,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,cincinnati ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company #ahia ,,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,,american ,,book ,,company4 ,,preface4 ,to the ,american youth the history of our country is more important than any other branch of education4 ,a fair degree of knowledge respecting the progress of the ,american people from the discovery of the ,new ,world to the present is almost essential to that citizenship into which our youth are soon expected to enter4 ,in a government of the people1 for the people and by the people1 a familiar acquaintance with the course of events1 with the movements of society in peace and war1 is the great prerequisite to the exercise of those rights and duties which the ,american citizen must assume if he would hold his true place in the ,nation4 ,fortunately1 the means for studying the history of our country are abundant and easy4 ,american boys and girls have little cause any longer to complain that the writers and teachers have put beyond their reach the story of their native land4 ,great pains have been taken1 on the contrary1 to gather out of our annals as a people and nation the most important and romantic parts1 and to recite in pleasing style1 and with the aid of happy illustrations1 the lessons of the past4 ,the author of the present volume has tried in every particular to put himself in the place of the student4 ,he has endeavored to bring to the pupils of our great ,common ,schools a brief and easy narrative of all the better parts of our country's history4 ,it has been his aim to tell the story as a lover of his native land should recite for others that which is dearest and best to memory and affection4 ,he has sought to bring the careful results of historical research into the schoolroom without any of the superfluous rubbish and scaffolding of obtrusive scholarship and erudition4 ,another aim in the present text-book for our youth has been to consider the events of our country's history somewhat from our own point of view--not to despise the history of civilization in the ,mississippi ,valley1 or to seek wholly for examples of heroism and greatness in the older ,states of the ,union4 ,perhaps no part of our country is more favorably situated for taking such a view of our progress as a nation than is that magnificent region1 constituting as it does the most fertile and populous portion of the continent4 ,in the present ,history of the ,united ,states the author has not hesitated to make emphatic those paragraphs which relate to the development and progress of this region4 ,for the rest the author has followed the usual channel of narration from the aboriginal times to the colonization of our ,atlantic coast by the peoples of ,western ,europe2 from that event by way of the ,old ,thirteen ,colonies to ,independence2 from ,independence to regeneration by war2 and from our second birth to the present epoch of greatness and promise4 ,he cherishes the hope that his work in the hands of the boys and girls of our public schools may pass into their memories and hearts2 that its lessons may enter into union with their lives1 and conduce in some measure to their development into men and women worthy of their age and country4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,preface #c ,,contents #e ,,introduction #h ,,part ,i4 ,,primitive ,,america4 ,,chapter ,i4--,the ,aborigines #aa ,,part ,,ii4 ,,voyage ,,and ,,discovery4 ,,ii4--,the ,norsemen in ,america #ba ,,iii4--,spanish ,discoveries in ,america #bd ,,iv4--,spanish ,discoveries in ,america4--,continued #bh ,v4--,the ,french in ,america #ce ,,vi4--,english ,discoveries and ,settlements #da ,,vii4--,english ,discoveries and ,settlements4--,continued #dg ,,viii4--,voyages and ,settlements of the ,dutch #ec ,,part ,,iii4 ,,colonial ,,history4 ,,ix4--,virginia4--,the ,first ,charter #eg ,x4--,charter ,government4--,continued #fe ,,xi4--,virginia4--,the ,royal ,government #gj ,,xii4--,massachusetts4--,settlement and ,union #gf ,,xiii4--,massachusetts4--,war and ,witchcraft #hd ,,xiv4--,new ,york4--,settlement and ,administration of ,stuyvesant #id ,,xv4--,new ,york under the ,english #ajj ,,xvi4--,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,new ,hampshire #ajf ,,xvii4--,new ,jersey and ,pennsylvania #aae ,,xviii4--,maryland and ,north ,carolina #abb ,,xix4--,south ,carolina and ,georgia #abh ,,xx4--,french and ,indian ,war #ace ,,part ,,iv4 ,,revolution ,,and ,,confederation4 ,,xxi4--,causes of the ,revolution #adi ,,xxii4--,the ,beginning of the ,revolution4--,events of #agge #aeg ,,xxiii4--,the ,events of #aggf #afc ,,xxiv4--,operations of #aggg #aga ,,xxv4--,events of #aggh and #aggi #agh ,,xxvi4--,reverses and ,treason4--,events of #aghj #ahg ,,xxvii4--,events of #agha #aib ,,xxviii4--,confederation and ,union #aii ,,part ,v4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,union4 ,,xxix4--,washington's ,administration #bje ,,xxx4--,adams's ,administration #baa ,,xxxi4--,jefferson's ,administration #bad ,,xxxii4--,madison's ,administration4--,war of #ahab #bba ,,xxxiii4--,war of #ahab4--;,events of #ahac #bbh ,,xxxiv4--,the ,campaigns of #ahad #bce ,,xxxv4--,monroe's ,administration #bdd ,,xxxvi4--,adams's ,administration #bdh ,,xxxvii4--,jackson's ,administration #bej ,,xxxviii4--,van ,buren's ,administration #bed ,,xxxix4--,administrations of ,harrison and ,tyler #beg ,,xl4--,polk's ,administration and the ,mexican ,war #bfa ,,xli4--,administrations of ,taylor and ,fillmore #bfi ,,xlii4--,pierce's ,administration #bgc ,,xliii4--,buchanan's ,administration #bge ,,part ,,vi4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,,xliv4--,lincoln's ,administration and the ,civil ,war #bha ,,xlv4--,causes of the ,civil ,war #bhd ,,xlvi4--,events of #ahfa #bhh ,,xlvii4--,campaigns of #ahfb #bic ,,xlviii4--,the ,events of #ahfc #cjb ,,xlix4--,the ,closing ,conflicts4--,events of #ahfd and #ahfe #caj ,,part ,,vii4 ,,the ,,nation ,,reunited4 ,l4--,johnson's ,administration #cbc ,,li4--,grant's ,administration #cbh ,,lii4--,hayes's ,administration #ccg ,,liii4--,administrations of ,garfield and ,arthur #cdd ,,liv4--,cleveland's ,administration #cej ,,lv4--,harrison's ,administration #cfa ,appendix4--,constitution of the ,united ,states #cga ,index #chg ,,maps ,,and ,,portraits4 ,,colored ,,maps4 ,,page ,the ,new ,world1 with ,routes of ,discoveries #bd ,the ,colonies at the time of the ,french and ,indian ,war #add ,the ,colonies at the time of the ,revolution #aib ,the ,states in ,america during the ,civil ,war #cjd ,,outline ,,maps4 ,,page ,the ,first ,english ,settlements #dh ,early ,settlements in ,east ,mass4 #gh ,middle ,colonies #aaf ,washington's ,route to ,fort ,le ,buf #aci ,lake ,champlain #adb ,quebec in #agei #ade ,vicinity of ,boston #afj ,new ,york and ,vicinity #afh ,central ,new ,jersey #agj ,hudson ,river #agd ,philadelphia and ,vicinity #agf ,the ,carolinas #ahf ,western ,battlefields of the ,war of #ahab #bbc ,operations about ,niagara #bce ,vicinity of ,manassas ,junction #bhh ,vicinity of ,richmond1 #ahfb #bih ,vicksburg and ,vicinity1 #ahfc #cjc ,sherman's ,atlanta ,campaign #cab ,operations in ,virginia1 #ahfd and #ahfe #cah ,,portraits4 ,,page ,george ,washington #aj ,christopher ,columbus #be ,pedro ,menendez #cc ,samuel ,champlain #ci ,sebastian ,cabot #db ,sir ,walter ,raleigh #dd ,captain ,john ,smith #fj ,peter ,stuyvesant #if ,william ,penn #aai ,cecil ,calvert1 ,lord ,baltimore #abc ,james ,oglethorpe #aca ,patrick ,henry #aeb ,marquis de ,la ,fayette #agc ,benjamin ,franklin #agi ,paul ,jones #ahf ,general ,greene #aic ,john ,adams #baa ,thomas ,jefferson #bad ,james ,madison #bba ,james ,monroe #bdd ,henry ,clay #bdg ,john ,quincy ,adams #bdh ,andrew ,jackson #bej ,daniel ,webster #bea ,martin ,van ,buren #bed ,william ,henry ,harrison #beg ,john ,tyler #beg ,james ,k4 ,polk #bfa ,john ,charles ,fremont #bfc ,zachary ,taylor #bfi ,millard ,fillmore #bgj ,franklin ,pierce #bgc ,james ,buchanan #bge ,abraham ,lincoln #bha ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan #bia ,robert ,e4 ,lee #bii ,stonewall ,jackson #cjg ,william ,t4 ,sherman #caa ,joseph ,e4 ,johnston #cac ,philip ,h4 ,sheridan #cag ,andrew ,johnson #cbc ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant #cbh ,horace ,greeley #cca ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes #ccg ,oliver ,p4 ,morton #cdb ,james ,a4 ,garfield #cdd ,chester ,a4 ,arthur #cdf ,grover ,cleveland #cej ,thomas ,a4 ,hendricks #cef ,benjamin ,harrison #cfa ,,introduction4 ,there are several ,periods in the history of the ,united ,states4 ,it is important for the student to understand these at the beginning4 ,without such an understanding his notion of our country's history will be confused and his study rendered difficult4 #b4 ,first of all1 there was a time when the ,western continent was under the dominion of the ,red men4 ,the savage races possessed the soil1 hunted in the forests1 roamed over the prairies4 ,this is the ,primitive ,period in ,american history4 #c4 ,after the discovery of ,america1 the people of ,europe were for a long time engaged in exploring the ,new ,world and in becoming familiar with its shape and character4 ,for more than a hundred years1 curiosity was the leading passion with the adventurers who came to our shores4 ,their disposition was to go everywhere and settle nowhere4 ,these early times may be called the ,period of ,voyage and ,discovery4 #d4 ,next came the time of planting colonies4 ,the adventurers1 tired of wandering about1 became anxious to found new ,states in the wilderness4 ,kings and queens turned their attention to the work of colonizing the ,new ,world4 ,thus arose a third period--the ,period of ,colonial ,history4 #e4 ,the colonies grew strong and multiplied4 ,there were thirteen little seashore republics4 ,the rulers of the mother-country began a system of oppression and tyranny4 ,the colonies revolted1 fought side by side1 and won their freedom4 ,not satisfied with mere independence1 they formed a ,union destined to become strong and great4 ,this is the ,period of ,revolution and ,confederation4 #f4 ,then the ,united ,states of ,america entered upon its career as a nation4 ,emigrants flocked to the ,land of the ,free4 ,new ,states were formed and added to the ,union in rapid succession4 ,to protect itself from jealous neighbors1 the nation pushed her boundaries across the continent4 ,this ,period may be called the ,growth of the ,union4 #g4 ,but the nation was not truly free4 ,human slavery existed in the ,south4 ,this institution engendered sectional hatred and desires for disunion which finally developed into the dark and bloody ,period of the ,civil ,war4 #h4 ,then the reunited nation laid aside its arms and entered upon a period of prosperity and material development which has not yet reached its culmination and with which ,history affords no parallel4 #i4 ,we thus find seven periods in the history of our country3 ,i4 ,,primitive ,,america2 prior to the coming of white men4 ,,ii4 ,,voyage ,,and ,,discovery2 ,a4 ,d4 #ihf-afjg4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,colonies2 ,a4 ,d4 #afjg-agge4 ,,iv4 ,,revolution ,,and ,,confederation2 ,a4 ,d4 #agge-aghi4 ,v4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,union2 ,a4 ,d4 #aghi-ahfa4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war2 ,a4 ,d4 #ahfa-ahfe4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,reunited ,,nation2 ,a4 ,d4 #ahfe-ahia4 ,in this order the ,history of the ,united ,states will be presented in the following pages4 ,illustration3 ,g4 ,washington ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,part ,i4 ,,primitive ,,america4 ,illustration3 ,an ,ancient ,mound4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,aborigines4 ,before the times of the ,red men1 ,north ,america was inhabited by other races1 of whom we know but little4 ,of these primitive peoples the ,indians preserved many traditions4 ,vague stories of the wars1 migrations1 and cities of the nations that preceded them were recited by the red hunters at their camp-fires1 and were repeated from generation to generation4 #b4 ,other evidences1 more trustworthy than legend and story1 exist of the presence of aboriginal peoples in our country4 ,the traces of a rude civilization are found in almost every part of the present ,united ,states4 ,it is certain that the relics left behind by the prehistoric peoples are not the work of the ,indian races1 but of peoples who preceded them in the occupation of this continent4 ,that class of scholars called antiquarians1 or archologists1 have taken great pains to restore for us an outline of the life and character of the nations who first dwelt in the great countries between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mound-builders4 #c4 ,these primitive peoples are known to us by the name of ,,mound-,,builders4 ,the building of mounds seems to have been one of their chief forms of activity4 ,the traveler of to-day1 in passing across our country1 will ever and anon discover one of those primitive works of a race which has left to us no other monuments4 ,as the ancient people of ,egypt built pyramids of stone for their memorials1 so the unknown peoples of the ,new ,world raised huge mounds of earth as the tokens of their presence1 the evidences of their work in ancient ,america4 #d4 ,the mounds referred to are found in many parts of the ,united ,states1 but are most abundant in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,here also they are of greatest extent and variety4 ,some of them are as much as ninety feet in height1 and one has been estimated to contain twenty million cubic feet of earth4 ,it is evident that they were formed before the present forest growth of the ,united ,states sprang into existence4 ,the mounds are covered with trees1 some of them several feet in diameter2 and the surface has the same appearance as that of the surrounding country4 #e4 ,as we have said1 we know but little of the people by whom the mounds and earthworks of primitive ,america were constructed4 ,some of the works in question are of a military character4 ,one of these1 called ,fort ,hill1 near the mouth of the ,little ,miami ,river1 has a circumference of nearly four miles4 ,it is certain that great nations1 frequently at war with each other1 dwelt in our country between the ,northern ,lakes and the ,southern ,gulf2 but who those peoples were we have no method of ascertaining4 ,their language has perished with the people who spoke it4 ,only a few of the relics and implements of the primitive races remain to inform us of the men by whom they were made4 ,sidenote3 ,distribution of ,mounds4 #f4 ,in many parts of the ,mississippi ,valley1 particularly in the ,states of ,ohio and ,indiana1 the ancient mounds may be seen as they were at the time of the discovery of ,america4 ,one of the greatest is situated in ,illinois1 opposite the city of ,st4 ,louis4 ,it is elliptical in form1 being about seven hundred feet in length by five hundred feet in breadth4 ,it rises to a height of ninety feet4 ,another of much interest is at ,grave ,creek1 near ,wheeling1 in ,west ,virginia4 ,a mound at ,miamisburg1 ,ohio1 is nearly seventy feet in height4 ,one of the finest of all is the conical mound at ,marietta1 ,ohio4 ,some of the mounds1 as those of ,wisconsin1 are shaped like animals4 ,one of the most peculiar and interesting is the great serpent mound in ,adams ,county1 ,ohio4 ,the work has the shape of a serpent more than a thousand feet in length1 the body being about thirty feet broad at the surface4 ,the mouth of the serpent is opened wide1 and an object resembling a great egg lies partly within the jaws4 #g4 ,the use of the mounds has not been ascertained4 ,some have supposed that they were tombs in which the slain of great armies were buried1 but on opening them1 human remains are rarely found4 ,others have believed that the mounds were true memorials1 intended by their magnitude to impress the beholder and transmit a memory4 ,still others have thought the elevations were intended for watch-towers from which the movements of the enemy might be watched and thwarted4 ,sidenote3 ,relics from the ,mounds4 #h4 ,what we know of the prehistoric races has been mostly gained from an examination of their implements and utensils4 ,these were of either stone or copper4 ,it appears that the more advanced of the peoples1 especially the nations living on the borders of the ,great ,lakes1 were able to manufacture utensils of copper4 ,in other parts of the country1 the weapons and implements were made of flint and other varieties of stone1 by chipping or polishing4 ,the range of tools and implements was extensive1 including axes1 spear-heads1 arrow-points1 knives1 chisels1 hammers1 rude millstones1 and many varieties of earthen ware4 ,besides these1 there were articles of ornamentation and personal use1 such as pipes1 bracelets1 ear-rings1 and beads4 ,the common belief that the articles here referred to were the product of ,indian workmanship is held by many antiquarians to be wholly erroneous4 ,these antiquarians think that the ,indians knew nothing more of the origin and production of such implements as the arrow-points1 spear-heads1 and stone axes than we know ourselves4 ,illustration3 ,relics from the ,mounds4 #i4 ,in many parts of ,indiana the mounds of the ancient races are plentifully distributed4 ,almost every county has some relics of this kind within its borders4 ,but the most interesting remains of the primitive races are those discovered in the ancient cemeteries scattered between ,lake ,michigan and the ,tennessee ,river4 ,in many places the aboriginal tombs still yield the relics of this people of whom we know so little4 ,in recent years a burial ground near ,bedford1 ,indiana1 has been opened1 from which have been taken primitive skulls and other parts of human skeletons1 belonging possibly to some unknown race long preceding the ,indians in our country4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,indians1 or ,red ,men4 #aj4 ,with the ,mound-builders1 history can be but little concerned2 but with the ,red men1 or ,indians1 who succeeded them1 the white race was destined to have many relations of peace and war4 ,on the first arrival of ,europeans on the ,atlantic coast1 the country was found in possession of wild tribes living in the woods and on the river banks1 in rude villages from which they went forth to hunt or to make war on other tribes4 ,their manners and customs were fixed by usage and law1 and there was at least the beginning of civil government among them4 #aa4 ,to these tribes the name ,,indian was given from their supposed identity with the people of ,india4 ,columbus and his followers believed that they had reached the islands of the far ,east1 and that the natives were of the same race as the inhabitants of the ,indies4 ,the mistake of the ,spaniards was soon discovered2 but the name ,indian has ever since remained to designate the native tribes of the ,western continent4 #ab4 ,the origin of the ,indians is involved in obscurity4 ,at what date or by what route they came to the ,new ,world is unknown4 ,the notion that the ,red men are the descendants of the ,israelites is absurd4 ,that ,europeans or ,africans1 at some early period1 crossed the ,atlantic by sailing from island to island1 seems improbable4 ,that the people of ,kamchatka came by way of ,bering ,strait into the northwestern parts of ,america1 has little evidence to support it4 ,perhaps a more thorough knowledge of the ,indian languages may yet throw some light on the origin of the race4 #ac4 ,the ,indians belong to the ,bow-and-,arrow family of men4 ,to the ,red man the chase was everything4 ,without the chase he languished and died4 ,to smite the deer and the bear was his chief delight and profit4 ,such a race could live only in a country of woods and wild animals4 #ad4 ,the northern parts of ,america were inhabited by the ,,esquimos4 ,the name means the eaters of raw meat4 ,they lived in snow huts or hovels4 ,their manner of life was that of fishermen and hunters4 ,they clad themselves in winter with the skins of seals1 and in summer with those of reindeer4 ,sidenote3 ,indian ,tribes4 #ae4 ,the greater portion of the ,united ,states east of the ,mississippi was peopled by the family of the ,,algonquins4 ,they were divided into many tribes1 each having its local name and tradition4 ,agriculture was but little practiced by them4 ,they roamed about from one hunting-ground and river to another4 ,when the ,white men came1 the ,algonquin nations were already declining in numbers and influence4 ,only a few thousands now remain4 #af4 ,around the shores of ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario lived the ,,huron-,,iroquois4 ,at the time of their greatest power1 they embraced no fewer than nine nations4 ,the warriors of this confederacy presented the ,indian character in its best aspect4 ,they were brave1 patriotic1 and eloquent2 faithful as friends1 but terrible as enemies4 #ag4 ,south of the ,algonquins were the ,,cherokees and the ,,mobilian ,,nations4 ,the former were highly civilized for a primitive people4 ,the principal tribes of the ,mobilians were the ,yamassees and ,creeks of ,georgia1 the ,seminoles of ,florida1 and the ,choctaws and ,chickasaws of ,mississippi4 ,these displayed the usual disposition and habits of the ,red men4 #ah4 ,west of the ,mississippi was the family of the ,,dakotas4 ,south of these1 in a district nearly corresponding with the ,state of ,texas1 lived the wild ,,comanches4 ,beyond the ,rocky ,mountains were the ,indian nations of the ,plains2 the great families of the ,,shoshones1 the ,,selish1 the ,,klamaths1 and the ,,californians4 ,on the ,pacific slope1 farther southward1 dwelt in former times the civilized but feeble race of ,,aztecs4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,life #ai4 ,the ,red men had a great passion for war4 ,their wars were undertaken for revenge rather than conquest4 ,to forgive an injury was considered a shame4 ,revenge was the noblest of the virtues4 ,the open battle of the field was unknown in ,indian warfare4 ,fighting was limited to the ambuscade and the massacre4 ,quarter was rarely asked1 and never granted4 #bj4 ,in times of peace the ,indian character appeared to a better advantage4 ,but the ,red man was always unsocial and solitary4 ,he sat by himself in the woods4 ,the forest was better than a wigwam1 and a wigwam better than a village4 ,the ,indian woman was a degraded creature--a mere drudge and beast of burden4 ,sidenote3 ,indian ,characteristics4 #ba4 ,in the matter of the arts the ,indian was a barbarian4 ,his house was a hovel1 built of poles set up in a circle1 and covered with skins and the branches of trees4 ,household utensils were few and rude4 ,earthen pots1 bags1 and pouches for carrying provisions1 and stone hammers for pounding corn1 were the stock and store4 ,his weapons of offense and defense were the hatchet and the bow and arrow4 ,in times of war the ,red man painted his face and body with all manner of glaring colors4 ,the fine arts were wanting4 ,indian writing consisted of half-intelligible hieroglyphics scratched on the face of rocks or cut in the bark of trees4 #bb4 ,the ,indian languages bear little resemblance to those of other races4 ,the ,red man's vocabulary was very limited4 ,the principal objects of nature had special names1 but abstract ideas could hardly be expressed4 ,indian words had a very intense meaning4 ,there was1 for instance1 no word signifying to hunt or to fish2 but one word signified to-kill-a-deer-with-an-arrow2 another1 to-take-fish-by-striking-the-ice4 ,among some of the tribes1 the meaning of words was so restricted that the warrior would use one term and the squaw another to express the same idea4 #bc4 ,the ,indians were generally serious in manners and behavior4 ,sometimes1 however1 they gave themselves up to merry-making and hilarity4 ,the dance was universal--not the social dance of civilized nations1 but the solemn dance of religion and of war4 ,gaming was much practiced among all the tribes4 ,other amusements were common1 such as running1 wrestling1 shooting at a mark1 and racing in canoes4 #bd4 ,in personal appearance the ,indians were strongly marked4 ,in stature they were below the average of ,europeans4 ,the ,esquimos are rarely five feet high4 ,the ,algonquins are taller and lighter in build2 straight and agile2 lean and swift of foot4 ,the eyes are jet-black and sunken2 hair black and straight2 skin copper-colored or brown2 hands and feet small2 body lithe1 but not strong2 expression sinister1 or sometimes dignified and noble4 #be4 ,the best hopes of the ,indian race seem now to center in the ,choctaws1 ,cherokees1 ,creeks1 and ,chickasaws of the ,indian ,territory4 ,these nations have attained a considerable degree of civilization4 ,most of the other tribes are declining in numbers and influence4 ,whether the ,indians have been justly deprived of the ,new ,world will remain a subject of debate4 ,that they have been deprived of it can not be questioned4 ,the white races have taken possession of the vast domain4 ,to the prairies and forests1 the hunting-grounds of his fathers1 the ,red man says farewell4 ,illustration ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,i4 #a4 ,what is meant by the ,aborigines8 #b4 ,what evidences indicate an earlier race than the ,indians8 #c4 ,what is known of the ,mound-builders8 #d4 ,what are the most notable mounds8 #e4 ,where are they located8 #f4 ,describe the shapes of the mounds4 #g4 ,for what supposed purposes were they built8 #h4 ,what are sometimes found in the mounds8 #i4 ,why were the native races of ,america called ,indians8 #aj4 ,what is said of the origin of these races8 #aa4 ,to what family of men do the ,indians belong8 #ab4 ,name the principal ,indian nations in ,america4 #ac4 ,what regions did the ,algonquins inhabit8 #ad4 ,where did the ,huron-,iroquois live8 #ae4 ,what were the characteristics of this nation8 #af4 ,where did the ,cherokees and ,mobilian nations live8 #ag4 ,what were the principal tribes of the ,mobilians8 #ah4 ,what regions did the ,dakotas inhabit8 #ai4 ,give the names of other ,indian nations4 #bj4 ,what regions did they inhabit8 #ba4 ,what were the leading characteristics of the ,indians8 #bb4 ,what can you tell of the ,indian languages8 #bc4 ,describe the personal appearance of the ,indians4 #bd4 ,what tribes of ,indians are now the most civilized8 #be4 ,give some account of the ,esquimos4 #bf4 ,what does the name ,esquimo mean8 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,voyage ,,and ,,discovery4 ,a4 ,d4 #ihf-afjg4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,norsemen ,,in ,,america4 ,the western continent was first seen by white men in ,a4 ,d4 #ihf4 ,a ,norse navigator by the name of ,,herjulfson1 sailing from ,iceland to ,greenland1 was caught in a storm and driven westward to ,newfoundland or ,labrador4 ,two or three times the shores were seen1 but no landing was attempted4 ,the coast was so different from the well-known cliffs of ,greenland as to make it certain that another shore1 hitherto unknown1 was in sight4 ,on reaching ,greenland1 ,herjulfson and his companions told wonderful stories of the new land seen in the west4 ,sidenote3 ,leif1 ,son of ,eric4 #b4 ,fourteen years later1 the actual discovery of ,america was made by ,,leif1 a son of ,eric4 ,resolving to know the truth about the country which ,herjulfson had seen1 he sailed westward from ,greenland1 and in the spring of the year #ajja reached ,labrador4 ,landing with his companions1 he made explorations for a considerable distance along the coast4 ,the country was milder and more attractive than his own1 and he was in no haste to return4 ,southward he went as far as ,massachusetts1 where the company remained for more than a year4 ,rhode ,island was also visited2 and it is alleged that the adventurers found their way into ,new ,york harbor4 ,illustration3 ,norsemen in ,america4 #c4 ,in the years that followed ,leif's discovery1 other bands of ,norsemen came to the shores of ,america4 ,,thorwald1 ,leif's brother1 made a voyage to ,maine and ,massachusetts in #ajjb1 and is said to have died at ,fall ,river in the latter ,state4 ,then another brother1 ,,thorstein by name1 arrived with a band of followers in #ajje2 and in the year #ajjg1 ,,thorfinn ,,karlsefne1 the most distinguished mariner of his day1 came with a crew of a hundred and fifty men1 and made explorations along the coast of ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and perhaps as far south as the capes of ,virginia4 ,sidenote3 ,vinland4 #d4 ,other companies of ,icelanders and ,norwegians visited the countries farther north1 and planted colonies in ,newfoundland and ,nova ,scotia4 ,little1 however1 was known or imagined by these rude sailors of the extent of the country which they had discovered4 ,they supposed that it was only a portion of ,western ,greenland1 which1 bending to the north around an arm of the ocean1 had reappeared in the west4 ,their settlements were feeble and were soon broken up4 ,commerce was an impossibility in a country where there were only a few wretched savages with no disposition to buy and nothing at all to sell4 ,the spirit of adventure was soon appeased1 and the restless ,norsemen returned to their own country4 ,to this undefined line of coast1 now vaguely known to them1 the ,norse sailors gave the name of ,,vinland4 #e4 ,during the twelfth1 thirteenth1 and fourteenth centuries occasional voyages were made2 and as late as ,a4 ,d4 #acdg1 a ,norwegian ship visited ,labrador and the northeastern parts of the ,united ,states4 ,in #acej ,greenland and ,vinland were depopulated by a great plague which had spread thither from ,norway4 ,from that time forth communication with the ,new ,world ceased1 and the history of the ,northmen in ,america was at an end4 ,the ,norse remains1 which have been found at ,newport1 at ,fall ,river1 and several other places1 point clearly to the events here narrated2 and the ,icelandic historians give a consistent account of these early exploits of their countrymen4 ,when the word ,america is mentioned in the hearing of the schoolboys of ,iceland1 they will at once answer1 with enthusiasm1 ,oh1 yes2 ,leif ,ericsson discovered that country in the year #ajja4 #f4 ,an event is to be weighed by its consequences4 ,from the discovery of ,america by the ,norsemen1 nothing whatever resulted4 ,the world was neither wiser nor better4 ,among the ,icelanders themselves the place and the very name of ,vinland were forgotten4 ,europe never heard of such a country or such a discovery4 ,historians have until late years been incredulous on the subject1 and the fact is as though it had never been4 ,the curtain which had been lifted for a moment was stretched again from sky to sea1 and the ,new ,world still lay hidden in the shadows4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,spanish ,,discoveries ,,in ,,america4 ,sidenote3 ,christopher ,columbus4 ,it was reserved for the people of a sunnier clime than ,iceland first to make known to the ,european nations the existence of a ,western continent4 ,spain was the happy country under whose patronage a new world was to be added to the old2 but the man who was destined to make the revelation was not himself a ,spaniard3 he was to come from ,italy1 the land of valor and the home of greatness4 ,,christopher ,,columbus was the name of that man whom after ages have rewarded with imperishable fame4 #b4 ,the idea that the world is round was not original with ,columbus4 ,the ,english traveler1 ,sir ,john ,mandeville1 had declared in the first ,english book ever written 7,a4 ,d4 #acef7 that the world is a sphere1 and that it was practicable for a man to sail around the world and return to the place of starting4 ,but ,columbus was the first practical believer in the theory of circumnavigation4 #c4 ,the great mistake with ,columbus was not concerning the figure of the earth1 but in regard to its size4 ,he believed the world to be no more than ten thousand or twelve thousand miles in circumference4 ,he therefore confidently expected that1 after sailing about three thousand miles to the westward1 he should arrive at the ,east ,indies4 #d4 ,christopher ,columbus was born at ,genoa1 ,italy1 in ,a4 ,d4 #adce4 ,he was carefully educated1 and then devoted himself to the sea4 ,for twenty years he traversed the parts of the ,atlantic adjacent to ,europe2 he visited ,iceland2 then went to ,portugal1 and finally to ,spain4 ,he spent ten years in trying to explain to dull monarchs the figure of the earth and the ease with which the rich islands of the ,east might be reached by sailing westward4 ,he found one appreciative listener1 the noble and sympathetic ,isabella1 ,queen of ,castile4 ,to the faith1 insight1 and decision of a woman the final success of ,columbus must be attributed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,world4 with routes ,,of ,,discoverers4 ,illustration3 ,,ships ,,of ,,columbus ,sidenote3 ,discovery of ,america4 #e4 ,on the morning of the #c;d day of ,august1 #adib1 ,columbus1 with three ships1 left the harbor of ,palos4 ,after seventy-one days of sailing1 in the early dawn of ,october #ab1 ,rodrigo ,triana1 a sailor on the ,pinta1 set up a shout of ,land6 ,a gun was fired as the signal4 ,the ships lay to4 ,just at sunrise ,columbus stepped ashore1 set up the banner of ,castile in the presence of the natives1 and named the island ,san ,salvador4 ,during the three remaining months of this first voyage1 the islands of ,concepcion1 ,cuba1 and ,san ,domingo were added to the list of discoveries2 and in the last-named island was erected a fort1 the first structure built by ,europeans in the ,new ,world4 ,in ,january1 #adic1 ,columbus sailed for ,spain1 where he arrived in ,march1 and was greeted with rejoicings and applause4 #f4 ,in the following autumn1 ,columbus sailed on his second voyage1 which resulted in the discovery of the ,windward group and the islands of ,jamaica and ,porto ,rico4 ,it was at this time1 and in ,san ,domingo1 that the first colony was established4 ,columbus's brother was appointed governor4 ,after an absence of nearly three years1 ,columbus returned to ,spain4 ,the rest of his life was clouded with persecutions and misfortunes4 #g4 ,in #adih1 during a third voyage1 ,columbus discovered the island of ,trinidad and the mainland of ,south ,america4 ,thence he sailed back to ,san ,domingo1 where he found his colony disorganized2 and here1 while attempting to restore order1 he was seized by an agent of the ,spanish government1 put in chains1 and carried to ,spain4 ,after much disgraceful treatment1 he was sent out on a fourth and last voyage1 in search of the ,indies2 but the expedition accomplished little1 and ,columbus returned to his ungrateful country4 ,the good ,isabella was dead1 and the great discoverer1 a friendless and neglected old man1 sank into the grave4 #h4 ,columbus was even robbed of the name of the new continent4 ,in the year #adii1 ,,amerigo ,,vespucci1 a ,florentine navigator1 reached the eastern coast of ,south ,america4 ,two years later he made a second voyage1 and then gave to ,europe the first published account of the ,western ,world4 ,in his narrative all reference to ,columbus was omitted2 and thus the name of ,vespucci1 rather than that of the true discoverer1 was given to the ,new ,world4 ,sidenote3 ,discovery of the ,pacific4 #i4 ,the discovery of ,america produced great excitement in ,europe4 ,within ten years after the death of ,columbus1 the principal islands of the ,west ,indies were explored and colonized4 ,in the year #aeaj the ,spaniards planted on the ,isthmus of ,darien their first continental colony4 ,three years later1 ,,de ,,balboa1 the governor of the colony1 crossed the isthmus1 and from an eminence looked down upon the ,pacific4 ,not satisfied with merely seeing the great water1 he waded in a short distance1 and1 drawing his sword1 took possession of the ocean in the name of the king of ,spain4 ,sidenote3 ,florida4 #aj4 ,meanwhile1 ,,ponce ,,de ,,leon1 who had been a companion of ,columbus1 fitted out an expedition of discovery4 ,he had grown rich as governor of ,porto ,rico1 and had also grown old4 ,but there was a ,fountain of ,perpetual ,youth somewhere in the ,bahamas--so said a tradition in ,spain--and in that fountain the old soldier would bathe and be young again4 ,so in the year #aeab he set sail from ,porto ,rico2 and on ,easter ,sunday came in sight of an unknown shore4 ,there were waving forests1 green leaves1 and birds of song4 ,in honor of the day1 called ,pascua ,florida1 he named the new shore ,,florida--the ,land of ,flowers4 #aa4 ,a landing was made near where ,st4 ,augustine was afterwards founded4 ,the country was claimed for the king of ,spain1 and the search was continued for the ,fountain of ,youth4 ,the adventurer turned southward1 discovered the ,tortugas1 and then sailed back to ,porto ,rico1 no younger than when he started4 #ab4 ,the king of ,spain gave ,ponce the governorship of his ,land of ,flowers1 and sent him thither to establish a colony4 ,he reached his province in the year #aeba1 and found the ,indians hostile4 ,scarcely had he landed when they fell upon him in battle2 many of the ,spaniards were killed1 and the rest had to fly to the ships for safety4 ,ponce de ,leon himself was wounded1 and carried back to ,cuba to die4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,spanish ,,discoveries ,,in ,,america4--7,,continued47 ,the year #aeag was marked by the discovery of ,yucatan by ,,fernandez ,,de ,,cordova4 ,while exploring the northern coast of the country1 he was attacked by the natives1 and mortally wounded4 ,during the next year the coast of ,mexico was explored for a great distance by ,,grijalva1 assisted by ,cordova's pilot4 ,in the year #aeai ,,fernando ,,cortez landed with his fleet at ,tabasco1 and1 in two years1 conquered the ,aztec empire of ,mexico4 ,sidenote3 ,circumnavigation of the ,globe4 #b4 ,among the daring enterprises at the beginning of the sixteenth century was that of ,,ferdinand ,,magellan4 ,a ,portuguese by birth1 this bold man determined to discover a southwest passage to ,asia4 ,he appealed to the king of ,portugal for ships and men2 but the monarch gave no encouragement4 ,magellan then went to ,spain1 and laid his plans before ,charles ,v41 who ordered a fleet of five ships to be fitted out at the public expense4 #c4 ,the voyage was begun from ,seville in ,august of #aeai4 ,magellan soon reached the shores of ,south ,america1 and passed the winter on the coast of ,brazil4 ,renewing his voyage southward1 he came to that strait which still bears his name1 and passing through1 found himself in the open and boundless ocean which he called the ,,pacific4 #d4 ,magellan held on his course for nearly four months1 suffering much for water and provisions4 ,in ,march of #aebj he came to the islands called the ,ladrones4 ,afterwards he reached the ,philippine group1 where he was killed in battle with the natives4 ,but a new captain was chosen1 and the voyage was continued to the ,moluccas4 ,only a single ship remained2 but in this vessel the crews embarked1 and1 returning by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 arrived in ,spain in ,september1 #aebb4 ,the first circumnavigation of the globe had been accomplished4 #e4 ,the next important voyage to ,america was in the year #aebj4 ,,de ,,ayllon1 a judge in ,st4 ,domingo1 and six other wealthy men1 determined to stock their plantations with slaves1 by kidnapping natives from the ,bahamas4 ,two vessels reached the coast of ,south ,carolina4 ,the name of ,chicora was given to the country1 and the ,river ,combahee was called the ,jordan4 ,the natives made presents to the strangers and treated them with great cordiality4 ,they flocked on board the ships2 and when the decks were crowded ,de ,ayllon weighed anchor and sailed away4 ,a few days afterwards a storm wrecked one of the ships2 while most of the poor wretches who were in the other ship died of suffocation4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition of ,de ,narvaez4 #f4 ,in #aebf ,charles ,v4 appointed ,,de ,,narvaez governor of ,florida4 ,his territory extended from ,cape ,sable three fifths of the way around the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,de ,narvaez arrived at ,tampa ,bay with two hundred and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen4 ,the natives treated them with suspicion1 and holding up their gold trinkets1 pointed to the north4 ,the ,spaniards1 whose imaginations were fired with the sight of the precious metal1 struck into the forests1 expecting to find cities and empires1 and found instead swamps and savages4 ,they finally came to ,appalachee1 a squalid village of forty cabins4 #g4 ,oppressed with fatigue and hunger1 they wandered on1 until they reached the harbor of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,here they constructed some brigantines1 and put to sea in hope of reaching ,mexico4 ,after shipwrecks and almost endless wanderings1 four men only of all the company1 under the leadership of the heroic ,de ,vaca1 reached the village of ,san ,miguel1 on the ,pacific coast1 and were conducted to the city of ,mexico4 ,sidenote3 ,de ,soto's ,expedition4 #h4 ,in the year #aecg ,,ferdinand ,,de ,,soto was appointed governor of ,cuba and ,florida1 with the privilege of exploring and conquering the latter country4 ,he selected six hundred of the most gallant and daring young ,spaniards1 and great preparations were made for the conquest4 ,arms and stores were provided2 shackles were wrought for the slaves2 tools for the forge and workshop were supplied2 twelve priests were chosen to conduct religious ceremonies2 and a herd of swine was driven on board to fatten on the maize and mast of the country4 #i4 ,the fleet first touched at ,havana1 where ,de ,soto left his wife to govern ,cuba during his absence4 ,after a voyage of two weeks1 the ships cast anchor in ,tampa ,bay4 ,some of the ,cubans who had joined the expedition were terrified and sailed back to the security of home2 but ,de ,soto and his cavaliers began their march into the interior4 ,in ,october of #aeci they arrived at the country of the ,appalachians1 where they spent the winter4 ,for four months they remained in this locality1 sending out exploring parties in various directions4 ,one of these companies reached ,pensacola1 and made arrangements that supplies should be sent out from ,cuba to that place in the following summer4 #aj4 ,in the early spring the ,spaniards continued their march to the north and east4 ,an ,indian guide told them of a populous empire in that direction2 a woman was empress1 and the land was full of gold4 ,de ,soto and the freebooters pressed on through the swamps and woods1 and in ,april1 #aedj1 came upon the ,ogeechee ,river4 ,here the ,indian guide went mad1 and lost the whole company in the forest4 ,by the #ast of ,may they reached ,south ,carolina1 near where ,de ,ayllon had lost his ships4 #aa4 ,from this place the wanderers passed across ,northern ,georgia from the ,chattahoochee to the ,coosa2 thence down that river to ,lower ,alabama4 ,here they came upon the ,indian town of ,mauville1 or ,mobile1 where a battle was fought with the natives4 ,the town was set on fire1 and two thousand five hundred of the ,indians were killed or burned to death4 ,eighteen of ,de ,soto's men were killed and a hundred and fifty wounded4 ,the ,spaniards also lost most of their horses and baggage4 ,illustration3 ,de ,soto ,reaches the ,mississippi4 #ab4 ,de ,soto and his men next turned to the north1 and by the middle of ,december reached the country of the ,chickasaws4 ,they crossed the ,yazoo1 and found an ,indian village1 which promised them shelter for the winter4 ,here1 in ,february1 #aeda1 they were attacked by the ,indians1 who set the town on fire1 but ,spanish weapons and discipline again saved ,de ,soto and his men4 ,sidenote3 ,discovery of the ,mississippi4 #ac4 ,the ,spaniards next set out to journey farther westward1 and the guides brought them to the ,mississippi4 ,the point where the ,father of ,waters was first seen by ,white men was a little north of the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude2 the day of the discovery can not certainly be known4 ,the ,indians came down the river in a fleet of canoes1 and offered to carry the ,spaniards over2 but a crossing was not effected until the latter part of ,may4 #ad4 ,de ,soto's men now found themselves in the land of the ,dakotas4 ,the natives at one place were going to worship the ,spaniards1 but ,de ,soto would not permit such idolatry4 ,they continued their march to the ,st4 ,francis ,river2 thence westward for about two hundred miles2 thence southward to the tributaries of the ,washita ,river4 ,on the banks of this stream they passed the winter of #aeda-db4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,de ,soto4 #ae4 ,de ,soto now turned toward the sea1 and came upon the ,mississippi in the neighborhood of ,natchez4 ,his spirit was completely broken4 ,a fever seized upon his emaciated frame1 and death shortly ensued4 ,the priests chanted a requiem1 and in the middle of the night his companions put his body into a rustic coffin and sunk it in the ,mississippi4 #af4 ,before his death1 ,de ,soto had named ,moscoso as his successor4 ,under his leadership1 the half-starved adventurers next crossed the country to the upper waters of the ,red ,river1 and then ranged the hunting-grounds of the ,pawnees and the ,comanches4 ,in ,december of #aedb they came again to the ,mississippi1 where they built seven boats1 and on the #b;d of ,july1 #aedc1 set sail for the sea4 ,the distance was almost five hundred miles1 and seventeen days were required to make the descent4 ,on reaching the ,gulf of ,mexico1 they steered to the southwest1 and finally reached the settlement at the mouth of the ,river of ,palms4 #ag4 ,the next attempt to colonize ,florida was in the year #aefe4 ,the enterprise was intrusted to ,,pedro ,,menendez1 a ,spanish soldier4 ,he was commissioned by ,philip ,,ii4 to plant in some favorable district of ,florida a colony of not less than five hundred persons1 and was to receive two hundred and twenty-five square miles of land adjacent to the settlement4 ,twenty-five hundred persons joined the expedition4 ,illustration3 ,pedro ,menendez4 #ah4 ,the real object of ,menendez was to destroy a colony of ,french ,protestants1 called ,huguenots1 who had made a settlement near the mouth of the ,st4 ,john's ,river4 ,this was within the limits of the territory claimed by ,spain4 ,the ,catholic party of the ,french court had communicated with the ,spanish court as to the whereabouts and intentions of the ,huguenots1 so that ,menendez knew where to find and how to destroy them4 ,sidenote3 ,founding of ,st4 ,augustine4 #ai4 ,it was ,st4 ,augustine's day when the ,spaniards came in sight of the shore1 and the harbor and river which enters it were named in honor of the saint4 ,on the #hth day of ,september1 ,philip ,,ii4 was proclaimed monarch of ,north ,america2 a solemn mass was said by the priests2 and the foundations of the oldest town in the ,united ,states were laid4 ,this was seventeen years before the founding of ,santa ,f1 and forty-two years before the settlement at ,jamestown4 #bj4 ,menendez soon turned his attention to the ,huguenots4 ,he collected his forces at ,st4 ,augustine1 stole through the woods1 and falling on the defenseless colony1 utterly destroyed it4 ,men1 women1 and children were alike given up to butchery4 ,two hundred were massacred4 ,a few escaped into the forest1 ,laudonniere1 the ,huguenot leader1 among the number1 and were picked up by two ,french ships4 #ba4 ,the crews of the vessels were the next object of vengeance4 ,menendez discovered them1 and deceiving them with treacherous promises1 induced them to surrender4 ,as they approached the ,spanish fort a signal was given1 and seven hundred defenceless victims were slain4 ,only a few mechanics and ,catholic servants were left alive4 #bb4 ,the ,spaniards had now explored the coast from the ,isthmus of ,darien to ,port ,royal in ,south ,carolina4 ,they were acquainted with the country west of the ,mississippi as far north as ,new ,mexico and ,missouri1 and east of that river they had traversed the ,gulf ,states as far as the mountain ranges of ,tennessee and ,north ,carolina4 ,with the establishment of their first permanent colony on the coast of ,florida1 the period of ,spanish voyage and discovery may be said to end4 ,sidenote3 ,portuguese ,explorations4 #bc4 ,a brief account of the only important voyages of the ,portuguese to ,america will here be given4 ,in #adie1 ,john ,,ii41 king of ,portugal1 was succeeded by his cousin ,manuel1 who1 in order to secure some of the benefits which yet remained to discoverers1 fitted out two vessels1 and in the summer of #aeja sent ,,gaspar ,,cortereal to make a voyage to ,america4 #bd4 ,the ,portuguese ships reached ,maine in ,july1 and explored the coast for nearly seven hundred miles4 ,little attention was paid by ,cortereal to the great forests of pine which stood along the shore1 promising ship-yards and cities4 ,he satisfied his rapacity by kidnapping fifty ,indians1 whom1 on his return to ,portugal1 he sold as slaves4 ,a new voyage was then undertaken1 with the purpose of capturing another cargo of natives2 but a year went by1 and no tidings arrived from the fleet4 ,the brother of the ,portuguese captain sailed in hope of finding the missing vessels4 ,he also was lost1 but in what manner is not known4 ,the fate of the ,cortereals and their slave-ships has remained a mystery of the sea4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,america4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,french ,explorations4 ,france was not slow to profit by the discoveries of ,columbus4 ,as early as #aejd the fishermen of ,normandy and ,brittany reached the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,a map of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence was drawn by a ,frenchman in the year #aejf4 ,two years later some ,indians were taken to ,france2 and in #aeah the attention of ,francis ,i4 was turned to the ,new ,world4 ,in #aebc ,,john ,,verrazano1 of ,florence1 was commissioned to conduct an expedition for the discovery of a northwest passage to the ,east ,indies4 #b4 ,in ,january1 #aebd1 ,verrazano left the shores of ,europe1 with a single ship1 called the ,dolphin4 ,after fifty days he discovered the mainland in the latitude of ,wilmington4 ,he sailed southward and northward along the coast and began a traffic with the natives4 ,the ,indians were found to be a timid race1 unsuspicious and confiding4 ,a half-drowned sailor1 washed ashore by the surf1 was treated with kindness1 and permitted to return to the ship4 #c4 ,the voyage was continued toward the north4 ,the coast of ,new ,jersey was explored1 and the hills marked as containing minerals4 ,the harbor of ,new ,york was entered1 and at ,newport ,verrazano anchored for fifteen days4 ,here the ,french sailors repaid the confidence of the natives by kidnapping a child and attempting to steal an ,indian girl4 #d4 ,from ,newport1 ,verrazano continued his explorations northward4 ,the long line of the ,new ,england coast was traced with care4 ,the ,indians of the north would buy no toys1 but were eager to purchase knives and weapons of iron4 ,in the latter part of ,may1 ,verrazano reached ,newfoundland4 ,in ,july he returned to ,france and published an account of his great discoveries4 ,the name of ,,new ,,france was given to the country4 ,sidenote3 ,cartier on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 #e4 ,in #aecd1 ,,james ,,cartier1 a seaman of ,st4 ,malo1 made a voyage to ,america4 ,his two ships1 after twenty days of sailing1 anchored on the #ajth day of ,may off the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,cartier circumnavigated the island1 crossed the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 and ascended the estuary until the narrowing banks made him aware that he was in the mouth of a river4 ,cartier1 thinking it impracticable to pass the winter in the ,new ,world1 set sail for ,france1 and in thirty days reached ,st4 ,malo4 ,sidenote3 ,island of ,montreal4 #f4 ,another voyage was planned immediately4 ,three ships were provided2 a number of young noblemen joined the expedition1 and on the #aith of ,may the voyage was begun4 ,the passage to ,newfoundland was made by the #ajth of ,august4 ,it was the day of ,st4 ,lawrence1 and the name of that martyr was given to the gulf and to the stream which enters it from the west4 ,the expedition proceeded to the island of ,orleans1 where the ships were moored4 ,two ,indians1 whom ,cartier had taken with him to ,france1 gave information that there was an important town higher up the river4 ,proceeding thither1 the ,french captain found a village at the foot of a high hill in the middle of an island4 ,cartier named the island and town ,mont ,real1 and the country was declared to belong to the king of ,france4 ,during this winter twenty-five of ,cartier's men were swept off by the scurvy4 #g4 ,with the opening of spring1 a cross was planted on the shore1 and the homeward voyage began4 ,the good king of the ,hurons was decoyed on board and carried off to die4 ,on the #fth of ,july the fleet reached ,st4 ,malo2 but the accounts which ,cartier published greatly discouraged the ,french2 for neither silver nor gold had been found in ,new ,france4 #h4 ,,francis ,,of ,,roberval was next commissioned by the court of ,france to plant a colony on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the man who was chiefly relied on to give character to the proposed colony was ,james ,cartier4 ,his name was accordingly added to the list1 and he was honored with the office of chief pilot and captain-general4 #i4 ,it was difficult to find material for the colony4 ,the ,french peasants were not eager to embark1 and the work of enlisting volunteers went on slowly1 until the government opened the prisons of the kingdom1 giving freedom to whoever would join the expedition4 ,there was a rush of robbers and swindlers1 and the lists were immediately filled4 ,only counterfeiters and traitors were denied the privilege of gaining their liberty in the ,new ,world4 ,sidenote3 ,fort on the site of ,quebec4 #aj4 ,in ,may of #aeda1 five ships1 under command of ,cartier1 left ,france1 reached the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and ascended the river to the site of ,quebec1 where a fort was erected and named ,charlesbourg4 ,here the colonists passed the winter4 ,cartier soon sailed away with his part of the squadron1 and returned to ,europe4 ,roberval was left in ,new ,france with three shiploads of criminals who could be restrained only by whipping and hanging4 ,the winter was long and severe1 and spring was welcomed for the opportunity which it gave of returning to ,france4 #aa4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century ,admiral ,coligny1 of ,france1 formed the design of establishing in ,america a refuge for the ,huguenots of his own country4 ,in #aefb ,,john ,,ribault1 of ,dieppe1 was selected to lead the ,huguenots to the land of promise4 ,in ,february the colony reached the coast of ,florida near the site of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,the ,river ,st4 ,john's was entered and named the ,river of ,may4 ,the vessel then sailed to the entrance of ,port ,royal2 here it was determined to make the settlement4 ,the colonists were landed on an island1 and a stone was set up to mark the place4 ,a fort was erected and named ,,carolina4 ,in this fort ,ribault left twenty-six men1 and then sailed back to ,france4 ,in the following spring the men in the fort mutinied and killed their leader4 ,then they built a rude brig and put to sea4 ,they were at last picked up by an ,english ship and carried to ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,french in ,florida4 #ab4 ,two years later another colony was planned1 and ,,laudonniere chosen leader4 ,the character1 however1 of this second ,protestant company was very bad4 ,a point on the ,river ,st4 ,john's was selected for the settlement4 ,a fort was built here1 but a part of the colonists contrived to get away with two of the ships4 ,the rest of the settlers were on the eve of departure when ,ribault arrived with supplies and restored order4 ,it was at this time that ,menendez discovered the ,huguenots and murdered them4 #ac4 ,but ,,dominic ,,de ,,gourgues1 of ,gascony1 visited the ,spaniards with signal vengeance4 ,this man fitted out three ships1 and with only fifty seamen arrived on the coast of ,florida4 ,he surprised three ,spanish forts on the ,st4 ,john's1 and made prisoners of the inmates4 ,unable to hold his position1 he hanged the leading captives to the trees1 and put up this inscription to explain what he had done3 ,not as ,spaniards1 but as murderers4 #ad4 ,in the year #aeih the ,,marquis ,,of ,,la ,,roche was commissioned to found a colony in the ,new ,world4 ,the prisons of ,france were again opened to furnish the emigrants4 ,the vessels reached ,sable ,island1 a dismal place off ,nova ,scotia1 where forty men were left to form a settlement4 ,la ,roche returned to ,france and died1 and for seven years the forty criminals languished on ,sable ,island4 ,then they were picked up and carried back to ,france1 but were never remanded to prison4 ,sidenote3 ,founding of ,port ,royal4 #ae4 ,in the year #afjc the country1 from the latitude of ,philadelphia to that of ,quebec1 was granted to ,,de ,,monts4 ,the chief provisions of his patent were a monopoly of the fur-trade1 and religious freedom for the ,huguenots4 ,with two shiploads of colonists ,de ,monts left ,france in ,march of #afjd1 and reached the ,bay of ,fundy4 ,poutrincourt1 the captain of one of the ships1 asked and obtained a grant of some beautiful lands in ,nova ,scotia1 and with a part of the crew went on shore4 ,de ,monts began to build a fort at the mouth of the ,st4 ,croix4 ,but in the following spring they abandoned this place and joined ,poutrincourt4 ,here1 on the #adth of ,november1 #afje1 the foundations of the first permanent ,french settlement in ,america were laid4 ,the name of ,port ,royal was given to the fort1 and the country was called ,,acadia4 ,illustration3 ,samuel ,champlain4 #af4 ,in #afjc ,,samuel ,,champlain1 the most soldierly man of his times1 was commissioned by ,rouen merchants to establish a trading-post on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the traders saw that a traffic in furs was a surer road to riches than the search for gold and diamonds4 ,champlain crossed the ocean1 sailed up the river1 and selected the spot on which ,quebec now stands as the site for a fort4 ,in the autumn he returned to ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,founding of ,quebec4 #ag4 ,in #afjh ,champlain again visited ,america1 and on the #c;d of ,july in that year the foundations of ,quebec were laid4 ,the next year he and two other ,frenchmen joined a company of ,huron and ,algonquin ,indians who were at war with the ,iroquois of ,new ,york4 ,with this band he ascended the ,sorel ,river until he came to the long1 narrow lake1 which has ever since borne the name of its discoverer4 #ah4 ,in #afab ,champlain came to ,new ,france for the third time1 and the success of the colony at ,quebec was assured4 ,franciscan monks came over and began to preach among the ,indians4 ,champlain again went with a war-party against the ,iroquois4 ,his company was defeated1 he himself wounded and obliged to remain all winter among the ,hurons4 ,in #afag he returned to the colony1 and in #afbj began to build the fortress of ,st4 ,louis4 ,champlain became governor of ,new ,france1 and died in #afce4 ,to him1 more than to any other man1 the success of the ,french colonies in ,north ,america must be attributed4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,english ,,discoveries ,,and ,,settlements4 ,sidenote3 ,john ,cabot's ,discoveries4 ,on the #eth of ,may1 #adif1 ,henry ,,vii41 king of ,england1 commissioned ,,john ,,cabot1 of ,venice1 to make discoveries in the ,atlantic and ,indian ,oceans1 and to take possession of all countries which he might discover4 ,cabot was a brave1 adventurous man1 who had been a sailor from his boyhood1 and was now a wealthy merchant of ,bristol4 ,five ships were fitted out1 and in ,april1 #adig1 the fleet left ,bristol4 ,on the morning of the #bdth of ,june1 the gloomy shore of ,labrador was seen4 ,this was the real discovery of the ,american continent4 ,fourteen months elapsed before ,columbus reached the coast of ,guiana1 and more than two years before ,vespucci saw the main land of ,south ,america4 #b4 ,cabot explored the coast of the country for several hundred miles4 ,he supposed that the land was a part of the dominions of the ,khan of ,tartary2 but finding no inhabitants1 he went on shore and took possession in the name of the ,english king4 ,no man forgets his native land2 by the side of the flag of his adopted country ,cabot set up the banner of the republic of ,venice--emblem of another republic which should one day rule from sea to sea4 #c4 ,as soon as he had satisfied himself of the extent of the country1 ,cabot sailed for ,england4 ,on the voyage he twice saw the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,after an absence of three months he reached ,bristol1 and was greeted with enthusiasm4 ,the town had holiday1 and the people were wild about the great discovery4 ,the king gave him money2 new ships were fitted out1 and a new commission was signed in ,february1 #adih4 ,but after the date of this patent the name of ,john ,cabot disappears from history4 ,illustration3 ,sebastian ,cabot4 ,sidenote3 ,sebastian ,cabot4 #d4 ,sebastian1 son of ,john ,cabot1 inherited his father's genius4 ,he had already been to the ,new ,world on the first voyage1 and now he took up his father's work with all the fervor of youth4 ,the very fleet which had been equipped for ,john ,cabot was intrusted to ,sebastian4 ,the object in view was the discovery of a northwest passage to the ,indies4 #e4 ,the voyage was made in the spring of #adih4 ,far to the north the icebergs compelled ,sebastian to change his course4 ,it was ,july1 and the sun scarcely set at midnight4 ,seals were seen1 and the ships plowed through such shoals of codfish as had never before been heard of4 ,labrador was again seen4 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,maine were next explored4 ,the whole coast of ,new ,england and of the ,middle ,states was now1 for the first time since the days of the ,norsemen1 traced by ,europeans4 ,nor did ,cabot desist from this work1 which was bestowing the title of discovery on the crown of ,england1 until he reached ,cape ,hatteras4 #f4 ,the future career of ,cabot was a strange one4 ,henry ,,vii4 was slow to reward the discoverer4 ,when that monarch died1 the king of ,spain enticed ,cabot away from ,england and made him pilot-major of the ,spanish navy4 ,he lived to be very old1 but the place and circumstances of his death are unknown4 #g4 ,the year #adih is the most marked in the whole history of discovery4 ,in the month of ,may1 ,,vasco ,,da ,,gama1 of ,portugal1 doubled the ,cape of ,good ,hope and succeeded in reaching ,hindostan4 ,during the summer1 the younger ,cabot traced the eastern coast of ,north ,america through more than twenty degrees of latitude4 ,in ,august1 ,columbus himself reached the mouth of the ,orinoco4 ,of the three great discoveries1 that of ,cabot has proved to be by far the most important4 #h4 ,in #adic ,pope ,alexander drew an imaginary line three hundred miles west of the ,azores1 and gave all countries west of that line to ,spain4 ,henry ,,vii4 was a ,catholic and did not care to have a conflict with his ,church by claiming the ,new ,world4 ,henry ,,viii4 adopted the same policy1 and it was not until after the ,reformation in ,england that the decision of the pope was disregarded4 #i4 ,during the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 the spirit of adventure was again aroused4 ,in #aedh the old admiral ,sebastian ,cabot quitted ,seville and once more sailed under the ,english flag4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,mary the power of ,england on the sea was not materially extended1 but with the accession of ,elizabeth a new impulse was given to voyage and adventure4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,northwest ,passage4 #aj4 ,,martin ,,frobisher began anew the work of discovery4 ,three small vessels were fitted out to sail in search of a northwest passage to ,asia4 ,one ship was lost on the voyage1 another returned to ,england1 but the third sailed on as far north as ,hudson ,strait4 ,a large island lying northward was named ,meta ,incognita4 ,frobisher entered the strait which has ever since borne his name1 and then sailed for ,england1 carrying with him an ,esquimo and a stone said to contain gold4 #aa4 ,london was greatly excited4 ,in ,may1 #aegg1 a new fleet departed for ,meta ,incognita to gather the precious metal4 ,but the vessels did not sail as far as ,frobisher had done on a previous voyage4 ,the mariners sought the first opportunity to get out of these dangerous seas and return to ,england4 #ab4 ,the ,english gold-hunters were not yet satisfied4 ,fifteen new vessels were fitted out1 and in #aegh a third voyage was begun4 ,three of the ships1 loaded with emigrants1 were to remain in the promised land4 ,the vessels1 struggling through the icebergs1 finally reached ,meta ,incognita and took on cargoes of dirt4 ,with several tons of the supposed ore under the hatches1 the ships set sail for home4 ,the ,el ,dorado of the ,esquimos had proved a failure4 #ac4 ,in #aegg ,,sir ,,francis ,,drake1 following ,magellan1 became a terror to the ,spanish vessels in the ,pacific4 ,he hoped to find a northwest passage1 and thence sail eastward around the continent4 ,he proceeded northward as far as ,oregon1 when his sailors began to shiver with the cold1 and the enterprise was given up4 ,drake passed the winter of #aegi-hj in a harbor on the coast of ,mexico4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,sidenote3 ,plans for ,colonization4 #ad4 ,,sir ,,humphrey ,,gilbert was perhaps the first to form a rational plan of colonization in ,america4 ,his idea was to plant an agricultural and commercial state4 ,assisted by his illustrious half-brother1 ,,walter ,,raleigh1 ,gilbert prepared five vessels1 and in ,june of #aehc sailed for the west4 ,in ,august ,gilbert reached ,newfoundland1 and took possession of the country4 ,soon the sailors discovered some scales of mica1 and went to digging the supposed silver1 while others attacked the ,spanish fishing-ships in the neighboring harbors4 #ae4 ,one of ,gilbert's vessels became worthless1 and was abandoned4 ,with the rest he sailed toward the south4 ,off the coast of ,massachusetts the largest of the ships was wrecked1 and a hundred sailors were drowned4 ,gilbert determined to return to ,england4 ,the weather was stormy1 and the two ships now remaining were unfit for the sea4 ,the captain remained in the weaker vessel1 called the ,squirrel4 ,as the ships were struggling through the sea at midnight1 the ,squirrel was suddenly engulfed2 not a man of the crew was saved4 ,the other vessel finally reached ,falmouth in safety4 #af4 ,the project of colonization was renewed by ,raleigh4 ,in the spring of #aehd he obtained a new patent for a tract in ,america extending from the thirty-third to the fortieth parallel of latitude4 ,this territory was to be peopled and organized into a state4 ,two ships were fitted out1 and the command given to ,philip ,amidas and ,arthur ,barlow4 ,sidenote3 ,virginia4 #ag4 ,in ,july the vessels reached ,carolina4 ,the woods were full of beauty and song4 ,the natives were generous and hospitable4 ,the shores of ,albemarle and ,pamlico ,sounds were explored1 and a landing effected on ,roanoke ,island1 where the ,english were entertained by the ,indian queen4 ,but after a stay of two months ,amidas and ,barlow returned to ,england1 praising the beauties of the new land4 ,queen ,elizabeth gave to her delightful country in the ,new ,world the name of ,,virginia1 for she was called the ,virgin ,queen4 ,sidenote3 ,colony at ,roanoke4 #ah4 ,in ,december1 #aehd1 ,sir ,walter fitted out a second expedition1 and appointed ,ralph ,lane governor of the colony4 ,sir ,richard ,grenville commanded the fleet1 and a company1 partly composed of young nobles1 made up the crew4 ,the fleet of seven vessels reached ,roanoke on the #bfth of ,june4 ,here ,lane was left with a hundred and ten of the immigrants to form a settlement4 ,but hostilities soon broke out between the ,english and the ,indians2 and when ,sir ,francis ,drake came with a fleet1 the colonists prevailed on him to carry them back to ,england4 #ai4 ,soon ,sir ,richard ,grenville came to ,roanoke with three well-laden ships1 and made a fruitless search for the colonists4 ,not to lose possession of the country1 he left fifteen men on the island1 and set sail for home4 ,another colony was easily made up1 and in ,july the emigrants arrived in ,carolina4 ,a search for the fifteen men who had been left on ,roanoke revealed the fact1 that the natives had murdered them4 ,nevertheless1 the northern extremity of the island was chosen as the site for a city4 #bj4 ,disaster attended the enterprise4 ,the ,indians were hostile1 and the fear of starvation soon compelled ,governor ,white to return to ,england for supplies4 ,the #ahth of ,august was the birthday of ,virginia ,dare1 the first-born of ,english children in the ,new ,world4 ,raleigh returned in #aeij to search for the unfortunate colonists4 ,no soul remained to tell their story4 ,sir ,walter1 after spending two hundred thousand dollars1 gave up the enterprise1 and assigned his rights to an association of ,london merchants4 ,sidenote3 ,english ,explorations in the ,north4 #ba4 ,the next ,english expedition was that of ,,bartholomew ,,gosnold in #afjb4 ,thus far all the voyages to ,america had been by way of the ,canary ,islands and the ,west ,indies4 ,abandoning this path1 ,gosnold1 in a small vessel called the ,concord1 sailed directly across the ,atlantic1 and in seven weeks reached ,maine4 ,he explored the coast and went on shore at ,cape ,cod4 ,it was the first landing of ,englishmen within the limits of ,new ,england4 ,he loaded the ,concord with sassafras root1 and reached home in safety4 #bb4 ,another expedition to ,america was soon planned1 with ,,martin ,,pring for commander4 ,in ,april1 #afjc1 his vessels came safely to ,penobscot ,bay1 and spent some time in exploring the harbors of ,maine4 ,he loaded his vessels with sassafras at ,martha's ,vineyard1 and returned to ,england1 after an absence of six months4 #bc4 ,two years later1 ,,george ,,waymouth made a voyage to ,america4 ,he reached the coast of ,maine1 and explored a harbor4 ,trade was opened with the ,indians1 some of whom returned with ,waymouth to ,england4 ,this was the last ,english expedition before the actual establishment of a colony in ,america4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,english ,,discoveries ,,and ,,settlements4--7,,continued47 ,on the #ajth of ,april1 #afjf1 ,king ,james ,i4 issued two patents to men of his kingdom1 authorizing them to colonize all that portion of ,north ,america lying between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth parallels of latitude4 ,the immense tract extended from the mouth of ,cape ,fear ,river to ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 and westward to the ,pacific ,ocean4 #b4 ,the first patent was to an association of nobles1 gentlemen and merchants called the ,,london ,,company2 and the second to a similar body bearing the name of the ,,plymouth ,,company4 ,to the former corporation was given the region between the thirty-fourth and the thirty-eighth degrees of latitude1 and to the latter the tract from the forty-first to the forty-fifth degree4 ,the belt of three degrees between the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallels was to be open to colonies of either company1 but no settlement of one party was to be made within less than a hundred miles of the nearest settlement of the other4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,london ,company4 #c4 ,the leading man in the ,london ,company was ,bartholomew ,gosnold4 ,his principal associates were ,edward ,wingfield1 a rich merchant1 ,robert ,hunt1 a clergyman1 and ,john ,smith1 an adventurer4 ,the affairs of the company were to be administered by a ,superior ,council in ,england1 and an ,inferior ,council in the colony4 ,all legislative authority was vested in the king4 ,a provision in the patent required the colony to hold all property in common for five years4 ,the best law of the charter allowed the emigrants to retain in the ,new ,world all the rights of ,englishmen4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,plymouth ,company4 #d4 ,in #afjf the ,plymouth ,company sent two ships to ,america1 and in the summer of #afjg dispatched a colony of one hundred persons4 ,a settlement was begun at the mouth of the ,kennebec4 ,the ships returned to ,england1 leaving a colony of forty-five persons2 but in the winter of #afjg-h1 some of the settlers were starved and some frozen2 the storehouse was burned1 and the remnant escaped to ,england4 ,illustration3 ,the ,first ,english ,settlements4 ,sidenote3 ,settlement of ,jamestown4 #e4 ,the ,london ,company had better fortune4 ,a fleet of three vessels was fitted out under command of ,christopher ,newport4 ,in ,december the ships1 having on board a hundred and five colonists1 among whom were ,wingfield and ,smith1 left ,england4 ,entering ,chesapeake ,bay1 the vessels came to the mouth of a beautiful river1 which was named in honor of ,king ,james4 ,proceeding up stream about fifty miles1 ,newport found on the northern bank a peninsula noted for its beauty2 the ships were moored and the emigrants went on shore4 ,here1 on the #acth of ,may 7,old ,style71 #afjg1 were laid the foundations of ,jamestown1 the oldest ,english settlement in ,america4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,england ,named4 #f4 ,meanwhile ,captain ,john ,smith1 in #afji1 left ,jamestown and returned to ,england4 ,there he formed a partnership with four wealthy merchants of ,london to trade in furs and establish a colony within the limits of the ,plymouth grant4 ,two ships were freighted with goods and put under ,smith's command4 ,the summer of #afad was spent on the coast of ,maine1 where a traffic was carried on with the ,indians4 ,but ,smith himself explored the country1 and drew a map of the whole coast from the ,penobscot to ,cape ,cod4 ,in this map1 the country was called ,,new ,,england4 #g4 ,in #afae a small colony of sixteen persons1 led by ,smith1 was sent out in a single ship4 ,when nearing the ,american coast1 they encountered a storm and were obliged to return to ,england4 ,the leader renewed the enterprise1 and raised another company4 ,part of his crew mutinied in mid-ocean4 ,his own ship was captured by a band of ,french pirates1 and himself imprisoned4 ,but he escaped and made his way to ,london4 ,the years #afag-ah were spent in making plans of colonization1 until finally the ,plymouth ,company was superseded by a new corporation called the ,,council ,,of ,,plymouth4 ,on this body were conferred almost unlimited powers and privileges4 ,all that part of ,america lying between the fortieth and the forty-eighth parallels of north latitude1 and extending from ocean to ocean1 was given to forty men4 #h4 ,john ,smith was now appointed admiral of ,new ,england4 ,the king issued a proclamation enforcing the charter1 and everything gave promise of the early settlement of ,america4 ,meanwhile the time had come when1 without the knowledge or consent of ,james ,i4 or the ,council of ,plymouth1 a permanent settlement should be made on the shores of ,new ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,puritans4 #i4 ,about the close of the sixteenth century1 a number of poor ,puritans in the north of ,england joined together for free religious worship4 ,they believed that every man has a right to know the truth of the ,scriptures for himself4 ,such a doctrine was repugnant to the ,church of ,england4 ,queen ,elizabeth declared such teaching to be subversive of the monarchy4 ,king ,james was also intolerant2 and violent persecutions broke out against the sect4 #aj4 ,many of the ,puritans went into exile in ,holland4 ,they took the name of ,,pilgrims1 and grew content to have no home or resting-place4 ,but they did not forget their native land4 ,they pined with unrest1 and were anxious to do something to convince ,king ,james of their patriotism4 #aa4 ,in #afag the ,puritans began to meditate a removal to the ,new ,world4 ,john ,carver and ,robert ,cushman were dispatched to ,england to ask permission to settle in ,america4 ,the agents of the ,council of ,plymouth favored the request1 but the king refused4 ,the most that he would do was to make a promise to let the ,pilgrims alone in ,america4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mayflower4 #ab4 ,the ,puritans were not discouraged4 ,the ,speedwell1 a small vessel1 was purchased at ,amsterdam1 and the ,mayflower1 a larger ship1 was hired for the voyage4 ,the former was to carry the emigrants to ,southampton1 where they were to be joined by the ,mayflower from ,london4 ,assembling at the harbor of ,delft1 as many of the ,pilgrims as could be accommodated went on board the ,speedwell4 ,the whole congregation accompanied them to the shore1 where their pastor gave them a farewell address1 and the prayers of those who were left behind followed the vessel out of sight4 #ac4 ,on the #eth of ,august1 #afbj1 the vessels left ,southampton2 but the ,speedwell was unable to breast the ocean1 and put back to ,plymouth4 ,the ,pilgrims were encouraged by the citizens1 and the more zealous went on board the ,mayflower for a final effort4 ,on the #fth of ,september the first colony of ,new ,england1 numbering one hundred and two souls1 saw the shores of ,old ,england sink behind the sea4 #ad4 ,for sixty-three days the ship was buffeted by storms4 ,on the #ith of ,november the vessel was anchored in the bay off ,cape ,cod2 a meeting was held and the colony organized under a solemn compact4 ,in the charter which they made for themselves the emigrants declared their loyalty to the ,english king1 and agreed to live in peace and harmony4 ,such was the simple constitution of the oldest ,new ,england ,state4 ,to this instrument all the heads of families1 forty-one in number1 set their names4 ,an election was held1 and ,john ,carver was chosen governor4 ,illustration3 ,the ,landing of the ,pilgrims4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,landing of the ,pilgrims4 #ae4 ,miles ,standish1 ,john ,bradford1 and a few others1 went on shore and explored the country2 nothing was found but a heap of ,indian corn under the snow4 ,on the #fth of ,december the governor landed with fifteen companions4 ,the weather was dreadful4 ,snow-storms covered the clothes of the ,pilgrims with ice4 ,they were attacked by the ,indians1 but escaped to the ship with their lives4 ,the vessel was at last driven by accident into a haven on the west side of the bay4 ,the next day1 being the ,sabbath1 was spent in religious services1 and on ,monday1 the #aath of ,december 7,old ,style71 #afbj1 the ,pilgrims landed on ,plymouth ,rock4 #af4 ,it was the dead of winter4 ,the houseless immigrants fell a-dying of hunger and cold4 ,but a site was selected near the first landing1 and1 on the #ith of ,january1 the toilers began to build ,new ,plymouth4 ,every man took on himself the work of making his own house2 but the ravages of disease grew daily worse4 ,at one time only seven men were able to work on the sheds which were built for protection4 ,if an early spring had not brought relief1 the colony must have perished4 ,such were the sufferings of the winter when ,new ,england began its being4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,voyages ,,and ,,settlements ,,of ,,the ,,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,the ,half ,moon on ,hudson ,river4 ,sidenote3 ,dutch ,east ,india ,company4 ,the first ,dutch settlement in ,america was made on ,manhattan ,island4 ,the colony resulted from the voyages of ,sir ,,henry ,,hudson4 ,in the year #afjg this great sailor was employed by a company of ,london merchants to discover a new route to the ,indies4 ,he first made two unsuccessful voyages into the ,north ,atlantic1 and his employers gave up the enterprise4 ,in #afji the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company furnished him with a ship called the ,half ,moon1 and in ,april he set out for the ,indies4 ,again he ran among the icebergs1 and further sailing was impossible4 ,but not discouraged1 he immediately set sail for ,america4 #b4 ,in ,july ,hudson reached the coast of ,maine2 and in ,august1 the ,chesapeake4 ,on the #bhth of the month he anchored in ,delaware ,bay1 and on the #c;d of ,september the ,half ,moon came to ,sandy ,hook4 ,two days later a landing was effected4 ,the natives came with gifts of corn1 wild fruit1 and oysters4 ,on the #ajth the vessel passed the ,narrows1 and entered the noble river which bears the name of ,,hudson4 ,sidenote3 ,discovery of ,hudson ,river4 #c4 ,for eight days the ,half ,moon sailed up the river4 ,such beautiful forests and valleys1 the ,dutch had never seen before4 ,on the #aith of ,september the vessel was moored at ,kinderhook2 but an exploring party rowed up stream beyond the site of ,albany4 ,the vessel then dropped down the river1 and on the #dth of ,october the sails were spread for ,holland4 ,but the ,half ,moon was detained in ,england4 #d4 ,in the summer of #afaj a ship1 called the ,discovery1 was given to ,hudson1 who sailed in the track which ,frobisher had taken1 and on the #b;d day of ,august entered the strait which bears the name of its discoverer4 ,the great captain believed that the route to ,china was at last discovered2 but he soon found himself environed in the frozen gulf of the ,north4 ,with great courage he bore up until his provisions were almost exhausted4 ,then the crew broke out in mutiny4 ,they seized ,hudson and his only son1 with seven other faithful sailors1 and cast them off among the icebergs4 ,the fate of the illustrious mariner has never been ascertained4 #e4 ,in #afaj the ,half ,moon was liberated and returned to ,amsterdam4 ,in the same year several ships owned by ,dutch merchants sailed to the banks of the ,hudson and engaged in the fur-trade4 ,in #afad an act was passed by the ,states-,general of ,holland1 giving to merchants of ,amsterdam the right to trade and establish settlements in the country explored by ,hudson4 ,a fleet of five trading-vessels arrived in the summer of the same year at ,manhattan ,island4 ,here some rude huts had already been built by former traders1 and the settlement was named ,new ,amsterdam4 #f4 ,in the fall of #afad ,adrian ,block sailed into ,long ,island ,sound1 and made explorations as far as ,cape ,cod4 ,christianson1 another ,dutch commander1 sailed up the river from ,manhattan to ,castle ,island1 and erected a block-house1 which was named ,fort ,nassau4 ,cornelius ,may1 the captain of a small vessel called the ,fortune1 sailed from ,new ,amsterdam and explored the ,jersey coast as far as the ,bay of ,delaware4 ,upon these two voyages ,holland set up a claim to the country1 which was now named ,,new ,,netherlands1 extending from ,cape ,henlopen to ,cape ,cod4 ,such were the feeble beginnings of the ,dutch colonies in ,new ,york and ,jersey4 ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 #a4 ,tell about the ,icelanders and ,norwegians in ,america4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 #b4 ,give an account of ,columbus1 and of his discoveries and explorations in the ,new ,world4 #c4 ,give an account of the voyage of ,amerigo ,vespucci1 and of how this ,continent came to be known by his name4 #d4 ,what were the services of ,balboa1 and of ,ponce de ,leon8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 #e4 ,sketch the later discoveries by the ,spaniards in ,america4 #f4 ,tell of the coming of the ,portuguese4 ,,chapter ,v4 #g4 ,trace the progress of the ,french discoverers and explorers on the new ,continent4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 #h4 ,give an account of the commission1 and of the explorations of ,john and ,sebastian ,cabot4 #i4 ,what work of discovery was attempted by ,martin ,frobisher1 and with what result8 #aj4 ,outline the colonization schemes of ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 #aa4 ,what change of plan for colonization was adopted by ,gosnold1 and with what success8 ,,chapter ,,vii4 #ab4 ,tell of the ,royal ,patents to the ,london and ,plymouth ,companies4 #ac4 ,sketch the efforts of the ,plymouth ,company toward colonization1 and the coming of the ,puritans4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 #ad4 ,give an account of the voyages and final successes of ,sir ,henry ,hudson4 #ae4 ,on what did the ,dutch base their early claim to lands in ,america8 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,colonial ,,history4 ,a4 ,d4 #afjg-aged4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,virginia--,,the ,,first ,,charter4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,colony at ,jamestown4 ,the first settlers at ,jamestown were idle and improvident4 ,only twelve of those who came in #afjg were common laborers4 ,there were four carpenters in the company1 six or eight masons and blacksmiths1 and a long list of gentlemen4 ,the few married men had left their families in ,england4 #b4 ,the affairs of the colony were badly managed4 ,captain ,john ,smith1 the best man in the colony1 was suspected of making a plot to murder the council and to make himself king of ,virginia4 ,he was arrested and confined until the end of the voyage4 ,when the colonists reached their destination1 the king's instructions were unsealed and the names of the ,inferior ,council made known4 ,a meeting was held and ,edward ,wingfield elected first governor4 #c4 ,as soon as the settlement was well begun1 ,smith and ,newport1 with twenty others1 explored ,james ,river for forty-five miles4 ,just below the falls1 the explorers found the capital of ,powhatan1 the ,indian king4 ,but the city was only a squalid village of twelve wigwams4 ,the monarch received the foreigners with courtesy and showed no dislike at the intrusion4 #d4 ,the colonists now began to realize their situation4 ,they were alone in the ,new ,world4 ,winter was approaching4 ,dreadful diseases broke out1 and the colony was brought almost to ruin4 ,at one time only five men were able to go on duty as sentinels1 and before the middle of ,september one half of the colonists died4 ,but the frosts came1 and disease was checked4 ,sidenote3 ,civil ,dissensions4 #e4 ,civil dissension arose4 ,president ,wingfield and ,george ,kendall were detected in embezzling the stores1 and were removed from office4 ,ratcliffe was then chosen president1 but was found incompetent4 ,only ,martin and ,smith now remained in the council1 and the latter took charge of the colony4 ,under his administration the new settlement soon began to show signs of progress4 ,his first care was to improve the buildings of the plantation2 then to secure a supply of provisions4 ,there had been a plentiful harvest among the ,indians2 but the work of procuring corn was not an easy task4 ,descending ,james ,river to ,hampton ,roads1 ,smith landed with five companions and offered the natives hatchets and copper coins in exchange for corn4 #f4 ,but the ,indians only laughed at the proposal4 ,the ,english then charged on the wigwams1 and the warriors were obliged to purchase peace by loading the boats of the ,english with corn4 ,soon the ,indians in the neighborhood began to come with voluntary contributions4 ,the fear of famine passed away4 ,the woods were full of wild turkeys4 ,good discipline was maintained in the colony1 and friendly relations were established with the natives4 ,the colonists became cheerful and happy4 #g4 ,as soon as winter set in1 the president1 with six ,englishmen and two ,indian guides1 began to explore along the ,chickahominy4 ,it was believed by the people of ,jamestown that by going up this stream they could reach the ,pacific ,ocean6 ,smith knew the absurdity of such an opinion1 but humored it because of the opportunity it gave him to see the country and make maps4 ,sidenote3 ,capt4 ,smith and the ,indians4 #h4 ,the president and his companions ascended the river until it dwindled to a mere creek4 ,the men who were left to protect the boats were attacked by ,indians1 and several of the ,english were killed4 ,smith was wounded with an arrow1 and chased through the woods4 ,he fought1 ran1 and fired by turns1 but was finally overtaken4 #i4 ,smith demanded to see the ,indian chief1 and excited his curiosity by showing him a pocket-compass and a watch4 ,these instruments struck the ,indians with awe2 but the savages bound their captive to a tree1 and prepared to shoot him1 but he flourished his compass in the air and the ,indians were afraid to fire4 #aj4 ,smith was next taken to ,orapax1 a few miles from the site of ,richmond4 ,here he found the ,indians making preparations to attack ,jamestown4 ,they invited him to become their leader1 but he refused and managed to write a warning letter to his countrymen4 ,this letter1 because of its mysterious power of carrying intelligence1 frightened them more than ever4 ,when the warriors arrived at ,jamestown and found everything as ,smith had said1 all thought of attacking the colony was given up4 ,illustration3 ,captain ,john ,smith4 #aa4 ,the ,indians now marched their captive from village to village4 ,near the fork of ,york ,river1 at ,pamunkey1 ,smith was turned over to the priests1 who assembled in their ,long ,house and for three days danced around him1 sang and yelled1 to determine by this wild ceremony what his fate should be4 ,the decision was against him1 and he was condemned to death4 ,sidenote3 ,pocahontas saves ,smith4 #ab4 ,smith was next taken to a town where ,powhatan lived in winter4 ,the savage monarch1 now sixty years of age1 took his seat in the ,long ,house4 ,his two daughters sat near him1 and warriors and women were ranged around the hall4 ,the king reviewed the cause and confirmed the sentence of death4 ,two large stones were brought1 ,smith was dragged forth bound1 and his head put into position to be crushed with a war-club2 but as the executioner raised his club1 ,matoaka1,a the eldest daughter of ,powhatan1 rushed between it and the prostrate prisoner4 ,she clasped his head in her arms and held on until her father ordered ,smith to be unbound4 ,soon it was agreed that he should return to ,jamestown4 ,footnote ,a3 ,powhatan's tribe had a superstition that a person whose real name was unknown could not be injured4 ,they therefore told the ,english falsely that ,matoaka's name was ,pocahontas4 #ac4 ,only thirty-eight of the settlers were now alive1 and these were frost-bitten and half-starved4 ,their leader had been absent for seven weeks4 ,the old fears of the colonists had revived1 and when ,smith returned he found all hands preparing to abandon the settlement4 ,he induced the majority to abandon this project1 but the rest1 burning with resentment1 made a conspiracy to kill him4 #ad4 ,in these days ,newport arrived from ,england1 bringing supplies and a hundred and twenty immigrants4 ,but the new-comers were gentlemen1 gold-hunters1 jewelers1 engravers1 adventurers1 and strollers4 ,smith was much vexed at this1 for he had urged ,newport to bring over only a few industrious mechanics and laborers4 #ae4 ,soon the new-comers and some of the old settlers began to stroll about the country digging for gold4 ,at the mouth of a small creek some glittering particles were found1 and the whole settlement was thrown into excitement4 ,soon afterwards a company sailed up ,james ,river to find the ,pacific ,ocean6 ,fourteen weeks were consumed in this nonsense4 ,even the ,indians ridiculed the madness of men who were wasting their chances for a crop of corn4 ,sidenote3 ,chesapeake ,bay ,explored4 #af4 ,but ,smith had formed the design of exploring ,chesapeake ,bay and its tributaries4 ,accompanied by ,dr4 ,russell and thirteen others1 he left ,jamestown on the #b;d day of ,june4 ,he steered his barge by way of ,hampton ,roads as far as ,smith's ,island4 ,returning thence around ,cape ,charles1 he continued northward as far as the river ,wicomico1 then crossed over to the ,patuxent1 and thence northward to the ,patapsco4 ,then steering southward he had the good fortune to enter the mouth of the ,potomac and continue the voyage as far as the falls at ,georgetown4 ,he then dropped down the river to the bay1 and reached ,jamestown on the #bast of ,july4 #ag4 ,after three days a second voyage was begun4 ,the expedition reached the head of the bay1 and sailed far up the ,susquehanna4 ,on the return1 ,smith explored every sound and inlet of any note as far as the ,rappahannock4 ,this stream he ascended to the head of navigation1 and then returned to ,jamestown4 ,he had been absent a little more than three months1 and had explored the coast of the great bay for fully three thousand miles4 ,now he was come back to the colony with a ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,chesapeake1 which he sent by ,newport to ,england1 and which is still preserved4 ,sidenote3 ,smith ,elected ,president4 #ah4 ,smith was now formally elected president4 ,soon there was a marked change for the better2 gold-hunting ceased1 and the rest of the year was noted as a time of prosperity4 ,in the autumn ,newport arrived with seventy additional immigrants4 ,the health was so good that only seven deaths occurred between ,september and the following ,may4 ,every well man was obliged to work six hours a day4 ,new houses were built1 new fields fenced in2 and through the winter the sound of ax and hammer gave token of a prosperous and growing village4 #ai4 ,on the #bc;d day of ,may1 #afji1 ,king ,james granted to the ,london ,company a new charter for the government of ,virginia4 ,the territory was extended from ,cape ,fear to ,sandy ,hook1 and westward to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the members of the ,superior ,council were now to be chosen by the stockholders of the company1 vacancies were to be filled by the councilors1 who were also to elect a governor4 ,the new council was at once organized1 and ,lord ,de ,la ,ware chosen governor for life4 ,five hundred emigrants were collected1 and in ,june a fleet of nine vessels sailed for ,america4 ,lord ,delaware did not himself accompany the expedition4 ,in ,july the ships1 then in the ,west ,indies1 were scattered by a storm4 ,one vessel was wrecked1 and another1 having on board the commissioners of ,delaware1 was driven ashore on one of the ,bermudas2 the other seven ships came safely to ,jamestown4 #bj4 ,captain ,smith continued in authority under the old constitution2 but the colony was in an uproar4 ,the president was in daily peril of his life4 ,he put some of the most rebellious brawlers in prison1 and planned two new settlements--one1 of a hundred and twenty men1 at ,nansemond2 the other1 of the same number1 at the falls of the ,james4 ,both companies behaved badly4 ,in a few days after their departure troubles arose with the ,indians4 ,while attempting to quell these difficulties1 ,smith was wounded1 and fearing the imperfect medical treatment which the colony afforded1 he decided to return to ,england4 ,he accordingly delegated his authority to ,sir ,george ,percy1 and about the middle of ,september1 #afji1 left the scene of his toils and sufferings1 never to return4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,starving ,time4 #ba4 ,a colony of four hundred and ninety persons remained at ,jamestown4 ,the settlement was soon brought face to face with starvation4 ,the ,indians became hostile2 stragglers were murdered2 houses were set on fire2 disease returned to add to the desolation2 and cold and hunger made the winter long remembered as ,,the ,,starving ,,time4 ,by the last of ,march only sixty persons were left alive4 #bb4 ,meanwhile1 ,sir ,thomas ,gates and his companions1 who had been shipwrecked in the ,bermudas1 constructed two small vessels1 and came to ,virginia1 where a few wan1 half-starved wretches crawled out of their cabins to beg for bread6 ,whatever stores the commissioners had brought with them were distributed1 and ,gates assumed control of the government4 ,but the colonists had now determined to abandon the place forever4 ,in vain did the commissioners remonstrate4 ,an agreement was made to sail for ,newfoundland1 and on the #hth of ,june the colonists1 embarking in their four boats1 dropped down the river1 and ,jamestown was abandoned4 #bc4 ,lord ,delaware was already on his way to ,america4 ,before the escaping settlers had reached the sea1 the ships of the governor came in sight with additional immigrants1 plentiful supplies1 and promise of better things4 ,the colonists returned1 and before nightfall the fires were again kindled at ,jamestown4 ,on the next day the governor caused his commission to be read1 and entered upon the discharge of his duties4 ,his amiability and virtue1 and the wisdom of his administration1 endeared him to all and inspired the colony with hope4 #bd4 ,lord ,delaware was compelled1 on account of ill-health1 to return to ,england4 ,his authority was delegated to ,percy1 the deputy of ,captain ,smith4 ,the ,superior ,council had already dispatched new stores and more emigrants1 under ,sir ,thomas ,dale4 ,when the vessel arrived at ,jamestown1 ,percy was superseded by ,dale1 who adopted a system of martial law as the basis of his administration4 ,in the latter part of ,august1 ,sir ,thomas ,gates arrived with six ships1 three hundred additional immigrants1 and a large quantity of stores4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,land ,divided4 #be4 ,thus far the property of the settlers at ,jamestown had been held in common4 ,now the right of holding private property was recognized4 ,governor ,gates had the lands divided so that each settler should have three acres of his own2 every family might cultivate a garden and plant an orchard1 the fruits of which no one but the owner was allowed to gather4 ,the benefits of this system of labor were at once apparent1 and the laborers became cheerful and industrious4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,charter ,,government4--7,,continued47 ,in the year #afab the ,london ,company obtained from the king a third patent1 by which the government was again changed4 ,the ,superior ,council was abolished1 and the stockholders were authorized to elect their own officers and to govern the colony on their own responsibility4 ,the new patent was a great step toward a democratic form of government in ,virginia4 #b4 ,in #afac ,captain ,samuel ,argall1 on an expedition up the ,potomac1 learned that ,pocahontas was residing in that neighborhood4 ,he enticed the girl on board his vessel and carried her captive to ,jamestown4 ,it was decided that ,powhatan should pay a heavy ransom for his daughter's liberation4 ,the king refused1 and ordered his tribes to prepare for war4 ,meanwhile1 ,pocahontas was converted to the ,christian faith and became a member of the ,episcopal ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,marriage of ,pocahontas4 #c4 ,soon afterwards ,john ,rolfe1 of the colony1 sought the hand of the princess in marriage4 ,powhatan gave his consent1 and the nuptials were celebrated in the spring of the next year4 ,three years later1 ,pocahontas1 while visiting in ,england1 fell sick and died4 ,there was left of this marriage a son1 who came to ,jamestown1 and to whom several families of ,virginians still trace their origin4 ,john ,randolph of ,roanoke was a descendant of ,pocahontas4 ,illustration3 ,marriage of ,pocahontas4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition against ,acadia4 #d4 ,captain ,argall was next sent with an armed vessel to the coast of ,maine1 to protect the ,english fishermen1 and to destroy the colonies of ,france1 if any should be found within the territory claimed by ,england4 ,the ,french authorities of ,acadia were building a village near the mouth of the ,penobscot4 ,the settlement was pillaged and the houses burned4 ,the ,french colony at the mouth of the ,st4 ,croix was attacked1 and the fort cannonaded and destroyed2 the hamlet at ,port ,royal was burned4 ,by these outrages1 the ,french settlements in ,america were confined to the banks of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,sidenote3 ,cultivation of ,tobacco4 #e4 ,in ,march of #afad ,sir ,thomas ,gates returned to ,england1 leaving the government with ,dale4 ,in these times the laws of the colony were much improved1 and the industry took a better form4 ,hitherto the settlers had engaged in planting vineyards and in the manufacture of soap1 glass1 and tar4 ,the managers of the company had at last learned that these articles could be produced more cheaply in ,europe than in ,america1 while some products of the ,new ,world might be raised and exported with great profit4 ,the chief of these was the tobacco-plant1 the use of which had become fashionable in ,spain1 ,england1 and ,france4 ,this1 then1 became the leading staple of the colony1 and was even used for money4 ,so entirely did the settlers give themselves to the cultivation of the weed that the streets of ,jamestown were plowed up and planted with it4 #f4 ,in #afag the unprincipled ,captain ,argall was elected governor4 ,when the news of his fraudulent and violent proceedings reached ,england emigration ceased1 and ,lord ,delaware embarked for ,virginia1 in the hope of restoring order4 ,but he died on the voyage1 and ,argall continued in office until #afai1 when ,sir ,george ,yeardley was appointed to succeed him4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,house of ,burgesses4 #g4 ,martial law was now abolished4 ,taxes were repealed1 and the people freed from many burdens4 ,governor ,yeardley divided the plantations into eleven boroughs1 and ordered the citizens of each to elect two of their number to take part in the government4 ,the elections were duly held1 and on the #cjth of ,july1 #afai1 the ,virginia ,,house ,,of ,,burgesses was organized--the first popular assembly in the ,new ,world4 ,in this body there was freedom of debate but very little political power4 ,sidenote3 ,introduction of ,slavery4 #h4 ,the year #afai was also marked by the introduction of slavery4 ,the servants at ,jamestown had hitherto been ,english or ,germans1 whose term of service had varied from a few months to many years4 ,no perpetual servitude had thus far been recognized4 ,in the month of ,august a ,dutch man-of-war sailed up the river to the plantations1 and offered by auction twenty ,africans4 ,they were purchased by the wealthier class of planters1 and made slaves for life4 ,sidenote3 ,wives for the ,colonists4 #i4 ,there were now six hundred men in the colony1 for the most part rovers who intended to return to ,england4 ,very few families had emigrated4 ,in this condition of affairs1 ,sir ,thomas ,smith was superseded by ,sir ,edwyn ,sandys1 a man of prudence and integrity4 ,in the summer of #afbj1 the new treasurer sent to ,america a company of twelve hundred and sixty-one persons4 ,among the number were ninety young women of good breeding and modest manners4 ,in the following spring1 sixty others of similar good character came over1 and received a hearty welcome4 #aj4 ,when ,sandys sent these women to ,america1 he charged the colonists with the expense of the voyage1 as the company was bankrupt4 ,an assessment was made1 and the rate fixed at a hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco for each passenger--a sum which the settlers cheerfully paid4 ,there were merry marriages at ,jamestown1 and the social condition was much improved4 ,when the second shipload came1 the cost of transportation was a hundred and fifty pounds for each passenger1 which was also paid without complaint4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,code of ,laws4 #aa4 ,in ,july of #afba the ,london ,company gave to ,virginia a code of written laws1 and in ,october ,sir ,francis ,wyatt1 who had been commissioned as governor1 began to administer the new constitution4 ,the colony was found in a flourishing condition4 ,the settlements extended for a hundred and forty miles along the banks of ,james ,river1 and far into the interior4 ,but the ,indians had grown jealous of the colonists4 ,pocahontas was dead4 ,the peaceable ,powhatan had likewise passed away4 ,opechancanough1 who succeeded him in #afah1 had long been plotting the destruction of the ,english1 and the time had come for the tragedy4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,indian ,massacre4 #ab4 ,until the very day of the massacre1 the ,indians continued on terms of friendship with the colonists4 ,on the #bb;d of ,march1 at midday1 the work of butchery began4 ,every hamlet in ,virginia was attacked4 ,men1 women1 and children were indiscriminately slaughtered1 until three hundred and forty-seven had perished under the hatchets of the savages4 #ac4 ,but ,indian treachery was thwarted by ,indian faithfulness4 ,a converted ,red man1 wishing to save an ,englishman who had been his friend1 went to him on the night before the massacre and revealed the plot4 ,the alarm was spread1 and thus the greater part of the colony escaped destruction4 ,but the outer plantations were entirely destroyed4 ,the people crowded together on the larger farms about ,jamestown1 until of the eighty settlements there were only eight remaining4 ,still1 there were sixteen hundred brave men in the colony2 and the next year the population increased to two thousand five hundred4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,charter ,cancelled4 #ad4 ,the liberal constitution of ,virginia soon proved offensive to ,king ,james4 ,a committee was appointed to look into the affairs of the ,london ,company4 ,the commissioners performed their duty1 and reported that the company was unsound in its principles1 that the treasury was bankrupt1 and that the government of ,virginia was very bad4 #ae4 ,legal proceedings were now instituted against the company1 and the judges decided that the patent was null and void4 ,the charter was canceled by the king1 and in ,june of #afbd the ,london ,company ceased to exist4 ,but its work had been well done4 ,a torch of liberty had been lighted on the banks of the ,james1 which all the tyranny of after times could not extinguish4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,virginia4--,,the ,,royal ,,government4 ,sidenote3 ,royal ,governors4 ,a royal government was now established in ,virginia consisting of a governor and twelve councilors4 ,the ,general ,assembly of the colony was left undisturbed1 and the rights of the colonists remained as before4 ,governor ,wyatt was continued in office4 ,charles ,i41 the successor of ,king ,james1 paid but little attention to the affairs of his ,american colony until the commerce in tobacco attracted his notice1 and he then made an unsuccessful attempt to gain a monopoly of the trade4 #b4 ,in #afbf ,governor ,wyatt retired from office1 and ,yeardley1 the old friend of the colonists1 was reappointed4 ,the young ,state was never more prosperous than under this administration1 which was ended with the governor's death in #afbg4 ,during the preceding summer a thousand new immigrants had come to swell the population of the province4 #c4 ,the council of ,virginia had the right1 in case of an emergency1 to elect a governor4 ,in this manner ,francis ,west was chosen by the councilors2 but as soon as the death of ,yeardley was known in ,england1 ,king ,charles commissioned ,john ,harvey to assume the government4 ,he arrived in the autumn of #afbi1 and became a most unpopular chief magistrate4 ,he began his administration by taking the part of certain land speculators against the people4 ,the assembly of #afce passed a resolution that ,sir ,john ,harvey be thrust out of office1 and ,captain ,west be appointed in his place until the king's pleasure may be known in this matter4 ,but ,king ,charles treated the whole affair with contempt1 and ,harvey continued in power until the year #afci1 when he was superseded by ,wyatt1 who ruled until the spring of #afdb4 ,illustration3 ,life at ,old ,jamestown4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of the ,protectorate4 #d4 ,about this time monarchy was abolished in ,england4 ,oliver ,cromwell was made ,lord ,protector of the ,commonwealth1 and this government continued until ,charles ,,ii41 exiled son of ,charles ,i41 was restored to the throne of ,england4 ,virginia shared in some degree the distractions of the mother-country4 ,in #afdb ,sir ,william ,berkeley became governor1 and remained in office for ten years4 ,his administration was noted as a time of rapid growth and development4 ,the laws were greatly improved4 ,the old disputes about the lands were satisfactorily settled4 ,cruel punishments were abolished1 and the taxes equalized4 ,the general assembly was regularly convened1 and ,virginia became a free and prosperous ,state4 ,in #afdf there were twenty thousand people in the colony4 #e4 ,in ,march of #afdc1 a law was enacted by the assembly declaring that no person who disbelieved the doctrines of the ,english ,church should be allowed to teach1 or to preach the gospel1 within the limits of ,virginia4 ,this act was the source of much bitterness among the people4 ,the few ,puritans were excluded from places of trust1 and some were driven from their homes4 ,governor ,berkeley was a leader in these persecutions1 by which all friendly relations with ,new ,england were broken off for many years4 #f4 ,next came another war with the ,indians4 ,early in #afdd1 the natives planned a general massacre4 ,on the #ahth of ,april the savages fell upon the frontier settlements1 and murdered three hundred people before assistance could be brought4 ,the warriors then fled1 but were closely followed by the ,english4 ,opechancanough was captured1 and died a prisoner4 ,the tribes were punished without mercy1 and were soon glad to buy a peace by the cession of large tracts of land4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,election of ,governors4 #g4 ,for a while the colonists conducted their government as they wished4 ,the important matter of choosing a governor was submitted to the ,house of ,burgesses2 when so great a power had been once exercised1 it was not likely to be relinquished4 ,three governors were chosen in this way1 and the privilege of electing soon became a right4 ,the assembly even declared that such a right existed1 and that it should not be taken away4 #h4 ,in #affj ,samuel ,matthews1 the last of the three elected governors1 died4 ,the ,burgesses were convened and an ordinance passed declaring that the supreme authority of ,virginia was in the colony1 and would continue there until a delegate should arrive from the ,british government4 ,the house then elected as governor ,sir ,william ,berkeley1 who acknowledged the right of the ,burgesses to choose4 #i4 ,as soon as it was known in ,virginia that ,charles ,,ii4 had become king1 ,governor ,berkeley issued writs in the name of the king for the election of a new assembly4 ,the adherents of the ,commonwealth were thrust out of office1 and royal favorites established in their places4 ,the ,virginians soon found that they had exchanged a republican tyrant with good principles for a monarchial tyrant with bad ones4 ,the former commercial system was reenacted in a worse form than ever4 ,the new law provided that all the colonial commerce should be carried on in ,english ships2 the trade of the colonies was burdened with a heavy tax1 and tobacco1 the staple of ,virginia1 could be sold nowhere but in ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,effects of the ,restoration4 #aj4 ,king ,charles soon began to reward the profligates who thronged his court1 by granting them large tracts of land in ,virginia4 ,it was no uncommon thing for an ,american planter to find that his farm had been given away to some flatterer of the royal household1 and finally1 in #afgc1 the king set a limit to his own recklessness by giving away the whole province4 ,lord ,culpepper and the ,earl of ,arlington received a deed by which was granted to them for thirty-one years all the country called ,virginia4 #aa4 ,the colonial legislation of these times was selfish and narrow-minded4 ,the aristocratic party had obtained control of the ,house of ,burgesses4 ,a statute was passed against the ,baptists1 and the peace-loving ,quakers were fined and persecuted4 ,personal property was heavily taxed1 while the large estates were exempt4 ,the salaries of the officers were secured by a duty on tobacco1 and the biennial election of ,burgesses was abolished4 #ab4 ,when the people were worn out with the governor's exactions1 they availed themselves of a pretext to assert their rights by force of arms4 ,a war with the ,susquehanna ,indians furnished the occasion for an insurrection4 ,the tribes about the head of ,chesapeake ,bay fell upon the ,english settlers of ,maryland1 and the banks of the ,potomac became the scene of a border war4 ,virginia and ,maryland made common cause4 ,john ,washington1 great-grandfather of the first ,president1 led a company of militia against the ,indians1 and a devastating warfare raged along the whole frontier4 #ac4 ,governor ,berkeley sided with the ,indians2 but the colonists remembered only the acts of treachery of which the ,red men had been guilty1 and thirsted for revenge4 ,the aristocratic party took sides with the governor and favored a peace2 while the popular party1 led by young ,nathaniel ,bacon1 clamored for war4 ,sidenote3 ,bacon's ,rebellion4 #ad4 ,five hundred men rushed to arms4 ,berkeley and the aristocratic faction proclaimed ,bacon a traitor4 ,troops were levied to disperse the militia3 but scarcely had ,berkeley and his forces left ,jamestown when another popular uprising compelled him to return4 ,bacon came home victorious4 ,the old assembly was broken up1 and a new one elected on the basis of universal suffrage4 ,bacon was chosen a member1 and made commander of the ,virginia army4 ,a force was now stationed on the frontier1 and peace returned to all the settlements4 ,but ,berkeley repaired to the county of ,gloucester1 where he summoned a convention of loyalists1 and ,bacon was again proclaimed a traitor4 #ae4 ,the governor's forces were collected on the eastern shore of the ,chesapeake2 the crews of some ,english ships were joined to his command1 and the fleet set sail for ,jamestown4 ,the place was taken without much resistance2 but when ,bacon and the patriots drew near1 the loyal forces went over to his standard4 ,berkeley was again obliged to fly1 and the capital was held by the people's party4 ,it was now rumored that an ,english fleet was approaching for the subjugation of the colonies4 ,the patriot leaders held a council1 and it was decided that ,jamestown should be burned4 ,accordingly1 in the dusk of the evening the torch was applied1 and the only town in ,virginia was laid in ashes4 #af4 ,in this juncture of affairs ,bacon fell sick and died1 and the patriot party was easily dispersed4 ,a few feeble efforts were made to revive the cause of the people1 but the animating spirit was gone4 ,the royalists found an able captain in ,robert ,beverly1 and the authority of the governor was rapidly restored4 ,berkeley's vindictive passions were now let loose upon the defeated insurgents4 ,twenty-two of the leading patriots were seized and hanged with scarcely time to bid their friends farewell4 ,nor is it certain when the executions would have ended had not the assembly met and passed an act that no more blood should be spilled for past offenses4 #ag4 ,the consequences of the rebellion were very disastrous4 ,berkeley and the aristocratic party had now a good excuse for suppressing all liberal principles4 ,the printing-press was interdicted4 ,education was forbidden4 ,to speak or to write any thing against the administration or in defense of the late insurrection1 was made a crime to be punished by fine or whipping4 ,if the offense should be three times repeated1 it was declared to be treason punishable with death4 ,the former methods of taxation were revived1 and ,virginia was left at the mercy of arbitrary rulers4 ,sidenote3 ,proprietary ,government4 #ah4 ,in #afge ,lord ,culpepper1 to whom1 with ,arlington1 the province had been granted1 obtained the appointment of governor for life1 and ,virginia became a proprietary government4 ,the new magistrate arrived in #afhj and assumed the duties of his office4 ,his administration was characterized by avarice and dishonesty4 ,regarding ,virginia as his personal estate1 he treated the ,virginians as his tenants and slaves4 #ai4 ,in #afhc1 ,arlington surrendered his claim to ,culpepper1 who thus became sole proprietor as well as governor4 ,charles ,,ii41 however1 soon found in ,culpepper's vices and frauds a sufficient excuse to remove him from office and to revoke his patent4 ,in #afhd ,virginia again became a royal province1 under the government of ,lord ,howard1 of ,effingham4 ,the affairs of the colony during the next fifty years are not of sufficient interest and importance to require extended notice4 ,when the ,french and ,indian ,war shall come1 ,virginia will show to the world that the labors of ,smith and ,gosnold and ,bacon were not in vain4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,massachusetts4--,,settlement ,,and ,,union4 ,sidenote3 ,early ,struggles4 ,the spring of #afba brought hope to the ,pilgrims of ,new ,plymouth4 ,the winter had swept off half the number4 ,the governor himself sickened and died4 ,now1 with the approach of warm weather1 the pestilence was checked1 the survivors revived with the season1 and the ,puritans came forth triumphant4 #b4 ,in ,february ,miles ,standish was sent out with his soldiers to gather information concerning the natives4 ,the army of ,new ,england consisted of six men besides the general4 ,deserted wigwams were found2 the smoke of camp-fires arose in the distance2 savages were occasionally seen in the forest4 ,these fled at the approach of the ,english1 and ,standish returned to ,plymouth4 ,illustration3 ,a ,puritan4 ,sidenote3 ,relations with the ,indians4 #c4 ,a month later a ,wampanoag ,indian1 named ,samoset1 ran into the village and bade the strangers welcome2 friendly relations were soon established with the ,wampanoags4 ,massasoit1 the sachem of the nation1 was invited to visit ,plymouth4 ,the ,pilgrims received him with much ceremony1 and then and there was ratified the first treaty made in ,new ,england4 ,this treaty remained inviolate for fifty years4 ,other chiefs followed the example of ,massasoit4 ,nine of the tribes acknowledged the ,english king4 ,one chief sent to ,william ,bradford1 who succeeded ,governor ,carver1 a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake2 but the governor stuffed the skin with powder and balls and sent it back to the chief1 who did not dare to accept the challenge4 #d4 ,the summer was unfruitful1 and the ,pilgrims were brought to the point of starvation4 ,new immigrants1 without provisions or stores1 arrived1 and were quartered on the colonists during the winter4 ,for six months the settlers were obliged to subsist on half allowance4 ,at one time only a few grains of corn remained to be distributed1 and at another there was absolute want4 ,then some ,english fishing-vessels came to ,plymouth and charged the colonists two prices for food enough to keep them alive4 ,the new immigrants remained at ,plymouth until the summer of #afbb1 then removed to the south side of ,boston harbor and founded ,weymouth4 #e4 ,the summer of #afbc brought a plentiful harvest1 and there was no longer any danger of starvation4 ,the natives became dependent on the settlement for corn1 and brought in an abundance of game4 ,at the end of the fourth year1 there were a hundred and eighty persons in ,new ,england4 ,the managers1 who had expended thirty-four thousand dollars on the enterprise1 were discouraged1 and proposed to sell out their claims to the colonists4 ,the offer was accepted2 and1 in ,november of #afbg1 eight of the leading men of ,plymouth purchased from the ,londoners their entire interest for nine thousand dollars4 #f4 ,before this transfer1 the colony had been much vexed by the attempt to set over them a minister of the ,english ,church4 ,they had come to the ,new ,world to avoid this very thing4 ,there was dissension for a while4 ,the ,english managers withheld support2 the stores of the colonists were sold to them at three prices2 and they were obliged to borrow money at sixty per cent4 ,but the ,pilgrims would not yield1 and the conflict ended with the purchase of the proprietors' rights in the colony4 ,sidenote3 ,government of the ,colonies4 #g4 ,in #afbd a settlement was made at ,cape ,ann1 but after two years the cape was abandoned2 the company moved farther south and founded ,salem4 ,in #afbh a second colony arrived in charge of ,john ,endicott1 who was chosen governor4 ,in #afbi ,charles ,i4 issued a charter by which the colonists were incorporated under the name of ,,the ,,governor ,,and ,,company ,,of ,,massachusetts ,,bay ,,in ,,new ,,england4 ,in ,july two hundred immigrants arrived1 half of whom settled at ,plymouth1 while the other half removed to the north side of ,boston harbor and founded ,charlestown4 ,illustration3 ,early ,settlements in ,eastern ,massachusetts4 #h4 ,in ,september1 #afbi1 it was decreed that the government of the colony should be transferred from ,england to ,america1 and that the charter should be intrusted to the colonists themselves4 ,emigration then began on an extensive scale4 ,in the year #afcj about three hundred of the best ,puritan families came to ,new ,england4 ,they were virtuous1 well-educated1 courageous men and women1 who left comfortable homes with no expectation of returning4 ,it was their good fortune to choose a noble leader4 #i4 ,the name of ,john ,winthrop1 governor of ,massachusetts1 is worthy of lasting remembrance4 ,born a royalist1 he cherished the principles of republicanism4 ,surrounded with affluence and comfort1 he left all to share the destiny of the ,pilgrims4 ,calm1 prudent1 and peaceful1 he joined the zeal of an enthusiast with the faith of a martyr4 ,a part of the new immigrants settled at ,salem2 others at ,cambridge and ,watertown1 on ,charles ,river2 while others founded ,roxbury and ,dorchester4 ,the governor resided for a while at ,charlestown1 but soon crossed over to the peninsula of ,shawmut and founded ,,boston1 which became henceforth the capital of the colony4 ,sidenote3 ,religious ,intolerance4 #aj4 ,in #afca a law was passed restricting the right of suffrage4 ,it was enacted that none but church members should be permitted to vote at the elections4 ,nearly three fourths of the people were thus excluded from exercising the rights of freemen4 ,taxes were levied for the support of the gospel2 attendance on public worship was enforced by law2 none but members of the church were eligible to office4 ,the very men who had so recently escaped with only their lives to find religious freedom in another continent1 began their career in the ,new ,world with intolerance4 #aa4 ,young ,,roger ,,williams1 minister of ,salem1 cried out against these laws4 ,for this he was obliged to quit the ministry of the church at ,salem and retire to ,plymouth4 ,finally1 in #afcd1 he wrote a paper in which he declared that grants of land1 though given by the king of ,england1 were invalid until the natives were justly paid4 ,when arraigned for these teachings1 he told the court that a test of church-membership in a voter was as ridiculous as the selection of a doctor on account of his skill in theology4 ,sidenote3 ,roger ,williams ,banished4 #ab4 ,after a trial1 ,williams was condemned for heresy and banished4 ,in mid-winter he left home and became an exile in the forest4 ,for fourteen weeks he wandered through the snow1 sleeping on the ground or in a hollow tree1 living on parched corn and acorns4 ,he carried with him a private letter from the good ,governor ,winthrop1 and the ,indians showed him kindness4 ,wandering from place to place1 in ,june of #afcf he became the founder of ,rhode ,island by laying out the city of ,,providence4 #ac4 ,in #afcd a representative form of government was established in ,massachusetts4 ,the restriction on the right of suffrage was the only remaining bar to free government in ,new ,england4 ,during the next year three thousand new immigrants arrived4 ,it was worth while to come to a country where the principles of freedom were recognized4 #ad4 ,new settlements were now formed at a distance from the bay4 ,one company of twelve families marched through the woods to some open meadows sixteen miles from ,boston1 and there founded ,concord4 ,another colony of sixty persons pressed their way westward to the ,connecticut ,river1 and became the founders of ,windsor1 ,,hartford1 and ,wethersfield4 #ae4 ,the banishment of ,roger ,williams created strife among the people of ,massachusetts4 ,the ministers were stern and exacting4 ,still1 the advocates of free opinion multiplied4 ,the clergy1 notwithstanding their great influence1 felt insecure4 ,religious debates became the order of the day4 ,every sermon was reviewed and criticised4 #af4 ,prominent among those who were accused of heresy was ,mrs4 ,anne ,hutchinson1 who desired the privilege of speaking at the weekly debates1 and was refused4 ,indignant at this1 she became the champion of her sex1 and declared that the ministers were no better than ,pharisees4 ,she called meetings of her friends1 and pleaded with fervor for the freedom of conscience4 ,the doctrines of ,williams were reaffirmed with more power and eloquence than ever4 #ag4 ,the synod of ,new ,england convened in ,august of #afcg1 and ,mrs4 ,hutchinson and her friends were banished from ,massachusetts4 ,a large number of the exiles wended their way toward the home of ,roger ,williams4 ,miantonomah1 a ,narragansett chieftain1 made them a gift of the island of ,rhode ,island2 there1 in #afda1 a little republic was established1 in which persecution1 for opinion's sake1 was forbidden4 ,sidenote3 ,harvard ,college ,founded4 #ah4 ,in #afcf the general court of the colony passed an act appropriating between one and two thousand dollars to found a college4 ,newtown was selected as the site of the proposed school4 ,plymouth and ,salem gave gifts to help the enterprise2 and from villages in the ,connecticut valley came contributions of corn and wampum4 ,in #afch ,john ,harvard1 a minister of ,charlestown1 died1 bequeathing his library and nearly five thousand dollars to the school4 ,to perpetuate his memory1 the new institution was named ,,harvard ,,college4 ,at the same time the name of ,newtown was changed to ,cambridge4 #ai4 ,the ,,printing-,,press came also4 ,in #afch ,stephen ,daye1 an ,english printer1 arrived at ,boston1 and in the following year set up a press at ,cambridge4 ,the first ,american publication was an almanac for ,new ,england1 bearing date of #afci4 ,during the next year1 ,thomas ,welde and ,john ,eliot1 two ministers of ,roxbury1 and ,richard ,mather1 of ,dorchester1 translated the ,hebrew ,psalms into ,english verse4 ,this was the first book printed in ,america4 #bj4 ,new ,england was fast becoming a nation4 ,well-nigh fifty villages dotted the face of the country4 ,enterprises of all kinds were rife4 ,manufactures1 commerce1 and the arts were introduced4 ,william ,stephens1 a shipbuilder of ,boston1 had already built and launched an ,american vessel of four hundred tons burden4 ,twenty-one thousand two hundred people had found a home between ,plymouth ,rock and the ,connecticut4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,union of the ,colonies4 #ba4 ,circumstances suggested a union of the colonies4 ,the western frontier was exposed to the hostilities of the ,dutch on the ,hudson4 ,similar trouble was apprehended from the ,french on the north4 ,indian tribes capable of mustering a thousand warriors were likely at any hour to fall upon the helpless villages4 ,common interests made a union indispensable4 #bb4 ,the first effort to consolidate the colonies was ineffectual4 ,but in #afdc1 a plan of union was adopted1 by which ,massachusetts1 ,plymouth1 ,connecticut1 and ,new ,haven were joined in a confederacy1 called ,,the ,,united ,,colonies ,,of ,,new ,,england4 ,the chief authority was conferred upon an assembly composed of two representatives from each colony4 ,these delegates were chosen annually at an election where all the freemen voted by ballot4 ,there was no president other than the speaker of the assembly4 ,provision was made for the admission of other colonies into the union1 but none were ever admitted4 #bc4 ,at a meeting of the assembly in ,december1 #afda1 ,nathaniel ,ward brought forward a written instrument1 which was adopted as the constitution of the ,state4 ,this statute was called the ,,body ,,of ,,liberties1 and was ever afterward esteemed as the great charter of colonial freedom4 ,sidenote3 ,persecution of the ,quakers4 #bd4 ,in ,july of #afef the ,,quakers began to arrive at ,boston4 ,the first who came were ,ann ,austin and ,mary ,fisher4 ,they were caught and searched for marks of witchcraft1 and then thrown into prison4 ,after several weeks' confinement they were brought forth and banished4 ,before the end of the year1 eight others were arrested and sent back to ,england4 ,a law was passed that ,quakers who persisted in coming to ,massachusetts should have their ears cut off and their tongues bored through with a red-hot iron4 ,in #afeg the assembly of the four colonies convened1 and the penalty of death was passed against the ,quakers as disturbers of the public peace4 ,sidenote3 ,trade ,restrictions4 #be4 ,the ,english ,revolution had now run its course4 ,cromwell was dead4 ,tidings of the restoration of ,charles ,,ii4 reached ,boston on the #bgth of ,july1 #affj4 ,on the reestablishment of the ,english monarchy1 a law was passed by which all vessels not bearing the ,english flag were forbidden to trade in ,new ,england4 ,articles produced in the colonies and demanded in ,england should be shipped to ,england only4 ,the products of ,england should not be manufactured in ,america1 and should be bought from ,england only2 and a duty of five per cent4 was put on both exports and imports4 ,this was the beginning of those measures which produced the ,,american ,,revolution4 #bf4 ,in #affd war broke out between ,england and ,holland4 ,it became a part of the ,english plans to conquer the ,dutch settlements on the ,hudson4 ,charles ,,ii4 was also anxious to obtain control of all the ,new ,england colonies4 ,he therefore appointed four commissioners to settle colonial disputes1 and to exercise authority in the name of the king4 ,the real object was to get possession of the charter of ,massachusetts4 ,in ,july1 #affd1 the royal judges arrived at ,boston4 ,they were rejected in all the colonies except ,rhode ,island4 ,meanwhile1 the ,english monarch1 learning how his judges had been received1 recalled them1 and they left the country4 ,for ten years after this event the colony was very prosperous4 ,illustration3 ,harvard ,college in #aggj4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,massachusetts4--,,war ,,and ,,witchcraft4 ,the old king ,massasoit died in #affb4 ,his son1 ,alexander1 now became chief of the nation1 but died within the year2 and the chieftainship descended to the younger brother1 ,,philip ,,of ,,mount ,,hope4 ,it was the fate of this brave man to lead his people in a final struggle against the whites4 ,causes of war already existed1 and the time had come for the conflict4 ,sidenote3 ,king ,philip's ,war4 #b4 ,the natives of ,new ,england had sold their lands4 ,the ,english were the purchasers2 the chiefs had signed the deeds2 the price had been fairly paid4 ,there were at this time in the country east of the ,hudson about twenty-five thousand ,indians and fifty thousand ,english4 ,the young warriors could not understand the validity of land-titles4 ,they sighed for the freedom of their fathers' hunting-grounds4 ,the ,wampanoags had nothing left but the peninsulas of ,bristol and ,tiverton4 ,there were personal grievances also4 ,king ,alexander had been arrested1 tried by an ,english jury1 and imprisoned4 ,he had caught his death-fever in a ,boston jail4 ,on the #bdth of ,june1 #afge1 the village of ,swanzey was attacked1 and eight ,englishmen were killed4 #c4 ,within a week the militia of ,plymouth1 joined by volunteers from ,boston1 entered the enemy's country4 ,a few ,indians were overtaken and killed4 ,the troops marched into the peninsula of ,bristol1 and compelled ,philip to fly for his life4 ,a general ,indian war broke out4 ,the hatred of the savages was easily kindled into hostility4 ,for a whole year the settlements on the frontier became a scene of burning and massacre4 #d4 ,king ,canonchet of the ,narragansetts first made a treaty of peace with the ,english1 but later violated it and chose to share the fate of ,philip4 ,but after much desperate fighting and heavy losses on both sides1 the resources of the savages were exhausted and their numbers daily grew less4 ,in ,april1 #afgf1 ,canonchet was captured on the banks of the ,blackstone4 ,refusing to make a treaty1 the haughty chieftain was put to death4 ,philip's company had dwindled to a handful4 ,his wife and son were made prisoners2 the latter was sold as a slave1 and ended his life in the ,bermudas4 ,the savage monarch cared no longer to live4 ,a company of soldiers surrounded him near his old home at ,mount ,hope4 ,a treacherous ,indian took a deadly aim at the breast of his chieftain4 ,the report of a musket rang through the woods1 and the king of the ,wampanoags sprang forward and fell dead4 #e4 ,new ,england suffered terribly in this war4 ,the losses of the war amounted to five hundred thousand dollars4 ,thirteen towns and six hundred dwellings lay in ashes4 ,six hundred men had fallen in the field4 ,gray-haired sire1 mother and babe had sunk together under the blow of the ,red man's tomahawk4 ,now there was peace again4 ,the ,indian race had been swept out of ,new ,england4 ,the tribes beyond the ,connecticut came and pleaded for their lives4 ,the colonists returned to their farms and villages1 to build new homes in the ashes of old ruins4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,province of ,maine4 #f4 ,the next trouble was concerning the province of ,maine4 ,sir ,ferdinand ,gorges1 the old proprietor1 was now dead2 but his heirs still claimed the territory4 ,the people of ,maine had put themselves under the authority of ,massachusetts2 but the heirs of ,gorges carried the matter before the ,english council1 and in #afgg a decision was given in their favor4 ,the ,boston government then made a proposition to the ,gorges family to purchase their claims2 this was accepted1 and for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds the province was transferred to ,massachusetts4 ,sidenote3 ,province of ,new ,hampshire4 #g4 ,a similar difficulty arose in regard to ,new ,hampshire4 ,as early as #afbb the ,plymouth council had granted this territory to ,ferdinand ,gorges and ,captain ,john ,mason4 ,seven years afterward ,gorges surrendered his claim to ,mason1 who thus became sole proprietor4 ,but this territory was also covered by the charter of ,massachusetts4 ,mason died1 and in #afgi his son ,robert came forward and claimed the province4 ,this cause was also taken before the ministers1 who decided that the title of the younger ,mason was valid4 ,to the great disappointment of the people of both provinces the two governments were separated4 ,a royal government1 the first in ,new ,england1 was now established over ,new ,hampshire1 and ,edward ,cranfield became ,governor4 #h4 ,but the people refused to recognize ,cranfield's authority4 ,the king attributed this conduct to the influence of ,massachusetts1 and directed his judges to make an inquiry as to whether ,massachusetts had not forfeited her charter4 ,in #afhd the royal court gave a decision in accordance with the monarch's wishes4 ,but before the charter could be revoked1 ,charles ,,ii4 fell sick and died4 ,sidenote3 ,royal ,governor of ,new ,england4 #i4 ,the new king1 ,james ,,ii41 adopted his brother's policy1 and in #afhf the scheme so long entertained was carried out4 ,the charter of ,massachusetts was formally revoked2 all the colonies between ,nova ,scotia and ,narragansett ,bay were consolidated1 and ,sir ,edmund ,andros was appointed royal governor of ,new ,england4 #aj4 ,his despotism was quickly extended from ,cape ,cod ,bay to the ,piscataqua4 ,the civil rights of ,new ,hampshire were overthrown4 ,in ,may of #afhf1 the charter of ,rhode ,island was taken away and her constitution subverted4 ,the seal was broken1 and a royal council appointed to conduct the government4 ,andros next proceeded to ,connecticut4 ,arriving at ,hartford in ,october of #afhg1 he found the assembly in session1 and demanded the surrender of the charter4 ,the instrument was brought in and laid upon the table4 ,a debate ensued1 and continued until evening4 ,when it was about to be decided that the charter should be given up1 the lamps were dashed out4 ,other lights were brought in2 but the charter had disappeared4 ,joseph ,wadsworth1 snatching up the parchment1 bore it off through the darkness and concealed it in a hollow tree1 ever afterwards remembered as ,,the ,,charter ,,oak4 ,but the assembly was overawed1 and the authority of ,andros established throughout the country4 ,illustration3 ,andros demanding the ,charter of ,connecticut4 #aa4 ,his dominion ended suddenly4 ,the ,english ,revolution of #afhh was at hand4 ,james ,,ii4 was driven from his throne2 the system of arbitrary rule which he had established fell with a crash1 and ,andros with the rest4 ,the news of the accession of ,william and ,mary reached ,boston on the #dth of ,april1 #afhi4 ,on the #ahth of the month1 the citizens of ,boston rose in rebellion4 ,andros was seized and marched to prison4 ,the insurrection spread2 and before the #ajth of ,may1 ,new ,england had regained her liberties4 ,sidenote3 ,king ,william's ,war4 #ab4 ,in #afhi war was declared between ,france and ,england4 ,this conflict is known in ,american history as ,,king ,,william',s ,,war4 ,when ,james ,,ii4 escaped from his kingdom1 he took refuge at the court of ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france4 ,the two monarchs were ,catholics1 and on this account an alliance was made between them4 ,louis agreed to support ,james in his effort to recover the ,english throne4 ,parliament1 meanwhile1 had conferred the crown on ,king ,william4 ,thus the new sovereign was brought into conflict with the exiled ,james and his ally1 the king of ,france4 ,the war which thus originated in ,europe soon extended to the ,french and ,english colonies in ,america4 #ac4 ,the struggle began on the frontier of ,new ,hampshire in ,june1 #afhi4 ,later in the same year1 the ,english and the ,mohawks entered into an alliance1 but the latter refused to make war upon their countrymen of ,maine4 ,the ,dutch settlements of ,new ,netherland made common cause with the ,english against the ,french4 #ad4 ,new ,england at length became thoroughly aroused4 ,to provide the means of war1 a congress was convened at ,new ,york4 ,here it was resolved to attempt the conquest of ,canada4 ,at the same time1 ,massachusetts was to cooperate by sending a fleet up the ,st4 ,lawrence against ,quebec4 ,thirty-four vessels1 carrying two thousand troops1 were fitted out1 and the command given to ,sir ,william ,phipps4 ,proceeding first against ,port ,royal1 he compelled a surrender2 the whole of ,nova ,scotia submitted without a struggle4 ,the expedition was foolishly delayed until ,october2 and an ,indian carried the news to the governor of ,canada4 ,when the fleet came in sight of the town1 the castle was so well garrisoned as to bid defiance to the ,english2 and it only remained for ,phipps to sail back to ,boston4 ,to meet the expenses of this expedition1 ,massachusetts issued bills of credit which were made a legal tender4 ,such was the origin of ,,paper ,,money in ,america4 #ae4 ,meanwhile1 the land forces had proceeded from ,albany to ,lake ,champlain4 ,here dissensions arose among the commanders1 and the expedition had to be abandoned4 ,the war continued nearly five years longer1 but with only here and there a marked event4 #af4 ,early in #afig1 commissioners of ,france and ,england assembled at the town of ,ryswick1 in ,holland2 and1 on the #ajth of the following ,september1 a treaty of peace was concluded4 ,king ,william was acknowledged as the rightful sovereign of ,england1 the colonial boundary-lines of the two nations in ,america were established as before1 and ,king ,william's war was at an end4 ,sidenote3 ,salem ,witchcraft4 #ag4 ,the darkest page in the history of ,new ,england is that which records the ,,salem ,,witchcraft4 ,in ,february of #afib1 in that part of ,salem afterwards called ,danvers1 a daughter and a niece of ,samuel ,parris1 the minister1 were attacked with a nervous disorder which rendered them partially insane4 ,parris pretended to believe the girls were bewitched1 and that an ,indian maid-servant was the author of the affliction4 ,he accordingly tied the ignorant creature and whipped her until she confessed herself a witch4 ,here1 perhaps1 the matter would have ended had not other causes existed for the spread of the delusion4 #ah4 ,but ,parris had a quarrel in his church4 ,a part of the congregation disbelieved in witchcraft1 while ,parris and the rest thought such disbelief the height of wickedness4 ,the celebrated ,cotton ,mather1 minister of ,boston1 had recently preached much on the subject of witchcraft1 teaching that witches were dangerous and ought to be put to death4 ,sir ,william ,phipps1 the royal governor1 was a member of ,mather's church4 #ai4 ,by the laws of ,england and of ,massachusetts1 witchcraft was punishable with death4 ,in the early history of the colony1 one person charged with being a wizard had been arrested at ,charlestown1 convicted and executed4 ,but many people had now grown bold enough to denounce the baleful superstition2 and something had to be done to save witchcraft from falling into contempt4 ,a special court was accordingly appointed by ,phipps to go to ,salem and judge the persons accused4 ,illustration3 ,a ,suspected ,witch4 #bj4 ,on the #bast of ,march the proceedings began4 ,mary ,cory was arrested1 brought before the court1 convicted1 and hurried to prison4 ,sarah ,cloyce and ,rebecca ,nurse1 two innocent sisters1 were next apprehended as witches4 ,the only witnesses against them were the foolish ,indian woman and the niece of ,parris4 ,the victims were sent to prison1 protesting their innocence4 ,and so the work went on1 until seventy-five innocent people were locked up in dungeons4 ,in hope of saving their lives1 some of the prisoners confessed themselves witches4 ,it was soon found that those were to be put to death who denied the reality of witchcraft4 ,five women were hanged in one day4 #ba4 ,between ,june and ,september1 twenty victims were hurried to their doom4 ,fifty-five others were tortured into the confession of falsehoods4 ,a hundred and fifty lay in prison awaiting their fate4 ,two hundred were accused or suspected1 and ruin seemed to impend over ,new ,england4 ,but a reaction at last set in among the people4 ,the court which ,phipps had appointed to sit at ,salem was dismissed4 ,the prisons were opened1 and the victims of superstition went forth free4 ,in the beginning of the next year1 a few persons were arrested and tried for witchcraft4 ,some were even convicted2 but not another life was sacrificed4 #bb4 ,most of those who participated in these terrible scenes confessed the wrong which they had done2 but confessions could not restore the dead4 ,mather1 in a vain attempt to justify himself1 wrote a book in which he expressed his thankfulness that so many witches had met their just doom2 and the hypocritical pamphlet received the approbation of the president of ,harvard ,college4 ,sidenote3 ,queen ,anne's ,war4 #bc4 ,in less than four years after the treaty of ,ryswick1 ,france and ,england were again involved in a war which soon extended to the ,american colonies4 ,in the year #agjj ,charles ,,ii41 king of ,spain1 died1 having named as his successor ,philip of ,anjou1 a grandson of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,this measure pointed to a union of the crowns of ,france and ,spain4 ,the jealousy of ,england1 ,holland1 and ,austria was aroused2 the archduke ,charles1 of the latter country1 was put forward as a candidate for the ,spanish throne2 and war was declared against ,louis ,,xiv4 for supporting ,philip4 #bd4 ,in #agja ,james ,,ii41 the exiled king of ,great ,britain1 died at the court of ,louis1 who now recognized the son of ,james as sovereign of ,england4 ,this action was regarded as an insult to ,english nationality4 ,king ,william prepared for war1 but did not live to carry out his plans4 ,in ,may of #agjb he died1 leaving the crown to his sister-in-law1 ,anne1 daughter of ,james ,,ii4 ,from the fact of her sovereignty1 the conflict with ,france is known in ,american history as ,,queen ,,anne',s ,,war2 but a better name is the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession4 ,this continued feebly through eleven years1 and with many of the horrors incident to ,indian warfare1 as the ,indians were leagued with the ,french against the ,english4 #be4 ,on the #aath of ,april1 #agac1 a treaty was concluded at ,utrecht1 a town of ,holland4 ,by it ,england obtained control of the fisheries of ,newfoundland4 ,labrador1 the ,bay of ,hudson1 and ,nova ,scotia1 were ceded to ,great ,britain4 ,on the #acth of ,july a second treaty was concluded with the ,indians1 by which peace was secured throughout the colonies4 #bf4 ,in the times that followed ,queen ,anne's war1 the people were greatly dissatisfied with the royal governors4 ,the opposition to those officers took the form of a controversy about their salaries4 ,the royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed salary1 which was frequently out of proportion to the services required4 ,the difficulty was finally adjusted by an agreement that the salaries should be allowed annually1 and the amount fixed by vote of the assembly4 ,sidenote3 ,king ,george's ,war4 #bg4 ,on the death of ,charles ,,vi4 of ,austria1 in #agdj1 there were two claimants to the crown of the empire--,maria ,theresa1 daughter of the late emperor1 and ,charles ,albert of ,bavaria4 ,each claimant had his party and his army2 war followed2 and nearly all the nations of ,europe were swept into the conflict4 ,england and ,france were arrayed against each other4 ,the contest that ensued is generally known as the ,war of the ,austrian ,succession1 but in ,american history is called ,,king ,,george',s ,,war1 for ,george ,,ii4 was now king of ,england4 ,in ,america the only important event of the war was the capture of ,louisburg1 on ,cape ,breton ,island4 #bh4 ,in #agdh a treaty of peace was concluded at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 a town of western ,germany4 ,nothing was gained but a restoration of conquests4 ,not a single boundary line was settled by the treaty4 ,the real war between ,france and ,england for supremacy in the ,west was yet to be fought4 ,sidenote3 ,character of the ,puritans4 #bi4 ,the history of ,massachusetts has now been traced through a period of one hundred and thirty years4 ,a few words on ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,puritans may be added4 ,they were a vigorous and hardy people1 firm-set in the principles of honesty and virtue4 ,they were sober1 industrious1 frugal2 resolute1 zealous1 and steadfast4 ,they esteemed truth more than riches4 ,loving home and native land1 they left both for the sake of freedom2 and finding freedom1 they cherished it with the devotion of martyrs4 ,despised and hated1 they rose above their revilers4 ,in the school of evil fortune they gained the discipline of patience4 ,they were the children of adversity and the fathers of renown4 #cj4 ,the gaze of the ,puritan was turned ever to posterity4 ,he believed in the future4 ,for his children he toiled and sacrificed4 ,the system of free schools is the monument of his love4 ,the printing-press is his memorial4 ,almshouses and asylums are the tokens of his care for the unfortunate4 ,he was the earliest champion of civil rights1 and the builder of ,,the ,,union4 #ca4 ,in matters of religion1 the fathers of ,new ,england were sometimes intolerant and superstitious4 ,their religious faith was gloomy4 ,human life was deemed a sad1 a miserable journey4 ,to be mistaken was to sin4 ,to fail in trifling ceremonies was reckoned a crime4 ,in the shadow of such belief the people became austere and melancholy4 ,they set up a cold and severe form of worship4 ,dissenters themselves1 they could not tolerate the dissent of others4 ,to punish error seemed to the ,pilgrims right and necessary4 ,but ,puritanism contained within itself the power to correct its own abuses4 ,the evils of the system may well be forgotten in the glory of its achievements4 ,without the ,puritans1 ,america would have been a delusion and liberty only a name4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,new ,,york4--,,settlement ,,and ,,administration ,,of ,,stuyvesant4 ,illustration3 ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the settlement of ,new ,amsterdam resulted from the voyages of the brave ,sir ,henry ,hudson4 ,for ten years after its founding1 the colony was governed by the directors of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company4 ,in #afba the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company was organized1 and ,manhattan ,island1 with its cluster of huts1 passed at once under the control of the new corporation4 ,sidenote3 ,dutch ,settlements4 #b4 ,in ,april1 #afbc1 the ship ,new ,netherland1 with thirty families on board1 arrived at ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the colonists1 called ,,walloons1 were ,dutch ,protestant refugees4 ,cornelius ,may was the leader of the company4 ,most of the new immigrants settled with their friends on ,manhattan2 but the captain1 with a party of fifty1 made explorations as far as ,delaware ,bay4 #c4 ,in ,may the island1 containing more than twenty thousand acres1 was purchased from the natives for twenty-four dollars4 ,a block-house was built and surrounded with a palisade4 ,new ,amsterdam was already a town of thirty houses4 ,the ,dutch of ,new ,amsterdam and the ,pilgrims of ,new ,plymouth were early and fast friends4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,patroons4 #d4 ,in #afbh the population of ,manhattan numbered two hundred and seventy4 ,the settlers engaged in the fur-trade4 ,in #afbi the ,west ,india ,company framed a ,,charter ,,of ,,privileges1 under which a class of proprietors1 called patroons1 were authorized to colonize the country4 ,the conditions were that each patroon should purchase his lands of the ,indians2 and that he should establish a colony of not less than fifty persons4 ,five estates were immediately laid out4 ,three of them were on the ,hudson2 the fourth1 on ,staten ,island2 and the fifth1 in the southern half of ,delaware4 #e4 ,in ,april of #afcc ,wouter van ,twiller became ,governor4 ,three months previously the ,dutch erected a block-house at ,hartford4 ,in ,october an armed vessel from ,plymouth sailed up the ,connecticut1 and defied the ,dutch commander4 ,the ,english proceeded up stream to the mouth of the ,farmington1 where they built ,fort ,windsor4 ,two years later1 by the building of ,saybrook1 at the mouth of the ,connecticut1 they obtained control of the river above and below the ,dutch fort4 #f4 ,in #afbf ,gustavus ,adolphus1 the ,protestant king of ,sweden1 formed the design of establishing settlements in ,america4 ,but before his plans could be carried into effect1 he was killed in battle4 ,in #afcb1 the ,swedish minister took up the work which his master had left unfinished2 and1 after four years1 the enterprise was brought to a successful issue4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,sweden4 #g4 ,late in #afcg a company of ,swedes and ,finns left the harbor of ,stockholm1 and in the following ,february arrived in ,delaware ,bay4 ,the name of ,,new ,,sweden was given to the territory4 ,on the left bank of a small tributary of the ,brandywine1 a spot was chosen for the settlement4 ,the immigrants soon provided themselves with houses4 ,the creek and the fort were both named ,christiana1 in honor of the maiden queen of ,sweden4 ,in a short time the banks of the bay and river were dotted with pleasant hamlets4 #h4 ,the authorities of ,new ,amsterdam were jealous of the ,swedish colony4 ,sir ,william ,kieft1 who had succeeded ,van ,twiller1 warned the settlers of their intrusion on ,dutch territory4 ,but the ,swedes went on enlarging their borders4 #i4 ,in #afdj ,new ,netherland became involved in a war with the ,indians4 ,new ,amsterdam was soon put in a state of defense1 and a company of militia was sent against the savages4 ,on both sides the war degenerated into treachery and murder4 ,through the mediation of ,roger ,williams a truce was obtained1 but was immediately broken4 ,sidenote3 ,war with the ,indians4 #aj4 ,soon a party of ,mohawks came down the river to enforce their supremacy over the ,algonquins in the vicinity of ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the latter begged assistance of the ,dutch4 ,kieft now saw an opportunity for wholesale destruction4 ,a company of soldiers set out from ,manhattan1 and discovered the camp of the ,algonquins4 ,the place was surrounded by night1 and nearly a hundred of the poor wretches were killed by those to whom they had appealed for help4 ,when it was known among the tribes that the ,dutch1 and not the ,mohawks1 were the authors of this outrage1 the war was renewed with fury4 ,illustration3 ,peter ,stuyvesant4 #aa4 ,in #afdc ,captain ,john ,underhill1 of ,massachusetts1 was appointed to command the ,dutch forces4 ,he first invaded ,new ,jersey1 and brought the ,delawares into subjection4 ,a decisive battle was fought on ,long ,island2 and at ,greenwich1 in western ,connecticut1 the power of the ,indians was finally broken4 ,on the #cjth of ,august1 #afde1 a treaty was concluded at ,fort ,amsterdam4 ,sidenote3 ,governor ,stuyvesant4 #ab4 ,in #afdg the ,west ,india ,company revoked ,governor ,kieft's commission1 and appointed ,peter ,stuyvesant to succeed him4 ,kieft embarked for ,europe1 but perished during the voyage4 ,peter ,stuyvesant entered upon his duties on the #aath of ,may1 #afdg1 and continued in office for seventeen years4 ,his first care was to conciliate the ,indians4 ,so intimate and cordial became the relations between the natives and the ,dutch1 that they were suspected of making common cause against the ,english4 ,massachusetts was alarmed lest such an alliance should be formed4 ,but the policy of ,stuyvesant was based on nobler principles4 #ac4 ,until now the ,west ,india ,company had exclusive control of the commerce of ,new ,netherland4 ,in #afdh this monopoly was abolished1 and regular export duties were substituted4 ,the benefit of the change was soon apparent in the improvement of the ,dutch province4 #ad4 ,in a letter written to ,stuyvesant by the secretary of the company1 the prediction was made that the commerce of ,new ,amsterdam would cover every ocean1 and the ships of all nations crowd into her harbor4 ,but for many years the growth of the city was slow4 ,the better parts of ,manhattan ,island were still divided among the farmers4 ,central ,park was a forest of oaks and chestnuts4 ,sidenote3 ,boundary of ,new ,netherland4 #ae4 ,in #afej the boundary was fixed between ,new ,england and ,new ,netherland4 ,the line extended across ,long ,island north and south1 passing through ,oyster ,bay1 and thence to ,greenwich1 on the other side of the ,sound4 ,from this point northward the dividing line was nearly identical with the present boundary of ,connecticut on the west4 ,this treaty was ratified by the colonies1 by the ,west ,india ,company1 and by the ,states-,general of ,holland4 ,sidenote3 ,conquest of ,new ,sweden4 #af4 ,stuyvesant now determined to subdue the colony of ,new ,sweden4 ,in #afea an armament left ,new ,amsterdam for the ,delaware1 and made an unsuccessful expedition4 ,in ,september of #afee the old governor again sailed against ,new ,sweden4 ,before the #beth of the month every fort belonging to the ,swedes had been forced to surrender4 ,honorable terms were granted to all1 and in a few days the authority of ,new ,netherland was established4 ,the little ,state of ,new ,sweden had ceased to exist4 #ag4 ,while ,stuyvesant was absent on his expedition against the ,swedes1 the ,algonquins rose in rebellion4 ,in a fleet of sixty-four canoes1 they appeared before ,new ,amsterdam1 yelling and discharging arrows1 then they went on shore and began to burn and murder4 ,the return of the ,dutch from ,delaware induced the chiefs to sue for peace1 which ,stuyvesant granted on better terms than the ,indians deserved4 #ah4 ,in #affc the town of ,kingston was attacked and destroyed by the ,indians4 ,sixty-five of the inhabitants were tomahawked or carried into captivity4 ,to punish this outrage a strong force was sent from ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the ,indians fled to the woods2 but the ,dutch soldiers pursued them to their villages1 burned their wigwams1 and killed every warrior who could be overtaken4 ,in ,may of #affd a treaty of peace was concluded4 #ai4 ,governor ,stuyvesant had great difficulty in defending his province against the claims of other nations4 ,discord at home added to his embarrassments4 ,for many years the ,dutch had witnessed the growth and prosperity of the ,english colonies4 ,boston had outgrown ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the schools of ,massachusetts and ,connecticut flourished2 the academy on ,manhattan1 after a sickly career of two years1 was discontinued4 ,in ,new ,netherland heavy taxes were levied for the support of the poor2 ,new ,england had no poor4 ,the ,dutch attributed their own want of thrift to the mismanagement of the ,west ,india ,company4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,english ,conquest4 #bj4 ,on the #abth of ,march1 #affd1 the duke of ,york received from ,charles ,,ii4 a patent for the whole country between the ,connecticut and the ,delaware4 ,the duke made haste to secure his territory4 ,an ,english squadron was immediately sent to ,america4 ,on the #bhth of ,august the fleet anchored before ,new ,amsterdam4 ,governor ,stuyvesant convened the ,dutch council1 and exhorted them to rouse to action and fight4 ,some one replied that the ,west ,india ,company was not worth fighting for4 ,the brave old man was forced to sign the capitulation2 and on the #hth of ,september1 #affd1 ,new ,netherland ceased to exist4 #ba4 ,the ,english flag was hoisted over the fort and town1 and the name of ,,new ,,york was substituted for ,new ,amsterdam4 ,the remaining ,swedish and ,dutch settlements soon capitulated4 ,the supremacy of ,great ,britain in ,america was finally established4 ,from ,maine to ,georgia1 every mile of the ,american coast was under the flag of ,england4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,new ,,york ,,under ,,the ,,english4 ,sidenote3 ,english ,governors4 ,the ,dutch had surrendered themselves to the ,english government in the hope of obtaining civil liberty4 ,but it was a poor sort of liberty that any province was likely to receive from ,charles ,,ii4 ,the promised rights of the people were evaded and withheld4 ,the old titles by which the ,dutch farmers held their lands were annulled4 ,the people were obliged to accept new deeds from the ,english governor1 and to pay him therefor large sums of money4 #b4 ,in #affg ,nicolls1 the first ,english governor of ,new ,york1 was superseded by the tyrannical ,lord ,lovelace4 ,the people became dissatisfied and gloomy4 ,the discontent was universal4 ,several towns resisted the tax-gatherers and passed resolutions denouncing the government4 ,the only attention which ,lovelace and his council paid to these resolutions was to order them to be burnt before the town-house of ,new ,york4 ,when the ,swedes1 a quiet people1 resisted the governor's exactions1 he wrote to his deputy3 ,if there is any more murmuring against the taxes1 make them so heavy that the people can do nothing but think how to pay them4 #c4 ,in #afgb ,charles ,,ii4 was induced by the king of ,france to begin a war with ,holland4 ,the struggle extended to the colonies1 and ,new ,york was for a short time revolutionized4 ,but the conquest was only a brief military occupation of the country4 ,the civil authority of the ,dutch was never reestablished4 ,in #afgd ,charles ,,ii4 was obliged to conclude a treaty of peace4 ,all conquests made during the war were restored4 ,new ,york reverted to the ,english government1 and the rights of the duke of ,york were again recognized in the province4 ,sir ,edmund ,andros was now appointed governor4 ,on the last day of ,october the ,dutch forces were finally withdrawn1 and ,andros assumed control of the government4 ,illustration3 ,dutch ,costumes and ,architecture4 #d4 ,it was a sad sort of government for the people4 ,all the abuses of ,lovelace's administration were revived4 ,taxes were levied without authority of law1 and the protests of the people were treated with scorn4 ,a popular legislative assembly was demanded1 but the duke of ,york wrote to ,andros that popular assemblies were dangerous to the government1 and that he did not see any use for them4 #e4 ,in ,july of #afge ,andros made an unsuccessful effort to extend his authority over ,connecticut1 and later an equally ineffectual attempt to gain control of ,new ,jersey4 ,the representatives of the people at this latter place declared themselves to be under the protection of the ,great ,charter1 which not even the duke of ,york could alter or annul4 ,in ,august of #afhb the ,territories beyond the ,delaware were granted by the ,duke of ,york to ,william ,penn4 ,this little district1 first settled by the ,swedes1 afterwards conquered by the ,dutch1 then transferred to ,england1 was now finally separated from ,new ,york and joined to the new province of ,pennsylvania4 ,sidenote3 ,popular ,assembly ,granted4 #f4 ,for thirty years the people had been clamoring for a general assembly4 ,at last the duke of ,york yielded to the demand4 ,then1 for the first time1 the people of the province were permitted to choose their own rulers and to frame their own laws4 ,the new assembly made haste to declare ,,the ,,people to be a part of the government4 ,all freeholders were granted the right of suffrage2 trial by jury was established2 taxes should not be levied except by the assembly2 soldiers should not be quartered on the people2 martial law should not exist2 no person should be persecuted on account of his religion4 #g4 ,in ,july of #afhd the governors of ,new ,york and ,virginia were met by the chiefs of the ,iroquois at ,albany1 and the terms of a lasting peace were settled4 ,in #afhe the duke of ,york became king of ,england4 ,it was soon found that even a monarch could violate his pledges4 ,king ,james became the enemy of the government which had been established in his ,american province4 ,the legislature of ,new ,york was dismissed4 ,an odious tax was levied4 ,printing-presses were forbidden2 and the old abuses were revived4 ,sidenote3 ,leisler's ,insurrection4 #h4 ,when the news of the accession of ,william of ,orange reached ,new ,york there was great rejoicing4 ,the people rose in rebellion against deputy-governor ,nicholson1 who was glad to escape to ,england4 ,the leader of the insurrection was ,captain ,jacob ,leisler4 ,he was appointed commandant of ,new ,york1 and afterwards provisional governor4 ,the councilors1 who were friends of the deposed ,nicholson1 left the city and went to ,albany4 ,here the party opposed to ,leisler organized a second provisional government4 ,both factions began to rule in the name of ,william and ,mary1 the new sovereigns of ,england4 ,such was the condition of affairs at the beginning of ,king ,william's ,war4 ,in the spring of #afij1 the authority of ,leisler as governor of ,new ,york was recognized throughout the province4 #i4 ,in ,march1 #afia1 ,colonel ,sloughter arrived1 with appointment as governor2 and ,leisler1 on the same day1 tendered his submission4 ,he wrote a letter to ,sloughter1 expressing a desire to surrender the post to the governor4 ,but ,sloughter preferred to treat him as a traitor1 and had him seized and sent to prison4 #aj4 ,as soon as the government was organized the prisoner was brought to trial4 ,it was decided that he had been a usurper4 ,sentence of death was passed on him1 but ,sloughter hesitated to put the sentence into execution4 ,in this state of affairs the governor was invited to a banquet by the royal councilors2 and when heated with drink1 the death-warrant was thrust before him for his signature4 ,he succeeded in signing his name to the parchment2 and before his drunken revel had passed away1 his victim had met his fate4 ,on the #afth of ,may ,leisler was taken from prison and hanged4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,invasion4 #aa4 ,in #afif ,new ,york was invaded by the ,french4 ,but they were soon driven back by the ,english and ,iroquois4 ,before a second invasion could be undertaken1 ,king ,william's ,war was ended4 ,in #afig the ,irish earl of ,bellomont became governor4 ,his administration was the happiest in the history of the colony4 ,massachusetts and ,new ,hampshire were under his jurisdiction1 but ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island remained independent4 #ab4 ,to ,bellomont's administration belongs the story of ,captain ,william ,kidd1 the pirate4 ,a vessel was fitted out by a company of distinguished ,englishmen to protect the commerce of ,great ,britain and to punish piracy4 ,governor ,bellomont was one of the proprietors1 and ,kidd received a commission as captain4 ,the ship sailed from ,england before ,bellomont's departure for ,new ,york4 ,soon the news came that ,kidd himself had turned pirate and become the terror of the seas4 ,for two years he continued his career1 then appeared publicly in the streets of ,boston1 was seized1 sent to ,england1 tried1 convicted1 and hanged4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey ,united4 #ac4 ,in ,may of #agjb ,bellomont was superseded by ,lord ,cornbury4 ,a month previously the proprietors of ,new ,jersey had surrendered their province to the ,english ,crown4 ,all obstacles being thus removed1 the two colonies were formally united in one government under ,cornbury4 ,for thirty-six years the two provinces continued under the jurisdiction of a single governor4 #ad4 ,in #agcb1 ,new ,york was troubled with a dispute about the freedom of the press4 ,the liberal party of the province held that a public journal might criticise the acts of the administration4 ,the aristocratic party opposed such liberty as dangerous to good government4 ,zenger1 an editor who published criticisms on the governor1 was seized and put in prison4 ,great excitement ensued4 ,the people praised their champion4 ,andrew ,hamilton1 a lawyer of ,philadelphia1 went to ,new ,york to defend ,zenger1 who was brought to trial in ,july of #agce4 ,the cause was heard1 and the jury brought in a verdict of acquittal4 ,the aldermen of ,new ,york1 in order to testify their appreciation of ,hamilton's services1 made him a present of an elegant gold box1 and the people were enthusiastic over their victory4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,negro ,plot4 #ae4 ,in the year #agda occurred what is known as ,,the ,,negro ,,plot4 ,negroes constituted a large fraction of the people4 ,several fires occurred1 and the slaves were suspected of having kindled them2 now they became feared and hated4 ,a rumor was started that the negroes had made a plot to burn the city1 and set up one of their own number as governor4 ,the reward of freedom was offered to any slave who would reveal the plot4 ,many witnesses rushed forward2 the jails were filled with the accused2 and more than thirty of the miserable creatures1 with hardly the form of a trial1 were convicted and then hanged or burned to death4 ,others were transported and sold as slaves in foreign lands4 ,as soon as the excitement had subsided1 it came to be doubted whether the whole affair had not been the result of terror and fanaticism4 ,the verdict of after times has been that there was no plot at all4 #af4 ,such is the history of the little colony planted on ,manhattan ,island4 ,a hundred and thirty years had passed since the first feeble settlements were made2 the valley of the ,hudson was filled with farms and villages4 ,the ,walloons of ,flanders and the ,puritans of ,new ,england had blended into one people4 ,discord and contention had only resulted in colonial liberty4 ,there were other struggles through which the sons of ,new ,york had to pass before they gained their freedom4 ,but the oldest and greatest of the ,middle ,colonies had entered upon a glorious career1 and the foundations of an ,,empire ,,state were laid4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,connecticut1 ,,rhode ,,island1 ,,and ,,new ,,hampshire4 ,sidenote3 ,rival ,claims to ,connecticut4 ,the history of ,connecticut begins with the year #afcj4 ,the first grant of the territory was made by the council of ,plymouth to the earl of ,warwick2 and in ,march1 #afca1 the claim was transferred by him to ,lord ,say-and-,seal1 ,lord ,brooke1 and ,john ,hampden4 ,before a colony could be planted1 the ,dutch of ,new ,netherland reached the ,connecticut and built a fort at ,hartford4 ,the people of ,plymouth immediately sent out a force to counteract this movement of their rivals1 for the territorial claim of the ,puritans extended over ,connecticut and over ,new ,netherland itself4 ,illustration3 ,early ,settlements in ,connecticut4 #b4 ,in ,october of #afce a colony of sixty persons from ,boston settled at ,hartford1 ,windsor1 and ,wethersfield4 ,earlier in the same year the younger ,winthrop1 son of the governor of ,massachusetts1 arrived in ,new ,england4 ,under his direction a fort was built at the mouth of the ,connecticut4 ,such was the founding of ,saybrook1 named in honor of ,lord ,say-and-,seal and ,lord ,brooke4 #c4 ,to the early annals of ,connecticut belongs the sad story of ,,the ,,pequod ,,war4 ,the country west of the ,thames was more thickly peopled with savages than any other portion of ,new ,england4 ,the warlike ,pequods were able to muster seven hundred warriors4 ,the whole force of the ,english did not amount to two hundred men4 ,but the superior numbers of the savages were more than balanced by the courage and weapons of the ,english4 ,in the year #afcc the crew of a trading-vessel were murdered on the banks of the ,connecticut4 ,an ,indian embassy went to ,boston to apologize2 a treaty was made1 and the ,pequods acknowledged the king of ,england4 ,but soon they began to violate the treaty4 ,outrages were committed1 and war began in earnest4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pequod ,war4 #d4 ,in this state of affairs the ,pequods attempted to induce the ,narragansetts and the ,mohegans to join in a war against the ,english4 ,but ,roger ,williams1 now in ,rhode ,island1 used his endeavors to thwart the alliance4 ,embarking alone in a canoe1 he crossed the bay to the house of ,canonicus1 king of the ,narragansetts4 ,there he found the ambassadors of the ,pequods4 ,for three days and nights1 at the peril of his life1 he pleaded with ,canonicus to reject the proposals of the hostile tribe4 ,at last his efforts were successful1 and the ,narragansetts voted to remain at peace4 ,the ,mohegans also rejected the proposed alliance4 ,in the mean time1 repeated acts of violence had aroused the colony4 ,on the #ast of ,may the towns of ,connecticut declared war4 ,sixty volunteers were put under command of ,captain ,john ,mason1 of ,hartford4 ,seventy ,mohegans joined the expedition2 and ,sir ,henry ,vane sent ,captain ,underhill with twenty soldiers from ,boston4 #e4 ,the descent from ,hartford to ,saybrook occupied one day4 ,on the #bjth of the month the expedition passed the mouth of the ,thames2 here was the principal seat of the ,pequod nation4 ,when the savages saw the squadron go by they set up shouts of exultation1 and persuaded themselves that the ,english were afraid to hazard battle4 ,the fleet proceeded quietly into ,narragansett ,bay4 ,here the troops landed and began their march into the country of the ,pequods4 #f4 ,on the #beth of ,may the troops came within hearing of the ,pequod fort4 ,the warriors spent the night in uproar and jubilee4 ,at two o'clock in the morning the ,english soldiers rose from their places of concealment and rushed forward to the fort4 ,a dog ran howling among the wigwams1 and the warriors sprang to arms4 ,the ,english leaped over the puny palisades and began the work of death4 ,burn them6 shouted ,mason1 seizing a flaming mat1 and running among the cabins2 and in a few minutes the wigwams were a sheet of flame4 ,the ,english and ,mohegans hastily withdrew4 ,sidenote3 ,destruction of the ,pequods4 #g4 ,the savages ran round and round like wild beasts in a burning circus4 ,if one of the wretched creatures burst through the flames it was only to meet certain death4 ,the destruction was complete4 ,only seven warriors escaped2 seven others were made prisoners4 ,six hundred men1 women1 and children perished1 nearly all being burned to death4 ,the remnants of the ,pequods were pursued into the swamps west of ,saybrook4 ,every wigwam was burned and every field laid waste4 ,two hundred fugitives were hunted to death or captivity4 ,the prisoners were distributed as servants among the ,narragansetts1 or sold as slaves4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,haven ,founded4 #h4 ,in the pursuit of the ,pequods1 the ,english became acquainted with the coast west of the mouth of the ,connecticut4 ,here some men of ,boston tarried over winter1 built cabins1 and founded ,,new ,,haven4 ,in ,june of #afci the men of ,new ,haven held a convention in a barn1 and adopted the ,bible for a constitution4 ,the government was called the ,house of ,wisdom1 and none but church members were admitted to citizenship4 #i4 ,in #afdc ,connecticut became a member of the ,union of ,new ,england4 ,new ,haven was also admitted2 and in the next year ,saybrook was annexed to ,connecticut4 ,in #afej ,governor ,stuyvesant met the commissioners of the province at ,hartford1 and established the western boundary4 ,sidenote3 ,winthrop secures a ,charter4 #aj4 ,on the restoration of monarchy in ,england1 ,connecticut recognized ,king ,charles as rightful sovereign4 ,the younger ,winthrop was sent as ambassador to ,london to procure a royal patent for the colony4 ,he bore with him a charter which had been prepared by the authorities of ,hartford4 ,lord ,say-and-,seal and the earl of ,manchester lent their influence to induce the king to sign it4 ,winthrop showed him a ring which ,charles ,i4 had given to ,winthrop's grandfather2 and the token so moved the monarch's feelings that in a careless moment he signed the colonial charter--the most liberal and ample ever granted by an ,english king4 #aa4 ,when ,winthrop returned to ,connecticut he was chosen governor of the colony1 and continued in office for fourteen years4 ,the civil institutions of the province were the best in ,new ,england4 ,peace reigned4 ,during ,king ,philip's ,war1 ,connecticut was saved from invasion4 ,not a hamlet was burned1 not a life lost within her borders4 #ab4 ,in ,october of #afhg ,andros1 now governor of all ,new ,england1 made his famous visit to ,hartford4 ,on the day of his arrival he invaded the assembly while in session1 seized the book of minutes1 and wrote ,,finis at the bottom of the page4 ,he then demanded the surrender of the colonial charter4 ,governor ,treat pleaded earnestly for the preservation of the document4 ,andros was inexorable4 ,the shades of evening fell4 ,how ,joseph ,wadsworth carried away and concealed the precious parchment has been told in the history of ,massachusetts4 ,when the government of ,andros was overthrown1 ,connecticut1 with the other ,new ,england colonies1 regained her liberty4 ,sidenote3 ,yale ,college ,founded4 #ac4 ,i give these books for the founding of a college in this colony4 ,such were the words of ten ministers who1 in #agjj1 assembled at ,branford1 ,new ,haven4 ,each of them1 as he uttered the words1 deposited a few volumes on the table where they were sitting2 such was the founding of ,,yale ,,college4 ,in #agjb the school was opened at ,saybrook1 where it continued for fifteen years1 and was then removed to ,new ,haven4 ,one of the most liberal patrons of the college was ,elihu ,yale1 from whom the institution took its name4 ,common schools already existed in almost every village of ,connecticut4 #ad4 ,the half century preceding the ,french and ,indian war was a time of prosperity in the western parts of ,new ,england4 ,connecticut was especially favored4 ,peace reigned throughout her borders4 ,the farmer reaped his fields in cheerfulness and hope4 ,the mechanic made glad his dusty shop with anecdote and song4 ,the merchant feared no tariff1 the villager no taxes4 ,want was unknown1 and pauperism unheard of4 ,with fewer dark pages in her history1 ,connecticut had all the lofty purposes and noble virtues of ,massachusetts4 #ae4 ,in ,june of #afcf the exiled ,roger ,williams left the country of the ,wampanoags1 and passed down the ,seekonk to ,narragansett ,river4 ,with his five companions he landed on the western bank1 purchased the soil of the ,narragansetts1 and laid the foundations of ,providence4 ,other exiles joined the company4 ,new farms were laid out and new houses built4 ,here1 at last1 was found at ,,providence ,,plantation a refuge for all the persecuted4 ,sidenote3 ,providence ,plantation4 #af4 ,the leader of the new colony was a native of ,wales2 born in #afjf2 liberally educated at ,cambridge4 ,he had been the friend of ,milton1 and was a great hater of ceremonies4 ,he had been exiled to ,massachusetts1 and was now exiled by ,massachusetts4 ,he brought to the banks of the ,narragansett the great doctrines of religious liberty and the equal rights of men4 ,illustration3 ,a ,new ,england ,kitchen in the ,olden ,time4 #ag4 ,the beginning of civil government in ,rhode ,island was equally simple4 ,williams was the natural ruler of the little province1 but he reserved for himself no wealth1 no privilege4 ,the lands1 purchased from ,canonicus1 were freely distributed among the colonists4 ,only two small fields were kept by the founder for himself4 ,all the powers of the government were intrusted to the people4 ,a simple agreement was made by the settlers that in matters not affecting the conscience they would yield obedience to such rules as the majority might make for the public good4 ,in questions of religion the conscience should be to every man a guide4 #ah4 ,the new government stood the test of experience4 ,providence ,plantation had peace and quiet4 ,it was found that all religious sects could live together in harmony4 ,miantonomah1 chief of the ,narragansetts1 loved ,roger ,williams as a brother4 ,it was his friendship that enabled ,williams to notify ,massachusetts of the ,pequod conspiracy1 and to defeat the plans of the hostile nation4 ,this good deed induced his friends at ,salem to make an effort to recall him from banishment2 but his enemies prevented his return4 ,illustration3 ,stone ,tower at ,newport4 ,sidenote3 ,plantation of ,rhode ,island4 #ai4 ,in #afci a settlement was made at ,portsmouth1 in the northern part of the island1 and at the same time a party of colonists removed to the southwestern part of the island1 and laid the foundations of ,,newport4 ,in sight of this last-named settlement stood the old stone tower1 a monument built by the ,norsemen4 ,in ,march of #afda a public meeting was convened2 the citizens came together on terms of equality1 and the task of framing a constitution was undertaken4 ,in three days the instrument was completed4 ,the government was declared to be a ,,democracie4 ,the supreme authority was lodged with the freemen of the island4 ,the vote of the majority should always rule4 ,no one should be distressed on account of religious doctrine4 ,the little republic was named the ,,plantation ,,of ,,rhode ,,island4 #bj4 ,in #afdc ,providence and ,rhode ,island were refused admission into the ,union of ,new ,england4 ,soon afterward ,roger ,williams was sent to ,london to procure a charter for the new colonies4 ,on the #adth of ,march in the following year the patent was granted1 and ,rhode ,island became an independent commonwealth4 ,with but few and brief interruptions it enjoyed peace and prosperity4 ,the principles of the illustrious founder became the principles of the commonwealth4 ,the renown of ,rhode ,island has not been in vastness of territory1 in mighty cities1 or in victorious armies1 but in devotion to truth1 justice1 and freedom4 ,sidenote3 ,province of ,new ,hampshire4 #ba4 ,in #afbb the territory between the ,merrimac and the ,kennebec was granted by the council of ,plymouth to ,sir ,ferdinand ,gorges and ,john ,mason4 ,the proprietors made haste to secure their new domain by actual settlements4 ,in the spring of #afbc two small companies of colonists were sent out by ,mason and ,gorges to people their province4 ,one party of immigrants landed at ,little ,harbor1 near ,portsmouth1 and began to build a village4 ,the other company proceeded up stream and laid the foundations of ,dover4 ,with the exception of ,plymouth and ,weymouth1 ,portsmouth and ,dover are the oldest towns in ,new ,england4 ,but the progress of the settlements was slow2 for many years the two villages were only fishing stations4 ,in #afbi the name of ,,new ,,hampshire was given to the province4 ,very soon ,massachusetts began to urge her rights to the district north of the ,merrimac4 #bb4 ,on the #adth of ,april1 #afdb1 ,new ,hampshire was united with ,massachusetts4 ,the law restricting the rights of citizenship to church members was not extended over the new province1 for the people of ,portsmouth and ,dover belonged to the ,church of ,england4 ,new ,hampshire was the only colony east of the ,hudson not originally founded by the ,puritans4 ,the union continued in force until #afgi1 when ,new ,hampshire was separated from the jurisdiction of ,massachusetts1 and organized as a distinct royal province4 ,edward ,cranfield was chosen governor4 #bc4 ,before his arrival the sawyers and lumbermen of the ,piscataqua convened a general assembly at ,portsmouth4 ,a resolution was passed by the representatives that no act1 law1 or ordinance should be valid unless made by the assembly and approved by the people4 ,when the king heard of this resolution he declared it to be both wicked and absurd4 #bd4 ,of all the colonies1 ,new ,hampshire suffered most from the ,indian wars4 ,her settlements were constantly exposed to savage invasion4 ,during ,king ,philip's ,war the suffering along the frontier was very great4 ,in the wars of ,william1 ,anne1 and ,george the province was visited with devastation and ruin4 ,but in the intervals of peace the spirits of the people revived1 and the hardy settlers returned to their wasted farms4 ,out of these conflicts and trials came that sturdy race of pioneers who bore such a heroic part in the contests of after years4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,new ,,jersey ,,and ,,pennsylvania4 ,the history of ,new ,jersey begins with the founding of ,elizabethtown1 in #affd4 ,as early as #afah1 a trading-station had been established at ,bergen2 but forty years passed before permanent dwellings were built in that neighborhood4 ,sidenote3 ,claims to ,new ,jersey4 #b4 ,the territory of ,new ,jersey was included in the grant made to the duke of ,york4 ,in #affd that portion of the province lying between the ,hudson and the ,delaware1 extending as far north as forty-one degrees and forty minutes1 was assigned to ,lord ,berkeley and ,sir ,george ,carteret4 ,just after the conquest1 a company of ,puritans received a grant of land on ,newark ,bay4 ,the ,indian titles were purchased2 in the following ,october a village was begun and named ,elizabethtown4 #c4 ,in ,august of #affe ,philip ,carteret arrived as governor4 ,elizabethtown was made the capital of the colony2 ,newark was founded2 flourishing hamlets appeared on the shores of the bay as far south as ,sandy ,hook4 ,in honor of ,sir ,george ,carteret1 who had been governor of the ,isle of ,jersey1 his ,american domain was named ,,new ,,jersey4 ,in #affh the first assembly convened at ,elizabethtown4 ,the representatives were ,puritans1 and the laws of ,new ,england were repeated in the legislation of the colony4 #d4 ,after the conquest of ,new ,york by the ,dutch1 and the restoration of the province to ,england1 the duke of ,york received from the king a second patent for the country between the ,connecticut and the ,delaware4 ,at the same time he confirmed his former grant of ,new ,jersey to ,berkeley and ,carteret4 ,but soon afterwards ,sir ,edmund ,andros was appointed royal governor of the whole country4 ,carteret defended his claim against ,andros2 but ,berkeley sold his interest in ,new ,jersey to ,john ,fenwick1 to be held in trust for ,edward ,byllinge1 who after a time made an assignment of his property to ,gawen ,laurie1 ,nicholas ,lucas1 and ,william ,penn4 ,sidenote3 ,division of ,new ,jersey4 #e4 ,these men were ,quakers4 ,here1 then1 was an opportunity to establish an asylum for the persecuted ,friends4 ,penn and his associates applied to ,sir ,george ,carteret for a division of the province4 ,it was accordingly agreed to divide ,new ,jersey so that ,carteret's district should be separated from that of the ,quakers4 ,the line of division was drawn from the southern point of land on the east side of ,little ,egg ,harbor to a point on the ,delaware in the latitude of forty-one degrees and forty minutes4 ,the territory lying east of this line remained to ,sir ,george as sole proprietor1 and was named ,,east ,,jersey2 while that portion lying between the line and the ,delaware was called ,,west ,,jersey1 and passed under the control of ,penn4 ,illustration3 ,middle ,colonies4 #f4 ,early in the following ,march the ,quaker proprietors published a code of laws called ,,the ,,concessions4 ,the constitution rivaled the charter of ,connecticut in the liberality of its principles4 ,the authors of the instrument then addressed the ,quakers of ,england1 recommending the province and inviting immigration4 ,before the end of the year a colony of more than four hundred ,friends found homes in ,west ,jersey4 ,an effort was now made by the proprietors of ,east ,jersey to secure a deed of release from the duke of ,york4 ,the petition was granted1 and the whole territory was freed from foreign authority4 #g4 ,in ,november of #afha ,jennings1 the deputy-governor of ,west ,jersey1 convened the first general assembly4 ,the ,quakers now met together to make their own laws4 ,the ,concessions were reaffirmed4 ,men of all races and religions were declared to be equal4 ,imprisonment for debt was forbidden4 ,the sale of ardent spirits to the ,red men was prohibited4 ,taxes should be voted by the representatives of the people4 ,the lands of the ,indians should be acquired by purchase4 ,finally1 a criminal might be pardoned by the person against whom the offense was committed4 ,sidenote3 ,quakers purchase ,east ,jersey4 #h4 ,in #afhb ,william ,penn and eleven other ,friends purchased the province of ,east ,jersey4 ,the whole of ,new ,jersey was now held by the ,friends4 ,in #afhe ,james ,,ii4 appointed ,edmund ,andros royal governor of the colonies from ,maine to ,delaware4 ,in #afhh the ,jerseys were brought under his jurisdiction4 ,when the news came of the abdication of the ,english monarch1 ,andros could do nothing but surrender to the indignant people4 #i4 ,but the condition of ,new ,jersey was deplorable4 ,it was almost impossible to tell to whom the territory rightfully belonged4 ,finally1 in ,april of #agjb1 all proprietary claims being waived in favor of the king1 the territory between the ,hudson and the ,delaware became a royal province4 #aj4 ,new ,jersey was now attached to the government of ,lord ,cornbury of ,new ,york4 ,but each province retained its own legislative assembly and a distinct organization4 ,this method of government continued for thirty-six years1 and was then ended by the action of the people4 ,in #agbh the representatives of ,new ,jersey sent a petition to ,george ,,ii41 praying for a separation of the two colonies4 ,ten years later the effort was renewed and brought to a successful issue4 ,new ,jersey was made independent1 and ,lewis ,morris received a commission as royal governor of the province4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,jersey a ,royal ,province4 #aa4 ,the ,quakers were greatly encouraged with the success of their colonies in ,new ,jersey4 ,for more than a quarter of a century they had been buffeted with persecutions4 ,but imprisonment and exile had not abated their zeal4 ,the benevolent spirit of ,penn urged him to find for his people an asylum in the ,new ,world4 ,in ,june of #afhj he appealed to ,king ,charles for the privilege of founding a ,quaker commonwealth in ,america4 ,sidenote3 ,pennsylvania4 #ab4 ,the petition was heard with favor4 ,on the #eth of ,march1 #afha1 a charter was granted by ,charles ,,ii41 and ,william ,penn became the proprietor of ,,pennsylvania4 ,the vast domain embraced under the new patent was bounded on the east by the ,delaware1 extended north and south over three degrees of latitude1 and westward through five degrees of longitude4 ,the three counties of ,delaware were reserved for the duke of ,york4 ,within a month from the date of his charter1 ,penn published a glowing account of his new country1 promising freedom of conscience1 and inviting emigration4 ,during the summer three shiploads of ,quakers left ,england for the land of promise4 #ac4 ,during the winter of #afha-hb1 ,penn drew up a constitution for his people4 ,in the mean time1 the duke of ,york had surrendered his claim to the three counties on the ,delaware4 ,the whole country on the west bank of the river1 from ,cape ,henlopen to the forty-third degree of latitude1 was now transferred to ,penn1 who1 with a large company of emigrants1 landed at ,new ,castle on the #bgth of ,october1 #afhb4 ,sidenote3 ,william ,penn4 #ad4 ,,william ,,penn was born on the #adth of ,october1 #afdd4 ,he was the oldest son of ,sir ,william ,penn of the ,british navy4 ,at the age of twelve he was sent to the ,university of ,oxford1 where he distinguished himself as a student until he was expelled on account of his religion4 ,afterwards he traveled on the ,continent1 and then became a student of law at ,london4 ,for a while he was a soldier1 and was then converted to the ,quaker faith4 ,his father drove him out of doors1 but he was not to be turned from his course4 ,he proclaimed the doctrines of the ,friends2 was arrested and imprisoned1 first in the ,tower of ,london1 and afterward at ,newgate4 ,despairing of toleration in ,england1 he cast his gaze across the ,atlantic4 ,west ,jersey was purchased2 ,pennsylvania was granted by ,king ,charles2 and now ,penn himself arrived in ,america to found a government on the basis of peace4 ,illustration3 ,william ,penn4 ,sidenote3 ,treaty of ,shackamaxon4 #ae4 ,the ,quaker governor delivered an affectionate address to the crowd of ,swedes1 ,dutch1 and ,english who came to greet him4 ,his pledges of a liberal government were renewed1 and the people were exhorted to sobriety and honesty4 ,friendly relations were established between the ,friends and ,red men4 ,a great conference1 appointed with the sachems of the neighboring tribes1 was held on the banks of the ,delaware4 ,penn declared his brotherly affection for the ,indians4 ,standing before them1 clad in the simple garb of the ,quakers1 he said3--,,my ,,friends3 ,we have met on the broad pathway of good faith4 ,we are all one flesh and blood4 ,being brethren1 no advantage shall be taken on either side4 ,when disputes arise1 we will settle them in council4 ,between us there shall be nothing but openness and love4 ,the chiefs replied3 ,while the rivers run and the sun shines we will live in peace with the children of ,william ,penn4 ,and the treaty was sacredly kept4 ,the ,quaker hat and coat proved to be a better defense than coat-of-mail and musket4 #af4 ,in ,february of #afhc the native chestnuts1 walnuts and elms were blazed to indicate the lines of the streets1 and ,,philadelphia was founded4 ,within a month a general assembly was in session at the new capital4 ,a democratic form of government was adopted4 ,the growth of ,philadelphia was astonishing4 ,in #afhc there were only three or four houses4 ,in #afhe the city contained six hundred houses2 the schoolmaster had come1 and the printing-press had begun its work4 ,in another year ,philadelphia had outgrown ,new ,york4 ,in ,august of #afhd ,penn took leave of his colony and sailed for ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,secession of ,delaware4 #ag4 ,nothing occurred to disturb the peace of ,pennsylvania until the secession of ,delaware in #afia4 ,the three lower counties1 which had been united on terms of equality with the six counties of ,pennsylvania1 became dissatisfied with some acts of the assembly and insisted on a separation4 ,the proprietor gave consent2 ,delaware withdrew from the union1 and received a separate deputy-governor4 #ah4 ,in ,december of #afii ,penn visited his ,american commonwealth1 and drew up another constitution1 more liberal than the first4 ,but ,delaware would not accept the new form of government4 ,in #agjb the assemblies of the two provinces sat apart2 and in the following year ,delaware and ,pennsylvania were finally separated4 #ai4 ,in ,july of #agah the founder of ,pennsylvania sank to rest4 ,his estates1 vast and valuable1 were bequeathed to his three sons1 ,john1 ,thomas1 and ,richard4 ,by them1 or their deputies1 ,pennsylvania was governed until the ,american ,revolution4 ,in the year #aggi the claims of the ,penn family were purchased by the legislature of ,pennsylvania for a hundred and thirty thousand pounds4 #bj4 ,the colonial history of the ,state founded by ,penn is one of special interest and pleasure4 ,it is a narrative of the victories of peace1 and of the triumph of peaceful principles over violence and wrong4 ,it is doubtful whether the history of any other colony in the world is touched with so many traits of innocence and truth4 ,i will found a free colony for all mankind1 were the words of ,william ,penn4 ,how well his work was done shall be told when the bells of his capital city shall ring out the glad notes of ,,american ,,independence4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,maryland ,,and ,,north ,,carolina4 ,captain ,john ,smith was the first white man to explore the ,chesapeake4 ,in #afba ,william ,clayborne1 an ,english surveyor1 was sent out by the ,london ,company to make a map of the country around the bay4 ,by the second charter of ,virginia that province included all of the present ,state of ,maryland4 ,to explore and occupy the country was an enterprise of the highest importance to the ,virginians4 ,in ,may of #afca ,clayborne was authorized to survey the country as far north as the forty-first degree of latitude1 and to establish a trade with the ,indians4 ,in the spring of #afcb he began his important work4 ,sidenote3 ,first ,posts in ,maryland4 #b4 ,the enterprise was attended with success4 ,a trading-post was established on ,kent ,island1 and another near ,havre de ,grace4 ,the ,chesapeake was explored and a trade opened with the natives4 ,the limits of ,virginia were about to be extended to the borders of ,new ,netherland4 ,but1 in the mean time1 religious persecutions were preparing the way for the foundation of a new ,state in the wilderness4 ,sir ,george ,calvert1 a ,catholic nobleman of ,yorkshire1 better known by his title of ,,lord ,,baltimore1 was destined to become the founder4 #c4 ,in #afbi he made a visit to ,virginia4 ,the general assembly offered him citizenship1 but required such an oath of allegiance as no honest ,catholic could take4 ,lord ,baltimore thereupon left the narrow-minded legislators2 returned to ,london2 drew up a charter for a new ,state on the ,chesapeake1 and induced ,king ,charles to sign it4 #d4 ,the provisions of the charter were ample4 ,no preference was given to any particular religion4 ,the lives and property of the colonists were carefully guarded4 ,arbitrary taxation was forbidden4 ,the power of making the laws was conceded to the freemen of the colony4 ,sidenote3 ,lord ,baltimore's ,charter4 #e4 ,before the patent could receive the seal of state1 ,sir ,george ,calvert died4 ,his title descended to his son ,cecil2 and the charter was issued to him on the #bjth of ,june1 #afcb4 ,in honor of ,henrietta ,maria1 wife of ,charles ,i41 the name of ,,maryland was conferred on the new province4 ,in the fall of #afcc a colony numbering two hundred persons was collected4 ,leonard ,calvert1 a brother of ,cecil1 was appointed to accompany the colonists to ,america4 ,illustration3 ,cecil ,calvert1 ,lord ,baltimore4 #f4 ,in ,march of #afcd the immigrants arrived at ,old ,point ,comfort4 ,they proceeded up the bay and ascended the ,potomac4 ,finding a half-deserted ,indian village at the mouth of the ,st4 ,mary's1 the ,english moved into the vacant huts4 ,the rest of the town was purchased2 and the name of ,,st4 ,,mary',s was given to the colony4 ,friendly relations were established with the natives4 ,the ,indian women taught the wives of the ,english how to make cornbread1 and the warriors instructed the colonists in the art of hunting4 ,there was neither anxiety nor want in the colony4 ,within six months the settlement had grown into greater prosperity than ,jamestown had reached in as many years4 #g4 ,in #afci a representative government was established in ,maryland4 ,hitherto a system of democracy had prevailed2 each freeman had been allowed a vote in determining the laws4 ,when the new delegates came together1 a declaration of rights was adopted4 ,all the liberal principles of the colonial patent were reaffirmed4 ,the rights of citizenship were declared to be the same as those of the people of ,england4 #h4 ,in #afdb ,indian hostilities were begun on the ,potomac4 ,but the settlements of ,maryland were compact1 and no great suffering was occasioned4 ,in #afdd the savages agreed to bury the hatchet and to renew the pledges of friendship4 #i4 ,in #afej the legislature of ,maryland was divided into two branches4 ,the rights of ,lord ,baltimore were defined by law4 ,an act was passed declaring that no taxes should be levied without the consent of the assembly4 ,such was the condition of affairs in the colony of ,maryland when the ,commonwealth was established in ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,conflict with ,parliament4 #aj4 ,in #afea parliamentary commissioners came to ,america to assume control of ,maryland4 ,stone1 the deputy of ,baltimore1 was deposed from office2 but in the following year he was permitted to resume the government4 ,in ,april of #afec he published a proclamation1 declaring that the recent interference had been a rebellion4 ,clayborne thereupon collected a force in ,virginia1 drove ,stone out of office1 and directed the government himself4 #aa4 ,in #afed a ,protestant assembly was convened at ,patuxent4 ,the supremacy of ,cromwell was acknowledged1 and the ,catholics were deprived of the protection of the laws4 ,civil war ensued4 ,governor ,stone armed the militia1 and seized the records of the colony4 ,a battle was fought near ,annapolis1 and the ,catholics were defeated1 with a loss of fifty men4 ,stone was taken prisoner1 but was saved from death by the friendship of some of the insurgents4 ,three of the ,catholics were tried and executed4 #ab4 ,after the death of ,cromwell1 ,maryland was declared independent4 ,on the #abth of ,march1 #affj1 the rights of ,lord ,baltimore were set aside1 and the whole power of government was assumed by the ,house of ,burgesses4 ,on the restoration of monarchy the ,baltimores were again recognized1 and ,philip ,calvert was sent out as governor4 ,from #afge to #afia ,charles ,calvert was governor of ,maryland4 #ac4 ,on the #ast of ,june1 #afia1 the charter of ,lord ,baltimore was taken away and a royal governor appointed4 ,the ,episcopal ,church was established by law4 ,religious toleration was abolished and the government administered on despotic principles4 ,this condition of affairs continued until #agae1 when ,queen ,anne restored the heir of ,lord ,baltimore to the rights of his family4 ,maryland remained under the authority of the ,calverts until the ,revolution4 ,sidenote3 ,settlement of the ,carolinas4 #ad4 ,the first effort to colonize ,north ,carolina was made by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh4 ,in #afcj the country was granted to ,sir ,robert ,heath4 ,but1 after thirty-three years1 the patent was revoked by the ,english king4 ,the name of ,,carolina had been given to the country by ,john ,ribault1 in #aefb4 ,the first actual settlement was made on the ,chowan about the year #afea4 ,in #affa a company of ,puritans settled on ,oldtown ,creek4 ,in #affc ,lord ,clarendon1 and seven other noblemen1 received a grant of all the country between the thirty-sixth parallel and the river ,st4 ,john's4 #ae4 ,the work of preparing a frame of government for the new province was assigned to ,sir ,ashley ,cooper4 ,the philosopher ,john ,locke was employed by him and his associates to prepare the constitution4 ,from ,march until ,july of #affi1 ,locke worked away in drawing up a plan which he called ,,the ,,grand ,,model4 ,it contained one hundred and twenty articles2 and this was but the beginning6 ,the empire of ,carolina was divided into districts of four hundred and eighty thousand acres each4 ,the offices were divided between two grand orders of nobility4 #af4 ,all attempts to establish the new government ended in failure4 ,but the settlers had meanwhile learned to govern themselves4 ,they grew prosperous by trading in staves and furs2 and when this traffic was exhausted1 they began to remove to other settlements4 #ag4 ,the people of the colony were greatly oppressed with taxes4 ,the trade with ,new ,england alone was weighed down with an annual duty of twelve thousand dollars4 ,a gloomy opposition to the government prevailed2 and when1 in #afgf1 large numbers of refugees from ,virginia arrived in ,carolina1 the discontent was kindled into an insurrection4 ,the people seized ,governor ,miller and his council1 and established a new government of their own4 ,john ,culpepper1 the leader of the insurgents1 was chosen governor4 ,in #afgi ,miller and his associates escaped from confinement and went to ,london4 ,governor ,culpepper1 who followed to defend himself1 was seized1 indicted for treason1 tried1 and acquitted4 ,after a time new settlers came from ,virginia and ,maryland--,quakers from ,new ,england1 ,huguenots from ,france1 and peasants from ,switzerland4 ,sidenote3 ,indian ,troubles4 #ah4 ,the ,indians of ,north ,carolina gradually wasted away4 ,some of the nations were already extinct4 ,the lands of the savages had passed to the whites1 sometimes by purchase1 sometimes by fraud4 ,of all the tribes of the ,carolinas1 only the ,corees and the ,tuscaroras were still formidable4 ,these grew jealous and went to war with the whites4 #ai4 ,on the night of the #bb;d of ,september1 #agaa1 the savages fell upon the scattered settlements and murdered a hundred and thirty persons4 ,civil dissensions prevented the authorities from adopting vigorous measures of defence4 ,but ,colonel ,barnwell came from ,south ,carolina with a company of militia and friendly ,indians2 and the savages were driven into their fort4 ,a treaty of peace was made2 but1 on their way homeward1 ,barnwell's men sacked an ,indian village1 and the war was at once renewed4 #bj4 ,in the next year1 ,colonel ,moore of ,south ,carolina arrived with a regiment of whites and ,indians1 and the ,tuscaroras were pursued to their fort1 which was carried by assault4 ,eight hundred warriors were taken prisoners4 ,the power of the hostile nation was broken2 and the ,tuscaroras1 abandoning their hunting-grounds1 marched across ,virginia1 ,maryland1 and ,pennsylvania1 joined their kinsmen of ,new ,york1 and became the sixth nation of the ,iroquois4 ,sidenote3 ,separation of the ,carolinas4 #ba4 ,in #agbi a separation was effected between the two ,carolinas1 and a royal governor was appointed over each4 ,in spite of many reverses1 the northern colony had greatly prospered4 ,intellectual development had not been as rapid as the growth in numbers and wealth4 ,little attention had been given to questions of religion4 ,there was no minister in the province until #agjc4 ,two years later the first church was built4 ,the printing-press did not begin its work until #aged4 ,but the people were brave and patriotic4 ,they loved their country1 and called it the ,,land ,,of ,,summer4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,south ,,carolina ,,and ,,georgia4 ,in ,january of #afgj the proprietors of ,carolina sent out a colony under command of ,joseph ,west and ,william ,sayle4 ,on the first high land upon the southern bank of the ,ashley ,river were laid the foundations of ,old ,charleston1 named in honor of ,charles ,,ii4 ,sayle had been commissioned as governor of the colony1 and he at once assumed control4 ,sidenote3 ,introduction of ,slaves4 #b4 ,in #afga he died1 and ,west entered upon the duties of the vacant office4 ,in a few months ,sir ,john ,yeamans1 who had been governor of the northern province1 was commissioned as chief magistrate of the southern colony4 ,he brought with him to ,ashley ,river a cargo of ,african slaves4 ,thus the labor of the black man was substituted for the labor of the white man1 and in less than two years slavery was firmly established4 ,the importation of negroes went on so rapidly that soon the negroes were twice as numerous as the white men4 #c4 ,during the year #afga the country was rapidly filled with people4 ,fertile lands were abundant4 ,wars and pestilence had almost destroyed the native tribes4 ,the proprietors of ,carolina sent several ships to ,new ,york1 loaded them with the discontented people of that province1 and brought them to ,charleston4 ,charles ,,ii4 collected a company of ,protestant refugees in ,europe1 and sent them to ,carolina to introduce the silk-worm and to cultivate the grape4 #d4 ,in #afhj the present city of ,charleston was founded4 ,thirty dwellings were erected during the first summer4 ,the village immediately became the capital of the colony4 ,the unhealthy climate retarded the progress of the new town1 but the people were full of life and enterprise4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,huguenots4 #e4 ,england1 ,france1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland sent colonies to ,south ,carolina4 ,especially did the ,french ,huguenots come in great numbers1 for they were now persecuted in their own country4 ,they were met by the proprietors with a promise of citizenship2 but the promise was not well kept1 for the general assembly claimed the right of fixing the conditions of naturalization4 ,not until #afig were all discriminations against the ,french immigrants removed4 #f4 ,in ,april of #afic the proprietors of ,carolina annulled the ,grand ,model1 and ,thomas ,smith was appointed governor4 ,he was soon superseded by ,john ,archdale1 a distinguished ,quaker1 under whose administration the colony entered upon a new career of prosperity4 ,the quit-rents on lands were remitted for four years4 ,the ,indians were conciliated with kindness1 and the ,huguenots protected in their rights4 ,it was a real misfortune when1 in #afih1 the good governor was recalled to ,england4 #g4 ,james ,moore was next commissioned as chief magistrate4 ,in ,december of #agje he led an expedition against the ,indians4 ,on the #adth of the month the invaders reached a fortified town near ,st4 ,mark's4 ,the place was carried by assault1 and more than two hundred prisoners were taken4 ,on the next day ,moore's forces defeated a large body of ,indians and ,spaniards4 ,five towns were carried in succession1 and the ,english flag was borne to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 #h4 ,in the first year of ,governor ,johnson's administration1 an act was passed disfranchising all dissenters from the ,english ,church1 but ,parliament voted that the act was contrary to the laws of ,england4 ,in ,november of the same year the colonial legislature revoked the law2 but ,episcopalianism continued to be the established faith of the province4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,yamassee ,war4 #i4 ,in the spring of #agae the ,yamassees rose upon the frontier settlements and committed an atrocious massacre4 ,the desperate savages came within a short distance of the capital1 and the whole colony was threatened with destruction4 ,but ,governor ,craven rallied the militia1 and the savages were pursued to the banks of the ,salkehatchie4 ,here a decisive battle was fought1 and the ,indians were completely routed4 ,the ,yamassees collected their tribe and retired into ,florida4 #aj4 ,at the close of the war the assembly petitioned the proprietors to bear a portion of the expense4 ,but they refused1 and would take no measures for the protection of the colony4 ,the people1 greatly burdened with rents and taxes1 grew dissatisfied with the proprietary government4 ,in the new election every delegate was chosen by the popular party4 ,when ,james ,moore1 the new chief magistrate elected by the people1 was to be inaugurated1 ,governor ,johnson tried to prevent the ceremony4 ,but the militia collected in the public square1 and before nightfall the government of ,carolina was overthrown4 ,governor ,moore1 the people's choice1 was duly inaugurated in the name of ,king ,george ,i4 ,sidenote3 ,becomes a ,royal ,province4 #aa4 ,still another change in colonial affairs was now at hand4 ,in #agbi seven of the proprietors of ,carolina sold their claims in the province to the king4 ,the sum paid by ,george ,,ii4 for the two colonies was twenty-two thousand five hundred pounds4 ,royal governors were appointed1 and the affairs of the province were settled on a permanent basis4 #ab4 ,the people who colonized ,south ,carolina were brave and chivalrous4 ,the ,huguenot1 the ,scotch ,presbyterian1 the ,english dissenter1 the ,irish adventurer1 and the ,dutch mechanic1 composed the material of the ,,palmetto ,,state4 ,equally with the ,puritans of the ,north1 the ,south ,carolinians were lovers of liberty4 ,the people became the leaders in politeness and honor between man and man4 ,sidenote3 ,georgia ,chartered4 #ac4 ,georgia1 the thirteenth ,american colony1 was founded by ,james ,oglethorpe1 an ,english philanthropist4 ,the laws of ,england permitted imprisonment for debt4 ,thousands of ,english laborers were annually arrested and thrown into jail4 ,in order to provide a refuge for the poor and the distressed1 ,oglethorpe appealed to ,george ,,ii4 for the privilege of planting a colony in ,america4 ,the petition was favorably heard1 and on the #ith of ,june1 #agcb1 a charter was issued by which the territory between the ,savannah and ,altamaha ,rivers1 and westward to the ,pacific1 was granted to a corporation1 to be held in trust for the poor4 ,in honor of the king1 the new province was named ,,georgia4 ,sidenote3 ,savannah ,founded4 #ad4 ,oglethorpe1 who was a brave soldier and a member of ,parliament1 was the principal member of the corporation4 ,to him was entrusted the leadership of the first colony to be planted on the ,savannah4 ,by the middle of ,november a hundred and twenty emigrants were ready to sail for the ,new ,world4 ,in ,january of #agcc the company was welcomed at ,charleston4 ,further south the colonists entered the river1 and on the #ast of ,february laid the foundations of ,savannah4 ,illustration3 ,james ,oglethorpe4 #ae4 ,the chief of the ,yamacraws came from his cabin to see the new-comers4 ,here is a present for you1 said he to ,oglethorpe4 ,the present was a buffalo robe painted with the head and feathers of an eagle4 ,the feathers are soft1 and signify love2 the buffalo skin is the emblem of protection4 ,therefore love us and protect us1 said the old chieftain4 ,seeing the advantages of peace1 ,oglethorpe invited a council at his capital4 ,the conference was held on the #bith of ,may4 ,long ,king1 the sachem1 spoke for all the tribes4 ,the ,english were welcomed to the country4 ,gifts were made1 and the governor responded with words of friendship4 ,illustration3 ,oglethorpe and the ,yamacraw ,chief4 #af4 ,the councilors in ,england encouraged emigration4 ,swiss peasants1 ,scotch ,highlanders1 and ,german ,protestants all found a home on the ,savannah4 ,in ,april of #agcd1 ,oglethorpe made a visit to ,england4 ,it was said in ,london that no colony was ever before founded so wisely as ,georgia4 ,the councilors prohibited the importation of rum4 ,traffic with the ,indians was regulated by a license4 ,slavery was positively forbidden4 ,while the governor was still abroad1 a company of ,moravians arrived at ,savannah4 ,sidenote3 ,coming of the ,missionaries4 #ag4 ,in ,february of #agcf ,oglethorpe came back with a colony of three hundred4 ,these were also ,moravians1 people of deep piety and fervent spirit4 ,first among them was ,john ,wesley1 the founder of ,methodism4 ,he came to ,georgia to spread the gospel and convert the ,indians4 ,but he was doomed to much disappointment in his work2 and after a residence of less than two years he left the colony4 ,his brother1 ,charles ,wesley1 came also as a secretary to ,governor ,oglethorpe4 ,in #agch the famous ,george ,whitefield came1 and preached with fiery eloquence through all the colonies4 #ah4 ,meanwhile1 ,oglethorpe1 anticipating war with ,florida1 began to fortify4 ,all of ,georgia was embraced in the ,spanish claim4 ,but ,oglethorpe had a charter for the territory as far south as the ,altamaha4 ,in #agcf he ascended the ,savannah and built a fort at ,augusta4 ,on the north bank of the ,altamaha1 he built ,fort ,darien4 ,on ,st4 ,simon's ,island a fortress was erected and named ,frederica4 ,the ,st4 ,john's was claimed from this time forth as the southern boundary of ,georgia4 ,the governor again visited ,england1 and returned with a regiment of troops4 ,sidenote3 ,war with ,spanish ,florida4 #ai4 ,in ,october1 #agci1 ,england published a declaration of war against ,spain4 ,in the first week of the following ,january1 ,oglethorpe invaded ,florida1 and captured two fortified towns4 ,soon1 with a force of more than a thousand men1 he marched against ,st4 ,augustine1 but after a siege of five weeks was compelled to withdraw4 #bj4 ,the ,spaniards now determined to carry the war into ,georgia4 ,in ,june of #agdb a fleet of thirty-six vessels1 carrying more than three thousand troops1 sailed from ,st4 ,augustine for the reduction of ,fort ,william on ,cumberland ,island4 ,but ,oglethorpe reinforced the garrison1 and then fell back to ,frederica4 ,the ,spanish vessels followed4 ,from the southern point of the island to ,frederica1 ,oglethorpe had cut a road which lay between a morass and a forest4 ,the ,spaniards must pass along this path to attack the town4 #ba4 ,the ,english general posted his men between the swamp and the forest4 ,on the #gth of ,july the enemy reached the pass1 were fired on from the thicket1 and driven back in confusion4 ,the main body of the ,spanish forces pressed on into the same position1 stood firm for a while1 but were presently routed with the loss of two hundred men4 ,the name of ,bloody ,marsh was given to this battlefield4 ,within a week the whole ,spanish force reembarked and sailed for ,florida4 #bb4 ,the colony of ,georgia was now firmly established4 ,in #agdc ,oglethorpe departed for ,england1 after having devoted ten years to the colony4 ,he had never owned a house nor possessed an acre of ground in the province4 ,sidenote3 ,georgia a ,royal ,province4 #bc4 ,the regulations which the councilors for ,georgia had adopted were poorly suited to the wants of the colony4 ,the settlers had no titles to their lands4 ,estates could descend only to the oldest sons of families4 ,the colonists charged their poverty to the fact that slave-labor was forbidden in the province4 ,the proprietary laws became unpopular4 ,the statute excluding slavery was not enforced4 ,slaves began to be hired1 first for short terms of service1 then for longer periods1 then for one hundred years4 ,finally1 slaves were brought directly from ,africa and sold to the planters below the ,savannah4 #bd4 ,the new order of things was acknowledged by the councilors2 and in ,june of #ageb they surrendered their patent to the king4 ,a royal government was established over the country1 and the people were granted the freedom of ,englishmen4 ,for some time the progress of the colony was not equal to the expectations of its founder1 but before the ,revolution ,georgia had become a growing province4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,french ,,and ,,indian ,,war4 ,the time came when the ,american colonies began to act together4 ,the final struggle between ,france and ,england for colonial supremacy in ,america was at hand4 ,necessity compelled the ,english colonies to join in a common cause against the foe4 ,this is the conflict known as the ,,french ,,and ,,indian ,,war4 ,causes of war had existed for many years4 ,sidenote3 ,causes of the ,war4 #b4 ,the first of these causes was the conflicting territorial claims of the two nations4 ,england had colonized the sea-coast2 ,france had colonized the interior of the continent4 ,the ,english kings claimed the country from one ocean to the other4 ,the ,french1 however1 began to push their way westward and southward along the great lakes to the head-waters of the ,wabash1 the ,illinois1 and the ,st4 ,croix1 then down these streams to the ,mississippi and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the purpose of the ,french was to divide the ,american continent and take the larger portion4 #c4 ,the ,french soon established military posts at ,frontenac1 at ,niagara1 at the ,straits of ,mackinaw1 and on the ,illinois4 ,before #agej1 settlements had been made on the ,maumee1 at ,detroit1 at ,green ,bay1 at ,vincennes1 at ,kaskaskia1 at ,natchez1 at ,new ,orleans1 and on the ,bay of ,biloxi4 ,at this time the only outposts of the ,english were a fort at ,oswego and a few cabins in ,west ,virginia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,ohio ,company4 #d4 ,the immediate cause of hostilities was a conflict between the frontiersmen of the two nations in the ,ohio valley4 ,in order to prevent the intrusion of the ,french fur-traders into this country1 a number of ,virginians joined themselves together in a body called the ,,ohio ,,company4 ,in ,march of #agdi1 they received from ,george ,,ii4 a land-grant of five hundred thousand acres1 located between the ,kanawha and the ,monongahela4 ,but before the company could send out a colony1 the governor of ,canada dispatched three hundred men to occupy the valley of the ,ohio4 ,in the next year1 however1 the ,ohio ,company sent out an exploring party under ,christopher ,gist1 who traversed the country and returned to ,virginia in #agea4 #e4 ,this expedition was followed by vigorous movements of the ,french4 ,they built a fort called ,le ,buf1 on ,french ,creek1 and another named ,venango1 on the ,alleghany4 ,about the same time1 the country south of the ,ohio was again explored by ,gist and a party of armed surveyors4 #f4 ,the ,indians were greatly alarmed at the prospect4 ,they rather favored the ,english cause1 but their allegiance was uncertain4 ,in the spring of #agec1 the ,miami tribes1 under the leadership of the ,half-,king1 met ,benjamin ,franklin at ,carlisle1 ,pennsylvania1 and made a treaty with the ,english4 ,sidenote3 ,washington sent to ,st4 ,pierre4 #g4 ,before proceeding to actual war1 ,governor ,dinwiddie determined to try a final remonstrance with the ,french4 ,a paper was drawn up setting forth the nature of the ,english claim to the valley of the ,ohio1 and warning the authorities of ,france against further intrusion4 ,a young surveyor1 named ,,george ,,washington1 was called upon to carry this paper from ,williamsburg1 ,virginia1 to ,general ,st4 ,pierre at ,presque ,isle1 on ,lake ,erie4 #h4 ,on the last day of ,october1 #agec1 ,washington set out on his journey4 ,he was attended by four comrades besides an interpreter and ,christopher ,gist1 the guide4 ,at ,logstown1 ,washington held a council with the ,indians1 and then pressed on to ,fort ,le ,buf4 ,here the conference was held with ,st4 ,pierre4 ,washington was received with courtesy1 but the general of the ,french was acting1 he said1 under military instructions1 and would eject every ,englishman from the valley of the ,ohio4 ,illustration3 ,washington's ,route to ,ft4 le ,boeuf4 #i4 ,washington soon took leave of the ,french1 and returned to ,venango4 ,then1 with ,gist as his sole companion1 he left the river and struck into the woods4 ,clad in the robe of an ,indian2 sleeping with frozen clothes on a bed of pine-brush2 guided at night by the ,north ,star2 fired at by a prowling savage from his covert2 lodging on an island in the ,alleghany until the river was frozen over2 plunging again into the forest1 the young ambassador came back without wound or scar to the capital of ,virginia4 ,the answer of ,st4 ,pierre was laid before the governor1 and the first public service of ,washington was ended4 ,sidenote3 ,english post on the ,ohio4 #aj4 ,in the mean time the ,ohio ,company had sent thirty-three men1 under command of ,trent1 to erect a fort at the source of the ,ohio4 ,in ,march1 #aged1 they built the first rude block-house on the site of ,pittsburgh4 ,after all the threats of the ,french1 the ,english had beaten them in seizing the key to the ,ohio valley4 #aa4 ,soon1 however1 ,french boats came down the river2 and ,trent was obliged to surrender4 ,washington was now stationed at ,alexandria to enlist recruits4 ,but it was too late to save ,trent's men from capture4 ,the ,french immediately occupied the post1 built barracks and laid the foundations of ,,fort ,,du ,,quesne4 ,to retake this place ,colonel ,washington set out from ,will's ,creek in ,may of #aged4 ,the possession of the disputed territory was now to be determined by war4 ,sidenote3 ,battle at ,great ,meadows4 #ab4 ,washington1 with his little army of ,virginians1 was commissioned to build a fort at the source of the ,ohio1 and to repel all who interrupted the ,english settlements in that country4 ,in ,april the young commander left ,will's ,creek1 and on the #bfth of ,may the ,english reached the ,great ,meadows4 ,here ,washington was informed that the ,french were on the march to attack him4 ,a stockade was immediately erected1 and named ,fort ,necessity4 ,washington determined to strike the first blow4 ,two ,indians followed the trail of the enemy1 and discovered their hiding-place4 ,the ,french were on the alert1 and flew to arms4 ,fire6 was the command of ,washington2 and the first volley of a great war went flying through the forest4 ,the engagement was brief and decisive4 ,jumonville1 the leader of the ,french1 and ten of his party1 were killed1 and twenty-one were made prisoners4 #ac4 ,before advancing farther1 ,washington waited for reinforcements4 ,only one company of volunteers arrived4 ,his whole force numbered scarcely four hundred4 ,learning that the ,french general ,de ,villiers was approaching1 ,washington deemed it prudent to fall back to ,fort ,necessity4 #ad4 ,scarcely were ,washington's forces safe within the stockade1 when1 on the #c;d of ,july1 the regiment of ,de ,villiers came in sight1 and surrounded the fort4 ,the ,french stationed themselves on the eminence1 and fired down upon the ,english with fatal effect4 ,the ,indians climbed into the tree-tops4 ,for nine hours the assailants poured a shower of balls upon ,washington's men4 ,at length1 seeing that it would be impossible to hold out1 he accepted the terms which were offered by the ,french general4 ,on the #dth of ,july the ,english garrison marched out of the fort1 and withdrew from the country4 ,sidenote3 ,congress of the ,colonies4 #ae4 ,meanwhile1 a congress of the ,american colonies had assembled at ,albany4 ,the first object was to renew the treaty with the ,iroquois2 the second1 to unite the colonies in a common government4 ,on the #ajth of ,july1 ,benjamin ,franklin presented the draft of a constitution1 which was finally adopted4 ,philadelphia was to be the capital4 ,the chief executive was to be a governor appointed by the king4 ,each colony should be represented in congress by not less than two or more than seven representatives4 #af4 ,copies of this constitution were transmitted to the several colonies2 but the new scheme of government was everywhere received with disfavor4 ,the ,english ministers also rejected it1 saying that the ,americans were trying to make a government of their own4 ,meanwhile1 the ,french were constantly preparing for war4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,braddock ,arrives4 #ag4 ,early in #agee ,general ,braddock arrived in ,america2 the plans of four campaigns were agreed on4 ,lawrence1 the governor of ,nova ,scotia1 was to complete the conquest of that province4 ,governor ,johnson1 of ,new ,york1 was to capture ,crown ,point4 ,shirley1 of ,massachusetts1 was to take ,fort ,niagara4 ,braddock himself was to lead the main army against ,fort ,du ,quesne4 #ah4 ,in the latter part of ,april1 the ,british general set out with two thousand veterans1 from ,alexandria to ,fort ,cumberland4 ,a few provincial troops joined the expedition4 ,washington became an aide-de-camp of ,braddock1 and frequently gave him honest counsel1 which the ,british general rejected4 #ai4 ,braddock marched with the main body4 ,on the #aith of ,june he put himself at the head of twelve hundred chosen troops1 and pressed forward toward ,fort ,du ,quesne4 ,on the #ith of ,july1 when the ,english were only twelve miles from ,fort ,du ,quesne1 they were suddenly fired upon by the ,french and ,indians1 who were hidden among the rocks and ravines4 ,sidenote3 ,braddock's ,defeat4 #bj4 ,the battle began with a panic4 ,the men fired constantly1 but could see no enemy4 ,braddock rushed to the front and rallied his men2 but it was all in vain4 ,they stood huddled together like sheep4 ,the forest was strewn with the dead4 ,out of eighty-two officers1 twenty-six were killed4 ,of the privates seven hundred and fourteen had fallen4 ,a retreat began at once1 and ,washington1 with the ,virginians1 covered the flight of the army4 #ba4 ,on the next day the ,indians returned to ,fort ,du ,quesne clad in the laced coats of the ,british officers4 ,the wounded ,braddock was borne in the train of the fugitives to ,fort ,necessity1 where he died4 ,when they reached ,dunbar's camp the confusion was greater than ever4 ,the artillery1 baggage1 and public stores were destroyed4 ,then followed a hasty retreat to ,fort ,cumberland1 and finally to ,philadelphia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,english in ,acadia4 #bb4 ,by the treaty of ,utrecht1 made in #agac1 ,acadia1 or ,nova ,scotia1 was ceded by ,france to ,england4 ,the great majority of the people in that province were ,french1 and the ,english government was only a military occupation4 ,at the outbreak of the ,french and ,indian ,war the population amounted to more than sixteen thousand4 ,in a campaign of a month1 the ,english now made themselves masters of the whole country east of the ,st4 ,croix4 #bc4 ,the ,french inhabitants still outnumbered the ,english1 and ,governor ,lawrence determined to drive them into banishment4 ,the ,english officers first demanded an oath of allegiance1 and the surrender of all firearms and boats4 ,the ,british vessels were then made ready to carry the people into exile4 ,illustration3 ,embarkation at ,acadia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,exile of ,acadians4 #bd4 ,the country about the isthmus was now laid waste1 and the peasants driven into the larger towns4 ,wherever a sufficient number could be got together they were compelled to go on shipboard4 ,at the village of ,grand ,pr1 more than nineteen hundred people were driven into the boats at the point of the bayonet4 ,wives and children1 old men and mothers1 the sick and the infirm1 all shared the common fate4 ,more than three thousand of the ,acadians were carried away and scattered1 helpless and half starved1 among the ,english colonies4 #be4 ,the third campaign planned by ,braddock was to be conducted by ,governor ,shirley against ,fort ,niagara4 ,early in ,august the attempt was made1 but in ,october had to be abandoned4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition to ,lake ,champlain4 #bf4 ,the fourth expedition was intrusted to ,general ,william ,johnson4 ,the object was to capture ,crown ,point1 and drive the ,french from ,lake ,champlain4 ,early in ,august the army proceeded to the ,hudson above ,albany1 and built ,fort ,edward4 ,thence ,johnson marched to ,lake ,george and laid out a camp4 ,sidenote3 ,dieskau ,defeated4 #bg4 ,in the mean time1 ,dieskau1 the ,french commandant at ,crown ,point1 advanced with fourteen hundred ,french1 ,canadians1 and ,indians to capture ,fort ,edward4 ,the ,canadians and ,french regulars1 unsupported by the ,indians1 then attacked the ,english position4 ,for five hours the battle was incessant4 ,nearly all of ,dieskau's men were killed4 ,at last the ,english troops charged across the field1 and completed the rout4 ,dieskau was mortally wounded4 ,two hundred and sixteen of the ,english were killed4 ,general ,johnson now constructed ,fort ,william ,henry on the site of his camp4 ,meanwhile1 the ,french had fortified ,ticonderoga4 ,such was the condition of affairs at the close of #agee4 ,illustration3 ,lake ,champlain4 #bh4 ,in the beginning of the next year the command of the ,english forces was given to ,governor ,shirley4 ,washington1 at the head of the ,virginia provincials1 repelled the ,french and ,indians in the valley of the ,shenandoah4 ,the expeditions1 which were planned for the year1 embraced the conquest of ,quebec and the capture of ,forts ,frontenac1 ,toronto1 ,niagara1 and ,du ,quesne4 #bi4 ,the earl of ,loudoun now received the appointment of commander-in-chief of the ,british forces4 ,on the #agth of ,may ,great ,britain1 after nearly two years of actual hostilities1 made a declaration of war against ,france4 ,in ,july ,lord ,loudoun assumed the command of the colonial army4 ,the ,french1 meanwhile1 led by the marquis of ,montcalm1 who had succeeded ,dieskau1 besieged and captured ,oswego4 ,sidenote3 ,massacre at ,ft4 ,william ,henry4 #cj4 ,in the following campaign the daring ,montcalm1 with more than seven thousand ,french1 ,canadians1 and ,indians1 advanced against ,fort ,william ,henry4 ,for six days the ,french pressed the siege with vigor4 ,the ammunition of the garrison was exhausted1 and nothing remained but to surrender4 ,honorable terms were granted by the ,french4 ,on the #ith of ,august the ,french took possession of the fortress4 ,unfortunately1 the ,indians procured a quantity of spirits from the ,english camp4 ,in spite of the utmost exertions of ,montcalm1 the savages fell upon the prisoners and massacred thirty of them in cold blood4 #ca4 ,such had been the successes of ,france during the year1 that the ,english had not a single hamlet left in the whole basin of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,every cabin where ,english was spoken had been swept out of the ,ohio valley4 ,at the close of the year #ageg ,france possessed twenty times as much ,american territory as ,england1 and five times as much as ,england and ,spain together4 ,sidenote3 ,louisburg ,captured4 #cb4 ,william ,pitt was now placed at the head of the ,english ministry4 ,loudoun was deposed from the ,american army4 ,general ,abercrombie was appointed to succeed him4 ,general ,amherst was to lead a division1 and young ,lord ,howe was next in rank to ,abercrombie4 ,three expeditions were planned for #ageh3 one to capture ,louisburg2 a second1 to reduce ,crown ,point and ,ticonderoga2 and the third to retake ,fort ,du ,quesne from the ,french4 ,the first was successful1 and on the #bhth of ,july1 ,louisburg capitulated4 ,cape ,breton and ,prince ,edward ,island were surrendered to ,great ,britain4 ,the garrison1 numbering nearly six thousand men1 became prisoners of war4 ,sidenote3 ,defeat at ,ticonderoga4 #cc4 ,on the #eth of ,july ,general ,abercrombie1 with an army of fifteen thousand men1 moved against ,ticonderoga4 ,on the morning of the #fth the ,english fell in with the picket line of the ,french4 ,a severe skirmish ensued2 the ,french were overwhelmed1 but ,lord ,howe was killed in the onset4 ,on the morning of the #hth1 the ,english divisions were arranged to carry ,ticonderoga by assault4 ,a desperate battle of more than four hours followed1 until1 at six o'clock in the evening1 the ,english were finally repulsed4 ,the loss on the side of the assailants amounted in killed and wounded to nineteen hundred and sixteen4 ,in no battle of the ,revolution did the ,british have so large a force engaged1 or meet such terrible loss4 #cd4 ,the ,english now retreated to ,fort ,george4 ,soon afterward three thousand men1 under ,colonel ,bradstreet1 were sent against ,fort ,frontenac1 on ,lake ,ontario1 which1 after a siege of two days1 was compelled to capitulate4 ,the fortress was demolished4 ,bradstreet's success more than counterbalanced the failure of the ,english at ,ticonderoga4 ,sidenote3 ,destruction of ,ft4 ,du ,quesne4 #ce4 ,late in the summer ,general ,forbes1 with nine thousand men1 advanced against ,fort ,du ,quesne4 ,washington led the ,virginia provincials4 ,on the #bdth of ,november he was within ten miles of ,du ,quesne4 ,during that night the garrison took the alarm1 burned the fortress1 and floated down the ,ohio4 ,on the #beth the victorious army marched in1 raised the ,english flag1 and named the place ,,pittsburgh4 #cf4 ,general ,amherst was now promoted to the chief command of the ,american forces4 ,by the beginning of summer1 #agei1 the ,british and colonial armies numbered nearly fifty thousand men4 ,the entire ,french army scarcely exceeded seven thousand4 ,three campaigns were planned for the year3 ,general ,prideaux was to conduct an expedition against ,niagara4 ,amherst was to lead the main division against ,ticonderoga and ,crown ,point4 ,general ,wolfe was to proceed up the ,st4 ,lawrence and capture ,quebec4 #cg4 ,on the #ajth of ,july1 ,niagara was invested by ,prideaux4 ,two weeks later the fort capitulated1 and the ,french1 to the number of six hundred1 became prisoners of war4 ,at the same time ,amherst was marching with an army of eleven thousand men against ,ticonderoga4 ,on the #bb;d of ,july the ,english forces landed1 and on the #bfth the garrison retreated to ,crown ,point4 ,five days afterwards they deserted this place also1 and withdrew to ,isle-aux-,noix1 in the river ,sorel4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,colonies4 at the time of ,,french ,,and ,,indian ,,war4 #ch4 ,early in the spring ,general ,wolfe began the ascent of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,his force consisted of nearly eight thousand men1 and a fleet of forty-four vessels4 ,on the #bith of ,june ,general ,monckton was sent to seize ,point ,levi4 #ci4 ,on the #ith of ,july1 ,general ,wolfe crossed the north channel1 and encamped on the east bank of the ,montmorenci4 ,this stream was fordable at low water4 ,on the #cast of the month a severe battle was fought at the fords of the river1 and the ,english were repulsed with heavy losses4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,plains of ,abraham4 #dj4 ,exposure and fatigue threw the ,english general into a fever4 ,it was decided to ascend the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and gain the ,plains of ,abraham1 in the rear of the city4 ,the lower camp was broken up1 and on the #fth of ,september the troops were conveyed to ,point ,levi4 ,wolfe then transferred his army to a point several miles up the river4 ,illustration3 ,,quebec ,,in #agei4 #da4 ,on the night of the #abth of ,september1 the ,english dropped down the river to a place called ,wolfs ,cove1 and in the dawn of morning the general marshaled his army for battle on the ,plains of ,abraham4 ,montcalm was in amazement when he heard the news4 ,with great haste the ,french were brought from the trenches on the ,montmorenci1 and thrown between ,quebec and the ,english4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,taking of ,quebec4 #db4 ,the battle began with an hour's cannonade4 ,the ,canadians and ,indians were routed4 ,the ,french regulars wavered and were thrown into confusion4 ,wolfe1 leading the charge1 was twice wounded1 but pressed on4 ,at the moment of victory a third ball pierced his breast1 and he sank to the earth4 ,they run1 they run6 said the attendant who bent over him4 ,who run8 was the response4 ,the ,french are flying everywhere1 replied the officer4 ,do they run already8 ,then ,i die happy1 said the expiring hero4 #dc4 ,montcalm1 attempting to rally his regiments1 was struck by a ball and mortally wounded4 ,shall ,i survive8 said he to his surgeon4 ,but a few hours at most1 answered the attendant4 ,so much the better1 replied the heroic ,frenchman2 ,i shall not live to witness the surrender of ,quebec4 #dd4 ,five days after the battle1 ,quebec was surrendered1 and an ,english garrison took possession of the citadel4 ,on the #hth of ,september1 in the same year1 ,montreal1 the last important post of ,france in the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 was surrendered to ,general ,amherst4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,treaty of ,paris4 #de4 ,for three years the war between ,france and ,england continued on the ocean4 ,the ,english fleets were everywhere victorious4 ,on the #ajth of ,february1 #agfc1 a treaty of peace was made at ,paris4 ,all the ,french possessions in ,north ,america1 eastward of the ,mississippi from its source to the river ,iberville1 and thence through ,lakes ,maurepas and ,pontchartrain to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 were surrendered to ,great ,britain4 ,at the same time1 ,spain1 with whom ,england had been at war1 ceded ,east and ,west ,florida to the ,english ,crown4 ,thus closed the ,french and ,indian ,war4 ,by this conflict it was decided that the decaying institutions of the ,middle ,ages should not prevail in ,america1 and that the powerful language1 just laws1 and priceless liberties of the ,english race should be planted forever in the vast domains of the ,new ,world4 ,,review ,,questions--,,part ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 #a4 ,give an account of the first settlement at ,jamestown4 #b4 ,what troubles arose within the colony itself1 and how were these adjusted8 #c4 ,trace the course of ,captain ,smith among the ,indians1 and in his voyages of discovery4 #d4 ,describe the government of ,virginia under the ,first and ,second ,charters4 ,,chapter ,x4 #e4 ,what changes in government were made by the ,third ,charter8 #f4 ,mention the improvement in the colonial industries4 #g4 ,describe the hardships and the growth of the ,virginia colony4 #h4 ,give an account of the ,indian massacre of #afbb4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 #i4 ,tell of the farther changes in the government1 first to a ,royal1 then to a ,proprietary4 #aj4 ,give an account of ,bacon's ,rebellion1 with its causes and results4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 #aa4 ,give an account of the condition and prospects of the ,plymouth colonists4 #ab4 ,what relations existed between these colonists and the ,indians8 #ac4 ,tell about the sectarian troubles and their adjustment4 #ad4 ,outline the general prosperity of ,new ,england4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 #ae4 ,follow the farther strife between the colonists and the ,indians4 #af4 ,trace the changes in government in the ,new ,england ,colonies from #afbb-afhi4 #ag4 ,give an account of ,king ,william's ,war1 with the results to ,new ,england4 #ah4 ,tell about ,salem ,witchcraft4 #ai4 ,give an account of ,queen ,anne's and ,king ,george's wars1 with the causes of each and the final adjustments4 #bj4 ,sketch the character of the ,puritan4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 #ba4 ,outline the settlements of the ,dutch and their conflicts with the ,english and the ,swedes4 #bb4 ,trace the conflict between the ,dutch and the ,indians4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 #bc4 ,what of the condition1 the government1 and the progress of ,new ,york under the ,english rule8 #bd4 ,give an account of the ,negro ,plot4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 #be4 ,mention the several claims to the territory of ,connecticut4 #bf4 ,tell the story of the ,pequod ,war4 #bg4 ,outline the government and the general prosperity of ,connecticut4 #bh4 ,give an account of ,roger ,williams1 and the organization of the ,plantation of ,rhode ,island4 #bi4 ,tell of the founding and growth of ,new ,hampshire4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 #cj4 ,sketch the history of ,new ,jersey1 and its final separation from ,pennsylvania4 #ca4 ,tell the story of ,william ,penn1 and his career in ,pennsylvania4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 #cb4 ,give an account of the founding and development of ,maryland4 #cc4 ,give an account of the colonization and progress of ,north ,carolina4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 #cd4 ,tell of the founding of ,south ,carolina4 #ce4 ,recite the affairs of ,georgia under ,oglethorpe4 #cf4 ,outline the troubles between the ,english and the ,spaniards in ,georgia and ,florida4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 #cg4 ,what were the leading causes of the ,french and ,indian ,war8 #ch4 ,give an account of ,washington's expedition to ,st4 ,pierre4 #ci4 ,give an account of the capture of ,fort ,necessity4 #dj4 ,give an outline of ,braddock's campaign4 #da4 ,what were the leading events of the campaign of ,wolfe8 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,revolution ,,and ,,confederation4 ,a4 ,d4 #agge-aghi4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,the ,american ,revolution was an event of vast importance4 ,the question decided by it was whether the ,english colonies in ,america should govern themselves1 or be ruled by ,great ,britain4 ,the decision was in favor of independence4 ,the result has been the grandest republican government the world has ever known4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,causes4 #b4 ,the most general cause of the ,revolution was ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,arbitrary ,,government1 claimed by ,great ,britain and denied by the colonies4 ,the question began to be discussed about the time of the treaty of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 in #agdh2 and from that period until #agge1 each year witnessed a renewal of the agitation4 ,but there were also many minor causes tending to bring on a conflict with the mother-country4 #c4 ,first of these was the influence of ,france1 inciting the colonies to rebel4 ,the ,french had ceded ,canada to ,great ,britain with the hope of securing ,american independence4 ,england feared such a result4 ,it was even proposed in ,parliament to re-cede ,canada to ,france1 in order to check the growth of the ,american ,states4 #d4 ,another cause was the natural disposition of the colonists4 ,many of the original settlers came to ,america to escape the tyranny of kings1 and their descendants naturally favored a representative government4 ,the dealings of the colonists with the royal officers had created a dislike for foreign institutions4 #e4 ,the growth of public opinion in the colonies tended to independence4 ,the better class of men came to believe that a separation from ,england was very desirable4 ,as early as #agee1 ,john ,adams1 then a young school-teacher in ,connecticut1 wrote in his diary3 ,in another century all ,europe will not be able to subdue us4 ,the only way to keep us from setting up for ourselves is to disunite us4 #f4 ,another cause of the ,revolution was the personal character of the king4 ,george ,,iii4 was one of the worst of rulers1 and had no true notion of human rights4 ,his ministers were1 for the most part1 men like himself4 ,sidenote3 ,immediate ,causes4 ,sidenote3 ,acts ,restricting ,trade4 #g4 ,the more immediate cause of the war was the passage by ,parliament of a number of laws destructive of colonial liberty4 ,the first of these was the ,,importation ,,act of #agcc4 ,by this statute exorbitant duties were laid on sugar1 molasses1 and rum4 ,in #agej it was enacted that iron-works should not be erected in ,america4 ,the manufacture of steel was forbidden1 and the felling of pines outside of inclosures4 ,these laws were disregarded by the colonists1 who considered them unjust and tyrannical4 ,in #agfa the courts were authorized to issue to petty officers search-warrants1 called ,writs of ,assistance1 by which constables might enter every place1 searching for goods suspected of having evaded the duty4 ,at ,salem and ,boston the writs were resisted4 #h4 ,in #agfc1 and again in the following year1 the ,english officers were authorized to seize all vessels engaged in unlawful trade4 ,before this was known at ,boston1 a great town-meeting was held4 ,samuel ,adams was the orator4 ,a powerful argument was produced1 showing that under the ,british constitution taxation and representation were inseparable4 #i4 ,on the #ajth of ,march1 #agfd1 ,mr4 ,grenville1 the prime minister1 brought before the ,house of ,commons a resolution that it would be proper to charge certain stamp-duties on the ,american colonies4 ,the news of the measure was borne to ,america1 producing universal excitement4 ,resolutions against the acts of the ministers were passed in almost every town4 ,remonstrances were addressed to the king and the ,parliament4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stamp ,act4 #aj4 ,nevertheless1 in ,march of #agfe1 the ,english ,parliament passed the ,,stamp ,,act4 ,in the ,house of ,commons it received a majority of five to one4 ,in the ,house of ,lords the vote was unanimous4 ,on the #bb;d of the month1 the royal assent was given4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 then in ,london1 wrote to a friend at home that the sun of ,american liberty had set4 #aa4 ,the provisions of the ,stamp ,act were these3 ,every legal document required in the colonies should1 after the #ast day of the following ,november1 be executed on stamped paper to be furnished by the ,british government4 ,for each sheet the colonists were required to pay a sum varying from three pence to six pounds sterling4 ,every pamphlet1 almanac1 and newspaper was to be printed on paper of the same sort1 the value of the stamps ranging from a half-penny to four pence4 ,no contract should be binding unless bearing the stamp4 #ab4 ,the news of the hateful act created great wrath in ,america4 ,the bells of ,philadelphia and ,boston rang a funeral knell4 ,in ,new ,york a copy of the ,stamp ,act was carried through the streets with a death's-head nailed to it1 and a placard bearing this inscription3 ,,the ,,folly ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,the ,,ruin ,,of ,,america4 ,the general assemblies were at first slow to move2 there were many old royalists among the members4 ,but the younger representatives did not hesitate to express their sentiments4 ,in the ,virginia ,house of ,burgesses there was a memorable scene4 ,sidenote3 ,patrick ,henry4 #ac4 ,patrick ,henry1 the youngest member of the ,house1 after waiting in vain for some older delegate to lead in opposition to ,parliament1 snatched a blank leaf out of an old law book and drew up a series of six resolutions1 declaring that the ,virginians were ,englishmen with ,english rights2 that the colonists were not bound to yield obedience to any law imposing taxation on them2 and that whoever said the contrary was an enemy to the country4 ,illustration3 ,patrick ,henry4 #ad4 ,a violent debate ensued4 ,two future ,presidents of the ,united ,states were in the audience3 ,washington as a delegate1 and ,thomas ,jefferson1 a young collegian1 outside of the railing4 ,the eloquent ,henry bore down all opposition4 ,csar had his ,brutus1 said the orator2 ,charles ,i4 had his ,cromwell1 and ,george ,,iii4-- ,treason6 shouted the speaker4 ,treason6 treason6 exclaimed the royalists1 springing to their feet4 ,and ,george ,,iii4 may profit by their example1 continued ,henry2 and then added1 ,if that be treason1 make the most of it6 ,the six resolutions were carried2 but on the next day1 when ,henry was absent1 the powerful aristocratic and church party secured the repeal of two of the more violent resolutions4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stamp ,act ,congress1 #agfe4 #ae4 ,similar resolutions were adopted by the assemblies of ,new ,york and ,massachusetts4 ,james ,otis proposed an ,american ,congress4 ,the proposition was favorably received by nine of the colonies2 and1 on the #gth of ,october1 the first colonial ,congress1 called the ,,stamp ,,act ,,congress1 assembled at ,new ,york4 ,timothy ,ruggles1 of ,massachusetts1 was chosen president4 ,a ,declaration of ,rights was adopted setting forth that the ,american colonists1 as ,englishmen1 could not consent to be taxed but by their own representatives4 ,memorials were sent to ,parliament and a petition to the king4 #af4 ,on the #ast of ,november the ,stamp ,act was to take effect4 ,during the summer great quantities of the stamped paper had been sent to ,america4 ,but everywhere it was rejected or destroyed4 ,the #ast of ,november was kept as a day of mourning4 ,sidenote3 ,sons of ,liberty4 #ag4 ,at first1 legal business was suspended4 ,the court-houses were shut up4 ,not even a marriage license could be legally issued4 ,by and by1 the offices were opened1 and business went on as before1 but not with stamped paper4 ,it was at this time that the patriotic society1 known as the ,,sons ,,of ,,liberty1 was organized4 ,the merchants of ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,philadelphia entered into a compact to purchase no more goods of ,great ,britain until the ,stamp ,act should be repealed4 #ah4 ,the colonists had their friends in ,england4 ,eminent statesmen espoused the cause of ,america4 ,in the ,house of ,commons ,mr4 ,pitt delivered a powerful address4 ,you have1 said he1 no right to tax ,america4 ,i rejoice that ,america has resisted4 ,on the #ahth of ,march1 #agff1 the ,stamp ,act was formally repealed4 ,but at the same time a resolution was added1 declaring that ,parliament had the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever4 ,sidenote3 ,repeal of the ,stamp ,act4 #ai4 ,the repeal of the ,stamp ,act produced great joy1 both in ,england and ,america4 ,but on the #bith of ,june1 #agfg1 another act was passed imposing a duty on all the glass1 paper1 painters' colors1 and tea which should thereafter be imported into the colonies4 #bj4 ,the resentment of the ,americans burst out anew4 ,another agreement not to purchase ,british goods was entered into by the ,american merchants4 ,the newspapers were filled with denunciations of ,parliament4 ,in the month of ,june1 a sloop1 charged with evading the payment of duty1 was seized by the custom-house officers of ,boston4 ,but the people attacked the houses of the officers1 and obliged the occupants to fly to ,castle ,william4 ,general ,gage was now ordered to bring from ,halifax a regiment of regulars and overawe the people4 ,on the #ast of ,october the troops1 seven hundred strong1 marched with fixed bayonets into the capital of ,massachusetts4 ,sidenote3 ,resistance of the ,colonies4 #ba4 ,in ,february of #agfi the people of ,massachusetts were declared rebels1 and the governor was directed to arrest those deemed guilty and send them to ,england for trial4 ,the general assembly met this outrage with defiant resolutions4 ,similar scenes were enacted in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,boston ,massacre4 #bb4 ,early in #aggj the soldiers in ,new ,york cut down a liberty pole which stood in the park4 ,a conflict ensued1 in which the people won the day4 ,on the #eth of ,march1 a more serious difficulty occurred in ,boston4 ,a crowd of people surrounded ,captain ,preston's company of the city guard1 hooted at them1 and dared them to fire4 ,at length the soldiers discharged a volley1 killing three of the citizens and wounding several others4 ,this outrage1 known as the ,,boston ,,massacre1 created a profound sensation4 ,captain ,preston and his company were arrested and tried for murder4 ,two of the offenders were convicted of manslaughter4 ,illustration3 ,fight at the ,liberty ,pole1 ,new ,york4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,boston ,tea ,party4 #bc4 ,parliament now passed an act repealing all duties on ,american imports except that on tea4 ,the people1 in answer1 pledged themselves to use no more tea until the duty should be unconditionally repealed4 ,in #aggc ,parliament removed the export duty which had hitherto been charged on tea shipped from ,england4 ,the price of tea was thus lowered1 and the ministers thought that1 when the cheaper tea was offered in ,america1 the colonists would pay the import duty without suspicion4 ,ships were loaded with tea for the ,american market4 ,some of the vessels reached ,charleston2 but the chests were stored in cellars1 and the contents ruined4 ,at ,new ,york and ,philadelphia the ships were forbidden to enter4 ,at ,boston the authorities would not permit the tea to be landed4 ,on the #afth of ,december there was a great town-meeting1 at which seven thousand people were present4 ,adams and ,quincy spoke to the multitudes4 ,evening came on1 and the meeting was about to adjourn1 when a war-whoop was heard1 and fifty men disguised as ,indians marched to the wharf where the tea-ships were at anchor1 boarded the vessels1 and emptied three hundred and forty chests of tea into the bay4 ,such was the ,,boston ,,tea ,,party4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,boston ,port ,bill4 #bd4 ,parliament made haste to find revenge4 ,on the last day of ,march1 #aggd1 the ,,boston ,,port ,,bill was passed4 ,it was enacted that no kind of merchandise should any longer be landed or shipped at the wharves of ,boston4 ,the custom-house was removed to ,salem1 but the people of that town refused to accept it4 ,the inhabitants of ,marblehead gave the free use of their warehouses to the merchants of ,boston4 ,when the news of the ,port ,bill reached ,virginia1 the burgesses entered a protest on their journal4 ,governor ,dunmore ordered the members to their homes2 but they met and continued their work in another place4 ,on the #bjth of ,may1 the charter of ,massachusetts was annulled4 ,the people were declared rebels1 and the governor was ordered to send abroad for trial all persons who should resist the officers4 ,sidenote3 ,first ,continental ,congress1 #aggd4 #be4 ,in ,september the ,,first ,,continental ,,congress assembled at ,philadelphia4 ,eleven colonies were represented4 ,one address was sent to the king2 another to the ,english nation2 and another to the people of ,canada4 ,a resolution was adopted to suspend all commercial intercourse with ,great ,britain4 ,parliament retaliated by ordering ,general ,gage to reduce the colonists by force4 ,a fleet and ten thousand soldiers were sent to aid him4 #bf4 ,boston ,neck was seized and fortified by the ,british4 ,the stores at ,cambridge and ,charlestown were conveyed to ,boston2 and the general assembly was ordered to disband4 ,instead of doing so1 the members voted to equip an army of twelve thousand men for defence4 ,there was no longer any hope of a peaceable adjustment4 ,the colonists were few and feeble2 but they were men of iron wills who had made up their minds to die for liberty4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,,events ,,of #agge4 ,sidenote3 ,paul ,revere's ,ride4 ,as soon as the intentions of ,general ,gage were known1 the people of ,boston1 concealing their ammunition in carts1 conveyed it to ,concord4 ,on the night of the #ahth of ,april1 ,gage dispatched eight hundred men to destroy the stores4 ,the plan of the ,british was made with great secrecy2 but the patriots discovered the movement4 ,when the regiment1 under command of ,colonel ,smith and ,major ,pitcairn1 set out for ,concord1 the people of ,boston were roused by the ringing of bells and the firing of cannon4 ,william ,dawes and ,paul ,revere rode with all speed to ,lexington and spread the alarm through the country4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,fight at ,lexington4 #b4 ,at two o'clock in the morning1 a company of one hundred and thirty minute-men assembled on the common at ,lexington4 ,no enemy appeared until five o'clock1 when the ,british1 under command of ,pitcairn1 came in sight4 ,the provincials were led by ,captain ,parker4 ,pitcairn rode up and exclaimed3 ,disperse1 ye villains6 ,throw down your arms6 ,the minute-men stood still1 and ,pitcairn cried1 ,fire6 ,the first volley of the ,revolution whistled through the air1 and sixteen of the patriots fell dead or wounded4 ,the rest fired a few shots and dispersed4 #c4 ,the ,british pressed on to ,concord2 but the inhabitants had removed the stores to a place of safety1 and there was but little destruction4 ,while the ,british were ransacking the town1 the minute-men encountered a company of soldiers who were guarding the ,north ,bridge4 ,here the ,americans fired1 and two ,british soldiers were killed4 ,the rest began a retreat through the town toward ,lexington4 ,for six miles the battle was kept up along the road4 ,hidden behind trees1 fences1 and barns1 the patriots poured a constant fire upon the ranks of the enemy4 ,the ,american loss was forty-nine killed1 thirty-four wounded1 and five missing2 that of the enemy was two hundred and seventy-three4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fight ,,at ,,lexington #d4 ,the battle of ,lexington fired the country4 ,within a few days an army of twenty thousand men gathered about ,boston4 ,a line of intrenchments was drawn from ,roxbury to ,chelsea4 ,john ,stark came down with the ,new ,hampshire militia4 ,rhode ,island sent her men under ,nathaniel ,greene4 ,benedict ,arnold came with the provincials of ,new ,haven4 ,ethan ,allen1 with a company of two hundred and seventy patriots1 advanced against ,ticonderoga4 ,benedict ,arnold joined the expedition as a private4 ,on the evening of the #ith of ,may1 the force reached the shore of ,lake ,george1 opposite ,ticonderoga4 ,sidenote3 ,ethan ,allen at ,ticonderoga4 #e4 ,on the following morning1 eighty-three men succeeded in crossing4 ,with this mere handful1 ,allen made a dash and gained the gateway of the fort4 ,he rushed to the quarters of the commandant1 and cried out3 ,surrender this fort instantly6 ,by what authority8 inquired the officer4 ,in the name of the great ,jehovah and the ,continental ,congress1 said ,allen1 flourishing his sword4 ,the garrison were made prisoners and sent to ,connecticut1 and vast quantities of military stores fell into the hands of the ,americans4 ,two days afterwards ,crown ,point was also taken4 #f4 ,on the #beth of ,may1 ,generals ,howe1 ,clinton1 and ,burgoyne arrived at ,boston4 ,the ,british army was augmented to more than ten thousand men4 ,it was now rumored that ,gage was about to sally out of ,boston to burn the neighboring towns and devastate the country4 ,the ,americans determined to anticipate this movement by fortifying ,bunker ,hill1 which commanded the peninsula of ,charlestown4 #g4 ,on the night of the #afth of ,june1 ,colonel ,prescott was sent with a thousand men to intrench the hill4 ,the provincials reached the eminence2 but ,prescott and his engineer1 not liking the position1 proceeded down the peninsula to ,breed's ,hill1 within cannon range of ,boston4 ,here a redoubt was thrown up during the night4 ,the ,british ships in the harbor were so near that the ,americans could hear the sentinels repeating the night-call1 ,all is well4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,bunker ,hill4 #h4 ,as soon as it was light1 ,general ,gage ordered the ships to cannonade the ,american position4 ,the ,british batteries on ,copp's ,hill also opened fire4 ,just after noon1 three thousand ,british veterans1 commanded by ,generals ,howe and ,pigot1 landed at ,morton's ,point4 ,the ,americans numbered about fifteen hundred4 ,charlestown was burned by the ,british as they advanced4 ,thousands of spectators climbed to the house-tops in ,boston to watch the battle4 ,on came the ,british in a stately and imposing column4 ,illustration3 ,,vicinity ,,of ,,boston4 #i4 ,the ,americans reserved their fire until the advancing line was within a hundred and fifty feet4 ,then instantly every gun was discharged4 ,the front rank of the ,british melted away1 and the rest hastily retreated4 ,howe rallied his men and led the second charge4 ,again the ,american fire was withheld until the enemy was but a few rods distant4 ,then volley after volley was poured upon the column until it was broken and driven into flight4 #aj4 ,the vessels of the ,british fleet now changed position until the guns were brought to bear upon the ,american works4 ,for the third time1 the ,british soldiers charged with fixed bayonets up the hillside4 ,the ,americans had but three or four rounds of ammunition remaining4 ,these were expended on the advancing enemy4 ,then there was a lull4 ,the ,british clambered over the ramparts4 ,the provincials hurled stones at the assailants4 ,it was in vain2 they were driven out of their trenches at the point of the bayonet4 ,the brave ,warren gave his life for freedom4 ,the loss of the ,british in the engagement was a thousand and fifty-four in killed and wounded4 ,the ,americans lost one hundred and fifteen killed1 three hundred and five wounded1 and thirty-two prisoners4 ,prescott and ,putnam conducted the retreat to ,prospect ,hill4 #aa4 ,the battle of ,bunker ,hill rather inspired than discouraged the colonists4 ,the news was borne to the ,south1 and a spirit of determined opposition was everywhere aroused4 ,the people began to speak of the ,,united ,,colonies ,,of ,,america4 ,at ,charlotte1 ,north ,carolina1 the citizens came together in convention1 and made a declaration of independence4 ,sidenote3 ,second ,continental ,congress1 #agge4 #ab4 ,on the day of the capture of ,ticonderoga1 the ,continental ,congress assembled at ,philadelphia4 ,washington was there1 and ,john ,adams and ,samuel ,adams1 ,franklin and ,patrick ,henry2 ,jefferson came soon afterwards4 ,a last appeal was addressed to the king2 and he was told that the colonists had chosen war in preference to slavery4 ,early in the session ,john ,adams made an address1 in the course of which he noticed the necessity of appointing a commander-in-chief1 and the qualities requisite in that high officer4 ,the speaker concluded by putting in nomination ,george ,washington1 of ,virginia4 ,on the #aeth of ,june1 the nomination was confirmed by ,congress2 and the man who had saved the wreck of ,braddock's army was called to build a nation4 ,sidenote3 ,washington ,commander-in-chief4 #ac4 ,,george ,,washington was born in ,westmoreland county1 ,virginia1 on the #aath of ,february 7,old ,style71 #agcb4 ,at the age of eleven he was left to the sole care of his mother4 ,his education was limited to the common branches of learning4 ,surveying was his favorite study4 ,at the age of sixteen he was sent by his uncle to survey a tract of land on the ,south ,potomac4 ,the important duties which he performed in the service of the ,ohio ,company1 and his campaign with ,braddock have already been narrated4 ,with great dignity he accepted the appointment of commander-in-chief1 and set out to join the army at ,cambridge4 ,sidenote3 ,organization of ,continental ,army4 #ad4 ,congress had voted to equip twenty thousand men1 but the means of doing so were not furnished4 ,washington had a force of fourteen thousand five hundred volunteers1 undisciplined and insubordinate4 ,the supplies of war were almost wholly wanting4 ,the army was soon organized in three divisions3 the right wing was under ,general ,ward1 the left commanded by ,general ,charles ,lee1 the center under the commander-in-chief4 ,the siege of ,boston was pressed with vigor4 ,the king's authority was overthrown in all the colonies4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition against ,canada4 #ae4 ,the ,americans looked to ,canada for aid4 ,in order to encourage the people of that province to take up arms1 ,generals ,schuyler and ,montgomery were ordered to proceed against ,st4 ,john and ,montreal1 both of which were finally taken4 ,montgomery next proceeded1 with three hundred men1 against ,quebec4 ,in the mean time1 ,colonel ,arnold had set out with a thousand men from ,cambridge4 ,at ,point aux ,trembles he was joined by ,montgomery1 who assumed command4 ,for three weeks1 with his handful of troops1 ,montgomery besieged ,quebec1 and then staked everything on an assault4 #af4 ,before daybreak on the #cast of ,december1 ,montgomery attacked the ,lower ,town4 ,at the first discharge ,montgomery fell dead4 ,the men1 heartbroken at their loss1 retreated above the city4 ,arnold had meanwhile fought his way into the ,lower ,town1 but was severely wounded and borne to the rear4 ,captain ,morgan led his brave band along the narrow streets until he was overwhelmed and compelled to surrender4 ,arnold retired to a point three miles above the city4 ,the small-pox broke out in the camp2 and in the following ,june the ,americans evacuated ,canada4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,events ,,of #aggf4 ,at last came the king's answer to the appeal of ,congress4 ,the petition of the colonies was rejected with contempt4 ,by this tyrannical answer the day of independence was brought nearer4 ,meanwhile1 ,general ,howe had succeeded ,gage in command of the ,british troops in ,boston4 #b4 ,all winter long the city was besieged by ,washington4 ,by the first of spring1 #aggf1 it was resolved to seize ,dorchester ,heights and drive ,howe out of ,boston4 ,on the night of the #dth of ,march a detachment under cover of the darkness reached the ,heights unperceived4 ,the ,british noticed nothing unusual2 but1 when morning dawned1 ,howe saw at a glance that he must carry the ,american position or abandon the city4 ,he ordered his men to storm the ,heights before nightfall4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,british driven from ,boston4 #c4 ,washington visited the trenches and exhorted his men4 ,it was the anniversary of the ,boston ,massacre4 ,a battle was momentarily expected2 but while the ,british delayed1 a storm arose and rendered the harbor impassable1 and the attack could not be made4 ,before the following morning the ,americans had so strengthened their fortifications that all thoughts of an assault were abandoned4 ,howe found himself reduced to the extremity of giving up the capital of ,new ,england4 #d4 ,after some days there was an agreement between ,washington and the ,british general that the latter should retire from ,boston unmolested on condition that the city should not be burned4 ,on the #agth of ,march1 the whole ,british army sailed away4 ,the ,american advance at once entered the city4 ,on the #bjth1 ,washington made a formal entry at the head of the triumphant army4 ,the country was wild with delight4 ,congress ordered a gold medal to be struck in honor of ,washington's victory over the enemy4 #e4 ,in a short time1 the commander-in-chief repaired with the army to ,new ,york4 ,general ,lee pressed forward with the ,connecticut militia1 and reached that city just in time to baffle an attempt of ,sir ,henry ,clinton1 who next sailed southward1 and was joined by ,sir ,peter ,parker and ,lord ,cornwallis with two thousand five hundred men4 ,the force of the ,british was deemed sufficient to capture ,charleston4 ,sidenote3 ,british ,repulsed at ,charleston4 #f4 ,the ,carolinians1 led by ,general ,lee1 rose in arms and flocked to ,charleston4 ,the city was fortified2 and a fort1 which commanded the entrance to the harbor1 was built on ,sullivan's ,island4 ,on the #dth of ,june the ,british squadron came in sight4 ,on the #bhth the ,british fleet began a bombardment of the fortress1 which was commanded by ,colonel ,moultrie2 but the walls1 built of palmetto1 were little injured4 ,as evening drew on1 the ,british were obliged to retire with a loss of two hundred men4 ,the loss of the garrison amounted to thirty-two4 #g4 ,during the summer ,washington's forces were increased to twenty-seven thousand men1 but the effective force was little more than half that number4 ,great ,britain was making the greatest preparations4 ,by a treaty with some of the ,german ,states1 seventeen thousand ,hessians were hired to fight against ,america4 ,twenty-five thousand ,english troops were levied2 and a million dollars were voted for the expenses of the war4 #h4 ,thus far the colonists had claimed to be loyal subjects of ,great ,britain4 ,now the case seemed hopeless4 ,the people urged the general assemblies1 and the general assemblies urged ,congress1 to a declaration of independence4 ,congress responded by recommending the colonies to adopt such governments as might best conduce to the safety of the people4 #i4 ,on the #gth of ,june1 #aggf1 ,richard ,henry ,lee1 of ,virginia1 offered a resolution in ,congress declaring that the ,united ,colonies are1 and of right ought to be1 free and independent ,states4 ,a long and exciting debate ensued4 ,the final consideration of ,lee's resolution was postponed until the #ast of ,july4 ,on the #aath of ,june1 ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,john ,adams1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,roger ,sherman1 and ,robert ,r4 ,livingston were appointed a committee to prepare a formal declaration4 ,illustration3 ,jefferson reading the ,declaration in ,committee4 ,sidenote3 ,declaration of ,independence4 #aj4 ,on the #ast of ,july the committee's report was laid before ,congress4 ,on the next day ,lee's resolution was adopted4 ,during the #c;d the formal declaration was debated with great spirit4 ,the discussion was resumed on the #dth1 and at two o'clock in the afternoon the ,,declaration ,,of ,,american ,,independence was adopted by a unanimous vote4 #aa4 ,the old bellman of the ,state ,house rang out the note of freedom to the nation4 ,the multitudes caught the signal and answered with shouts4 ,everywhere the declaration was received with enthusiastic applause4 ,at ,philadelphia the king's arms were torn down and burned in the street4 ,at ,williamsburg1 ,charleston1 and ,savannah there were bonfires4 ,at ,boston the declaration was read in ,faneuil ,hall4 ,at ,new ,york the populace pulled down the statue of ,george ,,iii4 and cast it into bullets4 ,washington ordered that the declaration be read at the head of each brigade4 #ab4 ,the leading principles of the ,declaration of ,independence are these3 ,that all men are created equal2 that governments are instituted for the welfare of the people2 that the people have a right to alter their government2 that the government of ,george ,,iii4 had become destructive of liberty2 that the king's tyranny over his ,american subjects was no longer endurable2 and that1 therefore1 the ,united ,colonies of ,america are1 and of right ought to be1 free and independent ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,operations about ,new ,york4 #ac4 ,early in ,july1 ,general ,howe landed a force of nine thousand men on ,staten ,island4 ,thither ,clinton came from the siege of ,charleston1 and ,admiral ,howe from ,england4 ,the ,british force in the vicinity of ,new ,york amounted to thirty thousand men4 ,nearly half of them were ,hessians4 ,washington's army was greatly inferior in numbers and discipline4 #ad4 ,lord ,howe had been instructed to try conciliatory measures with the ,americans4 ,first1 he sent to the ,american camp a dispatch directed to ,george ,washington1 ,esquire4 ,washington refused to receive a communication which did not recognize his official position4 ,howe then sent another message1 addressed to ,george ,washington1 etc41 etc41 etc42 and the bearer insisted that and-so-forth might mean ,general of the ,american ,army4 ,but ,washington sent the officer away4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,long ,island4 #ae4 ,lord ,howe and his brother at once began hostilities4 ,on the #bb;d of ,august1 the ,british1 to the number of ten thousand1 landed on ,long ,island4 ,the ,americans1 about eight thousand strong1 were posted in the vicinity of ,brooklyn4 ,on the morning of the #bgth of ,august1 ,grant's division of the ,british army was met by ,general ,stirling with fifteen hundred men1 and the battle at once began1 but there was no decisive result4 ,general ,heister advanced beyond ,flatbush1 and engaged the main body of the ,americans1 under ,general ,sullivan4 ,here the ,hessians gained little or no ground until ,sullivan was alarmed by the noise of battle on his left and rear4 #af4 ,during the night ,general ,clinton had occupied the heights above the ,jamaica road1 and now came down by way of ,bedford4 ,sullivan found himself surrounded and cut off4 ,the men fought bravely1 and many broke through the lines of the ,british4 ,the rest were scattered1 killed1 or taken prisoners4 #ag4 ,cornwallis1 attempting to cut off ,stirling's retreat1 was repulsed4 ,most of ,stirling's men reached the ,american lines at ,brooklyn4 ,generals ,stirling1 ,sullivan1 and ,woodhull were taken prisoners4 ,nearly a thousand patriots were killed or missing4 ,it seemed an easy thing for ,clinton and ,howe to capture all the rest4 #ah4 ,washington resolved to withdraw to ,new ,york4 ,the enterprise was extremely hazardous4 ,at eight o'clock in the evening the embarkation of the army began4 ,all night with muffled oars the boatmen rowed silently back and forth4 ,at daylight the movement was discovered by the ,british4 ,they rushed into the ,american intrenchments and found nothing but a few worthless guns4 ,sidenote3 ,british ,occupy ,new ,york4 #ai4 ,the defeat on ,long ,island was very disastrous to the ,american cause4 ,many of the troops returned to their homes4 ,only by constant exertion did ,washington keep his army from disbanding4 ,the ,british fleet anchored within cannon-shot of ,new ,york4 ,washington retired to the ,heights of ,harlem4 ,on the #aeth of ,september the ,british landed three miles above ,new ,york4 ,thence they extended their lines and took possession of the city4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,white ,plains4 #bj4 ,on the #afth of ,october1 ,howe embarked his forces1 passed into ,long ,island ,sound1 and landed in the vicinity of ,westchester4 ,the object was to get upon the ,american flank and cut off communications with the ,eastern ,states4 ,on the #bhth a battle was brought on at ,white ,plains4 ,the ,americans were driven from one position1 but intrenched themselves in another1 then withdrew to the heights of ,north ,castle4 ,howe remained for a few days at ,white ,plains1 and returned to ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,york and ,,vicinity #ba4 ,washington now crossed to the west bank of the ,hudson and took post at ,fort ,lee4 ,four thousand men were left at ,north ,castle under ,general ,lee4 ,fort ,washington1 on ,manhattan ,island1 was defended by three thousand men under ,colonel ,magaw4 ,the skillful construction of this fort had attracted the attention of ,washington1 and led to an acquaintance with the engineer1 ,,alexander ,,hamilton1 then a stripling but twenty years of age4 ,sidenote3 ,washington retreats to ,trenton4 #bb4 ,on the #afth of ,november1 ,fort ,washington was captured by the ,british4 ,the garrison were made prisoners of war and crowded into the jails of ,new ,york4 ,two days after the surrender1 ,fort ,lee was taken by ,lord ,cornwallis4 ,washington with his army1 now reduced to three thousand men1 retreated to ,trenton on the ,delaware4 ,nothing but the skill of the commander saved the remnant of his forces from destruction4 #bc4 ,on the #hth of ,december1 ,washington crossed the ,delaware4 ,cornwallis1 having no boats1 was obliged to wait for the freezing of the river4 ,it was seen that as soon as the river should be frozen the ,british would march into ,philadelphia4 ,congress accordingly adjourned to ,baltimore4 ,during his retreat across ,new ,jersey1 ,washington sent dispatches to ,general ,lee1 at ,north ,castle1 to join the main army as soon as possible4 ,that officer took up his quarters at ,basking ,ridge4 ,on the #acth of ,december1 a squad of ,british cavalry captured ,lee and hurried him off to ,new ,york4 ,general ,sullivan took command of ,lee's division1 and hastened to join ,washington4 ,the entire ,american force now amounted to a little more than six thousand4 ,sidenote3 ,victory at ,trenton4 #bd4 ,the tide of misfortune turned at last4 ,washington saw in the disposition of the ,british forces an opportunity to strike a blow for his country4 ,the leaders of the enemy were off their guard4 ,the ,hessians on the east side of the river were spread out from ,trenton to ,burlington4 ,washington conceived the design of crossing the ,delaware and striking the detachment at ,trenton before a concentration of the enemy's forces could be effected4 ,the ,american army was arranged in three divisions under ,generals ,cadwallader1 ,ewing1 and ,washington himself4 ,christmas night was selected as the time for the movement4 #be4 ,the ,delaware was filled with floating ice4 ,ewing and ,cadwallader were both baffled in their efforts to cross the river4 ,washington1 having succeeded in getting over1 divided his army of twenty-four hundred men into two columns and pressed forward4 ,at eight o'clock in the morning the ,americans came rushing into ,trenton from both directions4 ,the ,hessians sprang from their quarters and attempted to form in line4 ,colonel ,rall was mortally wounded4 ,nearly a thousand of the ,hessians threw down their arms and begged for quarter4 ,before nightfall ,washington1 with his army and the whole body of captives1 was safe on the other side of the ,delaware4 ,illustration3 ,,central ,,new ,,jersey #aggh4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of the victory4 #bf4 ,the battle of ,trenton roused the nation from despondency4 ,the militia flocked to the general's standard2 and fourteen hundred soldiers1 whose term of enlistment now expired1 reentered the service4 ,robert ,morris1 the great financier of the ,revolution1 came forward with his fortune to the support of his country4 #bg4 ,three days after his victory1 ,washington again crossed the ,delaware4 ,here all the ,american detachments in the vicinity were ordered to assemble4 ,to ,general ,heath1 stationed at ,peekskill1 ,washington sent orders to move into ,new ,jersey4 ,the ,british fell back from their outposts and concentrated at ,princeton4 ,cornwallis resumed command in person4 ,so closed the year4 ,ten days previously1 ,howe only waited for the freezing of the ,delaware before taking up his quarters in ,philadelphia4 ,now it was a question whether he would be able to hold a single town in ,new ,jersey4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,operations ,,of #aggg4 ,on the #ast of ,january1 #aggg1 ,washington's army at ,trenton numbered about five thousand men4 ,on the next day ,cornwallis approached with greatly superior forces4 ,during the afternoon there was severe skirmishing along the roads east of ,trenton4 ,during the night ,washington called a council of war1 and it was determined to leave the camp1 pass the ,british left flank1 and strike the enemy at ,princeton4 ,the baggage was removed to ,burlington4 ,the camp-fires were brightly kindled and kept burning through the night1 while the army was in motion toward ,princeton4 ,everything was done in silence4 ,the morning light showed the ,british sentries a deserted camp4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,princeton4 #b4 ,at sunrise ,washington was entering ,princeton4 ,at the same time the ,british were marching out to reinforce ,cornwallis4 ,the ,americans met them in the edge of the village1 and the battle at once began4 ,the ,british charged bayonets1 and the militia gave way in confusion4 ,general ,mercer received a mortal wound4 ,but the ,pennsylvania regulars1 led by the commander-in-chief1 stood their ground4 ,washington rallied his men with the greatest bravery2 and the ,british were routed1 with a loss of four hundred and thirty men in killed1 wounded1 and missing4 #c4 ,on the night of the #bb;d of ,may1 ,colonel ,meigs1 of ,connecticut1 embarked two hundred men in whale-boats1 crossed the sound1 and attacked ,sag ,harbor4 ,the ,british were overpowered2 only four of them escaped2 five or six were killed1 and the remaining ninety were made prisoners4 ,the stores were destroyed by the patriots1 who1 without the loss of a man1 returned to ,guilford4 ,colonel ,meigs was rewarded by ,congress with an elegant sword4 #d4 ,the patriot forces of the ,north were now concentrated on the ,hudson2 and a camp1 under ,arnold1 was laid out on the ,delaware4 ,in the latter part of ,may1 ,washington broke up his winter-quarters and took an advantageous position only ten miles from the ,british camp4 ,howe crossed over from ,new ,york and threatened an attack upon the ,american lines4 ,finally1 the ,british1 on the #cjth of ,june1 crossed over to ,staten ,island4 ,on the #ajth of ,july1 ,general ,prescott1 of the ,british army1 was captured at a farm-house near ,newport4 ,this gave the ,americans an officer of equal rank to exchange for ,general ,lee4 ,congress in the mean time returned to ,philadelphia4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,aid and ,sympathy4 #e4 ,from the beginning of the war the people of ,france had been friendly to the ,american cause4 ,by and by their sympathy became more outspoken4 ,the ,french ministers would do nothing openly to provoke a war with ,great ,britain2 but secretly they rejoiced at every ,british misfortune4 ,during the year #aggg1 the ,french managed to supply the colonies with twenty thousand muskets and a thousand barrels of powder4 #f4 ,at last the republicans of ,france began to embark for ,america4 ,foremost of all came the young ,,marquis ,,de ,,la ,,fayette4 ,fitting a vessel at his own expense1 he eluded the officers1 and with the brave ,de ,kalb and a small company of followers reached ,south ,carolina in ,april of #aggg4 ,he entered the army as a volunteer1 and in the following ,july was commissioned a major-general4 ,sidenote3 ,burgoyne's ,campaign4 #g4 ,one of the most important events of the war was the campaign of ,general ,burgoyne4 ,in command of the ,english forces in ,canada1 he spent the spring of #aggg in organizing an army of ten thousand men for the invasion of ,new ,york4 ,the force consisted of ,british1 ,hessians1 ,canadians1 and ,indians4 ,the plan of the campaign embraced a descent upon ,albany and ,new ,york1 and the cutting off of ,new ,england from the ,middle and ,southern colonies4 ,illustration3 ,marquis de ,la ,fayette4 #h4 ,on the #ast of ,june1 ,burgoyne reached ,lake ,champlain1 and on the #afth proceeded to ,crown ,point4 ,this place was occupied by the ,british2 and on the #eth of ,july1 ,ticonderoga1 which was defended by three thousand men under ,general ,st4 ,clair1 was captured4 ,soon afterward the ,british reached ,whitehall and seized a large quantity of stores4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,bennington4 #i4 ,at this time the ,american army of the ,north was commanded by ,general ,schuyler4 ,his forces1 numbering between four and five thousand1 were at ,fort ,edward4 ,this place was captured by ,burgoyne on the #cjth of ,july1 the ,americans retreating down the ,hudson4 ,the ,british general now dispatched ,colonels ,baum and ,breymann to seize the stores at ,bennington1 ,vermont4 ,colonel ,john ,stark rallied the ,new ,hampshire militia1 and on the #aeth of ,august met the ,british near the village4 ,on the following morning there was a furious battle1 in which ,baum's force was completely routed4 ,the ,british lost in killed1 wounded1 and prisoners more than eight hundred men4 ,the country was thrilled by the victory4 #aj4 ,a few days after the battle of ,bennington1 ,burgoyne received intelligence of a still greater reverse1 at ,fort ,schuyler1 on the ,mohawk4 ,illustration3 ,chart of ,,hudson ,,river4 #aa4 ,the ,british general lost a month in procuring supplies from ,canada4 ,he now found himself hemmed in by nine thousand patriot soldiers4 ,general ,lincoln arrived with the militia of ,new ,england4 ,washington sent several detachments from the regular army4 ,morgan came with his riflemen4 ,general ,gates superseded ,schuyler in command of the northern army4 ,on the #hth of ,september1 the ,american headquarters were advanced to ,stillwater4 ,on the #adth of the month1 ,burgoyne crossed the ,hudson and took post at ,saratoga4 ,the two armies now came face to face4 ,on the #aith1 a general battle ensued1 continuing until nightfall4 ,the conflict1 though severe1 was indecisive2 the ,americans retired within their lines1 and the ,british slept on the field4 ,to the patriots the result of the battle was equivalent to a victory4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,bemis's ,heights4 #ab4 ,the condition of ,burgoyne grew critical4 ,his supplies failed2 his ,canadian and ,indian allies deserted his standard4 ,on the #gth of ,october1 he hazarded another battle1 in which he lost his bravest officers and nearly seven hundred privates4 ,the brave ,general ,fraser was killed1 and his disheartened men turned and fled from the field4 ,the ,americans were completely victorious4 ,sidenote3 ,burgoyne's ,surrender4 #ac4 ,burgoyne now began a retreat1 and on the #ith of ,october reached ,saratoga4 ,here he was intercepted by ,gates and ,lincoln1 and forced to surrender4 ,on the #agth of ,october terms of capitulation were agreed on1 and the whole army1 numbering five thousand seven hundred and ninety-one1 became prisoners of war4 ,among the captives were six members of the ,british ,parliament4 ,forty-two pieces of brass artillery1 five thousand muskets1 and an immense quantity of stores were the fruits of the victory4 ,illustration3 ,,philadelphia ,,and ,,vicinity4 #ad4 ,as soon as the invasion was at an end1 a large portion of the army was dispatched to aid ,washington in a great campaign in progress in the ,south4 ,on the #bc;d of ,july1 ,howe had sailed from ,new ,york1 with eighteen thousand men1 to attack ,philadelphia4 ,washington advanced his headquarters from ,philadelphia to ,wilmington4 ,the ,american army1 numbering about eleven thousand men1 was concentrated at that place4 ,the forces of ,howe were vastly superior1 but ,washington hoped to beat back the invaders and save the capital4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,brandywine4 #ae4 ,on the #beth of ,august the ,british landed at ,elk ,river1 in ,maryland1 and began their march toward ,philadelphia4 ,washington selected the ,brandywine as his line of defence4 ,the left wing was stationed at ,chad's ,ford1 while the right1 under ,general ,sullivan1 was extended up the river4 ,on the #aath of ,september the ,british reached the opposite bank and began battle4 ,the ,hessians1 under ,knyphausen1 attacked at the ford2 but the ,british1 led by ,cornwallis and ,howe1 marched up the ,brandywine and crossed above the ,american right4 ,sullivan allowed himself to be outflanked4 ,washington was misled by false information2 the right wing was crushed by ,cornwallis1 and the day was lost4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,british in ,philadelphia4 #af4 ,during the night the patriots retreated to ,west ,chester4 ,the loss of the ,americans amounted to a thousand men2 that of the ,british to five hundred and eighty-four4 ,la ,fayette was severely wounded4 ,count ,pulaski so distinguished himself in this engagement that ,congress honored him with the rank of brigadier4 ,washington continued his retreat as far as ,germantown4 ,on the #aeth of the month he recrossed the ,schuylkill and met ,howe at ,warren's ,tavern4 ,but just as the conflict was beginning1 a violent tempest swept over the field4 ,the combatants were deluged1 their cartridges soaked1 and fighting made impossible4 ,howe succeeded in crossing the ,schuylkill1 and hastened to ,philadelphia4 ,on the #bfth of ,september the city was taken1 and the main division of the ,british army encamped at ,germantown4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,germantown4 #ag4 ,congress adjourned1 first to ,lancaster1 and afterward to ,york1 where they held their sessions until the next summer4 ,on the night of the #c;d of ,october ,washington attempted to surprise the ,british at ,germantown4 ,but the roads were rough1 and the different columns reached the ,british outpost at irregular intervals4 ,there was much severe fighting1 but the ,british gained possession of a large stone house and could not be dislodged4 ,the tide turned against the patriots1 and the day was lost4 ,on the #bb;d of ,october1 ,fort ,mercer1 on the ,delaware1 was taken by ,hessians1 while the ,british fleet took ,fort ,mifflin1 on ,mud ,island4 ,general ,howe thus obtained control of the ,delaware4 #ah4 ,after the battle of ,germantown1 ,washington took up his headquarters at ,white ,marsh4 ,the patriots began to suffer for food and clothing4 ,on the evening of the #b;d of ,december1 ,howe held a council of war at the house of ,lydia ,darrah in ,philadelphia4 ,it was decided to surprise ,washington in his camp4 ,but ,lydia1 who overheard the plans of ,howe1 left the city on pretence of going to mill1 rode to the ,american lines1 and gave the alarm4 ,when the ,british approached ,white ,marsh1 they found the cannons mounted and the patriots in order of battle4 ,the ,british general maneuvered for four days1 and then marched back to ,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,valley ,forge4 ,sidenote3 ,valley ,forge4 #ai4 ,on the #aath of ,december ,washington went into winter quarters at ,valley ,forge1 on the right bank of the ,schuylkill4 ,thousands of the soldiers were without shoes1 and the frozen ground was marked with bloody footprints4 ,log cabins were built1 and everything was done that could be done to secure the comfort of the suffering patriots4 ,but it was a long and dreary winter4 ,these were the darkest days of ,washington's life4 ,congress in a measure abandoned him4 ,many men high in military and civil station left the great leader unsupported4 ,but the allegiance of the army remained unshaken1 and the nation's confidence in the chieftain became stronger than ever4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,events ,,of #aggh ,,and #aggi4 ,in ,november of #aggf ,silas ,deane1 of ,connecticut1 was appointed commissioner to ,france4 ,his first service was to make a secret arrangement to supply the ,americans with materials for carrying on the war4 ,in the autumn of #aggg a ship1 laden with two hundred thousand dollars' worth of arms1 ammunition1 and specie1 was sent to ,america4 ,sidenote3 ,negotiations with ,france4 #b4 ,arthur ,lee and ,benjamin ,franklin were also appointed by ,congress to negotiate a treaty with the ,french king4 ,in ,december of #aggf they reached ,paris and began their duties4 ,for a long time ,king ,louis and his minister stood aloof from the proposed alliance4 ,they hated ,great ,britain1 and gave secret encouragement to the colonies2 but an open treaty with the ,americans was equivalent to a war with ,england1 and that the ,french court dreaded4 #c4 ,now it was1 that the genius of ,dr4 ,franklin shone with a peculiar luster4 ,at the gay court of ,louis ,,xvi4 he stood as the representative of his country4 ,his wit and genial humor made him admired2 his talents and courtesy commanded respect2 his patience and perseverance gave him final success4 ,during the whole of #aggg he remained at ,paris and ,versailles4 ,at last came the news of ,burgoyne's surrender4 ,a powerful ,british army had been subdued by the colonists without aid from abroad4 ,this success induced the king to accept the proposed alliance with the colonies4 ,on the #fth of ,february1 #aggh1 a treaty was concluded2 ,france acknowledged the independence of the ,united ,states1 and entered into relations of friendship with the new nation4 ,sidenote3 ,benjamin ,franklin4 #d4 ,,benjamin ,,franklin1 the author of the first treaty between the ,united ,states and a foreign nation1 was born in ,boston1 on the #agth of ,january1 #agjf4 ,his father was a manufacturer of soap and candles4 ,at the age of twelve1 ,benjamin was apprenticed to his brother to learn the art of printing4 ,in #agbc he went to ,philadelphia1 entered a printing-office1 and rose to distinction4 ,he visited ,england2 returned2 founded the first circulating library in ,america2 edited ,poor ,richard's ,almanac2 discovered the identity of electricity and lightning2 espoused the patriot cause2 and devoted his old age to perfecting the ,american ,union4 ,the name of ,franklin is one of the brightest in history4 ,illustration3 ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,sidenote3 ,d',estaing's ,french ,fleet4 #e4 ,in ,may of #aggh ,congress ratified the treaty with ,france4 ,a month previously a ,french fleet1 under ,count d',estaing1 had been sent to ,america4 ,both ,france and ,great ,britain immediately prepared for war4 ,george ,,iii4 now became willing to treat with his ,american subjects4 ,lord ,north brought forward two bills in which everything the colonists had claimed was conceded4 ,the bills were passed by ,parliament1 and the king assented4 ,commissioners were sent to ,america2 but ,congress informed them that nothing but an acknowledgment of the independence of the ,united ,states would now be accepted4 ,sidenote3 ,british ,evacuate ,philadelphia4 #f4 ,the ,british army remained at ,philadelphia until ,june of #aggh4 ,the fleet of ,admiral ,howe lay in the ,delaware4 ,when the rumor came that the fleet of ,d',estaing was approaching1 the ,english admiral set sail for ,new ,york4 ,on the #ahth of ,june the ,british army evacuated ,philadelphia and retreated across ,new ,jersey4 ,washington occupied the city1 and followed the retreating foe4 ,at ,monmouth the ,british were overtaken4 ,on the morning of the #bhth ,general ,lee was ordered to attack the enemy4 ,the ,american cavalry under ,la ,fayette was driven back by ,cornwallis4 ,lee ordered his line to retire to a stronger position2 but the troops mistook the order and began a retreat4 ,washington met the fugitives and administered a severe rebuke to ,lee4 ,the fight continued until nightfall1 and ,washington anxiously waited for the morning4 ,during the night1 however1 ,clinton withdrew his forces and escaped4 ,sidenote3 ,washington and ,lee4 #g4 ,the loss of the ,americans was two hundred and twenty-seven4 ,the ,british left nearly three hundred dead on the field4 ,on the day after the battle ,washington received an insulting letter from ,lee demanding an apology4 ,washington replied that his language had been warranted by the circumstances4 ,lee answered in a still more offensive manner1 and was thereupon arrested1 tried by a court-martial1 and dismissed from his command for twelve months4 ,he never reentered the service1 and did not live to see his country's independence4 ,the ,british forces were now concentrated at ,new ,york4 ,washington took up his headquarters at ,white ,plains4 ,d',estaing repaired to ,boston4 ,howe returned to ,new ,york4 ,sidenote3 ,massacre of ,wyoming4 #h4 ,the command of the ,british naval forces was now transferred to ,admiral ,byron4 ,early in ,october a band of incendiaries1 led by ,colonel ,ferguson1 burned the ,american ships at ,little ,egg ,harbor4 ,in the preceding ,july1 ,major ,john ,butler1 in command of sixteen hundred royalists1 ,canadians1 and ,indians1 marched into the valley of ,wyoming1 ,pennsylvania4 ,the settlement was defenceless4 ,on the approach of the tories and savages1 a few militia1 old men1 and boys1 rallied to protect their homes4 ,a battle was fought1 and the patriots were routed4 ,the fugitives fled to a fort1 which was crowded with women and children4 ,honorable terms were promised by ,butler1 and the garrison capitulated4 ,on the #eth of ,july the gates were opened and the barbarians entered4 ,immediately they began to plunder and butcher4 ,nearly all the prisoners fell under the hatchet and the scalping-knife4 ,sidenote3 ,massacre at ,cherry ,valley4 #i4 ,in ,november there was a similar massacre at ,cherry ,valley1 ,new ,york4 ,the invaders were led by ,joseph ,brandt1 chief of the ,mohawks1 and ,walter ,butler1 a son of ,major ,john ,butler4 ,the people of ,cherry ,valley were driven from their homes2 women and children were tomahawked and scalped2 and forty prisoners dragged into captivity4 ,to avenge these outrages1 an expedition was sent against the savages on the ,susquehanna2 and they were made to feel the terrors of war4 ,sidenote3 ,george ,rogers ,clark in the ,west4 #aj4 ,in the spring of #aggh1 ,major ,george ,rogers ,clark1 who three years previously had descended the ,ohio ,river with a single companion1 from ,pittsburgh to the ,falls of the ,ohio1 organized an expedition against the ,british posts on the ,wabash and ,mississippi rivers4 ,all the country northwest of the river ,ohio was at this time under ,british authority1 but the scattered white inhabitants were nearly all ,french4 ,the most important post was the town of ,vincennes1 in what was afterwards the ,territory of ,indiana4 ,major ,clark gathered his forces on ,corn ,island1 in the ,ohio1 between the present cities of ,louisville and ,jeffersonville4 ,the regiment was made up of backwoods militiamen and hunters from ,kentucky and the ,upper ,ohio ,valley4 ,illustration3 ,attack on ,vincennes4 #aa4 ,major ,clark first descended the ,ohio to a suitable point1 and landed in what was afterwards the ,territory of ,illinois4 ,from this point he marched across the country to the mouth of the ,kaskaskia ,river1 where1 on the #dth of ,july1 #aggh1 he surprised and captured the town of ,kaskaskia from the ,british4 ,here he divided his forces1 and sent one division against the ,british post of ,cahokia1 opposite ,st4 ,louis4 ,this place also was surprised and taken4 ,soon afterwards the ,french inhabitants of ,vincennes rose against the ,british garrison1 and took possession of the town4 ,but ,governor ,hamilton1 of ,detroit1 came down later in the year1 and the ,british authority was restored4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,capture of ,vincennes4 #ab4 ,hearing of this event1 ,major ,clark collected his forces at ,kaskaskia1 and in the beginning of #aggi marched against ,vincennes4 ,at the same time he sent part of his forces by water1 bearing a few small cannon in a boat around by the ,ohio and up the ,wabash1 to a point below ,vincennes4 ,at this time the lower ,illinois country was covered with water1 and ,major ,clark's campaign was attended with the greatest hardships4 ,on the #ahth of ,february1 however1 he gained a position on the ,indiana side of the ,wabash1 and made an attack on ,vincennes4 ,by skillful maneuvering he deceived the ,british commander1 and on the #bdth of the month compelled him to surrender4 ,thus was the great territory northwest of the ,river ,ohio recovered from the ,british1 and secured for the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,british take ,savannah4 #ac4 ,on the #c;d of ,november1 ,count d',estaing's fleet sailed for the ,west ,indies4 ,in ,december1 ,admiral ,byron left ,new ,york to try the fortunes of war on the ocean4 ,colonel ,campbell1 with two thousand men1 was sent by ,general ,clinton for the conquest of ,georgia4 ,on the #bith of ,december the expedition reached ,savannah4 ,the place was defended by ,general ,robert ,howe with eight hundred men4 ,a battle was fought1 and the ,americans were driven out of the city4 ,the patriots crossed into ,south ,carolina and found refuge at ,charleston4 ,such was the only real conquest made by the ,british during the year #aggh4 #ad4 ,the winter of #aggh-gi was passed by the ,american army at ,middlebrook4 ,there was much discouragement among the soldiers1 for they were neither paid nor fed4 ,but the influence of ,washington prevented a mutiny4 ,in the latter part of ,may ,clinton sailed with an armament up the ,hudson to ,stony ,point4 ,the garrison1 unable to resist1 escaped from the fortifications4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,wayne at ,stony ,point4 #ae4 ,on the #aeth of ,july ,general ,wayne marched against ,stony ,point4 ,in the evening he halted near the fort and gave his orders4 ,the ,british pickets were caught and gagged4 ,everything was done in silence4 ,muskets were unloaded and bayonets fixed2 not a gun was to be fired4 ,the assault was made a little after midnight4 ,the patriots never wavered in the charge4 ,the ramparts were scaled2 and the ,british1 finding themselves between two lines of bayonets1 cried out for quarter4 ,sixty-three of the enemy fell2 the remaining five hundred and forty-three were made prisoners4 ,of the ,americans only fifteen were killed and eighty-three wounded4 ,general ,wayne secured the ordnance and stores1 and then destroyed the fort4 ,sidenote3 ,campaign against the ,indians4 #af4 ,in the summer of #agii1 four thousand six hundred men1 led by ,generals ,sullivan and ,james ,clinton1 were sent against the ,indians on the ,susquehanna4 ,at ,elmira the savages and tories had fortified themselves2 but on the #bith of ,august they were forced from their stronghold and utterly routed4 ,the country between the ,susquehanna and the ,genesee was wasted by the patriots4 ,forty ,indian villages were destroyed4 ,sidenote3 ,campaigns in the ,south4 #ag4 ,a little later1 the tories1 who were advancing to join the ,british at ,augusta1 were defeated by the patriots under ,captain ,anderson4 ,on the #adth of ,february they were again overtaken and routed by ,colonel ,pickens4 ,colonel ,boyd1 the tory leader1 and seventy of his men were killed4 ,seventy-five others were captured1 and five of the ringleaders hanged4 ,the western half of ,georgia was quickly recovered by the patriots4 #ah4 ,general ,ashe was sent with two thousand men to intercept the enemy4 ,on the #beth of ,february the ,americans crossed the ,savannah1 and pursued ,campbell as far as ,brier ,creek4 ,here the patriots came to a halt2 and ,general ,prevost1 marching from ,savannah1 surrounded ,ashe's command4 ,a battle was fought on the #c;d of ,march2 the ,americans were totally routed and driven into the swamps4 ,by this defeat ,georgia was again prostrated1 and a royal government was established over the ,state4 #ai4 ,within a month ,general ,lincoln was again in the field with five thousand men4 ,he advanced up the left bank of the river in the direction of ,augusta2 but1 at the same time1 ,general ,prevost1 now commanding the ,british forces in the ,south1 crossed the ,savannah and marched against ,charleston4 ,general ,lincoln turned back to attack him1 and the ,british made a hasty retreat4 ,the ,americans overtook the enemy at ,stone ,ferry1 ten miles west of ,charleston1 but were repulsed with considerable loss4 ,prevost then fell back to ,savannah4 ,sidenote3 ,attempts to retake ,savannah4 #bj4 ,in ,september1 ,count d',estaing arrived before ,savannah with his fleet4 ,prevost concentrated his forces for the defence of the city4 ,the ,french effected a landing1 and advanced to the siege4 ,d',estaing demanded a surrender2 but ,prevost answered with a message of defiance4 ,the siege was pressed with vigor1 and the city constantly bombarded4 ,but the defences remained unshaken4 ,at last ,d',estaing notified ,lincoln that the city must be stormed4 ,before sunrise on the #ith of ,october the allies advanced with great vehemence against the redoubts of the ,british1 but were driven back with fearful losses4 ,count ,pulaski was struck with a grape-shot1 and was borne dying from the field4 ,d',estaing retired on board the fleet1 and ,lincoln retreated to ,charleston4 #ba4 ,on the #bc;d of ,september1 ,paul ,jones1 cruising off the coast of ,scotland with a fleet of ,french and ,american vessels1 fell in with a ,british squadron1 and a bloody battle ensued4 ,the ,serapis1 a ,british frigate of forty-four guns1 engaged the ,poor ,richard within musket-shot4 ,at last the vessels were lashed together1 and the ,serapis struck her colors4 ,jones transferred his men to the conquered ship1 and the ,poor ,richard went down4 ,of the three hundred and seventy-five men on board the fleet of ,jones1 three hundred were either killed or wounded4 ,illustration3 ,paul ,jones4 #bb4 ,so closed the year #aggi4 ,the national treasury was bankrupt4 ,the patriots of the army were poorly fed1 and paid only with unkept promises4 ,the disposition of ,great ,britain was still for war4 ,the levies of sailors and soldiers made by ,parliament amounted to one hundred and twenty thousand1 while the expenses of the ,war ,office were set at twenty million pounds sterling4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,reverses ,,and ,,treason4 ,,events ,,of #aghj4 ,sidenote3 ,french ,allies in ,rhode ,island4 ,during the year #aghj military operations at the ,north were suspended4 ,early in ,july ,admiral ,de ,ternay arrived at ,newport with a ,french squadron1 and six thousand land-troops under ,count ,rochambeau4 ,in ,september the commander-in-chief held a conference with ,rochambeau1 and the plans of future campaigns were determined4 #b4 ,in the ,south the patriots suffered many reverses4 ,south ,carolina was completely overrun by the enemy4 ,on the #aath of ,february1 ,admiral ,arbuthnot anchored before ,charleston4 ,sir ,henry ,clinton and five thousand men were on board the fleet4 ,the city was defended by fourteen hundred men under ,general ,lincoln4 ,the ,british effected a landing1 and advanced up the right bank of ,ashley ,river4 ,on the #gth of ,april ,lincoln was reinforced by seven hundred ,virginians4 ,two days afterwards ,arbuthnot succeeded in passing ,fort ,moultrie1 and came within cannon-shot of the city4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,british take ,charleston4 #c4 ,a siege was at once begun1 and prosecuted with vigor4 ,from the beginning the defense was hopeless4 ,the fortifications were beaten down1 and ,lincoln1 dreading an assault1 agreed to capitulate4 ,on the #abth of ,may1 ,charleston was surrendered to the ,british1 and the garrison became prisoners of war4 ,a few days before the surrender ,tarleton surprised and dispersed a body of militia on the ,santee4 ,afterwards three successful expeditions were sent into different sections of the ,state4 #d4 ,the authority of ,great ,britain was reestablished over ,south ,carolina4 ,clinton and ,arbuthnot returned to ,new ,york1 and ,cornwallis was left to hold the conquered territory4 ,in this condition of affairs1 ,thomas ,sumter and ,francis ,marion appeared as the protectors of the ,state4 ,they rallied the militia and began an audacious partisan warfare4 ,detachments of the ,british were swept off as though an enemy had fallen on them from the skies4 ,it was here that young ,andrew ,jackson1 then but thirteen years of age1 began his career as a soldier4 ,sidenote3 ,marion's ,ragged ,regiment4 #e4 ,marion's company consisted of twenty men and boys1 white and black1 half clad and poorly armed4 ,but the number increased1 and the ,ragged ,regiment soon became a terror to the enemy4 ,there was no telling when or where the sword of the fearless leader would fall4 ,during the summer and autumn of #aghj he swept around ,cornwallis's positions1 making incessant onsets4 #f4 ,general ,gates now advanced into the ,carolinas4 ,lord ,rawdon concentrated his forces at ,camden4 ,hither came ,cornwallis with reinforcements4 ,the ,americans took post at ,clermont4 ,cornwallis and ,gates each formed the design of surprising the other in the night4 ,on the evening of the #aeth of ,august they both moved from their camps and met midway on ,sander's ,creek4 ,after a severe battle the ,americans were completely defeated with a loss of more than a thousand men4 ,baron ,de ,kalb was mortally wounded4 ,the reputation of ,gates was blown away like chaff1 and he was superseded by ,general ,greene4 ,sidenote3 ,affairs in ,north ,carolina4 #g4 ,a few days after the battle1 ,sumter's corps was overtaken and completely routed4 ,only ,marion remained to harass the enemy4 ,in ,september the ,british advanced into ,north ,carolina as far as ,charlotte4 ,colonel ,ferguson1 with eleven hundred regulars and tories1 was sent into the country west of the ,catawba to encourage the royalists4 ,on the #gth of ,october1 while he and his men were encamped on ,king's ,mountain1 they were attacked by a thousand riflemen led by ,colonel ,campbell4 ,a desperate battle ensued2 ,ferguson was slain1 and three hundred of his men were killed or wounded4 ,the remaining eight hundred threw down their arms and begged for quarter4 ,ten of the leading tory prisoners were condemned by a court-martial and hanged4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,carolinas ,sidenote3 ,continental ,paper ,money4 #h4 ,meanwhile1 the credit of the nation was sinking to the lowest ebb4 ,congress resorted to paper money4 ,at first the continental bills were received at par2 but the value of the notes rapidly diminished1 until1 by the middle of #aghj1 they were not worth two cents to the dollar4 ,business was paralyzed for the want of a currency2 but ,robert ,morris and a few other wealthy patriots came forward with their private fortunes and saved the colonies from ruin4 ,the mothers of ,america also lent a helping hand2 and the patriot soldiers were supplied with food and clothing4 #i4 ,in the midst of the gloom1 the country was shocked by the news that ,benedict ,arnold had turned traitor4 ,after the battle of ,bemis's ,heights1 in the fall of #aggg1 he had been promoted to the rank of major-general1 and made commandant of ,philadelphia4 ,here he married the daughter of a royalist1 and entered upon a career of extravagance which overwhelmed him with debt4 ,he then began a system of frauds on the commissary department of the army4 ,charges were preferred against him by ,congress1 and he was convicted by a court-martial4 ,sidenote3 ,treason of ,benedict ,arnold4 #aj4 ,seeming to forget this disgrace1 ,arnold obtained command of the fortress of ,west ,point1 on the ,hudson4 ,on the last day of ,july1 #aghj1 he assumed control of the arsenal and depot of stores at that place4 ,he then entered into a secret correspondence with ,sir ,henry ,clinton1 and finally offered to betray his country4 ,it was agreed that the ,british fleet should ascend the ,hudson1 and that the garrison and fortress should be given up without a struggle4 #aa4 ,on the #bast of ,september1 ,clinton sent ,major ,john ,andr to make arrangements for the surrender4 ,andr1 who was adjutant-general of the ,british army1 went ashore from the ,vulture about midnight1 and met ,arnold in a thicket4 ,daydawn approached1 and the conspirators entered the ,american lines4 ,andr1 disguising himself1 assumed the character of a spy4 ,sidenote3 ,capture of ,major ,andr4 #ab4 ,during the next day the business was completed4 ,arnold agreed to surrender ,west ,point for ten thousand pounds and a commission as brigadier in the ,british army4 ,andr received papers containing a description of ,west ,point1 its defences1 and the best method of attack4 ,during that day an ,american battery drove the ,vulture down the river1 and ,andr was obliged to cross to the other side and return by land4 ,he passed the ,american outposts in safety2 but at ,tarrytown he was confronted by three militiamen,b who stripped him1 found his papers1 and delivered him to ,colonel ,jameson at ,north ,castle4 ,arnold1 on hearing the news1 escaped on board the ,vulture4 ,andr was tried by a court-martial at ,tappan1 and condemned to death4 ,on the #b;d of ,october he was led to the gallows1 and1 under the stern code of war1 was hanged4 ,footnote ,b3 ,john ,paulding1 ,david ,williams and ,isaac van ,wart4 ,congress afterwards rewarded them with silver medals and pensions for life4 ,illustration3 ,capture of ,andr4 #ac4 ,for several years ,holland had favored the ,americans2 now she began negotiations for a treaty similar to that between ,france and the ,united ,states4 ,great ,britain discovered the purposes of the ,dutch government1 and remonstrated4 ,on the #bjth of ,december an open declaration of war was made4 ,thus the ,netherlands were added to the enemies of ,england4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,events ,,of #agha4 ,sidenote3 ,mutiny in the ,continental ,army4 ,for the ,americans the year #agha opened gloomily4 ,the condition of the army was desperate--no food1 no pay1 no clothing4 ,on the first day of ,january1 the whole ,pennsylvania line mutinied and marched on ,philadelphia4 ,at ,princeton they were met by emissaries from ,sir ,henry ,clinton1 and were tempted with offers of money and clothing if they would desert the ,american standard4 ,the patriots answered by seizing the ,british agents and delivering them to ,general ,wayne to be hanged4 ,the commissioners of ,congress offered the insurgents a large reward1 which was refused2 and a few liberal concessions on the part of the government quieted the mutiny4 #b4 ,about the middle of the month the ,new ,jersey brigade revolted4 ,this movement ,washington quelled by force4 ,general ,howe marched to the camp with five hundred regulars and compelled the mutineers to execute their own leaders4 ,from that day order was restored4 ,congress was thoroughly alarmed4 ,an agent was sent to ,france to obtain a loan of money4 ,robert ,morris was appointed secretary of finance2 and the ,bank of ,north ,america was organized to aid the government4 ,sidenote3 ,traitor ,arnold in the ,british ,army4 #c4 ,on arriving at ,new ,york1 ,arnold received his commission as brigadier in the ,british army4 ,in ,january the traitor began war on his countrymen4 ,his proceedings were marked with much ferocity4 ,in the vicinity of ,richmond a vast quantity of property was destroyed4 ,arnold then took up his headquarters in ,portsmouth2 and ,washington1 for the second time1 planned his capture4 ,the ,french fleet was ordered to cooperate with ,la ,fayette in the attempt4 ,but ,admiral ,arbuthnot drove the ,french squadron back to ,rhode ,island4 ,la ,fayette abandoned the undertaking1 and ,arnold again escaped4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,colonies4 at the time of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,general ,greene4 #d4 ,in ,april1 ,general ,phillips arrived at ,portsmouth and assumed command of the army4 ,in ,may ,phillips died1 and for seven days ,arnold held the supreme command of the ,british forces in ,virginia4 ,on the #bjth of the month ,lord ,cornwallis arrived and ordered him to be gone4 ,returning to ,new ,york he made an expedition against ,new ,london1 in his native ,state4 ,fort ,griswold1 which was defended by ,colonel ,ledyard1 was carried by storm4 ,when ,ledyard surrendered1 seventy-three of the garrison were murdered in cold blood4 ,sidenote3 ,battle at ,cowpens4 #e4 ,general ,greene was now in command of the ,american army at ,charlotte1 ,north ,carolina4 ,early in ,january1 ,general ,morgan was sent into ,south ,carolina to repress the tories4 ,colonel ,tarleton followed with his cavalry4 ,the ,americans took a position at the ,cowpens1 where1 on the #agth of ,january1 they were attacked by the ,british4 ,tarleton made the onset with impetuosity2 but ,morgan's men bravely held their ground4 ,at last the ,american cavalry1 under ,colonel ,william ,washington1 made a charge and scattered the ,british dragoons like chaff4 ,ten ,british officers and ninety privates were killed4 #f4 ,when ,cornwallis heard of the battle he marched up the river to cut off ,morgan's retreat4 ,but ,greene hastened to the ,morgan's camp and took command in person4 ,on the #bhth of ,january1 the ,americans reached the ,catawba and crossed to the northern bank4 ,within two hours the ,british arrived at the ford4 ,during the night the rain poured down in torrents2 the river was swollen to a flood2 and it was many days before the ,british could cross4 ,then began a race for the ,yadkin4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,two ,armies in ,north ,carolina4 #g4 ,the distance was sixty miles4 ,in two days the ,americans reached the river4 ,the crossing was nearly effected when the ,british appeared in sight4 ,that night the ,yadkin was made impassable by rains1 and ,cornwallis was again delayed4 ,on the #ith of ,february the ,british succeeded in crossing4 ,the lines of retreat and pursuit were now nearly parallel4 ,a third time the race began1 and again the ,americans won it4 ,on the #acth ,greene1 with the main division1 crossed the ,dan into ,virginia1 and on the #bb;d of ,february returned into ,north ,carolina4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,guilford ,courthouse4 #h4 ,greene's army now numbered more than four thousand men4 ,determining to avoid battle no longer1 he marched to ,guilford ,courthouse4 ,cornwallis moved forward to the attack4 ,on the #aeth of ,march the two armies met1 and a severe but indecisive battle was fought4 ,the ,americans were driven back for several miles2 but in killed and wounded the ,british loss was greatest4 #i4 ,early in ,april1 ,cornwallis retreated to ,wilmington1 and then proceeded to ,virginia4 ,the ,british forces in the ,carolinas remained under ,lord ,rawdon4 ,on the #ajth of ,may1 ,lord ,rawdon retired to ,eutaw ,springs4 ,the ,british posts at ,orangeburg and ,augusta fell into the hands of the patriots4 ,general ,greene passed the sickly months of summer in the hill country of the ,santee4 #aj4 ,sumter1 ,lee1 and ,marion were constantly abroad1 smiting the tories right and left4 ,lord ,rawdon now went to ,charleston and became a principal actor in one of the most shameful scenes of the ,revolution4 ,colonel ,isaac ,hayne1 a patriot who had once taken an oath of allegiance to the king1 was caught in command of a troop of ,american cavalry4 ,he was arraigned before ,colonel ,balfour1 the commandant of ,charleston1 and condemned to death4 ,rawdon gave his sanction1 and ,colonel ,hayne was hanged4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,eutaw ,springs4 #aa4 ,on the #bb;d of ,august1 ,general ,greene marched toward ,orangeburg4 ,the ,british retired to ,eutaw ,springs4 ,there the ,americans overtook them on the #hth of ,september4 ,one of the fiercest battles of the war ensued1 and ,general ,greene was denied a decisive victory only by the bad conduct of some of his troops4 ,after losing five hundred and fifty-five men1 he gave up the struggle4 ,the ,british lost in killed and wounded nearly seven hundred4 ,stuart retreated to ,monk's ,corner2 ,greene followed2 and after two months of maneuvering1 the ,british were driven into ,charleston4 ,in the whole ,south only ,charleston and ,savannah were now held by the king's army2 the latter city was evacuated on the #aath of ,july1 and the former on the #adth of ,december1 #aghb4 ,such was the close of the ,revolution in the ,carolinas and ,georgia4 ,sidenote3 ,cornwallis in ,virginia4 #ab4 ,in the beginning of ,may1 #agha1 ,cornwallis took command of the ,british army in ,virginia4 ,the country was ravaged1 and property destroyed to the value of fifteen million dollars4 ,la ,fayette1 to whom the defence of the ,state had been intrusted1 was unable to meet ,cornwallis in the field4 ,while the ,british were near ,richmond1 a detachment under ,tarleton proceeded to ,charlottesville1 and captured the town and seven members of the legislature4 ,governor ,jefferson escaped into the mountains4 ,the ,british marched to ,portsmouth2 but early in ,august the army was conveyed to ,yorktown1 on the southern bank of ,york ,river4 ,sidenote3 ,cornwallis ,blockaded in ,yorktown4 #ac4 ,la ,fayette followed and took post eight miles from the ,british4 ,during ,july and ,august1 ,washington1 from his camp on the ,hudson1 looked wistfully to the ,south4 ,clinton was kept in alarm by false dispatches1 indicating that the ,americans would immediately besiege ,new ,york4 ,when ,clinton was informed that ,washington was marching toward ,virginia1 he would not believe it4 ,washington pressed rapidly forward1 and joined ,la ,fayette at ,williamsburg4 ,on the #cjth of ,august1 a ,french fleet1 with four thousand troops on board1 reached the ,chesapeake and anchored in the mouth of ,york ,river4 ,cornwallis was blockaded by sea and land4 ,sidenote3 ,surrender of ,cornwallis4 #ad4 ,count de ,barras1 who commanded the ,french flotilla at ,newport1 also arrived4 ,on the #eth of ,september1 ,admiral ,graves appeared in the bay1 and a naval battle ensued1 in which the ,british ships were roughly handled4 ,on the #bhth1 the allied armies encamped around ,yorktown and began their intrenchments4 ,on the night of the #adth1 the enemy's outer works were carried by storm4 ,on the #afth the ,british made a sortie1 but were repulsed4 ,the next day ,cornwallis proposed a surrender2 on the #ahth terms of capitulation were signed2 and on the afternoon of the #aith the whole ,british army1 consisting of seven thousand two hundred and forty-seven ,english and ,hessian soldiers1 laid down their arms and became prisoners of war4 ,this event virtually terminated the war of the ,revolution4 ,sidenote3 ,news of the ,victory4 #ae4 ,on the evening of the #bc;d the news was borne to ,congress4 ,on the morning of the #bdth1 the members went in concourse with the citizens to the ,dutch ,lutheran church1 and turned the afternoon into a thanksgiving4 ,the note of rejoicing sounded throughout the land4 ,in ,england the king and his ministers heard the tidings with rage2 but the ,english people were secretly pleased4 ,on the #bjth of ,march1 #aghb1 ,lord ,north and his friends resigned their offices4 ,a new ministry was formed1 favorable to peace4 ,the command of the ,british forces in the ,united ,states was transferred to ,sir ,guy ,carleton1 a man friendly to ,american interests4 ,illustration3 ,surrender of ,cornwallis4 #af4 ,in the summer of #aghb1 ,richard ,oswald was sent by ,parliament to ,paris1 to confer with ,franklin and ,jay in regard to the terms of peace4 ,john ,adams and ,henry ,laurens also entered into the negotiations4 ,on the #cjth of ,november preliminary articles of peace were signed2 and in the following ,april the terms were ratified by ,congress4 ,on the #c;d of ,september1 #aghc1 a final treaty was effected between all the nations that had been at war4 ,sidenote3 ,treaty of ,peace4 #ag4 ,the terms of the ,,treaty ,,of #aghc were these3 ,a complete recognition of the independence of the ,united ,states2 the cession by ,great ,britain of ,florida to ,spain2 the surrender of the remaining territory east of the ,mississippi to the ,united ,states2 the free navigation of the ,mississippi and the lakes2 and the retention by ,great ,britain of ,canada and ,nova ,scotia4 #ah4 ,early in ,august ,sir ,guy ,carleton received instructions to evacuate ,new ,york ,city4 ,by the #beth of ,november everything was in readiness2 the ,british army was embarked2 the sails were spread2 the ships stood out to sea and disappeared4 ,the ,briton was gone4 ,after the struggles of an eight years' war the patriots had achieved their independence4 ,sidenote3 ,washington's ,farewell to the ,army4 #ai4 ,on the #dth of ,december ,washington assembled his officers to bid them a final adieu4 ,when they were met1 he spoke a few affectionate words to his comrades1 who came forward1 and with tears and sobs bade him farewell4 ,washington then departed to ,annapolis1 where ,congress was in session4 ,at ,philadelphia he made a report of his expenses during the war4 ,the account1 in his own handwriting1 embraced an expenditure of seventy-four thousand four hundred and eighty-five dollars--all correct to a cent4 #bj4 ,the route of the chief to ,annapolis was a continuous triumph4 ,the people by thousands flocked to the roadsides to see him pass4 ,on the #bc;d of ,december1 ,washington was introduced to ,congress1 and delivered an address full of wisdom and modesty4 ,with great dignity he surrendered his commission as commander-in-chief of the army4 ,general ,mifflin1 the president of ,congress1 responded in an eloquent manner1 and then the hero retired to his home at ,mount ,vernon4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,confederation ,,and ,,union4 ,sidenote3 ,american ,government4 ,during the progress of the ,revolution the civil government of the ,united ,states was in a deplorable condition4 ,nothing but the peril of the country had1 in the first place1 led to the calling of a ,congress4 ,when that body assembled1 it had no constitution nor power of efficient action4 ,the two great wants of the country were money to carry on the war1 and a central authority to direct the war4 ,whenever ,congress would attempt a firmer government1 the movement would be checked by the remonstrance of the colonies4 #b4 ,foremost of those who worked for better government was ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,in #agge he laid before ,congress the plan of a perpetual confederation of the ,states4 ,but the attention of that body was occupied with the war1 and ,franklin's measure received little notice4 ,congress1 without any real authority1 began to conduct the government1 and its legislation was generally accepted by the ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,articles of ,confederation4 #c4 ,on the #aath of ,june1 #aggf1 a committee was appointed by ,congress to prepare a plan of confederation4 ,after a month the work was completed and laid before the house4 ,the debates on the subject continued at intervals until the #aeth of ,november1 #aggg1 when a vote was taken in ,congress1 and the ,,articles ,,of ,,confederation were adopted1 which were then transmitted to the ,state legislatures for ratification4 ,by them the new frame of government was returned to ,congress with many amendments4 ,these having been considered1 the articles were signed by the delegates of eight ,states on the #ith of ,july1 #aggh4 ,those of ,georgia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,delaware signed before ,february1 of #aggi4 ,maryland did not assent until ,march of #agha4 #d4 ,the government of the ,united ,states under the confederation was a loose union of independent commonwealths4 ,the executive and legislative powers were vested in ,congress--a body composed of not less than two nor more than seven representatives from each ,state4 ,the sovereignty was reserved to the ,states4 ,there was no chief magistrate and no general judiciary4 ,the consent of nine ,states was necessary to complete an act of legislation4 ,the union was declared to be perpetual4 ,sidenote3 ,inadequacy of the ,confederation4 #e4 ,on the #b;d of ,march1 #agha1 ,congress assembled under the new government4 ,from the first1 its inadequacy was manifest4 ,congress had no real authority4 ,the first duty was to provide for the payment of the war debt of thirty-eight million dollars4 ,congress recommended a general tax4 ,some of the ,states made the levy1 others refused4 ,robert ,morris was brought to poverty in a vain effort to sustain the government4 #f4 ,in this condition of affairs1 ,washington advised the calling of a convention to meet at ,annapolis4 ,in ,september of #aghf the representatives of five ,states assembled4 ,the questions of a tariff and a revision of the articles of confederation were discussed4 ,it was finally resolved to adjourn until the following year4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,constitution ,proposed4 #g4 ,congress invited the legislatures to appoint delegates to the convention4 ,all of the ,states except ,rhode ,island responded2 and on the second ,monday in ,may1 #aghg1 the representatives assembled at ,philadelphia4 ,washington was chosen president of the convention4 ,on the #bith ,edmund ,randolph introduced a resolution to adopt a new constitution4 ,a committee was accordingly appointed to revise the articles of confederation4 ,early in ,september1 the report of the committee was adopted2 and that report was ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 #h4 ,on the question of adopting the ,constitution the people were divided4 ,those who favored the new government were called ,,federalists2 those who opposed1 ,,anti-,,federalists4 ,the leaders of the former were ,washington1 ,jay1 ,madison1 and ,hamilton1 the latter statesman throwing his whole energies into the controversy4 ,in the papers called ,the ,federalist he and ,madison answered every objection of the anti-,federal party4 ,to ,hamilton the ,republic owes a debt of gratitude for having established on a firm basis the true principles of free government4 ,sidenote3 ,provisions of the ,constitution4 #i4 ,under the ,constitution the powers of government are arranged under three heads--,,legislative1 ,,executive1 and ,,judicial4 ,the legislative power is vested in ,congress--composed of a ,senate and a ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,senators are chosen1 for a term of six years1 by the legislatures of the several ,states4 ,each ,state is represented by two ,senators4 ,the ,representatives are elected by the people2 and each ,state is entitled to a number of representatives proportionate to its population4 ,the members of this branch are chosen for two years4 #aj4 ,the executive power of the ,united ,states is vested in a ,president1 chosen for four years by the ,electoral ,college4 ,the electors composing the college are chosen by the people2 and each ,state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the number of its representatives and senators in ,congress4 ,the duty of the ,president is to enforce the laws of ,congress in accordance with the ,constitution4 ,he is also commander-in-chief of the armies and navies4 ,in case of the death or resignation of the ,president1 the ,vice-president becomes chief magistrate4 #aa4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states is vested in a ,supreme ,court and in inferior courts established by ,congress4 ,the highest judicial officer is the ,chief-justice4 ,the judges hold their offices during life or good behavior4 ,the right of trial by jury is granted in all cases except the impeachment of public officers4 ,treason against the ,united ,states consists in levying war against them1 or in giving aid to their enemies4 #ab4 ,the ,constitution provides that new territories maybe organized and new ,states admitted into the ,union2 that to every ,state shall be guaranteed a republican form of government2 and that the ,constitution may be altered or amended by the consent of two thirds of both houses of ,congress and three fourths of the legislatures of the ,states4 ,in accordance with this provision1 fifteen amendments have since been made to the ,constitution4 ,sidenote3 ,constitution ,adopted4 #ac4 ,before the end of #aghh eleven ,states had adopted the ,constitution4 ,the new government was to go into operation when nine ,states should ratify4 ,for a while1 ,north ,carolina and ,rhode ,island hesitated4 ,in accordance with an act of ,congress1 the first ,wednesday of ,january1 #aghi1 was named as the time for the election of a chief-magistrate4 ,the people had but one voice as to the man who should be honored with that high trust4 ,early in ,april1 the ballots of the electors were counted1 and ,george ,washington was unanimously chosen ,president and ,john ,adams ,vice-president of the ,united ,states4 ,on the #adth of the month1 ,washington received notification of his election1 and departed for ,new ,york4 ,his route was a constant triumph4 ,with this event the era of nationality in the ,new ,republic is ushered in4 ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 #a4 ,trace the causes1 general and special1 of the ,revolutionary ,war4 #b4 ,give an account of the ,stamp ,act ,congress1 and of the important measure adopted by it4 #c4 ,how did the movements in ,america affect the ,british king and parliament8 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 #d4 ,give an account of the beginnings of war1 and of the engagements at that time about ,boston4 #e4 ,tell of the condition of the ,american forces1 and of the appointment of a commander-in-chief4 #f4 ,what were the relations between the ,american colonies and ,canada8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 #g4 ,describe the military movements of the first half of the year #aggf4 #h4 ,who were the ,hessians1 and how were they brought into this war8 #i4 ,give an account of the preparation and adoption of the ,declaration of ,independence4 #aj4 ,follow the military movements of the latter half of the year #aggf4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 #aa4 ,what were the military movements of the early part of the year #aggg8 #ab4 ,tell of the attitude of ,france toward the war1 and of the coming over of ,la ,fayette and his followers4 #ac4 ,give an account of the campaigns under ,burgoyne4 #ad4 ,trace the movements in the south and along the ,delaware4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 #ae4 ,give an account of the treaty with ,france1 and of the coming over of the ,french fleet under ,d',estaing4 #af4 ,tell the story of the massacres at ,wyoming and at ,cherry ,valley4 #ag4 ,outline the campaigns of #aggi4 #ah4 ,what was now the condition of the ,americans on the seas8 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 #ai4 ,describe the military movements of #aghj4 #bj4 ,give an account of the treachery of ,benedict ,arnold4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 #ba4 ,sketch the campaigns of #agha4 #bb4 ,tell of the surrender of ,cornwallis and the ,british army4 #bc4 ,give an account of the ,treaty of ,peace1 and of the disbanding of the ,american army4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 #bd4 ,tell of the government of ,america in the early part of the war1 and under the ,articles of ,confederation4 #be4 ,what led to the adoption of the new constitution1 and what are some of its leading provisions8 ,,part ,v4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,union4 ,a4 ,d4 #aghi-ahfa4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,washington',s ,,administration1 #aghi-agig4 ,sidenote3 ,washington's ,inauguration4 ,on the #cjth of ,april1 #aghi1 ,washington was inaugurated first ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,the ceremony was performed in ,new ,york ,city1 on the site of the ,custom-house1 in ,wall ,street4 ,chancellor ,livingston1 of ,new ,york1 administered the oath of office4 ,the streets and house-tops were thronged with people2 flags fluttered2 cannon boomed from the ,battery4 ,washington retired to the ,senate chamber and delivered his inaugural address4 ,congress had already been organized4 #b4 ,the new government was embarrassed with many difficulties4 ,by the treaty of #aghc the free navigation of the ,mississippi had been guaranteed4 ,now the ,spaniards of ,new ,orleans hindered the passage of ,american ships4 ,on the frontier the ,red men were at war with the settlers4 ,as to financial credit or income1 the ,united ,states had none4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,first ,cabinet4 #c4 ,on the #ajth of ,september an act was passed by ,congress instituting a department of foreign affairs1 a treasury department1 and a department of war4 ,washington nominated ,jefferson as ,secretary of ,foreign ,affairs2 ,knox1 ,secretary of ,war2 and ,hamilton1 ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,a ,supreme ,court was also organized1 ,john ,jay receiving the appointment of first ,chief-justice4 ,edmund ,randolph was chosen ,attorney-,general4 ,meanwhile1 the objections of ,north ,carolina and ,rhode ,island were removed1 and both ,states ratified the ,constitution1 the former in ,november of #aghi1 and the latter in the following ,may4 ,illustration3 ,inauguration of ,washington4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,financial ,policy4 #d4 ,the war debt of the ,united ,states1 including the revolutionary expenses of the several ,states1 amounted to nearly eighty million dollars4 ,hamilton adopted a broad and honest policy4 ,his plan proposed that the debt of the ,united ,states due to ,american citizens1 as well as the debt of the individual ,states1 should be assumed by the general government1 and that all should be fully paid4 ,by this measure the credit of the country was vastly improved4 ,hamilton's financial schemes were violently opposed by ,jefferson and the anti-,federal party4 ,in #agia the ,,bank ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states was established by an act of ,congress4 ,sidenote3 ,admission of ,vermont4 #e4 ,the question of fixing the seat of government was discussed2 and it was agreed to establish the capital for ten years at ,philadelphia1 and afterwards at some locality on the ,potomac4 ,the next measure was the organization of the territory southwest of the ,ohio4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #agia1 ,vermont1 which had been an independent territory since #aggg1 was admitted into the ,union as the fourteenth ,state4 ,the census of the ,united ,states1 for #agij1 showed a population of three million nine hundred and twenty-nine thousand4 ,sidenote3 ,indian ,troubles in the ,n4,w4 ,territory4 #f4 ,in #agij a war broke out with the ,miami ,indians4 ,these tribes went to war to recover the lands which they had ceded to the ,united ,states4 ,in ,september ,general ,harmar1 with fourteen hundred men1 marched from ,fort ,washington1 on the present site of ,cincinnati1 to the ,maumee4 ,on the #bast of ,october the army was defeated1 with great loss1 at a ford of this stream4 ,general ,harmar retreated to ,fort ,washington4 #g4 ,after the defeat of ,harmar1 ,general ,st4 ,clair1 with two thousand men1 set out from ,fort ,washington to break the power of the ,miamis4 ,on the #dth of ,november he was attacked in the southwest angle of ,mercer ,county1 ,ohio1 by more than two thousand warriors4 ,after a terrible battle1 ,st4 ,clair was completely defeated1 with a loss of half his men4 ,the fugitives retreated precipitately to ,fort ,washington4 ,the news of the disaster spread sorrow throughout the land4 ,st4 ,clair was superseded by ,general ,wayne1 whom the people had named ,mad ,anthony4 ,sidenote3 ,admission of ,kentucky4 #h4 ,the population of ,kentucky had now reached seventy-three thousand4 ,seventeen years before1 ,daniel ,boone1 the hardy hunter of ,north ,carolina1 had settled at ,boonesborough4 ,harrodsburg and ,lexington were founded about the same time4 ,during the ,revolution the pioneers were constantly beset by the savages4 ,after the expedition of ,general ,clark1 in #aggi1 thousands of immigrants came annually4 ,on the #ast of ,june1 #agib1 ,kentucky was admitted into the ,union4 ,at the presidential election of #agib1 ,washington was again unanimously chosen2 as ,vice-president1 ,john ,adams was reelected4 #i4 ,washington's second administration was greatly troubled in its relations with foreign governments4 ,citizen ,genet1 who was sent by the ,french republic as minister to the ,united ,states1 arrived at ,charleston1 and was greeted with great enthusiasm4 ,taking advantage of his popularity1 he fitted out privateers to prey on the commerce of ,great ,britain1 and planned an expedition against ,louisiana4 ,when ,washington refused to enter into an alliance with ,france1 the minister threatened to appeal to the people4 ,but ,washington stood unmoved1 and demanded the minister's recall4 ,the authorities of ,france heeded the demand1 and ,genet was superseded by ,m4 ,fouchet4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,whiskey ,insurrection4 #aj4 ,in #agid the country was disturbed by a difficulty in western ,pennsylvania1 known as the ,,whiskey ,,insurrection4 ,congress had1 three years previously1 imposed a tax on all ardent spirits distilled in the ,united ,states4 ,genet and his partisans had incited the people of the distilling regions to resist the tax collectors4 ,the disaffected rose in arms4 ,washington issued two proclamations1 warning the insurgents to disperse2 but instead of obeying1 they fired upon the officers of the government4 ,general ,henry ,lee1 with a strong detachment of troops1 then marched to the scene of the disturbance and dispersed the rioters4 #aa4 ,in the fall of #agic ,general ,wayne entered the ,indian country with a force of three thousand men4 ,near the scene of ,st4 ,clair's defeat he built ,fort ,recovery1 and then pressed on to the junction of the ,auglaize and the ,maumee4 ,here he built ,fort ,defiance4 ,on the #bjth of ,august ,wayne overtook the savages at the town of ,waynesfield1 and routed them with terrible losses4 ,the chieftains were obliged to purchase peace by ceding to the ,united ,states all the territory east of a line drawn from ,fort ,recovery to the mouth of the ,kentucky ,river4 ,this was the last service of ,general ,wayne4 ,in ,december of #agif he died1 and was buried at ,presque ,isle4 ,sidenote3 ,british ,privateers4 #ab4 ,in #agic ,george ,,iii4 issued instructions to ,british privateers to seize all neutral vessels found trading in the ,french ,west ,indies4 ,the ,united ,states had no notification of this measure1 and ,american commerce to the value of many millions of dollars was swept from the sea4 ,chief-justice ,jay was sent to demand redress1 and in ,november of #agid an honorable treaty was concluded4 ,it was specified in the treaty that ,great ,britain should make reparation for the injuries done1 and surrender to the ,united ,states certain ,western posts which until now had been held by that country4 #ac4 ,in #agie the boundary between the ,united ,states and ,louisiana was settled4 ,spain granted to the ,americans the free navigation of the ,mississippi4 ,about this time a difficulty arose with the dey of ,algiers4 ,for many years ,algerine pirates had been preying upon the commerce of civilized nations4 ,the dey had agreed with these nations that his pirate ships should not attack their vessels if they would pay him an annual tribute4 ,the ,algerine sea-robbers were now turned loose on ,american commerce1 and the government of the ,united ,states was also obliged to purchase safety by paying tribute4 ,illustration3 ,algerine ,pirates4 ,sidenote3 ,admission of ,tennessee4 #ad4 ,in #agif ,tennessee1 the third new ,state1 was admitted into the ,union4 ,the population already numbered more than seventy thousand4 ,the first inhabitants of ,tennessee were as hardy a race of pioneers as ever braved the wilderness4 #ae4 ,washington was solicited to become a candidate for a third election2 but he refused4 ,in ,september of #agif he issued to the people of the ,united ,states his ,farewell ,address--a document full of wisdom and patriotism4 ,the political parties at once put forward their candidates--,john ,adams as the choice of the ,federal1 and ,thomas ,jefferson of the anti-,federal party4 ,the chief question between the parties was whether it was the true policy of the ,united ,states to enter into intimate relations with ,france4 ,the anti-,federalists said1 ,yes6 ,the ,federalists said1 ,no6 ,on that issue ,mr4 ,adams was elected1 but ,mr4 ,jefferson1 having the next highest number of votes1 became ,vice-president4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,adams',s ,,administration1 #agig-ahja4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #agig1 ,president ,adams was inaugurated4 ,from the beginning1 his administration was embarrassed by political opposition4 ,adet1 the ,french minister1 urged the government to conclude a league with ,france against ,great ,britain4 ,when the ,president and ,congress refused1 the ,french ,directory began to demand an alliance4 ,on the #ajth of ,march that body issued instructions to ,french men-of-war to assail the commerce of the ,united ,states4 ,mr4 ,pinckney1 the ,american minister1 was ordered to leave ,france4 ,illustration3 ,john ,adams4 ,sidenote3 ,troubles with ,france4 #b4 ,these proceedings were equivalent to a declaration of war4 ,the ,president convened ,congress in extraordinary session4 ,elbridge ,gerry and ,john ,marshall were directed to join ,mr4 ,pinckney in a final effort for a peaceable adjustment of the difficulties4 ,but the ,directory refused to receive the ambassadors except upon condition that they would pay into the ,french treasury a quarter of a million dollars4 ,pinckney answered that the ,united ,states had millions for defense1 but not one cent for tribute4 ,the envoys were then ordered to leave the country4 #c4 ,in #agih an act was passed by ,congress completing the organization of the army4 ,washington was called from his retirement and appointed commander-in-chief4 ,six ,american frigates put to sea1 and1 in the fall of #agii did good service for the country4 ,commodore ,truxtun1 in the ,constellation1 won distinguished honors4 ,on the #ith of ,february1 while cruising in the ,west ,indies1 he attacked the ,insurgent1 a ,french man-of-war1 carrying forty guns and more than four hundred seamen4 ,a desperate engagement ensued2 and ,truxtun gained a complete victory4 #d4 ,meanwhile1 ,napoleon ,bonaparte had overthrown the ,directory of ,france and made himself ,first ,consul4 ,he immediately sought peace with the ,united ,states4 ,three ,american ambassadors were sent to ,paris1 in ,march of #ahjj4 ,negotiations were at once opened1 and in the following ,september were terminated with a treaty of peace4 ,illustration3 ,home of ,washington at ,mount ,vernon4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,washington4 #e4 ,before the war-cloud was scattered ,america was called to mourn the loss of ,washington4 ,on the #adth of ,december1 #agii1 after an illness of only a day1 the chieftain passed from among the living4 ,all hearts were touched with sorrow4 ,congress went in funeral procession to the ,german ,lutheran church1 where ,general ,henry ,lee delivered a touching and eloquent oration4 ,throughout the world the memory of the great dead was honored with appropriate ceremonies4 ,sidenote3 ,washington ,city4 #f4 ,the administration of ,adams and the eighteenth century drew to a close together4 ,the new ,republic was growing strong and influential4 ,the census of #ahjj showed that the population of the country had increased to over five millions4 ,the seventy-five post-offices reported by the census of #agij had been multiplied to nine hundred and three2 the exports of the ,united ,states had grown from twenty millions to nearly seventy-one millions of dollars4 ,in ,december of #ahjj1 ,congress assembled in ,washington ,city4 ,virginia and ,maryland had ceded to the ,united ,states the ,district of ,columbia1 a tract ten miles square lying on both sides of the ,potomac4 ,the city was laid out in #agib2 and in #ahjj the population numbered between eight and nine thousand4 #g4 ,with prudent management the ,federal party might have retained control of the government4 ,but much of the legislation of ,congress had been unwise and unpopular4 ,the ,alien ,law1 by which the ,president was authorized to send foreigners out of the country1 was specially odious4 ,the ,sedition ,law1 which punished with fine and imprisonment the freedom of speech and of the press1 was denounced as an act of tyranny4 ,partisan excitement ran high4 ,mr4 ,adams and ,mr4 ,charles ,c4 ,pinckney were put forward as the candidates of the ,federalists1 and ,thomas ,jefferson and ,aaron ,burr of the ,democrats4 ,the election was thrown into the ,house of ,representatives1 and the choice fell on ,jefferson and ,burr4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,jefferson',s ,,administration1 #ahja-ahji4 ,at the beginning of his administration1 ,mr4 ,jefferson transferred the chief offices of the government to members of the ,democratic party4 ,such action was justified by the adherents of the ,president on the ground that the affairs of a republic will be best administered when the officers hold the same political sentiments4 ,one of the first acts of ,congress was to abolish the system of internal revenues4 ,the unpopular ,alien and ,sedition laws were also repealed4 #b4 ,in the year #ahjj a line was drawn through the ,northwest ,territory from the mouth of the ,great ,miami ,river northward1 through ,fort ,recovery on the head waters of the ,wabash1 to ,canada4 ,two years afterwards the country east of this line was erected into the ,state of ,ohio1 which1 in #ahjc1 was admitted into the ,union4 ,the portion west of the line was organized under the name of ,,indiana ,,territory4 ,illustration3 ,thomas ,jefferson4 ,sidenote3 ,indiana ,territory4 #c4 ,the new region thus brought under civil government embraced a vast area of country4 ,it included all of the present ,states of ,indiana1 ,michigan1 ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 and a small portion of ,minnesota4 ,vincennes was made the capital4 ,the appointment of ,governor and ,superintendent of ,indian ,affairs was conferred on ,general ,william ,henry ,harrison4 ,the work imposed upon him was very great4 ,first appointed by ,president ,john ,adams1 he was afterwards reappointed to the same position by ,presidents ,jefferson and ,madison4 ,repairing to his field of duty1 he convened the first ,territorial ,legislature at ,vincennes1 in #ahje1 and entered at once into negotiations with the ,indian tribes4 #d4 ,during the administration of ,governor ,harrison1 many salutary measures were adopted with respect to the natives4 ,the ,governor sought to prevent the sale of intoxicating liquors among them1 and induced many of the tribes to submit to inoculation1 as a means of preventing the ravages of smallpox4 ,in ,september1 #ahji1 he met a congress of the tribes at ,vincennes1 and effected the purchase of about three million acres of valuable land in the valleys of the ,wabash and ,white rivers4 ,it was these progressive measures which aroused the jealousy and alarm of the ,red men1 and brought on the ,indian war of #ahaa4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,louisiana ,purchase4 #e4 ,about the same time of the organization of ,indiana ,territory the ,,mississippi ,,territory was organized4 ,more important still was the purchase of the vast region called ,louisiana4 ,in #ahjj ,napoleon had compelled ,spain to make a cession of this territory to ,france4 ,he now authorized his minister to dispose of ,louisiana by sale4 ,the ,president appointed ,mr4 ,livingston and ,james ,monroe to negotiate the purchase4 ,on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahjc1 terms were agreed on2 and for the sum of eleven million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars ,louisiana was ceded to the ,united ,states4 ,it was also agreed that the ,united ,states should pay certain debts due from ,france to ,american citizens--the sum not to exceed three million seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,thus did that vast domain west of the ,mississippi pass under the dominion of the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,out of the southern portion of the great province the ,,territory ,,of ,,orleans was organized with the same limits as the present ,state of ,louisiana2 the rest continued to be called the ,,territory ,,of ,,louisiana4 ,very justly did ,mr4 ,livingston say to the ,french minister as they arose from signing the treaty3 ,this is the noblest work of our lives4 #g4 ,in #ahja ,john ,marshall became ,chief-justice of the ,united ,states4 ,in the colonial times1 the ,english constitution and common law had prevailed in ,america4 ,when the new ,republic was organized1 it became necessary to modify the principles of law and to adapt them to the altered form of government4 ,this great work was accomplished by ,chief-justice ,marshall4 ,sidenote3 ,war with ,tripoli4 #h4 ,the ,mediterranean pirates still annoyed ,american merchantmen4 ,the emperors of ,morocco1 ,algiers1 and ,tripoli became especially troublesome4 ,in #ahjc ,commodore ,preble was sent to the ,mediterranean to protect ,american commerce and punish the pirates4 ,the frigate ,philadelphia1 under ,captain ,bainbridge1 sailed directly to ,tripoli4 ,when nearing his destination1 ,bainbridge gave chase to a pirate which fled for safety to the harbor4 ,the ,philadelphia1 in close pursuit1 ran upon a reef of rocks near the shore1 and was captured by the ,tripolitans4 ,the officers were treated with some respect1 but the crew were enslaved4 #i4 ,in the following ,february ,captain ,decatur sailed to ,tripoli in a ,moorish ship1 called the ,intrepid4 ,at nightfall ,decatur steered into the harbor1 slipped alongside of the ,philadelphia1 sprang on deck with his daring band1 and killed or drove overboard every ,moor on the vessel4 ,in a moment the frigate was fired2 ,decatur and his crew escaped to the ,intrepid without the loss of a man4 #aj4 ,in ,july of #ahjd ,commodore ,preble arrived at ,tripoli and began a siege4 ,the town was bombarded1 and several ,moorish vessels were destroyed4 ,in the mean time1 ,william ,eaton1 the ,american consul at ,tunis1 had organized a force1 and was marching overland to ,tripoli4 ,hamet1 who was the rightful sovereign of ,tripoli1 was cooperating with ,eaton in an effort to recover his kingdom4 ,yusef1 the ,tripolitan emperor1 made overtures for peace4 ,his offers were accepted1 and a treaty was concluded on the #dth of ,june1 #ahje4 ,sidenote3 ,schemes of ,aaron ,burr4 #aa4 ,in #ahjd the country was shocked by the intelligence that ,vice-president ,burr had killed ,alexander ,hamilton in a duel4 ,as his term of office drew to a close1 ,burr foresaw that he would not be renominated4 ,in #ahjc he became a candidate for governor of ,new ,york2 but ,hamilton's influence in that ,state prevented his election4 ,burr thereupon sought a quarrel with ,hamilton1 challenged him1 met him at ,weehawken on the morning of the #aath of ,july1 and deliberately murdered him4 ,thus the brightest intellect in ,america was put out in darkness4 #ab4 ,after the death of ,hamilton1 ,burr fled to the ,south4 ,at the opening of the next session of ,congress he returned to preside over the ,senate4 ,then he took up his residence with an ,englishman named ,blennerhassett1 who had built a mansion on an island in the ,ohio1 near the mouth of the ,muskingum4 ,here ,burr made a treasonable scheme to raise a military force1 invade ,mexico1 detach the ,southwestern ,states from the ,union1 and overthrow the government of the ,united ,states4 ,but his purposes were suspected4 ,the military preparations at ,blennerhassett's ,island were broken up4 ,burr was arrested in ,alabama and taken to ,richmond to be tried for treason4 ,chief-justice ,marshall presided at the trial1 and ,burr conducted his own defence4 ,the verdict was1 ,not guilty--for want of sufficient proof4 ,burr afterward practiced law in ,new ,york1 lived to old age1 and died in poverty4 ,sidenote3 ,lewis and ,clarke's ,expedition4 #ac4 ,in the autumn of #ahjd ,jefferson was reelected4 ,for ,vice-president1 ,george ,clinton of ,new ,york was chosen in place of ,burr4 ,in the next year a part of the ,northwest ,territory was organized under the name of ,,michigan4 ,in the same spring1 ,captains ,lewis and ,clarke set out from the falls of the ,missouri ,river with thirty-five soldiers and hunters to explore ,oregon4 ,for two years1 through forests of gigantic pines1 and along the banks of unknown rivers1 did they continue their explorations4 ,after wandering among unheard-of tribes of savages1 and traversing a route of six thousand miles1 the adventurers1 with the loss of but one man1 returned to civilization4 ,illustration3 ,lewis and ,clarke's ,expedition4 #ad4 ,during ,jefferson's second term1 the country was much agitated by the aggressions of the ,british navy4 ,england and ,france were engaged in war4 ,the ,british authorities struck blow after blow against the trade between ,france and foreign nations2 and ,napoleon retaliated4 ,the plan adopted by the two powers was to blockade each other's ports with men-of-war4 ,by such means the commerce of the ,united ,states was greatly injured4 ,sidenote3 ,aggressions on ,american ,commerce4 #ae4 ,in ,may of #ahjf ,england blockaded the whole coast of ,france4 ,american vessels1 approaching the ,french ports1 were seized as prizes4 ,the following ,november ,bonaparte issued a decree blockading the ,british isles4 ,again ,american merchantmen were subjected to seizure4 ,in ,january of the next year ,great ,britain retaliated by prohibiting the ,french coasting-trade4 ,these measures were all in violation of the law of nations4 #af4 ,great ,britain next set up the peculiar claim of citizenship1 that whoever is born in ,england remains through life a subject of ,england4 ,english cruisers were authorized to search ,american vessels for persons suspected of being ,british subjects4 ,those who were taken were impressed as seamen in the ,english navy4 ,sidenote3 ,impressment of ,seamen4 #ag4 ,on the #bb;d of ,june1 #ahjg1 the frigate ,chesapeake was hailed near ,fortress ,monroe by a ,british man-of-war called the ,leopard4 ,british officers came on board and demanded to search the vessel for deserters4 ,the demand was refused and the ship cleared for action4 ,but before the guns could be charged1 the ,leopard poured in a destructive fire and compelled a surrender4 ,four men were taken from the captured ship1 three of whom proved to be ,american citizens4 ,great ,britain disavowed this outrage1 and promised reparation2 but the promise was never fulfilled4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,embargo ,act4 #ah4 ,the ,president issued a proclamation forbidding ,british ships of war to enter ,american harbors4 ,on the #bast of ,december ,congress passed the ,,embargo ,,act1 by which all ,american vessels were detained in the ports of the ,united ,states4 ,the object was to cut off commercial intercourse with ,france and ,great ,britain4 ,but after fourteen months the embargo act was repealed4 ,meanwhile1 in ,november of #ahjh1 the ,british government published an order in council1 prohibiting all trade with ,france and her allies4 ,thereupon ,napoleon issued the ,milan decree1 forbidding all trade with ,england and her colonies4 ,by these outrages the commerce of the ,united ,states was well-nigh destroyed4 #ai4 ,while the country was thus distracted1 ,robert ,fulton was building the ,,first ,,steamboat4 ,fulton was an ,irishman by descent and a ,pennsylvanian by birth4 ,his education in boyhood was imperfect1 but was afterward improved by study at ,london and ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,fulton's ,clermont4 ,sidenote3 ,robert ,fulton's ,steamboat4 #bj4 ,returning to ,new ,york1 he began the construction of a steamboat4 ,when the ungainly craft was completed1 ,fulton invited his friends to go on board and enjoy a trip to ,albany4 ,on the #b;d of ,september1 #ahjg1 the crowds gathered on the shore4 ,the word was given1 and the boat did not move4 ,fulton went below4 ,again the word was given1 and the boat moved4 ,on the next day the company reached ,albany4 ,for many years this first rude steamer1 called the ,clermont1 plied the ,hudson4 #ba4 ,jefferson's administration drew to a close4 ,the territorial area of the ,united ,states had been vastly extended4 ,but the foreign relations of the nation were troubled4 ,the ,president declined a third election1 and was succeeded by ,james ,madison1 of ,virginia4 ,for ,vice-president1 ,george ,clinton was reelected4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,madison',s ,,administration4--,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,illustration3 ,james ,madison4 ,sidenote3 ,war ,threatened with ,england4 ,the new ,president had been a member of the ,continental ,congress1 a delegate to the ,constitutional ,convention of #aghg1 and ,secretary of ,state under ,jefferson4 ,he owed his election to the ,democratic party1 whose sympathy with ,france and hostility to ,great ,britain were well known4 ,on the #ast of ,march the embargo act was repealed by ,congress1 and another measure adopted by which ,american ships were allowed to go abroad1 but were forbidden to trade with ,great ,britain4 ,mr4 ,erskine1 the ,british minister1 now gave notice that by the #ajth of ,june the orders in council1 so far as they affected the ,united ,states1 should be repealed4 #b4 ,in the following spring ,bonaparte issued a decree for the seizure of all ,american vessels that might approach the ports of ,france4 ,but in ,november the decree was reversed1 and all restrictions on the commerce of the ,united ,states were removed4 ,but the government of ,great ,britain adhered to its former measures1 and sent ships of war to enforce the orders in council4 #c4 ,the affairs of the two nations were fast approaching a crisis4 ,the government of the ,united ,states had fallen completely under control of the party which sympathized with ,france4 ,the ,american people1 smarting under the insults of ,great ,britain1 had adopted the motto of ,,free ,,trade ,,and ,,sailors' ,,rights1 and had made up their minds to fight2 the sentiment was that war was preferable to national disgrace4 #d4 ,in the spring of #ahaj the third census of the ,united ,states was completed4 ,the population had increased to seven million two hundred and forty thousand souls4 ,the ,states now numbered seventeen2 and several new ,territories were preparing for admission into the ,union4 ,the rapid march of civilization westward had aroused the jealousy of the ,red men1 and ,indiana ,territory was afflicted with an ,indian war4 ,sidenote3 ,gen4 ,harrison in ,indiana4 #e4 ,tecumtha1 chief of the ,shawnees--a brave and sagacious warrior--and his brother1 called the ,prophet1 were the leaders of the revolt4 ,their plan was to unite all the nations of the ,northwest ,territory in a final effort to beat back the whites4 ,when1 in ,september of #ahji1 ,governor ,harrison met the chiefs of several tribes at ,fort ,wayne1 and purchased three million acres of land1 ,tecumtha refused to sign the treaty1 and threatened death to those who did4 ,in #ahaj he visited the nations of ,tennessee and exhorted them to join his confederacy4 #f4 ,governor ,harrison stood firm1 sent for soldiers1 and mustered the militia of the ,territory4 ,the ,indians began to prowl through the ,wabash ,valley1 murdering and stealing4 ,the governor then advanced to ,terre ,haute1 built ,fort ,harrison1 and hastened toward the town of the ,prophet1 at the mouth of the ,tippecanoe4 ,when within a few miles of this place1 ,harrison was met by ,indian ambassadors1 who asked for a conference on the following day4 ,their request was granted2 and the ,american army encamped for the night4 ,the place selected was a piece of high ground covered with oaks4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,tippecanoe4 #g4 ,before daybreak on the morning of ,november #gth1 #ahaa1 the savages1 seven hundred strong1 crept through the marshes1 surrounded ,harrison's position1 and burst upon the camp4 ,but the ,american militia fought in the darkness1 held the ,indians in check until daylight1 and then routed them in several vigorous charges4 ,on the next day1 the ,americans burned the ,prophet's town1 and soon afterwards returned to ,vincennes4 ,such was the success of the campaign that the ,indians were overawed1 the peace of the white settlements secured1 and the way made easy for the organization and admission of the ,state of ,indiana into the ,union five years afterwards4 ,illustration3 ,western ,battle-fields located relatively to ,present ,cities4 #h4 ,meanwhile1 ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states had come into conflict on the ocean4 ,on the #afth of ,may1 ,commodore ,rodgers1 commanding the frigate ,president1 hailed a vessel off the coast of ,virginia4 ,instead of a polite answer1 he received a cannon-ball in the mainmast4 ,rodgers responded with a broadside1 silencing the enemy's guns4 ,in the morning--for it was already dark--the hostile ship was found to be the ,british sloop-of-war ,little ,belt4 #i4 ,on the #dth of ,november1 #ahaa1 the twelfth ,congress of the ,united ,states assembled4 ,many of the members still hoped for peace2 and the winter passed without decisive measures4 ,on the #dth of ,april1 #ahab1 an act was passed laying an embargo for ninety days on all ,british vessels within the harbors of the ,united ,states4 ,but ,great ,britain would not recede from her hostile attitude4 ,before the actual outbreak of hostilities1 ,louisiana1 the eighteenth ,state1 was1 on the #hth of ,april1 admitted into the ,union4 ,her population had already reached seventy-seven thousand4 ,sidenote3 ,declaration of ,war4 #aj4 ,on the #aith of ,june a declaration of war was made against ,great ,britain4 ,vigorous preparations for the conflict were made by ,congress4 ,it was ordered to raise twenty-five thousand regular troops and fifty thousand volunteers4 ,the several ,states were requested to call out a hundred thousand militia4 ,a national loan of eleven million dollars was authorized4 ,henry ,dearborn1 of ,massachusetts1 was chosen commander-in-chief of the army4 #aa4 ,the war was begun by ,general ,william ,hull1 governor of ,michigan ,territory4 ,on the #ast of ,june he marched from ,dayton with fifteen hundred men4 ,for a full month the army toiled through the forests to the western extremity of ,lake ,erie4 ,arriving at the ,maumee1 ,hull sent his baggage to ,detroit4 ,but the ,british at ,malden were on the alert1 and captured ,hull's boat with everything on board4 ,nevertheless1 the ,americans pressed on to ,detroit1 and on the #abth of ,july crossed the river to ,sandwich4 #ab4 ,hull1 hearing that ,mackinaw had been taken by the ,british1 soon returned to ,detroit4 ,from this place he sent ,major ,van ,horne to meet ,major ,brush1 who had reached the river ,raisin with reinforcements4 ,but ,tecumtha laid an ambush for ,van ,horne's forces and defeated them near ,brownstown4 ,colonel ,miller1 with another detachment1 attacked and routed the savages with great loss1 and then returned to ,detroit4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,surrender of ,detroit4 ,illustration3 ,engagement of the ,wasp and the ,frolic4 #ac4 ,general ,brock1 governor of ,canada1 now took command of the ,british at ,malden4 ,on the #afth of ,august he advanced to the siege of ,detroit4 ,the ,americans in their trenches were eager for battle4 ,when the ,british were within five hundred yards1 ,hull hoisted a white flag over the fort4 ,then followed a surrender1 the most shameful in the history of the ,united ,states4 ,all the forces under ,hull's command became prisoners of war4 ,the whole of ,michigan ,territory was surrendered to the ,british4 ,hull was afterward court-martialed and sentenced to be shot2 but the ,president pardoned him4 #ad4 ,about the time of the fall of ,detroit1 ,fort ,dearborn1 on the present site of ,chicago1 was surrendered to an army of ,indians4 ,the garrison capitulated on condition of retiring without molestation4 ,but the savages fell upon the retreating soldiers1 killed some1 and distributed the rest as captives4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,war at ,sea4 #ae4 ,on the #aith of ,august the frigate ,constitution1 commanded by ,captain ,isaac ,hull1 overtook the ,british ,guerriere off the coast of ,massachusetts4 ,the vessels maneuvered for a while1 the ,constitution closing with her antagonist1 until at half pistol-shot she poured in a broadside1 sweeping the decks of the ,guerriere and deciding the contest4 ,on the following morning1 the ,guerriere1 being unmanageable1 was blown up2 and ,hull returned to port with his prisoners and spoils4 #af4 ,on the #ahth of ,october the ,american ,wasp1 under ,captain ,jones1 fell in with a fleet of ,british merchantmen off the coast of ,virginia4 ,the squadron was under protection of the ,frolic1 commanded by ,captain ,whinyates4 ,a terrible engagement ensued1 lasting for three quarters of an hour4 ,finally1 the ,american crew boarded the ,frolic and struck the ,british flag4 ,soon afterwards the ,poictiers1 a ,british seventy-four gun ship1 bore down upon the scene1 captured the ,wasp1 and retook the wreck of the ,frolic4 #ag4 ,on the #beth of the month ,commodore ,decatur1 commanding the frigate ,united ,states1 captured the ,british ,macedonian1 a short distance west of the ,canary ,islands4 ,the loss of the enemy in killed and wounded amounted to more than a hundred men4 ,on the #abth of ,december the ,essex1 commanded by ,captain ,porter1 captured the ,nocton1 a ,british packet1 having on board fifty-five thousand dollars in specie4 ,on the #bith of ,december the ,constitution1 under command of ,commodore ,bainbridge1 met the ,java on the coast of ,brazil4 ,a furious battle ensued1 continuing for two hours4 ,the ,java was reduced to a wreck before the flag was struck4 ,the crew and passengers1 numbering upward of four hundred1 were transferred to the ,constitution1 and the hull was burned at sea4 ,the news of these victories roused the enthusiasm of the people4 ,sidenote3 ,van ,rensselaer at ,queenstown4 #ah4 ,on the #acth of ,october a thousand men1 commanded by ,general ,stephen ,van ,rensselaer1 crossed the ,niagara ,river to capture ,queenstown4 ,they were resisted at the water's edge2 but the ,british batteries on the heights were finally carried4 ,the enemy's forces1 returning to the charge1 were a second time repulsed4 ,the ,americans intrenched themselves1 and waited for reinforcements4 ,none came2 and1 after losing a hundred and sixty men1 they were then obliged to surrender4 ,general ,van ,rensselaer resigned his command1 and was succeeded by ,general ,alexander ,smyth4 #ai4 ,the ,americans now rallied at ,black ,rock1 a few miles north of ,buffalo4 ,from this point1 on the #bhth of ,november1 a company was sent across to the ,canada shore1 but ,general ,smyth ordered the advance party to return4 ,a few days afterward1 another crossing was planned1 with the same results4 ,the militia became mutinous4 ,smyth was charged with cowardice and deposed from his command4 ,in the autumn of #ahab ,madison was reelected ,president2 the choice for ,vice-president fell on ,elbridge ,gerry1 of ,massachusetts4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,war ,,of #ahab4--;,,events ,,of #ahac4 ,in the beginning of #ahac the ,american army was organized in three divisions3 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,the ,,north1 under ,general ,wade ,hampton2 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,the ,,center1 under ,general ,dearborn2 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,the ,,west1 under ,general ,winchester1 who was soon superseded by ,general ,harrison4 ,early in ,january the ,army of the ,west moved toward ,lake ,erie to regain the ground lost by ,hull4 ,on the #ajth of the month the ,american advance reached the rapids of the ,maumee1 thirty miles from ,winchester's camp4 ,a detachment then pressed forward to ,frenchtown1 on the river ,raisin1 captured the town1 and on the #bjth of the month were joined by ,winchester with the main division4 ,sidenote3 ,events in the ,west4 #b4 ,two days afterwards the ,americans were assaulted by a thousand five hundred ,british and ,indians under ,general ,proctor4 ,a severe battle was fought4 ,general ,winchester1 having been taken by the enemy1 advised his forces to capitulate4 ,the ,american wounded were left to the mercy of the savages1 who at once completed their work of butchery4 ,the rest of the prisoners were dragged away1 through untold sufferings1 to ,detroit1 where they were afterward ransomed4 #c4 ,general ,harrison now built ,fort ,meigs1 on the ,maumee4 ,here he was besieged by two thousand ,british and savages1 led by ,proctor and ,tecumtha4 ,meanwhile1 ,general ,clay1 with twelve hundred ,kentuckians1 advanced to the relief of the fort4 ,in a few days the ,indians deserted in large numbers1 and ,proctor1 becoming alarmed1 abandoned the siege1 and retreated to ,malden4 ,sidenote3 ,ft4 ,meigs and ,ft4 ,stephenson4 #d4 ,late in ,july ,proctor and ,tecumtha1 with nearly four thousand men1 again besieged ,fort ,meigs4 ,failing to draw out the garrison1 the ,british general filed off with half his forces and attacked ,fort ,stephenson1 at ,lower ,sandusky4 ,this place was defended by a hundred and sixty men under ,colonel ,croghan1 a stripling but twenty-one years of age4 ,on the #b;d of ,august the ,british advanced to storm the fort4 ,having crowded into the trench1 they were swept away almost to a man4 ,the repulse was complete4 ,proctor now raised the siege at ,fort ,meigs and returned to ,malden4 ,sidenote3 ,perry on ,lake ,erie4 #e4 ,at this time ,lake ,erie was commanded by a ,british squadron of six vessels4 ,the work of recovering these waters was intrusted to ,commodore ,oliver ,h4 ,perry4 ,his antagonist1 ,commodore ,barclay1 was a veteran from ,europe4 ,with great energy ,perry directed the construction of nine ships1 and was soon afloat4 ,on the #ajth of ,september the two fleets met near ,put-in ,bay4 ,the battle was begun by the ,american squadron1 ,perry's flag-ship1 the ,lawrence1 leading the attack4 ,his principal antagonist was the ,detroit1 under command of ,barclay4 ,the ,british guns had the wider range1 and were better served4 ,in a short time the ,lawrence was ruined1 and ,barclay's flagship was almost a wreck4 #f4 ,perceiving how the battle stood1 ,perry seized his banner1 got overboard into an open boat1 passed within pistol-shot of the enemy's ships1 a storm of balls flying around him1 and transferred his flag to the ,niagara4 ,with this powerful vessel he bore down upon the enemy's line1 drove right through the midst1 discharging terrible broadsides right and left4 ,in fifteen minutes the ,british fleet was helpless4 ,perry returned to the hull of the ,lawrence1 and there received the surrender4 ,and then he sent to ,general ,harrison this dispatch3 ,we have met the enemy1 and they are ours--two ships1 two brigs1 one schooner1 and one sloop4 ,illustration3 ,fall of ,tecumtha at the ,battle of the ,thames4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of the ,thames4 #g4 ,for the ,americans the way was now opened to ,canada4 ,on the #bgth of ,september ,harrison's army was landed near ,malden4 ,the ,british retreated to the river ,thames1 and there faced about to fight4 ,the battlefield extended from the river to a swamp4 ,here1 on the #eth of ,october1 the ,british were attacked by ,generals ,harrison and ,shelby4 ,in the beginning of the battle ,proctor fled4 ,the ,british regulars were broken by the ,kentuckians under ,colonel ,richard ,m4 ,johnson4 ,the ,americans wheeled against the fifteen hundred ,indians1 who lay hidden in the swamp4 ,tecumtha had staked all on the issue4 ,for a while his war-whoop sounded above the din of the conflict4 ,presently his voice was heard no longer1 for the great chieftain had fallen4 ,the savages1 appalled by the death of their leader1 fled in despair4 ,so ended the campaign in the ,west4 ,all that ,hull had lost was regained4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,jackson in ,alabama4 #h4 ,meanwhile1 the ,creeks of ,alabama had taken up arms4 ,in the latter part of ,august1 ,fort ,mims1 forty miles north of ,mobile1 was surprised by the savages1 who murdered nearly four hundred people4 ,the governors of ,tennessee1 ,georgia1 and ,mississippi made immediate preparation for invading the country of the ,creeks4 ,the ,tennesseeans1 under ,general ,jackson1 were first to the rescue4 ,nine hundred men1 led by ,general ,coffee1 reached the ,indian town of ,tallushatchee1 burned it1 and left not an ,indian alive4 ,on the #hth of ,november a battle was fought at ,talladega1 and the savages were defeated with severe losses4 #i4 ,during the winter1 ,jackson's troops became mutinous and were going home4 ,but the general set them the example of living on acorns1 and threatened with death the first man who stirred from the ranks4 ,and no man stirred4 ,at ,horseshoe ,bend the ,creeks made their final stand4 ,on the #bgth of ,march1 the whites under ,general ,jackson stormed the breastworks and drove the ,indians into the bend of the river4 ,there1 huddled together1 a thousand ,creek warriors1 with the women and children of the tribe1 met their doom4 ,the nation was completely conquered4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition against ,toronto4 #aj4 ,on the #beth of ,april1 #ahac1 ,general ,dearborn embarked his forces at ,sackett's ,harbor1 and proceeded against ,toronto4 ,on the #bgth of the month1 seventeen hundred men1 landing near ,toronto1 drove the ,british from the water's edge1 stormed a battery1 and rushed forward to carry the main defences4 ,at that moment the ,british magazine blew up with terrific violence4 ,two hundred men were killed or wounded4 ,general ,pike was fatally injured2 but the ,americans continued the charge and drove the enemy out of the town4 ,property to the value of a half million dollars was secured to the victors4 #aa4 ,while this movement was taking place the enemy made a descent on ,sackett's ,harbor4 ,but ,general ,brown rallied the militia and drove back the assailants4 ,the victorious troops at ,toronto reembarked and crossed the lake to the mouth of the ,niagara4 ,on the #bgth of ,may the ,americans1 led by ,generals ,chandler and ,winder1 stormed ,fort ,george4 ,the ,british retreated to ,burlington ,bay1 at the western extremity of the lake4 ,sidenote3 ,expedition against ,montreal4 #ab4 ,after the battle of the ,thames1 ,general ,harrison resigned his commission4 ,general ,dearborn was succeeded by ,general ,wilkinson4 ,the next campaign embraced the conquest of ,montreal4 ,on the #eth of ,november seven thousand men1 embarking twenty miles north of ,sackett's ,harbor1 sailed against ,montreal4 ,parties of ,british1 ,canadians1 and ,indians1 gathering on the bank of the river1 impeded the expedition4 ,general ,brown was landed with a considerable force to drive the enemy into the interior4 ,on the #aath of the month a severe but indecisive battle was fought at a place called ,chrysler's ,field4 ,the ,americans passed down the river to ,st4 ,regis1 and went into winter quarters at ,fort ,covington4 #ac4 ,in the mean time1 the ,british on the ,niagara rallied and recaptured ,fort ,george4 ,before retreating1 ,general ,mc,clure1 the commandant1 burned the town of ,newark4 ,the ,british and ,indians crossed the river1 took ,fort ,niagara1 and fired the villages of ,youngstown1 ,lewiston1 and ,manchester4 ,on the #cjth of ,december1 ,black ,rock and ,buffalo were burned4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,war on the ,ocean4 #ad4 ,off the coast of ,demerara1 on the #bdth of ,february1 #ahac1 the sloop-of-war ,hornet1 commanded by ,captain ,james ,lawrence1 fell in with the ,british brig ,peacock4 ,a terrible battle of fifteen minutes ensued1 and the ,peacock struck her colors4 ,while the ,americans were transferring the conquered crew1 the brig sank4 ,nine of the ,british sailors and three of ,lawrence's men were drowned4 ,illustration3 ,don't give up the ,ship4 #ae4 ,on returning to ,boston the command of the ,chesapeake was given to ,lawrence1 and again he put to sea4 ,he was soon challenged by ,captain ,broke1 of the ,british ,shannon1 to fight him4 ,eastward from ,cape ,ann the two vessels met on the #ast day of ,june4 ,the battle was obstinate1 brief1 dreadful4 ,in a short time1 every officer of the ,chesapeake was either killed or wounded4 ,lawrence was struck with a musket-ball1 and fell dying on the deck4 ,as they bore him down the hatchway1 he gave his last order--ever afterwards the motto of the ,american sailor--,,don',t ,,give ,,up ,,the ,,ship6 ,the ,shannon towed her prize into the harbor of ,halifax4 ,there the bodies of ,lawrence and ,ludlow1 second in command1 were buried by the ,british4 #af4 ,on the #adth of ,august the ,american brig ,argus was overtaken by the ,pelican and obliged to surrender4 ,on the #eth of ,september the ,british brig ,boxer was captured by the ,american ,enterprise off the coast of ,maine4 ,on the #bhth of the following ,march1 while the ,essex1 commanded by ,captain ,porter1 was lying in the harbor of ,valparaiso1 she was attacked by two ,british vessels1 the ,phbe and the ,cherub4 ,captain ,porter fought his antagonists until nearly all of his men were killed or wounded2 then struck his colors and surrendered4 ,sidenote3 ,british ,marauding4 #ag4 ,from honorable warfare the naval officers of ,england stooped to marauding4 ,early in the year1 ,lewiston was bombarded by a ,british squadron4 ,other ,british men-of-war entered the ,chesapeake and burned several villages on the shores of the bay4 ,at the town of ,hampton the soldiers and marines perpetrated great outrages4 ,commodore ,hardy1 to whom the blockade of ,new ,england had been assigned1 behaved with more humanity4 ,even the ,americans praised him for his honorable conduct4 ,so the year #ahac closed without decisive results4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,campaigns ,,of #ahad4 ,sidenote3 ,operations about ,niagara4 ,in the spring of #ahad another invasion of ,canada was planned2 but there was much delay4 ,not until the #c;d of ,july did ,generals ,scott and ,ripley1 with three thousand men1 cross the ,niagara and capture ,fort ,erie4 ,on the following day the ,americans advanced in the direction of ,chippewa village1 but were met by the ,british1 led by ,general ,riall4 ,on the evening of the #eth a severe battle was fought on the plain south of ,chippewa ,creek4 ,the ,americans1 led on by ,generals ,scott and ,ripley1 won the day4 ,illustration3 ,,operations ,,about ,,niagara4 #b4 ,general ,riall retreated to ,burlington ,heights4 ,on the evening of the #beth of ,july1 ,general ,scott1 commanding the ,american right1 found himself confronted by ,riall's army1 on the high grounds in sight of ,niagara ,falls4 ,here was fought the hardest battle of the war4 ,scott held his own until reinforced by other divisions of the army4 ,the ,british reserves were brought into action4 ,twilight faded into darkness4 ,a detachment of ,americans1 getting upon the ,british rear1 captured ,general ,riall and his staff4 ,the key to the enemy's position was a high ground crowned with a battery4 ,calling ,colonel ,james ,miller to his side1 ,general ,brown said1 ,colonel1 take your regiment and storm that battery4 ,i',,ll ,,try1 ,,sir1 was ,miller's answer2 and he did take it1 and held it against three assaults of the ,british4 ,general ,drummond was wounded1 and the royal army1 numbering five thousand1 was driven from the field with a loss of more than eight hundred4 ,the ,americans lost an equal number4 ,illustration3 ,colonel ,miller at ,lundy's ,lane4 #c4 ,after this battle of ,niagara1 or ,lundy's ,lane1 the ,american forces fell back to ,fort ,erie4 ,general ,gaines crossed over from ,buffalo1 and assumed command of the army4 ,general ,drummond received reinforcements1 and on the #dth of ,august invested ,fort ,erie4 ,the siege continued until the #agth of ,september1 when a sortie was made and the works of the ,british were carried4 ,general ,drummond then raised the siege and retreated to ,fort ,george4 ,on the #eth of ,november ,fort ,erie was destroyed by the ,americans1 who recrossed the ,niagara and went into winter quarters at ,black ,rock and ,buffalo4 #d4 ,the winter of #ahac-ad was passed by the army of the ,north at ,fort ,covington4 ,at this time1 the ,american fleet on ,lake ,champlain was commanded by ,commodore ,mc,donough4 ,the ,british general ,prevost now advanced into ,new ,york at the head of fourteen thousand men1 and ordered ,commodore ,downie to ascend the ,sorel with his fleet4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,plattsburgh4 #e4 ,the invading army reached ,plattsburgh4 ,commodore ,mc,donough's squadron lay in the bay4 ,on the #fth of ,september1 ,macomb retired with his forces to the south bank of the ,saranac4 ,for four days the ,british renewed their efforts to cross the river4 ,downie's fleet was now ready for action1 and a general battle was planned for the #aath4 ,prevost's army was to carry ,macomb's position1 while the ,british flotilla was to bear down on ,mc,donough4 ,the naval battle began first1 and was obstinately fought for two hours and a half4 ,downie and many of his officers were killed2 the heavier ,british vessels were disabled and obliged to strike their colors4 ,the smaller ships escaped4 ,after a severe action1 the ,british army on the shore was also defeated4 ,prevost retired precipitately to ,canada2 and the ,english ministry began to devise measures of peace4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,british ,burn ,washington4 #f4 ,late in the summer ,admiral ,cochrane arrived off the coast of ,virginia with an armament of twenty-one vessels4 ,general ,ross1 with an army of four thousand veterans1 came with the fleet4 ,the ,american squadron1 commanded by ,commodore ,barney1 was unable to oppose so powerful a force4 ,the enemy entered the ,chesapeake with the purpose of attacking ,washington and ,baltimore4 ,the larger division sailed into the ,patuxent1 and on the #aith of ,august1 the forces of ,general ,ross were landed at ,benedict4 ,commodore ,barney was obliged to blow up his vessels and take to the shore4 ,from ,benedict the ,british advanced against ,washington4 ,at ,bladensburg1 six miles from the capital1 they were met1 on the #bdth of the month1 by the forces of ,barney4 ,here a battle was fought4 ,the militia behaved badly2 ,barney was defeated and taken prisoner4 ,the ,president1 the cabinet1 and the people betook themselves to flight2 and ,ross marched unopposed into ,washington4 ,all the public buildings except the ,patent ,office were burned1 together with many of the public archives4 ,the unfinished ,capitol and the ,president's house were left a mass of ruins4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,siege of ,baltimore4 #g4 ,five days afterwards a portion of the ,british fleet reached ,alexandria4 ,the inhabitants purchased the forbearance of the enemy by the surrender of twenty-one ships1 sixteen thousand barrels of flour1 and a thousand hogsheads of tobacco4 ,after the capture of ,washington1 ,general ,ross proceeded with his army and fleet to lay siege to the city of ,baltimore4 ,the militia1 to the number of ten thousand1 gathered under command of ,general ,samuel ,smith4 ,on the #abth of ,september the ,british were landed at the mouth of the ,patapsco1 and the fleet began the ascent of the river4 ,the land-forces were met by the ,americans under ,general ,stricker4 ,a skirmish ensued1 in which ,general ,ross was killed2 but ,colonel ,brooks assumed command1 and the march was continued4 ,near the city the ,british came upon the ,american lines and were brought to a halt4 #h4 ,meanwhile the ,british squadron had ascended the ,patapsco and begun the bombardment of ,fort ,mc,henry4 ,from sunrise of the #acth until after midnight1 the guns of the fleet poured a tempest of shells upon the fortress4,c ,at the end of that time the works were as strong as at the beginning4 ,the ,british had undertaken more than they could accomplish4 ,disheartened and baffled1 they ceased to fire4 ,the land-forces retired1 and the siege of ,baltimore was at an end4 ,footnote ,c3 ,during the night of this bombardment1 ,francis ,s4 ,key1 who was detained on board a ,british ship in the bay1 composed ,the ,star ,spangled ,banner4 #i4 ,on the #ith and #ajth of ,august the village of ,stonington1 ,connecticut1 was bombarded by ,commodore ,hardy2 but the ,british1 attempting to land1 were driven back4 ,the fisheries of ,new ,england were broken up4 ,the salt-works at ,cape ,cod escaped by the payment of heavy ransoms4 ,all the harbors from ,maine to ,delaware were blockaded4 ,the foreign commerce of the ,eastern ,states was totally destroyed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hartford ,convention4 #aj4 ,from the beginning1 many of the people of ,new ,england had opposed the war4 ,the members of the ,federal party cried out against it4 ,the legislature of ,massachusetts advised the calling of a convention4 ,the other ,eastern ,states responded to the call2 and on the #adth of ,december the delegates assembled at ,hartford4 ,the leaders of the ,democratic party did not hesitate to say that the purposes of the assembly were disloyal and treasonable4 ,after remaining in session1 with closed doors1 for nearly three weeks1 the delegates published an address1 and then adjourned4 ,the political prospects of those who participated in the convention were ruined4 ,sidenote3 ,affairs in the ,south4 #aa4 ,during the progress of the war the ,spanish authorities of ,florida sympathized with the ,british4 ,in ,august of #ahad a ,british fleet was allowed by the commandant of ,pensacola to use that post for the purpose of fitting out an expedition against ,fort ,bowyer1 on the bay of ,mobile4 ,general ,jackson1 who commanded in the ,south1 remonstrated with the ,spaniards1 but received no satisfaction4 ,he thereupon marched a force against ,pensacola1 stormed the town1 and drove the ,british out of ,florida4 #ab4 ,general ,jackson next learned that the ,british were making preparations for the conquest of ,louisiana4 ,repairing to ,new ,orleans1 he declared martial law1 mustered the militia1 and adopted measures for repelling the invasion4 ,the ,british army1 numbering twelve thousand1 came from ,jamaica1 under ,sir ,edward ,pakenham4 ,on the #ajth of ,december the squadron entered ,lake ,borgne1 sixty miles northeast of ,new ,orleans4 ,illustration3 ,the ,battle of ,new ,orleans4 #ac4 ,on the #bb;d of the month ,pakenham's advance reached the ,mississippi1 nine miles below the city4 ,on the night of the #bc;d ,generals ,jackson and ,coffee advanced with two thousand ,tennessee riflemen to attack the ,british camp4 ,after a bloody assault1 ,jackson was obliged to fall back to a strong position on the canal1 four miles below the city4 ,pakenham advanced1 and on the #bhth cannonaded the ,american position4 ,on ,new ,year's day the attack was renewed1 and the enemy was driven back4 ,pakenham now made arrangements for a general battle4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,battle of ,new ,orleans4 #ad4 ,jackson was ready4 ,earthworks had been constructed1 and a long line of cotton-bales and sand-bags thrown up for protection4 ,on the #hth of ,january the ,british moved forward4 ,the battle began with the light of morning1 and was ended before nine o'clock4 ,column after column of the ,british was smitten with irretrievable ruin4 ,jackson's men were almost entirely secure from the enemy's fire1 while every discharge of the ,tennessee and ,kentucky rifles told with awful effect on the exposed veterans of ,england4 ,pakenham was killed2 ,general ,gibbs was mortally wounded4 ,only ,general ,lambert was left to call the fragments of the army from the field4 ,of the ,british1 seven hundred were killed1 fourteen hundred wounded1 and five hundred taken prisoners4 ,the ,american loss amounted to eight killed and thirteen wounded4 #ae4 ,general ,lambert retired with his ruined army4 ,jackson marched into ,new ,orleans and was received with great enthusiasm4 ,such was the close of the war on land4 ,on the #bjth of ,february the ,american ,constitution1 off ,cape ,st4 ,vincent1 captured two ,british vessels1 the ,cyane and the ,levant4 ,on the #bc;d of ,march the ,american ,hornet ended the conflict1 by capturing the ,british ,penguin off the coast of ,brazil4 ,sidenote3 ,treaty of ,ghent4 #af4 ,already a treaty of peace had been made4 ,in the summer of #ahad1 ,american commissioners were sent to ,ghent1 in ,belgium1 and were there met by the ambassadors of ,great ,britain4 ,the agents of the ,united ,states were ,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,james ,a4 ,bayard1 ,henry ,clay1 ,jonathan ,russell1 and ,albert ,gallatin4 ,on the #bdth of ,december a treaty was agreed to and signed4 ,in both countries the news was received with deep satisfaction4 ,on the #ahth of ,february the treaty was ratified by the ,senate1 and peace was publicly proclaimed4 #ag4 ,the only significance of the treaty was that ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states agreed to be at peace4 ,not one of the issues1 to decide which the war had been undertaken1 was even mentioned4 ,of the impressment of ,american seamen not a word was said4 ,the wrongs done to the commerce of the ,united ,states were not referred to4 ,of free trade and sailors' rights1 the battle-cry of the ,american navy1 no mention was made4 ,the treaty was chiefly devoted to the settlement of unimportant boundaries and the possession of some small islands in the ,bay of ,passamaquoddy4 ,sidenote3 ,condition of the ,country4 #ah4 ,the country was now burdened with a war-debt of one hundred million dollars4 ,the monetary affairs of the nation were in a deplorable condition4 ,the charter of the ,bank of the ,united ,states expired in #ahaa1 and the other banks had been obliged to suspend specie payment4 ,trade was paralyzed for the want of money4 ,in #ahaf a bill was passed by ,congress to recharter the ,bank of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,president interposed his veto2 but in the following session the bill was again passed in an amended form4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #ahag1 the bank went into operation2 and the business and credit of the country began to revive4 ,sidenote3 ,decatur in the ,barbary ,states4 #ai4 ,during the war with ,great ,britain the ,algerine pirates renewed their depredations on ,american commerce4 ,the government of the ,united ,states now ordered ,commodore ,decatur to proceed to the ,mediterranean and chastise the sea-robbers into submission4 ,after capturing two of their frigates he sailed into the ,bay of ,algiers1 and obliged the frightened dey to make a treaty4 ,the ,moorish emperor released his ,american prisoners1 relinquished all claims to tribute1 and gave a pledge that his ships should trouble ,american merchantmen no more4 ,decatur next sailed against ,tunis and ,tripoli1 compelled these states to give pledges of good conduct1 and to pay large sums for former depredations4 ,sidenote3 ,indiana ,admitted4 #bj4 ,the close of ,madison's administration was signalized by the admission of ,indiana into the ,union4 ,the new commonwealth was admitted in ,december1 #ahaf4 ,about the same time was founded the ,colonization ,society of the ,united ,states4 ,many distinguished ,americans became members of the association1 the object of which was to provide a refuge for free persons of color4 ,liberia1 in western ,africa1 was selected as the seat of the proposed colony4 ,immigrants arrived in sufficient numbers to found a flourishing negro ,state4 ,the capital was named ,monrovia1 in honor of ,james ,monroe1 who1 in the fall of #ahaf1 was elected as ,madison's successor4 ,daniel ,d4 ,tompkins1 of ,new ,york1 was chosen ,vice-president4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,monroe',s ,,administration1 #ahag-ahbe4 ,illustration3 ,james ,monroe4 ,the policy of ,madison was adopted by his successor4 ,the stormy times of the war gave place to many years of peace4 ,the new ,president was a native of ,virginia1 a man of great talents and accomplishments4 ,he had been a ,revolutionary soldier1 a member of ,congress1 governor of ,virginia1 envoy to ,france and ,england1 and ,secretary of ,state under ,madison4 ,the members of the cabinet were3 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,secretary of ,state2 ,william ,h4 ,crawford1 ,secretary of the ,treasury2 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun1 ,secretary of ,war2 ,william ,wirt1 ,attorney-general4 ,statesmen of all parties devoted their energies to the payment of the national debt4 ,commerce soon revived2 the government was economically administered1 and in a few years the debt was honestly paid4 ,sidenote3 ,mississippi ,admitted4 #b4 ,in ,december of #ahag ,mississippi was organized and admitted into the ,union4 ,the new ,state came with a population of sixty-five thousand souls4 ,at the same time the attention of the government was called to a nest of pirates on ,amelia ,island1 off the coast of ,florida4 ,an armament was sent against them1 and the lawless establishment was broken up4 ,another company1 on the island of ,galveston1 was also suppressed4 #c4 ,the question of internal improvements now began to be agitated4 ,without railroads and canals the products of the interior could never reach a market4 ,whether ,congress had a right to vote money to make public improvements was a question of debate4 ,among the ,states1 ,new ,york took the lead in improvements by constructing a canal from ,buffalo to ,albany4 ,the cost of the work was nearly eight million dollars4 ,sidenote3 ,trouble with the ,seminoles4 #d4 ,in #ahag the ,seminole ,indians of ,georgia and ,alabama became hostile4 ,some negroes and ,creeks joined the savages in their depredations4 ,general ,jackson was ordered to reduce the ,indians to submission4 ,he mustered a thousand riflemen from ,tennessee1 and in the spring of #ahah completely overran the hostile country4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cession of ,florida4 #e4 ,while on this expedition1 ,jackson took possession of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,the ,spanish troops stationed there were removed to ,pensacola4 ,two ,englishmen1 named ,arbuthnot and ,ambrister1 charged with inciting the ,seminoles to insurrection1 were tried by a court-martial and hanged4 ,jackson then captured ,pensacola1 and sent the ,spanish authorities to ,havana4 ,the enemies of ,general ,jackson condemned him for these proceedings1 but the ,president and ,congress justified his deeds4 ,the king of ,spain now proposed to cede ,florida to the ,united ,states4 ,on the #bb;d of ,february1 #ahai1 a treaty was concluded at ,washington ,city by which the whole province was surrendered to the ,american government4 ,the ,united ,states agreed to relinquish all claim to ,texas1 and to pay to ,american citizens1 for depredations committed by ,spanish vessels1 five million dollars4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,states4 #f4 ,in #ahah ,illinois1 the twenty-first ,state1 was organized and admitted into the ,union4 ,the population of the new commonwealth was forty-seven thousand4 ,in ,december of #ahai ,alabama was added1 with a population of one hundred and twenty-five thousand4 ,about the same time ,arkansas ,territory was organized4 ,in #ahbj the province of ,maine was separated from ,massachusetts and admitted into the ,union4 ,the population of the new ,state had reached two hundred and ninety-eight thousand4 ,in ,august of #ahba ,missouri1 with a population of about seventy-four thousand souls1 was admitted as the twenty-fourth member of the ,union4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,missouri ,compromise4 #g4 ,when the bill to admit ,missouri was brought before ,congress1 a proposition was made to prohibit slavery in the new ,state4 ,this was supported by the free ,states of the ,north1 and opposed by the slaveholding ,states of the ,south4 ,after long and angry debates the measure brought forward by ,henry ,clay1 and known as the ,,missouri ,,compromise1 was adopted4 ,its provisions were--first1 the admission of ,missouri as a slaveholding ,state2 secondly1 the division of the rest of the ,louisiana purchase by the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes2 thirdly1 the admission of new ,states south of that line1 with or without slavery1 as the people might determine2 fourthly1 the prohibition of slavery in all the new ,states north of the dividing-line4 #h4 ,the ,president's administration grew into high favor with the people2 and in #ahbj he was reelected4 ,as ,vice-president1 ,mr4 ,tompkins was again chosen4 ,the attention of the government was next called to a system of piracy which had sprung up in the ,west ,indies4 ,early in #ahbb an ,american fleet was sent thither1 and more than twenty piratical ships were captured4 ,in the following summer1 ,commodore ,porter was dispatched with a larger squadron4 ,the retreats of the sea-robbers were completely broken up4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine4 #i4 ,about this time many of the countries of ,south ,america declared their independence of foreign nations4 ,the people of the ,united ,states sympathized with the patriots of the ,south4 ,henry ,clay urged upon the government the duty of recognizing the ,south ,american republics4 ,in ,march of #ahbb1 a bill was passed by ,congress embodying his views4 ,in the ,president's message of #ahbc the declaration was made that the ,american continents are not subject to colonization by any ,european power4 ,this is the principle ever since known as the ,,monroe ,,doctrine4 ,illustration3 ,henry ,clay4 #aj4 ,in the summer of #ahbd the venerated ,la ,fayette1 now aged and gray1 revisited the land for whose freedom he had shed his blood4 ,the patriots who had fought by his side came forth to greet him4 ,in every city he was surrounded by a throng of shouting freemen4 ,his journey through the country was a triumph4 ,in ,september of #ahbe he bade adieu to the people1 and sailed for his native land4 ,while ,liberty remains1 the name of ,la ,fayette shall be hallowed4 #aa4 ,in the fall of #ahbd four candidates were presented for the presidency4 ,john ,quincy ,adams was put forward as the candidate of the ,east2 ,william ,h4 ,crawford1 of ,georgia1 as the choice of the ,south2 ,henry ,clay and ,andrew ,jackson as the favorites of the ,west4 ,neither candidate received a majority of the electoral votes1 and the choice of ,president was referred to the ,house of ,representatives4 ,by that body ,mr4 ,adams was elected4 ,for ,vice-president1 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun1 of ,south ,carolina1 was chosen by the electoral college4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,adams',s ,,administration1 #ahbe-ahbi4 ,sidenote3 ,john ,quincy ,adams4 ,the new ,president was a man of the highest attainments in literature and statesmanship4 ,at the age of eleven years he accompanied his father1 ,john ,adams1 to ,europe4 ,at ,paris1 and ,amsterdam1 and ,st4 ,petersburg the son continued his studies1 and became acquainted with the politics of the ,old ,world4 ,in his riper years1 he served as ambassador to the ,netherlands1 ,portugal1 ,prussia1 ,russia1 and ,england4 ,he had also held the offices of ,united ,states ,senator1 and ,secretary of ,state4 ,illustration3 ,john ,quincy ,adams4 #b4 ,the new administration was a time of peace2 but the spirit of party manifested itself with much violence4 ,the adherents of ,general ,jackson and ,mr4 ,crawford united in opposition to the ,president4 ,in the ,senate the political friends of ,mr4 ,adams were in the minority1 and their majority in the lower ,house lasted for only one session4 ,in his inaugural address the ,president strongly advocated the doctrine of internal improvements4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,creek ,cession4 #c4 ,when1 in the year #ahjb1 ,georgia relinquished her claim to ,mississippi ,territory1 the general government agreed to purchase for the ,state all the ,creek lands lying within her borders4 ,this pledge the ,united ,states had never fulfilled1 and ,georgia complained of bad faith4 ,finally1 in ,march of #ahbf1 a treaty was concluded between the ,creek chiefs and the ,president1 by which a cession of all their lands in ,georgia was obtained4 ,at the same time1 the ,creeks agreed to remove beyond the ,mississippi4 #d4 ,on the #dth ,july1 #ahbf--;fifty years after the ,declaration of ,independence--,john ,adams1 second ,president1 and his successor1 ,thomas ,jefferson1 died4 ,both had lifted their voices for freedom in the days of the ,revolution4 ,one had written1 and both had signed1 the great ,declaration4 ,both had lived to see their country's independence4 ,both had reached extreme old age3 ,adams was ninety2 ,jefferson1 eighty-two4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,protective ,tariff4 #e4 ,the question of the tariff was much discussed in ,congress at this time4 ,by a tariff is understood a duty levied on imported goods4 ,the object is--first1 to produce a revenue for the government2 and1 secondly1 to raise the price of the article on which the duty is laid1 in order that the domestic manufacturer of the thing taxed may be able to compete with the foreign producer4 ,when the duty is levied for the latter purpose it is called a protective tariff4 ,mr4 ,adams and his friends favored the tariff2 and in #ahbh protective duties were laid on fabrics made of wool1 cotton1 linen and silk2 and those on articles manufactured of iron1 lead1 etc41 were much increased4 #f4 ,with the fall of #ahbh1 ,mr4 ,adams1 supported by ,mr4 ,clay1 was put forward for reelection4 ,general ,jackson appeared as the candidate of the opposition4 ,in the previous election ,jackson had received more electoral votes than ,adams1 but the ,house of ,representatives had chosen the latter4 ,now the people had their way4 ,jackson was triumphantly elected1 receiving one hundred and seventy-eight electoral votes against eighty-three for his opponent4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,jackson',s ,,administration1 #ahbi-ahcg4 ,the new ,president was a military hero--a man of great talents and inflexible honesty4 ,his integrity was unassailable2 his will like iron4 ,he was one of those men for whom no toils are too arduous4 ,his personal character was impressed upon his administration4 ,at the beginning he removed nearly seven hundred office-holders and appointed in their stead his own political friends4 ,sidenote3 ,national ,bank ,abolished4 ,illustration3 ,andrew ,jackson4 #b4 ,in his first message the ,president took ground against rechartering the ,bank of the ,united ,states4 ,he recommended that the old charter be allowed to expire by its own limitation in #ahcf4 ,but the influence of the bank was very great2 and in #ahcb a bill to recharter was passed by ,congress4 ,the ,president opposed his veto2 a two thirds majority in favor of the bill could not be secured1 and the new charter failed4 ,sidenote3 ,nullification ,debates4 #c4 ,in the congressional session of #ahca-cb1 additional tariffs were levied upon goods imported from abroad4 ,by this act the manufacturing districts were favored at the expense of the agricultural ,states4 ,south ,carolina was specially offended4 ,open resistance was threatened in case the officers should attempt to collect the revenues at ,charleston4 ,in the ,united ,states ,senate the right of a ,state to nullify an act of ,congress was boldly proclaimed4 ,on that question had already occurred the great debate between ,colonel ,hayne1 senator from ,south ,carolina1 and ,daniel ,webster of ,massachusetts4 ,illustration3 ,daniel ,webster4 #d4 ,the ,president now took the matter in hand and issued a proclamation denying the right of a ,state to nullify the laws of ,congress4 ,but ,mr4 ,calhoun1 the ,vice-president1 resigned his office to accept a seat in the ,senate1 where he might defend the doctrines of his ,state4 ,the ,president1 having warned the ,south ,carolinians1 ordered a body of troops under ,general ,scott to proceed to ,charleston4 ,the leaders of the nullifying party receded from their position1 and bloodshed was avoided4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,black ,hawk ,war4 #e4 ,the lands of the ,sacs and ,foxes had been purchased by the government1 but the ,indians1 influenced by the chief ,black ,hawk1 refused to quit them4 ,the government insisted that they fulfill their contract1 and hostilities began in #ahcb4 ,general ,scott was sent with troops to ,chicago to cooperate with ,general ,atkinson4 ,the latter waged a vigorous campaign1 defeated the ,indians1 and made ,black ,hawk prisoner4 ,the captive chief was taken to ,washington and the great cities of the ,east4 ,returning to his own people1 he advised them to make peace4 ,the warriors abandoned the disputed lands and retired into ,iowa4 #f4 ,difficulties also arose with the ,cherokees of ,georgia--the most civilized of all the ,indian nations4 ,the ,president recommended the removal of the ,cherokees to lands beyond the ,mississippi4 ,the ,,indian ,,territory was accordingly set apart in #ahcd4 ,the ,indians yielded with great reluctance4 ,more than five million dollars was paid them for their lands4 ,at last ,general ,scott was ordered to remove them2 and during the years #ahcg-ch1 the ,cherokees were transferred to their new homes in the ,west4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,seminole ,war4 #g4 ,more serious was the conflict with the ,seminoles4 ,the trouble arose from an attempt to remove the tribe beyond the ,mississippi4 ,hostilities began in #ahce1 and continued for four years4 ,osceola and ,micanopy1 chiefs of the nation1 denied the validity of a former cession of ,seminole lands4 ,general ,thompson was obliged to arrest ,osceola and put him in irons4 ,the chief then gave his assent to the old treaty1 and was liberated1 but immediately entered into a conspiracy to slaughter the whites4 #h4 ,major ,dade1 with a hundred and seventeen men1 was now dispatched to reinforce ,general ,clinch at ,fort ,drane1 seventy-five miles from ,st4 ,augustine4 ,dade's forces fell into an ambuscade1 and all except one man were massacred4 ,on the same day ,osceola1 with a band of warriors1 surrounded a storehouse where ,general ,thompson was dining1 and killed him and four of his companions4 #i4 ,in two successive engagements in ,december and ,february the ,seminoles were repulsed4 ,in ,october ,governor ,call of ,florida1 with two thousand men1 overtook the savages in the ,wahoo ,swamp1 near the scene of ,dade's massacre4 ,here the ,indians were again defeated and driven into the ,everglades4 #aj4 ,in the mean time1 the ,president had put an end to the ,bank of the ,united ,states4 ,after vetoing the bill to recharter that institution1 he conceived that the surplus funds which had accumulated in its vaults had better be distributed among the ,states4 ,accordingly1 in ,october of #ahcc he ordered the funds of the bank1 amounting to ten million dollars1 to be distributed among certain ,state banks designated for that purpose4 ,the financial panic of #ahcf-cg1 following soon afterward1 was attributed by the ,whigs to the destruction of the national bank and the removal of the funds4 ,but the adherents of the ,president replied that the panic was attributable to the bank itself4 #aa4 ,in #ahcd the strong will of the chief magistrate was brought into conflict with ,france4 ,in #ahca the ,french king had agreed to pay five million dollars for injuries formerly done to ,american commerce4 ,but the government of ,france neglected the payment until the ,president recommended to ,congress to make reprisals on ,french merchantmen4 ,this measure had the desired effect1 and the indemnity was paid4 ,portugal was brought to terms in a similar manner4 ,sidenote3 ,arkansas and ,michigan ,admitted4 #ab4 ,in ,june of #ahcf1 ,arkansas1 with a population of seventy thousand1 was admitted into the ,union4 ,in the following ,january1 ,michigan ,territory was organized as a ,state and added to the ,republic4 ,the new commonwealth brought a population of one hundred and fifty-seven thousand4 ,in the autumn of #ahcf ,martin ,van ,buren was elected ,president4 ,as to the ,vice-presidency1 no one secured a majority1 and the choice devolved on the ,senate4 ,by that body ,colonel ,richard ,m4 ,johnson of ,kentucky was chosen4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,van ,,buren',s ,,administration1 #ahcg-ahda4 ,martin ,van ,buren1 eighth ,president1 was born at ,kinderhook1 ,new ,york1 on the #eth of ,december1 #aghb4 ,after receiving a limited education he became a student of law4 ,in #ahba he was chosen ,united ,states ,senator4 ,seven years afterward he was elected governor of ,new ,york1 and was then appointed ,minister to ,england4 ,from that important mission he returned to accept the office of ,vice-president4 ,illustration3 ,martin ,van ,buren4 ,sidenote3 ,taylor's ,campaign in ,florida4 #b4 ,one of the first duties of the new administration was to finish the ,seminole ,war4 ,in the fall1 ,osceola came to the ,american camp with a flag of truce2 but he was suspected of treachery1 seized and sent a prisoner to ,fort ,moultrie1 where he died4 ,the ,seminoles1 however1 continued the war4 ,in ,december ,colonel ,zachary ,taylor1 with a thousand men1 marched into the ,everglades of ,florida1 and overtook the savages near ,lake ,okeechobee4 ,a hard battle was fought1 and the ,indians were defeated4 ,for more than a year ,taylor continued to hunt them through the swamps4 ,in #ahci a treaty was signed1 and the ,seminoles were slowly removed to the ,west4 #c4 ,in #ahcg the country was afflicted with a serious monetary panic4 ,the preceding years had been a time of great prosperity4 ,a surplus of nearly forty million dollars1 in the national treasury1 had been distributed among the ,states4 ,owing to the abundance of money1 the credit system was greatly extended4 ,the banks of the country were multiplied to seven hundred4 ,vast issues of irredeemable paper money increased the opportunities for fraud4 ,sidenote3 ,financial ,panic4 #d4 ,the bills of these unsound banks were receivable for the public lands4 ,seeing that the government was likely to be defrauded out of millions1 ,president ,jackson issued an order1 called the ,,specie ,,circular1 by which the land agents were directed to receive nothing but coin in payment for the lands4 ,the effects of this circular followed in the first year of ,van ,buren's administration4 ,the banks suspended specie payment4 ,in the spring of #ahcg1 the failures in ,new ,york and ,new ,orleans amounted to one hundred and fifty million dollars4 #e4 ,when ,congress convened in the following ,september1 a bill authorizing the issue of ten millions of dollars in treasury notes was passed as a temporary expedient4 ,more important by far was the measure proposed by the ,president under the name of the ,,independent ,,treasury ,,bill1 by which the public funds were to be kept in a treasury established for that special purpose4 ,it was the ,president's plan thus to separate the business of the ,united ,states from the general business of the country4 #f4 ,the ,independent ,treasury ,bill was at first defeated1 but in the following regular session of ,congress the bill was again brought forward and adopted4 ,during the year #ahch the banks resumed specie payments4 ,but trade was less vigorous than before4 ,discontent prevailed2 and the administration was blamed with everything4 ,sidenote3 ,canadian ,insurrection4 #g4 ,in the after part of #ahcg a portion of the people of ,canada attempted to establish their independence4 ,the insurgents found sympathy in the ,united ,states4 ,seven hundred men from ,new ,york seized and fortified ,navy ,island1 in the ,niagara ,river4 ,the loyalists of ,canada1 however1 succeeded in firing the ,caroline1 the supply ship of the adventurers1 cut her moorings1 and sent the burning vessel over ,niagara ,falls4 ,for a while the peaceful relations of the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain were endangered4 ,but the ,president issued a proclamation of neutrality1 forbidding further interference with the affairs of ,canada4 #h4 ,mr4 ,van ,buren became a candidate for reelection1 and received the support of the ,democratic party4 ,the ,whigs put forward ,general ,harrison4 ,the canvass was one of the most exciting in the history of the country4 ,harrison was elected4 ,after controlling the government for forty years1 the ,democratic party was temporarily overthrown4 ,for ,vice-president1 ,john ,tyler of ,virginia was chosen4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,administrations ,,of ,,harrison ,,and ,,tyler1 #ahda-ahde4 ,illustration3 ,william ,h4 ,harrison4 ,illustration3 ,john ,tyler4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,pres4 ,harrison4 ,president ,harrison was a ,virginian by birth1 the adopted son of ,robert ,morris4 ,he was graduated at ,hampden-,sidney ,college1 and afterwards entered the army of ,st4 ,clair4 ,he became governor of ,indiana ,territory1 which office he filled with great ability4 ,he began his duties as ,president by calling a special session of ,congress4 ,an able cabinet was organized1 with ,daniel ,webster as ,secretary of ,state4 ,everything promised well for the new ,whig administration2 but before ,congress could convene1 the ,president1 now sixty-eight years of age1 fell sick1 and died just one month after his inauguration4 ,on the #fth of ,april ,mr4 ,tyler became ,president of the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,he was a statesman of considerable distinction2 a native of ,virginia2 a graduate of ,william and ,mary ,college4 ,in #ahbe he was elected governor of ,virginia1 and from that position he was sent to the ,senate of the ,united ,states4 ,he had been put upon the ticket with ,general ,harrison through motives of expediency2 for although a ,whig in political principles1 he was known to be hostile to the ,united ,states ,bank4 #c4 ,one of the first measures of the new ,congress was the repeal of the ,independent ,treasury ,bill4 ,a bankrupt law was then passed for the relief of insolvent business men4 ,the next measure was the rechartering of the ,bank of the ,united ,states4 ,a bill for that purpose was brought forward and passed2 but the ,president interposed his veto4 ,again the bill received the assent of both ,houses1 only to be rejected by the executive4 ,by this action a rupture was produced between the ,president and the party which had elected him4 ,all the members of the cabinet1 except ,mr4 ,webster1 resigned their offices4 ,sidenote3 ,webster-,ashburton ,treaty4 #d4 ,a difficulty now arose with ,great ,britain about the northeastern boundary of the ,united ,states4 ,since the treaty of #aghc that boundary had been in question4 ,lord ,ashburton1 on the part of ,great ,britain1 and ,mr4 ,webster1 on the part of the ,united ,states1 were called upon to settle the dispute4 ,they performed their work in a manner honorable to both nations2 and the present boundary was established4 #e4 ,in the next year1 the country was vexed with a domestic trouble in ,rhode ,island4 ,by the terms of the old charter of that ,state the right of suffrage was restricted to property-holders4 ,a proposition was now agreed upon to change the constitution1 but in respect to the manner of annulling the old charter there was a division4 ,sidenote3 ,dorr's ,rebellion4 #f4 ,in #ahdb the law and order party1 under ,governor ,king1 undertook to suppress the suffrage party under ,thomas ,w4 ,dorr4 ,the latter resisted1 and made an attempt to capture the ,state arsenal4 ,but the militia drove the assailants away4 ,dorr was arrested1 tried for treason1 and sentenced to imprisonment for life4 ,he was set at liberty again in #ahde4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mormons4 #g4 ,about the same time1 a difficulty occurred with the ,mormons4 ,under the leadership of ,joseph ,smith1 they first settled in ,missouri4 ,but the people of ,missouri opposed them4 ,the militia was called out1 and the ,mormons crossed into ,illinois1 and laid out the city of ,nauvoo4 ,but serious troubles soon arose with the people of ,illinois4 ,smith and his brother were arrested and lodged in jail4 ,in #ahdd a mob broke open the jail doors and killed the prisoners4 ,two years later the ,mormons resolved to leave the ,states4 ,they made a toilsome march to the far ,west2 crossed the ,rocky ,mountains2 reached the ,great ,salt ,lake2 and founded ,utah ,territory4 ,illustration3 ,fall of ,crockett in the ,alamo4 #h4 ,meanwhile1 a great agitation had arisen in regard to ,texas4 ,from #ahba to #ahcf this vast territory had been a province of ,mexico4 ,in the year #ahce the ,texans raised the standard of rebellion4 ,in a battle at ,gonzales1 a thousand ,mexicans were defeated by a ,texan force of five hundred4 ,on the #fth of ,march1 #ahcf1 the ,texan fort ,alamo was surrounded by eight thousand ,mexicans1 led by ,santa ,anna4 ,the garrison was overpowered and massacred4 ,the daring ,david ,crockett was one of the victims of the butchery4 ,in the next month was fought the decisive battle of ,san ,jacinto1 which gave to ,texas her independence4 ,sidenote3 ,texas applies for ,admission4 #i4 ,texas now asked to be admitted into the ,union4 ,at first the proposition was declined by ,president ,van ,buren4 ,in #ahdd the question of annexation was again agitated2 and on that question the people divided in the presidential election4 ,the annexation was favored by the ,democrats1 and opposed by the ,whigs4 ,james ,k4 ,polk of ,tennessee was put forward as the ,democratic candidate2 while the ,whigs chose their favorite leader1 ,henry ,clay4 ,the former was elected2 for ,vice-president1 ,george ,m4 ,dallas of ,pennsylvania was chosen4 #aj4 ,on the #bith of ,may1 #ahdd1 the news of the nomination of ,mr4 ,polk was sent from ,baltimore to ,washington by the ,,magnetic ,,telegraph4 ,it was the first dispatch ever so transmitted2 and the event marks an era in the history of civilization4 ,the inventor of the telegraph1 which has proved so great a blessing to mankind1 was ,professor ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse of ,massachusetts4 ,perhaps no other invention has exercised so beneficent an influence on the welfare of the human race4 ,sidenote3 ,admission of ,texas1 ,florida1 and ,iowa4 #aa4 ,when ,congress convened in ,december of #ahdd1 a bill to annex ,texas to the ,united ,states was brought forward1 and1 on the first of the following ,march1 was passed4 ,the ,president immediately gave his assent2 and1 on the #bith of ,december1 ,texas took her place in the ,republic4 ,on the #c;d of ,march in this year1 bills for the admission of ,florida and ,iowa were also signed2 but the latter ,state was not formally admitted until ,december #bhth1 #ahdf4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,polk',s ,,administration ,,and ,,the ,,mexican ,,war1 #ahde-di4 ,president ,polk was a native of ,north ,carolina4 ,in boyhood he removed with his father to ,tennessee1 and in #ahci rose to the position of governor of that ,state4 ,at the head of his cabinet he placed ,james ,buchanan of ,pennsylvania4 ,sidenote3 ,causes of ,mexican ,war4 #b4 ,a war with ,mexico was at hand4 ,on the #dth of ,july1 #ahde1 the ,texan legislature ratified the act of annexation4 ,the ,mexican minister at ,washington immediately left the country4 ,the authorities of ,texas sent an urgent request to the ,president to dispatch an army for their protection4 ,accordingly1 ,general ,zachary ,taylor was ordered to march thither from ,louisiana4 ,texas claimed the ,rio ,grande as her western limit1 while ,mexico was determined to have the ,nueces as the separating line4 ,the government of the ,united ,states resolved to support the claim of ,texas4 ,general ,taylor was sent to the mouth of the ,nueces1 and in ,january1 #ahdf1 he moved forward to the mouth of the ,rio ,grande1 and built ,fort ,brown4 ,illustration3 ,james ,k4 ,polk4 ,sidenote3 ,palo ,alto and ,resaca de la ,palma4 #c4 ,on the #bfth of ,april a company of ,american dragoons was attacked by the ,mexicans1 east of the ,rio ,grande1 and was obliged to surrender4 ,this was the first bloodshed of the war4 ,general ,taylor hastened to ,point ,isabel and strengthened the defenses4 ,this done1 he set out with a provision-train and an army of two thousand men to return to ,fort ,brown4 ,meanwhile1 the ,mexicans had crossed the ,rio ,grande and taken a position at ,palo ,alto4 ,on the #hth of ,may the ,americans came in sight and joined battle4 ,after a severe engagement the ,mexicans were driven from the field4 #d4 ,on the following day ,general ,taylor resumed his march1 and came upon the ,mexicans again at a place called ,resaca de la ,palma4 ,here the enemy fought better than on the previous day4 ,the ,american lines were severely galled until ,captain ,may's dragoons charged through a storm of grape-shot1 rode over the ,mexican batteries1 and captured ,la ,vega1 the commanding general4 ,the ,mexicans1 abandoning their guns1 fled in a general rout4 ,sidenote3 ,war ,declared4 #e4 ,when the news from the ,rio ,grande was borne through the ,union1 the war spirit was everywhere aroused4 ,on the #aath of ,may1 #ahdf1 ,congress made a declaration of war4 ,the ,president was authorized to accept fifty thousand volunteers1 and ten million dollars was placed at his disposal4 ,nearly three hundred thousand men rushed forward to enter the ranks4 #f4 ,the ,american forces were organized in three divisions3 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,the ,,west1 under ,general ,kearny1 to cross the ,rocky ,mountains against the northern ,mexican provinces2 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,the ,,center1 under ,general ,scott as commander-in-chief1 to march from the ,gulf coast into the heart of the enemy's country2 ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,occupation1 under ,general ,taylor1 to hold the districts on the ,rio ,grande4 ,sidenote3 ,monterey4 #g4 ,ten days after the battle of ,resaca de la ,palma ,general ,taylor captured ,matamoras1 and in ,august laid siege to ,monterey4 ,on the #bast of ,september the ,americans carried the heights in the rear of the town4 ,the ,bishop's ,palace was taken by storm on the following day4 ,on the #bc;d the city was successfully assaulted in front4 ,the ,american storming parties charged into the town2 hoisted the victorious flag of the ,union2 turned upon the buildings where the ,mexicans were concealed2 charged up dark stairways to the flat roofs of the houses2 and drove the enemy to a surrender4 ,illustration3 ,john ,charles ,fremont4 #h4 ,general ,santa ,anna was now called home from ,havana to take the presidency of ,mexico4 ,a ,mexican army of twenty thousand men was sent into the field4 ,general ,taylor again moved forward1 and on the #aeth of ,november captured the town of ,saltillo4 ,victoria1 a city in the province of ,tamaulipas1 was taken by ,general ,patterson4 #i4 ,in ,june of #ahdf the ,army of the ,west1 led by ,general ,kearny1 set out from ,fort ,leavenworth for the conquest of ,new ,mexico and ,california4 ,after a wearisome march he reached ,santa ,f1 and on the #ahth of ,august captured the city4 ,with four hundred dragoons ,kearny continued his march toward the ,pacific coast to find that ,california had already been subdued4 ,sidenote3 ,conquest of ,california4 #aj4 ,for four years ,colonel ,john ,c4 ,fremont had been exploring the country west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in ,california he received dispatches informing him of the war with ,mexico1 and began to urge the people of ,california to declare their independence4 ,a campaign was begun to overthrow the ,mexican authority4 ,meanwhile1 ,commodore ,sloat had captured the town of ,monterey1 on the coast4 ,a few days afterward ,commodore ,stockton took ,san ,diego4 ,before the end of summer the whole of ,california was subdued4 ,on the #hth of ,january1 #ahdg1 the ,mexicans were decisively defeated in the battle of ,san ,gabriel1 by which the authority of the ,united ,states was completely established4 ,sidenote3 ,buena ,vista4 #aa4 ,general ,scott now arrived in ,mexico and ordered the ,army of ,occupation to join him on the ,gulf for the conquest of the capital4 ,this left ,taylor and ,wool in a critical condition at ,monterey2 for ,santa ,anna was advancing against them with twenty thousand men4 ,general ,taylor was able to concentrate at ,saltillo an effective force of but four thousand eight hundred4 ,at the head of this small army he chose a battlefield at ,buena ,vista4 ,on the #bc;d of ,february the battle began4 ,against tremendous odds the field was fairly won by the ,americans4 ,the ,mexicans1 having lost nearly two thousand men1 made a precipitate retreat4 ,sidenote3 ,vera ,cruz and ,cerro ,gordo4 #ab4 ,on the #ith of ,march1 #ahdg1 ,general ,scott1 with twelve thousand men1 landed to the south of ,vera ,cruz1 and invested the city4 ,on the morning of the #bb;d a cannonade was begun4 ,on the waterside1 ,vera ,cruz was defended by the castle of ,san ,juan d',ulloa4 ,for four days the bombardment continued without cessation4 ,an assault was already planned1 when the authorities of the city proposed capitulation4 ,on the #bgth the ,american flag was raised over ,vera ,cruz4 #ac4 ,the route to the capital was now open4 ,on the #abth of the month ,general ,twiggs came upon ,santa ,anna1 with fifteen thousand men1 on the heights of ,cerro ,gordo4 ,on the #ahth1 the ,american army advanced to the assault2 and before noonday every position of the ,mexicans had been successfully stormed4 ,nearly three thousand prisoners were taken1 together with forty-three pieces of bronze artillery4 ,illustration3 ,operations in ,mexico4 #ad4 ,on the next day the victorious army entered ,jalapa4 ,the strong castle of ,perote was taken without resistance4 ,turning southward1 ,general ,scott next entered the ancient city of ,puebla1 no opposition being encountered4 ,scott here waited for reinforcements from ,vera ,cruz4 ,on the #gth of ,august ,general ,scott began his march upon the capital4 ,the army swept through the passes of the ,cordilleras to look down on the ,,valley ,,of ,,mexico4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,city of ,mexico4 #ae4 ,the city of ,mexico could be approached only by causeways leading across marshes and the beds of bygone lakes4 ,at the ends of these causeways were massive gates strongly defended4 ,to the left were ,contreras1 ,san ,antonio1 and ,molino del ,rey4 ,directly in front were the powerful defences of ,churubusco and ,chapultepec4 #af4 ,on the #bjth of ,august ,generals ,pillow and ,twiggs stormed the ,mexican position at ,contreras4 ,a few hours afterwards ,general ,worth carried ,san ,antonio4 ,general ,pillow led a column against one of the heights of ,churubusco2 and after a terrible assault the position was carried4 ,general ,twiggs stormed another height of ,churubusco4 ,still another victory was achieved by ,generals ,shields and ,pierce1 who defeated ,santa ,anna's reserves4 ,illustration3 ,scott's ,army ,entering the ,city of ,mexico4 #ag4 ,on the morning after the battles the ,mexican authorities came out to negotiate4 ,general ,scott rejected their proposals4 ,on the #hth of ,september ,general ,worth stormed the western defences of ,chapultepec1 and on the #acth that citadel itself was carried by storm4 #ah4 ,on the following morning forth came a deputation from the city to beg for mercy2 but ,general ,scott1 tired of trifling1 turned them away with contempt4 ,forward6 was the order that rang along the lines at sunrise4 ,the war-worn regiments swept into the famous city1 and at seven o'clock the flag of the ,union floated over the halls of the ,montezumas4 #ai4 ,on leaving his capital1 ,santa ,anna turned about to attack the hospitals at ,puebla4 ,here eighteen hundred sick men had been left in charge of ,colonel ,childs4 ,a gallant resistance was made by the garrison1 until ,general ,lane1 on his march to the capital1 fell upon the besiegers and scattered them4 ,it was the closing stroke of the war4 ,sidenote3 ,treaty of ,guadalupe ,hidalgo4 #bj4 ,the military power of ,mexico was completely broken4 ,in the winter of #ahdg-dh1 ,american ambassadors met the ,mexican ,congress at ,guadalupe ,hidalgo1 and on the #b;d of ,february a treaty was concluded4 ,by the terms of settlement the boundary-line between ,mexico and the ,united ,states was established on the ,rio ,grande from its mouth to the southern limit of ,new ,mexico2 thence westward along the southern1 and northward along the western boundary of that territory to the ,gila2 thence down that river to the ,colorado2 thence westward to the ,pacific4 ,new ,mexico and ,upper ,california were relinquished to the ,united ,states4 ,mexico guaranteed the free navigation of the ,gulf of ,california and the river ,colorado4 ,the ,united ,states agreed to surrender all places in ,mexico1 to pay that country fifteen million dollars1 and to assume all debts due from ,mexico to ,american citizens4 ,sidenote3 ,california and ,wisconsin ,admitted4 #ba4 ,a few days after the signing of the treaty1 a laborer1 employed by ,captain ,sutter on the ,american fork of ,sacramento ,river1 in ,california1 discovered some pieces of gold in the sand4 ,the news went flying to the ends of the world4 ,men thousands of miles away were crazed with excitement4 ,from all quarters adventurers came flocking4 ,before the end of #ahej1 ,san ,francisco had grown to be a city of fifteen thousand inhabitants4 ,in ,september of that year1 ,california was admitted into the ,union2 and by the close of #aheb1 the ,state had a population of more than a quarter of a million4 #bb4 ,in #ahdh ,wisconsin was admitted into the ,union4 ,the new commonwealth came with a population of two hundred and fifty thousand4 ,another presidential election was already at hand4 ,general ,lewis ,cass1 of ,michigan1 was nominated by the ,democrats1 and ,general ,zachary ,taylor by the ,whigs4 ,as the candidate of the new ,free ,soil party1 ex-,president ,martin ,van ,buren was put forward4 ,the memory of his recent victories in ,mexico made ,general ,taylor the favorite with the people1 and he was elected by a large majority4 ,as ,vice-president1 ,millard ,fillmore1 of ,new ,york1 was chosen4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,administrations ,,of ,,taylor ,,and ,,fillmore1 #ahdi-ahec4 ,the new ,president was a ,virginian by birth1 a soldier by profession4 ,during the war of #ahab he distinguished himself in the ,northwest4 ,in the ,seminole ,war he bore a part1 but earned his greatest renown in ,mexico4 ,his administration began with a violent agitation on the question of slavery in the territories4 ,sidenote3 ,slavery in the ,territories4 #b4 ,in his first message the ,president advised the people of ,california to prepare for admission into the ,union4 ,the advice was promptly accepted4 ,a convention was held at ,monterey in ,september of #ahdi4 ,a constitution prohibiting slavery was framed1 submitted to the people1 and adopted4 ,illustration3 ,zachary ,taylor4 #c4 ,when the question of admitting ,california came before ,congress the members were sectionally divided4 ,the admission of the new ,state was favored by the representatives of the ,north1 and opposed by those of the ,south4 ,the latter claimed that1 with the extension of the ,missouri ,compromise to the ,pacific1 the right to introduce slavery into ,california was guaranteed by the general government1 and that therefore the proposed constitution of the ,state ought to be rejected4 ,the reply of the ,north was that the ,missouri ,compromise had respect only to the ,louisiana purchase1 and that the ,californians had framed their constitution in their own way4 #d4 ,other questions added fuel to the controversy4 ,texas claimed ,new ,mexico as a part of her territory1 and the claim was resisted by the people of ,santa ,f4 ,the people of the ,south complained that fugitive slaves were aided and encouraged in the ,north4 ,the opponents of slavery demanded the abolition of the slave-trade in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,omnibus ,bill4 ,illustration3 ,millard ,fillmore4 #e4 ,henry ,clay appeared as a peacemaker4 ,on the #ith of ,may1 #ahej1 he brought forward1 as a compromise1 the ,,omnibus ,,bill1 of which the provisions were as follows3 first1 the admission of ,california as a free ,state2 second1 the formation of new ,states1 not exceeding four in number1 out of ,texas1 said ,states to permit or exclude slavery as the people should determine2 third1 the organization of territorial governments for ,new ,mexico and ,utah1 without conditions as to slavery2 fourth1 the establishment of the present boundary between ,texas and ,new ,mexico2 fifth1 the enactment of a stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves2 sixth1 the abolition of the slave-trade in the ,district of ,columbia4 #f4 ,when the ,omnibus ,bill was laid before ,congress1 the debates broke out anew4 ,while the discussion was at its height1 ,president ,taylor fell sick1 and died on the #ith of ,july1 #ahej4 ,mr4 ,fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered upon the duties of the ,presidency4 ,a new cabinet was formed1 with ,daniel ,webster at the head as ,secretary of ,state4 #g4 ,on the #ahth of ,september the compromise proposed by ,mr4 ,clay was adopted1 and received the sanction of the ,president4 ,the excitement in the country rapidly abated1 and the controversy seemed at an end4 ,shortly afterwards ,mr4 ,clay bade adieu to the ,senate1 and sought at ,ashland a brief rest from the cares of public life4 ,sidenote3 ,filibustering in ,cuba4 #h4 ,the year #ahej was marked by an attempt of some ,american adventurers to conquer ,cuba4 ,it was thought that the ,cubans were anxious to annex themselves to the ,united ,states4 ,general ,lopez organized an expedition in the ,south1 and on the #aith of ,may1 #ahej1 effected a landing in ,cuba4 ,but there was no uprising in his favor2 and he was obliged to return to ,florida4 ,renewing the attempt1 he and his band were defeated and captured by the ,spaniards4 ,lopez and the ringleaders were taken to ,havana and executed4 #i4 ,in #aheb a serious trouble arose with ,england4 ,by the terms of former treaties the coast-fisheries of ,newfoundland belonged to ,great ,britain4 ,but1 outside of a line drawn three miles from the shore1 ,american fishermen enjoyed equal rights4 ,a quarrel now arose as to how the line should be drawn across the bays and inlets2 and both nations sent men-of-war to the contested waters4 ,but in #ahed the difficulty was settled happily by negotiation2 and the right to take fish in the bays of the ,british possessions was conceded to ,american fishermen4 #aj4 ,during the summer of #aheb the ,hungarian patriot ,louis ,kossuth made a tour of the ,united ,states4 ,he came to plead the cause of ,hungary before the ,american people1 and was everywhere received with expressions of sympathy and good-will4 ,but the policy of the ,united ,states forbade the government to interfere on behalf of the ,hungarian patriots4 ,sidenote3 ,dr4 ,kane's ,arctic ,expedition4 #aa4 ,the attention of the ,american people was next directed to explorations in the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,in #ahde ,sir ,john ,franklin1 a brave ,english seaman1 went on a voyage of discovery to the ,north4 ,years went by1 and no tidings came from the daring sailor4 ,other expeditions were sent in search1 but returned without success4 ,in #ahec an ,arctic squadron was equipped1 the command of which was given to ,dr4 ,elisha ,kent ,kane2 but the expedition returned without the discovery of ,franklin4 #ab4 ,during the administrations of ,taylor and ,fillmore1 many distinguished men fell by the hand of death4 ,on the #cast of ,march1 #ahej1 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun of ,south ,carolina passed away4 ,his death was much lamented1 especially in his own ,state1 to whose interests he had devoted the energies of his life4 ,then followed the death of the ,president2 and then1 on the #bhth ,june1 #aheb1 the great ,henry ,clay sank to rest4 ,on the #bdth of the following ,october1 ,daniel ,webster died at his home at ,marshfield1 ,massachusetts4 ,the office of ,secretary of ,state was then conferred on ,edward ,everett4 #ac4 ,the political parties again marshaled their forces4 ,franklin ,pierce of ,new ,hampshire appeared as the candidate of the ,democratic party1 and ,general ,winfield ,scott as the choice of the ,whigs4 ,the question at issue before the country was the ,compromise ,act of #ahej4 ,both the ,whig and ,democratic platforms stoutly reaffirmed the doctrines of the ,omnibus ,bill4 ,a third party arose1 however1 whose members declared that all the ,territories of the ,united ,states ought to be free4 ,john ,p4 ,hale of ,new ,hampshire was put forward as the candidate of this ,free ,soil party4 ,mr4 ,pierce was elected by a large majority1 and ,william ,r4 ,king of ,alabama was chosen ,vice-president4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,pierce',s ,,administration1 #ahec-aheg4 ,the new chief magistrate was a native of ,new ,hampshire1 a graduate of ,bowdoin ,college1 and a statesman of considerable abilities4 ,on account of ill health1 ,mr4 ,king1 the ,vice-president1 was sojourning in ,cuba4 ,growing more feeble1 he returned to ,alabama1 where he died in ,april1 #ahec4 ,william ,l4 ,marcy of ,new ,york was chosen as ,secretary of ,state4 ,illustration3 ,franklin ,pierce4 #b4 ,in #ahec a corps of engineers was sent out to explore the route for a ,,pacific ,,railroad4 ,the enterprise was at first regarded as visionary and impossible4 ,in the same year1 the southwestern boundary was settled1 by purchase of the claim of ,mexico4 ,the territory thus acquired is known as the ,,gadsden ,,purchase4 ,sidenote3 ,perry in ,japan4 #c4 ,in the same year intercourse was opened between the ,united ,states and ,japan4 ,hitherto the ,japanese ports had been closed against the vessels of ,christian nations4 ,in order to remove this restriction1 ,commodore ,perry sailed into the ,bay of ,yeddo1 and prepared the way for a treaty1 by which the privileges of commerce were granted to ,american merchantmen4 #d4 ,on the very day of ,perry's introduction to the ,emperor1 the ,crystal ,palace was opened in ,new ,york for the ,,world',s ,,fair4 ,the palace was built of iron and glass4 ,specimens of the arts and manufactures of all nations were put on exhibition within the building4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,kansas-,nebraska ,bill4 #e4 ,in ,january of #ahed1 ,senator ,douglas of ,illinois brought forward a proposition to organize ,kansas and ,nebraska4 ,a clause was inserted in the bill providing that the people of the territories should decide for themselves whether the new ,states should be free or slaveholding4 ,this was a repeal of the ,missouri ,compromise of #ahba4 ,after several months' debate1 ,mr4 ,douglas's ,,kansas-,,nebraska ,,bill1 was finally passed4 ,sidenote3 ,disturbances in ,kansas4 #f4 ,whether ,kansas should admit slavery now depended upon the vote of the people4 ,the territory was soon filled with an agitated mass of people1 thousands of whom had been sent thither to vote4 ,in the elections of #ahed-ee1 the pro-slavery party was triumphant4 ,the ,state ,legislature at ,lecompton framed a constitution permitting slavery4 ,the ,free ,soil party1 declaring the elections to have been illegal1 assembled at ,topeka1 and framed a constitution excluding slavery4 ,civil war broke out between the factions4 ,the hostile parties were quieted1 but the agitation extended to all parts of the ,union4 ,the ,kansas question became the issue in the presidential election of #ahef4 #g4 ,james ,buchanan of ,pennsylvania was nominated as the ,democratic candidate4 ,he planted himself on the ,kansas-,nebraska ,bill1 and secured a heavy vote both ,north and ,south4 ,as the candidate of the ,free ,soil or ,people's party1 ,john ,c4 ,fremont of ,california was brought forward4 ,the exclusion of slavery from all the ,territories was the principle of the ,free ,soil platform4 ,the ,american or ,know ,nothing party nominated ,millard ,fillmore4 ,mr4 ,buchanan was elected by a large majority1 while the choice for the ,vice-presidency fell on ,john ,c4 ,breckinridge of ,kentucky4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,buchanan',s ,,administration1 #aheg-ahfa4 ,james ,buchanan was a native of ,pennsylvania1 born on the #acth of ,april1 #agia4 ,in #ahca he was appointed ,minister to ,russia1 was afterwards senator of the ,united ,states1 and ,secretary of ,state under ,president ,polk4 ,in #ahec he received the appointment of ,minister to ,great ,britain4 ,as ,secretary of ,state in the new cabinet1 ,general ,lewis ,cass of ,michigan was chosen4 ,sidenote3 ,trouble with the ,mormons4 #b4 ,in the first year of ,buchanan's administration1 serious trouble occurred with the ,mormons concerning the enforcement of the authority of the ,united ,states over ,utah4 ,an army was sent to the ,territory in #aheg to compel obedience4 ,for awhile the ,mormons resisted2 but when the ,president proclaimed a pardon to all who would submit1 they yielded2 and order was restored4 ,illustration3 ,james ,buchanan4 ,sidenote3 ,admission of ,minnesota and ,oregon4 #c4 ,the #eth of ,august1 #aheh1 was noted for the completion of the ,,first ,,telegraphic ,,cable across the ,atlantic4 ,the success of this great work was due to the genius of ,cyrus ,w4 ,field of ,new ,york4 ,the cable was stretched from ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland1 to ,valencia ,bay1 ,ireland4 ,after successful operation for a few weeks the cable ceased to work4 ,in #aheh ,minnesota was added to the ,union4 ,the population of the new ,state was a hundred and fifty thousand4 ,in the next year1 ,oregon1 the thirty-third ,state1 was admitted1 with a population of forty-eight thousand4 ,sidenote3 ,john ,brown's ,raid4 #d4 ,the slavery question continued to vex the nation4 ,in #aheg the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states1 after hearing the cause of ,dred ,scott1 formerly a slave1 decided that negroes are not and can not become citizens4 ,thereupon1 in several of the free ,states1 ,,personal ,,liberty ,,bills were passed1 to defeat the ,fugitive ,slave ,law4 ,in the fall of #ahei1 ,john ,brown of ,kansas1 with a party of twenty-one daring men1 captured the arsenal at ,harper's ,ferry1 and held his ground for two days4 ,the national troops were called out to suppress the revolt4 ,thirteen of ,brown's men were killed1 two made their escape1 and the rest were captured4 ,the leader and his six companions were tried by the authorities of ,virginia1 condemned and hanged4 ,sidenote3 ,election of ,abraham ,lincoln4 #e4 ,in the presidential canvass of #ahfj the candidate of the ,republican party was ,abraham ,lincoln of ,illinois4 ,the distinct principle of this party was opposition to the extension of slavery4 ,in ,april the ,democratic convention assembled at ,charleston2 but the ,southern delegates withdrew from the assembly4 ,the rest adjourned to ,baltimore and chose ,douglas as their standard-bearer4 ,there1 also1 the delegates from the ,south reassembled in ,june1 and nominated ,john ,c4 ,breckinridge of ,kentucky4 ,the ,american party chose as their candidate ,john ,bell of ,tennessee4 ,the contest resulted in the election of ,mr4 ,lincoln4 #f4 ,the leaders of the ,south had declared that the choice of ,lincoln for the presidency would be a just cause for the dissolution of the ,union4 ,a majority of the cabinet1 and a large number of senators and representatives in ,congress1 were advocates of disunion4 ,it was seen that all the departments of the government would shortly pass under the control of the ,republican party4 ,president ,buchanan was not himself a disunionist2 but he declared himself not armed with the constitutional power to prevent secession by force4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,secession of ,southern ,states4 #g4 ,on the #agth of ,december1 #ahfj1 a convention met at ,charleston1 and after three days passed a resolution that the union hitherto existing between ,south ,carolina and the other ,states was dissolved4 ,the sentiment of disunion spread with great rapidity4 ,by the first of ,february1 #ahfa1 six other ,states--,mississippi1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana1 and ,texas--had all passed ordinances of secession4 ,nearly all the senators and representatives of those ,states resigned their seats in ,congress and gave themselves to the disunion cause4 #h4 ,in the secession conventions a few of the speakers denounced disunion as bad and ruinous4 ,in the convention of ,georgia1 ,alexander ,h4 ,stephens delivered a powerful oration in which he defended the theory of secession1 but urged that the measure was impolitic1 unwise1 disastrous4 ,sidenote3 ,confederation of the ,south4 #i4 ,on the #dth of ,february1 #ahfa1 delegates from six of the seceded ,states assembled at ,montgomery1 ,alabama1 and formed a new government1 called the ,,confederate ,,states ,,of ,,america4 ,on the #hth1 the government was organized by the election of ,jefferson ,davis1 of ,mississippi1 as provisional ,president1 and ,alexander ,h4 ,stephens1 as ,vice-president4 ,a few days previous a peace conference met at ,washington1 and proposed certain amendments to the ,constitution4 ,but ,congress gave little heed2 and the conference adjourned4 #aj4 ,the country seemed on the verge of ruin4 ,the army was on remote frontiers--the fleet in distant seas4 ,with the exception of ,forts ,sumter1 ,moultrie1 ,pickens1 and ,monroe1 all the important posts in the seceded ,states had been seized by the ,confederate authorities4 ,early in ,january1 the ,president sent the ,star of the ,west to reinforce ,fort ,sumter4 ,but the ship was fired on1 and not allowed to land4 ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,v4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 #a4 ,give an account of the inauguration of the first ,president1 and of the organization of his ,cabinet4 #b4 ,outline the important measures of ,washington's first and of his second ,administration4 #c4 ,tell about the troubles with the ,miami ,indians4 #d4 ,what difficulty with ,great ,britain arose during the second ,administration1 and how was it adjusted8 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 #e4 ,sketch the ,administration of the second ,president1 and give the relations existing at this time between the ,united ,states and ,france4 #f4 ,tell about the ,alien and ,sedition laws4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 #g4 ,give an account of the election of ,thomas ,jefferson1 and of the changes that took place in the early part of his ,administration4 #h4 ,give an account of the organization of ,indiana ,territory1 and also of the ,louisiana ,purchase4 #i4 ,tell the story of ,aaron ,burr and his treason4 #aj4 ,tell of the ,british claim to the right of search1 and of the immediate results in ,america4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 #aa4 ,give an account of the election of ,president ,madison1 and of our relations with ,great ,britain4 #ab4 ,follow the ,indian war in the ,territory of ,indiana4 #ac4 ,outline the movements1 by land and by sea1 of the opening campaign of the war of #ahab4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 #ad4 ,describe the organization of the ,american army and the war movements of #ahac4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 #ae4 ,give the campaigns of #ahad and their results4 #af4 ,tell about the treaty of peace1 also state what had been the causes of the war1 and how the treaty affected the points in dispute4 #ag4 ,state the condition of monetary affairs in the ,united ,states1 and the measures that were adopted in their interest4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 #ah4 ,what characterized the ,administration of ,james ,monroe8 #ai4 ,give an account of the affairs in ,florida1 and of the cession of that territory by ,spain to the ,united ,states4 #bj4 ,tell about the ,missouri ,compromise1 and the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 #ba4 ,give the principal features of the peaceful ,administration of ,john ,quincy ,adams4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 #bb4 ,give an account of ,president ,jackson1 and of his treatment of the nullification doctrines that were brought forward in his time4 #bc4 ,tell of the ,indian affairs of these years1 and of their adjustment4 #bd4 ,describe the bank questions that now arose4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 #be4 ,outline the ,administration of ,martin ,van ,buren1 and especially the measures adopted to settle the monetary questions4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 #bf4 ,sketch the ,administrations of ,harrison and ,tyler4 #bg4 ,tell the story of the ,mormons4 #bh4 ,give an account of the affairs of ,texas1 and its admission into the ,union as a ,state4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 #bi4 ,what was the issue upon which ,president ,polk was elected1 and what were the great events of his term of office8 #cj4 ,follow the course of the ,mexican war1 giving its causes1 prominent generals1 leading events1 and results4 #ca4 ,give an account of the treaty with ,mexico4 #cb4 ,tell about the affairs in ,california1 and the discovery of gold4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 #cc4 ,state how the discussions of the slavery question were reopened by the admission of ,california into the ,union1 and tell of the ,omnibus ,bill4 #cd4 ,give an account of the ,arctic expeditions of this period4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 #ce4 ,give an account of the leading measures of ,president ,pierce's ,administration1 and of the general progress of the nation4 #cf4 ,what issues were prominent in the election of #ahef8 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 #cg4 ,tell of the civil and political affairs of the first three years of ,buchanan's ,administration4 #ch4 ,give an account of the political campaign of #ahfj1 and the results of the election of ,abraham ,lincoln to the presidency4 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 #ahfa-ahfe4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,lincoln',s ,,administration4--,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,war4 ,abraham ,lincoln was a native of ,kentucky1 born on the #abth of ,february1 #ahji4 ,at the age of seven he was taken to southern ,indiana1 where his boyhood was passed in poverty and toil4 ,on reaching his majority he removed to ,illinois1 where he distinguished himself as a lawyer4 ,he gained a national reputation in #aheh1 when1 as the competitor of ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas1 he canvassed ,illinois for the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,illustration3 ,abraham ,lincoln4 #b4 ,the new cabinet was organized with ,william ,h4 ,seward of ,new ,york as ,secretary of ,state4 ,salmon ,p4 ,chase of ,ohio was chosen ,secretary of the ,treasury1 and ,simon ,cameron1 ,secretary of ,war2 but he was soon succeeded by ,edwin ,m4 ,stanton4 ,the secretaryship of the navy was conferred on ,gideon ,welles4 ,in his inaugural address1 the ,president declared his purpose to repossess the forts and public property which had been seized by the ,confederates4 ,on the #abth of ,march1 a futile effort was made by the seceded ,states to obtain recognition from the national government4 ,then followed a second attempt to reinforce ,fort ,sumter4 ,sidenote3 ,fort ,sumter ,fired upon4 #c4 ,the defences of ,charleston were held by seventy-nine men under ,major ,robert ,anderson4 ,with this small force he retired to ,fort ,sumter4 ,confederate volunteers flocked to the city1 and batteries were built about the harbor4 ,the authorities of the ,confederate ,states determined to anticipate the movement of the government by compelling ,anderson to surrender4 ,on the #aath of ,april1 ,general ,p4 ,t4 ,beauregard1 commandant of ,charleston1 sent a flag to ,sumter1 demanding an evacuation4 ,major ,anderson replied that he should defend the fortress4 ,on the following morning the first gun was fired from a ,confederate battery2 and a bombardment of thirty-four hours' duration followed4 ,the fort was obliged to capitulate4 ,the honors of war were granted to ,anderson and his men4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,president calls for ,volunteers4 #d4 ,three days after the fall of ,sumter the ,president issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve three months4 ,two days later ,virginia seceded from the ,union4 ,on the #fth of ,may1 ,arkansas followed1 and then ,north ,carolina1 on the #bjth of the month4 ,in ,tennessee there was a powerful opposition to disunion1 and it was not until the #hth of ,june that a secession ordinance could be passed4 ,in ,missouri the movement resulted in civil war1 while in ,kentucky the authorities issued a proclamation of neutrality4 ,the people of ,maryland were divided into hostile parties4 ,sidenote3 ,harper's ,ferry and ,norfolk seized4 #e4 ,on the #aith of ,april1 when the ,massachusetts volunteers were passing through ,baltimore1 they were fired upon by the citizens and three men killed4 ,this was the first bloodshed of the war4 ,on the day previous1 a body of ,confederate soldiers captured the armory of the ,united ,states at ,harper's ,ferry4 ,on the #bjth of the month another company obtained possession of the great navy yard at ,norfolk4 ,the property thus captured amounted to fully ten millions of dollars4 ,on the #c;d of ,may the ,president issued a call for eighty-three thousand soldiers to serve for three years or during the war4 ,general ,winfield ,scott was made commander-in-chief4 ,war ships were sent to blockade the ,southern ports4 ,in the seceded ,states there was boundless activity4 ,the ,southern ,congress adjourned from ,montgomery1 to meet on the #bjth of ,july1 at ,richmond4 ,there ,mr4 ,davis and the officers of his cabinet had assembled to direct the affairs of the government4 ,so stood the antagonistic powers in the beginning of ,june1 #ahfa4 ,it is appropriate to look briefly into ,,the ,,causes of the conflict4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,war4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of the ,constitution4 ,the most general cause of the civil war in the ,united ,states was the different construction put upon the ,constitution by the people of the ,north and of the ,south4 ,a difference of opinion existed as to how that instrument was to be understood4 ,one party held that the ,union of the ,states is indissoluble2 that the ,states are subordinate to the central government2 that the acts of ,congress are binding on the ,states2 and that all attempts at nullification and disunion are disloyal and treasonable4 ,the other party held that the national ,constitution is a compact between sovereign ,states2 that for certain reasons the ,union may be dissolved2 that the sovereignty of the nation belongs to the individual ,states2 that a ,state may annul an act of ,congress2 that the highest allegiance of the citizen is due to his own ,state2 and that nullification and disunion are justifiable and honorable4 #b4 ,this question struck into the very heart of the government4 ,it threatened to undo the whole civil structure of the ,united ,states4 ,in the earlier history of the country the doctrine of ,state sovereignty was most advocated in ,new ,england4 ,afterwards the people of that section passed over to the advocacy of national sovereignty1 while the people of the ,south took up the doctrine of ,state rights4 ,as early as #ahca the right of nullifying an act of ,congress was openly advocated in ,south ,carolina4 ,thus it happened that the belief in ,state sovereignty became more prevalent in the ,south than in the ,north4 ,sidenote3 ,systems of ,labor4 #c4 ,a second cause of the civil war was the different system of labor in the ,north and in the ,south4 ,in the former section the laborers were freemen2 in the latter1 slaves4 ,in the ,south the theory was that capital should own labor2 in the ,north that both labor and capital are free4 ,in the beginning all the colonies had been slaveholding4 ,in the ,eastern and ,middle ,states the system of slave-labor had been abolished4 ,in the ,northwestern ,territory slavery was excluded from the beginning4 ,thus there came to be a dividing line drawn through the ,union4 ,whenever the question of slavery was agitated1 a sectional division would arise between the ,north and the ,south4 ,the danger arising from this source was increased by several subordinate causes4 #d4 ,the first of these was the invention of the ,,cotton ,,gin to replace hand-labor in separating the fiber from the seeds of the cotton plant4 ,it was invented in #agic by ,eli ,whitney1 of ,massachusetts1 and through its immediate adoption cotton suddenly became the most profitable of all the staples4 ,in proportion to the increased profitableness of cotton1 slave-labor grew in demand and slavery became an important and deep-rooted institution4 #e4 ,from this time onward1 there was constant danger of disunion4 ,in the ,,missouri ,,agitation of #ahbj-ba1 threats of dissolving the ,union were freely made in both the ,north and the ,south4 ,when the ,missouri ,compromise was enacted1 it was the hope of ,mr4 ,clay and his fellow-statesmen to save the ,union by removing the slavery question from politics4 #f4 ,next came the ,,nullification ,,acts of ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,southern ,states had become cotton-producing2 the ,eastern ,states had given themselves to manufacturing4 ,the tariff measures favored manufacturers at the expense of producers4 ,mr4 ,calhoun proposed to remedy the evil by annulling the laws of ,congress2 and another compromise was found necessary in order to allay the animosities which had been awakened4 #g4 ,the ,,annexation ,,of ,,texas led to a renewal of the agitation4 ,those who opposed the ,mexican ,war did so because of the fact that thereby slavery would be extended4 ,whether the territory acquired should be made into free or slaveholding ,states was the question next agitated4 ,this led to the ,,omnibus ,,bill1 by which the excitement was again allayed4 #h4 ,in #ahed the ,,kansas-,,nebraska ,,bill opened the question anew4 ,meanwhile1 the character of the ,northern and the ,southern people had become quite different4 ,in population and wealth the ,north had far outgrown the ,south4 ,in #ahfj ,mr4 ,lincoln was elected by the votes of the ,northern ,states4 ,the people of the ,south were exasperated at the choice of a chief-magistrate whom they regarded as hostile to their interests4 ,sidenote3 ,sectional ,estrangement4 #i4 ,the third general cause of the war was the want of intercourse between the people of the ,north and the ,south4 ,the great railroads ran east and west4 ,between the ,north and the ,south there was little travel4 ,from want of acquaintance the people became estranged1 jealous1 and suspicious4 #aj4 ,a fourth cause was the publication of sectional books4 ,during the twenty years preceding the war1 many works were published whose popularity depended on the animosity existing between the two sections4 ,in such books the manners and customs of one section were held up to the contempt of the people of the other section4 ,in the ,north the belief was fostered that the ,south was given up to inhumanity2 while in the ,south the opinion prevailed that the ,northern people were a mean race of cowardly ,yankees4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,demagogues4 #aa4 ,the evil influence of demagogues may be cited as the fifth general cause of the war4 ,from #ahej to #ahfj1 ,american statesmanship and patriotism were at a low ebb4 ,ambitious and scheming politicians had obtained control of the political parties4 ,the welfare of the country was put aside as of little value4 ,in order to gain power1 many unprincipled men in the ,south were anxious to destroy the ,union1 while others in the ,north were willing to abuse the ,union for the same purpose4 #ab4 ,added to all these causes was a growing public opinion in the ,north against the institution of slavery itself2 a belief that slavery was wrong and ought to be destroyed4 ,this opinion1 comparatively feeble at the beginning of the war1 was rapidly developed1 and had much to do in determining the final character of the conflict4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,events ,,of #ahfa4 ,sidenote3 ,operations in ,west ,virginia4 ,on the #bdth of ,may the ,union army crossed the ,potomac from ,washington to ,alexandria4 ,at this time ,fortress ,monroe was held by twelve thousand men1 under ,general ,b4 ,f4 ,butler4 ,at ,bethel ,church1 in that vicinity1 was stationed a detachment of ,confederates4 ,on the #ajth of ,june1 a body of ,union troops was sent to dislodge them1 but was repulsed with considerable loss4 ,illustration3 ,vicinity of ,manassas ,junction1 #ahfa4 #b4 ,in the last of ,may1 ,general ,t4 ,a4 ,morris moved forward from ,parkersburg to ,grafton1 ,west ,virginia4 ,on the #c;d of ,june he defeated a force of ,confederates at ,phillippi4 ,general ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan now took the command1 and on the #aath of ,july gained a victory at ,rich ,mountain4 ,on the #ajth of ,august1 ,general ,floyd1 with a detachment of ,confederates at ,carnifex ,ferry1 was attacked by ,general ,william ,s4 ,rosecrans and obliged to retreat4 ,on the #adth of ,september the ,confederates1 under ,general ,robert ,e4 ,lee1 were beaten in an engagement at ,cheat ,mountain4 #c4 ,in the beginning of ,june1 ,general ,robert ,patterson marched against ,harper's ,ferry4 ,on the #aath of the month a division commanded by ,colonel ,lewis ,wallace made a successful onset upon the ,confederates at ,romney4 ,patterson then crossed the ,potomac and pressed back the ,confederate forces to ,winchester4 ,thus far there had been only petty engagements and skirmishes4 ,the time had now come for the first great battle of the war4 ,sidenote3 ,first ,battle of ,bull ,run4 #d4 ,the main body of the ,confederates1 under ,general ,beauregard1 was concentrated at ,manassas ,junction1 twenty-seven miles west of ,alexandria4 ,another large force1 commanded by ,general ,joseph ,e4 ,johnston1 was in the ,shenandoah ,valley4 ,the ,union army at ,alexandria was commanded by ,general ,irwin ,mc,dowell1 while ,general ,patterson was stationed in front of ,johnston4 ,on the #afth of ,july the national army moved forward1 and on the morning of the #bast came upon the ,confederate army between ,bull ,run and ,manassas ,junction4 ,a general battle ensued1 continuing with great severity until noonday4 ,in the crisis of the conflict ,general ,johnston arrived with nearly six thousand fresh troops from the ,shenandoah ,valley2 and in a short time ,mc,dowell's army was hurled back in rout and confusion into the defenses of ,washington4 ,the ,union loss in killed1 wounded1 and prisoners amounted to two thousand nine hundred and fifty-two2 that of the ,confederates to two thousand and fifty4 #e4 ,meanwhile1 on the #bjth of ,july1 the new ,confederate government was organized at ,richmond4 ,jefferson ,davis1 the ,president1 was a man of wide experience in the affairs of state1 and considerable reputation as a soldier4 ,he had served in both houses of the national ,congress1 and as a member of ,pierce's cabinet4 ,his decision of character and advocacy of ,state rights had made him a natural leader of the ,south4 ,sidenote3 ,operations in ,missouri4 #f4 ,the next military movements were made in ,missouri4 ,a convention1 called by ,governor ,jackson in the previous ,march1 had refused to pass an ordinance of secession4 ,but the disunionists were numerous and powerful2 and the ,state became a battlefield4 ,both ,federal and ,confederate camps were organized4 ,by capturing the ,united ,states arsenal at ,liberty1 the ,confederates obtained a supply of arms and ammunition4 #g4 ,they hurried up troops1 also1 from ,arkansas and ,texas in order to secure the lead mines in the southwest part of the ,state4 ,on the #agth of ,june ,lyon defeated ,governor ,jackson at ,booneville1 and on the #eth of ,july the ,unionists1 led by ,colonel ,franz ,sigel1 were again successful in a fight at ,carthage4 ,on the #ajth of ,august a hard battle was fought at ,wilson's ,creek1 near ,springfield4 ,general ,lyon made a daring attack on the ,confederates under ,generals ,mc,culloch and ,price4 ,the ,federals at first gained the field1 but ,general ,lyon was killed1 and his men retreated4 #h4 ,general ,price now pressed northward to ,lexington1 which was defended by two thousand six hundred ,federals1 commanded by ,colonel ,mulligan4 ,a stubborn defence was made1 but ,mulligan was obliged to capitulate4 ,on the #afth of ,october ,lexington was retaken by the ,federals4 ,general ,john ,c4 ,fremont followed the retreating ,confederates as far as ,springfield1 when he was superseded by ,general ,hunter4 ,the latter retreated to ,st4 ,louis1 and ,price fell back toward ,arkansas4 #i4 ,the ,confederates captured the town of ,columbus in ,kentucky1 and also gathered in force at ,belmont1 on the opposite bank of the ,mississippi4 ,colonel ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant1 with three thousand ,illinois troops1 was now sent into ,missouri4 ,on the #gth of ,november he made a successful attack on ,belmont2 but was afterwards obliged to retreat4 ,sidenote3 ,ball's ,bluff4 #aj4 ,after the rout at ,bull ,run1 troops were rapidly hurried to ,washington4 ,the aged ,general ,scott retired from active duty1 and ,general ,mc,clellan took command of the ,army of the ,potomac4 ,by ,october his forces had increased to a hundred and fifty thousand men4 ,on the #bast of that month two thousand troops were sent across the ,potomac at ,ball's ,bluff4 ,without proper support1 the ,federals were attacked by a force of ,confederates under ,general ,evans1 driven to the river1 their leader1 ,colonel ,baker1 killed1 and the whole force routed with a loss of eight hundred men4 ,sidenote3 ,southern ,coast ,blockaded4 #aa4 ,in the summer of #ahfa a naval expedition proceeded to the ,north ,carolina coast1 and on the #bith of ,august captured the forts at ,hatteras ,inlet4 ,on the #gth of ,november an armament1 under ,commodore ,samuel ,f4 ,du ,pont and ,general ,thomas ,w4 ,sherman1 reached ,port ,royal1 and captured ,forts ,walker and ,beauregard4 ,the blockade became so rigorous that communication between the ,confederate ,states and foreign nations was cut off4 ,in this juncture of affairs1 a serious difficulty arose with ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan4 ,sidenote3 ,mason and ,slidell4 #ab4 ,the ,confederate government appointed ,james ,m4 ,mason and ,john ,slidell as ambassadors to ,france and ,england4 ,the envoys1 escaping from ,charleston1 reached ,havana in safety4 ,at that port they took passage on the ,british steamer ,trent for ,europe4 ,on the #hth of ,november the vessel was overtaken by the ,united ,states frigate ,san ,jacinto1 commanded by ,captain ,wilkes4 ,the ,trent was hailed and boarded2 the two ambassadors were seized1 transferred to the ,san ,jacinto1 and carried to ,boston4 ,when the ,trent reached ,england1 the whole kingdom burst out in a blaze of wrath4 #ac4 ,at first the government of the ,united ,states was disposed to defend ,captain ,wilkes's action4 ,had such a course been taken1 war with ,great ,britain would have been inevitable4 ,the country was saved from the peril by the diplomacy of ,william ,h4 ,seward1 the ,secretary of ,state4 ,when ,great ,britain demanded reparation for the insult1 and the liberation of the prisoners1 he replied in a mild1 cautious1 and very able paper4 ,it was conceded that the seizure of ,mason and ,slidell was not justifiable according to the law of nations4 ,an apology was made for the wrong done2 the ,confederate ambassadors were liberated1 put on board a vessel1 and sent to their destination4 ,so ended the first year of the civil war4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,,campaigns ,,of #ahfb4 ,the ,federal forces now numbered about four hundred and fifty thousand men4 ,of these nearly two hundred thousand1 under ,general ,mc,clellan1 were encamped near ,washington4 ,another army1 commanded by ,general ,buell1 was stationed at ,louisville1 ,kentucky4 #b4 ,at the beginning of the year the capture of ,fort ,henry on the ,tennessee and ,fort ,donelson1 on the ,cumberland1 was planned by ,general ,halleck4 ,commodore ,foote was sent up the ,tennessee with a fleet of gunboats1 and ,general ,grant was ordered to move forward against ,fort ,henry4 ,before the land-forces reached that place1 the flotilla compelled the evacuation of the fort1 the ,confederates escaping to ,donelson4 ,sidenote3 ,fort ,donelson4 #c4 ,the ,federal gunboats now dropped down the ,tennessee and then ascended the ,cumberland4 ,grant pressed on from ,fort ,henry1 and began the siege of ,fort ,donelson4 ,the defences were manned by ten thousand ,confederates1 under ,general ,buckner4 ,grant's force numbered nearly thirty thousand4 ,on the #afth of ,february ,buckner was obliged to surrender4 ,his army became prisoners of war1 and all the magazines1 stores1 and guns of the fort fell into the hands of the ,federals4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,shiloh4 #d4 ,general ,grant now ascended the ,tennessee to ,pittsburg ,landing4 ,a camp was established at ,shiloh ,church1 near the river2 and here1 on the #fth of ,april1 the ,union army was attacked by the ,confederates1 led by ,generals ,albert ,s4 ,johnston and ,beauregard4 ,all day long the battle raged with great slaughter on both sides4 ,night fell on the scene with the conflict undecided2 but in the crisis ,general ,buell arrived with strong reinforcements4 ,in the morning ,general ,grant assumed the offensive4 ,general ,johnston had been killed1 and ,beauregard was obliged to retreat to ,corinth4 ,the losses in killed1 wounded1 and missing were more than ten thousand on each side4 ,sidenote3 ,island ,number ,ten4 #e4 ,after the ,confederates evacuated ,columbus1 ,kentucky1 they fortified ,island ,number ,ten in the ,mississippi1 opposite ,new ,madrid4 ,against this place ,general ,pope advanced with a body of ,western troops1 while ,commodore ,foote descended the ,mississippi with his gunboats4 ,pope captured ,new ,madrid2 and for twenty-three days ,island ,number ,ten was besieged4 ,on the #gth of ,april the ,confederates attempted to escape2 but ,pope had cut off the retreat1 and the garrison1 numbering five thousand1 was captured4 ,on the #fth of ,june the city of ,memphis was taken by the fleet of ,commodore ,davis4 #f4 ,early in the year ,general ,curtis pushed forward into ,arkansas1 and took position at ,pea ,ridge1 among the mountains4 ,here he was attacked on the #fth of ,march by a ,confederate force of twenty thousand men1 which included a large number of ,indians from the adjacent ,indian ,territory4 ,a hard-fought battle ensued1 lasting for two days1 in which the ,federals were victorious4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,merrimac and the ,monitor4 #g4 ,after the destruction of the navy yard at ,norfolk1 the ,confederates had raised the frigate ,merrimac1 one of the sunken ships1 and plated the sides with iron4 ,the vessel was then sent to attack the ,union fleet at ,fortress ,monroe4 ,reaching that place on the #hth of ,march1 the ,merrimac began the work of destruction2 and two valuable vessels1 the ,cumberland and the ,congress1 were sent to the bottom4 ,during the night1 however1 a strange ship1 called the ,monitor1 invented by ,captain ,john ,ericsson1 arrived from ,new ,york2 and on the following morning the two iron-clad monsters turned their enginery upon each other4 ,after fighting for five hours1 the ,merrimac was obliged to retire to ,norfolk1 badly damaged4 ,illustration3 ,merrimac and ,monitor4 #h4 ,on the #hth of ,february a ,federal squadron attacked the ,confederate fortifications on ,roanoke ,island4 ,the garrison1 nearly three thousand strong1 were taken prisoners4 ,burnside next proceeded against ,newbern1 and on the #adth of ,march captured the city4 ,proceeding southward1 he reached the harbor of ,beaufort1 and on the #beth of ,april took possession of the town4 ,sidenote3 ,capture of ,new ,orleans4 #i4 ,on the #aath of the same month ,fort ,pulaski1 at the mouth of the ,savannah1 surrendered to ,general ,gillmore4 ,early in ,april1 a powerful squadron1 under ,general ,butler and ,admiral ,farragut1 ascended the ,mississippi and attacked ,forts ,jackson and ,st4 ,philip1 thirty miles above the ,gulf4 ,from the #ahth to the #bdth the fight continued without cessation4 ,at the end of that time ,admiral ,farragut succeeded in running past the batteries4 ,on the next day he reached ,new ,orleans1 and captured the city4 ,general ,butler became commandant1 and the fortifications were manned with fifteen thousand ,federal soldiers4 ,three days afterwards1 ,forts ,jackson and ,st4 ,philip surrendered to ,admiral ,porter4 ,sidenote3 ,campaign in ,kentucky4 #aj4 ,the ,confederates now invaded ,kentucky1 in two strong divisions1 the one led by ,general ,kirby ,smith and the other by ,general ,bragg4 ,on the #cjth of ,august ,smith's army reached ,richmond1 and routed the ,federals stationed there1 with heavy losses4 ,lexington was taken1 and then ,frankfort2 and ,cincinnati was saved from capture only by the exertions of ,general ,wallace4 ,meanwhile1 the army of ,general ,bragg advanced from ,chattanooga1 and on the #agth of ,september captured a ,federal division of four thousand five hundred men at ,mumfordsville4 ,the ,confederate general pressed on toward ,louisville1 and would have taken the city but for the arrival of ,general ,buell4 ,buell's army was increased to one hundred thousand men4 ,in ,october he again took the field1 and on the #hth of the month overtook ,general ,bragg at ,perryville4 ,here a severe but indecisive battle was fought2 and the ,confederates1 laden with spoils1 continued their retreat into east ,tennessee4 ,sidenote3 ,operations in ,mississippi4 #aa4 ,on the #aith of ,september a hard battle was fought at ,iuka1 between a ,federal army1 under ,generals ,rosecrans and ,grant1 and a ,confederate force1 under ,general ,price4 ,the latter was defeated1 losing1 in addition to his killed and wounded1 nearly a thousand prisoners4 ,rosecrans now took post at ,corinth with twenty thousand men2 while ,grant1 with the remainder of the ,federal forces1 proceeded to ,jackson1 ,tennessee4 ,generals ,van ,dorn and ,price turned about to recapture ,corinth4 ,there1 on the #c;d of ,october1 another severe battle ensued1 which ended1 after two days' fighting1 in the repulse of the ,confederates4 #ab4 ,in ,december ,general ,sherman dropped down the river from ,memphis to the ,yazoo4 ,on the #bith of the month he made an unsuccessful attack on the ,confederates at ,chickasaw ,bayou4 ,the assault was exceedingly disastrous to the ,federals1 who lost in killed1 wounded1 and prisoners more than three thousand men4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,murfreesborough4 #ac4 ,general ,rosecrans was now transferred to the command of the ,army of the ,cumberland1 with headquarters at ,nashville4 ,general ,bragg1 on his retirement from ,kentucky1 had thrown his forces into ,murfreesborough4 ,rosecrans moved forward1 and on the #cjth of ,december came upon the ,confederates on ,stone's ,river1 a short distance northwest of ,murfreesborough4 ,on the following morning a furious battle ensued1 continuing until nightfall4 ,the ,union army was brought to the verge of ruin4 ,but during the night ,rosecrans rallied his forces1 and at daybreak was ready to renew the conflict4 ,on that day there was a lull4 ,on the morning of the #b;d of ,january ,bragg's army again rushed to the onset1 gained some successes at first1 was then checked1 and finally driven back with heavy losses4 ,bragg withdrew his shattered columns1 and filed off toward ,chattanooga4 ,sidenote3 ,jackson's ,valley ,campaign4 #ad4 ,in ,virginia the first scenes of the year were enacted in the ,shenandoah ,valley4 ,general ,banks was sent forward with a strong division1 and in the last of ,march occupied the town of ,harrisonburg4 ,to counteract this movement1 ,stonewall ,jackson was sent with twenty thousand men to pass the ,blue ,ridge and cut off ,banks's retreat4 ,at ,front ,royal1 the ,confederates fell upon the ,federals1 routed them1 and captured their guns and stores4 ,banks succeeded1 however1 in passing with his main division to ,strasburg and escaping out of the valley4 #ae4 ,jackson now found himself in great peril1 for ,general ,fremont had been sent into the valley to intercept the ,confederate retreat4 ,but he succeeded in reaching ,cross ,keys before ,fremont could attack him4 ,the battle at ,cross ,keys was not decisive1 and ,jackson pressed on to ,port ,republic1 where he attacked and defeated the division of ,general ,shields4 ,illustration3 ,vicinity of ,richmond1 #ahfb4 #af4 ,on the #ajth of ,march the ,army of the ,potomac set out from the camps about ,washington to capture the ,confederate capital4 ,the advance proceeded as far as ,manassas ,junction1 where ,mc,clellan1 changing his plan1 embarked a hundred and twenty thousand of his men for ,fortress ,monroe4 ,from that place1 on the #dth of ,april1 the ,union army advanced to ,yorktown4 ,this place was defended by ten thousand ,confederates1 under ,general ,magruder2 and here ,mc,clellan's advance was delayed for a month4 ,on the #dth of ,may1 ,yorktown was taken and the ,federal army pressed on to ,west ,point4 ,mc,clellan reached the ,chickahominy without serious resistance1 and crossed at ,bottom's ,bridge4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,peninsular ,campaign4 #ag4 ,on the #ajth of ,may ,general ,wool1 the commandant of ,fortress ,monroe1 led an expedition against ,norfolk and captured the town4 ,on the next day the ,confederate iron-clad ,virginia was blown up to save her from capture4 ,the ,james ,river was thus opened for the supply-transports of the ,army of the ,potomac4 ,on the #cast of ,may that army was attacked at a place called ,fair ,oaks1 or ,seven ,pines4 ,here for a part of two days the battle raged with great fury4 ,at last the ,confederates were driven back2 but ,mc,clellan's victory was by no means decisive4 ,general ,joseph ,e4 ,johnston1 the commander-in-chief of the ,confederates1 was severely wounded2 and the command devolved on ,general ,robert ,e4 ,lee4 ,illustration3 ,robert ,e4 ,lee4 #ah4 ,mc,clellan now formed the design of retiring to a point on the ,james below ,richmond4 ,before the movement fairly began1 ,general ,lee1 on the #beth of ,june1 struck the right wing of the ,union army at ,oak ,grove1 and a hard-fought battle ensued4 ,on the next day another engagement occurred at ,mechanicsville1 and the ,federals won the field4 ,on the following morning ,lee renewed the struggle at ,gaines's ,mill1 and came out victorious4 ,on the #bith ,mc,clellan's army was attacked at ,savage's ,station and again in the ,white ,oak ,swamp--but the ,confederates were kept at bay4 ,on the #cjth was fought the desperate battle of ,glendale1 or ,frazier's ,farm4 ,on that night the ,federal army reached ,malvern ,hill1 twelve miles below ,richmond4 ,general ,lee determined to carry the place by storm4 ,on the morning of the #ast of ,july the whole ,confederate army rushed forward to the assault4 ,all day long the struggle for the possession of the high grounds continued4 ,not until nine o'clock at night did ,lee's columns fall back exhausted4 ,for seven days the roar of battle had been heard almost without cessation4 #ai4 ,on the #b;d of ,july ,mc,clellan retired with his army to ,harrison's ,landing1 a few miles down the river2 and the great campaign was at an end4 ,the ,federal army had lost more than fifteen thousand men1 and the losses of the ,confederates had been still greater4 ,sidenote3 ,cedar ,mountain4 #bj4 ,general ,lee now formed the design of capturing the ,federal capital4 ,the ,union troops between ,richmond and ,washington were under command of ,general ,john ,pope4 ,lee moved northward1 and1 on the #bjth of ,august1 ,pope retreated beyond the ,rappahannock4 ,meanwhile1 ,general ,banks was attacked by ,stonewall ,jackson at ,cedar ,mountain1 where nothing but hard fighting saved the ,federals from a rout4 #ba4 ,jackson next dashed by with his division1 on a flank movement to ,manassas ,junction1 where he made large captures4 ,pope then threw his army between the two divisions of the ,confederates4 ,on ,august #bhth and #bith1 there was terrible fighting on the old ,bull ,run battle-ground4 ,at one time it seemed that ,lee's army would be defeated2 but ,pope's reinforcements were withheld by ,general ,porter1 and on the #cast the ,confederates struck the ,union army at ,chantilly1 winning a complete victory4 ,pope withdrew his broken columns as rapidly as possible1 and found safety within the defences of ,washington4 ,sidenote3 ,lee in ,maryland4 #bb4 ,general ,lee crossed the ,potomac1 and on the #fth of ,september captured ,frederick4 ,on the #ajth ,hagerstown was taken1 and on the #aeth ,stonewall ,jackson seized ,harper's ,ferry1 with nearly twelve thousand prisoners4 ,on the previous day1 there was a hard-fought engagement at ,south ,mountain1 in which the ,federals were victorious4 ,mc,clellan's army was now in the rear of ,lee1 who fell back to ,antietam ,creek and took a strong position near ,sharpsburg4 ,then followed two days of skirmishing1 which terminated on the #agth in one of the great battles of the war4 ,from morning until night the struggle continued with unabated violence1 and ended in a drawn battle1 after a loss of more than ten thousand men on each side4 ,lee withdrew his forces from the field and recrossed the ,potomac4 ,sidenote3 ,fredericksburg4 #bc4 ,general ,mc,clellan moved forward to ,rectortown1 ,virginia4 ,here he was superseded by ,general ,burnside1 who changed the plan of the campaign1 and advanced against ,fredericksburg4 ,at this place the two armies were again brought face to face4 ,burnside's movement was delayed1 and it was not until the #abth of ,december that a passage could be effected4 ,meanwhile1 the heights south of the river had been fortified1 and the ,union columns were hurled back in several desperate assaults which cost the assailants more than twelve thousand men4 ,thus in disaster to the ,federal cause ended the campaigns of #ahfb4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,events ,,of #ahfc4 ,the war had now grown to enormous proportions4 ,the ,confederate ,states were draining every resource of men and means4 ,the superior energies of the ,north were greatly taxed4 ,on the day after the battle of ,malvern ,hill1 ,president ,lincoln issued a call for three hundred thousand troops4 ,during ,pope's retreat from the ,rappahannock he sent forth another call for three hundred thousand1 and to that was added a draft of three hundred thousand more4 ,most of these demands were promptly met1 and it became evident that in resources the ,federal government was vastly superior to the ,confederacy4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,emancipation ,proclamation4 #b4 ,on the #ast day of ,january1 #ahfc1 the ,president issued the ,,emancipation ,,proclamation4 ,the war had been begun with no well-defined intention to free the slaves of the ,south4 ,but during the progress of the war the sentiment of abolition had grown with great rapidity2 and when at last it became a military necessity to strike a blow at the labor-system of the ,south1 the step was taken with but little opposition4 ,thus1 after an existence of two hundred and forty-four years1 ,african slavery in the ,united ,states was swept away4 #c4 ,early in ,january ,general ,sherman dispatched an expedition to capture ,arkansas ,post1 on the ,arkansas ,river4 ,the ,union forces reached their destination on the #ajth of the month1 fought a battle with the ,confederates and gained a victory4 ,on the next day the post was surrendered with nearly five thousand prisoners4 #d4 ,soon afterwards the ,union forces were concentrated for the capture of ,vicksburg4 ,three months were spent by ,general ,grant in beating about the bayous around ,vicksburg1 in the hope of getting a position in the rear of the town4 ,a canal was cut across a bend in the river with a view to opening a passage for the gunboats4 ,but a flood washed the works away4 ,then another canal was begun1 only to be abandoned4 ,finally1 it was determined to run the fleet past the ,vicksburg batteries4 ,on the night of the #afth of ,april the boats dropped down the river4 ,all of a sudden the guns of the enemy burst forth with shot and shell1 pelting the passing steamers2 but they went by with little damage4 ,sidenote3 ,operations about ,vicksburg4 #e4 ,general ,grant now marched his land-forces down the ,mississippi and formed a junction with the squadron4 ,on the #ast day of ,may he defeated the ,confederates at ,port ,gibson4 ,the evacuation of ,grand ,gulf followed immediately4 ,the ,union army now swept around to the rear of ,vicksburg4 ,on the #abth of ,may a ,confederate force was defeated at ,raymond4 ,on the #adth of the month a decisive battle was fought near ,jackson2 the ,confederates were beaten1 and the city captured4 ,general ,pemberton1 sallying forth with his forces from ,vicksburg1 was defeated by ,grant on the #afth at ,champion ,hills1 and again on the #agth at ,black ,river ,bridge4 ,pemberton then retired within the defences of ,vicksburg4 ,illustration3 ,vicksburg and ,vicinity1 #ahfc4 #f4 ,the city was now besieged4 ,on the #aith of ,may ,grant made an assault1 but was repulsed with terrible losses4 ,three days afterwards the attempt was renewed with a still greater destruction of life4 ,but the siege was pressed with ever-increasing severity4 ,admiral ,porter bombarded the town incessantly4 ,reinforcements swelled the ,union ranks4 ,pemberton held out until the #dth of ,july1 and was then driven to surrender4 ,the defenders of ,vicksburg1 numbering thirty thousand1 became prisoners of war4 ,thousands of small arms1 hundreds of cannon1 and vast quantities of ammunition and stores were the fruits of the great victory4 #g4 ,meanwhile1 ,general ,banks had been conducting a campaign on the ,lower ,mississippi4 ,from ,baton ,rouge he advanced into ,louisiana1 and gained a victory over the ,confederates at ,bayou ,teche4 ,he then moved northward and besieged ,port ,hudson1 the last fort held by the ,confederates on the ,mississippi4 ,the garrison made a brave defence2 and it was not until the #hth of ,july that the commandant1 with his force of six thousand men1 was obliged to capitulate4 ,sidenote3 ,operations about ,chattanooga4 #h4 ,in the latter part of ,june ,rosecrans succeeded in crowding ,general ,bragg out of ,tennessee4 ,the ,union general followed and took post at ,chattanooga1 on the left bank of the ,tennessee4 ,during the summer ,bragg was reinforced by the corps of ,johnston and ,longstreet4 #i4 ,on the #aith of ,september he turned upon the ,federals at ,chickamauga ,creek1 in the northwest angle of ,georgia4 ,a hard battle was fought1 but night came with the victory undecided4 ,on the following morning the fight was renewed4 ,bragg cut through the ,union battle line and drove the right wing into a rout4 ,general ,thomas1 with desperate firmness1 held the left until nightfall1 and then withdrew into ,chattanooga4 ,the ,union loss amounted to nearly nineteen thousand1 and that of the ,confederates was even greater4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,states ,,in ,,secession during the ,,civil ,,war #aj4 ,general ,bragg pressed forward to besiege ,chattanooga4 ,but ,general ,hooker arrived with two corps from the ,army of the ,potomac1 opened the ,tennessee ,river1 and brought relief4 ,at the same time ,general ,grant assumed the direction of affairs at ,chattanooga4 ,general ,sherman arrived with his division1 and offensive operations were at once renewed4 ,on the #bdth of ,november ,lookout ,mountain1 overlooking the town and river1 was stormed by the division of ,general ,hooker4 ,on the following day1 ,missionary ,ridge was also carried1 and ,bragg's army fell back in full retreat toward ,ringgold4 ,illustration3 ,a ,truce in the ,trenches4 #aa4 ,on the #ast of ,september ,general ,burnside arrived with his command at ,knoxville4 ,after the battle of ,chickamauga ,general ,longstreet was sent into ,east ,tennessee1 where he arrived and began the siege of ,knoxville4 ,on the #bith of ,november the ,confederates attempted to carry the town by storm1 but were repulsed with heavy losses4 ,general ,sherman soon marched to the relief of ,burnside2 and ,longstreet retreated into ,virginia4 ,sidenote3 ,events ,west of the ,mississippi4 #ab4 ,early in #ahfc the ,confederates resumed activity in ,arkansas and southern ,missouri4 ,on the #hth of ,january they attacked ,springfield1 but were repulsed4 ,several other attempts were made with similar results4 ,on the #acth of ,august ,lawrence1 ,kansas1 was sacked1 and a hundred and forty persons killed1 by a band of desperate fellows1 led by a chieftain called ,quantrell4 ,on the #ajth of ,september the ,federal general ,steele captured ,little ,rock1 ,arkansas4 ,sidenote3 ,john ,morgan's ,raid4 #ac4 ,in the summer of this year ,general ,john ,morgan made a great raid through ,kentucky1 ,indiana1 and ,ohio4 ,he crossed the ,ohio at ,brandenburg1 and began his march to the north4 ,at ,corydon and other points he was resisted by the home guards and pursued by ,general ,hobson4 ,morgan crossed into ,ohio1 made a circuit north of ,cincinnati1 and attempted to recross the river4 ,but the raiders were driven back4 ,the ,confederate leader pressed on until he came near ,new ,lisbon1 where he was captured by the brigade of ,general ,shackelford4 ,after a four months' imprisonment ,morgan escaped and made his way to ,richmond4 ,sidenote3 ,operations ,along the ,coast4 #ad4 ,on the #ast of ,january ,general ,magruder captured ,galveston1 ,texas4 ,by this means the ,confederates secured a port of entry in the ,southwest4 ,on the #gth of ,april ,admiral ,du ,pont1 with a fleet of iron-clads1 attempted to capture ,charleston1 but was driven back4 ,in ,june the city was besieged by a strong land-force1 under ,general ,q4 ,a4 ,gillmore1 assisted by ,admiral ,dahlgren's fleet4 ,after the bombardment had continued for some time1 ,general ,gillmore1 on the #ahth of ,july1 attempted to carry ,fort ,wagner by assault1 but was repulsed with severe loss4 ,the siege progressed until the #fth of ,september1 when the ,confederates evacuated the fort and retired to ,charleston4 ,gillmore now brought his guns to bear on the wharves and buildings in the lower part of the city4 ,but ,charleston still held out2 and the only gain of the ,federals was the establishment of a complete blockade4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,chancellorsville4 #ae4 ,after his repulse at ,fredericksburg1 ,general ,burnside was superseded by ,general ,joseph ,hooker1 who1 in the latter part of ,april1 crossed the ,rappahannock and reached ,chancellorsville4 ,here1 on the morning of the #b;d of ,may1 he was attacked by the ,army of ,northern ,virginia1 led by ,lee and ,jackson4 ,the latter general1 at the head of twenty-five thousand men1 outflanked the ,union army1 burst upon the right wing1 and swept everything to destruction4 ,but it was the last of ,stonewall ,jackson's battles4 ,as night came on the ,confederate leader received a volley from his own lines1 and fell to rise no more4 ,illustration3 ,stonewall ,jackson4 #af4 ,on the #c;d the battle was renewed4 ,general ,sedgwick was defeated and driven across the ,rappahannock4 ,the main army was crowded between ,chancellorsville and the river1 where it remained until the #eth1 when ,general ,hooker succeeded in withdrawing his forces to the northern bank4 ,the ,union losses amounted in killed1 wounded1 and prisoners to about seventeen thousand2 that of the ,confederates was less by five thousand4 #ag4 ,next followed the cavalry raid of ,general ,stoneman4 ,on the #bith of ,april he crossed the ,rappahannock with ten thousand men1 tore up the ,virginia ,central ,railroad1 cut ,general ,lee's communications1 swept around within a few miles of ,richmond1 and then recrossed the ,rappahannock in safety4 ,sidenote3 ,lee ,invades ,pennsylvania4 #ah4 ,general ,lee now determined to carry the war into the ,north4 ,in the first week of ,june he crossed the ,potomac1 and captured ,hagerstown4 ,on the #bb;d he entered ,chambersburg1 and then pressed on through ,carlisle to within a few miles of ,harrisburg4 ,the militia of ,pennsylvania was called out1 and volunteers came pouring in from other ,states4 ,general ,hooker pushed forward to strike his antagonist4 ,general ,lee rapidly concentrated his forces near ,gettysburg1 ,pennsylvania4 ,on the eve of battle the command of the ,union army was transferred to ,general ,george ,g4 ,meade1 who took up a position on the hills around ,gettysburg4 ,here the two armies1 each numbering about eighty thousand men1 were brought face to face4 ,sidenote3 ,battle of ,gettysburg4 #ai4 ,on the #ast of ,july the struggle began1 and for three days the conflict raged4 ,the battle reached its climax on the #c;d1 when a ,confederate column1 three miles long1 headed by the ,virginians under ,general ,pickett1 made a final charge on the ,union center4 ,but the onset was in vain1 and the men who made it were mowed down with terrible slaughter4 ,the victory remained with the ,national army1 and ,lee was obliged to turn back to the ,potomac4 ,the entire ,confederate loss was nearly thirty thousand2 that of the ,federals twenty-three thousand one hundred and eighty-six4 ,general ,lee withdrew his forces into ,virginia1 and the ,union army resumed its position on the ,potomac4 ,sidenote3 ,conscription in the ,north4 #bj4 ,the administration of ,president ,lincoln was beset with many difficulties4 ,the last calls for volunteers had not been fully met4 ,the anti-war party of the ,north denounced the measures of the government4 ,on the #c;d of ,march the ,,conscription ,,act was passed by ,congress1 and the ,president ordered a draft of three hundred thousand men4 ,the measure was bitterly opposed1 and in many places the draft-officers were resisted4 ,on the #acth of ,july1 in the city of ,new ,york1 a mob rose in arms1 demolished buildings1 burned the colored orphan asylum1 and killed about a hundred people4 ,for three days the authorities were set at defiance2 but a force of regulars and volunteers gathered at the scene1 and the riot was suppressed4 #ba4 ,only about fifty thousand men were obtained by the draft4 ,but volunteering was quickened by the measure1 and the employment of substitutes soon filled the ranks4 ,in ,october the ,president issued another call for three hundred thousand men4 ,by these measures the columns of the ,union army were made more powerful than ever4 ,in the armies of the ,south1 on the other hand1 there were already symptoms of exhaustion4 ,on the #bjth of ,june in this year ,west ,virginia was separated from the ,old ,dominion and admitted as the thirty-fifth ,state of the ,union4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,closing ,,conflicts4--,,events ,,of #ahfd ,,and #ahfe4 ,early in ,february1 #ahfd1 ,general ,sherman moved from ,vicksburg to ,meridian4 ,in this vicinity the railroad tracks were torn up for a hundred and fifty miles4 ,at ,meridian ,general ,sherman expected a force of ,federal cavalry1 which had been sent out from ,memphis under ,general ,smith4 ,the latter advanced into ,mississippi1 but was met by the cavalry of ,forrest1 and driven back to ,memphis4 ,general ,sherman thereupon retraced his course to ,vicksburg4 ,forrest continued his raid northward to ,paducah1 ,kentucky1 and made an assault on ,fort ,anderson1 but was repulsed with a severe loss4 ,turning back into ,tennessee1 he came upon ,fort ,pillow1 on the ,mississippi1 and carried the place by storm4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,red ,river ,expedition4 #b4 ,in the spring of #ahfd1 the ,,red ,,river ,,expedition was undertaken by ,general ,banks4 ,the object was to capture ,shreveport1 the seat of the ,confederate government of ,louisiana4 ,on the #adth of ,march the ,federal advance captured ,fort de ,russy1 on ,red ,river4 ,the ,confederates retreated to ,alexandria1 which was taken on the #afth by the ,federals4 #c4 ,at ,mansfield1 on the #hth of ,april1 the advancing ,federals were attacked by the ,confederates1 and completely routed4 ,at ,pleasant ,hill1 on the next day1 the main body of the ,union army was badly defeated4 ,the flotilla now descended the river from the direction of ,shreveport4 ,the whole expedition returned as rapidly as possible to the ,mississippi4 ,general ,steele had1 in the mean time1 advanced from ,little ,rock to aid in the reduction of ,shreveport2 but learning of the ,federal defeats1 he withdrew after several severe engagements4 #d4 ,on the #b;d of ,march1 #ahfd1 ,general ,grant was appointed general-in-chief of all the armies of the ,united ,states4 ,seven hundred thousand soldiers were now to move at his command4 ,two great campaigns were planned for the year4 ,the army of the ,potomac1 under ,meade and the general-in-chief1 was to advance upon ,richmond4 ,general ,sherman1 with one hundred thousand men1 was to march from ,chattanooga against ,atlanta4 ,sidenote3 ,sherman's ,advance on ,atlanta4 #e4 ,on the #gth of ,may ,general ,sherman moved forward4 ,at ,dalton he succeeded in turning ,general ,johnston's flank1 and obliged him to fall back to ,resaca4 ,after two hard battles1 on the #adth and #aeth of ,may1 this place was carried1 and the ,confederates retreated to ,dallas4 ,here1 on the #bhth1 ,johnston made a second stand1 but was again outflanked1 and compelled to fall back to ,lost ,mountain4 ,he was forced from this position on the #agth of ,june4 ,the next stand was made on ,great and ,little ,kenesaw ,mountains4 ,from this line on the #bb;d of ,june the division of ,general ,hood made a fierce attack1 but was repulsed with heavy losses4 ,five days afterward1 ,general ,sherman attempted to carry ,great ,kenesaw by storm2 but the assault ended in a dreadful repulse4 ,sherman resumed his former tactics1 and by the #ajth of ,july the whole ,confederate army had retired to ,atlanta4 ,illustration3 ,william ,t4 ,sherman4 #f4 ,this stronghold was at once besieged4 ,here were the machine shops1 foundries1 and car works of the ,confederacy4 ,at the beginning of the siege the cautious ,general ,johnston was superseded by the rash ,general ,j4 ,b4 ,hood4 ,on the #bjth1 #bb;d and #bhth of ,july1 the latter made three assaults on the ,union lines1 but was repulsed with dreadful losses4 ,at last ,hood was obliged to evacuate ,atlanta2 and on the #b;d of ,september the ,union army marched into the captured city4 ,illustration3 ,sherman's ,campaign1 #ahfd4 ,sidenote3 ,hood's ,nashville ,campaign4 #g4 ,general ,hood now marched northward through ,northern ,alabama1 and advanced on ,nashville4 ,meanwhile1 ,general ,thomas1 with the ,army of the ,cumberland1 had been detached from ,sherman's army and sent northward to confront ,hood4 ,general ,schofield1 who commanded the ,federal forces in ,tennessee1 fell back before the ,confederates1 and took post at ,franklin4 ,here1 on the #cjth of ,november1 he was attacked by ,hood's legions1 and held them in check until nightfall1 when he retreated within ,thomas's defenses at ,nashville4 ,hood followed1 but on the #aeth of ,december ,general ,thomas fell upon the ,confederate army1 and1 routing it with a loss of twenty-five thousand men1 drove it back into ,alabama4 ,sidenote3 ,sherman's ,great ,march4 #h4 ,on the #adth of ,november ,general ,sherman burned ,atlanta and began his ,,march ,,to ,,the ,,sea4 ,his army numbered sixty thousand men4 ,he cut his communications with the ,north1 abandoned his base of supplies1 and struck out for the sea-coast1 two hundred and fifty miles away4 ,the ,union army passed through ,macon and ,milledgeville1 crossed the ,ogeechee1 captured ,gibson and ,waynesborough1 and on the #ajth of ,december arrived in the vicinity of ,savannah4 ,on the #acth1 ,fort ,mc,allister was carried by storm4 ,on the night of the #bjth1 ,general ,hardee1 the ,confederate commandant1 escaped from ,savannah and retreated to ,charleston4 ,on the #bb;d1 ,general ,sherman made his headquarters in the city4 ,illustration3 ,joseph ,e4 ,johnston4 #i4 ,january1 #ahfe1 was spent by the ,union army at ,savannah4 ,on the #ast of ,february1 ,general ,sherman began his march against ,columbia1 ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,confederates had not sufficient force to stay his progress4 ,on the #agth of the month1 ,columbia was surrendered4 ,on the same night1 ,hardee1 having destroyed the public property of ,charleston1 and kindled fires which laid four squares in ashes1 evacuated the city2 and on the following morning the national forces entered4 ,from ,columbia ,general ,sherman marched into ,north ,carolina1 and on the #aath of ,march captured the town of ,fayetteville4 ,sidenote3 ,surrender of ,gen4 ,johnston4 #aj4 ,general ,johnston was now recalled to the command of the ,confederate forces1 and the advance of the ,union army began to be seriously opposed4 ,on the #aith of ,march1 ,general ,sherman was attacked by ,johnston near ,bentonville2 but ,johnston was defeated1 and on the #bast ,sherman entered ,goldsborough4 ,here he was reinforced by ,generals ,schofield and ,terry4 ,the ,federal army turned to the northwest1 and on the #acth of ,april entered ,raleigh4 ,this was the end of the great march2 and here1 on the #bfth of the month1 ,general ,sherman received the surrender of ,johnston's army4 ,sidenote3 ,farragut at ,mobile4 #aa4 ,meanwhile1 important events had occurred on the ,gulf4 ,early in ,august1 #ahfd1 ,admiral ,farragut bore down on the defenses of ,mobile4 ,the harbor was defended by a ,confederate fleet and the monster iron-clad ,tennessee4 ,on the #eth of ,august1 ,farragut ran past ,forts ,morgan and ,gaines into the harbor4 ,in order to direct the movements of his vessels1 the old admiral mounted to the maintop of the ,hartford1 lashed himself to the rigging1 and from that high perch gave his commands during the battle4 ,one of the ,union ships struck a torpedo and sank4 ,the rest attacked and dispersed the ,confederate squadron2 but just as the day seemed won1 the ,tennessee came down at full speed to strike the ,hartford4 ,then followed one of the fiercest conflicts of the war4 ,the ,union iron-clads closed around their antagonist and battered her with fifteen-inch bolts of iron until she surrendered4 ,sidenote3 ,fort ,fisher4 #ab4 ,next came the capture of ,fort ,fisher1 at the entrance to ,cape ,fear ,river4 ,in ,december1 ,admiral ,porter was sent with a powerful ,american squadron to besiege and take the fort4 ,general ,butler1 with six thousand five hundred men1 accompanied the expedition4 ,on the #bdth of the month1 the troops were sent ashore with orders to storm the works4 ,when the generals in command came near enough to reconnoiter1 they decided that an assault could only end in disaster1 and the enterprise was abandoned4 ,admiral ,porter remained before ,fort ,fisher with his fleet1 and ,general ,butler returned to ,fortress ,monroe4 ,early in ,january1 the siege was renewed1 and on the #aeth of the month ,fort ,fisher was taken by storm4 #ac4 ,in the previous ,october1 ,lieutenant ,cushing1 with a number of volunteers1 embarked in a small steamer and entered the ,roanoke4 ,a tremendous iron ram1 called the ,albemarle1 was discovered lying at the harbor of ,plymouth4 ,cautiously approaching1 the lieutenant sank a torpedo under the ,confederate ship1 exploded it1 and left the ram a ruin4 ,the adventure cost the lives or capture of all of ,cushing's party except himself and one other1 who made good their escape4 ,sidenote3 ,confederate ,cruisers4 #ad4 ,during the progress of the war the commerce of the ,united ,states was greatly injured by the ,confederate cruisers4 ,the first ship sent out was the ,savannah1 which was captured on the same day that she escaped from ,charleston4 ,in ,june of #ahfa1 the ,sumter1 commanded by ,captain ,semmes1 ran the blockade at ,new ,orleans1 and did fearful work with the ,union merchantmen4 ,but in ,february of #ahfb1 ,semmes was chased into the harbor of ,gibraltar1 where he was obliged to sell his vessel4 ,the ,nashville ran out from ,charleston1 and returned with a cargo worth three millions of dollars4 ,in ,march of #ahfc she was sunk by a ,union iron-clad in the ,savannah ,river4 #ae4 ,the ports of the ,southern ,states were now closely blockaded4 ,in this emergency the ,confederates turned to the ship-yards of ,great ,britain1 and began to build cruisers4 ,in the harbor of ,liverpool the ,florida was fitted out2 and going to sea in the summer of #ahfb1 she succeeded in running into ,mobile ,bay4 ,she afterward destroyed fifteen merchantmen1 and was then captured and sunk in ,hampton ,roads4 ,the ,georgia1 the ,olustee1 the ,shenandoah and the ,chickamauga1 all built at the ship-yards of ,glasgow1 ,scotland1 escaped to sea and made great havoc with the merchant-ships of the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,alabama4 #af4 ,most destructive of all was the ,alabama1 built at ,liverpool4 ,her commander was ,captain ,raphael ,semmes4 ,a majority of the crew were ,british subjects2 and her armament was entirely ,british4 ,in her whole career1 involving the destruction of sixty-six vessels and a loss of ten million dollars1 she never entered a ,confederate port4 ,in the summer of #ahfd ,semmes was overtaken in the harbor of ,cherbourg1 ,france1 by the steamer ,kearsarge4 ,on the #aith of ,june1 ,semmes went out to give his antagonist battle4 ,after a desperate fight of an hour's duration1 the ,alabama was sunk4 ,semmes was picked up by the ,english ,deerhound and carried to ,southampton4 ,sidenote3 ,grant's ,advance on ,richmond4 #ag4 ,on the night of the #c;d of ,may1 #ahfd1 the national camp at ,culpepper was broken up1 and the march on ,richmond was begun4 ,on the first day of the advance1 ,grant crossed the ,rapidan and entered the ,wilderness1 a country of oak woods and thickets4 ,he was immediately attacked by the ,confederate army4 ,during the #eth1 #fth1 and #gth of the month1 the fighting continued incessantly with terrible losses2 but the results were indecisive4 ,grant next made a flank movement in the direction of ,spottsylvania ,courthouse4 ,here followed1 from the #ith until the #abth1 one of the bloodiest struggles of the war4 ,the ,federals gained some ground and captured the division of ,general ,stewart2 but the losses of ,lee were less than those of his antagonist4 #ah4 ,grant again moved to the left1 and came to ,cold ,harbor1 twelve miles northeast of ,richmond4 ,here1 on the #ast of ,june1 he attacked the ,confederates1 but was repulsed with heavy losses4 ,on the morning of the #c;d the assault was renewed1 and in half an hour nearly ten thousand ,union soldiers fell dead or wounded before the ,confederate intrenchments4 ,the repulse of the ,federals was complete1 but they held their lines as firmly as ever4 #ai4 ,general ,grant now changed his base to ,james ,river4 ,general ,butler had already taken ,city ,point and ,bermuda ,hundred4 ,here1 on the #aeth of ,june1 he was joined by ,general ,grant's whole army1 and the combined forces moved forward and began the siege of ,petersburg4 ,sidenote3 ,operations in the ,valley4 #bj4 ,meanwhile important movements were taking place on the ,shenandoah4 ,when ,grant moved from the ,rapidan1 ,general ,sigel marched up the valley to ,new ,market1 where he was met and defeated by the ,confederate cavalry1 under ,general ,breckinridge4 ,the latter then returned to ,richmond1 whereupon the ,federals faced about1 overtook the ,confederates at ,piedmont1 and gained a signal victory4 ,from this place ,generals ,hunter and ,averill advanced against ,lynchburg4 ,by this movement the valley of the ,shenandoah was again exposed to invasion4 ,illustration3 ,philip ,h4 ,sheridan4 #ba4 ,lee immediately dispatched ,general ,early to cross the ,blue ,ridge1 invade ,maryland and threaten ,washington ,city4 ,with twenty thousand men ,early began his march1 and on the #eth of ,july crossed the ,potomac4 ,on the #ith he defeated the division of ,general ,wallace on the ,monocacy4 ,but the battle saved ,washington and ,baltimore from capture4 #bb4 ,general ,wright followed ,early as far as ,winchester4 ,but the latter wheeled upon him1 and the ,union troops were driven across the ,potomac4 ,early next invaded ,pennsylvania and burned ,chambersburg4 ,general ,grant now appointed ,general ,philip ,h4 ,sheridan to command the army on the ,upper ,potomac4 ,the troops placed at his disposal numbered nearly forty thousand4 ,on the #aith of ,september1 ,sheridan marched upon ,early at ,winchester1 and routed him in a hard-fought battle4 ,on the #bb;d of ,september he gained another complete victory at ,fisher's ,hill4 ,sidenote3 ,sheridan's ,ride from ,winchester4 #bc4 ,sheridan next turned about to ravage the valley4 ,the ruinous work was fearfully well done4 ,nothing worth fighting for was left between the ,blue ,ridge and the ,alleghanies4 ,maddened by his defeats1 ,early rallied his forces1 and again entered the valley4 ,sheridan had posted his army on ,cedar ,creek1 and1 feeling secure1 had gone to ,washington4 ,on the #aith of ,october1 ,early surprised the ,union camp1 captured the artillery1 and sent the routed troops flying in confusion toward ,winchester4 ,the ,confederates pursued as far as ,middletown1 and there paused to eat and rest4 ,on the previous night1 ,sheridan had returned to ,winchester1 and was now coming to rejoin his army4 ,he rode twelve miles at full speed1 rallied the fugitives1 and gained one of the most signal victories of the war4 ,early's army was completely ruined4 ,illustration3 ,operations in ,virginia1 #ahfd and #ahfe4 #bd4 ,all fall and winter ,general ,grant pressed the siege of ,petersburg4 ,on the #cjth of ,july a mine was exploded under one of the forts2 but the assaulting column was repulsed with heavy losses4 ,on the #ahth of ,august a division of the ,union army seized the ,weldon ,railroad and held it against several assaults4 ,on the #bhth of ,september1 ,battery ,harrison was stormed by the ,federals1 and on the next day ,general ,paine's brigade carried the redoubt on ,spring ,hill4 ,on the #bgth of ,october1 there was a battle on the ,boydton road2 and then the army went into winter quarters4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,fall of ,richmond4 #be4 ,on the #bgth of ,february1 ,sheridan gained a victory over ,early at ,waynesboro1 and then joined the general-in-chief4 ,on the #ast of ,april1 a severe battle was fought at ,five ,forks1 in which the ,confederates were defeated with a loss of six thousand prisoners4 ,on the next day ,grant ordered a general assault on the lines of ,petersburg1 and the works were carried4 ,on that night ,lee's army and the ,confederate government fled from ,richmond2 and on the following morning the ,federal troops entered the city4 ,the warehouses were fired by the retreating ,confederates1 and the better part of the city was reduced to ruins4 ,sidenote3 ,lee's ,surrender4 #bf4 ,general ,lee retreated as rapidly as possible to the southwest4 ,once the ,confederates turned and fought1 but were defeated with great losses4 ,for five days the pursuit was kept up2 and then ,lee was brought to bay at ,appomattox ,courthouse4 ,there1 on the #ith of ,april1 #ahfe1 the work was done4 ,general ,lee surrendered the ,army of ,northern ,virginia1 and the ,confederacy was hopelessly overthrown4 ,general ,grant signalized the end of the strife by granting to his antagonist the most liberal terms4 ,how the army of ,general ,johnston was surrendered a few days later has already been narrated4 ,after four dreadful years of bloodshed and sorrow1 ,,the ,,civil ,,war ,,was ,,at ,,an ,,end4 ,sidenote3 ,jefferson ,davis ,captured4 #bg4 ,the ,federal authority was rapidly extended over the ,south4 ,mr4 ,davis and his cabinet escaped to ,danville1 and there for a few days kept up the forms of government4 ,from that place they fled into ,north ,carolina4 ,the ex-,president continued his flight into ,georgia1 and encamped near ,irwinsville1 where1 on the #ajth of ,may1 he was captured by ,general ,wilson's cavalry4 ,he was conveyed to ,fortress ,monroe1 and kept in confinement until ,may of #ahfg1 when he was taken to ,richmond to be tried for treason4 ,he was admitted to bail2 and his case was finally dismissed4 ,sidenote3 ,nevada ,admitted4 #bh4 ,at the presidential election of #ahfd1 ,mr4 ,lincoln was chosen for a second term4 ,as ,vice-president1 ,andrew ,johnson of ,tennessee was elected4 ,in the preceding summer1 the people of ,nevada framed a constitution1 and on the #cast of ,october the new commonwealth was proclaimed as the thirty-sixth ,state4 ,the gold and silver mines of ,nevada soon surpassed those of ,california in their yield of precious metals4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,finances of the ,war4 #bi4 ,at the outbreak of the civil war the financial credit of the ,united ,states sank to a very low ebb4 ,mr4 ,chase1 the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 first sought relief by issuing ,,treasury ,,notes1 receivable as money4 ,by the beginning of #ahfb1 the expenses of the government had risen to more than a million of dollars daily4 ,to meet these tremendous demands on the government1 ,congress next provided ,,internal ,,revenue4 ,this was made up from two general sources3 first1 a tax on manufactures1 incomes and salaries2 second1 a stamp-duty on all legal documents4 ,the next measure was the issuance of ,,legal ,,tender ,,notes of the ,united ,states1 to be used as money4 ,these are the notes called ,greenbacks4 ,the third great measure adopted by the government was the sale of ,,united ,,states ,,bonds4 ,the interest upon them was fixed at six per cent41 payable semi-annually in gold4 ,in the next place1 ,congress passed an act providing for the establishment of ,,national ,,banks4 ,national bonds1 instead of gold and silver1 were used as a basis of the circulation of these banks2 and the redemption of their bills was guaranteed by the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,at the end of the conflict1 the national debt had reached nearly three thousand millions of dollars4 ,sidenote3 ,pres4 ,lincoln's ,assassination4 #cj4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #ahfe1 ,president ,lincoln was inaugurated for his second term4 ,three days after the evacuation of ,richmond by ,lee's army1 the ,president made a visit to that city4 ,on the evening of the #adth of ,april1 he1 with his wife and a party of friends1 attended ,ford's ,theater in ,washington4 ,as the play drew near its close1 an actor1 named ,john ,wilkes ,booth1 stole into the ,president's box and shot him through the brain4 ,mr4 ,lincoln lingered in an unconscious state until morning1 and died4 ,it was the greatest tragedy of modern times4 ,the assassin1 after the murder1 escaped into the darkness4 ,sidenote3 ,secretary ,seward ,stabbed4 #ca4 ,at the same hour another murderer1 named ,lewis ,payne ,powell1 burst into the bed-chamber of ,secretary ,seward1 sprang upon the couch of the sick man1 and stabbed him nigh unto death4 ,the city was wild with alarm4 ,troops of cavalry departed in all directions to hunt down the assassins4 ,on the #bfth of ,april1 ,booth was found concealed in a barn south of ,fredericksburg4 ,refusing to surrender1 he was shot by ,sergeant ,boston ,corbett4 ,powell was caught and hanged4 ,david ,e4 ,herrold and ,geo4 ,a4 ,atzerott1 together with ,mrs4 ,mary ,e4 ,surratt1 at whose house the plot was formed1 were also condemned and executed4 ,michael ,o',laughlin1 ,dr4 ,samuel ,a4 ,mudd1 and ,samuel ,arnold were sentenced to imprisonment for life1 and ,edward ,spangler for six years4 #cb4 ,so ended in darkness1 but not in shame1 the career of ,abraham ,lincoln--one of the most remarkable men of any age or country4 ,he was prudent1 far-sighted1 and resolute2 thoughtful1 calm1 and just2 patient1 tender-hearted1 and great4 ,the manner of his death consecrated his memory4 ,from city to city1 in one vast funeral procession1 the mourning people followed his remains to their last resting-place at ,springfield1 ,illinois4 ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 #a4 ,describe the situation of affairs at the opening of ,lincoln's ,administration4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 #b4 ,give the causes1 general and special1 of the ,civil ,war4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 #c4 ,outline the campaigns of #ahfa4 #d4 ,tell of the organization of the ,confederate ,government4 #e4 ,state the difficulty that now arose with ,great ,britain4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 #f4 ,give an account of the campaigns along the ,cumberland1 the ,tennessee1 and the ,mississippi ,rivers4 #g4 ,outline the movements of the year #ahfb in and about ,virginia4 #h4 ,what were the general conditions and prospects of the armies at the close of #ahfb8 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 #i4 ,tell about the ,emancipation ,proclamation4 #aj4 ,describe the capture of ,vicksburg4 #aa4 ,sketch the subsequent movements of #ahfc4 #ab4 ,tell of the ,conscription ,act1 and the results from it4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 #ac4 ,outline the military movements of #ahfd under ,general ,sherman4 #ad4 ,sketch the campaigns along the ,potomac1 with the capture of ,richmond1 and the retreat and surrender of ,lee's army4 #ae4 ,tell of the breaking up of the ,confederate ,government4 #af4 ,what was the condition of the ,national finances1 and what measures had been enacted1 from #ahfb to #ahfe1 for their relief4 #ag4 ,give an account of the assassination of ,president ,lincoln4 ,,part ,,vii4 ,,the ,,nation ,,reunited4 ,a4 ,d4 #ahfe-ahia4 ,,chapter ,l4 ,,johnson',s ,,administration1 #ahfe-ahfi4 ,on the day after the assassination of ,mr4 ,lincoln1 ,andrew ,johnson became ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,he was a native of ,raleigh1 ,north ,carolina--born in #ahjh4 ,with no advantages of education1 he passed his boyhood in poverty4 ,in #ahbh he removed to ,greenville1 ,tennessee1 where he soon rose to distinction1 and was elected to ,congress4 ,as a member of the ,united ,states ,senate in #ahfj-fa1 he opposed secession with all his powers4 ,in #ahfb he was appointed military governor of ,tennessee4 ,this office he held until he was nominated for the vice-presidency4 ,illustration3 ,andrew ,johnson4 #b4 ,on the #ast of ,february1 #ahfe1 ,congress adopted an amendment to the ,constitution by which slavery was abolished throughout the ,union4 ,by the #ahth of the following ,december1 the amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of twenty-seven ,states1 and was duly proclaimed as a part of the ,constitution4 ,the emancipation proclamation had been issued as a military necessity2 and the results of the instrument were now incorporated in the fundamental law of the land4 ,sidenote3 ,amnesty ,proclamation4 #c4 ,on the #bith of ,may1 the ,,amnesty ,,proclamation was issued by the ,president4 ,by its provisions a pardon was extended to all persons--except those specified in certain classes--who had taken part in upholding the ,confederacy4 ,during the summer of #ahfe1 the great armies were disbanded1 and the victors and vanquished returned to their homes to resume the works of peace4 #d4 ,the finances of the nation were in an alarming condition4 ,the war-debt went on increasing until the beginning of #ahff4 ,the yearly interest grew to a hundred and thirty-three million dollars in gold4 ,the expenses of the government had reached two hundred millions of dollars annually4 ,but the revenues of the nation proved sufficient to meet these enormous outlays1 and at last the debt began to diminish4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,french in ,mexico4 #e4 ,during the civil war1 the emperor ,napoleon ,,iii4 succeeded in setting up a ,french empire in ,mexico4 ,in #ahfd the ,mexican crown was conferred on ,maximilian of ,austria1 who sustained his authority with ,french and ,austrian soldiers4 ,but the ,mexican president ,juarez headed a revolution2 the government of the ,united ,states rebuked ,france for her conduct2 ,napoleon withdrew his army2 ,maximilian was overthrown2 and eventually1 on the #acth of ,june1 #ahfg1 was tried and condemned to be shot4 ,six days afterwards the sentence was carried into execution4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,atlantic ,cable4 #f4 ,after a few weeks of successful operation1 the first ,atlantic telegraph had ceased to work4 ,but ,mr4 ,field continued to advocate his measure and to plead for assistance both in ,europe and ,america4 ,he made fifty voyages across the ,atlantic1 and finally secured sufficient capital to lay a second cable4 ,the work began from the coast of ,ireland in the summer of #ahfe2 but the first cable parted and was lost4 ,in ,july of #ahff a third cable1 two thousand miles in length1 was coiled in the ,great ,eastern1 and again the vessel started on its way4 ,this time the work was completely successful4 ,mr4 ,field received a gold medal from ,congress1 and the plaudits of all civilized nations4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,territories4 #g4 ,in ,march of #ahfa1 the ,territory of ,dakota1 destined after twenty-eight years to become two great states1 was detached from ,nebraska and given a distinct organization4 ,the ,state of ,kansas had at last1 on the #bith of ,january1 #ahfa1 been admitted into the ,union1 under a constitution framed at ,wyandotte4 ,in ,february1 #ahfc1 ,arizona was separated from ,new ,mexico1 and on the #c;d of ,march1 in that year1 ,idaho was organized out of portions of ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 and ,washington ,territories4 ,on the #bfth of ,may1 #ahfd1 ,montana was cut off from ,idaho4 ,on the #ast of ,march1 #ahfg1 ,nebraska was admitted into the ,union as the thirty-seventh ,state4 ,finally1 on the #beth of ,july1 #ahfh1 the ,territory of ,wyoming was organized out of portions of ,dakota1 ,idaho1 and ,utah4 ,sidenote3 ,purchase of ,alaska4 #h4 ,the year #ahfg was signalized by the ,,purchase ,,of ,,alaska4 ,two years previously1 the territory had been explored by a corps of scientific men with a view of establishing telegraphic communication with ,asia4 ,the explorers found that the coast-fisheries were of great value1 and that the forests of white pine and yellow cedar were among the finest in the world4 ,negotiations for the purchase were at once opened1 and on the #cjth of ,march1 #ahfg1 a treaty was concluded by which1 for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars1 ,russia ceded ,alaska to the ,united ,states4 ,the territory embraced an area of five hundred and eighty thousand square miles1 and a population of twenty-nine thousand souls4 #i4 ,very soon after his accession1 a serious disagreement arose between the ,president and ,congress4 ,the difficulty grew out of the question of reorganizing the ,southern ,states4 ,the point in dispute was the relation which those ,states had sustained to the ,federal ,union during the civil war4 ,the ,president held that the ordinances of secession were null and void1 and that the seceded ,states had never been out of the ,union4 ,the majority in ,congress held that the acts of secession were illegal and unconstitutional1 but that the seceded ,states had been actually detached from the ,union1 and that special legislation was necessary in order to restore them to their former relations4 ,sidenote3 ,reconstruction4 #aj4 ,in #ahfe1 measures of reconstruction were begun by the ,president4 ,on the #ith of ,may1 a proclamation was issued for the restoration of ,virginia to the ,union4 ,twenty days later a provisional government was established over ,south ,carolina2 and similar measures were adopted in respect to the other ,states of the ,confederacy4 ,on the #bdth of ,june1 all restrictions on trade and intercourse with the ,southern ,states were removed4 ,on the #gth of ,september a second amnesty proclamation was issued1 by which all persons who had upheld the ,confederate cause--excepting the leaders--were unconditionally pardoned4 ,meanwhile1 ,tennessee had been reorganized1 and in #ahff was restored to its place in the ,union4 ,when ,congress convened1 a committee of fifteen members was appointed1 to which were referred all questions concerning the reorganization of the ,southern ,states4 ,in accordance with measures reported by this committee1 ,arkansas1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 ,florida1 ,louisiana1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,south ,carolina were reconstructed1 and in ,june and ,july of #ahfh readmitted into the ,union4 ,congress had1 in the mean time1 passed the ,,civil ,,rights ,,bill1 by which the privileges of citizenship were conferred on the freedmen of the ,south4 ,all of these congressional enactments were effected over the veto of the ,president4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,impeachment ,trial4 #aa4 ,meanwhile1 a difficulty had arisen in the ,president's cabinet which led to his impeachment4 ,on the #bast of ,february1 #ahfh1 he notified ,edwin ,m4 ,stanton1 ,secretary of ,war1 of his dismissal from office4 ,the act was regarded by ,congress as a usurpation of authority and a violation of law4 ,on the #c;d of ,march1 articles of impeachment were agreed to by the ,house of ,representatives1 and the ,president was summoned before the ,senate for trial4 ,proceedings began on the #bc;d of ,march and continued until the #bfth of ,may1 when the ,president was acquitted4 ,chief-,justice ,salmon ,p4 ,chase1 one of the most eminent of ,american statesmen and jurists1 presided during the impeachment4 #ab4 ,the time for another presidential election was already at hand4 ,general ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant was nominated by the ,republicans1 and ,horatio ,seymour1 of ,new ,york1 by the ,democrats4 ,the canvass was one of great excitement4 ,the questions most discussed by the political speakers were those arising out of the civil war4 ,the principles advocated by the majority in ,congress furnished the ,republican platform of #ahfh1 and on that platform ,general ,grant was elected by a large majority4 ,as ,vice-president1 ,schuyler ,colfax1 of ,indiana1 was chosen4 ,,chapter ,,li4 ,,grant',s ,,administration1 #ahfi-ahgg4 ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant1 eighteenth ,president of the ,united ,states1 was born at ,point ,pleasant1 ,ohio1 ,april #bg1 #ahbb4 ,at the age of seventeen he entered the ,military ,academy at ,west ,point1 and was graduated in #ahdc4 ,he served with distinction in the ,mexican war2 but his first national reputation was won by the capture of ,forts ,henry and ,donelson4 ,from that time he rapidly rose in rank1 and in ,march1 #ahfd1 was appointed lieutenant-general and general-in-chief of the ,union army4 ,illustration3 ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pacific ,railroad4 #b4 ,the first great event of the new administration was the completion of the ,,pacific ,,railroad4 ,the first division of the road extended from ,omaha1 ,nebraska1 to ,ogden1 ,utah1 a distance of one thousand and thirty-two miles4 ,the western division reached from ,ogden to ,san ,francisco1 a distance of eight hundred and eighty-two miles4 ,on the #ajth of ,may1 #ahfi1 the work was completed with appropriate ceremonies4 #c4 ,before the inauguration of ,president ,grant two additional amendments to the ,constitution had been adopted4 ,the first of these1 known as the ,fourteenth ,amendment1 extended the right of citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and declared the validity of the public debt4 ,early in #ahfi1 the ,fifteenth ,amendment was adopted by ,congress1 providing that the right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,this clause was proclaimed by the ,president as a part of the ,constitution on the #cjth of ,march1 #ahgj4 #d4 ,in the first three months of the same year1 the reorganization of the ,southern ,states was completed4 ,on the #bdth of ,january1 the senators and representatives of ,virginia were readmitted to their seats in ,congress4 ,on the #bc;d of ,february a like action was taken in regard to ,mississippi2 and on the #cjth of ,march the work was finished by the readmission of ,texas4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the ,nation4 #e4 ,in #ahgj was completed the ninth census of the ,united ,states4 ,notwithstanding the ravages of war1 the past ten years had been a period of growth and progress4 ,during that time the population had increased to thirty-eight million five hundred and eighty-seven thousand souls4 ,the national debt was rapidly falling off4 ,the products of the ,united ,states had grown to a vast aggregate4 ,american manufacturers were competing with those of all nations in the markets of the world4 ,the ,union now embraced thirty-seven ,states and eleven ,territories4 ,the national domain had spread to the vast area of three million six hundred and four thousand square miles4 ,few things have been more wonderful than the territorial and material growth of the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,san ,domingo ,commission4 #f4 ,in ,january of #ahga1 ,president ,grant appointed ,senator ,wade of ,ohio1 ,professor ,white of ,new ,york1 and ,dr4 ,samuel ,howe of ,massachusetts1 to visit ,san ,domingo and report upon the desirability of annexing that island to the ,united ,states4 ,the measure was earnestly favored by the ,president4 ,after three months spent abroad1 the commissioners returned and reported in favor of annexation2 but the proposal met with opposition in ,congress1 and was defeated4 ,sidenote3 ,alabama ,claims4 #g4 ,the claim of the ,united ,states against the ,british government for damages done by ,confederate cruisers during the civil war still remained unsettled4 ,after the war ,great ,britain grew anxious for an adjustment of the difficulty4 ,on the #bgth of ,february1 #ahga1 a joint high commission1 composed of five ,british and five ,american statesmen1 assembled at ,washington ,city4 ,from the fact that the cruiser ,alabama had done most of the injury complained of1 the claims of the ,united ,states were called the ,,alabama ,,claims4 ,after much discussion1 the commissioners framed a treaty1 known as the ,treaty of ,washington4 ,it was agreed that all claims of either nation against the other should be submitted to a board of arbitration to be appointed by friendly nations4 ,such a court was formed1 and in the summer of #ahgb convened at ,geneva1 ,switzerland4 ,the cause of the two nations was heard1 and on the #adth of ,september decided in favor of the ,united ,states4 ,great ,britain was required to pay into the ,federal treasury fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,chicago ,fire4 #h4 ,the year #ahga is noted in ,american history for the burning of ,chicago4 ,on the evening of the #hth of ,october a fire broke out in ,de ,koven street1 and was driven by a high wind into the lumber-yards and wooden houses of the neighborhood4 ,all the next day the flames rolled on1 sweeping into a blackened ruin the most valuable portion of the city4 ,the area burned over was two thousand one hundred acres1 or three and a third square miles4 ,nearly two hundred lives were lost1 and the property destroyed amounted to about two hundred millions of dollars4 #i4 ,as the first term of ,president ,grant drew to a close1 the political parties made ready for the twenty-second presidential election4 ,many parts of the chief magistrate's policy had been made the subjects of controversy4 ,the congressional plan of reconstruction had been unfavorably received in the ,south4 ,the elevation of the negro race to the rights of citizenship was regarded with apprehension4 ,the military spirit was still rife in the country1 and the issues of the civil war were rediscussed with much bitterness4 ,on these issues the people divided in the election of #ahgb4 ,the ,republicans renominated ,general ,grant for the presidency4 ,for the vice-presidency ,mr4 ,colfax was succeeded by ,henry ,wilson of ,massachusetts4 ,as the standard-bearer of the ,liberal ,republican and ,democratic parties1 ,horace ,greeley1 editor of the ,new ,york ,tribune1 was nominated4 ,this was the last act in that remarkable man's career4 ,for more than thirty years he had been a leader of public opinion in ,america4 ,the canvass was one of wild excitement4 ,mr4 ,greeley was overwhelmingly defeated1 and died in less than a month after the election4 ,illustration3 ,horace ,greeley4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,boston ,fire4 #aj4 ,on the evening of the #ith of ,november1 a fire broke out on the corner of ,kingston and ,summer streets1 ,boston2 spread to the northeast2 and continued with unabated fury until the morning of the #aath4 ,the best portion of the city1 embracing some of the finest blocks in the ,united ,states1 was laid in ashes4 ,the burnt district covered an area of sixty-five acres4 ,fifteen lives1 eight hundred buildings1 and property to the value of eighty million dollars were lost in the conflagration4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,modoc ,war4 #aa4 ,in the spring of #ahgb1 the ,modoc ,indians were ordered to remove from their lands on ,lake ,klamath1 ,oregon1 to a new reservation4 ,they refused to go2 and in the following ,november1 a body of troops was sent to force them into compliance4 ,the ,modocs resisted1 kept up the war during the winter1 and then retreated into a volcanic region called the lava-beds4 ,here1 in the spring of #ahgc1 the ,indians were surrounded4 ,on the #aath of ,april1 a conference was held between them and six members of the peace commission2 but in the midst of the council the savages rose upon the kind-hearted men who sat beside them1 and murdered ,general ,canby and ,dr4 ,thomas in cold blood4 ,mr4 ,meacham1 another member of the commission1 was shot1 but escaped with his life4 ,the ,modocs were then besieged in their stronghold2 but it was the #ast of ,june before ,captain ,jack and his band were obliged to surrender4 ,the chiefs were tried by court-martial and executed in the following ,october4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,credit ,mobilier4 #ab4 ,about the beginning of ,president ,grant's second term1 the country was agitated by the ,,credit ,,mobilier ,,investigation in ,congress4 ,the ,credit ,mobilier was a joint stock company1 organized in #ahfc for the purpose of constructing public works4 ,in #ahfg1 another company1 which had undertaken to build the ,pacific ,railroad1 purchased the charter of the ,credit ,mobilier1 and the capital was increased to three million seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,owing to the profitableness of the work1 the stock rose in value and large dividends were paid to the shareholders4 ,in #ahgb it became known that much of this stock was owned by members of ,congress4 ,a suspicion that those members had voted corruptly in matters affecting the ,pacific ,railroad seized the public mind1 and led to a congressional investigation1 in the course of which many scandalous transactions were brought to light4 #ac4 ,in the autumn of #ahgc occurred one of the most disastrous financial panics ever known in the ,united ,states4 ,the alarm was given by the failure of ,jay ,cooke ,company of ,philadelphia4 ,other failures followed in rapid succession4 ,depositors hurried to the banks and withdrew their money4 ,business was paralyzed1 and many months elapsed before confidence was sufficiently restored to enable merchants and bankers to engage in the usual transactions of trade4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,centennial ,exposition4 #ad4 ,with the coming of #ahgf the people made ready to celebrate the ,,centennial ,,of ,,american ,,independence4 ,the city of ,philadelphia was the central point of interest4 ,there1 on the #ajth of ,may1 the great ,international ,exposition was opened with imposing ceremonies4 ,in ,fairmount ,park1 on the ,schuylkill1 were erected beautiful buildings to receive the products of art and industry from all nations4 ,by the beginning of summer these stately edifices were filled to overflowing with the richest products1 gathered from every clime and country4 ,on the #dth of ,july the centennial of the great ,declaration was commemorated in ,philadelphia with an impressive oration by ,william ,m4 ,evarts1 of ,new ,york1 and a ,national ,ode by the poet1 ,bayard ,taylor4 ,the average daily attendance of visitors at the ,exposition was over sixty-one thousand4 ,the grounds were open for one hundred and fifty-eight days2 and the receipts for admission amounted to more than three million seven hundred thousand dollars4 ,on the #ajth of ,november1 the ,exposition1 the most successful of its kind ever held1 was formally closed by the ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sioux ,war4 #ae4 ,the last year of ,president ,grant's administration was noted for the ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,sioux4 ,these fierce savages had1 in #ahfg1 made a treaty with the ,united ,states1 agreeing to relinquish all of the territory south of the ,niobrara1 west of the one hundred and fourth meridian1 and north of the forty-sixth parallel4 ,by this treaty the ,sioux were confined to a large reservation in southwestern ,dakota1 and upon this they agreed to retire by the first of ,january1 #ahgf4 ,but many of the tribes continued to roam at large through ,wyoming and ,montana1 burning houses1 stealing horses1 and murdering whoever opposed them4 ,illustration3 ,custer's ,last ,fight4 #af4 ,the ,government now undertook to drive the ,sioux upon their reservation4 ,a large force of regulars1 under ,generals ,terry and ,crook1 was sent into the mountainous country of the ,upper ,yellowstone1 and the savages1 to the number of several thousand1 were crowded back against the ,big ,horn ,mountains and ,river4 ,generals ,custer and ,reno1 who were sent forward with the ,seventh ,cavalry to discover the whereabouts of the ,indians1 found them on the left bank of the ,little ,horn4 ,sidenote3 ,custer's ,defeat on the ,little ,horn4 #ag4 ,on the #beth of ,june1 ,general ,custer1 without waiting for reinforcements1 charged headlong with his division into the ,indian town1 and was immediately surrounded4 ,the struggle equaled in desperation and disaster any other ,indian battle ever fought in ,america4 ,general ,custer and every man of his command fell in the fight4 ,the whole loss of the ,seventh ,cavalry was two hundred and sixty-one killed1 and fifty-two wounded4 ,general ,reno held his position1 on the bluffs of the ,little ,horn1 until ,general ,gibbon arrived with reinforcements and saved the remnant from destruction4 #ah4 ,other divisions of the army were soon hurried forward1 and during the summer and autumn the ,indians were beaten in several engagements4 ,on the #bdth of ,november1 the ,sioux were decisively defeated by ,colonel ,mc,kenzie at a pass in the ,big ,horn ,mountains4 ,on the #eth of ,january1 the savages were again overtaken and routed by the forces of ,colonel ,miles4 ,the remaining bands1 under ,sitting ,bull and ,crazy ,horse1 being able to offer no further serious resistance1 escaped across the border into ,canada4 #ai4 ,in ,august1 #ahgf1 ,colorado took her place as the thirty-eighth ,state of the ,union4 ,the population of the ,centennial ,state numbered forty-five thousand4 #bj4 ,the twenty-third presidential election was one of the most exciting and critical in the history of the nation4 ,general ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes1 of ,ohio1 and ,william ,a4 ,wheeler1 of ,new ,york1 were chosen as candidates by the ,republicans2 ,samuel ,j4 ,tilden1 of ,new ,york1 and ,thomas ,a4 ,hendricks1 of ,indiana1 by the ,democrats4 ,the ,independent ,greenback party presented as candidates ,peter ,cooper1 of ,new ,york1 and ,samuel ,f4 ,cary1 of ,ohio4 ,the canvass began early and with great spirit4 ,the real contest lay between the ,republicans and the ,democrats4 ,the election was held4 ,the general result was uncertain1 and both parties claimed the victory6 ,the election was so evenly balanced2 there had been so much irregularity in the elections in ,south ,carolina1 ,florida1 ,louisiana1 and ,oregon2 and the power of ,congress over the electoral proceedings was so poorly defined1 that no certain result could be announced4 ,for the first time in the history of the country1 there was a disputed presidency4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,electoral ,commission4 #ba4 ,when ,congress convened in ,december1 the whole question came before that body for adjustment4 ,after much debating it was agreed that the disputed election returns should be referred for decision to a ,,joint ,,high ,,commission1 consisting of five members chosen from the ,united ,states ,senate1 five from the ,house of ,representatives1 and five from the ,supreme ,court4 ,the ,commission was accordingly constituted4 ,the returns of the disputed ,states were referred to the tribunal2 and on the #b;d of ,march a result was reached4 ,the ,republican candidates were declared elected4 ,one hundred and eighty-five electoral votes were cast for ,hayes and ,wheeler1 and one hundred and eighty-four for ,tilden and ,hendricks4 ,,chapter ,,lii4 ,,hayes',s ,,administration1 #ahgg-ahha4 ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes1 nineteenth ,president of the ,united ,states1 was born in ,delaware1 ,ohio1 on the #dth of ,october1 #ahbb4 ,his ancestors were soldiers of the ,revolution4 ,his primary education was received in the public schools4 ,at the age of twenty1 he was graduated from ,kenyon ,college4 ,in #ahde he completed his legal studies1 and began the practice of his profession1 first at ,marietta1 then at ,fremont1 and finally as city solicitor1 in ,cincinnati4 ,during the ,civil ,war he performed much honorable service in the ,union cause1 rose to the rank of major-general1 and in #ahfd1 while still in the field1 was elected to ,congress4 ,three years later1 he was chosen governor of his native ,state1 and was reelected in #ahfi1 and again in #ahge4 ,illustration3 ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes4 ,sidenote3 ,great ,railroad ,strike4 #b4 ,in the summer of #ahgg1 in consequence of a threatened reduction in the wages of railway employes1 occurred what is known as the ,,great ,,railroad ,,strike4 ,on the #afth of ,july1 the workmen of the ,baltimore and ,ohio ,railroad left their posts and gathered such strength in ,baltimore and at ,martinsburg1 ,west ,virginia1 as to prevent the running of trains4 ,the militia was called out by ,governor ,matthews1 but was soon dispersed by the strikers4 ,the ,president then ordered ,general ,french to the scene with a body of regulars1 and the blockade of the road was raised4 #c4 ,meanwhile1 the trains had been stopped on all the important roads between the ,hudson and the ,mississippi1 and business was paralyzed4 ,in ,pittsburgh the strikers1 rioters1 and dangerous classes1 gathering in a mob to the number of twenty thousand1 held1 for two days1 a reign of terror unparalleled in the history of the country4 ,the insurrection was finally suppressed by the regular troops and the ,pennsylvania militia1 but not until nearly one hundred lives1 and property to the value of more than three millions of dollars1 had been lost4 ,riots also occurred1 or were threatened1 at ,chicago1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,san ,francisco1 ,cincinnati1 ,columbus1 ,louisville1 ,indianapolis1 and ,fort ,wayne4 ,by the close of the month1 the alarming insurrection was at an end4 ,sidenote3 ,nez ,perc ,war4 #d4 ,in the spring of #ahgg a war broke out with the ,nez ,perc ,indians of ,idaho4 ,the national authorities in #ahed purchased a part of the ,nez ,perc territory1 large reservations being made in northwestern ,idaho and northeastern ,oregon1 but some of the chiefs refused to ratify the compact1 and remained at large4 ,this was the beginning of difficulties4 #e4 ,the war began with the usual depredations by the ,indians4 ,general ,howard marched against them with a small force of regulars2 but the ,nez ,percs1 led by their noted chieftain ,joseph1 fled4 ,during the greater part of summer the pursuit continued4 ,in the fall they were chased through the mountains into northern ,montana1 where they were confronted by other troops commanded by ,colonel ,miles4 #f4 ,the ,nez ,percs were next driven across the ,missouri ,river1 and were finally surrounded in their camp north of the ,bear ,paw ,mountains4 ,here1 on the #dth of ,october1 they were attacked1 and completely routed by the forces of ,colonel ,miles4 ,only a few1 led by the chief ,white ,bird1 escaped4 ,three hundred and seventy-five of the captive ,nez ,percs were brought back to the ,american post on the ,missouri4 ,sidenote3 ,remonetization of ,silver4 #g4 ,during the year #ahgg the public mind was greatly agitated concerning the ,,remonetization ,,of ,,silver4 ,by the first coinage regulations of the ,united ,states the standard unit of value was the silver dollar4 ,from #agib until #ahgc1 the quantity of pure metal in this unit had never been changed1 though the amount of alloy contained in the dollar was altered several times4 ,in #ahdi a gold dollar was added to the coinage1 and from that time forth the standard unit of value existed in both metals4 ,in #ahgc-gd a series of acts were adopted by ,congress bearing upon the standard unit of value1 whereby the legal-tender quality of silver was abolished1 and the silver dollar omitted from the list of coins to be struck at the national mints4 #h4 ,in ,january1 #ahge1 the ,,resumption ,,act was passed by ,congress4 ,it was declared that on the #ast of ,january1 #ahgi1 the ,government should begin to redeem its outstanding legal-tender notes in coin4 ,the question was now raised as to the meaning of the word coin in the act2 and1 for the first time1 the attention of the people was aroused to the fact that the privilege of paying debts in silver had been taken away4 ,a great agitation followed1 and in #ahgh a measure in ,congress was passed over the ,president's veto1 for the restoration of the legal-tender quality of the old silver dollar1 and for the compulsory coinage of that unit at a rate of not less than two millions of dollars a month4 ,sidenote3 ,yellow ,fever ,epidemic4 #i4 ,in the summer of #ahgh several of the ,gulf ,states were scourged with a ,,yellow ,,fever ,,epidemic4 ,the disease made its appearance in ,new ,orleans1 and from thence was scattered among the towns along the ,mississippi4 ,a regular system of contributions was established in the ,northern ,states1 and men and treasure were poured out without stint to relieve the suffering ,south4 ,after more than twenty thousand people had fallen victims to the plague1 the frosts of ,october came and ended the pestilence4 #aj4 ,by the ,treaty of ,washington 7#ahga71 it was agreed that the right of the ,united ,states in certain sea-fisheries in the neighborhood of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 hitherto claimed by ,great ,britain1 should be acknowledged and maintained4 ,the government of the ,united ,states agreed to relinquish the duties which had hitherto been charged on certain kinds of fish imported by ,british subjects into ,american harbors2 and1 in order to balance any discrepancy1 it was further agreed that any total advantage to the ,united ,states might be compensated by a gross sum to be paid by the ,american government4 ,this sum was fixed at five million dollars in ,november1 #ahgg1 and a year later the amount was paid to the ,british government4 ,sidenote3 ,chinese ,embassy4 #aa4 ,the year #ahgh witnessed the establishment of a ,,resident ,,chinese ,,embassy at ,washington4 ,for twenty years the great treaty negotiated by ,anson ,burlingame had been in force between the ,united ,states and ,china4 ,the commercial relations of the two countries had been vastly extended4 ,on the #bhth of ,september the embassy chosen by the imperial government was received by the ,president4 ,the ceremonies of the occasion were among the most interesting ever witnessed in ,washington4 ,the speech of ,chen ,lan ,pin1 the minister1 was equal in dignity and appropriateness to the best efforts of a ,european diplomatist4 ,sidenote3 ,life ,saving ,service4 #ab4 ,in ,june1 #ahgh1 the ,,life ,,saving ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states was established by act of ,congress4 ,the plan proposed the establishment of regular stations and lighthouses on all the exposed parts of the ,atlantic coast and along the ,great ,lakes4 ,each station was to be manned by a band of surfmen experienced in the dangers peculiar to the shore in times of storms1 and drilled in the best methods of rescue and resuscitation4 ,boats and other appliances of the most approved pattern were provided and equipped4 ,the success of the enterprise has been so great as to reflect the highest credit on its promoters4 ,the number of lives saved through the agency of the service reaches to thousands annually1 and the amount of human suffering and distress alleviated by this beneficent movement is beyond computation4 ,sidenote3 ,specie ,resumption4 #ac4 ,on the #ast of ,january1 #ahgi1 the ,,resumption ,,of ,,specie ,,payments was accomplished by the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,after seventeen years' disappearance1 gold and silver coin1 which during that time had been at a premium over the legal-tender notes of the government1 again came into common circulation4 #ad4 ,the presidential election of #ahhj was accompanied with the excitement usually attendant upon great political struggles in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,republican national convention was held in ,chicago on the #b;d and #c;d of ,june2 a platform of principles was adopted1 and ,general ,james ,a4 ,garfield1 of ,ohio1 was nominated for ,president4 ,for ,vice-president1 ,chester ,a4 ,arthur1 of ,new ,york1 received the nomination4 ,the ,democratic national convention assembled at ,cincinnati on the #bb;d of ,june1 and nominated for the presidency ,general ,winfield ,s4 ,hancock1 of ,new ,york1 and for the ,vice-presidency ,william ,h4 ,english1 of ,indiana4 ,the ,national ,greenback party held a convention in ,chicago on the #ith of ,june1 and nominated ,general ,james ,b4 ,weaver1 of ,iowa1 for ,president1 and ,general ,benjamin ,j4 ,chambers1 of ,texas1 for ,vice-president4 ,the election resulted in the choice of ,garfield and ,arthur4 ,two hundred and fourteen electoral votes1 embracing those of nearly all the ,northern ,states1 were cast for the ,republican candidates4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,grant's ,tour4 #ae4 ,soon after retiring from the presidency1 ,general ,grant1 with his family and a company of personal friends1 set out to make a ,,tour ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,the expedition attracted the most conspicuous attention both at home and abroad4 ,the departure from ,philadelphia on the #agth of ,may1 #ahgg1 was the beginning of such a pageant as was never before extended to any citizen of any nation of the earth4 ,general ,grant visited ,europe1 ,india1 ,burmah and ,siam2 ,china and ,japan4 ,in the fall of #ahgi the party returned to ,san ,francisco1 bearing with them the highest tokens of esteem which the great nations of the ,old ,world could bestow upon the honored representative of the ,new4 ,illustration3 ,oliver ,p4 ,morton4 #af4 ,the ,,census ,,of #ahhj was undertaken with more system and care than ever before in the history of the country4 ,the work was intrusted to the superintendency of ,professor ,francis ,a4 ,walker4 ,in every source of national power1 the development of the country was shown to have continued without abatement4 ,the total population of the ,states and ,territories now amounted to #ej1ahb1ebe--;an increase since #ahgj of more than a million inhabitants a year6 ,the center of population had moved westward about fifty miles1 to the vicinity of ,cincinnati4 ,sidenote3 ,oliver ,p4 ,morton4 #ag4 ,during the administration of ,hayes several eminent ,americans passed from the scene of their earthly activities4 ,on the #ast of ,november1 #ahgg1 the distinguished senator1 ,oliver ,p4 ,morton1 died of paralysis at his home in ,indianapolis4 ,his reputation in his own ,state and throughout the ,union was very great1 and his sterling character had won the respect even of his political enemies4 ,as ,war ,governor of ,indiana1 he had been one of the main pillars of support to the ,union in the trying days of the ,civil ,war4 ,after that event he had become one of the foremost men of the nation4 ,although but fifty-four years of age1 he had risen to be a recognized leader in ,american statesmanship4 ,his death was regarded as a public calamity1 and the ,nation1 without distinction of party1 joined with his own ,state in doing honor to the memory of the great dead4 #ah4 ,still more universally felt was the loss of the great poet and journalist1 ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 who on the #abth of ,june1 #ahgh1 at the advanced age of eighty-four1 passed from among the living4 ,for more than sixty years his name had been known and honored wherever the ,english language was spoken4 ,on the #aith of ,december1 in the same year1 the illustrious ,bayard ,taylor1 who had recently been appointed ,american ,minister to the ,german ,empire1 died suddenly in the city of ,berlin4 ,his life had been exclusively devoted to literary work2 and almost every department of letters1 from the common tasks of journalism to the highest charms of poetry1 had been adorned by his genius4 ,on the #ast day of ,november1 #ahgi1 ,zachariah ,chandler1 of ,michigan1 one of the organizers of the ,republican party1 and a great leader of that party in the times of the civil war1 died suddenly at ,chicago2 and on the #bdth day of ,april1 #ahha1 the noted publisher and author1 ,james ,t4 ,fields1 died at his home in ,boston4 ,,chapter ,,liii4 ,,administration ,,of ,,garfield ,,and ,,arthur1 #ahha-ahhe4 ,james ,a4 ,garfield1 twentieth ,president of the ,united ,j ,states1 was born at ,orange1 ,cuyahoga ,county1 ,ohio1 ,november #ai1 #ahca4 ,he was left in infancy to the sole care of his mother and to the rude surroundings of a backwoods home4 ,in boyhood he served as a driver and pilot of a canal boat plying the ,ohio and ,pennsylvania canal4 ,at the age of seventeen he attended the ,high ,school in ,chester1 was afterwards a student at ,hiram ,college1 and in #ahed entered ,williams ,college1 from which he was graduated with honor4 ,illustration3 ,james ,a4 ,garfield4 #b4 ,in the same year1 ,garfield returned to ,ohio1 and was made first a professor and afterwards president of ,hiram ,college4 ,this position he held until the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 when he left his post to enter the army4 ,in the service he rose to distinction1 and while still in the field was elected by the people of his district to the lower house of ,congress4 ,in #ahgi he was elected to the ,united ,states ,senate1 and hard upon this followed his nomination and election to the presidency4 ,american history has furnished but few instances of a more steady and brilliant rise1 from the poverty of an obscure boyhood1 to the most distinguished elective office in the gift of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,spoils ,system4 #c4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #ahha1 ,president ,garfield delivered his inaugural address1 and the new administration entered upon its course with omens of an auspicious future4 ,but its prospects were soon darkened with political difficulties4 ,a division arose in the ranks of the ,republican party4 ,the two wings of the ,republicans were nicknamed the ,stalwarts and the ,half-,breeds3 the former1 headed by ,senator ,conkling of ,new ,york2 the latter1 led by ,mr4 ,blaine1 ,secretary of ,state1 and indorsed by the ,president himself4 ,the ,stalwarts claimed the right of dispensing the appointive offices of the ,government1 after the manner which had prevailed for many preceding administrations2 the ,president1 supported by his division of the party1 insisted on naming the officers in the various ,states according to his own wishes4 #d4 ,the chief clash between the two influences in the party occurred in ,new ,york4 ,the collectorship of customs for the port of ,new ,york is the best appointive office in the ,government4 ,to fill this position the ,president nominated ,judge ,william ,robertson1 and the appointment was antagonized by the ,new ,york senators1 ,conkling and ,platt1 who1 failing to prevent the confirmation of ,robertson1 resigned their seats1 returned to their ,state1 and failed of a reelection4 ,sidenote3 ,assassination of ,pres4 ,garfield4 #e4 ,a few days after the adjournment of the ,senate in ,june1 the ,president1 in company with ,secretary ,blaine and a few friends1 entered the railroad depot at ,washington to take the train for ,long ,branch1 ,new ,jersey4 ,a moment afterwards he was approached by a miserable miscreant1 who1 unperceived1 came within a few feet of the company1 drew a pistol1 and fired upon the ,chief ,magistrate4 ,the shot struck the ,president in the back1 and inflicted a dreadful wound4 ,the bleeding chieftain was borne away to the executive mansion1 and the wretch who had committed the crime was hurried to prison4 ,for eighty days the stricken ,president lingered between life and death1 bearing the pain and anguish of his situation with a fortitude and heroism rarely witnessed among men2 but at half-past ten on the evening of ,september #aith1 the anniversary of the battle of ,chickamauga1 his vital powers suddenly gave way1 and in a few moments death closed the scene4 ,sidenote3 ,president ,arthur ,installed4 #f4 ,on the day following this deplorable event1 ,vice-president ,arthur took the oath of office in ,new ,york1 and repaired to ,washington4 ,chester ,a4 ,arthur was born in ,vernon1 ,franklin ,county1 ,vermont1 ,october #e1 #ahcj4 ,he was of ,irish descent1 and was educated at ,union ,college1 from which institution he was graduated in #ahdi4 ,for awhile he taught school in his native ,state1 and then came to ,new ,york ,city to study law4 ,during the civil war he was ,quartermaster-,general of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,after #ahfe he returned to the practice of law1 and in #ahga was appointed ,collector of ,customs for the port of ,new ,york4 ,this position he held until ,july1 #ahgh1 when he was removed by ,president ,hayes4 ,again he returned to his law practice1 but was soon called by the voice of his party to be a standard-bearer in the ,presidential canvass of #ahhj4 ,illustration3 ,chester ,a4 ,arthur4 #g4 ,the administration of ,president ,arthur proved to be uneventful4 ,the government pursued the even tenor of its way1 and the progress of the country was unchecked by calamity4 ,several important scientific inventions were perfected about this time1 and several great public works completed4 ,sidenote3 ,scientific ,inventions4 #h4 ,one of the best examples of the application of scientific discovery to the affairs of every-day life is that of the ,,telephone4 ,it has remained for our day to discover the possibility of transmitting or reproducing the human voice at a distance of hundreds or even thousands of miles4 ,by means of a simple contrivance1 a person in one part of the country is able to converse with friends in another part1 as if face to face4 ,the invention of this wonderful instrument is to be credited to ,professor ,a4 ,graham ,bell1 of ,massachusetts1 and ,elisha ,p4 ,gray1 of ,chicago4 ,it should be mentioned1 also1 that ,professor ,a4 ,c4 ,dolbear1 of ,tufts ,college1 and the great inventor1 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 have succeeded in the production of telephonic instruments4 #i4 ,another recent invention is the ,,phonograph4 ,it is the nature of the phonograph to receive and retain the wave-lines and figures of sound1 whether of the human voice or some other sound1 and by an ingenious contrivance to reproduce those sounds as if they were the original utterance4 ,it is to be regretted that thus far the phonograph has proved to be of little or no practical utility4 #aj4 ,but perhaps the greatest invention of the age is the ,,electric ,,light4 ,about #ahgj it was first proposed to use electricity for practical illumination4 ,long before this time the possibility of electric lighting had been shown by the philosopher ,gramme1 of ,paris4 ,about the same time the ,russian scientist1 ,jablokoff1 also succeeded in converting electricity into light4 ,it remained1 however1 for the great ,american inventor1 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 to remove the difficulties in the way of electric lighting1 and to make the invention practical4 ,the systems produced by him and others are rapidly taking the place of the old methods of illumination4 ,sidenote3 ,great ,public ,works4 #aa4 ,among the great public works may be mentioned the ,,east ,,river ,,bridge1 joining ,new ,york with ,brooklyn1 which was opened with appropriate ceremonies on the #bdth of ,may1 #ahhc4 ,this structure is the largest of the kind in the world1 being a suspension bridge1 with a total length of #e1ihi feet4 ,the span from pier to pier is #a1eie feet2 and the estimated capacity of resistance is #di1bjj tons4 ,the engineer under whose direction the great bridge was constructed was ,mr4 ,john ,a4 ,roebling1 who may properly be regarded as the originator of wire suspension bridges4 ,though he did not live to see the completion of the work which he had planned1 the same was taken up and finished by his son1 scarcely less noted than his father4 #ab4 ,the recurrence of the birthday of ,washington1 #ahhe1 was noted for the completion of the great monument1 erected at the ,capital1 in honor of the ,father of his ,country4 ,the cost of the completed structure was about #a1ejj1jjj4 ,the shaft of the monument1 exclusive of the foundation1 is #eee feet in height1 being #cj feet higher than the cathedral of ,cologne1 and #ge feet higher than the pyramid of ,cheops4 #ac4 ,in the last year of ,arthur's administration the command of the army of the ,united ,states was transferred from ,general ,william ,t4 ,sherman to ,general ,philip ,h4 ,sheridan4 ,the former eminent soldier1 having reached the age at which1 according to ,act of ,congress1 he might retire from active service1 availed himself of the provision1 and laid down the command which he had so long and honorably held4 ,nor could it be said that the new ,general1 to whom the command of the ,american army was now given1 was less a patriot and soldier than his eminent predecessor4 ,sidenote3 ,disappearance of ,political ,issues4 #ad4 ,during this administration there was a gradual obliteration of those sharply defined issues which for a quarter of a century had divided the two great political parties4 ,partisan animosity in some measure abated1 and it was with difficulty that the managers were able to direct the people in the political contest of #ahhd4 ,the issue most clearly defined was that of tariff and free trade1 and even this1 when much discussed1 tended to break up both the existing political organizations4 #ae4 ,during the year #ahhc many distinguished men were named for the presidential office4 ,the first national convention was that of the ,greenback-,labor party1 held at ,indianapolis1 in ,april of #ahhd4 ,by this party1 ,general ,benjamin ,f4 ,butler1 of ,massachusetts1 and ,a4 ,n4 ,west1 of ,texas1 were put in nomination4 ,the ,republican convention met on the #c;d of ,june1 in ,chicago1 and1 after a session of three days1 closed its labors by the nomination of ,james ,g4 ,blaine1 of ,maine1 and ,general ,john ,a4 ,logan1 of ,illinois4 ,the ,democratic convention met in the same city1 on the #ith of ,july1 and chose for its standard-bearers ,grover ,cleveland1 of ,new ,york1 and ,thomas ,a4 ,hendricks1 of ,indiana4 ,the result showed that the ,democratic party had drawn to its banners a majority of the ,american people4 ,cleveland and ,hendricks were elected1 receiving #bai ballots in the ,electoral ,college1 against #ahb votes which were cast for ,blaine and ,logan4 ,,chapter ,,liv4 ,,cleveland',s ,,administration1 #ahhe-ahhi4 ,the new ,president was inaugurated on the #dth of ,march1 #ahhe4 ,perhaps the history of the country has furnished no other example of such rapid rise to great distinction4 ,grover ,cleveland1 twenty-second ,president of the ,united ,states1 was born in ,caldwell1 ,new ,jersey1 ,march #ahth1 #ahcg4 ,with his father he removed to ,fayetteville1 ,new ,york1 in #ahdj4 ,here the youth grew to manhood4 ,his education was obtained in the common schools and academies of the neighborhood4 ,in #aheg he removed to ,new ,york ,city1 and became a student of law4 ,in #ahei he was admitted to the bar1 and four years afterwards was appointed ,assistant ,district ,attorney for ,erie ,county4 ,in #ahfi he was elected ,sheriff of the same county1 and in #ahha he was chosen mayor of ,buffalo4 ,in #ahhb he was elected governor of ,new ,york1 receiving for that office a plurality of more than #aij1jjj votes4 ,before his term of office had expired he was called by the voice of his party to be its standard-bearer in the presidential campaign of #ahhd1 in which he was again successful4 ,illustration3 ,grover ,cleveland4 ,sidenote3 ,new ,orleans ,exposition4 #b4 ,the last months of ,arthur's and the first of ,cleveland's administration were noted for the ,,international ,,cotton ,,exposition at ,new ,orleans4 ,this1 after the ,centennial ,exposition of #ahgf1 was the greatest display of the kind ever held in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,exposition extended from ,december of #ahhd to ,june of #ahhe1 and was daily attended by thousands of visitors from all parts of the ,united ,states and from many foreign countries4 ,the display was varied and full of interest4 ,intended1 in the first place1 to exhibit the wonderful resources of the ,south in her peculiar products1 the exhibition was enlarged to include all branches of production and every species of mechanism and art4 ,among the incidental benefits of the ,exposition may be mentioned the increased intercourse and consequent friendliness of the people of the ,northern and ,southern ,states4 #c4 ,the first year of ,cleveland's administration was uneventful4 ,the great question before the ,president was that of the ,,reform ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,service4 ,in attempting to substitute a new series of rules for appointment to office1 by which the persons appointed should be selected rather for their fitness than for their party services1 the ,president was greatly embarrassed4 ,he found that the old forces in ,american politics were as active as ever1 and that a reform was almost impossible under existing conditions4 ,sidenote3 ,labor ,agitations4 #d4 ,the first great national event of the ,cleveland administration was that of the ,,labor ,,agitations1 which broke out in the spring of #ahhf4 ,it was not until after the ,civil ,war that the first symptoms appeared of a renewal1 in the ,new ,world1 of the struggle which has been long going on in ,europe between ,capital and ,labor4 ,the first difficulties of this sort in our country appeared in the mining regions1 and in the factories of the ,eastern ,states4 ,the agitation soon spread to the ,west4 ,as early as #ahfg the peculiar method of action1 called striking1 began among the laborers of the country4 ,an account of the great railroad strike of #ahgg has already been presented4 7,pages #ccg and #cch47 ,sidenote3 ,the ,southwestern ,strike4 #e4 ,at the same time monopolies sprang up and flourished2 and1 coincident with this1 ,american labor discovered the salutary but dangerous power of combination4 ,when the trade season of #ahhf opened1 a series of strikes and labor troubles broke out in several parts of the country4 ,the cities and towns were most involved in these agitations4 ,the first serious conflict was on what is known as the ,gould ,system of ,railways1 in the ,southwest4 ,a single workman1 belonging to the ,knights of ,labor1 and employed on a branch of the ,texas and ,pacific ,railway1 was discharged from his place4 ,this action was resented by the ,knights1 and the laborers on a great part of the ,gould ,system were ordered to strike4 ,the movement was1 for a season1 successful1 and the transportation of freights from ,st4 ,louis to the ,southwest ceased4 ,gradually1 however1 other workmen were substituted for the striking ,knights2 but the end was not reached until a severe riot in ,east ,st4 ,louis had occasioned the sacrifice of much property and several innocent lives4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,chicago ,anarchists4 #f4 ,far more alarming was the outbreak in ,chicago4 ,in that city the socialistic and anarchic elements were sufficiently powerful to present a bold front to the authorities4 ,processions bearing red flags and banners1 with communistic devices and mottoes1 frequently paraded the streets1 and were addressed by demagogues who avowed themselves the open enemies of society and the existing order4 ,on the #dth of ,may1 #ahhf1 a vast crowd of this reckless material collected in a place called the ,haymarket1 and were about to begin the usual inflammatory proceedings1 when a band of policemen1 mostly officers1 drew near1 with the evident purpose of controlling or dispersing the meeting4 #g4 ,a terrible scene ensued4 ,dynamite bombs were thrown from the crowd and exploded among the officers1 several of whom were blown to pieces1 and others shockingly mangled4 ,the mob was1 in turn1 attacked by the police1 and many of the insurgents were shot down4 ,order was presently restored in the city2 several of the leading anarchists were arrested on the charge of inciting to murder1 were tried1 condemned1 and four of them executed4 ,on the day following the ,chicago riot1 a similar1 though less dangerous1 outbreak1 which was suppressed without serious loss of life1 occurred in ,milwaukee4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,charleston ,earthquake4 #h4 ,the summer of #ahhf is memorable on account of the great natural catastrophe known as the ,,charleston ,,earthquake4 ,on the night of the #cast of ,august1 at ten minutes before ten o'clock1 without a moment's warning1 the city of ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 was rocked and rent to its very foundations4 ,hardly a building in the limits of ,charleston1 or in the country surrounding1 escaped serious injury2 and perhaps one half of all were in a state of semi-wreck or total ruin4 #i4 ,the whole coast in the central region of the disturbance was modified with respect to the sea1 and the ocean itself was thrown into turmoil for miles from the shore4 ,the people in the city fled from their falling houses to the public squares and parks and far into the country4 ,afraid to return into the ruins1 they threw up tents and light booths for protection1 and abode for weeks away from their homes4 ,nothing before in the limits of our knowledge has been at all comparable with it in extent and violence1 except the great earthquake of ,new ,madrid in #ahaa4 #aj4 ,the disaster to ,charleston served to bring out some of the better qualities of our civilization4 ,personal assistance and contributions from all quarters poured in for the support and encouragement of the afflicted people4 ,for several weeks a series of diminishing shocks continued to terrify the citizens2 but it was discovered that these shocks were only the dying away of the great convulsion1 and that they gave cause for hope of entire cessation rather than continued alarm4 ,in the course of a few months the ruins were cleared away1 business was resumed1 and the people were again safe in their homes4 #aa4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #ahhg1 the second session of the ,forty-ninth ,congress expired4 ,the work of the body had not been so fruitful of results as had been desired and anticipated by the friends of the government4 ,on the question of the tariff nothing of value was accomplished4 ,a measure of ,,revenue ,,reform had been brought forward at an early date in the session1 but the act failed of adoption4 ,sidenote3 ,pension ,legislation4 #ab4 ,on the question of ,,extending ,,the ,,pension ,,list1 however1 the case was different4 ,a great majority of both parties favored such measures as looked to the increase of benefits to the soldiers4 ,at the first1 only a limited number of pensions had been granted1 and these only to actually disabled or injured veterans of the ,war for the ,union4 ,but it became more and more important to each of the parties to secure and hold the soldier vote1 without which it was felt that neither could maintain ascendency in the government4 ,the ,,arrears ,,of ,,pensions ,,act1 making up to those who were already recipients of pensions such amounts as would have accrued if the benefit had dated from the time of disability1 instead of from the time of granting the pension1 was passed in #ahgi2 and at the same time the list of pensioners was greatly enlarged4 #ac4 ,the measure presented in the ,fiftieth ,congress was designed to extend the pension list so as to include all regularly enlisted and honorably discharged soldiers of the ,civil ,war1 who had become in whole1 or in part1 dependent upon the aid of others for their maintenance4 ,the measure was known as the ,,dependent ,,pensions ,,bill4 ,many opposed the enactment of a law which appeared to give the bounty of the government to the deserving and the undeserving alike1 and to compel the worthy recipients of pensions to rank themselves with those who had gone into the army for pay1 and had been brought to want through improvidence4 ,a majority was easily obtained for the measure in both ,houses of ,congress1 and the act was passed4 ,president ,cleveland1 however1 interposed his veto1 and the proposed law fell to the ground4 #ad4 ,the most important and noted legislation of the session was the act known as the ,,inter-,,state ,,commerce ,,bill4 ,for some fifteen years complaints against the methods and management of the railways of the ,united ,states had been heard on many sides1 and in cases not a few the complaints had originated in actual abuses4 ,a large class of people became clamorous that ,congress should compel railways to accept a system of uniformity as to all charges for service rendered4 ,with this object in view the ,inter-,state ,commerce ,bill was accordingly prepared1 and became a law4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,prominent ,generals4 #ae4 ,in the spring of #ahhe it became known that ,general ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant was stricken with a fatal malady4 ,the announcement at once drew to the ,general and ex-,president the interest and sympathies of the whole ,american people4 ,the hero of ,vicksburg and ,appomattox sank under the ravages of a malignant cancer1 which had fixed itself in his throat4 ,on the #bc;d of ,july1 #ahhe1 he expired at a summer cottage on ,mount ,mc,gregor1 ,new ,york4 ,his last days were hallowed by the love of the nation which he had so gloriously defended4 ,no funeral west of the ,atlantic--not even that of ,lincoln--was more universally observed4 ,the procession in ,new ,york ,city was perhaps as imposing a pageant as was ever exhibited in honor of the dead4 ,on the #hth of ,august the body of ,general ,grant was laid to rest in ,riverside ,park1 overlooking the ,hudson4 ,there1 on the summit from which may be seen the great river and the metropolis of the nation1 is the tomb of him whose courage and magnanimity in war will forever give him rank with the few master spirits who have honored the human race and changed the course of history4 #af4 ,within scarcely more than a year from the funeral of ,grant several other distinguished ,union ,generals fell4 ,on the #bith of ,october ,general ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan died at his home at ,st4 ,cloud1 ,new ,jersey4 ,after another brief interval ,general ,winfield ,s4 ,hancock1 senior ,major-,general of the ,american ,army1 breathed his last4 ,in the mean time1 within a brief period1 ,generals ,irwin ,mc,dowell1 ,ambrose ,e4 ,burnside1 ,joseph ,hooker1 and ,george ,g4 ,meade1 each of whom1 in a critical period of the war1 had commanded the ,army of the ,potomac1 passed away4 ,before the close of #ahhf ,major-,general ,john ,a4 ,logan1 greatest of the volunteer commanders1 who1 without previous military education1 won for themselves distinguished honors in the ,war for the ,union1 fell sick and died at his home1 called ,calumet ,place1 in ,washington ,city4 ,illustration3 ,thomas ,a4 ,hendricks4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,prominent ,civilians4 #ag4 ,in the mean time1 several distinguished civilians had passed away4 ,on the #beth of ,november1 #ahhe1 ,vice-president ,thomas ,a4 ,hendricks1 after an illness of a single day1 died suddenly at his home in ,indianapolis4 ,the life of ,mr4 ,hendricks had been one of singular purity as well as of greatness4 ,his character had been noted for its mildness and serenity in the stormy arena of politics4 ,the goodness of the man in private life1 combined with his distinction as governor1 senator1 and ,vice-president of the ,united ,states1 drew from the people every evidence of public and private respect for his memory4 ,the body of the dead statesman was buried in ,crown ,hill cemetery1 near ,indianapolis4 ,the funeral pageant surpassed in grandeur any other display of the kind ever witnessed in the ,western ,states1 except the funeral of ,lincoln4 ,shortly after his death1 the funds were easily subscribed by the people1 for the erection of the magnificent bronze monument and statue standing at one of the entrances to the ,capitol of ,indiana4 #ah4 ,the death of ,hendricks was soon followed by that of ,horatio ,seymour1 of ,new ,york4 ,on the #abth of ,february1 #ahhf1 this distinguished citizen1 who had been governor of the ,empire ,state1 and a candidate for the ,presidency against ,general ,grant1 died at his home in ,utica4 ,still more distinguished in reputation and ability was ,samuel ,j4 ,tilden1 also of ,new ,york1 who died at his home1 called ,greystone1 at ,yonkers1 near ,new ,york ,city1 on the #dth of ,august1 #ahhf4 #ai4 ,to this list of deaths must be added the illustrious name of ,henry ,ward ,beecher4 ,to him1 with little reservation1 must be assigned the first place among our orators and philanthropists4 ,he had the happy fortune to retain his faculties unimpaired to the close of his career4 ,on the evening of the #eth of ,march1 #ahhg1 at his home in ,brooklyn1 he sank down under a stroke of apoplexy4 ,he was nearing the close of his seventy-fourth year4 ,he lived until the morning of the #hth1 and quietly entered the shadows4 ,he was followed to the grave by the common eulogium of mankind1 and every circumstance of his passing away showed that he had occupied the supreme place among men of his class in ,america4 #bj4 ,on the #bc;d of ,march1 #ahhh1 ,morrison ,r4 ,waite1 ,chief-,justice of the ,united ,states1 died at his home in ,washington ,city4 ,the death of this able jurist imposed on ,president ,cleveland the duty of naming his successor4 ,judge ,melville ,w4 ,fuller1 of ,chicago1 was appointed1 and confirmed on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahhh4 #ba4 ,during the whole of ,cleveland's administration1 the public mind was swayed and excited by the movements of politics4 ,the universality of partisan newspapers1 the combination in their columns of all the news of the world with the invectives and misrepresentations of party leaders1 kept political questions constantly uppermost to the detriment of social progress and industrial interests4 ,scarcely had ,president ,cleveland entered upon his office as chief magistrate when the question of the succession to the ,presidency was agitated4 #bb4 ,by the last year of the administration it was seen that there would be no general break-up of the existing parties4 ,it was also perceived that the issues between them must be made rather than found in the existing state of affairs4 ,the sentiment in the ,united ,states in favor of the ,constitutional prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors had become somewhat extended and intensified since the last general election4 ,but the discerning eye might perceive that the real issue was between the ,republican and ,democratic parties4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,protective ,tariff4 #bc4 ,one issue1 however1 had a living and practical relation to affairs1 and that was the question of ,,protection ,,to ,,american ,,industry4 ,since the campaign of #ahhd1 the agitation had been gradually extended4 ,at the opening of the session1 in #ahhg1 the ,president1 in his annual message to ,congress1 devoted the whole document to the discussion of the single question of a ,reform of the ,revenue ,system of the ,united ,states4 ,the existing rates of duty on imported articles of commerce had so greatly augmented the income of the ,government1 that a large surplus had accumulated in the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,this fact was made the basis of the ,president's argument in favor of a new system of revenue1 or at least an ample reduction in the tariff rates under the old4 ,it was immediately charged by the ,republicans1 that the project in question meant the substitution of the system of ,free ,trade in the ,united ,states as against the system of protective duties4 ,the question thus involved was made the bottom issue in the ,presidential campaign of #ahhh4 #bd4 ,the ,democratic ,national ,convention was held in ,st4 ,louis on the #eth day of ,june1 #ahhh1 and ,mr4 ,cleveland was renominated by acclamation4 ,for the ,vice-presidential nomination the choice fell on ex-,senator ,allen ,g4 ,thurman1 of ,ohio4 ,the ,republican ,national ,convention was held in ,chicago1 on the #aith day of ,june4 ,many candidates were ardently pressed upon the body1 and the contest was long and spirited4 ,the voting was continued to the eighth ballot1 when the choice fell upon ,benjamin ,harrison1 of ,indiana4 ,in the evening1 ,levi ,p4 ,morton1 of ,new ,york1 was nominated for the ,vice-presidency on the first ballot4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,party ,platforms4 #be4 ,in the mean time1 the ,prohibition party had held its ,national ,convention at ,indianapolis1 and on the #cjth of ,may had nominated for the ,presidency ,general ,clinton ,b4 ,fisk1 of ,new ,jersey1 and for the ,vice-presidency ,john ,a4 ,brooks1 of ,missouri4 ,the ,democratic platform declared for a reform of the revenue system of the ,united ,states1 and reaffirmed the principle of adjusting the tariff on imports with strict regard to the actual needs of governmental expenditure4 ,the ,republican platform declared also for a reform of the tariff schedule1 but at the same time stoutly affirmed the maintenance of the protective system as a part of the permanent policy of the ,united ,states4 ,both parties deferred to the patriotic sentiment of the country in favor of the soldiers4 ,the ,prohibitionists entered the campaign1 on the distinct proposition that the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors should be prohibited throughout the ,united ,states by ,constitutional amendment4 ,to this was added a clause in favor of extending the right of suffrage to women4 #bf4 ,as the canvass progressed during the summer and autumn of #ahhh1 it became evident that the result was in doubt4 ,the contest was exceedingly close4 ,the result showed success for the ,republican candidate4 ,he received #bcc electoral votes1 against #afh votes for ,mr4 ,cleveland4 ,the latter1 however1 appeared to a better advantage on the popular count1 having a considerable majority over ,general ,harrison4 ,general ,fisk1 the ,prohibition candidate1 received nearly three hundred thousand votes2 but1 under the system of voting1 no electoral vote of any ,state was obtained for him4 ,sidenote3 ,four ,new ,states4 #bg4 ,the last days of ,cleveland's administration and of the ,fiftieth ,congress were signalized by the admission into the ,union of ,,four ,,new ,,states1 making the number forty-two4 ,in #ahhg the question of dividing ,dakota ,territory by a line running east and west was agitated1 and the measure finally prevailed4 ,steps were taken by the people of both sections for admission into the ,union4 ,montana1 with her #adf1jhj square miles of territory1 had meanwhile acquired a sufficient population2 and ,washington ,territory1 with its area of #fi1ahj square miles1 also knocked for admission4 ,in the closing days of the ,fiftieth ,congress a bill was passed raising all of these four ,territories--,south ,dakota1 ,north ,dakota1 ,montana1 and ,washington--to the plane of ,statehood4 ,the ,act contemplated the adoption of ,state ,constitutions1 and a proclamation of admission by the next ,president4 ,it thus happened that the honor of bringing in this great addition to the ,states of the ,union was divided between the outgoing and incoming administrations4 ,sidenote3 ,agricultural ,department4 #bh4 ,another ,act of ,congress was also of national importance4 ,hitherto the government had been administered through seven departments1 at the head of each of which was placed a ,cabinet officer1 the seven together constituting the advisers of the ,president4 ,early in #ahhi a measure was brought forward in ,congress1 and adopted1 for the institution of a new department1 to be called the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,practically the measure involved the elevation of what had previously been an ,agricultural ,bureau in the ,department of the ,interior1 to the rank of a ,cabinet office4 ,hitherto1 though agriculture has been the greatest of all the producing interests of the people1 it has been neglected for more political and less useful departments of ,american life and enterprise4 ,,chapter ,,lv4 ,,harrison',s ,,administration1 #ahhi- ----4 ,benjamin ,harrison1 twenty-third ,president of the ,united ,states1 was born at ,north ,bend1 ,ohio1 on the #bjth of ,august1 #ahcc4 ,he is a grandson of ,president ,william ,henry ,harrison1 and a great-grandson of ,benjamin ,harrison1 signer of the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,illustration3 ,benjamin ,harrison4 #b4 ,harrison's early home was on a farm4 ,he was a student at the institution called ,farmers' ,college1 for two years4 ,afterwards1 he attended ,miami ,university1 at ,oxford1 ,ohio1 and was graduated therefrom in ,june1 #aheb4 ,he took in marriage the daughter of ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,scott1 ,president of the ,university4 ,after a course of study1 he entered the profession of law1 removed to ,indianapolis1 and established himself in that city4 ,with the outbreak of the war he became a soldier of the ,union1 and rose to the rank of ,brevet ,brigadier-,general of ,volunteers4 ,before the close of the war1 he was elected ,reporter of the decisions of the ,supreme ,court of ,indiana4 #c4 ,in the period following the ,civil ,war1 ,general ,harrison rose to distinction as a civilian4 ,in #ahgf he was the unsuccessful candidate of the ,republican party for governor of ,indiana4 ,in #ahha he was elected to the ,united ,states ,senate1 where he won the reputation of a leader and statesman4 ,in #ahhd1 his name was prominently mentioned in connection with the ,presidency2 and in #ahhh it was found that he1 more than any other1 combined in himself all the elements of a successful candidate4 ,the event justified the choice of the party in making him the standard-bearer in the ensuing campaign4 #d4 ,general ,harrison was inaugurated ,president on the #dth of ,march1 #ahhi4 ,his ,cabinet appointments were as follows3 ,secretary of ,state1 ,james ,g4 ,blaine1 of ,maine2 ,secretary of the ,treasury1 ,william ,windom1 of ,minnesota2 ,secretary of ,war1 ,redfield ,proctor1 of ,vermont2 ,secretary of the ,navy1 ,benjamin ,f4 ,tracy1 of ,new ,york2 ,postmaster-,general1 ,john ,wanamaker1 of ,pennsylvania2 ,secretary of the ,interior1 ,john ,w4 ,noble1 of ,missouri2 ,attorney-,general1 ,william ,h4 ,h4 ,miller1 of ,indiana2 and ,secretary of ,agriculture--the new department--,jeremiah ,rusk1 of ,wisconsin4 ,sidenote3 ,affairs in ,oklahoma4 #e4 ,as the more fertile and accessible public lands in the ,mississippi valley were gradually taken up1 new settlers began to cast envious eyes upon ,indian ,territory1 and especially upon a central region1 called ,oklahoma1 or the beautiful country1 which was supposed to be very fertile4 ,several illegal attempts were made by bands of adventurers to settle upon these lands1 and the military had been employed to eject the ,oklahoma ,boomers1 as the intruders were called4 #f4 ,the ,indian title to ,oklahoma had gradually been acquired by the ,united ,states1 and one of the first acts of ,president ,harrison was to issue a proclamation declaring that this region1 embracing nearly #cjjj square miles1 should be thrown open to public settlement at noon of ,april #bb1 #ahhi4 #g4 ,as this date approached1 settlers to the number of over ten thousand collected and formed camps along the southern boundary of ,kansas1 and1 at the hour named1 made a wild race to ,oklahoma across the intervening strip of ,indian ,territory4 ,towns were started in several localities1 and within a few days the region had a population of more than #cj1jjj4 ,though the country proved somewhat less fertile than had been supposed1 the new community continued to grow1 and the following year1 with greatly enlarged boundaries and a population of #fb1jjj1 was organized as the ,territory of ,oklahoma4 ,sidenote3 ,centennial of the ,republic4 #h4 ,within two months after ,harrison's inauguration occurred the ,,centennial ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,republic4 ,on the #cjth of ,april1 #aghi1 the ,father of his ,country had taken the oath of office and entered upon his duties as first ,president of the ,united ,states1 and the corresponding date in #ahhi was fixed upon for the centennial celebration of the event4 ,the holidays in the metropolis included the #bith and #cjth days of ,april and the #ast day of ,may4 ,the event drew to ,new ,york the largest concourse of people ever seen at one place within the limits of the ,united ,states4 ,fully half a million strangers visited the city and were present at the ceremonies4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,samoan ,difficulty4 #i4 ,the close of the year #ahhh and the beginning of #ahhi were marked by a dangerous complication between the ,united ,states and ,germany relative to the ,samoan ,islands4 ,in order to settle the difficulty1 the ,president of the ,united ,states sent three commissioners to ,berlin1 to confer with the ,german ,government4 ,the result was wholly satisfactory to the ,united ,states4 ,the attitude and demand of the ,american ,government in favor of the independence of ,samoa1 under its native sovereign1 were supported by the decision of the commissioners1 and the difficulty ended with the recognition of ,king ,malietoa4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,johnstown ,inundation4 #aj4 ,the last week of ,may1 #ahhi1 was memorable in the history of our country for the destruction of ,johnstown1 ,pennsylvania4 ,that city lay at the junction of a stream1 known as the ,south ,fork1 with the ,conemaugh ,river4 ,several miles up the ,south ,fork some wealthy fishermen had constructed a dam and a reservoir1 where the waters had accumulated in an immense volume4 ,the level of the lake was high above the valley and the city4 ,during the last days of ,may heavy rains fell1 and the country was inundated4 ,on the afternoon of the #cast of the month1 the dam which held the lake in place was burst asunder1 and the deluge of waters poured suddenly down the valley4 ,everything was swept away by the flood4 ,johnstown1 a manufacturing city1 was totally wrecked1 and thrown in an indescribable mass against the aqueduct of the ,pennsylvania ,railway below the town4 ,here the ruins caught fire1 and the wild shrieks of hundreds of miserable victims were heard above the roar of the deluge and the conflagration4 ,the heart of the nation responded quickly to the sufferings of the people1 and millions of dollars in money and supplies were poured into the ,conemaugh valley to relieve the destitution of those who survived the calamity4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mc,kinley ,bill4 #aa4 ,the work of the fifty-first ,congress was marked with much partisan bitterness and excitement4 ,the first question which occupied the attention of the body was the revision of the tariff4 ,on this question the political parties were strongly opposed to each other4 ,the policy of the ,republican party1 though the platform of #ahhh had declared for a revision of the tariff1 was favorable to the perpetuation of the protective system as a part of the permanent policy of the ,government4 ,the ,democrats favored a great reduction in the existing rates of duties1 and the ultimate adoption of the principle of free trade4 ,what was known as the ,mc,kinley ,bill was introduced into ,congress1 and finally adopted1 by which the ,republican policy was incorporated as a part of the governmental system4 ,the average rate of import duties was raised from about forty-seven per cent4 to more than fifty-three per cent42 but in a few instances the existing duties were abolished1 and in the case of raw sugar a bounty to the producers was provided instead4 ,sidenote3 ,counting a ,quorum4 #ab4 ,early in the session a serious difficulty arose in the ,house of ,representatives between the ,democrats and the ,speaker1 ,thomas ,b4 ,reed1 of ,maine4 ,the ,republican majority in the ,house was not large1 and the minority were easily able in matters of party legislation to break the quorum by refusing to vote4 ,in order to counteract this policy1 a new system of rules was reported empowering the ,speaker to count the minority as present whether voting or not1 and thus to compel a quorum4 ,these rules were violently resisted by the ,democrats1 and ,speaker ,reed was denounced by his opponents as an unjust officer4 ,it was under the provision of the new rule that nearly all of the party measures of the fifty-first ,congress were adopted4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,force ,bill4 #ac4 ,one of the most important of these was the attempt to pass through ,congress what was known as the ,force ,bill1 by which it was proposed to transfer the control of the ,congressional elections in the ,states of the ,union1 from ,state to ,national authority4 ,this measure provoked the strongest opposition1 part of which arose within the ,republican party4 ,in the ,senate certain ,republicans refused to support the bill1 and it was finally laid aside for the consideration of other business4 ,sidenote3 ,free ,coinage of ,silver4 #ad4 ,a third measure was the attempt to restore silver to a perfect equality with gold in the coinage of the country4 ,since #ahgd there had been an increasing difference in the purchasing power of the two money metals of the country4 ,that is1 the purchasing power of gold had1 in the last fifteen years1 risen about fifteen per cent41 while the purchasing power of silver had fallen about five per cent4 in the markets of the world4 ,one class of theorists1 assuming that gold is the only invariable standard of values1 insisted that this difference in the purchasing power of the two metals had risen wholly from a depreciation in the price of silver2 while the opposing class argued that the difference had arisen most largely from an increase in the purchasing power of gold1 and that equal legislation and equal favor shown to the two money metals would bring them to par1 the one with the other1 and keep them in that relation in the markets of the world4 #ae4 ,the advocates of free coinage claimed that the laws discriminating against silver and in favor of gold were impolitic1 unjust1 and un-,american4 ,they urged that the free coinage of silver would be of vast advantage to the financial interests of the country4 ,this view1 however1 was strongly opposed by the money centers and by the fund-holding classes1 to whom the payment of all debts according to the highest standard of value--that is1 in gold only--was a fundamental principle4 ,a bill for the free coinage of silver was passed by the ,senate1 but rejected by the ,house1 and the question was handed over to the next ,congress4 ,sidenote3 ,idaho and ,wyoming4 #af4 ,this ,congress passed the necessary acts for the admission of ,idaho and ,wyoming as the forty-third and forty-fourth ,states respectively4 ,idaho was admitted with a population of #hd1che1 on the #c;d of ,july1 #ahij2 while on the #ajth of the same month #fj1gje souls were added to the ,union with the ,state of ,wyoming4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,eleventh ,census4 #ag4 ,the ,eleventh ,decennial ,census of the ,united ,states was taken in ,june1 #ahij4 ,its results indicated that the population of the country had increased to #fb1fbb1bej1 exclusive of ,indians not taxed1 and whites in ,alaska and ,indian ,territory4 ,these swell the grand total to about #fc1jjj1jjj souls4 ,indiana was found to contain #b1aie1djd inhabitants1 and to include1 near the hamlet of ,westport in ,decatur ,county1 the center of population of the ,united ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,general ,sheridan4 #ah4 ,meanwhile three other great leaders of the ,civil ,war passed away by death4 ,on the #eth of ,august1 #ahhh1 ,lieutenant-,general ,sheridan1 at that time ,commander-in-chief of the ,american army1 died at his home in ,nonquitt1 ,massachusetts4 ,few other generals of the ,union army had won greater admiration and higher honors4 ,he was in many senses a model soldier1 and his death at the comparatively early age of fifty-seven was the occasion of great grief throughout the country4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,general ,sherman4 #ai4 ,still more conspicuous was the fall of ,general ,william ,t4 ,sherman4 ,among the ,union commanders in the great ,civil ,war he stood easily next to ,grant in greatness and reputation4 ,in vast and varied abilities1 particularly in military accomplishment1 he was perhaps superior to all4 ,born in #ahbj1 he reached the mature age of seventy-one1 and died at his home in ,new ,york on the #adth day of ,february1 #ahia4 ,the event produced a profound impression4 ,sherman1 more than any other great military captain of his time1 had shunned and put aside political ambition4 ,of his sterling patriotism there was never a doubt4 ,as to his wonderful abilities1 all men were agreed4 ,his remains were taken under escort from ,new ,york to ,st4 ,louis1 where they were deposited in the family burying grounds in ,mount ,calvary cemetery4 ,sidenote3 ,death of ,general ,johnston4 #bj4 ,after the death of ,general ,sherman1 only two commanders of the first class remained on the stage of action from the great ,civil ,war--both ,confederates4 ,these were ,generals ,joseph ,e4 ,johnston and ,james ,longstreet4 ,the former of these was destined to follow his rival and conqueror at an early day to the land of rest4 ,general ,johnston1 who had been an honorary pall bearer at the funeral of ,sherman1 contracted a heavy cold on that occasion1 which resulted in his death on the #bjth of ,february1 #ahia1 at his home in ,washington ,city4 ,general ,johnston was in his eighty-third year at the time of his decease4 ,among the ,confederate commanders none were his superiors1 with the single exception of ,lee4 ,after the close of the war1 his conduct had been of a kind to win the confidence of ,union men2 and at the time of his death he was held in almost universal honor4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,new ,orleans ,massacre4 #ba4 ,in ,february of #ahia a serious event occurred in the city of ,new ,orleans4 ,there existed in that metropolis a secret social organization among the ,italians1 known as the ,mafia ,society4 ,the principles of the brotherhood involved mutual protection and even the law of revenge against enemies4 ,several breaks occurred between members of the society and the police authorities of the city1 and the latter1 by arrest and prosecution1 incurred the dislike and hatred of the former4 ,the difficulty grew until at length ,captain ,david ,c4 ,hennessey1 chief of the police1 was assassinated by some secret murderer or murderers1 who for the time escaped detection4 ,it was believed1 however1 that the ,mafia ,society was at the bottom of the assassination1 and several members of the brotherhood were arrested under the charge of murder4 #bb4 ,a trial followed1 and the circumstances tended to establish the guilt of the prisoners4 ,but the proof was not positive1 and the first three of those on trial were acquitted4 ,a great excitement followed this decision1 and charges were published that the jury had been bribed or terrorized with threats into making a false verdict4 ,on the following day a public meeting was called1 and a great crowd gathered around the statue of ,henry ,clay1 standing in one of the public squares4 ,speeches were made4 ,a mob was organized and directed against the jail where the ,italian prisoners were confined4 ,the jail was entered by force4 ,the prisoners were driven from their cells1 and nine of them were shot to death in the court of the prison4 ,two others were dragged forth and hanged4 ,nor can it be doubted that the innocent as well as the guilty suffered in the slaughter4 #bc4 ,the event was followed by intense public excitement4 ,the affair became of national1 and then of international1 importance4 ,the ,italian minister1 ,baron ,fava1 at ,washington1 entered his solemn protest against the killing of his countrymen1 and the ,american ,secretary of ,state communicated with ,king ,humbert on the subject4 ,the ,italian societies in other ,american cities passed angry resolutions against the destruction of their fellow-countrymen by the mob2 and the newspapers of the country teemed with discussions of the subject4 ,threats of war were heard between ,italy and the ,united ,states2 but the more thoughtful looked with confidence to the settlement of the question by peaceable means4 #bd4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,our ,,country has thus been traced from the times of the aborigines to the present day4 ,the story is done4 ,the ,republic has passed through stormy times1 but has at last entered her second century in safety and peace4 ,the clouds that were recently so black overhead have broken1 and are sinking behind the horizon4 ,the equality of all men before the law has been written with the iron pen of war in the ,constitution of the ,nation4 ,the ,union of the ,states has been consecrated anew by the blood of patriots and the tears of the lowly4 ,the temple of freedom reared by our fathers still stands in undiminished glory4 ,,the ,,past ,,has ,,taught ,,its ,,lesson2 ,,the ,,present ,,has ,,its ,,duty2 ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,its ,,hope4 ,,review ,,questions4--,,part ,,vii4 ,,chapter ,l4 #a4 ,tell about the thirteenth amendment4 #b4 ,trace the reconstruction measures of ,president ,johnson's administration4 #c4 ,give an account of the purchase of ,alaska4 #d4 ,tell about the ,atlantic cable4 ,,chapter ,,li4 #e4 ,give an account of the adoption of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments4 #f4 ,detail the ,alabama ,claims controversy and tell how it was settled4 #g4 ,tell about the great fires of #ahga-gb4 #h4 ,outline the ,indian troubles with the ,modocs and the ,sioux4 #i4 ,give an account of the ,credit ,mobilier4 #aj4 ,tell about the ,centennial exposition4 #aa4 ,give an account of the contested election of #ahgf1 and how it was adjusted4 ,,chapter ,,lii4 #ab4 ,tell about the railroad strikes in the early part of ,president ,hayes's administration4 #ac4 ,give an account of the troubles with the ,nez ,perc ,indians4 #ad4 ,give the leading ,congressional measures of these four years4 #ae4 ,tell about ,general ,grant's tour around the world4 ,,chapter ,,liii4 #af4 ,give an account of the presidency and death of ,garfield4 #ag4 ,outline the presidency of ,arthur and the progress of applied science during his term of office4 ,,chapter ,,liv4 #ah4 ,state the general condition and trace the measures of ,cleveland's administration4 #ai4 ,tell about the ,charleston earthquake4 #bj4 ,what great leaders of the ,civil ,war died during these four years8 ,,chapter ,,lv4 #ba4 ,give an account of the election of ,president ,harrison1 and of his entrance upon office4 #bb4 ,summarize the leading events which have occurred during his administration4 ,,appendix4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,we1 the ,people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defense1 promote the general welfare1 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity1 do ordain and establish this ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,,article ,i4 ,,section #a4--;,all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a ,congress of the ,united ,states1 which shall consist of a ,senate and ,house of ,representatives4 ,,sec4 #b4--,the ,house of ,representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several ,states1 and the electors in each ,state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the ,state legislature4 ,no person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years1 and been seven years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that ,state in which he shall be chosen4 ,representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several ,states which may be included within this ,union1 according to their respective numbers1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons1 including those bound to service for a term of years1 and excluding ,indians not taxed1 three fifths of all other persons4 ,the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 and within every subsequent term of ten years1 in such manner as they shall by law direct4 ,the number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand2 but each ,state shall have at least one representative2 and until such enumeration shall be made1 the ,state of ,new ,hampshire shall be entitled to choose three2 ,massachusetts1 eight2 ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations1 one2 ,connecticut1 five2 ,new ,york1 six2 ,new ,jersey1 four2 ,pennsylvania1 eight2 ,delaware1 one2 ,maryland1 six2 ,virginia1 ten2 ,north ,carolina1 five2 ,south ,carolina1 five2 and ,georgia1 three4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation from any ,state1 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers2 and shall have the sole power of impeachment4 ,,sec4 #c4--,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two senators from each ,state1 chosen by the legislature thereof1 for six years2 and each senator shall have one vote4 ,immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election1 they shall be divided1 as equally as may be1 into three classes4 ,the seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year2 of the second class1 at the expiration of the fourth year2 and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year1 so that one third may be chosen every second year2 and if vacancies happen1 by resignation or otherwise1 during the recess of the legislature of any ,state1 the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature which shall then fill such vacancies4 ,no person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years1 and been nine years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that ,state for which he shall be chosen4 ,the ,vice-president of the ,united ,states shall be president of the ,senate1 but shall have no vote1 unless they be equally divided4 ,the ,senate shall choose their other officers1 and also a president pro tempore1 in the absence of the ,vice-president1 or when he shall exercise the office as ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments4 ,when sitting for that purpose1 they shall be on oath or affirmation4 ,when the ,president of the ,united ,states is tried1 the chief-justice shall preside2 and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present4 ,judgment1 in cases of impeachment1 shall not extend further than to removal from office1 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor1 trust1 or profit under the ,united ,states2 but the party convicted shall1 nevertheless1 be liable and subject to indictment1 trial1 judgment1 and punishment1 according to law4 ,,sec4 #d4--,the times1 places1 and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each ,state by the legislature thereof2 but the ,congress may1 at any time1 by law1 make or alter such regulations1 except as to the places of choosing senators4 ,the ,congress shall assemble at least once in every year2 and such meeting shall be on the first ,monday in ,december1 unless they shall by law appoint a different day4 ,,sec4 #e4--;,each house shall be the judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members2 and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business2 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day1 and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members1 in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide4 ,each house may determine the rules of its proceedings1 punish its members for disorderly behavior1 and1 with the concurrence of two thirds1 expel a member4 ,each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings1 and from time to time publish the same1 excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy2 and the yeas and nays of the members of either house1 on any question1 shall1 at the desire of one fifth of those present1 be entered on the journal4 ,neither house1 during the session of ,congress1 shall1 without the consent of the other1 adjourn for more than three days1 nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting4 ,,sec4 #f4--,the senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services1 to be ascertained by law1 and paid out of the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,they shall1 in all cases except treason1 felony1 and breach of the peace1 be privileged from arrest during their attendance on the session of their respective houses1 and in going to and returning from the same2 and1 for any speech or debate in either house1 they shall not be questioned in any other place4 ,no senator or representative shall1 during the time for which he was elected1 be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the ,united ,states which shall have been created1 or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased1 during such time2 and no person holding any office under the ,united ,states shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office4 ,,sec4 #g4--;,all bills for raising revenue shall originate in the ,house of ,representatives2 but the ,senate may propose or concur with amendments1 as on other bills4 ,every bill which shall have passed the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate1 shall1 before it become a law1 be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 if he approve he shall sign it2 but if not1 he shall return it1 with his objections1 to that house in which it shall have originated1 who shall enter the objections at large on their journal1 and proceed to reconsider it4 ,if1 after such reconsideration1 two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill1 it shall be sent1 together with the objections1 to the other house1 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered1 and1 if approved by two thirds of that house1 it shall become a law4 ,but1 in all such cases1 the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays2 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively4 ,if any bill shall not be returned by the ,president within ten days 7,sundays excepted7 after it shall have been presented to him1 the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it1 unless the ,congress by their adjournment prevent its return1 in which case it shall not be a law4 ,every order1 resolution1 or vote1 to which the concurrence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives may be necessary 7except on a question of adjournment71 shall be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 and1 before the same shall take effect1 shall be approved by him1 or1 being disapproved by him1 shall be repassed by two thirds of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill4 ,,sec4 #h4--,the ,congress shall have power3-- ,to lay and collect taxes1 duties1 imposts1 and excises1 to pay the debts1 and provide for the common defense and general welfare1 of the ,united ,states2 but all duties1 imposts1 and excises shall be uniform throughout the ,united ,states3 ,to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states3 ,to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several ,states1 and with the ,indian tribes3 ,to establish a uniform rule of naturalization1 and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the ,united ,states3 ,to coin money1 regulate the value thereof1 and of foreign coin1 and fix the standard of weights and measures3 ,to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the ,united ,states3 ,to establish post-offices and post-roads3 ,to promote the progress of science and useful arts1 by securing for limited times1 to authors and inventors1 the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries3 ,to constitute tribunals inferior to the ,supreme ,court3 ,to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas1 and offenses against the law of nations3 ,to declare war1 grant letters of marque and reprisal1 and make rules concerning captures on land and water3 ,to raise and support armies2 but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years3 ,to provide and maintain a navy3 ,to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces3 ,to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the ,union1 suppress insurrections1 and repel invasions3 ,to provide for organizing1 arming1 and disciplining the militia1 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the ,united ,states1 reserving to the ,states respectively the appointment of the officers1 and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by ,congress3 ,to exercise exclusive legislation1 in all cases whatsoever1 over such district 7not exceeding ten miles square7 as may1 by cession of particular ,states1 and the acceptance of ,congress1 become the seat of government of the ,united ,states1 and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the ,state in which the same shall be1 for the erection of forts1 magazines1 arsenals1 dockyards1 and other needful buildings3--,and ,to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers1 and all other powers vested by this ,constitution in the government of the ,united ,states1 or in any department or officer thereof4 ,,sec4 #i4--,the migration or importation of such persons1 as any of the ,states now existing shall think proper to admit1 shall not be prohibited by the ,congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight2 but a tax1 or duty1 may be imposed on such importation1 not exceeding ten dollars for each person4 ,the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended1 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it4 ,no bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed4 ,no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid1 unless in proportion to the census1 or enumeration1 hereinbefore directed to be taken4 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any ,state4 ,no preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one ,state over those of another2 nor shall vessels bound to or from one ,state be obliged to enter1 clear1 or pay duties1 in another4 ,no money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law2 and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time4 ,no title of nobility shall be granted by the ,united ,states2 and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 accept of any present1 emolument1 office1 or title of any kind whatever1 from any king1 prince1 or foreign state4 ,,sec4 #aj4--,no state shall enter into any treaty1 alliance1 or confederation2 grant letters of marque and reprisal2 coin money2 emit bills of credit2 make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts2 pass any bill of attainder1 ex post facto law1 or law impairing the obligation of contracts2 or grant any title of nobility4 ,no ,state shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports1 except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws2 and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any ,state on imports or exports1 shall be for the use of the treasury of the ,united ,states2 and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the ,congress4 ,no ,state shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 lay any duty of tonnage1 keep troops or ships of war in time of peace1 enter into any agreement or compact with another ,state or with a foreign power1 or engage in war1 unless actually invaded1 or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,section #a4--,the executive power shall be vested in a ,president of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,he shall hold his office during the term of four years1 and together with the ,vice-president1 chosen for the same term1 be elected as follows3-- ,each ,state shall appoint1 in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct1 a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the ,state may be entitled in the ,congress2 but no senator or representative1 or person holding an office of trust or profit under the ,united ,states1 shall be appointed an elector4 ,the electors shall meet in their respective ,states1 and vote by ballot for two persons1 of whom one1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same ,state with themselves4 ,and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for1 and of the number of votes for each2 which list they shall sign and certify1 and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the president of the ,senate4 ,the president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates2 and the votes shall then be counted4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if there be more than one who have such majority1 and have an equal number of votes1 then the ,house of ,representatives shall immediately choose1 by ballot1 one of them for ,president2 and if no person have a majority1 then1 from the five highest on the list1 the said house shall1 in like manner1 choose the ,president4 ,but1 in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by ,states1 the representation from each ,state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the ,states2 and a majority of all the ,states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,in every case1 after the choice of the ,president1 the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be ,vice-president4 ,but1 if there should remain two or more who have equal votes1 the ,senate shall choose from them1 by ballot1 the ,vice-president4 ,the ,congress may determine the time of choosing the electors1 and the day on which they shall give their votes2 which day shall be the same throughout the ,united ,states4 ,no person except a natural born citizen1 or a citizen of the ,united ,states at the time of the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be eligible to the office of ,president2 neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years1 and been fourteen years a resident within the ,united ,states4 ,in case of the removal of the ,president from office1 or of his death1 resignation1 or inability to discharge the powers or duties of the said office1 the same shall devolve on the ,vice-president2 and the ,congress may1 by law1 provide for the case of removal1 death1 resignation1 or inability1 both of the ,president and ,vice-president1 declaring what officer shall then act as ,president2 and such officer shall act accordingly1 until the disability be removed1 or a ,president shall be elected4 ,the ,president shall1 at stated times1 receive for his services a compensation1 which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected2 and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the ,united ,states or any of them4 ,before he enter on the execution of his office1 he shall take the following oath or affirmation3-- ,i do solemnly swear 7or affirm71 that ,i will faithfully execute the office of ,president of the ,united ,states1 and will1 to the best of my ability1 preserve1 protect1 and defend the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,,sec4 #b4--,the ,president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the ,united ,states1 and of the militia of the several ,states1 when called into the actual service of the ,united ,states2 he may require the opinion1 in writing1 of the principal officer in each of the executive departments1 upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices1 and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the ,united ,states1 except in cases of impeachment4 ,he shall have power1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 to make treaties1 provided two thirds of the senators present concur2 and he shall nominate1 and by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 shall appoint1 ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls1 judges of the ,supreme ,court1 and all other officers of the ,united ,states1 whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for1 and which shall be established by law2 but the ,congress may1 by law1 vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper1 in the ,president alone1 in the courts of law1 or in the heads of departments4 ,the ,president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the ,senate1 by granting commissions1 which shall expire at the end of their next session4 ,,sec4 #c4--;,he shall1 from time to time1 give to the ,congress information of the state of the ,union1 and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient2 he may1 on extraordinary occasions1 convene both houses1 or either of them1 and1 in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment1 he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper2 he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers2 he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed2 and shall commission all the officers of the ,united ,states4 ,,sec4 #d4--,the ,president1 ,vice-president1 and all civil officers of the ,united ,states1 shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason1 bribery1 or other high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,section #a4--,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall be vested in a ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish4 ,the judges1 both of the supreme and inferior courts1 shall hold their offices during good behavior2 and shall1 at stated times1 receive for their services a compensation1 which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office4 ,,sec4 #b4--,the judicial power shall extend to all cases1 in law and equity1 arising under this ,constitution1 the laws of the ,united ,states1 and treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under their authority2 to all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls2 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction2 to controversies to which the ,united ,states shall be a party2 to controversies between two or more ,states1 between a ,state and citizens of another ,state1 between citizens of different ,states1 between citizens of the same ,state claiming lands under grants of different ,states1 and between a ,state1 or the citizens thereof1 and foreign ,states1 citizens1 or subjects4 ,in all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 and those in which a ,state shall be a party1 the ,supreme ,court shall have original jurisdiction4 ,in all the other cases before mentioned1 the ,supreme ,court shall have appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact1 with such exceptions1 and under such regulations1 as the ,congress shall make4 ,the trial of all crimes1 except in cases of impeachment1 shall be by jury2 and such trial shall be held in the ,state where the said crimes shall have been committed2 but1 when not committed within any ,state1 the trial shall be at such place or places as the ,congress may by law have directed4 ,,sec4 #c4--,treason against the ,united ,states shall consist only in levying war against them1 or in adhering to their enemies1 giving them aid and comfort4 ,no person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act1 or on confession in open court4 ,the ,congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason1 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture1 except during the life of the person attainted4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,section #a4--;,full faith and credit shall be given in each ,state to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other ,state4 ,and the ,congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts1 records1 and proceedings shall be proved1 and the effect thereof4 ,,sec4 #b4--,the citizens of each ,state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several ,states4 ,a person charged in any ,state with treason1 felony1 or other crime1 who shall flee from justice1 and be found in another ,state1 shall1 on demand of the executive authority of the ,state from which he fled1 be delivered up1 to be removed to the ,state having jurisdiction of the crime4 ,no person held to service or labor in one ,state under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall1 in consequence of any law or regulation therein1 be discharged from such service or labor1 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due4 ,,sec4 #c4--,new ,states may be admitted by the ,congress into this ,union2 but no new ,state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other ,state2 nor any ,state be formed by the junction of two or more ,states1 or parts of ,states1 without the consent of the legislature of the ,states concerned1 as well as of the ,congress4 ,the ,congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the ,united ,states2 and nothing in this ,constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the ,united ,states1 or of any particular ,state4 ,,sec4 #d4--,the ,united ,states shall guarantee to every ,state in this ,union a republican form of government1 and shall protect each of them against invasion2 and on application of the legislature1 or of the executive 7when the legislature can not be convened71 against domestic violence4 ,,article ,v4 ,the ,congress1 whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary1 shall propose amendments to this ,constitution2 or1 on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several ,states1 shall call a convention for proposing amendments1 which1 in either case1 shall be valid1 to all intents and purposes1 as part of this ,constitution1 when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several ,states1 or by conventions in three fourths thereof1 as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the ,congress2 ,provided1 that no amendment1 which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight1 shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article2 and that no ,state1 without its consent1 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the ,senate4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,all debts contracted1 and engagements entered into1 before the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be as valid against the ,united ,states under this ,constitution as under the ,confederation4 ,this ,constitution1 and the laws of the ,united ,states which shall be made in pursuance thereof1 and all treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under the authority of the ,united ,states1 shall be the supreme law of the land2 and the judges in every ,state shall be bound thereby1 any thing in the constitution or laws of any ,state to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,the senators and representatives before mentioned1 and the members of the several ,state legislatures1 and all executive and judicial officers1 both of the ,united ,states and of the several ,states1 shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this ,constitution2 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,the ratification of the conventions of nine ,states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this ,constitution between the ,states so ratifying the same4 ,done in ,convention by the unanimous consent of the ,states present1 the seventeenth day of ,september1 in the year of our ,lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven1 and of the ,independence of the ,united ,states of ,america the twelfth4 ,in witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names4 ,,george ,,washington1 ,president1 and ,deputy from ,virginia4 ,,new ,,hampshire4--,john ,langdon1 ,nicholas ,gilman4 ,,massachusetts4--,nathaniel ,gorham1 ,rufus ,king4 ,,connecticut4--,william ,samuel ,johnson1 ,roger ,sherman4 ,,new ,,york4--,alexander ,hamilton4 ,,new ,,jersey4--,william ,livingston1 ,david ,bearly1 ,william ,patterson1 ,jonathan ,dayton4 ,,pennsylvania4--,benjamin ,franklin1 ,thomas ,mifflin1 ,robert ,morris1 ,george ,clymer1 ,thomas ,fitzsimons1 ,jared ,ingersoll1 ,james ,wilson1 ,gouverneur ,morris4 ,,delaware4--,george ,read1 ,gunning ,bedford1 ,jr41 ,john ,dickinson1 ,richard ,bassett1 ,jacob ,broom4 ,,maryland4--,james ,mc,henry1 ,daniel of ,st4 ,thomas ,jenifer1 ,daniel ,carroll4 ,,virginia4--,john ,blair1 ,james ,madison1 ,jr4 ,,north ,,carolina4--,william ,blount1 ,richard ,dobbs ,spaight1 ,hugh ,williamson4 ,,south ,,carolina4--,john ,rutledge1 ,charles ,cotesworth ,pinckney1 ,charles ,pinckney1 ,pierce ,butler4 ,,georgia4--,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldwin4 ,attest3 ,,william ,,jackson1 ,secretary4 ,,amendments ,,to ,,the ,,constitution4 ,,article ,i4 ,congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof2 or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble1 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free ,state1 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner2 nor in time of war1 but in a manner to be prescribed by law4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated2 and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause1 supported by oath or affirmation1 and particularly describing the place to be searched1 and the person or things to be seized4 ,,article ,v4 ,no person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime1 unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury1 except in cases arising in the land or naval forces1 or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger2 nor shall any person be subject1 for the same offense1 to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb2 nor shall be compelled1 in any criminal case1 to be a witness against himself2 nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law2 nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,in all criminal prosecutions1 the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial1 by an impartial jury of the ,state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed1 which district shall have been previously ascertained by law2 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 to be confronted with the witnesses against him2 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor2 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,in suits at common law1 where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars1 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved2 and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the ,united ,states than according to the rules of the common law4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 ,,article ,,ix4 ,the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights1 shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,,article ,x4 ,the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the ,states1 are reserved to the ,states respectively1 or to the people4 ,,article ,,xi4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity1 commenced or prosecuted against one of the ,united ,states by citizens of another ,state1 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign ,state4 ,,article ,,xii4 ,the electors shall meet in their respective ,states1 and vote by ballot for ,president and ,vice-president1 one of whom1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same ,state with themselves2 they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as ,president1 and in distinct ballots the person voted for as ,vice-president2 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as ,president1 and of all persons voted for as ,vice-president1 and of the number of votes for each1 which lists they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the president of the ,senate2 the president of the ,senate shall1 in the presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted2 the person having the greatest number of votes for ,president shall be ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if no person have such majority1 then from the persons having the highest numbers1 not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as ,president1 the ,house of ,representatives shall choose immediately1 by ballot1 the ,president4 ,but1 in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by ,states1 the representation from each ,state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the ,states1 and a majority of all the ,states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,and if the ,house of ,representatives shall not choose a ,president1 whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them1 before the fourth day of ,march next following1 then the ,vice-president shall act as ,president1 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the ,president4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes as ,vice-president shall be the ,vice-president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if no person have a majority1 then from the two highest numbers on the list1 the ,senate shall choose the ,vice-president2 a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators1 and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice4 ,but no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of ,president shall be eligible to that of ,vice-president of the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,xiii4 ,,section #a4--,neither slavery nor voluntary servitude1 except as a punishment for crime1 whereof the party shall have been duly convicted1 shall exist within the ,united ,states1 or any place subject to their jurisdiction4 ,,sec4 #b4--;,congress shall have power to enforce this ,article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv4 ,,section #a4--;,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the ,state wherein they reside4 ,no ,state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states2 nor shall any ,state deprive any person of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law1 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 ,,sec4 #b4--,representatives shall be apportioned among the several ,states1 according to their respective numbers1 counting the whole number of persons in each ,state1 excluding ,indians not taxed4 ,but when the right to vote at any election for choice of electors for ,president and ,vice-president of the ,united ,states1 representatives in ,congress1 the executive and judicial officers of a ,state1 or the members of the legislature thereof1 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such ,state being twenty-one years of age1 and citizens of the ,united ,states1 or in any way abridged1 except for participation in rebellion or other crime1 the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such ,state4 ,,sec4 #c4--,no person shall be a senator1 or representative in ,congress1 or elector of ,president and ,vice-president1 or hold any office1 civil or military1 under the ,united ,states1 or under any ,state1 who1 having previously taken an oath as a member of ,congress1 or as an officer of the ,united ,states1 or as a member of any ,state legislature1 or as an executive or judicial officer of any ,state1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same1 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof2 but ,congress may1 by a vote of two thirds of each house1 remove such disability4 ,,sec4 #d4--,the validity of the public debt of the ,united ,states authorized by law1 including debts incurred for payment of pensions1 and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion1 shall not be questioned4 ,but neither the ,united ,states1 nor any ,state1 shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave2 but all such debts1 obligations1 and claims shall be held illegal and void4 ,,sec4 #e4--,the ,congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this ,article4 ,,article ,,xv4 ,,section #a4--,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states1 or by any ,state1 on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,,sec4 #b4--,the ,congress shall have power to enforce this ,article by appropriate legislation4 ,,index4 ,a ,abercrombie1 ,general1 defeat of1 at ,ticonderoga1 #adc4 ,abraham1 ,plains of1 battle of1 #adf4 ,acadia1 named1 #ci2 conquered by the ,english1 #ada4 ,acadians1 exile of the1 #ada4 ,act1 the ,importation1 #aej2 the ,stamp1 #aea2 the ,embargo1 #bai2 the ,conscription1 #cjh2 the ,resumption1 #cci4 ,adams1 ,john1 predicts ,american ,independence1 #aej2 nominates ,washington1 #afa2 on ,declaration ,committee1 #afe2 ,commissioner to ,paris1 #aig2 elected first ,vice-president1 #bjb2 reelected ,vice-president1 #bjh2 elected ,president1 #baj2 administration of1 #baa-bac2 death of1 #bdi4 ,adams1 ,john ,quincy1 ,secretary of ,state1 #bdd2 elected ,president1 #bdg2 sketch of1 #bdh2 administration of1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,adams1 ,samuel1 at ,boston town-meeting1 #aej4 ,agricultural ,department1 established1 #cfj4 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 treaty of1 #ic4 ,alabama1 admission of1 #bdf4 ,alabama ,claims1 the1 #ccj4 ,alabama1 depredations by the1 #cae4 ,alaska1 purchase of1 #cbe4 ,algiers1 tribute paid to1 #baj2 subdued by ,decatur1 #bdb4 ,alexander1 ,pope1 gives ,new ,world to ,spain1 #dc4 ,algonquins1 regions inhabited by the1 #af4 ,allen1 ,ethan1 captures ,fort ,ticonderoga1 #aei4 ,america1 discovery of1 #be2 derivation of name1 #bf4 ,amendments to the ,constitution1 fourteenth and fifteenth1 #cbh4 ,amherst1 general-in-chief of ,american forces1 #add4 ,amnesty proclamation1 the1 #cbd4 ,anarchists1 the ,chicago1 #ceb4 ,anderson1 ,robert1 defends ,fort ,sumter1 #bhb4 ,andr1 ,john1 capture of1 #aia4 ,andros1 ,sir ,edmund1 royal governor of ,new ,england1 #hf2 demands surrender of ,connecticut charter1 #hg2 governor of ,new ,york1 #aja2 treaty of with the ,iroquois1 #ajb4 ,antietam1 battle of1 #cja4 ,anti-,federalist party1 the1 #bja4 ,appomattox ,courthouse1 surrender at1 #cai4 ,arctic expeditions1 #bgb4 ,argall1 ,samuel1 abducts ,pocahontas1 #fe2 expedition against ,acadia1 #fe2 elected governor of ,virginia1 #fg4 ,arizona ,territory1 organization of1 #cbe4 ,arkansas1 organization of ,territory1 #bdf2 admission of ,state1 #bec4 ,arlington1 ,earl of1 grant of ,virginia to1 #gc2 surrenders claim to ,culpepper1 #ge4 ,arnold1 ,benedict1 at ,ticonderoga1 #aei2 expedition against ,canada1 #afb2 at camp on ,delaware1 #agb2 at ,bemis's ,heights1 #agd2 treason of1 #aij2 in ,british army1 #aib4 ,arthur1 ,chester ,a41 elected ,vice-president1 #cda2 becomes ,president1 #cdf2 sketch of1 #cdf2 administration of1 #cdf-cdi4 ,atlanta1 capture of1 #cab4 ,aztecs1 regions inhabited by the1 #af4 ,b ,bacon1 ,nathaniel1 rebellion led by1 #gd4 ,balboa discovers the ,pacific1 #bg4 ,ball's ,bluff1 battle of1 #bia4 ,baltimore1 ,lord1 secures charter for ,new ,maryland1 #abb4 ,baltimore1 siege of1 #bch2 mob at fire on ,union soldiers1 #bhb4 ,bank of ,north ,america1 organization of1 #aib4 ,bank of the ,united ,states1 organization of1 #bjg2 rechartered1 #bdb2 rechartering vetoed by ,jackson1 #bej2 rechartering vetoed by ,tyler1 #beh4 ,banks1 ,n4 ,p41 in ,west ,virginia1 #big2 at ,cedar ,mountain1 #cjj2 captures ,port ,hudson1 #cjd2 ,red ,river expedition of1 #caj4 ,barclay1 ,commodore1 on ,lake ,erie1 #bbi4 ,battle of ,antietam1 #cja2 ,atlanta1 #cab2 ,ball's ,bluff1 #bia2 ,bemis's ,heights1 #agd2 ,bennington1 #agc2 ,brandywine1 #age2 ,brier ,creek1 #ahe2 ,buena ,vista1 #bfd2 ,bull ,run1 #bhi1 #cjj2 ,bunker ,hill1 #aei2 ,cerro ,gordo1 #bfd2 ,champion ,hills1 #cjc2 ,chancellorsville1 #cjg2 ,chapultepec1 #bfg2 ,chickamauga1 #cjd2 ,chippewa1 #bce2 ,chrysler's ,field1 #bcb2 ,churubusco1 #bff2 ,city of ,mexico1 #bfe2 ,cold ,harbor1 #caf2 ,corinth1 #big2 ,cowpens1 #aic2 ,eutaw ,springs1 #aie2 ,fair ,oaks1 #bii2 ,five ,oaks1 #cai2 ,fort ,edward1 #adb2 ,fort ,meigs1 #bbh2 ,fort ,stephenson1 #bbi2 ,fredericksburg1 #cja2 ,frenchtown1 #bbh2 ,germantown1 #agf2 ,gettysburg1 #cjh2 ,guilford ,courthouse1 #aid2 ,kenesaw ,mountain1 #caa2 ,king's ,mountain1 #ahi2 ,lake ,erie1 #bbi2 ,long ,island1 #aff2 ,lookout ,mountain1 #cje2 ,lundy's ,lane1 #bce2 ,malvern ,hill1 #bii2 ,missionary ,ridge1 #cje2 ,monmouth1 #ahj2 ,monterey1 #bfc2 ,murfreesborough1 #big2 ,nashville1 #cab2 ,new ,orleans1 #bda2 ,palo ,alto1 #bfb2 ,plains of ,abraham1 #ade2 ,plattsburgh1 #bcg2 ,princeton1 #aga2 ,queenstown1 #bbf2 ,resaca de la ,palma1 #bfb2 ,sag ,harbor1 #aga2 ,sander's ,creek1 #ahh2 ,san ,gabriel1 #bfd2 ,saratoga1 #agd2 ,savannah1 #ahc2 ,shiloh1 #bic2 ,spottsylvania ,courthouse1 #caf2 ,talladega1 #bca2 ,thames1 #bcj2 ,tippecanoe1 #bbc2 ,trenton1 #afi2 ,vera ,cruz1 #bfd2 ,vicksburg1 #cjc2 ,white ,plains1 #afh2 ,wilson's ,creek1 #bij2 ,yorktown1 #aif4 ,beecher1 ,henry ,ward1 death of1 #ceg4 ,bell1 ,a4 ,graham1 inventor of telephone1 #ceg4 ,bellomont1 ,earl of1 governor of ,new ,york1 #ajc4 ,bemis's ,heights1 battle of1 #agd4 ,bennington1 battle of1 #bfd4 ,berkeley1 ,sir ,william1 governor of ,virginia1 #ga2 elected by burgesses1 #gb2 rebellion against1 #gd2 oppression by1 #ge2 grant of ,new ,jersey to1 #aae2 sells interest1 #aaf4 ,beverley1 ,robert1 royalist captain1 #gd4 ,black ,hawk ,war1 the1 #bea4 ,blaine1 ,james ,g41 ,secretary of ,state under ,garfield1 #cde2 nominated for ,president1 #cdi2 ,secretary of ,state under ,harrison1 #cfb4 ,block1 ,adrian1 explorations by1 #ee4 ,body of ,liberties1 #hb4 ,boone1 ,daniel1 colonizes ,kentucky1 #bjh4 ,booth1 ,john ,wilkes1 assassinates ,lincoln1 #cba2 death of1 #cba4 ,boston1 founded1 #gi2 occupied by ,british1 #aed2 massacre at1 #aed2 tea party1 #aee2 ,port ,bill1 #aef2 siege of1 #aei-afd2 fire in1 #cca4 ,braddock1 ,edward1 arrives in ,america1 #aci2 defeat and death of1 #adj4 ,bradford1 ,john1 landing of1 #ea4 ,bradford1 ,william1 governor of ,massachusetts1 #gg4 ,bragg1 ,braxton1 at ,murfreesborough1 #big2 at ,chickamauga1 #cjd2 at ,lookout ,mountain and ,missionary ,ridge1 #cje4 ,brandywine1 battle of1 #age4 ,breckinridge1 ,john ,c41 elected ,vice-president1 #bgd2 commands ,confederate cavalry1 #cag4 ,breed's ,hill1 fortification of1 #aei4 ,brier ,creek1 battle of1 #ahe4 ,brooklyn ,bridge1 construction of the1 #cdg4 ,brown1 ,john1 insurrection led by1 #bgf4 ,bryant1 ,william ,cullen1 death of1 #cdc4 ,buchanan1 ,james1 ,secretary of ,state1 #bfa2 elected ,president1 #bgd2 sketch of1 #bge2 administration of1 #bge-bgg4 ,buckner1 ,s4 ,b41 defends ,fort ,donelson1 #bic4 ,buena ,vista1 battle of1 #bfd4 ,bull ,run1 battles of1 #bhi1 #cjj4 ,bunker ,hill1 battle of1 #aei4 ,burgesses1 ,house of1 organized1 #fg2 scene in1 #aeb4 ,burgoyne1 ,gen41 campaign of1 #agb-age2 surrender of1 #age4 ,burnside1 ,ambrose ,e41 takes command of ,army of the ,potomac1 #cja2 at ,fredericksburg1 #cja2 death of1 #cef4 ,burr1 ,aaron1 elected ,vice-president1 #bac2 duel with ,hamilton1 #bag2 schemes of1 #bag4 ,butler1 ,benjamin ,f41 at ,new ,orleans1 #bif2 at ,fort ,fisher1 #cad2 joins ,grant at ,bermuda ,hundred1 #caf2 nominated for presidency1 #cdi4 ,c ,cabinet1 the first1 #bje4 ,cable1 ,atlantic1 laying of the1 #bge1 #cbe4 ,cabot1 ,john1 voyage and discoveries of1 #da4 ,cabot1 ,sebastian1 voyage and explorations of1 #db4 ,calhoun1 ,john ,c41 ,secretary of ,war1 #bdd2 elected ,vice-president1 #bdg2 for nullification1 #bea2 death of1 #bgb4 ,california1 conquest of1 #bfd2 discovery of gold in1 #bfg2 admission of1 #bfh4 ,californians1 regions inhabited by the1 #af4 ,calvert1 ,sir ,cecil1 charter issued to1 #abc4 ,calvert1 ,sir ,george1 in ,maryland1 #abb4 ,cambridge1 named1 #ha4 ,canadian insurrection1 the1 #bef4 ,canonchet1 ,king1 violates treaty1 #hd2 death of1 #he4 ,canonicus1 ,king of the ,narragansetts1 #ajg4 ,capitol of the ,united ,states1 location of the1 #bac4 ,carolinas1 history of the1 #abe-abg2 separation of the1 #abg4 ,caroline1 firing of the1 #bef4 ,carteret1 ,sir ,george1 proprietor of ,new ,jersey1 #aae4 ,cartier1 ,james1 voyages of1 #cf1 #cg4 ,carver1 ,john1 governor of the ,pilgrims1 #ea2 death of1 #gf4 ,census of #agij and #ahjj1 #bac2 of #ahaj1 #bbb2 of #ahgj1 #cbi2 of #ahhj1 #cdb2 of #ahij1 #cff4 ,centennial ,exposition1 the1 #ccc4 ,centennial of the ,republic1 the1 #cfb4 ,cerro ,gordo1 battle of1 #bfd4 ,champion ,hills1 battle of1 #cjc4 ,champlain1 ,lake1 discovered1 #dj2 expedition to1 #ada2 abandoned by the ,french1 #ade4 ,champlain1 ,samuel1 voyages of1 #ci1 #dj2 founds ,quebec1 #ci2 discovers ,lake ,champlain1 #dj2 governs ,new ,france1 #dj4 ,chancellorsville1 battle of1 #cjg4 ,chandler1 ,zackariah1 death of1 #cdc4 ,chapultepec1 battle of1 #bfg4 ,charlesbourg1 ,fort1 settlement at1 #dg4 ,charleston1 founded1 #abh2 ,british repulsed at1 #afd2 taken by ,british1 #ahg2 evacuated1 #aie2 taken by ,sherman1 #cac4 ,charleston earthquake1 the1 #cec4 ,charter ,oak1 the1 #hg4 ,charter of ,new ,england1 #gh4 ,chase1 ,salmon ,p41 ,secretary of the ,treasury1 #bha2 as ,chief-justice presides at impeachment trial of ,andrew ,johnson1 #cbg4 ,chen ,lan ,pin1 the ,chinese ,minister1 #cdj4 ,cherokees1 regions inhabited by the1 #af2 difficulties with the1 #beb4 ,cherry ,valley1 massacre at1 #aha4 ,chesapeake1 the affair of the1 #bcc4 ,chesapeake ,bay1 explored1 #fa4 ,chicago1 the great fire in1 #ccj2 the ,anarchists in1 #ceb4 ,chickamauga1 battle of1 #cjd4 ,chicora1 first name of ,south ,carolina1 #bi4 ,chinese ,embassy1 establishment of the1 #cdj4 ,chippewa1 battle of1 #bce4 ,chrysler's ,field1 battle of1 #bcb4 ,churubusco1 battle of1 #bff4 ,circumnavigation of the globe1 #bh4 ,civil ,rights ,bill1 the1 #cbf4 ,civil ,service ,reform1 the1 #cea4 ,civil ,war1 causes of the1 #bhd-bhg2 history of the1 #bha-cai4 ,clark1 ,george ,rogers1 campaigns of in the ,west1 #aha4 ,clarke1 ,william1 expedition of1 #bah4 ,clay1 ,henry1 advocates ,missouri ,compromise1 #bdf2 advocates ,omnibus ,bill1 #bgj2 death of1 #bgb4 ,clayborne1 ,william1 surveys of1 #abb4 ,cleveland1 ,grover1 elected ,president1 #cdi2 sketch of1 #cej2 administration of1 #cej-cfj2 renominated1 #ceh2 receives majority of popular vote1 #cei4 ,clinton1 ,sir ,henry1 repulsed at ,new ,york1 #afd2 bombards ,charleston1 #afd2 at battle of ,long ,island1 #aff4 ,code of ,laws1 given by ,london ,company1 #fh4 ,cold ,harbor1 battle of1 #caf4 ,colonies1 the ,american1 war of with ,great ,britain1 #aeg-aih2 independence of1 #afe-aig4 ,colonization ,society1 founded1 #bdc4 ,colorado1 admission of1 #cce4 ,columbia1 ,district of1 organized1 #bac4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 sketch of1 #bd2 discovers ,america1 #be2 other voyages of1 #bf2 misfortunes of1 #bf2 death of1 #bf2 discovers ,orinoco1 #dc4 ,comanches1 regions inhabited by the1 #af4 ,commerce1 aggressions on ,american1 #bai4 ,concessions1 account of the1 #aaf4 ,concord1 founded1 #hj4 ,confederacy1 the ,southern1 #bgg4 ,confederation1 articles of1 #aii2 history of the1 #aii4 ,confederate cruisers1 depredations by1 #cae4 ,congress of the ,colonies1 #aci2 the ,stamp ,act1 #aeb2 the ,first ,continental1 #aef2 the ,second ,continental1 #afa4 ,conkling1 ,roscoe1 resigns seat in ,senate1 #cde4 ,connecticut1 colonization of1 #ajf2 history of1 #ajf2 charter of1 #aji2 joins ,new ,england1 #aaa4 ,conscription in the ,north1 #cjh4 ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 proposed1 #bjj2 committee appointed1 #bjj2 report of committee adopted1 #bja2 provisions of1 #bja2 adopted by the ,states1 #bjb4 ,constitution1 the affair of the1 #bbe4 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,quebec1 #ade2 death of1 #adf4 ,world's ,fair in ,new ,york1 the1 #bgd4 ,writs of ,assistance1 the1 #aej4 ,wyatt1 ,sir ,francis1 governor of ,virginia1 #fh2 retires from office1 #gj2 reelected1 #ba4 ,wyoming1 massacre of1 #ahj4 ,wyoming1 organization of ,territory1 #cbe2 admission of ,state1 #cff4 ,y ,yale ,college1 founded1 #aaj4 ,yamassees1 war with the1 #abi4 ,yeamans1 ,sir ,john1 governor of ,carolina1 #abh4 ,yeardley1 ,george1 appointed governor of ,virginia1 #fg2 reappointed1 #gj2 death of1 #gj4 ,yellow fever epidemic1 the1 #cci4 ,yorktown1 siege of1 #aif4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,transcriber notes3 ,tags that surround the words3 ,wyoming indicate bold4 fish indicate italics4 ,words in small capitals are shown in ,,uppercase4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of the paragraph4 ,sidenotes have been moved out of paragraphs4 ,inconsistent hyphenation and variant spelling remain4 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 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