which includes the more than #bjj original illustrations4 ,see #ecaci-;h4htm or #ecaci-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ecaci_/pg#ecaci-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ec aci_/ecaci-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/maximsin structio#jj;hawk ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face and underscored 7bold and underscored74 ,a detailed transcriber's note is at the end of the book4 ,,maxims ,,and ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,boiler ,,room4 ,illustration3 ,,hawkins' ,,educational ,,works ,,for ,,engineers ,this ,work is ,fraternally inscribed to ,w4 ,r4 ,hawkins1 ,r4 ,f4 ,hawkins and ,f4 ,p4 ,hawkins4 ,illustration3 ,,richard ,,trevithick4 ,,maxims ,,and ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,boiler ,,room4 ,useful to ,engineers1 ,firemen ,mechanics1 ,relating to ,steam ,generators1 ,pumps1 ,appliances1 ,steam ,heating1 ,practical ,plumbing1 etc4 ,illustration by ,n4 ,,hawkins1 ,m4 ,e41 ,honorary ,member ,national ,association of ,stationary ,engineers1 ,editorial ,writer1 ,author of ,hand ,book of ,calculations for ,engineers and ,firemen1 ,etc41 ,etc4 ,comprising ,instructions and ,suggestions on the ,construction1 ,setting1 ,control and ,management of ,various ,forms of ,steam ,boilers2 on the ,theory and ,practical ,operation of the ,steam ,pump2 ,steam ,heating2 ,practical ,plumbing2 also ,rules for the ,safety ,valve1 ,strength of ,boilers1 ,capacity of ,pumps1 etc4 ,theo4 ,audel ,co41 ,publishers1 #fc ,fifth ,ave41 ,cor4 #acth ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,copyrighted #ahig--ahih--aijc by ,theo1 ,audel ,co4 ,,preface4 ,the chief apology for the preparation and issue of these ,maxims and ,instructions1 for the use of ,steam users1 ,engineers and ,firemen1 is the more than kind reception of ,calculations4 ,but there are other reasons4 ,there is the wholesome desire to benefit the class1 with whom1 in one way and another1 the author has been associated nearly two score years4 ,the plan followed in this work will be the same as that so generally approved in ,calculations2 the completed volume will be a work of reference and instruction upon those works set forth in the title page4 ,as a work of reference the work will be especially helpful through combined ,index and ,definition ,tables to be inserted at the close of the book4 ,by the use of these the meaning of every machine1 material and performance of the boiler room can be easily found and the 8points0 of instruction made use of4 ,this work being issued in parts1 now in manuscript1 and capable of change or enlargement1 the editor will be thankful for healthful suggestions from his professional brethren1 before it is put into permanent book form4 ,illustration3 ,,oliver ,,evans4 ,,george ,,stephenson4 ,,robert ,,fulton4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,preface #g ,,introduction #i ,,materials #ab ,coal #ac ,wood #ad ,peat #ad ,tan #ae ,straw #ae ,coke1 ,charcoal1 ,peat ,charcoal #ae ,liquid and ,gas ,fuels #ae ,air #af ,table of ,evaporation #ah ,fire ,irons #ai ,handy ,tools #ba ,the ,tool ,box #bb ,,the ,,firing ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers #bd ,directions for ,firing with ,various ,fuels #bh ,firing with ,coke #bh ,firing with ,coal ,tar #cj ,firing with ,straw #ca ,firing with ,oil #cb ,firing on an ,ocean ,steamer #cb ,firing of ,sawdust and ,shavings #cc ,firing a ,locomotive #cf ,firing with ,tan ,bark #cf ,points ,relating to ,firing #cg ,foaming in ,boilers #db ,a ,,chapter ,,of ,,don',,ts #dd ,,steam ,,generators #dh ,description #di ,an ,upright ,steam ,boiler #ej ,the ,growth of the ,steam ,boiler #eb ,marine ,boilers #fj ,the ,surface ,condenser #fe ,operation of the ,condenser #ff ,water ,tube ,steam ,boilers #fg ,care of ,water ,tube ,boilers #gj ,sectional ,boilers #ga ,locomotive ,boilers #gb ,standard ,horizontal ,tubular ,steam ,boiler #gi ,parts of the ,tubular ,boiler #ha ,the ,triple ,draught ,tubular ,boiler #hc ,,specification ,,for #abe ,,horse ,,power ,,boiler #he ,type #he ,dimensions #he ,quality and ,thickness of ,steel ,plates #he ,flanges #he ,riveting #hf ,braces #hf ,manholes1 ,hand ,holes and ,thimbles #hf ,lugs #hf ,castings #hf ,testing #hg ,quality and ,workmanship #hg ,fittings and ,mountings #hg ,drawings #hg ,duty of ,boiler #hg ,,marks ,,on ,,boiler ,,plates #hh ,,construction ,,of ,,boilers #hi ,quality of ,steel ,plates #ij ,nickel ,steel ,boiler ,plates #ia ,riveting #ia ,bracing of ,steam ,boilers #if ,rule for ,finding ,pressure or ,strain on ,bolts #ii ,gusset ,stays #ajj ,riveted or ,screw ,stays #aja ,inspector's ,rules ,relating to ,braces in ,steam ,boilers #ajb ,rules and ,tables #aje ,boiler ,tubes #aaj ,portions of the ,marine ,boiler which become ,thin by ,wear #aab ,,examples ,,of ,,construction ,,and ,,drawing #aac ,rule for ,safe ,internal ,pressure #aag ,,definition ,,of ,,terms #aba ,tensile strength #aba ,contraction of area #aba ,elongation #aba ,shearing strength #aba ,elastic limit #aba ,tough #aba ,ductile #aba ,elasticity #abb ,fatigued #abb ,malleable #abb ,weldable #abb ,cold-short #abb ,hot-short #abb ,homogeneous #abb ,,boiler ,,repairs #abc ,repairing ,cracks #abc ,defects and ,necessary ,repairs #abd ,questions by the ,proprietor to the ,engineer in ,charge1 ,relating to ,condition of the ,boiler #abg ,questions asked of a ,candidate ,for a ,marine ,license ,relating to ,defects in ,boiler #abg ,,the ,,inspection ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers #abi ,how to prepare for ,steam ,boiler ,inspection #acj ,issuing ,certificates #aca ,the ,hydraulic ,test #aca ,,engineers' ,,examinations #acc ,,mechanical ,,stokers #acd ,,chemical ,,terms ,,and ,,explanations ,,relating ,,to ,,feed ,,waters #acf ,chemistry #acf ,element #acf ,re-agent #acf ,oxide #acf ,carbonate #acf ,acid #acg ,alkalies #acg ,chloride #acg ,sulphates #acg ,silica #acg ,magnesia #ach ,carbonate of ,magnesia #ach ,lime #ach ,soda #ach ,sodium #ach ,salt #aci ,,analysis ,,of ,,feed ,,water #adj ,directions #adj ,,from ,,argos1 ,,ind4 #adj ,,from ,,sioux ,,falls1 ,s4 ,d4 #adj ,,from ,,litchfield1 ,,ill4 #ada ,,from ,,chelsea1 ,,mass4 #ada ,,from ,,memphis1 ,,tenn4 #ada ,,from ,,pekin1 ,,ill4 #ada ,,from ,,tiffin1 ,,ohio #ada ,,corrosion ,,and ,,incrustation ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers #adb ,preliminary ,precipitation of ,water #add ,a precipitator for ,sea ,water #ade ,scale ,deposited in ,marine ,boilers #adf ,a locomotive-,boiler ,compound #adi 8,points0 ,relating to the ,scaling of ,steam ,boilers #adi ,,engineers' ,,tests ,,for ,,impurities ,,in ,,feed ,,water #aec ,use of ,petroleum ,oil in ,boilers #aee ,kerosene ,oil in ,boilers #aef ,mechanical ,boiler ,cleaners #aei ,scumming ,apparatus #afa ,use of ,zinc in ,marine ,boilers #afb ,,boiler ,,fixtures ,,and ,,belongings #afd ,boiler ,fronts #afe ,furnace ,doors #afh ,fusible ,plugs #aga ,grate ,bars #agc ,water ,gauge ,cocks #agf ,glass ,gauges #agg ,the ,mud ,drum #agi ,baffle ,plates #ahj ,dead ,plate #ahj ,steam ,whistles #ahj ,the ,steam ,gauge #aha ,steam ,separator #ahc ,sentinel ,valve #ahd ,damper ,regulators #ahe ,fuel ,economizer and ,feed ,water ,purifier #ahe ,safety ,valves #ahg ,u4 ,s4 ,rules ,relating to ,safety ,valves #ahi ,feed ,water ,heaters #aif ,capacity of ,cisterns #bjb ,water ,meters #bjc 8,points0 ,relating to ,water ,meters #bjd ,the ,steam ,boiler ,injector #bjf 8,points0 ,relating to the ,injector #bji ,,laws ,,of ,,heat #bab ,,the ,,steam ,,pump #bae ,classification of ,pumps #bag ,points ,relating to ,pumps #bai ,calculations ,relating to ,pumps #bbb ,,important ,,principles ,,relating ,,to ,,water #bbd ,,storing ,,and ,,handling ,,of ,,coal #bbe ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,furnace #bbf ,oxygen #bbi ,carbon #bbi ,hydrogen #bcj ,nitrogen #bcj ,sulphur #bcj ,carbonic ,acid ,gas #bcj ,carbonic ,oxide #bca ,table #bca ,,heatproof ,,and ,,ornamental ,,paints #bcb ,,pressure ,,recording ,,gauge #bcc ,,horse ,,power ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,boilers #bcd ,rule ,for ,estimating ,horse ,power of ,horizontal ,tubular ,steam ,boilers #bce ,,boiler ,,setting #bcf ,setting of ,water ,tube ,boilers #bci ,points ,relating to ,boiler ,setting #bci ,,kindling ,a ,,furnace ,,fire #bda ,sawdust ,furnace #bdb ,,pipes ,,and ,,piping #bdd ,joints of ,pipes and ,fittings #bdh ,,steam ,,and ,,hot ,,water ,,heating #bea ,points ,relating to ,steam ,heating #bed ,ventilation #bfe ,heating by ,exhaust ,steam #bfg ,care of ,steam ,fittings #bfh ,tools used in ,steam ,fitting #bfi ,cocks #bgj ,valves #bga ,steam ,fittings #bgd ,steam ,pipe and ,boiler ,coverings #bge ,linear ,expansion of ,steam ,pipes #bgf ,the ,steam ,loop #bgh ,,boiler ,,makers' ,,tools ,,and ,,machinery #bha ,,steam #bhb ,,water ,,hammer #bhc ,,hazards ,,of ,,the ,,boiler ,,room #bhe ,fuel ,oil #bhi ,,water ,,circulation #bid ,,chimneys ,,and ,,draught #bif ,,plumbing #bih ,piping and ,drainage #bii ,lead ,pipe ,joints #cjj ,repairing ,pipes with ,putty ,joints #cjc ,bending ,lead ,pipe #cjd ,plumber's ,solder #cje ,plumber's ,tools #cjf ,,useful ,,tables ,,of ,,weights ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,comparisons ,,of ,,gauges #cji ,,noiseless ,,water ,,heater #cab ,,accidents ,,and ,,emergencies #cac ,burns and ,scalds #cac ,glue ,burn ,mixture #cae ,insensibility from ,smoke #cae ,heat-stroke or ,sun-stroke #caf ,cuts and ,wounds #caf ,bleeding #cag ,frost ,bite #cah ,broken ,bones #cah ,poultices #cai ,how to ,carry an ,injured ,person #cai ,,personal #cbj ,,index #cba ,,advertisments #ccc ,,introduction4 ,each successive generation of engineers has added certain unwritten experiences to the general stock of knowledge relating to steam production1 which have been communicated to their successors1 and by them added to1 in their turn2 it is within the province of this book to put in form for reference1 these unwritten laws of conduct1 which have passed into ,,maxims among engineers and firemen--a maxim being an undisputed truth1 expressed in the shortest terms4 ,,soliloquy ,,of ,,an ,,engineer4 8,standing in the boiler room and looking around me1 there are many things ,i ought to know a good deal about4 ,coal6 ,what is its quality8 ,how much is used in ten hours or twenty-four hours8 ,is the grate under the boiler the best for an economical consumption of fuel8 ,can ,i1 by a change in method of firing1 save any coal8 ,the safety-valve4 ,do ,i know at what pressure it will blow off8 ,can ,i calculate the safety-valve so as to be certain the weight is placed right8 ,do ,i know how to calculate the area of the grate1 the heating surface of the tubes and shell8 ,do ,i know the construction of the steam-gauge and vacuum-gauge8 ,am ,i certain the steam-gauge is indicating correctly1 neither over nor under the pressure of the steam8 ,what do ,i know about the setting of boilers8 ,about the size and quality of fire bricks8 ,about the combination of carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with the oxygen of the atmosphere8 ,about oxygen1 hydrogen and nitrogen8 ,about the laws of combustion8 ,about radiation and heat surfaces8 8,do ,i know what are good non-conductors for covering of pipes1 and why they are good8 ,do ,i know how many gallons of water are in the boiler8 8,what do ,i know about water and steam8 ,how many gallons of water are evaporated in twenty-four hours8 ,what do ,i know about iron and steel1 boiler evaporation1 horse power of engines1 boiler appendages and fittings4 8,can ,i calculate the area and capacity of the engine cylinder8 ,can ,i take an indicator diagram and read it8 ,can ,i set the eccentric8 ,can ,i set valves8 ,do ,i understand the construction of the thermometer1 and know something about the pressure of the atmosphere1 temperature and the best means for ventilation8 ,can ,i use a pyrometer and a salinometer8 8,without going outside of my boiler and engine room ,i find these things are all about me--air1 water1 steam1 heat1 gases1 motion1 speed1 strokes and revolutions1 areas and capacities--how much do ,i know about these8 8,how much can be learned from one lump of coal8 ,what was it1 where did it come from8 ,when it is burned1 what gases will it give off8 8,and so with water4 ,what is the composition of water8 ,what are the effects of heat upon it8 ,how does it circulate8 ,what is the temperature of boiling water8 ,what are the temperatures under different pressures8 ,what is latent heat8 ,what is expansive force80 ,these are the questioning thoughts which fill1 while on duty1 more or less vividly1 the minds of both engineers and firemen1 and it is the purpose of this volume to answer the enquiries1 as far as may be without attempting too much2 for the perfect knowledge of the operations carried on within the boiler-room involves an acquaintance with many branches of science4 ,in matters relating to steam engineering1 it must be remembered that 8art is long and time is short40 ,the utility of such a book as this is intended to be1 no one will question1 and he who would not be a 8hewer of wood and a drawer of water0 to the more intelligent and well-informed mechanic1 must possess to a considerable extent the principles and rules embraced in this book2 and more especially1 if he would be master of his profession and reputed as one whose skill and decisions can be implicitly relied upon4 ,the author in the preparation of the work has had two objects constantly in view2 first to cause the student to become familiarly acquainted with the leading principles of his profession as they are mentioned1 and secondly1 to furnish him with as much advice and information as possible within the reasonable limits of the work4 ,while it is a fact that some of the matter contained in this work is very simple1 and all of it intended to be very plain1 it yet remains true that the most expert living engineer was at one time ignorant of the least of the facts and principles here given1 and at no time in his active career can he ever get beyond the necessity of knowing the primary steps by which he first achieved his success4 ,the following taken from the editorial columns of the leading mechanical journal of the country contains the same suggestive ideas already indicated in the 8soliloquy of an engineer30 8,there is amongst engineers in this country a quiet educational movement going on in matters relating to facts and principles underlying their work that is likely to have an important influence on industrial affairs4 ,this educational movement is noticeable in all classes of workmen1 but amongst none more than among the men in charge of the power plants of the country4 ,it is fortunate that this is so1 for progress once begun in such matters is never likely to stop4 8,engineers comprise various grades from the chief engineer of some large establishment1 who is usually an accomplished mechanic1 carrying along grave responsibilities1 to the mere stopper and starter1 who is engineer by courtesy only1 and whose place is likely to be soon filled by quite another man1 so far as qualifications are concerned4 ,men ignorant of everything except the mere mechanical details of their work will soon have no place4 8,scarcely a week passes that several questions are not asked by engineers1 either of which could be made the subject of a lengthy article4 ,this is of interest in that it shows that engineers1 are not at the present time behind in the way of seeking information4 ,out of about a thousand questions that went into print1 considerable more than half were asked by stationary engineers4 ,these questions embrace many things in the way of steam engineering1 steam engine management1 construction1 etc40 ,the old meaning of the word lever was 8a lifter0 and this book is intended to be to its attentive student1 a real lever to advance him in his life work2 it is also to be used like a ladder1 which is to be ascended step by step1 the lower rounds of which1 are as important as the highest4 ,it is moreover1 the earnest wish of the editor that when some1 perchance may have 8climbed up0 by the means of this1 his work1 they may in their turn serve as lifters to advance others1 and by that means the benefits of the work widely extended4 ,,materials4 ,the things with which the engineer has to deal in that place where steam is to be produced as an industrial agent1 are #a4 ,the ,steam ,generator4 #b4 ,air4 #c4 ,fuel4 #d4 ,water4 #e4 ,steam ,appliances4 ,starting with these points which form a part of every steam plant1 however limited1 however vast1 the subject can easily be enlarged until it embraces a thousand varied divisions extending through all time and into every portion of the civilized world4 ,it is within the scope of this work to so present the subjects specified1 that the student may classify and arrange the matter into truly scientific order4 ,,materials4 ,in entering the steam department1 where he is to be employed1 the eye of the beginner is greeted with the sight of coal1 water1 oil1 etc41 and he is told of invisible materials1 such as air1 steam and gases2 it is the proper manipulation of these seen and unseen material products as well as the machines1 that is to become his life task4 ,in aiding to the proper accomplishment of the yet untried problems nothing can be more useful than to know something of the nature and history of the different forms of matter entering into the business of steam production4 ,let us begin with ,,coal4 ,the source of all the power in the steam engine is stored up in coal in the form of heat4 ,and this heat becomes effective by burning it1 that is1 by its combustion4 ,coal consists of carbon1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 oxygen and ash4 ,these elements exist in all coals but in varying quantities4 ,these are the common proportions of the best sorts3 ,,wood ,,peat ,,anthracite ,,bituminous 7,,average7 ,,peat #a_/d ,,dry4 ,,water ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,carbon #ij-a_/b #ha #ej #ei #dd ,hydrogen #b-a_/b #e-a_/d #f #f #d-a_/b ,nitrogen #j-a_/d #a #a #a-a_/d #a ,sulphur #jj #a-a_/b #j 8 7#be7 ,oxygen #b-a_/b #f-a_/b #da #cj #bb-a_/b ,ash #d-a_/d #d-c_/d #b #c-c_/d #c ----- ------ ------ ------ -------- #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ,in burning coal or other fuel atmospheric air must be introduced before it will burn2 the air furnishes the oxygen1 without which combustion cannot take place4 ,it is found that in burning one lb4 of coal one hundred and fifty cubic feet of air must be used and in every day practice it is necessary to supply twice as much2 this is supplied to the coal partly through the grate bars1 partly through the perforated doors1 and the different devices for applying it already heated to the furnace4 ,,wood4 ,wood as a combustible1 is divisible into two classes3 #ast1 the hard1 compact and comparatively heavy1 such as oak1 ash1 beech1 elm4 #b;d1 the light colored soft1 and comparatively light woods as pine1 birch1 poplar4 ,wood when cut down contains nearly half moisture and when kept in a dry place1 for several years even1 retains from #ae to #bj per cent4 of it4 ,the steam producing power of wood by tests has been found to be but little over half that of coal and the more water in it the less its heating power4 ,in order to obtain the most heating power from wood it is the practice in some works in ,europe where fuel is costly1 to dry the wood fuel thoroughly1 even using stoves for the purpose1 before using it4 ,this 8hint0 may serve a good purpose on occasion4 ,the composition of wood reduced to its elementary condition will be found in the table with coal4 ,,peat4 ,peat is the organic matter or vegetable soil of bogs1 swamps and marshes--decayed mosses1 coarse grasses1 etc4 ,the peat next the surface1 less advanced in decomposition1 is light1 spongy and fibrous1 of a yellow or light reddish-brown color2 lower down it is more compact1 of a darker-brown color1 and in the lowest strata it is of a blackish brown1 or almost a black color1 of a pitchy or unctuous feel4 ,peat in its natural condition generally contains from #ge to #hj per cent4 of water4 ,it sometimes amounts to #he or #ij per cent4 in which case the peat is of the consistency of mire4 ,when wet peat is milled or ground so that the fibre is broken1 crushed or cut1 the contraction in drying is much increased by this treatment2 and the peat becomes denser1 and is better consolidated than when it is dried as it is cut from the bog2 peat so prepared is known as condensed peat1 and the degree of condensation varies according to the natural heaviness of the peat4 ,so effectively is peat consolidated and condensed by the simple process of breaking the fibres whilst wet1 that no merely mechanical force of compression is equal to it4 ,in the table the elements of peat are presented in two conditions4 ,one perfectly dried into a powder before analyzing and the other with #be per cent4 of moisture4 ,the value of peat as a fuel of the future is an interesting problem in view of the numerous inroads made upon our great natural coal fields4 ,,tan4 ,tan1 or oak bark1 after having been used in the process of tanning is burned as fuel4 ,the spent tan consists of the fibrous portion of the bark4 ,five parts of oak bark produce four parts of dry tan4 ,,straw4 ,two compositions of straw 7as a fuel7 is as follows3 ,water1 #ad per cent4 ,combustible matter1 #gi ,ash1 #g ,,coke1 ,,charcoal1 ,,peat ,,charcoal4 ,these are similar substances produced by like processes from coal1 wood1 and peat and they vary in their steam-producing power according to the power of the fuels from which they are produced4 ,the method by which they are made is termed carbonization1 which means that all the gases are removed by heat in closed vessels or heaps1 leaving only the carbon and the more solid parts like ashes4 ,,liquid ,,and ,,gas ,,fuels4 ,under this head come petroleum and coal gas1 which are obtained in great variety and varying value from coal and coal oil4 ,the heating power of these fuels stands in the front rank1 as will be seen by the table annexed4 ,there are kinds of fuel other than coal1 such as wood1 coke1 sawdust1 tan bark1 peat and petroleum oil and the refuse from oil4 ,these are all burned with atmospheric air of which the oxygen combines with the combustible part of the fuel while the nitrogen passes off into the chimney as waste4 ,the combustible parts of coal are carbon1 hydrogen and sulphur and the unburnable parts are nitrogen1 water and the incombustible solid matters such as ashes and cinder4 ,in the operation of firing under a boiler the three first elements are totally consumed and form heat2 the nitrogen1 and water in the form of steam1 escapes to the flue1 and the ashes and cinders fall under the grates4 ,the anthracite coal retain their shape while burning1 though if too rapidly heated they fall to pieces4 ,the flame is generally short1 of a blue color4 ,the coal is ignited with difficulty2 it yields an intense local or concentrated heat2 and the combustion generally becomes extinct while yet a considerable quantity of the fuel remains on the grate4 ,the dry or free burning bituminous coals are rather lighter than the anthracites1 and they soon and easily arrive at the burning temperature4 ,they swell considerably in coking1 and thus is facilitated the access of air and the rapid and complete combustion of their fixed carbon4 ,the method of firing with different sorts of fuel will be treated elsewhere4 ,,air4 ,the engineer's success in the management of the furnace depends quite as much upon his handling the air in the right mixtures and proportions as it does in his using the fuel--for #a4 ,although invisible to the eye air is as much a material substance as coal or stone4 ,if there were an opening into the interior of the earth which would permit the air to descend its density would increase in the same manner at it diminishes in the opposite direction4 ,at the depth of about #cd miles it would be as dense as water1 and at the depth of #dh miles it would be as dense as quicksilver1 and at the depth of about #ej miles as dense as gold4 #b4 ,air is not only a substance1 but an impenetrable body2 as for example3 if we make a hollow cylinder1 smooth and closed at the bottom1 and put a stopper or solid piston to it1 no force will enable us to bring it into contact with the bottom of the cylinder1 unless we permit the air within it to escape4 #c4 ,air is a fluid which is proved by the great movability of its parts1 flowing in all directions in great hurricanes and in gentle breezes2 and also by the fact that a pressure or blow is propagated through all parts and affects all parts alike4 #d4 ,it is also an elastic fluid1 thus when an inflated bladder is compressed it immediately restores itself to its former situation2 indeed1 since air when compressed restores itself or tends to restore itself1 with the same force as that with which it is compressed1 it is a perfectly elastic body4 #e4 ,the weight of a column of air one square foot at the bottom is found to be #baef lbs4 or very nearly #ae lbs4 to the square inch1 hence it is common to state the pressure of the atmosphere as equal to #ae lbs4 to the square inch4 ,it follows from these five points that the engineer must consider air as a positive1 although unseen1 factor with which his work is to be accomplished4 ,what air is composed of is a very important item of knowledge4 ,it is made of a mixture of two invisible gases whose minute and inconceivably small atoms are mingled together like a parcel of marbles and bullets--that is while together they do not lose any of their distinctive qualities4 ,the two gases are called nitrogen and oxygen1 and of #ajj parts or volumes of air #gi parts are of nitrogen and #ba parts of oxygen2 but by weight 7for the oxygen is the heaviest7 #gg of nitrogen and #bc of oxygen4 ,the oxygen is the part that furnishes the heat by uniting with the coal--indeed without it the process of combustion would be impossible3 of the two gases the oxygen is burned in the furnace1 more or less imperfectly1 and the nitrogen is wasted4 ,,table ,,of ,,evaporation4 ,in order to arrive at the money value of the various fuels heretofore described a method of composition has been arrived at which gives very accurately their comparative worth4 ,the rule is too advanced for this elementary work1 but the following results are plainly to be understood1 and will be found to be of value4 ,lbs4 of ,fuel4 ,temperature of ,water #bab ,coal1 #ad4fb lbs of ,water4 ,coke1 #ad4jb ,wood1 #h4jg ,wood2 #be of water1 #f4je ,wood ,charcoal1 #ac4ac ,peat1 perfectly dry1 #aj4cj ,peat1 with #be moisture1 #g4da ,peat1 ,charcoal 7dry71 #ab4gf ,tan1 dry1 #f4ca ,tan1 #cj moisture1 #d4dd ,petroleum1 #bj4cc ,coal gas #a lb4 or 7#ca-a_/c cub4 feet7 #dg4ea ,the way to read this table is as follows3 8one lb4 coal has an average evaporative capacity of #ad4fb lbs4 of water10 or ,one lb4 of peat with one-quarter moisture will evaporate1 if all the heat is utilized #g4da lbs4 of water4 ,in practice but little over half of these results are attained1 but for a matter of comparison of the value of one kind of fuel with another the figures are of great value2 a boiler burning wood or tan needs to be much larger than one burning petroleum oil4 ,,fire ,,irons4 ,the making or production of steam requires the handling of the fuel1 more or less1 until its destruction is complete1 leaving nothing behind in the boiler room1 except ashes and clinkers4 ,the principal tools used by the attendant1 to do the task most efficiently are3 #a4 ,the scoop shovel4 #b4 ,the poker4 #c4 ,the slice bar4 #d4 ,the barrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a4 represents the regular scoop shovel commonly called 8a coal shovel10 but among railroad men and others1 known as a locomotive or charging scoop4 ,the cut also represents a regular shovel4 ,both these are necessary for the ordinary business of the boiler room4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,in cut #b are represented a furnace poker1 ,a1 and two forms of the slice bar4 ,they are all made by blacksmiths from round iron1 some #g or #h feet long and only vary in the form of the end4 ,the regular slice bar is shown in ,c1 ,fig4 #b2 and 8the dart0 a special form used largely on locomotives is shown in ,b4 ,the dexterous use of these important implements can merely be indicated in print1 as it is part of the trade which is imparted by oral instruction4 ,one 8point0 in making the slice bar may be mentioned to advantage--the lower side should be perfectly flat so that it may slide on the surface of the grate bars as it is forced beneath the fire--and the upper portion of the edge should be in the shape of a half wedge1 so as to crowd upwards the ashes and clinkers while the lower portion slides along4 ,there is sometimes used in connection with these tools an appliance called a ,,lazy ,,bar4 ,this is very useful for the fireman when cleaning a bituminous or other coal fire3 it saves both time and fuel as well as steam4 ,it is a hook shaped iron1 ingeniously attached above the furnace door1 so that it supports the principal part of the weight of the heavy slice bar or poker when being used in cleaning out the fires4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,equally necessary to the work of the boiler-room is the barrow shown in cut4 ,there are many styles of the vehicle denominated respectively--the railroad barrow1 the ore and stone barrow1 the dirt barrow1 etc42 but the one represented in fig4 #c is the regular coal barrow4 ,in conveying coal to 8batteries0 of boilers1 in gas houses and other suitable situations the portable car and iron track are nearly always used instead of the barrow4 ,in feeding furnaces with saw dust and shavings large iron screw conveyors are frequently employed1 as well as blowers--,in the handling of the immense quantities of fuel required1 the real ingenuity of the engineer in charge has ample opportunity for exercise4 ,there are also used in nearly all boiler rooms ,,hoes made of heavy plate iron1 with handles similar to those shown in the cuts representing the slice bar and poker4 ,a set of two to four hoes of various sizes is a very convenient addition to the list of fire tools2 a light garden hoe for handling ashes is not to be omitted as a labor saving tool4 ,,handy ,,tools4 ,besides the foregoing devices for conducting the preliminary process of the steam generation1 the attendant should have close at hand a servicable ,,hand ,,hammer1 a ,,sledge for breaking coal and similar work1 and ,a ,,screw ,,wrench and also a light ,,ladder for use about the boiler and shafting4 ,in addition to these there are various other things almost essential for the proper doing of the work of the boiler room1--,,fire ,,and ,,water ,,pails1 ,,lanterns1 ,,rubber ,,hose1 etc41 which every wise steam user will provide of the best quality and which the engineer will as carefully keep in their appointed places ready for instant service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,to these familiar tools can be added ,,files1 ,,lace ,,cutters1 ,,boiler-,,flue ,,brushes1 ,,stock and ,,dies1 ,,pipe-,,tongs1 ,,screw ,,jacks1 ,,vises1 etc41 all of which when used with skill and upon right occasion pay a large return on their cost4 ,,the ,,tool ,,box4 ,the complex operations of the boiler room1 its emergencies and varying conditions demand the use of many implements which might at first thought be out of place4 ,the following illustrations exhibit some of these conveniences4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #e1 letter ,a1 show the common form of ,,compasses which are made from #c to #h inches long4 ,letter ,b1 illustrates the common steel compass dividers1 which are made from #e to #bd inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,in this illustration1 ,a exhibits double1 inside and outside ,,calipers2 ,b1 adjustable outside ,calipers2 ,c1 inside2 and ,d outside1 plain calipers4 ,illustration3 ,various ,tools4 ,,the ,,firing ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,the care and management of a steam boiler comprises three things3 #a4 ,the preparation1 which includes the partial filling with water and the kindling of the fire4 #b4 ,the running1 embracing the feeding1 firing and extinction or banking of the fire4 #c4 ,the cleaning out after it has been worked for some time4 ,to do this to the best advantage1 alike to owner and employee1 can be learned only by practice under the tuition of an experienced person4 ,the 8trick0 or unwritten science of the duties of the skillful fireman must be communicated to the beginner1 by already experienced engineers or firemen or from experts who have made the matter a special study4 ,let it be understood that the art of firing cannot be self taught4 ,the importance of this knowledge is illustrated by a remarkable difference shown in competitive tests in ,germany between trained and untrained firemen in the matter of securing a high evaporation per pound of coal4 ,the trained men succeeded in evaporating #aa lbs4 of water1 as against #f4hi lbs4 which was the best that the untrained men could obtain4 ,it is certain that a poor fireman is a dear man at any price1 and that a competent one may be cheap at twice the wages now paid4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a man who burns three tons a day is paid #b4jj for such service1 and that in so doing he is wasting as little as #aj per cent4 ,if the coal cost #d4ej per ton the loss will be #a4ce per day1 or what is equivalent to paying a man #c4ce per day who can save this amount4 ,the late ,chief ,engineer of ,philadelphia ,water ,works effected an annual saving to the city of something like #ej1jjj2 and recently the weekly consumption of a well established woolen mill was reduced from #ga to #di tons1 a clear saving of #bb tons by careful attention to this point4 ,it is apparent that any rules or directions which might be given for one system would not apply equally to other forms of boilers and this may be the principal reason that the art is one so largely of personal instruction4 ,some rules and hints will1 however1 be given to the beginner1 which may prove of advantage in fitting the fireman for an advanced position2 or to assure him permanence in his present one4 ,no two boilers alike4 ,it is said that no two boilers1 even though they seemed to be exactly alike--absolute duplicates--ever did the same1 or equal service4 ,every steam boiler1 like every steam engine1 has an individuality of its own1 with which the person in charge has to become acquainted1 in order to obtain the best results from it4 ,the unlikeness in the required care of steam engines which seem to be exactly the same1 is still more marked in the different skill and experience demanded in handling locomotive1 marine1 stationary1 portable boilers and other forms of steam generators4 ,,before ,,lighting ,,the ,,fire under the boiler in the morning1 the engineer or fireman should make a rapid yet diligent examination of various things1 viz43 #a4 ,he should make sure that the boiler has the right quantity of water in it--that it has not run out during the night or been tampered with by some outside party2 very many boilers have been ruined by neglecting this first simple precaution4 #b4 ,he should see that the safety-valve is in working order2 this is done by lifting by rod or hand the valve which holds the weight upon the safety valve rod4 #c4 ,he should open the upper gauge-cock to let out the air from the boiler while the steam is forming4 #d4 ,he should examine the condition of the grate-bars and see that no clinkers and but few ashes are left from last night's firing4 #e4 ,and finally1 after seeing that everything is in good shape1 proceed to build the fire as follows3 ,,on ,,lighting ,,the ,,fire4 ,when quite certain that everything is in good condition1 put a good armful of shavings or fine wood upon the grate1 then upon this some larger pieces of wood to form a bed of coals1 and then a little of the fuel that is to be used while running4 ,sometimes it is better to light before putting on the regular fuel1 but in any case give it plenty of air4 ,close the fire doors1 and open the ash pit1 giving the chimney full draught4 ,when the fire is well ignited1 throw in some of the regular fuel1 and when this is burning add more1 a little at a time1 and continue until the fire is in its normal condition1 taking care1 however1 not to let it burn too freely for fear of injury to the sheets by a too rapid heating4 ,it is usually more convenient to light the fire through the fire door1 but where this cannot be done1 a torch may be used beneath the grates1 or even a light fire of shavings may be kindled in the ash pit4 ,at the time of lighting1 all the draughts should be wide open4 ,as soon as the steam is seen to issue from the open upper gauge-cock it is proof that the air is out4 ,it should now be closed and the steam gauge will soon indicate a rise in temperature4 ,when the steam begins to rise it should next be observed that3 #a4 ,all the cocks and valves are in working order--that they move easily4 #b4 ,that all the joints and packings are tight4 ,in the following two cuts are exhibited in an impressive way the difference between proper and improper firing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #a represents the proper mode of keeping an even depth of coal on the grate bars2 the result of which will be1 a uniform generation of gas throughout the charge1 and a uniform temperature in the flues4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #b represents a very frequent method of feeding furnaces2 charging the front half as high1 and as near the door1 as possible1 leaving the bridge end comparatively bare4 ,the result necessarily is that more air obtains access through the uncovered bars than is required1 which causes imperfect combustion and consequent waste4 ,the duties of the fireman in the routine of the day may thus be summed up3 #ast4--,begin to charge the furnace at the bridge end and keep firing to within a few inches of the dead plate4 #b;d4--,never allow the fire to be so low before a fresh charge is thrown in1 that there shall not be at least three to five inches deep of clean1 incandescent fuel on the bars1 and equally spread over the whole4 #c;d4--,keep the bars constantly and equally covered1 particularly at the sides and the bridge end1 where the fuel burns away most rapidly4 #dth4--,if the fuel burns unequally or into holes1 it must be leveled1 and the vacant spaces must be filled4 #eth4--,the large coals must be broken into pieces not bigger than a man's fist4 #fth4--,when the ash pit is shallow1 it must be the more frequently cleared out4 ,a body of hot cinders1 beneath them1 overheats and burns the bars4 #gth4--,the fire must not be hurried too much1 but should be left to increase in intensity gradually4 ,when fired properly the fuel is consumed in the best possible way1 no more being burned than is needed for producing a sufficient quantity of steam and keeping the steam pressure even4 ,,directions ,,for ,,firing ,,with ,,various ,,fuels4 ,,firing ,,boilers ,,newly ,,set1 ,,etc4--,boilers newly set should be heated up very slowly indeed1 and the fires should not be lighted under the boilers for at least two weeks after setting1 if it is possible to wait this length of time4 ,this two weeks enables all parts of the mason work to set gradually and harden naturally2 the walls will be much more likely to remain perfect than when fires are lighted while the mortar is yet green4 ,when fire is started under a new boiler the first time1 it should be a very small one1 and no attempt should be made to do more than moderately warm all parts of the brick work4 ,a slow fire should be kept up for twenty-four hours1 and on the second day it may be slightly increased4 ,three full days should elapse before the boiler is allowed to make any steam at all4 ,when the pressure rises1 it should not be allowed to go above four or five pounds1 and the safety valve weight should be taken off to prevent any possibility of an increase4 ,steam should be allowed to go through all the pipes attached for steam1 and blow through the engine before any attempt is made to get pressure on them4 ,the object of all these precautions and this care is to prevent injury by sudden expansion1 which may cause great damage4 ,,firing ,,with ,,coke4 ,coke1 in order to be completely consumed1 needs a greater volume of air per pound of fuel than coal4 ,theoretically it needs from #i to #aj lbs4 of air to burn a pound of coal1 and #ab to #ac lbs4 of air to burn a pound of coke4 ,coke1 therefore1 requires a more energetic draft1 which is increased by the fact that it can only burn economically in a thick bed4 ,it is also necessary to take into account the size of the pieces4 ,the ratio between the heating and grate surface should be less with coke than with coal2 that is to say1 the grate should be larger4 ,the difference amounts to about #cc per cent4 ,in fact1 about #i-c_/d lbs4 of coke should be burned per hour on each square foot of grate area1 while at least #ad-a_/b lbs4 of coal can be burned upon the same space4 ,the high initial temperature which is developed by the combustion of coke requires conducting walls4 ,therefore the furnace should not be entirely surrounded by masonry2 and the plates of the boiler should form at least the crown of the fire-box4 ,in externally fired boilers1 the furnace should be located beneath and not in front of the boiler4 ,internal fire-boxes may be used1 but the greatest care should be exercised to avoid any incrustation of the plates1 and in order that this may be done1 only the simplest forms of boilers should be used4 ,with coke it is not essential that long passages should be provided for the passage of the products of combustion1 since the greater part of the heat developed is transmitted to the sheets in the neighborhood of the furnace4 ,since coke contains very little hydrogen1 the quick flaming combustion which characterizes coal is not produced1 but the fire is more even and regular4 ,and1 finally1 the combustion of coal is distinguished by the fact that in the earlier phases there is usually an insufficiency of air1 while in the last there is no excess4 ,the advantage of coke over raw soft coal as a fuel is that otherwise useless slack can be made available by admixture in its manufacture1 and especially that it can be perfectly and smokelessly burnt without the need of skilled labor4 ,and we cannot doubt that the public demand for a clear and healthy atmosphere will finally result in the almost complete substitution of coke fuel for soft lump coal4 ,,sixteen ,,steam ,,boilers in a large mill in ,massachusetts of #ed and #fj inches in diameter are fired as follows3 ,there are three separate batteries2 one of five boilers1 one of eight and one of three4 ,each boiler is fired every five minutes4 ,there are two firemen for the battery of twelve and one for each of the others4 ,a gong in each fire-room is operated by electricity in connection with a clock4 ,the duty of the fireman is this1 that when the gong strikes he commences at one end of his fire-room and fires as rapidly as possible1 opening one-half of each furnace door4 ,the coal is thrown only on one-half of the grate space as he rapidly fires each boiler1 the other half is covered at the next sounding of the gong4 ,the old style of straight grate is used4 ,the fires are kept six inches thick or a little thicker4 ,no slicing is done4 ,it is1 of course1 to be understood that the firemen arrange the quantity of coal fired according to the apparent necessity of the case4 ,bituminous coal is used1 and it is broken into small pieces1 so as to distribute well4 ,accurate account is kept of the quantity of coal used and the engines are frequently indicated4 ,,twenty ,,horse ,,power4--,an old engineer says the way he handled his boiler of this size1 burning #hjj lbs4 of screenings per day1 is as follows3 ,my method is to run as heavy a fire as my fire-box will allow to be kept under the bridge wall1 and not to disturb it more than once in a ten-hours run1 then clean out with care and as speedily as possible1 dress light and let it come up and get ready to bank4 ,in banking ,i make sure to have an even fire1 as deep as the bridge wall will allow4 ,then ,i shut my dampers and let it lie4 ,in the morning ,i open and govern by the dampers4 ,i do not touch my fire until #c4cj or #d o'clock in the afternoon1 and then proceed to clean as before4 ,,firing ,,with ,,coal ,,tar4--,the question of firing retort benches with tar instead of coke has engaged the attention of gas managers for many years1 and various modes have been adopted for its management4 ,the chief difficulty has been in getting a constant flow of tar into the furnace1 uninterrupted by stoppages caused by the regulating cock or other appliance not answering its purpose and by the carbonizing of the tar in the delivery pipe1 thus choking it up and rendering it uncertain in action4 ,to obviate these difficulties various plans have been resorted to1 but the best means for overcoming them are thus described2 fix the tar supply tank as near the furnace to be supplied as convenient1 and one foot higher than the tar-injector inlet4 ,a cock is screwed into the side of the tank1 to which is attached a piece of composition pipe #c_/h-;inch in diameter1 ten inches long4 ,to this a #a_/b-;inch iron service pipe is connected1 the other end of which is joined to the injector4 ,by these means it is found that at the ordinary temperature of the tar well 7cold weather excepted7 four gallons of tar per hour are delivered in a constant steam into the furnace4 ,if more tar is required1 the piece of #c_/h-;inch tube must be shortened1 or a larger tube substituted1 and if less tar is required it must be lengthened4 ,the risk of stoppage in the nozzle of the injector is overcome by the steam jet1 which scatters the tar into spray and thus keeps everything clear4 ,trouble being occasioned by the retorts becoming too hot1 in which case1 on shutting off the flow of tar for a while1 the tar in the pipe carbonized and caused a stoppage1 a removable plug injector is fitted and ground in like the plug of a cock1 having inlets on either side for tar and steam4 ,this plug injector can be removed1 the tar stopped in two seconds and refixed in a similar time4 ,the shell of the injector is firmly bolted to the top part of the door frame4 ,the door is swung horizontally1 having a rack in the form of a quadrant1 by which it is regulated to any required height1 and to admit any quantity of air4 ,,firing ,,with ,,straw4--,the operation of burning straw under a boiler consists in the fuel being fed into the furnace only as fast as needed4 ,when the straw is handled right1 it makes a beautiful and very hot flame and no smoke is seen coming from the stack4 ,the whole secret of getting the best results from this fuel is to feed it into the furnace in a gradual stream as fast as consumed4 ,when this is done complete combustion is the result4 ,a little hole maybe drilled in the smoke-box door1 so that the color of the fire can be seen and fire is handled accordingly4 ,when the smoke comes from the stack the color of the flame is that of a good gas jet4 ,by feeding a little faster the color becomes darker and a little smoke comes from the stack2 feeding a little faster the flame gets quite dark and the smoke blacker2 faster still1 the flame is extinguished1 clouds of black smoke come from the stack1 and the pressure is falling rapidly4 ,,firing ,,with ,,oil4--,great interest is now manifested in the use of oil as fuel4 ,there are various devices used for this purpose1 most of them depending upon a steam jet to atomize the oil1 or a system of retorts to first heat the oil and convert it into gas1 before being burned4 ,another method in successful operation is the use of compressed air for atomizing the oil--air being the element nature provides for the complete combustion of all matter4 ,the cleanliness of the latter system and its comparative freedom from any odor of oil or gas and its perfect combustion1 all recommend it4 ,among the advantages claimed for the use of oil over coal are #a1 uniform heat2 #b1 constant pressure of steam2 #c1 no ashes1 clinkers1 soot or smoke1 and consequently clean flues2 #d1 uniform distribution of heat and therefore less strain upon the plates4 ,,firing ,,on ,,an ,,ocean ,,steamer like the 8,umbria40--,the men come on in gangs of eighteen stokers or firemen and twelve coal passers1 and the 8watch0 lasts four hours4 ,the 8,umbria0 has #gb furnaces1 which require nearly #cej tons of coal a day1 at a cost of almost #bj1jjj per voyage4 ,one hundred and four men are employed to man the furnaces1 and they have enough to do4 ,they include the chief engineer1 his three assistants1 and ninety stokers and coal passers4 ,the stoker comes to work wearing only a thin undershirt1 light trousers and wooden shoes4 ,on the 8,umbria0 each stoker tends four furnaces4 ,he first rakes open the furnaces1 tosses in the coal1 and then cleans the fire2 that is1 pries the coal apart with a heavy iron bar1 in order that the fire may burn freely4 ,he rushes from one furnace to another1 spending perhaps two or three minutes at each4 ,then he dashes to the air pipe1 takes his turn at cooling off1 and waits for another call to his furnace1 which comes speedily4 ,when the 8watch0 is over1 the men schuffle off1 dripping with sweat from head to foot1 through long1 cold galleries to the forecastle1 where they turn in for eight hours4 ,four hours of scorching and eight hours sleep make up the routine of a fireman's life on a voyage4 ,the temperature is ordinarily #abj1 but sometimes reaches #afj2 and the work is then terribly hard4 ,the space between the furnaces is so narrow that when the men throw in coal they must take care when they swing back their shovels1 lest they throw their arms on the furnace back of them4 ,in a recent trial of a government steamer the men worked willingly in a temperature of #age1 which1 however1 rose to #bab or the heat of boiling water4 ,the shifts of four hours were reduced to #b hours each1 but after sixteen men had been prostrated1 the whole force of thirty-six men refused to submit to the heat any longer and the trial was abandoned4 ,there is no place on ocean or land where more suffering is inflicted and endured by human beings than in these h----holes1 quite properly so called2 it is to be hoped that the efforts towards reform in the matter will not cease until completely successful4 ,,firing ,,of ,,sawdust ,,and ,,shavings4--8,the air was forced into the furnace with the planer shavings at a velocity of about #ab feet per second1 and at an average temperature of about #fj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the shavings were forced through a pipe #ab inches in diameter1 above grate1 into the combustion chamber4 ,the pipe had a blast gate to regulate the air in order to maintain a pressure in the furnace1 which a little more than balanced the ascending gases in the funnel or chimney4 ,all the fireman had to do was to keep the furnace doors closed and watch the water in the gauges of his boiler4 ,the combustion in the furnace was complete1 as no smoke was visible4 ,the shavings were forced into the combustion chamber in a spray-like manner1 and were caught into a blaze the moment they entered4 ,the oxygen of the air so forced into the furnace along with the shavings gave full support to the combustion4 ,the amount of shavings consumed by being thus forced into the furnace was about fifty per cent4 less than the amount consumed when the fireman had to throw them in with his shovel40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,it is an important 8point0 when burning shavings or sawdust with a blast1 to keep the blower going without cessation1 as there have been disastrous accidents caused by the flames going up the shutes1 thence through the small dust tubes leading from the bin to the various machines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,in firing 8shavings0 by hand it is necessary to burn them from the top as otherwise the fire and heat are only produced when all the shavings are charred4 ,to do this1 provide a half-inch gas pipe1 to be used as a light poker2 light the shaving fire1 and when nearly burned take the half-inch pipe and divide the burning shavings through the middle1 banking them against the side-walls1 as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,now feed a pile of new shavings into the centre on the clean grate bars1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 and close the furnace doors4 ,the shavings will begin to burn from above1 lighted from the two side fires1 the air will pass through the bars into the shavings1 where it will be heated and unite with the gas1 making the combustion perfect1 generating heat1 and no smoke1 and the fire will last much longer and require not half the labor in stoking4 ,,firing ,a ,,locomotive4 ,illustration ,this figure exhibits the interior of the furnace of a locomotive engine1 which varies greatly from the furnace of either a land or marine boiler4 ,this difference is largely caused by the method of applying the draught for the air supply2 in the locomotive this is effected by conducting the exhaust steam through pipes from the cylinders to the smoke-box and allowing it to escape up the smoke stack from apertures called exhaust nozzles2 the velocity of the steam produces a vacuum1 by which the products of combustion are drawn into the smoke-box with great power and forced out of the smoke stack into the open air4 ,to prevent the too quick passage of the gases into the flues an appliance called a fire brick arch has been adopted and has proved very efficient4 ,in order to be self supporting it is built in the form of an arch1 supported by the two sides of the fire box which serve for abutments4 ,the arch has been sometimes replaced by a hollow riveted arrangement called a water table designed to increase the fire surface of the boiler4 ,,firing ,a ,,locomotive4--,no rules can possibly be given for firing a locomotive which would not be more misleading than helpful4 ,this is owing to the great variations which exist in the circumstances of the use of the machine1 as well as the differences which exist in the various types of the locomotive4 ,these variations may be alluded to1 but not wholly described4 #a4 ,they consist of the sorts of fuel used in different sections of the country and frequently on different ends of the same railroad2 hard coal1 soft coal1 and wood all require different management in the furnace4 #b4 ,the speed and weight of the train1 the varying number of cars and frequency of stopping places1 all influence the duties of the fireman and tax his skill4 #c4 ,the temperature of the air1 whether cold or warm1 dry weather or rain1 and night time and day time each taxes the skill of the fireman4 ,hence1 to be an experienced fireman in one section of the country and under certain circumstances does not warrant the assurance of success under other conditions and in another location4 ,the subject requires constant study and operation among not only 8new men0 but those longest in the service4 ,more than in any other case to be recalled1 must the fireman of a locomotive depend upon the personal instruction of the engineer in charge of the locomotive4 ,,firing ,,with ,,tan ,,bark4--,tan bark can be burned upon common grates and in the ordinary furnace by a mixture of bituminous screenings4 ,one shovel full of screenings to four or five of bark will produce a more economical result than the tan bark separate1 as the coal gives body to the fire and forms a hot clinker bed upon which the bark may rest without falling through the spaces in the grate bars1 and with the coal1 more air can be introduced to the furnace4 ,the above relates to common furnaces1 but special fire boxes have been recently put into operation1 fed by power appliances1 which work admirably4 ,the 8point0 principally to be noted as to the efficacy of tan bark as a fuel1 is to the effect1 that like peat1 the drier it is the more valuable is it as a fuel4 ,,points ,,relating ,,to ,,firing4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,boiling4 ,let it be remembered that the boiling spoken of so often is really caused by the formation of the steam particles1 and that without the boiling there can be but a very slight quantity of steam produced4 ,while pure water boils at #bab1 if it is saturated with common salt1 it boils only on attaining #bbd1 alum boils at #bbj1 sal ammoniac at #bcf1 acetate of soda at #bef1 pure nitric acid boils at #bdh1 and pure sulphuric acid at #fbj4 ,,on ,,the ,,first ,,application ,,of ,,heat to water small bubbles soon begin to form and rise to the surface2 these consist of air1 which all water contains dissolved in it4 ,when it reaches the boiling point the bubbles that rise in it are principally steam4 ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,a ,,new ,,plant1 or where the boiler has some time been idle it is frequently advisable to build a small fire in the base of the chimney before starting the boiler fires4 ,this will serve to heat the chimney and drive out any moisture that may have collected in the interior and will frequently prevent the disagreeable smoking that often follows the building of a fire in the furnace4 ,,always ,,bear ,,in ,,mind that the steam in the boilers and engines is pressing outward on the walls that confine it in every direction2 and that the enormous forces you are handling1 warn you to be careful4 ,when starting fires close the gauge cocks and safety valve as soon as steam begins to form4 ,,go ,,slow4 ,it is necessary to start all new boilers very slowly4 ,the change from hot to cold is an immense one in its effects on the contraction and expansion of the boiler1 the change of dimension by expansion is a force of the greatest magnitude and cannot be over-estimated4 ,leaks which start in boilers that were well made and perfectly tight can be attributed to this cause4 ,something must give if fires are driven on the start1 and this entails trouble and expense that there is no occasion for4 ,this custom applies to engines and steam pipes as well as to boilers4 ,no one of any experience will open a stop valve and let a full head of live steam into a cold line of pipe or a cold engine4 ,to preserve the grate bars from excessive heat1 when first firing a boiler1 it is well to sprinkle a thin layer of coal upon the grates before putting in the shavings and wood for starting the fire4 ,this practice tends greatly to prolong the life of the grate-bars4 ,the fuel should generally be dry when used4 ,hard coal1 however1 may be dampened a little to good advantage1 as it is then less liable to crowd and will burn more freely4 ,air1 high temperature and sufficient time are the principal points in firing a steam boiler4 ,in first firing up make sure that the throttle valve is closed1 in order that the steam first formed may not pass over into the engine cylinder and fill it with water of condensation4 ,if the throttle valve leak steam it should be repaired at the first opportunity4 ,keep all heating surfaces free from soot and ashes4 ,radiant rays go in all directions1 yet they act in the most efficient manner when striking a surface exactly at a right angle to their line of movement4 ,the sides of a fire-box are for that reason not as efficient as the surface over the fire1 and a flat surface over the fire is the best that can be had1 so far as that fact alone is concerned4 ,when combustion is completed in a furnace1 then the balance of the boiler beyond the bridge wall can be utilized for taking up heat from the gases4 ,the most of this heat has to be absorbed by actual contact2 thus by the tubes the gases are finally divided1 allowing that necessary contact4 ,combustion should be completed on the grates for the reason that it can be effected there at the highest temperature4 ,when this is accomplished1 the fullest benefit is had from radiant heat striking the bottom of the boiler--it is just there that the bulk of the work is done4 ,there must necessarily be some waste of heat by its passing up the chimney to maintain draft4 ,it is well to have the gases1 as they enter the chimney1 as much below #fjj deg4 ,f4 7down to near the temperature of the steam7 as you can and yet maintain perfect combustion4 ,every steam engine has certain well-defined sounds in action which we call noises1 for want of a better term1 and it is upon them and their continuance that an engineer depends for assurance that all is going well4 ,this remark also applies to the steam boiler1 which has1 so to speak1 a language of its own1 varying in volume from the slight whisper which announces a leaking joint to the thunder burst which terribly follows a destructive explosion4 ,the hoarse note of the safety-valve is none the less significant because common4 ,the dampers and doors to the furnace and ash-pit should always be closed after the fire has been drawn1 in order to keep the heat of the boiler as long as possible4 ,but the damper must never be entirely closed while there is fire on the grate1 as explosions dangerous in their character might occur in the furnace from the accumulated gases4 ,flues or tubes should often be swept1 as soot1 in addition to its liability to becoming charged with a corroding acid1 is a non-conductor of heat1 and the short time spent in cleaning them will be repaid by the saving of labor in keeping up steam4 ,in an establishment where they used but half a ton of bituminous coal per day1 the time of raising steam in the morning was fifty per cent4 longer when the tubes were unswept for one week than when they were swept three times a week4 ,,smoke will not be seen if combustion is perfect4 ,good firing will abate most of the smoke4 ,coals1 at the highest furnace temperature1 radiate much heat1 whereas gases ignited at and beyond the bridge wall radiate comparatively little heat--it is a law in nature for a solid body highly heated to radiate heat to another solid body4 ,,dry ,,and ,,clean is the condition in which the boiler should be kept1 i4e41 dry outside and clean both inside and out4 ,to haul his furnace fire and open the safety valve before seeking his own safety or the preservation of property1 is the duty of the fireman in the event of fire threatening to burn a whole establishment4 ,many1 now prominent1 engineers have made their first reputation by remembering to do this at a critical time4 ,,when ,,water ,,is ,,pumped into the boiler or allowed to run in1 some opening must be given for the escape of the contained air2 usually the most convenient way is to open the upper gauge cock after the fire has been lighted until cloudy steam begins to escape4 ,in a summary of experiments made in ,england1 it is stated that3-- 8,a moderately thick and hot fire with rapid draft uniformly gave the best results4 8,combustion of black smoke by additional air was a loss4 8,in all experiments the highest result was always obtained when all the air was introduced through the fire bars4 8,difference in mode of firing only may produce a difference of #ac per cent4 7in economy740 ,the thickness of the fire under the boiler should be in accordance with the quality and size of the fuel4 ,for hard coal the fire should be as thin as possible1 from three to six inches deep2 when soft coal is used1 the fire should be thicker1 from five to eight inches deep4 ,if it is required to burn coal dust without any change of grates1 wetting the coal is of advantage2 not that it increases its heat power1 but because it keeps it from falling through the grates or going up the chimneys4 ,the same is true of burning shavings2 by watering they are held in the furnace1 and the firing is done more easily and with better results4 ,,stirring ,,the ,,fire should be avoided as much as possible2 firing should be performed evenly and regularly1 a little at a time1 as it causes waste fuel to disturb the combustion and by making the fuel fall through the grates into the ash pit2 hence do not 8clean0 fires oftener than absolutely necessary4 ,the slower the velocity of the gases before they pass the damper1 the more nearly can they be brought down to the temperature of the steam1 hence with a high chimney and strong draft the dampers should be kept nearly closed1 if the boiler capacity will permit it4 ,no arbitrary rule can be laid down for keeping fires thick or thin4 ,under some conditions a thin fire is the best1 under others a thick fire gives best economy4 ,this rule1 however1 governs either case3 you must have so active a fire as to give strong radiant heat4 ,one of the highest aims of an expert fireman should be to keep the largest possible portion of his grate area in a condition to give great radiant heat the largest possible part of the day--using anthracite coal by firing light1 quick and often1 not covering all of the incandescent coals4 ,using bituminous coal1 hand firing1 by coking it very near the dead plate1 allowing some air to go through openings in the door1 and by pushing toward the bridge wall only live coals--when slicing1 to open the door only far enough to work the bar2 this is done with great skill in some cases4 ,,regulating ,,the ,,draft4--,this should be done so as to admit the exact quantity of air into the furnace1 neither too much nor too little4 ,it should be remembered that fuel cannot be burned without air and if too much air is admitted it cools the furnace and checks combustion4 ,it is a good plan to decrease the draft when firing or cleaning out1 by partly closing the damper or shutting off the air usually admitted from below the grates2 this is to have just draft enough to prevent the flame from rushing out when the door is opened4 ,by luminous flame is generally meant that which burns with a bright yellow to white color4 ,all flame under a boiler is not luminous1 sometimes the whole or a part of it will be red or blue4 ,the more luminous the flame1 that is to say1 the nearer white it is1 the better combustion4 ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,a ,,furnace ,,fire the following table is of use4 ,the colors are to be observed and the corresponding degrees of heat will be approximately as follows3 ,faint red #ifj ,f4 ,bright red #a1cjj ,f4 ,cherry red #a1fjj ,f4 ,dull orange #b1jjj ,f4 ,bright orange #b1ajj ,f4 ,white heat #b1djj ,f4 ,brilliant white heat #b1gjj ,f4 ,that is to say1 when the furnace is at a 8white heat0 the heat equals #b1djj degrees ,fahrenheit1 etc4 ,another method of finding the furnace heat is by submitting a small portion of a particular metal to the heat4 ,tin melts at #ddb ,f4 ,lead #fag ,f4 ,zinc #gjj ,f4 nearly4 ,antimony melts at #haj to #a1aej ,f4 ,silver melts at #a1hcb to #a1hgc ,f4 ,cast ,iron melts at #b1jjj ,f4 nearly4 ,steel #b1ejj ,f4 ,wrought ,iron melts at #b1gjj ,f4 ,hammered ,iron melts at #b1ijj ,f4 ,,foaming ,,in ,,boilers4 ,the causes are--dirty water1 trying to evaporate more water than the size and construction of the boiler is intended for1 taking the steam too low down1 insufficient steam room1 imperfect construction of boiler1 too small a steam pipe and sometimes it is produced by carrying the water line too high4 ,too little attention is paid to boilers with regard to their evaporating power4 ,where the boiler is large enough for the water to circulate1 and there is surface enough to give off the steam1 foaming never occurs4 ,as the particles of the steam have to escape to the surface of the water in the boiler1 unless that is in proportion to the amount of steam to be generated1 it will be delivered with such violence that the water will be mixed with it1 and cause foaming4 ,for violent ebullition a plate hung over the hole where the steam enters the dome from the boiler1 is a good thing1 and prevents a rush of water by breaking it1 when the throttle is opened suddenly4 ,in cases of very violent foaming it is imperative to check the draft and cover the fires4 ,the steam pipe may be carried through the flange six inches into the dome--which will prevent the water from entering the pipes by following the sides of the dome as it does4 ,a similar case of priming of the boilers of the ,u4 ,s4 ,steamer ,galena was stopped by removing some of the tubes under the smoke stack and substituting bolts4 ,clean water1 plenty of surface1 plenty of steam room1 large steam pipes1 boilers large enough to generate steam without forcing the fires1 are all that is required to prevent foaming4 ,a high pressure insures tranquillity at the surface1 and the steam itself being more dense it comes away in a more compact form1 and the ebullition at the surface is no greater than at a lower pressure4 ,when a boiler foams it is best usually to close the throttle to check the flow1 and that keeps up the pressure and lessens the sudden delivery4 ,too many flues in a boiler obstruct the passage of the steam from the lower part of the boiler on its way to the surface--this is a fault in construction4 ,an engineer who had been troubled with priming1 finally removed #cf of the tubes in the centre of the boiler1 so as to centralize the heating effect of the fire1 thereby increasing the rapidity of ebullition at the centre1 while reducing it at the circumference4 ,the effect of the change was very marked4 ,the priming disappeared at once4 ,the water line became nearly constant1 the extreme variation being reduced to two inches4 ,a ,,chapter ,,of ,,don',,ts4 ,which is another way of repeating what has already been said4 #a4 ,don't empty the boiler when the brick work is hot4 #b4 ,don't pump cold water into a hot boiler4 #c4 ,don't allow filth of any kind to accumulate around the boiler or boiler room4 #d4 ,don't leave your shovel or any other tool out of its appointed place when not in use4 #e4 ,don't fail to keep all the bright work about the boiler neat and 8shiny40 #f4 ,don't forget that negligence causes great loss and danger4 #g4 ,don't fail to be alert and ready-minded and ready-headed about the boiler and furnace4 #h4 ,don't read newspapers when on duty4 #i4 ,don't fire up too quickly4 #aj4 ,don't let any water or dampness come on the outside of your boiler4 #aa4 ,don't let any dampness get into the boiler and pipe coverings4 #ab4 ,don't fail to see that you have plenty of water in the boiler in the morning4 #ac4 ,don't fail to keep the water at the same height in the boiler all day4 #ad4 ,don't let any one talk to you when firing4 #ae4 ,don't allow water to remain on the floor about the boiler4 #af4 ,don't fail to blow off steam once or twice per day according as the water is more or less pure4 #ag4 ,don't fail to close the blow-off cock1 when blowing off1 when the water in the boiler has sunk to one and a half inches4 #ah4 ,don't fail1 while cleaning the boiler1 to examine and clean all cocks1 valves and pipes and look to all joints and packings4 #ai4 ,don't commence cleaning the boiler until it has had time to cool4 #bj4 ,don't forget daily to see that the safety-valve moves freely and is tight4 #ba4 ,don't fail to clean the boiler inside frequently and carefully4 #bb4 ,don't fail to notice that the steam gauge is in order4 #bc4 ,don't fail to keep an eye out for leaks and have them repaired immediately1 no matter how small4 #bd4 ,don't fail to empty the boiler every week or two and re-fill it with fresh water4 #be4 ,don't let any air into the furnace1 except what goes through the grate-bars1 or the smoke burners1 so called1 by which the air is highly heated4 #bf4 ,don't increase the load on the safety-valve beyond the pressure allowed by the inspector4 #bg4 ,don't fail to open the doors of the furnace and start the pump when the pressure is increased beyond the amount allowed1 but #bh4 ,don't fail to draw the fires when there is danger from the water having fallen too low4 #bi4 ,don't fail to check the fire--if too hot to draw1 do it with fresh coal1 damp ashes1 clinkers or soil2 and #cj4 ,don't fail to open the doors of the furnace and close the ash-pit doors at the time the fire is checked--and #ca4 ,don't decrease the steam pressure by feeding in water or suddenly blowing off steam1 and #cb4 ,don't touch the safety-valve1 even if it be opened or closed1 and #cc4 ,don't change the feed apparatus if it is working1 or the throttle-valve be open2 let them both remain as they are for a short time1 and #cd4 ,don't fail to change them very cautiously and slowly when you close them1 and #ce4 ,don't fail to be very cool and brave while resolute in observing these last seven 8,don'ts40 #cf4 ,don't fail to keep yourself neat and tidy4 #cg4 ,don't fail to be polite as well as neat and brave4 #ch4 ,don't fail to keep the tubes clear and free from soot and ashes4 #ci4 ,don't let too many ashes gather in the ash-pit4 #dj4 ,don't disturb the fire when it is burning good nor stir it up too often4 #da4 ,don't be afraid to get instruction from books and engineering papers4 #db4 ,don't fail to make an honest self-examination as to points upon which you may be ignorant1 and really need to know in order to properly attend to your duties4 #dc4 ,don't allow too much smoke to issue from the top of the chimney if the cause lies within your power to prevent it4 #dd4 ,don't think that after working at firing and its kindred duties for a year or two that the whole subject of engineering has been learned4 #de4 ,don't forget that one of the best helps in getting forward is the possession of a vigorous and well-balanced mind and body--this covers temperance and kindred virtues and a willingness to acquire and impart knowledge4 #df4 ,don't forget to have your steam-gauge tested at least once in three months4 #dg4 ,don't use a wire or metallic rod as a handle to a swab in cleaning the glass tube of a water-gauge for the glass may suddenly fly to pieces when in use within a short time afterwards4 #dh4 ,don't forget that steam pumps require as much attention as a steam engine4 #di4 ,don't run a steam pump piston1 unless in an emergency1 at a speed exceeding #hj to #ajj feet per minute4 #ej4 ,don't do anything without a good reason for it about the engine or boiler1 but when you are obliged to do anything1 do it thoroughly and as quickly as possible4 #ea4 ,don't forget to sprinkle a thin layer of coal on the grates before lighting the shavings and wood in the morning4 ,this practice preserves the grate bars4 #eb4 ,don't take the cap off a bearing and remove the upper brass simply to see if things are working well2 if there is any trouble it will soon give you notice1 and1 besides1 you never can replace the brass in exactly its former position1 so that you may find that the bearing will heat soon afterwards1 owing to your own uncalled-for interference4 #ec4 ,don't put sulphur on a hot bearing1 unless you intend to ruin the brasses4 #ed4 ,don't use washed waste that has a harsh feel1 as the chemicals used in cleansing it have not been thoroughly removed4 #ee4 ,don't1 in case of an extensive fire1 involving the whole business1 rush off without drawing the fires1 and raising and propping open the safety valve of the boiler4 #ef4 ,don't fail to preserve your health1 for 8a sound mind in a sound body0 is beyond a money valuation4 #eg4 ,don't fail to remember that engineers and firemen are in control of the great underlying force of modern civilization2 hence1 to do nothing to lower the dignity of the profession4 #eh4 ,don't forget that in the care and management of the steam boiler the first thing required is an unceasing watchfulness--watch-care4 #ei4 ,don't forget that an intemperate1 reckless or indifferent man has no business in the place of trust of a steam boiler attendant4 #fj4 ,don't allow even a day to pass without adding one or more facts to your knowledge of engineering in some of its branches4 ,,steam ,,generators4 ,in the examinations held by duly appointed officers to determine the fitness of candidates for receiving an engineer's license the principal stress is laid upon the applicant's knowledge of the parts and true proportions of the various designs of steam boilers1 and his experience in managing them4 ,in fact1 if there were no boilers there would be no examinations1 as the laws are framed1 certificates issued and steam boiler inspection companies formed to assure the public safety in life1 limb and property1 from the dangers arising from so-called mysterious boiler explosions4 ,hence an almost undue proportion of engineers' examinations are devoted to the steam boiler1 its management and construction4 ,but the subject is worthy of the best and most thoughtful attention4 ,every year adds to the number of steam boilers in use4 ,with the expanding area and growth of population1 the number of steam plants are multiplied and in turn each new steam boiler demands a careful attendant4 ,there is this difference between the boiler and the engine4 ,when the latter is delivered from the shop and set up1 it does its work with an almost unvarying uniformity1 while the boiler is a constant care4 ,it is admitted that the engine has reached a much greater state of perfection and does its duty with very much more reliability than the boiler4 ,even when vigilant precautions are observed1 from the moment a steam boiler is constructed until it is finally destroyed there are numerous insidious agents perpetually at work which tend to weaken it4 ,there is nothing from which the iron can draw sustenance to replace its losses4 ,the atmosphere without and the air within the boiler1 the water as it enters through the feed-pipe and containing mineral and organic substances1 steam into which the water is converted1 the sediment which is precipitated by boiling the water1 the fire and the sulphurous and other acids of the fuel1 are all natural enemies of the iron2 they sap its strength1 not only while the boiler is at work and undergoing constant strain1 but in the morning before fire is started1 and at noon1 night1 ,sundays1 and other holidays it is preyed upon by these and other corroding agents4 ,these are the reasons which impress the true engineer with a constant solicitude regarding the daily and even momentary action of the steam generator4 ,,description4 ,the ,steam ,boiler in its simplest form was simply a closed vessel partly filled with water and which was heated by a fire box1 but as steam plants are divided into two principal parts1 the engine and the boiler1 so the latter is divided again into the furnace and boiler1 each of which is essential to the other4 ,the furnace contains the fuel to be burnt1 the boiler contains the water to be evaporated4 ,there must be a steam space to hold the steam when generated2 heating surface to transmit the heat from the burning fuel to the water2 a chimney or other apparatus to cause a draught to the furnace and to carry away the products of combustion2 and various fittings for supplying the boiler with water1 for carrying away the steam when formed to the engine in which it is used2 for allowing steam to escape into the open air when it forms faster than it can be used2 for ascertaining the quantity of water in the boiler1 for ascertaining the pressure of the steam1 etc41 all of which1 together with the engine and its appliances is called ,a ,,steam ,,plant4 ,the forms in which steam generators are built are numerous1 but may be divided into three classes1 viz3 stationary1 locomotive and marine boilers1 which terms designate the uses for which they are intended2 in this work we have to deal mainly with the first-named1 although a description with illustration is given of each type or form4 ,,an ,,upright ,,steam ,,boiler4 ,to illustrate the operations of a steam generator1 we give the details of an appliance1 which may be compared to the letter ,a of the alphabet1 or the figure #a of the numerals1 so simple is it4 ,fig4 #aa1 is an elevation of boiler1 fig4 #ab a vertical section through its axis1 and fig4 #ac a horizontal section through the furnace bars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the type of steam generator here exhibited is what is known as a vertical tubular boiler4 ,the outside casing or shell is cylindrical in shape1 and is composed of iron or steel plates riveted together4 ,the top1 which is likewise composed of the same plates is slightly dome-shaped1 except at the center1 which is away in order to receive the chimney a1 which is round in shape and formed of thin wrought iron plates4 ,the interior is shown in vertical section in fig4 #ab4 ,it consists of a furnace chamber1 b1 which contains the fire4 ,the furnace is formed like the shell of the boiler of wrought iron or steel plates by flanging and riveting4 ,the bottom is occupied by the grating1 on which rests the incandescent fuel4 ,the grating consists of a number of cast-iron bars1 d 7fig4 #ab71 and shown in plan in fig4 #ac1 placed so as to have interstices between them like the grate of an ordinary fireplace4 ,the bottom of the furnace is firmly secured to the outside shell of the boiler in the manner shown in fig4 #ab4 ,the top covering plate cc1 is perforated with a number of circular holes of from one and a half to three inches diameter1 according to the size of the boiler4 ,into each of these holes is fixed a vertical tube made of brass1 wrought iron1 or steel1 shown at fff 7fig4 #ab74 ,these tubes pass through similar holes1 at their top ends in the plate g1 which latter is firmly riveted to the outside shell of the boiler4 ,the tubes are also firmly attached to the two plates1 cc1 g4 ,they serve to convey the flame1 smoke1 and hot air from the fire to the smoke box1 h1 and the chimney1 a1 and at the same time their sides provide ample heating surface to allow the heat contained in the products of combustion to escape into the water4 ,the fresh fuel is thrown on the grating when required through the fire door1 ,a 7fig4 #aa74 ,the ashes1 cinders1 etc41 fall between the fire bars into the ash pit1 ,b 7fig4 #ab74 ,the water is contained in the space between the shell of the boiler1 the furnace chamber1 and the tubes4 ,it is kept at or about the level1 ww 7fig4 #ab71 the space above this part being reserved for the steam as it rises4 ,the heat1 of course1 escapes into the water1 through the sides and top plate of the furnace1 and through the sides of the tubes4 ,the steam which1 as it rises from the boiling water1 ascends into the space above ww1 is thence led away by the steam pipe to the engine4 ,unless consumed quickly enough by the engine1 the steam would accumulate too much within the boiler1 and its pressure would rise to a dangerous point4 ,to provide against this contingency the steam is enabled to escape when it rises above a certain pressure through the safety-valve1 which is shown in sketch on the top of the boiler in fig4 #aa4 ,the details of the construction of safety-valves will be found fully described in another section of this work1 which is devoted exclusively to the consideration of boiler fittings4 ,in the same chapters will be found full descriptions of the various fittings and accessories of boilers1 such as the water and pressure gauges1 the apparatus for feeding the boiler with water1 for producing the requisite draught of air to maintain the combustion1 and also the particulars of the construction of the boilers themselves and their furnaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,boiler4 ,after the first crude forms1 such as that used in connection with the ,baranca and ,newcomen engine1 and numerous others1 the steam boiler which came into very general use was the plain cylinder boiler4 ,an illustration is given of this in figures #ad and #ae4 ,it consists of a cylinder ,a1 formed of iron plate with hemispherical ends ,b4 ,b4 set horizontally in brick work ,c4 ,the lower part of this cylinder contains the water1 the upper part the steam4 ,the furnace ,d is outside the cylinder1 being beneath one end2 it consists simply of grate bars e e set in the brick work at a convenient distance below the bottom of the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the sides and front of the furnace are walls of brick work1 which1 being continued upwards support the end of the cylinder4 ,the fuel is thrown on the bars through the door which is set in the front brick work4 ,the air enters between the grate bars from below4 ,the portion below the bars is called the ash pit4 ,the flame and hot gases1 when formed1 first strike on the bottom of the boiler1 and are then carried forward by the draft1 to the so-called bridge wall o1 which is a projecting piece of brick work which contracts the area of the flue n and forces all the products of combustion to keep close to the bottom of the boiler4 ,thence the gases pass along the flue n1 and return part one side of the cylinder in the flue m 7fig4 #ae7 and back again by the other side flue m to the far end of the boiler1 whence they escape up the chimney4 ,this latter is provided with a door or damper p1 which can be closed or opened at will1 so as to regulate the draught4 ,this boiler has been in use for nearly one hundred years1 but has two great defects4 ,the first is that the area of heating surface1 that is the parts of the boiler in contact with the flames1 is too small in proportion to the bulk of the boiler2 the second is1 that if the water contains solid matter in solution1 as nearly all the water does to a greater or less extent1 this matter becomes deposited on the bottom of the boiler just where the greatest evaporation takes place4 ,the deposit1 being a non-conductor1 prevents the heat of the fuel from reaching the water in sufficient quantities1 thus rendering the heating surface inefficient2 and further1 by preventing the heat from escaping to the water1 it causes the plates to become unduly heated1 and quickly burnt out4 ,there is another defect belonging to this system of boiler to which many engineers attach great importance1 viz43 that the temperature in each of the three flues n1 m1 m is very different1 and consequently that the metal of which the shell of the boiler is composed expands very unequally in each of the flues1 and cracks are very likely to take place when the effects of the changes of temperature are most felt4 ,it will be noted that the flames and gases in this earliest type of steam boiler make three turns before reaching the chimney1 and as these boilers were made frequently as much as #dj feet long it gave the extreme length of #abj feet to the heat products4 ,,the ,,cornish ,,boiler is the next form in time and excellence4 ,this is illustrated in figures #af and #ag4 ,it consists also of a cylindrical shell ,a1 with flat ends as exhibited in cuts4 ,the furnace1 however1 instead of being situated underneath the front end of the shell1 is enclosed in it in a second cylinder ,b1 having usually a diameter a little greater than half that of the boiler shell4 ,the arrangement of the grate and bridge is evident from the diagram4 ,after passing the bridge wall the heat products travel along through the internal cylinder ,b1 till they reach the back end of the boiler2 then return to the front again1 by the two side flues m1 m1 and thence back again to the chimney by the bottom of flue n4 ,in this form of boiler the heating surface exceeds that of the last described by an amount equal to the area of the internal flues1 while the internal capacity is diminished by its cubic contents2 hence for boilers of equal external dimensions1 the ratio of heating surface to mass of water to be heated1 is greatly increased4 ,boilers of this sort can1 however1 never be made of as small diameters as the plain cylindrical sort1 on account of the necessity of finding room inside1 below the water level1 for the furnace and flue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the disadvantage1 too1 of the deposits mentioned in the plain cylinder is1 to a great extent got over in the ,cornish boiler1 for the bottom1 where the deposit chiefly takes place1 is the coolest instead of being the hottest part of the heating surface4 ,but the disadvantage of unequal expansion also exists in this type of boiler1 as the internal flue in the ,cornish system is the hottest portion of the boiler1 and consequently undergoes a greater lengthways expansion than the flues4 ,the result is to bulge out the ends1 and when the boiler is out of use1 the flue returns to its regular size1 and thus has a tendency to work loose from the ends to which it is riveted and if the ends are too rigid to move1 a very serious strain comes on the points of the flue4 ,even while in use the flue of a ,cornish boiler is liable to undergo great changes in temperature1 according to the state of the fire2 when this latter is very low1 or when fresh fuel has been thrown on1 the temperature is a minimum and reaches a maximum again when the fresh fuel commences to burn fiercely4 ,this constant expansion and contraction is found in practice to also so weaken the tube that it frequently collapses or is pressed together1 resulting in great disaster4 ,this led to the production and adoption of the-- ,,lancashire ,,boiler1 contrived to remedy this inconvenience and also to attain a more perfect combustion1 the arrangement of the furnaces of which is shown in fig4 #ai and fig4 #bj4 ,it will be observed that there are two internal furnaces instead of one1 as in the ,cornish type4 ,these furnaces are sometimes each continued as a separate flue to the other end of the boiler as shown in the cuts2 but as a rule they emerge into one internal flue4 ,they are supposed to be fired alternately1 and the smoke and unburned gases issuing from the fresh fuel are ignited in the flue by the hot air proceeding from the other furnace1 the fuel in which is in a state of incandescence4 ,thus all violent changes in the temperature are avoided1 and the waste of fuel due to unburned gases is avoided1 if the firing is properly conducted4 ,illustration3 ,,lancashire ,,boiler--,fig4 #ah4 ,the disadvantage of the ,lancashire boiler is the difficulty of finding adequate room for the two furnaces without unduly increasing the diameter of the shell4 ,low furnaces are extremely unfavorable to complete combustion1 the comparatively cold crown plates1 when they are in contact with the water of the boiler1 extinguishing the flames from the fuel1 when they are just formed1 while the narrow space between the fuel and the crown does not admit the proper quantity of air being supplied above the fuel to complete the combustion of the gases1 as they arise4 ,on the other hand1 though this boiler favors the formation of the smoke1 it supplies the means of completing the combustion afterwards1 as before explained1 by means of the hot air from the second furnace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah 7a7 ,another disadvantage is the danger of collapsing the internal flue already spoken of2 this is remedied by the introduction of what are called the galloway tubes1 illustrated in the cut shown on this page1 which is a cross section of the water tubes shown in ,figs4 #ah and #bj4 ,these tubes not only contribute to strengthen the flues but they add to the heating surface and greatly promote the circulation so important in the water space4 ,,note4 ,these descriptions and illustrations of the ,lancashire boiler are of general value1 owing to the fact that very many exhaustive tests and experiments upon steam economy have been made and permanently recorded in connection with this form of steam generator4 ,in the ,,galloway form of boiler the flue is sustained and stiffened by the introduction of numerous conical tubes1 flanged at the two ends and riveted across the flue4 ,these tubes1 a sketch of which are given in fig4 #ah 7a71 are in free communication with the water of the boiler1 and besides acting as stiffeners1 they also serve to increase the heating surface and to promote circulation4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ai1 #bj4 ,the illustration 7figs4 #ah1 #ai and #bj7 give all the principal details of a ,lancashire boiler fitted with ,galloway tubes4 ,fig4 #ah represents a longitudinal section and figs4 #ai and #bj shows on a large scale an end view of the front of the boiler with its fittings and also a transverse section4 ,the arrangement of the furnaces1 flues1 and the ,galloway tubes is sufficiently obvious from the drawings4 ,the usual length of these boilers is #bg feet1 though they are occasionally made as short as #ba feet4 ,the minimum diameter of the furnaces is #cc inches1 and in order to contain these comfortably the diameter of the boiler should not be less than #g feet4 ,the ends of the boiler are flat1 and are prevented from bulging outwards by being held in place by the furnaces and flues which stay the two ends together and also by the so-called gusset stays e1 e4 ,in addition to the latter the flat ends of the boiler have longitudinal rods to tie them together2 one of these is shown at ,a1 ,a1 fig4 #ah4 ,the steam is collected in the pipe ,s1 which is perforated all along the top so as to admit the steam and exclude the water spray which may rise to the surface during ebullition4 ,the steam thence passes to the stop valve ,t outside the boiler and thence to the steam pipes to the engines4 ,there are two safety valves on top of the boiler on ,b 7fig4 #ah71 being of the dead weight type described hereafter1 and the other1 ,c1 being a so-called low water safety valve4 ,it is attached by means of a lever and rod to the float ,f1 which ordinarily rests on the surface of the water4 ,when through any neglect1 the water sinks below its proper level the float sinks also1 causing the valve to open1 thus allowing steam to escape and giving an alarm4 ,m is the manhole with its covering plate1 which admits of access to the interior of the boiler and ,h is the mud hole by which the sediment which accumulates all along the bottom is raked out4 ,below the front end and underneath1 the pipe and stay valve are shown1 by which the boiler can be emptied or blown off4 ,on the front of the boiler 7fig4 #ai7 are shown1 the pressure gauges1 the water gauges and the furnace door2 ,k is the feed pipe2 ,r1 ,r1 a pipe and cock for blowing off steam4 ,in the front of the setting are shown two iron doors by which access may be gained to the two lower external flues for cleaning purposes4 ,in the ,lancashire boiler it is considered advisable to take the products of combustion1 after they leave the internal flues1 along the bottom of the boiler1 and then back to the chimney by the side4 ,when this plan is adopted the bottom is kept hotter than would otherwise be the case1 and circulation is promoted1 which prevents the coldest water from accumulating at the bottom4 ,the ,galloway 7or ,lancashire7 boiler is considered the most economical boiler used in ,england1 and is being introduced into the ,united ,states with success4 ,the long traverse of heat provided 7three turns of about #bg feet each7 contributes greatly to its efficiency4 ,it may be useful to add the following data relating to this approved steam generator1 being the principal dimensions and other data of the boiler shown in fig4 #ah3 ,steam pressure1 #ge lbs4 per sq4 inch4 ,length1 #bg feet4 ,diameter1 #g feet4 ,weight1 total1 #ae-a_/b tons4 ,shell plates1 #g_/af inch4 ,furnace diameter1 #cc inches4 ,furnace ,plates1 #c_/h inch4 ,end plates1 #a_/b inch4 ,grate area1 #cc sq4 feet4 ,heating surface3 ,in furnace and flues #dej sq4 feet4 ,in ,galloway pipes1 #cj ,in external flues1 #cgj ---- #hej sq4 feet4 ,we have thus detailed step by step the improvement of the steam boiler to a point where it is necessary to describe at length the locomotive1 the marine1 the horizontal tubular and the water tube boilers1 which four forms comprehend ninety-nine out of one hundred steam generators in use in the civilized world at the present time4 ,,marine ,,boilers4 ,the boilers used on board steamships are of two principal types4 ,the older sort used for steam of comparatively low temperature1 viz43 up to #ce lbs4 per square inch1 is usually made of flat plates stayed together1 after the manner of the exterior and interior fire boxes of a locomotive boiler4 ,medium high pressure marine boilers1 constructed for steam of #fj to #aej lbs4 per square inch1 are circular or oval in cross section1 and are fitted with round interior furnaces and flues like land boilers4 ,there are many variations of marine boilers1 adapted to suit special circumstances4 ,fig4 #bb shows a front elevation and partial sections of a pair of such boilers and ,fig4 #bc shows one of them in longitudinal vertical section4 ,,the ,,marine ,,steam ,,boiler ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,it will be seen from these drawings that there are three internal cylindrical furnaces at each end of these boilers1 making in all six furnaces per boiler4 ,the firing takes place at both ends4 ,the flame and hot gases from each furnace1 after passing over the bridge wall enter a flat-sided rectangular combustion chamber and then travel through tubes to the front uptake 7i4e4 the smoke bonnet or breaching71 and so on to the chimney4 ,the sides of the combustion chambers are stayed to each other and to the shell plate of the boiler2 the tops are strengthened in the same manner as the crowns of locomotive boilers1 and the flat plates of the boiler shell are stayed together by means of long bolts1 which can be lengthened up by means of nuts at their ends4 ,access is gained to the uptakes for purposes of cleaning1 repairs of tubes1 etc41 by means of their doors on their fronts just above the furnace doors4 ,the steam is collected in the large cylindrical receivers shown above each boiler4 ,the material of construction is mild steel4 ,the following are the principal dimensions and other particulars of one of these boilers3 ,length from front to back1 #bj feet4 ,diameter of shell1 #ae feet #f inches4 ,length of furnace1 #f feet #aj inches4 ,diameter of furnace1 #c feet #aj inches4 ,length of tubes1 #f feet #i inches4 ,diameter of tubes1 #c-a_/b inches4 ,no4 of tubes1 #eaf4 ,thickness of shell plates1 #ae_/af4 ,thickness of tube plates1 #c_/d4 ,grate area1 #abf-a_/b square feet4 ,heating surface1 #djae square feet4 ,steam pressure1 #hj lbs4 per sq4 inch4 ,fig4 #bd is a sketch of a modern marine boiler1 which is only fired from one end1 and is in consequence much shorter in proportion to its diameter than the type illustrated in figs4 #bb and #bc4 ,marine boilers over nine feet in diameter have generally two furnaces1 those over #ac to #ad feet1 three1 while the very largest boilers used on first-class mail steamers1 and which often exceed fifteen feet in diameter1 have four furnaces4 ,in the marine boiler the course taken by the products of combustion is as follows2 the coal enters through the furnace doors on to the fire-bars1 the heat and flames pass over the fire bridge into the flame or combustion chamber1 thence through the tubes into the smoke-box1 up the up-take and funnel into the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the fittings to a marine boiler are--funnel and air casings1 up-takes and air casings1 smoke boxes and doors1 fire doors1 bars1 bridges1 and bearers1 main steam stop valve1 donkey valve1 safety valves and drain pipes1 main and donkey feed check valves1 blow-off and scum cocks1 water gauge glasses on front and back of boiler1 test water cock for trying density of water1 steam cock for whistle1 and another for winches on deck4 ,a fitting1 called a blast pipe1 is sometimes placed in the throat of the funnel4 ,it consists of a wrought iron pipe1 having a conical nozzle within the funnel pointing upwards1 the other end being connected to a cock1 which latter is bolted on to the steam space or dome of the boiler4 ,it is used for increasing the intensity of the draft1 the upward current of steam forcing the air out of the funnel at a great velocity2 and the air having to be replaced by a fresh supply through the ash-pits and bars of the furnaces1 a greater speed of combustion is obtained than would otherwise be due to simple draft alone4 ,boilers are fitted with dry and wet uptakes1 which differ from each other as follows3--,the dry uptake is wholly outside the boiler1 and consists of an external casing bolted on to the firing end of the boiler1 covering the tubes and forming the smoke-box1 and is fitted with suitable tube doors4 ,a wet uptake is carried back from the firing ends of the boiler into its steam space1 and is wholly surrounded by water and steam4 ,the dry uptake seldom requires serious repair2 but the wet uptake1 owing to its exposure to pressure1 steam1 and water1 requires constant attention and repair1 and is very liable to corrosion1 being constantly wetted and dried in the neighborhood of the water-line4 ,the narrow water space between both front uptakes is also very liable to become burnt1 owing to accumulation of salt4 ,the flue boilers of many tugs and ferry boats are fitted with wet uptakes4 ,a superheater is a vessel usually placed in the uptake1 or at the base of the funnel of a marine boiler1 and so arranged that the waste heat from the furnaces shall pass around and through it prior to escaping up the chimney4 ,it is used for drying or heating the steam from the main boiler before it enters the steam pipes to the engine4 ,the simplest form of superheater consists of a wrought iron drum filled with tubes4 ,the heat or flame passes through the tubes and around the shell of the drum1 the steam being inside the drum4 ,superheaters are usually fitted with a stop valve in connection with the boiler1 by means of which it can be shut off2 and also one to the steam pipe of the engine2 arrangements are also usually made for mixing the steam or working independently of the superheater4 ,a safety-valve is also fitted and a gauge glass2 the latter is to show whether the superheater is clear of water1 as priming will sometimes fill it up4 ,the special fittings of the marine boiler will be more particularly described hereafter as well as the stays1 riveting1 strength1 etc41 etc4 ,the use of the surface condenser in connection with the marine boiler was an immense step toward increasing its efficiency4 ,in #ahdj the average pressure used in marine boilers was only #g or #h lbs4 to the square inch1 the steam being made with the two-flue pattern of boiler1 sea water being used for feed2 as the steam pressure increased as now to #aej to #bjj lbs4 to the square inch1 greater and greater difficulty was experienced from salt incrustation--in many cases the tubes did not last long and frequently gave much trouble1 until the introduction of the surface condenser1 which supplied fresh water to the boilers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be ,,the ,,surface ,,condenser4 ,the condenser is an oblong or circular box of cast iron fitted in one of two ways1 either with the tubes horizontal or vertical2 at each end are fixed the tube plates1 generally made of brass1 and the tubes pass through the plates as well as through a supporting plate in the middle of the condenser4 ,each end of the condenser is fitted with doors for the purpose of enabling the tube ends to be examined1 drawn1 or packed1 as may be necessary4 ,the tube ends are packed in various ways1 and the tubes are made of brass1 so as to resist the action of the water4 ,the water is generally sucked through the tubes by the circulating pump1 and the steam is condensed by coming in contact with the external surface of the tubes4 ,in some cases the water is applied to the external surface1 and the steam exhausted through the tubes2 but this practice is now generally given up in modern surface condensers4 ,the packing round the tube ends keeps them quite tight1 and in the event of a split tube1 a wooden plug is put in each end until an opportunity offers for drawing it and replacing with a new one4 ,the condenser may be made of any convenient shape4 ,it sometimes forms part of the casting supporting the cylinders of vertical engines2 it is also frequently made cylindrical with flat ends1 as in fig4 #be4 ,the ends form the tube plates to which the tubes are secured4 ,the tubes are1 of course1 open at the ends1 and a space is left between the tube plate and the outer covers1 shown at each end of the condenser1 to allow of the circulation of water as shown by the arrows4 ,,operation ,,of ,,the ,,condenser4 ,the cold water1 which is forced through by a circulating pump1 enters at the bottom1 and is compelled to pass forward through the lower set of tubes by a horizontal dividing plate2 it then returns through the upper rows of tubes and passes out at the overflow2 the tubes are thus maintained at a low temperature4 ,the tubes are made to pass right through the condensing chamber1 and so as to have no connection with its internal space4 ,the steam is passed into the condenser and there comes in contact with the cold external surface of the tube1 and is condensed1 and removed as before1 by the air pump1 as may be readily seen in the illustration 7p4 #fe47 ,the advantages gained by the use of the surface condenser are3 #a4 ,the feed water is hotter and fresh2 being hotter1 it saves the fuel that would be used to bring it up to this heat2 and being fresh it boils at a lower temperature4 #b4 ,not forming so much scale inside the boiler1 the heat passes through to the water more readily2 and as the scum cock is not used so freely1 all the heat that would have been blown off is saved4 ,its disadvantages are that being fresh water and forming no scale on the boiler1 it causes the boiler to rust4 ,it is often said that one engineer will get more out of a ship than another4 ,in general it will be found that the most successful engineer is the man who manages his stokers best4 ,it is very difficult on paper to define what is meant4 ,it is a thing to be felt or seen1 not described4 99 99 99 99 ,the engineer who really knows his business will give his fires a fair chance to get away4 ,he will work his engines up by degrees and run a little slowly for the first few moments4 ,,water ,,tube ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,tube ,,boiler4--,fig4 #bf4 ,a popular form of steam boiler in use in the ,united ,states and ,europe is what is called the water tube boiler4 ,this term is applied to a class of boiler in which the water is contained in a series of tubes1 of comparatively small diameter1 which communicate with each other and with a common steam-chamber4 ,the flames and hot gases circulate between the tubes and are usually guided by partitions so as to act equally on all portions of the tubes4 ,there are many varieties of this type of boiler of which the cut illustrates one3 in this each tube is secured at either end into a square cast-iron head1 and each of these heads has two openings1 one communicating with the tube below and the other with the tube above2 the communication is effected by means of hollow cast-iron caps shown at the end of the tubes2 the caps have openings in them corresponding with the openings in the tube heads to which they are bolted4 ,in the best forms of the water tube boilers1 it is suspended entirely independent of the brick work from wrought iron girders resting on iron columns4 ,this avoids any straining of the boiler from unequal expansion between it and its enclosing walls and permits the brick work to be repaired or removed1 if necessary1 without in any way disturbing the boiler4 ,this design is shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,the distinguishing difference1 which marks the water tube boiler from others1 consists in the fact that in the former the small tubes are filled with water instead of the products of combustions2 hence the comparison1 frequently made1 between water-tube and fire tube boilers--the difference has been expressed in another way1 8,water-tube vs4 shell boilers10 but the principle of steam production in both systems remains the same2 the heat from the combustible is transferred to the water through the medium of iron plates and in both1 the furnaces1 steam appliances1 application of the draught1 etc41 is substantially the same4 ,in another important point do the systems agree1 i4e41 in the average number of pounds of water evaporated per lb4 of combustible2 it is in the thoroughness of construction and skillfulness of adaptation to surroundings that produce the best results4 ,water tube or sectional boilers1 have been made since the days of ,james ,watt1 in #agff1 in many different forms and under various names4 ,owing1 however1 to the imperfection of manufacture the system1 as compared to shell boilers1 has been a failure until very recently2 various patterns of water-tube boilers are now in most favorable and satisfactory use4 ,the advantages claimed for this form of steam generator are as follows3 #a4 ,safety from disastrous explosions1 arising from the division of the contents into small portions1 and especially from details of construction which make it tolerably certain that the rupture will be local instead of a general violent explosion which liberates at once large masses of steam and water4 #b4 ,the small diameter of the tubes of which they are composed render them much stronger than ordinary boilers4 #c4 ,they can be cheaply built and easily repaired1 as duplicate pieces can be kept on hand4 ,the various parts of a boiler can be transported without great expense1 trouble or delay2 the form and proportions of a boiler can be suited to any available space2 and1 again1 the power can be increased by simply adding more rows of tubes and increasing the grate area4 #d4 ,their evaporative efficiency can be made equal to that of other boilers1 and1 in fact1 for equal proportions of heating and grate surfaces1 it is often a trifle higher4 #e4 ,thin heating surface in the furnace1 avoiding the thick plates necessarily used in ordinary boilers which not only hinder the transmission of heat to the water1 but admit of overheating4 #f4 ,joints removed from the fire4 ,the use of lap welded water tubes with their joints removed from the fire also avoid the unequal expansion of riveted joints consequent upon their double thickness4 #g4 ,quick steaming4 #h4 ,accessibility for cleaning4 #i4 ,ease of handling and erecting4 #aj4 ,economy and speediness of repairs4 ,the known disadvantages of these boilers are #a4 ,they generally occupy more space and require more masonry than ordinary boilers4 #b4 ,on account of the small quantity of water which they contain1 sudden fluctuations of pressure are caused by any irregularities in supplying the feed-water or in handling the fires1 and the rapid and at times violent generation of steam causes it to accumulate in the contracted water-chambers1 and leads to priming1 with a consequent loss of water1 and to overheated tubes4 #c4 ,the horizontal or inclined water tubes which mainly compose these boilers1 do not afford a ready outlet for the steam generated in them4 ,the steam bubbles cannot follow their natural tendency and rise directly1 but are generally obliged by friction to traverse the tube slowly1 and at times the accumulation of steam at the heated surfaces causes the tubes to be split or burned4 #d4 ,the use of water which forms deposits of solid matter still further increases the liability to overheating of the tubes4 ,it has been claimed by some inventors that the rapid circulation of the water through the tubes would prevent any deposit of scale or sediment in them1 but experience has proved this to be a grave error4 ,others have said that the expansion of the tube would detach the scale as fast as it was deposited and prevent any dangerous accumulation1 but this also has been proved an error4 ,again1 the use of cast iron about these boilers has frequently been a constant source of trouble from cracks1 etc4 ,,care ,,of ,,water ,,tube ,,boilers4 ,the soot and ashes collect on the exterior of the tubes in this form of boilers1 instead of inside the tubes1 as in the tubular1 and they must be as carefully removed in one case as in the other2 this can be done by the use of blowing pipe and hose through openings left in the brick work2 in using bituminous coal the soot should be brushed off when steam is down4 ,all the inside and outside surfaces should be kept clean to avoid waste of fuel2 to aid in this service the best forms are provided with extra facilities for cleaning4 ,for inspection1 remove the hand holes at both ends of the tubes1 and by holding a lamp at one end and looking in at the other the condition of the surface can be freely seen4 ,push the scraper through the tube to remove sediment1 or if the scale is hard1 use the chipping scraper made for that purpose4 ,hand holes should be frequently removed and surfaces examined1 particularly in case of a new boiler4 ,in replacing hand hole caps1 clean the surfaces without scratching or bruising1 smear with oil and screw up tight4 ,the mud drum should be periodically examined and the sediment removed2 blow-off cocks and check valves should be examined each time the boiler is cleaned2 when surface blow-cocks are used they should be often opened for a few minutes at a time2 be sure that all openings for air to boiler or flues except through the fire1 are carefully stopped4 ,if a boiler is not required for some time1 empty and dry it thoroughly4 ,if this is impracticable1 fill it quite full of water and put in a quantity of washing soda2 and external parts exposed to dampness should receive a coating of linseed oil4 ,avoid all dampness in seatings or coverings and see that no water comes in contact with the boiler from any cause4 ,although this form of boiler is not liable to destructive explosion1 the same care should be exercised to avoid possible damage to boilers and expensive delays4 ,,sectional ,,boilers4 ,probably one of the first sectional boilers brought into practical use is one made of hollow cast iron spheres1 each #h inches in diameter1 externally1 and #c_/h of an inch thick1 connected by curved necks #c-a_/b inches in diameter4 ,these spheres are held together by wrought iron bolts and caps1 and in one direction are cast in sets of #b or #d1 which are afterwards drawn together so as to give more or less heating surface to the boiler according to the number used4 ,,note4 ,owing to their multiplication of parts all sectional1 including water tube boilers1 should be made with unusual care in their details of construction1 setting1 fittings and proportions4 ,it is to the attention paid to these 8points0 that the sectional boilers are now coming into more general favor4 ,,locomotive ,,boilers4 ,the essential features of locomotive boilers are dictated by the duties which they have to perform under peculiar conditions4 ,the size and the weight are limited by the fact that the boiler has to be transported rapidly from place to place1 and also that it has to fit in between the frames of the locomotive2 while at the same time1 the pressure of the steam has to be very great in order that with comparatively small cylinder the engine may develop great power2 moreover1 the quantity of water which has to be evaporated in a given time is very considerable4 ,to fulfil these latter conditions a large quantity of coal must be burned on a fire grate of limited area2 hence intense combustion is necessary under a forced blast4 ,to utilize advantageously the heat thus generated1 a large heating surface must be provided and this can only be obtained by passing the products of combustion through a great number of tubes of small diameter4 ,the forced draught in a locomotive boiler is obtained by causing the steam from the cylinders1 after it has done its work1 to be discharged into the chimney by means of a pipe called the blast pipe2 the lower portion of this consists of two branches1 one in communication with the exhaust port of each cylinder4 ,as each puff of steam from the blast pipe escapes up the chimney it forces the air out in front of it1 causing a partial vacuum1 which can only be supplied by the air rushing through the furnace and tubes4 ,the greater the body of steam escaping at each puff1 and the more rapid the succession of puffs1 the more violent is the action of the blast pipe in producing a draught1 and consequently this contrivance regulates the consumption of fuel and the evaporation of water to a certain extent automatically1 because when the engine is working its hardest and using the most steam1 the blast is at the same time most efficacious4 ,illustration3 ,,locomotive ,,boiler4--,fig4 #bg4 ,the blast pipe is perhaps1 the most distinctive feature of the locomotive boiler1 and the one which has alone rendered it possible to obtain large quantities of steam from so small a generator4 ,the steam blast of a locomotive has been compared to the breathing apparatus of a man1 and has rendered the mechanism described nearer a live thing than any other device man has ever produced4 ,on account of the oscillations1 or violent motions to which the boiler of locomotive engines are subject1 weighted safety-valves are not possible to be used and springs are used instead to hold the valves in place4 ,the locomotive form of steam boiler is sometimes used for stationary engines1 but owing to extra cost and increased liability to corrode in the smaller passage they are not favorites4 ,,description ,,of ,,page ,,illustration4 ,in fig4 #bg1 ,f ,b represents the fire box or furnace2 ,f ,d1 fire door2 ,d ,p1 deflector plate2 ,f ,t ,p1 fire box tube plate2 ,f ,b ,r ,s1 fire box roof stays2 ,s ,t ,p1 smoke box tube plate2 ,s ,b1 smoke box2 ,s ,b ,d1 smoke box door2 ,s ,d1 steam dome2 ,o ,s1 outer shell2 ,r ,s ,v1 ,ramsbottom safety-valve2 ,f1 funnel or chimney4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,the crown plate of the fire-box being flat requires to be efficiently stayed1 and for this purpose girder stays called fox roof stays are mostly used1 as shown in the figure4 ,the stays are now made of cast steel for locomotives4 ,they rest at the two ends on the vertical plates of the fire-box1 and sustain the pressure on the fire-box crown by a series of bolts passing through the plate and girder stay1 secured by nuts and washers4 ,fig4 #bh is a plan and elevation of a wrought-iron roof stay4 ,another method adopted in locomotive types of marine boilers for staying the flat crown of the fire-box to the circular upper plate is shown in fig4 #bi--namely1 by wrought-iron vertical bar stays secured by nuts and washers to the fire-box with a fork end and pin to angle-iron pieces riveted to the boiler shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the letters in this figure refer to the same parts of the boiler as do those in fig4 #bg1 i4e41 ,f ,b to the fire-box1 etc41 etc4 ,it was formerly the custom to make the tubes much longer than shown in the fig41 with the object of gaining heating surface2 but modern experience has shown that the last three or four feet next the smoke box were of little or no use1 because1 by the time the products of combustion reached this part of the heating surface1 their temperature was so reduced that but little additional heat could be abstracted from them4 ,the tubes1 in addition to acting as flues and heating surface1 fulfil also the function of stays to the flat end of the barrel of the boiler1 and the portion of the fire box opposite to it4 ,in addition to the staying power derived from the tubes1 the smoke box1 tube plate and the front shell plate are stayed together by several long rods4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,horizontal ,,tubular ,,boiler4--,fig4 #cj4 ,,standard ,,horizontal ,,tubular ,,steam ,,boiler4 ,,table ,,of ,,sizes1 ,,proportions1 ,,etc43 ,diameter ,length ,gauge ,gauge ,number,diameter ,length ,square ,nominal of of of of of of of feet of ,horse ,shell4 ,shell4 ,shell4 ,heads4,tubes4 ,tubes4 ,tubes4 ,heating ,power4 ,surface4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #gb in4#ai;ft4#d;in#c_/h in4 #a_/b;in4 #hj #d in4#ah;ft4#j;in4 #a1ejj #ajj #gb #ah #d #c_/h #a_/b #hf #c-a_/b #ag #j #a1ejj #ajj #gb #ag #d #c_/h #a_/b #ajh #c #af #j #a1ejj #ajj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ff #ah #d #c_/h #a_/b #gd #c-a_/b #ag #j #a1cej #ij #ff #ag #d #c_/h #a_/b #ib #c #af #j #a1cej #ij ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #fj #ah #c #c_/h #a_/b #gh #c #ag #j #a1bjj #hj #fj #ag #c #c_/h #a_/b #gf #c #af #j #a1abe #ge #fj #af #c #c_/h #a_/b #gg #c #ae #j #a1jej #gj #fj #af #c #c_/h #a_/b #gj #c #ae #j #ige #fe #fj #af #c #c_/h #a_/b #fd #c #ae #j #ijj #fj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ed #ag #c #e_/af #g_/af #fj #c #af #j #ijj #ej #ed #ag #c #e_/af #g_/af #ef #c #af #j #hbe #ee #ed #af #c #e_/af #g_/af #eb #c #ae #j #gej #ej #ed #af #c #e_/af #g_/af #df #c #ae #j #fge #de #ed #af #c #e_/af #g_/af #dj #c #ae #j #fjj #dj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #dh #ag #b #e_/af #g_/af #ej #c #af #j #gej #ej #dh #af #b #e_/af #g_/af #dh #c #ae #j #fge #de #dh #af #b #e_/af #g_/af #db #c #ae #j #fjj #dj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #db #af #b #a_/d #c_/h #cf #c #ae #j #ebe #he #db #ae #b #a_/d #c_/h #cb #c #ad #j #dej #cj #db #ad #b #a_/d #c_/h #bh #c #ac #j #cge #be ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #cf #ad #b #a_/d #c_/h #cf #b-a_/b #ac #j #cge #be #cf #ad #b #a_/d #c_/h #bh #b-a_/b #ac #j #cjj #bj #cf #ac #b #a_/d #c_/h #bj #b-a_/b #ab #j #bbe #ae #cf #ab #b #a_/d #c_/h #ad #b-a_/b #aa #j #aej #aj ,,note4 ,in estimating the horse power by means of the above table1 #ae square feet has been allowed for each horse power1 and the number of feet in each boiler is given in round numbers4 ,this table is one used in every-day practice by boiler makers4 ,,the ,,flue ,,boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,two ,,flue ,,boiler4--,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,six ,,inch ,,flue ,,boiler4--,fig4 #cb4 ,,the ,,horizontal ,,tubular ,,steam ,,boiler4 ,the great majority of stationary boilers are cylindrical or round shaped1 because-- #a4 ,the cylindrical form is the strongest4 #b4 ,it is the cheapest4 #c4 ,it permits the use of thinner metal4 #d4 ,it is the safest4 #e4 ,it is inspected without difficulty4 #f4 ,it is most symmetrical4 #g4 ,it is manufactured easier4 #h4 ,it resists internal strain better4 #i4 ,it resists external strain also4 #aj4 ,it can be stayed or strengthened better4 #aa4 ,it encloses the greatest volume with least material4 #ab4 ,it is the result of many years' experience in boiler practice4 #ac4 ,it is the form adopted or preferred by all experienced engineers4 ,it follows1 too1 that the horizontal tubular boiler1 substantially as shown in fig4 #cj1 is the standard steam boiler2 engineers and steam power owners cling with great tenacity to this approved form1 which is an outgrowth of one hundred years' experience in steam production4 ,in the plain horizontal tubular boiler shown in cuts1 the shell is filled with as many small tubes varying from two inches to four inches in diameter as is consistent with the circulation and steam space4 ,in firing this type of boiler the combustion first takes place under the shell1 and the products1 such as heat1 flame1 and gas1 pass through the small tubes to the chimney1 although in the triple draught pattern of the tubular boiler1 the heat products pass1 as will hereafter be explained1 a second time through the boiler tubes1 making three turns before the final loss of the extra heat takes place4 ,the illustrations on pages #gh and #hj exhibit the gradual advances to the horizontal tubular by the two-flued boiler 7fig4 #ca7 of the six flues 7fig4 #cb7 and of the locomotive ,portable ,boiler 7fig4 #cc74 ,the vertical or upright tubular boiler is but another modification of the horizontal tubular4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,locomotive ,,portable ,,boiler4--,fig4 #cc4 ,in parts of the vertical boiler there is very little circulation and the corrosion on the inner side is such as to wear the boiler rapidly4 ,in the ash pit1 ashes and any dampness that may be about the place also causes rapid corrosion4 ,the upper part of the tubes and tube sheet are frequently injured2 for instance1 if the tubes pass all the way through to the upper tube sheet1 providing there is no cone top1 when the fire is first made under the boiler1 combustion at times does not take place until the gases pass nearly through the tubes4 ,the water usually being carried below the tube sheet there is a space left above the water line1 where there is neither steam nor water1 and the heat is so great that the ends of the tubes are burned and crystalized1 and the tube sheet is often cracked and broken by this excessive heat before the steam is generated4 ,the first difficulty is experienced in 8the legs0 of the ,portable ,locomotive boiler--hence the general verdict of steam users in favor of the round shell1 many-tubed boiler4 ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,tubular ,,boiler4 ,,the ,,shell4 ,this is the round or cylindrical structure which is commonly described as the boiler1 in which are inserted the braces and tubes1 and which sustains the internal strain of the pressure of the steam1 the action of the water within1 and the fire without4 ,,the ,,drum4 ,this part is sometimes called the dome1 and consists of an upper chamber riveted to the top of the boiler for the purpose of affording more steam space4 ,,the ,,tube ,,sheets4 ,these are the round1 flat flanged sheets forming the two ends of the boiler1 into which the tubes are fastened4 ,,the ,,manhole ,,cover4 ,this is a plate and frame commonly opening inwards and large enough to admit a man into the interior of the boiler4 ,these openings are sometimes made on the top and sometimes at the end of the boiler4 ,manhole openings in steam boilers should invariably be located in the head of the boiler1 except in rare cases that may arise1 when circumstances require it to be placed in the shell4 ,the manhole1 so placed1 will not materially reduce the strength of the boiler1 and from this position it can more readily be seen that the boiler is kept in proper condition4 ,the proper sizes for manholes are #ie and #ajaf1 according to circumstances4 ,these are amply large for general use and no material advantage is gained by increasing them4 ,,the ,,hand ,,hole ,,plates4 ,these are similar arrangements to the manhole cover1 except as to size4 ,they are made large enough to admit the hand into the boilers for the purpose of removing sediment and they are also used for the purpose of inspecting the interior of the boiler4 ,two are usually put in each boiler1 one front and one in the rear4 ,,the ,,blow ,,off4 ,this consists of pipes and a cock communicating with the bottom of the boiler for the purpose of blowing off the boiler or of running off the water when the former needs cleaning4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,triple ,,draught ,,tubular ,,boiler4--,fig4 #cd4 ,,the ,,triple ,,draught ,,tubular ,,boiler4 ,this boiler1 which is extensively used by the manufacturers of ,new ,england1 is1 as will be seen by the illustration1 of the horizontal tubular class1 and is essentially different from the well known type only in the arrangement of the tubes4 ,the method secures the passage of the products of combustion through the same shell twice2 forward through a part of the tubes1 and backwards through the remaining ones4 ,the manner of accomplishing this result can be best described by explaining how a common tubular boiler may be remodelled so as to carry out this principle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,a cylindrical shell1 as shown in ,fig4 #cd--of sufficient size to encircle about one-half of the tubes1 is attached to the outside of the rear head below the water line1 and extended backward to the back end of the setting4 ,the encircled tubes are lengthened and carried backward to the same point2 the extension is closed in and made to communicate with the boiler proper2 the inner tubes emerge to the flue leading to the chimney and the old connection from the smoke arch is cut off4 ,with this arrangement1 the outer tubes of the boiler--a cluster on each side of the supplementary shell carry the products of combustion forward to the front smoke arch1 and the inner tubes carry them backward to the chimney4 ,fig4 #ce exhibits the boiler in half section and shows the course of the heat products through one of the outer tubes and returning through the boiler by one of the inner cluster4 ,fig4 #cf 7page #hd7 shows the boiler sectionally1 over the bridge wall2 the shaded tube ends exhibit the cluster which return the heat products to the rear of the boiler1 after being brought forward by the two outer clusters which are left unshaded4 ,this arrangement of the tubes gives several advantages3 #a4 ,it enables an exceedingly high furnace temperature1 without loss at the chimney4 #b4 ,by dividing the heat into these currents a more equal expansion and contraction is secured4 ,this is an important point secured4 #c4 ,in this system the tubes are almost equally operative4 #d4 ,the extra body of water immediately over the furnace is both an element of safety and a reservoir of power4 #e4 ,the outlet for the waste products of combustion is found in this style of boiler in a more convenient position at the rear end of the boiler4 #f4 ,the boiler being self-contained1 can be used in places where height of story is limited4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,,specification ,,for #abe ,,horse ,,power ,,boiler4 ,for one ,horizontal ,tubular ,boiler #gb inches diameter #ah feet long for'''''''''''''''''''''of''''''''' ,type4 ,the boiler to be of the ,horizontal ,tubular type with all castings and mountings complete4 ,dimensions4 ,boiler #gb inches diameter and #ah feet long4 ,each boiler to contain #ij best lap welded tubes #c-a_/b inches diameter by #ah feet long1 set in vertical and horizontal rows with a space between them vertically and horizontally of no less than one inch and one-quarter 7#a-a_/d7 except central vertical space1 which is to be three inches 7#c74 ,no tube to be nearer than two and one-half inches 7#b-a_/b7 to shell or boiler4 ,holes through heads to be neatly chamfered off4 ,all tubes to be set by ,dudgeon ,expander and slightly flared at front end1 turned over and beaded down at back end4 ,quality and ,thickness of ,steel ,plates4 ,shell plates to be #a_/b-;inch thick of homogeneous steel of uniform quality having a tensile strength of not less than #fe1jjj lbs4 ,name of maker1 brand and tensile strength to be plainly stamped on each plate4 ,heads to be of same quality as plates of shell in all particulars #c_/d-;inch thick4 ,bottom of shell to be of one plate1 and no plate to be less than #g feet wide4 ,top of shell to be in three plates4 ,all plates planed before rolling1 and all joints fullered not caulked4 ,flanges4 ,all flanges to be turned in a neat manner to an internal radius of not less than two inches 7#b7 and to be clear of cracks1 checks or flaws4 ,riveting4 ,boilers to be riveted with #c_/d-;inch rivet throughout4 ,all girth seams to be double riveted4 ,all horizontal seams to be double riveted4 ,rivet holes to be punched or drilled so as to come fair in construction4 ,no drift pins to be used in construction of the boilers4 ,braces4 ,all braces to be of the crowfoot pattern1 one and one eighth 7#a-a_/h7 inch diameter and the shortest to be no less than four feet 7#d7 long and of sufficient number for thorough bracing1 and to bear uniform tension4 ,manholes1 ,hand ,holes and ,thimbles4 ,one manhole in top of each boiler with heavy cast iron frame riveted on middle of centre plate2 one manhole near the bottom of each front head2 head reinforced with a wrought iron ring two inches 7#b7 square1 riveted to heads with flush countersunk rivets two inches 7#b7 pitch and to have all the necessary bolts1 plates1 guards and gaskets2 two six-inch thimbles riveted to top of each boiler1 each to have a planed face2 one heavy #f-;inch flange on bottom of each boiler1 #ab inches from back end to centre of flange4 ,there must be two braces1 one on each side of manhole in front head2 also to have three braces opposite manhole on back head below tubes4 ,lugs4 ,four 7#d7 lugs riveted on each side of boilers1 of good and sufficient size1 with six one-inch rivets in each lug4 ,castings4 ,each boiler to have a complete set of castings consisting of ornamental flush fronts containing tube1 fire and ash-pit doors1 and provide the best stationary grate bars as may be selected by buyer1 with the necessary fixtures1 all bearing bars1 britching plates1 dead plates1 binder bars1 back cleaning out doors with frames4 ,anchor bolts and buck stays4 ,the fire door to contain adjustable air opening and to be protected with fire shields4 ,one heavy cast iron arch over each boiler4 ,testing4 ,boilers to be tested with a water pressure of #bjj lbs4 per square inch and certificate of such test having been made shall be furnished with boiler4 ,test of boiler to be under direction of such steam boiler ,insurance ,company as may be selected by buyer4 ,quality and ,workmanship4 ,all boilers to be made in the best workmanlike manner and all material of their respective kinds to be of the best1 and in strict accordance with specification4 ,fittings and ,mountings4 ,the boiler to be furnished with the following3 ,one four inch heavy mounted safety valve4 ,one six inch flanged globe valve4 ,two two inch best globe valves4 ,two two inch check valves4 ,one eight inch dial nickel plated steam gauge4 ,one low water alarm gauge4 ,one set of fire irons for two boilers consisting of hoe1 poker1 slice bar and shovel4 ,drawings4 ,all drawings furnished for masons in setting the boilers4 ,duty of ,boiler4 ,the boiler to develop #abj horse power and to work under a constant pressure varying from #abe to #aej lbs4 to the square inch4 ,all rivets are to be #b-a_/b and #a-a_/b inch pitch4 ,the pitch line of the rivets to be not nearer #a-a_/h inches to the edge of the sheet4 ,to be #h lug plates for each boiler not less than #b feet long1 #h inches wide1 and one inch thick4 ,there shall be six #a inch anchor rods running front to rear of each boiler1 in the brick work4 ,these boilers and all their fronts1 fittings and connections will be subject to the inspection of''''''''''''''''''''' ,,marks ,,on ,,boiler ,,plates4 ,something has been said under another heading of the nature and requisite quality of the materials entering into the structure of the boiler4 ,too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the necessity for the use of the very best iron and steel that can be manufactured1 and the most skillful and thorough workmanship that can be performed in constructing the boiler4 ,it is becoming the practice1 both for land and marine boilers1 for boiler plate makers to furnish 8test pieces0 from each sheet or plate that goes into the construction of a boiler1 and a sheet showing the tensile strength of each sheet or plate that enters into its make up4 ,but irrespective of this practice each plate entering into boiler construction will be found to have one of the following marks1 which designate its quality and method of manufacture4 ,the name 8,charcoal ,iron0 is used because in its manufacture wood charcoal is employed instead of mineral fuel4 8,charcoal ,no4 #a ,iron0 7,c4 ,no4 #a7 is made entirely of charcoal iron4 ,it has a tenacity of #dj1jjj pounds per square inch in the direction of the fibre4 ,it is hard1 but not very ductile1 and should never be used for flanging4 8,charcoal ,hammered ,no4 #a ,shell ,iron0 7,c4 ,h4 ,no4 #a ,s471 although not necessarily hammered1 has been worked up before it is rolled into plates4 ,it has a tenacity of #ej1jjj to #ee1jjj pounds per square inch in the direction of the fibre4 ,it is rather hard iron1 and should not be flanged4 ,it is used for the outside shell of boilers4 8,flange ,iron0 7,c4 ,h4 ,no4 #a ,f471 is a ductile material which can be flanged in every direction4 ,it has a tenacity of #ej1jjj to #ee1jjj pounds per square inch along the fibre4 8,fire ,box ,iron0 7,c4 ,h4 ,no4 #a ,f4 ,b471 is a harder quality1 designed especially to withstand the destructive effect of the impinging flame1 and is used for boxes and flue-sheets4 ,the letters in the brackets exhibit the plate stamp4 ,cast iron and copper were used in an early day for steam boilers and the former is still extensively used for certain forms of low pressure steam heaters made for various purposes1 such as green houses1 etc4 ,,construction ,,of ,,boilers4 ,in selecting a boiler1 the most efficient design will be found to be that in which the greatest amount of shell surface is exposed to direct heat4 ,it is the direct heating surface that does the bulk of the work and every tendency to reduce it1 either in the construction or setting of the boiler1 should be avoided4 ,the smaller the amount of surface enclosed by or in contact with the setting1 the better results will be obtained4 ,a boiler with a bad circulation is the bane of an engineer's existence4 ,proper circulation facilities constitute one of the chief factors in the construction of a successful and economical boiler4 ,in tubular boilers the best practice places the tubes in vertical rows1 leaving out what would be the centre row4 ,the circulation is up the sides of the boiler and down the centre4 ,tubes set zig-zag to break spaces impede the circulation and are not considered productive of the best results4 ,the surface from which evaporation takes place should be made greater as the steam pressure is reduced1 that is to say1 as the size of the bubbles of steam become greater4 ,to produce #ajj lbs4 of steam per hour at atmospheric pressure this surface should not be less than #gcb square feet1 which may be reduced to #adf square feet for steam at #ge lbs4 pressure1 and to #gc feet for steam at a pressure of #aej lbs4 ,it is for this reason that triple-expansion engines can be worked with smaller boilers than are required with engines using steam of lower pressure4 ,the amount of steam space to be permitted depends upon the volume of the cylinders and the number of revolutions made per minute4 ,for ordinary engines it may be made a hundred times as great as the average volume of steam generated per second4 ,a volume of heated water in a boiler performs the same office in furnishing a steady supply of steam as a fly-wheel does to an engine in insuring uniformity of speed2 hence the centre space of a boiler should be ample1 in order to take advantage of this reserve force4 ,,quality ,,of ,,steel ,,plates4 ,steel for boilers is always of the kind known as low steel1 or soft steel1 and is1 properly speaking1 ingot iron1 all of its characteristics being those of a tenacious1 bending1 equal grained iron1 and quite different from true steels1 such as knife blades1 cutting tools1 etc41 are composed of4 ,steel is rapidly displacing iron in boiler construction1 as it has greater strength for the same thickness1 than iron2 and1 except in rare instances1 where the nature of the water available for feed renders steel undesirable1 iron should not be used for making boilers1 careful tests having shown it to be vastly inferior to steel in many important features4 ,good boiler steel up to one-half inch in thickness should be capable of being doubled over and hammered down on itself without showing any signs of fracture1 and above that thickness it should be capable of being bent around a mandrel of a diameter equal to one and one-half times the thickness of the plate1 to an angle of #ahj degrees without sign of distress4 ,such bending pieces should not be less in length than sixteen times the thickness of the plate4 ,on this test piece the metal should show the following physical qualities3 ,tensile strength1 #ee1jjj to #fe1jjj pounds per square inch4 ,elongation1 #bj per cent4 for plates three-eighths inch thick or less4 ,elongation1 #bb per cent4 for plates from three-eighths to three-fourths inch thick4 ,elongation1 #be per cent4 for plates over three-fourths inch thick4 ,the cross sectional area of the test piece should be not less than one-half of one square inch1 i4e41 if the piece is one-fourth inch thick1 its width should be two inches2 if it be one-half inch thick1 its width should be one inch4 ,but for heavier material the width shall in no case be less than the thickness of the plate4 ,,nickel ,,steel ,,boiler ,,plates4 ,it has been found that the addition of about three per cent4 7#c4af to #c4cb7 of nickel to ordinary soft steel produces most favorable results2 thus it has been shown by ,riley that a particular variety of nickel steel presents to the engineer the means of nearly doubling boiler pressures without increasing weight or dimensions4 ,in a recent experiment made with ,bessemer steel rolled into three-fourths inch plates from which a number of test specimens were cut1 the elastic limit was respectively #ei1jjj pounds and #fj1jjj pounds4 ,the ultimate tensile strength was #ajj1jjj pounds and #ajb1jjj pounds1 respectively4 ,the elongation was #ae-a_/b per cent4 in each specimen1 and the reduction of area at fracture was #bi-a_/b per cent4 and #bf-a_/b per cent4 respectively4 ,these figures show that the elastic limit and ultimate tensile strength was raised by the nickel alloy to almost double the limits reached in the best grades of boiler plate steel1 and the elongation was reduced to a scarcely appreciable extent4 ,the experiment had for its object1 the reproduction1 as nearly as possible1 of the alloy used in the nickel steel armor plate made at ,le ,creusot1 ,france1 and the result was reported to the ,secretary of the ,navy at ,washington4 ,the new plate showed a percentage of #c4af nickel1 as against #c4cb for the imported plate4 ,,riveting4 ,when the materials are of best quality1 then there only remains to rivet and stay the boiler4 ,riveting is of two kinds1 single and double4 ,fig4 #cg shows the method of single riveting1 and ,figs4 #ch and #ci show the plan and cross-section of double riveted sheets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,double ,riveting consists in making the joints of boiler work with two rows of rivets instead of one--nearly always1 horizontal seams are double riveted as well as domes where they join upon the boiler4 ,usually all girth seams1--those running round the body of the boiler1 are single riveted4 ,the size of the rivets is in proportion to the diameter of the boiler1 being #e_/h1 #c_/d and #g_/h as required in the specification4 ,rivet holes are made by punching or drilling1 according to the material in which they are made4 ,in soft iron and mild steel they may safely be punched1 but in metal at all brittle the holes should be drilled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,rivets are driven by hand1 by steam riveting machines or by an improved pneumatic machine which holds the sheet together and strikes a succession of light blows to form the head of the rivet while hot4 ,rivets are made both of iron and steel1 and there are certain well-known brands of such excellent quality that they are almost exclusively used in boiler work4 ,a place where skill is shown in boiler construction is in laying out the rivet holes1 with a templet1 so that the sheets come exactly together with the holes so nearly opposite that the dreaded drift pin does not have to be used4 ,in these figures the letters ,p and p refer to the 8pitch of the rivets10 i4e41 the part from centre to centre1 and the dimensions given at the sides indicate the amount of lap given in inches and tenths of inches--the diameter of the rivet 7#a7 is also shown1 and the turned over portion of the shank of the rivet is shown by dotted lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,no riveted boiler work can be considered fairly proportioned unless the strength of the plate between the rivets is fully equal to the strength of the rivets themselves4 ,a margin 7or net distance from outside of holes to edge of plate7 equal to the diameter of the drilled hole has been found sufficient4 ,rivets should be made of good charcoal iron or of a very soft mild steel1 running between #ej1jjj and #fj1jjj pounds tensile strength and showing an elongation of not less than ninety per cent4 in eight inches1 and having the same chemical composition as specified for plates4 ,a long rivet1 holding thick plates together1 is rarely tight except immediately under the head4 ,the heads are set and the centre cooled before the hole is properly filled4 ,if it is a very long rivet there is a chance of the contraction fracturing the head of the rivet4 ,in the ,forth ,bridge1 which is made of very heavy plate girders1 the rivets1 first carefully fitted1 were driven tight into the holes1 the burr around the holes were removed1 and the ends of the rivets heated to a sufficient degree to enable them to be closed over4 ,a simple mathematical deduction shows that a circle seam has just one-half the strain to carry as a longitudinal seam1 under the same pressure and with the same thickness of metal1 hence the custom of single riveting the former and double riveting the latter1 or longwise seams4 ,,different ,,modes ,,of ,,riveting4 ---------------------------------------- ,,chain ,,zig ,,zag ,,treble ,,unequal ,,riveting4 ,,riveting4 ,,riveting4 ,,pitches4 ---------------------------------------- ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ,o ---------------------------------------- ,in fig4 #da may be seen an example of zig-zag riveting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,,caulking4--,by this is meant the closing of the edges of the seams of boilers or plates4 ,in preparing the seams for caulking1 the edges are first planed true inside and outside2 and after the plates have been riveted together1 the edges are caulked or closed by a blunt chisel about #a_/d-;inch thick at the edge1 which should be struck with a #c or #d-lb4 hammer2 sometimes one man doing the work alone and sometimes one holding the chisel and another striking4 ,fullering a boiler plate is done by a round-nosed tool1 while caulking is executed by a sharper instrument4 ,the thinnest plate which should be used in a boiler is one-fourth of an inch1 on account of the almost impossibility of caulking the seams of thinner plates4 ,it is a rule well known to all practical boiler makers that the thinner the metal 7compatible with due strength7 the longer the life of the boiler under its varying stresses and the better the caulking will stand4 ,,steel ,,rivets4 ,hitherto there has been some prejudice against steel rivets1 and while this may have some foundation when iron plates are used1 it is certainly baseless when steel plates are concerned4 ,the ,united ,states government has clearly demonstrated this4 ,all the ships of the new navy have steel boilers1 riveted with steel rivets1 and an examination of the character of the material prescribed and the severity of the tests to which it is subjected show that these steel-riveted steel boilers are probably the best boilers ever constructed4 ,united ,states ,government ,requirements for ,boiler ,rivets4 ,they are subjected to the most severe hammer tests1 such as flattening out cold to a thickness of one-half the diameter1 and flattening out hot to a thickness of one-third the diameter4 ,in neither case must they show cracks or flaws4 ,kind of ,material4--,steel for boiler rivets must be made by either the open-hearth or ,clapp-,griffith process1 and must not show more than 4#jce of one per centum of phosphorus nor more than 4#jd of one per centum of sulphur1 and must be of the best quality in other respects4 ,each ton of rivets from the same heat or blow shall constitute a lot4 ,four specimens for tensile tests shall be cut from the bars from which the lot of rivets is made4 ,tensile ,tests4--,the rivets for use in the longitudinal seams of boiler shells shall have from #eh1jjj to #fg1jjj pounds tensile strength1 with an elongation of not less than #bf per centum2 and all others shall have a tensile strength of from #ej1jjj to #eh1jjj pounds1 with an elongation of not less than #cj per centum in eight 7#h7 inches4 ,hammer ,test4--,from each lot twelve 7#ab7 rivets are to be taken at random and submitted to the following tests3 ,four 7#d7 rivets to be flattened out cold under the hammer to a thickness of one-half the diameter without showing cracks or flaws4 ,four 7#d7 rivets to be flattened out hot under the hammer to a thickness of one-third the diameter without showing cracks or flaws--the heat to be the working heat when driven4 ,four 7#d7 rivets to be bent cold into the form of a hook with parallel sides1 without showing cracks or flaws4 ,surface ,inspection4--,rivets must be true to form1 free from scale1 fins1 seams and all other unsightly or injurious defects4 ,in view of the fact that the government is using many hundred tons of these rivets1 shown by the records of the tests to be vastly superior to any iron rivet made1 in all the essentials of a good rivet1 it would seem that it would benefit the boiler maker1 the purchaser of the boiler and also the maker of the rivet by adopting a standard steel rivet to be used in all steel boilers4 ,,bracing ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,the material of a boiler being satisfactory and the plates being thoroughly and skillfully riveted there remains the important matter of strengthening the boiler against the enormous internal pressure not altogether provided for4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,to illustrate the importance of attention to this point it may be remarked that a boiler eighteen feet in length by five feet in diameter1 with #dj four-inch tubes1 under a head of #hj pounds of steam1 has a pressure of nearly #aac tons on each head1 #a1fbe tons on the shell and #d1ccc tons on the tubes1 making a total of #f1ahd tons on the whole of the exposed surfaces4 ,not only is this immense force to be withstood1 but owing to the fact that the boiler grows weak with age--a safety factor of six has been adopted by inspectors1 i4e41 the boiler must be made six times as strong as needed in every day working practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,,braces ,,in ,,the ,,boiler4--,the proper bracing of flat surfaces exposed to pressure1 is a matter of the greatest importance1 as the power of resistance to bulging possessed by any considerable extent of such a surface1 made as they must be in the majority of cases of thin plates1 is so small that practically the whole load has to be carried by the braces4 ,this being the case1 it is evident that as much attention should be given to properly designing1 proportioning1 distributing and constructing the brace as to any other portion of the boiler4 ,all flat surfaces should be strongly supported with braces of the best refined iron1 or mild steel1 having a tensile strength of not less than #eh1jjj lbs4 to the square inch4 ,these braces must be provided with crow feet or heavy angle iron properly distributed throughout the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,fig4 #db shows the method usually followed in staying small horizontal tubular boilers4 ,the cut represents a #cf-;inch head and there are five braces in each head3 two short ones and three long ones4 ,the braces should be attached to shell and head by two rivets at each end4 ,the rivets should be of such size that the combined area of their shanks will be at least equal to the body of the brace1 and their length should be sufficient to give a good large head on the outside to realize strength equal to the body of the brace4 ,in boilers with larger diameters1 #e to #h feet1 stay ends are made of angle or ,t iron2 by this arrangement the stays can be placed further apart1 the angle irons very effectively staying the plate between the stays1 and thus affording more room in the body of the boiler4 ,the size of the stays have to be increased in proportion to the greater load they have to sustain4 ,see ,fig4 #dc4 ,in a #ff-;inch boiler it is proper to have not less than #aj braces in each head1 none under three feet in length1 made of the best round iron one inch in diameter1 with ends of braces made of iron #b-a_/b #a_/b inches with three pieces of ,t iron riveted to head above the tubes to which the braces are attached with suitable pins or turned bolts4 ,see ,fig4 #dd4 ,,staying ,,of ,,flat ,,surfaces4--,when boilers are formed principally of flat plates1 like low-pressure marine boilers1 or the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers1 the form contributes nothing to the strength1 which must1 therefore1 be provided for by staying the opposite furnaces together4 ,fig4 #de shows the arrangement of the stays in a locomotive fire-box4 ,they are usually pitched about #d inches from centre to centre1 and are fastened into the opposite plates by screwing1 as shown1 the heads being riveted over4 ,each stay has to bear the pressure of steam on a square aa1 and the sectional area of the stay must be so chosen that the tensile strength will be sufficient to bear the strain with the proper factor of safety4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,if the spaces between the stays are too great1 or the plate too thin1 there is a danger of the structure yielding through the plate bulging outwards between the points of attachment of the stays1 thus allowing the latter to draw through the screwed holes made in the plates4 ,in designing boilers with stayed surfaces1 care should be taken that the opposite plates connected by any system of stays should1 as far as possible1 be of equal area1 otherwise there is sure to be an unequal distribution of load in the stays1 some receiving more than their proper share1 and moreover1 the least supported plate is exposed to the danger of buckling4 ,,rule ,,for ,,finding ,,pressure ,,or ,,strain ,,on ,,bolts4 ,the absolute stress or strain on a flat surface of a steam boiler1 which is carried by the stays1 can be easily determined by a simple rule3 ,choose #c stays as ,a ,b ,c in ,fig4 #df1 measure from ,a to ,b in inches1 and from ,a to ,c4 ,multiply these two numbers together and the result is the number of square inches of surface depending upon one bolt for supporting strength4 ,,example4 ,suppose the stays measure from center to center #e inches each way with steam at #hj lbs41 then #e #e #be #hj #b1jjj lbs4 borne by #a stay4 ,,note4 ,the pressure on the surface does not include the space occupied by the area of the stay bolt1 hence1 to be absolutely correct that must be deducted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,,gusset ,,stays4 ,the flat ends of cylindrical boilers are1 especially in marine boilers1 stayed to the round portions of triangular plates of iron called gusset stays4 ,these are simply pieces of plate iron secured to the boiler front or back1 near the top or bottom1 by means of two pieces of angle iron1 then carried to the shell plating1 and again secured by other pieces of angle bar4 ,this arrangement is shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,,palm ,,stays4--,these are shown in ,fig4 #dh1 and are often used in the same position as a gusset stay2 that is1 from the back or front end of the boiler to the shell plates2 they are sometimes used to stay the curved tops of combustion chambers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the two opposite ends are also stayed together by long bar stays1 running the whole length of the boiler1 it is dangerous1 however1 to trust too much to the latter class of stays2 for1 in consequence of the alternate expansion and contraction which takes place every time the boiler is heated and cooled1 they have a tendency to work loose at the joints2 and if the portion of the boiler in which they are situated should happen to be hotter than the outside shell1 they have a tendency to droop and are then perfectly useless4 ,,riveted ,,or ,,screw ,,stays4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,in addition to palm and gusset stays1 there are in use riveted or screwed stays1 as shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,this would not answer in furnaces1 owing to the burning off of the heads1 hence driven stays are used there4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,these screwed stays1 shown in ,fig4 #ej1 are used 7in marine and similar boilers7 between the combustion chamber back and boiler back and also between the sides of the combustion chambers4 ,the general plan is to have a large nut and washer inside and outside the boiler with the outside washer considerably larger than the inside1 so as to hold more efficiently the back and front ends together4 ,in marine boilers it is customary to place the stays #ae to #ah inches apart for ease of access to the parts of the boiler1 and to make them of #b-a_/d to #b-a_/b inch iron of the best quality4 ,,inspector',s ,,rules ,,relating ,,to ,,braces ,,in ,,steam ,,boilers1 ,,also ,,to ,,be ,,observed ,,by ,,engineers4 ,where flat surfaces exist1 the inspector must satisfy himself that the spacing and distance apart of the bracing1 and all other parts of the boiler1 are so arranged that all will be of not less strength than the shell1 and he must also after applying the hydrostatic test1 thoroughly examine every part of the boiler4 ,no braces or stays employed in the construction of marine boilers shall be allowed a greater strain than six thousand pounds per square inch of section1 and no screw stay bolt shall be allowed to be used in the construction of marine boilers in which salt water is used to generate steam1 unless said stay bolt is protected by a socket4 ,but such screw stay bolts1 without sockets1 may be used in staying the fire boxes and furnaces of such boiler1 and not elsewhere1 when fresh water is used for generating steam in said boiler4 ,water used from a surface condenser shall be deemed fresh water4 ,and no brace or stay bolt used in a marine boiler will be allowed to be placed more than eight and one-half inches from centre to centre1 except that flat surfaces1 other than those on fire boxes1 furnaces and back connections1 may be reinforced by a washer or ,t iron of such size and thickness as would not leave such flat surface unsupported at a greater distance1 in any case1 than eight and one-half inches1 and such flat surface shall not be of less strength than the shell of the boiler1 and able to resist the same strain and pressure to the square inch1 and no braces supporting such flat reinforced surfaces1 will be allowed more than #af inches apart4 ,in allowing the strain on a screw stay bolt1 the diameter of the same shall be determined by the diameter at the bottom of the thread4 ,many ,state laws and ,city ordinances allow a strain of seven thousand five hundred pounds per square inch of section on good bracing without welds4 ,the following table gives the safe load of round iron braces or stays4 ,,diameter ,,of ,,brace4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,tensile strength per square#a_/be_/hc_/dg_/h #a #a-a_/ha-a_/da-a_/ba-c_/d #b inch of section allowed ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ejjj #ihaaeccbbjhcjjfcibg #digj #facf #hhce #abjbf #aegjh #fjjj #aaghahdjbfejcfjgdgab #eifd #gcfc #ajfjb #addca #ahhdi #gjjj #acgdbefgcjibdbjiedig #fieh #heij #abcfi #afhcg #baiia #gejj #adgbbgejccacdejiehij #gdee #ibjd #acbec #ahjci #bcefb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,shop ,,names ,,for ,,boiler ,,braces4--#a4 ,gusset brace 7fig4 #dg74 #b4 ,crowfoot brace4 #c4 ,jaw brace 7fig4 #dd74 #d4 ,head to head brace 7fig4 #ej74 ,these shop terms refer to braces used in the tubular form of boiler4 ,a ,,stay ,,and ,a ,,brace in a steam boiler fulfil the same office1 that of withstanding the pressure exerted outward of the expanded and elastic steam4 ,,socket ,,bolts are frequently used instead of the screw stay between the inside and outside plates that form the centre space4 ,socket bolts are driven hot the same as rivets4 ,the method of bracing with ,t bars is considered the best2 the bars make the flat surface rigid and unyielding even before the brace is applied4 ,the braces should be spaced about #h inches apart on the ,t bar and #g inches from the edge of the flange ,t the bar should be #d #d-a_/b ,t iron and riveted to the head or flat surface with #aa_/af rivets spaced #d-a_/b inches apart4 ,,hollow ,,stay ,,bolts are used in locomotive fire boxes to show when fracture has occurred by permitting an escape of steam or water4 ,the flange of a boiler head #a_/b thick will amply support #f inches from the edge of the flange4 ,a radius of #b inches is ample for bend of flange on the head4 ,the lower braces should be started #f inches above the top row of tubes4 ,braces should be fitted so as to have a straight pull1 i4e4 parallel with the boiler shell4 ,the heads of the boiler should be perfectly straight before the braces are fitted in place4 ,gusset brace plates should not be less than #cj inches long and #ad inches wide4 ,braces are best made of #a inch ,o iron of highest efficacy with tensile strength of not less than #eh1jjj lbs4 to the square inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the riveted stay shown in ,fig4 #ea1 consists of a long rivet1 passed through a thimble or distance piece of wrought iron pipe placed between plates1 to be stayed together1 and then riveted over in the usual manner4 ,an ingenious device is in use to show when a bolt has broken4 ,a small hole is drilled into the head1 extending a little way beyond the plate1 and as experience shows that the fracture nearly always occurs next to the outside plate1 that is the end taken for the bored out head3 when the bolt is broken the rush of steam through the small hole shows the danger without causing serious disturbance4 ,even where the best of iron is used for stay bolts they should never be exposed to more than #a_/ajth or #a_/abth their breaking strength4 ,the stays should be well fitted1 and each one carefully tightened1 and1 as far as possible each stay in a group should have the same regular strain upon it--if the 8pull0 all should come on one the whole are liable to give way4 ,,dimensions ,,and ,,shape ,,of ,,angle ,,and ,t ,,iron4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the condition of a boiler can be learned by tapping on the sheets1 rivets1 seams1 etc41 to ascertain whether there are any broken stays1 laminated places1 broken rivets1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,b4 ,fig4 ,a represents the method of preparing testing pieces of boiler plate1 for the machines prepared specially to measure their elongation before breaking1 and also the number of pounds they will bear stretching before giving way4 ,fig4 ,b exhibits the same with reference to the brace and other ,o iron4 ,,rules ,,and ,,tables ,,for ,,determining ,,areas ,,and ,,calculating ,,the ,,contents ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,water ,,spaces ,,in ,,the ,,steam ,,boiler4 ,in order to ascertain the number of braces1 which are necessary to strengthen that part of the boiler head1 which is not stayed by the tubes1 it is first necessary to know its area2 the part to be stayed is a segment of a circle4 ,the length of the segment is measured above the top row of the tubes1 and its height or width is equal to the distance from the top of the tubes to the top of the boiler shell4 ,since1 however1 part of this segment is braced by the boiler shell1 and also by the top row of the tubes1 it has been generally agreed that the length of the segment should be measured two inches above the tubes1 and the height or width1 should be measured from a line1 drawn two inches above the tubes1 to a point within three inches from the top of the boiler shell1 as shown in the illustration by the dotted line4 ,thus1 referring to ,fig4 ,d1 the length of the segment is equal to l1 and the height is equal to h4 ,,rule4 ,the area of a segment may be obtained1 very approximately1 by dividing the cube of the width 7or height7 by twice the length of the chord1 and adding to the quotient the product of the width into two-thirds of the chord4 ,,example4 ,if we suppose the height h of the segment in ,fig4 ,d to be equal to #ah inches1 and the length l to be equal to #dh inches1 we have #ah 7#dh #b7 7#dh #b_/c #ah7 #fj4g #egf4j #fcf4g square inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,c4 ,fig4 ,d4 ,in order to calculate the contents of the steam and water spaces of a boiler1 the same rule1 as above1 may be employed4 ,the volume of the steam space may be readily obtained by the above rule1 taking the distance from the water level to the top of the shell for the height1 and the diameter of the shell1 measured at the water line1 for the length of the segment lines4 ,the area of the segment thus found1 expressed in square inches1 divided by #add1 and multiplied by the length of the boiler in feet1 is equal to the steam space1 in cubic feet1 this result is slightly reduced by the space occupied by the braces4 ,in order to find the volume of the water space1 it is first necessary to find the total area of the boiler head1 and this minus the area of the segment above the water line1 is equal to the area of the segment below the water line4 ,from this must also be subtracted the combined cross sectional area of the tubes4 ,thus1 the rule for finding the volume of the steam space in cubic feet4 #a4 ,find the area of the segment of the boiler head1 above the water line1 in square inches4 #b4 ,divide this by #add1 and multiply the quotient by the length of the boiler in feet4 ,to find the volume of the waterspace in cubic feet4 #a4 ,find the area of the boiler head in square inches4 #b4 ,multiply the square of the outside diameter of one tube by 4#ghed1 and multiply this by the number of tubes1 and add to the product1 the area of the segment above the waterline4 #c4 ,subtract #b from #a1 and divide the remainder by #add4 #d4 ,multiply the quotient by the length of the boiler in feet4 ,to find the number of braces1 necessary for the flat surface above the tubes4 #a4 ,find the area of the segment of the boiler head1 which is to be braced1 in square inches4 #b4 ,multiply the area1 thus found1 by the steam pressure in pounds per square inch4 #c4 ,multiply the cross sectional area of one brace by the number of pounds1 which it is allowed to carry1 per square inch of section4 #d4 ,divide product #b by product #c1 and the result is the number of braces1 required for the head4 ,table ,no4 #a gives the total area in square inches4 ,no4 #b1 areas to be braced4 ,no4 #c1 number of braces of one inch round iron required1 allowing seven thousand five hundred pounds per square inch of section at one hundred pounds steam pressure4 ,table ,no4 #c will be found of more practical use than ,table #b1 for it gives directly the number of braces required in any given boiler1 instead of the area to be braced4 ,it was calculated from ,table #b4 ,the iron used in braces will safely stand a continuous pull of #g1ejj pounds to the square inch1 which is the figure used in computing the foregoing table4 ,a round brace an inch in diameter has a sectional area of 4#ghed of an inch1 and the strain that it will safely withstand is found by multiplying 4#ghed by #g1ejj1 which gives #e1hij pounds as the safe working strain on a brace of one-inch round iron4 ,in a #fj-;inch boiler1 whose upper tubes are #bh inches below the shell1 the area to be braced is1 according to table #b1 #icj square inches4 ,if the pressure at which it is to be run is #ajj pounds to the square inch1 the entire pressure on the area to be braced will be #ic1jjj pounds1 and this is the strain that must be withstood by the braces4 ,as one brace of inch-round iron will safely stand #e1hij pounds1 the boiler will need as many braces as #e1hij is contained in #ic1jjj1 which is #ae4h4 ,that is1 #af braces will be required4 ,the table is made out on the basis of #ajj lbs4 pressure to the square inch1 because that is a very convenient number4 ,,table ,,no4 #a4 ,,total ,,area ,,above ,,tubes ,,or ,,flues4 7,,square ,,inches47 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,height ,,diameter ,,of ,,boiler ,,in ,,inches4 from tubes----------------------------------- to shell4 #cf #db #dh #ed #fj #ff #gb ---------------------------------------- ----- #ae #chi #af #dai #ag #deh #ebf #ah #eff #fbj #ffg #ai #fjh #ffg #gbj #bj #fej #gad #ggj #hbd #ba #gef #hbd #hhb #bb #hjh #hgh #icg #bc #icj #iif #ajei #bd #ihb #ajef #aaba #be #ajcg #aaaf #aahd #bf #ajij #abji #abeb #acbd #bg #aade #abcd #acaf #acid #bh #abia #acha #adfe #bi #aceb #adde #aecf #cj #adad #aeaa #afjh #ca #aegf #afgd #cb #afda #agdf #cc #ahah #cd #ahif ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,table #b4 ,,areas ,,to ,,be ,,braced4 7,,square ,,inches47 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,height ,,diameter ,,of ,,boiler ,,in ,,inches4 from tubes----------------------------------- to shell4 #cf #db #dh #ed #fj #ff #gb ---------------------------------------- ----- #ae #bjf #af #bce #ag #bfd #big #ah #cca #cfe #cif #ai #caf #djd #dci #bj #dja #ddd #dhc #eai #ba #dhe #ebh #efh #bb #ebf #egd #fah #bc #fbj #ffh #gad #bd #ffg #gbj #gfi #be #gad #ggb #hbe #bf #gfa #hbd #hhb #icg #bg #hji #hgg #idj #iih #bh #icj #iih #ajfa #bi #ihc #ajef #aabd #cj #ajcg #aaae #aahg #ca #aagd #abeb #cb #abcd #acag #cc #achb #cd #addg ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,table #c4 ,,number ,,of ,,braces ,,required1 ,,at #ajj ,,lbs4 ,,pressure4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,height ,,diameter ,,of ,,boiler ,,in ,,inches4 from tubes----------------------------------- to shell4 #cf #db #dh #ed #fj #ff #gb ---------------------------------------- ----- #ae #c4e #af #d4j #ag #d4e #e4j #ah #e4f #f4b #f4g #ai #f4b #f4i #g4e #bj #f4h #g4e #h4b #h4i #ba #h4b #i4j #i4f #bb #h4i #i4h #aj4e #bc #aj4e #aa4c #ab4a #bd #aa4c #ab4b #ac4a #be #ab4a #ac4a #ad4j #bf #ab4i #ad4j #ae4j #ae4i #bg #ac4g #ad4i #af4j #af4i #bh #ae4h #af4i #ah4j #bi #af4g #ag4i #ai4a #cj #ag4f #ah4i #bj4b #ca #ai4i #ba4c #cb #ba4j #bb4d #cc #bc4e #cd #bd4i ---------------------------------------- ----- ,in ,table #b this calculation has been made for all sizes of boilers that are ordinarily met with4 ,the area to be braced has been calculated as above in each case1 the two-inch strip above the tubes1 and the three-inch strip around the shell being taken into account4 ,as an example of its use1 let us suppose that upon measuring a boiler we find that its diameter is #ed inches1 and that the distance from the upper tubes to the top of the shell is #be inches4 ,then by looking in the table under #ed and opposite #be we find #gad1 which is the number of square inches that requires staying on each head4 ,,boiler ,,tubes4 ,,table4 ,dimensions of ,lap ,welded ,boiler ,tubes4 --------------------------------- ,size outside ,wire ,weight per diameter4 ,gauge4 foot4 --------------------------------- #a inch4 #ae #j4gjh #a-a_/d #ae #j4i #a-a_/b #ad #a4bej #a-c_/d #ac #a4ffe #b #ac #a4iha #b-a_/d #ac #b4bch #b-a_/b #ab #b4gee #b-c_/d #ab #c4jde #c #ab #c4ccc #c-a_/d #aa #c4ieh #c-a_/b #aa #d4bgb #c-c_/d #aa #d4eij #d #aj #e4cbj #d-a_/b #aj #f4jaj #e #i #g4bbf #f #h #i4cdf #g #h #ab4dce #h #h #ae4aji #i #g-a_/b #aj #f-a_/b --------------------------------- ,the above is the regular manufactures' list of sizes and weights4 ,,note4 ,boiler tubes are listed and described from the outside diameter4 ,this should be noted1 as gas-pipe is described from the inside diameter4 ,thus a #a-;inch gas-pipe is nearly #a-a_/d outside diameter while a #a-;inch boiler tube is exactly one inch4 ,another difference between the two consists in the fact that the outside of boiler tubes is rolled smooth and even2 gas-pipe is left comparatively rough and uneven4 ,when the boiler tubes are new and properly expanded there is a large reserve or surplus of holding power for that part of the tube sheet supported by them1 this has been proved by experiment made by chief engineer ,w4 ,h4 ,stock1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 as shown in the following ,,table ,,of ,,holding ,,power ,,of ,,boiler ,,tubes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,outside ,area of ,thickness,strain diameter cross of tube in ,method of ,fastening4 of end of tubesection plate 4pounds4 where fractureof body ,mean took place4 of tube4 result4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,inches4 ,sq4 ins4 ,inches4 ,pounds4 #b-e_/h 4#iha #g_/af #bbfej ,expanded by ,dudgeon tool1 end riveted over4 #b-e_/h 4#iha #g_/af #bbaej ,expanded by ,dudgeon tool1 end partly riveted over4 #b-c_/h 4#iha #c_/h #beebe ,expanded by ,dudgeon tool1 end riveted over4 #b-c_/h 4#iha #c_/h #bifge ,expanded by ,dudgeon tool1 ferruled1 not riveted over4 #b-c_/h 4#iha #c_/h #acjej ,simply expanded by ,dudgeon tool4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mr4 ,c4 ,b4 ,richards1 consulting engineer at ,colt's ,armory at ,hartford1 ,conn41 made some experiments as to the holding power of tubes in steam boilers1 with the following results3 ,the tubes were #c inches in external diameter1 and #j4aji of an inch thick1 simply expanded into a sheet #c_/h of an inch thick by a ,dudgeon expander4 ,the greatest stress without the tubes yielding in the plate was #d1ejj pounds1 and at #e1jjj pounds was drawn from the sheet4 ,these experiments were repeated with the ends of the tubes which projected through the sheet three-sixteenths of an inch1 being flared so that the external diameter in the sheet was expanded to #c4a inches4 ,the greatest stress without yielding was #ah1ejj pounds2 at #ai1jjj pounds yielding was observed2 and at #ai1ejj pounds it was drawn from the sheet4 ,the force was applied parallel to the axis of the tube1 and the sheet surfaces were held at right angles to the tube axis4 ,,note4 ,when the tube sheet and tube ends near the sheet become coated with scale or the tubes become overheated1 the holding power of the tubes becomes largely reduced1 and caution must be used in having the tube ends re-expanded and accumulated scale removed4 ,,note #b4--;,in considering the stress or strain upon the expanded or riveted over ends of a set of boiler tubes1 it may be remembered that the strain to be provided against is only that coming upon tube plate1 exposed to pressure1 between the tube ends--the space occupied by the tubes has no strain upon it4 ,the gauge to be employed by inspectors to determine the thickness of boiler plates will be any standard ,american gauge furnished by the ,treasury ,department4 ,all samples intended to be tested on the ,riehle1 ,fairbanks1 ,olson1 or other reliable testing machine1 must be prepared in form according to the following diagram1 viz43 eight inches in length1 two inches in width1 cut out their centres as indicated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,e4 ,,portions ,,of ,,the ,,marine ,,boiler ,,which ,,become ,,thin ,,by ,,wear4 ,these are generally situated1 #ast1 at or a little above the line of fire bars in the furnace2 #b;d1 the ash pits2 #c;d1 combustion chamber backs2 #dth1 shell at water line2 #eth1 front and bottom of boiler4 ,the thinning can usually be detected by examination1 sounding with a round nosed hammer1 or drilling small holes in suspected parts not otherwise accessible for examination4 ,,examples ,,of ,,construction ,,and ,,drawing ---------------------------------- d t d t ---------------------------------- #i_/af #a_/d #ae_/af #e_/h ---------------------------------- #aa_/af #e_/afa-a_/af #c_/d ---------------------------------- #c_/d #c_/h #a-a_/h #g_/h ---------------------------------- #g_/h #a_/b #a-c_/af #a ---------------------------------- d ,,diam4 ,,of ,,rivet4 t ,,thickness ,,of ,,plate4 ,the small table above is of use in this and the four succeeding pages2 in all places in the drawings where 8d0 is used it indicates the diameter of the rivet2 8t0 means the thickness of the plate2 8p0 stands for pitch4 ,the table also shows the proportion of rivet to the plate--thus1 a #a_/d-;inch plate requires a #i_/af rivet1 etc4 ,it is recommended1 in view of the increased disposition on the part of official examiners to test the applicant's knowledge of drawing1 for any one interested1 to redraw to a full size all the rivets1 plates1 and methods of joining the two contained on pages #aac-aaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the figures #ec to #fj will be understood without much explanation4 ,in figures #ec and #ed the cup head1 the conical head and pan head rivets are shown4 ,figs4 #ee and #ef exhibit the details 7and drawings7 of single and double riveting4 ,where the cut reads p 7#b-a_/b7;d1 it means that the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next shall be #b-a_/b the diameter of the rivet1 see example1 page #aae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,,example4 ,if the size of the rivet used is #g_/hths1 then #g_/h #b-a_/b #b-b_/aj inches nearly1 and this gives the proportionate strength of the plate and the rivet1 see page #aac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,figs4 #eg1 #eh1 #ei and #fj show quite clearly the joints and rivet work done in locomotive and marine work4 ,fig4 #fj shows method of riveting #c plates1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,,rule ,,for ,,safe ,,internal ,,pressure ,the safe internal pressure on cylindrical shells is found according to the following rule1 which has been adopted by the ,united ,states ,board of ,supervising ,inspectors1 and any boiler shell not found in the tables can be determined by this rule4 ,,rule4--,multiply one-sixth of the lowest tensile strength found stamped on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the thickness--expressed in inches or parts of an inch--of the thinnest plate in the same cylindrical shell1 and divide by the radius or half diameter--also expressed in inches--and the result will be the pressure allowable per square inch of surface for single riveting1 to which add twenty per centum for double riveting4 ,the hydrostatic pressure applied1 under this table and rule1 must be in the proportion of one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch1 to one hundred pounds to the square inch of the working pressure allowed4 ,,example4 ,what pressure should be allowed to be carried on a boiler #fj diameter1 made of plates #c_/h thick1 having a tensile strength of #fj1jjj pounds8 ,now then3 #f7fj1jjj ------ #aj1jjj #c ------ #h7cj1jjj ------ ,half diam4 #cj7cgej7abe4 lbs4--if single riveted4 #cj ---- #ge #fj ---- #aej #abe #be lbs4 7#bj feet7 #aej for #aej double riveted4 ,,tables ,,safe ,,internal ,,pressure4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,pressure4 ,pressure4 ,pressure4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,diameter ,thickness,single ,double ,single ,double ,single ,double of of ,riveted,riveted,riveted,riveted,riveted ,riveted ,boiler4 ,plates4 ---------------------------------------- -- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #cf ,inches4 4#ba #hg4e #aje4 #ig4ba #aaf4fe #ajf4id #abh4c 4#bc #ie4hc #aad4ii #ajf4dg #abg4gf #aag4ab #adj4ed 4#be #ajd4af #abd4ii #aae4gd #ach4hh #abg4ca #aeb4gg 4#bf #ajh4cc #abi4ii #abj4cg #add4dd #acb4d #aeh4hh 4#bi #abj4hc #add4ii #acd4be #afa4aa #adg4fh #agg4ba 4#cc #acg4e #afe4 #aeb4gg #ahc4cb #afh4je #bja4ff 4#ce #ade4hc #agd4ii #afb4jc #aid4dc #agh4bc #bac4hg 4#cge #aef4be #ahg4e #agc4fa #bjh4cc #aij4ig #bbi4af ---------------------------------------- ----------- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #aaf4ff #aci4ii #abf4ch #aea4fe #acf4aa #afc4cc 4#bc #abg4gg #aec4cb #ach4da #aff4ji #adi4jg #agh4hh 4#be #ach4hh #aff4fe #aej4df #ahj4ee #afb4jc #aid4dc 4#bf #add4dd #agc4cb #aef4dh #ahg4gg #afh4ea #bjb4ba 4#bi #afa4aa #aic4cc #agd4ec #bji4dc #ahg4ij #bbe4dh 4#cc #ahc4cc #bai4ii #aih4fa #bch4cc #bac4hh #bef4fe 4#ce #aid4dd #bcc4cb #baj4fd #beb4gf #bbf4hd #bgb4bj 4#cge #bjh4cc #bdi4ii #bbe4fi #bga4hb #bdc4je #bia4ff ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #dj ,inches4 4#ba #gh4ge #id4ej #hg4di #ajd4ih #if4bd #aae4dh 4#bc #hf4be #ajc4e #ie4hc #aad4ii #aje4da #abf4di 4#be #ic4ge #aab4e #ajd4af #abd4ii #aad4eh #acg4di 4#bf #ig4e #aag4 #ajh4cc #abi4ii #aai4af #adb4ii 4#bi #ajh4ge #acj4e #abj4hc #add4ii #acb4ia #aei4di 4#cabe #aag4ah #adj4fa #acj4b #aef4bd #adc4bb #aga4hf 4#cc #abc4ge #adh4e #acg4di #afd4ih #aea4bd #aha4dh 4#ce #aca4be #aeg4e #ade4hc #agd4ii #afj4da #aib4di 4#cge #adj4fb #afh4gd #aef4bd #ahg4dh #aga4hg #bjf4bd ---------------------------------------- ----------- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjjj ,tensile#gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #aje4 #abf4 #aac4gd #acf4dh #abb4di #adf4ih 4#bc #aae4 #ach4 #abd4eh #adi4di #acd4af #afj4ii 4#be #abe4 #aej4 #ace4da #afb4di #ade4hc #agd4ii 4#bf #acj4 #aef4 #adj4hc #fh4ii #aea4ff #aha4ii 4#bi #ade4 #agd4 #aeg4jh #ahh4di #afi4af #bjb4ii 4#cabe #aef4be #ahg4de #afi4bg #bjc4ab #ahb4bi #bah4gd 4#cc #afe4 #aih4 #agh4gd #bad4dh #aib4di #bcj4ih 4#ce #age4 #baj4 #ahi4eh #bbg4di #bjd4af #bdd4ii 4#cge #ahg4e #bbe4 #bjc4ab #bdc4gd #bah4gd #bfb4dh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #db ,inches4 4#ba #ge4 #ij4jj #hc4cb #ii4ii #ia4ff #aji4ii 4#bc #hb4ad #ih4ef #ia4bc #aji4ea #ajj4ci #abj4df 4#be #hi4bh #ajg4ac #ii4b #aai4jd #aji4ab #acj4id 4#bf #ib4he #aaa4db #ajc4ag #abc4h #aac4di #acf4ah 4#bi #ajc4eg #abd4bh #aae4jg #ach4jh #abf4eg #aea4he 4#cabe #aaa4f #acc4ib #abd4 #adh4h #acf4d #afc4fh 4#cc #aag4he #ada4db #acj4id #aeg4ab #add4jd #agb4hd 4#ce #abe4 #aej4 #ach4hh #aff4fe #aeb4gg #ahc4cb 4#cge #acc4ib #afj4g #adh4h #agh4ef #afc4fh #aif4dj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #ajj4 #abj4 #ajh4cc #abi4ii #aaf4ff #aci4ii 4#bc #aji4eb #aca4db #aah4fe #adb4ch #abg4gg #aec4cb 4#be #aai4jd #adb4hd #abh4if #aed4ge #ach4hh #aff4fe 4#bf #abc4h #adh4ef #acd4ab #afj4id #add4dd #agc4cb 4#bi #ach4ji #afe4g #adi4f #agi4eb #afa4aa #aic4cc 4#cabe #adh4gd #agh4ef #afa4b #aic4dd #agc4fa #bjh4bc 4#cc #aeg4ad #ahh4ef #agj4bc #bjd4bg #ahc4cc #bai4ii 4#ce #aff4ff #aii4ii #ahj4ee #baf4ff #aid4dd #bcc4cb 4#cge #agh4eg #bad4bh #aic4de #bcb4ad #bjh4cc #bdi4ii ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #dh ,inches4 4#ba #fe4fb #gh4gd #gb4ia #hg4di #hj4b #if4bd 4#bc #ga4hg #hf4bd #gi4he #ie4hb #hg4hd #aje4d 4#be #gh4ab #ic4gd #hf4h #ajd4af #ie4dh #aad4eg 4#bf #ha4be #ig4ej #ij4bg #ajh4cb #ii4c #aai4af 4#bi #ij4fb #ajh4gd #ajj4fi #abj4hb #aaj4gf #acb4ia 4#cabe #ig4fe #aag4ah #ajh4e #acj4b #aai4ce #adc4bb 4#cc #ajc4ab #abc4gd #aad4eh #acg4di #abf4jd #aea4bd 4#ce #aji4cg #aca4bd #aba4eb #ade4hb #acc4fg #afj4d 4#cge #aag4ah #adj4fa #acj4b #aef4bd #adc4bb #aga4hf ---------------------------------------- ----------- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #hg4di #ajd4ih #id4gi #aac4gd #ajb4jh #abb4di 4#bc #ie4hc #aad4ii #ajc4ha #abd4eg #aaa4h #acc4af 4#be #ajd4af #abd4ii #aab4hd #ace4d #aba4eb #ade4hb 4#bf #ajh4cc #abi4ii #aag4cf #adj4hc #abf4ch #aea4fe 4#bi #abj4hc #add4ii #acj4i #aeg4jh #adj4ig #afi4af 4#cabe #acj4ba #aef4be #ada4je #afi4bf #aea4i #ahb4bh 4#cc #acg4e #afe4 #adh4ie #agh4gd #afj4da #aib4di 4#ce #ade4hc #agd4ii #aeg4ih #ahi4eg #agj4ac #bjd4ad 4#cge #aef4be #ahg4ej #afi4bg #bjc4ab #ahb4bi #bah4gd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #ed ,inches4 4#ba #eh4cc #fi4ii #fd4ha #gg4gg #ga4bi #he4ed 4#bc #fc4hh #gf4fe #gj4ih #he4ag #gh4jh #ic4fi 4#be #fi4dd #hc4cb #gg4af #ib4eb #hd4hg #aja4hd 4#bf #gb4bb #hf4ff #hj4bd #if4bh #hh4bg #aje4ib 4#bi #hj4ee #if4ff #hi4e #ajg4dj #ih4de #aah4ad 4#cabe #hf4h #ajd4af #if4dd #aae4gb #ajf4ji #abg4cj 4#cc #ia4ff #aji4ii #aja4hd #abb4bb #aab4jc #acd4dc 4#ce #ig4bb #aaf4ff #ajh4jb #abi4fb #aah4hb #adb4eh 4#cge #ajd4af #abd4ii #aae4gd #ach4hh #abg4ca #aeb4gg ---------------------------------------- -- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #gg4gg #ic4cb #hd4be #aja4a #ij4gd #ajh4hh 4#bc #he4ah #ajb4ba #ib4bh #aaj4gc #ii4ch #aai4be 4#be #ib4ei #aaa4aj #ajj4c #abj4cf #ajh4jb #abi4fb 4#bf #if4bi #aae4ed #ajd4ca #abe4ag #aab4dd #acd4h 4#bi #ajg4da #abh4hh #aaf4ce #aci4fb #abe4c #aej4cf 4#cabe #aae4ee #ach4ff #abe4ch #aej4de #ace4jc #afb4jc 4#cc #abb4bb #adf4ff #acb4d #aeh4hh #adb4ei #aga4aj 4#ce #abi4fi #aee4ed #adj4dc #afh4ea #aea4bc #aha4dg 4#cge #ach4hh #aff4fe #aej4df #ahj4ee #afb4jc #aid4dc ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #fj ,inches4 4#ba #eb4e #fc4 #eh4cc #fi4ii #fd4af #gf4ii 4#bc #eg4e #fi4 #fc4hh #gf4fe #gj4bg #hd4cb 4#be #fb4e #ge4 #fi4dd #hc4cb #gf4ch #ia4fe 4#bf #fe4 #gh4 #gb4bb #hf4ff #gi4dd #ie4cb 4#bi #gb4e #hg4 #hj4ee #if4ff #hh4fa #ajf4cc 4#cabe #gh4ab #ic4gd #hf4h #ajd4af #ie4dh #aad4eg 4#cc #hb4e #ii4 #ia4ff #aji4ii #ajj4hc #abj4ii 4#ce #hg4e #aje4 #ig4bb #aaf4ff #ajf4id #abh4cb 4#cge #ic4ge #aab4e #ajd4af #abd4ii #aad4eh #acg4di ---------------------------------------- -- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ba #fi4ii #hd4 #ge4hc #ij4ii #ha4ff #ig4ii 4#bc #gf4ff #ia4ii #hc4je #ii4ff #hi4dd #ajg4cb 4#be #hc4hc #ii4ii #ij4bg #ajh4cb #ig4bb #aaf4ff 4#bf #hf4ff #ajc4ii #ic4hh #aab4fe #aja4aa #aba4cc 4#bi #if4ff #aae4ii #ajd4gb #abe4ff #aab4gg #ace4cb 4#cabe #ajd4ah #abd4ii #aab4ie #ace4ed #aba4eb #ade4hb 4#cc #aji4ii #acb4 #aai4af #adb4ii #abh4cc #aec4ii 4#ce #aaf4ff #aci4ii #abf4ch #aea4fe #acf4aa #afc4cc 4#cge #abe4 #aej4 #ace4da #afb4di #ade4hh #agd4ii ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #ff ,inches4 4#ahge #db4fa #ea4ac #dg4cd #ef4h #eb4jg #fb4di 4#ba #db4gb #eg4bf #ec4 #fc4fc #eh4cc #fi4ii 4#bc #eb4bg #fb4gb #eh4 #fi4fi #fc4hh #gf4fe 4#be #ef4ha #fh4ag #fc4ac #ge4ge #fi4dd #hc4cb 4#bf #ei4ji #gj4i #fe4fe #gh4gh #gb4bb #hf4ff 4#bi #fe4ij #gi4jh #gc4bc #hg4hg #hj4ee #if4ff 4#cabe #ga4 #he4b #gh4ia #id4fi #hf4hi #ajd4af 4#cc #ge4 #ij4 #hc4cc #ii4ii #ia4ff #aji4ii 4#ce #gi4ef #ie4dg #hh4ch #ajf4je #ig4bb #aaf4ff 4#cge #he4bb #ajb4bf #id4fi #aac4fb #ajd4af #abd4ii ---------------------------------------- -- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ahge #ef4ha #fh4ag #fa4ee #gc4hf #ff4bh #gi4ec 4#ba #fc4fc #gf4ce #fh4ic #hb4ga #gd4bd #hi4jh 4#bc #fi4fi #hc4fb #ge4e #ij4f #ha4ca #ig4eg 4#be #ge4ge #ij4ij #hb4jg #ih4dh #hh4cg #ajf4jd 4#bf #gh4gh #id4ec #he4ce #ajb4db #ia4ia #aaj4bi 4#bi #hg4hg #aje4dd #ie4b #aad4bd #ajb4eb #abc4jb 4#cabe #hd4fi #aac4fb #ajb4eh #abc4ji #aaj4dg #acb4ef 4#cc #ii4ii #abj4 #ajh4cc #abi4ii #aaf4ff #aci4ii 4#ce #ajf4 #abg4bg #aad4hi #acg4hf #abc4gc #adh4dg 4#cge #aac4fb #acf4cd #abc4a #adg4gb #acb4eg #aei4jh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #de1jjj ,tensile #ej1jjj ,tensile #ee1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #g1ejj #a-f1 #h1ccc4c #a-f1 #i1aff4f ---------------------------------------- -- #gb ,inches4 4#ahge #ci4jf #df4hg #dc4d #eb4jh #dg4gd #eg4bh 4#ba #dc4ge #eb4e #dh4f #eh4cc #ec4dg #fd4af 4#bc #dg4ia #eg4di #ec4bd #fc4hh #eh4ef #gj4bg 4#be #eb4jh #fb4di #eg4hg #fi4dd #fc4fe #gf4ch 4#bf #ed4af #fd4ii #fj4ah #gb4bb #ff4b #gi4dd 4#bi #fj4da #gb4di #fg4ab #hj4ee #gc4hd #hh4fj 4#cabe #fe4aj #gh4ab #gb4cc #hf4h #gi4eg #ie4dh 4#cc #fh4ge #hb4e #gf4ch #ia4fb #hd4jb #ajj4hb 4#ce #gb4ia #hg4di #ha4ja #ig4ba #hi4aa #ajf4ic 4#cge #gh4ab #ic4gd #hf4h #ajd4af #ie4dh #aad4eg ---------------------------------------- -- #fj1jjj ,tensile #fe1jjj ,tensile #gj1jjj ,tensile ,strength4 ,strength4 ,strength4 #a-f1 #aj1jjj #a-f1 #aj1hcc4c #a-f1 #aa1fff4f ---------------------------------------- -- 4#ahge #eb4jh #fb4di #ef4db #fg4gj #fj4gf #gb4ia 4#ba #ec4cc #fi4ii #fc4ai #ge4hb #fh4jf #ha4ff 4#bc #ec4hh #gf4fe #ff4ba #hc4je #gd4eh #hi4dc 4#be #fi4dd #hc4cb #ge4bb #ij4bf #ha4ja #ig4ba 4#bf #gb4bb #hf4ff #gh4bd #ic4hh #hd4be #aja4aj 4#bi #hj4ee #if4ff #hg4bf #ajd4ga #ic4ih #aab4gg 4#cabe #hf4h #ajd4af #id4jc #aab4hh #aja4bg #aba4eb 4#cc #ia4ff #aji4ii #ii4c #aai4af #ajf4id #abh4cb 4#ce #ig4bb #aaf4ff #aje4cb #abf4ch #aac4db #acf4a 4#cge #ajd4af #abd4ii #aab4hd #ace4dc #aba4eb #ade4cb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,definition ,,of ,,terms4 ,in the accompanying sections1 some of the properties of iron and steel1 as employed in the construction of boilers1 are given4 ,it is1 therefore1 desirable that the meanings applied to the various terms used should be clearly understood4 ,the definitions necessary are1 then1 briefly as follows3-- ,tensile strength is equivalent to the amount of force which1 steadily and slowly applied in a line with the axis of the test piece1 just overcomes the cohesion of the particles1 and pulls it into separate parts4 ,contraction of area is the amount by which the area1 at the point where the specimen has broken1 is reduced below what it was before any strain or pulling force was applied4 ,elongation is the amount to which the specimen stretches1 between two fixed points1 due to a steady and slowly applied force1 which pulls and separates it into parts4 ,elongation is made up of two parts3 one due to the general stretch1 more or less1 over the length2 the other1 due to contraction of area at about the point of fracture4 ,shearing strength is equivalent to the force which1 if steadily and slowly applied at right angles1 or nearly so1 to the line of axis of the rivet1 causes it to separate into parts1 which slide over each other1 the planes of the surface at the point of separation being at right angles1 or nearly so1 to the axis of the rivet4 ,elastic limit is the point where the addition to the permanent set produced by each equal increment of load or force1 steadily and slowly applied1 ceases to be fairly uniform1 and is suddenly1 after the point is reached1 increased in amount4 ,it is expressed as a percentage of the tensile strength4 ,tough4--,the material is said to be 8tough0 when it can be bent first in one direction1 then in the other1 without fracturing4 ,the greater the angles it bends through 7coupled with the number of times it bends71 the tougher it is4 ,ductile4--,the material is 8ductile0 when it can be extended by a pulling or tensile force and remain extended after the force is removed4 ,the greater the permanent extension1 the more ductile the material4 ,elasticity is that quality in a material by which1 after being stretched or compressed by force1 it apparently regains its original dimensions when the force is removed4 ,fatigued is a term applied to the material when it has lost in some degree its power of resistance to fracture1 due to the repeated application of forces1 more particularly when the forces or strains have varied considerable in amount4 ,malleable is a term applied to the material when it can be extended by hammering1 rolling1 or otherwise1 without fracturing1 and remains extended4 ,the more it can be extended without being fractured1 the more malleable it is4 ,weldable is a term applied to the material if it can be united1 when hot1 by hammering or pressing together the heated parts4 ,the nearer the properties of the material1 after being welded1 are to what they were before being heated and welded1 the more weldable it is4 ,cold-short is a name given to the material when it cannot be worked under the hammer or by rolling1 or be bent when cold without cracking at the edges4 ,such a material may be worked or bent when at a great heat1 but not at any temperature which is lower than about that assigned to dull red4 ,hot-short is when the material cannot be easily worked under the hammer1 or by rolling at a red-heat at any temperature which is higher than about that assigned to a red-heat1 without fracturing or cracking4 ,such a material may be worked or bent at a less heat4 ,homogeneous describes a material which is all of the same structure and nature4 ,a homogeneous material is the best for boilers1 and it should be of suitable tensile strength with contraction of area and elongation best suited for the purpose1 having an elastic limit that will insure the structure being reliable2 it should be tough and ductile1 and its elasticity fairly good1 and be capable of enduring strains without becoming too quickly or easily fatigued4 ,the material should be malleable and in some cases weldable2 that which is of a decidedly cold-short or hot-short nature should be avoided4 ,,boiler ,,repairs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,this cut represents a form of clamp used in holding the plates against each other when being riveted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,fig4 #fg represents a peculiar form of bolt for screwing a patch to a boiler4 ,it is threaded into the boiler plate1 the chamfer rests against the patch and the square is for the application of the wrench4 ,after the bolt is well in place1 the head can be cut off with a cold chisel4 ,,repairing ,,cracks4 ,cracks in the crown-sheet or side of a fire-box boiler1 or top head of the upright boiler can be temporarily repaired by a row of holes drilled and tapped touching one another1 with #c_/h or #a_/b inch copper plugs or bolts1 screwed into the plates and afterwards all hammered together4 ,for a permanent job1 cut out the defect and rivet on a patch4 ,this had better be put on the inside1 so as to avoid a 8pocket0 for holding the dirt4 ,in putting on all patches1 the defective part must be entirely removed to the solid iron1 especially when exposed to the fire4 ,,note4--,when fire comes to two surfaces of any considerable extent1 the plate next to the fire becomes red-hot and weakens1 hence the inside plate1 in repairs1 must be removed4 ,the application of steel patches to iron boilers is injudicious4 ,steel and iron differ structurally and in every other particular1 and their expansion and contraction under the influence of changing temperatures1 is such that trouble is sure to result from their combination4 ,,defects ,,and ,,necessary ,,repairs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,fig4 #fh represents a patch called a 8spectacle piece40 ,this is used to repair a crack situated between the tube ends4 ,these are usually caused 7if the metal is not of bad quality7 by allowing incrustation to collect on the plate inside the boiler1 or by opening the furnace and smoke doors1 thus allowing a current of cold air to contract the metal of the plates round the heated and expanded tubes4 ,the 8spectacle piece0 is bored out to encircle the tubes adjacent to the crack1 or in other words1 to be a duplicate of a portion of the tube plate cracked4 ,these plates are then pinned on to the tube covering the crack4 ,steam generators1 as they are exposed to more or less of trying service in steam production1 develop almost an unending number and variety of defects4 ,when a boiler is new and first set up it is supposed to be clean1 inside and out1 but even one day's service changes its condition2 sediment has collected within and soot and ashes without4 ,unlike animals and plants they have no recuperative powers of their own--whenever they become weakened at any point the natural course of the defect is to become continually worse4 ,in nothing can an engineer better show his true fitness than in the treatment of the beginnings of defects as they show themselves by well-known signs of distress1 such as leaks of water about the tube ends1 and in the boiler below the water line1 or escaping steam above it4 ,in more serious cases1 the professional services of a skillful and honest boiler maker is the best for the occasion4 ,in a recent report given in by the ,inspectors the following list of defects in boilers coming under their observation was reported4 ,the items indicate the nature of the natural decay to which steam boilers in active use are exposed4 ,the added column under the heading of 8dangerous0 carries its own lesson1 urging the importance of vigilance and skill on the part of the engineer in charge4 ,nature of ,defects4 ,whole ,number4 ,dangerous4 ,cases of deposit of sediment #dai #cf ,cases of incrustation and scale #eif #dd ,cases of internal grooving #be #af ,cases of internal corrosion #aci #ba ,cases of external corrosion #cdg #aad ,broken and loose braces and stays #hc #ej ,settings defective #abi #ad ,furnaces out of shape #aga #ad ,fractured plates #aha #hd ,burned plates #ic #ca ,blistered plates #bcb #bb ,cases of defective riveting #cjf #cd ,defective heads #cf #bj ,serious leakage around tube ends #edi #eg ,serious leakage at seams #bad #ec ,defective water gauges #abh #ad ,defective blow-offs #de #i ,cases of deficiency of water #i #d ,safety-valves overloaded #bb #g ,safety-valves defective in construction #da #af ,pressure-gauges defective #baa #bi ,boiler without pressure-gauges #c #j ,this list covers nearly1 if not all1 the points of danger against which the vigilance of both engineer and fireman should be continually on guard2 and is worth constant study until thoroughly memorized4 ,,note4 ,probably one-quarter1 if not one-third1 of all boiler-work is done in the way of repairs1 hence the advice of men who have had long experience in the trade is the one safe thing to follow for the avoidance of danger and greater losses1 and for the best results the united opinion of #a1 the engineer1 experienced in his own boiler and #b1 the boiler-maker with his wider observation and #c1 the owner of the steam plant1 all of whom are most interested4 ,corrosion is a trouble from which few if any boilers escape4 ,the principal causes of external corrosion arise from undue exposure to the weather1 improper setting1 or possibly damp brick work1 leakage consequent upon faulty construction1 or negligence on the part of those having them in charge4 ,internal corrosion maybe divided into ordinary corroding1 or rusting and pitting4 ,ordinary corrosion is sometimes uniform through a large portion of the boiler1 but is often found in isolated patches which have been difficult to account for4 ,pitting is still more capricious in the location of its attack2 it may be described as a series of holes often running into each other in lines and patches1 eaten into the surface of the iron to a depth sometimes of one-quarter of an inch4 ,pitting is the more dangerous form of corrosion1 and the dangers are increased when its existence is hidden beneath a coating of scale4 ,there is another form of decay in boilers known as grooving2 it may be described as surface cracking of iron1 caused by its expansion and contraction1 under the influence of differing temperatures4 ,it is attributable generally to the too great rigidity of the parts of the boiler affected1 and it may be looked upon as resulting from faulty construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,in plugging a leaky tube with a pine plug1 make a small hole1 of #c_/af of an inch diameter1 or less1 running through it from end to end4 ,these plugs should never have a taper of more than #a_/h of an inch to the foot4 ,it is well to have a few plugs always on hand4 ,fig4 #fi exhibits the best shape for the wooden plug4 ,,questions ,,by ,,the ,,proprietor ,,to ,,the ,,engineer ,,in ,,charge1 ,,relating ,,to ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,boiler1 ,how long since you were inside your boiler8 ,were any of the braces slack8 ,were any of the pins out of the braces8 ,did all the braces ring alike8 ,did not some of them sound like a fiddle-string8 ,did you notice any scale on flues or crown sheet8 ,if you did1 when do you intend to remove it8 ,have you noticed any evidence of bulging in the fire-box plates8 ,do you know of any leaky socket bolts8 ,are any of the flange joints leaking8 ,will your safety-valve blow off itself1 or does it stick a little sometimes8 ,are there any globe valves between the safety-valve and the boiler8 ,they should be taken out at once1 if there are4 ,are there any defective plates anywhere about your boiler8 ,is the boiler so set that you can inspect every part of it when necessary8 ,if not1 how can you tell in what condition the plates are8 ,are not some of the lower courses of tubes or flues in your boiler choked with soot or ashes8 ,do you absolutely know1 of your own knowledge1 that your boiler is in safe and economical working order1 or do you merely suppose it is8 ,,questions ,,asked ,,of ,a ,,candidate ,,for ,a ,,marine ,,license ,,relating ,,to ,,defects ,,in ,,boiler ,,with ,,answers4 ,if you find a thin plate1 what would you do8 ,put a patch on4 ,would you put it on inside or outside8 ,inside4 ,why so8 ,because the action that has weakened the plate will then act on the patch1 and when this is worn it can be replaced2 but the plate remains as we found it4 ,if the patch were put on the outside1 the action would still be on the plate1 which would in time be worn through1 then the pressure of the steam would force the water between the plate and the patch1 and so corrode it2 and during a jerk or extra pressure1 the patch might be blown off4 ,it is on the same principle that mud-hole doors are on the inside4 ,if you found several thin places1 what would you do8 ,patch each1 and reduce the pressure4 ,if you found a blistered plate8 ,put a patch on the fire side4 ,if you found a plate at the bottom buckled8 ,put a stay through the centre of the buckle4 ,if you found several8 ,stay each1 and reduce the pressure4 ,the crown of the furnace down8 ,put a stay through the middle1 and a dog across the top4 ,if a length of the crown were down1 put a series of stays and dogs4 ,a cracked plate8 ,drill a hole at each end of the crack2 caulk the crack1 or put a patch over it4 ,if the water in the boiler is suffered to get too low1 what may be the consequence8 ,burn the top of the combustion chamber and the tubes2 perhaps cause an explosion4 ,if suffered to get too high8 ,cause priming2 perhaps cause the breaking of the cylinder covers4 ,,the ,,inspection ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,let it be clearly understood that if there were no steam generators using steam under pressure there would he no boiler inspection1 and no licensing of engineers2 it requires no license to be a machinist or a machine tender1 no more would a license be essential to run a steam engine1 except it were connected with the boiler4 ,the danger to the public arising from their use requires that the care and management of high-pressure steam boilers shall be in hands of careful1 experienced and naturally ingenious men1 hence it is on the affairs of the ,boiler ,room that the first tests are made1 as to the worthiness of an aspirant for an engineer's license1 hence1 too1 the success of many firemen in obtaining the preference over engine-builders or school graduates1 in the line of promotion as steam engineers4 ,the inspection laws of the various states and cities are framed after substantially the same leading ideas1 and in presenting one the others may be assumed to be nearly the same4 ,the special province of the ,steam ,boiler ,inspection and ,engineers' ,bureau in the police department in ,new ,york ,city is to inspect and test all the steam boilers in the city1 at certain stated periods1 and to examine every applicant for the position of engineer as to his ability and qualifications for running an engine and boiler with safety4 ,according to the laws of the ,state1 every owner1 agent or lessee1 of a steam boiler or boilers1 in the city of ,new ,york1 shall annually report to the board of police1 the location of said boiler or boilers1 and1 thereupon1 the officers in command of the sanitary company shall detail a practical engineer1 who shall proceed to inspect such steam boiler or boilers1 and all apparatus and appliances connected therewith4 ,when a notice is received from any owner or agent that he has one or more boilers for inspection1 a printed blank is returned to him stating that on the day named therein the boilers will be tested1 and he is asked to make full preparation for the inspection by complying with the following rules3 ,be ready to test at the above-named time4 ,have boiler filled with water to safety-valve4 ,have #a-a_/d-;inch connection4 ,have steam gauge4 ,steam allowed two-thirds amount of hydrostatic pressure4 ,more particularly stated1 the following have been adopted by one or more ,inspection ,companies3 ,,how ,,to ,,prepare ,,for ,,steam-,,boiler ,,inspection4 #a4 ,haul fires and all ashes from furnaces and ash pits4 #b4 ,if time will permit1 allow boiler and settings to cool gradually until there is no steam pressure1 then allow water to run out of boilers4 ,it is best that steam pressure should not exceed ten pounds if used to blow water out4 #c4 ,inside of boiler should be washed and dried through manholes and handholes by hose service and wiping4 #d4 ,keep safety-valves and gauge-cocks open4 #e4 ,take off manhole and handhole plates as soon as possible after steam is out of boiler1 that boiler may cool inside sufficiently for examination2 also keep all doors shut about boilers and settings1 except the furnace and ash-pit doors4 ,keep dampers open in pipes and chimneys4 #f4 ,have all ashes removed from under boilers1 and fire surfaces of shell and heads swept clean4 #g4 ,have spare packing ready for use on manhole and handhole plates1 if the old packing is made useless in taking off or is burned4 ,the boiler attendant is to take off and replace these plates4 #h4 ,keep all windows and doors to boiler room open1 after fires are hauled1 so that boilers and settings may cool as quickly as possible4 #i4 ,particular attention is called to ,rule #e1 respecting doors--which should be open and which closed--also arrangement of damper4 ,the importance of cooling the inside of the boiler by removal of manhole and handhole plates at the same time the outside is cooling1 is in equalizing the process of contraction4 ,,issuing ,,certificates4 ,these conditions having been complied with1 the boiler is thoroughly tested1 and if it is deemed capable of doing the work required of it1 a number by which it shall hereafter be known and designated is placed upon it in accordance with the city ordinance3 ,failure to comply with this provision is punishable by a fine of #be4 ,a certificate of inspection is then given to the owner1 for which a fee of #b is paid4 ,this certificate sets forth that on the day named the boiler therein described was subject to a hydrostatic pressure of a certain number of pounds to the square inch4 ,the certificate tells where the boiler was built1 its style or character and 8now appears to be in good condition and safe to sustain a working pressure of ---- to the square inch4 ,the safety-valve has been set to said pressure40 ,a duplicate of this certificate is posted in full view in the boiler-room4 ,in case the boiler does not stand the test to which it is subject1 it must be immediately repaired and put in good working order before a certificate will be issued4 ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,test4 ,the hydraulic test is a very convenient method of testing the tightness of the work in a new boiler1 in conjunction with inspection to a greater or lesser degree1 in the passing of new work4 ,as a detector of leakages it has no rival1 and its application enables faulty caulking to be made good before the boiler has left the works1 and before a leak has time to enter on its insidious career of corrosion4 ,the extent to which it enables the soundness and quality of the work to be ascertained is another matter1 and depends on several conditions4 ,it will be evident that if the test be applied with this object to a new boiler1 the pressure should range to some point in excess of the working load if such a test is to be of any practical value4 ,what the excess should be so as to remain within safe limits cannot be stated without regard being paid to the factor of safety adopted in the structure4 ,in addition to the advantage which the hydraulic test affords as a means of proving the tightness of the riveted seams and work generally1 it is also of frequent assistance in determining the sufficiency of the staying of flat surfaces1 especially when of indeterminate shape1 or when the stresses thrown upon them by the peculiar construction of the boiler are of uncertain magnitude4 ,for the hydraulic test1 however1 to be of any real value in the special cases to which we refer1 it is essential that it should be conducted by an expert1 and the application of the pressure accompanied by careful gaugings1 so as to enable the amount of bulging and permanent set to be ascertained4 ,without such readings the application of the test in such cases is worthless1 and may be delusive4 ,indeed1 the careful gauging of a boiler as a record of its behavior should be a condition of every test1 and is a duty requiring for its adequate performance a skilled inspector4 ,the duty of inspecting a new boiler or witnessing the hydraulic test properly belongs to one of the regular inspecting companies1 who have men in their employ specially trained for the performance of such work4 ,the advantage accruing from such a course is well worth the fee charged for the service1 and secures a searching inspection of the workmanship1 which frequently brings to light defects and oversights that a mere pumping-up of the boiler would never reveal4 ,such a proceeding in fact1 can only prove that the boiler is water-tight1 and a boiler may be tight under test although the workmanship is of the poorest character4 ,besides1 it is well to bear in mind that the tightness of a boiler under test is no guarantee of its tightness after it is got to work4 ,in a word1 as far as new boilers are concerned1 the application of hydraulic pressure unaccompanied by careful inspection and gaugings may be almost worthless1 while with these additions it may be extremely valuable1 especially in the case of boilers of peculiar shape1 and is a precaution that should not be neglected4 ,,engineers' ,,examinations4 ,keeping in mind the fact that if there were no steam-boilers there would be no examinations and no public necessity for licenses1 these 8points0 are added4 ,examinations are trying periods with all engineers1 as the best are liable to fail in their answers from a nervous dread of the ordeal1 but the granting of the document is very largely influenced by the personal experience of the candidate in the practical duties of the engine and boiler-room1 which must be stated and certified to by the evidence of others4 ,a general knowledge of the subject of steam engineering is the first requisite to success4 ,a few sample questions are here given to show the ordinary course pursued by examiners to determine the fitness of applicants3 ,how long have you been employed as an engineer1 and where8 ,are you a mechanic8 ,where did you learn your trade8 ,give some idea of the extent of your experience as an engineer8 ,what kind of boilers have you had charge of8 ,describe a horizontal tubular boiler4 ,describe a locomotive style boiler4 ,describe a vertical style boiler4 ,describe a sectional water tube boiler4 ,how thick is the iron in the shell of your boiler8 ,how thick should it be in the shell of your boiler8 ,how thick are the heads in your boiler8 ,how thick should they be in your boiler8 ,how are the heads fastened to the shell8 ,what is the best way to put heads in a boiler8 ,how is the shell riveted8 ,what size rivets are used8 ,what distance apart are they8 ,how should the shell be riveted8 ,why do they double rivet some seams8 ,what ones are best double riveted8 ,how is a horizontal boiler braced8 ,how is a locomotive boiler braced8 ,what is the size of and forms of braces generally used8 ,what is the size of your boiler or boilers1 length and diameter8 ,how many have you in charge8 ,name the horse power4 ,how many tubes are in the boiler8 ,what size are they1 and how thick8 ,how long are they8 ,how are they secured8 ,what is the difference between a socket and a stay bolt8 ,what is the tensile strength of ,boiler ,iron8 ,what is the tensile strength of ,boiler ,steel8 ,what is mild steel8 ,what is ,,ch ,no4 #a ,iron8 ,what is ,flange ,iron8 ,what is ,hot ,short and ,cold ,short ,iron8 ,what is the common dimensions of a ,man ,hole8 ,what is it for8 ,what are ,hand ,holes for8 ,do you open them often8 ,how often8 ,what are ,crown ,bars and where are they used8 ,how is a ,boiler ,caulked8 ,what is a ,drift ,pin8 ,,mechanical ,,stokers4 ,in the back counties of ,england for many generations before the steam engine was evolved from the brains of ,trevithick1 ,watt and ,stephenson1 the word 8stoke0 was used1 meaning to 8stir the fire40 ,the word was derived from an ancient word1 stoke1 meaning a stick1 stock or post4 ,to-day there are very many men who are called 8stokers10 employed principally on locomotive engines1 steam vessels1 etc41 and then there is the 8stoke hole10 so-called1 in which they do their work4 ,illustration3 ,mechanical ,stoker ,but1 now comes the 8mechanical stoker10 which is well named1 as its office is to feed and 8stir the fire0 by a machine1 thus relieving the fireman from much excessively hard toil and allowing the time and energy thus saved to be more profitably used elsewhere4 ,the figure shows a view of the ,american ,stoker which is a device of the most advanced type4 ,the principal parts of the machine are3 #a1 the ,hopper1 which may be filled either by hand shoveling or by elevating and conveying machinery2 #b1 the ,conveyor ,screw1 which forces the coal1 or indeed1 any description of fuel1 forward to the #c1 ,magazine1 shown in the figure to the left2 #d1 a ,driving ,mechanism1 which is a steam motor arranged conveniently in front of the hopper2 #e1 the ,retort1 so called from its being the place 7above the conveyor7 where the coal is distilled into gas4 ,,note4--,an illustrated printed description of this machine is issued and sent free upon application by the makers4 ,the ,american ,stoker ,co41 ,washington ,life ,building1 ,cor4 ,broadway and ,liberty ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,the rate of feeding coal is controlled by the speed of the motor1 this being effected by the simple means of throttling the steam in the supply pipe to the motor4 ,the shields covering the motor effectually protect the mechanism from dirt and dust4 ,the motor has a simple reciprocating piston2 its piston rod carries a crosshead1 which1 by means of suitable connecting links1 operates a rocker arm having a pawl mechanism1 which in turn actuates the ratchet wheel attached to the conveyor shaft4 ,the stoker is thus entirely self-contained and complete in itself4 ,a screw conveyor or worm is located in the conveyor pipe and extends the entire length of the magazine4 ,immediately beneath the conveyor pipe is located the wind-box1 having an opening beneath the hopper4 ,at this point is connected the piping for the air supply1 furnished at low pressure by a volume blower4 ,the other end of the wind-box opens into the air space between the magazine and outer casing4 ,the upper edge of the magazine is surrounded by tuyeres1 or air blocks1 these being provided with openings for the discharge of air1 inwardly and outwardly4 ,the stoker rests on the front and rear bearing bars2 the space between the sides of the stoker and side walls is filled with iron plates1 termed 8dead grates40 ,steam is carried to the motor by a #c_/d-;inch steam pipe4 ,the exhaust steam from the motor is discharged into the ash pit4 ,in operation the coal is fed into the hopper1 carried by the conveyor into the magazine1 which it fills1 8overflows0 on both sides1 and spreads upon the sides of the grates4 ,the coal is fed slowly and continuously1 and1 approaching the fire in its upward course1 it is slowly roasted and coked1 and the gases released from it are taken up by the fresh air entering through the tuyeres1 which explodes these gases and delivers the coal as coke on the grates above4 ,the continuous feeding gives a breathing motion to this coke bed1 thus keeping it open and free for the circulation of air4 ,it will be noted that in this machine the fuel is introduced from the bottom of the bed of fuel1 technically speaking1 upon the principle of 8underfeeding40 ,,chemical ,,terms ,,and ,,explanations ,,relating ,,to ,,feed ,,waters4 ,chemistry is a science which investigates the composition and properties of material substances4 ,nature is composed of elementary elements2 knowledge of these bodies1 of their mutual combinations1 of the forces by which these combinations are brought about1 and the laws in accordance with which these forces act1 constitute chemistry1 and the chemistry of steam engineering largely deals with the foreign bodies contained in the feed water of steam boilers4 ,element4 ,in general1 the word element is applied to any substance which has as yet never been decomposed into constituents or transmuted to any other substance1 and which differs in some essential property from every other known body4 ,the term simple or undecomposed substance is often used synonymously with element4 ,there are about #gj simple elements1 three-quarters of which are to be met with only in minute quantities and are called rare elements4 ,copper1 silver1 gold1 iron1 and sulphur are simple elements--the metal irridium1 for example1 is a rare element--it is the metal which tips the ends of gold pens--it is heavier than gold and much more valuable4 ,probably there are not two tons of it in existence4 ,a ,re-agent is a chemical used to investigate the qualities of some other chemical--example1 hydrochloric acid is a re-agent in finding carbonic acid in limestone1 or carbonate of lime1 which when treated by it will give up its free carbonic acid gas1 which is the same as the gas in soda water4 ,an ,oxide is any element1 such as iron1 aluminium1 lime1 magnesia1 etc41 combined with oxygen4 ,to be an oxide it must pass through the state of oxidization4 ,iron after it is rusted is the oxide of iron1 etc4 ,a ,carbonate is an element1 such as iron1 sodium1 etc41 which forms a union with carbonic acid--the latter is a mixture of carbon and oxygen in the proportion of #a part of carbon to #b of oxygen4 ,carbonic acid1 as is well known1 does not support combustion and is one of the gases which come from perfect combustion4 ,this acid1 or what may be better termed a gas1 is plentifully distributed by nature and is found principally combined with lime and magnesia1 and in this state 7i4e41 carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia7 is one of the worst enemies to a boiler4 ,an ,acid is a liquid which contains both hydrogen and oxygen combined with some simple element such as chlorine1 sulphur1 etc4 ,it will always turn blue litmus red1 and has that peculiar taste known as acidity2 acids range in their power from the corrosive oil of vitriol to the pleasant picric acid which gives its flavor to fruits4 ,alkalies are the opposite to an acid2 they are principally potash1 soda and ammonia--these combined with carbonic acid form carbonates4 ,sal-soda is carbonate of soda4 ,a ,chloride is an element combined with hydro chloric acid--common salt is a good example of a chloride--being sodium united with the element chlorine1 which is the basis of hydro chloric acid4 ,chlorides are not abundant in nature but all waters contain traces of them more or less and they are not particularly dangerous to a boiler4 ,sulphates are formed by the action of sulphuric acid 7commercially known as the oil of vitriol7 upon an element1 such as sodium1 magnesia1 etc4 ,the union of sodium and sulphuric acid is the well-known ,glauber salts--this is nothing more than sulphate of soda2 sulphate of lime is nothing more than gypsum4 ,sulphates are dangerous to boilers1 if in large quantities should they give up their free acid--the action of the latter being to corrode the metal4 ,silica is the gritty part of sand--it is also the basis of all fibrous vegetable matter--a familiar example of this is the ash which shows in packing1 which has been burnt by the heat in steam2 by a peculiar chemical treatment silica has been made into soluble glass--a liquid4 #fe per cent4 of the earth's crust is composed of silica--it is the principal part of rock--pure white sand is silica itself--it is composed of an element called silicum combined with the oxygen of the air4 ,owing to its abundance in nature and its peculiar solubility it is found largely in all waters that come from the earth and is present in all boiler scale4 ,in water analysis the term insoluble matter1 is silica4 ,this is one of the least dangerous of all the impurities that are in feed water4 ,magnesia is a fine1 light1 white powder1 having neither taste nor smell1 almost insoluble in boiling1 but less so in cold water4 ,magnesia as found in feed water exists in two states1 oxide and a carbonate1 when in the latter form and free from the traces of iron1 tends to give the yellow coloring matter to scale--in ,r4 ,r4 work1 yellow scale is called magnesia scale4 ,carbonate of ,magnesia is somewhat more soluble in cold than in hot water1 but still requires to dissolve it #i1jjj parts of the latter and #b1dic of former4 ,magnesia1 in combination with silica1 enters largely into the composition of many rocks and minerals1 such as soapstone1 asbestos1 etc4 ,lime1 whose chemical name is calcium1 is a white alkaline earthy powder obtained from the native carbonates of lime1 such as the different calcerous stones and sea shells1 by driving off the carbonic acid in the process of calcination or burning4 ,lime is procured on a large scale by burning the stone in furnaces called kilns1 either mixed with the fuel or exposed to the heated air and flames that proceed from side fires through the central cavity of the furnace in which the stones are collected4 ,the calcined stones may retain their original form or crumble in part to powder2 if protected from air and moisture they can afterwards be preserved without change4 ,soda is a grayish white solid1 fusing at a red heat1 volatile with difficulty1 and having an intense affinity for water1 with which it combines with great evolution of heat4 ,the only reagent which is available for distinguishing its salts from those of the other alkalies is a solution of antimoniate of potash1 which gives a white precipitate even in diluted solutions4 ,sodium is the metallic base of soda4 ,it is silver white with a high lustre2 crystallizes in cubes2 of the consistence of wax at ordinary temperatures1 and completely liquid at #aid1 and volatilizes at a bright red heat4 ,it is very generally diffused throughout nature though apparently somewhat less abundantly than potassium in the solid crust of the globe4 ,salt1 the chloride of sodium1 a natural compound of one atom of chloride and one of sodium4 ,it occurs as a rock inter-stratified with marl1 and sandstones1 and gypsum1 and as an element of salt springs1 sea water1 and salt water lakes4 ,the proportions of its elements are #fj4d per cent4 of chlorine and #ci4f per cent4 of sodium4 ,in salt made of sea water the salts of magnesia with a little sulphate of lime are the principal impurities4 ,the above mentioned chemical substances can be classified into two distinct classes1 i4e41 incrusting and non-incrusting4 ,of the incrusting salts1 carbonate of magnesia is the most objectionable1 and any feed water that contains a dozen grains per gallon of magnesia can be expected to have a most injurious effect on the boiler1 causing corrosion and pitting4 ,carbonate of lime1 while not as bad as the magnesia carbonate1 yet has a very destructive action on a boiler and #bj grains per gallon of this is considered bad water4 ,all silicates1 oxides of iron1 and aluminium1 and sulphate of lime are also incrusting4 ,the non-incrusting substances are three1 viz41 chloride of sodium 7common salt71 and sulphate and carbonate of soda4 ,,note4 ,in view of the increasing importance laid upon a knowledge of the chemical formation of feed water1 these chapters of ,chemical ,terms and ,analysis of ,feed ,waters are given to indicate the direction in which the advanced engineer must push his inquiries4 ,there are more millions of treasure to be made by properly 8treating0 the water which enters the steam generators of the world than can be extracted from its gold mines4 ,an important 8point0 is to make sure1 before adopting any permanent system for purifying the waters of a steam plant1 that it is always the same in its ingredients1 i4e41 that the impurities contained in the water are the same at all times4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,feed ,,water4 ,in response to a generous offer made by a leading engineering journal1 the following compositions of feed water were ascertained and published4 ,the 8,directions0 show how the water was forwarded1 and the tables1 the result of careful examination1 of samples sent from widely separated sections of the country4 ,,directions4 #a4 ,get a clean gallon jug or bottle and a new cork 7or1 at all events1 a thoroughly clean one74 #b4 ,wash out the vessel two or three times with the same water that is going to be sent in it4 ,this is to make sure that the sample may not be contaminated with any 8foreign0 ingredient4 #c4 ,tie the cork1 after the bottle is filled with the water1 with a strong string or wire4 ,pack the bottle so secure1 with hay or straw1 sawdust1 or newspapers1 that it may not knock itself to pieces against the sides of the box4 ,,from ,,argos1 ,,ind4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica #a4ajif ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#ageb ,carbonate of lime #aa4ijaj ,carbonate of magnesia #e4deig ,carbonate of soda #a4acbd ,chloride of sodium 4#jgae ------- ,total solids #ai4hdid ,,from ,,sioux ,,falls1 ,s4 ,d4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica 4#hbib ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#bdeb ,carbonate of lime #i4jfii ,carbonate of magnesia #e4dcgf ,chloride of sodium #a4gagb ,sulphate of sodium #d4ebde ,sulphate of lime #b4figf ------- ,total solids #be4jicf ,,from ,,litchfield1 ,,ill4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica 4#dgaa ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#gdge ,carbonate of lime 4#chjj ,carbonate of magnesia #b4biaa ,chloride of sodium #h4gedc ,sulphate of soda #af4jcbi ,sulphate of lime #b4hafh ------- ,total solids #ca4dhce ,,from ,,chelsea1 ,,mass4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica 4#aafh ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#fedj ,carbonate of lime #cd4ebfj ,carbonate of magnesia #bb4hdgj ,chloride of sodium #fc4bjda ,sulphate of soda #bh4dgaa ,carbonate of soda #cb4bcba -------- ,total solids #ahb4jeaa ,,from ,,memphis1 ,,tenn4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica 4#hbib ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#dghi ,carbonate of lime #a4hccg ,carbonate of magnesia 4#iief ,carbonate of soda #a4igib ------ ,total solids #f4aaff ,,from ,,pekin1 ,,ill4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica #a4jfbh ,oxides of iron and aluminium ,trace ,carbonate of lime #aj4jiae ,carbonate of magnesia #e4hbbd ,chloride of soda ,trace ,sulphate of soda #a4bdef ------- ,total solids #ah4fdga ,,from ,,tiffin1 ,,ohio4 ,grains per ,gallon4 ,silica 4#ebef ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#bccf ,carbonate of lime #ab4fadd ,carbonate of magnesia #aj4bfeb ,carbonate of soda #b4dacg ,sulphate of soda #f4hbif ,chloride of sodium #a4jdhd ------- ,total solids #cc4icie ,,corrosion ,,and ,,incrustation ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,no more perplexing question presents itself to the engineer and steam user than the one to be inferred from the above heading4 ,enormous losses of money1 danger to life and property and the loss of position and the reputation of the engineer are involved in it4 ,how to avoid these actual evils is of the first importance in steam economy4 ,the subject at first sight seems to the average student a difficult one to master1 but like all other matters pertaining to mechanics1 investigation that is backed with reason1 will show that much that appears obscure is really very plain indeed2 this is because nature1 even down to the sediment remaining in a boiler after the conversion of water into steam1 operates in its formation with infinite exactness and along well known lines4 ,question4--,what is corrosion8 ,answer4--,corrosion is simply rusting or the wasting away of the surfaces of metals1 for particulars of which see page #abf4 ,question4--,what is incrustation8 ,answer4--,incrustation means simply a coating over4 ,water1 on becoming steam1 is separated from the impurities which it may have contained1 and these form sediment and incrustation4 ,boilers corrode on the outside as well as within1 and to a great extent unless carefully cleaned and painted2 but it is the damage caused by 8hard0 and acidulated water within the boiler that is to be principally guarded against4 ,an extreme example of incrustation has been described in that of a locomotive type of a stationary boiler4 ,its dimensions were3 seventy-two inches in diameter1 twenty-two feet long1 with #aec three-inch tubes2 shell1 three-eighths2 head1 three-eighths1 and made of iron4 ,the scale against the back head was nearly two inches thick and completely filled the space between the tubes1 so that circulation was impossible1 the only wonder being that the boiler did not give out sooner than it finally did4 ,the scale was even with the top row of tubes1 the only part of the boiler generating steam being the fire box and the upper row of tubes1 the others acting simply as smoke conduits4 ,there was certainly a great loss of fuel1 quite fifty per cent4 ,had it been a horizontal boiler it would have burned out before the scale became so heavy4 ,in the above instance1 the loss in fuel is estimated at one-half4 ,careful experiment has proved an average loss of fuel as follows3 #a_/af inch of scale causes a loss of #ac per cent4 of fuel4 #a_/d inch of scale causes a loss of #ch per cent4 of fuel4 #a_/b inch of scale causes a loss of #fj per cent4 of fuel4 ,it must be remembered that dry steam1 as it is used through the engine or for other purposes1 carries away none of the impurities which pass with the water into the boiler2 hence1 in a battery of boilers burning1 say1 #bj tons of coal per day and evaporating #aj lbs4 of water to a pound of coal1 there is a body of water going through them every day of #bjj tons4 ,multiply this by #cjj days for a year #fj1jjj tons1 and it will be seen how very great is the problem of keeping the interior of the boilers free from scale and deposit4 ,chemically pure water is that which has no impurities1 and may be described as colorless1 tasteless1 without smell1 transparent1 and in a very slight degree compressible1 and1 were a quantity evaporated from a perfectly clean vessel1 there would be no solid matter remaining4 ,but1 strangely1 investigation has proved that water of this purity rapidly corrodes iron1 and attacks even pure iron and steel more readily than 8hard0 water does1 and sometimes gives a great deal of trouble where the metal is not homogeneous4 ,marine boilers would be rapidly ruined by pure distilled water if not previously 8scaled0 about #a_/cb of an inch4 ,water is formed by the union of two gases--oxygen and hydrogen4 ,these two are simple bodies1 formed by the ,creator in the beginning1 which are found in combination in thousands of different forms4 ,both when alone are invisible4 ,take one volume of oxygen and mix it with two volumes of hydrogen and they will chemically unite and form water4 ,this is by measure4 ,by weight water is composed of #hh4i of oxygen to #aa4a of hydrogen #ajj parts4 ,see pages #bbi1 #bcj for further information4 ,it is an important point to remember that when water is expanded about #a1gjj times into steam1 it is simply expanded water1 as ice is hardened water1 i4e41 in expanding into steam the two constituent gases do not separate4 ,hence1 in dealing with the impurities inside the boiler1 it is to be observed that in no sense do they change the essential nature of water itself4 ,the impurities are simply foreign bodies1 which have no legitimate place in the boiler1 and are to be expelled as dangerous foes4 ,as a general principle1 it may be stated that it is more profitable to soften and filter the water used in boilers than to trust to blowing out or dissolving the sediment and scale that will be otherwise formed1 for observations show that 8anti-incrustators0 containing organic matter help rather than hinder incrustations1 and are therefore to be avoided4 ,for the remedy of foul water there are numerous contrivances to prevent it from entering the boiler1 which is far better than trying to extract the sediment after it is there1 though there are many ingenious methods for doing that also1 some of which will be detailed hereafter4 ,,preliminary ,,precipitation ,,of ,,water4 ,a good method of avoiding incrustations in steam boilers is evidently a preliminary purification of the feed-water1 provided it can be done by means sufficiently simple4 ,this is a problem which it is claimed has been solved by ,m4 ,dehne of ,halle1 by means of an arrangement which we will herewith describe4 ,the fresh water1 which is taken up by a feed pump1 is sent into a heater where it is raised to a temperature that will be favorable to chemical reaction4 ,it then passes into a mixer where it encounters certain reacting agents which have been pumped in there by a pump of special design4 ,these reacting agents are composed of a mixture of carbonate of soda and of caustic soda1 the carbonate of soda serving to precipitate the sulphate of lime contained in the feed water1 while the caustic soda precipitates the carbonate of lime and the magnesia4 ,the relative dimensions between the special pump and the feed pump are calculated in such a way that the proportions of carbonate of soda and caustic soda in the mixture have always a certain relation to the amount of lime and magnesia to be precipitated4 ,the water of the mixture is frequently very much disturbed by the precipitations which are formed1 and passes into a filter where all the matters that are held in suspension are retained4 ,it then goes into the boiler4 ,in cases where the feed-water is taken from a tank1 the heater1 the mixer1 and filter are put in the suction pipe of the feed pump1 but if1 as often happens1 the water is already under pressure and will pass directly through the three1 the feed pump will take the water directly from the filter and pump it directly into the boiler4 ,a ,,precipitator ,,for ,,sea ,,water4 ,it is quite possible to prepare sea water in such a way as to practically prevent any serious deposit forming from it4 ,the process employed is to add to the sea water a known quantity of precipitator powder consisting chiefly of soda ash1 and having done this in a closed vessel1 to heat the mixture by blowing into it waste steam1 until a pressure of from #elbs4 to #ajlbs4 is created2 under these circumstances practically all the magnesium and calcium salts separate from the water and are easily got rid of by filtering it under pressure into the hot-well4 ,a precipitator #f ft4 #d in4 high and #c ft4 in diameter1 holds a ton of water1 and the time taken1 from the first running the sea water in1 to its delivery into the hot-well1 need not exceed #a hour and #ae minutes1 so that in practice1 giving plenty of time between the makes1 it would be perfectly easy to prepare #h to #ab tons in the #bd hours with a small precipitator of the size named4 ,the prepared water has a density of l_/#cbnd1 and may with safety be evaporated until its density is #e_/cbnds1 the salts present not crystalizing out until a density of from #f_/cbnds to #g_/cbnds is reached4 ,in preparing sea water in the way proposed1 every precaution must be taken to add slightly less of the precipitant than is necessary to entirely throw down the calcium and magnesium salts1 as it is manifestly impossible in practice to guard against small quantities of sea water finding way into the boiler either from leaky condensers or else being fed in by the engineer during some emergency1 and if under these conditions any excess of the precipitant were present in the boiler1 a bulky precipitate would be thrown down and cause trouble1 although it would not bind into a solid scale4 ,briefly recapitulated the means which are best adapted for preventing the formation of the dangerous organic and oily deposits considered are3 ,i4 ,filtration of condensed water through a coke column4 ,,ii4 ,free use of the scum cocks4 ,,iii4 ,the use of water of considerable density rather than of fresh water4 ,,iv4 ,the use of pure mineral oil lubricants in the smallest possible quantity4 ,,scale ,,deposited ,,in ,,marine ,,boilers4 ,the analysis given below may be looked upon as typical of the incrustation formed by fresh water1 brackish water and sea water respectively in marine boilers3 ,constituent4 ,river4 ,brackish4 ,sea4 ,calcic carbonate #ge4he #dc4fe #j4ig sulphate #c4fh #cd4gh #he4ec ,magnesic hydrate #b4ef #d4cd #c4ci ,sodic chloride #j4de #j4ef #b4gi ,silica #g4ff #g4eb #a4aj ,oxides of iron and alumina #b4if #c4dd #j4cb ,organic matter #c4fd #a4ee trace ,moisture #c4bj #d4af #e4ij ------ ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,from this it is evident we may look upon the incrustation from fresh water as consisting of impure calcic carbonate1 whilst that from sea water is impure calcic sulphate1 the brackish water from the mouths of rivers yielding1 as might be expected1 an incrustation in which both these compounds are present in nearly equal quantities4 ,the importance of these differences in the deposit formed is very great1 as it enables the shipowner to arrive at the conclusion as to the treatment that the boilers have received during the voyage1 by examination and analysis of the scale that those boilers contain4 ,taking1 for instance1 the case of a ship which uses fresh water both for filling and make up1 it is manifest that on her return to port the scale should be very slight and should consist mainly of calcic carbonate1 whilst if the scale exceeds #a_/af in41 and shows a preponderance of calcic sulphate1 it is manifest that such scale could only have been formed by sea water1 either leaking in from faulty condensers or being deliberately fed into the boilers4 ,with the introduction of high pressure steam a new and dangerous form of deposit has added to the trouble of the marine engineer2 having entered the boiler1 the minute globules of oil1 if in great quantity1 coalesce to form an oily scum on the surface of the water1 or if present in smaller quantities1 remain as separate drops2 but show no tendency to sink1 as they are lighter than water4 ,slowly1 however1 they come in contact with small particles of other solids separating from the water and sticking to them1 they gradually coat the particles with a covering of oil1 which in time enables the particles to cling together or to the surfaces which they come in contact with4 ,these solid particles of calcic carbonate1 calcic sulphate1 etc41 are heavier than the water1 and1 as the oil becomes more and more loaded with them1 a point is reached at which they have the same specific gravity as the water1 and then the particles rise and fall with the convection currents which are going on in the water1 and stick to any surface with which they come in contact1 in this way depositing themselves1 not as in common boiler incrustation1 where they are chiefly on the upper surfaces1 but quite as much on the under sides of the tubes as on top4 ,the deposit so formed is a wonderful non-conductor of heat1 and also from its oily surface tends to prevent intimate contact between itself and the water4 ,on the crown of the furnaces this soon leads to overheating of the plates1 and the deposit begins to decompose by heat1 the lower layer in contact with the hot plates giving off various gases which blow the greasy layer1 ordinarily only #a_/fd inch in thickness1 up to a spongy leathery mass often #a_/c inch thick1 which1 because of its porosity is an even better non-conductor of heat than before1 and the plate becomes heated to redness4 ,when water attains a temperature1 as it does under increasing pressure1 ranging from #age to about #dbj ,fahr41 all carbonates1 sulphates and chlorides are deposited in the following order3 ,first4 ,carbonate of lime at #agf and #bdh ,fahr4 ,second4 ,sulphate of lime at #bdh and #dbj4 ,third4 ,magnesia1 or chlorides of magnesium1 at #cbd and #cfd4 ,it is to take advantage of this fact that mechanically arranged jets1 sprinklers and long perforated pipes are introduced into the interior of the boiler2 these tend to scatter the depositing impurities and also to bring the feed water more quickly to the highest heat possible4 ,with regard to the oxide of iron or iron salts in solution1 these can best be treated with small quantities of lime4 ,by adding re-agents1 they set up chemical changes1 which result in precipitation1 which give the water a milky appearance2 they divide into particles1 and ultimately settle1 leaving the water pure and bright4 ,the mechanical treatment on a limited scale would be easy1 a settling tank sufficing2 but this becomes a different matter when large quantities have to be dealt with4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,average ,,boiler ,,scale4 ,parts per #ajj parts of deposit4 ,silica 4#jdb parts4 ,oxides of iron and aluminium 4#jdd ,carbonate of lime #cj4ghj ,carbonate of magnesia #ea4gcc ,sulphate of soda ,trace ,chloride of sodium ,trace ,carbonate of soda #i4cda ,organic matter #h4jfj -------------- ,total solids #ajj4 ,parts ,the percentage only of each ingredient the scale is composed of is given1 as it cannot be told how much water was evaporated to leave this amount of solid matter4 ,a ,,locomotive-,,boiler ,,compound4 ,the lines of a certain great ,r4 ,r4 traverse a country where the water is very hard and they are compelled to resort to some method of precipitating the lime that is held in solution4 ,after many tests and experiments they have made a compound and use it as follows3 in a barrel of water of a capacity of fifty gallons they put #ba lbs4 of carbonate of soda1 or best white soda ash of commerce1 and #ce lbs4 of white caustic soda4 ,the cost1 per gallon1 is about #b-a_/b cents4 ,the compound is carried in this concentrated form1 in calomine cans on the tender of each locomotive4 ,a certain amount1 according to the necessities of the case1 is poured into the tender at the water tank at each filling4 ,this amount is determined by analysis1 and varies all the way from two to fifteen pints to two thousand gallons of water4 ,the precipitating power of this compound may be taken roughly at #b_/c of a pound of the carbonate of lime1 or equivalent amount of other material1 per pint of the compound4 ,on their western lines where they are dealing with alkali waters and those containing sulphates1 the company use merely #fj pounds of soda ash to a barrel of water4 ,when the water is pumped into the boiler the heat completes the precipitation and aggregation of the particles1 and this does away with all trouble of the tenders or injector tubes clogging up4 ,the case is an interesting one to stationary engineers1 because where the water is pumped into the boiler from tanks the same compound can be used1 provided the water contains the proper constituents to be precipitated by it2 and where the water is taken from city water mains1 it would be a simple matter to devise an apparatus to admit the compound to the feed pipes4 8,,points0 ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,scaling ,,of ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,the peculiarity about the sulphate of lime is that the colder the water the more of it will be held in solution4 ,water of ordinary temperature may hold as high as #g per cent4 of lime sulphate in solution1 but when the temperature of the water is raised to the boiling point a portion of it is precipitated1 leaving about 4#e of one per cent4 still in solution4 ,then as the temperature of the water is raised1 still more of the substance is precipitated and this continues until a gauge pressure of #da pounds has been reached which gives a temperature of about #bjj degrees2 at this point all the sulphate of lime has been precipitated4 ,many other scale forming substances act in a similar manner4 ,this shows quite plainly that any temperature that can be produced by the use of exhaust steam would not be sufficient to cause the precipitation of all the substances which might be contained in the water4 ,that boiler incrustations are the immediate causes of the majority of steam boiler explosions is no longer a doubtable question4 ,nearly all foreign matter held in solution in water1 on first becoming separated by boiling1 rises to the top in the form of what is commonly called scum1 in which condition much of it may be removed by the surface blow-off4 ,if not removed1 however1 the heavier particles will be attracted to each other until they have become sufficiently dense to fall to the bottom1 where they will be deposited in the form of scale1 covering the whole internal surface of the boiler below the water line1 with a more or less perfect non-conductor of heat4 ,it is recorded that the engineer of the ,french ocean steamer ,st4 ,laurent omitted to remove a bar of zinc when repairing and cleaning out his boilers4 ,on opening the boilers at the end of the voyage to his great surprise he found that the zinc had disappeared1 but his boilers were entirely free from scale and the boiler plates not injured in the least4 ,it has been recently determined by some ,german experimenters that sugar effects a strong action upon boilers4 ,it has an acid reaction upon the iron which dissolves it with a disengagement of hydrogen4 ,the amount of damage done increases with the amount of sugar in the water4 ,these results are worthy of note in sugar refineries and places where sugar sometimes finds its way into the boilers by means of the water supplied4 ,the experimenters in question also find that zinc is strongly attacked by sugar2 copper1 tin1 lead and aluminium are not attacked4 ,two reasons1 relating to incrustations1 for not blowing out a boiler while under steam pressure may be given as follows3 ,one is1 that the foreign matter floating on top of the water will be deposited on the shell of the boiler as the water gradually subsides1 and1 second1 the heated walls of the furnace will communicate a sufficiently high temperature to the boiler to dry and flake the sediment that would otherwise remain in the boiler in the shape of mud1 which could easily be washed out were it not for the baking process4 ,bark1 such as is used by tanners1 has an excellent effect on boiler incrustations4 ,it may be used as follows3 ,throw into the tank or reservoir from which the boilers are fed a quantity of bark in the piece1 in sufficient quantity to turn the water to a light brown color4 ,repeat this operation every month at least1 using only half the quantity after the first month4 ,add a very small quantity of the muriate of ammonia1 about one pound for every #b1jjj gallons of water used4 ,this will have the effect of softening as well as disintegrating the carbonate of lime and other impurities deposited by the action of evaporation4 ,,note4--,care must be exercised in keeping the bark1 as it becomes broken up1 from the pump valves and blow-off valves4 ,this may be accomplished by throwing it into the reservoir confined in a sack4 ,among the best samples of boiler compounds ever sent to the laboratory for analysis was found to be composed of3 ,pounds ,sal soda #dj ,catechu #e ,sal ammoniac #e ,this solution was formerly sold at a good round figure1 but since its nature became more generally known1 it is not found in market1 but is largely used1 consumers putting it up in lots sufficient to last a year or so at a time4 ,the above is strongly recommended by those who have used it1 one pound of the mixture being added to each barrel of water used but after the scale is once thoroughly removed from the boiler1 the use of sal soda alone is all that is necessary4 ,by the use of ten pounds per week a boiler #bf feet long and #dj inches in diameter in one of the iron mills of ,new ,albany1 ,ind41 has been kept clean of scale equal to a new boiler4 ,there are other evils sometimes inherent in hard waters over and above the mere production of a crust4 ,some waters contain a great deal of soluble magnesia salts1 together with common salt4 ,when this is the case there is a great chance of corrosion1 for the former is acted on by steam at high pressure in such a way that muriatic acid fumes are produced1 which seriously corrodes the boiler1 and1 what is far worse1 passes with the steam into the engine1 and produces corrosion in the cylinders and other delicate fittings into contact with which the steam passes4 ,all this can1 however1 be obviated by the removal of the magnesia from the water4 ,there has not been1 and never can be1 made a mechanical device which will precipitate all the ingredients contained in a water taken from a natural source of supply1 and if it were possible to do so it would be the most ruinous thing one could do for the boilers1 as water is the greatest solvent known to chemistry1 and its nature is to hold in solution and be impregnated with the different elements it comes in contact with1 to a certain per cent41 and if its lime1 magnesia1 and the mineral salts are taken away1 and the pure water is pumped into the boilers1 it will take up the iron1 causing pitting and grooving of the boilers4 ,it is better to let nature take its course1 to a certain extent1 and neutralize what little mineral deposit forms in the boilers with as small an amount of vegetable matter as possible4 ,it is well to note that different waters require different treatment2 what will be of benefit in one instance will be of no value whatever in a different water1 many of the 8compounds0 sold to prevent and remove scale will certainly destroy a boiler if they are used persistently1 because they are composed of the exact opposite chemicals which should be used2 as an example it is stated that at one establishment one thousand dollars were expended annually for a mixture which it is said resulted in the reduction of the life and usefulness of the boilers of #ej per cent4 ,,engineers' ,,tests ,,for ,,impurities ,,in ,,feed ,,water4 ,much expense can be saved in fuel and boiler repairs by a little preliminary expenditure of money in securing a supply of good water for the steam boilers of a new establishment4 ,well water is nearly always inferior to the running water of streams2 water from mines is especially hurtful1 containing1 as they do1 large quantities of free sulphuric acid4 ,wells along the sea shore or on the banks of rivers affected by the tides1 are likely to be saturated with chloride of magnesium4 ,it is in determining these points that these ready tests of feed water are most useful4 ,a thorough and really scientific analysis of feed water is a costly and tedious process1 but a simple and perhaps sufficiently accurate test may be made as follows3 take a large 7or tall7 clear glass vessel and fill it with the water to be tested2 add a few drops of water of ammonia1 until the water is distinctly alkaline2 next add a little phosphate of soda2 the action of this is to change the lime1 magnesia1 etc41 into phosphates1 in which form they are deposited in the bottom of the glass4 ,the amount of the matter thus collected gives a crude idea of the relative quality of sediment and scale-making material in the water4 ,water turning blue litmus paper red1 before boiling1 contains an acid1 and if the blue color can be restored by heating1 the water contains carbonic acid4 ,litmus paper is sold by druggists4 ,if the water has a foul odor1 giving a black precipitate with acetate of lead1 it is sulphurous4 ,an experiment may be tried by dissolving common white or other pure soap in a glass of water1 and then stirring into the glasses of water to be tested a few teaspoonsful of the solution2 the matter which will be deposited will show the comparative amount of the scale-making material contained in the feed water4 ,in order to ascertain the proportion of soda to the feed water the following method is recommended3 #a4 ,add #a_/afth part of an ounce of the soda to a gallon of the feed water and boil it4 #b4 ,when the sediment thrown down by the boiling has settled to the bottom of the kettle1 pour the clear water off1 and #c1 add #a_/b drachm of soda4 ,now1 if the water remains clear1 the soda1 which was first put in1 has removed the lime1 but if it becomes muddy1 the second addition of soda is necessary4 ,in this way a sufficiently accurate estimate of the quantity of soda required to eliminate the impurities of the feed water can be made and the due proportion added to the feed water4 ,by exercising a little judgment1 the use of pure chemicals1 with well cleaned vessels1 test tubes1 etc41 the following reagents will determine the character of the most important elements which injure the iron surfaces of a steam boiler4 ,carbonic acid is indicated by baryta water4 ,sulphates are indicated by chloride of barium4 ,chlorides are indicated by nitrate of silver4 ,lime salts are indicated by oxalate of ammonia4 ,organic matter is indicated by chloride of mercury4 ,the 8base0 of the better class of the various patented boiler compounds is tannin 7whence tannic acid7 and some form of alkali1 and if the compounds were to be deprived of these two elements they would be absolutely worthless4 ,where they contain1 as some certainly do1 sal-ammoniac1 muriatic1 hydrochloric and sulphuric acids1 they cannot but act as boiler destroying agents4 ,tannin or tannic acid is the principal ingredient used in preparing leather4 ,it is found in a great variety of plants--sassafras root has it in large proportion1 the gall nut and the bark of various trees1 especially the oak produce it4 ,it is the presence of this acid that gives their only value to very many 8compounds10 tan bark1 gum catechu 7which sometimes contains one-half part of tannic acid71 etc4 ,the acid seems to have but little effect where large quantities of sulphate of lime are present1 but in waters where carbonate of lime predominates its detersive qualities are more marked4 ,the records of the ,patent ,office show that one boiler compound contains #bc per cent4 of catechu1 and others1 #fj1 #ha1 #e1 respectively1 by which may be inferred the large quantity of this agent1 which has been sold in combination with other chemicals1 principally soda4 ,,note4 ,while the product of water steeped in clean tan bark may be favorable in its action upon boiler incrustation1 it has been found to be very unsafe1 in practice1 to use the 8tan liquor0 taken from the vats4 ,the danger arises from the fact that sometimes during the process of tanning leather1 the required acidity cannot be produced by natural fermentation when sulphuric acid is added1 in order to bring the liquor to its required strength--in due course1 this corrosive substance acts injuriously on the boiler4 ,,use ,,of ,,petroleum ,,oil ,,in ,,boilers4 ,the use of crude 7unrefined7 mineral oil in steam boilers is attended by risks caused by impurities and foreign substances mixed with it4 ,these are likely to combine with the earthy matter in the water and tend to form instead of preventing scale2 the tar and wax contained in crude petroleum combine with the sediment in steam boilers1 and the paste prevents the water from reaching and protecting the plates4 ,this is true particularly in shell boilers which have flat surfaces over the fire4 ,refined mineral oil has none of these disadvantages4 ,kerosene oil has all the advantages to be derived from the use of crude petroleum and the above objections quite removed4 ,in one system of the application of steam the use of kerosene and petroleum cannot be recommended3 that is when live steam is used for cooking purposes1 the odor from the oil will impregnate the meat and other products designed for food consumption4 ,,kerosene ,,oil ,,in ,,boilers4 ,under certain conditions1 and with care and judgment1 the use of refined petroleum has been found to be of great advantage in removing and preventing scaling in steam boilers4 ,there is no well authenticated case where a systematic1 regular and uniform feed of pure kerosene oil to a steam boiler has failed to operate beneficially upon the scale formation4 ,the best results are obtained by the use of the oil under the same arrangement that cylinder oil is fed to an engine4 ,the kerosene is sometimes introduced through a one-fourth inch branch to the suction pipe of the feed pump1 leading to the vessel containing the oil1 so that any quantity1 large or small1 can be put into the boiler simultaneously with the usual feed4 ,the drawback to this arrangement is that when the feed water heater has to be cleaned1 a gallon or more of the oil is often lost1 which together with a very unpleasant odor1 when used in this manner1 tends to condemn its use4 ,but when piped between the boiler and heater1 these objections cease4 ,we present an arrangement which is illustrated by cut on page #aeg4 ,this is nothing more than a storage system with sight feed1 by use of which the oil can be fed drop by drop as desired--for each drop of water entering the reservoir a drop of oil is forced down the small #a_/d-;in4 pipe1 up the glass tube and on into the boiler4 ,in piping it is necessary to have the water or larger pipe 7#a_/b in47 attached through the lower plug as shown in cut1 and the oil as shown1 going through the smaller or #a_/d-;in4 pipe--i4e41 the oil pipe must1 under all circumstances1 be the smaller of the two4 ,in the figure is shown a piece of #f-;in4 gaspipe1 about a foot in length1 plugged at each end2 the top plug has one opening1 for an inch nipple 8a0 with top4 ,this opening is to be used in filling the reservoir with oil4 ,the bottom plug has two holes1 one for the #a_/b-;inch water pipe1 and the second for a small pet cock 8,b10 to let the water out1 whenever it is necessary to refill the tank with kerosene4 ,the water gauge connection is the ordinary1 cheap brass fixture1 with boxes1 nipples1 etc41 used in boilers1 with gasket of rubber bottom and top of the glass4 ,the glass plainly exhibits the depth of water and oil in the reservoir as well as the feed of minute drops of oil as they speed on their beneficent mission softening the injurious scale4 ,there are the usual #b valves on the water glass2 by opening the lower one more or less1 the amount of oil used can be regulated to a nicety4 ,the valves can be used to entirely cut off the apparatus at any time desired4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,feeding ,,kerosene ,,oil ,,to ,,boiler4--,fig4 #fi4 ,,note4--,should the end of the screw connection inside the holder which each one of these valves control1 not be #a_/d inch1 a reduced elbow should be used1 as #a_/d-;in4 pipe will give the best satisfaction when used as a stand pipe inside the reservoir4 ,the quantity of oil to be fed to a boiler is very largely to be determined by experiment commencing with a minimum and increasing the amount as found necessary to keep down the scale formation4 ,the use of #b qts4 of the oil per week has been found to be sufficient for a boiler #d feet in diameter and #ab feet long1 and three quarts per week on boilers #e feet in diameter4 ,this quantity may be regarded as the smallest advisable to use and from that up to #a to #b gallons per diem in boilers1 say of #abe horse power1 when pushed to their capacity in evaporating water4 ,the result of careful experiments justifies the use of kerosene1 the scale being less than in four years' previous experience1 and a large portion of the boiler showing the clean black steel1 in as apparently good condition as when new4 ,despite the small quantity of kerosene used in the boilers in this case1 the odor was perceptible by opening an air valve to any steam radiator in any of the buildings4 ,when as much as a gallon per week was used1 the odor was very strong1 but with one half that amount it was hardly perceptible1 and only to be noticed when an air valve had been open a long time4 ,and since commencing to use the oil a much greater deposit of rust scales than usual has been found in the various steam traps in the buildings1 indicating that the oil is also exerting a cleansing influence on the pipes of the whole system4 ,,note4--,provision must be made for the removal of the scale as it drops from the internal surfaces of the boiler1 as at times many bushels of it have been deposited directly over the furnace2 hence1 if a boiler is known to be badly incrusted1 the kerosene should not be put in the first time more than three days before it is intended to wash the boiler4 ,,note #b4--,the safety valve should be opened to allow the escape of the gas arising from the kerosene before cleaning out the boiler2 where a lighted lamp or candle is used1 as it must necessarily be--indeed this is a precaution which ought always to be observed in all cases1 viz41 properly to ventilate boilers1 heaters1 and tanks of all descriptions before entering them with lighted lamps and torches4 ,while these gases are not likely to cause an explosion1 they burn quite rapidly and should be promptly removed without giving opportunity for an accident4 ,the accumulation of gas is not confined to the use of kerosene oil for the prevention of scale in steam boilers1 but is also found in flour mills1 confectioners'1 conduits for electric wires1 brewers' vats1 etc4 ,so1 with common sense precautions1 no extra risk is run in using kerosene oil in steam boilers4 ,,mechanical ,,boiler ,,cleaners4 ,owing to the fact 7#a7 that nearly1 if not quite all1 the impurities which exist in feed water are set free by a high temperature attained under pressure2 7#b7 that these impurities are left in the boiler by the constant use of the steam1 there follows the result that the water remaining is more and more impregnated with the residuum composed of the foreign matters which 7the water removed7 constitutes mud1 scale1 etc4 ,the custom has been and is now to regularly 8blow off0 one or two gauges of this water once or twice per day replacing it with fresh water of less density2 that this is a very imperfect method for removing the foreign matter is readily allowed1 besides wasting absolutely all the units of heat contained in the water blown off4 ,now1 within the boiler while in use1 under the operation of the fierce heat of the furnaces1 are constant changes in the position of the water caused by the boiling1 by the withdrawal of the steam and by the constant effort of the hot water to rise and the cold water to fall4 ,the water thus keeps in circulation everything within the boiler1 including the sediment1 except in places where the water is from any cause without motion4 ,in these quiet nooks there is a constant depositing of the elsewhere active foreign matters contained in the water1 which deposits1 in the form of mud and scale1 left undisturbed1 causes loss and danger4 ,it is in taking advantage of these facts1 and of the principles of the circulation of hot and cold water1 that mechanical boiler cleaners are brought into successful use4 ,these devices for the stilling of the water and collection of the sediment are made in various forms and all sizes and capacities1 and are located at the sides or back of the boiler setting and even on top of the boiler4 ,there is a system where pipes in a coil are fixed in the sides of the furnace and exposed to its greatest heat1 and which1 owing to their enlarged area1 act as most efficient reservoirs4 ,in all these devices there is an upflow pipe connected with the lower and coolest water1 and a return pipe connecting with the top of the water where it is hottest4 ,this arrangement assures a constant current which is more or less rapid according to the intensity of the fire and which keeps up as long as the firing is done4 ,where this current passes through the reservoir1 the enlarged area and comparative quiet is favorable for the deposit of the sediment and in practical experience it does deposit nearly all of it4 ,the collection of the impurities is helped by a funnel-shaped appliance placed at the opening of the upflow pipe1 which1 aided by the rapid flow of the hot water1 carries the floating scum towards it into the reservoir4 ,attached to the reservoir is the blow-off pipe through which the deposited matter is removed as often as necessary4 ,the use of these mechanical cleaners is readily understood3 7#a7 they provide a place of accumulation for the sediment2 7#b7 they save the necessity of opening the boilers to remove by hand1 the refuse of the boiler2 7#c7 save fuel by avoiding the necessity of frequent blowing off one or two gauges of water1 and 7#d7 by the preventing the formation of scale with its attendant evils4 ,,scumming ,,apparatus4 ,in addition to the bottom blow-out apparatus every boiler should be provided with means for blowing out water from the surface in order to remove the fine particles of foreign matter floating there1 which afterward settle and consolidate as scale on the heating surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,scum ,cock ,it consists1 in its simplest form1 of a pan1 or a conical scoop1 near the surface of the water1 but below it1 connected with a pipe passing through the boiler-shell1 on which is a cock1 or valve1 for regulating the escape of the water laden with the impurities deposited in the pan4 ,there are patented apparatus for this purpose which are well designed and easily fitted to a boiler4 ,the office of the surface blow-off1 illustrated in ,fig4 #gj1 is to remove the foreign matter which is precipitated from its solution in the water4 ,a surface blow-off used occasionally will remove the greater portion of this scum and keep the boilers reasonably free from scale and mud4 ,where dirty or muddy water is fed into the boilers the surface blow-off is one of the cheapest and most efficient means for keeping the boiler clean4 ,the efficiency of the surface blow-off is not so great as that of some of the mechanical boiler-cleaners1 as by their use it is not required that any hot water shall be wasted1 and this is the greatest objection to the surface blow-off1 as in the hands of some people a large amount of boiling water is wasted each time it is used4 ,but both of these arrangements are virtually skimmers1 as they remove the precipitated mineral and vegetable matter from the surface of the water in the boiler4 ,one does it by blowing out the scum and some water at the same time1 while the mechanical boiler-cleaner removes the scum1 but returns the water to the boiler4 ,there are several efficient ways of arranging a surface blow-off4 ,the principal part of the blow-off is a pan or perforated pipe placed horizontally at the water level having a pipe leading outside the boiler to any convenient place where the scum may be blown4 ,when a perforated pipe is used the action is to force the scum from the top of the water during the time the valve is open1 and blow it through the pipe4 ,in using an apparatus of this kind it should be blown often1 but only for a moment at a time1 as all the scum near the pipe is removed immediately1 and to keep the valve open longer than necessary to remove the scum near the pipe would allow the escape of clean water or steam which would be wasteful4 ,if a pan is used and is fastened so that the top is secured at the ordinary water level1 as shown in ,fig4 #gj1 the blow-off pipe leading from near the bottom of the pan1 it will be more efficient than the perforated pipe arrangement as it will not require to be used so often1 and the waste of water and steam will not be so great4 ,the pan1 by producing an eddy in the water1 causes all the scum to gather over the top1 and as the water is quiet there it will gradually settle into the pan1 where it will remain as mud4 ,when the blow-off valve is opened the greater part of the mud which is gathered is blown out1 and but very little water is carried with it4 ,,use ,,of ,,zinc ,,in ,,marine ,,boilers4 ,zinc has been used in marine boilers for many years1 but it was not until the publication in #ahhj of the report of the ,admiralty committee that the use of zinc became general4 ,it has been used in various ways3 #a4--,virgin spelter1 as imported in oblong slabs of various sizes4 #b4--;,cast1 or remelted zinc4 #c4--;,cast zinc buttons1 generally made from virgin spelter or new clean zinc trimmings4 #d4--,zinc spheres4 #e4--,rolled zinc blocks1 generally #ab inches by #f inches1 and thicknesses varying from #a_/d inch to #a-a_/b inch1 generally with a #ac_/af-;inch hole in the centre4 ,it is desirable that close-grained zinc of uniform structure and free from impurities should be used1 and rolled zinc appears to meet this want4 ,the wear is entirely confined to the surface4 ,it does not appear to become distorted or broken up4 ,on the contrary1 it gradually wastes away till only a slight shred1 a sort of skeleton frame work1 remains to indicate what it has been4 ,the primary object in the use of zinc in boilers is the prevention of corrosion1 but it has also some effect in reducing the amount of incrustation1 and rendering it softer and less adherent4 ,,table ,showing ,amount of ,sediment collecting in a steam boiler when evaporating #f1jjj gallons per week1 of #eh1cah grains each4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,when a gallon of feed water evaporated to ,the amount of solid dryness at #bab degrees matter collecting ,fahrenheit1 leaves of in boiler per week solid matter in grains3 will be3 ---------------------------------------- -- ,grains4 ,pounds4 ,ounces4 #a #ac4gad #b #a #aa4dbh #c #b #i4adc #d #c #f4heg #e #d #d4ega #f #e #b4bhe #g #f #h #f #ac4gad #i #g #aa4dbh #aj #h #i4adb #ae #ab #ac4gac #bj #ag #b4bhd #be #ba #f4hee #cj #be #aa4dbf #ce #cj #dj #cd #d4ega #de #ch #i4adc #ej #db #ac4gad #ee #dg #b4bhe #fj #ea #f4heg #fe #ee #aa4dbh #gj #fj #ge #fd #d4ega #hj #fh #i4adc #he #gb #ac4gad #ij #gg #b4bhe #ie #ha #f4heg #ajj #he #aa4dbh #aaj #id #d4ega #abj #ajb #ac4gad #acj #aaa #f4heg #adj #abj #aej #abh #i4adb #afj #acg #b4bhe #agj #ade #aa4dbh #ahj #aed #d4ega ---------------------------------------- -- ,,boiler ,,fixtures ,,and ,,belongings4 ,a boiler is not complete without certain fixtures4 ,there must be a feed-pump or injector1 with a supply-pipe1 feed-valve1 safety feed-valve1 and check-valve1 in order to supply water properly to the boiler2 gauge-cocks1 a glass water-gauge1 a blow-pipe1 with its valve1 to reduce the height of the water in the boiler1 or to empty it entirely2 a safety-valve to allow the steam to escape from the boiler when it exceeds a fixed pressure2 a scumming apparatus to remove the foreign matters from the water as much as possible2 a steam-pipe to convey the steam to the place where it is wanted2 man-holes and hand-holes1 with their covers and guards1 for examination and cleaning2 a non-corrosive steam-gauge1 to accurately indicate at all times the amount of pressure in the boiler2 and a fusible plug to give warning in case of 8low water40 ,thus we see that in speaking of a boiler1 not only the boiler proper is meant1 but also the whole of its fixtures and belongings1 of which the following is only a partial list3 ,feed ,pump1 ,injector or ,inspirator1 ,check ,valve1 ,gauge ,cocks1 ,glass ,water ,gauge1 ,try ,cocks1 ,blow-out ,apparatus1 ,blow-off ,valve1 ,safety ,valve1 ,scum ,apparatus1 ,steam ,gauge1 ,fusible ,plug1 ,surface ,blow ,cocks1 ,grate ,bars1 ,baffle or ,shield ,plates1 ,mud ,drum1 ,feed ,water ,heaters1 ,boiler ,fronts1 ,dead ,plate1 ,steam ,pressure ,recording ,gauge1 ,drain ,cock for ,steam ,gauge1 ,steam ,trap1 ,steam ,whistle4 ,all these are attachments to the boiler proper1 having direct reference to its internal functions2 but in addition there are the lugs1 pedestals1 or brackets which support the boiler2 the masonry in which it is set1 with its binders1 rods1 and wall-plates2 the boiler front1 with its doors1 anchor-bolts1 etc42 the arch-plates1 bearer-bars1 grate-bars1 and dampers1 and last1 but not least1 the chimney4 ,these are all equally necessary to enable the boiler to perform its duty properly4 ,and besides1 there are required fire-tools1 flue brushes and scrapers1 and scaling tools1 with hose also1 to wash out the boiler1 to say nothing of hammers1 chisels1 wrenches1 etc4 ,the fittings and attachments of the marine boiler are similar to those belonging to the land steam generators1 and vary only in accommodating themselves to their peculiar surroundings4 ,the proper operation of the boiler as to efficiency and economy is largely dependent upon the number1 appropriate proportion and harmony of action of its numerous attachments1 and the utmost care and skill are requisite for designing and attaching them4 ,it must not be supposed that a complete list and description of all steam boiler attachments are here presented--that were a task beyond the limits of the entire volume4 ,,boiler ,,fronts4 ,boiler fronts are made in many different styles1 almost every maker having some peculiar points in design that he uses on his own boilers and which nobody else uses4 ,in the illustrations here given may be seen the four principal designs3 #a4 ,the flush front is shown in ,fig4 #gb4 #b4 ,the overhanging front as seen in ,fig4 #gc4 #c4 ,the cutaway front1 ,fig4 #gd4 #d4 ,fronts with breaching as shown in ,fig4 #ge4 ,the flush front is one of the earliest forms of fronts1 and though it often gives good satisfaction1 yet it is liable to certain accidents4 ,illustration3 ,front for ,water ,tube ,boiler4--,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,flush ,front4--,fig4 #gb4 ,as will be seen from cut #gb1 the front of the smoke arch1 in this form of setting1 is flush with the front of the brickwork1 and the dry sheet just outside of the front head is built into the brickwork4 ,the heat from the fire1 striking through the brickwork1 impinges on this sheet1 which is unprotected by water on the inside4 ,so long as the furnace walls are in proper condition the heat thus transmitted should not be sufficient to give trouble2 but after running some time bricks are very apt to fall away from over the fire door1 and thus expose portions of the dry sheet to the direct action of the fire1 causing it to be burned or otherwise injured by the heat1 and perhaps starting a leakage around the front row of rivets when the head is attached to the shell4 ,in the overhanging front this tendency is entirely prevented by setting the boiler in such a manner that the dry sheet projects out into the boiler room4 ,if the brickwork over the fire door falls away when a boiler is set in this manner1 the only effect is to slightly increase the heating surface4 ,no damage can be done1 since the sheet against which the heat would strike is protected by water on the inside4 ,illustration3 ,overhanging ,front4--,fig4 #gc4 ,the objection is sometimes raised against the projecting front1 that it is in the way of the fireman4 ,to meet this point and yet preserve all the advantages of this kind of front1 the cutaway style has come into use4 ,in this form the lower portion or the front sheet is cut obliquely away1 so that at the lowest point the boiler projects but little beyond the brickwork4 ,illustration3 ,cutaway ,front--,fig4 #gd4 ,it will be noticed that in the flush and overhanging fronts1 the doors open sidewise1 swing about on vertical hinges2 in the cutaway front the best way to arrange the tube door is to run a hinge along the top of it1 horizontally1 and to have the door open upward4 ,but with such a disposition of things the door is not easy to handle4 ,for the purpose of support a hook and chain1 hanging from the roof should be provided4 ,illustration3 ,front for ,manhole4--,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #ge shows a boiler the setting of which is similar in general design to the other three1 except that in the place of a cast-iron front it has bolted to it a sheet iron breeching that comes down over the tubes and receives the gases of combustion from them4 ,in ,fig4 #ge a manhole is shown under the tubes4 ,this1 of course1 is not an essential feature of the breeching1 but it will be seen that manholes can readily be put below the tubes on fronts of this kind1 in such a manner as to be very convenient of access4 ,in addition to these more general styles of boiler fronts1 there are fronts designed particularly for patent boilers1 water-front boilers1 etc41 which are made1 very often1 in ornamental and attractive designs4 ,in ,fig4 #ga is shown a beautiful and appropriate design in use in connection with water tubular boilers4 ,,furnace ,,doors4 ,the chief points to be considered in the design of furnace doors are to prevent the radiation of heat through them1 and to provide for the admission of air above the burning fuel in order to aid in the consumption of smoke and unburnt gases4 ,in all cases where the doors are exposed to very rough usage--such1 for instance1 as in locomotive and marine boilers--the means for admitting air must be of the simplest1 and consist generally of small perforations as shown in ,fig4 #gf which represents a front view1 and section of the furnace door of a locomotive boiler4 ,the heat from the burning fuel is prevented from radiating through the perforation in the outer door1 by attaching to it a second or baffle plate1 a1 at a distance of about #a-a_/b inches1 the holes in which do not coincide in direction with the door proper4 ,by the constant entry of cold air from the outside the greater part of any heat which may be communicated to the door by radiation or conduction is returned to the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,doors similar to the above provide for the constant addition of limited quantities of fresh air above the fuel1 but in actual practice1 however1 air is only needed above the fire for a few minutes after fresh fuel has been thrown on the grates and then is required in considerable quantities4 ,in the case of land boilers1 the furnace doors of which undergo comparatively mild treatment1 it is possible to introduce the necessary complications to effect this object4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,fig4 #gg shows an arrangement largely in use in ,new ,england1 in which1 by means of a diaphragm1 the air is passed back and forth across the heated inner or baffle plate with the very best results4 ,the air is first drawn by the natural draught into the hollow space between the iron door and its lining1 through a row of holes ,a1 in the lower part of the door1 controlled however1 by a slide not shown in the cut1 then caused to flow back and forth across the width of the door by simply arranged diaphragms1 and finally injected into the furnace through a series of minute apertures drilled in the upper part of the door liner1 as indicated in cut at ,b4 ,it will be seen that while the air may enter the door at a low temperature1 it constantly becomes heated during its circulation until the instant it enters the furnace1 it is ready to flash into flame with intense heat upon its incorporation with the expanding gases of the furnace4 ,an arrangement in common use in ,cornish and ,lancashire boilers consists of a number of radial slits in the outer door which can be closed or opened at will in the same manner as an ordinary window ventilator4 ,other and more complicated arrangements have been frequently devised1 which work admirably so long as they remain in order1 but the frequent banging to which furnace doors are subjected1 even in factory boilers1 soon deranges delicate mechanism4 ,furnace doors should be made as small as possible considering the proper distribution of fuel over the grate area1 as otherwise the great rush of cold air1 when the door is opened rapidly1 cools down the flues and does considerable injury to tube plates1 etc42 for this reason it is desirable1 when grates are over forty inches in width to have two doors to each furnace1 which can be fired alternately4 ,the great loss arising from a rush of cold air on opening the furnace doors for replenishing the fires with fuel has led to costly experiments to produce 8a mechanical stoker10 or self boiler feeding arrangement for supplying the coal as needed4 ,,fusible ,,plugs4 ,in some ,states the insertion of fusible plugs at the highest fire line in boilers is compelled by law under a heavy penalty4 ,its design is to give the most emphatic warning of low water1 and at the same time relieve the boiler of dangerous pressure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,figs4 #gh and #gi exhibit two of the forms most commonly used1 and on the succeeding page1 in cut #hj1 is shown the device in operation where the water has sunk to a dangerously low level4 ,in the illustration the device is shown in connection with a locomotive boiler1 in the common tubular boiler the plug is usually inserted in the rear head of the boiler1 so that in case of its operation it will not endanger the fireman4 ,these devices are designed to be screwed into the boiler shell at the safety line4 ,the ,figs4 #gh #gi exhibit their construction4 ,the part to be screwed into the boiler is called the shell and is commonly made of brass2 the internal part is plug and is made of a soft metal like banca tin or a compound consisting of lead1 tin and bismuth4 ,this composition melts easily at the proper point to allow escape1 where the water has sunk to a dangerously low level4 ,there is considerable diversity in the make up of the material used for filling the plug1 which must not have its melting point at anything less than the temperature of the steam lest it should 8go off0 at the wrong time4 ,illustration3 ,,fusible ,,safety ,,plug ,fig4 #hj4 ,if the accident of low water occurs at a time where it is important to continue operations with the least possible delay1 a pine plug may be driven in the opening left by the melting of the fusible metal4 ,in any event it is but a short job to renew the fusible cap1 it being only necessary to unscrew the nut and insert a new cap1 the rest of the device remaining intact4 ,the plug should be renewed occasionally and the surface exposed inside the boiler be kept free from scale and deposit4 ,it is to be understood that the fusible portion extends entirely through the shell of the boiler and when melted out makes a vent for the water or steam4 ,all marine boilers in service in the ,united ,states are required to have fusible plugs1 one-half inch in diameter1 made of pure tin1 and nearly all first-class boiler makers put them in each boiler they build4 ,,grate ,,bars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,,the ,,grate ,,bars are a very important part of the furnace appliances4 ,these consist of a number of cast iron bars supported on iron bearers placed at and across the front and back of the furnace4 ,innumerable forms of grate bars have been contrived to meet the cases of special kinds of fuel4 ,the type in common use is represented in ,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,these cuts show a side view and a section of a single bar1 and a plan of three bars in position4 ,each bar is in fact a small girder1 the top surface of which is wider than the bottom4 ,on each bar are cast lugs1 the width of which determines the size of the opening for the passage of air4 ,this opening varies in width according to the character of the fuel2 for anthracite #c_/d inch is a maximum1 while the soft coals #e_/h to #c_/d inch is often used2 for pea and nut coal still smaller openings than either of those are used1 i4e4 #a_/d and #c_/h inches4 ,for wood the opening should be a full inch in width4 ,for long furnaces the bars are usually made into two lengths1 with a bearer in the middle of the grate1 as shown in ,fig4 #hc4 ,as a rule long grates are set with a considerable slope towards the bridge in order to facilitate the distribution of the fuel2 an inch to a foot is the rule commonly approved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,rocking and shaking grates are now very extensively used2 these combine a dumping arrangement1 and very largely lessen the great labor of the fireman1 and by allowing the use of slack and other cheap forms of fuel are very economical4 ,several patents are issued upon this form of grate bars all working on essentially the same principle4 ,fig4 #hd exhibits an efficient form of a shaking grate4 ,as shown in the cut1 the grates are arranged to dump the ashes and clinkers4 ,by the reverse motion the flat surface of the grates are restored4 ,trouble with grate bars comes from warping or twisting caused by excessive heat1 and burning out1 produced by the same cause--this explains the peculiar shape in which grates are made--very narrow and very deep4 ,a free introduction of air not only causes perfect combustion but tends towards the preservation of the bars4 ,grate bars are usually placed so as to incline towards the rear1 the inclination being from one to two inches2 this facilitates somewhat the throwing of the coal into the furnace4 ,the proportion between grate and heating surface should be determined by the kind of fuel to be used4 ,the greatest economy will be attained when the grate is of a size to cause the fire to be forced1 and have the gases enter the chimney only a few degrees hotter than the water in the boiler4 ,if the grate is too large to admit of forcing the fire1 the combustion is naturally slower1 and consequently the temperature in the furnace is lower1 and the loss from the escaping gases is greater4 ,it must be borne in mind that the only heat which can be utilized is that due to the difference in temperature between the fire and the water in the boiler4 ,for example1 if the temperature in the furnace be #ige1 and the water in the boiler have a temperature due to #hj pounds of steam1 viz43 #cbe1 it is evident that the heat which can be utilized is the difference between them1 or #b_/c of the total heat4 ,now if the fire be forced1 and the furnace temperature raised to #bfjj1 #g_/h of the total heat can be utilized2 so it can be readily seen that the grate should be of such a size as to have the fire burn rapidly4 ,the actual ratio of grate to heating surface should not in any case be less than #a to #dj1 and may with advantage1 in many cases1 be #a to #ej4 ,this proportion will admit of very sharp fires1 and still insure the greater portion of the heat being transmitted to the water in the boiler4 ,the water grate bars1 invented in #ahbd1 and since frequently applied to locomotives and marine boilers1 do not seem to grow in popular favor1 and are scarcely known in stationary boilers4 ,the objections urged against them are the expense of maintenance1 their fittings and attachments1 and the possibility of serious consequences should they rupture or burn out4 ,,water ,,gauge ,,cocks4 ,it is of the first importance that those in charge of a boiler shall know with certainty the position of the water level within the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,these attachments1 also called ,try cocks1 are usually placed in a conspicuous and accessible position on the front of boilers4 ,they are so arranged that one will blow only steam1 one at the working level of the water1 and the third at the lowest water level or say three inches above the highest point of the fire line of the boiler4 ,the cut1 ,fig4 #he1 exhibits them as commonly arranged4 ,it is not essentially requisite1 that the cocks themselves should be placed at the point indicated1 so long as they have pipes projecting internally into the boiler1 with their ends corresponding to the height of water above mentioned4 ,in order that these cocks may readily be cleaned out1 a plug is usually fitted into bit of cock opposite the port or opening of the plug1 upon removing which a pricker can be readily inserted4 ,the gauge or cocks should be tested many times each day1 and when opened the top one should always give steam and the bottom one water4 ,they should be allowed to remain open long enough to make sure whether steam or water is issuing from the cock4 ,this is a matter of instruction1 but the beginner with a little experience can detect the difference by the sound4 ,in so universal an appliance as this there are very many forms and arrangements1 but they all work upon the same principle as stated above4 ,,glass ,,gauges4 ,these are the second and auxiliary arrangements for ascertaining the water line4 ,nearly all boilers are supplied with both try cocks and glass gauges1 and so important is it considered to be correctly informed as to the water line that a third method consisting of a float which is carried on the water surface1 is sometimes added to the two named4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,the glass water gauge column consists of an upright casting bolted to the front of the boiler1 in which are fixed two cocks having stuffing boxes for receiving the gauge glass4 ,the lower of these cocks is also fitted with a drain cock for blowing out the glass4 ,the try cocks are frequently placed on the above-mentioned standard or column4 ,the action of the gauge glass is to show the level of the water in the boiler by natural gravitation and the best position for it is in view of the engine room1 as close to the boiler as possible and preferably in the middle line of its diameter1 at such height that its lowest portion is about two inches above the highest part of the fire line of the boiler1 and its centre1 nine inches above that1 making the total visible portion of glass eighteen inches long4 ,glass water gauges sometimes have pipe connections top and bottom4 ,the object of this arrangement is to have an undisturbed water level in the glass by carrying one pipe to the steam dome and the other near to the bottom of the boiler2 the one position not being so liable to be affected by foaming and the other by the boiling of the water4 ,cocks should always be fitted to the boiler ends of these pipes1 in order that in case of accident to the pipes1 steam and water may be shut off4 ,the glasses are liable to burst and become choked up with dirt4 ,the former defect is easily repaired by shutting off the cocks in connection with the boiler and putting in a new glass4 ,the mud or sediment is cleaned out by opening the above-mentioned drain or blow-out cock and allowing the steam or water1 or both1 to rush through the glass1 which will effectually blow out all sediment and leave the glass in good condition again to show the height of the water in the boiler4 ,in opening the cocks connected with the glasses1 it should be done cautiously1 as the glass is liable to burst4 ,a strip of white running the whole length of the glass on the side toward the boiler is a great help in observing the variations of the water line in the tube4 ,it is not needed to remove the gauge glasses to clean them4 ,there are good fixtures in the market that by taking out the plug in the top1 the glass may be cleaned with a bit of wicking on the end of a stick4 ,a slight scratch will break the glass1 hence do not use wire4 ,use soft rubber gaskets when setting the glass1 screw up until all leaking stops4 ,don't let the glass come in contact with the metal anywhere4 ,don't try to reset the glass with an old hard gasket4 ,two glasses from the same bundle will not act alike4 ,the glasses used to show the water line are made of a soft glass known as 8lead glass10 and are easily cut1 or broken square across4 ,most of them can be broken by filing a notch at the point at which it is necessary to break them4 ,after filing the notch1 place the thumbs as if you would break the glass2 it will crack easily1 and the fracture be straight and clean4 ,if the tube be brittle1 as some are1 to avoid cutting the hands wrap two pieces of paper around the glass1 each side of the notch4 ,if the ends are rough or uneven1 they can be made smooth by filing or by the grindstone4 ,the ,manchester1 ,eng41 ,boiler ,association attribute more accidents to inattention to water gauges than to all other causes put together4 ,it is1 therefore1 of much importance that these glasses should be kept clean4 ,it is not an uncommon thing to go into a boiler room and find that a leaky stuffing box has allowed the steam or water to blow out1 and1 by running down the outside of the glass1 leave a deposit of lime scale4 ,after this deposit has been formed1 it is sometimes difficult to remove--and more than a few glasses have been broken by the engineer attempting to remove the scale4 ,after this scale has once been formed1 unless it is soft enough to be wiped off with a piece of waste1 it is best to take the glass out and soak or wash it in a solution of one-half muriatic acid and one-half water until it is clean or the scale so softened that it may be readily wiped off4 ,to prevent the scale from again forming and hardening1 the glass should be dipped in glycerine before replacing4 ,,the ,,mud ,,drum4 ,the mud drum is attached to a boiler with the expectation that it will catch and hold the larger portion of the sediment precipitated from the water4 ,the mud drum to be effective should be protected from the heat of the fire1 for so soon as it receives sufficient heat to boil the water within it can no longer serve the purpose for which it was intended as all the sediment which may have gathered would be expelled by the ebullition of the water4 ,when the drum is located under the boiler it is not in a good position to catch the sediment1 as the boiling water produces sufficient current to carry the sediment to the top1 or keep it violently agitated1 so that there is little opportunity for it to be deposited anywhere so long as the boiler is making steam4 ,afterward when the water is quiet the sediment for the most part is deposited on the tubes and the curve of the shell2 the small portion falling into the neck of the drum serves principally to show the inefficiency of the device4 ,located under the boiler as it generally is1 makes it extremely difficult to get at for examination1 and as a consequence of its being enclosed1 as it must be1 to be of much importance1 it is subject to greater deterioration than would otherwise be the case1 and as the enclosure to be most efficient would enclose the neck also1 the difference of expansion at or near the junction would soon produce leaking if not worse4 ,when the mud drum is located outside the boiler walls where it would be most efficient1 if properly connected1 it loses its identity and becomes a mechanical boiler cleaner4 ,in consequence of these drawbacks the mud drum is becoming antiquated as a boiler appliance1 and is now seldom used4 ,,baffle ,,plates4 ,these are a device sometimes used inside steam boilers to check the too sudden flow of steam towards the exit pipe1 they are simply plate to baffle the rush of the steam so as to avoid foaming4 ,in ,fig4 #ij baffle plate is illustrated by the division casting against which the steam strikes on its passage from the boiler to the engine4 ,the liners or inner plates of the boiler doors are baffle plates4 ,,dead ,,plate4 ,this is a flat plate of iron immediately inside the furnace door and is used in many boilers in order to insure the more perfect combustion of the coal4 ,when the fresh fuel is laid on1 it is placed on the dead plate instead of on the grate2 in this position the coal is coked1 the gases from the coal being ignited as they pass over the already intensely hot fuel in the furnace1 the fuel from the dead plate is pushed forward to make place for another charge to be put on the dead plate4 ,but more frequently1 as elsewhere described1 the fuel is thrown over and across the dead plate directly upon the hot fire4 ,,steam ,,whistles4 ,these are of two kinds1 known as the bell-whistle and organ-tube whistle2 the latter is now fast superseding the former on account of the simplicity of construction and superior tone4 ,an improved form has a division in the tube so as to emit two distinct notes1 which may be in harmony1 or discord1 and when sounded together may be heard a long distance4 ,it is important that the whistle shall sound as soon as the steam is turned on2 to ensure this great care must be taken to keep the whistle-pipe free from water4 ,,the ,,steam ,,gauge4 ,the principle of construction of the dial steam gauge is1 that the pressure may be indicated by means of a pointer in a divided dial similar to a clock face1 but marked in division1 indicating pounds pressure per square inch instead of hours and minutes4 ,figs4 #hg and #hh show the ordinary style of gauge which consists of an elliptical tube1 connected at one end to a steam pipe in communication with the boiler pressure and at the other end with gearing to a pointer spindle as shown in cut4 ,an inverted syphon pipe is usually formed under the gauge1 its object being to contain water and thus prevent the heat of the steam injuring the machinery of the gauge1 or distorting its action by expansion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,a small drain cock should be fitted to the leg of the syphon of a steam gauge1 leading to the boiler1 at a level with the highest point the water can rise in the other leg1 otherwise an increased pressure will be indicated1 due to the head of water which would otherwise collect in the boiler leg of the syphon4 ,steam gauges indicate the pressure of steam above the atmosphere only1 the total pressure being measured from a perfect vacuum which will add #ad-g_/aj lbs4 on the average to the pressure shown on the steam gauge4 ,these gauges are apt to get out of order in consequence of water lodging in the end of the heat tube and corroding the latter4 ,it may be easily known when they are out of order by raising the pressure of the steam in the boiler and watching when it commences to blow off at the safety valve1 and then noting the position of the index finger4 ,the pressure registered by the finger should1 of course1 then correspond with the known blow off pressure of the valves2 if it does not1 one or the other or both of these instruments must be out of order2 therefore1 when this is the case and a disagreement occurs1 the steam gauge may be presumed to need correction4 ,it should also be noted that the steam gauge finger points to zero when steam pressure is cut off4 ,a two-way cock should be used for closing the connection between the steam gauge and the boiler1 and at the same time to let air into the steam gauge4 ,the steam should never be allowed to act directly on a steam gauge when located in cold situations where they are liable to freeze4 ,the valve on the boiler should be closed and the water allowed to drip out1 and1 before the steam is turned on from the boiler1 the drip on the gauge should be closed1 in order that sufficient steam may be condensed in the pipe to furnish the quantity of water necessary to keep the steam from striking the gauge4 ,a ready method for being always able to prove the correctness of your steam gauge4 ,when steam is at some point not over half the usual pressure1 place the ball on the safety valve at the point where it commences to blow off and mark the place4 ,move the ball twice as far from the fulcrum as this mark1 and it should blow off at twice the pressure as indicated by the gauge1 or it is not right4 ,any other relative distance may be used to advantage4 ,,steam ,,separator4 ,this appliance1 which is also called an interceptor or catch water1 is generally a ,t shaped pipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,this1 although not a boiler fixture or fitting1 is intimately connected with them3 it is an appliance fast coming into use both for land and marine engines1 to guard against the danger to steam engine cylinders arising from 8the priming0 of the boilers when the steam is used at a high pressure with high speed of the piston4 ,the separator is usually placed in the engine room1 so as to be well in sight4 ,the steam is led down the pipe round a diaphragm plate and then up again to the engine steam pipe4 ,by this means any priming or particles of water that may be brought from the boiler with the steam will fall to the bottom of the interceptor or catch water1 from whence it can be blown out1 according to the arrangement of the pipes1 by opening the drain cock fixed on the bottom4 ,it has a water gauge fixed on the lower end1 so as to show whether water is accumulating2 and the engineers attention is required to see that this water is from time to time blown off4 ,in the illustration1 ,fig4 #ij1 is shown the simplest form in which the device can be made4 ,the arrows exhibit the direction in which the steam travels1 the aperture whence the water is to be blown out and the place for attachment of a water column4 ,in practical construction the separator should have a diameter twice that of the steam pipe and be #b-a_/b to #c diameters long4 ,it is often made with a round top and flat bottom and sometimes with both ends hemispherical4 ,the division plate should extend half the diameter of the steam pipe below the level of the bottom of the steam pipe4 ,in ,fig4 #ia is shown an improved form of a steam separator which consists of a shell or casing in which there is firmly secured a double-ended cone4 ,on this cone there are cast a number of wings1 extending spirally along its exterior4 ,on entering the separator the steam is spread and thrown outward by the cone and given a centrifugal motion by the spiral wings4 ,these wings are constructed with a curved surface4 ,it will be noticed that the steam on entering the separator is immediately expanded from a solid body into an annular space of equal volume to the steam pipe1 whereby its particles are removed from the centre and thus receive a greater amount of centrifugal motion4 ,the entrained water or grease1 etc41 is thus precipitated against1 and flows along the shell of the separator1 and is collected in a well of ample proportions at base of separator1 where it is entirely isolated from the flow of dry steam4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,,sentinel ,,valve4 ,it was formerly required for each marine boiler to have a small valve loaded with a weight to a few pounds per square inch above the working pressure1 so that in case of the safety valves sticking fast and the gauge being false1 an alarm might be given when there was an excess of pressure4 ,such valves were about #c_/d inch in diameter and sometimes as small as #c_/h4 ,an arrangement of a small safety valve attached to a whistle has been introduced1 but with advances in other directions relating to safety these specialties are now getting to be only known by name4 ,,damper ,,regulators4 ,these are well-known devices for so controlling the draught of the chimney that the steam pressure in the boiler will be increased or decreased automatically1 that is1 without the aid of a person4 ,the regulator shown in ,fig4 #ib1 which is one of many excellent forms on the market1 has the power to move the damper in both directions by water pressure1 exerting a force on the end of the lever of nearly #bjj lbs41 thus compelling a certain and positive motion of the damper when a variation in the boiler pressure takes place4 ,it will open or close the damper upon the variation of less than one pound of pressure4 ,the close regulation affords a test for the correctness of the steam gauge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,this regulator1 by using the water pressure from the boiler as a motive power1 becomes a complete engine without the connecting rod and crank1 having a balanced piston valve1 the valve stem of which is enlarged where it passes through the upper end of the chest into a piston of small area1 working in a small open ended cylinder cast on the chest4 ,the pressure forcing this piston outward is counterbalanced by weights as shown in illustration4 ,the differential motion is accomplished by the device shown at the top of small cylinder4 ,,fuel ,,economizer ,,and ,,feed ,,water ,,purifier4 ,this device1 shown in ,fig4 #ic1 is designed to utilize the waste products of combustion as they pass from the furnace to the chimney4 ,its use permits a high and consequently efficient temperature under the boilers and yet saves the excess of heat4 ,it acts also as a mechanical boiler cleaner1 furnishing a settling chamber for the deposit of the impurities separated by the heat which nearly equals that of the live steam in the boiler4 ,this device adds largely to the water capacity of the boiler1 frequently containing one-half the weight of the water held in the boiler itself4 ,it will be readily understood that the openings between the vertical tubes are ample for the chimney flue area and that the device is located between the chimney and the boiler1 with the waste furnace heat passing between the tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,the economizer shown in ,fig4 #ic consists of sections of vertical #d-a_/b boiler tubes fitted to their top and bottom headers by taper joints4 ,the top headers are provided with caps over each tube to permit cleaning out the sediment and remove and replace any tube that may become damaged4 ,the several top headers are connected together at one end by lateral openings and the bottom headers are also connected as shown in cut1 having hand holes opposite each bottom header to provide for cleaning out4 ,mechanical scrapers are made to travel up and down each tube to keep them clear of soot4 ,these are controlled by an automatic mechanism and driving head1 as shown in ,fig4 #ic4 ,the important features about the economizer are1 #a1 its adaptability to any type of boiler1 #b1 the saving attained by utilizing that heat which has necessarily been an almost total waste1 #c1 the purifying of the water by means of the intense heat and slow circulation of the feed water4 ,,safety ,,valves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 7,,sectional ,,view47 ,the safety valve is a circular valve seated on the top of the boiler1 and weighted to such an extent1 that when the pressure of the steam exceeds a certain point1 the valve is lifted from its seating and allows the steam to escape4 ,safety valves can be loaded directly with weights1 or the load can be transmitted to the valve by a lever4 ,again1 the end of the lever is sometimes held down by a spring1 or the spring may be applied directly to the valve seat4 ,fig4 #id 7#b views7 exhibits a spring loaded safety valve4 ,these are generally provided with a reaction lip1 surrounding the seat1 which causes them to open much further1 and thus enables them to discharge a larger volume of steam than a lever valve of equal diameter4 ,the operation can be easily understood by examining the figures4 ,as soon as the steam pressure is high enough to lift the valve disc clear from its seat1 the steam will escape around the valve seat as in an ordinary lever safety valve1 but instead of escaping directly into the atmosphere1 the current of steam is turned downward against the reaction lip1 by the curved projection on the valve disc1 which can be seen in the figure4 ,the steam pressure is thus assisted in holding the valve open1 as well as raising it much higher1 giving a larger opening than would be the case if the valve were lifted by the pressure alone4 ,spring loaded valves are mostly used on marine boilers1 locomotives and portable boilers1 and wherever outside disturbances interfere with the action of a weight4 ,a 8pop0 safety valve is a common form of safety valve and takes its name from the fact that it takes a little more pressure to raise it off its seat than what it is set at1 consequently it releases itself with a 8pop40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,fig4 #ie shows a form of dead weight safety valves when a is the valve which rests on the seating b4 ,the valve is attached to the circular casting ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 so that both rise and fall together4 ,the weights ,w1 ,w1 etc41 are disposed on the casting in rings1 which can be adjusted to the desired blow off pressure4 ,owing to the center of gravity of the casting and weight being below the valve1 the latter requires no requires no guides to keep it in position4 ,this is a great advantage as guides frequently stick1 and prevent the valve from acting4 ,another advantage of this form of valve is1 that it is difficult to tamper with4 ,for instance1 a four-inch valve1 intended to blow off at #ajj lbs4 per square inch would require weight of over #a1bjj lbs41 which require a considerable bulk4 ,an unauthorized addition of a few pounds to such a mass would make no appreciable addition to the blowing off pressure1 while any effectual amount added to the weight would be immediately noticed4 ,it is quite different with the lever safety valve about to be described1 a small addition to the weight at the end of the lever is multiplied several times at the valve4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,rules ,,relating ,,to ,,safety ,,valves4 ,extract from rules and regulations passed and approved ,feb4 #be1 #ahhe1 by the ,united ,states ,board of ,supervising ,inspectors of ,steam ,vessels3 ,,section #bd4 8,lever safety valves to be attached to marine boilers shall have an area of not less than one square inch to two square feet of the grate surface in the boiler1 and the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination of forty-five degrees to the centre line of their axis4 8,the valves shall be so arranged that each boiler shall have one separate safety valve1 unless the arrangement is such as to preclude the possibility of shutting off the communication of any boiler with the safety valve or valves employed4 ,this arrangement shall also apply to lock-up safety valves when they are employed4 8,any spring-loaded safety valves constructed so as to give an increased lift by the operation of steam1 after being raised from their seats1 or any spring-loaded safety valve constructed in any other manner1 or so as to give an effective area equal to that of the aforementioned spring-loaded safety valve1 may be used in lieu of the common lever-weighted valve on all boilers on steam vessels1 and all such spring-loaded safety valves shall be required to have an area of not less than one square inch to three square feet of grate surface of the boiler1 and each spring-loaded valve shall be supplied with a lever that will raise the valve from its seat a distance of not less than that equal to one-eighth the diameter of the valve opening1 and the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination to the centre-line of their axis of forty-five degrees4 ,but in no case shall any spring-loaded safety valve be used in lieu of the lever-weighted safety valve1 without first having been approved by the ,board of ,supervising ,inspectors40 ,the following size 8,pop0 ,safety ,valves are required for boilers having grate surfaces as below3 #b inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #i4db square feet of grate surface4 #b-a_/b inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #ad4gb square feet of grate surface4 #c inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #ba4bj square feet of grate surface4 #d inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #cg4fi square feet of grate surface4 #e inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #eh4ij square feet of grate surface4 #f inch 8,pop0 ,valve for #hd4hb square feet of grate surface4 ,,professor ,,rankin',s ,,rule4--,multiply the number of pounds of water evaporated per hour by 4#jjf1 and the product will be the area in square inches of the valve4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,steamboat ,inspection ,law requires for the common lever valve one square inch of area of valve for every two square feet of area of grate surface4 ,united ,states ,navy ,department deduced from a series of experiments the following rule3 ,multiply the number of pounds of water evaporated per hour by 4#jje1 and the product will be the area of the valve in square inches4 ,rule adopted by the ,philadelphia ,department of ,steam ,engine and ,boiler ,inspection3 #a4 ,multiply the area of grate in square feet by the number #bb4e4 #b4 ,add the number #h4fb to the pressure allowed per square inch4 ,divide 7#a7 by 7#b7 and the quotient will be the area of the valve in square inches4 ,this is the same as the ,french rule4 ,the maximum desirable diameter for safety valves is four inches1 for beyond this the area and cost increase much more rapidly than the effective discharging around the circumference4 ,there should not be any stop valve between the boiler and safety valve4 ,the common form of safety valve is shown in ,fig4 #if4 ,here the load is attached to the end ,b of the lever ,a1 ,b1 the fulcrum of which is at c4 ,the effective pressure on the valve1 and consequently the blowing off pressure in the boiler can be regulated within certain limits1 by sliding the weight ,w along the arm of the lever4 ,in locomotive engines1 as well as on marine boilers1 the weight would on account of the oscillations1 be inadmissible and a spring is used to hold down the lever4 ,in the calculations regarding the lever safety valve1 there are five points to be determined1 and it is necessary to know four of these in order to find the fifth4 ,these are3 7#a7 ,the ,steam ,pressure1 7#b7 ,the ,weight of ,ball1 7#c7 ,the ,area of ,valve1 7#d7 ,the ,length of ,lever1 7#e7 ,the ,distance from the ,valve ,centre to the ,fulcrum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,in making these calculations it is necessary to take into account the load on the valve due to the weight of the valve-stem and lever4 ,the leverage with which this weight acts is measured by the distance of its centre of gravity from the fulcrum4 ,the centre of gravity is found by balancing the lever on a knife edge1 and the weight of the valve-stem and lever can be found by actual weighing4 ,this load can also be found by attaching a spring balance to the lever exactly over the centre of the valve stem when they are in position4 ,the following examples will be computed under these conditions3 7#a7 ,steam ,pressure1 #abj pounds2 7#b7 ,weight of ,ball1 #ajj pounds2 7#c7 ,weight of ,valve and ,lever1 #fj pounds1 weighed in position2 7#d7 ,length of ,lever1 #de inches2 7#e7 ,length of ,distance from ,valve ,centre to ,fulcrum1 #e inches2 7#f7 ,area of ,valve1 #h square inches4 ,to find the area of the valve3 ,,rule4--,multiply the length of the lever by the weight of the ball1 and divide the product by the distance from the valve centre to the fulcrum1 and to the quotient add the effective weight of the valve and lever1 and divide the sum by the steam pressure4 ,example4 #de inches1 length of the lever1 #ajj pounds1 weight of the ball1 ---- ,fulcrum1 #e in4 7#dejj ---- #ijj #fj pounds1 weight of valve and lever1 ---- ,steam pressure #abj lbs4 7#ifj 7#h square inches1 area of valve4 #ifj ,to find the pressure at which the valve will blow off3 ,,rule4--,multiply the length of the lever by the weight of the ball2 divide this product by the distance from the valve centre to the fulcrum1 and to the quotient add the effective weight of the lever and valve1 and divide the sum by the area of the valve4 ,example4 #de inches1 length of lever1 #ajj pounds1 weight of ball1 ---- ,fulcrum1 #e in4 7#dejj ---- #ijj #fj pounds1 weight of valve and lever1 ---- ,area of ,valve #h 7 #ifj ---- #abj pounds1 pressure at which valve will blow4 ,to find the weight of ball3 ,,rule4--,multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve1 and from the product subtract the effective weight of the valve and lever1 then multiply the remainder by the distance from the valve centre to the fulcrum1 and divide the product by the length of the lever4 ,example4 #abj pounds1 steam pressure1 #h inches1 area of valve1 ---- #ifj #fj pounds1 weight of valve and lever1 ---- #ijj #e inches1 fulcrum1 ---- ,length of lever1 #de in4 7#dejj ---- #ajj pounds1 weight of ball4 ,to find the length of lever3 ,,rule4--,multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve1 and from the product subtract the effective weight of the valve and lever1 then multiply the remainder by the distance from the valve centre to the fulcrum1 and divide the product by the weight of the ball4 ,example4 #abj pounds1 steam pressure1 #h inches1 area of valve1 ---- #ifj #fj pounds1 weight of valve and lever1 ---- #ijj #e ---- #ajj7dejj7de length of lever4 ,every boiler should be provided with two safety valves1 one of which should be put beyond the control of the attendant4 ,safety valves that stick will do so even though tried every day1 if they are simply lifted and dropped to the old place on the seat again4 ,if a boiler should be found with an excessively high pressure1 it would be one of the worst things to do to start the safety valve from its seat unless extra weight was added1 for should the valve once start1 it would so suddenly relieve the boiler of such a volume of steam as would cause a rush of water to the opening1 and by a blow1 just the same as in water hammer1 rupture the boiler4 ,such a condition is very possible to occur of itself when a safety valve sticks4 ,the valve holds the pressure1 that gets higher and higher1 until so high that the safety valve does give way and allows so much steam to escape that the sudden changing of conditions sets the water in motion1 and an explosion may result4 ,the noise made by a safety valve when it is blowing off may be regarded in two ways4 ,first1 by it is known that the valve is capable of performing its proper function1 and that there is1 therefore1 a reasonable assurance that no explosion will result from excessive pressure of steam or other gas1 and on the other hand too much noise of this kind indicates wasted fuel4 ,the hole of the safety valve may be #b1 #c or #d inches2 that does not say that the area is #c4adaf1 #g4jf or #ab4ef square inches1 but the area is that which is inside of the joint4 ,the valve opening may be1 say #b inches1 but the circle of contact of valve to seat may be of an average diameter of #b-a_/h inches1 if so1 all the close calculations otherwise will not avail4 ,in the first place1 the area of #b inches equals #c4adaf2 that of #b-a_/h diameter equals #c4edff1 showing a difference of 4#d square inches4 ,,note4 ,very extended rules issued by the ,u4 ,s4 ,government for calculating the safe working pressure1 dimensions and proportions of the safety valves for marine boilers are reprinted in 8,hawkins' ,calculations0 for engineers4 ,when a safety valve is described as a 8#b inch safety valve10 etc41 it means that two inches is the diameter of the pipe2 hence the following rule and examples for finding the area4 ,,rule ,,for ,,finding ,,area ,,of ,,valve ,,opening4 ,square the diameter of the opening and multiply the product by the decimal 4#ghed4 ,,example4 ,what is the area of a three inch valve8 ,now then3 #c #c #i 4#ghed #g4jf square inches1 ,ans4 ,,note4--,a shorter method of calculating by 4#ghed in larger sums is to multiply by #aa and divide by #ad1 for decimal 4#ghee the fraction #aa_/adth4 ,note3 4#ghed is the area of a circular inch4 ,when valves rise from their seats under increasing steam pressure they do so by a constantly diminished ratio which has been carefully determined by experiment and reduced to the following table4 -------------------------------- ,pressure in ,lbs4 ,rise of ,valve4 -------------------------------- #ab #a-cf #bj #a-dh #ce #a-ed #de #a-fe #ej #a-hf #fj #a-hf #gj #a-acb #hj #a-afh #ij #a-afh -------------------------------- ,the following useful table was prepared by the ,novelty ,iron ,works1 ,new ,york4 -------------------------------- ,boiler ,pressure ,area of ,orifice in ,lbs4 ,above in ,sq4 ,in4 for the ,atmosphere4 ,each ,sq4 ,ft4 of ,heating ,surface4 -------------------------------- #j4be 4#jbbgid #j4e 4#jbaafd #a4 4#jaheae #b4 4#jadhad #c4 4#jabcde #d4 4#jajehb #e4 4#jjibei #aj4 4#jjefih #bj4 4#jjcbba #cj4 4#jjbbdd #dj4 4#jjagbc #ej4 4#jjachi #fj4 4#jjaagf #gj4 4#jjajae #hj4 4#jjjhib #ij4 4#jjjgif #ajj4 4#jjjgai #aej4 4#jjjdha #bjj4 4#jjjcfd -------------------------------- ,,feed ,,water ,,heaters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,there are two forms of feed water heaters3 7#a7 ,the closed heater1 where the feed water passes through tubes1 which are enclosed in a shell1 through which the exhaust steam passes47#b7 ,the open heater1 in which the steam and water come into contact4 ,in the latter the water is sprayed into a space1 through which the exhaust steam passes1 or is run over a number of inclined perforated copper plates1 mingled with the exhaust steam4 ,the original feed water heater called a 8pot heater10 consisted of a vessel so constructed that the feed water was sprayed through the exhaust steam into a globe formed tank1 from the bottom of which the heated water was pumped into the boiler2 its name was originally the 8pot heater10 but as it was open to the air through the exhaust pipe1 it was1 with its successively improved forms called the open heater4 ,all the heat imparted to the feed water1 before it enters the boiler1 is so much saved1 not only in the cost of fuel1 but by the increased capacity of the boiler1 as the fuel in the furnace will not have this duty to perform4 ,there are two sources of waste heat which can be utilized for this purpose3 the chimney gases and the exhaust steam4 ,the gases escaping to the chimney after being reduced to the lowest possible temperature contain a considerable quantity of heat4 ,this waste of heat energy may be largely saved by the device illustrated on page #ahf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,how much saving is obtained under any given condition is a question requiring for its solution a careful calculation of all of the conditions which have a bearing on the subject4 ,exhaust steam under atmospheric pressure only has a sensible temperature of #bab degrees1 but exhaust steam contains also a large number of heat units which are given up when the steam is condensed into water2 for this reason it might be thought possible to raise the temperature of the feed water a few degrees higher even than the sensible temperature of the exhaust steam4 ,but this should not be expected1 on account of the radiation of heat that would occur above that of the steam4 ,the steam which escapes from the exhaust pipe dissipates into the atmosphere or discharges into the condenser over nine tenths of the heat it contained when leaving the boiler4 ,this can be best utilized by exhaust feed water heaters1 for the use of live steam heaters represents no saving in fuel1 as all the heat imparted to the feed water by their use comes directly from the boiler4 ,the purpose for which they are used is to elevate the temperature of the feed water above the boiling point1 so as to precipitate the sulphate of lime and other scale forming substances1 and prevent them from entering the boiler4 ,neither does the heat in the feed water introduced by an injector represent saving1 as it comes from the boiler and was generated by the fuel4 ,it is important to note these two statements3 #a1 ,that neither live steam feed water heaters1 nor #b1 injectors save the heat from the escaping steam4 ,it is also well to remember that it requires a pound of water to absorb #a4adf heat units1 and that this quantity of heat is distributed through the whole quantity of water1 and as a pound of steam is the same as a pound of water1 it may be understood that at #bab each pound of exhaust steam contains #a1adf heat units2 ten pounds of steam contain #aa1dfj heat units distributed through the mass1 etc43 thus1 to explain still further3 ,to evaporate water into steam1 it must first be heated to the boiling point1 and then sufficient heat still further added to change it from the liquid to the gaseous state1 or steam4 ,take one pound of water at #cb degrees and heat it to the boiling point1 it will have received #bab - #cb #ahj heat units4 ,a heat unit being the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water through one degree at its greatest density4 ,to convert it into steam after it has been raised to the boiling point1 requires the addition of #iff heat units1 which are called latent1 as they cannot be detected by the thermometer4 ,this makes #ahj #iff #aadf heat units1 which is the total heat contained in one pound of water made into steam at the atmospheric pressure4 ,and at atmospheric density the volume of this steam is equal to #bf4cf cubic feet1 and this amount of steam contains #a1adf units of heat1 distributed throughout the whole quantity1 while the temperature at any given point at which the thermometer may be inserted is #bab degrees4 ,if two pounds of water be evaporated1 making a volume of #eb4gb cubic feet1 then the number of heat units present would be doubled1 while the temperature would still remain at #bab1 the same as with one pound4 ,if by utilizing the heat that would otherwise go to waste1 the temperature of the feed water is raised #abe degrees1 the saving would be #abe_/aadf of the total amount of heat required for its evaporation1 or about #aa per cent4 ,thus it can be seen the percentage of saving depends upon the initial temperature of the feed water1 and the pressure at which it is evaporated4 ,for example1 a boiler carrying steam at #ajj pounds pressure has the temperature of the feed water raised from #fj to #bjj degrees1 what is the percentage of gain8 ,by referring to a table pressure of 8saturated steam10 it will be seen that the total heat in steam at #ajj pounds pressure is #aahe heat units4 ,these calculations are from #cb degrees above zero1 consequently the feed must be computed likewise4 ,in the first case1 the heat to be supplied by the furnace is the total heat1 less that which the feed water contains1 or #aahe - #bh #aaeg heat units4 ,in the second case it is #aahe - #afh #ajag heat units1 the difference being #aaeg - #ajag #adj1 which represents a saving of #adj_/aaeg or about #ab per cent4 ,where feed water is heated no more than #bj degrees above its normal temperature the gain effected cannot amount to more than #b1 not sufficient to pay for the introduction and maintenance of a feed water heating device1 no matter how simple1 but if the temperature of the water can be increased #fj degrees the gain will be in the neighborhood of #e4 ,to make feed water heating practical and economical it would be necessary to increase the temperature of the water about #ahj degrees at least1 and to do this1 using the exhaust from a non-condensing engine without back pressure1 would require such a capacity of heater as would give fully #aj square feet of heating surface to each horse power of work developed1 and to raise the temperature above this would require a certain amount of back pressure or an increased capacity of heater1 so that the subject resolves itself into a question of large capacity of heater1 or a higher temperature of the exhaust steam1 which could only be obtained through a given amount of back pressure4 ,in the same way has been calculated the following table1 showing percentages of saving of fuel by heating feed-water to various temperatures by exhaust steam1 otherwise waste3 ,percentage of saving4 7,steam at #fj pounds gauge pressure47 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,final ,initial ,temperature of ,water 7,fahrenheit74 ,temp4---------------------------------- ---------------------- ,fahr4 #cb ,deg4 #dj ,deg4 #ej ,deg4 #fj ,deg4 #gj ,deg4 #hj ,deg4 #ij ,deg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #fj #b4ci #a4ga #i4hf ''' ''' ''' ''' #hj #d4ji #c4dc #b4ei #a4gd #j4hh ''' ''' #ajj #e4gi #e4ad #d4cb #c4di #b4fd #a4gg 4#ij #abj #g4ej #f4he #f4je #e4bc #d4dj #c4ee #b4fh #adj #i4bj #h4eg #g4gg #f4ig #f4ae #e4cb #d4dg #afj #aj4ij #aj4bh #i4ej #h4gb #g4ia #g4ji #f4bf #ahj #ab4fj #ab4jj #aa4bc #aj4df #i4fh #h4hg #h4jf #bjj #ad4cf #ac4ga #ac4jj #ab4bj #aa4dc #aj4fe #i4he #bbj #af4jj #ae4db #ad4gj #ad4jj #ac4ai #ab4cc #aa4fd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ajj ,deg4#abj ,deg4#adj ,deg4#afj ,deg4#ahj ,deg4#bjj ,deg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #fj ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' #hj ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' #ajj ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' #abj #a4hj ''' ''' ''' ''' ''' #adj #c4fa #a4hd ''' ''' ''' ''' #afj #e4db #c4fg #a4hg ''' ''' ''' #ahj #g4bc #e4eb #c4ge #a4ia ''' ''' #bjj #i4jc #g4cf #e4fb #c4hb #a4if ''' #bbj #aj4hd #i4bj #g4ej #e4gc #c4ic #a4ih ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,a good feed-water heater of adequate proportions should readily raise the temperature of feed-water up to #bjj ,fahr41 and1 as is seen by inspection of the table1 thus effect a saving of fuel1 ranging from #ad4c per cent4 to #i4jc per cent41 according as the atmospheric or normal temperature of the water varies from #cb ,fahr4 in the height of winter1 to #ajj ,fahr4 in the height of summer4 ,the percentage of saving which may be obtained from the use of exhaust steam for heating the feed water1 with which the boiler is supplied1 will depend upon the temperature to which the water is raised1 and this1 in turn1 will depend upon the length of time that the water remains under the influence of the exhaust steam4 ,this should be as long as possible1 and unless a sufficient amount of heating surface is employed in the heater best results cannot be expected4 ,it does not necessarily require all the exhaust steam--or the whole volume of waste steam passing from the engine to bring the feed water up to the temperature desired1 and the larger the heating appliance the smaller proportion is needed--hence heaters are best made with two exits nicely proportioned to avoid back pressure and at the same time utilize enough of the exhaust to heat the feed water4 ,an impression prevails among many who are running a condenser on their engine that a feed water heater can not be used in connection with it2 large numbers of heaters running on condensing engines with results as follows3 the feed water is delivered to the boiler at a temperature of #aej to #afj ,fahr41 depending on the vacuum3 the higher the vacuum the less the heat in the feed water4 ,a heater applied to a condensing engine generally increases the vacuum one to two inches4 ,when cold water is used for the feed water1 the saving in fuel by the use of the heater is from #g to #ad per cent4 ,when feed water is taken from the hot well1 it will save #g to #h per cent4 ,where all the steam generated by a boiler is used in the engine and the exhaust passed through a heater it is found by actual experiment1 where iron tubes are used in the heater1 that approximately ten square feet of heating surface will be required for each #cj lbs4 of water supplied to the boiler at a temperature of #bjj degrees ,fahr4 ,ten square feet of heating surface in the feed water heater also represents one horse power4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,cisterns4 ,the following table gives the capacity of cisterns for each twelve inches in depth3 ,diameter4 ,gallons4 #be feet #cfga #bj #bcdi #ae #acba #ad #aaej #ac #iib #ab #hdf #aa #gaj #aj #ehg #i #dge #h #cgf #g #bhg #f-a_/b #bdg #f #baa #e #adg #d-a_/b #aai #d #id #c #ec #b-a_/b #cf #b #bc ,supposing it was required to find the weight of the water in any cistern or tank2 it can be ascertained by multiplying the number of gallons by the weight of one gallon1 which is #h-a_/c pounds1 #h4ccc4 ,for instance1 taking the largest cistern in the above table containing #cfga gallons3 #cfga #h4cc #cjegi4dc pounds4 ,the table above gives the capacities of round cisterns or tanks4 ,if the cistern is rectangular the number of gallons and weight of water are found by multiplying the dimensions of the cistern to get the cubical contents4 ,for instance1 for a cistern or tank #if inches long1 #gb inches wide1 and #dh inches deep1 the formula would be3 #if #gb #dh #cca1ggf cubic inches4 ,as a gallon contains #bca cubic inches2 #cca1ggf divided by #bca gives l1#dcf gallons1 which multiplied by #h4cc will give the weight of water in the cistern4 ,for round cisterns or tanks1 the rule is3 ,area of bottom on inside multiplied by the height1 equals cubical capacity4 ,for instance1 taking the last tank or cistern in the table3 ,area of #bd inches 7diameter7 is #deb4ci1 which multiplied by #ab inches 7height7 gives #edbg4f cubic inches1 and this divided by #bca cubic inches in a gallon gives #bc gallons4 ,supposing the tank to be #bd inches deep instead of #ab inches1 the result would be1 of course1 twice the number of gallons4 ,,rule ,,for ,,obtaining ,,contents ,,of ,a ,,barrel ,,in ,,gallons4 ,take diameter at bung1 then square it1 double it1 then add square of head diameter2 multiply this sum by length of cask1 and that product by 4#bfah which will give volume in cubic inches2 this1 divided by #bca1 will give result in gallons4 ,,water ,,meters4 ,water meters1 or measurers 7apparatus for the measurement of water71 are constructed upon two general principles3 #a1 an arrangement called an 8inferential meter0 made to divert a certain proportion of the water passing in the main pipe and by measuring accurately the small stream diverted1 to infer1 or estimate the larger quantity2 #b1 the positive meter2 rotary piston meters are of the latter class and the form usually found in connection with steam plants4 ,they are constructed on the positive displacement principle1 and have only one working part--a hard rubber rolling piston--rendering it almost1 if not entirely1 exempt from liability to derangement4 ,it measures equally well on all sized openings1 whether the pressure be small or great2 and its piston1 being perfectly balanced1 is almost frictionless in its operation4 ,constructed of composition 7gun-metal7 and hard rubber1 it is not liable to corrosion4 ,an ingenious stuffing-box insures at all times a perfectly dry and legible dial1 or the registering mechanism which is made of a combination of metals especially chosen for durability and wear1 and inclosed in a case of gun-metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,fig4 #ii is a perspective view of the meter1 showing the index on the top4 ,it is shown here as when placed in position4 ,the proper threads at the inlet and outlet make it easy of attachment to the supply and discharge pipes4 ,the hard rubber piston 7the only working part of the ,meter7 is made with spindle for moving the lever communicating with the intermediate gear by which the dial is moved4 ,the water1 through the continuous movement of the piston1 passes through the meter in an unbroken stream1 in the same quantity as with the pipe to which it is attached when the opening in the meter equals that of the service pipe2 the apparatus is noiseless and practically without essential wear4 8,,points0 ,,relating ,,to ,,water ,,meters4 ,in setting a meter in position let it be plumb1 and properly secured to remain so4 ,it should be well protected from frost4 ,if used in connection with a steam boiler1 or under any other conditions where it is exposed to a back pressure of steam or hot water1 it must be protected by a check valve1 placed between the outlet of the meter and the vessel it supplies4 ,it is absolutely necessary to blow out the supply pipe before setting a new meter1 so that if there be any accumulation of sand1 gravel1 etc41 in it1 the same may be expelled1 and thus prevented from entering the meter4 ,avoid using red lead in making joints4 ,it is liable to work into the meter and cause much annoyance by clogging the piston4 ,this engraving1 ,fig4 #ajj1 shows the counter of the ,meter4 ,it registers cubic feet--one cubic foot being #g-dh_/ajj ,u4 ,s4 gallons and is read in the same way as the counters of gas meters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,the following example and directions may be of service to those unacquainted with the method3 ,if a pointer be between two figures1 the smallest one must always be taken4 ,when the pointer is so near a figure that it seems to indicate that figure exactly1 look at the dial next below it in number1 and if the pointer there has passed #j1 then the count should be read for that figure4 ,let it be supposed that the pointers stand as in the above engraving1 they then read #bh1ahg cubic feet4 ,the figures are omitted from the dial marked 8,,one10 because they represent but tenths of one cubic foot1 and hence are unimportant4 ,from dial marked 8#aj10 we get #g2 from the next marked 8#ajj10 we get #h2 from the next marked 8#a1jjj10 we get the figure #a2 from the next marked 8#aj1jjj10 the figure #h2 from the next marked 8#ajj1jjj10 the figure #b4 ,,the ,,fish ,,trap used in connection with water meters is an apparatus 7as its name denotes7 for holding back fishes1 etc4 ,,the ,,steam ,,boiler ,,injector4 ,for safety sake1 every boiler ought to have two feeds in order to avoid accidents when one of them gets out of order1 and one of these should be an injector4 ,this consists in its most simple form1 of a steam nozzle1 the end of which extends somewhat into the second nozzle1 called the combining or suction nozzle2 this connects with or rather terminates in a third nozzle or tube1 termed the 8forcer40 ,at the end of the combining tube1 and before entering the forcer1 is an opening connecting the interior of the nozzle at this point with the surrounding area4 ,this area is connected with the outside air by a check valve1 opening outward in the automatic injectors1 and by a valve termed the overflow valve4 ,the operation of the injector is based on the fact1 first demonstrated by ,gifford1 that the motion imparted by a jet of steam to a surrounding column of water is sufficient to force it into the boiler from which the steam was taken1 and1 indeed1 into a boiler working at a higher pressure4 ,the steam escaping from under pressure has1 in fact1 a much higher velocity than water would have under the same pressure and condition4 ,the rate of speed at which steam--taking it at an average boiler pressure of sixty pounds--travels when discharged into the atmosphere1 is about #a1gjj feet per second4 ,when discharged with the full velocity developed by the boiler pressure through a pipe1 say an inch in diameter1 the steam encounters the water in the combining chamber4 ,it is immediately condensed and its bulk will be reduced say #a1jjj times1 but its velocity remains practically undiminished4 ,uniting with the body of water in the combining tube1 it imparts to it a large share of its speed1 and the body of water thus set in motion1 operating against a comparatively small area of boiler pressure1 is able to overcome it and pass into the boiler4 ,the weight of the water to which steam imparts its velocity gives it a momentum that is greater in the small area in which its force is exerted than the boiler pressure1 although its force has actually been derived from the boiler pressure itself4 ,the following cut #aja represents the outline of one of the best of a large number of injectors upon the market1 from which the operation of injectors may be illustrated4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,steam jet4 ,v4 ,suction jet4 ,r4 ,ring or auxiliary check4 ,m4 ,steam valve and stem1 handle4 ,x4 ,overflow cap4 ,c-,d4 ,combining and delivery tube4 ,p4 ,overflow valve4 ,o4 ,steam plug4 ,n4 ,packing nut4 ,k4 ,steam valve ,fig4 #aja4 ,the steam enters from above1 the flow being regulated by the handle ,k4 ,the steam passes through the tube ,s and expands in the tube ,v1 where it meets the water coming from the suction pipe4 ,the condensation takes place in the tubes ,v and ,c1 and a jet of water is delivered through the forcer tube ,d to the boiler4 ,connection passages are made to the chamber surrounding the tubes ,c1 ,d1 and to the end of tube ,v4 ,if the pressure in this surrounding chamber becomes greater than that of the atmosphere1 the check valve ,p is lifted and the contents are discharged through the overflow4 ,so long as the pressure in this chamber is atmospheric1 the check valve ,p remains closed1 and all the contents must be discharged through the tube ,d4 ,there are three distinct types of live steam injectors1 the 8simple fixed nozzle10 the 8adjustable nozzle10 and the 8double40 ,the first has one steam and one water nozzle which are fixed in position but are so proportioned as to yield a good result4 ,there is a steam pressure for every instrument of this type at which it will give a maximum delivery1 greater than the maximum delivery for any other steam pressure either higher or lower4 ,the second type has but one set of nozzles1 but they can be so adjusted relative to each other as to produce the best results throughout a long range of action2 that is to say1 it so adjusts itself that its maximum delivery continually increases with the increase of steam pressure4 ,the double injector makes use of two sets of nozzles1 the 8lifter0 and 8forcer40 ,the lifter draws the water from the reservoir and delivers it to the forcer1 which sends it into the boiler4 ,all double injectors are fixed nozzle4 ,all injectors are similar in their operation4 ,they are designed to bring a jet of live steam from the boiler in contact with a jet of water so as to cause it to flow continuously in the direction followed by the steam1 the velocity of which it in part assumes1 back into the boiler and against its own pressure4 ,as a thermodynamical machine1 the injector is nearly perfect1 since all the heat received by it is returned to the boiler1 except such a very small part as may be lost by radiation2 consequently its thermal efficiency should be in every case nearly #ajj per cent4 ,on the other hand1 because of the fact that its heat energy is principally used in warming up the cold water as it enters the injector1 its mechanical efficiency1 or work done in lifting water1 compared with the heat expended1 is very low4 ,the action of the injector is as follows3 ,steam being turned on1 it rushes with great velocity through the steam nozzle into and through the combining tube4 ,this action induces a flow of air from the suction pipe1 which is connected to the combining tube1 with the result that a more or less perfect vacuum is formed1 thus inducing a flow of water4 ,after the water commences to flow to the injector it receives motion from the jet of steam2 it absorbs heat from the steam and finally condenses it1 and thereafter moves on into the forcer tube simply as a stream of water1 at a low velocity compared with that of the steam4 ,at the beginning of the forcer tube it is subjected only to atmospheric pressure1 but from this point the pressure increases and the water moves forward at diminished velocity4 8,,points0 ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,injector4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 where the injector fails to do good service1 it will be either because of its improper treatment or location1 or because too much is expected of it4 ,the experience of thoroughly competent engineers establishes the fact that in almost every instance in which a reliable boiler feed is required1 an injector can be found to do the work1 provided proper care is exercised in its selection4 ,the exhaust steam injector is a type different from any of the above-named1 in that it uses the exhaust steam from a non-condensing engine4 ,exhaust steam has fourteen and seven-tenths 7#ad4g7 pounds of work1 and the steam entering the injector is condensed and the water forced into the boiler upon the same general principle as in all injectors4 ,the exhaust steam injector would be still more extensively used were it not for a practical objection which has arisen--it carries over into the boiler the waste oil of the steam cylinder4 ,some injectors are called by special names by their makers1 such as ejectors and inspirators1 but the term injectors is the general name covering the principle upon which all the devices act4 ,the injector can be1 and sometimes is1 used as a pump to raise water from one level to another4 ,it has been used as an air compressor1 and also for receiving the exhaust from a steam engine1 taking the place in that case of both condenser and air pump4 ,the injector nozzles are tubes1 with ends rounded to receive and deliver the fluids with the least possible loss by friction and eddies4 ,double injectors are those in which the delivery from one injector is made the supply of a second1 and they will handle water at a somewhat higher temperature than single ones with fixed nozzles4 ,the motive force of the injector is found in the heat received from the steam4 ,the steam is condensed and surrenders its latent heat and some of its sensible heat4 ,the energy so given up by each pound of steam amounts to about #ijj thermal units1 each of which is equivalent to a mechanical force of #ggh foot pounds4 ,this would be sufficient to raise a great many pounds of water against a very great pressure could it be so applied1 but a large portion of it is used simply to heat the water raised by the injector4 ,the above explanation will apply to every injector in the market1 but ingenious modifications of the principles of construction have been devised in order to meet a variety of requirements4 ,that the condensation of the steam is necessary to complete the process will be evident1 for if the steam were not condensed in the combining chamber1 it would remain a light body and1 though moving at high speed1 would have a low degree of energy4 ,certain injectors will not work well when the steam pressure is too high4 ,in order to work at all the injector must condense the steam which flows into the combining tube4 ,therefore1 when the steam pressure is too high1 and as a consequence the heat is very great1 it is difficult to secure complete condensation2 so that for high pressure of steam good results can only be obtained with cold water4 ,it would be well when the feed water is too warm to permit the injector to work well1 to reduce the pressure1 and consequently the temperature of the steam supplied to the injector1 as low pressure steam condenses much easier1 and consequently can be employed with better result4 ,throttling the steam supplied by means of stop valves will often answer well in this case4 ,the steam should not be cold or it will not contain heat units enough to allow it to condense into a cross section small enough to be driven into the boiler4 ,this is the reason why exhaust injectors fail to work when the exhaust steam is very cold4 ,it also explains why such injectors work well when a little live steam is admitted into the exhaust sufficient to heat it above a temperature of #bab4 ,leaks affect injectors the same as pumps1 and in addition1 the accumulation of lime and other mineral deposits in the jets stops the free flowing of the water4 ,the heat of the steam is the usual cause of the deposits1 and where this is excessive it would be well to discard the injector and feed with the pump4 ,the efficient working of the injector depends materially upon the size of the jet which should be left as the manufacturer makes it2 hence in repairs and cleaning a scraper or file should not be used4 ,for cleaning injectors1 where the jets have become scaled1 use a solution of one part muriatic acid to from nine to twelve parts of water4 ,allow the tubes to remain in the acid until the scale is dissolved or is so soft as to wash out readily4 ,the lifting attachment1 as applied to any injector1 is simply a steam jet pump4 ,it is combined with the injector proper and is operated by a portion of the steam admitted to the instrument4 ,nearly all the successful injectors on the market are made with these attachments1 and will raise water about #be feet1 if required1 from a well or tank below the boiler level4 ,where an injector is required to work at different pressures it must be so constructed that the space between the receiving tube and the combining tube can be varied in size4 ,as a rule this is accomplished by making both combining and receiving tubes conical in form and arranging the combining tube so that it can be moved to or from the receiving tube1 and the water space thereby enlarged or contracted at will4 ,the adjustment of the space between the two tubes by hand is a matter of some difficulty1 however2 at least it takes more time and patience than the average engineer has to devote to it1 and the majority of the injectors in use are therefore made automatic in their regulation4 ,the injector is not an economical device1 but it is simple and convenient1 it occupies but a small amount of space1 is not expensive and is free from severe strains on its durability2 moreover1 where a number of boilers are used in one establishment1 it is very convenient to have the feeding arrangements separate1 so that each boiler is a complete generating system in itself and independent of its neighbors4 ,,laws ,,of ,,heat4 ,heat is a word freely used1 yet difficult to define4 ,the word 8heat0 is commonly used in two senses3 7#a7 to express the sensation of warmth2 7#b7 the state of things in bodies which causes that sensation4 ,the expression herein must be taken in the latter sense4 ,heat is transmitted in three ways--by conduction1 as when the end of a short rod of iron is placed in a fire1 and the opposite end becomes warmed--this is conducted heat2 by convection 7means of currents7 such as the warming of a mass of water in a boiler1 furnace1 or saucepan2 and by radiation1 as that diffused from a piece of hot metal or an open fire4 ,radiant heat is transmitted1 like sound or light1 in straight lines in every direction1 and its intensity diminishes inversely as the square of the distance from its center or point of radiation4 ,suppose the distance from the center of radiation to be #a1 #b1 #c and #d yards1 the surface covered by heat rays will increase #a1 #d1 #i and #af square feet2 the intensity of heat will diminish #a1 #a_/d1 #a_/i1 and #a_/af4 and so on in like proportions1 until the heat becomes absorbed1 or its source of supply stopped4 ,whenever a difference in temperature exists1 either in solids or liquids that come in contact with or in close proximity to each other1 there is a tendency for the temperature to become equalized2 if water at #ajj be poured into a vessel containing an equal quantity of water at #ej1 the tendency will be for the whole to assume a temperature of #ge2 and suppose the temperature of the surrounding air be #cj1 the cooling process will continue until the water and the surrounding air become nearly equal1 the temperature of the air being increased in proportion as that of the water is decreased4 ,the heat generated by a fire under the boiler is transmitted to the water inside the boiler1 when the difference in the specific gravities1 or1 in other words1 the cold water in the pipes being heavier than that in the boiler sinks and forces the lighter hot water upward4 ,this heat is radiated from the pipes1 which are good conductors of heat to the air in the room1 and raises it to the required temperature4 ,that which absorbs heat rapidly1 and parts with it rapidly1 is called a good conductor1 and that which is slow to receive heat1 and parts with it slowly1 is termed a bad conductor4 ,the following tables of conductivity1 and of the radiating properties of various materials1 may be of service3 ,,conducting ,,power ,,of ,,various ,,substances4--,,despritz4 ,material4 ,conductivity4 ,gold #ajj ,silver #ig ,copper #hi ,brass #ge ,cast iron #ef ,wrought iron #cg ,zinc #cf ,tin #cj ,lead #ah ,marble #b4d ,fire clay #a4a ,water #j4i ,,radiating ,,power ,,of ,,various ,,substances4--,,leslie ,radiating ,material4 ,power4 ,lampblack #ajj ,water #ajj ,writing paper #ih ,glass #ij ,tissue paper #hh ,ice #he ,wrought lead #de ,mercury #bj ,polished lead #ai ,polished iron #ae ,gold1 silver #ab ,copper1 tin #ab ,from the above tables1 it will be seen that water1 being an excellent radiator1 and of great specific heat1 and iron a good conductor1 these qualities1 together with the small cost of the materials1 combine to render them efficient1 economic and convenient for the transmission and distribution of artificial heat4 ,by adopting certain standards we are enabled to define1 compare and calculate so as to arrive at definite results1 hence the adoption of a standard unit of heat1 unit of power1 unit of work1 etc4 ,the standard unit of heat is the amount necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water at #cb ,fahr4 one degree1 i4e41 from #cb to #cc4 ,specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a solid or liquid body a certain number of degrees2 water is adopted as the unit or standard of comparison4 ,the heat necessary to raise one pound of water one degree1 will raise one pound of mercury about #cj degrees1 and one pound of lead about #cb degrees4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,specific ,,heat ,,of ,,equal ,,weights ,,of ,,various ,,substances4 ,specific ,solid bodies4 ,heat4 ,wood 7fir and pine7 #j4fej 7oak7 #j4egj ,ice #j4ejd ,coal #j4bhj ,charcoal 7animal7 #j4bfj 7vegetable7 #j4bda ,iron 7cast7 #j4bda ,coke #j4bja ,limestone #j4bjj ,glass #j4aie ,steel 7hard7 #j4aag 7soft7 #j4aaf ,iron 7wrought7 #j4aaa ,zinc #j4jie ,copper 7annealed7 #j4jid 7cold hammered7 #j4jic ,tin #j4jef ,lead #j4jca ,liquids4 ,water #a4jjj ,alcohol #j4aeh ,acid 7pyroligneous7 #j4eij ,ether #j4ebj ,acid 7acetic7 #j4eji ,oil 7olive7 #j4cji ,mercury #j4jcc ,gases4 ,hydrogen #c4dji ,vapor of alcohol #j4edg ,steam #j4dhj ,carbonic oxide #j4bde ,nitrogen #j4bdc ,oxygen #j4bag ,atmospheric air #j4bcg ,carbonic acid #j4bjb ,,the ,,steam ,,pump4 ,it is difficult to overestimate the importance1 in connection with a steam plant1 of the appliance which supplies water for the boiler1 not only1 but a hundred other uses4 ,upon the steady operation of the pump depends the safety and comfort of the engineer1 owner and employee1 and indirectly of the success of the business with which the 8plant0 is connected4 ,hence the necessity of acquiring complete knowledge of the operation of a device so important4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,pumps now raise1 convey and deliver water1 beer1 molasses1 acids1 oils1 melted lead4 ,pumps also handle1 among the gases1 air1 ammonia1 lighting gas1 and oxygen4 ,pumps are also used to increase or decrease the pressure of a fluid4 ,pumps are made in many ways1 and defined as rope1 chain1 diaphragm1 jet1 centrifugal1 rotary1 oscillating1 cylinder4 ,cylinder pumps are of two classes1 single acting and double acting4 ,in single acting--in effect is single ended--in double acting1 the motion of the cylinder in one direction causes an inflow of water and a discharge at the same time1 in the other2 and on the return stroke the action is renewed as the discharge end becomes the suction end4 ,the pump is thus double acting4 ,a direct pressure steam pump is one in which the liquid is pressed out by the action of steam upon its surface1 without the intervention of a piston4 ,a direct acting steam pump is an engine and pump combined4 ,a cylinder or reciprocating pump is one in which the piston or plunger1 in one direction1 causes a partial vacuum1 to fill which the water rushes in pressed by the air on its head4 ,,note4--,a suction valve prevents the return of this water on the return stroke of the piston1 and a discharge valve permits the outward passage of the fluid from the pump but not its return thereto or to the reservoir through the suction pipe4 ,the force against which the pump works is gravity or the attraction of the earth which prevents the water from being lifted4 ,this is shown by the fact that water can be led1 or trailed1 an immense distance1 limited only by the friction1 by a pump4 ,,note4--,it may be noted that the difference between a fluid and liquid is shown in the fact that the latter can be poured from one vessel to another1 thus3 air and water are both fluids1 but of the two water alone is liquid3 air1 ammonia1 etc41 are gases1 while they are also fluids1 i4e41 they flow4 ,the idea entertained by many that water is raised by suction1 is erroneous4 ,water or other liquids are raised through a tube or hose by the pressure of the atmosphere on their surface4 ,when the atmosphere is removed from the tube there will be no resistance to prevent the water from rising1 as the water outside the pipe1 still having the pressure of the atmosphere upon its surface1 forces water up into the pipe1 supplying the place of the excluded air1 while the water inside the pipe will rise above the level of that outside of it proportionally to the extent to which it is relieved of the pressure of the air4 ,if the first stroke of a pump reduces the pressure of the air in the pipe from #ae pounds on the square inch to #ad pounds1 the water will be forced up the pipe to the distance of #b-a_/d feet1 since a column of water an inch square and #b-a_/d feet high is equal in weight to about #a pound4 ,now if the second stroke of the pump reduces the pressure of the atmosphere in the pipe to #ac pounds per inch1 the water will rise another #b-a_/d feet2 this rule is uniform1 and shows that the rise of the column of water within the pipe is equal in weight to the pressure of the air upon the surface of the water without4 ,there are pumps 7,centrifugal7 especially designed for pumping water mingled with mud1 sand1 gravel1 shells1 stones1 coal1 etc41 but with these the engineer has but little to do1 as they are used mostly for wrecking and drainage4 ,the variety of pattern in which pumps are manufactured and the still greater variation in capacity forbids an attempt to fully illustrate and describe further than their general principles1 and to name the following general ,,classification ,,of ,,pumps4 #ast4 ,pumps are divided into ,vertical and ,horizontal4 ,vertical pumps are again divided into3 #a4 ,ordinary ,suction or ,bucket ,pumps4 #b4 ,suction and ,lift ,pumps4 #c4 ,plunger or ,force ,pumps4 #d4 ,bucket and ,plunger ,pumps4 #e4 ,piston and ,plunger ,pumps4 ,horizontal ,pumps are divided into3 #a4 ,double-acting ,piston ,pumps4 #b4 ,single-acting ,plunger ,pumps4 #c4 ,double-acting ,plunger ,pumps4 #d4 ,bucket and ,plunger ,pumps4 #e4 ,piston and ,plunger ,pumps4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,a--,air ,chamber4 ,b--,water ,cylinder ,cap4 ,c--,water ,cylinder with ,valves and ,seats in4 ,d--,rocker ,shafts1 each1 ,long or ,short4 ,e--,removable ,cylinders1 each4 ,f--,water ,piston and ,follower1 each4 --,water ,piston ,followers1 each4 ,g--,rocker ,stand4 ,h--,suction ,flange1 threaded4 ,i--,discharge ,flange1 threaded4 ,j--,intermediate ,flanges1 each4 ,k--,water ,cylinder ,heads1 each4 ,l--,concaves complete1 with ,stuffing ,boxes1 each4 ,m--,steam ,cylinder1 without ,head1 ,bonnet and ,valve4 ,n--,steam ,cylinder ,foot4 ,o--,crosshead ,links1 each4 ,p--,steam ,piston complete with ,rings and ,follower1 each4 m--,steam ,piston ,head4 n--,steam ,piston ,follower4 ,steam ,piston ,rings1 including ,spring and ,breakjoint4 ,q--,side ,water ,cylinder ,bonnet1 each4 ,r--,steam ,chest ,bonnet1 each4 ,s--,steam ,chest ,stuffing ,box ,gland1 each4 ,t--,steam ,slide ,valve1 each4 ,u--,piston ,rods1 each4 ,v--,crossheads1 each4 ,w--,rocker ,arms1 each1 ,long or ,short4 ,x--,valve ,rod ,links1 each1 ,long or ,short4 ,y--,steam ,valve ,stems1 each4 ,z--,steam ,cylinder ,heads1 each4 aa--,piston ,rod ,nuts1 each4 hh--,piston ,rod ,stuffing ,glands1 each4 ii--,water ,valve ,seats1 each4 jj--,rubber ,valves1 each4 kk--,water ,valve ,stems1 each4 ll--,water ,valve ,springs1 each4 gg--,removable ,cylinder ,screws1 each4 b--,steam ,valve ,stem ,forks1 each4 c--,steam ,valve ,stem ,fork ,bolts1 each4 e--,valve ,rod ,link ,bolts1 each4 d--,rocker ,arm ,pins1 each4 f--,crosshead ,link ,bolts1 each4 o--,collar ,bolts1 each4 pp--,brass ,steam ,cylinder ,drain ,cocks1 each4 ,water ,packings1 each4 ,brass ,piston ,rods1 each4 ,brass ,lined ,removable ,cylinders1 extra1 each4 ,piston ,rod ,stuffing ,gland ,bolts1 each4 ,water ,cylinder ,cap ,bonnets1 each4 ,top ,valve ,caps1 each4 ,valve ,cap ,clamps1 each4 ,in ,figs4 #ajb and #ajc are exhibited the outlines of the double acting steam pump1 which is undoubtedly the pattern most thoroughly adapted for feeding steam boilers1 as it is equipped for the slowest motion with less risk of stopping on a centre4 ,from the drawing with reference letters may be learned the terms applied generally to the parts of all steam pumps3 example3 8k0 shows the water valve stems1 8,k0 the water cylinder heads4 ,it may be remarked that nearly all pump makers furnish valuable printed matter1 giving directions as to repairs1 and best method of using their particular pumps--especially valuable are their repair sheets in which are given cuts of 8parts0 of the pumps4 ,it were well for the steam user and engineer to request such matter from the manufacturers for the special pump they use4 ,,points ,,relating ,,to ,,pumps4 ,blow out the steam pipe thoroughly with steam before connecting it to the engine2 otherwise any dirt or rubbish there might be in the pipe will be carried into the steam cylinder1 and cut the valves and piston4 ,never change the valve movement of the engine end of the pump4 ,if any of the working parts become loose1 bent or broken1 replace them or insert new ones1 in precisely the same position as before4 ,keep the stuffing boxes nearly full of good packing well oiled1 and set just tight enough to prevent leakage without excessive friction4 ,use good oil only1 and oil the steam end just before stopping the pump4 ,it is absolutely necessary to have a full supply of water to the pump4 ,if possible avoid the use of valves and elbows in the suction pipe1 and see that it is as straight as possible2 for bends1 valves and elbows materially increase the friction of the water flowing into the pump4 ,see that the suction pipe is not imbedded in sand or mud1 but is free and unobstructed4 ,all the pipes leading from the source of supply to the pump must be air-tight1 for a very small air-leak will destroy the vacuum1 the pump will not fill properly2 its motion will be jerky and unsteady1 and the engine will be liable to breakage4 ,a suction air chamber 7made of a short nipple1 a tee1 a piece of pipe of a diameter not less than the suction pipe and from two to three feet long1 and a cap1 screwed upright into the suction pipe close to the pump7 is always useful2 and where the suction pipe is long1 in high lifts1 or when the pump is running at high speed1 it is a positive necessity4 ,never take a pump apart before using it4 ,if at any time subsequently the pump should act badly1 always examine the pump end first4 ,and if there is any obstruction in the valve1 remove it4 ,see that the pump is well packed1 and that there are no cracks in pipes or pump1 nor any air-leaks4 ,in selecting a pump for boiler feeding it is well to have it plenty large enough1 and also these other desirable features3 few parts1 have no dead points or center1 be quiet in operation1 economical of steam and repairs1 and positive under any pressure4 ,granted motion to the piston or plunger1 a pump fails because it leaks4 ,there can be no other reason1 and the leak should be found and repaired4 ,leaky valves are common and should be ground4 ,leaky pistons are not so common1 but sometimes occur4 ,repairing is the remedy4 ,leaky plungers are common4 ,they need re-turning4 ,the rod must be straight as far as in contact with the packing4 ,the packing around the plungers is sometimes neglected too long1 gets filled with dirt and sediment1 and hardens and scores an otherwise perfect rod1 and so leaks4 ,the lifting capacity of a pump depends upon proper proportion of clearance in the cylinder and valve chamber1 to displacement of the piston and plunger4 ,an injector is a sample of a jet pump--this may either lift or force or both4 ,the most necessary condition to the satisfactory working of the steam pump is a full and steady supply of water4 ,the pipe connections should in no case be smaller than the openings in the pump4 ,the suction lift and delivery pipes should be as straight and smooth on the inside as possible4 ,when the lift is high1 or the suction long1 a foot valve should be placed on the end of the suction pipe1 and the area of the foot valve should exceed the area of the pipe4 ,the area of the steam and exhaust pipes should in all cases be fully as large as the nipples in the pump to which they are attached4 ,the distance that a pump will lift or draw water1 as it is termed1 is about #cc feet1 because water of one inch area #cc feet weighs #ad4g pounds2 but pumps must be in good order to lift #cc feet1 and all pipes must be air-tight4 ,pumps will give better satisfaction lifting from #bb to #be feet4 ,in cold weather open all the cocks and drain plugs to prevent freezing when the pump is not in use4 ,when purchasing a steam pump to supply a steam boiler1 one should be selected capable of delivering one cubic foot of water per horse-power per hour4 ,no pump1 however good1 will lift hot water1 because as soon as the air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapor occupies the space1 destroys the vacuum1 and interferes with the supply of water4 ,as a result of all this the pump knocks4 ,when it becomes necessary to pump hot water1 the pump should be placed below the supply1 so that the water may flow into the valve chamber4 ,the air vessel on the delivery pipe of the steam pump should never be less than five times the area of the water cylinder4 ,there are many things to be considered in locating steam pumps1 such as the source from which water is obtained1 the point of delivery1 and the quantity required in a given time2 whether the water is to be lifted or flows to the pump2 whether it is to be forced directly into the boiler1 or raised into a tank #be1 #ej or #ajj feet above the pump4 ,the suction chamber is used to prevent pounding when the pump reverses and to enable the pump barrel to fill when the speed is high4 ,suction is the unbalanced pressure of the air which is at sea level #ad-g_/aj per inch1 or #bjif4h per square foot4 ,when a valve is spoken of in connection with a pump it may be understood that there may be several valves dividing and performing the functions of one4 ,a simple method of obtaining tight pump-valves consists simply in grooving the valve-sheets and inserting a rubber cord in the grooves4 ,as the valves seat themselves the cord is compressed and forms a tight joint4 ,an additional advantage is that it prevents the shock ordinarily produced by rapid closing and prolongs the life of the valve seat4 ,the rubber cord when worn can be easily and quickly replaced4 ,,calculations ,,relating ,,to ,,pumps4 ,to find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water1 multiply the height of the column in feet by 4#dcd1 ,approximately1 we say that every foot elevation is equal to #a_/b lb4 pressure per square inch2 this allows for ordinary friction4 ,to find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of water per minute 7#ajj feet of piston being the standard of speed71 divide the number of gallons by #d1 then extract the square root1 and the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder4 ,to find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at #ajj feet of piston speed per minute4 ,square the diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply by #d4 ,example3 capacity of a #e inch cylinder is desired4 ,the square of the diameter 7#e inches7 is #be1 which1 multiplied by #d1 gives #ajj1 the number of gallons per minute 7approximately74 ,to find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given height1 multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in lbs4 by the height in feet1 and divide the product by #cc1jjj 7an allowance should be added for water friction1 and a further allowance for loss in steam cylinder1 say from #bj to #cj per cent474 ,the area of the steam piston1 multiplied by the steam pressure1 gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted4 ,the area of the water piston1 multiplied by the pressure of water per square inch1 gives the resistance4 ,a margin must be made between the power and the resistance to move the piston at the required speed--say from #bj to #dj per cent41 according to speed and other conditions4 ,to find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons4 ,multiplying the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give the total number of cubic inches2 divide this amount by #bca 7which is the cubical contents of a ,u4 ,s4 gallon in inches71 and product is the capacity in gallons4 ,the temperature #fb ,f4 is the temperature of water used in calculating the specific gravity of bodies1 with respect to the gravity or density of water as a basis1 or as unity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,important stress has been laid upon keeping all floating objects1 gravel1 etc41 away from the acting parts of the pump4 ,in ,fig4 #ajd is presented a cut of an approved strainer which can be removed1 freed from obstruction1 and replaced by simply slacking one bolt1 the entire operation occupying one minute4 ,the advantages of this strainer will be readily apparent4 ,,important ,,principles ,,relating ,,to ,,water4 ,there are some underlying natural laws and other data relating to water which every engineer should thoroughly understand4 ,heat1 water1 steam1 are the three properties with which he has first to deal4 ,weight of one cubic foot of ,pure ,water4 ,at #cb ,f4 #fb4dah pounds4 ,at #ci4a;,f #fb4dbe ,at #fb 7,standard temperature7 #fb4cee ,at #bab #ei4fdj ,the weight of a cubic foot of water is about #ajjj ounces 7exactly #iih4h ounces71 at the temperature of maximum density4 ,the weight of a cylindrical foot of water at #fb ,f4 is #di lbs4 7nearly74 ,the weight of a cylindrical inch is #j4decc oz4 ,there are four notable temperatures for water1 namely1 #cb ,f41 or #j ,c4 the freezing point under one atmosphere4 #ci4a or #d the point of maximum density4 #fb or #af4ff the standard temperature4 #bab or #ajj the boiling point1 under one atmosphere4 ,water rises to the same level in the opposite arms of a recurved tube1 hence water will rise in pipes as high as its source4 ,the pressure on any particle of water is proportioned to its depth below the surface1 and as the side pressure is equal to the downward pressure4 ,water at rest presses equally in all directions4 ,this is a most remarkable property1 the upward direction of the pressure of water is equal to that pressing downwards1 and the side pressure is also equal4 ,any quantity of water1 however small1 may be made to balance any quantity1 however great4 ,this is called the ,hydrostatic ,paradox1 and is sometimes exemplified by pouring liquids into casks through long tubes inserted in the bung holes4 ,as soon as the cask is full and the water rises in the pipe to a certain height the cask bursts with violence4 ,water is practically non-elastic4 ,a pressure has been applied of #cj1jjj pounds to the square inch and the contraction has been found to be less than one-twelfth4 ,the surface of water at rest is horizontal4 ,a familiar example of this may be noted in the fact that the water in a battery of boilers seeks a uniform level1 no matter how much the cylinders may vary in size4 ,a given pressure or blow impressed on any portion of a mass of water confined in a vessel is distributed equally through all parts of the mass2 for example a plug forced inwards on a square inch of the surface of water1 is suddenly communicated to every square inch of the vessel's surface1 however large1 and to every inch of the surface of any body immersed in it4 ,,weight ,,and ,,capacity ,,of ,,different ,,standard ,,gallons ,,of ,,water4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,cubic inches,weight of a ,gallons in a,weight of a in a ,gallon4 ,gallon in cubic foot4 cubic foot pounds4 of water1 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,english ,imperial or standard1 ,english #bgg4bfd #aj4jj #f4bcbajb #fb4bba lbs4 ,united ,states #bca4 #h4ccaaa #g4dhjeai ,avoirdupois4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,storing ,,and ,,handling ,,of ,,coal4 ,the best method of storing coal is a matter of economy and needs the attention of the engineer4 ,coal1 as it comes from the mine1 is in the best possible condition for burning in a furnace2 its fracture is bright and clean1 and it ought to be preserved up to the time of using it in such manner as to avoid as much as possible any alteration of its condition so as to prevent deterioration4 ,so far as actual experience goes it has been found that a brick building1 with double walls to promote coolness1 with high narrow slits instead of windows1 with ventilating holes along the bottom of the walls1 having a high-pitched roof with overhanging eaves1 and holes for ventilation well sheltered under the eaves1 and with ventilators along the edge of the roof1 is best suited to keep the coal in the condition most nearly approaching that of the freshly mined4 ,the floor of the building should be preferably paved with brick on edge or flagstones2 the doors should be large and kept open in damp weather1 and closed when the weather is hot4 ,some persons recommend sprinkling the coal occasionally during the hot weather1 but it is much better to wet down the paving all around the building outside1 and the exposed floor of the building1 as well as the walls inside and outside1 and let the moisture of the evaporation have its effect upon the coal4 ,it will be found to be amply sufficient for the purpose4 ,it has been found long since that it is better to have coal sheds dark1 as light assists greatly in impairing the fuel4 ,the best arrangement for a boiler room floor is to have a coal-bin1 paved with stone flags1 opening into the fire-room by a door1 while the fire-room itself should be paved diagonally with brick1 set on edge upon a concrete foundation1 well rammed to within about three feet of the boiler front1 and the remaining space should be floored with iron plates4 ,the coal should be wheeled from the bins and dumped upon these plates1 never on the brick floor4 ,these plates should be laid on an incline of about an inch toward the boilers1 and it is well to have a trough or gutter1 of about six inches in width1 and having a depth of about one and a half inches cast in them1 at the edge lying nearest the boilers1 so that the water from the gauge-cock1 drip-pipes1 and that from wetting down the ashes may run into it and drain into a proper sewer-pipe laid under the flooring4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,furnace4 ,a careful estimate by a ,broadway ,chemist of the contents or constituents of a ton of coal presents some interesting facts1 not familiar certainly to unscientific minds4 ,it is found that1 besides gas1 a ton of ordinary gas coal will yield #c1ejj pounds of coke1 twenty gallons of ammonia water and #adj pounds of coal tar4 ,now1 destructive distillation of this amount of coal tar gives about seventy pounds of pitch1 seventeen pounds of creosote1 fourteen pounds of heavy oils1 about nine and a half pounds of naphtha yellow1 six and one-third pounds of naphthaline1 four and three-fourth pounds of alizarine1 two and a fourth pounds of solvent naphtha1 one and a fifth pound of aniline1 seventy-nine hundredths of a pound of toludine1 forty-six hundredths of a pound of anthracine1 and nine-tenths of a pound of toluches--from the last-named substance being obtained the new product1 saccharine1 said to be #bcj times as sweet as the best cane sugar4 ,from an engineer's standpoint the main constituents of all coal are carbon and hydrogen2 in the natural state of coal these two are united and solid2 their respective characters and modes of entering into combustion1 are however essentially different4 ,the hydrogen is convertable into heat only in the gaseous state2 the carbon1 on the contrary1 is combustible only in the solid condition4 ,it must be borne in mind that neither is combustible while they are united4 ,there are1 however1 other elements existing in coal in its natural state1 and new ones are formed during burning or combustion as will be noted in the succeeding paragraphs4 ,for raising steam the process of combustion consists in disentangling1 letting loose or evolving the different elements locked up in coal2 the power employed in accomplishing this is heat4 ,the chemical results of this consumption of the fuels may be divided into four stages or parts4 ,first stage1 application of existing heat to disengage the constituent gases of the fuel4 ,in coals this is principally mixed carbon and hydrogen4 ,second stage1 application or employment of existing heat to separate the carbon from the hydrogen4 ,third stage1 further employment of existing heat to increase the temperature of the two combustibles1 carbon and hydrogen1 until they reach the heat necessary for combination with the air4 ,if this heat is not obtained1 chemical union does not take place and the combustion is imperfect4 ,fourth and last stage1 the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon and hydrogen of the furnace in their proper proportions1 when intense heat is generated and light is also given off from the ignited carbon4 ,the temperature of the products of combustion at this final stage depend upon the quantity of air in dilution4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy estimates this heat as greater than the white heat of metals4 ,in the first stages heat is absorbed1 but is given out in the last4 ,when the chemical atoms of heat are not united in their proper proportions1 then carbonic oxide1 mixed carbon and hydrogen1 and other combustible gases escape invisibly1 with a corresponding loss of heat from the fuel4 ,when the proper union takes place1 then only steam1 carbonic acid and nitrogen1 all of which are incombustible1 escape4 ,the principal products1 therefore1 of perfect combustion are3 steam1 invisible and incombustible2 carbonic acid1 invisible and incombustible4 ,the products of imperfect combustion are3 carbonic oxide1 invisible but combustible2 smoke1 partly invisible and partly incombustible4 ,steam is formed from the hydrogen gas given out by the coals combining with its equivalent of oxygen from the air4 ,smoke is formed from the hydrogen and carbon which have not received their respective equivalents of oxygen from the air1 and thus pass off unconsumed4 ,the color of the smoke depends upon the carbon passing off in its dark1 powdery state4 ,the heat lost is not dependent upon the amount of carbon alone1 but also upon the invisible but combustible gases1 hydrogen and carbonic oxide2 so that while the color may indicate the amount of carbon in the smoke1 it does not indicate the amount of the heat lost2 hence1 the smokeless locomotive burning coke may lose more heat in this way than that arising from the imperfect burning of coal under the stationary engine boiler4 ,a practical and familiar instance of imperfect combustion is exhibited when a lamp smokes and the unconsumed carbon is deposited all about in the form of soot4 ,when the evolving or disengagement of the carbon is reduced by lowering the wick to meet the supply of oxygen1 the carbon is all consumed and the smoke ceases4 ,what takes place in a lamp also occurs in a furnace1 so that the proper supply of air is a primary thing1 relating to economy1 both as regards its quantity and its mode of admission to a fire4 ,the economical generation of heat is one thing1 the use made of that heat afterwards is another4 ,combustion may be perfect1 but the absorption of heat by a boiler may be inferior4 ,the chief agents operating in the furnace are carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen1 and their union in certain proportions produces other bodies1 as water or steam1 carbonic acid1 besides others of less practical importance4 ,,oxygen is an invisible gas1 has no smell1 and remains permanently in receptacles1 unchanged by time4 ,it can be obtained in an experimental quantity by heating the chlorate of potash1 and collecting the gas given off in a bladder or jar4 ,it is a trifle heavier than common air1 i4e41 #a4ajf times and a cubic foot at #cb temperature weighs #a4dbh ounces4 ,it is one of the most abundant bodies in nature1 and is combined with many others in a great variety of ways4 ,,carbon is one of the most interesting elementary substances in nature4 ,it is combustible and forms the base of charcoal1 and enters largely into mineral coal4 ,it is a mineral capable of being reduced to a feathery powder1 and is found in many different forms4 ,it is obtained by various processes3 from oil lamps as lamp-black2 from coal as coke1 and from wood as charcoal2 the mineral particles of carbon in a state of combustion render flame luminous from either gas1 oil or candles4 ,carbon unites with iron to form steel1 and with hydrogen to form the common street gas4 ,carbon is considered as the next most abundant body in nature to oxygen4 ,in the furnace the carbon of the fuel unites with the oxygen of the air to produce heat2 if the supply of air is correctly regulated1 there will be perfect combustion1 but if the supply of air be deficient1 combustion will be imperfect4 ,,hydrogen is an invisible gas1 and the lightest known body in the world1 being many times lighter than oxygen4 ,it is combustible and gives out much heat4 ,in our gas establishments it is made in large quantities and combined with carbon for illuminating streets1 shops and dwellings4 ,it is the source of all common flame4 ,when united with sulphur in coal mines it becomes explosive4 ,by passing a current of steam through a hot iron tube partly filled with filings1 hydrogen gas is given off and burns with a pale yellow flame4 ,the more hydrogen1 therefore1 there is in the fuel1 the greater in general is its heating power4 ,but it must be borne in mind that the element of hydrogen is1 nevertheless1 to a greater or less degree neutralized by the other element1 oxygen1 when it is present as a constituent of the fuel2 since the affinity of hydrogen for oxygen is superior to that of carbon1 and the oxygen saturated with hydrogen is converted into steam and rises in this form from the fuel bed without producing heat4 ,thus it is that the more oxygen there is in the fuel the less is its power for developing heat by combustion4 ,,nitrogen is also an elementary body4 ,it neither supports life nor combustion2 it is lighter than air and has no taste or smell4 ,one cubic foot at #cb temperature weighs a trifle less than one ounce4 ,,sulphur is also an elementary body1 of a yellow color1 brittle1 does not dissolve in water1 is easily melted1 and inflammable4 ,it is also called brimstone or burnstone1 from its great combustibility4 ,it burns with a blue flame1 and with a peculiar1 suffocating odor4 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,gas is formed by the burning of sixteen parts of oxygen and six parts of carbon4 ,its specific gravity is #a4ebi2 it is fatal to life1 and it also extinguishes fire4 ,,carbonic ,,oxide is a colorless1 transparent1 combustible gas1 which burns with a pale blue flame1 as may be seen at times on opening a locomotive fire-box door4 ,its presence in a furnace is evidence of imperfect combustion from a deficient supply of air1 as it indicates that only eight parts of oxygen instead of sixteen parts have united with six parts of carbon4 ,,table4 ,the following table exhibits the comparative amounts of water which can be1 under perfect conditions1 evaporated from the substances named3 ,one pound burned4 ,water evaporated4 ,hydrogen #fd4bh ,carbon 7average of several experiments7 #ad4gg ,carbonic ,oxide #d4dh ,sulphur #d4ah ,alcohol #ac4dj ,oil gas #bb4aa ,turpentine #bj4bf ,the last four substances are compounds1 and the last three consist almost wholly1 or chiefly of carbon and hydrogen4 ,the total heating power of average coal is1 it may be noted to advantage1 about #ab4hc pounds of water upon the same conditions as above described4 ,hydrogen1 it is seen1 stands pre-eminently at the head of the list for heating power1 represented by the evaporation of #fd-a_/d pounds of water1 whilst carbon1 the next in order1 and the staple combustible element in fuel1 has only a heating power of #ad-c_/d pounds of water4 ,,heat-,,proof ,,and ,,ornamental ,,paints4 ,steam pipes1 boiler fronts1 smoke connections and iron chimneys are often so highly heated that the paint upon them burns1 changes color1 blisters and often flakes off4 ,after long protracted use under varying circumstances1 it has been found that a silica-graphite paint is well adapted to overcome these evils4 ,nothing but boiled linseed oil is required to thin the paint to the desired consistency for application1 no dryer being necessary4 ,the paint is applied in the usual manner with an ordinary brush4 ,the color1 of course1 is black4 ,another paint1 which admits of some variety in color1 is made by mixing soapstone1 in a state of fine powder1 with a quick-drying varnish of great tenacity and hardness4 ,this will give the painted object a seemingly-enameled surface1 which is durable and not affected by heat1 acids1 or the action of the atmosphere4 ,when applied to wood it prevents rotting1 and it arrests disintegration when applied to stone4 ,it is well known that the inside of an iron ship is much more severely affected by corrosion than the outside1 and this paint has proven itself to be a most efficient protection from inside corrosion4 ,it is light1 of fine grain1 can be tinted with suitable pigments1 spreads easily1 and takes hold of the fibre of the iron or steel quickly and tenaciously4 ,turpentine well mixed with black varnish also makes a good coating for iron smoke pipes4 ,much brighter and more pleasant appearing engine rooms can be made by making the surfaces white4 ,lime is a good non-conductor of heat1 and it has the further quality of protecting iron from rust1 so it would appear that whitewash was as good a material with which to cover boiler fronts1 smoke stacks1 steam pipes1 etc41 as any other substance4 ,to prepare whitewash for this purpose it is only necessary to add a little salt or glue to the water used for dissolving the lime1 as either of these substances will make it stick readily and it cannot afterward be easily rubbed off2 but perhaps the best way to prepare the whitewash would be to boil a pound of rice until it has become the consistency of starch1 all of the solid particles having been broken up by boiling1 and add this solution to the solution of lime in water4 ,this last preparation is also very good for outside work1 for after it has been applied and has an opportunity to dry1 no amount of rain will wash it off and its appearance is almost equal to white paint1 and no amount of heat ordinarily met with will discolor it1 although the heat of the fire box doors1 if it was applied in such place1 would give it a brownish cast of color4 ,even the brick setting of a boiler looks very much better when nicely whitewashed than when of its natural color1 and if the ceiling and walls of the boiler room are also whitewashed the effect is quite pleasing1 more healthful and conduces greatly to cleanliness4 ,any engineer who tries this1 renewing the whitewash as frequently as he would paint1 will give this plan of painting pipes and boiler front the preference over the use of any kind of black paint4 ,,pressure ,,recording ,,gauge4 ,this device is an ingenious mechanism actuated by clock work and the varying pressures of steam formed within the boiler2 it records the time and the pressure upon a revolving roll of paper and preserves an accurate account of the varying conditions which have existed within the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,the advantages derived from its use may be thus summarized3 #a1 ,it is a monitor constantly teaching the fireman to be careful to maintain an equal pressure of steam4 #b1 ,this uniform steam made possible by the use of the gauge is productive of the greatest possible economy4 #c1 ,the even strain maintained insures a long life to the boiler and a minimum of repairs4 #d1 ,it is the vindication of an attentive and careful fireman and allows him due credit for his skill and faithfulness1 which is too often ill appreciated for lack of a reliable record4 ,although described as a boiler room fixture1 where it is frequently found in position1 the proper place for this admirable device is in the steam user's office1 thus establishing a nerve connection1 between engineer and owner1 relating to the safety and economy of the power-plant to their mutual great advantage4 ,,horse ,,power ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,boilers4 ,by general agreement a horse power as applied to steam boilers is thirty 7#cj7 pounds of feed water at a temperature of #ajj degrees ,fahr4 converted into steam in #a hour at #gj pounds gauge pressure4 ,the standard is all that can be asked because the same test will determine two things2 first the steam making capacity of the boiler and second its evaporative efficiency1 which is all that is necessary to know in determining the commercial rating of boilers4 ,but it is a fact that1 without an engine attached1 there is no such thing as calculating the horse power of a boiler upon general principles4 ,a well constructed engine with a given pressure of steam upon a piston of a given area and moving at a certain velocity in feet per minute1 will always and under all conditions develop the same power so long as the boiler is able to furnish a sufficient quantity of steam to keep up that pressure2 and it matters not whether the steam is taken from a boiler rated at #fj horse power or #cj4 ,an evidence of the fact that there is no standard rule for calculating the horse power of boilers that can be depended upon1 is that no two engine builders send out the same sized boilers with the engine of the same rated power4 ,experience has taught them that to furnish steam sufficient to work their engines up to their ratings that a certain sized boiler is required1 and what would be considered #cj horse power by one manufacturer might be considered #ce or more by another--the difference being in the economy of the engine of using the steam1 and not in the boiler for making it4 ,then1 again1 a boiler that might furnish a sufficient quantity of steam to work a certain type of engine up to #dj horse power without forcing the fire might1 with another style of engine1 in order to generate the same power and perform the same duty1 require to be forced beyond the limits of safety or economy4 ,therefore1 considering the varying conditions under which all steam boilers are placed1 there is no such a thing as any reliable standard rule for calculating the horse power of boilers1 but only an approximate one at the best4 ,hence it is best to select an engine of a certain power1 and then let the same manufacturers furnish a boiler to correspond with it2 and so long as the two are adapted to each other and the boiler of sufficient capacity to work the engine up to its full ratings1 it matters but little whether the boiler figures the same horse power or not4 ,it has been found in practice that it is not good economy to carry pressure higher than eighty pounds in single cylinder automatic cut off engines4 ,as pressures increase1 it becomes possible to use more economical engines1 reducing water consumption per horse power per hour1 thus requiring a smaller amount of heating surface and grate surface1 that is to say1 a smaller boiler and furnace for a given power4 ,for pressure between eighty and one hundred and twenty pounds1 the compound engine gives the best results1 while for higher pressures triple and quadruple expansion engines are the most economical4 ,,rule ,,for ,,estimating ,,horse ,,power ,,of ,,horizontal ,,tubular ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,find the square feet of heating surface in the shell1 heads and tubes1 and divide by #ae for the nominal horse power4 ,the office of a boiler is to make steam and its real efficiency or the measure of its utility to the purchaser is measured by the amount of water it can turn into steam in a certain length of time and the amount of coal it requires to do this work4 ,an ordinary #edaf boiler with forty #d tubes1 #be sq4 ft4 of grate surface and #hjj sq4 ft4 of heating surface1 in a general way is a #ge h4 p4 boiler1 but good practice will get from it #ajj h4 p41 and the very best modern engines #bjj h4 p4 ,,boiler ,,setting4 ,the method1 either ill or good in which steam boilers are 8set0 or arranged in their brick work and connections1 will vary the quantity of fuel used by as much as one-fifth2 hence the importance of knowing the correct principles upon which the work should be done4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,the portion of the steam plant called 8the boiler0 is composed of two parts--the boiler and the furnace1 and the latter may be considered a part of the 8setting0 as it is mainly composed of brick work4 ,two kinds of brick are used in boiler setting--the common brick for walls1 foundations and backing to the furnace1 and so-called fire-brick1 which should be laid at every point where the fire operates directly upon the furnace and passages4 ,fire brick should be used in all parts of the setting which are exposed to the hot gases4 ,it is better to have fire brick lining tied in with red brickwork1 unless the lining is made #ac-a_/b inches thick1 when it can be built up separate from outside walls4 ,this arrangement will require very heavy walls4 ,as usual1 but #i inches fire brick lining is used in the fireplace and #d-a_/b inches behind the bridge wall4 ,joints in the fire brick-work should be as thin as possible4 ,fig4 #ajf represents some of the different shapes in which fire brick are made to fit the side of the furnace4 ,they are called by special names indicated by their peculiar form1 circle-brick1 angle-brick1 jamb-brick1 arch-brick1 etc4 ,the common fire brick are #id-a_/bb-a_/b in size1 as shown in the figure4 ,the peculiar quality in fire bricks is their power to resist for a long time the highest temperatures without fusion2 they should be capable of being subjected to sudden changes of temperature without injury1 and they should be able to resist the action of melted copper or iron slag4 ,fire brick are cemented together with fire clay which is quite unlike the ordinary mortar which is most suitable for common brick4 ,the setting as well as construction of boilers differs greatly1 but in all the end to be sought for is a high furnace heat1 with as little waste as possible1 at the chimney end4 ,to attain this there must be 7#a7 a sufficient thickness of wall around the furnace1 including the bridge1 to retain as nearly as may be every unit of heat4 7#b7 ,a due mixture of air admitted at the proper time and temperature to the furnace4 7#c7 ,a proportionate area between the boiler and the surface of the grates for the proper mixing of the gases arising from combustion4 7#d7 ,a correct proportion between the grate surface1 the total area of the tubes and the height and area of the chimney4 ,the principal parts and appendages of a furnace are as follows3 ,the furnace proper or fire box1 being the chamber in which the solid constituents of the fuel and the whole or part of its gaseous constituents are consumed4 ,the grate1 which is composed of alternate bars and spaces1 to support the fuel and to admit the air4 ,the dead-plate1 that part of the bottom of the furnace which consists of an iron plate simply4 ,the mouth piece1 through which the fuel is introduced and often some air4 ,the lower side of the mouth piece is the dead plate4 ,the fire door3 ,sometimes the duty of the fire door is performed by a heap of fuel closing up the mouth of the furnace4 ,the furnace front is above and on either side of the fire door4 ,the ash pit4 ,as a general rule the ash pit is level1 or nearly so1 with the floor on which the fireman stands1 and as for convenient firing1 the grate should not be higher than #bh to #cj inches1 the depth of ash pit is thereby determined4 ,the ash pit door is used to regulate the admission of air4 ,the bridge wall4 ,the combustion or flame chamber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,the arrangement of the space behind the bridge wall is found usually to be in some one of the following forms3 ,level from bridge wall to back 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,a square box1 depth ranging from #ae inches to #f feet 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,a gradual rise from bridge to back end of boiler1 where only six inches is found and generally circular in form 7,fig4 #aji74 ,a gradual slope toward back1 leaving a distance of about #cf inches from boiler 7,fig4 #aaj74 ,the advocates of ,fig4 #ajg claim that the office of the flame is to get into as close contact with the bottom as possible1 and this form compels the flame to do so4 ,in burning soft coal this form is found to soot up the bottom of the boiler very badly4 ,fig4 #ajh is followed more extensively than any other1 the variations being the depth of chamber2 with depth generally from #cf to #dj inches4 ,fig4 #aji has nothing to commend it1 except in cases where bridge is too low4 ,fig4 #aaj is followed a great deal and gives very good satisfaction4 ,this form allows for the theory of combustion1 namely1 the expansion of the gases after leaving bridge wall4 ,space behind the bridge wall should be enlarged1 as it will reduce the velocity of fire gases1 and thus have them give up more of their heat to the boiler4 ,the bridge wall should not be less than #ah inches at bottom1 but may be tapered off toward top to #i or #ac inches4 ,,setting ,,of ,,water ,,tube ,,boilers4 ,on page #fg1 ,fig4 #bf1 is exhibited a steam boiler with inclined tubes4 ,the setting in this style of boilers is as follows3 ,a brick wall is laid for the front with suitable openings for the doors of the furnace and ash pit1 and protected on the outside by a front of cast iron1 and on the inside by a lining of fire brick4 ,at the back of the grates a bridge wall is run up to the bottom of the inclined water tubes1 so that the hot gases that arise over it must circulate among the tubes4 ,a counter wall is laid on an incline from the top of the tubes to the back of the drum4 ,this is laid on perforated plates or bars and is covered with fire brick4 ,a wall is also built at the lower and back end of the tubes to carry them4 ,back of the whole is the outer wall with openings for giving access to the tubes and smoke chambers4 ,side walls are raised to enclose the same and are arched at the top to come nearly in contact with the drum1 which is carried partly by brackets and partly by the connections to the tubes4 ,,points ,,relating ,,to ,,boiler ,,setting4 ,long and heavy boilers are best suspended from two beams or girders by two or three bolts at each end4 ,boilers over #dj feet long should have three or even four sets of hangers1 as the case may require4 ,side brackets resting on masonry may be used for short boilers4 ,if used on long boilers1 side plates or expansion rollers should be used at one end of boiler4 ,there ought to be not more than two brackets on one side1 so divided that the distance between them is about three-fifths of the total length of the boiler1 or the distance from ends of boiler to center of bracket is equal to one-fifth the length of boiler4 ,the side walls in boiler-setting should not be less than twenty inches with a two inch air space2 the rear wall may vary from #ab to #af inches according to the size of the boiler2 the front wall #i inches and the bridge wall may be from #ah to #bd and perfectly straight across the rear of the furnace4 ,if the boilers are supported by side walls1 the outside walls should be not less than #ac inches thick and have pilasters where the boiler is resting4 ,flues touching the boiler above the water space should be emphatically condemned4 ,unless the boiler walls are very heavy1 they should be stayed by cast or wrought iron bunch stays1 held together by rods at tops and bottoms4 ,it is dangerous to have large spaces in which gases may collect for sudden ignition1 producing the so-called 8back draft40 ,connections between the rear end of the boiler and brickwork is best made with cast-iron plates or fire-brick1 suspended1 when boilers are suspended1 as the expansion and contraction will destroy an arch in a short time4 ,if resting on mud-drum stand1 this connection can be arched1 as in this case the rear end of boiler will remain stationary4 ,if the draughts from the different boilers come in the same direction1 or nearly so1 no special provision is necessary1 but if the draught enters from directly opposite directions a centre wall should be provided4 ,an advantage claimed for water in the ash pit is3 by the dropping of hot ashes and cinders from the grate into the water1 steam is generated1 which1 in passing through the hot coal lying on the grate1 is there divided into oxygen and hydrogen1 thus helping the combustion4 ,a dry brick will absorb a pound of water1 and it is the water in the mortar that causes it to set1 and harden4 ,to prevent this loss of the water of crystalization1 and give it time to harden and adhere to the brick1 the brick must be well saturated with water1 before they are laid4 ,whenever steam is allowed to come in contact with mortar or cement an injurious effect is produced4 ,the action of the steam is much more rapid than that of air and water1 or water alone1 when in abundance1 as the effect of the steam in every case is to soften the mortar and penetrate to a greater depth than water could possibly do4 ,the distance between the rear head of the boiler and brickwork should not be less than #ab inches4 ,in setting steam boilers1 allowance must be made for the expansion and contraction of the structure and this is usually done by placing rollers under the rear lug or side bearing of the boiler4 ,care should be exercised that the boiler rests are always in good condition so that they may move freely and not place the boiler in any danger of sticking and buckling4 ,,kindling ,a ,,furnace ,,fire4 ,in kindling a coal fire in a furnace the phosphorus of a match inflames at so low a temperature 7#aej degrees ,fahr47 that mere friction ignites it1 and in burning 7combining with oxygen of the air7 it gives out heat enough to raise the sulphur of the match to the temperature of ignition 7#ejj degrees ,fahr471 which1 combining in its turn with the oxygen of the atmosphere1 gives out sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the wood to the point of ignition 7#hjj degrees ,fahr471 and at this temperature the wood combines with oxygen supplied by the air1 giving out a temperature sufficient to raise the coal to the point of ignition 7#ajjj degrees ,fahr471 and the coal then combines with the free oxygen of the air1 the ensuing temperature in the furnace varying1 according to circumstances1 from #cjjj degrees to #djjj degrees ,fahr4 ,thus we see that the ignition of the coal is the last of a series of progressive steps1 each increasing in temperature4 ,and in each step it will be noted that a combination of oxygen is the essential connecting link and that the oxygen is supplied in each instance at the same average temperature--this fact contains a 8point0 relating to supplying furnaces with so called 8hot air40 ,,sawdust ,,furnace4 ,illustration3 ,sawdust ,furnace ,section ,referring also to page #cc for information relating to the burning of sawdust and shavings ,s4 ,s4 ,ingham1 in the ,stationary ,engineer1 says upon this important matter3 8,regarding a furnace for burning sawdust1 ,i submit the accompanying cuts4 ,i have built numbers of these oven furnaces for burning this fuel in the south1 and all have given excellent results4 ,the dimensions are for #fj #af return tubular 7#d tubes7 boiler with stack #ej per cent4 greater area than the flues2 a good draft is necessary40 ,it will be understood that the upper cut is designed to show end view of the furnace whose side is shown in sectional view at the bottom of the page4 ,illustration3 ,sawdust ,furnace ,side ,view ,,gas ,,pipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,,pipes ,,and ,,piping4 ,next in importance after the skill necessary for the steam generator and the engine1 is the proper arrangement and care and management of the pipes and valves belonging to a steam plant4 ,it is the first thing an engineer does in taking charge of a new place1 to ascertain the exact course and operation of the water1 steam1 drain and other pipes4 ,examiners for licensing marine and land engineers base their questions much more to ascertain the applicant's knowledge of piping than is generally known2 hence the importance of the 8points0 in the succeeding pages relating to this subject4 ,pipes are used for very many purposes in connection with the boiler room1 and of course vary in size1 in material and in strength1 according to the purposes for which they are designed4 ,there are pipes for conveying and delivering illuminating gas2 pipes for conveying and delivering drinking water1 and for fire purposes2 pipes for draining and carrying off sewage and surface water2 pipes for delivering hot water under high pressure1 for heating purposes and power2 pipes for delivering live steam under pressure1 for heating purposes and power2 pipes for delivering compressed air1 for purposes of power and ventilation2 pipes for conveying mineral oils1 etc4 ,in ,figs4 #aaa1 #aab #aac and #aad are given approximate sizes of gas pipe and boiler tubes1 taken from the catalogue of one of the oldest steamfitting establishments in the country4 ,it will be observed that the size of gas pipe is computed from the internal diameter1 while boiler tubes are estimated from the outside3 thus1 #c in4 gas pipe has an external diameter of #c-a_/b inches1 while #c in4 boiler tubes have an outside diameter of #c inches only4 ,it may be noted that boiler-tubes are made much more accurately as to size than gas pipe2 this is especially true of the outside surfaces which are much smoother in one case than in the other4 ,,boiler ,,tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,,surfaces ,,and ,,capacities ,,of ,,pipes4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,sizes ,,of ,,pipes4 #a_/b #c_/d #a #a-a_/d #a-a_/b #b in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #a4 ,outside circumferences of pipes in inches #b4febc4biid4acf #e4bae #e4ifig4dfa #b4 ,length of ,pipe in feet to give a square foot of outside surface #d4eb #c4fc #b4ij #b4cj #b4ja #a4fa #c4 ,number of square feet of outside surface in ten lineal feet of ,pipe #b4ba #b4gd #c4dd #d4cd #d4ig #f4ba #d4 ,cubic in4 of internal capacity in ten lineal feet of pipe #cf4e #fc4i #ajc4e #agi4e #bdd4edjb4f #e4 ,weight in lbs4 of water in ten lineal feet of pipe #a4ch #b4ca #c4ge #f4e #h4h #ad4f ---------------------------------------- --------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,sizes ,,of ,,pipes4#b-a_/b #c #c-a_/b #d #d-a_/b #e in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 in4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #a4 ,outside circumferences of pipes in inches #i4icbaj4ii #ab4ef #ad4ac #ae4gjag4dg #b4 ,length of ,pipe in feet to give a square foot of outside surface #a4cb #a4ji 4#ied 4#hdi 4#gfc 4#fhf #c4 ,number of square feet of outside surface in ten lineal feet of ,pipe #g4eb #i4af #aj4dd #aa4gh #ac4jiaf4ef #d4 ,cubic in4 of internal capacity in ten lineal feet of pipe #egc4ihhf4faahf4daebg4faiab4fbcih4h #e4 ,weight in lbs4 of water in ten lineal feet of pipe #bj4h #cb4a #dc4f #ee4d #fi4c #hf4i ---------------------------------------- --------- ,pipe manufactured from double thick iron is called ,x-strong pipe1 and pipe made double the thickness of ,x-strong is known as ,,xx-strong pipe4 ,both ,x-strong and ,,xx-strong pipe are furnished plain ends--no threads1 unless specially ordered4 ,the table 8,data relating to iron pipe0 will be found especially useful to the engineer and steam fitter4 ,the size of pipes referred to in the table range from #a_/h to #aj inches in diameter4 ,in the successive columns are given the figures for the following important information3 #a4 ,inside diameter of each size4 #b4 ,outside diameter of each size4 #c4 ,external circumference of each size4 #d4 ,length of pipe per square foot of outside surface4 #e4 ,internal area of each size4 #f4 ,external area of each size4 #g4 ,length of pipe containing one cubic foot4 #h4 ,weight per foot of length of pipes4 #i4 ,number of threads per inch of screw4 #aj4 ,contents in gallons 7,u4 ,s4 measure7 per foot4 #aa4 ,weight of water per foot of length4 ,,data ,,relating ,,to ,,iron ,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,length of ,inside ,outside ,external ,pipe per ,internal ,external ,diameter4,diameter4,circumference4 sq4 ft4 ,area4 ,area4 of ,outside ,surface4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,feet4 ,inches4 ,inches4 #a_/h 4#dj #a4bgb #i4dd 4#jab 4#abi #a_/d 4#ed #a4fif #g4jge 4#jdi 4#bbi #c_/h 4#fg #b4aba #e4feg 4#aaj 4#ceh #a_/b 4#hd #b4feb #d4ejb 4#aif 4#eed #c_/d #a4je #c4bii #c4fcg 4#dda 4#hff #a #a4ca #d4acd #b4ijc 4#ghe #a4ceg #a-a_/d #a4ff #e4bae #b4cja #a4bbg #b4afd #a-a_/b #a4i #e4ifi #b4ja #a4gfg #b4hce #b #b4cg #g4dfa #a4faa #c4ada #d4dcj #b-a_/b #b4hg #i4jcb #a4cbh #d4ijh #f4dia #c #c4e #aj4iif #a4jia #g4jfh #i4fba #c-a_/b #d4 #ab4eff 4#iee #i4fba #ab4eff #d #d4e #ad4acg 4#hdi #ab4eff #ae4ijd #d-a_/b #e4 #ae4gjh 4#gfe #ae4ijd #ai4fce #e #e4ef #ag4dge 4#fbi #ai4fce #bd4bii #f #f4fb #bj4hac 4#egg #bh4bgd #cd4dga #g #g4fb #bc4ied 4#eje #ch4dhd #de4ffc #h #h4fb #bg4jif 4#ddd #ej4bfe #eh4dbf #i #i4fh #cj4ddc 4#cid #fc4fag #gc4gae #aj #aj4ge #cc4jjj 4#cee #gh4edj #ij4gib ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,length ,weight ,no4 of ,contents ,weight of ,inside of ,pipe per ft4 ,threads in ,water per ,diameter4containing of per inch ,gallons,a foot of one ,cubic ,length4 of ,screw4 per foot4 ,length4 ,foot4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,inches4 ,feet4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 #a_/h #bejj4 4#bd #bg 4#jjjf 4#jje #a_/d #ache4 4#db #ah 4#jjbf 4#jba #c_/h #gea4e 4#ef #ah 4#jjeg 4#jdg #a_/b #dgb4d 4#hd #ad 4#jajb 4#jhe #c_/d #bgj4 #a4ab #ad 4#jbcj 4#aij #a #aff4i #a4fg #aa-a_/b 4#jdjh 4#cdi #a-a_/d #if4be #b4be #aa-a_/b 4#jfch 4#ebg #a-a_/b #gj4fe #b4fi #aa-a_/b 4#jiah 4#gfj #b #db4cf #c4ff #aa-a_/b 4#afcb #a4cef #b-a_/b #cj4aa #e4gg #h 4#beej #b4aaf #c #ai4di #g4ed #h 4#cfgc #c4jdi #c-a_/b #ad4ef #i4je #h 4#diih #d4aee #d #aa4ca #aj4gb #h 4#febh #e4dje #d-a_/b #i4jc #ab4di #h 4#hbfc #f4hea #e #g4bj #ad4ef #h #a4jbj #h4ejj #f #d4ih #ah4gf #h #a4dfi #ab4cab #g #c4gb #bc4da #h #a4iii #af4ffb #h #b4hh #bh4cd #h #b4faa #ba4gej #i #b4bf #cd4fg #h #c4cjj #bg4ejj #aj #a4hj #dj4fd #h #d4jha #cd4jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,footnote ,a3 ,the ,standard ,u4 ,s4 gallon of #bca cubic inches4 ,the division of process in the manufacture of pipe1 takes place at #a-a_/d inch1 #a-a_/d inch and smaller sizes being called butt-welded pipe1 and #a-a_/b inch and larger sizes being known as lap-welded pipe2 this rule holds good for standard1 ,x-strong and ,,xx-strong4 ,,joints ,,of ,,pipes ,,and ,,fittings4 ,the accompanying illustrations represent certain joints1 couplings and connections used in steam and hot water heating systems4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,for many years in the matter of pipe joints there has been little change4 ,the cast-iron hub and spigot joint1 ,fig4 #aae1 caulked with iron borings1 is probably the oldest kind of joint4 ,this is still generally adopted in hot water heating of a certain class1 and was formerly used with low-pressure steam4 ,a fairly regular smooth internal service is obtained1 and once made tight is very durable4 ,cast-iron flanged pipes have also been a long time in use4 ,these joints are made with a wrought-iron ring gasket1 wrapped closely with yarn1 ,fig4 #aaf1 which is sometimes dipped in a mixture of red and white lead4 ,it is placed between the flanges1 it being of such a diameter as to fit within the bolts by which the joint was screwed up and a nest or iron joint1 ,b ,b1 caulked outside the annular gasket between the faces of the flanges4 ,the next step in cast-iron flange pipe joints was the facing or turning up of the flanges and the use of a gasket of rubber1 copper1 paper or cement1 with bolts for drawing the faces together4 ,these joints for cast-iron pipes have not been changed excepting for some classes of work where a lip and recess1 ,fig4 #aag1 formed on opposite flanges1 which makes the internal surfaces smooth and aid in preventing the gaskets from being blown out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,the introduction of wrought iron welded pipes has diminished the use of cast-iron pipes for many purposes1 especially in heating apparatus and other pipe systems4 ,its advantages are lightness1 the ease with which various lengths can be obtained and its strength4 ,in wrought-iron pipe work the general practice in making joints between pipes is a wrought-iron coupling1 ,fig4 #aah1 with tapered threads at both ends4 ,the pipes do not meet at their ends1 and a recess of about #c_/d inch or more long by the depth of the thickness of the pipes is left at every pipe end4 ,a similar tapered thread is used in connecting the cast-iron fittings1 elbows1 tees1 etc41 ,fig4 #aai1 to the pipe1 and a large recess is necessary in each fitting to allow for the tapping of the threads4 ,thus the inside diameter of the fitting is larger by #a_/h inch than the outside diameter of the pipe1 and the internal projection of the thickness of the pipe and that of the thread of the fitting increases materially the friction due to the interior surfaces of pipe and fitting4 ,this class of joint requires care in the tapping of the fittings and in the cutting of tapered threads on the pipes2 much trouble is caused by an inaccurately cut thread1 as it may throw a line of pipes several inches out of place and put fittings and joints under undue and irregular strains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the right and left threaded nipple1 ,fig4 #aai1 is used as a finishing connection joint and between fittings4 ,space equal to the length of the two threads is required between the two fittings to be connected in order to enter the nipple1 and one or both fittings should be free to move in a straight line when the nipple is being screwed up4 ,to make up this joint time and care are necessary4 ,the right threaded end on nipple should be first firmly screwed with the tongs or wrench into the right threaded end of fitting1 then slacked out and screwed up again by hand until tight1 when it is screwed back by hand1 at the same time counting the number of threads it has entered by hand4 ,the same is done with the left threaded end of nipple and fitting4 ,if the right and left threads of nipple have counted the same number of threads1 each thread1 when making the joint up1 should enter the fittings at the same time if possible1 and particular care must be taken that the fittings are exactly opposite1 to facilitate catching on1 prevent crossing threads1 and that no irregular strain comes on the nipple while being screwed up4 ,in screwing up these nipples the coupling has to be turned with flats on the external surface to fit an internal wrench3 in such cases the thread on nipple has one continuous taper4 ,these special couplings are marked with ribs on the outside to distinguish them4 ,fig4 #abj represents another joint in wrought-iron piping known as the 8union0 composed of three pieces of the washer4 ,unions are also made with ground joints1 and the washer dispensed with4 ,radiator valves are now generally connected by them1 but if the hole in the radiator is not tapped accurately1 the union when drawn up will not be tight1 or if tight1 the valve will not be straight4 ,fig4 #aba shows right and left threaded nipple connecting elbow and tee with wrought-iron pipes4 ,the flange union1 ,fig4 #abb1 is another joint generally used on wrought-iron pipes above #d or #e inches in diameter in making connections to valves1 etc41 and on smaller pipes in positions where it is a convenient joint4 ,this joint consists of two circular cast-iron flanges with the requisite number of holes for bolts1 and central hole tapped tapered to receive thread of pipe4 ,the abutting faces of the flanges are generally turned and the holding bolts fitted into the holes4 ,,steam ,,and ,,hot ,,water ,,heating4 ,the heating by means of pipes through which are conveyed hot water and steam is a science by itself and yet one claiming some degree of familiarity by all engineers1 steam users1 and architects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,in practice it requires a knowledge of steam1 air and temperatures1 of pressure and supply2 a familiarity with heat and heating surfaces and with all contrivances1 appliances and devices that enter into the warming and ventilation of buildings4 ,so long as factories1 public and private buildings are erected1 so long will warming and ventilation keep progress with steam engineering and remain a part of the general mechanical science required of the supervisory and practical engineer4 ,in what is called the system of open circulation1 a supply main conveys the steam to the radiating surfaces1 whence a return main conducts the condensed water either into an open tank for feeding the boiler1 or into a drain to run to waste1 the boiler being fed from some other source2 the system of what is called closed circulation is carried out either with separate supply and return mains1 both of which extend to the furthest distance to which the heat has to be distributed1 or else with a single main1 which answers at once for both the supply and the return1 either with or without a longitudinal partition inside it for separating the outward current of steam supply from the return current of condensed water4 ,in either case suitable traps have to be provided on the return main1 for preserving the steam pressure within the supply main and radiators4 ,these two systems1 in any of their modifications1 may also be combined1 as is most generally done in any extensive warming apparatus4 ,the system of closed circulation requires the boiler to be placed so low as will allow all the return pipes to drain freely back to it above its water-level4 ,this condition has been modified mechanically by the automatic 8trap10 a device frequently employed for lifting from a lower level1 part or all of the condensed water1 and delivering it into the boiler2 it is1 in fact1 a displacement pump4 ,the same result has been attained by draining into a closed tank1 placed low enough to accommodate all the return pipes1 and made strong enough to stand the full boiler pressure with safety1 and then employing a steam pump1 either reciprocating or centrifugal1 to raise the water from this tank to the proper level for enabling it to flow back into the boiler1 the whole of the circulation being closed from communication with the atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,there are two systems of steam heating1 known as the direct and the indirect system4 ,direct radiating surfaces embrace all heaters placed within a room or building to warm the air1 and are not directly connected with a system of ventilation4 ,indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces placed outside the rooms to be heated1 and can only be used in connection with some system of ventilation4 ,for warming by direct radiation1 the radiators usually consist of coils1 composed of #c_/d-;inch and #a-;inch steam pipes1 which are arranged in parallel lines and are coupled to branch tees or heads4 ,in a few exceptional cases1 radiators of peculiar shapes are specially constructed4 ,in all cases the coils must have either vertical or horizontal elbows of moderate length1 for allowing each pipe to expand separately and freely4 ,sometimes short lengths of pipe are coupled by return-bends1 doubling backwards and forwards in several replications one above another1 and forming what are called 8return-bend coils10 and when several of these sections are connected by branch1 tees into a compact mass of tubing1 the whole is known as a 8box-coil40 ,steam and ,hot ,water heating have long been acknowledged as altogether most practical and economical in every way--and their universal adoption in all the better class of buildings throughout the country is positive proof of their superiority4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,the heat from steam is almost exactly identical with that from hot water1 and few can distinguish between the two systems when properly erected4 ,they are both healthful1 economical and satisfactory methods of warming4 ,they give no gas1 dust nor smoke2 are automatically regulated1 and therefore allow of an even and constant temperature throughout the house1 whatever be the condition of the weather outside4 ,the circulation of the steam through the warming pipes is effected in an almost unlimited variety of ways1 and the cause producing the circulation throughout the pipes of the warming apparatus is solely the difference of pressure which results from the more or less rapid condensation of the steam in contact with the radiating surfaces4 ,a partial vacuum is formed by this difference of pressure within the radiating portions of the apparatus1 and the column of steam or of water equivalent to this diminution of pressure1 constitutes the effective head producing the flow of steam from the boiler1 at the same time the return current of condensed water is determined by the downward inclination of the pipes for the return course4 ,,points ,,relating ,,to ,,steam ,,heating4 ,no two pipes should discharge into a ,t from opposite directions1 thus retarding the motion of both or one of the returning currents4 ,this is called 8butting0 and is one of the most vexatious things to encounter in pipe fitting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,all steam piped rooms should be frequently dusted1 cleaned and kept free from accumulation of inflammable material4 ,the use of the air valve is as follows3 ,in generating steam from cold water all the free air is liberated and driven off into the pipe1 with the air left in them1 all of which is forced up to the highest point of the coils or radiators1 and compressed equal to the steam pressure following it4 ,now1 by placing a valve or vent at the return end of the pieces to be heated1 the air will be driven out by the compression4 ,why the vent is placed at the return is1 that the momentum of the steam1 it being the lightest body1 will pass in the direction of it1 falling down into the return as it condenses1 thus liberating the air4 ,otherwise1 should the vent not work1 and the air is left in the radiator1 it will act as an air spring1 and the contents of the pipes left stationary will be the result2 no circulation1 no heat2 and the greater steam pressure put on1 the greater the chances are of not getting any heat2 and thus a little device1 with an opening no larger than a fine needle1 will start what a ton of pressure would not do in its absence4 ,if the drip and supply pipes are large there is very little danger of freezing1 provided suitable precautions are taken to leave the pipes clear4 ,they should be blown through1 when left1 and the steam valve should be closed4 ,there should also be a free chance for air to escape in all systems of piping4 ,no rule can be given relating to capacity for heating pipes and radiators which do not require to be largely modified by surroundings4 ,the field of steam heating would seem to be limitless--in one public building it required recently #dhj1jjj dollars to meet the expenditures in this single line4 ,as an example of warming on an extensive scale may be taken a large office in ,new ,york1 of which the following are the particulars3 ,total number of rooms1 including halls and vaults4 #bhf ,total area of floor surface4 sq4 ft4 #acg1cgj ,total volume of rooms4 cub4 ft4 #a1ibc1eij ,a second example is furnished by the ,state ,lunatic ,asylum at ,indianapolis3 ,length of frontage of building1 more than4 #b1jjj lin4 ft4 ,total volume of rooms4 #b1egd1jhd cub4 ft4 ,warming indirect radiating surface #bc1bif ,apparatus ,direct #aj1hjd ,total #cd1ajj sq4 ft4 ,boilers ,grate area #ahj sq4 ft4 ,heating surface #e1hfc sq4 ft4 ,the 8overhead0 system of heating with steam pipes has several advantages4 #a4 ,the pipes are entirely out of the way #b4 ,they do not become covered with odds and ends of unused materials4 #c4 ,if they leak the drip fixes the exact location of place needed to be repaired4 #d4 ,the room occupied overhead cannot be well otherwise utilized1 hence in shops the system has proved efficient4 ,but for offices or store rooms the overhead system is not approved of owing to the heat beating down upon the occupants and causing headache4 ,when overhead heating pipes are used1 they should not be hung too near the ceiling4 ,if the room be a high one1 it is better to hang them below1 rather than above1 the level of the belts running across the room1 and they should not be less than three or four feet from the wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,it is important to protect all wood work or other inflammable material around steam pipes from immediate contact with them1 especially where pipes pass through floors and partitions4 ,a metal thimble should be placed around the steam pipe1 and firmly fastened on both sides of the floor1 in such a way as to leave an air space around the steam pipe4 ,for indirect radiating surfaces1 the box coils are the forms most used4 ,the chambers or casings for containing them are made either of brickwork1 or often of galvanized sheet-iron of ,no4 #bf gauge1 with folded joints4 ,the coils are suspended freely within the chambers1 which are themselves attached to the walls containing the air inlet flues4 ,besides coils of wrought iron tubes1 cast-iron tablets or hollow slabs1 having vertical surfaces with projecting studs or ribs1 have been extensively used for the radiating surfaces4 ,as the amount of heat given off from the radiator cannot be satisfactorily controlled by throttling the steam supply1 it is usual to divide all radiators into sections1 each of which can be shut off from the supply and return mains1 separately from the rest of the sections4 ,this method of regulation applies to radiators for indirect heating as well as for direct4 ,vertical pipe coils1 constitute a distinctive form of radiator now largely used4 ,in these a number of short upright #a-;inch tubes1 from two feet #h inches to #b feet #aj inches long1 are screwed into a hollow cast iron base or box2 and are either connected together in pairs by return-bends at their upper ends1 or else each tube stands singly with its upper end closed1 and having a hoop iron partition extending up inside it from the bottom to nearly the top4 ,the supply of steam is admitted into the bottom casting2 and the steam on entering1 being lighter than the air1 ascends through one leg of each siphon pipe and descends through the other1 while the condensed water trickles down either leg1 and with it the displaced air sinks also into the bottom box4 ,for getting rid of the air1 a trap is provided1 having an outlet controlled by metallic rods2 as soon as all the air has escaped and the rods become heated by the presence of unmixed steam1 their expansion closes the outlet4 ,a thorough drainage of steam pipes will effectually prevent cracking and pounding noises4 ,the windward side of buildings require more radiating surface than does the sheltered side4 ,when floor radiators are used1 their location should be determined by circumstances2 the best situations are usually near the walls of the room1 in front of the windows4 ,the cold air1 which always creates an indraft around the window frames1 is thus1 to some extent1 warmed as it passes over the the radiators1 and also assists in the general circulation4 ,water of condensation will freeze quicker than water that has not been evaporated1 for the reason that it has parted with all its air and is therefore solid4 ,whatever the size of the circulating pipes1 the supply and drip pipes should be large1 to insure good circulation2 the drip pipes especially so4 ,this is also the more necessary when the pipes are exposed1 or when there is danger of freezing after the steam is shut off4 ,it is important to see that no blisters or ragged pipes go into the returns1 and also to make sure that the ends are not 8burred in0 with a dull pipe cutter wheel so as to form a place of lodgment for loose matter in the pipe to stop against4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ace-acg4 ,experiments recently made on the strength of bent pipes have developed some things not commonly known1 or at least not recognized1 that is1 the strain on the inside of the angles1 due to the effort of the pipes to straighten themselves under pressure4 ,the problem is one of considerable intricacy1 resolvable1 however1 by computation1 and is a good one for practice4 ,in the experiment referred to1 a copper pipe of #f-c_/d in4 bore1 #c_/af in4 thick1 was used4 ,the angle was #ij degrees1 and the legs about #af in4 long from the center4 ,at a pressure of #iab pounds to an inch1 the deflection of the pipe was nearly #c_/h in41 showing an enormous strain on the inner side1 in addition to the pressure4 ,steam valves should be connected in such a manner that the valve closes against the constant steam pressure4 ,interesting experiments show that the loss by condensation in carrying steam one mile is #e per cent4 of the capacity of the main1 and a steam pressure of seventy-five pounds carried in five miles of mains1 ending at a point one-half mile from the boiler house only shows a loss of pressure of two pounds4 ,in steam warming it is necessary to bring the water to a boiling point to get any heat whatever2 in hot water warming1 a low temperature will radiate a corresponding amount of heat4 ,never use a valve in putting in a low pressure apparatus if it is possible to get along without it4 ,all the valves or cocks that are actually required in a well-proportioned low pressure apparatus are1 a cock to blow off the water and clean out the return pipes1 another to turn on the feed water4 ,of course the safety valves1 gauge cocks1 and those to shut fire regulators and such as are a part of the boiler1 are not included in this 8point40 ,the most important thing in connecting the relief to return pipes is1 that it should always be carried down below the line1 the same as all vertical return pipes4 ,in connecting the reliefs1 so that the lower opening can at any time be exposed to the steam1 there will be the difficulty of having the steam going in one direction1 and the water in another4 ,the relief pipe should 8tap0 the steam at its lowest or most depressed points4 ,it should always be put in at the base of all steam 8risers0 taking steam to upper floors4 ,in leaving the boiler with main steam pipe1 raise to a height that will allow of one inch fall from the boiler to every ten feet of running steam pipe2 this is sufficient1 and a greater fall or pitch will cause the condensed water in the pipe to make at times a disagreeable noise or 8gurgling40 ,the flow pipe should never start from the boiler in a horizontal direction1 as this will cause delay and trouble in the circulation4 ,this pipe should always start in a vertical direction1 even if it has to proceed horizontally within a short distance from the boiler4 ,reflection will show that the perfect apparatus is one that carries the flow pipe in a direct vertical line to the cylinder or tank2 this is never1 or but rarely possible1 but skill and ingenuity should be exercised to carry the pipes as nearly as possible in this direction4 ,the flow of steam ought not to be fast enough to prevent the water of condensation from returning freely4 ,all the circulating pipes should be lowest at the discharge end1 and the inclination given them should not be less than one foot in fifty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,the general rule is to lay the main pipes from the boiler so that the pipe will drain from the boiler4 ,where this is done it is necessary to have a drip just before the steam enters the circulation4 ,this drip is connected to a trap1 or1 if the condensed water is returned to the boiler1 the drip is arranged accordingly4 ,but it is the best practice to lay the main pipe with the lowest part at the boiler1 so that the drip will take care of itself1 and not require an extra trap1 nor interfere with the return circulation4 ,when steam is turned into cold pipes the water of condensation gets cold after running a short distance1 and if it has to go through a small drip pipe full of frost it will probably be frozen4 ,then1 unless it is followed up with a pail of hot water1 the whole arrangement will be frozen and a great many bursted pipes will result4 ,whenever turning steam on in a system of very cold pipes1 only one room should be taken at a time1 and a pail of hot water should be handy so that if the pipe becomes obstructed it can be thawed immediately without damage4 ,when pipes become extensively frozen there is nothing to do but take them out and put in new ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,the manner in which a temperature too low to start rapid combustion in wood in steam pipes1 operates in originating a fire is by first reducing the oxide of iron 7rust7 to a metallic condition4 ,this is possible only under certain external conditions1 among them a dry atmosphere4 ,just as soon as the air is recharged with moisture1 the reduced iron is liable to regain1 at a bound1 its lost oxygen1 and in doing so become red hot4 ,this is the heat that sets the already tindered wood or paper ablaze4 ,where there is no rust there is no danger from fire with a less than scorching temperature in the pipe or flue4 ,hence the necessity of keeping steam or hot water fittings in good order4 ,the indirect system of heating is the most expensive to put in2 as to the cost of providing nearly double the heating surface in the coils must be added the cost of suitable air boxes1 pipes and registers4 ,for a large installation1 this is a serious matter1 although for office warming the advantages gained on the score of healthfulness and greater efficiency of employees much more than counterbalance the extra expense4 ,one horse power of boiler will approximately heat #f1jjj to #aj1jjj cubic feet in shops1 mills and factories--dwellings require only one horse power for from #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj cubic feet4 ,from seven to ten square feet of radiating surface can be heated from one square foot of boiler surface1 i4e41 the heating surface of the boiler and each horse power of boiler will heat #bdj to #cfj feet of #a-;inch pipe4 ,the profession most nearly related to that of steam engineers is the working steam fitters' occupation4 ,strictly speaking1 the engineer should produce the steam1 and it is the steam fitters' place to fix up all the steam pipes and make all the necessary connections3 but where the steam plants are small1 the engineer may be steam fitter also3 hence the introduction in this work of these 8,points0 which are necessary to be known for the proper care and management of any system of steam or hot water heating4 ,the care and patience1 the mental strain and not infrequently the physical torture incident to fitting up a complicated pipe system cannot adequately be set forth in words4 ,it is stated to be a fact1 that in high pressure hot water heating the water frequently becomes red hot1 pressures of #ajjj to #abjj pounds per square inch being reached1 and when the circulation of the system is defective the pipe becomes visibly red in the dark4 ,pipes under work benches should be avoided1 unless there is an opening at the back to permit the escape of the heated air1 which would otherwise come out at the front4 ,when both exhaust and live steam are used for heating1 many engineers prefer to use independent lines of pipe for each1 rather than run the risk of interference and waste caused by admitting exhaust and live steam into the same system at the same time4 ,nevertheless1 the advantages gained by being able to increase the heating power of a system in extremely cold weather by utilizing the entire radiating surface for high pressure steam1 are so great that it is probably better so to arrange the system of pipes and connections that this can be done4 ,double extra heavy pipe 7,,xx7 is used for ice and refrigerating machines 7see page #bdf71 as a general rule1 makers of this class of machinery obtain but little satisfaction in the use of the ordinary thread joining and use special dies with uniform taper--both for couplings1 flanges and threading the pipe itself4 ,they do this to protect their reputation and guarantees4 ,welding boiler and other tubes4--,the following is a good way in cases of emergency and can be done on a common forge3 ,enlarge one end of the shortest piece1 and one end of the long piece make smaller1 then telescope the two about #c_/d of an inch4 ,next get an iron shaft as large as will go into the tube and lay across the forge with the tube slipped over it4 ,block the shaft up so that the tube will hang down from the top of the shaft4 ,by such an arrangement the inside of the tube will be smooth for a scraper4 ,when the tube gets to a welding heat strike on the end of the short piece first1 with a heavy hammer1 then with a light and broad-faced hammer make the weld4 ,borax can be used to good advantage1 but it is not necessary4 ,the next thing is to test the tube1 which can be done in the following manner3 ,drive a plug in one end of the tube1 stand it up on that end1 and fill it with water1 if it does not leak the job is well done1 if a leak exists the welding must be again done4 ,,solid-,,drawn ,,iron ,,tubes3 ,,calculated ,,bursting ,,and ,,collapsing ,,pressures4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,bursting ,,pressure4,,collapsing ,,pressure4 ,external ,internal -------------------------------------- ,diameter4,thickness4,diameter4,per ,square ,inch of,per ,square ,inch of ------------------------------------ ,internal ,section ,external ,section ,surface4of ,metal4,surface4 of ,metal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,inches4 ,inch4 ,inches4 ,lbs4 ,tons4 ,lbs4 ,tons4 #a-a_/d 4#jhc #a4jhd #ggjj #bb4d #fejj #ba4g #a-c_/h 4#jhc #a4bji #fijj #bb4d #ehjj #ba4c #a-a_/b 4#jhc #a4ccd #fbjj #bb4d #ebjj #ba4j #a-c_/d 4#jhc #a4ehd #ecjj #bb4d #dcjj #bj4c #b 4#jhc #a4hcd #dejj #bb4d #cgjj #ai4g #b-a_/d 4#jie #b4jfj #dfjj #bb4d #cfjj #ai4j #b-a_/b 4#aji #b4bhb #dhjj #bb4d #cfjj #ah4c #b-c_/d 4#aji #b4ecb #ddjj #bb4d #cajj #ag4g #c 4#abj #b4gfj #dcjj #bb4d #cjjj #ag4j #c-a_/b 4#acd #c4bcb #dbjj #bb4d #bgjj #ae4g #c-c_/d 4#acd #c4dhb #cijj #bb4d #bdjj #ae4j #d 4#acd #c4gcb #cfjj #bb4d #bajj #ad4c #d-a_/b 4#acd #d4bcb #cbjj #bb4d #agjj #ac4j #d-c_/d 4#acd #d4dhb #cjjj #bb4d #afjj #ab4c #e 4#acd #d4gcb #bhjj #bb4d #adjj #aa4g #e-a_/b 4#adh #e4bjd #bhjj #bb4d #abjj #aj4c #f #e4gjd #bfjj #bb4d #ajjj #i4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,ventilation4 ,the quantity of air for each minute for one person is from four to fifteen feet--and from one-half to one foot should be allowed for each gas jet or lamp4 ,heated air cannot be made to enter a room unless means are provided for permitting an equal quantity to escape1 and the best places for such exit openings is near the floor4 ,for healthful ventilation the indirect system of steam heating is by far the best yet devised1 for it not only warms the room1 but insures perfect ventilation as well4 ,in this system1 the air for warming the room is introduced through registers1 having first been heated by passing over coils of pipe or radiators suitably located in the air ducts4 ,there is a large volume of pure air constantly entering the room1 which must displace and drive out an equal quantity of impure air4 ,this escapes principally around the doors and windows1 so that not only is the ventilation effected automatically without the use of special devices1 but all disagreeable indraft of cold air is prevented4 ,one of the cheapest and best methods of ventilation is to have an opening near the floor1 opening directly into the flue1 or some other outlet especially constructed for it1 with hot water or steam pipes in this opening4 ,a moderate degree of heat in these pipes will create a draft1 and draw out the bad air4 ,only a few of these pipes are necessary1 and the amount of hot water or steam required to heat them is too small to be worthy of consideration4 ,the use of a small gas-jet1 burning continuously1 in a pipe or shaft has been found to be a most admirable method of ventilating inside rooms1 closets and similar places where foul air might collect if not replaced by fresh4 ,the following table exhibits the result of careful experiments made by ,mr4 ,thomas ,fletcher1 of ,england1 with a vertical flue #f inches in diameter and #ab feet high3 ,,table4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,gas ,burnt ,speed of ,total ,air ,air ,exhausted ,temperature at per ,hour4 ,current per ,exhausted per ,cubic foot outlet4 ,normal ,minute4 per ,hour4 of ,gas ,burnt4 #fb ,fahr4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,cubic ,feet4 ,feet4 ,cubic ,feet4 ,cubic ,feet4 #a #bje #b1dfj #b1dfj #hb #b #bde #b1idj #a1dgj #ib #d #cbe #c1ijj #ige #aaj #h #dae #d1ihj #fbb #acg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illustration3 ,,exhaust ,,steam ,,heating4 ,fig4 #add4 ,taking the experiments as a whole1 it will be seen that in a flue #f inches in diameter1 the maximum speed of current which can be obtained with economy is about #bjj feet per minute2 and this was realized with a gas consumption of #a cubic foot per hour--#a cubic foot of gas removing #b1dfj cubic feet of air4 ,it should1 however1 not be required of any system of heating to more than aid in ventilation4 ,it is the architect's or builder's performance to so arrange lower and upper openings to drive out the bad air4 ,,heating ,,by ,,exhaust ,,steam4 ,there are two methods of warming by steam heat--one with live steam direct from the boiler1 and the other with exhaust steam4 ,these two are frequently carried out in combination1 and in fact generally so where exhaust steam is used at all for warming4 ,in nearly all manufacturing establishments1 office buildings1 etc41 the exhaust steam produced will very nearly1 if not quite supply sufficient exhaust steam to furnish all the heat required for heating the building during average weather1 although in extremely cold weather1 a certain amount of live steam might be necessary to use in connection with the exhaust to supply the required amount of heat4 ,a simple and convenient device operating upon the suction principle has been found to be most efficient4 ,by this the exhaust steam is drawn almost instantly through the most extensive piping2 preventing condensation1 freezing and hammering1 after which it is condensed and purified1 and fed back into the boiler by the means of a reciprocating pump4 ,it is claimed that a given quantity of exhaust steam can be circulated by this vacuum system and uniformly distributed through double the amount of heating pipes than could be accomplished by the same quantity of exhaust steam when forced into the heating system by pressure4 ,fig4 #add is a well-tried system of heating by exhaust steam in which 8#g0 represents the steam exhaust pipe1 with 8#f0 showing back pressure valve with weight to adjust amount of back pressure2 8#d0 8#d0 are steam supply pipes to radiators2 8#e0 8#e0 are risers2 8#i0 8#i0 are condensation return pipes from the radiators2 8#h0 is the pressure regulating valve from the boilers4 ,fig4 #add may also be said to represent the general method of piping used in steam and hot water heating1 which is difficult of illustration owing to the fact that each locality where it is used requires a different adaptation4 ,,care ,,of ,,steam ,,fittings4 ,many steam fittings are lost through carelessness1 particularly in taking down old work1 but the great bulk are simply 8lost0 for lack of method in caring for them4 ,this task properly falls upon the engineer1 as he usually is intrusted with the selection and ordering of the necessary work4 ,a great saving in the bill of 8findings0 can be effected by proper attention4 ,the same systematic care exercised over the other fittings1 tools1 appliances1 oil1 fuel1 etc41 used or consumed in the engine and boiler room may be urged with equal emphasis4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a_/d and #c_/h in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a_/b in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a-a_/d in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a-a_/b in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,r's #b in4 ,elbows ,tees4 ,nipples4 ,plugs4,reducers4 and ,unions couplings4 ,l's4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,fig4 #ade4 ,fig4 #ade shows a case for keeping fittings1 which will enable one to find any particular piece without a moment's delay4 ,in this admirable arrangement it will be seen that the heavy fittings are all at the bottom1 the light ones at the top4 ,in the top row of all1 the one-quarter and three-eighth inch fittings are placed1 being so small that a partition may be put into that row of boxes1 and then have plenty of room1 and giving twice the capacity to that row of pigeon holes4 ,above this case1 which is built of one inch boards1 may be put a set of four cupboards1 double doors being fitted to each1 and thus making a door over each compartment in the fitting rack4 ,the shelves run through these cupboards from end to end1 and are not divided by vertical partitions4 ,the necessary brass fittings are kept on these shelves1 and the doors are secured by good locks4 ,the lightest fittings are placed on the lower shelves in this cupboard1 being in greatest demand4 ,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,steam ,,fitting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,fig4 #adf represents one form of a pipe cutter which is made to use by hand2 cutters are also made for use by power1 which are capable of cutting off pipes of immense size4 ,in an engineer's outfit of steam fitting tools #b sets are advisable--one to cut pipe #a_/hth inch to #a inch1 and the other to cut #a to #b-;inch pipe4 ,figs4 #adg1 #adh1 represent different forms of pipe tongs--the former called 8chain0 tongs which will readily hold three-inch pipe4 ,fig4 #adi represents a steam fitter's vise which will 8take0 say1 #b-a_/b-;inch pipe down to #a_/hth4 ,fig4 #aej shows a set of taps and dies for small bolts and nuts which is ordinarily to be found in a steam fitter's outfit although used very generally by machinists and others4 ,fig4 #aea shows a pair of gas-pliers which are used by steam fitters in gas-pipe jobs4 ,fig4 #aeb exhibits the old-fashioned alligator wrench4 ,in ice and refrigerating jobs of pipe fitting special tubes are used to assure a niceness of joints and fitting which is not called for in steam and water service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,,cocks4 ,the first means in the earliest times of steam engineering1 for opening and shutting the passages in the pipes of steam engines were cocks and these were all worked by hand and required close attention4 ,a boy named ,humphry ,potter being in charge of one of the cocks of ,newcomen's pumping-engines1 and desiring time for play1 it is said1 managed to fasten the lever-handles of the spigots by means of rods and string to the walking beam of the engine1 so that each recurrent motion of the beam effected the change required4 ,this was the first automatic valve-motion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,,valves4 ,the valve is any device or appliance used to control the flow of a liquid1 vapor or gas1 through a pipe1 outlet1 or inlet in any form of vessel4 ,in this sense the definition includes air1 gas1 steam1 and water cocks of any kind4 ,the bellows was probably the first instrument of which they formed a part4 ,no other machine equally ancient can be pointed out in which they were required4 ,by far the most important improvement on the primitive bellows or bag was the admission of air by a separate opening--a contrivance that led to the invention of the valve1 one of the most essential elements of steam1 of water1 as well as pneumatic machinery4 ,valves and ,cocks4--,generally described1 a valve is a lid or cover to an opening1 so formed as to open a communication in one direction and close it in another by lifting1 turning1 or sliding--among the varieties may be classed as1 the cock1 the slide-valve1 the poppet valve and the clack-valve4 ,a common form of this valve is shown in ,fig4 #aci1 page #bfa4 ,an every day example of a valve1 and almost the simplest known1 is that of an ordinary pump where the valve opens upward to admit the water and closes downward to prevent its return4 ,a valve has a seat1 whether it be a gate or circular valve1 and is generally turned by a circular handle fitted to the spindle4 ,difference between a cock and valve4--,the cock is a valve1 but a valve is not a cock2 the cock is a conical plug slotted and fitted with a handle for turning the cone-shaped valve1 with its opening in line1 or otherwise1 with the opening of the pipe4 ,globe ,valve is a valve enclosed in a globular chamber1 ,fig4 #ace4 ,this1 like many other valves1 takes its name from its shape4 ,globe valves1 whenever possible1 should be placed so that the pressure comes under the valve1 or at the side1 for if the valve should become loose from the stem 7which they often do7 if the pressure is on top1 there would be a total stoppage of the steam4 ,relief ,valve is a valve so arranged that it opens outward when a dangerous pressure or shock occurs2 a valve belonging to the feeding apparatus of a marine engine1 through which the water escapes into the hot well when it is shut off from the boiler4 ,hinged ,valves constitute a large class1 as for example the butterfly-valve1 clack-valves1 and other forms in which the leaf or plate of the valve is fastened on one side of the valve seat or opening4 ,valve-bracket is a bracket fitted with a valve4 ,the ,valve-chamber is where a pump valve or steam valve operates4 ,valve-cock4--,a form of cock or faucet which is closed by dropping of a valve on its seat4 ,valve-coupling is a pipe coupling containing a valve4 ,valve-seat is the surface upon which a valve rests4 ,back pressure valves are ball or clack valves in a pipe which instantly assume the seat when a back pressure occurs4 ,they are illustrated in 8#f10 ,fig4 #add4 ,their name signifies their use--to maintain a constant back pressure in heating systems4 ,ball-valve--a faucet which is opened or closed by means of a ball floating in the water4 ,it constitutes an automatic arrangement for keeping the water at a certain level4 ,bib-cock--a faucet having a bent-down nozzle4 ,check-valve--a valve placed between the feed pipe and the boiler to prevent the return of the water1 etc4 ,brine-valve--a valve which is opened to allow water saturated with salt to escape4 ,in marine service it is 8a blow-off valve40 ,ball-valve--a valve occupying a hollow seat4 ,these valves are raised by the passage of a fluid and descending are closed by gravity4 ,angle-valve is one which forms part of an angle1 see ,fig4 #acg4 ,the double-seat valve or double-beat valve presents two outlets for the water4 ,in the ,cornish steam engine this is called the equilibrium-valve1 because the pressure on the two is very nearly equalized4 ,three-way cock is one having three positions directing the fluid in either of three directions4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #ach4 ,the three-way valve is also illustrated on page #bei1 ,fig4 #acf4 ,four-way cock is one having two separate passages in the plug and communicating with four pipes4 ,gate-valve--a valve closed by a gate4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #adj4 ,swing or straight-way valve--this is shown in ,fig4 #ada1 page #bfa4 ,throttle-valve4--,this is the valve used to admit steam to the engine and so termed to distinguish it from the main stop-valve located near the boiler--to throttle means to choke--hence the throttling of the steam4 ,rotary valves are those in which the disc1 or plug1 or other device used to close the passage1 is made to revolve for opening or closing1 the common stop cock being an illustration4 ,lifting valves are those in which the full cone or stopper is lifted from the valve seat by pressure from below1 the poppet1 and safety valves being examples4 ,pressure regulator valve--this is sometimes called a reducing valve and is illustrated in ,figs4 #adb1 #adc1 on page #bfb4 ,it is designed to reduce the pressure from a high point in the boiler to a lower one in a system of piping1 etc4 ,usually the smaller valves1 not exceeding #a-a_/d inch in diameter1 are wholly of gun-metal2 the larger are commonly made with cast-iron bodies and gun-metal fittings4 ,the smallest valves1 from #a_/d up to #a_/b inch inclusive1 have the disk solid with the spindle1 and have an ordinary stuffing-box with external gland4 ,valves of #c_/d inch and upwards have the disk loose from the spindle2 up to #c inch valves the spindles are screwed to work inside the casing2 above that size the screwed portion is outside the casing4 ,above the #c-;inch size the nozzles of the cast-iron bodies are generally flanged instead of tapped4 ,,steam ,,fittings4 ,a few of the principal sorts have been illustrated in this work and still others will be described in the 8,index0 at the close of the work4 ,fig4 #abc1 page #bea1 illustrates an elbow with outlet4 ,this is sometimes spelled with the capital ,l1 and again as an ell4 ,fig4 #abd shows a long nipple4 ,fig4 #abe1 page #bec1 exhibits a bushing1 used to reduce one size pipe in a line to another4 ,fig4 #abf is a cross tee4 ,this is frequently spelled with a capital ,t4 ,fig4 #abg is a plug--used to stop apertures in plates or pipes4 ,fig4 #abh1 page #bed1 illustrates a lock nut4 ,fig4 #abi shows a ,t1 as illustrating the difference between a ,t and a cross ,t1 ,fig4 #abf4 ,fig4 #acj is a coupling4 ,fig4 #aca1 page #bee1 represents a reducing coupling4 ,fig4 #acb is an illustration of a pipe union4 ,fig4 #acc is a plain elbow 7see also ,fig4 #abc47 ,,steam ,,pipe ,,and ,,boiler ,,coverings4 ,this subject relates to the radiation of heat1 which allows a reference to the laws of heat and tables of radiating power of various substances1 as set forth on pages #bab1 #bae4 ,the importance of a protection of exposed surfaces from radiation of heat is now undisputed1 and many experiments have determined very closely the relative value of the various non-conducting substances4 ,table of the ,,conducting ,,power of various substances4 ------------------------------------- ,substance4 ,conducting ,power4 ------------------------------------- ,blotting ,paper 4#bgd ,eiderdown 4#cad ,cotton or ,wool1 any density 4#cbc ,hemp1 ,canvas 4#dah ,mahogany ,dust 4#ebc ,wood ,ashes 4#eca ,straw 4#efc ,charcoal ,powder 4#fcf ,wood1 across fibre 4#hc ,cork #a4ae ,coke1 pulverized #a4bi ,india ,rubber #a4cg ,wood1 with fibre #a4dj ,plaster of ,paris #c4hf ,baked ,clay #d4hc ,glass #f4f ,stone #ac4fh ------------------------------------- ,by the above table may be judged the comparative value of different coverings2 blotting paper with its confined air1 standing at one end of the list1 stone at the other4 ,it should be noted that the less the conducting power the better protection against radiation4 ,a non-conducting coating for steam pipes1 etc41 used for many years with perfect satisfaction1 can be prepared by any steam user4 ,it consists of a mixture of wood sawdust with common starch1 used in a state of thick paste4 ,if the surfaces to be covered are well cleaned from all trace of grease1 the adherence of the paste is perfect for either cast or wrought iron2 and a thickness of #a inch will produce the same effect as that of the most costly non-conductors4 ,for copper pipes there should be used a priming coat or two of potter's clay1 mixed thin with water and laid on with a brush4 ,the sawdust is sifted to remove too large pieces1 and mixed with very thin starch4 ,a mixture of two-thirds of wheat starch with one-third of rye starch is the best for this purpose4 ,it is the common practice to wind string spirally around the pipes to be treated to secure adhesion for the first coat1 which is about l_/#eth of an inch thick4 ,when this sets1 a second and a third coat are successfully applied1 and so on until the required thickness is attained4 ,when it is all dry1 two or three coats of coal tar1 applied with a brush1 protect it from the weather4 ,a very efficient covering may be made as follows3 #a1 wrap the pipe in asbestos paper--though this may be dispensed with2 #b1 lay slips of wood lengthways1 from #f to #ab according to size of pipe--binding them in position with wire or cord2 #c1 around the framework thus constructed wrap roofing paper1 fastening it by paste or twine4 ,for flanged pipe1 space may be left for access to the bolts1 which space should be filled with felt4 ,use tarred paper--or paint the exterior4 ,while a very efficient non-conductor1 hair or wool felt has the disadvantage of becoming soon charred from the heat of steam at high pressure1 and sometimes taking fire4 ,the following table1 prepared by ,chas4 ,e4 ,emory1 ,ph4 ,d41 shows the value of various substances1 taking wool felt as a unit4 ,,table ,,of ,,relative ,,value ,,of ,,non-,,conductors4 ------------------------------ ,non-,conductor4 ,value4 ------------------------------ ,wood ,felt #a4jjj ,mineral ,wool ,no4 #b 4#hcb ,do4 with tar 4#gae ,sawdust 4#fhj ,mineral ,wool ,no4 #a 4#fgf ,charcoal 4#fcb ,pine ,wood1 across fibre 4#eec ,loam1 dry and open 4#eej ,slaked ,lime 4#dhj ,gas ,house ,carbon 4#dgj ,asbestos 4#cfc ,coal ,ashes 4#cde ,coke in lumps 4#bgg ,air space1 undivided 4#acf ------------------------------ ,,linear ,,expansion ,,of ,,steam ,,pipes4 ,wrought iron is said to expand #a_/aej1jjj of an inch for each degree of heat communicated to it2 to make the calculation take the length of the pipe in inches1 multiply it by the number of degrees between the normal temperature it is required to attain when heated1 and divide this by #aej1jjj4 ,suppose the pipe is #ajj feet long1 and its temperature zero1 and it is desired to use it to carry steam at #ajj pounds pressure--equal to a temperature of #cch degrees--multiply #ajj feet by #ab to reduce it to inches1 and by #cch1 the difference in temperature2 divide this by #aej1jjj1 and the result will be #b4g inches1 which would be the amount of play that would be required1 in this instance1 in the expansion joint4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #aec and #aed4 ,figs4 #aec and #aed show a properly designed arrangement of steam connections for a battery of boilers4 ,to the nozzles1 risers are attached by means of flanges1 and from the upper ends of these risers pipes are led horizontally backwards into the main steam pipe4 ,in this horizontal pipe1 the stop valves1 one to each boiler1 are placed4 ,these valves should have flanged ends as shown1 so that they may be easily removed1 if repairs become necessary1 without disturbing any other portion of the piping4 ,unlike the engraving1 the valve ,c should be arranged in another position3 the stem should1 of course1 be horizontal or nearly so1 in order that the valve may not trap water4 ,by this arrangement it will be seen that the movements of the boilers and the piping itself are compensated for by the spring of the pipes4 ,the height of the risers should never be less than three feet1 and when there are eight or ten boilers in one battery1 they should be1 if room permits1 six to eight feet high1 and the horizontal pipes leading to main steam pipe should be ten or twelve feet or more4 ,,the ,,steam ,,loop4 ,this is an attachment to a steam boiler1 designed to return water of condensation4 ,it invariably consists of three parts1 viz43 the 8riser10 the 8horizontal0 and the 8drop leg10 and usually of pipes varying in size from three-fourth inch to two inches4 ,each part has its special and well-defined duties to perform1 and their proportions and immediate relations decide and make up the capacity and strength of the system4 ,it is1 in fact1 nothing but a simple return pipe leading from the source of condensation to the boiler1 and1 beyond this mere statement1 it is hardly possible to explain it2 it has1 like the injector and the pulsometer pump1 been called a paradox4 ,the range of application of the steam loop practically covers every requirement for the return of water of condensation4 ,if used in connection with a steam engine1 pump1 etc41 a separator of any simple form is connected in the steam pipe as close as possible to the throttle4 ,from the bottom of the separator the loop is led back to the boiler1 and the circulation maintained by it will dry the steam before it is admitted to the cylinder4 ,there is necessary to its operation a slight fall in temperature at the head of the loop1 which is accompanied by a corresponding fall in pressure4 ,the water accumulating in the lower end of the loop next to the separator1 as soon as it fills the diameter of pipe1 is suddenly drawn or forced to the horizontal by that difference in pressure4 ,it is immaterial how far the water has to be taken back1 or how high it is to be lifted4 ,there is one system now in daily operation lifting the condensed water over thirty-nine feet1 and another lifting it over sixty-three feet4 ,the strength of the system is increased by length and height1 the only limit to its operation being the practicability of erecting the necessary drop leg1 the height of which depends on difference in pressures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,fig4 #aee is an illustration of its application to a radiating coil4 ,to understand the philosophy of its action1 and referring to the illustration1 let us assume that all the valves are open1 and full boiler pressure is freely admitted throughout the steam pipe1 coil and loop4 ,now1 if the pressure were exactly uniform throughout the whole system1 the water in the loop would stand at a on the same level as the water in the boiler4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the pressure is not uniform throughout the system1 but steadily reduces from the moment of leaving the dome4 ,this reduction in pressure is due in part to condensation and in part to friction1 and although generally small is always present in some degree4 ,the pressure may be intentionally reduced at the valve on the coil1 and reduction necessarily results from condensation within the coil itself4 ,a still further reduction takes place through the loop1 so that the lowest pressure in the whole system will be found at a1 the point in the loop furthest from the boiler1 reckoned by the flow of steam4 ,now it is known that water of condensation invariably works towards1 and accumulates in1 a 8dead end40 ,this is due to the fact that1 as already shown1 the pressure is lower at the 8dead end0 than at any other point in the system1 and1 as a consequence1 there is a constant flow1 or sweep1 of steam towards the point of least pressure1 which flow continues as long as condensation goes on4 ,this sweep of steam carries along with it all the water formed by condensation or contained in the steam1 at first in the form of a thin film1 swept along the inner surface of the loop1 and afterwards1 when the accumulation of water is sufficient1 in the form of small slugs or pistons of water1 which completely fill the pipe at intervals1 traveling rapidly towards the dead end4 ,the action of the steam sweep is vastly more powerful than is usually supposed1 and1 of course1 operates continuously and infallibly to deposit the water in the dead end as fast as accumulated4 ,in practice1 water will speedily be carried over by the loop and accumulate in the drop leg until it rises to the level b1 which would balance the difference in pressure4 ,as the loop will still continue to bring over water1 it follows that as fast as a slug or piston of water is deposited by the steam on the top of the column at b1 it overbalances the equilibrium and an equal amount of water is discharged from the bottom of the column through the check valve into the boiler4 ,the result of the practical operation of many systems of this ingenious device show advantages as follows3 #a4 ,return of pure water to the boiler and saving the heat contained in said water4 #b4 ,preserving more uniform temperatures1 thus avoiding the dangers due to expansion and contraction4 #c4 ,prevention of loss from open drains1 drips1 tanks1 etc4 #d4 ,maintaining higher pressure in long lines of piping1 in jackets1 driers1 etc4 #e4 ,enabling engines to start promptly4 #f4 ,saving steam systems from water1 thereby reducing liability to accident4 ,,boiler ,,makers' ,,tools ,,and ,,machinery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,fig4 #aef represents a pair of jack screws4 ,these are invaluable devices for use in boiler-shops1 and also in establishments where ponderous machinery has to be shifted or otherwise handled4 ,but few machine tools are used in making steam boilers1 and they are generally as follows3 #ast4--,the ,rolls1 operated either by hand levers or power2 used for bending the iron or steel plates into circular form4 #b;d4--,a wide power planer for trimming the edges of the sheet perfectly straight and true4 #c;d4--,heavy ,shears for trimming and cutting the plates4 #dth4--,a ,power ,punch for making the rivet holes4 #eth4--,a ,disc for making the large holes in the tube sheets to receive the ends of the tubes4 #fth4--,rivet heating furnaces and frequently steam riveting machines4 ,the hand tools needed by boiler makers are equally few1 consisting of riveting hammers and hammers for striking the chisels1 tongs to handle hot rivets1 chipping chisels used in trimming the edges of plates1 cape chisels for cutting off iron or making holes in the sheets1 expanders to set the tubes1 and also drift pins to bring the punched sheet exactly in line4 ,fig4 #aeg exhibits an improved pattern of the well-known tool--dudgeon expander4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,,steam4 ,steam is water in a gaseous state2 the gas or vapor of water2 it liquifies under a pressure of #ad4g and temperature of #bab ,f4 ,steam is a joint production of the intermingling of water and heat4 ,water is composed of two gases which have neither color nor taste1 and steam is made up of the same two gases with the addition only of that mysterious property called heat by which the water becomes greatly expanded and is rendered invisible4 ,the ,french have a term for steam which seems appropriate when they call it water-dust4 ,this is what takes place in the formation of steam in a vessel containing water in free communication with the atmosphere4 ,at first1 a vapor is seen to rise that seems to come from the surface of the liquid1 getting more and more dense as the water becomes hotter4 ,then a tremor of the surface is produced1 accompanied by a peculiar noise which has been called the singing of the liquid2 and1 finally1 bubbles1 similar to air bubbles1 form in that part of the vessel which is nearest to the fire1 then rise to the surface where they burst1 giving forth fresh vapor4 ,the curious fact must be here noted that if water be introduced into a space entirely void of air1 like a vacuum1 it vaporizes instantaneously1 no matter how hot or cold1 so that of an apparent and fluid body there only remains an invisible gas like air4 ,that steam is dry at high pressure is proved by an experiment which is very interesting4 ,if a common match head is held in the invisible portion of the steam jet close to the nozzle1 it at once lights1 and the fact seems convincing as to complete dryness1 as the faintest moisture would prevent ignition even at the highest temperature4 ,this experiment proves dryness of the steam at the point of contact1 but if throttling exists behind the jet1 the steam supplied by the boiler may be in itself wet and dried by wire drawing4 ,dead steam is the same as exhaust steam4 ,live steam is steam which has done no work4 ,dry steam is saturated steam without any admixture of mechanically suspended water4 ,high-pressure steam is commonly understood to be steam used in high-pressure engines4 ,low-pressure steam is that used at low pressure in condensing engines1 heating apparatus1 etc41 at #ae lbs4 to the inch or under4 ,saturated steam is that in contact with water at the same temperature2 saturated steam is always at its condensing point1 which is always the boiling point of the water1 with which it is in contact2 in this it differs from superheated steam4 ,superheated steam1 also called steam-gas1 is steam dried with heat applied after it has left the boiler4 ,total heat of steam is the same as steam heat4 ,wet steam1 steam holding water mechanically suspended1 the water being in the form of spray4 ,specific gravity of steam is 4#fbe as compared to air under the same pressure4 ,the properties which make it so valuable to us are3 #a4 ,the ease with which we can condense it4 #b4 ,its great expansive power4 #c4 ,the small space in which it shrinks when it is condensed either in a vacuum chamber or the air4 ,a cubic inch of water turned into steam at the pressure of the atmosphere will expand into #a1ffi cubic inches4 ,,water ,,hammer4 ,the fact that steam piping methods have not kept pace with the demands of higher pressures and modern practice is evidenced by the increasing number of accidents from the failure of pipes and fittings4 ,there has not been1 for the rapid increase of pressure used1 a proportionate increase in strength of flanges1 number and size of bolts used1 and more generous provision for expansion and contraction4 ,valves and fittings also require greater attention in their design1 construction and manipulation4 ,it is well known that the presence of condensed water in pipes is a source of danger1 but little is known of what exactly goes on in the pipe4 ,we have the incompressible liquid1 the expansive gas1 and the tube with a 8dead head0 or dead end as it is called1 or where the end of the pipe is closed4 ,seeing that the tube or pipe is capable of withstanding all the pressure that the steam can give1 it is difficult to account for the tremendous repelling force1 which is1 undoubtedly1 brought into operation in explosions or ruptures of steam pipes carrying what are now comparatively low pressures4 ,the cause of the bursting is undoubtedly water hammer or water ram1 which accompanies large1 long steam pipes1 filled with condensed water4 ,if steam be blown into a large inclined pipe full of water1 it will rise by difference of gravity to the top of the pipe1 forming a bubble2 when condensation takes place1 the water below the bubble will rush up to fill the vacuum1 giving a blow directly against the side of the pipe4 ,as the water still further recedes the bubble will get larger1 and move farther and farther up the pipe1 the blow each time increasing in intensity1 for the reason that the steam has passed a larger mass of water1 which is forced forward by the incoming steam to fill the vacuum4 ,the maximum effect generally takes place at a 8dead end40 ,in fact1 under certain conditions1 a more forcible blow is struck when the end of the pipe is open1 as1 for instance1 when a pipe crowned upward is filled with water1 one end being open and the steam introduced at the other4 ,a bubble will in due time be formed at the top of the crown1 when the water will be forced in by atmospheric pressure from one end and by steam pressure from the other1 and the meeting of the two columns frequently ruptures the pipe4 ,the remedy for this is simple1 the pipes must be properly located so as to drain themselves or be drained by rightly located drip cocks4 ,the drip should be the other side of the throttle valve1 and if steam is left on over night this valve should be left open enough to drain out all the water4 ,,hazards ,,of ,,the ,,boiler ,,room4 ,where there is great power1 there is great danger4 ,when the pressure is increased1 the danger is increased4 ,when the pressure is increased1 diligence1 care and scrutiny should be increased4 ,during the twelve years between #ahgi and #ahia there were recorded #b1aei boiler explosions2 these resulted in the death of #c1abc persons1 and in more or less serious injury to #d1ceb others4 ,besides these there were innumerable other accidents during the same period1 caused by other means1 which emphasizes the gravity of this cautionary 8chapter of accidents40 ,every boiler constructed of riveted plate and carrying a high head of steam1 holds in constant abeyance1 through the strength of a disruptive shell1 a force1 more destructive in its escaping violence than burning gunpowder4 ,to the casual observer there is no evidence of this2 and it is only when a rupture takes place of such a character as to liberate on the instant the entire contents of the boiler that we get a real demonstration of the fact4 ,unfortunately a steam boiler never grows stronger1 but deteriorates with every day's age and labor1 subjected1 as it is1 to all sorts of weakening influences2 and fractures often occur1 which1 if not at once repaired1 would speedily reduce the strength of the boiler to the point of explosion4 ,in the case of a boiler we have1 first1 a vessel of certain strength1 to resist strains2 and second1 expansive steam and water contained therein4 ,it must be plain that if the strength of the vessel is superior to the internal pressure there can be no explosion1 and also1 on the contrary1 if we allow the pressure to go above the strength of the vessel1 that there must be a rupturing and an explosion1 but it will be in the weakest place of that vessel4 ,experiments by the most eminent men have failed to discover any mysterious gas formed by boiling water1 or by any mixture of air and water4 ,boilers have been built for the express purpose of trying to explode them under various conditions of high and low water1 and nothing in regard to the sudden generation of any gas has been discovered4 ,again1 disastrous explosions that have occurred have been of vessels that contained no water1 and were not in contact with fire1 flame or heated air1 but were supplied by steam some distance away4 ,the destructive efforts of the vaporization attendant upon explosions seem to be due to the subsequent expansion of the steam so formed1 rather than to the intensity of its pressure2 low or high steam alone has very little to do with boiler explosions2 nor high or low water necessarily4 ,the one great cause of boiler explosion is the inability of the boiler to withstand the pressure to which it is subjected at the time1 and this may be brought about by any one of the following causes1 viz43 #a4 ,bad design1 in which the boiler may not be properly strengthened by stays and braces2 deficient water space1 preventing the proper circulation of the water4 #b4 ,bad workmanship1 caused by the punching and riveting being done by unskilled workmen4 #c4 ,bad material1 blisters1 lamination1 and the adhesion of sand or cinders in the rolling of the plate4 #d4 ,by excessive pressure1 caused by the recklessness of the engineer1 or by defective steam-gauges or inoperative safety-valves4 #e4 ,overheating of the plates1 caused by shortness of water4 ,when water is poured on red-hot surfaces it does not touch the surface1 but remains in the spheroidal state at a little distance from it1 being apparently surrounded by an atmosphere of steam4 ,it assumes this state above #cdj2 when the temperature falls to about #bhh it touches the surface and commences boiling4 #f4 ,by accumulation of scale1 mud1 or other deposit1 which prevents the water gaining access to the iron4 ,this causes the seams to leak1 the crown-sheet to bulge or come down4 ,one is unable to find any proof that boilers do generally explode at about starting time1 nor is that statement1 to the best of information1 founded on any basis of fact1 but was first affirmed by parties who had designed a boiler especially arranged to avoid that imaginary danger4 ,no one supposes that inspection will absolutely prevent all explosions2 but rigid inspection will discover defects that might end in explosion4 ,low water is dangerous from the fact that it leaves parts of the boiler to be overheated and the strength of iron rapidly decreases in such a case4 ,in fact1 an explosion caused by low water might be expected to be less disastrous than if the water was higher1 other conditions being equal1 from the fact of there being less water at a high temperature ready to flash into steam at the moment of liberation4 ,testing new boilers under steam pressure is both dangerous and unwise--the hot water expansion test is just as efficient1 less costly and safe in every respect--hence1 there is no occasion for a steam test4 ,a manufacturer was testing a boiler in the way mentioned when a rivet in a brace blew out and the contents of the boiler rushed out1 striking a man in the face1 and parboiling him from head to foot4 ,another who was inspecting the boiler1 was struck on the head and enveloped in steam and water2 another was also scalded from the shoulders down2 another was injured about the arms2 a fifth man was scalded and severely injured about the back4 ,the apartment was so filled with steam that the victims could not be rescued until all the damage mentioned had been done to them4 ,danger from exploding steam pipes is greater than supposed4 ,an inspector in a pipe works was testing a tube by means of a double-action hydraulic pump2 the pipe suddenly burst with the pressure of #e1jjj pounds to the square inch1 and the water striking the unfortunate man on his face1 he was killed on the spot4 ,there is a tendency on the part of engineers to trust too implicitly in their steam gauges4 ,these are usually the only resort for determining the steam pressure under which the boiler may be working4 ,but the best gauges are liable to err1 and after long use to require a readjustment4 ,it is fortunate1 however1 that the error is usually upon the safe side of indicating more than the actual pressure4 ,any boiler that has been standing idle for a few weeks or months is a dangerous thing to enter1 and no one should attempt it until it has been thoroughly ventilated by taking off all the man hole and hand-hole plates and throwing water into it4 ,this is due to the presence of a gas which is generated from the refuse and mud1 or scale1 which1 to a greater or less degree1 remains in all boilers4 ,contact with fire is certain to result in an explosion4 ,not long since a locomotive was in a roundhouse1 where it had been waiting some weeks for repairs4 ,some of the tubes were split and a man was pulling them out4 ,he had only removed one or two when1 putting in his lamp to see what remained1 there was a fearful explosion which shook the shop4 ,there are many other places which are unsafe to enter when they have been long closed1 such as wells1 pits of any kind1 and tanks4 ,precisely what the nature of the gas is no one seems to know1 but it is assuredly settled that a man who goes into it with a light seldom comes out unharmed4 ,the gas most likely to fill idle boilers in cities is sewer gas1 that gets in through the blow-off pipe1 which is left open and generally connects with the sewer2 hence1 the connection with the sewer by the blow-off pipes should receive attention4 ,boilers are sometimes unexpectedly emptied of their contents by the operation of the principle of the syphon2 a boiler is so piped that a column of water may be so formed as to draw out of the boiler its entire contents4 ,danger ensues if this is done while the boiler is being fired4 ,,fuel ,,oil4 ,illustration3 ,oil ,valve ,the long experimental use of petroleum or natural oil as a combustible has developed but one serious objection to its wide spread and popular adoption2 that objection arises from its liability to ignite and cause destruction by fire2 but ,,the ,,hazards ,,of ,,fuel ,,oil may be remedied by the observance of the following rules adopted by a certain fire underwriters' association3 8,vault to be located so that the oil it contains can burn without endangering property and have a capacity sufficient to hold twice the entire quantity of oil the tanks within can contain4 ,location of vault to be left to the approval of the ,superintendent of ,surveys4 ,distance from any property to be regulated by size of tank4 ,vaults to be underground1 built of brick1 sides and ends to be at least #af inches thick and to be made water tight with hydraulic cement2 bottom to be water tight1 concrete1 dished toward centre1 and inclined to one end so as to drain all overflow or seepage to that end1 said incline to be to the end opposite to that from which the tank is to be tapped2 top to be supported with heavy iron ,i-beams1 with arches of solid brick sprung from one beam to its neighbors1 and to have at least twelve inches of dirt over the masonry4 ,vault to be accessible by one or more large man-holes1 which1 when not in use1 are to be kept locked by a large padlock of three or more tumblers1 key to be held by some responsible party4 ,a trough must run from one end of the vault to the other1 directly under each tank1 and in the same direction as the tank or tanks4 ,tank to be of boiler iron or steel1 at least #c_/af inch in thickness1 to be cold riveted1 rivets to be not less than #c_/h inch in diameter and not over #a inch apart between centres2 the entire outer surface of tank to have two good coats of coal tar or mineral paint before the tank is placed in position4 ,no tank shall be over #h feet in diameter by #be in length1 nor shall any vault have over two tanks4 ,when tank is set1 the bottom of the tank must be #c inches above the concrete floor of the vault1 and must be in saddles of masonry not less than twelve inches in thickness1 built from the concrete floor of the vault1 said saddles not to be more than #c feet apart between centres1 and laid in hydraulic cement1 with an opening through centre for drainage4 ,tank must incline #a inch per #aj feet in length toward the end from which it is to be tapped1 said incline of the tank to be opposite to the incline at the bottom of the vault4 ,the filling pipe1 man-hole1 telltale or indicator1 pump supply connection1 steam connection1 overflow pipe and ventilating pipes1 where they connect with tank1 must be made petroleum tight by the use of litharge and glycerine cement4 ,flanges to make tank #c_/d inch in thickness to be riveted on the inside so as to furnish a satisfactory joint where connections are made1 must be used4 ,filling pipe connection must have gas-tight valve between the tank and hose coupling1 which must be kept closed and locked unless the tank is being filled4 ,each tank must have ventilating pipes at least #a-a_/b inches in diameter1 one of which must connect with one end of the top of the tank and must be in the form of an inverted ,j1 a union to be placed in pipe just below the bend1 within which shall be placed a diaphragm of fine wire gauze2 the other ventilating pipe must be at the other end of the top of the tank and must be conducted to the inside of the smoke stack or into the open air at least #aj feet above the surface1 so that all the gases that form in the tank will be constantly changed4 ,tank must have indicator to show height of oil in tank at all times1 said indicator to be so arranged as to allow no escapement of gases from tank4 ,all pipes leading from the tank to the pump or place of burning1 must incline toward the tank1 and have a fall of at least #b feet from bottom of stand pipe to top of storage tank1 and must be so constructed that the feed pipe from stand pipe to burners shall be entirely above burners1 so that no pockets of oil can be formed in any one of the pipes between the main tank1 stand pipe1 oil pump or place of burning4 ,the vault shall be air tight as near as possible1 and must have two ventilating pipes of iron of #d inches diameter1 both inlet and outlet pipes to reach within #f inches of the bottom of the vault1 the outlet ventilating pipe to rise above surface #h feet1 and the inlet ventilating pipe to rise above surface #f feet4 ,syphon to be arranged so as carry out any seepage or leakage into the vault1 and discharge same upon the ground1 where its burning would not endanger surrounding property40 ,the following are a part of the rules adopted by the ,german ,government to prevent accidents in mills and factories3 they are equally applicable in all places where steam power is used3 8,all work on transmissions1 especially the cleaning and lubricating of shafts1 bearings and pulleys1 as well as the binding1 lacing1 shipping and unshipping of belts1 must be performed only by men especially instructed in or charged with such labors4 ,females and boys are not permitted to do this work4 ,the lacing1 binding or packing of belts1 if they lie upon either shafting or pulleys during the operation1 must be strictly prohibited4 ,during the lacing and connecting of belts1 strict attention is to be paid to their removal from revolving parts1 either by hanging them upon a hook fastened to the ceiling1 or in any other practical manner2 the same applies to smaller belts which are occasionally unshipped and run idle4 ,while the shafts are in motion they are to be lubricated1 or the lubricating devices examined only when observing the following rules3 7#a7 ,the person performing this labor must either do it while standing upon the floor1 or by the use of 7#b7 firmly located stands on steps1 especially constructed for the purpose so as to afford a good and substantial footing for the workman2 7#c7 firmly constructed sliding ladders1 running on bars2 7#d7 sufficiently high and strong ladders1 especially constructed for this purpose1 which by appropriate safeguards 7hooks above or iron points below7 afford security against slipping4 ,all shaft bearings are to be provided with automatic lubricating apparatus4 ,only after the engineer has given the well-understood signal1 plainly audible in the workrooms1 is the engine to be started4 ,if any work other than lubricating and cleaning of the shafting is to be performed while the engine is standing idle1 the engineer is to be notified of it1 and in what room or place such work is going on1 and he must then allow the engine to remain idle until he has been informed by proper parties that the work is finished4 ,plainly visible and easy accessible alarm apparatus shall be located at proper places in the workrooms1 to be used in case of accident to signal to the engineer to stop the engine at once4 ,all projecting wedges1 keys1 set-screws1 nuts1 grooves or other parts of machinery1 having sharp edges1 shall be substantially covered4 ,all belts or ropes which pass from the shafting of one story to that of another shall be guarded by fencing or casing of wood1 sheet-iron or wire netting four feet1 #f inches high4 ,the belts passing from shafting in the story underneath and actuating machinery in the room overhead1 thereby passing through the ceiling must be enclosed with proper casing or netting corresponding in height from the floor to the construction of the machine4 ,when the construction of the machine does not admit of the introduction of casing1 then1 at least1 the opening in the floor through which the belt or rope passes should be inclosed with a low casing at least four inches high4 ,fixed shafts1 as well as ordinary shafts1 pulleys and fly-wheels1 running at a little height above the floor1 and being within the locality where work is performed1 shall be securely covered40 ,the most simple and efficient of all substances for fire extinguishment is sulphur4 ,this1 by heat1 absorbs oxygen and forms sulphurous acid1 the fumes of which are much heavier than the air4 ,the quantity required would be small4 ,besides sulphur1 which gives every satisfaction1 both in its effects and from its low cost1 we find a similar property in another active and cheap substance1 ammonia4 ,an automatic sulphur extinguishing apparatus can be made of various forms4 ,if night repairs1 ,sunday1 or any other work which requires the use of artificial light 7especially portable lights of any kind7 becomes necessary1 more than one man should be employed1 one of whom should be capable of starting the engine or pump instantly in case of fire4 ,in guarding against explosion it is conceded that the main reliance is to have the boiler made strong enough to stand both the regular load or any unexpected strain caused by the stoppage of the engine2 it is also the tendency of the times to proceed towards higher and higher figures in steam pressure1 until now it is not unfrequent to see #aej lbs4 to the square inch indicated by the gauge2 the larger the boiler1 also1 the more economically it can be run and this1 as in the two cases before cited1 requires extra precautions in building the boiler with great regard to strength in every part4 ,the following rules posted in a certain factory are most excellent for their directness3 8,wear close-fitting clothes2 have a blouse or jacket to button close around the waist and body2 have sleeves to fit arms closely as far up as the elbow2 never wear a coat around machinery2 never approach a pair of gears or pulleys from the driving side2 never attempt to save time by potting1 or trying to pot on any fast-moving belts without slacking up or stopping entirely to do it4 ,never allow an inexperienced person to go through the mills without an attendant2 never allow a woman to go through a mill1 no matter how many attendants1 while in motion2 never attempt to go through the mill in the dark1 you may forget the exact location of some dangerous object and seek to avoid it1 but it is still there1 noiselessly waiting a chance to wreck you2 never allow any dangerous place to go unguarded2 keep your eye open while oiling2 never relax your vigilance for an instant1 it may cost you your life4 ,if you feel a gentle tug on your clothes1 grab1 and grab quick1 anything you can cling to1 and don't let go till after the clothes do40 ,,water ,,circulation4 ,water consists of an innumerable quantity of extremely minute particles called molecules4 ,these particles have the property of being able to glide over1 under1 and to and from each other almost without resistance or friction4 ,when water is heated in a boiler the action that takes place is this3 ,as the heat is applied1 the particles nearest the heated surfaces become expanded or swollen1 and are so rendered lighter 7bulk for bulk7 than the colder particles1 they are therefore compelled to rise to the highest point in the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,this upward action is vividly shown by the illustration on page #bdb1 and by ,fig4 #aeh1 where the warmer particles are ascending and the cooler ones are descending by a process which is endless so long as heat is applied to the lower part of the containing vessel4 ,the cause of circulation is the result of an immutable law of nature 7the law of gravitation71 and is so simple that with moderate care in its manipulation failures in arranging steam heating apparatus are next to impossible4 ,a very slight experience suffices to show that a pipe taken from the top of a boiler and given a direct or gradual rise to the point furthest from the boiler1 and then returned and connected into it at the bottom will1 upon the application of heat1 cause the water to circulate4 ,it is not necessary that the water should boil or even approach boiling point1 to cause circulation1 as in a properly constructed apparatus the circulation commences soon after the heat is applied and immediately the temperature is raised in the boiler4 ,it is a very common error to suppose that the circulation commences in the flow or up pipe1 whereas it is just the reverse4 ,the circulation is caused by the water in the return pipe and can be described as a stream of heated particles flowing up one pipe from the boiler and a stream of cooler particles flowing down another pipe into the boiler2 or it might be described as a means of automatically transporting heated water from the lower to the upper parts of a building1 and providing a down flow of cold water to the boiler to be heated in turn4 ,those having in charge the erection of hot-water systems for heating buildings1 will do well to remember that the circulation they expect depends entirely upon the expansion of particles when heated1 and that they must avoid as much as possible friction1 exposure of flow pipes to very low temperature1 and frequent or numerous short bends4 ,when properly arranged the action of 8the steam loop0 is a very good illustration of the circulation of hot water and steam1 the flow is continuous1 rapid and positive4 ,,note4--,when the steam loop is properly connected1 the stop valve at the boiler should always be left open and full pressure maintained in the steam pipe over night or over ,sunday4 ,the loop will keep up a powerful circulation1 returning all water to the boiler as fast as condensed4 ,on starting up in the morning1 it is only necessary to open the waste cocks and blow out what little water may have condensed in the cylinders themselves4 ,the throttle may then be opened and the engine started with the steam as dry as if it had been running continuously4 ,,chimneys ,,and ,,draught4 ,draught1 in chimneys1 is caused by the difference between the weight of the air outside and that inside the chimney4 ,this difference in weight is produced by difference in heat4 ,now1 heated air has a strong tendency to rise above cool air and a very slight difference will cause an upward flow of the heated particles1 and the hotter the air1 the brisker the flow4 ,as these particles ascend it leaves a space which the cooler air eagerly hastens to fill2 in the boiler furnace1 the hot air pushing its way up the chimney1 is replaced through the grate bars with cool1 fresh air4 ,it is the mingling of this fresh air with the combustibles that produces heat1 and the power of the draught is absolutely necessary to the reliable operation of the furnace4 ,an excess of draught can be corrected by the use of a damper or even by the closing of the ash pit doors1 but no more unhappy position for an engineer can be imagined than a deficiency of draught4 ,this lack is produced by1 #ast1 too little area in the chimney flue2 #b;d1 by too low a chimney2 #c;d1 by obstructions to the flow of the gases2 #dth1 by the overtopping of the chimney by adjacent buildings1 hills or tree tops4 ,there are other causes of failure which practice develops2 hence1 the draught of a new chimney is very often an uncertain thing until every-day trial demonstrates its action4 ,the draught of steam boilers and other furnaces should be regulated below the grate and not in the chimney4 ,the ash pit door should be capable of being closed air tight1 and the damper in the chimney should be kept wide open at all times unless it is absolutely necessary to have the area of the chimney reduced in order to prevent the gases from escaping too fast to make steam4 ,when two flues enter a larger one at right angles to it1 opposite each other1 as is frequently the case where there is a large number of boilers in a battery1 and the chimney is placed near the center of the battery1 the main flue should always have a division plate in its center between the two entering flues to give direction to the incoming currents of gases1 and prevent their 8butting10 as it may be termed4 ,the same thing should always be done where two horizontal flues enter a chimney at the same height at opposite sides4 ,in stationary boilers the chimney area should be one-fifth greater than the combined area of all the tubes or flues4 ,for marine boilers the rule is to allow fourteen square inches of chimney area for each nominal horse power4 ,the draught of a chimney is usually measured in inches of water4 ,the arrangement most commonly made use of for this purpose consists of a ,u-shaped glass tube connected by rubber tubing1 iron pipe1 or other arrangement1 with some part of the chimney in such a way that the draught will produce a difference of level of water in the two legs of the bent glass tube4 ,the 8,locomotive0 suggests that the unit for chimney construction should be a flue #ha feet high above the level of the grates1 having an area equal to the collective area of the tubes of all the boilers leading to it1 the boilers being of the ordinary horizontal return tubular type1 having about #a square foot of heating surface to #de square feet of heating surface4 ,note the above conditions1 and1 in case of changing the above proportions1 it should be observed that the draught power of chimneys is proportional to the square root of the height1 so we may reduce its area below the collective area of the boiler tubes in the same proportion that the square root of its height exceeds the square root of #ha4 ,for example1 suppose we have to design a chimney for ten boilers1 #ff in4 in diameter1 each having #gb tubes1 #c-a_/b in4 in diameter1 what would be its proportion8 ,the collective area of the #gbj #c-a_/b-;in4 tubes would be #f1jag square inches1 and if the chimney is to be but #ha feet high1 it should have this area1 which would require a flue #f ft4 #e-a_/b in4 square4 ,but1 suppose1 for some reason1 it is decided to have a chimney #aej feet in height1 instead of #ha feet4 ,the square root of #aej is #ab-a_/d2 the square root of #ha is #i2 and we reduce the area of the chimney by the following proportion3 #ab4be3i #f1jag3d1dbj square inches1 which would be the proper area1 and would call for a chimney #e ft4 #f in4 square1 and similarly if any other height were decided upon4 ,,plumbing4 ,illustration3 ,pipe ,trap ,illustration3 ,p ,trap ,the art of working in lead is older than the pyramids4 ,for thousands of years hydraulics and plumbing as an occupation engaged the principal attention of engineers4 ,king ,david used lead pipe1 so did ,archimedes2 the terraces and gardens of ,babylon were supplied with water through leaden pipes4 ,steam fitting1 with galvanized pipe and an elaborate system of connections and devices is a new department of mechanism--almost of the present generation--and at first sight would seem able soon to supercede lead piping of all kinds1 but it is safe to say that nothing can ever take the place of lead1 for this admirable metal can be made to answer where no other material can be worked2 for instance1 lead pipe can be made to conform to any angle or obstruction where no other system of piping will4 ,hence1 plumbing as a useful and ornamental art will never go out of date1 and engineers of every branch will do well to study its principles and methods so as to meet the ever-recurring and perplexing questions connected with sewerage1 water supply1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,s ,trap ,every engineer should at least know how #a1 to join lead pipe--to make a 8wipe joint10--as in a hundred emergencies this knowledge will be of worth4 #b1 how to make a temporary stopping of leaks2 #c1 how to bend pipe with sand or springs2 #d1 how to 8back air pipes0 from sinks2 #e1 how to use force pumps2 #f1 how to arrange the circulating pipes in hot-water boilers2 #g1 how to make solder2 #h1 how to repair valves1 etc41 etc4 ,,piping ,,and ,,drainage4 ,the three illustrations on page #bih are designed to represent traps set in lead pipe and show vividly the difference between this material and iron piping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,lead is one of the elementary substances of which the world is formed2 it ranks with gold1 silver1 tin1 etc41 in being an unmixed metal4 ,it melts at about #fag ,fahrenheit1 and is1 bulk for bulk1 #aa-d_/aj heavier than water 7gold being #ag-e_/aj heavier and wrought iron #g-g_/aj heavier74 ,the tenacity of lead is extremely low1 a wire #a_/ahth of an inch breaks with a weight of #bh lbs42 in comparison1 its tenacity is only one-twentieth that of iron2 it is so soft that it may be scratched with the thumb nail4 ,if a very strong heat is applied lead boils and evaporates2 it transmits heat very slowly2 of seven common metals it is the worst conductor1 therefore it is good for hot water pipes4 ,mixed with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver it remains liquid4 ,an advantage to be found in the use of lead is its durability and comparative freedom from repairs4 ,in ,london1 soil and drain water pipes which have been fixed #cjj to #ejj years are as good now as the day they were first made--while iron pipe cannot be expected to last over #aj or #bj years or #cj at the utmost4 ,fig4 #aei represents the general system of house piping and drainage applicable also to shops1 public buildings1 etc4 ,a exhibits the drain or sewer4 ,a-,c represents the sewer connection1 so called with a running trap1 ,b4 8,c0 at the end of the lower pipe exhibits a soil pipe elbow1 with hand hole for cleaning out closed by a screw plug4 ,this drain should have a regular fall or inclination and this elbow provides for that4 ,c-,d shows the rain water leader 7conductor74 ,e and ,f is a soil pipe #c1 #d1 #e1 or #f inches in diameter4 ,note1 pipes draining water closets are called 8soil pipes02 those draining other fixtures 8waste pipes40 ,n and ,o represent water-closet flanges2 ,f and ,h are roof connections2 ,l exhibits double and single ,y branches to receive waste-pipes from baths1 bowls1 or sinks4 ,the plumber makes this connection1 always trapping the lead waste-pipe and then soldering it to a brass nipple4 ,,lead ,,pipe ,,joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,it has been remarked that after learning how to make 8a wipe joint10 everything is easy relating to the plumber's trade2 hence1 the importance of the following directions4 ,to learn the art1 previous practice with short pieces of pipe is recommended4 ,this trial piece can be clamped as shown in ,fig4 #afj and used over and over until practice has been had4 ,there are many names for the process of lead joint-making1 such as the flow-joint1 the ribbon joint1 the blown joint1 the astragal joint1 etc41 to express the different positions and uses for which they are needed1 but in the main they are made as follows3 #a4 ,the lead pipe to be joined is sawn square off with the proper toothed saw--attention being paid to making the end absolutely true1 across the pipe4 #b4 ,one end of the pipe to be joined is first opened by driving in a wooden wedge1 shaped like a plumb-bob1 called the 8turn pin40 ,care should be exercised at this time not to split the end1 #a_/d inch opening is usually enough1 which leaves the pipe as shown at ,d1 ,fig4 #afa4 ,now1 clean the internal part of the joint all around the part required for soldering--this cleaning can be done with the plumber's shave hook or with a pocket knife4 ,to complete this preparation 8touch0 the part with grease from a tallow candle4 #c4 ,next is the preparation of the male part of the joint4 ,this must be rasp-filed down to fit the enlarged opening4 ,it is important to have a good fit throughout2 hence1 inside the enlarged opening must be also rasp-filed and the two surfaces to come nicely together before the solder is applied4 #d4 ,at this stage a paste called 8plumber's soil0 must be applied outside #c inches from the end of each piece of pipe2 this is shown by the line ,e ,f in ,fig4 #afa1 also at ,a ,b1 ,fig4 #afj2 the line of the soiling should be very even and true in order to assure a workmanlike job and the soiling put on as before stated1 #c to #e inches beyond the solder line on each side4 ,as the melting point of lead is #fab degrees or thereabouts1 it is necessary to have solder melt at a lower temperature1 and that made under the rule given will melt at #ddj to #dge degrees4 ,no tool to a plumber is more important than the cloth used in joint making4 ,to make it1 take a piece of new mole skin or fustian1 of moderate thickness1 #ab inches long by #i inches wide1 fold it up one side #d inches2 then #d inches again1 and again #d inches2 then fold it in the middle1 which will make your cloth #d #d-a_/b inches1 and of #f thickness4 ,after this is done1 sew up the ragged ends to keep it from opening4 ,then pour a little hot tallow on one side and the cloth is ready for use4 ,in ,fig4 #afj-;a is shown1 ,h1 a hand holding the cloth ,c in the process of 8wiping the joint10 which will now be described4 ,first place a small piece of paper under the joint to catch the surplus solder ,d and begin soldering as follows3 ,take the felt ,f in the right hand and with it hold the ladle three parts full of solder4 ,to see that it is not too hot hold your hand within #b inches or so of the solder2 if it quickly burns your hand it is too hot2 if you can only just hold your hand this distance1 use it2 but if you cannot feel the heat1 the solder is too cold4 ,when you begin to pour your solder upon the joint do it very lightly and not too much at a time in one place1 but keep the ladle moving backward and forward1 pouring from ,e to ,j1 first on one side of the joint to the other and from end to end4 ,pour also an inch or two up the soiling1 as shown at ,e to make the pipe of proper temperature1 i4e41 to the same heat as the solder4 ,the further1 in reason1 the heat is run or taken along the pipe1 the better the chance of making the joint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj-;a4 ,keep pouring and with the left hand hold the cloth ,c to catch the solder and also cause the same to tin the lower side of the pipe and to keep the solder from dropping down4 ,this cloth1 so important in joint making is elsewhere described4 ,by the process of steady pouring the solder now becomes nice and soft and begins to feel shaped1 firm and bulky4 ,when in this shape and in a semi-fluid condition quickly put the ladle down1 and instantly with the left hand shape one side of the joint always beginning at the outsides1 or at that part next the soiling2 then take the cloth in the right hand and do the other side1 finishing on the top2 a light run of the cloth all round the joint will1 if the solder has not set and you have been quick with your work1 give the appearance of a turned joint4 ,after a little practice the joint may be made without changing the cloth from one hand to the other4 ,the secret of joint making is getting the lead to the heat of the solder and in roughly shaping the solder1 while in the semi-fluid state4 ,good mechanical fitting is the result of two things--good judgment and a delicate sense of touch4 ,,repairing ,,pipes ,,with ,,putty ,,joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,first get the pipe thoroughly dried1 and with some quick drying gold size paint the part to be repaired2 then get some white lead and stiffen it with some powdered red lead1 so as to make it a hardish putty1 place a thin layer of this1 say #c_/hth inch to #a_/b inch in thickness1 over the bursted part of the pipe1 and with some good strong calico1 painted with the gold size1 neatly wrap the red lead to the pipe1 using #c or #d thicknesses of the painted calico2 then with some twine begin at one end1 laying the twine in several layers in rotation until it has1 like the calico1 several thicknesses4 ,if properly done this will be strong enough to withstand any ordinary pressure on the pipes and if more is required the putty can be made from dry red lead and gold size4 ,in making all white and red lead joints1 first1 see that the parts are thoroughly dry2 second1 see that the parts are not dirty with rust1 c42 next1 well paint the parts with good1 stiff paint before putting the putty on to form the joint4 ,,bending ,,lead ,,pipe4 ,if any ordinary piece of light lead pipe #a-a_/b inches in diameter is taken and pulled or bent sharply around it will crimple or crinkle at the throat2 the larger and thinner the pipe the more it will become distorted4 ,there are many methods of making these bends in lead pipe1 some with dummies1 others with bolts1 balls1 etc41 others cut the bends at the back1 at the throat1 or the two sides of the bend4 ,for small pipes1 such as #a_/b to #a inch and extra heavy1 they may be pulled round without trouble or danger1 but for a little larger size ,,sand ,,bending is largely practiced as follows3 ,take the length of pipe1 say #e feet1 fill and well ram it with sand #b feet up1 then have ready a metal pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe #a foot up1 next fill the pipe up with more cold sand1 ramming it as firmly as possible1 stop the end and pull round the pipe1 at the same time hammering quickly working the lead from the throat towards the back1 which can be done if properly worked4 ,n4 ,b4--,care must be used not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend4 ,,bending ,,with ,,water4--,it is a well-known fact that for such work1 water is incompressible1 but may be turned or twisted about for any shape provided it is enclosed in a solid case4 ,to make the bend--the end of the pipe is stopped and a stop cock soldered into the other end2 take the pipe at the end and pull it around1 being careful that the water does not cool and shrink1 and hammering quickly to take out the crinkle4 ,,bending ,,with ,,balls4--,this method is practiced with small pipe and also to take 8dints0 out in case of sand and water bending when a ball is sent through4 ,method3 suppose the pipe to be two inches1 then a ball is required #a_/af in4 less than the pipe1 so that it will run through the pipe freely4 ,now pull the pipe round until it just begins to flatten1 put the ball into the pipe and with some short pieces of wood1 say #b in4 long by #a-a_/b in4 in diam41 force the ball through the dented part of the pipe4 ,the ball will run through all the easier if 8touched0 over with a candle end4 ,care must be used in forcing the ball back and forth not to drive it through the bend4 ,,table4--,,weight ,,of ,,sheet ,,lead4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,inside #c_/h #a_/b #e_/h #c_/d #a #a-a_/da-a_/ba-c_/d #b ,diameter ---------------------------------------- -------------- weight per foot1 lbs41 oz4 ,,aaa1 #b- #h #c- #j #c- #h #d-ab #f- #j -- -- -- -- ,,aa1 #a- #h #b- #j #b-ab #c-ab #d-ab #f- #j #h- #j #h- #h #i- #j ,a1 #a- #d #a-ab #b- #h #c- #j #d- #c #d-ab #f- #h #f- #h #g- #j ,b1 #a- #d #a- #d #b- #j #b- #d #c- #d #c-ab #e- #j #e- #j #f- #j ,c1 -#aj #a- #j #a- #h #a-ab #b- #h #c- #j #d- #d #d- #j #d-ab ,d1 - #g -#ab #a- #j #a- #d #b- #j #b- #h #c- #h -- -- ,e1 -- - #i -#ab #a- #j #a-aj #b- #j #c- #j -- -- ,sheet lead is not the same weight1 bulk for bulk1 owing to difference in organic formation1 but a cubic foot may be said to weigh #gji lbs4 ,a square foot #a thick1 #ei #a_/h #g-a_/b #a_/aj #f #a_/ab #e #a_/ae #d #a_/bj #c ,sheet lead is sometimes made as thin as writing paper4 ,,plumber',s ,,solder4 ,rule for making4--,take #ajj lbs4 good old lead or lead cuttings1 run it down thoroughly1 stir it up and take off all dirt or dross3 then take #ej lbs4 pure tin1 let this run down1 and when nearly all is melted and is a little cooler throw in #a_/b lb4 of black rosin1 and well stir the lot up4 ,last bring up the heat to #fjj degrees which may be known by the burning of a bit of newspaper put in the pot4 ,the solder is now hot enough and should be well stirred and then run into moulds4 ,,plumber',s ,,tools4 ,the processes of lead working are executed by manual dexterity acquired by long practice1 and to do the work properly requires many special tools4 ,some of these are used in common with other departments of mechanics1 but are none the less necessary in lead working4 ,we present cuts of the principal tools used1 some of which are self-explaining1 and some are named with further description of particular use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,fig4 #afb represents one form of the plumber's tap borer or reamer used for making and enlarging holes in pipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,fig4 #afc represents plumber's snips4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,fig4 #afd is the well-known and always useful ladle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,fig4 #afe is the round nose pein hammer1 used in plumber's work to open the inside pipe before jointing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,fig4 #aff is the plumb bob4 ,the same cut will also convey an idea of the wooden instrument used to force open the pipe before jointing1 i4e41 8the turn pin40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,fig4 #afg represents 8the round nose chisel40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,fig4 #afh is the 8wood chisel0 used in cutting away wood work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,fig4 #afi is the well-known 8cape chisel40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,fig4 #agj is the half round chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,fig4 #aga is the equally well-known 8flat cold chisel40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,fig4 #agb is the 8diamond point chisel40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,fig4 #agc shows a rivet set for small work connected with plumbing and sheet metal work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,fig4 #agd exhibits the plumber's torch2 this is also used by engineers to explore interiors of boilers1 chimney flues1 and other dark places about the steam plant4 ,fig4 #age is a compass saw4 ,fig4 #agf is a double-edged plumber's saw4 ,fig4 #agg is a spirit level4 ,fig4 #agh is a looking-glass used in making underhand joints and in many useful ways about a steam plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,fig4 #agi is a caulking tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,fig4 #ahj is a gasket chisel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,fig4 #aha is a soldering tool known among plumbers as 8a copper pointed bolt40 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,fig4 #ahb is a copper-pointed bolt1 flat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,fig4 #ahc represents a hanger1 for suspending iron and lead pipe2 its excellence consists in enabling pipes to be raised or lowered after being hung without taking the hanger apart4 ,,useful ,,tables ,,of ,,weights ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,comparisons ,,of ,,gauges4 ,weight of a ,superficial ,foot of ,plate and ,sheet ,iron4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,plate ,,iron4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,weight ,thickness4 per square foot4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,inches4 ,,pounds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #a_/af in4 #b-a_/b #a_/h #e #c_/af #g-a_/b #a_/d #aj #e_/af #ab-a_/b #c_/h #ae #g_/af #ag-a_/b #a_/b #bj #i_/af #bb-a_/b #e_/h #be #aa_/af #bg-a_/b #c_/d #cj #ac_/af #cb-a_/b #g_/h #ce #ae_/af #cg-a_/b #a #dj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,sheet ,,iron4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,,united ,,states ,,standard ,,gauge4 ,adopted by ,congress1 to take effect ,july #ast1 #ahic4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,number #ajjj',s ,,weight ,,nearest ,,of ,,of ,,per ,,fraction ,,of ,,gauge4 an ,inch4 square foot4 an inch4 ,,ounces ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,no4 #a 4#bha #ahj oz4 #i_/cb in4 #b 4#bfe #agj #ag_/fd #c 4#bej #afj #a_/d #d 4#bcd #aej #ae_/fd #e 4#bah #adj #g_/cb #f 4#bjc #acj #ac_/fd #g 4#ahg #abj #c_/af #h 4#aga #aaj #aa_/fd #i 4#aef #ajj #e_/cb #aj 4#adj #ij #i_/fd #aa 4#abe #hj #a_/h #ab 4#aji #gj #g_/fd #ac 4#jic #fj #c_/cb #ad 4#jgh #ej #e_/fd #ae 4#jgj #de #i_/abh #af 4#jfb #dj #a_/af #ag 4#jef #cf #i_/afj #ah 4#jej #cb #a_/bj #ai 4#jdc #bh #g_/afj #bj 4#jcg #bd #c_/hj #ba 4#jcd #bb #aa_/cbj #bb 4#jca #bj #a_/cb #bc 4#jbh #ah #i_/cbj #bd 4#jbe #af #a_/dj #be 4#jba #ad #g_/cbj #bf 4#jah #ab #c_/afj #bg 4#jag #aa #aa_/fdj #bh 4#jae #aj #a_/fd #bi 4#jad #i #i_/fdj #cj 4#jab #h #a_/hj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,weight of ,one ,foot of ,round ,iron4 ------------------------------------- ,,size4 ,weight pr4 ,foot4 ------------------------------------- ,,lbs4 ------------------------------------- #a_/h in4 4#jda #c_/af 4#jib #a_/d 4#afd #e_/af 4#bef #c_/h 4#cfh #g_/af 4#eja #a_/b 4#fed #i_/af 4#hbh #e_/h #a4jb #aa_/af #a4bd #c_/d #a4dg #ac_/af #a4gc #g_/h #b4jj #ae_/af #b4cj #a #b4fb #a-a_/af #b4ie #a-a_/h #c4ca #a-c_/af #c4fi #a-a_/d #d4ji #a-e_/af #d4ea #a-c_/h #d4ie #a-g_/af #e4da #a-a_/b #e4hi #a-i_/af #f4ci #a-e_/h #f4ia #a-aa_/af #g4de #a-c_/d #h4jb #a-ac_/af #h4fj #a-g_/h #i4bj #a-ae_/af #i4hc #b #aj4dg #b-a_/h #aa4hb #b-a_/d #ac4be #b-c_/h #ad4gg #b-a_/b #af4cf #b-c_/h #ah4jd #b-c_/d #ai4hj #b-g_/h #ba4fd #c #bc4ef #c-a_/h #be4eg #c-a_/d #bg4fe #c-c_/h #bi4hb #c-a_/b #cb4jg #c-e_/h #cd4dj #c-c_/d #cf4hb #c-g_/h #ci4ca #d #da4hi #d-a_/h #dd4ee #d-a_/d #dg4bi #d-c_/h #ej4aa #d-a_/b #ec4ja #d-e_/h #ef4jj #d-c_/d #ei4jg #d-g_/h #fb4bb #e #fe4de #e-a_/h #fh4gf #e-a_/d #gb4af #e-c_/h #ge4fd #e-a_/b #gi4ai #e-e_/h #hb4hc #e-c_/d #hf4ef #e-g_/h #ij4cf #f #id4be ------------------------------------- ,weight of ,one ,foot of ,square ,iron4 ------------------------------------- ,,size4 ,weight pr4 ,foot4 ------------------------------------- ,,lbs4 ------------------------------------- #a_/h in4 4#jeb #c_/af 4#aag #a_/d 4#bjh #e_/af 4#cbf #c_/h 4#dfi #g_/af 4#fch #a_/b 4#hcc #i_/af #a4jf #e_/h #a4cj #aa_/af #a4eh #c_/d #a4hg #ac_/af #b4bj #g_/h #b4ee #ae_/af #b4ic #a #c4cc #a-a_/af #c4gf #a-a_/h #d4bb #a-c_/af #d4gj #a-a_/d #e4ba #a-e_/af #e4gd #a-c_/h #f4cj #a-g_/af #f4hi #a-a_/b #g4ej #a-i_/af #h4ad #a-e_/h #h4hj #a-aa_/af #i4di #a-c_/d #aj4ba #a-ac_/af #aj4ie #a-g_/h #aa4gb #a-ae_/af #ab4ea #b #ac4cc #b-a_/h #ae4je #b-a_/d #af4hh #b-c_/h #ah4hj #b-a_/b #bj4hc #b-c_/h #bb4ig #b-c_/d #be4ba #b-g_/h #bg4ee #c #cj4jj #c-a_/h #cb4ee #c-a_/d #ce4ba #c-c_/h #cg4ig #c-a_/b #dj4hc #c-e_/h #dc4hj #c-c_/d #df4hh #c-g_/h #ej4je #d #ec4cc #d-a_/h #ef4gb #d-a_/d #fj4ba #d-c_/h #fc4hj #d-a_/b #fg4ej #d-e_/h #ga4cj #d-c_/d #ge4ba #d-g_/h #gi4bb #e #hc4cc #e-a_/h #hg4ee #e-a_/d #ia4hh #e-c_/h #if4cj #e-a_/b #ajj4hj #e-e_/h #aje4ej #e-c_/d #aaj4bj #e-g_/h #aae4aj #f #abj4jj ,weight per ,running ,foot of ,cast ,steel4 --------------------------------------- ,,size4 ,,lbs4 ,,size4 ,,lbs4 --------------------------------------- #a_/d in4 ,sq4 4#bac #a_/d in4 ,rd4 4#afg #a_/b 4#hee #a_/b 4#ffi #c_/d #a4ia #c_/d #a4ej #a #c4dj #a #b4fg #a-a_/d #e4cb #a-a_/d #d4ah #a-a_/b #g4fg #a-a_/b #f4jb #b #ac4fc #b #aj4ga --------------------------------------- #a #a_/d 4#heb #a_/b in4 ,oct4 4#gde #a-a_/h #c_/h #a4dc #e_/h #a4af #a-a_/d #a_/b #b4ac #c_/d #a4fg #a-a_/b #e_/h #c4ai #g_/h #b4bh #a-c_/d #c_/d #d4df #a #b4ih #b #a_/b #c4dj #a-a_/h #c4gg #e_/h #d4be #a-a_/d #d4fe ,comparison of ,principal ,gauges in use4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,united ,,states ,,stubbs' ,,brown ,,sharp4 ,,standard4 ,,birmingham4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,number4 ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds #ajjj's per square #ajjj's per square #ajjj's per square of foot4 of foot4 of foot4 an inch4 an inch4 an inch4 ,,iron4 ,,iron4 ,,iron4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,no4 #a 4#bha #aa4be 4#cjj #ab4jd 4#bhi #aa4fa #b 4#bfe #aj4fb 4#bhd #aa4dj 4#beg #aj4cd #c 4#bej #aj4 4#bei #aj4ci 4#bbi #i4ba #d 4#bcd #i4cg 4#bch #i4ee 4#bjd #h4bj #e 4#bah #h4ge 4#bbj #h4hc 4#aha #g4cj #f 4#bjc #h4ab 4#bjc #h4ae 4#afb #f4ej #g 4#ahg #g4ej 4#ahj #g4bb 4#add #e4gi #h 4#aga #f4hg 4#afe #f4fb 4#abh #e4af #i 4#aef #f4be 4#adh #e4id 4#aad #d4ei #aj 4#adj #e4fb 4#acd #f4ch 4#ajb #d4ji #aa 4#abe #e4jj 4#abj #d4hb 4#jia #c4fd #ab 4#aji #d4cg 4#aji #d4cg 4#jhj #c4bd #ac 4#jic #c4ge 4#jie #c4ha 4#jgb #b4hi #ad 4#jgh #c4ab 4#jhc #c4cc 4#jfd #b4eg #ae 4#jgj #b4ha 4#jgb #b4hi 4#jeg #b4bi #af 4#jfb #b4ej 4#jfe #b4fa 4#jej #b4jd #ag 4#jef #b4be 4#jeh #b4cc 4#jde #a4hb #ah 4#jej #b4jj 4#jdi #a4ig 4#jdj #a4fb #ai 4#jdc #a4ge 4#jdb #a4fi 4#jcf #a4dd #bj 4#jcg #a4ej 4#jce #a4dj 4#jcb #a4bh #ba 4#jcd #a4cg 4#jcb #a4bh 4#jbh #a4ad #bb 4#jca #a4be 4#jbh #a4ab 4#jbe #a4jb #bc 4#jbh #a4ab 4#jbe #a4jj 4#jbb 4#ij #bd 4#jbe #a4jj 4#jbb 4#hh 4#jbj 4#hj #be 4#jba 4#hg 4#jbj 4#hj 4#jah 4#gb #bf 4#jah 4#ge 4#jah 4#gb 4#jaf 4#fd #bg 4#jag 4#fh 4#jaf 4#fd 4#jad 4#eg #bh 4#jae 4#fb 4#jad 4#ef 4#jab 4#ej #bi 4#jad 4#ef 4#jac 4#eb 4#jaa 4#de #cj 4#jab 4#ej 4#jab 4#dh 4#jaj 4#dj ,,noiseless ,,water ,,heater4 ,this device is very effective for heating water in open or closed tanks by direct steam pressure without noise4 ,the heater consists of an outward and upward discharging steam nozzle1 covered by a shield which has numerous openings for the admission of water so that the discharge jet takes the form of an inverted cone1 discharging upwards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,a small pipe admits air to the steam jet1 and by mixing therewith prevents a collapse of the steam bubbles1 and the noise1 which is such a great objection to heating by direct steam in the old way4 ,a valve or cock on the small air pipe regulates the opening as may appear most desirable4 ,exhaust steam can by the same method be disposed of under water without noise4 ,,accidents ,,and ,,emergencies4 ,few subjects can more usefully employ the attention and study of engineers than the proper treatment and first remedies made necessary by the peculiar and distressing accidents to which persons are liable who are employed in or around a steam plant4 ,these and many other things of a like nature are likely to call for a cool head1 a steady hand and some practical knowledge of what is to be done4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,in the first moments of sudden disaster1 of any kind1 the thoroughly trained engineer is nearly always found1 in the confusion incident to such a time1 to be the one most competent to advise and direct the efforts made to avert the danger to life limb or property1 and to remedy the worst after effects4 ,to fulfil this responsibility is worth much previous preparation1 so that the best things under the circumstances may be done quickly and efficiently4 ,to this end the following advice is given relating to the most common accidents which are likely to happen1 in spite of the utmost exercise of care and prudence4 ,burns and ,scalds4--,burns are produced by heated solids or by flames of some combustible substance2 scalds are produced by steam or a heated liquid4 ,the severity of the accident depends mainly1 #a1 on the intensity of the heat of the burning body1 together with1 #b1 the extent of surface1 and1 #c1 the vitality of the parts involved in the injury1 thus3 a person may have a finger burned off with less danger to life than an extensive scald of his back4 ,the immediate effect of scalds is generally less violent than that of burns2 fluids not being capable of acquiring so high a temperature as some solids1 but flowing about with great facility1 their effects become most serious by extending to a large surface of the body4 ,a burn which instantly destroys the part which it touches may be free from dangerous complications1 if the injured part is confined within a small compass2 this is owing to the peculiar formation of the skin4 ,the skin is made up of two layers2 the outer one has neither blood vessels nor nerves1 and is called the scarf-skin or cuticle2 the lower layer is called the true skin1 or cutis4 ,the latter is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels1 and is so highly sensitive we could not endure life unless protected by the cuticle4 ,the skin1 while soft and thin1 is yet strong enough to enable us to come in contact with objects without pain or inconvenience4 ,the extent of the surface involved1 the depth of the injury1 the vitality and sensibility of the parts affected must all be duly weighed in estimating the severity and danger of an accident in any given case4 ,in severe cases of burns or scalds the clothes should be removed with the greatest care--they should be carefully cut1 at the seams1 and not pulled off4 ,in scalding by boiling water or steam1 cold water should be plentifully poured over the person and clothes1 and the patient then be carried to a warm room1 laid on the floor or a table but not put to bed1 as there it becomes difficult to attend further to the injuries4 ,the secret of the treatment is to avoid chafing1 and to keep out the air4 ,save the skin unbroken1 if possible1 taking care not to break the blisters2 after removal of the clothing an application1 to the injured surface1 of a mixture of soot and lard1 is1 according to practical experience1 an excellent and efficient remedy4 ,the two or three following methods of treatment also are recommended according to convenience in obtaining the remedies4 ,take ice well crushed or scraped1 as dry as possible1 then mix it with fresh lard until a broken paste is formed2 the mass should be put in a thin cambric bag1 laid upon the burn or scald and replaced as required4 ,so long as the ice and lard are melting there is no pain from the burn1 return of pain calls for a repetition of the remedy4 ,the free use of soft soap upon a fresh burn will remove the fire from the flesh in a very little time1 in #a_/d to #a_/b an hour4 ,if the burn be severe1 after relief from the burn1 use linseed oil and then sift upon it wheat flour4 ,when this is dried repeat the oil and flour until a complete covering is formed4 ,let this dry until it falls off1 and a new skin will be formed without a scar4 ,in burns with lime1 soap lye1 or any caustic alkali1 wash abundantly with water 7do not rub71 and then with weak vinegar or water containing a little sulphuric acid2 finally apply oil1 paste or mixture as in ordinary burns4 ,it would be well to always keep ready mixed an ointment for burns2 in fact a previous readiness for an accident robs it of half its ill effects4 ,,glue ,,burn ,,mixture4 ,a method in use in the ,n4 ,y4 ,city ,hospital known as the 8glue burn mixture0 is composed as follows3 8#g-a_/b ,troy oz4 white glue1 #af fluid oz4 water1 #a fluid oz4 glycerine1 #b fluid drachms carbolic acid4 ,soak the glue in the water until it is soft1 then heat on a water bath until melted2 add the glycerine and carbolic acid and continue heating until1 in the intervals of stirring1 a glossy strong skin begins to form over the surface4 ,pour the mass into small jars1 cover with parafine papers and tin foil before the lid of the jar is put on and afterwards protect by paper pasted round the edge of the lid4 ,in this manner the mixture may be preserved indefinitely4 8,when wanted for use1 heat in a water bath and apply with a flat brush over the burned part40 ,insensibility from ,smoke4--,to recover a person from this dash cold water in the face1 or cold and hot water alternately4 ,should this fail turn the patient on his face with the arms folded under his forehead2 apply pressure along the back and ribs and turn the body gradually on the side2 then again slowly on the face1 repeating the pressure on the back3 continue the alternate rolling movements about sixteen times a minute until breathing is restored4 ,a warm bath will complete the cure4 ,heat-stroke or ,sun-stroke4--,the worst cases occur where the sun's rays never penetrate and are caused by the extreme heat of close and confined rooms1 overheated workshops1 boiler-rooms1 etc4 ,the symptoms are3 #a1 a sudden loss of consciousness2 #b1 heavy breathing2 #c1 great heat of the skin2 and #d1 a marked absence of sweat4 ,treatment4--,the main thing is to lower the temperature4 ,to do this1 strip off the clothing1 apply chopped ice wrapped in flannel to the head2 rub ice over the chest1 and place pieces under the armpits and at the side4 ,if no ice can be had use sheets or cloths wet with cold water1 or the body can be stripped and sprinkled with cold water from a common watering pot4 ,cuts and ,wounds4--,in these the chief points to be attended to are3 #a1 arrest the bleeding2 #b1 remove from the wound all foreign bodies as soon as possible2 #c1 bring the wounded parts opposite to each other and keep them so2 this is best done by means of strips of adhesive plaster1 first applied to one side of the wound and then secured to the other2 these strips should not be too broad1 and space must be left between the strips to allow any matter to escape4 ,wounds too extensive to be held together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon1 who should always be sent for in all severe cases4 ,for washing a wound1 to every pint of water add #b-a_/b teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid and #b tablespoonfuls of glycerine--if these are not obtainable1 add #d tablespoonsful of borax to the pint of water--wash the wound1 close it1 and apply a compress of a folded square of cotton or linen2 wet it in the solution used for washing the wound and bandage down quickly and firmly4 ,if the bleeding is profuse1 a sponge dipped in very hot water and wrung out in a cloth should be applied as quickly as possible--if this is not to be had1 use ice or cloth wrung out in ice water4 ,wounds heal in two ways4 #a1 rapidly by primary union1 without suppuration1 and leaving only a very fine scar4 #b1 slowly by suppuration and the formation of granulations and leaving a large red scar4 ,bleeding4--,this is of three kinds3 #a1 from the arteries which lead from the heart2 #b1 that which comes from the veins1 which take the blood back to the heart2 #c1 that from the small veins which carry the blood to the surface of the body4 ,in the first1 the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though it was being pumped4 ,in the second1 the blood is dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted stream4 ,in the third1 the blood oozes out4 ,in some wounds all three kinds of bleeding occur at the same time4 ,the simplest and best remedy to stop the bleeding is to apply direct pressure on the external wound by the fingers4 ,should the wound be long and gaping1 a compress of some soft material large enough to fill the cavity may be pressed into it2 but this should always be avoided1 if possible1 as it prevents the natural closing of the wound4 ,pressure with the hands will not suffice to restrain bleeding in severe cases for a great length of time and recourse must be had to a ligature2 this can best be made with a pocket handkerchief or other article of apparel1 long enough and strong enough to bind the limb4 ,fold the article neck-tie fashion1 then place a smooth stone1 or anything serving for a firm pad1 on the artery1 tie the handkerchief loosely1 insert any available stick in the loop and proceed to twist it1 as if wringing a towel1 until just tight enough to stop the flow4 ,examine the wound from time to time1 lessen the compression if it becomes very cold or purple1 or tighten up the handkerchief if it commences bleeding4 ,some knowledge of anatomy is necessary to guide the operator where to press4 ,bleeding from the head and upper neck requires pressure to be placed on the large artery which passes up beside the windpipe and just above the collar bone4 ,the artery supplying the arm and hand runs down the inside of the upper arm1 almost in line with the coat seam1 and should be pressed as shown in ,fig4 #ahe4 ,the artery feeding the leg and foot can be felt in the crease of the groin1 just where the flesh of the thigh seems to meet the flesh of the abdomen and this is the best place to apply the ligature4 ,in arterial bleeding the pressure must be put between the heart and the wound1 while in venous bleeding it must be beyond the wound to stop the flow as it goes towards the heart4 ,in any case of bleeding1 the person may become weak and faint2 unless the blood is flowing actively this is not a serious sign1 and the quiet condition of the faint often assists nature in staying the bleeding1 by allowing the blood to clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel4 ,unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is losing much blood1 it is better not to hasten to relieve the faint condition2 when in this state anything like excitement should be avoided1 external warmth should be applied1 the person covered with blankets1 and bottles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the feet and arm-pits4 ,frost-bite4--,no warm air1 warm water1 or fire should be allowed near the frozen parts until the natural temperature is nearly restored2 rub the affected parts gently with snow or snow water in a cold room2 the circulation should be restored very slowly2 and great care must be taken in the after treatment4 ,broken ,bones4--,the treatment consists of1 #a1 carefully removing or cutting away1 if more convenient1 any of the clothes which are compressing or hurting the injured parts2 #b1 very gently replacing the bones in their natural position and shape1 as nearly as possible1 and putting the part in a position which gives most ease to the patient2 #c1 applying some temporary splint or appliance1 which will keep the broken bones from moving about and tearing the flesh2 for this purpose1 pieces of wood1 pasteboard1 straw1 or firmly folded cloth may be used1 taking care to pad the splints with some soft material and not to apply them too tightly1 while the splints may be tied by loops of rope1 string1 or strips of cloth2 #d1 conveying the patient home or to a hospital4 ,the bearer then places his arm behind the back of the patient and grasps his opposite hip1 at the same time catching firmly hold of the hand of the patient resting on his shoulder1 with his other hand2 then by putting his hip behind the near hip of the patient1 much support is given1 and if necessary1 the bearer can lift him off the ground and as it were1 carry him along4 ,poultices4--,these outward applications are useful to relieve sudden cramps and pains due to severe injuries1 sprains and colds4 ,the secret of applying a mustard is to apply it hot and keep it so by frequent changes--if it gets cold and clammy it will do more harm than good4 ,poultices to be of any service and hold its heat should be from one-half to one inch thick4 ,to make it1 take flaxseed1 oatmeal1 rye meal1 bread1 or ground slippery elm2 stir the meal slowly into a bowl of boiling water1 until a thin and smooth dough is formed4 ,to apply it1 take a piece of old linen of the right size1 fold it in the middle2 spread the dough evenly on one half of the cloth and cover it with the other4 ,to make a 8mustard paste0 as it is called1 mix one or two tablespoonfuls of mustard and the same of fine flour1 with enough water to make the mixture an even paste2 spread it neatly with a table knife on a piece of old linen1 or even cotton cloth4 ,cover the face of the paste with a piece of thin muslin4 ,how to ,carry an ,injured ,person4--,in case of an injury where walking is impossible1 and lying down is not absolutely necessary1 the injured person may be seated in a chair1 and carried2 or he may sit upon a board1 the ends of which are carried by two men1 around whose necks he should place his arms so as to steady himself4 ,where an injured person can walk he will get much help by putting his arms over the shoulders and round the necks of two others4 ,a seat may be made with four hands and the person may be thus carried and steadied by clasping his arms around the necks of his bearers4 ,if only one person is available and the patient can stand up1 let him place one arm round the neck of the bearer1 bringing his hand on and in front of the opposite shoulder of the bearer4 ,to get at a broken limb1 or rib1 the clothing must be removed1 and it is essential that this be done without injury to the patient2 the simplest plan is to rip up the seams of such garments as are in the way4 ,boots must be cut off4 ,it is not imperatively necessary to do anything to a broken limb before the arrival of a doctor except to keep it perfectly at rest4 ,to carry an injured person by a stretcher 7which can be made of a door1 shutter1 or settee--with blankets or shawls or coats for pillows7 three persons are necessary4 ,in lifting the patient on the stretcher it should be laid with its foot to his head1 so that both are in the same straight line2 then one or two persons should stand on each side of him1 and raise him from the ground1 slip him on the stretcher2 this to avoid the necessity of any one stepping over the stretcher1 and the liability of stumbling4 ,if a limb is crushed or broken1 it may be laid upon a pillow with bandages tied around the whole 7i4e41 pillow and limb7 to keep it from slipping about4 ,in carrying the stretcher the bearers should 8break step0 with short paces2 hurrying and jolting should be avoided and the stretcher should be carried so that the patient may be in plain sight of the bearers4 ,,personal4 ,the fireman1 so called1 in steam service of any description1 should and does on the average receive double the compensation of a man who has only his labor to bargain for4 ,in addition1 he exercises his skillful vocation in sheltered places and is almost the last of the employees of a plant to be 8laid off0 and is certainly the first to be called on again after stoppage4 ,still further1 the fireman has an almost equal opportunity1 with the best shop trained machinist1 for advancement to the position of engineer in charge of the most extensive steam plants4 ,now6 this increased pay over ordinary labor and other numerous advantages accruing from the position1 demand a generous return1 and in ending this work1 the author suggests these 8points0 for observance to the aspiring student1 whether engineer1 fireman1 or machinist1 namely--that sobriety should be held one of the first elements of strict observance2 an unresting tidiness of person and premises2 dignity of conduct1 as being owed to the rising profession of steam engineering2 and lastly1 an unswerving fidelity of trust1 which may include honesty1 truthfulness and courage4 ,,index ,,for ,,maxims ,,and ,,instructions4 ,accidents and ,emergencies1 #cac4 ,factory rules to prevent1 #bic4 ,government rules to prevent1 #bij4 ,acid1 definition1 #acg4 ,advantages of triple draught tubular boiler1 #hd4 ,air used in burning #a lb4 of coal1 #ad4 ditto1 how 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description1 #bcc4 ,reducing coupling1 description1 #bgd4 ,regulating the draught1 #da4 ,regulations relating to marine engineers1 #cji4 ,regulators1 damper1 description1 #ahe4 ,relief valve1 description1 #bgb4 ,repairing leaky tubes1 #abf4 ,repairs to boilers1 8points0 on1 #abd-f4 ,riveting1 modes of1 #ic4 ,specification for1 #hf4 ,description1 #ia4 ,double description1 #ia4 ,chain1 example1 #ic4 ,zig-,zag1 example1 #ic4 ,treble1 example1 #ic4 ,unequal pitches1 example1 #ic4 ,example of riveting boiler plates1 #aad-aaf4 ,hammers for boiler makers1 #bha4 ,list of defective cases1 #abe4 ,rivet heads of cup1 conical1 pan heads1 #aac4 ,rivet heating machines1 #bfa4 ,rivets1 description1 #ic4 ,steel1 description1 #ie4 ,table of diameters1 #aac4 ,rivet set1 #cjg4 ,tests1 #ie4 ,riveted stays1 description1 #ajf4 ,rolls for boiler makers1 #bha4 ,rotary valves1 description1 #bgc4 ,round nose chisel1 #cjg4 ,rubber hose1 use of1 #ba4 ,rule for estimating horse power of boilers1 #bce4 ,for finding area of valve opening1 #aie4 ,to find pressure in lbs4 of column of water1 #bbb4 ,to find area of steam piston of pump1 #bbb4 ,to find quantity of water elevated1 #bbb4 ,for finding contents of a barrel1 #bjc4 ,for reading water meters1 #bjd4 ,for making boiler and pipe covering1 #bge-bgf4 ,for making solder1 #cje4 ,for finding strain on bolts1 #ii4 ,for safe internal pressure1 #aag4 ,for determining areas of steam boilers1 #aje4 ,for calculating contents of steam and water in the steam boiler1 #aje4 ,rules1 ,u4 ,s41 regarding safety valves1 #ahi4 ,for safety valves1 #aic4 ,inspectors1 relating to bracing1 #ajb4 ,relating to fuel oil1 #bij4 ,factory1 to prevent accident1 #bic4 ,government1 to prevent accident1 #bij4 ,before lighting the furnace fire1 #be4 ,running of steam boilers under fire1 #bd4 ,safe internal pressure1 rule and example1 #aag4 ,tables1 #aah-abj4 ,safety factor of steam boilers1 #if4 ,safety valves1 description1 #ahg4 ,rules1 #aia1 #aic4 ,rule to find area of opening1 #aie4 ,table showing rise of valve1 #aie4 ,list of defects1 #abe4 ,points relating to1 #aid4 ,salt1 definition1 #ach4 ,sand-bending of lead pipe1 #cjd4 ,saturated steam1 #bhc4 ,saw1 compass4 #cjh4 ,plumber's1 #cjg4 ,saw dust1 firing with1 #cc 1 #bdb4 ,as a fuel1 #af4 ,sea water precipitator1 #ade4 ,sectional steam boilers1 description1 #ga4 ,sentinel valve1 description1 #ahd4 ,separator1 steam1 description1 #ahc4 ,set screws1 dangers arising from1 #bib4 ,setting of steam boilers1 #bcf4 ,of water tube boilers1 #bci4 ,scalds1 treatment of1 #cac4 ,scale deposited in marine boilers1 analysis1 #adf-adg4 ,boiler1 analysis of1 #adh4 ,scaling of steam boilers1 8points10 #adi-aeb4 ,scope of the work1 #ab4 ,scoop shovel1 cut and description1 #ai4 ,scrapers1 mechanical1 #ahg4 ,screenings1 firing of coal dust and1 #dj4 ,screw conveyors1 use of1 #bj4 ,screw-jacks1 use of1 #ba4 ,screw stays1 description1 #aja4 ,scum of boilers1 how formed4 #aej4 ,scumming apparatus1 description1 #afa4 ,shaking grates1 description1 #agd4 ,shavings1 firing with1 #cc4 ,blowers1 use of1 #bj4 ,shearing strength1 definition1 #aba4 ,shears for boiler makers1 #bha4 ,shell of boiler1 description1 #ha4 ,shovels1 cut and description of1 #ai4 ,side brackets for boilers1 #bdj4 ,silica1 definition1 #acg4 ,silver1 radiating power of1 #bac4 ,conducting power of1 #bac4 ,melting point1 #db4 ,six inch flue1 boiler1 #gh4 ,slice bar1 description and cuts1 #ai4 8,point0 relating to its use1 #cj4 ,smoke1 insensibility from1 treatment1 #cae4 ,snips1 plumber's1 #cjf4 ,socket bolts1 description1 #ajc4 ,soda1 definition1 #ach4 ,proportion of1 in water1 #aed4 ,acetate of1 boiling point of1 #cg4 ,sodium1 definition1 #ach4 ,solder1 rule for making plumber's1 #cje4 ,sounds1 or language of steam boilers1 #ci4 ,source of power in the steam engine1 #ac4 ,specifications for #abe ,h4 ,p4 steam boiler1 #he4 ,specific heat1 description1 #bad4 ,table1 #bad4 ,spectacle piece1 #abd4 ,spirit level1 #cjg4 ,stay bolts1 hollow1 description1 #ajc4 ,staying of flat surfaces1 #ih4 ,stays and braces1 list of defective cases1 #abe4 ,stays1 gusset1 description1 #ajj4 ,of marine boilers1 #ge4 ,of locomotive boilers1 #ge4 8,points0 relating to boiler stays1 #ajd4 ,palm1 description1 #ajj4 ,screwed1 description1 #aja4 ,and brace1 difference1 #ajc4 ,table for calculations1 #ajg-aji4 ,steam1 description1 #bhb4 ,specific heat of1 #bae4 ,dry1 #bhb4 ,dead1 #bhb4 ,live1 #bhb4 ,saturated1 #bhc4 ,wet1 #bhc4 ,high pressure1 #bhc4 ,low pressure1 #bhc4 ,superheated1 #bhc4 ,specific gravity of1 #bhc4 ,total heat of1 #bhc4 ,steam and hot water heating1 #bea4 ,steam boiler1 growth of the1 #eb4 ,water tube1 #fg4 ,sectional1 description of1 #ga4 ,triple draught1 #ha-hb4 ,six-inch flue1 #gh4 ,two-flue1 #gh4 ,steam boilers1 locomotive1 #gb4 ,idle1 dangers of1 #bhh4 ,inspector's rules relating to bracing of1 #ajb4 ,use of petroleum in1 #aee4 ,effect of sugar on1 #aej4 ,corrosion and incrustation1 #adb4 ,scaling of1 8points10 #adi-aeb4 ,effect of bark on1 #aea4 ,bracing1 #if4 ,specification for #abe ,h4 ,p41 #he4 ,steam drum or dome1 description1 #ha4 ,steam fitter's vise1 #bfi4 ,steam fittings1 care1 #bfh4 ,description1 #bgd4 ,steam gauge1 description1 #aha4 ,steam generators1 #dh4 ,steam heating by exhaust1 #bfg4 ,how much space #a ,h4 ,p4 will heat1 #bfb4 ,steam loop1 note relating to1 #bie4 ,description1 #bgh-bhj4 ,steam pipe1 linear expansion of1 #bgf4 ,steam pipe explosions1 #bhg4 ,steam pump1 #bae4 ,steam separator1 description1 #ahc4 ,steam space of boilers1 rule and example1 #aje4 ,steam whistle1 description1 #ahj4 ,steel rivets1 description1 #ie4 ,steel1 boiler1 description1 #ij4 ,melting point1 #db4 ,specific heat of1 #bad4 ,steel plates1 nickel steel1 description1 #ia4 ,quality and thickness in1 #he4 ,quality of1 #ij4 ,stephenson1 ,george1 viii4 ,stock and dies1 use of1 #ba4 ,stoker1 mechanical1 #acd4 ,storing coal1 #bbe4 ,straightway valve1 description1 #bgc4 ,strainer1 for pump1 description1 #bbc4 ,strain on bolts1 rule and example1 #ii4 ,straw1 how best fired1 #ca4 ,composition of1 as fuel1 #ae4 ,sugar1 effect of1 on steam boilers1 #aej4 ,sulphates1 how indicated1 #aed4 ,definition1 #acg4 ,sulphate of lime1 at what temperature deposited1 #adh4 ,sulphur1 description of1 #bcj4 ,sulphuric acid1 boiling point of1 #cg4 ,sunstroke1 treatment of1 #cae4 ,superheated steam1 #bhc4 ,superheater of marine boiler1 #fd4 ,surface blow off1 description1 #afa4 ,surface condenser1 description1 #fe4 ,swing valve1 description1 #bgc4 ,syphon1 dangers from1 in boilers1 #bhh4 ,t1 description1 #bgd4 ,t irons1 description and use1 #ajc4 ,dimensions and shape1 #ajd4 ,table of evaporation1 #ah4 ,melting points of metals1 #db4 ,temperature1 judged by color1 #db4 ,of dimensions1 ,galloway boiler1 #fj4 ,of marine boilers1 #fb4 ,diameter of braces1 #ajc4 ,for calculating the number of stays1 #ajg-aji4 ,of dimensions of boiler tubes1 #aaj4 ,holding power of boiler tubes1 #aaa4 ,of diameter of rivets and thickness of plate1 #aac4 ,of safe internal pressure1 #aah-abj4 ,of defects found in steam boilers1 #abe4 ,showing loss at different thicknesses by corrosion1 #adc4 ,showing sediment collecting in boilers1 #afc4 ,showing rise of safety valve1 #aie4 ,of savings from use of feed water1 #bjj4 ,capacity of cisterns1 #bjb1 ,of specific heat1 #bad4 ,of conducting power of various substances1 #bac4 ,of radiating power of various substances1 #bac4 ,weight of cubic foot of water1 #bbd4 ,weight and capacity of gallons of water1 #bbe4 ,comparative quantity of water which can be evaporated1 #bca4 ,surfaces and capacities of pipes1 #bdf4 ,of data relating to pipes1 #bdg4 ,bursting pressure of tubes1 #bfd4 ,of weights of round and plate iron1 #cji1 #caa4 ,conducting power of various substances1 #bge4 ,relative value of non-conductors1 #bgf4 ,weights of lead pipe1 #cje4 ,tan1 description1 #ae4 ,tan bark1 comparative evaporation1 #ah4 ,firing with1 #cf4 ,tanks1 for fuel oil1 how to construct1 #bij4 ,tan-liquor1 unsafe use of1 in boilers1 #ahe4 ,tap-borer1 plumber's1 #cjf4 ,taps and dies1 description1 #bfi4 ,tee1 description1 #bgd4 ,temperature of a furnace1 #db4 ,tensile strength of steel plate1 #ij4 ,of boilers1 #aba4 ,test1 the hydraulic1 #aca4 ,testing-boiler1 specification1 #hg4 ,testing boilers under steam pressure1 #bhg4 ,test pieces1 description and illustration1 #aje1 #aab4 ,tests for impurities in water1 #aec4 ,tests of steel rivets1 #ie4 ,thimbles1 specification for1 #hf4 ,three way cock1 description1 #bgc4 ,throttle valve1 description1 #bgc4 ,tin1 melting point1 #db4 ,conducting power of1 #bac4 ,specific heat of1 #bad4 ,radiating power of1 #bac4 ,tissue paper1 radiating power of1 #bac4 ,tongs for boiler makers1 #bha4 ,tool box1 description1 #bb4 ,tools1 plumber's1 description1 #cjf-cji4 ,handy for the fire-room1 #ba4 ,used in steam fitting1 #bfi4 ,boiler maker's1 #bha4 ,plumber's caulking1 #cjh4 ,torch1 #cjg4 ,total heat of steam1 #bhc4 ,tough1 definition1 #aba4 ,trained or untrained firemen1 difference1 #bd4 ,trap1 fish1 #bje4 ,treble riveting1 example1 #ic4 ,triple draught1 tubular boiler1 #hb4 ,trevithick1 ,richard1 frontispiece4 ,tube expanders1 #bha4 ,tubes1 how to weld1 #bfd4 ,table of bursting and collapsing pressures1 #bfd4 ,boiler1 illustration of size1 #bde4 ,experiments in holding power1 #aaa4 ,table of holding power1 #aaa4 ,boiler1 table of dimensions1 #aaj4 ,leaky1 how to repair1 #abf4 ,tubes and flues1 sweeping1 #ci4 ,tube sheets1 description1 #ha4 ,turn-pin1 description1 #cjf4 ,two flue steam boiler1 #gh4 ,umbria1 steamer1 firing boilers1 #cb4 ,unequal riveting1 example1 #ic4 ,union1 description1 #bgd4 ,unit of chimney measurements1 #big4 ,upright steam boilers1 description1 #ea4 ,uptakes of marine boiler1 #fd4 ,valve1 gate1 #bgc4 ,globe1 description1 #bgb4 ,brine1 description1 #bgc4 ,pop1 description1 #ahd4 ,angle1 description1 #bgc4 ,check1 description1 #bgh4 ,sentinel1 description1 #ahd4 ,pressure regulator1 #bgd4 ,rotary1 description1 #bgc4 ,straightway1 description1 #bgc4 ,throttle1 description1 #bgc4 ,ball1 description1 #bgc4 ,chamber1 description1 #bgb4 ,double beat and double seat1 #bgc4 ,swing description1 #bgc4 ,valve bracket1 description1 #bgb4 ,valve cock1 description1 #bgb4 ,valve coupling1 description1 #bgb4 ,valves1 description1 #bga4 ,safety1 description1 #ahg4 ,of what material made1 #bgd4 ,valves1 hinged1 description1 #bgb4 ,relief1 description1 #bgb4 ,back pressure1 description1 #bgc4 ,lifting1 description1 #bgd4 ,valves and cocks1 description1 #bgb4 ,valve-seat1 description1 #bgb4 ,vaults for fuel oil1 how to construct1 #bhi4 ,ventilation1 #bfe4 ,vise1 steamfitter's1 #bfi4 ,vises1 use of1 #ba4 ,water1 how formed1 #adc4 ,principles relating to1 #bbc4 ,principal temperatures of1 #bbd4 ,point of maximum density1 #bbd4 ,the boiling point1 #bbd4 ,the standard temperature1 #bbd4 pecific heat of1 #bad4 ,boiling point of pure1 #cg4 ,radiating power of1 #bac4 ,conducting power of1 #bac4 ,freezing point1 #bbd4 ,water1 7sea17 precipitator for1 #ade4 ,boiling point of salt1 #cg4 ,water bending of lead pipe1 #cjd4 ,water circulation1 #bid4 ,water grate bars1 description1 #age4 ,gauge cocks1 description1 #agf4 ,water hammer1 #bhc4 ,water meters1 rule for reading1 #bje4 ,description1 #bjc4 ,water ram1 #bhd4 ,water space of boilers1 rule and example1 #aje4 ,water table in locomotive1 #ce4 ,water tube steam boiler1 description1 #fg4 ,water heater1 noiseless1 #cab4 ,water tube steam boiler1 setting of1 #bci4 ,watt1 ,james1 #fh4 ,weight of different standard gallons of water1 #bbe4 ,of a column of air1 #ag4 ,weldable1 definition1 #aba4 ,welding boiler and other tubes1 #bfd4 ,wet steam1 #bhc4 ,wheelbarrow1 use of1 #bj4 ,whistle1 steam1 description1 #ahj4 ,whitewash1 description1 #bcb4 ,wipe joint1 how to make1 #cjj4 ,plumber's1 #bih4 ,wood1 comparative evaporation1 #ah4 ,specific heat of1 #bad4 ,as a combustible1 #ad4 8,hint as to drying10 #ad4 ,wood charcoal1 comparative evaporation1 #ah4 ,wood chisel1 #cjg4 ,wounds1 treatment of1 #caj4 ,writing paper1 radiating power of1 #bac4 ,zig-zag riveting1 example1 #ic4 ,zinc1 conducting power of1 #bac4 ,melting point1 #db4 ,effect on corrosion of boilers1 #aej4 ,use in marine boilers1 #afb4 ,specific heat of1 #bad4 ,illustration3 ,page decoration oil cans ,,mechanical ,,list ,illustration3 ,t ,a ,co4 ,,educational ,,manuals ''' --,,on-- ,,engineering1 ,,electricity1 ,,mechanical ,,drawing1 ,,machine ,,shop ,,practice1 ,,millwrighting1 ,,applied ,,mechanics1 ,,etc4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,company ----,,publishers---- #fc ,,fifth ,,ave41 ,,new ,,york ,,erecting ,,and ,,operating #c ----,,just ,,issued---- ,illustration3 ,,rogers' ,,erecting and ,,operating for ,,engineers1 ,,machinists ,,and ,,millwrights ,,audel ,a ,,practical ,,handbook on ,excavations1 ,foundations1 ,structures1 ,millwrighting1 ,shafting1 ,belting1 ,piping1 ,boilers1 ,engines1 ,installing ,machinery1 etc4 ,in order to become an expert at the erection and operation of modern machinery and appliances1 judgment must be added to execution2 now as judgment cannot be taught in writing1 further than in laying down certain principles of procedure1 therefore the book is largely personal4 ,the method of instruction followed is to deal with the various subjects mentioned1 each consisting of nearly the same number of pages and illustrations1 indicating the course of study4 ,working ,drawings1 ,foundations1 ,excavating1 ,piling and ,grillage1 ,brick ,work1 ,concrete1 ,reinforced ,concrete1 ,millwright's ,tools1 ,steel ,square and its uses1 ,bridge ,work1 ,structures1 ,scaffolding and ,stagging1 ,rigging ,knots4 ,hitches and ,splices1 ,chains and ,tackle1 ,steel ,structure ,work1 ,roofing1 ,blacksmithing4 ,tool ,dressing1 ,belting and ,pulleys1 ,shafting ,lining1 ,speeds1 ,piping and ,joints1 ,plumbing1 ,steam ,boilers and ,accessories1 ,chimneys1 ,drafts1 ,steam ,engine ,operation1 ,engine ,foundations4 ,valve ,setting1 ,water ,power ,installations1 ,steam ,turbines1 ,pumping ,machinery1 ,electrical ,installations1 ,motors1 ,wiring1 etc41 ,refrigerating ,systems1 ,rules1 ,receipts1 ,metallic ,compositions1 ,useful ,tables4 ,ready ,reference ,index4 ,by following this plan1 and with the aid of the ready reference index to be found at the end of the volume1 the work becomes a reference book1 as well as a course of systematic study in ,mill ,engineering4 ,this volume is convenient in size1 handsomely and durably bound in black cloth1 having gold edges and titles2 containing #fjj pages1 illustrated by over #ejj drawings and illustrations of practical work4 ,it is in every way a generously good book both in contents and manufacture4 ,,price #c to any address4 ,,drawing ,,and ,,design #c ,,this volume is arranged for a comprehensive1 self-instruction course for both shop and drawing room4 ----,,plan ,,of ,,instruction---- ,illustration3 ,,rogers' ,,drawing and ,,design ,,audel ,useful ,terms and ,definitions2 ,drawing ,board1 ,t-,square and ,triangles2 ,lettering2 ,shade ,lines2 ,section lining2 ,geometrical ,drawing2 ,isometric ,projection2 ,cabinet ,projection2 ,orthographic ,projection2 ,development of ,surfaces2 ,working ,drawings2 ,tints and ,colors2 ,tracing and ,blue ,printing2 ,reading of ,working ,drawings2 ,machine ,design2 ,physics and ,mechanics2 ,materials ,used in ,machine ,construction2 ,screws1 ,bolts and ,nuts2 ,rivets and ,riveted ,joints2 ,power ,transmission2 ,shafts and ,bearings2 ,belts and ,pulleys2 ,gear ,wheels2 ,metal ,working ,machines2 ,dies and ,presses2 ,drilling and ,milling ,machines2 ,the ,lathe2 ,engines and ,boilers2 ,electrical ,machines2 ,drawing ,instruments2 ,logarithms2 ,tables and ,index4 ,contains #ejf pages1 illustrated by over #fjj cuts and diagrams1 very many of them full page drawings2 the book is printed on a very fine grade of paper2 it measures #h-a_/b #aj-a_/b inches and weighs over #c pounds2 the binding is in black cloth with gold edges and titles2 the volume is made to open freely and is in every way a most complete up-to-date book4 ,,price1 #c to any address4 ,,advanced ,,machinist #b ,,the trade of the machinist is peculiar in that it is a preparation for so many positions outside of it4 ,it takes a man of good natural ability and of considerable education--not always from books--to make a first-class machinist2 so that when one is well qualified he is also prepared for many other openings4 ,the aim of this work is to point the way of advancement to those who become fitted to assume these responsibilities and rewards4 ,the advanced machinist is a work of sterling merit1 a few of the hundreds of subjects are here named1 but they in no way show the scope of this work1 which must be seen to be appreciated3 ,a ,course in ,machine ,shop ,mathematics2 ,various ,measuring ,instruments and ,their ,uses2 ,screw ,cutting2 ,boring2 ,milling2 ,drilling2 ,grinding2 ,punching and ,shearing2 ,bolt ,cutting ,machinery2 ,special and ,auxiliary ,machines2 ,shop ,management3 ,work ,shop ,receipts and ,devices1 etc41 etc4 ,the personal character of the book appeals to all in any way associated in the machinery and allied trades4 ,illustration3 ,,rodger',s ,,advanced ,,machinist ,,audel ,this book is a companion volume to ,progressive ,machinist and is uniform in binding and style1 but more advanced in the subject of ,machine ,shop ,practice1 containing about the same number of pages1 illustrations1 etc4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,progressive ,,machinist #b ,,this is a valuable volume for all ,metal ,workers2--the following are a few of the many subjects treated3 ,materials4--,definitions2 ,qualities of ,matter2 ,iron1 ,steel2 ,various ,metals1 ,alloys1 etc42 ,gravity and ,tables2 ,three ,laws of ,motion2 ,strength of ,materials2 ,fatigue of ,metals2 ,table of ,melting ,points of ,solids2 ,useful ,weights and ,measures4 ,shop ,drawing4--,free-hand ,drawing2 ,instruments2 ,penciling2 ,inking2 ,lettering ,drawings2 ,dimensioning2 ,shading2 ,section-,lining2 ,reading ,working ,drawings2 ,problems in ,geometrical ,drawing--,points ,relating to ,drawing4 ,gearing4--,cog ,wheels1 ,spur and ,bevel ,wheels2 ,mitre ,wheel2 ,mortise ,wheel2 ,worm ,gearing2 ,helical ,wheel2 ,designing ,gears2 ,speed of ,gear ,wheels4 ,bench and ,vice4--,tempering and ,hardening ,metals2 ,grades of ,steel2 ,cementation ,process2 ,bessemer and ,siemen-,martin ,process2 ,case-,hardening2 ,annealing2 ,hand ,tools2 ,machine ,tools2 ,work ,benches2 ,sledge and ,anvil2 ,surfacing2 ,red ,marking2 ,hand ,drilling2 ,broaching2 ,screw ,cutting by ,hand2 ,pipe ,cutting4 ,tools and ,machines4--,machine and ,hand ,tools2 ,portable ,tools2 ,action of ,machines2 ,classification of ,machine ,work2 ,turning and ,boring2 ,planing2 ,milling2 ,drilling2 ,grinding2 ,punching and ,shearing4 ,lathe ,work4--,forms and use of ,foot ,lathes2 ,hand ,lathes2 ,chuck or ,surfacing ,lathe2 ,engine ,lathe2 ,parts of the ,lathe2 ,cutting ,tools ,used in the ,lathe2 ,tempering of ,lathe ,tools ,rule2 ,lathe ,practice2 ,measuring ,instruments2 ,mandrels2 ,lathe-,dogs2 ,driving ,work ,between ,centers2 ,turning ,work ,between ,centers2 ,lathe ,speed2 ,chuck and ,face-plate ,work2 ,drilling and ,boring in the ,lathe2 ,proportion of ,parts of a ,lathe2 ,useful ,references2 ,tables and ,index4 ,illustration3 ,,rodger',s ,,progressive ,,machinist ,,audel ,description of ,binding4--,the book is handsomely bound in black cloth1 with gold edges and titles1 printed on fine paper1 illustrated with #ccj diagrams and drawings of practical work1 containing over #cfj pages of valuable information1 and #ajha ready reference index for quick information4 ,this volume will be mailed to any address postpaid upon receipt of #b dollars4 ,,audels ,,gas ,,engine ,,manual #b ,illustration3 ,,audels ,,gas ,,engine ,,manual ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,diagrams ,t ,a ,co4 ,,this volume just published gives the latest and most helpful information respecting the construction1 care and management of ,gas1 ,gasoline and ,oil ,engines1 ,marine ,motors and ,automobile ,engines1 including chapters on ,producer ,gas ,plants and the ,alcohol ,motor4 ,the work is divided into #bg ,chapters as follows3--,historical ,development--,laws of ,permanent ,gases--,theoretical ,working ,principles--,actual ,working ,cycles--,graphics of the ,action of ,gases--,indicator ,diagrams of ,engine ,cycles--,indicator ,diagrams of ,gas ,engines--,fuels and ,explosive ,mixtures--,gas ,producer ,systems--,compression1 ,ignition and ,combustion--,design and ,construction--,governing and ,governors--,ignition and ,igniters--,installation and ,operation--,four-,cycle ,horizontal ,engines--,four-,cycle ,vertical ,engines--,four-,cycle ,double-,acting ,engines--,two-,cycle ,engines--,foreign ,engines--,oil ,engines--,marine ,engines--,testing--,instruments ,used in ,testing--,nature and ,use of ,lubricants--,hints on ,management and ,suggestions for ,emergencies--,the ,automobile ,motor--,useful ,rules and ,tables4 ,each chapter is illustrated by diagrams which make it a thoroughly helpful volume1 containing #eab pages1 #aef drawings1 printed in large clear type on fine paper1 handsomely bound in rich red cloth1 with gold top and title1 measuring #e-a_/b #h-a_/b inches and weighing over two pounds4 ,the book is a practical educator from cover to cover and is worth many times the price to any one using a gas engine of any type or size4 ,,price #b4jj ,,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,motor ,,car ,,practice #b ,a ,good ,book for ,owners1 ,operators1 ,repairmen and ,intending ,purchasers4 ,illustration3 ,,automobiles ,,self ,,propelled ,,vehicles ,j4,e4,,homans ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,diagrams #e ,,edition ,,revised ,,this work is now the accepted standard on the practical care and management of motor cars--explaining the principles of construction and operation in a clear and helpful way1 and fully illustrated with many diagrams and drawings1 making it of value to the intending purchaser1 driver and repair man4 ,the subjects treat of the needs of the man behind the wheel1 and are presented clearly1 concisely and in a manner easy to understand by the reader1 be he a beginner or an expert4 ,the treatise on the gasoline engine cannot fail to prove valuable to anyone interested in explosive motors1 which are daily coming to the front as the readiest and most convenient source of power4 ,contains #fjh pages1 over #djj diagrams and illustrations1 printed on fine paper1 size #e-c_/d by #h-a_/b inches1 with generously good binding4 ,highly endorsed4 ,this book will be sent to any address in the world1 postpaid1 upon receipt of #b4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics #d #b ,,parts ,,it is with pleasure we call your attention to the recent publication on pumping machinery4 ,this work1 issued under the title of 8,,rogers' ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics10 is a complete and practical handbook1 treating on the construction1 operation1 care and management of pumping machinery2 the principles of hydraulics being also thoroughly explained4 ,the work is illustrated with cuts1 diagrams and drawings of work actually constructed and in operation2 the rules and explanations of the examples shown are taken from everyday practice4 ,no expense has been spared in the endeavor to make this a most helpful instructor on the subject1 useful to all pump attendants1 engineers1 machinists and superintendents4 ,illustration3 ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics ,,rogers ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,diagrams ,,part ,,one ,t ,a ,co4 ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics ,,rogers ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,diagrams ,,part ,,two ,t ,a ,co4 ,subjects ,treated ,the ,air ,pump2 ,air and ,vacuum ,pumps2 ,air ,compressors2 ,the ,air ,lift ,pump2 ,the ,steam ,fire ,engine2 ,miscellaneous ,pumps2 ,mining ,pumps2 ,marine ,pumps2 8,sugar-house0 ,pumps2 ,circulating ,pumps2 ,atmospheric ,pumps2 ,ammonia or ,acid ,pumps2 ,the ,screw ,pump2 ,aermotor ,pumps2 ,rotary and ,centrifugal ,pumps2 ,turbine ,pumps2 ,injectors and ,ejectors2 ,pulsometer-,aqua-,thruster2 ,pump ,speed ,governors2 ,condensing ,apparatus2 ,utilities and ,attachments1 ,tools1 ,valves and ,piping1 ,pipes1 ,joints and ,fittings1 ,useful ,notes2 ,tables and ,data2 ,glossary of ,pump and ,hydraulic ,terms2 ,elementary ,hydraulics2 ,flow of water ,under ,pressure2 ,water ,pressure ,machines1 ,water ,wheels2 ,turbine ,water ,wheels2 ,turbine ,pumps2 ,water ,pressure ,engines2 ,hydraulic ,motors2 ,hydraulic ,apparatus2 ,hydraulic ,jack2 ,hydraulic ,press2 ,hydraulic ,accumulator2 ,hydraulic ,ram2 ,pumps as ,hydraulic ,apparatus2 ,classification of ,pumps2 ,hand ,pumps2 ,power ,pumps2 ,belted ,pumps2 ,the ,electric ,pump2 ,the ,steam ,pump2 ,the ,duplex ,pump2 ,underwriter ,fire ,pump2 ,specifications of the ,national ,board of ,fire ,underwriters ,relating to ,duplex ,fire ,pumps4 ,these two volumes of nearly nine hundred pages1 illustrated with about seven hundred wood cuts1 are admirable specimens of bookmaking2 they are printed on fine white paper in large clear text1 with ample margins1 and bound in black vellum cloth with titles and tops in gold4 ,in size they are six by nine inches4 ----,,price1 #d1 ,,delivered---- ,,marine ,,engineering #b ,illustration3 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,for ,,marine ,,engineers ,,lucas ,,hawkins ,,price #b4 ,,audel ,,co ,,with ,,chapter ,,on ,,breakdowns ,,at ,,sea ,,this treatise is the most complete published for the practical engineer1 covering as it does a course in mathematics1 the management of marine engines1 boilers1 pumps1 and all auxiliary apparatus1 the accepted rules for figuring the safety-valve4 ,the book is divided into two parts3 ,part ,i1 ,construction3 ,part ,,ii1 ,operation2 it contains #gjj pages4 ,the volume is illustrated with plate drawings1 diagrams and cuts1 having an ,index with more than #a1jjj ready references1 #hjg ,questions on practical marine engineering are fully answered and explained4 ,size is #e-c_/d #h-a_/b inches1 #a-a_/b inches thick1 and weighs nearly three pounds1 strongly and durably bound in rich green cloth1 with full gilt edges1 and is the accepted standard on ,marine ,engineering4 ,price #b1 sent free to any address in the world4 ,money will be refunded if not entirely satisfactory4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,mechanical ,,drawing #b ,,the work has been carefully arranged according to the fundamental principles of the art of drawing1 each theme being clearly illustrated4 ,a list of the subjects are given below3 ,illustration3 ,,hawkins ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,,hawkins ,,self ,,help ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,,for ,,home ,,study ,chalk ,work2 ,preliminary ,terms and ,definitions2 ,freehand ,drawing2 ,geometrical ,drawing2 ,drawing ,materials and ,instruments2 ,mechanical ,drawing2 ,penciling2 ,projection2 8,inking in0 ,drawings2 ,lettering ,drawings2 ,dimensioning ,drawings2 ,shading ,drawings4 ,section ,lining and ,colors2 ,reproducing ,drawings2 ,drawing ,office ,rules2 ,gearing2 ,designing ,gears2 ,working ,drawings2 ,reading ,working ,drawings2 ,patent ,office ,rules for ,drawings2 ,useful ,hints and ,points2 ,linear ,perspective2 ,useful ,tables2 ,personal1 by the ,editor4 ,the book contains #cbj pages and #cjj illustrations1 consisting largely of diagrams and suggestive drawings for practice4 ,it is bound in dark green cloth with full gold edges and titles2 it is printed on fine paper1 size #g #aj inches2 it weighs #cc oz41 and will fit into any engineer's or mechanic's library to good advantage4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,electricity ,,for ,,engineers #b ,,the introduction of electrical machinery in almost every power plant has created a great demand for competent engineers and others having a knowledge of electricity and capable of operating or supervising the running of electrical machinery4 ,to such persons this pocket-book will be found a great benefactor1 since it contains just the information that is required1 explained in a practical manner4 ,illustration3 ,,hawkins' ,,new ,,catechism ,,of ,,electricity4 ,,hawkins' ,plan of ,study ,the following is a partial list of the topics discussed and illustrated3 ,conductors and ,non-,conductors3 ,symbols1 abbreviations and definitions relating to electricity2 ,the ,motor2 ,the ,care and ,management of the ,dynamo and ,motor4 ,electric ,lighting2 ,wiring2 ,the rules and requirements of the ,national ,board of ,underwriters in full2 ,electrical ,measurements4 ,the ,electric ,railway2 ,line ,work2 ,instruction and ,cautions for ,linemen and the ,dynamo ,room2 ,storage ,batteries2 ,care and ,management of the ,street-,car ,motor2 ,electro ,plating4 ,the ,telephone and ,telegraph2 ,the ,electric ,elevator2 ,accidents and ,emergencies1 etc41 etc4 ,one-third of the whole book has been devoted to the explanation and illustrations of the dynamo1 and particular directions relating to its care and management2--all directions being given in the simplest and kindly way to assist rather than confuse the learner4 ,it contains #eej pages with #cjj illustrations of electrical appliances2 it is bound in heavy red leather1 7size #d-a_/b #f-a_/b for the pocket71 with full gold edges and is a most attractive handbook for ,electricians and ,engineers4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,engineers' ,,examinations #b ,,this work is an important aid to engineers of all grades1 and is undoubtedly the most helpful ever issued relating to a safe and sure preparation for examination4 ,it presents in a condensed form the most approved practice in the care and management of ,steam ,boilers1 ,engines1 ,pumps1 ,electrical and ,refrigerating ,machines1 also a few plain rules of arithmetic with examples of how to work the problems relating to the safety valve1 strength of boilers and horse power of the ,steam ,engine and ,steam ,boiler4 ,it contains various rules1 regulations and laws of large cities for the examination of boilers and the licensing of engineers4 ,it contains the laws and regulations of the ,united ,states for the examination and grading of all marine engineers4 ,the book gives the underlying principles of steam engineering in plain language1 with very many sample questions and answers likely to be asked by the examiner4 ,it also gives a short chapter on the 8,key to ,success0 in obtaining knowledge necessary for advancement in engineering4 ,illustration3 ,,hawkin',s ,,aids4 ,,engineers' ,,examinations --,,with-- ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,this helpful volume contains #bjj pages of valuable information not elsewhere obtainable2 it is bound in rich red leather with full gold edges and titles2 it measures #e #g-a_/b inches and weighs twenty-two ounces4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,steam ,,boiler ,,practice #b ,,this book of instruction on boiler-room practice will be of great help to firemen1 engineers and all others who wish to learn about this important branch of ,steam ,engineering4 ,it treats on materials1 coals1 wood1 coke1 and oil and gas1 fuels1 etc41 their composition1 properties1 combustive value1 also on combustion and evaporation4 ,giving the practical rules to be observed in firing with various fuels1 management of steam boilers1 prevention of foaming2 tools and fire irons2 covering stationary1 marine and locomotive boilers4 ,it enumerates sixty important points of cautions to be observed in the proper management of boilers4 ,it contains a description of and full treatise on stationary1 marine and locomotive boilers1 and the historical development of boilers2 specifications for boilers2 riveting2 bracing2 rules for finding pressure or strain on bolts4 ,it gives inspectors rules relating to braces in steam boilers4 ,also rules and tables for calculating areas and steam and water space of boilers4 ,it treats on boiler tubes1 construction and drawing of boiler sections2 defects and necessary repairs2 inspection of steam boilers2 mechanical stokers' corrosion and scale1 boiler compounds1 feed water heaters1 injectors1 pumps1 boiler settings2 pipes and piping2 steam heating1 chemistry of the furnace2 boiler making2 plumbing1 and hundreds of other useful subjects4 ,it states several plain rules for the calculation of safety valve problems and those sanctioned by the ,u4 ,s4 inspectors4 ,illustration3 ,,maxims ,,and ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,boiler ,,room ,n4 ,,hawkins ,,me ,,audel ,,co4 ,the volume has #ccj pages and #ahe illustrations and diagrams4 ,it is #f #h-a_/b in4 in size and weighs #bh ounces4 ,the binding is uniform with that of the 8,calculations0 and 8,catechism of the ,steam ,engine10 being bound in heavy green cloth1 with ornamental titles and edges in gold4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,calculations ,,for ,,engineers #b ,,the ,hand ,book of ,calculations is a work of instruction and reference relating to the steam engine1 the steam boiler1 etc41 and has been said to contain every calculation1 rule and table necessary to be known by the ,engineer1 ,fireman and a steam user4 ,giving a complete course in ,mathematics for the ,engineer and steam user2 all calculations are in plain arithmetical figures1 so that the average man need not be confused by the insertion of the terms1 symbols and characters to be found in works of so-called 8higher mathematics40 ,mechanical ,powers2 ,natural or ,mechanical ,philosophy2 ,strength of ,materials2 ,mensuration2 ,arithmetic2 ,description of ,algebra and ,geometry4 ,tables of ,weights1 ,measures1 ,strength of ,rope and ,chains1 ,pressures of ,water1 ,diameter of ,pipes1 etc42 ,the ,indicator1 ,how to ,compute2 ,the ,safety ,valve1 ,how to ,figure2 ,the ,steam ,boiler2 ,the ,steam ,pump2 ,horse ,powers1 ,how to ,figure for ,engines and ,boilers2 ,steam1 ,what ,it ,is1 etc4 ,index and ,useful ,definitions4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,book ,,of ,,calculation ,,for ,,engineers ,h4 ,,hawkins ,,me ,,audel ,,co4 ,this work contains #ccj pages and #aej illustrations2 it is durably and handsomely bound1 uniform in style and size with the 8,instructions for the ,boiler ,room0 and the 8,catechism of the ,steam ,engine20 it has gold edges and titles1 and weighs over #bh ounces4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,steam ,,engine ,,practice #b 8,it has been well said that engineers are born1 not made2 those in demand to fill the positions created by the great installations of power-producing machinery now so common1 are men who are familiar with the contents of good books1 and as well1 are the product of a hard bought practical experience40 ,,this work is gotten up to fill a long-felt need for a practical book4 ,it gives directions for running the various types of steam engines that are to-day in the market4 ,a list of subjects1 which are fully yet concisely discussed1 are as follows3 ,introduction2 ,the ,steam ,engine2 ,historical ,facts ,relating to the ,steam ,engine3 ,engine ,foundations2 ,the ,steam ,piston2 ,connecting ,rods2 ,eccentric2 ,governor2 ,materials2 ,workmanship2 ,care and ,management2 ,lining up a ,horizontal or ,vertical ,engine2 ,lining ,shafting2 ,valve ,setting2 ,condensers2 ,steam ,separators2 ,air1 ,gas1 and ,compressing ,engines3 ,compounding2 ,arithmetic of the ,steam ,engine2 ,theory of the ,steam ,engine2 ,construction4 ,there also is a description of numerous types of the engines now in operation1 such as the ,corliss1 ,westinghouse1 and many others4 ,the book also treats generously upon the ,marine1 ,locomotive and ,gas ,engines4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,catechism ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,engine ,n4 ,,hawkins ,,me ,,audel ,,co4 ,this is a rarely fine book1 handsomely bound in green silk cloth1 with full gold edges and titles2 it contains #ddj pages1 #cbe illustrations2 in size it is #f #h-a_/d inches1 and weighs #b pounds4 ,,price1 #b1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,steam ,,engine ,,indicator #a ,,the work is designed for the use of erecting and operating engineers1 superintendents1 and students of steam engineering1 relating1 as it does1 to the economical use of steam4 ,the following is a general outline of the subjects defined1 illustrated and presented most helpfully in the book4 ,preparing the ,indicator for use2 ,reducing ,motions2 ,piping up ,indicator2 ,taking ,indicator ,cards2 ,the ,diagram2 ,figuring ,steam consumption by the diagram2 ,revolution ,counters2 ,examples of ,diagrams2 ,description of ,indicators2 ,measuring ,diagram by ,ordinates2 ,planimeters2 ,pantagraphs1 ,tables1 etc4 ,he who studies this work thoughtfully will reap great benefit and will find that there is nothing difficult or mysterious about the use of the ,steam ,engine ,indicator4 ,this knowledge is necessary to every well-informed engineer and will undoubtedly be highly appreciated and a stepping-stone toward promotion and better things4 ,illustration3 ,,practical ,,treatise --,,on ,,the-- ,,steam ,,engine ,,indicator ,,hawkins ,,indicator4 ,the work is fully illustrated1 handsomely bound1 and is in every way a high grade publication4 ----,,price1 #a4jj---- ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,telephone ,,engineering #a ,,the 8,a ,b ,c of the ,telephone0 is a book valuable to all persons interested in this ever-increasing industry4 ,no expense has been spared by the publishers1 or pains by the author1 in making this the most comprehensive handbook ever brought out relating to the telephone4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents #bi ,,chapters ,the ,telephone ,apparatus and its ,operation2 ,a ,brief ,survey of the ,theory of ,sound1 ,necessary to an ,understanding of the ,telephone2 ,a ,brief ,survey of the ,principles of ,electricity2 ,electrical ,quantities2 ,history of the ,speaking ,telephone2 ,later ,modifications of the ,magnet ,telephone2 ,the ,carbon ,microphone ,transmitter2 ,the ,circuits of a ,telephone ,apparatus2 ,the ,switch ,hook and its ,function in ,telephone ,apparatus2 ,the ,switchboard and the ,appliances of the ,central ,station2 ,the ,operator's ,switch ,keys and ,telephone ,set2 ,improved ,switchboard ,attachments2 ,switchboard ,lamp ,signals and ,circuits2 ,the ,multiple ,switchboard2 ,locally ,interconnected or ,multiple ,transfer ,switchboard2 ,exchange ,battery ,systems2 ,party ,lines and ,selective ,signals2 ,private ,telephone ,lines and ,intercommunicating ,systems2 ,common ,return ,circuits2 ,private ,telephone ,lines and ,intercommunicating ,systems2 ,full ,metallic ,circuits2 ,large ,private ,systems and ,automatic ,exchanges2 ,devices for ,protecting ,telephone ,apparatus from ,electrical ,disturbances2 ,the ,general ,conditions of ,telephone ,line ,construction2 ,telephone ,pole ,lines2 ,wire ,transportations on a ,pole ,line4 ,telephone ,cables and their ,use in ,underground and ,pole ,lines2 ,circuit ,balancing ,devices2 ,the ,microtelephone2 ,wireless ,telephony2 ,useful ,definitions and ,hints on ,telephone ,management4 ,,with ,,ready ,,reference ,,index ,illustration3 ,,hoyman',s ,a,b,c ,,of ,,the ,,telephone ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,diagrams #a ,,audel ,,co4 ,,new ,,york ,the volume contains #cge pages1 #bfh illustrations and diagrams2 it is handsomely bound in black vellum cloth1 and is a generously good book without reference to cost4 ,,price1 #a1 ,postpaid4 ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 #fc ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,hawkins' ,dictionary1#c4ej ,,this volume is the most useful book in ,mechanical ,literature4 ,if constantly referred to will enable the student to acquire a correct knowledge of the words1 terms and phrases in use in ,mechanical ,engineering and its various branches4 ,its greatest value lies in this3 that no man representing the mechanical profession can find excuse for not knowing the use and meaning of the terms used in his work4 ,,hawkins' ,,mechanical ,,dictionary explains and defines in plain language the use of all words and terms now used or heretofore used in the ,mechanic ,arts1 ,trades and ,sciences4 ,it is an unequaled reference work1 and is the one book of permanent value no student or expert should dispense with4 ,complete from ,a to ,z4 ,highly endorsed4 ,illustration3 ,,hawkins' ,,mechanical ,,dictionary ,a ,,cyclopedia ,,of ,,words1 ,,data ,,and ,,phrases ,contains #gjd pages1 handsomely bound1 price #c4ej postpaid4 ,satisfaction guaranteed4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the original spelling1 hyphenation1 accentuation and punctuation has been retained1 except for apparent typographical errors4 ,a table of contents has been added by the transcriber following the preface4 ,index entry #8,evans1 ,robt41 #aa4' corrected to read #8,evans1 ,oliver1 viii4' ,in the chapter #8,,chimneys ,,and ,,draught' #abth para3- #8''' having about #a square foot of heating surface to #de square feet of heating surface4' ,this has been changed to read3- #8''' having about #a square foot of grate area to #de square feet of heating surface4' ,the references to a #8,six ,inch ,flue ,boiler' in ,fig4 #cb and the ,index may mean #8,six ,flue ,boiler'1 these instances have not been changed4 ,in the chapter #8,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,furnace'1 the opening paragraph has a number of apparent typographical errors relating to names of substances4 ,these have been left as printed and are3- naphthaline typographical error for naphthalene alizarine alizarin toludine toluidine anthracine anthracene toluches toluene saccharine saccharin