,note3 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/ourbenev olentfeu#jj;ghenrich ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,an additional ,transcriber's note is at the end4 ,,our ,,benevolent ,,feudalism ,illustration3 ,publisher's logo ,,our ,,benevolent ,,feudalism by ,w4 ,j4 ,,ghent ,new ,york ,the ,macmillan ,company ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 ,ltd4 #aijb ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aijb1 ,by ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,set up and electrotyped ,october1 #aijb4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,the germ of this book was contained in an article published in the ,independent1 ,april #c1 #aijb4 ,the wide interest which that article awakened prompted the elaboration and arrangement of its briefly considered and somewhat disjointed parts into the present form4 ,the chapters on 8,our ,makers of ,law0 and 8,our ,interpreters of ,law0 have been carefully read by a member of the ,new ,york ,bar who has made a special study of the matters treated therein4 ,some of the decisions cited in the latter chapter are admitted to be those of subordinate courts in comparatively unimportant ,states4 ,the intention1 however1 was to give a general view of judicial interpretation2 and for that reason it became necessary to cite decisions of inferior as well as superior courts1 and those from semi-industrial as well as industrial ,states4 ,as the book goes to press1 the news is published that the anthracite magnates have yielded and made concessions to public sentiment4 ,it is an act in harmony with the wiser forethought of most of the magnates of to-day1 and it strengthens the general seigniorial position immeasurably4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,,utopias ,,and ,,other ,,forecasts #a ,,ii4 ,,combination ,,and ,,coalescence #aa ,,iii4 ,,our ,,magnates #bg ,,iv4 ,,our ,,farmers ,,and ,,wage-,,earners #dg ,v4 ,,our ,,makers ,,of ,,law #hc ,,vi4 ,,our ,,interpreters ,,of ,,law #ajb ,,vii4 ,,our ,,moulders ,,of ,,opinion #abb ,,viii4 ,,general ,,social ,,changes #aed ,,ix4 ,,transition ,,and ,,fulfilment #ahj ,,index #aii ,,chapter ,i ,,utopias ,,and ,,other ,,forecasts 8,the old order changeth1 yielding place to new40 ,but what the new order shall be is a matter of some diversity of opinion4 ,whoever1 blessed with hope1 speculates upon the future of society1 tends to imagine it in the form of his social ideals4 ,it matters little what the current probabilities may be--the strong influence of the ideal warps the judgment4 ,to ,thomas ,more1 though most tendencies of his time made for absolutism1 the future was republican and communistic2 and to ,francis ,bacon the present held the promise of a new ,atlantis1 despite the growing arrogance of the ,crown and the submissiveness of the people4 ,the great diversity of social ideals produces a like diversity of social forecasts4 ,all the soothsayers give different readings of the signs4 ,even those of the same school1 who build the future in the light of the same dogmas1 differ in regard to particulars of form and structure4 ,how many forecasts of one sort or another have been given us1 it is impossible to say4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells1 in a footnote to his 8,anticipations10 complains of their scarcity4 8,of quite serious forecasts and inductions of things to come10 he says1 8the number is very small indeed2 a suggestion or so of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's1 ,mr4 ,kidd's #8,social ,evolution1' some hints from ,mr4 ,archdall ,reid1 some political forecasts1 ,german for the most part 7,hartmann's #8,earth in the ,twentieth ,century1' e4g471 some incidental forecasts by ,professor ,langley 7,century ,magazine1 ,december1 #ahhd1 e4g471 and such isolated computations as ,professor ,crookes's wheat warning and the various estimates of our coal supply1 make almost a complete bibliography40 ,but surely the ,utopians1 from ,plato to ,edward ,bellamy1 have given us 8quite serious forecasts02 there is something of serious prophecy in both ,karl ,marx and ,friedrich ,engels1 much more in ,tolstoi and ,peter ,kropotkin2 and the 8,fabian ,essays0 are charged with it4 ,mr4 ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd's 8,wealth against ,commonwealth0 closes with a brilliant and eloquent picture of a regenerated society1 and ,mr4 ,edmond ,kelly's 8,individualism and ,collectivism0 is in large part prophetic4 ,all the social reformers who write books or articles give us engaging pictures of things as they are to be2 and though the ,philosophical ,anarchists deal rather more largely with polemics than with prophecy1 the ,socialists are conspicuously definite and serious in their forecasts4 ,even the popular scientists--the astronomers1 biologists1 and anthropologists--often run into prediction2 and in the pages of ,richard ,a4 ,proctor1 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 and ,grant ,allen1 and of such living men as ,m4 ,camille ,flammarion1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,russell ,wallace1 and ,professor ,w4 ,j4 ,mc,gee1 we have frequent depictions of certain phases of the future4 ,doubtless1 any reader can add to this list4 ,of a surety1 we have had no lack of forecasts of one sort or another2 and now we have some new contributions1--,mr4 ,wells's 8,anticipations10 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,kidd's 8,principles of ,western ,civilization10 two brief but sententious papers by ,professor ,john ,b4 ,clark1 on 8,the ,society of the ,future0 and 8,a ,modified ,individualism0 7published in the ,independent71 a definite ,socialist prediction by ,mr4 ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd1 and a semi-,socialist one by ,mr4 ,sidney ,webb4 ,i ,mr4 ,wells1 in his lecture before the ,royal ,institution last ,january1 put forth the thesis that1 just as we can picture the general aspects of the earth in mesozoic times by a study of geology and paleontology1 so by a study of the present sociological drift can we picture the society of a hundred years hence4 ,he thereupon gives us 8,anticipations0 as a result of the more or less rigorous working out of this method4 ,there is much to be said for the method1 and its right employment might probably give us something of great value4 ,unfortunately1 ,mr4 ,wells forgets his thesis1 and plunges into pure vaticination4 ,he writes with a spirited aggressiveness1 and his pictures are often vivid and impressive4 ,but the greater part of his revelation is of a state of things which seems far removed from what would be produced by any current tendencies1 actual or latent4 ,mr4 ,kidd's predictions lack somewhat in definiteness of outline1 and need not here concern us4 ,tolstoi1 on the other hand1 is specific4 ,he dreams of a return to a more primitive manner of production1 and a social change toward a status of ,anarchist-,communism4 ,he scoffs at the enormous diversity of wants made necessary by the growing intelligence and refinement of the race1 and urges mankind to live more simply4 8,the town must be abandoned1 the people must be sent away from the factories and into the country to work with their hands2 the aim of every man should be to satisfy all his wants himself40 ,but the counsel falls upon heedless ears4 ,urged to live more simply1 the race1 impelled by natural and irresistible laws1 yearly increases the sum of its wants4 ,science1 art1 and industry constantly pile up new commodities4 ,mankind finds that through them it secures longer and healthier1 if not happier lives4 ,it recognizes that by this increase of wants more human beings are employed1 and that by a slight diminution thereof tens of thousands are thrown into idleness4 ,and finally it recognizes that by a division of labor1 in which natural aptitude in particular directions is sought to be secured1 the greatest and most economical production follows4 ,under ,anarchist-,communism and the performance of labor in the direction of each individual attempting to create the things needful for himself1 there would be entailed upon us a productive waste vastly greater than that heretofore compelled by capitalism1 diffusing a degree of want and consequent wretchedness at present unknown4 ,there is no present indication that mankind will take this step4 ,something better is to be said for ,peter ,kropotkin's ideal of a communistic union of shop industry and agriculture4 ,in remote places1 outside the current of factory industrialism1 there are still survivals of this union1 though the communistic feature is generally wanting4 ,doubtless1 under any form of society1 even a well-regulated ,state ,socialism1 this union would to some extent persist4 ,but if there are any present tendencies toward its growth1 they are but feeble and isolated4 ,kropotkin's recent book1 8,fields1 ,factories and ,workshops10 which was intended to sound the glad timbrel of rejoicing over the expansion of this movement1 turns out to be a rather pitiful threnody on the decline and death of petty industries throughout ,europe4 ,moreover1 it is one thing to argue the persistence of this manner of production in scattered places1 and quite another to argue it the dominant manner of production in a transformed society of the future4 ,of the coming of such a society the evidences are painfully scant4 ,we have also the ,single-,taxers1 the followers of the late ,henry ,george1 who are quite as fertile in prophecy as in polemics4 ,they dream of a millennium through the imposition of a tax on the economic value of land1 and the abolition of all other taxes and duties of whatsoever kind4 ,free competition is their shibboleth2 and it is no less the shibboleth of the ,neo-,jeffersonians1 the followers of ,mr4 ,bryan4 ,except for the fact that these two schools are somewhat ,jacobinical1 their general notions of the coming society do not differ greatly from the notions of the orthodox economists4 ,all of these desire1 or think they desire1 free competition4 ,arising out of an era of competition1 ,professor ,clark sees a coming order wherein the rich 8will continually grow richer1 and the multi-millionnaires will approach the billion-dollar standard2 but the poor will be far from growing poorer4444 ,it may be that the wages of a day will take him the worker to the mountains1 and those of a hundred days will carry him through a ,european tour40 ,the dreadful spectre of monopoly1 however1 arises to threaten these visions4 ,most of the orthodox economists acknowledge a possible danger from it1 but the ,single-,taxers and ,jeffersonians are sure it is a real and growing menace4 ,says ,professor ,clark1 8,between us and the rgime of monopoly there ranges itself a whole series of possible measures stopping short of ,socialism1 and yet efficient enough to preserve our free economic system40 ,it is a 8free economic system0 which all these are bent on having1--the economists determined on preserving it1 the others on establishing it2 for the ,single-,taxers1 with their bte noir of private ownership of land1 and the ,jeffersonians1 with their btes noirs of railroads and trusts1 deny that our economic system is at present 8free40 ,doubtless they are both right2 but if there be one fact in the realm of political economy fairly established1 it is that the era of competition1 whether free or unfree1 is dead1 and the means of its resurrection are unknown to political science4 ,with old men the dream of its revival is warrantable1 for it springs from that retrospective mood of age which gilds past times1 and that attendant mood which recreates and projects them into some imagined future2 but with the younger generation visions of free competition are but as children's dreams of wild forests and shaggy animals--the atavistic reminders of experiences unknown to the individual1 though knit into the fibre of the race4 ,the subject is one far better suited to the domain of a psychologist like ,dr4 ,stanley ,hall than to the scope of this book4 ,finally1 we have the ,socialists1 with their prophecy of the early establishment of a coperative commonwealth4 ,it is a noble picture1 in its best expression based upon the extreme of faith in the coming generations of mankind1 however its draughtsmen may criticise the wisdom and justice of the present4 ,there is no doubt that now a ground-swell of ,socialist conviction moves like a tide 8of waters unwithstood02 everywhere one notes its influences4 ,even so conservative a scholar as ,professor ,henry ,davies1 lecturer on the history of philosophy in ,yale ,university1 can write1 8,there is no doubt that the next form of political activity to claim attention is the socialistic1 as it is the most popular and serious of any now before the educated minds of this country40 ,its propaganda is carried on untiringly1 and that its results are feared is evident from the equal aggressiveness of a counter-propaganda maintained by the ingenious defenders of the present rgime against the whole form and spirit of ,socialism4 ,but though socialist conviction spreads1 the substance sought for seems as far away as ever4 ,it would seem1 for the most part1 to be but a lukewarm conviction1 much like that for which the ,laodiceans were so widely famed4 ,present tendencies make for other forms of production1 for a vastly different social rgime4 ,,ii ,the dominant tendencies will be clearly seen only by those who for the time detach themselves from their social ideals4 ,what1 then1 in this republic of the ,united ,states1 may ,socialist1 ,individualist1 and ,conservative alike see1 if only they will look with unclouded vision8 ,in brief1 an irresistible movement--now almost at its culmination--toward great combinations in specific trades2 next toward coalescence of kindred industries1 and thus toward the complete integration of capital4 ,consequent upon these changes1 the group of captains and lieutenants of industry attains a daily increasing power1 social1 industrial1 and political1 and becomes the ranking order in a vast series of gradations4 ,the ,state becomes stronger in its relation to the propertyless citizen1 weaker in its relation to the man of capital4 ,a growing subordination of classes1 and a tremendous increase in the numbers of the lower orders1 follow4 ,factory industry increases1 and the petty industries1 while still supporting a great number of workers1 are in all respects relatively weaker than ever before2 they suffer a progressive limitation of scope and function and a decrease of revenues4 ,defenceless labor--the labor of women and children--increases both absolutely and relatively4 ,men's wages decline or remain stationary1 while the value of the product and the cost of living advance by steady steps4 ,though land is generally held in somewhat smaller allotments1 tenantry on the small holdings1 and salaried management on the large1 gradually replace the old system of independent farming2 and the control of agriculture oscillates between the combinations that determine the prices of its products and the railroads that determine the rate for transportation to the markets4 ,in a word1 they who desire to live--whether farmers1 workmen1 middlemen1 teachers1 or ministers--must make their peace with those who have the disposition of the livings4 ,the result is a renascent ,feudalism1 which1 though it differs in many forms from that of the time of ,edward ,i1 is yet based upon the same status of lord1 agent1 and underling4 ,it is a ,feudalism somewhat graced by a sense of ethics and somewhat restrained by a fear of democracy4 ,the new barons seek a public sanction through conspicuous giving1 and they avoid a too obvious exercise of their power upon political institutions4 ,their beneficence1 however1 though large1 is but rarely prodigal4 ,it betokens1 as in the case of the careful spouse of ,john ,gilpin1 a frugal mind4 ,they demand the full terms nominated in the bond2 they exact from the traffic all it will bear4 ,out of the tremendous revenues that flow to them some of them return a part in benefactions to the public2 and these benefactions1 whether or not primarily devoted to the easement of conscience1 are always shrewdly disposed with an eye to the allayment of pain and the quieting of discontent4 ,they are given to hospitals2 to colleges and churches which teach reverence for the existing rgime1 and to libraries1 wherein the enforced leisure of the unemployed may be whiled away in relative contentment4 ,they are never given1 even by accident1 to any of the movements making for the correction of what reformers term injustice4 ,but not to look too curiously into motives1 our new ,feudalism is at least considerate4 ,it is a paternal1 a ,benevolent ,feudalism4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,combination ,,and ,,coalescence ,i ,we have1 first1 the enormous growth of industrial1 commercial1 and financial combinations4 ,a crude idea of the extent to which concentration in manufactures had grown up to ,may #ca1 #aijj1 may be gained from ,census ,bulletin ,no4 #abb4 ,in this report only those aggregations are considered which consisted of 8a number of formerly independent mills which have been brought together into one company under a charter obtained for that purpose40 ,several of the new security-holding stock companies are included1 but 8many large establishments comprising a number of mills which have grown up1 not by combination with other mills1 but by erection of new plants or the purchase of old ones10 are not considered1 nor are gas and electric lighting plants1 or pools1 and 8gentlemen's agreements40 ,the list contains records of #ahc corporations1 with #bjbi active and #agd idle plants1 an average of #aa active plants each4 ,the actual capital invested in these corporations1 exclusive of that for #ef of the idle plants1 was #a1deh1ebb1egc1 and the authorized capitalization was #c1fjg1eci1bjj4 ,these combinations employed #bd1ehe salaried officers and clerks1 and an average of #cii1aib wage-earners4 ,the #ajdg officers received an average of #f1hbe4bh yearly and the wage-earners1 #dhg4cb4 ,there were #dj combinations in iron and steel1 with #ddg plants2 #bh in liquor and beverages1 with #bai plants2 #ba in food and allied products1 with #bgc plants2 #ae in clay1 glass1 and stone products1 with #ahj plants1 and #ad in chemicals1 with #bdh plants4 ,the gross value of the manufactured product of these combinations1 as given by the census1 was #a1ffa1bie1cfd4 ,excluding hand trades1 government establishments1 educational1 eleemosynary1 and penal workshops1 and shops with a product of less than #ejj1 this total represented #ad per cent of the value of the manufactured product for the whole country4 ,the spring of #aijj was1 however1 but the mid-morning of the combination movement4 ,only #fc of these companies had been formed previous to #ahig1 while more than #ej per cent of them were formed during the eighteen months from ,january #a1 #ahii1 to ,june #cj1 #aijj4 ,since then the movement has swept forward like a great tide4 ,the consolidations of manufacturing companies for the first five months of #aija alone probably exceeded #b1jjj1jjj1jjj in capitalization4 ,the great steel 8trust0 7to use the popular term71 an #hh1jjj1jjj tin-can trust1 still other trusts in tobacco machinery1 carpets1 coal and coke1 witch-hazel1 glass lamps and electric glass fittings1 ship-building1 cotton duck1 agricultural implements1 and watches1 had their birth during this period4 ,more recently came the steel-castings trust1 subordinate to the steel corporation1 a recombination in tobacco1 and very lately a new ship-building combination1 a #abj1jjj1jjj harvester trust1 and a cotton compress trust4 ,the capital invested in manufacturing combinations is now probably two and one-half times what it was in ,may1 #aijj2 and it is a reasonable guess that nearly one-third of the manufactured product of the country1 outside of the petty trades1 comes from the combinations4 ,of the magnitude of some of these concerns the average mind can form but an inadequate idea4 ,the figures expressing it are comparable with those of star distances1 which must be transmuted into light-years to make them conceivable4 ,a ,new ,york newspaper has recently made some computations on the great steel trust1 which help to bring home to us a realization of its size and power4 ,its yearly net profits are now double the amount of the total revenues of the ,united ,states ,government in the year ,lincoln was elected4 ,its wage-roll carries on an average of the round year over #aeh1jjj names--an army of employees larger by #de1jjj than serves the ,national ,government in every branch of its civil service1 classified and unclassified1 except only fourth-class postmasters4 ,its wage-payments for last year aggregated nearly #aac1jjj1jjj1 more by #ac1jjj1jjj than the huge annual city budget of ,greater ,new ,york4 ,its annual production of steel is #aj1jjj1jjj tons1 #fg per cent of the total production of the country2 and its freight payments for the year #aija amounted to more than #ed1jjj1jjj4 ,during the same period financial1 commercial1 mining1 and transportation trusts have also had their splendid inning4 ,we read of an accident-insurance trust with a capitalization of #ej1jjj1jjj1 the great shipping trust1 the #abj1jjj1jjj jobbing hardware trust1 the ,interurban ,street ,railway stock-holding combination1 the beef trust1 a #ej1jjj1jjj lead merger1 a recombination in copper1 and a universal oil trust4 ,moody's ,manual of ,corporation ,securities for #aijb gives a list of #hb industrial and mercantile consolidations effected between ,january #a1 #ahii1 and ,september #a1 #aijb1 each of which is capitalized at #aj1jjj1jjj or more1 the whole aggregating a capitalization of #d1cah1jje1fdf4 ,thirty-nine of these1 with #a1bcb1idg1gij authorized capital1 were formed during #ahii2 #g with #ahf1aaj1djj capital1 in #aijj2 #bj with #b1ada1aig1def capital in #aija1 and #af with #geg1gej1jjj capital during the first eight months of #aijb4 ,the list is admittedly incomplete4 8,it embraces only the so-called gigantic combinations which have been forming in the past three and one-half years4 ,a complete list1 without regard to date of formation1 and including both large and small10 says this authority1 8would probably aggregate #hej different-going combinations1 and would easily foot up over #i1jjj1jjj1jjj of capitalization4 ,including railroad consolidations1 such a list would make a total of over #ae1jjj1jjj1jjj outstanding capitalization40 ,as for the railroads1 the formation of the ,northern ,securities ,company1 the recent assimilation of the ,louisville and ,nashville1 and the 8reorganization0 of the ,rock ,island show the same drift4 ,five men1 according to a recent statement of ,interstate ,commerce ,commissioner ,j4 ,a4 ,prouty1 control all the railroads of the country2 and ,mr4 ,john ,w4 ,gates1 a financier who may be supposed to know something on that head1 has more recently declared1 according to a newspaper interview1 that two men are really in control4 8,i believe that the time is not far distant10 declared ,professor ,francis ,l4 ,patton1 former head of ,princeton ,university1 in a recent address before the ,presbyterian ,social ,union of ,chicago1 8when there will not be a thing that we eat1 drink1 or wear that will not be made by a trust40 ,he might have gone farther and fared as well2 for the theatrical trust determines what dramas we shall witness2 the pulp trust1 the typefounders' trust1 the news trust1 and the school-book trust exert a most direct bearing on what we read and what our reading costs us2 and finally the undertakers' trust determines the style and cost of our burial4 ,,ii ,the tendencies make not only for combination in specific trades1 but for unification--for complete integration of all capital which is susceptible of organization4 ,capitalistic atoms of low valency--to use a term from chemistry1--such as those invested in some of the hand trades1 custom and repairing and the like--may continue their course1 but those of a high valency are sooner or later brought into association4 ,from this fundamental grouping comes integration1 the concentration of the material units which go to make up an aggregate4 ,the lesser gravitates to the larger4 ,it needs no modern ,newton to proclaim that in finance1 commerce1 and industry1 as in the physical world1 all bodies attract one another in direct proportion to their mass4 ,distance provides a limitation1 it is true1 to the action of this law in the physical world2 but less so in the economic world1 for such is the perfection of our means of communication that they provide a more transmissible medium to capital than is the pervading ether to light and gravitation4 ,the separate trade trusts are not sufficient unto themselves1 but move steadily toward unification4 ,a glance at the directorates of the leading combinations shows many names repeated through a long list of varied industries4 ,the combinations themselves reach out and acquire new interests1 often distinct from their primary interests4 ,in ,pennsylvania coal is mined and railroads are operated by practically the same companies1 and in ,colorado and ,west ,virginia nearly as complete an identity is discovered4 ,the steel corporation owns coal lands1 limestone quarries1 railroads1 and docks2 it is allied with the great ,atlantic shipping trust2 it is related1 not distantly1 to the ,standard ,oil ,company2 and the beginnings of a public opinion trust are indicated1 for already its chief magnate has acquired several newspapers and a prominent magazine4 ,bishop ,potter's prediction1 it would seem1 is in fair way of fulfilment4 8,we must fully realize10 he said to the ,yale students last ,april1 8the danger that mind as well as matter will be at some time in the future capitalized1 and that the real thinking and planning for the many will be done by a mere handful40 ,beet and cane sugar are soon to be joined1 we read2 paper and lumber1 if not already wedded1 are at least on excellent terms4 ,oil and gas on the one hand1 coal and iron on the other1 have a 8common understanding10 and each of them holds morganatic relations with one or more of the railroads4 ,all the great combinations recognize a growing community of interest2 they tend more and more to a potential1 if not an actual1 coalescence2 and in the face of popular agitation1 legislative aggressiveness1 or the formal demands of labor1 they develop a unity of purpose and method4 ,their support is thrown1 in general1 to the same candidates for governors1 senators1 judges1 and tax assessors4 ,in brief1 they tend to the formation of a state within a state1 and their individual members to the creation of an industrial and political hierarchy4 ,,iii ,the counter-tendency toward the persistence of small-unit farming and of small-shop production and distribution must not be lost sight of1 nor must the great combinations be looked upon as necessarily a proof of individual concentration of wealth4 ,that they generally so result is hardly to be disputed2 but primarily1 they mean the massing together of separately owned capitals1 often small1 for a particular use4 ,there is every reason to suppose that the shareholders grow in numbers1 and that they increase their holdings4 ,so that while the magnates tend to become ,midases1 there is a concurrent tendency making for diffused ownership4 ,the small investor is to be found in every stratum of society1 and the number of shareholders in some of the great combinations reaches an astonishing figure4 ,the 8one touch of nature0 which in ,shakespeare's eyes made the whole world kin was the love of novelty2 in our day it is the passion for investing in shares4 ,petty industries and small-unit farming persist1 despite the movement toward combination4 ,the recent census gives the number of manufacturing establishments in the ,united ,states as #eab1gbf1 an increase of #dd4c per cent4 ,this is a larger percentage of increase than is shown for any other of the fifteen items in the census summary of manufactures1 except capital1 children's wages1 and miscellaneous expenses4 ,doubtless many of these establishments belong to the trusts2 but with all allowances the numerical growth is remarkable4 ,the undeveloped sections show the greatest increase1 but even industrially settled ,states1 such as ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 and ,rhode ,island1 reveal marked gains4 ,professor ,ely has pointed out several branches of industry in which small-shop production is increasing4 ,some investigations which the present writer made two years ago in two branches confirm this tendency4 ,it is pronounced in the notion trades and in the manufacture of women's ready-made wear4 ,in the latter the industry has been revolutionized1 the large houses being menaced with disaster and some of them with extinction4 ,in dry-goods distribution the tendencies are confused and puzzling4 ,while the number of general jobbing houses in ,new ,york ,city has decreased from thirty-five to five in twenty-five years1 the remaining ones growing to enormous proportions1 the number of smaller houses distributing special lines has either maintained its own or has grown4 ,in ,baltimore and ,st4 ,louis small jobbing houses persist in the face of the larger houses4 ,in the retail trades1 even in ,new ,york1 despite the creation of a number of mammoth general stores1 the dullest observer will note the continuance of thousands of small grocery1 dry-goods1 and furniture stores1 confectionery and butcher shops2 while custom and repairing work is still done in the little tailoring and shoemaking shops that speak a sort of defiance to the great emporiums4 ,through convenience of location to the community of customers about them--often1 too1 by the giving of credit--many of these little shops and stores furnish a social service that cannot be performed by the larger stores1 which are mostly to be found massed in the central shopping district4 ,something of the same nature is to be found in agriculture4 ,though the great estates are increasing in size1 so also is the number of small holdings increasing4 ,nearly every ,state and ,territory shows an increase in the number of farms1 while the majority show a decrease in average acreage4 ,the great stock-grazing farms of the ,west and the unproductive 8gentlemen's estates0 of the ,east help to make the census figures misleading4 ,it is probable that in every ,state real farming is done on a smaller average acreage than ever before4 ,even independent capital in trading and manufactures shows an unexpected persistence4 ,an interesting article in a recent issue of the ,new ,york ,journal of ,commerce puts the capitalization of the great trusts for the twelve years ending with #aija at #f1dgd1jjj1jjj1 of which it marks off #b1jjj1jjj1jjj as 8spurious common stock10 that is1 stock not representing real capital in any form4 ,not more than #cjj1jjj1jjj of new capital1 it maintains1 had been thrown into the consolidations4 ,this would leave #d1dgd1jjj1jjj as the sum of values already established by previous investment4 ,on the other hand1 it maintains that actual records show that in seventeen months from the beginning of #aija1 in the four ,states of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1 and ,maine1 the aggregate capitalization of newly organized companies with a capital of #a1jjj1jjj and upwards is #a1ifi1fej1jjj2 and it calculates that for the whole country1 including the large and small corporations1 8the national industrial capital 7exclusive of that for transportation appliances7 must have increased approximately #e1jjj1jjj1jjj since the end of #aijj40 ,several rather obvious demurrers might be made to the conclusions reached1 but they need not now concern us4 ,with all possible discounting1 strong proof is given of the aggressive persistence of independent capital4 ,,iv ,such facts1 however1 do not carry on the surface their real import4 ,independent capital persists as a force1 but the units that compose it melt like bubbles in a stream4 ,these companies are but the raw or 8partly manufactured0 material out of which the great combinations are made4 ,formation1 growth1 and absorption into a trust are generally the three terms in their life-history2 or if1 through ill environment or spirited warfare waged against them1 they fail to get secure footing1 they soon slip back into the slough of disaster4 ,the fate of independent tobacco factories1 sugar and oil refineries1 railroads1 independent companies of one kind or another1 is constantly before us4 ,if they are worth having1 they are more or less benevolently assimilated2 and if they are not worth having1 they are permitted to struggle onward to the almost inevitable collapse4 ,neither do small holdings in agriculture mean economic independence4 ,as the late census reveals1 they mean tenantry4 ,the number of farms operated by owners is decreasing2 tenantry is becoming more and more common1 and so is salaried management of great estates4 ,of the #e1gci1feg farms of the nation1 tenants now operate #b1jbf1bhf4 ,owners operated #gd4e per cent of all farms in #ahhj1 #ga4f per cent in #ahij1 #fd4g per cent in #aijj4 ,the tendency is general1 and applies to all sections4 ,since #ahhj tenantry has relatively increased in every ,state and ,territory 7no comparative data are given for the ,indian ,territory7 except ,arizona1 ,florida1 and ,new ,hampshire4 ,since #ahij it has increased in ,arizona4 ,in twenty years it has increased #di4d per cent in ,florida1 though the unloading of 8orange groves0 and other tropical paradises on the too susceptible ,northerner has increased ownership by a slightly greater ratio2 while in ,new ,hampshire1 where #bheg farms have been given up in the last twenty years1 tenantry has decreased by but five-tenths of #a per cent since #ahij1 and but six-tenths of #a per cent since #ahhj4 ,so1 too1 with petty industries and the small retailers4 ,m4 ,emile ,vandervelde1 in his sterling work1 8,collectivism and ,industrial ,evolution10 has well shown how 8small trade is the special refuge of the cripples of capitalism40 ,it is the particular refuge 8of all who prefer1 in place of the hard labor of production1 the scanty gleaning of the middleman1 or who1 no longer finding a sufficient revenue in industry or farming1 desire to add a string to their bow by opening a little shop40 ,but it would be a mistake1 he continues1 to suppose that these miniature establishments1 which the census officials characterize as distinct enterprises1 can be generally regarded as the personal property of those who carry them on4 8,a great number of them1 and a number constantly increasing1 as capitalism develops1 have only a phantom of independence1 and are really in the hands of a few great money lenders1 manufacturers1 or merchants40 ,though ,m4 ,vandervelde argues on the basis of these phenomena as observed in ,belgium1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england1 the same conclusions are applicable in the ,united ,states4 ,our national census figures are practically useless as illuminators on the subject1 and one must get his data from the observation or investigation of himself or others4 ,it is generally known that small industries the product of which is more or less ingenious or artistic manage to survive2 that those the product of which is common or usual are sooner or later extinguished2 and that the petty retailers represent so many heterogeneous elements that it is impossible to predicate anything of them as a class4 ,of these latter there is a moderate number who1 by furnishing a needful social service1 make profits2 there is a large and constantly changing number who1 through ease of credit1 manage to obtain stock without capital1 and who almost invariably succumb2 there is then a larger number whose little shops are run by women and children1 the husbands and fathers working at some trade or office job1 and hopefully expending their weekly earnings in the vain attempt to 8build up a business02 finally1 there is a class1 the numbers and relative importance of which it is impossible to estimate1 whose businesses are owned1 directly or indirectly1 by other men or by companies4 ,v ,many of these so-called independent concerns find it possible1 and some of them find it fairly profitable1 to continue4 ,but the more the large combinations wax in power1 the greater is the subordination of the small concerns4 ,an increasing constraint characterizes all their efforts4 ,they are more closely confined to particular activities and to local territories1 their bounds being dictated and enforced by the pressure of the combinations4 ,the petty tradesmen and producers are thus an economically dependent class4 ,equally subordinate--and for the most part subservient--are the owners of small and moderate holdings in the trusts4 ,the larger holdings--often the single largest holding--determine what shall be done4 ,generally1 too1 the petty investors are acquiescent to the will of the ,big ,men4 ,but occasionally1 as in the case of the transfer of the ,metropolitan ,street ,railway stock1 they rebel1 and it becomes necessary to suppress them4 ,at the meeting which determined this action1 the protesting minority were emphatically ordered to 8shut up02 when they still objected1 the presiding officer declared1 8,we will vote first2 you can discuss the matter afterward10 and the vote was promptly taken4 ,the head of an ,american corporation1 moreover1 is often an absolute ruler1 who determines not only the policy of the enterprise1 but the personnel of the board of directors4 ,it was a nave letter which a well-known ,new ,york financier recently wrote to his 8board of directors0 on the occasion of his retirement from the presidency of a great trust company in favor of a retiring ,cabinet minister4 ,he had been looking about1 he explained1 for some time for a competent successor4 ,now he had found him and had chosen him4 ,of course the formal action of the board would be a welcome detail2 and1 equally a matter of course1 it was promptly given4 ,one of the copper kings recently testified in a legal action that he 8didn't want to call the board of directors together to obtain authority to buy adjacent properties40 ,he went ahead1 did what he pleased1 and let the board discuss the matter afterward4 ,if there was ever so much as a question about it1 it was but a profitless interference4 ,,vi ,the tendencies thus make1 on the one hand1 toward the centralization of vast power in the hands of a few men--the morganization of industry1 as it were--and1 on the other1 toward a vast increase in the number of those who compose the economically dependent classes4 ,the latter number is already stupendous4 ,the laborers and mechanics were long ago brought under the yoke through their divorcement from the land and the application of steam to factory operation4 ,they are economically unfree except in so far as their organizations make possible a collective bargaining for wages and hours4 ,the growth of commerce raised up an enormous class of clerks and helpers1 perhaps the most dependent class in the community4 ,the growth and partial diffusion of wealth has in fifty years largely altered the character of our domestic service and increased the number of servants many fold4 ,the professions1 too1 have felt the change4 ,behind many of our important newspapers are private commercial interests which dictate their general policy1 if not1 as is frequently the case1 their particular attitude upon every public question2 while the race for endowments made by the greater number of the churches and by all colleges except a few ,state-supported ones1 compels a cautious regard on the part of synod and faculty for the wishes1 the views1 and the prejudices of men of wealth4 ,to this growing deference of preacher1 teacher1 and editor is added that of two yet more important classes1--the makers and the interpreters of law4 ,the record of legislation and judicial interpretation regarding slavery previous to the ,civil ,war has been paralleled1 if not surpassed1 in recent years by the record of legislatures and courts in matters relating to the lives and health of manual workers1 especially in such matters as employers' liability and factory inspection4 ,thus1 with a great addition to the number of subordinate classes1 with a tremendous increase of their individual components1 and with a corresponding growth of power in the hands of a few score magnates1 there is needed little further to make up a socio-economic status that contains all the essentials of a renascent ,feudalism4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,our ,,magnates ,with the rise of the magnates to power comes a growing self-consciousness of their authority and responsibility4 8,i am a citizen of no mean state10 is the reflection of each of them as he looks upon the emergent order of which he is so large a part2 and thereupon it becomes his mission to live up to his rank and function4 ,frequently his benefactions increase1 and always he takes on a more ,jovian air1 and views with a more providential outlook the phenomena passing before and about him4 ,he is a part not only1 as ,tennyson makes ,ulysses say1 of all that he has met1 but of the primary causes of things4 ,he is at once the loaf-giver to the needy1 the regulator of temporal affairs1 the lord protector of church and society2 and he holds his title directly from the ,creator4 8,the rights and interests of the laboring man10 wrote the chief of the anthracite coal magnates last ,august1 8will be protected and cared for1 not by the labor agitators1 but by the ,christian men to whom ,god in ,his infinite wisdom has given the control of the property interests of the country40 ,gradually there comes the renascent development of the seigniorial mind4 ,i 8,business0 is the main thought1 and the apotheosis of 8business0 the main cult of the new magnates4 8,of gods1 friends1 learnings1 of the uncomprehended civilization which they overrun10 indignantly writes ,mr4 ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd1 8they ask but one question3 ,how much8 ,what is a good time to sell8 ,what is a good time to buy8444 ,their heathen eyes see in the law and its consecrated officers nothing but an intelligence office1 and hired men to help them burglarize the treasures accumulated for a thousand years at the altars of liberty and justice1 that they may burn their marble for the lime of commerce40 ,though a forcible1 it is an extreme view1 for it leaves out of consideration the high professions of morality1 the frequent appeal to ,christian ideals1 the tender solicitude for honesty1 integrity1 law and order1 with which our new magnates gild their worship of 8business40 ,such of them as have recently invaded literature give edifying glimpses of the new seigniorial attitude4 ,the artistic career1 writes ,mr4 ,andrew ,carnegie in his entertaining volume1 8,the ,empire of ,business10 is most narrowing1 and produces 8petty jealousies1 unbounded vanities1 and spitefulness02 the learned professions also produce narrowness1 albeit often a high specialization of faculty and knowledge4 ,but 8business10 properly pursued1 broadens and develops the whole man4 ,it is a view echoed to greater or less extent by the other literary magnates1 particularly ,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,hill1 ,mr4 ,russell ,sage1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,c4 ,t4 ,dodd1 ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 ,jr41 the ,hon4 ,marcus ,a4 ,hanna1 and ,mr4 ,charles ,r4 ,flint4 ,a flattering unction that all lay to their souls is the dictum that success in business is a matter of honesty1 intelligence1 and energy4 8,there is no line of business10 writes ,mr4 ,carnegie1 8in which success is not attainable4 ,it is a simple matter of honest work1 ability1 and concentration40 8,to rail against the accumulation of wealth10 writes ,mr4 ,sage1 in the ,independent1 8is to rail against the decrees of justice4 ,intelligence1 industry1 honesty1 and thrift produce wealth4444 ,so long as some men have more sense and more self-control than others1 just so long will such men be wealthy1 while others will be poor40 ,mr4 ,dodd1 in his address to the students of ,syracuse ,university1 adds this contribution3 8,why is there still so much poverty8 ,one reason is because nature or the devil has made some men weak and imbecile and others lazy and worthless1 and neither man nor ,god can do much for one who will do nothing for himself40 ,mr4 ,rockefeller appeals both to evolution and to divine sanction4 8,the growth of a large business10 he is reported as declaring in one of his ,sunday-school addresses1 8is merely a survival of the fittest4444 ,the ,american ,beauty rose can be produced in the splendor and fragrance which bring cheer to its beholder only by sacrificing the early buds which grow up around it4 ,this is not an evil tendency in business4 ,it is merely the working out of a law of nature and a law of ,god40 ,it matters not that many millions of men1 tirelessly energetic and reasonably intelligent1 can be shown to have toiled all their lives without winning even a competence4 ,nor does it matter that some of these1 in addition to being energetic and intelligent1 have been reasonably honest4 ,to be honest1 as this world goes1 is to be one man picked out of ten thousand2 and the fact that most of the greater affairs of the business world sooner or later find their way into the courts1 for the testing of the amount and quality of honesty involved therein1 might well cause some hesitation in positing this virtue as a necessary qualification for 8business40 ,but the notion is not to be argued with2 it is a characteristic outcropping of the seigniorial mind4 ,the praise of labor is the antiphony to the praise of 8business10 and the lyres of all the magnates are strung tensely when chanting tributes to toil4 8,round swings the hammer of industry1 quickly the sharp chisel rings1 ,and the heart of the toiler has throbbings that stir not the bosom of kings10 warbles ,mr4 ,flint in his article on 8,combinations and ,critics10 in 8,the ,trust3 ,its ,book40 ,toil is the foundation of wealth1 they all aver1 though the rhapsodical nature of the tributes prevents a clear and definite utterance on the question1 ,of whose wealth is it the foundation8 ,but there is no lack of definiteness regarding their attitude toward those defensive societies1 the trade-unions1 which the toilers organize to secure a larger part of their product to themselves4 ,mr4 ,flint1 indeed1 somewhat cautiously acknowledges an element for good in the unions1 but the general attitude of the seigniorial mind is distinctly inimical4 ,the recent interesting correspondence between the coal magnates and ,president ,mitchell is an instance in point2 so are the frequent utterances on the subject by the president of the steel trust1 and any number of examples could be given of a like character4 ,a crowning example of a distinctly feudal attitude is furnished by a letter from a prominent ,new ,york merchant1 printed in the issue of ,june #i1 #aijb1 of a newspaper which makes a considerable to-do about the printing of such of the news as it sees fit to print4 ,the prominent merchant objects very strongly to labor leaders and walking delegates1 describing them in almost as temperate and judicial language as that of ,united ,states ,district ,judge ,jackson4 ,the flower of his contribution is his seigniorial remedy for strikes3-- 8,the only remedy1 in my opinion1 for strikes is to get as many men as there are officers in the different labor associations admitted to their meetings1 where they would have a chance to talk to the men in a businesslike way1 explaining matters to them in such a manner as to bring the effects of a strike very plainly before them40 ,moral suasion1 however1 is not the only method suggested for bringing sense to the workers4 ,a hint of more forcible means is occasionally broached4 ,a ,new ,york newspaper1 which makes a boast of printing unimpeachable interviews1 reports1 in its issue of ,july #cast last1 a significant warning from the president of the ,new ,york1 ,ontario and ,western ,railroad4 ,this is one of the coal-carrying railroads1 and the reference is to the anthracite strike4 8,after the men return to work10 he said1 8,i believe that legal steps will be taken in the ,united ,states courts against those who are responsible for the loss occasioned by the strike40 ,the ,hon4 ,abram ,s4 ,hewitt echoed this interesting suggestion in an interview of ,august #beth4 8,the consequences of such strikes10 he says1 8are so disastrous1 not merely to the parties directly concerned1 but to the whole community1 that every effort should be made as soon as the existing strike has been called off and the excitement is abated to prevent by appropriate legislation the recurrence of such calamitous conflicts where everybody is injured and no one is benefited40 ,criminal codes1 it may be said generally1 depend largely on the economic conditions of the time and place where they obtain3 horse-stealing1 in a community girdled by trolley lines1 degenerates to petty larceny1 while in ,wyoming or ,arabia it is a capital offence4 ,in the new order1 which requires peace and stability for its proper operation1 it may readily enough come about that voluntary leaving of work will be severely penalized4 ,,ii ,the new seigniorial attitude toward government and public policy is also significant4 ,often it is paternalistic in a princely degree4 ,the offer of a retired magnate to settle a great national problem by paying to the ,government the #bj1jjj1jjj demanded of ,spain1 on condition that the ,filipinos be 8set free10 had in it something of the 8grand style0 which ,matthew ,arnold so extols4 ,the rallying to the defence of the ,government's gold reserve by certain financiers1 several years ago1 need not be instanced1 since in certain quarters it is gravely suspected that their interest was not entirely platonic4 ,but certainly the recent offer of a wealthy magnate to pay one-third of the cost of repairing all the roads in the vicinity of ,lakewood1 ,n4,j41 showed the true seigniorial spirit4 ,not different in kind1 though somewhat in degree1 was the recent action of a ,pittsburg magnate1 on the rude refusal of the ,department of ,public ,works to pave his street otherwise than with blocks at a cost of #fe cents the square yard1 in doing the thing himself at a cost of #d4ej the square yard4 ,usually1 however1 the seigniorial attitude toward government is somewhat more in the direction of intervention4 ,the seasonal migration to ,washington of representatives of all the great commercial interests has become a salient datum in political zology4 ,curiosity regarding a proposed parcels post or government telegraph alone draws hundreds of these birds of passage there4 ,the rights of private initiative must be maintained at any cost4 ,in the great ,west one of the prime necessities for a living is the access to water for irrigation purposes4 ,one may have land2 but1 if he has not water to irrigate it1 the soil is worthless4 ,the prevailing sentiment is for public ownership of waterways1 since1 in many places1 monopoly controls the supply4 ,at the electrical convention held at ,san ,francisco recently1 the presiding officer1 who is also the president of a public-service corporation1 after denouncing organized labor and municipal ownership1 added3 8,for us a far more dangerous agitation is that which now proposes ,state appropriation of all water rights4 ,the scheme advocated makes the appropriation little less than sheer confiscation40 ,luckily the seventy-one mile envelope of air that encases the globe yet eludes monopolization4 8,hands off60 is the warning to government2 and though occasionally government puts hands on1 they are not very closely or tenaciously applied4 ,the report of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission 7#aija71 for instance1 employs a rather pessimistic tone regarding government control of traffic rates4 8,we simply call attention to the fact10 it recites1 8that the decision of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court in the ,trans-,missouri case and the ,joint ,traffic ,association case has produced no practical effect upon the railway operations of the country4 ,such associations1 in fact1 exist now1 as they did before those decisions1 and with the same general effect40 8,should the ,supreme ,court declare the ,northern railways consolidation unconstitutional10 one of the interested magnates is reported as saying1 8we shall simply do the thing in another way4 ,it is something that must be done40 ,cynically frank is ,mr4 ,dodd1 in his ,syracuse address1 regarding the ,anti-trust law4 8,a modern ,federal law also exists10 he says1 8which1 literally interpreted1 forbids business of any magnitude2 but ,federal judges have thus far found it easier to dismiss proceedings under it than to guess at its real meaning40 ,the president of the ,southern ,pacific ,railroad takes the bull by the horns1 and denounces all interference4 ,in an interview given to the press ,june #b;d of the present year1 he declares that 8the legislation of the future must be pro-railroad instead of anti-railroad4444 ,i believe commissions are things of the past4 ,i do not think transportation companies should have to submit to dictation or control by bodies who do not know anything about transportation40 ,the ,contract-labor law is another measure1 to the seigniorial mind1 unnecessary and obstructive1 and its provisions1 therefore1 are but lightly observed4 ,known evasions have been numerous2 and1 were the full truth revealed1 it would probably be found that this law has met with about the same degree of observance as have the ,interstate ,commerce and ,anti-trust laws4 ,as recently as ,july #afth1 comes word from ,berlin to the ,chicago ,daily ,news that 8agents of ,american railroads are canvassing the ,polish and ,slavic districts of ,europe for laborers1 to whom they offer #b4ej a day and board1 regardless of the ,federal ,contract-labor law40 ,not only do the magnates demand immunity from government interference in their business affairs1 but they demand also a more real1 if not a more obvious1 share in the operations of government4 ,the invasion1 during the last ten years1 of the ,national ,senate by a number of the magnates or their legates is a part of the process2 but something more to the point is their insistence on the right to be consulted in grave affairs by the ,president and ,cabinet4 ,a ,new ,york daily newspaper1 edited by the distinguished scholar who delivers lectures on journalism before ,yale ,university1 published last ,february an account of a remarkable gathering at ,washington4 ,it verges closely upon contumacy to mention the names of the attending magnates1 such is their eminence1 and they will therefore not be given4 ,their purpose was to protest to the ,president against a repetition of his action in the ,northern ,securities case4 8,the financiers declare10 says this newspaper1 8that they should have been notified of the intended ,federal action last week1 so that they could be prepared to support the stock market1 and that their unpreparedness came very near bringing on a panic4 ,had not the big interests of the street been in possession of the bulk of securities1 instead of speculators and small holders1 there would have been a panic1 the capitalists assert40 ,it is1 when considered1 a modest claim--the powers of an extra-constitutional cabinet1 intrusted with the conservation of the public peace4 ,there is no proof that the claim has been conceded1 though some light is thrown on the problem by the newspaper's further declaration that the chief magnate1 after an interview with the ,president1 8felt very much better40 ,something of the same nature was revealed in the negotiations last ,march between the ,mayor of ,new ,york ,city and the directors of the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad ,company4 ,the company requested the ,mayor to secure the withdrawal of the ,wainwright bill in the ,state ,assembly1 compelling the railroad to abandon steam in the ,park ,avenue tunnel by a fixed date1 and promised to do the required thing in its own time and at its own pleasure4 ,the letter of the ,mayor to ,assemblyman ,bedell records the result3 8,this letter of the directors seems to me to lay a good foundation for the waiving a fixed date to be named in the bill20 and the date was accordingly 8waived40 ,of the seigniorial attitude toward the police law1 the abundant crop of automobile cases alone furnishes signal testimony4 ,dickens made a highly dramatic1 though perhaps rather unhistorical1 use in his 8,a ,tale of ,two ,cities0 of the riding down of a child by a marquis1 and the long train of tragic consequences that ensued4 ,we do the thing differently in our day3 we acquit1 or at most fine the marquis1 and the matter rests2 we are too deferential to carry it further4 ,fast driving in the new 8machines0 has become one of the tests of courage1 manliness1 and skill1--what jousting in full armor was in the fifteenth century1 or duelling with pistols in the early part of the nineteenth1--and if the police law interferes1 the exploit is the more hazardous and therefore the more emulatory4 ,the scion of a great house who recently1 on being arrested for fast driving and then bailed1 subsequently sent his valet to the police court to pay the fine1 showed the true seigniorial spirit4 ,possibly1 though1 had his identity been known before arrest1 he would have escaped the irritating interference of the law2 for it happened1 about the same time1 on the arrest for the same offence of a millionnaire attorney1 companioned by a ,supreme ,court judge1 that a too vigilant policeman came to learn his severest lesson--that to know whom not to trouble is the better part of valor4 ,at ,newport1 the summer home of the seigniorial class1 the automobile enforces a right of way4 ,this is not sufficient1 however1 for the automobilists1 who would prefer a sole and exclusive way4 ,in the summer of #aija the resident magnates fixed upon a certain ,friday afternoon for their motor races1 and demanded exclusive control of ,ocean1 ,harrison1 and ,carroll avenues between the hours of two and four o'clock4 ,in the 8grand style0 characterizing the dealings of this class with the public1 the magnates offered to pay all the fines if the races led to any prosecutions4 ,this meant1 of course1 that the ordinance prohibiting a speed greater than ten miles an hour was to be overlooked1 since the races would surely have developed speed up to forty1 fifty1 and sixty miles an hour4 ,the deferential ,city ,council acquiesced4 ,for once1 however1 the ever serviceable injunction was found to be available against other persons than striking workmen4 ,a few property owners sought refuge in the ,supreme ,court1 a temporary injunction was issued by ,judge ,wilbur1 and1 though the magnates hired lawyers to fight it1 the order was made permanent4 ,it is but natural that keen resentment should follow this high-handed action of the courts4 ,it is announced that some of the magnates are tiring of ,newport1 and one of the wealthiest of them has recently threatened to forsake the place entirely4 ,laws are like cobwebs1 said ,anacharsis the ,scythian1 where the small flies are caught and the great break through4 ,yet that even the great can sometimes bow to the reign of law1 and particularly that the seigniorial mind can on occasion be conciliatory1 is well illustrated by the recent action of the governors of the ,automobile ,club1 in suspending two members and disciplining a third1 for fast driving4 ,the troublesome restrictions of the law on this point are probably destined1 however1 to be soon abolished4 ,already the ,board of ,freeholders of ,essex ,county1 ,n4,j41 a region much frequented by automobilists1 has advanced the speed limit in the country districts to twenty miles per hour4 ,further changes are expected1 and it will probably be but a short time before a man with a 8machine0 will enjoy the ,god-given right of 8doing what he will with his own40 ,,iii ,most of the magnates show a frugal and a discriminating mind in their benefactions2 but it is a prodigal mind indeed which governs the expenditures that make for social ostentation4 ,it is probable that no aristocracy--not even that of profligate ,rome under the later ,csars--ever spent such enormous sums in display4 ,our aristocracy1 avoiding the ,english standards relating to persons engaged in trade1 welcomes the industrial magnate1 and his vast wealth and love of ostentation have set the pace for lavish expenditure4 ,trade is the dominant phase of ,american life1--the divine process by which1 according to current opinion1 8the whole creation moves10--and1 as it has achieved the conquest of most of our social institutions and of our political powers1 that it should also dominate 8society0 is but a natural sequence4 ,flaunting and garish consumption becomes the basic canon in fashionable affairs4 ,as ,mr4 ,thorstein ,veblen1 in his keen satire1 8,the ,theory of the ,leisure ,class10 puts it3-- 8,conspicuous consumption of valuable goods is a means of reputability4444 ,as wealth accumulates on his the magnate's hands1 his own unaided effort will not avail sufficiently to put his opulence in evidence by this method4 ,the aid of friends and competitors is therefore brought in by resorting to the giving of valuable presents and expensive feasts and entertainments4 ,presents and feasts had probably another origin than that of nave ostentation1 but they acquired their utility for the purpose very early1 and they have retained that character to the present40 ,the conspicuous consumption of other days was1 however1 as compared with that of the present1 but a flickering candle flame to a great cluster of electric lights4 ,against the few classic examples1 such as those of ,cleopatra and ,lucullus1 our present aristocracy can show hundreds2 and the daily spectacle of wasteful display might serve to make the earlier ,sybarites stare and gasp4 ,present-day fashionable events come to be distinguished and remembered not so much on the score of their particular features as of their cost4 ,a certain event is known as ,mr4 ,a's #e1jjj breakfast1 another as the ,smith-,jones's #ae1jjj dinner1 and another as ,mrs4 ,c's #cj1jjj entertainment and ball4 ,conspicuous eating becomes also a feature of seigniorial life4 ,the 8society0 and the 8yellow0 journals are crowded with accounts of dinners and luncheons1 following one after another with an almost incredible frequency4 ,and not only is the frequency remarkable1 but the range and quantity of the viands furnished almost challenge belief4 ,so far1 it is believed1 the journals which usually deal in that sort of news have neglected to give an authoritative menu for a typical day in the life of a seigniorial family4 ,we have dinner menus1 luncheon menus1 and so on1 but nothing in the way of showing what is consumed by the individual or family during a term of twenty-four hours4 ,some light on the subject1 however1 is furnished by ,mr4 ,george ,w4 ,e4 ,russell1 the talented author of 8,collections and ,recollections10 in his recent volume1 8,an ,onlooker's ,note-book40 ,objection may be made to the effect that ,mr4 ,russell is an ,englishman1 and that he is describing an ,english royal couple4 ,but the demurrer is irrelevant1 since it is well known that our seigniorial class founds its practices and its canons 7excepting only the canon regarding persons engaged in trade7 upon ,english precedents1 and that ,english precedents are made by the ,royal ,family4 ,and not only does our home nobility imitate ,english models1 but it piles ,pelion upon ,ossa1 and seeks constantly to outshine and overdo the actions of its transatlantic cousins4 ,mrs4 ,george ,cornwallis-,west 7formerly ,lady ,randolph ,churchill7 recently stated that the vast sums spent by ,americans in ,england have lifted the standard of living to a scale of magnificence almost unknown before4 ,so for whatever is shown to be ,english custom1 something must be added for ,american improvement and extension when assuming its transplantation to these shores4 ,mr4 ,russell writes3-- 8,a royal couple arranged to pay a two nights' visit to a country house of which the owners were friends of mine4 ,for reasons of expediency1 we will call the visitors the duke and duchess1 though that was not their precise rank4 ,when a thousand preparations too elaborate to be described here had been made for the due entertainment of them and their suite and their servants1 the private secretary wrote to the lady of the house1 enclosing a written memorandum of his royal master's and mistress's requirements in the way of meals4 ,i reproduce the substance of the memorandum--and in these matters my memory never plays tricks4 ,the day began with cups of tea brought to the royal bedroom4 ,while the duke was dressing1 an egg beaten up in sherry was served to him1 not once1 but twice4 ,the duke and duchess breakfasted together in their private sitting room1 where the usual ,english breakfast was served to them4 ,they had their luncheon with their hosts and the house party1 and ate and drank like other people4 ,particular instructions were given that at #e o'clock tea there must be something substantial in the way of eggs1 sandwiches1 or potted meat1 and this meal the royal couple consumed with special gusto4 ,dinner was at #h4cj1 on the limited and abbreviated scale which the ,prince of ,wales introduced--two soups1 two kinds of fish1 two entres1 a joint1 two sorts of game1 a hot and cold sweet1 and a savory1 with the usual accessories in the way of oysters1 cheese1 ice1 and dessert4 ,this is pretty well for an abbreviated dinner4 ,but let no one suppose that the royal couple went hungry to bed4 ,when they retired1 supper was served to them in their private sitting room1 and a cold chicken and a bottle of claret were left in their bedroom1 as a provision against emergencies40 ,all the men of great wealth are not men of leisure4 ,some of them work as hard as do common laborers4 ,for such as these the tremendous gastronomy recounted by ,mr4 ,russell would be impossible as a daily exercise4 ,when1 therefore1 it is assumed of any of our seigniorial class1 it must be limited to magnates on vacation1 to their leisurely sons1 nephews1 hangers-on1 and women1 and to those who have retired from active pursuits4 ,but there are other canons of social reputability besides personal leisure and personal wasteful consumption4 ,these are1 to quote again from ,mr4 ,veblen1 vicarious leisure and vicarious consumption--the leisure and lavishness of wives1 sons1 and daughters4 ,it is these who1 in large part1 at ,new ,york1 ,lenox1 and ,newport1 support the social reputation of their seigniorial husbands and fathers4 ,the 8dog parties10 wherein the host 8puts on a dog collar and barks for the delectation of his guests10 the 8vegetable parties10 wherein host and guests1 perhaps from some latent sense of inner likeness1 make themselves up to represent cabbage heads and other garden products1 the 8monkey parties10 the various 8circuses0 and like events1 are given and participated in more generally by the vicarious upholders of the magnate's social reputation than by the seignior himself4 ,but in ways more immediate--by means which do not conflict with his daily vocation--the working magnate gives signal example of that virtue of capitalistic 8abstinence0 which is the foundation of orthodox political economy4 ,the splendors of his town house1 his country estate1 and his steam yacht1 to say nothing of his club1 are repeatedly described to us in the columns of popular periodicals4 ,his paintings1 decorations1 and bric--brac1 his orchids and roses1 his blooded animals and his #aj1jjj ,panhard1 are depicted in terms which make one wonder how paltry and mean must have been the possessions of ,midas and how bare the 8wealth of ,ormus and of ,ind40 ,and when1 for a time1 he lays down the reins of power1 and betakes himself to ,saratoga or ,newport or ,monte ,carlo1 yet more wonderful accounts are given of his lavish expenditure4 ,the betting at the ,saratoga race-tracks last ,august is reported to have averaged #b1jjj1jjj a day4 8,the money does not come10 said that eminent maker of books1 ,mr4 ,joe ,ullman1 8from any great plunger or group of plungers1 but from the great assemblage of rich men who are willing to bet from #ajj to #a1jjj on their choices in a race40 ,on the transatlantic steamers1 in ,london and in ,paris1 the same prodigality is seen4 ,a king's ransom--or what is more to the point1 the ransom of a hundred families from a year's suffering--is lost or won in an hour's play or lightly expended for some momentary satisfaction4 ,,iv ,there remain for brief mention the benefactions of the magnates4 ,most of these come under the head of 8conspicuous giving40 ,gifts for educational1 religious1 and other public purposes last year reached the total of #ajg1cfj1jjj4 ,in separate amounts they ran all the way from the #e1jjj gift of a soap or lumber magnate to the #ac1jjj1jjj that had their origin in steel4 ,it is an interesting list for study in that it reveals more significantly than some of the instances given the standards and temper of the seigniorial mind4 ,an anonymous writer1 evidently of ,jacobinical tendencies1 some time ago suggested in the columns of a well-known periodical a list of measures for the support of which rich men might honorably and wisely devote a part of their fortunes3-- 8,he the rich man could begin by requiring the assessors to hand him a true bill of his own obligations to the public4 ,he could continue the good work by persuading the collector to accept a check for the whole amount4 ,this would make but a small draft upon his total accumulations4 ,a further considerable sum he could wisely devote to paying the salaries of honorable lobbyists1 who should labor with legislative bodies to secure the enactment of just laws1 which would relieve hard-working farmers1 struggling shopkeepers1 mechanics trying to pay for mortgaged houses1 and widows who have received a few thousand dollars of life insurance money1 from their present obligation to support the courts1 the militia1 and other organs of government that protect the rich man's property and enable him to collect his bills receivable4 ,finally1 if these two expenditures did not sufficiently diminish his surplus1 he could purchase newspapers and pay editors to educate the public in sound principles of social justice1 as applied to taxation and to various other matters40 ,perhaps it is not singular that no part of the gifts of the great magnates is ever devoted to any of these purposes4 ,doubtless they see no flaw1 or at least no remediable defect1 in the present industrial rgime4 ,it is the rgime under which they have risen to fortune and power1 and it is therefore justified by its fruits4 ,their benefactions are thus always directed to a more or less obvious easement of the conditions of those on whom the social fabric most heavily rests4 ,hospitals1 asylums1 and libraries are the objects1 though recently a bathing beach for poor children has been added to the list4 ,the propriety of securing learned justification of the existing rgime causes also a considerable giving to schools1 colleges1 and churches4 ,but nowhere can there be found a seigniorial gift which1 directly or indirectly1 makes for modification of the prevailing economic system4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,our ,,farmers ,,and ,,wage-,,earners ,the increasing dependence of middleman and petty manufacturer has already been considered4 ,the same pressure which bears upon these bears also upon farmer and wage-earner4 ,the editorials and the oratory of election years1 it is true1 supply us with recurring pans over the independence1 the self-reliance and the prosperity of these classes1 and such graphic tropes as 8the full dinner pail0 and 8the overflowing barn10 become the party shibboleths of political campaigns4 ,plain facts1 however1 accord but ill with this exultant strain4 ,i ,in most ages the working farmer has been the dupe and prey of the rest of mankind4 ,now by force and now by cajolery1 as social customs and political institutions change1 he has been made to produce the food by which the race lives1 and the share of his product which he has been permitted to keep for himself has always been pitifully small4 ,whether ,roman slave1 ,frankish serf1 or ,english villein2 whether the so-called 8independent0 farmer of a free democracy or the ryot of a ,hindu prince1 the general rule holds good4 ,occasionally1 by one means or another1 he gains some transitory betterment of condition2 the ,plague of #acdi and the ,peasants' ,rebellion of #acha won for his class advantages which were retained during three generations4 ,but in the long run he is the race's martyr4 ,under a military autocracy his exploitation was inevitable4 ,there is no reason for it now1 for the lives and well-being of the rest of mankind are in his hands3 were the working farmers organized as the manufacturers and the skilled artisans are organized1 and could they lay by for themselves a year's necessities1 they could starve the race into submission to their demands4 ,but the thing is not to be2 nor1 indeed1 is any marked change to their advantage likely to happen1 for1 so far as current tendencies point1 the future is to repeat the past4 ,in our day and in our land both force and cajolery conspire to keep the peasant farmer securely in his traces4 ,he cannot break through the cordon which the trusts and the railroads put about him2 and even if he could he would not1 since the influences showered upon him are specifically directed to the end of keeping him passive and contented4 ,our statisticians assure him of his prosperity2 our politicians and our moulders of opinion warn him of the pernicious influence of unions like the ,farmers' ,alliance1 and further preach to him the comforting doctrine that by 8raising more corn and less politics0 he will ultimately work out a blissful salvation4 ,sometimes he must burn his corn for fuel2 often he cannot sell his grain for the cost of production1 even though many thousands of persons in the great cities may be hungering for it2 frequently he cannot afford to send his children to school1 and in a steadily increasing number of cases he is forced to abandon his farm and become a tenant or a wanderer4 ,he is puzzled1 no doubt1 by these things2 but they are all carefully and neatly explained to him from the writings and preachments of profound scholars1 as 8natural0 and 8inevitable0 phenomena4 ,his ethical sense may be somewhat disturbed by the explanations1 but he learns that it is useless to protest1 and he thereupon acquiesces4 ,a sort of symposium on the joys of the farmer is to be found in the ,september number of the ,american ,review of ,reviews4 ,mr4 ,clarence ,h4 ,matson writes of improved conditions due to rural free delivery of mails and a few other reforms2 ,mr4 ,william ,r4 ,draper dilates upon the enormous revenues which have flowed to the farmers during the current year1 and ,professor ,henry ,c4 ,adams contributes a symphony on the diffusion of agricultural prosperity4 ,a fourth article1 by ,mr4 ,cy ,warman1 furnishes a rather discordant note to the general harmony1 since it shows a large and increasing immigration of our prosperous farmers into ,canada4 ,some #bj1jjj crossed the border last year1 according to ,mr4 ,warman1 while during the first four months of #aijb1 #aa1dhj followed1 and indications pointed to a total of #dj1jjj emigrants for the present year4 ,the official figures of the ,canadian ,government1 since published1 partly confirm these estimates4 ,the number of immigrants from the ,united ,states for the year ended ,june #cj1 #aijb1 was #bb1jjj4 ,the number for the current year will probably be larger1 for according to a ,montreal press despatch of ,september #agth3 8,the immigration from the ,american to the ,canadian ,northwest has assumed much greater proportions this year than ever before1 and land sales to ,americans are daily reported4 ,the latest large sale is by the ,saskatchewan ,valley ,land ,company1 which has sold #ajj1jjj acres in ,saskatchewan to an ,american syndicate for #ejj1jjj40 8,the ,american farmer10 sententiously and truthfully remarks ,professor ,adams1 8does not hoard his cash40 ,he gives no reason for the fact1 and the determination must be left to the reader4 8,the ,american farmer10 he further remarks1 8is1 as a rule1 his own landlord40 ,this statement reveals a very serious misapprehension of the facts4 ,something more than every third farm in the ,united ,states1 according to the recent census1 is operated by a tenant4 ,moreover1 the proportion of tenants is constantly rising4 ,for the whole country1 tenants operated #be4e per cent of all farms in #ahhj1 #bh4d per cent in #ahij1 and #ce4c per cent in #aijj4 ,further1 the tendency is not confined to particular sections1 but is common to the whole country4 ,during the last decade the number of tenant-operated farms increased relatively to the whole number of farms in every ,state and ,territory except ,maine1 ,vermont1 and ,new ,hampshire4 ,in ,maine tenantry decreased seven-tenths of #a per cent1 in ,new ,hampshire five-tenths of #a per cent1 and in ,vermont one-tenth of #a per cent4 ,for the twenty-year period1 as was pointed out in ,chapter ,,ii1 the only exceptions to the general increase are ,arizona1 ,florida1 and ,new ,hampshire4 ,the recent census1 out of its abundant optimism1 does not segregate these facts1 and makes no general comment other than that tenantry has increased and that salaried management is believed to be 8constantly increasing40 ,the bulletin on 8,agriculture3 ,the ,united ,states0 does not even furnish a general classified summary of the data on tenantry4 ,but the separate reports give the statistics1 and out of them the following table is compiled3-- ,,increase ,,of ,,farm ,,tenantry ,,states ,,and ,,territories ,,per ,,cent ,,of ,,farms ,,operated ,,by ,,tenants ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #ahhj #ahij #aijj #a4 ,alabama #df4h #dh4f #eg4g #b4 ,arizona #ac4b #g4i a4 #h4da b4 #aa4ib #c4 ,arkansas #cj4i #cb4a #de4d #d4 ,california #ai4h #ag4h #bc4a #e4 ,colorado #ac4j #aa4c #bb4f #f4 ,connecticut #aj4b #aa4e #ab4i #g4 ,delaware #db4d #df4i #ej4c #h4 ,district of ,columbia #ch4b #cf4g #dc4a #i4 ,florida #cj4i #bc4f #bf4e #aj4 ,georgia #dd4i #ec4e #ei4i #aa4 ,idaho #d4g #d4f #h4g #ab4 ,illinois #ba4d #bd4j #bi4c #ac4 ,indiana #bc4g #be4d #bh4f #ad4 ,iowa #bc4h #bh4a #cd4i #ae4 ,kansas #af4c #bh4b #cc4b #af4 ,kentucky #bf4d #bd4i #cb4h #ag4 ,louisiana #ce4b #dd4d #eh4j #ah4 ,maine #d4c #e4d #d4g #ai4 ,maryland #ca4j #ca4j #cc4f #bj4 ,massachusetts #h4b #i4c #i4f #ba4 ,michigan #aj4j #ad4j #ae4i #bb4 ,minnesota #i4b #ab4i #ag4c #bc4 ,mississippi #dc4h #eb4h #fb4d #bd4 ,missouri #bg4c #bf4h #cj4e #be4 ,montana #e4c #d4h #i4b #bf4 ,nebraska #ah4j #bd4g #cf4i #bg4 ,nevada #i4g #g4e #aa4d #bh4 ,new ,hampshire #h4a #h4j #g4e #bi4 ,new ,jersey #bd4f #bg4b #cf4i #cj4 ,new ,mexico #h4a #d4e #i4d #ca4 ,new ,york #af4e #bj4b #bc4i #cb4 ,north ,carolina #cc4e #cd4a #da4d #cc4 ,north ,dakota #c4ic #f4i #h4e #cd4 ,ohio #ai4c #bb4i #bg4e #ce4 ,oklahoma #j4g #ba4j #cf4 ,oregon #ad4a #ab4e #ag4h #cg4 ,pennsylvania #ba4b #bc4c #bf4j #ch4 ,rhode ,island #ai4i #ah4g #bj4a #ci4 ,south ,carolina #ej4c #ee4c #fa4j #dj4 ,south ,dakota #c4ic #ac4b #ba4h #da4 ,tennessee #cd4e #cj4h #dj4e #db4 ,texas #cg4f #da4i #di4g #dc4 ,utah #d4f #e4b #h4h #dd4 ,vermont #ac4d #ad4f #ad4e #de4 ,virginia #bi4e #bf4i #cj4g #df4 ,washington #g4b #h4e #ad4d #dg4 ,west ,virginia #ai4a #ag4h #ba4h #dh4 ,wisconsin #i4a #aa4d #ac4e #di4 ,wyoming #b4h #d4b #g4f ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,footnotes3 #a ,including ,indian farms4 #b ,excluding ,indian farms4 #c ,dakota ,territory4 ,there were #b1jbf1bhf tenants in #aijj1 an increase in twenty years of #ig4g per cent4 ,there were #c1gac1cga owners1 part owners1 8owners and tenants10 and managers1 an increase in twenty years of #bd4d per cent4 ,during the twenty-year period owners in ,washington increased less than fivefold1 tenants tenfold4 ,utah shows a doubling of the number of owners1 and a quadrupling of the number of tenants4 ,south ,dakota1 compared with ,dakota ,territory in #ahhj1 reveals an increase of owners of two and one-half times2 of tenants1 eighteen times4 ,there are #bh1ffi fewer owners in ,new ,york ,state than in #ahhj1 and #ad1cca more tenants4 ,ownership has declined and tenantry advanced1 both absolutely and relatively1 in ,new ,jersey4 ,the great farming ,state of ,illinois has #ae1jdd fewer owners and #bc1ded more tenants than in #ahhj1 and even the young ,territory of ,oklahoma1 wherein one might expect to find evidences of increased ownership1 reveals1 for the ten-year period1 a two-hundred-fold increase of tenantry and only a sixfold increase of ownership4 ,from the foregoing table it will be seen that while during the previous decade relative tenantry declined slightly in several ,states1 the tide has since turned4 ,though the ,southern ,states generally show the greatest proportion of tenants1 the greatest percentage of increase is revealed in the ,border1 ,northern1 and ,western ,states4 ,tenants operate #fb4d per cent of all the farms of ,mississippi1 #fa per cent of those of ,south ,carolina4 ,but while the former is a growth since #ahhj from #dc4h per cent1 and the latter from #ej4c per cent1 ,oklahoma 7the comparison in this single instance is with #ahij7 increased the percentage of its tenant-operated farms from seven-tenths of #a per cent to #ba per cent4 ,washington doubled its percentage1 ,montana and ,utah very nearly so4 ,nearly one-third of the farms of ,new ,jersey are tenant farms1 and more than one-third of those of ,kansas and ,nebraska4 ,each of these three ,states doubled its relative percentage of tenant farmers for the twenty-year period4 ,even in ,new ,york the proportion has grown since #ahhj from #af4e to #bc4i per cent4 ,as marked as is the showing1 the whole situation is not revealed by the figures1 for the term 8owners0 in the reports includes 8farms operated by individuals who own a part of the land and rent the remainder from others10 and 8farms operated under the joint direction and by the united labor of two or more individuals1 one owning the farm or a part of it1 and the other or others owning no part but receiving for supervision or labor a share of the products40 ,this remarkable growth of tenantry would be considered1 in any other than our own complacent days1 as an alarming1 even an appalling fact4 ,so blithely and for so long a time have the changes been rung upon the alleged fact of independent ownership that everybody1 including professors of political economy1 assumes its truth4 ,but even when its baselessness is clearly shown we shall hear little of an alarmist nature from our publicists and teachers4 ,rather it may be expected that their pronouncements will change with the changing times1 and that we shall soon hear reiterated gratulations on the development of tenantry4 ,is not the humble tenant's security greater1 are not his troubles less8 ,need he worry over taxes1 foreclosures1 and the like8 ,not at all2 and besides--not the least of considerations to our paternalistic moulders of opinion--there is much reason for satisfaction in the fact that1 having no land to mortgage1 he will not be led into wildly prodigal habits of life by a too ready recourse to the money-lender4 ,considering the growth of tenantry1 the increasing migration to ,canada1 the flocking of rural residents into the cities1 and the frequent outright abandonment of farms in several sections of the country1 the unsophisticated onlooker may naturally wonder at the tales of agricultural prosperity which from time to time appear in public print4 ,mr4 ,draper1 in the article previously mentioned1 speculates somewhat ingeniously over the financial returns due the farmer for his crop for the present year4 ,the figures are certainly imposing when looked at as totals4 ,the wheat crop will sum up #gjj1ejj1jjj bushels1 and each bushel will sell for #fj cents1 making the net value #ehj1ajj1jjj--;a rather curious result1 by the way1 not obtainable by any of the ordinary processes of mathematics4 ,the corn crop is to bring #ggf1ihe1cjj1 and the remaining crops follow1 with large values attached4 ,but reduced to individual earnings1 values of farm products 7according to the census1 products other than those fed to live stock7 reveal a rather meagre diffusion of prosperity4 ,of the #e1gci1feg farms in the ,united ,states1 #a1cai1hef are listed in the census as hay and grain farms1 for the reason that hay and grain comprise #dj per cent of their total products4 ,the average size of these hay and grain farms is #aei4c acres1 and the average value of this product per acre in #ahii was #d4gg4 ,the number of miscellaneous farms is #a1jei1daf1 with an average acreage of #ajf4h1 and a product value of #d4ab4 ,live-stock farms number #a1efd1gad1 with an average acreage of #bbf4i and a product value of #c4dg4 ,thus the average productive yield of #gj per cent of all the farms and #hj per cent of all the farm land in the nation ranges from #c4dg to #d4gg per acre4 ,flowers and plants1 it may be noted for comparison1 yield the comfortable return of #dca4hc per acre2 but their effect on the general census is but slight1 since the average product value of all farms is but #d4dg per acre4 ,but let no one suppose that all this munificent sum goes to the farmer4 ,he pays #dc cents per acre for labor and nearly #g cents per acre for fertilizers4 ,the net income is thus #c4ig per acre4 ,the size of farms is increasing1 though actual agriculture is probably confined to smaller holdings4 ,the average was #acf4e acres in #ahij2 it is now #adf4f acres4 ,the tendency varies in different parts of the country4 ,nebraska increases her average from #aij4a acres in #ahij to #bdf4a acres in #aijj4 ,kansas shows almost identical figures1 while the ,new ,england ,states show little change1 and the ,southern ,states generally show reduced averages4 ,the relation of size of farm to kind of tenure is1 however1 the main point1 and here one discovers matter for reflection4 ,farms operated by cash tenants have #ajb4g acres apiece1 by owners #acd4a1 by managers #aead4c4 ,the growth of manorial estates is dimly revealed in these figures1 and there is no need to doubt the census bulletin's reserved admission that farms operated by managers are believed to be constantly increasing4 ,the subject of the changing status of the farmer--a change which involves his ultimate reduction to a sixteenth-century level--is too large to receive adequate treatment in these pages4 ,by all considerations it deserves the space of a generous volume4 ,for present purposes there remains to be said that even where apparent ownership is retained by the working farmer1 effective ownership is determined in other quarters4 ,he is the joint tenant of the farm implement trusts1 of the new harvester trust1 of the produce trusts which fix the value of his products1 of the railroad trusts which fix the rate of transportation to the market1 and in the arid ,west of the water trusts4 ,thus1 even though he boasts the possession of a title-deed to his land1 the holding is in reality of the nature of a fief1 held at the mercy of several superiors2 and the tithes which he pays1 though less formally levied and exacted than were the redevances of the medival peasant1 are as many and well-nigh as burdensome4 ,and he must pay or go2 for there is no remission from his superiors1 as in olden days1 on account of drouth1 floods1 locusts1 or murrain4 ,,ii ,with the decline of the petty trades1 the growth of the combinations1 and the concentration in fewer hands of the machinery of production1 the subordination of the wage-earner becomes more certain and more fixed4 ,if ever he were a free agent1--in the sense and to the degree that any one in human society can be free1--the day is passed4 ,through agencies constantly augmenting and extending1 he is 8cabin'd1 cribb'd1 confin'd1 bound in10 to a narrowing circle of possible efforts4 ,divorced from the land and from the tools of production1 he can live only by accepting such wages and conditions as are offered him2 and the terms are always such that the kernel of his product goes to some other man1 while the husks and the tares remain his own portion4 ,the patronizing orators of ,labor ,day and of campaign times sometimes delight to symbolize him as a sturdy ,gulliver1 though it needs little reflection to see that it is the ,gulliver of ,brobdingnag1 and not that of ,lilliput1 that more correctly figures his present status4 ,the mass of current tendencies tends to fix him as a dependent--a unit of a lower order in a series of gradations running up to the ,big ,men4 8,the corporation10 writes ,mr4 ,richmond1#d 8holds of the ,state1 and its officers hold of the corporation1 and their retainers1 managers1 and servants all hold the tenure of their employment from their superiors in office1 from the highest to the lowest40 ,but whether corporation1 or partnership1 or individual1 employs the laborer's services1 his status is practically the same4 ,trade-unions and other labor societies tend to modify that dependence2 and occasionally social legislation1 when it runs the fierce gantlet of the courts1 exerts a further modification4 ,but it is coming to be recognized that there is a limit1 perhaps now nearly attained1 beyond which the labor societies can exert no influence2 and as for social legislation1 as will be shown farther along1 it has certainly reached its culmination4 ,to the natural causes making for the laborer's subordination have been added in recent years certain conscious and deliberate forces4 ,there is a collective pressure brought to bear upon his wages2 there is a collective antagonism maintained against his unions2 there is a growing movement in the direction of holding him for the term of his profitable service to the company or corporation by which he is employed1 and there is a judicial tendency to pretend still to regard him1 despite his changing status1 as an economically free agent1 able to do what he wills1 and to protect himself from all injustice4 ,,iii ,the assurance of villein fidelity is a prime need of a feudal order4 ,the fidelity need not be personal1 as in the old days2 instead1 the altered ceremony of 8homage0 may take in whole regiments by a single rite4 ,recent acts of the great employers make strongly for creating inducements for this fidelity4 ,in spite of instances of conduct like that of the coal magnates of ,pennsylvania1 there is a growing tendency to unite for life-long service the careers of the more faithful workers with the corporations by whom they are employed4 8,model workshops10 and even 8model villages10 are unquestionably increasing in numbers4 ,their character is almost pure paternalism--8enlightened absolutism10 ,professor ,ely calls it4 ,rarely have the workers themselves the slightest word to say as to their construction or conduct4 ,what is thought to be good for them1 what is thought will win their devotion1 is given them4 ,whether at ,pullman1 ,ill41 at ,dayton or ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 or at ,pelzer1 ,s4,c41 the general spirit manifested is the same4 ,the perfervid chapter on 8,american ,liberality to ,workmen10 which ,mr4 ,nicholas ,paine ,gilman gives us in his volume1 8,a ,dividend to ,labor10 contains dozens of instances wherein employers have indulged their benevolence by the gift of flower-pots1 wash-basins1 and other cultural paraphernalia to their employees4 ,mr4 ,victor ,h4 ,olmsted1 in the ,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor for ,november1 #aijj1 gives another1 though somewhat duplicated1 list2 and the ,rev4 ,josiah ,strong's monthly journal1 ,social ,service1 furnishes a current record of such benevolences4 ,the providences of the ,colorado ,fuel and ,iron ,company alone make a remarkable showing4 ,this corporation has even a 8sociological department10 and it is at present building a #aj1jjj mission at ,bessemer1 near ,pueblo4 ,the plan of the mission1 we read1 is to have a refuge1 with all modern improvements1 for 8floaters10 or the unemployed4 ,these wayfarers may make a temporary living by working in an attached woodyard4 ,in all its camps in ,colorado this company has established kindergartens1 libraries1 and1 in remote places1 grade schools for the children of its employees4 ,its hospital at the ,pueblo works is said to be the best equipped in the ,west4 8,it is the announced purpose of this corporation10 we read1 8to solve the social problem40 ,model workshops and the distribution of relief are but a small part of the tendency4 ,the giving of old-age pensions1 particularly by railroad companies1 has recently taken on the dimensions of a national movement4 ,the pension system is not a conspicuously expensive one1 for the numbers of workmen who live long enough to avail themselves of its benefits are but scant4 ,the sums paid out for pensions by the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad ,relief ,department in eighteen years average #ca1ahe4he yearly--about the salary of a first vice-president--and the employees themselves have borne a considerable part of the expense4 ,a total of #fig pensions has been granted during this time1 but #cfe of the beneficiaries have considerately died1 and thus reduced the expenses4 ,the pension system as it obtains among railroads is more or less an outgrowth of the relief association begun by the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad ,company on ,may #a1 #ahhj4 ,prototypes can possibly be found1 but this instance is the first of any consequence4 ,the ,state of ,maryland revoked the charter of the association in #ahhh4 ,this was an embarrassing interruption1 but by no means a fatal one1 for the society was immediately reorganized as a department of the company4 ,the plan was to pay accident1 sick1 and death benefits and old-age pensions1 the company contributing #cc1ejj yearly1 and the employees paying monthly dues based on their wages4 ,section #ajj of the regulations for #ahhi declares that 8the fund for the payment of pensions will be derived wholly from the contributions of the company10 a change from the earlier method in the direction of pure paternalism4 ,the usual age for pensioning is sixty-five years1 and the president and directors determine the roll4 ,the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,voluntary ,relief ,department was begun in #ahhf4 ,in a number of respects it followed the details of the earlier association4 ,as to pensions1 however1 it put the matter forward by arranging for the gradual growth of a superannuation fund out of the department's surplus4 ,there were six companies1 according to ,mr4 ,william ,franklin ,willoughby's 8,workingmen's ,insurance10 that before #ahih had created regular insurance departments4 ,these were the ,baltimore and ,ohio1 the ,pennsylvania1 the ,pennsylvania west of ,pittsburg1 the ,chicago1 ,burlington1 and ,quincy1 the ,philadelphia and ,reading1 and the ,plant ,system4 ,though in two or three instances the plans have been altered1 all these companies founded their pension systems on employees' contributions4 ,the ,pennsylvania's fund reached the figure set for it ,january #a1 #aijj1 and the pension system was proclaimed4 ,on the first day of #aija the ,chicago and ,northwestern put in operation a gratuitous pension system1 appropriating #bjj1jjj for the purpose4 ,the beneficiaries1 all of whom must have been thirty years with the company1 were divided into two classes3 first1 those seventy years old1 who were to be retired and pensioned at once2 and second1 those from sixty-five to sixty-nine years inclusive1 who were to be retired and pensioned at the discretion of the pension board4 ,the rate fixed is one per cent per year of service of the average monthly pay for the preceding ten years4 ,an employee whose average wages were #ee per month1 and who had been with the company for thirty years1 would thus receive #af4ej a month4 ,the ,illinois ,central proclaimed its pension system ,july #a1 #aija4 ,on ,march #a1 #aijb1 the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna1 and ,western took the same course1 appropriating #ej1jjj4 ,the terms are somewhat more liberal1 in that only twenty-five years' service is required1 and that some employees may be retired between the ages of sixty and sixty-five4 ,the ,metropolitan ,street ,railway ,company followed on ,march #fth1 and the ,philadelphia and ,reading ,company on ,may #ba4 ,the details1 while varying somewhat1 are in the main alike for all of these companies4 ,though the experiment is a comparatively frugal one1 there is no doubt that it brings compensatory returns2 for it serves to keep quiescent and faithful large bodies of men1 and perhaps to loosen the bonds of the labor-union4 ,it holds in servicemen above thirty-five or forty-five years of age1 for they know the difficulty of securing work elsewhere2 and it feeds them with a more or less illusory hope of an ultimate pension4 ,indeed1 the motive of inducing a closer dependence of the laborer upon the employer is more or less frankly confessed4 8,under it0 7the pension system71 reads the ,lackawanna's advertisement to the public1 8the road and its employees are to be more closely knit by substantial ties40 ,the president of the ,metropolitan ,street ,railway ,company1 however1 sounds a more altruistic and benevolent note4 8,my object in establishing this department10 he is quoted as saying1 8is to preserve the future welfare of aged and infirm employees and to recognize efficient and loyal service40 ,despite such benevolent professions there are grave grounds for scepticism regarding the tangible benefit of the system to the employees4 ,if ,hope lingers with them1 it must be because1 as ,mr4 ,william ,watson sings1 8airiest cheer suffices for her food40 ,for both the ascertained results of an eighteen years' operation of the system1 and a moment's glance at conditions surrounding the new applications of it1 point to a most rigorous limitation of its benefits4 ,in the first place1 there is a growing disinclination to employ in any industry men past forty-five years of age4 ,the new regulations of the ,philadelphia and ,reading reduce even this limit ten years1 prohibiting the taking on of employees past thirty-five years of age1 except by the approval of the board of directors of the company1 although in special cases where unusual qualifications are desired the age limit may be waived4 ,so general is this attitude of employers that the ,chicago ,federation of ,labor was recently moved to the passing of a resolution proposing that 8every unemployed man forty-five years of age who cannot show what the charity authorities call #8visible means of support' shall be mercifully shot in a lawful and orderly manner40 ,moreover1 the chances of a railroad employee reaching the age of sixty-five or seventy years are about equal to the chances of winning a large sum at policy4 ,discharges are frequent and arbitrary1 and usually there is no appeal4 ,aside from this1 the casualties are enormous4 ,of the #aia1aih railroad workers classed as trainmen employed throughout the country in #aijj1 #acif 7or one in every #ach7 were killed1 and #ag1ega 7or one in every #aj4h7 injured4 ,the corrected figures for #aija 7given to the public in ,august of the present year7 show about the same percentages4 ,of the #bji1jdc trainmen1 #aecg 7or one in every #acf7 were killed1 and #af1gae 7or one in every #ab4e7 were injured4 ,thanks to the new safety appliances1 casualties caused by coupling and uncoupling cars declined by #hd killed and #bdfa injured2 but in other classes of accidents the percentages brought the averages to near the previous figures4 ,at best1 the chances of maiming or death constantly increase with every one of the twenty-five or thirty years' service required for the earning of a pension4 ,in the ,metropolitan 7now ,interurban7 ,street ,railway service1 where accidents are few but discharges many1 the benevolent instincts of the president will prove difficult of realization4 ,this official admitted that discharges had at one time reached an average of #cjj a month4 ,an employee informed the author that he knew of but two or three men in the entire service whom the published terms entitled to pensions1 while another employee conceded a possible dozen4 ,,iv ,the new ,feudalism evidently requires a tempering--let us say1 a conservative adjustment--of the wage-scale4 ,those whom the gods dower with plenty may for the present give freely of their store1 while those who feel the parsimony of ,providence must withhold4 ,the recent increase of #aj per cent in wages given by the steel corporation1 and the refusal of the anthracite magnates to increase the average1 according to the ,pennsylvania ,bureau of ,mines1 of #gi-a_/b cents a day which their operatives now receive1 are but examples of the contrasts which may be expected during the transition period4 ,the collective feudal policy will avoid both extremes4 ,it will pay something better than that which breeds discontent1 something less than that which breeds luxury and pride4 ,it will provide not exactly what the workers desire1 but what is good for them4 ,already the more or less collective pressure upon the wage-scale shows its effects4 ,hon4 ,carroll ,d4 ,wright's #bej wage-quotations for #be selected occupations 7,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor1 ,september1 #ahih7 reveal for the years #ahie-ih a steady decline from the wages paid in the panic years1 #ahic-id1 to about the same wages as were paid in #ahhb4 ,the figures in the ,bulletin for ,september1 #aijj1 pertain to #adh establishments1 representing #bf industries and #aib occupations4 ,they show a slight increase for #ahii and another for #aijj4 ,this slight increase1 however1 is resolved into a marked decrease by the rise in the price of commodities necessary for the average life4 ,from ,july1 #ahig1 to ,july1 #aija1 according to the careful index-figures published in ,dun's ,review1 the price of commodities advanced #bg per cent2 and from ,july #a to ,december #a1 of the latter year1 an almost steady advance was recorded4 ,comparing ,january #a1 #ahif1 with ,january #a1 #aijb1 the ,wall ,street ,journal finds an increase of #cf per cent4 ,the wage-quotations used by ,col4 ,wright in his table of #ahih are from the larger cities1 and pertain to trades the workmen in which are organized4 ,here1 if anywhere1 one would expect evidences of increased wages4 ,generally1 however1 the figures for #ahig-ih show a parity with the figures for #ahha-hb4 ,compositors1 for instance1 received #b4ha-a_/b daily in #ahih1 #b4ha in #ahhb4 ,carpenters received #b4eb-c_/d in #ahih1 #b4ee in #ahhb4 ,often the figures for the latter year show a considerable decline2 but the averages are maintained through the advances gained by those affluent mechanics1 the plumbers2 by the stone-cutters1 and by the better-paid wage-earners of the railroads1--conductors1 engineers1 and firemen4 ,with the increase of railroad traffic the hours of labor have been extended2 and the increase of wages follows1 at least for the engineers and firemen1 as a consequence of longer hours4 ,as for the common laborer1 he is being left behind in the race4 ,his wages were less in #ahih than in #ahhb in six of the ten cites quoted1 and in four of them there was no change4 ,all wage-statistics are questionable1 and particularly the more generalized wage-statements which proceed from ,washington1 during the fall months of election years4 ,a look into the figures themselves is usually fatal to the optimism voiced in the generalizations4 ,from other sources the conflict of figures is puzzling and irritating4 ,it may be shown by selections from these that wages are rising1 that they are falling1 or that they are stationary4 ,there is always a disparity between the figures of the ,state bureaus1 the ,national bureau1 and the census1 and usually it is a disparity that cannot be harmonized4 ,the national census figures ought to be1 as most persons will declare1 a sufficiently correct guide4 ,according to the last census1 the number of wage-earners in manufacturing pursuits has increased in ten years #be4b per cent1 wages have increased #bc4b per cent4 ,despite the acknowledged increase in the country's wealth1 wages1 if the census is correct1 have declined4 ,it is officially explained1 however1 that these figures are not to be taken too literally4 ,the schedules for #ahij included among wage-earners1 8overseers1 foremen1 and certain superintendents 7not general superintendents or managers71 while the census of #aijj separates from the wage-earning class such salaried employees as general superintendents1 clerks1 and salesmen40 8,it is possible and probable10 says each of the reports on manufactures1 8that this change in the form of the question has resulted in eliminating from the wage-earners1 as reported by the present census1 many high-salaried employees included in that group for the census of #ahij40 ,possibly and probably4 ,but aside from the fact that the elimination of the comparatively few overseers and foremen1 with their somewhat higher salaries1 could make but slight influence on averages in the tremendous total of #e1cba1jhg wage-earners1 with #b1ccj1bge1jba of wages1 there is another point or two to consider4 ,according to ,part ,i 7page #ad et seq47 of the ,report of ,manufacturing ,industries for the census of #ahij1 it appears that wages underwent a considerable inflation in that record4 ,the questions asked in #ahhj1 it would appear1 resulted in reporting more wage-earners than there really were4 ,the questions for #ahij1 it is declared1 produced the real number4 ,it is further stated that 8the questions for #ahij also tended to obtain a large amount of wages as compared with #ahhj40 ,it would seem so1 indeed1 even to a neophyte in the ingenious art of figuring2 for while the wage-increase of the decade #ahgj-hj could show but #bb4b per cent1 that for the following decade revealed the astonishing figure of a fraction less than #ajj per cent4 ,when1 therefore1 one seeks to compare the averages of #ahij with those of #aijj he may not unreasonably infer that the elimination of overseers and foremen in the later census is no more than a set-off to the ample generosity given to the wage-figures in the earlier census4 ,there is no telling for a certainty1 but it is not unlikely that the present census figures give a result approximately near the truth4 ,it is not an extravagant hope that some day we shall have two successive censuses carried out on identical schedules1 so that comparisons may be accurately made between two decades4 ,as it is1 we must take what the powers give us1 and be thankful4 ,we must take it on trust1 moreover1 for there is no going behind the returns2 and any captious questioning of the figures can be met only in the spirit with which ,telemachus answered the fair ,helen's inquiry if he were a true son of ,ulysses4 ,it is a matter of faith--there is no proof4 ,in the faith1 then1 that there is reasonable accuracy in the reports1 and a reasonable basis of comparison with previous reports1 it is interesting to note what is revealed4 ,first in point of interest is the relation of the value of the manufactured product to the amount of wages paid4 ,a comparison will show whether labor is receiving an increasing or decreasing share of the wealth created4 ,the census totals under the former heading are confessedly crude1 since 8a constant duplication of products appears1 444 owing to the fact that the finished products of many manufacturing establishments become the materials of other establishments1 in which they are further utilized and again included in the value of products40 ,the new census has therefore made a separate classification of materials purchased in a partially manufactured form4 ,nevertheless1 the gross total1 including products from both raw materials and partly manufactured products1 is reached by the same means as were employed in previous censuses1 and is therefore comparable with the gross totals of previous decades4 ,whatever the duplications1 they are similar to those of preceding reports4 ,there are nineteen ,states wherein the average number of wage-earners in manufacturing pursuits constitutes more than #f per cent of the population4 ,rhode ,island heads the list with #bb4e per cent4 ,it is followed by ,connecticut with #ai4e2 ,massachusetts1 #ag4g2 ,new ,hampshire1 #ag4a2 ,new ,jersey1 #ab4h2 ,delaware1 #ab2 ,new ,york1 #aa4g2 ,pennsylvania1 #aa4f2 ,maine1 #aj4h2 ,maryland1 #i4a2 ,vermont1 #h4f2 ,ohio1 #h4c2 ,illinois1 #h4b2 ,florida1 #g2 ,wisconsin1 #f4i2 ,michigan1 #f4g2 ,washington1 #f4f2 ,indiana1 #f4b2 ,california1 #f4a4 ,in each of these ,states the value of the manufactured product has increased1 ,florida leading with a gain of #aji4f per cent2 ,washington following with #ajg4h per cent2 ,new ,jersey with #gb4e2 ,indiana1 #ff4g2 ,vermont1 #ej4d2 ,wisconsin1 #de4b1 and so on1 ,massachusetts showing the slightest increase1 #af4f per cent4 ,the value of the manufactured product is of course affected by the two items1 cost of material and miscellaneous expenses1 though in turn these are almost invariably reflected to some extent in the increase or decrease of the value of the product4 ,when his material and his expenses increase1 the manufacturer1 if he can1 puts up the price of his product4 ,it would be wholly impossible to find a ratio1 for the figures show an astonishing variety4 ,in ,massachusetts1 for instance1--that classic ,state for the observation and study of industrial phenomena1 the ,state wherein statistics are gathered with some approach to accuracy1--the increase of miscellaneous expenses is put at #af4a per cent2 of cost of material1 at #af4h per cent2 of value of product1 #af4f per cent4 ,but against this reasonable showing ,new ,york confesses to an increase of #ha4h per cent in miscellaneous expenses1 with an increased product of but #bg4a per cent4 ,miscellaneous expenses increased #aca per cent in ,new ,jersey1 while the product increased but #gb4e per cent1 and ,pennsylvania and ,indiana follow hard in the tracks of the two former ,states4 ,perhaps a key to the mystery is furnished in the enormous increase of miscellaneous expenses in certain industries which require favorable legislation4 ,gas1 for instance1 which is generally considered the rightful prey of certain kinds of aldermen and legislators1 shows a payment of #h1fce1cii for 8advertising1 interest1 insurance1 repairs1 and other sundry expenses10 an increase of #gd4h per cent against an increase in the value of the product of but #cb4i per cent4 ,in each of these nineteen factory ,states the value of the product increased4 ,in all but one it increased more than #be per cent1 in two more than #ajj per cent4 ,but in ten of these ,states total wages have declined1 and in three of the remainder the gain is insignificant4 ,wages of men workers have declined in eleven of these ,states1 with a fractional gain in two ,states4 ,florida1 which shows the greatest percentage of increase in the number of wage-earners1 shows the greatest relative loss in wages4 ,maine1 which gives the smallest percentage of increase in number of wage-earners1 gives the largest relative percentage of increase in wages4 ,the four ,states having the greatest absolute number of wage-earners all show decreases of wages4 ,new ,york1 with #hdi1jib workers1 shows a wage-loss of #b4b per cent2 ,pennsylvania1 with #gcc1hcd workers1 a loss of #b per cent2 ,massachusetts1 with #dig1ddh1 a fractional loss2 and ,illinois1 with #cie1aaj1 #e per cent4 ,the specific industries for the whole nation show similar results4 ,relative wages have increased in refining petroleum1 in manufacturing ice and salt1 and in a few other industries4 ,but they have decreased in the great majority of the industries so far reported4 ,there is a wage-loss in the making of bicycles1 leather gloves and mittens1 watches1 watch-cases1 buttons1 gas1 oleomargarine1 boots and shoes1 paper and pulp1 coke1 needles and pins1 cigars and cigarettes1 pocket-books1 trunks and valises1 leather belting and hose1 in canning and preserving fruits and vegetables1 in the tanning and finishing of leather1 the slaughtering and packing of meat1 the smelting of zinc1 ship-building1 car-building1 the weaving of flax1 hemp1 and jute1 and cotton products1 the brewing of malt liquors1 and newspaper publishing4 ,all along the monotonous rows of figures the same lesson is generally revealed1--the productivity of the laborer increases1 the value of the product increases1 the wages1 except in occasional instances1 decline or remain stationary4 ,the important point of the purchasing power of the dollar in #ahij as compared with #aijj needs also to be considered4 ,according to the exhaustive compilation of wholesale prices published in the ,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor for ,march1 #aijb1 the dollar would purchase in #ahij a greater quantity of beef1 bacon1 ham1 corn meal1 beans1 cheese1 eggs1 pepper1 ,american salt1 ,formosa tea1 hard and soft coal1 petroleum1 earthenware1 furniture1 and glassware than in #aijj4 ,in the latter year it would purchase more butter1 ,rio coffee1 dried fruits 7except currants71 rice1 sugar1 onions1 potatoes1 mutton1 and fish4 ,wheat flour cheapened1 but the price of bread remained the same4 ,a comparison of the two lists on the basis of relative quantities consumed in the average family will show the dollar to have had considerably less purchasing power in #aijj than in #ahij1 though the exact percentage is hardly computable4 ,v ,the new ,feudalism involves not only the moderating of the present rates of pay for men workers1 but an increase in the quantity of defenceless labor--the labor of women and children4 ,census ,bulletin ,no4 #aej gives the increase in the number of men working in manufacturing pursuits at #bc4i per cent2 of women1 at #bh4d per cent2 of children1 at #ci4e per cent4 ,the wages of women have slightly increased2 that is1 the increase in total wages is #cj4h per cent against an increase in numbers of wage-earners of #bh4d per cent4 ,the figures are better for the children2 their wages are stated to have increased #ed4d per cent4 ,there are ample reasons why this should be so4 ,popular agitation in behalf of the little ones may be guessed to have had some effect in the betterment of their pay2 and a still greater effect has been wrought by their vastly increasing productivity4 ,the perfecting of the instruments of production has been carried to such a degree that many a machine may be operated by a nursling2 and it is well-nigh inevitable that some part of this increased productivity should be compensated for by increased pay of the operatives4 ,the number of women in factory work in the ,united ,states is #a1jca1gdg1 nearly one-fifth of the total4 ,there are #bcj1aii in ,new ,york1 #adc1aji in ,massachusetts1 #abf1jic in ,pennsylvania1 #eh1igh in ,illinois1 #ec1gaa in ,ohio4 ,eighteen of the nineteen factory ,states show an increase1 ,maine being the exception2 and in thirteen of these ,states the percentage of gain is considerably in excess of that of men workers4 ,washington leads with a gain of #aea4h per cent2 ,michigan and ,illinois show gains of #gi per cent each2 ,vermont1 of #fc4a2 ,indiana1 #ef4d2 ,california1 #df4h2 ,pennsylvania1 #dd4i2 ,new ,jersey1 #ci4c4 ,in ,states outside the factory list still greater increases are shown4 ,the figures for ,south ,carolina are #aeh4c percent2 for ,north ,carolina1 #aea4b2 ,west ,virginia1 #acj4b2 ,alabama1 #aji4a2 ,georgia1 #hb4b4 ,in specific industries the gains are sometimes enormous4 ,there are no women reported for coke-making1 and the number employed in making agricultural implements has declined #be4g per cent4 ,car-building1 too1 shows a decline4 ,but in refining petroleum the #fj women wage-earners represent a gain of #cbjj per cent1 and in bicycle and tricycle making the #eag women represent a gain of #ccdf4g per cent4 ,an increase of #bfjj per cent is shown for distilled liquors1 although men workers decreased #bc4h per cent4 ,a decrease of men workers and an increase of women workers are also shown for clay products1 flouring and grist-mill products1 chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff1 starch1 cheese1 butter1 and condensed milk1 watches1 and watch-cases4 ,the percentage of increase is in excess of that of men workers in oleomargarine1 pocket-books1 trunks and valises1 tanned1 curried1 and finished leather1 and needles and pins4 ,there are six and one-half times as many women as men in collar and cuff making1 and more than twice as many in the leather glove and mitten industry2 in the latter1 moreover1 the percentage of increase for women is double that for men4 ,there are #cg1gfb women making cigars and cigarettes1 a gain of #ef per cent1 against a gain of but #d4f per cent for men4 ,malt liquors show an increase of #aja4f per cent of women workers against an increase of #cj4b per cent of men workers4 ,women have also increased in number in the cotton goods1 flax1 hemp1 and jute1 rubber boot and shoe1 glass-making1 slaughtering1 and meat-packing1 and boot and shoe industries1 and in newspaper publishing4 ,,vi ,there are #afh1fbd children employed in manufactures throughout the country1 a gain of #ci4e per cent4 ,child labor has increased in twelve of the factory ,states1 remained practically stationary in two 7,michigan and ,new ,hampshire71 and decreased in five ,states4 ,the reasons for a decrease1 where it is observed1 are not hard to find2 in certain industries child labor has been demonstrated to be unprofitable4 ,but wherever it has been found profitable it seems to have been increasingly utilized4 ,the increase in ,wisconsin is #aic4e per cent2 in ,washington1 #ajc4h2 in ,illinois1 #ib2 in ,new ,jersey1 #ea4d2 in ,pennsylvania1 #dg4h2 and in ,massachusetts1 #dd4i4 ,in ,states outside of the foregoing list the same tendency is shown4 ,south ,carolina increased its child laborers by #bgj4g per cent2 ,alabama1 by #adc4h2 ,north ,carolina1 #aai4b2 ,georgia1 #ha4 ,children number #ag4e per cent of all the factory wage-earners of ,south ,carolina1 and #ad4f per cent of all those of ,north ,carolina4 ,in five other ,southern ,states 7including ,maryland7 the percentages range from #d4c to #g4f1 while among ,northern ,states ,rhode ,island children form #e4b per cent of the factory wage-earners1 and ,pennsylvania and ,wisconsin children #d4e and #d per cent1 respectively4 ,if ,pennsylvania is comparatively low in percentage1 it is because of the great mass of its adult workers2 for in absolute numbers of child workers it heads the list of commonwealths4 ,no less than #cc1ace children are employed in its factories1 a figure which puts to shame the puny showing of ,new ,york1 with #ac1aii1 and of ,massachusetts1 with #ab1eef4 ,in certain industries children form more than one-fourth of all the operatives for a particular locality4 ,in the making of cotton goods in ,alabama #bi4b per cent of the workers are children1 and in ,south ,carolina #bf4h per cent4 ,the figures for this industry in ,north ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,virginia1 and ,maryland are nearly identical4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 for the making of jute goods the figures are #bf4b1 and for silk and silk goods1 #bj4b4 ,slightly more than one-fourth of the hosiery and knit-goods workers of ,georgia are children and slightly less than one-fourth of the tobacco workers 7chewing1 smoking1 and snuff7 of ,north ,carolina4 ,massachusetts1 with its factory law1 can make but the humble showing of #f4d per cent of children in its cotton-goods factories1 and ,rhode ,island but #aj4c per cent4 ,glass-making is an industry which has made a most literal adaptation of ,jesus' invitation to little children2 though1 if the words of reputable eye-witnesses are to be accepted1 it is not exactly a heaven into which they are welcomed4 ,of the operatives in ,pennsylvania glass works1 children number #ad per cent1 and of those in ,new ,jersey glass works1 #ae4g per cent4 ,in the cotton-goods industry there are #ci1hff children1 a gain of #gj4a per cent4 ,it is interesting to learn that there are #ajjc children employed in ship-building1 and that this number is a gain of #dgf4d per cent over #ahij4 ,there are #deba in boot and shoe making1 an increase of #he per cent4 ,there are #bbei in flax1 hemp1 and jute weaving1 nearly twice as many as ten years ago4 ,there are #caf in turpentine and rosin making1 a gain of #bcf4b per cent4 ,the number has decreased for some reason in the making of clay products1 as has also the number of men workers1 women having now a growing preference in the potteries4 ,there are also fewer children in petroleum refining1 but in button-making an increase of #cba4f per cent1 in leather-glove making of #ahe4g per cent1 and in slaughtering and meat-packing of #ach4a per cent is shown4 ,watch-making shows a gain of #cj per cent1 bicycle-making of #ghj per cent4 ,children have been found comparatively unadaptable in the liquor industry4 ,only #fdc are employed in brewing and #ah in distilling4 ,for all that1 these figures represent an increase--in the former case of #bd4f per cent1 in the latter of #bjj per cent4 ,children1 according to the census1 are persons below the age of sixteen4 ,testimony outside of the census reports shows the extreme youth of many of these operatives4 ,investigations among the glass works of southern ,new ,jersey reveal a number of cases of child workers of eight1 nine1 and ten years of age4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,sullivan1 a careful and accurate observer1 who visited this district in ,july of the present year1 confirms these statements4 ,miss ,jane ,addams1 of ,hull ,house1 found a child of five working at night in a ,south ,carolina mill4 ,mrs4 ,irene ,ashby-,macfadyen1 who has carefully studied conditions in the ,southern mills1 gives many instances of extremely young children working incredibly long hours4 ,professor ,george ,clinton ,edwards1 in the ,new ,york ,evening ,post for ,august #acth1 gives other instances relating to the mills of ,dallas1 ,tex4 ,in a later communication to the same journal he quotes the statement of a mill superintendent to the effect that of sixty boys and seventy-six girls employed1 8there are two in their tenth year1 nine in their eleventh year1 thirteen in their twelfth year1 and seventeen in their fourteenth year40 8,this list1 from the pay-roll10 writes ,professor ,edwards1 8does not include the little children1 who1 with the mills' knowledge1 worked at the mills' work1 who earned the mills' pay in the #aj or #bj per cent increase received by the relatives they assisted at piece work1 and who were1 therefore1 in fact1 the mills' employees40 ,labor ,commissioner ,lacey1 of ,north ,carolina1 reports #gfje children under fourteen in #bfa mills4 ,a correspondent of the ,cincinnati ,post estimated #djj of the #ajjj children employed in five mills in ,columbia1 ,s4,c41 to be under twelve years of age4 ,testimony by mill officials before a ,southern legislature acknowledged in one instance #cj per cent of child workers under twelve years in a spinning room1 and in another #be per cent4 ,the census reports bear amiable testimony to the providence of the mill-owners4 8,many of the mills10 says the ,south ,carolina report1 8have reading rooms and libraries for their employees1 and nearly all contribute regularly to the support of the local schools40 8,in the absence of legislation regulating child labor10 says the ,georgia report1 8all the cotton manufacturers in the ,state have signed an agreement to exclude from the mills children under ten years of age1 and those under twelve who cannot show a certificate of four months' attendance at school40 ,in the ,north ,carolina report we find1 8,in the absence of legislation nearly all the mill-owners have agreed to discontinue the employment of children under twelve years of age40 ,a correspondent of the ,new ,york ,world found a like benevolence among the glass employers in southern ,new ,jersey4 8,i need the boys10 said one1 8all ,i can do is to treat the boys as well as ,i can40 ,the mill-owners1 one and all1 demand that the ,state keep its hands off1 and trust to their own benevolence for remedies4 ,so far1 in the ,south1 despite a three years' agitation1 the matter is still left entirely in their control4 ,criticism of the mill-owners has been made to the effect that despite their benevolent professions1 the children are poorly paid and that they remain uneducated4 ,some of them work long hours for #aj cents a day1 others for #ab-a_/b1 #ae1 and #ah cents4 ,a newspaper correspondent tells of a certain spinning room in a ,southern mill wherein the average daily pay for all children is #bc-h_/aj cents4 8,i know of babies10 writes ,mrs4 ,macfadyen1 8working for #e and #f cents a day40 ,the schooling which a child working seventy-two hours a week can get may be roughly guessed at4 ,mrs4 ,macfadyen found #efg children under twelve years working in eight mills4 ,only #abb of these children could read or write4 ,in a school in a mill-town of between #fjjj and #hjjj persons1 the same investigator found an enrolment of #ij pupils divided into two classes4 ,a visit to one of these classes disclosed #bb children1 only #ab of whom were mill-workers' children1 and #aj had worked in the mills from one to three years4 ,criticisms based on these data are1 however1 generally held to be sentimental and irrelevant4 ,glass-blowing or textile-weaving1 like anthracite mining1 is1 in the sententious phrase of ,president ,george ,f4 ,baer1 of the ,philadelphia and ,reading ,railway ,company1 8a business1 and not a religious1 sentimental1 or academic proposition40 ,it is conducted for the making of money1 and not for the spiritual or hygienic welfare of the operatives4 ,it would be well1 say the employers1 if things could be better4 ,but for the present they are making all the contribution to that end that they feel can conveniently be made4 ,moreover1 they contend--and they are supported generally by the local ministers1 who have in charge the spiritual affairs of the populace2 by the local editors1 lawyers1 and solid men of 8business0--it is better that children should work in the mills and factories than 8run about the streets40 ,as for education1 the contributing employers point to the schools1 as though to say1 8,here are the opportunities2 why do you not take advantage of them80 ,it is quite enough to provide a balky horse with water1 without being morally obliged to make him drink4 ,,footnote3 #d ,since the publication of the ,independent article the author's attention has been called to an address entitled 8,the ,new ,feudalism10 delivered by ,mr4 ,benjamin ,a4 ,richmond1 of ,cumberland1 ,md41 before the ,maryland ,bar ,association in ,july1 #ahih4 ,the author had never seen or heard of this address4 ,it is written from a legal standpoint1 and both the matter and the treatment are widely different from the matter and manner of the ,independent article4 ,but whatever the differences1 the same general idea is to be found in both papers1 and it is only just that acknowledgment should be made of ,mr4 ,richmond's priority4 ,,chapter ,v ,,our ,,makers ,,of ,,law ,the dual responsibility which our lawmakers and judges bear1 on the one hand to the people1 and on the other to the ,big ,men1 produces a chaos of conflicting laws and decisions4 ,for the chartering of business corporations we have the 8,delaware theory10 which seems to be to give the applicant whatever he asks for2 the 8,new ,jersey theory10 which is a slight modification of the former2 and the 8,massachusetts theory10 which reserves to the ,state a certain measure of supervision and control4 ,for the fixing of employers' liability for injuries to workmen we have a wide range of precedents1 from ,states which hold to the common-law doctrine that practically frees the employer from blame1 to those which fix a liability in somewhat definite terms4 ,factory legislation1 regulations for the public health1 the determination of a legal workday1 the restraining of corporate aggressiveness--these and a score of like questions are variously passed upon or deliberately avoided in the several ,states4 ,judicial decisions1 too1 present a spectacle of the widest diversity4 ,nevertheless this chaos shows signs of a gradual reduction to order4 ,the insistent challenge1 8,under which king1 ,bezonian1 speak or die60 which perpetually assails all of our legislative and judicial functionaries1 sooner or later forces a decision1 and naturally it is the stronger rival that wins4 ,how effective is this challenge1 how strong is the pressure1 ,mr4 ,john ,jay ,chapman has strikingly shown in his 8,causes and ,consequences10 and the instances that crop out from time to time1 like that of the recent tampering with the ,supreme ,court of ,missouri1 reveal only a needless confirmation of a known truth4 ,legislation in behalf of the general welfare and of the industrially dependent classes becomes less frequent and more guarded2 and judicial decisions in matters that involve class antagonisms are more frequently given to the dominant class4 ,i ,a marked tendency of recent legislation is that toward giving increased powers to municipal officials4 ,another is that toward the creation of boards charged with administrative1 executive1 semi-judicial1 and even police powers4 ,the institution of these boards means simply a further removal from the people of the conduct of public affairs4 ,mr4 ,leonard ,a4 ,blue1 in the ,annals of the ,american ,academy for ,november1 #aija1 gives an interesting view of the subject4 8,these boards10 he writes1 8are practically irresponsible bodies4 ,they are beyond the control of the people1 or of any one who is responsible to the people for their actions4 ,appointed as they are for definite terms of office1 they cannot be removed during that term except after an investigation which amounts to an impeachment4 ,the ,governor who appoints them in many cases can only appoint a single member1 the terms of the others extending beyond his own1 so that he can neither mould the policy of the board nor can he be held responsible for it40 ,and he quotes from one of the messages of the ,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,russell1 ,governor of ,massachusetts 7#ahia-ic71 these words3 8,the people of the ,state might have a most decided opinion about the management and work of the departments1 and give emphatic expression to that opinion1 and yet be unable to control their action4 ,the system gives great power without proper responsibility1 and tends to remove the people's government from the people's control40 ,irresponsible to both the people and the people's officials as they are1 these boards are yet not wholly unsusceptible to outside pressure2 they are1 as is well known1 peculiarly liable to the influence of the ,big ,men4 ,,ii ,while legislation moves rapidly enough in the direction of detaching political powers from the people1 it shows a growing disinclination to meddle with affairs between magnate and minion4 ,twelve or fifteen years ago1 in certain sections1 8labor0 legislation had a flourishing career4 ,the number of laws so classified1 passed in a single three-year period in ,new ,york ,state1 made a record for all time4 ,labor was then rapidly combining1 and its lusty organizations made emphatic demands for protective laws4 ,a ,democratic ,governor1 not wholly regardless of hopes of the ,presidential succession1 for the time allied himself with the movement and secured the passage of many of these measures4 ,with an alacrity much greater than that with which the ,constitution follows the flag1 judicial decisions in those days tended to follow the general policy of the party in power1 and thus but slight trouble was experienced in securing constitutional sanction4 ,other ,states followed1 and for several years the astonishment and indignation of the ,big ,men were intermittently roused by the spectacle of ,jacobinical legislators meddling in affairs outside their province4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,j4 ,stimson1 in the ,atlantic ,monthly for ,november1 #ahig1 informs us that in the ten preceding years #afci laws relating to labor had been passed in the various ,states and ,territories4 ,this is an average of #c4d a year for each legislature1 though the courts had modified the average somewhat by declaring #aad of these measures unconstitutional4 ,doubtless among those that escaped the 8killing decree0 of the courts were a number that benefited the worker1 though it is doubtful if any of them served to modify his economic status4 ,however that may be1 it is unquestioned that the tendency toward the enactment of this sort of legislation has suffered a decline4 ,it is hard to fix the point of culmination1 though probably it lies somewhere about the years #ahif-ig4 ,in isolated instances1 and under peculiar circumstances1 it is conceded there is an occasional revival4 ,the ,pennsylvania legislature of #ahig showed a remarkable zeal1 shortening the workday of women and minors1 limiting child labor1 establishing a bureau of mines1 and making other regulations4 ,maryland1 in #ahih1 imposed certain mining regulations and required seats in stores for women workers4 ,virginia and ,massachusetts1 in the same year1 interfered slightly1 the former with an arbitration act4 ,in the spring of #ahii1 ,kansas1 ,illinois1 ,colorado1 ,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,nebraska1 ,washington1 and ,wisconsin1 all addressed themselves more or less earnestly to the redress of certain grievances2 and they were followed by ,iowa in #aijj1 by ,massachusetts again in the same year1 and by ,alabama in #aija4 ,in the present year ,new ,york1 after five years of agitation1 reluctantly granted a moderately expressed employers' liability law4 ,most of this legislation1 however1 was enacted in the newer ,states1 and served only to push them along toward the standard set in the older ,states in earlier years4 ,advances of any sort are difficult to discover4 ,as for the year #aija1 the record of progressive legislation is almost bare4 ,congress suppressed the ,eight-hour1 ,anti-injunction1 and ,prison-labor bills1 and mutilated the ,chinese bill4 ,a convention of the ,national ,association of ,railway ,commissioners1 comprising representatives from twenty-five ,state boards and from the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 petitioned ,congress1 in ,june1 #aija1 to enact a number of measures regarding railway traffic2 but our lawmakers appear to have been too busy with other matters4 ,factory legislation has suffered a relapse in all of the ,states4 8,the statutes of #aija10 euphemistically writes ,mr4 ,horace ,g4 ,wadlin1 in the ,new ,york ,state ,library's 8,review of ,legislation1 #aija10 8which may be classed as protective legislation1 intended to safeguard the workman in his employment or to secure to him his wages1 are neither very numerous nor very radical40 ,something better1 however1 as ,mr4 ,adna ,f4 ,weber points out in the same volume1 was done in regard to shorter workdays4 ,california passed an ,eight-hour law for ,state work2 ,minnesota1 with certain liberal exceptions1 another2 while ,utah penalized infractions of an existing law4 ,even ,pennsylvania1 generally so sensitive in the matter of interfering with the rights of her workers to employ themselves in any manner they are constrained to choose1 made the daring innovation of prohibiting a longer workday than twelve hours for women and minors in bakeries4 ,doubtless the lesson to be learned from this is a growing inclination toward the gospel of relaxation1 which ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer so emphatically invoked on his visit here twenty years ago4 ,an industrial ,feudalism is not inconsistent with a moderate workday1 and it is not unlikely that some further experiments in this line may be made4 ,,iii ,an average man1 not overlearned in political science1 and not too well acquainted with the ways and means of politicians1 might naturally suppose that the result of something more than #afci 8labor0 laws would be an almost revolutionary change in the conditions of industry4 ,he might suppose a general effect comprising these particulars3 the securing of safe places and safe conditions for toil2 the utmost safeguarding against accidents2 the fixing of liability for injuries or death suffered in the service of a master2 the guarantee of the right of workmen to combine1 to leave their work for causes sufficient to themselves1 and peaceably to persuade others to do so2 the guarantee of protection from blacklisting by employers1 and the framing of all such laws in a spirit so sincere and in diction so definite that judicial discretion would be reduced to a minimum4 8,labor0 legislation1 however1 takes on too much a form and pressure due to influences from above to confirm even this temperate supposition4 ,it is somewhat presumptuous1 and in a later time will be grossly impious1 for a layman not of the seigniorial class to speak querulously on so sacred a subject2 yet it needs must be said that the mass of the measures so far framed have proceeded but little beyond the confines of the common law4 ,many of them1 indeed1 are mere enactments into statute of that elastic1 not to say elusive1 body of precedent4 ,the common law comes down to us from distant times1 when other conditions prevailed1 and throughout all of it which bears on the relations of master and servant there runs a principle based on an unsupported theory4 8,this theory10 writes ,mr4 ,george ,w4 ,alger1 a member of the ,new ,york ,bar1 in the ,american ,journal of ,sociology for ,november1 #aijj1 8resolutely closed its eyes to common1 obvious1 social and economic distinctions between men1 either considered as individuals or as classes1 and with a self-imposed blindness imagined rather than saw the servant and his master acting upon a plane of absolute and ideal equality in all matters touching their contractual relation2 both were free and equal1 and the proper function of government was to let them alone4 ,if the servant was dissatisfied with the conditions of his employment2 if the dangers created not merely by the necessities of the work1 but by the master's indifference to the safety of his men1 were in the eyes of the latter too great to be endured with prudence1 then1 being under this theory a #8free agent' to go or to stay1 if he chose to stay he must take the possible consequences of personal injury or death40 ,under the common law1 it is true1 the employer is presumed to have certain duties toward his workmen4 ,as interpreted by ,mr4 ,stephen ,d4 ,fessenden1 ,,ll4,m41 in the ,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor1 for ,november1 #aijj1 these obligations are as follows3-- 8,an employer assumes the duty toward his employee of exercising reasonable care and diligence to provide the employee with a reasonably safe place at which to work2 with reasonably safe machinery1 tools1 and implements to work with2 with reasonably safe materials to work upon1 and with suitable and competent fellow-servants to work with him2 and1 in case of a dangerous or complicated business1 to make such reasonable rules for its conduct as may be proper to protect the servants employed therein40 ,this common-law doctrine is1 however1 very seriously qualified by the doctrine of the workman's assumption of risk1 of his contributory negligence1 and of negligence on the part of a fellow-servant4 ,each of the terms in this doctrinal trinity is of expansive elasticity1 and even the constituent words of each term may be variously interpreted4 ,so that a workman forced to earn his bread where he can1 in the face of constant perils1 literally takes his life in his hands4 ,if injured1 there may be set up and sustained against his claim for damages the plea of free and unconstrained assumption1 or of contributory negligence1 or of negligence of another workman1 even though the latter may be a superior who orders the victim to his dangerous task4 8,it is a well-settled principle of common law10 writes ,mr4 ,fessenden1 8that where 444 duties of employers are imposed by legislative enactment or municipal ordinance1 it is negligence on the part of the employer to fail to comply with these requirements40 ,now it happens that the ,united ,states1 twenty ,states1 the ,district of ,columbia 7by act of ,congress71 and one ,territory have enacted this common-law principle into statute1 affixing it to certain regulations of industry4 ,yet in such manner are the greater number of these statutes drawn that it is often found possible to evade them on the score of one or more of the terms in the common-law theory4 ,the record of decisions on these statutes is at best conflicting and confusing4 ,but enough can be shown to illustrate the frequent futility of the laws to secure either employers' compliance with imposed duties or employers' liability for injuries due to negligence4 ,the ,ohio ,supreme ,court1 in #ahie1 held that 8one cannot maintain an action against his employer for an injury following a violation of the act regulating coal mines1 unless at the time he was injured he was in the exercise of due care2 that one who voluntarily assumes a risk thereby waives the provisions of a statute made for his protection40 ,the ,wisconsin ,supreme ,court decided that the law 7#ahhi7 requiring the guarding or blocking of railway frogs 8does not take away the defence of contributory negligence40 ,the ,new ,york ,court of ,appeals in the case of ,knisley vs4 ,pratt 7#adh ,n4 ,y4 #cgb7 decided that to hold that the workman could not waive his master's statutory duty by continuing at work was 8a new and startling doctrine calculated to establish a measure of liability unknown to the common law40 ,statute law is presumed to replace common law and to redress the inequities resulting from the application of old principles to changed conditions4 ,but the redress of inequities is conspicuously wanting in much of the so-called 8protective0 legislation4 ,it is impossible to guess whether on the one hand in legislative indifference or unwisdom1 or on the other hand in judicial interestedness and overwisdom1 lies the greater cause of these statutory failures4 ,some added speculations on the subject will be found further along4 ,but whatever the attitude of the judges1 that of the lawmakers reveals a chronic and now intensifying fear of disturbing the sacred privileges of 8business40 ,the contractual waiving1 by the employee1 of the employer's negligence1 is a subject about which a number of legislatures have concerned themselves4 ,two ,states 7,georgia and ,massachusetts71 according to ,mr4 ,fessenden1 have forbidden such waivers generally1 one ,state 7,ohio7 has declared void such contracts when made by employees1 and twelve ,states and one ,territory have forbidden such waivers where the liability is imposed by statute4 ,the ,ohio law1 however1 was declared unconstitutional by the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court for the ,northern ,district of ,ohio in #ahif on the ground that 8in denying to the employees of a railroad corporation the right to make their own contracts concerning their own labor1 it is depriving them of #8liberty' and of the right to exercise the privileges of manhood1 #8without due process of law'20 and furthermore that it was class legislation4 ,each of these laws1 moreover1 can be practically nullified1 as the courts have repeatedly held4 ,an employer may organize a relief organization for the payment of benefits4 ,he may tax his employees for a greater or less part of the expenses of the department4 ,he may then make employment conditional upon the workman's joining the association and signing a pledge agreeing1 in consideration of the payment of the regular benefits1 to release the employer from all claims for injuries4 ,such contracts are valid1 since1 according to the ingenious interpretation of the courts1 they do not waive damages1 but choose between two sources of compensation4 ,only one ,state 7,iowa7 has had the temerity to declare this practice illegal1 and in view of the action of the courts the law will probably be held to be unconstitutional4 ,statutory provisions against accidents to workmen reveal quite as much timidity as do provisions regarding employers' liability4 ,the yearly number of accidents in our industries is unknown1 and can be only roughly guessed at4 ,the investigation of the ,new ,york ,commissioner of ,labor1 in the spring of #ahii1 would indicate a yearly average of #ad1egf accidents for factory workers alone in one ,state4 ,in the ,pennsylvania anthracite mines more than #djj persons are killed every year1 and in the bituminous mines of the same ,state the yearly average for the period #ahie-ih was #aga killed and #dba injured4 ,an official report made to the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey in ,september gives the record of lives lost in mining coal for the year #aija as #adfg1 and the number of workmen injured as #cfdc4 ,in the anthracite mines of ,pennsylvania #eac men were killed and #abdc injured1 and in the bituminous fields of the same ,state #cja were killed and #fef injured4 ,the railroads provide a yearly ,gettysburg1 with some #dj1jjj casualties to workmen alone2 and many an industry annually furnishes its humble ,bull ,run or ,fort ,donelson4 ,regulations1 however1 proceed cautiously1 not to say haltingly2 they are generally tame regulations1 they are frequently disobeyed1 and their effect on the casualty rate is anything but radical4 ,though for #aija the increased use of safety appliances lessened the percentage of coupling accidents on railroads1 the percentage actually increased for #ahih1 #ahii1 and #aijj4 ,since #ahih there has been an increase in the rate of accidents in coal mining1 and doubtless1 also1 if the figures were known1 an increase could be shown for factories and workshops4 ,although twenty-one ,states1 according to ,mr4 ,william ,f4 ,willoughby1 in the ,bulletin for ,january1 #aija1 provide for an inspection service in factories1 only thirteen impose specific provisions making it obligatory upon factory and mill owners to take certain precautions against accidents4 ,only one of these laws1 moreover1--that of ,ohio1--may fairly be called an adequate and definitely expressed statute4 ,there are but five ,states that have enacted laws 8the purpose of which is to make it obligatory upon directors of building and construction work to take certain precautions against accidents10 and only one of these 7,new ,york7 has given the measure an adequate comprehensiveness4 ,twenty-three ,states have more or less elaborate mining regulations2 but as compliance with these laws is usually left to the honor and benevolence of the mine owner1 and as mining accidents continue at a practically static rate1 it is hard to see the beneficial result4 ,some of the ,states compel railroads to block or guard frogs1 and several have laws independent of the ,federal statute of #ahic1 requiring the use of automatic couplers and power brakes4 ,the former may be evaded1 however2 and1 in the absence of statute imposing liability1 the evasion counts for nothing in behalf of an injured workman's claim for damages4 ,the effect on the accident rates has already been mentioned4 ,dr4 ,sarah ,s4 ,whittelsey's paper in the ,annals of the ,american ,academy for ,july1 #aijb1 summarizes the report of the ,industrial ,commission on the results of factory legislation in the various ,states4 ,from this it appears that only about half the ,states have passed what may be called factory acts1 many of which are mere fire-escape provisions1 and that there are almost no factory acts in the ,south1 nor in the more distinctly agricultural ,states of the ,west4 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,nebraska1 and ,california generously permit the employment in factories of children ten years old2 seven ,states put the limit at twelve years1 two at thirteen1 ten at fourteen1 and one makes the limit fourteen years for girls and twelve years for boys4 ,working hours have been more or less regulated for women and minors in fifteen ,states1 and for minors alone in nine ,states4 ,courts in three ,states1 however1 have declared acts regulating working hours of women unconstitutional4 ,in sixteen ,states1 three ,territories1 and the ,district of ,columbia there is absolutely no limitation for persons of any age or sex4 ,aside from certain occasional acts relating to the payment of wages1 to inspection1 and to employers' liability1 this is a complete summary of protective legislation concerning the industries that employ #e1cba1jhg of the ,nation's wage-earners4 ,mr4 ,fessenden gives a summary of the laws for the protection of workmen in their employment1 in the ,bulletin for ,january1 #aijj4 ,the most timid conservative may read it with relief1 for any fears of an undue lodgment of power in the working classes will be effectually banished by its perusal4 ,only nine ,states have gone so far as to enact into statute the supposed common-law principle that combinations of workmen1 formed for the purpose of seeking increase of wages and betterment of conditions1 are not of themselves unlawful4 ,four others specify that the provisions of their 8anti-trust0 acts do not apply to combinations of labor4 ,on the other hand1 the anti-conspiracy laws of eleven ,states are capable of interpretation which would penalize many of the peaceable methods of labor societies1 and such interpretations have been frequently made4 ,moreover1 the wording of ,sections #ciie and #eddj of the ,federal ,revised ,statutes1 chapters #fdg of the ,anti-trust act1 and #ajd of the ,interstate ,commerce act1 and the amendment of #ahhi to the latter1 are capable of interpretation to the effect that collective quitting of work on railways is illegal4 ,decisions to that effect have several times been made in the ,united ,states courts4 8,a strike1 or a preconcerted quitting of work10 reads the decision in ,united ,states vs4 ,cassidy 7#ahie7 before the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,northern ,district of ,california1 8by a combination of railroad employees1 is in itself unlawful1 if the concerted action is knowingly and wilfully directed by the parties to it for the purpose of obstructing and retarding the passage of the mails1 or in restraint of trade and commerce among the ,states40 8,it will be practically impossible hereafter10 reads the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court decision in the case of ,waterhouse et al4 vs4 ,cromer 7#ahic71 8for a body of men to combine to hinder and delay the work of the transportation company without becoming amenable to the provisions of these statutes40 ,the indefinite diction of many of the ,state laws against 8intimidation and coercion0 also gives wide scope to judicial discretion1 and permits the occasional naming of the most innocuous acts as 8coercion40 ,the necessity of peace in an industrial society is everywhere recognized2 and it is1 therefore1 not surprising that really earnest efforts have been made in behalf of arbitration4 ,it obtained1 in a measure1 during the older ,feudalism1 through the 8courts baron10 which considered tenantry and wage-questions2 and it is becoming more common day by day4 ,within sixteen years twenty-one ,states and the ,united ,states have passed more or less effective measures looking to its use in labor disputes4 ,political coercion is also a matter that has won a large share of legislative attention2 twenty-nine ,states and two ,territories have enacted laws regarding it4 ,there is1 however1 an important distinction to be made4 ,in an ordinary conflict of political issues1 when the magnates and their retainers are to be found in both parties1 it is obvious confusion and the unsettling of political conditions for the employers to dictate how their workmen shall vote4 ,but when political issues suggest a class conflict1 as in #ahif1 some of the provisions of these laws are by common consent waived4 ,the humble toiler may vote as he likes on the immaterial questions of ordinary campaigns2 but on questions having to do with the salvation of society and the preservation of the hallowed code of 8business10 instruction and even gentle pressure become the solemn duty of his social betters4 ,there are fewer laws1 it may be observed1 regarding another kind of coercion4 ,discharges on account of membership in a labor union are forbidden in but fifteen states2 and in two of these 7,illinois and ,missouri7 such provisions have been found1 after much painstaking study1 to be unconstitutional4 ,the discovery is considered a most happy one2 and according to the injunction of the ,federal ,constitution1 that 8full faith and credit shall be given in each ,state to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other ,state10 the ruling will no doubt be found applicable in a number of the other commonwealths4 ,,iv ,our lawmakers are not to be blamed for decisions of unconstitutionality4 ,rather1 they are to be congratulated4 ,for the recent tendency of the judges to determine for themselves what shall be enacted into law has developed new refuges for the lawmakers4 ,we have now ,solon1 the legislator1 and ,rhadamanthus1 the judge1 in new rles--the rles of the good and bad partner of ,dickens's novel4 ,to the humble voter1 when the pressure from below conflicts with the pressure from above1 ,solon is now able to stand as the supporter of popular measures1 and to throw upon the less responsible ,rhadamanthus the onus of declaring them bad law4 ,the fury of the magnate at ,solon's demagogy is mitigated1 if not extinguished1 when he considers the difficulties of the lawmaker's position1 and especially by the further consideration that ,rhadamanthus has the final word to say4 ,solon has other refuges1 it is true2 and sometimes these must be availed of1 for it is not always certain that a projected popular measure can be declared unconstitutional4 ,for several years it had been considered possible1 for instance1 that an employers' liability act1 if passed in ,new ,york1 would stand the test of the courts4 ,it became the custom1 therefore1 when an adequate measure on this subject was introduced1 for the adverse interests to introduce a conflicting bill4 ,the ingenious lawmaker thereupon regretfully found a divided public sentiment1 and as a consequence no bill was passed4 ,there are no reasons at hand for accounting for the fact that at the last session of the ,albany legislature such a measure was actually enacted4 ,v ,how far our legislators are enabled to withstand public sentiment1 no matter how strongly based in reason and how definite in objective1 may be instanced in the attitude of ,congress regarding the ,safety-appliance act of #ahic4 ,agitation for this measure had grown to such an extent that action could no longer be delayed4 ,but though action on the bill could not be delayed1 the terms of fulfilment of the bill could be postponed to a comparatively remote period4 ,the number of railway employees killed in the year ended ,june #cj1 #ahic1 was #bgbg1 a number exceeding the ,union death roll in every battle of the ,civil ,war except ,gettysburg1 and within #bdc of that record4 ,in the same year the number of wounded 7#ca1gbi7 was more than three times as great as the number of ,union wounded at either ,antietam or ,chancellorsville1 and more than double that at ,gettysburg4 ,yet despite this tremendous carnage1 the legislators1 wavering between the public demands and the demands of the magnates1 though they passed the bill1 generously granted five years for its complete observance1 and then gave the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission the power to grant further delays--in effect giving seven years for its fulfilment4 ,in those seven years #ac1ijf employees were killed--a loss exceeding the ,union death roll at ,gettysburg1 ,spottsylvania1 the ,wilderness1 ,antietam1 ,chancellorsville and ,chickamauga combined--and approximately #bbj1jjj were wounded1 or more than three times the number of ,union wounded in those six battles4 ,that a great part of this casualty record was avoidable is evidenced in the ,august report of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 which shows that the number of employees killed in coupling accidents in the year ended ,june #cj1 #aija1 declined from #bhb to #aih1 and the number injured from #ebbi to #bgfh4 ,it was in #ahic that this generous latitude was granted the magnates4 ,were the occasion to arise now1 it is probable that the term of grace would number fourteen years instead of seven4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,our ,,interpreters ,,of ,,law ,the attitude of the judiciary in matters involving class antagonisms is a subject upon which only the most restrained language is tolerable4 ,even general inferences which suggest such a thing as judicial bias must be avoided4 ,faith in the rectitude and wisdom of our judges is a virtue sedulously preached1--perhaps most insistently by those who do most toward their corruption1--and though the virtue as we know it is rather vocal than immanent1 it is sufficiently deep-seated to be intolerant of spoken heresy4 ,were it openly questioned by any considerable body of citizens1 the foolhardy persons would soon bring down upon themselves the rallying onslaught of those heterogeneous elements which ,karl ,marx somewhat extravagantly pictured1 8landlords and capitalists1 stock-exchange wolves and shopkeepers1 protectionists and free-traders1 government and opposition1 priests and freethinkers1 young street-walkers and old nuns--under the common cry for the salvation of property1 religion1 the family1 and society40 ,such heretics might have all the certainty of ,paul1 8that the law is good1 if a man use it lawfully10 and yet it would be a parlous thing to be openly sceptical of the assumption that it is always lawfully used4 ,but at least one may1 without attainder of anarchy1 assemble and classify certain instances1 and point out their coincidences and their contrarieties4 ,there is1 for example1 a notable sameness in kind of the laws which are declared unconstitutional4 ,there is1 to utter it mildly1 a vast preponderance in the number of injunctions against striking1 boycotting1 and agitating over the number against locking-out1 blacklisting1 and the employment of armed mercenaries4 ,there is a practical1 though not an entire1 unanimity against the awarding of damages to injured employees1 whether the decision be based on common or statute law2 and1 finally1 there is a considerable diversity between the decisions usually rendered by judges elected for short terms1 and therefore directly responsible to the people1 and those rendered by the less responsible judges1 elected for long terms or appointed4 ,i ,the legislative aspects of employers' liability have already been considered4 ,certain judicial aspects of the matter need also to be touched upon4 ,the question is one of grave social import4 ,the worker no longer owns his tools1 but must use the machinery provided for him4 ,a certain element of danger inheres in the operation of probably all machinery2 but when old1 defective1 or with its dangerous parts unguarded1 injuries to its operatives are well-nigh certain4 ,yet for such injuries1 with their awful consequences to the operative and his dependent ones1 there is generally no redress1 except in a few ,states where statutes have fixed the matter of liability in set terms which leave no room for judicial discretion4 ,under the common law the workman is held to assume the risk attending his employment4 ,he is a free agent--so the legal fiction runs--and if afraid of injury need not work4 ,common law also presupposes the providing of a 8reasonably safe0 place and 8reasonably safe0 machinery by the employer4 ,it would be difficult to determine1 however1 from the mass of decisions under the common law1 what is meant by 8reasonably safe40 ,a ,colorado lower court gave damages to the mother of a miner killed by falling rock while removing dbris from one of the mines of the ,moon-,anchor ,consolidated ,gold ,mines1 ,limited4 ,the case came finally to the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court of ,appeals for the ,eighth ,district1 and the judgment was reversed1 ,judges ,sanborn and ,adams concurring and ,judge ,thayer dissenting4 ,the work was admittedly hazardous2 in the opinion of ,judge ,thayer 8the place was needlessly made unsafe by the master's negligence40 ,the concurring judges1 however1 decided that the company's negligence was not responsible1 and that 8the deceased of his own free will determined to cope with these risks and hazards4444 ,in this1 his own voluntary conduct1 is found the intervening1 proximate1 and responsible cause of his injury40 7#aaa ,federal ,reporter1 #bih47 ,even when the employer assures the workman of the safety of a machine1 the risk is still1 according to many decisions1 the workman's4 ,the ,circuit ,court of ,shiawassee ,county1 ,michigan1 refused to award damages to a workman for injuries sustained from a defective machine which he was operating for his employer4 ,the case went to the ,supreme ,court on a writ of error1 and on ,december #ae1 #aijj1 that court affirmed the previous judgment4 ,it had been shown that the plaintiff warned his employer of the danger of the machine1 and that the employer gave assurances to the contrary4 ,nevertheless1 in the words of ,judge ,moon 7,moore871 8one cannot continue to operate a machine which he knows is dangerous simply upon the assurance of his employer that it is not1 if he has just as much knowledge of the danger arising from the operation of the machine as the principal has without assuming the risk40 7#hb ,n4 ,w4 ,reporter1 #agig47 ,the decision1 read by ,judge ,mc,lennan1 in the recent case of ,rice vs4 the ,eureka ,paper ,company 7#gf ,app4 ,div4 #ccf7 before the ,fourth ,appellate ,division of ,new ,york ,state1 would seem to indicate that the burden of risk is not to be shifted from the workman even when his employer acknowledges a defect in machinery and promises to remedy it4 ,there is some doubt1 however1 if such a decision1 though valid in many ,states1 will stand in the ,state where it was given2 for the ,court of ,appeals has several times decided that liability follows from an acknowledgment of defective machinery4 ,on the other hand1 this highest court of ,new ,york ,state has won the distinction of carrying the doctrine of assumption of risk to an extreme degree4 ,the case of ,gabrielson vs4 ,waydell 7#ace ,n4 ,y4 #a7 involved the question of the liability of the owners of a maritime vessel for injuries suffered by a sailor in their employ4 ,the captain of the vessel had committed a confessedly unprovoked and particularly brutal assault upon the sailor1 who had subsequently sued the owner for damages4 ,the court decided that the sailor had no redress2 that 8the misconduct of the captain was a risk assumed by the seaman1 for the consequences of which the owners are not responsible40 ,a fact more curious yet to the unlegal mind is the judicial contention1 instanced in the previous chapter1 that statutory provisions for the safeguarding of machinery may be waived by the workman4 ,evidently his burden of risk1 like the ,hindu's caste1 is born with him1 and cannot be laid aside or escaped4 ,the case of the ,e4 ,s4 ,higgins ,carpet ,company vs4 ,o',keefe 7#gi ,federal ,reporter1 #ijj7 is an illustration4 ,damages for an injury received from an unguarded machine had been given a fifteen-year-old boy in the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court of ,appeals for the ,second ,circuit1 however1 reversed the judgment4 ,the plaintiff was a minor1 but this fact was held to have no bearing4 8,we think the circumstance that he was a minor of no importance10 read the decision of ,judge ,wallace4 8,the rules which govern actions for negligence in the case of children of tender years do not apply to minors who have attained years of discretion40 ,the ,new ,york factory act required guards for this particular kind of machine4 ,but that1 also1 was immaterial4 8,the provisions of the statute 444 requiring cogs to be properly guarded1 have no application to the case1 except as regards the question of the negligence of the defendant4 ,as construed by the highest courts of the ,state1 the statute does not impose any liability upon an employer for injuries received by a minor in his service in consequence of the fault of the employee1 or arising from the obvious risks of the service he has undertaken to perform40 ,to clinch the matter1 ,judge ,wallace cited the then recent case of ,graves vs4 ,brewer before the ,fourth ,appellate ,division of ,new ,york ,state1 wherein the court held that 8the liability of the employer was not changed by reason of the factory act requiring cog-wheels to be covered1 because such protection could be waived and was waived by a person accepting employment upon the machine with the cogs in an unguarded condition1 as the danger was apparent1 and one of the obvious risks of the employment40 ,the case of ,knisley vs4 ,pratt 7#adh ,n4 ,y4 #cgb7 before the ,new ,york ,court of ,appeals was decided in the same way1 and also the case of ,white vs4 ,witteman ,lithographic ,company4 ,in the latter case the plaintiff was a child of fourteen4 ,such decisions are common in more ,states than one4 ,another case which may prove of some interest to the lay mind is that of ,gillen vs4 the ,patten and ,sherman ,railroad ,company 7#dd ,atlantic ,reporter1 #cfa74 ,the plaintiff1 while uncoupling cars1 had his foot crushed in an unfilled frog1 and had been awarded damages4 ,a motion for a new trial was argued before the ,supreme ,judicial ,court of ,maine1 and was granted4 ,the decision1 delivered by ,judge ,lucilius ,a4 ,emery1 acknowledged the existence of a statute 7chapter #baf of #ahhi7 requiring the filling or blocking of guard rails or frogs on all railways before ,january #a1 #ahij4 ,it held1 however1 that such filling and blocking was not immediately mandatory upon a railroad constructed after that date4 8,such company is entitled to a reasonable time for compliance with that statute40 ,it was at a crossing of such a railway that the trainman lost his foot4 ,he had no right to assume that the rails were blocked1 merely because a statute said they should be4 ,the brakeman1 therefore1 assumed the risk1 and he also furnished contributory negligence1 since 8to move about over frogs and switches while coupling and uncoupling cars1 even in moving trains1 without taking any thought of the frogs and guard rails1 or as to where he may be stepping1 is negligence on his part contributing to the catching his foot in them40 ,when the doctrine of assumption of risk is inapplicable1 when personal negligence cannot be shown1 and when there has been no waiving of statutory provisions by the workman1 there is yet1 in judicial eyes1 one last resort for the defendant company--the common-law plea of negligence on the part of a fellow-workman4 ,there is some diversity of opinion among eminent judges as to who are strictly fellow-servants4 8,the courts of the majority of the ,states hold1 however10 writes ,mr4 ,stephen ,d4 ,fessenden1 in the ,bulletin of the ,department of ,labor for ,november1 #aijj1 8that the mere difference in grades of employment1 or in authority1 with respect to each other1 does not remove them from the class of fellow-servants as regards the liability of the employer for injuries to the one caused by the negligence of the other40 ,thus it has happened that a workman acting in the capacity of agent for his employer1 and ordering other workmen to do tasks at which injuries have resulted1 has been held to be a fellow-servant--a judgment relieving his employer of liability4 ,to the lay mind it would seem that workmen in different departments could hardly be classed as fellow-servants2 and the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court has rendered a decision which makes possible1 under certain circumstances1 such a discrimination4 ,since then1 however1 the ,federal courts have suffered a reaction on the question1 and current decisions tend the other way4 ,a case before a ,state tribunal--the ,supreme ,court of ,georgia 7#ce ,southeastern ,reporter1 #cfe7--;illustrates the possibilities which lie in this doctrine4 ,a lineman1 while repairing a wire for the ,brush ,electric ,light and ,power ,company1 at ,savannah1 ,ga41 was killed through the act of the engineer in turning on the current4 ,the city court of ,savannah gave damages to his widow4 ,the case was taken to the ,state ,supreme ,court1 and decision rendered ,march #c1 #aijj4 ,the counsel for the plaintiff contended that the fellow-servant doctrine could not apply1 on account of the lineman and engineer working in different departments1 8so that there was no opportunity for the exertion of a mutual influence upon each other's carefulness40 ,the court1 however1 reversed the verdict4 ,the disparity of opinion between inferior judges and superior judges in cases of this kind is remarkable4 ,the monthly ,bulletins of the ,department of ,labor give a fairly excellent summary of court decisions on labor questions4 ,he who reads them will find the expression1 8judgment of the lower court reversed10 recurring with a rather painful iteration2 unless1 indeed1 the decision of the lower court has rebuked the plaintiff1 when the expression1 8judgment of the lower court affirmed10 is usually found4 ,mr4 ,george ,w4 ,alger1 in an article on 8,the ,courts and ,factory ,legislation10 in the ,american ,journal of ,sociology for ,november1 #aijj1 gives the following careful and temperately worded summary of recent reversals in employers' liability cases in ,new ,york ,state3-- 8,the percentage of reversals on appeal in master-and-servant cases of this kind1 when the verdict of the juries in the courts below had been in plaintiff's favor1 is perhaps larger than in any other branch of litigation4 ,in ,new ,york1 for example1 an examination of twenty volumes of the ,court of ,appeals reports 7#abf ,n4 ,y4-#aef ,n4 ,y47 shows written opinions in thirty-seven such cases4 ,of these3 7#a7 in three cases the juries in the lower court had found for defendant1 and plaintiff was the appellant2 7#b7 in four cases the court below had dismissed plaintiff's case as insufficient1 without requiring defendant to introduce any testimony2 7#c7 in thirty cases the juries below had found for plaintiff with substantial damages4 ,the ,court of ,appeals in class 7#a7 affirmed all of the cases where plaintiff was defeated below4 ,in class 7#b7 it reversed the four cases where plaintiff had been summarily non-suited and sent the cases back to trial courts to hear defendant's testimony3 a partial victory at most for plaintiff4 ,in class 7#c71 where plaintiff had actually received a verdict1 of the thirty cases twenty-eight were reversed4 ,these statistics are interesting as showing how complete is the lack of harmony between the courts1 at least in ,new ,york1 and the moral sense of the people by whom the courts were created1 in regard to these cases4 ,twice in thirty times do the opinions of the learned judges of ,new ,york's highest court coincide with the opinions of juries of citizens as to the requirements of justice40 ,the tendency1 which is most clearly indicated by the mass of decisions in cases demanding damages for injuries or death1 is the growing disposition to make property paramount and life subordinate4 ,it is a common practice to set aside verdicts of damages on the score that they are excessive4 ,it is no less a common practice to instruct the jury to decide for the defendant in order to rebuke litigation4 ,the language of the leading work on one phase of this subject--,shearman and ,redfield's 8,a ,treatise on the ,law of ,negligence0--sums up the matter in a few words3-- 8,it has become quite common for judges to state as the ground of decisions the necessity of restricting litigation4 ,reduced to plain ,english1 this means the necessity of compelling the great majority of men and women to submit to injustice in order to relieve judges from the labor of awarding justice4444 ,the stubborn resistance of business corporations1 common carriers1 and mill-owners1 to the enforcement of the most moderate laws for the protection of human beings from injury1 and their utter failure to provide such protection of their own accord1 ought to satisfy any impartial judge that true justice demands a constant expansion of the law in the direction of increased responsibility for negligence40 ,,ii 8,law10 wrote ,sir ,edward ,coke1 8is the perfection of reason40 ,this may be true2 but1 if so1 it tends to throw mankind over to the position of the ,catholics1 that the reason itself needs considerable perfecting4 ,this is not only the disposition of the lay mind1 but1 evidently1 also of the supreme judicial mind2 for a large part of the higher judicial activity during recent years has been expended in declaring null and void laws passed by two houses of the people's representatives and signed by an elected ,governor or ,president4 ,mr4 ,stimson1 in his summary of labor legislation for the years #ahhg-ig1 found that only #aad out of the #afci laws passed had been declared unconstitutional4 ,but these #aad comprised examples from #ai out of the #ce classes of legislation passed1 and must therefore have reacted upon a very considerable number of the remainder4 ,it is a coincidence which has been noted before1 and need not be specially insisted upon here1 that the overwhelming majority of laws which fail to reach the constitutional standards set by our judges are those intended to safeguard the interests of the industrially subordinate and to set some limitation to the powers of the industrially mighty4 ,the judicial mind1 however1 affects to know no difference between high and low1 between weak and strong2 and thus its decisions1 ignoring actual conditions1 tend more and more to strengthen the powers of one class and to weaken the powers of another4 8,liberty0 is the shibboleth2 the citizen must be free to act as he wills4 ,somewhat curiously1 though1 liberty of speech1 press1 and assemblage is not so strenuously insisted upon2 and1 indeed1 by injunctions and other judicial determinations is at times rather severely limited3 the miners of ,west ,virginia have been recently enjoined from holding meetings on their own grounds4 ,but economic liberty--the liberty of the dependent classes to do acts which1 in the nature of things1 they cannot possibly do--is held for a sacred principle4 ,the doctrine of the extension of the ,state's police power1 limiting the foregoing doctrine1 has gained some headway since the ,utah decision confirmed a ,state's right to limit the hours of work for men in dangerous trades2 but the determination of how far it is to be applied rests largely with the forty-eight ,state and ,territorial courts2 and it is a safe guess that it will meet with stiff resistance if incarnated in further 8advanced0 legislation4 8,no discrimination10 which in effect means much discrimination1 follows the judicial shibboleth of 8liberty40 ,especially zealous for the protection of liberty and keenly watchful of proposed discrimination is that eminent tribunal1 the ,supreme ,court of ,illinois4 ,some six years ago it discovered that the statute regulating the hours of women workers in the factories contravened the ,federal and ,state constitutional guarantees of 8life1 liberty1 and property40 ,a woman's labor was her property1 and any limitation of it was a deprivation 8without due process of law40 ,on ,december #bj1 #aijj1 it fell to the lot of this tribunal to pass upon two labor laws1--to the lay mind entirely different in principle1--and1 by a somewhat difficult struggling along parallel lines of argument1 triumphantly to reach conclusions adverse to both of them4 ,one was the ,chicago ordinance requiring union labor and an eight-hour day on all public work contracted for2 the other the ,state statute prohibiting discharge of an employee for belonging to a labor union4 ,regarding the ordinance1 the union requirement1 in the words of ,associate ,justice ,magruder1 8amounts to a discrimination between different classes of citizens40 ,it is therefore void1 and the eight-hour provision is also void1 because it 8infringes upon the freedom of contract1 to which every citizen is entitled under the law4444 ,any statute providing that the employer and laborer may not agree with each other as to what time shall constitute a day's work is an invalid act40 7#eh ,northeastern ,reporter1 #ihe47 ,without venturing to discuss this ruling1 one may at least compare it with the ruling on the ,state statute4 ,the latter was a law intended to prevent discrimination against union men4 ,but1 curiously to the unlegal mind1 it is discovered to be discrimination in favor of the union man4 8,the act certainly does grant to that class of laborers who belong to union labor organizations a special privilege40 7#eh ,northeastern ,reporter1 #ajjg47 ,the act was also found to 8contravene those provisions of the ,state and ,federal constitutions which guarantee that no person shall be deprived of #8life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law4'0 8,that strain again10 as ,orsino1 in 8,twelfth ,night10 exclaims4 ,it has not1 however1 a 8dying fall10 for it has been taken up and echoed in other quarters since4 ,the liberty of the employer to pay his employees in brass checks or store orders was affirmed by the ,kansas ,supreme ,court on ,december #i1 #ahif1 and the act requiring payment in lawful money was declared invalid4 8,to say that a free citizen can contract for or agree to receive in return for his labor one kind of property only1 and that which represents the smallest part of the aggregate wealth of the country1 is a clear restriction of the right to bargain and trade1 a suppression of individual effort1 a denial of inalienable rights40 ,anti-truck acts were also declared unconstitutional by the courts of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,illinois1 and ,west ,virginia4 ,the ,kentucky ,supreme ,court1 however1 nine months after the ,kansas decision1 found that liberty and the compulsory payment of wages in lawful money were compatible1 so that the question is at least open4 ,decisions like that of the ,kansas court1 and the somewhat similar decisions rendered in ,pennsylvania1 ,illinois1 and ,tennessee1 of course fasten the laborer to the company store2 but of this the courts usually take no cognizance4 ,actual liberty may be restrained1 but theoretical liberty must not be tampered with4 ,weekly payment laws are found to conflict with liberty in ,pennsylvania1 ,illinois1 ,missouri1 ,west ,virginia1 and ,indiana4 ,moreover1 the liberty of a legislature to determine that prevailing wages shall be paid to employees of city and ,state must not be confused by the lay mind with the liberty of the wage-earner to work under what conditions he must4 ,for the former is clearly unconstitutional1 as decided in ,new ,york by the ,court of ,appeals in ,february1 #aija4 8,the effect of this statute the ,prevailing ,rate of ,wages act10 reads the decision of ,judge ,denis ,o',brien1 8was to make the city of ,new ,york a trustee or instrument for the enforcement of the law in the interests of the persons for whose benefit it was enacted1 and thus the powers and functions of the municipality are employed for purposes foreign to those for which they were created and exist under the ,constitution40 ,the eight-hour laws passed in several of the ,states have generally suffered the ,illinois fate1 although ,kansas proved an exception4 ,regulation of the working hours of women was nullified not only in ,illinois1 but in ,nebraska and ,california4 ,the police-power doctrine1 as voiced in the ,utah decision1 may justify a limitation of the working day in dangerous trades1 but otherwise such a limitation appears to be an infringement of the right of contract1 or a deprivation of 8property0 without 8due process of law40 ,even the ,national ,eight-hour law of #ahfh1 while not strictly unconstitutional1 is held to be merely advisory4 8,we regard the statute10 says the ,supreme ,court 7#id ,u4 ,s4 #djd71 8chiefly as in the nature of a direction from the principal to his agent that eight hours is deemed to be a proper length of time for a day's labor1 and that his contract shall be based upon that theory40 ,anti-trust laws may be quite as lacking in constitutional decorum as are eight-hour and prevailing-wages laws2 and the judiciary reserves to itself the right to determine what are the standards4 ,the ,texas ,anti-trust law of #ahhi1 for instance1 overleapt judicial sanction4 8,it is not every restriction of competition or trade10 reads the decision of ,district ,judge ,charles ,swayne 7,february #bb1 #ahig71 8that is illegal or against public policy1 or that will justify police regulation1 but only such as are unwarrantable or oppressive2 and a ,state statute which prohibits combinations formed for the purpose of reasonably restricting competition violates the rights of contracts guaranteed by the ,federal ,constitution40 7#gi ,federal ,reporter1 #fbg47 ,another legislature1 with this lesson before it1 will know better where to set bounds to its attempt at interference4 ,one cannot pass this phase of the general subject without recurring to the pertinent advice of the wise ,sir ,francis ,bacon4 8,judges10 he wrote in his essay1 8,of ,judicature10 8ought to remember that their office is jus dicere1 and not jus dare1 to interpret law1 and not to make law4444 ,judges ought to be more learned than witty1 more reverend than plausible1 and more advised than confident4444 ,a judge ought to prepare his way to a just sentence1 as ,god useth to prepare his way1 by raising valleys and taking down hills2 so when there appeareth on either side a high hand1 444 cunning advantages taken1 combination1 power1 great counsel1 then is the virtue of a judge seen to make inequality equal2 that he may paint his judgment as upon an even ground40 ,wise counsel6 though it seems to have lacked something in observance two hundred and seventy-five years ago1 and may be suspected1 even yet1 of not always and everywhere reaching entire fulfilment4 ,,iii ,we have the testimony of no less eminent an authority than ,united ,states ,district ,judge ,john ,j4 ,jackson1 of the ,northern ,district of ,west ,virginia1 that in all his experience on the bench he could not recall a single occasion when any court1 either ,federal or ,state1 ever abused the writ of injunction in strike questions4 ,it is a definite and authoritative pronouncement2 and the restrained and careful language accompanying it1 wherein the officials of labor unions are described as 8a professional set of agitators10 and 8vampires that fatten on the honest labor of the coal miners10 certainly proves that it cannot be an ex parte statement4 ,yet1 for all that1 there is a widely diffused sentiment that the writ of injunction has occasionally been abused in strike questions4 ,in the same locality1 at about the same time1 an injunction issued by ,united ,states ,district ,judge ,b4 ,f4 ,keller1 of the ,southern ,district of ,west ,virginia1 declared1 among a multitude of other prohibitions1 that the strikers 8are further inhibited1 enjoined1 and restrained from assembling in camp or otherwise10 even on grounds leased by them for their meetings4 ,a pamphlet1 prepared by five members of the ,new ,york ,bar and issued by the ,social ,reform ,club1 of ,new ,york ,city1 in the summer of #aijj1 gives the substance of a number of injunctions that have been issued against striking workmen4 8,in the case of the ,sun ,printing and ,publishing ,company vs4 ,delaney and others in ,december 7#ahii710 says the pamphlet3-- 8,the ,supreme ,court of ,new ,york1 among other things1 enjoined the defendants from the exercise of their right to give the public their side of the controversy with the ,sun as an argument against advertising in a paper which they claimed had treated them unjustly2 it also forbade them from attempting to persuade newsdealers from selling the paper2 and finally wound up with a sweeping restraint #8from in any other manner or by any other means interfering with the property1 property rights1 or business of the plaintiff4' ,it should be added that1 on appeal1 the ,appellate ,division struck out these commands2 but they were so plainly subversive of fundamental rights that it is difficult to see how they could have been granted in the first instance4 8,in still another case last year--,the ,wheeling ,railway ,company vs4 ,john ,smith and others 7so runs the title of the action without naming the others7--in the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court1 ,west ,virginia1 two men not parties to the action1 nor found to be agents of #8,john ,smith and others1' whoever they may have been1 were punished for contempt of court1 for1 among other things1 #8reviling' and #8cursing' the court8 not at all1 but for #8reviling' and #8cursing' employees of the railroad company4 ,if these men had not actually served out an imprisonment in jail for thirty days as a punishment for contempt of corporation1 it might be thought that your committee had taken this example from opera bouffe4 ,the legality of this punishment was never passed on by the ,supreme ,court1 for the reason1 as your committee understand1 that the parties were unable to bear the expense of taking it there1 and so served their term in jail4 8,during the final drafting of our report a temporary injunction has been granted by a ,justice of the ,supreme ,court in ,new ,york ,city4444 ,this injunction forbids the defendants certain members of the ,cigar ,makers' ,international ,union even from approaching their former employers for the laudable purpose of reaching an amicable result2 it forbids them from making their case known to the public if the tendency of that is to vex the plaintiffs or make them uneasy2 it forbids them from trying in a perfectly peaceable way in any place in the city1 even in the privacy of a man's own home1 to persuade a new employee that justice is on their side1 and that he ought to sympathize with them sufficiently not to work for unjust employers2 and1 finally1 it forbids the union from paying money to the strikers to support their families during the strike40 ,such instances1 as the pamphlet states1 can be multiplied4 ,perhaps they do not wholly controvert ,judge ,jackson's declaration4 ,but1 at least1 they illustrate an unbridgeable disparity between the definitions of justice held on the one hand by our interpreters of law1 and on the other by the overwhelming majority of the citizenship4 ,that disparity has been great in all recent times2 but weekly and daily it grows greater4 ,the stronger inclination of the judiciary to make property the paramount interest is everywhere observed2 and the magnates1 with an exultant recognition of the fact1 make haste to enjoy the fruits of the new dispensation4 ,,iv ,from judgeship to attorneyship of a great corporation has recently become a common promotion4 ,the number of ex-judges who have been thus translated to higher sees is notable3 one finds or hears of them in many places4 ,republics may be ungrateful1 as the adage runs1 but not so the magnates4 ,the gratitude of the latter may not be wholly platonic2 it includes1 no doubt1 a lively sense of favors to come4 ,but whether prospective or retrospective1 it expresses itself in deeds of recompense1 and that is the main test4 ,it is a discriminating gratitude1 moreover4 ,keenly enough1 it recognizes the comparative value of service4 ,other servitors of the magnates may toil faithfully1 and receive but moderate reward4 ,the moulders of opinion1 such1 for instance1 as the newspaper men1 may ask for preferment1 and be met by the impatient retort of ,richard ,,iii to ,buckingham1 8,i am not in the giving vein to-day40 ,but for one who can interpret the law as it should be interpreted1 there are glory and riches to be had for the asking4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,our ,,moulders ,,of ,,opinion 8,there never was a time10 says ,justice ,brewer1 in the concluding lecture of a series recently delivered by him at ,yale ,university1 8when public opinion was more potent40 ,possibly the saying is true2 but whatever force it may have lies in the application4 ,public opinion may make for a general passivity--an acquiescence in things as they are--quite as much as for a general strenuousness4 ,nowhere1 for instance1 among civilized peoples1 is public opinion more powerful than in a quiet and isolated community1 held fast to certain habitual modes of speech and action4 ,only a brave man1 or a desperate woman1 so environed1 would dare defy the tribal customs4 ,public opinion in these ,united ,states may be more potent than ever before1 but the personal attitude which it supports and encourages becomes more and more one of acquiescence in the existing rgime4 ,a legislative reaction and a judicial reaction are manifested2 and a growing irritation is expressed1 as from time to time those rude disturbers of the public peace1 the social reformers1 come forward with plans for curing imputed evils4 ,social and political quietism becomes our everyday philosophy4 ,an 8air of contentment and enthusiastic cheerfulness 444 characterizes our society10 writes ,professor ,william ,g4 ,sumner1 of ,yale1 in a recent number of the ,independent2 and though the judgment might be somewhat more accurately worded1 he is not far wrong4 ,a keen-eyed observer from ,italy1--,professor ,angelo ,mosso1 of ,turin1--who visited us a few years ago1 gives somewhat similar testimony4 ,the fact astonishes him1 as he confesses1 since he saw much of political and industrial evil which he could not comprehend a democracy enduring2 yet for all that the evidence was convincing4 ,i ,among the causes making for this acquiescence in existing social conditions1 there are three which may be considered here4 ,the first is the one which so strongly impressed ,professor ,mosso4 ,it is the rage for individual exploitation4 ,the imaginations of most men are fired by the spectacle of the few achieving great fortunes2 each believes that a like fortune lies somewhere within his own reach1 and with blind fatuity he tolerates conditions which he instinctively feels to be inequitable1 simply because he expects himself to master them4 8,i believe10 writes ,professor ,mosso1 8that the desire to become wealthy is so strong and powerful in every ,american that1 in order to reserve the opportunity of realizing such desire1 ,americans willingly submit to the continuance of laws which allow such accumulations40 ,it is the petty gambler's faith1 the conviction that1 though everything be against him1 he will somehow 8beat the game40 ,and just as the petty gambler's faith is fostered by the runners and 8cappers0 for faro1 policy1 roulette1 and keno1 so the faith of the industrial underling is fostered by a tremendous trumpeting of the ways and means to worldly 8success40 ,the preaching of 8success0 has become1 in these last five years1 a distinct profession1 honored and well recompensed4 ,a second cause of the prevailing acquiescence in the present rgime applies more particularly to social reformers1 and to those who1 while not actively enlisted as 8come-outers10 do yet sympathize with the activities of their more aggressive brethren4 ,it is a feeling1 born of years of experience in promoting some collective good1 of the hopelessness of achievement4 ,opposed at all points1 frustrated at many1 there comes a time1 sooner or later1 when all but the most resolute reformers are forced to admit that little or nothing can be done4 ,many thereupon fall back into the ranks of the do-nothings and the care-nothings2 while others1 in whom the fire of purpose is not entirely quenched1 reluctantly exchange their radical and comprehensive plans of social changes for more narrow and immediate purposes1--the giving of small charities1 the doing of near-at-hand services1 and the occasional support of a particular public measure4 ,,ii ,a third1 and perhaps the most important1 cause is the continual output from pulpit1 sanctum1 forum1 and college chair1 of our professional moulders of opinion4 ,now not all of this output1 it is freely conceded1 makes for acquiescence2 but the overwhelming mass of it unquestionably does4 ,from these instructors of the people we learn that conditions1 while not perfect1 either are reasonably near to perfection1 or1 if evil1 are not to be corrected except by individual regeneration4 ,we learn of the irrationality or the moral obliquity of discontent2 the viciousness or fanaticism of impertinent persons who seek to change things2 the virtues of obedience2 the obligation of toil 7specifically directed to those who are doing most of the world's work1 for the profit of others71 and of the worth1 benevolence1 and indispensability of our magnates4 ,the denunciation of discontent becomes more common and more emphatic4 ,a plentiful crop of instances is always forthcoming to any one who cares to look for them4 ,the generation of ,rousseau and the following generation of ,jefferson set high hopes for mankind on the faculty of discontent4 ,the past generation1 compromising between theology and evolution1 found in discontent a perpetual factor making for the creation of a better environment4 ,but our present reaction takes us back to the days of the ,stuarts4 ,the magnificent invectives of ,dryden1 voiced in that-- 8full resounding line1 ,the long majestic march and energy divine10 against the sedition and discontent frequently manifested during the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 might serve for a thousand texts for present-day sermons1 lectures1 and editorials4 ,the thought1 common these last hundred years1 that discontent is usually the result of privation1 wrong1 or oppression1 is given over2 and our modern moulders of opinion revert to the notion that it is fostered by ease and comfort4 8,to what would he on quail and pheasant swell ,that even on tripe and carrion could rebel80 asks 8,glorious ,john0 in satirizing his rival ,shadwell4 ,tripe and carrion did not form the usual nourishment for rebellion4 ,we find the same idea constantly echoed in very recent days2 and the demands of organized workmen for better pay are almost invariably regarded in certain intellectual circles as evidences1 not of need1 but of the pride and rebelliousness engendered by an already attained competency4 ,honors are even between churchmen and lay publicists1 when it comes to the denunciation of discontent4 ,the pulpit1 the stump1 the college chair1 and the editorial sanctum are alike busied with its condemnation4 ,perhaps a typical protagonist in the work was the late ,e4 ,l4 ,godkin4 ,the thought recurs again and again in his writings4 8,i must frankly say10 he avers in his essay1 8,social ,classes in the ,republic10 8that ,i know of no more mischievous person than the man who1 in free ,america1 seeks to spread among them the workers the idea that they are wronged and kept down by somebody2 that somebody is to blame because they are not better lodged1 better dressed1 better educated1 and have not easier access to balls1 concerts1 or dinner parties40 ,whereupon1 to make clear his contention1 he tells of the following pathetic little episode3-- 8,two years ago ,i was in one of the ,university ,settlements in ,new ,york1 and was walking through the rooms of the society with one of the members4 ,they were plain and neat and suitable1 and he explained to me that the purpose in furnishing and fitting them up was to show the workingmen the kind of rooms they ought to have #8if justice were done4' ,to tell this to a workingman1 without telling him in what the injustice consisted and who worked it if he had not such rooms1 was1 ,i held1 to be most mischievous40 ,even ,president ,roosevelt1 doubtless impressed by the modern reiteration of the notion1 felt called upon1 in his ,providence speech 7,august #bc;d71 to rebuke discontent1 and incidentally to identify it with envy4 8,not only do the wicked flourish10 he says1 8when the times are such that most men flourish1 but what is worse1 the spirit of envy and jealousy and hatred springs up in the breasts of those who1 though they may be doing fairly well themselves1 yet see others1 who are no more deserving1 doing far better40 ,education1 in the modern view1 is largely responsible for discontent1 and should be restricted4 ,judge ,simeon ,a4 ,baldwin1 of the ,connecticut ,supreme ,court1 and lecturer in the ,yale ,law ,school1 is quite certain upon this point4 ,his 8signed editorial10 in the ,april #ith issue of a ,new ,york newspaper published by the ,yale lecturer on journalism1 expresses a view which is coming to be widely held4 ,our young men1 he notes with great complacency1 are obliged to leave school early1 in order to go to work2 and he thereupon urges that young women also should clip their education at an early age4 8,girls would make better wives and mothers and housekeepers10 he writes1 8if they finished school at from fourteen to sixteen years of age4 ,as it is1 they obtain a smattering of many studies1 which in my opinion cannot do them much good4 ,they are possessed by a spirit of unrest to-day1 and develop ambitions not compatible with the happiest homes40 ,professor ,harry ,thurston ,peck expresses the modern view more succinctly4 ,professor ,peck1 it may be stated for the benefit of the unenlightened1 is an instructor of ,latin in ,columbia ,university4 ,no pent-up ,utica1 however1 contracts his powers2 he has courageously sallied forth from his particular domain and has taken all knowledge for his province4 ,over this province he ranges with unconstrained freedom1 noting what he will1 and1 with something of the 8large utterance of the early gods10 making known to a waiting world his impressions and beliefs4 ,what a great lexicographer said of an amiable poet may be repeated in present praise3 ,he touches nothing that he does not adorn4 ,some intellectual limitations it is possible he may have2 but as a reflector of certain current views obtaining in high places he is probably without a peer4 ,in his article1 8,some ,phases of ,american ,education10 in the ,cosmopolitan magazine a few years ago1 he put the matter in this way3-- 8,linked closely with many other very serious educational mistakes1 and from many points of view by far the most profoundly serious of them all1 is that curious fancy1 which is almost universal among our people1 that education in itself and for all human beings is a good and thoroughly desirable possession4444 ,there is probably in our whole system to-day no principle so fundamentally untrue as this1 and there is certainly none that is fraught with so much social and political peril for the future4 ,for education means ambition1 and ambition means discontent40 ,but1 as ,shakespeare's ,fluellen remarks1 8the phrase is a little variations40 ,all discontent is not the same1 and that which stirs in the bosom of ,professor ,peck must be carefully discriminated from the sort nurtured by plain ,john ,smith4 8,nothing so dainty sweet as lovely melancholy10 sang ,sir ,john ,fletcher2 but what is meet for an ,elizabethan poet or a present-day philosopher may be most unmeet for a common plebeian4 8,now discontent10 continues this pharos of the unenlightened1 8is in itself a divine thing4 ,when it springs up in a strong1 creative intellect1 capable of translating it into actual achievement1 it is the mother of all progress2 but when it germinates in a limited and feeble brain1 it is the mother of unhappiness alone40 ,dr4 ,arthur ,twining ,hadley1 president of ,yale ,university1 also has doubts4 ,his recent book1 8,the ,education of the ,american ,citizen10 might be supposed1 from its title1 to be a plea for the popular diffusion of knowledge4 ,such it is1 in fact1 only the author draws the line at 8sociology and politics and civics and finance40 8,when the plea is urged1 as it so often is10 he writes1 8that they constitute a necessary and valuable training for citizenship1 we are justified in making a distinct protest4 ,except within the narrowest limits1 they do harm rather than good4 ,as ordinarily taught1 444 they tend to prepare the minds of the next generation to look to superficial remedies for political evils1 instead of seeing that the only true remedy lies in the creation of a sound public sentiment40 ,the term1 8superficial remedies for political evils10 means1 in plain words1 social legislation2 and it brings up a second matter upon which our moulders of opinion have made a considerable approach to unanimity4 ,we hear legislation flouted on all sides1 and appeals made for individual regeneration4 ,the matter-of-fact persons who hold that sixty years of factory acts have had more to do with establishing humane conditions in certain quarters of the planet than nineteen hundred years of hortatory appeals to the individual man1 are dismissed with a smile of contempt2 and the declaration is made that most legislation is mischievous1 and that nothing but character counts4 ,mr4 ,godkin was 8far from denying that legislation and political changes have been the direct means of great good10 though he held that 8every good change in legislation or in government has been preceded or brought about by an increase of intelligence1 of reasonableness1 or of brotherly kindness on the part of the people at large40 ,a conclusion1 to say the least1 not overfreighted with historical learning1 since many and perhaps most reformatory laws have been passed by an earnest minority against the active opposition of many1 and despite the stolid passivity of most1 and what mankind has heretofore called social progress has been largely due to the reaction of such laws and like institutions upon individual character4 ,president ,hadley differs somewhat from ,mr4 ,godkin4 ,too much stress1 he believes1 is laid upon the mechanism of government and of industry1 and too little upon the force by which this mechanism is kept at work4 8,not by the axioms of metaphysics on the one hand1 nor by the machinery of legislation on the other10 he writes1 8can we deal with the questions which vex human society4444 ,conscious of its honesty of purpose1 it democracy is impatient of opposition1 and contemptuous of difficulties1 however real4 ,it undertakes a vast amount of regulation of economic and social life in fields where two generations ago a free government would scarce have dared to enter4 ,in these new regulations there are many instances of failure1 and relatively few of success4 ,we have had much infringement of personal liberty1 with little or no corresponding benefit to the community40 ,in ,justice ,brewer's recent volume of ,yale lectures1 also1 there is much regard for character1 and much even for associated work in bettering the life of the nation4 ,but as to legislation as a means of achieving this betterment1 there is a cautious silence4 ,there is the declaration that each man in free ,america is a ruler--glad tidings to the persons ignorant thereof4 ,there are some original lines1-- 8,the moulds of fate ,that shape the ,state ,and make or mar the commonweal10 which1 though somewhat reminiscent of the good-natured ,bottom's lines1-- 8,and ,phibbus' car ,shall shine from far ,and make and mar ,the foolish fates10 do yet body forth the noble summation3-- 8,the crowning fact1 ,the kingliest act ,of ,freedom is the ,freeman's vote60 ,but though the freeman's vote is a kingly prerogative1 there is no suggestion that he shall use it in initiating or passing upon legislation for the collective good4 ,rather the plea is for obedience2 and the warning is of those violators of the public peace1 the labor organizations4 ,so1 too1 ,mr4 ,stimson4 8,the unexpected weakness of democratic government10 he writes1 8is its belief that statutes can amend both nature and human nature40 ,and he rejoices that the judiciary1 convinced1 no doubt1 that neither human nature nor its manifestations can be amended by statutes1 have actively intervened by declaring many laws unconstitutional4 ,he finds1 moreover1 that the general principle which has caused the adverse action of the courts1 is that these statutes have been 8restrictive of private liberty1 of the right of a free citizen to use his own property1 and his own personal powers in such a way as he will1 if so be that he do not injure others40 ,a perspicuous and conclusive judgment1 no doubt1 considering that the very point at issue is the matter of injury to others4 ,he is not satisfied with condemning legislation1 moreover1 but proceeds further to a gentle remonstrance with the classes of persons who have urged certain regulative laws4 ,labor leaders1 he discovers1 distrust experience1 and ,socialists detest lucidity--a brace of acute judgments in the face of the fact that the thing actually rated highest in trade-union circles is experience1 and that whatever the defects of ,socialists or of their system may be1 the signal contributions of the best ,socialist writers to the study of political economy have been lucidity of thought and definiteness of expression4 ,so1 too1 ,professor ,sumner1 ,professor ,walter ,a4 ,wyckoff1 the entertaining author of 8,the ,workers10 and a host of other instructors of the public1 the mere roster of whose names would require several pages of fine print4 ,of the only two safeguards of the dependent classes against complete exploitation--social legislation and the labor society--our moulders of opinion would seem to have taken the job of demolishing the former1 leaving to the magnates themselves the task of attending to the latter4 ,with many if not most of these publicists the criticism is delivered not only at protective laws1 but at the force behind them--democracy4 8,every age10 writes ,professor ,sumner1 8is befooled by the notions which are in fashion in it4 ,our age is befooled by #8democracy4' ,we hear arguments about the industrial organization which are deductions from democratic dogmas1 or which appeal to prejudice by using analogies drawn from democracy to affect sentiment about industrial relations40 ,many of our moulders of opinion elaborate the argument often made in the writings of our literary magnates1 that only men who are themselves possessed of property should have any voice in the disposition of wealth or the regulation of property rights4 ,to justify this view recourse is had to several recently imported dogmas1 fashioned by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,mallock1 author of 8,aristocracy and ,evolution40 ,all increase of wealth1 all advance in knowledge and virtue1 contends ,mr4 ,mallock1 come from an aristocracy--a word which he defines as meaning the 8exceptionally gifted and efficient minority1 no matter what the position in which its members may have been born1 or what the sphere of social progress in which their efficiency shows itself40 ,therefore1 since the efficient have produced everything above the maximum which the ignorant and unskilled workman can produce without this higher aid1 it follows that the efficient should be left in untroubled possession of their holdings4 ,the large assumption among others in ,mr4 ,mallock's argument--that those who efficiently sow and those who richly reap are the same persons--need not concern us here4 ,it is sufficient to point out that his argument has been eagerly taken up by a number of our own moulders of opinion1 fostered and even developed to further conclusions4 ,professor ,peck1 for instance1 rather heroically improving on the spirit1 and not infrequently following the text1 of ,mr4 ,mallock1 puts the matter in this way3-- 8,every really great thing that has been accomplished in the history of man has been accomplished by an aristocracy4 ,it may have called itself a sacerdotal aristocracy1 or a military aristocracy1 or an aristocracy based on birth and blood1 yet these distinctions were but superficial2 for in reality it always meant one thing alone--the community of interest and effort in those whose intellectual force and innate gift of government enabled them to dominate and control the destinies of ,states1 driving in harness the hewers of wood and drawers of water who constitute the vast majority of the human race1 and whose happiness is greater and whose welfare is more thoroughly conserved when governed than when governing40 ,the argument that the gifted produce all1 and the assumption that the wealthy and the gifted are the same persons lead up to the fervid praise of inequality of condition which in recent years is so often heard4 ,our literary magnates began the strain1 doubtless with the motive of self-justification4 ,since then it has been taken up by our professional instructors--from what motive is not precisely known--and the result is a mighty chorus of many voices4 ,says ,professor ,sumner3-- 8,if we could get rid of some of our notions about liberty and equality1 and could lay aside this eighteenth-century philosophy1 according to which human society is to be brought into a state of blessedness1 we might get some insight into the might of the societal organization3 what it does for us and what it makes us do4444 ,if we are willing to be taught by the facts1 then the phenomena of the concentration of wealth which we see about us will convince us that they are just what the situation calls for4 ,they ought to be because they are1 and because nothing else would serve the interests of society4444 ,i often see statements published in which the objectors lay stress upon the great inequalities of fortune1 and having set forth the contrast between rich and poor1 they rest their case4 ,what law of nature1 religion1 ethics1 or the ,state is violated by inequalities of fortune8 ,the inequalities prove nothing40 ,professor ,john ,b4 ,clark1 of ,columbia ,university1 also sees in vast inequalities of fortune the basis of a happy state4 ,aristotle taught differently1 it is true4 8,in human societies10 he wrote1 8extremes of wealth and poverty are the main sources of evil4 ,the one brings arrogance and a lack of capacity to obey2 the other brings slavishness and a lack of capacity to command4 ,where a population is divided into the two classes of very rich and very poor1 there can be no real state2 for there can be no real friendship between the classes1 and friendship is the essential principle of all association40 ,but ,professor ,clark1 touched by prophetic fire1 pictures a new society in which inequality is the great blessing4 8,the world of the near future10 he writes in his recent article on 8,the ,society of the ,future10 8will not be one with inequalities levelled out of it2 and to any persons to whom inequality of possessions seems inherently evil1 this world will not be satisfactory4 ,it will present a condition of vast and ever growing inequality4 ,with a democracy that depends on a likeness of material possessions it will have nothing in common4 ,the rich will continually grow richer1 and the multi-millionnaires will approach the billion-dollar standard4444 ,if an earthly ,eden is to come through competition1 it will come not in spite of1 but by means of1 an enormous increase of inequality of outward possessions40 ,we must hear from ,professor ,peck again--and for the last time4 8,when men by temper and training10 he writes in his recent paper on 8,the ,social ,advantages of the ,concentration of ,wealth10 8come to possess the ability to do large things in this direct and simple way i4e41 the characteristic way1 of the magnates1 they have an immense advantage over those who can work only in committees1 or boards1 or companies1 and they will inevitably dominate them and use them quite at will4444 ,this concentration means1 in the first place and as a first result1 the aggrandizement of individuals2 but in the end it means the wide diffusion of a golden stream through every artery and vein of our national and individual life4 ,america has already been enormously enriched2 yet the actualities of the present are nothing when compared with the potentialities of the future4 ,timid minds which are appalled rather than inspired by the vastness and magnificence of the whole thing shrink back and croak out puling prophecies of evil4 ,they cannot rise to the greatness of it all because they lack the dauntless courage of the typical ,american1 who1 in ,kipling's vivid phrase1 can always-- 8#8,turn a keen1 untroubled face ,home to the instant need of things4'0 ,,iii ,so much for a consensus of some of our notable instructors of the public on things political and social4 ,that these opinions produce a powerful influence on the mass1 no one will deny4 ,the wide respect in which our teachers--particularly our commissioned teachers--are held2 the general recognition of their learning1 their profundity1 their unquestioned liberty to speak what they will1 their insulated freedom from the influences arising out of seigniorial endowments1 compel a popular deference to their judgments4 ,it is1 therefore1 with pained surprise that an ,american reads an uncharitable comment on their ability and learning4 ,such a comment is that which appeared last ,february in the conservative and ably edited ,paris ,temps4 8,it is true10 writes its editor1 8that ,american universities pay great attention to social and political sciences4 ,it is no less true that they have at their disposal considerable financial resources for the publication of reviews4 ,but the question is to know what the reviews and teachings are worth4444 ,i believe myself sufficiently conversant with the matter4 ,by professional duty ,i read1 not everything which is printed on the other side of the ,atlantic concerning these subjects1 but a notable part of the work which is considered the most weighty4 ,with a few honorable exceptions--honorable1 but rare--,i must venture to say that these publications are1 for the most part1 without originality and without any real value4 8,i imagine ,american professors will be the first to feel surprise at the great honor the establishment of a ,french school in ,america which it is proposed to do them4 ,they have a very keen feeling of what they owe to ,european culture4 ,they keep in close touch with all that is published in their respective specialties in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 and ,italy4 ,they profit by such publications1 of which their own are sometimes--let us say things as they are--only adaptations or reflections4 ,many of them have had their intellectual training in old ,europe1 and had1 at their start1 no other ambition than to model themselves on their masters and repeat them4 ,the development of social and political studies is immense--on the surface--in the ,united ,states4 ,in depth it is not quite the same40 ,the ,temps1 it may be remarked1 is not1 on the one hand1 radical1 nor on the other1 anti-democratic or anti-,american2 and so the reasons for its illiberal and discourteous judgment must be left undiscerned4 ,its startling declaration1 that the sociological pronouncements of our distinguished teachers 8are1 for the most part1 without originality and without any real value10 rises to the dignity of a national affront1 and rightly calls for emphatic action from our strenuous ,state ,department4 ,,iv ,it may be doubted if our commissioned teachers exert so great an influence upon opinion as do our newspapers4 8,the newspaper to-day10 said ,archbishop ,ireland recently before the ,national ,educational ,association1 8is preminently the mentor of the people2 it is read by all2 it is believed by nearly all4 ,its influence is paramount2 its responsibility is tremendous40 ,there is much truth in this dictum1 though something of qualification is needed4 ,the newspaper1 though not 8read by all10 nor 8believed by nearly all10 is indeed more widely read than ever before4 ,if the census is to be believed1 the circulation per issue of all daily1 tri-weekly1 semi-weekly1 and weekly publications has grown in the last ten years from #ch1jjj1jjj to #eh1jjj1jjj copies4 ,this is certainly a tremendous showing2 but it is doubtful if the newspapers exert the direct sway over men's minds which was exerted in earlier years4 ,the influence effected is due less to the formal expression of opinion than to the color habitually given by them to the news4 ,the eager question1 8,what does old ,greeley say80 which was once so often heard1 was a tribute to the power of an individual in whose rectitude and wisdom many thousands put a rarely wavering faith4 ,many a lesser editor had also his reverent disciples1 who believed as he taught and voted as he urged4 ,but in our day the direct appeal of the newspaper is more hesitatingly obeyed4 ,frequently it has happened1 in municipal elections1 that a candidate or candidates have been elected in the face of an almost solid opposition of the press4 ,a newspaper may be patronized for this or that special feature by persons who pay no attention to its editorials1 by others who read them merely to learn an opposing view of things1 and by others still--a far larger class--who1 reading between the lines1 choose for themselves what to rely upon and what to doubt4 ,all the larger cities1 and perhaps most of the smaller1 have instances of newspapers which1 appealing to some special interest1 secure a considerable number of readers antipathetic to the political views expressed4 ,it happens that radicals often read conservative publications1 and that conservatives sometimes look upon radical print4 ,the faithful devotees of a certain mercurial ,new ,york newspaper probably read it as eagerly in #ahhd1 when it supported ,general ,butler for the ,presidency1 as in #ahib1 when it supported ,mr4 ,cleveland1 or in #ahif1 when it went over to ,major ,mc,kinley4 ,but reliance upon editorial opinions is a wavering faith4 ,a wiser discrimination is employed1 a more cynical scepticism is maintained4 ,when the ,new ,york newspaper which boasts of printing all the fit news publishes in its editorial columns the dictum that 8the oversupply of labor in the anthracite region is due to the great attractiveness of the wages and the conditions of work10 none but the willing are convinced2 and so for all the misjudgments1 ignorant or deliberate1 that are daily put forth by newspapers of all classes there are scoffers and sceptics as well as credulous believers4 ,for the recognition has become general that the average newspaper is owned and operated as a commercial property4 ,as ,mr4 ,brooke ,fisher1 in a recent number of the ,atlantic1 writes1 the days when the editor hired the publisher are gone2 it is now the publisher who hires the editor1 and the counting-room determines the policy4 ,advertising is the material mainstay1 and the merchants and magnates who have largesse to distribute must be humored4 8,publishers10 says the interesting census bulletin on 8,printing and ,publishing10 8are depending more on advertising and less on subscriptions and sales for financial return40 ,whether it be the sensational 8yellows10 or the less sensational but characterless 8pinks10 or the staid and ponderous 8grays0 of the press1 the same rule holds4 ,even the religious journals make a like appeal4 8,a superfluity of religious weeklies10 says the best-known publication of that class1 giving itself a left-handed pat on the shoulder1 8with no other basis for existence than sectional or partisan pride1 will not be tolerated nor supported by the laity2 nor will advertisers much longer fail to discriminate between religious journals that are progressive meaning1 for example1 itself and are reaching well-to-do and intelligent people1 and those which are not40 ,statements of enormous sales1 of vast subscription lists1 are published in glaring type1 and the phrase 8greatest circulation in the city10 or ,state1 or nation1 or world1 is trumpeted to the ears of the buyers of advertising space4 ,there is still an appeal to the giver of largesse even when a publication cannot honestly boast of great circulation2 the argument is then one of a 8select0 patronage--of 8fit audience1 though few10 but inferentially of great purchasing power4 ,the pressure upon editorial policy of this deference to the advertiser is constant and effective1 and the result is apparent to most readers4 ,even the more rampant of the 8yellows10 which daily shriek against political and social injustice1 are affected by it4 ,as mournful a philosopher as ,heraclitus might have found food for humor in the manuvres of the metropolitan newspapers some six years ago during the agitation for the passage of the ,andrews bill4 ,this measure required seats for women workers in all mercantile establishments4 ,now it happened that the heads of the department stores were in nearly every instance violently opposed to the bill1 and it also happened that the amount of advertising from the great stores cut a very pretty figure in the income of the average metropolitan newspaper4 ,to complete the dilemma the bill won great favor from the public4 ,how the masterful purveyors of news and opinions to the people managed to extricate themselves from the difficulty1 would make too long a story in the telling4 ,but that they triumphantly surmounted it1 is a matter of history4 ,with the advertiser in so commanding a position1 it is not needed that a newspaper shall be owned by a magnate in order that it shall faithfully reflect the special interests of 8business40 ,yet that seigniorial funds are back of many of our important newspapers is a fact which to a person of intelligence needs no proof4 ,the census bulletin1 revealing the characteristic optimism of the compilers of the ,twelfth ,census1 will have it that individual ownership is still the rule4 ,the proportion of individually owned and operated publications is given as #fc4c per cent1 of partnership concerns as #ai4g per cent1 and of corporate concerns as #ag per cent4 8,these figures indicate10 we are told1 8the complete absence of the extended combinations and consolidations so frequently encountered in other industries40 ,yet there are combinations1 whether individually or jointly owned1--the ,hearst newspapers in ,san ,francisco1 ,chicago1 and ,new ,york1 the ,ochs newspapers of ,chattanooga1 ,new ,york1 and ,philadelphia1 the ,belo newspapers of ,texas1 and those of the ,scripps-,mc,rae concern in the middle ,west4 ,only this last summer public announcement was made of a projected combination--under the control of ,mr4 ,p4 ,f4 ,collier1 and with a capital of #a1jjj1jjj--of a large number of country newspapers in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the project has for the time been given up1 but others of a like nature may fairly be expected for the future4 ,moreover1 some of the features of the industrial combinations--identity of product1 for instance--are discoverable in the so-called coperative newspapers1 which make use of plate matter or 8patent-insides40 ,more than half of all the periodicals of the country are in this class4 ,finally1 the chief commodity of newspapers of all classes--the news--is a trust product1 a commodity in which the ,associated ,press serves the function of gatherer of raw material and manufacturer1 and the periodical the function of assorter and retailer4 ,but the census figures reveal little or nothing to the point4 ,seigniorial backing1 when actually given1 is not usually made visible in the form of investment in newspaper stock4 ,it is not to the best interests of the purveyor of news and opinions that it should be2 for the public1 with a fine sense of its own independence of judgment1 requires that seigniorial influence shall be less obviously shown4 ,the odor of ,standard oil1 the fumes of ,american tobacco1 have proved fatal to more than one newspaper enterprise1 and even the taint of railroad support has been shown to be harmful4 ,there is thus the greatest need of discretion in arranging the nominal ownership2 and the result is1 that in many cases it is easier to discover the actual ownership of a policy game than the actual ownership of a newspaper4 ,the curious can but surmise and wonder4 ,when a chaste and well-ordered daily publication gives to a particular magnate's house-warming the space of a column and a half1 while its rivals--even the 8yellows10 which deal in that sort of thing--consider the event worth no more than a half-column2 or when another magnate is persistently 8boomed0 for a high office1 or when for another a franchise grant is skilfully proposed1 one may put two and two together1 and apply the natural inferences4 ,inferences1 however1 are not proof1 and the conclusion must remain doubtful4 ,but whether through the influence of potential advertising or of secret ownership1 the magnate1 or the magnate class1 exercises a large measure of control1 and the matter which appears is that which1 on the whole1 is agreeable to seigniorial minds4 ,the coal magnates may be criticised1 but it is not so much on account of their refusal to grant concessions to their men as for their failure to operate in defiance of their men4 ,so1 too1 the trusts come in for occasional rough handling2 but it is the abstract trust that is at fault3 the individual trust usually goes scathless4 ,certain of the 8yellows0 furnish some exception to the general rule1 though here1 too1 the influence of the great advertiser is shown1 and one may vainly read the columns of the most radical of the anti-monopoly dailies for a suggestion that the great department stores are other than abodes of comfort and joy for all the souls employed therein4 ,such is the newspaper bias1 and the product of the hired writer must conform4 ,whether editing news or writing opinions1 he must recognize the divinity that hedges in the magnate class4 ,it was a savage1 and in some respects extravagant1 picture of the function of the hired newspaper worker which a brilliant journalist1 now deceased1 gave to the world a few years ago3-- 8,there is no such thing in ,america as an independent press1 unless it is out in the country towns4 ,i am paid for keeping honest opinions out of the paper ,i am connected with4 ,other editors are paid similar salaries for doing similar things4 ,if ,i should allow honest opinions to be printed in one issue of my paper1 before twenty-four hours my occupation1 like ,othello's1 would be gone4 ,the man who would be so foolish as to write honest opinions would be out on the street hunting for another job4 ,the business of a ,new ,york journalist is to distort the truth1 lie outright1 to pervert1 to vilify1 to fawn at the feet of mammon1 and to sell his country and his race for his daily bread1 or for about the same thing1 his salary4 ,we are the tools of vassals of the rich men behind the scenes4 ,we are jumping-jacks4 ,they pull the strings1 and we dance4 ,our time1 our talents1 our lives1 our possibilities1 are all the property of other men4 ,we are intellectual prostitutes40 ,but though in certain respects extravagant1 it has yet faithful and accurate touches which are recognizable by every undeluded person who earns his living in the employment of the daily press4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 there are not many of the undeluded2 for the recoil upon themselves of the character of their tasks does not1 to say the least1 sharpen the edge of conscience1 and the service of a few years is generally believed to be effective in indurating the finest sensibilities4 ,it is not1 as has been said1 so much through their editorial expressions as through their coloring of the news that the weeklies and dailies mould the opinions of the mass4 ,a growing scepticism averts the former influence2 but against the latter there is no prophylactic4 ,news is assorted1 pruned1 improved1 to accord with a predetermined policy4 ,from an anti-imperialist publication one gets small notion of other happenings in the ,philippines than devastations1 rapes1 battle1 murder1 and sudden death2 and from an administration organ one may learn only of ,peace piping her 8languid note10 of the diffusion of education1 and the progress of industry1 varied only now and then by slight outbreaks from a few ladrones4 ,in the far more important matter of the irrepressible class conflict here at home1 like influences color the news2 and as ninety-nine out of every one hundred periodicals support1 in greater or less degree1 the existing rgime1 the impress upon the public mind is overwhelming4 ,some of the 8yellows0 set up a bar to the universal pervasion of this influence2 and the activities of the social reformers1 through their weekly journals1 their tracts1 and their public discussions1 somewhat affect it4 ,but1 on the whole1 these effects are but a ripple on the deep and powerful stream that fertilizes the opinions of the public4 ,v ,our laudatory stump orators have their measure of influence on social thought1 no doubt2 but it is one that surely declines1 and the subject may be passed with but scant mention4 ,likewise1 the heterogeneous small fry of seigniorial retainers in the various walks of life1 whose business it is1 in season and out1 to glorify the prevailing rgime1 may be noticed and dismissed in a sentence4 ,the influence of the pulpit1 however1 is a subject that requires some attention4 ,this influence1 while greater than that of either of the groups just mentioned1 is unquestionably less than that of either the editors or the professional lay publicists4 ,among practical men in the upper orders there is a widespread prejudice against pastoral interference in social and political matters1 unless it be directed solely to seigniorial justification4 ,the shoemaker should stick to his last1 runs the adage2 and no less it is urged that the pastor should stick to his text4 ,he should1 furthermore1 discriminate and sort his texts1 making careful avoidance of the ethical precepts of ,jesus4 ,for these are needlessly disturbing to the code that prevails in commerce and politics1 and both politicians and magnates resent their citation4 ,a future 8popular0 version of the ,bible may eliminate them1 and thus do away with a fertile cause of discord2 but until that is done the better part of pastoral valor will continue to lie in discretion4 ,the sentiments of the politicians and the magnates toward the pulpit filter down to the common mass of the laity1 and still further weaken pastoral influence4 ,but weakened as it has been1 it is yet felt by the magnates to be an instrument of social control which by proper use can be made to perform a needed service4 ,a constant pressure is1 therefore1 brought to bear upon pastoral utterances4 ,it is the 8safe0 men who are in most request to fill pulpits2 and it is the 8safe0 men who draw to their churches the largest endowments4 ,under the influence of this pressure there has gradually been developed a code of pulpit ethics1 outside the limits of which no prudent minister will dare range4 ,the minister may be 8long0 on spirituality1 but he must be 8short0 on social precepts4 ,he may preach faith1 hope1 and charity1 and also the future punishment of the unregenerate1 so long as unregeneracy is depicted in general terms2 but he must avoid1 with the nicest delicacy1 the mention of tax-dodging and stock-watering as punishable sins4 ,he may denounce violence1 and for a modern instance he may cite the occasional riotous conduct of striking workmen2 but let him at his peril cite such venial backslidings from grace as the blowing up of a competitor's refinery1 the seizure of a street for track-laying1 or the employment of armed mercenaries for a private purpose4 ,political evils may be denounced in the abstract1 and the bribery of voters in the concrete4 ,the latter is an offence usually committed by irreverent ward politicians1 and may justly receive1 without injury to the ,state and to society1 the scathing anathemas of the pulpit4 ,but he that in a moment of inadvertence miscalls by the name bribes the 8gentle rewards10 the 8gratuities10 as they were known in ,bacon's time1 which magnates frequently bestow upon legislators and judges1 had best resign his pastorate and seek some other field4 ,nor must any slight be thrown upon any of the conventional practices in the ordinary daily conduct of 8business40 ,these are hallowed by custom1 and are beyond criticism4 ,such a declaration as that of a certain minister in a recent number of the ,christian ,endeavor ,world--8,what we call ,napoleonic genius in business is sometimes simply whitewashed highway robbery on a gigantic scale0--verges closely upon contumacy4 ,it is relieved slightly by the qualifying 8sometimes10--much virtue in your 8sometimes10 as the immortal bard would remark1--but for all that1 it is a dangerous utterance1 and one apt to cause its enunciator grave trouble4 ,but pastoral pronouncements on social questions are permitted--nay1 welcomed--if only they properly rebuke the occasional discontent and unquiet of the masses and the aggression of those foes of order1 the labor unions4 ,such a pronouncement1 for instance1 is that of the ,rev4 ,lyman ,abbott1 put forth in his recent philosophical disquisition1 8,the ,rights of ,man40 8,trades-unions 444 are ruled over generally10 he declares1 8by a directory scarcely less absolute than that which governed the revolutionists in the day of ,mirabeau40 ,this is unexceptionably decorous1 and runs no risk whatever of seigniorial censorship4 ,the recent coal strike brought forth a large number of pastoral utterances of a like character1 which must ultimately redound to the great glory of the declaimers4 ,the good ,bishop ,potter1 in his address before the ,diocesan convention in ,new ,york ,city1 ,september #bd1 felt called upon to rebuke envy and hatred and to deny the existence of social classes in the republic3 8,wealth is unequally distributed1 we are told1 and the sophistries that are born of envy and hatred are hawked about the streets to influence1 in a land which refuses to enthrone one class above another1 the passions of the less clever or thrifty or industrious against those who are more so40 ,the eminent ,dr4 ,ethelbert ,talbot1 ,bishop of the ,episcopal ,church in ,central ,pennsylvania1 according to his public letter of ,september #bh1 saw in the coal strike only a demand upon the part of the miners 8that the operators shall no longer manage their own business40 8,how can the question of whether a man has a right to conduct his own business10 he asks1 with painfully defective forethought for what subsequently happened1 8be submitted to arbitration80 ,the no less eminent ,rev4 ,dr4 ,newell ,dwight ,hillis1 in his recent address before the ,chicago ,society of ,new ,york1 demanded a wall of bayonets from ,washington to ,wilkesbarre4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,minot ,j4 ,savage of the ,church of the ,messiah also called for arms instead of arbitration1 and the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,huntington of ,grace ,church echoed the good ,bishop ,talbot's opinion1 and 8from the point of view of simple justice0 could not see 8that we have any reason to blame the mine-owners for refusing to allow the management of their own business to be taken out of their hands40 ,from ,calvary1 too1--or at least from the ,calvary ,baptist ,church of ,new ,york1--came a further demand for soldiery4 8,these labor leaders10 declared the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mac,arthur1 8with their large salaries1 are forcing the men to be idle4 ,they are more tyrannical than the ,czar of ,russia40 ,these are but samples of the 8safe0 utterances on social questions--the kind that involve no penalties1 but on the contrary1 reap sure harvests of glory and recompense4 ,occasionally from too close and exclusive reading of the synoptic gospels1 with their recital of ,jesus' specific teachings on social matters1 a young and ardent minister loses his perspective1 and seeing over-large the industrial and social evils of his time1 seeks to remedy them4 ,usually1 however1 the mood is but transitory1 and a few months1 or at most a few years1 witness the reaction4 ,renunciation of heretical doctrines follows1 and ultimately the errant is restored to the fold of the 8safe40 ,but let no one imagine that in seigniorial halls his sins are remembered against him4 ,on the contrary1 there is more joy over the recovery of one strayed sheep than over ninety and nine that remain faithful4 ,sometimes1 it must be conceded1 there are to be found those who refuse to be forced or cajoled1 and who hold their intrepid way in defiance of power4 ,the ,world assails them1 in the words of ,matthew ,arnold1 with its perpetual challenge and warning3-- 8#8,behold1' she cries1 #8so many rages lulled2 ,so many fiery spirits quite cooled down4 ,look how so many valors1 long undulled1 ,after short commerce with me fear my frown4'0 ,but they fear not her frown2 and they teach the social precepts of their ,master regardless of material consequences4 ,what those consequences are1 the average man knows full well4 ,they are ostracism1 a reduction1 sooner or later1 to the poorest livings2 a hemming in and constraining to the narrowest fields of effort and influence--in a word1 the full sum of the forceful rebuke which it is possible for the magnate class and its retainers1 in the present state of society1 to deliver4 ,in the more developed state of the future the rebuke will be yet more emphatic2 for the influence of the pulpit1 whatever it may be in degree1 must in kind be confirmatory of the right of the magnate class to rule4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,general ,,social ,,changes ,the historic props of class rule1 according to ,professor ,edward ,a4 ,ross1 in his recent volume1 8,social ,control10 have been force1 superstition1 fraud1 pomp1 and prescription4 ,our present seigniorial class makes use1 with fine discrimination as time and occasion require1 of each of these means of support1 though unquestionably it sets the greatest value upon the last named4 ,force is employed less openly1 less obviously2 decreasingly by the direct imposition of the magnates1 increasingly through their ingenious manipulation of the powers of the ,state4 ,the superstition latent in most minds proves now1 as ever1 a means of ready recourse2 but though supernatural sanction to the acts and authority of the magnates is cunningly deduced and volubly preached from a thousand pulpits1 the prop fails somewhat as a constant and sure reliance4 ,even testimony so authoritative as that of ,president ,baer to the effect that the ,great ,first ,cause had intrusted to himself and his co-magnates the control of the business interests of the country1 has been flouted in a number of places4 ,the notion of supernatural sanctions1 as most people know1 and as ,professor ,goldwin ,smith has repeatedly taken pains to point out1 is losing its hold upon the reason of mankind2 and though it still has1 and will ever have1 a certain potency1 its best days are passed4 ,as for fraud1 both of class against class1 and individual against individual1 attempts to practise it no doubt increase2 but the tooth-and-claw struggle of the last generation has developed and sharpened the wits of the combatants1 so that it tends to become a less profitable game4 ,he would be a sharper indeed1 according to the proverb1 who among the ,turks of the ,negropont1 the ,jews of ,salonika1 or the ,greeks of ,athens could cheat his fellow3 each knows by heart all the tricks and devices of which the others are capable4 ,matters are not yet at such a stage in free ,america3 great frauds1 both of the group and of the individual1 are still practised4 ,but the almost infinite possibilities of other days have been sadly restricted by the operation of those natural laws which tend to fit beings to their environment4 ,pomp1 too1 is less a factor of control than in past times4 ,it has a powerful grip on the imaginations of the poor1 as the columns of our 8yellow0 journals1 which devote so large a space to the ceremonies of the great1 amply attest2 but though it charms the more1 it deceives the less4 ,it interests1 it delights2 but it does not overawe or subdue4 ,i ,it is by prescription--by a constant appeal to the sanctity of custom1 a constant preaching of the validity of vested rights1 and of the beauty1 order1 inevitability1 and righteousness of things as they are--that the magnate class wins to its support the suffrages of the people4 ,other influences aid1 but this one is dominant4 ,as ,professor ,ross pertinently writes3-- 8,those who have the sunny rooms in the social edifice have 444 a powerful ally in the suggestion of ,things-as-they-are4 ,with the aid of a little narcotizing teaching and preaching1 the denizens of the cellar may be brought to find their lot proper and right1 to look upon escape as an outrage upon the rights of other classes1 and to spurn with moral indignation the agitator who would stir them to protest4 ,great is the magic of precedent1 and like the rebellious ,helots1 who cowered at the sight of their masters' whips1 those who are used to dragging the social chariot will meekly open their calloused mouths whenever the bit is offered them40 ,the magnates1 as has been shown1 brook small interference with prevailing customs4 ,their near dependents1 retainers1 and 8poor relations0 think as they think1 and feel as they feel2 and the great majority of the professional moulders of opinion1 drawing their inspiration from above1 preach and teach as the magnates would have them4 ,the general social passivity following the pressure of all these influences upon the public mind is as certain and inescapable as a mathematical conclusion4 ,,ii ,a powerful auxiliary to the preaching of the sanctity of custom is the extolling of individual 8success40 ,at the very time when socio-industrial processes are settling to a fixed routine and socio-industrial forms to a fixed status1--when day by day there is found less room at the top and more room at the bottom1--the chorus of exhortation to the men of the land to bestir themselves reaches its highest pitch4 ,meddle not with custom and the law1 is the injunction2 leave those to abler and wiser heads--meaning1 of course1 the present formulators and manipulators thereof4 ,meddle not with things as they are1 but while your companions sleep1 8toil upward in the night10 and carve out a career for yourself among the stars4 ,put no faith in general social changes1 except such as result from the combined effect of each unit concerning himself solely with his own material salvation4 ,there is no social betterment without precedent individual betterment1 it is urged4 8,you cannot make a bad man good by legislation10 is the admonitory adage1 and 8,you cannot make a poor man rich by legislation0 is its twin4 ,if certain persons hold to the theory that corrective laws have a definite reaction upon character1 and that in every civilization worthy the name there are social institutions1 founded in law1 which are immeasurably in advance of the general average of sanity1 sobriety1 and honesty of the citizenship1 such persons are but dreamers1 and are not to be taken too seriously4 ,so1 too1 with the dictum regarding the statutory enhancement of riches4 ,there are those who insinuate that it is heard most often from the lips of the industrial magnates1 the majority of whom are living examples of the fact that riches may be garnered by means of tariffs and other privilege-giving laws2 and from the laissez-faire tariff reformers1 whose reiterated argument against protective duties is that they are law-given privileges by which the few gain wealth at the expense of the many4 ,but persons who question this profound adage are unsophisticated4 ,they fail to discriminate properly4 ,the adage is one which1 like a simile or metaphor1 should not be stretched too far4 ,it has its true and legitimate bearing only when it is applied to the very poor4 ,personal endeavor toward the goal of 8success0 is the urgent exhortation4 ,scarcely one of the magnates who have recently entered literature1 or who1 avoiding that province1 have on occasion unbosomed themselves to the interviewer1 but takes pains to declare how numerous and how mighty are the possibilities in the path of the energetic4 ,all that is needed1 according to most of the seigniorial recipes1 are brains and health2 honesty1 it is true1 is often included as an ingredient in the compound1 but its mention is possibly ironical1 and need not concern us4 ,brains and health are thus the two things needful2 and though pursuing ,satan may gather in1 with his drag-net1 a vast army of the hindmost1 the fortunate possessors of these two boons will inevitably forge to the front in the headlong race4 ,it is by no accident that this particular counsel from the magnates is heard now more frequently than any other4 ,it is one that of course has been given in all times2 but it has never been given with such frequency and unction as now4 ,consciously or subconsciously1 it is an expression of class feeling--a revelation of the community of interests and purposes of a particular division of our society4 ,in whatever cases its utterance is prompted by a general social motive1 that motive is the defence of class control4 ,it is counsel that makes for the acquiescence of the lower orders and the increased security of the upper4 8,the heaving and straining of the wretches pent up in the hold of the slaver is less10 writes ,professor ,ross again1 8if now and then a few of the most redoubtable are let up on deck4 ,likewise the admitting of a few brave1 talented1 or successful commoners into the charmed circle above has a wonderful effect in calming the rage and envy of the exploited1 and thereby prolonging the life of the parasitic system40 ,this counsel of endeavor1 promulgated by the few who have striven and 8succeeded10 is thus a social sedative of great efficacy4 ,the professional moulders of opinion take their cue from these exhortations of the magnates1 improve1 elaborate1 and redistribute them4 ,the professors1 the editors1 and the orators lead1 and the hortatory pronouncements of the pulpit follow closely4 ,the ,carpenter of ,nazareth1 it is true1 held other views of 8success02 but his precepts would seem to have gone out of fashion in the fanes and tabernacles ostensibly devoted to his worship4 ,with all ranks and conditions ,success becomes the great god2 and as though there were not already priests and votaries enough for his proper worship1 a special class of publications has recently arisen1 which serve as his vowed and consecrated ministers4 ,these teach to the devout but unsophisticated followers of the great god the particular means best adapted to win his grace2 how his frown may be averted2 or1 if his anger be kindled1 by what penances and other rites he is to be propitiated4 ,they chant the praises and recite the life-incidents of those who have been most conspicuously blessed1 and to all the rest of mankind they shout1 8,follow our counsel1 and some day you shall be even like unto these40 ,it is a glittering lure1 and it is eagerly pursued4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 not without doubts and misgivings2 for a recognition that 8all the gates are thronged with suitors10 that 8all the markets overflow10 and that the settling and hardening of socio-industrial processes has already begun1 becomes more general1 and leads many to essay the trial of fortune's pathway only as a desperate and forlorn adventure4 ,but these are the exceptions2 the majority are still to be caught by limed twigs4 ,the gods denied mankind many gifts1 and attached hard conditions to most of those which they granted4 ,but for all their withholding of certain gifts and their tainting of others1 they sought to compensate by giving an extra allowance of credulity4 ,,iii ,not only by the showering of precepts1 by the encouragement of individual effort1 and by the dangling of more or less illusory prizes before the wistful multitude does the ruling class maintain its hold4 ,it invites1 to some extent1 a participation in the harvest4 ,the growth of the shareholding class1 of which mention has already been made1 is by no means wholly fortuitous4 ,new companies of small initial capital1 and with somewhat dubious chances in the great struggle1 may be glad enough to market their shares wheresoever they can2 but something of seigniorial grace and condescension1 though not entirely unmixed with calculating foresight1 is apparent in the opening of opportunities for small investment in the larger and more stable corporations4 ,mr4 ,john ,b4 ,c4 ,kershaw1 in the ,fortnightly ,review for ,may1 #aijj1 gives an interesting account of this fostering of share-investment in ,england4 ,the industrial magnates1 he says1 saw that the best policy for preventing the growth of a public sentiment favoring the encroachments of labor would be to increase the number of bourgeoisie interested in industrial affairs4 ,accordingly they encouraged popular share-buying1 with the result that 8a large and increasing proportion of the general public is now financially involved in all industrial struggles1 and our manufacturers feel assured that the danger lest the workers should be backed by a solid and enthusiastic public opinion in their demands for shorter hours or increased pay no longer exists40 ,as in ,england1 so also here4 ,the movement toward corporate ownership is probably more pronounced in the ,united ,states than in the older country1 and it has been equally encouraged from above4 ,joint-stock concerns increased in ,england from #icdd in #ahhe to #be1bfg in #ahih4 ,in ,massachusetts1 the ,state in which the preparation of statistics most nearly approaches the methods of science1 corporations are reported to have increased during the years #ahhe-ie by more than #gg per cent4 ,as for shareholders1 the nine principal manufacturing industries of ,massachusetts for the same period show percentages of increase ranging from #ac4hg in tapestry to #fcg4gd in leather1 saddles1 and harness4 ,the entire country has shown a marked growth in the number of this class1 and it would seem that no one is too poor to hold a share in some corporation4 ,indeed1 to read the arguments of the legal retainers of the magnates in the ,income ,tax case1 and in the various trust cases that from time to time arise1 one would think that the main body of the shareholders of the nation was composed of workingmen1 widows1 and orphans4 ,in no time since the prophet ,ezekiel's day have there been uttered words of such tender consideration for the poor and needy1 the widow and the orphan1 and of such bitter denunciation for their would-be despoilers as were tearfully put forth in opposing the income tax4 ,a great number of shareholders in a particular company would seem1 on first thought1 to be something of a nuisance4 ,unquestionably they would represent a wide range of conflicting views and antagonistic purposes1 all bearing upon the one problem of the proper operation of the company's property2 and would thus give salient instances of that unwisdom which is too often found in a multitude of counsellors4 ,at least this is the seigniorial argument against national collectivism--an argument which one might naturally suppose to be quite as applicable to the particular collectivism of the stock company4 ,but it does not so apply2 the solid advantages of diffused shareholding in assuring general public sanction to the acts of the magnates outweigh the confusion and danger which are alleged to lie in public ownership4 ,the social and political effect of this general participation in the ownership of industries may be readily observed by all but the blind4 8,if the truth were known10 wrote that keen-witted financier1 ,mr4 ,russell ,sage1 in a magazine article published last ,may1 8concentration of wealth is popular with the masses40 ,partners in the great enterprises1 the multitude of petty shareholders are led more and more to consider economic questions from the employers' standpoint4 ,in the controversies between labor and capital ten years ago the average citizen was but an onlooker1 sometimes a weak partisan of capital1 but very often a neutral1 with a strong latent sympathy for the 8under dog40 ,to-day1 thanks to his holding of a single share in the steel corporation or of two or three shares in some street railway company1 he is an employer1 one of the men 8to whom ,god1 in ,his infinite wisdom1 has given the control of the property interests of the country40 ,he sees1 thinks1 and feels as a member1 however humble1 of the employing class2 and what the magnates think and do is to him all the law and the prophets4 8,bound by gold chains about the feet0 of his feudatory lords1 he is at the same time a sharer in their responsibilities and a faithful retainer in their service4 ,,iv ,it would be idle to declare that all the tendencies make toward acquiescence4 ,just as in the atmosphere a prevailing drift of the wind is accompanied by cross currents1 flurries1 and rotatory motions1 so the dominant tendency discoverable in social industry is qualified by many complex processes4 ,of the cross currents here to be briefly noted1 some are but trifling1 while others undoubtedly reveal a certain force and constancy4 ,a small part of the public is ever in a state of ferment over imputed social evils1 and at rare times this ferment becomes general4 ,recurring labor troubles indicate that the spirit of resistance1 if it really be dying1 dies hard4 ,strikes of the magnitude of those at ,homestead and in the ,tennessee mines in #ahib1 at ,chicago and other railroad centres in #ahid1 the several anthracite coal strikes of #ahig1 #aijj1 and #aijb1 and the steel strike of #aija prove that organized labor has not wholly succumbed to the encompassing forces about it4 ,the remarkable growth in numbers1 these last two years1 of the unions composing the ,american ,federation of ,labor1 is confirmatory testimony4 ,radical political movements1 furthermore1 have not been wanting4 ,the ,socialists have increased their voting strength in the nation from some #bjjj ballots in #ahhh to upward of #acj1jjj in #aijj4 ,the ,farmers' ,alliance made tremendous headway in the election of #ahij1 and its political successor1 the ,people's party1 secured by fusion more than #a1jjj1jjj votes in #ahib and nearly #b1jjj1jjj in #ahid4 8,labor0 mayors and even ,socialist mayors have been elected in several cities1 and the polling of #ajf1gba votes for ,samuel ,m4 ,jones for ,governor of ,ohio in #ahii was a truly remarkable showing of the residual independence of the citizenship4 ,there are also general social movements to chronicle4 ,reform societies and clubs are occasionally heard of2 arbitration movements have met with some favor2 there has been a considerable growth in the number of university and college settlements2 and anti-trust conferences and things of that sort have frequently met1 talked1 and dispersed4 ,indeed1 all of us at times grumble and find fault with general conditions4 ,even ,mr4 ,russell ,sage1 in the face of his exultant panegyric on the beneficence of combination1 has very recently given to the press a statement denouncing the further consolidation of industry1 and predicting1 in case his words are not heeded1 8widespread revolt of the people and subsequent financial ruin unequalled in the history of the world40 ,though only a few of us are irreconcilable at all times1 all of us are disaffected sometimes--especially when our particular interests are pinched4 ,we talk threateningly of instituting referendums to curb excessive power1 of levying income taxes1 or of compelling the ,government to acquire the railroads and the telegraphs4 ,we subscribe to newspapers and other publications which criticise the acts of the great corporations1 and we hail as a new ,gracchus the ardent reformer who occasionally comes forth for a season to do battle for the popular cause4 ,v ,it must be confessed1 however1 that this revolt is1 for the most part1 sentimental2 it is a mental attitude only occasionally transmutable into terms of action4 ,it is1 moreover1 sporadic and flickering2 it dies out1 after a time1 and we revert to our usual moods1 concerning ourselves with our particular interests1 and letting the rest of the world wag as it will4 ,the specific social reaction of the last few years has been especially marked4 ,it has shown itself in the weakening or disruption of radical political movements1 in the more hesitant attitude of the trade-unionists1 in the decline of factory legislation1--in fact1 of all legislation tending to the protection of the weaker and the regulation of the stronger1--and in a general feeling of the futility of social effort4 ,the ,anti-imperialists will have it that this admitted reaction is due to the ,south ,african and ,philippine wars1 to a lust of empire and a contempt for the rights of weaker peoples4 ,it is a pretty theory1 but unfortunately it has small basis in chronology4 ,for the reaction had already become apparent before either war was waged4 ,the date of its beginning may be variously guessed at2 but it is probable that the time assigned to it in ,chapter ,v--somewhere within the two years #ahif-ig--;is not far wrong4 ,before that time a very large part of the public could occasionally be interested in social measures and movements1 and in social literature4 ,thousands of even the most hardened philistines read ,mr4 ,george's 8,progress and ,poverty10 ,mr4 ,bellamy's 8,looking ,backward10 and ,mr4 ,kidd's 8,social ,evolution40 ,and as for that minor section of the public1 the social reformers1 there was then to be found among them a radicalism of belief1 a definiteness of aim1 an ardency and determination of spirit that are sadly wanting now4 ,doubtless to every one of these1 as he ruefully compares the two periods1 there recurs the sentiment of the ,wordsworthian recollection1-- 8,bliss was it in that dawn to be alive1 ,but to be young was very heaven40 ,while in the bosom of every devotee of ,things-as-they-are there rises the sentiment of thankfulness that the mass of the people have learned the wisdom of letting well enough alone4 ,political radicalism reached its culminating point in the election of #ahif4 ,despite certain foolish and mischievous notions embodied in the two radical platforms of that year1 the combined movement was yet a consistent and unified attack upon class rule4 ,the elections of the next two years revealed a waning of ,populist and ,democratic strength1 and in #aijj a fine sense of caution prompted the ,fusionists to subordinate the industrial demands of their platforms to the issue of ,imperialism4 ,the ,socialists1 it is true1 usually increase their vote2 but the admitted fact of a great growth of ,socialist conviction throughout the land makes these slight increases at the polls appear but trivial1 and only further confirms the view that such radicalism is sentimental rather than potential4 ,anti-trust conferences are not without an element of humor2 at least1 they are the cause of much humor in outsiders2 and the widely heralded arbitration court of the ,national ,civic ,federation breaks down on the very occasion when most is expected of it--that of the anthracite coal strike4 ,organized labor1 despite its greater numerical strength1 is far less aggressive than of old2 and except in isolated instances1 it observes a caution which would have further distinguished ,fabius4 ,as for the growth of college settlements1 the fact is only an added proof of reaction4 ,they do a great good1 unquestionably2 but their basis is philanthropy and not social adjustment4 ,as a people1 we have heard enough1 for the time1 about social problems1 and prefer to interest ourselves in other matters4 ,professor ,walter ,a4 ,wyckoff1 who has recently changed the scene of his optimistic observances from ,america to ,england1 has an article in the ,september ,scribner's on the ,english social situation4 8,the condition-of-the-people problem10 he writes1 8lacks vitality for the moment because1 as one shrewd observer remarked1 #8the public has grown tired of the poor4'0 ,we are feeling the same weariness here4 ,our benevolence somewhat increases1 and we are willing to give1 and more than willing that the magnates shall give freely2 but we want to be troubled no more with remedial schemes4 ,rather1 we are disposed to trust to seigniorial wisdom and virtue to set things right4 ,some of us will perhaps decline to go so far in our trust as a certain prominent ,massachusetts lady who proposed to abolish working-class suffrage4 8,i think10 said this lady in an address to a club of working girls1 8many of the troubles between employer and men might be swept away if the men could not vote4 ,if he felt that they did not stand on just the same footing as himself1 that they had not quite so many privileges as he1 the employer might have a chivalric feeling toward them40 ,some of us may hesitate at this project1 but withal we are willing to trust largely to seigniorial guidance4 ,instead of the personal fidelity that characterized the older ,feudalism1 we are rapidly developing a class fidelity4 ,history may repeat itself1 as the adage runs2 but not by identical forms and events4 ,it is not likely that personal fidelity1 as once known1 can ever be restored3 the long period of dislodgment from the land1 the diffusion of learning1 the exercise of the franchise1 and the training in individual effort have left a seemingly unbridgeable chasm between the past and the present forms4 ,but though personal fidelity1 in the old sense1 is improbable1 group fidelity1 founded upon the conscious dependence of a class1 is already observable1 and it grows apace4 ,out of the sense of class dependence arises the extreme deference which we yield1 the rapt homage which we pay--not as individuals1 but as units of a class--to the men of wealth4 ,we do not know them personally1 and we have no sense of personal attachment4 ,but in most things we grant them priority4 ,we send them or their legates to the ,senate to make our laws2 we permit them to name our administrators and our judiciary2 we listen with eager attention to their utterances1 and we abide by their judgment4 ,when the venerable ,mr4 ,hewitt1 brought forth like the holy man ,onias1 in the ,judean civil war between ,aristobulus and ,hyrcanus1 to denounce the opposing faction1 utters his anathema against the minions of ,mr4 ,mitchell1 we listen in awe and are convinced4 ,a three-line interview with the chief of the magnates is read with an eagerness wholly wanting in our perusal of an official pronunciamento by the most strenuous of ,presidents4 ,our racial sense of humor1 it must be confessed1 saves us from the more slavish forms of deference2 we jest about solemn themes and take in vain the names of great beings4 ,even the name of the great magnate is more or less humorously played upon2 and our latest national pastime of 8trust-busting0 reveals a like levity1 though an innocent one4 ,it shows1 moreover1 how far we have reacted from our ,puritan forefathers4 ,for it is pursued not on account of the pain it gives the trusts1 but for the harmless pleasure it gives both participants and spectators4 ,but our subserviency1 though less formal than that of old1 is withal more real and fundamental4 ,,vi ,current passivity has1 however1 a reverse side4 ,to many persons a recognition of the changing conditions brings demoralization or despair4 ,all are not won by the lure of 8success40 ,to an increasing number the dangling prize in the distance is but a mirage1 and oppressed by a sense of the bankruptcy of life they seek an oblivious relief4 ,there is a drift toward the twin dissipations of drink and gambling1 and there is an increase of suicide4 ,the greater drink consumption is a matter of common observation1 and it is amply attested by statistics4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,holt ,schooling's figures in a recent issue of the ,fortnightly ,review show an increased consumption in the ,united ,states of #bj per cent for the years #ahif-aijj1 as against the years #ahhf-ij4 ,the percentage of increase is slightly less than that of those industrially exploited nations1 ,germany and ,france1 but considerably more than that of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the annual figures published in the ,world ,almanac for #aijb give more pertinent lessons4 ,the unsettled and troublous year1 #ahic1 witnessed an enormous increase in drink consumption2 but the succeeding hard times of #ahid and #ahie1 when drink-money was increasingly hard to obtain1 induced a greater sobriety4 ,with #ahif drinking became more general1 or at least more energetic2 and except for a slight falling off in #ahii1 the consumption of liquors and wines has risen steadily1 reaching the enormous total of #a1cdi1agf1jcc gallons in #aijj4 ,much of this gain is confined to beer1 the cheapest of alcoholic beverages2 but there has also been a phenomenal increase in the consumption of spirits4 ,from #ga1jea1hgg gallons consumed in #ahif there has been a steady annual rise to the total of #ig1bdh1chb gallons in #aijj1 a gain of #cf4h per cent4 ,the recent increase of petty gambling is still more noticeable4 ,playing for high stakes1 a custom common enough in the late years of the eighteenth century and the early years of the nineteenth1 has long been given over or transferred to the domain of 8business40 ,but what is colloquially known as 8tin-horn0 gambling has advanced1 these last five years1 by leaps and bounds4 ,doubtless the high precedent of our national ,monte ,carlos1 the stock exchanges1 is ample cause for much of it2 but other causes are also in operation4 ,with those persons that hearken to1 but heed not1 the seigniorial exhortation to bestir themselves and conquer 8success10 petty gambling is an expression of unbelief4 ,they know that the prizes advertised in the great industrial game are not to be won2 they see nothing ahead but a dull routine of poorly remunerated labor1 and they turn to gambling partly for recreation and partly for profit4 ,with those1 on the other hand1 who not only hearken but heed1 gambling is merely the application of their ambitious plans to the branch of industry which promises1 however vainly1 the most immediate returns4 ,faro1 keno1 and roulette may have suffered some decline in favor4 ,if so1 statutes and the police1 instead of a growing aversion to gambling1 must be held responsible4 ,it is one of those conventional puzzles which none can explain1 that it is possible in our cities to restrict table and wheel gambling1 but seemingly impossible to restrict certain other forms4 ,poker1 for instance1 maintains its hold1 unawed by statute and unhampered by authority2 while policy and race-betting1 the special refuges of the desperately poor and the desperately fatuous1 win new and lasting converts day by day4 ,indeed1 the growth of race-betting is one of the striking phenomena of our time4 ,it has become a habit1 a disease2 and its confirmed victims are held in as slavish a thraldom as are the victims of opium and hasheesh4 ,one need not penetrate to a pool-room or journey to a race-track to discover evidences of its general diffusion4 ,he may hear of it on every side1 and he may find definitive proof in the daily journals4 ,in nearly all of these the space given to the reports of races1 the lists of betting odds and accounts of great winnings1 is generous2 and in some three or four of the metropolitan dailies the subject rises to the rank of a specialty4 ,the flaunting advertisements of the 8tipsters0 in one of these newspapers rival in extent of space used and opulence of bargains offered1 the announcements of the dry-goods merchants4 ,the glittering lures dangled before the multitude by the seigniors seem trivial by comparison4 ,uncertain1 and at best remote1 they prove no match for the near-at-hand prizes to be won in gambling2 and as a consequence tens of thousands pin their hope of 8success0 in this world to a series of fortunate winnings4 ,the meaning of the increase of suicide is clouded by a number of factors1 and it is impossible to ascribe the tendency to one cause alone4 ,were we to accept the explanation of the pulpit1 we should see in it the awful consequences of the decline of faith4 ,pathologists1 however1 while not denying this influence1 enumerate many others4 ,racial and temperamental factors1 drink and vice1 are all concerned in the matter1 and even climates and seasons are influential4 ,but whatever the effect of these may be1 the intensifying struggle for life these last few years1 and what appears to many minds a darkening outlook for the future1 must be acknowledged as powerful agents in increasing the rate of self-destruction4 ,the rate is highest in the great industrial centres1 where the struggle is fiercest1 where the richest stakes are won and lost1 where luxury is most flaunting and poverty most galling2 and it is least where the struggle is in some measure relaxed4 ,the recent census shows for the decade an increased rate per #ajj1jjj of population from #h4h to #i4i in the ,states where registration of deaths is required1 from #aa to #ab4g in registration cities1 and from #aj4c to #aa4h for the entire registration record4 ,there are a few anomalies in the figures which are difficult of explanation2 the workaday cities of ,fall ,river and ,allegheny have low rates of suicide1 the residence city of ,los ,angeles a high rate1 while ,san ,francisco reveals the abnormal rate of #di per #ajj1jjj4 ,with all allowances1 however1 the rule holds good3 the more distinctly industrial and commercial cities have remarkably high rates1 the less distinctly industrial and commercial cities remarkably low rates4 ,in the first group are ,chicago1 with a rate of #ba4h2 ,milwaukee1 #ba2 ,st4 ,louis1 #ai4a2 ,boston1 #ad4d2 ,cincinnati1 #ac4e2 ,new ,york1 #ac4a2 ,philadelphia1 #ab4b2 ,baltimore1 #ab2 ,pittsburg1 #i4c4 ,in the second group may be instanced ,atlanta1 with a rate of #f4f2 ,denver1 #f2 ,albany1 #c4b2 ,hartford1 #a4c2 ,richmond1 #a4b4 ,these suicides are the unfit1 say the complacent philosophers of the day1 and are quite as well off dead as alive2 but they prove at least that some slight qualification is needed to ,professor ,sumner's optimistic generalization that 8an air of contentment and enthusiastic cheerfulness 444 characterizes our society40 ,the winners in the race are doubtless enthusiastically cheerful1 and the great mass that keeps steadily on1 fed by the delusion of ultimate 8success10 are at least cheerful without enthusiasm2 but back of these are the losers and the many who have seen the hollowness of the world's promise1 whose outlook upon life is one of intensifying despair4 ,,vii ,all of our general institutions reflect the changes in public thought1 taste1 and feeling consequent upon the changing conditions of the social rgime4 ,but on none of them are these changes writ more clearly or in larger characters than on the institution of letters4 ,along with the morganization of industry steadily proceeds the munseyization of literature4 ,we are a free people1 our politicians tell us1 and are strenuously resolved to remain so4 ,but if we are to be judged by our popular literature1 the verdict can hardly be other than that we have reached an advanced stage of subserviency1 and that the normal mood of the overwhelming majority is one of complacence with its lot4 ,our popular magazines regularly keep before us a justification1 actual or inferential1 of things as they are2 and though it is couched in less argumentative phrasing than that of the newspapers1 it is1 no doubt1 for that very reason1 a more plausible and effective expression of the plea4 ,there are panegyrics on our captains of industry1 tales of their exploits in the great industrial battle1 descriptions of their town-houses and country-seats1--all1 in fact1 that makes for the emulation of their wisdom and virtues1 and particularly of their faculty of acquisitiveness1--with a multitude of recipes for the winning of 8success40 ,along with this is provided a vaudeville of idle entertainment3 wonder tales1 short stories1 a gallery of pictures of stage-folk1 who1 whatever their merits may be1 bear but a problematic relation to literature2 and finally an amorphous compound of sedative miscellany that not only charms the mind from serious thinking1 but in time paralyzes the very power of thought4 ,such of these publications as indulge in the gentle art of reviewing give further evidence of changing conditions4 ,reviewing1 as now practised1 studies the amenities of life1 with a particular regard for the counting office1 8wherein doth sit the dread and fear0 of the publisher who has advertising to distribute4 ,with a few notable exceptions the reviewing journals make it their business to be 8nice40 ,they do not damn1 not even with faint praise2 they commend or extol4 ,it is not that they praise insincerely a bad book--reviewing is too highly developed a craft for such crudity4 ,but in a bad book all that the widest exercise of charity can pronounce even passably good comes in for praise2 and what is weak or poor1 or inclusive under old ,john ,dennis's favorite term of 8clotted nonsense10 is mercifully omitted from mention4 ,so it is when the advertising publisher is a factor in the game4 ,but a reviewing journal must uphold a reputation for impartial judgment1 and must thus mingle blame with praise4 ,its opportunity comes when some inglorious ,milton of ,penobscot or ,butte prints his verses at home at his own expense4 ,a copy drifts into the reviewing office and effects a transformation4 ,the angelic temper upon which so many and such large drafts are made becomes exhausted1 and the humble poet is treated to the sort of thing which ,gifford used to deal out to the ,della ,cruscans and the ireful ,dennis to the poetasters of ,queen ,anne's time4 ,it was perhaps the last regret of the late ,j4 ,gordon ,coogler1 of ,columbia1 ,s4,c41 that instead of printing his amiable verses on his own press1 he had not guaranteed the cost of their production1 and secured their publication by a metropolitan firm4 ,the literary distinction of former days has taken wings4 ,whether or not ,wordsworth was right in his lament over the state of ,england in #ahjc may be questioned2 but a like lament uttered for our own land and time would be in large part justified4 ,we have the two extremes of exceedingly plain living and of wildly extravagant living2 but high thinking seems to be the accompaniment of neither4 ,for several years the only really salable books have been novels1 and among these popular favor has centred almost wholly on the kind called historical--called so not because the stories bear any relation to history1 but because in them the action is put in a past time4 ,lately1 it is true1 there have been signs of a reaction2 but let none imagine that it is due to a growing taste for stronger meat4 ,rather it is an evidence that in our love of novelty we have tired of one trifle and now demand another in its stead4 ,for the recent indications of declining favor for the historical novel are accompanied by no signs of reviving favor for more serious works4 ,the ,huxley ,memoirs1 it is true1 unexpectedly achieved the degree of favor usually given to a fifth-rate novel2 but the work1 despite its science1 philosophy1 and religious controversy1 was yet an entertaining story1 and won its way for that reason4 ,no more in fiction than in other branches of literature is there promise of better things4 ,even the 8problem0 novel1 which1 though often crude or hysterical1 was yet an attempt to deal with some of the deeper facts of life1 has been banished1 and is not to be permitted to return4 8,our publishers10 says the well-known literary supplement of a ,new ,york daily newspaper1 8are seeking on all sides for wholesome stories1 dealing optimistically with life1 and reaching happy conclusions40 ,it is a true judgment1 and reveals most clearly the present standards of public taste4 ,our popular magazines most accurately reflect the public mind4 ,pictures and stories are the substance of its childish delight4 ,among periodicals we have nothing in any way comparable to the ,edinburgh1 the ,quarterly1 the ,nineteenth ,century1 the ,fortnightly1 the ,contemporary1 the ,athenum1 the ,spectator1 the ,saturday ,review1 or even the ,academy4 ,whatever tendencies of late have seemed to indicate the future planting of such reviews on these shores1 have very recently been extinguished4 ,of three publications in which articles of some thought and some importance were occasionally printed1 two have recently found a monthly issue more frequent than the public taste required1 and have accordingly transformed themselves into quarterlies1 while the third has been forced to make concessions to the general demand for 8lightness and brightness40 ,for these are the qualities which pay4 8,make it light and bright10 is the order which the literary contributor hears in the editorial offices when he submits his wares2 and though the terms may be variously interpreted1 he understands what is meant3 he must write down to the level of childish minds and complacent natures4 ,accordingly1 he writes so1 to the best of his ability1 and so1 to that limit1 do all his fellows4 ,the collective result is seen in the character of the greater number of our books1 our magazines1 our ,saturday and ,sunday supplements4 ,on all sides is poured forth a flood of print which deludes the hope or flatters the vanity of the mass1 and which insures a state of mental subserviency1--the necessary requisite of the economic subserviency imposed by the ruling class4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,transition ,,and ,,fulfilment ,upon all the heterogeneous but coalescing units of the social mass the group of magnates imposes its collective will4 ,there are still disputes and rivalries among the rulers1 and may ever be2 but these are for the most part minor differences1 to be settled among themselves and their mutual arbitrators1 the judges1 and qualify in no way the facts of a recognized community of interests and of collective purposes and plans4 ,whatever the individual rivalries1 they result in no deliberate betrayal of class interest2 practically every magnate maintains1 at all hazards1 his fidelity to the group4 ,a sense of group honor may in most instances prompt this fidelity1 but a lively sense of apprehension is also influential4 ,for should any magnate become possessed of heretical notions1 and thereupon make common cause with the public against a particular interest of his class1 he would by that act banish himself from communion with his fellows1 and jeopard his possessions to the last dime4 ,there is1 as every one knows1 a definite seigniorial resolve that no strike of workmen on transportation lines or in public utilities shall succeed2 and when such a strike occurs1 every resource of the magnate class is brought to bear to resist and defeat it4 ,often there are attendant circumstances which might tempt a rival1 for his own interests1 to interfere on behalf of the workers4 ,but the thing is never done2 and he who should do it would declass himself as effectually as a medival nobleman would have done by enlisting in a peasants' rebellion4 ,there is1 furthermore1 a definite seigniorial determination to withstand to the utmost the agitation for public ownership2 every magnate1 with his intellectual retainers behind him1 makes of himself a modern ,stonewall ,jackson in resistance to this movement4 ,here1 again1 industrial rivalry might at times prompt a desertion to the public cause4 ,but there is no such case2 here1 as elsewhere1 the ruling class maintains its integrity4 ,as is known1 great strikes are sometimes won2 and occasionally1 in isolated places1 an advance is made in the direction of public ownership4 ,but neither is accomplished through desertions in the seigniorial group1 and the instances prove only that its rule has not yet become supreme4 ,i ,the new ,feudalism will be but an orderly outgrowth of present tendencies and conditions4 ,all societies evolve naturally out of their predecessors4 ,in sociology1 as in biology1 there is no cell without a parent cell4 ,the society of each generation develops a multitude of spontaneous and acquired variations1 and out of these1 by a blending process of natural and conscious selection1 the succeeding society is evolved4 ,the new order will differ in no important respects from the present1 except in the completer development of its more salient features4 ,the visitor from another planet who had known the old and should see the new would note but few changes4 ,alter et idem--another yet the same--he would say4 ,from magnate to baron1 from workman to villein1 from publicist to court agent and retainer1 will be changes of state and function so slight as to elude all but the keenest eyes4 ,an increased power1 a more concentrated control1 will be seen4 ,but these have their limitations1 which must not be disregarded4 ,a sense of the latent strength of democracy will restrain the full exercise of baronial powers1 and a growing sense of ethics will guide baronial activities somewhat toward the channels of social betterment4 ,for democracy will endure1 in spite of the new order4 8,like death10 said ,disraeli1 8it gives back nothing40 ,something of its substance it gives back1 it must be confessed2 but of its outer forms it yields nothing1 and thus it retains the potentiality of exerting its will in whatever direction it may see fit4 ,and this fact1 though now but feebly recognized1 will be better understood as time runs on1 and the barons will bear in mind the limit of popular patience4 ,it is an elastic limit1 of a truth2 for the mass of mankind are more ready to endure known ills than to fly to others that they know not4 ,it is a limit which1 to be heeded1 needs only to be carefully studied4 ,macaulay's famous dictum1 that the privileged classes1 when their rule is threatened1 always bring about their own ruin by making further exactions1 is likely1 in this case1 to prove untrue4 ,a wiser forethought begins to prevail among the autocrats of to-day--a forethought destined to grow and expand and to prove of inestimable value when bequeathed to their successors4 ,our nobility will thus temper their exactions to an endurable limit2 and they will distribute benefits to a degree that makes a tolerant1 if not a satisfied1 people4 ,they may even make a working principle of ,bentham's maxim1 and after1 of course1 appropriating the first and choicest fruits of industry to themselves1 may seek to promote the 8greatest happiness of the greatest number40 ,for therein will lie their greater security4 ,the ,positivists1 in their prediction of social changes1 give us the phrase1 8the moralization of capital10 and some of the more hopeful theologians1 not to be outdone1 have prophesied 8the ,christianization of capital40 ,so far there is not much to be said confirmatory of either expectation4 ,yet it is not to be denied that the faint stirrings of an ethical sense are observable among the men of millions1 and that the principle of the 8trusteeship of great wealth0 has won a number of adherents4 ,the enormous benefactions for social purposes1 the construction of 8model workshops0 and 8model villages10 though in many cases prompted by self-interest and in others by a love of ostentation1 are at least sometimes due to a new sense of social responsibility4 ,a duty to society has been apprehended1 and these are its first fruits4 ,it is a duty1 true enough1 which is but dimly seen and imperfectly fulfilled4 ,the greater part of these benefactions1 as has already been pointed out1 is directed to purposes which have but a slight or indirect bearing upon the relief of social distress1 the restraint of injustice1 or the mitigation of remediable hardships4 ,the giving is even often economically false1 and if carried to an extreme would prove disastrous to the community2 for in many cases it is a transmutation of wealth from a status of active capital1 wherein it makes possible a greater diffusion of comfort1 to a status of comparative sterility4 ,but1 though often mistaken as is the conception and futile the fulfilment of this duty1 the fact that it is apprehended at all is one of considerable importance1 and one that carries the promise of baronial security in the days to come4 ,,ii ,bondage to the land was the basis of villeinage in the old rgime2 bondage to the job will be the basis of villeinage in the new4 ,the new rgime1 absolving itself from all general responsibility to its workers1 extends a measure of protection1 solely as an act of grace1 only to those who are faithful and obedient2 and it holds the entire mass of its employed underlings to the terms of day-by-day service4 ,the growth of industries has overshadowed the importance of agriculture1 which is ever being pushed back into the ,west and into other and remote countries2 and the new order finds its larger interests and its greater measure of control in the workshops rather than on the farms4 ,the oil wells1 the mines1 the grain fields1 the forests1 and the great thoroughfares of the land are its ultimate sources of revenue2 but its strongholds are in the cities4 ,it is in these centres of activity1 with their warehouses1 where the harvests are hoarded2 their workshops1 where the metals and woods are fashioned into articles of use2 their great distributing houses2 their exchanges2 their enormously valuable franchises to be had for the asking or the seizing1 and their pressure of population1 which forces an hourly increase in the exorbitant value of land1 that the new ,feudalism finds the field best adapted for its main operations4 ,bondage to the job will be the basis of the new villeinage4 ,the wage-system will endure1 for it is a simpler and more effective means of determining the baron's volume of profits than were the 8boon-works10 the 8week-works10 and the corves of old4 ,but with increasing concentration on the one hand1 and the fiercer competition for employment on the other1 the secured job will become the laborer's fortress1 which he will hardly dare to evacuate4 ,the hope of bettering his condition by surrendering one place in the expectation of getting another will be qualified by a restraining prudence4 ,he will no longer trust his individual strength1 but when he protests against ill conditions1 or1 in the last resort1 strikes1 it will be only in company with a formidable host of his fellows4 ,and even the collective assertion of his demands will be restrained more and more as he considers the constantly recurring failures of his efforts4 ,moreover1 concentration gives opportunity for an almost indefinite extension of the black-list3 a person of offensive activity may be denied work in every feudal shop and on every feudal farm from one end of the country to the other4 ,he will be a hardy and reckless industrial villein indeed who will dare incur the enmity of the ,duke of the ,oil ,trust when he knows that his actions will be promptly communicated to the banded autocracy of dukes1 earls1 and marquises of the steel1 coal1 iron1 window glass1 lumber1 and traffic industries4 ,there were three under-classes in the old ,feudalism1--free tenants1 villeins1 and cotters4 ,the number of tenants on the farms has approximately doubled in the last twenty years1 while in the great cities nearly the whole population are tenants4 ,the cotters1 with their little huts and small holdings in isolated places about the margin of cultivation1 are also in process of restoration4 ,the villeins are an already existent class1 more numerous proportionately than ever before1 though the exact status of their villeinage is yet to be fixed4 ,but modern society is characterized by complexities unknown in any of its predecessors1 and the specialization of functions requires a greater number of subordinate classes4 ,it is a difficult task properly to differentiate them4 ,they shade off almost imperceptibly into one another2 and the dynamic processes of modern industry often hurl1 in one mighty convulsion1 great bodies of individuals from a higher to a lower class1 blurring or obscuring the lines of demarcation4 ,nevertheless1 to take a figure from geology1 these convulsions become less and less frequent as the substratum of industrial processes becomes more fixed and regular2 the classes become more stable and show more distinct differences1 and they will tend1 under the new rgime1 to the formal institution of graded caste4 ,at the bottom are the wastrels1 at the top the barons2 and the gradation1 when the new rgime shall have become fully developed1 whole and perfect in its parts1 will be about as follows3-- ,i4 ,the barons1 graded on the basis of possessions4 ,,ii4 ,the court agents and retainers4 ,,iii4 ,the workers in pure and applied science1 artists and physicians4 ,,iv4 ,the entrepreneurs1 the managers of the great industries1 transformed into a salaried class4 ,v4 ,the foremen and superintendents4 ,this class has heretofore been recruited largely from the skilled workers1 but with the growth of technical education in schools and colleges1 and the development of fixed caste1 it is likely to become entirely differentiated4 ,,vi4 ,the villeins of the cities and towns1 more or less regularly employed1 who do skilled work and are partially protected by organization4 ,,vii4 ,the villeins of the cities and towns who do unskilled work and are unprotected by organization4 ,they will comprise the laborers1 domestics1 and clerks4 ,,viii4 ,the villeins of the manorial estates1 of the great farms1 the mines1 and the forests4 ,,ix4 ,the small-unit farmers 7land owning71 the petty tradesmen1 and manufacturers4 ,x4 ,the subtenants on the manorial estates and great farms 7corresponding to the class of 8free tenants0 in the old ,feudalism74 ,,xi4 ,the cotters4 ,,xii4 ,the tramps1 the occasionally employed1 the unemployed--the wastrels of city and country4 ,the principle of gradation is the only one that can properly be applied4 ,it is the relative degree of comfort--material1 moral1 and intellectual--which each class directly contributes to the nobility4 ,the wastrels contribute least1 and they are the lowest4 ,the under-classes who do the hard work lay the basis of all wealth1 but their contribution to the barons is indirect1 and comes to its final goal through intermediate hands4 ,the foremen and superintendents rightly hold a more elevated rank1 and the entrepreneurs1 who directly contribute most of the purely material comfort1 will be found well up toward the top4 ,farther up in the social scale1 partly from sthetic and partly from utilitarian considerations1 will be the scientists and artists4 ,the new ,feudalism1 like most autocracies1 will foster not only the arts1 but also certain kinds of learning--particularly the kinds which are unlikely to disturb the minds of the multitude4 ,a future ,marsh or ,cope or ,le ,conte will be liberally patronized and left free to discover what he will2 and so1 too1 an ,edison or a ,marconi4 ,only they must not meddle with anything relating to social science4 ,for obvious reasons1 also1 physicians will occupy a position of honor and comparative freedom under the new rgime4 ,but higher yet is the rank of the court agents and retainers4 ,this class will include the editors of 8respectable0 and 8safe0 newspapers1 the pastors of 8conservative0 and 8wealthy0 churches1 the professors and teachers in endowed colleges and schools1 lawyers generally1 and most judges and politicians4 ,during the transition period there will be a gradual elimination of the more unserviceable of these persons1 with the result that in the end this class will be largely transformed4 ,the individual security of place and livelihood of its members will then depend on the harmony of their utterances and acts with the wishes of the great nobles4 ,theirs1 in a sense1 will be the most important function in the ,state--8to justify the ways of ,god and the nobility to man40 ,they will be the safeguards of the realm1 the assuagers of popular suspicion and discontent4 ,so long as they rightly fulfil their functions1 their recompense will be generous2 but such of them as have not the tact or fidelity to do or say what is expected of them will be promptly forced into class ,,xi or ,,xii1 or1 in extreme cases1 banished from all classes1 to become the wretched pariahs of society4 ,at times two divisions of this class will find life rather a burdensome travail4 ,they are the judges and the politicians4 ,holding their places at once by popular election and by the grace of the barons1 they will be fated to a constant see-saw of conflicting obligations4 ,they must1 in some measure1 satisfy the demands of the multitude1 and yet1 on the other hand1 they must obey the commands from above4 ,,iii ,through all the various activities of these classes 7except the wastrels and the cotters7 our ,benevolent ,feudalism will carry on the ,nation's work4 ,the full measure of profit is its aim2 and having the substance of its desire1 it shows a utilitarian scorn of the mummeries and ceremonials by which the overlordship of other days was formally acknowledged4 ,the ancient ceremony of 8homage10 the swearing of personal fidelity to the lord1 is relaxed into the mere beseeching of the foreman for work4 ,directness and efficacy characterize its methods4 ,the wage-system1 with its mechanical simplicity1 continuing in force1 there is an absence of the old exactions of special work4 ,a mere altering of the wage-scale appropriates to the noble whatever share of the product he feels he may safely demand for himself4 ,thus 8week-work10 the three or four days' toil in each week which the villein had to give unrecompensed to the lord1 and 8boon-work10 the several days of extra toil three or four times a year1 will never be revived4 ,even the company store1 the modern form of feudal exaction1 will in time be given up1 for at best it is but a clumsy and offensive makeshift1 and defter and less irritating means are at hand for reaching the same result4 ,there will hardly be a restoration of 8relief10 the payment of a year's dues on inheriting an allotment of land1 or of 8heriot10 the payment of a valuable gift from the possessions of a deceased relative4 ,indeed1 these tithes may not be worth the bother of collecting2 for the villein's inheritance will probably be but moderate1 as befits his state and the place which ,god and the nobility have ordained for him4 ,practically all industry will be regulated in terms of wages1 and the entrepreneurs1 who will then have become the chief salaried officers of the nobles1 will calculate to a hair the needful production for each year4 ,waste and other losses will thus be reduced to a minimum4 ,a vast scheme of exact systematization will have taken the place of the old competitive chaos1 and industry will be carried on as by clock-work4 ,the workshops will be conducted practically as now4 ,only they will be very much larger1 the individual and total output will be greater1 the unit cost of production will be lessened4 ,wages and hours will for a time continue on something like the present level2 but1 despite the persistence of the unions1 no considerable gains in behalf of labor are to be expected1 except such as are freely given as acts of baronial grace and benevolence4 ,the owners of all industry worth owning1 the barons will laugh at threats of striking and boycotting4 ,no competitor will be permitted to make capital out of the labor disputes of another4 ,there may or may not be competitors4 ,a gigantic merger of all interests1 governed by a council of ten1 may supplant the individual dukedoms and baronies in the different industries1 or these may continue as now1 the sovereign units of a federated whole4 ,but in neither case can labor carry its point against them4 ,nevertheless1 dissatisfaction must be guarded against as a possible menace to the rgime4 ,wages and dividends will be nicely balanced with a watchful regard for the fostering of content2 workshops and villages of yet more approved models than any of the present will be built1 and a thousand ,pelzers and ,pullmans will arise4 ,old-age pensions1 or at least the promise of them1 will be extended to new groups1 and by all possible means the lesson that protection and security are due only to faithfulness and obedience will be made plain to the entire villein class4 ,gradually a change will take place in the aspirations and conduct of the younger generations4 ,heretofore there has been at least some degree of freedom of choice in determining one's occupation1 however much that freedom has been curtailed by actual economic conditions4 ,but with the settling of industrial processes comes more and more constraint4 ,the dream of the children of the farms to escape from their drudgery by migrating to the city1 and from the stepping-stone of a clerkly place at three dollars a week to rise to affluence1 will be given over1 and they will follow the footsteps of their fathers4 ,a like fixity of condition will be observed in the cities1 and the sons of clerks and of mechanics and of day laborers will tend to accept their environment of birth and training and abide by it4 ,it is a phenomenon observable in all countries where the economic pressure is severe1 and it is yet more certain to obtain in feudal ,america4 ,,iv ,the outlines of the present ,state loom but feebly through the intricate network of the new system4 ,the nobles will have attained to complete power1 and the motive and operation of government will have become simply the registering and administering of their collective will4 ,and yet the ,state will continue very much as now1 just as the form and name of the ,roman ,republic continued under ,augustus4 ,the present ,state machinery is admirably adapted for the subtle and extra-legal exertion of power by an autocracy2 and while improvements to that end might unquestionably be made1 the barons will hesitate to take action which will needlessly arouse popular suspicions4 ,from petty constable to ,supreme ,court ,justice the officials will understand1 or be made to understand1 the golden mean of their duties2 and except for an occasional rascally ,jacobin1 whom it may for a time be difficult to suppress1 they will be faithful and obey4 ,the manorial courts1 with powers exercised by the local lords1 will not1 as a rule1 be restored4 ,probably the 8court baron10 for determining tenantry and wage-questions1 will be revived4 ,it may even come as a natural outgrowth of the present conciliation boards1 with a successor of the ,committee of ,thirty-six of the ,national ,civic ,federation as a sort of general court baron for the nation4 ,but the 8court leet10 the manorial institution for punishing misdemeanors1 wherein the baron holds his powers by special grant from the central authority of the ,state1 we shall never know again4 ,it is far simpler and will be less disturbing to the popular mind to leave in existence the present courts so long as the baron can dictate the general policy of justice4 ,armed force will1 of course1 be employed to overawe the discontented and to quiet unnecessary turbulence4 ,unlike the armed forces of the old ,feudalism1 the nominal control will be that of the ,state2 the soldiery will be regular1 and not irregular4 ,not again will the barons risk the general indignation arising from the employment of ,pinkertons and other private armies4 ,the worker has unmistakably shown his preference1 when he is to be subdued1 for the militia and the ,federal army4 ,it is not an unreasonable attitude1 and it is hardly to be doubted that it will be respected4 ,the militia of our ,benevolent ,feudalism will be recruited1 as now1 mostly from the clerkly class2 and it will be officered largely by the sons and nephews of the barons4 ,but its actions will be tempered by a saner policy4 ,governed by those who have most to fear from popular exasperation1 it will show a finer restraint4 ,v ,peace will be the main desideratum1 and its cultivation will be the most honored science of the age4 ,a happy blending of generosity and firmness will characterize all dealings with open discontent2 but the prevention of discontent will be the prior study1 to which the intellect and the energies of the nobles and their legates will be ever bent4 ,to that end the teachings of the schools and colleges1 the sermons1 the editorials1 the stump orations1 and even the plays at the theatres will be skilfully moulded2 and the questioning heart of the poor1 which perpetually seeks some answer to the painful riddle of the earth1 will meet with a multitude of mollifying responses4 ,these will be3 from the churches1 that discontent is the fruit of atheism1 and that religion alone is a solace for earthly woe2 from the colleges1 that discontent is ignorant and irrational1 since conditions have certainly bettered in the last one hundred years2 from the newspapers1 that discontent is anarchy2 and from the stump orators that it is unpatriotic1 since this nation is the greatest and most glorious that ever the sun shone upon4 ,as of old1 these reasons will for the time suffice2 and against the possibility of recurrent questionings new apologetics will be skilfully formulated1 to be put forth as occasion requires4 ,crises will come1 as in the life of all nations and societies2 but these will be happily surmounted1 and the rgime will continue1 the stronger for its trial4 ,a crisis of some moment will follow upon the large displacements of labor soon to result from the shutting up of needless factories and the concentration of production in the larger workshops4 ,discontent will spread1 and it will be fomented1 to some extent1 by agitation4 ,but the agitation will be guarded in expression and action1 and it will be relatively barren of result4 ,for most ills there is somewhere a remedy1 if only it can be discovered and made known4 ,the disease of sedition is one whose every symptom and indication will be known by rote to our social pathologists of to-morrow1 and the possible dangers of an epidemic will1 in all cases1 be provided against4 ,in such a crisis as that following upon the displacement of labor a host of economists1 preachers1 and editors will be ready to show indisputably that the evolution taking place is for the best interests of all2 that it follows a 8natural and inevitable law02 that those who have been thrown out of work have only their own incompetency to blame2 that all who really want work can get it1 and that any interference with the prevailing rgime will be sure to bring on a panic1 which will only make matters worse4 ,hearing this1 the multitude will hesitatingly acquiesce and thereupon subside2 and though occasionally a radical journal or a radical agitator will counsel revolt1 the mass will remain quiescent4 ,gradually1 too1 by one method or another1 sometimes by the direct action of the nobility1 the greater part of the displaced workers will find some means of getting bread1 while those who cannot will be eliminated from the struggle and cease to be a potential factor for trouble4 ,crises of other kinds and from other causes will arise1 only to be checkmated and overcome4 ,what the barons will most dread will be the collective assertion of the villeins at the polls2 but this1 too1 from experience1 they will know to be something which1 while dangerous1 may yet be thwarted4 ,by the putting forward of a hundred irrelevant issues they can hopelessly divide the voters at each election2 or1 that failing1 there is always to be trusted as a last resort the cry of impending panic4 ,,vi ,gradually the various processes in the social life merge1 like the confluents of some mighty ,amazon1 into a definite and confined stream of tendency4 ,a more perfect1 a better cordinated unity develops in the baronial class1 and the measure of its control is heightened and extended to a golden mean which insures supremacy with peace4 ,the under-classes settle in their appointed grooves1 and the professional intermediaries definitely and openly assume their dual function of advisers to the barons and of interpreters to the people of the baronial will and ways4 ,laws1 customs1 the arts1--all the institutions and social forces1--change with the industrial transformation1 and attain a finer harmony with the actual facts of life4 ,all except literature1 be it said1 for this has outdistanced its fellows in the great current and already reflects the conditions1 the moods1 and ideals of the society of to-morrow4 ,here1 at least1 the force of nature can no farther go1 and no change is to be anticipated for the present4 ,but the other institutions and social forces are gradually transformed1 and when the full coalescence of all the factors is attained1 our ,benevolent ,feudalism1 without a shock1 without so much variance as will enable any man to say1 8,it is here10 passes to its ascendency1 and the millennium of peace and order begins4 ,peace and stability it will maintain at all hazards2 and the mass1 remembering the chaos1 the turmoil1 the insecurity of the past1 will bless its reign4 ,peace and stability will be its arguments of defence against all criticism1 domestic or foreign4 ,an observant visitor from some foreign ,state may pick a defect here and there2 but the eloquent defender of the rgime will answer3 ,look upon the tranquillity that everywhere prevails1 and reflect upon the inquietude and anarchy of the past4 ,the disturbances of labor have ceased1 and sedition1 though occasionally encountered1 is easily thwarted and put down4 ,the crudities and barbarities of other days have given way to ordered regularities4 ,efficiency--the faculty of getting things--is at last rewarded as it should be1 for the efficient have inherited the earth and its fulness4 ,the lowly1 8whose happiness is greater and whose welfare is more thoroughly conserved when governed than when governing10 as a twentieth-century philosopher said of them1 are settled and happy in the state which reason and experience teach is their ,god-appointed lot4 ,they are comfortable1 too2 and if the patriarchal ideal of a vine and fig tree for each is not yet attained1 at least each has his rented patch in the country or his rented cell in a city building4 ,bread and the circus are freely given to the deserving1 and as for the undeserving1 they are merely reaping the rightful rewards of their contumacy and pride4 ,order reigns1 each has his justly appointed share1 and the ,state rests in security1 8lapt in universal law40 ,,index ,a ,abbott1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,lyman1 quoted1 #aej4 ,absolutism1 of heads of combinations1 #bd2 8enlightened10 #fj4 ,abstinence1 seigniorial1 #dd4 ,accidents1 to railroad workers1 #fe1 #ajj-aja2 to workmen generally1 #id2 laws regarding1 #ic-if4 ,adams1 ,professor ,henry ,c41 #di2 quoted1 #ej4 ,addams1 ,jane1 #gi4 ,agriculture1 #i1 #ai1 #ba1 #dg-eg1 #ahd4 ,alger1 ,george ,w41 quoted1 #hi1 #aaj4 ,anacharsis the ,scythian1 quoted1 #ch4 ,anarchist-,communism1 #d4 8,anticipations10 #a1 #c4 ,arbitration1 legislation in behalf of1 #ig-ih1 #aea4 ,aristotle1 quoted1 #acf4 ,arnold1 ,matthew1 quoted1 #aeb4 ,ashby-,macfadyen1 ,irene1 #gi2 quoted1 #ha4 ,automobiles1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci4 ,b ,bacon1 ,francis1 quoted1 #aag4 ,baer1 ,george ,f41 quoted1 #bg1 #ha4 ,baldwin1 ,judge ,simeon ,a41 #abg2 quoted1 #abh4 ,barons1 see ,magnates4 ,benefactions1 of the magnates1 #i-aj1 #ci1 #de-df1 #ei-ff1 #hj1 #adi1 #aea4 ,benevolence1 of the magnates1 #i1 #ci1 #dj1 #de1 #df1 #fj1 #fd1 #afj-afa1 #ahc1 #aia1 #aif4 ,blacklisting1 #hi1 #ahe-ahf4 ,blue1 ,leonard ,a41 quoted1 #hd-he4 ,brewer1 ,justice ,david ,j41 quoted1 #abj1 #aca-acb4 ,bryan1 ,hon4 ,w4 ,j41 #e4 8,business10 main cult of magnates1 #bh2 cultural effect of1 #bh2 honesty of1 #cj2 sacred privileges of1 #ib1 #ih4 ,c ,capital1 independent1 persistence of1 #ai1 #bj2 transformation of1 #bj4 ,carnegie1 ,andrew1 quoted1 #bh1 #bi1 #cb4 ,census1 bulletin on industrial combinations1 #aa2 on agriculture1 #ea2 on wages1 #fh-gi2 on printing and publishing1 #ada-adc4 ,chapman1 ,john ,jay1 #hd4 ,child labor1 #gf-hb2 abuses of1 #gi-ha4 ,clark1 ,professor ,john ,b41 #c1 #f2 quoted1 #acf4 ,coke1 ,sir ,edward1 quoted1 #aab4 ,colorado ,fuel and ,iron ,co41 #fj-fa4 ,combinations1 industrial1 #aa1 #ab2 recent growth of1 #ac1 #ad2 commercial1 mining1 and transportation1 #ad2 unification of1 #ae2 absolutism of heads of1 #bd4 ,commissions1 state1 #hd-he4 ,competition1 decline of1 #e4 ,conspicuous consumption1 #dj-da4 ,contract-labor law1 violations of1 #ce4 ,court agents1 #ahf1 #ahg-ahh4 ,courts1 #hf1 #ic1 #if1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajb-aba4 8,courts baron10 #ih1 #aic4 ,d ,davies1 ,professor ,henry1 quoted1 #g4 ,democracy1 persistence of1 #ahb-ahc4 ,discontent1 #ff1 #abe-abi1 #aia1 #aid4 ,disraeli1 ,benjamin1 quoted1 #ahb4 ,dodd1 ,s4 ,c4 ,t41 quoted1 #bi1 #cd4 ,draper1 ,william ,r41 #di1 #ee4 ,drink consumption1 #agj-aga4 ,e ,edwards1 ,professor ,george ,clinton1 quoted1 #gi4 ,emery1 ,judge ,lucilius ,a41 quoted1 #ajh4 ,employers' duties 7legal71 #ij-ia1 #ajd4 ,employers' liability1 #bf1 #hc1 #hg1 #ii-ajj1 #ajc-aab4 ,endowments1 see ,benefactions4 ,engels1 ,friedrich1 #b4 ,entrepreneurs1 #ahg1 #aij4 ,f ,farmers1 see ,agriculture4 ,fellow-servants1 #ajh-aji4 ,fessenden1 ,stephen ,d41 quoted1 #ij1 #ia1 #if1 #ajh-aji4 ,feudalism1 #i1 #aj1 #bf1 #ff1 #gd1 #hh1 #ih1 #aha-aii4 ,fisher1 ,brooke1 #ada4 ,flint1 ,charles ,r41 #bi2 quoted1 #cj4 ,fowler1 ,thomas ,p41 #ca4 ,frick1 ,h4 ,c41 #cc4 ,g ,gambling1 increase of1 #agj1 #aga-agb4 ,george1 ,henry1 #e4 ,godkin1 ,e4 ,l41 quoted1 #abf-abg1 #acj4 ,gould1 ,george1 #cc4 ,h ,hadley1 ,dr4 ,arthur ,twining1 quoted1 #abi1 #aca4 ,hall1 ,dr4 ,stanley1 #g4 ,hanna1 ,hon4 ,marcus ,a41 #bi4 ,harriman1 ,e4 ,h41 quoted1 #ce4 ,hewitt1 ,hon4 ,abram ,s41 quoted1 #cb1 #afi4 ,hill1 ,james ,j41 #bh4 ,hillis1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,newell ,dwight1 #aea4 ,honesty1 in 8business10 #cj1 #aeh4 ,huntington1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,r41 #aea4 ,i ,immigration1 of farmers into ,canada1 #di-ej4 ,income ,tax1 #afb4 ,industrial ,commission1 #ie4 ,industries1 petty1 numerical growth of1 #ah2 limitation of1 #bb2 subordination of1 #bc4 ,injunctions1 against automobilists1 #ch2 against workmen1 #ajc1 #aah-aba4 ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 quoted1 #cd1 #hg1 #aja4 ,ireland1 ,archbishop ,john1 quoted1 #aci4 ,j ,jackson1 ,judge ,john ,j41 #ca2 quoted1 #aah1 #abj4 ,jones1 ,hon4 ,samuel ,m41 #afd4 ,judiciary1 #be1 #hc1 #ib1 #ii1 #ajb-aba4 ,k ,keller1 ,judge ,b4 ,f41 quoted1 #aah4 ,kelly1 ,edmond1 #b4 ,kershaw1 ,john ,b4 ,c41 quoted1 #afa4 ,kidd1 ,benjamin1 #b1 #c4 ,kropotkin1 ,peter1 #b1 #d1 #e4 ,l ,labor1 seigniorial praise of1 #cj2 in factories1 #ff-hb2 of children1 #gf-hb2 attitude of lawmakers toward1 #he-hi2 attitude of judges toward1 #ajc et seq42 under new feudalism1 #ahd-ahf1 #aij1 #aia-aib4 ,lacey1 ,b4 ,r41 #hj4 ,lawmakers1 #be1 #hc-aja4 ,legislation1 8labor0 and social1 #he-hi1 #aab1 #acj-acc4 ,literature1 present state of1 #age-agi4 ,lloyd1 ,henry ,d41 #b1 #c2 quoted1 #bh4 ,low1 ,seth1 #cf2 quoted1 #cg4 ,m ,mac,arthur1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,s41 quoted1 #aeb4 ,mc,lennan1 ,judge ,peter ,b41 #aje4 ,magnates1 #h1 #i1 #af1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf2 self-consciousness of the1 #bg2 cult of 8business0 of the1 #bh2 invasion of literature by the1 #bh-bi2 praise of labor by the1 #cj2 attitude toward trade-unions of1 #cj2 attitude toward government of the1 #cb-ci2 benefactions of the1 #i-aj1 #ci1 #de-df1 #ei-ff1 #hj1 #adi1 #aea2 ostentation of the1 #ci-dd1 #ahc2 8liberality0 to employees of the1 #ei-ff2 control of legislation by the1 #hc-hi1 #ii-aja2 influence upon judiciary of the1 #aba1 #acc1 #ace2 praise of the1 #acg2 influence upon the press of the1 #adc-adh2 influence upon the pulpit of the1 #adh-aec2 general influence upon society of the1 #aed-agj2 influence upon literature of the1 #age-agi2 class consciousness of the1 #ahj-aha2 increased power of the1 #ahb-ahc1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aib-aic1 #aif-aih4 ,magruder1 ,justice ,b4 ,d41 quoted1 #aad-aae4 ,mallock1 ,w4 ,h41 quoted1 #acd4 ,manufactures1 census of1 #fh-gi4 ,marx1 ,karl1 #b2 quoted1 #ajb4 ,matson1 ,clarence ,h41 #di4 ,militia1 under new feudalism1 #aic4 ,mitchell1 ,john1 #ca4 ,model workshops and villages1 #fj-fa4 ,morganization of industry1 #be1 #age4 ,mosso1 ,professor ,angelo1 quoted1 #abc4 ,munseyization of literature1 #age4 ,n ,neo-,jeffersonians1 #e1 #f4 ,newspapers1 #be1 #aci-adh1 #ahh4 ,o ,o',brien1 ,judge ,denis1 #aaf4 ,old-age pensions1 #fa-ff1 #aia4 ,ostentation1 of the magnates1 #ci-dd1 #ahc4 ,p ,pastors1 of churches1 #adh-aec1 #ahh4 ,patton1 ,professor ,francis ,l41 quoted1 #ae4 ,peck1 ,professor ,harry ,thurston1 quoted1 #abh-abi1 #acd-ace1 #acg4 ,pensions1 old-age1 #fa-ff1 #aia4 ,potter1 ,bishop ,henry ,c41 quoted1 #af1 #aea4 ,production1 small-shop1 #ag4 ,r ,railroads1 combinations of1 #ad2 resistance to law and justice by1 #cd1 #aaa-aab2 commissions for control of1 #ce2 accidents upon1 #fe1 #ajj-aja4 ,relief organizations1 #fa1 #fb1 #ic4 ,retailers1 small1 decline of1 #bb-bc4 ,richmond1 ,benjamin ,a41 8,the ,new ,feudalism10 #eh4 ,rockefeller1 ,john ,d41 ,jr41 quoted1 #bi4 ,roosevelt1 ,theodore1 quoted1 #abg4 ,ross1 ,edward ,a41 #aed2 quoted1 #aef1 #aei4 ,russell1 ,george ,w4 ,e41 quoted1 #da4 ,russell1 ,hon4 ,w4 ,e41 quoted1 #he4 ,s ,sage1 ,russell1 quoted1 #bi1 #afc1 #afe4 ,sanborn1 ,judge ,walter ,h41 #ajd4 ,savage1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,minot ,j41 #aea4 ,schooling1 ,j4 ,holt1 #agj4 ,seigniorial mind1 renascence of1 #bg2 instances of1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cg1 #ci1 #de1 #ahj-aha4 ,shareholders1 increase of1 #ag1 #ah1 #afj-afc2 subordination of1 #bc1 #bd1 #afc4 ,shearman 7,thomas ,g47 and ,redfield 7,amasa ,a471 quoted1 #aaa4 ,single-,taxers1 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,socialism1 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,socialists1 #b1 #afd1 #afg4 ,social ,reform ,club1 pamphlet of1 quoted1 #aah-abj4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #hh4 ,steel combination1 magnitude of1 #ac1 #af1 #ca1 #ff4 ,stimson1 ,f4 ,j41 #hf1 #aab2 quoted1 #acb4 8,success10 #aef-afj4 ,suicide1 increase of1 #agc-agd4 ,sullivan1 ,j4 ,w41 #gi4 ,sumner1 ,professor ,william ,g41 quoted1 #abb-abc1 #acc1 #ace-acf1 #agd4 ,swayne1 ,judge ,charles1 #aag4 ,t ,talbot1 ,bishop ,ethelbert1 quoted1 #aea4 ,tenantry1 #i1 #ai2 increase of1 #ba1 #ej-ee1 #ahf4 ,thayer1 ,judge ,amos ,m41 #ajd4 ,tolstoi1 ,lyof ,n41 #b1 #c4 ,trusts1 see ,combinations4 ,v ,value of dollar1 comparative1 #gc-gd4 ,vandervelde1 ,emile1 quoted1 #bb4 ,veblen1 ,thorstein1 quoted1 #dj1 #dc4 ,villeinage1 the new1 #ei1 #ahd-ahe1 #ahg4 ,w ,wadlin1 ,horace ,g41 quoted1 #hg-hh4 ,wage-earners1 #eh1 #ff-hb2 number in manufactures1 #ga2 child1 #gf-hb2 women1 #gd-gf4 ,wage-scale1 adjustment of1 #ff2 comparisons of1 #ff-gi4 ,wage-system1 continuance of1 #ahe1 #aij4 ,wallace1 ,judge ,william ,j41 quoted1 #ajf4 ,warman1 ,cy1 #di4 ,webb1 ,sidney1 #c4 ,wells1 ,h4 ,g41 #a1 #c4 ,whittelsey1 ,dr4 ,sarah ,s41 #ie4 ,willoughby1 ,william ,f41 #id4 ,wright1 ,colonel ,carroll ,d41 #ff-fg4 ,wyckoff1 ,professor ,walter ,a41 #acc2 quoted1 #afh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,footnotes have been relabeled consecutively through the document1 and the one footnote not associated with a table has been moved to the end of its chapter4 ,punctuation has been made consistent4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in the original publication1 except that obvious typographical errors were corrected4