,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,and ,,literature ,illustration ,w4 ,r4 ,,chambers ,,london ,,and ,,edinburgh #ahhb ,edinburgh3 ,printed by ,w4 ,r4 ,chambers4 ,,preface4 ,the object of this book1 as indicated in the title1 is to give an outline of the ,history of the ,english ,language and ,literature4 ,it aims1 however1 at being something more than a mere statement of facts4 ,it is intended to excite an interest in ,english philology1 and in the leading authors that from the time of ,cdmon have used the ,english tongue4 ,it is therefore to be regarded as an introduction to ,english philology and literature2 and is adapted for use in the advanced classes of elementary schools1 in secondary schools1 and for pupil teachers1 as well as for private students4 ,,contents4 ,,language4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vocabulary ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,,page #a4 ,what a ,language is #g #b4 ,the ,english ,language #g #c4 ,family #h #d4 ,teutons #h #e4 ,high-,german #i #f4 ,low-,german #i #g4 ,scandinavian #aj #h4 ,the chief ,teutonic ,languages #aj #i4 ,where the ,english came from #aa #aj4 ,the ,periods of ,english #ab #aa4 ,anglo-,saxon #ab #ab4 ,early ,english #ac #ac4 ,middle ,english #ac #ad4 ,modern ,english #ac #ae4 ,english ,words in ,english ,language #ad #af4 ,changes in ,english #ae #ag4 ,loss and ,gain #af #ah4 ,foreign ,elements in ,english #af #ai4 ,welsh #ag #bj4 ,keltic ,element #ah #ba4 ,latin ,element of ,first ,period 7i7 #ah #bb4 8 8 7ii7 #ai #bc4 ,latin ,element of ,second ,period 7i7 #bj #bd4 8 8 7ii7 #bj #be4 ,scandinavian ,element 7i7 #ba #bf4 8 8 7ii7 #bb #bg4 8 8 7iii7 #bb #bh4 ,latin ,element of ,third ,period 7i7 #bc #bi4 8 8 7ii7 #bd #cj4 8 8 7iii7 #bd #ca4 8 8 7iv7 #be #cb4 8 8 7v7 #be #cc4 8 8 7vi7 #bf #cd4 ,synonyms from ,norman-,french #bf #ce4 ,bilingualism #bg #cf4 ,doublets #bh #cg4 ,doublets #bh #ch4 ,pronunciation #bh #ci4 ,latin of ,fourth ,period #bi #dj4 ,mouth ,latin and ,book ,latin #cj #da4 ,greek ,doublets #cb #db4 ,english and ,french ,words in ,sentences #cc #dc4 ,english ,words ,lost #cc ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,english4 #a4 ,an ,inflected ,language #cd #b4 ,grammar of ,nouns #ce #c4 ,grammar of ,adjectives #ce #d4 ,grammar of ,definite ,article #ce #e4 ,grammar of ,personal ,pronoun #cf #f4 ,grammar of ,verbs #cf #g4 ,fragments of ,noun ,inflections #cf #h4 8 ,adjective ,inflections #cg #i4 8 ,pronoun ,inflections #cg #aj4 8 ,verb ,inflections #cg #aa4 8 ,inflections in ,adverbs #ch #ab4 8 ,inflections in ,prepositions #ci ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,changes ,,in ,,modern ,,english4 #a4 ,formation of ,modern ,english #ci #b4 ,continued ,history #ci #c4 ,spanish and ,italian #dj #d4 ,dutch ,words #da #e4 ,latin and ,teutonic ,element #da #f4 ,influences affecting our ,language at the present time #db ,,chapter ,,iv4 #a4 ,words adopted from ,foreign ,languages #dc #b4 ,chief ,dates in the ,history of the ,english ,language #de ,,chapter ,v4 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,english ,,words4 #a4 ,roots2 ,influence of ,imitation on ,language #df #b4 ,hybrids #df #c4 ,words disguised in ,form or in ,meaning #dh #d4 ,words that have changed their ,meaning #ec #e4 ,words from the ,names of ,persons #ed #f4 ,words from ,names of ,places #ee #g4 ,english 7or ,teutonic7 ,roots #ef #h4 ,latin ,roots #eg #i4 ,greek ,roots #fc #aj4 ,branching of ,words from ,latin ,stems #fe #aa4 ,branching of ,words from ,english ,stems #fi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,prefixes ,,and ,,suffixes4 ,,prefixes4 #a4 ,english 7or ,teutonic7 #gj #b4 ,latin #ga #c4 ,greek #gb ,,suffixes4 #d4 ,english 7or ,teutonic7 #gb #e4 ,latin #gd #f4 ,greek #ge ,,literature4 ,i4 ,,outline ,,of ,,our ,,early ,,literature4 ,,page #a4 ,the ,beowulf #gf #b4 ,cdmon #gf #c4 ,bda #gg #d4 ,king ,alfred #gg #e4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle #gh #f4 ,archbishop lfric #gh #g4 ,anglo-,saxon ,gospels #gh #h4 ,old ,english ,dialects #gi #i4 ,first ,english ,book after ,norman ,conquest #hj #aj4 ,orm's ,ormulum #hj #aa4 ,langland and ,chaucer #ha #ab4 ,alliteration or ,head-,rhyme #hb #ac4 ,john ,gower #hc #ad4 ,john ,barbour #hc #ae4 ,sir ,john ,mandeville #hc #af4 ,john ,wicliffe #hd #ag4 ,our ,english ,bible and its ,history #he ,,ii4 ,,tabular ,,outline ,,of ,,modern ,,english ,,literature #hg ,illustration ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,history of its ,vocabulary4 #a4 ,,what ,a ,,language ,,is4--,a language is a number of different sounds which are made by the tongue and the other organs of speech4 ,but a spoken language is1 or may be1 written or printed upon paper by the aid of a number of signs or symbols--which are generally printed in black ink upon white paper4--,the parts of a spoken language are called sounds2 the smallest parts of a written or printed language are called letters4--,a language is also called a tongue or a speech4--,a language1 like a living being1 does not remain always the same4 ,it grows4 ,as it grows1 it alters in appearance2 small and great changes take place in it2 and the story of these changes is called the ,history of the ,language4 #b4 ,,the ,,english ,,language is the name given to the language which is spoken in ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 in the ,united ,states1 in ,canada1 in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 in ,south ,africa1 and in many other parts of the world where ,englishmen1 ,scotchmen1 and ,irishmen are found4 ,in the middle of the fifth century it was spoken by a few thousand men who came over to ,britain from the north-west of ,europe1 and by many thousands of men and women who dwelt on the banks of the lower parts of the great ,german rivers--the ,rhine1 the ,elbe1 and the ,weser4 ,it is now spoken by more than #ajj millions of people4 ,but the ,english spoken in the fifth century was a very different language from the ,english that is spoken now4 ,it was different1 yet still the same4 ,it was different in appearance1 as a child of one year old is different in looks from a man of forty2 but both the ,english of to-day and the ,english of the fifth century are the same--because the one has grown out of the other1 just as the tall strong man of forty has grown out of the child of one year old4 #c4 ,,family4--,to what family of languages does our ,english speech belong8 ,it belongs to the ,indo-,european family of languages4 ,this family is so called1 because the languages which belong to it are spoken both in ,india and in ,europe4 ,many thousand years ago1 the people from whom we are descended lived on the high table-lands in the heart of ,asia4 ,bands of them kept travelling always farther and farther west2 and it is from their language that most of the tongues spoken in ,europe are derived4 ,these bands left their friends and relations and country1 just as young men and women nowadays leave the homes of their parents to go and settle in distant countries4 ,the ,indo-,european is also called the ,aryan family of languages4 ,altogether1 it embraces seven great languages--7#a7 ,the ,indian or ,sanskrit2 7#b7 ,persic2 7#c7 ,greek2 7#d7 ,latin2 7#e7 ,keltic2 7#f7 ,teutonic2 and 7#g7 ,slavonic1 which includes ,russian1 ,polish1 c4 #d4 ,,teutons4--,the ,english language was introduced into this country by bands of warlike colonists from ,northwestern ,germany1 who drove the old inhabitants to the mountainous regions in the west of the island4 ,those colonists were variously called ,angles1 ,saxons1 and ,jutes2 but they all belonged to the ,teutonic race1 and their speech was a branch of the ,teutonic group of languages4 ,the ,teutonic group of languages contains three main sections1 from which all the others spring4 ,these three main sections are3 ,high-,german1 ,low-,german1 and ,scandinavian4 ,high-,german is the name given to the kind of ,german which is spoken on the higher lands or table-lands of ,south ,germany--those table-lands which slope from the ,central ,plain of ,europe up to the ,alps2 and its northern boundary is the pretty river ,main1 which falls into the ,rhine4 ,low-,german is the name given to the kind of ,german spoken in the lowlands of ,germany2 and the southern boundary of this kind of speech is the river ,main--its northern boundary being the ,baltic and the ,north ,sea4 ,scandinavian is the wide general name given to those kinds of ,teutonic speech which are found in ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,iceland4 ,these divisions may be placed in a table in the following manner3 ,,teutonic4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,high-,german4 ,low-,german4 ,scandinavian4 ----------- --------------- -------------------- ,old4 ,middle4 ,new4 ,dutch4 ,frisian4 ,icelandic4 ,norwegian4 ,flemish4 ,english4 ,danish4 ,swedish4 #e4 ,,high-,,german4--,high-,german is spoken in the southern parts of ,germany--such as ,bavaria1 ,swabia1 and other hilly regions2 and also in the north and east of ,switzerland4--,it is this form of the language that has become the book-speech or literary language of the ,germans2 and its technical name is ,new ,high-,german4 #f4 ,,low-,,german4--,the languages which belong to this division are spoken in the plains of ,germany1 especially along the lower courses of the rivers1 in ,holland1 in part of ,belgium1 in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 and the ,british ,colonies1 and in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,the ,low-,german spoken in ,holland is called ,dutch2 the ,low-,german spoken in ,belgium is called ,flemish2 the ,low-,german spoken in ,friesland--a wealthy province of ,holland--is called ,frisian2 and the ,low-,german spoken in ,england is called ,english4 7,but1 as we shall soon see1 ,english contains many thousands of words in addition to those which are purely ,low-,german47 ,the language on the continent which is most like ,english is the ,frisian language4 ,there is indeed a well-known couplet1 every word in which is said to be both ,frisian and ,english4 ,it runs thus3 ,good butter and good cheese ,is good ,english and good ,fries4 ,the following are the chief subdivisions of ,,low-,,german4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,dutch ,flemish ,frisian ,english 7,spoken in ,holland74 7in ,flanders74 7in ,friesland74 7in ,england1 etc474 #g4 ,,scandinavian4--,scandinavian is the general name given to the different kinds of ,teutonic speech which are employed in ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,iceland4 ,the oldest and purest kind of ,scandinavian speech is that spoken in the far-off country in the middle of the ,north ,atlantic1 called ,iceland2 and it is the purest1 because for many centuries there has been very little communication with that country4 ,indeed1 the ,icelandic of the #abth century differs very little from the ,icelandic of to-day4 ,but the ,english of the twelfth century differs so much from the ,english of the nineteenth century1 that we should at first sight hardly know them for the same speech4--,one peculiar mark of a ,scandinavian speech is the preference for hard consonants--the preference1 for example1 of a k over a ch or sh4 ,thus the ,danes say ,dansk for ,danish2 and it is ,danish influence that has given to ,scotchmen and to the north of ,england the form kirk instead of church4 #h4 ,,the ,,three ,,chief ,,teutonic ,,languages4--,the three most important languages belonging to the great ,teutonic stock are ,english1 ,dutch1 and ,german4 ,if we look at the words used in these languages1 we shall at once see that they are sister-languages4 ,if we look at the way in which their words are changed--or at their inflections--we shall also see that they are very closely related4 ,thus the commonest words appear in these three languages in the following shape3 ,english ,three4 ,mother4 ,brother4 ,have 7inf474 ,dutch ,drie4 ,moeder4 ,broeder4 ,hebben4 ,german ,drei4 ,mutter4#a ,bruder4#b ,haben4 ,again1 the inflections of these three languages are very similar--are in fact1 different shapes of the same changes4 ,thus the possessive case of nouns in all three languages ends in s or es#c or 's4 ,the second person singular of verbs in all three ends in st2 and the ending of the past participle in all three is generally en4 ,we know1 then1 both from history and from a comparison of the actual facts in the present state of the languages1 that all three are sister-tongues4 #i4 ,,where ,,the ,,english ,,came ,,from4--,those ,teutons who brought over the ,english tongue to this island1 came from the north-west of ,europe--most of them from that part of the ,german coast which lies between the river ,elbe and the river ,weser4 ,the kind of ,low-,german spoken by them is much the same as that still spoken in the lowlands of ,hanover1 ,holstein1 and ,schleswig4 ,there is in ,holstein--upon the west coast--a small district which is called ,angeln--that is1 ,england--to this day4 ,the ,teutons who came over to ,britain belonged to three tribes4 ,they were ,jutes and ,angles and ,saxons4 ,the ,jutes came from ,jutland4#d ,the ,angles came from ,schleswig and ,holstein4 ,the ,saxons came from ,hanover and the land to the west of it4 ,the ,jutes settled in ,kent and the ,isle of ,wight4 ,the ,saxons settled in ,essex 7or ,east ,sex71 ,wessex#e 7or ,west ,sex71 ,sussex 7or ,south ,sex71 and ,middlesex2 and the ending sex is an indication of the fact4 ,the ,angles settled chiefly in the north and east4 ,one of the kingdoms founded by them was called ,east ,anglia2 and the northern and southern settlers in it gave their names to the two counties of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 which are only later forms of the words ,north folk and ,south folk4 ,these three tribes all spoke different dialects of the same speech4 ,the early predominance of the ,angles1 especially as the ,angles in ,northumbria were the first to have a literature1 gave to the language the name of ,english1 though the ,keltic people still call it ,saxon or ,sassenach4 ,the country also in time acquired1 from the same cause1 the name of ,engla-land1 or the land of the ,english4 ,the first landing of ,teutons took place in the year #ddi2 and for about a hundred years afterwards1 bands of strong young warriors and colonists continued to arrive at short intervals4 #aj4 ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,english4--,the language brought over to ,britain by these three tribes has grown very much since the fifth century4 ,it has been growing for fourteen hundred years4 ,it has therefore altered very much in every way2 its appearance has changed2 and we have to learn the ,english of the fifth1 or the eighth1 or the eleventh century1 almost as if it were a foreign language4 ,there are four chief periods in the history of the ,english language4 ,these are3 ,i4 ,old ,english1 commonly called ,anglo-,saxon #dej-aajj ,,ii4 ,early ,english #aajj-abej ,,iii4 ,middle ,english #abej-adhe ,,iv4 ,modern ,english #adhe-ahhb ,but it must not be forgotten that there is no hard and fast line between one period and another4 ,a living language1 like a living body1 is always changing4 ,it takes on new additions of new matter2 it loses the old4 ,with these new additions1 its form also changes4 ,we are rarely sensible of these changes2 but they are going on all the time for all that4 #aa4 ,,the ,,oldest ,,english ,,or ,,anglo-,,saxon1 #dej-aajj4--,this form of the ,english language contained a very large number of inflections4 ,the definite article was inflected for gender1 number1 and case2 nouns and adjectives were highly inflected2 and the verb had a very much larger number of inflections than it has now4 ,the words of the ,english vocabulary during this period were almost entirely ,english2 a few ,latin and ,greek words--brought in chiefly by the church--and a few ,keltic words1 had found their way into the ,english vocabulary4 ,the rhyme used in poetry was not end-rhyme1 as at the present date1 but head-rhyme or alliteration--as we find it in the well-known line from ,pope3 ,apt alliteration's artful aid4 ,to this period belong the writings of the poet ,cdmon and of ,king ,alfred4 #ab4 ,,early ,,english1 #aajj-abej4--,the ,normans had seized all power in the state and in the church1 and had held it since the year #ajff4 ,during the early part of this period1 ,english was not written1 had ceased to be employed in books2 and ,french words began to creep in even among the spoken words of the ,english people4 ,the inflections of words began to drop off1 or to be carelessly used1 and then to be mixed up and confused with each other4 ,one of the chief writers of this period is a priest called ,layamon1 who wrote a poem called the ,brut 7,brutus71 which gave some account of the beginnings of the ,english people1 who were believed to be descended from ,brutus1 the fabled son of neas of ,troy4 #ac4 ,,middle ,,english1 #abej-adhe4--,nouns and adjectives during this period lost almost all their inflections4 ,the inflections of verbs were very much altered and greatly simplified4--,in the year #acdi1 boys in school were allowed to cease translating their ,latin into ,french1 and began to translate it into ,english4 ,in the year #acfb ,edward ,,iii4 passed an act of parliament ordering the use of ,english in the pleadings of cases in all courts of law1 instead of ,norman-,french1 which had hitherto been employed4 ,to the first half of this period belong such works as the ,metrical ,chronicle and the ,lives of the ,saints1 supposed to have been written and translated by ,robert of ,gloucester2 to the second half belong the works of the great poet ,chaucer1 of ,william ,langland1 and of the reformer ,wicliffe4 #ad4 ,,modern ,,english1 #adhe-ahhb4--,the year #adhe marks the accession of the ,house of ,tudor to the throne1 in the person of ,henry ,,vii4 ,by this time almost all inflections had disappeared from our language4 ,many hundreds of ,french words had come into the language4 ,from the time of the ,revival of ,letters#f--which may be said to have begun in the sixteenth century--several thousands of ,latin words were poured into the ,english vocabulary4 ,the period which lies between #adhe and #afjc--the year in which ,james ,i4 came to the throne--is sometimes called the period of ,tudor ,english4 ,its greatest verse-writer is ,shakspeare2 its greatest prose-writer is ,hooker1 who wrote ,the ,laws of ,ecclesiastical ,polity4 #ae4 ,,english ,,words ,,in ,,the ,,english ,,language4--,the ,english language has for centuries been importing words from many foreign tongues into its own vocabulary2 and it has given a hearty welcome to all kinds of strangers4 ,so much is this the case1 and so far has this habit of taking in strangers gone1 that we can now quite accurately say3 ,most of the words in our ,english language are not ,english4 ,there are more ,latin words in our tongue than there are ,english4 ,but this statement is true only of our words as we find them in the dictionary4 ,the words which we use every day--the language of the mouth--is almost entirely ,english4 ,the fixed vocabulary--the vocabulary printed in the dictionary--is more ,latin than ,english2 the moving vocabulary--the words which are daily spoken--is ,english4 ,thus1 if we take a passage in our translation of the ,four ,gospels1 we shall find from #ij to #if per cent4 of the words used are ,english--and pure ,english4 ,in the ,prologue which ,chaucer wrote to his famous set of poems called ,the ,canterbury ,tales1 #hh per cent4 of the words are ,english2 while1 in ,mrs ,browning's ,cry of the ,children1 the ,english words rise to the large proportion of #ib per cent4 ,the following is a list of a few more percentages of purely ,english words in the writings of well-known authors3 ,spenser 7,faerie ,queene1 ii4 #g7 #hf per cent4 ,shakspeare 7,henry ,,iv41 ,part ,i41 ,act ii7 #ia 8 ,milton 7,paradise ,lost1 ,book ,,vi47 #hj 8 ,swift 7,john ,bull7 #he 8 ,johnson 7,preface to ,dictionary7 #gb 8 ,gibbon 7,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 ,i41 cap4 vii47 #gj 8 ,macaulay 7,essay on ,lord ,bacon7 #ge 8 ,tennyson 7,in ,memoriam1 first twenty poems7 #hi 8 #af4 ,,changes ,,in ,,english4--,let us take a passage from the ,saxon translation of the ,old ,testament--and it is the oldest ,english version we have--and notice what differences there are between this ,english and the ,english of the present day4 ,this translation was made by ,abbot lfric1 who lived and wrote late in the tenth century4 ,he translated into ,english the five books of ,moses--commonly called the ,pentateuch--,joshua1 ,judges1 and part of the book of ,job4 ,let us see how he writes 7,genesis1 ix4 #a73 ,god blettsode ,god blessed ,noe and his suna ,noah and his sons and cvd hem t3 and quoth to them3 ,veahxa ,wax 7ye7 and beo gemenigfilde and be manifolded and fylla and fill eoran6 the earth6 ,now every word in the above verse is modern ,english2 but every word has been changed--with the exception of ,god1 his1 and and4 ,all the other words have changed enormously in the course of the eight centuries since the verse was written4 ,the words have changed2 and the grammar has changed4 ,the word bletsian has become bless4 ,the grammar of the verbs has changed enormously4 ,for example1 the imperative ending ath in ,veahxath and fyllath has quite fallen away4 ,it existed1 in the form of eth1 down to the time of ,chaucer1 who writes ,standeth up6 in addressing several persons4--,next1 we ought to notice that all the words are pure ,english4 ,the modern version which we still use1 and which was published in #afaa1 has been obliged to use ,latin and ,french words4 ,it says--and the words in italics are all foreign words3 #8,be fruitful1 and multiply and replenish the earth'6 ,that is1 it employs three ,latin words in the most important parts of the sentence4 #ag4 ,,loss ,,and ,,gain4--,but1 while the ,english language has1 in the course of centuries1 lost almost all its inflections1 it has been all that time gaining new words1 and at the same time gaining new powers of expression4 ,in fact1 the history of our language is a history of both loss and gain4 ,it has lost inflections and gained new words4 ,an inflected language is generally called a ,synthetic ,language1 because it expresses changes of relations by the adding-on 7synthesis7 of something to the end of the word4 ,a language which expresses relations by little words like prepositions is called an analytic language4 ,we may therefore say that3 ,english was in its earlier forms a synthetic language2 but it is now an analytic language4 ,so much for the form or grammar of it4 ,but1 on the other hand1 if we look at the matter or words or vocabulary of it1 we shall find that3 ,english was originally a pure or unmixed language2 but is now an extremely composite one4 #ah4 ,,the ,,foreign ,,elements ,,in ,,english4--,these have come into our language chiefly because the ,english people have come so much into contact with other peoples and tribes and nations4 ,they came over to this island in the fifth century1 and found ,kelts here2 and from them they took some ,keltic words4 ,about the end of the eighth century1 the ,danes came to them2 and a number of ,danish words entered the language4 ,then another set of ,danes or ,scandinavians--called ,normans--came to them1 conquered them1 and gave them many hundred ,norman-,french words4 ,then1 with the ,revival of ,letters1 many scholars came over here1 taught the ,english people to read ,greek and ,latin books2 and these books gave the language several thousand words4 ,then the ,english people have always been the greatest travellers in the world4 ,they have gone to ,china and brought home ,chinese words 7as well as things72 they have long held ,india1 which has given us ,hindu words2 they have imported names and terms from ,north and from ,south and ,central ,america2 they have borrowed from ,spaniards and ,italians2 they have taken words1 nearer home1 from the ,dutch and from the ,germans2 they have gone to the farthest east and to the farthest west1 and there is hardly a language on the face of the globe from which they have not imported some words that live and make themselves useful in our language4 #ai4 ,,welsh4--,when the ,english settled in this island1 they found a people who were called ,britons1 and who spoke a language called ,british or ,kymric4 ,it is a language very different from ,english2 and at first the ,english warriors and the ,british people did not understand one single word of what each other said4 ,the ,old ,english word for foreigners was ,wealhas--or1 as we call it now1 ,welsh2 and the ,english fighting men who came over called the ,british people1 not by the name which they themselves used1 but simply the foreigners--the ,welsh4 ,in the same way1 a ,german to this day calls an ,italian or a ,frenchman a ,welshman2 and he calls ,france or ,italy ,welshland4 ,the language spoken by the ,welsh belongs to the ,keltic group of languages4 ,this group contains also ,erse1 which is spoken in the west of ,ireland2 ,manx1 which is spoken in the ,isle of ,man2 ,gaelic1 which is spoken in the ,highlands of ,scotland2 and ,breton1 which is spoken in ,brittany--a mountainous and rugged peninsula in the north-west of ,france4 ,it at one time embraced also ,cornish--the language spoken in ,cornwall1 which was also called ,west ,wales4 ,but that language died out in #aggh2 and it is not now spoken by any one4 ,the following is a table of the ,keltic group3 ,,keltic4 --------------------------------- ,,gadhelic4 ,,kymric4 ------------------ --------------------- ,erse4 ,gaelic4 ,manx4 #8,welsh4' ,breton4 ,cornish4 7dead7 #bj4 ,,the ,,keltic ,,element4--,the words given to the ,english language by the ,kelts are of two kinds3 7i7 ,names of mountains1 rivers1 lakes1 and other natural features2 7ii7 ,names of common things1 which the ,english picked up in their daily intercourse with the ,british or ,welsh4 7i7 ,the ,keltic name for a mountain is ,pen--a word which we find in ,pennine and ,apennine4 ,the ,gaelic or ,scotch ,keltic form of the word is ,ben4 ,thus we have ,ben ,more--which means the ,big ,mountain--,ben ,nevis1 and many others4 ,the commonest ,keltic word for a river is ,avon4 ,there are fourteen ,avons in ,great ,britain4 ,esk is another common ,keltic name for a river2 and there are eight ,esks in ,scotland alone4 ,in ,england the name takes the form of ,ex or ,exe 7the consonants having changed places1 ,ex ,eks74 ,the name appears as ,ex in ,exeter 7the old form was ,exanceaster7--that is1 the camp on the ,ex2 as ,ax in ,axminster2 as ,ox in ,oxford2 as ,ux in ,uxbridge2 as ,usk1 in ,wales2 and even as ,ouse1 in ,yorkshire and other counties4--,aber is a ,keltic word which means the mouth of a river2 and we find it in ,aberdeen 7the town at the mouth of the ,dee72 ,arbroath1 which is ,aberbrothock2 ,aberystwith2 ,berwick--the old form of which was ,aberwick4 ,berwick accordingly means the wick or town at the mouth of the ,tweed4 ,car or ,caer is the ,keltic word for castle or stronghold2 and we find this name in ,carlisle1 ,cardiff1 ,caernarvon1 and others4 7ii7 ,the names of common things which we have received from the ,kelts are--basket1 bran1 cradle1 crockery1 clout1 cuts 7 lots71 darn4 ,such words as button1 ribbon1 barrel1 car1 and cart1 are also ,keltic1 but have come into the ,english language through the ,norman-,french1 who received them from the descendants of the ancient ,gauls4 ,some ,keltic words have come to us from ,scotland--such as pony1 clan1 whisky1 claymore 7a kind of sword71 pibroch1 and plaid2 and it is chiefly to ,sir ,walter ,scott's writings that we owe the common use of these words4 ,ireland has also sent us a few ,keltic words1 such as ,tory1 brogue1 and shamrock4 #ba4 ,,the ,,latin ,,element ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,period 7i74--,the ,roman power1 as is generally known1 was settled in ,britain from the year #dc till the year #daj4 ,in the beginning of the year #daj1 the very existence of the ,roman ,empire was threatened by the ,goths and other warlike peoples2 and the ,roman forces were withdrawn to defend the very heart of the empire4 ,the ,romans1 though conquerors1 were true benefactors4 ,they gave the ,britons good laws2 cut roads for them through the island2 established camps2 built forts and strongholds2 dug harbours or ports2 and planted military settlements--which they called colonies--here and there among the conquered people4 ,when the ,romans went away1 they left these important benefits behind them2 and1 with the things themselves1 the words also remained4 ,but they left only six words behind them1 and all of these have combined themselves1 or gone into composition1 with words that are purely ,english4 ,the following are the six words3 ,castra1 a camp2 ,strata 7via71 a paved road2 ,vallum1 a rampart2 ,fossa1 a ditch2 ,colonia1 a settlement2 and ,portus1 a harbour4 #bb4 ,,the ,,latin ,,element ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,period 7ii74--7a7 ,the ,latin word ,castra has become chester1 caster1 cester1 and even ter 7in ,exeter74 ,we generally find it in the form of chester in the south and west2 cester in the middle2 and caster in the north and east of ,england4 ,thus we have ,chester1 ,manchester1 and ,winchester in the west and south2 ,leicester and ,towcester in mid-,england2 and ,tadcaster1 ,doncaster1 and ,lancaster in the north4 7b7 ,strata4--,the ,romans drove a strongly-built military road from the south-east to the north-west of the island--from ,richborough1 near ,dover1 up to the standing camp on the river ,dee1 which is now called ,chester4 ,this was the ,strata or ,street4 ,it was afterwards carried farther north1 and even into ,scotland4 ,it went right over the crest of a hill in ,westmoreland1 which is called ,high ,street to this day4 ,we can trace the path of this great military road by the names of the towns and villages that are strung upon it4 ,thus there are ,streatham 7near ,london71 ,stretton1 ,stratford-on-,avon1 ,stony ,stratford1 ,stretford 7near ,manchester71 ,stradbroke1 and many others4 7c7 ,vallum is found in wall4 7d7 ,fossa is found in the names ,fossway1 ,fosbrooke1 ,fosbridge1 and others4 7e7 ,colonia is found in ,colne1 ,colchester1 ,lincoln1 and others4 7f7 ,portus appears in ,portsmouth1 ,portsea1 ,bridport1 and some other names4 #bc4 ,,the ,,latin ,,element ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,period 7i74--,this element was not introduced by the ,romans themselves1 but by ,christian missionaries who came from ,rome1 sent by ,pope ,gregory the ,great to convert1 not the ,britons1 but the ,english1 to ,christianity4 ,a band of forty monks1 with ,st ,augustine at their head1 landed in ,kent in the year #eig4 ,for four centuries from this date a large number of ,latin words came into the ,english language1 chiefly words relating to the church and church observances4 ,church ,terms4--,calic1 from calix1 a cup2 cluster1 from claustrum1 a closed place2 priest1 from presbyter1 an elder2 sanct1 from sanctus1 a holy man2 sacrament1 from sacramentum1 a sacred oath2 predician1 from prdicare1 to declare2 regul1 from regula1 a straight piece of wood4 ,but the old form of most of these words has disappeared1 to make room for ,norman-,french forms from the same ,latin source4 ,along with these were adopted a few ,greek words--such as bishop1 from episkopos1 an overseer2 angel1 from anggelos1 a messenger2 apostle1 from apostolos1 a person sent2 monk1 from monchos1#g a person who lives alone2 and a few others4 #bd4 ,,the ,,latin ,,element ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,period 7ii74--,the introduction of ,christianity proved to be the beginning of an intercourse with ,rome1 ,italys1 and the ,continent2 and this intercourse brought with it commerce4 ,commerce imported many new things2 and the names of these things came into the island along with the things themselves4 ,thus we have butter from butrum2 cheese from caseus2 and tunic from tunica4 ,we have also fig from ficus2 pear from pirum2 lettuce from lactuca1 which itself comes from lac--milk 7and hence means the milky plant72 and pease from pisum4 7,pease is really the singular2 and pea is a false singular--not a plural47 ,we have also from the same source some names of animals4 ,such are camel from camlus2 lion from leo2 oyster from ostrea2 trout from trutta4 ,a few miscellaneous words have also come to us from this quarter--such as pound from the ,latin pondus1 a weight2 candle from candla2 and table from tabla4 ,the ,latin word uncia1 which means the twelfth part of anything1 is1 as it were1 split up into two--and gives the two words inch and ounce1 which are fundamentally but two forms of one word4 7,but with regard to this class of words also it should be observed that the words directly introduced from the ,latin have either been greatly changed in form2 or they have been subsequently borrowed again from the ,french47 #be4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,element 7i74--,in the year #ghg1 the ,northmen1 ,norsemen1 or ,normans of ,scandinavia1 began to make descents on the east coast of ,england4 ,these attacks were so dreaded by the ,english that prayers were regularly used in the churches against them2 and a part of the ,litany of the time contained the utterance3 #8,from the incursions of the ,normans1 good ,lord1 deliver us6' ,these attacks went on for three centuries4 ,in the ninth century1 these ,danes obtained a permanent footing in the northern and eastern parts of ,england2 and by the eleventh century they had become so strong that ,danish kings sat upon the throne of ,england from #ajaf to #ajdb4 ,these ,norsemen were ,teutons4 ,they were ,teutons who had migrated to the north4 ,as northern people generally do1 they preferred hard sounds to aspirates4 ,they preferred a k to a ch2 a p to an f4 ,the probable reason is that1 in the cold mists of the north1 they had learned not to open too much their mouths and throats2 and thus they formed the habit of using a shut sound like k to a sound like ch 7in loch71 which requires a stream of air to be passed through the throat4 ,we must not forget that it was the spoken language of ,england that was affected by the ,danes2 not the written language2 for the simple reason that1 in these times1 not more than one man in a thousand--either among ,danes or ,englishmen--could read and write4 #bf4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,element 7ii74--,the ,danish contribution is1 like the ,keltic1 of two kinds3 7a7 ,names of places2 and 7b7 ,common words4 7a7 ,the most remarkable example of the place-name is the noun by1 which means town4 ,there are in ,england more than six hundred names ending in by4 ,almost all of these lie to the north and east of ,watling ,street2 to the south of it1 there is scarcely one4 ,thus we have ,whitby1 the ,white ,town2 ,tenby1 in ,wales1 ,dane's town2 and ,grimsby1 the town of ,grim4 ,we find the word by also in the compound by-law4 ,the following words are also derived from the ,danes3 ,thorpe1 a village ,althorpe 7old72 ,bishopsthorpe2 7,drup in ,jutland1 where ,burnham-,thorpe 7where ,nelson there are scores of was born74 towns with this ending47 ,fell1 a hill or table-land ,scawfell1 ,crossfell1 ,goat ,fell4 ,dale1 a valley ,ribblesdale1 ,grimsdale4 ,thwaite1 a forest clearing ,applethwaite4 ,toft1 a homestead ,lowestoft 7the form in ,normandy is tt74 ,wick1 a creek or bay ,ipswich1 ,greenwich1 ,berwick4 7,viking a creeker47 ,oe or ea1 an island ,faroe1 ,chelsea 7 chesel ea1 the shingle island74 ,ness1 a nose or cape ,sheerness1 ,caithness1 ,fife ,ness2 the ,naze 7in ,essex1 etc474 7b7 ,to the ,norsemen we also owe the words are1 which pushed out the pure ,english syndon2 talk2 tarn2 busk 7dress72 sky2 hustings2 fellow2 odd2 blunt2 kid2 and many more4 #bg4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,element 7iii74--,one result of this mixture of ,danes with ,englishmen was that both1 in trying to speak the language or to use the words of each other1 would naturally take firm hold of the root of the word1 and allow the inflections to take care of themselves4 ,hence ,english words would lose their inflections2 and this process1 after it had once begun1 would go on at an increased speed1 the greater became the communication at church and at market between the ,english and the ,danes4 ,the same process is now going on in the ,united ,states4 ,thousands upon thousands of ,germans have settled there among an ,english-speaking people4 ,these ,germans are rapidly falling into the habit of using their ,german words without inflections at all4 #bh4 ,,latin ,,element ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,period 7i74--,this element is really ,norman-,french4 ,french is ,latin1 with many of the inflections lost or changed1 and with the pronunciation of the vowel-sounds enormously altered4 ,but it did not come from the written ,latin of books2 but from the spoken ,latin of soldiers and country-people 7the lingua ,romana rustica74 ,norman-,french is the ,french spoken by the ,normans1 who lost their own ,norsk or ,danish speech1 and learned ,french from their ,french wives and children4 ,in the year #iab1 the ,normans1 under ,duke ,rolf or ,rollo1 wrested from ,king ,charles the ,simple the beautiful valley of the ,seine1 which was afterwards called by the name of ,normandy4 ,norman-,french was a dialect of ,french1 and it differed in many respects from the ,french spoken in the other parts of ,france4 ,this ,norman-,french was introduced into ,england as a court language by ,edward the ,confessor1 in the year #ajdb2 but it was brought into this country as a folk-speech by bands of ,norman-,french under the leadership of ,duke ,william1 the seventh ,duke of ,normandy1 in the famous year #ajff4 ,this ,norman-,french1 which they brought with them1 became in ,england the language of the ruling classes1 of the court1 of the lawyers1 and of all priests high in the ranks of the church4 ,books ceased to be written in ,english2 boys translated their ,latin into ,french2 an ,english churl had to employ a lawyer who used only ,french in his law-papers and his pleadings2 and even #8uplandish' or country people tried #8to speak ,frensch1 for to be more ytold of4' ,the saturation of ,english with ,french words probably reached its highest point at the end of the fourteenth century2 and about that time a reaction set in4 ,as has been before pointed out1 in #acdi1 boys were allowed to translate their ,latin into ,english2 in #acfb1 ,edward ,,iii4 passed an act of parliament to authorise the use of ,english in courts of law2 and even the ,normans who lived in ,london had begun to use ,english in their families4 ,but1 by the time ,french had ceased to be the language of the upper classes1 several thousand ,french words had found their way into our vocabulary1 which had become to a large extent bilingual4#h #bi4 ,,norman-,,french 7ii74--,the words which have been introduced into our pure ,english speech from the ,normans fall easily into classes4 7a7 ,feudalism#i and ,war4--,armour1 chivalry1 captain1 battle1 duke1 fealty1 realm4 ,the ,english word for armour was harness2 and ,macaulay uses harness in this sense in one of his ,lays3 ,now while the three were tightening ,their harness on their backs4 --,chivalry comes from the ,fr4 cheval1 which is a broken-down form of the ,low ,latin word caballus1 a horse4--,captain comes from the ,lat4 caput1 a head4--,battle comes from the ,fr4 battre1 to beat4--,duke comes from the ,fr4 duc--which comes from the ,lat4 dux 7accusative ducem1 most ,french nouns being borrowed from the accusative1 not the nominative form of the ,latin noun71 a leader4--,fealty is the ,norman-,french form of the word fidelity1 from the ,lat4 fidelitas1 faithfulness4--,real-m is the noun from the adjective real1 which comes from ,lat4 regal-is2 it is the land ruled over by a rex or r 7a king74 #cj4 7b7 ,hunting4--,forest1 leveret1 quarry1 couple1 venison4 ,forest comes from the ,low ,lat4#aj foresta2 from ,lat4 foris1 out-of-doors4 ,a forest does not necessarily contain trees2 it is merely the name for the open hunting-ground as contrasted with the inclosed space called a park4--,leveret1 a young hare1 from the ,fr4 livre2 from the ,lat4 lepus 7-oris74--,quarry comes from the ,lat4 cor1 the heart1 and at first meant the heart and intestines1 which were thrown to the dogs who hunted down the wild beast4 ,milton has the phrase1 #8scents his quarry from afar4'--,couple comes from the ,lat4 copula1 a band4--,venison means hunted flesh1 and comes from the ,fr4 venaison1 which comes from the ,lat4 verb venari1 to hunt4 #ca4 7c7 ,cookery4--,beef1 veal1 pork1 mutton1 pullet4 ,the ,saxon hind had the charge of the cattle and animals on the farm while they were alive2 but he never saw anything of them after they were killed4 ,he never met them at dinner4 ,the flesh of these animals received ,french names from the ,norman-,frenchmen who ate them2 and their ,saxon or ,english names were forgotten4 ,a ,german says calf's flesh1 but we use the ,norman-,french word veal4 ,thus the corresponding ,english words to those printed above are ox1 calf1 swine1 sheep1 and fowl4 ,the word beef comes from the ,fr4 buf1 which comes from the ,lat4 bos 7acc4 bovem71 an ox4--,veal comes from the old ,french word veel1 which comes from the ,lat4 vitellus1 a little calf4--,pork comes from ,fr4 porc1 which is derived from the ,lat4 porcus1 a pig4--,mutton comes from the ,fr4 mouton1 from the ,low ,latin word multo1 a sheep4--,pullet comes from ,fr4 poulet1 which comes from the ,low ,latin word pulla1 a hen4 #cb4 7d7 ,law4--,chancellor1 judge1 parliament1 court1 assize1 sue1 damages1 and many others4 ,the word chancellor comes from the ,fr4 chancelier2 from the ,lat4 cancellarius1 the keeper of written papers4 #8,the officer who had the care of the records stood behind the screen of lattice-work or of cross-bars which fenced off the judgment-seat4' ,cancer is the ,latin name for a crab2 cancellus is a little crab2 cancelli are cross-bars or lattice-work1 like the claws of crabs crossed4 ,hence also to cancel1 which means to draw cross strokes through writing4--,judge comes from the ,french word juge1 which comes from the ,lat4 judex 7 jus-dic-s1 a sayer of right74 ,the old ,english term was dempster1 from the verb deem2 noun1 doom4--,parliament comes from the ,fr4 parler1 to speak2 from ,low ,lat4 parabolre1 to talk2 whence also parlour1 a room for speaking in4--,court comes from the old ,fr4 cort2 from ,lat4 cohors or cors1 an inclosed space4 ,a cohors was a sheep-pen2 but it was afterwards applied to a number of soldiers4--,assize comes from the old ,fr4 assise1 an assembly of judges2 from the ,lat4 assidre1 to sit beside4--,sue comes from the old ,fr4 suir 7modern ,fr4 suivre72 from the ,lat4 sequi1 to follow4 ,we have from the same root the words suit1 suite1 pursue1 ensue1 issue4--,damages1 from the old ,fr4 damge1 which comes from the ,low ,lat4 damnaticum1 harm2 which comes from the ,lat4 damnum1 loss4 #cc4 7e7 ,church4--,friar1 relic1 tonsure1 ceremony1 etc4 ,friar is a word which comes from the old ,fr4 freire1 which is derived from the ,lat4 frater1 a brother4--,relic1 chiefly used in the plural1 from ,fr4 reliques2 from ,lat4 reliqui1 remains4--,tonsure comes from the ,fr4 tonsure2 from ,lat4 tonsura1 a cutting4--,ceremony1 from the ,fr4 crmonie1 a rite2 from ,lat4 crimonia4 #cd4 ,,synonyms ,,given ,,us ,,by ,,norman-,,french4--,among other benefits which we have received from the coming in of ,norman-,french into our language1 is a number of synonyms4#aa ,these have enabled us to give a different shade or colouring to certain words1 or to put them to a special use4 ,thus we speak of the blessing of ,god1 and the benediction of a clergy-man2 of the bloom on a peach1 and the flower of a lily2 of a person as a member of a learned society1 but not a limb4 ,now blessing1 bloom1 and limb are all ,english2 benediction1 flower1 and member are all ,latin words--,latin words which have come to us through the doorway of the ,french language4 ,the following are some more of these synonyms2 and1 after examining them1 it will generally be found that the ,english words are stronger1 simpler1 and more homely than the ,french words4 ,,english4 ,,french4 ,bough ,branch4 ,buy ,purchase4 ,feeling ,sentiment4 ,friendly ,amiable4 ,hearty ,cordial4 ,luck ,fortune4 ,meal ,flour4 ,mild ,gentle4 ,wish ,desire4 ,work ,labour4 ,wretched ,miserable4 ,wright ,carpenter4 #ce4 ,,bilingualism4--,during the three centuries which lay between #ajff and #acfb1 the ,english and the ,normans had to meet each other constantly in the field1 in the church1 at markets1 and in towns and villages4 ,they had to buy and sell from each other2 to give and take orders from and to each other2 and to speak with each other on many kinds of business4 ,they also intermarried4 ,thus the ,norman got slowly into the habit of joining an ,english word with his ,french word--so as to make it clear to the ,englishman2 while the ,englishman1 on his side1 joined the corresponding ,french word--when he happened to know it--to the ,english word he had to employ4 ,these words1 ever after1 ran in couples2 and this habit of going in couples became a habit of the language4 ,hence it is that1 in the opening words of our ,prayer-,book1 we use such couples as assemble and meet together2 acknowledge and confess2 dissemble and cloak2 and humble and lowly4 ,the words meet together1 acknowledge1 cloak1 and lowly1 represent the purely ,english part of the congregation2 while the ,norman-,french supplies such words as assemble1 confess1 dissemble1 and humble4 ,the great poet of the fourteenth century--,chaucer--has hundreds of examples of such phrases4 ,he gives us1 for example1 hunting and venerye2 mirth and jollity2 care and heed2 swinke and labour2 pray and beseech2 a wright and carpenter4 ,the practice of using these pairs of words has very greatly diminished in our day2 but a few examples still keep their place in the language4 ,such are will and testament1 use and wont1 aid and abet1 and several others4 #cf4 ,,doublets4--,it is chiefly to the same ,norman-,french influence that we owe a minor phenomenon of the language--the appearance of two forms of the same word4 ,these two forms are called doublets4 ,the ,norman-,french could not pronounce our semi-vowel w4 ,they had either to make a v of it1 or a hard g4 ,they preferred the hard g2 and1 to keep it hard1 they added a u4 ,thus1 for wile1 they said guile2 for wise 7 manner71 they said guise2 for ward1 guard2 for warden1 guardian2 for wardrobe1 garderobe2 for warrant1 guarantee2 and so on4 #cg4 ,,doublets ,,from ,,dialects ,,and ,,other ,,sources4--,besides the doublets due to ,norman-,french influences1 there are many interesting cases which may be referred to4 ,some are evidently due to differences of dialect4 ,the ,english language grew up from different centres1 which had little or no connection with each other1 on account of the difficulties of travelling4 ,hence a word would take different forms in different dialects--like church in the south of the ,english-speaking country1 and kirk in the north2 so also with cole1 of which the northern form is kail4 ,sometimes one word is merely a later and modified form of another1 as draw of drag4 ,in all cases doublets are forms of the same word1 which have come through different experiences of place1 or time1 or other influence4 ,in short1 they should be recognised as really one word1 with a difference in spelling and meaning1 resulting from its history4 ,other specimens of doublets are down and dune2 shriek and screech2 shell and scale2 wagon and wain4 #ch4 ,,pronunciation4--,the ,norman-,french refined our mode of speaking2 made the existing vowel-sounds less coarse2 gave us some new vowel-sounds2 and1 above all1 taught us to give up most of our rough throat-sounds or gutturals4 ,they gradually turned out the gutturals from the beginning of words2 and genoh became enough1 and gif1 if4 ,they turned them out of the middle of words2 and nagel became nail1 and hagel1 hail4 ,they got rid of them at the ends of words2 and we no longer pronounce the guttural in flight1 might1 right1 and sight4 ,this is all the more absurd and remarkable that we write the sound that once was there with two strong gutturals1 g and h4 ,sometimes the influence of the ,norman-,french was to turn the guttural into a kind of hissing sound or sibilant2 and it is in this way that we came to say teach1 beseech1 and catch4 ,but the ch in these words comes back to its older use1 and becomes a gh again1 in the past tense--in taught1 besought1 and caught4 #ci4 ,,latin ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,period4--,the ,latin introduced into our language by the ,norman-,french was a spoken ,latin4 ,it was the ,latin of the ear and mouth4 ,it was the everyday speech of the people2 and underwent very great change4 ,the ,latin introduced into our language by learned men was a written or printed ,latin4 ,it was the ,latin of the eye and pen4 ,this ,latin is called the ,latin of the ,fourth ,period2 and it was brought into our language by a powerful movement known as the ,revival of ,learning4--,when the ,turks took ,constantinople in #adec1 the learned ,greeks of that capital fled from the city1 carrying with them their precious manuscript copies of ,greek and ,latin writers4 ,they fled into ,italy1 into ,germany1 and into ,france and ,england4 ,they taught ,greek and ,latin in the universities of these countries2 and very soon the study of ,greek and ,latin became the fashion among all persons of leisure2 and the stores of thought and beauty in ,homer and ,sophocles1 in ,virgil and ,horace1 were diligently studied and appropriated4 ,queen ,elizabeth was a good ,greek scholar1 and could both speak and write good ,latin4 ,now began to come into our language thousands of ,latin words2 until1 in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 an eminent writer complains that ,englishmen will have #8to learn ,latin to understand ,english1 and a work will prove of equal facility in either4' ,unlike the ,latin words of the ,third ,period1 the ,latin words introduced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries suffered little or no change4 ,they were transferred from ,latin books just as they were--by the accurate aid of the hand and eye1 and underwent no process of change or corruption4 ,the ,latin opinio became opinion2 notio1 notion2 suggestio1 suggestion2 separatum1 separate2 iteratum1 iterate2 and so on4 ,it would be a great mistake1 however1 to suppose that all the ,latin of this ,fourth ,period came directly from the ,latin4 ,most of it came through the medium of ,french1 as did the ,latin of the ,third ,period2 but unlike it1 it was not the language of the people4 ,in ,french1 as in ,english1 it was the language merely of books1 of the literary and of learned men4--,it is worthy of notice that many words which we use every day1 and which we think must always have been in the language1 only came in about this period1 and are therefore comparatively new4 ,thus ,mr ,gill1 the high-master of ,st ,paul's ,school in #afai1 and the teacher of ,john ,milton in his boyhood1 complains of the introduction of words which are now quite common to all of us4 ,he says3 #8,o harsh lips6 ,i now hear all around me such words as common1 vices1 envy1 malice2 even virtue1 study1 justice1 pity1 mercy1 compassion1 profit1 commodity1 colour1 grace1 favour1 acceptance4' ,the wonder nowadays would be how we could possibly get on without these words1 and how we could ever have done without them4 #dj4 ,,mouth ,,latin ,,and ,,book ,,latin4--,the introduction of ,latin words into our ,english speech by two doors--by the living conversation of living people1 and by the silent door of books1 has given rise to a phenomenon of the same kind as that described in section #cf4 ,but the phenomenon of duplicates or doublets presents itself to our notice on a much larger scale now2 and1 in every case1 the duplicate word becomes in reality two separate words--employed for separate purposes1 and with perfectly distinct meanings4 ,thus1 though legal1 leal1 and loyal are1 in their origin1 fundamentally the same word1 their meanings are perfectly distinct and even widely different2 hospital and hotel are the same words1 but they are no longer used in the same sense2 while fact and feat have also widely diverged from each other in use and in signification4 ,the ,latin words that have come from the ,latin language by the path of books1 have kept their ,latin shape1 and may be called ,book ,latin4 ,the ,latin words that have come to us by the path of ,norman-,french have undergone great alterations2 and they may be called spoken ,latin4 ,the chief process of alteration undergone by them is that of squeezing2 three syllables have generally been squeezed into two4 ,the following is a list3 ,,duplicate ,,words ,,or ,,doublets4 ,,latin4 ,,book ,,latin4 ,,spoken ,,latin4 ,benedictio1 benediction1 benison4 ,cadentia 7things falling cadence1 chance4 or befalling71 ,captivus1 captive1 caitiff4 ,conceptio1 conception1 conceit4 ,cophinus1 coffin1 coffer4 ,debitum1 debit1 debt4 ,defectum1 defect1 defeat4 ,dilatare1 dilate1 delay4 ,exemplum1 example1 sample4 ,fabrica1 fabric1 forge4 ,factio1 faction1 fashion4 ,factum1 fact1 feat4 ,fidelitas1 fidelity1 fealty4 ,fragilis1 fragile1 frail4 ,gentilis1 gentile1 gentle1 genteel4 ,granum 7a grain71 granary1 garner4 ,historia1 history1 story4 ,hospitale1 hospital1 hotel4 ,lectio1 lection1 lesson4 ,legalis1 legal1 loyal4 ,major 7greater71 major1 mayor4 ,maledictio1 malediction1 malison4 ,nutrimentum1 nutriment1 nourishment4 ,oratio1 oration1 orison4 ,pagus 7a country district pagan1 paynim 7the heathen74 or canton71 ,particula1 particle1 parcel4 ,pauper1 pauper1 poor4 ,penitentia1 penitence1 penance4 ,persecutum1 persecute1 pursue4 ,potio 7a draught71 potion1 poison4 ,providentia1 providence1 prudence4 ,pungens1 pungent1 poignant4 ,quietus1 quiet1 coy4 ,radius1 radius1 ray4 ,regalis1 regal1 royal4 ,respectus1 respect1 respite4 ,securus1 secure1 sure4 ,senior1 senior1 sir4 ,separatum1 separate1 sever4 ,species1 species1 spices4 ,status1 state1 estate4 ,superficies1 superficies1 surface4 ,tractus1 tract1 trait1 treat4 ,traditio 7a giving up71 tradition1 treason4 ,,notes4--,benison is the opposite of malison4 ,a caitiff was a person who allowed himself to be taken captive4 ,a feat of arms was a fact or deed of arms2 hence a feat par excellence4 ,the hard guttural c in fabric has become a sibilant g in forge1 by ,nor4 ,fr4 influence4 ,the g in fragile was originally hard4 ,major is a greater captain2 a mayor is a greater alderman4 ,orison may be compared with benison1 poison1 reason1 and treason4 ,the p in separate has become a v in sever2 both letters being labials4 ,the cutting down of the five syllables in superficies into two in surface1 is the most remarkable instance of compression in the whole list4 ,many of the ,book ,latin words in the above list1 such as captive1 debit1 defect1 fact1 c41 were borrowed directly from the ,latin1 and not through the medium of ,french books4 #da4 ,,greek ,,doublets4--,the same phenomenon has also taken place with reference to ,greek words4 ,it is of course the newer form of these words that was given us by the revival of learning2 the older forms may have existed in the language since the coming of ,augustine in the end of the sixth century4 ,,greek4 ,,older ,,form4 ,,newer ,,form4 ,adamas1 adamant1 diamond4 ,asphodlos1 asphodel1 daffodil4 ,balsamon1 balsam1 balm4 ,blasphemein1 blaspheme1 blame4 ,cheirourgos1 chirurgeon1 surgeon4 ,dactlos 7a finger71 date 7the fruit71 dactyl4 ,phantasia1 fancy1 phantasy4 ,phantasma1 phantasm1 phantasy4 ,presbutros1 priest1 presbyter4 ,paralysis1 palsy1 paralysis4 ,scandalon1 slander1 scandal4 ,,notes4--,adamant means the unsubduable2 a chirurgeon is literally a worker with the hand2 phantasia is the power of presenting to the mind's eye a bodily image that is not present2 presbuteros means simply elder4 ,in the time of ,shakspeare1 fancy meant love4 #8,tell me where is fancy bred6' is the first line of a song in the ,merchant of ,venice4 #db4 ,,english ,,words ,,and ,,french ,,words ,,in ,,sentences4--,the difference between ,english steeped in ,french and ,latin1 and ,english written almost wholly in pure ,english words1 can be at once seen in the two following passages1 which are taken from the work of ,mr ,c4 ,schele ,de ,vere1 an ,american writer4 7a7 #8,the ,norman altered and increased our language2 but he could not extirpate it4 ,to defend his conquest1 he took possession of the country2 and1 master of the soil1 he erected fortresses and castles1 and attempted to introduce new terms4 ,the universe and the firmament--the planets1 comets1 and meteors--the atmosphere and the seasons1 all were impressed with the seal of the conqueror4 ,hills became mountains1 and dales valleys2 streams were called rivers1 and brooks rivulets2 waterfalls1 cascades2 and woods1 forests4' ,all the words in italics in the above passage are either of ,latin or of ,french origin2 if of ,french1 then they are ,latin at second-hand4 7b7 #8,but the dominion of the ,norman did not extend to the home of the ,englishman1 it stopped at the threshold of his house2 there1 around the fireside in his kitchen1,a and the hearth in his room1#ab he met his beloved kindred2 the bride1 the wife1 and the husband1 sons and daughters1 brothers and sisters1 tied to each other by love1 friendship1 and kind feelings1 knew nothing dearer than their own sweet home4' ,only one word in the above is ,french 7dominion71 and two are ,latin 7extend and kitchen74 ,all the others are purely ,english4 #dc4 ,,english ,,words ,,lost4--,the copious introduction of ,norman-,french1 ,latin1 and ,greek terms into our language1 had the effect of pushing a great number of purely ,english words out of our speech1 or at least of making them less frequent in use4 ,thus we used to say fore-elders1 but this word has had its place taken by ancestors2 fairhood has been pushed out by beauty2 and wonstead by residence4 ,in the same way1 forewit has given place to caution2 licherest#ac to cemetery2 inwit to conscience2 bookhoard to library2 and hindersome to obstructive4 ,in fact1 it is often easier for us to understand foreign words than those of our own native home-grown speech4 ,the title of an old book written in the thirteenth century is the ,ayenbite#ad of ,inwyt--a title which is to us much more intelligible in its ,franco-,latin translation of ,remorse of ,conscience4 ,mr ,barnes1 the ,dorsetshire poet1 has tried to re-introduce the genuine homely ,english way of speaking and writing2 and to banish ,latin terms4 ,thus1 in his ,grammar or #8,book of ,speech-,craft1' he calls singular1 onely2 plural1 somely2 and he calls degrees of comparison1 pitches of suchness4 ,the difficulty he has to contend with is1 that this home ,english is less intelligible to our modern ears than the foreign ,latin4 ,thus the following sentence looks like a word-puzzle3 #8,these pitch-marks off mark sundry things by their sundry suchnesses1 as1 8,the taller or less tall man of the two is my friend40' ,and he also says--what is a useful warning for us3 #8,speech was shapen of the breath-sounds of speakers1 for the ears of hearers2 and not from speech-tokens 7letters7 in books1 for men's eyes4' ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,history of the ,grammar of ,english4 #a4 ,,an ,,inflected ,,language4--,when1 in the fifth century1 our ,english speech was brought over from the ,continent1 it was a highly inflected or ,synthetic language2 and it remained in this condition for several centuries4 ,the coming of the ,danes had the effect of beginning the dropping off of inflections4 ,the coming of the ,normans extended very much and hastened this process1 which has gone on with considerable rapidity down to the present day4 ,we may put the general fact in this way3 ,the ,english ,language was a ,synthetic ,language down to about the year #aajj2 since that time1 it has been becoming more and more of an ,analytic ,language4 #b4 ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,nouns4--,in the very oldest ,english--or1 as it is commonly called1 ,anglo-,saxon--nouns were declined in different ways1 and had several declensions1 just as ,german and ,latin have4 ,each of these declensions had four cases4 ,nowadays we have only one declension and only one inflection for the cases of nouns4 ,that one inflection is 's for the possessive case4 ,the following is an example of an old declension3 ,declension of ,,eage1 the eye4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom4 ,eage 7eye74 ,eagan4 ,pos4 ,eag-an 7of74 ,eag-ena4 ,dat4 ,eag-an 7to74 ,eag-am4 ,obj4 ,eage4 ,eagan4 ,again1 in this ,english1 gender did not follow sex1 but was poetic and fantastic4 ,tongue and week were feminine nouns1 as they still are in modern ,german2 star and sea1 masculine2 wife and child1 neuter4--,in old ,english there were a great many plural endings1 as -as1 -an1 -u1 -a1 -o4 ,after the ,norman ,conquest they were greatly reduced1 -es or -s being now the ordinary ending1 -en being exceptional4 #c4 ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,adjectives4--,adjectives had also cases4 ,adjectives had four cases1 three genders1 and two numbers4 ,now we say good for all cases1 genders1 and numbers4 ,in the fourteenth century the only ending which adjectives possessed was e for the plural4 ,thus ,chaucer 7#acdj-adjj7 writes of the little birds3 ,and smal fowls maken melodie4 #d4 ,,grammar ,,of ,,definite ,,article4--,this article was declined like an adjective1 in three different genders4 ,now it has no inflections at all4 ,it has still1 however1 a clear and distinct memory of one case1 which survives in such phrases as1 #8,the more1 the merrier4' ,this sentence might be written1 #8 more1 merrier4' ,that is to say1 #8,by that more1 by that merrier4' ,the measure of the increase of the company is the measure of the increase of the merriment4 #e4 ,,grammar ,,of ,,the ,,personal ,,pronoun4--,the personal pronoun was also highly inflected in the oldest ,english2 and the two personal pronouns of the first and second persons possessed this remarkable peculiarity1 that it had three numbers1 singular1 dual1 and plural4 ,the dual form stood for ,we two and for ,you two2 and1 if we cared to trouble ourselves nowadays with a host of inflections1 these would certainly be very convenient4 ,all this is now very much changed4 ,the dual number is completely gone2 the use of thou1 except in religious compositions1 has been given up1 and the true possessive of it1 which is his1 has given place to the incorrect form its4 ,the possessive its is very seldom found in ,shakspeare1 and there is only one instance of it in our present translation of the ,bible3 #8,that which groweth of its own accord of thy harvest thou shalt not reap' 7,lev4 xxv4 #e74 ,but another reading is1 #8of it own accord4' #f4 ,,grammar ,,of ,,verbs4--,the verb possessed also1 in the oldest times1 before the language was at all influenced by ,norman-,french1 a large number of inflections4 ,at the present time a verb has only five inflections2 but1 if it belongs to the strong conjugation1 it may have six4 ,let us look at the old verb niman1 to take1 which still survives in our adjective nimble1 which means quick at taking4 ,the chief tenses of niman were inflected as follows3 ,,present ,,tense4 ,sing4 ,plural4 #a4 nime4 nimath4 #b4 nimest4 nimath4 #c4 nimeth4 nimath4 ,,past ,,tense4 ,sing4 ,plural4 #a4 nm4 nmon4 #b4 nme4 nmon4 #c4 nm4 nmon4 ,of all the inflections in the above1 only two still remain1 st in the second person singular1 and th in the third person2 and even these two inflections are nowadays hardly used at all4 #g4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,noun ,,inflections4--,although our language1 in the course of its history1 has lost almost all of its inflections1 there still remain1 here and there1 in our grammar1 fragments of inflections which are often curiously disguised1 and therefore difficult to recognise4 ,thus1 at first sight1 it is not easy to see that vixen is the feminine of fox4 ,but vixen is simply the same as fixen1 or fyxen1 and it was one of the laws of ,anglo-,saxon vowel-change that o became y4 ,it was very usual to make the plural of nouns in en4 ,thus we said shoon1 hosen1 tren1 been 7for bees71 toon 7for toes71 flon 7for arrows71 and fleen 7for fleas74 ,but1 of all these and other similar plurals1 we now possess only one--oxen4 ,the plurals children and brethren are really double plurals4 ,the oldest plurals were cildru1 afterwards childer2 and brether4 ,it was then forgotten that these were real plurals1 and an en was added4 #h4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,adjective ,,inflections4--,we have the comparative rather 7rightly pronounced in ,ireland rayther72 but we have no rathe or rathest4 ,an old writer1 speaking of a star1 says3 #8,it rose rather and rather 7earlier74' ,nighest becomes next2 because the g s is equal to an x4 ,so there was in our country an old proverb1 #8,when bale is hext1 bone is next'--that is1 #8,when evil is highest1 boon is nighest4' ,over is now only used as a preposition4 ,but it is really the comparative degree of the old adjective ov1 which is a form of up or off4 #i4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,pronoun ,,inflections4--,the t in it 7which was formerly hit1 as the neuter of he7 is simply the sign of the neuter gender1 and is the same t that is found in tha-t1 wha-t 7the neuter of who71 etc4 ,hence the true possessive of it is his2 and this is the form in use in ,shakspeare and ,bacon1 and even down to the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,its1 as we have already seen1 is a blunder4 ,they is not the true plural of he2 but really of the old definite article thaet4 #aj4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,verb ,,inflections4--,the inflections of the verb are very strangely disguised2 and1 if learned men had not worked hard1 and made diligent inquiry in many directions1 we should never have known what they really are4 ,thus the m in am is the same m that is found in me2 and the oldest form known of the verb am1 in the oldest language1 is asmi4--,the t which we find in the second person of some verbs1 such as art1 wast1 shalt1 and wilt1 is the same as the th in thou4 ,this t is therefore the pronoun thou added to the verb4--,the th in the old-fashioned third person singular writeth1 hopeth1 etc41 is the same th that we find in the and that4 ,accordingly1 we may say that burneth is that 7thing7 burns4--,the last d in did is not the same as the ed in walked4 ,did is not doed4 ,an older form of did is dude2 and from this we see that the past tense was formed by doubling the present--by reduplication4 ,thus we see that it is the last d that represents the do4--,the word worth in the well-known lines from the ,lady of the ,lake-- ,woe worth the chase1 woe worth the day1 ,that cost thy life1 thou gallant gray6-- is not an adjective1 but the remnant of an old verb4 ,this verb is weorthan1 to become2 and worth is the imperative of it4 ,when a verb has lost one of its parts1 it goes to another verb1 and borrows the use of one of its parts4 ,thus went1 the past tense of go1 is borrowed from wend4 #aa4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,inflections ,,in ,,adverbs4--,adverbs contain a great number of disguised inflections4 ,in the present day1 we make adverbs from adjectives by adding ly to them--as neat1 neatly2 warm1 warmly4 ,but1 in old ,english1 the adverb was made by employing the dative of the adjective4 ,thus1 bright was in a bright manner2 swift was swiftly4 ,then very soon dropped off2 and the word was left in its bare root--stripped of inflections4 ,and so it has happened that we have many adverbs which are used in their simplest form1 and are just the same as adjectives4 ,we do not say1 #8,he runs fastly1' but #8,he runs fast2' #8,he works hardly1' but #8,he works hard4'--,but the remnants of other cases are also found in adverbs4 ,thus needs1 always1 sideways1 once 7for ons71 twice 7for twis71 unawares1 whence 7for whenns7 and others1 are all old possessives4--,seldom is an old dative plural4 ,seld meant rare2 and seldom means at rare times4--,the in the phrase1 #8,the older the better1' is an ablative or instrumental case2 and therefore means by that4 ,accordingly this sentence means3 #8,by that older1 by that better4' ,the measure of the increase of age is the measure of the increase of the quality4 #ab4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,inflections ,,in ,,prepositions4--,since is the possessive case of the old ,english word sithen4 ,the following are the steps3 ,sithenns2 sithens2 sithence2 since4--,after is the comparative degree of the old preposition af 7 of71 which meant from4 ,over is another comparative form1 from a root which appears in up4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,changes in ,modern ,english4 #a4 ,,formation ,,of ,,modern ,,english4--,we have seen that the substance of the living ,english tongue was brought from ,germany to this island by our ,teutonic ancestors4 ,we have seen also that it has undergone a great variety of influences1 the greatest and strongest of which was the ,norman ,conquest4 ,for a long time after the ,conquest1 the ,english language was the tongue of a subject and humiliated race2 it ceased to be fashionable1 and almost ceased to be literary4 ,in the thirteenth century it began to revive1 but with very important changes2 the inflections1 and many of the old ,english words1 being lost1 and a multitude of new words being introduced4 ,in ,chaucer's time it regained its old position as the language of the court1 of fashion1 and of literature4 ,in #adhe we find the language in all important respects fixed as we have it now4 ,every intelligent ,englishman is able to understand all that has since been written4 ,modern ,english1 then1 dates from #adhe1 the year when the ,wars of the ,roses ended with the battle of ,bosworth1 and the ,tudor line ascended the throne4 ,it was the time also when the art of printing was introduced by ,caxton2 and about the time when the two great events1 the ,revival of ,learning and the ,reformation1 took place4 #b4 ,,continued ,,history ,,of ,,our ,,language4--,it would be a mistake1 however1 to suppose that the language has no history after #adhe4 ,language is the expression and embodiment of thought2 and as thought varies with the varying experience of man1 language must change accordingly4 ,since #adhe the ,english people have gone through marvellous changes--changes in political and social life1 in science1 in art1 and industry4 ,they have planted extensive colonies1 they carry on trade in every part of the world1 and have dealings with every nation4 ,in all this widening and progressive life1 we have got to know far more than we did in #adhe1 and thus require to use a multitude of words unknown to the people of that period4 ,the result has been a large addition to our vocabulary4 #c4 ,,borrowing ,,from ,,spanish ,,and ,,italian4--,under the heading #8,latin of the ,fourth ,period1' we have noted the number of words borrowed from the ,latin during the sixteenth century4 ,we are now to observe that about the same time there was a considerable borrowing of words from the ,spanish and ,italian4 ,of course1 as ,italian and ,spanish are offshoots from ,latin1 these words also are mostly of ,latin origin4 7i7 ,italian4--,during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ,italian literature was very extensively studied by ,english writers4 ,for some centuries the ,italians were the most cultivated people in ,europe4 ,italy was the home of music1 painting1 and sculpture4 ,her poets served as models to those of other nations4 ,the earliest poets of modern ,england1 such as ,wyatt and ,surrey1 were inspired by them2 ,spenser and ,milton were ardent students of their works4 ,during this period1 consequently1 we introduced from the ,italian language many important words1 among which may be mentioned sonnet1 opera1 cupola1 balcony1 palette4 7ii7 ,spanish4--,at the same time we had even more intimate relations with ,spain1 though of a different kind4 ,in the sixteenth century ,spain was the leading nation of ,europe4 ,she had the best soldiers1 the first generals and statesmen2 her ships discovered ,america2 and her kings aimed at universal dominion4 ,as both friend and enemy1 ,england was brought into close connection with the ,spaniards4 ,under these circumstances we naturally adopted many words from them4 ,while most of these were of ,latin origin1 not a few related to the new countries discovered and conquered by ,spain in ,america4 ,among the ,spanish words may be mentioned buffalo1 alligator1 don1 armada1 indigo1 potato1 tobacco4 ,the last two are of ,american origin4 ,the rest are ,latin4 ,alligator is of ,latin origin1 but is the name of an ,american animal4 #d4 ,,dutch ,,words4--,we have borrowed very few words from the ,germans2 but from the people of the ,netherlands1 who have always been near neighbours to us1 we have derived not a few4 ,long ago1 ,flemings 7or people of ,flanders7 were settled in ,wales and ,norfolk4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 thousands of ,protestant refugees from ,antwerp and other places in the ,netherlands found an asylum in ,england4 ,since the rise of ,holland we have had many dealings1 both warlike and commercial1 with the ,dutch4 ,all this accounts for the goodly number of ,dutch words which we now find in the ,english language1 such as burgomaster1 ballast1 holster1 trigger1 yacht1 yawl4 #e4 ,it will have been clearly seen that there are two main elements in the ,english language--the ,teutonic element1 which is by far the most important2 and the ,latin element4 ,it is interesting to trace the relative proportion of these two elements as used by the great ,english writers4 ,in the seventeenth century1 especially in such writers as ,milton and ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 we find a large use of the ,latin element1 accompanied by a ,latin or complex and involved structure of sentence4 ,towards the end of the century1 and especially in the beginning of the eighteenth1 during the period of ,queen ,anne1 a simpler style prevailed1 the classical element being more sparingly used4 ,but as we proceed into the eighteenth century1 the ,latin part of the language is again more largely employed by such writers as ,johnson1 ,gibbon1 and ,hume2 and it is again accompanied by a more formal and elaborate structure of sentence4 ,but before the century closes1 there is a return to simplicity and naturalness4 #f4 ,in the present century there are many influences specially worth noting as affecting the language3 7i7 ,social and ,political ,causes4--,society is a complex thing1 continually growing4 ,new facts and ideas are perpetually making themselves felt1 necessitating new words1 or a more extending meaning in old words4 ,in this province1 then1 changes in language are incessantly required4 ,hence the need for such new words as extradition1 neutralisation1 secularisation2 even for such unhappy coinages as burke4 ,on occasion of the great volunteer reviews of #ahha1 words like entrain and detrain1 applied to troops1 could be noticed creeping in4 ,closure and clture were rivals for currency during the debates of #ahhb2 and ,boycott began to present serious claims to permanent citizenship in the ,english tongue4 7ii7 ,popularising of ,technical and ,scientific ,terms4--,one of the most marked features of the nineteenth century is the great diffusion of scientific knowledge1 and the application of it to the uses of practical life4 ,the highest scientific results are becoming common property2 and the discoveries of science have been made to satisfy the common needs of men4 ,the result is that terms once unknown or exclusively technical have gained the widest currency in the popular speech4 ,there is no need to mention such familiar words as telegraph1 photograph1 or even telephone or photophone4 ,the old noun wire has now established its right to be used as a verb4 ,in other spheres such terms as objective1 subjective1 sthetics1 now fulfil important functions2 sthete also seems too useful a word to be dispensed with4 7iii7 ,revival of ,archaisms4--,in many of our recent poets there has been a tendency to revive some of the old ,spenserian or ,shaksperian words4 ,but as these are purely literary terms1 with no currency in the common speech1 they need not be dwelt on4 7iv7 ,introduction of ,scotticisms and ,americanisms4--,the right of the ,scottish tongue to be considered one of the worthiest varieties of the genuine old ,english or ,saxon tongue is now generally recognised4 ,but apart from that1 the intrinsic merit of such words as eerie1 glamour1 sough1 bonnie1 douce 7both of which last1 however1 are of ,french origin71 will probably secure them a permanent place in our language4 ,the influence of ,america will also be more and more felt on the common ,english language1 whether through its stock of old ,saxon phrases which have been preserved in ,america1 through the innovations made by its humorists1 or the new experiences in its social and political life4 7v7 ,further borrowing from ,foreign ,languages4--,even the most remote and unlikely make important and familiar contributions to our tongue4 ,from the ,malays we have 7along with the thing7 borrowed the words bamboo1 gong1 sago2 from the ,australians we have boomerang and kangaroo2 and from ,south ,african tongues1 gnu1 quagga1 kraal4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,words adopted from ,foreign ,languages4 #a4 ,,from ,,african ,,dialects4--,chimpanzee1 gnu1 gorilla1 karoo1 kraal1 zebra4 #b4 ,,from ,,american ,,tongues4--,buccaneer1 cacique1 cannibal1 canoe1 caoutchouc1 cayman1 chocolate1 condor1 guano1 hammock1 jaguar1 jalap1 jerked 7beef71 llama1 mahogany1 maize1 manioc1 moccasin1 mustang1 opossum1 pampas1 pemmican1 potato1 skunk1 squaw1 tapioca1 tobacco1 tomahawk1 tomato1 wigwam1 yam4 #c4 ,,from ,,the ,,arabic ,,language4 7,the word al means the4 ,thus alcohol the spirit4 ,a few of the following words1 however1 though they have come to us through ,arabic1 belong originally to other tongues4 ,thus alchemy and talisman are from the ,greek2 apricot is ,latin47--,admiral1 alchemy1 alcohol1 alcove1 alembic1 algebra1 alkali1 amber1 apricot1 arrack1 arsenal1 artichoke1 assassin1 assegai1 attar1 azimuth1 azure1 caliph1 carat1 chemistry1 cipher1 civet1 coffee1 cotton1 crimson1 dragoman1 elixir1 emir1 fakir1 felucca1 gazelle1 giraffe1 harem1 hookah1 koran 7or alcoran71 lute1 magazine1 mattress1 minaret1 mohair1 monsoon1 mosque1 mufti1 nabob1 nadir1 naphtha1 salaam1 senna1 sherbet1 shrub 7the drink71 simoom1 sirocco1 sofa1 sultan1 syrup1 talisman1 tamarind1 tariff1 vizier1 zenith1 zero4 #d4 ,,from ,,chinese4--,bohea1 congou1 hyson1 joss1 junk1 nankeen1 pekoe1 souchong1 tea4 #e4 ,,from ,,dutch 7words relating chiefly to naval affairs74--,boom1 boor1 hoy1 luff1 reef1 schiedam 7gin71 skates1 skipper1 sloop1 smack1 smuggle1 stiver1 taffrail1 wear 7of a ship71 yacht4 #f4 ,,from ,,french4--,aide-de-camp1 belle1 bivouac1 blonde1 bouquet1 brunette1 brusque1 carte-de-visite1 coup-d'tat1 dbris1 dbut1 djener 7breakfast71 depot1 clat1 ennui1 etiquette1 naive1 navet1 nonchalance1 personnel1 prcis1 programme1 protg1 recherch1 soire4 #g4 ,,from ,,german 7mostly mining terms74--,cobalt1 felspar1 horn-blend1 landgrave1 loafer1 margrave1 meerschaum1 nickel1 plunder1 poodle1 quartz1 zinc4 #h4 ,,from ,,hebrew 7words relating chiefly to religion74--,abbey1 abbot1 amen1 behemoth1 cabal1 cherub1 gehenna1 hallelujah1 hosannah1 ,jehovah1 jubilee1 leviathan1 manna1 paschal1 pharisee1 pharisaical1 rabbi1 sabbath1 ,sadducees1 ,satan1 seraph1 shibboleth1 ,talmud4 #i4 ,,from ,,hindu4--,avatar1 banyan1 bungalow1 calico1 chintz1 coolie1 cowrie1 durbar1 jungle1 lac 7of rupees71 loot1 mulligatawny1 pagoda1 palanquin1 pariah1 punch1 pundit1 rajah1 rupee1 ryot1 sepoy1 shampoo1 sugar1 suttee1 thug1 toddy4 #aj4 ,,from ,,hungarian4--,hussar4 #aa4 ,,from ,,italian4--,alarm1 alert1 alto1 bagatelle1 balcony1 balustrade1 bandit1 bankrupt1 bravo1 brigade1 brigand1 broccoli1 burlesque1 bust1 cameo1 canteen1 canto1 caprice1 caricature1 carnival1 cartoon1 cascade1 cavalcade1 charlatan1 citadel1 colonnade1 concert1 contralto1 conversazione1 cornice1 corridor1 cupola1 curvet1 dilettante1 ditto1 doge1 domino1 extravaganza1 fiasco1 folio1 fresco1 gazette1 gondola1 granite1 grotto1 guitar1 incognito1 influenza1 lagoon1 lava1 lazaretto1 macaroni1 madonna1 madrigal1 malaria1 manifesto1 motto1 moustache1 niche1 opera1 oratorio1 palette1 pantaloon1 parapet1 pedant1 pianoforte1 piazza1 pistol1 portico1 proviso1 quarto1 regatta1 ruffian1 serenade1 sonnet1 soprano1 stanza1 stiletto1 stucco1 studio1 tenor1 terra-cotta1 tirade1 torso1 trombone1 umbrella1 vermilion1 vertu1 virtuoso1 vista1 volcano1 zany4 #ab4 ,,from ,,malay4--,amuck1 bamboo1 bantam1 caddy1 cockatoo1 dugong1 gamboge1 gong1 guttapercha1 mandarin 7through the ,portuguese71 mango1 ourangoutang1 rattan1 sago1 upas4 #ac4 ,,from ,,persian4--,bazaar1 bashaw1 caravan1 check1 checkmate1 chess1 dervish1 divan1 firman1 hazard1 horde1 houri1 jar1 jackal1 jasmine1 lac 7a gum71 lemon1 lilac1 lime 7the fruit71 musk1 orange1 paradise1 pasha1 rook1 saraband1 sash1 scimitar1 shawl1 taffeta1 turban4 #ad4 ,,from ,,polynesian ,,dialects4--,boomerang1 kangaroo1 taboo1 tattoo 7to paint the skin74 #ae4 ,,from ,,portuguese4--,albatross1 caste1 cobra1 cocoa-nut1 commodore1 fetish1 lasso1 marmalade1 moidore1 palaver1 port 7,oporto74 #af4 ,,from ,,russian4--,czar1 drosky1 knout1 morse 7walrus71 steppe1 ukase4 #ag4 ,,from ,,spanish4--,alligator1 armada1 barricade1 battledore1 bravado1 buffalo1 caracole1 cargo1 cigar1 cochineal1 cork1 creole1 desperado1 don1 duenna1 ,el dorado1 embargo1 filibuster 7from ,english flyboat71 filigree1 flotilla1 galleon 7a ship71 grandee1 grenade1 guerilla1 indigo1 jennet1 matadore1 merino1 mosquito1 mulatto1 negro1 octoroon1 quadroon1 renegade1 savannah1 sherry 7,xeres71 tornado1 vanilla4 #ah4 ,,from ,,tartar4--,caviare 7the roe of the sturgeon74 #ai4 ,,from ,,turkish4--,bey1 caftan1 chibouk1 chouse1 janissary1 kiosk1 odalisque1 ottoman1 tulip1 yashmak1 yataghan4 ,,chief ,,dates ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language4 44444,a4,d4 #a4 ,cdmon wrote a ,paraphrase of the ,scriptures in ,first ,english prose44444#fgj #b4 ,bede1 or ,bda1 wrote a translation into ,english of part of the ,gospel of ,st ,john44444#gce #c4 ,king ,alfred translated many ,latin works into ,english1 among others1 the ,ecclesiastical ,history of the ,english ,nation4 ,king ,alfred died44444#ija #d4 lfric translates parts of the ,bible44444#ajjj #e4 ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle brought to a stop about44444#aaed #f4 ,normandy taken from ,england under ,king ,john4 ,normans now obliged to regard themselves as ,englishmen1 and more ready to use the ,english tongue44444#abjd #g4 ,layamon's ,brut--a poem--the first ,english book written after the stoppage of the ,chronicle 7written in the ,southern ,english dialect744444#abje #h4 ,first ,proclamation ever written in ,english1 issued by ,henry ,,iii444444#abeh #i4 ,sir ,john ,mandeville1 the first writer of formed ,english prose1 #8publishes' his ,travels44444#acef 7,publishes in this century means3 ,allows copies in manuscript to be made of his book47 #aj4 ,edward ,,iii4 authorises the use of ,english instead of ,french in courts of law and in schools44444#acfb #aa4 ,john ,wicliffe translates most of the ,bible44444#achj #ab4 ,geoffrey ,chaucer1 the #8,father of ,english ,poetry1' wrote his ,canterbury ,tales about44444#achh #ac4 ,william ,caxton prints the first ,english book ever printed1 ,the ,history of ,troyes1 in ,flanders44444#adga #ad4 ,caxton erects the first printing-press in the ,broad ,sanctuary1 in ,westminster1 and publishes the first book ever printed in ,england1 the ,game and ,playe of the ,chesse44444#adgd #ae4 ,the ,book of ,common ,prayer compiled by ,cranmer44444#aedi #af4 ,the ,english ,bible1 based upon ,william ,tyndall's and other translations1 published44444#afaa ,,chapter ,v4 ,notes on the ,growth of ,english ,words4 #a4 ,,roots2 ,,influence ,,of ,,imitation ,,on ,,language4--,the question of the origin of language is an extremely interesting one1 which has been long and keenly discussed4 ,but it is one on which the opinions of the learned are not agreed1 and we cannot dwell upon it here4 ,there is an established fact1 however1 which is of the highest interest and importance3 most of the words of the great family of ,indo-,european languages can be traced to a few hundred roots2 and these roots are common to the whole family4 ,it is the greatest achievement of philological science to have clearly established this fact4 ,how these roots have originated1 is a more uncertain inquiry3 in fact1 is just the question of the origin of language presented in another form4 ,it is the theory of some that words have arisen from the imitation of natural sounds2 the names of animals1 for instance1 being imitations of the sounds they utter4 ,though this has been ridiculed under the nickname of the bow-wow theory1 there seems to be some truth in it3 at anyrate no one will deny that in the ,english1 as in all other languages1 a great many words exist which are imitative of natural sounds4 ,among such words the following may be mentioned3 ,babble1 boom1 chatter1 chirp1 clang1 clatter1 clink1 crash1 croak1 cuckoo1 fizz1 giggle1 gurgle1 hiss1 howl1 hum1 hush1 murmur1 quack1 scream1 shriek1 squeal1 thud1 thump1 thwack1 twang1 whack1 wheeze1 whirr1 whizz4 ,of course these words were not all originally ,english4 ,clang and murmur1 for instance1 are ,latin words2 but they also are of imitative origin4 #b4 ,,hybrids4--,a hybrid is a word composed of a mixture of foreign and native elements4 ,sometimes an ,english word has a ,latin ending2 sometimes a ,latin word has an ,english ending4 ,all such words are called hybrids4 ,one of the most interesting of the earliest hybrids in ,english was the word bondage1 which is said to have been introduced in the year #acjc4 ,the word bond comes to us from the ,icelandic or ,norwegian word bondi1 which means farmer or tiller of the soil4 ,farmers in ,norway are to this day called bonders4 ,the suffix age is ,latin2 but it has come to us through ,norman-,french4 ,the full ,latin ending is atcum1 which1 in ,france1 in the course of generations1 was compressed into age4 ,there are other hybrids with this ending1 such as tillage 7which has pushed out the pure ,english tilth71 cartage1 stowage1 and others4--,the ending able1 which comes to us from ,latin1 combines very easily with words which are purely ,english4 ,thus we have lovable1 biddable1 laughable1 breakable1 and others4--,the ,latin ending osus means full of4 ,thus1 vinum is wine1 and vinosus is full of wine4 ,this sus becomes in ,english ous2 and we find this ,latin suffix added to words which are purely ,english4 ,thus we have wondrous from wonder1 and ravenous from raven4 ,we have also righteous1 which was originally rightws1 and the change into righteous was a corruption of the spelling4--,dis is a ,latin prefix1 and it is added to ,english words4 ,thus we have dislike and disown4 ,we have also dishearten1 an old word1 in which the prefix dis contradicts the suffix en 7which means to put or make74--,re1 another ,latin prefix1 unites with purely ,english words1 and we find renew1 reopen1 rebuild1 reclothe1 and others4--,french words with ,english prefixes are also found4 ,thus we have besiege2 the word siege1 a seat1 being ,french4 ,to besiege means to take a seat in front of a town1 with your mind made up not to go till you have taken it4--,latin words with ,english endings are found in useful1 useless1 usefulness1 uselessness1 and others4 ,english words with ,latin or ,french endings are not uncommon4 ,thus we have goddess1 forbearance1 hindrance1 oddity1 and others4 ,in old-fashioned ,english1 and even in ,wordsworth1 who died in #ahej1 we find such curious formations as oddments1 needments1 eggments 7eggings on or incitements71 and a few others4 #c4 ,,words ,,disguised ,,in ,,form ,,or ,,in ,,meaning4 ,abase1 to bring or make low4 ,from a ,low ,latin word bassus1 low4 ,abate1 to beat down4 ,low ,lat4 abbattre4 ,adder1 ,o4 ,e4 nadder4 ,the n has dropped from the noun1 owing to the mistaken notion that it belonged to the article4 ,compare umpire for numpire 7non par--that is1 not equal71 orange for norange 7,pers4 nranj71 apron for napron4 ,the dropping of the n is probably owing to the prefixing of an and mine4 ,adrift1 on or in the drift4 ,from the verb drive4 ,compare give1 gift2 shrive1 shrift4 ,alligator is ,spanish el lagarto1 the lizard 7par excellence71 from ,lat4 lacerta1 a lizard4 ,aloft1 on-loft1 in the lift 7air74 ,northern ,eng4 or #8,scotch' lift1 the air4 ,anon1 on or in-one 7instant74 ,the phrase then ones has become the nonce4 ,atonement1 at-one-ment1 bringing into one1 reconciliation4 ,in alone and atone the numeral one has its true sound4 ,babble1 to keep saying ba1 ba4 ,balloon1 a large ball 7,fr474 ,the oon is augmentative4 ,ballot1 a little ball 7,fr474 ,the ot is diminutive4 ,bank1 a bench on which money is laid out4 ,batch1 the quantity of bread baked at one time4 ,compare wake1 watch4 ,bird1 one of a brood 7formerly brid74 ,compare three1 third2 burn1 brand2 work1 wright4 ,in all these the r changes its place4 ,bran-new1 that is1 brand-new1 burnt-new1 as if newly from the fire4 ,breakfast1 a breaking of a fast4 ,compare ,fr4 djener1 from jene4 ,brick1 a piece broken off4 ,brimstone1 that is1 burn-stone1 from brennan1 to burn4 ,compare brindled4 ,the r is a letter which is easily moved4 ,compare three and third2 burn and brown2 etc4 ,brood1 something bred4 ,butcher1 ,o4 ,fr4 bocher1 a slaughterer of he-goats4 ,from ,o4 ,fr4 boc1 a goat1 not from bouche1 mouth4 ,boc is allied to the ,eng4 buck4 ,butler bottler--that is1 keeper of the bottles4 ,from ,nor4 ,fr4 butuille1 a bottle4 ,buxom1 pliable2 from bugan1 to bend1 which gives bight and bout4 ,carouse1 ,ger4 gar aus1 right out4 ,used of drinking a bumper4 ,caterpillar hairy cat4 ,from ,o4 ,fr4 chate1 she-cat2 pelouse1 from ,lat4 pilosus1 hairy4 ,compare ,woolly-bear4 ,causeway1 corrupted from ,fr4 chausse1 a raised way4 ,club1 a society clumped together4 ,connected with clump4 ,constable1 from comes stabuli1 count of the stable4 ,coop1 anything hollow1 like a cup4 ,cope1 a covering1 a cap4 ,costermonger costard-monger--that is1 apple-seller1 costard being a kind of apple4 ,country-dance1 a corruption of ,french contre-danse1 a dance in which each dancer stands opposite his partner4 ,coward1 a bob-tailed hare4 ,through ,o4 ,fr41 from ,lat4 cauda1 a tail4 ,coxcomb1 a corruption of cock's comb4 ,daisy--that is1 day's-eye1 so called from its sun-like appearance1 or because it closes its flower at night1 and opens it again in the morning4 ,dandelion1 a corruption of ,french dent-de-lion1 tooth of the lion4 ,dirge1 from dirige 7 direct71 the first word in the passage beginning ,ps4 v4 #h1 sung in the office for the dead4 ,disease1 want of ease2 pain4 ,drawing-room2 originally with-drawing room--that is1 a room for retiring to after dinner4 ,easel1 from ,dutch ezel1 a little ass4 ,etiquette1 originally a ticket on which the forms to be observed on particular occasions at court were inscribed4 ,fare1 originally a going or travelling1 hence the price paid for such4 ,farthing1 the fourth part1 hence the fourth of a penny4 ,ferry1 places for faring1 or travelling across a stream4 ,ford1 places for faring1 or travelling across a stream4 ,frontispiece1 that which is seen in the front4 ,low ,lat4 frontispicium1 from specio1 ,i see4 ,not connected with piece4 ,gad-fly1 the goading or stinging fly4 ,gaffer gramfer1 ,west of ,england for grandfather4 ,gammer grammer1 ,west of ,england for grandmother4 ,compare ,o4 ,e4 gomman and gommer1 for good man and good mother4 ,gospel1 ,god-spell 7news of ,god1 that is1 life of ,christ72 commonly explained1 however1 as good-spell 7good story71 as if a translation of ,gr4 eu-anggelion1 from eu1 well1 and anggelia1 a message4 ,grocer1 should be grosser1 from ,o4 ,fr4 grossier1 a wholesale dealer1 a dealer en gros--that is1 in the large4 ,in older ,eng41 grocers were called spicers4 ,compare the ,fr4 piciers4 ,groove1 something graven1 or hollowed out4 ,haft1 the handle or part of anything which we have or hold in the hand4 ,hamper1 ,low ,lat4 hanaperium1 a large vessel for keeping cups1 from ,low ,lat4 hanapus1 a drinking-cup4 ,handicraft1 craft or trade performed by the hand4 ,compare priestcraft1 witchcraft4 ,handle1 7v47 to touch with the hand2 7n47 the part held in the hand4 ,handsel1 money given in hand 7hand1 and sellan1 to give74 ,hanker1 to allow the mind to hang on or long for a thing4 ,compare hank of wool4 ,harbinger1 one who goes forward to provide a harbour or place of safety for an army 7,o4 ,e4 here1 an army2 beorgan1 to protect74 ,hatch1 to produce in a heck1 a northern ,english word1 meaning a hay-rack2 a frame made of cross bars of wood2 a hen-coop4 ,compare bake and batch2 wake and watch4 ,hatchment1 the coat of arms put up over a house1 the master of which has lately died2 a corruption of achievement4 ,hawthorn1 the hedge thorn4 ,a4,s4 haga1 a hedge or inclosure4 ,heaven1 that which is heaved1 or lifted up above our heads4 ,heavy1 that which requires much heaving to lift4 ,hinder1 to put or keep behind4 ,homestead1 the stead or place of a home2 a farm inclosure4 ,stead1 ,a4,s4 stede1 occurs in instead1 steadfast1 and steady4 ,cf4 also roadstead1 a place where ships ride at anchor4 ,husband1 the master of a house4 ,short for house-band4 ,the band is present participle of a word meaning #8to dwell4' ,hussy1 short for housewife4 ,compare bos'n for boatswain4 ,icicle ice-gicel4 ,the termination is not to be confounded with the diminutive ending -icle1 which is of ,latin origin4 ,gicel a small piece of ice1 and is therefore redundant4 ,intoxicate1 to drug or poison4 ,from a ,low ,latin verb to poison1 from ,greek toxon1 an arrow1 because arrows were frequently dipped in poison4 ,island1 water-land 7,o4 ,e4 ea1 water1 and land74 ,the s is intrusive1 and due to a confusion with isle1 which is from ,lat4 insula1 an island4 ,milton always spells it iland4 ,jaw 7old spelling1 chaw71 from chew1 therefore that which chews4 ,jerusalem artichoke1 ,it4 girasole2 ,lat4 gyrus 7,gr4 gyros71 a circle1 and sol1 the sun4 ,the artichoke is a kind of sunflower4 ,jerusalem is a corruption2 like sparrow-grass for asparagus4 ,kickshaws1 a corruption of ,french quelques choses4 ,kindness1 the feeling that is natural to those of the same kin or family4 ,lanthorn1 ,lat4 lanterna4 ,no connection with horn4 ,ledge1 a place on which things may be laid4 ,from the verb lay4 ,likewise1 in like wise or manner4 ,line1 to cover with linen on the inside4 ,linen1 cloth made from lint or flax4 ,liquorice1 ,gr4 glukurrhiza sweet root2 from glukus1 sweet1 and rhiza1 a root4 ,meadow1 place where grass is mown or cut down4 ,compare math and aftermath4 ,morris-dance ,moorish dance4 ,naught1 no-whit1 nothing4 ,ness1 a promontory or headland4 ,a doublet of naze1 and probably connected with nose4 ,it occurs frequently in place-names along the shores of the ,north ,sea1 as in ,sheerness1 ,caithness1 the ,naze4 ,nonce1 in #8for the nonce' for the once1 for the one occasion2 ,m4 ,e4 for then ones4 ,the n belongs to the article1 and represents the m of the dative of the article1 namely tham4 ,compare a newt1 for an ewt2 nuncle for mine uncle2 a nickname for an eke-name2 a nugget or ningot for an ingot4 ,nostrils1 corrupted form of nose-thirles1 nose-holes4 7,thirl is connected with thrill1 drill1 etc47 ,notwithstanding1 not withstanding--that is1 not standing against4 ,the with has in this word the old sense of against4 ,nurse1 one who nourishes 7,fr4 nourrice74 ,nutmeg musk-nut4 ,m4 ,e4 note-muge1 ,o4 ,fr4 muge1 musk4 ,lat4 muscus4 ,offal1 waste1 part of anything1 refuse4 ,literally #8what falls off4' ,offing1 the sea far off from the land4 ,compare off-scouring2 offset2 offshoot2 and offspring4 ,onset1 a setting or rushing on or upon4 ,orchard wort-yard1 wort or herb-yard1 or garden4 ,ostrich1 through ,o4 ,fr4 ostruche1 from ,lat4 avis struthio1 ostrich bird2 ,gr4 struthion1 an ostrich4 ,outlaw1 one out of the protection of the law4 ,pastime1 that which serves to pass away the time4 ,pea-jacket1 ,dutch pije1 a rough woollen coat4 #8,jacket' is redundant4 ,not connected with pea4 ,peal of bells1 ,fr4 appel1 a call with drum or trumpet4 ,penthouse1 ,o4 ,e4 pentice1 ,fr4 appentis1 ,lat4 appendicium4 ,not connected with house4 ,a corruption like ,bird-cage ,walk for ,bocage1 7shrubbery7 walk4 ,pickaxe1 ,o4 ,fr4 pikois4 ,no connection with axe4 ,poach1 originally to put into the pouch or pocket4 ,cf4 to bag1 to ,pocket1 sack and satchel4 ,pocket1 a little poke or pouch4 ,porpoise1 the hog fish1 from ,lat4 porcus1 a pig1 and piscis1 a fish4 ,proxy1 contracted from an obsolete procuracy1 a taking care of for another4 ,quicklime1 lime in a quick or active state4 ,compare the phrase1 #8the quick and the dead4' ,cf4 also quicksand sand easily moved1 quicksilver1 a fluid metal which is very mobile4 ,rhyme1 properly rime number1 confused with rhythm flow4 ,rubbish1 that which is rubbed off2 waste matter4 ,scent 7for sent71 from ,lat4 sentio1 ,i feel4 ,sexton1 ,fr4 sacristain1 sacristan4 ,shamefaced1 is shamefast--that is1 shamefixed4 ,sheaf1 a quantity of things1 especially the stalks of grain1 shoved together and bound4 ,sheriff1 a shire-reeve1 the governor of a shire or county4 ,ship1 something scooped or dug out1 and therefore hollow4 ,compare skipper1 where the hard k reappears4 ,somerset1 a corruption of ,o4 ,fr4 soubresault1 from ,lat4 supra and saltus1 a leaping over4 ,sorry1 sore in mind4 ,soup1 that which is supped4 ,splice1 to split in order to join4 ,squirrel1 ,fr4 cureuil1 ,gr4 skiouros bushy or shadow tail4 ,from ,gr4 skia1 shade1 and oura1 a tail4 ,starboard1 the steering side of a ship--that is1 the right hand side to one looking toward the bow4 ,stew1 to put into a stove to be cooked4 ,stirrup1 put for sty-rope2 ,a4,s4 stig-rap1 a mounting rope4 ,from the same root are stair1 sty1 stile1 and stag4 ,straight1 stretched out1 tight4 ,strong1 with the muscles strung up4 ,compare wrong from wring4 ,sweetheart1 from sweet and heart1 an expression as old as ,chaucer4 ,tackle1 things to be taken hold of4 ,tale1 that which is told1 what is counted4 ,so also teller 7in a bank74 ,thorough1 passing through1 or to the end4 ,thread1 that which is thrown or twisted4 ,treacle1 ,lat4 theriaca1 ,gr4 thriak1 viper's flesh2 therion 7a wild beast71 a name often given to the viper4 ,originally an antidote to the viper's bite4 ,milton speaks of #8the treacle of sound doctrine4' ,twist1 to twine or wind two threads together4 7,compare twine1 twirl1 twiddle1 etc47 ,verdigris1 ,fr4 verd-de-grise1 ,lat4 viride ris1 green of brass4 ,not connected with grease4 ,walrus whale horse1 ,o4 ,e4 hwl1 whale2 hors1 horse4 ,the r has shifted its place1 as in three1 third2 turn1 trundle1 etc4 ,whole1 hole1 ,o4 ,e4 hael4 ,the w is redundant2 just as it is in the pronunciation of one4 ,it does not appear in heal1 health1 etc4 ,wiseacre1 a corruption of the ,ger4 weiss sager1 a wise-sayer or soothsayer1 or prophet4 #d4 ,,words ,,that ,,have ,,changed ,,their ,,meaning4 ,artillery1 great weapons of war2 was once used to include crossbows1 bows1 etc41 before gunpowder was invented1 #a ,sam4 xx4 #dj3 #8,and ,jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad1 and said unto him1 ,go1 carry them to the city4' ,blackguard1 a name originally applied to the lowest kitchen servants from the dirty work they had to do4 ,bombast1 originally cotton-wadding1 affected language4 ,boor1 originally a peasant or tiller of the soil4 ,in ,south ,africa a farmer is called a boer4 ,brat meant originally a rag or clout1 especially a child's bib or apron2 hence1 in contempt1 a child4 ,mandeville speaks of #8,abraham's brats4' ,carriage once meant baggage4 ,acts1 xxi4 #ae3 #8,and after those days we took up our carriages1 and went up to ,jerusalem4' ,censure once meant opinion or judgment4 ,shakspeare1 ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ,,iv4 i4 #g3 #8,betray themselves to every modern censure4' ,charity1 once love1 now almsgiving4 #a ,cor4 xiii4 #c3 #8,and though ,i bestow all my goods to feed the poor1 and though ,i give my body to be burned1 and have not charity1 it profiteth me nothing4' ,cheat originally meant to seize upon anything which was escheated or forfeited4 ,churl1 a countryman or farmer4 ,conceit1 originally a thought or notion4 #8,dan ,chaucer was a conceited clerk'--that is1 a learned man full of new inventions or thoughts 7conceits74 ,cunning1 originally knowing1 clever1 skilled in a craft or trade4 ,the ,bible speaks of #8cunning workmen4' ,demure1 originally of good manners1 now staid1 grave4 ,disaster1 an unkindly star 7,gr4 astr1 a star72 a term from the old astrology4 ,fond once meant foolish4 ,gazette1 a small newspaper1 originally a small coin4 ,the newspaper was so named because a gazetta was paid for it4 ,gossip 7sib1 or related1 in ,god71 originally a sponsor in baptism4 ,gossip is the kind of talk that goes on between people who are connected with a family4 ,compare ,fr4 commre and commrage4 ,heathen1 an unbeliever1 originally a dweller on a heath4 ,compare pagan1 a dweller in a pagus1 or country canton4 ,idiot1 from ,gr4 idits1 a private person4 ,it afterwards meant a person who kept himself aloof from public business and politics2 a person despised by the ,athenians4 ,imp1 formerly used in a good sense1 meaning scion or offspring4 ,now a demon of mischief4 ,impertinent1 not relating or belonging to the matter in hand4 ,influence1 a flowing down from the stars2 originally a term in astrology4 ,kind1 originally born2 hence natural1 and so loving4 ,knave1 originally a boy or servant4 ,sir ,john ,mandeville speaks of ,mohammed as a #8poure knave4' ,miser sometimes means merely a wretched creature4 ,spenser1 ,faerie ,queene1 ,,ii4 i4 #h3 #8,vouchsafe to stay your steed for humble miser's sake4' ,officious1 sometimes used in a good sense1 obliging1 serviceable4 ,shakspeare1 ,tit4 ,and4 ,v4 ii4 #bjb3 #8,come1 come1 be every one officious ,to make this banquet4' ,ostler hosteller1 properly the keeper of a hostelry or hotel2 now applied to the horse-groom4 ,pagan1 from paganus1 a dweller in a canton1 a countryman or villager2 hence a heathen or unbeliever4 ,christianity was first preached in the large cities4 ,painful1 originally painstaking4 #8,rev4 ,j4 ,flavel was a painful preacher4' ,polite1 from ,lat4 poltus1 polished4 ,prevent 7to71 originally to go before 7pr and venio74 #8,prevent us1 ,o ,lord1 in all our goings4' ,silly1 the adj4 originally happy1 blessed2 whence it came to mean innocent1 simple1 foolish4 ,sycophant 7,gr471 originally a fig-shower2 a person who informed the police regarding the smuggling of figs into ,athens4 ,tawdry was applied originally to goods bought at ,st ,audrey's fair 7,st ,audrey ,st ,ethelreda74 ,varlet once meant a serving-man4 ,valet is a doublet of varlet4 7,from vassaletus1 an inferior vassal47 ,villain1 a farm-servant1 a peasant2 from ,lat4 villanus1 a servant on a villa or farm4 #e4 ,,words ,,derived ,,from ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,persons4 ,amazon1 the name of a nation of warlike women1 who were said to cut off their right breasts that they might use the bow4 7,from ,gr4 a1 without1 and mazos1 the breast47 ,argosy1 from ,argo1 the name of a famous ship in which the ,greek warrior ,jason sailed to seek the golden fleece1 which was at ,colchis1 on the eastern shore of the ,black ,sea4 ,august was named so in honour of the ,roman ,emperor ,augustus 7,csar74 ,brougham1 after ,lord ,brougham1 a famous ,english lawyer and politician4 ,cravat1 named from the ,croats 7,crabats71 the people of ,croatia1 in ,austria1 from whom we derived the custom of wearing cravats4 ,dahlia1 from ,dahl1 a ,swede1 who introduced the flower into ,europe4 ,dunce1 from ,duns ,scotus 7d4 #acjh71 the great schoolman whose name was used as a term of reproach by his opponents1 the followers of the learned ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,filbert1 from ,st4 ,philibert1 whose anniversary falls in the nutting season4 ,friday1 from ,freya1 the wife of ,odin2 one of the ,saxon goddesses4 ,galvanism1 from ,galvani of ,bologna1 who discovered it4 ,he died in #agih4 ,herculean1 very powerful2 from ,hercules1 one of the ,greek demigods1 who was very strong4 ,jacobite1 one of those who were favourable to the ,stuarts2 from ,jacobus ,,ii41 the ,latin name for ,james ,,ii4 ,january1 from ,janus1 the god with two heads1 who opened the year4 ,jeremiad1 a sorrowful story2 from ,jeremiah1 who wrote the ,lamentations4 ,jovial1 cheerful2 from ,jove1 the king of the ancient gods4 ,july1 from ,julius ,csar1 the great ,roman statesman and general4 ,macadamise1 to pave a road with small cubical stones2 from ,macadam1 who invented this method of making roads4 ,he died #ahcf4 ,march1 from ,mars1 the ,roman god of war4 ,martial1 from ,mars1 the ,roman god of war4 ,mausoleum1 a magnificent tomb2 from ,mausolus1 a king of ,caria1 in ,asia ,minor1 whose widow erected a splendid tomb to his memory4 ,mercury1 quicksilver2 from ,mercury1 the light-footed messenger of the gods who dwelt on ,olympus4 ,panic1 from ,pan1 the god of shepherds1 who often appeared to them suddenly and terrified them4 ,petrel1 a sea-bird2 from ,peter1 who is said to have walked upon the waters4 ,philippic1 a speech full of strongly passionate language2 from ,philip1 king of ,macedon1 against whom ,demosthenes delivered some fiery speeches of this kind4 ,saturday1 from ,ster1 one of the old ,saxon gods4 ,saturnine1 grave1 severe2 from ,saturn1 the father of the ,roman gods4 ,stentorian1 very loud2 from ,stentor1 the name of a ,greek herald1 who is mentioned by ,homer1 and who had a very loud voice4 ,tantalise1 from ,tantalus1 who is said to have been always thirsty and up to his chin in water1 which went out of his reach whenever he tried to drink4 ,thursday1 from ,thor1 the ,saxon god of thunder4 ,tuesday1 from ,tiew1 the ,saxon god of war4 ,wednesday1 the day of ,woden or ,odin1 the ,saxon god of war4 ,the es is the old possessive form4 #f4 ,,words ,,derived ,,from ,,names ,,of ,,places4 ,academy1 a school2 from ,academia1 the name of the gymnasium where ,plato1 the ,greek philosopher1 taught his pupils4 ,attic1 an upper room2 from ,gr4 ,attikos1 ,athenian4 ,in ,athens the houses are said to have been built with a low upper story4 ,bayonet1 a kind of dagger1 from ,bayonne1 in ,france4 ,bedlam1 a lunatic asylum2 from ,bethlehem1 a monastery in ,london1 which was afterwards used as a madhouse4 ,calico1 a kind of cotton cloth2 from ,calicut1 in ,india4 ,cambric1 fine linen2 from ,cambray1 in ,french ,flanders4 ,canary1 a bird1 and a kind of wine2 from ,canary ,islands1 whence these things were brought4 ,canter1 from ,canterbury4 ,the pilgrims to this shrine are said to have ridden at an easy pace4 ,cashmere1 ,cassimere1 or ,kerseymere1 a rich kind of woollen cloth2 from ,cashmere1 a province among the ,himalayas1 in the north of ,india1 noted for the manufacture of fine woollen fabrics4 ,cherry1 from ,cersus1 on the ,black ,sea1 whence the fruit was introduced into ,europe4 ,copper1 a metal2 from ,cyprus1 an island in the eastern part of the ,mediterranean4 ,currant1 from ,corinth1 in ,greece1 where these small dried grapes were first produced4 ,damson1 ,damask1 from ,damascus1 in ,syria4 ,dollar1 from ,st ,joachim's ,thal or valley1 in ,bohemia4 ,these coins were first made there about #aeah1 and were called thalers or talers3 whence dollars4 ,florin1 a coin2 from ,florence1 in ,italy4 ,gin1 an alcoholic liquor2 from ,geneva1 in ,switzerland4 7,gin1 a trap1 is an abbreviation of engine47 ,guinea1 a coin worth twenty-one shillings2 from ,guinea 7or ,gold ,coast7 in ,africa1 whence the gold of which these coins were first made was brought4 ,gypsy1 from ,egypt1 whence these people were supposed to have come4 ,they really came from ,india4 ,holland1 a kind of linen cloth2 ,hollands1 a kind of gin2 from ,holland4 ,indigo1 from ,india4 ,jersey1 a woollen jacket2 from ,jersey1 one of the ,channel ,islands4 ,magnesia1 ,magnet1 from ,magnesia1 a town in ,asia ,minor4 ,mantua1 a lady's gown2 from ,mantua1 in ,italy4 ,meander1 to wind about2 from ,mander1 a river in ,asia ,minor1 which had a very winding course4 ,milliner1 from ,milan1 in ,italy4 ,morocco1 leather prepared in a certain way2 from ,morocco1 in ,north ,africa4 ,nankeen1 a kind of cotton cloth2 from ,nankin1 in ,china4 ,port1 a dark red wine2 from ,oporto1 in ,portugal1 whence great quantities of it are shipped4 ,sherry1 a light-coloured wine2 from ,xeres1 in ,spain4 ,spaniel1 a kind of dog2 from ,spain4 ,turkey1 a large domestic fowl2 from ,turkey1 whence the bird was supposed to have come4 ,worsted1 woollen yarn2 from ,worsted1 the name of a village near ,norwich4 #g4 ,,english 7,,or ,,teutonic7 ,,roots4 ,ac1 an oak2 acorn1 ,acton oak-town1 ,uckfield4 cer1 a field2 acre1 ,god's acre the churchyard4 sc1 an ash2 ash1 ,ascot1 ,ashby4 thele1 noble2 ,atheling1 ,ethelbert1 ,ethelrede noble in rede or counsel4 ,bacan1 to bake2 bake1 baker1 baxter a woman baker1 batch4 ,bana1 a slayer2 bane1 henbane1 baneful4 ,bem1 a tree1 or anything in a straight line2 beam1 sunbeam4 ,beorgan1 to save or shelter2 bury1 burgh1 harbour1 harbinger4 ,bigan or beogan1 to bend2 bow1 elbow1 buxom4 ,bindan1 to bind2 bind1 band1 bundle1 bond1 bandage4 ,blwan1 to blossom2 blow1 bloom4 ,brecan1 to break2 break1 breakers1 breakfast4 ,cld or ceald1 cold2 cold1 chill4 ,cepian1 to buy2 chapman1 ,cheapside1 cheap1 ,chippenham1 ,copenhagen ,merchants' ,haven4 ,cunnan1 to know1 to be able2 can1 con1 cunning4 ,cwellan1 to slay2 quell4 ,cwic1 alive2 quick1 quicksand4 ,cyning1 a king2 king1 ,kingston4 ,dragan1 to drag2 drag1 draw1 dray1 draught1 dredge1 draggle4 ,drypan1 to drop2 drop1 drip1 dribble4 ,ege1 an eye2 eye1 eyebright1 daisy day's eye4 ,erian1 to plough2 ear4 ,faran1 to go2 fare1 ferry1 wayfarer1 fieldfare1 ford4 ,flegan1 to flee2 flee1 fly1 flight1 fledge4 ,fletan1 to float2 float1 fleet4 ,fod1 food2 feed1 fodder1 foster foodster4 ,gangan1 to go2 go1 gang1 gait1 gangway4 ,geard1 an inclosure2 yard1 orchard1 vineyard4 ,gd1 good2 good1 goodwife4 ,grafan1 to dig2 grave1 engraver1 groove1 grove4 ,hl1 sound2 hale1 heal1 healthy1 whole1 wholesome4 ,healdan1 to hold2 hold1 holding1 behold4 ,here1 an army2 harbour1 herring1 harbinger a person sent on before to provide quarters for a here or army4 ,hlf1 a loaf2 lady1 lord1 ,lammas 7loaf-mass74 ,hs1 a house2 house1 housewife4 ,ldan1 to lead2 loadstone1 loadstar4 ,lt1 late2 late1 latter1 last1 later1 belate4 ,lang1 long2 long1 length1 along1 linger4 ,lif1 life2 life1 alive4 ,mere1 a lake2 mere1 ,windermere1 marsh4 ,mna1 the moon2 moon1 month4 ,nosu1 or nasu1 a nose2 nose1 the ,naze1 ,ness1 nostril1 ,sheerness4 ,rdan1 to read2 read1 rede1 riddle4 ,refian1 to rob2 rob1 bereave1 rover4 ,scran1 to cut2 shear1 share1 shire1 shore1 short1 skirt1 ploughshare4 ,settan1 to place2 sittan1 to sit2 sit1 set1 seat1 settle4 ,spell1 a message2 gospel good spell4 ,stede1 a place2 homestead1 bedstead4 ,stelan1 to steal2 steal1 stealth4 ,stow1 a place2 ,chepstow1 bestow4 ,tellan1 to reckon2 tell1 tale1 tell-tale4 ,thyrel1 a hole2 thrill1 nostril1 drill4 ,tredan1 to tread2 tread1 treadle4 ,wcian1 to watch2 wake1 watch4 ,ward1 a looker at or guard2 ward1 warden1 weir4 ,witan1 to know2 wit1 witness1 wisdom1 wistful4 ,wyrcan1 to work2 work1 wright4 ,wyrt1 an herb2 wort1 wart1 orchard wort-yard4 #h4 ,,latin ,,roots4 ,acer1 sharp2 acrid1 acrimony1 vinegar sharp wine4 ,acidus1 sour2 acid1 acidity4 des1 a house2 edifice1 edify4 quus1 equal2 equality1 equator1 adequate1 iniquity1 equanimity4 stimo1 ,i value2 estimation1 estimate1 esteem4 ,ager1 a field2 agriculture1 peregrinate4 ,agger1 a heap2 exaggerate4 ,ago1 ,i do2 act1 agile1 agency1 cogent4 ,alacer1 cheerful2 alacrity4 ,alo1 ,i nourish2 aliment1 alimony4 ,alter1 the other of two2 alternation1 subaltern4 ,altus1 high2 altitude1 exalt4 ,ambulo1 ,i walk2 amble1 perambulator4 ,amo1 ,i love2 amity1 amorous1 inimical4 ,anima1 the soul2 animation1 inanimate4 ,animus1 the mind2 magnanimity4 ,annus1 a circle or year2 annual1 perennial4 ,aperio1 ,i open2 aperient1 ,april the opening month1 the month of spring when the buds open out4 ,appello1 ,i call2 appeal1 appellation4 ,aptus1 fit2 apt1 aptitude4 ,aqua1 water2 aqueduct1 aquatic1 aqueous4 ,arbiter1 a judge2 arbitration1 arbitrary4 ,arbor1 a tree2 arboraceous1 arbour4 ,ardeo1 ,i burn2 ardent1 arson4 ,arduus1 steep with the idea of difficulty of attainment2 arduous4 ,arma1 weapons2 arms1 armistice1 disarm1 army4 ,aro1 ,i plough2 arable4 ,ars 7art-is71 art2 artificial1 inertia1 artisan4 ,artus1 a joint2 articulate1 article4 ,audio1 ,i hear2 audience1 audible4 ,augeo1 ,i increase3 augment1 auctioneer4 ,avis1 a bird2 aviary4 ,barba1 a beard2 barber1 barbel1 barb4 ,bellum1 war2 bellicose1 belligerent1 rebellious4 ,bibo1 ,i drink2 imbibe1 winebibber4 ,bis1 twice2 biscuit1 bissextile4 ,bonus1 good2 benevolent1 bounty4 ,brevis1 short2 brevity1 abbreviate1 brief4 ,cado 7cas-um71 ,i fall2 casual1 accident4 ,cdo 7cs-um71 ,i cut or kill2 precise1 excision1 decide4 ,campus1 a plain2 camp1 encamp4 ,candeo1 ,i shine2 candidus1 white1 incandescent1 candidate4 ,cano1 ,i sing2 canticle1 chant1 incantation4 ,capio 7capt-um71 ,i take2 captive1 accept1 reception4 ,caput1 the head2 capital1 captain4 ,caro 7carn-is71 flesh2 carnal1 carnival1 carnivorous4 ,castus1 pure2 chastity1 castigate1 chastise4 ,causa1 a cause2 accuse1 causation4 ,caveo 7caut-um71 ,i take care2 caution1 cautious4 ,cavus1 hollow2 cavity1 cave1 excavate4 ,cedo 7cess-um71 ,i yield2 cede1 accede1 proceed4 ,i go2 procession1 ancestor4 ,centum1 a hundred2 century1 centurion4 ,cerno 7cret-um71 ,i notice or discern2 discern1 decretal1 discretion4 ,cingo 7cinct-um71 ,i gird2 cincture1 succinct4 ,cito1 ,i rouse2 excite1 citation4 ,civis1 a citizen2 civic1 civil1 city4 ,clamo1 ,i shout2 clamour1 proclamation1 reclaim4 ,clarus1 clear2 clarify1 declare1 clarion4 ,claudo 7claus-um71 ,i shut2 close1 exclude1 seclusion4 ,clivus1 a slope2 declivity4 ,colo 7cult-um71 ,i till2 cultivate1 arboriculture4 ,copia1 plenty2 copious1 cornucopia4 ,coquo 7coct-um71 ,i boil2 decoction1 biscuit4 ,cor 7cord-is71 the heart2 courage1 cordial1 discord4 ,corpus 7corpor-is71 the body2 corpse1 corps1 incorporate4 ,credo1 ,i believe2 credibility1 credence1 miscreant4 ,creo1 ,i create2 create1 creation1 creature1 recreation4 ,cresco 7cret-um71 ,i grow2 crescent1 increment4 ,crimen1 a charge2 crime1 criminate4 ,crux 7cruc-is71 a cross2 crucial1 crucifix4 ,cubo1 ,i lie down2 incubate1 recumbent4 ,culpa1 a fault2 culpable1 exculpate1 culprit4 ,cura1 care2 sinecure1 curate1 secure1 accurate4 ,curro 7curs-um71 ,i run2 cursory1 course1 recur1 occur4 ,decem1 ten2 decimal1 ,december4 ,dens 7dent-is71 a tooth2 dentist1 dental1 indent4 ,deus1 a god2 deity1 deify1 divine4 ,dexter1 right hand2 dexterous4 ,dico 7dict-um71 ,i say2 verdict1 dictation1 dictionary1 indictment4 ,dies1 a day2 diary1 meridian4 ,dignus1 worthy2 dignity1 indignant4 ,do 7dat-um71 ,i give2 donor1 add ad-do1 ,i give to1 data4 ,doceo 7doct-um71 ,i teach2 docile1 doctor4 ,dominus1 a lord2 dominant1 dominion1 dame4 ,domus1 a house2 domicile1 domestic4 ,dormio1 ,i sleep2 dormitory1 dormant4 ,duco 7duct-um71 ,i lead2 induct1 education1 duke1 produce4 ,duo1 two2 dual1 duel1 7double71 duplex4 ,durus1 hard2 durable1 obdurate1 duration4 ,emo 7empt-um71 ,i buy2 redeem1 exemption4 ,eo 7it-um71 ,i go2 exit1 transit1 circuit1 ambition4 ,equus1 a horse2 equine1 equestrian4 ,erro1 ,i wander2 error1 aberration4 ,esse1 to be2 essential1 essence4 ,facies1 the face2 facial1 facet1 superficial4 ,facilis1 easy2 facile1 facility1 difficult4 ,facio 7fact-um71 ,i make2 manufacture1 factor1 faction4 ,fallo 7fals-um71 ,i deceive2 false1 infallible1 fallacious4 ,fama1 a report2 fame1 defame1 infamy4 ,fans 7fant-is71 speaking2 infant a non-speaker4 ,felix 7felc-is71 happy2 felicity1 infelicity4 ,fero1 ,i bear or carry2 infer1 reference1 difference4 ,ferrum1 iron2 ferruginous4 ,ferveo1 ,i boil2 fervent1 effervesce1 ferment4 ,fido1 ,i trust2 confide1 infidel1 perfidy1 diffident4 ,filius1 a son2 filial1 affiliation4 ,filum1 a thread2 file1 defile1 profile4 ,finis1 an end2 final1 infinite1 confine4 ,firmus1 firm2 infirm1 affirm4 ,flecto1 ,i bend2 flexible1 inflection4 ,flos 7flr-is71 a flower2 floral1 ,flora1 floriculture4 ,fluo 7fluct-um71 ,i flow2 fluent1 flux1 refluent1 fluid4 ,forma1 a form2 form1 formal1 reform1 conformity4 ,fortis1 strong2 fortify1 fortitude1 fortress4 ,frango 7fract-um71 ,i break2 fragile1 fragmentary1 infraction4 ,frater1 a brother2 fraternal1 fratricide4 ,frons 7front-is71 the forehead2 frontispiece1 frontal1 frontier4 ,fruor 7fruct-us71 ,i enjoy2 fruit1 fructify1 fruition4 ,fugio1 ,i flee2 fugitive1 refugee1 subterfuge4 ,fundo 7fus-um71 ,i pour2 fusible1 diffusion1 foundry4 ,fundus1 the bottom2 foundation1 profound4 ,furor1 madness2 furious1 fury4 ,gelu1 frost2 gelid1 jelly1 congeal4 ,gens 7gent-is71 a nation2 gentile1 genteel1 gentle1 congenial4 ,genus 7genr-is71 a kind2 general1 genus4 ,gero 7gest-um71 ,i bear or carry2 gesture1 suggestion4 ,gradior 7gress-us71 ,i go2 gradus1 a step2 degrade1 progress1 degree4 ,grandis1 great2 grand1 aggrandise4 ,gratia1 favour2 grati1 thanks2 gratitude1 ingratiate1 gratis4 ,gravis1 heavy2 gravitate1 gravity1 7grief74 ,grex 7greg-is71 a flock2 gregarious1 egregious4 ,habeo1 ,i have2 habit1 able1 exhibit1 prohibition4 ,hreo 7hs-um71 ,i stick2 adhere1 cohesion4 ,homo1 a man2 homicide1 human4 ,hospes 7hospit-is71 a guest2 hospital1 hostel1 hotel4 ,hostis1 an enemy2 host1 hostile4 ,humus1 the ground2 posthumous1 exhume4 ,ignis1 fire2 ignite1 igneous4 ,impero1 ,i command2 imperial1 emperor1 empire4 ,insula1 an island2 isle1 insular1 peninsula1 insulate4 ,island is not connected with this root4 ,it was in older ,english spelled iland4 ,iter 7itiner-is71 a journey2 itinerant4 ,jacio 7jact-um71 ,i throw2 adjective1 project1 injection4 ,judex 7judc-is72 7adjudge71 judicial4 ,jungo 7junct-um71 ,i join2 junction1 conjoin1 juncture4 ,jus 7jur-is71 law1 right2 justice1 jurisdiction1 jury4 ,labor 7laps-us71 ,i glide2 lapse1 collapse4 ,ldo 7ls-um71 ,i injure2 collision1 lesion4 ,lapis 7lapd-is71 a stone2 lapidary4 ,latus1 broad2 latitude4 ,laus 7laud-is71 praise2 laud1 laudable4 ,lego 7lect-um71 ,i gather or read2 college1 collect1 prelection1 lecture4 ,lvis1 light2 levity1 alleviate1 relief4 ,lex 7lg-is71 law2 legal1 legislate4 ,liber1 free2 liberal1 liberty4 ,libra1 a balance2 deliberate4 ,ligo1 ,i bind2 ligament1 religion4 ,limes 7limit-is71 a boundary2 limit4 ,linquo 7lict-um71 ,i leave2 relinquish1 relict1 relics4 ,litera1 a letter2 literature1 literary1 letters1 obliterate4 ,locus1 a place2 location1 dislocate4 ,longus1 long2 elongate1 longitude4 ,loquor 7loct-us71 ,i speak2 loquacious1 eloquent1 elocution4 ,ludo 7lus-um71 ,i play2 ludicrous1 allusion4 ,lumen 7lumin-is71 light2 illuminate1 luminous4 ,luna1 the moon2 ,luna1 sublunary1 lunacy4 ,luo1 ,i wash2 ablution1 dilute4 ,lux 7luc-is71 light2 lucid1 pellucid4 ,magister1 a master2 magistrate1 master4 ,magnus1 great2 magnificent1 magniloquent1 magnify4 ,malus1 bad2 malady1 malice1 maltreat4 ,maneo 7mans-um71 ,i remain2 mansion1 permanent4 ,manus1 the hand2 manufacture1 manual1 manuscript4 ,mare1 the sea2 marine1 mariner4 ,mater1 a mother2 maternal1 matricide4 ,maturus1 ripe2 mature1 maturity4 ,medeor1 ,i heal2 medicine1 remedy4 ,medius1 the middle2 medial1 immediate1 ,mediterranean4 ,memini1 ,i remember2 memor1 mindful2 memorable1 commemorate1 memento1 immemorial4 ,mens 7ment-is71 the mind2 mental1 comment4 ,mereo 7merit-um71 ,i deserve2 merit1 meretricious4 ,mergo 7mers-um71 ,i dip2 submerge1 immersion4 ,merx 7merc-is71 goods2 merchant1 commerce1 mercantile4 ,miles 7milt-is71 a soldier2 military1 militant1 militia4 ,mille1 a thousand2 mile1 million4 ,miror1 ,i admire2 admire1 miracle1 mirage4 ,misceo1 ,i mix2 miscellaneous1 promiscuous4 ,mitto 7miss-um71 ,i send2 mission1 missile1 remittance4 ,mdus1 a measure2 modify1 mood1 accommodate4 ,mollis1 soft2 mollify1 emollient4 ,moneo 7mont-um71 ,i advise2 admonition1 monitor4 ,mons 7mont-is71 a mountain2 mountain1 promontory4 ,monstro1 ,i point out2 demonstrate4 ,mors 7mort-is71 death2 mortify1 mortal4 ,moveo 7mot-um71 ,i move2 motion1 movable1 move4 ,multus1 many2 multiplex1 multitude4 ,munus 7munr-is71 a gift2 remunerate1 munificent4 ,muto1 ,i change2 mutable1 immutable1 transmute4 ,nascor 7nat-us71 to be born2 nascent1 natal1 nativity4 ,navis1 a ship2 navigate1 naval1 navy4 ,necto 7nex-us71 ,i tie2 connect1 nexus1 annex4 ,nego1 ,i deny2 negative1 negation4 ,noceo1 ,i hurt2 noxious1 innocuous1 innocent4 ,nomen 7nomn-is71 a name2 nominal1 nomination1 cognomen4 ,nosco 7not-um71 ,i know or mark2 note1 notation4 ,novus1 new2 novel1 novitiate1 innovation4 ,nox 7noct-is71 night2 nocturnal1 equinoctial4 ,nudus1 naked2 nude1 denudation4 ,numero1 ,i number2 enumerate1 numeration4 ,nuntio1 ,i announce2 nuncio1 annunciation1 pronounce4 ,nutrio1 ,i nourish2 nutriment1 nurse4 ,octo1 eight2 octave1 octagon1 ,october4 ,oculus1 the eye2 oculist4 ,odor1 smell2 odour1 redolent4 ,omnis1 all2 omnipotent1 omniscient4 ,onus 7onr-is71 a burden2 onerous4 ,opus 7opr-is71 a work2 operate1 operation4 ,ordo 7ordn-is71 order2 ordinal1 ordinary4 ,oro1 ,i pray2 oration1 inexorable1 peroration4 ,os 7r-is71 the mouth2 oral1 adore4 ,os 7,oss-is71 bone2 ossify1 ossification4 ,pando 7pans-um or pass-um71 ,i spread2 expand1 expanse1 compass4 ,pango 7pact-um71 ,i fix2 compact1 impinge4 ,panis1 bread2 pantry1 pannier1 company4 ,par1 equal2 7pair71 par1 parity4 ,pareo1 ,i appear2 apparent1 apparition4 ,paro 7parat-um71 ,i prepare2 prepare1 repair1 apparatus4 ,pars 7part-is71 a part2 partition1 particle4 ,pasco 7past-um71 ,i feed2 repast1 pastor4 ,pater1 a father2 paternal1 patricide4 ,patior 7pass-us71 ,i suffer2 impatient1 passion4 ,pauper1 poor2 pauper1 poverty4 ,pax 7pc-is71 peace2 pacify1 pacific4 ,pello 7puls-um71 ,i drive2 repel1 expel1 expulsion4 ,pendeo 7pens-um71 ,i hang2 dependent1 suspend4 ,pendo1 ,i weigh out1 hence1 ,i pay2 expend1 recompense4 ,pes 7pd-is71 the foot2 impede1 pedestrian1 biped4 ,peto 7pett-um71 ,i seek2 petition1 petulant4 ,pingo 7pict-um71 ,i paint2 picture1 pigment4 ,placeo1 ,i please2 placid1 complacent4 ,planus1 level2 plane1 plain1 plan4 ,plaudo 7plaus-um71 ,i clap the hands2 applause1 7explode74 ,plecto 7plex-um71 ,i weave2 complex1 perplex4 ,pleo 7plt-um71 ,i fill2 complete1 completion1 repletion4 ,plco1 ,i fold2 complicate1 reply4 ,plus 7plr-is71 more2 plurality1 surplus4 ,pna1 punishment2 penalty1 repent4 ,pondus 7pondr-is71 weight2 ponderous1 pound4 ,pono 7post-um71 ,i place2 disposition1 exposition1 imposition4 ,pons 7pont-is71 a bridge2 pontiff1 transpontine4 ,poplus1 the people2 populace1 popular4 ,porto1 ,i carry2 export1 deportation1 report4 ,possum1 ,i am able2 potens1 able2 possible1 potency1 potentate1 impotent4 ,poto1 ,i drink2 potion1 poison1 potable4 ,prcor1 ,i pray2 precarious1 imprecation4 ,prehendo1 ,i take2 apprehend1 comprehension1 apprentice4 ,premo 7press-um71 ,i press2 compress1 print4 ,pretium1 a price2 precious1 appreciate1 prize4 ,primus1 first2 prime1 primitive1 primrose4 ,prvo1 ,i separate2 deprive1 privateer1 private4 ,probo1 ,i try or prove2 probable1 prove1 reproof4 ,proprius1 one's own2 property1 appropriation4 ,pugna1 a fight2 pugnacious1 repugnant4 ,pungo 7punct-um71 ,i prick2 pungent1 poignant1 punctual4 ,puto1 ,i cut or think2 amputate1 compute1 reputation4 ,quro 7qust-um71 ,i seek2 quest1 inquiry1 inquisition4 ,quatuor1 four2 quadrilateral1 square1 quarry1 quart1 quadrant4 ,quies 7quit-is71 rest2 acquiesce1 quiet1 requite4 ,radius1 a ray2 radiant1 irradiate1 7ray74 ,radix 7radic-is71 a root2 radical1 eradicate4 ,rapio 7rapt-um71 ,i seize2 rapture1 rapine1 surreptitious4 ,ratio1 reason2 rational1 ration1 reason4 ,rego 7rect-um71 ,i rule2 regiment1 regal1 regulate1 rector1 rectify4 ,res 7re-i71 a thing2 real1 reality1 republican4 ,rex 7reg-is71 a king2 regal1 interregnum1 royal4 ,rideo 7rs-um71 ,i laugh2 deride1 derision4 ,rivus1 a brook2 river1 rival4 ,rodo 7ros-um71 ,i gnaw2 erosion1 corrode4 ,rogo1 ,i ask2 derogatory1 interrogation1 arrogate4 ,rota1 a wheel2 rote1 rotation1 rotund1 round4 ,rumpo 7rupt-um71 ,i break2 rupture1 disruption1 irruption1 eruption4 ,rus 7rr-is71 the country2 rural1 rustic4 ,sacer1 sacred2 desecrate1 sacrilege4 ,sal1 salt2 saline1 salary salt-money4 ,salio 7salt-um71 ,i leap2 sally1 assail1 assault1 insult1 salmon the leaping fish1 salient4 ,salus 7salt-is71 health2 salvus1 safe2 salutary1 salubrious1 salvation4 ,sanctus1 holy2 sanctify1 saint ,sanguis 7sanguin-is71 blood2 sanguinary4 ,sano 7sant-um71 ,i cure2 sanitary1 sane1 insane4 ,sapio1 ,i taste or am wise2 sapient1 insipid1 savour4 ,scando 7scans-um71 ,i climb2 scala1 a ladder2 scan1 scale1 ascension1 descend4 ,scio1 ,i know2 science1 scientific1 conscience1 omniscient4 ,scribo 7script-um71 ,i write2 scribe1 scripture1 manuscript1 describe4 ,seco 7sect-um71 ,i cut2 dissect1 insect1 segment1 section4 ,sedeo 7sess-um71 ,i set2 sediment1 subside1 residence4 ,senex1 an old man2 senile1 senior1 senate1 senator4 ,sentio 7sens-us71 ,i feel or perceive2 sense1 sentimental4 ,septem1 seven2 septennial1 ,september4 ,sequor 7sect-us71 ,i follow2 sequel1 consecutive1 consequent4 ,servio1 ,i serve2 servant1 service1 servitor4 ,servo1 ,i preserve2 reserve1 conservative1 conservatory4 ,signum1 a mark2 sign1 signify1 designation4 ,simlis1 like2 dissimilar1 similitude1 resemble1 dissemble4 ,sisto1 ,i stop2 insist1 consistency4 ,solus1 alone2 solitary1 sole4 ,solvo 7solt-um71 ,i loose2 absolute1 resolve1 solution1 resolution4 ,somnus1 sleep2 somnolent1 somnambulist4 ,specio 7spect-um7 ,i see2 aspect1 retrospect1 specious4 ,spero1 ,i hope2 despair1 desperate4 ,spiro1 ,i breathe2 spiral1 aspire1 inspiration1 conspiracy4 ,spondeo 7spons-um71 ,i promise2 respond1 sponsor1 7spouse74 ,statuo1 ,i set up2 sto 7stat-um71 to stand2 statute1 statue1 institute1 restitution1 extant1 substance4 ,stella1 a star2 stellar1 constellation4 ,stringo 7strict-um71 ,i bind2 stringent1 stricture1 constrain4 ,struo 7struct-um71 ,i build2 structure1 7construe1 destroy71 destruction4 ,suadeo 7suas-um71 ,i persuade2 persuasion1 dissuade4 ,sumo 7sumpt-um71 ,i take2 resume1 consumption4 ,surgo 7surrect-um71 ,i arise2 insurgent1 resurrection4 ,taceo1 ,i am silent2 tacit1 taciturn4 ,tango 7tact-um71 ,i touch2 intangible1 contact1 contagious4 ,tego 7tect-um71 ,i cover2 integument1 detect4 ,tempus 7tempr-is71 time2 temporal1 tense4 ,tendo 7tens-um71 ,i stretch2 extend1 intension1 tent1 tense4 ,teneo 7tent-um71 ,i hold2 contain1 tenacious1 retentive4 ,terminus1 an end or boundary2 term1 terminus1 determine4 ,tero 7trt-um71 ,i rub2 contrition1 trite1 detritus4 ,terra1 the earth2 subterranean1 ,mediterranean4 ,terreo1 ,i frighten2 terror1 terrify4 ,testis1 a witness2 testator1 testify1 contest4 ,texo 7text-um71 ,i weave2 texture1 context1 textile4 ,timeo1 ,i fear2 timid1 intimidation4 ,tono1 ,i thunder2 astonish1 detonate4 ,torqueo 7tort-um71 ,i twist2 torture1 torsion4 ,traho 7tract-um71 ,i draw2 contractile4 ,tribuo1 ,i give2 tribute1 contribution4 ,tribus1 a tribe2 tribe1 tribune1 tribunal4 ,trudo 7trus-um71 ,i thrust2 extrusion1 intrude4 ,turba1 a crowd2 turbid1 turbulent4 ,umbra1 a shadow2 umbrage1 adumbration4 ,unda1 a wave2 undulate1 inundation4 ,unguo 7unct-um71 ,i anoint2 unguent1 unctuous1 ointment4 ,unus1 one2 unity1 union4 ,urbs1 a city2 urban1 suburb4 ,utor 7us-us71 ,i use2 use1 utensil1 usury4 ,vacca1 a cow2 vaccinate4 ,valeo1 ,i am strong2 valour1 valiant1 prevail4 ,vanus1 empty2 vain1 vanish1 vanity4 ,vas 7vs-is71 a vessel2 vase1 vascular1 vessel4 ,veho 7vect-um71 ,i carry2 vehicle1 convey4 ,vello 7vuls-um71 ,i pluck2 convulsion4 ,venio 7vent-um71 ,i come2 venture1 advent4 ,ver1 the spring2 verdant1 vernal1 verdure4 ,verbum1 a word2 verb1 verbal1 verbose1 proverb4 ,verto 7vers-um71 ,i turn2 controvert1 aversion4 ,verus1 true2 verdict1 veracious1 verity4 ,vestis1 a garment2 invest1 vesture4 ,vetus 7vetr-is71 old2 veteran4 ,via1 a way2 deviate1 previous4 ,video 7vs-um71 ,i see2 vision1 provident4 ,vinco 7vict-um71 ,i overcome2 victor1 victory1 convince4 ,vir1 a man2 virtue1 virile4 ,vita1 life2 vital1 vitality4 ,vitium1 a fault2 vitiate1 vicious1 vice4 ,vivo 7vict-um71 ,i live2 survive1 victuals4 ,voco1 ,i call2 vox 7vc-is71 the voice2 voice1 convocation1 revoke1 vociferate4 ,volo1 ,i fly2 volatile1 volley4 ,volo1 ,i wish2 involuntary1 volition1 benevolence1 malevolence4 ,volvo 7volt-um71 ,i roll2 involution1 evolve1 volume4 ,voveo 7vot-um71 ,i vow2 vow1 devote4 ,vulgus1 the common people2 vulgar1 divulge4 ,vulnus 7vulnr-is71 a wound2 vulnerable4 #i4 ,,greek ,,roots4 ,ago1 ,i lead2 pedagogue1 synagogue4 ,agn1 a contest2 agony1 antagonist4 ,allos1 another2 allopathy1 allegory4 ,anggelos1 a messenger2 angel1 evangelist4 ,anthrpos1 a man2 misanthrope1 philanthropy4 ,archo1 ,i begin or rule2 monarch1 archaic early2 archbishop1 archdeacon4 ,arctos1 a bear2 ,arctic1 ,antarctic1 ,arcturus4 ,arithmos1 number2 arithmetic4 ,aster or astron1 a star2 astronomy1 astrology1 asteroid1 disaster4 ,atmos1 vapour2 atmosphere4 ,autos1 self2 autocrat1 autograph4 ,ballo1 ,i throw2 symbol4 ,bapto1 ,i dip2 baptise1 baptist4 ,baros1 weight2 barometer4 ,biblos1 a book2 ,bible1 bibliomania4 ,bios1 life2 biography1 biology4 ,cheir1 the hand2 surgeon older form1 chirurgeon4 ,chrio1 ,i anoint2 ,christ1 chrism4 ,chol1 bile2 melancholy4 ,chronos1 time2 chronology1 chronic1 chronicle4 ,daktlos1 a finger2 dactyl1 pterodactyl1 date--the fruit4 ,deka1 ten2 decagon1 decalogue4 ,dmos1 the people2 democrat1 endemic1 epidemic4 ,dokeo1 to think2 doxa and dogma1 an opinion2 doxology1 orthodox1 heterodox1 dogma1 dogmatic4 ,drao1 ,i do2 drama1 dramatic4 ,dunmis1 power2 dynamics4 ,eidos1 form2 kaleidoscope4 ,eikon1 an image3 iconoclast4 ,electron1 amber2 electricity4 ,ergon1 a work2 surgeon chirurgeon1 energy4 ,eu1 well2 eucharist1 euphony1 evangelist4 ,gamos1 marriage2 bigamy1 monogamist1 misogamy4 ,g1 the earth2 geography1 geometry1 geology4 ,gennao1 ,i produce2 genesis1 genealogy1 hydrogen1 oxygen4 ,grapho1 ,i write2 gramma1 a letter2 graphic1 grammar1 telegraph1 biography1 diagram4 ,haima1 blood2 hmorrhage1 hmorrhoid4 ,haireo1 ,i take away2 heresy1 heretic4 ,helios1 the sun2 helioscope1 heliotype4 ,hemi1 half2 hemisphere4 ,hieros1 sacred2 hierarchy1 hieroglyphic4 ,hippos1 a horse2 hippopotamus1 hippodrome4 ,hdos1 a way2 method1 period1 exodus4 ,hmos1 the same2 homopathy1 homogeneous4 ,hudor1 water2 hydraulic1 hydrophobia4 ,ichthus1 a fish2 ichthyology4 ,idios1 one's own2 idiom1 idiot1 idiosyncrasy4 ,isos1 equal2 isochronous1 isobaric 7of equal weight74 ,kalos1 beautiful2 caligraphy1 calotype4 ,kephal1 the head2 hydrocephalus4 ,klino1 ,i bend2 climax1 climate4 ,kosmos1 order2 cosmogony1 cosmography1 cosmetic4 ,krino1 ,i judge2 critic1 criterion1 hypocrite4 ,kuklos1 a circle2 cycle1 cycloid1 cyclone4 ,kuon1 a dog2 cynic1 cynicism4 ,lgo1 ,i say or choose2 eclectic1 lexicon4 ,lithos1 a stone2 lithograph1 aerolite4 ,lgos1 a word1 speech2 logic1 dialogue1 geology4 ,luo1 ,i loosen2 dialysis1 analysis4 ,metron1 a measure2 metronome1 diameter1 thermometer1 barometer4 ,mnos1 alone2 monastery1 monogram1 monosyllable4 ,morph1 shape2 amorphous1 dimorphous1 metamorphic4 ,naus1 a ship2 nautical4 ,nekros1 a dead body2 necropolis1 necromancy4 ,nmos1 a law2 autonomous1 astronomy1 ,deuteronomy4 ,oikos1 a house2 economy1 economical4 ,onma1 a name2 anonymous1 synonymous1 patronymic4 ,optmai1 ,i see2 optics1 synoptical4 ,orthos1 right2 orthodoxy1 orthography4 ,pais 7paid-os71 a boy2 pedagogue lit4 a boy-leader4 ,pan1 all2 pantheist1 panoply1 pantomime4 ,pathos1 feeling2 pathetic1 sympathy4 ,pente1 five2 pentagon1 pentateuch1 ,pentecost4 ,phainmai1 ,i appear2 phantasy1 phantom1 fantastic1 fancy4 ,phero1 ,i bear2 periphery1 phosphorus the light-bearer4 ,phileo1 ,i love2 philosophy1 ,philadelphia4 ,phs 7pht-os71 light2 photometer1 photograph4 ,phusis1 nature2 physics1 physiology1 physician4 ,planao1 ,i cause to wander2 planet4 ,poieo1 ,i make2 poet1 poetic1 pharmacopia4 ,polis1 a city2 ,constantinople1 metropolis4 ,polus1 many2 polytheist1 ,polynesia1 polyanthus4 ,pous 7pd-os71 a foot2 antipodes4 ,pur1 fire2 pyrotechnic1 pyre4 ,rheo1 ,i flow2 rhetoric1 catarrh1 rheumatic4 ,skpeo1 ,i see2 microscope1 telescope1 spectroscope1 bishop from episkopos1 an overseer4 ,sophia1 wisdom2 sophist1 philosophy4 ,stello1 ,i send2 apostle1 epistle4 ,stratos1 an army2 strategy1 strategic4 ,strpho1 ,i turn2 catastrophe4 ,techn1 an art2 technical4 ,tl1 distant2 telegraph1 telescope1 telephone1 telegram4 ,temno1 ,i cut2 anatomy1 lithotomy4 ,tetra1 four2 tetrachord1 tetrarch4 ,theomai1 ,i see1 behold2 theatre1 theory4 ,theos1 a god2 theist1 enthusiast1 theology4 ,therm1 heat2 thermal1 thermometer1 isotherm4 ,tithmi1 ,i place2 thsis1 a placing2 synthesis1 hypothesis4 ,treis1 three2 triangle1 trigonometry1 trilobite4 ,trpo1 ,i turn2 trophy1 tropic4 ,tupos1 the impress of a seal2 type1 stereotype4 ,zon1 an animal2 zoology1 zodiac4 #aj4 ,,the ,,branching ,,of ,,words ,,from ,,latin ,,stems4 ,ag-o 7act-um71 ,i do4--,act1 that which is done2 active1 engaged in doing2 action1 a doing2 enact1 to make an act1 to establish as law2 enactment2 transaction1 the doing of a thing thoroughly2 react1 to do again4 ,apt-us1 fitted4--,apt1 fit3 aptitude1 fitness2 adapt1 to fit to2 adaptability1 capability of being fitted to2 adaptation1 a fitting to2 adept1 one who is fitted for doing things4 ,ced-o1 ,i go4--,accede1 to go to1 hence to agree to2 access1 a going to1 hence an approach or entrance2 accessory1 going to or aiding2 concede1 to go away from1 to give up2 concession1 the act of giving up2 exceed1 to go out of2 excess1 that which goes out or beyond2 excessive1 going beyond2 intercede1 to go in between1 hence to act as a peacemaker2 intercessory1 going in between2 precede1 to go before2 procession1 a going forth1 or that which goes forth2 recede1 to go back2 recess1 a space which goes back2 succeed1 to come from under1 hence to follow in order2 success1 the act of succeeding2 successor1 one who follows2 successively1 following in order4 ,cor 7cord-is71 the heart4--,cordial1 hearty2 cordiality1 heartiness2 concord1 state of being of the same heart1 harmony2 discord1 want of heart or agreement2 discordant2 record1 to call back to the heart or mind2 recorder1 one who keeps records or registers2 courage 7through ,fr471 heart--that is1 bravery2 encourage1 to put heart in2 discourage1 to take heart from2 discouragement4 ,cur-a1 care4--,cure 7verb and noun72 curable1 that may be cured2 cureless1 without cure2 curate1 one who has the cure 7or care7 of souls2 curator1 one who has care of anything2 curative1 tending to cure2 curious1 full of care1 anxious2 curiosity2 accurate1 done with care1 hence without error2 procure1 to take care of2 procurator1 one who takes care of2 secure1 free from care2 security1 state of being free from care2 sinecure1 an office without care4 ,curr-o1 ,i run4--,current1 that which runs2 currency1 a running1 the money which runs in a country2 concur1 to run together1 hence to agree2 incur1 to run into2 occur1 to run in the way of2 recur1 to run back2 course 7through ,fr471 the track on which anything runs2 courser1 a runner2 recourse1 a running back1 a going to for aid2 intercourse1 a running between2 precursor1 one who runs before2 courier 7,fr471 one who runs2 corridor 7,spanish71 a passage or gallery running along4 ,do 7dat-um1 what is given71 ,i give4--,add1 to give to2 addition1 act of giving to2 condition1 state in which things are put together1 or exist2 conditionally2 edit1 to give forth or out2 edition1 what is given out2 editor1 one who gives out2 date1 the time given in a letter4 ,duc-o1 ,i lead4--,duke1 a leader2 ducal1 pertaining to a leader2 ductile1 that which may be led or drawn out2 ductility1 the quality of being ductile2 educate1 to lead out2 education2 conduct 7verb and noun71 to lead together2 induce1 to lead into2 produce1 to lead forth2 reduce1 to lead back2 seduce1 to lead out of the right path4 ,dur-us1 hard4--,during1 lasting 7but now used as a preposition72 dure1 to last2 duration2 durable2 durability2 durableness2 endure1 to be hard1 firm1 or lasting2 obdurate1 hardened against4 ,fac-io1 ,i do1 or ,i make4--,fact1 a deed2 factor1 a maker2 affect1 to act upon2 affection2 affected2 affectation1 acting upon one's self2 defect1 a want2 effect1 something thoroughly done2 effective2 perfect1 to make thoroughly2 perfection1 state of being thoroughly made2 imperfect1 not thoroughly made4 ,fer-o1 ,i carry4--,confer1 to come together for council2 conference2 defer1 to bear one's self down or yield to the wishes of another2 deference2 differ1 to carry asunder1 hence to disagree2 different2 differently2 difference2 offer1 to carry in the way of2 prefer1 to carry before1 hence to esteem more than another2 preference2 refer1 to carry back2 suffer1 to bear up1 hence to undergo2 transfer1 to carry across4 ,firm-us1 strong4--,firm1 strong2 firmness2 firmly2 confirm1 to make more strong2 confirmation2 affirm1 to declare strongly2 infirm1 not strong2 infirmity1 state of being infirm1 hence disease2 infirmary1 a place for the infirm2 firmament1 that which is firm1 the place supposed to be fixed above the earth4 ,form-a1 shape4--,form1 shape2 formal1 according to form2 informal1 not according to form2 formality2 formally2 formative1 giving form2 formula1 a little form2 conform1 to make of the same form with2 deform1 to alter or injure the form of2 inform1 to put into form or shape1 educate1 instruct2 information2 misinform1 to give wrong knowledge to2 perform1 to form thoroughly2 reform1 to form again2 reformation2 transform1 to change the form of4 ,grati-a1 favour4--,grace 7through ,fr472 graceful1 full of the power to win favour2 gracefulness2 gracefully2 gracious1 full of grace2 disgrace1 state of being out of grace or favour2 grateful1 thankful for favour2 ingratitude2 ingrate1 an ungrateful person2 gratify1 to please2 gratuitous1 by favour and without price2 gratitude2 agree 7,fr474 ,habe-o1 ,i have4--,habit1 the having one's self in a certain condition2 habitual2 habitable1 that may be inhabited2 habitat1 the place which a plant or an animal inhabits2 habitation1 place where one dwells or inhabits2 exhibit1 to hold out to view2 inhibit1 to hold in or keep back2 inhibition2 inhabit1 to be in the habit of living in2 prohibit1 to hold before one1 hence to check4 ,jac-io 7jact-um71 ,i throw4--,eject1 to throw out2 ejectment1 a throwing out2 ejection1 the act of throwing out2 ejaculate1 to throw out 7a sound72 ejaculation2 abject1 thrown down2 adjective1 that which is thrown to or added to2 conjecture1 a throwing together of chances1 or a guess2 deject1 to throw down2 inject1 to throw into2 interjection1 a throwing into the middle of2 project 7verb and noun71 to throw forward2 subject 7verb and noun71 to throw under2 reject1 to throw back4 ,jung-o 7junct-us1 joined71 ,i join4--,join 7through ,fr472 joint1 a place where things are joined2 joiner1 one who joins2 juncture1 a joining2 conjoin 7,fr471 to join together2 conjuncture1 a joining together2 disjoin 7,fr471 to separate2 adjunct1 something joined to2 conjunction1 that which joins together4 ,leg-o 7lect-um71 ,i gather or read4--,collect'1 to gather together2 col'-lect1 what is gathered together2 collection2 collector2 elect1 to gather out from2 election2 elector2 select1 to choose apart1 to pick out2 legend1 that which should be read2 legible1 that which may be read4 ,mitt-o 7miss-um71 ,i send4--,admit2 commit1 to send together with1 to intrust to2 commitment1 a sending together2 commission1 a sending with authority2 emit1 to send out2 emission1 a sending out2 omit1 to send away1 to leave out2 omission1 the act of leaving out2 permit2 permission2 remit1 to send back2 transmit1 to send through4 ,norm-a1 a rule4--,normal1 according to rule2 normally2 enormous1 great1 beyond rule2 enormity2 abnormal1 away from rule4 ,nosc-o 7not-um71 ,i know or mark4--,note1 something by which a thing may be known1 hence a mark2 noted1 known2 notable1 deserving to be known2 noble 7,fr472 notify1 to make known2 notorious1 too well known2 notice1 a warning to know2 noticeable1 likely to be observed or known4 ,ord-o 7ordin-is71 arrangement4--,order2 ordain1 to arrange or put in order2 ordinal1 that which shows arrangement2 ordination1 the act of arranging2 ordinary1 according to the common arrangement2 extraordinary1 out of the common arrangement2 disorder1 want of arrangement2 orderly1 properly arranged4 ,pars 7part-is71 a part4--,part2 particle1 a small part2 tripartite1 divided into three parts2 partition1 that which divides into parts2 partial1 relating to a part only2 apart1 parted from2 depart1 to part from2 impart1 to give part to4 ,pell-o 7puls-um71 ,i drive4--,compel1 to drive together2 compulsion1 the act of driving together2 dispel1 to drive asunder2 expel1 to drive out2 expulsion2 impel1 to drive forward 7or into72 impulse2 propel1 to drive forward2 repel1 to drive back2 repulse4 ,pend-o 7pens-um71 ,i hang4--,append1 to hang to2 appendage1 something hung on to2 depend1 to hang down from2 dependant1 one who hangs from another2 independent1 not hanging from another2 independence1 the state of not hanging from another2 pendant1 that which hangs2 suspend1 to hang under2 suspense1 state of hanging under4 ,pon-o 7posit-um71 ,i place4--,post1 something placed1 and hence the place in which it stands2 position1 state of being placed1 hence place2 composition1 a placing together2 opposition1 a placing in the way of2 proposition1 a placing before4 ,port-o1 ,i carry4--,porter1 one who carries2 export1 to carry out of a country2 import1 to carry into a country2 report1 to carry back1 to repeat2 report1 what is carried back or repeated2 reporter2 support1 to bear up from under2 transport1 to carry across2 transportation4 ,prem-o 7press-um71 ,i press4--,press2 compress1 to press together2 compression1 the act of pressing together2 depress1 to press down2 express1 to press out1 hence to utter or say2 impress'1 to press into 7as of a seal72 im'press1 the mark left by anything impressed2 repress1 to press back2 suppress1 to press under4 ,rect-us1 right4--,rectify1 to make right2 rectitude1 state of being right2 correct1 to put right2 corrector2 correction1 a putting right4 ,reg-o 7rect-um71 ,i rule4--,regal1 pertaining to a king or ruler2 rector1 one who rules 7in the church72 rectory1 the house in which the rector lives4 ,rump-o 7rupt-um71 ,i break4--,abrupt1 broken off2 rupture1 a breaking2 corrupt1 to break thoroughly1 to break in pieces2 corrupt 7adj47 broken in pieces2 corruptible1 that which may be corrupted2 irruption1 a breaking into2 eruption1 a breaking out2 disruption1 a breaking asunder4 ,scrib-o 7script-um71 ,i write4--,scribe1 one who writes2 describe1 to write down2 inscribe1 to write upon2 inscription2 subscribe1 to write under2 subscription2 scripture1 that which is written4 ,sed-eo 7sess-um71 ,i sit4--,sedentary1 in the habit of sitting2 preside1 to sit before others1 hence to be in authority2 assiduous1 sitting close to 7work72 subside1 to sit under1 hence to settle2 session1 a sitting4 ,serv-o 7servat-um71 ,i keep4--,conserve1 to keep together2 conservatory1 a place for keeping things together2 observe1 to keep in the way of 7the eyes71 hence to keep in view2 observatory1 a place for observing 7the stars72 reserve1 to keep back2 reserve1 what is kept back4 ,spec-io 7spect-um71 ,i look4--,aspect1 look2 spectator1 one who looks at2 speculum1 a looking-glass2 suspicion1 a looking under4 ,statu-o 7statut-um71 ,i set up4--,statue1 something set up2 statute1 a law set up4 ,tang-o 7tact-um71 ,i touch4--,tangent1 a line which touches2 tangible1 which may be touched2 tactile1 that which can touch2 contact1 touching2 tact1 the art of knowing as it were by mere touch4 ,tend-o 7tent-um or tens-um71 ,i stretch4--,distend1 to stretch asunder2 extend1 to stretch out2 extent1 the amount a thing stretches2 tense1 stretched2 tent1 something which is stretched4 ,ten-eo 7tent-um71 ,i hold4--,tenant1 one who holds 7a house or land72 tenacious1 holding much or firmly2 contain1 to hold together2 detain1 to hold down1 hence to hinder2 retain1 to hold back2 retentive1 holding back or keeping4 ,trah-o 7tract-um71 ,i draw4--,attract1 to draw to2 contract1 to draw together2 traction1 the act of drawing2 subtract1 to draw from under1 hence to take away2 subtrahend1 that which has to be taken away2 contraction1 a drawing together4 ,ut-or 7us-us71 ,i use4--,use2 abuse1 to use away from its proper purpose2 peruse1 to use thoroughly1 hence to read through2 usury1 money paid for the use of money2 utensil1 something to be used2 utility1 usefulness4 ,veh-o 7vect-um71 ,i carry4--,vehicle1 that in which goods are carried2 convey1 to carry together2 conveyance1 that in which goods are carried together4 ,ven-io 7vent-um71 ,i come4--,convene1 originally to come together1 afterwards to summon2 convention2 advent1 a coming to2 intervene1 to come in between2 contravene1 to come against1 hence to oppose2 circumvent1 to come round2 intervention1 the act of coming in between4 ,vert-o 7vers-um71 ,i turn4--,convert1 to turn together2 conversion1 the act of turning together2 advert1 to turn towards2 divorce1 to turn asunder2 invert1 to turn into2 inversion1 the act of turning into2 reverse1 to turn back2 verse1 a kind of composition in which the writer turns back from the end of the line4 ,vid-eo 7vis-um71 ,i see4--,visitor1 one who sees2 vision1 what is seen2 visual1 pertaining to seeing2 visible1 what may be seen2 provide1 to see before2 providence1 a seeing beforehand2 prudence 7,fr471 another form of providence4 ,voc-o 7vocat-um71 ,i call4--,convoke1 to call together2 convocation1 a meeting which has been called together2 revoke1 to call back2 vocal1 calling--that is1 having a voice2 voice1 that by which one calls2 vociferate4 ,volv-o 7volut-um71 ,i roll4--,convolution1 a rolling together2 revolve1 to roll round2 involve1 to roll into4 #aa4 ,,the ,,branching ,,of ,,words ,,from ,,english ,,stems4 ,bac-an1 to bake4--,bake2 baker2 baxter 7bakester71 a woman who bakes2 batch1 what is baked4 ,beat-an1 to strike4--,bat1 an instrument to strike a ball with2 beetle1 an instrument to beat clothes with4 ,ber-an1 to carry4--,bearer2 burden2 barrow1 that on which something is borne2 bier1 that on which a corpse is borne2 forbear1 to bear forth or off1 hence to abstain2 overbear1 to bear over1 to overpower4 ,brec-an1 to break4--,break1 an instrument for breaking the speed of a train2 breach1 a break in a wall2 brook1 a stream which breaks from the ground4 ,brinn-an1 to burn4--,burn2 brown is the burnt colour2 brand1 a mark made by burning2 brandy1 a drink made by burning wine2 brunt1 the burning or hottest part of a fight2 brimstone1 burning stone 7a name for sulphur72 brindled1 striped with brown2 bran new brand new4 ,drag-an1 to pull4--,drag2 draw1 another form of drag2 dray1 a kind of cart which is drawn along2 draught1 what is drawn2 draft1 a cheque drawn on a banker2 drain1 a ditch for drawing off water2 drawl1 to keep drawing out one's words4 ,far-an1 to go4--,far1 that which requires much going to reach2 farewell1 go well6 fieldfare1 a bird which goes in the fields2 thoroughfare1 a place where people go through2 ford1 a place in a river where one can go across on foot2 ferry1 a place in a river where one can go over in a boat2 fare1 the money paid for going4 ,hl1 sound4--,hale2 heal1 to make hale2 health1 state of being sound or hale2 healthy2 healthful2 holy1 spiritually hale2 hail1 be hale6 or be healthy6 whole1 in a state of being hale 7the w is intrusive72 wholesome1 what tends to make hale4 ,lig1 lie4--,lie1 to lie down2 lay1 to make to lie2 lair1 the place where a wild beast lies2 law1 what lies or is in due order2 low1 what is 7lying7 down4 ,maw-an1 to mow4--,mower2 math1 the grass that is mowed2 aftermath1 the grass that is mowed after the first crop2 mead1 a place where grass is mowed2 meadow1 a small mead4 ,met-an1 to meet4--,mote1 a meeting 7an old word now found only in wardmote and folkmote72 meet4 ,reaf-ian1 to take away4--,reave2 bereave2 reef1 what is taken in in a sail2 rifle1 to plunder or take away2 robber1 a person who takes away what does not belong to him4 ,sceot-an1 to throw4--,shoot1 to throw out 7by means of a gun or otherwise72 shut1 to throw to 7the door72 shoot1 a branch thrown out by a tree2 shot1 what is thrown out 7by a gun or otherwise72 shout1 to throw out of the mouth2 shuttle1 an instrument thrown by a weaver2 sheet1 what is thrown over 7a bed72 shutter1 what is thrown to1 to guard a window4 ,sit-an1 to sit4--,sit2 set1 to make to sit2 beset1 to set about2 onset1 a setting on2 overset1 to turn over2 upset2 setter1 a kind of dog2 settle1 a kind of seat2 settle1 to set or fix2 settler2 settlement2 seat1 the place where one sits4 ,treow-an1 believe4--,trow1 to believe2 true1 what should be believed2 truth2 truthful2 truthfully2 truism2 trust2 intrust2 trustee2 trusty2 trustworthy2 troth4 ,wac-an1 to wake4--,wake2 awake2 awaken2 wakeful2 wakefulness2 watch2 watchful2 watchfulness4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,prefixes and ,suffixes4 ,,prefixes4 #a4 ,,english 7,,or ,,teutonic74 ,a 7a broken-down form of the ,a4,s4 preposition on71 at1 to1 on1 in1 etc42 astern1 abed1 aboard1 afield1 afoot1 ashore1 alive1 aweary4 ,after2 afternoon1 afterthought1 aftermath1 aftercrop4 ,at2 atone 7to bring together into one72 ado 7 at-do72 twit 7 at-wit74 ,be1 used both with nouns and with verbs--behalf1 behoof1 behest1 bequest2 betake1 begin1 become1 bespatter1 bedim1 besprinkle1 behead4 ,down2 downfall1 downstroke1 downcast4 ,for1 not2 forbid1 forsake 7not to seek71 forget1 forgo 7wrongly spelled forego72 or utterly2 as1 forlorn1 fordone4 ,fore1 before2 foretell1 forefather1 foresee1 forebode1 forecast1 forenoon4 ,gain1 against2 gainsay1 gainstay 7gainstand74 ,in1 im1 en1 em2 income1 inlet1 insight1 inlay1 inborn1 inbred1 into1 ingraft1 inlay1 infold1 imbed1 endear1 enthral1 engrave1 embower4 ,mis1 wrong2 mislead1 mistrust1 misdeed1 mishap1 mistake4 ,mid1 in the middle of2 midmost1 midnight1 midsummer1 midday4 ,off1 from2 offshoot1 offset1 offspring1 offal 7 off-fall71 offhand4 ,out2 outset1 outstrip1 outvie1 outrun1 outdo4 ,over2 overwise1 overfed1 overmuch1 overcoat1 overhand1 overseer1 oversight4 ,through1 thorough2 thoroughfare1 throughout1 thoroughbred1 thoroughgoing4 ,to1 this2 to-day1 to-night1 to-morrow4 ,un1 7#a7 not2 unclean1 unwise1 untrue1 unbelief1 unrest3 or 7#b7 back2 undo1 untie1 unlock1 unfold1 unbind1 unloose4 ,under2 undergrowth1 underbred1 underhand1 undersell1 underwood4 ,up2 uproar1 upland1 upstart1 upset1 upbear1 upbraid1 upright4 ,wel1 well2 welfare1 welcome1 well-born1 well-bred1 well-trained4 ,with1 against2 withstand1 withdraw 7drawing-room withdrawing-room71 withhold4 #b4 ,,latin4 ,ab 7a1 abs71 from or away2 averse1 avert1 aversion1 abdicate1 abstract1 abstain1 abjure1 abate1 abound1 abuse1 abduction4 ,ad 7ac1 af1 ag1 al1 am1 an1 ap1 ar1 as1 at1 a71 to3 adore1 advise1 accord1 annex1 accuse1 accede1 allude1 allusion1 announce1 appear1 assent1 attend1 aspire1 affirm1 affix1 aggrieve1 annul1 ammunition1 apparent1 arrive1 assume1 assault1 assumption1 attend1 attentive1 attention1 assimilate1 attain1 ascribe1 avow4 ,am 7amb71 round2 ambient1 amputate1 ambition1 ambiguous4 ,ante 7anti71 before2 antedate1 antenuptial1 antenatal1 antechamber1 antediluvian1 anticipate4 ,circum 7circu71 round2 circumlocution1 circumnavigate1 circuit1 circumvent1 circuitous1 circulate1 circumference4 ,con 7col1 com1 cor1 co71 together with2 consonant1 connect1 contend1 conduct1 compact1 compound1 commend1 collision1 collect1 correct1 corrupt1 co-heir1 coerce4 ,contra 7contro1 counter71 against2 contradict1 contravene1 controversy1 controvert1 contraband1 counterfeit4 ,de1 down or from2 denote1 describe1 depart1 descent1 devise1 demure4 ,dis 7dif1 di72 disjoin1 difficult1 diffuse1 divide1 differ1 dilute1 dissent4 ,ex 7ef1 e71 out of2 extort1 exhume1 efface1 educe1 extrude1 extol1 effect1 education4 ,extra1 beyond2 extraordinary1 extravagant1 extraneous4 ,in 7il1 im1 ir1 em1 en71 into2 invade1 incite1 induce1 illusion1 illude1 improve1 impulse1 impel1 irruption1 embrace1 endure1 encourage1 embroil1 irradiate1 innate4 ,in 7ig1 il1 im1 ir71 not2 insecure1 ignoble1 illiterate1 inconvenient1 incurable1 incapable1 incapacitate1 immortal1 irregular1 improper1 illegitimate1 irrational1 innocent1 infant4 ,inter 7intel1 enter71 between2 intercourse1 intelligent1 interfere1 interdict1 enterprise1 entertain1 interrupt4 ,intro1 within2 introduce4 ,ob 7oc1 of1 op1 os71 against2 oblige1 obtain1 object1 occur1 offend1 oppose1 occult1 offer1 ostentation4 ,pene1 almost2 as1 peninsula4 ,per 7pel71 through2 perform1 permit1 pellucid1 pertain4 ,post1 after2 postpone1 posthumous4 ,pr or pre1 before2 prelection1 preface1 prevent1 precede1 premature1 predict4 ,prter or preter1 beyond2 preternatural1 preterite4 ,pro 7por1 pur1 pol71 forth1 on or before2 proceed1 pollution1 portend1 purvey1 portrait1 purloin1 purchase1 pronoun1 purpose4 ,re 7red71 back2 refute1 result1 redolent1 redound1 reduce1 redeem4 ,retro1 backwards2 retrograde1 retrospect4 ,se 7sed71 aside or apart2 select1 seclude1 secede1 seduce1 sedition4 ,sub 7suc1 suf1 sug1 sup1 sur1 sus1 su71 under1 up from below2 subject1 suspect1 succeed1 suffer1 suggest1 suppose1 suspend1 suspect1 succinct1 suppress1 surrogate1 susceptible1 subdue1 suffuse1 subtract1 succour1 supplant4 ,subter1 beneath2 subterfuge4 ,super 7sur71 over2 superstructure1 surplus1 survive1 superscribe1 surfeit1 surcharge1 supernatural1 surname1 supercilious4 ,trans 7tra1 tres72 across2 transmarine1 translate1 tradition1 trespass1 traduce4 ,ultra1 beyond2 ultramontane1 ultramarine4 ,vice1 instead of2 viceroy1 viceregal1 viscount4 #c4 ,,greek4 ,a or an1 not2 anarchy1 anomaly1 anonymous1 apteryx 7wingless71 atheist4 ,amphi1 on both sides1 round2 amphibious1 amphitheatre4 ,ana1 up2 anatomy1 analysis1 anabasis1 analyse4 ,anti 7ant71 against2 antithesis1 antipathy1 antarctic1 antitype1 antidote4 ,apo 7ap1 aph71 from2 apogee1 apology1 apostrophe1 aphelion1 aphorism4 ,cata1 down2 catarrh1 catalepsy1 catastrophe1 catechism1 cathartic1 cathedral1 catalogue4 ,di 7dis71 two2 diphthong1 dissyllable1 dilemma1 diploma4 ,dia1 through2 diameter1 diagonal1 diaphonous1 diabolic1 diagnosis1 diastole1 diaphragm4 ,en 7el1 em71 in2 ellipse1 emblem1 energy1 enthrone1 empyrean1 emphasis1 emporium4 ,endo1 within2 endogenous4 ,epi 7ep71 upon2 epilogue1 epitaph1 epiphany1 epistle4 ,exo1 without2 exogenous1 exotic4 ,hyper1 over or above2 hyperbola1 hyperbole1 hyperbolical1 hypercritical1 hyperborean4 ,hypo 7hyph71 under2 hypotenuse1 hypothesis1 hypocrite1 hyphen4 ,meta 7met1 meth7 signifies after1 change2 metathesis1 metonomy1 method1 metaphor4 ,para 7par71 beside2 parabola1 paraphrase1 parhelion1 parody1 parable4 ,peri1 round2 perimeter1 peristyle1 perigee1 periphery1 period4 ,pro1 before2 prologue1 problem1 prophet1 program4 ,pros1 towards2 prosody1 proselyte4 ,syn 7sy1 syl1 sym71 together with2 syndic1 syntax1 symbol1 syllogism1 syllable1 system1 systole1 synchronous1 symptom1 sympathy4 ,,suffixes4 #d4 ,,english 7,,or ,,teutonic74 ,noun ,suffixes4 #a4 ,denoting a person or the doer of an action3 -er or -ar2 singer1 baker1 beggar1 liar1 lawyer1 bowyer 7a bow-maker71 sawyer1 sailor1 speaker1 miller1 7fletcher flechier1 an arrow-maker74 -nd 7old present participial ending72 friend 7 a loving person71 fiend 7 a hating person71 errand1 wind4 -ster 7originally a female agent72 ,spinster1 songster1 maltster1 huckster1 baxter bakester1 7now a term of contempt72 youngster1 gamester1 punster4 -ter1 -ther1 -der2 daughter1 father1 spider 7that is1 spinder71 mother1 brother1 foster 7 foodster74 #b4 ,denoting an instrument3 -der or -er2 ladder1 rudder1 bladder 7from blow71 feather1 weather1 rudder1 murder1 stair1 finger 7from fangen1 to seize74 -el or -le2 shovel1 girdle1 shuttle1 settle 7a small seat71 thimble4 #c4 ,forming abstract nouns3 -dom2 kingdom1 earldom1 freedom1 thraldom1 wisdom1 martyrdom1 ,christendom4 -hood1 or -head2 manhood1 boyhood1 childhood1 priesthood1 ,godhead1 hardihood1 neighbourhood1 wifehood4 -ing2 hunting1 blessing1 standing1 reading1 clothing4 -ness2 witness 7 a person who wits or knows71 wilderness1 darkness1 goodness1 redness1 weakness1 hardness4 -red2 hatred1 kindred4 -ship1 -scape2 friendship1 lordship1 worship 7 worthship71 hardship1 fellowship1 landscape 7in ,milton1 landskip3 compare skipper for shipper74 -t1 -th1 -st1 -d2 weight1 height1 sleight 7from sly71 gift1 rift 7from rive71 theft1 drought 7from dry71 frost1 flight1 warmth1 health1 width1 death1 birth1 sloth 7from slow71 trust 7from trow1 to believe71 flood 7from flow71 seed 7from sow74 #d4 ,diminutives3 -el or -le2 thimble 7from thumb71 riddle 7from read74 -en2 maiden1 kitten1 chicken4 -ing2 farthing1 tithing 7from tithe tenth71 riding 7from thrid third74 -kin2 lambkin1 mannikin1 pipkin4 -ling 7 l ing72 darling 7from dear71 duckling1 suckling1 hireling1 gosling1 fatling1 firstling1 nestling1 underling1 starveling1 suckling4 -ock2 bullock1 hillock1 paddock4 -y1 -ie2 lassie1 ,annie1 ,charlie1 baby1 ,tommy1 doggie4 ,adjective ,suffixes4 -d or -ed 7originally a perfect participle-ending72 hard1 cold1 loud3 also added to nouns1 as gifted1 wretched1 ragged1 long-eared1 feathered1 landed4 -el or -le2 fickle1 brittle1 little1 idle1 mickle 7from much74 -er2 lower1 higher1 brighter1 sooner4 -er2 bitter1 clever4 -ern1 denoting the region of the globe2 northern1 eastern1 southern1 western4 -est2 lowest1 highest1 brightest1 soonest4 -fold2 manifold1 twofold1 threefold1 hundredfold1 etc4 -ful2 scornful1 sinful1 wilful1 truthful1 tearful1 needful1 awful1 dreadful1 sorrowful4 -ish1 -sh1 or -ch1 denotes partaking of the nature of2 childish1 foolish1 slavish1 swinish1 churlish1 waspish1 whitish1 goodish1 brutish1 girlish1 boyish4 -less denotes destitute of2 worthless1 fearless1 heedless1 hopeless1 tearless1 sinless1 godless1 lawless1 toothless4 -like1 -ly1 denotes like2 warlike1 childlike1 womanly1 manly1 heavenly1 godly1 ghastly1 likely4 -n or -en 7also a perfect participle-ending72 drunken1 shaken1 broken1 molten1 shorn1 torn4 ,it also denotes the material of which a thing is made1 as golden1 linen1 wooden1 silvern1 flaxen1 hempen1 leathern4 -some denotes the possession of a quality2 wholesome1 blithesome1 gladsome1 winsome1 lissom 7from lithe71 buxom 7that is1 buhsum1 from bugan1 to bend71 quarrelsome1 tiresome4 -t 7like d71 probably perfect participial ending2 short 7from sceran1 to shear71 blunt1 tight1 slight4 -ward denotes direction2 homeward1 heavenward1 seaward1 northward1 awkward 7from awk1 contrary71 toward1 froward 7from from74 -y or -ey denotes the possession of a quality2 bloody1 thirsty1 guilty1 woody1 mighty1 healthy1 greedy1 moody1 sundry 7from sunder71 sticky1 sorry 7from sore71 hairy1 bushy1 stony1 clayey4 ,verb ,suffixes4 -el or -le gives a frequentative meaning to the verb2 waddle 7from wade71 startle1 sparkle1 dazzle 7from daze71 dribble 7from drip71 swaddle 7from swathe71 dapple 7from dip71 crawl1 kneel 7from knee71 struggle1 mingle1 hurtle4 -en denotes making or doing2 fatten1 broaden1 soften1 open 7from up71 lighten1 sadden1 gladden1 sweeten1 frighten1 lengthen4 -er1 also frequentative2 glimmer1 stagger1 patter1 flitter1 flutter1 wander1 batter1 sputter1 stutter4 -k1 also frequentative2 stalk 7from steal71 hark 7from hear71 walk4 ,adverb ,suffixes4 -ere denotes place in which2 here1 there1 where4 -es1 -se1 -ce1 -s1 which are old 7possessive7 genitive terminations2 sometimes1 besides1 unawares1 else1 twice 7 twis71 thrice1 hence1 thence1 whence1 needs1 outwards4 -ly denotes manner2 sweetly1 sadly1 cleanly4 -ther denotes direction towards2 hither1 thither1 whither4 -ward1 -wards1 denote direction2 homeward1 homewards1 heavenward1 heavenwards1 hitherward1 inwards4 -wise1 -ways1 denote manner or fashion2 otherwise1 anywise1 nowise1 straightway1 alway1 always1 sideways1 lengthways4 #e4 ,,latin4 ,noun ,suffixes4 #a4 ,those denoting persons or the doer of an action3 -an1 -ain2 artisan1 grammarian1 villain4 -ant or -ent2 agent1 student1 assistant1 attendant1 recreant1 tenant1 miscreant4 -ate1 -ee1 -ey1 -y2 legate1 magistrate1 advocate1 curate1 nominee1 trustee1 legatee1 committee1 attorney1 covey1 ally1 deputy1 jury4 -ess denotes a fem4 agent2 governess1 traitress1 empress1 duchess4 -ive1 -iff2 captive1 fugitive1 caitiff1 plaintiff4 -tor1 -sor1 -or1 -our1 -er1 -eer1 -ier1 -ar1 -ary2 doctor1 successor1 chancellor1 emperor1 actor1 ,saviour1 founder1 enchanter1 governor1 preacher1 juror1 author1 monitor1 victor1 auditor1 sponsor1 engineer1 auctioneer1 grenadier1 brigadier1 registrar1 usher1 archer1 farrier1 vicar1 premier1 lapidary4 -trix1 female agent2 executrix4 #b4 ,those forming ,abstract ,nouns3 -age2 age1 homage1 savage1 marriage1 voyage1 tillage1 courage1 personage1 breakage1 salvage4 7,tonnage1 bondage1 shrinkage are hybrids47 -ance1 -ancy1 -ence1 -ency2 distance1 constancy1 infancy1 consistence1 resistance1 decency1 consistency1 persistence1 conveyance1 cadence1 chance 7a form of cadence74 -ice1 -ise2 avarice1 service1 merchandise1 justice1 exercise4 -ion1 -tion1 -sion1 -som1 -son1 originally denoted the action of a verb2 action1 potion1 opinion1 poison1 venison1 malison1 fusion1 reason1 tension1 lection1 ransom1 season1 position1 nation1 occasion4 -or1 -our2 labour1 honour1 ardour1 savour1 clamour1 amour4 -tude2 servitude1 latitude1 fortitude1 altitude1 longitude1 magnitude1 custom 7from consuetudo74 -ty1 -ity2 cruelty1 charity1 bounty1 poverty1 fealty1 city1 vanity4 -ure2 juncture1 censure1 culture1 measure1 cincture1 picture1 inclosure4 -y1 -cy1 -ce2 family1 copy1 memory1 story1 victory1 misery1 aristocracy1 fancy1 grace4 #c4 ,diminutives3 -el1 -le2 damsel1 mongrel4 -et1 -let2 pocket1 rivulet4 -ette2 coquette1 rosette4 -icle1 -cule2 article1 animalcule4 -ule2 globule1 granule4 ,adjective ,suffixes4 -able1 -ible1 -ble2 culpable1 probable1 flexible1 edible1 capable1 soluble1 feeble1 amiable4 -acious denotes tendency1 generally excessive2 loquacious1 veracious1 vivacious1 tenacious1 voracious4 -al1 -ar2 comical1 regal1 legal1 general1 regular1 singular1 loyal1 royal1 equal1 secular4 -an1 -ane1 -ain1 -en1 -on2 human1 urban1 pagan1 humane1 mundane1 certain1 mizzen 7from medius74 ,surgeon and sexton have become nouns4 -aneous1 -ain1 -aign1 -eign1 -ange2 cutaneous1 mountain1 champaign1 foreign1 strange4 -ant1 -ent2 volant1 fluent1 patent1 innocent4 -ary1 -arian1 -arious2 stationary1 contrary1 necessary1 gregarious1 agrarian4 -ate1 -ete1 -eet1 -ite1 -ute1 -te2 fortunate1 deliberate1 concrete1 effete1 discreet1 erudite1 minute1 chaste4 -estrial1 -estrian2 terrestrial1 equestrian4 -ic2 civic1 classic1 barbaric1 unique4 -id2 fervid1 morbid1 acid1 tepid4 -ile1 -il1 -eel1 -le2 servile1 senile1 fragile1 civil1 frail1 genteel1 gentle1 able4 -ine denotes belonging to2 feminine1 divine1 feline1 lacustrine1 canine1 equine1 saline4 -ive1 inclined to2 pensive1 massive1 captive1 plaintive1 restive1 native1 fugitive1 active4 -ous1 -ose1 denote full of2 famous1 ingenuous1 glorious1 copious1 assiduous1 querulous1 anxious1 verbose1 grandiose1 jocose1 dangerous4 -ory2 illusory1 amatory1 admonitory4 -und2 jocund1 moribund1 floribund1 rotund4 ,verb ,suffixes4 -ate2 advocate1 complicate1 anticipate1 supplicate1 eradicate4 -eer2 domineer1 career1 volunteer4 -esce denotes the beginning of an action2 effervesce1 coalesce4 -fy denotes to make 7from facio71 magnify1 terrify1 qualify1 signify4 -ish2 nourish1 perish1 cherish1 finish1 flourish1 banish1 punish4 -ite1 -ete1 -t2 expedite1 delete1 perfect1 conduct1 reflect1 connect4 #f4 ,,greek4 ,noun ,suffixes4 -et1 -t1 -ete1 -ate1 denote the agent2 poet1 prophet1 athlete1 comet1 planet1 apostate1 sthete7871 patriot4 -isk has diminutive signification2 asterisk1 obelisk4 -ism denotes the result of an action2 deism1 fatalism1 egotism1 criticism1 aneurism4 -ist denotes the agent2 baptist1 sophist1 evangelist4 -ma1 -em1 -me1 -m1 denote the result of an action2 diorama1 drama1 dogma1 system1 scheme1 theme1 diadem1 phlegm1 enema4 -sis1 -sy1 -se1 denote action2 crisis1 poesy1 phase1 genesis1 emphasis1 paralysis1 hypocrisy1 ellipse1 phrensy4 -ter1 -tre1 denote the instrument2 metre1 centre4 ,verb ,suffixes4 -ise signifies to do2 criticise1 baptise1 eulogise4 ,,literature4 ,i4 ,outline of ,our ,early ,literature 7,,with ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,language74 #a4 ,,the ,,beowulf4--,the ,beowulf is a poem which recounts the life and death of a hero of that name1 who slays a monster called ,grendel4 ,it was a poetic legend brought from the ,continent by our ,teutonic ancestors4 ,it does not seem to have been written down1 or committed to paper1 till the seventh century2 and it was probably preserved in the memory of different generations1 by its being taught by fathers to their sons1 and by the habit of chanting portions of it at the banquets of kings and warriors4 ,it is a poem which in substance belongs to the ,continental ,teutons as much as to the ,english2 and it marks the point at which their literatures and languages begin to branch off4 ,the scene is laid in the north of ,denmark2 so that the poem is ,northern1 and not ,southern1 ,teutonic4 ,its present form is due to a ,christian writer of ,northumbria4 ,in literary form1 therefore1 it is ,english2 and is one of the earliest monuments of our literature4 ,the poem consists of #fcej short lines1 and is written throughout in head-rhymes1#ae or alliterative rhymes4 #b4 ,c,,dmon4--,but the first true ,english poem was the work of a ,northumbrian called ,c,,dmon1 who was a servant to the monks of the abbey of ,hilda1 in ,whitby4 ,it was written about the year #fgj4 ,it is a paraphrase of the history given in the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 ,it sings of the creation of the world1 of the history of ,israel1 of the life of ,christ1 of death1 judgment1 purgatory1 heaven1 and hell4 #c4 ,b,,da4--,the oldest literature of a nation--the early writings of its childhood--are always poetic2 and prose-writings do not appear until the nation has1 as it were1 grown up4 ,the first ,english prose-writer was ,b,,da--or1 as he is generally called1 ,the ,venerable ,bede4 ,he was born in the year #fgc4 ,like ,cdmon1 our first poet1 he was a ,northumbrian1 and belonged to the monastery of ,jarrow-upon-,tyne4 ,his most important writings were in ,latin2 and the best known of them is an ,ecclesiastical ,history of the ,english ,people4 ,but the work which makes ,bda our first writer of ,english prose1 is a translation into ,english of the ,gospel of ,st ,john4 ,it was his last work2 and1 in fact1 he died just after he had dictated the last sentence4 ,this was in the year #gce4 #d4 ,,king ,,alfred4--,up to the year #hff1 ,northumbria was the home of learning and literature2 and the ,northumbrian monks were its loving and diligent cultivators4 ,but the incursions of the ,danes1 the destruction of the monasteries1 and the perpetual danger to life and property arising from the troubled condition of the country1 put a stop for some time to study and to letters4 ,the cultivation of ,english as a book-language reappears1 towards the end of the ninth century1 in the south of the island4 ,alfred the ,great1 king of ,wessex1 is its great friend and promoter4 ,winchester was the capital of his kingdom2 and it was at ,winchester that ,alfred and his colleagues laboured at the writing of ,english books4 ,he invited great scholars from different parts of the world2 he set up schools2 he himself taught a school in his own court2 he translated the ,latin manuals of the time into ,english1 and added largely to them from his own materials2 he translated also the ,history of the ,venerable ,bede2 and1 most probably1 he worked at the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 and made it much fuller and more detailed than it had ever been before4 ,he founded schools in the different parts of his kingdom1 with the purpose and in the hope that #8every free-born youth1 who has the means1 may attend to his book till he can read ,english writing perfectly4' ,alfred was born in the year #hdi1 and died in #ija4 ,his own personal diligence--his unceasing head-work1 are well known4 ,he gave eight hours a day to the work of public affairs--of managing the business of his kingdom2 eight hours to books and study2 and he reserved only eight hours for sleep1 meals1 exercise1 and amusement4 ,the following is a passage from one of ,king ,alfred's writings3 ,swa claen heo waes othfeallen on ,angel-cynne1 thaet swithe feawa waeran be-heonan ,humbre the hira thenunge cuthon understandan on ,englisc1 ohthe farthon an aerend-gewrit of ,ledene on ,englisc areccan2 and ic wene thaet naht monige be-geondan ,humbre naeron4 ,so clean 7completely7 it was ruined 7had ruin fallen7 on the ,english folk 7kin71 that very few were on this side ,humber who their service could understand in ,english1 or out 7forth7 an epistle 7errand-writing7 from ,latin into ,english declare 7 translate72 and ,i wene that not many beyond ,humber were 7who could do this74 #e4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,chronicle4--,this chronicle was written chiefly by monks1 and was1 in its earliest forms1 a dry register or record of events--of the births and deaths of kings1 bishops1 earls1 and other distinguished persons4 ,in ,alfred's time1 it became more of a history2 and even war-songs and battle odes are quoted in it4 ,it was continued down to the death of ,king ,stephen in #aaed2 and the last portions of it were composed and transcribed by the monks of ,peterborough4 #f4 ,,archbishop ,,lfric4--lfric was ,archbishop of ,canterbury in the early part of the eleventh century2 and he translated the first seven books of the ,bible1 and part of ,job1 into the oldest form of ,english1 which is generally called ,anglo-,saxon4 ,the following is a specimen3 #a4 ,on anginn gescep ,god heofenan and eordan4 ,in beginning shaped ,god heaven and earth4 #d4 ,god geseah th1 thaet hit gd vaes1 and he gedaeld thaet leht fram thm thestrum4 ,god saw then1 that it good was1 and he dealed 7divided7 the light from the darkness4 #g4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,gospels4--,this translation of the four gospels forms another land-mark in the history of our ,english tongue4 ,this translation was made before the ,norman ,conquest--before ,french words had come into our language1 and therefore before the inflections of ,english had dropped off from the words4 #h4 ,,old ,,english ,,dialects4--,for more than a century after the ,conquest1 ,english ceased to be used as a literary language--as a book-speech1 except in the ,saxon ,chronicle1 which was continued down to #aaed4 ,it still continued1 of course1 to be the language of the ,english nation4 ,the ,normans1 when they used books at all1 imported ,french books from ,france2 and they never dreamed that ,english was a language worthy to be written down4 ,different ,english counties spoke different kinds of ,english2 and this continued for many centuries--and still continues to a considerable extent4 ,thus the ,english spoken by a ,yorkshire-man is very different from the ,english spoken by a ,dorsetshire-man2 and the ,english of both differs very much from that spoken in ,kent4 ,but1 in the eleventh and twelfth centuries--and even much later--travelling was very difficult and expensive2 working-men could not travel at all2 there was little motive to travel for any one2 and generations were born and died within the same village1 or on one farm1 or at least in one part of the #8country-side4' ,thus different parts of this island pronounced their ,english in their own way2 had their own grammar--that is1 their own inflections2 and each division of ,england looked upon itself as the right and correct speakers of the ,english tongue4 ,but1 among the large number of different dialects1 there gradually emerged into distinct and even remarkable prominence three chief dialects4 ,these are now known as the ,northern1 ,midland1 and ,southern4 ,the grammar of the three differs in several respects2 but the chief grammatical mark is found in the plural ending of the present tense of verbs4 ,this is s in the ,north2 en in the ,midland dialect2 and eth in the ,south4 ,thus we have3 ,n4 ,m4 ,s4 ,we hops1 we hopen1 we hopeth4 ,you hops1 you hopen1 you hopeth4 ,they hops1 they hopen1 they hopeth4 ,this variety of the plural forms the test which enables readers of books written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 to determine in what part of ,england and in what dialect they were written4 ,the following are the chief books written in these dialects3 ,,northern 7spoken between the ,forth and the ,humber7--the ,cursor ,mundi1 a version of ,scripture in rhyme1 written about44444#acbj ,,midland 7spoken in the ,east-,anglian counties1 and the whole of the ,midland district7--,orm's ,ormulum1 a paraphrase in verse of the parts of the gospels given in the church service1 written in44444#abae ,,southern 7spoken in all the counties south of the ,thames1 and also in several western counties7--,layamon's ,brut 7a translation of a ,french poem by ,john de ,wace71 written in44444#abje #i4 ,,the ,,first ,,english ,,book ,,after ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest4--,normandy was lost to ,england in the reign of ,king ,john1 in the year #abjd4 ,from that date1 as we have seen1 there was a compulsion on the ,norman-,french to forget their foreign origin1 and to look upon themselves as genuine ,englishmen4 ,a year after1 in the year #abje1 ten years before the winning of the ,magna ,charta1 appeared the first work--it was a poem--that was written in ,english after the ,conquest4 ,it is a translation by a ,somersetshire priest called ,layamon or ,laweman1 from a ,french poem4 ,brut is the ,french form of the name ,brutus1 who was said to be a son of neas1 and to be the founder of the ,british nation4 ,in those rude times1 when history was quite unknown1 the origin of every nation was traced up to ,troy1 and the persons of the ,iliad of ,homer4 ,the ,brut is a poem written chiefly in head-rhymes1 and consists of about thirty thousand lines4 ,but though it is translated from a ,french poem1 there are not fifty ,french words in the whole--that is1 there is not one ,french word in every six hundred lines4 #aj4 ,,orm',s ,,ormulum1 #abae4--,the ,ormulum was a poem written by an ,augustine monk1 called ,orm or ,ormin1 and called after his own name4 ,it is a poem of nearly twenty thousand short lines1 without rhyme of any kind--but with a regular number of accents4 ,there are not five ,french words in the whole poem4 ,orm was extremely particular about his spelling2 and1 when an accent struck a consonant after a short vowel1 he insisted on doubling the consonant4 #aa4 ,,langland ,,and ,,chaucer4--,william ,langland represents the part of the nation that spoke pure ,english2 ,geoffrey ,chaucer1 that part which spoke ,english with a large admixture of ,norman-,french4 ,in fact1 ,chaucer's poems show the high-water mark of the ,french saturation of our ,english vocabulary4 ,langland--a west-countryman1 a monk1 a man of the people1 and of intensely radical sympathies--was born in #accb2 ,chaucer1 a ,londoner1 in the very centre of ,english society1 page to the ,duchess of ,clarence at sixteen years of age1 and afterwards for great part of his life in court employment1 was born in #acdj4 ,both died in the year #adjj4 ,langland's most important poem is the ,vision of 7concerning7 ,piers ,plowman4 ,it is written in pure ,english1 and in head-rhyme4 ,it is the last ,english poem that was written in this kind of alliterative verse4 ,the following lines are taken from the introduction3 ,in a somer seasun ,in a summer season when softe was the sonn1 when soft was the sun1 ,i shop me into a schroud ,i shape me into 7dressed7 shrouds 7clothes7 a scheep as ,i wer1 shepherd as ,i was1 in habite of an hermite in habit as a hermit1 unholy of werkes1 unholy in works1 wende ,i wydene in this world went 7far and7 wide in this world1 wondrs to here4 wonders to hear4 ,chaucer's great work is his ,canterbury ,tales1 a series of tales supposed to be told by a company of pilgrims to beguile their journey to the shrine of ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury4 ,the company represented men and women of almost every class in ,england2 and their manners and character are painted with wonderful truth and beauty4 ,the following is a passage from the ,prologue to the ,canterbury ,tales2 and the ,french words are in italics4 ,it is from the character of the ,knight3 ,and evermore he had a sovereyn prys1#af ,and1 though that he was worthy1 he was wys1 ,and of his port#ag as meke as is a mayde4 ,he nevere yit no vileinye#ah ne sayde ,in al his lyf1 unto no maner#ai wight4 ,he was a verray perfight gentil#bj knight4 ,but1 for to tellen you of his array1#ba ,his hors was good1 but he ne was nought gay4#bb #ab4 ,,alliteration ,,or ,,head-,,rhyme4--,alliteration is the correspondence of the first letter of several words in the same line4 ,it is like the well-known3 #8,peter ,piper picked a peck of pepper off a pewter plate4' ,round the rugged rocks the ragged rascals ran4 ,in ,old ,english or ,anglo-,saxon poetry it was the only kind of rhyme used4 ,the rhyme which is called end-rhyme was not known to the ,saxons1 and was imported into ,england by the ,normans4 ,in the ordinary ,old ,english verse1 the lines are written in pairs1 and in each pair there are usually three alliterations1 two in the first line and one in the second4 ,even as late as the fourteenth century we find such verses as the following1 written by ,langland3 ,i shop me into a schroud1 ,a scheep as ,i wer4 ,shakspeare is fond of making fun of it4 ,but it has unconsciously survived in the language2 and there is not a single great ,english poet1 from ,shakspeare to ,tennyson1 who does not make a large use of it4 ,thus ,shakspeare himself has ,in maiden meditation1 fancy-free4 ,full fathom five thy father lies4 and many other similar lines4 ,milton gives us such lines as3 ,him the ,almighty power ,hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky4 ,shelley has the line3 ,our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thought4 ,tennyson is very fond of alliteration4 ,thus1 in the ,day-,dream3 ,and o'er them many a sliding star ,and many a merry wind was borne2 ,and1 streamed through many a golden bar1 ,the twilight melted into morn4 #ac4 ,,john ,,gower4--,a contemporary of ,chaucer was ,john ,gower1 a gentleman of ,kent4 ,the date of his birth is not known2 but he survived ,chaucer eight years1 dying in #adjh4 ,he wrote the ,lover's ,confession in ,english verse2 the ,mirror of the ,meditative ,man in ,french verse 7lost72 the ,voice of one crying1 in ,latin4 ,his style was heavy and prosaic4 ,chaucer called him the #8moral ,gower4' #ad4 ,,john ,,barbour4--,another eminent contemporary of ,chaucer was ,john ,barbour1 ,archdeacon of ,aberdeen1 who wrote in the ,scottish1 or ,northern ,english1 form of our tongue4 ,he was a learned man1 and a man of the world1 who filled important office in the employment of the ,scottish king4 ,his great work was a narrative poem1 ,the ,bruce1 giving an account of the life and adventures of the great ,bruce4 ,it is valuable both as a monument of our language and a storehouse of historical incident4 ,barbour died about #acie4 ,the literature of ,scotland was worthily continued by the royal poet1 ,james ,i4 7#acid-adcg71 brought up as a prisoner in ,england1 and well educated4 ,his great work was the ,king's ,quhair 7or book71 a poem in the style and in one of the metres of ,chaucer4 #ae4 ,,sir ,,john ,,mandeville4--,sir ,john ,mandeville is the first writer of the new ,english prose--the prose with a large addition of ,french words4 ,he is sometimes called the ,father of ,english ,prose4 ,he was born at ,st ,albans1 in ,hertfordshire1 in #acjj1 and died at ,lige1 in #acgb4 ,he was a great traveller1 soldier1 and physician2 travelled through the ,holy ,land1 served under the ,sultan of ,egypt and the ,great ,khan of ,cathay 7the old name for ,china72 and wandered through almost all the then known parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,he wrote his travels in three languages--first in ,latin for the learned2 then in ,french for the ,norman-,french2 and lastly in ,english1 #8that every man of the nation might understand them4' ,the following is a specimen of his prose3 ,and #b myle from ,ebron 7,hebron7 is the grave of ,lothe 7,lot7 that was ,abrahames brother4 ,and a lytille fro ,ebron is the mount of ,mambre1 of the whiche the valeye takethe his name4 ,and there is a tree of oke1 that the ,sarazinis clepen 7call7 ,dirp1 that is of ,abrahames tyme1 the whiche men clepen the drye tree4 ,and thei saye1 that it hathe ben there sithe the beginnynge of the world1 and was sumtyme grene1 and bare leves1 unto the tyme that oure ,lord dyede on the cros2 and thanne it dryede1 and so dyden alle the trees1 that weren thanne in the world4 ,this is almost quite like modern ,english--with the exception of the spelling2 #af4 ,,john ,,wicliffe4--,john ,wicliffe199 or ,john de ,wycliffe1 was born at the village of ,hipswell1 near ,richmond1 in ,yorkshire1 in the year #acbd4 ,he died at the vicarage of ,lutterworth1 in ,leicestershire1 in the year #achd1 at the age of sixty4 ,he was the first ,englishman who attempted to make a complete translation of the ,scriptures4 ,of this work1 however1 the ,gospels alone can be certainly identified as the work of ,wicliffe himself4 ,the ,old ,testament and apocryphal books were translated principally by ,nicolas de ,hereford1 and it is supposed that his work was interrupted in #achb1 and that the ,bible was completed about that time by extracting the text of the gospels from ,wicliffe's commentary on the gospels 7written in #acfj71 and adding to it a new translation of the rest of the ,new ,testament4 ,a later version was finished by ,wicliffe's friend1 ,john ,purvey1 about #achh1 and appears to be mainly a revision of the work of ,hereford and ,wicliffe4 ,the later is a less close and literal version than the former1 and is expressed in more idiomatic and less laboured ,english4 #ag4 ,,our ,,english ,,bible ,,and ,,its ,,history4--,the first fresh translation from the original sources was that of ,william ,tyndale4 ,his ,new ,testament1 printed at ,cologne and at ,worms1 reached the ,english shores in #aebf1 and was followed three years later by the ,pentateuch4 ,to this translation our authorised version owes much of its peculiar force and beauty4 ,the first complete ,english ,bible was that of ,miles ,coverdale1 which appeared in #aece4 ,in ,april #aeci appeared the ,great ,bible 7so called from its large size71 prepared by ,coverdale at ,paris1 but completed in ,london under the patronage of ,thomas ,cromwell4 ,the translation of the psalms in the ,great ,bible has remained1 without alteration1 the ,psalter in the ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,during the last year of ,mary's reign and the beginning of ,elizabeth's1 the ,english refugees at ,geneva completed a fresh revision of the ,great ,bible1 which was published in #aefj1 in a handy size1 with a marginal commentary1 and the chapters divided into verses4 ,the ,genevan version 7sometimes called the ,breeches ,bible71 became popular with the ,puritans1 and more than two hundred editions of it were published1 and it gave way slowly before the present authorised version4 ,soon after ,elizabeth's accession1 ,archbishop ,parker organised a revision of the ,great ,bible of #aeci1 which was published in #aefh1 and became known as the ,bishops' ,bible4 ,during ,elizabeth's reign1 the ,popish exiles at ,rheims produced a new version from the ,vulgate1 which was printed at ,douay in #afji1 and is known as the ,douay ,bible4 ,the ,english ,bible which is now recognised as the #8authorised version' wherever the ,english language is spoken1 is a revision of the ,bishops' ,bible1 begun in #afjd and finished in #afaa4 ,of this noble version many millions have been printed1 and its general acceptance by all ,english-speaking people is the best testimony to its excellence4 ,no book has had so great an influence on our language and literature2 its words and phrases have been preserved in our vocabulary1 and are the most familiar to our ears1 consecrated as they are with the associations of two hundred and seventy years4 ,a revision of our version by the most eminent scholars is now in progress1 and the revised ,new ,testament was published1 ,may #ag1 #ahha4 ,appended is a passage from ,romans 7xii4 #f-h71 as it appears in ,wicliffe's1 ,tyndale's1 the ,great ,bible1 the ,genevan ,bible1 the ,bishop's ,bible1 and our ,authorised ,version3 #a4 ,,wicliffe4 #f ,therfor we that han yiftis dyuer-synge1 aftir the grace that is youun to vs1 ethir prophecie1 aftir the resoun of feith2 #g ethir seruise1 in mynystryng2 ethir he that techith1 in techyng2 #h he that stirith softli1 in monestyng2 he that yyueth1 in symplenesse2 he that is souereyn1 in bisynesse2 he that hath merci1 in gladnesse4 #b4 ,,tyndale4 #f ,seyinge that we have divers gyftes accordynge to the grace that is geven vnto vs1 yf eny man have the gyft off prophesy lett hym have it that itt be agreynge vnto the fayth4 #g ,let hym that hath an office1 wayte on his office4 ,let hym that teacheth take hede to his doctryne4 #h ,let hym that exhorteth geve attendaunce to his exhortacion4 ,yf eny man geve1 lett hym do it with singlenes4 ,let hym that rueleth do it with diligence4 ,yf eny man shewe mercy lett hym do itt with cherfulnes4 #c4 ,,great ,,bible4 #f ,seynge that we haue dyuers gyftes accordynge to the grace that is geuen vnto vs3 yf any man haue the gyfte of prophecy let him haue it that it be agreing vnto ye fayth4 #g ,let hym that hath an office wayte on hys office4 ,let hym that teacheth take hede to hys doctrine4 #h ,let hym that exhorteth geue attendaunce to his exhortacion4 ,if any man geue1 let hym do it wyth synglenes4 ,let hym that ruleth do it with diligence4 ,if any man shewe mercy1 let him do it with cherfulnes4 #d4 ,,genevan ,,bible4 #f ,seeing then that we haue giftes that are diuers1 according to the grace that is giuen vnto vs whether we haue prophesie1 let us prophesie according to the proportion of faith3 #g ,or an office let vs waite on the office3 or hee that teacheth on teaching4 #h ,or he that exhorteth on exhortation3 hee that distributeth let him do it with simplicitie3 he that ruleth with diligence3 hee that sheweth mercie with chearefulnes4 #e4 ,,bishops' ,,bible4 #f ,seeing that wee haue diuers giftes according to the grace that is giuen vnto vs eyther prophecie1 after the measure of fayth4 #g ,eyther office1 in administration3 or he that teacheth1 in teaching4 #h ,or he that exhorteth1 in exhorting3 he that giueth in singlenesse1 he that ruleth in diligence3 hee that is mercyfull in chearefulnesse4 #f4 ,,authorised ,,version4 #f ,hauing then gifts differing according to the grace that is giuen to vs1 whether prophecie1 let vs prophecie according to the proportion of faith4 #g ,or ministery1 let vs wait1 on our ministring3 or hee that teacheth on teaching4 #h ,or he that exhorteth1 on exhortation3 he that giueth let him doe it with simplicite3 hee that ruleth1 with diligence3 hee that sheweth mercy with cheerefulnesse4 ,,ii4 ,tabular ,outline of modern ,english ,literature4 7,poems are mentioned in ,italics47 ,,william ,,dunbar1 #adej-aecj4 ,poet4 ,the ,thistle and the ,rose 7#aejc72 ,the ,golden ,terge 7#aejh72 ,the ,dance of the ,seven ,deadly ,sins4 ,the greatest of the ,scottish poets except ,burns4 ,he has been called #8the ,chaucer of ,scotland4' ,,sir ,,thomas ,,more1 #adhj-aece4 ,barrister2 ,lord ,chancellor of ,england2 writer on social philosophy2 historian4 ,history of ,king ,edward ,v41 and of his brother1 and of ,richard ,,iii4 7#aeac72 ,utopia 7#aeaf7--;a description of a model state of society1 written to influence the bettering of the laws of ,england4 ,,william ,,tyndale1 #adgg-aecf4 ,priest2 translator2 author4 ,translation of ,new ,testament 7#aebe1 #aecd71 also of the ,pentateuch and ,jonah 7#aecj-ca74 ,he has done more by his version to fix and shape our language in its present form1 than any writer between ,chaucer and ,shakspeare4 ,,sir ,,david ,,lyndsay1 #adij-aeef4 ,keeper of ,prince ,james 7afterwards ,james ,v4 of ,scotland72 ,lyon king-at-arms2 poet4 ,satire of the ,three ,estates1 that is1 ,king1 ,lords1 and ,commons2 ,monarchie4 ,,roger ,,ascham1 #aeae-aefh4 ,lecturer on ,greek at ,cambridge2 tutor to ,edward ,,vi4 and ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,toxophlus1 a treatise on shooting with the bow2 ,the ,schoolmaster1 a book about teaching1 especially the teaching of ,latin4 ,,john ,,fox1 #aeag-aehg4 ,prebendary of ,salisbury ,cathedral4 ,book of ,martyrs 7#aefc71 an account of the chief ,protestant martyrs1 chiefly those in the reign of ,mary4 ,,edmund ,,spenser1 #aeeb-aeii4 ,secretary to ,viceroy of ,ireland2 poet4 ,shepherd's ,calendar 7#aegi72 ,faerie ,queene 7#aeij-if71 in six books4 ,,richard ,,hooker1 #aeec-afjj4 ,scholar and theologian2 ,master of the ,temple2 and rector of a country church4 ,laws of ,ecclesiastical ,polity4 ,this is a defence of the ,church of ,england1 and contains passages of great majesty and splendour of diction4 ,,sir ,,philip ,,sidney1 #aeed-aehf4 ,courtier2 romancist2 poet4 ,arcadia1 a romance 7#aehj72 ,defence of ,poesie4 ,some ,sonnets4 ,,francis ,,bacon1 #aefa-afbf4 ,lord ,high ,chancellor of ,england2 essayist2 philosopher4 ,essays 7#aeig72 ,advancement of ,learning 7#afje72 ,novum ,organum 7#afbj72 and other works on philosophy1 and the art of gaining new knowledge4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,raleigh1 #aeeb-afah4 ,courtier2 navigator2 historian4 ,history of the ,world 7#afad71 written in the ,tower of ,london1 where he lay for about thirteen years4 ,his work is #8one of the finest models of our quaint and stately old ,english style4' ,,william ,,shakspeare1 #aefd-afaf4 ,dramatist and poet2 born at ,stratford-on-,avon2 went to ,london at the age of twenty-two2 left ,london in #afji1 and from that time lived in his native town4 ,tragedies and ,comedies1 and ,historical ,plays2 thirty-seven in all4 ,among his greatest tragedies are1 ,hamlet1 ,lear1 ,macbeth1 ,othello1 ,romeo and ,juliet4 ,of his comedies the best are the ,tempest1 ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 ,as you like it1 ,merchant of ,venice1 c4 ,of his historical plays1 ,richard ,,iii4 and ,julius ,csar are specially worth mention4 ,minor ,poems4 ,wrote no prose4 ,,ben ,,jonson1 #aegd-afcg4 ,dramatist2 poet2 prose-writer4 ,tragedies and ,comedies1 of the latter1 the greatest are ,volpone or the ,fox2 ,every ,man in ,his ,humour2 and ,the ,alchemist4 ,,william ,,drummond1 #aehe-afdi4 ,poet4 ,sonnets and ,religious ,poems4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,browne1 #afje-afhb4 ,medical practitioner at ,norwich4 ,religio ,medici 7the religion of a physician71 contains the author's opinions on a great variety of subjects2 ,urn ,burial1 a learned and eloquent work4 ,,john ,,milton1 #afjh-afgd4 ,poet2 ,latin secretary to ,cromwell 7#afdi74 ,became blind in #afed4 ,minor ,poems2 ,paradise ,lost2 ,paradise ,regained2 ,samson ,agonistes4 ,many prose works1 chiefly on politics1 and in defence of the ,commonwealth4 ,,thomas ,,hobbes1 #aehh-afgi4 ,philosopher4 ,leviathan 7#afea71 a great philosophical and political work4 ,,jeremy ,,taylor1 #afac-affg4 ,bishop of ,down in ,ireland4 ,holy ,living and ,holy ,dying 7#afdi72 and many other books and sermons4 ,,samuel ,,butler1 #afab-afhj4 ,secretary to the ,earl of ,carberry4 ,hudibras 7#affc71 a mock-heroic poem1 written to caricature the ,puritans4 ,,john ,,dryden1 #afca-agjj4 ,poet-laureate and ,historiographer ,royal4 ,also a playwright2 poet2 prose-writer2 critic4 ,annus ,mirabilis 7#affg7--;a poem on the ,plague and the ,fire of ,london2 ,absalom and ,achitophel 7#afha7--;a poem on political matters2 ,hind and ,panther 7#afhg74 ,he wrote many ,tragedies and ,comedies and ,odes2 a translation of the neid of ,virgil4 ,he wrote a great deal of the best prose--chiefly ,essays and ,introductions to his poems4 ,,john ,,bunyan1 #afbh-afhh4 ,tinker and preacher4 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress 7#afgh72 the ,holy ,war1 and other works4 ,,john ,,locke1 #afcb-agjd4 ,member of the ,board of ,trade2 one of the leading men in ,english philosophy4 ,letters on ,toleration 7#afhi72 ,essay concerning the ,human ,understanding 7#afij72 ,thoughts concerning ,education1 and other prose works4 ,,daniel ,,defoe1 #affa-agca4 ,pamphleteer2 journalist2 had a very troubled and changeful career4 ,robinson ,crusoe 7#agai72 ,the ,true-born ,englishman2 ,journal of the ,plague2 ,the ,shortest ,way with the ,dissenters2 and more than a hundred books and pamphlets in all4 ,he is one of the most taking writers that ever lived4 ,,jonathan ,,swift1 #affg-agde4 ,dean of ,st ,patrick's in ,dublin2 satirist2 poet2 prose-writer4 ,battle of the ,books2 ,tale of a ,tub 7#agjd72 ,gulliver's ,travels 7#agbf74 ,many of the ablest political pamphlets of the day4 ,a number of ,poems4 ,his prose was the strongest and most nervous prose written in the eighteenth century4 ,,sir ,,richard ,,steele1 #afga-agbi4 ,gentleman usher to ,prince ,george2 a fashionable man about town4 ,essays in the ,tatler1 in the ,spectator1 in the ,guardian--all of them a kind of magazine4 ,a few plays4 ,,joseph ,,addison1 #afgb-agai4 ,secretary of ,state4 ,essays in the ,tatler1 in the ,spectator1 and in the ,guardian4 ,cato3 a tragedy 7#agac74 ,several short ,poems4 ,his prose is the finest1 most genial1 and most delicate of all the prose-writings of the eighteenth century4 ,,alexander ,,pope1 #afhh-agdd4 ,poet2 a ,roman ,catholic4 ,essay on ,criticism 7#agaa72 ,rape of the ,lock--the story of the stealing of a lock of hair2 ,translations of the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 half of the latter done by assistants 7#agae-bj72 the ,dunciad2 ,essay on ,man4 ,a few essays in prose2 and a volume of ,letters4 ,,james ,,thomson1 #agjj-agdh4 ,poet2 held sinecure cure offices under government4 ,the ,seasons--a poem in blank verse2 ,the ,castle of ,indolence1 a poem in the nine-lined stanza of ,edmund ,spenser4 ,,henry ,,fielding1 #agjg-aged4 ,novelist and journalist4 ,many comedies--now forgotten4 ,joseph ,andrews 7#agdb72 ,tom ,jones 7#agdi72 ,amelia 7#agea74 ,he was the #8first great ,english novelist1 and he remains to this day one of the greatest4' ,,david ,,hume1 #agaa-aggf4 ,librarian2 secretary to the ,british ,embassy in ,france4 ,treatise of ,human ,nature 7#agcg72 ,essays 7#agdb72 ,inquiry concerning the ,principles of ,morals2 ,history of ,england 7#aged-fb74 ,writes very clear and pleasant prose4 ,,dr ,,samuel ,,johnson1 #agji-aghd4 ,schoolmaster2 literary man2 dictionary-maker4 ,london 7#agch72 the ,vanity of ,human ,wishes2 ,the ,rambler 7#agej-eb72 ,the ,idler2 ,english ,dictionary 7#agee72 ,rasselas1 a kind of novel2 ,lives of the ,poets2 and other prose works4 ,,thomas ,,gray1 #agaf-agga4 ,poet2 letter-writer2 professor of ,modern ,history1 ,cambridge4 ,odes2 ,elegy written in a ,country ,churchyard1 one of the most pleasing1 perfect1 and oft-quoted poems in the language4 ,he was also a good letter-writer4 ,,william ,,robertson1 #agba-agic4 ,clergyman2 historian2 ,principal of the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,history of ,scotland 7#agei72 ,history of ,charles ,v4 7#agfi72 ,history of ,america 7#aggg74 ,most readable and fluent prose4 ,,tobias ,,george ,,smollett1 #agba-agga4 ,medical practitioner2 poet2 pamphleteer2 critic and novelist4 ,roderick ,random2 ,peregrine ,pickle2 and ,humphrey ,clinker4 ,his novels are notable for their broad humour1 and an easy picturesque style of narration4 ,,adam ,,smith1 #agbc-agij4 ,professor of ,logic in the ,university of ,glasgow2 then of ,moral ,philosophy4 ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments 7#agei72 ,enquiry into the ,nature and ,causes of the ,wealth of ,nations 7#aggf74 ,the founder of the science of economics 7or wealth of nations74 ,,oliver ,,goldsmith1 #agbh-aggd4 ,poet2 literary man2 play-writer4 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield 7#agff72 the ,deserted ,village2 ,she ,stoops to ,conquer1 a comedy4 ,the ,traveller2 ,citizen of the ,world2 ,histories and minor ,poems4 ,the writer of the most pleasant prose of the eighteenth century4 ,,edmund ,,burke #agcj-agig4 ,statesman2 #8the first man in the ,commons2' writer on political philosophy4 ,essay on the ,sublime and ,beautiful 7#agef72 ,reflections on the ,french ,revolution 7#agij74 ,many speeches1 pamphlets1 and articles on political matters4 ,one of the deepest political thinkers1 most eloquent speakers1 and ornate writers of prose that ever lived4 ,,william ,,cowper1 #agca-ahjj4 ,poet4 ,truth1 the ,progress of ,error 7#agha71 and other poems2 the ,task 7#aghe72 ,john ,gilpin2 ,translations of the ,iliad and ,odyssey 7#agia7 in blank verse2 ,hymns4 ,his prose--which consists of letters--is clear1 humorous1 and pleasant4 ,,edward ,,gibbon1 #agcg-agid4 ,historian2 sat eight years in the ,house of ,commons1 but never spoke4 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire 7#aggf-hg72 ,essays on the ,study of ,literature 7in ,french74 ,his style is a splendid example #8of smiting phrases and weighty antithesis4' ,,robert ,,burns1 #agei-agif4 ,ploughman2 farmer2 ,excise officer2 poet4 ,poems and ,songs 7#aghf-if7 7,cottar's ,saturday ,night1 ,jolly ,beggars1 ,tam o' ,shanter1 ,mountain ,daisy1 etc47 ,his prose consists chiefly of letters4 ,,william ,,wordsworth1 #aggj-ahej4 ,distributor of stamps for the county of ,westmoreland2 poet2 poet-laureate4 ,descriptive ,sketches 7#agic72 ,lyrical ,ballads 7#agih72 ,sonnets2 ,the ,excursion 7#ahad72 ,the ,prelude4 ,he marks the dawn of a new school of poetry in the nineteenth century4 ,,samuel ,,taylor ,,coleridge1 #aggb-ahcd4 ,journalist2 secretary2 literary man2 poet4 ,the ,ancient ,mariner and ,christabel 7#agig-ahjf72 several plays1 including a translation of ,schiller's ,wallenstein2 many minor poems2 ,the ,friend--a set of essays2 ,confessions of an ,inquiring ,spirit2 ,biographia ,literaria2 ,aids to ,reflection4 ,his prose is very elaborate and also very musical4 ,,robert ,,southey1 #aggd-ahdc4 ,literary man2 historian2 reviewer2 poet2 poet-laureate4 ,joan of ,arc 7#agic72 ,thalaba the ,destroyer2 the ,curse of ,kehama2 ,life of ,nelson4 ,firm1 clear1 and sensible prose4 ,wrote more than a hundred volumes4 ,,charles ,,lamb1 #agge-ahce4 ,clerk in the ,east ,india ,house2 essayist and humorist4 ,essays of ,elia 7#ahbj-be71 which are quaint and familiar1 and full of kindly wit and grotesque humour4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott1 #agga-ahcb4 ,advocate2 poet3 novelist4 ,border ,minstrelsy--a collection of old ,border ballads 7#ahjb72 ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel 7#ahje72 ,marmion 7#ahjh72 the ,lady of the ,lake 7#ahaj72 ,waverley 7#ahad7--the first of that remarkable series1 the ,waverley ,novels4 ,in verse1 he is the #8,homer of ,scotland2' and he was a master of most fluent1 bright1 flowing narrative prose4 ,,thomas ,,campbell1 #aggg-ahdd4 ,poet2 literary man4 ,pleasures of ,hope 7#agii72 ,minor ,poems--such as ,hohenlinden1 ,battle of the ,baltic1 ,ye ,mariners of ,england1 ,gertrude of ,wyoming 7#ahji74 ,his prose consists chiefly of the ,introductions to his ,specimens of the ,british ,poets4 ,,thomas ,,moore1 #aggi-aheb4 ,poet2 biographer2 historian4 ,odes and ,epistles 7#ahjf72 ,lalla ,rookh 7#ahag72 ,life of ,byron 7#ahcj72 ,irish ,melodies 7#ahcd72 ,history of ,ireland 7#ahcf74 ,,lord ,,byron1 #aghh-ahbd4 7,george ,gordon74 ,peer2 poet4 ,english ,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers 7#ahjh72 ,childe ,harold 7#ahab72 the ,bride of ,abydos 7#ahad72 and many ,plays4 ,his prose--which is full of vigour1 fire1 and eloquence--consists chiefly of letters4 ,,percy ,,bysshe ,,shelley1 #agib-ahbb4 ,poet4 ,queen ,mab 7#ahac72 ,revolt of ,islam2 ,prometheus ,unbound 7#ahai7--;a tragedy2 ,odes 7,the ,cloud1 ,to the ,skylark1 etc471 and many minor poems4 ,his prose consists chiefly of letters4 ,,henry ,,hallam1 #aggh-ahei4 ,historian2 literary man2 ,trustee of the ,british ,museum4 ,view of the ,state of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages 7#ahah72 ,constitutional ,history of ,england 7#ahbg72 ,literature of ,europe 7#ahcg72 ,history of the ,middle ,ages 7#ahdh74 ,a clear and impartial writer4 ,,thomas ,,de ,,quincey1 #aghe-ahei4 ,literary man4 ,confessions of an ,english ,opium-eater 7#ahba72 ,essays on subjects in almost every department of ,history1 ,philosophy1 and ,literature4 ,his style is eloquent1 musical1 and elaborate4 ,in his own way1 he was the finest prose-writer of the nineteenth century4 ,,john ,,keats1 #agie-ahba4 ,poet4 ,endymion 7#ahah72 ,hyperion2 ,eve of ,st ,agnes2 ,odes4 ,his poems are full of beauty and rich and picturesque imagery4 ,,thomas ,,carlyle1 #agie-ahha4 ,mathematician2 literary man2 reviewer2 historian4 ,sartor ,resartus 7#ahcc72 ,the ,french ,revolution1 a ,history 7#ahcg72 ,oliver ,cromwell's ,letters and ,speeches 7#ahde72 ,life of ,john ,sterling 7#ahea72 ,history of ,friedrich ,,ii4 of ,prussia 7#aheh-fe74 ,his style is full of force1 fire1 and grotesqueness2 he paints in vivid colours1 and presents a true and exact picture of the living man4 ,,lord ,,macaulay1 #ahjj-ahei4 ,barrister2 reviewer2 ,secretary of the ,board of ,control for ,india2 member of the ,supreme ,council of ,india2 historian2 peer4 ,essay on ,milton 7#ahbe72 ,lays of ,ancient ,rome 7#ahdb72 ,essays 7#ahdc72 ,history of ,england 7#ahdh-ahei74 ,wrote a style of the greatest force and picturesqueness--full of allusion1 illustration1 grace1 clearness1 and point4 ,,lord ,,lytton1 #ahje-ahgc4 ,novelist2 poet2 statesman4 ,eugene ,aram 7#ahca72 ,the ,last ,days of ,pompeii2 ,the ,caxtons2 some plays1 minor ,poems1 and essays4 ,writes a most clear1 fluent1 bright1 ornate1 and readable ,english style4 ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill1 #ahjf-ahgc4 ,clerk in the ,east ,india ,house2 ,utilitarian philosopher4 ,system of ,logic 7#ahdc72 ,political ,economy 7#ahdd72 ,essay on ,liberty4 ,one of the foremost thinkers of his time4 ,,henry ,,wadsworth ,,longfellow1 #ahjg-ahhb4 ,professor of ,modern ,languages and ,literature2 poet4 ,evangeline 7#ahdg72 ,hiawatha 7#ahee72 ,minor ,poems 7,excelsior2 ,a ,psalm of ,life1 etc47 ,one of the sweetest and best known of ,american poets4 ,,alfred ,,tennyson1 #ahji- ,poet2 poet laureate4 ,poems1 chiefly ,lyrical 7#ahcj72 ,in ,memoriam 7#ahej72 ,idylls of the ,king 7#ahei-gc72 ,enoch ,arden 7#ahfd72 and several dramas4 ,his poetical style is full of beauty1 sweetness1 and variety4 ,,elizabeth ,,barrett ,,browning1 #ahji-ahfa4 ,poetess2 the wife of ,robert ,browning4 ,poems 7#ahch72 ,aurora ,leigh 7#ahef72 ,the ,cry of the ,children2 ,cowper's ,grave2 ,sonnets from the ,portuguese1 etc4 ,a poetess of infinite sweetness and power4 ,,robert ,,browning1 #ahab- ,poet4 ,pauline 7#ahcc72 ,paracelsus 7#ahcf72 ,the ,ring and the ,book1 and about two dozen more volumes4 ,his poems are very difficult to understand1 but are very well worth understanding4 ,,william ,,makepeace ,,thackeray1 #ahaa-ahfc4 ,novelist4 ,vanity ,fair 7#ahdf72 ,pendennis 7#ahdi72 ,esmond2 ,english ,humorists1 etc4 ,the finest novelist and one of the best prose-writers of the century4 ,,charles ,,dickens1 #ahab-ahgj4 ,novelist4 ,pickwick ,papers 7#ahcg72 ,oliver ,twist2 ,nicholas ,nickleby2 ,david ,copperfield2 ,dombey and ,son2 ,christmas ,books1 etc4 ,he has been read over and over again by hundreds of thousands of delighted readers4 ,,john ,,ruskin1 #ahai- ,art-critic2 moralist2 literary-man4 ,modern ,painters 7#ahdc72 ,the ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture2 ,the ,stones of ,venice 7#ahea-ec72 ,sesame and ,lilies2 ,lectures on ,art2 ,fors ,clavigera4 ,one of the most wonderful and imaginative writers of ,english prose that ever lived4 ,,george ,,eliot #ahbj-ahhj4 7,marian ,evans71 ,novelist4 ,adam ,bede 7#aheh72 ,middlemarch 7#ahga72 ,daniel ,deronda 7#ahgf72 ,poems4 ,the novels of this accomplished lady rank among the greatest of modern times4 ,,the ,,end4 ,edinburgh3 ,printed by ,w4 ,r4 ,chambers4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,pronounced ,mootter4 #b ,pronounced ,brooder4 #c ,thus we have ,wednesday the day of ,woden or ,odin4 #d ,jutland means the land of the ,jutes2 not the land that juts out4 #e ,the division called ,wessex included ,hampshire1 ,wiltshire1 ,berkshire1 ,somersetshire1 ,dorsetshire1 ,gloucestershire1 and ,devonshire4 #f ,the ,revival of ,letters1 or the ,renascence 7or ,renaissance71 is the name given to the new enthusiasm which seized ,italians1 ,germans1 ,frenchmen1 and ,englishmen1 in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 to read the great treasures of literature that may be found in ,greek and ,latin books4 #g ,the same root exists in monarch1 a person who rules alone4 #h ,two-languaged4 #i ,what is called the feudal system was based upon war4 ,a knight held land of his baron2 a baron of his king--on condition of bringing so many men into the field on the summons of his overlord4 #aj ,low ,latin is the name for that kind of corruption of ,latin which was written and spoken after the breaking up of the ,roman ,empire in the fifth century4 #aa ,a synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another word2 like begin and commence2 will and testament4 ,there are very few real synonyms in ,english2 because when the language acquired a word of similar meaning1 it at once set to work to use it in a different way1 or to give it a different function1 or to bestow on it a different tone1 colouring1 or shade4 #ab ,he might have said hall and bower4 ,in the old ,english times1 the hall was the outer room of the cottage1 into which the front door opened1 and bower was the inner room4 #ac ,a liche or lyke originally meant body4 #ad ,ayenbite againbite4 ,the again corresponds to the re in remorse4 #ae ,in head-rhymes1 two or three words in each line begin with the same letter4 #af ,the highest value4 #ag ,carriage4 #ah ,unbecoming or unkind thing4 #ai ,kind of person4 #bj ,very perfect gentle4 #ba ,dress4 #bb ,gaily dressed4