,,nature',s ,,teachings ,illustration3 ,the ,home ,,nature',s ,,teachings ,,human ,,invention ,,anticipated ,,by ,,nature ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,,etc4 ,,author ,,of 8,,homes ,,without ,,hands10 8,,man ,,and ,,beast1 ,,here ,,and ,,hereafter10 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,and ,,revised ,,edition ,,london ,j4 ,s4 ,,virtue ,,co41 ,,limited1 #bf1 ,,ivy ,,lane ,,paternoster ,,row ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,virtue ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited4 ,,city ,,road4 ,,preface4 ,a glance at almost any page of this work will denote its object4 ,it is to show the close connection between ,nature and human inventions1 and that there is scarcely an invention of man that has not its prototype in ,nature4 ,and it is worthy of notice that the greatest results have been obtained from means apparently the most insignificant4 ,there are two inventions1 for example1 which have changed the face of the earth1 and which yet sprang from sources that were despised by men1 and thought only fit for the passing sport of childhood4 ,i allude1 of course1 to ,steam and ,electricity1 both of which had been child's toys for centuries before the one gave us the fixed engine1 the locomotive1 and the steamboat1 and the other supplied us with the compass and the electric telegraph4 ,in the course of this work ,i have placed side by side a great number of parallels of ,nature and ,art1 making the descriptions as terse and simple as possible1 and illustrating them with more than seven hundred and fifty figures4 ,the corollary which ,i hope will be drawn from the work is evident enough4 ,it is1 that as existing human inventions have been anticipated by ,nature1 so it will surely be found that in ,nature lie the prototypes of inventions not yet revealed to man4 ,the great discoverers of the future will1 therefore1 be those who will look to ,nature for ,art1 ,science1 or ,mechanics1 instead of taking pride in some new invention1 and then finding that it has existed in ,nature for countless centuries4 ,i ought to mention that the illustrations are not intended to be finished drawings1 but merely charts or maps1 calling attention to the salient points4 ,,contents4 ,,nautical4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,raft #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,oar1 ,,the ,,paddle1 ,,and ,,the ,,screw #ab ,,iii4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4--,,part ,i4 #bc ,,iv4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4--,,part ,,ii4 #cd ,v4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4--,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,boat-,,hook ,,and ,,punt-,,pole4--,,the ,,life-,,buoy ,,and ,,pontoon-,,raft #dd ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,i4 ,,the ,,pitfall1 ,,the ,,club1 ,,the ,,sword1 ,,the ,,spear ,,and ,,dagger #ej ,,ii4 ,,poison1 ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable4--,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,barb #fb ,,iii4 ,,projectile ,,weapons ,,and ,,the ,,sheath #gd ,,iv4 ,,the ,,net #he ,v4 ,,reverted ,,spikes #ajb ,,vi4 ,,the ,,hook4--,,defensive ,,armour4--,,the ,,fort #aae ,,vii4 ,,scaling ,,instruments4--,,defence ,,of ,,fort4--,,imitation4--,,the ,,fall-,,trap #acb ,,viii4 ,,concealment4--,,disguise4--,,the ,,trench4--,,power ,,of ,,gravity4--,,miscellanea #add ,,architecture4 ,i4 ,,the ,,hut1 ,,tropic ,,and ,,polar4--,,pillars ,,and ,,flooring4--,,tunnel ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,igloo4--,,doors ,,and ,,hinges4--,,self-,,closing ,,trap-,,doors #aei ,,ii4 ,,walls1 ,,double ,,and ,,single4--,,porches1 ,,eaves1 ,,and ,,windows4--,,thatch1 ,,slates1 ,,and ,,tiles #agg ,,iii4 ,,the ,,window4--,,girders1 ,,ties1 ,,and ,,buttresses4--,,the ,,tunnel4--,,the ,,suspension-,,bridge #aij ,,iv4 ,,lighthouses4--,,the ,,dovetail4--,,the ,,dam4--,,subterranean ,,dwellings4--,,the ,,pyramids4--,,mortar1 ,,paint1 ,,and ,,varnish #bjg ,,tools ,i4 ,,the ,,digging-,,stick4--,,spade4--,,shears ,,and ,,scissors4--,,chisel ,,and ,,adze4--,,the ,,plane ,,and ,,spokeshave #bbb ,,ii4 ,,the ,,saw ,,and ,,its ,,varieties #bci ,,iii4 ,,boring ,,tools4--,,striking ,,tools4--,,grasping ,,tools #bdi ,,iv4 ,,polishing ,,tools4--,,measuring ,,tools #bfc ,,optics4 ,i4 ,,the ,,missions ,,of ,,history4--,,the ,,camera ,,obscura4--,,long ,,and ,,short ,,sight4--,,stereoscope ,,and ,,pseudoscope4--,,multiplying-,,glasses #bgf ,,ii4 ,,the ,,water-,,telescope4--,,iris ,,of ,,the ,,eye4--,,magic ,,lantern4--,,the ,,spectroscope4--,,the ,,thaumatrope #bia ,,useful ,,arts4 ,i4 ,,primitive ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,needs4--,,earthenware4--,,ball-,,and-, ,socket ,,joint4--,,toggle ,,or ,,knee ,,joint #cjh ,,ii4 ,,crushing ,,instruments4--,,the ,,nut-,,crackers1 ,,rolling-,,mill1 ,,and ,,grindstone4--,,pressure ,,of ,,atmosphere4--,,seed ,,dibbles ,,and ,,drills #cbj ,,iii4 ,,cloth-,,dressing4--,,brushes ,,and ,,combs4--,,buttons1 ,,hooks ,,and ,,eyes1 ,,and ,,clasp #cci ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stopper1 ,,or ,,cork4--,,the ,,filter #cej ,v4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,spring4--,,the ,,elastic ,,spring4--,,accumulators4--,,the ,,spiral ,,spring #cfj ,,vi4 ,,spiral ,,and ,,ringed ,,tissues4--,,various ,,springs ,,in ,,nature ,,and ,,art #cge ,,vii4 ,,food ,,and ,,comfort #cij ,,viii4 ,,domestic ,,comfort #djj ,,ix4 ,,artificial ,,warmth4--,,ring ,,and ,,staple4--,,the ,,fan #dab ,x4 ,,water1 ,,and ,,means ,,of ,,procuring ,,it #dbb ,,xi4 ,a,,rostatics4--,,weight ,,of ,,air4--,,expansion ,,by ,,heat #dcf ,,xii4 ,,ditto ,,continued #ddg ,,xiii4 ,,telescopic ,,tubes4--,,direct ,,action4--,,distribution ,,of ,,weight4--,,tree-,,climbing4--,,the ,,wheel #dfj ,,xiv4 ,,paper ,,and ,,moulding #dgb ,,xv4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,galvanism #dhb ,,xvi4 ,,tillage4--,,drainage4--,,spiral ,,principle4--,,centrifugal ,,force #dib ,,xvii4 ,,oscillation4--,,united ,,strength4--,,the ,,dome #ejd ,,acoustics4 ,i4 ,,percussion4--,,the ,,string ,,and ,,reed4--,,the ,,trumpet4--,,ear-,,trumpet4--,,stethosc ope #eac ,,nautical4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,poetry and ,science4--,the ,paper ,nautilus and the ,sail4--,montgomery's 8,pelican ,island40--,the ,nautilus replaced by the ,velella4--,the ,sailing ,raft of ,nature and ,art4--,description of a ,velella ,fleet off ,tenby4--,the ,natural ,raft and its ,sail4--,the ,boats of ,nature and ,art4--,man's first ,idea of a ,boat4--,the ,kruman's ,canoe and the ,great ,eastern4--,gradual ,development of the ,boat4--,the ,outrigger ,canoe a ,mixture of ,raft and ,boat4--,natural ,boats4--,the ,water-snails4--,the ,sea-anemones4--,the ,egg-boat of the ,gnat4--,the ,skin-boat of the same ,insect4--,shape and ,properties of the ,life-boat anticipated in ,nature4--,natural ,boat of the ,stratiomys4 ,,the ,,raft4 ,it has been frequently said that the modern developments of science are gradually destroying many of the poetical elements of our daily lives1 and in consequence are reducing us to a dead level of prosaic commonplace1 in which existence is scarcely worth having4 ,the first part of this rather sweeping assertion is perfectly true1 but1 as we shall presently see1 the second portion is absolutely untrue4 ,science has certainly destroyed1 and is destroying1 many of the poetic fancies which made a part of daily life4 ,it must have been a considerable shock to the mind of an ancient philosopher when he found himself deprived of the semi-spiritual1 semi-human beings with which the earth and water were thought to be peopled4 ,and even in our own time and country there is in many places a still lingering belief in the existence of good and bad fairies inhabiting lake1 wood1 and glen1 the successors of the ,naiads and ,dryads1 the ,fauns and ,satyrs1 of the former time4 ,many persons will doubtless be surprised1 even in these days1 to hear that the dreaded ,maelstrm is quite as fabulous as the ,symplegades or ,scylla and ,charybdis1 and that the well-known tale of ,edgar ,poe is absolutely without foundation4 ,perhaps one of the prettiest legends in natural history is that of the ,paper ,nautilus1 with which so much poetry is associated4 ,we have all been accustomed from childhood to ,pope's well-known lines beginning-- 8,learn of the little ,nautilus to sail10 and some of us may be acquainted with those graceful verses of ,james ,montgomery1 in his 8,pelican ,island30-- 8,light as a flake of foam upon the wind1 ,keel upward1 from the deep emerged a shell1 ,shaped like the moon ere half her horn is filled4 ,fraught with young life it righted as it rose1 ,and moved at will along the yielding water4 ,the native pilot of this little bark ,put out a tier of oars on either side1 ,spread to the wafting breeze a two-fold sail1 ,and mounted up and glided down the billow ,in happy freedom1 pleased to feel the air1 ,and wander in the luxury of light4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it closed1 sank1 dwindled to a point1 then nothing1 ,while the last bubble crowned the dimpling eddy ,through which mine eye still giddily pursued it40 ,so deeply ingrained is the poetical notion of the sailing powers attributed to the nautilus1 that many people are quite incredulous when they are told that there is just as much likelihood of seeing a mermaid curl her hair as of witnessing a nautilus under sail4 ,how the creature in question does propel itself will be described in the course of the present chapter2 and the reader will see that although one parallel between ,nature and ,art in the nautilus does not exist1 there are several others which until later days have not even been suspected4 ,it is1 therefore1 partially true that science does destroy romance4 ,but1 though she destroys1 she creates1 and she gives infinitely more than she takes away1 as is shown in the many late discoveries which have transformed the whole system of civilised life4 ,sometimes1 as in the present instance1 she discovers one analogy while destroying another1 and though she shatters the legend of the sailing nautilus1 she produces a marine animal which really does sail1 and does not appear to be able to do anything else4 ,this is the ,,velella1 a figure of which1 taken from a specimen in my collection1 is given in the illustration1 and drawn of the natural size4 ,it is one of that vast army of marine creatures known familiarly by the name of 8jelly-fishes10 just as lobsters1 crabs1 shrimps1 oysters1 whelks1 periwinkles1 and the like1 are lumped together under the title of 8shell-fish40 ,as a rule1 these creatures are soft1 gelatinous1 and1 in fact1 are very little more than sea-water entangled in the finest imaginable mesh-work of animal matter2 so fine1 indeed1 that scarcely any definite organs can be discovered4 ,the ,velella1 however1 is remarkable for having a sort of skeleton1 if it may be so called1 consisting of two very thin and horny plates1 disposed1 as shown in the illustration1 so as to form an exact imitation 7or perhaps ,i should say a precursor7 of a raft propelled by a sail4 ,indeed1 the ,latin name ,velella signifies a little sail4 ,illustration3 ,,velella 7,,natural ,,size74 ,illustration3 ,,sailing ,,raft4 ,how well deserved is the name may be seen by the following graphic account of a ,velella fleet sent to me by a lady who takes great interest in practical zoology3-- 8,the specimens which ,i send came from ,tenby1 a very rough sea having driven a large living fleet of them on that coast4 8,when in life1 they are semi-transparent1 and radiant in many rainbow-tinted colours4 ,they came floating towards me in all their fragile beauty on the rough sea waves4 ,i succeeded in capturing some of them1 and preserved the only portion available for my collection4 8,they are extremely tender1 and by no means with which ,i am acquainted can be preserved more than these skeleton-like cartilaginous plates4 ,they soon dissolve in either spirits of wine or water1 and lose every vestige of their shape and substance4 ,the upright1 thin1 pellucid plate has the appearance of a fairy-like miniature sail1 and apparently acted as such when the creature was floating with its long and many-tinted tentacles pendent from its lower surface4 8,although widely distributed1 they are seldom seen on our own coast1 although sometimes driven there from the warmer regions by stress of wind and waves4 8,these little creatures had never before been seen at ,tenby1 but when ,i asked a native bathing-woman whether she knew their name1 she immediately replied1 #8,sea-butterflies4' ,although the name was evidently of her own invention1 it was most appropriate and poetical4 ,i have always found the ,welsh people abound more than any other nation in pretty and characteristic synonyms40,a ,a ,by sailors the ,velella is popularly known by the name of 8,sally-man20 i4e4 ,sallee-man4 ,in answer to a letter in which ,i asked the writer for some further information concerning the ,velella1 sending also an outline sketch of the animal1 which ,i asked the writer to fill in with the proper colours1 ,i received the following reply3-- 8,i will do my best to answer your questions1 and to give you what information ,i can concerning the creatures4 8,when seen at ,tenby1 they were all floating on the surface of the sea1 the tentacles only being submerged4 ,my specimens floated for a very short time after capture1 death following so quickly that ,i was obliged to set to work at once with camel's-hair brush and penknife to take away the gelatinous part4 ,indeed1 decomposition took place so rapidly1 that ,velellas and myself were simultaneously threatened with extermination4 8,both raft and sail were equally enveloped in a soft1 gelatinous covering1 certainly not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness1 except under the centre of the raft1 where it became slightly thicker4 ,the covering of the sail was exceedingly thin1 and like a transparent and almost invisible soft skin4 ,the sail is very firmly attached to the raft1 as they did not separate when decomposition began4 8,the tentacles were entirely composed of the same soft1 jelly-like substance as that of the envelope1 and every part was iridescent in a sort of vapoury transparent cloud of many-tinted colours1 blue and pale crimson predominating4 ,i have filled up to the best of my memory the little sketch1 and only wish you could have seen the ,velellas as ,i did1 in their full life and beauty40 ,two of the specimens here mentioned are in my collection1 and beautiful little things they are4 ,the two plates are not thicker than ordinary silver paper1 but are wonderfully strong1 tough1 and elastic4 ,the oval horizontal plate1 or raft1 if it may be so called1 is strengthened by being corrugated in concentric lines1 and having a multitude of very fine ribs radiating from the centre to the circumference4 ,it is slightly thickened on the edges1 evidently for the attachment of the tentacles4 ,the perpendicular plate1 or sail1 does not occupy the larger diameter of the raft1 but stretches across it diagonally from edge to edge1 rising highest in the centre and diminishing towards the edges1 so that it presents an outline singularly like that of a lateen sail4 ,it is rather curious that the magnifying glass gives but little1 if any1 assistance to the observer1 the naked eye answering every purpose4 ,even the microscope is useless1 detecting no peculiarity of structure4 ,i tried it with the polariscope1 scarcely expecting1 but rather hoping1 to find that it was sensitive to polarised light4 ,but no such result took place1 the ,velella being quite unaffected by it4 ,the corresponding illustration is a sketch of a raft to which a sail is attached4 ,such rafts as this are in use in many parts of the world1 the sail saving manual labour1 and the large steering oar answering the double purpose of keel and rudder4 ,in the ,velella1 the tentacles1 though they may not act in the latter capacity1 certainly do act in that of the former1 and serve to prevent the little creature from being capsized in a gale of wind4 ,,the ,,boat4 ,there is no doubt that the first idea of locomotion in the water1 independently of swimming1 was the raft2 nor is it difficult to trace the gradual development of the raft into a ,boat4 ,the development of the ,kruman's canoe into the ,great ,eastern1 or a modern ironclad vessel1 is simply a matter of time4 ,it is tolerably evident that the first raft was nothing more than a tree-trunk4 ,finding that the single trunk was apt to turn over with the weight of the occupant1 the next move was evidently to lash two trunks side by side4 ,next would come the great advance of putting the trunks at some distance apart1 and connecting them with cross-bars4 ,this plan would obviate even the chance of the upsetting of the raft1 and it still survives in that curious mixture of the raft and canoe1 the outrigger boat of the ,polynesians1 which no gale of wind can upset4 ,it may be torn to pieces by the storm1 but nothing can capsize it as long as it holds together4 ,laying a number of smaller logs or branches upon the bars which connect the larger logs is an evident mode of forming a continuous platform1 and thus the raft is completed4 ,it would not be long before the superior buoyancy of a hollow over a solid log would be discovered1 and so1 when the savage could not find a log ready hollowed to his hand1 he would hollow one for himself1 mostly using fire in lieu of tools4 ,the progress from a hollowed log1 or 8dug-out10 as it is popularly called1 to the bark canoe1 and then the built boat1 naturally followed1 the boats increasing in size until they were developed into ships4 ,such1 then1 is a slight sketch of the gradual construction of the ,boat1 based1 though perhaps ignorantly1 on the theory of displacement4 ,now1 let us ask ourselves whether1 in creation1 there are any natural boats which existed before man came upon the earth1 and from which he might have taken the idea if he had been able to reason on the subject4 ,the ,paper ,nautilus is1 of course1 the first example that comes before the mind2 but although1 as we have seen1 the delicate shell of the nautilus is not used as a boat1 and its sailing and rowing powers are alike fabulous1 there is1 as is the case with most fables1 a substratum of truth1 and there are aquatic molluscs which form themselves into boats1 although they do not propel themselves with sails or oars4 ,many species of molluscs possess this art1 but we will select one as an example of them all1 because it is very plentiful in our own country1 and may be found in almost any number4 ,it is the common ,,water-,,snail 7,limna stagnalis71 which abounds in our streams where the current is not very strong4 ,even in tolerably swift streams the ,limna may be found plentifully in any bay or sudden curve where a reverse current is generated1 and therefore the force of the stream is partially neutralised4 ,these molluscs absolutely swarm in the ,cherwell1 and in the multitudinous ditches which drain the flat country about ,oxford into that river as well as the ,isis4 ,belonging to the ,gasteropods1 the ,water-snail can crawl over the stones or aquatic vegetation1 just as the common garden snail or slug does on land4 ,but it has another mode of progression1 which it very often employs in warm weather4 ,it ascends to the surface of the water1 reverses its position so that the shell is downward1 spreads out the foot as widely as possible1 and then contracts it in the centre1 so as to form it into a shallow boat4 ,illustration3 ,,gnat-,,egg ,,boat ,,and ,,three ,,eggs4 ,illustration3 8,,dug-,,out0 ,,boat ,,of ,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,anemone ,,acting ,,as ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,snail ,,acting ,,as ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,birch-,,bark ,,canoe4 ,illustration3 ,,pupa ,,skin ,,of ,,gnat ,,acting ,,as ,,boat4 ,the carrying capacity of this boat is necessarily small1 but as the shell and nearly the whole of the animal are submerged1 and therefore mostly sustained by the water1 a very small amount of flotative power is sufficient for the purpose4 ,sometimes1 on a fine day1 whole fleets of these natural boats may be seen floating down the stream1 thus obtaining a change of locality without any personal exertion4 ,in perfectly still water1 where no current can waft the ,limna on its easy voyage1 it still is able to convey itself from one place to another4 ,by means of extending and contracting the foot1 it actually contrives to crawl along the surface of the water almost as readily as if it were upon the under side of some solid body1 and1 although its progress is slow1 it is very steady4 ,another very common ,british water-snail1 the ,pouch-shell 7,physa fontinalis71 has almost exactly the same habits4 ,reference will be made to the ,pouch-shell on another page4 ,the capacity for converting the body into a boat is not confined to the molluscs1 but is shared by many other animals4 ,take1 for example1 the well-known marine animals1 called popularly ,,sea-,,anemones4 ,as they appear when planted on the rocks1 they look as incapable of motion as the flowers whose names they bear4 ,yet1 by means of the flattened base1 which they use just as a snail uses its feet1 they can manage to glide along the rocks in any direction1 though very slowly4 ,the base is capable of extension and contraction1 and by elongating one side of it1 fixing the elongated portion1 and then raising the remainder of the base towards it1 the animal makes practically a series of very slow steps4 ,this mode of progression may often be seen in operation on the glass front of an aquarium4 ,the same property of expansion and contraction enables the ,sea-anemones to convert their bodies into boats1 and float on the surface of the water4 ,when one of these animals wishes to swim1 it ascends the object to which it is clinging--say the glass of the aquarium--until it has reached the air4 ,it then very slowly1 and bit by bit1 detaches the upper part of the base from the glass1 allowing itself to hang with its tentacles downward4 ,these1 by the way1 are almost wholly withdrawn when the animal is engaged in this business4 ,by degrees the whole of the base is detached from the glass except a very tiny portion of the edge4 ,the base is next contracted in the middle into the form of a shallow cup1 and1 when this is done1 the last hold of the glass is released1 and the animal floats away1 supported by its hollowed base4 ,entomologists are familiar with the following facts1 and were this work addressed to them alone1 a simple mention of the insect would be sufficient4 ,but as this work is intended for the general public1 it will be necessary to give a description1 though a brief one1 of the wonderful manner in which an insect1 which we are apt to think is only too common1 plays the part of a boat at its entrance to life and just before its departure from this world1 not to mention its intermediate state1 to which reference will be made under another heading4 ,the insect in question is the common ,,gnat 7,culex pipiens71 which makes such ravages upon those who are afflicted1 like myself1 with delicate skins1 and can have a limb rendered useless for days by a single gnat-bite4 ,in this insect1 the beginning and the end of life are so closely interwoven1 that it is not easy to determine which has the prior claim to description1 but we will begin with the egg4 ,with very few exceptions1 such as the ,earwig1 which watches over its eggs and young like a hen over her nest and chickens1 the insects merely deposit their eggs upon or close to the food of the future young1 and leave them to their fate4 ,the eggs of the ,gnat1 however1 require different treatment4 ,the young larv1 when hatched1 immediately pass into the water in which they have to live1 and yet the eggs are so constituted that they need the warmth of the sun in order to hatch them4 ,the machinery by which both these objects are attained is singularly beautiful4 ,the shape of the egg very much resembles that of a common ninepin1 and the structure is such that it must be kept upright1 so that the top shall be exposed to the air and sun1 and the bottom be immersed in the water4 ,it would be almost impossible that these conditions should be attained if the eggs were either dropped separately into the water or fixed to aquatic plants1 as is the case with many creatures whose eggs are hatched solely in or on the water4 ,as is the case with many insects1 each egg when laid is enveloped with a slight coating of a glutinous character1 so that they adhere together4 ,and1 in the case of the ,gnat1 this material is insoluble in water1 and hardens almost immediately after the egg is deposited4 ,taking advantage of these peculiarities1 the female ,gnat places herself on the edge of a floating leaf or similar object1 so that her long and slender hind-legs rest on the water4 ,in some mysterious way1 the eggs1 as they are successively produced1 are passed along the hind-legs1 and are arranged side by side in such a manner that they are formed into the figure of a boat1 being fixed to each other by the glutinous substance which has already been mentioned4 ,it is a very remarkable fact1 which assists in strengthening the theory on which this book is written1 that the lines of the best modern life-boats are almost identical with those of the ,gnat-boat1 and that both possess the power of righting themselves if capsized4 ,in all trials of a new life-boat1 one of the most important is that which tests her capability of self-righting2 and any one who has witnessed such experiments1 and has tried to upset a ,gnat-boat1 cannot but be struck with the singular similitude between the boat made by the hand of man and that constructed by the legs of an insect1 without even the aid of eyes4 ,push the ,gnat-boat under water1 and it shoots to the surface like a cork1 righting itself as it rises4 ,pour water on it1 and exactly the same result occurs1 so that nothing can prevent it from floating4 ,then1 when the warm air has done its work in hatching the enclosed young1 a little trap-door opens at the bottom of the egg1 lets the young larv into the water1 and away they swim4 ,now we come to another phase of existence in which the ,gnat forms a boat4 ,every one knows the little active ,gnat larv1 with their large heads and slender bodies1 much like tadpoles in miniature4 ,when they have reached their full growth1 and assume the pupal form1 their shape is much changed4 ,the fore part of the body is still more enlarged1 as it has to contain the wings and legs1 which have so great a proportion to the body of the perfect ,gnat4 ,and1 instead of floating with its head downwards1 and breathing through its tail as it did when a larva1 it now floats with the head uppermost1 and breathes through two little tubes4 ,even in its former state the creature had something almost grotesque in its aspect1 the head1 when magnified1 looking almost as like a human face as does that of a skate4 ,but in its pupal state it looks as if it had put on a large comical mask much too large for it1 very much like those paper masks which are enclosed in crackers1 and have to be worn by those who draw them4 ,in process of time the pupa changes to a perfect ,gnat within this shelly case1 able to move1 but unable to eat4 ,the body shrinks in size1 and the wings and legs are formed1 both being pressed closely to the body4 ,when the ,gnat is fully developed1 the pupal skin splits along the back1 and opens out into a curiously boat-like shape1 the front1 which contains the heavier part of the insect1 being much the largest1 and consequently being able to bear the greatest weight4 ,by degrees1 the ,gnat draws itself out of the split pupal skin1 resting its legs on it as fast as they are released4 ,it then shakes out its wings to dry1 and finally takes to the air4 ,it is a really wonderful fact that the insect which1 for three stages in life--namely1 an egg1 larva1 and pupa--lived in the water1 should in the fourth not only be incapable of aquatic life1 but should employ its old skin to protect it from that very element in which it was living only a minute or two before4 ,should the reader wish to examine for himself either the egg or skin boat of the ,gnat1 he can easily procure them by searching any quiet pond1 or even an uncovered water-butt4 ,they are1 of course1 very small1 averaging about the tenth of an inch in length1 and are nearly always to be found close to the side either of pond or tub1 being drawn there by the power of attraction4 ,i may here mention that there are other dipterous insects belonging to the genus ,stratiomys1 which undergo their metamorphosis in a very similar fashion4 ,in these insects1 the larva breathes through the tail1 and when it attains its pupal condition1 the actual insect is very much smaller than the pupal skin1 only occupying the anterior and enlarged part4 ,indeed1 the difference of size is so great1 that several entomologists believed the future ,stratiomys to be but a parasite on the original larva4 ,the beautiful ,chameleon-fly 7,stratiomys chamleon7 is a familiar example of these insects4 ,,nautical4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,oar1 ,,the ,,paddle1 ,,and ,,the ,,screw4 ,propulsion by the ,oar4--,parallels in the ,insect ,world4--,the 8,water-boatman40--,its ,boat-like ,shape4--,the ,oar-like ,legs4--,exact mechanical ,analogy between the ,legs of the ,insect and the ,oars of the human ,rower4--8,feathering0 ,oars in ,nature and ,art4--,the ,water-boatman and the ,water-beetles4--,the ,feet of the ,swan1 ,goose1 and other aquatic ,birds4--,the ,cydippe1 or ,bero4--,the ,self-feathering ,paddle-wheel4--,indirect ,force4--,the ,wedge1 ,screw1 and ,inclined ,plane4--8,sculling0 a ,boat4--,the 8,tanka0 ,girls of ,china4--,mechanical ,principle of the ,screw1 and its ,adaptation to ,vessels4--,gradual ,development of the ,nautical ,screw4--,mechanical ,principle of the ,tail of the ,fish1 the ,otter1 and the sinuous ,body of the ,eel and ,lampern4--,the ,coracle and the ,whirlwig-beetle4 ,the ,boat naturally reminds us of the ,boatman4 ,in the two gnat-boats which have been described there is no propelling power used or needed1 the little vessel floating about at random1 and its only object being to keep afloat4 ,but there are many cases where the propelling power is absolutely essential1 and where its absence would mean death1 as much as it would to a ship which was becalmed in mid ocean without any means of progress or escape4 ,there are1 for example1 hundreds of creatures1 belonging to every order of animals1 which are absolutely dependent for their very existence on their power of propulsion1 and ,i believe that there is not a single mode of aquatic progression employed by man which has not been previously carried out in the animal world4 ,there are so many examples of this fact that ,i am obliged to select a very few typical instances in proof of the assertion4 ,taking the ,oar as the natural type of progression in the water1 we have in the insect world numerous examples of the very same principle on which our modern boats are propelled4 ,and it is worthy of notice1 that the greater the improvement in rowing1 the nearer do we approach the original insect model4 ,the first which we shall notice is the insect which1 from its singular resemblance to a boat propelled by a pair of oars1 has received the popular name of ,,water-,,boatman4 ,its scientific name is ,notonecta glauca1 the meaning of which we shall presently see4 ,it belongs to the order of ,heteroptera1 and is one of a numerous group1 all bearing some resemblance to each other in form1 and being almost identical in habits4 ,though they can fly well1 and walk tolerably1 they pass the greater part of their existence in the water1 in which element they find their food4 ,predacious to a high degree1 and armed with powerful weapons of offence1 it is one of the pirates of the fresh water1 and may be found in almost every pond and stream1 plying its deadly vocation4 ,its large and powerful wings seem only to be employed in carrying it from one piece of water to another1 while its first and second pairs of legs are hardly ever used at all for progression4 ,the last pair of legs are of very great length1 and furnished at their tips with a curiously constructed fringe of stiff hairs4 ,the body is shaped in a manner that greatly resembles a boat turned upside down1 the edge of the elytra forming a sort of ridge very much like the keel of the boat4 ,when the creature is engaged in swimming1 it turns itself on its back1 so as to bring the keel downwards1 and to be able to cut the water with the sharp edge4 ,from this habit it has derived the name of ,notonecta1 which signifies an animal which swims on its back4 ,the first and second pairs of legs are clasped to the body1 and the last pair are stretched out as shown in the illustration1 not only looking like oars1 but being actually used as oars4 ,now1 ,i wish especially to call the reader's attention to the curiously exact parallel between the water-boatman and the human oarsman4 ,as the reader may probably know1 the oar is a lever of the second order1 i4e4 the power comes first1 then the weight1 and then the fulcrum4 ,the arm of the rower furnishes the power1 the boat is the weight to be moved1 and the water is the fulcrum against which the lever acts4 ,i have more than once heard objections to this definition1 the objectors saying that the water was a yielding substance1 and therefore could not be the fulcrum4 ,this objection1 however1 was easily refuted by taking a boat up a narrow creek1 and rowing with the oar-blades resting on the shore1 and not in the water4 ,illustration3 ,,oar-,,leg ,,of ,,water-,,boatman4 ,illustration3 ,,oar ,,of ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,boatman ,,rowing ,,itself4 ,illustration3 ,,oarsman ,,rowing4 ,now1 the swimming legs of the water-boatman are exact analogues of the oars of a human rower4 ,the internal muscles at the juncture of the leg with the body supply the place of the rower's arms1 the leg itself takes the office of the oar1 and the body of the insect is the weight to be moved1 and the water supplies the fulcrum4 ,even the broad blade at the end of the oar is anticipated by the fringe of bristles at the end of the leg1 and its sharpened edge by the shape of the insect's limb4 ,besides these resemblances1 there is another which is worthy of notice4 ,all rowers know that one of their first lessons is to 8feather0 their oars1 i4e4 to turn the blade edgewise as soon as it leaves the water4 ,nothing looks more awkward than for a boatman to row without feathering4 7,we all must remember the eulogy on the 8,jolly ,young ,waterman10 who 8feathered his oars with skill and dexterity407 ,in the first place1 he must lift his oar very high out of the water1 and1 in the second1 he will be impeded by any wind that happens to come against the blades4 ,the ,water-boatman1 however1 does not lift its legs out of the water after every stroke1 as a human boatman does1 and therefore it has no need to feather in the same way4 ,but there is even greater need for a feathering of some kind in the insect's leg1 on account of the greater resistance offered by water than by air1 and this feathering is effected by the arrangement of the blade-bristles1 which spread themselves against the water as the stroke is made1 and collapse afterwards1 so as to give as little resistance as possible when the stroke is completed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,art we have invented many similar contrivances1 but ,i believe that there is not one in which we have not been anticipated by ,nature4 ,putting aside the insect which has just been described1 we have the whole tribe of water-beetles1 in which the same principle is carried out in an almost identical manner4 ,in the accompanying illustration1 the oar1 the rower1 and the boat are placed above one another1 and next to them are seen one of the oar-legs of the water-boatman and the insect as it appears when swimming on its back4 ,then1 there is the foot of the duck1 goose1 swan1 and various other aquatic birds1 in which the foot presents a broad blade as it strikes against the water1 and a narrow edge as it recovers from the stroke4 ,some years ago1 a steam yacht was built and propelled by feet made on the model of those of the swan4 ,she was a very pretty vessel1 but art could not equal nature1 and at present the swan-foot propeller1 however perfect in theory1 has not succeeded in action4 ,perhaps1 if some nautical engineer were to take it in hand1 he would procure the desired result4 ,almost exactly similar is the mode of propulsion employed by the lobster1 the prawns and shrimps1 their tails expanding widely into a fan-like shape as they strike against the water1 and then collapsing when the stroke is withdrawn1 so as to allow them to pass through the water with the least possible resistance4 ,the same principle is to be seen in the lively little ,acaleph1 for which there is unfortunately no popular name1 and which we must therefore call by its scientific title of ,,cydippe1 or ,bero1 these names being almost indifferently used4 ,when full grown1 it is about as large as an acorn1 and very much of the same shape4 ,it is as transparent as if made of glass1 and1 when in the water1 is only visible to practised eyes4 ,en passant1 ,i may remark that the familiar term of 8water10 when applied to diamonds1 is owing to their appearance when placed in distilled water4 ,those which can be at once seen are called stones of the second water4 ,those which cannot be seen1 because their refractive powers are equal to those of the water1 are called 8diamonds of the first water10 and are very much more valuable than the others4 ,as the ,cydippe is1 in fact1 little more than sea-water1 entangled in the slightest imaginable and most transparent tissue of animal fibre1 it is evident that the water and the ,cydippe must be of almost equal refracting power1 and that therefore the acaleph must be as invisible as diamonds of the 8first water40 ,indeed1 ,i have often had specimens in a glass jar which were absolutely invisible to persons to whom ,i wished to show them4 ,but an experienced eye detects the creature at once4 ,along its body1 at equal distances1 are eight narrow bands1 over which the colours of the rainbow are1 though very faint1 perpetually rippling4 ,this appearance is caused by the machinery which impels the body1 and which seems never to cease4 ,each of these bands is composed of a vast number of tiny flaps1 which move up and down in regular succession1 so as to cause the light to play on their surfaces4 ,and1 as they move as if set on hinges1 they of course offer no resistance to the water after their stroke is made4 ,illustration3 ,,cydippe ,,and ,,paddles4 ,illustration3 ,,prawn ,,swimming4 ,,feet of ,,duck4 ,illustration3 ,,self-,,feathering ,,paddle-,,wheel4 ,now let us compare these works of nature with those of art4 ,we have already seen the parallels of the oar1 and we now come to those of the paddle-wheel4 ,when paddle-steamers were first invented1 the blades were fixed and projected from the wheel1 as if they had been continuations of its spokes4 ,it was found1 however1 that a great waste of power1 together with much inconvenience1 was caused by this arrangement4 ,not only was a considerable weight of water raised by each blade after it passed the middle of its stroke1 but the steam power was given nearly as much to lifting and shaking the vessel as to propulsion4 ,a new kind of paddle-wheel was then invented1 in which the blades were ingeniously jointed to the wheel1 so that they presented their flat surfaces to the water while propelling1 and their edges when the stroke was over4 ,this1 which is known by the name of the 8,self-feathering ,paddle-wheel10 was thought to be a very clever invention1 and so it was2 but not even the inventors were likely to have known that if they had only looked into the book of ,nature1 they might have found plenty of self-feathering paddle-wheels1 beside the few which my limited space enables me to give4 ,if the reader will look at the illustration1 he will see that on one side is represented the self-feathering paddle-wheel of ,art1 with its ingenious arrangement of rods and hinges4 ,on the other side there comes1 first1 the common ,prawn1 shown with its tail expanded in the middle of its stroke4 ,just below it is a ,cydippe of its ordinary size1 showing the paddle-bands1 one of which is drawn at the side much magnified1 so as to show the arrangement of the little paddles4 ,as to the tentacles which trail from the body1 we shall treat of them when we come to our next division of the subject of the work4 ,lastly1 there is a representation of the self-feathering feet of the ,duck1 the left foot expanded in striking the water1 and the right closed so as to offer no resistance when drawn forward for another stroke4 ,the swan's foot shows this action even more beautifully than does that of the duck4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to another mode of propulsion1 namely1 that which is not due to direct pressure of a more or less flat body against the water1 but to the indirect principle of the screw1 wedge1 or inclined plane4 ,space being valuable1 ,i will only take two instances1 namely1 the well-known mode of propelling a boat by a single oar working in a groove or rowlock in the middle of the stern1 and the ordinary screw of modern steamers4 ,most of my readers must have seen a sailor in the act of 8sculling0 a boat4 ,a tolerably deep notch is sunk in the centre of the stern1 and the oar is laid in it1 as shown in the central illustration1 on the right-hand side4 ,the sailor then takes the handle of the oar1 and works it regularly backwards and forwards1 without taking the blade out of the water4 ,the boat at once begins to move forward1 and1 when the oar is urged by a strong and experienced man1 can be propelled with wonderful speed4 ,the well-known 8,tanka0 boat-girls of ,china never think of using two oars1 a single oar in the stern being all-sufficient for the rapid and intricate evolutions required in their business4 ,illustration3 ,,tail ,,of ,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,screw ,,of ,,steamer4 ,illustration3 ,,tail ,,of ,,otter4 ,illustration3 8,,sculling0 ,a ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,tail ,,of ,,seal4 ,illustration3 ,,action ,,of ,,rudder4 ,the mechanical process which is here employed is nothing more than that of the inclined plane1 or rather1 the wedge1 the oar-blade forming the wedge1 and the force being directed against the stern of the boat1 and so driving it through the water4 ,the ,rudder affords another example of a similar force1 although it is used more for directing than propelling a vessel4 ,still1 just as the scull is used not only for propelling1 but for steering the boat1 the rudder1 when moved steadily backwards and forwards1 can be used for propulsion as well as steerage4 ,in the absence of oars1 this property is most useful1 as ,i can practically testify4 ,so different in appearance are the screw and the inclined plane1 that very few people would realise the fact that the screw is nothing but an inclined plane wound round a cylinder1 or rather1 is a circular inclined plane4 ,the ordinary corkscrew is a good example of this principle1 the cylinder being but an imaginary one4 ,now1 if the screw be turned round1 it is evident that force is applied just on the principle of the wedge1 and this principle is well shown in the various screw-presses1 of which the common linen-press is a familiar example1 as was the original printing-press1 which still survives as a toy for children4 ,we all know the enormous force exerted by screws when working in wood1 and how1 when the screw-driver is turned in the reverse direction1 the instrument is forced backwards1 though the operator is leaning against it with all his weight4 ,in fact1 a comparatively small screw1 if working in hard wood or metal1 so that the threads could not break1 could lift a heavy man4 ,substitute water for wood or metal1 and the result would be the same in principle1 though the resistance would be less4 ,as the loss of power by friction would prevent a large vessel from being propelled by a stern oar moved like a scull1 the idea was invented of applying the same kind of power by a large screw1 which should project into the water from the stern of the vessel4 ,this modification1 moreover1 would have the advantage of forcing the vessel forward when the screw was turned from left to right1 and drawing it back when turned in the opposite direction1 whereas the sculling oar would only drive it forward4 ,the principle was right enough1 but there was at first a great difficulty in carrying it out4 ,firstly1 several turns of a large screw were used1 and were found to need power inadequate to the effect4 ,then the screw was reduced to four separate blades1 and now only two are used1 as shown in the illustration1 these saving friction1 being equally powerful for propulsion1 and running less risk of fouling by rigging blown overboard or other floating substances4 ,so much for ,art4 ,now for the same principle as shown in ,nature1 of which ,i can take but a very few instances4 ,the first and most obvious example is that of the ,fish-tail1 which any one may observe by watching ordinary gold fish in a bowl4 ,their progression is entirely accomplished by the movement of the tail from side to side1 exactly like that of the sculling oar1 and moreover1 like the oar1 the tail acts as rudder as well as propeller4 ,the force with which this instrument can be used may be estimated by any one who is an angler1 and knows the lightning-like rush of a hooked trout1 or who has seen the wonderful spring with which a salmon shoots clear out of the water1 and leaps up a fall several feet in height4 ,this is not done1 as many writers state1 by bending the body into a bow-like form1 and then suddenly straightening it1 but by the projectile force which is gained by moving the tail backwards and forwards as a sculler moves his oar4 ,perhaps some of my readers have seen the wonderful speed1 ease1 and grace with which an ,otter propels itself through the water4 ,as the otter feeds on fish1 and can capture even the salmon itself1 its powers of locomotion must be very great indeed4 ,and these are obtained entirely by means of the tail1 which is long1 thick1 and muscular1 and can be swept from side to side with enormous force1 considering the size of the animal4 ,the legs have little or nothing to do with the act of swimming4 ,the fore-legs are pressed closely against the body1 and the hind-legs against each other4 ,the latter act occasionally as assistants in steering1 but that is all4 ,then there are the various ,seals1 whose hind-legs1 flattened and pressed together1 act exactly like the tail of the fish1 that of the otter1 the oar of the sculler1 or the screw of the steamer4 ,also1 the eel1 when swimming1 uses exactly the same means1 its lithe body forming a succession of inclined planes2 so does the snake1 and so does the pretty little lampern1 which is so common in several of our rivers1 and so totally absent from others4 ,i can only now give a short description of the woodcut which illustrates these points4 ,on the right hand ,art is shown by the screw-blades of the modern steamer4 ,in the middle is the ordinary mode of sculling a boat by an oar in the stern1 and below it is the rudder1 which1 like the sculling oar1 may be used either for propulsion or direction4 ,on the left hand we have three examples of the same mechanical powers as shown in ,nature4 ,the uppermost figure represents a fish as in the act of swimming1 the dotted lines showing the movement of its tail1 and the principle of the wedge4 ,in the middle is an otter1 just preparing to enter the water1 and below is a seal1 both of them showing the identity of mechanism between themselves and the art of man4 ,i need not say that the mechanism of art is only a feeble copy of that of nature1 but nothing more could be expected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,while we are on this subject ,i may as well mention two more applications of the screw principle4 ,the first is the windmill1 the sails of which are constructed on exactly the same principle as the blades of the nautical screw4 ,only1 as they are pressed by the wind1 and the mill cannot move1 they are forced to revolve by the pressure of the wind1 just as the screw of a steamer revolves when the vessel is being towed1 and the screw left at liberty4 ,moreover1 just as the modern screws have only two blades1 so1 many modern windmills have only two sails1 the expense and friction being lessened1 and the power not injured4 ,again3 some years ago there was a very fashionable toy called the arial top4 ,it was practically nothing but a windmill in miniature1 rapidly turned by a string1 after the manner of a humming-top4 ,the edges of the sails being turned downwards1 the instrument naturally screwed itself into the air to a height equivalent to the velocity of the motion4 ,a similar idea has been mooted with regard to the guidance of balloons1 or even to arial voyaging without the assistance of gas1 but at present the weight of the needful machinery has proved to be in excess of the required lifting power4 ,in fine1 the application of the inclined plane1 wedge1 or screw as a motive power1 is so wide a subject that ,i must1 with much reluctance1 close it with these few and obvious examples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is worth while1 by the way1 to remark how curiously similar are such parallels4 ,i have already mentioned the very evident resemblance between the water-boatman1 the water-beetles1 and the human rower1 the body of the insect being shaped very much like the form of the modern boat4 ,i must now draw the attention of the reader to the similitude between the very primitive boat known by the name of ,coracle1 and the common ,whirlwig-beetle 7,gyrinus natator71 which may be found in nearly every puddle4 ,the shape of the insect is almost identical with that of the boat1 and the paddle of the coracle is an almost exact imitation of the swimming legs of the whirlwig4 ,and1 as if to make the resemblance closer1 many coraclers1 instead of using a single paddle with two broad ends1 employ two short paddles1 shaped very much like battledores4 ,illustration3 ,,whirlwig ,,beetle ,,and ,,paddles4 ,illustration3 ,,coracle ,,and ,,paddle4 ,,nautical4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4--,,part ,i4 ,general ,sketch of the ,subject4--,the ,mast of ,wood and ,iron4--,analogy between the ,iron ,mast and the ,porcupine ,quill4--,the ,iron ,yard and its ,shape prefigured by the same ,quill4--,beams of the ,steam-engine4--,principle of the ,hollow ,tube in place of the ,solid ,bar4--,quills and ,bones of ,birds4--,wheat ,straws and ,bamboos4--,structure of the ,boat4--,the ,coracle1 the ,esquimaux ,boat1 and the ,bark ,canoe4--,framework of the ,ship and ,skeleton of the ,fish4--,compartments of ,iron ,ship and ,skull of ,elephant4--,the ,rush1 the ,cane1 and the ,sugar-cane4--8,stellate0 ,tissue and its ,varieties4 ,having now treated of the raft1 the boat1 the ship1 and their various modes of propulsion and guidance1 we come to the subsidiary appliances to navigation1 if they may be so called in lack of a better name4 ,first in importance is necessarily the mast2 and the yards1 which support the sails1 are naturally the next in order4 ,then there come the various improvements in the building of vessels2 namely1 the substitution of planks fastened on a skeleton of beams for a mere hollowed log1 and the subsequent invention of iron vessels with their numerous compartments1 giving enormous strength and size1 with very great comparative lightness4 ,then we come to the various developments of the ropes or cables1 by which a vessel is kept in its place when within reach of ground1 whether on shore or at the water-bed4 ,next come the different forms of anchors which fasten a vessel to the bed of the ocean1 of grapnels by which she can be made fast to the shore1 or of 8drags10 which at a pinch can perform either office1 and can besides be utilised in searching for and hauling up objects that are lying at the bottom of the sea4 ,next we come to the boat-hook1 which is so useful either as a temporary anchor1 or as a pole by which a boat can be propelled by pushing it against the shore or the bed of the water2 and then to the 8punt-pole10 which is only used for the latter purpose4 ,lastly1 we come to the life-belt and life-raft1 which are now occupying1 and rightly1 so much of the public attention4 ,these subjects will be treated in their order in the present chapter1 and ,i hope to be able to show the reader that in all these points nature has anticipated art4 ,i presume that most1 if not all1 of my readers are aware of the rapidly extending use of iron in ship-building1 not only in the standing rigging1 but in the material of the vessel4 ,first there came iron 8knees10 i4e4 the angular pieces of wood which strengthen the junctions of the timbers4 ,formerly these were made of oak-branches1 and1 as it was not easy to find a bough which was naturally bent at such an angle as was required for a 8knee10 such branches were exceedingly valuable4 ,iron1 however1 was then employed1 and with the best results4 ,it was lighter than the wooden knee1 was stronger1 could be bent at any angle1 and took up much less space4 ,by degrees iron was used more and more1 until vessels were wholly made of that material4 ,then the masts1 and even the yards1 were made of iron1 and1 strange as it may appear1 were found to be lighter as well as stronger than those made of wood4 ,of course1 the masts and yards were hollow1 and it was found by the engineers that in order to combine lightness with great strength1 the best plan was to run longitudinal ridges along the inside of the tube4 ,a section of one of these masts is given at ,fig4 ,b1 and taken from the drawings of one of our largest engineering firms4 ,the reader will see that the mast is composed of rather slight material1 and that it is strengthened by four deep though thin ribs1 which run throughout its length4 ,when ,i first saw this mast ,i was at once struck with the remarkable resemblance between it and the quill of the ,porcupine4 ,these quills1 as all anglers know1 are very light1 and of extraordinary strength when compared with their weight4 ,indeed1 they are so light that they are invaluable as penholders to those who are obliged to make much use of their pen4 ,i have used nothing else for a very long time1 and the drawing of the ,porcupine quill which is here given at ,fig4 ,a was made from a small piece cut from the top of the penholder which ,i have used for some fifteen years1 and with which all my largest and most important works were written1 including the large 8,natural ,history10 8,homes without ,hands10 8,man and ,beast10 c41 c4 ,a portion of the same quill is also shown of its real size4 ,if the reader will cut a ,porcupine quill at right angles1 make a thin section of it1 and place it under the microscope1 or even under an ordinary pocket lens1 he will see that the exterior is composed of a very thin layer of horny matter1 and the interior filled with a vast number of tiny cells1 which are formed much on the same plan as the pith of elder and other plants4 ,the analogies of the pith will be treated in another page4 ,illustration3 ,,portion ,,of ,,porcupine ,,quill4 ,,section ,,of ,,engine ,,beam4 ,,complete ,,quill4 ,,iron ,,yard ,,and ,,yard-,,arm4 ,,bamboo4 ,,engine ,,beam4 ,,section ,,of ,,porcupine ,,quill ,,magnified4 ,,section ,,of ,,iron ,,mast4 ,but were the quill merely a hollow tube filled with pith1 it would be too weak to resist the strain to which it is often liable4 ,consequently it is strengthened by a number of internal ribs1 composed of the same horny material as the outer coat1 and arranged in exactly the same way as those of the mast4 ,there are yet other points in the structure of the ,porcupine quill which might be imitated with advantage in the mast4 ,in the first place1 the internal ribs are much more numerous than those of the mast1 but they are very much thinner1 and taper away from the base1 where the greatest strain exists1 to the end1 where they come to the finest imaginable edge4 ,this modification of structure enables the outer shell of the quill to be exceedingly thin and light1 and1 moreover1 gives to the whole quill an elasticity which is quite wonderful1 considering its weight and strength4 ,then1 in the iron mast the exterior is quite smooth1 whereas in the ,porcupine quill it is regularly indented1 exactly on the principle of the corrugated iron1 which combines great strength with great lightness4 ,and ,i cannot but think that our iron masts might be made both lighter and stronger if the shell were thinner1 the internal ribs made like those of the ,porcupine quill1 and the shell corrugated instead of being quite smooth4 ,the internal cells of the quill are1 of course1 not needed in the mast1 as they are intended for nutrition1 and not for strength4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,being on this subject1 we may take the shape of the ,porcupine quill1 and compare it with that of the ship's yard4 ,it will be seen that the two are so exactly similar in form that the outline of one would answer perfectly well for the other4 ,the only perceptible difference is1 that in the ship's yard both ends are alike1 whereas in the ,porcupine quill the end which is inserted in the skin is rounded and slightly bent1 while the other end is sharply pointed4 ,the principal point to be noticed in the form of both quill and yard is1 that they become thicker in the centre1 that being the spot on which the greatest strain comes1 and which1 in consequence1 needs to be stronger than any other part4 ,while holding and balancing the pole which ,blondin uses to preserve his balance when walking on the high rope1 ,i was struck with the fact that the pole1 which is heavily weighted at each end1 had to be strengthened in the middle1 exactly on the principle of the ,porcupine quill and the ship's yard4 ,it could not1 of course1 be thickened1 as the hands could not grasp it1 but it had to be furnished with additional strengthening4 ,and the necessity of such strengthening is evident from the fact that on one occasion the pole did break in the middle1 so that any one of less nerve and presence of mind must have been killed4 ,bearing in mind1 then1 that in a rod or pole the centre is the part which most requires to be strengthened1 we can see1 in cases too numerous to mention1 how art has followed1 though perhaps unconsciously1 in the footsteps of nature4 ,take1 for example1 the beam of a steam-engine1 such as is given in the sketch1 and for which the great engine at ,chatham acted as model4 ,the reader will observe that in this case the beam is gradually thickened towards the centre1 the ends1 where the strain is slightest1 being comparatively small4 ,another point also must be noticed4 ,equal strength could have been obtained had the beam been solid1 but at the expense of weight1 and consequent waste of power4 ,lightness is therefore combined with strength by making the beam consist of a comparatively slight centre1 but having four bold ridges1 as shown in the section given in the accompanying illustration4 ,this plan1 as the reader will see1 is exactly the same as that which is adopted in the iron mast and porcupine quill1 except that the ridges are external instead of internal4 ,the same mode of construction is employed in ordinary cranes1 the principal beam of which is almost identical in form with that of the engine1 both being thickest in the centre1 and both strengthened with external ridges4 ,there are also other analogies between the hollow mast and natural objects4 ,keeping still to the animal world1 we find the quill feathers of the flying birds to supply examples of the combination of great strength with great lightness and very little expenditure of material4 ,their wing bones1 too1 are hollow1 communicating with the lungs1 and are consequently light as well as strong4 ,passing to the vegetable world1 we find a familiar example of this structure in the common ,wheat ,straw4 ,the ripe ear is so heavy1 when compared with the amount of material which can be spared to carry it1 that if the stalk were solid it would give way under the mere weight of the ear4 ,moreover1 the full-grown corn has to endure much additional weight when wetted with rain1 and to resist much additional force when bowed by the wind1 so that a slight and solid stalk would be quite inadequate to the task of supporting the ear4 ,the material of the stalk is therefore utilised in a different manner1 being formed into a hollow cylinder1 the exterior of which is coated with a very thin shell of flint1 or 8silex0 as it is scientifically termed4 ,the result of this structure is that the stem possesses strength1 lightness1 and elasticity1 so as to be equal to the burden which is laid upon it4 ,then there is the common ,bamboo1 which is little more than a magnified straw1 being constructed in much the same manner1 and possessing almost the same constituents of vegetable matter and silex4 ,perhaps the most extraordinary of the tubal system is to be found in the remarkable plant of ,guiana called by the natives ,ourah1 and scientifically known by the name of ,arundinaria ,schomburgkii4 ,like the bamboo1 it grows in clusters1 and has a feathery top1 which waves about in the breeze4 ,but1 instead of decreasing gradually in size from the base upwards1 the ,ourah1 although it runs to some fifty feet in height1 is nowhere more than half an inch in diameter4 ,the first joint is about sixteen feet in length1 and uniform in diameter throughout4 ,it is scarcely thicker than ordinary pasteboard1 and yet so strong and elastic is it1 that it can sustain with ease the weight and strain of its feathery top as it blows about in the breeze4 ,the natives of certain parts of ,guiana use this reed as a blow-gun1 and ,i have a specimen1 presented to me by the late ,mr4 ,waterton1 which is eleven feet in length4 ,so the reader will see that when engineers found that hollow iron beams were not only lighter1 but stronger than solid beams1 they were simply copying the hollow beams formed by ,nature thousands of years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another great improvement in ship-building now comes before us4 ,we have already seen that the earliest boats were merely hollowed logs1 just as ,robinson ,crusoe is represented to have made4 ,but these had many disadvantages4 ,they were always too heavy4 ,they were liable to split1 on account of flaws in the wood1 and if a large vessel were needed1 it was difficult to find a tree sufficiently large1 or to get it down to the water when finished4 ,so the next idea was to build a skeleton1 so to speak1 of light wooden beams1 and to surround it with an outer clothing1 or skin1 if it may be so termed4 ,as far as ,i know1 the two original types of this structure are the ,coracle of the ancient ,briton1 and the birch-bark ,canoe of the ,north ,american ,indian1 and it is not a little remarkable that both exist to the present day1 with scarcely any modification4 ,the ,coracle has been already represented on page #bb4 ,it is1 perhaps1 or was in its original form1 the simplest boat in existence1 next to the 8dug-out40 ,in the times of the very ancient ,britons1 who were content with blue paint by way of dress1 and lived by hunting and fishing1 the ,coracle was a basin-shaped basket of wicker-work1 rather longer than wide1 and covered with the skin of a wild ox4 ,this was sufficiently light to be carried by one man1 and sufficiently buoyant to bear him down rapids1 if he were a skilful paddler1 and1 of course1 formed a considerable step in civilisation4 ,the modern ,coracle is identical in form1 and almost in material4 ,the frame is still oval and basin-shaped1 and made of wicker1 but the outer covering is not the same4 ,an ox-hide is an expensive article in these days1 and1 especially when wetted1 is very heavy4 ,so the modern ,coracle builder covers the wicker skin with a piece of tarpaulin1 which is much cheaper than the ox-hide1 much lighter1 is equally water-tight1 and has the great advantage of not absorbing moisture1 so that it is as light after use as before4 ,the ,esquimaux make a boat on very similar principles4 ,it is simply hideous in form1 resembling a huge washing tub in shape1 but1 as it is only intended for the inferior beings called women1 this does not signify4 ,best1 most perfect1 and most graceful of all such boats is the ,birch-bark ,canoe of the ,north ,american ,indians1 whose shape has evidently been borrowed from that of a fish4 ,i have seen many of these canoes1 and have now before me several models which are exactly like the originals1 except in point of size4 ,instead of being mere elongated bowls1 like the coracle1 they are long and slender1 swelling out considerably in the middle1 and coming to an almost knife-like edge at each end4 ,both stem and stern are alike1 so that the canoe can be paddled in either direction1 and1 as one of the paddlers always acts as steersman1 no rudder is needed4 ,the mode of construction is perfectly simple4 ,the labour is divided between the sexes3 the women cut large sheets of bark from the birch-trees1 scrape and smooth them1 and then sew them together1 so as to form the outer skin1 or 8cloak0 as it is called1 of the canoe4 ,meanwhile the men are making the skeleton of strips of white cedar-wood1 and binding them into shape with thongs made of the inner bark of the same tree1 just like the 8bass0 of our gardeners4 ,the 8cloak0 is then gradually worked over the skeleton1 sewn into its place1 and the canoe is finished4 ,a figure of this canoe1 as completed1 is given in the same illustration as that which represents various forms of boat1 page #g4 ,the last improvement is that which was caused by the necessity for large vessels1 when planks or iron plates were fastened over the skeleton4 ,but1 in all these cases1 the vessel is built on the principle of the thorax of a vertebrate animal1 that of the whale or a fish being an admirable example4 ,it only needs to take the skeleton of a whale1 turn it on its back1 and the ribs will be seen to form an almost exact reproduction of those of any ship being built in the nearest dockyard4 ,illustration3 ,,ribs ,,of ,,fish4 ,,ribs ,,of ,,ship4 ,i have now before me the spine and ribs of a herring4 ,the fish was over-boiled1 and the flesh fell off the bones as it was being lifted out of the dish1 leaving most of the ribs in their places4 ,when held with the spine downwards1 and viewed from one end1 the resemblance to the framework of a ship is absolutely startling1 the ribs representing the beams1 and the spine taking the place of the keel4 ,i have also before me a sketch representing a section of a ,fijian canoe1 and it is remarkable that even the very curve of the ribs of the herring is reproduced in those of the canoe4 ,whether the ,fijians derived this peculiar and beautiful curve from the ribs of a fish ,i cannot say1 but think it very likely4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,still greater improvement in ship-building now comes before us1 and this also has been anticipated both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,there are so many examples of this anticipation that ,i can only give one or two4 ,the improvement to which ,i refer is that which is now almost universally employed in the construction of iron ships1 namely1 the making the outer shell double instead of single1 and dividing it into a number of separate compartments4 ,putting aside the advantage that if the vessel were stove1 only one compartment would fill1 we have the fact that the ship is at the same time enormously strengthened and very light in proportion to her bulk4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,elephant ,,skull4 ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,iron ,,ship4 ,,stellate ,,tissues4 ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,iron ,,ship4 ,perhaps the best1 and certainly the most obvious1 example of this principle in the animal world is to be found in the skull of the ,elephant4 ,the enormous tusks1 with their powerful leverage1 the massive teeth1 and the large and weighty proboscis1 require a corresponding supply of muscles1 and consequently a large surface of bone for the attachments of these muscles4 ,now1 were the skull solid in proportion to its requisite size1 its weight would be too much for the neck to endure1 however short and sturdy it might be4 ,the mode of attaining expanse of surface1 together with lightness of structure1 is singularly beautiful4 ,perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the bone of the skull consists of an outer and inner plate1 with a variable arrangement of cells between them4 ,in many animals1 such1 for example1 as man1 where the jaws are comparatively feeble1 and the teeth small and light1 the size of the skull is practically that of the brain1 to which it affords a covering4 ,the same structure may be observed in the skull of the common sparrow1 where1 as in man1 the two bony plates are set almost in contact4 ,but in the elephant these external and internal plates are set widely apart1 and the space between them is filled with bony cells1 much resembling those of a honeycomb4 ,they are1 in fact1 just the same cells as those which exist in the skull of man and sparrow1 but they are very much enlarged1 and in consequence give a large surface1 accompanied with united strength and lightness4 ,there are many other examples in the animal kingdom1 but our limited space will not allow them to be even mentioned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as to the vegetable examples of this principle1 they are so multitudinous that only a very slight description can be given of them4 ,i suppose that most boys have seen a 8cane0 7whether they have felt it or not is not to the purpose71 and some boys have made sham cigars from pieces of cane4 ,in either case they must have noticed that the cane is not solid1 but is pierced with a vast number of holes1 passing longitudinally through it1 and is1 in fact1 a collection of little tubes connected and bound together by a common envelope4 ,the ,sugar-cane1 if cut across1 is seen also to consist of multitudinous cells1 which1 however1 are not hollow1 but filled with the sweet liquid from which sugar is obtained by boiling4 ,then there are many of our common ,english plants1 like the ordinary rush or reed1 which are very slight in diameter in comparison with their length1 and in which the cells are still further strengthened and lightened by the projection of their sides into a number of points which meet each other1 and leave interstices between them4 ,this modification of the cellular system is called 8,stellate0 7or star-like7 ,tissue1 and two examples of it are given in the illustration1 one being taken from the common rush1 and the other from the seed-coat of the privet4 ,a very good specimen of stellate tissue may be obtained by cutting a thin section of the white inner peel of the orange4 ,,nautical4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4--,,part ,,ii4 ,the ,cable and its ,variations4--,material of ,cables4--,hempen and ,iron ,cables1 and ,elasticity of the latter4--,natural ,cables4--,the 8,byssus0 of the ,pinna and the common ,mussel4--,the ,water-snail and its ,cable4--,a similar ,cable produced by the common ,white ,slug4--,the ,principle of ,elasticity4--,elastic ,cable of the ,garden ,spider4--,tendrilous ,cables of the ,pea and the ,bryony4--,the ,vallisneria1 and its ,development through the ,elastic ,cable4--,proposed ,submarine ,telegraph ,cable4--,the ,anchor1 ,grapnel1 and their ,varieties4--,natural ,anchors4--,spicule of ,synapta4--,the ,grapnel1 natural and artificial4--,ice-anchor and ,walrus ,tusks4--,the ,mushroom ,kedge4--,the ,flesh-hook4--,eagle-claw4--,the ,grapple-plant of ,south ,africa4--,the ,drag4 ,among the most important accessories to a ship are the ,cable1 by which she can be anchored to the bed of the sea1 and the ropes called 8warps10 by which she can be fastened to the land4 ,perhaps my readers may not know the old riddle--8,how many ropes are there on board a man-of-war80 ,the non-nautical individual cannot answer1 but the initiated replies that there are only three1 namely1 the man-rope1 the tiller-rope1 and the rope's-end1 all the others being 8tacks10 8sheets10 8haulyards10 8stays10 8braces10 c4 ,formerly cables were always made of hemp1 enormously thick1 and most carefully twisted by hand4 ,now1 even in small vessels1 the hempen cable has been superseded by the iron chain1 and this for several reasons4 ,in the first place1 it is much smaller in bulk1 and therefore does not occupy so much room4 ,in the next place1 it is even lighter than the hempen cable of corresponding strength2 and1 in the third1 its specific gravity--i4e4 its weight when compared with an equal bulk of water--is so great1 that when submerged1 it falls into a sort of arch-like form1 and so attains an elasticity which takes off much of the strain on the anchor1 and protects it from dragging4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now look to ,nature for ,cables4 ,illustration3 ,,egg ,,of ,,dog-,,fish4 ,,pinna4 ,,anchored ,,boat4 ,,water-,,snail ,,anchored ,,to ,,water-,,lily ,,leaf4 ,the natural cable which will first suggest itself is evidently that of the ,pinna ,shell 7,pinna pectinata71 which fixes its shell to some rock or stone with a number of silk-like threads1 spun by itself1 and protruding from the base1 just as a vessel on a lee shore throws out a number of cables4 ,the threads which compose the 8byssus10 as it is called1 are only a few inches in length1 and apparently slight4 ,they are1 however1 really strong1 and by acting in unison enable the shell1 though sometimes two feet in length1 to be held firmly to the rock4 ,i may here mention that they have been occasionally woven into gloves1 and other articles of apparel1 to which their natural soft grey-brown hue gives a very pleasing appearance4 ,a still more familiar instance of a natural marine cable is given by the common ,mussel1 which can be found in thousands on almost every solid substance which affords it a hold4 ,even copper-bottomed ships are often covered with ,mussels1 all clinging by their natural cables1 and it is thought that the cases which sometimes occur of being poisoned by eating ,mussels1 or 8musselled10 as the malady is called by the seafaring population1 are due to the fact that the ,mussels have anchored themselves to copper1 and have in consequence imbibed the verdigris4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing from salt to fresh water1 we come to a natural cable which is very common1 and yet1 on account of its practical invisibility1 is almost unknown1 except by naturalists4 ,i refer to the curious cable which is constructed by the common ,water-snail 7,limna stagnalis71 which has already been mentioned in its capacity of a boat4 ,this creature has a way of attaching itself to some fixed object1 such as a water-lily leaf1 by means of a gelatinous thread1 which it can elongate at pleasure1 and by means of which it can retain its position in a stream1 or in still water can sink itself to the bottom1 and ascend to the same spot4 ,this cable seems to be made of the same glairy secretion as that which surrounds the egg-masses which are found so plentifully on leaves and stones in our fresh waters1 and1 like that substance1 is all but invisible in the water1 so that an inexperienced eye would not be able to see it1 even if it were pointed out4 ,slight1 gelatinous1 and almost invisible in the water as is this thread1 its strength is very much greater than might be supposed4 ,not only can a mollusc be safely moored in the water by such a cable1 but it can be actually suspended in the air1 as may be seen from a letter in ,hardwicke's ,science ,gossip for #ahge1 p4 #aij3-- 8,last summer 7,september #bi7 ,i met with the following unusual fact4 ,in a green-house1 from a vine-leaf which was within a few inches of the glass 444 a slug was hanging by a thread1 which was more than four feet in length1 not unlike a spider-web1 but evidently much stronger4 8,the slug was descending by means of this thread1 and1 as the glutinous matter from the under part of the body was drawn out by the weight of the creature1 it was consolidated into a compact thread by the slug twisting itself in the direction of the hands of a clock1 the power of twisting being given by the head1 and the part of the body nearest the head being turned in the direction of the twist4 ,there was no tendency to turn in the contrary direction4 ,evidently the thread became hard as soon as it was drawn away from the body4 8,by wetting the sides of slips of glass1 ,i secured two specimens of the thread4 ,in one of these1 part was stretched1 and part quite loose1 the latter appearing flat when seen through a microscope4 ,the thread1 which was highly elastic1 was increased about three inches in a minute4 ,the slug was white1 and about an inch and a half in length40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to the elastic system of the ,chain ,cable1 and find it anticipated in ,nature in various ways4 ,one curious example was that of a ,spider1 which found its wheel-like net in danger from a tempestuous wind4 ,the ,spider descended to the ground1 a depth of about seven feet1 and1 instead of attaching its thread to a stone or plant1 fastened it to a piece of loose stick1 hauled it up a few feet clear of the ground1 and then went back to its web4 ,the piece of stick thus left suspended acted in a most admirable manner1 giving strength and support1 and at the same time yielding partly to the wind4 ,by accident the thread became broken1 and the stick1 which was about as thick as an ordinary pencil1 and not quite three inches in length1 fell to the ground4 ,the ,spider immediately descended1 attached another thread1 and hauled it up as before4 ,in a day or two1 when the tempestuous weather had ceased1 the ,spider voluntarily cut the thread1 and allowed the then useless stick to drop4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,curious example of the elastic cable is seen in the egg-case of the ,dog-fish1 which is given on page #ce4 ,the egg-case is formed like that of the common skate1 and has a projection from each of its angles4 ,but the projections1 instead of being mere flattened horns1 are lengthened into long elastic strings1 tapering towards the ends1 and twisted spirally1 like the tendrils of a grape-vine4 ,these tendril-like appendages twist themselves round seaweeds and other objects1 and1 on account of their spiral form1 can hardly ever be torn from their attachments4 ,sometimes after a storm the egg is thrown on the shore1 still clinging to the seaweed1 but to find an egg detached is very rarely done4 ,i have already mentioned the tendrils of the vine1 and their great strength4 ,the reader may remember the corresponding cases of the ,pea and the ,bryony1 the latter being a most remarkable example of the strength gained by the spiral form4 ,it clambers about hedges1 is exposed to the fiercest winds1 has large and broad leaves1 and yet such a thing as a ,bryony being blown off a hedge is scarcely1 if ever1 seen4 ,i never saw an example myself1 though ,i have had long experience in hedges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another excellent example of this principle is found in the ,vallisneria plant1 which of late years has become tolerably familiar to us through the means of fresh-water aquaria1 though it is not indigenous to this country4 ,in this plant the elastic power of the spiral cable is beautifully developed4 ,it is an aquatic plant1 mostly found in running waters1 and has a most singular mode of development4 ,it is dicious--i4e4 the male1 or stamen-bearing1 and the female1 or pistil-bearing flowers1 grow upon separate plants4 ,it has to deposit its seeds in the bed of the stream1 and yet it is necessary that both sets of flowers should be exposed to the air and sun before they become able to perform their several duties4 ,add to this the fact that the male flower is quite as small in proportion to the female as is the case with the lac and scale insects1 and the problem of their reaching each other becomes apparently intricate1 though it is solved in a beautifully simple manner4 ,fertilisation cannot be conducted by means of insects1 as is the case with so many dicious terrestrial plants1 and it is absolutely necessary that actual contact should take place between them4 ,this difficult process is effected as follows3-- ,the female flowers are attached to a very long spiral and closely coiled footstalk1 and1 when they are sufficiently developed1 the footstalk elongates itself until the flower rests on the surface of the water1 where it is safely anchored by its spiral cable1 the coils yielding to the wavelets1 and keeping the flower in its place4 ,meanwhile the tiny male flowers are being developed at the bottom of the river1 and are attached to very short footstalks4 ,when they are quite ripe they disengage themselves from their footstalks1 and rise to the surface of the river4 ,being carried along by the stream1 they are sure to come in contact with the anchored female flowers4 ,this having been done1 and the seeds beginning to be developed1 the spiral footstalk again coils itself tightly1 and brings the seeds close to the bed of the stream1 where they can take root4 ,there are other numerous examples1 of which any reader1 even slightly skilled in botany1 need not be reminded1 most of them being1 in one form or another1 modifications of the leaf or the petal1 which1 after all1 are much the same thing4 ,the vine and passion-flower are1 however1 partial exceptions4 ,i may here mention that soon after the failure of the first ,atlantic telegraph cable1 an invention was patented of a very much lighter cable1 enclosed in a tube of india-rubber1 and being coiled spirally at certain distances1 so that the coils might give the elasticity which constitutes strength4 ,the cable was never made1 its manufacture proving to be too costly2 but the idea of lightness and elasticity1 having been evidently taken from the spiral tendrils of the bryony1 was certainly a good one1 and ,i should have wished to see it tried on a smaller scale than the ,atlantic requires4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as a natural consequence1 after the cable comes the ,anchor1 which in almost every form has been anticipated by ,nature1 whether it be called by the name of anchor1 kedge1 drag1 or grapnel4 ,on the accompanying illustrations are shown a number of corresponding forms of the ,anchor1 together with a few others1 which1 although they may not necessarily be used in the water1 are nevertheless constructed on the same principle--i4e4 for the purpose of grappling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,spicules ,,of ,,synapta4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,anchor4 ,one of the most startling parallels may be seen on the right hand of the illustration1 the figure having been drawn from an old ,roman coin4 ,on the other side of the same illustration may be seen an anchor so exactly similar in form1 that the outline of the one would almost answer for that of the other4 ,this object is a much-magnified representation of a spicule which is found on the skin of the ,synapta1 one of the so-called ,sea-slugs1 which are so extensively sold under the name of ,bche de ,mer4 ,it forms one of the curious group called the ,holothurid4 ,each of these anchors is affixed to a sort of open-worked shield1 as shown above1 and on the left hand2 and it is a curious fact that in the various species of ,synapta the anchor is rather different in form1 and the shield very different in pattern4 ,they are lovely objects1 and ,i recommend any of my readers who possess a microscope to procure one4 ,they need a power of at least #aej diameters to show their full beauties4 ,an ordinary ,grapnel is here shown1 and in the corresponding position on the opposite side is an almost exactly similar object1 except that it is double1 having the grapnel at both ends of the stem4 ,this is a spicule of a species of sponge1 and is one of the vast numbers of which the sponge principally consists4 ,illustration3 ,,lernentoma4 ,illustration3 ,,echinococcus4 ,illustration3 ,,sponge-,,spicule4 ,illustration3 ,,grapnel4 ,next to the sponge-spicule is a still more perfect example of a natural ,grapnel4 ,this is the head of an internal parasite called ,echinococcus1 which holds itself in its position by means of the circle of hooks with which the head is surrounded4 ,these hooks are easily detached1 and have a curious resemblance to the claw of the lion or tiger4 ,on the left-hand side is a representation of a parasitic crustacean animal called ,lernentoma1 which adheres to various fishes1 and is mostly found upon the sprat1 clinging to the gills by means of its grapnel-shaped head4 ,on the right hand of the accompanying illustration is an ice-anchor1 copied from one of those which were taken out in the ,arctic expedition of #ahge4 ,opposite is the skull of the ,walrus1 the tusks of which are said to be used for exactly the same purpose4 ,below are ice-hooks1 also used for the same expedition4 ,illustration3 ,,tusks ,,of ,,walrus4 ,illustration3 ,,ice-,,anchor ,,and ,,ice-,,hooks4 ,the next illustration exhibits a butcher's hook and a common porter's hook1 by which he lifts sacks on his back2 and opposite them are some sponge-spicules1 the similarity of which in form is so remarkable that the former might have been copied from the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,sponge-,,spicules4 ,illustration3 ,,butcher',s ,,hook4 ,illustration3 ,,porter',s ,,hook4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,mushroom4 ,illustration3 ,,mushroom ,,kedge4 ,our next sketch shows a remarkable example of similitude in form4 ,there are certain small anchors called ,kedges1 which are very useful for mooring a boat where no great power of resistance has to be overcome1 and a large anchor would be cumbersome4 ,one of these is called1 from its shape1 the 8,mushroom ,kedge10 and is very useful1 as1 however it may be dropped1 some part of the edge is sure to take the ground4 ,this ,kedge is shown on the right hand of the illustration1 and the ,mushroom1 from which its shape was borrowed1 is seen on the left4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to some more examples of the principle of the ,grapnel1 some of which are applied to nautical1 and others to terrestrial objects4 ,illustration3 ,,eagle-,,claw4 ,illustration3 ,,flesh-,,hook4 ,the right-hand upper figure represents the 8,flesh-hook10 used for taking boiled meat out of the caldron1 so familiar to us by the reference to it in ,exodus xxvii4 #c1 and the still better-known allusion to its office in #a ,samuel ii4 #ac1 #ad4 ,in the former passage1 even the material1 brass1 which was really what we now call bronze1 is mentioned1 and it is a curious fact that all the specimens in the ,british ,museum1 from one of which the drawing was taken1 are made of bronze4 ,i need hardly state that the hollow handle is meant to receive a wooden staff4 ,on comparing this figure with that of the ,eagle's foot on the opposite side1 the reader cannot but be struck with the exact resemblance between the two4 ,indeed1 there is very little doubt that the flesh-hook was intentionally copied from the foot of some bird of prey4 ,perhaps the ,osprey would have furnished even a better example than the ,eagle1 the claws being sharper and more boldly curved1 so as to hold their slippery prey the better4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the next illustration is a figure of the seed-vessel of the ,grapple-plant of ,southern ,africa1 drawn from a specimen in my collection4 ,the seed-vessel is several inches in length1 and the traveller who is caught by a single hook had better wait for assistance than try to release himself4 ,the stems of the plant are so slender1 and the armed seed-vessels so numerous1 that in attempting to rescue one portion of the dress1 another portion becomes entangled1 and the traveller gets hopelessly captured4 ,besides the hooks of the seed-vessels1 the branches themselves are armed with long thorns1 set in pairs4 ,the scientific name of this plant is ,uncinaria procumbens1 the former word signifying 8a hook10 and the latter 8trailing40 ,it is also known by the popular name of ,hook-plant4 ,illustration3 ,,grapple-,,plant4 ,illustration3 ,,drag4 ,in the late ,kafir wars the natives made great use of this and other plants with similar properties1 their own naked1 dark1 and oiled bodies slipping through them easily and unseen1 while the scarlet coats of the soldiers were quickly entangled1 and made them an easy mark for the ,kafir's spear4 ,in this way many more of our soldiers were killed by the spears than by the bullets of their enemies4 ,opposite to the ,grapple-plant is shown the common ,drag1 which is utilised for so many purposes4 ,generally it is employed for recovering objects that have sunk to the bottom of the water1 and its use by the officers of the ,humane ,society is perfectly well known1 the ,drag being sometimes affixed to the end of a long pole1 like the flesh-hook already described1 and sometimes tied to a rope4 ,it can also be used as an anchor1 after the manner of a kedge1 and has been often employed in naval engagements for the purpose of drawing two ships together1 and preventing the escape of the vessel which is being worsted4 ,my relative1 the late ,admiral ,sir ,j4 ,harvey1 ,k4,b41 used drags in this manner1 and secured two ,french ships1 one on either side1 namely1 ,l',achille and ,le ,vengeur4 ,the first was sunk1 and the second captured4 ,,nautical4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,subsidiary ,,appliances4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,boat-,,hook ,,and ,,punt-,,pole4--,,the ,,life-,,buoy ,,and ,,pontoon-,,raft4 ,the ,boat-hook and its varied ,uses4--,the ,earth-worm and the ,serpula4--,microscopic ,boat-hooks4--,the ,life-belt4--,life-boats and their ,structure4--,uses of ,cork4--,wine ,corks made serviceable4--,the ,life-collar4--,portuguese ,man-of-war4--,captain ,boyton's ,life-dress4--,the ,life-raft4--,victualling a ,yacht and ,boat4--,the ,janthina and its ,air-vessels4--,cask-pontoon--,pottery-r aft and its ,uses4 ,as all rowing men know1 an indispensable appliance to the boat is the ,boat-hook1 which can be used either as a pole1 wherewith to push the boat along1 or as a grapnel1 by which it can be drawn towards the shore or a ship4 ,as the latter portion has been discussed at the close of the preceding chapter1 we may proceed to the former4 ,every one knows how a boat may be propelled by a pole pressed against the bank or the bottom of the water1 and that there are certain boats1 called punts1 which are propelled in no other way4 ,now1 the punt-poles and boat-hooks1 of which some examples are given in the accompanying illustration1 have long been anticipated in ,nature1 there being many creatures which have no other mode of progression2 such1 for example1 as the common ,earth-worm1 which pushes itself along by certain bristles which project from the rings of which the body is composed1 and which have the power of extension and contraction to a wonderful extent4 ,as1 however1 ,i shall advert to these in another part of the work1 ,i will content myself at present with a single example1 namely1 the beautiful marine worm known as the ,serpula4 ,this worm lives in a shelly tube1 which is lined with a delicate membrane1 up and down which it passes with ease1 ascending slowly1 but generally descending with such wonderful rapidity that the eye cannot follow its movements4 ,the latter movement will be explained in a subsequent part of the book1 and we will at present only treat of the former4 ,illustration3 ,,pushing ,,spikes ,,of ,,serpula4 ,illustration3 ,,boat-,,hooks ,,and ,,punt-,,poles4 ,if the creature be removed from the tube1 and carefully examined1 a number of projections will be seen1 in each of which is a perforation4 ,if the animal be pressed1 a slight glass-like bristle passes through the perforation1 and can easily be removed4 ,if properly treated1 and placed under a high power of the microscope1 the tiny bristle resolves itself into the remarkable object which is shown on the left hand of the illustration4 ,it consists of a number of spear-like rods1 each having a straight shaft1 and a curved and pointed tip1 deeply barbed on the inner portion of the curve4 ,these curious bundles of spicules can be protruded or retracted at pleasure1 and1 as they are all directed backwards1 it is evident that when they are pushed against the sides of the tube1 either the points or the barbs must catch against the membrane which lines the tube1 and so propel the animal upwards4 ,when it wishes to descend1 it uses another set of implements1 and withdraws the first within their sheaths4 ,this is exactly analogous to the mode of progression employed by punters1 who1 after they have placed the pole against the bed of the stream1 and run along the punt so as to push it as fast as possible1 immediately withdraw the pole1 and take it to the head of the punt1 ready for another push4 ,this1 as the reader will see1 is exactly the plan pursued by the ,serpula in lengthening itself when it wishes to advance1 and so to press its spicules against the sides of its tube1 and in shortening itself and withdrawing the spicules ready for another push4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another needful accessory of vessels now comes before us1 namely1 the capability of forming rafts or life-belts1 which will float under any circumstances4 ,here1 again1 every human invention of which ,i know has been anticipated by ,nature4 ,take1 for example1 the familiar instance of the cork life-belt and the cork edgings of the life-boat4 ,both are constructed on the same principle1 i4e4 the maintenance of cells which are filled by air instead of water1 and are impervious to the latter4 ,the material most used for this purpose is cork1 and life-belts constructed of it have long been in well-deserved use1 the cork-bark having the property of holding much air and excluding water4 ,many of our life-boats are furnished with a broad and thick streak of cork1 so that even if the boat be filled with water and upset1 she will right herself and swim4 ,i regret to say that many of the so-called 8life-belts0 which are offered for sale ought rather to be called 8death-belts10 they having been found to be filled with hay and straw1 with only a few shavings of cork just under the covering of the belt4 ,indeed1 so buoyant is this substance that a very efficient belt can be made by stringing together three or four rows of ordinary wine corks1 and tying them round the neck like a collar4 ,under these circumstances it is simply impossible to sink1 and though any one may collapse from exhaustion1 drowning is almost out of the question4 ,the now well-known cork mattress1 which is used in many ships1 is another example of the same principle4 ,lately there has been invented a 8life-collar10 which possesses similar advantages1 but occupies less space when not wanted4 ,it is nothing more than a tube of caoutchouc1 which can be inflated at pleasure1 and tied round the neck4 ,the ordinary life-belt goes round the waist1 and needs much more material without obtaining a better result1 which is simply the keeping of the mouth and nostrils out of the water4 ,perhaps the most buoyant of living beings is the ,portuguese ,man-of-war 7,physalis pelagicus71 which floats on the surface of the ocean like a bubble4 ,it can at pleasure distend itself with air and float1 or discharge the air and sink4 ,now1 there is a very remarkable swimming dress1 which1 though not entirely invented1 was at least perfected by ,captain ,boyton1 and which1 as it enabled the wearer to cross from ,france to ,england under rather unfavourable circumstances1 is clearly a most valuable invention4 ,illustration3 ,,portuguese ,,man-,,of-,,war4 ,illustration3 ,,captain ,,boyton',s ,,life-,,dress4 ,whether the inventor knew it or not ,i cannot say1 but the ,boyton life-dress is simply a modification of the ,physalis1 being capable of dilatation with air at will4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,so much for the individual life-belt1 and we will now pass to those which are intended to sustain more than one individual4 ,it has almost invariably been found that when a ship has been wrecked on a rock1 or stove in by the sea1 that1 although there may be plenty of boats1 there is great difficulty in getting them into the water rightly4 ,now1 if parts of the ship itself could be made of materials which could not be sunk except by enormous pressure1 and which might be released by a touch if the vessel were sinking1 it is evident that many lives would be saved which have now been lost4 ,and if such movable parts of the vessel were supplied with water and provisions in air-tight cases1 there is no doubt that the number of 8missing0 ships would be very greatly diminished4 ,i remember an instance where a yacht was 8hung up0 on a mud-bank1 whence there was no escape1 for twenty-four hours1 and there was one sandwich on board to be divided among the owner1 two men1 and a boy4 ,of course the boy had the sandwich1 and the men sustained themselves as well as they could with tea1 of which there was1 fortunately1 a canister on board4 ,as it was1 they were some thirty-six hours without food4 ,after such an experience the owner had special lockers made in the yacht and her boat1 containing biscuit1 potted meats1 water1 wine1 spirits1 tobacco1 tea1 an 8etna0 for heating the water1 and matches4 ,of course these were on a smaller scale in the boat2 but several thick rugs were also stowed away1 in case of being separated from the yacht at night4 ,it so happened that they were never needed2 but the sense of security which they imparted was worth ten times the expense and trouble1 which included a careful inspection of all the stores before each voyage4 ,in ,nature there is just such a raft as is needed1 capable of carrying a heavy freight1 and which cannot be upset4 ,and it is rather remarkable that it has been unconsciously imitated in various parts of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,janthina ,,and ,,air-,,raft4 ,illustration3 ,,cask-,,pontoon4 ,,pottery-,,raft ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 ,this is the singular apparatus attached to the ,violet ,snail 7,janthina communis71 which is common enough in the ,atlantic1 and derives its name of ,violet-shell from its beautiful colour4 ,the chief interest1 however1 centres in the apparatus which is popularly called the 8raft10 and which sustains the shell and eggs4 ,it is made of a great number of air-vessels1 affixed closely to each other1 and by the curious property of bearing its cargo slung beneath it instead of being laid upon it4 ,beneath the raft are the eggs1 or rather1 the capsules which contain the eggs1 and at one end is the beautiful violet shell itself4 ,the floating power of the raft is really astonishing1 and even in severe tempests1 when it is broken away from the animal1 the raft continues to float on the surface of the waves1 bearing its cargo with it4 ,on the opposite side of the illustration are two examples of rafts constructed so exactly on the same principle as that of the ,violet ,snail1 that they both might have been borrowed from it4 ,the upper is the kind of raft which has often been constructed by sailors when trying to escape from a sinking ship1 or by soldiers when wishing to convey troops across a river1 and having no regular 8pontoons0 at hand4 ,it is made simply by lashing a number of empty casks to a flooring of beams and planks4 ,the amount of weight which such a structure will support is really astonishing1 as long as the casks remain whole1 and to upset it is almost impossible4 ,even cannon can be taken across wide expanses of water in perfect safety1 and there is hardly anything more awkward of conveyance than a cannon1 with its own enormous and concentrated weight1 and all the needful paraphernalia of limber1 ammunition 7which may not be wetted1 and of immense weight71 horses1 and men4 ,yet even this heterogeneous mass of living and lifeless weight can be carried on the cask-raft1 which is an exact imitation of the living raft of the ,violet ,snail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beneath the cask-pontoon is to be seen a sketch of a very curious vessel which is in use on the ,nile1 and ,i rather think on the ,ganges also1 though ,i am not quite sure4 ,it is formed in the following manner3-- ,in both countries there are whole families who from generation to generation have lived in little villages up the river1 and gained their living by making pottery1 mostly of a simple though artistic form1 the vessel having a rather long and slender neck1 and a more or less globular body4 ,when a man has made a sufficient number of these vessels1 he lashes them together with their mouths uppermost1 and then fixes upon them a simple platform of reeds4 ,the papyrus was once largely used for this purpose1 but it seems to be gradually abandoned4 ,he thus forms a pontoon exactly similar in principle with the cask-pontoon which has just been described4 ,then1 taking his place on his buoyant raft1 he floats down the river until he comes to some populous town1 takes his raft to pieces1 sells the pots and reeds1 and makes his way home again by land4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,pitfall1 ,,the ,,club1 ,,the ,,sword1 ,,the ,,spear ,,and ,,dagger4 ,analogy between ,war and ,hunting4--,the ,pitfall as used for both ,purposes4--,african ,pitfalls for large ,game1 and their ,armature for preventing the ,escape of ,prey4--,its ,use in this ,country on a miniature scale4--,mr4 ,waterton's ,mouse-trap4--,pitfall of the ,ant-lion1 and its ,armature for preventing the ,escape of ,prey4--,the ,club and its ,origin4--,gradual ,development of the ,weapon4--,the 8,pine-apple0 ,club of ,fiji4--,the ,game of ,pallone and the 8,bracciale40--,the ,irish ,shillelagh4--,clubs and ,maces of ,wood1 ,metal1 or mixed4--,the ,morgenstern4--,ominous ,jesting4--,natural ,clubs4--,the ,durian1 the ,diodon1 and the ,horse-chestnut4--,the ,sword1 or flattened and sharpened ,club4--,natural and artificial ,armature of the ,edge4--,the ,sword-grass1 ,leech1 and ,saw-fish4--,spears and ,swords armed with ,bones and ,stones4--,the ,spear and ,dagger1 and their ,analogies4--,structure of the ,spear4--,the ,bamboo as a ,weapon of ,war or ,hunting4--,singular ,combat1 and its ,results4 ,the two subjects which are here mentioned are practically one1 the warfare being in the one case carried on against mankind1 and in the other against the lower animals1 the means employed being often the same in both cases4 ,,the ,,pitfall4 ,one of the simplest examples of this double use is afforded by the ,pitfall1 which is employed in almost every part of the world1 and1 although mostly used for hunting1 still keeps its place in warfare4 ,on the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a section of the ,pitfall which is so commonly used in ,africa for the capture of large game4 ,it is1 as may be seen1 a conical hole1 the bottom of which is armed with a pointed stake4 ,should a large animal fall into the pit1 the shape of the sides forces it upon the stake1 by which it is transfixed4 ,even elephants of the largest size often fall victims to this simple trap4 ,it is only large enough to receive the fore-legs and chest1 but that is quite sufficient to cause the death of the animal1 the stake penetrating to the heart4 ,many a hunter has fallen into these traps1 and found great difficulty in escaping1 while some have not escaped at all4 ,indeed1 in many parts of ,southern ,africa1 when part of one tribe is about to visit another1 the pitfalls are always unmasked1 lest the intended guests should fall into them4 ,illustration3 ,,pitfall ,,of ,,ant-,,lion ,,for ,,catching ,,insects4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,pitfall ,,for ,,catching ,,large ,,game4 ,even without the spike1 the elephant would scarcely be able to save itself1 owing to its enormous weight1 unless helped out by its comrades before the hunters came up4 ,indeed1 many pitfalls are intentionally made for this purpose1 and are of a different shape1 i4e4 about eight feet in length and four in breadth4 ,in those which are made for the capture of the giraffe1 the pit is very deep1 and the place of the stake is occupied by a transverse wall1 which prevents the feet of the captive from touching the ground1 and keeps it suspended until the hunters can come and kill it at leisure4 ,even in ,belgium and our own country the pitfall is in use4 ,when the field-mice were devastating the districts about ,liege some years ago1 their ravages were effectually checked by pitfalls1 in which they were caught by bushels1 the pitfalls being simple holes some two feet deep1 and made wider below than above4 ,the late ,mr4 ,waterton contrived to rid his garden of field-mice by pitfalls constructed on the same principle1 though more permanent4 ,finding that the little animals made great havoc among his peas just as they were starting out of the ground1 he buried between the rows a number of earthen pickle-jars1 sinking them to the level of the ground4 ,he then rubbed the inside of the neck with bacon1 and left them4 ,the mice stooped down to lick off the bacon1 fell into the jars1 and1 the neck being narrow and the sides slippery1 they could not get out again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration is the section of a pitfall made by the well-known ,ant-lion 7,myrmeleo71 of which there are several species4 ,the history of this wonderful insect is so familiar to us that it need not be repeated at length4 ,suffice it to say that it digs conical pitfalls in loose sandy soil1 and that it places itself at the bottom of the pit1 securing the insect victims with its jaws just as the larger animals are secured by the stake of the human hunter4 ,it makes no false cover1 as does the human hunter1 but it always chooses soil so loose that if an insect approach the edge1 the sand gives way1 and it goes sliding down into the pit1 whence its chance of escape is very small1 even were there no deadly jaws at the bottom ready to receive it4 ,,the ,,club4 ,the simplest of all offensive weapons is necessarily the ,,club4 ,at first1 this was but a simple stick1 such as any savage might form from a branch of a tree by knocking off the small boughs with a stone or another stick4 ,such clubs are still used in ,australia1 and ,i have several in my collection4 ,then the inventive genius of man improved their destructive power by various means4 ,the most obvious plan was to add to the force of its blow by simply making one end much thicker and heavier than the other4 ,this is done in the 8,knob-kerry0 of ,southern ,africa1 and it is worthy of remark that in ,fiji a weapon exists so exactly like the short knob-kerry of ,africa1 that an inexperienced eye would scarcely be able to distinguish between them4 ,the next plan was to arm the enlarged head with projecting pieces or spikes1 sometimes cut out of the solid wood1 and sometimes artificially inserted4 ,the 8,shillelagh0 of ,ireland is a simple example of this kind of club4 ,one of the best and most elaborate examples of this sort of weapon is the 8,pine-apple0 ,club of ,fiji1 a figure of which may be seen in the illustration1 drawn from a specimen in my collection4 ,it is made in the most ingenious manner from a tree which is trained for the purpose4 ,there are certain trees belonging to the palm tribe which possess 8arial0 roots1 i4e4 subsidiary roots1 which surround the trunk at some distance from the ground1 and assist in supporting it4 ,some trees have no central root1 and are entirely upborne by the arial roots1 while others have both4 ,one of these latter is selected1 and when it is very young is bent over and fastened to the ground almost at right angles1 as shown in the illustration4 ,when it has grown to a sufficient age it is cut to the requisite length1 the central root is sharpened to a point1 and the arial roots are also cut down in such a way that they radiate very much like the projections on a pine-apple4 ,this is really an ingenious weapon1 for if the long and sharpened end should miss its aim1 the projections would be tolerably sure to inflict painful if not immediately dangerous injuries4 ,illustration3 ,,durian4 ,illustration3 ,,pollen ,,of ,,hollyhock4 ,,horse-,,chestnut4 ,illustration3 ,,wooden ,,and ,,metal ,,clubs4 ,as the pine-apple is so well known1 ,i have given in the opposite side of the illustration a figure of the ,durian1 a large ,bornean fruit1 which is covered with projections almost identical in appearance with those of the pine-apple club1 and almost equally hard and heavy4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have heard of the grand ,italian game of ,pallone1 the 8game of giants10 as it has been called4 ,the ball1 which is a large and rather heavy one1 weighing more than twice as much as a cricket-ball1 is struck with a wooden gauntlet reaching nearly half-way up the fore-arm4 ,the original gauntlet was cut entirely out of the solid wood1 and exactly resembled the exterior of the ,durian4 ,the modern gauntlet1 however1 has the spikes fixed separately into a wooden frame1 so that they can be replaced if broken in the course of the game4 ,the principle1 however1 is identical in all three cases4 ,the technical name of this gauntlet is ,bracciale4 ,the next improvement was to add still further to the destructive powers of the club by arming it with stones1 so as to make it harder and heavier4 ,sometimes a stone is perforated1 and the end of the club forced into it4 ,sometimes the stone is lashed to the club1 and sometimes a hole is bored in the club1 and the stone driven into it4 ,this kind of club1 made of a sort of rosewood1 may be found among some of the tribes inhabiting the district of the ,essequibo4 ,the next improvement was to make the weapon entirely of metal1 and such clubs are plentiful in every good collection of arms4 ,there was1 for example1 the common mace1 which was used for the purpose of stunning an adversary clothed in armour which the sword could not penetrate4 ,as this1 however1 was nothing more than an ordinary wooden club executed in iron1 we need not produce examples4 ,other and more complicated forms were soon made1 and were wonderfully valuable until the rapidly improving firearms kept combatants at a distance1 and rendered a hand-to-hand fight almost impossible4 ,three examples of such clubs are given in the illustration1 and are taken from ,demmin's valuable work called 8,weapons of ,war40 ,the upper left-hand specimen is called ,morgenstern1 i4e4 ,morning ,star4 ,it is a large1 heavy wooden ball studded with steel spikes1 and affixed to a handle usually some six or seven feet1 but sometimes exceeding eleven feet1 in length4 ,it was chiefly used by infantry when attacking cavalry1 the long shaft enabling the foot-soldier to be tolerably sure of dealing the cavalier or his horse a severe blow1 while himself out of reach of the latter's sword4 ,behind it is another ,morgenstern in which there is an improvement1 the armed ball being furnished at the end with a spike1 so that it could be used either as a mace or a spear4 ,the commonest form of the ,morning ,star is shown below1 and is thus described by ,demmin3-- 8,this mace had generally a long handle1 and its head bristled with wooden or iron points4 ,it was common among the ancients1 for many museums possess several fragments of these weapons belonging to the age of bronze4 8,the ,morning ,star was very well known and much used in ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,it received its name from the ominous jest of wishing the enemy #8good morning' with the ,morning ,star when they had been surprised in camp or city4 8,this weapon became very popular on account of the facility and quickness with which it could be manufactured4 ,the peasants made it easily with the trunk of a small shrub and a handful of large nails4 ,it was also in great request during the wars of the peasantry which have devastated ,germany at different times1 and the ,swiss arsenals possess great numbers of them40 ,one of these primitive weapons may be seen in the lower figure of the illustration4 ,sometimes the spiked ball was attached to a chain1 and fastened to the end of a handle varying greatly in length1 measuring from two to ten feet4 ,one of these weapons may be seen in the ,guildhall of ,london1 being held by one of the celebrated giants4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,if the reader will now turn to the illustration on page #ec1 he will see that on the right of the ,durian there are two spherical objects covered with spikes4 ,the upper is the pollen of the ,hollyhock1 and the lower the common ,horse-chestnut4 ,the reader will see that these are precisely similar in form to the spiked balls of the ,morgenstern1 whether they be used at the end of a staff or slung to a chain4 ,there are many similar examples in the vegetable kingdom which will doubtless suggest themselves to the reader1 but these are amply sufficient for this purpose4 ,then1 in the animal world1 the curious ,diodons1 sometimes called ,urchin-fishes1 or ,prickly ,globe-fishes1 are good examples4 ,these fishes are covered with sharp spines1 and1 as they have the power of swelling their bodies into a globular form1 the spikes project on all sides just like those of the pollen or chestnut4 ,there is a specimen in my collection1 which1 if the tail and fins were removed1 and a cast taken in metal1 would make a very good ,morgenstern ball4 ,,the ,,sword4 ,the next improvement on the club was evidently to flatten it1 and sharpen one or both edges1 so as to make it a cutting as well as a stunning implement--in fact1 the club was changed into a ,,sword4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,sword-,,grass ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,shark-,,tooth ,,sword ,,of ,,mangaia4 ,a good example of this weapon in its simplest form is the wooden sword of ,australia1 now an exceedingly rare weapon4 ,it looks like a very large boomerang1 but is nearly straight1 and is made from the hard1 tough wood of the gum-tree4 ,travellers say that the natives can cut off a man's head with this very simple weapon4 ,i just missed obtaining one of these swords from a man-of-war1 but1 unfortunately1 a few hours before my arrival the zealous first lieutenant had ordered a large collection of savage weapons to be thrown overboard1 among which were several ,australian swords4 ,finding that the edges were not sufficiently sharp1 and were liable to break1 the maker next turned his attention to arming them with some substance harder than wood4 ,various materials were used for this purpose1 some of which will be mentioned4 ,one of these is given in the illustration1 and is taken from a specimen in my collection4 ,it is made of wood1 rather more than two feet in length1 and would in itself be an insignificant weapon but for its armature4 ,this consists of a number of sharks' teeth1 which are fixed along either side1 and are a most formidable apparatus1 each tooth cutting like a lancet-blade1 and not only being very sharp1 but having their edges finely notched like the teeth of a saw4 ,i have a series of these weapons in my collection1 some being curved1 some straight1 and one very remarkable weapon having four blades1 one straight and long blade in the centre1 and three curved and short blades springing from the handle towards the point4 ,opposite the shark-tooth sword is an object which might almost be taken for a similar weapon1 but is1 in fact1 nothing but a common grass-blade1 such as may be found in any of our lanes4 ,i suppose that most of my readers must at some time have cut their fingers with grass1 and the reason why is shown in the illustration1 which represents a much-magnified blade of grass4 ,the edges of the leaf are armed with sharp teeth of flint1 set exactly like those of the sword1 with their points directed towards the tip of the blade4 ,the whole of the under surface of the blade is thickly set with similar but smaller teeth1 arranged in the same manner4 ,i have just brought a blade of grass from a lane near my house1 and when it was placed under the half-inch power of the microscope1 the resemblance to the sword was absolutely startling to some spectators who came to look at it4 ,as if to make the resemblance closer1 many savage weapons are edged with flat stones1 flint chips1 or pieces of obsidian1 so that the flint teeth of the grass are exactly copied by the flint edgings of the sword4 ,the old ,mexican swords were nearly all edged with obsidian1 as is seen in the lower right-hand figure of the next illustration4 ,i possess a number of obsidian flakes which were intended for that purpose1 but do not appear to have been used4 ,the second figure from the top represents the head of a spear similarly armed1 and ,i possess a small ,australian implement in which the flakes of obsidian are set only on one side1 so that the instrument can be used as a rude saw4 ,between these two weapons is a spear-head armed with shark-teeth4 ,i have a very remarkable weapon of this kind1 made in ,mangaia4 ,it is eleven feet in length1 and1 besides being armed with a double row of sharks' teeth nearly to the handle1 it has three curved blades similarly armed1 set at distances of about two feet1 and projecting at right angles4 ,thus1 if the foe were missed with the point of the spear1 he would probably be wounded by one of the blades4 ,illustration3 ,,sword-,,grass4 ,,leech ,,jaw4 ,,saw-,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,spears ,,and ,,sword ,,armed ,,with ,,obsidian ,,and ,,sharks' ,,teeth4 ,the upper figure represents a weapon where the natural bone of the sting-ray has been used as the point4 ,on the opposite side are seen three natural objects similarly armed4 ,the uppermost is another species of sword-grass1 like that which has already been described4 ,next comes a magnified view of one of the three cutting instruments of the leech1 showing the serrated teeth set along its edge1 by means of which it produces the sharply-cut wounds through which it sucks the blood4 ,the last figure represents the head of the common ,saw-fish1 in which a vast number of flat and sharply-edged teeth are set upon the blade-like head4 ,the fish has been observed to use this weapon just as the ,mangaian uses his sword-spear4 ,it dashes among a shoal of fish1 sweeps its head violently backwards and forwards1 and then1 after they have dispersed1 picks up at its leisure the dead and disabled4 ,,the ,,spear ,,and ,,the ,,dagger4 ,it is tolerably evident that the invention of the spear and dagger must have been nearly1 if not quite1 contemporaneous with that of the club4 ,i place these weapons together because there is great difficulty in assigning to either of them the precedence1 the spear being but a more or less elongated dagger1 and the dagger a shortened spear4 ,as a good example of this fact1 ,i have in my collection a number of spears and daggers belonging to the ,fan tribe of ,western ,africa4 ,in every case the weapons correspond so closely with each other1 that if the daggers were attached to shafts they would exactly resemble the spears1 and if the spears were cut off within a few inches of the head1 they would be taken for daggers4 ,i may here mention that as this part of the subject merely involves the employment of a pointed or thrusting weapon1 instead of the club or sword1 both of which are used for striking1 the question of poison1 barbs1 and sheaths will be treated on another page4 ,the primary origin of the ,spear is probably the thorn1 as a savage who had been wounded by a thorn would easily pass to the conclusion that a thorn of larger size would enable him to kill an enemy in war1 or an animal in hunting4 ,anything of sufficient dimensions1 which either possessed a natural point or could be sharpened into a point1 would be available for the purpose of the hunter or warrior4 ,accordingly we find that such objects as the beak of the heron or stork1 the sharp hind-claw of the kangaroo1 the bone of the sting-ray1 the beak of the sword-fish1 and many similar objects1 are employed for the heads of spears1 or used simply as daggers4 ,as to artificial spears1 nothing is easier than to scrape a stick to a point1 and then1 if needful1 to harden it in the fire4 ,this is1 indeed1 one of the commonest forms of primitive spears1 and ,i have in my collection many examples of such weapons4 ,another simple form of this weapon is that which is made by cutting a stick or similar object diagonally4 ,hollow rods--such1 for example1 as the bamboo--are the best for this purpose4 ,i have now before me a cast of a most interesting weapon discovered by ,colonel ,lane ,fox4 ,it is the head of a spear1 and is formed from part of the leg-bone of a sheep4 ,at one end there is a simple round hole1 which acted as a socket for the reception of the shaft1 and the other end is cut away diagonally1 so as to leave a tolerably sharp point4 ,as to the bamboo1 it has a great advantage in the thinness of its walls1 and the coating of flinty substance with which it is surrounded1 and which gives its edges a knife-like sharpness4 ,indeed1 so very sharp is the silex1 that splinters of bamboo are still used as knives1 and with them a skilful operator can cut up a large hog as expeditiously as one of our pork-butchers could do with the best knife that ,sheffield produces4 ,i possess several of these weapons1 and formidable arms of offence they are4 ,if the reader can imagine to himself a toothpick1 a foot or more in length1 made from bamboo instead of quill1 and having its edges nearly as sharp as a razor1 he can realise the force of even so simple a weapon4 ,in the case of the bamboo1 too1 celerity of manufacture has its value1 for any one can make a couple of spears in less than as many minutes4 ,all he has to do is to cut down a joint of bamboo transversely1 and then with a diagonal blow of his knife at the other end to form the point4 ,the force of such a weapon may be inferred from a remarkable combat that took place some sixty years ago1 when the roads were not so safe as they are at present4 ,a gentleman1 who happened to be a consummate master of the sword1 was going along the highway at night1 and was attacked by two footpads1 he having no weapon but a bamboo cane4 ,one of them he temporarily disabled by a severe kick1 and then turned to the other1 whom he found to be pretty well as good a swordsman as himself1 and to possess a good stick instead of a slight cane4 ,the footpad soon discovered the discrepancy of weapons1 and with a sharp blow smashed the cane to pieces1 leaving only about eighteen inches in his antagonist's hand4 ,almost instinctively ,baron ---- sprang under the man's guard1 and dashed the broken cane in his face4 ,the footpad staggered with a groan1 put his hands to his face1 and ran away1 followed by his companion1 who did not desire another encounter with such an antagonist4 ,when the victor reached his destination1 he found that the footpad's face must have been torn to pieces1 for the clefts of the split bamboo were full of scraps of skin1 flesh1 and whisker hair4 ,it is worthy of notice that the combination of the club and the dagger is common to savage and civilised life1 as may be seen by reference to the illustration in page #ec1 where the wooden club of savage warfare and the metal club and maces of civilisation are alike armed with a piercing as well as a bruising apparatus4 ,mostly the dagger is on the head of the mace or battle-axe1 but1 in some cases1 the end of the handle acts as the dagger1 and the head as the axe or mace4 ,a very good example of this formation is found in the wooden battle-axe1 or 8,patoo10 of ,new ,zealand1 a weapon which has been long superseded by modern fire-arms4 ,a specimen in my possession is rather more than five feet in length4 ,the head is just like that of an ordinary axe1 while the handle tapers gradually to the end1 where it terminates in a sharp spike4 ,in actual combat the point was used much more than the axe4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,poison1 ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable4--,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,barb4 ,poison as applied to ,weapons4--,its limited ,use4--,animal and ,vegetable ,poisons4--,animal ,poisons4--,the ,malayan ,dagger1 or ,kris1 and two ,modes of poisoning it4--,the ,bosjesmans and their ,arrows4--,snake ,poison and its ,preparation4--,the ,pseudo-barb4--,the ,poison-grub1 or ,n'gwa4--,simple ,mode of ,preparation1 and its terrible ,effects4--,vegetable ,poisons4--,the ,upas of ,malacca4--,the ,wourali ,poison of ,tropical ,america4--,mode of preparing the various ,arrows4--,the ,fan ,tribe of ,west ,africa1 and their poisoned ,arrows4--,subcutaneous ,injection4--,examples in ,nature4--,the ,poison-fang of the ,serpent4--,sting of the ,bee4--,tail of the ,scorpion4--,fang of the ,spider4--,sting of the ,nettle4--,exotic ,nettles and their ,effects4--,the ,barb and its ,developments4--,the 8,bunday0 of ,java4--,reversed ,barbs of ,western ,africa4--,tongans and their ,spears4--,the ,harpoon and ,lernentoma1 or ,sprat-sucker4--,the ,main ,gauche1 or ,brise-pe4 ,another advance1 if it may so be called1 lay in increasing the deadly effect of the weapons by arming them with poison4 ,without the poison1 it was necessary to inflict wounds which in themselves were mortal2 but with it a comparatively slight wound would suffice for death1 providing only that the poison mixes with the blood4 ,it is worthy of notice that cutting weapons1 such as swords and axes1 seldom1 if ever1 have been envenomed1 the poison being reserved for piercing weapons1 such as the dagger1 the spear1 and the arrow4 ,,animal ,,poisons4 ,perhaps the most diabolical invention of this kind was the ,venetian stiletto1 made of glass4 ,it came to a very sharp point1 and was hollow1 the tube containing a liquid poison4 ,when the dagger was used1 it was driven into the body of the victim1 and then snapped off in the wound1 so that the poison was able to have its full effect4 ,such poisons are of different kinds1 and invariably animal or vegetable in their origin4 ,taking the animal poisons first1 we come to the curious mode of poisoning the ,malayan dagger1 or 8,kris40 ,the blade of the weapon is not smooth1 but is forged from very fibrous steel1 and then laid in strong acid until it is covered with multitudinous grooves1 some of them being often so deep that the acid has eaten its way completely through the blade4 ,among some tribes the kris is poisoned by being thrust into a putrefying human body1 and allowed to remain there until the grooves are filled with the decaying matter4 ,it is also said that if the kris be similarly plunged into the thick stem that grows just at the base of the pine-apple1 the result is nearly the same4 ,as a rule1 however1 the ,arrow is generally the weapon which is poisoned1 and a few examples will be mentioned of each kind of poisoning4 ,the two most formidable animal poisons are those which are made by the ,bosjesmans of ,southern ,africa4 ,their bows are but toys1 and their arrows only slender reeds4 ,but they arm these apparently insignificant weapons with poison so potent1 that even the brave and bellicose ,kafir warrior does not like to fight a ,bosjesman1 though he be protected by his enormous shield4 ,there are two kinds of animal poison used by the ,bosjesmans4 ,the first is made from the secretion of the poison-glands of the cobra1 puff-adder1 and cerastes4 ,knowing the sluggish nature of snakes in general1 the ,bosjesman kills them in a very simple manner4 ,he steals cautiously towards the serpent1 boldly sets his foot upon its neck1 and cuts off its head4 ,the body makes a dainty feast for him1 and the head is soon opened1 and the poison-glands removed4 ,by itself1 the poison would not adhere to the point of the weapon1 and so it is mixed with the gummy juice of certain euphorbias1 until it attains a pitch-like consistency4 ,it is then laid thickly upon the bone point of the arrow1 and a little strip of quill is stuck into it like a barb4 ,the object of the quill is1 that if a man1 or even an animal1 be wounded1 and the arrow torn away1 the quill remains in the wound1 retaining sufficient poison to insure death4 ,i have a quiverful of such arrows in my collection4 ,that arrows so armed should be very terrible weapons is easily to be imagined1 but there is another kind of poison which is even more to be dreaded4 ,this is procured from the innocent-looking1 but most venomous1 ,poison-grub4 ,it is called ,n'gwa by the ,bosjesmans1 and is the larval state of a small beetle4 ,when the arrow is to be poisoned1 the grub is broken in half1 and the juices squeezed upon the arrow in small spots4 ,both ,livingstone and ,baines give full and graphic accounts of the horrible effect produced by this dread poison1 which1 as soon as it mixes with the blood1 drives the victim into raging madness4 ,a lion wounded by one of these arrows has been known nearly to tear himself to pieces in his agonies4 ,m4 ,baines was good enough to present me with the ,n'gwa grub in its different stages1 together with an arrow which has been poisoned with its juices4 ,the ,bosjesmans are themselves so afraid of the weapon1 that they always carry the arrows with the points reversed1 the poisoned end being thrust into the hollow reed which forms the shaft of the arrow4 ,not until the arrow is to be discharged does its owner place the tip with its point uncovered4 ,,vegetable ,,poisons4 ,we now come to the ,vegetable ,poisons1 the two best known of which are the ,upas poison of ,borneo1 and the ,wourali of ,south ,america4 ,it is rather remarkable that in both these cases the arrows are very small1 and are blown through a hollow tube1 after the manner of the well-known 8,puff-and-dart0 toy of the present day4 ,the ,upas poison is simply the juice of the tree1 and it does not retain its strength for more than a few hours after it has been placed on the arrow-points4 ,a supply of the same liquid is therefore kept in an air-tight vessel made of bamboo1 the opening being closed by a large lump of wax kneaded over it at the mouth4 ,one of these little flasks1 taken from a specimen in my collection1 is seen on the extreme right of the illustration4 ,the ,wourali poison owes all its power to its vegetable element1 though certain animal substances are generally mixed with it4 ,the principal ingredient is the juice of one of the strychnine vines1 which is extracted by boiling1 and then carefully inspissated until it is about the consistency of treacle4 ,this poison differs from the ,upas in the fact that it retains its potency after very many years1 if only kept dry4 ,i have a number of arrows poisoned with the ,wourali4 ,they were given to me by the late ,mr4 ,waterton1 who procured them in #ahab1 and even in the present year 7#ahge7 they are as deadly as when they were first made4 ,a bundle of these tiny arrows1 surmounted by the little wheel which is used to guard the hand from being pricked1 is seen next to the ,bornean poison-flask4 ,illustration3 ,,serpent-,,fang4 ,illustration3 ,,bee-,,sting4 ,illustration3 ,,scorpion-,,sting4 ,illustration3 ,,nettle-,,sting4 ,illustration3 ,,spider-,,fang4 ,illustration3 ,,injecting ,,syringe4 ,illustration3 ,,poisoned ,,arrows ,,and ,,poison-,,flask4 ,beside these little arrows1 which are only about ten inches in length1 very much larger arrows are used both for war and hunting1 and are propelled by the bow1 and not with the breath4 ,many of these arrows are nearly six feet in length4 ,in all1 the head is movable fitting quite loosely into a socket1 so that when an animal is struck and springs forward1 the shaft is shaken off1 to be picked up by the hunter1 and fitted with another point1 while the poisoned head remains in the wound4 ,another kind of poison1 also of a vegetable origin1 is used by the ,fan tribe4 ,the arrows are mere little slips of bamboo1 and are propelled by a slight crossbow4 ,but the poison is so potent1 that even these tiny weapons produce a fatal effect4 ,nearly in the centre of the illustration is seen a rather curiously formed syringe1 with an extremely long and slender tip4 ,this is a recently invented instrument1 used for the purpose of subcutaneous injection--i4e4 of injecting any liquid under the skin4 ,it is mostly employed for injecting opium and other drugs of similar qualities1 for the purpose of obtaining relief from local pain4 ,the slender spike-like point is hollow1 and ends in a sharp tip1 formed like the head of a lance4 ,just below the head there is a little hole1 communicating with the interior of the tube4 ,the mode of operating is simple enough4 ,the syringe is filled with the drug1 and the point introduced under the skin at any given spot4 ,pressure on the piston then forces out the liquid1 and causes it to mix with the blood4 ,,natural ,,animal ,,poisons4 ,now1 both in the animal and vegetable worlds may be found several examples of an apparatus which acts in exactly the same manner4 ,the first is the poison-fang of the ,serpent1 a specimen of which is given on the left hand of the illustration4 ,this fang answers in every respect to the syringe above mentioned4 ,the long and slender fang is hollow1 and answers to the pipe of the syringe4 ,it communicates at the base with a reservoir of liquid poison1 which answers to the body of the syringe1 and there is a little hole1 or rather slit1 just above the point1 which allows the poison to escape4 ,when the serpent makes its stroke1 the base of the fang is driven against the reservoir1 so that the liquid is urged through the hollow tube1 and forced into the wound4 ,even in large serpents these fangs are very small4 ,i have now before me some fangs of the cobra1 puff-adder1 rattlesnake1 and viper1 and it is astonishing how small and slender are these most deadly weapons4 ,the figure in the illustration is much magnified1 in order to show the aperture at the base1 where communication is made with the interior of the fang4 ,as the exit hole is on the upper curve of the fang1 it is not visible in the figure4 ,next to the serpent's fang is a representation of the ,bee-sting1 the poisonous reservoir being seen at the base1 and having attached to it the tiny thread-like gland by which the poison is secreted4 ,in the centre is seen the tail of a ,scorpion1 with its hooked sting4 ,the last joint is formed just like the serpent's fang1 being hollow1 having a sharp point with a slit near the end1 and a poison reservoir in the rounded base4 ,when the scorpion attacks an enemy1 it strikes violently with the tail1 and the force of the blow drives out the poison just as is done with the serpent's fang4 ,at the bottom of the illustration is shown the poison-fang of a ,spider1 which1 as the reader may see1 is formed just on the principle of the scorpion-sting4 ,,natural ,,vegetable ,,poisons4 ,so much for animal poisons4 ,we will now pass to the vegetable world4 ,of the vegetable sting-bearers none are more familiar to us than the ,nettle1 three species of which inhabit this country4 ,the two commonest are the ,great ,nettle 7,urtica dicea7 and the ,small ,nettle 7,urtica urens71 and both of them are armed with venomous stings1 which cause the plants to be so much dreaded4 ,the structure of these stings is very simple1 and can be made out with an ordinary microscope1 or even a good pocket lens4 ,each of these stings is1 in fact1 a rather elaborately constructed hair1 hollow throughout its length1 coming to a point at the tip1 and having the base swollen into a receptacle containing the poisonous juice4 ,when any object--such1 for example1 as the human hand--touches a nettle1 the points of the stings slightly penetrate the skin1 and the hair is pressed downwards against the base1 so that the poison is forced through the hole4 ,one of these hairs is shown in the left-hand bottom corner of the illustration4 ,even the tiny stings of our ,english nettles are sufficiently venomous to cause considerable pain1 and1 in some cases1 even to affect the whole nervous system4 ,but some of the exotic nettles are infinitely more formidable1 and are1 indeed1 so dangerous that1 when they are grown in a botanical garden1 a fence is placed round them1 so as to prevent visitors even from touching a single leaf4 ,the two most dreaded species are called ,urtica heterophylla and ,urtica crenulata4 ,the former is thought to be the more dangerous of the two1 and a good idea of its venomous qualities may be gathered from an account of an adventure with ,urtica crenulata4 ,the narrator is ,m4 ,l4 de la ,tour4 8,one of the leaves slightly touched the first three fingers of my left hand2 at the time ,i only perceived a slight pricking1 to which ,i paid no attention4 ,this was at seven in the morning4 ,the pain continued to increase1 and in an hour it became intolerable2 it seemed as if some one were rubbing my fingers with a hot iron4 ,nevertheless1 there was no remarkable appearance1 neither swelling1 nor pustules1 nor inflammation4 8,the pain spread rapidly along the arm as far as the armpit4 ,i was then seized with frequent sneezing1 and with a copious running at the nose1 as if ,i had caught a violent cold in the head4 ,about noon ,i experienced a painful attack of cramp at the back of the jaws1 which made me fear an attack of tetanus4 ,i then went to bed1 hoping that repose would alleviate my suffering1 but it did not abate4 ,on the contrary1 it continued nearly the whole of the following night2 but ,i lost the contraction of the jaws about seven in the evening4 8,the next morning the pain began to leave me1 and ,i fell asleep4 ,i continued to suffer for two days1 and the pain returned in full force when ,i put my hand into water4 ,i did not finally lose it for nine days40 ,there is another of these formidable nettles1 called in the ,east by a name which signifies 8,devil's ,leaf10 and which is sufficiently venomous to cause death4 ,there is but little doubt1 however1 that in the present instance1 if a larger portion of the body--say the whole arm--instead of three fingers1 had been stung1 death would have ensued from the injury4 ,,the ,,barb4 ,we now come to another improvement1 or rather addition1 in the various piercing weapons4 ,sometimes1 as in the case of the dagger or the hand-spear1 it was necessary that when a blow had been struck the weapon should be easily withdrawn from the wound1 so as not to disarm the assailant1 and to enable him to repeat the stroke if needful4 ,but in the case of a missile weapon1 such as a javelin or an arrow1 it was often useful1 both in war and hunting1 to form the head in such a way that when it had once entered it could scarcely be withdrawn4 ,for this purpose the ,barb was invented1 taking different forms1 according to the object of the weapon and the nationality of the maker4 ,as in this work ,i prefer to show the gradual development of human inventions1 ,i shall take my examples of barbs entirely from the weapons of uncivilised nations1 six examples of which are given in the accompanying illustration1 and five of them being drawn from specimens in my collection4 ,illustration3 ,,barbed ,,weapons4 ,the upper left-hand figure is rather a curious one1 the position of the barbs being nearly reversed1 so that they serve to tear the flesh rather than adhere to it4 ,the opposite figure represents an arrow with a doubly barbed point4 ,it is chiefly used for shooting fish as they lie dozing on or near the surface of the water1 but it is an effective weapon for ordinary hunting purposes1 and1 as the shaft is fully five feet in length1 is quite formidable enough for war4 ,the left-hand bottom figure represents a very remarkable instrument1 for it can hardly be called a weapon1 and is1 in fact1 the head of a policeman's staff4 ,it is peculiar to ,java1 and is called by the name of 8,bunday40 ,as may be seen by reference to the illustration1 the head of the ,bunday is formed of two diverging slips of wood4 ,to each of these is lashed a row of long and sharp thorns1 all pointing inwards1 and the whole is attached to a tolerably long shaft4 ,when a prisoner is brought before the chief1 a policeman stands behind him1 armed with the ,bunday1 and1 if the man should try to escape1 he is immediately arrested by thrusting the weapon at him1 so as to catch him by the waist1 neck1 or arm1 or a leg4 ,escape is impossible1 especially as in ,java the prisoner wears nothing but his waist-cloth4 ,a weapon formed on exactly the same principle was used in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and was employed for dragging knights off their horses4 ,it was of steel instead of wood1 and the place of the thorns was taken by two movable barbs1 working on hinges1 and kept open by springs4 ,when a thrust was made at the knight's neck the barbs gave way1 so as to allow the prongs to envelop the throat1 and they then sprang back again1 preventing the horseman from disengaging himself4 ,this weapon is technically named a 8catchpoll40 ,an illustration of one of these weapons will be given on another page4 ,the right-hand central figure is an arrow from ,western ,africa4 ,in a previous illustration 7page #fe7 a head of one of these arrows is given on rather a larger scale1 so as to show the very peculiar barbs4 ,these are of such a nature that when they have well sunk into the body they cannot be withdrawn1 but must be pushed through1 and drawn out on the opposite side4 ,this is drawn from one of my own specimens4 ,in some cases1 with an almost diabolical ingenuity1 the native arrow-maker has set on a couple of similar barbs1 directed towards the point1 so that the weapon can neither be pushed through nor drawn back4 ,one of these arrows is shown in the illustration1 but1 for want of space1 the artist has placed the opposing barbs too near each other4 ,in some parts of ,southern ,africa a similar weapon was used for securing a prisoner1 the barbed point being thrust down his throat and left there4 ,if it were pushed through the neck it killed him on the spot1 and if it remained in the wound the man could not eat nor drink1 and the best thing for him was to die as soon as he could4 ,with similar ingenuity1 the ,tongans and ,samoans made their war-spears with eight or nine barbs1 and1 before going into action1 used to cut the wood almost through between each barb1 so that when the body was pierced1 the head1 with several of the barbs1 was sure to break off and leave a large portion in the wound4 ,in ,mariner's well-known book there is an admirable account of the mode employed by a native surgeon for extracting one of these spear-heads4 ,so common was this weapon that every ,tongan gentleman carried a many-barbed spear about five feet long1 and used it either as a walking-stick or a weapon4 ,it is needless to say that this spear is almost an exact copy of the tail-bone of the ,stingray4 ,a dagger made of this bone was used in the ,pelew ,islands in #aghj1 but seemed to be rather scarce4 ,the left-hand central figure is a ,fijian fish-spear of four points1 and the last figure on the right hand represents a large four-pronged spear of ,borneo4 ,both these weapons are in my collection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another example of a weapon where a large and powerful barb is needful is the ,harpoon4 ,as the harpoon is used in capturing the whale1 the largest and most powerful of living mammalia1 it is evident that a barb which will hold such a prey must be rather peculiarly made4 ,the head and part of the shaft of the harpoon are shown in the right-hand figure of the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,lernentoma4 ,illustration3 ,,harpoon4 ,the left-hand figure represents a curious parasitic crustacean1 popularly called the ,sprat-sucker1 because it is usually found on sprats4 ,it affixes itself mostly to the eye1 the deeply barbed head being introduced between the eye and the socket4 ,in some seasons this remarkable parasite is quite plentiful1 while in others scarcely a specimen can be found4 ,its total length is slightly under an inch1 and its scientific name is ,lernentoma ,spratti4 ,the following graphic account of some prototypic weapons belonging to a marine worm is given by ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones1 and is well worthy of perusal1 not only for the vividness of the description1 but for its exact accuracy3-- 8,here is a ,polynoe1 a curious genus1 very common under stones at low water on our rocky shores4 8,it is remarkable on several accounts4 ,all down the back we discover a set of oval or kidney-shaped plates1 which are called the back-plates 7dorsal elytra72 these are flat1 and are planted upon the back by little footstalks1 set on near the margin of the under surface3 they are arranged in two rows1 overlapping each other at the edge4 ,these kidney-shaped shields1 which can be detached with slight violence1 are studded over with little transparent oval bodies1 set on short footstalks1 which are1 perhaps1 delicate organs of touch4 ,the intermediate antenn1 the tentacles1 and the cirrhi or filaments of the feet1 are similarly fringed with these little appendages1 which resemble the glands of certain plants1 and have a most singular appearance4 8,if we remove the shields1 we discover1 on each side of the body1 a row of wart-like feet1 from each of which project two bundles of spines of exquisite structure4 ,the bundles1 expanding on all sides1 resemble so many sheaves of wheat1 or you may more appropriately fancy you behold the armoury of some belligerent sea-fairy1 with stacks of arms enough to accoutre a numerous host4 8,but1 if you look closely at the weapons themselves1 they rather resemble those which we are accustomed to wonder at in missionary museums1--the arms of some ingenious but barbarous people from the ,south ,sea ,islands1--than such as are used in civilised warfare4 ,here are long lances1 made like scythe-blades1 set on a staff1 with a hook on the tip1 as if to capture the fleeing foe1 and bring him within reach of the blade4 ,among them are others of similar shape1 but with the edge cut into delicate slanting notches1 which run along the sides of the blade like those on the edge of our reaping-hooks4 8,these are chiefly the weapons of the lower bundle2 those of the upper are still more imposing4 ,the outermost are short curved clubs1 armed with a row of shark's teeth to make them more fatal2 these surround a cluster of spears1 the long heads of which are furnished with a double row of the same appendages1 and lengthened scimitars1 the curved edges of which are cut into teeth like a saw4 8,though a stranger might think ,i had drawn copiously on my fancy for this description1 ,i am sure1 with your eye upon what is on the stage of the microscope at this moment1 you will acknowledge that the resemblances are not at all forced or unnatural4 ,to add to the effect1 imagine that all these weapons are forged out of the clearest glass instead of steel2 that the larger bundles may contain about fifty1 and the smaller half as many each2 that there are four bundles upon every segment1 and that the body is composed of twenty-five such segments1 and you will have a tolerable idea of the garniture and armature of this little worm1 which grubs about in the mud at low-water mark40 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,wasp-,,sting4 ,illustration3 ,,main ,,gauche4 ,somewhere between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a sort of anomalous weapon was in use1 namely1 a dagger1 with a number of very deep and bold barbs4 ,it was not1 however1 employed for offence1 but for defence1 and was used in the 8rapier and dagger0 mode of fighting1 when the dagger1 which was held in the left hand1 was employed to parry the thrusts of the rapier1 which was held in the right4 ,from the mode of holding it1 the weapon was called 8,main ,gauche40 ,sometimes the blade was quite plain1 and1 indeed1 an ordinary dagger answered the purpose4 ,but in most cases the ,main ,gauche was made for this special purpose1 and was furnished either with strong diverging projections1 or with a series of deep notches1 so that the sword of the enemy might be caught in them and broken4 ,in consequence of this use these notched or guarded weapons were also called by the name of ,brise-pe1 or ,sword-breaker4 ,the resemblance between this weapon and the blade of a wasp's sting can be seen at a glance4 ,there is another form of the ,brise-pe which is so strangely like the cutting apparatus of one of the saw-flies1 that an outline sketch of the one would answer very well for the other4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,projectile ,,weapons ,,and ,,the ,,sheath4 ,propulsive ,power4--,the ,pea-shooter and its ,powers4--,an ,attack repulsed4--,clay ,bullets4--,puff and ,dart4--,the ,sumpitan of ,borneo1 and its ,arrows4--,the ,zarabatana or ,pucunha of ,south ,america1 and its ,arrows4--,the ,air-gun4--,modern ,firearms4--,the ,chtodon1 or ,archer-fish4--,the ,pneumatic ,railway4--,the ,throwing-stick and its ,powers4--,australians1 ,esquimaux1 and ,new ,caledonians4--,principle of the ,sheath4--,waganda ,spears4--,sheathed ,piercing ,apparatus of the ,gnat1 ,flea1 and ,bombylius4--,indian ,tulwar and ,cat's ,claw4--,the ,surgeon's ,lancet1 and ,piercing ,apparatus of the ,gad-fly and ,mosquito4 ,we will now take some of the analogies between ,projectile ,weapons of ,art and ,nature1 selecting those in which the propulsive power is air or gases within a tube4 ,whether the weapon be a blow-gun1 an air-gun1 or a firearm of any description1 the principle is the same4 ,we will take them in succession1 choosing first those of the simplest and most primitive character4 ,taking ourselves as examples1 and looking upon the toys of children as precursors of more important inventions1 we find that the simplest and most primitive of projectiles is the ,pea-shooter1 so familiar to all boys4 ,insignificant as is the little tin tube1 and small as are the missiles which are propelled through it1 the blow which can be struck by a pea properly shot is no trifle4 ,at college ,i have seen a night attack upon an undergraduate's rooms successfully repelled by a pea-shooter made for the nonce of a glass tube1 the owner of the rooms having a taste for chemicals1 and possessing a fair stock of the usual apparatus4 ,though the assaulted rooms were on the top set1 and the assailants began their storming approaches below1 the peas were too much for the stones1 taking stinging effect on the hands and faces1 and preventing any good aim being taken at the windows4 ,only two panes of glass were broken through a siege that lasted for several hours4 ,there is another toy which is a development of the pea-shooter1 and carries a small clay bullet instead of a pea4 ,when the tube is quite straight and the balls fit well1 the force of this missile is very great1 as it can be used for killing small birds4 ,indeed1 such an instrument is largely employed by the native hunters in procuring humming-birds for the ,european market4 ,these weapons are generally lined with metal in this country1 but a simple bamboo tube is sufficient for the native hunters4 ,a still further improvement occurs where the place of the bullet is taken by a small dart or arrow1 which is usually made to fit the bore by having a tuft of wool1 or some similar substance1 at the butt4 ,the arrow is aimed at a target1 and the toy is popularly known as 8,puff and ,dart40 ,with us this apparatus is only a toy1 but in several parts of the world it becomes a deadly weapon1 namely1 in ,borneo and over a large part of tropical ,america4 ,in both cases the arrows are poisoned1 as has already been mentioned when treating of poisoned weapons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the first and best known of these weapons is the dreaded ,sumpitan1 or ,blow-gun1 of ,borneo1 the arrows of which are poisoned with the deadly juice of the upas-tree4 ,here ,i may as well mention that the scientific name of the upas-tree is ,antiaris toxicaria4 ,it belongs to a large group of plants1 all of which have an abundance of milk-like and sometimes poisonous juice4 ,we are most of us familiar with the old story of the upas-tree and its deadly power1 and how the tree stood in a valley1 in which nothing else could live1 and that condemned criminals might compound for their inevitable fate by venturing into the valley of death and bringing back a flask of the dread poison4 ,even birds were supposed to be unable to fly over the valley1 but to fall into it1 being poisoned by the exhalations of the tree4 ,now1 there is a saying that there is no smoke without fire1 and though this account is evidently incredible1 it is not altogether without foundation4 ,in ,java1 as in many other parts of the world1 there are low-lying places where carbonic acid gas exudes from the earth1 and no living creature can exist in them4 ,even in this country scarcely a year passes without several deaths occurring from inhalation of the same fatal gas1 which has collected in some disused excavation4 ,that there is1 therefore1 a deadly valley in ,java may be true enough1 and it is also true that the juice of the upas-tree is poisonous when it mixes with the blood4 ,but the two have no connection with each other1 and1 so far from the upas-tree poisoning the valley by its exhalations1 it could not exist in such an atmosphere4 ,now for the ,sumpitan and the arrows4 ,the former is a tube1 some seven feet in length1 with a bore of about half an inch in diameter1 and often elaborately inlaid with metal4 ,i have one in which the whole of the mouthpiece is brass1 and the other end of the weapon has been fitted with a large spear-head1 exactly on the principle of the bayonet4 ,the arrows are very slight1 and1 in order to make them fit the tube1 are furnished at their bases with a conical piece of soft wood4 ,in themselves they would be almost useless as weapons1 but when the poison with which their points are armed is fresh1 these tiny arrows1 of which sixty or seventy are but an ordinary handful1 carry death in their points4 ,though they have no great range1 they are projected with much force1 and with such rapidity that they cannot be avoided1 their slender shafts being almost invisible as they pass through the air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the second weapon is the still more dangerous blow-gun of tropical ,america1 called ,zarabatana1 or ,pucunha1 according to the locality4 ,some of these tubes measure more than eleven feet in length1 and through them the arrow can be propelled with wonderful force4 ,i have often sent an arrow to a distance of a hundred yards1 and with a good aim4 ,a native1 however1 can send it much farther1 knack1 and not mere capacity of lung1 supplying the propelling power1 just as it is with the pea-shooter4 ,when the arrow is properly blown through the zarabatana a sharp 8pop0 ought to be heard1 like the sound produced by a finger forced into a thimble and quickly withdrawn1 or a cork drawn from a bottle4 ,as to seeing the diminutive arrow in its flight1 it is out of the question1 and no agility can be of the least use in avoiding it4 ,one of my friends1 a peculiarly sharp-sighted officer of artillery1 has often tested this point1 and although there was but one arrow to watch1 and it was blown in the open air1 he could not see it until it either struck or passed him 7of course the poisoned end was cut off74 ,what1 then1 would be the result of a number of these deadly missiles hurled out of a dense bush may easily be imagined4 ,an account of the poison with which these arrows are armed will be found on p4 #fd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the reader will please to remember that in all these cases the missile is propelled by air which is compressed by the aid of the lungs1 and forced into the tube behind the bullet or arrow4 ,now1 the ,,air-,,gun1 which really can be made a formidable weapon1 is constructed on exactly the same principle as the pea-shooter and the blow-guns1 except that the air is compressed by the human arm instead of the human lungs4 ,there are various modifications of this weapon1 but in all of them air is driven into a strong chamber by means of a forcing syringe1 and is released by the pull of the trigger1 so as to drive out the missile which has been placed in the barrel4 ,it is worthy of notice that the term 8noiselessly destructive0 weapon1 as applied to the air-gun1 is entirely false4 ,i have already mentioned that with the blow-gun of tropical ,america a definite explosion accompanies the flight of each arrow4 ,the same result occurs with the air-gun1 the loudness of the report being in exact proportion to the force of the air1 each successive report becoming slighter and the propulsive power weaker until a new supply of air is forced into the chamber4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,however dissimilar in appearance may be the cannon1 rifle1 pistol1 or any other firearm1 to the pea-shooter and its kin1 the principle is exactly the same in all4 ,it has been already mentioned that in the blow-guns the air is compressed by the exertion of human lungs1 and in the air-gun the compression is achieved by human hands4 ,but with the firearm a vast volume of expansible gas is kept locked up in the form of gunpowder1 gun-cotton1 fulminating silver1 or other explosive compound1 and is let loose1 when wanted1 by the aid of fire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,ch,,todon1 ,,or ,,archer-,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,blow-,,guns--,,cannon4 ,in the illustration are represented on the right hand the blow-guns of ,america and ,borneo1 and below them is the cannon as at present made4 ,on the left hand of the same illustration is seen a representation of a natural gun which has existed for thousands of years before gunpowder was invented1 and very long before the savage of ,borneo or ,america discovered the blow-gun4 ,it is the ,,archer-,,fish 7,chtodon71 which possesses the curious power of feeding itself by shooting drops of water at flies1 and very seldom failing to secure its prey4 ,there are several species of this very curious fish spread over the warmer parts of the world1 and their remarkable mode of obtaining prey is very well known in all4 ,there is1 indeed1 scarcely any phenomenon in ,nature more remarkable than the fact of a fish being able to shoot a fly with a drop of water projected through its tubular beak1 if we may use that expression for so curiously modified a mouth4 ,indeed1 so certain is the fish of its aim1 that in ,japan it is kept as a pet in glass vases1 just as we keep gold fish in ,england1 and is fed by holding flies or other insects to it on the end of a rod a few inches above the surface of the water4 ,the fish is sure to see the insect1 and equally sure to bring it down with a drop of water propelled through its beak4 ,it is worthy of remark that the same principle was once1 though unsuccessfully1 employed in the propulsion of carriages1 under the name of the ,pneumatic ,railway4 ,some of my readers may remember the railway itself1 or at all events the disused tubes which lay for so many years along the ,croydon ,railway4 ,speed was obtained1 as ,i can testify from personal experience1 but the expense of air-pumps and air-tight tubing was too great to be covered by the income1 especially as the rats ate the oiled leather which covered the valves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,find some little difficulty in arranging the subject which comes next in order4 ,it might very properly be ranked among the ,levers1 which will be treated of in another chapter2 or it might be placed among the examples of centrifugal force1 together with the sling1 the 8governor0 of the steam-engine1 c41 all of which will be more fully described in their places4 ,however1 as we are on the subject of ,projectiles1 we may as well take it in the present place4 ,it is the ,,throwing-,,stick1 by which the power of the human arm is enormously increased1 when a spear is to be hurled4 ,perhaps the most expert spear-throwers in the world are to be found among the ,kafir tribes of ,southern ,africa1 and yet the most experienced among them could not make sure of hitting a man at any distance above thirty or forty yards4 ,but the throwing-stick gives nearly double the range1 and ,i have seen the comparatively slight and feeble ,australian hurl a spear to a distance of a hundred yards1 and with an aim as perfect as that of a ,kafir at one-fourth of the distance4 ,the mode in which this feat is performed is shown in the accompanying diagram4 ,instead of holding the spear itself1 the native furnishes himself with a 8,throwing-stick40 ,this weapon varies greatly in shape and size1 but a very good idea of its form1 and the manner of using it1 may be obtained from the accompanying illustration1 which was drawn from the actual specimen as held by an ,australian native4 ,the throwing-stick is armed at the tip with a short spike1 which fits into a little hole in the but of the spear4 ,the stick and spear being then held as shown in the illustration1 it is evident that a powerful leverage is obtained1 varying according to the length of the stick4 ,i possess several of these instruments1 no two of which are alike4 ,it is rather remarkable that among the ,esquimaux a throwing-stick is also used1 exactly similar in principle1 but differing slightly in structure1 the but of the spear fitting into a hole at the end of the throwing-stick4 ,wood being scarce among the ,esquimaux1 these instruments are mostly made of bone4 ,i possess one1 however1 which is made of wood1 beautifully polished1 and adorned with a large blue stone1 something like a turquoise1 set almost in its middle4 ,one of the most curious points in the formation of the ,esquimaux weapon is1 that the but is grooved and channelled so as to admit the fingers and thumb of the right hand4 ,the average length of this instrument is twenty inches4 ,illustration3 ,,jaw ,,of ,,snake4 ,illustration3 ,,throwing-,,stick4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,new ,caledonia the natives use a contrivance for increasing the power of the spear1 which is based on exactly identical principles1 though the mode of carrying them out is different4 ,a thong or cord of some eighteen inches in length is kept in the right hand1 one end being looped over the forefinger1 and the other1 which is terminated by a button1 being twisted round the shaft of the spear4 ,when the weapon is thrown1 the additional leverage gives it great power2 and it is a noteworthy fact that the sling-spear of ,new ,caledonia has enabled us to understand the otherwise unintelligible 8amentum0 of the ancient classic writers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing from ,art to ,nature1 we have in the jaw of the serpent an exact type of the peculiar leverage by which the spear is thrown4 ,if the reader will refer to the illustration1 he will see that the lower jaw of the snake1 instead of being set directly on the upper jaw1 is attached to an elongated bone1 which gives the additional leverage which is needful in the act of swallowing prey1 after the manner of serpents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,war and in ,peace we have been long accustomed to shield the edges and points of our sharp weapons with sheaths1 and even the very savages have been driven to this device4 ,i have in my collection a number of sheathed weapons from nearly all parts of the world1 and it is a remarkable fact that the ,fan tribe1 who are themselves absolutely naked1 sheathe their daggers and axes as carefully as we sheathe our swords and bayonets4 ,in some points1 indeed1 they go beyond us2 for the most ignorant ,fan savage would never think of blunting the edge of his weapon by sheathing it in a metal scabbard4 ,their sheaths are beautifully made of two flat pieces of wood1 just sufficiently hollowed to allow the blade to lie between them1 and bound together with various substances4 ,for example1 the sheaths of one or two daggers in my possession are made of wood covered with snake-skin1 while others are simply wood bound with a sort of rattan4 ,even the curious missile-axe which the ,fan warrior uses with such power is covered with a sheath when not in actual use4 ,illustration3 ,,piercing ,,apparatus ,,and ,,sheaths4 ,,sheathed ,,spears ,,of ,,waganda4 ,,gnat4 ,,flea4 ,,bombylius4 ,the figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the heads of two spears of ,waganda warriors4 ,when they present themselves before their king1 the warriors must not appear without their weapons1 and it would be contrary to all etiquette to show a bare blade except in action4 ,the sheath can be slipped off in a moment1 but there it is1 and any man who dared to appear before his sovereign without his weapon1 or with an unsheathed spear1 would lose his life on the spot1 so exact is the code of etiquette among these savages4 ,the sheathed spears of ,nature are shown in the same illustration4 ,on the left is a side view of the piercing apparatus of the common ,gnat4 ,in the middle is the compound piercing apparatus of the common ,flea1 with which we are sometimes too well acquainted1 the upper figure showing the lancets and sheaths together1 and the lower exhibiting them when separated4 ,on the right is shown the group of mouth-lancets belonging to one of the ,humble-bee flies 7,bombylius74 ,these flies do not suck blood like the ,mosquito1 the ,flea1 and the ,gad-fly1 but they use the long proboscis for sucking the sweet juices out of flowers1 and in consequence it is nearly of the same form as if it were meant for sucking blood4 ,indeed1 there are some insects which do not seem to care very much whether the juice which they suck is animal or vegetable4 ,illustration3 #h ,,claw4--,,sheath ,,opening ,,along ,,the ,,curved ,,back4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,tulwar4--,,sheath ,,opening ,,along ,,the ,,curved ,,back4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is seen an ,indian sword1 or 8,tulwar10 drawn from one of my own specimens4 ,i have selected this example on account of the structure of the sheath4 ,it is evident1 from the form of the blade1 that the sword cannot be sheathed point foremost1 and that therefore some other plan must be used4 ,in this weapon the sheath is left open on one side1 the two portions being held together by the straps which are shown in the figure4 ,of course there is loss of time in sheathing and drawing such a sword1 but the peculiar shape of the blade entails a necessity for a special scabbard4 ,on the other side is shown one of the fore-claws of a cat1 which1 as we all know1 can be drawn back into its simple sheath between the toes1 when it is not in use4 ,this sheath is exactly the same in principle as that of the ,indian tulwar1 and any one can examine it by looking at the foot of a good-tempered cat4 ,i have done so even with a chetah1 which is not a subject that would generally be chosen for such a purpose4 ,on the next illustration is shown an ordinary ,lancet1 in which the blade is guarded between a double sheath1 the two halves and the blade itself working upon a common pivot4 ,as for the ordinary sword and dagger sheaths1 it is not worth while to figure them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,turning to the opposite side of the illustration1 we shall see a few of the innumerable examples in which the principle of the sheath was carried out in ,nature long before man came on the earth4 ,the reader should compare this figure with the side view of the ,gnat's lancets given on p4 #ha4 ,illustration3 ,,lancets ,,of ,,tabanus ,,closed4 ,illustration3 ,,lancets ,,of ,,mosquito ,,partly ,,open4 ,illustration3 ,,surgeon',s ,,lancet ,,partly ,,open4 ,they represent the cutting and piercing instruments of several insects1 all of which are very complicated1 and are sheathed after the manner of the lancet4 ,indeed1 they are popularly known as 8mouth-lancets10 and with reason1 as the reader may see by reference to the illustration4 ,on the extreme left are shown the head and closed lancets of a foreign ,gad-fly1 the lancets being all in their sheaths1 and showing the character of the weapon which enables a small fly to be master1 or rather mistress1 of the forest4 ,i say mistress1 because in all these cases it is the female alone that possesses these instruments of torture4 ,next it is a magnified representation of the lancets of the common ,mosquito1 as seen from above1 both lancets being removed from their sheaths and separated4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,net1 as used in ,hunting and ,war4--,the ,seine-net1 as used for ,fishing4--,also as a means of ,hunting4--,net for ,elephant-catching4--,steel ,net for ,military ,purposes4--,web of the ,garden ,spider4--,the ,casting-net1 as used in ,fishing4--,also as employed in the ,combats of the ancient ,circus4--,various ,kinds of ,casting-nets4--,the ,argus ,star-fish and the ,barnacle4--,the ,rod and ,line4--,angling of various ,kinds4--,the ,polynesian as an ,angler4--,the ,angler-fish4--8,playing0 a ,fish4--,the ,nemertes and its ,mode of ,feeding4--,mr4 ,kingsley's ,account of it4--,power of ,elongation and ,contraction4--,the ,cydippe4--,spring-traps4--,the ,gin1 ,rat-trap1 and ,man-trap4--,jaws of ,dolphin1 ,porpoise1 and ,alligator4--,legs of ,phasma4--,baited ,traps4--,carnivorous ,plants and their ,mode of ,feeding4--,birdlime4--8,pegging0 for ,chaffinches4--,curious ,mode of ,tiger-killing4--,ant-eater and its ,mode of ,feeding4--,the ,drosera4--,web of ,spider and its ,structure4 ,,the ,,net4 ,although the ,net is but seldom employed for the purposes of general warfare1 it was once largely used in individual combats1 of which we will presently treat4 ,in hunting1 however1 especially in fishing1 the ,net has been in constant use1 and is equally valued by savages and the most civilised nations4 ,to begin with the fisheries4 ,even among ourselves there are so many varieties of fishing-nets that even to enumerate them would be a work of time4 ,however1 they are all based on one of two principles1 i4e4 the nets which are set and the nets which are thrown4 ,we will begin with the first4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right hand of the illustration1 and at the bottom1 may be seen a common ,seine-net being 8shot0 in the sea4 ,this form of net is very long in proportion to its width1 some of these nets being several miles long4 ,the upper edge of the net is furnished with a series of cork bungs1 which maintain it on the surface1 while the lower edge has a corresponding set of weights1 which keep the net extended like a wall of meshes4 ,any fish which come against this wall are1 of course1 arrested1 and are generally caught by the gill-covers in their vain attempts to force themselves through the meshes4 ,we may see representations of fishing with the seine-net in the sculptures and paintings of ,egypt and ,assyria2 and in the ,berlin ,museum there is a part of an ,egyptian seine-net with the leads still upon the lower edge1 and the upper edge bearing a number of large pieces of wood1 which acted as buoys1 and served the same purpose as our corks4 ,illustration3 ,,spider-,,web4 ,,hunting-,,net4 ,,the ,,seine-,,net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in hunting1 this plan has been adopted for many centuries1 the upper edge of the net being supported on poles1 and the lower fastened to the ground in such a manner as to leave the net hanging in loose folds4 ,while this part of the business is being completed by the servants1 the hunters are forming a large semicircle1 in which they enclose a number of wild beasts1 which they drive into the nets or 8toils0 by gradually contracting the semicircle4 ,the ancient sculptures give us accounts of nets used in exactly this manner4 ,there are represented the nets rolled up ready for use1 and being carried on the shoulders of several attendants1 who are bearing them to the field4 ,then there are the nets set up on their poles1 and having enclosed within them a number of wild animals1 such as boars and deer4 ,in various parts of ,india1 hunting with the net is one of the chief amusements of their principal men1 and the variety of game driven into the toils is really surprising1 and affords a magnificent sight to those who view it for the first time4 ,even the tiger himself cannot leap over the nets because they are so high1 nor force his way through them1 because their folds hang so lightly that they offer no resistance to his efforts4 ,a very simple net on similar principles is used for catching elephants4 ,it is formed of the long creeping plants that fling themselves in tangled masses from tree to tree4 ,these creepers are carefully twisted into a net-like form1 without being removed from the trees1 and when a sufficient space has been enclosed the elephants are driven into it4 ,not even their gigantic strength and tons of weight are capable of breaking through a barrier which1 apparently slight1 is as strong as if it were built of the tree-trunks on which the creepers are hung4 ,this net is seldom used for military purposes1 though ,i have seen one1 which ,i believe still exists1 and would do good service4 ,in one of our largest fortresses there is a subterranean corridor1 through which it is desirous that the enemy should not penetrate4 ,one mode of defence consists of a large net made of steel hanging loosely across it4 ,the meshes are about ten inches square1 so that the defenders can fire from their loopholes through the meshes1 while the assailants1 even if they knew of its position1 would find that nothing smaller than a field-gun would have any effect on this formidable net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the natural analogy of the fixed net is evidently the web of the common ,garden ,spider1 or ,cross ,spider 7,epeira diadema71 whose beautiful nets we all must have admired1 especially when we are wise enough to get up sufficiently early in the morning to see the webs with the dewdrops glittering on them4 ,last year there was a wonderful sight4 ,within a mile of my house there is a long iron fence1 which in one night had been covered with the webs of the garden spider4 ,the following morning1 though bright1 was chilly1 so that the dewdrops were untouched4 ,i happened to pass by the fence soon after sunrise1 and was greatly struck with the astonishing effects which could be produced with such simple materials as water and web4 ,the dewdrops were set at regular intervals upon the web1 so as to produce a definite and beautiful pattern1 the whole line of fence looking as if it had been woven in fine lace4 ,then1 as the fence runs north and south1 and the path is on the westward of it1 every passenger saw the rays of the rising sun dart through these tiny globules1 and convert every one of them into a jewel of ever-changing colours4 ,it seemed a pity that such beauty could but last for an hour or so1 or that these exquisite webs should only be used for catching flies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next comes the ,casting-net in its various forms4 ,this net is mostly circular1 and is loaded round the edge with small leaden plummets4 ,it is evident that1 if such a net could be laid quite flat upon the water1 it would assume a dome-like shape1 in consequence of the circumference being heavier than the centre1 and would sink to the bottom1 enclosing anything which came within its scope4 ,the difficulty is to place the net in such a manner1 and this is accomplished by throwing it in a very peculiar way4 ,the net is gathered in folds upon the shoulder1 which it partially envelops4 ,by a sudden jerk the thrower causes it to fly open with a sort of spinning movement1 and when well cast it will fall on the water perfectly flat4 ,after allowing it to sink to the bottom1 the fisherman draws it very gently by a cord attached to its middle4 ,as he raises it the weights of the leaded circumference are drawn nearer and nearer together by their own weight1 and finally form it into a bag1 within which are all the living creatures which it has enclosed4 ,though the ,casting-net has never been used in warfare1 it was one of the favourite implements in gladiatorial combats among the ,romans4 ,two men were opposed to each other2 one1 called the ,retiarius or ,netsman1 being quite naked1 except sometimes a slight covering round the waist1 and armed with nothing but a ,casting-net and a slight trident1 which could not inflict a deadly wound4 ,the other1 called the ,secutor or ,follower1 from his mode of fighting1 was armed with a visored helmet1 a broad metal belt1 and armour for the legs and arms4 ,he also carried a shield large enough to protect the upper part of the body1 and a sword4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 how great was the power of the ,casting-net1 when it enabled its naked bearer to face such odds of offensive and defensive armour4 ,illustration3 ,,argus ,,star ,,fish4 8,,fan0 ,,of ,,barnacle4 ,,retiarius4 ,when the two met in combat1 the ,retiarius tried to fling his net over his adversary1 and if he succeeded1 the fate of the latter was sealed4 ,entangled in the loose meshes1 he could scarcely move his limbs1 while the sharp prongs of the long-shafted trident came darting in at every exposed point1 and exhausting the man with pain and loss of blood4 ,the trident was in itself so feeble a weapon1 that if the ,secutor were vanquished and condemned to death by the spectators1 his antagonist could not kill him1 but had to call another ,secutor to act as executioner with his sword4 ,should he fail in his cast1 the ,retiarius drew back his net by the central cord1 and took to flight1 followed by the ,secutor1 who tried to wound him before he could re-fold his net upon his shoulder1 ready for another cast4 ,it is worthy of notice that in these singular combats the netsman seems generally to have been the victor4 ,a ,retiarius with his net is shown in the illustration4 ,i may mention that our ordinary bird-catchers' nets1 and even the entomologist's insect-net1 are only modifications of the ,casting-net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now for ,nature's ,casting-nets1 two examples of which are figured1 though there are many more4 ,these two have been selected because they are familiar to all naturalists4 ,the first is the ,argus ,star-fish1 ,basket-urchin1 or ,sea-basket4 ,the innumerable rays and their subdivisions1 amounting to some eighty thousand in number1 act as the meshes of the net4 ,all the rays are flexible and under control4 ,when the creature wishes to catch any animal for prey1 it throws its tentacles over it1 just like the meshes of a net4 ,it then draws the tips of the rays together1 just as is done by the circumference of the casting-net1 and so encloses its prey effectually4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the next specimen is the net-like apparatus of the common ,acorn ,barnacles1 with which our marine rocks are nearly covered4 ,these curious beings belong to the ,crustacea1 and the apparatus which is figured on page #hi1 and popularly called the 8fan10 is1 in fact1 a combination of the legs and their appendages of bristles1 c4 ,when the creature is living and covered with water1 the fan is thrust out of the top of the shell1 expanded as far as possible1 swept through the water1 closed1 and then drawn back again4 ,with these natural casting-nets the ,barnacles feed themselves1 for1 being fixed to the rock1 they could not in any other way supply themselves with food4 ,there are many similar examples in ,nature1 but these will suffice4 ,,the ,,rod ,,and ,,line4 ,that both terrestrial and aquatic nets should have their parallels in ,nature is clear enough to all who have ever seen a spider's web1 or watched the 8fan0 of the barnacle4 ,but that the rod and baited line1 as well as the net1 should have existed in ,nature long before man came on earth1 is not so well known4 ,yet1 as we shall presently see1 not only is the bait represented in ,nature1 but even our inventions for 8playing0 a powerful fish are actually surpassed4 ,we will begin with the ,bait4 ,in nearly all traps a bait of some kind is required1 in order to attract the prey1 and when we come from land to attract the dwellers in water to our hooks1 it is needful that bait of some kind should be used1 were it only to deceive the eye1 though not the nostrils or palate1 of the fish4 ,a notable example of the deception is given in the common artificial baits of the present day1 which are made to imitate almost any ,british insect which a fish might be disposed to eat4 ,perhaps the best instance of this deception is that which is practised by sundry ,polynesian tribes4 ,they have seen that the ,coryphene or ,dorado1 and other similar fish1 are in the habit of preying upon the flying-fish1 and springing at them when they are tolerably high in the air4 ,so these ingenious semi-savages dress up a hook made of bone1 ormer-shell1 and other materials1 making the body of it into a rudely designed form of a fish4 ,a hole is bored transversely through it at the shoulders1 and a bunch of stiff fibres is inserted to represent the wings4 ,another bunch does duty for the tail4 ,the imitation bait being thus complete1 it is hung to a long and slender bamboo rod1 which projects well beyond the stern of a canoe1 and is so arranged that the hook is about two feet or so from the surface4 ,the ,coryphene1 seeing this object skimming along1 takes it for a flying-fish1 leaps at it1 and is caught by the hook4 ,there are in several collections specimens of these ingenious hooks1 and ,i possess one which is made on similar principles1 but intended for use in the water1 and not in the air4 ,it is1 in fact1 a 8spoon-bait40 ,one point of ingenuity must be mentioned1 as it really belongs to the principle of the bait4 ,these same savages1 having noticed that large sea-birds are in the habit of hovering over the flying-fish1 and would probably be seen by the ,coryphenes1 rig up a very long bamboo rod1 tie to its end a large bundle of leaves and fibres1 and then fix it in the stern of the boat1 the sham bird being hung some twenty feet above the sham fish4 ,there is a refinement of deception here1 for which we should scarcely give such savages their due credit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,art1 then1 we bait our hooks either with real or false food1 and so attract the fish4 ,in ,nature we have a most accomplished master of the art of baiting1 who has the wonderful power of never needing a renewal of his bait4 ,a glance at the left-hand figure of the next illustration will show that ,i allude to the ,angler-fish1 sometimes called the ,fishing-frog 7,lophius piscatorius74 ,this remarkable creature has a most enormous mouth1 and comparatively small body4 ,on the top of its head are some curious bones1 set just like a ring and staple1 so as to move freely in every direction4 ,a figure of this piece of mechanism will be given in a future page4 ,at the end of these bones are little fleshy appendages1 which must be very tempting to most fish1 which are always looking out for something to eat4 ,as they are being waved about1 they look as if they were alive4 ,the fish darts at the supposed morsel1 and is at once engulfed in the huge jaws of the ,angler-fish1 which1 but for this remarkable apparatus1 would be scarcely able to support existence1 as it is but a sluggish swimmer1 and yet needs a large supply of food4 ,the illustration1 representing on the right hand a fish attracted to a bait1 and on the left1 the ,angler-fish1 with its bait-like appendage to the head1 speaks for itself4 ,illustration3 ,,angler-,,fish4 ,,angling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing to the art of ,angling with a rod and line1 we now arrive at another development4 ,supposing a fish to have taken the bait1 and to have been firmly hooked1 how is it to be landed8 ,the simplest plan is1 of course1 to have a very thick and strong line which will not break with the weight of any ordinary fish4 ,this is very well in sea-fishing1 where a line made of whip-cord will answer the purpose in most cases4 ,but1 in river fishing1 we have the fact that the fish are so shy that a linen thread would scare them1 and so strong and active1 that even whip-cord would not prevent them from breaking the line1 or tearing the hook out of their mouths4 ,so the modern angler sets himself to the task of combating both these conditions4 ,in the first place1 he makes the last yard or two of his line of 8silkworm-gut0--a curious substance made from the silk-vessels of silkworms1 and nearly invisible in the water4 ,in the next place1 he has a very elastic rod2 and1 in the third1 he has forty or more yards of line1 though perhaps only twenty feet are in actual use until the fish is hooked4 ,the remainder of the line is wound upon a winch fixed to the handle of the rod4 ,thus1 when a powerful fish is hooked and tries to escape1 the line is gradually let loose1 so as to yield to its efforts4 ,when it becomes tired by the gradual strain1 the line is again wound in1 and in this way a fish which would at the first effort smash rod and line of a novice will1 in the hands of an experienced fisherman1 be landed as surely as if it were no bigger than a gudgeon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature has in this case also anticipated ,art1 and surpassed all her powers4 ,illustration3 ,,nemertes4 8,,playing0 ,a ,,fish4 ,there is a wonderful worm1 common on our southern coasts1 and bearing1 as far as ,i know1 no popular name4 ,it is known to the scientific world as ,nemertes ,borlasii4 ,it possesses the power of extension and contraction more than any known creature1 and uses those powers for the purpose of capturing prey4 ,the fishermen say that this worm can extend itself to a length of ninety feet1 and as ,mr4 ,davis found one to measure twenty-two feet1 after being immersed in spirits of wine1 it is likely that their account may be true1 especially as the spirit greatly contracted the animal in point of length4 ,a most vivid description of this worm is given by ,c4 ,kingsley1 in his 8,glaucus10 and was written before he knew its name4 8,whether we were intruding or not1 in turning this stone1 we must pay a fine for having done so2 for there lies an animal as foul and monstrous to the eye as #8hydra1 gorgon1 or chimra dire1' and yet so wondrously fitted to its work that we must needs endure for our own instruction to handle and to look at it4 ,its name ,i know not 7though it lurks here under every stone71 and should be glad to know4 ,it seems some very #8low' ,ascarid or ,planarian worm4 8,you see it8 ,that black1 shiny1 knotted lump among the gravel1 small enough to be taken up in a dessert spoon4 ,look now1 as it is raised and its coils drawn out4 ,three feet1 six1 nine at least2 with a capability of seemingly endless expansion2 a slimy tape of living caoutchouc1 some eighth of an inch in diameter1 a dark chocolate black1 with paler longitudinal lines4 8,is it alive8 ,it hangs helpless and motionless1 a mere velvet string1 across the hand4 ,ask the neighbouring ,annelids and the fry of the rock-fishes1 or put it into a vase at home1 and see4 ,it lies motionless1 trailing itself among the gravel2 you cannot tell where it begins or ends2 it may be a dead strip of seaweed1 ,himanthalia lorea1 perhaps1 or ,chorda filum1 or even a tarred string4 8,so thinks the little fish who plays over and over it1 till he touches at last what is too surely a head4 ,in an instant a bell-shaped sucker mouth has fastened to his side4 ,in another instant1 from one lip1 a concave double proboscis1 just like a tapir's 7another instance of the repetition of forms71 has clasped him like a finger2 and now begins the struggle3 but in vain4 ,he is being #8played' with such a fishing-line as the skill of a ,wilson or a ,stoddart never could invent2 a living line1 with elasticity beyond that of the most delicate fly-rod1 which follows every lunge1 shortening and lengthening1 slipping and twining round every piece of gravel and stem of seaweed1 with a tiring drag such as no ,highland wrist or step could ever bring to bear on salmon or on trout4 8,the victim is tired now2 and slowly1 and yet dexterously1 his blind assailant is feeling and shifting along his side1 till he reaches one end of him2 and then the black lips expand1 and slowly and surely the curved finger begins packing him end foremost down into the gullet1 where he sinks1 inch by inch1 till the swelling which marks his place is lost among the coils1 and he is probably macerated to a pulp long before he has reached the opposite extremity of his cave of doom4 8,once safe down1 the black murderer slowly contracts again into a knotted heap1 and lies1 like a boa with a stag inside him1 motionless and blest40 ,the accuracy as well as the pictorial effect of this description cannot be surpassed4 ,the 8velvety0 feel of the creature is most wonderful1 as it slips and slides over and among the fingers1 and makes the task of gathering it together appear quite hopeless4 ,this astonishing worm is drawn on the left hand of the illustration on page #ic1 so as to show the way in which the body is contracted or relaxed at will4 ,on the other side of the illustration is an angler1 armed with all the paraphernalia of his craft1 and doing imperfectly that which the ,nemertes does with absolute perfection4 ,a similar property belongs to the long1 trailing tentacles of the ,cydippe1 which is described and figured on page #af4 ,when they come in contact with suitable prey1 all struggle is useless1 the tentacles contracting or elongating to suit the circumstances1 and at last lodging the prey within the body of the ,cydippe4 ,,the ,,spring-,,trap4 ,we are all familiar with the common ,spring-trap1 or ,gin1 as it is sometimes called4 ,it varies much in form and size1 sometimes being square and sometimes round2 sometimes small enough to be used as a rat-trap1 and sometimes large enough to catch and hold human beings1 in which case it was known by the name of man-trap4 ,this latter form is now as illegal as the spring-gun1 and though the advertisement 8,man-traps and ,spring-guns are set in these grounds0 is still to be seen1 neither one nor the other can be there4 ,they are all constructed on the same principle1 namely1 a couple of toothed jaws which are driven together by a spring1 when the spring is not controlled by a catch4 ,they are evidently borrowed from actual jaws1 the same words being used to signify the movable portions and notches of the trap as are employed to designate the corresponding parts in the real jaw4 ,in both figures of the accompanying illustration we shall see how exact is the parallel4 ,on the right hand is a common rat-trap1 or gin1 such as is sold for eightpence1 with the jaws wide open1 so as to show the teeth4 ,on the left is a sketch of the upper and lower jaws of the ,dolphin1 in which an exactly analogous structure is to be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,dolphin 7,,open74 ,,rat-,,trap 7,,open74 ,the figure on the right hand of the lower illustration shows a man-trap as it appears when closed1 the teeth interlocking so as exactly to fit between each other4 ,the same principle is exhibited in the jaws of the ,porpoise1 which are seen on the left of the illustration4 ,the jaws of an ,alligator or ,crocodile would have answered the purpose quite as well1 inasmuch as their teeth interlock in a similar fashion1 but ,i thought that it would be better to give as examples the jaws of allied animals4 ,the reason for this interlocking is evident4 ,all these creatures feed principally on fish1 and this mode of constructing the jaws enables them to secure their prey when once seized4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,porpoise 7,,closed74 ,,man-,,trap 7,,closed74 ,illustration3 ,,fore-,,legs ,,of ,,phasma4 ,,mouse-,,trap4 ,another example of such teeth is to be found in the fore-legs of various species of ,phasma and ,mantis1 as may be seen by reference to the illustration4 ,the latter insects are wonderfully fierce and pugnacious1 fighting with each other on the least provocation1 and feeding mostly on other insects1 which they secure in their deeply-toothed fore-legs4 ,they use these legs with wonderful force and rapidity1 and it is said that a pair of these insects fighting remind the observer of a duel with sabres4 ,,the ,,baited ,,trap4 ,our space being valuable1 we are not able to give many examples of ,baited ,traps1 whether in ,art or ,nature4 ,the most familiar example of this trap is the common ,mouse-trap1 the most ordinary form of which is shown at the right hand of the illustration on page #if4 ,in all the varieties of these traps1 whether for mice or rats1 the prey is induced to enter by means of some tempting food1 and then is secured or killed by the action of the trap4 ,sometimes these traps are made of considerable size for catching large game1 and in ,africa are employed in the capture of the leopard1 in ,india for taking both tigers and leopards1 and in ,north ,america for killing bears4 ,we have already noticed one instance of a bait in the ,angler-fish1 described in page #ib1 but in this case the bait serves only for attraction1 and the trap1 or mouth1 is not acted upon by the prey4 ,there are1 however1 many examples in the botanical world1 where the plant is directly acted upon by the creature which is to be entrapped1 such being known by the now familiar term 8,carnivorous ,plants40 ,of these there is a great variety1 but under this head ,i only figure two of them4 ,illustration3 ,,cephalotus4 ,,dionea4 ,the plant on the right hand is the ,venus ,fly-trap 7,dionea muscipula71 which is common in the ,carolinas4 ,the leaves of this plant are singularly irritable1 and when a fly or other insect alights on the open leaf1 it seems to touch a sort of spring1 and the two sides of the leaf suddenly collapse and hold the insect in their grasp4 ,the strange point about it is1 that not only is the insect caught1 but is held until it is quite digested1 the process being almost exactly the same as if it had been placed in the stomach of some insect-eating animal4 ,so carnivorous1 indeed1 is the ,dionea1 that plants have been fed with chopped meat laid on the leaves1 and have thriven wonderfully4 ,experiments have been tried with other substances1 but the ,dionea would have nothing to do with them4 ,the natural irritability of the leaves caused them to contract1 but they soon opened and rejected the spurious food4 ,on the left is the ,cephalotus4 ,this plant1 instead of catching the insect by the folding of the leaf1 secures it by means of a sort of trap-door at the upper end4 ,the insect is attracted by the moisture in the cup1 and1 as soon as it enters1 the trap-door shuts upon it1 and confines it until it is digested1 when the door opens in readiness to admit more prey4 ,,birdlime4 ,by a natural transition we pass to those traps which secure their prey by means of adhesive substances4 ,with us1 the material called 8birdlime0 is usually employed4 ,this is obtained from the bark of the holly1 and is of the most singular tenacity4 ,an inexperienced person who touches birdlime is sure to repent it4 ,the horrid stuff clings to the fingers1 and the more attempts are made to clear them1 the more points of attachment are formed4 ,the novice ought to have dipped his hands in water before he touched the birdlime1 and then he might have manipulated it with impunity4 ,the most familiar mode of using the birdlime is by 8pegging0 for chaffinches4 ,in the spring1 when the male birds are all in anxious rivalry to find mates1 or1 having found them1 to defend them1 the 8peggers0 go into the fields armed with a pot of birdlime and a stuffed chaffinch set on a peg of wood4 ,at one end of this peg is a sharp iron spike4 ,they also have a 8call-bird10 i4e4 a chaffinch which has been trained to sing at a given signal4 ,when the 8peggers0 hear a chaffinch which is worth taking1 they feel as sure of him as if he were in their cage4 ,they take the peg1 and stick it into the nearest tree-trunk4 ,round the decoy they place half-a-dozen twigs which have been smeared with birdlime1 and arrange them so that no bird flying at the decoy can avoid touching one of them4 ,illustration3 ,,ant-,,bear4 ,,drosera4 ,,spider',s ,,web4 ,,pegging ,,chaffinches4 ,,tiger ,,and ,,limed ,,leaves4 ,the next point is1 to order the call-bird to sing4 ,his song is taken as a personal insult by the chaffinch1 which is always madly jealous at this time of year4 ,seeing the stuffed bird1 he takes it for a rival1 dashes at it1 and touches one of the twigs4 ,it is all over with him1 for the more he struggles and flutters1 the tighter is he bound by the tenacious cords of the birdlime1 and is easily picked up by the 8pegger40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,even the fierce and powerful tiger is taken with this simple1 but terrible means of destruction4 ,it is always known by what path a tiger will pass1 and upon this path the native hunter lays a number of leaves smeared with birdlime4 ,the tiger treads on one of them1 and1 cat-like1 shakes his paw to rid himself of it4 ,finding that it will not come off1 he rubs his paw on his head1 transferring the leaf and lime to his face4 ,by this time he is in the middle of the leaves1 and works himself into a paroxysm of rage and terror1 finishing by blinding himself with the leaves that he has rubbed upon his head4 ,the hunters allow him to exhaust his strength by his struggles1 and then kill him1 or1 if possible1 capture him alive4 ,both these scenes are represented on the right hand of the illustration4 ,on the left hand are several examples of natural birdlime1 if we may use the term4 ,the upper represents the ,ant-bear1 or ,great ,ant-eater4 ,this animal feeds in a very curious manner4 ,it goes to an ant-hill1 and tears it open with its powerful claws4 ,the ants1 of course1 rush about in wild confusion4 ,now1 the ,ant-eater is provided with a long1 cylindrical tongue1 which looks very like a huge earth-worm1 and which is covered with a tenacious slimy secretion4 ,as the ants run to and fro1 they adhere to the tongue1 and are swept into the mouth of their destroyer4 ,below the ,ant-eater is the common ,drosera1 or ,sundew1 one of our ,british carnivorous plants4 ,it captures insects1 just as has been narrated of the ,dionea4 ,but1 instead of the leaf closing upon the insect1 it arrests its prey by means of little globules of viscous fluid1 which exude from the tips of the hairs with which the surface of the leaf is covered4 ,as soon as the insect touches the hairs1 they close over it1 bind it down1 and keep it there until it is digested4 ,several species of ,drosera are known in ,england1 and are found in wet and marshy places4 ,another plant1 the ,green-winged ,meadow ,orchis 7,orchis morio71 has been known to act the part of the ,drosera4 ,a fly had contrived to push its head against the viscous fluid of the stigmatic surface1 and1 not being able to extricate itself1 was found sticking there4 ,next comes a portion of the web of the common ,garden ,spider 7,epeira diadema74 ,we have already treated of this web as a net1 and we will now see how it comes within the present category4 ,in the web of the spider there are at least two distinct kinds of threads4 ,those which radiate from the centre to the circumference are strong and smooth1 while those which unite them are much slighter1 and are covered with tiny globules set at regular intervals4 ,when the web is newly spun1 these globules are found to be nearly as tenacious as birdlime1 and it is by these means that an insect which falls into the web is arrested1 and cannot extricate itself until the spider can seize it4 ,after awhile the globules become dry1 refuse to perform their office1 and then the spider has to construct another web4 ,so numerous are these globules that1 according to ,mr4 ,blackwall's calculations1 an ordinary net contains between eighty and ninety thousand4 ,below the figure of the web itself are shown the two kinds of thread1 the upper bearing the globules1 and the lower representing one of the plain radiating threads4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,reverted ,spikes and their ,modifications4--,the ,wire ,mouse-trap4--,george ,,iii4 and the ,trap4--,fate of a ,royal ,finger4--,the ,crab and ,lobster ,pot4--,the ,eel-pot4--,cocoon of the ,emperor-moth and its ,structure4--8,catchpoll0 of the ,middle ,ages4--,deer-trap of ,india4--,jaws of ,pike and ,serpent4--,the ,grass-snake4--,jaws of ,shark and their ,power4--,spiked ,defences4--,the ,park ,fence1 the ,garden ,wall1 and the ,chevaux-de-frise4--,the 8,square0 of ,infantry ,manuvres4--,the ,abattis1 and its ,structure and ,power4--,ranjows and ,caltrops4--,ancient ,ranjows in ,ireland4--,hedgehog4--,porcupine ,echidna4--,house-builder ,caterpillar and its ,home4--,repagula of ,ascalaphus4--,tearing ,weapons4--,the 8,wag-nuk0 of ,india4--,armed ,gauntlet of the ,middle ,ages4--,shark-tooth ,gauntlet of ,samoa1 and the ,uses to which it was put4--,a terrible ,warrior4--,the ,tiger's ,claw4--,sport and ,earnest4 ,,reverted ,,spikes4 ,i am not quite satisfied with this title1 but it is the best that ,i can find4 ,by it ,i mean that mode of mechanism which1 by means of an array of sharp spikes1 permits an animal to enter a passage easily1 and yet prevents it from emerging4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoon ,,of ,,emperor-,,moth4 ,,crab-,,pot4 ,,eel-,,pot4 ,,mouse-,,trap4 ,whether or not this principle be now employed in warfare ,i cannot say1 but it is at all events used extensively in a small way of hunting1 the best known of which is the wire ,mouse-trap1 one of which is shown at ,fig4 ,c on the illustration4 ,a glance at the figure will explain the trap1 even to those who have never seen it4 ,it is composed entirely of wire1 and has several round holes just above its lower edge4 ,each of these holes is the entrance to a conical tunnel made of wires with sharpened ends4 ,the mouse1 being attracted by a bait placed within the trap1 tries to get at it4 ,the doomed animal soon finds its way to one of the entrances1 and with little difficulty pushes itself through the tunnel4 ,entering1 however1 is one thing1 and returning is another4 ,the wire yielded easily enough in one direction1 but for the mouse to force itself against the converging points is an impossible task4 ,readers of the last century literature may perhaps remember1 in the pages of 8,peter ,pindar10 a very clever and sarcastic account of the astonishment created in the mind of ,george ,,iii4 by a mouse-trap seen accidentally in the house of a widow living at ,salt ,hill4 8,eager did ,solomon1 so curious1 clap ,his rare round optics on the widow's trap1 ,that did the duty of a cat4 ,and1 always fond of useful information1 ,thus wisely spoke he with vociferation1-- #8,what's that8 what8 what8 ,h1 h8 what's that8' ,to whom replied the mistress of the house1 #8,a trap1 an't please you1 sir1 to catch a mouse4' #8,mouse--catch a mouse6' said ,solomon with glee2 #8,let's see1 let's see--'tis comical--let's see-- ,mouse6 mouse6'--then pleased his eyes began to roll-- #8,where1 where doth he go in8' he marvelling cried4 #8,there1' pointing to the hole1 the dame replied4 #8,what6 here8' cried ,solomon1 #8this hole8 this hole8' ,then in he pushed his finger 'midst the wire1 ,that with such pains that finger did inspire1 ,he wished it out again with all his soul40 ,for my part ,i think that the ,king was quite right4 ,if he did not know the philosophy of a mouse-trap he ought to have asked1 and to have been rewarded1 as in that case1 by catching with a trap of his own baiting1 six mice on six successive days4 ,at ,fig4 ,b on the same illustration is shown the simple apparatus by which crabs and lobsters are caught4 ,the reader will see that the principle is exactly the same in both cases1 the only difference being in material1 the mouse-trap being made of wire1 and the crab-pot of wicker4 ,at ,fig4 ,d is shown the common ,eel-pot1 or ,eel-basket4 ,in order to suit the peculiar shape of an eel1 this basket is much longer in proportion to its diameter than either of the preceding traps1 but it is formed on the same plan4 ,an eel can easily pass into the basket through the conical tunnel1 but it is next to impossible that it should find its way out again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,so much for ,art1 and now for ,nature4 ,on the left hand of the illustration1 at ,fig4 ,a1 is the cocoon of the common ,emperor-moth 7,saturnia pavonia minor71 the cocoon having been stripped of its outer envelope1 so as to allow its structure to be better seen4 ,the reader will at once perceive that the entrance of the cocoon is guarded by an arrangement exactly like that of the above-mentioned traps1 except that the cone is reversed1 so as to allow of exit and to debar entrance4 ,guarded by this conical arrangement of stout bristly appendages1 the pupa can remain in quiet during the time of its transformation1 for nothing can force its way through such a defence1 and yet the moth1 when fully developed1 can push its way out with perfect ease4 ,so admirably is this cocoon formed1 that even after the moth has escaped1 it is impossible to tell by mere sight whether or not it is within1 the elastic wires closing on it after its passage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another modification of the same principle now comes before us4 ,in the above-mentioned examples the arrangement of the reverted spikes is more or less conical1 and they lead into a chamber4 ,in the present instances1 however1 the mere reversion of the points is all that is needed4 ,the upper figure on the right hand represents the 8,catchpoll0 of the ,middle ,ages1 an allusion to which has already been made4 ,the reverted spikes turn on hinges1 and are kept apart by springs4 ,this beautifully formed head was attached to a long shaft1 and was used for the purpose of dragging horsemen from the saddle4 ,it was thrust at the neck of the rider1 generally from behind4 ,if a successful thrust were made1 the spring-points gave way1 sprang back again1 and thus clasped the neck with a hold that was fatal to the rider4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below it is the ,deer-trap which is used in many parts of ,india1 and to which allusion has already been made4 ,the reader will see at once that if a deer should get its foot through the converging spikes1 its doom is sealed1 especially as there is a heavy log of wood attached to the trap by a rope4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are two examples of the same principle taken from ,nature1 one belonging to fresh and the other to salt water4 ,illustration3 ,,pike-,,jaws4 ,,shark-,,jaws4 ,,catchpoll4 ,,deer-,,trap4 ,the upper figure represents the jaws of a ,pike1 with their terrible array of reverted teeth4 ,the ,pike1 as every one knows1 feeds upon other fish1 and eats them in a curious manner4 ,it darts at them furiously1 and generally catches them in the middle of the body4 ,after holding them for a time1 for the purpose1 as ,i imagine1 of disabling them1 it loosens its hold1 makes another snap1 seizes the fish by the head1 and swallows it4 ,the ,pike is so voracious that it will attack and eat fish not very much smaller than itself1 for its digestion is so rapid that the head and shoulders of a swallowed fish have been found to be half digested1 while the tail was sticking out of the ,pike's mouth4 ,unless1 therefore1 the teeth of the ,pike were so formed as to resist any retrograde movement on the part of the prey1 the fish would starve2 for1 lank and lean as it is1 the ,pike is one of the most voracious creatures in existence1 never seeming able to get enough to eat1 and yet1 as is often found in such cases1 capable of sustaining a lengthened fast4 ,how well adapted is this arrangement of teeth for preventing the escape of prey1 any one can tell who1 in his early days of angling1 caught a ,pike1 and1 after killing it1 tried to extract the hook without previously propping the jaws open4 ,if once the hand be inserted between the jaws1 to get it out again is almost impossible without assistance1 and often has the spectacle been exhibited of a youthful angler returning disconsolately home1 with his right hand in the mouth of a ,pike1 and supporting the weight of the fish with his left4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the teeth of a serpent are set in a similar manner1 as can be seen by reference to the illustration on page #hj4 ,an admirable example of the power of this arrangement may be seen in the jaws of our common ,grass or ,ringed ,snake 7,coluber natrix74 ,the teeth are quite small1 very short1 and not thicker than fine needle-points4 ,yet1 when once the snake has seized one of the hind-feet of a frog1 all efforts to escape on the part of the latter are useless4 ,the lower jaw is pushed forward1 and then retracted1 and at each movement the leg is drawn further into the snake's mouth1 until it reaches the junction4 ,the snake then waits quietly until the frog tries to free itself by pushing with its other foot against the snake's mouth4 ,that foot is then seized1 the leg gradually following its companion1 and in this way the whole frog is drawn into the interior of the snake4 ,i have seen many frogs thus eaten1 but never knew one to escape after it had been once seized by the snake4 ,as these reptiles are perfectly harmless1 it is easy to try the experiment by putting the finger into a snake's mouth1 when it will be found that the assistance of the other hand will be needful in order to extricate it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the head of the pike is a view of a ,shark's jaws1 as seen from the front4 ,here1 again1 we have a similar arrangement of teeth1 row after row of which lie with their points directed towards the throat of the fish4 ,as1 however1 the pike and the snake swallow their prey whole1 their teeth need be nothing but points4 ,but1 as the ,shark is obliged to mangle its prey1 and seldom swallows it whole1 its teeth are formed on a different principle1 each tooth being flat1 wide1 sharply pointed1 and having a double edge1 each of which cuts like a razor4 ,so knife-like are they1 indeed1 that when a whale is killed1 the sharks which surround it bite off huge mouthfuls of blubber1 and1 as they swarm by hundreds1 cause no small loss to the whalers4 ,many a man has lost a leg by a shark1 the fish having bitten it completely through1 bone and all1 and there have been cases where a shark has actually severed a man's body1 going off with one half1 and leaving the other clinging to the rope by which he was trying to haul himself on board4 ,,spiked ,,defences4 ,this mode of defence is1 perhaps1 one of the most primitive in existence1 and takes a wonderful variety of forms4 ,the spiked railings of our parks and gardens1 the broken glass on walls1 and even the spiked collars for dogs1 are all modifications of this principle4 ,on the illustrations are several examples of spikes used for military purposes4 ,the first is known by the name of 8,chevaux-de-frise10 and is extensively used in forming an extemporised fence where no great strength is needed4 ,the structure is perfectly simple1 consisting of a number of iron bars with sharpened ends1 and an iron tube some inches in diameter1 which is pierced with a double set of holes4 ,when not in use1 the bars and tube can be packed in a small compass1 but when they are wanted1 the bars are thrust through the holes as shown in the illustration1 and the fence is completed in a few minutes4 ,the horizontal bars are linked together by chains1 so as to prevent them from being shifted1 and a defence such as this is generally used for surrounding parks of artillery and the like4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,all who have the least acquaintance with military matters must be familiar with the 8,square10 and its uses in the days of old4 ,i say in the days of old1 because in the present day the rapid development of guns and rifles has entirely destroyed the old arrangement4 ,so lately1 for example1 as the day of ,waterloo1 troops might manuvre in safety when they were more than two hundred yards from the enemy4 ,now1 a regiment that attempted to manuvre in open ground would be cut to pieces by the rifles of the enemy at a thousand yards' distance4 ,in those days1 however1 the square was a tower of safety when rightly formed4 ,it was formed in several rows4 ,the outer line knelt1 with the butts of their muskets on the ground1 and the bayonet pointing upwards at an angle of forty-five4 ,the others directed their muskets towards the enemy in such a manner that nothing was presented to him but the points of bayonets and the muzzles of loaded muskets4 ,in all probability the battle of ,waterloo would have been lost but for the use of the 8square10 against which the ,french cuirassiers dashed themselves repeatedly1 but in vain4 ,however admirable may be the organization of the square1 whether it be hollow1 or whether it be solid1 like the 8rallying square10 the principle is the same as that of the chevaux-de-frise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the next illustration is shown the 8,abattis10 one of the most important elements of extemporised fortifications1 and as simple as it is important4 ,illustration3 ,,tree-,,caddis4 ,illustration3 ,,chevaux-,,de-,,frise4 ,in any wooded country an abattis can be made in a very short time by practised hands4 ,all that is required is to cut down the requisite number of trees1 strip off the leaves and twigs1 and then cut off the smaller branches with sloping blows of the axe1 so as to leave a tolerably sharp point on each4 ,the trees are then laid side by side1 with the ends of the branches towards the enemy1 and1 the trunks being chained together1 a wonderfully effective defence is constructed4 ,not only is it almost impossible for the bravest and strongest man to force his way through the branches1 even if the abattis were undefended1 but the tree-trunks afford shelter for swarms of riflemen1 who can pick off their assailants by aiming between the branches1 themselves being almost unseen1 and entirely covered4 ,illustration3 ,,caltrops4 ,illustration3 ,,ranjows4 ,illustration3 ,,abattis4 ,in ,southern ,africa1 during the late wars1 the abattis was found to afford the best defence against the ,kafirs1 and that when the waggons and abattis were united so as to form a fortress1 not even the naked ,kafir1 with all his daring courage1 could force his way through them4 ,even artillery has but little power against the abattis1 which allows the shot to pass between the branches1 and is very little the worse for it4 ,accordingly1 it is in great use for defending roads1 especially those which are bounded by high banks1 and makes a formidable obstacle in front of gates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the two figures on the left of the same illustration represent two modes of carrying out the same principle1 the one showing it as used in ,european warfare1 and the other as a weapon of defence which has been employed from time immemorial1 and is now in full use in many parts of the world4 ,both these weapons are intended either to obstruct the approach of an enemy1 or to cover the flight of a retreating force4 ,the most simple and most ancient is the ,ranjow1 which is shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,the ranjow is nothing but a wooden stick varying in length from eighteen inches to nearly three feet1 and sharply pointed at each end4 ,in ,borneo1 ,china1 c41 the ranjows are almost invariably made of bamboo1 as that plant can be cut to a sharp point by a single stroke of a knife4 7,see page #ei47 ,when they are to be used1 each soldier carries about a dozen or so of them1 and sticks one end of them into the ground1 taking care to make the upper end lean towards the enemy4 ,simple as are these weapons1 they are extremely formidable1 for it is necessary to pull up every ranjow before the troops can advance4 ,sometimes it has happened that a body of soldiers are driven over their own ranjows1 and then the slaughter is terrible4 ,some years ago a number of sketches were taken on the spot from scenes in the ,chinese war4 ,among them was one that was absolutely terrible in its grotesqueness4 ,it represented a piece of ground thickly planted with ranjows1 over which the ,chinese who had fixed them had been driven4 ,they were simply hung with human bodies in all imaginable and unimaginable attitudes1 some transfixed on a single ranjow1 and others hanging on three or four1 the body and limbs being alike pierced by them4 ,that ranjows were once used in ,great ,britain is evident from a discovery made by ,col4 ,lane ,fox4 ,he had been excavating the soil around an old ,irish fort1 and deep beneath the bog he found a vast quantity of ranjows still set as the ancient warriors had left them4 ,they were evidently used to defend a passage leading to the fort1 and all of them were carefully set with their points outwards4 ,col4 ,l4 ,fox was good enough to present me with several of these ancient weapons1 which are now in my collection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left is seen a piece of ground strewed with ,caltrops1 or ,crow's-feet1 as they are sometimes called4 ,these very unpleasant implements are made of iron1 and have four sharp points1 all radiating from one centre1 so that no matter how they may be thrown1 one point must be uppermost4 ,they are used chiefly for the purpose of impeding cavalry1 but ,i should think1 judging from the specimens which ,i have seen1 that infantry would find them very awkward impediments4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as for natural ranjows1 they are so numerous that only a very few examples can be given4 ,the most perfect and most familiar example is1 perhaps1 the common ,hedgehog1 which1 when rolled up1 displays an array of sharp points so judiciously disposed1 that it fears but very few foes4 ,the same may be said of the ,australian ,echidna1 or ,porcupine ,ant-eater1 and the ,porcupine itself4 ,whether the radiating bristles of the larva of the ,tiger-moth1 commonly called the ,woolly ,bear1 come under the same category1 ,i cannot say1 but think it very likely4 ,among vegetables the analogues are multitudinous4 ,see1 for example1 the spikes of the ,spanish and ,horse ,chestnuts1 and especially the hair-like but formidable bristles which defend the common ,prickly ,pear4 ,indeed1 all that tribe of plants is furnished so abundantly with natural ranjows1 that a hedge of prickly pear forms the best defence which a house and garden can have4 ,another example of natural ranjows is seen in the ,tree-caddis1 one of which is shown in the illustration on page #ajh1 as it appears when suspended from a twig4 ,it is the work of one of the ,house-builder ,moths of the ,west ,indies1 and forms a sort of house in which the caterpillar can rest securely4 ,it is built of bits of twigs and thorns1 the latter being disposed so that their points are outwards1 much after the fashion of a hedgehog's spines4 ,i possess many specimens of ,tree-caddis1 evidently belonging to several species1 and in all of them the principle is the same1 i4e4 a number of spikes set with their ends outwards in order to defend a central position4 ,sometimes these spikes are left exposed1 as shown in the illustration1 and sometimes they are covered with a slight but strong web4 ,the principle1 however1 is the same in all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now ,i shall have to use two very long words1 and much against my will4 ,i very much fear that1 if most of my readers were to hear any one speak of the 8repagula of ,ascalaphus10 they would not be much the wiser4 ,and yet there are no other words that can be used4 ,in the first place1 ,ascalaphus is a name belonging to a genus of ,ant-lions1 remarkable for having straight1 knobbed antenn1 very much like those of a butterfly4 ,this insect deposits its eggs in a double row on twigs1 and then defends them with a series of natural ranjows1 set in circular rows1 and supposed to be without analogies in the animal creation4 ,they are transparent1 reddish1 and 8are expelled by the female with as much care as though they were real eggs1 and are so placed that nothing can approach the brood2 nor can the young ramble abroad until they have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect enemies40 ,the word 8repagulum10 by the way1 signifies a bar or barrier4 ,a turnpike gate when closed would be a repagulum1 and so would a chevaux-de-frise4 ,,tearing ,,weapons4 ,we have already had examples of weapons1 like the ,club1 which bruise2 of weapons1 like the ,spear and ,dagger1 which pierce2 and of weapons1 like the ,sword1 which cut4 ,we now come to a totally distinct set of weapons1 those which wound by tearing1 and not by any of the preceding modes4 ,in civilised warfare we have long abandoned such weapons1 as belonging to a barbarous age1 but they are even yet employed in some parts of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,wag-,,nuk ,,of ,,india4 ,,hind-,,claws ,,of ,,tiger4 ,,clawed ,,gauntlet4 ,,shark-,,tooth ,,gauntlet4 ,the accompanying illustration shows three examples of such weapons4 ,one is the celebrated ,tiger-claw of ,india1 known by the native name of ,wag-nuk4 ,it is about two inches and a half in length1 and is made to fit on the hand4 ,the first and fourth fingers are passed through the rings1 and the curved claws are then within the hand1 and hidden by the fingers4 ,the mode of employing this treacherous weapon was by engaging a foe in conversation1 pretending to be very friendly1 and then ripping up his stomach with an upward blow of the right hand4 ,it is comparatively a modern weapon1 having been invented about two hundred years ago4 ,a ,hindoo1 named ,sewaja1 was the inventor1 and by means of the ,wag-nuk he committed many murders unsuspected1 the wounds being exactly like those which are made by the claw of the tiger4 ,sometimes there were four claws instead of three1 as is the case with a specimen one in the ,meyrick collection4 ,perhaps the reader may be aware that the ,transatlantic 8knuckle-duster0 is fitted on the hand in the same manner1 only its object is to strike a heavy blow1 and not to tear4 ,history repeats itself1 and the large and clumsy 8cestus0 of the ancient athlete is reproduced in the small but scarcely less formidable 8knuckle-duster0 of the modern rowdy4 ,the figures are remarkable1 one representing the remaining epoch of chivalry1 and the other that of barbarism4 ,the upper figure shows a curious ,gauntlet of the ,middle ,ages1 in which the hand is not only defended by steel plates1 but is also rendered an offensive weapon by the addition of four sharp spikes set just at the junction of the fingers with the hand4 ,as long as the fingers are extended the spikes lie parallel with them1 and are as harmless as a cat's claws in their sheaths4 ,but when the fingers are closed1 as shown in the illustration1 the spikes come into use1 and can be made into a formidable weapon of offence1 just as are the cat's claws when protruded4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the gauntlet of civilised warfare is one of savage war1 which has for many years been discontinued1 partly on account of the introduction of firearms1 and partly owing to the superficial coating of civilisation which is so easily adopted by the singular varieties of the human race which populate the isles where this remarkable weapon was once worn4 ,the figure is taken from a specimen in the ,united ,service ,museum4 ,it is a ,gauntlet1 having at one end a band through which the whole hand is passed1 and at the other three loops for the fingers1 just like those of the ,wag-nuk1 which has already been described4 ,the body of the weapon is made of cocoa-nut fibre1 and upon it are strung six rows of sharks' teeth1 the tips all pointing backwards4 ,it is a ,samoan weapon1 some of the most renowned warriors never using club nor spear1 but trusting entirely to their terrible gauntlets4 ,with these they struck right and left1 dashing beneath the clubs and spears of their enemies1 and always trying to rip up their stomachs1 just as is done with the ,wag-nuk4 ,in order to guard against this weapon1 the ,samoan warrior wears a belt of cocoa-nut fibre some eight inches wide1 and thick enough to defy the best gauntlet that could be made4 ,one celebrated ,samoan warrior1 a man of gigantic stature and strength1 was addicted to the amusement of seizing his enemies with the shark-tooth gauntlets1 breaking their backs across his knee1 throwing them down1 and going off after another victim4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration is seen the hind-foot of the ,tiger4 ,i have chosen the hind-foot for two reasons3 firstly1 because the fore-foot has already been figured2 and secondly1 because the hind-foot is used for tearing open the abdomen of the prey4 ,any one who has played with a kitten has noticed how the animal throws itself on its back1 clasps the wrist with its fore-paws1 and kicks vigorously with its hind-legs4 ,it does not mean to hurt its playfellow1 but the hand does not easily escape without sundry scratches4 ,child's play though it may be in the kitten1 it is no play at all with the tiger1 or even the leopard1 for either of these animals1 when hard pressed1 will throw itself on its back1 clasp the foe in its fore-paws1 and with the talons of the hind-feet tear him to pieces4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,hook4--,,defensive ,,armour4--,,the ,,fort4 ,anglers and their ,hooks4--,single and double ,hooks4--,hook of ,british ,columbia4--,seed of ,galium1 or ,goose-grass1 and its ,armature of ,hooks4--,seed of the ,burdock1 and its ,annoyance to ,sheep4--,hooked ,sponge-spicules4--8,snatching0 ,fish4--,the ,fish-rake of ,british ,columbia4--,the 8,gaff0 and its ,uses4--,the ,jaguar as a ,fisher--,defensive ,armour and its ,varieties4--,plate and ,chain ,mail4--,the ,shield4--,australian and ,west ,african ,shields4--,fibre ,armour4--,seal's-tooth ,cuirass4--,joints of ,armour4--8,tassets40--,scale ,armour in ,art and ,nature4--,the ,manis and the ,fish4--,feather ,armour4--8,madoc in ,aztlan40--,quilted ,armour of ,silk or ,cotton4--,terrible ,results from the latter4--,mr4 ,justice ,maulstatute4--,natural ,quilt ,armour4--,the ,rhinoceros and the ,whale4--,the ,testudo of the ancient ,romans1 and its ,uses4--,the common ,tortoise4--,the ,fort4--,curious ,transitions in ,fort building2 first ,earth1 then ,stone1 then ,earth again4--,advantage of ,earthen ,mounds4--,natural ,snow-fort made by the ,elk1 and its ,defensive ,powers against the ,wolf4 ,,the ,,hook4 ,having now seen that the rod and line of anglers have their prototypes in ,nature1 we will proceed to the hook1 by which the fish are secured4 ,the two figures on the right hand of the accompanying illustration represent hooks which are familiar to every angler4 ,the lower is the ordinary fish-hook1 which can be used in so many ways4 ,generally it is employed singly1 being fastened to the end of a line1 and armed with a bait1 either real or artificial4 ,sometimes1 however1 these hooks are whipped together1 back to back1 three or even four being so employed1 and thus forming a combination of the hook and grapnel1 and rendering the escape of a fish almost impossible4 ,above it is a double hook1 such as is used in 8trolling0 for pike1 and with the use of which many of my readers are probably acquainted4 ,the third is a singularly ingenious hook made by the natives of ,british ,columbia4 ,it is almost entirely made of wood1 with the exception of the barb1 which is of bone4 ,this1 as the reader will see1 is fixed1 not to the point of the hook1 as with us1 but to its base1 the point being directed towards the central portion of the curve4 ,illustration3 ,,hymedesmia4 ,,fruit ,,of ,,galium4 ,,vancouver ,,hook4 ,,double ,,and ,,single ,,hooks4 ,at first sight this seems to be a singular arrangement1 but it is a very effective one1 as any one may see by placing the point between the fingers and pushing it through them4 ,it will be found impossible to force it back again1 the sharp point of the bone-barb coming against them and retaining them4 ,it has also another advantage4 ,very large fish1 for which this hook is intended1 are apt in their struggles to reverse the hook1 and so to weaken its hold4 ,in this hook1 however1 such a proceeding is impossible2 for1 even should the hook be reversed1 it still retains its hold1 the barb becoming the point1 and the point keeping the lip of the fish against the tip of the barb4 ,the figure is drawn from a specimen in my collection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,if the reader will look at the illustration1 he will see a globular object covered with little hooks4 ,this is a magnified representation of the seed-vessel of the common ,goose-grass 7,galium71 which is so luxuriant in our hedges1 and often intrudes itself into our gardens4 ,its long1 trailing stems1 with their tightly-clinging leaves1 are familiar to all1 and there are few who have not1 while children1 pelted each other with the little round green seed-vessels during the time that the fruit is in season4 ,that they clung so tightly as not to be removed without difficulty1 we all knew1 but we did not all know the cause4 ,the magnifying-glass1 however1 reveals the secret at once4 ,the whole of the surface is covered with little sharp prickles1 curved like hooks1 and turned in all directions1 so that1 however it may be thrown1 some of them are sure to catch4 ,so readily do these hooks hold to anything which they touch1 that if a lady only sweeps her dress against a plant of ,goose-grass1 she is sure to carry off a considerable number of the seed-vessels1 and to waste much time afterwards in picking them off4 ,the seed-vessel of the common ,burdock1 known popularly by the name of ,bur1 is armed in a similar manner1 but1 as it is much larger1 it is easily avoided4 ,sheep suffer greatly from burs1 which twist themselves among the wool so firmly that it is hardly possible to remove them without cutting away bur and wool together4 ,as to a ,skye terrier1 when once he gets among burs1 his life is a misery to him 7,i was going to say1 a burden to him1 but it would have looked like a pun74 ,below1 and on the left of the ,galium-seed1 are some spicules of the ,hymedesmia1 a sponge which is found on the coast of ,madeira4 ,the following account of it occurs in the ,intellectual ,observer1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cab3-- 8,,fish-,,hook ,,spicul4--,we have received from ,mr4 ,baker1 of ,holborn1 a slide containing spicules of the ,hymedesmia ,johnsonii1 which are stated to be rare objects in this country4 ,they have the form of a double fish-hook1 and on the inner surface of each hook is an extremely sharp knife-edge projection1 corresponding with a similar and equally sharp projection from the inside of the shank40 8,these minute knife-blades are so arranged that in addition to their cutting properties1 they would act as barbs1 obstructing the withdrawal of the hook4 ,the two hooks attached to one shank are not in the same place1 but nearly at right angles with one another1 so that when one is horizontal the other is vertical1 or nearly so4 ,a magnification of four or five hundred linear does not in any way detract from the sharp appearance of the knife-edges1 and they may take their place with the anchors of the ,synapta as curious illustrations of the occurrence in living organisms of forms which man was apt to fancy were exclusively the products of his own contrivance and skill4 8,we presume that these hooks of the ,hymedesmia answer the usual purpose of spicul in strengthening the soft tissue1 but they must likewise render the sponge an awkward article for the ,madeira sea-slugs to eat40 ,for an account and figures of the ,synapta anchor-spicules see page #ci4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to another modification of the hook4 ,i presume that many of my readers have heard of the practice called 8snatching0 fish1 though ,i hope that they have never been unsportsmanlike enough to follow it4 ,this plan1 which is only worthy of poachers1 consists in taking several flights of treble or quadruple hooks1 dropping them gently by the side of the fish1 and then1 with a sudden jerk1 driving them into any part of its body which they may happen to strike4 ,most anglers have snatched fish accidentally1 but to do so intentionally is ranked among the worst of an angler's crimes1 and is equivalent to cheating at cards1 or playing with false dice4 ,in some parts of the world1 however1 there are certain small fish which are never taken in any other way1 and1 indeed1 are raked out of the water just as a gardener rakes dead leaves off the path or beds4 ,illustration3 ,,jaguar ,,and ,,claw4 ,,fish-,,rake4 ,,gaff4 ,in ,british ,columbia there are certain lakes tenanted largely with small fish which form a considerable portion of the natives' diet4 ,they swim in vast shoals close to the surface of the water1 and are captured by veritable rakes1 one of which is shown in the illustration4 ,the points of the rake are slightly curved1 and very sharp1 and so numerous are the fish that when the native has struck his rake among the shoal1 and drawn it into the boat1 he generally finds a fish on every tooth1 while it often happens that two or three are transfixed by the same tooth4 ,a sharp knock against the side of the boat shakes off the prey1 and the fisherman again strikes his rake into the shoal4 ,by this simple mode of fishing a couple of men will1 in a few hours1 load a canoe with small but valuable fish4 ,below the rake is the 8,gaff10 an instrument1 not to say a weapon1 which is indispensable when salmon or other large fish are to be caught4 ,for ordinary-sized fish a landing-net is sufficient1 but no landing-net could either receive or retain a salmon of any size4 ,recourse is then had to the ,gaff1 which is simply a huge hook at the end of a handle4 ,the fish being 8played0 until it can be drawn within reach1 the gaff is slipped under it1 struck into the side of the salmon1 and by its aid the fish is easily lifted out of the water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are two figures showing how the principle of the fish-rake and gaff has been anticipated in ,nature4 ,it is a well-known fact that the ,jaguar feeds largely on fish1 which it catches for itself4 ,it goes down to the river-side as close to the water as possible1 and waits patiently for its prey4 ,as soon as a fish comes within reach1 the ,jaguar stretches out its paw to the fullest extent1 and1 with a stroke of the curved claws1 hooks the fish on shore1 just as the ,vancouver ,islander does with his fish-rake1 or the ,english angler with his gaff4 ,many persons have practically experienced the gaff-like powers of the feline claw by the loss of their gold-fish4 ,it is seldom safe to leave a globe of gold-fish within reach of a cat4 ,nearly all cats are madly fond of fish1 and1 in spite of their instinctive hatred of water1 will hook out the fish with their claws1 and eat them4 ,indeed1 there are several instances on record where a cat has regularly caught fish1 and brought them home to its owner4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,buckland gives an account of a fisherman's cat1 which used to go out with her master1 jump into the sea1 secure a fish1 and then be lifted on board with her prey4 ,above the ,jaguar is drawn a single claw1 so as to show the form of the instrument by which the fish is captured4 ,,armour4 ,we will now take the subject of ,defensive ,armour1 by which warriors are enabled to protect themselves against the offensive weapons of the enemy4 ,as many readers will probably know1 armour reached its greatest development in the ,middle ,ages1 when the knight was so completely cased in steel that no weapon then in use could penetrate his panoply4 ,the head1 body1 and limbs were covered with steel plates curiously articulated at the joints1 so as to give freedom of motion1 while guarding the wearer from any ordinary weapon4 ,a warrior might be beaten from his horse by a mace1 or struck down by a lance1 or the horse itself might be killed under him4 ,illustration3 ,,lobster4 ,,armadillo4 ,,pichiciago4 ,,chiton4 ,,plate ,,and ,,scale ,,armour ,,of ,,middle ,,ages4 ,in either of these cases the fallen knight was not much the worse1 until a weapon called the 8,misericorde10 or dagger of mercy1 was invented4 ,this was a poniard with a very slender and very sharp blade1 so constructed that it could be driven between the joints of the armour1 and thus inflict a mortal wound4 ,the ,misericorde1 however1 was baffled by the use of chain or scale armour under the plate-mail1 and then the only way of getting at the fallen knight was by breaking up the armour with hammers which were made for this express purpose4 ,perhaps the reader may wonder that any one should lie quietly and allow himself to be so badly treated4 ,the very strength of the armour1 however1 which rendered its wearer unassailable by ordinary weapons1 involved so much weight1 that when a knight had fallen1 it was impossible for him to rise1 much less to mount a horse1 without help4 ,moreover1 the first blow of a weighty hammer on the helmet would1 although it could not kill the wearer1 cause such a jar to his brain as partially1 if not wholly1 to stun him4 ,the rapidly increasing power of firearms soon caused armour to be laid aside1 and now the only remains of it are to be found in the helmets and cuirasses worn by our dragoons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are few parts of the world where armour of some sort is not used4 ,putting aside civilised or semi-civilised nations1 we find that in most cases1 wherever there is war1 there is armour of some kind4 ,sometimes it is movable1 and in that case is called a shield4 ,the most singular shields that ,i know are those made by the ,australians1 which are so shaped that no one who did not know their use would take them for shields4 ,they are about three feet long1 four inches wide at the back1 six inches or so thick in the middle1 tapering towards the ends1 and coming to an edge in front4 ,they are held by the centre with one hand1 so that they can be rapidly twisted from side to side1 and so serve to parry the spear or stop the boomerang4 ,the weight of the shield enables it to withstand the shock of the boomerang1 which whirls through the air with terrific force4 ,several warlike savage tribes have1 however1 no armour of any kind1 such as the ,new ,zealanders1 the ,samoans1 and the ,fijians4 ,sometimes the armour is affixed to the body1 and of such protection many examples are to be found in various museums1 among which the ,christy collection is pre-eminent4 ,among the ,polynesians cocoa-nut fibre was at one time employed as the material for armour4 ,it was twisted into small cords1 and with these a sort of armour was constructed1 quite strong enough to resist any weapon that an enemy of their own kind could bring against them4 ,sometimes this armour was merely a belt wide enough to protect the abdomen1 but sometimes the whole body was defended1 from the neck to the hips4 ,in the ,united ,service ,museum there is a very remarkable cuirass1 which is made of successive rows of seals' teeth1 each row overlapping the other like the tiles of a house4 ,it is very heavy1 weighing quite as much as a steel cuirass1 and was probably quite as effective against the primitive weapons which could be brought to bear upon it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now for ,natural ,armour4 ,there are so many examples of armour1 as furnished by ,nature1 that ,i can only mention a few4 ,any one who looks at a lobster1 crayfish1 prawn1 or shrimp1 must at once see that in it lies the prototype of plate armour4 ,that portion of the lobster which is popularly called the head1 and is scientifically known as the 8carapace10 is not jointed1 and corresponds with the cuirass of ancient or modern armour4 ,then comes the part called the 8tail10 the joints of which are exactly like those employed in the shoulders1 elbows1 knees1 and ankles of ancient armour4 ,the lobster tail will again be mentioned in connection with another branch of human art4 ,as for the heavy1 ungraceful armour which was used in tilting1 we have an admirable example in the ,trunk-fish of the tropical seas 7,ostracion71 the whole of which is enclosed in a bony case1 the fins and tail protruding through openings in it4 ,in fact1 the scales1 instead of being separate1 are fused together so as to form a continuous covering4 ,the ,box-tortoise of ,south ,america is another good example1 the creature being furnished with bony flaps with which it covers the apertures through which the head1 legs1 and tail are protruded1 and so is as impervious as the knight of old4 ,in the later ages of armour1 the thighs1 instead of being enclosed in steel coverings with cuisses1 were defended by a number of steel plates called 8tassets40 ,now these tassets are exactly like the defensive armour of the ,armadillo's back1 and1 though it is not likely that the inventor of tassets should have seen an ,armadillo1 the fact still remains1 that ,art has been anticipated by ,nature4 ,exactly the same principle is seen in that wonderful little animal1 the ,pichiciago of ,south ,america1 which is shown in the lower left-hand figure of the illustration4 ,this creature is not only furnished with bony rings on the body like those of the ,armadillo1 but has likewise a flap which comes over the hindquarters1 and effectually defends it against the attacks of any foe that might pursue it into its burrow4 ,in the lower right-hand corner of the illustration is seen a figure of a ,chiton1 several species of which are common on most of our coasts4 ,this is one of the molluscs1 which adheres to the rock just as limpets do4 ,but1 whereas the shell of the limpet is all in one piece and inflexible1 that of the ,chiton is composed of several pieces1 which are arranged exactly like the tassets of armour1 and enable the ,chiton to accommodate itself to the inequalities of the rocks to which it is adhering4 ,the common ,pill ,millipede1 which rolls itself up in a ball when alarmed1 is a familiar instance of similar defensive armour1 and much the same may be said of the ,julus ,millipede4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,scales ,,of ,,manis4 ,,scale-,,mail4 ,we now come to ,scale ,armour1 which is one of the earliest modes of protecting the body1 and the idea of which was clearly taken from animal life4 ,in ,scale ,armour1 flat plates of metal1 horn1 or bone are sewn to a linen or leathern vest in such a way that the scales overlap each other1 and so tend to throw off the blow of a weapon4 ,one great advantage of this armour is its lightness and flexibility1 the former quality allowing of more prolonged exertion than could be possible with the heavy plate armour1 and the latter rendering that exertion less fatiguing to the limbs4 ,a glance at the preceding illustration will show how the scale armour of the human warrior has been anticipated by ,nature4 ,on the right hand is an example of ordinary scale armour1 while on the opposite side is a portion of a scaly surface4 ,this figure represents some of the scales of a ,manis4 ,these scales are wonderfully hard1 and scarcely to be penetrated4 ,i have in my collection the skin of a ,short-tailed ,manis1 which had been kept for some time in an ,indian compound1 but which made itself such a nuisance by its perpetual burrowing1 that its owner was forced to condemn it to death4 ,so he took a ,colt's revolver1 and fired at it from a distance of a yard or two4 ,the only result was to knock over the ,manis1 which rolled itself up1 and appeared to be none the worse4 ,a second and a third shot were fired with similar results1 and the last bullet recoiled upon the firer4 ,at last1 the animal was killed by introducing the point of a dagger under the scales1 and driving it in with a mallet4 ,the ,manis itself is given in the illustration on page #ahi4 ,illustration3 ,,skin ,,of ,,singlethorn4 ,,scale-,,mail4 ,again1 the scales of most fishes afford excellent examples of scale armour4 ,i have selected one1 the ,japanese ,singlethorn1 on account of the strength of the scales1 each of which is deeply ridged and furrowed4 ,the reader will probably have noticed that the skin of the animal1 into which are inserted the bases of the scales1 is analogous to the linen or leathern foundation upon which the artificial scales are sewn4 ,even feathers give a better protection than might be imagined from their individually fragile structure4 ,this is well shown in the case of aquatic birds1 whose feathers are very closely pressed together1 each overlapping the next1 and set in regular order4 ,not only is the plumage rendered water-tight1 but it is able to resist a severe blow4 ,this is well known by sportsmen1 who do not fire at ducks or geese while they are approaching1 knowing that their shot would only glide harmlessly from the feather-mail of the bird4 ,they wait until the birds have passed1 and then find no difficulty in killing them1 the shot penetrating under the feathers just as did the dagger under the scales of the manis4 ,even the diminutive puffin1 or sea-parrot1 as it is sometimes called1 cares little for shot while it is sitting on the rocks with closed wings and feathers pressed together4 ,when1 however1 it takes to flight1 it can be killed without difficulty4 ,perhaps some of my readers may be aware that the ancient ,mexican warriors wore armour made of feathers1 which ,i presume must have been arranged much after the fashion of those of a duck's breast4 ,this remarkable ,feather-mail is mentioned by ,southey in his poem1 8,madoc in ,aztlan40 ,in canto xviii1 is recounted the single combat between ,madoc and ,coanocotsin1 the ,king of ,aztlan4 ,the contrasting armour and weapons of each are graphically described1 and especial mention is made of the cuirass3-- 8,over the breast1 ,and o'er the golden breastplate of the ,king1 ,a feathery cuirass1 beautiful to eye1 ,light as the robe of peace1 yet strong to save2 ,for the sharp faulchion's baffled edge would glide ,from its smooth softness40 ,then1 in the course of the combat1 when the ,king has been grappled in ,madoc's arms and forced to drop his buckler and club1 the narrative proceeds3-- 8,which when the ,prince beheld1 ,he thrust him off1 and drawing back1 resumed ,the sword that from his wrist suspended hung1 ,and twice he smote the ,king4 ,twice from the quilt ,of plumes the iron glides40 ,if such armour could in truth resist the weapons which have been discovered1 it must have been a wonderfully strong garment1 for the ,mexican swords1 though made of wood1 are edged with flakes of obsidian1 which cuts like a razor4 ,i have a number of these flakes1 which have evidently been intended for the edges of a sword1 but have not been used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is another kind of armour which is still used in some parts of the world1 and at one time was employed in this country4 ,this is the ,quilt ,armour1 which is made by enclosing a thick layer of some fibre1 such as silk or cotton1 between two pieces of fabric1 and then sewing them across and across1 so as to keep the lining or stuffing in its place4 ,the eider-down quilts are familiar examples of such fabrics1 and so are the quilted petticoats1 which are so comfortable in winter4 ,horsehair and flock mattresses are made in a similar manner4 ,insufficient as it may appear to be1 the quilt armour1 when well made1 is really proof against most weapons1 even against firearms1 as we shall presently see4 ,being very much lighter than steel1 it was easier for the wearer1 its chief drawback being that its extreme thickness gave it a very clumsy and awkward look4 ,those who wore it1 however1 cared more for their safety than their appearance1 as was exemplified by ,james ,i41 who lived in perpetual fear of assassination1 but who had a nervous dislike to arms1 whether offensive or defensive4 ,he therefore wore a cuirass quilted with silk1 which answered every purpose of defence1 while it did not offend his nerves4 ,perhaps the reader may remember that in 8,peveril of the ,peak0 ,sir ,walter ,scott gives a ludicrous picture of the timid justice1 his fears of the ,popish plot1 his suit of quilted armour1 and his 8,protestant ,flail0 with which he hits himself on the head instead of striking his supposed enemy3-- 8,some ingenious artist1 belonging1 we may presume1 to the worshipful ,mercers' ,company1 had contrived a species of armour of which neither the horse armoury in the ,tower1 nor ,gwynnap's ,gothic ,hall1 no1 nor ,dr4 ,meyrick's invaluable collection of ancient arms1 has preserved any specimen4 8,it was called ,silk-armour1 being composed of a doublet and breeches of quilted silk1 so closely stitched1 and of such thickness1 as to be proof against either bullet or steel1 while a thick bonnet of the same materials1 with ear-flaps attached to it1 and on the whole much resembling a nightcap1 completed the equipment1 and ascertained the security of the wearer from the head to the knee4 ,master ,maulstatute1 among other worthy citizens1 had adopted this singular panoply1 which had the advantage of being soft1 and warm and flexible1 as well as safe4 ,and he was sat in his judicial elbow-chair--a short1 rotund figure1 hung round1 as it were1 with cushions1 for such was the appearance of the quilted garments--and with a nose protruded from under the silken casque1 the size of which1 together with the unwieldiness of the whole figure1 gave his worship no indifferent resemblance to the sign of the ,hog in ,armour1 which was considerably improved by the defensive garment being of a dusky orange colour1 not altogether unlike the hue of those half-wild swine which are to be found in the forests of ,hampshire40 ,roger ,nutt gives as a reason for the security of quilted armour1 that it made the wearer look so ridiculous that no one could hit him for laughing4 ,the reader will probably remember that the sign of the ,hog in ,armour was really a representation of the rhinoceros4 ,that such a cuirass is really impervious to ordinary weapons is shown by the following anecdote3--,during one of the late ,indian wars a trooper discharged his pistol close to the back of a fleeing horseman4 ,the shot produced no apparent effect1 and the man rode off4 ,presently1 however1 a thin cloud of smoke was seen to rise from his shoulders4 ,the smoke thickened1 then burst into flame1 and after riding at desperate speed in hopes of overtaking his comrades1 the unfortunate man fell from his horse1 and was miserably burned to death4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,rhinoceros4 ,,quilted ,,armour4 ,the fact was that cotton being cheaper than silk1 he had wadded his cuirass with cotton fibre4 ,had he chosen silk1 he would have got off in safety4 ,among the ,chinese this cotton mail is largely used4 ,in consequence1 many ,chinese soldiers were found who had been burned to death in exactly the same way as the ,indian warrior4 ,towards the south-western parts of ,africa there is a nation called the ,begharmis4 ,their soldiers are mounted1 and are all furnished with suits of quilted mail1 which fall below the knee as the rider is seated on his horse4 ,not only is the rider thus defended1 but the horse also1 which is covered with quilted armour like that of its rider1 the appearance of both being exceedingly grotesque4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are several examples of such armour in the animal world1 the principal of which is the ,indian ,rhinoceros4 ,any one who has seen this animal1 or even a good portrait of it1 will at once recognise the parallel between the heavy folds of its thick skin and the padded flaps of the quilted mail4 ,the blubber with which the whale is so thickly coated affords another example of the parallel between ,nature and ,art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the days of ancient ,rome there was a curious military manuvre1 by which the defensive armour of individual soldiers might be made collectively useful4 ,this manuvre was called ,forming a ,tortoise 7testudinem facere71 and is thus described in ,smith's 8,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities30-- 8,the name of ,testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body of soldiers1 who placed their shields over their heads to screen themselves against the darts of the enemy4 ,the shields fitted so closely together as to present one unbroken surface without any interstices between them1 and were so firm that men could walk upon them1 and even horses and chariots be driven over them4 ,illustration3 ,,tortoise4 ,,roman ,,testudo4 8,a ,testudo was formed either in battle1 to ward off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy1 or1 which was more frequently the case1 to form a protection to the soldiers when they advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the purpose of attacking them4 8,sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make the ,testudo slope4 ,the soldiers in the first line stood upright1 those in the centre stooped a little1 and each line successively was a little lower than the preceding1 down to the last1 where the soldiers rested on one knee4 ,such a disposition of the shields was called ,fastigata ,testudo1 on account of their sloping like the roof of a building4 8,the advantages of this plan were obvious4 ,the stones and missiles thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from a roof2 besides which1 other soldiers frequently advanced upon them to attack the enemy upon the walls4 ,the ,romans were accustomed to form this kind of ,testudo as an exercise in the games of the ,circus40 ,on the right hand of the illustration is shown a portion of a ,testudo of three ranks1 taken from the ,antonine column4 ,on the left is an ordinary ,tortoise4 ,sometimes the ,testudo was a covered machine on wheels1 and guarded above with a supplementary roof of wet hides arranged in scale fashion1 so as to prevent it from being set on fire by the besieged1 and to throw off the heavy missiles which were dropped upon it4 ,under cover of this ,testudo1 the soldiers could either undermine the walls1 or bring a battering-ram to bear upon them1 while the men who worked it were safely under cover4 ,as to the battering-ram itself1 we shall presently treat of it4 ,,the ,,fort4 ,as we have treated of one of the modes by which ,forts were assaulted1 we will now come to the ,fort itself4 ,the transitions in ,fort-making are too curious to be omitted from the present book4 ,as soon as war became organized1 a ,fort of some kind was necessary4 ,the simplest mode of making a ,fort was evidently to dig a deep trench1 and throw up the earth on the inside1 so as to form a wall4 ,let such a trench be square or circular1 and there is a simple but powerful ,fort1 by means of which a comparatively small garrison could defend themselves against a superior force4 ,the ,romans were great masters of this art1 fighting as much with the spade as the sword4 ,so strong and thorough was the old ,roman work that many of their camps still remain1 and will remain for centuries if man does not deface them4 ,such1 for example1 are ,csar's camp1 near ,aldershot1 and the fine camp at ,lyddington1 in ,wiltshire1 almost every detail of which is preserved4 ,roman camps are all constructed on the same model1 the general's place1 or ,prtorium1 being in the centre1 whence he issued his orders1 and the commanders under him occupying the corners4 ,thus1 no matter how he might be shifted from one corps to another1 every ,roman soldier knew his way about the camp without needing to see it1 and could tell at any moment where to find any officer4 ,illustration3 ,,elk ,,fort4 ,illustration3 ,,mound ,,fort4 ,other nations made their ,forts circular1 an example of which ,i lately saw a few miles from ,bideford1 while others consisted of nearly parallel lines1 enclosures1 and demi-lunes1 like those wonderful dykes near ,clovelly1 which occupy more than thirty acres of land4 ,one of the circular ,forts is shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,as time went on1 stone took the place of earth1 and the principal object of the builder was to give considerable thickness below1 so as to resist the battering-ram1 and great height both to walls and towers1 so as to be comparatively out of the reach of the arrows and other missiles of the besiegers4 ,for awhile1 such castles were impregnable1 and the owners thereof were the irresponsible despots of the neighbourhood1 recognising no law but their own will1 robbing1 torturing1 and murdering at pleasure1 and setting the king at open defiance4 ,when1 however1 the tremendous powers of artillery became developed1 the age of stone castles passed away4 ,height was found to be equivalent to weakness1 as the strongest tower in existence could be knocked to pieces in an hour or two1 and do infinite harm within the fortress by its falling fragments4 ,fortification then returned to its original principles4 ,earth took the place of stone or brick2 and at the present day1 instead of erecting lofty walls and stately towers1 the military engineer sinks his buildings as far as he can into the ground1 and protects them with banks of simple earth1 which is found to be the best defence against heavy shot4 ,there is no masonry in existence that will endure the artillery fire of the present day1 and even the solid rock can be knocked to pieces by it4 ,but an earth-mound is a different business1 and will absorb as many shot and shell as can be poured into it1 without being much the worse for it4 ,see1 for example1 the ,proof-mound at ,woolwich1 which receives the shot of guns as they are being proved4 ,now1 this mound has undergone perpetual battering for many years1 and is as strong as ever4 ,the same thing may be said of the celebrated ,mamelon before ,sebastopol4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,so much for the ,fort made by the hand of man4 ,we now come to that which is formed by the feet of animals4 ,the ,elk1 or ,moose1 an inhabitant of ,northern ,europe1 finds itself in great danger during the winter1 the wolves being its chief enemies4 ,at certain times of the year there comes a partial thaw during the day1 followed by a frost at night4 ,the result is1 that a slight cake of ice forms on the surface of the snow1 too slight to bear the weight of so heavy an animal1 and strong enough to cut the legs of the elk as it ploughs its way along4 ,now1 the wolves are sufficiently light to pass over the frozen surface without breaking it1 and accordingly1 they can easily run down and secure the elk4 ,in order1 therefore1 to counteract the wolves1 a number of elks select a convenient spot where they can find food1 and unite in trampling the snow down so as to sink themselves nearly to their own height below its surface4 ,the wolves never dare attack an ,elk-yard1 as this enclosure is termed4 ,in the first place1 they are always haunted with suspicions of traps1 and do not like the look of the yard2 and in the next place1 if some of the wolves did venture within the fort1 the elks would soon demolish them with hoofs and horns4 ,one of these ,elk-yards is seen on the left hand of the illustration4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,scaling ,,instruments4--,,defence ,,of ,,fort4--,,imitation4--,,the ,,fall-,,trap4 ,scaling-forks4--,the ,climbing-spur and its ,use4--,larva of the ,tiger-beetle4--,hooks of ,serpula4--,mr4 ,gosse's ,description4--,falling ,stones4--,a ,stone rolling down a ,precipice4--,the ,polar ,bear and the ,walrus4--,imitation4--,the ,polar ,bear and the ,seal4--,the ,esquimaux ,hunter 8,seal-talking40--,enticing ,mother by means of ,young4--,the ,fall-trap and its ,variations4--,the ,schoolboy's 8,booby-trap40--,curious ,mode of killing ,elephants4--,the ,elephant-spear4--,the ,hippopotamus-trap of ,southern ,africa4--,the ,mangrove and its ,seeds4--,the ,spring-gun and ,spring-bow4 ,before dismissing the subject of the ,fortress1 we will glance at the ,attack and ,defence1 as seen in ,nature and ,art4 ,,scaling ,,instruments4 ,we have already seen how the ,battering-ram could be worked against the walls of a fort1 or how the assailants could scale them by means of the ,testudo4 ,there must1 however1 be occasions when it would be impossible to bring together a sufficiently large body of men to form the ,testudo1 or even to place ladders1 and in such instances it would be necessary that each soldier should be furnished with an instrument by which he could haul himself up the wall4 ,there are many examples still extant of such weapons1 which were called 8,scaling-forks10 and their general appearance may be known by the two right-hand figures of the cut4 ,the handles of these weapons were very long1 and by them the soldier hauled himself to the top of the wall4 ,in some of these instruments the shafts were armed with projecting pegs1 set at regular intervals1 so that they acted as the steps of a ladder1 and rendered the ascent comparatively easy4 ,many of the long-handled partisans1 such as the well-known ,jedwood axe1 were furnished with a hook upon the back of the blade1 so that the weapon served the purpose of a scaling-fork as well as a battle-axe4 ,the ,scaling-fork 7,german ,sturmgabel71 which is shown on the right hand of the illustration1 was in use somewhere about ,a4,d4 #aejj4 ,that which is shown next to it is about a hundred years later4 ,illustration3 ,,walrus ,,tusks4 ,,larva ,,of ,,tiger-,,beetle4 ,,climbing-,,spur4 ,,scaling-,,forks4 ,,hooks ,,of ,,serpula4 ,demmin1 from whose work these figures are taken1 mentions that at the siege of ,mons1 in #afia1 the grenadiers of the elder ,dauphin's regiment stormed the walls under the command of ,vauban1 and1 by means of the ,scaling-fork1 carried the breastwork1 which they assaulted4 ,as a mark of honour to these gallant men1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ordered that the sergeants of the regiment should carry scaling-forks instead of halberds1 which had been the peculiar weapon of the sergeant until comparatively late days1 just as the spontoon1 or half-pike1 was the weapon of the infantry officer from ,a4,d4 #agjj to ,a4,d4 #ahjj1 or thereabouts4 ,the ,english student will remember that in the writings of ,sterne1 ,fielding1 and ,smollett the half-pike is frequently mentioned as the weapon of a subaltern officer4 ,demmin states that the last spontoons used in ,france were carried by the ,french ,guards in #aghi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,perhaps the ,climbing-spur may be familiar to some of my readers1 and bring back a reminiscence of boyhood4 ,there is nothing more tantalising to a boy than to see a hawk1 or magpie nest at the top of a tree which is too large to be climbed in the ordinary way1 and which has no branches within many feet of the ground4 ,however1 boyish ingenuity has brought almost any tree within the power of a bird's-nester by the invention of the ,climbing-irons4 ,these are made so as to pass under the foot like a stirrup1 and can be secured to the leg by leathern straps1 the hooks being1 of course1 on the inside of the leg4 ,the cut represents the ,climbing-iron of the right leg4 ,by means of these instruments1 a very large tree can be mounted1 the irons being struck firmly into the bark1 and the legs moved alternately1 and not in the usual manner of climbing4 ,sometimes the hook of the ,climbing-iron is terminated by a single instead of a double point1 but the principle is the same in all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now look for similar examples in ,nature4 ,on the right of the left-hand group is shown the larva or grub of the common ,tiger-beetle1 which is itself a curious creature4 ,it lives in perpendicular burrows1 feeding upon those insects which come within its reach4 ,its usual position is at the upper part of the burrow1 with its jaws widely extended1 so as to snap up any insect that may venture too near4 ,when it has secured its prey1 it seeks the bottom of its burrow1 makes its meal in quiet1 and reascends4 ,how it does so we shall soon see4 ,towards the end of the body1 one of the segments is much enlarged1 and has a bold prominence upon the back4 ,on the summit of this prominence there are two horn-like hooks1 shaped as seen in the illustration4 ,these hooks are used exactly like the boy's climbing-spurs1 the alternate elongation and contraction of the body answering the same purpose as the movements of the boy's legs4 ,when the larva has seized its prey and wishes to retreat1 all that it has to do is to withdraw the hooks1 straighten the body1 and down it falls by its own weight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the nautical branch of this subject ,i have already treated of the curious pushing-poles by means of which the ,serpula protrudes itself from its tube4 ,as all must have noticed who have seen these creatures alive1 the ,serpula protrudes itself very slowly1 but flies back into its tube with such velocity that the eye can scarcely follow its movements4 ,its difference of motion shows that there must be a difference in the means by which these movements are produced4 ,referring to the illustration on page #de1 the reader will see that the instruments with which the ,serpula propels itself are used just after the fashion of punt-poles1 and cannot act with any great swiftness4 ,when1 however1 the creature wishes to withdraw itself1 it employs a curious apparatus1 consisting of many rows of little hooks4 ,the points of these hooks readily catch against the lining of the tube1 and by their aid the worm jerks itself back with wonderful celerity4 ,three rows of these hooks are shown next to the ,tiger-beetle larva4 ,the structure of these remarkable organs is elaborately described by ,mr4 ,gosse in his 8,evenings with the ,microscope30-- 8,if you look again at this ,serpula recently extracted1 you will find with a lens a pale yellow line running along the upper surface of each foot1 transversely to the length of the body4 ,this is the border of an exceedingly delicate membrane1 and1 on placing it under a high power 7say six hundred diameters71 you will be astonished at the elaborate provision here made for prehension40 8,this yellow line1 which cannot be appreciated by the unassisted eye1 is a muscular ribbon1 over which stand edgewise a multitude of what ,i will call combs1 or rather subtriangular plates4 ,these have a wide base1 and the apex of the triangle is curved over into an abrupt hook1 and then this cut into a number 7from four to six7 of sharp and long teeth40 8,the plates stand side by side1 parallel to each other1 along the whole length of the ribbon1 and there are muscular fibres seen affixed to the basal side of each plate1 which doubtless give it independent motion4 8,i have counted one hundred and thirty-six plates on one ribbon4 ,there are two ribbons on each thoracic segment1 and there are seven such segments4 ,hence1 we may compute the total number of prehensile comb-like plates on this portion of the body to be about one thousand nine hundred1 each of which is wielded by muscles at the will of the animal2 while1 as each plate carries on an average five teeth1 there are nearly ten thousand teeth hooked into the lining membrane of the cell1 when the animal chooses to descend40 8,even this1 however1 is far short of the total number1 because long ribbons of hooks of a similar structure1 but of smaller dimensions1 run across the abdominal segments1 which are more numerous than the thoracic4 ,no wonder1 with so many muscles wielding so many grappling-hooks1 that the descent is so rapidly effected40 ,lastly1 we come to the ,walrus1 whose strangely elongated upper canine teeth can be used for just the same purposes as the scaling-fork or climbing-spur4 ,as1 however1 reference has already been made to these tusks1 in connection with another department of this work1 there is no necessity for occupying space with a second description4 ,,defence ,,of ,,fort4 ,so much for attack2 now for defence4 ,the simplest mode of defending a fort1 or even a mountain pass1 is by throwing or rolling rocks and heavy stones against the enemy4 ,simple as it may appear1 it is a very effective one1 as can be well understood by those who have rolled a huge stone down a long and steep slope4 ,the stone goes gently enough at first1 but rapidly gains speed1 until at last it makes great bounds from the earth1 tearing and crashing through everything as if it had been shot from a cannon4 ,i have seen a stone which was too heavy to be lifted1 and had to be prised over the edge with levers1 spring completely through the topmost branches of a high tree1 scattering the boughs in all directions1 and then1 alighting on another stone1 split into many fragments1 just like the pieces of a burst shell4 ,that one stone would have swept off a whole party of soldiers had they encountered it while trying to ascend the slope4 ,this invention has also been anticipated in ,nature4 ,putting aside the obvious reflection that the most primitive warriors must have noticed the effects of stones falling over a precipice1 we have1 in ,captain ,hall's 8,life with the ,esquimaux10 a curious account of the ,polar ,bear and its mode of killing the ,walrus4 ,gigantic as is this animal1 and terrible as are its tusks1 the ,polar ,bear will sometimes attack it in a very singular manner4 ,the ,bear springs on a sleeping ,walrus1 and clings to its shoulders with one paw1 and with repeated blows from the other1 fractures its skull4 ,still1 the combat is sure to be a severe one1 and so the ,polar ,bear will1 if he can1 secure his prey by some other method4 8,the natives tell many most interesting anecdotes of the ,bear1 showing that they are accustomed to watch his movements closely4 ,he has a very ingenious method of killing the ,walrus4 ,illustration3 ,,bear ,,killing ,,walrus4 ,illustration3 ,,warriors ,,depending ,a ,,pass4 8,in ,august1 every fine day1 the ,walrus makes its way to the shore1 draws its huge body upon the rocks1 and basks in the sun4 ,if this happen near the base of a cliff1 the ever-watchful ,bear takes advantage of the circumstance to attack his formidable game in this way4 ,the ,bear mounts the cliff1 and throws down upon the animal's head a large rock1 calculating the distance and the curve with astonishing accuracy1 and thus crushing the thick1 bullet-proof skull4 8,if the ,walrus is not instantly killed1 or simply stunned1 the ,bear rushes down to it1 seizes the rock1 and hammers away at the head until the skull is broken4 ,a fat feast follows4 ,unless the ,bear is very hungry1 it eats only the blubber of the walrus1 seal1 and whale40 ,,imitation4 ,as is the case with the ,norwegians1 the ,esquimaux have the greatest respect for the intellectual as well as the bodily powers of the ,bear1 and avowedly imitate it in its modes of hunting4 ,one of these methods will now be mentioned4 ,it must first be premised that the ,seal is a most wary animal1 and when it lies down on the shore to sleep1 it takes its repose by snatches1 lifting up its head at very short intervals1 looking all round in search of foes1 and then composing itself to rest again4 ,to approach so cautious an animal is evidently a difficult task1 but the ,bear is equal to it4 ,the following is ,captain ,hall's account3-- 8,from the ,polar ,bear the ,innuits 7i4e4 ,esquimaux7 learn much4 ,illustration3 ,,polar ,,bear ,,hunting ,,seal4 ,illustration3 ,,esquimaux ,,hunting ,,seal4 8,the manner of approaching the ,seal1 which is on the ice by its hole1 basking in the sunshine1 is from him4 ,the ,bear lies down and crawls by hitches towards the ,seal1 #8talking' to it1 as the ,innuits say1 until he is within striking distance1 when he pounces upon it with a single jump4 ,the natives say that if they could #8talk' as well as the ,bear1 they could catch many more ,seals4 8,the procedure of the ,bear is as follows4 8,he proceeds very cautiously towards the black speck1 far off on the ice1 which he knows to be a ,seal4 ,when still a long way from it1 he throws himself down and hitches himself along towards his game4 ,the ,seal1 meanwhile1 is taking its naps of about ten seconds each1 invariably raising its head and surveying the entire horizon before composing itself again to brief slumber4 8,as soon as it raises its head1 the ,bear #8talks1' keeping perfectly still4 ,the ,seal1 if it sees anything1 sees but the head1 which it takes for that of another ,seal4 ,it sleeps again4 ,again the ,bear hitches himself along1 and once more the ,seal looks around1 only to be #8talked' to and again deceived4 ,thus the pursuit goes on until the ,seal is caught1 or till it makes its escape1 which it seldom does40 ,it is remarkable that while this 8talk0 is going on1 the ,seal appears to be charmed1 raises and shakes its flippers about1 rolls over on its side and back1 as if delighted1 and then lies down to sleep4 ,now1 the ,esquimaux hunters imitate1 as nearly as they can1 the proceedings of the ,bear1 but are not so successful4 ,captain ,hall mentions several instances where the native hunter failed even to come within gunshot without alarming the ,seal1 which instantly plunged into its hole and was lost4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the same author mentions another instance where the ,esquimaux hunter has copied the ,bear4 ,illustration3 ,,polar ,,bear ,,catching ,,seal1 ,,etc4 ,when an ,esquimaux hunter catches a young ,seal1 he takes care not to kill it at once1 as he wishes to use it as a decoy4 ,he ties a long line round one of the hind flippers1 and then drops the little ,seal into the hole through the ice by which it enters and leaves the water4 ,the struggles of the young are nearly sure to attract the mother1 and when she has discovered its condition the young ,seal is cautiously drawn up on the ice4 ,the mother follows1 too intent on rescuing her young to think about herself1 and1 as soon as she is within reach1 she is struck with the harpoon4 ,the ,polar ,bear1 however1 preceded the ,esquimaux in this mode of hunting4 ,the young ,seal lives in a hemispherical dwelling scooped out of the snow1 and communicating with the water by means of a hole through the ice4 ,this dwelling will be described and figured when we come to the subject of ,architecture4 ,finding out1 by scent or some other means1 the habitation of the young ,seal1 the ,polar ,bear leaps upon the snow1 bringing his feet together1 and with his enormous weight breaking through the roof of the dwelling4 ,he instantly captures the young ,seal before it can make its escape4 ,then1 driving the talons of one paw into its hind flipper1 he lets it into the hole1 and allows it to flounder about in the water4 ,when the mother is attracted to her young1 he draws his prey slowly up on the ice4 ,the anxious mother follows1 and is at once secured by the talons of the other foot1 as is represented in the illustration4 ,,the ,,fall-,,trap4 ,this is a stratagem which is often employed in ,war and ,hunting1 though its use is mostly confined to the latter4 ,schoolboys often avail themselves of this principle when they wish to play a practical joke1 and to amuse themselves by setting a 8,booby-trap40 ,this trap is easily manufactured1 and consists of a partially opened door1 with a basin or jug of water balanced upon it4 ,the natural result is1 that any one who opens the door without proper precautions receives the jug and its contents upon his head1 and is thoroughly drenched4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is seen a curious spear1 the butt of which1 instead of being lighter than the head1 is very much heavier4 ,the weight1 however1 is exactly where it is wanted1 and indeed1 in actual use1 is trebled by a mass of tenacious clay1 kneaded upon it4 ,this figure is taken from a very perfect specimen in my own collection4 ,it is an ,african weapon1 not used for war1 but for hunting1 and1 as far as ,i know1 exclusively employed against the elephants4 ,these animals have a way of forming roads or tracks for themselves through the woods1 very much like those almost invisible paths which are made by the half-wild sheep of the great ,wiltshire ,downs1 except that they traverse thick forests instead of broad downs4 ,the native hunters know all the elephant paths1 and if a herd of elephants be seen approaching1 the path which they will take is tolerably certain4 ,illustration3 ,,mangrove ,,seeds4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus ,,trap ,,and ,,elephant ,,spear4 ,armed with this knowledge1 the native hunters climb the trees1 and seat themselves on the branches which overhang the path1 each hunter being supplied with one of these spears4 ,as the elephants pass beneath him1 the experienced hunter selects a bull elephant with good tusks1 and1 taking a careful aim1 drops the spear on its back4 ,on receiving the stroke1 the elephant rushes off in mixed terror and rage4 ,as the animal uses the legs of each side alternately1 it sways its huge body from side to side at every step4 ,with each movement1 the spear also sways about1 its weighted end giving it such a leverage1 that the sharp edges of the head cut the poor animal to pieces4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another kind of ,fall-trap1 which is common in many parts of ,southern ,africa1 is not dependent upon the skill of the hunter1 but1 like the 8booby-trap0 above mentioned1 is set in motion by the victim4 ,a figure of this trap is given in the illustration4 ,if the native hunter can find a spot where the ,hippopotamus path passes under an overhanging branch1 he makes a simple but most effective trap4 ,he takes a heavy log of wood1 and into one end of it he drives a spear-point4 ,the log is then hung with its point downwards to the branch1 the rope which is connected with its trigger or catch being stretched across the path at a few inches from the surface of the ground1 and carried at right angles across the path4 ,the ,hippopotamus takes no notice of the cord1 which is usually made of one of the creepers or 8bush-ropes0 that are so common in hot countries4 ,no sooner1 however1 does its foot strike the cord1 than the trigger is released1 and down falls the heavy log1 driving its iron point deeply into the back of the victim4 ,even if the weapon were simple iron1 such a wound must be mortal1 but1 as it is almost invariably poisoned1 the wounded animal can scarcely travel forty or fifty yards before it lies down and dies4 ,one of these traps is shown in the illustration4 ,in the foreground is shown the ,fall-trap1 pointed with iron1 and weighted with large stones at the lower end1 so as to bring it down with more force1 and to prevent it from falling transversely4 ,the ,spring-gun1 once so formidable a protector of our coverts1 was managed in a similar manner1 except that the missile was discharged horizontally1 and not vertically4 ,the gun1 loaded with shot1 was fixed some eighteen inches from the ground1 and a long and slight wire fastened to the trigger4 ,the opposite end of the wire was made fast to a tree or other fixed object1 and1 as the gun was directed on the line of the wire1 it is evident that any one who stumbled against it would discharge the gun1 and receive the contents in his legs4 ,in ,france the gun was generally loaded with little pieces of bay salt1 and ,i very much pity the unfortunate poacher who came across one of these guns4 ,the pain would prevent him from escaping1 and ,i think that the hardest-hearted of game preservers could not bring himself to prosecute a man who had already suffered so much4 ,of a similar character are the ,spring-bows which were once common in this country1 and are still used in various parts of ,asia4 ,a bow and arrow are substituted for firearms1 and the bow1 after being drawn by the united efforts of several men1 is held in its position by a stick1 one end of which presses against the centre of the bow1 and the other against the string4 ,a large arrow is then placed on the bow1 and a cord is tied to the middle of the stick1 led forwards in a line with the direction of the arrow1 and fastened1 as in the case of the spring-gun4 ,as soon as the line is struck1 the stick is jerked from its place1 and the arrow is discharged1 piercing the body of the trespasser4 ,tigers1 bears1 and leopards are the usual victims of this trap4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is remarkable that in the same country there is a production of ,nature which may in all probability have given to the native hunter the idea of the ,fall-trap4 ,this is the ,mangrove-tree1 which is remarkable for the wonderful extent of ground which it will cover1 and the nearly impenetrable thickets which it forms4 ,in the present part of the work we have nothing to do with the arial roots1 several of which are shown in the illustration1 and only restrict ourselves to the ,seeds1 and the curious manner in which they are planted by ,nature4 ,in the illustration1 on the left hand1 the growth of the ,mangrove is seen4 ,the drawing is taken from a sketch by the late ,mr4 ,baines1 and generously placed at my disposal1 as were all his drawings and journals4 ,the ,mangrove is a wet-loving tree1 never flourishing unless rooted in mud2 and whether the moisture of the mud be attributable to fresh or salt water seems to make little difference to the ,mangrove1 which1 of the two1 appears to prefer the latter4 ,now1 the seeds of the ,mangrove look very much like elongated skittles1 except that one end comes to a sharp point4 ,as they hang on the tree1 the point is downwards4 ,when they are ripe1 they fall from the branch1 and by their own weight are driven deeply into the mud1 where they develop roots and leaves1 and become the progenitors of the future ,mangrove race4 ,i cannot but think that the native hunter1 having seen the tremendous force with which the ,mangrove seed buries itself in the mud1 has applied the same principle to a weapon which shall bury itself in the body of an elephant4 ,,war ,,and ,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,concealment4--,,disguise4--,,the ,,trench4--,,power ,,of ,,gravity4--,,miscellanea4 ,concealment needed in ,modern ,warfare4--,concealment by ,covering4--,masking ,guns4--,birnam ,wood4--,the ,reduvius4--,the ,cuckoo-spit and the ,spider-crab4--,concealment by ,disguise4--,stratagem of the ,barea4--,complete ,deception4--,larva of ,geometra4--,the ,leaf-insect4--,the ,luppet-moth4--,the ,ptarmigan and the ,ermine4--,principle of the ,trench4--,the ,hunter's 8,skrm40--,the ,wax-moth or ,galleria-moth1 and its ,tunnel4--,fate of a ,collection4--,the ,termites and the ,travelling ,ants of ,south ,america4--,the ,power of ,gravity4--,the ,battering-ram and its ,force4--,miscellanea4--,war by ,suffocation4--,the ,stink-pot4--,the ,chili-plant4--,the ,sulphur-room4--,the ,bombardier-beetle4--,the ,bullet-making ,machine and the ,silkworm4 ,,concealment4 ,we will first take ,concealment by means of ,covering4 ,if ,history repeats herself1 so does ,warfare4 ,i have already shown the repetition of ,history in the ,fortress--,i shall now show it in the ,field4 ,in former days1 when arms of precision were not invented1 concealment was not needed4 ,no soldier ever was visited with a dream so wild as that of taking definite aim at the enemy1 and reserving the fire until the aim was certain4 ,i have in my collection several of the ,french and ,english muskets used about the time of ,waterloo1 and1 though a fair rifle-shot1 would not engage to hit a haystack with either of them at a distance of a hundred yards4 ,with the ,snider or ,martini-,henry in the hands of a skilful adversary1 he would be a bold man who would offer himself for a target at a thousand yards4 ,indeed1 if the first shot happened to miss1 the marksman would be tolerably sure to notice the failure1 and to correct his aim with fatal certainty4 ,in those days1 therefore1 concealment was rather ridiculed than praised1 the power of the new arm not being as yet appreciated4 ,i well recollect1 in the earliest days of the ,volunteer movement1 hearing a ,volunteer captain declare1 amid the cheers of his company1 that 8he had never sneaked behind a tree in all his life1 and was not going to begin now40 ,in the present day1 the power of the missile has been developed with such astounding rapidity1 that to be exposed to the fire of rifles or cannon is almost certain death4 ,indeed1 the only safety of the defence lay in the fact that the smoke soon rendered very accurate shooting impossible at long ranges1 and that at short ranges1 if a man got a bullet through his body1 it mattered little to him whether the missile were a spherical musket-ball or a conical rifle-bullet4 ,illustration3 ,,reduvius 7,,magnified74 ,illustration3 ,,cuckoo-,,spit4 ,illustration3 ,,spider-,,crab4 ,illustration3 ,,masking ,,guns4 ,illustration3 ,,birnam ,,wood4 ,just1 then1 as forts have latterly sunk into the earth for the purpose of strength1 so have our modern soldiers found that the true principle of modern warfare is never to lose sight of the enemy1 and never to allow the enemy to see yourself or the disposal of your troops4 ,everything must be revealed to the commander-in-chief1 everything must be concealed from the enemy4 ,in the late ,franco-,german war the principle of concealment was largely used1 and when cannon were brought into the field by the ,germans for the purpose of attacking fortresses1 they were always hidden under branches of trees1 so that the enemy should not distinguish them from the ordinary features of the country1 and that the sparkle of the sunbeams upon them might not be seen4 ,it would be almost superfluous to remind the reader of ,malcolm's stratagem when besieging ,dunsinane ,castle3-- 8,let every soldier hew him down a bough1 ,and bear't before him2 thereby shall we shadow ,the numbers of our host1 and make discovery ,err in report of us40 ,precisely similar modes of concealment are to be found in the animal world4 ,there is a certain insect belonging to the ,heteroptera1 and scientifically named ,reduvius personatus4 ,i am not aware whether it has any popular name4 ,it is insectivorous1 and ought to be welcomed in houses1 as it is particularly fond of the too common bed-bug4 ,so carnivorous are these insects that one of the ,reduviid killed and sucked a companion of her own sex1 her own mate1 and1 after only a few days' fast1 her own young1 and then sucked her own eggs4 ,during its larval and pupal stages of existence1 the ,reduvius covers its body and limbs with dust and any other refuse which it can find4 ,in this manner it disguises its form so completely that it scarcely looks like an insect4 ,occasionally it seems to be dissatisfied with its coat of dust1 throws it off1 and sets to work at a new one4 ,one of these creatures1 as it appears when covered with its dusty coating1 is seen in the upper left-hand corner of the illustration4 ,it is slightly magnified4 ,below the ,reduvius is the common ,cuckoo-spit 7,aphrophora spumaria71 whose frothy masses are so plentiful in our hedgerows and gardens4 ,if one of these masses be carefully opened1 there will be found in it a little green creature with small1 round1 dot-like eyes4 ,this is either the larval or pupal state of the ,frog-hopper1 as the insect is called in its perfect state1 from its habit of taking long and sudden leaps when alarmed4 ,i well remember my delight when1 as a child1 ,i set to work at examining these froth-masses1 and succeeded in tracing the insect through all its changes4 ,the froth is derived from the sap of the tree1 which is sucked through the proboscis1 passed through the digestive organs1 and then ejected in a succession of little bubbles4 ,after awhile a little drop of clear liquid is seen to collect at the bottom of the froth1 to increase1 and then to fall1 when another immediately begins to be formed4 ,one species of ,cuckoo-spit1 which inhabits ,madagascar1 acts almost like a siphon on the tree1 and pours out large quantities of clear water during the hottest part of the day4 ,within this froth-mass the insect lies concealed1 and1 though utterly helpless1 is safe from most of the enemies that would attack it if it were left exposed4 ,beneath the ,cuckoo-spit is the common ,spider-crab1 sometimes called the ,thornback-crab1 from the numerous spines with which its body is covered4 ,its scientific name is ,maia squinado4 ,when the ,spider-crab attains to a tolerable size1 its rough surface forms attachment for various marine beings1 chiefly those belonging to the zoophytes4 ,in some cases these zoophytes grow to such a size that the ,crab is completely covered by them1 and its original shape effectually concealed4 ,when one of these creatures is seen in a living state it presents the curious spectacle of a large bunch of zoophytes and corallines moving about from place to place without any perceptible limbs1 the whole of the surface of the ,crab being covered with extraneous growths4 ,,disguise4 ,next comes concealment by means of ,disguise4 ,on the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown a singular mode of concealment adopted by the ,barea1 a warlike and predatorial tribe of ,abyssinia4 ,when ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns was resident in ,abyssinia he fell in with the ,barea1 through whose country he had to pass4 8,scarcely had we passed the brook of ,mai-,chena when one of our men1 a hunter1 declared that he saw the slaves4 ,being at that time inexperienced in such matters1 ,i could see nothing suspicious4 ,he then pointed out to me a dead tree standing on an eminence at a distance of several hundred yards1 and charred black by last year's fire40 ,here ,i must explain that in ,abyssinia1 as in several other parts of the world1 the ground is annually1 cleared of its superabundant vegetation by setting fire to it1 and allowing the flames to burn themselves out4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf-,,insect4 ,illustration3 ,,ptarmigan4 ,illustration3 ,,caterpillar ,,of ,,geometra4 ,illustration3 ,,lappet-,,moth4 ,illustration3 ,,barea ,,stratagem4 8,however1 all ,i saw was a charred stump of a tree and a few blackened logs or stones lying at its feet4 ,the hunter declared that neither the tree nor the stones were there the last time we passed1 and that they were simply naked ,barea1 who had placed themselves in that position to observe us1 having no doubt seen us for some time1 and prepared themselves4 8,i could scarcely believe it possible they could be so motionless1 and determined to explore a little4 ,the rest of the party advised me to continue quietly in the road1 as it was possible that1 from our presenting a rather formidable appearance1 we should pass unmolested2 but so confident was ,i of his mistake1 that1 telling the rest to go on slowly1 as if nothing had been observed1 ,i dropped into the long grass and stalked up towards them40 8,a shot from my rifle at a long distance 7,i did not venture too close7 acted on the trees and stones as powerfully as the fiddle of ,orpheus1 but with the contrary effect2 for the tree disappeared1 and the stones and logs1 instead of running after me1 ran in the opposite direction40 8,i never was more astonished in my life1 for so complete was the deception that even up to the time ,i fired ,i could have declared the objects before me were vegetable or mineral--anything1 indeed1 but animal4 ,the fact was that the cunning rascals who represented stones were lying flat1 with their little round shields placed before them as screens40 ,this stratagem is shown on the right hand of the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left are a few of the innumerable instances in ,nature where ,concealment is obtained by imitation4 ,the three examples which are here given are familiar to all entomologists4 ,the upper figure represents two of the ,geometra or ,looper ,caterpillars1 as they appear when at rest1 and affixed to a twig4 ,this appears to be a singular attitude of rest1 but it is one in which they delight1 and in which they remain for hours together1 the claspers at the end of the body tightly grasping the branch1 and the whole body held out so straight and motionless that it is hardly possible to believe that a veritable twig is not before the eye4 ,the colour is that of the twig1 and the different segments of the body look exactly like the little irregularities and projections of a young twig4 ,i have more than once seen a novice in entomology unable to distinguish these larv1 even when the branch was pointed out1 and there were several upon it4 ,just below the ,loopers1 and on the left hand of the illustration1 is shown the well-known ,leaf-insect 7,phyllium74 ,these strange beings have the elytra and the flattened appendages of the legs so exactly like leaves that the most experienced eye can scarcely distinguish them from the leaves among which they are placed4 ,even when they have been on a small plant1 such as a myrtle in a flower-pot1 ,i have had the greatest difficulty in finding them1 and have seen people examine the plant1 and then go away declaring that no insects were on it4 ,on the right hand1 and just below the looper caterpillar1 is the common ,lappet-moth of this country1 shown in its position of rest4 ,when it assumes this attitude1 it looks exactly like a withered leaf1 the resemblance extending not only to the form1 but the colour4 ,all entomologists are familiar with many similar examples in insect life4 ,the common ,tortoise-shell ,butterfly1 for example1 has a way of settling on patches of red soil1 with which it harmonizes so well that it can hardly be seen4 ,the various moths1 also1 are in the habit of resting on tree-bark1 palings1 and other objects1 to which they instinctively know that they assimilate in hue4 ,many a beginner in entomology will pass a wooden fence or a wall1 and not see an insect on either1 while an adept will follow him and take twenty or thirty good specimens4 ,the last figure in the illustration represents a ,ptarmigan 7,lagopus vulgaris7 in its winter dress4 ,these birds have two differently coloured dresses1 one for summer and the other for winter1 and both adapted for concealment by imitation4 ,in the former dress it is mottled with various shades of blackish brown1 yellow1 and white4 ,as the bird is in the habit of settling among the grey lichen-covered stones on the sides of rocky hills1 these colours harmonize so exactly with them that a ,ptarmigan may almost be trodden upon before it is perceived4 ,in the winter1 when the snow covers the whole country with one uniform sheet of white1 except where the wind blows the snow aside1 and exposes the underlying stones1 the ,ptarmigan assumes a different plumage1 being almost entirely white1 except a black streak over the eye1 and the outer feathers of the tail1 which are also black4 ,thus the bird becomes almost indistinguishable from a snow-covered stone1 especially as it has a habit of squatting motionless and silent when it takes alarm4 ,the reader may1 perhaps1 remember that the common ,stoat also has a summer and winter dress4 ,the ordinary colour is rich reddish brown above1 and white beneath1 with a black tip to the tail4 ,in the severe winters of ,northern ,europe the ,stoat exchanges his ruddy coat for one of pure white1 and is then known by the name of ,ermine4 ,it is remarkable that in the winter dress both of the ,ptarmigan and ,stoat the tail is black1 while the rest of the coat is white4 ,,the ,,trench4 ,we now come to a third mode of concealment in war1 namely1 that which is obtained by means of ,trenches or ,pits4 ,even in hunting the pit or partial trench is largely used4 ,in ,southern ,africa the hunter often employs such a trench1 called technically a 8,skrm40 ,it is very simple in idea1 and easily made1 being based on the principle that lions1 elephants1 c41 look for their assailants on the level of the earth1 and seldom1 if ever1 look above or below it4 ,accordingly the hunter1 having marked some pool or lake whereunto the wild animals resort at night to quench their thirst1 chooses a convenient spot1 and there digs a trench some seven feet in length and four deep1 and covers it in with stout tree-branches and logs of various size4 ,the whole is roofed in with sods1 and the only entrance is at one end4 ,here the hunter sits and waits1 and1 as his ear is on a level with the surface of the ground1 he can hear at a considerable distance sounds which would have escaped him had he been erect4 ,waiting for a favourable opportunity1 as the various beasts come to drink1 the hunter chooses one1 takes careful aim1 and fires one of his heaviest guns4 ,it is but seldom that the rest of the animals charge in the direction of the ,skrm1 but even if they do1 the hunter is quite safe under the shelter of his strong roof1 which is able to resist even the heavy tread of an elephant4 ,illustration3 ,galleria-,moth 7,larva74 ,illustration3 ,military ,trench4 ,in modern warfare1 and especially during sieges1 the trench is largely used1 and is constructed on the most scientific principles1 so as to shelter the assailants1 while enabling them to proceed nearer and nearer to the fortress4 ,a portion of one of these trenches is shown in the right hand of the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the opposite side of the same illustration is shown the same principle as carried out in ,nature4 ,there is a certain little insect1 called the ,wax-moth1 or ,galleria-moth 7,galleria alvearia71 which1 although quite harmless in its perfect form1 is in its larval state extremely injurious to beehives4 ,the mother moth contrives1 aided by her tiny form and sombre colouring1 to slip past the sentries at the mouth of the hive1 and to lay her eggs among the combs4 ,this done1 she dies1 but the evil of her visit lives after her4 ,each of the eggs is hatched into a little caterpillar1 having a soft grey body1 but a hard1 horny head of a black-brown colour4 ,as soon as they are hatched they begin to feed1 eating not only the waxen combs1 but the honey and the bee-bread which were intended for the support of the legitimate inhabitants4 ,the reader may ask why the bees do not destroy this marauder on their premises4 ,they would be only too glad to do so1 but they cannot touch it4 ,as it eats its way along1 it constructs a strong silken tube1 within which it lives1 and which it gradually lengthens4 ,this tube or gallery is exceedingly tough1 and perfectly capable of resisting the bee's sting4 ,moreover1 the caterpillar traverses its tube with such rapidity that the bee has no chance of knowing whereabouts the caterpillar may be when it makes its attack4 ,when it feeds it only protrudes its armed head1 the horny covering of which is an effectual protection against the sting4 ,when these creatures fairly get hold of a hive1 the damage which they do is terrible1 the whole of the combs being enveloped in the ever-increasing labyrinth of tubes4 ,even the bees themselves fall victims to the ,galleria-moth1 for the silken tunnels are driven through and through the combs1 enveloping the broad cells as in the meshes of a net4 ,consequently1 when the young bees are developed1 they cannot escape from their cells1 and perish miserably4 ,nor do these tiresome insects confine themselves to hives2 but they have an extraordinary facility for discovering bee-combs after they are removed from the hive4 ,some years ago ,i was making a collection of various insect habitations1 and had brought together a carefully selected set of combs1 showing the internal structure of the hive1 and the different cells which are inhabited by the worker1 the drone1 and the queen bee4 ,one day1 when about to arrange the collection in a glass case1 ,i found that the whole of the combs had been destroyed by the ,wax-moth4 ,scarcely a square inch of comb remained1 and the contents of the box were little more than a congeries of ,wax-moth galleries4 ,even the ,wasp and ,hornet nests which had been placed in the same box had been attacked1 and1 although they had not been so utterly destroyed as the waxen cells1 they had been sufficiently injured to render them unfit for exhibition4 ,many other insects work on the same principle4 ,certain ,termites1 for example1 construct tunnels of clay1 in order to conceal them on their travels1 and have the art1 even in the hottest and driest weather1 of mixing their clay with some liquid which renders it1 when dry1 nearly as hard as stone4 ,indeed1 there have been instances where the ,termites have attacked the wooden beams of houses1 and literally transformed them into beams of stone4 ,then there are many ,ants1 notably several species of ,south ,america1 which cover their approach by tunnels1 and never venture into the open air4 ,,gravity ,,as ,a ,,propulsive ,,agent4 ,the two figures on the accompanying illustration will almost speak for themselves4 ,we have already seen how the same force of gravitation which causes the avalanche to thunder down the precipice may be utilised as a means of projecting missiles in time of war4 ,when1 however1 the stones or beams were once sent on their destructive mission1 they were out of the control of those who launched them4 ,we now come to a modification of the force of ,gravity1 by which the missile1 if we may so term it1 is kept under control1 its power increased or diminished at will1 and its point of attack shifted according to the requirements of the moment4 ,illustration3 ,ram4 ,illustration3 ,head of ,battering-,ram4 ,before the invention of artillery1 the ,battering-ram was by far the most formidable engine that could be brought against a fortified place4 ,the principle of the ,battering-ram was simple enough4 ,a long and heavy beam1 generally the trunk of a tree1 was suspended by ropes at the centre of gravity1 so that it could be swung backwards and forwards4 ,although a simple beam was an effective weapon1 its value was much enhanced by loading the thickest end with a heavy mass of metal1 usually iron1 and1 when there was time for adornment1 roughly modelled into the form of a ram's head4 ,generally the ,battering-ram was mounted on an elevated platform1 and the soldiers who worked it protected by a roof1 which was called by the name of ,testudo1 or ,tortoise4 ,the force of this weapon was tremendous1 and no wall1 however strong1 could resist it4 ,sometimes the beam was considerably more than a hundred feet in length1 being composed of several pieces bolted and banded together with iron4 ,it may easily be imagined that such a weapon as this must have been a most terrible one1 and1 indeed1 the whole success of the siege practically depended upon it4 ,the assailants did their best to bring the ,battering-ram into position under the walls1 and the besieged did their best either to keep it away1 or to neutralise its effects by catching it with nooses1 dropping large stones upon it so as to break or dismount it1 or1 if they could not succeed in either of these attempts1 they deadened the force of its blows as well as they could by interposing large sacks of wool between the wall and the head of the ram4 ,considering the style of architecture which was then used in fortification1 namely1 a combination of height with thickness1 the force of the ,battering-ram would be even greater than that of artillery4 ,the regular and rhythmical swing of the ram would soon communicate a vibratory motion to the wall1 which would of itself tend to disintegrate the whole structure1 while the blows of the iron head beneath broke away the stones1 and rendered the downfall of the fort a mere matter of time4 ,the reader need hardly be reminded that the ,battering-ram was so called because its mode of attack was practically the same as that of the animal from which it took its title4 ,,miscellanea4 ,by slow degrees1 mankind1 as they advance in civilisation1 have robbed warfare of many horrors4 ,non-combatants1 for example1 are now left unharmed4 ,poisoned weapons have1 by common consent1 been abolished1 and so have those instruments of warfare which1 though they do not simply poison the blood by means of bodily wounds1 do so by means of noxious vapours poured into the lungs4 ,it is sometimes rather unfortunate when civilisation and semi-barbarism meet in battle2 the former respecting the customs of honourable warfare1 and the latter ignoring them4 ,for example1 in olden times1 one of the most potent weapons in naval combat was the 8stink-pot0--i4e4 a vessel filled with sulphur and other ingredients1 and emitting a smoke which was death when inhaled4 ,among the ,american ,indians the well-known ,chili-plant was much used for this purpose1 the very first breath that was taken of the thin and almost invisible smoke causing the throat to contract as if clutched by a strong hand4 ,if then any enemies had taken refuge in a cave1 or were suspected of having done so1 a fire was lighted at the entrance1 a quantity of chilis thrown on it1 and the rest left to time4 ,no being could endure that smoke and live1 and they must either stay in the cave and die1 or come out and deliver themselves up to their foes4 ,the former was the better part to take1 as suffocation1 however slow1 is only an affair of a few minutes1 while death by torture is prolonged through hours4 ,illustration3 ,bombardier-,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,stink-,pots4 ,in the late ,chinese war the stink-pot was extensively used1 and our sailors took it in very bad part that the enemy should be allowed to employ such weapons1 and they should be debarred from using them4 ,whether this principle is still retained in the defence of fortresses ,i do not know4 ,i recollect1 however1 some twenty years ago1 going over a fortress in which suffocation was employed as a means of defence4 ,a long gallery was so placed that the assailants were tolerably sure to force their way into it1 thinking that it led to the interior of the fort4 ,it was1 however1 nothing but a trap1 for it had no exit4 ,as soon as a number of the assailants had poured into this trap1 their exit was suddenly cut off by machinery provided for the purpose1 and at the same time a quantity of sulphur and lighted charcoal was shot into the gallery from above1 and the aperture instantly closed4 ,it would be absolutely impossible that any one who had been enclosed in that terrible chamber should escape with life1 for the first breath of that deadly vapour would render the strongest man insensible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature1 as usual1 has anticipated ,art even in this particular4 ,in several parts of ,england1 and especially along the shores of the ,thames towards ,gravesend1 a little beetle is to be found under the flat stones of the river bank4 ,its scientific name is ,brachinus crepitans4 ,when this insect is alarmed1 it has the power of ejecting a peculiar liquid1 which1 when it comes in contact with the atmosphere1 bursts into a sort of pale blue-green flame1 followed by a kind of smoke4 ,sometimes1 when a tolerably large stone is lifted1 the little explosions will go popping about in a most curious manner4 ,indeed1 they carry reminiscences of school days1 when it was a joy to distribute single grains of coarse gunpowder on the bars of the grate1 and watch them melt1 take fire1 explode1 and send forth little clouds of smoke4 ,the insect is popularly called the ,bombardier-beetle4 ,whether or not this capability be given as a means of defence ,i cannot say1 but it assuredly answers that purpose4 ,there are several of the voracious ,carabid1 or ,ground-beetles1 which would be very glad to make a meal of the ,brachinus4 ,when1 however1 the ,bombardier-beetle finds itself on the point of being overtaken1 it elevates the abdomen with a peculiar gesture1 and ejects the liquid4 ,the effect on the pursuer is remarkable4 ,it seems overwhelmed and stupefied by the sudden attack1 moves about for awhile as if blinded1 and1 by the time that it has recovered its sense1 the ,bombardier-beetle is out of sight4 ,in some of the hotter parts of the world there are several species of ,bombardier-beetles which attain considerable size1 and their discharge is powerful enough to discolour the skin of the human hand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,have felt some little difficulty in classifying the curious invention which will now be described1 but1 as it is used for the purpose of making bullets1 ,i have placed it in the category of ,war4 ,illustration3 ,,silk ,,apparatus ,,of ,,silkworm4 ,illustration3 ,,bullet-,,making ,,apparatus4 ,in the days of 8,brown ,bess10 as the old musket used to be called1 precision of aim was not required1 for no commander dreamt of opening fire until the enemy were at comparatively close quarters4 ,in those days the bullets were spherical1 and cast in moulds4 ,after a time1 when the ,enfield rifle displaced the musket1 and did double the execution at three times its range1 bullets were still cast1 though their shape was altered1 and they took a sugar-loaf form instead of being spherical4 ,the rifle-testing machine at ,woolwich1 however1 soon showed that at long ranges a cast bullet was nearly useless1 one part being always lighter than another1 and air-bubbles often taking the place of lead4 ,after being cast1 therefore1 the bullets were placed in a 8swedge10 or 8swage10 i4e4 a machine by which the lead was forcibly compressed until it was of a tolerably uniform density4 ,even this process1 however1 did not insure absolute exactness1 and then a machine was invented by means of which the process of casting was superseded1 and the bullets were pinched or squeezed1 so to speak1 out of cold lead4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is a plan of the ingenious apparatus by which the lead is supplied to the machine which actually forms the bullets4 ,the sketch is not meant as a drawing of the actual machine1 but is merely intended to show the principle4 ,the chief parts in this machine are a hollow cylinder1 a piston1 and a delivery tube4 ,the cylinder is shown at ,a1 and when used1 is filled with melted lead4 ,the piston1 ,b1 is then forced upwards by hydraulic pressure1 driving the lead through the delivery tube4 ,as it issues into the air it hardens1 and thus forms a solid rod of lead1 ,c4 ,this rod is then passed into the next machine1 where it is cut into regular lengths1 and these pieces are then placed in moulds1 and forced into form by enormous pressure4 ,were it not for this ingenious machinery1 the wonderful scores which are now made at long distances would be impossible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now let us compare ,art with ,nature1 as seen on the left hand of the illustration1 which is a chart or plan of the spinning apparatus of the ,silkworm4 ,when ,i first saw the bullet-making machine at work1 ,i at once perceived that it was nothing more than a repetition in metal of the beautiful mechanism which ,i had so often admired in this insect4 ,in order to show the close analogies of the two objects1 ,i have marked them with similar letters4 ,a represents the upper part of the reservoir or vessel which contains the silk in a liquid state1 ,b ,b are the muscles which contract the reservoir and force the liquid matter out4 ,it will be seen that both these vessels terminate in a delivery tube1 identical in office with that of the bullet-making machine4 ,as soon as the liquid silk passes into the air it is hardened1 and is formed into a silken rod1 ,c1 just as is the lead in the machine4 ,the only difference between the two1 if it can be called a difference1 is1 that in the silkworm the rod is double1 whereas in the machine it is single4 ,the principle1 however1 is identical in both cases4 ,the webs of spiders1 and the threads by which so many caterpillars suspend themselves1 and with which they make their nests1 are all formed on the same design1 namely1 a reservoir containing a liquid which is squeezed through a tube1 and hardens when it comes in contact with the air4 ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,hut1 ,,tropic ,,and ,,polar4--,,pillars ,,and ,,flooring4--,,tunnel ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,igloo4--,,doors ,,and ,,hinges4--,,self-,,closing ,,trap-,,doors4 ,primitive ,architecture evidently borrowed from the ,lower ,animals4--,roof ,hut of the ,nshiego ,mbouv of ,western ,africa4--,platform ,hut of the ,orang-outan of ,borneo4--,lake ,dwellers and their ,huts4--,tree-huts of ,southern ,africa1 and their ,uses4--,ascendancy of the ,wild ,beast over ,man4--,snow-hut of the ,seal copied by ,esquimaux1 and its ,value shown4--,pillars and ,flooring4--,crypt and ,cathedral4--,the ,cuttle 8,bone0 and its many-pillared ,structure4--,the ,wasp-nest1 its ,pillars and ,floors4--,tunnel ,entrances to ,igloo4--,sudden ,formation of ,snow4--,nest of the ,fairy ,martin4--,the ,sand-wasp and its ,mode of ,building4--,doors and ,hinges4--,eggs of the ,gnat and ,rotifer4--,cocoons of ,ichneumon-flies4--,habitations of ,microgaster4--,trap-doors in ,nature and ,art4--,habitation of the ,trap-door ,spider4--,a ,nest upon a ,pillar4 ,,the ,,hut4 ,there can be little doubt that mankind has borrowed from the lower animals the first idea of a dwelling1 and it is equally true1 as we shall presently see1 that not only primitive ideas of ,architecture are to be found in ,nature1 but that many1 if not all1 modern refinements have been anticipated4 ,to begin at the beginning4 ,the first idea of a habitation is evidently a mere shelter or roof that will keep off rain from the inhabitant4 ,when ,mr4 ,bowdich was travelling in ,western ,africa1 he was told that the ,njina--another name for the ,gorilla--made huts for itself from branches1 the natives also saying that it defended these huts with extemporised spears4 ,a more truthful account is given of the ,mpongwe and ,shekiani1 namely1 that the animal builds a hut1 but lives on the roof1 and not under it4 ,although this information has since proved to be false1 there was a foundation of truth in it1 for there really is an ape in that part of ,africa which makes huts1 or rather roofs1 for itself4 ,this animal is the ,nshiego ,mbouv 7,troglodytes calvus74 ,this remarkable ape has a curious way of constructing a habitation4 ,choosing a horizontal branch at some distance from the ground for its resting-place1 the animal erects above it a roof composed of fresh branches1 each laid over the other in such a way that rain would shoot off them as it does from a thatched roof4 ,m4 du ,chaillu gives the following account of this habitation3-- ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,nshiego ,,mbouv4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,tree-,,hut4 8,as we were not in haste1 ,i bade my men cut down the trees which contained the nests of these apes4 ,i found them made precisely as ,i have before described1 and as ,i have always found them1 of long branches and leaves laid one over the other very carefully and thickly1 so as to render the structure capable of shedding water4 8,the branches were fastened to the tree in the middle of the structure by means of wild vines and creepers1 which are so abundant in these parts4 ,the projecting limb on which the ape perched was about four feet long4 8,there remains no doubt that these nests are made by the animal to protect it from the nightly rains4 ,when the leaves begin to dry to that degree that the structure no longer sheds water1 the owner builds a new shelter1 and this happens generally once in ten or fifteen days4 ,at this rate the ,nshiego mbouv is an animal of no little industry40 ,the roof which this ape builds is from six to eight feet in diameter1 and is tolerably circular1 so that it looks something like a large umbrella4 ,when the animal is at rest it sits on the branch with one arm thrown round the stem of the tree1 in order to support itself during sleep4 ,in consequence of this attitude the hair is rubbed away on one side1 thus earning for the ape the specific title of calvus1 or bald4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is rather remarkable that the ,orang-outan of ,borneo is likewise a house-builder1 though not in the same manner as the ,african ape which has just been mentioned4 ,this animal has a way of weaving together the branches of trees1 so as to make a platform on which it can repose1 its enormously powerful arms being of great service in this task4 ,the animal seems to make its platform in quite a mechanical manner1 and it has been noticed that when an ,orang-outan has been mortally wounded1 it has expended its last energies in twisting the branches together so as to form a couch on which it can lie down and die4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,putting aside those cases where huts have been erected in trees by way of amusement1 we may find instances where human beings have been forced to make their habitations in trees4 ,in some places1 such as certain parts of ,south ,america1 the natives are forced to make their houses in trees1 partly on account of the climate1 and partly for the purpose of avoiding the mosquitoes4 ,the delta of the ,orinoco ,river is nearly half as large as ,england1 and for a considerable part of the year is deep in water4 ,yet this tract is inhabited by the ,warau tribe1 who find in it their only mode of escape from the tiny but terrible mosquito4 ,we in ,england know but little of the miseries inflicted by these insects1 which are so plentiful in some parts of ,america that they are gathered in bags1 pressed into thick cakes about as large as ordinary dinner-plates1 and an inch in thickness1 and then cooked and eaten4 ,now it is found that although the mosquito infests the banks of rivers1 it cannot venture far from land4 ,the ,waraus1 therefore1 make for themselves habitations which are far enough from land to baffle the mosquitoes1 and near enough to be easily reached in canoes4 ,fortunately for them1 there is a tree called the ,ita ,palm1 belonging to the genus ,mauritia1 which loves moisture1 and grows abundantly in this delta4 ,the ,waraus1 therefore1 make their habitations in these trees1 connecting several of them together with cross-beams1 and laying planks upon them so as to form the flooring of their simple huts4 ,here they maintain themselves chiefly by fishing1 but are sometimes obliged to visit the mainland1 in spite of the mosquitoes4 ,when1 however1 they return1 they halt at some distance from the shore1 and with green boughs carefully beat out every mosquito from the canoe before they dare to approach their dwellings4 ,the once-celebrated ,lake ,dwellers of ,switzerland evidently lived after a similar fashion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in this case insects drive human beings into trees1 but there are instances where nobler animals have produced the same effect4 ,some years ago there lived in ,southern ,africa a powerful chief called ,moselekatze1 who spent his whole life in warfare1 converting all the male inhabitants into soldiers1 dividing them into regiments1 ruling them with the extreme of discipline1 and by their aid devastating the neighbouring countries4 ,he swept off all the cattle1 which constitutes the wealth of the ,kafir tribes1 and either killed the male inhabitants or pressed them into his service4 ,the land was in consequence deprived of its natural defenders1 and the wild beasts1 especially the lions1 increased rapidly1 so that the position of the survivors was a really terrible one4 ,they had no cattle to furnish the milk which is the chief food of the ,kafir tribes2 their weapons had been taken by ,moselekatze2 and they were forced to live almost entirely on locusts and wild plants4 ,by degrees the lions became so numerous and daring1 that the slight ,kafir huts were an insufficient protection during the night1 and the disarmed and half-starved inhabitants were perforce obliged to make their habitations in trees4 ,dr4 ,moffat1 the well-known missionary1 saw one tree in which there were no less than twenty huts4 ,they were conical1 and made of sticks and grass1 the base resting upon a platform or scaffold laid upon the fork of a horizontal branch4 ,the only mode of approach to these huts was by notches cut in the trunk of the tree4 ,how needful were these precautions was shown by the fact that the missionary himself spent a night in one of these arial huts1 and had the pleasure of hearing a number of lions snarl and growl all night over a rhinoceros hump which he had placed in an oven made of a deserted ant-hill4 ,the oven1 however1 was too hot for the lions1 and they had to retreat at daylight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing from the tropics to the polar regions1 we now take an instance where man has acknowledgedly copied an animal in the construction of his dwelling4 ,in ,esquimaux-land1 where no trees can grow1 where for months together the sun never rises above the horizon1 where the temperature is many degrees below zero1 and where the land and ice are alike covered with a mantle of snow so thick that every landmark is abolished1 it would seem that no human beings could support life for one week4 ,there is neither timber for house-building nor wood for fuel1 so that shelter1 warmth1 and cookery seem to be equally impossible1 and as these are among the prime necessities of human life1 it is not easy to see how mankind could exist4 ,illustration3 ,,snow-,,house ,,of ,,seal ,,in ,,esquimaux-,,land4 ,illustration3 ,,snow-,,house ,,of ,,esquimaux4 ,yet these very regions are inhabited by sundry animals1 and it is by copying them that ,man can keep his place4 ,we have already seen how the ,esquimaux hunter copies the ,polar ,bear1 and we have now to see how he copies the ,seal in the material and form of his dwelling-house1 and not only contrives to live1 but to enjoy life all the more for the singular conditions in which he is placed4 ,captain ,hall mentions1 in his 8,life with the ,esquimaux10 that one of the natives1 named ,kudlago1 who was returning to his native country after visiting the ,united ,states1 died while on board the ship4 ,towards the end of his life he was yearning for ice1 and his last intelligible words were1 8,do you see ice8 ,do you see ice80 ,on the vast plains of ice that are formed in the winter-time the snow lies thickly1 and yet upon such an inhospitable spot the mother seal has to make a home for her tender young4 ,this she does in the following manner3-- ,she has already preserved a 8breathing hole0 in the ice1 through which she can inhale air4 ,how she finds so small a hole under the surface of the ice1 where there are no landmarks to guide her1 is a marvel to every swimmer4 ,she has to chase fish and follow them in all their winding courses1 and yet1 when she is in want of air1 is able to go straight to her breathing hole1 and there take in a fresh supply of oxygen4 ,when she is about to become a mother1 she enlarges this breathing hole so as to make it into a perpendicular tunnel4 ,she then1 with the sharp nails of her fore-paws1 or flippers1 scoops away the snow in a dome-like form1 as shown in the illustration1 taking the snow down with her through the ice1 and allowing it to be carried away by the water4 ,by degrees she makes a tolerably large excavation of a hemispherical shape1 and when her young is born she deposits it on the ice-ledge around the tunnel4 ,from ordinary foes the young ,seal is safe1 and nothing can discover the position of the house unless guided by the sense of smell4 ,how the ,polar ,bear and the ,esquimaux hunter discover the dwelling and capture the inmates we have already described in the chapter treating of ,war and ,hunting4 ,our present business is with the dwelling itself4 ,comparatively few of these snow-houses1 or igloos1 as they are called1 are discovered1 and they remain intact until the summer sun melts the roof and exposes the habitation4 ,by this time1 however1 the young ,seal has grown sufficiently to shift for itself1 and no longer needs the shelter of a dwelling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the winter hut1 or igloo1 of the ,esquimaux is made of exactly the same shape and of similar materials to the dwelling of the ,seal1 the chief difference being that it is built instead of excavated4 ,in order to save time1 the igloo is generally erected by two men1 one of whom supplies the material1 and the other acts as bricklayer and architect in one4 ,each begins by tracing a suitably sized circle in the snow1 which he clears away to some depth1 so as to preserve a firm surface1 either as a floor or as the material for the wall4 ,in this work both men are equally valuable1 for the skill required to cut the slabs of snow into such a shape that they can be formed into a hemispherical dome is quite as much as that which is needed for putting them together4 ,i will call them the cutter and the builder4 ,sometimes a young hand is employed by way of labourer1 and passes the snow slabs to the builder as fast as they are cut4 ,the builder receives the slabs1 and arranges them in regular order1 always taking care to 8break the joints10 just as do our bricklayers of the present day4 ,always remaining within the circle1 he gradually builds himself in1 and when he has quite finished the house1 he cuts a hole through the side1 emerges1 and1 by the help of his partner1 puts on the finishing touches4 ,he usually also adds a sort of tunnel to the door1 through which any one must creep on his hands and knees if he wishes to enter the igloo4 ,this part of ,esquimaux architecture will presently be noticed more in full4 ,perhaps the reader may wish to know what provision there is for ventilation4 ,the answer is simple enough4 ,there is none1 the ,esquimaux not requiring ventilation any more than they require washing4 ,the two1 indeed1 generally go together2 and it may be observed1 even in our own country1 that those who object to fresh air1 and are always complaining of draughts1 have a very practical aversion to the use of fresh water1 and but little confidence in what ,thackeray calls the 8flimsy artifices of the bath40 ,the ,esquimaux never washes1 and knows not the use of linen4 ,consequently1 it is no matter of surprise that a sailor of ,captain ,hall's crew could not make up his mind to enter an igloo4 8,whew60 exclaimed the man1 8by thunder1 ,i'm not going in there6 ,it's crowded1 and smells horribly4 ,how it looms up60 ,considering that there were inside that igloo a dozen ,esquimaux1 all feasting on a raw1 newly killed1 and yet warm seal1 the sailor had reason enough to decline a visit4 ,captain ,hall1 however1 determined1 in his character of explorer1 to brave the strange odours1 and moreover to join the inmates in their feast1 knowing that as he would have to live among the ,esquimaux for some two years1 he would be forced to live as they did1 and might as well begin at once4 ,consequently on this resolve1 he drank the still steaming blood1 and quaffed it from a cup which an ,esquimaux woman had just licked clean4 ,,floors ,,and ,,pillars4 ,one decided step in ,architecture is the invention of the ,pillar1 and its capabilities of aiding to sustain another floor above it4 ,we see this principle carried out in our great cathedrals1 where the use of the ,pillar is almost infinite4 ,take1 for example1 ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,a heedless visitor might easily pass through the nave1 enter the choir1 visit the various side-chapels1 and 8,becket's ,crown10 without thinking that under his feet is a vast chamber1 and that the floor on which he stands is1 in fact1 the roof of a great crypt4 ,illustration3 ,,wasp-,,combs4 ,illustration3 ,,slave ,,ship4 ,the weight of the ,cathedral1 with its lofty towers1 is so tremendous1 that the building could not be erected simply upon the ground1 but rests upon a complicated substratum of pillars and arches1 whereby the weight is spread over a large surface4 ,in fact1 the ,cathedral is really two buildings1 the one erected upon the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature there are many instances of pillars supporting different floors4 ,one of the most beautiful examples is to be seen in the common ,cuttle-bone1 as it is called1 this being the internal skeleton1 if it may be so termed1 of the common ,sepia 7,sepia officinalis71 which is so often found on our coasts1 especially after a gale4 ,this year 7#ahge7 ,i found eight of these ,cuttle-bones on the ,margate sands1 and all within a space of some twelve feet square4 ,this so-called bone is really composed of the purest chalk1 for which reason it is in great request as a dentifrice1 being easily scraped to almost impalpable powder when wanted1 and not liable to be spilled1 as is the case with any ordinary tooth-powder4 ,it is exceedingly light--so light1 indeed1 that it floats like a cork1 even in fresh water4 ,now1 as chalk is very much heavier than water1 we may naturally ask ourselves how this lightness is obtained4 ,if the upper surface be examined1 it will be seen to be traversed by a vast number of wavy lines1 something like the markings of 8watered0 silk4 ,these show the lines of demarcation between the multitudinous rows of pillars of which the whole structure is formed4 ,if the 8bone0 be sharply snapped in the middle1 and the particles of white dust blown away1 a wonderful structure presents itself1 which can be partially discerned by the naked eye1 though a microscope is required to bring out its full beauties4 ,even with an ordinary pocket lens we can make out some of its wonders4 ,the object looks like a vast collection of basaltic columns1 except that the pillars are white instead of black1 and they are arranged in rows with the most perfect accuracy1 just as if the place of each had been laid down with rule and compass4 ,they are scarcely thicker than ordinary hairs1 but they are beautifully perfect1 and rise in tier after tier as if they were parts of a many-storied building4 ,as a definite space exists between the pillars1 the reader will understand why the whole structure should be so much lighter than water4 ,in order1 however1 to see these wonderful pillars in perfection1 a very thin section should be taken1 and viewed with polarised light4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another excellent example of ,pillars and ,flooring is to be found in the nests of various ,wasps1 including that of the ,hornet4 ,in these nests the combs are arranged horizontally1 and not vertically1 like those of the bees1 and in consequence they have to be supported in some way4 ,this object is achieved by means of multitudinous pillars made of the same papier-mch of which the combs are formed1 and attached to the successive rows of combs4 ,there is1 however1 one curious point of difference between the ,wasp-comb and human architecture1 namely1 that the pillars do not support floors1 or rest upon them1 but sustain the weight of those which hang from them4 ,the mouths of the cells are all downwards1 and the combs are therefore suspended from the pillars1 instead of being supported by them4 ,,tunnel ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,dwelling4 ,we have already found occasion to treat of the snow-house1 or igloo1 of the ,esquimaux1 and have now to speak of a subsidiary1 though necessary1 part of ,esquimaux architecture4 ,perhaps the reader may have been unfortunate enough to travel by rail in the depth of winter1 and to be associated with fellow-passengers who will insist on closing every window1 even though the carriage be crowded4 ,suppose that on such a day1 the weather being perfectly fine1 the train stops at a station1 and the guard outside opens the door to see if another passenger can be accommodated with a place4 ,no sooner is the door opened than a shower of snow at once fills the carriage4 ,this is simply the moisture suspended in the air and generated by human lungs4 ,the rush of cold air at once freezes this moisture and converts it into snow1 thus showing those who will condescend to learn1 that they have been breathing and re-breathing the air that has passed through a variety of human lungs1 and is charged with their different moistures4 ,i have seen the same phenomenon at a dinner party1 where1 after the withdrawal of the ladies1 one of the windows was opened4 ,now1 in ,esquimaux-land1 it is absolutely necessary to conserve every atom of heat1 for the cold is so intense that if a cask of water be near a coal fire1 only the part next the fire will be thawed1 the rest being ice4 ,cold1 therefore1 is a foe which has to be fought and kept away from the household4 ,then there are other foes--such as ,polar ,bears1 for instance--which would be only too glad to get into an igloo and make a meal of its inhabitants4 ,the ,esquimaux architect1 therefore1 avails himself of an ingenious device by which he can set both foes at defiance4 ,in summer-time he contents himself with a hut made of skins1 and merely hangs a skin over the entrance by way of a door4 ,but in the winter1 when he is driven to his snow-house for shelter1 he acts in a very different manner4 ,instead of merely cutting an aperture for a door in the side of the igloo1 he constructs a long1 low1 arched tunnel1 so small that no one can enter the igloo except by traversing this tunnel on his hands and knees4 ,sometimes a number of huts are connected with each other1 one or two tunnels leading into the air1 and the rest serving merely as passages from one hut to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,nests ,,of ,,fairy ,,martin4 ,,towers ,,of ,,sand-,,wasp4 ,illustration3 ,,huts ,,of ,,esquimaux4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature are several examples of tunnels constructed on the same principle4 ,there are1 for instance1 the curious nests of the ,fairy ,martin of ,southern ,australia 7,hirundo ,ariel71 which bear a singular resemblance to oil-flasks1 the body of the nest being rather globular1 and the only entrance being through a tolerably long1 tunnel-like neck4 ,then there are the various ,weaver-birds of ,africa1 with their long-necked nests4 ,some of these strange edifices look almost like horse-pistols suspended by the butt1 so round is the nest1 and so long and narrow is the tunnel-like entrance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing to the insect world1 we find the same principle carried out by the now familiar ,mason-wasp 7,odynerus murarius71 some of whose nests are represented in the illustration4 ,this insect makes a burrow1 and at the bottom of it deposits an egg1 together with a number of little caterpillars on which the grub1 when hatched1 will feed4 ,the mother ,wasp is not allowed to pursue this task without taking precautions against the admission of enemies to her burrow1 especially the ichneumon-flies4 ,as may be inferred from its popular name1 the ,sand-wasp always selects a sandy spot for its burrow1 and generally chooses a piece of tolerably hard sandstone1 which it is able to bite into little pellets1 aided by a kind of liquid which it secretes4 ,the following account of the manner in which the ,mason-wasp forms and defends its home is taken from the invaluable 8,insect ,architecture10 by ,rennie4 ,the author begins by describing the form and depth of the burrow1 and the soil in which it is made4 ,he then proceeds to show the wonderful manner in which the mother ,wasp purveys food for the use of her future young whom she will never see4 ,guided by instinct1 she places in the burrow exactly the number of caterpillars which the young ,mason-wasp will have to consume before it attains its perfect condition4 ,it is believed that she partially paralyzes them with her sting before placing them in the burrow4 ,at all events1 when they are once packed away1 they never move1 so that the tiny ,wasp grub can feed upon them quite at its leisure4 ,here is ,rennie's account of the ,sand-wasp and her burrow-making3-- 8,when this wasp has detached a few grains of the moistened sand1 it kneads them together into a pellet about the size of one of the seeds of a gooseberry4 8,with the first pellet which it detaches1 it lays the foundation of a round tower1 as an outwork1 immediately over the mouth of its nest4 ,every pellet which it afterwards carries off from the interior is added to the wall of this outer round tower1 which advances in height as the hole in the sand increases in depth4 ,every two or three minutes1 however1 during these operations1 it takes a short excursion1 for the purpose probably of replenishing its store of fluid wherewith to moisten the sand4 ,yet so little time is lost1 that ,raumur has seen a mason-wasp dig in an hour a hole the length of its body1 and at the same time build as much of its round tower4 8,for the greater part of its height this round tower is perpendicular1 but towards the summit it bends into a curve1 corresponding to the bend of the insect's body1 which1 in all cases of insect architecture1 is the model followed4 ,the pellets which form the walls of the tower are not very nicely joined1 and numerous vacuities are left between them1 giving it the appearance of filigree-work4 8,that it should be thus slightly built is not surprising1 for it is intended as a temporary structure for protecting the insect while it is excavating its hole1 and as a pile of materials1 well arranged and ready at hand1 for the completion of the interior building1--in the same way that workmen make a regular pile of bricks near the spot where they are going to build4 ,this seems1 in fact1 to be the main design of the tower1 which is taken down as expeditiously as it has been reared4 8,raumur thinks1 that by piling in the sand which has previously been dug out1 the wasp intends to guard its progeny for a time from being exposed to the too violent heat of the sun2 and he has sometimes even seen that there were not sufficient materials in the tower1 in which case the wasp had recourse to the rubbish she had thrown out after the tower was completed4 ,by raising a tower of the materials which she excavates1 the wasp produces the same shelter from external heat as a human being would who chose to inhabit a deep cellar of a high house4 8,she further protects her progeny from the ichneumon-fly1 as the engineer constructs an outwork to render more difficult the approach of an enemy to the citadel4 ,raumur has seen this indefatigable enemy of the wasp peep into the mouth of the tower1 and then retreat1 apparently frightened at the depth of the cell which she was anxious to invade40 ,it is no wonder that the ,sand-wasp should be so anxious to insure the safety of her nest1 for her foes are multitudinous4 ,putting aside the ordinary ,ichneumon-flies1 we have the predatory ,tachin1 which are always hovering over such nests1 and trying to deposit eggs therein4 ,for many years ,i have been in the habit of receiving letters from novices in entomology1 wanting to know whether ,i am aware that the common ,housefly is in the habit of acting as a parasite4 ,of course1 the writer has mistaken the ,tachina for a house-fly1 but ,i cannot regret the fact that some one has really begun to observe ,nature1 and not only to read books4 ,,doors ,,and ,,hinges4 ,having seen that both in ,nature and ,art the entrances to dwellings are guarded by tunnel-like approaches1 we come naturally to another mode of guarding the entrance1 namely1 by a door moving on hinges4 ,as to the multitudinous examples of doors and hinges in modern civilisation1 we need hardly discuss them1 except to show the exact analogies which occur in ,art and ,nature4 ,doors moving on hinges are very plentiful in ,nature1 even where we should least expect them4 ,take1 for example1 an egg1 especially the egg of an insect1 and we shall see that it is just about the last object in which we should expect to find a hinged door4 ,yet1 if the reader will refer to the illustration on page #g1 he will see that the tiny eggs of the common ,gnat1 numerous as they may be1 are each furnished with a door which opens as soon as the inmate is hatched1 and allows the little larva to escape into the water4 ,another still more remarkable instance of a hinged door in an egg is to be found in one of the ,rotifers1 or ,wheel-,animalcules1 so called because they possess an apparatus of movable cilia1 which1 when set in motion1 looks exactly like a wheel running round and round4 ,as the full-grown creature is barely one thirty-sixth of an inch in total length1 the structure of its eggs must be infinitesimally beyond the range of human vision4 ,yet1 just as the telescope sets at partial defiance the vast spaces that intervene between our earth and her sister planets1 so the microscope performs a similar task in the infinitesimally minute4 ,and1 under the all-revealing lens of the microscope1 the little egg of the ,brachionus1 though absolutely invisible to the unaided eye1 yields up its secrets4 ,fortunately1 the shell is so transparent that the interior of the egg can be seen through it as if it were a mere film of glass4 ,the astonishing division and re-division of the yolk take place before our eyes1 being divided first into two1 then into four1 then into eight1 then into sixteen1 then into thirty-two1 and so on1 until the whole mass of the yolk is cloven into divisions too numerous to count4 ,by degrees1 the form of the young ,brachionus is developed within the egg1 even to the very teeth1 which work away as persistently as if large stores of food were being passed through them4 ,when the young is ready to take its place in the world1 a new development occurs1 which has been well related by ,mr4 ,gosse3-- 8,all these phenomena have appeared in the egg we are now watching2 and at this moment you see the crystalline little prisoner1 writhing and turning impatiently within its prison1 striving to burst forth into liberty4 8,now1 a crack1 like a line of light1 shoots round one end of the egg1 and in an instant1 the anterior third of the egg is forced off1 and the wheels of the infant ,brachionus are seen rotating as perfectly as if the little creature had had a year's practice4 8,away it glides1 the very image of its mother1 and swims to some distance before it casts anchor1 beginning an independent life4 ,at the moment of escape of the young1 the pushed-off lid of the egg resumes its place1 and the egg appears nearly whole again1 but empty and perfectly hyaline 7i4e4 all but transparent71 with no evidence of its fracture1 except a slight interruption of its outline1 and a very faint line running across it40 ,to pass from the egg to a more advanced stage in life4 ,all practical entomologists have been greatly annoyed1 in their earlier years of collecting1 to lose larva after larva1 from the attacks of ,ichneumon-flies4 ,it is certainly rather beyond the limits of ordinary patience to discover1 watch over1 and secure successfully a rare caterpillar1 and then to find that it has been 8stung0 by an ,ichneumon-fly4 ,the veteran entomologist1 however1 troubles himself very little about such minor misfortunes1 and1 as a rule1 more than compensates for them by preserving the intrusive ,ichneumon-fly1 and giving in his diary full details of the insect on which it was parasitic1 of the plant on which the caterpillar lived1 the date of its appearance1 and its numbers4 ,now1 there are many of these parasitic insects1 notably those belonging to the genus ,microgaster1 which invariably make doors in their cocoons4 ,i have now before me groups of cocoons made of the two commonest ,british species1 namely1 ,microgaster glomeratus and ,microgaster alvearius1 and in both of them each tiny cocoon is furnished with a hemispherical1 hinged door4 ,i have also some exquisitely beautiful groups of ,microgaster cocoons found in the ,west ,indies4 ,they are the purest white1 shine with a satiny lustre1 and are arranged round a hollow centre1 much as if they had been gummed to the outside of a very large thimble4 ,there are many hundreds of them1 and every one has its little door still open as it was when the fully developed insect first made its escape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another curious example of a natural door may be seen by those who will look for it4 ,on plants infested with aphides1 or 8green blight10 as the gardeners quaintly term them1 may often be seen dead aphides much larger than the rest1 globular1 brown1 and shining4 ,these aphides have been 8stung10 as it is called1 by a little ,ichneumon-fly belonging to the genus ,ophion1 and having1 like all its congeners1 a flat and sickle-shaped abdomen4 ,the egg which has been laid in the aphis soon hatches1 and the young ,ophion absorbs into itself all the juices of the aphis4 ,it remains within the body of its involuntary host until it is fully developed1 when it cuts a tiny1 but beautifully perfect circular door in the skin1 and emerges1 leaving the door open and still attached by its little hinge4 ,considering the small size of the aphis1 and that the diameter of the door is only one-eighth of the length of the insect1 the perfection of its form is really remarkable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,one of the achievements of modern ,architecture is the ,self-closing ,door1 especially where it must of necessity close by its own weight1 and when the fitting is so exact1 that even the most experienced eye can scarcely detect it4 ,such a door is to be found guarding the nest of the ,trap-door ,spiders1 several species of which are found scattered over all the warm parts of the earth4 ,a side view of one of these extraordinary nests is given in the accompanying illustration1 and on the other side is the common trap-door of our cellars4 ,illustration3 ,,door ,,of ,,trap-,,door ,,spider4 ,illustration3 ,,trap-,,door ,,of ,,coal-,,cellar4 ,the ,spiders which make these extraordinary dwellings generally begin by excavating a nearly perpendicular tunnel in the ground4 ,they line it with a silken web1 and construct a door which exactly fits the orifice1 and which is bevelled so that it shall not sink too far1 and thus betray itself4 ,i have seen and handled one1 where the burrow had been sunk among lichens and mosses1 and the trap-door of the nest had been most ingeniously covered with the same growths4 ,although the surface of the slab of earth in which the nest was made is only a few inches square1 it is almost impossible to detect the entrance1 so admirably do the mosses on the door correspond with those outside it4 ,almost invariably the nest is sunk in the ground1 but ,i have a specimen sent to me from ,india1 in which the ,spider must absolutely have carried the clay to a fluted pillar1 burrowed in it1 and then made its beautiful habitation4 ,the nest and its inhabitant were sent to me by an officer in the #ajhth ,regiment1 accompanied by the following letter3-- 8,the packet contains a large ,spider and the upper portion of its peculiar nest1 the history of which is as follows4 8,on the thirtieth of last month 7,september1 #ahgj71 while searching for caterpillars on a bush growing close to one of the pillars of my verandah1 which is a very low one1 reaching to within a foot of the ground1 ,i saw in part of the chunam masonry at the foot of the pillar what ,i at first sight took to be a couple of seeds sticking to a stone4 ,on trying to pull one off1 ,i found that it came up with ease1 bringing with it what ,i thought was the stone4 8,but ,i had scarcely got it up when it was smartly pulled back4 ,this excited my curiosity1 and ,i raised it again with a little force4 ,i now saw1 to my wonder and admiration1 that what ,i had fancied was a stone was a small circular door with a pretty broad hinge1 made all of silk2 and then distinctly observed a large black spider dart down the hole to which the above door gave an entrance4 ,but1 not knowing the depth1 ,i broke it4 8,this piece ,i send to you1 together with its original owner1 who1 at the beginning of my digging operations1 ran up suddenly1 shut the door in my face1 and hung on to it like grim death when ,i tried to reopen it4 ,he soon came away with the upper piece1 still keeping the door resolutely closed40 ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,walls1 ,,double ,,and ,,single4--,,porches1 ,,eaves1 ,,and ,,windows4--,,thatch1 ,,slates1 ,,and ,,tiles4 ,the ,wall and its ,materials4--,bricks as they are and might be4--,trade ,unionism4--,double ,walls and their ,uses4--,double ,clothing4--,the ,refrigerator4--,cooking ,vessels4--,fire-proof ,safes4--,cocoon of the ,silkworm1 and its treble ,walls4--,nest of the ,little ,ermine1 ,processionary1 ,gold-tailed1 and ,brown-tailed ,moths4--,mud ,walls4--,nests of the ,termite4--,porches1 ,eaves1 and ,windows4--,nests of the ,myrapetra and an ,indian ,ant4--,the ,sociable ,weaver-bird and its ,nest4--,thatching4--,arms of the ,orang-outan4--,japanese and ,chinese ,rain-cloaks4--,eggs of the ,gold-tailed ,moth4--,action of ,fur4--,slates and ,tiles4--,scales of ,butterfly's ,wing4--,shell of ,tortoise4--,scales of ,manis1 ,fish1 and ,armadillo4 ,we now come to the ,walls of the house1 in which there is more variety than might be imagined4 ,take1 for example1 our modern houses of the 8villa0 type4 ,they are nothing but the merest shells1 made of the flimsiest imaginable materials4 ,some years ago1 while walking through a suburb where some very showy houses were being built1 ,i amused myself by going over them and testing them4 ,there was scarcely a room in which ,i could not thrust an ordinary walking-stick through the wall4 ,when they were 8finished0 and 8pointed10 the houses looked beautiful1 but their heat in summer1 cold in winter1 and moisture in wet weather1 can easily be imagined1 especially as the sand with which the mortar was mixed had been procured from the banks of a tidal river4 ,there is not the least necessity for such buildings4 ,it is absurd to run up such edifices as that1 and then charge #abj per annum for rent4 ,the whole system is as rotten as the houses1 and there is nothing but prejudice and trade-unionism to prevent our houses being cool in summer1 warm in winter1 and dry in all weathers4 ,it is well known that air is practically a non-conductor of heat1 and that therefore a layer of air between two very slight walls is just as warm as if the wall had been made of solid stone4 ,now1 there are several inventions whereby the present brick could be made half its present weight1 twice its present strength1 hard and smooth as earthenware1 so that it could not absorb water like our common brick1 and pierced with holes through which air could pass4 ,illustration3 ,,fur4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,little ,,ermine-,,moth4 ,illustration3 ,,ice-,,house4 ,unfortunately1 however1 there is a stringent rule among brickmakers and bricklayers that they are to play into each other's hands1 and that no bricklayer is to touch a brick which has not been made in some definite district4 ,should he do so1 he is a marked man1 and will stand but little chance of getting even a day's work4 ,the power of the double wall may be seen in many ways4 ,for example1 in the old days of coaching1 when one had to pass hour after hour on the roof of the coach1 it was known by practical experience that double body linen1 and two pairs of stockings1 worn one over the other1 formed the best preparation for the journey4 ,the reason was1 that air became entangled between the layers of fabric1 and acted as a non-conductor of heat4 ,another mode of utilising the principle of the double wall is seen in the refrigerators which add so much to the comfort of the household in a hot summer4 ,the one principle of these refrigerators is1 to keep a layer of air between the ice and the surrounding atmosphere4 ,the same principle may be used in a reverse way1 and heat be preserved instead of repelled4 ,those cooking-pots are now well known1 where half-cooked meat can be inserted in the morning1 and at luncheon-time be turned out quite hot and perfectly cooked4 ,the fact is1 that the vessels in question are covered with a very thick layer of felt4 ,the felt1 however1 is only a device for entangling air1 and a double wall would answer the purpose as well1 if not better4 ,the now well-known fire-resisting safes are made on this principle1 and after they have been for hours in a raging fire1 and the outer case has become red-hot1 the interior is quite safe1 the papers uninjured1 and even a watch continuing to go4 ,then there is the ordinary ,ice-house1 a sketch of which is given in the illustration4 ,a pit is first dug in the ground1 and thickly lined with dry branches1 straw1 c4 ,the roof is constructed in the same manner1 only the non-conducting power is increased by a thick coating of earth over the sticks and straw4 ,the door1 which is approached by a shelving cutting1 is similarly protected1 the covering only being removed when the door is opened4 ,i once made a very effective refrigerator out of two hampers1 putting a small hamper inside a large one1 and packing the space between them with straw4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature we find many examples of this principle1 which enables the inhabitants to bid defiance to frost4 ,a familiar example may be found in the cocoon of the common ,silk-worm 7,bombyx mori71 and indeed in that of almost any silk-producing insect4 ,when the caterpillar is about to make its cocoon1 it begins by a number of rather strong threads attached to different points1 and making a sort of scaffolding1 so to speak1 for the cocoon itself4 ,upon these is spun a slight outer cocoon of very loose and vague texture--the 8floss silk0 of commerce1 and within that is the cocoon proper1 in which the insect lies enclosed4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that there are really three cocoons1 one within the other1 namely1 the scaffold cocoon1 the floss cocoon1 and the silk cocoon itself1 so that the inmate is protected from variations of temperature4 ,the cocoon of the emperor-moth1 which has already been described1 is made on the same principle4 ,there are several caterpillars which are social in their early stages1 and which construct a common habitation4 ,the ,little ,ermine-moth4 7,hyponomeuta padella7 affords a familiar example of this structure4 ,the caterpillars are great roamers in search of food by day1 and travel from branch to branch on their strong silken threads4 ,at night1 however1 they return to a large white silken habitation which they have spun1 and which they divide into many compartments1 as may easily be seen by cutting the nest open with very sharp scissors4 ,within this habitation the caterpillars spin their separate cocoons1 so that the system of double walls is thoroughly carried out4 ,there is another insect1 very common on the ,continent1 but1 happily for us1 not introduced into ,england4 ,it is called the ,processionary ,moth1 from its curious habit of marching in exact lines1 the head of the second caterpillar touching the tail of the first1 and so on4 ,these insects have likewise a common home1 and spin their own separate cocoons within it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,processionary ,,moth4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoon ,,of ,,silk-,,worm4 ,illustration3 ,,fireproof ,,safe4 ,there are two other sociable ,british ,moths which make nests on a similar principle4 ,these are the ,gold-tailed ,moth 7,porthesia chrysorrha7 and the ,brown-tailed ,moth 7,porthesia auriflua74 ,they are both beautifully white insects1 but may easily be distinguished from each other1 the ,gold-tailed ,moth having some brown-black spots on the upper wings1 and a tuft of golden-yellow hairs at the end of the body2 while the ,brown-tailed ,moth is without spots1 and the tail-tuft is brown4 ,in habits they are very similar1 and the description of the nest made by one will answer for that made by the other4 ,i believe that broods of these two species have been known to construct a common nest4 ,the nest is extremely variable in form1 because it depends much on the number of twigs which it includes4 ,interiorly1 it is divided into a considerable number of chambers1 each containing one or several individuals4 ,as the caterpillars are hatched late in summer1 they have to undergo the frosts of winter before they can attain their perfect state4 ,accordingly1 before the winter-time comes on1 they strengthen both the external walls and internal partitions of their nest1 and then wait until the spring brings forth the leafage of the new year4 ,the nest is a beautiful structure1 and ,i strongly recommend the reader to look for one in a hedgerow1 take it home1 and cut it up carefully4 ,i would1 however1 advise him1 if1 like myself1 he be subjected to a very sensitive skin1 to be cautious in his handling of the nest4 ,the hairs with which the pretty black1 red1 and white caterpillars are studded are irritant in the extreme4 ,i have several times suffered from them1 and would much rather be severely stung by nettles than undergo the fierce irritation1 mixed with dull heavy pain1 which always accompanies the presence of these hairs4 ,with me1 as ,i suppose would be the case with persons of similar organization1 these hairs cause large1 hard tubercles to rise1 just as if potatoes had been placed under the skin4 ,the hairs of the ,processionary ,caterpillar have a similar effect1 and in ,france the authorities have several times been obliged to close the public gardens for months1 so severe was the pain which the caterpillars inflicted on persons who passed through the spots infested by them4 ,,mud ,,walls4 ,there is a mode of wall-building which is much in vogue in some parts of ,england1 and has much to commend itself4 ,this is the ,mud or ,concrete ,wall4 ,at first sight1 the very name of a mud house gives an idea of poverty and misery1 and is apt to be connected with hovels and pigsties4 ,mud walls1 however1 if properly built1 are far warmer and drier than those of brick1 and are even preferred to those of stone1 when the latter can be easily and cheaply obtained4 ,in ,devonshire1 for example1 where even the cattle-sheds1 or 8linhays0 7pronounced linny71 and the pigsties are made of the rich red stone of the county1 it is a common thing to see village houses built of mud4 ,sometimes the houses are built of stone to the height of some ten or twelve feet1 and the upper parts made of mud4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,termite4 ,illustration3 ,,mud ,,wall4 ,if the builders are in any way fastidious1 they make their walls of a uniform surface by placing two rows of planks on their edges at a distance from each other proportionate to the thickness of the wall1 pouring the mud between them1 and1 when it has sufficiently hardened1 shifting the planks4 ,this1 however1 is not necessary1 and detracts much from the picturesque look of a genuine mud wall1 especially when it is of that rich red which characterizes the ,devonshire soil4 ,these mud walls are locally known by the name of ,cob4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we have not to go very far in ,nature to find good examples of the strength which can be attained by mud walls4 ,in all parts of the world where ,termites1 popularly but wrongly called ,white ,ants1 are to be found1 the strength and endurance of the mud wall can easily be tested4 ,of gigantic dimensions when compared with the size of the architect1 they not only endure the rain-torrents which wash over them1 but can sustain the weight of the wild cattle1 which are in the habit of using them as watch-towers1 and this although they are hollow1 and filled with chambers and galleries4 ,in ,southern ,africa these nests are much utilised4 ,there is an animal called by the ,dutch settlers the ,aard-vark1 which feeds almost wholly on ,termites4 ,at night it issues from its burrow1 and1 being armed with large and powerful claws1 tears a great hole in the side1 and devours the inmates4 ,these deserted nests are sometimes used as ovens1 as we have already seen1 a fire having been kindled within them for some time1 the meat1 well enveloped in leaves1 being thrust into them1 and the opening closed with clay4 ,sometimes they are used as graves1 the corpse being placed in them1 and the hollow filled up with earth1 while the wall of the ,termite nest1 when pounded and mixed with water1 is found to be the most tenacious clay that can be used for building or flooring huts4 ,,porches1 ,,eaves1 ,,and ,,windows4 ,we now come to some of the appendages of a house1 namely1 the ,porch by which the rain is kept from a doorway1 the ,eaves by which it is kept from the walls1 and the ,windows which will admit light and air1 but will prevent the entrance of intruders4 ,we first take the ,porch1 two examples of which are shown in the accompanying illustration1 one being the work of human hands1 and the other that of an insect4 ,the figure on the right hand represents an old-fashioned ,porch1 such as is often to be seen attached to old village churches1 and which1 being furnished with seats1 serves also as a resting-place for those who are weary4 ,illustration3 ,,nests ,,of ,,myrapetra1 ,,with ,,porches4 ,illustration3 ,,porch4 ,the figure on the left hand of the illustration is a wonderful example of the ,porch1 as constructed by insects4 ,it is the nest of a honey-making ,brazilian wasp named ,myrapetra scutellaris4 ,the peculiarity of this nest consists in its exterior being covered with a vast number of projections made of the same material as the walls of the nest1 but more solid and much harder4 ,the colour of the nest is blackish brown4 ,the object of all these projections has not been ascertained1 but there is no difficulty as regards some of them4 ,without a very careful examination1 it is exceedingly difficult to see any opening by which the inhabitants of the nest can go in and out4 ,it will be found1 however1 that there are many entrances1 which are set in a row round the nest1 each opening being situated under a projection1 which thus performs the office of a porch as well as that of concealment4 ,another hymenopterous insect carries out the principle of the ,porch in its nest4 ,this is the ,myrmica ,kirbyi1 a tiny reddish ,ant which inhabits ,india4 ,it makes its nest of cow-dung1 which it works up into a texture very like that of an ordinary wasp-nest4 ,a series of large flakes of this substance overhang the entrances1 so that the inhabitants can enter freely1 while rain is kept out4 ,for the purpose of greater security1 one very large flake covers the roof in umbrella fashion4 ,the whole nest is globular1 and about eight inches in diameter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next we come to the projecting ,eaves1 like those of our houses1 and serving to preserve the body of the edifice itself from wet4 ,on the right hand of the illustration there is an example of the eaves as they are still to be seen in some of our country places1 where the less picturesque slates have not yet superseded the old thatch4 ,in some places these eaves extend considerably beyond the walls1 and ,i know of several instances1 especially in ,north ,devon1 where a supplementary set of eaves extends1 like a penthouse1 throughout the length of the building1 and just above the windows of the ground-floor4 ,the reader will remark that the projections upon the ,myrapetra's nest may very well fulfil the office of eaves as that of porches1 and not only shelter the entrances1 but serve to shoot the wet off the walls of the nest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are several instances of eaves as existing in ,nature4 ,in the centre is the compound nest of the ,sociable ,weaver-bird of ,southern ,africa 7,philetrus socius74 ,this is a dwelling constructed very much after the fashion adopted by many hymenopterous insects1 namely1 that each pair of birds make their own individual nest1 but unite with their companions in constructing a common roof or covering4 ,more than three hundred nests have been found in a single habitation1 and sometimes the birds miscalculate1 or rather1 do not calculate the resisting power of the branches1 and1 when the rainy season comes1 the additional weight of water brings down the whole edifice with a great crash4 ,illustration3 ,,dwelling ,,of ,,sociable ,,weaver-,,bird1 ,,with ,,thatch4 ,illustration3 ,,thatched ,,eggs ,,of ,,gold-,,tailed ,,moth4 ,illustration3 ,,thatched ,,house4 ,the thatch which covers this congeries of nests is made of the ,booschmannees-grass1 whose long leaves and tough wiry stems are admirably adapted for throwing off water1 even though they be not bound together like our more regularly constructed thatch4 ,perhaps the reader may be aware that in the ,orang-outan1 the ,chimpansee1 and other large apes1 the hairs of the arms are very long1 and point in different directions1 so that if the creature should be caught in a rain-storm1 and1 after the manner of its kind1 fold its arms on its breast1 with the hands resting on the shoulders1 the rain is shot clear of its body1 the hairs performing the duty of eaves4 ,both ,japan and ,china have a rain-cloak1 constructed on exactly the same principle as the thatch of the ,sociable ,weaver-bird4 ,they are nothing more than successive rows of long grass-blades fastened to a network of the proper shape4 ,no amount of rain or snow can wet them through1 and they have the advantage of being pervious to the exhalations of the body1 though impervious to external moisture4 ,in this respect they are greatly superior to our waterproof coats1 for1 if the wearer has to undergo much bodily exertion1 or is obliged to wear it for any length of time1 he finds his clothing nearly if not quite as wet as if he had allowed the pure rain to fall on him from the clouds4 ,i possess specimens of each kind of cloak4 ,when ,i procured them they were quite blackened with ,london smoke1 and1 on account of their resistance to water1 washing them was a very long and troublesome business4 ,above the nest are two patches of the ,booschmannees-grass1 as they appear when laid by the bird4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the nest is a group of the eggs of the ,gold-tailed ,moth1 whose nest has already been described4 ,perhaps the reader wonders where the eggs are4 ,owing to the mode in which they are arranged1 only a few can be seen1 and are represented by the little white spots in the lower part of the figure4 ,when the ,gold-tailed ,moth is ready for the great business of laying her eggs1 she seeks a suitable place1 and then piles them up in the form of a shallow cone4 ,her task1 however1 is not yet finished4 ,having arranged her eggs1 she scrapes off the long downy hairs of the tail-tuft1 and arranges them carefully on the eggs so as to cover them with a conical thatch1 very much resembling that of an ordinary corn-rick4 ,the ,brown-tailed ,moth acts in a similar fashion4 ,furs of various kinds act in the same manner1 being impervious to wet during the life of the animal4 ,such1 for example1 is the fur of the ,beaver1 that of the ,capybara1 and that of the ,seal1 which are animals living in our time4 ,these1 however1 are exceeded in their thatch-like powers by the three successive coatings of hair that were worn by the ancient ,mammoth1 the outermost being very long and very coarse1 and hanging down in heavy tufts so as to shoot the water from them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,being on the subject of roofs1 we will take a few more examples of the roof as anticipated in ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,wings ,,of ,,butterfly4 ,illustration3 ,,tiles ,,of ,,houses4 ,that parallel fibres1 whether animal or vegetable1 can throw off rain when properly arranged1 has already been shown4 ,much more is it evident that flat or partly flat plates will have the same effect1 if they be arranged so that the joints are 8broken10 as masons and bricklayers say1 i4e4 so that the broad part of the upper row of plates overlaps the junction of two of the plates in the row immediately below it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right hand of the accompanying illustration are given two sketches of a modern roof1 one slated and the other tiled4 ,the figures on the left show that this formation has been anticipated by ,nature1 in the wonderful system of scales which cover the wings of butterflies and moths1 and to which all their brilliancy of colour is owing4 ,in spite of their minute size1 most being too small to be distinguished by the unaided eye1 they are arranged as regularly as the best workman could lay the slates or tiles on a roof1 and on exactly the same principle4 ,the shapes of these scales vary in almost every species1 but they are always arranged on the same plan1 namely1 being placed in successive rows1 each overlapping the other4 ,in consequence1 it is almost impossible to wet a butterfly's wing with water4 ,the insect may be plunged beneath the surface1 and the long hairs of the body will be soaked and cling together in a very miserable fashion4 ,but the water rolls off the wings like rain off a slated roof1 and even if a few drops remain on the surface1 they can be shaken off1 and the wing will be perfectly dry4 ,mostly these scales are flat1 but sometimes they are curved4 ,i have among my microscopic objects a piece of wing from a ,south ,american butterfly1 the scales of which are oblong and bent1 just like the curved tiles shown in the second right-hand figure of the illustration4 ,these beautiful scales are deep azure or warm brown1 according to the direction of the light4 ,perhaps my readers may call to mind that some architects dislike the flat1 square form in which slates are usually put on roofs1 and try to make them less formal4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,of ,,tortoise4 ,illustration3 ,,hexagonally ,,tiled ,,roof4 ,sometimes they take their square slates1 and fit them with one of the angles uppermost1 so that each slate looks something like the ace of diamonds in a pack of cards4 ,sometimes they are still more ambitious1 and certainly succeed in producing a better effect1 by cutting the slates in hexagons instead of squares1 and fixing them as shown in the right-hand figure of the illustration4 ,putting aside the familiar hexagons of the honeycomb1 and the apparent hexagons of an insect's compound eye1 we have in the common ,tortoise an example of hexagonal plates that exactly resembles the slate roofing4 ,in the next illustration we have a variety of the same principle exhibited in differently shaped tiles and scales4 ,the figures on the right hand show the pointed1 the square1 and the oblong tiles4 ,these also would answer very well as representations of different forms of scale armour1 the one being intended to throw off rain1 and the other to repel weapons4 ,on the other side of the illustration are examples taken from the animal kingdom4 ,first comes the ,bajjerkeit1 or ,short-tailed ,manis1 which has already been mentioned1 and whose imbricated scales will resist the blows of any spear or sword4 ,as to my own specimen1 when it is struck1 it resounds as if it were a solid plate of metal1 and ,i should think that during the lifetime of the animal a reasonably strong axe would not easily make its way through that coat of mail4 ,below the ,manis are a pair of fish1 whose scales1 though not so strong as those of the mammal1 yet are arranged in the same manner1 and answer the same purpose4 ,the last figure represents three scale-bands of the ,armadillo1 an animal which has already been mentioned4 ,i may as well state here that in several anthropological museums there are various portions of defensive armour made from the scale-clad skin of the ,crocodile1 ,manis1 and similar animals4 ,illustration3 ,,manis4 ,illustration3 ,,fishes4 ,illustration3 ,,bands ,,of ,,armadillo4 ,illustration3 ,,tiles ,,and ,,slates4 ,,architecture ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,window4--,,girders1 ,,ties1 ,,and ,,buttresses4--,,the ,,tunnel4--,,the ,,suspension-,,bridge4 ,the ,window1 and its ,modifications according to ,climate4--,bars and ,tracery4--,the ,wheel-window and the ,caddis4--,curious ,structure of the ,caddis-tube4--,object of its ,window4--,the ,girder as applied to ,architecture4--,the ,radius and ,ulna4--,the ,tie as applied to ,architecture1 and its ,value4--,combination of the ,tie and ,girder4--,structure of the ,crystal ,palace4--,leaf of the ,victoria ,regia4--,a ,gardener turned ,architect4--,the ,buttress in ,art and ,nature4--,the ,tunnel used as a ,passage of ,communication4--,natural ,tunnel of the ,ship-worm4--,the ,thames ,tunnel4--,the ,piddock1 or ,pholas4--,the ,driver-ant4--,the ,suspension-bridge4--,the ,palm-wine ,maker and his ,bridge4--,suspension-bridges of ,borneo and ,south ,america4--,the ,creepers and the ,monkey ,tribes4--,the ,spider and ,little ,ermine ,caterpillar4 ,,the ,,window4 ,having traced1 though but superficially1 the chief parts of a building1 such as the walls1 the door which is opened through the walls1 and the roof which shelters them1 we naturally come to the ,windows by which light is admitted to them1 and enemies excluded4 ,there are1 perhaps1 few points in ,architecture in which such changes have been made as in the ,window1 which1 instead of being a difficulty in the way of the architect1 is now valued as a means of increasing the beauty of the building4 ,taking for example even such advanced specimens of ,architecture as those furnished by ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 we find that the ,window is either absent altogether1 its place being supplied by a hole in the roof1 or that1 when it is present1 it was made quite subordinate to the pillars and similar ornaments of the building4 ,this fact is1 perhaps1 greatly owing to the influence of climate4 ,in the parts of the world which have been mentioned in connection with this subject1 light and heat appear to be rather enemies than friends1 and the object of the architect was to enable the inhabitants of his houses to avoid rather than to welcome both4 ,consequently1 the ,windows were comparatively insignificant4 ,they were not needed for the purposes of light or air1 those being generally furnished by the aperture in the roof1 and consequently were kept out of sight as much as possible4 ,but when architects had to build for a sterner1 a colder1 and a darker clime1 where the sun never assumed that almost devouring heat and light which in hot countries drive the inhabitants to invent endless devices for obtaining coolness and shade1 a different style of ,architecture sprang up4 ,in this the ,window became nearly the most prominent part of the building3 the elements were excluded by glass instead of stone1 and the principal modifications of light were obtained by staining the glass in various rich colours4 ,perhaps the ,window has attained its culminating point in the ,crystal ,palace1 which is all window except its foundations4 ,partly in order to enable the glass to be inserted1 and partly to increase the beauty of the building1 and to avoid the mean appearance of ,windows filled in with plain iron bars crossing each other at right angles1 the interior of the ,windows was adorned with stone 8tracery10 varying much according to the epoch of the building4 ,illustration3 ,,caddis ,,grating4 ,illustration3 ,,wheel-,,window4 ,one of the most beautiful forms of the ,window is that which is called the ,wheel4 ,the window itself is circular1 and the tracery is disposed so as to bear an exact resemblance to an ornamental wheel1 the lines of the tracery running from the circumference to the centre1 just like the spokes of a wheel4 ,one of these ,wheel-windows is shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,on the other side is an object1 which at a hasty glance might be taken for another ,window of the same character4 ,it is1 however1 the work of an insect1 and not of man1 and is magnified in order to show its structure better4 ,any of my readers who may happen to be entomologists or anglers1 or both1 are familiar with the ,caddis-worm of our fresh waters4 ,most of us know that the ,caddis is the grub or larva of the ,stone-fly 7,phryganea71 an insect haunting the waterside1 and so moth-like in its general aspect that many persons think that it is really a brown moth4 ,the changes or metamorphoses of these insects are well worthy of notice4 ,in one respect the ,caddis resembles the larva of the ,wax-moth1 mentioned on page #aea1 inasmuch as it has a soft1 defenceless body1 while the first three segments are comparatively hard4 ,like the ,wax-moth also1 the ,caddis lives in a tube constructed by itself4 ,instead1 however1 of having a long and fixed tube1 up and down which it can pass at pleasure1 the ,caddis makes a tube only a little longer than its body1 and light enough to be carried about1 just as the hermit-crab carries its supplementary shell4 ,there are many species of ,caddis-fly4 ,the ,caddis inhabits fresh waters1 and cares nothing whether they be ponds or running streams4 ,in order to defend its white1 plump1 and helpless body from the fishes and other enemies1 it constructs a tube around its body1 strengthening it by a wonderful variety of material according to the locality4 ,mostly the tubes are covered with little pieces of stick or grass1 or leaves1 while some species use nothing but sand-grains1 constructing with them a tube very much resembling in shape an elephant's tusk1 and reminding the conchologist of the dentalium shell4 ,but they seem to use almost anything that comes to hand4 ,taking only examples found by myself in a single pond1 these cases are formed of sand1 stones1 sticks1 grass-stems1 leaves1 shells of small water-snails1 mostly the flat planorbis1 the opercula of the water-snail1 empty mussel-shells1 a chrysalis of some moth which had evidently been blown into the water from an overhanging tree1 and acorn-cups4 ,the larva1 however1 does not seem to be able to fasten together any objects with smooth surfaces1 and though it has been known1 when in captivity1 to make its cases out of gold-dust or broken glass1 it could not use either material when in the form of beads4 ,when it is full-fed1 and about to enter the pupal state1 it proceeds to prepare its habitation4 ,as a larva1 when it desired to feed1 it protruded its head and the front of its body from the mouth of the tube1 and then crawled about in search of nourishment1 dragging the tube with it1 and holding it firmly by means of the claspers with which the end of the body is furnished4 ,but when it becomes a pupa it is no longer able to defend itself1 and is instinctively compelled to secure its safety in some peculiar manner4 ,it cannot fasten up the entrance entirely1 because it would not be able to breathe unless water could pass over its body4 ,accordingly1 it constructs a grated window precisely like those of the old castles1 so that water can pass freely1 while no enemy can gain admittance4 ,unlike1 however1 the grated windows of the castle1 which had no pretence to beauty1 the ,caddis always constructs its barriers in some definite pattern4 ,each species appears to have its own peculiar pattern1 but all agree in making their window1 if we may so call it1 exactly like a wheel-window before the glass is inserted4 ,when the pupa is about to make its final change into the perfect form1 it cuts away the tracery with a pair of sharp jaws1 with which it is furnished for this sole purpose1 emerges from the water1 throws off the pupa-skin1 and issues forth as a ,stone-fly4 ,,girders1 ,,ties1 ,,and ,,buttresses4 ,next in order come the means by which walls are supported internally by ,girders and ,ties1 and externally by ,buttresses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of late years the ,girder1 in its many varieties1 has come into general use1 especially in the construction of railway bridges and similar edifices4 ,illustration3 ,,radius ,,and ,,ulna ,,of ,,human ,,arm4 ,illustration3 ,,girder 7,,from ,a ,,house ,,in ,,bermondsey74 ,on the right of the accompanying illustration is shown the ,girder in its simplest form4 ,the figure was taken from a ,girder which is used in supporting the walls of a large building in ,bermondsey4 ,sometimes a transverse stay connects the centres of the two curved beams2 but it is seldom needed4 ,the reader will see that if the interval between the curved beams were to be filled up1 we should obtain a form very like that of the engine beam described in page #be2 while1 if we could imagine two such girders intersecting each other at right angles throughout their length1 a section of the two would exactly resemble the section of the engine beam as given in the uppermost figure in page #be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the human body there are four admirable examples of the natural ,girder1 namely1 in the bones of the arms and legs4 ,on the left hand of the illustration are shown the two bones of the fore-arm1 technically named the 8radius0 and 8ulna40 ,it will be seen that these bones are arranged on the principle of the girder4 ,in men who are especially powerful of grasp1 it has been noticed that the curve of the radius and ulna has been exceptionally bold1 while we have it developed to the greatest extent in the fore-arm of the ,gorilla1 an animal whose arms are simply gigantic4 ,the two bones of the legs1 from the knee to the ankle1 are arranged in a similar manner1 and are called the 8tibia0 and 8fibula40 ,the last named signifies a brooch1 and is given to the bone because it is very slender1 nearly straight1 and when in its place bears no small resemblance to the pin of the fibula1 or ancient ,roman brooch4 ,nature1 however1 has exceeded ,art in her girder4 ,those of man's manufacture can only exert their strength in one direction1 and would be of little use if force were to be applied to them in any other direction4 ,those of the human body1 however1 have the capability of partial revolution on each other at their points of junction1 thus enabling the ,girder to apportion its strength according to the direction of the resistance which it has to overcome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to the ,ties1 i4e4 those internal beams1 whether of metal1 wood1 stone1 or brick1 which prevent walls from falling outwards4 ,there is no danger of the walls falling inward1 but there is very great danger of their falling outward1 especially when the weight or 8thrust0 of the roof tends to force them apart4 ,in some buildings1 such as an old country church which ,i attended for many years1 the architect had openly acknowledged the tendency of the walls to fall outward1 and had counteracted it by a series of great beams extending completely across the nave and aisle4 ,as he had not even troubled himself to hide their office1 so he did not trouble himself to conceal the fact that they were tree-trunks1 but left them roughly squared with the axe1 lest1 if he had squared them throughout their length1 he should have diminished their strength4 ,the effect of the partially squared beam is1 of course1 far more picturesque than that of a completely squared one4 ,the architect1 however1 need not have been so careful about strength1 for if the beams had been only half their diameter they would have been just as effective4 ,the strain on them is by pulling1 and not by pushing4 ,now1 as any one can see by trying the experiment with a splinter of wood--say a lucifer-match--an enormous power is required to break it by tearing the ends asunder1 while it can be easily broken by pushing them towards each other4 ,but for this power of resistance1 we should never have had our ,crystal ,palace4 ,that apparently intricate1 but really simple 7and the more beautiful for its simplicity71 intersection of beams and lines diminishing in the distance to the thickness of spiders' webs1 is nothing more than a combination of the ,girder and ,tie1 the two together combining lightness and strength in a marvellous manner4 ,the story of the ,crystal ,palace is now so well known that it need not be repeated in detail4 ,a vast building was required for the ,exhibition of #ahea1 and not an architect was able to supply a plan which did not exhibit some defect which would make the building almost useless4 ,suddenly a ,mr4 ,paxton1 who was a gardener1 and not an architect1 produced 7on a sheet of blotting-paper7 a rough plan of a building on a totally new principle1 and not only fulfilling all the requisite conditions1 but being capable of extension in any direction and to any amount4 ,there have been very few bolder conceptions than that of making iron and glass take the place of brick1 stone1 and timber1 and the result fully justified the expectations even of the inventor4 ,how a gardener suddenly developed into an architect remains to be seen2 and1 indeed1 in this case the architecture was the result of the gardening1 or rather1 of practical botany applied to art4 ,some years before the invention of the ,crystal ,palace1 that magnificent plant1 the ,victoria ,regia1 had been introduced into ,england4 ,its enormous leaves1 with their wonderful power of flotation1 caused a great stir at the time1 and some of my readers may remember a sketch which was engraved in the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 and which represented a little girl standing on one of these leaves as it floated on the water4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf ,,of ,,victoria ,,regia 7,,reversed74 ,illustration3 ,,crystal ,,palace4 ,mr4 ,paxton saw how this power was obtained1 and the result was that he copied in iron the lines of the vegetable cellular structure which gave such strength to the ,victoria ,regia leaf1 and became more eminent as an architect than he had been as a gardener4 ,the capabilities of the ,crystal ,palace had lain latent for centuries1 but the generalising eye of genius was needed to detect it4 ,a thousand men might have seen the ,victoria ,regia leaf1 and not thought very much of it2 but the right man came at the right time1 the most wonderful building in the world sprang up like the creation of a fairy dream1 and the obscure gardener became ,sir ,joseph ,paxton4 ,i have no doubt that thousands of similar revelations are at present hidden in ,nature1 awaiting the eye of their revealer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to the principle of the ,buttress1 i4e4 giving support to the exterior1 instead of the interior1 and strengthening the walls by pushing them together1 instead of pulling them together4 ,putting aside the 8flying0 buttress1 which is simply one buttress mounted on another to support the clerestory walls1 the structure of the ordinary buttress is simple enough4 ,the most primitive form of the buttress is often found in country farms1 where the farmer sees the walls of his barns and outhouses leaning suspiciously on one side1 and1 instead of going to the root of things1 props them up by a stout pole or beam4 ,this1 however1 can be nothing but a temporary arrangement1 especially as beams have a tendency to rot1 and their ends to sink into the earth by the gradual pressure of the wall4 ,the genuine buttress was therefore evolved1 the basal part being very thick and heavy1 and the upper part comparatively thin and slight4 ,simple as a buttress looks1 much skill is needed in making it1 and if it be not rightly built1 it does infinitely more harm than good4 ,a case in point occurs within a short distance of my house4 ,the walls of an ancient edifice having shown symptoms of yielding1 and some ominous cracks made their appearance1 a couple of very sturdy buttresses had been erected1 in order to stop further damage4 ,unfortunately1 the builder was ignorant of the principles of architecture1 and though he made the buttresses very strong and massive1 he omitted to make a solid foundation on which their bases should rest4 ,consequently he only hung the buttresses1 so to speak1 on the wall1 and helped to tear it asunder by the additional weight4 ,illustration3 ,,paddle-,,wood ,,tree4 ,illustration3 ,,buttresses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature1 as well as ,art1 supplies her buttresses4 ,in our own country we find the natural buttress more or less developed in our trees1 as it is wanted4 ,take1 for example1 any plantation1 and examine the trees4 ,it will be found that those in the centre1 which are sheltered on all sides from the force of the wind1 shoot up straight towards the light1 have comparatively slight and slender stems1 and occasionally display such energy in forcing themselves upwards1 that when two branches find that there is not room for both1 they form a sort of alliance1 fuse themselves together1 and force their united way towards the sky4 ,take1 however1 the trees in the outside rows of the plantation1 and see how they throw out their straight roots and branches towards the outside1 and how1 on the inside1 their trunks are as smooth and their roots as little visible as those of the trees that grow in the centre of the plantation4 ,almost any tree will develop itself in this fashion1 showing that instinct can rule the vegetable as well as the animal world4 ,there is1 however1 a ,south ,american tree which far surpasses any of our trees in its power of throwing out spurs or buttresses1 principally1 ,i presume1 because it may have to endure the fiercest storms from any quarter and at any time4 ,so bold are these projections that several men would be hidden if standing between two of them1 and so numerous are they that if a section of the tree were taken at the base of the ground1 it would resemble a conventional star or asterisk1 991 rather than an ordinary tree-trunk1 ,o4 ,the scientific name of this curious tree is ,aspidomorpha excelsum4 ,the natural buttresses are so thin and so wide that they look like large planks set on end1 with one edge against the tree4 ,indeed1 they are used as planks1 nothing more being required than to cut them from the tree4 ,this is very easy1 as1 while the wood is green1 it is so soft that a blow from a 8machete10 or native cutlass1 is sufficient to separate it4 ,with the same instrument the native makes these flat planks into paddles for his canoe1 the soft wood yielding readily even to the imperfect edge of the rude tool4 ,when the wood dries1 it becomes very hard1 light1 and singularly elastic1 all these properties qualifying it for its object4 ,i have several of these paddles in my collection4 ,they are much prized by the natives1 and are always stained in various patterns with red and black dyes4 ,in consequence of the use which is made of this tree1 it goes by the popular name of 8paddle-wood40 ,,the ,,tunnel ,,used ,,as ,a ,,passage4 ,as to this division of the subject1 ,i have not been quite sure where it should be placed1 but think the present position a tolerably appropriate one4 ,we have already1 in the igloo of the ,esquimaux and the winter dwelling of the seal1 found examples of the ,tunnel when used as an appendage to the houses and a means of security4 ,we now come to the ,tunnel as affording the means of locomotion4 ,illustration3 ,,tunnel ,,of ,,anomma4 ,,pholas4 ,,ship-,,worm4 ,illustration3 ,,railway ,,tunnel4 ,take1 for example1 our own railway system4 ,had it not been for the power of tunnelling1 the railway would have lost nearly its whole value1 for it would have been restricted to local districts1 and could not have penetrated1 as it now does1 to all parts of the country1 without reference to hill1 dale1 or level ground4 ,our present system of engineering has wonderfully developed the capability of tunnelling4 ,in former times it was thought a most wonderful feat to drive a tunnel under the ,thames1 while in these days the tunnel through ,mont ,cenis has been completed1 and we are hoping to make a submarine tunnel from ,england to ,france4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature we can find many examples of ,tunnels used for similar purposes4 ,the silken tunnel of the ,wax-moth larva has already been mentioned1 and we now come to ,tunnels where earth in some form1 and not silk1 is the material of which they are constructed4 ,the lowermost figure on the left-hand side of the illustration represents that well-known and most destructive burrower1 the ,ship-worm 7,teredo71 which1 by the way1 in spite of its popular name1 is not a worm1 but a mollusc4 ,this creature has a peculiar interest for engineering1 inasmuch as its mode of working gave ,brunel the first idea of subaquatic tunnelling in loose1 sandy soil1 just as the ,victoria ,regia leaf gave to ,paxton the idea which afterwards developed into the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the plan adopted by the ,ship-worm is at the same time simple and effective4 ,it feeds upon wood1 and gradually eats its way through almost any timber that may be submerged4 ,it does not1 however1 merely bore its way through the timber1 but lines its burrow with a coating of hard1 shelly material4 ,taking this hint1 ,brunel proceeded in the same fashion to drive his tunnel through the very ungrateful soils which form the bed of the ,thames4 ,he built a 8shield10 as he called it1 of iron1 exactly fitting the tunnel1 and divided into a number of compartments1 each of which could be pushed forwards independently of the others4 ,in each compartment was a single workman1 and1 as he excavated the earth in front of him1 he pushed forward his portion of the shield1 while the interior was cased with brickwork1 just as a ,teredo tunnel is cased with shell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,above the ,teredo is represented another marine tunnel-maker1 as it appears in its burrow4 ,this is the mollusc popularly known as the ,piddock1 and scientifically as ,pholas dactylus4 ,it may be found abundantly in all our chalk cliffs1 boring its tunnels deeply into the stone1 and aiding the sea in its slow1 but never-ending task of breaking down the cliffs on one side1 while it gradually rears them up on another4 ,as the material into which the ,piddock burrows is so hard1 there is no need for lining the tunnel1 as is done by the ,teredo4 ,in this point1 too1 our engineers follow its example4 ,when their tunnels pass through comparatively soft ground1 they line it with masonry1 proportioning the thickness of the lining to the looseness of the soil4 ,but1 when they come to solid rock1 they are content with its strength1 and do not trouble themselves about the lining4 ,the mode of action adopted by the ,pholas has long been a disputed point1 and even now appears to be not quite settled4 ,i think1 however1 that ,william ,robertson has proved by his experiments that the shell and the siphon are both brought into requisition4 ,the shell perpetually rotates in one direction1 and then back again1 just like the action of a bradawl1 and1 by the file-like projections on its surface1 rasps away the chalk1 converting it into a fine powder4 ,this powder1 being of course mixed with water1 passes into the interior of the animal1 and is ejected through the siphon4 ,there are many species of ,pholas which burrow into various substances1 even in floating cakes of wax and resin4 ,the same species1 too1 will burrow into different substances1 and it is worthy of notice that those specimens which burrow into soft ground attain a much larger size1 and their shells are in better preservation1 than those which force their way through hard rock4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the uppermost figure represents a very remarkable tunnel1 having the peculiarity of being built instead of sunk4 ,it is the work of an ,african ,ant belonging to the genus ,anomma1 and popularly known as the ,driver-ant1 because it drives away every living creature which comes across its course of march4 ,there are many ,ants which seem to rejoice in the full blaze of the tropical sun1 running about with ease on rocks which would scorch and raise blisters on the hand if laid on it1 and finding no difficulty in obtaining the moisture needful for the mud walls of their habitations4 ,but the ,driver-ants cannot endure the sun1 and1 unless compelled by necessity1 will not march except at night1 or at all events during cloudy days4 ,should1 however1 they be absolutely forced to march in the sunshine1 they construct as they go on a slight gallery1 which looks very much like the lining of a tunnel stripped of the surrounding earth4 ,if their path should lead them to thick herbage1 sticks1 c41 which form a protection from the sun1 the ,driver-ants do not trouble themselves to make a tunnel1 but take advantage of the shade1 and only resume the tunnel when they reach the open ground4 ,sometimes1 when they are on a marauding expedition1 they construct a tunnel in a very curious manner1 their own bodies supplying the materials4 ,the reader must know that there are several classes of these insects1 varying in size from that of a huge earwig to that of the little red ant of our gardens4 ,the largest class seem to care little about the sunshine1 the protection being mostly needed by the workers4 ,the following is ,dr4 ,savage's account of their proceedings3-- 8,in cloudy days1 when on their predatory excursions1 or migrating1 an arch for the protection of the workers is constructed of the bodies of their largest class4 ,their widely extended jaws1 long1 slender limbs1 and projecting antenn1 intertwining1 form a sort of network that seems to answer well their object40 8,whenever an alarm is given1 the arch is instantly broken1 and the ,ants1 joining others of the same class on the outside of the line1 who seem to be acting as commanders1 guides1 and scouts1 run about in a furious manner in pursuit of the enemy4 ,if the alarm should prove to be without foundation1 the victory won1 or danger passed1 the arch is quickly renewed1 and the main column marches forward as before1 in all the order of an intellectual military discipline40 ,how they should be able to direct their course1 and to chase an enemy1 is not easy to understand2 for1 as far as is known1 they are absolutely blind1 not even an indication of an eye being seen4 ,,the ,,suspension-,,bridge4 ,the mention of these ,ants brings us to another point in architecture4 ,we have already seen that they can not only build arched tunnels1 but also can form their own bodies into arches1 and we shall presently see how they can form themselves into ,suspension-bridges4 ,we will1 however1 first take the ,suspension-bridge1 and its vegetable origin1 before passing to the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,creepers4 ,illustration3 ,,suspension-,,bridge4 ,i have little if any doubt that the modern ,suspension-bridge1 with all its complicated mathematical proportions1 was originally suggested by the creepers of tropical climates4 ,there are few points in a tropical forest1 no matter in what part of the world1 more striking than the wonderful development of the creeping plants4 ,the trees are very much like those of our own forests1 and are in no way remarkable1 but the creeping plants form the chief feature of the woods4 ,they extend themselves to unknown lengths1 crawling up to the very summit of a lofty tree1 hanging down to the very ground1 if not caught by a midway branch1 running along the earth1 making their way up another tree1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,they interlace with each other1 forming almost impenetrable thickets1 as has already been mentioned while treating of ,nets1 and there is scarcely a tree that is not connected with its neighbour by means of these wonderful creeping plants4 ,of course the monkey tribes make great use of them in passing from one tree to another1 thus being able to avoid the ground1 which is never to a monkey's liking4 ,man1 therefore1 copies the example of the monkey1 and makes use1 either of the creepers themselves1 or of ropes stretched from tree to tree in imitation of them4 ,in some parts of the world1 where palm wine1 or 8toddy10 is manufactured1 the native has recourse to an ingenious device which saves a vast amount of exertion4 ,as the calabash which receives the juice of the palm-tree is always fixed at a considerable height1 and as each tree only yields a limited supply1 the toddy-maker would be obliged to ascend and descend a great number of trees before he could collect his supply of palm-juice4 ,in order to save himself trouble1 he has the ingenuity to connect the trees with each other by two ropes1 the one about six feet above the other4 ,he then has only to ascend once1 and descend once1 for he ascends one tree1 and by means of the ropes passes from tree to tree without needing to descend4 ,the mode of traversing these ropes is simple enough1 the lower rope serving as a bridge1 along which the man walks1 and the upper rope being held by the hands4 ,those who see these palm-wine makers for the first time are always greatly struck4 ,at some little distance the ropes are quite invisible1 and the man appears to be walking through the air without any support whatever4 ,in ,borneo the ,rattan is continually put in requisition as a bridge4 ,it runs to almost any length1 a hundred feet more or less being of little consequence2 it is lithe and pliant1 and so strong that it can hardly be broken4 ,the 8canes0 formerly so much in vogue among schoolmasters1 and now so generally repudiated1 are all cut from the ,rattan4 ,chiefly by means of this natural rope1 the ,dyak of ,borneo flings his rude suspension-bridges across chasms or rivers1 and really displays a wonderful amount of ingenuity in doing so4 ,the one fault of these bridges is their tendency to decay1 or perhaps to be eaten by the multitudinous wood-eating insects which swarm in that country4 ,however1 the materials cost nothing at all1 and time scarcely more1 so that when a bridge breaks down1 any man can fit up another at the expense of a few hours' work4 ,as1 moreover1 the ,dyaks have a curious way of building their houses on one side of a ravine1 they find that a bridge of this kind saves them the trouble of descending and ascending the ravine whenever they wish to visit their house4 ,in many parts of ,america the ,suspension-bridge is almost a necessity4 ,the country is broken up by vast clefts1 technically called 8caons40 ,these caons are ravines in the rocky ground1 with sides almost perpendicular4 ,for the greater part of the year they are dry1 but sometimes1 and without the least warning1 they become the beds of roaring torrents1 rising to some thirty or forty feet in height1 and carrying away everything before them4 ,over these ravines are thrown suspension-bridges made almost entirely of creepers1 and loosely floored with rough planks4 ,although they are very strong1 they appear to be very fragile1 and even under the tread of a human being swing and sway about in a manner that always shakes the nerves of one who is unaccustomed to them4 ,yet1 even the mules of the country can cross them1 the animals picking their way with the wonderful sure-footedness of their kind1 and not in the least affected by the swaying of the bridge4 ,passing from the vegetable to the animal world1 we revert to the ,driver-ants1 which have already been mentioned4 ,it has been seen that their soldier-ants can1 with their own bodies1 form a tunnel1 under the shade of which the workers can pass1 and we have now to see how they can1 with the same materials1 form a suspension-bridge4 ,it often happens that on their march they come to water1 and1 as they always advance with total disregard of difficulties1 they must needs invent some very ingenious way of overcoming the difficulty4 ,one of them climbs a branch which overhangs the water1 clasps the undermost twig very tightly1 and allows itself to hang from it4 ,another at once follows1 and suspends itself from its comrade in like manner1 the powerful and sicklelike jaws doing their duty as well as the legs4 ,a chain of ,ants is thus speedily formed4 ,when the lowermost ,ant touches the water1 it merely spreads all its legs1 and awaits the development of events4 ,another runs over it1 holds to the first ,ant by its hind-legs1 and stands in the water1 spreading its limbs as much as possible over the surface4 ,ant after ,ant descends1 until quite a long chain of the insects is formed1 and is swept downwards with the stream4 ,by slow degrees the chain is lengthened1 until the ,ants at its head are able to seize the bank on-the opposite side of the water4 ,when they have succeeded in doing so1 the bridge is complete1 and over that living bridge will pour a whole army of ,driver-ants4 ,even in those cases where this mode of travelling would be too perilous on account of the rapid torrent1 the ,ants contrive to suspend themselves in long strings until they effect a communication with the trees of the opposite bank4 ,it is1 perhaps1 needless to give more than a passing reference to the ,suspension-bridges made by ,spiders1 by means of which they can traverse considerable distances4 ,the similar bridge of the ,little ,ermine ,caterpillar has already been mentioned1 when treating of the subject of ,double ,walls4 ,,architecture ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,lighthouses4--,,the ,,dovetail4--,,the ,,dam4--,,subterranean ,,dwellings4--,,the ,,pyramid4--,,mortar1 ,,paint1 ,,and ,,varnish4 ,the ,eddystone ,lighthouse3 its ,position1 and the ,difficulties of building it4--,destruction of successive ,lighthouses4--,smeaton's ,idea of ,form borrowed from the ,tree-trunk4--,mode of building4--,rooting it into the ,rock4--,principle of the ,dovetail4--,bones of the ,human ,skull1 and their ,articulation4--,the ,dam1 and its ,uses to ,man4--,the ,lock and the ,water-mill4--,dam of the ,beaver3 its ,objects and ,mode of ,construction4--,popular ,errors with regard to the ,dam4--,subterranean ,dwellings4--,the ,indian ,palace1 and its ,use in ,summer4--,subterranean ,dwellings in ,kamschatka1 and their ,use in ,winter4--,the ,wood or ,horse ,ant1 and its double ,dwelling4--,the upper and lower ,nests used according to the ,amount of ,warmth required4--,section of the ,nest1 and a ,glimpse into its ,interior4--,the ,pyramid4--,derivation of its ,name4--,natural ,objects from which the ,form was derived4--,subaquatic ,mortar or ,cement1 and its ,use to ,man4--,subaquatic ,cement used by the ,caddis1 the ,stickleback1 the ,terebella1 the ,sabella1 the ,serpula1 and others4--,paint and ,varnish1 and their ,utility to ,man4--,propolis as used by the ,hive ,bee1 and the ,source whence it is obtained4 ,we now come to some points in ,architecture which cannot well be grouped together1 and must therefore be treated as ,miscellanea4 ,our first example is one which was avowedly based upon an imitation of ,nature1 namely1 the celebrated ,eddystone ,lighthouse1 and we shall see that in two points--first its form1 and next the mode in which the stones were fixed together--,nature had been closely followed by the architect4 ,unlike ordinary lighthouses1 this edifice had to be constructed so as to endure the full force of waves as well as wind4 ,a few miles from the southern coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall there is a rock which in former times greatly endangered the ships which passed along the ,channel4 ,several attempts were made to build a lighthouse on this dangerous spot4 ,winstanley's lighthouse1 which was finished in #agjj1 was wholly swept away three years later1 together with the architect himself1 and some workmen who were engaged in repairs4 ,so terrific is the force of the elements on this spot1 that the lighthouse was entirely destroyed1 and the only vestiges of it that were ever discovered were some iron bars and a piece of chain4 ,another lighthouse was built a few years afterwards1 but was burned down1 it being of wood instead of stone4 ,at last the work was put into the hands of ,smeaton1 who saw that he must build on a totally new plan4 ,he took for his model the trunk of a tree1 and determined to build his lighthouse of the same form as the tree-trunk1 and to fasten it into the rock just as a tree is fastened by its roots4 ,accordingly1 he struck out a new principle in the construction of such edifices1 and his model has been followed ever since4 ,the reader will see1 by a glance at the illustration1 how close is the resemblance in external form4 ,i may mention that the tree in question was sketched from one in a paddock opposite my house4 ,illustration3 ,,tree-,,trunk4 ,,eddystone ,,lighthouse4 ,having settled the form of the lighthouse1 and made it like a tree-trunk1 the next business was to fix it firmly in the rock1 and1 in fact1 to give it roots of stone4 ,for this purpose1 he made the base of the edifice as wide as the rock would allow1 so as to correspond with the wide base of a tree-trunk1 and traced a circle of about ninety feet in circumference4 ,instead1 however1 of merely laying the stones as is usually done1 or even letting them into holes cut in the rock1 he hit upon a singularly ingenious device1 whereby the building was practically a single stone4 ,instead of cutting the stones square or oblong1 as is usually done1 he had them made so as to 8dovetail0 into each other1 much after the fashion of a child's puzzle toy1 or the junctions at the edge of a box4 ,thus1 each stone fitted into those around it1 while the lowest tier was dovetailed in similar fashion into the rock4 ,illustration3 ,,sutures ,,of ,,skull ,,section ,,of ,,eddystone ,,lighthouse ,,dovetailed ,,box ,the stone employed was that which is called ,moorstone1 a very hard variety of granite4 ,each course of stones was carefully fitted together on shore1 and their accuracy tested1 and they were then taken to the ,eddystone rock1 and fixed in their places4 ,beside using these precautions1 ,smeaton fixed the stones in their place with the strongest cement1 and furthermore fastened the stones together and united the several courses by strong oak treenails and iron clamps4 ,as none of the stones weighed less than a ton1 and some of them were double that weight1 the strength of such an edifice may be imagined4 ,the accompanying illustration shows the arrangement of these dovetailed stones in one of the courses4 ,it will be seen that the central stone must be laid first1 and then the others arranged round it4 ,the whole edifice is rather more than eighty-five feet in height1 so that the elements have every chance of demolishing it1 as they did that of ,winstanley4 ,more than a hundred years have now passed since it was built1 and1 although the fury of the tempest has been such that the waves have washed completely over its summit1 it stands as firmly as it did when it was finished in #agfj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,whether the original inventor of the 8dovetail0 took his idea from ,nature ,i cannot say1 but he certainly might have done so4 ,on the left of the illustration is part of a human skull4 ,the skull is not1 as many persons seem to think1 made of a single bone1 but it is composed of many bones1 united by 8sutures10 which are1 in fact1 natural dovetails4 ,although in early life these sutures are comparatively loose1 they hold the various parts together so firmly1 that if the head be violently struck1 the bones may break1 but the sutures do not give way4 ,perhaps some of my readers may ask how it is possible to take a skull to pieces without cutting it or fracturing the sutures4 ,it is done in a way equally simple and ingenious4 ,the skull is filled through the opening with dried peas1 and then sunk under water4 ,the peas expand with the moisture1 and1 as they exert an equable force in all directions1 they slowly and quietly pull the sutures asunder1 without injuring the bones4 ,,the ,,dam4 ,in many human operations1 where a certain depth of water is required in a running stream1 the reasoning powers of man have enabled him to attain his object by building a dam1 or obstacle across the stream1 which forces the water to rise to its level before it can find a passage4 ,such1 for example1 are the ,locks which render rivers navigable1 and allow even the heavily laden barges to traverse miles of water which would otherwise have been closed to them4 ,those mills1 again1 which are worked by water need that a sufficient amount of water should be ready in order that it may by its weight force the wheel round4 ,such a ,dam is shown on the right hand of the illustration1 the height to which it raises the water being shown by the level of the stream below the ,dam1 and that of the water as it tumbles over in a miniature cascade4 ,putting aside the natural dams made by accumulations of the various debris that are washed down by a swollen stream1 and which sometimes raise the water to a very great height1 we have an example of a natural dam in the curious structure made by the ,beaver1 for the same purpose as that of the lock in the mill-stream1 namely1 to insure a depth of water sufficient for the needs of the beings that make them4 ,every one has heard of the ,beaver's dam1 but there is so much misconception on the subject1 that a few words will not be out of place4 ,ingenious as is the animal in the construction of its dam1 it is not nearly so accomplished an architect as was once supposed4 ,we were told in the earlier books of ,natural ,history that the ,beaver felled trees1 cut off their branches into convenient lengths1 and sharpened one end1 like an ordinary stake4 ,then they were said to drive the sharp end of the stakes into the bed of the river1 to set them side by side1 to interweave smaller branches among them1 and lastly1 to fill up the interstices with mud1 leaves1 and similar materials4 ,in fact1 they were supposed to build a 8wattle-and-daub0 wall1 like that which is in use at the present day in ,southern ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,dam ,,made ,,by ,,beaver4 ,,dam ,,made ,,by ,,man4 ,the ,beaver does nothing of the kind4 ,it needs a dam1 and it makes one which is far stronger than the wattle-and-daub could be4 ,it begins by felling a tree1 and letting it lie across the stream1 in some place where the banks are high and tolerably steep4 ,a bend of the river is usually chosen for the new dam4 ,should not the tree be long enough for the ,beaver's purpose1 two trees are felled1 one on either side1 so that their branches meet in the middle4 ,these branches1 and not any supposed stakes1 are really the upright supports of the dam4 ,the trees being thus laid1 the ,beaver cuts down branches from four to six feet in length1 and lays them horizontally among the boughs of the fallen trees4 ,having thus made the foundations1 so to speak1 of its dam1 the ,beaver then proceeds to fill in the spaces with roots1 grass-tufts1 leaves1 mud1 and1 indeed1 almost anything on which it can lay its paws4 ,after this1 the ,beaver has to take but little trouble1 for the stream itself becomes a silent1 slow1 but constant labourer1 lodging floating debris against the dam1 and making a sloping bank which much adds to its strength4 ,by degrees1 seeds that lodge on the dam spring into life1 and their roots act like chains1 binding the materials more closely together4 ,willow twigs too1 if they lodge on the dam and be left undisturbed1 are sure to 8strike10 as the gardeners say1 and further to bind the structure together4 ,it is evident1 from this short description1 that the lower part of the dam is more solid than the upper4 ,in fact1 the floods are tolerably sure to wash away some eight or ten inches of the upper part every year1 and the ,beavers have to make it afresh4 ,the height of these dams is not nearly so great as is generally supposed4 ,mr4 ,green1 a practical trapper1 states that the highest which he ever saw was only four feet six inches in height1 and that the average is under three feet4 ,the house of the ,beaver is made on the same principle as the dams4 ,every one knows that when sticks have been in the water for any length of time1 they become saturated and sink4 ,these sticks are chosen by the ,beaver as the material for its house1 and are laid horizontally in the water1 the heaviest being reserved for the roof1 so as to make it strong enough to ward off the attacks of predacious animals4 ,as with the dam1 mud1 leaves1 c41 are used to consolidate the edifice1 but no mud can be seen from the outside1 the animal always finishing off with a number of heavy logs laid on the roof4 ,,subterranean ,,dwellings4 ,i do not intend in this place to take up the whole subject of ,subterranean ,dwellings1 but only to point out cases where the use of the ,subterranean ,dwelling depends on the climate of the locality and the time of year1 it being sometimes used and sometimes neglected1 sometimes inhabited for the sake of warmth1 and sometimes for that of coolness4 ,in various parts of ,india there are some most remarkable ,subterranean ,dwellings4 ,they are more than mere dwellings1 and are1 in fact1 magnificent palaces1 sunk so deeply in the earth that very little more than their roofs appear aboveground4 ,when1 however1 a visitor descends the stairs that lead to the interior of the palace1 he finds it spacious1 and with tiers of chambers one below the other1 very much like the wasp-nest which has already been described4 ,nussur-ed-deen1 the second ,king of ,oude1 had several of these palaces1 but very seldom visited them1 he having endeavoured to ,europeanise himself as much as possible1 and to cast off his native customs4 ,he used occasionally to visit them1 but it was only out of etiquette1 and he never really lived in them4 ,illustration3 ,,subterranean ,,ants' ,,nest4 ,,subterranean ,,house ,,of ,,kamschatka4 ,however much he might have rejected the ancient customs1 it is evident that in this case1 at least1 he was punishing himself in rejecting these summer dwellings1 which are always cool1 and where1 if one set of apartments is too warm1 nothing is easier than to descend to the next4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,this dwelling is made for the sake of coolness in summer4 ,another subterranean dwelling is made for warmth in winter1 the non-conducting properties of the earth being in both cases brought into play4 ,this is the winter dwelling of the inhabitants of ,kamschatka4 ,during the summer-time the ,kamschatdales live in comparatively slight huts mounted on poles1 and having the floor some ten feet from the ground4 ,during the winter1 however1 they live in habitations of a very different character4 ,in order to make these houses1 they begin by digging a large hole in the ground1 about nine or ten feet in depth4 ,this they line with poles and sticks1 making1 in fact1 a wall as of a house4 ,a stout conical roof is then raised over the hole1 and upon the roof earth is thickly strewn and beaten down1 just as has been mentioned when treating of the ice-house4 ,the only access to this strange house is by a circular aperture in the centre of the conical roof1 serving at once the purpose of a door1 a chimney1 and a window4 ,a notched pole answers as a ladder1 a low wooden dais placed against the wall serves as a bed or a chair1 for there is no other1 and a few stones placed together act as a fireplace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in looking at both these subterranean dwellings1 ,i could not but be reminded of a very common insect which has a double dwelling1 one moiety being aboveground1 and the other moiety below it4 ,this is the common ,wood-ant 7,formica rufa71 whose large1 leafy hills are so plentiful in some of our woods4 ,on account of its size1 this species is sometimes called the ,horse-ant4 ,at first sight the nest looks something like a small haycock1 made entirely of chopped grass4 ,when examined more nearly1 it will be found to consist mostly of grass-stems1 little bits of stick1 and leaves4 ,those of the fir are in great request1 for when they are dry they are very light1 and their form enables the ,ant to interweave them with each other1 so as to form the necessary tunnels and galleries which line the interior of the nest4 ,the materials seem most unpromising1 but they are used with wonderful skill1 such as no human fingers could equal4 ,after a little while a number of entrances into the nest are visible4 ,they are almost invariably sheltered by projecting leaves1 which act as porches1 so that when the nest is viewed from above1 they are almost entirely hidden4 ,each of these openings runs into one of the main galleries of the nest1 and from thence issues a perfect labyrinth of passages4 ,this1 however1 is only half the nest1 for the galleries and tunnels extend far beneath the surface of the earth1 and have sundry enlarged portions or chambers wherein the immature pup may lie during their period of helplessness4 ,owing to the very loose structure of the upper nest1 and the tendency of the earth to fall into the galleries of the lower nest1 it is very difficult to obtain a trustworthy view of the interior4 ,perhaps ,i may here be allowed to extract a passage from my 8,insects at ,home10 the description of the nest and its interior having been written almost on the spot3-- 8,i have1 however1 succeeded in obtaining an excellent view into the interior of a ,wood-ants' nest1 though it was but a short one4 ,accompanied by my friend ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,b4 ,hancock1,b ,i was visiting some remarkably fine ,wood-ants' nests near ,bagshot4 ,we took with us a large piece of plate glass1 placed it edgewise on the top of an ,ant-hill1 and1 standing one at each side1 cut the nest completely in two1 leaving the glass almost wholly buried in it4 ,b ,now ,sir ,henry ,j4 ,burford ,hancock1 ,chief ,justice of ,gibraltar4 8,after the expiration of a few weeks1 during which time the ants could repair damages1 we returned to the spot1 and1 with a spade1 removed one side of the nest as far as the glass1 which then served as a window through which we could look into the nest4 ,it was really a wonderful sight4 8,the ,ant-hill was honeycombed into passages and cells1 in all of which the inhabitants were hurriedly running about1 being alarmed at the unwonted admission of light into their dwellings4 ,in some of the chambers the pup were treasured1 and these chambers were continually entered by ,ants1 which picked up the helpless pup1 and carried them to other parts of the nest where the unwelcome light had not shown itself4 8,unfortunately this view lasted only a short time4 ,owing to the partial decomposition of the vegetable substances of which the ,ants' nest is made1 the interior is always hot and always moist4 ,now1 the day on which we visited the nest happened to be a cold one1 and1 in consequence1 the moisture of the nest was rapidly condensed on the inner surface of the glass1 and in a few minutes completely hid the nest from view1 leaving me only time to make a rapid sketch4 ,unfortunately some one discovered the plate of glass and stole it4 8,next time that ,i examine a ,wood-ants' nest1 ,i shall take care to insert the glass exactly east and west1 and shall open its southern side towards noon on a hot sunshiny day1 so that the rays of the sun may warm the glass and prevent evaporation40 ,many other creatures make subterranean dwellings1 but the ,wood-ant is remarkable for possessing a double dwelling1 the two portions communicating with each other1 and capable of being used according to the degree of heat required4 ,,the ,,pyramid4 ,we have already seen how the ,eddystone lighthouse was the precursor of many similar buildings all1 like their predecessor1 having their form copied1 with more or less strictness1 from the outlines of a tree-stem4 ,illustration3 ,,natural ,,mountain4 ,illustration3 ,,artificial ,,mountain1 ,,or ,,pyramid4 ,another form of building which was intended for endurance1 and1 indeed1 is the most enduring of all shapes1 is the ,pyramid4 ,we are all familiar with the simple1 yet grand outlines of the ,pyramids of ,egypt1 whose vast antiquity takes us back to the times of ,isaac and ,joseph1 and which seem capable of resisting the effects of ,time1 the universal destroyer1 for thousands of years yet to come4 ,we may ask ourselves what was the natural object from which the ,pyramid was copied4 ,the name itself1 which is formed from a ,greek word signifying fire1 shows that a flame was thought to have furnished the idea of this form of building4 ,i cannot1 however1 but think that the flame had little1 if anything1 to do with it1 and that the real model may be found in the hills which have been formed by ,nature4 ,examples of the ,pyramids and the ,hills are given in the accompanying illustration4 ,,subaquatic ,,mortar4--,,paint ,,and ,,varnish4 ,having now disposed of the chief points in ,architecture1 we take some of the subsidiary details4 ,of late years1 when the traffic between different continents has so largely extended itself1 and when shipping has increased both in the numbers and dimensions of the vessels1 it is absolutely necessary that we should have harbours and docks enlarged and multiplied sufficiently to meet the calls upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,caddis4 ,,terebella4 ,,serpula4 ,,submarine ,,mortar4 ,now1 it is comparatively easy to construct a building on shore1 for all the mortars and cements which are used for the purpose of fastening the stones together are applied when wet1 and incorporate themselves with the stones as they dry4 ,but to make a mortar which could be applied while the stones were under water1 and would 8set0 while beneath the surface1 was a task not easily to be overcome4 ,yet it has been done so effectively that at the present day we can build beneath the surface of the water as securely1 though not as rapidly1 as if the stones had been laid on dry ground4 ,several such mortars are now known1 and1 as is so often the case with human inventions1 have been anticipated in ,nature4 ,we have already seen how the ,caddis-worm of the fresh waters can cement together1 while under water1 the various materials of which its tubular house is formed4 ,the different ,sticklebacks perform similar feats1 no matter whether they inhabit fresh or salt water4 ,all those who take an interest in the productions of the seashore will have noticed upon our coasts the flexible tube of the ,terebella1 with its curiously fringed ends4 ,this tube1 as any one may see at a glance1 is composed of grains of sand and similar materials1 fastened strongly together by a kind of cement exuded from the worm1 and possessing the property of hardening under water4 ,as on some of our coasts fragments of shell are used for the tube1 the worm goes by the popular name of ,shell-binder4 ,if one of these worms be taken out of its tube1 placed in a vessel with sea-water and a quantity of sand1 broken shells1 and little pebbles1 the mode of building will soon be seen4 ,at the extremity of the head are a number of extremely mobile tentacles1 and these are stretched about in all directions1 seizing upon the particles of sand and shell1 seeming to balance them as if to decide whether they are suitable for the tube1 and then fixing them one by one with the cement which has already been mentioned4 ,generally speaking1 the ,terebella works only in the evening1 but1 if it be hastily deprived of its tube1 it cannot help itself1 and is perforce obliged to work while it can4 ,it is worthy of remark that the ,terebella1 although1 as a rule1 it lives in a tube all its life1 is capable of swimming with the usual serpentine motion of marine worms1 and1 when taken out of its tube1 rushes about violently1 and soon exhausts itself by its efforts4 ,along most of our rocky seashores may be seen vast quantities of a sort of hardened sand1 penetrated with small tubes4 ,on a closer examination this sand-mass is resolved into a congeries of tubes1 matted and twisted together1 and each being the habitation of a marine worm called the ,sabella4 ,this name is derived from a ,latin word signifying sand1 and is given to the worm in allusion to the material of which it makes its habitation4 ,like the ,terebella1 the ,sabella uses its tentacles for the purpose of building the tubes1 which are much stiffer than those of the ,terebella4 ,they are strong enough1 indeed1 to give the feet a firm hold while traversing the rocks1 and this1 is a matter of no small moment when the tide is coming in1 and the shore has to be regained without loss of time4 ,then we have other marine worms1 known as ,triquetra and ,serpula1 which make tubes in a somewhat similar manner1 but of very fine materials and very strong cement1 so that the tube is nearly as hard as stone4 ,space would fail me if ,i were to enumerate these creatures at greater length1 but enough has been said to show that man's invention of subaquatic cement has been anticipated in ,nature by the inhabitants both of salt and fresh water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to the subject of ,paint and ,varnish4 ,putting aside their use as a means to increase the beauty of the object to which they are applied1 we will view them in the light of preservatives1 and acknowledge the truth of the old ,dutch proverb1 that 8,paint costs nothing40 ,certainly1 when the wood to which it is applied is thoroughly dry from within1 it not only costs nothing1 but repays itself over and over again as a preservative of the wood1 and a defence against moisture from without4 ,the instances in which ,paint is applied to wood are too numerous to be mentioned4 ,perhaps some of my readers may remember the case of the naval captain who1 on taking command of his ship1 was supplied1 according to custom1 with exactly half the amount of paint required for her4 ,the invariable etiquette had been that the captain supplied the remaining half at his own cost4 ,but the officer in question was not at all disposed to be 8put upon10 and was a thorn in the sides of the 8,naval ,lords40 ,finding1 by actual measurement1 that the paint supplied to him was only half the amount which was really needed for the ship1 he sent his respectful compliments to the ,admiralty1 asking whether they wished the port or the starboard side of the ship to be painted1 for that there was only enough paint for one half of the ship1 and he awaited instructions as to which side of the vessel it was to be applied4 ,he was impervious to 8minutes10 8directions10 c41 and1 as far as ,i remember1 this very impracticable man got his way1 and was supplied with the requisite amount of paint4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,long before man ever invented paint or varnish the ,hive ,bee had made use of it4 ,every one who has kept bees knows how they always fasten the edge of the hive to the board1 and stop up any crevices that may be left open4 ,the material which they use for this purpose is not wax1 but a substance called 8propolis40 ,this term is composed of two ,greek words1 signifying a suburb1 or the outskirts of a town1 and is given to this stationary substance in consequence of the use which is made of it4 ,illustration3 ,,bee ,,varnishing ,,cells4 ,illustration3 ,,painter ,,varnishing ,,wood4 ,not only do the bees use it for fastening the hives1 but also for strengthening their combs4 ,wax is a very precious material1 and the beautiful hexagonal structure of the bee-comb is intended for the purpose of combining the greatest amount of storing space with the least expenditure of material4 ,the plates of wax of which the cells are composed are so thin that their edges would break down even under the feet of the bees as they passed over it1 and accordingly the bees strengthen the edges of the cells with propolis1 as any one may see by examining a piece of bee-comb4 ,the propolis is of a darker colour than the wax1 and has a peculiar varnish-like appearance4 ,the propolis1 as distinguished from wax1 is mentioned by ,virgil in his ,georgics3-- 8,collectumque hc ipsa ad munera gluten ,et visco et ,phrygi servant pice lentius ,id40--,georg4 iv4 #dj4 ,it is evident that the propolis cannot be obtained from the same source as the wax4 ,the latter is secreted by the bees under little plates or flaps upon the abdomen1 while the propolis is purely a vegetable exudation4 ,it is obtained from many trees1 the principal being the horse chestnut4 ,all who have handled the buds of this tree are aware that they are covered with a viscous and very adhesive matter1 which serves as a varnish or protection to the bud before the leaves are strong enough to break out4 ,this is the material which the bees gather for their propolis1 and at certain times of the year the chestnuts may be seen swarming with bees1 all busily engaged in scraping off the varnish4 ,,tools4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,digging-,,stick4--,,spade4--,,shears ,,and ,,scissors4--,,chisel ,,and ,,adze4--,,the ,,plane ,,and ,,spokeshave4 ,the ,use of ,tools a ,distinction between ,man and ,beast4--,all ,men1 however savage1 use ,tools1 but none of the lower ,animals can do so until taught by ,man4--,tools needed to break up the ,ground4--,the ,digging-stick of savage ,life3 its ,use and its ,efficacy in practised ,hands4--,digging-sticks in ,nature4--,the ,heart-urchin1 and its ,mode of digging in the ,sand4--,the ,spade3 its ,shapes and ,uses4--,natural ,spades4--,fore-foot of the ,mole and ,mole-cricket4--,the ,aard-vark1 the ,ant-eater1 and the ,mattock4--,shears and ,scissors a ,sign of ,civilisation1 never being employed by ,savages4--,mechanical ,principle of ,scissors1 the ,inclined ,plane1 the ,lever1 and the ,cutting ,edge4--,chinese ,shears and the ,pruning ,scissors4--,use of the ,inclined ,plane4--,the ,diagonal ,knife of the ,guillotine4--,the ,shears in ,iron-works4--,the 8,drawing ,cut0 of ,swordsmen4--,jaws of the ,turtle and ,tortoise4--,the ,snapping ,turtle and the ,chicken ,tortoise4--,the ,locust1 the ,cockchafer ,grub1 the ,great ,green ,grasshopper1 and the ,wart-biter4--,the ,leaf-cutter ,bees and their ,nests4--,the ,chisel and ,adze4--,structure of ,rodent ,tooth and ,chisel4--,use of the hard ,plate of ,enamel or ,steel4--,combination of hard and soft ,materials4--,teeth of ,hippopotamus and ,hyrax4--,principle of the ,adze4--,self-sharpening and ,self-renewing ,tools4--,the ,plane and ,spokeshave4--,principle on which they are made4--,the ,spokeshave and its ,uses4--,the 8,guard0 ,razor4--,the ,hoop-shaver ,bee and its ,nest4--,its natural ,plane1 and the ,use which is made of it4 ,among the many points of distinction between man and the lower animals1 we may consider the use of tools as one of the principal lines of demarcation4 ,man stands absolutely alone in this respect4 ,there is no race of savages1 however degraded they may be1 that does not employ tools of some kind1 and there is no beast1 however intelligent1 that ever used a tool except when instructed by man4 ,as to the stories that are told of the larger apes using sticks and stones by way of weapons1 they are absolutely without foundation1 no animal employing any tool or weapon save those given to them by ,nature4 ,it is true that a monkey may sometimes be seen to take a stone for the purpose of cracking nuts which are too strong for its teeth1 and to perform that task with great deftness2 but such animals have always been taught by man1 and had they remained in their own country1 not one of them would have used a stone1 were the nuts ever so hard4 ,,the ,,spade4 ,we will begin our notice of tools by taking that which must have been the first tool invented by man4 ,one of the principal duties assigned to man is the culture of the earth1 and this he cannot do without tools1 increasing their number and improving their structure in proportion to his own development in agriculture4 ,before seed can be sown1 it is necessary that the earth should be broken up1 and1 owing to the structure of the human frame1 this task cannot be fulfilled by man without a tool which will enable him to rival many of the lower animals1 i4e4 make use of those digging appliances which have been furnished by ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,heart-,,urchin4 ,,digging-,,stick4 ,it is evident that the first earth-breaking tool must have been a pointed stick1 and we find that in ,southern ,africa1 in parts of ,asia1 and in ,australia the ,digging-stick is still in use for the purpose of breaking up the ground4 ,the ,australians are wonderful adepts in the use of the ,digging-stick1 which is one of the simplest of instruments1 being merely a stick some two feet in length1 pointed at one end1 and the point hardened in the fire4 ,the mode of using it is by holding it perpendicularly1 pecking it into the ground1 and throwing out the loosened soil with the hands4 ,in this way they can excavate with such rapidity1 that a strong navvy1 armed with the best spade1 would not be able to keep pace with a black man armed only with his 8katta10 or digging-stick4 ,in ,africa the ,digging-stick is used in exactly the same manner1 and is generally made more weighty and effective by having a perforated stone fastened on the handle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,here1 again1 man has been anticipated by ,nature1 and the savage of ,australia or ,africa digs in exactly the same manner as the common ,heart-urchin of our shores1 sometimes called the ,hairy ,urchin1 in consequence of the number and fineness of the spines1 which look just like hairs to the naked eye4 ,the scientific name of this creature is ,amphidotus cordatus4 ,mr4 ,gosse1 in his 8,evenings at the ,microscope10 gives so admirable an account of the mode of digging employed by the ,hairy ,urchin that ,i cannot do better than employ his own words4 ,after describing the variety of structure of the different spines with which the shell is so thickly set1 he proceeds as follows3-- 8,but what is the need of so much care being bestowed upon the separate motion of these thousands of hair-like spines1 that each should have a special structure1 with special muscles for its individual movement8 ,the hairs of our head we cannot move individually3 why should the ,heart-urchin move his80 8,truly1 these hairs are the feet with which he moves4 ,the animal inhabits the sand at the bottom of the sea in our shallow bays1 and burrows in it4 ,by going carefully1 with the lens at your eye1 over the shell1 you perceive that the spines1 though all formed on a common model1 differ considerably in the detail of their form4 ,i have shown you what may be considered the average shape1 but in some1 especially the finer ones that clothe the sides1 the club is slender and pointed2 in others1 as in those behind the mouth1 which are the largest and coarsest of all1 the club is dilated into a long1 flat spoon2 while in the long1 much-bowed spines1 which densely crowd upon the back1 the form is almost uniformly taper throughout1 and pointed40 8,the animal sinks into the sand mouth downwards4 ,the hard spoons behind the mouth come first into requisition1 scooping away the sand1 each acting individually1 and throwing it outwards4 ,observe how beautifully they are arranged for this purpose1 diverging from the median line1 with the curve backwards and outwards4 8,similar is the arrangement of the slender side spines2 their curve is still more backwards1 the tips arching uniformly outwards4 ,they take1 indeed1 exactly the curve which the fore-paws of a mole possess1--only in a retrograde direction1 since the ,urchin sinks backwards1--which has been shown to be so effective for the excavation of the soil1 and the throwing of it outwards4 8,finally1 the long spines on the back are suited to reach the sand on each side1 when the creature has descended to its depth1 and by their motion work it in again1 covering and concealing the industrious and effective miner40 ,the reader will notice that this mode of digging is exactly like that which is followed by the users of the ,digging-stick1 the earth being first broken up1 and the loosened portions thrown aside4 ,the whole of the description of the spines is exceedingly interesting1 but1 as it does not bear directly on the present subject1 ,i cannot admit it into these pages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now comes another development in digging tools4 ,we have already seen how effective an instrument a mere piece of stick can be in the hands of a skilful workman1 and the manner in which it can tear up a given depth of soil4 ,but1 for agricultural purposes1 something more is needed1 and the ground must not only be broken up1 but a certain regularity must be observed1 in order to allow space to be accurately measured1 and the crop apportioned to the area4 ,out of the ,digging-stick1 then1 the ,spade was developed1 its chief advantage being that it dispensed with the use of the bare hands1 and not only tore up the ground1 but threw out the loosened soil4 ,the reader will remember that in the preceding description of the ,heart-urchin it was mentioned that many of the spines are shaped at their ends something like spoons1 and that their comparatively wide blades are used in scraping the sand and shovelling it aside4 ,in fact1 these flattened spines are natural spades1 used on the same principle as the modern spade of civilisation4 ,on the right hand of the illustration are shown two forms of spade1 the one being the ordinary garden tool1 and the other a rather curious implement which is in great use among the metal mines of ,cornwall4 ,the use of the ordinary spade is too familiar to need explanation1 and we come to the ,miner's spade4 ,this implement is used rather as a shovel than as a spade1 the peculiar bend near the blade preventing the foot from being used as a means of forcing the instrument into the ground4 ,in fact1 it is not meant for the same office as that which pertains to the ordinary spade1 neither can it be handled in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,,foot ,,of ,,aard-,,vark4 ,,foot ,,of ,,mole-,,cricket4 ,,spades4 ,,foot ,,of ,,mole4 ,in ,devonshire there is a kind of spade in general use very much resembling the mining spade1 but having a very long handle without any crutch at the end4 ,the natural consequence of this shape is1 that the spade cannot be used in the ordinary way1 neither can it penetrate the earth to any depth4 ,it can 8peel0 the ground1 so to speak1 and can cut away successive layers of soil4 ,but as for digging 8two spits deep10 or even one spit1 the spade would be absolutely incapable of such a task1 no matter how strong might be the hands that wield it4 ,as for the foot1 it may be put out of the question4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now turn to a few examples of spades in the world of ,nature4 ,the lowest figure represents the fore-paw of the ,mole1 with its powerful armature of strong and sharp claws1 and its broad blade of a palm4 ,the reader will easily see that in this animal the digging powers are wonderfully developed4 ,the peculiar form of the fore-foot closely resembles that of the miner's spade1 while the curvature of the palm serves1 almost without exertion1 to throw out the earth which has been scooped away by the sharp claws4 ,to watch a ,mole burrow is really a curious sight1 the only drawback being that the animal sinks itself so rapidly beneath the earth that a long inspection is impossible4 ,i have kept several moles for the purpose of watching their habits1 and have always been interested in their mode of burrowing4 ,i can only define it by using the word 8scrabbling40 ,the animal scurries and hurries about1 seeking for a tolerably soft piece of ground4 ,when it has found one1 it travels no further1 but scratches away with its fore-paws with wonderful power and rapidity1 seeming to sink1 as it were1 into the earth1 rather than to excavate a tunnel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is an insect well known to entomologists1 called the ,mole-cricket1 because its structure and many of its habits are strangely similar to those of the animal from which it derives its name4 ,at the upper part of the illustration is seen a portion of the fore-foot of the ,mole-cricket1 and a better implement of excavation can hardly be imagined4 ,the reader will probably have noticed that in both these creatures the spade1 if we may so call it1 is not a mere flat plate1 but is cleft into several points4 ,it thus answers the purpose of a fork as well as a spade1 the several points serving to break up the soil1 and the flat palm to throw the earth aside4 ,this principle is carried out even more fully in the fore-paw of the ,african ,ant-bear1 or ,aard-vark 7,orycteropus ,capensis71 a figure of which is given in the illustration4 ,this animal is a great excavator1 living in burrows of such dimensions that the wild boar is in the habit of making its home in them after they are deserted4 ,something more1 however1 than a digging apparatus is needed for the ,ant-bear4 ,this animal feeds almost wholly on the ,termites1 which it obtains by tearing down the walls of their dwellings4 ,now1 as these wonderful buildings are nearly as hard as brick1 and1 indeed1 are composed of the same materials1 it is necessary that the claws of the ,ant-bear should be modified so as to be able to break through the walls4 ,accordingly1 they are much more curved than those of the ,mole and the ,mole-cricket1 and so serve for tearing as well as digging1 being struck into the wall1 and thus pulling it down1 just as a labourer breaks down a bank with his mattock4 ,indeed1 had we wished to extend these analogies still further1 we might easily have given the claws of the ,aard-vark as a prototype of our ,english mattock4 ,the same weapons as possessed by the ,ant-bear of tropical ,america are used in exactly the same manner1 but are even stronger1 and extend to such a length that when the animal walks1 it cannot stretch its claws out in front1 but is obliged to double them under its feet4 ,,shears ,,and ,,scissors4 ,these instruments are sure signs of civilisation1 no savage nations having the least idea of them4 ,even the ,kafir and ,esquimaux tribes1 which are such admirable workers in skin1 never use scissors in shaping their garments1 but invariably employ knives for that purpose4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 seem to have known scissors from time immemorial1 and to have shaped them almost exactly like our own instruments4 ,i possess one pair of tailor's shears from ,china in which there is only one ring1 namely1 that for the thumb4 ,the place of the other ring is taken by an elongated1 slightly curved and moderately pointed rod of steel1 which is used for tracing the pattern on the material preparatory to cutting it4 ,simple as the scissors may seem1 they combine several very important principles1 namely1 the inclined plane1 the lever1 and the cutting edge4 ,were they to be merely two edges moving directly upon each other1 their effect would be comparatively slight2 but1 owing to the manner in which the blades are fixed at one end1 they are drawn as it were over the object between them1 and so divide it with comparative ease4 ,in some instruments1 such as the pruning scissors1 there is only one cutting blade1 the other being used merely as a support for the branch which is being cut4 ,a well-known example of a single cutting blade is found in the guillotine4 ,in the earliest times of this invention an ordinary axe-head was suspended above the neck of the criminal4 ,it was found1 however1 that its operation was very uncertain1 simply because the blow was a direct one1 and not oblique4 ,the blade was then set obliquely1 as in the present machine1 and its effect was absolutely certain4 ,perhaps some of my readers may be swordsmen1 and therefore know the power of the 8drawing cut10 by which a great effect may be produced with very little apparent exertion4 ,even in the simple operation of cutting bread we always use the knife diagonally1 though perhaps we may be ignorant of the principle of the inclined plane4 ,next comes the principle of the lever1 as exemplified by the handles of the scissors4 ,by lengthening these handles1 the power of the blades is enormously increased1 as may be seen in the various shears in any great iron-works1 which cut through thick iron as if it were butter4 ,our own garden shears for trimming borders show very well the power of the long arms and short blade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the animal world we find many examples of natural shears1 one of the best of which is afforded by the jaws of the ,tortoise or ,turtle4 ,owing to the manner in which they feed1 whether they be vegetarians or carnivorous1 their jaws are made for cutting1 and not for lacerating or mastication4 ,they have no teeth1 but each jaw is furnished with a horny edge1 as sharp as a knife-blade1 and very strongly made4 ,with these jaws the animal can shred to pieces the objects which it attacks1 just as if it had been furnished with a pair of veritable shears4 ,any one who has possessed an ordinary ,tortoise must have noticed the havoc which it will occasionally make in a garden4 ,i had one of these reptiles for some years1 and was obliged to keep it under restraint1 in consequence of the power of its jaws4 ,being a ,tortoise of discrimination1 it took a great fancy to the strawberry beds1 and invariably picked out the ripest and best-flavoured fruit4 ,reversing the usual proverb of making two bites at a cherry1 the ,tortoise always took two bites at a strawberry1 and sometimes three or four1 according to its size4 ,at last1 ,i was obliged to restrain it by boring a hole in the edge of its shell1 passing one end of a string through it1 and fastening the other to a peg driven into the ground4 ,at first1 ,i tied the string to a brick1 but the ,tortoise was so strong that it dragged the brick about the garden1 leaving reminiscences of its progress in the channels which it had cut through all kinds of vegetation with its scissor-like jaws4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,turtle4 ,illustration3 ,,shears4 ,the reader1 in comparing the illustration of the ,turtle-jaws with that of the ,shears1 will see at once how exact is the analogy between the two4 ,the sharp-edged jaws correspond with the blades of the shears1 the joint at the skull corresponds with the pivot of the shears1 and the muscles which move the jaws1 but which could not be shown in the present illustration1 are the prototypes of the handles4 ,in some of these creatures1 especially those which are carnivorous1 the power of the jaw is tremendous4 ,one of them1 a ,snapping ,turtle1 has been known to bite off several fingers of a man's hand as easily as if they had been carrots4 ,some years ago ,i kept some ,chicken ,tortoises alive1 and was much struck with the enormous proportionate power of their jaws4 ,they were quite little creatures1 only a few inches in length1 but their appetites were astonishing1 and their mode of satisfying their hunger remarkable4 ,they were always ravenous after meat1 and had a curious way of seizing their food in their mouths1 placing one paw on either side of their jaws1 and then pushing the meat forcibly away1 so as to cut out a slice as large as their jaws4 ,they were very good-tempered little things1 but1 small though they were1 ,i should have been very sorry to have one of them take a bite at my finger by mistake4 ,knowing their general characteristics1 ,i took care not to have any living creature in the same vessel4 ,but ,i have heard1 from those who have had practical experience1 that ,chicken ,tortoises ought to be banished from any place wherein fish are kept1 especially if they be gold fish1 the ,tortoise having a way of coming quietly beneath them1 biting out a mouthful of their bodies1 and then disappearing with its booty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beside the ,tortoise1 there are many creatures which possess natural shears1 such as the ,locust1 whose ravages are only too notorious4 ,then1 taking our own country1 we have plenty of examples of insect shears4 ,such is to be found in the jaws of the ,cockchafer larva1 or 8,white ,grub0 as it is popularly called4 ,it lives underground1 and feeds chiefly on the roots of herbage1 shredding them to pieces with its shear-like jaws4 ,and1 as it spends on the average three years in the one task of perpetual eating1 the damage which it does can be easily imagined4 ,there is a very pretty ,english insect which admirably exemplifies the power of the natural scissors4 ,this is the ,great ,green ,grasshopper 7,acrida viridissima71 which is equally voracious in all its stages of existence4 ,it is always ready to use these jaws1 and ,i do not recommend the reader to allow his finger to get between them1 or their points will probably meet4 ,one of these insects1 indeed 7,decticus griseus71 has derived the name of ,wart-biter from its supposed use in curing warts4 ,all that was needful was to catch a ,wart-biter1 and hold one of the warts to its jaws4 ,it was sure to seize the wart1 and bite it smartly1 and there was a firm belief that any one thus bitten would be freed from the unsightly excrescence4 ,the bite of the shear-like jaws caused much pain at the time1 and this very pain had in all probability something to do with the cure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an admirable example of the insect jaws used as scissors is to be found in the well-known ,leaf-cutter ,bees1 insects belonging to the genus ,megachile4 ,they make their nests in burrows1 sometimes in wood1 and sometimes in the ground1 and form them in a very singular manner4 ,after fixing upon a suitable burrow1 the ,bee goes off to a tree1 generally a rose1 and1 using her jaws just as a tailor uses his shears1 cuts off a nearly semicircular piece of leaf1 flies away with it to her home1 and1 by dint of bending1 pushing1 and pulling it1 she forces it to the bottom of the cell4 ,successive pieces of leaf follow1 until she has made a thimble-shaped cell1 and she then places at its end an egg and a supply of honey and pollen4 ,cell after cell succeeds1 each being introduced into its predecessor just as thimbles are packed4 ,judging from a specimen in my collection1 there are about eight layers of leaves to form the walls of the cell1 and the average length of each piece of leaf rather exceeds half an inch4 ,the entire length of the cell-group is two inches and a half4 ,the leaf-slices are always cut from the edge1 and1 in my specimen of the nest1 the serrated outer edges of the leaves are all in one direction4 ,should any of my readers find one of these nests1 it will be as well for them to dip a needle point into diamond cement1 and introduce it under the outermost coating of leaves4 ,otherwise1 when the leaves are dry1 and the insects break their way into the open air1 the cells will probably fall to pieces4 ,these ,bees are much more abundant than is usually thought4 ,in summer-time it is hardly possible to find a rose-bush on which are not a number of leaves from which pieces of variable size and shape1 but always with a curved outline1 have been cut as with scissors4 ,while cutting them1 the ,bee seems to trace out her pattern1 as it were1 by using her feet like one leg of a pair of compasses1 and her head as the other leg4 ,as soon as she has nearly finished the operation1 she poises herself on the wing1 to prevent her weight from tearing away the leaf irregularly1 and then1 while still on the wing1 makes the last few bites1 and severs the leaf entirely4 ,,the ,,chisel ,,and ,,the ,,adze4 ,already we have seen how exact is the analogy between the scissors and the turtle-jaw4 ,as we are upon the subject of cutting instruments1 we will continue it1 trying to discover some further analogies4 ,on the right hand of the illustrations we see three cutting tools made by human hands--i4e4 the ,chisel1 the ,stone ,adze of ,polynesia1 and the ,steel ,adze of this country4 ,we begin with the ,chisel4 ,all those who have even a slight knowledge of anatomy know how curiously exact is the resemblance of the ,chisel of civilised life to the front tooth of any ,rodent animal4 ,the head of the ,beaver is here given as an example1 but the tooth of a mouse1 rat1 or rabbit1 which can easily be obtained1 is quite as good an example4 ,these teeth are made after a very beautiful fashion4 ,their outer surface is covered with a plate of very hard enamel1 while the rest of the tooth is of bony matter1 and comparatively soft4 ,consequently1 when the tooth is used1 the enamel plate forms a sharp edge1 while the rest of it is worn away1 thus keeping the chisel-like end in its proper form4 ,illustration3 ,,tooth ,,and ,,jaws ,,of ,,beaver4 ,illustration3 ,,chisel4 ,the power of these teeth may be appreciated by any one who has been bitten even by so small a rodent as a mouse1 the sharp edges meeting in the flesh1 and causing a very painful wound4 ,when the teeth are large1 as in the ,beaver1 and the jaws powerful1 their force is something wonderful1 tree-trunks of considerable size being cut down quite easily4 ,perhaps some of my readers may not be aware that the ,chisel is constructed on exactly the same principle as the tooth of the ,rodent animal4 ,it is not entirely made of steel1 as is generally thought4 ,in the first place1 a valuable material would be needlessly wasted1 and1 in the next place1 the tool would not keep its edge except with infinite labour in grinding4 ,the principal part of the ,chisel-blade is therefore made of soft iron1 a very thin plate of steel running along the back4 ,this plate answers the same purpose as the enamel in the tooth1 while the soft iron takes the place of the soft bone4 ,axe-blades1 which are1 in fact1 formed like two chisels placed back to back1 are made on a similar principle1 except that the steel plate occupies the centre of the blade1 and the soft iron is on either side4 ,thus the thin plate of steel is easily brought to an edge1 while the soft iron can be ground away without any difficulty4 ,i do not mean to state that the inventor of this combination of thin steel and soft iron had taken his idea from the ,rodent tooth1 but only to show that the invention1 beautiful1 simple1 and ingenious as it is1 has its prototype in ,nature4 ,i may here mention that the ,plane-iron1 which is1 in fact1 a modified ,chisel1 is made in exactly the same fashion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next we come to the ,adze4 ,illustration3 ,,adze-,,teeth ,,of ,,hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,adze ,,of ,,polynesia4 ,,steel ,,adze4 ,in some respects there is much resemblance between the blade of the ,adze and the teeth of the ,rodent1 especially in their curve1 which is almost identical in both4 ,this form is seen in the structure of other teeth than those of ,rodents4 ,there is1 for example1 the tooth of the ,hippopotamus1 which is not only curved1 like that of the ,rodent1 but bevelled off in a similar way at the tip4 ,with these formidable teeth1 one of which is now before me1 the ,hippopotamus makes terrible havoc among the herbage1 mowing it down1 so to speak1 and stowing it away wholesale in its enormous stomach4 ,a ,hippopotamus indeed1 when angered1 has been known to sever a man's body completely in two with a single bite1 so trenchant are the teeth1 and so powerful the jaws4 ,then there is a little animal called the ,hyrax1 or ,rock-rabbit1 which is the coney of ,scripture4 ,this creature is really one of the pachydermatous group1 although its small size1 hairy coat1 its activity among the rocks1 and its apparently rodent teeth1 have induced many persons to place it among that group4 ,these teeth1 however1 like those of the ,hippopotamus1 are bevelled off at their tips1 and1 as they perform a similar office1 they take a similar curve4 ,it is worthy of notice that in the ,stone ,adze the bevelled edge much more resembles the rodent tooth than does the ,steel ,adze1 the reason being evidently that stone is more fragile than steel1 and requires greater thickness4 ,still1 the principle is the same in both1 only the metal is more attenuated than the stone4 ,the ,rodent or ,hippopotamus tooth has still a great advantage over any chisel or adze made by man1 whether of stone or metal4 ,as our tools are blunted1 we are forced to spend much time in sharpening them1 and by degrees grind the tool away until it becomes useless4 ,now1 the teeth are so arranged that their perpetual use1 instead of blunting1 only sharpens them1 and in proportion as they are worn away in front they are supplied with fresh matter from behind1 and perpetually pushed forwards1 so that they are self-renewing as well as self-sharpening4 ,,the ,,plane ,,and ,,spokeshave4 ,i have already made mention of the ,plane in connection with the ,chisel1 and shown that1 like that tool1 it is formed on the same principle as the ,rodent tooth4 ,the use of this important instrument in carpentering cannot be overrated1 as is shown by the numberless varieties which are used by carpenters1 and the different uses to which they are put1 sometimes merely smoothing a level surface1 and sometimes forming a 8moulding0 where ornament is required4 ,in principle1 a ,plane is a cutting edge or chisel1 pushed along the object to be worked1 and1 the edge being guarded1 taking off a very thin shaving from the surface4 ,on the right hand of the accompanying illustration is shown the ,plane in action1 with the thin shavings falling from it in curled masses4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have visited some of the great iron-works1 and been struck with the use of the ,plane as applied to metal instead of wood1 long iron shavings being taken off as easily as if they were deal1 and curling in just the same manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is an instrument very familiar to carpenters1 called the ,spokeshave1 on account of its use in trimming the spokes of wheels4 ,different as it may be in appearance1 it is identical in principle with the plane1 having an edge guarded by a piece of wood1 so that the blade cannot cut too deeply into the object on which it is employed4 ,the chief distinction1 indeed1 is1 that the workman1 instead of pushing the blade from him1 draws it to him4 ,illustration3 ,,hoop-,,shaver ,,bee4 ,illustration3 ,,plane4 ,,spokeshave4 ,when shaving was more in fashion than it is in these more sensible days1 there were many inventions to lessen the trouble1 not to say the perils1 of shaving4 ,to use the razor in a hurry was anything but an agreeable occupation1 especially if the weather were frosty1 and the fingers so chilled that they hardly knew whether or not they had the razor between them4 ,in order to render this very unpleasant task less disagreeable1 some ingenious individual invented the ,guard ,razor4 ,the principal part of the invention consisted in a plate of metal sufficiently thin not to add materially to the weight of the razor1 and sufficiently strong to resist a moderate amount of pressure4 ,this was fixed along the blade of the razor in such a way that it just allowed the edge to show itself1 and1 in fact1 converted the razor into a plane or spokeshave4 ,the exact amount of edge which might be shown was regulated by screws1 and the guard itself could be removed at pleasure1 so as to allow of the razor being sharpened4 ,now let us see if we can find any examples of the ,plane or ,spokeshave in ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,trace at least one example of the ,plane in the insect world4 ,more than a hundred years ago1 that very observant naturalist1 ,gilbert ,white1 noticed a bee performing a curious task4 ,she was running up the stem of the garden campion1 holding her jaws extended1 and stripping off the down with all the dexterity of a hoop-shaver4 ,she collected a bundle nearly as large as herself1 and then flew away with it4 ,what she did with her burden he knew not1 but the history of the insect has been told fully1 though briefly1 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,smith1 in his 8,catalogue of ,british ,hymenoptera30-- 8,although the species belonging to this genus are numerous1 and are found both in the ,old and ,new ,world1 there is only one found in this country1 ,anthidium manicatum2 this is truly a summer bee1 not making its appearance before the latter part of ,june or beginning of ,july4 8,this insect1 so far as my own observation has enabled me to ascertain1 does not construct its own burrow1 but makes use of any hole which is adapted to its purpose4 ,i once detected a bee entering the hole above the wheel of the sash-line in a summer-house2 but its nests are most commonly formed in the holes bored in old willow stumps by ,cossus ligniperda 7the ,goat-moth73 formerly they were easily obtained in ,battersea ,fields1 where the willows abounded4 8,it is probable that when the parent insect has selected one of these ready-formed tunnels1 she enlarges the end used as the depository of the nest1 and this is easily effected1 as the stumps in question1 at the depth of a couple of inches1 consist of soft decayed wood4 8,the chamber being formed1 the bee collects a quantity of down from woolly-stemmed plants1 with which she forms an outer coating4 ,she then constructs a number of cells for the reception of the pollen1 or food of the larva2 they consist of a woolly material1 mixed with some glutinous matter which resists the moisture of the food they contain1 and in which the larva1 being full fed1 spins a brown silken cocoon4 ,these bees pass the winter in a larva state1 and do not appear until midsummer4 8,in one respect1 the sexes of this genus differ from most other bees1 the males being much larger than the females40 ,the reader will see from this account how exact is the analogy between the carpenter's plane and the jaws of the bee4 ,in consequence of the simile employed by ,mr4 ,white1 the insect has been popularly known by the title of the ,hoop-shaver ,bee4 ,it is a tolerably common insect1 and abounds in the ,south of ,england4 ,,tools4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,saw ,,and ,,its ,,varieties4 ,cutting ,tools and their working4--,structure of the ,edge4--,the ,kris4--,edge of a ,razor4--,the ,sword and the ,apple4--,australian ,saw4--,fretwork ,saw4--,various ,saw-flies4--,the ,pioneer's ,saw4--,cutting ,tools of ,trichiosoma4--,side ,teeth of the ,saws4--,the ,cordon ,saw1 or ,band ,saw4--,tooth-ribbon of ,whelks1 ,slugs1 and other ,molluscs4--,the ,dog-whelk1 or ,purpura4--,the ,circular ,saw4--,sawyer-beetles and their ,mode of ,work4 ,still keeping to the ,cutting ,tools and their varieties1 we come to the ,saw1 i4e4 the cutting tool set with teeth upon its edge4 ,now1 in plain fact1 there is no cutting instrument that does not more or less partake of the character of the ,saw2 for1 in the first place1 it is absolutely impossible for man to grind an edge so fine that1 when magnified1 it will not appear to be deeply notched1 and1 in the next place1 its cutting powers are greatly due to the notches and teeth1 and the direction of their points4 ,we will take both these subjects in turn4 ,first1 as to the notches1 or serrated edge4 ,i have now before me two instruments1 each the best of their kind1 and in both of which the serrations are essential to efficacy4 ,the first is a ,malayan dagger1 or 8kris10 and the second is a surgeon's lancet1 made by ,ferguson1 of ,london4 ,in the kris the edge is intentionally serrated1 having been eaten away by means of acids until the required effect was produced4 ,the ,malayans know by experience that such an edge is most deadly in a weapon1 and that it will cut certain vital parts which a smoother edge might pass without doing any damage4 ,now we will take the lancet1 and put it under the microscope1 when it assumes the most curious resemblance to the kris4 ,its mirror-like surface looks as if it had been very roughly treated with a coarse file1 while its thin and delicate edge1 which is perfectly smooth to the eye1 and which will pass through a piece of stretched wash-leather without any apparent opposition1 becomes as rough and jagged as that of the ,malayan weapon4 ,take even1 for example1 the common butcher's knife1 which is perpetually being sharpened on the 8steel0 that hangs at his belt4 ,the reader may observe that the butcher does not rub the blade of his knife backwards and forwards on the steel1 as unskilful persons do4 ,rapid as is the movement gained by constant practice1 any one may see that the blade is always moved in one direction1 so as to force the microscopical teeth to point one way1 and so to act as a saw when the knife is drawn across the meat4 ,the power of these teeth or notches may be inferred from a well-known fact4 ,if a razor1 no matter how sharp1 be pressed upon the human skin without any 8draw10 it will indent the skin1 but not cut it1 while the slightest drawing movement will cause a deep wound4 ,it is the knowledge of this fact that enables an expert swordsman to sever an apple placed on the palm of the bare hand1 without even scratching the skin4 ,i have witnessed this feat1 and at once saw that it was due to the absence of any 8draw0 to the cut4 ,the apple was laid on the palm of the hand1 which was opened as widely as possible1 so as to flatten it4 ,the sword was then brought down on the apple with a sort of chopping movement1 so that1 although it indented the skin1 it did not even inflict a scratch4 ,by the use of the 8drawing0 movement1 the same sword severed a gauze veil laid across it1 the two halves floating in opposite directions4 ,by the same cut1 ,i have seen some astonishing feats performed with an ,indian sword now in my collection1 the objects of attack falling asunder as if by magic1 without any apparent force being used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,having now glanced at the principle of the ,saw1 we will proceed to some of its details4 ,the simplest form of ,saw in existence is that which is in use among the ,australian natives1 and consists of obsidian flakes set along one side of a stick4 ,it looks a rude and inefficient affair enough1 but it can cut better than might have been thought1 as ,i can testify from experiments on such a saw in my collection4 ,illustration3 ,,saw ,,of ,,common ,,saw-,,fly 7,,magnified74 ,,grooves ,,cut ,,by ,,saw ,,in ,,bark4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,saw4 ,,tenon ,,saw4 ,,pioneer',s ,,saw-,,sword4 ,many as are the varieties of the ,saw1 the principle is the same in all1 and the chief distinction lies in the shape and arrangement of the teeth1 according to the work which they have to do4 ,watch-spring ,saws1 for example1 which have to cut metal1 have their teeth so slight as to be hardly perceptible1 and arranged nearly in a line with each other4 ,the ,fretwork ,saws1 which have to cut delicate patterns in wood1 with the slightest possible waste of material1 are of the same character4 ,then we have the long curved teeth of the ,circular ,saws1 which tear their way savagely through great tree-trunks1 and fill the air with clouds of sawdust4 ,there are also the ,tenon ,saw1 with its thin blade and broad back2 the pioneer's saw for cutting green wood1 with its double array of teeth1 so as to make a wide 8kerf0 in which it shall not be clogged2 together with many others that we cannot enumerate here4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now examine some ,saws as found in ,nature4 ,i need scarcely say that some of the best examples of natural saws are furnished by those insects which are known to entomologists as ,tenthredinid1 and to the general world as ,saw-flies4 ,these insects are supplied by ,nature with a pair of most remarkable saws1 which aid them in depositing their eggs4 ,indeed1 without these instruments1 the whole race of ,saw-flies would long ago have become extinct4 ,they haunt almost every kind of tree and many plants1 and one valuable plant1 the ,turnip1 is so devastated by them1 that whole crops are sometimes swept away4 ,as1 therefore1 the knowledge of the life-history of any insect will tell us whether to protect or destroy it1 and the best method of adopting either course1 we will cast a hasty glance at some of our commonest ,saw-flies1 the instruments which they employ1 the mode in which they use them1 and the analogies between them and the saws made by the hand of man4 ,in the first place1 it must be observed that the use of these saws is to cut grooves in young bark1 these grooves being the depositories of their eggs4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that as a tolerably wide groove is needed1 the saw-blade is a tolerably thick one1 and the teeth set on the same principle as that which is employed in the saw-sword of the pioneer4 ,when the microscope is applied to the cutting instrument of the ,saw-fly1 it reveals the fact that there are two horny saws1 which work alternately in their grooves1 and that they are strengthened by a thick plate of horn on their backs4 ,the system of toothing is very complicated4 ,not only are the sides as well as the edges of the saws toothed1 but each tooth is furnished with smaller teeth1 after the fashion of the shark's wonderfully effective cutting apparatus4 ,these subsidiary teeth vary greatly in shape and size according to the species1 and in some cases each tooth is quite a complicated structure4 ,in ,trichiosoma lucorum1 for example1 a bee-like insect1 very common upon hawthorn1 the teeth are extremely beautiful4 ,it is difficult to describe them without diagrams1 but ,i will try to give the reader an idea of them4 ,each tooth is somewhat of a lancet shape1 but is not terminated by a single point4 ,at the tip comes the secondary tooth1 which is conical and stands on a footstalk4 ,the cone1 however1 is not simple1 but is made of some seven or eight cutting plates1 each smaller than its predecessor1 and the last being a sharp conical point4 ,the reader may imagine how effective such a saw would be in cutting green wood1 the toothed sides and the subsidiary teeth alike preventing the blades from clogging1 while the alternate movement of the saws enables them to do double work in the same time4 ,mr4 ,westwood1 who examined these insects very closely1 throws out1 in his 8,modern ,classification of ,insects10 the idea which forms the subject of this book4 ,writing of the cutting weapon of the ,saw-flies1 he remarks that 8from its admirable construction it cannot be doubted that a careful examination of its various modifications might furnish ideas for improved mechanical instruments40 ,mr4 ,gosse1 in his 8,evenings at the ,microscope10 points out that1 beautiful and elaborate as these instruments are1 they are but the sheaths of a still finer and more delicate pair of saws4 ,these secondary saws have only a few teeth on the edge1 and these near the point1 whereas the sides are furnished with a number of sharp blades1 set on their edges1 slightly overlapping each other1 and directed backwards4 ,there is a similar structure on the ovipositor of the ,sirex1 as we shall see when we come to treat of ,boring ,instruments4 ,although the saws are made expressly so that they shall not stick in the wood1 there are many instances known where female ,saw-flies have been found dead on the branches1 their saws still in the last groove which they have cut4 ,i am inclined to think that these must be females which have deposited all their eggs1 and which have died1 as do nearly all insects under similar circumstances4 ,this opinion is strengthened by some observations made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,lord on the ,cicada1 the female of which is furnished with a similar ovipositor3-- 8,i was curious to watch the female depositing her eggs4 8,she first clasps the branch on both sides with her legs1 and with the ends of the file very carefully slits up the bark4 ,then1 placing the instrument longitudinally1 she files away until she has obtained sufficient length and breadth4 ,the small teeth of the files are now used crosswise of this fissure1 until a trench is made in the soft pith4 8,when large enough1 slowly down the groove in the centre of the instrument glides a small pearly egg1 pointed at both ends1 and so transparent that the little grub within is clearly discernible4 ,gently she lays it within its bed1 and then drops a thin gummy material on it1 to secure it from moisture4 ,this finished1 she proceeds to deposit another1 and so on1 until a sufficient number are produced to fill the fissure2 then over all she drags the everted bark4 ,it is easy to perceive where the ,cicada has been concealing her brood1 by the elevation on the branch4 8,in this manner she deposits about seven hundred eggs1 going from branch to branch1 her marvellous instinct teaching her to select the most suitable wood for the purpose4 ,the time occupied in constructing each nest was from fifteen to twenty minutes4 ,her earthly mission finished1 she drops1 fainting and exhausted1 from the branch1 and dies4 8,the male1 who is always trilling his refrain1 goes on1 indifferent1 or unconscious1 that the task of his faithful spouse is finished1 singing even1 until his time comes--then he too drops beside her4 ,thus the songs one by one cease1--not only the ,cicada's1 but all the forest choir1 and give place to blasts that sigh in mournful music through the leafless trees40 ,the ,sirex and several of the larger ,ichneumon-flies are often found dead in like manner1 and ,i have no doubt from the same cause4 ,an elaborate description of the beautiful double saws of the ,cicada is given by ,mr4 ,westwood in the work already quoted1 together with illustrations4 ,,the ,,ribbon ,,saw1 ,,cordon ,,or ,,band ,,saw4 ,perhaps some of my readers may be acquainted with a saw which has of late years come into extensive use--namely1 the ,ribbon ,saw1 ,cordon ,saw1 or ,band ,saw4 ,this is an endless steel band toothed on one edge1 and passing over two wheels4 ,it has the advantage of being of almost any breadth1 some being several inches wide1 while others are mere narrow ribbons1 barely the sixth of an inch wide4 ,the fretwork of pianos and other articles of furniture is cut almost exclusively by the ,cordon ,saw4 ,a thick piece of wood is cut of the requisite shape1 and the upper and under surfaces planed quite true to each other4 ,the pattern is traced on the upper surface1 and a very narrow ,cordon ,saw is then applied to it1 cutting completely through the thick block1 and adapting itself to all the intricacies of the pattern4 ,the block is then cut into thin slices1 so that a number of pieces of fretwork can be made with comparative ease4 ,to those who have been accustomed to cutting fretwork with the slow hand-saw1 the ,cordon ,saw is simply fascinating1 the slender steel ribbon cutting through the wood with wonderful rapidity and very little sound4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beautiful as this invention is1 it was long ago anticipated in ,nature2 and the ,cordon ,saws1 which we shall now see1 are armed with teeth many more in number1 and far more complicated in detail1 than those of any saw made by the hand of man4 ,i allude to the ,tooth-ribbon possessed by many of our common molluscs1 such as the ,limpet1 the ,whelk1 the ,periwinkle1 the ,slug1 c4 ,the last mentioned of these creatures possesses a natural ,cordon ,saw with nearly twenty-seven thousand teeth1 and scarcely a tooth that is not elaborately cut into secondary teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,portion ,,of ,,tooth-,,ribbon ,,of ,,whelk 7,,highly ,,magnified74 ,illustration3 ,,ribbon ,,or ,,cordon ,,saw4 ,as all these creatures have their teeth differently formed and set1 according to the species1 it will be impossible to describe them separately4 ,i will therefore restrict myself to the ,tooth-ribbon of the common ,whelk1 a specimen of which is now before me4 ,when viewed through the microscope1 it is found to consist of a flat membranous ribbon1 on which are set three rows of teeth1 those of the outer row being hooked1 and those of the inner one plain4 ,the outer teeth are formed somewhat like the ,hebrew letter 1 both of the points being very sharp1 and the central part being furnished with two secondary teeth4 ,all these teeth overlap each other1 so that some care in manipulation is required before their form can be made out4 ,along the centre of the tooth-ribbon run successive rows of small1 lancet-shaped teeth1 six in a row1 so that altogether there are eight teeth in each row4 ,the power of this weapon is astonishing4 ,some of my readers may be aware that ,whelks are carnivorous beings1 and that they swarm upon any dead animal which may be found in the sea4 ,indeed1 when we hear of the mutilations which take place on dead corpses after a shipwreck1 and which are generally attributed to fishes1 we may make up our minds that the real delinquents are the ,whelks1 together with various crustacea1 and that the principal instrument in effecting such mutilation is the tooth-ribbon which has just been described4 ,the ,whelks feed largely upon other molluscs1 in spite of their shells4 ,a periwinkle has a peculiarly hard shell1 and yet ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones saw a ,dog-whelk 7,purpura lapillus7 eat a periwinkle in a single afternoon1 first boring a hole through its shell with the tooth-ribbon1 and then1 by means of the same weapon1 licking it1 so to speak1 out of its shell4 ,the ,periwinkle itself has a similar tooth-ribbon1 and so have the ,limpet and the pretty ,top-shell4 ,these creatures are vegetarians1 but they are furnished with similarly armed tongues1 and use them in the same way4 ,nothing is easier than to see these tooth-ribbons in use4 ,when sea-water is kept in glass vessels1 a green flocculence is sure to collect upon the glass and to render it opaque4 ,if1 however1 a few ,periwinkles and ,top-shells are placed in the tank1 they immediately set to work at this confervoid growth1 and by means of the tooth-ribbon sweep off the green substance1 leaving the glass nearly clean4 ,this movement can be seen with the naked eye1 but with the assistance of a pocket lens the action of the tooth-ribbon is beautifully shown as it issues from its socket1 makes its sweeping curve1 with the tiny teeth glittering like specks of glass1 and then is withdrawn ready for another sweep4 ,should sea-water and living ,periwinkles not be easily obtained1 the same phenomenon may be observed in fresh water1 and with the common ,pond-snail1 which may be caught by thousands in any stream and in most ponds4 ,,the ,,circular ,,saw4 ,in one sense the ,cordon ,saw is a ,circular ,saw1 but we now restrict the name to the tool which has a circular blade1 more or less deeply toothed on the edge4 ,the largest and coarsest of these saws are of enormous diameter1 have teeth several inches in length1 and can cut a large tree-trunk asunder in a wonderfully short time4 ,there is a huge saw of this kind in ,chatham ,dockyard4 ,it is kept in a sort of cellar covered with flap doors1 where it really has the air of some dread monster lying in wait for prey4 ,a tree-trunk is brought for it to feed upon4 ,the doors slowly open1 the saw emerges1 revolves so fast that the eye cannot detect the teeth1 seizes on the tree-trunk1 tears its way through with a scream and roar1 and then sinks back into its cellar4 ,i have often watched this saw in action1 and have never been able to get over a kind of feeling that it was alive4 ,illustration3 ,,sawyer-,,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,,circular ,,saw4 ,now1 if we suppose the saw to be pierced in the centre1 and to have teeth on the inside instead of the outside1 it would be equally efficacious2 and1 indeed1 we have several tools used for cutting iron bars or pipes1 that are constructed on a similar principle1 though the cutting tooth revolves slowly instead of rapidly1 and is urged by a lever handle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is in ,nature a ,circular ,saw of just such a character1 the teeth having their points directed inwards1 and not outwards4 ,in tropical ,america there are several large beetles which1 like our ,stag-beetle1 feed upon the sap of trees1 and obtain it by wounding the young branches with their jaws4 ,one or two of them are pointed out as having the power of cutting a branch completely off by seizing it in their deeply toothed jaws1 and flying round and round the branch so as to convert themselves into a circular saw4 ,the late ,mr4 ,waterton showed me a branch which had fallen on his head1 and which was said to have been cut off by the ,sawyer-beetle1 as the insect is called4 ,he did not actually see the insect at work1 but he had no doubt that the natives were right who told him that it was the work of beetles' jaws4 ,certainly the cut looked exactly as if it had been made in the way described4 ,the branch was somewhat thicker than an ordinary walking-stick4 ,the truth of this statement has often been denied1 but ,i have ascertained from personal observers that it is literally true4 ,a loud noise is produced by the operation1 and1 as the female is never seen to perform it1 the general idea is that it is a call to its mate4 ,,tools4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,boring ,,tools4--,,striking ,,tools4--,,grasping ,,tools4 ,the ,bradawl and the ,gimlet defined4--,natural ,bradawls4--,the ,ichneumon-flies4--,a ,pimpla engaged in ,boring ,operations4--,principle of the ,wedge4--,resisting ,power of ,earth4--,pitching ,tents in ,sand4--,hidden ,forces of ,nature4--,the ,aloe-leaf and its ,growth4--,a cruel ,punishment4--,natural ,gimlets4--,ovipositor of the ,sirex1 and its ,analogy to a ,carpenter's ,gimlet4--,the ,auger and the ,gad-fly4--,striking ,tools4--,the ,hammer4--,origin and ,development of the ,tool4--,the ,axe4--,the ,woodpecker and the ,nuthatch4--,the ,ivory-billed ,woodpecker4--,grasping ,tools4--,pincers and their ,modifications4--,sugar-tongs and ,coal-tongs4--,natural ,pincers4--,bivalve ,molluscs4--,the ,clam's ,grip4--,the ,earwig4--,crab and ,lobster ,claws4 ,,boring ,,tools4 ,next in importance to the edged tools which cut1 come the pointed tools by which holes can be bored4 ,we have an abundance of such tools1 but they can all be reduced to two types1 namely1 those which1 like the ,bradawl1 are forced between the fibres1 and those which1 like the ,gimlet1 cut away the material as they pass through it4 ,they may1 again1 be shown to be different modifications of a single principle--i4e4 that of the ,wedge or ,inclined ,plane1 which1 as has already been shown1 is identical with that of the screw4 ,the ,bradawl is1 in fact1 a sharp wedge1 which is forced through the fibres1 sometimes being merely forced between them1 and sometimes cutting them1 and thus forcing aside the severed fibres4 ,a natural example of the ,bradawl is to be found in various ,ichneumon-flies1 especially those with very long ovipositors1 which are intended for boring into wood4 ,all the ,ichneumons are parasitic1 laying their eggs in the larv of other insects1 mostly those of moths and butterflies4 ,generally these larv exist in the open air1 and the ,ichneumon-fly has little difficulty in piercing them4 ,but there are some which live either in wood or underground1 and1 in order to reach their hidden bodies1 the ,ichneumon is furnished with an extremely long and sharply pointed ovipositor4 ,this wonderful instrument is not so thick as an ordinary horsehair1 although it is composed of three portions1 and seems to be utterly inadequate to the task which it has to perform4 ,ascertaining by its instinct the exact locality of the caterpillar which it desires to pierce1 the ,ichneumon-fly clings firmly to the tree1 bends the body so as to bring the point of the ovipositor against the wood1 and1 by moving the abdomen backwards and forwards1 gradually works the instrument into the wood1 sometimes piercing it to a considerable depth4 ,mr4 ,westwood once saw an ,ichneumon-fly thus boring its way into a dry post1 the wood of which must have been very hard4 ,when she had bored far enough1 she partially withdrew the ovipositor1 and then re-plunged it into the hole that she had made1 as if she were depositing eggs4 ,while engaged in this operation1 she stood very high on her long legs1 resting only on the extremities of the feet4 ,she belonged to the genus ,pimpla4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the principle of the ,wedge or ,inclined ,plane is admirably shown by objects which we pass unheeded every day1 and yet afford wonderful examples of the power of the wedge4 ,scarcely any vegetable growth is so plentiful as grass1 which has been used in that sense by the highest of all authorities1 8which to-day is1 and to-morrow is cast into the oven40 ,grass forces its way everywhere--not only in cultivated grounds1 but in the wildest of lands1 where there is scarcely any nurture for it4 ,even among the habitations of mankind the grass will have its way1 and clothes deserted housetops with verdure1 and forces itself between the stones that pave neglected streets4 ,place side by side some of these stones1 together with a very young and tender ,grass-blade1 and it will seem to be impossible that so fragile an object should be able to exert any influence on the solid stone4 ,let any one try to push a sharp skewer between the stones1 and he will find that he has to exert power sufficient to crush a thousand grass-blades4 ,yet these slight and delicate objects will force themselves between the stones1 and sometimes to such an extent as to cover the whole roadway with verdure4 ,the force which is employed is simply marvellous1 and can only be appreciated by those who know the resisting power of earth1 however dry and loose it may be4 ,even sand has so strong a resistance that tents can be pitched in the desert without difficulty4 ,of course the ordinary tent-peg would be useless1 but the desert dwellers can pitch their tents with perfect security4 ,they fasten the tent-rope to a branch or piece of bush1 scrape a hole in the sand1 put the bush into the hole1 cover it up again1 and it will withstand almost any strain1 though it be only covered with a few inches of sand4 ,illustration3 ,,grass-,,blades4 ,illustration3 ,,wedge4 ,when miners blast rocks with gunpowder1 they take advantage of the resisting power of sand4 ,they bore a suitable hole1 place a charge of gunpowder at the bottom1 and then merely pour loose sand into the hole until it is filled4 ,when the powder explodes1 the rock or coal is shattered to pieces1 but the sand is not blown out of the hole4 ,this operation is called 8tamping40 ,every one1 again1 knows how firm are gate-posts1 and how they resist the weight1 jarring1 and leverage of a heavy gate1 all because they are sunk a little way into the earth4 ,considering1 therefore1 that such fragile things as young grass-blades can force their way through the superincumbent weight1 we can but be amazed at the aggregate of active force which is in full operation in every pasture field and garden lawn4 ,as far as ,i know1 not being much of a botanist1 every seed that springs up does so on the wedge principle1 though the form of the wedge may be varied4 ,a terrible example of the force which is exercised by this principle among the vegetables is shown in some parts of the world where the ,aloe flourishes in a wild state4 ,in our colder clime the ,aloe1 though it does live in the open air1 is a slow-growing plant4 ,but1 in its own land1 it shoots up with a surprising vigour1 and its sharply pointed and saw-edged leaves are said to grow to the extent of six inches in a single night4 ,taking advantage of this rapid1 and1 at the same time1 powerful growth1 the natives1 when they want to punish a man with more than ordinary severity1 tie him hand and foot1 and bind him to the earth just over a sprouting aloe plant1 and leave him there4 ,in twenty-four hours the man is nearly certain to be dead1 the aloe-leaf having forced itself completely through his body4 ,or1 if he be not actually dead1 he lives in frightful tortures1 which are continually increased by the flinty point and notches forcing themselves slowly1 but surely1 through the body4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,for an example of the ,gimlet we may take the ovipositor of the ,sirex1 an insect which ,i believe has no popular name4 ,it is coloured much after the same manner as the hornet1 and is often mistaken for that insect by those who are not versed in entomology4 ,and1 as its long and straight ovipositor is generally taken for a hornet's sting1 the insect assumes a double terror to the ignorant4 ,now1 the real fact is1 that in its larval stage of existence the ,sirex feeds upon the wood of the fir-tree--a diet which1 to our ideas1 is about as unsatisfactory as can well be imagined4 ,in order that the young ,sirex may be within reach of food1 the egg must be introduced deeply into the body of the tree1 and1 for the egg to be so received1 a channel must be cut for it4 ,this is done by means of the marvellously formed ovipositor4 ,many admirable descriptions have been given of the head of this instrument and its boring powers1 but ,i am not aware that any one has noticed the secondary cutting blades that are set along the shaft of the principal borer1 and which answer exactly the same purpose as the spiral cutting edge of the gimlet or auger4 ,not being desirous of repeating my own observations in different words1 ,i transfer to these pages a short account of the ovipositor of the ,sirex1 as examined by me when writing my work on ,british ,insects1 entitled 8,insects at ,home10 and published by ,messrs4 ,longmans and ,co43-- 8,i very strongly recommend any of my readers who may obtain a female ,sirex to disengage the actual borer from its two-bladed sheath1 and examine it with the aid of a microscope4 ,a half-inch object-glass will give quite a sufficient power40 ,illustration3 ,,strus4 ,,boring ,,tool ,,of ,,sirex ,,and ,,larva4 ,illustration3 ,,augers4 ,illustration3 ,,bradawls4 8,it is straight1 stiff1 and elastic1 as if made of steel1 and1 if bent1 will spring back to its proper form with the elasticity of a ,toledo rapier4 8,but the borer possesses an auxiliary cutting apparatus which places it far above the rymer in point of efficacy4 ,even with an ordinary magnifying lens1 it is easy to see that the end of the borer is developed into a sharp head1 very much resembling that of a boarding-pike1 and that the outline of the shaft is broken into a series of notches4 8,the half-inch glass1 however1 discloses a marvellous example of mechanical excellence4 ,the head of the borer is then seen to be armed with long1 sharp teeth1 slightly curved inwards1 and acting just as does the carpenter's ordinary centrebit4 8,so much for the head of the borer3 we will now turn to the shaft4 8,it appears that1 in order to make a clean-cut hole for the reception of the egg1 the shaft of the borer has to finish the task which the head begins4 ,accordingly1 it is armed on each of its sides with a series of hard1 sharp-edged ridges1 running diagonally across it1 and acting exactly as do the sharp ridges of a coffee-mill40 ,in point of fact1 the ovipositor of the ,sirex is the natural type of the improved gimlet of the present day4 ,instead1 however1 of having a single1 spiral1 sharp-edged groove running along the whole length of the shaft1 it has a series of small1 sharp blades1 set exactly in the same line as is taken by the spiral groove1 and acting in exactly the same manner--i4e4 by cutting out successive portions of wood1 and1 by the diagonal position of the blades1 throwing out the debris as fast as it is cut4 ,i cannot but think that1 if any modern tool manufacturer could take as his model the saw-like ovipositor of the ,tenthredinid1 and the auger-like ovipositor of the present insect1 he would produce a series of most valuable implements1 possessing powers far beyond those of ordinary tools4 ,these short blades are arranged just like the 8studs0 on modern shells1 and very much resemble them in shape1 though not in material4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,auger finds also a natural representative in the ovipositor of an insect4 ,that of the common ,gad-fly 7strus bovis7 is most beautifully constructed4 ,it is tubular in form1 and is of a telescopic nature1 consisting of four tubes of different sizes1 the smaller fitting into the larger just as is done with the joints of a common telescope1 or those of a ,japanese fishing-rod4 ,the end of the ovipositor is developed into little projections1 some of which are armed with hard1 sharp points1 which act exactly like the cutting edge of the auger4 ,this elaborate appliance is necessary on account of the thick1 tough skin of the ox1 which the ,gad-fly has to penetrate before it can deposit its eggs4 ,perhaps the reader may be aware of the fact that the modern system of cutting channels in stone with the diamond point1 as was so well exemplified in the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel1 is but an imitation1 and an imperfect one1 of the method adopted by the ,gad-fly4 ,we shall soon recur to this instrument4 ,,striking ,,tools4 ,if we search the records of antiquity as left by races of men that have for countless ages vanished from the face of the earth1 we shall find that in some shape or other the ,hammer was a tool in constant use1 and that in principle1 though not in material1 there was no difference between the ,hammer of the ,stone ,age and that of a blacksmith of the present day4 ,the development of the instrument can easily be traced1 especially as it is a tool which does not admit of much elaboration4 ,the original hammer was evidently a simple stone1 and answered equally as a tool and a weapon4 ,as1 however1 man progressed towards civilisation1 he found that the stone itself was insufficient for his needs1 and that he required much more force4 ,the most obvious mode of doing so was to take a larger stone1 but this expedient soon became valueless1 inasmuch as a large stone was a cumbrous instrument to handle1 and could not be directed with any certainty or delicacy4 ,the principle of the lever was then applied to the stone1 which was affixed to a handle1 and thus became elevated into the rank of a comparatively civilised tool4 ,sometimes the stone had a hole bored through it1 into which the handle of the hammer was inserted1 as is the case with most of our present hammers and pickaxes4 ,sometimes the end of the handle was enlarged1 and the stone thrust through it1 as is now done with the axes of ,southern ,africa4 ,sometimes a long1 flexible rod was used by way of handle1 the centre of it taking two turns round the stone1 and the ends being lashed together4 ,handles thus made may be seen in any blacksmith's forge of the present day4 ,the tool thus made was soon developed into various forms for different uses4 ,by lengthening and pointing the head1 it became a pick for loosening the earth4 ,by widening and flattening the head1 it became a hatchet2 and1 by performing the same alteration in the pickaxe blade1 it became an adze4 ,i possess a singularly ingenious tool from ,borneo1 in which the head is movable1 so as to be used as a hatchet or adze at pleasure4 ,in ,demmin's 8,weapons of ,war0 many such hammers and axes are figured4 ,one of them is very remarkable4 ,it is an ancient war-hammer made of black stone1 and is shaped exactly like a pickaxe1 except that one end of the head is carved into a semblance of some animal's head4 ,the handle is passed through an oval hole in the centre1 just like our pickaxes of the present day4 ,this remarkable example of the art of the ,stone ,age was found in ,russia4 ,the head was nearly a foot in length4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature possesses many examples of this principle1 of which ,i have chosen two1 namely1 the ,woodpecker and the ,nuthatch4 ,illustration3 ,,nuthatch4 ,illustration3 ,,woodpecker4 ,illustration3 ,,hammer4 ,the wonderful power of beak possessed by both these birds is familiar to every one1 but it is not so generally known that they do not merely peck after the usual fashion among birds1 i4e4 delivering the stroke with the force derived from the neck alone4 ,these birds have an additional leverage4 ,grasping the tree firmly with their feet1 they not only peck1 but swing their whole bodies with each stroke1 bringing their weight to bear upon the object4 ,they thus convert themselves into living hammers1 the feet acting the part of the human hand1 the body of the bird being analogous to the handle of the hammer1 and the head playing the same part in both cases4 ,in ,england these birds are not known as well as they ought to be1 partly because they are both very shy creatures1 and partly because the gradual extinction of forests has deprived them1 and especially the ,woodpecker1 of their undisturbed homes4 ,yet those who are early risers may see both birds in places where their presence is quite unsuspected1 except1 perhaps1 by those who can recognise the signs which they have left behind them4 ,there is a common saying to the effect that 8a carpenter is known by his chips10 and the proverb is equally true of the ,nuthatch and the ,woodpecker4 ,nutshells scientifically split asunder1 and jammed into the rough bark of a tree-trunk1 betray at once the ,nuthatch to the eye of a naturalist2 while an accumulation of shattered bark1 splinters of wood1 and similar debris announces1 in equally bold type1 that a ,woodpecker has been at work4 ,the power of the ,woodpecker's beak may be gathered from ,wilson's well-known account of an ,ivory-billed ,woodpecker1 which he had wounded and was trying to rear4 ,while staying at an hotel1 he locked the bird in his room1 and1 on returning within an hour1 found an astonishing state of things4 8,he had mounted along the side of the window1 nearly as high as the ceiling1 a little below which he had begun to break through4 ,the bed was covered with large pieces of plaster1 the lath was exposed for at least fifteen inches square1 and a hole large enough to admit the fist opened to the weather boards1 so that in less than another hour he would certainly have succeeded in making his way through4 8,i now tied a string round his leg1 and1 fastening it to the table1 again left him4 ,i wished to preserve his life1 and had gone off in search of suitable food for him4 ,as ,i re-ascended the stairs1 ,i heard him again at work1 and on entering had the mortification to perceive that he had almost ruined the mahogany table to which he was fastened1 and on which he had wreaked his whole vengeance40 ,the beak of the ,woodpecker was employed upon its new master quite as forcibly as upon walls and furniture1 but ,wilson was of too generous a nature to resent his injuries1 and lamented sincerely when the bird died4 ,the reader will probably observe that the ,hammer which has been given as an illustration of this principle is the ordinary geologist's hammer1 and that it has been selected because its head is so formed that one end can be employed for the usual tasks of a hammer1 while the other end1 with its slight curve and sharp point1 is1 in fact1 a sort of pickaxe1 and used for the same purposes4 ,indeed1 this instrument is an almost exact reproduction of the stone hammer which has already-been mentioned1 the blunt end being represented by the carved head1 and the sharp end by the pickaxe point4 ,,grasping ,,tools4 ,already we have spoken of the ,shears and ,scissors1 together with their mode of action and dependence upon leverage4 ,we now come to a set of tools which1 although equally dependent on leverage1 develop that power by grasping instead of cutting4 ,without these tools1 the arts and sciences could have scarcely made themselves felt1 as there are but few manufactures in which the artificer does not require a grasping power far superior to that of the human hand4 ,perhaps the enormous power of the ,pincers is never shown to better advantage than in the great iron-works1 where enormous masses of white-hot metal have to be brought under the blows of the steam hammer4 ,i do not know of anything which affords a more imposing realisation of the ,divine command that man is to subdue the earth as well as to replenish it4 ,there is the vast hammer1 striking blows which are felt throughout a large area as if a succession of earthquakes had been let loose4 ,in the furnace there is an enormous mass of iron1 heated to such a degree that an unpractised eye could no more dare to look at it than to stare a midsummer sun out of face4 ,where are the armies who are to cope with such forces8 ,a few stalwart and grimy men come forward1 each man with a curious but unmistakable air of one who wages a war of giants4 ,the furnace door is opened1 and out rushes a blinding light which strikes on the eyeballs like a shock of electricity4 ,the men seize the handles of an enormous pair of ,pincers1 suspended in the middle by a chain1 and though no unpractised eye can distinguish the glowing iron from the enveloping fire1 they run the ,pincers into the furnace1 seize the iron1 swing it to the anvil1 and turn it this way and that way as easily as if it were a feather1 while the blows of the gigantic hammer descend upon it1 enveloping them in a torrent of sparks which spurt as if they were mere splashes of water1 and seem to do them no more harm4 ,taking the minor exposition of the ,pincers principle and their use1 we may mention the ordinary ,pincers which are mostly used for drawing nails4 ,then there are the smaller ,pincers called ,pliers1 all of which are constructed on the same principle1 and the chief of which are the ,round-nosed ,pliers1 the ,long-nosed ,pliers1 and the ,gas ,pliers4 ,sometimes a mixture of the ,hammer and the ,pincers is ingeniously contrived1 as in the tool which is represented on the right hand of the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,mussel-,,shell4 ,,earwig4 ,,lobster-,,claw4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar-,,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,,pincers4 ,then we have the still smaller and feebler ,pincers of civilised life1 such as the ,sugar-tongs and the ordinary ,coal-tongs of our firesides4 ,anatomists could have had no practical existence without the ,pincers1 of which their beautifully constructed and much-elaborated forceps are but variations4 ,take1 again1 the dentist1 with his series of shining instruments1 which he so carefully keeps out of sight until he has got his patient safely in that awful chair1 and which glide1 as by a conjurer's trick1 empty into an open mouth1 and return in a few seconds with a tooth between their polished jaws4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,all these instruments have their parallels in ,nature1 and in many instances the natural pincers might supply useful hints to modern tool-makers4 ,in the left-hand upper corner of the illustration is shown the common fresh-water ,mussel1 which is so plentiful in almost all our rivers and many of our ponds4 ,its scientific name is ,unio margaritiferus4 ,the latter title1 which signifies 8pearl-bearing10 is given to it because it furnishes the ,british pearls which were at one time so highly valued4 ,like other bivalve molluscs1 this ,unio has the two halves of the shell fitting quite tightly upon each other1 and1 when they are drawn together by the contraction of the internal muscles1 they can give a very severe pinch4 ,in many uncivilised parts of the world the natives take advantage of this property1 and use them as tweezers1 chiefly for the purpose of pulling out hairs which they are pleased to think are not needed4 ,i need not state that with all bivalves the power is increased in proportion to the size of the shell4 ,even an ,oyster can pinch most severely1 while the ,giant ,clam1 the shell of which weighs some four hundred pounds1 could nearly take off a man's leg if it seized him4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,keast ,lord1 in his 8,naturalist in ,british ,columbia10 relates an amusing story that was told to him by an old settler respecting the power of the ,clam's grip3-- 8,you see1 sir1 as ,i was a-cruising down these flats about sun-up1 the tide jist at the nip1 as it is now1 ,i see a whole pile of shoveller-ducks snabbling in the mud1 and busy as dogfish in herring time4 ,so ,i creeps down1 and slap ,i let 'em have it4 ,six on 'em turned over1 and off went the pack1 gallows scared1 and quacking like mad40 8,down ,i runs to pick up the dead uns1 when ,i see an old mallard a-playing up all kinds o' antics1 jumping1 backing1 flapping1 but fast by the head1 as if he had his nose in a steel trap2 and when ,i comes up to him1 blest if a large ,clam hadn't hold of him1 hard and fast1 by the beak40 8,the old mallard might ha' tried his hardest1 but may ,i never bait a martin-trap again if that ,clam wouldn't ha' held him agin any odds till a tide run in1 and then he'd ha' been a gone shoveller sure as shooting4 ,so ,i cracked up the ,clam with the butt of my old gun1 and bagged the mallard40 ,of course the reader will remember that this was only an ordinary ,clam1 and not one of the giant race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the shell are two very perfect instances of natural ,pincers1 each acting in a different manner1 but on the same principle4 ,the ,earwig is too familiar to need much description1 but ,i may as well state that its pincers are not primarily intended as weapons1 although they can be so used on occasion4 7,i was about to say1 at a pinch1 but refrain47 ,they resemble our ordinary pincers in that both blades move equally1 and they are so completely under the control of their owner1 that the insect uses them with a delicacy of touch that a lady's fingers could hardly surpass4 ,they are really tools1 and not weapons1 and are employed for the purpose of folding the wide and delicate wings under the tiny elytra4 ,there is another insect called the ,scorpion-fly 7,panorpa71 the male of which is furnished with a pair of pincers at the end of a long and flexible tail1 articulated just like the tail of a scorpion1 and moved in exactly the same manner4 ,it is but a little insect1 but its gestures are so menacing as it flourishes its tail about1 that non-entomologists may well be pardoned for being afraid of it4 ,moreover1 small as are the pincers1 they really can give a smart nip1 and make themselves felt on the human skin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,if we want examples of exceedingly powerful pincers1 we need only go to the ,lobsters and ,crabs1 especially to the latter1 whose claws are often of enormous thickness in proportion to the size of the animal4 ,all those who have visited the seaside know how severe is the pinch of the common ,green ,crab1 comparatively small though it be1 and the same may be said of the river crayfish1 which is1 in fact1 a lobster in miniature4 ,as to the lobster itself1 fishermen are so well acquainted with the power of its claws1 that they tie them together with string as soon as the animal is caught4 ,formerly they used to 8peg0 them1 i4e4 drive a wooden peg into the joint so as to prevent it from moving4 ,this custom1 however1 is now prohibited by law on account of its cruelty4 ,the power of the ,crab's claws is so great that a bite from a large ,crab will inflict a severe injury1 and render a hand helpless4 ,it has more than once happened that men who have been feeling for ,crabs in the recesses of the rocks at low water have been seized1 and seriously imperilled1 not being able to release themselves from the gripe4 ,indeed1 it is said that there have been instances where the ,crab has held so tightly1 that the man has been drowned by the returning tide1 no one having come to his assistance4 ,i am1 however1 inclined to doubt this statement1 thinking that the ,crab would not be likely to remain in its hiding-place very long after the water came up4 ,still1 that such an idea should be currently believed in many parts of ,england shows the estimation in which the gripe of the ,crab's claw is held4 ,,tools ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,polishing ,,tools4--,,measuring ,,tools4 ,files and ,sand-papers4--,the ,sheffield ,file and its ,structure4--,the ,equisetum1 ,mare's ,tail1 or ,dutch ,rush4--,beauty of its ,surface when seen through the ,microscope4--,sand-paper4--,skin of ,dog-fish1 ,skate1 and ,shark4--,skate-skin used for ,sword-handles4--,distinction between the ,file and ,sand-paper4--,measuring ,tools4--,the ,plumb-rule and the ,level4--,their ,use in ,tunnelling4--,the ,measure and its ,uses4--,the ,two-foot ,rule and the ,tape ,measure4--,ovipositor of ,gall-fly4--,tongues of the ,woodpecker1 ,wryneck1 and ,creeper4--,the ,spirit-level and its ,uses4--,theodolite and ,callipers in ,nature and ,art4--,the ,contouring-glass4--,pincers of ,earwig again4--,jaws of ,insects4--,the great ,sialis of ,columbia4 ,,files ,,and ,,sand-,,papers4 ,having now examined the analogies between the cutting1 boring1 striking and grasping tools of ,nature and ,art1 we come to those finishing tools which smooth and polish the surface4 ,the first is the ,file1 an instrument which needs but little description4 ,it consists of a surface of hardened steel1 broken up into rough-edged teeth of infinite variety1 according to the work which the file has to do4 ,it is rather remarkable1 by the way1 that at present the ,english files are infinitely superior to those produced in any other part of the world2 that their teeth are all made by hand2 and that a genuine ,sheffield file will first cut its way through a piece of iron in half the time that would be occupied by a file of any other nation1 and then would easily cut its antagonist in two4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as long as the ,file is intended to work upon metal1 there is little difficulty in its manufacture1 except that no machinery has yet been invented which can give the peculiar edging of the ridges1 and to which is owing the unmistakable 8bite0 of a real ,english file4 ,but there are occasions when the hand of the most cunning file-maker is baffled1 and when it is necessary to cut files so delicate that the unaided human eye cannot trace their teeth4 ,art1 therefore1 has recourse to ,nature1 and the cabinet-maker1 who cannot obtain any file made by human hands which will answer his purpose in the higher branches of his trade1 makes great use of the 8,dutch ,rush10 as he calls it4 ,it is not a rush at all1 but simply a species of ,mare's ,tail1 or ,equisetum1 a plant which fills in profusion almost every marshy spot in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,equisetum4 ,illustration3 ,,file4 ,the peculiar fitness of the ,equisetum for this purpose cannot be appreciated even by those who use it until it has been viewed under the microscope4 ,i have now before me a small piece of ,equisetum1 placed under a half-inch power1 and viewed by direct illumination1 it being treated as an opaque object4 ,the microscope reveals at a glance the source of the power which the ingenuity of man has taken advantage of4 ,the surface of the ,equisetum is seen to be composed of myriads of tiny parallel ridges1 each ridge bristling with rows of flinty spicules1 looking very much like the broken glass upon the top of a wall4 ,minute as they are1 these spicules can do their work1 and they enable the joiner to finish off work in a manner that could not be accomplished by any tool made by human hands4 ,i find1 by recent inquiries1 that modern joiners scarcely1 if ever1 use the ,equisetum1 preferring emery-paper as cheaper and more expeditious1 and knowing that the popular eye is not able to appreciate the difference of the surface obtained by the ,equisetum from that which is given by the finest emery-paper ever made4 ,wood-carvers1 however1 if they be of the conscientious kind1 and love their work for its own sake1 adhere to the ,dutch ,rush1 and are all the happier for it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pass we now to the coarser kinds of polishers1 the chief of which is popularly known as ,sand-paper1 and is made by coating some tissue with glue1 and scattering upon it sand of different qualities1 according to the work to be done4 ,sometimes1 when the work is rough1 the sand is large1 rough1 and coarse1 and sometimes1 when the work is fine1 the sand is so carefully sifted before it is scattered on the glued paper1 that there is little distinction between the sand-paper and emery-paper4 ,linen1 by the way1 is generally used instead of paper1 as being more enduring1 less liable to crack1 and capable of being folded so as to obtain access to crevices which paper could not touch4 ,illustration3 ,,dog-,,fish ,,skin1 ,,magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,sand-,,paper1 ,,magnified4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,again in ,nature we find a parallel1 and the coarse ,sand-paper of modern ,art has long been anticipated in the scale-clad skins of many fishes4 ,the accompanying illustration is taken from the skin of a ,picked ,dog-fish found by myself lying dead on the rocks in ,bideford ,bay4 ,i cut off a piece for transmission to the draftsman1 and found that not only did it feel exactly like cutting through a piece of very common sand-paper1 but that it blunted the edge of a new knife in exactly the same manner as would have been done by the roughest of sand-paper4 ,this kind of skin is common to all the shark tribe 7including the ,dog-fishes1 which are but sharks in miniature71 and to the ,skate1 ,saw-fish1 c4 ,i have now before me a small1 but perfect example of the ,saw-fish1 the surface of which is covered with flinty scales like those of the ,dog-fish1 but very much smaller1 requiring the aid of a magnifying lens to distinguish them4 ,even to guess at the number of them is impossible1 for they cover the whole of the body1 and extend to the very end of the beak1 in some places glittering in a strong light as if pounded glass had been sprinkled all over the fish4 ,one of the most interesting points in their structure is the manner in which they reach the rounded jaws1 and there become converted into teeth powerful enough to crush the animals on which the fish live4 ,the structure of these jaws will be explained in a future chapter4 ,some of the skates and sharks have these scales of great size1 so as to show their formation almost without the aid of a magnifying-glass4 ,this is the case with a species of skate1 the skin of which is used by the ,japanese for wrapping round the handles of their best swords1 and which is greatly valued by that nation1 the sword being an almost sacred article in the eyes of a ,japanese4 ,there is a well-known museum in which these swords are labelled as having handles of 8granulated ivory40 ,now1 in the first place1 there is no such thing as granulated ivory2 and1 in the next1 a mere glance ought to tell the observer that the so-called ivory is a skin of some sort1 worked upon the handle while wet1 and kept in its place by copper studs4 ,even the junction of the edges is perceptible1 and yet the authorities of the museum in question1 although they have been repeatedly corrected1 still persist in calling the skate-skin by the absurd title of granulated ivory4 ,however1 if ivory could be granulated1 it would certainly look very much like the skate-skin4 ,when examined closely1 the scales1 whether of ,dog-fish1 ,skate1 ,shark1 or ,saw-fish1 are seen to resemble hexagonal cones1 not coming quite to a point1 but truncated1 so as to have an hexagonal flattened tip4 ,they are almost of a flinty hardness1 especially at their tips1 and on inspection of them the observer is not surprised at the use of ,dog-fish skin in place of sand-paper4 ,perhaps the reader may ask why the ,equisetum should be taken as the prototype of the file1 and the skin of the ,dog-fish as that of sand-paper4 ,the reason is this4 ,the flinty points of the ,equisetum are set upon parallel ridges something like those of a file1 while the scales of the ,dog-fish are without any apparent order1 being crowded against each other like the cutting particles upon the sand-paper4 ,that there should not be an order1 and that a definite one1 is out of the question4 ,but it has not yet been detected by human eyes1 and therefore may be practically treated as non-existent4 ,,tools ,,of ,,measurement4 ,in many of the arts1 more especially those which belong to engineering and carpentering as a part of architecture1 it is absolutely necessary to make sure of a perpendicular line1 i4e4 a line which1 if continued1 would reach from any point of the earth's surface to its exact centre below and its zenith above4 ,were it not for the power of producing this line1 none of the great engineering works of modern or ancient days could have been undertaken4 ,take1 for example1 the wonderful tunnels which have been driven through the earth1 of which the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel is one of the greatest triumphs of modern engineering4 ,beginning1 as the workmen did1 at opposite ends of a tunnel many miles in length1 and labouring only by the lines laid down by the engineers1 the men worked steadily on until they met in the centre4 ,a few blows1 and the then narrow dividing wall was shattered1 the men shook hands through the aperture1 and then1 after enlarging it1 leaped wildly from one side to the other1 having successfully solved the great problem4 ,with such marvellous precision had the lines been laid1 that only a few inches had to be smoothed down on either side1 and the sides or walls of the tunnel showed no traces of the junction4 ,so rapid has been the progress of engineering that a tunnel of a mile in length would1 within the memory of man1 have been thought as daring a project as was the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel1 which has just been given as an example4 ,indeed1 ,i know of a railway tunnel1 not quite a mile in length1 where the engineers had committed some error1 so that the two halves1 instead of meeting exactly1 overlapped each other so much that the mistake was only discovered by the workmen1 who heard the strokes of their companions' picks on their sides1 and not in front4 ,consequently1 a great waste of time took place1 and the centre of the tunnel had to be made with a double curve1 like the letter ,s1 and trains are obliged to slacken speed until they have passed it4 ,those who have lived long enough to remember the current literature of the past generation will call to mind the ridicule that was cast upon the idea of a tunnel that should pass under the ,thames4 ,that it would be useful if it could be completed1 no one ventured to doubt1 but that such an idea could be conceived by any one out of a lunatic asylum was rather too much for the journalists of the day4 ,however1 the tunnel was made1 and so proved the theorists wrong on the one side4 ,and1 when made1 it was of very little use1 which proved them wrong on the other side4 ,now the proposal to carry a submarine tunnel from ,england to ,france excites not half the opposition that was elicited by the comparative child's-play of a tunnel under the ,thames4 ,the only mode of laying down the lines on which the men worked is by suspending very heavy balls to very fine wires1 and then1 by means of delicate optical instruments1 ascertaining whether the wires are in line with each other4 ,familiar instances of the use of this principle may be seen in the plumb-rule and level of the builder or carpenter4 ,the latter1 with a base of ten feet in length1 is often used by the gardener when he wishes to lay the absolutely level lawns that are required for our modern game of croquet1 where the hoops are scarcely wider than the balls1 and the lawn has in consequence to be nearly as level as a billiard table4 ,i may here remark that the name plumb-rule is derived from the ,latin word plumbum1 or lead1 in allusion to the leaden weight at the end of the string4 ,the word 8plumber0 is due to the same source1 and signifies a worker in lead4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,these invaluable aids to the development of civilisation are due to one principle1 namely1 that which we call ,gravitation1 but which ought more properly to be termed ,attraction1 and which attracts all parts of the earth towards its centre4 ,we are all familiar with the anecdote of ,newton and the falling apple1 which may be true or not1 but which at all events bears on the present subject4 ,no matter on what portion of the spherical earth a tree may be1 every fruit becoming disengaged from it is attracted to the earth1 the line which it takes1 unless disturbed by external forces 7such as wind1 c471 being that which passes from the zenith to the centre of the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,falling ,,fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,plumb-,,rule4 ,illustration3 ,,level4 ,this imaginary line is a perfect perpendicular1 and the visible line which is formed by the delicate wire of the tunnel-boring engineering instrument1 or the comparatively coarse string of the plumb-rule and level1 are approximations sufficiently close for practical purposes4 ,so it is in a mathematical proposition4 ,as mathematical lines have no breadth1 they are simply indicated or represented by the lines of the figure1 the bodily eye being incapable of seeing what is perfectly visible to the mental eye1 namely1 length without width4 ,so the wire and string perform in practical work exactly the same office which is fulfilled by the lines of a mathematical proposition drawn on paper4 ,we have already1 when treating of the ,fall-trap1 seen how this principle is brought into operation by those who are utterly incapable of discerning the physical principle1 though they can apply it materially with wonderful effect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is1 perhaps1 needless to mention the value of the ,measure to any handicraftsman4 ,i well remember that when1 some twenty-four years ago1 ,i was taking lessons from a carpenter in the art of making ladders1 gates1 fences1 hurdles1 and other rough-and-ready work1 my quaint old tutor related an anecdote of and against himself4 ,he very ingeniously set me to work at boring the auger-holes in the gate-posts which were to be united by the mortise chisel and mallet1 and to sweeten the rather severe1 because unaccustomed1 labour1 told me that1 when he was a boy1 he was doing just the same thing4 ,being rather tired of twisting the auger handle 7and no wonder either71 he withdrew the instrument1 and put his finger into the hole by way of ascertaining its depth4 ,immediately he found himself on his back1 having received a tremendous box on the ear from his father1 whose parental wrath was excited by the idea of his son condescending to use his finger by way of measure1 when he had a two-foot rule in its own special pocket4 ,there are1 however1 many cases where even a two-foot rule would be insufficient for the work1 and where a measure of thirty or forty feet is needed4 ,now1 there is no doubt that by means of a two-foot1 or even a six-inch1 rule any number of feet might be measured accurately2 but1 considering the number of junctions that have to be made1 it is not likely that any pretence to accuracy could be insured4 ,then1 a rod of forty1 or even of twenty1 feet in length would be awkward and unmanageable1 and the only plan left is to take a string or cord of the requisite length4 ,even here1 however1 is a difficulty4 ,the string would not allow of short measurements1 such as inches1 being written upon it4 ,let1 however1 a broad tape of inelastic material be substituted for the string1 and all is easy enough4 ,the next plan is to provide for the portability of the tape in question1 to insure its reduction into the smallest possible compass1 and to be sure that it is not twisted so as to damage its accuracy4 ,these objects are all attained by the ordinary ,tape ,measure of the present day1 which1 whether it be a yard measure in a lady's workbox1 or a surveyor's measuring tape1 is a ribbon of comparatively inelastic material1 coiled up when not wanted1 and capable of being drawn out to its fullest extreme when needed4 ,putting aside the breadth of the line1 and consequently disregarding the liability to twist1 we have in the ,fishing-reel of the modern angler an exact case in point4 ,so we have in the lady's yard measure1 and in the gardener's or builder's tape1 all these being modifications of the same idea4 ,illustration3 ,,ovipositor ,,of ,,gall-,,fly4 ,illustration3 ,,spring ,,measure4 ,suppose now that we pass to ,nature1 so as to ascertain whether any such provisions were in existence before it was imitated1 however unconsciously1 by man4 ,this certainly was the case with one of the commonest and most insignificant of our insects1 the little ,gall-fly1 belonging to the genus ,cynips4 ,it could not lay its eggs without the aid of a very long ovipositor1 and1 owing to structural details1 it cannot carry that ovipositor in a straight line1 as is done by many insects1 some of which have already been mentioned4 ,accordingly1 it is coiled up exactly like our measuring tapes1 and can be unrolled when needed4 ,the long1 protrusible tongues of the ,wryneck1 ,creeper1 and ,woodpecker are examples of a similar structure1 the tendinous portions being coiled round the head when not needed4 ,,the ,,spirit-,,level4 ,having now seen how the forces of ,nature enable us to produce a perfectly perpendicular line1 we will see how the same force1 though applied in a different manner1 enables us to produce a perfectly horizontal line1 the intersection of the two lines producing a right angle4 ,illustration3 ,,floating ,,bubble4 ,illustration3 ,,spirit-,,level4 ,the measuring tool in question is called the ,spirit-level1 and is represented on the right hand of the accompanying illustration4 ,its construction is very simple1 consisting of a tube1 nearly filled with spirit1 and having just one bubble of air in it4 ,now1 owing to the force of gravitation1 the air-bubble must always be uppermost4 ,consequently1 if the tube be a perfect cylinder1 whenever it is held so that the bubble is in the centre1 the tube must be horizontal1 a hair's breadth of deviation altering the line4 ,i may here mention that1 as far as the principle of the instrument goes1 water would serve the purpose as effectively as spirit4 ,but as in cold weather the water might freeze1 and so burst the tube1 as well as being useless until it was thawed1 spirit is always substituted4 ,this instrument is used for various purposes4 ,sometimes it is employed for levelling billiard tables1 or for ascertaining the exact level of walls and other parts of buildings4 ,surveyors could scarcely do their work without the ,spirit-level1 which forms an important part of their chief instrument1 the theodolite4 ,indeed1 the new science of land drainage1 by which the tough1 unproductive clay soil is converted into fertile earth1 is entirely dependent on the use of the ,spirit-level1 which detects the slightest rise or fall in the ground4 ,a most ingenious modification of the ,spirit-level is used by military engineers1 and is known by the name of the 8,contouring-glass10 a term which requires some explanation4 ,it is of the utmost importance that a military engineer should be able1 whether on foot or on horseback1 to ascertain the approximate heights of the various points which he visits1 the efficiency or failure of a battery very much depending on the comparative elevation of the spot on which the battery is placed1 and that of the place against which its fire is directed4 ,in an unknown country1 of which no detailed maps exist1 an invading force must of necessity depend on the extemporised surveys of their engineer officers1 and one of the most valuable of their devices is the system of ,contouring1 invented1 as far as ,i know1 by the late ,colonel ,hutchinson1 ,r4,e4 ,the idea is simple enough4 ,a hill is seen1 and the engineer makes a sketch of it before he ascends4 ,at the foot he halts1 and marks the spot where his foot presses the earth4 ,he then looks in front at a spot exactly on the level of his eye1 marks it1 and walks to it4 ,he then draws a line across his sketch1 at the exact spot on which he is standing1 and that is the first 8contouring line40 ,others follow1 until he has reached the top of the hill4 ,now1 if he can trust himself to look exactly horizontally1 he has ascertained the elevation of every part of the hill4 ,he knows the height of his eye from the sole of his foot1 and calculates accordingly4 ,suppose1 for example1 that it be five feet1 and that ten contouring lines are marked1 he knows that the entire height is fifty feet1 and that each line means an elevation of five feet4 ,this is a very excellent theory1 but one which is not reduced to practice so easily as it looks4 ,there is nothing more deceptive than a contour1 especially upon an irregular hill1 the invariable mistakes being either greatly to overrate or underrate the height of the contour4 ,when ,i took my first lesson in this art ,i caused much amusement to the professor under whom ,i was studying1 by making ,shooter's ,hill consist of about seventeen contours4 ,however1 as many military students made very much the same mistake1 ,i was not so humiliated as ,i supposed4 ,of course1 if a surveying officer be mounted1 he takes the contour line as measured from his eye to the ground through the centre of the saddle4 ,after some practice the eye becomes so much accustomed to the contouring lines that they are taken almost mechanically2 but1 until this result be gained1 an absolute proof is needed1 which is furnished by the ,contouring-glass--which1 by the way1 is not a glass at all1 after the common acceptation of the word4 ,it is a simple brass tube about three inches long1 not thicker than a man's little finger1 and open throughout4 ,a small spirit-level is fixed on its lower surface1 and on the very centre of the upper surface is a tiny steel mirror1 which projects downwards like a knife-blade4 ,in order to get a 8contour10 the observer looks through the tube1 slightly depressing its end4 ,he then gradually raises it1 still looking through it4 ,as the tube becomes exactly horizontal the bubble in the spirit-level is reflected in the little mirror1 and the object on which the tube is directed is in consequence on a level with the observer's eye4 ,at first the management of the contouring-glass is rather tedious2 but after a little practice it can be used without pausing for a single step4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,invaluable as is the ,spirit-level1 with its various modifications1 it is nothing but an adaptation of that natural law which causes the bubbles to float on the surface of a stream instead of being submerged below it4 ,we have all seen the multitudinous bubbles of soda-water1 or of any effervescing liquid1 and have noticed how they are very small when generated1 but enlarge quickly1 and rise to the surface with a rapidity equal to their enlargement4 ,the same phenomena may be observed in any water-fall1 or even in the very familiar and unpoetical operation of pouring beer from a jug into a glass4 ,the reader will see that in the plumb-rule1 the level1 and the spirit-level one single principle is employed1 namely1 the attraction of matter towards the centre of the earth4 ,in the two former instruments this attraction gives a vertical line1 and in the latter it gives a horizontal line1 but the principle is the same in both4 ,,callipers4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,sialis4 ,illustration3 ,,callipers4 ,we conclude the history of measuring tools with the ,callipers4 ,for ordinary purposes1 and upon a plane surface1 the ,compasses answer every purpose4 ,but there are various arts1 especially sculpture1 in which the compasses1 with their straight legs1 are absolutely valueless1 and their place must be supplied by a differently shaped instrument4 ,for example1 no ordinary compasses could measure the exact distance from the nostril to the back of the head1 or even touch two points at opposite sides of a limb1 and it is therefore necessary to have compasses with curved legs4 ,these are termed ,callipers1 and can be used on a plane as well as on a rounded surface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,natural ,callipers are plentiful enough1 and may be found extensively among the insect tribes4 ,there are1 for example1 the pincers of the ,earwig1 which have already been described on page #bei1 and which are1 in the common species1 formed exactly like the ,callipers of the sculptor4 ,then we have various insect jaws1 especially those of the carnivorous species1 one of the most curious being the large insect which is shown in the illustration1 upon a very reduced scale4 ,in the male the jaws are exceedingly long and curved1 as may be seen by reference to the illustration4 ,i have now before me a pair of sculptor's callipers1 and the resemblance between them and the jaws of the ,sialis is strangely close1 the curve being almost exactly the same in both cases4 ,the scientific name of this insect is ,sialis armata1 and it is a native of ,columbia4 ,,optics4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,missions ,,of ,,history4--,,the ,,camera ,,obscura4--,,long ,,and ,,short ,,sight4--,,stereoscope ,,and ,,pseudoscope4--,,multiplying-,,glasses4 ,the ,camera ,obscura4--,telescopes1 ,microscopes1 and ,spectroscopes1 and their separate ,objects4--,structure of the ,camera ,obscura4--,the ,double ,convex ,lens4--,its ,use as a ,burning-glass4--,the ,meridian ,gun in ,paris4--,signification of the ,word 8,focus40--,the ,human ,eye and its ,analogies to the ,camera ,obscura4--,forms of various ,lenses4--,long and ,short ,sight4--,their ,causes and ,means of ,remedy4--,alteration of ,sight in the ,diver4--,long and ,short sighted ,spectacles4--,the ,eye of ,birds4--,its beautiful ,structure4--,washing-glasses and the 8,nictitating0 ,membrane4--,combination of ,images4--,natural ,stereoscopes4--,the ,pseudoscope and its ,effects on an ,object4--,the ,multiplying-glass4--,the ,eight ,eyes of the ,spider and their ,arrangement4--,the ,seventy ,thousand ,eyes of the ,butterfly4--,form of the ,facets4 ,history seems to fall into natural divisions1 and to write the records of time in successive epochs1 recording the advance of the human race4 ,some of them have apparently disappeared except by the strange relics which they have left behind1 but though nothing is known of the men who worked in these ancient times1 they stamped their mark upon the earth1 and evidently left the world better than they found it4 ,a very admirable treatise on this subject has been written by the late ,rev4 ,j4 ,smith1 called the 8,divine ,drama of ,creation40 ,in this work he divides the progress of the human race into five acts1 like those of a drama4 ,the first act is the ,hebrew ,mission1 the second the ,greek ,mission1 the third the ,roman ,mission and the ,middle ,ages1 the fourth the ,national ,mission1 and the fifth the ,universal ,mission4 ,certainly a scene of the last act is now in progress1 and may be entitled the ,scientific ,mission4 ,the last hundred years have been indeed the age of discovery1 and1 during that time1 the life of civilised man has been quite altered1 so that practically his sojourn upon earth has been doubled4 ,steam1 with all its various applications1 electricity1 and other kindred arts have become so intermingled with our lives1 that it is difficult to imagine what our state would be if we were suddenly and utterly deprived of them4 ,the loss to all would be incalculable1 and not the least of the losses would be that of ready communion with our fellow-creatures4 ,of these arts we will now take that which is named at the head of this division of the book1 and see how far it is a development of natural facts4 ,,the ,,camera ,,obscura ,,and ,,the ,,eye4 ,i have already spoken of arts as being akin to each other4 ,they are more than this1 and every day of the world's progress teaches us that ,art1 ,science1 and ,manufacture are sisters1 all born of one family1 and all depending mutually on each other4 ,take1 for example1 our present theme--namely1 ,optics--and see how dependent it is upon ,manufacture and ,art4 ,without the former1 man could not construct those beautiful telescopes1 microscopes1 spectroscopes1 of the present day1 which are evidently but the precursors of instruments which will work still greater marvels4 ,the first enables us to see solar systems without number1 to which our own1 vast as it seems to us1 is but as a grain of sand in the desert4 ,the next instrument makes revelations as marvellous of the infinitely minute as does the telescope of the infinitely great1 enabling us to see living organizations so small that thirty-two millions could swim in a cubic inch of water4 ,the third1 a comparatively modern instrument1 reveals the composition of objects1 and can detect and register the materials of which the sun and fixed stars are made1 or detect an adulteration in wine4 ,it can adapt itself equally to the telescope and microscope1 and the very same instrument which will reveal the character of an invisible gas in the ,pole-star1 when attached to the telescope1 can1 when connected with the microscope1 point out the presence of half a corpuscle of blood where no other instrument could discover any trace of it4 ,all these instruments1 together with many others1 will be described in the present division of the work1 and their analogies with ,nature shown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now take the subject of the ,camera ,obscura1 an instrument with which the photographic apparatus of the present day has made most of us familiar4 ,as its action depends chiefly upon the glass1 or lens1 through which the rays of light pass into the instrument1 we will first explain that4 ,a 8lens0 is a glass formed in such a manner that the rays of light which pass through it either converge to a focus1 or are dispersed1 by means of the law of refraction4 ,every one who has been photographed--and who has not8--will remember that when the sitter has taken his position1 the photographer brings to bear upon him a circular glass fixed into a short tube1 and then looks through the instrument as if he were taking aim with some species of firearm4 ,it is no matter of wonder that when savages see the photographic camera for the first time they are horribly frightened1 for there is really something weird-like in the appearance of the lens thus presented4 ,now1 this lens is of the shape called 8double convex10 both sides being equally rounded1 so that a section of it would be shaped very much like a parenthesis 774 ,the effect of this form of lens is to bring the rays of light to a point at a given distance from the centre4 ,this point is called the 8focus10 and is well known by means of the common burning-glass1 which will set fire to objects placed in its focus1 while itself remains quite cool4 ,i have seen lead pour down like water when placed in the focus of a large burning-glass1 and even the harder metals will yield to the power of the sun's rays when thus concentrated4 ,there is nothing which gives a more vivid idea of the amount of heat thrown on the earth by the rays of the sun than the effects of a moderately large burning-glass--say one of six inches in diameter4 ,if we trace a circle of this size on the surface of the earth1 it does not seem as if any very great amount of heat can be received1 but when we catch the rays of that circle in our glass1 and bring them together upon the focus1 the amount of heat can be appreciated4 ,the well-known meridian gun in the ,palais ,royal is fired by the sun4 ,a burning-glass of no very great size is placed over the touch-hole of the gun1 with which its focus coincides4 ,the lens is turned in such a manner that1 as the sun attains the meridian1 its rays are thrown upon the touch-hole1 and consequently fire the gun4 ,the word focus is the ,latin term for a domestic hearth1 and is used in allusion to the heat which is manifested at the point on which the rays of the sun converge4 ,it is evident that1 after reaching the focus1 the rays1 if they be not intercepted by some object1 will cross each other1 and form a large image1 but reversed4 ,this part of the subject will presently be explained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the accompanying illustration shows two figures1 one representing the section of a double convex lens made by the hands of man1 and the other that of a double convex lens as seen in ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,crystalline ,,lens ,,of ,,human ,,eye4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,convex ,,lens4 ,the former has already been explained4 ,the latter is the double convex lens of the human eye1 by means of which the images of external objects are conveyed to the brain4 ,whenever this lens becomes thickened by disease1 the sight is gradually dimmed1 and at last total blindness is the result4 ,this disease is popularly called 8cataract10 and until late days was incurable4 ,now1 however1 any good oculist will attack a cataract1 and either partially or entirely restore the sight4 ,this operation is performed by carefully removing the convex lens1 and supplying its place with a glass lens1 which throws the rays of light on the same focus4 ,the figure shows the double convex lens of the human eye in its place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,having now seen something of the properties of the double convex lens1 we will examine its application to the ,camera ,obscura4 ,the lens is placed on one side of the camera1 and is so made that it can be slid backwards and forwards1 and the focus altered at will4 ,the camera itself is a box completely closed1 so that no light can enter it except that which passes through the lens4 ,the latter is so arranged that the rays which pass through it are crossed1 and throw their image on the opposite side of the camera4 ,in the photographic camera a piece of ground glass is placed at the end1 so that the rays fall upon it1 and the operator can see whether the image is a good one4 ,of course the figures are reversed1 so that the sitter seems to be on his head1 but that is a matter of no consequence4 ,exactly the same effect is produced by the marine telescope4 ,illustration3 ,,eye ,,and ,,image4 ,illustration3 ,,camera ,,obscura ,,and ,,image4 ,the general structure of the camera is shown in the illustration1 all needless details being omitted4 ,i may here remark that the term 8camera obscura10 or dark chamber1 alludes to the fact that the box is completely closed1 and1 but for the rays which pass through the lens1 would be absolutely dark4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the opposite illustration shows the most perfect camera obscura that can be imagined1 namely1 the human eye4 ,here we have a dark chamber1 a double convex lens1 and an image falling upon the back4 ,here the optic nerve comes into play1 takes cognisance of the image1 and conveys the idea to the brain4 ,with a little trouble1 a real eye1 say that of an ox1 can be dissected out1 and employed as a camera obscura1 the operator seeing in the back of the eye1 or 8retina10 the same image which the ox would have seen if it had been alive4 ,in photography1 the operator1 when he has found that a perfect image is thrown upon the ground glass1 which represents the retina of the eye1 substitutes for it a sensitive surface1 on which the rays are projected1 and which1 by chemical means1 produce a permanent instead of a fleeting object4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,examples of other lenses may be found in ,nature4 ,she1 moreover1 can perform a task which man has never even attempted1 namely1 the change of form in a lens according to the duty which it has to do4 ,how this wonderful object is attained we shall presently see4 ,there is a form of lens extremely useful in ,optics1 namely1 the 8,plano-convex0 lens4 ,this is1 in fact1 one half of a double convex lens1 the section being made through its edges1 and the plane sides polished as well as the convex4 ,as1 however1 this is only a half of the double convex lens1 it does not need further explanation4 ,its natural counterpart may be seen in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,human ,,eye3 ,,section ,,of ,,cornea1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,plano-,,convex ,,lens4 ,a somewhat more complicated form of lens is called the 8,meniscus10 one side of which is convex and the other concave4 ,a good example of the meniscus may be found in the old-fashioned watch-glass1 before watchmakers took to flattening them1 and watch-wearers were not ashamed to carry a 8turnip10 in which there was room to spare for the works4 ,if a section of such a glass were taken1 it would assume the form of a half-moon4 ,this1 in fact1 is the meaning of the term 8meniscus10 which is a ,greek word1 signifying a little moon4 ,if the same glass were solid1 or even filled with water1 it would form a 8plano-convex0 lens4 ,of course the outer curve of the meniscus must be larger than the inner curve1 but in some cases the disproportion is very strongly marked1 the outer curve being very large1 and the inner curve very small4 ,an example of such a meniscus may be seen in the human eye4 ,if the reader will refer to the illustration on page #bhj1 in which the structure of the eye is shown1 he will see the meniscus lens in combination with the double convex4 ,the former has already been explained1 and the latter is formed by the vitreous humour which fills nearly the entire globe of the eye4 ,its larger curve is due to the form of the eyeball1 and the smaller to the convex lens4 ,,long ,,and ,,short ,,sight4 ,it has already been mentioned that the focus of a convex lens is shorter in proportion to its convexity1 and that in consequence its magnifying power is increased4 ,for example1 the large glasses through which pictures are viewed are comparatively thin in proportion to their diameter1 while the lenses employed for the highest powers of the microscope are scarcely larger than small shot1 and nearly as globular4 ,it naturally follows that any instrument to which a lens is adapted1 whether it be microscope or telescope1 must depend for its focus on the greater or less convexity of the lens in question4 ,illustration3 ,,frame ,,of ,,owl',s ,,eye4 ,,lens ,,of ,,ditto4 ,illustration3 ,,short ,,and ,,long ,,sighted ,,eyes 7,,with ,,spectacles74 ,again taking as our example the human eye1 we find that there are very few persons who from youth to age possess or preserve eyes which can read small type at a moderate distance1 and can clearly define the outlines of distant objects4 ,nearly all people1 even if in their youth they possess good sight1 lose it as they grow older4 ,they can discern distant objects well enough1 but1 when they come to reading1 they are obliged to hold the book at arm's length before they can distinguish the letters4 ,this defect is caused by the insufficient convexity of the lens1 so that the focus is thrown too far back1 and it is corrected by wearing spectacles sufficiently convex to supply the deficiency in the lens of the eye4 ,an admirable example of temporary long-sightedness is familiar to every diver1 though he may be unconscious of its cause4 ,suppose that into very clear water of some twelve feet in depth1 a white object1 say a common jam-pot1 is thrown1 it can be clearly discerned from the shore1 unaltered in shape or size4 ,but1 when the diver searches for it1 he sees at first only something white1 large1 undefined1 and wavering1 and only finds it resume its proportions as he approaches it4 ,this phenomenon is due to the pressure of the water upon the eyeball1 which flattens it1 and so throws the focus too far back for a clear image4 ,nowadays this defect is remedied by the use of very convex spectacles1 so convex1 indeed1 that1 if worn in the air1 they would render the wearer incapable of seeing anything at more than an inch or so away from him4 ,but1 when worn in the water1 they only supply the deficiency of the compressed eyeball1 and so restore the focus to its proper position4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,those who suffer from short-sightedness can see with great distinctness objects which are close at hand1 but those at a little distance seem to have no particular outline1 and appear as if they were viewed through a fog1 thus causing a constant and almost painful strain on the eyes4 ,the cause of this defect is the too great convexity of the lens1 which therefore throws its focus short of the required spot4 ,the means of remedy are exactly opposite to those which are used for long-sighted persons1 a concave lens being placed in front of the eye1 so as to throw the focus farther back1 and relieve the organ from the strain4 ,although we have not yet invented a machine that can alter the focus at will1 we may take a hint from ,nature4 ,we have already seen how the pressure of water upon the front of the eye lessens its convexity1 and makes it long-sighted4 ,consequently1 if we could apply pressure round it1 we could make it more convex1 and so neutralise the weight of the water4 ,there is a wonderful piece of machinery in ,nature which really does perform this office1 the eye1 at the will of its owner1 becoming either telescopic or microscopic4 ,this quality is very desirable in birds1 especially those which are predacious and of rapid flight1 as they might either fail to see their prey at a distance1 or might dash themselves against some obstacle when they were close upon it4 ,the eye of the ,owl affords a beautiful example of machinery which produces this effect1 and the means which are used may be understood by inspecting the accompanying illustration4 ,it will be seen that the eyeball is set in a framework composed of thin bony plates1 just like a glass in a telescope4 ,when these plates are relaxed1 the whole eyeball is flattened1 so as to enable the bird to see an object at a very great distance4 ,but1 when they are contracted1 they render the whole eye globular in proportion to their pressure1 and enable the bird to see objects which are very close to it4 ,in fact1 the eye becomes a telescope or microscope as needed4 ,many reptiles possess this arrangement of bones1 but the birds have even a more delicate mode of obtaining the focus of the eye4 ,this is by means of a curious organ called1 from its shape1 the 8pecten10 or comb1 which is placed in the vitreous humour at the back of the eye1 and connected with the optic nerve4 ,it is a congeries of arteries and veins1 so that it can be rapidly enlarged by forcing blood into it1 or diminished by allowing the blood to withdraw4 ,as the liquid in which it rests is practically incompressible1 it follows that when the comb expands1 it causes the chamber of the vitreous fluid to expand1 and so forces the lens forward4 ,when1 however1 the blood retires from the comb1 the lens returns to its original place4 ,this1 as the reader may have noticed1 is the same principle as that which is followed in altering the focus of a telescope in order to suit the sight of different individuals4 ,perhaps a still better illustration may be found in the coarse and fine adjustment of the microscope1 the former of which moves the whole tube1 and may be compared to the bony ring2 while the latter causes one part to slide over the other1 and is analogous to the comb4 ,the movements of this organ are believed to be as involuntary as the dilatation and contraction of the iris2 but1 whatever may be the case1 it is one of the most beautiful examples of natural mechanics1 and far surpasses the most delicate machine that can be made by man4 ,in the illustration of the microscope1 which is to be found on page #bhf1 both these movements are given1 the double vertical wheel being the coarse movement1 and the fine movement being supplied by the single vertical wheel just above them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,while we are on this subject1 we may see how ,art unintentionally copies ,nature1 even in trivial details4 ,every one who is in the habit of using optical instruments1 more especially those who are forced to wear spectacles1 are aware of the necessity of keeping the glasses as clean as possible1 and1 where the instruments are delicate1 always have by them a piece of clean wash-leather for the express purpose of wiping the glasses4 ,here1 again1 ,nature has anticipated ,art4 ,in our own case1 we have in the human eye a good example of such natural mechanism1 the eyelids being formed quite as much for the purpose of washing the surface of the eyeball as of excluding light4 ,many animals are provided with a special apparatus for the purpose1 called the 8nictitating membrane40 ,it is1 in fact1 a sort of inner or supplementary eyelid1 which can be drawn over the eye while the external lids remain comparatively unmoved4 ,it is very conspicuous in the owls1 and gives to those birds that almost comical look of perpetual blinking with which we are so familiar4 ,,the ,,stereoscope ,,and ,,pseudoscope4 ,many persons have wondered how it happens that1 as we have two eyes1 we do not see two images instead of one4 ,practically1 this is always the case1 for the eyes1 especially when they look on solid bodies1 see two different images1 because they contemplate the object from different points of sight4 ,this may be easily ascertained by looking at a given object first with one eye1 and then with the other1 when it will be seen that the image presented to the right eye is slightly different from that of the left eye1 but that the two can be combined into one by a very slight inward movement of both eyes1 and thus the effect of a solid body be produced4 ,sometimes1 when people are weak1 and cannot control the united movement of the eyes1 not only two1 but five or six images are at once presented to the mind1 and produce a strange sense of bewilderment and confusion4 ,illustration3 ,,combination ,,of ,,human ,,eyes4 ,illustration3 ,,stereoscope4 ,illustration3 ,,binocular ,,microscope4 ,painters are obliged to avail themselves of this peculiarity1 and to make allowances for the double vision4 ,if they do not1 the effect of the painting is flat1 and it appears as if the artist had only used one eye4 ,a good proof of this fact may be seen in ,stereoscopic photographs1 especially of scenery4 ,if each be viewed separately1 it often appears quite unintelligible1 but1 when they are combined by the instrument1 they seem to spring into life as it were1 and appear solid enough to be grasped4 ,now1 the ,stereoscope is avowedly constructed on the same principle as the double vision of the eye1 so that when it applies itself to two photographs of the same object which have been taken from different points of view1 it combines them1 and gives them as solid an appearance as if they were realities4 ,so wonderfully close is the representation1 that the idea of a place obtained by means of the combination of the photograph and ,stereoscope is quite as vivid and correct as if it had been gained by actual observation4 ,the principle of the ,stereoscope is now applied to the best microscopes1 and its value is incalculable1 especially when low powers are used1 i4e4 those of not less than half an inch focus4 ,the real beauty of many objects could never have been appreciated but for this discovery1 nor their true form defined4 ,on the left hand of the illustration is shown the combining power of the eyes4 ,supposing the right eye only to be brought to bear upon the little cylinder1 only one side of it will be seen1 and it looks nearly flat4 ,the same is the case with the left eye4 ,but1 when both eyes are used together1 both sides of the cylinder are presented to the mind1 and thus we get the effect of solidity4 ,the ,stereoscope is so formed1 by means of lenses1 that the two figures become combined into one1 the rays of light being turned out of their course by the arrangement of the glasses4 ,the ,stereoscope1 however1 although a useful assistant to the vision1 is not necessary4 ,it is perfectly possible to combine the two figures without any stereoscope1 and to do so merely by squinting1 if we may so call it1 at the figures4 ,the power of combination is gained with a very little practice1 and in a short time the observer will be capable of producing stereoscopic effects without needing a ,stereoscope4 ,this ability is very useful when inspecting photographs in a shop-window4 ,of course the figures are not so much enlarged as they are with the stereoscope1 but they are nevertheless quite as clear and well defined4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is an instrument called the ,pseudoscope1 which1 as its name imports1 gives a false idea as to the nature of the object which is viewed through it1 converting hollow objects into solid1 and vice vers4 ,the following description of its effect is given by ,wheatstone3-- 8,when an observer looks with the pseudoscope at the interior of a cup or basin1 he not unfrequently sees it at first in its real form2 but by prolonging his gaze he will perceive the conversion within a few minutes2 and it is curious that1 while this seems to take place quite suddenly with some individuals1 as if the basin were flexible1 and were suddenly turned inside out1 it occurs more gradually with others1 the concavity slowly giving way to flatness1 and the flatness progressively rising into convexity4 8,not unfrequently1 after the conversion has taken place1 the natural aspect of the object continues to intrude itself1 sometimes suddenly1 sometimes gradually1 and for a longer or shorter interval1 when the converse will again succeed it--as if the new visual impression could not at once counteract the previous results of recent experience4 ,at last1 however1 the mind seems to accept the conversion without further hesitation2 and after this process has once been completely gone through1 the observer1 on recurring to the same object1 will not find it possible to see it in any other than its converted form1 unless the interval should be long enough to have allowed him to forget its aspect4 8,vagaries1 however1 sometimes occur in these experiments of which it is difficult to give any certain explanation1 but which would be probably found referable to the same general principle1 if we were acquainted with all the conditions of its operation40 ,,the ,,multiplying-,,glass4 ,still more extraordinary examples of the combining power of vision are to be found in the eyes of spiders and insects1 more especially when we compare them with the work of man4 ,if we take a common ,multiplying-glass1 such as is shown in the figure1 and look at a flower or other object through it1 we see the object repeated as many times as there are different foci of vision in the instrument4 ,illustration3 ,,eyes ,,of ,,spider4 ,illustration3 ,,multiplying-,,glass4 ,now1 taking for example the eyes of a ,spider1 it would be natural to suppose that the same result would occur1 especially as the foci of the eyes point in different directions4 ,the left-hand figure in the illustration represents the eight eyes of one of our common ,spiders1 belonging to the genus ,clubiona1 which may be found in almost any outhouse1 sitting in its curious web1 and ready in a moment to run for safety into its silken tunnel4 ,it will be seen that the foci of all the eyes are in different directions1 and so placed as to command a large radius4 ,observers have remarked that the eyes are placed in ,spiders so as to suit their habits4 8,those spiders10 writes ,professor ,owen1 in his 8,comparative ,anatomy10 8which hide in tubes1 or lurk in obscure retreats1 either underground or in the holes or fissures of walls or rocks1 from which they emerge only to seize a passing prey1 have their eyes aggregated in a close group in the middle of the forehead1 as in the ,bird-spider1 the ,clotho1 c4 8,the spiders which inhabit short tubes1 terminated by a large web1 exposed to the open air1 have the eyes separated and more spread upon the front of the cephalothorax4 8,those spiders which rest in the centre of a free web1 along which they frequently traverse1 have the eyes supported on slight prominences1 which permit a greater divergence of their axis2 this structure is well remarked in the genus ,thomisa1 the species of which live in ambuscade in flowers4 8,lastly1 the spiders called ,errantes1 or ,wanderers1 have their eyes still more scattered1 the lateral ones being placed at the margin of the cephalothorax40 ,yet1 although each eye produces a separate image1 it is clear that upon the mind of the ,spider only a single idea can be impressed1 for that otherwise all would be confusion4 ,there must1 therefore1 be some mechanism in the structure of the eye1 the nature of which we are not as yet able to understand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,still more remarkable instance of a natural ,multiplying-glass may be found in the eyes of many insects4 ,the form of multiplying-glass shown in the accompanying illustration is probably familiar to most of my readers4 ,it consists of a convex piece of glass1 cut into a number of facets1 and showing in each facet a distinct and separate image of the object to which it is directed4 ,now1 the compound eyes of insects are constructed on much the same principle1 except that the number of facets is infinitely more4 ,taking1 for example1 the eyes of the ,tortoise-shell ,butterfly1 we find that there are about seventy thousand lenses or facets4 ,now1 it is possible1 with care1 to remove the eye from the insect1 cleanse it1 and arrange it in microscope in such a way that objects can be seen through it4 ,when this is done1 a separate image is seen in each facet1 just as is the case with the ,multiplying-glass1 only1 as the facets are very much more numerous1 the effect is proportionately more striking4 ,illustration3 ,,insect ,,eye4 ,illustration3 ,,tumbler4 ,illustration3 ,,multiplying-,,glass4 ,the reader may notice that the facets of the insect eye appear to be hexagons as perfect as those of the honey-comb4 ,this appearance is probably due to the fact that each eye is covered with a convex plate of glassy brightness and transparency1 and that1 when such objects are viewed from the front1 they appear to have hexagonal instead of rounded outlines4 ,a familiar example of this fact may be found in the glass tumblers which are ornamented with rounded projections on their surface4 ,if a photograph of one of these tumblers be taken1 the resemblance to the hexagonal markings of the insect eye is so close that the tumbler might easily be taken for the eye4 ,,optics4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,water ,,telescope4--,,iris ,,of ,,the ,,eye4--,,magic ,,lantern4--,,the ,,spectroscope4--,,the ,,thaumatrope4 ,limits to ,sight in the ,water4--,effect of a ,ripple4--,the ,eyes under ,water4--,the ,water ,telescope1 its ,structure and ,mode of ,use4--,gyrinus1 or ,whirlwig-beetle1 and its ,double ,set of ,eyes4--,the ,iris of the ,eye1 and its ,double ,set of ,contractile ,fibres4--,cotterill's ,lock and its ,structure4--,the ,magic ,lantern and its ,principle4--,chinese ,shadows4--,spectre of the ,brocken4--,an ,adventure in ,wiltshire4--,effect of the ,halo4--,the ,spectroscope4--,its ,structure explained4--,a ,star on fire4--,motes in the ,sunbeams4--,bessemer ,steel made by aid of the ,spectroscope4--,absorption ,bands4--,detection of ,blood4--,a ,man's ,life saved by the ,spectroscope4--,the ,pocket ,spectroscope4--,the ,rainbow1 ,dewdrop1 ,soap-bubble1 ,opal1 and ,pearl4--,the ,thaumatrope4--,structure of the ,retina4--,complementary ,colours4--,the ,zoetrope and ,chromatrope4--,wheel ,animalcules and their ,structure4--,an ,optical ,delusion4 ,,the ,,water ,,telescope4 ,every one who has watched the movements of the various creatures which live below the surface of the water is aware how entirely dependent he is on the unruffled character of that surface4 ,no matter how clear the water may be1 the least ruffling of the surface will effectually shut out all sight3-- 8,but if a stone the gentle sea divide1 ,swift rippling circles rush on every side1 ,and glimmering fragments of a broken sun1 ,banks1 trees1 and skies in thick disorder run40 ,and there is an end of the observations4 ,if1 however1 the eyes can penetrate below the surface1 the ruffling is of little consequence1 so long as the water is clear4 ,consequently1 whenever the top of the bank is sufficiently near the water1 it is possible to continue the observations by lying down1 and immersing the head above the eyes4 ,this plan1 however1 is not a very comfortable one1 although ,i have often followed it on a windy day when the surface was too ruffled to permit of vision in any other way4 ,still1 there is an instrument by which it is possible to counteract the ruffle of the surface1 and to see objects with tolerable plainness4 ,this is called the ,water ,telescope1 and it is of very simple construction4 ,like the ordinary telescope1 it consists of a tube1 but1 instead of the convex and concave lenses of that instrument1 it has only a single glass at one end1 and that glass is perfectly plane4 ,illustration3 ,,whirlwig-,,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,telescope4 ,when used1 the eye is applied to the open end1 and the glazed end lowered into the water4 ,the sight is then undisturbed by the ripple1 and the effect is the same as if the eyes themselves were lowered beneath the surface4 ,it is much used in looking for shells1 sea-urchins1 and other creatures which live in the bed of the sea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the insect world we have an example of a natural ,water ,telescope4 ,i do not say that the inventor of the ,water ,telescope took his idea from the insect1 but the reader will see that he might very well have done so4 ,there are sundry little beetles popularly called ,whirlwigs or ,whirligigs1 and scientifically known by the name of ,gyrinus4 ,all these names allude to the insect's habit of whirling about on the surface of the water1 with a movement which seems ceaseless and untiring4 ,allusion has already been made to the ,whirlwigs on page #bb4 ,their object in their perpetual waltz is not so much amusement as food1 which chiefly consists of the tiny insects which fall into the water4 ,now1 in order to enable it to see both above and below the water1 a peculiar structure is required4 ,generally the insects possess one pair of compound eyes1 each group being set on the sides of the head4 ,in the ,gyrinus1 however1 there are two sets of these eyes1 one pair being on the upper surface of the head1 and the other on the lower surface4 ,thus1 while it can use the upper pair for seeing objects which are out of the water1 the lower pair of eyes1 which are submerged1 act the part of the ,water ,telescope1 and enable it to see objects that are below the surface4 ,were it not for this precaution1 even the ripples which it makes by its own rapid progress would prevent it from seeing4 ,,the ,,iris ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 ,illustration3 ,,iris ,,of ,,human ,,eve4 ,illustration3 ,,cotterill',s ,,lock4 ,i have often wondered1 when contemplating the astonishing mechanism by which the ,iris of the ,eye is able to contract or enlarge the pupil according to the amount of light1 whether any similar mechanism would be used in ,art4 ,as anatomists know1 the ,iris is composed of two layers4 ,one consists of radiating fibres1 which serve to enlarge the pupil1 while the other layer surrounds the latter1 and by its elasticity serves to contract it4 ,as any one may see by looking in a mirror and shifting the light1 the pupil is perpetually changing its diameter1 but always retaining its circular shape4 ,a glance at the illustration will show the two layers1 and aid the reader in understanding the mode in which they work4 ,some years ago1 while looking at the account given by ,mr4 ,j4 ,price of a lock invented by ,mr4 ,cotterill1 ,i saw at once that the inventor1 whether consciously or not1 had followed the mechanism of the eye1 as far as metal could be expected to imitate animal fibre4 ,in the very centre of the lock there is a small circular opening1 resembling the pupil of the eye1 and serving to admit the key1 just as the pupil admits light4 ,around this pupil1 if we may so call it1 are ranged some twenty thin steel slides which move in channels1 up and down which they slide4 ,round the circumference of the lock are a corresponding number of spiral springs1 each of which presses on the base of a slide1 and forces it towards the centre4 ,the reader will now see that the radiating slides of the lock represent the radiating fibres of the iris1 and that the spiral springs represent the circular fibres4 ,both perform the same office1 the steel slides regulating the size of the aperture1 and the spiral springs pressing them all towards the centre4 ,the key of the lock answers the same purpose as does light in the eye1 which by its mysterious pressure enlarges or contracts the pupil4 ,this is not the place to describe this very ingenious lock in detail1 but ,i may state that it has never been picked4 ,even ,mr4 ,hobbs1 who tried it for twenty-four hours1 gave it up1 and1 when he saw the interior mechanism1 said that if he had tried for a month he should have made no progress4 ,this is an unconscious testimony to the wisdom of following ,nature in ,art4 ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern4 ,we are all familiar with the ,magic ,lantern1 whether it may take the form of the mere child's toy1 be developed into ,dissolving ,views1 or throw black shadows on a curtain1 in which case it is called by the name of ,chinese ,shadows4 ,in all these cases the principle is the same4 ,first we have a light behind the object whose reflection is to be seen4 ,next we have the object itself1 and lastly the surface upon which it is reflected4 ,as to the variety of mirrors1 lamps1 and lenses which are used to produce different effects1 we may put them aside as foreign to our present purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,magic ,,lantern4 ,generally the object is reflected upon a white curtain or sheet1 but sometimes1 when a specially weird-like effect is needed1 a cloud of thick smoke takes the place of the sheet1 and upon it the reflection is shown1 as seen in the accompanying illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature has her ,magic ,lanterns as well as ,art1 and wonderful things they are sometimes1 the well-known ,brocken ,spectre being an excellent example4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary to visit the ,brocken in order to see this apparition1 for ,i have seen it in perfection in ,england4 ,many years ago1 when living in ,wiltshire1 ,i went before daybreak to the top of a very high conical hill4 ,the morning mist was so thick that ,i could scarcely see my way up the hill4 ,when ,i reached the summit1 ,i stood there for some time1 trying to see the landscape1 but the mist was so thick that ,i could barely tell the points of the horizon by the brighter look cast by the coming ,day in the east4 ,i was looking westward1 when suddenly the sun rose behind me1 and ,i saw the ,brocken ,spectre as ,i have sketched it in the accompanying illustration4 ,it was a gigantic shadow of myself1 projected on the mist1 just as a ,magic ,lantern projects the image on a sheet or a smoke-cloud4 ,of course my gestures were repeated1 and it really looked almost awful to see this gigantic spectral figure set in the mist4 ,perhaps the most extraordinary part of it was the enormous halo of rainbow colours round the head4 ,no matter where ,i moved1 the halo surrounded the head of the image1 its colours being comparatively bright near the centre1 and becoming gradually paler towards the circumference4 ,another point about this natural ,magic ,lantern ought to be mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,brocken ,,spectre4 ,wishing to show a friend the extraordinary sight of a ,brocken ,spectre1 ,i took him up the hill on a misty day like that which has been briefly described4 ,according to surmise1 two spectres appeared instead of one1 but the halo was not doubled as well as the shadow4 ,i could see my friend's shadow1 and he could see mine4 ,but1 although the halo was as bright as before1 each of us could only see it encircling his own head4 ,we stood as close to each other as we could1 we moved apart as far as the nearly conical top of the hill would allow1 and in both cases each of us could only see his own halo4 ,perhaps the reader may remember the wonderful spectre-scene drawn by ,mr4 ,whymper1 and viewed from the ,matterhorn just after the accident which had killed several of his companions in the ascent of the hitherto impregnable peak4 ,in the mist there suddenly appeared three vast dark crosses enclosed in an oval4 ,considering the highly-strung nerves of the survivors1 it was no wonder that they were all shaken by such an appearance1 and that the guides were for a time too frightened to proceed4 ,,the ,,spectroscope4 ,next we come to one of the most astonishing and beautiful optical instruments ever made by the hand of man4 ,it is called the ,spectroscope1 because it deals with a certain arrangement of rays which is called a 8spectrum40 ,many years ago ,newton discovered the cause of the lovely colours which deck the rainbow1 and the fact that1 by passing a ray of white light through a prism1 it was decomposed into seven colours1 which invariably came in the following order--,red1 ,orange1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue1 ,indigo1 and ,violet4 ,he also discovered that1 by looking at that coloured band through another prism arranged in a different manner1 the decomposed rays were again brought together1 and white light was the result4 ,newton had thrown the light on the prism through a round hole1 but some time afterwards ,dr4 ,wollaston employed a narrow slit for the purpose1 and then found that the spectrum was traversed by dark lines which never changed their places4 ,on these lines depend all the discoveries that have been made by the aid of the ,spectroscope4 ,the chief of them are designated by the letters of the alphabet4 7,see page #cjj47 ,it was soon found out that if burning gases were viewed with the ,spectroscope1 lines were still seen1 but they were bright instead of dark1 and that they invariably occupied the place of one or more of the dark lines shown by the spectrum of sunlight4 ,then it was discovered that these burning gases absorbed or stopped out the light in the solar spectrum1 and from that moment the science rapidly advanced4 ,at the present day the ,spectroscope not only determines the metals which exist in the sun1 but also those of the fixed stars4 ,it even analyzes the constitution of double stars1 and shows the reason why one star should be red and the other green4 ,one of the most astonishing discoveries in astronomy was due to the ,spectroscope4 ,during the month of ,may1 #ahff1 one of the stars in the ,northern ,crown 7,corona ,borealis7 was seen to undergo a rapid change4 ,it was originally one of the tenth magnitude1 but in a short time increased in size and brilliancy until it nearly equalled ,sirius1 ,capella1 or ,vega4 ,it remained bright for some time1 and then rapidly faded until it resumed its former size4 ,how this change was effected we never should have known but for the ,spectroscope4 ,no sooner1 however1 was this instrument pointed at the star than there appeared in the spectrum the three well-known lines--red1 green1 and violet--which denote burning hydrogen4 ,there was no doubt on the matter1 and the ,spectroscope showed us that we were witnessing a conflagration the like of which was never seen or scarcely imagined4 ,illustration3 ,,rainbow4 ,supposing our sun1 which is known to be one of the stars1 and about which there are vast volumes of hydrogen gas1 were to blaze out in a similar manner1 the result would be that the whole of the planets would be consumed in a few seconds1 and converted into gases4 ,in an instant every living thing would be swept off the surface of the earth by this fearful heat1 and1 as ,mr4 ,roscoe says1 8our solid globe would be dissipated in vapour almost as soon as drops of water in a furnace40 ,so1 as ,mr4 ,huggins observes1 the old nursery rhyme1-- 8,twinkle1 twinkle1 little star1 ,how ,i wonder what you are10-- is no longer tenable1 for we really do know the composition of the stars4 ,the ,spectroscope not only tells us the substance of which the sun and the most distant stars are made1 but gives us the same information about the 8gay motes that people the sunbeam40 ,it tells us that they are common salt in very minute particles4 ,they have been dashed into the air by the winds as spray1 and then dispersed over the whole globe4 ,this is one reason why we have so much salt in our bodies1 and why the blood and the tears are so salt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is also applied to the arts4 ,the well-known ,bessemer process consists in pouring melted iron into a peculiarly shaped vessel called a 8converter10 and blowing air through it for the purpose of burning out the carbon4 ,from the mouth of the converter issues a volume of magnificent flames1 and at a certain moment the skilled workman who directs the process inverts the vessel and pours out the steel4 ,a very few seconds too soon or too late would spoil the whole of the metal1 in the former case it being simply brittle cast-iron2 and1 in the second1 becoming so thick that it could not be poured out4 ,only a few workmen could judge rightly the exact point at which to shut off the air-blast4 ,they watched the flame1 and by some change in it1 too slight to be noticed by any except experienced eyes1 knew the moment when the iron was converted into steel4 ,such men could1 of course1 demand any wages they liked1 and1 by striking1 stop the whole works4 ,the ,spectroscope1 however1 performed this delicate discrimination far better than the best workman4 ,when directed to the flame1 the bright lines indicating carbon are seen in the spectrum4 ,when the blast has continued for some twenty minutes1 the carbon lines suddenly disappear1 showing that the carbon has been burned out1 and giving to the workman the signal to shut off the air-blast4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another discovery was1 that liquids gave dark lines1 technically termed absorption bands1 of different widths and in different parts of the spectrum4 ,even liquids which had no perceptible colour threw bands as bold as those which were coloured1 while coloured liquids threw totally different bands1 irrespectively of their own colour4 ,for example1 the green colouring matter of leaves1 called chlorophyll1 throws a single broad band on the extreme left--i4e4 across the red part of the spectrum--so far back1 indeed1 that it is not easily seen at first4 ,then1 suppose that we make some pale solutions of red substances1 such as carmine1 magenta dye1 port wine1 logwood1 permanganate of potash1 and blood1 it is possible to have them so exactly resembling each other that not even the microscope can discriminate between them2 yet the ,spectroscope instantly detects the colouring matter of each solution4 ,illustration3 ,,spectrum ,,of ,,sunlight1 ,,or ,,solar ,,spectrum4 ,illustration3 ,,spectrum ,,of ,,blood4 ,the instrument is1 therefore1 invaluable in detecting adulterations of wine4 ,for example1 supposing that red wine is suspected of owing its redness to logwood1 and not to the genuine grape1 a drop is mixed with water and viewed through the ,spectroscope1 which instantly tells whether the colouring matter is grape or logwood4 ,and as1 by photography1 the spectrum can be exactly copied1 an indelible record is procured of the true nature of the object4 ,so marvellously delicate is the instrument with regard to blood1 that it detects the thousandth part of a grain of colouring matter in a blood-stain4 ,if upon the spectrum were printed the word ,,blood in the largest and blackest of capitals1 it could not be more legible to an ordinary reader than are the two blood-bands to the eye of a spectroscopist4 ,there is nothing like them in nature1 and whether it be by association of ideas1 or by absolute fact1 these two bars have a strangely menacing look about them4 ,not only that1 but if the blood should be that of a person suffocated with carbonic acid gas1 the ,spectroscope will say so4 ,some years ago a man owed his life to the ,spectroscope4 ,a mysterious murder had been committed1 and the police had arrested a man who was found near the spot4 ,he could give no intelligible account of himself1 and the sleeves of his coat and a part of his waistcoat were deeply stained with a red substance just like clotted blood4 ,a piece of each garment was cut off and given to a well-known spectroscopist1 who tried the red matter in the instrument1 and at once declared it not to be blood4 ,what it was he had not time to ascertain1 so he sent it to a brother in science1 who1 after examination1 pronounced it to be red gum4 ,by degrees1 the man1 who had been intoxicated when arrested1 stated that he had been to see a friend who was a journeyman hatter4 ,it was then found that he had been leaning on the workman's board1 and so had carried off some of the gummastic with which hats are stiffened4 ,had it not been for the infallible ,spectroscope1 the man might have lost his life4 ,thus we see that the ,spectroscope is the elephant's trunk of optics1 equally fitted for the greatest and smallest1 the farthest and nearest1 of objects4 ,it is equally at home in earth and sky4 ,when attached to the telescope1 it reveals the constituents of the stars1 and1 when affixed to the microscope1 it shows us the colouring matter of a green leaf4 ,it produces the best steel1 and detects adulteration in wine4 ,and1 lastly1 as we have seen1 it turns lawyer1 and settles the evidence by which the life of a man is lost or saved4 ,it can determine the purity of the smallest coinage1 and tell us why a star changes in magnitude4 ,yet all these wondrous revelations are made by a few prisms and a magnifying-glass4 ,i possess a ,spectroscope1 made and presented to me by ,mr4 ,j4 ,browning1 the celebrated optician4 ,this astonishing instrument is only three inches long1 and half an inch in diameter1 so that it can be carried in the waistcoat pocket4 ,i always keep mine in a finger of a white kid glove1 which is amply sufficient for it4 ,yet it gives the spectrum of the sun with its principal lines1 will detect the fraudulent wine merchant1 and could have decided whether the accused man should be acquitted or hanged4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,marvellous and mighty as is this engine1 it lay concealed in ,nature ever since the sun's rays shone upon earth and a drop of water existed4 ,the ,rainbow is nothing but a vast spectrum1 a transverse slice of which would be a good representation of the coloured band which is shown in the instrument4 ,it is prefigured in the ever-shifting rainbows of the water-fall and fountain1 which latter may even be seen in the fountains of ,trafalgar ,square1 while at the ,crystal ,palace their beauty has long been noticed4 ,there is not a dewdrop which is not a miniature ,spectroscope1 as it glitters with its wondrous iridescence in the rays of the rising sun2 there is not an opal with its shifting hues1 nor the splendour of the soap-bubble1 nor the nacre of the common river mussel or the ormer shell1 which does not owe its beauty to the same principles which govern the ,spectroscope4 ,every green leaf1 and blue or pink or yellow petal1 every varying tint of the mackerel sky1 every blaze of sunset and bluegrey of sunrise1 owes its beauty to those wondrous laws of light which had been hidden for so many centuries1 until they were unveiled by the simple prism of the ,spectroscope4 ,as in so many instances1 the revelation lay concealed until the coming of the revealer1 whose inspired hand raised the dark veil of centuries4 ,,the ,,thaumatrope4 ,middle-aged persons will recollect that since the days of their childhood a great variety of optical apparatus has been invented ending in the word 8trope40 ,this is a ,greek word1 signifying to turn1 and is given to the instruments because they revolve4 ,all these toys--and they may some day become more than toys--depend on a curious property of the human eye4 ,the reader will remember that in the description of the human eye1 as compared with the camera obscura as applied to photography1 it was mentioned that the image was thrown from the front to the back1 and in the one case was received on a naturally sensitive membrane1 and in the other on a film rendered artificially sensitive by chemical means4 ,this membrane is called the 8retina10 because it not only receives the impression1 but retains it for some little time after the object is removed4 ,it has been calculated that the duration of the image is about the eighth part of a second4 ,thus the eyelids are perpetually and unconsciously closing and opening with a rapid movement1 popularly called 8winking40 ,this movement is for the purpose of cleansing the eyeball1 and1 were it not for the image-retaining power of the retina1 we should pass a considerable part of our time in absolute darkness4 ,as it is1 the impression of external objects on the retina lasts longer than the time occupied in winking1 and1 in consequence1 we are not conscious that any interval of darkness has elapsed4 ,again1 when we have been looking steadfastly at an object1 and then move our eyes1 the image of that object is seen in the new focus2 and it is worthy of notice that such object is always seen in its 8complementary0 colour4 ,for example1 if we have been looking at a scarlet spot1 and suddenly move our eyes1 we shall see a spot exactly similar in size and shape1 but of green4 ,i well remember that when ,i was a boy ,i was reading with almost feverish anxiety the green handbill of a travelling circus1 to which ,i hoped that ,i might be allowed to attend4 ,having finished it1 ,i asked for some note-paper1 for the purpose of putting my request in writing1 but1 to my astonishment1 mixed1 perhaps1 with a little irritation1 all the paper supplied to me was of a bright pink4 ,for a time no arguments could convince me that the paper was really white1 until by degrees the pink hue became paler and paler1 and the paper assumed its normal whiteness4 ,the fact was1 that the eye had become saturated with the green--i4e4 the blue and yellow rays--and could see nothing but their complementary colour1 which was pink4 ,a good example of this property may be found in a lighted stick1 which1 if rapidly whirled round1 appears to form a continuous circle of fire4 ,the reason of this is1 that the impression made on the retina by the fiery point does not cease until the stick has again come round in its course4 ,then there are those well-known chromatic tops1 in which are inserted pieces of bent wire4 ,when the top is spun these pieces of wire assume exactly the appearance of transparent jugs1 vases1 glasses1 and similar articles4 ,a very pretty illustration of this principle is given by a little machine1 which is made to revolve rapidly by means of a multiplying wheel4 ,upon its surface are fixed little pins1 with polished globular steel heads1 and1 when the handle is turned1 these heads form the most beautiful and intricate figures with exact accuracy4 ,another toy1 called the ,thaumatrope1 or ,wonder-turner1 is equally ingenious and beautiful1 and is sufficiently simple to be made by any one with a slight knowledge of drawing4 ,a disc of white cardboard is cut1 and upon each side of it is portrayed some object4 ,if the disc be caused to revolve rapidly1 these two subjects will be seen at the same time1 the image of each being held on the retina long enough to allow the other to take its place4 ,some very beautiful combinations may be made by means of this instrument4 ,for example1 a horse may be on one side1 and a man on the other1 and1 by spinning the disc1 the man will be seen mounted on the horse4 ,then we may have a boat on one side1 and a rower with his oars on the other4 ,similarly a mouse can be put into a trap1 or a bird into a cage4 ,the reader must remember that these subjects must be drawn as if they were upside down with regard to each other1 so that the man who is to ride the horse is drawn as if he were standing on his head1 and the mouse which is to enter the trap looks as if it were lying on its back4 ,the most simple manner of spinning the disc is by means of two threads1 each being inserted near the edge of the disc1 and exactly opposite each other4 ,a very ingenious modification of the ,thaumatrope is made by inserting at one side of the disc two strings1 of which one is elastic4 ,it is evident1 then1 that by lengthening or shortening the elastic string1 the axis can be changed1 and the objects on the opposite sides placed in positions relatively different from each other4 ,thus the jockey may be made to jump on and off his horse1 the bird to go in and out of its cage1 the mouse to enter the trap1 and so on4 ,this simple invention allows of infinite combinations1 so that a tree may be made to sprout1 a man to move his limbs1 and a bird to flap its wings4 ,it was invented1 ,i believe1 by ,dr4 ,paris1 author of 8,philosophy in ,sport made ,science in ,earnest40 ,on the right hand of the illustration are seen three figures1 each representing a means of obtaining an ocular delusion through the principle of which we are now treating4 ,the lower figure is called the ,zoetrope1 or ,wheel of ,life4 ,as the reader may see1 it consists of a hollow cylinder1 revolving on a centre1 and having within it a series of figures4 ,when the wheel revolves1 and the figures are viewed through the slits1 each figure seems to be in lifelike motion1 whence the name of ,zoetrope4 ,in the present case the figures are those of boys jumping over posts4 ,illustration3 ,,wheel ,,animalcule4 ,,phantasmascope4 ,,chromatrope4 ,,zoetrope4 ,the mode in which this effect is produced is as follows3--,suppose that a boy were really to jump over a post1 he would go through a series of motions1 and his body be placed in a certain series of positions1 before he cleared the post4 ,supposing1 then1 that several points were chosen in his course1 and his body drawn as it would appear at these points1 and the drawings placed in their proper order in the ,zoetrope1 it is evident that the figures must appear in movement4 ,before the retina loses the image of the boy standing in front of the post1 it takes in that of the boy stooping1 with his hands on the top of the post1 and so on until he has reached the ground on the opposite side4 ,another mode of producing the same effect1 called the ,phantasmascope1 is seen above the zoetrope4 ,in this case the images are placed on the inside of the disc1 which is held opposite a mirror1 and the figures viewed through the slits4 ,the last of these figures is the rather complicated one1 like the back of an 8engine-turned0 watch4 ,this is called the ,chromatrope1 or ,wheel of ,colour1 and is always a favourite object in a magic lantern4 ,it consists of two circular plates of glass1 one upon the other1 and painted in variously coloured curved lines1 as seen in the illustration4 ,when the image is thrown upon a screen1 and the glass plates turned in opposite directions1 a most singular and beautiful effect is produced4 ,the lines1 unless the eye follows them very closely1 disappear1 and torrents of coloured spots seem to pour from the centre to the circumference1 or vice vers1 according to the direction in which the glass wheels are turned4 ,so perfect is the illusion1 that it is almost impossible to believe that the movement is only circular1 and not spiral4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we will pass from ,art to ,nature4 ,the figure on the left hand of the same illustration represents part of one of the ,wheel ,animalcules1 so called because they look exactly as if the fore-part of their bodies were furnished with two delicate wheels1 running rapidly round1 and evidently moving or stopping at the pleasure of the owner4 ,soon after the powers of the microscope became known1 these ,wheel-bearers were discovered1 and for a long time they were thought to have a pair of veritable revolving wheels upon their heads4 ,they were naturally held in high estimation1 as1 although almost every kind of lever can be found in the animal world1 a revolving wheel had never been seen4 ,however1 as the defining powers of the microscope improved1 the so-called wheels were found not to be wheels at all1 but stationary organs1 and that their apparent revolution was nothing but an optical delusion4 ,the wheels are1 in fact1 two discs1 around the edges of which are set certain hair-like appendages1 called 8cilia10 from a ,latin word signifying the eyelashes4 ,each of the cilia has an independent motion of its own1 and1 as they bend in rapid and regular succession1 they produce an effect on the eye similar to that of a revolving body4 ,as for the animal itself1 they produce a double effect1 either acting as paddles1 and forcing the animal through the water1 or1 when it is affixed to some object1 causing a current which drives into its mouth the minute beings on which it feeds4 ,the particular species of ,wheel-hearer whose mouth is here shown is called scientifically ,limnias ceratophylli4 ,it derives the latter name from the fact that it is mostly found on the submerged stems and leaves of the ,hornwort 7,ceratophyllum71 which is very common in ponds and slow streams4 ,the creature is1 however1 to be found on the water-growing plants1 and ,mr4 ,gosse1 in his 8,evenings with the ,microscope10 gives a very full and graphic account of itself and its habits4 ,he specially mentions the use of the wheels1 and1 by dissolving a little carmine in the water1 had the pleasure of seeing the coloured granules swept into the mouth by the current caused by the cilia through the jaws1 and so into the stomach4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,primitive ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,needs4--,,earthenware4--,,ball-,,and-, ,socket ,,joint4--,,toggle ,,or ,,knee ,,joint4 ,contrast between ,savagery and ,civilisation4--,manufacture of ,weapons4--,earthenware of ,art4--,sun-baked ,vessels4--,earthenware of ,nature4--,nest of ,pied ,grallina4--,analogy with the ,babylonish ,brick4--,nest of the ,oven-bird4--,a partitioned ,vessel4--,necked earthenware ,vessels4--,nests of ,eumenes1 ,trypoxylon1 and ,pelopus4--,proof of ,reason in ,insects4--,the ,ball-and-socket ,joint4--8,bull's-eye0 of ,microscope4--,the human ,thigh-bone4--,vertebr of the ,serpents and their ,structure4--,the ,sea-urchin and its ,spines4--,legs and ,antenn of ,insects4--,the ,toggle or ,knee ,joint1 and its ,use in the ,arts4--,the hand ,printing-press and the ,toggle-joint4--,the human ,leg and ,arm4--,power of the natural ,toggle-joint4--,fencing and ,boxing4--,heads of ,carriages4--8,bowsing0 of ,ropes4--,leaf-rolling ,caterpillars4 ,in the primitive ages of ,man the aids to civilisation were very few and very rude4 ,some of them1 especially those which relate to hunting and war1 have already been mentioned1 and we now have to deal with some of those which bear upon domestic life4 ,here we are in some little difficulty1 for it is not very easy to draw the line where domestic life begins1 or the mode in which it shall be defined4 ,we may at all events connect domestic life with a residence of some sort1 and may1 in consequence1 neglect all such primitive savages as need no domestic implements4 ,such1 for example1 are the few surviving ,bosjesmans of ,southern ,africa1 not one of whom ever made a tool or an implement1 or looked beyond the present day4 ,the genuine ,bosjesman can make a bow and poison his arrows1 and he can light a fire2 but there his civilisation ends4 ,he cannot look beyond the present hour1 he has not the faintest notion of making a provision for the future1 nor did his wildest imagination ever compass the idea of a pot or a pan4 ,he kills his prey1 and1 if hunger be very pressing1 he will eat it at once without waiting for the tedious ceremony of cooking2 or at the best will just throw the meat upon the fire1 tear it to pieces with his teeth1 and swallow it when it is nothing but a mass of bleeding flesh1 charred on the outside1 and absolutely raw within4 ,the ,bosjesman has not even a tent which he can call his own1 any bush or hole in the ground answering for a house as long as he wants it1 and then being exchanged for another4 ,as far as we know1 the only trace of civilisation in the ,bosjesman is his manufacture of weapons1 and even his bow and arrows are of the rudest and clumsiest forms4 ,nor is it likely that he will ever advance any further2 for1 as is the wont of all savage tribes1 he is disappearing fast before the presence of superior races1 and will shortly be as extinct as the ,tasmanians1 the last of whom died only a few years ago4 ,,earthenware4 ,the advent of real civilisation seems to depend largely upon the construction1 not of weapons1 but utensils1 and the most useful of these are intended either for the preparation or the preservation of food4 ,that such vessels should be made of earth is evident enough1 and it is worthy of remark that the rude earthenware pot of the naked savage and the delicate china of ,svres should both be products of the earth1 and yet be examples of the opposite ends of civilisation4 ,the most primitive earthenware vessels were simply baked in the rays of the sun1 the use of fire for hardening them being of later date4 ,rude and simple as they are1 some of these vessels possess tolerable strength1 and can answer every purpose for which they are intended4 ,i possess several pots made by the aborigines of the ,essequibo district4 ,they are very thick and heavy in proportion to their dimensions1 and are still so fragile that ,i have been obliged to bind them with string whenever they are moved4 ,simple as they are1 however1 they are pleasing to the eye1 chiefly1 ,i presume1 because they are made for a definite office1 and fulfil it1 and have no pretence about them4 ,then1 as they are moulded by hand alone1 without any assistance from machinery of any kind1 even a wheel1 the individuality of the maker is stamped upon them1 and no two are exactly alike either in form1 colour1 or ornament4 ,a couple of these rude vases are to be seen on the right hand of the accompanying illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the same illustration are shown two examples of earthenware vessels made by birds1 which are nearly1 if not quite1 as good as those made by the hands of civilised man4 ,the upper figure represents the nest of the ,pied ,grallina 7,grallina ,australis71 a bird which1 as its specific name implies1 is a native of ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,pied ,,grallina4 ,,nest ,,of ,,oven-,,bird4 ,,primitive ,,earthenware4 ,this nest is formed chiefly of clay1 but a quantity of dried grass is always mixed with it1 and serves to bind it together4 ,if one of these nests be broken up1 and compared with the bricks of which ancient ,babylon was built1 it will be found that they are almost identical in material1 and that both are merely baked in the sun4 ,in form it so closely resembles an ,essequibo jar in my possession1 that if it were removed from the branch1 and similarly coloured1 it would not be easy to distinguish the one from the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below this is the nest of the ,oven-bird of ,south ,america 7,furnarius fuliginosus71 a bird allied to our common creeper4 ,the drawing was taken from a specimen in the ,british ,museum4 ,like the nest of the ,grallina1 it is placed upon some horizontal bough1 and fixed so firmly that it cannot fall except by being broken to pieces4 ,not being afraid of man1 the ,oven-bird often chooses a beam in some outhouse for a resting-place1 and has been known to build even on the top of palings4 ,as may be seen by reference to the illustration1 the nest is a very conspicuous one1 and concealment is almost impossible4 ,as in the ,grallina nest1 the material is remarkably hard and firm1 as indeed is necessary1 to allow it to withstand the effects of the rain-torrents which fall during the wet seasons of the year4 ,there is a curious analogy in this nest with many articles of earthenware4 ,not only among ourselves1 but among uncivilised races1 earthenware vessels are constructed with partitions1 so as to divide one portion from another4 ,if one of these nests be cut open1 it will be found to have a sort of partition wall across the interior1 rising nearly to the top of the dome1 and so dividing it into two parts4 ,the wall also answers another purpose--i4e4 that of strengthening the entire structure4 ,within the inner chamber is the real nest1 which is lined with a thick layer of feathers1 the outer chamber being bare1 and1 as it is thought1 being occupied by the male4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to pottery of a more elaborate shape4 ,both in the ,grallina nest and the earthen pot of the ,essequibo ,indian we have a vessel with a mouth nearly as wide as its greatest diameter1 and with a lip which is very slightly turned over4 ,there are1 however1 many varieties of pottery in which the neck is narrow and long1 and the lip is boldly formed4 ,some examples of this form are given on the right hand of the accompanying illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand are shown some nests of a solitary wasp belonging to the genus ,eumenes4 ,it is a ,british insect1 but seems to have been little noticed1 except by professed entomologists4 ,it especially haunts heather1 and affixes to the stems of the plant its little globular nests1 which are made of mud1 and shaped as seen in the illustration4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have seen the 8,napier ,coffee ,machine10 which draws the coffee into a glass globe furnished with a short neck4 ,the globe is shaped exactly like the nest of our ,eumenes1 and1 when ,i first saw one1 ,i could not remember why its shape was so familiar to me4 ,as is the case with the birds' nests which have been mentioned1 the mud of which the walls are built is of a most tenacious character1 and1 when dried in the sun1 can resist the heaviest rain4 ,the cells are intended as rearing-places for the young1 only a single egg being placed in each cell1 which is then stocked with small caterpillars by way of food4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,nests ,,of ,,eumenes4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,necked ,,pottery4 ,there is a ,south ,american insect also belonging to the solitary wasps1 and remarkable for building a round nest exactly similar in material1 and nearly identical in shape1 with that of the ,eumenes4 ,its scientific title is ,trypoxylon aurifrons4 ,the nest of this insect has a much wider mouth than that of the ,eumenes1 and exactly resembles the upper left-hand jar in the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another ,south ,american solitary wasp1 belonging to the genus ,pelopus1 makes nests of similar material1 but nearly cylindrical in shape instead of globular4 ,the nest is built up of successive rings of moistened and well-kneaded clay1 exactly as human houses are built by bricklayers4 ,indeed1 the process of making a ,pelopus' nest has been happily compared to that of building a circular chimney4 ,i may as well mention here that the name ,pelopus is formed from a ,greek word signifying mud1 and that the entire word may be translated as 8mud-worker40 ,as a proof that these insects possess reason as well as instinct1 ,mr4 ,gosse mentions that one of them1 instead of making her nest for herself1 utilised an empty bottle1 and1 after storing it with spiders1 stopped up the mouth with clay4 ,finding1 after an absence of a few days1 that the nest had been disturbed1 she removed the spiders1 inserted a fresh supply1 and then closed the mouth as before4 ,,ball-,,and-,,socket ,,joint4 ,we will now see how some of the most useful mechanical inventions have had their prototypes in ,nature4 ,there is1 for example1 the well-known 8,ball-and-socket joint10 without which many of our instruments1 especially those devoted to optical purposes1 would be impracticable4 ,illustration3 ,,hip-,,joint4 ,illustration3 ,,spines ,,of ,,sea-,,urchin4 ,,vertebr ,,of ,,snake4 ,illustration3 ,,ball-,,and-,,socket ,,joint ,,of ,,microscope4 ,the figure on the right hand of the illustration represents the 8bull's-eye0 of my own microscope4 ,it will be seen that there is a ball half sunk in a cup1 so that it can be turned in any direction4 ,in point of fact1 the upper part of the ball is nearly concealed by another cup1 but1 in order to show the structure1 the upper cup has been removed4 ,who was the inventor of the ball-and-socket joint ,i do not know1 but ,i have little doubt that he must have had in his mind many natural examples of this joint1 three of which are represented in the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand are seen the upper part of the human thigh-bone and that part of the hip-bone into which it fits4 ,the reader will see that at its upper end the bone takes rather a sharp turn1 and is then modified into a ball4 ,this ball fits into a corresponding socket1 technically named the 8acetabulum10 and is thereby endowed with freedom of motion in almost every direction4 ,generally we do not practise our limbs sufficiently to develop that full freedom1 but those who have seen any good professional acrobats must have been struck with the wonderful mobility of which the human body is capable4 ,the socket is not a deep one1 but dislocation of the hip is exceedingly rare1 the bone being held in its place by three powers4 ,the first is due to a short ligament1 which1 however1 does not always exist1 but1 when it is present1 is useful in retaining the bone in its place4 ,then there is the contractile power of the thigh muscles1 which are always forcing the ball into the socket4 ,lastly1 there is the pressure of the atmosphere1 a force which is seldom taken into consideration1 but which has great influence on many parts of the human frame4 ,this part of the subject will be resumed when we come to treat of ,atmospheric ,pressure4 ,the arms are jointed to the shoulder-blades in a very similar manner1 the upper arm-bone1 or 8humerus10 being furnished with a rounded end1 and fitting into a cup-like cavity in the shoulder-blade1 or 8scapula40 ,this formation can easily be seen by separating the different bones of a shoulder of mutton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,at the bottom of the illustration are given two vertebr of a snake1 separated in order to show their structure4 ,it will be seen that each joint has a ball in front and a socket behind1 thus giving the creature that wonderful flexibility which is quite proverbial1 and without which it could not seize its prey4 ,the following eloquent passage is taken from ,professor ,owen's work entitled 8,the ,skeleton and the ,teeth30-- 8,serpents have been regarded as animals degraded from a higher type1 but their whole organization1 and especially their bony structure1 demonstrate that their parts are as exquisitely adjusted to the form of their whole1 and to their habits and sphere of life1 as is the organization of any animal which we call superior to them4 8,it is true that the serpent has no limbs1 yet it can outclimb the monkey1 outswim the fish1 outleap the ,jerboa1 and1 suddenly loosening the coils of its crouching spiral1 it can spring into the air and seize the bird upon the wing3 all these creatures have been observed to fall its prey4 8,the serpent has neither hands nor talons1 yet it can outwrestle the athlete1 and crush the tiger in the embrace of its ponderous overlapping folds4 ,instead of licking up its food as it glides along1 the serpent uplifts its crushed prey1 and presents it1 grasped in the death-coil as in hand1 to its slimy1 gaping mouth4 8,it is truly wonderful to see the work of hands1 feet1 and fins performed by a modification of the vertebral column--by a multiplication of its segments with mobility of its ribs4 ,but the vertebr are especially modified1 as we have seen1 to compensate1 by the strength of their numerous articulations1 for the weakness of their manifold repetition1 and the consequent elongation of the slender column4 8,as serpents move chiefly on the surface of the earth1 their danger is greatest from pressure and blows from above2 all the joints are fashioned accordingly to resist yielding1 and sustain pressure in a vertical direction2 there is no natural undulation of the body upwards and downwards--it is permitted only from side to side4 ,so closely and compactly do the ten pairs of joints between each of the two hundred or three hundred vertebr fit together1 that even in the relaxed and dead state the body cannot be twisted except in a series of side coils40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the upper right-hand figure represents a portion of the shell of an ,echinus1 or ,sea-urchin1 together with two of the spikes4 ,the reader will remember that in the description of the ,heart-urchin1 and the mode in which it dug its way into the sand1 the peculiar mobility of the spines was mentioned4 ,how that mobility is produced we shall now see4 ,if a living ,sea-urchin can be procured1 and placed in a glass vessel filled with sea-water1 it will at once be seen that its surface is thickly covered with spines4 ,in some species these spines are as thick as ordinary drawing pencils2 but in most of those which are found on our shores they are very slight1 and scarcely longer than darning-needles4 ,they are in almost perpetual motion1 and generally have a sort of revolving movement1 the base being the pivot4 ,now1 if we take a dried shell of the ,sea-urchin1 we shall find that the spines will come off with a touch1 and1 indeed1 to preserve one with all the spines complete is a most difficult business4 ,let us1 therefore1 pull one from its attachment1 and examine its base4 ,this will be found to be swollen into a cup-like form1 as seen in the illustration2 and1 if we look at the spot whence it came1 we shall see that there is a little1 rounded1 polished prominence1 exactly fitting into the cup1 just as the ball of the human thigh-bone fits into the acetabulum4 ,it has also its ligament to keep it in its place1 and its same set of muscles that move it1 and is altogether a most wonderful piece of mechanism4 ,there are in some species of ,echinus about four thousand of these spines4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the legs of an insect afford excellent examples of the ball-and-socket principle1 the socket being on the body1 and the ball on the base of the leg4 ,some of our largest insects--such1 for example1 as the common ,stag-beetle--exhibit this principle very well4 ,i have now before me a ,stag-beetle which has been dead for many years1 and is quite dry and hard4 ,yet ,i can rotate the legs almost as freely as if the beetle had been just killed1 so easily do the joints work4 ,even the antenn1 which are affixed to the head by a similar joint1 move about by their own weight on merely changing the position of the insect4 ,these are only a few of the many natural examples of the ,ball-and-socket joint1 but they are sufficient for our purpose4 ,,the ,,toggle ,,or ,,knee ,,joint4 ,another most useful invention now comes before us1 called the ,toggle-joint1 or ,knee-joint1 the latter name being given to it on account of its manifest resemblance to the action of the human knee4 ,this joint is shown in the illustration4 ,it consists of two levers1 jointed together at one end1 and having the other ends jointed to the objects which are to be pressed asunder4 ,it will be seen that if the centre of the ,toggle be pushed or pulled in the direction of the arrow1 so as to straighten the levers1 the amount of pressure upon them is enormous4 ,such an apparatus as this combines simplicity and power in a wonderful manner1 and is greatly used in machinery1 especially in presses1 where the force is required to be great1 but not of long duration4 ,an ordinary two-foot rule1 when bent1 affords a good example of the ,toggle-joint1 and will exert a wonderful amount of force4 ,illustration3 ,,straightened ,,toggles4 ,,fencers4 ,,bent ,,toggles4 ,,printing-,,press4 ,the illustration represents one of the common printing-presses that are worked by hand4 ,when the workman draws the handle horizontally1 he causes the two portions of the ,toggle to approach a straight line4 ,the upper half of the ,toggle being jointed to the fixed beam above1 and the other half to the movable plate or 8platen0 below1 it is evident that the latter will be pressed downwards with enormous force4 ,indeed1 so great is the power of this instrument1 that a man of moderate strength can exert a pressure of many tons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now proceed from ,art to ,nature1 and take first the human knee1 being the joint from which this piece of mechanism has derived one of its names4 ,if the reader will look at the figure of the fencers1 he will see that the arm and leg are both ,toggle-joints4 ,in the one who is standing on the defence they are bent1 and in the other1 who has just made a longe1 the ,toggles of the right arm and left leg are straightened4 ,it is by the straightening of these joints1 and not by the action of stabbing1 that the rapidity and force of a thrust are achieved4 ,it is just the same in boxing4 ,no one who has the least knowledge of sparring strikes a round-handed blow1 for1 putting aside the ease with which it is parried or avoided1 it has scarcely any force in it4 ,when a boxer hits 8straight from the shoulder10 he not only straightens the ,toggle-joint of his left arm1 but that of his right knee also1 so that the force of the blow comes quite as much from the leg as the arm4 ,it is by the right use of this joint that a small man1 provided he be an expert boxer1 will easily conquer an ignorant opponent who far surpasses him in size and weight4 ,i have seen in a sparring-match a man not only knocked down1 but fairly lifted off his feet1 by a blow from a smaller opponent4 ,the blow took effect under the chin1 and1 as the boxer hit exactly the right moment in straightening both limbs1 a very great force was exerted with little apparent effort4 ,i do not know which of the two combatants was the more astonished1 the one to find himself on his back without exactly knowing how he got there1 and the other to see his antagonist prostrate without exactly knowing how the thing was done4 ,the jointed apparatus by which the heads of carriages are raised or lowered is a good example of the ,toggle1 and exemplifies the force which a comparatively slight piece of machinery can exercise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another form of the ,toggle-joint is the process called by sailors 8bowsing0 of rope4 ,if a rope be fastened at both ends1 and then pulled in the middle1 the ends are drawn forcibly towards each other4 ,this plan is mostly adopted in getting up sails4 ,when a sail1 say the mainsail of a cutter1 has to be hoisted as far as it will go1 the last few inches are always very obstinate4 ,the word is then given to 8bowse40 ,the rope1 or haulyard1 is no longer pulled at the end1 but a turn is taken round the cleat1 so that it does not give way4 ,the rope is then forcibly pulled away from the mast1 when up goes the gaff a little higher4 ,in this way1 by repeated bowsings1 the gaff is coaxed1 so to speak1 up the mast1 and forced into its place4 ,some of the leaf-rolling caterpillars act in a similar manner1 by alternately bowsing and shortening their lines4 ,as1 however1 their mode of working will be described under another heading1 we will say no more of them at present4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,crushing ,,instruments4--,,the ,,nut-,,crackers1 ,,rolling-,,mill1 ,,and ,,grindstone4--,,pressure ,,of ,,atmosphere4--,,seed ,,dibbles ,,and ,,drills4 ,importance of ,leverage in ,crushing ,power4--,nut-crackers a ,lever of the ,second ,order4--,the ,chaff-cutting and ,tobacconists' ,machines4--,jaws of various ,animals4--,the ,wolf-fish or ,sea-wolf4--,the ,rolling-mill and its ,action4--,gunpowder-mills and ,granulating ,machine4--,the 8,jacob's ,ladder40--,the ,mangle and its various ,adaptations4--,the ,grindstone4--,primitive ,grindstones of the ,savage ,races4--,the ,kafirs and the ,inhabitants of ,palestine4--,ceasing of the ,millstone4--8,facing0 of ,millstones4--,tusk of the ,elephant and its ,structure4--,its ,facings always preserved4--,power of ,self-renewal4--,pressure of ,atmosphere4--,the ,napier ,coffee ,machine4--,the ,cupping ,instrument4--,the ,pneumatic ,peg4--,the ,magdeburg ,hemispheres4--,plane ,surfaces of ,glass or ,metal4--,suckers of the ,cuttle-fish4--,foot of the ,water-beetle4--,the ,limpet4--,the ,star-fish and its ,mode of ,progression4--,the ,sucking-fish and the ,fables connected with it4--,its real ,structure4--,modification of the ,dorsal ,fin4--,the ,gobies and ,lump-fish4--,the ,gecko and ,tree-frog4--,the ,lampern and the ,medicinal ,leech4--,seed ,dibbles and ,drills4--,labourers versus ,machinery4--,natural ,dibble of the ,grasshopper4--,the ,daddy ,long-legs4--,drills and ,dibbles of the ,ichneumon-flies4--,a wonderful ,specimen from ,bogot4--,the ,pelecinus and its ,mode of laying ,eggs4 ,,crushing ,,instruments4 ,as we are on the subject of leverage1 we will take some examples of levers in ,art and ,nature1 without1 however1 even attempting to exhaust the topic4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is shown a very familiar example of a lever1 namely1 nut-crackers1 with a nut between them4 ,this useful implement is simply an adaptation of levers of the second kind1 the power being represented by the human hand1 the weight by the nut1 and the fulcrum being the joint of the instrument4 ,the common chaff-cutter1 which is worked by hand1 is another familiar example of this kind of lever1 and so is the knife used by tobacconists in cutting cake ,cavendish into threads1 and by druggists for similar purposes4 ,in these instruments the point of the knife is jointed to some fixed object1 and becomes the fulcrum2 the hand of the cutter supplies the power1 and the weight is the object which is being cut4 ,it will be seen that1 by increasing the length of the handle1 very great power can be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,wolf-,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,nut-,,crackers4 ,exchanging the power for weight1 we have in the common tongs1 whether used for the coals or for sugar1 a leverage of a similar character1 the weight moving over a greater space than the power4 ,a good example of this is to be found in the deltoid muscle of the human arm4 ,the muscle1 which furnishes the power1 contracts about an inch1 and1 so doing1 moves the hand over some forty inches of space4 ,it has been well stated that if a man is able to hold in his hand1 and with extended arm1 a weight of twenty-five pounds1 the muscle must be exerting a power of forty times as great1 i4e4 about a thousand pounds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is little doubt that1 in such ,crushing ,instruments as have been mentioned1 the idea has been taken from the jaws of sundry animals4 ,we know1 for example1 that with ourselves1 if we desire to crack a walnut or a filbert in our teeth1 we always put it as far back as possible1 so as to make the leverage as powerful as possible4 ,no one would ever dream of cracking a nut with his front teeth1 an act which would be very much like that of trying to break a piece of coal by pinching it with the tongs4 ,the left-hand figure of the illustration represents part of the jaws of the ,wolf-fish1 or ,sea-wolf1 as it is sometimes called1 and a very wonderful crushing machine it is4 ,the ,sea-wolf 7,anarrhicas lupus71 sometimes called the ,sea-cat1 or ,swine-fish1 is tolerably common on our coasts1 and1 as it sometimes attains a length of seven feet1 and is proportionately stout and muscular1 the power of its bite may be estimated4 ,the fish in question feeds chiefly on crustacea and hard-shelled molluscs1 and is therefore furnished with an apparatus which can crush their shells4 ,extremes meet4 ,the ,sea-anemones1 which are mere films of animal matter1 and can be torn in pieces with the finger and thumb1 can seize1 swallow1 and digest a crab or an oyster in spite of the thick and strong shells in which they are enclosed4 ,so can the ,sea-wolf1 and fishes of a similar character4 ,but nothing intermediate can touch them1 and it is curious to reflect that such opposite means should produce a similar effect4 ,on reference to the illustration1 the reader will see how exact is the parallel between the ,nut-crackers and the ,sea-wolf's jaws1 both being worked on the same principle1 and both being furnished with a series of projecting points1 which are used for the purpose of preventing the escape of the object which is to be crushed4 ,the terrible grasping power of the crocodile1 the dolphin1 and other predacious creatures can be explained on the same principle4 ,,the ,,rolling-,,mill4 ,we now come to another variation of the ,crushing ,machine1 i4e4 that in which the motion is constant1 and not intermittent1 as is the case with those machines which have just been mentioned4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have visited those great iron-works in which huge masses of iron are rolled into plates of greater or less thickness1 or are cut up into strips as easily as if they were butter4 ,the mechanism is in its principle simple enough4 ,the cylindrical rollers are placed nearly in contact1 and forced towards each other by mechanical means1 such as levers1 screws1 or springs1 or all three combined4 ,these cylinders revolve in opposite directions1 and1 if any object be placed between them1 they draw it through them1 and present it on the other side in a flattened condition4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,skate4 ,illustration3 ,,crushing-,,mill ,,and ,,roller4 ,many years ago1 one of my schoolfellows1 who had been brought up entirely under the care of some maiden ladies1 was visiting a workshop1 and must needs put his finger between two revolving rollers4 ,of course the hand was drawn between them1 and simply squeezed flat4 ,the machine was instantly stopped1 and the hand extricated2 and the strange thing was1 that the crushed and shapeless hand afterwards recovered its full power1 though not its shape1 and was able to touch the keys of the piano4 ,the whole process of the ,rolling-mill is singularly interesting1 whether it be used for large or small objects4 ,supposing that the grooved rollers of the illustration were cut across so as to present a number of points1 it is evident that anything which got between them would be bitten to pieces1 each piece being of a tolerably uniform shape4 ,this plan is now adopted in the granulation of gunpowder4 ,after the future powder has emerged from the hydraulic press in the form called 8press-cake10 it was formerly broken to bits with wooden or copper mallets1 and then placed in a very peculiar kind of sieve4 ,this was shaped like an ordinary sieve1 but the bottom was made of cowhide1 pierced with innumerable holes4 ,a round pebble was placed in the sieve1 and1 when the latter was violently shaken backwards and forwards1 the powder was driven through the holes by the pressure of the stone1 and was afterwards separated into its various degrees of fineness4 ,i have only twice seen this process1 and confess to have been in a very nervous state on both occasions4 ,the sieve is whirled about with enormous velocity1 and the pebble flies round as if it were a thing alive4 ,let but a broken needle or a fragment of stone get into the sieve1 or even let the stone itself break asunder1 and there will be an instantaneous explosion1 which will hurl the house1 the machinery1 and the workmen into unknown regions4 ,now1 however1 the mode of granulating powder is radically altered4 ,there is a series of double cylinders1 such as shown in the illustration1 and each of them has the ridges cut into teeth in regular order4 ,thus the first set of rollers or cylinders merely bites the press-cake into convenient pieces1 though seldom of the same weight4 ,the press-cake1 thus bitten to pieces1 is passed through a series of cylindrical sieves1 each graduated with the utmost accuracy1 and being turned by means of machinery4 ,being set on a slope1 the powder runs by its own weight down them1 and all those particles which cannot pass through the meshes are poured out untouched at the lower end4 ,the portions which are too large to pass the openings of the first sieve are then handed onwards by means of a machine called a 8,jacob's ,ladder10 which consists of a series of little vessels or buckets strung on a tape1 and revolving over a couple of wheels4 ,the first set of buckets takes the coarsely bitten press-cake to the second set of rollers1 the teeth of which are comparatively small4 ,thence it is passed over to a third set1 and so forth1 until it is delivered in any quality of grain which may be required4 ,the modern ,mangle1 again1 affords a good example of this principle4 ,the old obtrusive1 costly1 and cumbrous ,mangle1 which was nothing more than a heavy box of stones upon rollers1 has given place to the modern system of duplex action in rollers1 and one of the old ,mangles is not easily to be seen1 unless it be worked as a curiosity4 ,in fact1 it is nearly as obsolete as the spinning-wheel1 which yet may be seen in some of our country villages1 where scarcely one per cent1 of the population has ever been in a town1 and many of them1 the women especially1 make it their boast that they have never been beyond the outskirts of their village4 ,this clumsy machine is now replaced by the very simple invention which has been in vogue for some years1 and which can not only release1 but regulate1 the pressure at any moment1 by means of springs1 levers1 and weights4 ,this machine is1 in fact1 exactly the same as that which is represented in the illustration1 except that the rollers are quite smooth4 ,they can be adjusted to almost any amount of pressure by levers and weights which are attached to the upper roller1 and1 when the linen has passed through them1 it has undergone the double operation of wringing and mangling4 ,this disposition of the rollers has long been anticipated in the jaws of the ,skate which crush to pieces the shells of the whelks1 periwinkles1 c41 on which the creature feeds4 ,,the ,,grindstone4 ,being on the subject of jaws and teeth as a mode of breaking to pieces objects which are placed between them1 we will take those implements which grind to powder1 or 8triturate10 instead of breaking or flattening4 ,from the very earliest ages1 and as soon as man had begun to discover the 8staff of life10 the art of grinding naturally assumed an ever-increasing importance4 ,the first and most primitive mode of grinding corn and converting it into meal was that which was followed by ,sarah1 when she welcomed her husband's guests1 which we know1 from internal evidence1 was followed by the uncivilised races who formerly inhabited this island1 and by many semi-savages of the present day4 ,nothing could be simpler than the machinery used1 and nothing could cause a greater waste of muscular power4 ,two stones were employed1 a large one upon which the grain was placed1 and a smaller which was held in the hands1 and used for grinding the corn to powder1 just as the painters of the last century used to grind their colours4 ,the ,kafirs of ,southern ,africa use this simple mill1 and so exactly do they keep unconsciously to the customs of long-perished natives1 that if one of their mills were buried for a few years and dug up again1 it might be mistaken for one of the ancient 8querns40 ,as the stone held in the hand was rounded1 it naturally wore a rounded hollow in the lower stone1 and this made the process of trituration easier4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have noticed that when a chemist makes up a prescription1 and is obliged to reduce one of the ingredients to powder1 he always does so by rubbing1 and not by pounding1 as is generally believed4 ,he works the pestle round and round the mortar with a kind of twisting motion1 and thus obtains a powder much too fine to have been produced by any amount of pounding4 ,illustration3 ,,tooth ,,of ,,elephant4 ,illustration3 ,,grindstone4 ,the labour of this operation is necessarily very severe1 and therefore the ,kafir of the present day1 as did his predecessors of the long-lost races1 declines to do it himself1 but hands it over to the women4 ,in ,palestine1 as in other parts of the world1 a simple mill has been invented1 which takes away much of the labour1 and1 above all1 releases the grinder from the obligation of leaning with her fall weight upon the upper stone4 ,in this mill the stones are similar4 ,the upper is moved backwards and forwards round a pivot1 and the grain is passed between them by means of a conical aperture in the upper stone1 which answers the purpose of our 8hopper40 ,in order to work this mill1 two women are required1 sitting opposite each other1 with the mill between them1 holding the same handle1 and assisting each other in turning the stone backwards and forwards4 ,no one who has not seen this operation can fully appreciate the force of the saying that 8two women shall be grinding at the mill2 the one shall be taken1 and the other left40 ,it is worthy of remark that1 even at the present day1 the custom of grinding corn is carried out in ,palestine as it was so many centuries ago1 and that it is repeated in ,southern ,africa among the ,kafir tribes4 ,in both parts of the earth the first sound of early morning is caused by the millstones of the grinding women1 and the amount and duration of the noise afford a sure test of prosperity4 ,cessation of the millstones signifies adversity and a thin population1 as has been said by a writer who lived not very far from three thousand years ago4 ,speaking of tribulation1 he mentions that 8the grinders cease because they be few1 and that the doors shall be shut in the streets when the sound of the grinding is low40 ,after awhile improvements were gradually introduced into the business of grinding1 not the least of which was covering its surface with ridges1 instead of leaving it entirely smooth1 as it had been formerly4 ,millers of the present time know the value of these ridges1 and the additional grinding power which this 8facing0 gives to a stone4 ,one of these stones is represented in the illustration1 so as to show the system on which the ridges and grooves are constructed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now1 passing from ,art to ,nature1 we find that the whole system of the millstone1 its movement and its ridged surface1 existed in the times when man had not yet come upon earth4 ,the reader is probably aware that among the tooth-bearing animals there are three types of teeth4 ,first come the incisors1 or cutting teeth1 which occupy the front of the jaw1 and find their fullest development in the rodent animals1 such as the beaver1 the squirrel1 the rabbit1 and the rat4 ,next them come the canine or piercing teeth1 which are so highly developed in all the cat tribe4 ,lastly1 there are the molar or masticating teeth1 so called from a ,latin word signifying a millstone1 because their office is to grind food4 ,as it is with these last that we have now to treat1 we will say nothing about the others4 ,the molar teeth find their greatest development in the ,elephant1 the structure of whose molars is exactly like that of our modern millstones4 ,there is certainly one very great difference4 ,when the surface of a millstone is rubbed away1 the stone must be re-faced1 and sooner or later is worn out altogether1 and must be replaced with a new one4 ,this1 however1 is not the case with the ,elephant's molar teeth1 which not only keep their facing perfectly sharp1 but have the faculty of renewing themselves as fast as they are worn away4 ,how these important objects are attained we shall now see4 ,if the reader will refer to the upper left-hand figure of the illustration1 he will see that its surface is for the most part round1 with irregularly oval figures1 close and thick at one end1 and almost disappearing at the other4 ,these are the 8facings0 of the ,elephant's tooth1 and they are formed as follows3-- ,the tooth1 which is of enormous size1 is not solid1 but is composed of a number of plates laid side by side1 like a pack of cards when set on their edge4 ,each of these plates is composed of a hard external layer of enamel1 and an internal layer of comparatively soft bony matter4 ,a slice of badly made toast affords a familiar parallel1 the half-charred outside representing the enamel1 and the soft1 sodden interior being analogous to the bony matter4 ,in order to show the arrangement of these plates1 a side view of part of the tooth is given on the same illustration4 ,sometimes1 when the teeth of fossil elephants are discovered1 these plates all fall asunder1 the material which connected them having been dissolved away in the earth4 ,when1 however1 we look upon the upper surface of a recent tooth1 we see it present the appearance which is shown in the illustration4 ,the elongated oval marks are the edges of the hard enamel plates1 while the spaces between them are filled with the soft bony matter4 ,it will be evident1 then1 that if two teeth such as these be in opposite jaws1 and perform the task of grinding food1 their surface will always be well 8faced40 ,owing to the different hardness and density of the enamel and bony substance1 the latter will wear away with comparative rapidity1 leaving the former to project slightly1 and thus to preserve the facing of the natural mill4 ,this is1 indeed1 but a modification of the beautiful animal mechanism which keeps the teeth of a rodent animal always sharp1 and always bevelled off at the proper angle4 ,if we could invent some plan whereby1 in our millstones1 we could make the facing of much harder material than the stone1 we should make an advance in the miller's art that would render the millstones of the future as far superior to those of the present as are our present millstones to the hand 8quern0 of the ,kafir women4 ,yet another improvement has to be made4 ,would it be possible to construct a millstone which should not only retain its facing1 but possess the power of renewing itself in proportion as it is worn out8 ,this property is found in the ,elephant's tooth1 and the illustration will give a tolerably good idea of the simple and beautiful mechanism by which it is brought into operation4 ,the tooth1 instead of being one solid mass1 consists1 as ,i have already stated1 of a series of plates set side by side4 ,these plates are so constructed that they are more worn away in front than behind4 ,in proportion as they are worn1 a new tooth is built up behind the old one1 and gradually pushes off the old one4 ,now1 if we could only construct millstones with such properties1 we should possess an absolutely perfect instrument4 ,,pressure ,,of ,,atmosphere4 ,there are many useful inventions which depend on the weight of the atmosphere and the creation of a more or less perfect vacuum4 ,there is1 for example1 the common ,pump1 which raises water simply by the action of the atmosphere4 ,a pipe passes into the water1 and in that pipe an air-tight piston is inserted4 ,when the piston is drawn upwards a vacuum is formed1 and the water is at once forced into it by the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,then there is the graceful and useful ,napier ,coffee-making ,machine1 consisting of a glass globe1 and vase of the same material4 ,coffee and boiling water are put into the vase1 and some hot water into the globe4 ,the two are then connected with the tube1 and under the globe is placed a spirit-lamp4 ,presently the water in the globe boils1 expelling the air and filling the globe with steam4 ,the lamp is then removed1 and the steam in the globe is condensed1 leaving a vacuum4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere then comes to bear upon the coffee in the vase1 which is forced through the tube into the globe1 producing beautifully clear and well-flavoured coffee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,surgery employs the weight of the atmosphere in the operation called 8,cupping10 now rarely employed1 but formerly in such constant use that scarcely any man who had attained middle age had not undergone it4 ,the operation was intended for the purpose of removing the blood from some definite spot4 ,persons1 for example1 who appeared to have a tendency to apoplexy were regularly cupped between the shoulders twice a year1 i4e4 in the spring and autumn4 ,the mode of performing the operation is as follows3--,a vase-shaped glass vessel called a cupping-glass is placed close to the skin4 ,the flame of a spirit-lamp is then introduced for a moment in the glass so as to expel the air1 and the glass is rapidly placed with its mouth downwards on the skin4 ,if this be done with sufficient rapidity1 the partial vacuum in the cupping-glass causes it to adhere to the skin1 which is forced into it by atmospheric pressure1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the blood is1 of course1 drawn towards the surface by the same means4 ,the glass is then quickly removed1 and a little brass instrument applied1 which1 at the touching of a spring1 sends out a number of small lancet-blades so formed as to make very slight cuts4 ,the glass is again applied1 and rapidly becomes filled with blood from the cuts1 the air having forced it in exactly as it forces the coffee in ,napier's machine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the upper right-hand corner of the illustration is shown the ,pneumatic ,peg1 a comparatively recent invention1 and useful in cases where much strength is not required4 ,the base of the peg is fitted with a sort of cup made of india-rubber4 ,when this base is pressed against a smooth and flat surface1 such as a pane of glass1 the air is forced out of the cup1 and a vacuum formed4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere then causes the cup to adhere to the glass with sufficient force to enable objects to be suspended from it4 ,the boy's well-known toy1 the ,sucker1 is made on exactly the same principle4 ,a piece of leather1 generally circular1 though the shape is not of much consequence1 has a hole bored through its centre1 so as to allow a string to be attached4 ,the leather is then soaked in water until it is quite soft4 ,if it be firmly pressed on any smooth object1 such as a stone1 the air is forced from under it1 and it becomes capable of sustaining a weight in proportion to its dimensions4 ,as the air has a pressure of about fifteen pounds on every square inch1 it is easy to calculate the weight which it will uphold1 a margin being left for imperfection of vacuum4 ,illustration3 ,,suckers ,,of ,,cuttle4 ,,limpet4 ,,star-,,fish4 ,,sucking-,,fish4 ,,foot ,,of ,,gecko4 ,,lampern4 ,,cupping-,,glass4 ,,pneumatic ,,peg4 ,,sucker4 ,,magdeburg ,,hemispheres4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the lower figure represents the instrument called the ,magdeburg ,hemispheres1 which are made for the purpose of showing the enormous power of air-pressure4 ,they are two hollowed hemispheres1 having their edges very accurately ground together4 ,when used1 a little lard is rubbed on the edges in order to insure their exact fit1 and they are then pressed tightly together4 ,the air is removed by means of the common exhausting syringe1 and it is found that the two adhere together with such force that two strong men cannot pull them asunder4 ,but1 if the tap be turned1 and air admitted1 they come apart without the least difficulty4 ,similarly1 if two plates of glass or metal be ground to exactly plane surfaces1 and pressed together1 they adhere nearly as strongly as if they were one solid piece4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now turn from ,art to ,nature1 and examine some natural producers of vacuum4 ,one of the most celebrated is that series of suckers which may be found upon the arms of the various ,cuttles4 ,at the upper part of the illustration a figure is given of part of an arm1 on which are four suckers4 ,when the animal wishes to attach itself to any object1 it presses the disc of the sucker against it1 and simultaneously withdraws the centre1 exactly as the boy does with his toy sucker4 ,and1 as each arm contains a great number of suckers1 it is evident that the holding power must be very great4 ,indeed1 on one occasion when a comparatively small specimen had fastened on a man's arm1 he could not remove it1 but was obliged to have it cut away piecemeal by an assistant4 ,the common ,water-beetle has similar suckers upon its first pair of feet1 and can adhere to smooth surfaces with great tenacity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left of the cuttle-arm is the common ,limpet1 shown as it appears when adhering to the rocks4 ,every visitor to the seaside who has attempted to remove the ,limpets may remember how difficult it is to stir them when they have once taken their hold4 ,if they can be taken by surprise1 they come away with a touch2 but if they become alarmed1 they press the edges of the foot firmly against the rock1 withdraw the centre1 and thus create the necessary vacuum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next follows a ,star-fish1 shown as it appears when in the act of walking1 or rather1 gliding along4 ,this movement is obtained by the use of a vast number of long suckers1 exactly resembling the pneumatic peg1 except that they are flexible1 and can be curved in any direction4 ,it is really beautiful to see the manner in which a ,star-fish will glide along by means of its suckers1 its arms accommodating themselves to the irregularities of the ground1 and its multitudinous suckers protruded and withdrawn with a never-ceasing movement4 ,and1 as the ,star-fish is apparently blind1 not having any organs which can even be conjectured to serve the purpose of vision1 this mode of directing its course is not easily understood4 ,yet1 blind though it may be1 it guides itself with as much accuracy as if it possessed eyes1 and evidently does so with a definite purpose1 using its suckers with as much decision as a centipede uses its legs4 ,these suckers can be seen very well by placing a ,star-fish in a shallow vessel of sea-water1 and laying it on its back4 ,the suckers immediately protrude themselves from their little apertures1 and the arms slowly curve themselves so as to find something to which the suckers can adhere4 ,presently one or two of the suckers will take hold of the bottom of the vessel4 ,others soon follow1 and in a very short time the ,star-fish is on its legs1 if we may so call them1 and is quietly gliding on its way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the ,star-fish is seen the celebrated ,sucking-fish 7,echeneis remora7 about which so many strange tales have been told1 and which is possessed of a structure remarkable enough to need no aid from invention4 ,the dorsal fin of this fish is modified in a most singular manner4 ,the spines of which it is so largely composed are metamorphosed into flattened plates very much resembling the laths of a ,venetian blind1 and form an instrument of suction identical in principle1 though not in form1 with those which have already been described4 ,when the sucker is pressed against a smooth surface1 a vacuum is formed1 and the fish in consequence adheres firmly to the object4 ,the fact has been known for centuries1 though it has only been lately discovered1 that the sucker was not a separate apparatus1 but merely one of the fins modified in a simple though effective manner4 ,indeed1 any one who has some slight notion of the structure of a fin can easily see1 by looking at the ,sucking-fish from above1 that the apparatus is nothing more than the dorsal fin laid flat4 ,i may mention here that the name of ,echeneis is taken from two words signifying 8ship-holder40 ,it was given to the fish on account of a curious notion which was fully believed until quite modern times1 that the ,sucking-fish had the power of attaching itself to ships1 and holding them so firmly that they could not proceed in spite of sails and oars4 ,the word ,echeneis is used by ,aristotle in his 8,history of ,animals40 ,the specific name remora1 or 8delay10 is ,latin1 and is given to the fish for the same reason4 ,the little ,gobies1 which are so plentiful along our coasts1 have the ventral fins formed into a sucker1 with which they can cling firmly to any object1 such as a leaf of seaweed or a smooth rock or stone4 ,a similar modification of the ventral fins is also found in the beautifully coloured ,lump-fish1 or ,lump-sucker1 sometimes called the ,cock-paidle4 ,one of these fishes1 when placed in a bucket of water1 adhered so strongly to the bottom1 that1 when lifted by the tail1 it bore the whole weight of the pail and water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,just below the ,sucking-fish is drawn a foot of the curious little lizard1 the ,gecko1 so called from its peculiar cry4 ,it is common in the ,west ,indies1 and haunts houses1 traversing their walls just as flies run up panes of glass4 ,it is enabled to perform this movement by means of the structure of the feet4 ,as the reader may see by reference to the illustration1 the toes are greatly widened and flattened4 ,if the lower surface be examined1 it will be found to be furnished with a number of plates very much resembling those of the sucking-fish1 and performing the same office4 ,so rapid is the operation of these plates1 that the animal can even leap upon a perpendicular flat surface1 and stick there4 ,perhaps the reader may remember that the beautiful ,tree-frogs1 which cling so tightly to leaves1 are furnished with suckers on their toes1 whereby they can hold on even to an upright pane of glass4 ,in fact1 the smooth surface of the glass seems to please them1 and when they adhere to it they give an excellent opportunity of examining the structure of the feet with a magnifying-glass4 ,another example of the pressure of the atmosphere has been slightly mentioned1 when treating of the ball-and-socket joint4 ,this is the joint by which the thigh-bone is attached to the hip4 ,as the rounded head of the thigh-bone fits exactly into the cavity of the hip1 and is1 moreover1 well lubricated with the animal oil called synovia1 no air can obtain admission between the two4 ,consequently1 they are held together so firmly by the pressure of the atmosphere1 that they retain their places even after the whole of the muscular attachments have been removed4 ,not without very great force can the thigh-bone be dislodged from the shallow socket in which it lies2 but1 if a hole be bored so as to admit the air1 it comes out at once4 ,similarly1 however firmly a limpet may cling to the rock1 if the finest needle were introduced so as to admit air1 the creature could not retain its hold for a moment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the last figure on the illustration represents the common ,lampern 7,lampetra fluviatilis74 ,the mouth of this little fish is formed on the principle of the sucker1 and very firmly it can adhere1 as ,i can state from much personal experience4 ,indeed1 it is rather alarming1 to those who are unacquainted with the character of the fish1 to have it turn round and fasten upon the hand4 ,however1 it is quite harmless1 and those who are accustomed to them will have half-a-dozen hanging on their hand at a time1 and take no notice of them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,already has it been mentioned that ,surgery has pressed into its service the weight of the atmosphere by means of cupping4 ,she also makes use of ,nature in a similar manner by employing the ,leech for local and surface bleeding4 ,the mouth of the ,medicinal ,leech forms an exact parallel with the cupping-glass and lancets1 only that it is very far superior in its powers4 ,to make the analogy perfect1 the lancets ought to be within the cupping-glass1 and the latter ought to be able to exhaust the air from itself1 and to be attached to a reservoir into which the blood could be passed4 ,i need hardly mention that the action of sucking as practised by the young of all mammalian beings1 from man downwards1 is due to the same principle4 ,by the action of sucking a partial vacuum is formed1 and the pressure of the atmosphere upon the breasts forces the milk into the mouth of the young4 ,we might multiply examples ad infinitum1 and we will therefore pass to another subject4 ,,seed-,,drills4 ,illustration3 ,,ichneumon-,,fly4 ,,grasshopper4 ,,seed-,,drill4 ,among the modern improvements in agriculture we may reckon the invention of the ,seed-drill as one of the most important4 ,by means of this invention1 seed is greatly economized1 the supply can be regulated1 and the sower knows exactly where every grain of seed goes4 ,there is no scattering1 as in the wasteful broadcast plan1 by which the seeds are flung almost at random over the field1 and may or may not fall into the furrows4 ,the ,seed-drill1 on the contrary1 either stamps holes or ploughs narrow furrows1 measures the seed into them1 and in some machines replaces the earth4 ,the former kind of machine rather deserves the name of a dibble1 and was invented for the purpose of superseding the use of the hand-dibble4 ,it is really a pitiful thing to see human beings endowed with reason and aspirations performing such a task as dibbling by hand1 one going backwards with a dibble in each hand1 and the other following and putting seed into the holes4 ,yet the field labourers have the greatest objection to the machine dibble1 as1 indeed1 they have to any sort of labour-saving machine1 thinking that it will lessen the demand for labour1 and prevent them from earning a livelihood4 ,i well remember how a country clergyman1 pitying the hard toil of the hand-dibblers1 took occasion when he visited town to purchase a machine dibble wherewith one man could set eight rows of beans at once4 ,it was a very simple affair1 comprehensible even by the dull brain of a ,wiltshire labourer4 ,his trouble was all in vain1 for no one would use it1 and there was such a disturbance about it in the village1 that for the sake of peace its owner laid it up in a loft and abandoned its use4 ,there might be some semblance of reason in thinking that it would deprive them of their field labour1 but no cottager would even use it in his own garden1 though it was freely offered to any one who wished to borrow it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,these machines have their parallels in ,nature1 two of which are represented in the illustration4 ,the lower left-hand figure represents the female ,grasshopper depositing her eggs4 ,she is furnished with a sharply pointed ovipositor1 composed of two blades4 ,when she is about to lay her eggs1 she searches for a suitable piece of ground1 where the earth is tolerably soft1 and with the closed ovipositor bores a hole4 ,she then separates the blades slightly1 and an egg glides between them into the ground1 precisely as is done by the machine dibble with its beans4 ,when ,i first saw and used the instrument1 some twenty-five years ago1 the parallel struck me at once4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the female of the familiar ,daddy ,long-legs 7,tipula7 acts in a similar manner4 ,she is furnished with an ovipositor too short to be used like that of the grasshopper1 and so she attains her object in a rather different manner4 ,making use of her long stilt-like legs1 she sets herself nearly upright1 with the point of the ovipositor in the ground4 ,she then twists herself from side to side1 just after the principle of the bradawl1 and so proceeds until she has made a hole large enough for her purpose4 ,the blades of the ovipositor are then separated1 and the egg placed in the hole1 as has been described of the grasshopper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the upper figure represents one of the large ,ichneumon-flies depositing the egg in the grub of some wood-inhabiting larva4 ,how she bores the hole has already been described when treating of ,boring ,tools1 and the process need not again be discussed4 ,the principal point at present is1 that after the hole is bored1 an egg can pass between the blades of the ovipositor1 though they are but little thicker than human hairs4 ,one of the most extraordinary instances of this kind of ovipositor is found in an ,ichneumon-fly brought from ,bogot4 ,the body1 from the head to the end of the tail1 is not quite an inch long1 while the ovipositor is six inches and a half in length1 and scarcely thicker than that of the insect whose portrait is given in the illustration4 ,nothing is as yet known of its habits1 so that the object of this wonderfully long ovipositor is a mystery4 ,but that it should be used like other ovipositors is evident enough1 and the chief wonder is1 what are the mechanical means whereby an egg can be propelled between blades so long and slender4 ,there is a genus of ,ichneumon-flies called ,pelecinus4 ,they deposit their eggs in wood-boring larv1 and we might imagine that the ovipositor would be a long one4 ,it is1 however1 extremely short1 and the requisite length is obtained by the form of the abdomen1 the joints of which are so long and narrow that they almost look as if they had passed through a wire-drawing machine1 the length of the head and throat being three-eighths of an inch1 and that of the abdomen an inch and a half4 ,this long abdomen belongs only to the female1 that of the male being short and club-shaped4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cloth-,,dressing4--,,brushes ,,and ,,combs4--,,buttons1 ,,hooks ,,and ,,eyes1 ,,and ,,clasp4 ,the ,teazle and its ,structure4--,its ,use in raising the 8,nap0 on ,cloth4--,its ,value in ,commerce4--,artificial ,teazles4--,the modern ,cloth-dressing ,machine4--,the ,brush an ,article of ,luxury4--,definition of the ,brush1 and its various ,uses4--,brushes in ,nature4--,the ,foot of the ,fly and the ,tail-brush of the ,glow-worm ,larva4--,mode in which they are used4--,the ,comb4--,varieties of the ,comb as made in different ,countries4--,combs in ,nature4--,foot of the ,spider and its ,uses4--,beak of the ,toucan4--,comb of the ,scorpion4--,buttons1 ,hooks and ,eyes4--,use of the ,button4--,the ,egyptian ,garment4--,the ,buckle and the ,shoe-tie4--,the ,clasp4--,wing-hooks of various ,insects4--,the ,saddle-back ,oyster4 ,,cloth-,,dressing ,,machine4 ,in former days1 when so much was done by hand that is now done by machinery1 the thistle called the ,teazle 7,dipsacus fullonum7 was of great value in ,british commerce1 being used by countless thousands in the manufacture of broadcloth4 ,when the woollen threads are woven so as to form the fabric of the cloth1 there is no nap upon them1 this having to be produced by a subsequent process4 ,the plan of former days was1 to procure a quantity of the seed-vessels of the ,teazle1 and dry them4 ,they were then fastened to an instrument something like a wooden battledore1 and swept over the surface of the cloth4 ,by degrees the delicate hooklets which terminate the many scales of the seed-vessel tore up the fibres of the cloth1 and produced the desired nap without impairing the strength of the thread4 ,when this nap is worn off1 the threads are again visible1 producing the effect called 8threadbare40 ,as the art of weaving continued to progress1 the demand for ,teazles increased in due proportion1 and vast quantities were imported from abroad4 ,instead of being used by band1 they were then fastened to the circumference of wooden wheels as broad as the width of the cloth1 and made to revolve rapidly1 while the cloth was pressed against them4 ,illustration3 ,,teazle4 ,illustration3 ,,cloth-,,dressing4 ,for many years attempts had been made to construct artificial ,teazles which would not wear out so rapidly as did the dry seed-vessels1 but nothing could be constructed that was not too stiff or too strong1 and which did not injure the threads while producing the nap4 ,at last1 however1 this difficult problem has been solved1 and the ,teazle is no longer an important article of commerce1 its place being supplied by delicately made cards of the finest and most elastic wire4 ,in the illustration a head of ,teazle is given on the left hand1 and on the right is seen the mode in which the wire cards are placed in the machine1 and the cloth drawn over them so as to produce the required nap4 ,,brushes4 ,it is worthy of notice that there are many articles of comparative luxury which could not be used until man had attained some degree of civilisation4 ,among these we may class the ,brush and the ,comb1 no true savage ever troubling himself about either article4 ,the ,brush1 indeed1 belongs to a much more advanced stage of civilisation than the ,comb1 for whereas we find combs1 however rude they may be1 used in semi-savage1 or rather1 barbarian countries1 the ,brush is1 as far as ,i know1 an adjunct of a high state of civilisation4 ,brushes may be defined to be instruments formed of fibres set more or less parallel to each other4 ,the vast variety of brushes used in different parts of ,europe is indicative of the civilisation of the nations who use them4 ,take1 for example1 the brushes used in household management1 such as the hearth-brush1 the housemaid's brush1 the ,turk's-head brush1 the crumb-brush1 the stair-brush1 the carpet-brush1 the dusting brush1 and many others4 ,then we have those which are applied to our garments1 such as the ordinary clothes-brush1 the velvet-backed hat-brush1 and the three kinds of boot-brushes4 ,in architecture1 again1 we should be very badly off without the painting-brushes1 the whitewasher's brush1 and the paper-hanger's brush2 not to mention the exceeding variety of brushes used by artists both in oil and water colours4 ,as to brushes applied to our persons1 we have an infinite number of them4 ,there is1 of course1 the hair-brush1 without a pair of which1 one for each hand1 no one with a respectable head of hair could be expected to be happy4 ,we may add to this the revolving brush worked by machinery1 which is to be found in the rooms of any respectable hairdresser1 and which is a sort of an apotheosis of the ,hair-brush1 especially when it is worked1 as in some places1 by the electrical engine4 ,then there is the shaving-brush1 once an absolutely necessary article in a gentleman's dressing-case1 and above all requisite if the owner should happen to be a clergyman4 ,nowadays1 shaving is rapidly decreasing1 and of all the professions1 those who are most largely bearded1 both in number of beard-wearers and dimensions of the beard1 are to be found among the clergy4 ,then there are any number of tooth-brushes for the interior of the mouth1 and of flesh-brushes1 with or without handles1 for the service of the bath4 ,there are even gardeners' brushes1 for the purpose of clearing the plants of the aphides1 or green-blight1 as these insects are popularly called by gardeners4 ,so it will be seen that--absurd as the proposition may appear at first sight--we may really accept the use of the brush as a safe test of the progress of civilisation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now glance at the illustrations of this subject4 ,on the right hand is depicted the once honoured ,shaving-brush1 the terror of all stiff-bearded men on frosty mornings1 and yet clung to with a strange inconsistency4 ,many years ago a military member of the ,house of ,commons was sensible enough to wear his beard1 and was1 in consequence1 the butt for interminable jokes4 ,at the present time1 if the ,house were counted1 a great majority of the younger1 and not a few of the older1 members will be found to wear either the beard or moustache1 or both4 ,illustration3 ,,foot ,,of ,,fly4 ,illustration3 ,,brush ,,of ,,glow-,,worm ,,larva4 ,illustration3 ,,hair-,,brushes4 ,illustration3 ,,shaving-,,brush4 ,perhaps some of my readers may object that many nations in a state of very partial civilisation are accustomed to shaving4 ,so they are1 but they do not use the shaving-brush4 ,most of them content themselves with pulling out the hairs by the roots1 while others merely saturate the hair with hot water1 and so need no brush4 ,next to the shaving-brush is drawn a pair of ordinary ,hair-brushes1 such as have been mentioned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing to the left1 we find an object which bears a curious resemblance to the shaving-brush4 ,this is an apparatus belonging to the larva or grub of the ,glow-worm4 ,this creature feeds upon snails1 and1 in consequence1 gets itself covered with the tenacious slime4 ,in order to enable it to rid itself of this inconvenience1 the larva is furnished near the end of its tail with the curious apparatus which is here shown4 ,it consists of some seven or eight soft white radii1 arranged so as to produce a brush-like outline1 and being capable of extension or withdrawal at will4 ,it had long been known that this 8houppe nerveuse10 as it is called1 was employed as an assistant in locomotion2 but until comparatively late years--,i believe about #ahbf--no one seemed to be aware that it was used as a brush4 ,its functions as a brush may be compared with the somewhat similar offices fulfilled by the pincers of the ,earwig1 as mentioned on page #bei4 ,next to the brush of the glow-worm larva is shown one of the fore-feet of the ordinary house-fly1 much magnified4 ,passing1 as irrelevant to the present subject1 the use of the feet as organs of locomotion1 we may take them as being used for the purpose of cleansing the body of the insect4 ,i suppose that none of my readers has been sufficiently inobservant not to have noticed the way in which a fly cleanses itself1 behaving almost exactly like a cat under similar circumstances4 ,the fore-feet are repeatedly passed over the head1 which is bowed down to meet them1 while a similar office is performed for the rest of the body by the hind-legs4 ,the feet are then rubbed against each other1 so as to free them from all accumulations1 just as the housemaid cleanses the hair-brush with the comb before washing it4 ,so mechanical is this process1 that a fly has been known to go through it even after it had been deprived of its head4 ,the reader will see1 on reference to the illustration1 that the two sharp and curved claws are capable of answering the purpose of combs1 and1 indeed1 are so employed4 ,,combs4 ,we will now proceed to the ,,comb1 and see how ,art has been anticipated by ,nature4 ,as long as human beings possess hair upon their heads1 whether it be the short1 frizzed1 woolly pile of the negro1 the thick1 coarse crop of the ,fijian1 the coarse1 straight hair of the ,mongolian1 or the long and fine hair of the ,georgian races1 they must1 as soon as they attempt any kind of civilisation1 form some instruments by which the hair can be dressed4 ,the simplest machine for this purpose is the ,comb1 and ,i possess many varieties of this article1 suitable to the different races for whom it was made4 ,putting aside the ordinary ,combs of our ,european civilisation1 such as are given in the illustration1 there are many others which are modified according to the use which they have to fulfil4 ,illustration3 ,,foot ,,of ,,spider4 ,,beak ,,of ,,toucan4 ,,combs4 ,the simplest is the ,comb of the celebrated ,amazon regiment of ,dahomey4 ,this is nothing but a slight skewer of ivory1 some ten inches in length1 and amply sufficient for arranging the short woolly lumps which do duty for hair on the head of a true negro4 ,one of these very primitive combs is in my collection1 together with an undress costume of the ,amazon in question1 and both being very much suited to each other4 ,the comb being a simple skewer1 the dress is only a few thongs of leather1 but they are both equal to the requirements of their wearers4 ,as much time would be lost in combing the hair with a single skewer1 especially when that hair belonged to any but the pure negro races1 a simple but obvious improvement was introduced4 ,a number of skewers were lashed together side by side1 with their ends a little diverging1 and thus was formed the germ of our present ,combs4 ,as to the varieties of the ,comb1 they are simply endless2 and whether they are intended1 in the form of the ,currycomb1 to smooth the harsh coat of a horse1 or1 as a small-tooth ,comb1 to search the hair of the young1 they are all based on one principle4 ,it is really curious to see how often two men1 who cannot possibly have seen each other1 will hit upon the same idea1 not only simultaneously1 but often in the very same words4 ,so it is with regard to the ,comb4 ,in no two parts of the world can the natives be more opposed to each other than is the case with ,fiji and ,western ,africa2 yet ,i possess specimens of combs from both countries1 made on the same principles1 and so exactly in the same manner1 that1 except for the coarseness of the ,african ,comb1 it would be almost impossible to distinguish between them4 ,there is but a slight difference in the size and shape of the two combs1 and yet nothing can be more distinct than the characters of the two nations4 ,i have also a ,japanese ,comb of the most ingenious construction4 ,it is made of wood1 and cut exactly like our double ivory small-tooth comb2 but it is furnished with a curious kind of handle1 consisting of a flat piece of wood with a deep longitudinal slit1 into which either side of the comb fits2 and so beautifully is it made1 that when it is fitted upon either side of the comb it looks as if handle and comb had been cut out of the same piece of wood4 ,the ,fijian ,combs are much after the same fashion as those of ,western ,africa1 except that1 with the artistic nature of their kind1 the ,fijians1 instead of merely lashing together the numerous spikes of which the comb is made1 employ a variety of patterns1 and seem to luxuriate in the exuberance of artistic spirit which can make hundreds of combs1 and no two of them alike4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are two examples of ,natural ,combs which are well worthy of notice4 ,the upper one is a foot of the common ,garden ,spider 7,epeira diadema71 which has been several times mentioned in this work in connection with different subjects4 ,every one who has watched the life of one of these creatures must have noticed how often its hairy body becomes clogged with little bits of its own web1 and how dexterously it releases itself from such encumbrances4 ,the figure in the illustration shows how this can be done1 the strangely formed foot acting at the same time the part of comb and brush4 ,it will be seen that the curved spikes of the claws act as a comb1 while the bristle-like hairs discharge the duty of a brush4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,not only are these projections used as ,combs1 but as appendages which insure the security of footing along the lines of the web4 ,the reader will easily remember that when a ,spider rushes along its web to secure its prey1 it always runs along one of the radiating lines1 which have no viscid drops1 and that it never misses its hold4 ,the latter point is secured by the structure of its claws1 which are so made that if one projection misses the line1 another is sure to fasten upon it4 ,some years ago1 while watching 8,blondin0 go through his wonderful performances1 ,i was especially struck with the pattern on which he had constructed the stilts upon which he traversed the rope4 ,they were made in the most exact imitation of the ,spider's foot1 and though it is not probable that he borrowed them from that object1 the resemblance was so close that he might readily have done so4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the spider's foot is given the head of a ,toucan1 one of those beautifully coloured and large-billed birds that inhabit tropical ,america4 ,these birds are very particular about their plumage1 and even when in captivity dress their feathers with the utmost care4 ,when they do so1 the saw-like notches of the beak act the part of a comb1 and the fibrils of the feathers are by their action dressed parallel to each other1 and give to the whole bird its proper appearance of health4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,may here mention that there is one comb in ,nature1 the use of which has never been clearly ascertained4 ,this is the remarkable organ found in the ,scorpion1 and simply known as the 8comb40 ,there are two of them1 one on each side of the under surface4 ,their colour differs slightly according to the species1 but is generally a light yellow brown4 ,the number of teeth also differs extremely1 for in the ,rock ,scorpion there are only thirteen teeth1 while in the ,red ,scorpion there are twenty-eight4 ,,buttons1 ,,hooks ,,and ,,eyes1 ,,and ,,clasp4 ,,having now treated of brushes and combs as articles belonging to the toilet1 we will proceed to those which belong to the dress rather than the person4 ,it is a curious fact that1 as far as is known1 buttons and hooks belong only to advanced civilisation4 ,the simplest garment is1 of course1 a cloth of some material wrapped round the waist1 and1 as we see in the wonderful ,egyptian paintings which have survived their painters some three thousand years1 the simple fold can retain its grasp round the loins1 even through the exertions of a long day's work4 ,i was always at a loss1 when looking at these drawings1 to understand how a single fold could retain so simple a garment in its place1 but when ,i made my first visit to the ,hammam ,turkish ,bath in ,jermyn ,street the mystery was at once solved4 ,the 8check10 as it is there called1 is long enough to pass about once and a half round the waist of an ordinary man4 ,one end of it is placed on the left side1 so as to bring the lower edge on a level with the knee4 ,it is held by the left hand until the right hand passes it round the waist4 ,it is then turned over in a broad single fold1 and will remain in position for hours1 the left leg having free scope between the two ends1 and yet not being needlessly exposed4 ,next to the simple fold comes the tie1 which is in use all over the world4 ,the chief object of a good ,tie is that it should retain its hold as long as needed1 be loosened with a touch in necessity1 and1 as a matter of consequence1 should never 8jam40 ,still1 even the best of ties are liable to objection4 ,i once heard an argument on the subject of ties and buckles with regard to shoes4 ,the speakers were both ,derbyshire men1 and their phraseology was somewhat obscure4 ,however1 both stuck to his own principles1 one saying that 8when a shee-uew is boo-oo-oockled1 it's boo-oo-ookled20 and the other asserting1 in equally strong terms1 that 8when it's tee-ee-eed1 it's tee-ee-eed40 ,the buckle was here asserting its supremacy in civilisation over the tie1 and was palpably right4 ,any one1 so rose the argument1 can tie two strings together1 but the structure of the buckle is too complicated to be understood1 much less invented1 by any uncivilised being4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next come1 in natural order1 the ,button and the ,clasp1 each being identical in principle4 ,in the case of the former the 8eye0 is placed over the button1 while in the latter the clasp or hook is passed through the eye4 ,several examples of the ,button and the ,clasp are given on the right hand of the illustration1 and are too familiar to need description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as to the corresponding articles in ,nature1 they are very numerous4 ,we will take1 for example1 the ,saddle-back or ,crow ,oyster of our own shores4 ,it is a most remarkable being4 ,it deposits upon the object to which it adheres a sort of button of shelly matter1 and the lower valve1 which is nearly flat1 has in it an aperture which is placed over the knob1 just as a button-hole goes over the button4 ,as this arrangement is confined to the lower valve1 and cannot be seen unless the upper valve be removed1 the lower valve only is shown in the illustration1 as it appears when fastened to the side of a large limpet4 ,illustration3 ,,wing-,,hooks ,,of ,,insect4 ,,saddle-,,back ,,oyster4 ,illustration3 ,,clasps ,,and ,,button4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of the ,hooks and ,eyes in ,nature ,i have only taken two examples1 though there are many others4 ,we all know the ,bees1 ,wasps1 ,hornets1 and other similar insects1 and that they possess four wings4 ,i may here mention that no insect which does not possess four transparent wings is capable of stinging4 ,when the insect is at rest the four wings may be easily distinguished1 but when it is in flight they coalesce1 so that practically the insect has two wings instead of four4 ,this object is attained in the following way3-- ,the lower edge of the first pair of wings is turned over in a rather stiff fold4 ,the upper edge of the second pair of wings has a row of small1 but strong and elastic hooks4 ,when the insect is about to fly1 the hooks are hitched into the fold1 and so the wings are fastened together4 ,these hooks are shown in the illustration1 and the reader will easily see how effective they must be in their operation4 ,an almost exactly similar structure is found in the feathers of birds1 and it is by means of these tiny hooks that wings are enabled to present a continuous1 light1 and elastic surface in the air4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,stopper1 ,,or ,,cork4--,,the ,,filter4 ,vessels and their ,covers4--,corks4--,mode of bottling ,wine4--,conical ,corks and ,stoppers4--,self-fitting ,candles4--,candle-fixers4--,the ,vent-peg4--,the ,blow-guns and their ,missiles4--,the ,serpula and its ,conical ,stopper4--,the ,filter4--,the ,bosjesman procuring ,water4--,how to make a simple ,filter4--,the ,earth as a ,filter4--,the ,sea-mouse1 or ,aphrodite1 and its filtering ,apparatus4--,the ,duck's ,beak1 and its beautiful ,structure4--,the ,jaw of the ,greenland ,whale4--,fork-grinder's ,respirator4--,how ,insects breathe4--,spiracles1 and their general ,structure4--,spiracle of the ,fly4--,experiment upon a ,cockroach1 and its ,result4 ,,the ,,stopper1 ,,or ,,cork4 ,this object1 as depicted in the illustration1 is a product of civilised life1 though1 as soon as a savage could make a vessel1 he seems to have made a ,cover for it if it were of large diameter1 or a ,stopper if the opening were small4 ,even the very ,bosjesman1 who is quite unable to make a clay vessel1 and uses empty ostrich eggs by way of water-bottles1 is yet capable of making plugs with which he can stop up the apertures4 ,then the ,kafir1 with his gourd vessels1 whether they be for water or snuff1 makes a plug that fits tightly enough to exclude the air1 as well as to retain the contents4 ,the invention of glass bottles necessarily brought with it the introduction of a new kind of plug1 and a material for such a plug was found in the bark of the cork-tree1 a species of oak4 ,this bark possesses the capability of compression to a very great extent1 and1 being highly elastic1 it expands as soon as the pressure is removed4 ,thus1 in bottling wine1 the corks are always made much too large to go into the mouths of the bottles4 ,they are first dipped in a cup containing the same wine1 and are then compressed violently by a machine worked by a handle1 and which1 being practically a powerful pair of nut-crackers with a rounded gripe1 must suit the shape of the cork4 ,it is then taken out of the machine1 and1 before it has had time to expand1 is rapidly fitted to the neck of the bottle1 and driven home with a wooden mallet4 ,expansion then takes place1 and the bottle is rendered air-tight1 so that no damage is done to the wine4 ,if the whole of the wine were to be drunk when the cork was removed1 this plan would be amply sufficient4 ,but there are many cases where the bottle is opened1 and only part of the wine consumed4 ,to re-cork the bottle would be too troublesome1 and to leave it uncorked would spoil the wine4 ,so the ,conical ,stopper was invented1 which fits the neck of any ordinary wine-bottle1 according to the depth to which it is introduced1 and1 by a slight screwing movement1 sufficient compression is obtained to render the bottle air-tight4 ,one of these ,conical ,stoppers is shown in the illustration on page #ceb4 ,sometimes they are made of cork1 and sometimes of india-rubber2 but the principle is the same in either case4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have seen the ,self-fitting ,candles1 which require no paper to make them fit the candlestick4 ,these are enlarged at the base1 which is made in a conical form1 and slightly grooved4 ,the 8,candle-fixers0 that are so much in use at the present day are made exactly on the same principle1 being hollow cones of paper1 which take the place of the solid cone4 ,the ,vent-peg of casks is another instance of the cone used as a stopper4 ,another example is to be found in the ,blow-guns and ,arrows of tropical ,america4 ,in some districts the base of the arrow is fitted with a conical appendage of light cotton1 rather larger than the tube1 but capable of compression1 so that it exactly fits the tube when pressed into it4 ,in other districts the cone is hollow1 and made of some thin and elastic bark4 ,some years ago one of our most eminent gun-makers hit upon the same idea while making improved missiles for the game of 8,puff and ,dart10 and very much surprised he was when ,i showed him the ,south ,american arrow1 not only with the same hollow cone at the base1 but having also spiral wings along the shaft1 so as to give it a rotatory motion as it passed through the air4 ,the hollow cones of his darts were made of india-rubber1 but the shape of the two was identical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,if the reader will refer to the left-hand figure of the illustration1 he will see a beautiful example of the ,conical ,stopper as existing in ,nature4 ,this is the 8,stopper10 as it is popularly called1 and1 scientifically1 the 8infundibuliform operculum40 ,i prefer the former term myself1 as being less liable to misapprehension4 ,the ,serpula lives in a shelly tube of its own construction1 and has the power of protruding itself when it desires to obtain food1 and of withdrawing itself within the tube when alarmed4 ,this movement is performed so rapidly1 that the eye can scarcely follow it1 and the mechanism by which it is done has already been described when treating of ,war and ,hunting4 ,illustration3 ,,antenna ,,of ,,serpula4 ,illustration3 ,,conical ,,stopper4 ,when it withdraws itself1 the ,stopper closes the mouth of the tube with perfect exactness1 so as to leave the inhabitant in safety4 ,the reader will see1 on referring to the illustration1 how exactly similar is the ,conical ,stopper of ,art to that of ,nature1 and how the inventor of that article1 as well as of the self-fitting candle1 the candle-fixer1 the blow-gun arrow1 and the vent-peg1 might have found prototypes of their inventions in ,nature1 if they had only known where to look for them4 ,,the ,,filter4 ,even in a state of uncivilisation man has been driven to invent a ,filter of some kind4 ,the simplest kind of ,filter is that which is used by the ,bosjesman women when procuring water for the use of their families4 ,when1 as often happens1 the only water to be obtained is to be found in muddy pools which have been trampled and perturbed by thirsty animals1 the women have recourse to a simple1 though rather repulsive1 expedient4 ,each woman is furnished with empty ostrich egg-shells by way of water-vessels1 and she also takes a couple of hollow reeds4 ,over the end of one of these reeds she ties a bundle of grass1 and then plunges it as deeply as she can into the mud4 ,after a little while she sucks up the water through the tube1 the grass acting as a filter1 and she then discharges it by the second tube into the egg-shells4 ,in this way the women will obtain water1 where none but themselves could have procured it4 ,as to the repulsive mode of obtaining it1 no one can be fastidious when dying of thirst4 ,sir ,s4 ,baker mentions that when he was on his travels he managed in a halt to save up enough water for a bath for himself and his wife4 ,he was about to throw away the soapy water1 when the vessel was snatched from his hands by two of his attendants1 and the contents eagerly drunk4 ,the different varieties of the ,filter which we use at the present day are too familiar to need description4 ,whether they be made principally of charcoal1 which is a powerful disinfectant1 or of merely stones1 gravel1 and sand1 they are all constructed on the same principle1 namely1 the straining out solid substances1 and allowing only the pure water to pass through the interstices4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as to the ,filters of ,nature1 they are almost innumerable4 ,in the first place1 the ,earth itself is the primary filter of all1 taking into itself all kinds of decomposing substances1 separating them for the use of vegetation1 and delivering the pure1 bright1 and sparkling spring water which we so highly and rightly value4 ,the whole human body1 again1 is practically a collection of the most elaborate and effective filters that the mind of man can conceive4 ,but we will pass to the more obvious examples of filters as seen in animal life4 ,on the upper left-hand portion of the illustration may be seen a long1 fat1 hairy creature1 called popularly the ,sea-mouse1 and known to zoologists as ,aphrodite aculeata4 ,although it inhabits the mud--and sea-mud is about as noisome a substance as can be imagined--it is clothed with a garment of such beauty that the rainbow itself can scarcely rival1 and not surpass it4 ,the hairs with which it is so profusely covered glitter and sparkle with every imaginable hue1 among which red and green seem to be predominant4 ,these hairs occupy the sides of the body1 but in the upper surface there is a thick coating of felted hairs1 interwoven with each other so closely that they can with difficulty be separated4 ,these hairs form a natural filter1 strain away the mud from the water1 and allow the latter to pour itself upon the organs of respiration4 ,if1 therefore1 a specimen be examined when it is first brought up by the dredge1 the felted hair will always be found to contain a considerable amount of mud1 and much washing is needed before the creature can be introduced into an aquarium where the water is intended to be transparent4 ,illustration3 ,,aphrodite4 ,,duck',s ,,beak4 ,illustration3 ,,filter4 ,i may here mention that the name of ,aphrodite is a singularly happy one4 ,it signifies something that arises from the foam of the sea1 and was given to the goddess of beauty1 because in the ancient myths she was said to have sprung from the foam of the sea4 ,unpoetical as it may appear1 the ,german word ,meerschaum1 which is so familiar to us in connection with pipes1 is the exact equivalent of ,aphrodite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the ,aphrodite is a figure representing the filtering apparatus which is found in the beak of the duck4 ,this singularly beautiful apparatus is well worthy of examination1 and the more important details of its structure can easily be made out by the unassisted eye4 ,in the first place1 the upper half of the beak1 or upper mandible1 as it is scientifically called1 is furnished along its edges with a row of curved horny projections1 very like the teeth of a comb1 and each of them coming to a point4 ,there are some fifty or sixty of these teeth on each side1 and they are regularly graduated in size1 being longest in the middle of the beak1 and becoming very short at either end4 ,they are set diagonally1 with the tips pointing backwards4 ,the edges of the lower mandible are turned up in a sort of fold1 on the outside of which is a row of grooves corresponding with the teeth of the upper mandible1 and1 like them1 being set diagonally4 ,these teeth and grooves would of themselves make a very efficient filter1 but they are further aided by the tongue4 ,this is thick1 fleshy1 and very mobile2 so much so1 indeed1 that when the mouth is opened the tongue is automatically thrust forward4 ,the edges of the tongue are1 like those of the mandibles1 furnished with a filtering apparatus4 ,instead1 however1 of being horny and stiff like those of the mandibles1 they are membranous and exceedingly delicate4 ,indeed1 in order to see them properly1 it is necessary to place the tongue under water1 so that the membranous filaments shall be floated apart instead of clinging together by their own weight4 ,the whole of this apparatus is abundantly supplied with nerves1 and is evidently a most exquisite instrument of touch4 ,the reader will now understand the peculiar movements of a duck's beak while feeding4 ,although the bird can and does eat solid food1 such as barley1 and1 by reason of its superior width of beak1 will very much defraud the poultry in a yard where ducks and hens are kept together1 it is chiefly fitted for extracting nourishment from water1 and will find abundant subsistence where a hen would die of starvation4 ,when the beak is plunged into the water1 the mandibles are rapidly opened and shut1 the tongue incessantly working backwards and forwards between them4 ,consequently1 not only are the solid parts of the water strained between the comb of the upper beak and the grooves of the lower1 but they undergo a further sifting or filtering from the delicate fibrils which fringe the edge of the tongue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another familiar example of the ,filter is to be found in the jaw of the ,greenland ,whale4 ,in this animal1 as well as in its congeners1 the 8whalebone10 or 8baleen10 as it is more properly called1 is so formed that it allows liquids to pass through it1 while it retains solids4 ,feeding as it does upon small marine matters1 it would starve but for the filtering power of the baleen1 which enables the animal to take into its vast mouth the sea-water with its inhabitants1 and to expel the water through the plates and fibres of the baleen1 while retaining the animals4 ,the process of filtering1 as well as the structure of the baleen1 is so familiar that it does not need further description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now proceed to another filter1 which is used in the air1 and not in water1 namely1 the ,mouth-guard or ,respirator of the fork-grinder4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no trade which is more destructive of human life than that of the fork-grinder was until the peculiar respirator was made obligatory4 ,the minute particles of steel thrown off by the grindstone fill the air1 and were necessarily inhaled4 ,now1 the human lungs are capable of enduring very bad treatment1 but the introduction of steel-dust into them is more than they can bear4 ,consequently the duration of human life was very short1 consumption almost invariably setting in at an early age1 and carrying off the men before they had achieved middle age4 ,nor did the mischief end there4 ,it was bad enough that life should be shortened1 but far worse that it should be wasted1 as was mostly the case4 ,the men1 knowing what their fate must be1 were simply reckless1 and plunged into all kinds of debauchery1 under the plea of 8a short life and a merry one40 ,they knew no better1 and could scarcely be blamed for their mode of living4 ,and1 as a matter of course1 each succeeding generation was worse1 smaller1 and feebler than the preceding4 ,then there came the invention of the ,magnetic ,respirator1 by which the fork-grinder's trade was rendered as healthy as any other4 ,it was made of steel-wire gauze1 and magnetised1 so that the floating particles of steel were not only stopped in their progress to the lungs1 but arrested by the magnetism1 and1 so to speak1 taken prisoners by it4 ,even a well-made respirator of several layers1 like those which are used by persons suffering from weak lungs1 would have been useful1 but the addition of magnetism doubled the efficacy while greatly diminishing the cost1 a single layer of wire being quite adequate to the office1 and was1 in fact1 quite a stroke of genius4 ,the value of this invention is at once shown by the many complaints which the workmen made when the ,respirator was first introduced4 ,they complained that the apertures of the ,respirator became so choked that they could not breathe4 ,this was perfectly true1 but the complaint showed the real value of the instrument4 ,illustration3 ,,spiracle ,,of ,,fly4 ,illustration3 ,,respirator ,,of ,,fork-,,grinder4 ,it was necessary for the workmen1 every now and then1 to clear off the innumerable particles of steel which adhered to the magnetised wires1 and impeded respiration4 ,but they never seemed to realise the fact that1 if it had not been for these wires1 all the particles would have been drawn into the lungs1 and gradually choked them up1 brought on inflammation1 and extinguished their life altogether4 ,and1 with the usual repugnance to new ideas which is inherent in undeveloped minds1 the men stoutly resisted the introduction of the ,respirator1 and did their best to reject an invention which doubled the length of their lives1 and enabled them to find long happiness in the world instead of brief pleasure ended by sure and painful death4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now1 we will see how the principle of the ,respirator is carried out in ,nature4 ,on the left hand of the illustration is drawn one of the most perfect ,respirators1 or air-filters1 if we may use the term1 that can be imagined4 ,perhaps some of my readers may know that insects do not breathe as we do4 ,they have no lungs1 but their entire system is permeated by air-vessels1 just as is our system with blood-vessels1 and therefore the air1 instead of being restricted to the lungs1 is conveyed to every part of the insect1 the air-vessels extending to the very tips of the wings and antenn1 and to the claws of the feet4 ,neither does the insect receive the air through mouth or nostrils as we do4 ,along the sides of the body are certain oval apertures called 8spiracles10 from the ,latin word spiro1 which signifies breathing4 ,these spiracles can easily be seen by examining an ordinary silkworm4 ,they are situated in the soft and flexible skin which connects the rings or segments of which all insects are composed1 and pass directly into two large air-tubes which run on either side of the body4 ,it is evident that since an insect is so thoroughly permeated with air1 it must be furnished with means to render that air as pure as possible1 and at all events to preserve the respiratory system from being choked with dust or other adventitious substances4 ,how important the air is to an insect can easily be seen by dipping it in oil1 or even brushing an oiled feather on its sides so as to fill up the spiracles4 ,a man under the hands of the hangman or garotter could not die more swiftly1 so much does an insect depend on air4 ,in fact1 an insect is almost wholly composed of air-tubes1 but for which the great thick-bodied dor-beetles could never use their organs of flight4 ,of course1 although the spiracles can act as filters as far as the air is concerned1 they cannot be analysts1 and consequently insects are peculiarly sensitive to a bad atmosphere4 ,there is1 for example1 the well-known 8laurel-bottle0 of entomologists4 ,a few young laurel-leaves are crushed and placed in a bottle4 ,as soon as an insect is introduced1 it breathes the prussic acid which is exhaled from the leaves1 and at once dies4 ,so it is with the more delicate 8death-bottle10 into which a little cyanide of potassium is introduced1 and covered with plaster of ,paris4 ,the plaster prevents the poison from touching the insects and damaging their beautiful colours4 ,it permits the deadly vapour to roll through its interstices2 consequently1 even the large-bodied moths1 which are tenacious of life almost beyond credibility1 can barely run round the bottle1 when they roll over1 and expire almost without a struggle1 the venomous atmosphere having saturated the entire body4 ,all entomologists know that the spiracles act as sieves1 preventing any extraneous objects from gaining admission into the breathing-tubes4 ,but1 unless they have had personal experience1 they cannot appreciate the efficacy of the spiracle when acting as a respirator4 ,even the microscope1 though it may magnify the object to any extent1 does not show the wonderful filtering power of the spiracle4 ,the figure in the illustration represents a spiracle of the common 8blue-bottle0 fly1 and any one who wishes to examine such an object for himself can have but little difficulty in doing so1 especially in the warm season of the year4 ,how effectual is the barrier thus interposed by ,nature between the external world and the interior of the insect may be inferred from the following narrative3-- ,many years ago1 while absorbed in the comparative anatomy of insect structure1 ,i believed myself to have hit upon a plan for injecting the minutest of tubes with mercury4 ,so ,i took a male cockroach1 placed a vessel of mercury in the receiver of an air-pump1 and suspended the cockroach exactly over it4 ,as the reader will fully have surmised1 my idea was1 first to exhaust the air from the inside of the insect1 then to plunge it into the mercury1 and then to admit the air1 which1 at a pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch1 was likely to drive the mercury into the smallest of tubes4 ,such a plan was very successful with ordinary tissues1 and might succeed with insects4 ,accordingly1 ,i exhausted the air from the vessel in which the cockroach was placed1 and kept it in a state of exhaustion for a whole day1 so as to prove that every particle of air was withdrawn from the insect4 ,i then plunged the cockroach deeply beneath the mercury1 and admitted the air1 hoping that the severe pressure would drive the mercury into the respiratory vessels4 ,but not one particle of the mercury could pass through the wonderful filter with which the cockroach had been provided1 and1 except that ,i had learned the power of the spiracle1 ,i might have saved both the time and trouble4 ,it is worthy of notice that1 almost countless as are the species of insects1 no two of them possess exactly the same structure of the spiracles1 the individuality being marked as clearly in these tiny organs as in the entire insect4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,spring4--,,the ,,elastic ,,spring4--,,accumulators4--,,the ,,spiral ,,spring4 ,springs and their various ,structure4--,the ,elastic ,spring4--,the ,boy's ,catapult and its ,powers4--,the ,pistolograph1 its ,principle1 and ,uses to which it can be put4--,leaf-rolling ,caterpillars1 and their ,way of ,work4--,the ,carriage ,spring4--,the ,horse's ,hoof and its complex ,structure4--,fungi and their united ,power4--,the ,chinese ,cross-bow4--,the ancient ,balista4--,skull of the ,crocodile4--,bones of young ,children4--,the ,spiral ,spring and its many ,uses4--,the ,toy-gun4--,the ,needle-gun4--,valved ,brass ,instruments4--,watch and ,clock ,springs4--,the ,bed ,spring4--,parallels in ,nature and ,art4--,buffers of ,railway ,carriages4--,spring ,solitaires4--,the ,bell ,spring4--,spiral ,springs in ,vegetable ,tissues4--,poison ,cells of various ,marine ,animals4--,effects of the ,spiral ,springs4 ,,elastic ,,springs4 ,here we come upon a subject so large1 that it is difficult to define its exact requisite limits4 ,the principle of the elastic spring pervades all ,nature1 and the numerous adaptations in ,art are closely1 though perhaps not directly1 attributable to the wide distribution of the spring in ,nature4 ,there is1 for example1 the simple elasticity which enables a tree1 when bowed by the wind1 to spring back so soon as the pressure is removed1 and which1 indeed1 is the power which enables a bow to propel an arrow4 ,then there are spiral springs innumerable1 many of them so minute that they can only be seen by the aid of the microscope1 and there are many springs which exhibit their elasticity by their power of extension and shortening1 just as is done with the elastic fabrics which are so much in vogue at the present day1 and which seem so necessary to ordinary comfort that we feel disposed to wonder how our forefathers managed without them4 ,we will now proceed to examine some of these springs in detail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is one form of elastic spring which has of late years become more familiar than agreeable1 namely1 the toy which is learnedly called a 8catapult10 though it has little in common with the ancient weapon whose name it bears4 ,as may be seen by reference to the illustration1 it consists of one or more india-rubber straps attached to a fork-like handle1 and carrying a small pouch in which is contained the missile4 ,although it is not remarkable for accuracy1 it can throw a stone or a bullet a considerable distance1 and its power can be very quickly increased by adding to the number of the straps4 ,thus a catapult has been made which was capable of sending a small pistol bullet through a wooden board1 so that the child's toy might really become a dangerous weapon4 ,indeed1 cases are known where the catapult has hurled a stone with fatal effect upon human beings4 ,in my own neighbourhood there are many examples of glass being pierced by stones thrown from catapults just as if they had been subjected to bullets shot from firearms1 the holes being quite small and round4 ,the power of accumulating force by increasing the number of springs was utilised by ,mr4 ,scaife1 when he invented his wonderful photographic machine which he termed the 8,pistolograph10 on account of the sound which was produced when the portrait was taken4 ,the idea was simple enough1 though the practice of it was not so easy4 ,he wished to be able to take a photograph with an exposure of the least possible time1 and thus to attain freedom and action1 instead of the dull stiffness which generally characterizes photograph portraits4 ,the mode which he adopted was by introducing a peculiarly sensitive film1 which would take an impression in a mere moment1 and then arranging the machine so that an exposure of more than a moment was impossible4 ,this was done by covering the lens with an exactly fitting door1 revolving on a pivot4 ,the axis on which the door revolved was attached to a number of india-rubber bands1 exactly like those which are used for confining papers4 ,as the power of the springs increased with their number1 it naturally followed that the rapidity of the revolution was in exact ratio with the number of the bands1 so that the duration of exposure to light could be measured with tolerable accuracy4 ,so wonderfully well did this plan succeed that photographs of eclipses were taken with perfect accuracy1 a matter of great importance when time has to be considered4 ,horses were also taken at full gallop1 so as to display their action1 and the crowning achievement was the photographing of a cannon in the act of firing1 and the bursting of a charged shell4 ,so rapid is the action of the instrument1 that in several cases where a cannon or mortar had been photographed1 even the track of the ball or shell is visible4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf-,,rolling ,,nests4 ,illustration3 ,,catapult4 ,it necessarily followed that when the springs caused the circular cover to revolve with such rapidity1 they made it close with a sharp report1 and so gave rise to the name of the machine4 ,moreover1 as it had to be used for rapidly moving objects1 it was not fixed on a pedestal1 but was held in the hands1 while aim was taken at the object1 just as with a pistol4 ,when the observer thought that he had his aim correct1 he touched a trigger1 round spun the cover1 and the photograph was taken4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right hand of the illustration is seen the ,catapult1 made with several springs1 and on the left is shown an example of the ,accumulator as formed by ,nature4 ,the reader may probably be acquainted with the ,leaf-rolling ,caterpillars1 of which there are so many4 ,i had often inspected these curled leaves1 and1 on comparing them with the size of the caterpillars1 had noticed that the muscular strength of the insect was quite inadequate to the work which was done4 ,that much of it was owing to the 8bowsing0 system1 which has already been described when treating of the ,toggle-joint1 was very probable1 but that some other force must be employed was evident4 ,on unrolling a leaf1 the hidden force was at once explained1 and showed itself to be a system of accumulators exactly like those of the pistolograph or the catapult4 ,the caterpillar spins successive belts of silken threads1 and affixes them to the leaf1 as shown in the illustration4 ,these threads are nearly as elastic as the india-rubber bands of the catapult1 and accordingly draw the leaf together4 ,another set of belts is added above the former1 and1 as they harden and contract in the air1 they roll the leaf still further4 ,the first row is then shortened and tightened1 and a third and fourth row are added in the same fashion4 ,so elastic are these belts1 that if the leaf be carefully handled it can be almost wholly unrolled1 and will spring back again as soon as the force is removed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another form of accumulated force may be seen in the ordinary ,carriage ,spring1 one of which is shown in the illustration4 ,it is made of a number of strips of elastic steel lying upon each other1 and suffered to play upon each other by means of slots and rivets4 ,the weight being placed in the centre1 it is evident that this very ingenious spring is really an elastic girder1 yielding to sudden pressure1 and recovering itself when that pressure is removed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ingenious as is this spring1 it has many parallels in ,nature1 one of which is here given4 ,it is popularly thought the hoof of the horse is a solid mass of horn destined to protect the feet against hard and rough ground4 ,such certainly seems to be the opinion of farriers1 who1 in shoeing horses1 act exactly as if the horn of the hoof were structureless2 whereas it is a marvel of complicated mechanism4 ,on looking at the exterior of a horse's hoof1 it will be seen to be marked with a vast number of very fine1 but easily visible longitudinal lines1 looking as if they were scratches from a very fine needle4 ,if the hoof be removed from the foot1 and examined upon the interior1 it will be seen that each of the apparent scratches signifies the edge of a very thin plate of horn1 not so thick as the paper on which this book is printed4 ,the hoof1 in fact1 is built up of multitudinous plates of horn1 set side by side1 and each acting as a separate spring4 ,it is this beautiful structure which allows the horse to tread without a jar being sent through its whole system by every step which it takes4 ,a similar structure is to be found in all hoofed quadrupeds1 and is especially noticeable in the case of the ,elephant4 ,all those who have watched the walk of an ,elephant1 no matter what its size may be1 must have been struck with the curious noiselessness of its movements4 ,its weight may be measured by tons1 and yet the enormous animal steps as noiselessly as a cat4 ,on examining one of the hoofs1 after it is removed from the foot1 the cause of this marvellously silent tread is perfectly evident4 ,the whole of the hoof is composed of nearly parallel horny plates1 and by their united action they produce the required result4 ,illustration3 ,,horse-,,hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,carriage ,,spring4 ,each plate in itself is very feeble1 but1 when united as they are at the ends1 they afford mutual support to each other4 ,similarly the separate feathers in a couch would be crushed by a comparatively slight weight1 but when a number are confined together they support each other1 and form the soft1 yielding couch with which we are so familiar4 ,horsehair1 when used as the stuffing for a couch or chair1 acts in the same way1 and so do the fine filaments of wool when used under the name of 8flock40 ,another good example of the power of accumulated force1 although it has no direct relation to the spring1 is the well-known fact that fungi1 which are separately so fragile1 are capable of lifting and retaining in the air stones so large that two men could hardly carry them4 ,were the stones laid down upon the fungi1 the latter would be crushed1 but1 as they grow beneath the stones1 they accumulate their powers1 and slowly1 but certainly1 raise the weight from the ground4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,this very principle of accumulated force has long been used in weapons of war1 and ,i possess several examples of such weapons4 ,one of them is a ,chinese repeating ,cross-bow1 which was taken at the capture of the ,peiho ,fort1 and was really a formidable wall-instrument1 carrying a reserve of arrows1 and delivering them with great rapidity4 ,in point of fact1 it consists of three bows1 placed upon each other1 and playing upon each other just as do the portions of a carriage spring4 ,such strength is thus obtained1 that the bow cannot be drawn by hand1 but is worked with a lever1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the whole machinery of the weapon1 including the self-notching and self-supplying system1 is very interesting1 but is outside our present object4 ,the very powerful bow of the ancient ,balista was made on the same principle1 and was strong enough to throw large stones and wooden beams4 ,illustration3 ,,jaws ,,of ,,crocodile4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,cross-,,bow4 ,i also have bows in my collection which are strengthened on the same principle1 though not exactly in the same manner4 ,there are several ,indian1 ,chinese1 and ,japanese bows which are curved almost like the letter ,c1 and have to be reversed when strung4 ,these bows are of no very great size1 but possess wonderful elasticity4 ,they owe the latter quality to sundry layers of sinew which have been affixed to the back when wet1 and which add enormously to the power of the bow1 while they very little enlarge its dimensions4 ,another bow1 made by the natives of ,vancouver's ,island1 has the back strengthened by a number of cords spun from sinew fibres1 and possessing the strength and elasticity to which we are accustomed in the strings of the harp1 guitar1 or violin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now turn to a parallel in ,nature4 ,this is to be found in the lower jaw of the ,crocodile1 as is pointed out by ,professor ,owen1 in his work on the 8,skeleton and the ,teeth40 ,all persons who have a smattering of anatomy are aware that even in the human body the most solid bones of the adult were originally composed of several pieces1 and that they only become fused together in course of time4 ,the jaw-bones1 for example1 were once so composed1 and in the ,crocodile the junction is never completed1 the pieces of bone remaining separate1 but being pressed firmly against each other during life4 ,i have now before me the skull of a ,gangetic ,crocodile1 in which1 although the animal was an adult when killed1 the bones of the long lower jaw are so loose that unless they were tied together the jaw would fall to pieces4 ,this analogy between ,art and ,nature is thus described by ,professor ,owen in the work which has just been mentioned3-- 8,the purpose of this subdivision of the lower jaw-bone has been well explained by ,conybeare and ,buckland1 by the analogy of its structure to that adopted in binding together several parallel plates of elastic wood or steel to make a crossbow1 and also in setting together thin plates of steel in the carriage spring40 ,dr4 ,buckland also adds3 8,those who have witnessed the shock given to the head of a ,crocodile by the act of snapping together its thin1 long jaws1 must have seen how liable to fracture the lower jaw would be were it composed of one bone only4444 ,the splicing and bracing together of thin flat bones of unequal length and of varying thickness afford compensation for the weakness and risk of fracture that would otherwise have attended the elongation of the parts40 ,a good example of the value of this structure of bone may be found in young children4 ,before they are old enough to take care of themselves they are perpetually falling down1 and never hurting themselves4 ,i have seen a little girl of five years old roll from top to bottom of a lofty staircase4 ,it looked as if the child must be killed1 but she was only giddy with her many revolutions1 and a little bruised about the elbows4 ,the reason of this curious immunity from injury is1 that the bones1 especially those of the skull1 are not completely united1 and so act on the principle of the compound spring4 ,,the ,,spiral ,,spring4 ,this subject is so large1 and there are so many examples1 both in ,art and ,nature1 that it is not very easy to make selections which will sufficiently answer the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,lily4 ,,lily4 ,,poison-,,cell ,,of ,,helianthoid4 ,,antherozoids4 ,illustration3 ,,spiral ,,spring4 ,,bed ,,spring4 ,,watch ,,spring4 ,the upper left-hand figure of the illustration represents the ordinary ,spiral ,spring made of wire1 and used for its power of resuming its shape when compressed4 ,in early childhood most boys have had practical experience of this spring in the toy guns and cannons with which they are supplied4 ,the spring is compressed by the ramrod1 and held in its place by a catch4 ,if a pellet be placed in the gun1 and the catch released by pulling the trigger1 the spring flies back to its former shape1 and drives the pellet4 ,an exactly similar spring is used in the well-known 8,needle-gun10 the spring driving a needle through the explosive mixture1 and so igniting the charge4 ,our brass instruments would be very badly off without the spiral spring1 which is placed under the pistons4 ,the elasticity allows the pistons to be pressed down1 and when the fingers are raised the pistons spring up again4 ,another form of this instrument is seen on the right of the ordinary spring4 ,this is used in the manufacture of spring mattresses and couches1 and is made thinner in the centre1 so as to allow of greater elasticity4 ,below them is the spring which is used for watches and clocks1 one end being fastened to the rim of the barrel1 and the other to the pivot4 ,when the latter is turned the spring becomes 8wound up10 and1 when released1 keeps the works going by pressing against them4 ,of the 8pall-and-ratchet0 wheel1 by which the movements are retarded1 we shall treat in another place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are a few figures of the ,spiral ,spring as seen in ,nature4 ,on the extreme left of the group is a spiral cell taken from the flower-stem of the ,water-lily4 ,as the reader will see1 it is composed of a number of fibres laid parallel to each other1 and twisted into a hollow spiral4 ,in order to exhibit its shape the better1 the spiral has been partially uncoiled4 ,on the extreme right is a corresponding spiral cell from the common ,lily1 in which the spring power is given by two fibres twisted in opposite directions4 ,the reader will now understand and admire the mechanism by which these plants attain their great strength and elasticity1 the stems being made of myriads of these spiral fibres4 ,the oval body on the upper part of the illustration is a poison-cell of a marine polyp1 and is given here as an example of an animal spiral spring1 the others all belonging to the vegetable world4 ,we shall see more of its structure a little further on1 and will not now examine it in detail4 ,the two remaining figures represent the remarkable objects called ,antherozoids1 i4e4 the living creatures of anthers4 ,they exist in vast numbers in the non-flowering plants1 and inhabit those parts which correspond with the anthers of the flowering plants4 ,when placed in water they have a curious way of coiling and twisting themselves spirally1 so as to make their way through the water in a tortuous1 but tolerably rapid1 course4 ,this movement is effected by the contraction and expansion of the spirally twisted filament4 ,the upper figure represents a group of ,antherozoids in their cells1 and the lower is a much more magnified figure of a single ,antherozoid as it appears when free1 and in the act of moving through the water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the accompanying illustration are many examples of ,spiral ,springs1 both natural and artificial4 ,we will take these in their order4 ,the upper left-hand figure represents the 8,buffer10 by which the carriages of railway trains are prevented from jarring against each other4 ,perhaps some of my readers may be old enough to remember the days of the old railway carriages that were connected by short chains1 and furnished with buffers that were merely padded4 ,as the train started a separate jerk was given to every carriage by the tightening of the chains1 and1 as it stopped1 all the carriages bumped against each other in a most unpleasant manner4 ,now1 however1 the buffers are furnished with powerful springs1 and are pressed strongly against each other by means of screw-bolts1 so that they form one continuous line4 ,in fact--and here is another analogy between ,art and ,nature--a train1 when properly made up1 bears a close resemblance to a human spine1 the carriages being analogous to the vertebr1 and the spring buffers to the elastic cartilages between the vertebr4 ,nowadays1 owing to this arrangement1 the whole train moves together1 and can be started and stopped so gently that the passengers are hardly aware of movement or stoppage4 ,for example1 one of my friends was in a train which came into collision with some obstacle4 ,the carriages in front were dashed to pieces1 and several of the passengers killed4 ,his carriage1 however1 which was nearly at the end of the train1 and had the benefit of all the springs1 was hardly shaken1 and the inmates did not know for some little time that an accident had occurred4 ,illustration3 ,,buffer ,,of ,,railway ,,engine4 ,,moss ,,discharging ,,spores4 ,,supporting ,,spring ,,of ,,railway ,,carriage4 ,,tentacle1 ,,with ,,springs4 ,,spring ,,solitaire4 ,,spring-,,cell ,,of ,,madrepore4 ,,spring-,,thread ,,of ,,sea-,,anemone4 ,,spring-,,cell ,,of ,,corynactis4 ,,bell ,,spring4 ,below the buffer is a ,wheel ,spring1 made exactly on the same principle1 but set perpendicularly instead of horizontally4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the two figures beneath the wheel spring represent an object very familiar to us1 namely1 a ,spring ,solitaire1 one figure showing it as open1 and the other as closed4 ,in this article the clasp is held in its place by a spring1 and is only released by pressure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the solitaire is a very prosaic application of the ,spiral ,spring1 namely1 that by which a house-bell is kept in vibration after the force of the pull has ceased1 and which renders the bell1 as ,dickens happily remarks1 so greedy to ring after it has been pulled4 ,i made and employed a spring of a similar character in closing the door of my parrot's cage4 ,polly is a wonderfully clever bird1 and a capital talker4 ,first1 she had a cage with upright bars1 two of which could be slid upwards by way of a door4 ,she soon found out the trick of the bars1 and used to escape1 carefully replacing the bars afterwards4 ,when she was transferred to a metal cage1 she discovered that the door slid upwards1 and began at her old tricks4 ,so ,i took a piece of galvanised iron wire1 coiled it into a spiral spring1 fastened one end to the upper part of the door1 and the other by a hook to a staple at the bottom of the cage4 ,consequently1 when ,polly lifted the door1 and loosened her grip for a fresh hold1 the door closed itself again4 ,so1 after awhile1 ,polly gave up the door1 and now never tries to open it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing to the upper right-hand corner of the illustration1 there is shown a portion of ,moss as it appears when magnified1 and discharging its spores4 ,when they are ripe a vast number of little spiral springs are let loose1 and shoot the sporules into the air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the moss are four figures1 which are1 in fact1 the same object differently magnified1 and seen from different points of view4 ,these peculiar organs are technically termed 8cnid10 from a ,greek word which signifies a nettle4 ,the appropriateness of the name we shall presently see4 ,i have already mentioned that the tentacles of various marine animals are furnished with poison-cells4 ,the object of these cells is to capture and kill the prey1 and the mode of doing so is very remarkable4 ,on the right and left of the illustration are two such bodies1 in which is seen a sort of elastic wire coiled spirally1 apparently without regularity1 but really possessing a most beautiful order4 ,that on the left is the poison-cell of a ,madrepore1 and the other is the same organ in a ,corynactis4 ,no sooner is the tentacle touched than the poison-cells are mechanically acted upon4 ,they are turned inside out1 and the coiled spring darts forth with wonderful violence4 ,slight as is the dart1 so fine that it cannot be seen except with the aid of a tolerably powerful microscope1 it is a terrible weapon4 ,although it is projected with sufficient force to bury itself to its base even through so tough an object as the human skin1 it could inflict but little injury1 and would1 indeed1 scarcely be felt4 ,but it carries with it a most irritant poison1 which is apparently contained in the little capsule4 ,these cnid are very plentiful in the tentacles of the ,stinging ,jelly-fish1 or ,stanger1 as it is often called1 and are charged with a terrible poison4 ,as is the case with all such poisons1 its effects differ according to the constitution of the being that is poisoned4 ,there are some persons1 for example1 who care no more for the sting of a bee than for the prick of a needle1 and there are those whom a single bee-sting will bring almost to the gates of death4 ,so with the tentacles of the ,stinging ,jelly-fish and those of the ,portuguese ,man-of-war1 and there are persons who are scarcely affected with the sting of the scorpion4 ,so it is with nettles4 ,when ,i was a boy at school it was thought necessary to wear an oak-leaf1 or at least a portion of an oak-leaf1 on the #bith of ,may1 and all who did not possess this talisman might be flogged with nettles by those who did4 ,as the school was situated in the north of ,england1 where the oak puts forth its leaves late in the season1 it was no easy matter to obtain a veritable oak-leaf1 and we used to take any leaf that we could procure1 and cut it round the edges into the similitude of a suitable oak-leaf4 ,the effect of the nettles upon the boys was most curiously diversified4 ,some cared nothing whatever for them2 others suffered sharp but brief pangs2 while others1 of whom ,i was one1 endured the most lancinating pain at the time1 and for hours afterwards a hot1 burning1 fevered skin1 and a heavy1 dull ache1 accompanied by throbbings of the brain so violent that it appeared as if the head would burst asunder at every heart-beat4 ,the fact of this inequality has been throughout life a valuable lesson to me1 i4e4 that a punishment which will nearly1 if not quite1 kill one man1 will be no punishment at all to another4 ,of course ,i cannot answer for the effects of these very minute cnid upon others1 but ,i can state that they nearly killed me1 and that if ,i had been forced to swim another hundred yards1 ,i should have collapsed1 sunk1 and had a coroner's jury return a verdict of 8,found drowned in consequence of cramp40 ,on me the effects were as follows3--,first a slight1 and then a severe1 tingling on the parts which had been struck4 ,then sharp1 darting pangs4 ,then a sudden shock as if a bullet had passed through the breast from one side to the other4 ,consequent collapse1 and suspension of the office of both heart and lungs4 ,i once had to walk nearly two miles after being stung by one of these dread animals1 and how often ,i fell before reaching my lodgings ,i dare not say1 but certainly once in every two hundred yards4 ,even after partial recovery ,i should not have known my own face4 ,it was that of an old and wearied man of seventy1 grey1 wrinkled1 and withered2 and many months elapsed before ,i felt myself sure that the weird-like bullet would not drive through my breast1 and leave me lying on the ground gasping and speechless4 ,these dreaded tentacles can sting as fiercely when separated from the animal as when they are conjoined to it1 as ,i can also testify from personal experience4 ,i have a natural alacrity in damaging myself1 and there is scarcely a representative bone in the body that ,i have not fractured or dislocated1 or both4 ,fortunately the cerebral vertebr have hitherto escaped4 ,i have broken the right leg1 right arm1 two ribs1 and right collar-bone2 dislocated the right ankle1 and smashed nearly every bone of the right hand4 ,at present1 the damage to the left side is restricted to two ribs2 and ,i hope that the ,genius of ,ossifraction may now be content with his work4 ,but ,i equally seem to have a natural affinity for the tentacles of the ,stangers1 which deliver their envenomed darts just as fiercely when they are separated from the ,medusa as when they are connected with it4 ,a curious example of this fact befell me in the present year 7#ahge74 ,seeing that there had been a steady southern gale1 which made ,lundy ,island and ,hartland and ,baggy ,points indiscernible1 ,i dreaded my old foes1 and1 instead of bathing from the 8,pebble ,ridge10 took to the great 8,nassau0 ,baths at ,westward ,ho4 ,i sadly missed the roll of the waves1 and the placid rapture of lying with outspread arms as the vast ,atlantic billows came rolling in1 flinging up the great grey boulders as if they were corks1 and letting them roll down the ridge again with a thundering1 and yet soothing1 sound4 ,three miles or more inland may the thunder of the ,pebble ,ridge be heard2 and at night1 even though a storm be raging1 tearing the leaves off the trees in whirling showers1 flinging great branches into the air like ostrich plumes1 and howling so that one person can hardly hear another speak1 the dull1 low1 continuous thunder of the ,pebble ,ridge is heard over all4 ,i have often remained awake at ,bideford1 simply on account of the deep roar of the ,pebble ,ridge1 as the rising tide rolled its vast waves along the coast from ,baggy ,point1 through ,westward ,ho and ,clovelly1 to ,hartland4 ,when there is a heavy sea1 the 8undertow0 of these waves is so great that even had no such things as ,stangers existed1 ,i should not have ventured upon the ,pebble ,ridge4 ,one of my friends1 a strong swimmer1 was nearly drowned off that ridge by the undertow2 and not long before ,i visited ,westward ,ho a promising young man lost his life within a few yards of that treacherous shore4 ,much against my will1 ,i went to the new bath1 which is always supplied with a running current of sea-water2 and ,i had hardly swum the length of the bath before ,i felt the familiar nettle-like sting in my foot4 ,fortunately it was only caused by a small fragment of a ,stanger's tentacle1 which had been severed from the animal and pumped into the bath1 and no harm ensued4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,spiral ,,and ,,ringed ,,tissues4--,,various ,,springs ,,in ,,nature ,,and ,,art4 ,spiral ,tissues1 and their ,structure and ,uses4--,the movable ,gas-lamp4--,elastic ,tubes4--,breathing-tubes of ,insects1 and their ,spiral ,wire4--,ringed ,tissues and their varied ,structure4--,ringed ,tissues applied to modern ,dress4--,chinese and ,japanese ,lanterns4--,proboscis of the ,house-fly4--,trachea of various ,animals4--,mutual ,tendency of ,rings and ,spirals towards each other4--,fibres of the ,yew-tree4--,diving and ,divers4--,principle of the ,diving-bell4--,how it is supplied with ,air4--,structure of the ,air-tubes4--,nests of the ,water-spider4--,diving by means of ,tubes4--,larva of the ,drone-fly1 and its ,mode of breathing4--,how to examine them4--,leaping ,springs4--,the ,skip-jack in ,nature and ,art4--,skip-jack or ,click ,beetles4--,the ,spring-tail1 ,grasshopper1 ,kangaroo1 ,gerboa1 and other ,jumping ,creatures4 ,,spiral ,,and ,,ringed ,,tissues4 ,we have now to consider the ,spiral ,tissue under another aspect1 i4e4 that of acting as the internal support of an exterior membrane4 ,ringed tissues are necessarily conjoined with the ,spiral1 as they both discharge the same office1 and in some cases merge almost imperceptibly into each other in the same specimens4 ,this is most beautifully shown in the proboscis of the common ,house-fly1 to which reference will presently be made4 ,the subject is so large that only a comparatively small selection of examples can be made1 the greater number belonging to ,nature1 and not to ,art4 ,we will first take the common movable ,gas-lamp1 with its accompanying tube4 ,it is at present the tube of which we have to treat1 the gas itself being reserved for a future page4 ,it is necessary that1 in order to enable the lamp to be moved from one spot to another1 the tube through which the gas passes must be so constructed that if it be bent1 or even coiled1 it retains its form1 and does not become flattened4 ,in order to obtain this object1 a very long thin wire is coiled spirally to a suitable length4 ,over this wire is sewn the casing of the tube1 which is afterwards made waterproof with elastic varnish4 ,a still simpler mode is by enclosing a spiral wire within a tube of vulcanised india-rubber4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that by the elasticity of the spiral wire the tube must always retain its shape1 no matter how much it may be bent4 ,on the right hand of the illustration are shown the movable ,gas-lamp and tube1 and a portion of the latter is given with its spiral wire partially unwound1 in order to show its structure4 ,illustration3 ,,trachea ,,of ,,insect1 ,,with ,,its ,,spiral ,,thread4 ,illustration3 ,,tube ,,of ,,gas-,,lamp1 ,,with ,,its ,,spiral ,,wire4 ,the large tubes which convey air to divers are made in the same manner1 as they would not only succumb to the pressure of the water without the wire1 but could not be dragged over obstacles or round corners without collapsing4 ,it often happens that a diver is obliged1 when surveying a sunken ship1 to traverse the whole of her interior1 descending ladder after ladder1 and entering every cabin in the ship4 ,this could not be done but for the internal coil of wire within the tube4 ,reference will presently be made to the subject of diving4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand is seen an object that looks something like a branch hollowed very thin4 ,it is a magnified view of part of the ,trachea or breathing-tube through which air is conveyed into the system of an insect4 ,these breathing-tubes ramify to every portion of the body of an insect1 even penetrating to the extremities of the antenn1 the wings1 and the legs4 ,it is obvious that as these organs are in tolerably constant movement1 and the legs are much bent at every joint by the action of walking1 the air-tubes which run through them must possess the same qualities as those of the gas-lamp and diver4 ,if one of these trache be removed and placed under the microscope1 it will be seen to be constructed in a manner exactly similar to that which has been described4 ,within the membrane which forms the tube proper there is a very fine1 but very strong thread1 which is coiled exactly like the wire spring4 ,it is not attached to the membrane1 and so strong is it that1 although it is all but invisible to the naked eye1 it can be drawn out as shown in the left-hand figure of the illustration4 ,if laid on a piece of glass1 it immediately tries to recoil itself1 and for some little time will twist and curl about as if it were alive4 ,illustration3 ,,trachea ,,of ,,dragon-,,fly ,,larva4 ,illustration3 ,,tube ,,of ,,hookah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the above illustration are two similar examples of the spiral thread with a flexible tube4 ,the right-hand figure represents one of the many forms of the water-pipe1 whether known as ,hookah1 ,narghile1 or ,hubble-bubble4 ,in the simpler forms of this pipe1 such as the latter1 the inhaling-tube is quite straight1 and the bowl is held in the hands of the smoker4 ,in the more refined pipe1 however1 the tube is very long1 flexible1 and made elastic by an inner spiral wire4 ,perhaps the reader may remember that the larva of the ,dragon-fly is a most remarkable creature in consequence of its methods of propulsion and respiration4 ,the water is taken into the interior of the body through a peculiarly formed aperture1 and then ejected with such violence as to drive the body forward on the same principle as that which causes a rocket to ascend4 ,the figure on the left hand of the illustration is a representation of the abdomen of this larva rather magnified1 and opened so as to show the interior4 ,on either side run the two principal breathing-tubes1 through the delicate membranes of which the spiral thread can plainly be seen4 ,these tubes are connected with a smaller set1 and they with a still smaller1 so that at last they are of such tenuity that they can scarcely be distinguished without the use of a glass4 ,but1 however small they may be1 they are always fitted with the spiral thread4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to the cases where the membrane is supported by a series of rings1 and not by a single spiral wire4 ,in the right-hand division of the illustration are two specimens of objects which shall be nameless1 but which were drawn per special favour at a milliner's shop4 ,although the day has now happily gone by when the larger object was in general wear1 and seemed to be irrepressively increasing in dimensions1 certain modifications of it1 under various names1 have made their appearance in almost every book of fashions and every large milliner's shop4 ,here we have the external membrane made of linen1 calico1 merino1 or similar material1 distended by a number of elastic rings set at tolerably even distances from each other4 ,the two small objects represent the handy little paper lanterns so common in ,china and ,japan4 ,they are composed of an external coat of tough tissue paper1 so thin that it allows the light to pass through it with tolerable freedom1 and of an internal series of elastic rings1 which not only support it and preserve its cylindrical shape1 but allow it to be folded up flat when not wanted4 ,i possess a singularly ingenious lantern of this kind1 made in ,japan1 and displaying the thoroughness of work which characterizes that nation4 ,it is five inches in diameter1 and the lantern itself is affixed at either end to a circular wooden cap the upper fitting over the lower4 ,consequently1 when the lantern is shut1 it is entirely enclosed between these two caps1 which effectually preserve it from harm4 ,it is delicately finished1 and has no less than thirty rings1 made of very narrow strips of bamboo4 ,the upper cap has a little trap-door through which the candle can be admitted and trimmed1 and in its centre is a small round hole for the passage of air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the left-hand division of the illustration are shown several examples of ringed and spiral tissues belonging to the vegetable world1 in which the principle is exactly the same as that of the ,chinese lantern1 c4 ,that on the right hand is an example of simple rings within a membrane4 ,the central figure shows a double spiral1 which produces very much the appearance of a series of rings2 and on the extreme left is an interesting example which shows the transition in the internal supports from spirals to rings4 ,illustration3 ,,spiral ,,and ,,ringed ,,fibre 7,,vegetable74 ,illustration3 ,,nameless ,,objects4 ,illustration3 ,,paper ,,lanterns4 ,i have already mentioned that the proboscis of the ,house-fly exhibits this modification4 ,if one of these objects be placed under a moderate power microscope--the half-inch is quite enough--and examined1 it will be seen that there are some large trache1 just like those of the ,dragon-fly larva1 on each side of the proboscis1 and that1 where the end is widened and flattened into a sort of disc1 their place is taken by a set of very much smaller trache1 coming nearly to a point1 and each being supported internally by a series of incomplete rings1 shaped very much like the letter ,c4 ,a slide containing this object well mounted can be purchased at any optician's for a shilling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the trachea1 or windpipe1 as we call it1 of all vertebrate animals1 man included1 is formed on exactly the same principle1 as any one may see by going to a butcher's shop1 and looking at the trachea1 or windpipe1 by which the lungs1 or 8lights10 as they are called1 are suspended4 ,were it not for this structure1 we should not be able to bend our necks or turn our heads4 ,illustration3 ,,ox4 ,illustration3 ,,pig4 ,illustration3 ,,goose4 ,the accompanying illustration shows the trache of three well-known creatures4 ,the left-hand figure is the trachea of an ,ox1 the central figure that of a ,pig1 and the right-hand figure that of a ,goose4 ,mr4 ,tuffen ,west1 who made the drawings1 sent with them the following remarks3-- 8,the trache of animals furnish some very interesting examples of variation in the form and arrangement of the rings4 ,their purpose1 perhaps1 one can but guess at in some cases2 but doubtless1 as being works of the ,master ,builder1 careful study would be repaid4 8,in the ,ox the rings are very strong and close1 and in form like a horse-shoe with the ends approximated4 8,in the ,pig the incomplete rings are broad at one part1 and narrow on the opposite side1 with a tendency to spiral arrangement4 ,i imagine that this would make a very rigid tube1 and1 indeed1 it feels so in the hand4 8,then1 in the ,goose1 the narrowed lower part is that which is figured just before the trachea reaches the sternum4 ,the 7complete7 rings are twice as broad in one half as in the other1 and by the alternate disposition of these differing widths1 a tube is formed of great flexibility fore and aft1 but almost absolutely rigid in the lateral direction4 ,this seems to be so marked an evidence of design as to be calculated to greatly raise our admiration40 ,illustration3 ,,ringed ,,tissues ,,of ,,sugar-,,cane ,illustration3 ,,vegetable ,,spiral ,,tissues ,,tending ,,to ,,rings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we have seen several examples of ringed tissues tending to the spiral form1 and it is but natural that we should expect to find spiral tissues tending to the ring4 ,in the accompanying illustration the two left-hand figures represent the curiously modified ringed tissue which is to be found in the sugar-cane1 the left-hand figure being much more magnified than the other4 ,the other figures represent four examples of vegetable spiral tissues1 in which it will be seen that there is a tendency to form rings1 and that if a number of rings were substituted for the spiral1 and the object viewed in a slanting direction1 it would be almost impossible to distinguish between the ring and the spiral4 ,among the most remarkable of these examples are the two right-hand figures4 ,that on the extreme right represents a spiral vessel taken from the so-called root1 or 8rhizome10 of the ,water-lily1 and the other is a similar vessel taken from a branch of the ,yew-tree4 ,it has been suggested that to this spiral structure is due the proverbial elasticity of the yew-tree1 which has from time immemorial rendered it the best wood for the manufacture of bows4 ,,diving ,,and ,,divers4 ,it has already been mentioned that the flexible tubes used by modern divers are constructed on the model of several structures belonging to the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,we will now see how they are utilised4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the earlier stages of the diver's art the ,diving-bell afforded the only means of gaining access to the bed of the sea1 even in comparatively shallow waters4 ,the mode in which this result was obtained was simple enough1 and though it carried with it the germs of still greater improvements1 was but limited and uncertain in its action4 ,the reader is probably aware that if a vessel be filled with air1 no liquid can obtain admittance until a corresponding amount of air be set free4 ,suppose1 for example1 that an empty tumbler be inserted over a basin of very clean water1 and pressed downwards1 it will be found that scarcely any water will enter it1 the air having taken up all the available space1 and only allowing as much space as may be accounted for by its faculty of compression4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that if an enlarged tumbler could be lowered to the bed of the sea1 a man might be enclosed within it1 and for a time be able to support life by means of the air contained within the 8bell10 as this enlarged tumbler was popularly called4 ,it is equally evident that within a short time the air within the bell must be exhausted1 and that1 unless a fresh supply could be introduced1 the diver within the bell would be as effectively drowned as if there were no bell at all4 ,the accompanying illustration is a kind of chart1 so to speak1 of the mode in which air was formerly supplied to the bell4 ,on the right hand is seen a section of the ,diving-bell itself1 together with the seat on which the divers can rest4 ,there is also an escape-valve at the top of the bell1 by which the vitiated air can pass away2 but1 as it is not essential to the subject in hand1 and is rather complicated in structure1 it has been omitted4 ,immediately on the left of the bell is a cask1 to which several heavy weights are attached4 ,this cask contained compressed air1 and1 after it was lowered by the side of the bell1 the end of the flexible tube was taken into the bell1 the tap turned1 and the compressed air rushed into the bell1 taking the place of that which had been exhausted by respiration1 and was allowed to pass through the escape-valve4 ,i may mention that the divers unexpectedly discovered that1 when they were breathing compressed air1 they could dispense with respiration for a wonderfully long time1 the amount of oxygen taken in at a single breath being enough to renovate the blood more than could be done by several ordinary inspirations4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,water-,,spiders4 ,illustration3 ,,diving-,,bell4 ,on the left hand of the illustration is seen a sketch of the nest of the now familiar ,water-spider 7,argyronetra aquatica71 taken from some specimens in my possession4 ,the ,water-spider is really a remarkable being4 ,itself a denizen of air1 breathing our earthly atmosphere just as we do1 and as capable of being drowned as ourselves1 it nevertheless passes nearly the whole of its existence under water1 and in that strange locality lays its eggs and rears its young4 ,how this wonderful feat is performed we shall now see4 ,when the female ,water-spider wishes to deposit her eggs1 she looks out for a suitable locality1 and1 being a good diver1 tests the various aquatic herbage until she has found a favourable spot1 and then sets to work on her remarkable nest1 which ,i believe is quite original in zoology4 ,after stretching a few stout threads by way of a scaffolding1 she attaches to the plant a small silken cell1 shaped very much like an acorn1 but not so large4 ,ascending to the surface of the water1 she contrives to clasp a bubble of air between her last pair of legs1 and1 laden with this airy treasure1 dives below4 ,as soon as she has reached the entrance to the cell1 which is always below1 she loosens her hold of the air-bubble4 ,it at once rises into the cell1 and expels a proportionate amount of water4 ,not many of these journeys are required before the nest is filled with air1 and then the diminutive architect spends the greater part of its time in holding on to the mouth of the little diving-bell1 and supporting life by means of the air within it4 ,this nest1 as the reader will see1 is an exact representation of the various diving schemes in which air-bells are the chief portions of the machinery1 although the air is conducted into them after a different fashion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to another mode of diving1 in which the bell is practically superseded by the flexible tube1 which allows to the diver far more range than can be obtained by the bell4 ,in this case the diver wears a peculiar dress1 the chief part of which is a helmet so constructed that air can be introduced to it from above the surface of the water1 and1 after respiration1 can escape by means of a valve4 ,air is pumped into the tube by assistants above water1 and1 as the tube is long and elastic1 the diver can move about with considerable freedom4 ,as is the case with the diving-bell1 the diver's tube is strengthened by an internal spiral wire1 so that it is always open1 however it may be bent or twisted4 ,the right-hand figure of the illustration represents the diver examining part of a sunken vessel4 ,the tube through which he breathes is seen passing to the surface of the water1 and so is the line by which he gives his signals to his comrades above4 ,in his hand he holds a lamp which can burn for a limited time1 being connected by a smaller but similarly constructed tube to a vessel of compressed air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the same illustration are shown the curious ,rat-tail ,maggots1 as they are popularly called4 ,they are the larv of the common ,drone-fly 7,eristalis tenax71 which is so common towards the end of summer1 and looks so curiously like a bee4 ,illustration3 ,,rat-,,tailed ,,maggots4 ,illustration3 ,,diver ,,with ,,air-,,tube4 ,these creatures pass their larval life buried in the mud and below the surface of the water1 and yet are obliged to breathe atmospheric air4 ,this they do by means of the long appendages which have gained for them the name of ,rat-tails4 ,these 8tails0 are very elastic1 and are capable of elongation and contraction to a wonderful extent4 ,when the creature is undisturbed1 it lies buried in the mud with its head downwards1 and its tail extended so that it reaches the surface of the water4 ,within this tail are two air-tubes1 which are connected with the principal trache1 which have already been mentioned4 ,they are wonderfully elastic1 and1 when the tail is extended to its utmost limit1 are nearly straight4 ,when1 however1 the tail is contracted1 the tubes become self-coiled by their own elasticity1 and shrink into the base of the tail4 ,as the tail is very transparent1 it is easy to see how these movements are conducted4 ,the larv1 which may be found in almost any stagnant water1 should be placed in a tall and narrow glass4 ,some mud should be placed at the bottom of the glass1 which should then be filled with water to the depth of three inches or so4 ,when the mud has quite subsided1 and the water become clear1 the long slender tails of the larv will be seen so elongated that their tips reach just above the surface of the water4 ,a magnifying-glass will easily show the two tubes within the tail4 ,let the glass be but slightly tapped1 and all the tail is withdrawn in a moment1 so as to be out of reach of external danger4 ,the magnifying-glass will then show the two tubes lying contracted in the base of the tail1 and taking astonishingly little space1 considering the amount of elongation which they can sustain4 ,and1 on examining the various bends and curves of the tubes1 the value and power of the spiral spring will at once be seen4 ,true1 they are very small1 but in ,nature all things go by comparison1 and our whole earth itself is as a grain of sand upon the seashore among the grandeurs of the visible universe4 ,,the ,,leaping ,,spring4 ,the last of the springs which can be mentioned in this work are those which are used for leaping purposes4 ,the figure on the right hand represents the common ,spring-jack or ,skip-jack with which children are always so much amused4 ,it consists of a flattened piece of wood called the 8tongue10 which is inserted into a twisted string1 so that it forms a tolerably powerful spring4 ,when twisted round1 and then suddenly released1 it strikes against the ground with such force that the whole machine is thrown into the air4 ,sometimes the ,skip-jack is made of a fowl's merrythought1 as shown in the illustration2 sometimes of the breast-bone of a goose2 and sometimes of a piece of wood cut into the semblance of a frog1 and painted4 ,in all cases1 however1 the machinery is practically the same4 ,i may mention en passant that these frog ,skip-jacks are most acceptable presents to savage chiefs in many parts of the world1 and that the most powerful and venerable warriors are as delighted with these toys as any ,european child of six years old4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we will turn to ,nature1 and see what she has in the way of ,skip-jacks4 ,all entomologists will at once have before their minds the vast groups of ,skip-jack ,beetles1 technically termed ,elaterid1 and also known as ,click-beetles1 from the sharp clicking sound which they produce when in the execution of their curious gymnastics4 ,to this group belong the fire-flies of warm countries1 and it may be mentioned that the larv of some of our species are too familiar to the agriculturist under the name 8wireworm40 ,illustration3 ,,skip-,,jack ,,beetle4 ,,grasshopper4 ,illustration3 ,,skip-,,jack4 ,all these beetles have very short legs and very long bodies1 so that if they should fall on their backs on a smooth surface1 they could not recover themselves4 ,now1 as they1 when discovered1 instinctively try to save themselves by falling to the ground1 it is evident that some means must be used to enable them to regain their position4 ,this is found in a most curious apparatus4 ,attached to the 8prothorax0 is a rather long1 pointed1 and very elastic projection exactly corresponding with the tongue of the ,skip-jack4 ,the end of this tongue fits into a groove in the 8sternum40 ,when the beetle falls on its back1 it curves its body as shown in the illustration1 the tongue thus being freed from its groove4 ,it then smartly springs the tongue back into its place with the sharp clicking sound already referred to1 and does so with such force that it leaps into the air to some height4 ,generally it falls on its feet1 but if it should fail1 it repeats the process4 ,if one of these beetles be laid on a plate or similar smooth surface1 it will skip ten or twelve times without stopping1 and after a short rest will begin again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are some curious little beings1 popularly called ,spring-tails1 which afford excellent examples of the ,leaping ,spring4 ,their exact place in the system of ,nature is rather uncertain1 some zoologists considering them as insects1 while strict entomologists reject them4 ,they are very small1 and mostly of a darkish brown colour4 ,plenty of them may be found under stones in damp spots1 under bark1 and in similar localities1 though they are often found in houses1 and have frequently traversed the paper on which ,i have been writing this book4 ,cellars are favourite localities of theirs1 and a little flour sprinkled on a plate or piece of paper in a cellar is tolerably sure to attract them4 ,although they are certainly not more than the fifteenth of an inch in length1 they may be at once recognised by their peculiar attitude1 which very much resembles that of a dog or cat in its usual sitting posture4 ,as long as they are not disturbed they crawl about in a quiet manner1 but if touched1 or even alarmed1 they suddenly make a tremendous leap1 propelling themselves by means of a forked and elastic tail1 doubled under their bodies1 and acting just like the tongue of a ,skip-jack4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the ,skip-jack ,beetle is shown the common ,grasshopper1 as an example of muscular leaping springs4 ,we all know what wonderful leaps the ,grasshopper1 ,cricket1 and all their kin can make1 the leaping movement being evidently intended more as a means of defence than as an ordinary mode of locomotion4 ,the same may be observed in the ,kangaroos and ,gerboas1 which are content to use an ordinary walking pace when undisturbed1 but when alarmed can make tremendous leaps1 and outstrip almost any pursuer4 ,even in ,man1 the ,horse1 the ,dog1 c41 which are most essentially leaping animals1 the same principle is employed1 the legs being used as muscular springs acted upon by the will of the owner4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,food ,,and ,,comfort4 ,parents and their ,young4--,milk1 and the various ,ways of obtaining and using it4--,the ,kafir ,tribes and ,clotted ,milk4--,the ,tonga ,islanders4--,the ,tartars4--,ants and ,aphides4--,honey-dew4--,milch ,cows in ,insect-land4--,fish-tanks and ,aquaria4--,bill of the ,pelican4--,eggs and ,chickens4--,the ,hen-coop4--,nest of ,termite4--,workers and ,queen4--,egg-hatching4--,the ,hen and her ,young4--,artificial ,egg-hatching ,machine4--,the ,snake and her ,eggs4--,the ,gad-fly and ,bot-fly4--,preservation of ,provisions4--,hanging ,meat4--,eggs of the ,lace-wing ,fly4--,spider-eggs4--,the ,butcher's ,hook and the ,claws of the ,sloth4--,bats and ,insects4 ,this subject is necessarily a very large one1 and ,i shall1 in consequence1 be obliged to compress it1 though it might well make a separate work by itself4 ,for ,food represents the very existence of ,man1 considered as one of the animal world2 and ,comfort represents the progress of civilisation1 by which man leaves day by day his savage and solitary nature behind him1 and becomes social1 moral1 and elevated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,putting aside the instinct which forces the parent to feed the young without external assistance1 we come to those cases where the parent has to seek food which the offspring could not have found for itself1 and often to prepare it for the use of the offspring4 ,in the greater part of the world1 the milk of various animals is the staple of food1 not only for children1 but adults2 and the 8milk diet10 as it is called1 is strongly urged by many physicians of the present day4 ,the ,kafir tribes1 for example1 a wonderfully powerful race of men1 live almost wholly on sour milk1 mixed with maize flour1 never eating such valuable animals as kine except on great occasions4 ,yet the natives of the ,tonga ,islands think that nothing can be more disgusting than for a human being to drink the milk of a cow4 ,how the operation of milking is conducted we need not say1 whether it be performed on the cow as with most nations1 or the ass in case of need with ourselves1 or the mare as with the ,tartars1 or the goat and sheep in various parts of the world4 ,the milk of the sheep1 by the way1 is singularly rich and nourishing4 ,suffice it to say that the animals which are to be milked are kept for that purpose1 and that the touch of the human hand1 rightly applied1 induces the animal to part with its milky stores4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature there is an exact parallel4 ,it has long been known that some species of ,ants are in the habit of acting in exactly the same manner as ourselves1 in not only extracting a nutritious liquid from other insects1 but watching and tending those which furnish their daily food just as a good dairyman watches and tends his cows4 ,illustration3 ,,ant ,,and ,,aphis4 ,illustration3 ,,milking ,,cow4 ,the ,ants1 being insects1 would naturally require insect cows1 and such are to be found in the ,aphides1 of which mention has already been made4 ,these insects are furnished with a pair of very small tubercles near the end of the abdomen1 and from them flows that sweet liquid which is so familiar to us under the name of 8honey-dew40 ,for centuries no one knew the source of the sweet honey-dew which attracted all the bees of the neighbourhood to the tree on whose leaves it was sprinkled1 sometimes in patches1 and sometimes coating them with a thin shining coat1 as if varnished4 ,at last it was discovered that the honey-dew is1 in fact1 the liquid exudations from these tubercles upon the backs of the aphides1 and that the ants feed regularly upon it4 ,not only do they lick up the honey-dew that has fallen from the ants1 but they milk them1 so to speak1 exactly as a dairymaid milks a cow4 ,with their antenn the ants pat and stroke the tubercles of the aphides1 and in a few seconds a drop of pellucid liquid appears at the extremity4 ,this is the honey-dew1 and is at once lapped up by the ant1 which proceeds from one aphis to another until it has obtained its fill of the sweet food4 ,how the ants carry off the aphides1 cherish and guard them for the sake of their honey-dew1 is a story too long to be told1 but it is well known among entomologists4 ,our ,english ants are1 however1 totally eclipsed by a ,mexican species1 which not only collects honey1 but stores it in the bodies of its kindred4 ,illustration3 ,,pelican4 ,illustration3 ,,fish-,,tank4 ,after taking precautions that no food can escape1 the ants feed with their sweet store their companion1 who is thus doomed to pass the remainder of life as a mere honey-cell4 ,the abdomen becomes spherical1 smooth1 and so transparent that the honey can be seen within it4 ,it is quite air-tight1 and so preserves the fragrance of the honey until it is wanted4 ,so plentiful are these honey-ants1 that they are an article of commerce1 and are sold by measure for the purpose of making a sort of mead4 ,there are many of them in the ,british ,museum1 with the honey still within their transparent bodies1 and they are well worth seeing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the accompanying illustration represents the artificial and natural way of preserving food in an uninjured state4 ,the right-hand figure is that of an ordinary glass aquarium1 such as was in general use until the properties of air and water were better understood1 and it still need not be rejected4 ,it is simply a vessel in which water is contained1 so that aquatic or marine animals may be able to live in it for some time4 ,there are infinite varieties of the 8,fish-tank10 if we may so call it1 the chief of which is the 8well10 which is so extensively used in bringing fish to market4 ,through the bottom of the boat projects a sort of box pierced with holes1 so that the water has free access and egress4 ,the sides of the box are so high that there is no fear of the water rising into the boat4 ,when fish are taken1 they are thrown into the well1 and there can live until they are wanted for sale4 ,also1 as all know who are acquainted with river-banks or seashores1 fishermen have similar wells detached from the boats1 and partly or entirely sunk in the water4 ,in them they keep their stock1 and1 when a customer arrives1 they simply draw the box ashore1 so that the water runs out1 select what fish they choose1 and replace the box in the water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now1 the power of conveying fish to some distance without destroying life has for countless ages been possessed by the ,pelican1 one of which birds is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,as every one knows1 the chief peculiarity of this bird is the large and very elastic membrane of the lower jaw4 ,when not in use1 it contracts by its own elasticity1 and the bill looks quite slender1 as well as long4 ,but1 when distended with water and fish1 it presents the appearance shown in the illustration4 ,any one who wishes to see the exercise of this power can do so by attending the ,zoological ,gardens1 and visiting the ,pelicans at feeding-time1 and an hour or two before it4 ,they hardly seem to be the same birds4 ,some years ago ,i made a series of sketches of the same ,pelican under different circumstances1 and it is scarcely possible to believe that they could be1 as they are1 truthful representations of the same bird4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the right-hand figure of the next illustration requires no comment1 as it simply represents the ordinary hen-coop4 ,as everybody is aware1 the object of the coop is to keep the hen within its bars1 while the little chicks can run in and out as they choose1 and the coop is made so as to prevent the egress of the mother1 while the offspring find no difficulty in escaping4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now1 in the world of insects we find an exactly analogous structure4 ,as is the case with many hymenopterous insects1 there is in the nest of the ,termite1 or ,white ,ant1 as it is popularly called1 a single perfect female1 which is the mother of the nest4 ,a similar arrangement occurs in the common hive-bee1 but there is a notable distinction between the queen ,bee and the queen ,termite1 the latter belonging to the neuropterous order4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,termite ,,in ,,her ,,cell4 ,illustration3 ,,hen ,,in ,,her ,,coop4 ,the former is unconfined1 and moves about from cell to cell1 depositing her eggs within them1 and taking the greatest pains that they occupy exactly their proper place within the cell4 ,the latter never moves after she has begun to deposit eggs1 but remains motionless in the same spot1 and allows her subordinates to dispose of the eggs which she lays4 ,how this end is achieved will now be seen4 ,the reader is probably aware that the queen ,termite attains to enormous dimensions1 her head1 thorax1 and legs retaining their normal size1 but the abdomen becoming several inches in length1 and thick in proportion4 ,the legs are necessarily unable to move so vast a body1 and in order that so important a personage should not receive injury1 a large oval cell is built around her1 from which she never moves for the rest of her life4 ,she has but one duty1 namely1 to lay eggs1 and so is fed that she may have strength to produce them4 ,she is simply passive1 and never even sees her eggs1 much less has care of her young4 ,all the care of guarding and nurturing the eggs and young falls upon the worker ,termites4 ,these insects are quite small1 about the size of our common ,wood-ant4 ,when they build the clay cell around their queen1 they bore a number of holes along the sides1 which are just large enough to allow the workers to pass freely1 but which effectually exclude the soldier ,termites1 or any foes larger than themselves4 ,through these apertures streams of workers are continually passing--some entering the cell to fetch the eggs1 and others coming out with eggs carried carefully in their jaws4 ,illustration3 8,,wurbles0 ,,of ,,strus4 ,illustration3 ,,egg-,,hatching ,,machine4 ,thus1 as the reader will see1 we have in ,nature an exact analogy of ,art1 the ,termite queen being confined within her cell exactly as is the hen within the coop4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,being on the subject of eggs and egg-hatching1 we will take another case in which ,art has acknowledgedly followed ,nature4 ,we all know that eggs are developed into life by means of well-regulated heat1 and that with birds the general rule is1 that the needful heat is supplied by the parent bird1 who sits upon them for a certain time1 until the young birds make their appearance in the world4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 the aid of the parent bird is quite sufficient2 but when the progress of civilisation requires that the eggs of poultry should be hatched in numbers too great for the powers of the parent bird1 ,man has been fain to imitate ,nature1 and to invent machines whereby eggs can be hatched by artificial heat1 regulated to the temperature of the hen's body4 ,various as are these machines in detail1 they are all alike in principle1 and the right-hand figure of the accompanying illustration will give a fair idea of the method which is employed4 ,a box is fitted up with trays1 on which the eggs are arranged4 ,at the bottom of the box there is the heat-producing apparatus1 which can be regulated at pleasure4 ,the trays of eggs can be moved from one part of the box to another1 so as to insure the right amount of heat1 and1 if this process be only carefully carried out1 the young chicks emerge from the eggs exactly as they would have done if the hen had sat upon them4 ,this machine is sometimes called the ,artificial ,mother1 and it is worthy of notice that it is no modern invention1 the ancient ,egyptians having used it more than three thousand years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,with regard to ,nature1 it would have been simple enough to give one illustration of a bird sitting on her eggs1 but ,i have preferred to select a different subject1 as more relevant to the question of artificial heat4 ,there is an insect to which we have had several occasions of reference1 namely1 the ,wurble-fly of the ox1 scientifically known as strus bovis4 ,the eggs of this insect are deposited in the skin of the ox1 and are there hatched by the heat of the animal4 ,in proportion as the larva grows1 it raises lumps upon the skin1 these being practically the roofs of the artificial home4 ,there are several other species of the same genus1 all of which have their eggs hatched by the heat of the animals on which they are placed4 ,there are1 for example1 the common ,bot-fly 7strus equi71 whose eggs are hatched in the interior of the horse1 and the ,sheep-fly 7strus ovis71 whose eggs are hatched in the head of the sheep4 ,the common ,snake leaves her eggs to be hatched in the artificial heat produced by decaying vegetable matter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we now come to the preservation of provisions4 ,in the first place1 we have the well-known 8cache0 of ,northern ,america--i4e4 a spot wherein provisions are hidden1 and their locality only marked by signs intelligible to those for whose use they are intended4 ,it is1 perhaps1 hardly necessary to mention that many creatures--such as the dog1 the squirrel1 and most of the crow tribe--are in the habit of concealing provisions for future use4 ,illustration3 ,,spider-,,nests4 ,illustration3 ,,eggs ,,of ,,lace-,,wing ,,fly4 ,illustration3 ,,spider-,,nest4 ,illustration3 ,,provisions ,,hung ,,to ,,tree ,,branch4 ,in those parts of the world1 however1 where the rights of hunters are acknowledged1 any one who kills a deer1 or other animal of chase1 and is not able to carry off the entire body1 can preserve it for his own use4 ,he simply cuts it up in hunter fashion1 and hangs the various portions to branches of trees1 where they are out of the reach of wild beasts4 ,stores like these1 such as are shown in the illustration1 are always respected1 and no hunter would dream of helping himself to the game which was killed and dressed by another4 ,beasts of prey1 however1 cannot be expected to be so punctilious1 and in consequence the hunters hang their meat to branches which cannot be reached4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature we find many similar examples1 one or two of which are given on the left hand of the illustration4 ,in the centre is seen a group of eggs of the ,lace-wing ,fly 7,hemerobius71 so called on account of the delicate1 lace-like structure of its beautiful pale green wings4 ,when the female lays her eggs she always chooses a slight twig1 and upon it deposits a little drop of a slimy consistence4 ,she then draws out this drop into a thread1 which hardens as it is brought into contact with the air4 ,at the extreme end of the thread she places an egg1 which is thus kept at some height above the ground1 and defies the approach of inimical insects4 ,the eggs1 as well as the stalks1 are perfectly white1 and have so singular a resemblance to mosses1 that for many years they were actually classed and figured as such4 ,these egg-groups are plentiful enough1 if the observer only knows where to look for them4 ,i have several of them in my collection1 and have found that nearly every one who sees them for the first time takes them for mosses4 ,i never myself saw the pretty insect lay its eggs1 and for the description am indebted to ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,butler1 of the ,british ,museum1 who has kept them and watched their habits4 ,the objects on either side of the ,lace-wing ,fly's eggs are egg-groups of certain spiders1 suspended by threads from branches4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,still more remarkable instance of unconscious imitation may be found in the two objects in the accompanying illustration4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that the right-hand figure represents a portion of the arrangement by which a butcher hangs up his meat out of harm's way until it is wanted4 ,the hooks in question are simply formed into a double curve1 like the letter ,s1 and can be slid along the horizontal bar without any danger of falling4 ,now1 in the common ,sloth we have an exact prototype of the butcher's hook4 ,the ,sloth passes the whole of its life in the remarkable attitude which is shown in the illustration4 ,it lives among the branches--not on them1 but under them--its claws being long and curved1 just like a butcher's hook4 ,i have often watched the animal traversing the branches1 and have been greatly struck with the accurately picturesque description of the late ,mr4 ,waterton1 who was the first to discover the real character of the ,sloth4 ,it was he who found out that the previous ideas as to the ,sloth's mode of life were utterly erroneous1 and that1 instead of being a sort of bungle1 the ,sloth was as perfect in its way1 and as well fitted for its mode of life1 as the lion or tiger4 ,he discovered that the animal always hung from the branches1 as shown in the illustration4 ,in fact1 as ,sydney ,smith remarked in his witty review of 8,waterton's ,wanderings10 the ,sloth passes his whole life in suspense1 8like a young clergyman distantly related to a bishop40 ,illustration3 ,,sloth4 ,illustration3 ,,butchers' ,,hooks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are many other creatures which afford similar examples1 though perhaps none are so striking as the ,sloth4 ,for instance1 there are the whole tribe of ,bats1 which1 by means of the curved claws attached to their hind-feet1 can hang themselves head downwards in the open air1 and even swing in wind1 without the least fear of falling4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,domestic ,,comfort4 ,how to make ,home comfortable4--,the ,bed in its various ,forms4--,the ,feather ,bed of ,man4--,the ,eider-duck and her ,plumage4--,the ,rabbit and her ,down4--,the ,long-tailed ,titmouse and her wonderful ,nest4--,the ,hammock of civilised ,man and ,savage4--,the ,sailor's ,canvas ,hammock4--,the ,string ,hammock of tropical ,america4--,nest of the ,pensile ,oriole4--,silken ,hammock of the ,tiger-moth and other ,insects4--,the ,mat ,bed4--,cocoa-nut ,matting4--,the ,robber-crab and its ,bed4--,strength and ,uses of the ,cocoa-nut ,fibre4--,the ,surgeon's 8,cradle0 and the ,pupa of ,tabanus4--,the ,art of ,sewing and the ,tailor-bird4--,principle of the ,umbrella and its ,original ,use4--,natural ,umbrella on the ,rosemary4--,servants and ,slaves1 and the ,distinction between them4--,the ,use of ,slaves in hot ,countries4--,slavery in the ,insect ,world4--,the ,ants and their ,slaves4--,ornamental ,gardening and ,pleasure-grounds4--,the ,hanging ,gardens of ,babylon4--,the ,bower-birds and their ,pleasure-grounds4 ,we now come to a different branch of the same subject1 namely1 the means by which our dwellings are rendered comfortable4 ,after having procured a dwelling which can withstand the elements1 we next look for a bed on which to repose1 and which will ease the limbs and brain1 wearied by the toils of the day4 ,allusion has already been made to the ordinary feather bed and its multitudinous natural springs4 ,we now have to see how the various kinds of beds are anticipated in ,nature1 and will begin with the feather bed4 ,as to our own beds1 nothing need be said about objects so familiar1 although1 in order to preserve the parallelism1 it is necessary to introduce an illustration on the right hand of the page4 ,on the left hand are shown two examples of natural feather beds1 selected from many others on account of the exact parallels which they afford4 ,we all know the wonderful warmth and lightness of the ,eider-down mattress or quilt1 though there are comparatively few who know how the ,eider-down is procured4 ,in common with many other creatures1 the ,eider-duck forms a bed for her young by plucking the down from her own body4 ,rabbits do exactly the same thing1 as all boys know who have kept them1 the only difference being that fur is substituted for feathers4 ,so do many insects1 stripping themselves of their own downy covering1 and employing it for the comfort of their offspring4 ,illustration3 ,,long-,,tailed ,,titmouse4 ,illustration3 ,,eider-,,duck4 ,illustration3 ,,feather ,,bed4 ,the lower figure on the left hand represents the ,eider-duck in the act of plucking the far-famed down from her breast in order to make a soft and warm couch for her young1 and the amount of feathers which she will devote to this purpose is simply astonishing4 ,their weight is insignificant1 but their bulk is wonderful4 ,above the ,eider-duck is shown the nest of the common ,long-tailed ,titmouse4 ,it is the most perfect nest that is constructed by any ,british bird4 ,its shape exactly resembles that of an egg1 and it has but one small aperture1 as is shown in the illustration4 ,the ,titmouse lays a vast number of eggs1 and almost fills the nest with soft downy feathers1 on which they can rest4 ,if the finger be introduced into the nest through the aperture1 the tiny eggs can be felt reposing in their natural feather-bed4 ,in this case1 however1 the bird does not denude herself of feathers1 but has a way of picking them up wherever she can find them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we will take another form of bed1 namely1 the ,hammock1 which is used in many parts of the world4 ,putting aside the well-known hammock as used on board our ships1 we will take the same kind of bed as used among the natives of tropical ,america4 ,in that wonderful part of the world1 where water and vegetation reign supreme1 an arial couch of some kind is absolutely needful1 and is supplied by the singularly ingenious hammocks which are constructed by the natives4 ,they are made of a fine1 but marvellously strong fibre1 procured from the aloe plant by the simple process of soaking the long leaves in water1 and dashing them against a stone4 ,the soft green parts are eaten away1 and the tough fibres remain in all their strength4 ,from these fibres are woven the strings of which the ,hammocks are made4 ,i possess four of the ,hammocks1 all made on different lines1 but all based on the same principle4 ,in some the strings are laid parallel to each other1 and connected by transverse strings at regular intervals1 but in the best specimens they are interlaced diagonally into a sort of loose network without knots1 so that it yields in every direction to the outlines of the body4 ,it is one of the most comfortable couches ever invented1 especially when it is of considerable size4 ,i have one specimen which1 even in its curved state1 extends completely across a tolerably sized room4 ,i never use it because it is so comfortable that the temptation to lie in it is almost too strong to be resisted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,as to ,hammocks in ,nature1 they are almost too many to be computed4 ,so we will first take the nest of the ,pensile ,oriole1 which is shown in the illustration1 and which is an admirable example of the ,hammock1 being woven from long vegetable fibres intertwisted very much like the strings of the ,south ,american ,hammock4 ,and as if to increase the resemblance1 the bird1 whenever it can do so1 will carry off hanks of cotton1 linen1 thread1 or pieces of string1 and weave them into its nest4 ,i have one of these nests1 and1 directly ,i saw it1 was struck with its exact similitude to the ,hammock of human manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,pensile ,,oriole4 ,illustration3 ,,hammock4 ,there are many other birds in various parts of the world especially in ,australia1 which make their nests on exactly the same principle1 though in slightly varied forms4 ,also1 in the insect world1 there are innumerable examples of the natural ,hammock1 the most common of which is that made by the caterpillars of the ,tiger-moth1 and in which it slings itself while undergoing its changes from the chrysalis to the perfect state4 ,it is made of silken threads1 interwoven so slightly that the chrysalis can be seen through them1 and so exactly like the ,hammock of the ,south ,american ,indian that if a drawing were made and enlarged1 one might easily be taken for the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to the ,mat ,bed1 which is so much used in the warmer parts of the world1 where the earth is dry1 and the air so warm that nothing is required but the slightest possible protection from the soil4 ,in inland places1 such as ,southern ,africa1 the bed is made of long grass-stems laid side by side1 and sewn together with a sort of twine4 ,one of these beds in my collection is some three feet wide by seven feet long1 and can be rolled up into a cylinder so compact and light that even a child could carry it4 ,illustration3 ,,robber-,,crab4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,mat4 ,of course1 when the ,kafirs are on a journey1 the women have to carry the beds1 together with the heavy wooden pillows and other necessaries1 the men carrying nothing but their weapons4 ,i have a pair of figures made by a native artist1 representing a ,kafir man and woman on a journey1 the woman staggering under her heavy burdens1 the bed being included1 and the man stepping lightly along1 with nothing but his spears and knobkerries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the sea-coasts1 however1 where the cocoa-nut palm grows1 the fibre of the husk is the principal material for bedding4 ,these fibres lie so parallel to each other on the surface of the cocoa-nut1 that they are easily stripped off1 fastened together1 and formed into mats of any shape or thickness4 ,one of these mats is shown on the right hand of the illustration1 and the reader will see how simple is its manufacture4 ,owing to the ease with which it is made into a fabric1 the cocoa-nut fibre was in great use as armour before the bullet set all armour at defiance4 ,it will be remembered that when ,captain ,cook was murdered1 he committed the mistake of firing a charge of small shot instead of a bullet1 and the fact that the cocoa-nut mat carried by the man at whom he fired resisted the shot1 encouraged the natives to attack and murder him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,even the cocoa-nut mat has its precursor in ,nature4 ,there is a certain ,crab inhabiting the cocoa-nut bearing parts of the world1 which not only makes itself a bed from the fibre1 but supplies it to mankind4 ,this wonderful ,crab has the power of ascending the cocoa-nut palms1 which is beyond the power of any man except a trained gymnast4 ,it picks out the ripest fruits1 and with its powerful claws tears off the fibre before breaking the shell and devouring the kernel1 as is shown in the left-hand figure of the illustration4 ,after eating the kernel1 which is at that time a soft1 creamy substance1 quite unlike the hard1 indigestible material which we in ,england know by the name of cocoa-nut1 the ,crab carries off the external fibres into its den1 and there makes its bed of them4 ,so great1 indeed1 is the amount of cocoa-nut fibre thus collected that the natives are accustomed to save themselves the trouble of climbing the trees1 and merely search for the holes in which these ,crabs have made their nests1 knowing the amount of ready-gathered cocoa-nut fibre that is always to be found in them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another modification of the bed needs a short notice1 especially as ,i have practical and sad experience on the subject4 ,illustration3 ,,pupa ,,of ,,tabanus4 ,illustration3 ,,surgical ,,cradle4 ,it is technically named the 8cradle10 and is used to keep the bedclothes from pressing on a damaged limb4 ,when a mere lad ,i contrived1 at cricket1 to dislocate the right ankle1 and break the bone4 ,an ignorant surgeon refused my request for a cradle1 and absolutely tied the cover of a book to the sole of the foot4 ,of course this appliance was worse than useless4 ,it acted as a lever1 allowing the clothes to turn the foot round1 and to the present day the right foot has never recovered its faculties4 ,had the simple 8cradle0 been used--i4e4 a few sticks bent into an arch-like shape1 and tied together1 so as to keep the clothes from even touching the foot--all would have been right4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is shown the surgical cradle1 as a defence to a damaged leg4 ,on the left is shown the curious natural cradle of the ,gad-fly while undergoing its change into the perfect state4 ,it is quite hard and rounded1 being formed from the skin of the larva1 and allows the pupa to lie within it1 protected from any ordinary pressure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another point now comes before us4 ,we cannot well have our bedclothes--indeed1 any kind of clothes--without the use of needles and thread4 ,the simplest form of sewing is that which is adopted in many parts of the world1 namely1 of boring holes and pushing a thread through them1 no eye being required in the needle4 ,in this way the ,kafirs of ,southern ,africa and the ,esquimaux of the ,polar regions make their beautiful garments of skins4 ,i have for many years had in constant use two ,south ,african cloaks1 or karosses1 and one made by the natives of ,vancouver's ,island1 and they are now as good as they were when they were first given to me4 ,naturally1 such a mode of sewing consumes much time1 but1 as time is not of the least value to these native furriers1 no harm is done1 and the junctions of the different skins is absolutely perfect4 ,even where holes have been made in the skin1 the native furrier has supplied their places with circular pieces so neatly inserted1 that on the outside not a trace of the junction is visible1 and even the very set of the hairs is preserved4 ,our very modern needles1 with their eyes which carry the thread1 are but a modification of the original plan of boring holes1 and pushing the thread through them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature has a singular parallel in the case of the ,tailor-bird1 which sews leaves together by their edges1 and makes its nest inside them4 ,it acts exactly like one of our own shoemakers1 using its slender and sharply pointed beak in lieu of the awl1 and employing a slight but strong vegetable fibre in place of the 8waxed end0 of the shoemaker1 or the sinew-thread of the ,kafir4 ,in the illustration an ordinary needle and thread are seen on the right-hand side1 and on the left are two nests of the ,tailor-bird1 taken from specimens in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,tailor-,,birds ,,and ,,nests4 ,illustration3 ,,sewing ,,cloth4 ,the mode of sewing is strangely like that which is employed by the uncivilised furriers who have been described1 and much superior to that which is seen in many other parts of the world4 ,for example1 ,i have a ,west ,african quiver made of hide sewn together with stitches infinitely more clumsy than those of the ,tailor-bird4 ,the reader will also remark that ,i might have placed this singular nest in the category of beds1 on account of the soft and warm lining on which the young repose4 ,i have1 however1 thought that it more properly belongs to the present division of the subject4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sometimes we require a temporary as well as a permanent shelter from the elements1 and procure it by means of the ,umbrella4 ,in many countries1 especially those where the climate is hot1 the ,umbrella is almost exclusively used1 as1 indeed1 its name denotes1 to preserve its owner from the direct sunbeams1 and is1 in fact1 the 8parasol0 of our ,european ladies4 ,it also is a mark of dignity1 the amount and quality of its decorations indicating rank1 even though the man who sits under its shade is clothed in a modest cotton cloth wrapped round his waist4 ,for the purpose of shielding the bearer from the sun the ,umbrella was first introduced1 and the introducer incurred the obloquy usual in such cases4 ,now1 however1 the ,umbrella has by common consent become a defence against rain and snow1 the male sex leaving the parasol to the gentler half of creation1 and submitting themselves to the chance of a sunstroke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we all know the ingenious ,umbrellas of ,africa1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,siam1 c42 but there are few persons who know that a common magnifying-glass will disclose thousands of beautifully perfect umbrellas on the leaf of the ,rosemary4 ,illustration3 ,,hairs ,,of ,,rosemary4 ,illustration3 ,,umbrella4 ,pinch the ,rosemary-leaf between the fingers1 and a strong and peculiar perfume is evolved1 just as when the peel of the orange is squeezed4 ,the reason is the same in both cases1 namely1 the presence of multitudes of spherical vessels which contain their essential oil1 secreted by the plant4 ,in the orange they are sunk below the surface of the skin1 and are protected by it2 but in the ,rosemary they stand on slight footstalks1 as shown in the illustration4 ,being very delicate1 and liable to be broken at the least touch1 they are protected by a series of curiously formed hairs1 which extend over them exactly as would an umbrella1 and defend them from the elements4 ,the surface of a ,rosemary-leaf affords a singularly beautiful sight1 even with a common magnifying-glass1 the tiny perfume-globes gleaming like little pearls in the broken lights that shine through the umbrella-like hairs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to another part of domestic life1 namely1 ,servants4 ,there is a diversity of ideas on this subject1 as we know by the various discussions respecting 8lady-helps0 and 8gentlemen-helps10 which bid fair to initiate a revolution in domestic life4 ,servants are sometimes called the greatest plagues in life1 but it is difficult to see what could be done without them4 ,then there is the complaint that servants are not what they used to be--the faithful retainers of the household1 and considering themselves members of it4 ,perhaps not1 but ,i have had experience of several faithful retainers1 and invariably found them to be unmitigated tyrants1 assuming power1 repudiating responsibility1 and being practically the master or mistress of the household4 ,then we come to the great question of slavery in its various bearings4 ,putting aside the now acknowledged diversity of races1 and the well-known fact that the negro in a state of slavery to a ,european is infinitely better off than he would have been in his own country1 where there is no law but that of might1 we must entertain the question of enforced servitude1 i4e4 where the servants have no choice either in entering or leaving their situations4 ,it is1 of course1 opposed1 and rightly1 to our modern ,english ideas that a slave1 under such a name1 should exist on ,british ground4 ,yet there are thousands of ,englishmen who are more wholly enslaved than was any negro in the worst times of slavery4 ,the chains may not be of visible iron1 nor the whips of tangible thongs1 but they are1 perhaps1 all the more galling and biting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some of my readers may be aware that slavery exists in the insect world1 and probably existed long before man came on earth4 ,there are many species of ,ants which are absolutely incapable of managing their own nests or rearing their own young1 and which1 in consequence1 impress into their service the workers of other species of ,ant1 and hand over to them the entire labour of the establishment4 ,they can fight1 and they can establish fresh colonies1 but they cannot build nests1 nor nurse their young1 and so they impress into their service those ,ants whose instinct teaches them to do both4 ,periodically the master ,ants1 if we may so call them1 set off on a slave-hunting expedition4 ,they find out the nest of the special ,ant whose aid they need1 penetrate into it1 and bear off the pup1 or 8ants' eggs10 as they are popularly called4 ,these are carried to their new home1 and are speedily hatched4 ,they know no other home1 and1 led by instinct1 set to work as industriously as if they had never been removed4 ,illustration3 ,,slave-,,capturing ,,ants4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,slave-,,gang4 ,those who have watched their habits are unanimous in declaring that they seem perfectly happy and contented4 ,no compulsion is used towards them1 and they work because told to do so by their own instinct4 ,work they must1 and it does not in the least matter to them for whom the work is done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another branch of this subject is shown in the accompanying illustration1 namely1 the pleasure garden or playground4 ,this is1 as we all know1 a token of high civilisation1 and even in the ancient times the hanging gardens of ,babylon were reckoned as the greatest wonders of that great city1 the then mistress of the world4 ,no savage ever dreamed of such a thing as a pleasure garden1 nor could appreciate it if he saw it4 ,yet there are birds which far surpass the savage in this respect1 and which build recreation grounds for the sole purpose of amusement4 ,these are the well-known ,bower-birds of ,australia1 which ,i sincerely hope may not be extirpated by the white man1 as has been the case with so many creatures1 including the aborigines of ,tasmania themselves4 ,the ,bower-birds1 which are distantly related to our thrush and blackbird1 but are about as large as jackdaws1 have a curious habit of building arched bowers quite independent of their nests4 ,the shape of one of these bowers is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,the bird first weaves a sort of platform of flexible sticks1 and then fastens into them a number of other sticks1 so set that they form a sort of arched gallery4 ,through this gallery the birds love to run1 and they invariably decorate the ends with anything pretty that they can pick up1 such as feathers1 coloured stones1 shells1 ornaments1 and the like4 ,so well is this proclivity known1 that whenever any one who is living in the ,bush loses any small piece of property1 such as a pencil-case or watch-key1 or even a tobacco-pipe1 he always goes to the ,bower-bird's pleasure garden1 and mostly discovers the lost property4 ,illustration3 ,,playground ,,of ,,bower-,,bird4 ,illustration3 ,,garden ,,bower4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens these ,bower-birds have long lived1 and it is a most interesting sight to watch them weaving their platforms1 raising the bowers over them1 and then keep running in at one end and out at the other1 like children at play1 and with their burnished plumage gleaming in the sunbeams4 ,the right-hand figure simply depicts a modern pleasure garden1 and needs no description4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,artificial ,,warmth4--,,ring ,,and ,,staple4--,,the ,,fan4 ,various ,modes of warming ,houses4--,the ,fire of the ,american ,indian and the ,kafir4--,the ,oil-lamp of the ,esquimaux4--,the open ,fireplace and ,chimney ,stoves4--,the laminated ,stove and its ,powers4--,gills of the ,lobster1 ,crab1 and various ,fishes4--,mode in which the ,gills act4--,why ,fishes lie with their ,heads against the ,stream4--,drowning a ,fish4--,the ,ring and ,staple1 and their various ,uses4--,head-bones of the ,fishing-frog or ,angler-fish4--,the ,fan and its ,modifications4--,japanese and ,chinese ,fans4--,the ,feather ,fan4--,the ,palm-leaf4--,indian ,fans4--,the ,hive ,bee and its ,wings4--,fans of the ,essequibo and ,south ,sea ,islanders4--,the ,fan ,fire-guard4--,antenn of the ,cockchafer4--,burial4--,various ,modes of disposing of the ,dead4--,ordinary ,habits of dying ,animals4--,dead ,insects4--,the ,funeral-ant and its wonderful ,habits4 ,,artificial ,,warmth4 ,passing from the direct to the indirect comforts of a household1 we will take ,artificial ,warmth4 ,the savage1 as a matter of necessity1 makes a fire in the middle of his hut1 and lets the smoke have its own way4 ,sometimes1 as is the case with the ,north ,american ,indians1 the top of the conical hut is open1 and the whole edifice is a single chimney of large dimensions1 something like the 8chimney-corner0 of past days1 which only survives in such places as the ,new ,forest4 ,then there are the various ,kafir tribes of ,southern ,africa4 ,they have no aperture in their huts except the tiny doorway1 which can only be entered on hands and knees4 ,but they must have their fire4 ,no argument can persuade them that they had better make their fire and cook their food outside the hut4 ,so the wood-smoke fills the hut1 coats it with a lining of soot1 and gets out as it can through the sticks and withes of which the simple edifice is built4 ,as a contrast1 we have the oil-lamp of ,esquimaux-land1 where there is no provision for ventilation1 where the snow-houses are tightly closed and crammed with inhabitants1 and where no one seems to need fresh air4 ,the next step in civilisation is to construct a tube for the purpose of carrying off the smoke1 such as we know by the name of chimney or flue1 and to place the fire within it4 ,we ,english people have an ingrained love for the open fireplace1 and though it really is an expensive arrangement1 it is worth the cost4 ,granting that it carries much of the heat into the chimney instead of throwing it into the room1 it has at least the advantage of acting as a ventilator1 of ejecting air which has been rendered poisonous by respiration1 and drawing a fresh supply from the outer atmosphere4 ,in some parts of the world1 especially in ,germany and the ,united ,states1 the place of the open fire is taken by closed stoves1 without any ventilation whatever1 much to the discomfiture of ordinary ,englishmen4 ,still1 there are buildings1 such as public halls and places of worship1 in which open fireplaces are wholly impracticable1 and where it is1 therefore1 necessary to make use of the stove4 ,it need hardly be said that in such cases the chief object is to procure the greatest amount of heat with the least expenditure of fuel1 and that object seems to be best attained by the ,laminated ,stove shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,gills ,,of ,,shark4 ,illustration3 ,,gills ,,of ,,trout4 ,illustration3 ,,stove4 ,in this stove1 the outer surface1 instead of being plain1 is divided into a number of perpendicular plates1 which are heated by the contained fire1 and expose a very large surface of hot metal to the air4 ,thus the heat1 instead of being wasted by being drawn through the flue or chimney1 is thrown into the room1 and keeps up a perpetual supply of warm air4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,that the invention of this stove is an ingenious one nobody can deny4 ,but ,nature has been long in advance of ,art in the way of exposing as large a surface as possible with the least expenditure of space4 ,very familiar examples of this structure may be found in the many creatures which inhabit the waters and breathe by means of gills1 which extract the oxygen of the water4 ,take1 for example1 a ,lobster or a ,crab1 open it1 and look at the white1 pointed1 uneatable objects which are popularly called 8ladies' fingers40 ,these are the gills1 or breathing apparatus1 and their structure is really wonderful4 ,they are composed of innumerable lamin1 or very thin plates1 covered with an exceedingly fine membrane1 and placed closely side by side1 but with sufficient distance between them to allow the water to percolate the whole structure4 ,with the aid of an ordinary pocket lens the observer may make out a most wonderful system of blood-vessels1 which permeate every one of the myriad lamin1 and which extract the life-giving oxygen from the water as it passes between them4 ,then1 to pass to animals of a higher order1 take the gills of fishes4 ,any fish will do1 provided that it be fresh1 and1 if it can be examined immediately after death1 so much the better4 ,taking things reciprocally1 the gills of the fish and the lamin of the stove1 are identical in principle1 namely1 the exposure of much surface with little loss of space4 ,if possible1 the observer should inject the blood-vessels of the gills with the conventional crimson and blue wax1 showing the currents of the arterial and venous blood4 ,each lamina forms a most wondrous object1 and may be gazed upon for weeks with increasing admiration4 ,every one who has watched the habits of fishes must have noticed that in running waters they always have their heads against the stream1 and do not greatly care about shifting their positions4 ,in still waters1 especially such as those of the ordinary glass aquaria1 the fish are perpetually on the move1 whereas in such a river as the ,dove of ,derbyshire1 and even the ,darenth of ,kent1 large trout may be seen almost motionless1 but invariably with their heads directed up the stream4 ,the reason is evident enough4 ,as long as the fish lies with its head up the stream the water flows through its gills1 and enables it to breathe4 ,were the passage of the water stopped1 the fish would be drowned4 ,consequently1 all good anglers1 when they hook a fish which is worth taking1 keep its head down the stream1 prevent the water from washing over its gills1 and consequently render it so weak by deprivation of oxygen1 that it becomes an easy prey1 and is rendered subservient to a line of a single hair4 ,let the fish breathe1 and a single struggle would smash a line of treble the strength4 ,but keep it from breathing by directing its head down the stream1 and it rapidly loses all strength1 and can be directed into the landing-net1 or brought within the scope of the gaff1 without a chance of escape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,need hardly remark that on the right-hand side of the illustration is shown a ,laminated ,stove1 and that on the left are drawings of the gills of the ,shark tribe and the common ,trout4 ,if the reader would really like to look into the subject for himself1 ,i should suggest the purchase of a cod's head and shoulders and a lobster4 ,the breathing apparatus can be removed from each for examination1 and the remainder will serve as a first course for dinner4 ,,ring ,,and ,,staple4 ,humble1 and apparently insignificant1 as the principle of the ,ring and ,staple may be1 we owe no small amount of our domestic comfort to it4 ,it meets us in all kinds of ways1 in the hinges of our boxes1 in the padlocks of our doors1 in the innside fastenings for our horses1 in the seaside fastenings for ships' cables1 and in a thousand other ways too many to enumerate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right-hand side of the next illustration is shown the ,ring and ,staple as used for the purpose of mooring ships and boats1 it being absolutely necessary that the machinery1 simple as it is1 must be capable of working in any direction1 and with some latitude as to the extent4 ,illustration3 ,,head-,,bones ,,of ,,angler-,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,staple ,,and ,,ring4 ,on the left hand are shown two of the wonderful bones which are found in the head of the ,fishing-frog or ,angler-fish 7,lophius71 and which serve as decoys1 by means of which the smaller fish are entrapped into the vast jaws of the ,angler-fish4 ,it is clearly necessary that these singular appendages should be capable of movement in every direction1 and this object is attained by the structure which is here shown1 and which is almost equal to the ball-and-socket joint for its freedom of movement4 ,it will even allow of partial rotation1 so as to cause the little strip of skin at its end to assume the aspect of a living worm1 and entice the smaller fish into the jaws of the dread trap that lies open before them4 ,a figure of this fish may be seen on page #ib4 ,,the ,,fan4 ,except in permanently cold countries1 a ,fan of some kind seems to be an absolute necessity4 ,sometimes1 as in the greater part of ,europe1 it is used only by the softer sex4 ,the harder sex would often be only too glad to use it if they dared1 and the same observation is equally true with regard to the parasol4 ,but1 in such lands as ,japan and ,china1 the ,fan is an absolute necessity of existence4 ,men1 women1 and children alike carry their ,fan1 and almost perpetually use it4 ,i remember1 when the troupe of ,japanese acrobats were in ,england1 that one of them exhibited the national use of the ,fan in an excessively ludicrous manner4 ,one of his comrades ascended to the roof of a lofty building1 hung by his legs to one of the rafters1 and held in his hands a bamboo pole which was twenty feet long4 ,another ,japanese also ascended1 climbed over his comrade1 and settled on the bamboo pole1 to which he clung only by the clasp of his bare feet4 ,suddenly he slipped down the pole1 stopped himself when within a few inches of the end1 squatted there with perfect unconcern1 though at least forty feet from the ground1 took his fan from the back of his neck1 and fanned himself while gravely surveying the startled audience4 ,illustration3 ,,palm-,,leaf4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,hand-,,screen4 ,perhaps some of my readers may remember ,chang1 the ,chinese giant1 who1 by the way1 in private life was a polished gentleman4 ,he was never without his fan1 always keeping it fluttering gently with an ease only to be acquired by a lifelong practice1 and ,i really think that if he had been deprived of it he would have been seriously ill4 ,how he slept without it is a wonder1 for in his own house the fan was incessantly in motion1 and was worked with apparent unconsciousness on his part4 ,i have often wished that in our country the ladies would manage their fans in the same quiet way when they are in a church or a concert-room1 for the perpetual rattle of the joints is enough to distract any preacher or conductor1 and very often does so4 ,as to the shape of the ,fan1 it varies greatly according to the country1 but it may almost invariably be traced to some familiar object4 ,there is1 for example1 the common ,japanese ,fan or ,screen1 which is avowedly made on the model of the ,palm-leaf1 the ribs of the leaf being represented by split portions of a bamboo stem4 ,the right-hand figure in the preceding illustration is taken from one of the common sixpenny ,japanese fans that may be seen in many shop-windows4 ,there are exactly sixty ribs in the fan1 all produced by splitting the bamboo into strips1 kept in their place by a slight rod of the same material1 and covered with two pieces of thin printed paper4 ,seeing that the original cost cannot be more than a penny1 it is wonderful how such articles can be produced1 and give a living to the makers4 ,the reader will observe that the shape of the ,japanese ,fan is almost exactly that of the ,palm-leaf1 with the exception of the jagged edges1 and a better pattern could not be found4 ,then there are many ,indian ,fans framed on the same model1 but which revolve on their handles1 and are swung slowly round and round by the servants before the guests1 and thus become miniature punkahs4 ,here1 again1 we may find a parallel in ,nature4 ,the common hive bee ventilates its dwelling by using its wings in lieu of fans4 ,when the hive is really in want of fresh air1 the bees set to work1 and wave their wings backwards and forwards for a considerable time1 so that they necessarily expel the foul air from the interior of the hive1 and create a partial vacuum1 which can only be filled by fresh air from without4 ,fans of very similar shape are in use among the ,south ,sea ,islanders and the inhabitants of the ,essequibo district4 ,they are often used as bellows when a fire has to be raised1 but their primary object is to be employed as fans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next we come to those fans which are made of flattened sticks1 which move on a pivot4 ,this is1 indeed1 the ordinary form of the fan at the present day1 the sticks being sometimes wide enough to constitute the entire fan1 but mostly being connected with a sort of lining made with silk1 paper1 or feathers4 ,such fans as these can be moved on their pivots1 so as to occupy a comparatively small space2 and the same can be said of the modern fender-guards1 which can be folded up when the room is unoccupied1 and which form an effectual protection against the danger of ladies' dresses coming in contact with the fire4 ,examples of such a screen1 and two fans1 are given on the right hand of the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,antenna ,,of ,,cockchafer4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory ,,fan4 ,,feather ,,fan4 ,,fire-,,guard4 ,on the left hand is shown one of the natural objects from which the fans1 c41 might well have derived their origin4 ,it is one of the antenn--or horns1 as they are popularly called--of the common ,cockchafer4 ,the end of this antenna is composed of a number of flat plates1 which work on a pivot exactly like the sticks of a fan1 and1 like those sticks1 can be folded into a wonderfully small compass1 or opened out into a fan-like shape4 ,,burial4 ,last scene of all4 ,i do not think that it matters very much to one who has 8shuffled off this mortal coil0 what becomes of the coil in which he had been imprisoned4 ,whether the abandoned body be buried in the earth1 or sunk in the sea1 or devoured by wild beasts1 or consumed by fire1 signifies nothing to him1 though it may signify much to his surviving friends4 ,as a rule1 the animals1 of whatever kind they may be1 contrive to dispose of their mortal remains in some mysterious manner1 so that not a vestige of them is to be found4 ,take1 for example1 the domestic cat1 and see how few bodies are found of cats which have died natural deaths4 ,for instance1 there was my own cat 8,pret10 who lost his life from the bites of rats4 ,he was blind1 and so lamed that he could scarcely crawl4 ,yet1 on the day of his death1 he three times escaped from his comfortable bed in front of the fire1 dragged himself through a hedge1 down a steep bank1 across a road1 up another bank1 through a crevice in a park fence1 and curled himself up to die under a blackberry-bush4 ,illustration3 ,,burying-,,ants4 ,illustration3 ,,savage ,,funeral4 ,perhaps it was mistaken kindness on my part1 and ,i should have acted better if ,i had left him to die in peace4 ,but1 though ,i carried him back three times1 and though he was quite unable to see1 he contrived to slip out of the house1 and to find the same spot for his last resting-place on this earth4 ,i have heard that some cats have been known to bury their young1 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,brown tells a most touching story of a dog that committed her dead puppy to the river4 ,but as to ,insects1 until a few years ago1 no one ever dreamed that the principle of burial could be found among them4 ,what millions of insects die in every year1 and how seldom is a dead insect found6 ,flies1 gnats1 and the smaller insects might escape observation1 but the large moths1 butterflies1 beetles1 dragon-flies1 c41 are scarcely ever found dead4 ,in my own neighbourhood1 for example1 the ,stag-beetle1 nearly the largest and most conspicuous of ,british insects1 swarms to an almost unpleasant degree1 especially in the summer evenings4 ,yet ,i have never found a dead ,stag-beetle that had not been killed by violence4 ,what becomes of the bodies of the countless millions of creatures that annually pass into their other world is a problem which at present no one seems to be able to solve4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,still1 there are instances where even insects are known to bury their dead1 and ,i scarcely need say that they are to be found among the ,ants4 ,the story is a very curious one1 and is narrated at length in the ,journal of the ,linnan ,society1 vol4 v4 p4 #bag4 ,it happened that a lady found that her little boy was being stung by ants1 and she at once killed them and threw their dead bodies away4 ,after some time a number of ants came out of their nest1 formed a procession as regularly organized as that of any undertaker's funeral1 dug graves for each dead ant1 laid the body in it1 and covered it up again with earth4 ,they carried their organization to such an extent that they even had relays of bearers4 ,but the strangest part of the story is that several worker ants would not assist in the funereal ceremonies4 ,the soldiers at once set on them1 killed them1 and tumbled them all promiscuously into a common grave4 ,such scenes were repeatedly witnessed by the lady1 a ,mrs4 ,hutton1 who wrote the account while she was living in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,water1 ,,and ,,means ,,of ,,procuring ,,it4 ,the ,necessity of ,water to ,man4--,composition of the ,human ,body4--,natural and ,artificial ,distillation4--,the ,traveller's ,tree4--,pitcher-plants and ,monkey-pots4--,stomach of the ,camel1 and its ,analogy to the ,honey-comb4--,dewdrops4--,use of the ,still at ,sea4--,perspiration and its cooling ,properties4--,the ,turkish ,bath4--,perfume and ,ether ,spray4--,condenser of the ,low-pressure ,steam-engine4--,the ,dry and ,wet ,bulb ,thermometer4--,ice produced in a red-hot ,vessel4--,power of ,water4--,how ,fountains are made4--,modern ,system of ,hydrants4--,hydraulic ,mining4--,the ,victoria and ,niagara ,falls4--,artesian ,wells4--,the ,norton ,tube1 c41 in ,abyssinia4--,the ,water-ram and ,spout-hole4 ,,it has often been remarked that man can live a comparatively long time without solid food1 providing that he can only obtain water1 of which the chief bulk of the human body is made4 ,dying by thirst is a horribly painful death1 but1 according to ,mr4 ,mills1 the ill-fated ,australian traveller1 8starvation on nardoo 7an innutritious plant7 is by no means unpleasant1 but from the weakness one feels1 and the utter inability to move one's self40 ,those who have been shipwrecked1 and unable to obtain fresh water1 have always found that the tortures of thirst were infinitely harder to endure than those of hunger2 and the reader will probably remember that those who perished in the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta owed their deaths chiefly to thirst1 their bodies being exhausted of moisture by the heat of the room1 and no fresh supply attainable4 ,civilisation especially shows itself in the way in which water is brought within the reach of every one1 even in the most crowded of cities4 ,the reader may probably call to mind the wonderful aqueducts of ancient ,rome1 the gigantic remains of which still exist4 ,then1 as to our own country1 we are all practically acquainted with some water company1 by which the water1 more or less purified1 is brought into our houses1 and can be obtained by the mere turning of a tap4 ,yet all this ingenuity is but a following of natural prototypes1 as will presently be seen2 and even the familiar ,water-tank1 as shown at the right hand of the illustration1 has been anticipated by ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration there are three examples of natural water-tanks1 two belonging to the vegetable1 and one to the animal kingdom4 ,illustration3 ,,traveller',s ,,tree4 ,,stomach ,,of ,,camel4 ,,pitcher-,,plant4 ,,cistern4 ,that on the extreme left1 with a number of radiations1 represents a portion of a ,madagascar palm1 popularly called the ,traveller's ,tree4 ,having very large leaves1 arranged in the manner there shown1 the ,traveller's ,tree condenses the nightly dews1 and allows them to trickle down into the hollows of the leaf-stems4 ,there the water remains1 out of the reach of sunbeams or wind1 and if a traveller happens to be thirsty1 all he has to do is to pierce the base of one of these gigantic leaves1 and out rushes a stream of the purest water1 as is shown in the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next to the ,traveller's ,tree is shown one of those extraordinary vegetables called ,pitcher-plants1 from the strange conformation of the leaves4 ,they inhabit ,borneo1 ,siam1 and other hot countries4 ,in these remarkable plants some of the leaves are developed into suitable pitchers1 with hinged lids1 exactly like our hot-water jugs4 ,they serve1 however1 a different office1 and contain cold water which the plant has distilled from the dew4 ,as the monkeys are in the habit of resorting to these plants when thirsty1 they are sometimes called ,monkey-pots4 ,there is an admirable account of the ,pitcher-plants and their development in the ,transactions of the ,linnan ,society1 vol4 xxii4 part iv4 ,the scientific name of those plants is ,nepenthes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,below the vegetable comes a rather celebrated animal cistern1 namely1 a portion of one of the stomachs of a ,camel4 ,it exactly corresponds with that part of an ox which butchers call 8honey-comb tripe10 and consists of a multitude of cells1 which can be closed or opened at will4 ,when the camel takes in its provision of water1 it can treat this portion of the stomach much as the hive bee treats the honey-bag1 and fill its cells with water4 ,by degrees1 when it finds the necessity for moisture1 it can squeeze the water out of these receptacles into the digestive portion of the interior1 and so can sustain life for a wonderfully long time under conditions which would kill any other animal4 ,i may remark1 by the way1 that the amount which a camel can drink1 and the length of time through which it can endure its desert life1 have been much exaggerated4 ,there is another point to be considered1 namely1 the curious resemblance between these cells and the honey-comb of the hive bee4 ,every one knows that honey1 no matter how tightly closed1 will crystallize and lose its best qualities if kept in jars1 whereas if it be allowed to remain in the waxen comb1 where it is divided into very small portions1 it will remain good for years4 ,it is just the same with the cells of the camel's stomach1 they being able to preserve water in a pure state by distributing it among a number of small cells1 which can be opened or closed at will4 ,then we come to the various means of obtaining water4 ,reference has already been made to the ,filter1 by which foul water can be made pure for human consumption1 and we will therefore pass to another mode of obtaining pure water1 namely1 the ,still4 ,in former days1 if there were a failure of the supply of fresh water on board ship1 the whole of the occupants must necessarily perish4 ,now1 however1 no such danger exists1 as every well-furnished ship carries at least one ,still1 by means of which the sea-water can be made to abandon its salt1 and to give out nothing but pure water fit for drinking4 ,even in cases where no regular ,still has been on board1 an extemporised ,still has been made from a kettle1 a gun barrel1 or piece of lead piping1 or anything of a similar nature4 ,illustration3 ,,dewdrops4 ,illustration3 ,,still4 ,the principle of the ,still is simple enough1 and is shown by the diagram1 rather than drawing1 on the right hand of the illustration4 ,there is a vessel in which liquid is boiled4 ,from the upper part of it rises a tube through which the steam must pass as it is generated4 ,the tube in question is generally of considerable length1 and is coiled inside a vessel filled with cold water1 rendered colder by ice1 if possible4 ,as the steam passes through the cold tube condensation takes place1 and it becomes liquid again1 but deprived of its heavier particles1 so that if sea-water be placed in the still1 the salt is left in the vessel1 and nothing but pure water passes through the tube4 ,in dissecting-rooms a small still is almost invariably kept4 ,many preparations are of such a nature that the spirit in which they are placed becomes discoloured1 and has to be repeatedly changed4 ,now1 even methylated spirit is an expensive article1 and therefore1 instead of being thrown away1 the discoloured spirit is placed in the still1 and reproduced in a clean and transparent state4 ,nature affords innumerable examples of distillation1 the chief of which are the ,dewdrops which have already been mentioned4 ,during the daytime the air is full of moisture drawn by the sunbeams from ocean4 ,we cannot see it1 but it is there1 and when the chill of night cools the various trees1 herbage1 and other such objects1 the arial moisture is condensed upon them1 which is then known by the name of ,dew4 ,on the left hand of the illustration are shown the tiny ,dewdrops as hanging on the slight threads of a spider's web1 and collected in larger drops upon a leaf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are many other familiar examples of the principle of condensation1 the commonest of which is the so-called steam as it pours from the spout of a kettle4 ,in point of fact1 it is not steam at all1 but only water condensed into very small drops4 ,at the orifice of the kettle it is quite invisible1 but when it passes into the air1 and is condensed1 the tiny globules become visible4 ,the same fact may be noticed in the ,napier's ,coffee ,machine1 which has already been mentioned4 ,when the water is boiling in the glass globe no steam is visible1 though the upper portion of the globe is entirely filled by it4 ,but1 no sooner is the cork removed1 and the steam allowed to escape1 than it at once becomes visible as a white cloud1 being1 indeed1 a miniature copy of the rain-clouds that float above us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,then there is that mostly invisible passage of liquid through the multitudinous pores of the body1 which is generally known as perspiration4 ,it is invisible in warm weather1 but on a cold day is as visible as a rain cloud4 ,the ,turkish ,bath affords a good example of this fact4 ,sometimes the hottest room attains a temperature of #bej or more1 water boiling at #bab4 ,when a bather goes into that room1 he appears to have a perfectly dry skin1 the moisture being in the form of invisible steam1 and swept off as soon as it is generated4 ,but1 if he passes at once into the cold room1 he is so enveloped in vapour that for a few moments he is wrapped in it as in a cloud1 and can scarcely be seen1 the vapour having been condensed by the cold air4 ,illustration3 ,,heated ,,horse4 ,,perfume ,,spray4 ,,freezing ,,by ,,evaporation4 ,,wet-,,bulb ,,thermometer4 ,a very familiar instance of this sudden condensation may be seen in the streets of ,london on any winter day4 ,there may be a couple of omnibus horses1 nearly at the end of their day's work1 and quite tired out4 ,suddenly they are pulled up by the driver1 and as suddenly disappear for a moment or two1 being concealed in a cloud of moisture proceeding from their bodies4 ,of course in a hot day there is more of the moisture1 but the warmth of the atmosphere prevents it from condensation1 and so it is not visible4 ,one valuable property of the system of evaporation and condensation is its cooling power4 ,thus it is that a person who is ill with fever tosses about with a burning skin until the pores of the body act1 and allow the normal moisture to pass through them4 ,then the body cools by evaporation1 and the patient begins to amend4 ,so it is that the bather can endure in the ,turkish bath a heat so great that a glass of water1 if held in the hand1 would speedily boil1 and a piece of meat be cooked in about the same period4 ,but1 if the air were not dry enough to carry off the perspiration1 the bather would be scalded to death4 ,a most valuable adaptation of the principle is shown in the little glass machine for dispersing perfumes in the form of spray4 ,in cases of headache it is almost invaluable1 the spray cooling the heated forehead1 like magic1 and at the same time filling the room with the grateful perfume4 ,it has even a greater claim to human gratitude1 as ,i can personally testify4 ,i have the strongest objection to a surgeon's knife1 especially when ,i know1 from sad experience1 that he is going to make very free use of it4 ,but1 on the last occasion1 ,i cared nothing for it1 owing to the happy invention called ,ether ,spray4 ,the effects were remarkable4 ,first1 a delicious cooling of a spot raging with internal fires4 ,then it was rather colder than ,i liked4 ,then it was much colder than ,i liked4 ,then it became almost too cold to bear1 reminding me of my childhood's feet on the outside of the ,birmingham coach in the depth of winter4 ,suddenly all sensation ceased1 and the skin became white as parchment4 ,out came the surgeon's bistoury1 and ,i looked at him with as calm composure as if he had been whittling a deal plank4 ,there was absolutely no feeling whatever1 the local nerves having been temporarily frozen1 so great is the power of evaporation4 ,if it ever be my lot again to endure cold steel1 ,i shall have the ether spray4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the extreme right of the illustration is seen the 8,wet-bulb0 ,thermometer1 which carries out the same principle1 the thermometer being double1 and one bulb being covered with a wet envelope1 while the other is dry4 ,below is one of the many inventions for making artificial ice1 all of them depending on the cooling power of evaporation4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have seen molten iron poured over the human hand without doing the least harm1 or mercury frozen in a red1 or rather a white1 hot vessel4 ,both these phenomena are due to the cooling power of evaporation1 which is made to act with extreme rapidity1 and so absorbs the heat until even mercury is rendered solid1 and can be cast in a mould like a leaden bullet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the accompanying illustration we have an example of the ,condensating principle as applied to the steam-engine1 and popularly known as the 8,low-pressure ,engine40 ,in this case force is reconverted1 so to speak1 and1 if a cubic inch of water has been converted by heat into a cubic foot of steam1 creating a pressure in one direction1 it can be reconverted by cold1 and so produce a pressure in another direction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is owing to this fact that some parts of the world are always hot and always wet1 ,guiana being a striking example4 ,illustration3 ,,rain-,,cloud4 ,illustration3 ,,condenser4 ,the wind blows over the ocean1 absorbing moisture as a sponge does water4 ,as it passes from the sea over the land1 it is met by secondary mountain ranges1 too low to arrest its progress altogether1 and high enough to have their summits clothed in eternal snows4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the warm1 water-laden winds pass over these mountains1 the moisture is condensed by their frozen tips1 and down rushes the rain in torrents4 ,even in our own temperate land we can often trace the cause of a heavy rain to the presence of a lofty hill1 or even an exceptionally tall spire4 ,the moist climate of ,oxford has been attributed by scientific men quite as much to its spires and towers as to its low-lying situation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to the various modes of extracting the water which is laid up within the earth1 and which only slowly ascends to the surface when drawn up by the heat of the sun4 ,water is everywhere1 but the depths at which it is found are vastly different4 ,for example1 at one house in which ,i lived it was not possible to dig for three feet without coming to water4 ,in another1 no water was found within some two hundred feet1 and1 as ,i several times relieved the old gardener of the task of drawing the water for the day's consumption1 ,i have reason to remember the depth4 ,illustration3 ,,spring4 ,illustration3 ,,fountain4 ,the pail1 rope1 and winch which were in use at that time--and may be still1 to the sorrow of the gardener--are but a sort of semi-savage way of procuring water from the depths of the earth4 ,it is a well-known fact that under certain conditions water always finds its own level1 minus the friction of the channel through which it passes4 ,on this principle all fountains are made4 ,those1 for example1 at the ,crystal ,palace1 which fling their waters to such a height1 are fed from tanks on the summit of the two great water towers4 ,and1 were it not for the friction of the water in the tubes1 and that of the air1 the fountains would rise as high as the tanks from which they are fed4 ,such is the case with springs1 especially with those of an intermittent character1 in which latter instance the rushing of the water is exactly coincident with the filling of the hidden tank which supplies it4 ,the modern ,hydrant system1 which bids fair to supersede the cumbrous machinery of fire-engines1 even when worked by steam1 is based on the same principle4 ,the water-tanks are placed at such a height that1 when a hose is attached1 and the tap turned1 the water can be thrown over the roof of the highest building4 ,such hydrants have been attached to ,canterbury ,cathedral since the fire which so nearly consumed that magnificent and venerable building4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,very remarkable use has been made of this power of water in mining operations4 ,most of my readers know that in gold mines the metal is chiefly found scattered among quartz1 one of the hardest of the minerals4 ,the usual plan has been to dig out the quartz1 pound it to powder with specially devised machines called 8stamps10 to pass the powder through mercury1 which amalgamated with the gold1 and gave it up again on being heated to a certain temperature4 ,now a different mode of mining is brought into operation1 the pickaxe1 spade1 and stamps1 with all their expensive machinery1 being abandoned1 and water made to do the duty of all three1 some ingenious individual having noticed the effect which water has on the hardest rock4 ,such1 for example1 is the case with those wonderful ,victoria ,falls of ,africa1 where the rushing water has cut its sinuous channel through so many hundreds of yards of rock4 ,such1 also1 is the case with the more celebrated1 but not so wonderful1 ,falls of ,niagara1 which have been gradually working their way backwards1 having worn away the rocks over which they fall1 and which are shown to be many miles away from the spot where the river first discharged itself over the cliff4 ,illustration3 ,,hydraulic ,,mining4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,fall4 ,in fact1 it is well known that the ,falls are receding at a definite rate annually1 and that the rate has been calculated with scientific accuracy4 ,the cliffs of our own coasts-say of ,margate or ,ramsgate--crumble away with equally calculable speed4 ,in the hydraulic mining system large tanks are erected1 at least two hundred feet above the level of the mine4 ,from these tanks proceed pipes1 terminated by hose1 just like those of our ordinary fire-engines4 ,the miners1 instead of using pickaxe or crowbar1 simply direct the streams of water against the solid rock4 ,their effect is tremendous4 ,they tear it to powder1 and carry it down the wooden troughs called 8flumes10 in which the mercury is so arranged that not a single atom of quartz rock can pass without having its gold extracted4 ,the following graphic account of ,hydraulic ,mining at ,nevada is taken from ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,lord's 8,naturalist in ,british ,columbia30-- 8,near ,nevada are the famed ,hydraulic washings4 ,the gold is disseminated through terraces of shingle conglomerates1 often three hundred feet in thickness4 ,these terraces are actually washed entirely off the face of the country by propelling jets of water against them1 forced by pressure through a nozzle4 8,to accomplish this1 the water is brought in canals1 tunnels1 and wooden aqueducts1 often forty miles away from the #8draft4' ,this supply of water the miners rent4 8,as we near the washing spot1 in every direction immense hose1 made of galvanized iron1 and canvas tubes six feet round1 coil in all directions over the ground like gigantic serpents1 converging towards a gap1 where they disappear4 8,on reaching this gap1 ,i look down into a basin or dry lake1 three hundred feet below me4 ,the hose hangs down this cliff of shingle1 and following its course by a zigzag path1 ,i reach a plateau of rock1 from which the shingle has already been washed4 8,a man stands at the end of each hose1 that has for its head a brass nozzle4 ,with the force of cannon-shot1 water issues in a large jet from this tube1 and propelled against the shingle1 guided by the men1 washes it away as easily as we could sweep a molehill from off the grass4 8,the stream of water1 bearing with it the materials washed from out the cliff1 runs through wooden troughs called #8flumes1' floored with granite4 ,these #8flumes' extend six miles4 ,men are stationed at regular distances to fork out the heavy stones4 8,throughout its entire length1 transverse strips of wood dam back a tiny pond of mercury4 ,these are called ruffles--gold-traps1 in other words1 that seize on the fine dust-gold distributed through the shingle4 ,the flumes are cleaned about once a month1 and the gold extracted from the mercury4 8,i try with a powerful lens to detect gold amidst the material they are washing1 but not a trace is discoverable1 and yet it pays an immense profit to the gold-washers40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there are two more modes of extracting water1 which will be but cursorily mentioned4 ,the reader will remember that water finds its own level1 and that the terrific power of hydraulic mining is owing to the fact that the water expends its force against the solid rock instead of ascending into the air4 ,illustration3 ,,artesian ,,well4 ,illustration3 ,,norton',s ,,tube4 ,it is now found that1 even without artificial assistance1 water has a habit of finding its own level1 and that1 if it be allowed its own course1 it will contrive to find its way nearly to the highest point whence it derived its origin4 ,on this principle are based the ,artesian ,wells1 which1 when they 8strike water10 spurt it up in a torrent1 as is the case with the now celebrated ,norton ,tubes1 which are screwed down into the earth like hollow gimlets1 and which always contrive to extract the water hidden beneath the surface of the earth4 ,the success of our army in ,abyssinia was greatly owing to these ,norton ,tubes1 which1 being of small diameter and of peculiar make1 could be screwed into the ground when the troops made a halt1 unscrewed when they left the spot1 and used again for the next halt4 ,similarly1 the ,french used the ,artesian-well system with wonderful success in ,northern ,africa4 ,water is the chief necessity of life in that part of the world1 and a nation who could cause pure cold water to spring out of the hot and thirsty sands was naturally looked upon as something more than human4 ,yet the principle was exactly the same in both cases4 ,water is always latent somewhere beneath the surface of the earth1 and1 if a tube can be driven deep enough1 the water will come up it4 ,the accompanying illustration shows the ,artesian ,well and ,norton's ,tube1 and their similitude in principle1 the tube penetrating through various layers of soil1 until it reaches the water which it seeks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,then there is another way by which water can be made to force itself to a considerable height4 ,not being much of a mathematician1 ,i do not recollect the exact proportional height to which a stream of water may raise itself1 but if any one can secure a fall of some eight or ten feet1 he can furnish his house with water by means of the 8,ram10 a chart of which is shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,spout-,,hole4 ,illustration3 ,,water-,,ram4 ,the principle of the ,ram is1 that the water is allowed to flow down a tube1 when it meets with a valve4 ,this valve is suddenly closed by the pressure1 and the water is forced onwards by the shock4 ,much water escapes at each blow of the valve1 but that does not signify4 ,the force of water thus suddenly stopped is hardly appreciated4 ,even in ordinary houses the sudden turning of a water-tap has been known to burst the pipe and deluge the house with water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature a similar effect is produced1 called popularly the 8,spout-hole40 ,it is a hole or tunnel on the seashore1 passing upwards from the level of the sea to the summit of the cliff4 ,when the waves are urged against the tunnel by the wind1 the water is dashed into it4 ,being partially checked by the friction1 which acts exactly like the water that is checked by the ,ram1 the wave hurls itself up the channel1 and flies out in showers of spray1 high above the level of the original wave which caused it4 ,in the illustration are shown the ,water-ram with its globular valve1 and the safety or escape valve of the waste water4 ,on the left is shown one of the natural ,spout-holes1 with the water dashing through its tunnel into a mass of spray4 ,,useful ,,arts ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,a,,rostatics4--,,weight ,,of ,,air4--,,expansion ,,by ,,heat4 ,ascent and ,descent4--,the ,balloon and the ,parachute4--,description of the ,balloon4--,the ,montgolfier ,balloon4--,causes of its ,abandonment4--,the ,gas ,balloon4--,hydrogen ,gas and its ,manufacture4--,the ,gossamer ,spider4--,reasons of its ,ascent and ,descent4--,many ,species of ,gossamers4--,description of the ,parachute4--,its ,mode of ,action4--,a ,balloon converted into a ,parachute4--,toy ,parachutes4--,natural ,parachutes4--,the ,dandelion ,seed and its ,structure4--,the ,flying ,squirrel4--,the ,flying ,monkey4--,flying ,mice and ,flying ,opossums4--,the ,flying ,dragon and its ,pseudo-wings4--,the ,flying ,frog4--,weight of ,air4--,pressure per ,square ,inch4--,the ,air ,ocean and its ,storms4--,principle of ,air-currents4--,the ,sun1 the ,earth1 and the ,air4--,ventilation of ,mines4--,choke-damp and ,fire-damp4--,the ,air-shafts4--,chimneys of ,factories4--,the ,steam-blast4--,the ,barometer1 and ,mode of its ,construction4--,water and ,mercury4--,sucking ,eggs and ,sugar-cane4--,expansion of ,water and ,metals by ,heat4--,the ,thermometer4--,wheel-making4 ,a,,rostatics4 ,we will begin this chapter with the only two modes at present known by which man can ascend from the earth or descend to it with safety1 namely1 the ,balloon and the ,parachute1 the latter being generally attached to the former1 and detachable at pleasure4 ,the ,balloon is1 in fact1 as its name imports1 a large1 hollow1 air-tight ball1 filled with some substance lighter than ordinary air4 ,the original ,balloons by ,montgolfier were filled with heated air exactly like our toy fire-balloons4 ,just as the supply of hot air is kept up in them by a sponge dipped in lighted spirits of wine1 so in ,montgolfier's balloons the same object was attained by straw which was kept continually burning in a grate4 ,there were1 however1 two disadvantages about this plan4 ,the first was the great danger of fire1 which on one occasion did ignite a balloon when at a great height4 ,the second was the perpetual labour required in keeping the fire alight4 ,straw burns very rapidly1 and so the aronaut had no opportunity of making those meteorologic observations in which consist almost the entire value of the balloon4 ,illustration3 ,,gossamer ,,spider4 ,,balloon4 ,then it was thought that hydrogen gas1 being about fourteen times lighter than ordinary air1 would answer the purpose1 and such has proved to be the case4 ,formerly the gas was made at great expense from sulphuric acid and zinc1 but it is now found that the common coal-gas is quite as efficient1 very much cheaper1 and fills the balloon much more rapidly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the same principle1 though not the same form1 is found in ,nature4 ,there are certain tiny spiders called ,gossamers1 which have a curious power of floating in the air4 ,they have been seen on the tops of lofty spires1 and they are sometimes so numerous that the air is full of their floating webs1 and the ground is white with those that have descended4 ,their mode of ascent is this4 ,they climb to the top of some elevated object1 if it be only a grass-blade4 ,they then pour out a tuft of long1 slender threads1 which shortly begin to tend upwards4 ,as soon as the ,spider feels the pull1 it crawls upon the web1 and sails away into the air4 ,the duration and height of the ascent depend much on the wind and character of the atmosphere4 ,the web ascends because it is for the time lighter than the atmosphere4 ,but1 as it gradually becomes laden with the moisture that more or less fills the air1 it becomes heavier than the atmosphere1 and gently sinks to the ground4 ,what may be the object of these arial voyages no one knows4 ,they may be for the purpose of capturing minute insects1 or they may be for mere amusement4 ,but in either case they are highly instructive1 as showing the principle on which the balloon was framed4 ,the little ,gossamer ,spider is shown on the left hand of the illustration1 clinging to its floating web4 ,i believe that the ,gossamer is not a single species of ,spider1 but that there are many species which deserve the name1 being able to float in the air when they are small1 but losing that capacity as they increase in size and weight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to another branch of the same subject1 namely1 the safe descent from a great height by means of the ,parachute4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is the ordinary ,parachute as it appears when open and closed1 in either case having somewhat the appearance of a large umbrella4 ,it is hung to the balloon in its closed state1 and when detached it falls rapidly for a yard or two with startling rapidity4 ,the pressure of the air thus forces the ribs open1 and gives sufficient assistance to the atmosphere to insure a gentle fall4 ,on one memorable occasion1 when the late ,albert ,smith was in the car of a balloon upwards of a mile from the ground1 the balloon burst4 ,fortunately it burst so completely1 that the silk was driven into the closely meshed netting1 and formed an extemporised parachute1 which took the voyagers to the earth with safety1 except some rather severe bruises4 ,children often amuse themselves with miniature parachutes4 ,they take a square piece of thin paper1 tie threads to the four corners1 and then bring the ends together1 a cork taking the place of the car4 ,they then launch it from a high window1 and should there be a favourable breeze1 it is wonderful how far it will be carried before it comes to the ground4 ,once1 when a boy of eleven1 and consequently thoughtless1 ,i set a chimney on fire by one of these ,parachutes4 ,i wished to see whether it would go up the chimney1 and come out at the top4 ,unfortunately it was caught by a flame as it was launched1 flew up in full blaze1 and1 as the chimney needed sweeping1 the result was inevitable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,flying ,,squirrel4 ,,dandelion ,,seed ,,parachute ,,flying ,,dragon4 7,,open ,,and ,,closed74 7,,open ,,and ,,closed74 ,,flying ,,frog4 ,in the centre of the illustrations1 and at the top1 are two examples of a well-known natural ,parachute called the ,dandelion seed4 ,the resemblance to the real ,parachute is wonderful1 the actual seed occupying the place of the car1 and fulfilling the same office1 i4e4 keeping the seed upright until it reaches the ground4 ,when the tuft is closed1 as is the case before the pretty ball of seeds bursts from the green envelope in which they had been confined during the process of development1 its form bears the same startling resemblance to the ,parachute4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,passing from the vegetable world1 there will be seen three examples of ,natural ,parachutes4 ,several others will be mentioned1 but we have no space for description or figure4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that the one principle which characterizes them all is the exposure to the air of a flattened and large surface1 in proportion to the size of the object4 ,before beginning the description1 however1 ,i must mention that nearly all animal parachutes can to a certain extent guide their course1 while neither the balloon1 the gossamer1 the parachute1 nor the various winged seeds have the least power of guidance1 but must follow every current of air in which they may happen to float4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the upper figure represents a ,flying ,squirrel4 ,there are many species of ,flying ,squirrel1 but they all agree in one point4 ,the skin of their sides is modified into a very thin fold1 which extends as far as the feet4 ,it is very elastic1 so that when it is not in use it falls into folds or wrinkles1 and is hardly perceptible4 ,but should the ,squirrel wish to pass from one tree to another1 without coming to the ground1 it spreads its legs as widely as possible1 so as to stretch the membrane into a wide1 flat surface4 ,it then boldly springs into the air1 and sweeps upon its mark with a sort of skimming movement4 ,except that it does not revolve1 it passes through the air much after the fashion of an oyster-shell when thrown horizontally4 ,many mammalia are constructed after a similar fashion1 such as the ,colugo1 or ,flying ,monkey1 the ,flying ,mice1 and the ,flying ,phalangists1 or 8,opossums10 as they are popularly called4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the centre is the ,flying ,dragon1 or small lizard1 which very probably gave rise to the fabled ,dragons in which our ancestors so devoutly believed4 ,indeed1 on looking back at the old illustrated works on ,natural ,history1 there can be but little doubt on the subject4 ,in this creature1 the ribs1 instead of the legs1 carry the flat and elastic membranes4 ,when simply crawling on the branches1 after the manner of tree-lizards1 the ribs lie flat against the sides1 and the membranes collapse1 so that the shape of the body is little different from that of any crawling lizard4 ,but the ribs are movable at will1 and1 when the creature wishes to pass from one tree to another1 it extends the ribs1 stretches the membranes1 and launches itself into the air1 exactly as has been narrated of the ,flying ,squirrel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the lowest figure represents a most extraordinary animal1 called the ,flying ,frog4 ,only one specimen is believed to be known1 and that was discovered in ,borneo by ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,here we have an analogy with the bats of the present day and the pterodactyles of the past1 namely1 the elongation of the toes1 and the stretching of a web between them4 ,in the two latter animals1 however1 only the toes of the two fore-legs are elongated1 whereas1 with the ,flying ,frog1 the elongation is found in both pairs of limbs4 ,the ends of the toes are furnished with adhesive pads1 like those of the tree-frogs1 to which it is probably related4 ,by means of the four membranes1 the creature is able to sweep through the air for some distance1 and1 indeed1 this power was the reason why it was caught4 ,it was seen to skim from one tree to another1 and was immediately secured4 ,had it remained sticking on the tree1 it would probably have escaped observation4 ,,weight ,,of ,,air4 ,we have already noticed that hydrogen gas is fourteen times lighter than air1 and infer necessarily that the weight of the atmosphere must be very considerable if so heavy an object as a balloon1 with its car1 instruments1 sand-bags1 and passengers1 can rise and float in it4 ,we are not conscious of its weight1 because it permeates us1 and the pressure is neutralised4 ,but1 in fact1 we live at the bottom of a vast ocean which we call the atmosphere2 and as1 on an average1 there is a pressure of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface1 we have to sustain an almost incredible weight4 ,let1 for example1 any one measure the surface of his own hand1 reduce it to square inches1 add together fifteen pounds for every square inch1 and he will then appreciate the weight of the atmospheric ocean in which we live4 ,on an average1 every human being endures a pressure of some ninety thousand pounds4 ,this ocean is in perpetual movement1 sometimes violently1 which we call storm2 sometimes gently1 which we call breeze2 and sometimes very gently1 which we call calm4 ,there are air-spouts as well as water-spouts2 and1 in fact1 the water-spout is nothing but a continuance of the air-spout1 as is shown by the moving sand-columns of the desert4 ,whatever may be the character of the winds1 as we call this movement1 the air is never for a moment still2 and1 indeed1 were it to be still for any time1 the whole human race would perish4 ,how winds are caused we shall see by the aid of the diagram on the left-hand side of the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,air-,,currents4 ,,ventilation ,,of ,,mines4 ,the original cause is the sun4 ,his rays fall upon the earth1 heating it1 and so by radiation heating the air4 ,now1 as has been remarked1 heated air will cause a heavy balloon to float through ordinary air1 and to carry up a considerable amount of dead weight besides2 consequently the heated air must ascend1 while cool and heavier air rushes in to take its place1 and thus the currents are produced4 ,were the earth set straight upright1 the currents would invariably run in one direction2 but1 as it is tilted on one side1 the needful variety is obtained1 and we find the winds blowing from all parts of the compass4 ,the principle1 therefore1 of all winds is1 that heat expands1 and therefore becomes lighter than air at an ordinary temperature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,were it not that man has taken advantage of this principle1 there could not be a deep mine in ,england4 ,in any deep excavation1 even though it be a well1 foul air1 mostly composed of carbonic acid gas1 always collects1 and1 being much heavier than atmospheric air1 lies at the bottom of the pit as surely as hydrogen would rise out of it4 ,to breathe this air is as certain and as sudden death as to take prussic acid1 and no mine can be worked as long as 8choke-damp0 is in it4 ,in coal mines there is an additional source of danger1 namely1 the coal gas1 which is nearly identical with our coal gas of the streets1 and takes fire when brought into contact with flame4 ,to rid the mines of these gases1 a simple1 ingenious1 and effectual remedy is used4 ,a ventilating shaft is made1 which reaches from the bottom to the mouth of the pit4 ,at the bottom1 diagonal shafts are made1 entering the main shaft1 as shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,one of these is connected with a furnace1 and the other1 or others1 open into the mine4 ,the heat of the furnace rarefies the air in the shaft1 causing it to rush upwards with great violence1 and so1 by creating a partial vacuum1 to force the air in the shaft to follow it4 ,the loss of air thus caused is supplied by fresh air from above1 which1 by the law already described1 is obliged to take the place of that which was driven out4 ,thus a complete circulation of air is kept up1 and a well-managed mine has a fresher atmosphere than many houses in which the windows are mostly kept shut1 and the only ventilation is accomplished by occasionally open doors4 ,the 8draught0 of our domestic chimneys is owing to this principle1 and the reason why factory chimneys are built of such enormous height is1 that the column of heated air may be increased1 and consequently that the draught may be stronger1 and the heat of the furnace made fiercer4 ,the 8,steam-blast10 by which the escape steam of engines is sent into the chimney1 is another example of this principle1 the steam taking the place of the hot air4 ,further examples of the weight of the atmosphere are given in the illustration4 ,that on the right represents the common ,wheel ,barometer1 which marks the weight of the air by a hand moving in front of a dial4 ,if the hand moves towards the right1 the weight of the air is increasing2 if to the left1 it is decreasing4 ,there are certain words1 such as ,wet1 ,change1 ,fair1 ,dry1 c41 on the face of the dial1 but they are only conventional1 the real test of the weather being the direction in which the hand moves4 ,for example1 if with a west wind the hand moves from ,dry towards ,fair1 rain may be expected2 whereas1 if it should move from ,wet to ,change with an east wind1 we may reasonably think that fine weather is coming4 ,the whole cause of this revolution of the hand may be found in the weight of the atmosphere4 ,it is found that a column of water thirty feet high1 or a column of mercury thirty inches high1 is exactly equal in weight to a column of air of the same diameter1 but some forty odd miles high1 so that the two columns precisely balance each other4 ,illustration3 ,,sucking ,,sugar-,,cane4 ,,sucking ,,an ,,egg4 ,,barometers4 ,suppose1 then1 the water or mercury to be placed in tubes closed at the top and open at the bottom1 the water or mercury will exactly balance the air1 and will not escape from the tubes4 ,it necessarily follows that if the air be heavier than usual1 it will force the liquid higher into the tubes1 and1 if it be lighter than usual1 will allow them to fall lower4 ,this is the principle of the ,barometer4 ,the mechanism of the hand and dial is shown in the diagram which occupies the centre of the illustration4 ,for convenience1 sake the mercury column is mostly employed1 but several ,water ,barometers1 some thirty feet in length1 have been constructed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand is seen a boy engaged in sucking an egg4 ,the plan employed is simple enough4 ,a tolerably large hole is made at one end1 and a very small one at the other4 ,the yolk having been broken up by a long needle1 or similar implement1 the larger hole is placed to the lips1 and1 suction being used1 the contents pass into the mouth4 ,were it not for the hole at the end opposite the mouth1 it would be impossible to extract the contents1 but the air rushes through the aperture1 and so forces out the contents of the egg4 ,above is a representation of the way in which ,sugar-cane is sucked4 ,the reader probably knows that the ,sugar-cane1 like the wheat-stem1 has knots at certain intervals1 which divide the cane into a number of separate parts4 ,there is quite an art in sucking the ,sugar-cane4 ,if a joint be cut off1 and the lips applied to the end1 not a drop of the sweet juice would be extracted4 ,but if a notch be cut close to the joint1 as shown in the illustration1 the air can gain access1 and then the juice flows easily enough4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,boiling ,,water4 ,illustration3 ,,thermometer4 ,it has already been mentioned that air expands when heated4 ,the same rule holds good when applied to other objects1 such as the various liquids1 metals1 c4 ,a very familiar example of this fact is the 8boiling over0 of water1 when the vessel has been filled too much to allow for the expansion of the heated liquid4 ,advantage has been taken of this principle in the formation of the ,thermometer1 a word which signifies 8heat-measurer40 ,liquid of some kind is placed in an hermetically sealed tube1 generally terminating with a bulb1 and in proportion to the heat the liquid expands1 and is forced up the tube4 ,any liquid will answer to a certain extent1 but1 as water freezes at #cb1 it would be useless for measuring degrees of cold below the freezing point4 ,coloured spirits of wine are used2 but the very best liquid is mercury1 which is a metal in a state of fusion4 ,this expansion by heat is so powerful in iron1 that it is utilised in several ways4 ,take1 for example1 wheel-making4 ,the iron tire is made rather smaller than the wheel1 and is then placed in a fire until it is red-hot4 ,it then expands so much that it can be easily slipped over the wheel as it lies on the ground4 ,cold water is then dashed on it1 and the tire contracts with tremendous force1 binding the parts of the wheel firmly together4 ,in all buildings where iron is much used1 such as iron bridges1 iron beams1 c41 it is necessary to make allowance at both ends1 so as to permit the iron to expand on a hot day and contract on a cool one4 ,buildings formed of stone and iron were once thought to be safe in case of fire4 ,they are now known to be just the contrary1 the stone flying with the heat1 and the iron expanding4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,cassava ,press and its ,structure4--,mode of using it4--,the ,siamese ,link4--,an ingenious ,robbery4--,muscles and their ,mode of ,action4--,human ,arms and ,steelyard4--,change of ,direction4--,the ,human ,hand and ,wrist4--,story of a ,carpenter4--,the ,pulley4--,reduction by ,friction4--,past and present ,engines4--,oiling ,machines4--,treatment of the ,sewing ,machine4--,use of ,paraffine4--,disuse of ,machine hurtful4--,human ,joints4--,synovia and its ,value4--,disuse of ,joints hurtful4--,the ,lazy-tongs and its ,usefulness to ,invalids4--,suggestions for ,improvement4--,larva of the ,dragonfly and its ,mask4--,curious ,mode of seizing ,prey4--,proboscis of the ,housefly1 and ,mode of using it4--,the ,apple-parer4--,squirrel and ,nut4--,structure of ,teeth4--,rock-splitting4--,powers of ,ice4--,how the ,pebble-ridge is formed4--,splitting ,stones by ,moisture4--,the ,diamond ,drill4--,ovipositor of the ,gad-fly4--,curious ,similitude of ,structure4 ,,means ,,and ,,appliances4 ,in this chapter we will take some miscellaneous appliances of force both in ,art and ,nature4 ,in the accompanying illustration is shown the ,cassava ,press of ,southern ,america1 a most effective and simple instrument for extracting the juices of the root4 ,these juices are poisonous when raw1 but1 when properly boiled and cooked1 they make an excellent sauce4 ,the press in question is an elastic tube made of flat strips of cane woven together exactly like the 8,siamese ,link10 which will be presently described4 ,the cassava root1 after having been scraped until it resembles horseradish1 is forced into the press until it can hold no more4 ,the result is1 that the tube is shortened and thickened1 being widest in the middle4 ,it is then hung by its upper loop to the horizontal beam of a hut4 ,a long pole is passed through the lower loop1 the short end is placed under a projecting peg on the upright post of the house1 and a heavy weight attached to the longer end4 ,a powerful leverage is thus obtained1 the tube is forcibly shortened1 and the juice exudes through the apertures of the woven cane4 ,illustration3 ,,cassava ,,press4 ,when it begins to run slowly1 a woman seats herself at the end of the pole1 so as to increase its weight4 ,i must mention here that in the illustration the press is too near the middle of the pole4 ,this is because the exigences of our page do not admit of the requisite length4 ,but if the reader will kindly assume the end to which the stone is attached to be three or four times longer1 he will have an idea of the great power which is exerted upon the cassava4 ,on the left hand of the illustration is the same cassava press as seen when empty1 and both figures1 as well as that of the pot for receiving the juice1 are taken from specimens in my collection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right hand of the following illustration is the ,siamese ,link1 which caused such a sensation when it first came out4 ,a finger is inserted at each end1 and1 when the owner attempts to withdraw them1 the ,link contracts1 and the harder the pull1 the tighter is the hold4 ,if the fourth instead of the first finger be employed1 the hold of the ,link is exceedingly strong4 ,the only mode of release is by pushing the fingers together1 when the ,link will relax4 ,it should then be held by the remaining fingers of one hand1 so that it shall not contract again1 and the finger of the other hand comes out at once4 ,an ingenious robbery was once committed by means of the ,siamese ,link4 ,a man of good address struck up an acquaintance with a jeweller4 ,one day he produced a ,siamese ,link1 and challenged him to get his fingers out when once they were in4 ,so the jeweller was told to put his hands behind his back1 and push his little fingers as far in as he could4 ,illustration3 ,,muscles ,of ,,leg4 ,illustration3 ,,siamese ,,link4 ,this he did1 when the treacherous friend made a clean sweep of all the rings1 brooches1 ear-rings1 and such jewellery as was within his reach1 while the unfortunate jeweller was vainly tugging at the ,link4 ,this only occupied a few seconds for a practised hand1 and the thief quietly opened the door1 shut it1 and was lost in the passing crowd before the jeweller could recover from his surprise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left of the same illustration is a view of the muscles of the human leg1 which1 as the reader will see1 are curiously like the distended cassava press4 ,although the mode of applying the force differs1 the principle is the same4 ,in the latter case an external force is applied to the press1 but in the latter an internal1 or rather a central1 force is applied to the bones4 ,it is evident that if a similar process were carried on with the cassava press1 and the central portion forcibly distended1 the supports at either end would be drawn powerfully towards each other4 ,substitute the muscle for the press1 and the bones for the poles1 and this is muscular action4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,here we have a diagram which speaks for itself1 as far as muscular action is concerned1 but there is another point to which we shall presently pass4 ,illustration3 ,,human ,,arm4 ,illustration3 ,,steelyard4 ,the muscle of the arm is seen running along the bone1 passing over the elbow1 where it is held down by a tendinous band1 and1 by its contraction1 enabling the arm to be bent so as to uphold a considerable weight4 ,the mechanical analogy between this arrangement and the common ,steelyard is too evident to need any explanation except inspection of the diagram4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,there is1 however1 another point which is worthy of consideration4 ,the muscle does not proceed at once from the shoulder to the wrist1 but passes under the tendinous band above mentioned1 and so produces a change of direction when the arm is bent4 ,there is a more complicated arrangement of a similar character in the human hand1 a diagram of which is given in the left-hand figure of the accompanying illustration4 ,the fingers are1 of course1 moved by a set of tendons1 and the muscles1 from which these tendons spring1 are attached to the fore-arm 7,i purposely omit the scientific titles1 though they would be much easier to write74 ,any of my readers can prove this for themselves4 ,let him first grasp the upper arm firmly1 and bend the limbs1 and he will at once find that the swelling of the muscle shows the source of power4 ,then let him do the same1 but grasp the fore-arm1 and he will find that the muscles are quiescent1 showing that the former set of muscles belong to the entire arm1 and not to the fingers1 while the muscles of the lower arm have nothing to do with the bending of that limb4 ,now let him grasp the fore-arm1 and open and close the fingers1 and he will feel a whole set of muscles rise1 and swell and harden under his grasp4 ,next let him bend his hand inwards1 and he will find that the fingers work perfectly well1 though the direction of force is changed4 ,this is owing to a band of tendons passing across the wrist1 under which the finger-tendons play4 ,the course of the tendons is marked in the illustration by leaving them white4 ,the wondrous structure of the human hand and its multitudinous tendons can only be appreciated by actual dissection1 but an idea of their variety and use may be obtained by watching the hands of a skilful pianoforte-player4 ,this struck me forcibly the first time that ,i ever heard ,thalberg play4 ,while on the subject of tendons1 ,i may mention a curious case4 ,a journeyman carpenter missed a blow with his axe1 and struck his left hand at the junction of the thumb and wrist4 ,the important tendon was severed1 and the inner muscles1 having no counteracting force1 dragged the thumb into the hollow of the hand4 ,to all appearance1 the man could no longer earn a living as a carpenter4 ,but he would not be discouraged1 and while he was in hospital he borrowed a book1 and studied the anatomy of the human hand4 ,by means of this knowledge he constructed a sort of semi-glove1 in which he introduced pieces of watch-spring1 that supplied the place of the lost tendon4 ,not content with this1 he studied ,euclid for the purposes of his trade1 so as to get the most possible out of a piece of wood of given dimensions1 and be able to go straight to his mark by a problem1 instead of doing it slowly and clumsily with a two-foot rule and a pair of compasses4 ,when ,i saw him last he was a master carpenter in a large and increasing business4 ,man has unconsciously imitated ,nature in the invention of the ,pulley1 whereby the direction of force may be altered almost at will4 ,in this case the cord takes the part of the working tendon1 and the ,pulley of the fixed tendinous crossbar4 ,there is much matter of interest in the tendons1 but1 as our space is fast waning1 ,i must resist the temptation of describing them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in all machinery one of the chief objects of the machinist is to reduce friction as much as possible4 ,he makes all the joints as smooth as tools can polish1 and always introduces oil or some lubricating substance into the joints4 ,otherwise the engine rattles with a noise proportionate to its power1 and wastes its force on the friction4 ,illustration3 ,,tendons ,,of ,,hand4 ,illustration3 ,,pulley4 ,in my childish days a steam-engine of any kind used to rattle so loudly that conversation was almost impossible4 ,now they are made with such perfection1 that the vast engines in use at the pumping stations of the metropolitan drainage are almost absolutely silent4 ,there is the enormous hall1 filled with gigantic beams and rods1 and cranks1 and wheels4 ,a single man turns a little handle1 and the whole machinery starts into life4 ,beams rock1 cranks and wheels revolve1 rods slide up and down1 and all in a silence which is nearly appalling in its manifestation of unassuming strength4 ,indeed1 many a hand sewing machine makes far more noise than one of those giant engines1 and all because in the latter friction is avoided as far as possible1 every screw is well braced up1 and every joint is kept well lubricated4 ,here ,i may observe that few sewing machines get fair play4 ,they rattle1 they squeak1 they become stiffer daily1 they snap the thread1 and then decline work altogether4 ,and in almost every case this is done by neglect on the part of the owner1 who does not lubricate every point of the machine which works upon another4 ,illustration3 ,,lubrication ,,of ,,joint4 ,illustration3 ,,oiling ,,machine4 ,ladies especially are very careless in this respect1 and will mostly omit three or four of the oiling points4 ,they might just as well omit them all1 as a single unoiled point will disarrange the harmonious motion of the whole machine4 ,i have often been called in as surgeon in such cases1 and have almost invariably been able to point to several spots which needed oil1 and did not get it4 ,sometimes1 out of false economy1 an inferior oil is used1 which speedily clogs and hardens1 and stops all movement4 ,in such a case the best remedy is to apply paraffine liberally1 and use it for a quarter of an hour or so4 ,it will soon dissolve the clogged oil1 which may be worked out by turning the handle or crank of the machine4 ,of course the best remedy is to take the machine to pieces1 polish the joints1 lubricate them1 and put it together again4 ,but this is a perilous process1 and an amateur1 if he tries it1 will generally find himself with half-a-dozen pieces for which he can find no place4 ,paraffine will answer every purpose1 and ,i have released many a stiffened machine by its use4 ,then some people leave their machines untouched for days1 or even weeks1 and then wonder that they work stiffly4 ,every day the machine should he worked1 if only for a few seconds1 and then it will seldom stiffen4 ,it is just the same with steamers4 ,when they are in harbour1 though the fires be out1 and they are not meant to move for weeks1 the engines are always turned round at least once daily4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,both these rules hold good in the animal kingdom4 ,to every joint there are attached certain glands that supply a kind of oily substance technically named 8synovia10 which acts exactly the same part as the oil or grease of machinery4 ,if these glands do not do their duty1 and the supply of synovia be defective1 the joints become stiff1 painful1 and crackle when they are moved4 ,then1 exactly as the joints of a machine become stiff from non-usage1 so do those of a human being4 ,we will take1 for example1 the ,indian ,fakirs who vow that they will not move some limb from a definite posture4 ,at first the exertion is trying and painful1 but by degrees the disused joints lose their faculty of motion1 and1 even if their owner wished to move a limb1 he could not do it4 ,the right-hand figure of the illustration represents the lubrication of an ordinary sewing machine1 and the left-hand figure is a section of the human knee-joint1 showing the gland which supplies the synovia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,perhaps some of my readers may think that such a subject as the 8,lazy-tongs0 is too trivial for a work which deals1 however lightly1 with science4 ,but there may be some who know the inestimable benefit of ,lazy-tongs under certain conditions4 ,there are many cases where a severe injury has occurred1 or where rheumatism has fixed its tiger-claws in the joints1 so that movement is all but impossible4 ,there may be no one in the room to help the invalid1 and even to stretch the arm over the table is as impossible as to jump over the house4 ,then it is that the real value of the ,lazy-tongs becomes manifested1 and that it shows itself in the light of a supplementary limb4 ,with a mere movement of the fingers it can be stretched across any table which is likely to be placed before an invalid1 and seize the required object by the tongs at the further end4 ,the only drawback to its use is1 that the instrument cannot be shortened without opening the tongs4 ,but1 if some plan could be devised whereby the tongs could retain their hold under those conditions1 the instrument would be a perfect one4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,exactly such a ,lazy-tongs we have in ,nature1 in the well-known 8mask of the larva and pupa of the ,dragon-fly40 ,it is called a mask because1 when closed1 it covers the face4 ,illustration3 ,,head ,,and ,,proboscis ,,of ,,house-,,fly4 ,illustration3 ,,mask ,,of ,,dragon-,,fly ,,larva4 ,illustration3 ,,lazy-,,tongs4 ,it chiefly consists of two flat1 horny plates1 hinged in each other like a carpenter's two-foot rule1 and being capable of extension to a considerable length4 ,the end is widened1 and furnished with two jaws1 which take the part of the tongs in the instrument above described4 ,this curious apparatus is used for the purpose of securing prey4 ,i have kept many of these creatures1 and watched their mode of feeding4 ,as has already been mentioned1 they have two modes of progression1 i4e4 walking by means of legs like those of ordinary insects2 and driving themselves along by ejecting water from the tail1 on the principle of the rocket4 ,as far as ,i have seen1 the latter mode is always used in taking prey4 ,the ,dragon-fly larva always lives at the bottom of the water1 though it can force itself to the surface if needful4 ,and1 like the dreaded ground-shark1 it seizes its prey from beneath4 ,its favourite food is the larva of the whirlwig-beetle1 a fat white grub1 with a number of white1 soft1 feathery gills fringing its sides4 ,in order to produce a current of air over these gills1 the larva wriggles itself up to a height of several inches1 and then sinks slowly down1 with the white gills floating on either side4 ,should a ,dragon-fly larva be near1 it sees the grub ascending1 glides quietly under it without using its legs so as to cause alarm1 waits for it to sink1 darts out the mask1 seizes it in the jaws1 drags it to its mouth1 and the grub is seen no more4 ,so voracious are these larv1 that1 if only two are kept in the same vessel1 one is sure to devour the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another good example of the ,lazy-tongs is the ,proboscis of the common ,house-fly4 ,we have all seen these insects alight near sugar1 or any other tempting food1 unfold the proboscis1 pour a drop of liquid in the sugar1 dissolve it1 suck it up1 and then shut up the proboscis as if by hinges4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another labour-saving machine is the ,apple-parer1 a comparatively modern invention4 ,the principle is1 that a knife is pressed lightly by a spring against a revolving apple1 and set at such an angle that nothing but the outside peel can be removed4 ,where large numbers of apples have to be pared1 as in making preserves or in hotels1 this is a most useful invention4 ,illustration3 ,,squirrel ,,and ,,nut4 ,illustration3 ,,apple ,,parer4 ,when ,i first saw it at work1 the operation seemed familiar to me1 but ,i could not at first remember the parallel4 ,at last it flashed across me that a ,squirrel eating a nut was the natural parallel of the ,paring ,machine4 ,after splitting the shell and extracting the kernel1 the ,squirrel takes the latter between its fore-paws1 presses it against its upper incisor teeth1 and makes it revolve rapidly4 ,in a second or two the kernel is perfectly peeled1 and is then eaten4 ,in this case the incisor teeth of the ,squirrel take the part of the knife1 the muscles of the leg that of the spring1 and the sharp edges of the upper teeth that of the knife4 ,the structure of the ,rodent teeth has already been explained in page #bcc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the wonderful effects of water in breaking up the hardest rock have already been described4 ,we will now proceed to another branch of the same subject4 ,illustration3 ,,frost-,,cleft ,,rock4 ,illustration3 ,,stone-,,splitting4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have wandered along our rocky coasts1 and have seen how large masses of rock are continually detaching themselves1 though they are so hard that a cold chisel is needed to make any impression upon them4 ,then they fall into the sea1 and are rolled backwards and forwards until they become smoothed and rounded1 and are called pebbles1 while the portion that is rubbed off them is called sand4 ,the phenomenon is well shown in the wonderful ,pebble ,ridge of ,north ,devon4 ,the real agent is ice4 ,we all know that1 when water freezes1 it expands considerably4 ,this accounts for two phenomena4 ,first1 as it expands1 it becomes lighter than water1 and consequently floats on the surface4 ,next1 there are few of us who have not seen water-bottles cracked by the freezing of the water4 ,the most common1 and perhaps the most unpleasant1 example of this propensity is the bursting of water-pipes in the winter1 followed by a flooding of the house when the thaw comes4 ,this is caused by the expansion of the frozen water1 which will burst not only a thin leaden tube1 but a stout iron vessel4 ,care should therefore be taken1 at the beginning of winter1 to cover up all exposed portions of leaden pipes1 and there will then be no danger4 ,there was one pipe in my house that was always bursting1 but after ,i covered it with two or three layers of carpet placed loosely over each other1 so as to entangle the air and form a non-conductor1 the pipe has never frozen1 and the water supply has been uninterrupted by the severest frosts4 ,i am told that a still better plan exists1 especially in places where the pipes cannot be thoroughly protected by external wrappings4 ,let six inches or so of the leaden pipe be removed1 and its place supplied by a vulcanised india-rubber tube4 ,the ice must expand somewhere1 and chooses the spot where least resistance is offered to it4 ,consequently1 it expands in the india-rubber tube1 but does not break it1 and1 when the thaw comes1 there is no overflow of water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,man utilises this power of ice in stone-splitting4 ,instead of taking the trouble to cut the stone by manual labour1 the workmen bore a series of holes1 fill them with water1 insert tightly a wooden plug to prevent the ice1 when formed1 from oozing out of the holes1 and leave the rest for the frost to do4 ,a like effect is produced in the warm weather by substituting similar plugs1 but quite dry1 having been baked for hours in an oven1 for the purpose of driving out every particle of moisture4 ,these plugs are hammered into the holes as deeply as they will go1 and there left4 ,even if there be no rain1 the nightly dews make their way into the pores of the dry wood1 and cause it to swell with such irresistible force that the stone is split with scarcely any manual labour on the part of the workmen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,yet another plan for cutting hard stones4 ,some of my readers may be aware that a singularly ingenious instrument has been invented for cutting boles in granite and other hard rocks4 ,it is called the ,diamond ,drill1 because its tip is armed with uncut diamonds4 ,it is necessary that the diamond should not be cut1 as the natural edges are needed4 ,a glazier's diamond1 for example1 is always set as it came out of the mine4 ,the stories that are told about cutting out panes of glass with a diamond ring are all absurd4 ,a diamond1 when it has once passed through the hands of the jeweller1 cannot cut glass4 ,it can scratch glass1 but not one whit better than a flake of ordinary flint4 ,illustration3 ,,borer ,,of ,,strus4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond-,,headed ,,borer4 ,it is found that the ,diamond ,drill works with wondrous rapidity1 cutting away the stone with ease1 and suffering scarcely any damage itself4 ,the tube to the end of which the diamonds are fixed is generally made in telescopic fashion1 so as to allow it to penetrate deeply into the rock1 without the necessity of shifting the machine by which it is turned4 ,i need hardly say that its rate of speed is very great indeed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our old friend1 the ,gad-fly1 again affords an example of a parallel4 ,the ovipositor is tubular1 telescopic1 and furnished at the top with five little hard1 sharp1 scaly knobs1 which act the same part as the diamonds of the mining tool4 ,even the scoop-like shape of the tip1 and the telescopic shaft1 are almost identical in both instances4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,telescopic ,,tubes4--,,direct ,,action4--,,distribution ,,of ,,weight4--,,tree-,,climbing4--,,the ,,wheel4 ,telescopic ,tubes1 their ,structure and ,uses4--,the ,japanese ,fishing-rod4--,the ,tripod ,wheel-bearer and its ,telescopic ,structure4--,the ,rat-tailed ,maggot4--,locomotion4--,direct ,action4--,the ,rocket1 the ,water ,tourniquet1 and ,electric ,tourniquet4--,cuttle-fish4--,the ,flying ,squids4--,the ,paper ,nautilus4--,proceedings of newly-hatched ,calamaries4--,larva of the ,dragonfly4--,distribution of ,weight4--,the ,snow-shoe1 its ,structure and ,mode of using it4--,the ,skidor of ,norway4--,a formidable ,rifle ,corps4--,the ,mud-patten4--,foot of ,duck tribe4--,foot of ,jacana4--,locomotion of ,water-gnat4--,tree-climbing4--,mode of ascending ,palm-trees4--,the ,value of a ,hoop4--,the 8,girt ,pupa0 and ,butterfly4--,principle of the ,wheel4--,the primitive ,wooden ,wheel4--,spoked ,wheels4--,driving ,wheel of the ,bicycle4--,naturally spoked ,wheel of the ,chirodota4 ,,means ,,and ,,appliances 7continued74 ,we will now treat rather more in detail the two subjects which were lightly touched upon at the end of the last chapter4 ,the reader will remember that the diamond-headed borer is made in telescope form1 so as to be adjustable at pleasure4 ,it was also remarked that the ovipositor of the ,gad-fly was made in a similar fashion1 so as to be withdrawn within the body of the insect when not needed1 and protrusible to a considerable extent when the ,gad-fly wishes to deposit her eggs4 ,as to our modern telescopes and opera-glasses1 they are so familiar that there is little use in describing them1 except to say that their framework consists of a number of tubes of gradually lessening diameter1 the one sliding within the other1 so that the instrument can be lengthened or shortened at will1 so as to suit the focus of the observing eye4 ,a very ingenious adaptation of the telescopic principle is seen in the ,japanese fishing-rod1 which is now tolerably well known4 ,our own telescopic rods require to be withdrawn at the butt-end1 and then fitted together in front4 ,but the ,japanese rods are so made that1 after taking off the ferrule of the seeming walking-stick1 a mere fling of the hand will send joint after joint flying out1 and fixing themselves in regular succession4 ,so admirably are these rods made1 that even blowing into the butt-end will have the same effect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,one of the most perfect1 if not the most perfect1 example of the telescopic tube is to be found in the ,tripod ,wheel-bearer 7,actinurus71 one of the numerous aquatic ,rotifers4 ,illustration3 ,,actinurus ,,tail1 ,,open ,,and ,,closed 7,,magnified74 ,illustration3 ,,telescope4 ,it is not usually so small as the generality of its class1 being nearly one-twentieth of an inch in length1 and visible to the unassisted eye1 provided that the owner of the eye in question knows how to use it4 ,when placed under a microscope of moderate power1 the ,actinurus is seen to be built almost wholly upon the telescopic pattern4 ,only the centre of the body remains stationary1 the two ends being framed on the principle of the telescopic tube1 and capable of being enclosed within the central portion1 just as is the case with the ,japanese fishing-rod4 ,in the illustration the ,actinurus is shown in two attitudes4 ,in the upper figure it is represented as having the fore-part of the body entirely1 and the tail part nearly1 withdrawn within the central portion4 ,the lower figure shows the same specimen with all its telescopic tubes drawn out to full length4 ,the creature is perpetually elongating and contracting its body by means of these tubes1 so that a measurement of its length is not easy to obtain4 ,a full and interesting description of this curious ,rotifer may be found in ,gosse's 8,evenings at the ,microscope10 p4 #cjj4 ,the long tails of the ,rat-tailed ,maggot1 already described under the head of ,diving1 are good examples of the drawtube as found in ,nature4 ,,locomotion4--,,direct ,,action4 ,the second point which has to be elucidated is that or progress by means of ,direct ,action4 ,illustration3 ,,nautilus4 ,,larva ,,of ,,dragon-,,fly4 ,,rocket4 ,,water ,,tourniquet4 ,,electric ,,tourniquet4 ,we have already seen how vessels can be propelled by sail1 oar1 paddle1 or screw4 ,we have now to consider a mode of progress which requires none of these things1 but which works by means of ,direct ,action4 ,such1 for example1 is the progress of a ,rocket through the air4 ,the heated gases rush out with tremendous violence1 and1 by their pressure1 urge the heavy rocket into the air with the rush1 roar1 and bang so familiar to all who have witnessed a good display of fireworks4 ,a rocket in the act of ascent is shown in the uppermost figure of the accompanying illustration4 ,below it is shown the ,water ,turbine1 the principle of which is evident from the sketch4 ,from each of the apertures a stream of water is forcibly directed1 and1 by its resistance1 spins the vessel round and round4 ,there are several shops in ,london in which this instrument may be seen at work4 ,although in such positions it is necessarily a mere toy1 it carries with it1 in common with many other toys1 the germs of valuable inventions4 ,indeed1 there have been attempts to utilise the principle of ,direct ,action in the propulsion of vessels1 but as yet the mechanical difficulties have proved practically insuperable1 and1 although a vessel has been thus propelled1 the expense has been heavier than that of the paddle or screw1 and the speed not nearly so great4 ,on the right hand of the illustration is another example of ,direct ,action1 called the ,electric ,tourniquet4 ,in the two previously mentioned instruments the motive power is visible1 but in this it is invisible except in the dark4 ,the principle is exactly the same as in the pocket or water tourniquet2 but1 instead of heated air or a stream of water1 electricity is used4 ,the instrument is attached to an electric machine1 and fully charged4 ,the electric fluid rushes out of the points1 forces itself against the air1 and so1 by its recoil1 drives the machine round and round upon its pivot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,we will now take two examples of ,direct ,action as found in ,nature4 ,perhaps many of my readers have seen the ,octopus1 and admired the manner in which it glides through the water1 trailing its long arms behind it4 ,whence the force comes is not easily seen1 and the creature appears to move almost by volition4 ,in reality1 however1 it employs ,direct ,action4 ,it takes water into the body1 and then it ejects it through a tube called the 8siphon0 with such force that the animal is propelled backwards through the water4 ,some of the creatures belonging to the ,cuttles1 and popularly called ,squids1 can use such extraordinary powers that they can project themselves far out of the water4 ,in consequence of this power1 they are sometimes called ,flying ,squids1 and1 as they have been known to shoot themselves completely over the hull of a large ship1 they well deserve the name4 ,the common ,squid of our coasts1 which furnishes the so-called ,cuttle-bone1 affords us a good example of ,direct ,action4 ,i once hatched a number of young ,squids from the grape-like eggs1 and it was most curious to see how the little creatures shot about as soon as they escaped from the egg4 ,they also utilised the siphon in another way4 ,poising themselves just above the sand with which the bottom of the vessel was covered1 they directed a stream of water upon it1 and thus formed little cavities into which they settled like birds into their nests4 ,the figure represents the ,paper ,nautilus as it appears while passing through the water4 ,just at the base of the tentacles is seen the short siphon1 from which it is pouring the stream of water which drives it along4 ,below the ,nautilus is seen the larva of the common ,dragonfly4 ,we have1 when treating of the ,lazy-tongs1 already described the mode in which the insect takes its prey1 and our object could not be served by repetition4 ,suffice it to say that the insect is shown in the act of ejecting water1 and so shooting itself along in preparation for seizing prey4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,weight4 ,being on the subject of locomotion1 we will examine a few of the contrivances by which a man is enabled to pass in safety over soft substances into which he would otherwise sink4 ,the first and best-known of these is the ,snow-shoe of ,northern ,america4 ,it is a framework of wood1 shaped as shown in the upper figure on the right-hand side1 and strengthened by two cross-bars4 ,the interior of the 8shoe0 is filled in with hide thongs arranged much like those of a racket1 and stretched as tightly4 ,the front of the snow-shoe is slightly turned up1 so as to avoid the danger of the point sticking in the snow1 an event which1 however1 generally happens to a novice4 ,these instruments are of considerable size1 a specimen in my collection measuring exactly five feet in length1 by fifteen inches in width4 ,supported on the snow-shoe1 the hunter is enabled to glide unhurt over the deep snow in which he must have sunk without some such aid4 ,he can thus hunt the bison1 the wapiti1 or any of the larger animals1 being able to pass rapidly over the surface1 while they are laboriously ploughing their way through the snow-drifts4 ,illustration3 ,,feet ,,of ,,ducks4 ,,snow-,,shoe4 ,,foot ,,of ,,jacana4 ,,mud-,,patten4 ,,water-,,gnat4 ,,skidor4 ,it occasionally happens that the snow falls before the shoes are ready4 ,in this case the hunter is obliged to extemporise snow-shoes by cutting them out of thin boards4 ,several years ago1 when snow fell heavily and remained unmelted for many days1 some ,canadians1 who were visiting ,england1 made quite a sensation by donning their snow-shoes1 and travelling over the snow-clad country4 ,it was very pretty to see the easy way in which they could shoot down a hill1 and to watch the peculiar gait which is needed by the snow-shoe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,at the bottom of the illustration is shown a portion of a curious skate used in ,norway1 and called ,skidor4 ,these remarkable implements achieve by means of length the task which the snow-shoe accomplishes by width4 ,they are made of wood1 and1 though but a few inches in width1 are ten feet or more in length4 ,one is always a few feet shorter than the other1 for the convenience of turning4 ,much practice is needed for the management of the ,skidors1 but1 when they are fairly mastered1 they enable their owner to travel at a wonderful pace4 ,the ,norwegian hunter is quite as dependent on his ,skidor as the ,north ,american on his ,snow-shoe1 and uses it for exactly the same purpose4 ,a corps of these hunters has been organized for war1 and very formidable they were1 hanging on the skirts of the enemy1 and giving him no rest1 day or night4 ,they never came within fifty yards of each other1 so that even cannon were useless2 and1 as soon as they thought that they were endangered1 they dispersed in all directions1 only to reunite and swoop down again on the enemy at the first opportunity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the central figure represents the ,mud-patten1 which1 as its name implies1 plays the same part towards mud that the snow-shoe and skidor do to the snow4 ,like them1 also1 it is not easy to manage2 and a novice is tolerably certain to drive the front of the patten into the mud1 and so get an awkward and not aromatic fall4 ,this patten1 which is merely a square piece of board attached to the foot1 is in use on many of our coasts where the ebbing tide runs out to a great distance1 leaving a vast expanse of soft mud4 ,like the skidor and the snow-shoe1 it is mostly used by sportsmen1 especially in the winter1 when wild-duck shooting sets in4 ,aided by the pattens1 a sportsman can travel for miles over mud that would otherwise swallow him up1 shoot his birds1 and secure them when fallen4 ,while engaged in winter shooting on the ,medway1 we have often lost birds because they fell beyond a deep mud-bank1 and we had no means of crossing it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration are some natural parallels of these artificial aids4 ,the two upper figures represent two forms of webbed feet1 and the analogy between them and the snow-shoe and mud-patten is too obvious to need explanation4 ,in the centre is the foot of the ,jacana1 an ,asiatic bird4 ,its foot may well be taken as the analogue of the skidor1 length taking the place of breadth1 and enabling the weight to be distributed over a large surface4 ,this bird finds its food in rivers and lakes1 and1 by reason of its enormously long toes1 can walk with safety over slight floating vegetation1 which would give way at once under the tread of any bird except a ,jacana4 ,very good representations of this bird are to be seen in ,japanese works of art1 especially those which are mounted as screens4 ,even the peculiar gait of the bird is given with marvellous truth4 ,the last figure represents the common ,water-gnat 7,gerris71 which may be seen in almost any piece of fresh water1 however small4 ,ponds that are open to the south1 and sheltered from the north wind1 are its favourite localities4 ,it is a carnivorous being1 feeding almost wholly on insects that fall into the water4 ,in order to capture them1 it runs rapidly over the surface of the water1 the long slender legs distributing its weight over a large surface1 and so keeping it from sinking4 ,only the last two pairs of legs are employed for this purpose1 the first pair being held in front of the body1 and used for the purpose of capturing prey4 ,,tree-,,climbing4 ,another curious aid to locomotion is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,in many parts of the world1 where the cocoa-nut palm grows1 the natives have invented a simple1 but ingenious1 plan for ascending the tall1 curved stem4 ,such a thing as an upright palm-tree is unknown1 and consequently the ascent of the branchless stem is not an easy task without artificial assistance4 ,when ,i treated of ,warfare and the different modes of scaling walls1 the climbing-spur was casually mentioned4 ,the implement of the palm-climber1 however1 is simpler and more effective1 as it leaves both hands at liberty when desired4 ,the man cuts a long piece of one of the tough and almost unbreakable creepers which festoon the trees of tropical climes4 ,he passes it round the trunk which he wishes to climb1 and fastens the ends firmly together1 so as to form a large loose hoop4 ,he then passes the hoop over his head1 until it presses against his back1 as seen in the illustration1 and serves to support him as he leans against it4 ,illustration3 ,,girt ,,pupa ,,and ,,butterfly4 ,illustration3 ,,climbing ,,palm-,,tree4 ,taking the hoop by the two sides1 he lifts it up the trunk as far as he can1 places the soles of his feet against the tree1 and so walks up it1 hitching the hoop upwards at every step4 ,when he has reached the top of the tree1 he supports himself entirely by the hoop1 while his hands are at liberty to be used in getting the cocoa-nuts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the insect world there are many examples of support being given by a belt passing round the body4 ,among the ,butterflies1 for example1 there are many which1 in their pupal stage of existence1 are attached to upright stems4 ,they are fixed to the stem by a few threads at the tail1 answering to the feet of the tree-climber1 while the body is kept in position by a stout silken thread passed loosely round it4 ,the illustration represents the pupa of the common ,swallow-tailed ,butterfly1 while in the centre is the same insect in the perfect state as it appears when resting4 ,it really seems as if the ancient habit of the pupa had been remembered by the perfect insect1 the long ends of the hinder wings taking the place of the pupal tail1 and the legs that of the belt4 ,,the ,,wheel4 ,yet another aid to locomotion is found in the ,,wheel1 a contrivance for diminishing friction4 ,illustration3 ,,wheel-,,spicule ,,of ,,chibodota4 ,illustration3 ,,cart-,,wheel4 ,when man first learnt that heavier weights could be dragged than carried1 he simply placed them on flat boards to which ropes were attached4 ,the next step was necessarily the invention of the sledge1 the burden resting on two parallel runners1 the ends of which were slightly curved so as to prevent them from hitching against any small obstruction4 ,in some countries--such1 for example1 as in ,esquimaux-land--the sledge is the only vehicle practicable1 and even ,europeans1 when they visit that country1 are fain to adopt the sledge if they would live4 ,but1 in more temperate zones1 the ,wheel is paramount4 ,in its earlier stages the wheel was a very simple business4 ,it was simply a section of1 a tree-trunk1 dubbed roughly round1 and with a hole in the centre1 through which the axle passed4 ,such wheels are still in existence in many parts of ,europe2 and1 owing to the want of regularity of outline in the circumference1 and the utter absence of grease1 the wheels keep up a continuous shriek1 almost deafening to those who are unused to it1 but perfectly unheeded by those who own or drive the vehicle4 ,the next improvement was to make the circumference of the wheel as perfectly circular as the art of man could devise1 and1 instead of having the wheel solid1 to fill up its interior with spokes1 thus gaining lightness and strength at the same time4 ,of all locomotive wheels1 ,i suppose that the modern ,bicycle affords the best example4 ,the driving wheel is larger than the hind wheel of an ordinary coach1 and yet the spokes are not nearly so thick as the porcupine quill with which this account is written4 ,if we look at the ancient sculptures and paintings of ,egypt and ,assyria1 as preserved in the ,british ,museum1 we shall see that either kind of wheel was used according to the work which it had to do4 ,the solid1 uneven1 squeaking1 wooden wheel was devoted to agriculture1 while the light1 spoked wheel was sacred either to warfare or hunting4 ,let us hope that in the two latter cases some modicum of grease might have been used1 as the outcries of tortured and unlubricated machinery are enough to drive away all wild beasts which come within the range of its complaints1 while the nervous system of hunter or warrior must have been seriously damaged by it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,even in such a structure as the spoked ,wheel1 ,nature has anticipated ,man4 ,my readers may remember that1 when treating of nautical matters1 ,i mentioned the singular anchor-shaped spicules that are found upon one of the sea-slugs1 called ,synapta4 ,there is another group of these creatures inhabiting the ,mediterranean1 in which the skin-spicules take a different form4 ,like those of the ,synapta1 they are too small and translucent to be seen without the aid of the microscope and carefully adjusted light4 ,but1 just as the spicules of the ,synapta resemble the ancient anchor1 so do those of the ,chirodota resemble the ancient wheel1 the similitude being in both cases absolutely startling4 ,not only that1 but1 as all readers must be aware1 if they have studied practical mechanics1 there are many machines which are toothed on the inner1 and not the outer1 side of the circumference4 ,here1 in the ,chirodota1 the inner toothing is manifest4 ,what purpose it serves we know not4 ,the ,chirodota's wheels 7of which there are thousands7 never revolve1 neither do the anchors of the ,synapta hold the ground4 ,yet the very fact that such exceedingly minute objects should be so carefully constructed tells us at once that they must have some important purpose to serve1 though at present that purpose is a mystery which no one has attempted to solve4 ,i have little doubt that when the hour and the man arrive1 as arrive they surely will1 we shall find in these tiny and almost unrecognised spicules the keys to treasures of wisdom which at present have been opened to no human being4 ,the whole history of the progress of the human race shows that facts have been allowed to accumulate1 fought about1 and turned in all directions1 before the generaliser comes who pierces to the heart of everything1 reduces apparent discrepancies to harmony1 and usually is rewarded by finding some one else assume the credit of his discoveries1 and receive all the honours and emoluments4 ,,useful ,,arts ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,paper and its many ,uses4--,the ,egyptian ,papyrus4--,india ,paper4--,china and its ,manufactories4--,materials of which ,paper is made4--,annual ,consumption of ,material4--,the 8,water ,mark40--,nature's ,papers4--,wasps and ,hornets4--,the common ,wasp1 and the various ,materials of its ,nest4--,utilisation of ,material4--,papier-mch4--,printing4--,n ature-printing4--,method and ,results of the ,process4--,use of the ,electrotype4--8,facing0 the ,copper ,plates with hard ,metal4--,the ,coal ,mine and its ,nature-printing4--,stippling1 its ,use and ,abuse4--,the ,line and the ,dot4--,modification of the ,dot4--,flower-petals4--,the ,pelargonium4--,plaster ,castings4--,stereotyping and ,electrotyping4--,modern ,method of taking ,plaster ,casts4--,the ,principle of ,corrugation4--,flower-pot ,covers4--,iron ,buildings4--,the ,polistes and its ,corrugated ,dwellings4 ,,art4 ,we will now touch lightly on the subject of ,art4 ,in the present day one of the most indispensable accessories to art is ,paper4 ,it is a curious fact that we have no records as to the time when paper was first invented4 ,the ,egyptian papyrus we do not consider1 as it was not paper in our sense of the word1 although we have retained the name4 ,paper is a vegetable fibre carefully disintegrated1 made into a pulp with water1 and then dried in thin sheets4 ,as is the case with many arts1 ,china seems to have taken the lead in paper manufacture1 and we are even now indebted to that country for the 8,india ,paper0 on which the finest proofs of engravings are taken4 ,this paper is made from the inner bark of the bamboo4 8,rice ,paper10 so called1 is not paper at all1 but only a kind of pith cut spirally1 and flattened by pressure4 ,there is scarcely any vegetable fibre of which paper cannot be made1 and various plants have been suggested for this purpose1 such as the stinging-nettle1 cabbage-stalks1 hop-bines1 the waste of sugar-cane1 sawdust1 c4 ,straw has already been successfully used1 and so has ,esparto grass4 ,some years ago1 when there was a scarcity of material for paper-making1 the well-known ,grass-wrack of our shores 7,zostera marina7 was brought into partial use4 ,i believe1 however1 that the experiment was not a successful one4 ,the ,chinese make their paper of bamboo1 macerating and pounding it until it is reduced to a pulp1 and then shaken into fibres in a mould4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,hornet4 ,,paper-,,making4 ,,nest ,,of ,,tree-,,wasp4 ,,paper4 ,with us1 white paper1 such as is used by the writer1 printer1 or artist1 is made almost exclusively of cotton or linen rags4 ,upwards of a hundred and twenty thousand tons weight of rags are annually consumed in this country for the manufacture of paper4 ,after being bleached1 they are torn and ground into a pulp1 which is then handed over to the actual maker4 ,the illustration represents paper-making by hand1 a process which is now rarely used1 except for special kinds of paper4 ,omitting technical details1 the mode of paper-making by hand is as follows3--,the pulp being prepared1 the workman takes a 8mould10 i4e4 a frame with a bottom of closely woven wire4 ,having put into the mould a sufficient quantity of pulp1 he shakes the mould so as to spread the pulp evenly over the surface4 ,the water runs away between the wires1 the sheet of pulp is transferred to a piece of felt1 and when it is dry it becomes paper4 ,if a sheet of ordinary note-paper be held up to the light1 the marks of the wires are plainly perceptible4 ,the so-called 8water-mark0 is due to wires twisted into the requisite shape4 ,the ,chinese workman makes his paper exactly on the same principle1 but the bottom of his mould is made of bulrushes instead of wires4 ,as for machine-made paper1 the process seems absolutely magical4 ,endless bands of felt and wire are substituted for the hand frames1 and1 the pulp being poured in at one end1 the finished paper is poured out at the other1 and self-wound on rollers4 ,without any exaggeration1 paper is now made by the mile1 the only limit to its length being the size of the rolls4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,when ,i mention ,paper-making in the world of ,nature1 many of my readers will at once know that ,i am about to refer to the ,wasp tribe4 ,these insects were paper-makers long before even the ,chinese had invented the art1 and1 so exactly similar is the mode of action1 that man might well have copied from the insect4 ,the ,wasp gnaws a bundle of vegetable fibres1 mostly of wood1 sound or decaying1 according to the species4 ,it masticates them until it has reduced them to a pulp1 and then1 by means of its jaws1 spreads the pulp into sheets of various shapes and sizes4 ,with some of the pulp it forms hexagonal cells like those of the bee1 and with some it makes the roof-like covering which defends the cells4 ,not only that1 but it can make a sort of papier-mch1 which it uses for the flooring1 if we may so call it1 of the different strata of cells1 and for the pillars which bind them together4 ,like our own paper manufacturers1 it is economic of material1 will re-masticate any superabundant paper1 and is only too glad if it can get hold of any paper made by man4 ,i have seen a wasps' nest which was made entirely from the empty blue and white cartridges that were thrown away by soldiers4 ,then there is as much difference in the papers made by wasps as in those made by man4 ,in this country all wasps' nests are made of very fragile material1 but in ,south ,america there are some wasps which make the external covering of their nests as hard and white as the stiff cardboard employed by artists4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,having now got our paper1 we will glance at one or two modes of using it for ,art4 ,papier-mch has already been mentioned1 and it is worthy of notice that there are now in existence many decorated ceilings which are made of this material1 on account of its great strength and its non-liability to fire4 ,illustration3 ,,ferns ,,in ,,coal4 ,illustration3 ,,nature-,,printing4 ,the first invention which we shall notice is that which is known by the name of ,nature-printing1 and which has been so successful in transferring to paper an exact representation of vegetable foliage4 ,one simple tolerably efficacious mode of ,nature-printing has long been known4 ,a piece of paper being rubbed with lamp-black and oil1 the leaf was laid upon it and gently rubbed1 so as to transfer the lamp-black to the nervures4 ,it was then laid on a sheet of white paper1 and again rubbed1 when an impression of the leaf was left upon the paper4 ,the present system of ,nature-printing is far in advance of this rather rude method1 and amounts to an exact reproduction of the plant1 not only in form and detail1 but in colour4 ,in order to illustrate this beautiful process1 ,i cannot do better than transfer to these pages the following account of ,nature-printing as given in ,ure's 8,dictionary of ,arts10 c4 ,it is an abstract of a lecture delivered by ,mr4 ,h4 ,bradbury at the ,royal ,institution4 8,nature-printing is the name given to a technical process for obtaining printed reproductions of plants and other objects upon paper1 in a manner so truthful1 that only a close inspection reveals the fact of their being copies2 and so distinctly sensible even to touch are the impressions1 that it is difficult to persuade those unacquainted with the manipulation that they are an emanation of the printing-press4 8,the distinguishing feature of the process consists1 first1 in impressing natural objects--such as plants1 mosses1 seaweeds1 and feathers--into plates of metal1 causing1 as it were1 the objects to engrave themselves by pressure2 secondly1 in being able to take such casts or copies of the impressed plates as can be printed from at the ordinary copper-plate press4 8,this secures1 in the case of a plant1 on the one hand1 a perfect representation of its characteristic outline1 of some of the other external marks by which it is known1 and even in some measure of its structure1 as in the venation of ferns and the ribs of the leaves of flowering plants2 and1 on the other1 affords the means of multiplying copies in a quick and easy manner1 at a trifling expense compared with the result1 and to an unlimited extent4 8,the great defect of all pictorial representations of botanical figures has consisted in the inability of art to represent faithfully those minute peculiarities by which natural objects are often best distinguished4 ,nature-printing has therefore come to the aid of this branch of science in particular1 whilst its future development promises facilities for copying other objects of nature1 the reproduction of which is not within the province of the human hand to execute2 and even if it were possible1 it would involve an amount of labour scarcely commensurate with the results4 8,possessing the advantages of rapid and economic production1 the means of unlimited multiplication1 and1 above all1 unsurpassable resemblance to the original1 nature-printing is calculated to assist much in facilitating not only the first-sight recognition of many objects in natural history1 but in supplying the detailed evidences of identification1 which must prove of essential value to botanical science in particular40 ,many plans have been tried with only partial success1 but that which is now in operation produces the most wonderful results4 ,the plants are laid upon sheets of lead1 and then passed through rollers1 so as to leave an impression in the soft metal4 ,the electrotype then comes into play1 exact copies of the impression being taken by it4 ,as the face of the electrotyped plate is covered with a slight deposit of some hard metal1 usually nickel1 a great number of copies can be taken without damaging the plate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,wonderfully exact parallel to ,nature-printing is seen in almost every coal bed4 ,in the coal are found impressions of various leaves1 mostly ferns1 and so exact are they1 that the different species have been determined and named with as much accuracy as if1 instead of mere impressions1 they had been the fern-leaves themselves4 ,indeed1 if it were needed1 it would be perfectly easy to take electrotype plates from these impressions1 and to treat them in exactly the same manner as those obtained in the way which has already been described4 ,,stippling4 ,we now come to another branch of ,art1 namely1 the production of shadow in an engraving by means of ,stippling1 i4e4 the insertion of dots instead of lines4 ,at one time the ,stipple was in great favour4 ,then it was almost wholly abandoned in favour of the line1 and now it is much used in conjunction with the line1 especially for the delicate shading of flesh tints1 such as faces1 female arms1 c4 ,in the illustration a little stippling of a cheek is shown1 the dots being purposely exaggerated4 ,a singularly beautiful modification of the ,stipple is now in use4 ,when the engraver wishes for exceptional softness of shading1 he does not content himself with mere dots1 but1 with the aid of his magnifying-glass1 converts each dot into a tiny star with three or more rays4 ,thus the dots seem to melt into each other1 and the requisite softness is obtained4 ,a very good example of this star-stipple is seen in the well-known print called 8,coming of ,age40 ,if the face and neck of the girl in the foreground be examined with a magnifying-glass1 the apparent dots will be seen to be stars1 so beautifully arranged that the projecting rays of one fuse themselves1 so to speak1 with1 those of the surrounding stars1 as is shown in the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,whether the engraver who hit upon this singularly effective plan took it from ,nature1 ,i cannot say1 but he well might have done so1 had he examined the petal of a flower through a good microscope4 ,we all know the peculiar rich softness of a petal1 and how our very best floral artists feel the impossibility of transferring it to paper4 ,illustration3 ,,stippling4 ,illustration3 ,,petal ,,of ,,geranium4 ,the real reason for this special beauty lies in the star-stippling of the petal4 ,the whole surface of the petal is covered with multitudinous projections1 which are1 in fact1 undeveloped hairs4 ,these projections are wrinkled down the sides1 and so1 when viewed from above1 they present the curious star-like appearance shown on the right hand of the illustration4 ,the drawing is taken from a petal of ,pelargonium prepared by myself4 ,there is yet one point in the petal which the star-stipple has not touched1 and probably cannot touch4 ,i mean the slight projection of the stipple-hairs1 which give an effect of light and shade as well as mere flat softness4 ,,plaster ,,casts4 ,we have already mentioned the electrotype1 and may now come to a branch of art which is much associated with it1 namely1 the ,stereotype4 ,as many of my readers may know1 types are very valuable articles1 and must not be wasted4 ,if1 therefore1 a book should be thought likely to have a steady sale1 much of its value would be lost if the types were kept standing1 inasmuch as they could not be used for any other work4 ,in such cases the ,stereotype is employed4 ,omitting minute details1 the process is as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,,shell-,,cast ,,in ,,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,,cast ,,in ,,plaster ,,of ,,paris4 ,the type1 ready set up1 is carefully oiled4 ,plaster of ,paris mixed with water is then poured into a shallow trough1 and the type pressed into it4 ,in a short time the plaster hardens1 and the type is withdrawn4 ,the plaster mould is then baked1 to drive off all moisture1 and type metal is poured into it4 ,thus a solid mass is procured1 instead of a number of separate pieces1 so that there is no danger of disturbance1 and the whole block can be multiplied ad libitum if needed4 ,this process sets free the types1 which can be broken up and used again4 ,the ordinary method of taking plaster casts is nearly the same as that which has been described4 ,the object to be cast is oiled1 and plaster of ,paris carefully applied to it4 ,when it is 8set10 the plaster 8mould0 is removed and dried4 ,the process is then reversed1 the interior of the mould being oiled1 and plaster poured into it1 so as to produce an exact reproduction of the original4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature we have almost exactly the same process1 although it is necessarily conducted in a much slower manner4 ,all who have tried their hand at practical geology must be aware of the multitudinous casts of perished beings which are found in various strata4 ,sometimes the casts are those of vegetables1 the original material having been decomposed1 and stony matter taken its place4 ,sometimes there are casts of fishes or echini1 while shells1 and even insects1 are found to have been cast almost as perfectly as could be done with plaster of ,paris at the present day4 ,as might be anticipated1 the chalk deposits are peculiarly rich in these casts1 the fine particles of the chalk taking the place of the plaster of ,paris4 ,in the illustrations are shown examples of casting in ,art and ,nature4 ,on the right hand is a cast of fruit and leaves1 which may afterwards be reproduced in plaster1 wax1 papier-mch1 or electrotype4 ,on the left is shown one of the shells so common in the chalk1 the upper figure representing the shell itself1 and the lower the mould that has been formed around it4 ,,corrugated ,,iron4 ,we have already seen that the ,wasps are paper-makers4 ,we may now see how some of the ,wasps have anticipated a valuable invention of man1 namely1 the principle of corrugation1 whereby a thin plate gains strength4 ,illustration3 ,,nests ,,of ,,polistes4 ,illustration3 ,,corrugated ,,iron4 ,even a sheet of paper gains great strength by corrugation1 as is seen in those paper covers which are so much in use for the decoration1 or rather the concealment1 of flower-pots4 ,but the best example that can be given of this principle is the ,corrugated ,iron1 which has come so much into use for temporary buildings1 such as schools1 places of worship1 reading-rooms1 c4 ,it is very light and very strong1 and can be used either for roof or walls with equal success4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,by means of certain wasps belonging to the genus ,polistes1 ,nature produces corrugated dwellings1 which are made of very thin materials1 but which are marvellously strong in proportion to their weight4 ,the insects belonging to this genus are all exotic1 but are spread over a very large surface of the earth4 ,so strong are the nests made by some of these species1 that they need no external covering1 the corrugated paper supplying at the same time strength and warmth1 the latter element being furnished by the air which is entangled between the corrugations4 ,there are many species of ,polistes1 mostly belonging to ,australasia and tropical ,america1 the latter displaying the greatest variety of form and structure in the nest4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,electricity1 ,magnetism1 and ,galvanism mutually convertible4--,the ,force co-extensive with ,nature4--,uses of ,thunder-storms4--,languor from ,want of ,electricity4--,frictional and ,voltaic ,electricity4--,origin of the ,name4--,structure of the ,voltaic ,pile4--,a simple ,example of the ,pile4--,nerves of a ,frog's ,leg4--,the ,electric ,shock1 and how to produce it4--,the ,electric ,jar and ,battery4--,animal ,electricity4--,the ,torpedo and ,electric ,eel4--,structure of the ,electric ,apparatus4--,the ,electric ,spark obtained from both ,fishes4--,channels of ,electricity in the ,body4--,the ,will and the ,muscles4--,electricity the conducting ,agent4--,the ,human ,body permeated by ,nerves4--,telegraph ,wires and the ,nervous ,system4--,lightning and the ,electric ,spark4--,the ,electric ,light and its ,power4--,the ,fire-fly1 the ,glow-worm1 and the luminous ,inhabitants of the ,sea4--,magnetism and ,diamagnetism4--,the ,electric ,telegraph and the ,compass4--,the ,principle identical in both ,instruments4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4 ,it has long been known that ,electricity1 ,galvanism1 and ,magnetism are but different manifestations of the same force1 and that one can be converted into the other at will4 ,it is also known that this wonderful and most important principle lies latent in everything1 and only needs the proper machinery to evoke it4 ,the few following illustrations are intended to show its prevalence in ,nature1 and that human art does not create1 but only makes manifest a power that exists1 but lies latent until called forth4 ,without going into details1 which would occupy the whole of such a volume as this1 ,i may mention that ,electricity saturates all the material creation1 and that even man himself is not only a reservoir of electricity1 but that he feels positively ill if the normal amount be not supplied4 ,take1 for example1 the hours that precede a thunder-storm4 ,we feel languid and depressed4 ,we cannot bring our thoughts together4 ,we are almost incapable even of bodily labour4 ,the reason is1 that the portion of the earth on which we live has parted with some of its electricity1 and has drawn it out of our bodies4 ,then comes the welcome thunder-storm2 clouds overcharged with electricity come to restore the balance4 ,the lightning flashes from the clouds to the earth as soon as they are near enough2 the rain falls1 carrying with it stores of silent electricity2 and in an hour or two all seems changed4 ,the air1 which hitherto seemed to afford no nourishment to the lungs1 is bracing and invigorating4 ,the nervous system recovers its tension1 and the brain can act without a painful effect4 ,all ,nature seems to put on a different aspect1 and brightness and vigour take the place of dulness and languor4 ,illustration3 ,,galvanising ,a ,,frog',s ,,leg4 ,illustration3 ,,voltaic ,,pile4 ,by a strange coincidence1 there is just such a lack of electricity as ,i am writing1 and the barometer has rapidly sunk to such a degree that a storm seems inevitable4 ,one of the chief difficulties in dealing with such a subject as this is to know where to begin4 ,we will1 however1 do our best to take a general view of it1 without going into details4 ,many centuries ago it was well known that amber1 if rubbed with a dry cloth1 would first attract1 and then repel1 various small and light substances4 ,indeed1 the ,greek word for amber1 namely1 ,elektron1 has given its name to the modern science of ,electricity4 ,many other substances1 such as glass1 sealing-wax1 c41 possess the same property4 ,this frictional electricity is but transient1 the electric fluid1 if we may be allowed to use the term1 being driven out by main force from the material in which it was latent1 just as fire is procured by the friction of two dry sticks4 ,there is1 however1 a form of ,electricity called ,galvanism1 from its discoverer1 ,galvani1 who1 somewhere about #agij1 discovered that the limbs of a dead frog might be excited to action by electricity applied to the nerves4 ,afterwards1 ,volta of ,pavia1 from whom the ,voltaic ,pile is named1 took up ,galvani's discoveries1 and produced electricity without friction1 by the contact of differently conducting substances4 ,the right-hand figure represents the ,voltaic ,pile4 ,it is composed of a series of plates arranged in the following manner--,zinc1 ,silver1 and ,cloth1 the whole being moistened with diluted acid4 ,copper will answer the purpose nearly as well as silver1 and is not so costly4 ,a very simple mode of demonstrating the presence of electricity is by taking a piece of zinc and a silver coin1 and placing one below and the other above the tongue4 ,if the two be then brought together1 a very peculiar taste is perceived1 and a sudden flash of light seems to pass across the eyes4 ,the illustration represents on the right hand the ,voltaic ,pile as at present made1 and on the left are the two hind-legs of a frog1 with the upper part of the nerves made bare for the purpose of experimenting4 ,the dotted lines show the extent of the movements of the leg when the galvanic current is passed through the nerves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,now we come to a plan whereby electricity can be accumulated1 or locked up1 so to speak1 and be discharged at once with a definite shock instead of being poured away by degrees4 ,this can be done in many ways1 the most common being that which is known by the name of the ,electric ,jar4 ,it is a glass vessel coated within and without with tin-foil1 and having a metal rod passing through the cork in such a way that while the lower end is in contact with the inner coating of tin-foil1 the other end is guarded by a ball4 ,electricity is now poured into the interior of the jar1 and1 when contact is made between the inner and outer coatings1 a sudden discharge takes place4 ,if a number of persons hold each other's hands1 and those who form the two extremities touch the outer coating and the ball which communicates with the inner coating1 a sharp discharge is at once made1 passing through all the bodies1 and inflicting a smart shock1 especially at the elbows4 ,similar effects can be produced with the ,voltaic ,battery1 but1 as that instrument has already been figured1 the ,electric ,jar has been selected4 ,of course any number of such jars can be connected together1 and the shock will be proportionately increased in intensity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,nature we have several-parallels4 ,putting aside the obvious one of a lightning-flash1 which has already been mentioned1 we pass to two remarkable examples of the capability of animal structure to produce electricity1 to store it up1 so to speak1 and discharge it at will4 ,both these creatures are fishes1 one belonging to the ,skates or ,rays1 and the other to the ,eels4 ,illustration3 ,,torpedo4 ,,electric ,,eel4 ,,electric ,,battery4 ,the upper figure on the left-hand side of the illustration represents the ,torpedo1 sometimes called the ,cramp-fish1 ,numb-fish1 or ,electric ,ray4 ,fortunately for us1 it is but seldom found on our coasts1 but it is tolerably common in the warmer parts of the world4 ,the electric organ in this fish is double1 and so large that its shape can easily be recognised even through the skin4 ,it is made up of a vast number of discs arranged upon each other in columns like the metallic portions of the ,voltaic ,pile1 and separated from each other by delicate membranes1 which take the place of the cloth4 ,when ,i mention that more than eleven hundred columns have been found in a single ,torpedo1 and that each column contains several hundred discs1 it may be imagined that the shock which such a creature can give must be a very powerful one4 ,the object of this power seems to be analogous to that of the venomous serpent1 i4e4 to enable the creature to secure its prey by either killing it or rendering it temporarily insensible by an electric shock4 ,as if to show that the delivery of the shock is achieved by an exertion of will1 observers have noticed that just before the shock is delivered1 the eyes are depressed in the head like those of a toad when swallowing a large insect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,still more powerfully electric animal is the ,electric ,eel of ,southern ,america4 ,it sometimes attains a length of six feet1 and its electric organs are four times as proportionately large as those of the torpedo4 ,there is no doubt as to the object of the electric power of this eel1 as ,i have often seen it kill fish1 and then eat them4 ,when about to deliver its shock1 it curves its body towards the intended victim1 stiffens itself1 and with a sort of shudder the electric fluid is emitted4 ,the fish at which it is aimed never seems to escape1 but1 simultaneously with the shudder on the part of the ,electric ,eel1 turns on its back and lies motionless until it is picked up by its destroyer4 ,neither the ,torpedo nor the ,electric ,eel has unlimited stores of electricity4 ,if irritated into delivering repeated shocks1 each discharge is less powerful than its predecessor1 until at last the creature is almost wholly powerless1 and must rest and recruit itself before it can lay up fresh stores of the electric fluid4 ,i may add that the electric spark has been obtained from both these fishes4 ,it was only a small spark1 but in such experiments a small spark is as satisfactory as a large one4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,what are the channels by which the electric fluid is transmitted through our bodies8 ,they are the nerves1 which convey from and to the brain a subtle fluid1 if it may be so called1 just as the arteries and veins convey blood to and from the heart4 ,if any of these nerves be electrified1 even after the death of the animal1 or after the separation of a limb from the body1 muscular movements are induced1 and the limb moves as if instinct with life4 ,without these nerves we should be unable to feel the severest shock1 but they permeate the body so completely1 that not a part of the skin can be pricked without a nerve being wounded4 ,it is by means of these conductors that the will is made to act upon the limbs4 ,the mind1 for example1 desires the legs to walk1 and they do so1 the order being transmitted to them through the nerves4 ,as a rule1 we are unconscious of this process4 ,but1 when paralysis takes place1 and the nerves refuse to perform their functions1 the will is absolutely useless1 and1 however desirous a man may be of walking1 he cannot move a step if the nerves of his legs are paralyzed4 ,in cases where the paralysis comes on slowly and in detail1 the patient mostly becomes conscious of the part played by the nerves1 and feels that his will can to a certain degree rouse the expiring powers of the nerve fluid4 ,this in its turn is but the conductor for another and infinitely more subtle fluid1 of which our space will not allow us to treat1 but which forms the connecting link between body and spirit4 ,perhaps some of my readers may have seen those curious preparations of the human form1 when the arteries have been injected with red wax1 and the veins with blue wax1 and then the fleshy portions dissolved away by chemical means4 ,the result is a perfect human form1 and even to the very tips of the fingers and toes the blood-vessels follow the contour of the body4 ,did we have means of injecting the nervous system1 we should arrive at similar results1 except that the nerves would be found infinitely more intricate than the veins and arteries4 ,thus a human being is a series of human forms1 interwoven with each other1 and mutually dependent on each other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is curious to see how the great discoveries of modern days have but copied ,nature4 ,take1 for example1 the network of telegraphic wires which is day by day spreading itself over the surface of the earth1 and the parallel will at once be visible4 ,just as the brain transmits its message to the limbs by means of the nerves1 so does the same brain transmit its message through thousands of miles1 by utilising the wires which are but the rough and coarse imitations of the wonderful nervous system of the human frame4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the illustration shows the parallelism as well as can be done by a mere chart4 ,illustration3 ,,nerves4 ,illustration3 ,,telegraphic ,,wires4 ,on the left-hand side is shown the manner in which a nerve-group is distributed to different parts of the body4 ,on the right the railway telegraph wires are seen1 and1 as the reader will probably remember1 branch wires are carried into the signal boxes1 just as branch nerves are carried to the most distant parts of the body4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,,have already mentioned the ,electric ,spark1 and that it is1 in fact1 a miniature lightning-flash1 the little crackling report being a miniature thunder-clap4 ,it can be produced by frictional electricity1 or by the voltaic pile in its many variations1 or by animal substances alone1 as in the case of the torpedo and electric eel4 ,we now come to a modification of the spark1 whereby a continuous current of electricity is sent through two charcoal points1 and inflames them with such intensity that the eye cannot look upon its dazzling whiteness4 ,there is none of the yellowness about it which is so great a drawback to our artificial lights1 whether they be gas1 candle1 or lamp1 and which makes ladies' dresses that are really beautiful by day look dull and almost ugly by night4 ,it is wonderful to see how the ,electric ,light kills all other lights4 ,the brightest gas becomes dull1 and its shadow is thrown on the wall which it formerly illuminated1 and the most delicate tints of silks and satins suddenly display themselves in the blinding whiteness of the ,electric ,light4 ,at present it is too costly to be brought into common use1 but its intensity is so great that serious ideas have been formed of dispensing with street lamps altogether1 and illuminating towns with a few electric lamps placed at a considerable height1 and having their beams reflected downwards4 ,illustration3 ,,lightning4 ,,fire-,,fly4 ,,glow-,,worm4 ,,electric ,,light4 ,london is thought to be a specially fit subject for this mode of lighting1 as the electric beams can pierce the fogs which the gas-lamp only augments1 and give the traveller some hope of finding his way through the most familiar streets4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the illustration the right-hand figure represents the ,electric ,light as at present in use4 ,the upper portion of the left-hand side represents the forked lightning1 whose dazzling whiteness is so familiar to us1 even in the noon of a summer's day4 ,below are shown the ,fire-fly of warm climates1 and the ,glow-worm1 which1 in our comparatively cool country1 cheers the summer evenings with its pale lamp4 ,as to the source of this mysterious light1 which burns without producing heat sufficient to be recognised by our most delicate instruments1 we know but little4 ,there are instruments so infinitely more sensitive than the best thermometer1 that they will record instantaneously an increase of heat if a human being passes in front of them1 though at several yards' distance4 ,yet no effect is produced on them by any of the ,fire-flies or the ,glow-worm4 ,the spectroscope itself gives little or no information1 the spectrum of the light being without bands or bars1 and being what is technically called a 8continuous0 spectrum4 ,last year ,i tried numbers of ,glow-worms with the spectroscope1 and always with the same result4 ,i never saw the ,fire-flies alive1 but1 no matter what may be the colour of the light1 the spectrum1 whether of the ,glow-worm or any of the ,fire-flies1 seems to be always continuous1 and so to give but little information as to its source4 ,there appears1 however1 to be little doubt that animal electricity is the real cause of this curious phenomenon1 and that the force which is expended in the torpedo and electric eel1 in giving shocks accompanied by slight electric sparks1 may develop itself in these insects by producing a continuous light4 ,and just as the electric fishes can emit or withhold the shock as they please1 so can the ,fire-flies and ,glow-worms give out or retain the light by which they are so well known4 ,then we come to the multitudinous luminous inhabitants of the sea1 which1 as many of my readers have probably seen1 convert the waves into rolling masses of living fire4 ,,magnetism4 ,now we come to another condition of electrical force1 called ,,magnetism4 ,one form of it is strongly developed in the ,loadstone1 an ore of iron4 ,this ore has the property of turning east and west when suspended freely1 it attracts any object made of iron1 and can communicate its powers to iron by merely stroking it4 ,there is in the ,museum at ,oxford a splendid specimen of the ,loadstone1 which has imparted its virtues to thousands of iron magnets1 and has lost none of its virtues by so doing4 ,all bodies are now known to be magnetic in some way or other4 ,several1 such as iron1 nickel1 and one or two other metals1 turn north and south when suspended on a pivot1 but the great bulk of other bodies turn east and west1 and are called ,diamagnetics4 ,as we all know1 the property of turning north and south has been utilised in the ,compass1 without which modern science would be paralyzed1 and travel rendered impossible4 ,illustration3 ,,loadstone4 ,illustration3 ,,compass4 ,it is worthy of notice that although the magnetic needle of the compass turns to the north1 it does not do so because it is attracted by the north pole1 but because it is repelled from the east and west4 ,we have long known that if a current of electricity be sent round a magnetic needle1 the latter at once turns at right angles to it4 ,on this principle depends the ,electric ,telegraph4 ,when communication is made by using the handles1 a current of electricity is sent round the needles1 and causes them to turn at right angles until stopped by a little ivory pin1 which prevents them from overshooting themselves4 ,there is a perpetual stream of electricity passing over the earth from east to west1 and in consequence all magnetic bodies are forced to turn at right angles1 just as is the case with the magnetic needle4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,tillage4--,,drainage4--,,spiral ,,principle4--,,centrifugal ,,force4 ,systems of cultivating ,ground4--,the ,fallow ,system4--,manuring the ,ground4--,custom of ,china4--,nature's ,abhorrence of ,waste4--,what becomes of ,dead ,animals4--,burying-beetles4--,the ,scarabus-beetles and their ,work4--,drainage versus ,sewage4--,clay ,soils and ,drains4--,the ,mole1 the ,earth-worm1 ,rats1 ,mice1 and ,rabbits4--,the ,flexible ,drain and the ,lobster's ,tail4--,the ,turbine ,pump and the ,ascidian4--,the ,spiral ,principle4--,the ,smoke-jack1 ,kite1 and ,wings of ,birds4--,centrifugal ,force4--,revolution of ,planets4--,the 8,governor0 of the ,steam-engine4--,the ,sling1 ,amentum1 and ,mop4--,the ,gyroscope1 the ,bicycle1 and the ,hoop4 ,several times1 in the course of this work1 we have touched upon man's dealings with the earth1 such as mining and tunnelling4 ,we will now take another side of the same question1 and1 in connection with ,tillage1 consider ,drainage1 whereby superabundant moisture is removed from the earth1 and ,manuring1 whereby the exhausted soil is renovated4 ,we will take this subject first4 ,it has long been known that it is impossible to get more out of the ground than exists in it1 and that when the soil has been so worked as to become unproductive1 there are only two remedies4 ,the one is to allow the ground to remain uncultivated for a time4 ,it must be ploughed in deeply1 as if it were to be sown with a crop1 and must be left to recruit itself from the air4 ,this is the now abandoned 8fallow0 system1 which used to be in full operation when ,i was a child4 ,as1 however1 population increased1 and with it the perpetually increasing demand for food1 land was found to be too precious to be allowed to lie fallow and idle4 ,then came the system of rotation of crops1 potato following wheat1 clover following potato1 c4 ,but1 above all1 agriculturists learned that in the long-run there is nothing so cheap as manure1 i4e4 the return to the soil by animals of the elements which these animals took out of it4 ,on the right hand of the illustration 7page #die7 is shown the simplest mode of enriching the soil1 namely1 by spreading the manure on the surface of the earth1 and then digging it in4 ,any mode of thus enriching the earth is a proof of civilisation4 ,no savage ever dreamed of such a thing1 and ,i doubt whether barbarians recognised the principle at any time4 ,nowadays we have recognised the necessity of returning to the soil in one form the elements which we have taken from it in another4 ,as usual in such arts of civilisation1 the ,chinese have long preceded us4 ,they waste nothing1 carrying1 perhaps1 its principles to an extent which scarcely suits our ,european ideas4 ,they even utilise the little clippings of hair1 to which every ,chinaman is almost daily subject1 if he wishes to keep up his self-respect in public4 ,the barbers carefully preserve these clippings1 and sell them to gardeners4 ,they are too precious to be used in general agriculture1 but the flower artist1 when he plants the seed1 puts in the same hole a little pinch of human hair1 knowing it to be a strong stimulant to growth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,without multiplying examples of artificial manuring1 most of which are too familiar to need description1 we will proceed to the methods by which ,nature has for countless centuries achieved the same work that ,man has lately learned to undertake4 ,nature abhors waste1 and in the long-run will prove it1 however wasteful may be the ways of her servants4 ,take1 for example1 the case of an ordinary tree1 such as an elm1 an oak1 or a birch4 ,in the autumn the leaves fall4 ,in the next summer scarcely a dead leaf can be found4 ,they have been decomposed by rain1 dews1 and gases1 and have thus returned to the earth more than the nutriment which they took out of it4 ,here man is apt to interfere4 ,knowing the invaluable productive powers of decayed leaves1 he removes them as they fall1 and stores them in heaps so as to form the costly1 but almost indispensable1 8leaf mould40 ,in so doing1 however1 he deprives the trees of their natural nutriment1 and by degrees they dwindle and die4 ,nature1 in this case1 shows her superiority over ,art4 ,then we have the remarkable fact that millions of animated beings die annually1 and no vestige of their remains is found4 ,hynas and vultures might account for a few bodies1 the remnants of which have been found in ancient caverns4 ,but there is no hyna which could crush the leg bones of an adult elephant2 and yet ,i suppose that neither in ,africa nor ,asia has any one discovered the body of an elephant or rhinoceros that had died a natural death4 ,in the first place1 there is the curious point1 which ,i have already mentioned1 and which is shared by nearly every race of human savages1 that when an animal feels that it has received its death-stroke1 it accepts the conditions1 withdraws itself from those who yet have life in them1 and yields up its life as calmly as if it were but sleeping4 ,but what becomes of the body8 ,as to such enormous beings as elephants1 the various species of rhinoceros1 and whales1 which are as large as several elephants1 rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus put together1 ,i cannot say from practical knowledge4 ,still1 as size is only comparative1 the rule that holds good with a small animal may hold equally good with a large one4 ,it is my lot to walk very often upon the banks of the ,thames4 ,it is a charming walk at high water1 but at low water there is too much odoriferous mud1 and there are too many dead dogs and cats to make it an agreeable resort1 except for enthusiastic entomologists1 who seem to swarm in this neighbourhood4 ,scarcely has such a carcass been stranded than it is beset by ,burying-beetles of various kinds4 ,hundreds upon hundreds can be shaken out of the corpse of a dog or cat1 and1 before the next tide has come up1 there is scarcely any flesh left on the bones1 it having been dug into the earth by the ,burying-beetles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,then there is that wonderful family of ,scarabus-beetles1 which do us invaluable service as scavengers and agriculturists4 ,they follow the path of the caravans1 and effectively cleanse the course which has been traversed4 ,even man is obliged to utilise as fuel the droppings of the horses1 cows1 and camels2 but the ,scarabus goes further1 collecting all that man does not need1 and burying it in the earth4 ,the instinct of the female ,scarabus urges it to gather together the rejecta1 to form them into balls1 placing an egg in the middle of each ball1 and to bury them in the ground4 ,thus a double object is attained1 the offensive substances being removed from the surface of the ground1 where they do harm1 and being transferred below the surface1 where they do good4 ,even the curious instinct of the dog1 which leads it to bury bones1 c41 which it cannot consume1 and which it often forgets1 if well fed1 leaves them to be consumed by the all-absorbing earth4 ,illustration3 ,,scarab,,us-,,beetles4 ,illustration3 ,,men ,,manuring ,,ground4 ,it is evident that1 in the end1 the earth must receive back again that which has been taken from it4 ,if1 for example1 we follow the present most wasteful plan of drainage1 and fling into rivers everything which ought to be utilised on land1 it only gets into the sea in the end1 and in the course of years is decomposed1 and returns to the earth in the form of gases4 ,meanwhile1 however1 we have robbed the locality1 deprived it of the nourishment which it required1 and forced ourselves to supply it elsewhere at a costly rate4 ,so runs the cycle of creation4 ,sooner or later1 ,nature will have her way1 and the more we help her1 the better it will be for us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of course ,i do not mean to condemn ,drainage1 which is an absolute necessity in agriculture1 and a matter of life and death in households4 ,but1 when rightly conducted1 it only signifies that water is removed from a spot which is overstocked with moisture to one where it is needed4 ,wet clay lands1 for example1 which were unproductive in point of crops1 and injurious in point of human health1 have been converted by judicious drainage into fertile and healthy grounds4 ,this1 as it will be seen1 is a very different business from removing from the soil the elements which rightly belong to it1 and which sooner or later1 in some form or another1 it will claim and recapture4 ,still1 it is evident that in the progress of civilisation there must be accumulations of all kinds of refuse1 which savages utterly disregard4 ,then we come to the question of the ,drain combined with the ,sewer1 and are enabled to see how the hand of man1 if properly directed1 only follows the course of ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,tunnel ,,of ,,mole4 ,illustration3 ,,sewer4 ,so we undermine our towns with a complex system of drains which are understood by only a very few people4 ,for example1 just as a tree is only half visible1 the roots being about equivalent to the branches1 ,london is only half visible1 the subterranean architecture being little1 if at all1 inferior to that of the surface4 ,here1 again1 we are met by ,nature4 ,very few of us can appreciate the extensive subterranean works which underlie us1 even where the hand of man has never been placed4 ,putting aside a multitude of tiny creatures1 there are1 in our own country1 the earth-worms which pierce the ground in all directions1 at the same time draining and manuring it4 ,they penetrate it with their little burrows1 thus admitting the air1 which the earth needs as much as we do1 and allowing moisture to take its right place4 ,then there are the moles1 that are perpetually travelling after the earth-worms1 and making drainage galleries of wonderful extent4 ,then there are the numerous other burrowers1 such as rabbits1 mice1 and rats1 which are common everywhere1 besides the less plentiful foxes1 badgers1 and various burrowing birds1 all of which assist more or less in the drainage of the earth4 ,even bees and wasps of different kinds assist in this work1 the hardest soil yielding to their small1 though powerful1 jaws and feet1 and so being made1 if only temporarily1 able to carry off the superabundant moisture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,tail ,,of ,,lobster4 ,illustration3 ,,flexible ,,water ,,main4 ,one of the most ingenious modes of ,drainage was that which was invented by ,watts1 and was avowedly based on ,nature4 ,he had engaged himself to carry a drain tube through1 or rather over1 an extremely irregular bed of a river1 where the pipes must accommodate themselves to existing conditions4 ,the modern system of pipes not having been brought into existence1 ,watts had to adapt himself to circumstances1 and did so by making his pipe on the model of a ,lobster's tail1 as shown in the illustration4 ,we have already seen how the same object has been utilised in warfare as a pattern for armour1 but it does seem rather strange that it should be employed in the tranquil arts of peace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another method of removing superfluous water is by the ,,turbine ,,pump1 by which the water1 instead of being cast up in successive jets1 was flung out in a continuous torrent4 ,some of my readers may remember the sensation which was created at the first ,exhibition of #aheb by the then extraordinary powers of the ,turbine ,pump4 ,yet this is1 after all1 nothing but an imperfect copy of the now celebrated being to which human beings have been supposed to owe their origin1 namely1 the ,ascidian1 popularly known by the name of the ,sea-squirt1 and with very good reasons4 ,as a rule1 it keeps up a rotation of tentacles1 such as is shown in the illustration1 acting exactly on the principle of the ,turbine ,pump1 and drawing in and discharging water with a power that is perfectly astonishing in so small a being4 ,beside this1 it has the power of flinging out at once the whole of its watery contents1 and any one who has incautiously handled a mass of ,ascidians1 and been drenched by them1 can answer with more truth than satisfaction as to the water-absorbing power of the ,turbine4 ,illustration3 ,,ascidian4 ,illustration3 ,,turbine ,,pump4 ,then the ,ascidian can do what the ,turbine cannot do4 ,in the ,turbine the water which is taken in must necessarily be ejected in equal proportions4 ,with the ,ascidian the same thing takes place1 but with the additional power of ejecting all the contained water1 and then beginning afresh4 ,there is now no doubt that the ,circular or the ,turbine ,pump is the most powerful in such cases as emptying mines of the water which1 in spite of all precautions1 will make its way in1 and destroy the labours of the miners4 ,but ,i merely wish to carry out the object of this work by remarking that the invaluable ,turbine ,pump is only a very inferior copy of a natural pump1 which existed1 as far as we know1 centuries before ,man could find his place upon this earth4 ,,the ,,spiral4 ,in an early portion of this work the ,spiral or ,screw was touched upon1 mostly in connection with the propulsion of vessels4 ,we will now extend it a little further1 and see how it is modified so as to perform other offices than those which have been described4 ,allusion has already been made to the ,spiral or ,wedge principle1 but some of the illustrations were accidentally omitted4 ,i therefore introduce them here1 this being a chapter of miscellanea4 ,the ,windmill has previously been described1 as has also the ship's ,screw1 another form of which is here given4 ,illustration3 ,,birds' ,,wings ,,and ,,tails4 ,illustration3 ,,smoke-,,jack4 ,,ship',s ,,screw4 ,,windmill4 ,,kite4 ,in the centre is shown the mechanism popularly known as the ,smoke-jack1 though it really works by means of hot air1 and only becomes gradually choked by the soot which the smoke by degrees deposits upon it4 ,it is1 in fact1 nothing but a windmill working horizontally instead of vertically1 the vanes being moved by the rapidly ascending heated air4 ,so powerful is the spiral pressure of this air1 that in my old college days at least a dozen rows of heavily laden spits were perpetually turned by a single ,smoke-jack4 ,it is many years since ,i visited my old college1 and ,i cannot say whether the ,smoke-jack still exists1 but1 as it did its work well so long ago1 ,i presume that it does so now4 ,then there is the well-known spiral ventilator set in the windows of workshops4 ,perhaps its revolution may not assist the air-current1 but it does1 at all events1 show how much exhausted air has to be expelled from the room1 and consequently how much fresh air needs to be brought into it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,perhaps the reader may be surprised to see that the ,wings and ,tail of a bird and a boy's ,kite are placed among the examples of the ,spiral principle4 ,yet such is the fact4 ,if the reader will move up and down the wings of any bird which will not bite him1 he will find that there is in them a peculiar screwing motion1 difficult of description1 but very observable4 ,it is mostly for want of this movement that all our attempts at fitting wings to human beings have been such utter failures4 ,we can make the wings work up and down well enough1 but we cannot as yet impart to them the all-important spiral movement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,that very well-known toy1 the ,kite1 is another example of the same principle which drives the screw steamer4 ,its 8tail10 which need be nothing but a piece of string with a proportionate weight at the end1 keeps the ,kite in a slanting position1 providing that the 8belly-band0 be properly arranged4 ,the consequence is that the pressure of the wind acts on it as on a wedge1 and so drives it upwards until the combined weight of itself and the string counterbalance the upward pressure4 ,indeed1 the only object of the string is to keep the ,kite at a proper inclination2 and1 if that object could be attained by the force of gravity alone1 the ,kite would ascend to a height nearly double that to which it can at present attain4 ,,centrifugal ,,force4 ,closely connected with the spiral principle is ,centrifugal ,force1 that marvellous power which gives to our whole solar system its ceaseless movements1 and may extend1 as far as we know1 to other and vaster systems yet unknown4 ,tie a ball to a string1 and swing it round1 and it will be an exact1 though rough1 representation of the double power by which the movements of the heavenly bodies are governed1 our earth being included among them4 ,the string represents the force of attraction1 which binds all our planets to the sun1 and their satellites to the planets1 while the force that is employed in swinging the ball represents the mysterious power that issues from the sun1 and gives motion to the planets4 ,the metaphor is a very homely one1 but it is nevertheless correct4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in the accompanying illustration are several examples of ,centrifugal ,force as found both in ,nature and ,art4 ,on the left hand we have diagrams of some of the heavenly bodies1 showing the revolution of their offspring1 so to call them1 while on the right are seen examples of ,centrifugal ,force as applied to human use4 ,for convenience' sake1 the illustrations have been separated into two portions4 ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,force ,,of ,,heavenly ,,bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,force ,,of 8,,governors0 ,,of ,,engine4 ,,sling4 ,,amentum ,,and ,,mop4 ,in the first of these illustrations we have the 8,governor0 of the steam-engine1 that wonderfully ingenious and simple piece of mechanism which controls the force of the steam1 and1 without the superintendence of man1 acts almost as a living being might4 ,it is composed of two heavy metal balls1 hinged1 as shown in the illustration1 to a movable collar which slides up and down the central rod4 ,when the engine is at work the ,governor revolves1 and the harder it works1 the more rapid is the revolution4 ,consequently1 as it revolves1 the balls diverge and draw the sliding collar up the rod4 ,here lies the whole beauty of the invention4 ,the sliding collar is connected with the safety-valve4 ,thus1 if the engine should be working beyond its proper powers1 the ,governor draws up the collar1 and releases sufficient steam to take the undue pressure off the boiler4 ,thus the engine may be left1 so to speak1 to manage itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next are shown two examples of ,centrifugal ,force as applied in ancient warfare1 namely1 the ,sling1 which is now retained merely as a boy's toy1 and the ,amentum1 which was practically a sling attached to a spear4 ,both weapons have been superseded by the modern firearms1 but the ,sling is really a more formidable offensive weapon1 in skilful hands1 than is generally suspected4 ,a good slinger is as sure of his aim as a good rifleman1 and can send his missile to a wonderful distance4 ,were ,i to be armed with the best pistol hitherto invented1 ,i should be sorry to fight an accomplished slinger1 unless under cover4 ,the really tremendous power of the ,sling is obtained by ,centrifugal ,force1 the weapon1 with its missile1 being whirled in the air1 and then one string being loosed with a peculiar knack something like the 8loose0 of a good archer4 ,in consequence1 the centrifugal force is converted into direct force1 and the missile flies directly forwards4 ,the ,amentum is simply a cord tied to a javelin1 so that the thrower has the advantage of a lever1 which1 after all1 is only the conversion of centrifugal force4 ,the very familiar ,mop1 flinging off its moisture to a considerable distance1 needs no description2 but ,i have introduced it to show the action of centrifugal force in small as well as in great things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the next illustration shows how this very same power acts upon the greatest as well as the least of objects1 and enables them to maintain positions which otherwise they must of necessity fail to do4 ,take1 for example1 our own ,earth1 and its peculiar position of being tilted on one side1 so as to give us the alternative seasons as it flies on its annual course4 ,this is simply due to its own rapid revolution1 which1 on the same principle that keeps the arrow and the rifle-ball straight on their course1 prevents it from altering its position4 ,the very same principle acts on the boys' ,tops1 and is shown in a really remarkable manner by the professional ,japanese top-spinners1 who will place several tops upon each other1 as shown in the illustration1 and make them sway backwards and forwards in the most extraordinary manner1 sometimes being all upright1 and sometimes leaning almost at right angles to each other4 ,a favourite mode of illustrating this power of ,centrifugal ,force is by the ,gyroscope1 a figure of which is given on the right hand of the illustration4 ,the interior wheel is made to revolve rapidly1 and the effect of the revolution is to enable the instrument to maintain a horizontal position1 even when suspended on one side1 as shown in the engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,revolution ,,of ,,earth4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,tops4 ,illustration3 ,,gyroscope4 ,the power of this revolution is quite wonderful1 even in a small ,gyroscope which can be purchased for a few shillings4 ,it almost seems to be alive1 and to insist on retaining its position1 in spite of all efforts to the contrary4 ,this principle is used in the swinging cabin of the ,bessemer ship1 and is also employed by quoit-players in keeping their missile steady as it flies towards the mark4 ,even the now fashionable ,bicycle is managed on the same principle4 ,as is well known to all bicycle riders1 it is comparatively easy to maintain the balance when the pace is rapid and the wheels revolving quickly4 ,the difficulty is1 to do so when the pace is slow1 and the rider is deprived of the centrifugal force which keeps him on his balance almost in spite of himself4 ,it is just the same with a child's hoop1 which runs straight and upright when it is driven rapidly1 or when1 for example1 it runs downhill4 ,but1 as soon as the centrifugal force is expended1 it begins to waver1 loses its direction1 and soon falls to the ground4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,oscillation4--,,united ,,strength4--,,the ,,dome4 ,connection of ,oscillation with ,centrifugal ,force4--,equality of ,time in ,oscillation4--,the ,spider4--,the ,stone and ,string4--,pendulum of the ,clock1 and its ,effect on the ,machinery4--,acceleration and ,retardation4--,compensating ,pendulums4--,the ,metronome1 and its ,use in ,music4--,a simple ,metronome4--,value of the ,instrument in ,war4--,the ,escapement1 and its ,connection with the ,pendulum4--,mode of ,action4--,larva of ,burying-beetle4--,earthworms and ,serpents4--,union is ,strength4--,the ,hippopotamus ,rope and its ,structure4--,the ,spider-web4--,distinction between the ,threads4--,principle of the ,dome4--,the ,arch1 and its ,connection with the ,dome4--,esquimaux ,huts4--,receiver of the ,air-pump1 and its ,power of ,resistance4--,the ,human ,skull and the ,egg4--,accidental ,resemblance4--,the ,salad-dressing ,bottle4--,the ,medusa1 ,strobila1 and ,hydra4 ,a portion of our last chapter dealt of ,centrifugal ,force4 ,we will now proceed to another well-known power1 which seems to be a variation1 or perhaps a division1 of the same power4 ,i mean the principle of ,,oscillation1 which has done so much for the present state of the world4 ,i mention the connection of the two principles because it is evident that1 if ,oscillation were continued in one direction1 it would be converted into centrifugal force4 ,in fact1 it can only be considered as centrifugal force interrupted4 ,the chief point in this subject is the equal time occupied by the oscillating body1 no matter what may be the 8arc0 distance through which it sways1 provided that the length of the line remains the same4 ,the discovery of this principle by ,galileo in a church at ,florence is too well known to need repetition4 ,this principle may be observed by any one1 and at almost any time4 ,the ,spider at the end of its line illustrates it1 and so does a stone tied to a string1 both of which objects are shown in the illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in various departments of ,art1 ,oscillation is absolutely invaluable4 ,we will take1 for instance1 the best known of these examples1 namely1 the ,pendulum1 by which the movements of clocks are regulated4 ,without some mode of regulation1 the works would run down rapidly1 and the clock rendered incapable of measuring time4 ,but1 in the ,pendulum1 we possess a means of making a clock go at any desirable rate1 and be faster and slower at pleasure2 a long ,pendulum working slowly1 and a short one rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,,spider4 ,illustration3 ,,oscillating ,,weight4 ,illustration3 ,,metronome4 ,illustration3 ,,pendulum4 ,how the ,pendulum affects the working of a clock may be seen by reference to the right-hand figure of the illustration4 ,the movements of the clock are connected with the ,pendulum by means of an ingenious piece of mechanism called an 8escapement10 because it only allows the wheel shown in the illustration to move one cog at each swing of the ,pendulum4 ,now1 as in the latitude of ,london a pendulum which is a trifle more than thirty-nine inches in length swings once in a second1 it is evident that1 by lengthening or shortening the ,pendulum1 we have the rate of the clock entirely under command4 ,for example1 if a ,pendulum be required to swing once in two seconds1 it must be four times as long as that which swings once in one second1 while to swing once in three seconds it must be nine times as long1 the length being measured by the square of the time of vibration4 ,we are thus able to 8regulate0 clocks by lengthening the ,pendulum if they be too fast1 and shortening them if they be too slow4 ,the reader will probably have remarked that the conditions of the atmosphere--such as heat1 cold1 moisture1 or dryness--must have an effect on the length of the ,pendulum1 and thus alter the rating of the clock4 ,so they do1 and in consequence the ,compensating ,pendulums have been invented1 some of them being made of metallic rods of different powers of expansion1 mostly brass and steel1 while others carry a quantity of mercury in a glass tube near the bottom of the ,pendulum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another familiar example of the ,pendulum is the ,metronome1 which is simply a ,pendulum with a weight at the top as well as counterpoise below the bottom1 the weight moving up or down so as to decrease or hasten the pace4 ,generally a bell is added to it1 which is struck at the beginning of each bar4 ,the exactness of its beats is perfect1 as is known to all musicians1 and is calculated to take the conceit out of players who are apt to disregard their time4 ,i knew one lady1 a really good pianiste1 before whom ,i placed my ,metronome4 ,before she had played many bars she broke down1 exclaiming that the horrid bell always said 8ting0 in the wrong place4 ,however1 she soon acknowledged the value of the instrument1 and was glad to use it4 ,a very good ,metronome may be made by fastening a bullet to the end of a piece of tape1 and swinging it backwards and forwards1 regulating the tape according to the time required4 ,such a ,metronome is very portable1 and extremely useful where the conveyance of the clockwork instrument would be troublesome4 ,moreover1 its beats can be seen by a great number of persons4 ,i have often used it myself4 ,such a ,metronome is used in the army1 in order to regulate the pace of the soldier's step1 it being of the last importance that the pace should always be the same4 ,otherwise it would be impossible to calculate the time which ought to be consumed in marching a certain distance1 and the military calculations on which depends the success or failure of a campaign would be wholly upset1 half an hour too soon or too late meaning failure4 ,,the ,,escapement4 ,as we are on the subject of the pendulum and ,escapement1 we will say a few words about the latter piece of mechanism4 ,it is here given on a larger scale than in the previous illustration1 so that its action may be more easily understood4 ,whether in watch or clock1 the ,escapement is exactly the same in principle4 ,illustration3 ,,larva ,,of ,,burying-,,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,,escapement ,,of ,,watch4 ,first there is the escapement wheel1 the circumference of which is furnished with a number of very deep cogs1 varying as to the work which they have to do4 ,then there comes the escapement itself1 which swings on its pivot1 and is regulated in its oscillations by the pendulum4 ,as it swings backwards and forwards1 it is evident that only one tooth of the wheel can 8escape10 and only that in one direction4 ,we can reverse a steam-engine1 but the man has yet to be found who can reverse a clock1 i4e4 enable it to continue going in the opposite direction4 ,the only mode would be to enable one set of cogs to flatten themselves1 so as to pass the escapement1 and a second set to start up in exactly the opposite direction4 ,or perhaps there might be two parallel escapement wheels1 capable of being connected or disconnected with the clock at pleasure4 ,as1 however1 a reverse movement is quite needless1 no such invention seems to have been made4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand is seen an example of the same principle as shown in ,nature4 ,it represents a larva or grub of the ,burying-beetle4 ,it has no legs available for locomotion1 and yet it can get along with tolerable speed4 ,many years ago1 when living in ,wiltshire1 ,i was much struck with this fact4 ,there had been an epidemic among sheep1 which killed them off so fast that the farmers would at last not even bury them1 but took off the skins1 and left the bodies to moulder as they best might4 ,it was very unpleasant for the farmers1 but just the contrary for the ,burying-beetles1 which simply swarmed in the deserted carcasses4 ,if one of them were tapped with a stick1 hundreds of these larv came scuttling out1 displaying an activity which was really remarkable in creatures practically legless4 ,in reality this movement is achieved by an apparatus very similar in its action to that of the escapement4 ,the rings1 or 8segments10 of which the body is composed1 are furnished with rows of sharp points1 arranged very like the cogs of the escapement wheel4 ,by alternately elongating and contracting the body1 these points catch against surrounding substances1 and force the creature onwards1 only allowing of movement in one direction4 ,perhaps the reader will remember that in an earlier part of this work it has been mentioned that the various worms propel themselves by the same means4 ,so do the ,serpents1 the edges of the scales serving the same purpose as the hairs of the worms and the hooks of the grub4 ,,union ,,is ,,strength4 ,,on the left hand of the accompanying illustration we have an example of the wonderful power obtained by uniting together a number of comparatively weak objects4 ,it represents a portion of the rope attached to the harpoon with which the natives of some parts of ,africa attack and kill the hippopotamus4 ,considering that a full-grown hippopotamus weighs several tons1 and1 in spite of its enormous size1 is as active as a tiger1 we can infer the strength of the rope which must be needed to hold such an animal when excited with rage and pain4 ,a few years ago the female hippopotamus at the ,zoological ,gardens1 when deprived of her cub1 actually tried to leap over the lofty iron barrier1 and so far succeeded as to throw her weight on the uppermost bar4 ,fortunately it was made of well-wrought iron1 and was only bent by her weight4 ,had it been made of cast-iron1 like most railings1 she would have snapped it like glass4 ,now1 the fibres of which the rope is composed are individually feeble1 but1 when they lend their strength to each other1 their strength is amazing4 ,it is well shown by a lasso in my possession1 made of the fibres of the aloe-leaf4 ,it is scarcely as thick as a man's little finger1 and yet it is strong enough to resist the efforts of the most powerful wild bull4 ,i have some of the separate fibres1 and it is interesting to notice how fibres so slight when separate should be so strong when united4 ,part of the rope has been unlaid1 so as to show the manner in which it has been put together4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus ,,rope4 ,illustration3 ,,spinneret ,,of ,,spider4 ,towards the harpoon itself1 a number of small cords laid loosely side by side are used1 so as to prevent the hippopotamus from severing the rope with his chisel-like teeth1 which he would assuredly do if it were single4 ,the multitudinous cords become entangled among the teeth1 and baffle his efforts2 but still their unity is their strength2 and1 though the animal may sever one or two of them1 the others retain their hold until he dies under a shower of spears4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right-hand side of the illustration is the ,spinneret of the ordinary garden ,spider1 showing the many orifices from which the silken threads emerge4 ,it is a remarkable point1 and one which1 ,i believe1 is seldom noticed1 that the ,spider can at pleasure combine all these fibres into a single cord1 or issue and keep them separate1 just as is the case with the hippopotamus rope4 ,the latter operation may be seen whenever a large fly gets into the web4 ,the ,spider darts at it1 bites it1 and then1 ejecting a loose mass of fibres1 rolls it up in a moment1 as in a shroud1 carries it off and hangs it in a convenient place1 and mends the broken meshes of the web4 ,but both kinds of the cords of the net are made differently from the winding-up fibres1 the former being fixed together1 and the latter kept separate4 ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,dome4 ,we are all familiar with ,domes1 especially when the ,dome of ,st4 ,paul's is the most conspicuous object in our metropolis4 ,few persons1 however1 except professional architects and builders1 seem to ask themselves the principle on which the ,dome is constructed4 ,the strength of the arch is well known1 and the ,dome is practically a number of arches1 affording material support to each other1 and so enormously increasing the strength of the edifice4 ,a good idea of the ,dome principle may be formed by taking two croquet hoops1 placing them at right angles to each other1 tying them together at the intersection1 and pushing the ends in the ground4 ,even by this very simple arrangement considerable strength can be obtained2 but1 if the hoops be sufficiently multiplied to form a close ,dome1 it will be evident that the strength will be correspondingly increased4 ,so strong1 indeed1 is the ,dome1 that it could be made without mortar or cement1 although1 of course1 its strength is increased by their use4 ,a very good example of a ,dome thus constructed is found in the 8igloo10 or snow-hut of the ,esquimaux1 which has already been described4 ,as to the example which ,i have selected1 it would have been easy enough to have chosen one of the great ,domes of the world1 such as ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 ,st4 ,maria del ,fiore at ,florence1 ,st4 ,paul's of ,london1 or ,st4 ,genevive or the ,invalides of ,paris4 ,i have1 however1 selected the present example on account of the thinness of its walls1 the fragility of its material1 and the enormous pressure which it has to undergo4 ,this is the 8,receiver0 of the ,air-pump4 ,it is made of glass not thicker than an ordinary tumbler1 and yet1 even when exhausted of air1 it will resist the pressure of the atmosphere for days together4 ,when it is remembered that the ,receiver is deprived of its internal air1 and therefore has to resist a pressure equal to fifteen pounds on every square inch of its surface1 it may be imagined how strong the ,dome is4 ,were the top or either side to be flat1 it would be crushed as soon as a vacuum was formed sufficient to deprive it of the support of the air within4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,glance at the illustration will show how the ,receiver is modelled on the same plan as the ,human ,skull1 the outlines being curiously similar4 ,it is this formation which imparts such strength to so thin a set of bones as those which compose the human skull as enables them to protect a sensitive organ like the brain1 on which both reason and life itself depend4 ,illustration3 ,,human ,,skull4 ,illustration3 ,,receiver ,,of ,,air-,,pump4 ,eggs also form good examples of the wonderful strength obtained by this principle1 their thin shells protecting the yolk and the white1 as well as the chick through its progress to maturity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the last subject in this chapter is a curious example of an evidently accidental resemblance in form4 ,the figure on the right of the accompanying illustration will at once be recognised as one of those ,salad-dressing ,bottles which try to conceal by their shape the small volume of their contents4 ,that on the left represents one of the many forms through which the ,medusa passes before it attains its perfect form4 ,it was long thought to be a separate creature1 and was known under the scientific name of ,strobila4 ,modern researches have1 however1 made the discovery that it is one of the transitional stages between the creature known as the ,trumpet-hydra 7,hydra tuba7 and the ,medusa1 popularly known as ,jelly-fish4 ,the former almost exactly resembles the ,hydra of our fresh waters4 ,it is a tiny transparent gelatinous bag--so transparent as to be scarcely perceptible1 and with some thirty or forty long and delicate tentacles hanging from its open end4 ,these tentacles are used in catching the minute creatures on which it feeds4 ,it is fixed1 and1 to use ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones's simile1 looks like a beautiful silk-like pencil waving amidst the water4 ,its length is not quite half an inch4 ,illustration3 ,,trumpet-,,hydra4 ,illustration3 ,,salad-,,dressing ,,bottle4 ,that it should be identical with the remarkable form shown in the illustration seems impossible1 but such is the case4 ,its body becomes contracted as if tied with strings1 and every segment thus formed develops a set of tentacles1 breaks away1 and swims off in the form of a ,medusa4 ,the upper segment is exhibited as undergoing this process4 ,the figure is magnified so as to show the structure better1 its right length being about one-third of an inch4 ,a full and graphic history of this creature and its manifold changes may be found in ,mr4 ,rymer ,jones's 8,aquarian ,naturalist40 ,it is not likely that the inventor of the ,salad-dressing ,bottle ever saw a ,hydra1 but the resemblance is strangely exact4 ,,acoustics4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,percussion4--,,the ,,string ,,and ,,reed4--,,the ,,trumpet4--,,ear-,,trumpet4--,,stethosc ope4 ,the ,science of ,sound4--,rhythmical ,vibrations4--,the ,drum4--,primitive ,drums4--,the ,solid and ,hollow ,log4--,the ,bass ,drum and ,kettle-drum4--,african ,drums4--,gnostic ,gems and the ,ashanti ,drum4--,tympanum1 or ,drum of the ,human ,ear1 and its ,mechanism4--,an artificial ,tympanum4--,the ,string4--,the ,bow and the ,harp4--,the ,harpsichord and the ,zither4--,the ,bow and the ,violin4--,the ,cricket4--,the ,vibrator1 or ,reed4--,the ,jew's ,harp and ,harmonium4--,the ,cicada and its ,song4--,harmonics upon ,strings4--,the olian ,harp4--,harmonics upon the ,trumpet4--,the ,trombone4--,trachea of the ,swan4--,the ,ear-trumpet4--,the ,sea-shell4--,the ,stethoscope4--,savage ,food4--,the ,aye-aye4--,the ,siren and its ,uses4--,echo and ,whispering ,gallery4 ,in a work of this nature it would be absolutely impossible1 not to say out of place1 to give an account of so elaborate a subject as ,acoustics1 i4e4 the science of ,sound4 ,suffice it to say1 that all sounds are produced by the vibration of air1 and that the fewer vibrations1 the lower is the sound1 and vice vers4 ,when such vibrations are produced regularly1 they form ,musical sounds1 but1 if irregularly1 the sounds can be only distinguished under the term of ,noise4 ,the earliest germ of music lies in certain savage races1 who1 as long as they can maintain a rhythmical beat on any resonant substance1 do not particularly care what it is4 ,a hollow tree is a splendid instrument in their opinion1 but1 if this cannot be had1 a dry log of wood will answer the same purpose4 ,some tribes1 more ingenious than others1 cut a deep groove upon the upper surface of a log1 hollow it through this groove1 and then hammer away at it to their hearts' content4 ,the next move was to cut off a section of the trunk of a tree1 hollow it1 set it on end1 and then beat it on the sides4 ,lastly1 some one hit upon the idea that if the open upper part of the hollowed log were covered with a tightly stretched membrane1 and that if the membrane1 instead of the log1 were beaten1 the resonance would be increased4 ,in consequence1 the real ,drum was invented1 and seems to have existed from time immemorial in parts of the world so distant that they could not have had any communication with each other4 ,take1 for example1 the well-known 8,bass ,drum0 of our bands1 which is shown on the right hand of the figure4 ,we make it a very ornamental article1 with frame of metal1 and heraldic decorations of all kinds4 ,illustration3 ,,bones ,,and ,,drum ,,of ,,ear4 a ,,tube ,,of ,,ear4 b ,,drum4 c ,,hammer4 d ,,anvil4 e ,,stirrup4 ,illustration3 ,,drums4 ,lying against it is one of a pair of ,kettle-drums1 such as are always seen in mounted bands4 ,they look very easy to play1 but1 if the reader will try a pair1 he will soon find his mistake4 ,but there are savage tribes of ,western ,africa who make ,drums of such wonderful power that their sullen roar is heard for miles around1 as their slow1 triple beat summons the tribe to arms like the fiery cross of the ,highland clans4 ,as to shape1 lightness1 and beauty1 our ,drums are infinitely superior to theirs1 but1 so far as ,i can gather from personal and written narratives of ,african travellers1 none of our ,drums surpass theirs in richness1 depth of tone1 and power of carrying sound4 ,sometimes these ,drums1 instead of being mere cylinders1 are carved into the most strange and fantastical patterns4 ,i possess one of these curious ,drums1 brought from ,ashanti1 and carved out of a solid piece of wood4 ,the strange point in it is1 that it represents a double head carrying1 after all negro fashions1 a sort of vessel upon it4 ,one part of the head represents a human head 7not that of a negro71 while the other merges gradually into an eagle's head and beak4 ,it is1 in fact1 a ,gnostic gem1 and would pass muster as such if it had been engraved on chalcedony1 cornelian1 or other semi-precious stones which are employed in the seal-engraver's art4 ,upon this composite head is placed the ,drum itself1 which is also cut out of the solid block1 and which1 after the fashion of ,west ,african ,drums1 has a hole on one side4 ,this remarkable instrument was given to me by an old merchant captain1 who brought it himself from ,west ,africa1 and who1 when ,i made his acquaintance1 had actually painted it all kinds of colours1 planted it in his garden1 and was using the ,drum as a flower-pot4 ,of course1 as soon as it came into my possession1 ,i put it in 8pickle10--i4e4 a strong solution of alkali1--brushed off the paint1 and placed it in my museum1 where it is now4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration on page #ead is given a sort of map or chart of the human ,ear1 with its internal ,drum1 or ,tympanum1 as it is scientifically termed4 ,it is by the vibration of this ,drum that hearing is made possible1 the vibrations of the air being transmitted to the ,drum by means of a beautiful bony apparatus1 termed the ,hammer1 ,anvil and ,stirrup4 ,sometimes the action of the ,drum is partially checked1 and then the sufferer is said to be 8hard of hearing40 ,sometimes it is broken1 or its action totally clogged1 and then he is said to be 8stone deaf40 ,there have been cases where an artificial tympanum has been inserted1 and answered its purpose fairly well4 ,,the ,,string ,,and ,,reed4 ,it has previously been mentioned that all sounds are owing to vibrations of the air4 ,but there are many ways of producing these vibrations1 and each mode gives a different quality of tone4 ,we have already seen1 by means of the drum1 how sound is produced by percussion4 ,we shall now see how sounds can be produced by the vibrations of a ,string4 ,if the string of a bow be pulled and smartly loosed1 the result is a distinctly musical sound1 higher or lower according to the length and tension of the string4 ,perhaps some of my readers may recall the passage in ,homer's 8,odyssey10 where ,ulysses strings the fatal bow3-- 8,heedless he heard them2 but disdained reply1 ,the bow perusing with exactest eye4 ,then1 as some heavenly minstrel1 taught to sing ,high notes responsive to the trembling string1 ,to some new strain when he adapts the lyre1 ,or the dumb lute refits with vocal wire1 ,relaxes1 strains1 and draws them to and fro2 ,so the great master drew the mighty bow1 ,and drew with ease4 ,one hand aloft displayed ,the bending horns1 and one the string essayed4 ,from his essaying hand the string let fly1 ,twanged short and sharp1 like the shrill swallow's cry40 ,the ,harp is1 in fact1 nothing but a magnified bow1 with a number of strings of graduated length and tension4 ,some very beautiful experiments have been made on this subject by the ,rev4 ,sir ,f4 ,a4 ,g4 ,ouseley1 ,professor of ,music at ,oxford1 who stretched a string of sixty-four feet in length1 and found that although1 when vibrating1 it must produce a note1 there was no human ear that could distinguish it4 ,yet1 if combined with other musical instruments1 it would probably do its work well4 ,the theory of the vibrations will be briefly described on another page4 ,these vibrations may be produced in various manners4 ,the string may be pulled with the fingers1 as in the harp1 the guitar1 the zither1 or even the violin1 c41 in pizzicato passages4 ,the old harpsichord1 now an instrument vanished into the shadows of the past1 pulled the strings with little strips of quill1 acting like the thumb-ring of the zither-player4 ,the 8plectrum0 of the ancients acted in the same manner1 and the ,japanese have at the present day a sort of guitar played with a plectrum4 ,i have heard it1 but cannot particularly admire the effect1 the notes appearing to be without feeling1 and as if they were played on a barrel-organ4 ,sometimes1 as in our modern pianos1 the strings are struck by hammers instead of being pulled by fingers1 plectrum1 or goose-quill4 ,the most ingenious mode of causing musical vibration is the ,bow1 which is too familiar to need a detailed description4 ,suffice it to say that it really is a modified bow1 the place of the string being supplied by a flat band of horsehair1 which is drawn over the string1 and so causes it to vibrate4 ,in order to enable the bow to grip the string1 it is rubbed with resin almost as often as a billiard-player chalks his cue4 ,some skill is required even in producing a sound by the bow4 ,it looks as if any one could do it1 but a novice1 if he extorts any sound at all1 never rises above a squeak4 ,when ,i took my first violin lessons1 nearly thirty years ago1 ,i was so horrified at the discordant sounds elicited from the instrument1 that ,i retired to the topmost garret of the house in order not to hurt any one's feelings except my own4 ,illustration3 ,,cricket4 ,illustration3 ,,cicada4 ,illustration3 ,,violin4 ,illustration3 ,,jew',s ,,harp4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration is seen a well-known example of the imitation of ,nature by ,art4 ,this is the common ,cricket1 whose loud shrill call is more familiar than agreeable4 ,some years ago1 while engaged on my 8,insects at ,home10 ,i gave much time to the examination of the structures by which such a sound can be produced4 ,on the under side of the wing-covers1 or 8elytra10 as they are scientifically termed1 are notched ridges1 which1 when examined with a moderate power of the microscope1 have something of this appearance 4 ,the friction of these notches produces the musical sound1 which1 as the reader will see1 is exactly analogous to the friction of the bow upon the string4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,next we come to the ,vibrator1 sometimes called the ,reed4 ,it is introduced into various musical instruments1 such1 for example1 as the harmonium1 the clarionet1 the oboe1 the bassoon1 and various organ pipes4 ,the simplest form of the ,vibrator is shown in the ,jew's ,harp1 as it is popularly called1 though it is not a harp1 and has nothing to do with ,jews4 ,illustration3 ,,vibrating ,,strings4 ,illustration3 ,,olian ,,harp4 ,the word is really a mistaken pronunciation of 8jaw's harp10 because the instrument is held against the teeth1 while its tongue is vibrated by strokes of the finger4 ,these vibrations affect the air within the mouth1 and1 by expanding or contracting the mouth1 the sound is lowered or raised according to the laws of ,acoustics4 ,of course1 the range of notes is very small1 being limited to those of the common chord1 and even they being attainable only by a practised performer4 ,very good effects1 however1 have been produced by means of a series of ,jew's ,harps1 set to different tones by loading the end of the tongue with sealing-wax or similar substances4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an apparatus constructed on the same principle is to be found in the vocal organs of the male ,cicada4 ,if one of these insects be examined on the lower surface1 two curious and nearly circular flaps will be seen1 just at the junction of the thorax with the abdomen4 ,it is by the action of these two little vibrators that the insect is able to produce a sound so loud1 that in calm weather it may be heard at the distance of a mile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the accompanying illustration is1 in fact1 a sort of chart as to the vibration of sound4 ,on the right is shown the ,,olian ,,harp1 with its upper lid raised1 so as to show the structure of the strings4 ,these are all tuned to the same note1 the present ,d being generally accepted as being most free from false tuning1 and less liable for the errors of 8temperament40 ,several of the strings are an octave lower than the others1 but the tonic is always the same4 ,the instrument is placed in a current of air1 generally in a window1 with the sash let down upon it1 and the air-currents set the strings vibrating in a most wonderful manner4 ,there is no need for human fingers to touch them1 but they automatically divide themselves into the component parts of the common chord1 and produce octaves1 fifths1 and thirds ad infinitum4 ,on the left hand of the same illustration is exhibited a string of the same length and tension1 vibrating in two different ways4 ,the upper figure shows it divided into three portions1 each of which gives the fifth above the tonic1 and all of which1 when sounding simultaneously1 give a fulness and richness to the tone which could only be attained otherwise by three distinct instruments4 ,all players of stringed instruments know how invaluable are these harmonics1 without which many passages of well-known music could not be played1 and which are produced by 8damping10 and not pressing the strings4 ,so1 if the string be lightly touched1 or damped at the crossing portion at either end1 the result will be that the string divides itself into three portions1 and all three resound simultaneously4 ,the lower string is vibrating in thirds1 having divided itself into four portions4 ,if it were damped in the middle1 it would divide itself into two portions1 and sound octaves4 ,the subject is a most interesting one1 but our space is nearly exhausted1 and we must pass to another branch of it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in all brass instruments furnished with a mouthpiece1 and not with a reed1 the notes are obtained by vibrations of the enclosed air1 caused by the movement of the lips4 ,they are all set to some definite tonic1 sometimes ,c natural1 but mostly to a flat tone1 such as ,b flat or ,e flat4 ,taking the ordinary military trumpet or bugle as an example1 we have 7when we have learned how to play it71 first1 the tonic4 ,by alteration of the lips we get the octave above the tonic4 ,then comes the fifth2 then the third1 which is1 in fact1 another octave2 and then a few other notes1 the truth of which depends on the ear of the player4 ,now1 all these notes are obtained by means of the lips1 which set the column of air vibrating1 and divide it into harmonics4 ,the apparently complicated bugle-calls of the army are nearly all formed from four notes only1 i4e4 7taking ,c as the tonic7 ,c ,g ,c ,e ,g4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,trachea ,,of ,,swan4 ,illustration3 ,,trombone4 ,the ,trombone1 which is shown on the right hand of the illustration1 has the advantage of being lengthened at will1 and thus giving the performer a fresh tonic1 and consequently another series of harmonics4 ,valved and keyed instruments have a similar advantage1 the one acting by lengthening1 and the other by shortening1 the column of air4 ,the former is infinitely the better plan1 as it sets more harmonics vibrating1 and consequently gives a greater richness of tone4 ,a familiar example of this is to be found in the ,ophicleide and ,euphonium4 ,the former is eight feet in total length1 and alters its tonic by eleven keys1 which shorten the column of air4 ,the latter is of the same length1 but1 by the employment of valves1 can be made sixteen feet in length4 ,consequently the euphonium has practically killed the ophicleide1 just as the ophicleide killed the serpent4 ,the cornet--pistons1 the brass contra-basso1 the flugel horn1 the tenor sax-horn1 c41 are all constructed on the same principle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand of the illustration is shown the wonderful apparatus by means of which the ,swan produces its far-resounding cry4 ,the windpipe1 or 8trachea10 as it is technically named1 passes down the neck1 protected by the bones1 until it reaches the chest4 ,there it leaves them1 enters the cavity of the chest1 and contorts itself in such a manner as to obtain greater length1 just as is the case with the trombone and valved instruments4 ,,acoustics ,,as ,,aids ,,to ,,surgery4 ,we have already seen how the air-vibrations poured in at the small end of the trumpet can make resonant notes4 ,we have now to see how the reverse process can be employed1 and sounds poured into the larger end be conveyed to the ear4 ,illustration3 ,,ear-,,trumpet4 ,illustration3 ,,concha ,,of ,,human ,,ear4 ,the ,ear-trumpet is a familiar example of such an instrument1 and1 as it is shown in the illustration1 there is no need of further description4 ,it is rather remarkable1 by the way1 that the length of tube does not seem to interfere with the conveyance of sound1 as may be seen by the speaking-tubes which are now so common in private houses1 hotels1 and offices4 ,i know of one church in which there is a special seat for deaf persons4 ,the reading-desk and pulpit are both fitted with the large ends of ,ear-trumpets4 ,from them pass tubes under the flooring1 and so into the seat1 where they can be applied to the ear of the deaf worshippers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the right hand is the 8,concha10 as it is called1 of the human ear1 which is evidently constructed for the purpose of collecting and concentrating sounds4 ,instinctively1 if we wish to near any sound more distinctly1 we place the open hand behind the ear1 so as to enlarge its receptive capacity1 and send a greater volume of sound into the ear4 ,the well-known experiment of holding a shell to the ear so as to hear the murmur of the sea is due to the same cause1 the shell collecting1 though in a mixed manner1 all the surrounding sounds1 and making a murmur which really resembles the distant wash of the waves upon the shore4 ,illustration3 ,,savage ,,tapping ,,tree4 ,illustration3 ,,surgeon ,,using ,,stethoscope4 ,then1 if we examine the various animals which need acute hearing1 either to seize prey or escape from enemies1 we shall find that they have large and mobile ears1 which can be directed so as to catch the expected sound4 ,the hare1 rabbit1 and deer are examples of the latter1 while the former are well represented by the domestic cat1 whose ears are always pricked forward when she hears the scratchings of a mouse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,another most useful appliance is the ,,stethoscope1 which enables the skilful surgeon to investigate the interior of the body almost as clearly as if it were transparent4 ,it is perfectly simple1 being nothing but a trumpet-shaped piece of wood1 formed as shown in the illustration4 ,sometimes it is hollow1 and sometimes solid1 but the result is the same1 sound being transmitted through wood in a most remarkable manner4 ,for example1 if one end of the longest scaffolding pole be slightly scratched with a pin1 the sound will be distinctly heard by any one who places his ear against the other end1 though the person who uses the pin can scarcely hear the sound himself4 ,the surgeon1 therefore1 places the broad end of the ,stethoscope upon the patient1 and the other upon his ear1 taps more or less lightly with his fingers1 and by the sounds transmitted through the ,stethoscope ascertains the condition of the internal organs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on the left hand is an illustration of the mode in which the ,australian savage1 without the least idea of the theory of ,acoustics1 utilises the sound-conducting power of wood4 ,if he wishes to know whether or not a hollow tree is tenanted by an animal of which he is in pursuit1 he places his ear against the tree1 taps it smartly with his tomahawk1 and listens for the movement of the animal inside4 ,so delicate is this test1 that it is employed even when the native is hunting for the large beetle-grubs on which they feed1 and which are accounted a luxury even by ,europeans1 when they have once overcome the prejudice attaching itself to eating1 without cookery1 fat white grubs as thick and long as a man's finger4 ,the ,aye-aye is said to eat in exactly the same manner1 tapping with its long finger the trunks and branches of trees and1 if it hears a maggot inside1 gnawing it out4 ,,measurement ,,of ,,sound4 ,of late years we have had an instrument which enables us to measure the vibrations of sound as accurately as the barometer measures the weight of the atmosphere1 the thermometer the temperature1 and the photometer the power of light4 ,this is the ,siren1 which is shown on the right hand of the accompanying illustration4 ,to explain this instrument fully would require ten times the space which we have at command1 and necessitate a great number of drawings4 ,i will1 therefore1 endeavour to explain its principle in as brief terms as possible4 ,the reader will observe that at the lower part of the instrument there is a disc pierced with a number of holes1 and that above these are two dials4 ,below the perforated disc1 and therefore unseen1 is a circular plate1 also pierced with holes4 ,when a pipe is attached to the lower part of the instrument1 and air propelled through it1 the disc begins to revolve1 every revolution being recorded by the dials1 after the fashion of the ordinary gas-meter4 ,illustration3 ,,gnat4 ,illustration3 ,,humble-,,bee4 ,illustration3 ,,siren4 ,as the pressure is increased1 the air1 passing through the holes1 assumes a rhythmical beat1 which soon becomes metamorphosed into musical notes4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that1 by means of this instrument1 the number of vibrations which produce a definite tone can be measured with absolute accuracy by any one who has an ear capable of appreciating a musical note4 ,it is by means of the ,siren that the much-disputed tonic of ,c will be settled1 the ,continental and the ,english ,c being greatly at variance1 and even the ,english ,c having been advanced almost a tone since the time of ,handel4 ,much is it to be wished that ,italy1 the home of song1 and ,england1 the patron of song1 could unite in their tonic1 instead of having systems so widely different that an ,italian singer is at a loss with the ,english pitch1 as is an ,english singer with the ,italian pitch4 ,the ,siren is even brought into the service of entomologists1 enabling them to measure by the sound the rapidity with which a flying insect moves its wings4 ,by means of this instrument we know the origin of the sharp1 piercing 8ping0 of the ,gnat1 and the heavy1 dull boom of the ,humble-bee1 both of which insects are given in the illustration4 ,before taking leave of this subject1 ,i may mention that the instrument is called the ,siren because it sings as well under water as in the air1 provided that water instead of air be driven through it4 ,,echo4 ,our last page will be given to the phenomenon called by the name of ,,echo1 which consists in the power of solid substances1 whether natural or artificial1 of reflecting the waves of sound thrown against them1 just as a mirror reflects the waves of light4 ,illustration3 ,,whispering ,,gallery4 ,very often the ,echo is naturally formed1 as shown in the illustration1 by rocks which cast back the sound--waves thrown against them4 ,this is the case in several parts of ,dovedale in ,derbyshire1 where a pistol shot is reverberated backwards and forwards in a most wonderful manner1 and a trumpet blast repeats itself over and over again4 ,at ,walton ,hall1 the residence of the late ,c4 ,waterton1 ,esq41 there is a wonderful ,echo1 nearly half a mile from the house4 ,mr4 ,waterton had discovered the ,echo1 which proceeded from the walls of the house1 and1 having found its focus1 placed on it a large stone1 called the ,echo-stone4 ,any one sitting on this stone1 and singing1 speaking1 or whistling towards the house1 heard every sound repeated1 as if in mockery4 ,the celebrated ,whispering ,gallery in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral is nothing but an ordinary ,echo1 though so intensified by the process of radiation1 that the sound is transmitted from one side of the dome to the other1 just as light or heat is reflected from concave mirrors4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,aard-vark1 #ahb1 #bbg ,abattis1 #aji ,acaleph1 #ae ,acorn ,barnacles1 #ij ,acoustics1 #eac ,acrida viridissima1 #bca ,actinurus1 #dfa ,adze1 #bcd olian ,harp1 #eah ,arostatics1 #dcf ,air-gun1 #gg ,aloe1 #beb ,amentum1 #ejb ,amphidotus cordatus1 #bbd ,anchor1 #ci ,angler-fish1 #ia1 #daf ,antherozoids1 #cfh ,ant-bear1 #ajj ,ant-lion1 #eb ,anthidium manicatum1 #bcg ,ants1 #cia1 #dji ,ants' ,nest1 #bad ,aphides1 #cia ,aphrodite aculeata1 #cec ,apple-parer1 #def ,aquarium1 #cic ,archer-fish1 #gh ,architecture1 #aei ,argus ,star-fish1 #hi ,armadillo1 #ahi ,armour1 #abj ,art1 #dgb ,artesian ,well1 #dcc ,arundinaria ,schomburgkii1 #bh ,ascalaphus1 #aaa ,ascidian1 #dig ,aspidomorpha excelsum1 #aih ,auger1 #bed ,b4 ,baited ,traps1 #ig ,ball-and-socket ,joint1 #cac ,balloon1 #dcf ,bamboo1 #bh ,band ,saw1 #bdd ,barea1 #adg ,barometer1 #ddd ,basket-urchin1 #hi ,bats1 #cii ,battering-ram1 #aec ,beak of ,duck1 #ced ,beaver1 #bcc ,beds1 #djj ,bee1 #bbj ,bero1 #ae ,bessemer ,process1 #bii ,bicycle1 #ejc ,binocular ,microscope1 #bhg ,birdlime1 #ih ,blow-gun1 #ge ,boat1 #e ,boat-hook1 #dd ,boatman1 #ab ,boiling ,water1 #dde ,bombardier-beetle1 #aef ,bombyx mori1 #agi ,bosjesman1 #cjh ,bot-fly1 #cif ,bower1 #daj ,bower-birds1 #daj ,bowsing of ,rope1 #cah ,brachinus crepitans1 #aef ,bradawl1 #bdi ,brocken ,spectre1 #bie ,brown-tailed ,moth1 #ahj ,brushes1 #cdj ,buffer of ,train1 #cfi ,bullet-making ,machine1 #aeg ,bunday1 #fi ,burdock1 #aag ,burial1 #dai ,burying-ants1 #dbj ,burying-beetle1 #ejg ,buttons1 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,,and ,,co4 ,,limited1 ,,city ,,road1 ,,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber3 ,bombadier-beetle ,bombardier-beetle pg #add very ong after very long after pg #bfb the ,multipying-glass the ,multiplying-glass pg #bij fills the air fill the air pg #cef cook their flood cook their food pg #dab ,if the hand move towards ,if the hand move towards pg #ddd protecting the yelk protecting the yolk pg #eaa