,,nietzsche ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,works ,philosophies ,ancient and ,modern ,,by ,,anthony ,m4 ,,ludovici ,,author ,,of ',who is to be ,master of the ,world8' ,,and ',notes to ,zarathustra' ,,preface ,,by ,,dr4 ,,oscar ,,levy ,,constable ,,company ,,ltd ,london #aiaj ,introduction ,the commission for a book on ,nietzsche1 to form the latest addition to a series of famous philosophers1 is most certainly a sign that the age of adversity1 through which the earlier ,nietzscheans had to struggle1 has at last come to an end4 ,for ten consecutive years they had had no reply whatever to their propaganda1 and their publications1 loud as some of them were1 proved as ineffective as cannon shots fired into the eternity of interplanetary space4 ,finally1 however1 when the echo was at last heard1 it gave back nothing like the original sound3 it was an echo of groans and moans1 an echo of roaring disapproval and hissing mockery4 ,yet the years rolled on and on--and so did the printing-presses--hissing and roaring as much as ever--but at last1 their thunders grew tamer and more subdued--the tempest of their fury seemed to die away in the distance--occasionally a slight mutter was still to be heard1 but no more flashes and hisses--and suddenly a streak of blue was observed over the horizon1 followed by a ray and smile of sunlight--and a soft zephyr of subdued and tentative compliments--and when our ,nietzsche edition had begun to appear in its stately volumes we were enabled to receive from our former enemies on both sides of the ,atlantic respectful congratulations4 ,and now all my brave friends are radiant with joy and optimism4 ,like the wanderer in the fairy tale1 while the storm of disgust and loud reproach was raging1 they wrapped themselves all the more closely in their cloaks1 and no impudent wind could tear a shred of garments from them1 but now that the sun of approval has set in1 they would fain get out of their armour and enjoy the fine weather as a reward for past perils4 ,has not the spring come at last8 ,are not the gay flowers at our feet meant to welcome the victorious warriors8444 ,are not the ladies --ladies that from time immemorial have loved the warrior 7especially when he is successful7--smiling at us more gloriously even than the sun8444 ,sun1 ladies1 flowers1 smiles--was there ever a nicer combination8444 ,but1 alas6 there is an unimaginative creature among the guests1 an earnest face among the cheerful1 a disbeliever among the faithful1 a dark countenance amid the bright assembly2--a being who1 in glaring contrast to the sun1 the smiles1 and the gaily-coloured dresses and sunshades1 is keeping a tight hold upon a dark umbrella--for he has an uncontrollable mistrust of ,english weather6 ,and ,i may claim that ,i not only know the meteorological conditions of ,england1 but also those of the whole of modern ,europe4 ,i know them so well that ,i have the greatest doubts whether ,nietzsche's influence will be strong enough to withstand the terrible hurricane of democracy which in our age is sweeping everything before it1 and leaving a level plain in its rear4 ,nietzsche may have been ever so right1 but ,truth and ,righteousness do not always prevail in this world of ours1 indeed1 they don't3 the bible itself1 that otherwise optimistic book1 lets this grand secret out once and only once--in the story of ,job4 ,the happy ending in that book will deceive no realistic observer3 it was added to the story1 as it is added to modern plays and novels1 for the edification and comfort of the audience3 the true story of ,job was without it1 as was the true story of many a brave man1 as was the true story of that great pope1 who on his deathbed came out with the confession3 ,dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem1 propterea morior in exsilio1#a a confession which went in the very teeth of his own virtue-rewarding creed with its happy-go-lucky trust in the moral order of the universe4 ,nietzsche may have been right1 therefore he may be unsuccessful4 ,i myself regard ,nietzsche's views on art1 religion1 psychology1 morality1 as extremely sound2 ,i think they are proved both by history and by common experience2 ,i even suspect that they could be confirmed by science1 if only science would give up looking at the world through the coloured spectacles of democratic prejudice 444 but then1 it is so difficult to give up this democratic prejudice2 for it is by no means simply a political opinion4 ,democracy1 as a political creed1 need terrify no one2 for political creeds succeed each other like waves of the sea1 whose thunder is loud and whose end is froth2 but the driving power behind democracy is not a political one1 it is religious --it is ,christianity4 ,a mighty religion still1 a religion which has governed the world for two thousand years1 which has influenced all philosophies1 all literatures1 all laws1 all customs up to our own day1 till it has finally filtered into our hearts1 our blood1 our system1 and become part and parcel of ourselves without our being aware of it4 ,at the present moment we are all instinctive ,christians4 ,even if this ,christian religion has been severely wounded by ,nietzsche's criticism--and ,i believe this to be the case--,i beg to suggest that a wounded lion may still have more strength than all the fussy1 political1 rationalistic1 agnostic1 nonconformist1 ,nietzschean and super-,nietzschean mice put together4 ,it was all the braver1 therefore1 on ,nietzsche's part to assail such a mighty enemy1 and to attack him exactly on the spot where attack was most needed1 if victory were to be won4 ,nietzsche clearly recognised that the canons of criticism had until now only been directed against the outer works of that stalwart fortress--at dogmatic1 at supernatural1 at ecclesiastical ,christianity1 and that no one had yet dared to aim right at the very heart of the creed-- its morality1 which1 while the shamfighters were at work outside1 was being enormously strengthened and consolidated from within4 ,this morality1 however1 ,nietzsche recognised as intimately connected with modern democracy--and behind the rosebush of democracy with its flowery speeches and its fraternity- and liberty-blossoms1 ,nietzsche clearly saw the dragon of anarchy and dissolution lurking4 ,it was the mortal fear of annihilation and ruin which gave ,nietzsche the daring to fulminate against our religion with such imperishable ,dithyrambics4 ,he was the first to mean the phrase1 crasez l'infme6 which in ,voltaire's mouth was only an epigrammatic exclamation4 ,for ,nietzsche's great forerunner on the ,continent1 ,wolfgang ,goethe1 who was also just as well aware how it would all end1 was much too prudent a man to lay his innermost heart bare to his enemies1 he--the grand old hypocrite of ,weimar--gauged the power of the contrary current correctly1 and wisely left the open combat against ,christianity and democracy to his great colleague--to that man of tragic wit1 to ,heinrich ,heine4 ,and there were others on the ,continent--very few to be sure1 and no politician or man of science or woman among them--others who saw the drift of modern ideas3 all of them poets4 ,for poets are prophets3 their sensitive organisation feels the fall of the glass first1 while their pluck and their pride1 their duty and their desire to face the storm drive them into the very thick of it4 ,the ,german poet ,hebbel1 the ,french novelist ,stendhal1 were amongst them4 ,a new ,matthew ,arnold --the object of my wish for this country--would perhaps like to include another poet1 the ,frenchman ,alfred de ,vigny1 in whose journal are to be found those awe-inspiring words against democracy3 ,alas6 it is thou1 ,democracy1 that art the desert6 it is thou who hast shrouded and bleached everything beneath thy monticles of sand6 ,thy tedious flatness has covered everything and levelled all6 ,for ever and ever the valley and the hill supplant each other2 and only from time to time a man of courage is seen3 he rises like a sand-whirl1 makes his ten paces towards the sun1 and then falls like powder to the ground4 ,and then nothing more is seen save the eternal plain of endless sand4 ,goethe and ,hebbel1 ,stendhal and ,heinrich ,heine1 ,alfred de ,vigny and ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 all made their ten steps towards the sun and are now sleeping peacefully beneath the dry sands of ,christian democracy4 ,their works are read1 to be sure2 but alas6 how few understand their meaning6 ,i see this and ,i shudder4 ,and ,i remember another moment in my life--a moment of perturbation too--a moment in which an idea overcame me1 which has been haunting me ever since4 ,i was on a visit to ,mrs4 ,frster-,nietzsche1 in her villa high up amongst the hills of ,weimar1 waiting in the drawing-room for my hostess to enter4 ,it was the first time that ,i had stood upon the holy ground where ,friedrich ,nietzsche gave up his heroic soul1 and ,i was naturally impressed2 my eyes wandered reverently around the scene1 and ,i suddenly noticed some handwriting on the wall4 ,the handwriting consisted of a powerful letter ,n which the ingenious builder had engraved profusely upon the oak panels of the room4 ,the ,n1 of course1 reminded me of another big ,n1 connected with another big name1--the ,n which used to be engraved together with the imperial crown and eagle upon the plate and regalia of ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,there was another victim of democracy3 the man who1 elevated by its revolutionary wave1 tried to stifle and subdue the anarchical flood1 was swallowed up as ignominiously as its other implacable opponent1 the plucky parson's son of the vicarage of ,rcken4 ,the mighty sword in the beginning and the mighty pen at the end of the last century were alike impotent against--,fate4 ,no doubt1 ,i saw in that moment1 as though lit up by a flashlight1 the fate of ,europe clearly before my eyes4 ,a fate--an iron fate4 ,a fate unavoidable for a continent that will have no more guides1 no more great men4 ,a fate unavoidable for an age that spills its best blood with the carelessness of ignorance4 ,a fate unavoidable for a people that is driven by its very religion to disobedience and anarchy4 ,and ,i thought of my own race1 which has seen so many fates1 so many ages1 so many empires decline--and there was ,i1 the eternal ,jew1 witnessing another catastrophe4 ,and ,i shuddered1 and when my hostess entered ,i had not yet recovered my breath4 ,gruesome1 isn't it8 ,but what if it should not come true8 ,there are no more prophets to-day1 says the ,talmud scornfully4 ,well1 unlike my ancestor ,jonah1 who became melancholic when his announcement of the downfall of ,nineveh was not fulfilled1 ,i beg to say that ,i on the contrary shall be extremely delighted to have proved a false prophet4 ,but ,i shall keep my umbrella all the same4 ,,oscar ,,levy4 #ed ,russell ,square1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 #a ',i have loved justice and ,i have hated iniquity1 therefore ,i die in exile4' ,contents ,introduction ,chapter ,i ,life and ,works ,chapter ,,ii ,nietzsche the ,amoralist ,chapter ,,iii ,nietzsche the ,moralist ,chapter ,,iv ,nietzsche the ,evolutionist ,chapter ,v ,nietzsche the ,sociologist ,summary and ,conclusion ,books ,useful to the ,student of ,nietzsche ,abbreviations ,used in ,referring to ,nietzsche's ,works ,d4 ,d4 ,dawn of ,day4 ,z4 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,g4 ,e4 ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,g4 ,m4 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,aph4 ,aphorism4 ,chapter ,i ,life and ,works ,holy be thy name to all coming generations6 ,in the name of all thy friends1 ,i1 thy pupil1 cry out our warmest thanks to thee for thy great life4 ,thou wast one of the noblest and purest men that ever trod this earth4 ,and although this is known to both friend and foe1 ,i do not deem it superfluous to utter this testimony aloud at thy tomb4 ,for we know the world2 we know the fate of ,spinoza6 ,around ,nietzsche's memory1 too1 posterity may cast shadows6 ,and therefore ,i close with the words3 ,peace to thy ashes6#a ,this view1 expressed by ,peter ,gast1 ,nietzsche's staunchest friend and disciple1 at his master's graveside1 in ,august #aijj1 may be regarded as typical of the ,nietzsche enthusiast's attitude towards his master4 ,on the other hand we have the assurance of ,nietzsche's opponents and enemies that nothing could have been more utterly disastrous to modern society1 more pernicious1 dangerous1 and ridiculous than ,nietzsche's life-work4 ,at the present day ,nietzsche is so potent a force and his influence is increasing with such rapidity that1 whatever our calling in life may be1 it behoves us to know precisely what he stands for1 and to which of the opinions above given we should subscribe4 ,as a matter of fact1 the inquirer into the life and works of this interesting man will find that he has well-nigh as many by-names as he has readers1 and not the least of our difficulties in speaking about him will be to give him a fitting title1 descriptive of his mission and the way in which he understood it4 ,some deny his right to the title philosopher2 others declare him to be a mere anarchist2 and a large number regard all his later works as no more than a shallow though brilliant reversal of every accepted doctrine on earth4 ,in order to be able to provoke so much diversity of opinion1 a man must be not only versatile but forcible4 ,nietzsche was both4 ,there is scarcely a subject in the whole range of philosophical thought which he does not attack and blow up2 and he hurls forth his hard1 polished missiles in a manner so destructive1 and at the same time with such accuracy of aim1 that it is no wonder a chorus of ill-used strongholds of traditional thought now cry out against him as a disturber and annihilator of their peace4 ,yet1 through all the dust1 smoke1 and noise of his implacable warfare1 there are both a method and a mission to be discerned--a method and a mission in the pursuit of which ,nietzsche is really as unswerving as he seems capricious4 ,throughout his life and all his many recantations and revulsions of feeling1 he remained faithful to one purpose and to one aim--the elevation of the type man4 ,however bewildered we may become beneath the hail of his epigrams1 treating of every momentous question that has ever agitated the human mind1 we still can trace this broad principle running through all his works3 his desire to elevate man and to make him more worthy of humanity's great past4 ,even in his attack on ,english psychologists1 naturalists1 and philosophers1 in ,the ,genealogy of ,morals1 what are his charges against them8 ,he says they debase man1 voluntarily or involuntarily1 by seeking the really operative1 really imperative and decisive factor in history precisely where the intellectual pride of man would least wish to find it1 i4e4 in vis inerti1 in some blind and accidental mechanism of ideas1 in automatic and purely passive adaptation and modification1 in the compulsory action of adjustment to environment4 ,again1 in his attack on the evolutionists' so-called struggle for existence1 of which ,i shall speak more exhaustively later1 it is the suggestion that life--mere existence in itself--is worthy of being an aim at all1 that he deprecates so profoundly4 ,and1 once more1 it is with the view of elevating man and his aspirations that he levels the attack4 ,whatever we may think of his methods1 therefore1 at least his aim was sufficiently lofty and honourable1 and we must bear in mind that he never shirked the duties which1 rightly or wrongly1 he imagined would help him to achieve it4 ,what was ,nietzsche8 ,if we accept his own definition of the philosopher's task on earth1 we must place him in the front rank of philosophers4 ,for1 according to him1 the creation of new values1 new principles1 new standards1 is the philosopher's sole raison d'tre2 and this he certainly accomplished4 ,if1 on the other hand1 with all the school philosophers1 we ask him to show us his system1 we shall most surely be disappointed4 ,in this respect1 therefore1 we may perhaps need to modify our opinion of him4 ,be that as it may1 it is safe to maintain that he was a poet of no mean order2 not a mere versifier or rhapsodist1 but a poet in the old ,greek sense of the word1 i4e4 a maker1 in our time such men are so rare that we are apt to question whether they exist at all1 for poetasters have destroyed our faith in them4 ,goethe was perhaps the last example of the type in modern ,europe1 and although we may recall the scientific achievements of men like ,michelangelo1 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,galileo1 we are not sufficiently ready to associate their divining and intuitive power in the department of science with their purely artistic and poetic achievements1 despite the fact that the two are really inseparable4 ,knowing the high authority with which poets of this order are wont to sneak1 it might be supposed that we should approach ,nietzsche's innovations in the realm of science with some respect1 not in spite of1 but precisely owing to1 his great poetic genius4 ,unfortunately to-day this no longer follows4 ,too thoroughly have we divorced science from emotion and feeling 7very wrongly1 as even ,herbert ,spencer and ,buckle both declared71 and now1 wherever we see emotion or a suggestion of passion1 we are too apt to purse our lips and stand on our guard4 ,when we consider that ,nietzsche was ultimately to prove the bitterest enemy of ,christianity1 and the severest critic of the ecclesiastic1 his antecedents seem1 to say the least1 remarkable4 ,his father1 ,karl ,ludwig ,nietzsche1 born in #ahac1 was a clergyman of the ,german ,protestant ,church2 his grandfather had also taken orders2 whilst his grandmother on his father's side was descended from a long line of parsons4 ,nor do things change very much when we turn to his mother's family2 for his maternal grandfather1 ,oehler1 was also a clergyman1 and1 according to ,nietzsche's sister1 he appears to have been a very sound1 though broad1 theologian4 ,yet1 perhaps1 it is we who are wrong in seeing anything strange in the fact that a man with such orthodox antecedents should have developed into a prophet and reformer of ,nietzsche's stamp2 for we should remember that only a long tradition of discipline and strict conventionality1 lasting over a number of generations1 is able to rear that will-power and determination which1 as the lives of most great men have shown1 are the first conditions of all epoch-making movements started by single individuals4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche was born at ,rcken near ,ltzen1 in the ,prussian province of ,saxony1 on the #aeth of ,october #ahdd4 ,from his earliest childhood onwards the boy seems to have been robust and active and does not appear to have suffered from any of the ordinary ailments of infancy4 ,in the biography written by his sister much stress is laid upon this fact1 while the sometimes exceptional health enjoyed by his parents and ancestors is duly emphasised by the anxious biographer4 ,elisabeth ,nietzsche 7born in ,july #ahdf71 the biographer in question1 is perfectly justified in establishing these facts with care2 for we know that our poet philosopher died insane1 and many have sought to show that his insanity was hereditary and could be traced throughout his works4 ,nietzsche's father died in #ahdi1 and in the following year the family removed to ,naumburg4 ,there the boy received his early schooling1 first at a preparatory school and subsequently at the ,gymnasium--the ,grammar ,school--of the town4 ,as a lad1 it is said that he was fond of military games1 and of sitting alone1 and it appears that he would recline for hours at his grandmother ,nietzsche's feet1 listening to her reminiscences of the great ,napoleon4 ,towards the end of #aheh ,mrs4 ,nietzsche was offered a scholarship for her son1 for a term of six years1 in the ,landes-,schule1 ,pforta1 so famous for the scholars it produced4 ,at ,pforta1 where the discipline was very severe1 the boy followed the regular school course and worked with great industry4 ,his sister tells us that during this period he distinguished himself most in his private studies and artistic efforts1 though even in the ordinary work of the school he was decidedly above the average4 ,it was here1 too1 that he first became acquainted with ,wagner's compositions1 and a word ought now perhaps to be said in regard to his musical studies4 ,music1 we know1 played anything but a minor rle in his later life1 as his three important essays1 ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth1 ,the ,case of ,wagner1 and ,nietzsche contra ,wagner1 are with us to prove4 ,i fear1 however1 that it will be impossible to go very deeply into this question here1 save at the cost of other still more important matters which have a prior claim to our attention4 ,let it then suffice to say that1 as a boy1 ,nietzsche's talent had already become so noticeable that for some time the question which agitated the elders in his circle of relatives and friends1 among whom were some competent judges1 was whether he should not give up all else in order to develop his great gift4 ,in the end1 however1 it was decided that he should become a scholar1 and although he never entirely gave up composing and playing the piano1 music never attained to anything beyond the dignity of a serious hobby in his life4 ,in saying this ,i naturally exclude his critical writings on the subject1 which are at once valuable and important4 ,nietzsche's six years at ,pforta were responsible for a large number of his subsequent ideas4 ,when we hear him laying particular stress upon the value of rigorous training free from all sentimentality2 when we read his views concerning austerity and the importance of law1 order and discipline1 we must bear in mind that he is speaking with an actual knowledge of these things1 and with profound experience of their worth4 ,the excellence of his philological work may also be ascribed to the very sound training he received at ,pforta1 and the ,latin essay which he wrote on an original subject 7,theognis1 the great aristocratic poet of ,megara7 for the leaving examination1 laid the foundation of all his subsequent opinions on morality4 ,nietzsche left ,pforta in ,september #ahfd and entered the ,university of ,bonn1 where he studied philology and theology4 ,the latter he abandoned six months later1 however1 and in the autumn of #ahfe he left ,bonn for ,leipzig1 whither his famous teacher ,ritschl had preceded him4 ,between #ahfe and #ahfg his work at ,leipzig proved of the utmost importance to his career4 ,hellenism1 ,schopenhauer and ,wagner now entered into his life and became paramount influences with him1 and each in its way determined what his ultimate mission was to be4 ,hellenism drew him ever more strongly to philology and to the problem of culture in general2 ,schopenhauer directed him to philosophy1 and ,wagner taught him his first steps in a subject which was to be the actual ,leit-motif of his teaching--,i refer to the question of ,art4 ,his work during these two years1 arduous though it was1 in no way affected his health1 and1 despite his short-sight1 he tells us that he was then able to endure the greatest strain without the smallest trouble4 ,being of a robust and energetic nature1 however1 he was anxious to discover some means of employing his bodily strength1 and it was for this reason that1 regardless of the interruption in his work1 he was enthusiastic at the thought of becoming a soldier4 ,in the autumn of #ahfg he entered the fourth regiment of ,field ,artillery1 and it is said that he performed his duties to the complete satisfaction of his superiors4 ,but1 alas1 this lasted but a short time2 for1 as the result of an unfortunate fall from a restive horse1 he was compelled to leave the colours before he had completed his term of service4 ,in ,october #ahfh1 after a serious illness1 the student returned to his work at ,leipzig1 and now that event took place which was perhaps the most triumphant and most decisive in his career4 ,it was ,nietzsche's ambition to get ,his doctor's degree as soon as possible and then to travel4 ,meanwhile1 however1 others were busy determining what he should do4 ,some philological essays which he had written in his student days1 and which1 owing to their excellence1 had been published by the ,rheinisches ,museum1 had attracted the attention of the educational ,board of ,ble4 ,one of the ,board communicated with ,ritschl concerning ,nietzsche1 and the reply the learned scholar sent was so favourable that the ,university of ,ble immediately offered ,ritschl's favourite pupil their ,professorship of ,classical ,philology4 ,this was an exceptional honour1 and1 to crown it1 the ,university of ,leipzig quickly granted ,nietzsche his doctor's degree without further examination --truly a remarkable occurrence in straitlaced and formal ,germany6 ,his first years at ,ble are chiefly associated in our minds with his inaugural address3 ,homer and ,classical ,philology1 with his action in regard to the ,franco-,german war1 and with his lectures on the ,future of our ,educational ,institutions4 ,i can do no more than refer to these here1 but as regards the war it is necessary to go into further detail4 ,in ,july #ahgj1 hostilities opened between ,france and ,prussia4 ,now1 although ,nietzsche had been forced to become a naturalised ,swiss subject in order to accept his appointment at ,ble1 he was loth to remain inactive while his own countrymen fought for the honour of ,germany4 ,he could not1 however1 fight for the ,germans without compromising ,switzerland's neutrality4 ,he therefore went as a hospital attendant1 and in this capacity1 after obtaining the necessary leave1 he followed his former compatriots to the war4 ,according to ,elisabeth ,nietzsche1 it was this act of devotion which was the cause of all her brother's subsequent ill-health4 ,in ,ars-sur-,moselle1 while tending the sick and wounded1 ,nietzsche contracted dysentery from those in his charge4 ,with his constitution undermined by the exertions of the campaign1 he fell very seriously ill1 and had to be relieved of his duties4 ,long before he was strong enough to do so1 however1 he resumed his work at ,ble2 and now began that second phase of his life during which he never once recovered the health he had enjoyed before the war4 ,in ,january #ahgb ,nietzsche published his first book1 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy4 ,it is really but a portion of a much larger work on ,hellenism which he had always had in view from his earliest student days1 and it may be said to have been prepared in two preliminary lectures delivered at ,ble1 under the title of the ,greek ,musical ,drama1 and ,socrates and ,tragedy4 ,the work was received with enthusiasm by ,wagnerians2 but among ,nietzsche's philological friends it succeeded in rousing little more than doubt and suspicion4 ,it was a sign that the young professor was beginning to ascribe too much importance to ,art in its influence upon the world1 and this the dry men of science could not tolerate4 ,between #ahgc and #ahgf1 ,nietzsche1 while still at ,ble1 published four more essays which1 for matter and form1 proved to be among the most startling productions that ,germany had read since ,schopenhauer's prime4 ,their author called these essays ,thoughts out of ,season1 and his aim in writing them was undoubtedly the regeneration of ,german culture4 ,the first was an attack on ,german ,philistinism1 in the person of ,david ,strauss1 the famous theologian of ,tbingen1 whom ,nietzsche dubbed the ,philistine of ,culture1 and was calculated to check the extreme smugness which had suddenly invaded all departments of thought and activity in ,germany as the result of the recent military triumph4 ,the second1 ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,history1 was a protest against excessive indulgence in the historical sense1 or the love of looking backwards1 which threatened to paralyse the intelligence of ,germany in those days4 ,in it ,nietzsche tries to show how history is for the few and not for the many1 and points out how rare are those who have the strength to endure the lesson of experience4 ,in the third1 ,schopenhauer as ,educator1 ,nietzsche pits his great teacher against all other dry-as-dust philosophers who make for stagnation in philosophy4 ,the fourth1 ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth1 contains ,nietzsche's last word of praise as a friend of the great ,german musician4 ,in it we already see signs of his revulsion of feeling2 but on the whole it is a panegyric written with love and conviction4 ,the fourth1 ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth1 contains ,nietzsche's last word of praise as a friend of the great ,german musician4 ,in it we already see signs of his revulsion of feeling2 but on the whole it is a panegyric written with love and conviction4 ,the only one of the four ,thoughts out of ,season which created much comment was the first1 concerning ,david ,strauss1 and this gave rise to a loud outcry against the daring young philologist4 ,nietzsche had been very unwell throughout this period4 ,dyspepsia and headaches1 brought on partly by overwork1 racked him incessantly1 and1 in addition1 he was getting ever nearer and nearer to a final and irrevocable breach with the greatest friend of his life--,richard ,wagner4 ,after obtaining leave from the authorities he went to ,sorrento1 where1 in the autumn of #ahgf1 he began work on his next important book1 ,human1 ,all-too-human1 the book which was to part him for ever from ,wagner4 ,in ,february #ahgh the first volume was ready for the printer1 and was published almost simultaneously with ,wagner's ,parsifal1 which work1 as is well known1 was the death-blow to ,nietzsche's faith in his former idol4 ,in ,human1 ,all-too-human1 ,nietzsche as a philosopher is not yet standing on his own legs1 as it were4 ,he is only just beginning to feel his way1 and is still deeply immersed in the thought of other men--more particularly that of the ,english positivists4 ,as a work of transition1 however1 ,human1 ,all-too-,human is exceedingly interesting1 as are also its sequels ,miscellaneous ,opinions and ,apophthegms 7#ahgi7 and ,the ,wanderer and his ,shadow 7#ahhj74 ,but in none of these1 as the author himself admits1 is there to be found that certainty of aim and treatment which characterised his later writings4 ,in #ahgi1 owing to ill-health1 ,nietzsche was compelled to resign his professorship at the ,university of ,ble1 and the spring of that year saw him an independent man with an annual pension of #cjjj francs1 generously granted to him by the ,board of ,management on the acceptance of his resignation4 ,with this pension and a small private income derived from a capital of about #adjj1 he was not destitute1 though by no means affluent1 and when we remember that he was obliged to defray the expenses of publication in the case of almost every one of his books1 we may form some idea of his actual resources4 ,from this time forward ,nietzsche's life was spent in travelling and writing4 ,venice1 ,marienbad1 ,zrich1 ,st4 ,moritz in the ,ober-,engadine1 ,sils ,maria1 ,tautenberg in ,thuringia1 ,genoa1 etc41 etc4 were among the places at which he stayed1 according to the season2 and during the year #ahhj his health materially improved4 ,in ,january #ahha he had completed the manuscript of the ,dawn of ,day1 and is said to have been well satisfied with his condition4 ,in the ,dawn of ,day ,nietzsche for the first time begins to reveal his real personality4 ,this book is literally the dawn of his great life work1 and in it we find him grappling with all the problems which he was subsequently to tackle with such a masterly and courageous hand4 ,it appeared in ,july #ahha and met with but a poor reception4 ,indeed1 after the publication of the last of the ,thoughts out of ,season ,nietzsche appears to have created very little stir among his countrymen--a fact which1 though it greatly depressed him1 only made him redouble his energies4 ,in ,september #ahhb ,the ,joyful ,wisdom was published--a book written during one of the happiest periods of his life4 ,it is a veritable fanfare of trumpets announcing the triumphal entry of its distinguished follower ,zarathustra4 ,with it ,nietzsche's final philosophical views are already making headway1 and it is full of the love of life and energy which permeates the grand philosophical poem which was to come after it4 ,disappointed by the meagre success of his works1 and hurt by the attitude of various friends1 ,nietzsche now retired into loneliness1 and1 settling down on the beautiful bay of ,rapallo1 began work on that wonderful moral1 psychological1 and critical rhapsody1 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 which was to prove the greatest of his creations4 ,during the years #ahhc-hd1 the three first parts of this work were published1 and1 though each part was issued separately and met with the same cold reception which had been given to his other works of recent years1 ,nietzsche never once lost heart or wavered in his resolve4 ,it required1 however1 all the sublime inspirations which we find expressed in that wonderful ,book for all and ,none1 to enable a man to stand firmly and absolutely alone amid all the hardships and reverses that beset our anchorite poet throughout this period4 ,it was about this time that ,nietzsche began to take chloral in the hope of overcoming his insomnia2 it was now1 too1 that his sister --the only relative for whom1 despite some misunderstandings1 he had a real affection--became engaged to a man with whom he was utterly out of sympathy2 and all the while negotiations1 into which ,nietzsche had entered with the ,leipzig ,university for the purpose of securing another professorial chair1 were becoming ever more hopeless4 ,in the course of this exposition ,i shall have to treat of the doctrines enunciated in ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra--indeed1 seeing that this work contains all ,nietzsche's thought in a poetical form1 it would be quite impossible to discuss any single tenet of his philosophy without in some way referring to the book in question4 ,i cannot therefore say much about it at present1 save that it is generally admitted to be ,nietzsche's opus magnum4 ,besides the philosophical views expounded in the four parts of which it consists1 the value of its autobiographical passages is enormous4 ,in it we find the history of his most intimate experiences1 friendships1 feuds1 disappointments1 triumphs1 and the like2 and the whole is written in a style so magnetic and poetical1 that1 as a specimen of belles-lettres alone1 entirely apart from the questions it treats1 the work cannot and ought not to be overlooked4 ,although there is now scarcely a ,european language into which ,zarathustra has not been translated1 although the fame of the work1 at present1 is almost universal1 the reception it met with at the time of its publication was so unsatisfactory1 and misunderstanding relative to its teaching became so general1 that within a year of the issue of its first part1 ,nietzsche was already beginning to see the necessity of bringing his doctrines before the public in a more definite and unmistakable form4 ,during the years that followed--that is to say1 between #ahhc and #ahhf--this plan was matured1 and between #ahhf and #ahhi--the year of our author's final breakdown1 three important books were published which may be regarded as prose-sequels to the poem ,zarathustra4 ,these books are3 ,beyond ,good and ,evil 7#ahhf71 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals 7#ahhg71 and ,the ,twilight of the ,idols 7#ahhi72 while the posthumous works ,the ,will to ,power 7#aija7 and the little volume ,antichrist1 published in #ahie1 when its author was lying hopelessly ill at ,naumburg1 also belong to the period in which ,nietzsche wished to make his ,zarathustra clear and comprehensible to his fellows4 ,in the ensuing chapters it will be my endeavour to state briefly all that is vital in the works just referred to4 ,what remains to be related of ,nietzsche's life is sad enough1 and is almost common knowledge4 ,when his sister ,elizabeth married ,dr4 ,frster and went to ,paraguay with her spouse1 ,nietzsche was practically without a friend1 and1 had it not been for ,peter ,gast's devotion and help1 he would probably have succumbed to his constitutional and mental troubles much sooner than he actually did4 ,before his last breakdown in ,turin1 in ,january #ahhi1 the only real encouragement he is ever known to have received in regard to his philosophical works came to him from ,copenhagen and ,paris4 ,in the latter city it was ,taine who committed himself by praising ,nietzsche1 and in the former it was ,dr4 ,george ,brandes1 a clever and learned professor1 who delivered a series of lectures on the new message of the ,german philosopher4 ,the news of ,brandes' success in ,copenhagen in #ahhh greatly brightened ,nietzsche's last year of authorship1 and he corresponded with the ,danish professor until the end4 ,it has been rightly observed that these lectures were the dawn of ,nietzscheism in ,europe4 ,as the result of over-work1 excessive indulgence in drugs1 and a host of disappointments and anxieties1 ,nietzsche's great mind at last collapsed on the #bnd or #crd of ,january #ahhi1 never again to recover4 ,the last words he wrote1 which were subsequently found on a slip of paper in his study1 throw more light upon the tragedy of his breakdown than all the learned medical treatises that have been written about his case4 ,i am taking narcotic after narcotic1 he said1 in order to drown my anguish2 but still ,i cannot sleep4 ,to-day ,i will certainly take such a quantity as will drive me out of my mind4 ,from that time to the day of his death 7#beth ,august #aijj7 he lingered a helpless and unconscious invalid1 first in the care of his aged mother1 and ultimately1 when ,elizabeth returned a widow from ,paraguay1 as his sister's beloved charge4 ,for an opinion of ,nietzsche during his last phase ,i cannot do better than quote ,professor ,henri ,lichtenberger of ,nancy1 who saw the invalid in #ahih2 and with this sympathetic ,frenchman's valuable observations1 ,i shall draw this chapter to a close3-- ,in the gradual wane of this enthusiastic lover of life1 of this apologist of energy1 of this prophet of ,superman there is something inexpressibly sad--inexpressibly beautiful and peaceful4 ,his brow is still magnificent--his eyes1 the light of which seems to be directed inwards1 have an expression which is indefinably and profoundly moving4 ,what is going on within his soul8 ,nobody can say4 ,it is just possible that he may have preserved a dim recollection of his life as a thinker and a poet4 #a ,das ,leben ,friedrich ,nietzsche's by ,frau ,frster-,nietzsche4 99 99 99 99 99 ,chapter ,,ii ,nietzsche the ,amoralist ,from a casual study of ,nietzsche's life it might be gathered that he had little time for private meditation or for any lonely brooding over problems foreign to his school and university studies4 ,indeed1 from the very moment when it was decided that he should become a scholar1 to the day when the ,university of ,leipzig granted him his doctor's degree without examination1 his existence seems to have been so wholly occupied by strenuous application to the duties which his aspirations imposed upon him that1 even if he had had the will to do so1 it would seem that he could not have had the leisure to become engaged in any serious thought outside his regular work4 ,nevertheless1 if we inquire into the matter more deeply1 we find to our astonishment1 that during the whole of that arduous period--from his thirteenth to this twenty-fourth year--his imagination did not once cease from playing around problems of the highest import1 quite unrelated to his school and university subjects4 ,in the introduction to ,the ,genealogy of ,morals1 he writes as follows3 --444 while but a boy of thirteen the problem of the origin of evil haunted me3 to it ,i dedicated1 in an age when we have in heart half-play1 half-,god1 my first literary child-play1 my first philosophical composition2 and1 as regards my solution of the problem therein1 well1 ,i gave1 as is but fair1 ,god the honour1 and made him ,father of evil4#a ,and then he continues3 ,a little historical and philological schooling1 together with an inborn and delicate sense regarding psychological questions1 changed my problem in a very short time into that other one3 under what circumstances and conditions did man invent the valuations good and evil8 ,and what is their own specific value8 ,this problem1 as stated here1 seems stupendous enough2 in fact1 it would be difficult1 in the whole realm of human thought1 to discover a question of greater moment and intricacy2 and yet we shall see that ,nietzsche was just as much born to attack and solve it as ,cardinal ,newman seems1 from the ,apologia pro ,vita ,sua1 to have been born to the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,if we reflect a moment1 we find that good and evil are certainly words that exercise a tremendous power in the world4 ,to attach the word good to any thing or deed is to give it the hall-mark of desirability3 on the other hand1 to attach the word evil to it is tantamount to proscribing it from existence4 ,even in the old ,english proverb1 ,give a dog a bad name and hang him1 we have a suggestion of the enormous force which has been compressed into the two monosyllables good and bad1 and before we seriously take up the problem1 it were well to ponder a while over the really profound significance of these two words4 ,nietzsche1 as we have already observed1 was never in any doubt as to their importance3 his life passion was the desire to solve the meaning1 the origin1 and the intrinsic value of the two terms2 and he did not rest until he had achieved his end4 ,let us now examine what morality--what good and evil--means to almost everybody to-day4 ,in the minds of nearly all those people who are neither students nor actual teachers of philosophy1 there is a superstition that good is a perfectly definite and absolute value1 and that evil is known unto all4 ,few seem to doubt that the meaning of these words has been fixed once and for ever4 ,the ordinary ,european lives1 reads1 and sleeps1 year in1 year out1 under the delusion that all is quite clear in regard to right and wrong4 ,such a person is1 of course1 somewhat abashed when you tell him that a certain people in the ,east practise infanticide and call it good or that a certain people in the ,west always separate at meals and eat apart and call this good4 ,he usually gets over the difficulty1 however1 by saying that they know no better1 and when at last he is hard pressed1 and is bound to admit that views of good and bad1 sometimes the reverse of his own1 actually do preserve and unite people in strange lands1 he takes refuge in the hope that all differences may one day be broken down and that the problem will thus be solved4 ,no such facile shelving of the question1 however1 could satisfy ,nietzsche4 ,from the very outset he freed himself from all national and even racial prejudices1 and could see no particular reason why the kind of morality now prevailing in ,europe1 or countries like ,europe1 must necessarily and ultimately overcome and supplant all others4 ,he therefore attacked the question with a perfectly open mind1 and asked himself whether he quite understood the part the terms good and evil have played in human history4 ,is morality--its justification in our midst and its mode of action--comprehended at all8--,he replies to this question so daringly and so uprightly1 that at first his clearness may only bewilder us4 ,these terms good and evil1 he tells us1 are merely a means to the acquisition of power4 ,and1 indeed1 in the very resistance we offer when he attempts to criticise our notions of morality1 we tacitly acknowledge that in this morality our strength does actually reside4 ,no greater power on earth was found by ,zarathustra than good and evil#b ,no people could live without first valuing2 if a people will maintain itself1 however1 it must not value as its neighbour valueth4#c ,in the last sentence we have seized ,nietzsche's clue to the whole question4 ,if you would maintain yourself1 you cannot and must not value as your neighbour values4 ,good and evil1 then1 are not permanent absolute values2 they are transient1 relative values1 serving an end which can be explained in terms of biology and anthropology4 ,but now let us halt a moment1 for the sake of clearness1 and let us inquire precisely how ,nietzsche himself was led to this conclusion4 ,in the summer of #ahfd1 when he was in his twentieth year1 he was given some home work to do which he was expected to have ready by the end of the holidays4 ,it was to consist of a ,latin thesis upon some optional subject1 and he chose ,theognis1 the ,aristocratic ,poet of ,megara4 ,while preparing the work he was struck with the author's use of the words good and bad as synonymous with aristocratic and plebeian1 and it was this valuable hint which first set him on the right track4 ,theognis and his friends1 being desirous of making their power prevail1 were naturally compelled to regard any force which assailed that power as bad--bad1 in the sense of dangerous to their order of power2 and thus it came to pass that ,theognis1 as an aristocrat in the heat of a struggle between an oligarchy and a democracy1 spoke of the democratic values as bad and of those of his own party as good4 ,the writing of this essay had other consequences which ,i shall only be able to refer to in the next chapter2 but at present let it suffice to say that1 in recognising the arbitrary use made by ,theognis of the epithets good and bad in designating the oligarchy and the democracy respectively1 ,nietzsche was first induced to look upon morality merely as a weapon in the struggle for power1 and he thus freed himself from all the usual bias which belongs to the absolutist's standpoint4 ,hence his claim to the surname amoralist1 and his use of the phrase ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 as the title of one of his greatest works4 ,let us1 however1 remember that although ,nietzsche did undoubtedly take up a position beyond good and evil1 in order to free himself temporarily from the gyves of all tradition1 still this attitude was no more than a momentary one1 and he ultimately became as rigid a moralist as the most exacting could desire4 ,it was a new morality1 however1 or perhaps a forgotten one1 which he ultimately preached1 and with the view of preparing the ground for it he was in a measure obliged to destroy old idols4 ,he who hath to be a creator in good and evil1 says ,zarathustra1 verily1 he hath first to be a destroyer1 and to break values to pieces4#d ,assuming the position of the relativist1 then1 ,nietzsche observed that1 all morality1 all use of the words good and evil1 is only an artifice for acquiring power4 ,turning to the animal kingdom1 he went in search of support for his views1 and very soon discovered that1 in biology at least1 no fact was at variance with his general hypothesis4 ,in nature every species of organic being behaves as if its kind alone ought ultimately to prevail on earth1 and1 whether it try to effect this end by open aggression or cowardly dissimulation1 the motive in both cases is the same4 ,the lion's good is the antelope's evil4 ,if the antelope believed the lion's good to be its good1 it would go and present itself without further ado before the lion's jaws4 ,if the lion believed the antelope's good to be its good it would adopt vegetarianism forthwith and eschew its carnivorous habits for the rest of its days4 ,again1 no parasite could share the notions of good and evil entertained by its victim1 neither could the victims share the notions of good and evil entertained by the parasite4 ,everywhere1 then1 those modes of conduct are adopted and perpetuated by a species1 which most conduce to the prevalence and extension of their particular kind1 and that species which fails to discover the class of conduct best calculated to preserve and strengthen it gets overcome in the war of conduct which constitutes the incessant struggle for power4 ,now1 applying the knowledge to man1 what did ,nietzsche find8 ,he found there was also a war being waged between the different modes of conduct which now prevail among men1 and that what one man sets up as good is called evil by another and vice vers4 ,but of this he soon became convinced1 that whenever and wherever good and evil had been set up as absolute values1 they had been thus elevated to power with the view of preserving and multiplying one specific type of man4 ,all moralities1 therefore1 were but so many ,trades ,union banners flying above the heads of different classes of men1 woven and upheld by them for their own needs and aspirations4 ,so far1 so good4 ,but then1 if that were so1 the character of a morality must be determined by the class of men among whom it came into being4 ,we shall see that ,nietzsche did not hesitate to accept this conclusion1 and that if for a moment he declared3 ,no one knoweth yet what is good and what is evil6 the next minute he was asking himself this searching question3 ,is our morality--that is to say1 the particular table of values which is gradually modifying us--compatible with an ideal worthy of man's inheritance and past8 ,if ,nietzsche has been called dangerous1 pernicious and immoral1 it is because people have deliberately overlooked this last question of his4 ,no thinker who states and honestly sets out to answer this question1 as ,nietzsche did1 deserves to be slandered1 as he has been slandered1 by prejudiced and interested people intent on misunderstanding only in order that they may fling mud more freely4 ,nietzsche cast his critical eye very seriously around him1 and the sight of the modern world led him to ask these admittedly pertinent questions3 ,is that which we have for centuries held for good and evil1 really good and evil8 ,does our table of ethical principles seem to be favouring the multiplication of a desirable type8 ,in answering these two inquiries1 ,nietzsche unfortunately stormed the most formidable strongholds of modern society--,christianity and ,democracy2 and perhaps this accounts for the fact that his fight was so uneven and so hopeless4 ,the strength of modern ,europe1 if indeed there be any strength in her1 lies precisely on the side of ,christianity and ,democracy1 the grandmother and the mother of what is called progress1 modernity2 and in assailing these1 ,nietzsche must have known that he was engaging in a hand-to-hand struggle with stony-hearted adversaries unaccustomed to giving quarter and unscrupulous in their methods4 ,nietzsche clearly saw that if all moral codes are but weapons protecting and helping to universalise distinct species of men1 then the ,christian religion with its ethical principles could be no exception to the rule4 ,it must have been created at some time and in some place by one who had the interests of a certain type of man at heart1 and who desired to make that type paramount4 ,now if that were really so1 the next question that occurred to ,nietzsche's mercilessly logical mind was this3 ,is the ,christian religion1 with its morality1 tending to preserve and multiply a desirable type of man8 ,to this last question ,nietzsche replies most emphatically ,no6 ,but1 before going into the reasons of this flat negative1 let us first pause to consider the age and the circumstances in which our author wrote and thought4 ,long before ,nietzsche had reached his prime ,david ,strauss had published his ,life of ,jesus2 in #ahfc1 when ,nietzsche was still in his teens1 ,renan published his ,vie de ,jsus1 and in the meantime ,charles ,darwin had given his ,origin of ,species to the world4 ,these books had been read by a ,europe that had already studied ,hume and ,lamarck1 ,kant and ,schopenhauer1 and in all directions a fine ear could not help hearing the falling timbers of ,christian dogma4 ,in the midst of this general work of destruction it was almost impossible for ,nietzsche to remain unmoved or indifferent1 and very soon he found that he too was drawn into the general stream of ,european thought2 but only to prove how completely he was independent of it1 and in every way superior to it4 ,he contemplated the work of the destroyers for some time with amused interest2 and then it suddenly occurred to him to inquire whether these zealous and well-meaning housebreakers were really doing any lasting good1 or whether all their efforts were not perhaps a little misguided4 ,true1 they were pulling the embellishments from the walls and were casting the most cherished idols of the ,christian ,faith into the dust4 ,but the walls themselves1 the actual design of the edifice1 remained untouched and as strong as ever4 ,a few broken stones1 a few complaints from the priestly archologists who wished to preserve them1 and then all the noise subsided6 ,europe remained as it was before --that is to say1 still in possession of a stronghold of ,christianity1 merely divested of its superfluous ornament4 ,nietzsche soon perceived that1 in spite of all the rubbish and refuse which such people as ,kant1 ,schopenhauer1 ,strauss1 ,renan and others had made of ,christian dogma1 the essential core of ,christianity1 the vital organ of its body--its morality--had so far remained absolutely intact4 ,nay1 he saw that it was actually being plastered up and restored by scholars and men of science who vowed that they could proffer reasonable1 rationalistic1 and logical grounds in support of it4 ,just as ,christian dogma and metaphysics had been rationalised and philosophically proved by the scholars of the ,middle ,ages1 and even as late as ,leibnitz2 so1 now1 ,christian morality was being presented in a purely philosophical garb by the intellects of ,europe4 ,having relinquished the dogma as no longer tenable1 all scholars and men of science were trying with redoubled vigour to bolster up ,christian ethics with elaborate text-books and learned treatises4 ,there were some who accepted it all as if it were innate in human nature1 and attributed it to a moral sense2 there were others--good-natured biologists--who were likewise desirous of leaving it whole1 and who declared with conviction that it was the natural outcome of the feelings of pleasure and pain2 and there were yet others who assumed that it must have been evolved quite automatically out of expediency and non-expediency4 ,not one of these would-be rationalists1 however1 halted at the ,christian terms good and bad themselves1 in order to ask himself whether1 like all the other notions of good and evil prevailing elsewhere under the shelter of other religions1 these1 the ,christian notions1 might not have been invented at some particular time by a certain kind of man1 simply with the view of preserving and universalising his specific type4 ,breathless from their efforts at getting rid of the dogma1 they did not dream that perhaps the most important part of the work still remained to be done4 ,nietzsche went to the very foundation of the ,christian edifice4 ,he pointed to its morality and said3 if we are going to measure the value of this religion1 let us cease our petty quarrels concerning the truth or falsehood of such stories as the loss of the ,gadarene swine1 or the miracle of the loaves and fishes1 and let us throw the whole of ,christian morality into the scales and appraise its precise worth as a system of ethics4 ,nietzsche would have scorned to quarrel with the ,church1 as ,huxley did2 for much more important issues were at stake4 ,the worth of a religion is measured by its morality2 because by its morality it moulds and rears men and reveals the type of man who ultimately wishes to prevail by means of it4 ,with the metaphysics and the dogma of ,christianity in ruins all around him1 therefore1 ,nietzsche took a step very far in advance of the rationalistic iconoclasts of his age4 ,he attacked ,christian morals1 and declared them to be1 like all other morals1 merely a weapon in the hands of a certain type of man1 with which that type struggled for power4 ,but bold as this step was1 it constituted but the first of a series1 the next of which was to discover the type which had laid the foundations of the ,christian ideal4 ,if it could be proved that these ,christian values had been created by a noble species with the object of perpetuating that species1 then ,christianity would come forth from the inquiry vindicated to the hilt1 and fill the damage done to its dogma would not have deterred ,nietzsche from standing by it and upholding it to his very last breath4 ,alas6 ,things turned out somewhat differently and ,nietzsche was not by any means the least pained by the result4 ,pursuing the inquiry with his usual unflinching and uncompromising honesty1 and avoiding no conclusion however unpleasant or fatal1 ,nietzsche1 the scion of a profoundly religions house1 the lover of order and tradition1 with the blood of generations of earnest believers in his veins1 finally found himself compelled to renounce and even to condemn1 root and branch1 the faith which had been the strength and hope of his forebears4 ,before turning to the next chapter1 where ,i shall explain how he came to regard this step as inevitable1 it should be said concerning ,nietzsche's philosophy in general1 that it is essentially and through and through religious and almost prophetic in spirit4 ,no careful reader of his works can doubt that ,nietzsche was a deeply religious man4 ,a glance at ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra alone would convince any one of this2 while in his constant references to religion throughout his works1 as a step to higher intellectuality1#e as a means to invaluable contentedness1#f as a measure of discipline1#g as a powerful social factor1#h a more substantial confirmation of the fact is to be found4 ,it is well to bear in mind1 however1 throughout our study of ,nietzsche1 that he had a higher type always in view2 that he was also well aware that this type could only be attained by the strict observance of a new morality1 and that if he opposed other forms of morality--more particularly the ,christian form--it was because he earnestly believed that they were rearing an undesirable and even despicable kind of man4 ,verily men have made for themselves all their good and evil4 ,verily they did not take it3 they did not find it3 it did not come down as a voice from heaven4#i ,behold1 the good and just6 ,whom do they hate most8 ,him who breaketh up their tables of values2 the breaker1 the law-breaker3 he1 however1 is the creator4#aj ,verily a muddy stream is man4 ,one must be at least a sea to be able to absorb a muddy stream without becoming unclean4 ,behold1 ,i teach you ,superman3 he is that sea2 in him your great contempt can sink4#aa #a ,see also ,d4,d4 ,aph4 #ha4 #b ,z41 p4 #fg4 #c ,z41 p4 #fe4 #d ,z41 p4 #ach4 #e ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ha4 #f ,g4 ,e41 p4 #ha4 #g ,g4 ,e41 p4 #hj4 #h ,g4 ,m41 #crd ,essay1 ,aph4 #ae4 #i ,z41 p4 #fg4 #aj ,z41 p4 #bj4 #aa ,z41 p4 #h4 99 99 99 99 99 ,chapter ,,iii ,nietzsche the ,moralist ,conceiving all forms of morality to be but weapons in the struggle for power1 ,nietzsche concluded that every species of man must at some time or other have taken to moralising1 and must have called that good which its instincts approved1 and that bad which its enemies instincts approved4 ,in ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 however1 he tells us that after making a careful examination of the finer and coarser moralities which have hitherto prevailed or still prevail on earth1 he found certain traits recurring so regularly together1 and so closely connected with one another1 that1 finally1 two primary types of morality revealed themselves to him4 ,that is to say1 after passing the known moralities of the world in review1 he was able to classify them broadly into two types4 ,he observed that throughout human history there had been a continual and implacable war between two kinds of men2 it must have begun in the remotest ages1 and it continues to this day4 ,it is the war between the powerful and the impotent1 the strong and the weak1 the givers and the takers1 the healthy and the sick1 the happy and the wretched4 ,the powerful formed their concept of good1 and it was one which justified their strongest instincts4 ,the impotent likewise acquired their view of the matter1 which was often precisely the reverse of the former view4 ,in this way ,nietzsche arrived at the following broad generalisation3 that all the moralities of the world could be placed under one of two heads1 ,master ,morality or ,slave ,morality4 ,in the first1 the master morality1 it is the oak which contends3 ,i must reach the sun and spread broad brandies in so doing2 this ,i call good1 and the herd that ,i shelter may also call it good4 ,in the second1 the slave morality1 it is the shrub which says3 ,i also want to reach the sun1 these broad branches of the oak1 however1 keep the sun from me1 therefore the oak's instincts are bad4 ,it is obvious that these two points of view exist and have existed everywhere on earth4 ,apart from national and racial distinctions1 mankind does fall into the two broad classes of master and slave1 or ruler and subject4 ,we also know that each of these classes must have developed its moral code1 and must have tried to protect its conduct and life therewith4 ,but1 what we did not know until ,nietzsche pointed the fact out to us1 was3 which morality is the more desirable and the more full of promise for the future8 ,admitting that the master and the slave moralities are struggling for supremacy still1 which of them ought we to promote with every means in our power8--which of them is going to make life more attractive1 more justifiable1 and more acceptable on earth8 ,these are now questions of the utmost importance2 because it is precisely now that pessimism1 nihilism1 and other desperate faiths are beginning to set their note of interrogation to human existence1 and to shake our belief even in the desirability of our own survival4 ,it is now time for us to discover whence arises this contempt and horror of life1 and to lay the blame for it either at the door of the master or of the slave morality4 ,in order that we may understand how to set forth upon this inquiry1 let us first form a mental image of the two codes as they must have been evolved by their originators4 ,nietzsche reminds us before we start1 however1#a that in most communities the two moralities have become so confused and mingled1 in order to establish that compromise which is so dear to the hearts of the peaceful1 that it would be almost a hopeless task to seek any society on earth in which they are now to be seen juxtaposed in sharp contrast4 ,be this as it may1 in order to recognise the blood of each when we come across it1 we have only to think of what must have occurred when the ruling caste and the ruled class took to moralising4 ,taking the ruling caste first1 it is clear that in their morality1 all is good which proceeds from strength1 power1 health1 well-constitutedness1 happiness1 and awfulness2 for the motive force behind the people who evolved it was simply the will to discharge a plenitude1 a superabundance1 of spiritual and physical wealth4 ,a consciousness of high tension1 of a treasure that would fain give and bestow1--this is the mental attitude of the nobles4 ,the antithesis good and bad to this first class means the same as noble and despicable4 ,bad in the master morality must be applied to the coward1 to all acts that spring from weakness1 to the man with an eye to the main chance1 who would forsake everything in order to live4 ,the creator of the master morality was he who1 out of the very fulness of his soul1 transfigured all he saw and heard1 and declared it better1 greater1 more beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the slave morality4 ,great artists1 great legislators1 and great warriors belong to the class that created master morality4 ,turning now to the second class1 we must bear in mind that it is the product of a community in which the struggle for existence is the prime life-motor4 ,there1 inasmuch as oppression1 suffering1 weariness1 and servitude are the general rule1 all will be regarded as good that tends to alleviate pain4 ,pity1 the obliging hand1 the warm heart1 patience1 industry1 and humility1--these are undoubtedly the virtues we shall here find elevated to the highest places2 because they are useful virtues2 they make life endurable2 they are helpful in the struggle for existence4 ,to this class1 all that proceeds from strength1 superabundance of spiritual or bodily power1 or great health1 is looked upon with loathing and mistrust1 while that which is awful is the worst and greatest evil4 ,he is good who is amenable1 kind1 unselfish1 meek1 and submissive2 that is why1 in all communities where slave morality is in the ascendant1 a good fellow always suggests a man in possession of a fair modicum of foolishness and sentimentality4 ,the creator of slave-morality was one who1 out of the poverty of his soul1 transfigured all he saw and heard1 and declared it smaller1 meaner1 and less beautiful than it appeared to the creator of the master values4 ,great misanthropists1 pessimists1 demagogues1 tasteless artists1 nihilists1 spiteful authors and dramatists1 and resentful saints belong to the class that created slave-morality4 ,the first order of values are active1 creative1 ,dionysiac4 ,the second are passive1 defensive1 venomous1 subterranean2 to them belong ,adaptation1 adjustment1 and utilitarian relationship to environment4 ,now1 seeing that mankind is undoubtedly moulded by the nature of the values which prevail over it1 it is manifestly of paramount importance to the philosopher to know which order of values conduces to rear the most desirable species of man1 and then to advocate that order1 with all the art and science at his disposal4 ,nietzsche saw two lines of life3 an ascending and a descending line4 ,at the end of the one he pictured an ideal type1 robust in mind and body1 rich enough in spirit and vigour to make giving and bestowing a necessary condition of its existence2 at the end of the other line he already perceived degeneracy1 poverty of blood and spirit1 and a sufficiently low degree of vitality to make parasitism a biological need4 ,he believed that the first1 or noble morality1 when it prevailed1 made for an ascending line of life and therefore favoured the multiplication of a desirable type of man2 and he was now equally convinced that whenever ignoble or slave morality was supreme1 life not only tended to follow the descending line1 but that the very men whose existence it favoured were the least likely to stem the declining tide4 ,hence it seemed to him that the most essential of all tasks was to ascertain what kind of morality now prevailed1 in order that we might immediately transvalue our values1 while there was still time1 if we believed this change to be necessary4 ,what then are our present values8 ,nietzsche replies most emphatically --they are ,christian values4 ,in the last chapter we saw that although ,christian dogma was very rapidly becoming mere wreckage1 its most earnest opposers and destroyers nevertheless clung with fanatical faith to ,christian morality4 ,thus1 in addition to the vast multitude of those professing the old religion1 there was also a host of atheists1 agnostics1 rationalists1 and materialists1 who1 as far as ,nietzsche was concerned1 could quite logically be classed with those who were avowedly ,christian4 ,and1 as for the remainder--a few indifferent and perhaps nameless people1--what could they matter8 ,even they1 perhaps1 if hard pressed1 would have betrayed a sneaking1 cowardly trust in ,christian ethics1 if only out of a sense of security2 and with these the total sum of the civilised world was fully made up4 ,perhaps to some this may appear a somewhat sweeping conclusion4 ,to such as doubt its justice1 the best advice that can be given is to urge them to consult the literature1 ethical1 philosophical1 and otherwise1 of those writers whom they would consider most opposed to ,christianity before the publication of ,nietzsche's works2 and they will then realise that1 with very few exceptions1 mostly to be found among uninfluential and uncreative iconoclasts1 the whole of the ,western civilised world in ,nietzsche's time was firmly ,christian in morals1 and most firmly so1 perhaps1 in those very quarters where the dogma of the religion of pity was most honestly disclaimed4 ,it had therefore become in the highest degree necessary to put these values under the philosophical microscope1 and to discover to which order they belonged4 ,was ,christianity the purveyor of a noble or of a slave morality8 ,the reply to this question would reveal the whole tendency of the modern world1 and would also answer ,nietzsche's searching inquiry3 ,are we on the right track8 ,pursuing ,nietzsche's method as closely as we can1 let us now turn to ,christianity1 as we find it to-day1 and see whether it is possible to bring its values into line with one of the two broad classes spoken of in this chapter4 ,in the first place1 ,nietzsche discovers that ,christianity is not a world-approving faith4 ,the very pivot upon which it revolves seems to be the slandering and depreciating of this world1 together with the praise and exaltation of a hypothetical world to come4 ,to his mind it seems to draw odious comparisons between the things of this earth and the blessings of heaven4 ,finally1 it gushes in a very unsportsmanlike manner over an imaginary beyond1 to the detriment and disadvantage of a here1 of this earth1 of this life1 and posits another region--a nether region--for the accommodation of its enemies4#b ,what1 now1 is the mental attitude of these backworldsmen1 as ,nietzsche calls them1 who can see only the world's filth8 ,who is likely to need the thought of a beyond1 where he will live in bliss while those he hates will writhe in hell8 ,such ideas occur only to certain minds4 ,do they occur to the minds of those who1 by the very health1 strength1 and happiness that is in them1 transfigure all the world --even the ugliness in it--and declare it to be beautiful8 ,do they occur to the powerful who can chastise their enemies while their blood is still up8 ,admitting that the world may be surveyed from a hundred different standpoints1 is this particular standpoint which we now have under our notice1 that of a contented1 optimistic1 sanguine type1 or that of a discontented1 pessimistic1 anmic one8 ,to the pure all things are pure6--,i1 however1 say unto you3 ,to the swine all things are swinish4#c ,nietzsche's sensitive car caught curious notes in the daily dronings of those around him--notes that made him suspicious of the whole melody of modern life1 and still more suspicions of the chorus executing it4 ,he heard to his astonishment3 444 the wretched alone are the good2 the poor1 the impotent1 the lowly alone are good2 only the sufferers1 the needy1 the sick1 the ugly are pious only they are godly2 them alone blessedness awaits--but ye1 the proud and potent1 ye are for aye and evermore the wicked1 the cruel1 the lustful1 the insatiable1 the godless2 ye will also be1 to all eternity1 the unblessed1 the cursed1 and the damned4#d ,he continued listening intently1 and1 with his ear attuned anew1 these sentiments broke strangely upon his senses3-- ,blessed are the poor in spirit3 for theirs is the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,blessed are they that mourn3 for they shall be comforted4 ,blessed are the meek3 for they shall inherit the earth4 ,blessed are the peacemakers3 for they shall be called the children of ,god4#e ,there was no time for brooding over stray thoughts2 there was still much to be seen and hoard4 ,when you want to catch some one napping1 you keep your eye eagerly upon him1 and turn neither to the right nor to the left4 ,nietzsche1 it must be remembered1 was at this stage treading softly towards ,europe whom he believed to be napping4 ,in his lonely hermit cell he was able to catch all the sounds that rose from the city beneath him1 and he heard perhaps more than the inhabitants themselves4 ,he could see them all fighting and quarrelling1 and he was cheered1 because he knew that where the great fight for power ceases1 the standard of life falls4 ,but some he saw were wounded1 others were actually unfit for the battlefield1 a large number looked tired and listless1 and there were yet others--a goodly multitude--who were resentful at the sight of their superiors and who1 like sulky children1 dropped their arms in a pet and declared that they would not play any more4 ,and what were all these feeble and less viable mortals doing8 ,they were crying aloud1 and making their deepest wishes known4 ,they were elevating their desiderata to the highest places amongst earthly virtues--and driving back the others with words6 ,nietzsche thought of ,reynard the ,fox1 who1 at the very moment that he was about to be hanged1 and with the rope already round his neck1 succeeded by his dialectical skill in persuading the crowd to release him4 ,for ,nietzsche could hear the weary1 the wounded1 and the incapable of the fight1 crying quite distinctly through their lips parched for rest3 ,peace is good6 ,love is good6 ,love for one's neighbour is good6 ,ay1 and even love for one's enemy is good6#f ,and some cried3 ,it is ,god that avengeth me6 to those who oppressed them1 and others said3 ,the ,lord avenge me6#g ,whereupon ,nietzsche thought of the ,jehovah of the ,old ,testament1 the ,god of revenge and thunderbolts2 he recalled the sentiment3 ,ye shall chase your enemies and they shall fall fall before you by the sword1 and he wondered how this had come to mean love your enemies1 in the ,new ,testament4 ,had another type of men perhaps made themselves ,god's mouthpiece8 ,yes1 that must be so2 for1 in their holy book1 he came across this passage1 ascribed to one of their greatest saints3 ,hath not ,god made foolish the wisdom of this world8 ,for after that in the wisdom of ,god the world by wisdom knew ,god1 it pleased ,god by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe4 444 ,not many wise men after the flesh1 not many mighty1 not many noble are called3 ,but ,god hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise3 and ,god hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty3 ,and base things of the world1 and things which are despised1 hath ,god chosen1 yea and things which are not1 to bring to nought things that are4#h ,here1 ,nietzsche tells us1 he began to hold his nose2 but he still listened2 for there was yet more to be heard4 ,from the smiles that were breaking over the lips of those who read the above words1 he gathered that they must have overcome their unhappiness4 ,yes1 indeed1 they had4 ,but what did they call it8 ,this was important--even the ,christian view of unhappiness seemed significant to ,nietzsche in this inquiry4 ,their unhappiness1 their wretchedness1 they called a trial1 a gift1 a distinction6 ,not really8 ,yes indeed6 ,as ,nietzsche points out3 ,they are wretched1 no doubt1 all these mumblers and underground forgers1 though warmly seated together4 ,but they tell us their wretchedness is a selection and distinction from ,god1 that the dogs which are loved most are whipped1 that their misery may perhaps also be a preparation1 a trial1 a schooling2 perhaps even more--something which at some time to come will be refuted and paid back with immense interest in gold4 ,no6 in happiness4 ,this they call 'blessedness4'#i ,at this point ,nietzsche declares that he could stand it no longer4 ,enough1 enough6 ,bad air6 ,bad air6 he cried4 ,methinks this workshop of virtue positively reeks4 ,he had now realised in whose company he had been all this time4 ,these people who halted at nothing in order to elevate their weaknesses to the highest place among the virtues1 and to monopolise goodness on earth--who called that good which was tame and soft and harmless1 because they themselves could only survive in litters of cotton wool2 who coloured the earth with the darkness that was in their own bodies2 --who did not scruple to dub all manly and vital virtues odiously sinful and wicked1 and who preferred to set the life of the whole world at stake1 rather than acknowledge that it was precisely their own second-rate1 third-rate1 or even fourth-rate1 vitality which was the greatest sin of all2 who in one and the same breath preached their utilitarian universal love to the powerful1 and then sent them to eternal damnation in another world3 ,nietzsche asks1 are these people the supporters of a noble or of a slave morality8 ,the answer is obvious1 and we need not labour the point4 ,but it was so obvious to the lonely hermit1 that the thought of it filled him with horror and dread1 and he was moved to leave his cell and to descend into the plain1 while there was yet time1 with the object of urging us to transvalue our values4 ,in ,christian values1 ,nietzsche read nihilism1 decadence1 degeneration1 and death4 ,they were calculated to favour the multiplication of the least desirable on earth3 and1 as such1 despite his antecedents1 and with his one desire1 the elevation of the type man1 always before him1 he condemned ,christian morality from top to bottom4 ,this magnificent attempt on the part of the low1 the base1 and the worthless1 to establish themselves as the most powerful on earth1 must be checked at all costs1 and with terrible earnestness he exhorts us to alter our values4 ,o my brethren1 with whom lieth the greatest danger to the whole human future8 ,is it not with the good and the just8 ,break up1 break up1 ,i pray you1 the good and the just6 ,this condemnation of ,christian values1 as slave values--which ,nietzsche regarded as his greatest service to mankind--he says he would write on all walls4 ,he tells us he came just in the nick of time2 to-morrow might be too late4 ,it is time for man to fix his goal4 ,it is time for man to plant the germ of his highest hope4 ,his soil is still rich enough for that purpose4 ,but that soil will one day be too poor and exhausted1 and no lofty tree will any longer be able to grow thereon4#aj #a ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bbg #b ,john xii4 #be2 #a ,john ii4 #ae1 #af2 ,james iv4 #d4 #c ,z41 p4 #bdi4 #d ,g4 ,m41 #ast ,essay1 ,aph4 #g4 #e ,matthew v4 #f ,matthew xxiii4 #ci2 ,mark xiii4 #ca2 ,luke x4 #bg2 ,matthew v4 #dd4 #g #b ,luke xviii4 #g1 #h2 ,romans xii4 #ai2 ,revelation vi4 #aj4 #h ,i ,corinthians i4 #bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh4 #i ,g4 ,m41 #ast ,essay1 ,aph4 #ad4 ,see also ,epistle to the ,hebrews xii4 #f1 and ,revelation iii4 #ai4 #aj ,z41 p4 #ab 99 99 99 99 99 ,chapter ,,iv ,nietzsche the ,evolutionist ,transvalue your values or perish6 ,this was the message of the hermit ,nietzsche to the people inhabiting the valley into which he had descended4 ,transvalue your values6--that is to say1 make them what they once were1 noble1 life-approving1 virile6 ,for two thousand years the roll of the world-wheel had been reversed--,stendhal had said that many years before ,nietzsche lived--but it was left to ,nietzsche1 ,stendhal's admirer and pupil1 to teach and prove this fact4 ,stendhal1 too1 had cried out against the tameness1 the lukewarmness1 the effeminacy of society2 but ,nietzsche took up this cry with a voice more brazen than ,stendhal's at a time when mankind was in much greater need of it4 ,stendhal had pointed enthusiastically to the sun and to the passion of the south1 and had donned a moral respirator whenever he turned to face the grey and depressing atmosphere of northern ideas and northern tepidness4 ,nietzsche follows his master's hint with alacrity1 but in doing so converts ,stendhal's clarion notes into thunder1 and the glint of ,stendhal's rapier into strokes of lightning4#a ,when ,nietzsche began to write ,europe was suffering from the worst kind of spiritual illness--weakness of will4 ,everywhere comfort and freedom from danger were becoming the highest ideals2 everywhere1 too1 virtue was being confounded with those qualities which led to the highest possible amount of security and tame1 back-parlour pleasures2 and man was gradually developing into a harmless domesticated type of animal1 capable of performing a host of charming little drawing-room tricks which rejoiced the hearts of his womenfolk4 ,sleep seemed to be the greatest accomplishment4 ,it had become all important to have a good night's rest1 and everything was done to achieve this end4 ,a man no longer asked his heart what it dictated1 when he stood irresolute before a daring deed1 he simply consulted ,morpheus1 who warned him that he could not promise him a soft pillow if he did anything that was ever so slightly naughty4 ,in the end1 ,morpheus would prevail1 and thus all ,europe was beginning to snore peacefully the whole night through1 with marvellous regularity1 while manliness rotted and danger dwindled4#b ,nietzsche protested against this state of affairs3--,what is good8 ye ask4 ,to be brave is good4 ,let the little schoolgirls say3 ,to be good is sweet and touching at the same time4 ,ye say1 a good cause will hallow even war8 ,i say unto you3 a good war halloweth every cause4 ,war and courage have done greater things than love6#c ,i pass through this people and keep mine eyes open3 they have become smaller1 and ever become smaller3 the reason thereof is their doctrine of happiness and virtue4 ,for they are moderate also in virtue--because they want comfort4 ,with comfort1 however1 moderate virtue only is compatible4 ,of man there is little here3 therefore do their women make themselves manly4 ,for only he who is man enough1 will save the woman in woman4 ,in their hearts1 they want simply one thing most of all3 that no one hurt them4 ,that1 however1 is cowardice1 though it be called virtue4#d ,some there were1 of course1 who were conscious of the dreadful condition of things1 and who deplored it1 without1 however1 being able to put their finger on the root of the evil4 ,such people were most of them pessimists1 and1 at the time that ,nietzsche lived1 ,schopenhauer was their leader4 ,sensitive1 noble-minded1 artistic people1 deprived by rationalistic and atheistic teachers of the belief in ,god1 felt the ignobleness of ,european hopes and aspirations1 and knowing of no better creed and possessing the intelligence to see the hopelessness of things under the rule of the values which then prevailed1 they succumbed to a mood of utter despair1 subscribed to ,schopenhauer's horror and loathing of the world1 and regarded the very optimism of childhood with suspicion and scorn4 ,for a while ,nietzsche1 too1 was an ardent and devoted follower of ,schopenhauer4 ,godlessness was bad enough to endure3 but ,godlessness in a world of un-pagan and effeminate manhood1 was too much for the loving student of classical antiquity1 and he turned to ,schopenhauer as to one who1 he thought1 would understand how to steel his heart against life's misery4 ,but this opiate did not maintain its sway over ,nietzsche long4 ,our poet was of a type too courageous and too vigorous to be able to surrender himself so completely to sorrow and to ,buddhistic consolations4 ,gradually he began to regard the humble and resigned attitude of the pessimist before life's hardships and modernity's greyness as unworthy of a spirited and active man4 ,slowly it dawned upon him that the root of the evil lay1 not in the constitution of the earth1 but in man himself1 and in man's actual values4 ,if man could be roused to pursue higher ideals2 if he could be moved to kill the poisonous snake of ignoble values that had crawled into his throat and choked him while he was in slumber2#e in fact1 if man could surpass himself and regard the reversal of the world's engines1 for the last two thousand years1 as ,stendhal had done--that is to say1 as the grossest error and most ridiculous faux pas that had ever been made--then1 ,nietzsche thought1 pessimism and ,schopenhauer might go to the deuce1 and conscious1 sensitive1 intellectual1 and artistic ,europe would once more be able to smile instead of shuddering at the thought of mankind's former qualities4 ,thus it was the condemnation of modern values1 together with the thought of man's being able to surpass himself1 which gave ,nietzsche the grounds and the necessary strength for abandoning pessimism and embracing that wise optimism which characterises the whole of his works after ,the ,joyful ,wisdom4 ,true1 ,god was dead2 but that ought only to make man feel more self-reliant1 more creative1 prouder4 ,undoubtedly ,god was dead3 but man could now hold himself responsible for himself4 ,he could now seek a goal in manhood1 on earth1 and one that was at least within the compass of his powers4 ,long enough had he squinted heavenwards1 with the result1 that he had neglected his task on earth4#f ,dead are all ,gods6 ,nietzsche cries1 now we will that ,superman live6#g ,we are now before ,nietzsche the evolutionist1 and we must define him1 relatively to those other evolutionists with whom we1 as ,english people1 are already familiar4 ,to begin with1 then1 let us dispose of the fundamental question3 ,nietzsche's concept of life4 ,we have had life variously defined for us by our own writers1 and perhaps one among ,nietzsche's greatest contemporaries in ,england--,herbert ,spencer--defined it in the most characteristically ,english fashion4 ,spencer said3 ,life is activity1 or the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations4 ,now there is absolutely nothing in either of these definitions1 no suggestion or hint1 which would lead the most suspicious to conjecture what life really is4 7,activity7 reveals nothing of life's passions1 its hate1 its envy1 its covetousness1 its hard1 inexorable principles2 the process of the continual adjustments of internal relations to external relations might mean the serpent's digestion of its prey1 or the training of an opera singer's voice1 and it might also be a scientific formula for a moral order of things4 ,both definitions are delightfully unheroic and vague2 though they do not compromise the writer they compromise with everything else1 and to start out with them is to shelve the question in a way which allows of our subsequently weaving all the romance and sweetness possible into life1 and of making it as pretty as a little nursery story4 ,nietzsche1 always eager for a practical and tangible idea1 naturally could not accept these two definitions as expressing anything profound about life at all4 ,looking into the race of nature1 and reading her history from the amoeba with its predatory pseudo-podia1 to the lion with its murderous prehensile claws1 he defined life practically1 uprightly1 and bravely1 as appropriation1 injury1 conquest of the strange and weak1 suppression1 severity1 obtrusion of its own forms1 incorporation1 and1 at least1 putting it mildest1 exploitation4#h ,thus1 as we see1 from the start ,nietzsche closes his eyes at nothing1 he does not want life to be a pretty tale if it is not one4 ,he wants to know it as it is3 for he is convinced that this is the only way of arriving at sound principles as to the manner in which human existence should be led4 ,appropriation1 then1 he takes as a fact3 he does not argue it away1 any more than he tries to argue away injury1 conquest of the strange and weak1 suppression1 and incorporation4 ,these things are only too apparent1 and he states them bravely in his definition4 ,we know life is all this2 but how much more comfortable it is1 when we are sitting in our soft easy-chairs before our cheerful fires1 to think that life is merely activity6 ,to believe that there is a moral order in the universe is to believe that these unpleasant things in ,nietzsche's definition will one day be overcome4 ,this was the position ,christianity assumed from the start4 ,put1 though it was excusable in a religion fighting for power1 and compelled to use nice and attractive words for its followers1 to suppose that all the misery on earth will one day be transformed by ,god's wisdom into perfect bliss2 such an attitude is quite unpardonable in the case of a philosopher or even of a poet4 ,when ,browning chanted smugly3 ,god's in ,his heaven3 ,all's right with the world1 he confessed himself a mediocre spirit with one stroke of the pen4 ,and when ,spencer wrote that the blind process of evolution must inevitably favour all changes of nature which increase life and augment happiness1 he did the same4 ,we may now perhaps understand ,nietzsche's impatience of his predecessors and contemporaries1 who refused to see precisely what he saw in the face of nature4 ,but even in his extended definition of life1 the modern biologist brings himself no nearer to ,nietzsche's honest standpoint1 and for the following reasons3-- ,the modern biologist says1 this activity he speaks of has a precise meaning4 ,it connotes the struggle for existence1 or in other words self-defence4 7,again he is looking at life through moral or ,christian glasses2 because if every thing on earth is done in self-defence1 even the devil himself is argued out of existence1 and ,god remains creator of the good alone47 ,nietzsche replies by denying this flatly4 ,he says that the definition is again inadequate4 ,he warns us not to confound ,malthus with nature4#i ,he admits that the struggle occurs1 but only as an exception4 ,the general aspect of life is not a state of want or hunger2 it is rather a state of opulence1 luxuriance1 and even absurd prodigality--where there is a struggle1 it is a struggle for power4 --,will to power and not will to live is the motive force of life4 ,wherever ,i found living matter1 he says1 ,i found will to power1 and even in the servant ,i found the yearning to be master4 ,only where there is life1 there is will3 though a not will to live1 but thus ,i teach thee--,,will ,,to ,,power4#aj ,is there no aggression without the struggle for existence8 ,is there no voluptuousness in a position of power for us own sake8 ,of course there is6 ,and one wonders how these ,english biologists could ever have been schoolboys without noticing these facts4 ,as ,nietzsche points out1 however1 they are every one of them labouring under the ,christian ideal still--in spite of all their upsetting of the first chapter of ,genesis1 and in spite of all their blasting of the miracles4 ,put1 if life is the supreme aim of all1 how is it that many things are valued higher than life by living beings8 ,if the will to live sometimes finds itself overpowered by another will--more particularly in great warriors1 great prophets1 great artists1 and great heroes--what is this mightier force which thus overpowers it8 ,we have heard what ,nietzsche calls it--it is the ,will to ,power4 ,psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being4 ,a living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength--life itself is ,will to ,power2 self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results thereof4#aa ,in spite of everything we have already said1 ,nietzsche's disagreement with our own biologists may still seem to many but a play upon words4 ,a moment's meditation1 however--more particularly over the passage just quoted--will show that it is really much deeper than this4 ,it is one thing to regard an animal as a mere automaton1 prowling around to satisfy its hunger1 and happy to remain inactive when the sensation of hunger is appeased1 and quite another to regard an animal as a battery of accumulated forces which must be discharged at all costs 7and for good or evil71 with only temporary lapses of purely self-preservative desires and self-preservative actions4 ,all the different consequences of these two views will occur to the thinker in an instant4 ,upon this basis1 then1 the ,will to ,power1 ,nietzsche builds up a cosmogony which also assumes that species have been evolved2 but again1 in the processes of that evolution he is at variance with ,darwin and all the natural-selectionists4 ,nietzsche cannot be persuaded that mechanical adjustment to ambient conditions1 or adaptation to environment--both purely passive1 meek1 and uncreative functions--should be given the importance1 as determining factors1 which the ,english and ,german schools give them4 ,with ,samuel ,butler1 he protests against this pitchforking of mind and spirit out of the universe1 and points imperatively to an inner creative will in living organisms1 which ultimately makes environment and natural conditions subservient and subject4 ,in the ,genealogy of ,morals#ab he makes it quite clear that he would ascribe the greatest importance to a power in the organism itself1 to the highest functionaries in the animal1 in which the life-will appears as an active and formative principle1 and that even in the matter of the mysterious occurrence of varieties 7sports7 he would seek for inner causes4 ,darwin himself threw out only a hint in this direction2 that is why it is safe to suppose that1 if ,nietzsche and ,darwin are ever reconciled1 it will probably be precisely on this ground4 ,in the ,origin of ,species1 speaking of the causes of variability1 ,darwin said3 444 ,there are two factors1 namely the nature of the organism1 and the nature of the conditions4 ,the former seem to be much the more important1#ac for nearly similar variations sometimes arise under1 as far as we can judge1 dissimilar conditions2 and on the other hand1 dissimilar variations arise under conditions which appear to be uniform4 ,thus differing widely from the orthodox school of evolutionists1 ,nietzsche nevertheless believed their hypothesis to be sound2 but once more he has an objection to raise4 ,why did they halt where they halted8 ,if the process is a fact1 if things have become what they are1 and have not always been so2 then why should we rest on our oars8 ,if it was possible for man to struggle up from barbarism1 and still more remotely from the lower ,primates1 and reach the zenith of his physical development2 why1 ,nietzsche asks1 should he not surpass himself and attain to ,superman by evolving in the same decree volitionally and mentally8 ,the most careful ask to-day3 ',how is man preserved8' ,but ,zarathustra asketh as the only and first one3 ',how is man surpassed8'#ad ,all beings 7in your genealogical ladder7 have created something beyond themselves1 and are ye going to be the ebb of this great tide8 ,behold ,i teach you ,superman6#ae ,and now1 again1 at the risk of being monotonous1 ,i must point to yet another difference between ,nietzsche and the prevailing school of evolutionists4 ,whereas the latter1 in their unscrupulous optimism1 believed that out of the chaotic play of blind forces something highly desirable and good would ultimately be evolved2 whereas they tacitly1 though not avowedly1 believed that their fittest in the struggle for existence would eventually prove to be the best--in fact that we should muddle through to perfection somehow1 and that something really noble and important would be sure to result from ,john ,brown's contest with ,harry ,smith for the highest place in an insurance office1 for instance2 ,nietzsche disbelieved from the bottom of his heart in this chance play of blind and meaningless tendencies4 ,he said3 ,given a degenerate1 mean1 and base environment and the fittest to survive therein will be the man who is best adapted to degeneracy1 meanness1 and baseness--therefore the worst kind of man4 ,given a community of parasites1 and it may be that the flattest1 the slimiest1 and the softest1 will be the fittest to survive4 ,such faith in blind forces ,nietzsche regarded merely as the survival of the old ,christian belief in the moral order of things1 fogged out in scientific apparel to suit modern tastes4 ,he saw plainly1 that if man were to be elevated at all1 no blind struggle in his present conditions would ever effect that end2 for the present conditions themselves make those the fittest to survive in them who are persons of absolutely undesirable gifts and propensities4 ,he declared 7and here we are in the very heart of ,nietzscheism7 that nothing but a total change in these conditions1 a complete transvaluation of all values1 would ever alter man and make him more worthy of his past4 ,for it is values1 values1 and again values1 that mould men1 and rear men1 and create men2 and ignoble values make ignoble men1 and noble values make noble men6 ,thus it was in the beginning1 is now1 and ever shall be1 truth without end--for men4 ,nietzsche realised all that could still be made out of man1 through a favourable accumulation and augmentation of human powers and arrangements2 he knew how unexhausted man still is for the greatest possibilities1 and how often in the past the type man has stood in mysterious and dangerous crossways1 and has launched forth upon the right or the wrong road1 impelled merely by a whim1 or by a hint from the giant ,chance4#af ,and now1 he was determined that1 whether man wished to listen or not1 at least he should be told of the ultimate disaster that awaited him1 if he continued in his present direction4 ,for1 there was yet time6 ,it is to higher men that ,nietzsche really makes his appeal1 the leaders and misleaders of the mob4 ,he had no concern with the multitude and they did not need him4 ,the world had seen philosophies enough which had advocated the cause of the greatest number--,english libraries were stacked with such works4 ,what was required was1 to convert those rare men who give the direction--the heads of the various throngs--the vanguard4 ,awake and listen1 ye lonely ones6 ,from the future1 winds are coming with a gentle beating of wings1 and there cometh good tidings for fine ears4 ,ye lonely ones of to-day1 ye who stand apart1 ye shall one day be a people3 from you1 who have chosen yourselves1 a chosen people shall arise and from it ,superman4#ag #a ,g4 ,e41 ,aph4 #bed1 #bee1 #bef4 #b ,see ,schopenhauer on ,the ,vanity and ,suffering of ,life4 #c ,z41 p4 #eb4 #d ,z41 pp4 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf4 #e ,z41 pp4 #aib1 #aic4 #f ,see ,z41 p4 #ih et seq4 #g ,z41 p4 #ia4 #h ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bbf4 #i ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,part #i1 ,aph4 #ad4 #aj ,z41 pp4 #acf1 #acg4 #aa ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bj4 #ab ,second ,essay1 ,aph4 #ab4 #ac ,the italics are mine4--,a4 ,m4 ,l4 #ad ,z41 p4 #cea4 #ae ,z41 p4 #f4 #af ,g4 ,e41 p4 #acj4 #ag ,z41 p4 #hi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,chapter ,v ,nietzsche the ,sociologist ,for ,nietzsche1 as we are beginning to see1 a fitting title is hard to find4 ,unless we coin new names for things that have not yet been given names1 ,nietzsche remains without a title among his fellow thinkers4 ,he has been called the arch-anarchist1 which he is not2 he has been called the preacher of brutality1 which he is not2 he has been called the egoist1 which he is not4 ,but all these titles were conferred upon him by people whose interest it was to reduce him in the public's esteem4 ,if he must be named1 however1 and we suppose he must1 the best title would obviously be that which would distinguish him most exactly from his colleagues4 ,now1 how does ,nietzsche stand out from the ranks of almost all other philosophers8 ,by the fact that he was throughout his life an ,advocate of ,higher ,man4 ,whereas other philosophers and scholars had always thought they had some divine message to impart in the cause of the greatest number2 ,nietzsche--the typical miner and underminer--believed that his mission was to stand for a neglected minority1 for higher men1 for the gold in the mass of quartz4 ,no title therefore could be more fair1 and at the same time more essentially descriptive1 than the ,advocate of ,higher ,man1 and in giving this title to ,nietzsche1 we immediately outline him against that assembly of his colleagues who were ,advocates of the ,greatest ,number4 ,it is of the first importance to humanity that its higher individuals should be allowed to attain their full development1 for only by means of its heroes can the human race be led forward step by step to higher and ever higher levels4 ,in view of the fact that ,nietzsche realised this1 some of his principles1 when given general application1 may very naturally appear to be both iniquitous and subversive1 and those who read him with the idea that he is preaching a gospel for all are perfectly justified if they turn away in horror from his works4 ,the mistake they make1 however1 is to suppose that he1 like most other philosophers with whom they are familiar1 is an advocate of the greatest number4 ,let us take a single instance4 ,in ,the ,honey ,sacrifice#a the phrase ,become what thou art1 occurs4 ,now it is obvious that however legitimate this command may be when applied to the highest and best1 it becomes dangerous and seditious when applied to each individual of the mass of mankind4 ,and this explains the number of errors that are rife concerning ,nietzsche's gospel4 ,whenever ,nietzsche spoke esoterically1 his enemies declared that he was pronouncing maxims for the greatest number2 whenever he spoke for the greatest number1 as he does again and again in his allusions to the mediocre1 he was accused of speaking esoterically4 ,how would any other philosophy have fared under such misrepresentation and calumny8 ,nietzsche could not believe in equality2 for within him justice said men are not equal6 ,those to whom it gives pleasure to think that men are equal1 he conjures not to confound pleasure with truth1 and1 like ,professor ,huxley1 he finds himself obliged to recognise the natural inequality of men4 ,but1 far from deploring this fact1 he would fain have accentuated and intensified it4 ,this inequality1 to ,nietzsche1 is a condition to be exploited and to be made use of by the legislator4 ,the higher men of a society in which gradations of rank are recognised as a natural and desirable condition constitute the class in which the hopes of a real elevation of humanity may be placed4 ,the ,divine ,manu1 ,laotse1 ,confucius1 ,muhammad1 ,jesus ,christ--all these men1 who in their sublime arrogance actually converted man into a mirror in which they saw themselves and their doctrines reflected1 and who in thus converting man into a mirror really made him feel happy in the function of reflecting alone3--these leaders are the types ,nietzsche refers to when he speaks of higher men4 ,ruling1 like all other functions which require the great to justify them1 has fallen into disrepute1 thanks to the incompetent amateurs that have tried their hand at the game4 ,as in the ,fine ,arts1 so in leading and ruling2 it is the dilettantes that have broken our faith in human performances4 ,the really great ruler reaches his zenith in dominating an epoch1 a party1 a nation or the world1 to the best advantage of each of these2 but it does not follow that the motive power propelling him should necessarily be the conscious pursuit of the best advantage of those he rules1--this is merely a fortuitous circumstance curiously associated with greatness in ruling1--generally speaking1 however1 his only conscious motive is the gratification of his inordinate will to power4 ,the innocent fallacy of democracy lies in supposing that by a mere search1 by a mere rummaging and fumbling among a motley populace1 one man or several men can be found1 who are able to take the place of the rare and ideal ruler4 ,as if the mere fact of searching and rummaging were not in itself a confession of failure1--a confession that this man does not exist6 ,for if he existed he would have asserted himself6 he would have needed no democratic exploration party to unearth him4 ,there is no sorer misfortune in all human destiny1 than when the powerful of the earth are not at the same time the first men4 ,then everything becometh false and warped and monstrous4#b ,for1 my brethren1 the best shall rule3 the best will rule6 ,and where the teaching is different1 there--the best is lacking4#c ,here we observe that ,nietzsche advocated an aristocratic arrangement of society4 ,a firm believer in tradition1 law1 and order1 and1 in spite of his opponents' accusations1 an undaunted enemy of ,anarchy and laisser-aller1 he saw in ,socialism and ,democracy nothing more than two slave organisations for the raising of every individual to his highest power1 individuality made as general as possible2 or1 in other words1 ,socialism and ,democracy meant to ,nietzsche the annihilation of all higher aims and hopes4 ,it meant valuing all the weeds and noble plants alike1 and with such a valuation1 the noble plants1 being in the minority1 must necessarily suffer and ultimately die out4 ,where everybody is somebody1 nobody is anybody4 ,socialism1 i4e4 organised ,individualism1 seemed to ,nietzsche merely the reflection in politics of the ,christian principle that all men are alike before ,god4 ,grant immortality to every ,tom1 ,dick1 and ,harry1 and1 in the end1 every ,tom1 ,dick1 or ,harry will believe in equal rights before he can even hope to reach ,heaven1 but to deny the privileges of rare men implies the proscription from life of all high trees with broad brandies1--those broad brandies that protect the herd from the rain1 but which also keep the sun from the envious and ambitious shrub1--and thus it would mean that the world would gradually assume the appearance of those vast ,scotch moors of gorse and heather1 where liberalism and mediocrity are rampant1 but where all loftiness is dead4 ,nietzsche was a profound believer in the value of tradition1 in the value of general discipline lasting over long periods4 ,he knew that all that is great and lasting and intensely moving has been the result of the law of castes or of the laws governing the individual members of a caste throughout many generations4#d ,this building up of the rare man1 of the great man 7of the cultivated type in a ,darwinian sense7 as every scientist is aware1 is utterly frustrated by any thing in the way of injudicious and careless cross-breeding 7see ,darwin on the degeneration of the cultivated types of animals through the action of promiscuous breeding71 by democratic msalliances of all kinds1 and by the laisser aller which is one of the worst evils of that kind of freedom which tends to prevail when the slaves of a community have succeeded in asserting and expressing their insignificant and miserable little individualities4 ,believing all this1 ,nietzsche could not help but advocate the rearing of a select and aristocratic caste1 and in none of his exhortations is he more sincere than when he appeals to higher men to sow the seeds of a nobility for the future4 ,o my brethren1 ,i consecrate you to be1 and show unto you the way unto a now nobility4 ,ye shall become procreators and breeders and sowers of the future4 ,verily1 ye shall not become a nobility one might buy1 like shopkeepers with shopkeepers' gold4 ,for all that hath its fixed price is of little worth4 ,not whence ye come be your honour in future1 but whither ye go6 ,your will1 and your foot that longeth to get beyond yourselves1--be that your new honour6 ,your children's land ye shall love 7be this your new nobility71 the land undiscovered in the remotest sea6 ,for it ,i bid you set sail and seek6#e ,every elevation of the type man1 says ,nietzsche1 has hitherto been the work of an aristocratic society--and so will it always be--a society believing in a long scale of gradations of rank and differences of worth among human beings1 and requiring slavery in some form or other4 ,without the pathos of distance1 such as grows out of the incarnated differences of classes1 out of the constant outlooking and downlooking of the ruling caste on subordinates and instruments1 and out of their equally constant practice of obeying and commanding1 of keeping down and keeping at a distance that other more mysterious pathos could never have arisen1 the longing for an ever new widening distance within the soul itself1 the formation of ever higher1 rarer1 further1 more extended1 more comprehensive states1 in short1 just the elevation of the type 'man1' the continued 'self-surmounting of man1' to use a moral formula in a super-moral sense4#f ,i cannot attempt to give a full account of the society ,nietzsche would fain have seen established on earth4 ,it will be found exhaustively described in ,aph4 #eg of the ,antichrist3 while in the book of ,manu 7,max ,mller's ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,no4 #be71 similar sociological prescriptions are to be found1 correlated with all the imposing machinery of divine revelation1 supernatural authority1 and religious earnestness4 ,briefly1 ,nietzsche says this3-- ,it is ridiculous to pretend to treat every one without regard to those natural distinctions which are manifested by superior intellectuality1 or exceptional muscular strength1 or mediocrity of spiritual and bodily powers1 or inferiority of both4 ,he tells us that it is not the legislator1 but nature herself1 who establishes these broad classes1 and to ignore them when forming a society would be just as foolish as to ignore the order of rank among materials and structural principles when building a monument4 ,though the base of a pyramid does not require to be of the very finest marble1 we know it must be both broad and massive4 ,nietzsche declares that no society has any solidarity which is not founded upon a broad basis of mediocrity4 ,though the stones get fewer in the layers as we ascend to the top of the pyramid1 we know that their gradation is necessary if the highest point is to be readied4 ,nietzsche believes in the long scale of gradations of rank with the ascending line leading always to the highest--even if he be only a single individual4 ,though the very uppermost point consists of a single stone1 it is around that single stone that the weather will rage most furiously and the sun shine most gorgeously4 ,that single stone will be the first to cleave the heavy shower1 and the first1 for1 to meet the lightning4 ,nietzsche says3 ,life always becomes harder towards the summit1--the cold increases1 responsibility increases4#g ,saepius ventis agitatur ingens pinus1 et celsae graviore casu decidunt turres1 feriuntque summos fulgura montes4#h--;,,horace1 ,carm4 ,,ii4 ,x4 ,thus he would have the intellectually superior1 those who can bear responsibility and endure hardships1 at the head4 ,beneath them are the warriors1 the physically strong1 who are the guardians of right1 the keepers of order and security1 the king above all as the highest formula of warrior1 judge1 and keeper of the law4 ,the second in rank are the executive of the most intellectual4 ,and below this caste are the mediocre4 ,handicraft1 trade1 agriculture1 science1 the greater part of art1 in a word1 the whole compass of business activity1 is exclusively compatible with an average amount of ability and pretension4 ,at the very base of the social edifice1 ,nietzsche sees the class of man who thrives best when he is well looked after and closely observed1--the man who is happy to serve1 not because he must1 but because he is what he is1--the man uncorrupted by political and religious lies concerning equality1 liberty1 and fraternity1--who is half conscious of the abyss which separates him from his superiors1 and who is happiest when performing those acts which are not beyond his limitations4 ,he forestalls this sketch of his ideal society by enunciating the moral code wherewith he would transvalue our present values1 and ,i shall now give this code without a single remark or comment1 feeling quite sure that the reader who has understood ,nietzsche so far will not require any assistance in seeing that it is the necessary and logical outcome of the rest of his teaching4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what is good8 ,all that increases the feeling of power1 will to power1 power itself in man4 ,what is bad8--,all that proceeds from weakness4 ,what is happiness8--,the feeling that power increases1 that resistance is overcome4 ,not contentedness1 but more power2 not peace at any price1 but warfare2 not virtue1 but capacity 7virtue in the ,renaissance style1 virt free from any moralic acid74#i 99 99 99 99 99 ,i cannot well close this chapter on ,nietzsche's sociological views without touching upon two of the most important elements in modern society1 and his treatment of them4 ,i refer to altruism and to pity4 ,i am more particularly anxious to express myself clearly on these two points1 inasmuch as ,i know how many erroneous opinions are current in regard to ,nietzsche's attitude towards them4 ,in all gregarious communities1 as is well known1 altruism and pity have become very potent life-preserving factors1 and it would be hard to find in ,europe to-day1 a city1 a town1 or a village1 in which these two qualities are not considered the most creditable of virtues4 ,now apart from the fact that this excessive praise of compassion and selflessness is a sign of slave values being in the ascendant1 we must bear in mind two things3 7#a7 that under our present system of society1 in which cruelties are perpetrated far more brutal than any that could be found in antiquity1 a sort of maudlin sentimentality has arisen among the oppressing classes1 whereby they attempt to counterbalance their deeds of oppression with lavish acts of charity4 ,this sentimentality is a sign that their conscience is no longer clean for the act of oppressing2 because in their heart of hearts they feel themselves unworthy of being at the top3 7#b7 that wherever two or three human beings collect together1 a certain modicum of altruism and compassion is a prerequisite of their social unity4 ,dismissing observation one as the mere expression of a regrettable fact which scarcely requires substantiation1 and which is responsible for more than three-quarters of the anomalies that characterise modern ,western civilisation2 and passing over the suggestion that the excessive praise of compassion and selflessness denotes an ascendency of slave values 7for we have dealt with this question in ,chapter ,,iii471 let us turn to the more abstract proposition enunciated in observation two and try to grasp ,nietzsche's treatment of it4 ,in the first place1 let us understand that there are two kinds of pity and selflessness1 just as there are two kinds of generosity4 ,there is the pity1 the selflessness and the generosity which is preached and praised as a virtue by him who urgently requires them because he is ill-constituted1 needy1 and hungry2 and there is the pity1 the selflessness and the generosity which suggests itself to the man overflowing with health1 trust in the future1 and confidence in his own powers4 ,to such a man1 pity1 selflessness1 and generosity are a means of discharging a certain plenitude of power1 and in his case giving and bestowing are natural functions4 ,in the first instance1 the three virtues are preached from a utilitarian standpoint which tends to increase an undesirable type2 in the second1 they are the sign of the existence of a desirable type4 ,let us hear ,nietzsche-- ,a man who says3 ',i like that1 ,i take it for my own1 and mean to guard it and protect it from everyone'2 and the man who can conduct a case1 carry out a resolution1 remain true to an opinion1 keep hold of a woman1 punish and overthrow insolence2 a man who has his indignation and his sword1 and to whom the weak1 the suffering1 the oppressed1 and even the animals willingly submit and naturally belong2 in short1 a man who is a master by nature--when such a man has sympathy1 well6 that sympathy has value6 ,but of what account is the sympathy of those who suffer6 or of those even who preach sympathy6 ,wherever we find anything akin to pity1 even in nature3 the suckling of the young1 the maintenance of dependants 7the lion's attitude towards the jackal71 the protection of the helpless young 7as in many fish and mammals71 it is always the superabundance of the giver and his ,will to ,power which creates the pitiful act4 ,but the pity which most of us understand as a virtue in ,europe to-day1 is merely a sort of sickly sensitiveness and irritability towards pain1 an effeminate absence of control in the presence of suffering1 which has nothing whatever to do with our powers of alleviating the misery we contemplate1 and which is only compatible either with excessive sentimentality or with weak and overstrained nerves4 ,in that case all it does is to add to the misery of this world1 and to elevate to a virtue that which is perhaps one of the saddest signs of the times4 ,it is then indiscriminate1 rash1 and short-sighted1 and gives rise to more evil than it tries to dispel4 ,ah1 where in the world have there been greater follies than with the pitiful8 ,and what in the world hath caused more suffering than the follies of the pitiful8 ,woe unto all loving ones who have not an elevation which is above their pity6#aj ,the legislator or the leader 7and it is to him1 remember1 that ,nietzsche appeals71 is often obliged to leave dozens to die by the wayside1 and has to do so with a clean conscience4 ,if the march he is organising requires certain sacrifices1 he must be ready to make them2 the slavish pity1 then1 which would sacrifice the greater to the less1 must have been overcome by him in his own heart41 and he must have learnt that hardness which is wider in its sympathies1 more presbyopic in its love1 and less immediate in its effect4 ,but he alone can feel like this who has something to give to those he leads1 i4e4 his protection and guidance1 his promise of a better land4 ,myself ,i would sacrifice to my design1 and my neighbour as well--such is the language of creators4 ,all creators1 however1 are hard4#aa ,now turning to the question of egoism cru et vert1 which1 according to some1 is the very basis and core of ,nietzscheism1 what are the points which strike us most in ,nietzsche's standpoint8 ,to begin with1 in this question1 as in all others1 his honesty is paramount1 and we become conscious of it the moment we read his first line on the subject4 ,where ,nietzsche discusses matters of which others are wont to speak with heaving breasts1 florid language1 and tearful voices1 he takes particular pains to be clear1 concise1 calculating and cold--hence perhaps the hatred he has provoked in those who depend for their effect upon the impression of benevolence which their watery eyes1 their cracked1 good-natured voices1 and their high-falutin' words make upon a multitude4 ,nietzsche puts his linger on the very centre of the question of egoism1 he simply says3 ,not every one has the right to be an egoist4 ,whereas in some egoism would be a virtue1 in others it may be an insufferable vice which should be stamped out at all costs4 ,in whom then is egoism a vice8 ,obviously in him who is physiologically botched1 below mediocrity in spirit and body1 mean1 despicable1 and even ugly4 ,egoism in such a man means concentrating certain interests1 and not always the least valuable1 upon the promotion and enhancement of an undesirable element in society4 ,the egoism of him who is below mediocrity is a form of tyranny which leads to nothing1 save1 perhaps1 a ,heaven where the haute vole will consist of the whole scum and dross of humanity4 ,such egoism leads humanity downwards3 it practically says3 ,i1 the bungled and the botched1 ,i the poor in spirit and body1 ,i the mean1 despicable and ugly1 want my kind to be all-important1 paramount and on the top--,i the least desirable wish to prevail4 ,but this egoism would mean humanity's ruin1 it would mean humanity's suicide and annihilation3 it would certainly mean humanity's degradation4 ,when such egoism says3 ,i will have all1 the only decent retort is deafness4 ,when such egoism says3 ,i have as much right to live and flourish as the well-constituted1 the superior in spirit and body1 the beautiful and the happy1 wisdom replies with a shrill of its shoulders4 ,and when such egoism preaches altruism--then6 ,then woe to all those who are tempted to practise one virtue more6 ,woe to humanity6 ,woe to the whole world6 ,there is1 on the other hand1 a form of egoism1 which is both virtuous and noble4 ,it is the egoism of him whose multiplication would make the world better1 more desirable1 happier1 healthier1 superior in spirit and body4 ,egoism in such a case is a moral duty2 wherever1 in such a case1 giving1 bestowing--altruism in fact--is not compatible with survival1 then egoism becomes the highest principle of all1 and it is in such circumstances that altruism may become a vice4 ,now let us hear ,nietzsche's own words3-- ,selfishness1 he says1 has as much value as the physiological value of him who possesses it3 it may be very valuable or it may be vile and contemptible4 ,each individual may be looked at with respect to whether he represents an ascending or a descending line of life4 ,when that is determined1 we have a canon for determining the value of his selfishness4 ,if he represent the ascent in the line of life1 his value is in fact very great--and on account of the collective life which in him makes a further step1 the concern about his maintenance1 about providing his optimum of conditions1 may even be extreme444 ,if he represent descending development1 decay1 chronic degeneration1 or sickening1 he has little worth1 and the greatest fairness would have him take away as little as possible from the well-constituted4 ,he is then no more than their parasite4#ab ,this is all clear enough2 but it is quite conceivable that a misunderstanding of it might lead to the most perverted notions of what ,nietzsche actually stood for1 and when ,i hear people inveighing against the so-called egoism of his teaching1 and declaring it poisonous on that account1 ,i often wonder whether they have really made any attempt at all to comprehend the above passage1 and whether there is not perhaps something wrong with language itself1 that a thought which to some seems expressed so clearly and unmistakably1 should still prove confusing and incomprehensible to others4 ,speaking once more to higher men1 then1 ,nietzsche tells them1 with some reason on his side1 that altruism may be their greatest danger1 that altruism may be even their greatest temptation1 that there are times when they must avoid it as they would avoid a plague4 ,in periods of gestation1 when plans and dreams of plans for the elevation of themselves and their fellows are taking shape in their minds1 altruism may lure them sideways1 it may make them diverge from their path1 and it may make mankind one great thought the poorer4 ,in this sense1 and in this sense alone1 does our author deprecate the altruistic virtues2 but1 again1 ,i venture to remind readers that it is the simplest thing on earth to awaken suspicion against him by declaring1 as some have declared1 that his deprecation of altruism applies to all4 ,no greater nonsense could be talked about ,nietzsche than to say that he preached universal egoism4 ,universal egoism as opposed to select egoism is behind all the noisiest movements to-day--it is behind ,socialism1 ,democracy1 ,anarchy1 and ,nihilism--but it is not behind ,nietzscheism1 and nobody who reads him with care could ever think so4 ,with these observations in mind1 we can read the following passages from ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra without either surprise or indignation2 indeed we may even learn a new valuation from them which will alter our whole outlook on life1 though no such sudden revulsion of feeling need necessarily follow a study of ,nietzsche's doctrine4 ,only when we have given his thoughts time to become linked up and co-ordinated in our minds are we likely to find that our view of the world has become in the least decree transformed4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,do ,i advise you to love your neighbour8 leather do ,i advise you to flee from your neighbour and to love the most remote4 ,higher than love to your neighbour is love unto the most remote future man4 ,it is the more remote 7your children and your children's children7 who pay for your love unto your neighbour4#ac ,your children's land ye shall love 7be this love your new nobility671 the land undiscovered in the remotest sea6 ,for it ,i bid your sails seek and seek6 ,in your children ye shall make amends for being the children of your fathers3 all the past shall ye thus redeem6 ,this new table do ,i place over you6#ad #a ,z41 chap4 lxi4 #b ,z41 p4 #bii4 #c ,z41 pp4 #bef1 #beg4 #d ,g4 ,e41 ,aph4 #ahh4 #e ,z41 pp4 #bdg1 #bdh4 #f ,g4 ,e41 p4 #bbc4 #g ,antichrist1 ,aph4 #eg4 #h ,the big pine is more often shaken by the winds3 the higher a tower1 the heavier is the fall thereof1 and it is the tops of the mountains that the lightning strikes4 #i ,antichrist1 ,aph4 #b4 #aj ,z41 pp4 #ajd1 #aje4 #aa ,z41 p4 #aje4 #ab ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,par4 #aj1 ,aph4 #cc4 #ac ,z41 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 #ad ,z41 p4 #bdh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,summary ,,and ,,conclusion ,when we have done rubbing our eyes and ears at the dazzling and startling novelty of all we have seen and heard1 let us ask ourselves calmly and dispassionately what sort of man this is who has led us thus far into regions which1 from their very unfamiliarity and exoticness1 may have seemed to us both unpleasant and forbidding4 ,this is no time for apologetics1 or for pleading extenuating circumstances4 ,even if ,nietzsche's doctrines have been presented in a form too undiluted to be inviting1 it would scarcely mend matters1 now1 to beg pardon fur them2 and ,i have no intention of doing anything of the sort4 ,but these questions may be put without any fear of assuming a penitential attitude1 and ,i do not hesitate to put them3 ,was the promise of ,nietzsche's life fulfilled8 ,did the task he started out with1 the elevation of the type man1 receive his best strength1 his best endeavours1 his sincerest application8 ,however fundamentally we may disagree with his conclusions1 were they reached by means of an upright attempt at grappling with the problems8 ,to all of those questions there is but one answer1 and that answer clears ,nietzsche of all the slander and calumny to which he has been submitted for the last thirty years4 ,however often we may think he has erred1 it is nonsense any longer to speak of him as an anarchist1 an advocate of brutality1 a supporter of immorality in its worst modern sense1 and a guardian saint of savage passions4 ,if ,i have led any readers to suspect that he was all this1 ,i can only entreat them to turn as soon as possible to the original works themselves1 and there they will find that it was ,i who was wrong4 ,personally ,i believe1 as ,hippolyte ,taine1 ,dr4 ,george ,brandes and ,wagner believed1 that ,nietzsche's work is greater than his own or the next generation could ever suspect4 ,questions such as ,art1 the future of ,science1 and the future of ,religion1 which ,nietzsche treats with his customary skill1 ,i have been unable to find room for1 in this work4 ,but in each of these departments1 ,i believe 7and in this belief ,i am by no means alone7 that ,nietzsche's speculations may prove of the very highest value4 ,already in ,biology there are signs that ,nietzsche's conclusions are gaining ground4 ,in ,art1 as ,i hope to able to show elsewhere1 his doctrines are likely to effect a salutary revolution3 while1 in the departments of history1 psychology1 jurisprudence and metaphysics1 specialists will doubtless arise who will attempt to make innovations under his leadership4 ,for the present1 though the outlook is brighter than it was1 ,nietzscheism--that is to say3 free-spiritedness1 intellectual bravery2 the ability to stand alone when every one else has his arm linked in something2 the courage to face unpleasant1 fatal1 and disconcerting truths1--has not much hope of very general acceptance1 among those to whom it really ought to appeal4 ,calumny1 which had a long start1 has deafened many to the cause and will continue deafening a larger number still1 until the truth is ultimately known4 ,yet it is to be hoped that readers may learn to be less satisfied than they have been heretofore with second-hand accounts of what ,nietzsche stood for1 and that very shortly everybody who is interested in the matter will be able to reply to the slanderer with facts culled from ,nietzsche's life and works4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,mine enemies have grown strong1 says ,zarathustra1 and ,i have disfigured the face of my teaching1 so that my dearest friends have to blush for the gifts ,i gave them4#a ,but like a wind ,i shall one day blow amidst them1 and take away their breath with my spirit2 thus my future willeth it4 ,verily a strong wind is ,zarathustra to all low lands2 and his enemies and everything that spitteth and speweth he counselleth with such advice3 ,beware of spitting against the wind4#b #a ,z41 pp4 #ie1 #if4 #b ,z41 p4 #aaf4 ,books ,useful to the ,student of ,nietzsche ,,biographies3-- ,das ,leben ,friedrich ,nietzsche's1 by ,mrs4 ,frster-,nietzsche4 ,erinnerungen an ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 by ,deussen4 ,nietzsche1 sein ,leben und sein ,werk1 by ,raoul ,richter4 ,,editions ,,of ,,works4 ,the complete works of ,friedrich ,nietzsche4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy4 7,the first complete and authorised ,english ,translation47 ,t4 ,n4 ,foulis1 #ba ,paternoster ,square4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche's ,werke4 ,library ,edition #ae vols4----,pocket ,edition 7very good7 #aj vols4 ,,monographs4 ,blart1 ,nietzsche's ,ethik4 ------ ,nietzsche's ,metaphysik4 ------ ,nietzsche und ,richard ,wagner4 ,brandes1 ,g41 ,menschen und ,werke4 ,common1 ,thos41 ,nietzsche as ,critic4 ,fouille1 ,a41 ,nietzsche et l',immoralisme4 ,gaultier1 ,j41 ,de ,kant ,nietzsche4 ------ ,nietzsche et la ,rforme philosophique4 ,kennedy1 ,j4 ,m41 ,the ,quintessence of ,nietzsche4 ,lichtenberger1 ,h41 ,la ,philosophie de ,nietzsche4 ,mgge1 ,nietzsche ,his ,life and ,works4 ,sera1 ,leo1 ,on the ,tracks of ,life4 ,tienes1 ,nietzsche's ,stellung zu den ,grundfragen der ,ethik genetisch dargestellt4 ,tille1 ,a41 ,von ,darwin bis ,nietzsche4 ,zeitler1 ,j41 ,nietzsche's sthetik4 ,,nietzsche',s ,,works3 ,authorised ,version3 edited by ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy4 ,thoughts out of ,season4 #b vols4 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy4 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,the ,future of our ,educational ,institutions4 ,human1 ,all too ,human4 ,vol4 i4 ,the ,will to ,power4 #b vols4 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,the ,case against ,wagner4 ,the ,joyful ,wisdom4 ,the ,dawn of ,day4