many uncertainties and too many doubts in it4 ,as marking an advanced stage in a very high class of ,ruler-art1 however1 it is magnificent1 and any transformation of its form to greater realism would be a descent1 rather than an ascent1 in taste4 ,if you turn from it to the sculptures of the temple of ,selinus1 which1 as far as one can say1 must have been carved not more than about half a century earlier1 you will see that these are indeed archaic4 ,they are beneath realism in their coarseness and crudity4 ,but it is in the sculptures of ,selinus1 and not in the ,apollo of ,tenea1 or in the best vases of the sixth century1 that you must seek the motive spirit of the ,art which has made the ,periclean age so glorious2 ,this striving after realism1 although unsuccessful in the metopes of ,selinus1 reveals a different aspiration1 a totally different will1 from that which created the ,munich ,apollo1 and it was precisely this aspiration that was fully realized1 with but a slight admixture of the other will1 in ,athens of the fifth century4 ,some will say that ,egyptian influence is apparent in the ,apollo of ,tenea1 and they will add that the ,greek colonists in ,selinus1 finding themselves in very close contact with their commercial rivals the ,phnicians1 very naturally scorned all ,eastern canons and ideas when erecting their temples4 ,both of these suggestions are perfectly legitimate4 ,the ,apollo of ,tenea either betrays ,egyptian influence or1 owing to its ,ruler form1 it takes one's mind back involuntarily to the ,ruler-art of the ,nile4 ,the sculptures of ,selinus may also be the outcome of the conscious renunciation of ,eastern influence1 or they may be the manifestation of a particular ,art-,will1 as ,worringer has it1 which aimed at realism and was quite guiltless of any other ulterior motive4 ,in both cases ,i favour the latter alternative1 and ,i should like to believe that in addition to the influences ,i have already mentioned in respect of realism there were two ,art-,wills active in ancient ,greece--each striving for supremacy and power4 ,c4 ,the two ,art-,wills of ,ancient ,greece4 ,i cannot see how any one rising from a study of ,hellenic ,art can arrive at any other conclusion4 ,a superior will aiming at a ,ruler-art form is the one1 an inferior will aiming at realism is the other4 ,and it is a significant fact1 that while the first will sent forth its last blooms in the sixth century--a period when1 according to ,freeman1 ,hellenic life readied its zenith1#ce the ultimate triumphs of the other and inferior will1 in the fifth century1 marks the first stage in a decline that was never to be arrested4#cf ,illustration3 ,the ,medusa ,metope of ,sellinus1 ,palermo4 ,this is not the usual view1 ,i know4 ,as a rule1 the art of the age of ,pericles is considered to be the highest that ,greece ever produced4 ,but in this art ,i see a preponderance of realism which reveals to what extent the other and inferior will was beginning to prevail4 ,and when ,i study ,hellenistic art1 and see this evil assuming such proportions as to make even modern historians and ,art-scholars deliberately denounce it1 ,i cannot help but recognize the germs of this decay in the art which hitherto has been most praised and admired4 ,as ,i say1 ,i am judging purely from the artistic records4 ,but ,i have no doubt that1 if ,i possessed the necessary scholarship1 ,i could trace the two ,art-wills to two distinct races of men who1 from the days of the fall of ,mycenan culture1 strove for mastership in ,greece4 ,i also entertain no doubts that the fall of ,greece might be attributed to the gradual triumph of that race which possessed the inferior ,art-will1 and nothing ,i have read1 either in ,grote1 ,bury1 ,oman1 ,curtius1 ,schnaase1 ,miss ,harrison and others1 has led me seriously to hesitate before suggesting this hypothesis4 ,professor ,ridgeway's ,early ,age of ,greece leads me to suppose that the problem might be solved in the way ,i suggest4 ,but1 in any case1 whether this is so or not1 the style of the art of ,pheidias shows a descent from the style of the ,apollo of ,tenea1 which only an age with a mistaken conception of what art really is could possibly have overlooked4 ,the art of the fifth and fourth centuries1 ,i will not and cannot deny1 contains a large proportion of ,ruler form1 or what modern and ancient art-historians call the ideal4#cg ,no people1 any portion of which had been capable of producing the ,apollo of ,tenea1 could have avoided it2 but that it preponderates in realism1 the evidence of history1 alone1 apart from that of our own senses1 proves beyond a doubt4 ,the appreciation which it has met with at the hands of almost all ,europeans of all ages1 and particularly at the hands of the ,renaissance realists1 shows how general its appeal has been2 and no art which has been so very much above ,nature as to apotheosize the particular values of a particular people at its zenith1 has ever made such a general appeal4 ,d4 ,greek ,painting4 ,in regard to the painting of ,greece1 ,i will not detain you long4 ,practically all ,i have said in regard to ,greek sculpture may be applied with equal force to ,greek painting1 and ,i cannot do better than sum up this side of the question with the words of that profound ,japanese artist ,okakura-,kakuzo4 ,in speaking of the great style of the ,greeks1 in painting--a style which vanished with the sixth century1--he says-- ,the great style of the ,greeks in painting--that style which was theirs before a stage chiaroscuro and imitation of ,nature were brought in by the ,appellesian school1--rises up before us with ineffaceable regret 444 and we cannot refrain from saying that ,european work1 by following the later school1 has lost greatly in power of structural composition and line expression1 though it has added to the facility of realistic representation4#ch ,when it is remembered that the demands of theatrical scenery are generally admitted to have exercised considerable influence over ,greek painting1 we need feel no surprise at the necessarily vulgar nature of its ultimate development2 while in raising this point about chiaroscuro1 ,okakura-,kakuzo really opens a very serious and needful inquiry4 ,it may be seriously questioned whether the chiaroscuro which ,apollodorus is said to have introduced in the fifth century was not the worst possible blow that has ever been levelled at ,ruler-,art1 and it is difficult to separate this discovery from the people who made it4 ,once it is recognized that chiaroscuro implies a blending of colours together1 an elimination of all those sharp contrasts which the compromising spirit of a democratic age cannot abide1 and a general hugging and embracing of all colours by each other1 at the cost of the life of all definite lines2 once it is acknowledged1 moreover1 that all gradations and blurred zones of contact lead inevitably to the very worst forms of ,police ,art1 such as ,zeuxis1 ,parrhasius and ,timanthus practised1 and that escape from realism is not only difficult1 but almost impossible under such conditions1 the question whether ,apollodorus is to be praised or cursed becomes a very weighty and vital one2 and in saying that he ought to be cursed1 ,i make a very important statement1 however unreasonable it may seem to you at present4 ,you have noticed that until now ,i have not compared the ,periclean art of ,greece with the art of any other country1 but simply with what is generally called the archaic art of ,greece itself4 ,i have spoken ,only of the ,apollo of ,tenea1 and of certain promising features in the sixth-century sculptures which were discovered on the ,acropolis within recent years4 #cb ,see ,edward ,a4 ,freeman1 ,the ,chief ,periods of ,european ,history1 p4 #f3 ,the mission of the ,greek race was to be the teachers1 the beacons1 of mankind1 but not their rulers4 ,page #i3 ,the tale of ,hellas shows us a glorified ideal of human powers1 held up to the world for a moment to show what man can be1 but to show us also that such he cannot be for long4 #cc ,the attitude of such men as ,lbke and ,winckelmann to ,egyptian art is typical of the lack of understanding with which modern ,europeans have approached the monuments of the ,nile4 ,see ,history of ,sculpture1 by ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,lbke1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bb-be1 and ,history of ,ancient ,art1 by ,john ,winckelmann1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #afi1 #aga1 #age4 #cd ,this view seems quite opposed to that of a great authority on the subject1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,murray2 but how this author comes to the conclusion that 444 in describing the progress of sculpture from its early days to its highest development1 it is convenient to speak of it as a gradual elimination of realism1 ,i am quite at a loss to understand4 ,see ,a ,history of ,greek ,sculpture1 p4 #bci4 #ce ,see ,the ,chief ,periods of ,european ,history1 pp4 #ba-bc4 ,see also ,bury1 ,history of ,greece1 ,chaps4 ,,iv and ,v4 #cf ,in studying the actual decline of ,greek art it would1 ,i think1 be very necessary to lay some stress upon the part taken by the people in general1 in judging and criticizing artistic productions under the democracies4 ,see ,rev4 ,j4 ,mahaffy 7,social ,life in ,greece71 who is talking entirely from the ,hellenic standpoint1 p4 #ddj3 ,the really vital point was the public nature of the work they 7the ,athenian ,demos7 demanded2 it was not done to please private and peculiar taste1 it was not intended for the criticism of a small clique of partial admirers1 but it was set up1 or performed for all the city together1 for the fastidious1 for the vulgar1 for the learned1 and for the ignorant4 ,it seems to me that this necessity1 and the consequent broad intention of the ,greek artist1 is the main reason why its effects upon the world has never been diminished1 and why its lessons are eternal 7the italics are mine74 #cg ,t4 ,g4 ,tucker1 in his ,life in ,ancient ,greece1 does his best to reconcile the realism of ,greek art with the ideal1 and helps himself out of the difficulty by reasserting ,schelling's claim in ,the ,philosophy of ,art 7see note to p4 #ia in this book74 ,mr4 ,tucker says1 p4 #ahf3 ,many people imagine that ,greek sculpture--to take that salient province again--deliberately avoided truth to ,nature1 and aimed at some utterly conventional thing called the ideal4 ,nothing could be more mistaken4 ,the whole aim of ,greek sculpture was to reproduce the living man or woman1 and the sublime of its execution was attained only when the carving seemed instinct with life--a life not merely of the limbs1 but a life of the soul1 which informed the countenance1 and was felt to be controlling every limb4 ,a ,greek sculptor like ,praxiteles studied long and lovingly4444 ,to anatomy he is as true as an artist need wish to be4 ,but are not his figures ideal8 ,doubtless1 but what does 'ideal' mean8 ,that they are abstract1 conventional1 or frankly superhuman8 ,anything but that4 ,it means simply that he carves figures which1 while entirely true to strict anatomy1 entirely lifelike in all their delicate modelling 444 are examples of nature in happiest circumstances4444 #ch ,ideals of the ,east1 p4 #ec4 #b4 ,egyptian ,art4--,a4 ,king ,khephrn4 ,if1 however1 ,i now choose to compare the art of the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia1 and the ,parthenon at ,athens#ci with that of ,egypt1 the first falls absolutely to pieces4 ,if ,i walk from the lions of ,gebel ,barkal1 which ,reginald ,stuart ,poole considers as the finest example of the idealization of animal forms that any age has produced1#dj over to the horses of the ,parthenon1 the latter seem poor1 feeble1 and slavish beside the powerfully simplified and commanding work of ,egypt4 ,and if1 with vivid recollections of the diorite statue of ,king ,khephrn at ,cairo1 ,i walk up to the best ,greek work of the ,periclean age1 or after1 either in ,london or ,paris1 ,i marvel at the denseness of an age which can put the ,egyptian ,pharaoh second in the order of rank4 ,illustration3 ,king ,khephrn1 ,cairo ,museum ,we now know too much to believe that the noble simplicity of ,king ,khephrn--the builder of the second pyramid of ,gizeh--is the result of incompetence or of limited means in dealing with the stone out of which he was carved4 ,no artist who follows the careful lines and profiles of this statue1 and who understands the broad grasp with which each undulation1 however sweeping1 comprehends and comprises all that is essential and indispensable1 can doubt for an instant that the sculptor who carved it was not only capable of realism1 but infinitely superior to it4 ,and he who does not admire the consummate ,ruler form of this statue1 and see in it the expression of the greatest artistic power that has ever existed on earth1 and probably the portrait of the greatest human power that has ever existed on earth1 confesses himself1 immediately1 unfamiliar with the fundamental spirit of great art4#da ,the type of ,king ,khephrn it is quite impossible to admire and to like1 unless one is to some extent in sympathy with his ideals and his aspirations4 ,his features will remain strange and quite inscrutable as long as one does not feel one's self leaning1 however slightly1 to his side1 in thought and emotion2 but the masterly treatment of his apotheosized portrait by a man who was probably his greatest artist1 ought to be apparent to all who have thought and meditated upon the question of what constitutes the greatest art4 ,here is to be seen that autocratic mode of expression which brooks neither contradiction nor disobedience2 the ,symmetry which makes the spectator obtain a complete grasp of an idea2 the ,sobriety which reveals the restraint that a position of command presupposes2 the ,simplicity proving the power of a great mind that has overcome the chaos in itself and has reflected its order and harmony upon an object1 the most essential features of which it has selected with unfailing accuracy2 the ,transfiguration that betrays the ,dionysian ecstasy and pathos from which the artist gives of himself to reality and makes it reflect his own glory back upon him2 the ,repetition which ensures obedience1 and finally the ,variety which is the indispensable condition of all living ,art4#db ,for the artist who carved this monument was no coward4 ,his duty was to surpass the beauty of the most beautiful subject on earth in his time4 ,this man whom he has bequeathed to us in stone was not only a king1 but a god1 and none but the most masterful mind1 none but the most ultimate product of ages spent in the observance of a definite and particular set of values1 could have been capable of giving this simplified rendering1 this selection of essentials1 of a man-god who was the highest outcome of these same values4 ,how was this possible8 ,how were these values maintained so long8 ,in the first place1 it can now be affirmed with confidence that the ,egyptians1 in the days of ,khephrn1 were a very pure and united race1 having remained1 thanks to their isolated position on the ,delta of the ,nile1 aloof and free from the ethical and blood influence of the foreigner for probably thousands of years4 ,secondly1 everybody seems to agree that1 whatever its ultimate purity may have been1 the ,egyptian people1 thanks to the inordinate power of their values1 certainly had a capacity for absorbing and digesting foreign elements which was simply extraordinary2#dc and1 thirdly1 we have it on the authority of ,wilkinson that the superiority of their legislation has always been acknowledged as the cause of the duration of an empire which lasted with a very uniform succession of hereditary sovereigns1 and with the same form of government for a much longer period than the generality of ancient states4#dd ,we can understand ,king ,khephrn1 then1 only as the apotheosis of a type which was the product of the values of his people4 ,for that they loved him and worshipped him quite willingly and quite heartily1 no honest student of their history can any longer doubt4 ,it was with great rejoicings1 and not1 as ,buckle and ,spencer thought1 with the woeful and haggard faces of ill-used slaves1 that his people assembled annually to continue and to complete the building of his pyramid4 ,dr4 ,henry ,brugsch-,bey1 ,wilkinson1 ,dr4 ,petrie1#de and many others have cleared up all our doubts on this point1 and only an ,englishman like ,buckle1#df who could not divorce labour from the modern idea of sweating1 and absolute monarchy from the modern idea of cruelty1 and slavery from the modern idea of brutality1#dg was able to think otherwise4 ,for it was highly probable that ,king ,khephrn had no standing army4 ,it is certain that his predecessor had not4#dh ,it is even probable that he had no armed bodyguard4 ,what1 then1 was the power which1 every year1 could muster thousands of his fellow-countrymen about him1 and which induced them cheerfully to undertake this most strenuous1 this most skilful1 and this most highly artistic labour for him8 ,this power1 there can no longer be any doubt1 was the power of affection and profound and sincere reverence4 ,an examination of the pyramids of ,gizeh1 alone1 apart from all historical evidence1 is sufficient to convince any one who has any knowledge of what forced labour produces1 that love was very largely active in the work of these ,egyptians of the third and fourth dynasties2#di and1 if we turn from the actual monuments themselves to the sculpture that adorned them1 we become convinced that the people who built them were a united1 law-abiding race1 who recognized in ,khephrn the highest product of their values4 ,and yet1 that enormous power was wielded by this one man-god1 is proved by every detail that history and the archological records have handed down to us4 ,he was the remote predecessor of a king who one day would be able to declare-- ,i teach the priests what is their duty3 ,i turn away the ignorant man from his ignorance4444 ,the gods are full of delight in my time1 and their temples celebrate feasts of joy4 ,i have placed the boundaries of the land of ,egypt at the horizon4 ,i gave protection to those who were in trouble1 and smote those who did evil against them4 ,i placed ,egypt at the head of all the nations1 because its inhabitants are at one with me in the worship of ,amon6#ej ,he was a man the moral standards of whose people were in many respects higher than those of the ,greeks2#ea he and his subjects felt very strongly the value of strength of character and of self-control2#eb though perhaps they laid greater stress upon discretion and quietness than on any qualities of character4 ,in the repudiation of sins an ,egyptian would say3 ',my mouth hath not run on2' ',my mouth hath not been hot2' ',my voice hath not been voluble in my speech2' ',my voice is not loud4'#ec ,ptahotep urged similar discreetness2 he said3 ',let thy heart be overflowing1 but let thy mouth be restrained4'#ed ,while another ,egyptian moralist said3 ,do not be a talker6#ee ,thus we find all the evidences of precisely that principle which goes to rear a great people--the belief that restraint is necessary1 and part of the art of life1 and that in order to have one group of advantages1 another group must be sacrificed4 ,for this is the principle of all great legislation2 it is the principle of all great art1--and it is the principle of all great life4 ,a great legislator has to discover what sacrifices his people can afford to make1 what things they will be able for ever to discard in order to reap the advantages of a certain mode of life4 ,his teaching must include restraint4 ,it is the renunciation of some things and the careful cultivation of others that builds up a noble type4 ,as ,mr4 ,chesterton once observed1 with really uncustomary wisdom1 you cannot be ,king of ,england and the ,beadle of ,balham at the same time4 ,to be the one you must sacrifice the advantages which are associated with the other4 ,all values1 all art1#ef and all life is based upon this principle--that if you grasp all1 you lose all2 or1 as ,nietzsche has it3 ,the belief in the pleasure which comes of restraint--this pleasure of a rider on a fiery steed4#eg ,you may argue that the enjoyment of one set of joys is better in your opinion than the enjoyment of another set2 but you cannot claim the enjoyment of all2 that is impossible4 ,it is only among an uncultured or democratic people that every one aspires to all pleasures1 and it is precisely among such a people that some form of ,puritanism becomes an urgent need--that is to say1 as a substitute for the art of life4#eh ,because the indiscriminate pursuit of all joys perforce ends in failure1 and therefore in unhappiness4 ,but measure is the delight only of sthetic natures2#ei hence1 where the art of living has not yet been learned1 some kind of severe puritanical morality will be a condition of existence1 and if that is dropped excesses will soon begin to make their presence felt4 ,i do not wish you to imagine1 therefore1 that the ,egyptians were an austere1 ascetic and self-castigating race2 on the contrary1 as all authorities declare1 they were full of the joy of life and of the love of life2#fj and it was precisely because they recognized well-defined limits in particular things that they could allow themselves a certain margin in others4 ,in the art of ,egypt ,i recognized this principle of restraint1 long before ,i discovered that it existed in their life and system of society1 and ,i was not surprised to find it observed with greater severity by their rulers than by the mass of the people themselves4#fa ,no one can command who has not first learnt to obey his own will4 ,nobody could command as that ,man-,god ,khephrn commanded1#fb before he had become complete master of himself4 ,he who cannot command himself shall obey1 says ,zarathustra4#fc ,and about five thousand years ago ,ptahotep--the great moralist of the fifth dynasty of ,egypt--said3 ,he that obeyeth his heart1 shall command6#fd ,this atmosphere is strange to us4 ,we1 who are used to seeing liberty and authority granted indiscriminately as ends in themselves1 to everybody and anybody1 find it difficult to realize this manner of thought4 ,if we know of it at all1 we misunderstand it and confound the moderation of weak natures with the restraint of the strong4#fe ,this art of life which takes as a fundamental principle that every joy is bought by some sacrifice1 is strange and archaic now4 ,the people it reared communicate little to our age1 as their statues will prove if you look at them2 the art it created leaves modern spectators cold2 and yet1 as every great legislator and artist should know1 it is precisely upon the principle with which the ,egyptian people of the fourth dynasty were reared1 and with which the splendid statue of ,king ,khephrn was carved1 that all great life and art repose4 ,it cannot be said too often1 therefore1 that the ,egyptians were a happy and contented people1 and this they were because there was some power abroad in their world1 and because he who wielded that power could make them believe that the human race was as high as a pyramid1 although but one man perhaps could ever represent the apex4 ,b4 ,the ,lady ,nophret4 ,but you may object that in some of the works of this period the ,egyptian artists showed a lack of restraint1 a lack of the instinct that knows how much to sacrifice1 which far surpassed this same vice in the art of the ,greeks4 ,you may point to the perfectly stupendous realism of the ,lady ,nophret and her husband or brother1 and declare with ,fergusson that nothing more wonderfully truthful and realistic has been done since that time1 till the invention of photography4#ff ,illustration3 ,the ,lady ,nophret 7,cairo ,museum7 ,i confess that when ,i drew near to these statues in the ,museum at ,cairo1 it is no exaggeration to say that ,i was literally startled by their lifelike appearance4 ,like ,miss ,jane ,harrison1 ,i felt that the ,lady ,nophret1 at least1 must be able to rise and come forward1#fg so ridiculously fresh and warm did she appear in her spotless white dress and her majestic wig4 ,i soon realized that ,i was in the presence of a kind of realism which transcended anything ,i had ever seen in ancient or modern art1 for its convincingness and truth2 and it was difficult to believe that this piece of wholesale deception--certainly more perfect than any waxwork figure ,i had ever known1--like the statue of the ,man-,god ,khephrn1 was a product of the pyramid period4 ,you must not gather1 from what ,i have just said1 that the ,lady ,nophret is in the slightest degree as vulgar or as commonplace as an ordinary waxwork figure or modern portrait4 ,though its vitality cannot be denied1#fh there are artistic qualities in the simple moulding of the figure which place it very much higher than the realistic work either of ancient ,greece or of modern ,europe4 ,it is only beside the statue of ,king ,khephrn that it appears so weak2 and1 as it is almost a contemporary of this magnificent person1 the manner in which it has been presented to us by the artist seems to be a problem4 ,the first lesson it teaches you is this--that whatever you may think about the conventionalism of ,king ,khephrn1 such conventionalism has nothing whatever to do with archaic clumsiness1 inability to see ,nature1 or incompetence4 ,it is clear that the ,egyptians were greater masters in rendering nature realistically than any people before or after them4#fi ,if they had not been1 they could never have produced the portrait-statues of the architect ,ti2 the two portrait-statues of ,ranofir1 priest of ,ptah of ,memphis1 and that of the ,scribe and of the ,cheikh-el-,beled#gj--;all in the museum at ,cairo4 ,when they are not realistic1 then1 it is because they do not wish to be2 it is because they deliberately desire to rise above nature1 to transfigure it1 simplify it1 and arrange it--in fact1 to be artists4 ,what1 then1 was the object of these realistic portrait-statues about which ,i have chosen to speak collectively in my references to the ,lady ,nophret8 ,they were never intended by the artist who made them to be seen by the eye of man4 ,they were never intended to be works of ,ruler-art1 set up to emphasize and underline the values of a people4 ,they had a definite purpose1 of course1 but this purpose was quite foreign to that of ,art as ,i defined it in my last lecture4 ,what was this purpose8 ,it was related to ,death4#ga ,no realistic sculptural work was associated with ,life by the ancient ,egyptians4 ,as men who were still able to believe in a ,man-,god1 and were still convinced of the power of man-wrought miracles1 how could they associate realism or that principle of manufacture whereby a man deliberately suppresses his will to art and makes himself subservient to nature--how could they associate this with ,life1--,life which to these dwellers on the ,nile was inextricably bound up with the hand1 the thought1 the will1 and the power of man8 ,no--these realistic sculptures which throw all our puerile ,police ,art into the shade were associated not with ,life1 but with the opposite of ,life--with ,death1 with underground tombs and sarcophagi1 with mummies and musty mastabas1 and with the hope of conquering ,eternal ,sleep4 ,the ,egyptians believed that a living man consisted of a body1 a ,ka or ghost1 and a ,ba or soul4 ,at death1 the ,ka and ,ba were supposed to be liberated2 but it was hoped that a day would nevertheless come when the ,ka1 which was the element in which the life of the deceased person was specially believed to reside1 would come back to the body and effect its resurrection4 ,hence the care with which a body was embalmed and preserved from putrefaction4 ,accidents1 however1 might happen1 thought the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the embalmed mummy might perish1 it might be destroyed4 ,what would the unfortunate ,ka do1 if it returned and found the mummy of its former body annihilated8 ,a way out of this difficulty quickly occurred to the nimble minds of these imaginative people4 ,if the mummy had perished1 they thought1 the ,ka might possibly enter an effigy of its former body1 provided that effigy were sufficiently lifelike4 ,in this way the realistic ,ka-statues were introduced1 and for fear lest even these might perish1 wealthy people would sometimes multiply their number to what would seem a ridiculous extent4 ,once they were manufactured1 these ,ka-statues would be placed far away from the sight of living man1 in the tomb of the departed person1 and in this way his resurrection was supposed to be ensured4#gb ,for the ,egyptians could imagine no world better than their own4 ,and even a resurrection could but occur amid surroundings which were as like as possible to those of everyday life on earth4 ,the realism of the ,ka-statue of the ,lady ,nophret1 therefore1 need not frighten us4 ,on the contrary1 it only helps to throw the transfiguration and power of ,king ,khephrn's diorite statue into greater relief4 ,the ,egyptians knew perfectly well that a ,ka-statue was only a duplication1 a copy1 and a repetition of reality1 and they knew also that its proper place was underground and out of sight4#gc ,if ,lady ,nophret and her companion ,ka-statues had never been found1 however1 we might have believed1 as many have believed1 that the conventionalism of ,egyptian sculpture was beneath instead of very much above ,nature4 ,but even when we know what we do know1 it is only with the utmost difficulty that an artist who is a child of this weak and impotent age can feel any love for these strange1 transcendentally powerful1 and almost superhuman figures in granite and diorite which the sculptors of ,egypt have left us4 ,the artist may perhaps get nearer to them than any one else in his age1 because he1 by virtue of the modicum of creative power that is in him1 initiates himself almost automatically into the mysteries of this great ,egyptian simplicity1 order1 and transfiguration4 ,but others who are not artists can only pass them by4 ,for these figures are the apotheosis of a particular type4 ,they are what all art should be1 a stimulus1 and a spur to a life based upon a definite set of values4 ,how1 then1 could people stop and admire them who are living under values which are possibly the very reverse of those which this art advocates1 or under no definite values at all8 ,the style of the statue of ,king ,khephrn1 with but a few modifications1 was the style of all ,egyptian statuary until the days of ,psammetichus1 over two thousand years later3 how can we1 the changeable and restless children of ,europe1 understand these things8 ,c4 ,the ,pyramid4 ,how can we admire and understand even the symbol of ,king ,khephrn's social organization--the ,pyramid1 when we know and love only the level plain8 ,the ,pyramid1 which in its form embodies all the highest qualities of great art1 and all the highest principles of a healthy society1 is the greatest artistic achievement that has been discovered hitherto4 ,this symbolic wedlock of ,art and ,sociology still stands1 with all its six thousand years of age1 on the threshold of the desert--that is to say1 on the threshold of chaos and disorder1 where none but the wind attempts to shape and to form2 and reminds us of a master will that once existed and set its eternal stamp upon the face of the world in ,egypt1 so that posterity might learn whether mankind had risen or declined4 ,in its synthesis of the three main canons1 simplicity1 repetition and variety1#gd nothing has ever excelled it2 in its mystic utterance of the conditions of the ideal state1 in which every member takes his place and ultimately succeeds in holding highest man uppermost and nearest the sun1 it is unparalleled in history2 and in its sacred revelation that ,man can attain to some height if he chooses1 that he can believe in ,man the ,god1 and ,man the ,hierophant1 and ,man the ,prophet1 if he chooses1 and that he can be noble1 happy1 lasting and powerful in so doing--in this treble advocacy of these sublime ideals1 the pyramid and the ,egyptians who created it stand absolutely alone in the history of the world4 ,the best in ,greece was borrowed from them2 the best we still possess is perhaps but a faint after-glow of their setting sun1 and the cold and unfamiliar tone in which their art seems to appeal to modern men ought to prove to us how remote1 how incalculably far off1 they are from our insignificant age of progress and advancement1 of feebleness and mediocrity1 and of hopeless errors1 in which the prince proposes1 but the shopkeeper disposes6#ge ,i cannot go into the details of their society with you now4 ,i can but assure you that the more you read about it in the works of men like ,wilkinson1 ,petrie and ,brugsch-,bey1 the more convinced you will become of its transcendental superiority4 ,and if1 in praising their art above that of any other nation1 ,i have been forced to deal all too hastily with their morals and their ,state1 it is simply because ,i can conceive of no such perfect art being possible1 save as the flower of the noble and man-exalting values which ,i find at the base of the ,egyptian ,pyramid4 ,in identifying ,nietzsche's art canon with that admired and respected by ,egypt at its best1 ,i have done nothing at all surprising to those who know ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,everything he says on ,art in his maturest work1 ,the ,will to ,power1 drove me inevitably1 not to ,italy1 not to ,greece1 not to ,holland1 and not to ,india--but to the ,valley of the ,nile2 while in two books already published ,i forestalled these lectures1 in one respect1 by declaring ,nietzsche's ideal aristocratic state to have been based symbolically upon the idea of the ,egyptian ,pyramid4 ,only a romantic idealist would have the sentimental fanaticism to stand up before you now to preach an ,egyptian ,renaissance4 ,i wish to do nothing of the sort4 ,i know too well to what extent the ,art of ,egypt was the product of a people reared by a definite set of inviolable values1 to hope to transplant it with any chance of success on to our democratic and anarchical soil4 ,what ,i do wish to advocate1 however1 is1 that when you think of the best in ,art1 your mind should go back to the severe and vigorous culture of ,egypt and not to that of any other country4 ,this will at least give you a standard of measurement1 according to which most of the culture of the present day will strike you as tawdry and putrescent4 ,in this way a salutary change may be brought about1 and the words of ,disraeli concerning the ,egyptians may also come true1 in which he said3 ,the day may yet come when we shall do justice to the high powers of that mysterious and imaginative people4#gf ,nothing can be done1 however1 until our type is purified1#gg until we have at least become a people4 ,for until that time it will be impossible to discover a type which may become the subject-matter of the graphic arts4 ,upwards life striveth to build itself with columns and stairs3 into remote distances it longeth to gaze3 and outwards after blissful beauties--therefore it needeth height6 ,and because it needeth height1 it needeth stairs and contradiction between stairs1 and those who can climb6 to rise striveth life1 and in rising to surpass itself6 ,verily1 he who here towered aloft his thought in stone knew as well as the wisest ones about the secret of life6 ,that there is struggle and inequality even in beauty and war for power and supremacy3 that doth he here teach us in the plainest parable4 ,thus spake ,zarathustra4#gh #ci ,i am quite willing with ,mr4 ,gardner to acknowledge the superiority of the latter over the former4 ,see ,handbook to ,greek ,sculpture1 p4 #baf et seq4 #dj ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7#ith ,edition71 ,article1 ,egypt4 #da ,see ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,a ,history of ,egypt4 ,on page #ed of this book1 the author says1 speaking of ,king ,khephrn3 ,it is a marvel of art2 the precision of the expression combining what a man should be to win our feelings1 and what a ,king should be to command our regard4 ,the subtlety shown in this combination of expression--the ingenuity in the over-shadowing hawk1 which does not interfere with the front view2 the technical ability in executing this in so resisting a material--all unite in fixing our regard on this as one of the leading examples of ancient art4 #db ,georges ,perrot and ,charles ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bci3 ,the true originality of the ,egyptian style consists in its deliberately epitomizing that upon which the artists of other countries have elaborately dwelt--in its lavishing all its executive powers upon chief masses and leading lines1 and in the marvellous judgment with which it seizes their real meaning1 their proportion1 and the sources of their artistic effect4 #dc ,a ,history of ,egypt1 by ,dr4 ,henry ,brugsch-,bey1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #g3 ,although in so long a space of time as sixty centuries1 events and revolutions of great historical importance must of necessity have altered the political state of ,egypt1 yet1 notwithstanding all1 the old ,egyptian race has undergone but little change2 for it still preserves to this day those distinctive features of physiognomy1 and those peculiarities of manners and customs1 which have been handed down to us by the united testimony of the monuments and the accounts of the ancient classical writers1 as the hereditary characteristics of this people4 #dd ,the ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bic4 #de ,a ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #dj3 ,it is said that a hundred thousand men were levied for three months at a time 7i4e4 during the three months of the inundation1 when ordinary labour would be at a standstill72 and on this scale the pyramid building occupied twenty years4 ,he is speaking of the ,great ,pyramid built by ,kheops1 ,khephrn's predecessor2 but this does not affect my contention4 ,on reckoning number and weight of the stones1 this labour would fully suffice for the work4 ,the skilled masons had large barracks1 now behind the second pyramid1 which might hold even four thousand men2 but perhaps a thousand would quite suffice to do all the fine work in the time4 ,hence there was no impossibility in the task1 and no detriment to the country in employing a small proportion of the population at a season when they were all idle by the compulsion of natural causes4 ,the training and skill which they would acquire by such work would be a great benefit to the national character4 ,and the same writer says in ,the ,pyramids and ,temples of ,gizeh1 p4 #baa3 ,thus we see that the traditional accounts that we have of the means employed in building the great ,pyramid1 require conditions of labour supply which are quite practicable in such a land1 which would not be ruinous to the prosperity of the country1 or oppressive to the people1 and which would amply and easily suffice for the execution of their work4 #df ,history of ,civilization in ,england 7,ed4 #ahga71 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic4 ,and ,herbert ,spencer's ,autobiography1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cda-cdc4 #dg ,quite typical of ,western inability to understand the basis of a patriarchal government1 and of the misinterpretation of such a form1 which writers like ,buckle did their best to increase and spread1 was the first ,act of the play ,fallen ,idols1 recently presented at ,his ,majesty's ,theatre1 ,london1 in which ,egyptian slaves were seen cringing and crawling before an inhuman taskmaster1 who continually lashed out at them with a big whip4 #dh ,fergusson1 ,history of ,architecture1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ie3 ,nor is our wonder less when we ask ourselves how it happened that such a people became so strongly organized at that early age as to be willing to undertake the greatest architectural works the world has since seen in honour of one man from among themselves4 ,a king without an army1 and with no claim1 so far as we can see1 to such an honour1 beyond the common consent of all1 which could hardly have been attained except by the title of long-inherited services acknowledged by the community at large4 ,and on p4 #id1 speaking of the pictures in the ,great ,pyramid1 the author says3 ,on these walls the owner of the tomb is usually represented seated1 offering first-fruits on a simple table-altar to an unseen god4 ,he is generally accompanied by his wife1 and surrounded by his stewards1 who enumerate his wealth in horned cattle1 in oxen1 in sheep and goats1 in geese and ducks4 ,in other pictures some are ploughing and sowing1 some reaping or thrashing out corn1 while others are tending his tame monkeys or cranes1 and other domesticated pets4 ,music and dancing add to the circle of domestic enjoyments1 and fowling and fishing occupy his days of leisure4 ,no sign of soldiers or of warlike strife appears in any of these pictures1 no arms1 no chariots or horses4 ,no camels suggest foreign travel4 #di ,i should like to reproduce here ,fergusson's enthusiastic account of the work in the interior of the ,great ,pyramid4 ,i have not space1 however1 and earnestly recommend readers to refer to it on pp4 #ic1 #id of ,vol4 ,i in his ,history of ,architecture4 #ej ,dr4 ,henry ,brugsch-,bey1 ,history of ,egypt under the ,pharaohs1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ddd-dde4 #ea ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #hf4 #eb ,ibid41 p4 #aab4 #ec ,ibid41 p4 #aaf4 #ed ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #aaf4 #ee ,ibid41 p4 #aag4 ,this moralist was ,any4 #ef ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ajg3 ,every artist knows how different from the state of letting himself go1 is his 'most natural' condition1 the free arranging1 locating1 disposing and constructing in the moments of 'inspiration'--and how strictly and delicately he then obeys a thousand laws1 which1 by their very rigidness and precision1 defy all formulation by means of ideas4 #eg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cji4 #eh ,see ,nietzsche's remarks on the great need of ,christianity in ,england1 ,g4 ,e41 p4 #baa4 #ei ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cji4 #fj ,see ,brugsch-,bey1 ,a ,history of ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #be2 ,wilkinson1 ,the ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aef2 ,georges ,perrot and ,charles ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #ch2 ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #afb4 #fa ,see ,wilkinson1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #agi4 #fb ,see ,ibid41 p4 #afg4 ,where he is speaking of the ,pharaohs he says3 ,by the practice of justice towards their subjects1 they secured to themselves that good-will which was due from children to a parent 444 and this1 ,diodorus observes1 was the main cause of the duration of the ,egyptian state4 #fc ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,lvi4 #fd ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt1 p4 #abj4 #fe ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cji4 #ff ,history of ,architecture1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ie4 #fg ,miss ,jane ,harrison1 ,introductory ,studies in ,greek ,art1 p4 #f4 #fh ,dr4 ,petrie1 ,a ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #ce4 ,referring to the ,lady ,nophret and her husband1 the author says 7speaking quite in the style of a modern art-critic73 ,these statues are most expressive1 and stand in their vitality superior to the works of any later age in ,egypt4 #fi ,on the walls of some of the tombs ,i inspected at ,sakarah1 the consummate mastery with which some of the minutest characteristics of domestic animals were represented in bold outline gave me a standard by the side of which even ,m4 ,boutet de ,monvel's beautiful studies of animals seemed to fall into the shade4 7,see his illustrations to ,la ,fontaine's fables47 #gj ,models of the ,scribe and of the ,cheikh-el-,beled are to be seen at the ,british ,museum2 but they give one but a poor idea of the originals4 #ga ,georges ,perrot and ,charles ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aha4 ,speaking of these portrait statues1 they say3 ,they were not ideal figures to which the desire for beauty of line and expression had much to say2 they were stone bodies1 bodies which had to reproduce all the individual contours of their flesh-and-blood originals2 when the latter was ugly1 its reproduction had to be ugly also1 and ugly in the same way4 #gb ,see ,georges ,perrot and ,charles ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aha4 ,speaking of the arrangements which were necessary to enable the inhabitants of the tomb to resist annihilation1 the authors say3 ,those arrangements were of two kinds1 a provision of food and drink1 which had to be constantly renewed1 either in fact or by the magic multiplication which followed prayer1 and a permanent support for the ,ka or double1 a support that should fill the place of the living body of which it had been deprived by dissolution4 #gc ,okakura-,kakuzo passes a funny remark in regard to our modern realistic portraits2 he says3 ,in ,western houses we are often confronted with what appears to us useless reiteration4 ,we find it trying to talk to a man while his full-length portrait stares at us from behind his back4 ,we wonder which is real1 he of the picture1 or he who talks1 and feel a curious conviction that one of them must be a fraud4--,the ,book of ,tea1 p4 #ig4 #gd ,see ,hogarth1 ,the ,analysis of ,beauty 7,ed4 #agec71 p4 #ba3 ,there is no object composed of straight lines that has so much variety1 with so few parts1 as the pyramid3 and it is its constantly varying from its base gradually upwards in every situation of the eye 7without giving the idea of sameness as the eye moves round it7 that has made it esteemed in all ages1 in preference to the cone1 which in all views appears nearly the same1 being varied only by light and shade4 #ge ,z41 ,,iii1 ,,li4 #gf ,contarini ,fleming4 #gg ,w4 ,p41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cah3 ,purification of taste can only be the result of strengthening of the type2 and p4 #djc3 ,progress is the strengthening of the type1 the ability to exercise great will power2 everything else is a misunderstanding and a danger4 #gh ,z41 ,,ii1 ,,xxix4