,transcriber's ,note3    ,this project  
uses utf-#h encoded characters4 ,if some
 characters  are not readable1 check    
your settings of your reader and that   
you have a font installed that can      
display utf-#h characters4              
,,geology ,,and ,,revelation4           
,sicut ,augustinus docet1 in hujusmodi  
qustionibus duo sunt observanda4  ,primo
 quidem ut ,veritas ,scriptur inconcusse
 teneatur4 ,secundo1 cum  ,scriptura    
,divina multipliciter exponi possit1    
quod nulli expositioni  aliquis ita     
prcise inhreat1 ut si certa ratione     
constiterit hoc esse  falsum quod       
aliquis sensum ,scriptur esse credebat1 
id nihilominus  asserere prsumat2 ne    
,scriptura ex hoc ab infidelibus        
derideatur1 et ne  eis via credendi     
prcludatur4      ,s4 ,,thomas1 ,de      
,opere ,secund ,diei2 ,summa1 ,pars #a1 
,qust4 #fh1 ,art4 #a4    ,as ,augustine 
teacheth1 there are two things to be    
observed in questions  of this kind4    
,first1 that the truth of ,scripture be 

inviolably  maintained4 ,secondly1 since
 ,divine ,scripture may be explained in 
many ways1 that no one cling to any     
particular exposition with such         
pertinacity that1 if what he supposed to
 be the teaching of ,scripture  should  
turn out to be plainly false1 he would  
nevertheless presume to  put it forward2
 lest thereby ,sacred ,scripture should 
be exposed to the  derision of          
unbelievers1 and the way of salvation   
should be closed to  them4      ,,saint 
,,thomas1 ,on the ,work of the ,second  
,day4            ,,geology ,,and        
,,revelation3      ,,or ,,the           
,ancient ,history of the ,earth1        
,,considered ,,in ,,the ,,light ,,of    
,,geological ,,facts ,,and ,,revealed   
,,religion4      ,,with ,,illustrations4
        ,,by ,,the      ,,rev4 ,,gerald 
,,molloy1 ,d4 ,d41    ,,professor ,,of  
,,theology ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,college 
,,of ,,st4 ,,patrick1 ,,maynooth4       
,,with ,,an ,,introduction      ,to the 
,american edition2 and a chapter on     

,,cosmogony1 by permission    from the  
,manual of ,geology1 by ,prof4 ,j4 ,d4  
,,dana4        ,,new ,,york3    ,g4 ,p4 
,,putnam  ,,sons1    #ahgj4             
,stereotyped by ,,little1 ,,rennie      
,,co41 #fde and #fdg ,broadway1 ,n4 ,y4 
,,press ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,york         
,,printing ,,company1 #ha1 #hc1 and #he 
,centre ,st41 ,n4 ,y4            ,,to   
,,the ,,very ,,reverend      ,,charles  
,,william ,,russell1 ,d4 ,d4            
,,president ,,of ,,saint ,,patrick',s   
,,college1 ,,maynooth1      ,this       
,volume is ,inscribed1      ,,with      
,,every ,,sentiment ,,of ,,affection    
,,and ,,respect4          ,,preface4    
,the progress of modern ,science has    
given rise to not a few objections      
against the truths of ,revelation4 ,and 
of these there is none which  seems to  
have taken such a firm hold of the      
public mind in ,england1  and1 indeed1  
throughout ,europe generally1 as that   
which is derived from  the interesting  
and startling discoveries of ,geology4  

,accordingly1  when ,i was engaged1 some
 years ago1 in explaining and defending 
the  ,evidences of ,revealed ,religion1 
,i found myself brought face to face    
with ,geological phenomena and          
,geological speculations4    ,it was    
plainly impossible to consider1 in a    
candid and philosophical  spirit1 the   
argument with which ,i had to deal1 so  
long as ,i remained  ignorant of the    
evidence on which it was based4 ,i      
resolved1 therefore1  to make myself    
familiar with the leading principles and
 the leading  facts of ,geology4 ,and   
thus ,i was drawn insensibly into the   
study of  this science2 to which ,i have
 devoted1 for some years1 the greater   
part  of my leisure hours4    ,impressed
 with the conviction that no fact can be
 really at variance  with ,revealed     
,truth1 ,i determined1 in the first     
place1 to ascertain the  facts which    
have been brought to light by the       
researches of ,geologists4  ,the general
 principles1 which might afterward      

appear to be clearly  involved in these 
facts when duly classified and arranged1
 ,i was fully  prepared to admit4 ,and  
,i hoped1 in the end1 to search out and 
discover  the harmony which1 ,i was     
satisfied1 must exist between           
conclusions thus  established and the   
,inspired ,word of ,god4    ,while      
occupied in working out this problem for
 myself1 it was suggested  to me that   
others1 who had not time or opportunity 
to pursue the same  line of inquiry1    
would1 perhaps1 be glad to share in the 
fruits of  my studies4 ,in deference to 
this suggestion ,i consented1 not       
without  misgivings1 to write a series  
of papers on ,geology in its relations  
with ,revealed ,religion1 which have    
appeared1 from time to time1 in  the    
,irish ,ecclesiastical ,record4 ,from   
the attention these papers  attracted1  
crude and fragmentary as they were1 it  
soon became evident  that the question  
was not without interest for a large    
class of  readers4 ,and ,i have been led

 to believe that a more full and mature1
  but at the same time a popular1       
,treatise on the subject would be a     
welcome accession to ecclesiastical     
literature1 and would supply a want     
that has long been felt4 ,such a        
,treatise ,i have proposed to myself in 
the present ,volume4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,in    
,geology ,i wish to disclaim at the     
outset1 all pretension to original      
researches2 which my opportunities did  
not permit1 nor the scope of my  ,work  
demand4 ,it was not my object to enlarge
 the bounds of ,geological  knowledge2  
but rather to ascertain what that       
knowledge is1 and to set  it before my  
readers in plain and simple words4 ,for 
this purpose ,i have  had recourse to   
the great masters of the science3 and   
have endeavored  to gather into a       
systematic form the phenomena upon which
 they are all  agreed2 to sketch in     
outline the general theory about which  
there is  practically no dispute2 and to

 draw out the line of reasoning by      
which1  as it seems to me1 this theory  
may be most effectively demonstrated4   
,exact references are given to the      
original authorities on all questions   
of importance1 and on many points even  
of minor detail3 partly that  ,i might  
not seem to claim as my own what belongs
 to others2 partly  that ,i might       
consult for the convenience of those who
 should wish to  investigate more       
minutely what ,i have but lightly       
touched4 ,and here it  may be well to   
observe1 with regard to the two classic 
works of ,sir  ,charles ,lyell1 his     
,elements and his ,principles1 which    
have been  reproduced so many times and 
in so many forms1 that ,i have uniformly
  referred to the latest edition of     
each4    ,the ,woodcuts which illustrate
 the ,volume will1 ,i venture to hope1  
help  to convey a clear and distinct    
impression of many natural objects which
  can be represented but imperfectly in 
words4 ,some of the most striking  and  

effective are taken from the admirable  
,manual of ,geology brought  out some   
years ago by the ,reverend ,doctor      
,haughton1 of ,trinity ,college1        
,dublin4 ,my best thanks are due to the 
learned author for the kindness  with   
which he placed his ,woodblocks at my   
disposal4 ,i have also to  express my   
acknowledgments to ,sir ,charles ,lyell1
 who has allowed me  to reproduce some  
of the drawings that embellish his      
works2 and to  the eminent publishers1  
,messrs4 ,bell and ,daldy of ,london1   
and ,mr4  ,nimmo of ,edinburgh1 who     
have1 with great courtesy1 furnished me 
with  electrotypes of several figures   
from the works of ,doctor ,mantell and  
,mr4 ,hugh ,miller4    ,to my colleagues
 in ,maynooth ,i am much indebted for   
their judicious  suggestions and        
friendly assistance during the progress 
of the ,work4  ,in particular ,i desire 
to testify my obligations to our        
distinguished  ,professor of ,scripture1
 the ,reverend ,doctor ,m',carthy1 for  

the unwearied  kindness with which he   
has allowed me to draw at pleasure on   
his  profound and extensive knowledge of
 the ,sacred ,text4      ,g4 ,m4        
,,saint ,,patrick',s ,,college1         
,,maynooth1    ,december #ast1 #ahfi4   
,illustration          ,,preface ,,to   
,,the ,,american ,,edition4      ,dr4   
,molloy has1 in the present work1 made  
an important contribution  to a         
department of scientific and theologic  
literature1 which has  already been     
enriched by the labors of several other 
,catholic ,fathers1  among whom must be 
mentioned ,,cardinal ,,wiseman1#a       
,,father ,,perrone1#b  and ,,father     
,,pianciani1#c who1 in ,italy1 maintain 
substantially1 the  same ground which1  
in ,england1 has been sustained by ,,dr4
 ,,chalmers1  ,,dr4 ,,buckland1 ,,pye   
,,smith1 and ,,hugh ,,miller1 and we may
 now add with  pleasure1 by ,,dr4       
,,molloy4 ,names which1 in the ,united  
,states1 find their  counterparts in    
,,dr4 ,,hitchcock1 ,,prof4 ,,silliman1  

,,prof4 ,a4 ,,guyot1 ,,dr4  ,,thompson1 
and ,j4 ,d4 ,,dana4    ,reviewing the   
progress of opinion touching the        
relations of ,science  to ,revealed     
,religion1 it is noteworthy that while  
many ,protestant  theologians and       
writers on both sides of the ,atlantic  
have1 until a  recent period1 treated   
the discoveries of science1 and         
especially of  ,geology1 so far as they 
affect theological dogmas1 in a manner1 
if  not of contempt1 at least of        
distrust or unfairness3 on the contrary1
  the ,romanist writers who have        
discussed these themes1 have done so1   
generally1 in a spirit of broad         
catholicity well calculated to command  
the respect it merits4 ,they have shown 
no sensitiveness or timidity  lest1     
perchance1 their exegesis might be      
disturbed by candidly  admitting the    
changes demanded by the discoveries of  
,science4    ,the author's discussion of
 the principles of ,geology evinces much
  familiarity both with the science and 

what is equally important1 the          
necessities of the unscientific reader4 
,he has presented1 in the second  part  
of his book1 an interesting review1     
infused by copious quotations  from the 
,christian ,fathers1 from the time of   
,st4 ,augustine1 showing  that long     
before ,geology had any existence as a  
science1 and of course1  when the       
discussions and doubts it has excited   
were unknown1 the  essential points     
respecting ,time and the order of       
,creation had received  careful         
attention from devout thinkers1 and that
 the conclusions at  which they arrived1
 on purely theological grounds1 were1 in
 most cases1  much the same as those    
which the best writers of our time      
deduce from  ,geological evidence4      
,it is now thirty-five years since      
7#ahce7 ,,cardinal1 then ,,dr4          
,,wiseman1  delivered in ,rome1 before  
the ,english ,college1 of which he was  
the  head1 his ,lectures1 already       
referred to1 on the connection between  

,science and ,religion1 in the fifth and
 sixth of which he considers more       
particularly the ,geological argument4  
,the spirit of these lectures  was a    
just rebuke to the narrow bigotry of    
such writers as ,,mr4 ,,croly1          
,,fairholm1 and ,,granville ,,penn1 as  
well as certain ,american theologians1  
who1 by means of arrogance and          
denunciation1 sought to silence the     
voice of truth1 as proclaimed in the    
language of discovery1 announcing  the  
nature and the extent of those changes  
in life and in physical  development    
which are recorded in the ,genesis of   
the ,rocks1 because  they conceived     
these immutable truths must of necessity
 conflict with  the ,genesis of ,moses2 
the real conflict being only with their 
narrow  interpretations4 ,with rare     
moral courage ,,dr4 ,,wiseman grappled  
with the  great questions discussed so  
well in his lectures1 at a time when    
there  prevailed1 with reference to such
 themes1 a very wide-spread distrust1   

even among men of moderate opinions4 ,in
 fact1 the candor and courtesy          
displayed by ,,dr4 ,,wiseman in his     
lectures1 presents an enviable contrast 
to the acrimony of many theologians1 and
 worthy of all praise1 and  in harmony  
with the learning and good taste which  
characterize his  writings4    ,,dr4    
,,molloy is a worthy disciple of the    
same school1 and we are glad to  find in
 him the same candor and liberality     
which it is certainly to be  hoped he   
will receive at the hands of those who  
may differ from him4  ,his geological   
arguments and illustrations are very    
naturally drawn1  chiefly from ,british 
authorities4 ,it is evident that the    
condition  of opinion upon these matters
 among religious teachers and readers   
in ,great ,britain is less advanced than
 it is in this country or in            
continental ,europe4 ,our author has    
obviously but little familiarity  with  
the ,american literature of this        
subject4 ,the similarity in some  parts 

of his book both in thought and style   
with the writings on this  subject of   
the late ,,professor ,,silliman1 of     
,yale ,college1 is quite  noticeable4   
,he has obviously not seen the writings 
of ,,dr4 ,,hitchcock1 of  ,,guyot1 of   
,,dana1 and of other ,american writers4 
,we have therefore by the  kind         
permission of the author reproduced in  
this edition the chapter  on ,,cosmogony
 from ,,professor ,,dana',s ,manual of  
,geology4#d ,the views  set forth1 in a 
very condensed form1 in this chapter1   
embrace also the  ideas of ,,professor  
,,arnold ,,guyot1 of ,princeton1 as     
presented by him in  his unpublished    
lecture upon the same subject4          
,american readers will remember also    
that ,,professor ,,dana has discussed   
this subject much more at length in a   
series of papers published in the       
,bibliotheca ,sacra1#e in a review of   
,,dr4 ,,tayler ,,lewis',s ,six ,days of 
,creation4#f ,it is greatly to be       
desired that ,,professor ,,dana should  

soon make a revised edition of his      
various writings upon this subject1  a  
work which would be received with       
interest on both sides of the           
,atlantic4    ,we do not propose here to
 present the bibliography of this       
subject with  any completeness1 but we  
desire to mention1 to those who have not
 seen  it1 a little volume of excellent 
spirit by ,,dr4 ,,jos4 ,p4 ,,thompson1  
of  ,new ,york1 entitled ,man in        
,genesis and ,geology1#g which discusses
  chiefly the relations of man to       
creation1 in seven lectures1 the first  
of which is an 8,outline of ,creation in
 ,genesis40 ,even as we write  another  
small volume on this subject comes to   
hand under the title of  ,chemical      
,history of the ,six ,days of           
,creation1#h by ,,mr4 ,,john ,,phin1    
which also contains the substance of a  
series of lectures delivered by  the    
author1 who handles his theme in a      
spirit equally reverential and          
scientific1 and well calculated to do   

good4    ,those who desire to know the  
best exposition of this subject at the  
hands of a modern theologian will read  
the first part of ,,dr4 ,,lange',s      
,genesis1 or the ,first ,book of        
,moses1#i in ,,dr4 ,,tayler ,,lewis',s  
translation1 pp4 #aei-agg4 ,the candid  
and scholarly spirit of the  learned    
authors of this work indicates a marked 
change in discussions  of this nature   
when compared with similar literature of
 the last  generation4    ,these few    
suggestions1 chiefly on the ,american   
literature of this  subject1 are offered
 in the belief that some readers may be 
glad to  know where to turn for similar 
discussions1 while ,,dr4 ,,molloy will  
certainly not misinterpret our kindly   
intentions in suggesting to him  some   
contemporary sources of information to  
most of which he very  probably had no  
means of access when his excellent work 
was prepared4    ,,july1 #ahgj4         
,illustration          ,,contents4      
,,introductory ,,chapter4               

,,page4      ,scope of the ,work        
explained--,geology looked on with      
,suspicion    by ,christians--hailed    
with ,triumph by ,unbelievers--no       
,contradiction    possible between the  
,works of ,nature and the ,word of      
,god--,author not jealous of ,progress  
in ,geological ,discoveries--,points    
of ,contact between ,geology and        
,revelation--the    ,question           
stated--the ,answer--,division of the   
,work1                  #be             
,,part ,i4      ,,geological ,,theory   
,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,by    ,,which  
,,it ,,is ,,supported4        ,,chapter 
,i4      ,,theory ,,of ,,geologists4    
,geology defined--,facts and            
,theories--,recent ,progress of ,geology
    --,stratification of                
,rocks--,aqueous ,rocks2 of ,mechanical 
,origin--of ,chemical ,origin--of       
,organic ,origin--,igneous    ,rocks1   
,plutonic and ,volcanic--,metamorphic   
,rocks--,summary    of the ,rocks that  
compose the ,crust of the               

,earth--,relative    ,order of          
,position--,internal ,condition of the  
,globe--,movements    of the ,earth's   
,crust--,subterranean ,disturbing       
,force--,uplifting    and ,bending of   
,strata--,denudation and its            
,causes--,fossil    ,remains--their     
,value in ,geological ,theory1          
#cj        ,,chapter ,,ii4      ,,theory
 ,,of ,,denudation ,,illustrated ,,by   
,,facts4      ,principle of ,reasoning  
common to all the ,physical             
,sciences--,this    ,principle          
applicable to ,geology--,carbonic ,acid 
an ,agent of    ,denudation--,vast      
,quantity of ,lime dissolved by the     
,waters of    the ,rhine and borne away 
to the ,german ,ocean--,disintegration  
of ,rocks by ,frost--,professor ,tyndall
 on the ,matterhorn--,running           
,water--its ,erosive ,power--an active  
and unceasing ,agent    of              
,denudation--,mineral ,sediment carried 
out to ,sea by the    ,ganges and other 
great ,rivers--,solid ,rocks undermined 

and    worn away--,falls of the ,clyde  
at ,lanark--,excavating ,power    of    
,rivers in ,auvergne and ,sicily--,falls
 of ,niagara--,transporting    ,power of
 ,running ,water--,floods in            
,scotland--,inundation    in the ,valley
 of ,bagnes in ,switzerland1            
#dg        ,,chapter ,,iii4             
,,theory ,,of ,,denudation--,,further   
,,illustrations4      ,the ,breakers of 
the ,ocean--,caverns and ,fairy ,bridges
 of ,kilkee--,italy    and ,sicily--,the
 ,shetland ,islands--,east and ,south   
,coast of ,britain--,tracts of ,land    
swallowed up by the ,sea--,island    of 
,heligoland--,northstrand--,tides and   
,currents--,south    ,atlantic          
,current--,equatorial ,current--,the    
,gulf ,stream--its    ,course           
described--,examples of its ,power as an
 ,agent of    ,transport1               
#fa        ,,chapter ,,iv4      ,,theory
 ,,of ,,denudation--,,concluded4        
,glaciers--their ,nature and            
,composition--their unceasing ,motion   

--,powerful ,agents of                  
,denudation--,icebergs--their ,number   
and ,size--,erratic ,blocks and loose   
,gravel spread out over    ,mountains1  
,plains1 and ,valleys1 at the ,bottom of
 the ,sea    --,characteristic ,marks of
 moving ,ice--,evidence of ancient      
,glacial    ,action--,illustrations from
 the ,alps--from the ,mountains of      
the ,jura--,theory applied to ,northern 
,europe--to ,scotland1    ,wales1 and   
,ireland--,the ,fact of ,denudation     
established--,summary    of the         
,evidence--,this ,fact the first ,step  
in ,geological    ,theory1              
#ga        ,,chapter ,v4                
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,mechanical  
,,origin--,,theory ,,developed    ,,and 
,,illustrated4      ,formation of       
,stratified ,rocks ascribed to the      
,agency of ,natural    ,causes--,this   
,theory supported by ,facts--,the       
,argument    stated--,examples of       
,mechanical ,rocks--,materials of which 
they are composed--,origin and ,history 

of these ,materials    traced           
out--,process of ,deposition--,process  
of ,consolidation    --,instances of    
,consolidation by                       
,pressure--,consolidation perfected     
by ,natural ,cements--,curious          
,illustrations--,consolidation of       
,sandstone in ,cornwall--,arrangement of
 ,strata explained by    intermittent   
,action of the ,agents of ,denudation1  
#hg        ,,chapter ,,vi4              
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,mechanical  
,,origin--,,further    ,,illustrations4 
,impossible to witness the ,formation of
 ,stratified ,rocks in the    ,depths of
 the ,ocean--,on a small scale ,examples
 are exhibited    by ,rivers and        
,lakes--,alluvial ,plains--their        
extraordinary ,fertility    --,great    
,basin of the ,nile--,experiments of the
 ,royal ,society--,the    ,mississippi  
and the ,orinoco--,some ,rivers fill up 
their own ,channels--,case of the ,river
 ,po--,artificial ,embankments--,large  
,tract of ,alluvial ,soil deposited by  

the ,rhone in    the ,lake of           
,geneva--,deltas--,the ,delta of the    
,ganges and    ,brahmapootra--,delta of 
the ,nile1                              
#ajj        ,,chapter ,,vii4            
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,chemical    
,,origin4      ,chemical ,agency        
employed in the ,formation of           
,mechanical ,rocks--,but    some ,rocks 
produced almost exclusively by the      
,action of    ,chemical                 
,laws--,difference between a ,mixture   
and a ,solution--a    ,saturated        
,solution--,stalactites and             
,stalagmites--,fantastic    ,columns in 
,limestone ,caverns--,the ,grotto of    
,antiparos in    the ,grecian           
,archipelago--,wyer's ,cave in the ,blue
 ,mountains    of ,america--,travertine 
,rock in ,italy--,growth of ,limestone  
in the ,solfatara ,lake near            
,tivoli--,incrustations of the ,anio    
--,formation of ,travertine at the      
,baths of ,san ,filippo and ,san        
,vignone1                               

#aji        ,,chapter ,,viii4           
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,organic     
,,origin--,,illustrations ,,from        
,,animal ,,life4      ,nature of        
,organic ,rocks--,carbonate of ,lime    
extracted from the    ,sea by the       
,intervention of minute                 
,animalcules--,chalk ,rock--its    vast 
,extent--supposed to be of ,organic     
,origin--,a ,stratum    of the same kind
 now growing up on the ,floor of the    
,atlantic    ,ocean--,coral ,reefs and  
,islands--their general                 
,appearance--their    ,geographical     
,distribution--their ,organic           
,origin--,structure    of the           
,zoophyte--,various                     
,illustrations--,agency of the          
,zoophyte in the ,construction of ,coral
 ,rock--,how the sunken    ,reef is     
converted into an ,island--and peopled  
with ,plants and                        
,animals--,difficulty proposed and      
considered--,hypothesis of    ,mr4      
,darwin--,coral ,limestone in the solid 

,crust of the ,earth1       #aah        
,,chapter ,,ix4      ,,stratified       
,,rocks ,,of ,,organic                  
,,origin--,,illustrations ,,from        
,,vegetable ,,life4      ,origin of     
,coal--,evident ,traces of ,plants and  
,trees in ,coal    ,mines--,coal made up
 of the same ,elements as ,wood--,beds  
of    ,coal found resting upon ,clay in 
which are preserved the ,roots    of    
,trees--,insensible ,transition from    
,wood to ,coal--,forest-covered         
,swamps--,accumulations of ,drift ,wood 
in ,lakes and    ,estuaries--,peat      
,bogs--,beds of ,lignite--,seams of pure
 ,coal    with half ,carbonized ,trees1 
some lying prostrate1 some standing     
erect--,summary of the ,argument        
hitherto pursued--,objection    to this 
,argument from the ,omnipotence of      
,god--,answer to    the ,objection1     
#ada        ,,chapter ,x4      ,,fossil 
,,remains--,,the ,,museum4              
,recapitulation--,scope of our          
,argument--,theory of ,stratified       

,rocks the ,framework of ,geological    
,science--,this ,theory    brings       
,geology into ,contact with             
,revelation--,the ,line of ,reasoning   
hitherto pursued confirmed by the       
,testimony of ,fossil                   
,remains--,meaning of the ,word         
,fossil--,inexhaustible ,abundance    of
 ,fossils--,various ,states of          
,preservation--,petrifaction--,experimen
ts    of ,professor ,gppert--,organic   
,rocks afford    some ,insight into the 
,fossil ,world--,the ,reality and       
,significance    of ,fossil ,remains    
must be learned from ,observation--,the 
,british ,museum--,colossal             
,skeletons--,bones and ,shells of       
,animals--,fossil ,plants and ,trees1   
#aef        ,,chapter ,,xi4             
,,fossil ,,remains--,,the ,,exploration4
      ,from the ,museum to the          
,quarry--,fossil ,fish in the ,limestone
    ,rocks of ,monte ,bolca--in the     
,quarries of ,aix--in the ,chalk    of  
,sussex--,the ,ichthyosaurus or         

,fish-like ,lizard--,gigantic           
,dimensions of this ,ancient            
,monster--its ,predatory ,habits--,the  
,plesiosaurus--,the ,megatherium or     
great ,wild ,beast--,history    of its  
,discovery--the ,mylodon--,profusion of 
,fossil    ,shells--,petrified ,trees   
erect in the ,limestone ,rock of        
,portland--,fossil    ,plants of the    
,coal ,measures--,the ,sigillaria--,the 
,fern--,the ,calamite--,the             
,lepidodendron--,coal ,mine of          
,treuil--,fossil    ,remains afford     
undeniable ,evidence of former ,animal  
and ,vegetable ,life--,their ,existence 
cannot be accounted for    by the       
,plastic ,power of ,nature--nor can it  
reasonably be    ascribed to a ,special 
,act of ,creation1                      
#agb        ,,chapter ,,xii4            
,,geological ,,chronology--,,principles 
,,of ,,the ,,system ,,explained    ,,and
 ,,developed4      ,significance of     
,fossil ,remains--,science of           
,palontology--,classification    of     

existing ,animal ,life--,fossil ,remains
 are found to    fit in with this       
,classification--,succession of ,organic
 ,life--,time    in ,geology not        
measured by ,years and                  
,centuries--,successive    ,periods     
marked by ,successive ,forms of         
,life--,the ,geologist    aims at       
arranging these ,periods in             
,chronological ,order--,position    of  
the various ,groups of ,strata not      
sufficient for this purpose--,it    is  
accomplished chiefly through the aid of 
,fossil    ,remains--,mode of proceeding
 practically explained--,chronological  
,table1                                 
#aih        ,,chapter ,,xiii4           
,,geological ,,chronology--,,remarks    
,,on ,,the ,,succession ,,of            
,,organic ,,life4      ,summary of the  
,history of ,stratified                 
,rocks--,striking ,characteristics    of
 certain ,formations--,human ,remains   
found only in    superficial            
,deposits--,gradual ,transition from the

 ,organic ,life    of one ,period to    
that of the next--,evidence in favor of 
this    ,opinion--,advance from ,lower  
to ,higher ,types of ,organic    ,life  
as we ascend from the ,older to the more
 ,recent ,formations    --,economic     
,value of ,geological                   
,chronology--,illustration--,search     
for ,coal--the ,practical ,man at       
,fault--the ,geologist    comes to his  
aid1 and saves him from useless         
,expense1              #bag             
,,chapter ,,xiv4      ,,subterranean    
,,heat--,,its ,,existence ,,demonstrated
 ,,by ,,facts4      ,theory of          
,stratified ,rocks supposes             
,disturbances of the ,earth's           
,crust--,these ,disturbances ascribed by
 ,geologists to the ,action    of       
subterranean ,heat--,the ,existence of  
,subterranean ,heat1    and its ,power  
to move the ,crust of the ,earth1 proved
 by direct    ,evidence--,supposed      
,igneous ,origin of our                 
,globe--,remarkable    ,increase of     

,temperature as we descend into the     
,earth's ,crust--,hot                   
,springs--,artesian ,wells--,steam      
issuing from ,crevices    in the        
,earth--,the ,geysers of ,iceland--,a   
,glimpse of the subterranean            
,fires--,mount ,vesuvius in #aggi--,vast
 ,extent of    ,volcanic                
,action--,existence of subterranean     
,heat an established    fact1           
#bcc        ,,chapter ,,xv4             
,,subterranean ,,heat--,,its ,,powers   
,,illustrated ,,by ,,volcanos4          
,effects of subterranean ,heat in the   
present ,age of the ,world--,vast       
,accumulations of solid ,matter from the
 ,eruptions of ,volcanos--,buried       
,cities of ,pompeii and                 
,herculaneum--,curious    ,relics of    
,roman ,life--,monte ,nuovo--,eruption  
of ,jorullo in    the ,province of      
,mexico--,sumbawa in the ,indian        
,archipelago--,volcanos    in           
,iceland--,mountain ,mass of ,etna the  
,product of    ,volcanic                

,eruptions--,volcanic ,islands--,in the 
,atlantic--in the                       
,mediterranean--,santorin in the        
,grecian ,archipelago1                  
#bdd        ,,chapter ,,xvi4            
,,subterranean ,,heat--,,its ,,powers   
,,illustrated ,,by    ,,earthquakes4    
,earthquakes and ,volcanos proceed from 
the same common ,cause--,recent         
,earthquakes in ,new ,zealand--,vast    
,tracts of ,land    permanently         
upraised--,earthquakes of ,chili in the 
present ,century    --,crust of the     
,earth elevated--,earthquake of ,cutch  
in    ,india1 #ahai--,remarkable        
,instance of ,subsidence and            
,upheaval--,earthquake    of ,calabria1 
#aghc--;,earthquake of ,lisbon1         
#agee--;,great    ,destruction of ,life 
and ,property--,earthquake of ,peru1    
,august1 #ahfh--;,general ,scene of     
,ruin and ,devastation--,great    ,sea  
,wave--,a ,ship with all her ,crew      
carried a ,quarter of a    ,mile        
inland--,frequency of ,earthquakes1     

#beh        ,,chapter ,,xvii4           
,,subterranean ,,heat--,,its ,,powers   
,,illustrated ,,by ,,undulations    ,,of
 ,,the ,,earth',s ,,crust4      ,gentle 
,movements of the ,earth's ,crust within
 ,historic ,times--,roman    ,roads and 
,temples submerged in the ,bay of       
,bai--,temple    of ,jupiter            
,serapis--,singular ,condition of its   
,columns--,proof    of ,subsidence and  
subsequent ,upheaval--,indications    of
 a second ,subsidence now actually      
taking place--,gradual    ,upheaval of  
the ,coast of ,sweden--,summary of the  
,evidence    adduced to establish this  
,fact--,subsidence of the ,earth's      
,crust    on the ,west ,coast of        
,greenland--,recapitulation1            
#bga        ,,part ,,ii4      ,,the     
,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,earth          
,,considered ,,in    ,,relation ,,to    
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,genesis4         
,,chapter ,,xviii4      ,,statement ,,of
 ,,the ,,question ,,and ,,exposition    
,,of ,,the ,,author',s    ,,view4       

,the ,general ,principles of ,geological
 ,theory accepted by the ,author        
--,these ,principles plainly import the 
extreme ,antiquity    of the            
,earth--,illustration from the ,coal1   
the ,chalk1 and the    ,boulder         
,clay--,this ,conclusion not at         
,variance with the ,inspired    ,history
 of the ,creation--,chronology of the   
,bible--,genealogies    of              
,genesis--,date of the ,creation not    
fixed by ,moses--,progress    of        
,opinion on this ,point--,cardinal      
,wiseman1 ,father    ,peronne1 ,father  
,pianciani--,doctor ,buckland1 ,doctor  
,chalmers1    ,doctor ,pye ,smith1 ,hugh
 ,miller--,author's ,view               
explained--,charge    of ,rashness and  
,irreverence answered--,admonitions     
of ,saint ,augustine and ,saint ,thomas1
                               #bhj     
,,chapter ,,xix4      ,,first           
,,hypothesis2--,,an ,,interval ,,of     
,,indefinite ,,duration    ,,between    
,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,world     

,,and ,,the ,,first    ,,mosaic ,,day4  
,the ,heavens and the ,earth were       
created before the ,first ,mosaic       
,day--,objection from ,exodus1 xx4      
#i-aa--;,answer--,interpretation    of  
the ,author supported by the best       
,commentators--,confirmed    by the     
,hebrew ,text--,the ,early ,fathers     
commonly held    the ,existence of      
created ,matter prior to the ,work of   
the ,six    ,days--,saint ,basil1 ,saint
 ,chrysostom1 ,saint ,ambrose1          
,venerable    ,bede--,the most eminent  
,doctors in the ,schools concurred    in
 this ,opinion--,peter ,lombard1 ,hugh  
of ,saint ,victor1 ,saint               
,thomas--,also ,commentators and        
,theologians--,perrerius1               
,petavius--,distinguished ,names on the 
other side1 ,a ,lapide1    ,tostatus1   
,saint ,augustine--,the ,opinion is at  
least not at    ,variance with the      
,voice of ,tradition--,this ,period of  
created    ,existence may have been of  
indefinite ,length--,and the ,earth     

may have been furnished then as now with
 countless ,tribes of    ,plants and    
,animals--,objections to this           
,hypothesis proposed    and explained1  
#cjj        ,,chapter ,,xx4             
,,second ,,hypothesis2--,,the ,,days    
,,of ,,creation ,,long ,,periods ,,of   
,,time4      ,diversity of ,opinion     
among the ,early ,fathers regarding the 
,days    of ,creation--,saint           
,augustine1 ,philo ,judus1 ,clement of  
,alexandria1    ,origen1 ,saint         
,athanasius1 ,saint ,eucherius1         
,procopius--,albertus    ,magnus1 ,saint
 ,thomas1 ,cardinal ,cajetan--,inference
    from these ,testimonies--,first     
,argument in favor of the    popular    
,interpretation2 a ,day1 in the literal 
,sense1 means a    ,period of           
,twenty-four ,hours--,answer--,this     
,word often used    in ,scripture for an
 indefinite ,period--,examples from the 
,old    and ,new ,testament--,second    
,argument2 the ,days of ,creation       
have an ,evening and a                  

,morning--,answer--,interpretation of   
,saint ,augustine1 ,venerable ,bede1 and
 other ,fathers of the                  
,church--,third ,argument2 the ,reason  
alleged for the ,institution    of the  
,sabbath ,day--,answer--,the ,law of the
 ,sabbath    extended to every ,seventh 
,year as well as to every ,seventh      
,day--,the    ,seventh ,day of ,god's   
,rest a long ,period of indefinite      
,duration1                              
#cah        ,,chapter ,,xxi4            
,,application ,,of ,,the ,,second       
,,hypothesis ,,to ,,the ,,mosaic        
,,history    ,,of                       
,,creation--,,conclusion4      ,summary 
of the ,argument--,striking ,coincidence
 between the    ,order of ,creation as  
set forth in the ,narrative of ,moses   
and in    the ,records of               
,geology--,comparison illustrated and   
developed--,scheme    of ,adjustment    
between the ,periods of ,geology and    
the ,days of ,genesis--,tabular ,view of
 this ,scheme--,objections              

considered--,it is not to be regarded as
 an established ,theory1    but as an   
admissible ,hypothesis--,either the     
first ,hypothesis    or the second is   
sufficient to meet the demands of       
,geology as    regards the ,antiquity of
 the ,earth--,not necessary to suppose  
that the ,sacred ,writer was made       
acquainted with the long ,ages    of    
,geological ,time--,he simply records   
faithfully that which    was committed  
to his charge--,the ,mosaic ,history of 
,creation    stands alone1 without      
,rivals or ,competitors1                
#cdc    ,illustration          ,,list   
,,of ,,illustrations4                   
,,page      #a4 ,granitic ,rocks off the
 ,shetland ,islands1                    
#fc      #b4 ,iceberg seen in mid ocean1
 #adjj miles from land1                 
#ge      #c4 ,block of ,limestone ,rock 
with ,glacial-markings1                 
#gh      #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,examples  
of living ,zoophytes3                   
,campanularia ,gelatinosa2 ,gorgonia    

,patula1                  #aca          
,frustra ,pilosa2 ,madrepora            
,plantaginea1                     #acb  
,corallium ,rubrum1                     
#acc      #i1 #aj4 ,fossil ,ferns from  
the ,coal ,measures1                    
#adc      #aa4 ,trunk and roots of a    
forest tree2 found erect in a ,coal     
,mine1 near ,liverpool1                 
#aeb      #ab4 ,fossil ,irish ,deer1    
#afc      #ac4 ,fossil ,wood1 showing   
the rings of annual growth1             
#aga      #ad1 #ae4 ,fossil ,fish from  
,monte ,bolea in ,italy1                
#agc1 #agd      #af4 ,group of several  
,fossil ,fish in one block of           
,limestone1        #agf      #ag4       
,fossil ,fish from the ,chalk ,rock of  
,sussex1                     #agg       
#ah1 #ai4 ,two ,skeletons of the        
,ichthyosaurus1 from the ,lias of       
,dorsetshire1 preserved in the ,museum  
of ,trinity ,college1        ,dublin1   
#agi      #bj4 ,plesiosaurus            
,cramptonii1 from the ,lias of          

,yorkshire1        preserved in the     
,museum of the ,royal ,dublin ,society1 
#ahb      #ba4 ,the ,megatherium1 or    
,great ,wild ,beast1                    
#ahe      #bb4 ,the ,mylodon ,robustus1 
#ahf      #bc4 ,section of a ,quarry in 
the ,island of ,portland1 showing the   
stumps of an ancient forest standing    
erect in the solid rock1  #ahi      #bd4
 ,calamite from the ,coal ,measures of  
,newcastle1                  #aia       
#be4 ,lepidodendron ,sternbergii2 a     
forest tree erect in a ,coal ,mine1 #aib
      #bf4 ,lepidodendron ,elegans2     
,stem and branches1 from a ,coal ,mine1 
near ,newcastle1                        
#aic      #bg4 ,section of a ,coal ,mine
 near ,lyons1 showing an ancient forest 
enveloped in ,sandstone1                
#aid      #bh4 ,bird's-eye ,view of     
,santorin during the volcanic eruption  
of #ahff1                               
#bee      ,,list ,,of ,,tables4         
,table of ,stratified ,rocks            
,chronologically arranged1              

#baa      ,table of ,geological         
,formations1 showing the first          
appearance on      the ,earth of the    
various forms of ,animal ,life1         
#bbf      ,table exhibiting the         
,genealogies of ,genesis according to   
the      various ,readings of the three 
most ancient ,versions1 the             
,hebrew1 the ,samaritan1 and the        
,septuagint1                       #bia 
,table representing a possible          
,adjustment of the ,mosaic ,days with   
the ,periods of ,geology1               
#bea          ,illustration             
,,geology ,,and ,,revelation4           
,,introductory ,,chapter4        ,scope 
of the work explained--,geology looked  
on with suspicion      by               
,christians--,hailed with triumph by    
,unbelievers--,no      contradiction    
possible between the works of ,nature   
and the      ,word of ,god--,author not 
jealous of progress in ,geological      
,discoveries--,points of contact between
 ,geology and      ,revelation--,the    

question stated--,the answer--,division 
of the      work4      ,among the       
various pursuits that engage the human  
mind1 there are few so  attractive as   
,geology1 none so important as          
,revelation4 ,each of these  two studies
 has an interest peculiar to itself4    
,the one is chiefly  concerned about the
 world in which we are living3 the other
 about the  world to which we are       
hastening4 ,geology leads us down into  
the depths  of the ,earth1 and there1   
unfolding to our view a long series of  
strange  unwritten records impressed on 
lasting monuments by the hand of        
,nature1  it proceeds to trace back the 
history of our ,globe through myriads of
  ages into the distant past4           
,revelation1 on the other hand1 comes to
 us  from above2 and setting forth the  
far more wonderful records of ,god's    
dealings with man1 holds out the hope of
 another world 8everlasting in  the     
heavens0#aj which shall still remain    
when this earth and all the  works that 

are therein shall have melted away with 
fervent heat4#aa    ,but1 it may be     
asked1 why should two such incongruous  
topics be set  down for discussion side 
by side8 ,to answer this question is to 
explain  the scope and design of the    
present work4 ,we are not going to write
 a  ,manual of ,geology2 nor yet a      
,treatise on ,revelation4 ,taken        
separately1  these two subjects have    
been handled with eminent skill and     
ability2  the one by the votaries of    
,science1 the other by the friends of   
,theology4 ,it is our purpose to        
consider them not so much in themselves 
as in their mutual relations3 to compare
 the conclusions of ,geology  with the  
truths of ,revelation2 and to inquire if
 it be possible to  accept the one and  
yet not to abandon the other4    ,an    
uneasy apprehension has long prevailed  
among devout ,christians1 and  a        
declared conviction among a large class 
of unbelievers1 that the  discoveries of
 ,geology are at variance with the facts

 recorded in the  ,book of ,genesis4    
,now1 the historical narrative of       
,genesis lies at the  very foundation of
 all ,revealed ,religion4 ,hence the    
science of ,geology1  has come to be    
looked on with suspicion by the         
simple-minded faithful1  and to be      
hailed with joy1 as a new and powerful  
auxiliary1 by that  infidel party which1
 in these latter days1 has assumed a    
position so  bold and defiant4 ,it is   
now confidently asserted that we cannot 
uphold  the teaching of ,revelation1    
unless we shut our eyes to the evidence 
of  ,geology2 and that we cannot pursue 
the study of ,geology1 if we are not    
prepared to renounce our belief in the  
doctrines of ,revelation4    ,vet surely
 this cannot be4 ,truth cannot be at    
variance with truth4 ,if  ,god has      
recorded the history of our ,globe1 as  
,geologists maintain1 on  imperishable  
monuments within the ,crust of the      
,earth1 we may be quite  sure ,he has   
not contradicted that ,record in ,his   

,written ,word4 ,there  may be for a    
time1 indeed1 a conflict between the    
student of ,nature and  the student of  
,revelation4 ,each is liable to error   
when he undertakes  to interpret the    
record that is placed in his hands4     
,many a brilliant  ,geological theory1  
received at first with unbounded        
applause1 has been  dissipated by the   
progress of discovery even within the   
lifetime of its  author4 ,on the other  
hand1 it cannot be denied that          
,theologians have  sometimes imputed to 
the ,bible that which the ,bible does   
not teach4  ,learned and pious          
men--,protestants and ,catholics        
alike--once believed  that the ,book of 
,joshua represents the succession of day
 and night  as produced by the          
revolution of the ,sun around the       
,earth3 whereas  it is now considered   
quite plain that the ,book of ,joshua1  
properly  understood1 teaches nothing of
 the kind2 but that the ,inspired       
,writer1  in describing a wonderful     

phenomenon of ,nature1 simply employs   
the  language of men according to the   
established usage of his time4 ,we need 
not wonder1 therefore1 that a conflict  
of opinion should sometimes  arise      
between the ,geologist and the          
,theologian2 but a conflict there       
cannot be between the story which ,god  
has described on ,his works and  the    
story ,he has recorded in ,his ,written 
,word4    ,though we come forward1      
therefore1 among those whose duty and   
whose  glory it is to uphold            
,revelation1 we are by no means jealous 
of the  wonderful ardor1 and we may add1
 the wonderful success1 with which the  
study of ,geology has been lately       
pursued4 ,we have too much confidence   
in the truth of our cause to apprehend  
that it can suffer in any way  from the 
progress of ,natural ,science4 ,it is   
our conviction1 rather1  that the more  
thoroughly the works of ,nature are     
understood1 the  more perfectly they    
will be found to harmonize with the     

truths of  ,revelation4 ,we are not     
afraid1 therefore1 to venture into the  
realms  of ,geology and to come face to 
face with its discoveries4 ,too long1   
perhaps1 has this interesting and       
popular science been neglected by  those
 who are ranged under the banner of     
,religion4 ,let it be ours to  show that
 the study of ,god's works is not       
incompatible with the belief  in ,god's 
,word2 and that it is quite possible to 
investigate the ancient  history of the 
world we inhabit without forfeiting our 
right to a  better4    ,the points of   
contact between ,geology and ,revelation
 are chiefly these  two3--,first1 the   
,antiquity of the ,earth2 ,secondly1 the
 ,antiquity of the  ,human ,race4 ,in   
the present ,volume we shall confine our
 attention to the  ,antiquity of the    
,earth4 ,the subject that offers itself 
for discussion  may be stated in a few  
words4 ,geologists maintain that the    
,crust of the  ,earth has been slowly   
built up by means of a long series of   

operations  which would require hundreds
 of thousands1 perhaps millions of years
  for their accomplishment3 whereas the 
,bible narrative1 it is alleged1  allows
 but the short lapse of six or eight    
thousand years from the  creation of the
 world to the present time4 ,the        
,geological record1 then1  seems to     
contradict the ,mosaic2 and the question
 is1 how this apparent  contradiction is
 to be explained4    ,some have ventured
 to solve the problem by rejecting the  
historical  narrative of the ,bible3    
others by ignoring the plain facts of   
,geology4  ,but there is a third class  
of writers1 including many names of the 
highest eminence and authority1 who     
contend that we may admit the  extreme  
,antiquity of our ,globe1 which ,geology
 so imperatively demands1  without      
compromising in the smallest degree the 
truthfulness of the  ,mosaic story4     
,they say that the ,chronology of the   
,bible stops short  with ,adam1 and does
 not go back to the beginning of the    

world4 ,by  means of the data which the 
,bible supplies we may calculate1 at    
least  roughly1 the lapse of time from  
the ,creation of ,adam to the ,birth of 
,christ4 ,but from the first beginning  
of all created things1 when ,god  made  
the ,heavens and the ,earth1 to the     
close of the ,sixth ,day when ,adam  was
 introduced upon the scene1 that is an  
interval which1 in the ,bible           
narrative1 is left altogether undefined 
and uncertain4 ,this is the  view which 
we hope to develop and to illustrate in 
the course of the  following pages4     
,our task naturally divides itself into 
two parts4 ,first1 it will be  our duty 
to consider the received theory of      
,geology1 and to examine  in detail some
 of the interesting and wonderful       
phenomena on which  it is founded4 ,this
 course of investigation1 while it is   
plainly  indispensable for the          
intelligent appreciation of our subject1
 cannot  fail at the same time to unfold
 many new and striking views of the     

,power1 and the ,goodness1 and the      
,providence of ,god4 8,for the invisible
  things of ,him from the creation of   
the world are clearly seen1 being       
understood by the things that are made2 
even ,his eternal ,power and            
,godhead40#ab    ,in the ,second ,part  
we shall consider the ,antiquity of the 
,earth in  reference to the ,history of 
,genesis4 ,it will be our purpose to    
show  that1 as far as the ,bible        
narrative is concerned1 an interval of  
countless ages may have elapsed between 
the first creation of the  ,heavens and 
the ,earth and the beginning of the ,six
 ,mosaic ,days4  ,furthermore1 we shall 
contend that1 without any prejudice to  
the ,sacred  ,history1 we may suppose   
these ,days themselves to have been1 not
 days  in the ordinary sense of the     
word1 but long and indefinite ,periods  
of  ,time4 ,if we succeed in            
establishing these views1 it will be    
obvious  to infer that1 while the ,bible
 enables us to determine1 at least by   

approximation1 the ,age of the ,human   
,race1 it allows time without limit  for
 the past history of the ,earth4        
,illustration          ,,part ,i4       
,,geological ,,theory ,,and ,,the       
,,evidence ,,by ,,which ,,it ,,is       
,,supported4          ,,chapter ,i4     
,,theory ,,of ,,geologists4             
,geology defined--,facts and            
,theories--,recent progress of          
,geology--,stratification of            
,rocks--,aqueous ,rocks2 of ,mechanical 
,origin--of ,chemical ,origin--of       
,organic ,origin--,igneous ,rocks1      
,plutonic and ,volcanic--,metamorphic   
,rocks--,summary of the      ,rocks that
 compose the ,crust of the              
,earth--,relative order      of         
position--,internal condition of the    
,globe--,movements of      the ,earth's 
,crust--,subterranean disturbing        
force--,uplifting      and bending of   
,strata--,denudation and its            
,causes--,fossil      ,remains--,their  
,value in ,geological ,theory4      ,the

 object of ,geology is to examine and   
record the appearances  presented by the
 ,crust of the ,earth2 and by the aid of
 these  appearances1 to trace out the   
long series of events by which it has   
been brought into its present condition4
 ,geology1 therefore1 like  all other   
natural sciences1 is made up partly of  
fact1 and partly of  theory4 ,it belongs
 to the ,geologist first to investigate 
the phenomena  which the ,crust of the  
,earth exhibits to the eye4 ,for this   
purpose he  descends into the mine and  
the quarry2 he visits the lofty cliff by
  the sea-shore1 the deep ravine on the 
mountain side1 the cutting of a         
railway2 in a word1 every spot where a  
section of the ,earth's ,crust is       
exposed to view1 either by the action of
 ,nature or by the hand of man4  ,he    
then retires into the silence of his    
closet1 with his note-book and  his     
specimens2 and there1 having arranged   
and classified the various  phenomena   
which he has already examined with his  

eyes in the outer  world1 he proceeds to
 make his deductions1 and to build up   
his theory4  ,he seeks to explain how   
materials1 so diverse in their          
composition1  have come to be piled up  
together1 with such admirable order1 and
 yet  with such endless variety2 and how
 the solid rocks have come to be the    
repository of petrified trees and plants
 and bones and shells1 which  seem1 as  
it were1 to start up from their graves1 
and to tell strange  stories of a bygone
 world4    ,in the early days of        
,geology there were comparatively few   
who devoted  themselves with patient    
industry to the collection and          
classification  of facts3 while the     
number was legion of those who1 with a  
very  meagre knowledge of facts1 set    
themselves to build up systems4 ,a  vast
 multitude of different and conflicting 
theories were1 in this  way1 brought    
into existence1 and attracted for a time
 much public  attention1 each one being 
vehemently defended by its friends and  

as  vehemently assailed by its enemies4 
,these theories resting on no solid     
foundation1 could not hold their ground 
against the advancing tide of  new      
discoveries4 ,they flourished for a     
brief space1 and then gave way  to      
others scarcely more substantial1 which 
were destined in their turn  to be      
likewise rejected and forgotten4 ,thus  
it came to pass1 from the  manifest     
instability of its principles1 that     
,geology was long held  in light repute1
 and practical men set little store by  
its boasted  discoveries and startling  
revelations4    ,but it would be unjust 
and unphilosophical to condemn the      
modern theory  of ,geologists because of
 their past errors4 ,we must judge of   
this  science1 not according to what it 
once was in the feebleness of its       
infancy1 but according to what it now is
 in the growing strength of its  mature 
years4 ,it seems to be in the nature of 
things that groundless  speculations and
 wild conjectures go before1 and sober  

,science follows  in their wake4 ,the   
visionary dreams of the ,alchemist led  
the way to  the science of ,chemistry1  
and the idle fancies of the ,astrologist
 have  given place to the marvellous    
discoveries of ,astronomy4 ,so1 too1    
amidst  the confused mass of conflicting
 arguments and opinions1 by which the   
phenomena of ,geology were for a long   
time enveloped and obscured1 the  seeds 
of a new science were slowly            
germinating4 ,new facts were eagerly    
sought after to support or to impugn the
 favorite theory of the hour2  and      
though theory after theory passed away1 
yet the facts remained4 ,in  course of  
time this accumulation of facts became  
broad and deep and  solid enough to form
 a sound basis for inductive reasoning2 
and thus  almost within our own days    
,geology may be fairly said to have     
assumed  the rank and dignity of a      
science4    ,during the last quarter of 
a century it has been studied with a    
more  ardent enthusiasm than1 perhaps1  

any other science in ,england1 in       
,france1 in ,germany1 and in ,america4  
,it has been studied1 too1 upon  better 
principles than before3 less attention  
has been paid to the  building up of    
theories1 and far more pains and labor  
have been  expended on the careful      
investigation of natural phenomena4     
,there are  still1 no doubt1 different  
schools of ,geologists which are divided
  among themselves as regards many      
important details of theory2 but  there 
are some general conclusions upon which 
all ,geologists are  substantially      
agreed1 and which1 they assure us1 are  
established by  evidence that is        
absolutely irresistible4 ,it is to these
 conclusions we  wish to invite the     
attention of our readers2 for they bear 
very closely  on the question of the    
,antiquity of the ,earth4    ,geologists
 tell us1 then1 that the materials of   
which the ,earth's  ,crust is composed1 
are not heaped together in a confused   
mass1 but are  disposed with evident    

marks of definite and systematic        
arrangement4  ,this is an important     
truth1 of which many examples are       
familiar to us  all1 though perhaps we  
do not all attend to their significance4
 ,thus  in a quarry1 we see commonly    
enough first a bed of limestone1 then   
above that a bed of gravel1 and higher  
still a bed of clay3 and even  the      
limestone itself is not usually a       
compact mass1 but is arranged in        
successive layers1 something like the   
successive courses of masonry in  a     
building4 ,now it appears that a very   
large proportion of the ,earth's  ,crust
 is made up in this way of successive   
layers1 or strata1 as  they are called  
by ,geologists4 ,these strata are       
composed of various  substances1 such as
 clay1 chalk1 sand1 lime1 and coal2 and 
they present  everywhere the same       
general appearances4 ,they are known    
under the  common name of ,aqueous      
,rocks1#ac because it is believed that  
they  were originally formed under      

water2 and here it is that the          
professors  of ,geology first come into 
collision with the popular notions that 
formerly prevailed4    ,they hold that  
these stratified rocks were not arranged
 as we see them  now1 when the ,earth   
first came from the hands of its        
,creator1 but have  been formed1 during 
the lapse of unnumbered ages1 by the    
operation  of natural causes4 ,nay more1
 they have divided the rocks into sundry
  classes1 and they undertake to explain
 the particular process by which  each  
several variety has been produced4      
,first in order and importance  are     
those which derive their existence from 
the mechanical force of  moving water4  
,the materials of which they are        
composed first existed in  the form of  
minute particles1 which were transported
 by the action of  water from one place 
to another2 then they were spread out   
over a given  surface1 just as we now   
see layers of sand1 or mud1 or gravel   
deposited  near the mouths of rivers1 or

 in the estuaries of the sea1 or even   
upon  the land itself during temporary  
inundations4 ,lastly1 after a long      
interval came the slow but certain      
process of consolidation4 ,the fine     
sand was cemented together and became   
sandstone2 the loose gravel by a        
similar process was transformed into a  
solid mass1 known by the name of        
,conglomerate or ,pudding-stone2 while  
the soft mud by simple pressure  was    
converted into a kind of slaty clay1    
called ,shale4 ,thus from age to  age   
,nature was ever building up new strata1
 and consolidating the old4    ,next in 
order are the ,aqueous ,rocks1 which owe
 their origin to the  agency of chemical
 laws4 ,to this class belong many of our
 limestone  formations4 ,large          
quantities of carbonate of lime are held
 in solution  by water charged with     
carbonic acid gas3 when the carbonic    
acid1 in  course of time1 passes off1   
the carbonate of lime can no longer be  
held  in solution1 and it is accordingly

 precipitated in a solid form to  the   
bottom4 ,in this manner was formed that 
peculiar kind of limestone  called      
,travertine1 which abounds in ,italy1   
and which is well known  to all who have
 visited ,rome1 as the stone of which   
the ,coliseum was  built4 ,a still more 
familiar example1 on a small scale1 is  
seen in the  case of ,stalactites and   
,stalagmites4 ,water saturated with     
carbonic  acid trickles down the sides1 
or drops from the roof of a limestone   
cavern4 ,in its course it dissolves     
carbonate of lime1 and holds it  in     
solution2 afterward1 reaching the floor 
of the cavern1 it slowly  evaporates and
 leaves behind it a thin sheet of       
limestone which is  called a            
,stalagmite2 while the icicle-like      
pendants that are formed by  a similar  
process1 on the roof of the cavern1 are 
called ,stalactites4    ,there is a     
third class of ,aqueous ,rocks which are
 supposed to be  made up almost         
exclusively of the fragmentary remains  

of plants and  animals1 and are         
therefore called ,organic4 ,the         
well-known coral reefs1  so dreaded by  
the sailor in tropical seas1 are        
believed to be nothing  more than a mass
 of stony skeletons belonging to the    
minute marine  animalcules known among  
zoologists as ,polyps or ,zoophytes4    
,these  little creatures1 existing      
together in countless multitudes1       
extract  carbonate of lime from the     
waters of the ocean in which they dwell1
 and  by the action of their living     
organs1 convert it into a solid frame   
or skeleton1 which is called coral4     
,from generation to generation the  same
 process has been going on during the   
long succession of ,geological  ages2   
and huge masses of coral rock1 hundreds 
of miles in length1 have  thus been     
slowly built up from fathomless depths  
of the ocean to within  a few feet of   
its surface4 ,our vast coal formations1 
on the other hand1  afford a ready      
example of rocks which are chiefly      

composed of vegetable  remains4    ,so  
much for the ,aqueous or ,stratified    
,rocks4 ,geology next brings before  us 
another and a very different group1 of  
which the origin is ascribed  to fire1  
and which are consequently designated by
 the title of ,igneous  ,rocks4 ,in     
their general appearance they are       
chiefly distinguished  from the former  
by the absence of regular               
stratification2 but they  are1          
nevertheless1 intersected by numerous   
planes of division1 or  joints1 as they 
are called1 and thus divided into blocks
 of various  size and form4 ,geologists 
believe that these rocks were at one    
time  reduced to a molten state by the  
action of intense heat1 and afterward   
allowed slowly to cool and to           
crystallize4 ,they are divided into two 
classes1 the ,plutonic and the          
,volcanic4 ,the ,plutonic ,rocks are    
chiefly  granite of some kind or        
another2 and though they now often      
appear at  the surface1 they are        

supposed to have been produced          
originally at  a considerable depth     
within the crust of the ,earth1 8or     
sometimes1  perhaps1 under a certain    
weight of incumbent ocean40#ad ,the     
,volcanic  ,rocks have been formed at or
 near the surface of the ,earth1 and1 as
 the  name implies1 they are usually    
ejected1 in a state of fusion1 from the 
fissures of an active volcano2 though   
not unfrequently they assume the  more  
imposing form of basaltic columns1 as at
 the ,giant's ,causeway in  ,ireland1 or
 on the island of ,staffa near the coast
 of ,argyleshire in  ,scotland4    ,one 
group of rocks yet remains to be        
noticed4 ,they have been called  by     
various names at different times1 but   
are now generally designated  by the    
term ,metamorphic4 ,in some respects    
they resemble the ,aqueous  ,rocks1     
while1 in others1 they are more nearly  
allied to the ,igneous4  ,like the      
former1 they are stratified in their    
outward arrangement2  like the latter1  

they are more or less crystalline in    
their internal  texture4 ,as to their   
origin1 we are told that they were first
 deposited  under water1 like the       
,aqueous ,rocks1 and that afterward     
their internal  structure was altered by
 the agency of subterranean heat4 ,hence
 the  name ,metamorphic1 first suggested
 by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 which conveys 
the idea that these rocks have undergone
 a change of form4 ,to this  group      
belong many varieties of slate1 and also
 the far-famed statuary  marble of      
,italy4    ,our readers will perceive   
from this brief outline that1 if we     
follow  the theory of ,geologists1 the  
rocks which compose the ,crust of the   
,earth may be conveniently divided1     
according to their origin1 into  three  
leading groups1 the ,aqueous1 the       
,igneous1 and the ,metamorphic4  ,the   
,aqueous are formed under water1 either 
by the mechanical force of  the water   
itself when in motion1 or by the agency 
of chemical laws1  or by the            

intervention of organic life4 ,hence    
they are naturally  subdivided into     
three classes1 the ,mechanical1 the     
,chemical1 the  ,organic4 ,the ,igneous 
,rocks are produced by heat1 being first
 melted  and then allowed to cool4 ,when
 this process takes place under great   
pressure in the depths of the ,earth1   
the result is granite2 and the  granite 
,rocks are called ,plutonic3 when near  
the surface1 through the  agency of a   
volcano1 the ,rocks so formed are called
 ,volcanic4 ,lastly1  the ,metamorphic  
,rocks are nothing else than ,aqueous   
,rocks1 of which the  texture has been  
altered by the action of intense heat4  
,as regards the relative order of       
position amongst these various classes  
of rocks1 the lowest place seems        
uniformly to belong to the granitic or  
,plutonic group4 ,it is true that the   
granite will often appear at the        
surface of the ,earth2 but wherever     
there is a series of rocks piled one    
above the other1 the granite will always

 be the lowest4 ,this assertion  is     
based on two broad facts2 first1        
whenever we get to the bottom  of the   
other rocks1 they are always found to   
rest on granite2 and  secondly1 no other
 rock has ever yet been found beneath   
it4 ,from this  circumstance granite is 
conceived to be the solid foundation of 
the  ,earth's ,crust1 and so is often   
called fundamental granite4 ,above the  
granite the ,aqueous ,rocks have been   
slowly spread out layer by layer  during
 the long lapse of ages1 now in this    
part of the world1 now in  that1        
according as each in its turn was       
exposed to the action of water4  ,the   
,volcanic ,rocks do not occur in any    
fixed order of succession4 ,they  are   
distributed irregularly over almost     
every country of the globe1  occurring  
sometimes in the form of cone-shaped    
mountains1 sometimes in  the form of    
stately pillars1 and sometimes in the   
form of massive solid  walls1 called    
,dykes1 forced right through the softer 

,aqueous ,rocks1  which were deposited  
on the surface of the ,earth before the 
eruption4  ,as to the ,metamorphic      
,rocks1 which are supposed to owe their 
peculiar  character to the contact of   
molten mineral matter1 wherever they    
occur1  they are found in the immediate 
neighborhood of some ,igneous ,rock4    
,the condition of the ,earth beneath its
 thin external crust has never  been the
 subject of direct observation2 for     
,geologists have never yet  been able to
 penetrate below the granite rocks4     
,nevertheless1 this  subject has been   
often discussed1 and has offered a wide 
field for  philosophical speculation4   
,upon one point all are agreed1 that    
within  the ,crust of the ,earth an     
intense heat very generally prevails2--a
 heat  so intense that it would be quite
 sufficient1 acting under ordinary      
circumstances1 to reduce all known rocks
 to a state of igneous fusion4  ,hence  
it was a common opinion among the older 
,geologists that the  condition of our  

globe is that of a vast central nucleus 
composed of  molten mineral1 and covered
 over with a comparatively thin external
  shell of solid rock4 ,the most eminent
 ,geologists1 however1 of the  present  
day1 hesitate to accept this opinion4   
,they observe3 7#a7 ,that  we have not  
yet learned what the material is of     
which the interior  of the ,earth is    
composed2 therefore we cannot tell for  
certain what  degree of heat is         
sufficient to reduce that material to a 
liquid state4  7#b7 ,it is uncertain how
 far the immense pressure at great      
depths may  operate to keep matter in a 
solid state1 even when raised to a very 
high degree of temperature4 7#c7 ,there 
are certain astronomical and  physical  
difficulties involved in this theory1   
which have not yet been  fully cleared  
up4 ,modern ,geologists1 therefore1     
proceeding with more  caution than their
 predecessors1 while they regard the    
opinion as  probable1 refuse to set it  
down as conclusively demonstrated4 ,but1

 that  a very high temperature prevails 
in the interior of our globe1 is a      
conclusion1 they say1 which is          
established by abundant evidence1 and   
which may be regarded as morally        
certain4    ,it may be asked how the    
various strata of ,aqueous ,rocks1 which
  constitute the chief portion of the   
,earth's ,crust1 have been lifted up    
above the level of the sea2 for1        
according to our theory1 they were all  
first deposited under water4 ,this is a 
question that must inevitably  occur to 
the mind of every reader1 and           
,geologists are ready with an  answer4  
,they tell us that from the earliest    
ages the ,crust of the ,earth  has been 
subject to disturbance and dislocation4 
,at various times and  in various places
 it was upheaved1 and what had been     
before the bed of  the ocean became dry 
land2 again it sunk below its former    
level1 and  what had been before dry    
land became the bed of the ocean4 ,thus1
 in the  former case a new stratum which

 had been deposited at the bottom of the
  sea1 with all its varied remains of a 
bygone age1 was converted for a  season 
into the surface of the ,earth1 and     
became the theatre of animal  and       
vegetable life3 while in the latter     
case1 the old surface of the  ,earth    
with its countless tribes of animals and
 plants1--its fauna  and flora as they  
are called1--was submerged beneath the  
waters1  there to receive in its turn   
the broken up fragments of a former     
world1 deposited in the form of mud1 or 
sand1 or pebbles1 or minute  particles  
of lime4 ,nor is this all2 it is but a  
single link in the  chain of ,geological
 chronology4 ,we are asked to believe   
that1 in many  parts of the globe1 this 
upward and downward movement has been   
going on  alternately for unnumbered    
ages2 so that the very same spot which  
was  first the bed of the ocean1 was    
afterward dry land1 then the bottom of  
an estuary or inland lake1 then perhaps 
once more the floor of the sea1  and    

then dry land again3 and furthermore we 
are assured that1 while  it remained in 
each one of these various conditions1   
thousands and  thousands of years may   
have rolled away4    ,but from what     
source does that mighty power come which
 can thus upheave  the solid ,earth1 and
 banish the ocean from its bed8 ,we are 
told in  reply that this giant power    
dwells in the interior of the ,earth    
itself1 and is no other than the        
subterranean heat of which we have      
already spoken4 ,this vast internal fire
 acts with unequal force upon  different
 parts of the shell or ,crust of the    
,earth1 uplifting it in  one place1 and 
in another allowing it to subside4 ,now 
it is violent  and convulsive1 bursting 
asunder the solid rocks1 and shaking the
  foundations of the hills3 again it is 
gentle and harmless1 upheaving  vast    
continents with a scarcely perceptible  
undulation1 not unlike the  long1 silent
 swell of the ocean4 ,so it has been    
from the beginning1  and so it is found 

to be even now1 in this last age of the 
,geological  ,calendar4 ,for even within
 historic times mountains have been     
suddenly  upheaved from the level plain2
 and many parts of the ,earth's ,crust  
have  been subject to a slow1 wave-like 
movement1 rising here and subsiding     
there1 at the rate of perhaps a few feet
 in a century4 ,sometimes1  too1 the    
fiery liquid itself has burst its       
barriers1 and poured its  destructive   
streams of molten rock far down into the
 peaceful1 smiling  valleys4    ,this   
theory of an internal disturbing force1 
which from time to time  produces       
elevations and depressions of the       
,earth's ,crust1 serves to  explain     
another phenomenon1 that cannot fail to 
have struck even the  least observant   
eye4 ,the ,aqueous ,rocks of mechanical 
formation are  said to have been        
composed of minute fragments1 which were
 first held  suspended in water1 and    
afterward fell to the bottom4 ,if this  
be true1  it follows that these rocks1  

in the first period of their existence1 
must have been arranged in beds parallel
 to the horizon1 or nearly  so4 ,but we 
now find them1 as everybody knows1 in a 
great variety  of positions3 sometimes  
they are parallel to the horizon1       
sometimes  inclined to it1 sometimes at 
right angles to it2 sometimes1 too1 they
  are broken right across1 sometimes    
curved and twisted after a very         
fantastic fashion4 ,now1 all these      
appearances are the natural results  of 
an upheaving force acting irregularly   
from below on the solid shell  of the   
,earth4 ,when the subterranean fire is  
brought to bear equally at  the same    
time on a broad extent of surface1 then 
the overlying strata  are bodily lifted 
up1 and preserve their horizontal       
position4 ,but when  the whole force    
acts with local intensity on a very     
contracted area1  then1 at that         
particular spot1 the rocks above will be
 tilted up1 and  their position entirely
 changed4 ,sometimes they will be only  

bent and  crushed together1 sometimes   
dislocated and turned over2 sometimes1  
perhaps1 a mountain will be formed1 and 
the rocks before parallel  to the       
horizon1 will afterward remain parallel 
to the slopes of the  mountain4         
,there is another process known by the  
name of ,denudation1 which we  cannot   
pass over in silence1 for it occupies a 
very important place in  the ,natural   
,history of our globe4 ,since time first
 began ,denudation  has been ever going 
on at the surface of the ,earth1 and it 
has left  its mark more or less         
distinctly upon every group of rocks1   
from the  lowest to the highest4 ,it    
includes all the various operations by  
which  the old existing rocks are broken
 up into fragments1 or ground into      
powder1 or worn away by friction1 or    
dissolved by chemical action1  and then 
transported from their former site to   
become the elements  of new strata4     
,hence the name ,denudation2 since by   
these operations  the former surface of 

the ,earth is carried away and a surface
 before  covered is laid bare4 ,the     
amount of destruction effected by this  
process in each successive age is always
 equal to the bulk of ,aqueous  ,rocks  
formed within the same time4 ,this will 
be at once understood  when we remember 
that the ,aqueous ,rocks are produced1  
for the most  part1 by the deposition of
 sediment2 and sediment is nothing else 
than  the fragments1 more or less       
minute1 of pre-existing rocks4 ,what is 
deposited on the bed of the ocean has   
been taken from the surface of  the     
land2 and the new strata are built up   
from the ruins of the old4  ,when we see
 a great building of stone towering     
aloft to the sky1 we  are certain that  
somewhere else on the ,earth a quarry   
has been opened1  and that the amount of
 excavation in the quarry is exactly    
represented  by the bulk of solid       
masonry in the building4 ,just in the   
same way1  the mass of ,aqueous ,rocks  
is at once the monument and the measure 

of  previous ,denudation4    ,the       
process of ,denudation is the work of   
many and various natural  causes4 ,heat 
and cold1 rain1 hail1 and snow1 chemical
 affinities1  the atmosphere itself1 all
 have a share in it2 but the largest    
share  belongs to the mechanical action 
of moving water4 ,every little rill     
that flows down the mountain side is    
charged with finely-powdered  sediment  
which it is ever wearing away from the  
surface of its own  bed4 ,every great   
stream1 besides the immense quantities  
of mud and  sand which in times of flood
 it carries along in its turbulent      
course1  has its channel strewn over    
with pebbles at which it never ceases to
  work1 rounding off the angles and     
polishing the surfaces2 and these       
pebbles1 what are they but the fragments
 of old rocks and the elements  of      
new1--the rubble-stone of ,nature's     
edifice on its way from the  quarry to  
the building8 ,then there are those     
mighty rivers1 such as the  ,amazon1 the

 ,orinoco1 the ,mississippi1 the ,nile1 
the ,ganges1 discharging  into the sea  
day by day their vast freight of mineral
 matter1 millions  of cubic feet in     
bulk1 and thousands upon thousands of   
tons in weight4  ,often this ponderous  
volume of mud or sand is carried far out
 to sea by  the action of currents1 but 
sometimes it is deposited near the      
shore1  forming what is called a ,delta1
 and exhibiting an admirable example  of
 stratified rock in the earliest stage  
of its existence4 ,lastly1 we  have to  
notice the giant power of the great     
ocean itself1 acting with  untiring     
energies on the coasts of continents and
 islands all over the  world1 excavating
 and undermining cliffs1 rolling huge   
rocks hither and  thither1 and spreading
 out the divided fragments in a new     
order at the  bottom of the sea4    ,to 
apprehend fully the magnitude of the    
effects which may fairly be  ascribed to
 this last-mentioned power1 we must     
remember that1 according  to ,geological

 theory1 almost every portion of the    
,earth's ,crust has  been more than once
 lifted up above the surface of the     
ocean1 and  afterward depressed below   
it4 ,it is believed that this alternate 
rising and sinking was effected very    
often1 perhaps most commonly1  not by   
sudden convulsions1 but rather by slow  
or gradual movements4  ,now1 during this
 process1 as the land was emerging from 
the waters  or sinking beneath them1 new
 surfaces would be presented in each    
succeeding century to the force of the  
ocean currents and the erosive  action  
of the breakers2 and it is not difficult
 to conceive that the  accumulated ruins
 produced1 in a long lapse of time1 by  
destructive  agents so powerful1 so     
untiring1 so universal1 may have readily
  furnished the materials for a very    
large proportion of the ,aqueous  ,rocks
 now in existence4    ,hitherto we have 
considered the ,crust of the ,earth as a
 great structure  slowly reared up by   
the hand of ,nature2 we have spoken of  

the ,rocks  that compose it1 of their   
origin and history1 of the order in     
which  they are disposed1 and of the    
various agencies that have been at  work
 to mould them into their present form  
and feature4 ,we have now  to           
contemplate this marvellous structure   
under a new aspect2 for we  are told by 
,geologists that it is a vast sepulchre1
 within which lie  entombed the remains 
of life that has long since passed away4
 ,each  series of strata is but a new   
range of tombs2 and each tomb has a     
story  of its own4 ,here a gigantic     
monster is disclosed to view1 compared  
to which the largest beast that now     
roams through the forest is puny  in    
form and contemptible in strength3      
there1 within a narrow space1  millions 
of minute animal frames are found       
closely compacted together1  each so    
small that its existence can be detected
 only by the aid of  a powerful         
microscope4 ,in one place whole         
skeletons are found almost  entire1     

embedded in the bosom of the solid rock2
 in another1 we have a  boundless       
profusion of bones and shells2 and again
 in another1 neither  the skeleton      
itself appears1 nor yet its scattered   
bones1 but simply  the imprint of       
footsteps once left upon the sandy      
beach1 and still  remaining engraved on 
the stone into which the fine sand has  
been  converted chiefly by the agency of
 pressure4 ,there is no scarcity of     
relics in this wonderful charnel-house  
of ,nature4 ,for half a century  the    
work of plunder has been going on       
without relaxation or remorse2  the     
tombs have been yielding up their dead2 
every city in the civilized  world has  
filled its museums1 and the cabinets of 
private collectors  are overflowing3 but
 the spoils that have hitherto been     
carried away  seem to bear a very small 
proportion to those which yet remain    
behind4    ,these remains of animals and
 plants embedded in the ,crust of the   
,earth are called ,fossils2 and         

,geologists maintain that the ,fossils  
preserved in each group of strata       
represent the animals and plants  that  
flourished on the surface of the ,earth1
 or in the waters of the  ocean1 when   
that group of strata was in process of  
formation4 ,there  they lived1 and there
 they died1 and there they were buried1 
in the  sand1 or the shingle1 or the mud
 that came down from the waters above4  
,their descendants1 however1 still lived
 on1 and new forms of life were  called 
into being by the voice of the          
,omnipotent ,creator1 making1 as  it    
were1 a connecting link between the new 
age of the world that was  coming in and
 the old one that was passing away4 ,but
 they1 too1 died  and found a tomb      
beneath the waters2 for ,nature1 with   
unexhausted  energies1 was still busy   
collecting materials from the old rocks1
 and  building up the new4 ,and so that 
age passed away like the former1 and    
another came2 and every age was         
represented by its own group of strata2 

and each group of strata was1 in its    
turn1 covered over with a new  deposit2 
and the tombs were all sealed up1 with  
their countless legions  of dead1 their 
massive monuments of stone1 their       
strange hieroglyphic  inscriptions4 ,at 
length came the last stage of the       
world's history1 and  man appeared upon 
the scene2 and it is his privilege to   
descend into  this wonderful sepulchre1 
and to wander about amidst the          
monuments1 and  to strive to read the   
inscriptions4 ,in our own days more     
especially1  eager and enthusiastic     
students are abroad over the whole face 
of the  globe1 and are gathering        
together from every country the ,fossil 
,remains  of extinct worlds4 ,by the aid
 of ,natural ,history they seek to      
assign to  each its own proper place in 
the ranks of creation2 to trace the     
rise1  the progress1 and the extinction 
of every species in its turn2 and even  
to describe the nature and the character
 of all the various forms of  life that 

have dwelt upon the ,earth from the     
beginning4    ,such is the theory of    
,geology as expounded at the present day
 by its  most able and popular          
advocates4 ,we have passed over a       
multitude of  minor details that we     
might not weary our readers1 and we have
 kept  aloof from disputed points that  
we might not get entangled in a purely  
scientific controversy4 ,our object has 
simply been to gather together  into a  
systematic form those more general      
conclusions which1 however  startling   
they may seem to practical men of the   
world1 and even to many  of those whose 
minds have been accustomed to the       
pursuit of science  in other            
departments1 are nevertheless regarded  
as certain by all  who have devoted     
their lives to the study of ,geology4   
,it now remains  to investigate the     
facts on which these conclusions are    
based1 and  to consider the line of     
argument by which so many able and      
earnest  men have been led to accept    

them4 ,in this vast field of inquiry we 
shall chiefly direct our attention to   
those points that bear upon the         
,antiquity of the ,earth2 and in        
attempting to bring home to our readers 
the nature and the force of ,geological 
reasoning1 we shall confine  ourselves  
altogether to simple and familiar       
illustrations4    ,illustration         
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,ii4  
,,theory ,,of ,,denudation ,,illustrated
 ,,by ,,facts4      ,principle of       
reasoning common to all the physical    
sciences--,this    principle applicable 
to ,geology--,carbonic acid an agent    
of denudation--,vast quantity of lime   
dissolved by the    waters of the ,rhine
 and borne away to the ,german          
ocean--,disintegration    of rocks by   
frost--,professor ,tyndall on the       
,matterhorn--,running water--,its       
erosive power--,an active    and        
unceasing agent of denudation--,mineral 
sediment carried    out to sea by the   
,ganges and other great rivers--,solid  

rocks undermined and worn away--,falls  
of the ,clyde at    ,lanark--,excavating
 power of rivers in ,auvergne and       
,sicily--,falls of                      
,niagara--,transporting power of running
    water--,floods in                   
,scotland--,inundation in the valley of 
,bagnes in ,switzerland4      ,in the   
physical sciences it is a common        
principle of reasoning to  account for  
the phenomena that come before us in    
nature1 by the  operation of natural    
causes which we know to exist4 ,nay1    
this principle  seems to be almost an   
instinct of our nature1 which guides    
even the  least philosophical amidst us1
 in the common affairs of life4 ,when we
  stand amongst the ruins of an ancient 
castle1 we feel quite certain  that we  
have before us1 not alone the monument  
of ,time's destroying  power1 but also  
the monument of human skill and labor in
 days gone  by4 ,we entertain no doubt  
that ages ago the sound of the mason's  
hammer was heard upon these walls1 now  

crowned with ivy2 that these  moss-grown
 stones were once hewn fresh in the     
quarry1 and piled up one  upon another  
by human hands2 and that the building   
itself was designed  by human skill1 and
 intended for the purposes of human     
habitation and  defence4 ,or1 if we see 
a footprint in the sand1 we conclude    
that a  living foot has been there2 and 
from the character of the traces it has 
left1 we judge what was the species of  
animal to which it belonged1  whether   
man1 or bird1 or beast4 ,it is true that
 ,god is ,omnipotent4  ,he might1 if it 
had so pleased ,him1 have built the old 
castle at the  creation of the world1   
and allowed it to crumble slowly into   
ruins3 or  he might have built it       
yesterday1 and made a ruin begin to be  
where no  castle had stood before2 and  
covered the stones with moss1 and       
mantled  the walls in ivy4 ,and as to   
the footprint in the sand1 it were as   
easy  for ,him to make the impress      
there1 as to make the foot that left the

  impress4 ,all this is true3 but yet if
 any one were to argue in this  style   
against us1 he would fail to shake our  
convictions2 we should  still           
unhesitatingly believe that human hands 
once built the castle1  and that a      
living foot once trod the shore4        
,now1 this principle of reasoning is the
 foundation on which the ablest  modern 
,geologists claim to build their        
science4 ,the untiring hand of  ,nature 
is ever busy around us3 they ask us to  
come and look at her  works1 and to     
judge of what she has done in past ages1
 by that which  she is now doing before 
our eyes4 ,she is still1 they say1      
building  up her strata all over the    
globe1 of limestone1 and sandstone1 and 
clay2 she is still lifting up in one    
place the bed of the ocean1 and  in     
another submerging the dry land2 she is 
still bursting open the  ,crust of the  
,earth by the action of internal fire1  
disturbing and  tilting up the          
horizontal strata2 she is still         

upheaving her mountains  and scooping   
out her valleys4 ,all these operations  
are open to our  inspection2 we may go  
forth and study them for ourselves2 we  
may  examine the works that are wrought1
 and we may discover1 too1 the  causes  
by which they are produced4 ,and if it  
should appear that a very  close analogy
 exists between these works that are now
 coming into  existence1 and the long   
series of works that are piled up in the
 ,crust  of the ,earth1 it is surely not
 unreasonable to refer the latter class 
of phenomena to the action of the same  
natural causes which we know to  have   
produced the former4    ,it cannot be   
denied that this argument is deserving  
of a fair and  candid consideration4    
,let us proceed1 then1 to examine how   
far it is  founded on fact1 and how far 
it can be justly applied to the various 
heads of ,geological theory4 ,we will   
commence with the origin and  history of
 ,stratified ,rocks2 for this           
constitutes1 in a manner1 the  framework

 on which the whole system of ,geology  
is supported and held  together4 ,it is 
alleged that the elements of which      
,stratified ,rocks are  composed are but
 the broken fragments and minute atoms  
of pre-existing  rocks1 carried off by  
the agents of ,denudation1 and spread   
out over  some distant area in regular  
beds or layers2 which1 in progress of   
ages1 were slowly consolidated into     
rocks of various quality and  texture4  
,with the view of testing this theory by
 the light of the  principle just       
explained1 we purpose1 in the first     
place1 to exhibit  some examples of the 
many forms in which the process of      
,denudation  is going on at the present 
day all over the world2 and afterward1  
to  show that out of the materials thus 
obtained ,stratified ,rocks of every    
description--,mechanical1 ,chemical1    
,organic--are being regularly built  up 
in sundry places2 and that these        
correspond in every essential  feature  
with the ,stratified ,rocks in the      

,crust of the ,earth4    ,among the     
chemical agents of ,denudation1 there is
 none more widely  diffused than        
,carbonic acid gas4 ,it is everywhere   
given out by dead  animal and vegetable 
matter during the process of            
putrefaction2 it is  plentifully evolved
 from springs in every country2 and it  
is emitted  in enormous quantities from 
the earth in all volcanic districts1 as 
well those in which the volcanoes are   
now extinct as those in which  they are 
active4 ,now1 it is well known from     
observation1 that carbonic  acid has the
 property of decomposing many of the    
hardest rocks1  especially those in     
which felspar is an ingredient4 ,this   
phenomenon  is exhibited on a large     
scale in the ancient volcanic district  
of  ,auvergne1 in central ,france4 ,the 
carbonic acid1 which is abundantly      
evolved from the earth1 penetrates the  
crevices and pores of the solid         
granite1 which being unable to resist   
its decomposing action1 is  rapidly     

crumbling to pieces4 ,this mysterious   
decay of hard rock has  been happily    
called by ,dolomieu1 8la maladie du     
granite40#ae    ,again1 all the water   
which flows over the surface of the land
 is highly  charged with carbonic acid4 
,the rain imbibes it in falling through 
the  atmosphere2 and the rivers receive 
still further accessions from the  earth
 as they pursue their course to the sea4
 ,in this combination we  discover a    
powerful agent of ,denudation2 for      
limestone rock will be  dissolved by    
water which is impregnated with carbonic
 acid4 ,thus all  the rivers and streams
 in the world1 when they flow through a 
limestone  channel1 are constantly      
dissolving the solid rock and bearing   
away the  elements of which it is       
composed4 ,a single example will be     
sufficient  to show the magnitude of the
 results which are thus produced4 ,it   
has  been calculated by ,bischof1 a     
celebrated ,german chemist1 that the    
carbonate of lime which is carried each 

year to the sea by the waters  of the   
,rhine1 is sufficient for the formation 
of #cb1jjj1jjj1jjj of  oyster shells2   
or1 to view the matter in another light1
 it would be  sufficient to produce a   
stratum of limestone one foot thick1 and
 four  square miles in extent4#af ,if   
such be the yearly produce of one       
river1 how great must be the accumulated
 effects of all the rivers in  the world
 since our planet first came from the   
hand of its ,creator6    ,passing from  
the chemical to the mechanical agents of
 ,denudation1 it  is worth while to     
notice the immense power which is often 
generated by  the agency of frost1      
especially in those countries that are  
subject to  great vicissitudes of heat  
and cold4 ,during a thaw1 water finds   
its way  into the clefts and joints by  
which all rocks are traversed1 and when 
it is afterward converted into ice1 it  
expands with a mechanical force  that is
 almost irresistible4 ,the hardest rocks
 are burst asunder1 great  blocks are   

detached from the mountain side1 and    
sent rolling down its  slopes1 or       
tumbling over crags and precipices1     
until at length they  come to rest in   
shattered fragments at the bottom of the
 valley4 ,in  this condition they await 
but the coming of the winter's torrent  
to be  borne still further on their long
 journey to the sea4    ,the fearful    
havoc done in this way by the alternate 
action of sun and  frost contributes in 
no small degree to the fantastic and    
picturesque  forms assumed by the       
mountain peaks of ,switzerland4 ,huge   
masses of  rock have been literally hewn
 away1 until nothing has remained behind
  but those splintered obelisks and     
tapering pinnacles so familiar to  the  
eye amidst the sublime scenery of the   
,alps4 ,indeed one of the  greatest     
perils encountered by the adventurous   
spirits whose ambition  it is to rival  
one another in the danger of their      
exploits1 and to  climb whatever was    
before regarded as inaccessible1 arises 

from the  enormous fragments of rock    
which are rent almost unceasingly from  
the  overhanging crags and hurled into  
the abysses below them4 ,the following  
incident related by ,professor ,tyndall 
is very much to the point4 8,we  had    
gathered up our things1 and bent to the 
work before us1 when  suddenly an       
explosion occurred overhead4 ,looking   
aloft1 in mid-air was  seen a solid shot
 from the ,matterhorn describing its    
proper parabola  through the air4 ,it   
split to pieces as it hit one of the    
rock-towers  below1 and its fragments   
came down in a kind of spray1 which fell
 wide  of us1 but still near enough to  
compel a sharp look out4 ,two or three  
such explosions occurred afterward1 but 
we crept along the back fin of  the     
mountain1 from which the falling        
boulders were speedily deflected  right 
and left40    ,this occurred in #ahfb1  
on the occasion of an unsuccessful      
attempt  to reach the highest peak of   
the ,matterhorn4 ,six years later1 when 

,professor ,tyndall at length actually  
accomplished the object on which  he    
seems to have set his heart1 he found   
the work of destruction  still going on4
 8,we were now10 he says in his         
narrative1 8beside a  snow-gully1 which 
was cut by a deep furrow along its      
centre1 and  otherwise scarred by the   
descent of stones4 ,here each man       
arranged his  bundle and himself so as  
to cross the gully in the minimum of    
time4 ,the  passage was safely made1 a  
few flying shingle only coming down upon
 us4  ,but danger declared itself where 
it was not expected4 ,joseph ,maquignas 
led the way up the rocks4 ,i was next1  
,pierre ,maquignas next1 and last  of   
all the porters4 ,suddenly a yell issued
 from the leader3 #8,cachez  vous6' ,i  
crouched instinctively against the rock1
 which formed a by no  means perfect    
shelter1 when a boulder buzzed past me  
through the air1  smote the rocks below 
me1 and with a savage hum flew down to  
the lower  glacier40#ag    ,even in our 

own country1 every one is familiar with 
the efficacy of  frozen water in        
producing landslips4 ,the rain which    
soaks into the  ground in winter1 is    
converted into ice when frost sets in2  
and upon  steep slopes or precipices1   
its expansive power bursts open the     
earth1  and causes large masses of      
stones and clay to tumble headlong to   
the  bottom4    ,but moving water       
constitutes the most powerful1 and1 at  
the same  time1 the most universal agent
 of ,denudation4 ,and it is chiefly to  
the  effects of moving water that we    
mean to direct attention2 because its   
action is more striking to the eye1 and 
more easily understood by the  general  
reader4 ,every one is aware that the    
waters of the ocean are  constantly     
passing off by evaporation into the     
higher regions of the  atmosphere1 and  
are there condensed into clouds4 ,these 
clouds in course  of time descend upon  
all parts of the earth1 but especially  
on the high  and mountainous districts4 

,then rivulets are formed which flow    
smoothly  down the gentle slopes of the 
undulating country1 or plunge headlong  
over the rocky mountain cliffs2 and the 
rivulets uniting form streams1  and the 
streams1 receiving new tributaries as   
they advance1 become  rivers2 and the   
rivers flow on to the sea1 and discharge
 each day and  each hour their enormous 
volumes of water back again into the    
ocean  from which they came4 ,thus all  
the water of the world is constantly  in
 motion1 ever hurrying on1 as it were1  
in one unending round of  duty4 ,this is
 the teaching of daily experience and   
observation4 ,and  we may add1 it is the
 teaching of ,sacred ,scripture as well4
 ,the ,wise  ,man said long ago3 8,all  
the rivers run into the sea1 yet the sea
 doth  not overflow3 unto the place from
 whence the rivers come1 thither they   
return to flow again40#ah    ,now1 the  
power of this moving water is a mighty  
wide-spread agent of  change in the     
physical condition of the globe4 ,for   

wherever water is in  motion over the   
surface of the land1 whether it be a    
rippling stream1  or a mountain torrent1
 or a majestic river1 it is surely      
wearing away  the channel through which 
it flows1 and carrying along in its     
course  particles of clay1 or sand1 or  
gravel4 ,this subject is illustrated    
with  great force and great simplicity  
by ,mr4 ,page4 8,every person10 he says1
  8must have observed the rivers in his 
own district1 how they become  muddy and
 turbid during floods of rain1 and how  
their swollen currents  eat away the    
banks1 deepen the channels1 and sweep   
away the sand and  gravel down to some  
lower level4 ,and if1 during this turbid
 state1 he  will have the curiosity to  
lift a gallon of the water1 and allow it
  to settle1 he will be astonished at   
the amount of sediment or solid  matter 
that falls to the bottom4 ,now1 let him 
multiply this gallon by  the number of  
gallons daily carried down by the river1
 and this day  by years and centuries1  

and he will arrive at some faint idea of
 the  quantity of matter worn from the  
land by rivers1 and deposited by them   
in the ocean4 ,in the same way as one   
river grinds and cuts for itself a      
channel1 so does every stream and rill  
and current of water4 ,the rain  as it  
falls washes away what the winds and    
frosts have loosened2 the  rill takes it
 up1 and1 mingling it with its own      
burden1 gives it to the  stream2 the    
stream takes it up and carries it to the
 river1 and the  river bears it to the  
ocean40#ai    ,when the current is      
feeble1 the greater part of this earthy 
material is  thrown down upon the way1  
and forms a stratum of alluvial soil in 
the  bed of the river1 and also in the  
adjoining lowlands1 during the time  of 
temporary floods4 ,but when several     
streams unite1 then the carrying  power 
of the current is enormously increased3 
huge stones are rolled  along1 and      
dashed one against another1 and broken  
into fragments1 and  the fragments are  

rounded by friction1 and become pebbles1
 and the  pebbles become gravel1 and the
 gravel1 mud2 and the mud is carried on 
to the mouth of the river1 and there    
falling to the bottom1 it forms a       
tongue of land which is called a delta2 
or else perhaps it chances to  meet with
 some great ocean current1 and then it  
begins a new journey1  and is borne far 
away to be deposited in the profound and
 tranquil  depths of the sea4 ,it is    
not1 however1 mineral matter alone that 
is  transported by the action of rivers4
 ,trees that once were growing on  the  
banks of the stream1 and the bones of   
animals1 and human remains1  and works  
of art1 are seen floating down with the 
current1 and are  found embedded in the 
sand and mud of the delta at the river's
 mouth4    ,these are some of the actual
 realities which all may witness1 who   
will  go and study for themselves the   
history of this wonderful element1  from
 the time when it first soars aloft as  
vapor to the sky1 until it  returns to  

the bosom of its parent ocean laden with
 the spoils of the  land4 ,to some of   
our readers1 perhaps1 results of this   
kind may appear  insignificant1 when    
considered in relation to the enormous  
bulk of the  stratified rocks4 ,but it  
should be remembered that the force of  
which  we speak is unceasing in its     
operation over the whole surface of the 
earth2 and even though the work were    
small which is accomplished in  each    
successive year1 the accumulated effects
 produced in a lengthened  period of    
time must be immensely great4 ,besides1 
it would be a very  serious error to    
form our ideas on this subject1 as many 
would seem to  do1 from the examples    
which are to be found within the narrow 
limits of  our own island4 ,we should   
rather seek for our illustrations among 
those  mighty rivers that drain the vast
 continents of the world1 and exhibit   
the erosive and transporting power of   
running water on the grandest  scale4   
,it happens1 fortunately for our        

purpose1 that an attempt has been  made 
by scientific men to compute the amount 
of matter discharged  into the sea1 by  
some particular rivers within a given   
time4 ,for such  a computation it is    
necessary1 in the first place1 to       
calculate the  volume of water that     
passes down the channel during that     
time2 and  then1 by repeated            
experiments1 to ascertain the average   
proportion of  earthy matter which is   
held suspended in the water4 ,this has  
been done  with the greatest care by the
 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,everest1 in the case of the
  river ,ganges2 and it appears that    
during the rainy season1 which lasts    
four months every year1 from ,june to   
,september1 about #f1jjj1jjj1jjj  cubic 
feet of mud are carried along by the    
stream past the town of  ,ghazepoor1    
near which the observations were made4  
,now this enormous  bulk of mineral     
matter would be sufficient to form a    
stratum of rock  one foot in height1 and
 two hundred and eighteen square miles  

in  extent4 ,or1 to adopt the           
computation of ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 the
 amount  which passes by every day is   
equal to that which might be transported
  by #bjjj ,indiamen1 each freighted    
with a cargo of mud #adjj tons in       
weight4 ,and it is important to remember
 that this estimate represents  but a   
portion of the sediment which passes    
into the sea through the  channel of the
 ,ganges2 for the observations of ,mr4  
,everest were taken  at a point which is
 #ejj miles from the sea1 and at which  
the river has  not yet received the     
contributions of its largest            
tributaries4    ,we are able1 therefore1
 with some degree of confidence1 to     
estimate  the amount of ,denudation     
which is every year effected by the     
,ganges4  ,and1 although the same       
calculations have not yet been applied  
with  equal care to other great rivers1 
there is no reason to suppose that  the 
,ganges is an exception4 ,it is asserted
 on good grounds that the               

,brahmapootra1 which unites with the    
,ganges close to the ,bay of ,bengal1   
carries with it an equal amount of      
earthy sediment4 ,according to ,sir     
,charles ,lyell1 the quantity of solid  
matter brought down each year by  the   
,mississippi amounts to #c1gjb1geh1djj  
cubic feet4 ,and it is said  that       
#dh1jjj1jjj cubic feet of earth are     
daily discharged into the sea  by the   
,yellow ,river in ,china1 called by the 
natives the ,hoang ,ho4#bj  ,thus year  
after year the waste of the land is     
carried away by rivers1  to be spread   
out over wide areas of the ocean1 and   
perhaps to furnish  the materials of    
future continents4    ,the effects of   
running water in wearing away and       
transporting masses  of solid rock are  
not less deserving of our notice4 ,every
 one who has  followed the course of a  
great river when it flows through a     
rocky  channel1 must have observed large
 blocks projecting from the cliffs      
above1 which1 having been undermined by 

the action of the water1 seem  ready to 
tumble headlong into the stream2 and    
others lying below1 which  had fallen   
before2 and others again which had been 
already carried a  considerable distance
 by the winter's torrent4 ,even where   
the rocks  are not displaced1 they are  
gradually being worn away1 partly by the
  friction of the water1 but much more  
by the grinding action of the  gravel   
which the water holds in suspension4    
,not only is the surface of  the rocks  
thus rounded and polished1 but large    
circular pits1 called  pot-holes1 are   
formed by the whirling waters of an eddy
 carrying  round and round a few grains 
of hard sand4    ,at the falls of the   
,clyde near ,lanark in ,scotland1 these 
various  phenomena may be seen to great 
advantage4 ,good illustrations are to   
be found also in many volcanic regions4 
,some of the larger streams in          
,auvergne have in course of time forced 
their way through the solid lava  rock1 
cutting out for themselves channels     

broad and deep4 ,in ,sicily  too1 we are
 told1 the river ,simeto1 whose course  
was blocked up by a  current of lava    
about the beginning of the seventeenth  
century1 has  since that time eaten its 
way through this compact and hardened   
mass1  and now flows on to the sea      
through a rocky passage forty feet in   
depth  and from fifty to several hundred
 feet in width4#ba    ,but there is no  
part of the world yet explored where    
these effects  are exhibited on the same
 gigantic scale as at the far-famed     
,falls  of ,niagara4 ,the massive       
limestone rock from which the waters are
  precipitated is slowly but certainly  
disappearing4 ,an enormous volume  of   
water1 more than a third of a mile in   
breadth1 plunges in a single  bound over
 a sheer precipice of one hundred and   
sixty-five feet4 ,the  soft slaty rocks 
upon which the limestone rests are soon 
eaten away  by the action of the spray  
which rises from the pool below2 and    
then  the overhanging cliffs1 left      

without any support1 topple over1 and   
are carried off by the torrent4 ,the    
position of the ,falls1 therefore1  is  
not stationary1 but is receding by very 
sensible degrees in the  direction of   
,lake ,erie1 from which the river flows4
 ,speaking of this  phenomenon1 ,sir    
,charles ,lyell observes with much show 
of reason3 8,the  idea of perpetual and 
progressive waste is constantly present 
to the  mind of every beholder3 and as  
that part of the chasm which has been   
the work of the last hundred and fifty  
years resembles precisely in  depth1    
width1 and character the rest of the    
gorge1 which extends seven  miles below1
 it is most natural to infer1 that the  
entire ravine has  been hollowed out in 
the same manner1 by the recession of the
 cataract4  ,it must at least be        
conceded1 that the river supplies an    
adequate cause  for executing the whole 
task thus assigned to it1 provided we   
grant  sufficient time for its          
completion40#bb    ,with a view to      

enable our readers to understand more   
fully the  prodigious force which rivers
 have been known to exert in the        
transportation of rocks1 it may be      
useful to draw attention to one or  two 
principles of physical science4 ,first1 
we have the well-known law  of          
,archimedes1 that a solid body immersed 
in a liquid loses a part  of its weight 
equal to the weight of the liquid       
displaced4 ,now solid  rock as compared 
with water1 bulk for bulk1 is rarely    
more than three  times1 and often not   
more than twice as heavy4 ,consequently1
 according  to this law1 almost all     
rocks will lose a third of their weight1
 and  many will lose one-half1 when     
immersed in water4 ,again1 it has been  
established that the power of water to  
move bodies that are in it  increases as
 the sixth power of the velocity of the 
current4 ,hence1  if the velocity of a  
current is increased two-fold1 its      
moving power  will be increased         
sixty-four fold2 if the velocity is     

increased  three-fold1 the moving power 
will be increased seven hundred and     
twenty fold2 and so on4    ,from these  
principles it follows1 first1 that a    
much smaller power is  required to move 
a block of stone lying in the bed of a  
river1 than if  it were lying on the    
surface of the land2 and secondly1 that 
a very  slight increase in the velocity 
of a current effects a very great       
increase in its moving power4 ,we need  
not wonder1 then1 when we hear of  the  
enormous masses of rocks and trees and  
mason-work which are carried  away even 
by small rivers in times of flood4#bc   
,here are a few examples4 ,in ,august1  
#ahbi1 a fragment of sandstone1         
fourteen feet long1 three feet wide1 and
 one foot thick1 was carried  by the    
river ,nairn1 in ,scotland1 a distance  
of two hundred yards4 ,on  the same     
occasion the river ,dee swept away a    
bridge of five arches1  built of solid  
granite1 which had stood uninjured for  
twenty years2  the whole mass of masonry

 sunk into the bed of the stream and was
  seen no more4 ,and the river ,don1 as 
we are assured on the authority  of ,mr4
 ,farquharson1 forced a mass of stones  
four or five hundred  tons in weight up 
a steep inclined plane1 leaving them in 
a great  rectangular heap on the summit4
 ,a small rivulet called the ,college1  
in  ,northumberland1 when swollen by a  
flood in ,august1 #ahbg1 8tore away     
from the abutment of a mill-dam a large 
block of greenstone-porphyry  weighing  
nearly two tons1 and transported it to  
the distance of a  quarter of a         
mile40#bd ,but it is needless to        
multiply examples of  phenomena which   
are occurring every day around us1 and  
of which many  among our readers have   
probably been eye-witnesses4    ,the    
transporting power of rivers must not   
always be estimated by the  bulk and    
velocity of the current2 for it is often
 greatly increased by  some accidental  
obstruction1 which for a time blocks up 
the channel  through which the river    

flows4 ,an instructive illustration is  
afforded  by the river ,dranse1 which   
flows through the valley of ,bagnes1 in 
,switzerland1 and empties itself into   
the ,rhone above the lake of  ,geneva4  
,in the year #ahah the avalanches which 
fell down from the  mountain side formed
 a barrier across the valley1 and thus  
effectually  blocked up the course of   
the stream4 ,the upper part of the      
valley was1  in consequence1 soon       
converted into a lake which gradually   
increased in  size as the season        
advanced4 ,when summer came1 and the    
melting of the  snows began1 the ice    
barrier suddenly gave way with a        
tremendous crash1  and the lake was     
emptied in half an hour4 ,the mass of   
water1 thus in  a moment disengaged1    
burst with destructive violence over the
 lower  valley1 sweeping away rocks1    
forests1 houses1 bridges1 and cultivated
  lands4 ,thousands of trees were torn  
up by the roots1 fragments of  granite  
as large as houses were rolled along1   

and the whole flood  presented the      
appearance of a moving mass of ruins4   
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,theory ,,of       
,,denudation--,,further ,,illustrations4
        ,the breakers of the            
ocean--,caverns and fairy bridges       
of ,kilkee--,italy and ,sicily--,the    
,shetland ,islands--,east      and south
 coast of ,britain--,tracts of land     
swallowed up      by the sea--,island of
 ,heligoland--,northstrand--,tides and  
currents--,south ,atlantic              
current--,equatorial current--,the ,gulf
      ,stream--,its course              
described--,examples of its power as an 
agent      of transport4      ,while the
 rain1 the rivers1 and the streams1 are 
thus wasting away  the mountains and    
plains of the interior country1 the     
waves of the  sea are exerting a power  
no less destructive on the coasts of    
islands  and of continents4 ,the        
breakers dashing against the foot of a  
lofty  cliff1 dissolve and decompose and

 wear away the lower strata2 and  the   
overhanging rocks1 thus undermined1 fall
 down in course of time  by their own   
weight4 ,with the next returning wave   
these rocks are  themselves hurled back 
against the cliff2 and so1 as some one  
has  happily remarked1 the land would   
seem to supply a powerful artillery  for
 its own destruction4 ,the effects of   
the breakers are often very  unequal1   
even on the same line of cliffs4 ,some  
parts of the rock are  more yielding    
than others1 or perhaps they are more   
exposed to the  action of the waves1 or 
perhaps they are divided by larger      
joints and  more freely admit the       
destructive element4 ,these parts will  
be the  first to give way1 while the    
harder and less exposed rock will be    
left  standing3 and in this way forms   
the most capricious and fantastic are   
produced4    ,no finer examples could be
 wished for than those which are seen in
 the  neighborhood of ,kilkee1 and along
 the promontory of ,loop ,head1 in the  

county of ,clare4 ,sometimes the ground 
is undermined with caverns1 into  which1
 when the tide is coming in1 the waves  
of the ,atlantic rush with  resistless  
force1 making new additions each day to 
the accumulated  ruins of ages4         
,sometimes lofty pinnacles of rock are  
left standing in  the midst of the      
waters1 like giant sentinels stationed  
there by ,nature  to guard the coast4   
,in one or two instances these isolated 
fragments  are connected with the main  
land by natural arches of rock1 which   
are  called fairy bridges by the people2
 but more commonly they appear as  rocky
 islets1 and answer exactly to the      
poet's description--                    
8,the roaring tides      ,the passage   
broke that land from land divides2      
,and where the lands retired the rushing
 ocean rides40    ,it is interesting to 
observe in passing1 that1 in the        
original verses  of the neid1 of which  
these lines are ,dryden's translation1  
,virgil  has recorded a belief which    

prevailed in his time1 and which1 upon  
scientific grounds1 is now regarded as  
highly probable by ,geologists1  that   
the island of ,sicily had been once     
connected by land with ,italy1  and was 
separated from it by the action of the  
waves3            8,hc loca1 vi quondam 
et vasta convulsa ruina1                
,tantum vi longinqua valet mutare       
vetustas6          ,dissiluisse ferunt1 
quum protenus utraque tellus            
,una foret2 venit medio vi pontus et    
undis          ,hesperium ,siculo latus 
abscidit1 arvaque et urbes              
,litore deductas angusto interluit sta40
            neid1 iii41 #dad-ai4    ,but
 whatever may be thought of this opinion
 thus rendered immortal  by the genius  
of the poet1 we shall not stop to       
discuss its merits4  ,for in the present
 stage of our argument1 it is our object
 to deal1  not with vague and uncertain 
traditions1 nor even with philosophical 
speculations1 but rather with the facts 
which are actually going on in  nature1 

and which any one of our readers may    
examine for himself4 ,with  this object 
in view1 we shall take a few examples   
from the ,eastern and  ,southern coasts 
of ,great ,britain1 which have been     
carefully explored by  scientific men   
for the purpose of observing and        
recording the amount of  destruction    
accomplished by the waves within recent 
times4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#a4--;,granitic rocks to the south of   
,hillswick ,ness1  ,shetland4 ,from     
,lyell's ,principles of ,geology4       
,the ,shetland ,islands1 exposed to the 
whole fury of the ,atlantic1  present   
many phenomena not unlike those of      
,kilkee and ,loop ,head1 but  upon a far
 grander scale4 ,whole islands have been
 swept away by the  resistless power of 
the waters1 and of others nothing       
remains but  massive pillars of hard    
rock1 which have been well described as 
rising  up 8like the ruins of ,palmyra  
in the desert of the ocean40 ,passing   
to the mainland1 it is recorded that in 

the year #agie a village in             
,kincardineshire was carried away in a  
single night1 and the sea  advanced a   
hundred and fifty yards inland1 where it
 has ever since  maintained its ground4 
,in ,england1 almost the whole coast of 
,yorkshire  is undergoing constant      
dilapidation4 ,on the south side of     
,flamborough  ,head the cliffs are      
receding at an average rate of two yards
 and a  quarter in the year1 for a      
distance of thirty-six miles along the  
coast4 ,this would amount to a mile     
since the ,norman ,conquest1 and  to    
more than two miles since the occupation
 of ,york by the ,romans4  ,it is not   
surprising1 therefore1 to learn that    
many spots marked in  the old maps of   
the country as the sites of towns or    
villages1 are  now sandbanks in the sea4
 ,even places of historic name have not 
been  spared4 ,the town of ,ravenspur1  
from which1 in #accb1 ,edward ,baliol   
sailed for the invasion of ,scotland1   
and at which ,henry the ,fourth  landed 

in #acii1 to claim the throne of        
,england1 has long since been  swallowed
 up by the devouring element4    ,on the
 coast of ,norfolk it was calculated1 at
 the beginning of the  present century1 
that the mean loss of the land was      
something less  than one yard in the    
year4 ,the inn at ,sherringham was built
 on  this calculation in #ahje1 and it  
was expected to stand for seventy       
years4 ,but unfortunately the actual    
advance of the sea exceeded the         
calculation4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 who  
visited this spot in #ahbi1 relates     
that during the five preceding years    
seventeen yards of the cliff had  been  
swept away1 and nothing but a small     
garden was then left between  the       
building and the sea4 ,the same         
distinguished writer tells us that  in  
the harbor of this town there was at    
that time water sufficient to  float a  
frigate where forty-eight years before  
had stood a cliff fifty  feet in height 
with houses built upon it4 ,and         

remarking upon these  facts1 he says1   
that 8if once in half a century an equal
 amount of  change were produced        
suddenly by the momentary shock of an   
earthquake1  history would be filled    
with records of such wonderful          
revolutions of  the earth's surface2 but
 if the conversion of high land into    
deep sea  be gradual1 it excites only   
local attention40    ,in the            
neighborhood of ,dunwich1 once the most 
considerable seaport on  the coast of   
,suffolk1 the cliffs have been wasting  
away from an early  period of history4  
8,two tracts of land which had been     
taxed in the  time of ,king ,edward the 
,confessor1 are mentioned in the        
,conqueror's  survey1 made but a few    
years afterward1 as having been devoured
 by the  sea40 ,and the memory of other 
losses in the town itself--including a  
monastery1 several churches1 the        
town-hall1 the jail1 and many hundred   
houses--together with the dates of their
 occurrence1 is faithfully  preserved in

 authentic records4 ,in #agdj the sea   
reached the churchyard  of ,saint       
,nicholas and ,saint ,francis1 so that  
the graves1 the coffins1  and the       
skeletons1 were exposed to view on the  
face of the cliffs4  ,since that time   
the coffins1 and the tombstones1 and the
 churchyard  itself1 have disappeared   
beneath the waves4 ,nothing now remains 
of this  once flourishing and populous  
city but the name alone1 which is still 
attached to a little village of about   
twenty houses4 ,the spot on which  the  
,church of ,reculver stands1 near the   
mouth of the ,thames1 was a  mile inland
 in the reign of ,henry the ,eighth2 in 
the year #ahcd it was  overhanging the  
sea2 and it would long ago have been    
demolished1 but  for an artificial      
causeway of stones constructed with a   
view to break  the force of the waves4  
,it is estimated that the land on the   
northeast  coast of ,kent is receding at
 the rate of about two feet in the year4
  ,the promontory of ,beachy ,head in   

,sussex is also rapidly falling away4   
,in the year #ahac an enormous mass of  
chalk1 three hundred feet in  length and
 eighty in breadth1 came down with a    
tremendous crash2 and  slips of the same
 kind have often occurred1 both before  
and since4    ,to these examples from   
,great ,britain we may add one or two   
from the  ,german ,ocean4 ,seven islands
 have completely disappeared within a   
very  narrow area since the time of     
,pliny2 for he counted twenty-three     
between ,texel and the mouth of the     
,eider1 whereas now there are but       
sixteen4 ,the island of ,heligoland1 at 
the mouth of the ,elbe1 has been  for   
ages subject to great dilapidation4     
,within the last five hundred  years    
three-fourths of it have been carried   
away2 and since #aggj the  fragment that
 remains has been divided into two parts
 by a channel  which is at present      
navigable for large ships4 ,a still more
 remarkable  instance of destruction    
effected by the waves of the sea        

occurred in  the island of ,northstrand1
 on the coast of ,schleswig4 ,previous  
to the  thirteenth century it was       
attached to the mainland1 forming a part
  of the continent of ,europe1 and was a
 highly cultivated and populous         
district about ten miles long1 and from 
six to eight broad4 ,in the year  #abdj 
it was cut off from the coast of        
,schleswig by an inroad of the  sea1 and
 it gradually wasted away up to the     
seventeenth century1 when  its entire   
circumference was sixteen geographical  
miles4 ,even then the  industrious      
inhabitants1--about nine thousand in    
number1--endeavored to  save what       
remained of their territory by the      
erection of lofty dykes2  but on the    
eleventh of ,october1 #afcd1 the whole  
island was overwhelmed  by another      
invasion of the sea1 in which #fjjj     
people perished1 and  #ej1jjj head of   
cattle4 ,three small islets are all that
 now remain of  this once fertile       
district4#be    ,the breakers of the    

ocean receive no small aid in their work
 of  destruction from the action of     
tides and currents which co-operate with
  the winds to keep the waters of the   
sea in constant motion4 ,and though  the
 winds may sleep for a time1 the tides  
and currents are always  actively at    
work1 and never for a moment cease to   
wear away the land4  ,but they are even 
more powerful auxiliaries as agents of  
transport4 ,if  it were not for them1   
the ruins which fall from the rocks     
to-day would  to-morrow form a barrier  
against the waves1 and the work of      
destruction  would cease4 ,but ,nature  
has ordained it otherwise4 ,when the    
tide  advances1 it rolls the broken     
fragments toward the land1 and when it  
recedes1 it carries them back to the    
deep2 and so by unceasing friction      
these fragments are worn away to        
pebbles1 and then1 being more easily    
transported1 they are carried off to sea
 and deposited in the bed of  the ocean3
 or else1 perhaps1 they are cast up on  

the sloping shore1 to  form what is so  
familiar to us all under the name of a  
shingle-beach4    ,this is a subject on 
which it is needless to enlarge4 ,every 
one  knows that the tides have the power
 of transporting solid matter2  though  
most of us1 perhaps1 do not fully       
appreciate the magnitude of  their      
accumulated effects1 working as they do 
with untiring energies  upon the coasts 
of islands and continents all over the  
world4 ,it is  not1 however1 so         
generally known that the ocean is       
traversed in all  directions by powerful
 currents1 which1 from their regularity1
 their  permanence1 and their extent1   
have been aptly called the rivers of    
the ocean4 ,we do not mean here to      
inquire into the causes of these        
currents1 upon which the progress of    
physical science has thrown             
considerable light3 neither can we hope 
to describe even the principal  currents
 that prevail over the vast tracts of   
water which constitute  about           

three-fourths of the entire surface of  
our globe4 ,we shall  content ourselves 
with tracing the course of one great    
system1 which  may serve to give some   
idea of their general character and     
enormous  power4    ,this system would  
seem to have its origin with a stream   
that flows from  the ,indian ,ocean     
toward the southwest1 and then doubling 
the ,cape of  ,good ,hope1 turns        
northward along the ,african coast4 ,it 
is here called  the ,south ,atlantic    
,current4 ,when it encounters the shores
 of ,guinea1 it  is diverted to the     
west1 and stretches across the          
,atlantic1 traversing  forty degrees of 
longitude until it reaches the          
projecting promontory  of ,brazil in    
,south ,america4 ,in this part of its   
course it is known as  the ,equatorial  
,current1 because it follows pretty     
nearly the line of  the ,equator3 it    
varies in breadth from two hundred to   
five hundred  miles1 and it travels at  
the mean rate of thirty miles a day1    

though  sometimes its velocity is       
increased to seventy or eighty4 ,next1  
under  the name of the ,guyana ,current1
 it pursues a northwesterly direction1  
following the line of the coast2 and    
passing close to the island  of         
,trinidad1 becomes diffused1 and almost 
seems to be lost1 in the  ,caribbean    
,sea4 ,nevertheless1 it again issues    
with renewed energy from  the ,gulf of  
,mexico1 and rushing through the        
,straits of ,florida at the  rate of    
four and five miles an hour1 it issues  
once more into the broad  waters of the 
,atlantic4 ,from this out it is called  
the ,gulf ,stream1 and  is well known to
 all who are concerned in ,transatlantic
 navigation2  for it sensibly           
accelerates the speed of vessels which  
are bound from  ,america to ,europe1 and
 sensibly retards those sailing from    
,europe to  ,america4    ,the ,gulf     
,stream1 however1 does not set out on   
its ,transatlantic voyage  directly that
 it issues from the ,straits of         

,florida4 ,it keeps at  first a         
northeasterly course1 following the     
outline of the ,american  continent1    
passing by ,new ,york and ,nova ,scotia1
 and brushing the  southern extremity of
 the great ,newfoundland ,bank4 ,then   
taking leave  of the land1 it sweeps    
right across the ,atlantic4 ,after a    
time it  seems to divide into two       
branches1 one inclining to the south1   
and  losing itself among the ,azores1   
the other bending toward the north1     
washing the shores of ,ireland1         
,scotland1 ,norway1 and reaching even to
  the frozen regions of ,spitzbergen4   
,the breadth of the ,gulf ,stream1  when
 it issues from the ,straits of         
,florida1 is about fifty miles1 but  it 
afterward increases to three hundred4   
,its color is a dark indigo  blue1      
which1 contrasting sharply with the     
green waters of the ,atlantic1  forms a 
line of junction distinctly visible for 
some hundreds of miles3  afterward1 when
 this boundary line is no longer        

sensible to the eye1 it  is easily      
ascertained by the thermometer2 for the 
temperature of the  ,gulf ,stream is    
everywhere from eight to ten degrees    
higher than that of  the surrounding    
ocean4#bf    ,we leave our readers to   
infer from this brief description how   
immense  must be the power of transport 
which belongs to such currents as       
these4 ,they sweep along the shores of  
continents1 and carry away the          
accumulated fragments of rock1 which had
 first been rent from the  cliffs by the
 waves of the sea1 and then borne out to
 a little distance  by the tides3 they  
pass by the mouths of great rivers1 and 
receiving  the spoils of many a fertile 
and populous country1 and the ruins of  
many an inaccessible mountain ridge1    
they hurry off to deposit this  vast and
 varied freight in the deep abysses of  
the ocean4 ,there is one  circumstance1 
however1 which we ought not to pass over
 in silence2 for  it is of especial     
importance to the ,geologist1 and might 

easily escape  the notice of the general
 reader4 ,it is a well ascertained fact 
that  plants and fruits and other       
objects from the ,west ,indian ,islands 
are  annually washed ashore by the ,gulf
 ,stream on the northwestern coasts of  
,europe4 ,the mast of a man-of-war burnt
 at ,jamaica was after some months      
found stranded on one of the ,western   
,islands of ,scotland2#bg and  ,general 
,sabine tells us that when he was in    
,norway1 in the year #ahbc1  casks of   
palm-oil were picked up on the shore    
near the ,north ,cape1  which belonged  
to a vessel that had been wrecked the   
previous year at  ,cape ,lopez on the   
,african coast4#bh ,it seems most       
probable that these  casks of oil must  
first have crossed the ,atlantic from   
east to west in  the ,equatorial        
,current1 then described the circuit of 
the ,west ,indian  ,islands1 and finally
 coming in with the ,gulf ,stream1      
recrossed the  ,atlantic1 performing    
altogether a journey of more than eight 

thousand  miles4 ,from these facts it is
 clear that1 by the agency of ocean     
currents1 the productions of one country
 may be carried to another  that is far 
distant4 ,and ,geologists do not fail to
 make use of this  important conclusion 
when they find the animal and vegetable 
remains of  different climates          
associated together in the same strata  
of the ,earth4    ,illustration         
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,iv4  
,,theory ,,of ,,denudation--,,concluded4
        ,glaciers--,their nature and    
composition--,their unceasing           
motion--,powerful agents of             
denudation--,icebergs--,their           
number and size--,erratic blocks and    
loose gravel spread out      over       
mountains1 plains1 and valleys1 at the  
bottom of the      sea--,characteristic 
marks of moving ice--,evidence of       
ancient      glacial                    
action--,illustrations from the         
,alps--,from the mountains      of the  
,jura--,theory applied to northern      

,europe--,to ,scotland1      ,wales1 and
 ,ireland--,the fact of denudation      
established--,summary      of the       
evidence--,this fact the first step in  
geological theory4      ,the next agent 
of ,denudation to which we invite the   
attention of our  readers1 is one of    
which our own country affords us no     
example1 but  which may be seen in full 
operation amidst the wild and impressive
  scenery of ,switzerland4 ,and we know 
not how we can better introduce the     
subject than by the solemn address of a 
great poet1 in whom an ardent  love of  
nature was blended with a deep sense of 
religion4 ,as he stood  in the midst of 
the snow-clad mountains that shut in the
 valley of  ,chamouni1 his spirit1      
8expanded by the genius of the spot10   
soared away  from the scenes before him 
to the ,great ,invisible ,author of all 
that is  beautiful and sublime in       
nature1 and he poured forth that        
well-known  hymn of praise and worship  
in which he thus apostrophizes the      

massive  glaciers of ,mont ,blanc3--    
8,ye ice-falls6 ye that from the        
mountain's brow      ,adown enormous    
ravines slope amain--      ,torrents1   
methinks1 that heard a mighty voice1    
,and stopped at once amid their maddest 
plunge6      ,motionless torrents6      
silent cataracts6      ,who made you    
glorious as the gates of ,heaven        
,beneath the keen full moon8 ,who bade  
the sun      ,clothe you with rainbows8 
,who with living flowers      ,of       
loveliest blue1 spread garlands at your 
feet8      ,god6 let the torrents1 like 
a shout of nations1      ,answer6 and   
let the ice-plains echo1 ,god6          
,god6 sing ye meadow-streams with       
gladsome voice6      ,ye pine-groves1   
with your soft and soul-like sounds6    
,and they too have a voice1 yon piles of
 snow1      ,and in their perilous fall 
shall thunder1 ,god60#bi    ,a ,glacier 
is an enormous mass of solid ice filling
 up a valley1 and  stretching from the  
eternal snows which crown the summits of

 the  mountains1 down to the smiling    
cornfields and rich pastures of the     
plains4 ,it is constantly fed by the    
accumulated snows of winter1  which1    
slipping and rolling down the slopes of 
the mountains1 lodge  in the valleys    
below1 and are there converted into ice4
 ,for it must  be remembered that the   
,glacier properly so called does not    
commonly  extend much higher than #ijjj 
feet above the level of the sea4 ,beyond
  that elevation the compact and massive
 ice gradually passes into  frozen snow1
 called by the ,french ,nev1 and by the 
,germans ,firn4 ,the  change which takes
 place in the condition of the snow as  
it descends  into the valley is chiefly 
owing to these two circumstances3 first1
  it is closely compacted together by   
the weight of the snowy masses  pressing
 down upon it from above2 and secondly1 
in the summer months  it is thawed upon 
the surface during the day by the heat  
of the  sun1 and frozen again at night4 
,on a small scale this process is       

practically familiar to every           
school-boy4 ,when he makes a snow-ball  
he  is practically converting a mass of 
snow into ice1 and that by a series  of 
operations very closely resembling those
 which ,nature employs in the           
manufacture of a ,glacier4    ,in       
,switzerland the ,glacier is often two  
or three miles in breadth1  from twenty 
to thirty miles in length1 and five or  
six hundred feet in  depth4 ,though so  
vast in its bulk and so solid in its    
character1 it is  not1 as might be      
supposed1 a fixed1 immovable mass4 ,on  
the contrary1 it  is moving incessantly1
 but slowly1 down the valley which it   
occupies1  at the rate of several       
inches--sometimes one or two feet1 and  
even  more--in the day4 ,in ,greenland a
 ,glacier explored by ,doctor ,hayes1 in
  his expedition to the ,north ,pole1   
was found to move for a whole year at   
the average rate of a hundred feet a    
day4 ,it may be thought1 perhaps1  that 
this fact requires further confirmation2

 but at all events it is  certain that  
the language of the poet1 when he       
addresses the ,glaciers  as 8motionless 
torrents10 though it conveys an accurate
 and beautiful  idea of the appearance  
they present to the eye1 is not         
rigorously true  in a scientific sense4 
,indeed1 it is just because the         
,glaciers are not  motionless that they 
serve as instruments of ,denudation4    
,their agency in this respect 8consists 
partly in their power of  transporting  
gravel1 sand1 and huge stones1 to great 
distances1  and partly in the smoothing1
 polishing1 and scoring of their rocky  
channels1 and the boundary walls of the 
valleys through which they  pass4 ,at   
the foot of every steep cliff or        
precipice in high ,alpine  regions1 a   
sloping heap is seen of rocky fragments 
detached by the  alternate action of    
frost and thaw4 ,if these loose masses1 
instead  of accumulating on a stationary
 base1 happen to fall upon a ,glacier1  
they will move along with it1 and1 in   

place of a single heap1 they  will form 
in the course of years a long stream of 
blocks4 ,if a ,glacier  be twenty miles 
long1 and its annual progression about  
five hundred  feet1 it will require     
about two centuries for a block thus    
lodged upon  its surface to travel down 
from the higher to the lower regions1 or
  to the extremity of the icy mass4     
,this terminal point usually remains    
unchanged from year to year1 although   
every part of the ice is in  motion1    
because the liquefaction by heat is just
 sufficient to balance  the onward      
movement of the ,glacier1 which may be  
compared to an endless  file of         
soldiers1 pouring into a breach1 and    
shot down as fast as they  advance4     
8,the stones carried along on the ice   
are called in ,switzerland the  moraines
 of the ,glacier4 ,there is always one  
line of blocks on each  side or edge of 
the icy stream1 and often several in the
 middle1 where  they are arranged in    
long ridges or mounds of snow and ice1  

often  several yards high4 ,the reason  
of their projecting above the general   
level1 is the non-liquefaction of the   
ice in those parts of the surface  of   
the ,glacier which are protected from   
the rays of the sun1 or the  action of  
the wind1 by the covering of the earth1 
sand1 and stones4  ,the cause of medial 
moraines was first explained by         
,agassiz1 who  referred them to the     
confluence of tributary ,glaciers4 ,upon
 the union  of two streams of ice1 the  
right lateral moraine of one of the     
streams  comes in contact with the left 
lateral moraine of the other1 and they  
afterward move on together1 in the      
centre1 if the confluent ,glaciers  are 
equal in size1 or nearer to one side if 
unequal4    8,fragments of stone and    
sand which fall through crevasses in the
 ice1  and get interposed between the   
moving ,glacier and the fundamental     
rock1  are pushed along so as to have   
their angles more or less worn off1 and 
many of them are entirely ground down   

into mud4 ,some blocks are pushed  along
 between the ice and the steep boundary 
rocks of the valley1  and these1 like   
the rocky channel at the bottom of the  
valley1 often  become smoothed and      
polished1 and scored with parallel      
furrows1 or  with lines and scratches   
produced by hard minerals1 such as      
crystals of  quartz1 which act like the 
diamond upon glass4 ,the effect is      
perfectly  different from that caused by
 the action of water1 or a muddy torrent
  forcing along heavy stones2 for these 
not being held like fragments of  rock  
in ice1 and not being pushed along under
 great pressure1 cannot  scoop out long 
rectilinear furrows or grooves parallel 
to each other4  ,the discovery of such  
markings at various heights far above   
the surface  of existing ,glaciers1 and 
for miles beyond their present          
terminations1  affords geological       
evidence of the former extension of the 
ice beyond  its present limits in       
,switzerland and other countries40#cj   

,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,iceberg seen
 in mid-ocean #adjj miles from any      
known land4    ,sometimes1 however1 it  
happens1 especially in extreme northern 
and  southern latitudes1 that the       
glacier valley leads down to the sea4   
,in such cases1 huge masses of ice are  
floated off1 and1 with their  ponderous 
burden of gravel1 mud1 and rocks1 are   
carried away by  currents toward the    
equator4 ,immense numbers of these      
floating islands  of ice1 or ,icebergs1 
as they are called1 are seen by mariners
 drifting  along in the ,northern and   
,southern oceans4 ,in #ahbb ,scoresby   
counted  five hundred between the       
latitudes #fi and #gj ,n41 many of which
  measured a mile in circumference1 and 
rose two hundred feet above the  surface
 of the sea4#ca ,the annexed drawing1   
copied by kind permission  of the author
 from ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,principles
 of ,geology1 affords a  good idea of   
the appearance that such ,icebergs      
present to the eye4 ,the  one           

represented in the fore-ground was      
supposed to reach a height of  nearly   
three hundred feet1 and was observed    
with many others floating  about in the 
,southern ,ocean at a distance of #adjj 
miles from any known  land4 ,an angular 
mass of rock was visible on the surface4
 ,the part  exposed was twelve feet high
 and from five to six broad3 but it was 
conjectured1 from the color of the      
surrounding ice1 that the greater  part 
of the stone was concealed from view4   
,how enormous must be the magnitude of  
those ponderous masses may be  learned  
from the fact that the bulk of ice below
 the level of the water  is about eight 
times as great as that above3 and in    
point of fact1  ,captain ,sir ,john     
,ross saw several of them aground in    
,baffin's ,bay1  where the water was    
#aejj feet deep4 ,it has been calculated
 that the  beds of earth and stones     
which they carry along cannot be less   
than  from #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons in  
weight4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 writing in

  #ahfe from the results of the latest  
investigations on this subject1  says3  
8,many had supposed that the magnitude  
commonly attributed to  icebergs by     
unscientific navigators was exaggerated2
 but now it appears  that the popular   
estimate of their dimensions has rather 
fallen within  than beyond the truth4   
,many of them1 carefully measured by the
  officers of the ,french exploring     
expedition of the ,astrolabe1 were      
between #ajj and #bbe feet high above   
water1 and from two to five miles  in   
length4 ,captain d',urville ascertained 
one of them1 which he saw  floating1 to 
be thirteen miles long1 and a hundred   
feet high1 with  walls perfectly        
vertical40#cb    ,they have been known  
to drift from ,baffin's ,bay to the     
,azores1 and  from the ,south ,pole to  
the ,cape of ,good ,hope4#cc ,as they   
approach the  milder climate of the     
temperate zones1 the ice gradually melts
 away1  and thus the moraines of arctic 
and antarctic glaciers are deposited  at

 the bottom of the deep sea4 ,in this   
way1 submarine mountains  and valleys   
and table-lands are strewn over with    
scattered blocks  of foreign rocks1 and 
gravel1 and mud1 which have been        
transported  hundreds of miles across   
the unfathomable abysses of the ocean4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,though we are chiefly concerned with   
,glaciers and ,icebergs as agents  of   
,denudation1 yet we cannot pass away    
from the subject without  referring to  
the ,geological theory of an ancient    
,glacial ,period4 ,this  little         
digression from the main purport of our 
present argument will  not be           
unacceptable1 we hope1 to our readers4  
,the theory is in itself  interesting   
and ingenious2 and it offers an         
admirable illustration  of the kind of  
reasoning by which ,geologists are      
guided in their  speculations4    ,it is
 well known that the action of moving   
ice leaves a very peculiar  and         
characteristic impress on the surface of

 the rocks1 and even on the  general    
aspect of the country over which it     
passes4 ,this is no mystery  of science1
 but a plain fact which any one that    
chooses may observe  for himself4 ,every
 ,glacier carries along in its course a 
vast quantity  of loose gravel1 hard    
sand1 and large angular stones4 ,a      
considerable  proportion of these       
materials in course of time fall through
 crevasses  in the ice1 and become      
firmly embedded in the under surface of 
the  ,glacier4 ,then1 as the moving mass
 slowly descends the valley1 they  are  
shoved along under enormous pressure1   
and the surface of the  rocks beneath is
 furrowed1 scratched1 and polished1 in a
 remarkable  and unmistakable manner4   
,the furrows and scratches are          
rectilinear  and parallel to an extent  
never seen in the marks produced by any 
other natural agency3 and they always   
coincide more or less in their          
direction with the general course of the
 valley4 ,a reciprocal action  often    

takes place3 the large blocks of stone1 
frozen into the under  surface of the   
,glacier1 are themselves scored and     
polished by friction  against the floor 
and sides of the valley4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,block of    
,limestone furrowed1 scratched1 and     
polished1 from the ,glacier of          
,rosenlaui1 ,switzerland4 7,lyell47     
aa1 ,white streaks or scratches4 bb1    
,furrows4    ,similar effects are       
produced by ,icebergs2 not of course    
when drifting  about in the deep sea1   
but when they come into contact with a  
gently-shelving coast and grate along   
the bottom4 ,these mountains of  ice1   
laden with the dbris of the land1 are   
often carried along with  the velocity  
of from two to three miles an hour2 and 
before their  enormous momentum can be  
entirely destroyed1 an extensive surface
 of  rock must have been rounded1       
grooved1 and scarred1 pretty much in the
  same way as by the action of a        
,glacier4 ,there can be no failure of   

the grinding materials4 ,during the     
process of melting1 the ,iceberg is     
constantly turning over according as the
 centre of gravity shifts its  position2
 and thus a new part of its surface1    
with fresh angular blocks  of stone1    
together with fresh masses of sand and  
gravel1 is constantly  brought into     
contact with the floor of the ocean4    
,and this is not mere  theory4 ,all     
these phenomena may be witnessed any day
 on the shores of  ,baffin's ,bay and   
,hudson's ,bay1 and along the coast of  
,labrador4    ,again1 the evidence of   
glacial action may be discovered in the 
materials themselves which have been    
transported by ice4 ,many of the  large 
erratic blocks1 after having travelled  
immense distances1 exhibit  the same    
sharp angular appearance as if they had 
only just fallen  down from the cliff on
 the mountain side4 ,by this            
circumstance they  are at once          
distinguished from blocks of stone      
transported by running  water2 for in   

these the angles are sure to be rounded 
off by friction4  ,sometimes1 too1 they 
are deposited not only far away from the
 same  rock1 but in regions where no    
rock of the same kind exists4 ,in the   
case of ,icebergs1 they are not         
unfrequently carried many hundreds of   
miles before being dropped into the     
depths of the ocean1 and1 in the  course
 of their long journey1 borne over the  
lofty ridges of submarine  mountain     
chains4    ,furthermore1 it often       
happens that a ,glacier shrinks backward
 up the  valley1 and sometimes even     
disappears altogether4 ,when the melting
 of  the ice at the lower extremity     
exactly balances its onward progress1   
then the ,glacier seems stationary to   
the eye1 and occupies from year to  year
 the same position4 ,but1 when a number 
of hot seasons follow one  another in   
immediate succession1 the ice is melted 
more rapidly than  the ,glacier         
advances1 and in consequence it         
gradually becomes shorter1  and seems to

 the eye to recede toward the upper     
parts of the valley4 ,in  this case the 
long lines of moraines1 which before had
 rested on the  ice1 are left spread out
 on the plains or deposited on the      
slopes of  the mountain4 ,immense blocks
 of stone are by this means frequently  
set  down on the summits of lofty crags1
 and in such like positions to which    
they could not be brought by any other  
natural agency4 ,these ,perched         
,blocks1 as they are called1 and also   
those long regular mounds of earth  and 
stones abound in several of the ,swiss  
valleys1 and constitute a  very striking
 feature of ,alpine scenery4    ,now1 it
 appears that all these various         
characteristic marks of glacial         
operations can be distinctly traced in  
many countries where the action  of     
moving ice has been unknown within the  
period of history4 ,and on  this fact is
 founded the ,geological theory of an   
ancient ,glacial  ,period4 ,we are      
confidently assured that a great part of

 ,northern  ,europe1 including even our 
own islands1 not to speak of ,america   
and  other countries as well in the     
northern as in the southern hemisphere1 
were1 in some far distant age1 the scene
 of those same phenomena  which are     
witnessed at the present day amid the   
solemn grandeur of  the ,alps1 and in   
the frozen wastes of the ,arctic        
regions4 ,in that age  enormous         
,glaciers moved slowly downward from the
 snow-clad heights over  innumerable    
valleys now rich with the fruits of the 
earth2 ponderous  ,icebergs floated over
 wide areas of the ocean1 where now the 
dry land  appears2 and vast piles of    
promiscuous rubbish1 with great angular 
blocks of stone1 were deposited on the  
slopes and crests of submarine          
mountains that now tower hundreds of    
feet above the level of the sea4    ,to 
illustrate this theory1 we would begin  
with a country where the  vestiges of   
glacial operations in past times may be 
studied side by  side with the glacial  

phenomena of the present day4 ,in       
,switzerland  it needs but little skill 
to discern many marks and tokens of     
moving  ice where moving ice is no      
longer found4 ,in descending1 for       
example1  the valley of the ,hasli or   
the valley of the ,rhone1 the           
intelligent  traveller can hardly fail  
to observe how the rocks all around are 
scarred and furrowed1 precisely after   
the same fashion as the rocks in  the   
higher parts of the same valleys are now
 being scarred and furrowed  by the     
,glacier of the ,aar and the ,glacier of
 the ,rhone4 ,at intervals1  too1 may be
 seen long mounds of unstratified gravel
 and mud1 with large  fragments of rock1
 in every way resembling the terminal   
moraines now  daily accumulating at the 
extremities of existing ,glaciers4 ,when
 these  facts are once distinctly       
brought home to the mind1 it is         
impossible to  resist the conclusion    
that several of the ,alpine ,glaciers   
once extended  far beyond their present 

limits down the valleys of ,switzerland4
    ,if we proceed a little distance to 
the mountains of the ,jura1 now  wholly 
devoid of ,glaciers1 we shall find that 
the same glacial  phenomena with which  
we have become so familiar in the ,alps1
 are still  everywhere presented to the 
eye4 ,and we feel instinctively impelled
 to  pursue the same line of inductive  
reasoning4 ,moving ice1 we know from    
abundant observation1 is capable of     
producing these effects3 nor have  we   
ever seen effects of this kind produced 
by any other cause3 nay1  there is no   
other natural agent known that is       
capable of producing such  effects3 it  
is therefore reasonable to infer that   
moving ice was the  cause of these      
effects2 and that1 in some bygone age1  
great masses of  ice moved slowly over  
the valleys of the ,jura as they now    
move slowly  over the valleys of the    
,alps4    ,another circumstance may here
 be noticed which is well worthy of     
consideration4 ,the ,alps are composed  

of granite1 gneiss1 and such like       
crystalline rocks3 the ,jura1 of        
limestone and various other formations1 
altogether different from those of the  
,alps4 ,now1 scattered loosely  over the
 valleys of the ,jura1 and perched upon 
its lofty crests1 we  find immense      
angular blocks--some of them as large as
 cottages--of  the ,alpine rocks4 ,the  
question naturally arises1 how have they
 been  transported to their present     
site4 ,certainly not by the action of   
water2 for in that case the projecting  
angles would have been rounded  off1 and
 the sharp edges worn away4 ,but the    
work might have been easily             
accomplished by the power of moving ice1
 and could not have been  accomplished  
by any other natural agency with which  
we are acquainted4  ,thus we are led to 
conclude that the ,glaciers of the ,alps
 must1 by some  means or another1 have  
once made their way northward across the
 great  valley of ,switzerland1 fifty   
miles wide1 and deposited their         

ponderous  burdens of gravel1 sand1 and 
erratic blocks on the mountains of the  
,jura4    ,it would carry us too far    
from our present purpose to draw out    
this  theory in all its details4 ,but we
 cannot for-bear briefly to touch upon  
some of the bold and startling          
conclusions to which it has led4 ,the   
,geologist having1 by patient and varied
 exercise1 in the regions of  existing  
,glaciers1 trained his eye and his      
judgment in the observation  of those   
phenomena that mark the action of moving
 ice1 soon begins to  discover that they
 are not wanting in other countries4    
,they are not  to be found1 indeed1     
beneath the burning sun of ,africa1 nor 
on the  borders of the ,mediterranean   
,sea4 ,but as he travels northward they 
begin by degrees to appear2 and when at 
length he reaches the shores  of the    
,baltic1 they are spread out profusely  
before him as they were  in the bosom of
 the ,alps4 ,all this had puzzled       
,geologists for years2  but the clue has

 been found at last4 ,what is going on  
to-day in  ,switzerland1 and in         
,greenland1 and on the shores of        
,labrador1 must have  been going on1    
ages ago1 in ,germany1 and in ,denmark1 
and on the shores  of the ,baltic4 ,we  
may argue from the effect to the cause4 
,here are the  moraines1 the erratics1  
the perched blocks1 and the surfaces of 
rock  furrowed and scratched with ice3  
at some past time there must have been  
the moving ,glaciers and the floating   
,icebergs4    ,following out this line  
of argument1 and applying it to         
countries  nearer home1 ,geologists have
 come to the conclusion that the        
,grampian  ,hills in ,scotland1 the     
mountains of ,kerry in ,ireland1 the    
,snowdonian  heights in ,wales1 and many
 other ranges of hills in these islands1
  were in former times subjected to the 
action of moving ice4 ,nay1 it  is      
contended1 with much show of reason1    
that these islands must have  been1 for 
a considerable time1 in great part      

submerged beneath the  sea1 and         
traversed by floating ,icebergs4 ,when  
large erratic blocks are  found in the  
immediate neighborhood of the formation 
from which they  have been derived1 then
 it is easy to explain their origin and 
to trace  their course4 ,but it often   
happens that the nearest rock of the    
same  mineral composition1 and          
therefore1 the nearest rock from which  
they  can possibly have been derived1 is
 separated from the site which they  now
 occupy by a lofty chain of mountains4  
,by what means1 then1 have  they been   
transported hither8 ,not by moving      
water1 for their sharp  edges and       
projecting angles are still preserved4  
,not by ,glaciers2 for  a ,glacier      
cannot climb a steep mountain ridge4 ,it
 would seem1 indeed1  that in the       
present geographical distribution of    
land and water1 there  is no natural    
cause which could carry them from the   
parent rocks to  their present position4
 ,but if we suppose that in some long   

past age of  the world1 ,great ,britain 
and ,ireland were submerged beneath the 
sea1  and that ,icebergs floated in the 
waters above1 the problem is solved  at 
once4 ,the fragments of far distant     
rocks frozen into the ,icebergs  might  
then have been carried over the summits 
of what are now lofty  mountains1 and as
 the ice melted away1 might have been   
deposited all  along their slopes and   
even on their highest crests4    ,the   
presence of marine shells1 belonging    
chiefly to species which now  exist only
 in the arctic seas1 affords a strong   
confirmation of this  hypothesis4 ,for  
they are found intimately associated    
with the erratic  blocks1 not merely in 
valleys1 to which the sea might be      
supposed  to have had access in times of
 extraordinary flood1 but upon lofty    
mountains at a height of five hundred1  
six hundred1 and even thirteen  hundred 
feet above the level of the sea4 ,there 
is no difficulty in  accounting for this
 phenomenon if we suppose the country to

 have been  at one time submerged1 and  
the glacial drift in which the shells   
are  found embedded to have been        
deposited by ,icebergs on the floor of  
the  ocean4 ,if we refuse to make this  
supposition the difficulty is simply    
insurmountable4#cd           99       99
       99       99       99    ,but it  
is somewhat beside our purpose to wander
 so far into the region  of theory and  
speculation4 ,our main object in these  
chapters has been  to establish the fact
 that ,denudation is actually taking    
place to an  almost incredible extent1  
in the present age of the world4 ,for   
this  purpose we have enumerated the    
principal agents by which this process  
is carried on2 and we have endeavored to
 show from the authenticated  researches
 of travellers and scientific men that  
they have been at work  within the      
period of history1 and are still at work
 around us4 ,our  summary is1 indeed1   
brief2 but it is still sufficient to    
demonstrate  that1 even during the      

present age1 the whole surface of the   
,globe has  been ever in a constant     
state of change2 that mountain heights  
have  been worn away1 and valleys have  
been scooped out1 and lofty cliffs  have
 disappeared1 and bold headlands have   
been rent in twain1 and rocks  and      
earths have day by day been broken up   
and dissolved and decomposed1  by the   
never ceasing operation of natural      
causes2 and that the broken  fragments  
are at every moment moving along over   
the surface of the land  or through the 
depths of the sea4    ,now ,geologists  
tell us that these are the raw materials
 of a new  building which is going on in
 these latter times under the guiding   
hand  of ,nature4 ,indeed1 they say it  
is not so much a new building as the    
uppermost story of an old building4 ,if 
we descend into the ,crust of  the      
,earth we may trace this building even  
from the foundations1 which  are laid   
upon the solid granite1 up through each 
successive stage of  limestone1 and     

sandstone1 slate1 conglomerate1 and     
clay1 until we come  to the surface1    
where new strata1 composed of the same  
elements1 and  exhibiting the same      
general characteristics1 are slowly     
growing up  before our eyes4 ,thus will 
the idea gradually steal upon the mind1 
that  the works of ages long gone by are
 reproduced once again in our own  days1
 and that we may study the history of   
the past in the mirror of  the present  
which nature holds up to our view4      
,this is the branch of ,geological      
argument upon which we are now about  to
 enter4 ,we have visited ,nature1 as it 
were1 in her quarry1 and we  have seen  
how she collects her materials1 how she 
fashions them to  her purpose1 how she  
transports them to the place for which  
they are  designed4 ,if it be true1 as  
alleged1 that with these materials she  
is  actually engaged1 at the present    
moment1 in building upon the existing   
surface of our ,globe a new series of   
stratified rocks1 which are the  exact  

counterpart of those beneath1 this fact 
affords at least a very  strong         
presumption in favor of one very        
important principle in the  theory of   
,geologists4 ,let us1 then1 follow the  
course of her operations  and judge for 
ourselves4    ,illustration             
,illustration          ,,chapter ,v4    
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,mechanical  
,,origin--,,theory ,,developed ,,and    
,,illustrated4        ,formation of     
stratified rocks ascribed to the agency 
of      natural causes--,this theory    
supported by facts--,the argument       
stated--,examples of mechanical         
rocks--,materials of which they      are
 composed--,origin and history of these 
materials traced      out--,process of  
deposition--,process of                 
consolidation--,instances      of       
consolidation by                        
pressure--,consolidation perfected by   
natural cements--,curious               
illustrations--,consolidation of        
sandstone in ,cornwall--,arrangement of 

strata explained by      intermittent   
action of the agents of ,denudation4    
,the ,stratification of ,rocks is one of
 the most remarkable features  which the
 ,crust of the ,earth presents to our   
notice2 and the principles  by which    
this phenomenon is explained belong to  
the very foundation of  ,geological     
theory4 ,it is now universally agreed   
that the successive  layers or strata1  
which constitute such a very large      
proportion of the  ,earth's ,crust1 and 
which cannot fail to attract the notice 
even of the  most careless observer1    
have been slowly built up during a long 
series  of ages by the action of natural
 causes4 ,in support of this bold and   
comprehensive theory1 geologists appeal 
to the operations which are  going on in
 nature at the present day1 or which    
have been observed and  recorded within 
historic times4 ,there is a vast        
machinery1 they say1  even now at work  
all over the world1 breaking up the     
rocks that appear  at the surface of the

 ,earth1 transporting the materials to  
different  sites1 and there constructing
 new strata1 just the counterpart of    
those  which we see piled up one above  
the other1 wherever a section of the    
,earth's ,crust is exposed to view4 ,it 
is given to us1 therefore1 on the  one  
hand to contemplate the finished work as
 it exists in the ,crust  of the ,earth1
 and on the other1 to examine the work  
still in progress  upon its surface2 and
 if both are found to agree in all their
 most  remarkable characteristics1 it is
 not unreasonable to infer that the  one
 was produced in bygone ages by the very
 same causes that are now  busy in the  
production of the other4    ,in the     
examination of this argument we first   
turned our attention to  the numerous   
and powerful agents that are now        
employed in the breaking  up and        
transporting of existing rocks4 ,it was 
impossible within our  narrow limits to 
enumerate them all4 ,but we selected    
those which are  at the same time the   

most familiar in their operations1 and  
the most  striking in their             
results3--mighty rivers discharging     
daily and hourly  into the sea the      
accumulated spoils of vast continents2  
the breakers  of the ocean dashing with 
unceasing energy against all the cliffs 
and  coasts of the world2 the tides and 
currents of the sea taking up the  ruins
 which the breakers have made1 and      
carrying them far away to the  lonely   
depths of the ocean2 the frozen rain    
bursting massive rocks  asunder with its
 expansive force1 and sending the       
fragments over lofty  cliffs and steep  
precipices to become the prey of roaring
 mountain  torrents1 or perhaps1 more   
fortunate1 to find a place of tranquil  
rest  on the bosom of the glittering    
,glacier2 then this wondrous ,glacier   
itself1 a moving sea of ice1 bearing    
along its ponderous burden from  the    
summits of lofty mountains far down into
 the smiling plains1 and  meanwhile1    
with tremendous power1 grinding1 and    

furrowing1 and wearing  away the floor  
of the valley1 and leaving behind it an 
impress which  even time cannot efface2 
and lastly1 the massive ,icebergs which 
stud  the northern and southern seas1   
drifting along like floating islands    
above the fathomless abysses of the     
ocean1 and scattering their huge        
boulders over the surface of submarine  
mountains and valleys4    ,all these    
phenomena have been learned from actual 
and repeated  observation4 ,they are not
 philosophical speculations1 but        
ascertained  facts4 ,we cannot doubt1   
therefore1 that the work of demolition  
is going  on2 it remains for us now to  
inquire about the work of               
reconstruction4    ,the reader will     
remember that ,geologists divide the    
stratified rocks  into three distinct   
classes1 ,mechanical1 ,chemical1 and    
,organic4 ,this  distinction1 they say1 
is founded on the actual operations of  
,nature4  ,from a close examination of  
the natural agents now at work in the   

world1 it appears that some strata are  
being formed chiefly by the  action of  
mechanical force2 others chiefly by the 
influence of chemical  laws2 and others 
again chiefly by the intervention of    
organic life4  ,thus we have three      
distinct classes of rock at present     
coming into  existence1 each exhibiting 
its own peculiar characteristics1 and   
each1  moreover1 having its counterpart 
among the strata that compose the       
,crust of the ,earth4 ,we shall now     
proceed to set forth some of the        
evidence that may be advanced in favor  
of these important conclusions1         
beginning with those rocks that are     
called ,mechanical4    ,and first it is 
important to have1 at least1 a general  
idea of the  appearance which           
,mechanical ,rocks present to the eye4  
,we shall  take three familiar examples1
 ,conglomerate1 ,sandstone1 and ,clay4  
,conglomerate1 or ,pudding-stone as it  
is sometimes called1 is composed  of    
pebbles1 gravel1 and sand1 more or less 

compacted together1 and  generally      
forming a hard and solid mass4 ,the     
various materials of  which it is       
composed1 though united in the one rock1
 nevertheless  remain their own external
 forms1 and may be distinctly recognized
 even  by the unpractised eye4          
,sandstone1 as the name implies1 is made
 up of  grains of sand closely          
compressed and cemented together4 ,the  
quality  and appearance of this rock    
vary very much according to the size and
  character of its constituent          
particles4 ,often the grains of sand are
  as large as peas1 or even larger2     
sometimes they are so minute that  they 
cannot be distinguished without the aid 
of a lens4 ,for the most  part they     
consist of quartz1 with grains of       
limestone intermixed2 and  they are     
usually rounded1 as if by the action of 
running water4 ,clay  is a rather vague 
and general term1 now commonly employed 
to denote  any finely-divided mineral   
matter which contains from ten to thirty

  per cent4 of ,alumina1 and is thereby 
rendered plastic1 and capable1  when    
softened with water1 of being moulded   
like paste with the hand4  ,it occurs in
 many different forms among the strata  
of the ,earth1  according to the        
different minerals that enter into its  
composition  and the different          
influences to which it has been         
subjected4 ,marl and  ,loam may be taken
 as well-known illustrations3 the former
 is a clay in  which there is a large   
proportion of calcareous matter2 the    
latter is  a mixture of clay and sand4  
,sometimes by pressure clay is condensed
  into a kind of slaty rock called      
,shale1 which has the property of being 
easily split up into an immense number  
of thin plates or lamin4    ,it should  
be remembered that there is not always a
 perfect uniformity  in the structure of
 these rocks4 ,in ,conglomerate1 for    
example1 the  pebbles may be as large as
 cannon balls1 or they may be only the  
size  of walnuts4 ,so1 too1 we have     

every variety of fineness and coarseness
  in the quality of ,sandstone4 ,again1 
both ,conglomerate and ,sandstone  are  
often largely adulterated with clay1 and
 on the other hand1 clay  will sometimes
 contain more than its usual proportion 
of sand or lime4  ,lastly1 these        
materials are in one place compacted    
into hard and solid  rock1 in another   
they are found in a loose and incoherent
 condition4    ,but amidst all these    
varieties of form and texture1 the rocks
 we have  been describing generally     
preserve their peculiar characteristics1
  and with a little experience can be   
easily recognized4 ,they are found  to  
constitute a very large part1 perhaps we
 might say the larger  part1 of the     
stratified rocks in every country that  
has hitherto been  explored by          
,geologists4 ,wherever we go we are met 
by the same familiar  appearances2--beds
 of ,conglomerate1 ,sandstone1 ,clay1   
,marl1 ,shale1  recurring again and     
again through a series of many hundred  

strata1  sometimes in one order1 and    
sometimes in another2 sometimes without 
any  formation of a different kind      
intervening1 and sometimes alternating  
with limestone or other rocks of which  
we shall speak hereafter4    ,such is   
the general character and appearance of 
those strata which are  known among     
,geologists as ,aqueous ,rocks of       
,mechanical origin4 ,now1  it must at   
once strike the reader1 that these rocks
 are made up of  just those very        
materials--the same both in kind and in 
form--that we  have already shown to be 
daily prepared and fashioned by a vast  
and  complex machinery in the great     
workshop of ,nature4 ,he will remember  
how enormous blocks are detached from   
the mountain side1 or from the  cliffs  
on the seashore1 and broken up into     
fragments2 how the fragments  in time   
become pebbles1 sand1 and mud2 and how  
these are caught up by  rivers1 tides1  
and currents1 and carried far away to   
sea4 ,here we have  certainly all the   

materials that are necessary for the    
building up of  ,conglomerate1          
,sandstone1 and ,shale4 ,we have seen   
how they are prepared  by the hand of   
,nature1 how they are moulded into      
shape1 how they are  transported from   
place to place4 ,let us now pursue the  
sequel of their  history1 and follow    
them on to the end4    ,it is plain they
 cannot remain forever suspended in     
water2 sooner  or later they must fall  
to the bottom4 ,yet they will not all   
fall  together4 ,for though all are     
carried downward by the one force of    
gravity1 those materials that are       
smaller and lighter will be more        
impeded by the resistance of the water4 
,the pebbles and coarse gravel  will be 
the first to reach the bottom1 then the 
sand1 and last of all  the fine1        
impalpable mud4 ,thus1 as the current   
sweeps along in its  course1 the        
sediment which it bears away from the   
land will be in a  manner sorted1 and   
three distinct layers of different      

materials will  be deposited in the bed 
of the ocean2--first1 nearest to the    
shore1  a layer of pebbles and coarse   
gravel1 then a layer of sand1 and last  
of all a layer of fine mud or clay4     
,this is the first step in the          
construction of stratified rock4 ,to    
complete the work nothing more  is      
necessary than the consolidation of     
these loose and incoherent  materials4  
,if this could be accomplished1 then we 
should have a solid  stratum of         
,conglomerate1 a solid stratum of       
,sandstone1 and a solid  stratum of     
,shale formed in the bed of the ocean4  
,with regard to this operation1 however1
 we cannot hope for the  advantage we   
have hitherto enjoyed1 of actual        
observation4 ,the process  of           
consolidation1 if it take place at all1 
is going on in the depths of  the ,sea4 
,but though it is thus removed beyond   
the reach of our senses1  it is not     
beyond the reach of our intelligence4   
,we may borrow the torch  of ,science1  

and search even into the hidden recesses
 of ,nature's secret  laboratory4    ,in
 the first place1 a partial             
consolidation of clay and sand1 and     
even of gravel1 may take place under the
 influence of pressure alone4  ,many of 
us are familiar with this truth1 but    
few1 perhaps1 are aware  how extensively
 it is illustrated in the practical arts
 of life4 ,here  are some curious and   
interesting examples4 ,the minute       
fragments of  coal which are produced by
 the friction of larger blocks against  
one  another1 and which may be obtained 
abundantly in the neighborhood of  every
 coal mine1 are now manufactured into a 
solid patent fuel by the  simple process
 of forcible compression4 ,again1 the   
dust and rubble  of black lead1 formerly
 cast aside as useless1 are now         
carefully  collected1 and by no other   
force than pressure are converted into a
  solid mass1 fit to be employed in the 
manufacture of lead-pencils4 8,the      
graphite or black lead of commerce10    

says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8having      
become very scarce1 ,mr4 ,brockedon     
contrived a method by which the  dust of
 the purer portions of the mineral found
 in ,borrowdale might  be recomposed    
into a mass as dense and as compact as  
native graphite4  ,the powder of        
graphite is first carefully prepared and
 freed from  air1 and placed under a    
powerful press on a strong steel die1   
with  air-tight fittings4 ,it is then   
struck several blows1 each of a power   
of a thousand tons2 after which         
operation the powder is so perfectly    
solidified that it can be cut for       
pencils1 and exhibits1 when broken1  the
 same texture as native graphite40#ce   
,an instance yet more to our  purpose   
occurs in the experiments made to try   
the force of gunpowder4  ,leathern bags 
filled with sand are put into the mortar
 that is to  receive the cannon-ball at 
a distance of fifty feet from the mouth 
of  the gun2 and the sand is often      
compressed by the percussion of the     

ball into a solid mass of ,sandstone4#cf
 ,now the deposits of which we  are     
speaking cannot fail to be subjected to 
a very powerful and a very  constant    
compressing force4 ,for1 since the      
process of deposition is  always going  
on1 the matter which is deposited to-day
 will to-morrow be  covered with a new  
layer1 and in the course of ages it may 
lie beneath  an immense pile of mineral 
matter1 hundreds or even thousands of   
feet  in thickness4    ,but in fact     
there is another and more important     
agent at work4 ,when  the harder and    
more compact blocks of ,conglomerate and
 ,sandstone are  subjected to a close   
analysis in the laboratory of the       
chemist1 it is  found that they are     
strongly cemented together1 sometimes by
 a solution  of lime filling up the     
interstices between the grains or       
pebbles1  sometimes by a solution of    
silica1 sometimes by a solution of iron4
 ,now  this discovery affords a useful  
clue when we come to study the present  

operations of ,nature4 ,it is to the    
agency of a mineral cement we must  look
 for the perfect consolidation of       
,mechanical ,rocks4 ,let us see if  such
 a cement can be found4    ,it is well  
known that the water of rivers1 lakes1  
and springs1 is  more or less charged   
with carbonic acid gas2 and therefore1  
when it  comes in contact with          
limestone1 it dissolves a portion of the
 lime  and holds it in solution4 ,hence 
it follows that in every part of the    
world there exists an abundant store of 
calcareous cement4 ,again1 our  readers 
must have observed the brownish1 rusty  
color sometimes produced  by streams on 
the surface of rocks and herbage4 ,this 
is the result of  the iron with which   
the streams are impregnated3 and we are 
informed by  scientific inquirers that  
water containing a solution of iron     
prevails  very generally in almost all  
countries4 ,the solution of silica in   
water  is not so common2 because pure   
silica cannot be dissolved by water     

except at a very high temperature4      
,nevertheless1 it has been clearly      
demonstrated by observation1 that       
silica1 where it occurs in certain      
combinations with other mineral         
substances1 may be dissolved readily    
enough3 for instance1 in the            
decomposition of felspar1 and of all    
rocks  in which felspar is an           
ingredient1 silica is carried off in a  
state of  solution4#cg ,and since these 
rocks are very numerous1 and distributed
  over every part of the earth1 we may  
fairly conclude that a solution of      
silica exists very abundantly in nature4
    ,now when we bear in mind that we   
have on the one hand in the ,crust of   
the ,earth1 solid strata of             
,conglomerate and ,sandstone1 exhibiting
 the  evident operation of these mineral
 cements2 and on the other hand1 near   
the surface1 the loose materials of     
,conglomerate and ,sandstone as if      
ready to be cemented1 and close at hand 
the cementing mineral itself in  a      

convenient form1 it is not unreasonable 
to assume that the process  should      
actually take place2--that water highly 
charged with iron1 or  lime1 or silica1 
should filter through the loose gravel  
and sand1  depositing its mineral cement
 as it passes along1 and converting the 
newly-formed strata into compact and    
solid rock4    ,but this conclusion does
 not rest upon antecedent probability   
alone4  ,we have proof unquestionable   
that a process such as we have described
  is actually going on4 ,in the dredging
 of the river ,thames large masses  of  
solid ,conglomerate are found from time 
to time1 firmly compacted  together by a
 ferruginous cement4 ,and there is      
internal evidence that  the process of  
solidification has been effected by     
natural causes  within historic times2  
for it happens not unfrequently that    
,roman coins  and fragments of pottery  
are found embedded in the solid block of
  stone4 ,similar discoveries were made 
in deepening the bed of the river  ,dove

 in ,derbyshire1 about the year #ahcb4  
,thousands of silver coins were  found  
about ten feet under the surface1 firmly
 cemented into a hard  ,conglomerate4   
,several of these coins bear dates of   
the thirteenth and  fourteenth          
centuries2 and therefore the pebbles    
which form the rock  must have been     
deposited and converted into a solid    
mass since that  time4 ,but we must not 
suppose that so long an interval is     
necessary for  the consolidation of     
rocks4 ,in the early part of the present
 century  a vessel called the ,thetis   
was wrecked off cape ,frio on the coast 
of  ,brazil4 ,a few months afterward1   
when an attempt was successfully made   
to recover the dollars and other        
treasures which had gone to the  bottom 
with the wreck1 they were found         
completely enveloped in solid  masses of
 quartzose ,sandstone4 ,the materials of
 the newly-formed stone  were in this   
case manifestly derived from the granite
 rocks of the  ,brazilian coast4#ch     

,in many parts of the ,mediterranean1   
and along its shores1 this process  is  
known to be going on with equal         
rapidity4 8,the new-formed strata  of   
,asia ,minor10 writes ,sir ,charles     
,lyell1 8consists of stone1 not of      
loose1 incoherent materials4 ,almost all
 the streamlets and rivers1  like many  
of those in ,tuscany and the south of   
,italy1 hold abundance  of carbonate of 
lime in solution1 and precipitate       
,travertine1 or  sometimes bind together
 the sand and gravel into solid         
,sandstones  and ,conglomerates2 every  
delta and sandbar thus acquires         
solidity1  which often prevents streams 
from forcing their way through them1 so 
that their mouths are constantly        
changing their position40#ci ,in the    
,museum at ,montpelier is exhibited a   
cannon embedded in a crystalline        
calcareous rock which was taken up from 
the bed of the ,mediterranean  near the 
mouth of the ,rhone4#dj    ,to these    
examples of the solidification of rock  

within recent times  we are tempted to  
add one more1 taken from a ,memoir      
published by the  late ,dr4 ,paris in   
the ,transactions of the ,royal         
,geological ,society of  ,cornwall4 8,a 
sandstone occurs in various parts of the
 northern coast  of ,cornwall1 which    
affords a most instructive example of a 
recent  formation1 since we here        
actually detect ,nature at work in      
converting  loose sand into solid rock4 
,a very considerable portion of the     
northern  coast of ,cornwall is covered 
with calcareous sand1 consisting of     
minute  particles of comminuted shells1 
which in some places has accumulated  in
 quantities so great1 as to have formed 
hills of from forty to  fifty feet in   
elevation4 ,in digging into these       
sand-hills1 or upon  the occasional     
removal of some part of them by the     
winds1 the remains  of houses may be    
seen2 and in places where the           
churchyards have been  overwhelmed1 a   
great number of human bones may be      

found4 ,the sand is  supposed to have   
been originally brought from the sea by 
hurricanes1  probably at a remote       
period4 ,it first appears in a state of 
slight but  increasing aggregation on   
several parts of the shore in the ,bay  
of ,st4  ,ives2 but on approaching the  
,gwythian ,river it becomes more        
extensive  and indurated4444 ,it is     
around the promontory of ,new ,kaye that
 the  most extensive formation of       
,sandstone takes place4 ,here it may be 
seen  in different stages of induration1
 from a state in which it is too        
friable to be detached from the rock on 
which it reposes1 to a hardness  so     
considerable that it requires a very    
violent blow from a sledge to  break it4
 ,buildings are constructed of it2 the  
church of ,cranstock is  entirely built 
with it2 and it is also employed for    
various articles of  domestic and       
agricultural uses40    ,no reasonable   
doubt can therefore remain that the     
loose beds of gravel1  sand1 and clay1  

which1 as we have already seen1 are     
deposited from day  to day1 and from    
year to year1 and from century to       
century1 beneath  the waters of the     
ocean1 may be converted in the course of
 time by  natural agents into solid     
rocks of ,conglomerate1 of ,sandstone1  
and of  ,shale4 ,but this is not enough4
 ,it yet remains for us to explain how  
these solid rocks come to be arranged in
 a series of distinct layers  or strata4
 ,the reader will remember that the     
supply of materials in  any given area  
of the ocean is not fixed and           
continuous1 but1 on the  contrary1      
variable and intermittent4 ,during the  
periodical rains within  the tropics1   
and during the melting of the snows in  
high latitudes or  in mountain regions1 
the rivers become enormously swollen1   
and carry  down a far greater quantity  
of sediment than at other seasons4 ,the 
waste of cliffs1 too1 by the action of  
the waves1 is much greater in  winter   
than in summer4 ,thus1 while at one     

season a particular river  or current   
may be comparatively free from sediment1
 at another it  will carry along in its 
turbid course an almost incredible      
freight of  mineral matter4 ,we have a  
notable example in the case of the      
,ganges4  ,the bulk of earthy matter    
which this river discharges into the sea
  during the four months of rain1       
averages about #ej1jjj1jjj of cubic feet
  per day2 whereas the daily discharge  
during the three months of hot  weather 
is considerably less than one hundredth 
part of that amount4#da    ,besides this
 variety in the quantity of materials   
carried1 there is  also a great variety 
in the velocity both of rivers and of   
currents2  and therefore they will not  
always carry the same materials to the  
same  distance2 for the less rapid the  
stream1 the sooner will the sediment    
fall to the bottom4 ,we may add that    
currents1 as is well known1 often       
change their direction from various     
causes1 and thus at different times     

they will carry the waste of the land to
 different parts of the ocean4    ,from 
these considerations two conclusions may
 be fairly deduced3  ,first1 that the   
process of deposition may often go on   
very rapidly  for a time over a given   
area1 and then altogether cease1 and    
after an  interval begin again4 ,in this
 way time may be allowed for one deposit
  to acquire more or less consistency   
before the next is superimposed2  and   
thus a succession of distinct beds will 
be produced4 ,secondly1 we  may infer   
that the same precise materials will not
 always be deposited  over the same     
area2 at one time it will be sand1 at   
another gravel1  at another clay1 at    
another some combination of these or    
other  mineral substances4 ,and thus it 
may happen that the strata deposited  in
 successive periods of time shall not   
only be distinct one from the  other1   
but composed of different               
materials2--that there shall be1  in    
fact1 as we so often see that there are1

 beds of ,conglomerate1  ,sandstone1    
,clay1 ,marl1 and other rocks1          
succeeding one another in every  variety
 of order4    ,illustration             
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,vi4  
,,stratified ,,rocks ,,of ,,mechanical  
,,origin--,,further ,,illustrations4    
,impossible to witness the formation of 
stratified rocks in the      depths of  
the ocean--,on a small scale examples   
are exhibited      by rivers and        
lakes--,alluvial plains--,their         
extraordinary      fertility--,great    
basin of the ,nile--,experiments of the 
,royal      ,society--,the ,mississippi 
and the ,orinoco--,some rivers fill     
up their own channels--,case of the     
river ,po--,artificial                  
embankments--,large tract of alluvial   
soil deposited by the      ,rhone in the
 ,lake of ,geneva--,deltas--,the delta  
of the ,ganges      and                 
,brahmapootra--,delta of the ,nile4     
,the argument set forth in the last     
chapter is simple1 ingenious1  and      

persuasive4 ,nay1 we must fairly confess
 that to us it seems  conclusive4 ,we do
 not mean to say that it amounts to a   
rigorous  demonstration4 ,but it affords
 at least a strong presumption that the 
process of deposition1 the process of   
consolidation1 and the process of       
stratification1 are going on to a vast  
extent beneath the waters of the  ocean2
 and that1 in these latter ages of the  
world's history1 ,aqueous  ,rocks are   
slowly growing up under the influence of
 natural causes1  which resemble in     
every important feature those that are  
now attracting  so much attention within
 the ,crust of the ,earth4 ,we are      
therefore  prepared to accept this      
conclusion1 if it be not found at       
variance with  any well-established     
fact1 or with any known and certain     
truth4 ,but in  matters of physical     
science the evidence of our senses is1  
after all1  the most satisfactory       
argument4 ,and our readers1 no doubt1   
would like  to witness1 if possible1    

with their eyes1 the building up of     
,stratified  ,rocks4 ,now1 though it is 
not given to us to see this process in  
all its  colossal magnitude as it goes  
on within the depths of the mighty      
ocean1  it is yet possible to behold it 
exhibited1 as it were1 in miniature1 in 
certain cases where the sediment of     
rivers is deposited within reach of     
observation4    ,every one is familiar  
with the fact that many rivers overflow 
their  banks at certain seasons1 and    
spread themselves out over a wide area1 
sometimes reaching to the foot of the   
hills that bound the valleys  through   
which they flow4 ,this is the origin of 
those ,alluvial ,plains  so remarkable  
for their surpassing richness and       
fertility4 ,in each  successive year a  
thin film of sediment is deposited on   
the surface  of the land2 and thus in   
the course of ages a soil is formed     
capable  of producing1 season after     
season1 the most luxuriant crops without
  manifesting any symptoms of           

exhaustion4 ,the soil of the ,alluvial  
,plain  near ,st4 ,louis1 on the        
,mississippi1 is thus spoken of by a    
modern  traveller3 8,as to the quality  
of the land1 any given number of crops  
might be grown off it4 ,corn has been   
raised on it for a hundred years        
together--as far back as the settlement 
is known4 ,to inquire about the  system 
of farming in the ,west is not          
productive of information which  would  
be of service on the continent of       
,europe4 ,there is no system3 the       
farmer scratches the ground and throws  
in the seed1 and his bountiful  harvests
 come up year after year without further
 thought or trouble4  ,thousands of     
centuries have made the soil for him1   
and it defies him to  make too heavy    
demands upon it4 ,it gives him all he   
asks1 and is never  known to disappoint 
or fail40#db    ,the great basin of the 
,nile offers an admirable example of an 
,alluvial ,plain on a scale of          
considerable magnitude4 ,even in the    

days  of ,herodotus1 ,egypt was regarded
 as the 8gift of the ,nile30 and the    
correctness of this opinion has been    
placed beyond all reasonable  doubt by  
the investigations of modern science4   
,the river bears along  in its current1 
especially during the flood season1 a   
large quantity  of fine earthy sediment 
obtained by the process of ,denudation  
from the  mountains of central ,africa4 
,once a year1 between the months of     
,july  and ,november1 it overflows its  
banks1 and this sediment is deposited on
  the adjoining plains4 ,thus a new     
layer of rich soil is spread out every  
year over the existing surface2 and the 
whole country is1 in a manner1  growing 
upward at the average rate1 according to
 a rough estimate1 of  about six inches 
in the century4 ,near ,cairo1 where     
excavations have  been made1 the        
successive layers of annual deposit are 
distinctly  visible to the eye4 ,and it 
is worthy of remark that1 although each 
one  of these is no thicker than a sheet

 of paste-board1 the stratum of         
alluvial soil which overlies the sands  
of the desert1 and which to all         
appearance has come into existence by   
the very same process1 is often  forty1 
fifty1 and even sixty feet in depth4    
,a series of interesting observations   
and experiments have been recently  made
 under the auspices of the ,royal       
,society1 which afford some useful      
information on this subject4 ,the       
colossal statue of ,rameses1 near       
,memphis1 was found to be partly        
embedded in a stratum of mud which  had 
gradually accumulated around it4 ,upon  
sinking a shaft1 it was  discovered that
 from the present surface of the plain  
to the base of  the pedestal is a       
distance of nearly ten feet4 ,now1      
,rameses flourished1  according to      
,lepsius1 about one thousand three      
hundred and sixty years  before the     
,christian ,era2 and therefore1 since   
that time1 or within a  space of #cbjj  
years1 it is pretty clear that a        

thickness of ten feet  has been added at
 this spot to the ,alluvial ,plain of   
the ,nile4 ,it is  hard to resist the   
conclusion that the next stratum of ten 
feet as we  proceed downward1 which1 in 
every respect1 resembles the first1 must
  have been produced in the same way by 
natural causes2 and so on till we  reach
 the barren sand of the desert1 which is
 here just forty-two feet  below the    
present level of the plain4#dc    ,it   
should seem1 therefore1 that ,egypt is  
nothing more than a great  ,alluvial    
,plain1 slowly built up in the long     
lapse of ages1 by the  annual           
inundations of the ,nile4 ,vast tracts  
of the same kind are to  be found in    
other parts of the world4 ,the          
,mississippi1 which drains  about       
one-seventh of the whole ,north         
,american continent1 has formed an      
,alluvial ,plain more than a thousand   
miles in length1 and from thirty  to    
eighty in breadth4 ,and in ,south       
,america1 the ,orinoco once a year      

spreads out its swollen and turbid      
waters over an area not unfrequently    
seventy miles broad2 leaving behind1    
when it subsides1 a substantial  layer  
of muddy sediment to enrich the soil4#dd
 ,it would be easy to  accumulate       
examples4 ,but we shall be content with 
having referred  the reader to the      
,great ,basin of the ,nile1 which       
affords special  opportunities for the  
study of alluvial phenomena2 being      
illustrated at  once by the historical  
monuments of remote antiquity and the   
scientific  researches of recent times4 
,there is another process by which      
,alluvial ,plains are formed4 ,it often 
happens that a river fills up the       
channel in which it has been moving  for
 years1 and is forced to shift its      
course and seek a new passage  to the   
sea4 ,in progress of time this channel  
is filled up like the  former and       
deserted1 and then a third1 and then a  
fourth4 ,at each  change a new stratum  
is formed1 almost always distinguished  

for its  extraordinary fertility4 ,this 
phenomenon is chiefly to be looked for  
when an extensive and almost level plain
 lies between some lofty range  of      
mountains and the sea4 ,in such a case1 
the river which bears away  the waste of
 the mountains1 will move onward in its 
course with a  sluggish current1 and    
will1 of necessity1 deposit the greater 
part of  its burden on the way4 ,there  
is scarcely a country in the world that 
does not abound in formations of this   
kind2 and we could point to many        
notable instances in which herds of     
cattle are now grazing on the very  spot
 where1 within quite recent times1 the  
turbid waters of some great  stream     
flowed sullenly along4    ,the river    
,po1 which receives through a thousand  
mountain torrents  an enormous quantity 
of mineral sediment from the ,alps1     
affords an  instructive example4 ,since 
the beginning of the fifteenth century  
it  has many times changed its course1  
often committing great devastations1    

and always leaving behind unmistakable  
traces of its movements4 ,several  towns
 that once stood on the left bank of the
 river are now on the  right4 ,in some  
instances parish churches and religious 
houses were  pulled down when the       
devouring stream was seen slowly to     
approach1  and then rebuilt with the    
same materials at a greater distance4   
,an  old channel may be easily          
recognized at the present day near      
,cremona1  which bears the name of ,po  
,morto1 and another called ,po ,vecchio1
 in the  territory of ,parma4    ,it may
 be interesting to our readers to learn 
that these movements have  been checked 
in modern times4 ,by a system of        
artificial embankment the  waters of the
 river are now confined within definite 
and narrow limits3  thus the velocity of
 the current is increased and a very    
considerable  portion of the sediment is
 carried on to the sea4 ,nevertheless1  
much  is still deposited in the bed of  
the river1 which is1 in consequence1    

raised higher and higher each successive
 year4 ,hence it has become  necessary1 
in order to prevent inundations1 to add 
every season to  the height of the      
embankments1 so that the river now      
presents the  appearance of an enormous 
aqueduct1 of which some idea may be     
formed  from the fact that1 in the      
neighborhood of ,ferrara1 the surface of
  the stream is higher than the roofs of
 the houses4 ,this system of  embankment
 is carried on very extensively in      
,northern ,italy to check  the          
overflowing of rivers1 and to prevent   
them from changing their  courses4 ,it  
is as old as the time of ,dante1 who    
tells us that the  inhabitants of ,padua
 erected barriers along the ,brenta when
 the snows  began to melt and the season
 of the floods was approaching1         
8,per difender lor ville e lor castelli1
          ,anzi che ,chiarentana il     
caldo senta40            ,inferno1      
,canto xv4    ,as a river sometimes     
fills up its own channel1 so too may it 

fill up  a lake through which it flows1 
and convert it likewise into a great    
,alluvial ,plain4 ,thus it is said      
several extensive lakes have been       
transformed into dry land in modern     
times near ,parma1 ,piacenza1 and       
,cremona4 ,elsewhere the process may be 
seen in actual operation4 ,the  ,rhone  
when it enters the lake of ,geneva is a 
turbid discolored stream2  the natural  
consequence of the immense quantity of  
earthy sediment  with which it is       
charged4 ,but as it slowly moves along1 
the sediment  falls to the bottom1 and  
when1 at length1 8by ,leman's waters    
washed10  it emerges at the town of     
,geneva1 and shoots beneath the         
magnificent  bridge that joins the      
opposite shores1 it has already assumed 
that  beautiful azure blue which        
travellers love to gaze on1 and poets   
love  to sing4 ,the sediment left behind
 goes to form a great alluvial tract    
which is slowly but steadily advancing  
into the lake4 ,an ancient town  called 

,port ,vallais1 which1 eight centuries  
ago1 stood at the water's  edge1 is now 
a mile and a half inland4 ,and if the   
world were to last  long enough1 and the
 natural agents at present in operation 
were to  remain unchanged1 the time     
would come1 we can scarcely doubt1 when 
the  whole lake of ,geneva would have   
been converted into an ,alluvial ,plain 
of vast extent and inexhaustible        
fertility4    ,this last example leads  
us on to the phenomenon of ,deltas1     
which  afford1 perhaps1 the best        
opportunity of observing the actual     
formation  of stratified rocks4 ,some   
large rivers1 as we have already seen1  
enter  the sea with such extreme        
velocity as to bear away their sediment 
to a  distance of several hundred miles 
from the land4 ,but in other cases the  
onward rush of the stream is much sooner
 arrested1 and the sediment1  if it be  
not caught up by ocean currents1 is     
deposited near the mouth  of the river1 
and forms a triangular tract of alluvial

 land4 ,this kind  of deposit is called 
a ,delta1 from the resemblance it bears 
to the  letter 77 of that name in the   
,greek ,alphabet4 ,the apex of the      
triangle  points up the stream1 the base
 is toward the sea4 ,hence1 when a      
,delta  is formed the river naturally   
divides into two branches1 one flowing  
to  the right1 the other to the left4   
,in progress of time new channels are   
almost always made1 and the great stream
 empties itself into the sea by  many   
mouths4    ,the ,delta formed in the    
,bay of ,bengal by the two great rivers 
of  ,india1 the ,ganges and the         
,brahmapootra1 offers an illustration of
  this phenomenon on a scale of unusual 
magnitude4 ,indeed1 strictly  speaking1 
it is not one ,delta only1 but rather   
two ,deltas lying side  by side2 the one
 deriving its origin from the ,ganges1  
the other from  the ,brahmapootra4 ,this
 double ,delta extends its base for two 
hundred  and fifty miles along the ,bay 
of ,bengal1 and stretches inward into   

the  continent of ,india to an almost   
equal distance4 ,here1 then1 is a vast  
tract of country manifestly composed of 
earthy sediment1 obtained by  the       
process of ,denudation from the         
,himalayan mountains1 and afterward     
transported to its present site by the  
agency of moving water4 ,but  the       
deposition of earthy matter does not    
suddenly come to an end when  we reach  
the present line of the coast4 ,the sea 
is visibly discolored  by the sediment  
far beyond the actual base of the       
,delta2 and a sloping  bank of mud is   
found to stretch beneath the waters of  
the ,bay to a  distance of a hundred    
miles4    ,even within the short period 
of a man's life the domain of dry land  
is often visibly enlarged4 ,sandbanks   
are first formed in some of  those      
numerous winding channels through which 
the two rivers find  their way to the   
sea4 ,the sandbanks1 receiving fresh    
accessions  during each succeeding      
flood1 in a short time become islands2  

and  the islands have been known1 in a  
few years1 to attain a superficial      
extent of many square miles4 ,then      
begins to appear a wild and  luxuriant  
vegetation--reeds1 long grass1 shrubs1  
and trees2 and those  impenetrable      
thickets are formed1 to which the       
buffalo1 the rhinoceros1  and the tiger 
soon resort for shelter4 ,a very        
extensive tract of this  kind1 adjoining
 the sea-coast1 and known as the        
,sunderbunds1 is said to  be as large as
 the principality of ,wales4    ,the    
,delta of the ,nile1 though not quite   
one-half as large as the  ,delta of the 
,ganges1 presents nevertheless some     
features of peculiar  interest4 ,in many
 places where a vertical section is     
exposed to view1  the phenomenon of     
stratification may be distinctly        
recognized4 ,the  upper part of the     
deposit belonging to each year is       
composed of earth  of a lighter color   
than the lower part2 and the whole forms
 a distinct  layer of hardened clay1    

which may be easily separated from those
 above  and below4 ,this formation1     
therefore1 corresponds exactly with     
those  strata of shale which we so often
 meet with in the ,crust of the ,earth4 
,again1 many of the old channels through
 which the ,nile made its way  to the   
sea in ancient times1 have been since   
filled up and converted  into solid     
land4 ,the two extreme arms of the      
river1 which formerly  enclosed the     
,delta1 were two hundred miles apart    
where they entered  the ,mediterranean4 
,but these channels are now ,alluvial   
,plains1 and the  base of the ,delta is 
but ninety miles in length4 ,hence1     
though the  quantity of land which has  
been formed by the sediment of the ,nile
 is  much greater now than it formerly  
was1 the size of the ,delta properly  so
 called has not been increased but      
diminished4    ,if we turn to the great 
continent of ,america1 we are met by    
results  not less striking and          
important4 ,the ,delta of the           

,mississippi is two  hundred miles in   
length1 and one hundred and forty in    
breadth4 ,this  vast stratum of mud is  
between five and six hundred feet thick1
 and  covers an area twelve thousand    
square miles in extent4 ,each year it   
receives from the great ,father of      
,rivers a new accession of sediment     
which is computed at #c1gjj1jjj1jjj of  
cubic feet4 ,and besides this  annual   
deposit of inorganic matter1 we must not
 omit from our estimate  the countless  
trees of various species and of gigantic
 size1 which  are torn up by the floods1
 carried along by the impetuous stream1 
and  buried at last with the bones of   
animals1 and works of human art1  and   
other spoils of the land1 in the mud of 
the ,delta at the river's  mouth4#de    
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,stratified ,,rocks
 ,,of ,,chemical ,,origin4              
,chemical agency employed in the        
formation of mechanical      rock--,but 
some rocks produced almost exclusively  

by the      action of chemical          
laws--,difference between a mixture     
and a solution--,a saturated            
solution--,stalactites and              
,stalagmites--,fantastic columns in     
limestone caverns--,the grotto      of  
,antiparos in the ,grecian              
,archipelago--,wyer's cave in the       
,blue ,mountains of                     
,america--,travertine rock in           
,italy--,growth of      limestone in the
 ,solfatara ,lake near                  
,tivoli--,incrustations of      the     
,anio--,formation of travertine at the  
baths of ,san ,filippo      and ,san    
,vignone4      ,the ,aqueous ,rocks of  
which we have spoken in the last two    
chapters are  called by ,geologists     
,mechanical2 inasmuch as they owe their 
existence  chiefly to the agency of     
,mechanical force4 ,it should be        
observed1  however1 that a very         
considerable share in the production of 
these  rocks must be ascribed1 not      
unfrequently1 to ,chemical influence4   

,chemical action helps to prepare the   
materials of which they are  composed2  
and ,chemical action likewise furnishes 
the calcareous1  siliceous1 and other   
mineral cements by which they are1 in a 
great  measure1 consolidated4 ,there is1
 however1 a second class of ,aqueous    
,rocks which are produced almost        
exclusively by the operation of         
,chemical laws1 and which we have       
accordingly denominated ,stratified     
,rocks of ,chemical ,origin4 ,it is of  
these that we purpose to speak in  the  
present chapter4 ,they constitute a much
 smaller proportion of the  ,earth's    
,crust than either the ,mechanical or   
the ,organic ,rocks4 ,but the  history  
of their formation is curious and       
instructive4 ,we shall confine          
ourselves to one or two simple and      
familiar illustrations4    ,in the      
course of these illustrations we shall  
have a good deal to say  about          
,carbonate of ,lime in a state of       
solution2 and it may perhaps be  useful 

to explain1 first of all1 what is meant 
by a solution1 in the  technical        
language of ,chemistry4 ,if a spoonful  
of salt is put into a  tumbler of water1
 the particles of salt1 after a little  
time1 cease to  cohere together1 and    
become so diffused through the water as 
to be no  longer visible to the eye1    
although their presence in every part   
may be  easily discerned by the taste4  
,the salt is then said to be dissolved1 
and the water in which it is dissolved  
is called a solution of salt4  ,it is   
important to distinguish the case of a  
solution from the case of  a mere       
mechanical mixture4 ,if1 instead of the 
salt1 we were to put into  the tumbler  
of water a spoonful of very fine sand1  
then we should have  a mixture but not a
 solution4 ,by stirring briskly the     
contents of  the tumbler we might1      
indeed1 effect a very close union       
between the  particles of water and the 
particles of sand3 but this union would 
be  altogether different in kind from   

the union that was observed in the      
former case between the particles of    
water and the particles of salt4        
,first1 the sand would remain visible to
 the eye1 making the water  turbid and  
discolored2 whereas the salt entirely   
disappeared1 leaving  the water limpid  
and transparent as before4 ,again1 if   
the water be  allowed to rest1 the sand 
will in time fall to the bottom1 whereas
 the  salt will not4    ,but there is a 
limit to the capacity of water for      
holding salt in  solution4 ,if spoonful 
after spoonful be added1 it will be     
found1 when a  certain point has been   
reached1 that the water can at length   
dissolve  no more4 ,it is then called a 
saturated solution of salt4 ,if1 in     
this case1 a portion of the water were  
to pass away by evaporation1  it is     
clear1 we should have the same quantity 
of salt as before1 in  a smaller        
quantity of water4 ,the consequence     
would be that all the  salt could not   
then be held in solution1 and some of it

 would fall to  the bottom2 or1 in      
chemical language1 a precipitate of salt
 would be  formed on the bottom of the  
tumbler4 ,now1 according to the theory  
of  ,geologists1 many rocks1 hundreds of
 feet thick1 and solid enough to  form  
the walls of our palaces1 our churches1 
and our castles1 have been  produced in 
the ,crust of the ,earth by just such a 
process as this4  ,in support of their  
theory we are about to show that the    
process is  actually going on in our own
 time1 and is open to the examination of
  all who may desire to study it for    
themselves4    ,we shall begin with the 
formation of ,stalactites and           
,stalagmites4 ,the  mode in which these 
singular masses of rock are brought into
 existence  is very clearly explained1  
and the picturesque appearance they so  
often  present to the eye is very       
graphically described1 by ,dr4 ,mantell1
  in his ,wonders of ,geology1 from     
which the following passages are        
taken3--8,one of the most common        

appearances in limestone caverns is the 
formation of what are called            
,stalactites1 from a ,greek word        
signifying  distillation or dropping4   
,whenever water filters through a       
limestone  rock it dissolves a portion  
of it2 and on reaching any opening1 such
 as  a cavern1 oozes from the sides or  
roof1 and forms a drop1 the moisture  of
 which is soon evaporated by the air1   
and a small circular plate or  ring of  
calcareous matter remains2 another drop 
succeeds in the same  place1 and adds1  
from the same cause1 a fresh coat of    
incrustation4 ,in  time1 these          
successive additions produce a long1    
irregular1 conical  projection from the 
roof1 which is generally hollow1 and is 
continually  being increased by the     
fresh accession of water1 loaded with   
calcareous  or chalky matter3 this is   
deposited on the outside of the         
,stalactite  already formed1 and1       
trickling down1 adds to its length by   
subsiding  to the point1 and evaporating

 as before2 precisely in the same manner
  as1 during frosty weather1 icicles are
 formed on the edges of the eaves  of a 
roof4 ,when the supply of water holding 
lime in solution is too  rapid to allow 
of its evaporation at the bottom of the 
,stalactite1 it  drops on the floor of  
the cave1 and drying up gradually1 forms
 in like  manner a ,stalactite rising   
upward from the ground1 instead of      
hanging  from the roof2 this is called  
for the sake of distinction ,stalagmite4
    8,it frequently happens1 where these
 processes are uninterrupted1 that a    
,stalactite hanging from the roof1 and a
 ,stalagmite formed immediately  under  
it from the super-abundant water1       
increase until they unite1 and  thus    
constitute a natural pillar1 apparently 
supporting the roof of the  grotto4 ,it 
is to the grotesque forms assumed by    
,stalactites and these  natural columns1
 that caverns owe the interesting       
appearances described  in such glowing  
terms by those who witness them for the 

first time4 ,one  of the most beautiful 
stalactitic caverns in ,england is at   
,clapham1  near ,ingleborough4 ,in the  
,cheddar ,cliffs1 ,somersetshire1 there 
has been  discovered a similar cave     
richly incrusted with sparry            
concretions4  ,there are others in      
,derbyshire4    8,the grotto of         
,antiparos in the ,grecian ,archipelago1
 not far from  ,paros1 has long been    
celebrated4 ,the sides and roof of its  
principal  cavity are covered with      
immense incrustations of calcareous     
spar1 which  form either ,stalactites   
depending from above or irregular       
pillars  rising from the floor4 ,several
 perfect columns reaching to the ceiling
  have been formed and others are still 
in progress1 by the union of the        
,stalactite from above with the         
,stalagmite below4 ,these1 being        
composed  of matter slowly deposited1   
have assumed the most fantastic shapes2 
while the pure1 white1 and glittering   
spar beautifully catches and  reflects  

the light of the torches of the visitors
 to this subterranean  palace1 in a     
manner which causes all astonishment to 
cease at the  romantic tales told of the
 place--of its caves of diamonds and of 
its  ruby walls2 the simple truth1 when 
deprived of all exaggeration1 being     
sufficient to excite admiration and awe4
    8,sometimes a linear fissure in the 
roof1 by the direction it gives to  the 
dropping of the lapidifying water1 forms
 a perfectly transparent  curtain or    
partition4 ,a remarkable instance of    
this kind occurs in a  cavern in ,north 
,america called ,wyer's ,cave4 ,this    
cave is situated in  a ridge of         
limestone hills running parallel to the 
,blue ,mountains4  ,a narrow and rugged 
fissure leads to a large cavern1 where  
the most  grotesque figures1 formed by  
the percolation of water through beds of
  limestone1 present themselves1 while  
the eye1 glancing onward1 watches  the  
dim and distant glimmers of the lights  
of the guides--some in the  recess      

below1 and others in the galleries      
above4 ,passing from these  recesses1   
the passage conducts to a flight of     
steps that leads into  a large cavern of
 irregular form and of great beauty4    
,its dimensions  are about thirty feet  
by fifty4 ,here the incrustations hang  
just like  a sheet of water that was    
frozen as it fell2 there they rise into 
a  beautiful stalactite pillar2 and     
yonder compose an elevated seat1        
surrounded by sparry pinnacles4 ,beyond 
this room is another more  irregular1   
but more beautiful2 for besides having  
sparry ornaments in  common with the    
others1 the roof overhead is of the most
 admirable and  singular formation4 ,it 
is entirely covered with ,stalactites1  
which  are suspended from it like       
inverted pinnacles2 and they are of the 
finest material1 and most beautifully   
shaped and embossed4 ,in another        
apartment an immense sheet of           
transparent ,stalactite1 which extends  
from the floor to the roof1 emits1 when 

struck1 deep and mellow sounds  like    
those of a muffled drum4    8,farther on
 is another vaulted chamber1 which is   
one hundred feet  long1 thirty-six wide1
 and twenty-six high4 ,its walls are    
filled with  grotesque concretions4 ,the
 effect of the lights placed by the     
guides  at various elevations1 and      
leaving hidden more than they reveal1 is
  extremely fine4 ,at the extremity of  
another range of apartments1 a          
magnificent hall1 two hundred and fifty 
feet long1 and thirty-three  feet high1 
suddenly appears4 ,here is a splendid   
sheet of rock-work  running up the      
centre of the room1 and giving it the   
aspect of two  separate and noble       
galleries4 ,this partition rises twenty 
feet above  the floor1 and leaves the   
fine span of the arched roof untouched4 
,there is here a beautiful concretion1  
which has the form and drapery  of a    
gigantic statue2 and the whole place is 
filled with stalagmitical  masses of the
 most varied and grotesque character4   

,the fine perspective  of this room1    
four times the length of an ordinary    
church1 and the  amazing vaulted roof   
spreading overhead1 without any support 
of pillar  or column1 produce a most    
striking effect4 ,in another apartment1 
which  has an altitude of fifty feet1   
there is at one end an elevated recess  
ornamented with a group of pendant      
,stalactites of unusual size and        
singular beauty4 ,they are as large as  
the pipes of a full-sized organ1  and   
ranged with great regularity3 when      
struck they emit mellow sounds  of      
various keys1 not unlike the tones of   
musical glasses4 ,the length of  this   
extraordinary group of caverns is not   
less than one thousand six  hundred     
feet40    ,in the case of ,stalactites  
and ,stalagmites the actual formation of
  limestone by the influence of         
,chemical action is brought home        
forcibly  to the mind1 and1 in a manner1
 made palpable to the senses4 ,we shall 
now pass to other examples in which the 

process is scarcely less  open to       
observation1 and in which the limestone 
assumes a somewhat  more massive and    
rock-like form4 ,every one who has been 
in ,italy is  familiar with the         
limestone rock called ,travertine4 ,it  
is seen in the  ancient walls and the   
venerable temples of ,pstum1 which have 
withstood  unharmed the wasting hand of 
time for upward of twenty centuries4    
,in ,rome1 too1 this stone is associated
 in our minds as well with the  enduring
 monuments of antiquity1 as with the    
imposing splendor of  ,christian art4   
,the ,coliseum1 the most stupendous of  
ruins1 and ,st4  ,peter's1 the most     
sublime of temples1 are built of        
,travertine4 ,in fact  it seems to have 
been1 in every age1 the chief building  
stone employed  in the architecture of  
the ,eternal ,city2 and the quarries    
from which  it was taken in ancient     
times may still be seen at ,ponte       
,lucano1 near  ,tivoli4 ,now it is an   
interesting fact1 that close to this    

very spot1  at the ,solfatara lake on   
the one side1 and at ,tivoli itself on  
the  other1 the formation of ,travertine
 is going on in our own time1 by the    
precipitation of lime from a state of   
solution4    ,the ,solfatara lake1      
situated about fourteen miles from      
,rome1 on the  road to ,tivoli1 is      
supplied with an unfailing stream of    
tepid water1  impregnated with carbonic 
acid gas and saturated with carbonate of
  lime4 ,the amount of carbonate of lime
 which the water is capable of  holding 
in solution depends chiefly on three    
things3 first1 on the  presence of      
carbonic acid2 secondly1 on the high    
temperature of the  water2 and thirdly1 
on its quantity4 ,now the carbonic acid 
is ever  rising in bubbles to the       
surface and passing away2 the           
temperature  of the water is lowered by 
contact with the cooler atmosphere2 and 
its quantity is diminished by           
evaporation4 ,thus the capacity which   
the water at first had for holding the  

carbonate of lime in solution  is       
notably diminished1 and a part of the   
lime is precipitated to the  bottom in a
 solid form1 or clings to the vegetable 
matter with which it  comes in contact4 
,a very simple and interesting          
experiment1 made in the early part of   
the present century by ,sir ,humphrey   
,davy1 will illustrate the rapidity     
with which the formation of solid stone 
is even now taking place4 ,in  the month
 of ,may he fixed a stick in the bed of 
the lake1 and left  it standing until   
the following ,april1 when he found that
 it was  covered with an incrustation of
 limestone several inches thick4#df ,in 
precisely the same way new layers of    
,travertine are annually deposited  in  
the bed of the lake1 and incrusted on   
its rocky margin2 and so the  lake      
itself is becoming smaller and smaller  
from year to year4 ,we are  told that in
 the middle of the seventeenth century  
it was a mile in  circuit1 and now it is
 a little more than a quarter of a      

mile4#dg  ,here1 therefore1 we have an  
immense mass of compact limestone rock1 
built up by natural agents within the   
last two centuries4    ,at ,tivoli1     
about four miles beyond the ,solfatara1 
and two miles from  the quarries of     
,ponte ,lucano1 phenomena of the same   
kind are exhibited4  ,the waters of the 
,anio1 which are saturated with         
carbonate of lime1  form incrustations  
of ,travertine on the banks of the      
river2 and at the  celebrated falls1    
where the whole volume of the stream    
leaps at a bound  from a height of three
 hundred and twenty feet1 the most      
beautiful  stalactites are formed by the
 foam4    ,the formation of ,travertine 
is going on with no less activity in    
other parts of the ,italian ,peninsula4 
,at the baths of ,san ,filippo1 in      
,tuscany1 there are three warm springs  
which contain a very large amount  of   
mineral matter in solution4 ,the water  
which supplies the baths falls  into a  
pond1 where it has been known to deposit

 a solid stratum of rock  thirty feet   
thick in twenty years4 ,in the same     
neighborhood are the  mineral baths of  
,san ,vignone4 ,the source from which   
the water flows is  situated on the     
summit of a hill not more than a few    
hundred yards from  the high road       
between ,sienna and ,rome2 and so rapid 
is the formation  of stone1 that half a 
foot of solid ,travertine is deposited  
every year  in the pipe that conducts   
the water to the baths4 ,at this spot we
 have  a very good illustration of the  
argument we are now considering4 ,as    
the stream of water flows down the      
slopes of the hill1 a thin layer  of    
,travertine rock is produced on the     
surface of the earth1 almost  before our
 eyes2 and so it was previous to our own
 time1 and so it has  been for ages1 as 
history and tradition testify4 ,the     
quantity produced  in each year and in  
each century is comparatively small1 but
 we can  have no doubt that it has been 
produced by the means described4  ,now1 

beneath the surface of the ,earth1      
immediately below these modern          
formations1 of which we have so clearly 
ascertained the origin1 we find  strata 
of the same kind1 composed of the same  
materials1 and arranged  in the same    
way1 layer resting upon layer1 down to a
 depth of two  hundred feet3 and the    
,geologist accounts for the formation of
 the one  according to the same laws    
which he has seen at work in the        
production  of the other4#dh            
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,stratified       
,,rocks ,,of ,,organic                  
,,origin--,,illustrations ,,from        
,,animal ,,life4        ,nature of      
organic rocks--,carbonate of lime       
extracted from the      sea by the      
intervention of minute                  
animalcules--,chalk rock--,its      vast
 extent--,supposed to be of organic     
origin--,a stratum of      the same kind
 now growing up on the floor of the     
,atlantic      ocean--,coral reefs and  

islands--,their general                 
appearance--,their      geographical    
distribution--,their organic            
origin--,structure      of the          
zoophyte--,various                      
illustrations--,agency of the           
zoophyte in the construction of coral   
rock--,how the sunken      reef is      
converted into an island and peopled    
with plants and                         
animals--,difficulty proposed and       
considered--,hypothesis of ,mr4         
,darwin--,coral limestone in the solid  
crust of the earth4      ,we now pass to
 the third division of ,aqueous ,rocks1 
those1 namely1  which are believed to   
have come into existence chiefly through
 the  agency of animal and vegetable    
life1 and are therefore called ,organic4
  ,the study of these rocks has been    
prosecuted with no inconsiderable  ardor
 during the last thirty years2 and the  
facts which have been  brought to light 
are certainly amongst the most curious  
and interesting  in the whole range of  

physical science4 ,indeed we are        
convinced that  a simple narrative of   
the researches which have recently been 
made  upon this subject1 and the        
discoveries to which these researches   
have led1 would be no less attractive1  
and scarcely less wonderful1  than a    
fairy tale4 ,but it is not for us to    
wander at large over this  vast and     
tempting field of inquiry4 ,we must be  
content with one or  two examples1 which
 may help to illustrate the process of  
inductive  reasoning upon which the     
general principles of geological science
 are  founded4    ,it is argued1 then1  
that the present operations of ,nature  
afford  the best key for the            
interpretation of her works in bygone   
times4  ,we observe various beds of     
rocks now in course of formation on the 
surface of the ,earth2 and within the   
,crust of the ,earth we discover        
corresponding strata of the self-same   
rock already complete1 and laid  by1 as 
it were1 in ,nature's storehouse4 ,side 

by side1 therefore1 we  may study and   
compare the finished work and the work  
that is yet in  progress2 and if1 on a  
close examination1 they are found to    
agree in  all essential characters1 we  
have doubtless a strong presumption1    
that the same causes which are now      
producing the one1 must in former  times
 have produced the other4 ,this line of 
argument we have already  considered in 
reference to those two classes of       
,aqueous ,rocks1 which  are said to be  
respectively of ,mechanical and of      
,chemical origin4 ,we  now proceed to   
show that it is no less applicable to   
those which are  called ,organic4 ,and  
although we may not hope to unfold all  
the secret  wonders of ,nature's        
laboratory1 that have come to light in  
recent  times1 yet we may afford a      
passing glimpse at her operations1 which
 can  scarcely fail to be interesting   
and instructive4    ,we have shown how  
strata of solid rock are sometimes      
formed in lakes by  the precipitation of

 lime from a state of solution4 ,now    
this process  cannot take place in the  
sea2 for though lime is present in the  
sea1  the quantity of carbonic acid with
 which it is there associated1 is  far  
more than sufficient to render its      
precipitation impossible4#di  ,but      
,nature has another contrivance for     
gathering together the solid  elements  
of her building4 ,the depths of the     
ocean are teeming with  life2 and       
countless tribes of minute animals are  
furnished with the  power of extracting 
the lime from the waters they inhabit1  
and of  reproducing it under a new form4
 ,sometimes1 through this mysterious    
operation of organic life1 the lime is  
converted into a calcareous  shell1 like
 that of the oyster2 sometimes into a   
stony skeleton1 as  in the case of the  
numerous families of coral-producing    
animalcules4  ,after death the soft1    
fleshy substance of these animals melts 
away  and disappears2 but the limestone 
shells and skeletons remain1            

accumulating during the long course of  
ages to an almost incredible  extent4   
,and1 if we are to believe ,geologists1 
out of these accumulated  materials1    
sometimes preserving their original form
 and structure1  sometimes altered more 
or less by chemical action1 sometimes   
broken  up into fragments by mechanical 
force1 has been produced a very large   
proportion of the limestone rocks which 
occur so abundantly in the  ,crust of   
the ,earth4    ,no better illustration  
can be found than the white earthy      
limestone1  familiar to every one under 
the name of chalk4 ,an undulating       
stratum  of ,chalk ,rock1 attaining not 
unfrequently a thickness of one thousand
  feet1 may be said1 speaking roughly1  
to underlie the southeastern half  of   
,england4 ,sometimes it appears at the  
surface3 sometimes it dips  downward1   
and forms a kind of great basin1 over   
which are regularly  spread out various 
other groups of ,stratified ,rocks4 ,on 
the southern  coast it rises to a height

 of several hundred feet above the level
 of  the sea in a line of perpendicular 
cliffs1 conspicuous from a distance  by 
their dazzling whiteness4 ,but the      
,white ,chalk of ,england is only an    
insignificant part of a great           
rock-formation1 which may be traced over
  extensive areas throughout all        
,europe1 from ,ireland to the ,crimea1  
from  the ,baltic ,sea to the ,bay of   
,biscay2 and which everywhere preserves 
in  a remarkable degree the same mineral
 character1 and presents to the eye  the
 same general appearance4    ,now it had
 often been suggested by ,geologists    
that this wide-spread  formation derived
 its existence chiefly from the         
accumulated remains  of organic life4   
,for in many instances the broken shells
 of minute  animalcules could be        
distinctly observed to constitute a part
 of the  rock4 ,and even where the      
organic structure could not be so       
clearly  traced1 the carbonate of lime  
composing the ,chalk presented just     

that appearance which would naturally   
result from the decomposition  of such  
shells4 ,this theory1 however1 was long 
put forward with  diffidence and        
received with incredulity4 ,even        
scientific men found  it hard to        
persuade themselves that a solid rock of
 such great extent  and thickness could 
have been the work of agents apparently 
so  insignificant4 ,but it has been     
confirmed and illustrated in a very     
interesting and unexpected manner within
 the last few years4    ,when the       
project of connecting ,europe and       
,america by a telegraph  cable was first
 set on foot1 it became necessary to    
ascertain1 as far  as possible1 the     
general configuration of the ocean      
bottom and the  exact nature of the bed 
on which the cable was to lie4          
,accordingly  in the year #aheg an      
expedition was fitted out for this      
purpose under  the command of ,captain  
,dayman2 and a careful series of        
soundings was  taken between ,valentia1 

on the ,west ,coast of ,kerry1 and      
,trinity ,bay on  the shores of         
,newfoundland4 ,it was found that the   
floor of the ocean  between ,ireland and
 ,america is a vast irregular plain1 and
 that by  far the greater part is       
covered over with a kind of soft mud or 
ooze4  ,samples of this ooze were       
scooped up1 even at the most profound   
depths1  by means of an ingenious       
apparatus attached to the               
sounding-lines1 and  brought undisturbed
 to the surface4 ,afterward they were   
carried home to  ,england and submitted 
for examination to ,professor ,huxley4  
,the result  has been to show that the  
materials of a limestone rock1          
resembling in  every essential feature  
the ,white ,chalk of ,europe1 are being 
spread out  at the present day over an  
area of immense extent on the floor of  
the  ,atlantic ,ocean4    ,with the     
permission of our readers we shall allow
 ,professor ,huxley1 as  far as may be1 
to tell his own story4#ej ,as to the    

ocean floor itself1  8,it is10 he says1 
8a prodigious plain--one of the widest  
and most even  plains in the world4 ,if 
the sea were drained off1 you might     
drive a  wagon all the way from         
,valentia to ,trinity ,bay4 ,and1 except
 upon one  sharp incline about two      
hundred miles from ,valentia1 ,i am not 
quite  sure that it would even be       
necessary to put the skid on1 so gentle 
are  the ascents and descents upon that 
long route4 ,from ,valentia the road    
would lie down hill for about two       
hundred miles to the point at which  the
 bottom is now covered by #agjj fathoms 
of sea-water4 ,then would come  the     
central plain1 more than a thousand     
miles wide1 the inequalities  of the    
surface of which would be hardly        
perceptible1 though the depth  of water 
upon it now varies from #aj1jjj to      
#ae1jjj feet2 and there are  places in  
which ,mont ,blanc might be sunk without
 showing its peak  above water4 ,beyond 
this the ascent on the ,american side   

commences1  and gradually leads for     
about three hundred miles1 to the       
,newfoundland  shore40    ,the central  
plain here described1 which has been    
since found to extend  many hundred     
miles north and south of the cable line1
 is covered almost  everywhere by that  
soft1 mealy sort of mud of which we have
 already  spoken2 and this1 it is now   
confidently believed1 is nothing else   
than  a stratum of ,chalk ,rock in an   
early stage of formation4 ,when         
thoroughly  dried it assumes a whitish  
color1 and exhibits a texture which even
  to the superficial observer appears   
closely to resemble fine chalk4  ,nay1  
we are told that if so disposed1 one may
 take a bit of it in his  fingers and   
write with it upon a blackboard4 ,like  
chalk1 too1 when  chemically analyzed it
 is found to be almost pure carbonate of
 lime4    ,but there is a yet more      
striking analogy between the mud of the 
,atlantic and the ,white ,chalk of      
,europe4 ,both have been submitted to   

the magnifying power of the ,microscope2
 and1 after an examination  conducted   
with scrupulous care1 a wonderful and   
almost startling  identity of mineral1  
or rather we should say of organic1     
composition  has been established       
between them4 ,to the naked eye ,chalk  
is simply a  soft1 earthy sort of stone4
 ,but when a thin transparent slice is  
placed  under the ,microscope1 the      
general mass is found to be made up of  
very  minute particles1 in which are    
embedded a vast number of other bodies  
possessing a well-defined form and      
structure4 ,these are of various  sizes1
 but on a rough average may be said not 
to exceed a hundredth  of an inch in    
diameter4 ,hundreds of thousands of them
 are sometimes  contained in a cubic    
inch of ,chalk1 together with countless 
millions of  the more minute granules4  
,professor ,huxley succeeded in         
separating these bodies from the mass of
  granules in which they were embedded1 
and by examining them apart1 he  has    

ascertained still more fully their exact
 structure and composition4  8,each one 
of them10 he says1 8is a beautifully    
constructed calcareous  fabric1 made up 
of a number of chambers communicating   
freely with one  another4 ,they are of  
various forms4 ,one of the commonest is 
something  like a badly-grown raspberry1
 being formed of a number of nearly     
globular chambers of different sizes    
congregated together4 ,it is called     
,globigerina2 and some specimens of     
,chalk consist of little else than      
,globigerin and granules40    ,previous 
to #aheg the ,globigerin of the ,chalk  
were a matter of no small  controversy  
among ,geologists and ,naturalists4     
,some contended that  they were the     
organic remains--the shells or          
skeletons--of ancient  animalcules4     
,others were disposed to regard them    
simply as aggregations  of lime1 which1 
so to speak1 chanced to assume the form 
of these  little chambered bodies2      
though it was not easy to explain1 on   

this  hypothesis1 how these chance      
concretions1 however much they varied   
in size1 preserved over the whole of    
,europe the same exact form and         
structure4 ,but the controversy is now  
at an end4 ,the specimens of the        
,atlantic ooze brought home by ,captain 
,dayman1 when examined under the  higher
 powers of the ,microscope1 are found1  
like ,chalk1 to be composed  almost     
entirely of ,globigerin4 ,and that no   
doubt may remain as to  their organic   
origin1 a portion of the fleshy         
integument of the little  animalcules is
 seen1 in many cases1 still adhering to 
the calcareous  skeleton4               
8,globigerin of every size10 we are     
told1 8from the smallest to the         
largest1 are associated together in the 
,atlantic mud1 and the chambers  of many
 are filled by a soft animal matter4    
,this soft substance is1  in fact1 the  
remains of the creature to which the    
,globigerina shell1  or rather skeleton1
 owes its existence--and which is an    

animal of  the simplest imaginable      
description4 ,it is1 in fact1 a mere    
particle  of living jelly1 without      
defined parts of any kind--without a    
mouth1  nerves1 muscles1 or distinct    
organs2 and only manifesting its        
vitality  to ordinary observation by    
thrusting out and retracting1 from all  
parts of its surface1 long filamentous  
processes which serve for arms  and     
legs4 ,yet this amorphous particle1     
devoid of everything which1 in  the     
higher animals we call organs1 is       
capable of feeding1 growing1  and       
multiplying2 of separating from the     
ocean the small proportion of  carbonate
 of lime which is dissolved in          
sea-water2 and of building up  that     
substance into a skeleton for itself1   
according to a pattern which  can be    
imitated by no other known agency40     
,that the same process is going on in   
other parts of the ocean appears  by    
observations made by ,sir ,leopold      
,m',clintock during the cruise of  the  

,bulldog in #ahfj4 ,he discovered that a
 calcareous ooze having the  consistency
 of putty is spread out over extensive  
areas between the  ,faroe ,islands and  
,iceland1 and also between ,iceland and 
,greenland4 ,of  this mud about         
ninety-five per cent4 is composed of    
,globigerin1 which  in some instances   
were brought up actually living to the  
surface1 and  busily engaged in         
secreting1 by their vital powers1       
carbonate of lime  from the waters of   
the sea4#ea    ,professor ,huxley goes  
yet one step further in following out   
the  resemblance between the ,chalk     
,rock that exists in the ,crust of the  
,earth and the stratum of ,chalk that is
 now growing up in the depths  of the   
,atlantic4 ,not only are the            
,globigerin1 of which the one is in     
great part composed1 identical with the 
animalcules that make up about          
nine-tenths of the other1 but even the  
minute granules that constitute  the    
residue of each formation1 correspond in

 a very remarkable manner4  8,in working
 over the soundings collected by        
,captain ,dayman1 ,i was  surprised to  
find that many of what ,i have called   
the ,granules of  that mud were not1 as 
one might have been tempted to think at 
first1  the mere powder and waste of    
,globigerin1 but they had a definite    
form and size4 ,i termed these bodies   
,coccoliths1 and doubted their  organic 
nature4 ,doctor ,wallich verified my    
observation1 and added the  interesting 
discovery that1 not unfrequently1 bodies
 similar to these  ,coccoliths were     
aggregated together into spheroids1     
which he termed  ,coccospheres4 ,so far 
as we knew1 these bodies1 the nature of 
which is  extremely puzzling and        
problematical1 were peculiar to the     
,atlantic  soundings4    8,but a few    
years ago ,mr4 ,sorby1 in making a      
careful examination of the  ,chalk by   
means of thin sections and otherwise1   
observed1 as ,ehrenberg  had done before
 him1 that much of its granular basis   

possesses a  definite form4 ,comparing  
these formed particles with those in the
  ,atlantic soundings1 he found the two 
to be identical2 and thus  proved that  
the ,chalk1 like the soundings1 contains
 these mysterious  ,coccoliths and      
,coccospheres4 ,here was a further and a
 most interesting  confirmation1 from   
internal evidence1 of the essential     
identity of the  ,chalk with modern     
deep-sea mud40    ,we may1 therefore1   
set it down as certain1 first1 that the 
formation  of ,chalk ,rock is going on  
very extensively at the present day2 and
  secondly1 that the chief agency       
employed in its production is no other  
than the vital action of minute         
animalcules4 ,this is no longer merely  
a plausible theory or an ingenious      
hypothesis3 it is simply a matter  of   
fact ascertained by direct observation4 
,if then it is just and  philosophical  
to ascribe like effects to like causes1 
the conclusion is  plain that the ,white
 ,chalk of ,europe came into existence  

in some far  distant age by just such a 
process as that which is now in         
operation on  the bed of the ,atlantic  
,ocean4    ,from the ,chalk mud of the  
,atlantic we will now pass to the ,coral
 ,reefs  that are growing up beneath the
 waters of the ,pacific and the ,indian 
,oceans4 ,every one has heard of ,coral 
,reefs and ,coral ,islands2 yet we      
fancy many persons have but vague and   
indefinite notions about them4  ,we     
shall1 therefore1 in the first place1   
give a brief account of their  general  
appearance1 their extent1 and their     
geographical distribution4  ,afterward  
we shall give some of the evidence which
 goes to show that  these huge masses of
 rock owe their existence to the organic
 powers of  minute living animalcules4  
,the ,coral ,reef is familiar to the    
navigator of tropical seas under a      
great variety of forms1 and in many     
different stages of development4  ,in   
one case it is a chain of hidden rocks  
rising not quite to the  level of the   

sea2 in another it appears just above   
the waters1 but is  washed over by each 
returning tide2 while in another it     
rises up beyond  the reach of the waves1
 is clothed with luxuriant vegetation1  
and  inhabited by various species of    
animals1 even by man himself4 ,again    
there is great diversity of outline     
among these rocks1 whether they are     
sunk beneath the surface of the waters  
or lifted above them4 ,but all  may be  
reduced to four classes1 of which we    
propose to give a short  description4   
,first is the ,atoll1 or lagoon island4 
,it is a circular strip of  limestone   
rock enclosing a shallow lake within1   
and surrounded by a  deep and often     
unfathomable ocean without4 ,the scene  
presented by  some of these circular    
reefs is described by travellers as     
equally  striking for its singularity   
and its beauty4 8,a strip of land a few 
hundred yards wide is covered by lofty  
cocoa-nut trees1 above which  is the    
blue vault of heaven4 ,this band of     

verdure is bounded by a  beach of       
glittering white sand1 the outer margin 
of which is encircled  with a ring of   
snow-white breakers1 beyond which are   
the dark heaving  waters of the ocean4  
,the inner beach encloses the still     
clear water  of the lagoon1 resting in  
its greater part on white sand1 and1    
when  illuminated by a vertical sun1 of 
a most vivid green40    ,these lagoon   
islands are often found in groups       
stretching1 with little  interruption1  
for many hundred miles across the ocean4
 ,the ,maldives1  for example1 which lie
 a little distance to the southwest of  
,hindostan1  form a continuous chain1   
running due north and south1 four       
hundred and  seventy miles in length and
 fifty miles in breadth4 ,each          
successive  link in this chain does not 
consist1 as might be supposed1 of a     
single  circular reef1 but it is rather 
a ring of small coral islets1 sometimes 
more than a hundred in number1 each of  
which is itself a perfect ,atoll  or    

lagoon island such as we have just      
described4 ,of these miniature  islets  
many are from three to five miles in    
diameter2 while the larger  rings of    
which they form a part are from thirty  
to fifty4 ,the ,laccadive  islands1 a   
little more to the north1 exhibit a     
similar arrangement1  and indeed would  
seem to be a continuation of the same   
group4 ,in the  ,pacific are found some 
chains of coral islands yet more        
extensive2  as for instance the         
,dangerous ,archipelago1 which is upward
 of eleven  hundred miles in length1 and
 from three to four hundred in breadth2 
but  the islands within these spaces are
 thinly scattered1 and insignificant  in
 size4    ,sometimes the annular strip  
of coral rock encloses within itself a  
lofty island1 which rises up from the   
centre of the lagoon4 ,in this  case it 
is called an ,encircling ,reef2 the     
lagoon being simply a broad  channel    
surrounding the island in the centre1   
and encompassed itself by  the coral    

rock4 ,an example occurs in the island  
of ,vanikoro1 celebrated  for the       
shipwreck of ,la ,peyrouse1 where the   
,encircling ,reef runs at a  distance of
 two or three miles from the shore1 the 
channel between it  and the land having 
a general depth of between two and three
 hundred  feet4 ,the well-known         
mountainous island of ,tahiti in the    
,south ,pacific  ,ocean is also         
encompassed by an ,encircling ,reef1    
from which it is  separated by a broad  
belt of tranquil water4    ,a third     
class of ,coral ,reefs consists of those
 which run parallel to  the shores of   
continents or great islands1 from which 
they are cut off  by a broad channel1 to
 which the sea has free access through  
certain  open passages in the rock4     
,they are called ,barrier ,reefs2 and   
differ  from the former only in this1   
that they do not surround the land1 but 
run parallel to it at a distance of some
 miles4 ,the ,great ,barrier ,reef  of  
,australia offers a noble example4 ,it  

has been described as a huge1  massive1 
submarine wall or terrace1 fronting the 
northeastern coast  of that continent1  
varying from ten to ninety miles in     
breadth1 and  extending1 with some      
trifling interruptions1 to a length of  
#abej miles4  ,another reef of the same 
kind1 #djj miles in length1 faces the   
western  coast of the long narrow island
 of ,new ,caledonia4    ,when a chain of
 ,coral rocks approaches close to the   
shore1 so as to  leave no intervening   
channel of deep water1 they are called  
,fringing  ,reefs2 and these constitute 
the fourth and last class of the ,coral 
formation4 ,they prevail everywhere in  
tropical regions1 and appear as  banks  
of ,coral encrusting the rocky shores of
 islands and continents4    ,as regards 
the geographical distribution of ,coral 
,reefs1 the first  circumstance that    
claims our notice1 is that they are     
exclusively  confined to the warmer     
regions of the globe4 ,they exist in    
great  profusion within the tropics1 and

 are rarely to be found beyond the      
thirtieth parallels of latitude on each 
side of the ,equator4 ,the only         
remarkable exception is in the case of  
the ,bermuda ,islands in #cb north      
latitude2 but here1 it is to be         
observed1 the ocean is warmed by the    
waters of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,another   
singular fact is the almost total       
absence of ,coral ,reefs from the       
,atlantic ,ocean4 ,in fact1 the         
,bermudas1  we believe1 constitute here 
again the only exception4 ,the ,pacific1
  on the contrary1 is wonderfully       
productive of coral2 also the ,indian   
,ocean1 the ,persian and ,arabian       
,gulfs1 and the ,red ,sea4    ,it may   
gratify1 perhaps1 the curiosity of some 
readers1 if we add a  word on the ,red  
,coral which is now so favorite an      
ornament in the  fashionable world4     
,though it never attains to the         
magnitude of those  reefs and islands we
 have been describing1 it partakes      
nevertheless of  the same peculiar      

structure2 and no doubt is entertained  
that1 like  them1 it derives its        
existence from animal life1 in the      
manner we shall  presently explain4 ,it 
is produced chiefly in the              
,mediterranean1 in the  ,red ,sea1 and  
in the ,persian ,gulf2 and is brought up
 from the great  depths by means of a   
grappling apparatus attached to boats4  
,the largest  pieces have a shrub-like  
branching form1 and are supposed to grow
 to  the height of one foot in about    
eight years4#eb    ,so much for the     
existence of the ,coral ,formation4     
,next comes the  question of its origin1
 with which1 of course1 we are chiefly  
concerned4 ,it is now the received      
belief of all distinguished             
,naturalists1 that these huge and       
wide-spread masses of limestone rock1   
against which the breakers of the ocean 
are ever thundering in vain1  are the   
work of tiny marine animalcules1 and    
chiefly of those seemingly              
insignificant creatures known by the    

name of ,polyps or ,zoophytes4 ,the     
,zoophyte1 they tell us1 is a mason who 
himself produces the stones  that he    
employs in his building4 8,he has       
neither plane1 nor chisel1  nor trowel2 
there is no sound of hammer in his city4
 ,he erects mighty  and enduring        
edifices1 yet has no mechanical power by
 which to raise  his rocks to their     
summits4 ,he can answer thee nothing--no
 tongue1 no  eyes1 no hands1 no brains  
has he--yet from the caves of old ocean 
has  he raised that which fills you with
 admiration40#ec ,surely if all this  be
 true1 these countless myriads of       
animalcules call aloud to us from  the  
depths of the ocean in language that    
cannot be mistaken3 8,know  ye that the 
,lord ,he is ,god2 it is ,he that hath  
made us1 and not we  ourselves40#ed     
,the ,zoophyte belongs to the simplest  
form of the animal creation4 ,its  body 
consists merely of a pouch or stomach1  
with tentacles arranged  round the      
margin1 which it can extend at pleasure 

to supply itself with  food4 ,in many   
species the individuals grow together on
 a common stem1  from which new members 
are constantly shooting forth like buds 
from  the branches of a tree4 ,hence the
 origin of the name ,zoophyte1 which    
literally means a plant-like animal4    
,the common stem on which they grow  is 
sometimes composed of a horny substance1
 but more generally it is  pure         
carbonate of lime1 which they secrete by
 the powers of organic  action from the 
waters of the sea4 ,it forms1 therefore1
 a kind of  internal skeleton or        
framework1 to which the soft1 gelatinous
 parts of  the animal adhere1 pretty    
much as1 in the case of other animals1  
the  flesh adheres to the bones4 ,thus  
we have1 as it were1 a community of     
living creatures1 growing together upon 
one common stony framework1  called a   
,polypidom or ,polyp edifice1 which they
 themselves build by the  very fact of  
living4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#d4--;,campanularia ,gelatinosa4        

,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,gorgonia    
,patula4    ,the peculiar structure of  
these wonderful little communities may  
perhaps be made more intelligible by the
 aid of a few illustrations4  ,figure #d
 exhibits the branching skeleton and1 at
 the extremities of  the branches1 the  
several ,polyps by whose vital action   
the skeleton  has been constructed4     
,some of the animalcules are shown in a 
state of  activity1 with their tiny arms
 spread out in search of food3 others   
are withdrawn within their cells1 and   
appear in a state of repose4  ,this     
species of ,zoophyte1 which is highly   
magnified in the figure1  flourishes    
abundantly on the shores of ,ireland and
 ,england4 ,it has  received the name of
 ,campanularia1 from the bell-like form 
of its  cells4 ,our next cut represents 
a ,gorgonia from the ,mediterranean1    
which is also considerably magnified4   
,the fleshy integument of this  specimen
 is of a brilliant red color3 the       
,polyps are arranged in rows  on each   

side of the stem1 and are shown in a    
state of expansion4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #f4--;,frustra ,pilosa4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,madrepora    
,plantaginea4    ,a mass of ,coral      
animalcules1 which are known by the name
 of ,frustra  ,pilosa1 is represented of
 the natural size in ,figure #f4 ,to the
  naked eye it seems like a piece of    
fine net-work1 disposed around a        
fragment of sea-weed1 which may be      
observed protruding in the upper  part  
of our illustration4 ,with the aid of an
 ordinary magnifier the  net-like       
surface is seen to abound in minute     
pores arranged with much  regularity4   
,each of these pores is the cell of a   
,zoophyte4 ,and if  a fragment of       
,frustra be examined with a powerful    
microscope1 when  immersed in sea-water1
 the curious little inhabitants         
themselves may be  seen darting in and  
out of their cells1 expanding and       
contracting their  long feelers1 and    
exhibiting altogether a wonderful       

activity4 ,in the  adjoining woodcut1   
,figure #g1 is shown another interesting
 species of  the arborescent ,zoophyte4 
,it belongs to the family of            
,madrepores1 and  abounds in almost all 
,coral ,reefs4 ,alive under water it    
appears clothed  in a gelatinous coating
 of rich and varied hues4 ,but when     
removed from  its native element this   
gelatinous coating1 which is the living 
animal  substance1 quickly melts away2  
and1 in some instances1 runs off from   
the calcareous skeleton in a kind of    
watery slime4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#h4--;,corallium ,rubrum4    ,a good    
idea of the celebrated red and pink     
,coral of commerce1 so much  admired for
 its brilliant color1 and the high      
polish of which it is  susceptible1 may 
be gathered from our next illustration4 
,as in the  other species to which we   
have referred1 the calcareous skeleton  
is  enveloped in a living gelatinous    
substance1 from which the ,zoophytes    
seem to shoot out like buds from the    

bark of a tree4 ,several of these       
animalcules are exhibited in our figure1
 in the active enjoyment of  life2      
gathering in1 with their expanded       
tentacles1 the elements of  their stony 
edifice from the surrounding waters4    
,after death the fleshy  integument is  
wasted away by the action of the sea2   
and the framework  that remains behind1 
washed ashore by the waves1 or hooked up
 by the  coral fisherman1 is wrought    
into brooches1 bracelets1 necklaces1 and
  other ornaments of various kinds4     
,not a few varieties of the             
,coral-producing ,zoophytes are to be   
found  in actual living reality on our  
own coasts1 where the curious student   
may examine for himself their habits and
 general structure4 ,but it  is in the  
warmer regions of the ,earth that they  
are developed in the  greatest numbers1 
and decked in the brightest hues4 ,those
 who have seen  them through the crystal
 waters of tropical seas1 swarming in   
countless  multitudes on the clear white

 sand below1 speak with enthusiasm of   
their luxuriant profusion and of their  
striking beauty4 ,combining to  a       
picturesque elegance of form a rich     
variety and pleasing harmony of  colors1
 they present to the eye a scene which  
has been compared to  a magnificent     
garden1 laid out in diverse beds of rare
 and splendid  flowers4    ,so far we   
have spoken only of the ,polypidom1 that
 is to say1 the  community of ,polyps   
living together on a common stem of     
their own  construction4 ,now this      
,polypidom is the first element of the  
,coral  ,reef4 ,in some species of      
,zoophytes1 the ,red ,coral for         
instance1 the  calcareous stem never    
attains a size greater than that of a   
diminutive  shrub4 ,but in others1 and  
they are very numerous1 especially in   
tropical seas1 there seems to be no     
limit to the growth of the solid  stony 
framework4 ,as the existing generation  
of ,zoophytes is dying out1  new        
individuals are ever budding forth1     

which continue unceasingly to  secrete  
carbonate of lime1 as their predecessors
 had done before them1  from the waters 
of the ocean2 and thus the tree-like    
form spreads its  branching arms on     
every side1 growing upward and outward  
day by day4  ,the soft gelatinous parts 
of those generations that have passed   
away  are1 in a short time1 dissolved1  
and the stony skeleton alone remains    
behind4 ,ages roll on3 the calcareous   
framework1 ever increasing in  size1    
becomes at length a formidable rock2 and
 this rock is the ,coral  ,reef4    ,let
 it not be supposed we are here         
advancing a theory3 we are only  stating
 a fact that has been established by    
close and repeated  observations4 ,all  
the phenomena exhibited in the          
development of the  ,polypidom1 are     
exhibited no less plainly in every      
,coral ,reef that  has yet been         
examined4 ,on the surface of the ,reef  
are the living  ,zoophytes1 clinging to 
the calcareous skeleton which is ever   

growing  larger through the unconscious 
action of their vital functions2 while  
immediately beneath may be seen the same
 stony skeleton1 already  divested of   
its fleshy integument1 and beginning to 
assume the  appearance of compact and   
massive rock4 ,we can behold1 therefore1
 the  mason at work on the upper story  
of his building1 and the structure      
already finished below4 ,and so we have 
little less than ocular  demonstration  
that the ,coral ,reef is the work of the
 ,zoophyte4    ,it must not be supposed1
 however1 that in every part of the     
,coral ,reef1  the form and outline of  
the stony skeleton are exactly          
preserved4  ,fragments of the rock are  
broken off by the force of the waves1   
and  mixed up with the comminuted shells
 of oysters1 mussels1 and other         
crustaceous animals inhabiting the same 
waters4 ,in this way a sort of          
calcareous gravel1 sometimes a          
calcareous paste1 is formed1 which fills
  up the interstices1 and connects the  

tree-like coral into a compact  rock4   
,we have yet to explain how the ,coral  
,reefs come1 in many cases1 to  rise    
above the surface of the ocean1 and to  
form dry land3 for it has  been found   
that the reef-building ,zoophytes       
require to be continually  immersed in  
salt water1 and therefore1 by their own 
efforts1 they  cannot raise their       
structure above the ordinary level of   
the sea4  ,this question was for a long 
time involved in obscurity2 but it has  
been cleared up by the actual           
observations of ,naturalists in modern  
times4 ,the following description1 which
 is given to us by ,chamisso1  the      
companion of ,kotzebue on his voyages1  
will convey a good idea of  the process 
by which a sunken reef is often         
converted into a smiling1  fruitful     
island4 8,when the reef is of such a    
height that it remains  almost dry at   
low water1 the corals leave off         
building4 ,above this  line a continuous
 mass of solid stone is seen1 composed  

of the shells  of mollusks and echini1  
with their broken-off prickles and      
fragments  of coral1 united by          
calcareous sand1 produced by the        
pulverization of  shells4 ,the heat of  
the sun often penetrates the mass of    
stone when it  is dry1 so that it splits
 in many places1 and the force of the   
waves is  thereby enabled to separate   
and lift blocks of coral1 frequently six
  feet long and three or four in        
thickness1 and throw them upon the reef1
  by which means the ridge becomes at   
length so high that it is covered  only 
during some seasons of the year by      
spring tides4 ,after this the           
calcareous sand lies undisturbed1 and   
offers to the seeds of trees  and plants
 cast upon it by the waves1 a soil upon 
which they rapidly  grow1 to overshadow 
its dazzling white surface4 ,entire     
trunks of trees1  which are carried by  
the rivers from other countries and     
islands1 find  here at length a resting 
place after their long wanderings3 with 

these  come some small animals1 such as 
insects and lizards1 as the first       
inhabitants4 ,even before the trees form
 a wood1 the sea-birds nestle  here2    
stray land-birds take refuge in the     
bushes2 and1 at a much later  period1   
when the work has been long since       
completed1 man appears and  builds his  
hut on the fruitful soil40#ee           
,another question that seems to call for
 some explanation is suggested  by the  
well-known habits of the ,zoophytes     
themselves4 ,from the  observations of  
,kotzebue and ,darwin it appears that   
those species  which are most effective 
in the construction of ,reefs cannot    
flourish  at a greater depth than twenty
 or thirty fathoms2 whereas the coral   
rocks rise up in many cases from the    
bottom of an unfathomable  ocean4 ,how1 
then1 it may be asked1 have the         
foundations of these  wonderful         
structures been laid8 ,this question    
opens a wide field for  philosophical   
speculation2 and we freely admit that no

 theory of  ,coral ,reefs can be        
regarded as complete and satisfactory1  
which does  not furnish a reasonable    
answer4 ,but so far as the purpose of   
our  argument is concerned1 it is quite 
sufficient if a stratum of solid        
limestone1 twenty fathoms thick1 has    
been formed mainly through the  agency  
of these minute animalcules4 ,and this  
conclusion1 so abundantly  demonstrated 
by facts1 is left quite untouched by the
 difficulty to  which we now refer4     
,it will be interesting1 however1 to    
notice in passing the explanation  of   
this phenomenon first suggested by ,mr4 
,darwin1 and now very  generally        
accepted4 ,he maintains that the whole  
,coral ,reef--foundations  and          
superstructure alike--is1 in most cases1
 the result entirely of  organic agency4
 ,the reef-building ,zoophyte always    
begins his labors in  water that is     
comparatively shallow4 ,but as he is    
building upward1 it  often happens that 
the bed of the sea is sinking downward  

in pretty  nearly the same proportion2  
and thus the reef is ever increasing in 
height from its original base1 while the
 living mass of ,zoophytes on  its upper
 surface remains in about the same depth
 of water as when the  building first   
began4    ,this theory is supported by a
 vast amount of curious and ingenious   
reasoning4 ,in the first place1 there is
 nothing more remarkable in the         
physical conformation of the ,globe1    
than the immense predominance of  water 
over land throughout those extensive    
tracts of ocean where ,coral  ,reefs    
abound4 ,now this is just what we should
 naturally expect if the  hypothesis of 
,mr4 ,darwin were admitted2 for wherever
 the ,crust of the  ,earth has been     
subsiding for many ages on a large      
scale1 the domain of  the sea must of   
necessity have been considerably        
enlarged1 and that  of the land         
contracted in proportion4 ,again1 this  
hypothesis will be  found to harmonize  
most perfectly with all the phenomena of

 ,fringing  ,reefs1 ,barrier ,reefs1    
,encircling ,reefs1 and ,lagoon         
,islands4 ,the  ,fringing ,reef         
represents1 as it were1 the first stage 
of progress4 ,the  building operations  
have just commenced near the shore of   
some island  or continent1 and but      
little space intervenes between the land
 and the  incrusting wall of coral4     
,then1 as the ,crust of the ,earth      
gradually  subsides1 the water          
encroaches on the land1 and forms a     
channel between  it and the reef4       
,meanwhile the ,zoophytes are at work1  
and the coral  rock is growing upward as
 the foundation on which it rests is    
sinking  downward3 each year it is      
higher from the bed of the sea1 and yet 
no  nearer to the surface of the waters4
 ,and when at length the channel1  which
 is ever growing wider and wider1 has   
reached a certain limit1 the  ,fringing 
,reef becomes a ,barrier ,reef1 or if it
 encompasses an island1  an ,encircling 
,reef4 ,lastly1 the ,encircling ,reef   

will finally become  a ,lagoon ,island1 
when the highest peaks of the land it   
encloses have  slowly disappeared       
beneath the surface of the waters4      
,in confirmation of this reasoning ,mr4 
,darwin has pointed out numerous        
examples to illustrate each intermediate
 stage through which1 according  to his 
hypothesis1 the ,coral ,reef must pass  
in the progress of its  construction4   
,he traces the gradual transition from  
the low bank of  coral incrusting a     
rocky shore to the ,encircling ,reef    
that compasses  round a lofty island1   
like ,tahiti1 with a broad channel      
between4  ,then he shows how this       
channel insensibly becomes wider and    
wider1  encroaching more and more upon  
the land1 until at length only a few    
high peaks remain above water4 ,finally 
he leads us on to the case of a  perfect
 ,atoll1 within which no trace of land  
remains to be seen2 and  the channel1   
now become a lagoon1 is encompassed by a
 ,reef of ,coral  ,rock that rises      

steeply from an unfathomed ocean4    ,we
 do not mean to dwell upon this         
ingenious speculation1 which would      
carry us too far from the object at     
which we are aiming4 ,it seems to  us1  
however1 that the arguments in its favor
 are at least deserving of  careful     
consideration2 and we may add that they 
receive new strength  from the facts we 
shall have occasion hereafter to bring  
forward1 when  we come to speak of the  
undulating movements to which the ,crust
 of the  ,earth has been subject at many
 different times1 and in many different 
localities1 even within the historic    
period4    ,the formation and structure 
of existing ,coral ,reefs being once    
fairly  established1 ,geologists have   
little difficulty in ascribing a similar
  origin to many of the limestone strata
 that are found in the ,crust  of the   
,earth4 ,for though the internal texture
 has been considerably  modified in the 
long course of ages1 by chemical and    
other influences1  nevertheless the     

stony skeletons of the reef-building    
,zoophytes can be  distinctly recognized
 in great abundance4 ,indeed it is not  
an uncommon  thing to meet with         
limestone rock exhibiting plainly to the
 eye all  the appearance of ,coral      
,reefs lifted up from the bed of the    
ocean4  8,the ,oolite10 says ,doctor    
,mantell1 8abounds in corals1 and       
contains  beds of limestone which are   
merely coral reefs that have undergone  
no change but that of elevation from the
 bottom of the deep1 and the            
consolidation of their materials4 ,the  
,coral-rag of ,wilts presents in  fact  
all the characters of modern reefs3 the 
polypifera belong chiefly  to the       
,astrid1 the genera of which family     
principally contribute to  the          
formations now going on in the ,pacific4
 ,shells1 echinoderms1 teeth1  and bones
 of fishes1 and other marine exuvi1     
occupy the interstices  between the     
corals1 and the whole is consolidated by
 sand and gravel1  held together in some

 instances by calcareous1 in others by  
siliceous  infiltrations4 ,those who    
have visited districts where the        
,coral-rag  forms the immediate subsoil1
 and is exposed to view in the quarries 
or in natural sections1 must have been  
struck with the resemblance of  these   
rocks to modern coral banks40#ef        
,even in many of our finest marbles the 
coral skeletons may be traced           
distinctly enough1 and contribute not a 
little to that variegated color  which  
is so much admired4 ,nay1 it is recorded
 by ,mr4 ,parkinson that he  discovered 
in a piece of solid marble1 the animal  
membrane itself by  which the lime was  
originally abstracted from the sea4 ,he 
immersed the  marble in dilute muriatic 
acid2 and he relates with delight how1  
as  the calcareous earth dissolved1 and 
the carbonic acid gas escaped1 he       
observed the animal tissue begin        
distinctly to appear in the form of     
light1 elastic membranes4#eg            
,illustration    ,illustration          

,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,stratified ,,rocks 
,,of ,,organic ,,origin--,,illustrations
 ,,from ,,vegetable ,,life4             
,origin of coal--,evident traces of     
plants and trees in                     
coal-mines--,coal made up of the same   
elements as wood--,beds      of coal    
found resting upon clay in which are    
preserved      the roots of             
trees--,insensible transition from wood 
to      coal--,forest-covered           
swamps--,accumulations of drift-wood in 
lakes and estuaries--,peat bogs--,beds  
of ,lignite--,seams of      pure coal   
with half-carbonized trees1 some lying  
prostrate1      some standing           
erect--,summary of the argument hitherto
      pursued--,objection to this       
argument from the ,omnipotence of       
,god--,answer to the objection4      ,as
 animals1 by organic action1 extract    
lime from the waters of the  ocean they 
inhabit1 which1 being converted in the  
first instance into  minute shells1 or  
stony skeletons1 afterward passes into a

 compact  and solid rock1 so in like    
manner do plants and trees extract      
carbon  from the atmosphere in which    
they vegetate1 and convert it into coal4
  ,no reasonable doubt can now be       
entertained that coal derives its       
existence1 almost entirely1 from the    
woody tissue of sunken swamps and       
forests4 ,though the nature of the      
process by which this transformation    
takes place1 is yet but imperfectly     
understood1 and is1 indeed1 at  the     
present moment a subject of much        
discussion and controversy1             
nevertheless the fact that the change   
has taken place is fully  accepted by   
all as an established truth1 and is     
supported by an  accumulation of        
evidence which it is not easy to resist4
    ,the first circumstance to which we 
shall call attention1 is the  wonderful 
profusion of vegetable life that is     
always associated with  coal4 ,every one
 who has descended at any time into a   
coal mine1 or  who has examined the     

specimens usually exhibited in a        
well-furnished  museum1 must have been  
struck by the countless forms of trees  
and  plants1 which still remain vividly 
impressed on this black and  unsightly  
mineral4 ,dr4 ,buckland has described   
this phenomenon with  much vigor and    
beauty in his celebrated ,bridgewater   
,treatise3 8,the  finest example ,i have
 ever witnessed is that of the coal     
mines of  ,bohemia just mentioned4 ,the 
most elaborate imitations of living     
foliage  upon the painted ceilings of   
,italian palaces1 bear no comparison    
with  the beauteous profusion of extinct
 vegetable forms with which the         
galleries of these instructive coal     
mines are overhung4 ,the roof is        
covered as with a canopy of gorgeous    
tapestry1 enriched with festoons  of    
most graceful foliage1 flung in wild    
irregular profusion over every  portion 
of its surface4 ,the effect is          
heightened by the contrast of  the      
coal-black color of these vegetables    

with the light ground-work  of the rock 
to which they are attached4 ,the        
spectator feels himself  transported1 as
 if by enchantment1 into the forests of 
another world2  he beholds trees of     
forms and characters now unknown upon   
the surface  of the earth1 presented to 
his senses almost in the beauty and     
vigor of  their primeval life2 their    
scaly stems and bending branches1 with  
their  delicate apparatus of foliage1   
are all spread forth before him1 little 
impaired by the lapse of countless ages1
 and bearing faithful records  of       
extinct systems of vegetation1 which    
began and terminated in times  of which 
these relics are the infallible         
historians40    ,illustration3          
,fig4 #i4--,pecopteris ,adiantoides4    
,fig4 #aj4--,sphenopteris ,affinis4     
,fossil ,ferns found in the ,coal       
,measures of ,europe and ,america4      
,the next important fact that points to 
the vegetable origin of  ,coal is1 that 
wood and ,coal are both composed of the 

same ultimate  elements--carbon1        
hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,this analogy is  
the more  remarkable when we are told   
that no other rock except ,coal exhibits
  anything approaching to this          
composition4 ,it is true that the       
elements  just enumerated do not exist  
in the same proportions in wood and in  
,coal4 ,but the difference1 when rightly
 understood1 rather tends to  confirm   
our theory that the one is derived from 
the other4 ,there is  more ,carbon in   
,coal than in wood2 while there is less 
oxygen and less  hydrogen4 ,to explain  
how this may have come to pass during   
the process  of transition1 we must call
 in the assistance of the chemist4 ,it  
appears from the researches of ,liebig  
that1 when vegetable matter is  buried  
in the earth1 exposed to moisture1 and  
partially or entirely  excluded from the
 air1 the process of decomposition sets 
in1 and that  under this process        
carbonic acid gas and carburetted       
hydrogen gas are  slowly evolved4 ,at   

the same time a portion of the oxygen   
when set free  would naturally enter    
into a new combination with a portion of
 the  hydrogen1 and form water4 ,the    
result of these several changes would   
necessarily be1 that the accumulation of
 vegetable matter buried in the  earth  
would part1 in course of time1 with no  
small share of its carbon1  its         
hydrogen1 and its oxygen1 but not with  
all in the same proportions3  for the   
new combinations would use up more of   
the oxygen than of the  hydrogen1 and   
more of the hydrogen than of the        
carbon4#eh ,in other  words1 if the     
process should have gone on for a       
sufficient lapse of  ages1 these        
elements would no longer exist together 
in the proportions  which are necessary 
to constitute wood1 but would rather    
exist in the  proportions which are     
found to constitute coal4#ei    ,this   
explanation is confirmed by a fact with 
which our readers are  no doubt         
familiar4 ,according to the explanation1

 carbonic acid and  carburetted hydrogen
 are evolved during the process by which
 coal is  produced from wood4 ,we should
 therefore expect to find these gases   
closely associated with ,coal4 ,if they 
are not so associated1 their  absence is
 a serious objection against our theory2
 but if they are  so associated1 their  
presence is a strong evidence in its    
favor4 ,now  on this point1 as every one
 knows1 practical miners bear testimony 
that the fact corresponds exactly with  
our theory4 ,they tell us that          
reservoirs of ,choke-damp1 which is     
carbonic acid1 and of ,fire-damp1  which
 is carburetted hydrogen1 are found very
 commonly pent up in the  crevices and  
cavities of coal beds1 and are the      
cause1 when tapped1 of  many of the     
accidents which take place4 ,they even  
assure us that some  beds of coal are so
 saturated with gas that1 when cut into1
 it may  be heard oozing from every pore
 of the rock1 and the coal is called    
singing coal by the colliers4#fj    ,to 

sum up1 then1 what we have said on this 
point3 it appears1 first1  that the same
 constituent elements are found in wood 
and ,coal2  secondly1 though they do not
 exist in the same proportions in the   
two  substances1 the difference is fully
 accounted for by the changes which  we 
should naturally expect to take place   
when large accumulations of  vegetable  
matter are buried in the earth2 thirdly1
 in the hypothesis of  these changes1   
carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen  
would certainly  be developed2 and in   
point of fact1 these gases are found    
intimately  associated with ,coal all   
over the world4    ,there is another    
remarkable fact which fits in most      
admirably with our  theory4 ,coal is    
found at the present day in the ,crust  
of the ,earth1  disposed in thin seams  
or beds1 and each bed is almost         
uniformly  found to rest upon a stratum 
of fine clay1 sometimes several feet in 
thickness4 ,this is just what our theory
 would lead us to expect4 ,if  coal is  

produced from plants and trees1 these   
plants and trees must  have grown upon  
some suitable soil2 and1 therefore1 in  
this hypothesis  we should expect1      
ordinarily speaking at least1 to find a 
bed of clay  beneath every bed of coal4 
,but this is not all4 ,when we examine  
more  closely the stratum on which the  
coal reposes1 we find the roots and     
stems of trees mingled with the clay in 
the greatest profusion4 ,in  the ,welsh 
coal field1 in a depth of twelve        
thousand feet1 there are  from fifty to 
a hundred beds of coal1 each lying on a 
stratum of clay  abounding in these     
remains4#fa    ,we now come to an       
argument of a practical kind which      
appeals to common  sense and common     
experience4 ,let us suppose that a      
person wholly  unacquainted with the art
 of manufacturing paper1 were to enter a
  paper-mill when the workmen are away1 
and the process of manufacture  for a   
time suspended4 ,at first sight he would
 probably find it  difficult to persuade

 himself1 that the piles of clean white 
paper1  which attract his notice at one 
end of the building1 are produced  from 
the heaps of filthy rags which he sees  
accumulated at the other4  ,but if he be
 a sagacious observer1 he will soon find
 evidence to  convince him that this is 
really the case4 ,for he will perceive1 
upon  close examination1 that the       
self-same material is exhibited in every
  intermediate state of progress from   
one extreme to the other4 ,first1  there
 is the great chest with its numerous   
compartments1 in which the  rags are    
seen carefully sorted1 according to     
their various degrees of  quality and   
texture4 ,next comes the fulling-mill1  
where they are washed  and bleached4    
,then the revolving cylinder1 furnished 
on the exterior  surface with sharp     
blades or cutters2 and the vat in which 
it moves is  filled with the rags1 which
 now assume the form of a thin liquid   
pulp4  ,advancing still further he will 
see this pulp evenly spread out upon  a 

wire-gauze frame1 and now at last it is 
beginning to exhibit some  likeness to  
the form and substance of paper4        
,further on it is seen  pressed and     
dried2 and last of all cut into sheets  
and laid aside in  lofty piles4    ,now 
it seems to us that we are placed in    
somewhat of the same  position1 as      
regards the manufacture of ,coal4 ,we   
cannot observe the  process actually    
going on2 for though1 in this process1  
the work is  never suspended1 the       
workmen never at rest1 yet extending as 
it does  over a space of many centuries1
 it is too slow to be sensible2 and     
besides it is conducted in great part   
beneath the surface of the  ,earth4     
,nevertheless1 we can trace the progress
 of change through  each intermediate   
stage of the transition1 from one       
extreme to the  other1--from the        
primeval swamps and forests through the 
numerous  varieties of the ,peat and    
,lignite to the richest beds of pure    
,coal4    ,first1 then1 we have the     

great forest-covered swamps1 like those 
which  now occupy the valley and delta  
of the ,mississippi4 ,they are composed 
in many cases of pure vegetable matter  
without any intermixture of  earthy     
sediment4 ,a dense growth of reeds1 and 
shrubs1 and herbage of  every kind1     
covers the whole surface of the land1   
mixed up with the  decaying leaves and  
prostrate trunks of forest-trees4 ,sir  
,charles ,lyell  mentions a very        
remarkable fact observed in the swamps  
of ,louisiana4  ,during an unusually hot
 season1 when any part of a swamp is    
dried up1  if the surface be set on     
fire1 a pit is burned into the ground   
many  feet deep1 in fact1 as far down as
 the fire can descend without meeting   
water2 and it is then found that        
scarcely any residuum or earthy matter  
is left4#fb    ,vegetable strata of this
 kind are produced1 not only upon dry   
land by  the growth and decay of        
forests1 but also beneath the waters of 
lakes  and estuaries1 by the            

accumulation of ,drift-timber borne     
along in the  current of swollen rivers4
 ,the ,mackenzie ,river1 which drains a 
great  part of ,northwestern ,america1  
affords many admirable illustrations4   
,flowing as it does from south to north1
 it is subject to annual  inundations   
when the snows begin to melt in the     
higher parts of its  course1 while the  
channel lower down1 situated in colder  
latitudes1 is  still blocked up with    
ice4 ,at this season then it overflows  
its banks1  and sweeping through vast   
forests1 carries away thousands of      
uprooted  trees in its impetuous        
torrent4    8,as the trees10 says ,dr4  
,richardson1 8retain their roots1 which 
are  often loaded with earth and stones1
 they readily sink1 especially  when    
water-soaked2 and accumulating in the   
eddies1 form shoals1 which  ultimately  
augment into islands4 ,a thicket of     
small willows covers  the new-formed    
island as soon as it appears above      
water1 and their  fibrous roots serve to

 bind the whole firmly together4        
,sections of  these islands are annually
 made by the river2 and it is           
interesting to  study the diversities of
 appearances they present according to  
their  different ages4 ,the trunks of   
the trees gradually decay until they    
are converted into a blackish-brown     
substance resembling peat1 but  still   
retaining more or less of the fibrous   
structure of the wood2 and  layers of   
this often alternate with layers of clay
 and sand1 the whole  being penetrated1 
to a depth of four or five yards or     
more1 by the  long fibrous roots of the 
willows4 ,a deposition of this kind1    
with the  aid of a little infiltration  
of bituminous matter1 would produce an  
excellent imitation of ,coal1 with      
vegetable impressions of the willow     
roots4    8,it was in the rivers only   
that we could observe sections of these 
deposits2 but the same operation goes   
on1 on a much more magnificent  scale1  
in the lakes4 ,a shoal of many miles in 

extent is formed on the  south side of  
,athabasca ,lake by the ,drift-timber   
and vegetable dbris  brought down by the
 ,elk ,river2 and the ,slave ,lake      
itself must in  process of time be      
filled up by the matters daily conveyed 
into it from  ,slave ,river4 ,vast      
quantities of ,drift-timber are buried  
under the sand  at the mouth of the     
river1 and enormous piles of it are     
accumulated on  the shores of every part
 of the lake40    ,not unfrequently it  
happens that these strata of vegetable  
matter1 with  the roots and trunks of   
trees1 their branches1 fruits1 and      
leaves1 more  or less perfectly         
preserved1 are covered over by          
subsequent deposits4  ,such             
accumulations1 we are assured by ,doctor
 ,mantell1 have been found  deep in the 
soil on the coast of ,england1 in places
 that are still  subject to periodical  
inundations4 8,the trees are chiefly of 
the oak1  hazel1 fir1 birch1 yew1       
willow1 and ash2 in short1 almost every 

kind  that is indigenous to this island 
occasionally occurs4 ,the trunks and    
branches are dyed throughout of a deep  
ebony color by iron2 and the  wood is   
firm and heavy1 and occasionally fit for
 domestic use2 in  ,yorkshire and       
elsewhere1 timber of this kind is       
sometimes employed in  the construction 
of houses40#fc ,here1 then1 is the first
 stage of  the conversion of wood into  
,coal1--a stratum more or less compacted
  together of vegetable matter1 spread  
out sometimes over the surface of  the  
dry land1 sometimes on the floor of     
lakes and estuaries1 and often  buried  
beneath an accumulation of subsequent   
deposits4    ,the next stage in the     
process of transformation may be        
represented by  those ,peat ,bogs which 
constitute one of the most remarkable   
physical  characteristics of ,ireland1  
covering as they do an area equal to    
one-tenth of the whole island4 ,in these
 the vegetable matter is more  closely  
condensed1 but the structure of the     

plants from which the  ,peat is derived 
is still preserved1 and may be          
distinctly recognized  by the naked eye4
 ,nay1 we have still the prostrate      
trunks of trees  lying around on every  
side as they fell to the ground in their
 ancient  forests4 ,the researches      
recently pursued upon this subject have 
brought  to light a fact which is very  
much to our present purpose2 for it     
seems to prove our thesis by direct     
evidence4 8,in ,limerick1 in the        
district of ,maine1 one of the ,states  
of ,north ,america1 there are ,peat     
,bogs of considerable extent1 in which a
 substance exactly similar to  cannel   
coal is found at the depth of three or  
four feet from the  surface amidst the  
remains of rotten logs of wood and      
beaver sticks3  the peat is twenty feet 
thick1 and rests upon white sand4 ,this 
coal  was discovered on digging a ditch 
to drain a portion of the bog1 for  the 
purpose of obtaining peat for manure4   
,the substance is a true  bituminous    

coal1 containing more bitumen than is   
found in any other  variety4 ,polished  
sections of the compact masses exhibit  
the peculiar  structure of coniferous   
trees1 and prove that the coal was      
derived from  a species allied to the   
,american ,fir40#fd ,a similar          
phenomenon was  observed by ,doctor     
,dieffenbach in the ,chathain ,islands4 
,in the same  bed of peat he was able   
distinctly to trace a gradual transition
 from  pure vegetable matter to a       
mineral substantially identical with    
common  coal4#fe    ,but though ,peat   
may thus1 as it should seem1 pass       
directly into pure  ,coal1 there are    
many cases in which it first assumes a  
more imperfect  form1 known under the   
name of ,lignite4 ,this substance is    
described  as of a brownish color1 8soft
 and mellow in consistence when freshly 
quarried1 but becoming brittle by       
exposure1 the fracture following  the   
direction of the fibre of the wood40#ff 
,it clearly occupies an  intermediate   

position between ,peat and ,coal4 ,like 
the former1 it still  exhibits the stems
 and woody fibre of the plants from     
which it is  derived1 very little       
altered in their structure2 while on the
 other  hand it is already beginning to 
acquire some of the consistency and     
density of ,coal2 to which also it      
approaches much more closely in its     
chemical composition4 ,it should be     
remembered1 moreover1 that ,lignite     
does not designate a substance of a     
fixed1 invariable character4 ,on the    
contrary1 under the one general name are
 comprised a definite number of         
varieties1 leading from one extreme to  
the other by a series of almost         
insensible gradations2 the extreme      
variety on one side being scarcely      
distinguishable from ,peat1 while the   
extreme variety on the other is         
practically identical with ordinary     
,coal4 ,it can hardly be doubted1       
therefore1 that ,coal must have the same
 origin as ,lignite1 while it is  at    

least equally certain that ,lignite has 
been derived from ,peat2 and  we have   
already seen what overwhelming evidence 
may be adduced to show  that the origin 
of ,peat is to be sought for in the     
sunken swamps and  forests of a long    
past age4    ,lastly1 when we come to   
examine the texture of ,coal itself1 we 
find  much to confirm the conclusion at 
which we have thus arrived4 ,in beds  of
 pure ,coal the remains of many species 
of plants have been detected1  and      
sometimes in such abundance as to       
constitute visibly the bulk of  the     
,coal4 ,even large trees are sometimes  
found standing erect in the  ,coal      
fields1 with their bark actually        
converted into this mineral4 ,the       
annexed ,figure represents a portion of 
the stem1 together with the  roots of a 
tall forest tree1 ,sigillaria1          
discovered not long ago in a  ,coal mine
 at ,saint ,helens1 near ,liverpool4    
,the stem1 which was nine  feet high1   
was found erect in the seam of ,coal1   

while the roots1 ten  in number1        
stretched away into the vegetable soil  
beneath4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#aa4--,stem and roots of a ,forest      
,tree1 ,sigillaria4  ,from a ,coal-mine1
 near ,liverpool4      a1 ,the trunk    
traversing a bed of ,coal4      b1 ,the 
roots spreading out in the underclay4   
,not less than thirty such trees1 some  
of them four or five feet in  diameter1 
and all incrusted with ,coal1 were laid 
bare a short time  since1 in a ,colliery
 near ,newcastle1 within an area of     
fifty yards  square4 8,in #ahcj10 writes
 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8a slanting trunk
 was  exposed in ,craigleith quarry1    
near ,edinburgh1 the total length of    
which  exceeded sixty feet4 ,its        
diameter at the top was about seven     
inches1  and near the base1 it measured 
five feet in its greater1 and two feet  
in its lesser1 width4 ,the bark was     
converted into a thin coating of  the   
purest and finest ,coal40 ,again1 8in   
,south ,staffordshire1 a seam of  ,coal 

was laid bare in the year #ahdd1 in what
 is called an open work  at ,parkfield  
,colliery1 near ,wolverhampton4 ,in the 
space of about a  quarter of an acre1   
the stumps of no less than seventy-three
 trees1  with their roots attached1     
appeared1 some of them more than eight  
feet  in circumference4 ,the trunks1    
broken off close to the root1 were lying
  prostrate in every direction1 often   
crossing each other4 ,one of them       
measured fifteen1 another thirty feet in
 length1 and others less4 ,they  were   
invariably flattened to the thickness of
 one or two inches1 and  converted into 
,coal4 ,their roots formed part of a    
stratum of ,coal ten  inches thick1     
which rested on a layer of clay two     
inches thick1 below  which was a second 
forest resting on a two-foot seam of    
,coal4 ,five feet  below this again was 
a third forest1 with large stumps of    
,lepidodendra1  ,calamites1 and other   
trees40#fg           99       99        
99       99       99    ,we have now    

brought to a close a very important line
 of argument in  the ,science of        
,geology4 ,we have pointed out that1 in 
the strata which  compose the ,crust of 
the ,earth1 there are rocks of various  
kinds1  distinguished from one another  
as well by the nature of the materials  
which compose them1 as by the manner in 
which these materials are  arranged     
together2 and we have shown that rocks  
presenting the same  general            
appearances1 and composed of exactly the
 same materials1 are  being produced in 
the present age upon the ,surface of the
 ,earth1  through the agency of natural 
causes4 ,moreover1 we have closely      
examined1 in certain cases1 the nature  
of the process by which the  formation  
of these rocks is accomplished at the   
present day2 and we  have seen how      
difficult it is1 when the facts of the  
case are once  clearly before us1 to    
resist the conclusion that the rocks    
which we now  find buried in the ,earth1
 were produced in some former age1 by   

the same  causes which are still at     
work4 ,we shall next proceed to inquire 
how  far this conclusion is confirmed by
 the independent evidence of ,fossil    
,remains4    ,but before entering on a  
new line of argument1 it is fit we      
should  take notice of an objection     
which has sometimes been urged against  
the  reasoning we have hitherto pursued1
 and which has done much to create  and 
to keep alive a prejudice unfavorable to
 the ,science of ,geology4  ,religious  
writers have not unfrequently           
insinuated1 and sometimes have  plainly 
asserted1 that1 in ascribing the present
 structure of the  ,earth's ,crust to   
the operation of natural causes1        
,geologists would  seem to make no      
account of ,god's ,omnipotence4 ,a      
moment's reflection  will convince the  
reader that this charge is utterly      
unphilosophical4  ,is it not plain that 
the more fully we appreciate and        
acknowledge the  wonderful works of     
,nature1 the more deeply must we become 

impressed  with the power and wisdom of 
,him who is the ,author and ,ruler of   
,nature8  ,to say that secondary causes 
exist1 and to point out the monuments   
that  bear witness to their operation in
 long passed ages1 is not to deny1  but 
rather to affirm the existence of a     
,great ,first ,cause1 upon whom  they   
all depend for their existence1 their   
preservation1 and their  guidance4      
,we are everywhere reminded by abundant 
evidence1 that it has pleased  the      
,great ,creator to employ the agency of 
,his creatures in the  fashioning and   
the adorning of this material universe4 
,he does not  create at once1 as ,he    
well might do1 the great oak of the     
forest2 but  ,he allows the seed to sink
 into the earth1 where it is watered by 
the  gentle dews of ,heaven1 and        
fructified by the genial warmth of the  
sun2  soon it puts forth a tender germ2 
the germ1 in time1 imbibing the         
elements of its support from the air and
 the earth1 becomes a sappling1  and the

 sappling a tree1 which spreads its huge
 branches on every side1  and serves for
 many purposes of ornament and of use4  
,or let us take  the case of the        
honeycomb1 that most curious and        
ingenious work1 at  once the palace and 
the storehouse of a vast and busy       
community4 ,it is  not produced in a    
moment by a simple act of creation4 ,god
 has not made  it ,himself1 but ,he has 
taught the bee to make it4 ,in like     
manner ,he  has provided for the little 
birds1 not by building their nests1 but 
by  infusing into their nature that     
mysterious instinct which prompts them  
to build1 and guides them in their work4
    ,geologists1 therefore1 when they   
undertake to explain the existence  of  
,stratified ,rocks1 not by the immediate
 action of the ,creator1 but  by the    
intervention of natural causes1 are not 
on that account to be  accused of       
impiety4 ,they do not disparage1 but    
rather magnify ,his  glory1 when they   
expatiate upon the endless variety of   

agents which1  according to their       
theory1 ,he has employed in the         
structure of the  material world4 ,if   
the honeycomb1 as a work of contrivance 
and design1  excites the wonder and     
admiration of the philosopher1 what must
 we  think of the contrivance and design
 exhibited by ,him who has made1 not    
the honeycomb only1 but the bee that    
builds the honeycomb8 ,and so1 too1  we 
get novel and unexpected views of ,god's
 ,omnipotence1 when1 through  the       
science of ,geology1 we come to         
understand the vast and harmonious      
series of secondary causes by which he  
has brought the ,crust of the  ,earth   
into its present form and shape4 ,the   
impress of ,his hand is  stamped upon   
,his works2 and all that is wonderful   
and attractive in  ,nature is but the   
token of ,his power and the shadow of   
,his beauty4 ,and  so our national poet 
has sung3        8,thou art1 ,o ,,god1  
the life and light        ,of all this  
wondrous world we see2      ,its glow by

 day1 its smile by night1        ,are   
but reflections caught from ,thee4      
,where'er we turn1 ,thy glories shine1  
,and all things fair and bright are     
,thine40    ,illustration               
,,chapter ,x4    ,,fossil               
,,remains--,,the ,,museum4              
,recapitulation--,scope of our          
argument--,theory of      stratified    
rocks the framework of geological       
science--,the      theory brings geology
 into contact with revelation--the      
line of reasoning hitherto pursued      
confirmed by the      testimony of      
fossil remains--,meaning of the word    
fossil--,inexhaustible abundance of     
fossils--,various states      of        
preservation--,petrifaction--,experiment
s of ,professor      ,gppert--,organic  
rocks afford some insight into the      
fossil      world--,the reality and     
significance of fossil remains must     
be learned from observation--,the       
,british ,museum--,colossal             
skeletons--,bones and shells of         

animals--,fossil plants and      trees4 
,reader1 you are beginning to suspect   
us4 #8,how long do we propose to  detain
 people8' ,for anything that appears we 
may be designing to write  on to the    
twentieth century4 #8,and whither are we
 going8' ,toward what  object8 which is 
as urgent a qure as1 how far8 ,perhaps  
we may be  leading you into treason4    
,you feel symptoms of doubt and         
restiveness2  and like ,hamlet with his 
father's ghost1 8you will follow us no  
further  unless we explain what it is   
that we are in quest of40    ,these     
words of ,thomas ,de ,quincey to his    
readers1 in the middle of one  of his   
discursive essays1 which1 interesting as
 they certainly are in  all their parts1
 yet sometimes beget a feeling of       
weariness from the  uncomfortable       
apprehension that they will not come to 
an end1 are1  perhaps1 scarcely less    
appropriate in our own case4 ,it may be 
that our  readers have been left too    
long in the uneasy state of suspense and

  hope deferred4 ,they came to our pages
 to look for a practical solution  of   
the question1 ,is ,geology at variance  
with the ,bible8 ,and what avails  it1  
they may ask1 to discourse to them of   
the ,gulf ,stream1 and ,rivers1  and    
,glaciers1 and ,alluvial ,plains1 and   
,coral ,rocks1 and ,coal ,mines8  ,with 
painful steps they have been toiling    
after us through tedious  disquisitions1
 straining their eyes to see the end1   
but the end is not  yet in sight4 ,well1
 then1 if they will rest for a few      
minutes by the  way1 we will pause1 too1
 and tell them what we are about1 and   
try to  bring out more clearly the      
object at which we are aiming4    ,our  
design from the beginning was to        
consider the points of contact  between 
,geology and ,revelation2 to examine the
 relations that exist  between these two
 departments of knowledge1--one resting 
upon reason  and observation1 the other 
given to us from ,heaven2 and to inquire
  how far it may be possible to adopt   

the conclusions of the former1  while we
 adhere1 at the same time1 with         
unswerving fidelity1 to the             
unchangeable truths of the latter4 ,with
 this end in view1 we proceeded  at once
 to sketch out the more prominent       
features of ,geological theory2  not the
 particular theory of one writer1 or of 
one school1 but that  more general      
theory which is adopted by all writers1 
and prevails in  every school4 ,this    
theory1 we were all well aware1 is in   
many points  widely at variance with the
 common notions of sensible and even    
well-informed men who have not devoted  
much attention to the study of          
,physical ,science4 ,and it occurred to 
us that1 possibly1 many of our  readers 
might be disposed to cut the controversy
 short by rejecting1  in a summary way1 
the whole system of ,geology1 and       
treating it as an  empty shadow or an   
idle dream4 ,this1 we were convinced1   
would be a  mistaken and mischievous    
course4 ,geology is not a house of cards

 that  it may be blown down by a breath4
 ,it is a hypothesis1 a theory1 if you  
will2 but no one can in fairness deny   
that behind this theory there are       
facts1--unexpected1 startling1          
significant facts2 that these facts1    
when considered in their relation to one
 another1 when illustrated  by the      
present phenomena of ,nature1 and       
skilfully grouped together1  as they    
have been by able men1 disclose certain 
general truths1 and  suggest certain    
arguments1 which do seem to point in the
 direction of  those conclusions at     
which ,geologists have arrived4    ,it  
follows that he who would investigate   
fairly the claims of ,geology1  must    
first learn to appreciate the           
significance of these facts1 and  to    
estimate the value of these arguments4  
,and this is precisely what  we have    
been trying to do4 ,we are not writing a
 treatise on ,geology4  ,certainly not3 
it would be presumptuous in us1 with our
 scanty  knowledge1 to attempt it4      

,besides1 ,geology has it own           
professors1 and  its lecture-halls1 and 
its manuals4 ,neither do we mean to     
assume the  character of the advocates  
or champions of ,geology4 ,it does not  
ask  our services2 in its cause are     
enrolled no small proportion of the     
most illustrious names which for the    
last fifty years have adorned the       
annals of ,physical ,science4 ,nor do we
 want even to enforce upon our  readers 
that more general theory of ,geology    
which we are endeavoring to  explain and
 illustrate4 ,our purpose is merely to  
collect from various  sources1 and to   
string together1 the evidence that may  
be adduced in  its favor2 that so1 when 
we come hereafter to consider this      
theory  in its relation with the        
,history of the ,bible1 we may not incur
 the  risk of discomfiture by denying   
that which has been proved by facts1    
but rather approach the subject with    
such knowledge as may help us to        
discover the real harmony that we know  

to exist between the truths  inscribed  
on the works of ,god1 and those which   
are recorded in ,his  ,written ,word4   
,in the accomplishment of this task we  
have devoted ourselves chiefly to  the  
study of the ,aqueous or ,stratified    
,rocks4 ,according to ,geologists1      
these rocks1 such as we find them now1  
were not the immediate work of          
creation1 but were slowly produced in   
the long lapse of ages1 and laid  out   
one above another1 by a vast and complex
 machinery of secondary  causes4 ,the   
elements of which they are composed were
 gathered together  from many and       
various sources2 from the ocean1 from   
the air1 from other  pre-existing rocks2
 and1 for aught we know1 may have had a 
long and  eventful history before they  
came to assume their present structure  
and arrangement4 ,thus1 for example1 the
 ,conglomerates1 and ,sandstones1  with 
which we are so familiar1 are made up of
 broken fragments derived  from earlier 
rocks1 and then transported to distant  

sites by the  mountain torrents1 or the 
stately rivers of vast continents1 or   
the  silent currents of the sea2 the    
,limestone with which we build our      
houses is the work of living animals    
that once swarmed in countless  myriads 
beneath the waters of the ocean2 and the
 ,coal which supplies  the motive power 
to our manufactories1 our railways1 our 
ships of war  and commerce1 is but the  
modern representative of ancient swamps 
and  forests1 which1 having been buried 
in the earth1 and there1 by the  action 
of chemical laws1 endowed with new      
properties1 were laid by for  the future
 use of man in the great storehouse of  
,nature4    ,this mode of accounting for
 the origin and formation of ,stratified
  ,rocks constitutes in a manner the    
framework that supports and binds       
together the whole system of ,geology4  
,if it be once fairly established1      
,geology is entitled to take high rank  
as a ,physical ,science4 ,if on  the    
contrary it should prove to be without  

foundation1 then ,geology  is no longer 
a science1 but a dream4 ,moreover1 it is
 this theory of  stratification which1  
from the first1 has brought ,geology    
into contact  with ,revelation4 ,for    
,geologists have been led to infer the  
extreme  ,antiquity of the ,earth1 from 
the immense thickness of the ,stratified
  ,rocks on the one hand1 and1 on the   
other1 the very slow and gradual        
process by which each stratum in the    
series has been1 in its turn1  spread   
out and consolidated4 ,those likewise   
who claim for the ,human  ,race a       
greater ,antiquity than the ,bible      
allows1 seek for their proofs  in the   
supposed origin and antiquity of those  
superficial deposits1 in  which the     
remains of ,man or of his works are     
sometimes found entombed4    ,it is not 
to be wondered at1 therefore1 that the  
theory of ,stratified  ,rocks should    
engage the largest share of our         
attention when we  undertake to discuss 
the relation in which ,geology stands to

 ,revealed  ,religion4 ,for the present 
we say nothing about the conclusions    
that  flow from this theory1 or the     
errors to which it has led when hastily 
or ignorantly applied3 we are only      
investigating the evidence by which  it 
is supported4 ,in our former chapters we
 have drawn out at some  length the line
 of reasoning which is derived from the 
character of  the ,aqueous ,rocks       
themselves when considered in the light 
of ,nature's  present operations4 ,we   
have shown that ,stratified ,rocks of   
many  different kinds1 just such as     
those which compose the ,crust of the   
,earth1 have been produced by natural   
causes within historic times2 and  we   
have explained some of the more simple  
and intelligible parts of  that complex 
machinery1 which1 even now1 is busily at
 work gathering1  sorting1 distributing1
 piling up together1 and consolidating  
the  materials of new strata all over   
the world4 ,these considerations1 as  we
 took occasion to point out1 beget a    

strong presumption in favor  of         
,geological theory4 ,here we have       
,nature at work1 actually bringing  into
 existence a stratum of rock before our 
eyes4 ,and there1 in the  ,crust of the 
,earth1 we find another stratum of      
precisely the same kind  already        
finished4 ,what can be more reasonable  
than to ascribe the one  to the action  
of the same causes which we see at work 
upon the other8  ,and thus1 by extending
 the area of our observations from one  
class  of ,aqueous ,rocks to another1   
the idea gradually grows upon us that   
these rocks have been spread out1       
stratum upon stratum1 during many       
successive ages1 by the agency of       
secondary causes similar to those  which
 are still in operation2 and that each  
stratum1 in its turn1 as it  first came 
into existence1 was for a time the      
uppermost of the series4    ,in support 
of this conclusion we are now about to  
bring forward a new  and independent    
argument founded on the testimony of    

,fossil ,remains4 ,an  eminent writer   
has summed up in a few words the value  
and importance  of ,fossil ,remains in  
reference to ,geological theory4 8,at   
present10  he says1 8shells1 fishes1 and
 other animals are buried in the mud or 
silt of lakes and estuaries2 rivers also
 carry down the carcases of  land       
animals1 the trunks of trees1 and other 
vegetable drift2 and  earthquakes       
submerge plains and islands1 with all   
their vegetable and  animal inhabitants4
 ,these remains become enveloped in the 
layers of mud  and sand and gravel      
formed by the waters1 and in process of 
time are  petrified1 that is1 are       
converted into stony matter like the    
shells  and bones found in the oldest   
strata4 ,now1 as at present1 so in all  
former time must the remains of plants  
and animals have been similarly         
preserved2 and1 as one tribe of plant is
 peculiar to the dry plain1  another to 
the swampy morass2 as one family belongs
 to a temperate1  another to a tropical 

region1 so1 from the character of the   
embedded  plants1 we are enabled to     
arrive at some knowledge of the         
conditions  under which they flourished4
 ,in the same manner with animals3 each 
tribe has its locality assigned it by   
peculiarities of food1 climate1  and the
 like2 each family has its own peculiar 
structure for running1  flying1         
swimming1 plant-eating1 or flesh-eating1
 as the case may be2  and by comparing  
,fossil ,remains with existing races1 we
 are enabled to  determine many of the  
past conditions of the world with       
considerable  certainty40#fh    ,on this
 branch of our subject we do not mean to
 offer much in the  way of argument     
strictly so called4 ,we shall content   
ourselves  with a simple statement of   
facts1 and leave them to produce their  
own impression4 ,it will be necessary at
 the outset to explain some  technical  
matters1 that what we have to say       
hereafter may be the better  understood3
 and if in this we are somewhat dry and 

tiresome1 we will  try to make amends by
 the curious and interesting story of   
,nature's  long buried works1 which we  
hope in the sequel to unfold4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,when the word ,fossil was first        
introduced into the ,english language1  
it was employed to designate1 as the    
etymology suggests1 whatever is  dug out
 of the earth4#fi ,but it is now        
generally used in a much  more          
restricted sense1 being applied only to 
the remains of plants  and animals      
embedded in the ,crust of the ,earth and
 there preserved  by natural causes4    
,when we speak of remains1 we must be   
understood  to include even those       
seemingly transient impressions1 such as
  foot-prints in the sand1 which having 
been made permanent by accidental       
circumstances1 and thus engraved1 as it 
were1 on the archives of  ,nature1 now  
bear witness to the former existence of 
organic life4    ,now in every part of  
the world where the ,stratified ,rocks  

have been  laid open to view1 remains of
 this kind are found scattered on all   
sides in the most profuse abundance4 ,in
 ,europe1 in ,america1 in  ,australia1  
in the frozen wastes of ,siberia1 in the
 countless islands  scattered over the  
waters of the ,pacific1 there is        
scarcely a single  formation1 from the  
lowest in the series to the highest1    
that1 when it  is fairly explored1 does 
not yield up vast stores of shells1     
together  with bones and teeth1 nay1    
sometimes whole skeletons of animals2   
also  fragments of wood1 impressions of 
leaves1 and other organic substances4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,fossil     
,irish ,deer 7,county ,fermanagh74 ,in  
the  ,museum of ,trinity ,college1      
,dublin4 ,from ,haughton's ,manual of   
,geology    ,these ,fossil ,remains do  
not always occur in the same state of   
preservation4 ,sometimes we have the    
bone1 or plant1 or shell1 in its        
natural condition2 still retaining not  
only its own peculiar form and          

structure1 but likewise the very same   
organic substance of which it was       
originally composed4 ,examples          
innumerable may be seen in the ,british 
,museum1 or1 indeed1 in almost any      
,geological collection3 the fine        
skeletons of ancient ,irish ,deer1 which
 are exhibited in the ,museum of        
,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and of which
 all the bones are in excellent         
preservation1 must be familiar to many  
of our readers4    ,it happens1 however1
 more frequently that the organic       
substance itself  has disappeared1 but  
has left an impression on the rock1 that
 now  bears witness to its former       
presence4 ,thus1 for instance1 when a   
shell  has been dissolved and carried   
away by water percolating the rock1  it 
has very often left after it1 on the    
hard stone1 a mould of its  outer       
surface and a cast of its inner surface1
 with a cavity between  corresponding to
 the thickness of the shell4 ,in such   
cases we have  the form1 the size1 and  

the superficial markings of the organic 
body1  but we have no part of its       
original substance1 and no traces of its
  internal structure4 ,this form of     
fossilization1 as ,sir ,charles ,lyell  
has well put it1 8may be easily         
understood if we examine the mud        
recently thrown out from a pond or canal
 in which there are shells4  ,if the mud
 be argillaceous1 it acquires           
consistency in drying1 and  on breaking 
open a portion of it1 we find that each 
shell has left  impressions of its      
external form4 ,if we then remove the   
shell itself1  we find within a solid   
nucleus of clay1 having the form of the 
interior  of the shell40#gj ,in many    
cases the space first occupied by the   
shell  is not left empty when the shell 
has been removed1 but is filled up  with
 some mineral substance1 such as lime or
 flint4 ,the mineral thus  introduced   
becomes the exact counterpart of the    
organic body which  has disappeared2 and
 has been justly compared to a bronze   

statue1  which exhibits the exterior    
form and lineaments1 but not the        
internal  organization nor the substance
 of the object it represents4    ,there 
is a third form more wonderful still1 in
 which ,fossil ,remains  are not        
uncommonly found4 ,the original body has
 passed away as in the  former case1 and
 yet not only does its outward shape    
remain1 but even  its internal texture  
is perfectly preserved in the solid     
stone which  has taken its place4 ,this 
kind of change is exhibited most        
remarkably  in the vegetable kingdom4   
,fossil trees of great size have been   
discovered of which the whole substance 
has been changed from wood  to stone3   
yet with such exquisite skill has the   
change been effected  that the minute   
cells and fibres1 and the rings of      
annual growth1 may  still be clearly    
traced2 nay1 even those delicate spiral 
vessels which1  from their extreme      
minuteness1 can be discerned only by the
 aid of the  microscope4 ,thus the tree 

remains complete in all its parts2 but  
it is  no longer a tree of wood2 it is1 
so to speak1 a tree of stone4    ,the   
mystery of this extraordinary           
transformation has not yet been  fully  
cleared up by scientific men2 but the   
general principle1 at  least1 is        
sufficiently understood4 ,it is thus    
briefly explained by  ,sir ,charles     
,lyell3 8,if an organic substance is    
exposed in the open  air to the action  
of the sun and rain1 it will in time    
putrefy1 or be  dissolved into its      
component elements1 consisting usually  
of oxygen1  hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and     
carbon4 ,these will readily be absorbed 
by the  atmosphere or be washed away by 
rain1 so that all vestiges of the dead  
animal or plant disappear4 ,but if the  
same substances be submerged  in water1 
they decompose more gradually2 and if   
buried in the earth1  still more slowly1
 as in the familiar example of wooden   
piles or  other buried timber4 ,now1 if 
as fast as each particle is set free by 

putrefaction in a fluid or gaseous      
state1 a particle equally minute of     
carbonate of lime1 flint1 or other      
mineral is at hand and ready to be      
precipitated1 we may imagine this       
inorganic matter to take the place  just
 before left unoccupied by the organic  
molecule4 ,in this manner  a cast of the
 interior of certain vessels may first  
be taken1 and  afterward the more solid 
walls of the same may decay and suffer a
 like  transmutation40#ga ,this         
exposition1 so simple and luminous in   
itself1  may1 perhaps1 be rendered still
 more intelligible to the general reader
  by an ingenious illustration of ,mr4  
,jukes4 8,it is10 he says1 8as if  a    
house were gradually rebuilt1 brick by  
brick1 or stone by stone1 a  brick or a 
stone of a different kind having been   
substituted for each  of the former     
ones1 the shape and size of the house1  
the forms and  arrangements of its      
rooms1 passages1 and closets1 and even  
the number  and shape of the bricks and 

stones1 remaining unaltered40#gb        
,this singular kind of petrifaction1 by 
which not only the external  form1 but  
even the organic tissue itself1 is      
converted into stone1  has been         
illustrated1 in a very interesting way1 
by ,professor ,gppert  of ,breslau4     
,with a view to imitate as nearly as he 
could the process  of ,nature1 8he      
steeped a variety of animal and         
vegetable substances  in waters1 some   
holding siliceous1 others calcareous1   
others metallic  matter in solution4 ,he
 found that in the period of a few      
weeks1 or even  days1 the organic bodies
 thus immersed were mineralized to a    
certain  extent4 ,thus1 for example1    
thin vertical slices of deal1 taken from
 the  ,scotch fir1 were immersed in a   
moderately strong solution of sulphate  
of iron4 ,when they had been thoroughly 
soaked in the liquid for several  days1 
they were dried and exposed to a red    
heat until the vegetable  matter was    
burnt up and nothing remained but an    

oxide of iron1 which  was found to have 
taken the form of the deal so exactly   
that casts even  of the dotted vessels  
peculiar to this family of plants were  
distinctly  visible under the           
microscope40#gc           99       99   
99       99       99    ,if we have     
succeeded in making ourselves           
understood1 the reader will  now have a 
pretty accurate notion of what is meant1
 in modern ,geology1  by ,fossil        
,remains4 ,they are the remains or      
impressions of plants and  animals1     
buried in the earth by natural causes1  
and preserved to our  time in any one of
 the three forms we have just described4
 ,either  the body itself remains1 still
 retaining its own natural substance1   
together with its external form and its 
internal structure4 ,or  secondly1 the  
organic substance and the organic       
structure have both  disappeared1 but   
the outward form and the superficial    
markings have  been left impressed on   
the solid rock4 ,or thirdly1 the        

substance of the  body has been         
converted into stone1 but with such a   
delicate art1 that  it is in all        
respects1 outwardly and inwardly1 still 
the same body1  with a new substance4   
,we should observe1 however1 that these 
three  different forms of fossilization1
 which we have successively described1  
are not always clearly distinct in      
actual fossil specimens1 but are  often 
curiously blended together according as 
the original organic  substance has been
 more or less completely displaced1 or  
the process of  petrifaction has been   
more or less perfectly accomplished4    
,it will probably have occurred to the  
intelligent reader that we have  already
 had some insight into the ,fossil      
world1 when investigating the  origin of
 ,organic ,rocks4 ,we have seen1 for    
instance1 that ,coal is the             
representative to our age of swamps and 
forests which once covered the  earth   
with vegetation2 that ,mountain         
,limestone is in great part formed  from

 the skeletons of reef-building corals2 
that the ,white ,chalk of  ,europe is   
almost entirely derived from the remains
 of marine shells4  ,but it should be   
observed that these and such like rocks1
 while they  afford us much valuable    
information about the ancient organic   
condition  of our planet1 are not1      
strictly speaking1 ,fossil ,remains4    
,for1 not  only does the substance of   
the organic bodies they represent       
exhibit  an altered character1 but the  
internal structure has been in great    
part effaced1 and even the outward forms
 and superficial markings have          
disappeared4 ,they contain1 it is true1 
great multitudes of ,fossils4  ,in the  
,coal1 for example1 are found1 as we    
have seen1 trunks of trees1  together   
with the impressions of plants and      
leaves3 in the ,chalk and  ,mountain    
,limestone1 fragments of shells and     
corals are often discovered  in a state 
of perfect preservation4 ,but the bulk  
of these formations  is made up not so  

much of ,fossil ,remains1 as of that    
into which ,fossil  ,remains have been  
converted4 ,coal1 for instance1 is      
something more than  ,fossil wood2      
,chalk1 and ,limestone1 and ,marble1 are
 something more than  ,fossil shells and
 corals4    ,fossil ,remains properly so
 called present a very much more lively 
picture of the ancient inhabitants of   
our ,globe4 ,but it is a picture  that  
can but faintly be conveyed to the mind 
by the way of mere  verbal description4 
,he who would appreciate aright the     
reality and  the significance of ,fossil
 ,remains must gather his impressions   
from  actual observation4 ,let him go1  
for instance1 to the ,british ,museum1  
and walk slowly through the long suite  
of noble galleries which are  there     
exclusively devoted to this branch of   
science4 ,he will feel  as if           
transported into another world1 the     
reality of which he could  scarcely have
 believed if he had not seen it with his
 own eyes4 ,before  him1 and behind him1

 and on each side of him1 as he moves   
along1 are  spread out in long array    
forms of beasts1 and birds1 and fish1   
and  amphibious animals1 such as he has 
never seen before1 nor dreamt of in  his
 wildest dreams4 ,yet much as he may    
wonder at these strange figures1  he    
never for a moment doubts that they were
 once indued with life1 and  moved over 
the surface of the earth1 or disported  
in the waters of  the deep4 ,nay more1  
though the forms are new to him1 he will
 be at no  loss1 however inexperienced  
in ,natural ,history1 to find many      
analogies  between the creation in the  
midst of which he stands1 and the       
creation  with which he has been        
hitherto familiar4 ,there are           
quadrupeds1 and  bipeds1 and reptiles4  
,some of the animals were manifestly    
designed to  walk on dry land1 some to  
swim in the sea1 and some to fly in the 
air4  ,some are armed with claws like   
the lion or the tiger1 others have the  
paddles of a turtle1 and others again   

have the fins of a fish4 ,here is  an   
enormous beast that might almost pass   
for an elephant1 though an  experienced 
eye will not fail to detect an important
 difference2 and  there is an amphibious
 monster that suggests the idea of a    
crocodile2  and again a little further  
on is an unsightly creature which unites
  the general characteristics of the    
diminutive sloth with the colossal      
proportions of the largest rhinoceros4  
,if left to mere conjecture1 the visitor
 would perhaps suppose that  these      
uncouth monsters had been brought       
together by some adventurous  traveller 
from the remote regions of the world4   
,but no3 he will  find on inquiry that  
the vast majority belong to species     
which for  centuries have not been known
 to flourish on the ,earth2 and that    
many  of the strangest forms before him 
have been dug up almost from beneath    
the very soil on which he stands1--from 
the quarries of ,surrey1 of  ,sussex1   
and of ,kent1 and from the deep cuttings

 on the many lines of  railway that     
diverge from the great metropolis of    
,london4 ,the life  they represent so   
vividly is1 indeed1 widely different    
from that which  flourishes around us2  
but it is the life not so much of a far 
distant  country as of a far distant    
age4    ,it must not be supposed1       
however1 that such skeletons as those   
which  first arrest the eye in the      
galleries of the ,british ,museum--so   
colossal in their proportions and so    
complete in all their  details--fairly  
exhibit the general character of ,fossil
 ,remains4  ,perfect skeletons of       
gigantic animals are rarely to be found4
 ,they are  the exception and not the   
general rule1--the magnificent reward of
 long  and toilsome exploration1 or1 it 
may be1 the chance discovery that       
brings wealth to the humble home of some
 rustic laborer4 ,very different  are   
the common every day discoveries of the 
working ,geologist4  ,disjointed bones  
and skulls1 scattered teeth1 fragments  

of shells1  the eggs of birds1 the      
impressions of leaves1--these are the   
ordinary  relics that ,nature has stored
 up for our instruction in the various  
strata of the ,earth's ,crust3 and these
 likewise constitute by far  the greater
 part of the treasures which are        
gathered together in our  ,geological   
,museums4    ,we will suppose1 then1    
that the visitor has gratified his sense
 of  wonder in gazing at the larger and 
more striking forms1 few in number1     
that rise up prominently before him1 and
 seem to stare at him in return  from   
their hollow sockets3 he must next turn 
his attention to the cases  that stand  
against the walls1 and to the cabinets  
that stretch along  the galleries in    
distant perspective4 ,let him survey    
that multitude of  bones of every shape 
and size1 and those countless legions of
 shells1  and then try to realize to his
 mind what a profusion and variety of   
animal life are here represented4 ,and  
yet he must remember that this  is but a

 single collection4 ,there are thousands
 of others1 public and  private1        
scattered over ,england1 ,france1       
,germany1 ,italy1 and beyond  the       
,atlantic1 on the continent of ,america1
 and even in ,australia2 all  of which  
have been furnished from a few isolated 
spots1--scarcely more  than specks on   
the surface of the ,globe1--where the   
interior of the  ,earth's ,crust has    
chanced to be laid open to the          
explorations of the  ,geologist4        
,lastly1 before he leaves this splendid 
gallery1 let him take a passing  glance 
at the ,organic ,remains of the         
vegetable world4 ,there is no  mistaking
 the forms here presented to his view4  
,he will recognize  at once the massive 
and lofty trunks of forest trees with   
their  spreading branches2 the tender   
foliage of the lesser plants2 and1 in   
particular1 the graceful fern1 which    
cannot fail to attract his eye by  its  
unrivalled luxuriance4 ,but if the forms
 are familiar1 how strange  is the      

substance1 of this ancient vegetation6  
,the forest tree has been  turned into  
sandstone2 many of the plants are of the
 hardest flint2  and the rich green of  
the fern has given place to the jet     
black color  of coal4 ,let him take a   
magnifying glass and scrutinize the     
internal  structure of these mineralized
 remains2 for the more closely they are 
examined the more wonderful do they     
appear4 ,he can observe without         
difficulty their minute cells and       
fibres1 the exact counterpart of  those 
which may be seen in the plants that are
 now growing upon the  earth2 he may    
detect the little seed-vessels on the   
under surface of  the coaly fern2 nay1  
if he gets a polished transverse section
 of the  sandstone tree1 he may count   
the rings that mark its annual growth1  
and  tell the age it attained in its    
primeval forest4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ac4--;,fossil ,wood1 from the         
,carboniferous ,limestone  of ,mayo1    
showing the rings of ,annual ,growth4   

,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,,fossil             
,,remains--,,the ,,exploration4         
,from the museum to the quarry--,fossil 
fish in the limestone      rocks of     
,monte ,bolca--,in the quarries of      
,aix--,in the chalk      of             
,sussex--,the ichthyosaurus or fish-like
 lizard--,gigantic      dimensions of   
this ancient monster--,its predatory    
habits--,the plesiosaurus--,the         
megatherium or great wild               
beast--,history of its discovery--,the  
mylodon--,profusion      of fossil      
shells--,petrified trees erect in the   
limestone      rock of                  
,portland--,fossil plants of the coal   
measures--,the      sigillaria--,the    
fern--,the calamite--,the               
lepidodendron--,coal      mine of       
,treuil--,fossil remains afford         
undeniable evidence      of former      
animal and vegetable life--,their       
existence cannot      be accounted for  
by the plastic power of nature--,nor can

 it      reasonably be ascribed to a    
special act of creation4      ,from the 
galleries of the ,museum we must now    
descend into the  subterranean recesses 
of the mine and the quarry4 ,for it is  
not enough  to be familiar with the     
appearance of ,fossil ,remains1 as they 
are laid  out for show by human hands3  
we must see them also as they lie       
embedded  in the successive strata of   
the ,earth's ,crust1 which are the      
shelves  of ,nature's cabinet4 ,we shall
 begin with the celebrated quarries of  
,monte ,bolca1 in ,northern ,italy1 not 
far from ,verona4 ,here1 in the hard    
limestone rock1 fifty miles from the    
nearest sea1 entire skeletons  of many  
different species of fish are found     
embedded in profuse  abundance1 and in a
 wonderful state of preservation4 ,they 
lie parallel  to the layers of the rock2
 and1 though flattened by pressure1     
still  retain their scales1 bones1 fins1
 nay1 even their muscular tissue1       
undisturbed and unharmed4 ,their color  

is a deep brown1 which forms  a         
remarkable contrast with the creamy hue 
of the limestone in which  they are     
enveloped4 ,the quarries have been      
worked only by students of  ,natural    
,history for the sake of ,organic       
remains1 and are1 therefore1  of very   
limited extent2 yet so abundant are     
these fossil treasures  that upward of a
 hundred different species have been    
discovered1  and thousands of specimens 
have been dispersed over the cabinets   
of ,europe4 ,so closely are they        
sometimes packed together that many     
individuals are contained in a single   
block4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#ad4--,platax ,papilio4    ,from the    
limestone of ,monte ,bolca4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,semiophorus 
,velicans4 ,from the limestone of       
,monte ,bolca4    ,from these facts     
,geologists have been led to            
conclude3--that the  strata in question 
were deposited on the bed of an ancient 
sea in  which these fishes swam2 that   

the waters of the sea were suddenly     
rendered noxious1 probably by the       
eruption of volcanic matter2 that the   
fishes in consequence perished in large 
numbers1 and were then almost           
immediately embedded in the calcareous  
deposits of which the strata  are       
composed4 ,these views receive no small 
confirmation from a very  remarkable    
phenomenon to which we may be allowed1  
in passing1 to call  attention4 ,in the 
year #ahca a volcanic island was        
suddenly thrown up in  the              
,mediterranean between ,sicily and the  
,african coast2 and the waters  of the  
sea were at the same time observed to be
 charged with a red mud  over a very    
wide area1 while hundreds of dead fish  
were seen floating  on the surface4 ,is 
it not pretty plain that when the mud   
subsided many  of the fish were         
enveloped in the deposit1 and thus      
preserved to future  times8 ,if so1     
then1 we should have an exact modern    
parallel to the  fossil fishes of ,monte

 ,bolca4 ,but for the present it is our 
purpose  rather to describe facts than  
to develop theories4#gd    ,near the    
town of ,aix1 the ancient capital of    
,provence1 in the south  of ,france1 is 
a group of strata1 consisting chiefly of
 ,conglomerate1  ,marl1 ,gypsum1 and    
,limestone1 which has earned for itself 
no small fame  in the annals of         
,geology4 ,besides many curious relics  
of an extinct  vegetation1 these strata 
yield also an abundance of ,fossil      
,insects1  which emerge from the rocky  
bed in which they have slept for ages1  
with  a surprising freshness and a      
life-like reality4 ,but the quarries of 
,aix1 like those of ,monte ,bolca1 are  
chiefly famous for their ,fossil  ,fish4
 ,and in this case1 too1 as in the      
former1 it would seem as if vast        
multitudes had suddenly perished        
together from some mysterious cause1    
and were then as suddenly entombed4     
,they exhibit no mark of mechanical     
violence3 and yet they are found1 not   

unfrequently1 crowded together  as      
closely as they can fit1 in every       
variety of position1 on the same  slab  
of limestone4 ,a good example of such a 
block is represented in our  woodcut4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,fossil     
,fish from ,aix4    ,the ,white ,chalk  
,rock of ,sussex has been rendered      
classical to the  students of ,geology  
by the skilful and laborious researches 
of the late  ,doctor ,mantell4 ,previous
 to his time the ,fish of the ,chalk    
were known  only by their teeth and     
bones1 which abounded in every quarry4  
,but he  succeeded in bringing to light 
many whole skeletons1 and disengaging   
them without injury from their chalky   
envelopment4 ,in many cases these       
,fossil ,fish appear to have suffered   
little from compression3 the body  still
 retains its rounded form2 and even the 
most delicate scales and  fins are as   
little disturbed or distorted as if the 
original had been  surrounded by soft   
,plaster of ,paris while floating in the

 water4 ,for  many years ,doctor        
,mantell devoted himself1 with          
indefatigable zeal1  to the gathering of
 these interesting remains2 and his     
magnificent  collection now adorns the  
,galleries of the ,british ,museum4 ,in 
the  annexed illustration is figured a  
specimen belonging to one of the  most  
abundant species4 ,it is closely allied 
to the common perch2 and  is popularly  
called ,johnny ,dory by the quarrymen of
 ,sussex1 but is  entitled ,beryx       
,lewesiensis by the learned4#ge         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,beryx      
,lewesiensis1 from the ,chalk1 near     
,lewes4    ,from ,fossil ,fish we now   
turn to ,fossil ,reptiles4 ,many of our 
readers  have1 perhaps1 heard or read   
something about an important group of   
rocks known by the name of the ,lias4   
,this formation is well developed  in   
,england1 and has received much         
attention from ,geologists4 ,it         
stretches in a belt of varying width    
from ,whitby on the coast of  ,yorkshire

 to ,lyme ,regis on the coast of        
,dorsetshire2 passing in its  course    
through the counties of ,leicester1     
,warwick1 ,gloucester1 and  ,somerset4  
,it is composed chiefly of ,limestone1  
,marl1 and ,clay2 and is  celebrated for
 the number and size of its great       
,fossil ,reptiles4 ,of  these the most  
remarkable is the ,ichthyosaurus or     
,fish-like ,lizard4    ,this monster of 
the ancient seas combined1 as its name  
denotes1 the  essential characters of a 
reptile with the form and habits of a   
fish4  ,no such creature has been known 
to exist within historic times2         
nevertheless1 all the various parts of  
its complicated structure  have their   
analogies1 more or less perfect1 in the 
present creation4  ,it had the head of a
 ,lizard1 the beak of a ,porpoise1 the  
teeth of a  ,crocodile1 the back bone of
 a ,fish1 and the paddles of a ,whale4  
,in  length it sometimes exceeded thirty
 feet2 it had a short thick neck1  an   
enormous stomach1 a long and powerful   

tail4 ,this last appendage1  together   
with four great paddles or fins1        
constituted the chief organs  of motion4
 ,but of all its parts the head was     
perhaps the most wonderful  and         
characteristic4 ,in the larger species  
the jaws were six feet long1  and were  
armed with two rows of conical          
sharp-pointed teeth1--a hundred  below1 
a hundred and ten above4 ,the cavities  
in which the eyes were set  measured    
often fourteen inches across1 and the   
eyeballs themselves must  have been     
larger than a man's head4    ,now what  
we want particularly to impress upon our
 readers is1 that  the remains of this  
singular aquatic reptile abound         
throughout the  whole extent of the     
,lias ,formation in ,england4 ,far down 
below the  surface of the earth they are
 found embedded in the marls1 and clays1
  and limestones of ,dorsetshire1 and   
,gloucester1 and ,warwick1 and          
,leicester1 and ,yorkshire4 ,sometimes  
whole skeletons are found entire1  with 

scarcely a single bone removed from the 
place it occupied during  life2 but more
 frequently the scattered fragments are 
found lying  about in a state of        
confused disorder2 skulls1 and          
jaw-bones1 and  teeth1 and paddles1 and 
the joints of the vertebral column and  
of the  tail4 ,the neighborhood of ,lyme
 ,regis is a perfect cabinet of these   
curious treasures4 ,in some of the      
specimens there exhumed1 a singular     
circumstance has been observed1 which is
 deserving of special notice4  ,we      
should naturally have expected1 from the
 prodigious power of this  animal1 from 
the expansion of his jaws and the       
immense size of his  stomach1 that he   
preyed upon the other fish and reptiles 
that had the  misfortune to inhabit the 
waters in which he lived4 ,and so indeed
 it  was4 ,for here enclosed within his 
vast ribs1 in the place that once was   
his stomach1 are still preserved the    
remains of his half-digested food2  and 
amidst the dbris we can distinguish the 

bones and scales of his  victims4 ,nay1 
in some of the more colossal specimens  
of this ancient  monster1 we can        
distinctly recognize the remains of his 
own smaller  brethren2 which1 though    
less frequent than the bones of fishes1 
are  still sufficiently numerous to     
prove that1 when he wanted to appease   
his hunger1 he did not even spare the   
less powerful members of his own        
species4#gf    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ah4--;,ichthyosaurus ,platyodon4       
,museum of ,trinity  ,college1 ,dublin4 
,found in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1    
,dorsetshire4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ai4--;,ichthyosaurus ,communis4 ,museum
 of ,trinity  ,college1 ,dublin4 ,found 
in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1           
,dorsetshire4    ,it is with facts like 
these1 which are revealed by the ,crust 
of the  ,earth all over the world1 that 
,geologists are called upon to deal4    
,when  they meet with skeletons and     
bones such as we have been describing1  
buried deep in the hard rock1 hundreds  

of feet beneath the green grass1  and   
the waving corn1 they cannot help but   
ask the question3 ,where did  these     
creatures come from8 ,when did they     
live8 ,and by what revolutions  were    
they embedded here1 and lifted up from  
beneath the waters of the  deep8    ,in 
the same formation are found the remains
 of another ancient  reptile1 called the
 ,plesiosaurus1 that is to say1 nearly  
allied to  the ,lizard4 ,of this        
extraordinary monster ,cuvier observed  
that its  structure was the most        
singular and anomalous that1 up to his  
time1  had been discovered amid the     
ruins of the ancient world4 ,it is      
chiefly distinguished from the          
,ichthyosaurus1 to which it has no small
  affinity1 by the enormous length of   
its neck1 which1 in some species1       
resembles the body of a serpent4 ,dr4   
,buckland tells us that in the          
,plesiosaurus ,dolichodeirus the neck is
 longer than the trunk2 the one  being  
five times1 the other only four times1  

as long as the head4 ,our  illustration1
 for which we are indebted to the       
kindness of ,doctor  ,haughton1         
represents a fine specimen of           
,plesiosaurus ,cramptonii1 which  was   
found in the ,lias ,beds of ,kettleness1
 near ,whitby1 in ,yorkshire1  and which
 is now a prominent object in the       
,museum of the ,royal ,dublin  ,society4
    ,the habits and character of the    
,plesiosaurus have been thus sketched   
out by ,mr4 ,conybeare3--8,that it was  
aquatic is evident1 from the form  of   
its paddles2 that it was marine is      
almost equally so1 from the  remains    
with which it is universally associated2
 that it may have  occasionally visited 
the shore1 the resemblance of its       
extremities to  those of the turtle may 
lead us to conjecture4 ,its motion1     
however1  must have been very awkward on
 land2 its long neck must have impeded  
its progress through the water2         
presenting a striking contrast to the   
organization which so admirably fits the

 ,ichthyosaurus to cut through  the     
waves4 ,may it not therefore be         
concluded 7since1 in addition to  these 
circumstances1 its respiration must have
 required frequent access  of air71 that
 it swam upon or near the surface2      
arching back its long  neck like the    
swan1 and occasionally darting it down  
at the fish which  happened to float    
within its reach4 ,it may perhaps have  
lurked in shoal  water along the coast  
concealed among the sea-weed1 and       
raising its  nostrils to a level with   
the surface from a considerable depth1  
may  have found a secure retreat from   
the assaults of dangerous enemies2      
while the length and flexibility of its 
neck may have compensated for  the want 
of strength in its jaws1 and its        
incapacity for swift motion  through the
 water1 by the suddenness and agility of
 the attack which  they enabled it to   
make on every animal fitted for its     
prey1 which came  within its reach40#gg 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,plesiosaurus

 ,cramptonii4 ,museum of the ,royal     
,dublin ,society4    ,the ,pampas of    
,south ,america are not less famous in  
,geology for the  remains of ,gigantic  
quadrupeds1 than the ,lias of ,england  
for its  colossal marine reptiles4      
,these vast undulating plains1 which    
present  to the eye for nine hundred    
miles a waving sea of grass1 consist    
chiefly of stratified beds of gravel and
 reddish mud2 and it is in  these beds  
that the remains of many unshapely but  
powerful terrestrial  animals have been 
found embedded4 ,so abundant are they1  
that it is said  a line drawn in any    
direction through the country would cut 
through  some skeleton or bones4        
,indeed1 ,mr4 ,darwin is of opinion that
 the whole  area of the ,pampas is one  
wide sepulchre of these extinct animals4
  ,it will be enough for our purpose to 
describe one in particular1  which1 from
 its prodigious bulk1 has received the  
appropriate name of  ,megatherium1 or   
the ,great ,wild ,beast4    ,the        

,megatherium1 like the ,ichthyosaurus   
and the ,plesiosaurus1 had  many        
affinities with the existing creation4  
,in its head and shoulders  it resembled
 the sloth which still browses on the   
green foliage of  the trees in the dense
 forests of ,south ,america2 while in   
its legs  and feet it combined the      
characteristics of the ,ant-,eater and  
the  ,armadillo4 ,but it was eminently  
distinguished from these and all the    
other modern representatives of the     
family to which it belonged by  its     
colossal proportions4 ,it was often     
twelve feet long and eight  feet high2  
its fore-feet were a yard in length and 
twelve inches in  breadth1 terminating  
in gigantic claws2 its haunches were    
five feet  wide1 and its thigh bone was 
three times as big as that of the       
largest  elephant4 8,his entire frame10 
as ,dr4 ,buckland has admirably observed
  and carefully demonstrated1 8was an   
apparatus of colossal mechanism1        
adapted exactly to the work it had to   

do2 strong and ponderous1 in  proportion
 as this work was heavy1 and calculated 
to be the vehicle of  life and enjoyment
 to a gigantic race of quadrupeds1      
which1 though they  have ceased to be   
counted among the living inhabitants of 
our planet1  have1 in their fossil      
bones1 left behind them imperishable    
monuments  of the consummate skill with 
which they were constructed1--each limb1
  and fragment of a limb1 forming       
co-ordinate parts of a well adjusted    
and perfect whole2 and through all their
 deviations from the form and           
proportions of the limbs of other       
quadrupeds1 affording fresh proofs  of  
the infinitely varied and inexhaustible 
contrivances of ,creative  ,wisdom40    
8,this ,leviathan of the ,pampas1 as it 
has been justly called1 became  first   
known in ,europe toward the close of the
 last century4 ,in the year  #aghi a    
skeleton was dug up1 almost entire1     
about three miles southwest  of ,buenos 
,ayres1 and was presented by the        

,marquis of ,loreto to the  ,royal      
,museum at ,madrid1 where it still      
remains4 ,since that time other         
specimens1 besides numerous fragments1  
have been discovered1 chiefly  through  
the zeal and energy of ,sir ,woodbine   
,parish2 by the aid of which  the form1 
structure1 and consequently the habits  
of this clumsy and  ponderous animal    
have been fully ascertained4 ,the       
complete skeleton  which forms so       
prominent an object of attraction in the
 ,british ,museum1  and which is        
represented in the woodcut on the       
adjoining page1 is  only a model2 but it
 has been constructed with great care   
from the  original bones1 some of which 
are to be found in the wall-cases of the
  same room1 and others in the          
,hunterian ,museum of the ,royal        
,college of  ,surgeons40#gh             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,the         
,megatherium4 ,from the ,british        
,museum4  ,length #ab feet2 ,height #h  
feet4    ,closely allied to the         

,megatherium1 but somewhat less colossal
 in its  dimensions1 is the ,mylodon4   
,its remains are found associated with  
those  of the ,megatherium and other    
great animals of the same family1 in    
the superficial gravels of ,south       
,america4 ,a splendid specimen1 which   
measures eleven feet from the fore part 
of the skull to the end of the  tail1   
was dug up1 in the year #ahda1 a few    
miles north of ,buenos ,ayres4  ,it is  
well figured in the adjoining woodcut1  
which we reproduce1 by  kind permission 
of the ,author1 from ,dr4 ,haughton's   
admirable ,manual of  ,geology4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,mylodon     
,robustus1 from ,buenos ,ayres4         
,passing from the petrified fish1 and   
the reptiles1 and the quadrupeds1  that 
thus come forth1 as it were1 from their 
graves to bring us tidings  of an       
extinct creation1 we must next turn our 
attention for a moment to  ,fossil      
,shells4 ,these relics of the ancient   
world1 which are scattered  with profuse

 abundance through all the strata of the
 ,earth's ,crust1  may seem1 indeed1 of 
little value to the careless observer2  
but to  the practised eye of science    
they are full of instruction4 ,they have
  been aptly called the ,medals of      
,creation2 for1 stamped upon their      
surface they bear the impress of the age
 to which they belong2 and they         
constitute the largest1 we may say1     
perhaps1 the most valuable part of      
those unwritten records from which the  
,geologist seeks to gather the  ancient 
history of our ,globe4    ,as regards   
the prodigious abundance of ,fossil     
,shells preserved in  the ,crust of the 
,earth1 it is unnecessary for us here to
 speak4 ,we  have already seen that the 
great mass of many limestone formations 
is  composed almost exclusively of such 
remains1 broken up into minute          
fragments1 and more or less altered by  
chemical agency2 and besides1  there are
 quarries within the reach of all1 where
 they may collect  at pleasure these    

interesting relics of the olden time4   
,but there  are one or two facts of     
peculiar significance connected with    
,fossil  ,shells1 which it may be useful
 briefly to set down4 ,in the first     
place1  we would remind our readers that
 there is a marked and well-known       
difference between the shells of those  
animals that can live only in  the sea1 
of those that inhabit rivers1 and of    
those1 finally1 that  frequent the      
brackish waters of estuaries4 ,now it   
has been made clear  beyond all         
reasonable doubt1 by the explorations of
 ,geologists1 that  sea-shells abound in
 great numbers far away from the present
 line  of coast1 in the heart of vast   
continents4 ,and they are found1 not    
merely on the surface1 but buried deep  
in the ,crust of the ,earth1 and        
overlaid1 in many cases1 by numerous    
strata of solid rock1 thousands  of feet
 in thickness4 ,it is also to be        
observed that they occur at  all heights
 above the level of the ocean2 having   

been discovered at an  elevation of     
eight thousand feet in the ,pyrenees1   
ten thousand in the  ,alps1 thirteen    
thousand in the ,andes1 and above       
eighteen thousand in  the ,himalaya4#gi 
,such are the phenomena which are       
constantly forcing  themselves on the   
attention of the ,geologist1 and which  
involve a  number of problems that he   
cannot help attempting to investigate   
and  explain4 ,he is instinctively      
impelled to ask himself1 how can the    
shells of marine animals have come to   
exist so far away from the sea8  how    
have they been buried in the ,crust of  
the ,earth8 how have they been  lifted  
up to the highest pinnacles of lofty    
mountains8    ,our subterranean         
exploration would be incomplete if it   
did not  illustrate the ,vegetable as   
well as the ,animal ,life of the ancient
  world4 ,let the reader then descend in
 fancy into the celebrated  quarries of 
,portland on the south coast of         
,england1 and he will see  the          

fossilized remains of a long past       
vegetation exhibited in a  very striking
 manner4 ,in one1 of these quarries a   
vertical section1  extending from the   
surface downward to the depth of about  
thirty feet1  presents the following    
succession of strata arranged in        
horizontal  layers3--first1 a light     
covering of vegetable soil1 beneath     
which are  thin beds of cream-colored   
limestone1 forming a stratum of solid   
rock  ten feet thick2 then a bed of     
dark-brown loam1 mixed with rounded     
fragments of stone1 and varying in      
thickness from twelve to eighteen       
inches4 ,this is known to the quarrymen 
by the name of ,dirt-bed1 and  seems1 in
 former ages1 to have supported a       
luxuriant vegetation2 for  all around   
are scattered the petrified fragments of
 an ancient forest4  ,the prostrate     
stems and shattered branches of great   
trees are met at  every step2 but what  
is most striking and peculiar is1 that1 
in many  cases1 the petrified stumps are

 still standing erect1 with their roots 
fixed in the thin stratum of loam1 and  
their trunks stretching upward  into the
 hard limestone rock4 ,immediately below
 the ,dirt-bed is another  thick stratum
 of limestone1 and below this again is a
 stratum of the  famous ,portland stone1
 so highly prized for building purposes4
 ,as the  quarries of ,portland are     
worked chiefly for the sake of this     
building  stone1 little attention is    
paid to the ,dirt-bed and its contents1 
which  are commonly thrown aside by the 
quarrymen as rubbish4    ,illustration3 
,vegetable soil4    ,fresh-water        
,limestone4    ,clay4    ,laminated     
fresh-water ,limestone4    ,dirt-bed    
with fossil trees and plants4           
,fresh-water ,limestone4    ,bed of     
,clay4    ,portland building-stone full 
of marine shells4    ,fig4              
#bc4--,section of a ,quarry in the      
,island of ,portland4 ,total  thickness 
about thirty feet4    ,the scene of this
 petrified forest is thus described by  

,doctor  ,mantell3--8,on one of my      
visits to the island the surface of a   
large  area of the ,dirt-bed was cleared
 preparatory to its removal1 and the    
appearance presented was most striking4 
,the floor of the quarry was  literally 
strewn with fossil wood1 and before me  
was a petrified  forest1 the trees and  
plants1 like the inhabitants of the city
 in  ,arabian story1 being converted    
into stone1 yet still remaining  in the 
places which they occupied when alive6  
,some of the trunks  were surrounded by 
a conical mound of calcareous earth1    
which had1  evidently1 when in the state
 of mud1 accumulated round the roots4   
,the  upright trunks were generally a   
few feet apart1 and but three or four   
feet high2 their summits were broken and
 splintered1 as if they had  been       
snapped or wrenched off by a hurricane  
at a short distance from  the ground4   
,some were two feet in diameter1 and the
 united fragments  of one of the        
prostrate trunks indicated a total      

length of from thirty  to forty feet2 in
 many specimens portions of the branches
 remained  attached to the stem40#hj    
,the ,coal ,measures of ,europe and     
,america offer to the student of        
,geology  a boundless field for the     
investigation of ,fossil ,plants and    
,trees4  ,we have already had occasion  
to notice the ,sigillaria4 ,this ancient
  tree1 remarkable for its beautiful    
sculptured stem1 has no exact           
representative in the vegetable kingdom 
of the present day4 ,but it  abounds    
everywhere in the ,coal ,measures2 and  
there seems little doubt  that several  
great seams of ,coal are composed almost
 entirely of its  carbonized remains4   
,indeed the ancient soil1 which commonly
 constitutes  the floor on which the bed
 of ,coal reposes1 is often as thickly  
crowded  with the branching roots of the
 ,sigillaria1 as the soil of a dense    
forest with the roots of the trees by   
which it is covered4 ,the stem  itself1 
when converted into ,coal1 generally    

assumes the form of long  narrow slabs2 
having been flattened by pressure during
 the process of  mineralization4        
,sometimes1 however1 it is found        
uncompressed and erect4  ,in this case  
the interior of the trunk is usually    
observed to have been  filled up with   
sand or clay3 and thus the forest tree1 
still retaining  its external shape and 
character1 is transformed into a        
cylindrical  shell of carbonized bark   
without1 and a solid cylinder of        
sandstone or  shale within4 ,an         
interesting example is exhibited in our 
illustration1  ,figure #aa4    ,every   
,coal mine1 too1 is adorned with the    
imprint of the graceful ,fern1  which   
constitutes one of the most attractive  
features in the ,flora of  the ancient  
world4 ,not unfrequently it assumes a   
tree-like character1  as it often does  
even now in tropical countries2 and     
then1 indeed1 it  is an object of       
striking beauty1 reaching to a height of
 forty or fifty  feet1 and expanding at 

the summit into an elegant canopy of    
foliage4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#bd4--;,calamites ,nodosus4 ,from the   
,coal ,measures of  ,newcastle4    ,the 
,calamite is another plant in which the 
,coal abounds4 ,its true  botanical     
character is not yet clearly            
ascertained2 but it bears a  general    
resemblance1 except for its gigantic    
dimensions1 to the common  ,horse-tail  
of our swamps and marshy grounds4 ,it is
 a reed-like1 jointed  stem1 sometimes  
thirty feet in length1 hollow within1   
and curiously  jointed without4         
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#be4--,lepidodendron ,sternbergii2 a    
,fossil ,tree1 #ci  feet high4 ,from a  
,coal ,mine near ,newcastle4            
,scarcely less conspicuous than the     
,sigillaria1 the ,fern1 and the         
,calamite1 is the ,lepidodendron or     
,scaly ,tree1 one of the most curious   
and interesting among the plants of the 
,coal-bearing period4 ,like the         
,sigillaria and the ,calamite1 it has   

been1 and still is1 a puzzle to  the    
student of ,botany4 ,but it needs not   
the eye of science to see that  it is   
unmistakably a stately forest tree1 shut
 up in the ,crust of the  ,earth1       
encased in a solid framework of         
indurated ,shale1 or ,sandstone1  or    
,coal1 as the case may be1 and overlaid 
with massive strata of rock  hundreds of
 feet in thickness4 ,such a specimen as 
that represented  in our woodcut was    
laid bare some years ago in ,yarrow     
,colliery1 near  ,newcastle4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf ,lepidodendron 
,elegans4 ,portion of ,stem and         
branches2 ,coal ,mine1 ,newcastle4      
,in the same neighborhood was found a   
portion of the stem and branches  of    
another variety1 ,lepidodendron         
,elegans1 which will enable the reader  
to form a more complete idea of the     
appearance presented by this  ancient   
tree as it stood in its primeval forest4
    ,an unusually favorable illustration
 of our present subject may be  seen at 

the colliery of ,treuil1 in ,france1 not
 far from the city of  ,lyons4 ,the beds
 of ,coal are overlaid by a kind of     
slaty sandstone1  ten feet thick2 and   
this sandstone is traversed by the      
vertical stems  of enormous petrified   
plants1 chiefly ,calamites4 ,here1 then1
 to all  appearance1 we have an ancient 
forest enveloped in sandstone4 ,we must 
suppose that the forest was submerged   
while the trees were still erect2  that 
in this condition it received the       
sedimentary deposits carried  down by   
the current of some great river2 and    
finally1 that these  deposits were1 in  
the course of ages1 compacted into      
sandstone by a  process already         
explained4 ,it would seem that after the
 sandstone had  been partially1 at      
least1 consolidated1 it was subjected to
 a sliding  movement here and there1 by 
which the continuity of the stems was   
broken2 the upper part being pushed on  
one side1 as shown in our ,figure4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,section of a

 ,coal sandstone at ,treuil1 near       
,lyons4 ,showing the erect position of  
,fossil ,trees4 7,alex4 ,brongniart47   
,it is time we should bring to a close  
our survey1 meagre and imperfect  as it 
is1 of ,fossil ,remains4 ,those who     
desire to pursue the inquiry  for       
themselves will easily find an          
opportunity of doing so4 ,there are     
few1 we should suppose1 who may not1    
occasionally1 have access to one  or    
other of those splendid ,museums of     
,geology1 which have been set up  in all
 the great towns of ,europe4 ,and the   
still more extensive cabinets  of       
,nature's ,museum1 spread out beneath   
our feet1 are within the reach  of all4 
,but even the scanty facts which have   
been set forth faithfully1 we  trust1   
though perhaps feebly1 in these pages1  
are sufficient to satisfy  all          
reasonable minds that the bones1 the    
skeletons1 the trunks and  branches of  
trees1 which have been exhumed from the 
,stratified ,rocks  are really the      

remains of ,organic ,life that once     
flourished on the  earth1 or in the     
waters of the ancient seas4 ,obvious1   
however1 as this  fact must appear to   
all who have fully realized the         
character and  appearance of ,fossil    
,remains1 it has been often vigorously  
assailed and  vehemently denounced4 ,in 
the early days of ,geology phenomena of 
this  kind were ascribed1 not           
uncommonly1 to the 8plastic power of    
,nature10  or to the influence of the   
stars4 ,such notions1 however1 meet with
  little support among modern writers4  
,they were nothing more than wild       
fancies1 without any foundation either  
in the evidence of facts or  in the     
analogy of ,nature4 ,the 8plastic power 
of ,nature0 was a phrase  that sounded  
well1 perhaps1 in the ears of           
unreflecting people2 but no  one ever   
undertook to show that ,nature really   
possesses that 8plastic  power0 which   
was so readily imputed to her4 ,no one  
ever undertook to  show that it is the  

way of ,nature to make the stems1 and   
branches1  and leaves of trees1 without 
the previous process of vegetation2 or  
to make bones and skeletons which have  
never been invested with the  ordinary  
appendages of flesh and blood4 ,yet     
surely this is a theory  that requires  
proof2 for all our experience of the    
laws of ,nature  points directly to the 
opposite conclusion4 ,and as for the    
influence of  the stars1 we may be      
content to adopt the language of the    
celebrated  painter ,leonardo da        
,vinci3--8,they tell us that these      
shells were  formed in the hills by the 
influence of the stars2 but ,i ask where
  in the hills are the stars now forming
 shells of distinct ages and  species8  
and how can the stars explain the origin
 of gravel occurring  at different      
heights and composed of pebbles rounded 
as if by the  action of running water8  
or in what manner can such a cause      
account for  the petrifaction in the    
same places of various leaves1          

sea-weeds1 and  marine crabs80#ha    ,in
 modern times the form of objection has 
been somewhat changed4 ,we  are told by 
some writers that1 when we seek to      
explain the existence  of ,fossil       
,remains by the action of natural laws1 
we seem to forget the  ,omnipotence of  
,god4 ,they urge upon us1 with much     
solemnity1 that ,he  could have made    
bones1 and shells1 and skeletons1 and   
petrified wood1  though there had been  
no living animal to which these bones   
belonged1  and no living tree that had  
been changed into stone4 ,and if ,he    
made  them1 might ,he not disperse them 
up and down through ,his creation1 on   
the lofty mountains1 in the hidden      
valleys1 and in the profound depths  of 
the sea8 and buried them in limestone   
rocks and in the soft clay8  and        
arranged them in groups1 or scattered   
them in wild confusion as ,he  best     
pleased8    ,to this line of argument we
 must be content to reply1 that we have 
no  wish to limit the power of ,god4    

,but we have learned from our daily     
experience that in the physical world   
,he is pleased to employ the  agency of 
secondary causes2 and when we know that 
for many ages a  certain effect has been
 uniformly produced by a certain cause1 
and not  otherwise1 then if we again see
 the effect1 we infer the cause4 ,when  
a traveller in the untrodden wilds of   
,western ,america1 comes upon a  forest 
of great trees1 or a herd of unknown    
animals1 surely he never  thinks of     
supposing that the wild beasts and the  
forest trees came  directly from the    
hand of the ,creator1 in that state of  
maturity in  which he beholds them4 ,and
 why8 for it might be argued that the   
power  of ,god is unbounded1 and he     
might have created them as they now are 
if ,he had so pleased4 ,is it not that  
the traveller is impelled1 by an        
instinct of his nature1 to interpret the
 works of ,god which he now  sees for   
the first time1 according to the analogy
 of those with which  he has been long  

familiar8 ,now this is just the         
principle for which we  are contending4 
,according to all our experience of the 
works of ,god  in the physical world1   
the living body comes first1 and the    
skeleton  afterward2 the living tree    
comes first1 and afterward the prostrate
  trunk and the splintered branches4    
,therefore when we meet with a          
skeleton1 we conclude that it was once a
 living body2 and when we find  the     
petrified stems1 and branches1 and      
leaves of trees1 we have no  doubt that 
they are the remains of an ancient      
vegetation4    ,but1 in truth1 if any   
one1 with all the facts of the case     
fully before  his mind1 were            
deliberately to adopt this theory1 that 
,fossils1 as  we find them now1 were    
created by ,god in the ,crust of the    
,earth1 we  candidly confess we have no 
argument that we should think likely to 
shake his conviction2 just as we should 
be utterly at a loss if he  were to say 
that the ,pyramids of ,egypt1 or the    

colossal sculptures  of ,nineveh1 or the
 ruins of ,baalbec1 were created by ,god
 from the  beginning4 ,the evidence of  
human workmanship is certainly not more 
clear in the one case than is the       
evidence of animal and vegetable  life  
in the other4 ,we believe1 however1 that
 no such persons are  to be found2 that 
theories of this kind have their origin1
 not so  much in false reasoning1 as in 
imperfect knowledge of facts2 and we    
have1 therefore1 judged it most         
expedient not to spend our time in a    
discussion of philosophical axioms1 but 
to set forth the facts1 and  leave them 
to speak for themselves4                
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,xii4 
,,geological ,,chronology--,,principles 
,,of ,,the ,,system ,,explained ,,and   
,,developed4        ,significance of    
fossil remains--,science of             
,palontology--,classification of        
existing animal      life--,fossil      
remains are found to fit in with this   
classification--,succession of organic  

life--,time in ,geology not             
measured by years and                   
centuries--,successive periods marked by
      successive forms of life--,the    
,geologist aims at arranging these      
periods in chronological                
order--,position of the various groups  
of strata not sufficient for this       
purpose--,it is accomplished            
chiefly through the aid of fossil       
remains--,mode of proceeding            
practically explained--,chronological   
table4      ,the existence of ,fossil   
,remains is1 then1 a fact4 ,go where you
 will  through the civilized world1 and 
every chief town has its ,museum1 into  
which they have been gathered by the    
zeal and industry of man2 descend  where
 you can into the ,crust of the         
,earth1--the quarry1 the mine1  the     
railway cutting1--and there1            
notwithstanding the plunder which  has  
been going on for two centuries or more1
 you will find that the  inexhaustible  
cabinets of ,nature are still teeming   

with these remains  of ancient life4    
,when we are brought1 for the first     
time1 face to face with these  countless
 relics of a former world1 we are       
impressed with a sense of  wonder and   
bewilderment4 ,that the skeletons before
 us1 though now dry  and withered1 were 
once animated with the breath of life2  
that the  trees now lying shattered and 
prostrate1 and shorn of their branches1 
once flourished on the earth1 we cannot 
for a moment hesitate to  believe4 ,but 
beyond this one fact1 all is darkness   
and mystery4 ,these  gaunt skeletons1   
these uncouth monsters1 these petrified 
forests1 are  silent1 lifeless1 as the  
rocks within whose stony bosoms they    
have  lain so long entombed4 ,had they  
speech and memory1 they could tell us   
much1 no doubt1 of that ancient world in
 which they bore a part1 of  its        
continents1 and seas1 and rivers1 and   
mountains2 of the various  tribes of    
animals and plants by which it was      
peopled2 of their habits  and domestic  

economy2 how they lived1 how they died1 
and how they  were buried in those      
graves from which1 after the lapse of we
 know  not how many ages1 they now come 
forth into the light of day4 ,as it  is1
 however1 we can but gaze and wonder4   
,we have nothing here but the  relics of
 death and destruction3 there is no     
feeling1 no memory1 no  voice1 in these 
dry bones2 no living tenant in these    
hollow skulls1 to  recount to us the    
history of former times4    ,so thinks  
and reasons the ordinary observer4 ,but 
far different is the  language of the   
,geologist4 ,these dry and withered     
bones1 he tells us1  are gifted with    
memory and speech2 and1 though the      
language they  speak may seem at first  
unfamiliar and obscure1 it is not1 on   
that  account1 beyond our comprehension4
 ,like the birds1 reptiles1 fish1 and   
other symbols1 inscribed on the obelisks
 of ancient ,egypt1 these bones  and    
shells stored up in the ,crust of the   
,earth1 have a hidden meaning  which it 

is the business of ,science to search   
out and explain4 ,they are  ,nature's   
hieroglyphics1 which she has impressed  
upon her works to carry  down to remote 
ages the memory of the revolutions      
through which our  ,globe has passed2   
and when we come to understand them     
aright1 they do  unfold to us the story 
of that ancient world to which they     
belonged4    ,the interpretation of     
,fossil ,remains is1 then1 an important 
department  of ,geology4 ,of late years 
it has been admitted to the rank of a   
special science1 under the name of      
,palontology1 which means1 as the  word 
denotes--  --the science which is       
concerned  about the organic remains of 
ancient life4 ,the honor of having been 
the first to place this science on a    
solid basis1 in fact we may say  the    
honor of having brought it into         
existence1 is justly accorded to  the   
distinguished ,cuvier1 whose name shed a
 lustre upon ,france during  the early  
years of the present century4 ,it is    

therefore still in its  infancy2 but it 
has already rewarded the zeal of its    
students by many  wonderful and         
unexpected revelations4 ,we purpose in  
the first place to  examine the         
principles on which it is founded1 and  
then to take a rapid  glance at the     
conclusions to which it has led4    ,at 
the outset it is worthy of notice that  
the very existence of ,fossil  ,remains1
 buried deep in the ,crust of the       
,earth1 forcibly confirms the           
,geological theory of ,stratified       
,rocks4 ,these rocks1 as the reader will
  remember1 are said to have been slowly
 spread out1 one above another1  during 
the lapse of many ages1 by the operation
 of natural causes2 and  we have seen   
how this doctrine is supported by       
arguments founded on an  examination of 
the rocks themselves1--of the materials 
that compose  them1 and of the way in   
which these materials are piled         
together4 ,now  let us observe how      
clearly the testimony of ,fossil        

,remains seems to  point in the same    
direction4    ,first1 the bones and     
shells which we now find in such        
profusion1 far  down beneath the        
superficial covering of the ,earth1 must
 have belonged  to animals which1 when  
living1 flourished on what was then the 
surface4  ,yet now they are buried in   
the bosom of the hard rock1 and covered 
over  with beds of solid limestone1 and 
sandstone1 and conglomerate1 hundreds   
and thousands of feet in thickness4 ,how
 can we explain this fact1  unless we   
suppose that these animals1 when they   
perished1 were embedded  in some soft   
materials1 which afterward became       
consolidated1 and above  which1 in the  
course of ages1 more and more matter was
 deposited1 until  at length that lofty 
pile of strata was produced1 beneath    
which the  remains are now found buried8
    ,again1 it is part of our theory    
that the formation of ,stratified ,rocks
  took place1 for the most part1 under  
water4 ,the ,organic ,remains1          

therefore1 which we should naturally    
expect to find preserved in the  strata 
of the earth1 would be those of aquatic 
animals2 or1 if the  remains of land    
animals were to be looked for1 it should
 be of those  chiefly which live near   
the banks of rivers and estuaries1 and  
which1  after death1 might have been    
carried down by the current and buried  
in  the silt and mud with which almost  
all rivers are charged at certain       
seasons of the year4 ,we know as a fact 
that such animals are buried at  the    
present day in the ,deltas of the       
,ganges and the ,mississippi2 and  it   
would be reasonable to suppose that the 
same should have occurred  in former    
ages4 ,now here again the evidence of   
,fossil ,remains exactly  fits in with  
our theory4 ,for the vast bulk of them  
are manifestly the  remains of animals  
that lived in water3 and the terrestrial
 animals1  comparatively few1 whose     
bones are preserved in the ,crust of the
 ,earth1  are such as frequent the banks

 of great rivers or the marshy swamps of
  estuaries4    ,thus much we may learn 
even from a cursory glance at ,fossil   
,remains4  ,but these curious monuments 
of ancient times have a deeper meaning1 
which cannot be unfolded without a more 
minute and laborious  investigation4    
,our readers are aware that all the     
animals at present  existing on the face
 of the ,earth have been scientifically 
grouped  together1 according to certain 
well-marked characteristics1 into       
various ,kingdoms1 ,classes1 ,genera1   
and ,species4 ,thus1 for example1 the   
horse and the dog are two different     
,species1 belonging to the same  ,class 
of ,mammalia2 the eagle and the sparrow 
are two different ,species  of the same 
,class called ,birds4 ,then again the   
,class of ,mammalia and  the ,class of  
,birds both belong to the one common    
,kingdom of ,vertebrata2  because1      
though different in many other respects1
 they agree in this1  that all the      
members of both ,classes have a         

vertebral or spinal column1  to which   
the other parts of the internal skeleton
 are attached4    ,now when ,cuvier     
began to examine closely the ,organic   
,remains of former  times1 to which his 
attention was called by the bones dug up
 in the  gypsum quarries of ,montmartre1
 near ,paris1 about the close of the    
last  century1 he brought with him to   
the task a very large acquaintance with 
the various forms of life that1 in the  
present age1 prevail throughout  the    
world4 ,and he was greatly struck with  
the marked difference between  those    
living animals with which he had been   
long familiar1 and those  with which he 
now became acquainted for the first     
time4 ,the more  he extended his        
researches1 the more manifest did this  
difference  appear2 until at last it    
became quite clear that the great bulk  
of  the animals whose remains are       
preserved in the ,crust of the ,earth1  
have no representatives now living on   
its surface4 ,nevertheless1 he  observed

 that1 though the ,species no longer    
exists1 it often happens  that we have  
still other ,species of the same ,genus2
 or if the ,genus1  too1 be extinct1 we 
have other ,genera of the same ,class4  
,here1 then1  is the first great truth  
at which ,cuvier arrived1 and which has 
been  since confirmed by extensive      
observations3--that the animals which   
formerly dwelt on this ,earth of ours1  
were1 for the most part1 widely         
different from those by which it is now 
inhabited3 and yet there is a           
well-defined likeness between them2 that
 both have been created on a  plan so   
strictly uniform1 that the one and the  
other naturally find  their place in the
 same system of classification4    ,as  
the science of ,palontology progressed1 
and new facts were day by  day          
accumulated1 another truth1 not less    
important1 was gradually but  certainly 
developed4 ,in the distribution of      
,fossil ,remains through  the various   
strata of the ,earth1 there is a certain

 order observed1  a certain regular law 
of succession1 which cannot have been   
the mere  result of chance1 and which it
 is the business of science to unravel  
and explain4 ,the facts are these4 ,if  
we follow a particular set of  strata in
 a horizontal direction1 we find that   
the same fossils  continue to prevail   
over hundreds of square miles1 nay1     
often over a  space as large as ,europe1
 though beyond certain limits this      
uniformity  of ,fossil ,remains will    
gradually be observed to disappear4 ,but
 when we  penetrate in a vertical       
direction through the strata1 the forms 
of  animal and vegetable life that we   
meet with are constantly changing4      
,after a few hundred yards at the most1 
we find ourselves in the midst  of a    
group of fossils1 altogether different  
from those which we have  passed in the 
beds above3 and so on1 as we proceed    
downward1 each  particular set of strata
 is found to have an assemblage of      
fossils  peculiar to itself4#hb         

,there can be no reasonable doubt as to 
the truth of these facts4 ,they  have   
been established and confirmed by the   
positive testimony of a  whole host of  
,geologists1 whose researches have      
extended to all parts  of the globe4    
,and we have besides a kind of negative 
evidence on the  subject which is       
scarcely less convincing than the       
positive4 ,nothing  is more easy than to
 refute a universal proposition if it is
 false4 ,if  it is not a fact that each 
group of strata1 as we proceed downward1
  exhibits a collection of ,fossils     
peculiar to itself1 the assertion may   
be at once disproved by pointing out two
 or three different groups  with the    
same ,fossils4 ,there are thousands of  
practical ,geologists at  work all over 
the world1 eager for fame2 and any one  
of them would  make his name illustrious
 if he could overturn a theory so       
generally  received4 ,now1 when a       
statement of facts can be easily        
disproved if  untrue2 and when1 at the  

same time1 there is a large number of   
men  whose interest it would be to      
disprove the statement if possible2  and
 when it is nevertheless not disproved2 
this circumstance1 we  contend1 is a    
convincing argument that the alleged    
facts are true4  ,and such precisely is 
the case before us4 ,we therefore think 
it would  be unreasonable not to accept 
the facts4    ,let us next examine what 
is their significance4 ,each group of   
strata1  be it remembered1 represents to
 us the animal life that flourished  on 
the ,earth during the period in which   
that particular group was  in progress  
of formation4 ,it is1 as it were1 a     
cabinet in which are  preserved for our 
instruction certain relics or memorials 
of that age  in the world's history4 ,of
 course it is not a perfect collection2 
but  only a collection of those remains 
that chanced to escape destruction1  and
 by some natural embalming process to be
 saved from dissolution4  ,when we      
learn1 then1 that there is a marked     

uniformity in the  assemblage of        
,fossils that are spread over a large   
horizontal area1 in  any group of       
strata1 we conclude that1 when that     
group was in course  of formation1 there
 was a certain uniformity in the animal 
life that  extended over the            
corresponding area of the globe2 just   
as1 at the  present day1 the same       
species of animals are found to flourish
 over  a great part of ,europe1 or      
,america4 ,and if this uniformity of    
,fossil  ,remains does not extend       
horizontally to an indefinite distance1 
this is  precisely what we should have  
expected from the analogy of the        
existing  creation3 for1 when we examine
 the present distribution of animal life
  over the earth1 we find a marked      
diversity to exist between countries    
that are removed from one another2 as1  
for instance1 between ,europe and       
,australia4    ,in the next place1 we   
are told that1 as we proceed downward   
into the  ,crust of the ,earth1 each    

successive group of strata has an       
assemblage  of ,fossils clearly distinct
 in character from those of the group   
above  and of the group below4 ,the     
conclusion to which this fact points is 
obvious enough4 ,if1 in the former case1
 we inferred that the animal  life of   
any one period1 considered in itself1   
was the same over  extensive areas1 in  
this case we must infer that the animal 
life of  each successive period was     
peculiar to that particular age2 being  
altogether distinct in its character    
from the animal life of the period  that
 went before and of the period that     
followed4 ,it would appear1  therefore1 
as ,sir ,charles ,lyell puts it1 8that  
from the remotest  period there has been
 ever a coming in of new organic forms1 
and an  extinction of those which       
pre-existed on the earth2 some species  
having  endured for a longer1 others for
 a shorter time2 while none have ever   
reappeared after once dying out40#hc    
,now1 from these principles1 ,geologists

 have been gradually led to build  up a 
system of ,geological ,chronology2 in   
other words1 to determine the  order of 
time in which the numerous groups of    
strata that make up the  ,crust of the  
,earth have been formed1 and thus to fix
 the age of each  group in reference to 
the rest4 ,this ,chronology is not      
reckoned by the  common measures of time
 which are used in history1 but rather  
by the  successive periods during which 
each group of rocks was in its turn     
slowly deposited on the existing surface
 of the globe4 ,for example1  the       
,coal-measures that so abound in the    
,north of ,england are very much  older 
than the bluish clay of which ,london is
 built4 ,but if we ask  what is the     
difference between the age of the one   
and of the other1  the answer is given  
not in days and years and centuries1 but
 in the  number of different ,formations
 that intervened between the two4 ,we   
are  told that the ,coal-measures belong
 to the ,carboniferous ,formation2  that

 this ,formation was followed by the    
,permian1 and that again in  succession 
by the ,triassic1 the ,jurassic1 and the
 ,cretaceous2 and that1  upon this last 
was spread out the ,eocene1 to which the
 ,london clay  belongs4 ,indeed1 as     
regards the precise length of any given 
period1  ,geologists can offer nothing  
but the wildest conjectures4 ,some form 
their estimates in thousands of years2  
others in millions4 ,and the  wisest    
amongst them fairly confess they have no
 sufficient data to  make an accurate   
computation4 ,nevertheless1 they are all
 agreed in  this1 that the ages of which
 the memory is preserved in history1    
that  is to say1 the last six thousand  
years1 are but a small part of one      
,geological period4 ,compared to the    
voluminous chronicles laid up in the    
,crust of the ,earth1 the records       
inscribed by human hands constitute but 
an insignificant fraction of the world's
 history4 ,our readers will be  glad to 
learn something of the way in which this

 startling system of  ,geological       
,chronology is constructed and          
developed4    ,at first sight1 perhaps1 
it might be imagined that the order of  
time  in which the various strata were  
deposited1 can be easily learned from   
the relative position in which they lie4
 ,since each stratum1 when first        
produced1 was spread out on the existing
 surface of the globe1 it is  clear that
 the one which lies uppermost in the    
series must be the  newest1 then that   
which lies next below1 and so on till we
 reach the  lowest of the pile1 which   
must be the oldest of all4 ,nothing     
could be  more satisfactory than this   
reasoning1 if each stratum was spread   
out  over the whole ,earth1 and if1     
after having been once deposited1 it was
  never afterward removed4 ,we might    
then regard each stratum as a volume  in
 the ,natural ,history of the ,globe1   
which1 when it was finished1 was  laid  
down upon that which contained the      
chronicles of the preceding  age2 and   

thus the position of every stratum would
 be in itself a  sufficient evidence of 
the age to which it belonged4    ,but   
such is not the case4 ,nowhere does the 
,crust of the ,earth exhibit  a complete
 series of the ,stratified ,rocks laid  
out one above another4  ,in any given   
section we can find but a few only of   
the long series of  groups that are     
familiar to ,geologists4 ,and if we     
follow them on1 in a  horizontal        
direction1 we shall invariably find that
 some of the strata  will thin out and  
disappear1 while new strata will        
gradually be  developed between two     
groups that were before in immediate    
contact4 ,let  it be observed1 in       
passing1 that this fact fits in most    
perfectly with  the theory we have been 
all along defending4 ,the ,stratified   
,rocks were  deposited under water2     
therefore1 the strata of any given      
period were  not spread out over the    
whole ,globe1 but at most over those    
parts  only which1 for the time1 were   

submerged4 ,with the next period came a 
change in the boundaries of land and    
water2 and the formation of strata      
ceased in some localities and began in  
others3 and so on from epoch to  epoch4 
,thus the areas over which the process  
has been going on1 have  been1 in every 
age1 of limited extent1 and have been   
ever shifting  from place to place over 
the surface of the earth4 ,moreover1    
there is  the opposite process of       
,denudation4 ,many of the strata        
deposited in  the depths of the ocean   
must have been afterward swept away by  
the  breakers1 as they slowly emerged   
from the waters2 or at a later time1    
reduced to their original elements1 and 
carried back to the sea1 by the  action 
of rivers1 rain1 and frost4 ,it should  
seem1 therefore1 as well  from the fact1
 which is obvious to any one who will   
examine it1 as  from our theory1 which  
harmonizes so completely with the fact1 
that  the strata which we meet with in  
any given section of the ,earth's ,crust

  present to us but a very broken and   
imperfect series of monuments4 ,they    
are1 as it were1 but odd volumes of a   
long series1 and though they lie  in    
juxtaposition1 they may belong1         
nevertheless1 to ,geological epochs     
widely removed from each other4         
,hence1 in order to construct a complete
 system of ,geological  ,chronology it  
is necessary to collect together these  
odd volumes1 as  they may be called1 of 
the ,great ,geological ,calendar1 and to
 assign to  each one its proper place in
 the series4 ,this difficult and        
complicated  task is accomplished       
chiefly by the aid of ,fossil ,remains4 
,we have  already shown that the ,fossil
 ,remains which are found embedded in   
each group of strata1 represent the     
organic life of the period during  which
 that group of strata was in progress of
 formation4 ,moreover1  we have seen    
that each period was marked by the      
existence of an  animal and vegetable   
creation peculiar to itself4 ,if1       

therefore1 we  find that the ,fossils of
 two different districts exhibit the    
same  general character1 we may conclude
 that the beds in which they are        
preserved were deposited about the same 
age1 and consequently belong  to the    
same ,geological ,period4 ,whereas1 on  
the other hand1 if1 within  certain     
limits1 we discover two groups of       
strata1 each of which has  a collection 
of ,fossils totally different from the  
other1 it is a  proof that these two    
groups were not deposited in the same   
age1 and  must1 consequently1 be        
referred to different ,epochs of the    
,geological  ,calendar4 ,let us now see 
in what manner the practical ,geologist 
proceeds to apply these general         
principles4    ,he takes first some one 
country1 say ,england1 and in that      
country he  selects some one particular 
district to begin with4 ,here he        
examines  a number of different         
sections1 and makes himself familiar    
with all  the strata of the             

neighborhood1 and with the order in     
which they lie4  ,let us suppose that he
 finds three different groups spread out
 one  above another1 and let us call    
these groups ,a1 ,b1 and ,c2 ,a being   
the  lowest1 ,b immediately above ,a1   
and ,c above ,b4 ,the chronological     
order  of these strata will be1         
therefore1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,he will study   
next the  ,fossil ,remains which he     
finds embedded in each group4 ,for      
convenience  we may designate the       
,fossils of ,a by the letter a1 those of
 ,b by b1  and those of ,c by c4 ,now1  
according to the principles above       
explained1  these three collections of  
,fossils will be specifically distinct  
from  one another1 each collection being
 characteristic of one particular set   
of strata4 ,our ,geologist next goes    
into a neighboring district1 and  there 
examines a number of sections as before4
 ,let us suppose that he  encounters    
again the groups ,a and ,b4 ,he may1    
perhaps1 have been able  to trace the   

beds from one district to the other1 by 
observations made  upon his line of     
route3 or it may be that the nature of  
the country  has rendered such          
observations impossible2 or the         
observations may  have been so imperfect
 that from them he could arrive at no   
certain  conclusion regarding the       
identity of the strata4 ,but1 at all    
events1 if  the new district yield an   
abundant supply of ,fossils1 he cannot  
long  be at a loss4 ,he will recognize  
the group ,a by the ,fossils a1 and the 
group ,b by the ,fossils b4 ,an         
important fact1 however1 soon attracts  
his  attention4 ,group ,c has entirely  
disappeared1 and is not to be found in  
this district2 while between ,a and ,b  
there is a new group of rocks that  he  
has not seen before1 with a collection  
of ,fossils different from a1  b1 and c4
 ,we will call this new group ,x1 and   
its ,fossils x4 ,it is clear  that the  
formation of ,x must have intervened    
between the formation of  ,a and ,b2 and

 the chronological order now stands ,a1 
,x1 ,b1 ,c4 ,in like  manner another    
district may disclose a fourth group of 
strata1 say ,y1  intervening between ,b 
and ,c4 ,the chronological order will   
then stand ,a1  ,x1 ,b1 ,y1 ,c4 ,and    
thus the ,geologist pursues his         
explorations until he  has gone through 
the whole country1 and arranged the     
principal groups  of strata according to
 the order of time in which they were   
deposited4    ,in this way the whole of 
,england has been minutely explored     
during the  last half century4 ,the task
 was first undertaken by ,william       
,smith1  who is justly called the       
,father of ,english ,geology4 ,after    
multiplied  researches1 extending over a
 space of many years1 during which he   
travelled the whole country on foot1    
this eminent man published in  #ahae his
 ,geological ,map of ,england and ,wales
 with part of ,scotland2 a  work which  
is described by ,sir ,charles ,lyell as 
8a lasting monument of  original talent 

and extraordinary perseverance40        
,hundreds followed in  the same course1 
exploring every day new districts1 and1 
by the new  facts which they brought to 
light1 supplying what was wanting in the
  work of ,smith1 correcting what was   
faulty1 and confirming what was  true2  
until at length1 in our day1 it may be  
said that the ,stratified  ,rocks of    
,england are almost as well known and as
 completely mapped out  as are its      
counties and its towns1 its rivers1     
lakes1 and mountains4    ,meanwhile1    
,geologists were not idle in other parts
 of the world4  ,germany1 ,france1      
,italy1 even many districts of ,america 
and  ,australia1 have been diligently   
explored according to the same          
principles as ,england4 ,and by a       
comparison of the observations  made1   
the ,chronological order of strata over 
a considerable part  of the ,earth1 but 
more particularly of ,europe1 has been  
now pretty  fairly ascertained4 ,this   
order we have attempted to set forth in 

an  intelligible and sensible form by   
means of the table here annexed4    ,in 
the ,woodcut are represented the strata 
hitherto examined by  ,geologists1 laid 
out one above another1 according to the 
order of time  in which they are        
supposed to have been produced4 ,the    
whole series  is divided into a number  
of ,formations1 the names of which are  
given  in the first column1 together    
with an approximate estimate of their   
thickness1 in feet4 ,these ,formations  
are distinguished from each other  in   
the drawing by a difference of shading4 
,each of them1 according  to ,geological
 theory1 is believed to have come into  
existence by the  accumulation of solid 
matter at the bottom of the sea2 and the
 ,period  of time occupied in its       
production is usually designated by the 
same name as the ,formation itself4     
,thus we read of the ,carboniferous     
,formation and the ,carboniferous       
,period3 by the former phrase is meant  
certain groups of strata                

contemporaneously deposited over various
 parts  of the ,earth's surface2 and by 
the latter1 the ,period of time during  
which these groups of strata were spread
 out4 ,in like manner1 when we  hear of 
the ,carboniferous ,fauna and ,flora1 we
 are to understand the  animal and      
vegetable life that flourished during   
the ,carboniferous  ,period4 ,and again1
 when ,geologists talk of the           
,cretaceous sea1 and tell  us that it   
rolled over a great part of what is now 
called ,europe1 they  mean to speak of  
that sea on the bottom of which the     
,cretaceous rocks  were deposited4      
,illustration3 ,,table ,,of ,,stratified
 ,,rocks1    ,,chronologically          
,,arranged4    ,most of the ,formations 
comprise various groups of strata2 and  
these  groups are made up of different  
varieties of rocks1 which are again     
divided into layers or beds of varying  
thickness4 ,even in these beds          
themselves we can often distinguish an  
indefinite number of lamin or  plates1  

scarcely thicker than a sheet of paper1 
which correspond to  the periodical     
depositions of matter by which the rock 
was originally  formed4 ,these numerous 
subdivisions may be conveniently        
illustrated  from the ,carboniferous    
,formation4 ,it is divided into two     
leading groups  of strata2 the ,mountain
 ,limestone below1 the ,coal ,measures  
above4 ,the  upper group is the larger  
as well as the more important4 ,it      
attains  a maximum thickness in ,south  
,wales of #ab1jjj feet2 and consists of 
numerous strata of ,sandstone and       
,shale1 with thin seams of ,coal        
occasionally interposed4 ,in one        
remarkable instance a hundred distinct  
layers of ,coal1 varying in thickness   
from six inches to ten feet1  have been 
counted in one ,coal-field1 each resting
 on a bed of ,shale1  called in mining  
phraseology the ,underclay4 ,this ,shale
 itself naturally  divides into an      
indefinite number of thin plates1 just  
like the stratum  of mud accumulated by 

the annual inundations of the river     
,nile1 and  constituting the present    
soil of ,egypt4    ,we have not         
attempted to represent in our ,woodcut  
these various  divisions and            
subdivisions of ,stratified ,rocks4 ,but
 the names of some  important and       
well-known groups we have had engraved1 
to impress more  vividly on the mind the
 place to which they are to be referred 
in the  ,geological ,calendar4 ,thus the
 reader may see at a glance the         
respective  ages of the ,coal and the   
,chalk2 of the ,lias1 in which are      
preserved the  remains of extinct       
gigantic reptiles1 and the ,glacial     
,drift1 in which  the elephant1 the     
rhinoceros1 and the hippopotamus are    
found entombed2  of the ,mountain       
,limestone1 which is often nothing else 
than vast beds  of ,coral uplifted from 
beneath the waters of the ocean1 and the
 ,oolite1  which includes the ,portland 
quarries1 where the petrified stems of  
ancient forest trees are found standing 

erect in the solid rock4    ,as the     
series of ,stratified ,rocks is divided 
by ,geologists into a  certain number or
 systems or ,formations1 so these are   
again grouped  into still larger        
classes1 called ,primary1 ,secondary1   
and ,tertiary2  that is to say1 first1  
second1 and third1 in the order of      
formation4  ,these larger classes       
correspond to the ,great ,epochs or     
,ages of  ,geological time1 each        
comprising within itself many distinct  
,periods4  ,the ,primary rocks are also 
called ,palozoic--1 ancient1 and  1 an  
organic being--because they contain the 
oldest forms of  organic life3 in like  
manner the term ,mesozoic--1 middle1 and
  --is applied to the ,secondary strata1
 inasmuch as they contain  the middle or
 intermediate forms of organic life3 and
 the name  ,kainozoic--1 new1 and --is  
given to the ,tertiary1 which  contain  
the newest forms of organic life4       
,the term ,post-,tertiary has recently  
been adopted to designate those         

superficial deposits which are          
subsequent to the ,tertiary ,age4 ,they 
are  divided into two groups2 the       
,recent1 which corresponds with the     
period  of history1 and the             
,post-,pliocene which precedes it4 ,some
 writers seem  to think that these      
deposits1 being so very insignificant   
and so very  modern when compared with  
the long series of ,stratified ,rocks1  
are not  truly ,geological4 ,but this1  
we should say1 is a mistaken view of the
  question4 ,it seems to us that even   
the minute layer of mud that is         
deposited every day at the mouth of the 
,ganges or the ,mississippi1 is  linked 
on to the long chain of events which    
have brought the ,crust of  the ,earth  
into its present condition2 and1        
therefore1 truly belongs  to the science
 of ,geology1 and is deserving of its   
proper place in  ,geological            
classification4    ,we may here observe 
that the names of the great ,geological 
,epochs are  descriptive names2 that is 

to say1 the obvious meaning of the words
  corresponds to the character of the   
strata they are used to represent4      
,primary1 ,secondary1 ,tertiary1 mean   
,first1 ,second1 and ,third1 in the     
order of formation3 ,palozoic1          
,mesozoic1 and ,kainozoic1 signify  that
 the strata so called are characterized 
by ,ancient1 ,middle1 and  ,modern1     
forms of organic life4 ,but it is very  
often quite otherwise  with the names of
 the several ,formations3 and this is a 
point of  no small importance to the    
student of ,geology4 ,these names must  
be  regarded simply as names employed to
 designate the strata formed in  each   
successive period1 and not exactly to   
describe their character4  ,they        
generally had their origin in some      
accidental circumstance1 or  were       
derived from some particular locality2  
and afterward1 being  perpetuated1      
gradually came to receive a much more   
extended application  than that which   
the words themselves would seem to      

suggest4 ,thus1 for  instance1 the      
,cretaceous ,formation is so called from
 the remarkable  stratum of white chalk 
7creta7 which was deposited during that 
period  over a great part of ,europe2   
but it would be a mistake to suppose    
that  the whole ,formation is made up of
 chalk4 ,on the contrary1 in different  
localities it is composed of very       
different materials2 near ,dresden1  for
 example1 it is a gray quartzose        
sandstone1 and in many parts of the     
,alps it is hard compact limestone4#hd  
,again1 the ,devonian ,formation        
derives its name from ,devonshire1 where
 the rocks of the ,devonian  period were
 first minutely examined2 but we must   
not therefore infer  that this          
,formation is peculiar to the county of 
,devon2 it is to be  found in many other
 parts of ,england1 also in ,ireland1   
and on the  continent of ,europe4 ,so1  
too1 another ,formation has received the
 name  of ,carboniferous1 which         
literally means ,coal-bearing 7carbo    

fero7  because of the beds of ,coal     
which are sometimes associated with its 
strata2 yet this ,formation is often    
found quite destitute of ,coal over  a  
very extensive area4    ,in looking over
 our ,table of strata the reader must   
have noticed that  the successive spaces
 in the ,woodcut are not proportioned to
 the  actual thickness of the successive
 ,formations for which they stand4  ,the
 ,secondary and ,tertiary ,rocks taken  
together are scarcely one-third  as     
thick1 in reality1 as the ,primary2 yet 
they occupy an equal space  in the      
engraving3 and1 more remarkable still1  
the ,cretaceous system  is allowed      
double the space of the ,laurentian1    
though less than half  as thick4 ,this  
circumstance calls for a passing word of
 explanation4  ,in the early annals of a
 country there is generally a great     
scarcity  of authentic records2 and1    
from a simple dearth of facts1 the      
history  of a whole century is          
compressed1 not unfrequently1 into a few

  pages3 whereas1 in later times1 when  
documentary evidence begins to          
accumulate1 the historians will often   
spread out the events of two or  three  
years over several chapters4 ,something 
of the same kind takes  place in        
,geology4 ,the ,fossil ,remains1 from   
which1 as from authentic  documents1 the
 ,geologist chiefly derives his         
information regarding the  history of   
the ,earth's ,crust1 are scanty in the  
earlier ,formations1  and abundant in   
the more recent4 ,and thus it happens   
that the older  ,geological ,periods1   
notwithstanding the vast thickness of   
the rocks by  which they are            
represented1 do not occupy a very       
prominent position  in the annals of    
,geology1 and are compressed into a     
comparatively  insignificant space in   
its ,tables4 ,nevertheless1 the immense 
depth of  the earliest ,stratified      
,rocks must be taken into account in any
 attempt  to estimate the comparative   
duration of the several ,geological     

,periods4  ,we have1 therefore1 set     
down1 under the name of each ,formation1
 an  approximate estimate of its actual 
thickness1 taken chiefly from the  works
 of ,doctor ,haughton and ,sir ,charles 
,lyell4    ,before bringing this chapter
 to an end we would observe that the    
system of classification we have here   
endeavored to explain does not  pretend 
to be final and complete4 ,it is1 on the
 contrary1 little  more than a temporary
 expedient to render intelligible the   
results  at which ,geologists have      
hitherto arrived2 and is liable to      
manifold  modifications in proportion as
 their acquaintance with the records    
they  have undertaken to interpret      
becomes more extensive and more minute4 
,all that they now contend for is this3 
that the successive ,formations         
represent successive ,periods of time1  
which followed one another in  the order
 here set forth1 and during which the   
,earth was peopled with  certain species
 of ,plants and ,animals1 for the most  

part peculiar to  their respective      
eras4#he    ,illustration               
,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,,geological       
,,chronology--,,remarks ,,on ,,the      
,,succession ,,of ,,organic ,,life4     
,summary of the history of stratified   
rocks--,striking      characteristics of
 certain formations--,human remains     
found      only in superficial          
deposits--,gradual transition from the  
organic life of one period to that of   
the next--,evidence      in favor of    
this opinion--,advance from lower to    
higher      types of organic life as we 
ascend from the older to the      more  
recent formations--,economic value of   
geological                              
chronology--,illustration--,search for  
coal--,the practical man      at        
fault--,the geologist comes to his aid1 
and saves him from      useless expense4
      ,with this sketch of ,geological  
,chronology before us1 we can now more  
fully realize to our minds the story we 
are told about the formation of  the    

,earth's ,crust4 ,in the earliest age to
 which ,geologists can trace  back the  
history of the ,aqueous ,rocks--for they
 do not profess to trace  it back to the
 beginning--this ,globe of ours was1 as 
it is now1 partly  covered with water1  
and partly dry land4 ,the formation of  
stratified  rocks went on in that age1  
as it is still going on1 chiefly over   
those  areas that were under water--not 
indeed throughout the entire extent of  
such areas1 but over certain portions of
 them to which mineral matter  happened 
to be carried by the action of natural  
causes4 ,and the ,earth  was peopled    
then as now1 though with animals and    
plants very different  from those by    
which we are surrounded at the present  
day4 ,some of these  happened to escape 
destruction1 and to be embedded in the  
deposits of  that far distant age1 and  
have thus been preserved even to our    
time4  ,and these strata with their     
,fossils are the same that we now group 
together under the title of the         

,laurentian ,formation3 which being the 
oldest group of stratified rocks we can 
recognize in the depths of the  ,earth's
 ,crust1 occupies the lowest position in
 our table of ,chronology4  ,ages rolled
 on2 and the ,crust of the ,earth was   
moved from within by  some giant force1 
the bed of the ocean was lifted up in   
one place1  islands and continents were 
submerged in another1 and so the        
outlines  of land and water were        
changed4 ,with this change the old forms
 of life  passed away2 a new creation   
came in2 and the ,laurentian period gave
  place to the ,cambrian4 ,but the order
 of nature was still the same as        
before4 ,the deposition of stratified   
rocks still continued1 though the  areas
 of deposition were1 in many cases1     
shifted from one locality to  another4  
,and the organic life that flourished in
 the ,cambrian times  left its memorials
 behind it buried in the ,cambrian      
rocks4 ,then that  age1 too1 came to an 
end1 and gave place in its turn to the  

,silurian3  and this was1 again1        
followed by the ,devonian4 ,thus one    
period  succeeded to another in the     
order set forth in our table2 and every 
part of the globe was1 in the course of 
ages1 more than once submerged1  and    
covered with the deposits of more than  
one age1 and enriched with  the ,organic
 ,remains of more than one creation4    
,as we advance upward in the series of  
,formations we soon perceive that  the  
,fossil ,remains1 which1 in the earlier 
groups were scanty enough1  become      
profusely abundant1 until even the      
unpractised eye cannot  fail to mark the
 peculiar character of each successive  
period2--the  exuberant vegetation of   
the ,carboniferous1 with its luxuriant  
herbage  and its tangled forests1 its   
huge pines1 its tall tree-ferns1 and its
  stately araucarias3 the enormous      
creeping monsters of the ,jurassic1  the
 ichthyosaurs1 the megalosaurs1 the     
iguanodons1 which filled its  seas1 or  
crowded its plains1 or haunted its      

rivers2 and higher up in  the scale1 the
 colossal quadrupeds of the ,miocene and
 the ,pliocene1 the  mammoths1 the      
mastodons1 the megatheriums1 which begin
 to approximate  more closely to the    
organic types of our own age4 ,but      
amidst these  various forms of life1 the
 eye looks in vain for any relic of     
human  kind4 ,no bone of man1 no trace  
of human intelligence1 is to be found   
in any bed of rock that belongs to the  
,primary1 ,secondary1 or ,tertiary      
,formations4 ,it is only when we have   
passed all these1 and come to the       
latest formation of the whole series1   
nay1 it is only in the uppermost  beds  
of this ,formation1 that we meet1 for   
the first time1 with human  bones1 and  
the works of human art4    ,thus it     
appears pretty plain1 even from the     
testimony of ,geology1 that  man was the
 last work of the creation2 and that1 if
 the world is old1  the human race is   
comparatively young4 ,these broken and  
imperfect  records1 which have been so  

curiously preserved in the ,crust of the
  ,earth1 carry us back to an antiquity 
which may not be measured by  years and 
centuries1 and then set before us1 as in
 a palpable form1  how the tender       
herbage appeared1 and the fruit-tree    
yielding fruit  according to its kind2  
and how the ,earth was afterward peopled
 with  great creeping things1 and winged
 fowl1 and the cattle1 and the beasts   
of the field2 and then1 at length1 they 
disclose to us how1 last of  all1 man   
appeared1 to whom all these things seem 
to tend1 and who was  to have dominion  
over the fish of the sea1 and the fowl  
of the air1 and  every living thing that
 moveth upon the earth4 ,we do not mean 
to dwell  just now upon this view of the
 history of creation so clearly         
displayed  in the records of ,geology4  
,but we shall return to it hereafter    
when we  come in the sequel to consider 
how admirably the genuine truths of this
  science fit in with the inspired      
narrative of ,moses4    ,it may here1   

very naturally1 be asked1 if the records
 of ,geology  give us any information as
 to the manner in which each period of  
animal and vegetable life was brought to
 an end8 ,did the old organic  forms    
gradually die out1 and the new gradually
 come in to take their  places8 or were 
the one suddenly extinguished and the   
others as  suddenly produced8 ,this     
question has been a subject of          
controversy  among ,geologists          
themselves2 and therefore it is somewhat
 outside our  scope1 since we propose to
 exhibit only that more general outline 
of  ,geological theory which is accepted
 by all4 ,nevertheless1 as it is a      
question that must needs occur to the   
mind of every reader1 it seems to  call 
for a few words of explanation as we    
pass along4 ,in the early days  of      
,geology1 it was commonly held that each
 great period was brought  to an end by 
a sudden and violent convulsion of      
,nature4 ,the ,crust of  the ,earth was 
burst open in many places all at once2  

the bottom of the  ocean was upheaved   
with a tremendous shock2 the waters1    
driven from  their accustomed bed1      
rushed with furious impetuosity over    
islands and  continents2 and the whole  
existing creation perished in a         
universal  deluge4 ,then succeeded an   
interval of chaotic confusion1 and when 
at  length the waters subsided1 and dry 
land again appeared1 a new age  in the  
history of the ,globe was ushered in1   
and the ,earth was again  peopled by a  
new creation4    ,but this old theory   
has gradually given way as the          
,stratified ,rocks  have been more and  
more fully examined1 and at the present 
day it  is almost universally abandoned4
 ,geologists have observed that the     
same species of ,fossil ,remains which  
prevail in the upper beds of one        
,formation1 are met with also in the    
lower beds of the next1 though in  less 
numbers and mixed up with new species2  
and that1 as we ascend  higher and      
higher into the later ,formation1 the   

old species gradually  become more and  
more scarce1 while the new gradually    
become more and  more numerous2 until at
 length the characteristic forms of one 
age  have disappeared altogether1 and   
those of the succeeding age have        
attained their full development4    ,for
 this important fact1 which was brought 
to light within the last  half century1 
we are mainly indebted to the unwearied 
researches and  great ability of ,sir   
,charles ,lyell4 ,speaking of the       
,formations of the  ,tertiary ,epoch1 to
 which1 as is well known1 he has        
principally devoted  himself1 this      
distinguished writer thus sums up the   
result of his long  investigation3--8,in
 passing from the older to the newer    
members of  the ,tertiary system we meet
 with many chasms1 but none which       
separate  entirely1 by a broad line of  
demarkation1 one state of the organic   
world from another4 ,there are no signs 
of an abrupt termination of one  fauna  
and flora1 and the starting into life of

 new and wholly distinct  forms4        
,although we are far from being able to 
demonstrate geologically  an insensible 
transition from the ,eocene to the      
,miocene1 or even from  the latter to   
the recent fauna1 yet the more we       
enlarge and perfect our  general survey1
 the more nearly do we approximate to   
such a continuous  series1 and the more 
gradually are we conducted from times   
when many of  the genera and nearly all 
the species were extinct1 to those in   
which  scarcely a single species        
flourished which we do not know to exist
 at  present40#hf ,hence he concludes1  
and his conclusion is now the common    
doctrine of ,geologists1 that the       
extinction and creation of species has  
been 8the result of a slow and gradual  
change in the organic world40#hg    ,it 
was long argued against this view1 that 
we often meet1 especially  in the       
,primary and ,secondary ,formations1 two
 groups of strata in  immediate contact1
 in which there is a perfectly sudden   

transition  from one set of ,fossil     
,remains to another altogether          
different4 ,each  group contains a      
countless variety of species1 and yet   
there is not a  single species common to
 the two4 ,does it not appear that in   
such a  case the organic life of one    
period was suddenly destroyed1 and that 
of the next as suddenly introduced8 ,not
 so2 there is one link wanting  in the  
argument4 ,it must be shown that these  
two strata which are  now in immediate  
contact were originally deposited in    
immediate  succession4 ,but this it is  
impossible to prove3 nay1 it must needs 
be  very often false4 ,we have before   
observed that the areas of deposition   
were limited in every age1 and were ever
 shifting from one locality to  another4
 ,therefore it must have been a frequent
 occurrence that1 after  one bed of rock
 was formed1 the process of deposition  
ceased altogether  in that locality1 and
 did not begin again for many ages4     
,thus a long  lapse of time often       

intervened between the deposition of two
 strata1  which were laid out one       
immediately above the other4            
,furthermore1 we  have also seen that   
whole groups of strata may in any age be
 swept away  by ,denudation2 and then   
the rocks which are next deposited in   
that  locality1 will be in immediate    
contact with strata indefinitely more   
ancient than themselves4 ,from these    
considerations it is plain that two     
groups of strata which are now found in 
juxtaposition1 may have been  deposited 
in two ,geological ages widely remote   
from each other4 ,and  consequently a   
sudden transition from the ,organic     
,life of one group to  the ,organic     
,life of the other affords no proof of a
 sudden transition  from the ,organic   
,life of one ,geological ,period to the 
,organic ,life of  that which next      
succeeded4 ,we may observe1 however1    
that the recent  researches1 which have 
contributed so much to fill up the      
interstices  of the ,geological         

,calendar1 have conduced in no small    
degree to fill up  likewise some of the 
more remarkable gaps or chasms in the   
succession  of ,organic ,life4 ,it is1  
therefore1 not unreasonable to suppose  
that1 as  our knowledge of the ,earth's 
,crust becomes more and more minute1 the
  sudden breaks in the continuity of the
 scale will be still further  diminished
 and the successive stages of gradual   
transition will be made  more clearly   
apparent4    ,this subject has been very
 happily illustrated by ,sir ,charles   
,lyell3--8,to make still more clear the 
supposed working of this  machinery for 
the deposition of ,stratified ,rocks and
 the preservation  of ,organic ,remains1
 ,i shall compare it to a somewhat      
analogous case  that might be imagined  
to occur in the history of human        
affairs4 ,let  the mortality of the     
population of a large country represent 
the  successive extinction of species1  
and the birth of new individuals1 the   
introduction of new species4 ,while     

these fluctuations are gradually  taking
 place everywhere1 suppose commissioners
 to be appointed to  visit each province
 of the country in succession1 taking an
 exact  account of the number1 names1   
and individual peculiarities of all the 
inhabitants1 and leaving in each        
district a register containing a  record
 of this information4 ,if1 after the    
completion of one census1  another is   
immediately made on the same plan1 and  
then another1 there  will1 at last1 be a
 series of statistical documents in each
 province4  ,when these belonging to any
 one province are arranged in           
chronological  order1 the contents of   
such as stand next to each other will   
differ  according to the length of time 
between the taking of each census4 ,if1 
for example1 there are sixty provinces1 
and all the registers are made  in a    
single year1 and renewed annually1 the  
number of births and deaths  will be so 
small in proportion to the whole of the 
inhabitants1 during  the interval       

between the compiling of two consecutive
 documents1 that  the individuals       
described in such documents will be     
nearly identical2  whereas1 if the      
survey of each of the sixty provinces   
occupies all the  commissioners for a   
whole year1 so that they are unable to  
revisit  the same place until the       
expiration of sixty years1 there will   
then  be an almost entire discordance   
between the persons enumerated in two   
consecutive registers in the same       
province4    8,but ,i must remind the   
reader that the case above proposed has 
no  pretentions to be regarded as an    
exact parallel to the ,geological       
phenomena which ,i desire to illustrate2
 for the commissioners are  supposed to 
visit the different provinces in        
rotation2 whereas the  commemorating    
processes by which organic remains      
become fossilized1  although they are   
always shifting from one area to the    
other1 are yet  very irregular in their 
movements4 ,they may abandon and revisit

 many  spaces again and again1 before   
they once approach another district2 and
  besides this source of irregularity1  
it may often happen that1 while  the    
depositing process is suspended1        
,denudation may take place1 which  may  
be compared to the occasional           
destruction by fire or other causes  of 
some of the statistical documents before
 mentioned4 ,it is evident  that where  
such accidents occur1 the want of       
continuity in the series  may become    
indefinitely great1 and that the        
monuments which follow next  in         
succession will by no means be          
equi-distant from each other in point   
of time4    8,if this train of reasoning
 be admitted1 the occasional            
distinctness  of the fossil remains1 in 
formations immediately in contact1 would
 be  a necessary consequence of the     
existing laws of sedimentary deposition 
and subterranean movement1 accompanied  
by a constant mortality and  renovation 
or species40#hh    ,there is another and

 a very striking fact in the succession 
of ancient  organic life1 which claims  
from us a moment's notice4 ,as we       
proceed  upward through the series of   
,stratified ,rocks1 from the oldest to  
the  newest1 we find a gradual advance  
in the types of animal organization     
therein preserved1 from the humbler and 
more simple forms of structure  to those
 of a higher and more perfect character4
 ,that form of  organization is regarded
 among ,zoologists as the more perfect  
in which  there is 8a greater number of 
organs specially devoted to particular  
functions40 ,now all the forms of animal
 life with which we are  acquainted1 may
 be reduced to two great divisions1 the 
,vertebrate and  the ,invertebrate1--the
 former having a vertebral or spinal    
column1  the latter having none3 and it 
is agreed in conformity with the notion 
set forth above1 that the ,vertebrate   
animals as a class exhibit a more       
perfect organization than the           
,invertebrate4 ,again1 among the        

,vertebrate  themselves there is a      
gradation2 the ,reptiles are ranked     
higher than  the ,fish1 the ,birds      
higher than the ,reptiles1 and the      
,mammalia higher  again than the ,birds4
    ,all this we learn from ,zoologists1
 who have pursued their  investigations 
without any reference whatever to the   
science of  ,geology4 ,it is1 therefore1
 not a little remarkable that we should 
discover this very order and gradation  
of animal life in the successive  groups
 of ,stratified ,rocks4 ,all the        
,remains hitherto discovered in the     
earliest ,geological ,formations belong 
to ,invertebrate animals1 while  the    
,vertebrate1 which appear for the first 
time in the latter part  of the         
,silurian ,period1 are1 from that age   
on1 more and more fully  developed down 
to the present day1 and now constitute1 
if not the most  numerous1 at least the 
most important part of the animal       
creation4  ,moreover1 it is to be       
observed that the ,vertebrate animals do

 not all  make their appearance at once1
 but come in successively according to  
the same scale of organic               
perfection1--the ,fish appearing first1 
then  the ,reptiles1 then the ,birds1   
and lastly the ,mammalia4 ,even among   
the ,mammalia a well-defined order of   
progressive succession has been         
observed1 which finally culminates in   
the appearance of ,man1 the last        
created and the most perfect of animals4
    ,illustration3 ,,table ,,of         
,,geological ,,formations1    ,,showing 
,,the ,,first ,,appearance ,,on ,,the   
,,earth ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,forms    
,,of  ,,animal ,,life4    ,this         
remarkable succession of animal life in 
the history of the  ,earth's ,crust will
 be more readily understood by means of 
the annexed  ,table4 ,the remains of    
,invertebrate animals have been traced  
as far  back as the ,lower ,laurentian  
,rocks4 ,the ,vertebrate first become   
manifest in the ,ludlow beds of the     
,upper ,silurian2 where they are        

represented by the bones of ,fish1 the  
lowest class belonging to the  ,province
 of ,vertebrates4 ,next in order come   
the ,reptiles3 the oldest  known        
,reptile having been found in the ,coal 
,measures of ,saarbrck  between         
,strasburg and ,treves4 ,the skeletons  
of ,birds are rare in the  ,stratified  
,rocks4 ,it is supposed that their      
powers of flight have in  all ages      
secured them1 to great a extent1 from   
being carried away by  floods1 like     
other land animals1 and buried in the   
sedimentary deposits  of rivers and     
estuaries4 ,nevertheless their presence 
in the ancient  world is frequently     
attested by their footsteps1 impressed  
originally  on the sandy beach1 and     
still preserved now that the soft sand  
has  been converted into solid rock4    
,such traces have been discovered in    
great abundance on the ,new ,red        
,sandstone of the ,connecticut ,river in
  ,america2 and afford the earliest     
evidence we possess in the records  of  

,geology regarding the existence of the 
feathered tribe4 ,this group  of strata 
belongs to the lower ,trias4 ,in the    
higher beds of the same  ,formation we  
meet with the first relic of ancient    
,mammals4 ,it was found  near           
,stuttgardt1 in #ahdg1 and belongs to   
the more imperfect form of  ,mammalian  
life1 the ,non-,placental4 ,similar     
remains have been since  discovered in  
the ,upper ,trias of ,somersetshire4    
,the ,placental1 or more  perfect form  
of animal life in the same class1 first 
appears in the  ,eocene ,formation3 and 
the bones of ,man1 the highest of the   
,placental1  are found for the first    
time in the upper deposits of the       
,post-,tertiary  ,age4    ,let it be    
remembered that we are here but stating 
the facts which have  been hitherto     
brought to light by the researches of   
,geologists4 ,it  may be1 it is indeed  
most probable1 that new discoveries will
 lead to  numerous modifications in our 
,table4 ,there is no reason to suppose  

that  ,geologists have yet exhumed the  
earliest remains of ,vertebrates or     
,invertebrates preserved in the ,crust  
of the ,earth3 that ,fish may not       
hereafter be traced back beyond the     
,silurian1 or ,reptiles beyond the      
,carboniferous ,period3 that ,birds may 
not be found among the ,primary  ,rocks1
 and ,placentals among the ,secondary4  
,but in a science which  depends mainly 
upon observation1 it is better to       
register the facts  we have than to     
speculate idly about those we have not4 
,and1 having  registered them1 we cannot
 fail to be struck with the succession  
of  animal life on the ,earth1 to which 
they seem to point4 ,it is certainly    
deserving of notice that1 as far as the 
,organic ,remains hitherto  discovered  
may be taken as a guide1 ,invertebrates 
and ,vertebrates1  ,fish1 ,reptiles1    
,birds1 and ,mammals1 ,non-,placentals  
and ,placentals1  follow one another in 
the ascending series of ,geological     
,formations  exactly in the same order  

as they follow one another in the       
ascending  scale of ,zoological         
,classification4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,and so         
,geologists go on ever searching out new
 phenomena1 and grouping  them together 
into classes1 until from particular     
facts they lead us  to general truths4  
,then starting with these general truths
 as the  groundwork of their science1   
they proceed to sketch out the ,natural 
,history of our ,globe from the remotest
 ages of the past down to  the present  
time4 ,they first study the stratified  
deposits of each  succeeding age1 and   
analyze the ,fossil ,remains embedded   
therein2  afterward they make their     
inferences1 and they compile their      
history4  ,they describe the forms1 the 
character1 the habits1 of the plants    
and animals that flourished of old in   
this world of ours2 they tell  us where 
the deep sea rolled its waves in each   
succeeding age1 and  where the dry land 
appeared2 they point out the ,deltas of 

its ancient  rivers1 they measure the   
breadth of its ,estuaries1 they trace   
the  course of its ,glaciers1 they mark 
the outlines of its ,mountain chains4   
,but with these and such like           
speculations we are not here concerned4 
,many of them are open to controversy1  
and not a few are at this moment  warmly
 disputed among ,geologists themselves3 
besides1 whether true or  false1 they do
 not in any way affect the relations    
between ,geology and  ,revealed         
,religion4 ,we shall be quite content1  
and it is all that our  present scope   
demands1 if we have made intelligible   
the general theory  of ,geological      
,chronology1 and the kind of evidence on
 which it rests4    ,before taking leave
 of this subject1 however1 we will      
venture to offer  what seems to us an   
interesting illustration of the         
principles we  have been explaining in  
the last two chapters2--one that will   
help  to confirm the conclusions for    
which we have been contending1 and  that

 will also bring home to many minds the 
practical advantage to be  derived from 
a thorough knowledge and just           
application of ,geological  science4    
,perhaps1 too1 it may help to revive the
 flagging attention  of our readers2 for
 the subject of our illustration is     
,coal1 and the  way to find it4 ,in this
 age of manufactories and               
steam-engines1--when  the atmosphere of 
great towns is heavy with smoke1 and the
 quiet  solitude of the country is so   
rudely disturbed by the shrieking of the
  railway-whistle and the snorting of   
the sooty locomotive1--this black1      
dirty mineral has acquired a value and  
importance1 which may succeed  in       
rousing even the practical money-making 
man to pay some heed to the  lessons of 
science4    ,coal might have been       
produced in any ,geological ,period2 and
 in point of  fact1 beds of coal have   
been discovered in many different       
,formations4  ,but in ,england1 and in  
,western ,europe generally1 it has been 

found by  long experience that the      
,coal-beds of the ,carboniferous        
,formation are  more abundant1 and of   
better quality1 than those of any other4
 ,indeed  the beds of ,coal that occur  
in other ,formations are so thin1 and of
  such inferior quality1 that they      
cannot be worked with profit4 ,it is    
therefore of the highest importance in  
the search for ,coal1 before  going to  
the enormous expense of sinking deep    
shafts1 to discover  whether or no the  
rocks in which the search is to be made 
belong to  the ,carboniferous ,period4  
,in this matter the more practical man  
is  often seriously at fault4           
,coal-bearing strata generally consist  
pretty  largely of dark-colored clay1   
black shales1 and similar deposits4     
,this  is a fact which1 as it strikes   
the eye1 is perfectly familiar to all   
who are engaged in the working of ,coal 
mines4 ,hence it happens1 not           
unfrequently1 that the practical man1   
when he meets with strata of this  kind1

 is apt at once to infer that ,coal is  
near at hand4 ,the ,geologist1  on the  
contrary1 knows well that such strata   
are not peculiar to the  ,carboniferous 
rocks1 but are often found in other     
,formations in which  there is no ,coal 
at all1 or at least no ,coal that will  
repay the  expense of working2 and      
therefore he will pronounce it most rash
 to  undertake costly works on the      
strength of these appearances4 ,he has  
learned1 however1 that there are certain
 species of animals and plants  which   
are found in the ,carboniferous rocks   
and in them alone2 he will  search for  
these in the strata which it is proposed
 to explore1 and  by their presence or  
their absence he will know whether the  
strata in  question belong to the       
,carboniferous ,formation or not4       
,again1 it will often happen that1 in   
the midst of an extensive region  well  
known to abound in ,coal1 the rocks     
which appear at the surface in  one     
particular locality1 are not wholly     

devoid of ,coal1 but exhibit no         
resemblance either in mineral character 
or in ,fossil ,remains to the           
,coal-bearing strata4 ,a question then  
arises of the highest practical         
importance4 ,may it be that the         
,coal-bearing strata are spread out     
beneath this uppermost bed of rocks8 and
 is it worth the expense to  sink a     
shaft through the one in the hope of    
reaching the other8 ,the  practical     
miner has no very clear or certain      
principles to help him  in the solution 
of this problem2 and thus it has often  
happened that  thousands upon thousands 
of pounds have been expended in sinking 
shafts  to look for ,coal1 where1 as it 
afterward proved1 there was not the     
slightest chance of finding it4 ,now1   
though ,geology cannot tell if we  shall
 succeed in finding ,coal beneath these 
rocks1 it can tell if  there is a good  
chance of succeeding4 ,it can tell      
whether there is  a reasonable hope1 by 
penetrating into the ,crust of the      

,earth at this  particular spot1 of     
reaching the ,carboniferous ,formation2 
and if we can  reach the ,carboniferous 
,formation in the midst of a ,coal      
district1 it  is very likely we shall   
meet with beds of ,coal4    ,his first  
object will be to ascertain what is the 
,formation to which  the superficial    
rocks belong4 ,if it be a ,formation    
earlier in date than  the               
,carboniferous1--the ,silurian1 for     
instance1 or the ,devonian1--he  knows  
that it would be simply waste of money  
to look for ,coal beneath  them2 because
 the ,carboniferous rocks cannot        
possibly be found  underneath the rocks 
of an earlier age4 ,and so the          
,geologist can tell  beforehand what the
 mere practical man would find out only 
when he had  spent his money4 ,if1 on   
the other hand1 the rocks which appear  
at the  surface belong to a period later
 than the ,carboniferous1 the ,geologist
  will not always conclude that it is   
expedient to sink a shaft in  search of 

,coal4 ,for though the ,carboniferous   
rocks may1 in this case1  be underneath1
 they may be so far down in the ,crust  
of the ,earth that  we should have no   
chance of ever reaching them4 ,suppose1 
for example1  that the strata which     
appear at the surface belong to the     
,cretaceous  ,formation4 ,he knows from 
his ,chronological table that the       
,carboniferous  age is separated from   
the ,cretaceous by three intermediate   
,periods1--the ,permian1 the ,triassic1 
the ,jurassic4 ,therefore1 when he      
finds the ,cretaceous rocks at the      
surface in any locality1 it is quite    
possible1 though of course not certain1 
that before the ,carboniferous          
,formation could be reached it would be 
necessary to bore through  thousands of 
feet of ,jurassic1 ,triassic1 and       
,permian rocks4 ,and even  then there   
would be no certainty of meeting with   
the ,coal-bearing  strata4 ,perhaps they
 were never deposited over this area of 
the earth's  surface2 or1 if deposited1 

perhaps they were subsequently swept    
away  by ,denudation4 ,hence our        
,geologist would reasonably conclude    
that1 the  probable expense of the      
search being so enormous1 and the chance
 of  success so remote1 it would be much
 wiser not to make the attempt4         
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,xiv4    ,,subterranean      
,,heat--,,its ,,existence ,,demonstrated
 ,,by ,,facts4        ,theory of        
stratified rocks supposes disturbances  
of the      earth's crust--,these       
disturbances ascribed by geologists     
to the action of subterranean heat--,the
 existence of      subterranean heat1   
and its power to move the crust of the  
earth1 proved by direct                 
evidence--,supposed igneous origin of   
our globe--,remarkable increase of      
temperature as we descend      into the 
earth's crust--,hot springs--,artesian  
wells--,steam      issuing from crevices
 in the earth--,the geysers of          
,iceland--,a      glimpse at the        

subterranean fires--,mount ,vesuvius in 
#aggi--,vast      extent of volcanic    
action--,existence of subterranean heat 
an      established fact4      ,in      
developing the modern theory of         
,geology1 we have all along assumed     
that the ,crust of the ,earth has been  
subject to frequent disturbances  from  
the earliest ages of the world4 ,again  
and again1 in the course  of our        
argument1 we have talked of the bed of  
the sea being lifted  up1 and converted 
into dry land2 and1 on the other hand1  
of the dry  land being submerged beneath
 the waters of the sea4 ,we have not    
even  hesitated to suppose that these   
two opposite movements of upheaval and  
submersion often took place by turns    
over the same area2 nay1 that  there is 
scarcely a region on the surface of the 
,globe which has not  been several times
 submerged1 and several times again     
upheaved4    ,yet all this has not been 
taken for granted without proof4 ,our   
readers  have seen what a long array of 

sober reasoning may be drawn out to     
show that the ,stratified ,rocks have   
been1 for the most part1 deposited      
under water3--first1 from the nature and
 arrangement of the materials  which    
compose them2 secondly1 from the        
character of the ,organic ,remains  they
 contain4 ,and since they are now above 
water1 it is plain that  either they    
have been lifted or the ocean has       
subsided4 ,furthermore1 if  we find1 as 
we often do1 two strata in immediate    
succession1 the one  underneath1        
exhibiting the trees of an ancient      
forest still standing  erect with their 
roots attached1 the other above1        
abounding in the  remains of aquatic    
animals2 we must conclude that when the 
ancient  forest flourished this portion 
of the ,earth's ,crust was above the    
level of the sea2 that afterward it was 
submerged1 and a new deposit1  in which 
the marine remains were embedded1 was   
spread out above the  earlier           
vegetation2 and that1 last of all it    

again emerged from the  waters1 and     
became once more dry land4 ,finally1    
when a vertical section  of the ,earth's
 ,crust exhibits a continued series of  
such strata  alternating with each      
other1 it affords a proof that this     
particular  area must have been several 
times under water1 and several times    
again  dry land1 in the long course of  
ages4    ,these conclusions are now all 
but universally received among          
,geologists4 ,the ,crust of the ,earth1 
we are assured1 is not that  unyielding 
and immovable mass which men commonly   
take it to be4 ,on the  contrary1 it has
 been from the beginning ever restless  
and in motion1  rising here and         
subsiding there1 sometimes with a       
convulsive shock  capable of upturning1 
twisting1 distorting hard and stubborn  
rocks as  if they were but flimsy layers
 of pliant clay2 sometimes with a       
gentle1  undulating movement1 which1    
while it uplifts islands and continents1
  leaves the general aspect of the      

surface unchanged1 the arrangement of   
the strata undisturbed1 and even the    
most tender ,fossils unharmed4          
,disturbances of this kind have been    
going on in various parts of the  world 
even within the period of history2 and  
they may be distinctly  traced to the   
action of subterranean ,heat4 ,in       
support of a theory so  startling and   
unexpected1 ,geologists appeal to the   
direct evidence of  facts3 and we now   
propose to bring some of these facts    
under the notice  of our readers4    ,at
 the outset1 however1 it is important to
 set forth clearly the  doctrine we hope
 to illustrate and confirm4 ,with the   
origin of the  internal heat that       
prevails within the ,crust of the ,earth
 we have no  concern4 ,this is still an 
unsettled point among ,geologists       
themselves4  ,some conjecture that our  
,globe1 when first launched into space1 
was  in a state of igneous fusion2 that 
is to say1 that all the solid  matter of
 which it is composed was held in a     

molten condition by the  action of      
intense heat2 that1 in course of time1  
as this heat passed  off by radiation1  
the surface gradually cooled and grew   
hard2 that  an external shell of solid  
rock was thus formed1 which has been    
ever  growing thicker in proportion as  
the ,earth has been growing cooler2 and 
that the actual condition of our planet 
is the result of this process  continued
 down to the present day1--a fiery mass 
of seething mineral  within1 and a      
comparatively thin crust of consolidated
 rock without4  ,others suppose that the
 internal heat of the ,globe is         
developed by the  agency of chemical    
changes constantly going on in the      
depths of the  ,earth2 and others1      
again1 look for a cause to the action of
 electricity  and magnetism4 ,but these 
and such like speculations are still    
under  discussion1 and not one of them  
can be regarded as anything more1 at    
best1 than a satisfactory hypothesis4   
,anyhow1 it is not about the  causes of 

internal heat that we are just now      
interested1 but about  the fact of its  
existence1 and the nature of its        
effects4 ,is it true  that an intense   
heat prevails very generally beneath the
 superficial  covering of the ,globe8   
and is that heat capable of producing   
those  stupendous changes which are     
ascribed to it in our theory of         
,geology8  ,these are the questions to  
which we mean to devote our chief       
attention4    ,it is a very significant 
fact1 that the deeper we penetrate into 
the  ,crust of the ,earth1 the hotter it
 is4 ,at first1 no doubt1 for a short   
distance1 the reverse is the case4 ,when
 we begin to descend we find it  cooler 
below than above1 because the further we
 depart from the surface  the more we   
are removed from the influence of the   
,sun4 ,but at a certain  point--in our  
climate at about fifty feet below the   
surface--the  influence of the ,sun's   
heat ceases to be sensibly felt4 ,when  
this limit  is passed1 the temperature  

begins to rise1 and thenceforth the     
deeper  we go the hotter the earth      
becomes4    ,this broad and general fact
 has been tested by experiments in every
  part of the world1 and has been found 
true in all countries1 in  all climates1
 in all latitudes1 whether in coal-pits1
 or mines1 or  deep subterranean caves4 
8,in one and the same mine10 says ,sir  
,john  ,herschel1#hi 8each particular   
depth has its own particular degree of  
heat1 which never varies3 but the lower 
always the hotter2 and that  not by a   
trifling1 but what may well be called an
 astonishingly rapid  rate of           
increase1--about a degree of the        
thermometer additional warmth  for every
 ninety feet of additional depth1#ij    
which is about #eh per  mile6--so that1 
if we had a shaft sunk a mile deep1 we  
should find in  the rock a heat of #aje1
 which is much hotter than the hottest  
summer  day ever experienced in         
,england40 ,now if the temperature      
continue  to increase at this rate      

toward the centre of the ,earth1 it is  
quite  certain that1 at no very great   
distance from the surface1 the heat     
would be sufficiently intense to reduce 
the hardest granite and the  most       
refractory metals to a state of igneous 
fusion4    ,again1 every one is familiar
 with the existence of hot springs1     
which come up from unknown depths in the
 ,earth's ,crust1 and which1  appearing 
as they do in almost all parts of the   
world1 testify in  unmistakable language
 to the existence of internal heat4 ,at 
,bath1  for instance1 in ,england1 the  
water comes up from the bowels of the   
,earth1 at a temperature of #aag        
,fahrenheit2 and in the ,united ,states1
  on the ,arkansas ,river1 there is a   
spring at #ahj--not much below the      
boiling point4 ,this remarkable         
phenomenon1 however1 may be more closely
  investigated in the case of ,artesian 
,wells1 so called from the province  of 
,artois1 in ,france1 where they first   
came into use4 ,these wells are  formed 

artificially1 by boring down through the
 superficial strata of  the ,earth1     
sometimes to enormous depths1 until     
water is reached4 ,it  has been found in
 every case that the water coming up    
from these great  depths is always hot2 
and1 furthermore1 that the deeper the   
boring the  hotter the water4 ,a well of
 this kind was sunk in #ahcd at         
,grenelle1 in  the suburbs of ,paris1 to
 a depth of more than #ahjj ,english    
feet1 and  the water1 which rushed up   
with surprising force1 had a temperature
  of #hb ,fahrenheit2 whereas the mean  
temperature of the air in the  cellars  
of the ,paris ,observatory is only #ec4 
,the water has ever since  continued to 
flow1 and the temperature has never     
varied4 ,at ,salzwerth1  in ,germany1   
where the boring is still deeper1 being 
#b1add feet1 the  water which rises to  
the surface is #ia of our scale4        
,then we have1 in many countries1 jets  
of steam which issue at a high          
temperature from crevices in the ,earth1

 and which tell of the existence  of    
heated water below1 as plainly as the   
steam that escapes from the  funnel of a
 locomotive or from the spout of a      
tea-kettle4 ,phenomena of  this kind are
 very common in ,italy1 where they are  
sometimes exhibited  at intervals along 
a line of country twenty miles in       
length4 ,but in  ,iceland it is that    
they are displayed in the highest degree
 of splendor  and power4 ,on the        
southwest side of that island1 within a 
circuit of  two miles1 there are nearly 
a hundred hot springs called ,geysers1  
from  some of which1 at intervals1      
immense volumes of steam and boiling    
water  are violently projected into the 
air4 ,the ,great ,geyser is a natural   
tube1 ten feet wide1 descending into the
 ,earth to a depth of seventy  feet1 and
 opening out above into a broad basin1  
from fifty to sixty  feet in diameter4  
,this basin1 as well as the tube which  
connects it  with the interior of the   
,earth1 is lined with a beautifully     

smooth  and hard plaster of siliceous   
cement1 and is generally filled to the  
brim with water of a clear azure color1 
and a temperature little  below boiling 
point4 ,the ordinary condition of the   
spring is one of  comparative repose1   
the water rising slowly in the tube and 
trickling  over the edge of the stony   
basin4 ,but every few hours an eruption 
takes  place4 ,subterranean explosions  
are first heard1 like the firing of     
distant cannon2 then a violent          
ebullition follows1 clouds of steam are 
given out1 and jets of boiling water are
 cast up into the air4 ,after a  little 
the disturbance ceases1 and all is quiet
 again4 ,once a day1 or  thereabouts1   
these phenomena are exhibited on a scale
 of extraordinary  grandeur3 the        
explosions which announce beforehand the
 approaching  display are more numerous 
and violent than usual2 then such       
volumes of  steam rush forth as to      
obscure the atmosphere for half a mile  
around2  and1 finally1 a vast column of 

water is projected to a height of from  
one to two hundred feet1 and continues  
for a quarter of an hour to play  like  
an artificial fountain4 ,geysers        
scarcely less grand and striking  are to
 be seen in ,new ,zealand1 from which   
the water is thrown up at a  temperature
 #bad ,fahrenheit1 or two degrees above 
boiling point4    ,such are the evident 
symptoms of subterranean heat1--hot     
springs1 jets  of steam1 fountains of   
boiling water1--which are manifested    
unceasingly  at the surface of the      
,earth in every quarter of the ,globe4  
,but it is  sometimes given us to       
behold1 as it were1 the subterranean    
fire itself1  and to contemplate its    
power under a more striking and awful   
form4 ,from  time to time1 in the fury  
of its rage1 the fiery element bursts   
asunder  the prison-house in which it is
 confined1 and rushes forth into the    
light of day2 then flames are seen to   
issue from the surface of the  ,earth1  
yawning chasms begin to appear on every 

side1 the roaring of  the furnaces is   
heard in the depths below1 clouds of    
red-hot cinders  are ejected high into  
the air1 and streams of incandescent    
liquid rock  are poured forth from every
 crevice1 which1 rolling far away       
through  smiling fields and peaceful    
villages1 carry destruction and         
desolation  in their track4 ,these are  
the ordinary phenomena of an active     
volcano  during the period of eruption2 
and even while we write1 most of them   
may be witnessed actually taking place  
for the hundredth time1 on the  historic
 ground of ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,our       
typical example1 however1 we  shall take
 from the eruption of that mountain in  
the year #aggi4 ,it  was not1 indeed1   
especially remarkable for its violence  
or for the  catastrophes by which it was
 attended2 but it had the good fortune  
to be accurately recorded by an         
eye-witness1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1   
who1 at that time1 represented the      
,english ,government at the ,court of   

,naples2 and we are thus more minutely  
acquainted with all its various         
circumstances than with those of any    
other eruption of equal importance4     
,for two years before1 the mountain had 
been in a state of excitement  and      
disturbance4 ,from time to time rumbling
 noises were heard  underground1 dense  
masses of smoke were emitted from the   
crater1 liquid  lava at a white heat    
bubbled up from crevices on the slopes  
of the  mountain1 and through these     
crevices a glimpse could be had here and
  there of the rocky caverns within1 all
 8red-hot like a heated oven40  ,but in 
the month of ,august1 #aggi1 the        
eruption reached its climax4  ,about    
nine o'clock in the evening of ,sunday  
the eighth1 according to  the graphic   
description of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 
8there was a loud  report1 which shook  
the houses at ,portici and its          
neighborhood to  such a degree as to    
alarm the inhabitants and drive them out
 into  the streets4 ,many windows were  

broken1 and1 as ,i have since seen1     
walls cracked1 from the concussion of   
the air from that explosion4  ,in one   
instant1 a fountain of liquid           
transparent fire began to rise1  and1   
gradually increasing1 arrived at so     
amazing a height1 as to  strike every   
one who beheld it with the most awful   
astonishment4 ,i  shall scarcely be     
credited when ,i assure you that1 to the
 best of my  judgment1 the height of    
this stupendous column of fire could not
 be  less than three times that of      
,vesuvius itself1 which1 you know1 rises
  perpendicularly near #c1gjj feet above
 the level of the sea4 ,puffs of  smoke1
 as black as can possibly be imagined1  
succeeded one another  hastily1 and     
accompanied the red-hot1 transparent1   
and liquid lava1  interrupting its      
splendid brightness here and there by   
patches of  the darkest hue4 ,within    
these puffs of smoke1 at the very moment
 of  their emission from the crater1 ,i 
could perceive a bright but pale        

electrical light playing about in zigzag
 lines4 ,the liquid lava1 mixed  with   
scoriae and stones1 after having        
mounted1 ,i verily believe1 at  least   
#aj1jjj feet1 falling perpendicularly on
 ,vesuvius1 covered its  whole cone1 and
 part of that of ,somma1 and the valley 
between them4 ,the  falling matter being
 nearly as vivid and inflamed as that   
which was  continually issuing fresh    
from the crater1 formed with it a       
complete  body of fire1 which could not 
be less than two miles and a half in    
breadth1 and of the extraordinary height
 above mentioned1 casting a  heat to the
 distance of at least six miles around  
it4 ,the brushwood of  the mountain of  
,somma was soon in a flame1 which1 being
 of a different  tint from the deep red 
of the matter thrown out from the       
,volcano1  and from the silvery blue of 
the electrical fire1 still added to the 
contrast of this most extraordinary     
scene4 ,after the column of fire        
continued in full force for nearly half 

an hour the eruption ceased at  once1   
and ,vesuvius remained sullen and       
silent40#ia    ,the existence1 then1 of 
intense heat within the ,crust of the   
,earth  may be regarded as an           
established fact where-ever an active   
,volcano  appears at the surface4 ,now  
let us consider for a moment1 the very  
extensive scale on which these fiery    
engines of ,nature are distributed  over
 the face of the ,globe4 ,first1 on the 
great continent of ,america4  ,the whole
 chain of the ,andes--that stupendous   
ridge of mountains which  stretches     
along the western coast of ,south       
,america1 from ,tierra del  ,fuego on   
the south to the isthmus of ,panama on  
the north--is studded  over with        
,volcanos1 most of which have been seen 
in active eruption  within the last #cjj
 years4 ,passing the narrow isthmus of  
,panama1 this  line of ,volcanos may    
still be traced through ,guatemala to   
,mexico1 and  thence northward even as  
far as the mouth of the ,columbia       

,river4 ,here  is a vast volcanic region
 extending fully #f1jjj miles in length1
 and  spreading out its fiery arms1 we  
know not how far1 to the right and to   
the left4 ,at ,quito1 just on the       
,equator1 a branch shoots off toward the
  northeast1 and1 passing through ,new  
,granada and ,venezuela1 stretches  away
 across the ,west ,india ,islands1      
taking in ,st4 ,vincent1 ,dominica1     
,guadaloupe1 and many others2 while1 in 
the opposite direction1 it is  certain  
that the volcanic action extends        
westward1 far away beneath the  waters  
of the ,pacific1 though we have no      
definite means of ascertaining  where   
its influence ceases to be felt4        
,another vast train of active ,volcanos 
is that which skirts the eastern  and   
southern coasts of ,asia4 ,commencing on
 the shores of ,northwestern  ,america1 
it passes through the ,aleutian ,islands
 to ,kamtschatka2 then1  in a sort of   
undulating curve1 it winds its course by
 the ,kurile  ,islands1 the ,japanese   

group1 the ,philippines1 and the        
northeastern  extremity of the ,celebes1
 to the ,moluccas4 ,at this point it    
divides  into two branches2 one going in
 a southeasterly direction to ,new      
,guinea1 the ,solomon ,islands1 the     
,friendly ,islands1 and ,new ,zealand2  
the  other pursuing a northwesterly     
course through ,java and ,sumatra into  
the  ,bay of ,bengal4    ,there is a    
third great line of volcanic fires which
 has been pretty  well traced out by    
modern travellers1 extending through    
,china and  ,tartary to the ,caucasus2  
thence over the countries bordering the 
,black  ,sea to the ,grecian            
,archipelago2 then on to ,naples1       
,sicily1 the ,lipari  ,islands1 the     
southern part of ,spain and ,portugal1  
and the ,azores4  ,besides these there  
are numerous groups of ,volcanos not    
apparently  linked on to any regular    
volcanic chain1 nor reduced as yet by   
scientific men to any general system2   
,mount ,hecla1 for instance1 in         

,iceland1 the ,mountains of the ,moon in
 ,central ,africa1 ,owhyhee in the      
,sandwich ,islands1 and many others     
rising up irregularly from the broad    
waters of the ,pacific4    ,from this   
brief outline some idea may be formed of
 the magnificent  scale on which        
volcanic agency is developed within the 
,crust of the  ,earth4 ,it must be      
remembered1 however1 that any estimate  
based upon  the enumeration we have     
given1 would be1 in all probability1 far
  below the truth2 for we have mentioned
 those ,volcanos only which  have       
attracted the notice of scientific men1 
or which have chanced  to fall under the
 observation of travellers4 ,many       
others1 doubtless1  must exist in       
regions not yet explored1 and in the    
profound depths  of the seas and oceans1
 which cover nearly two-thirds of the   
area  of our planet4 ,moreover1 we have 
said nothing at all of extinct          
,volcanos--such as those of ,auvergne in
 ,france1 and of the ,rocky  ,mountains 

in ,america--which have not been in     
active operation within  historical     
times2 but in which1 nevertheless1 the  
hardened streams of  lava1 the volcanic 
ashes1 and the cone-shaped mountains    
terminating in  hollow craters1 tell the
 story of eruptions in bygone ages1 not 
less  clearly than the blackened walls  
and charred timbers of some stately     
building bear witness to the passing    
wayfarer of a long extinguished         
conflagration4    ,we contend1          
therefore1 that the doctrine of intense 
subterranean heat  is not a wild        
conjecture1 but is based on a solid     
groundwork of facts4  ,first1 there is  
presumptive evidence4 ,in every deep    
mine1 in every deep  sinking of whatever
 kind1 the heat of the earth increases  
rapidly as we  descend4 ,hot water comes
 from great depths1 and never cold4     
,sometimes  it is boiling3 sometimes it 
has been converted into steam4 ,all this
 is  found to be the case universally1  
whenever an opportunity has occurred    

for making the trial2 and it seems to   
afford a strong presumption that  if one
 could go still deeper1 the heat would  
be found yet more intense1  and would at
 length be capable of reducing to a     
liquid state the solid  materials of    
which the earth is composed4 ,next1     
there is the direct  testimony of our   
senses4 ,a channel is opened from the   
depths below1  flames are seen1 red-hot 
cinders are cast up1 and molten rock is 
poured  out over the surface of the     
,earth in a liquid stream of fire4 ,this
  evidence1 however1 though direct and  
conclusive as far as it goes1 is  not   
universal4 ,it proves that an intense   
white heat prevails within the  ,crust  
of the ,earth1 not everywhere1 but at   
least in those numerous and  extensive  
regions where active ,volcanos exist4   
,so stands the case1 as  it seems to us1
 for the doctrine of subterranean heat  
as far as regards  the fact of its      
existence4    ,illustration             
,,chapter ,,xv4    ,,subterranean       

,,heat--,,its ,,powers ,,illustrated    
,,by ,,volcanos4        ,effects of     
subterranean heat in the present age of 
the      world--,vast accumulations of  
solid matter from the eruptions      of 
volcanos--,buried cities of ,pompeii and
 ,herculaneum--,curious      relics of  
,roman life--,monte ,nuovo--,eruption of
 ,jorullo in the      province of       
,mexico--,sumbawa in the ,indian        
,archipelago--,volcanos      of         
,iceland--,mountain mass of ,etna the   
product of volcanic                     
eruptions--,volcanic islands--,in the   
,atlantic--,in the                      
,mediterranean--,santorin in the        
,grecian ,archipelago4      ,having now 
sufficiently demonstrated the existence 
of intense  subterranean heat1 diffused1
 if not universally1 at least very      
generally1 beneath the superficial shell
 of the ,earth1 we shall next  proceed  
to inquire if it is capable of effecting
 those physical  changes which are      
ascribed to it in ,geology2--of         

producing land where  none before       
existed1 of upheaving the solid ,crust  
of the ,earth1 of  driving the ocean    
from its bed1 of dislocating and        
contorting solid  masses of rock4 ,the  
argument is still an appeal to facts4   
,such effects  as these have been       
produced by the agency of internal heat1
 under  actual observation1 in the      
present age of the world2 and it is not 
unreasonable to attribute to the same   
cause similar phenomena in ages  gone   
by4    ,we will not run the risk of     
dissipating the force of this reasoning 
by attempting to expand it4 ,it will be 
enough for us to state the  facts3 we   
shall leave it to our readers to        
estimate for themselves the  value of   
the argument4 ,there are three forms1   
more or less distinct1  though closely  
associated1 under which the subterranean
 fires have  exerted their power in     
modern times to disturb and modify the  
,physical  ,geography of the            
,globe2--7#a7 the ,volcano1 7#b7 the    

,earthquake1 7#c7 the  gentle           
,undulation of the ,earth's ,crust4 ,of 
these we shall speak in  order4    ,in  
the case of ,volcanos1 as we have       
already sufficiently conveyed1 the      
hidden furnaces of the ,earth find a    
vent for their surplus energies2  and   
when this vent is once established1 that
 is to say1 when the active  ,volcano   
has begun to exist1 it seems probable   
that there is little  further upheaval1 
properly so called1 of the surface4     
,nevertheless1  ,volcanos contribute    
largely to the formation of land by the 
vast  accumulation of ashes1 mud1 and   
lava1 which they vomit forth4 ,the      
destruction of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii
 is a case in point4 ,for eight  days   
successively1 in the year #gi1 the ashes
 and pumice stone cast  up from the     
crater of ,vesuvius1 fell down in one   
unceasing shower  upon these devoted    
cities2 while at the same time floods of
 water1  carrying along the fine dust   
and light cinders1 swept down the sides 

of the mountain in resistless torrents  
of mud1 entering the houses1            
penetrating into every nook and crevice1
 and filling even the very wine  jars in
 the underground cellars4    ,at the    
present moment the layers of volcanic   
matter beneath which  ,pompeii has been 
slumbering for centuries1 are from      
twelve to fourteen  feet over the tops  
of the houses4 ,loftier still is the    
pile that  overlies the buried          
,herculaneum4 ,this city1 situated      
nearer to the base  of the ,volcano1 has
 been exposed to the effects of many    
successive  eruptions2 and accordingly1 
spread out over the mass of ashes and   
pumice by which it was first            
overwhelmed1 in the time of ,pliny1 we  
now  find alternate layers of lava and  
volcanic mud1 together with fresh       
accumulations of ashes1 to a height1 in 
many places1 of #aab feet1 and  nowhere 
less than #gj4 ,nor was this ejected    
matter confined to these two  populous  
towns4 ,it was scattered far and wide   

over the country around1  and has       
contributed in no small degree to that  
extraordinary richness  and fertility   
for which the soil of ,naples is so     
justly famed4    ,as regards the        
production of land where none before    
existed1 here is  one fact of singular  
significance4 ,at the time of the       
eruption1 in #gi1  ,pompeii was a       
seaport town to which merchantmen were  
wont to resort1  and a flight of steps1 
which still remains1 led down to the    
water's  edge3 it is now more than a    
mile distant from the coast1 and the    
tract  of land which intervenes is      
composed entirely of volcanic tuff and  
ashes4    ,gladly would we linger over  
the reminiscences of these luxurious and
  ill-fated cities4 ,by the removal of  
the ashes1 ,pompeii is now laid  open to
 view for at least one-third of its     
extent2 and a strange  sight it is1 this
 ancient ,roman city thus risen as it   
were from the  grave1--risen1 but yet   
lifeless1--with its silent streets1 and 

its  tenantless houses1 and its empty   
,forum4 ,wherever we turn we have before
  us a curious and interesting picture1 
ghastly though it is1 of the  social1   
political1 and domestic life of those   
ancient times1 of the  glory and the    
shame that hung around the last days of 
,pagan ,rome2--in  the theatres and the 
temples1 in the shops and the private   
houses1 in  the graceful frescoes1 in   
the elaborate mosaics1 and1 not least1  
in  the idle scribblings on the walls1  
which1 with a sort of whimsical         
reverence1 have been spared by the      
destroying hand of ,time4 ,then again1  
what a host of singular relics are there
 to be wondered at3--articles  of       
domestic use and luxury1 kitchen        
utensils and surgical instruments2      
female skeletons with the ornaments and 
vanities of the world1 rings  and       
bracelets and necklaces1 still clinging 
to their charred remains2  and strangest
 perhaps of all1 eighty-four loaves of  
bread1 which were  put into the oven to 

bake #ahjj years ago1 and were taken out
 only  yesterday1 with the baker's brand
 upon them1 and the stamp of the        
baker's elbow still freshly preserved in
 the centre of each4 ,no subject  could 
be more tempting to a writer1 none more 
attractive to a reader4  ,but our       
present purpose is to show the effects  
of ,volcanos in elevating  the level of 
the land2 and so we must turn our back  
on the buried  cities1 and crossing the 
,bay of ,naples1 seek for a new         
illustration in  the formation of ,monte
 ,nuovo1 a lofty hill overlooking the   
ancient town  of ,pozzuoli4    ,about   
one o'clock at night1 on ,sunday1 the   
twenty-ninth of ,september1  #aech1     
flames were seen to issue from the      
ground close to the waters of  the      
beautiful bay of ,baiae4 ,after a       
little1 a sound like thunder was  heard1
 the earth was rent asunder1 and through
 the rent large stones1  red-hot        
cinders1 volcanic mud and volumes of    
water1 were furiously  vomited forth1   

which covered the whole country around1 
reaching even  as far as ,naples1 and   
disfiguring its palaces and public      
buildings4  ,the next morning it was    
found that a new mountain had been      
formed by  the accumulation of ejected  
matter around the central opening4 ,this
  mountain remains to the present day1  
and is called the ,monte ,nuovo4  ,in   
form it is a regular volcanic cone1 four
 hundred and forty feet  high1 and a    
mile and a half in circumference at its 
base1 with an open  crater in the       
centre1 which descends nearly to the    
level of the sea4 ,an  eye-witness who  
has left us a minute account of this    
eruption1 relates  that on the third day
 he went up with many people to the top 
of the new  hill1 and looking down into 
the crater1 saw the stones that had     
fallen  to the bottom1 8boiling up just 
as a caldron of water boils on the      
fire40 ,the same writer informs us--and 
it is very much to our present  purpose 
to note the fact--that immediately      

before the eruption began1  the relative
 position of land and sea was materially
 changed1 the coast  was sensibly       
upraised1 the waters retired about two  
hundred paces1 and  multitudes of fish  
were raised high and dry upon the sand1 
a prey to  the inhabitants of           
,pozzuoli4#ib    ,the ,monte ,nuovo is  
but a type of its class4 ,if we travel  
westward #h1jjj  miles from ,naples to  
the more stupendous ,volcanos of the    
,new ,world1  we may witness the same   
phenomena on a still grander scale4 ,in 
the  province of ,mexico1 there is an   
elevated and extensive plain called     
,malpais1 where for many generations the
 cotton plant1 the indigo1 and  the     
sugar-cane1 flourished luxuriantly in a 
soil richly endowed with  natural gifts1
 and carefully cultivated by its        
industrious inhabitants4  ,everything   
was going on as usual in this smiling   
and prosperous region1  and no one      
dreamed of danger1 when suddenly1 in the
 month of ,june1  #agei1 subterranean   

sounds were heard1 attended with slight 
convulsions  of the earth4 ,these       
symptoms of internal commotion continued
 until the  month of ,september1 when   
they gradually died away1 and           
tranquillity  seemed to be restored4    
,but it was only the delusive lull that 
precedes  the fury of the storm4 ,on the
 night of the twenty-eighth of          
,september  the rumbling sounds were    
heard again more violent than before4   
,the  inhabitants fled in consternation 
to a neighboring mountain1 from the     
summit of which they looked back with   
wonder and dismay upon the utter        
annihilation of their homesteads and    
their farms4 ,flames broke out  over an 
area half a square league in extent1 the
 earth was burst open  in many places1  
fragments of burning rock were thrown to
 prodigious  heights in the air1        
torrents of boiling mud flowed over the 
plain1 and  thousands of little conical 
hills1 called by the natives ,hornitos  
or  ,ovens1 rose up from the surface of 

the land4 ,finally a vast chasm was     
opened1 and such quantities of ashes and
 fragmentary lava were ejected  as to   
raise up six great mountain masses1     
which continued to increase  during the 
five months that the eruption lasted4   
,the least of these is  #cjj feet high1 
and the central one1 now called         
,jorullo1 which is still  burning1 is   
#afjj feet above the level of the plain4
 ,when ,baron ,humboldt  visited this   
region just forty years after the       
eruption had ceased1 the  ground was    
still intensely hot1 and 8the ,hornitos 
were pouring forth  columns of steam    
twenty or thirty feet high1 with a      
rumbling noise like  that of a steam    
boiler40#ic ,since that time1 however1  
the face of the  country has become once
 more smiling and prosperous2 the slopes
 of the  newly-formed hills are now     
clothed with vegetation1 and the        
sugar-cane  and the indigo again        
flourish luxuriantly in the fertile     
plains below4    ,on the opposite side  

of the ,globe1 #aj1jjj miles from       
,mexico1 we have  had1 almost in our own
 time1 an exhibition of volcanic        
phenomena not  less wonderful than those
 we have been describing4 ,the island of
  ,sumbawa lies about two hundred miles 
to the east of ,java in the ,indian     
,archipelago2 and it belongs to that    
remarkable chain of ,volcanos which  we 
have already described as stretching1   
with little interruption1  along the    
coast of ,asia from ,russian ,america to
 the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,in  the year     
#ahae1 this island was the scene of a   
calamitous eruption1 the  effects of    
which were felt over the whole of the   
,molucca ,islands and  ,java1 as well as
 over a considerable portion of         
,celebes1 ,sumatra1 and  ,borneo4       
,indeed1 so extraordinary are the       
incidents of this eruption1  that we    
might well hesitate to believe them if  
they had not been  collected on the spot
 with more than ordinary diligence1 and 
recorded  with an almost scrupulous     

care4 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1 who was  
at  the time governor of ,java1 then a  
,british possession1 required all  the  
residents in the various districts under
 his authority to send  in a statement  
of the circumstances which occurred     
within their own  knowledge2 and from   
the accounts he received in this way1   
combined with  other evidence1 chiefly  
obtained from eye-witnesses1 he drew up 
the  narrative to which we are mainly   
indebted for the following facts4       
,the explosions which accompanied this  
eruption were heard in ,sumatra1  at a  
distance of #igj geographical miles2 and
 in the opposite direction  at ,ternate1
 a distance of #gbj miles4 ,in the      
neighborhood of the ,volcano  itself1   
immense tracts of land were covered with
 burning lava1 towns  and villages were 
overwhelmed1 all kinds of vegetation    
completely  destroyed1 and of #ab1jjj   
inhabitants in the province of ,tomboro1
  only twenty-six survived4 ,the ashes1 
which were ejected in great  quantities1

 were carried like a vast cloud through 
the air1 by the  southeast monsoon1 for 
#cjj miles in the direction of ,java2   
and1 still  farther to the west1 we are 
told that they formed a floating mass in
  the ocean two feet thick and several  
miles in extent1 through which  ships   
with difficulty forced their way4 ,it is
 recorded1 too1 that they  fell so thick
 on the island of ,tombock1 #ajj miles  
away1 as to cover  all the land two feet
 deep1 destroying every particle of     
vegetation1  insomuch that #dd1jjj      
people perished of the famine that      
ensued4 8,i have  seen it computed10    
writes ,sir ,john ,herschel1 8that the  
quantity of  ashes and lava vomited     
forth in this awful eruption would have 
formed  three mountains the size of     
,mont ,blanc1 the highest of the ,alps2 
and  if spread over the surface of      
,germany1 would have covered the whole  
of it two feet deep40 ,finally1 it      
appears that this eruption was          
accompanied1 like that of ,monte ,nuovo1

 by a permanent change in the  level of 
the adjoining coast2 in this case1      
however1 it was a movement1  not of     
upheaval1 but of subsidence3 the town of
 ,tomboro sunk beneath  the ocean1 which
 is now eighteen feet deep where there  
was dry land  before4#id    ,once more  
we will ask our readers to take a rapid 
flight over the map  of the world1      
passing1 this time1 from the ,indian    
,archipelago to the  island of          
,iceland1--that 8wonderful land of frost
 and fire40 ,besides  the famous        
,volcano of ,hecla1 there are five      
others scarcely less  formidable1 all of
 which have been in active eruption     
within modern  times4 ,of these the most
 celebrated is that of ,skaptar ,jokul4 
,in the  year #aghc1 this ,volcano      
poured forth two streams of lava1 which1
 when  hardened1 formed together one    
continuous layer of igneous rock1 ninety
  miles in length1 a hundred feet in    
height1 and from seven to fifteen  miles
 in breadth4 ,the phenomena which       

accompanied the eruption are  thus      
vividly described by ,sir ,john         
,herschel3--8,on the tenth of ,may      
innumerable fountains of fire were seen 
shooting up through the ice  and snow   
which covered the mountain2 and the     
principal river1 called  the ,skapta1   
after rolling down a flood of foul and  
poisonous water1  disappeared4 ,two days
 after1 a torrent of lava poured down   
into the bed  which the river had       
deserted4 ,the river had run in a ravine
 #fjj feet  deep and #bjj broad4 ,this  
the lava entirely filled2 and not only  
so1  but it overflowed the surrounding  
country1 and ran into a great lake1     
from which it instantly expelled the    
water in an explosion of steam4  ,when  
the lake was fairly filled1 the lava    
again overflowed and divided  into two  
streams1 one of which covered some      
ancient lava fields2 the  other         
re-entered the bed of the ,skapta lower 
down1 and presented the  astounding     
sight of a cataract of liquid fire      

pouring over what was  formerly the     
waterfall of ,stapafoss4 ,this was the  
greatest eruption on  record in ,europe4
 ,it lasted in its violence till the end
 of ,august1  and closed with a violent 
earthquake2 but for nearly the whole    
year a  canopy of cinder-laden cloud    
hung over the island3 the ,faroe        
,islands1  nay1 even ,shetland and the  
,orkneys1 were deluged with ashes2 and  
volcanic dust and a preternatural smoke 
which obscured the sun1 covered  all    
,europe as far as the ,alps1 over which 
it could not rise4 ,the  destruction of 
life in ,iceland was frightful3 #i1jjj  
men1 #aa1jjj cattle1  #bh1jjj horses1   
and #aij1jjj sheep perished2 mostly by  
suffocation4 ,the  lava ejected has been
 computed to amount in volume to more   
than twenty  cubic miles40#ie    ,with  
these very significant facts before us1 
it is hard to resist the  conclusion    
that the great mountain mass of ,etna1  
#aa1jjj feet high and  ninety miles in  
circumference1 is formed entirely of    

volcanic matter  ejected during         
successive eruptions4 ,for the whole    
mountain is nothing  else than a series 
of concentric conical layers of ashes   
and lava1 such  as have been poured out 
more than once upon its existing surface
 in  modern times4 ,just1 then1 as      
,monte ,nuovo was produced by an        
outburst  of volcanic power in a single 
night1 and the far larger mountain of   
,jorullo in the course of a few months1 
so may we believe that the more         
stupendous ,etna is the work of the same
 power operating through a  period of   
many centuries4 ,and applying this      
conclusion to many other  mountains     
throughout the world of exactly the same
 structure1 we come  to form no very    
mean estimate of the permanent changes  
wrought on the  physical geography of   
our ,globe by the operations of volcanic
 agency4    ,we must remember1 too1 that
 volcanic eruptions are not confined to 
the  land2 they often break out in the  
bed of the sea4 ,in such cases the      

waters are observed in a state of       
violent commotion1 jets of steam and    
sulphurous vapor are emitted1 light     
scoriaceous matter appears floating  on 
the surface1 and not unfrequently the   
volcanic cone itself slowly  rises from 
the depths below1 and continues to grow 
from day to day1  until at length it    
becomes an island of no inconsiderable  
magnitude4  ,sometimes when the violence
 of the eruption has subsided1 the new  
island1 consisting chiefly of ashes and 
pumice-stone1 is gradually  washed away 
by the action of the waves2 but in the  
other cases1 these  lighter substances  
are compacted together by the injection 
of liquid  lava1 and being thus able to 
withstand the erosive power of the      
ocean1  assume the importance of        
permanent volcanic islands4 ,many       
examples of  the former kind are        
recorded within the last hundred years4 
,in #aghc an  island was thrown up in   
the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean1 about      
thirty miles to  the southwest of       

,iceland4 ,it was claimed by the ,king  
of ,denmark1 and  called by him ,nye or 
,new ,island2 but before a year had     
elapsed1 this  portion of his ,majesty's
 dominion disappeared again beneath the 
waves1  and the sea resumed its ancient 
domain4 ,a cone-shaped island of the    
same kind1 called ,sabrina1 three       
hundred feet high1 with a crater in  the
 centre1 appeared amongst the ,azores in
 #ahaa1 but was quickly washed  away    
again4    ,a more interesting example1  
because the circumstances are more      
minutely  recorded1 is the island which 
made its appearance in the              
,mediterranean1  off the southwest coast
 of ,sicily1 in the year #ahca4 ,during 
its brief  existence of three months1 it
 received from contemporary writers     
seven  different names2 but the name of 
,graham ,island seems to be the one by  
which it is most likely to be known to  
posterity4 8,about the tenth  of ,july10
 writes ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 8,john    
,corrao1 the captain of a  ,sicilian    

vessel1 reported that1 as he passed near
 the place1 he saw a  column of water   
like a waterspout1 sixty feet high1 and 
eight hundred  yards in circumference1  
rising from the sea1 and soon afterward 
a  dense steam in its place1 which      
ascended to the height of #ahjj feet4   
,the same ,corrao1 on his return from   
,girgenti1 on the eighteenth of  ,july1 
found a small island1 twelve feet high1 
with a crater in the  centre1 ejecting  
volcanic matter and immense columns of  
vapor2 the sea  around being covered    
with floating cinders and dead fish4    
,the scoriae  were of a chocolate color1
 and the water1 which boiled in the     
circular  basin1 was of a dingy red4    
,the eruption continued with great      
violence  to the end of the same month1 
at which time the island was visited by 
several persons1 and amongst others by  
,captain ,swinburne1 ,r4 ,n41 and ,m4   
,hoffman1 the ,prussian ,geologist40#if 
,by the fourth of ,august the new       
island is said to have attained a height

 of #bjj feet1 and to have been  three  
miles in circumference4 ,yet this was   
nothing more than the top of  the       
volcanic cone2 for1 a few years before1 
,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth1 in his  survey1
 had found a depth of #fjj feet at this 
very spot2 and therefore  the total     
height from the base of the mountain    
must have been #hjj  feet4 ,from the    
beginning of ,august it began to melt   
away2 and at the  commencement of the   
following year1 nothing remained of     
,graham ,island  but a dangerous shoal4 
,but even of the islands that occupy a  
prominent place on the map of  the      
world1 there is not wanting evidence to 
show that a large number  derive their  
origin from the action of volcanic      
power4 ,among these may  be mentioned   
many of the ,molucca and ,philippine    
groups1 also several  in the ,grecian   
,archipelago1 and not a few of the      
,azores and the  ,canaries1--in         
particular the lofty peak of ,teneriffe1
 rising #ab1jjj  feet above the level of

 the sea4 ,in some cases1 indeed1 the   
actual  process of their birth1 and of  
their subsequent growth and development1
  has been minutely observed4 ,a        
remarkable example occurs among the     
,aleutian ,islands already referred to4 
,in the year #agif a column of  smoke   
was seen to issue from the sea2 then a  
small black point appeared  at the      
surface of the water2 then flames broke 
out1 and other volcanic  phenomena were 
exhibited2 then the small black point   
grew into an  island1 and the island    
increased in size until it was at last  
several  thousand feet high1 and two or 
three miles in circumference4 ,and such 
it remains to the present day4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,bird's-eye 
view of ,santorin during the  volcanic  
eruption of ,february1 #ahff4 7,lyell47 
a4 ,therasia4    b4 ,the northern       
entrance1 #ajfh feet deep4    c4 ,thera4
    d4 ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 rising #ahhg 
feet above the sea4    e4 ,aspronisi4   
f4 ,little ,kaimeni4    g4 ,new         

,kaimeni4    h4 ,old ,kaimeni4    i4    
,aphroessa4    k4 ,george4    ,the      
neighborhood of ,santorin in the        
,grecian ,archipelago has been noted    
from very remote times as the theatre of
 submarine eruptions4 ,this  island1    
which is itself to all appearance the   
crater of a vast volcano1  has the form 
of a crescent1 and1 with the aid of two 
smaller islands  which stretch across   
between the horns of the crescent1      
encloses an  almost circular bay4 ,we   
learn from ,pliny that in the year #ahf 
before  ,christ1 within this bay an     
island rose up which was called ,hiera  
or  the ,sacred island4 ,it was twice   
enlarged during the ,christian era1 once
  in #gbf1 and again in #adbg1 and still
 exists under the name of ,palaia       
,kaimeni1 that is to say1 the ,old      
,burnt ,island4 ,in #aegc a second      
island  made its appearance1 and        
received the name of the ,little ,burnt 
,island1  ,mikra ,kaimeni4 ,in #agjg and
 #agji1 a third island was thrown up1   

and was  distinguished from the other   
two as ,nea ,kaimeni1 the ,new ,burnt   
,island4  ,lastly1 in #ahff the hidden  
volcanic power again became active1 and 
two new vents were formed1 called       
respectively ,aphroessa and ,george4    
8,at the end of ,january10 writes ,sir  
,charles ,lyell1 8the sea had been      
observed in a state of ebullition off   
the southwest coast1 and part  of the   
,channel between ,new and ,old ,kaimeni1
 marked seventy fathoms  in the         
,admiralty chart1 had become1 on        
,february the eleventh1 only  twelve    
fathoms deep4 ,according to ,m4 ,julius 
,schmidt1 a gradual rising  of the      
bottom went on until a small island made
 its appearance called  afterward       
,aphroessa4 ,it seems to have consisted 
of lava pressed upward  and outward     
almost imperceptibly by steam1 which was
 escaping at every  pore through the    
hissing scoriaceous crust4 #8,it could  
be seen1' says  ,commander ,lindesay    
,brine1 ,r4 ,n41 #8through the fissures 

in the cone  that the rocks within were 
red hot1 but it was not till later that 
an  eruption began4' ,on ,february the  
eleventh the village of ,vulcano on the 
southeast coast1 where there had been a 
partial sinking of the ground1  was in  
great part overwhelmed by the materials 
cast out from a new vent  which opened  
in that neighborhood1 and to which the  
name of ,george was  given1 which       
finally1 according to ,schmidt1 became  
about two hundred  feet high4           
8,commander ,brine having ascended on   
,february the twenty-eighth1 #ahff1  to 
the top of the crater of ,nea ,kaimeni1 
about three hundred and fifty  feet     
high1 looked down upon the new vent then
 in full activity4 ,the  whole of the   
cone was swaying with an undulating     
motion to the right  and left1 and      
appeared sometimes to swell to nearly   
double its size and  height1 to throw   
out ridges like mountain spurs1 till at 
last a broad  chasm appeared across the 
top of the cone1 accompanied by a       

tremendous  roar of steam and the       
shooting up from the new crater1 to the 
height of  from fifty to a hundred feet1
 of tons of rock and ash mixed with     
smoke  and steam4 ,some of these which  
fell on ,mikra ,kaimeni1 at a distance  
of  six hundred yards from the crater1  
measured thirty cubic feet4 ,this       
effort over1 the ridges slowly subsided1
 the cone lowered and closed  in1 and   
then1 after a few minutes of comparative
 silence1 the struggle  would begin     
again with precisely similar sounds1    
action1 and result4  ,threads of vapor  
escaping from the old crater of ,nea    
,kaimeni proved  that there was a       
subterranean connection between the new 
and the old  vents4 ,aphroessa1 of which
 the cone was at length raised to a     
height  of more than sixty feet1 was    
united in ,august with the main island4 
,this was due in part at least to the   
upheaval of the bottom of the sea1      
which is now only seven fathoms deep in 
the channel dividing the ,new  and ,old 

,kaimenis1 whereas in the ,admiralty    
chart the soundings gave a  hundred     
fathoms40#ig    ,illustration           
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,xvi4 
,,subterranean ,,heat--,,its ,,powers   
,,illustrated ,,by ,,earthquakes4       
,earthquakes and volcanos proceed from  
the same common      cause--,recent     
earthquakes in ,new ,zealand--,vast     
tracts of      land permanently         
upraised--,earthquakes of ,chili in the 
present century--,crust of the ,earth   
elevated--,earthquake of      ,cutch in 
,india1 #ahai--,remarkable instance of  
subsidence and                          
upheaval--,earthquake of ,calabria1     
#aghc--;,earthquake of ,lisbon1         
#agee--;,great destruction of life and  
property--,earthquake      of ,peru1    
,august1 #ahfh--;,general scene of ruin 
and      devastation--,great sea        
wave--,a ship with all her crew carried 
a      quarter of a mile                
inland--,frequency of earthquakes4      
,the chief effect of volcanic eruptions 

on the ,geological structure of  our    
,globe consists in the accumulation of  
cinders and molten rock1  either upon   
the ,surface of the ,earth1 or in the   
crevices and caverns  that abound within
 its solid ,crust4 ,sometimes1 indeed1  
the operations  of an active ,volcano   
are accompanied by a movement of        
upheaval or  of subsidence4 ,thus for   
instance1 we have seen that a portion of
  the ,italian coast was elevated when  
,monte ,nuovo was thrown up1 that  the  
town of ,tomboro was submerged on the   
occasion of the eruption  of ,sumbawa1  
and that the bottom of the sea was      
notably upheaved by  the last outbreak  
of the volcanic fires of ,santorini4    
,nevertheless  it appears to be         
generally the case that when the ,crust 
of the  ,earth is once burst open1 and a
 means of escape thus afforded to  the  
fiery agent below1--in other words1 when
 the active volcano is                  
established1--the process of upheaval   
gives place to that of eruption4  ,but  

when1 as is often the case1 no such     
safety-valve is offered to the  surplus 
energies of the subterranean fires1 then
 the giant power of  heat1 in its       
struggle to escape1 shakes the          
foundation of the hills1  and uplifts   
the superincumbent mass of solid rocks4 
,this theory which ascribes the         
phenomena of ,earthquakes and ,volcanos 
to the same common cause1 acting under  
different circumstances1 is  now almost 
universally adopted by ,geologists2 and 
it may be briefly  enforced by the      
following considerations4 ,first1 though
 ,earthquakes  have sometimes occurred  
far away from any known volcanic region1
  yet they are more frequent in the     
neighborhood of active or extinct       
,volcanos4 ,secondly1 almost all        
volcanic eruptions are preceded by      
,earthquakes2 and the ,earthquakes      
generally cease1 or1 at least become    
less violent1 when the subterranean fire
 breaks out in the form of a  ,volcano4 
,and1 ,thirdly1 it is plain that the    

condensed steam which is  generated by  
internal heat1 and the expansive power  
of the heat itself1  must1 of necessity1
 when pent up in the caverns of the     
,earth1 tend to  produce those very     
phenomena by which ,earthquakes are     
distinguished4    ,let it be observed1  
however1 that while we explain the      
phenomena in  question by the agency of 
subterranean heat1 this doctrine is by  
no  means necessary for the main purpose
 of our present argument4 ,whatever  may
 be the cause from which the ,earthquake
 shock proceeds1 it is  enough for us to
 show that the ,crust of the ,earth has 
been from time  to time upraised1 and   
dislocated1 and rent asunder in modern  
times1  just as it is supposed in       
,geological theory1 to have been        
upraised1 and  dislocated1 and rent     
asunder from time to time in by-gone    
ages4 ,we will  set down a few out of   
the many examples observed and recorded 
during  the last hundred and twenty     
years4    ,when the ,english colonists  

settled in ,new ,zealand1 about fifty   
years  ago1 they were told by the       
natives that they might expect a great  
,earthquake every seven years4 ,this    
alarming prediction has not been        
literally fulfilled2 but it is fully    
admitted that the total number of  such 
disturbances within the last half       
century has not fallen short of  what it
 should have been according to the above
 estimate4 ,during the  years #ahbf and 
#ahbg several shocks were felt in the   
neighborhood of  ,cook ,strait1 after   
which it was observed that the sea-shore
 had been  uplifted on the north side of
 ,dusky ,bay4 ,so transformed was the   
outline  of the coast that its former   
features could no longer be recognized2 
and a small cove called the ,jail1 which
 had previously afforded a  commodious  
harbor to vessels1 engaged in seal      
fishing1 was completely  dried up4      
,but the most memorable convulsion took 
place on the night of ,january  the     
twenty-third1 #ahee4 ,a tract of land1  

about as large as ,yorkshire1  on the   
southwest coast of the ,north ,island1  
was permanently upraised  from one to   
nine feet4 ,the harbor of ,port         
,nicholson1 together with  the valley of
 the ,hutt1 was elevated four to five   
feet2 and a sunken  rock1 regarded      
before as dangerous to navigators1 has  
remained since  the ,earthquake three   
feet above the level of the water4 ,the 
shock was  felt by ships at sea a       
hundred and fifty miles from the coast2 
and it  is estimated that the whole area
 affected was not less than three times 
the extent of the ,british ,islands4    
,the whole coast of ,chili has been     
subject to great disturbances and       
changes of level during the present     
century4 ,in ,november1 #ahcg1 the  town
 of ,valdivia was destroyed by an       
,earthquake1 and at the same  moment1 a 
whaling vessel1 a short distance out at 
sea1 was violently  shaken1 and lost her
 masts4 ,the bottom of the sea was      
afterward  found to have been raised in 

some places more than eight feet2 and   
several rocks appeared high above the   
water which had previously  been covered
 at all times by the sea4 ,two years    
before1 in #ahce1 the  town of          
,conception and several others were     
reduced to ruins by a like  visitation4 
,after the first great convulsion the   
,earth remained for  many days in a     
state of commotion4 ,more than three    
hundred lesser  shocks were counted from
 the twentieth of ,february to the      
fourth of  ,march4 ,on this occasion1   
too1 the bed of the sea was upheaved2   
and the  whole island of ,santa ,maria1 
seven miles in length1 was lifted up    
from  eight to ten feet above its former
 level4    ,the ,earthquake of #ahbb was
 more violent1 perhaps1 and more        
striking in  its effects1 than either of
 those just mentioned4 ,on the          
nineteenth of  ,november in that year a 
sudden convulsive shock was             
simultaneously felt  over a space #abjj 
miles in length4 ,at ,valparaiso1 and on

 either side  for a considerable        
distance1 the coast was permanently     
upheaved4 ,when  ,mrs4 ,graham1 who was 
then living on the spot1 and who has    
left us an  account of the ,earthquake1 
went down to the shore on the following 
day1  she 8found the ancient bed of the 
sea laid bare and dry1 with beds of     
oysters1 mussels1 and other shells      
adhering to the rocks on which they     
grew1 the fish being all dead1 and      
exhaling most offensive effluvia40      
,some idea may be formed of the gigantic
 power here in operation1 when  it is   
remembered that to uplift the coast of  
,chili1 it was necessary  to move the   
mighty chain of the ,andes1 and1 amongst
 the rest1 the  colossal mass of        
,aconcagua1 #bd1jjj feet in height4 ,how
 far this process  of upheaval extended 
out to sea1 beneath the bed of the      
ocean1 has not  been accurately         
ascertained3 but certain it is that1 for
 a considerable  distance1 the soundings
 were found to be shallower than before 

the  ,earthquake4 ,it is roughly        
estimated that the ,crust of the ,earth 
was  elevated over an extent of #ajj1jjj
 square miles1 or about half the area   
of ,france4    ,on the western coast of 
,india1 near the mouth of the river     
,indus1 is  the well-known district of  
,cutch4 ,in the month of ,june1 #ahai1  
this  extensive territory1 not less than
 half the size of ,ireland1 was         
violently shaken by an ,earthquake1     
several hundred people were killed1  and
 many towns and villages were laid in   
ruins4 ,the shocks continued  for some  
days1 and ceased only when the outburst 
of a ,volcano seemed to  open a vent for
 the troubled spirit within4 ,but what  
is particularly  worthy of note is that 
when the ,earthquake had passed away1 a 
permanent  change was found to have been
 effected in the level of the           
surrounding  country4 ,the town and fort
 of ,sindree1 situated on the eastern   
arm of  the ,indus1 together with a     
tract of land #b1jjj square miles in    

extent1  were submerged beneath the     
waters4 ,the principal buildings1       
however1  still remained standing1 with 
their upper parts above the surface2 and
  many of the inhabitants1 who had taken
 refuge in one of the towers  attached  
to the fort1 were saved in boats when   
the ,earthquake had  ceased4 ,on the    
other hand1 within five miles and a half
 of this very  spot1 the level surface  
of the ,earth was upheaved1 so as to    
form a long  elevated bank1 fifty miles 
in length and sixteen in breadth1 which 
has been called the ,ullah ,bund1 or the
 ,mound of ,god4 ,nine years after  this
 event1 ,sir ,alexander ,burnes went out
 in a boat to the ruins of  ,sindree1   
and standing on the summit of the tower1
 which still rose two  or three feet    
above the surface of the water1 he could
 see nothing  around him but a wide     
expanse of sea1 save where a blue streak
 of land  on the edge of the horizon    
marked the outline of the ,ullah ,bund4 
,here  was a striking illustration1 on a

 small scale1 of those changes which    
,geologists suppose to have been going  
on since the world first began2  the dry
 land had been converted into the bed of
 the sea1 and the level  plain had been 
elevated into a mountain ridge4         
,toward the close of the last century   
the province of ,calabria1 in  ,southern
 ,italy1 was the scene of an ,earthquake
 which offers a very  apposite          
illustration of our present argument4   
,this celebrated  convulsion is not1    
however1 chiefly remarkable for its     
violence1 or  for its duration1 or for  
the extent of the territory moved4 ,in  
all  these respects it has been         
surpassed by many ,earthquakes1         
experienced  in other countries1 within 
the last hundred and fifty years4 ,but  
the  ,calabrian ,earthquake has an      
especial claim on our attention1 mainly 
from this unusual circumstance1 that the
 region of disturbance was  visited1 as 
,sir ,charles ,lyell tells us1 8both    
during and after the  convulsions1 by   

men possessing sufficient leisure1 zeal1
 and scientific  information1 to enable 
them to collect and describe with       
accuracy such  physical facts as throw  
light on geological questions40    ,the 
shocks were first felt in ,february1    
#aghc1 and continued for nearly  four   
years4 ,over a very considerable area of
 country all the common  landmarks were 
removed1 large tracts of land were      
forced bodily down  the slopes of       
mountains2 and vineyards1 orchards1 and 
cornfields were  transported from one   
site to another2 insomuch that disputes 
afterward  arose as to who was the      
rightful owner of the property that had 
thus  shifted its position4 ,two farms  
near ,mileto1 occupying an extent of    
country a mile long and half a mile     
broad1 were actually removed for  a mile
 down the valley2 and 8a thatched       
cottage1 together with large  olive and 
mulberry trees1 most of which remained  
erect1 was carried  uninjured to this   
extraordinary distance40 ,in other      

places the surface  of the ,earth heaved
 like the billows of a troubled sea2    
many houses  were lifted up above the   
common level1 while others subsided     
below it4  ,again and again the solid   
,crust of the ,earth was rent asunder1  
and  chasms1 gorges1 ravines1 of various
 depths1 were suddenly produced1  in    
less time than it takes to tell it4     
,sometimes when the strain was  removed1
 the yawning gulf as quickly closed     
again1 and then houses1  cattle1 and men
 were swallowed up in the abyss1 leaving
 not a trace  behind4 ,it has even been 
recorded--strange though it may         
seem--that  when two shocks rapidly     
followed one another at the same spot1  
the  people engulphed by the first1 were
 again cast forth by the second1  being 
literally disgorged alive from the jaws 
of death4 ,about #dj1jjj  persons       
perished in this dreadful visitation1   
the greater number being  crushed to    
death beneath the ruins of the towns and
 villages1 others  swallowed up in the  

yawning fissures as they fled across the
 open  country1 and others again burned 
in the conflagrations which almost      
always followed the shocks of           
,earthquake4    ,everyone has heard of  
the famous ,earthquake of ,lisbon4 ,it  
is chiefly  memorable for the extreme   
suddenness of the shock1 for the immense
  extent of the area affected1 and for  
the amount of havoc and  destruction    
done4 ,on the morning of the fatal      
day--it was the first  of ,november1    
#agee--the sun rose bright and cheerful 
over the devoted  city1 no symptom of   
impending danger was visible in the sky 
above or  on the ,earth below1 and the  
gay-hearted people were pursuing their  
accustomed rounds of pleasure or        
business1 when1 suddenly1 at twenty     
minutes before ten o'clock1 a sound like
 thunder was heard underground1  the    
,earth was violently shaken1 and in     
another moment1 the greater part  of the
 city was lying in ruins4 ,within the   
brief space of six minutes1  #fj1jjj    

people were crushed to death4 ,the      
mountains in the vicinity  of the town  
were cleft asunder4 ,the waters of the  
sea first retired  from the land1 and   
then rolled back in a huge mountain-like
 wave fifty  feet above the level of the
 highest tide4 ,a new quay1 built       
entirely  of marble1 had offered a      
temporary place of refuge to the        
terrified  inhabitants as they fled from
 the tumbling ruins of the city4 ,three 
thousand people are said to have been   
collected upon it1 when1 all  at once1  
it sunk beneath the waves1 and not a    
fragment of the solid  masonry1 not a   
vestige of its living freight1 was ever 
seen again4 ,the  bottom of the sea     
where the quay then stood is now a      
hundred fathoms  deep4    ,from ,lisbon 
as a centre the shock of this           
,earthquake radiated over an  area not  
less than four times the extent of      
,europe4 ,like a great wave  it rolled  
northward1 at the rate of twenty miles a
 minute1 upheaving  the ,earth as it    

moved along1 to the coasts of the       
,baltic ,sea and the  ,german ,ocean4   
,the waters of ,loch ,lomond1 in        
,scotland1 were violently  disturbed    
from beneath1 and at ,kinsale1 in       
,ireland1 the sea rushed  impetuously   
into the harbor without a breath of     
wind1 and mounting over  the quay1      
flooded the market-place4 ,eastward the 
convulsion was felt as  far as the      
,alps1 and westward it extended to the  
,west ,india ,islands1  and even to the 
great lakes of ,canada4 ,on the north   
coast of ,africa the  disturbance was as
 violent as in ,spain and ,portugal2 and
 it is recorded  that at a distance of  
eight leagues from ,morocco1 the earth  
opened and  swallowed up a considerable 
town with its inhabitants1 to the number
 of  eight or ten thousand people4      
,even on the high seas the shock was    
felt no less distinctly than on  dry    
land4 8,off ,st4 ,lucar10 says ,sir     
,charles ,lyell1 8the captain of the    
ship ,nancy felt his vessel so violently

 shaken1 that he thought she  had struck
 the ground1 but1 on heaving the lead1  
found a great depth  of water4 ,captain 
,clark1 from ,denia1 in latitude #cf #bd
 ,n41 between  nine and ten in the      
morning1 had his ship shaken and        
strained as if she  had struck upon a   
rock1 so that the seams of the deck     
opened1 and the  compass was overturned 
in the binnacle4 ,another ship1 forty   
leagues  west of ,st4 ,vincent1         
experienced so violent a concussion1    
that the men  were thrown a foot and a  
half perpendicularly up from the deck40 
,it  is worthy of note that this1 the   
most destructive ,earthquake recorded   
in history1 was not attended with any   
volcanic eruption2 which goes  to       
confirm our theory that the active      
,volcano serves as a kind of            
safety-valve for the escape of the      
struggling powers confined within  the  
,crust of the ,earth4#ih    ,we must not
 bring our notice of ,earthquakes to an 
end without at least  some brief account

 of one which has startled the world    
even since we  began to put together the
 materials of this ,volume4 ,on the     
,western  ,coast of ,south ,america     
there is a long1 narrow strip of land1  
lying  between the lofty crests of the  
,andes and the shores of the ,pacific   
,ocean1 which from the earliest times   
has been the familiar home of           
,earthquakes4 ,toward evening on the    
thirteenth of ,august1 #ahfh1 this      
fated region was the scene of a         
convulsion the most appalling and       
destructive that has been recorded      
within the present century4 ,the        
disturbance was felt in its extreme     
violence for a distance of #aejj  miles 
along the coast2 from ,ibarra one degree
 north of the ,equator  to ,iquique more
 than twenty degrees south4 ,in ten     
minutes from the  first shock1 #bj1jjj  
people perished1 and a vast amount of   
property1  roughly estimated at sixty   
millions sterling1 was utterly          
destroyed4  ,many thriving              

towns--,iquique1 ,mexillones1 ,pisagua1 
,arica1 ,ylo1 ,chala1  and others--were 
levelled to the ground4 ,even the very  
ruins were not  spared4 ,the sea rushed 
in when the ,earthquake shock had       
ceased1 and  carried everything before  
it in one universal wreck3 so that in   
some  cases not a vestige remained      
behind to tell the dismayed survivors   
where their homesteads once had stood4  
,it might be fancied perhaps  that the  
cities seated aloft in the security of  
the ,eternal ,hills were  beyond the    
reach of the convulsion that shook the  
plain below4 ,but no3  ,arequipa1 far up
 on the slopes of the western           
,cordillera1 and ,pasco1  the highest   
city in the world1 situated on a level  
with the snowy  summit of the ,jungfrau1
 were shattered into fragments with the 
same  violence as the cities of the     
coast4    ,the various incidents        
recorded by the survivors are full of   
fearful  interest4 ,at ,iquique1        
according to one account1 about five    

o'clock in  the evening of the          
thirteenth of ,august1 a rumbling noise 
was heard1  then the earth shook        
violently for some minutes1 then the    
sea1 with  a great moan1 retired from   
the shore1 and rearing itself up into a 
tremendous wave1 rushed back upon the   
land and swept away the town4  8,i saw10
 says one writer1 8the whole surface of 
the sea rise as if a  mountain side1    
actually standing up4 ,another shock1   
accompanied with  a fearful roar1 now   
took place4 ,i called to my companions  
to run for  their lives on to the       
,pampa4 ,too late6 ,with a horrid crash 
the sea was  on us1 and at one          
sweep--one terrible sweep--dashed what  
was ,iquique on  to the ,pampa4 ,i lost 
my companions1 and in an instant was    
fighting with  the dark water4 ,the     
mighty wave surged and roared and       
leaped4 ,the cries  of human beings and 
animals were dreadful4 ,a mass of wreck 
covered me  and kept me down1 and ,i was
 fast drowning when the sea threw me on 

to  a beam1 but a nail piercing my coat1
 the timber rolled me again under1  and 
,i lost all sense4 ,i suppose1 as in all
 such cases1 ,i must have  struggled    
after sensation had left me1 for when   
returning consciousness  came ,i was    
grasping under one arm a large plank4   
,looking round1 all was  wreck and      
desolation4 ,in a moment ,i was by a    
returning wave swept into  the bay1 and 
meeting a mass of broken timber1 ,i was 
struck a fearful  blow on the chin1 and 
the broken end of the plank passed      
through my  thigh4 ,i knew no more until
 ,i found myself on the ,pampa1 and all 
dark  around me4 ,i was without         
trousers1 coat1 shoes1 or hat4 ,trying  
to  collect myself1 ,i thought of       
another wave1 and crawled away to the   
mountain side1 scooped a hole in the    
ground1 and got in2 here1 wet and       
shivering1 ,i spent the night4 ,my wound
 bled freely4 ,in the morning  ,i looked
 out and found ,iquique gone1 all but a 
few houses round the  church40    ,a    

good deal of shipping was lying in the  
bay of ,arica4 ,when the waters  first  
receded the vessels were all carried out
 to sea1 chains1 cables1  and anchors   
snapping asunder like packthread4 ,a    
moment1 afterward they  were borne back 
irresistibly by the returning wave1 and 
dashed to  pieces on the coast4 ,one    
more fortunate than the rest1 the       
,wateree1 a  vessel of war belonging to 
the ,united ,states ,government1 was    
caught up  on the crest of the wave1 and
 with the loss of only one man1 was     
landed  high and dry among the          
sand-hills a quarter of a mile from the 
shore4    ,before the ,earthquake1      
,arequipa was a prosperous town of      
#cj1jjj  inhabitants4 ,it enjoyed a     
considerable trade1 and1 in importance  
as  well as size1 it was regarded as the
 third city of ,peru1 being inferior    
only to ,lima and ,cuzco4 ,the houses   
were constructed with especial  regard  
to security against the shock of        
,earthquakes4 ,they were but  one story 

high1 built of solid stone1 and massive 
to an extraordinary  degree4 ,but these 
precautions1 though the fruit of long   
experience1  were all of no avail4 ,at  
,sunset on the fatal thirteenth of      
,august the  populous and thriving city 
of ,arequipa was little better than a   
heap of  ruins4 8,not a church is left  
standing10 writes an eye-witness1 8not a
  house habitable4 ,the shock commenced 
at twenty minutes past five in the      
afternoon1 and lasted six or seven      
minutes4 ,the houses being solidly      
built and of one story1 resisted for one
 minute1 which gave the people  time to 
rush into the middle of the streets1 so 
that the mortality1  although           
considerable1 is not so great as might  
have been expected4 ,if  the ,earthquake
 had occurred at night1 few indeed would
 have been left  to tell the story4 ,as 
it is1 the prisoners in the public      
prison1 and  the sick in the hospital1  
have perished4 ,the ,earthquake         
commenced with  an undulating movement1 

and as the shock culminated1 no one     
could keep  his feet3 the houses rocked 
as a ship in the trough of the sea1 and 
came crumbling down4 ,the shrieks of the
 women1 the crash of falling  masonry1  
the upheaving of the earth1 and the     
clouds of blinding dust1  made up a     
scene that cannot be described4 ,we had 
nineteen minor shocks  the same night1  
and the earth still continues in motion4
 ,nothing has as  yet been done toward  
disinterring the dead2 but ,i do not    
think any are  buried alive1 as certain 
death must have been the fate of all    
those who  were not able to get into the
 street4 ,the earth has opened in all   
the  plains around1 and water has       
appeared in various places40#ii         
,these are a few typical examples of the
 more violent convulsions by  which the 
,crust of the ,earth has been disturbed 
within little more  than a century2 and 
they leave no doubt as to the kind of   
changes  which may fairly be ascribed to
 similar agency in the past history of  

the ,globe4 ,nor must it be supposed    
that1 because our examples are few  in  
number1 the ,earthquake is itself a rare
 and exceptional event4 ,on  the        
contrary1 the state of partial          
disturbance and convulsion would  seem  
to be the natural and ordinary condition
 of our planet4 ,from the  interesting  
,catalogue drawn up by ,mr4 ,mallet1 it 
appears that1 in our  own times1 the    
number of ,earthquakes actually observed
 and recorded  is1 on an average1 not   
less than from two to three every week4 
,now  this catalogue cannot represent   
more than one-third of the ,globe3 for  
the disturbances which take place in the
 profound depths of the ocean  must for 
the most part escape observation1 and   
many parts even of the  inhabited ,earth
 are still beyond the reach of          
scientific researches4  ,it is1         
therefore1 quite a reasonable           
speculation of ,sir ,charles  ,lyell1   
that 8scarcely a day passes without one 
or more shocks being  experienced in    

some part of the ,globe40    ,moreover1 
in ,mr4 ,mallet's ,catalogue no account 
is taken of those minor  vibrations or  
tremblings of the ,earth's ,crust1 which
 are not attended  by any striking or   
noteworthy event4 ,and yet such         
phenomena1 when  often repeated1 may    
produce a very important change of      
level1 and  are far more frequent than  
most persons would be likely to suppose4
  ,in our quiet region of the ,globe    
people are too apt to take for  granted 
the general stability of the ,earth3 but
 in other countries  the inhabitants1   
warned by long experience1 are no less  
deeply  impressed with a conviction of  
its instability4 ,sir ,john ,herschel   
says  that1 in the volcanic regions of  
,central and ,southern ,america1 8the   
inhabitants no more think of counting   
,earthquake shocks1 than we do of       
counting showers of rain30 nay1 he adds 
that1 8in some places along  the coast a
 shower is a greater variety40 ,and in  
,sicily1 we are told  they make         

provision against movements of the      
,earth's ,crust1 just as  we make       
provision against lightning and storms2 
so much so that it  is quite a common   
thing for architects to advertise their 
houses as  ,earth-quake-proof4          
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,xvii4    ,,subterranean     
,,heat--,,its ,,powers ,,illustrated    
,,by ,,undulations ,,of ,,the ,,earth',s
  ,,crust4        ,gentle movements of  
the ,earth's ,crust within historic     
times--,roman roads and temples         
submerged in the bay of                 
,bai--,temple of ,jupiter               
,serapis--,singular condition      of   
its columns--,proof of subsidence and   
subsequent      upheaval--,indications  
of a second subsidence now      actually
 taking place--,gradual upheaval of the 
coast of      ,sweden--,summary of the  
evidence adduced to establish this      
fact--,subsidence of the ,earth's ,crust
 on the west coast of                   
,greenland--,recapitulation4      ,,so  

far we have spoken of the disturbance of
 the ,earth's ,crust in  modern times by
 sudden and violent convulsions4 ,but   
there are many  phenomena with which the
 ,geologist is familiar1 that cannot be 
fairly  accounted for unless by         
supposing that the surface of the ,earth
 was  often elevated and depressed in   
ancient times1 without any sudden       
shock1 by a slow and almost insensible  
movement4 ,and1 accordingly1  gentle    
undulations of this kind enter largely  
into that general theory  of ,geology   
which we have been attempting to draw   
out and illustrate4  ,it may be asked1  
therefore1 if we are able to support    
this part of our  system by examples of 
similar phenomena occurring within the  
period  of history4 ,in reply1 we shall 
endeavor to set forth1 as briefly as  we
 can1 some of the evidence which has    
recently come to light on  this subject1
 and which seems to us not less         
conclusive than it is  interesting and  
unexpected4    ,in the bay of ,bai1 to  

the west of ,naples1 two ancient ,roman 
roads may  be distinctly traced1 at the 
present day1 for a considerable         
distance1  permanently submerged beneath
 the waters4 ,there are1 also1 in the   
same  neighborhood1 the ruins of the    
temple of ,neptune and of the temple of 
the ,nymphs1 both likewise submerged4   
8,the columns of the former edifice     
stand erect in five feet of water1 the  
upper portions just rising  to the      
surface2#ajj the pedestals are supposed 
to be buried in the  mud below40 ,again1
 on the opposite side of ,naples1 near  
,sorrento1 8a  road with fragments of   
,roman buildings1 is covered to some    
depth by  the sea20#aja and in the      
island of ,capri1 at the opening of the 
bay  of ,naples1 one of the palaces of  
,tiberius is also under water4 ,here1   
therefore1 it is clear that the ,crust  
of the ,earth has subsided over  a very 
considerable area2 since what is now the
 bed of the sea1 was  in the days of the
 ,romans dry land1 traversed by roads1  

and dotted  over with buildings4 ,that  
the subsidence was slow and gradual may 
be  inferred1 partly from the absence of
 any record or tradition of a  sudden   
convulsion producing such a change1 and 
partly1 too1 from the  unshaken and     
undisturbed condition of the monuments  
themselves4    ,but while this          
conclusion falls in most happily with   
our present  argument1 it would seem on 
further examination to bring with it a  
very  serious difficulty4 ,for1 while   
those ancient monuments testify that    
the ,crust of the ,earth in this        
locality has subsided1 the structure  of
 the sea-coast1 interpreted according to
 ,geological principles1  would         
indicate1 on the contrary1 that the     
,crust of the ,earth has  been upheaved4
 ,close to the sea1 at the present day1 
on the bay of  ,bai1 there is a low1    
level tract of fertile land1 and at a   
little  distance inland1 a lofty range  
of precipitous cliffs1 eighty feet high1
  parallel to the line of the coast4    

,this fertile tract1 lying between  the 
sea-beach and the perpendicular cliffs1 
is about twenty feet  above the sea     
level1 and is composed of regularly     
stratified deposits  abounding in marine
 shells of recent species1 together with
 works of  human art1 such as tiles1    
squares of mosaic pavement1 fragments of
  bricks1 and sculptured ornaments4     
,upon these facts a ,geologist would    
pronounce without hesitation3--,first1  
that at some period since the  district 
around ,naples was first inhabited by   
man1 the waters of the  sea washed the  
base of the perpendicular cliffs2       
secondly1 that the  strata in which we  
now find the recent marine shells1 and  
the remains  of man's workmanship1 were 
formed during that period by the process
  of deposition at the bottom of the    
sea2 and thirdly1 that at some          
subsequent time1 by an upheaval of the  
,earth's ,crust1 these strata were      
lifted up so as to form a pretty        
considerable area of dry land1 fit for  

agriculture and the arts of life4       
,does it not seem1 therefore1 that we   
have here a direct contradiction        
between the evidence of ancient ,roman  
buildings and the inferences of  modern 
,geology8 ,doubtless1 they both agree in
 the main point about  which we are     
concerned just now1 that the ,crust of  
the ,earth has  been moved in recent    
times on the shores of the bay of       
,naples2 but  according to the testimony
 of the ,roman temples1 now covered by  
water1  this movement has been one of   
subsidence1 while1 according to the     
inferences of ,geological theory1 it has
 been one of upheaval4 ,this  apparent  
contradiction seems to call for some    
elucidation4    ,if we were left in this
 matter to mere conjecture1 we might    
offer  the following hypothesis as a    
fair and reasonable solution4 ,we might 
suppose that since the days of the      
,roman ,empire1 there have been two     
successive movements of the ,earth's    
,crust in the neighborhood of  ,naples2 

first1 a movement of subsidence1 by     
which the ancient temples  and roads    
were submerged to a considerable depth  
beneath the sea2  afterward1 a movement 
of upheaval1 by which the marine strata 
were  lifted up4 ,if this second        
movement were exactly equal to the      
first1  it is plain that the ancient    
roads and buildings would have been just
  restored to their former level4 ,but  
let us suppose that the amount of       
upheaval was something less than the    
amount of previous subsidence1  and we  
should have these roads and buildings   
still submerged1 as they  are in point  
of fact1 in a few feet of water4 ,by    
such an hypothesis1  therefore1 the two 
classes of phenomena might be brought   
into perfect  harmony4    ,but we are   
not obliged to take refuge in           
hypothesis3 for it is now  distinctly   
proved by a very curious kind of        
evidence1 that the ,crust of  the ,earth
 in and about the bay of ,bai1 has been 
successively depressed  and upraised    

since the third century of the          
,christian era2 nay more1  that the     
subsidence in the first case was greater
 than the subsequent  upheaval4 ,near   
,pozzuoli1 on the level tract of land   
which1 as we  have said1 intervenes     
between the sea and the lofty range of  
inland  cliffs1 are to be seen at the   
present day the ruins of a splendid     
,roman edifice1 usually called the      
temple of ,jupiter ,serapis1 though1    
according to some writers1 it was not a 
temple at all1 but a public             
establishment for baths4 ,these ruins   
first attracted attention about  the    
middle of the last century4 ,three      
magnificent marble columns were  still  
standing erect1 with their lower parts  
buried in the stratified  deposits      
already described1 and their upper      
portions1 which projected  above the    
surface of the land1 partly concealed by
 bushes4 ,when the  soil was removed the
 original plan of the building could be 
distinctly  traced4 8,it was of a       

quadrangular form1 seventy feet in      
diameter1 and  the roof had been        
supported by forty-six noble columns1   
twenty-four  of granite and the rest of 
marble40 ,many of the pillars have been 
shattered in the course of time1 and lie
 strewn in fragments on the  pavements4 
,the three which are still standing     
erect1 are upward of  forty feet in     
height1 each carved out of a solid block
 of marble2 and1  what is chiefly to our
 purpose1 they exhibit1 curiously       
inscribed on  their surface1 memorials  
of the physical changes in which they   
have  borne a part4    ,the base of     
these lofty columns is1 at present1     
slightly below the  level of the sea4   
,their outer surface is smooth for about
 twelve  feet above the pedestals2 then1
 for the next nine feet the marble is   
everywhere bored by a well-known species
 of mussel1 which it is certain  can    
live only in the sea4 ,above this band  
of perforations the pillars  again      
present a smooth surface1 and continue  

smooth to the top4 ,the  first inference
 from these facts is1 that the columns  
in question  must have been at one time 
submerged to a height of twenty-one feet
  above the pedestals2 otherwise they   
could not have been bored at that       
height by a species of animal that can  
only exist in sea-water4 ,since  that   
time1 therefore1 the land at this spot  
must have been upraised  twenty-one     
feet4 ,furthermore1 the temple of       
,jupiter was certainly not  built at the
 bottom of the sea1 but upon dry land2  
therefore1 after  the temple had been   
built1 the ,crust of the ,earth must    
have subsided  at least twenty-one feet4
 ,once more3 as the floor of the temple 
is now  somewhat below the level of the 
sea1 and as it is not very likely it    
was at first so built1 we may fairly    
infer that it is now lower than it      
originally stood2 and consequently1 that
 the total amount of upheaval  has not  
been equal to the total amount of       
subsidence4 ,though we cannot  fix the  

exact date at which the subsidence      
began1 it was probably not  earlier than
 the third century2 for in the atrium of
 the temple is an  inscription recording
 that it was adorned with precious      
marbles by the  emperor ,septimus       
,severus4    ,it cannot be supposed for 
a moment that these changes were        
effected  by a rise and fall in the     
level of the sea rather than by a       
movement  of the ,earth's ,crust4 ,a    
permanent change in the level of the    
,mediterranean1 in any given locality1  
would1 of necessity1 imply a  change of 
level over its entire extent2 and       
therefore1 if the phenomena  exhibited  
in the bay of ,bai arose from such a    
cause1 we should meet  with phenomena of
 the same kind along the whole length of
 the ,italian  coast4 ,now1 in point of 
fact1 no such changes of level are      
elsewhere  apparent2 and consequently1  
they must be ascribed in the bay of     
,bai1  not to an upward and downward    
movement of the sea1 but to an upward   

and  downward movement of the land4     
,we must not omit to state1 before      
leaving the subject1 that it is now     
ascertained1 by a series of accurate    
observations1 that the ,crust  of the   
,earth in this interesting locality is  
once again slowly and  gradually        
subsiding4 ,at the beginning of the     
century the platform of  the temple     
stood at about the level of the sea2 it 
is now more than  a foot below it4 ,nay1
 this second subsidence appears to have 
begun  even before the present century4 
8,in the year #ahac10 writes a modern   
traveller1 8,i resided for four months  
in the ,capuchin convent of  ,pozzuoli1 
which is situated between the road from 
,naples and the sea1  at the entrance of
 the town of ,pozzuoli4 ,in the         
,capuchin convents  the oldest friar is 
called #8il molto reverende1' and the   
one who  then enjoyed the title in this 
convent was ninety-three years old4  ,he
 informed me that1 when he was a young  
man1 the road from ,naples  passed on   

the seaward side of the convent2 but    
that1 from the  gradual sinking of the  
soil1 the road was obliged to be altered
 to  its present course4 ,while ,i was  
staying at the convent1 the refectory   
as well as the entrance gate1 were from 
six inches to a foot under  water       
whenever strong westerly winds          
prevailed1 so as to cause the  waters of
 the ,mediterranean to rise4 ,thirty    
years previously1 my old  informant     
stated1 such an occurrence never took   
place4 ,in fact1 it is  not probable    
that the builder of the convent would   
have placed the  ground-floor so low as 
to expose to inundation as it now       
is40#ajb    ,on the shores of the       
,baltic ,sea we find another            
illustration of  our theory upon a more 
extended scale4 ,about a century and a  
half  ago the ,swedish naturalist1      
,celsius1 expressed a belief that a     
remarkable change of level was taking   
place along the eastern coast  of       
,scandinavia2 and he ascribed the change

 to a subsidence of the  waters of the  
,baltic ,sea4 ,this opinion was received
 at first with  no small amount of      
incredulity2 but the arguments of       
,celsius were  plausible and attractive 
enough to excite a controversy1 and the 
controversy once aroused was not easily 
set at rest4 ,accordingly1  since his   
time the facts upon which he relied have
 been more strictly  examined1          
difficulties have been started and      
investigated1 many new  facts1 at first 
unknown or unnoticed1 have been brought 
to light1 and  the whole question has   
been rigorously discussed by scientific 
men4  ,it would be tedious to go through
 the history of the discussion1 or  to  
develop at any length the arguments     
which in the end have proved            
successful1 involving as they do a      
multitude of minute observations and    
nice measurements1 made at a great      
variety of different places with        
hard-sounding names4 ,but the general   
result may be readily stated and  as    

readily understood4    ,it appears that 
numerous sunken reefs1 well known to    
navigators1 have1  within the last two  
centuries1 become visible above water2  
that many  ancient ports have become    
inland towns2 that many small islands   
have  become united to one another and  
to the mainland by grassy plains2  that 
rocky points which in former times just 
peeped above the water1  and afforded   
refuge only to a solitary sea-bird1 are 
now grown into  little islets2 and that 
several of the old fishing grounds are  
now  deserted for their shallowness1    
nay1 in some cases1 altogether dried    
up4 ,from these facts the inference is  
plain2 either the solid ,crust of  the  
,earth has been uplifted1 or the waters 
of the sea have subsided4  ,now it is   
certain there has been no subsidence of 
the sea2 for such  a subsidence1 as we  
before observed1 if it took place at    
all1 should  have been general2 whereas 
there are many points on the shores of  
the  ,baltic1 especially along the      

coasts of ,denmark and ,prussia1 where  
it  can be proved that no change of     
level has taken place for centuries4    
,and therefore the phenomena above      
described we must attribute to an       
upheaval of the ,earth's ,crust4#ajc    
,such is the kind of reasoning with     
which this inquiry has been pursued2    
and it may now be set down as a received
 and established fact1 that a  slow and 
gradual process of upheaval is going on1
 at the present day1  on the shores of  
the ,baltic ,sea1 at the rate of from   
two to four feet  in a century2 and this
 is over an area of unknown breadth1 and
 not less  than #ajjj miles in length4  
,evidence of a similar kind has lately  
been  adduced to prove that the west    
coast of ,greenland is just now         
gradually  subsiding for a space of more
 than #fjj miles from north to south4   
8,ancient buildings on low1 rocky       
islands1 and on the shore of the        
mainland1 have been gradually submerged1
 and experience has taught the          

aboriginal ,greenlander never to build  
his hut near the water's edge4  ,in one 
case the ,moravian settlers have been   
obliged more than once to  move the     
poles upon which their large boats were 
set1 and the old poles  still remain    
beneath the water as silent witnesses of
 the change40#ajd    ,it should seem1   
therefore1 that the ,crust of the ,earth
 is not that  fixed and immovable mass  
of unyielding rock which it is often    
supposed  to be4 ,whatever the gigantic 
power is which lies shut up within it1  
and which seems1 clearly enough1 to be  
developed in some way or                
another--perhaps in many ways at        
once--from internal heat1 that power    
exercises a mighty influence from age to
 age on the outward form of  our planet4
 ,like the wind1 indeed1 it bloweth     
where it listeth1 and  we cannot tell   
whence it cometh or whither it goeth2   
but we can hear  the sound thereof1 and 
witness its effects when it breaks out  
now in  this quarter of the world1 and  

now in that1 bursting open the massive  
rocks1 and furiously vomiting forth     
whole mountains of smouldering  ashes   
and molten mineral2 or again1 when1     
failing to find a vent1 it  shakes the  
foundations of the hills1 and shivers   
into fragments the  most enduring works 
of man--castles1 temples1               
palaces1--filling every  heart with     
terror and dismay2 or1 in fine1 when it 
gently upheaves the  bottom of the      
ocean1 or by withdrawing the strain1    
allows the ,crust of  the ,earth to     
subside1 with a movement so gradual and 
insensible as to  escape the notice of  
the multitudes who are toiling in the   
busy cities  on its ,surface4 ,that     
phenomena of this kind have been going  
on in all  past ages1 is now universally
 assumed in the speculations of         
,geology3  that they are going on in the
 present age1 we have here endeavored to
  prove by the evidence of facts4 ,if we
 have succeeded according to our        
expectations1 the reader will be        

prepared to admit that1 on this point   
at least1 it is not the ,geologist who  
may fairly be charged with having       
recourse to the inventions of his fancy1
 but rather those who1 assuming  as a   
first principle that ,geology is false1 
perseveringly shut their  eyes to the   
physical changes that are going on      
around them4    ,illustration           
,,part ,,ii4    ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of  
,,the ,,earth ,,considered ,,in         
,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of    
,,genesis4          ,,chapter ,,xviii4  
,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,question ,,and 
,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,authors       
,,view4        ,the general principles  
of geological theory accepted by the    
author--,these principles plainly import
 the extreme antiquity      of the      
earth--,illustration from the coal1 the 
chalk1 and the      boulder clay--,this 
conclusion not at variance with the     
inspired      history of                
creation--,chronology of the            
,bible--,genealogies of                 

,genesis--,date of the creation not     
fixed by ,moses--,progress of           
opinion on this point--,cardinal        
,wiseman1 ,father ,perrone1 ,father     
,pianciani--,doctor ,buckland--,doctor  
,chalmers1 ,doctor ,pye ,smith1         
,hugh ,miller--,author's view           
explained--,charge of rashness and      
irreverence answered--,admonitions of   
,saint ,augustine and ,saint            
,thomas4      ,the reader has now before
 him a general outline of ,geological   
theory1  together with some familiar    
illustrations of the evidence by which  
it  is supported4 ,we shall not attempt 
to enforce this evidence by any  remarks
 of our own4 ,indeed it is of a kind    
that can derive but little  aid from the
 arts of logic or rhetoric4 ,it needs   
but to be fairly  understood1 and if it 
does not altogether compel our assent1  
it begets  at least a presumption so    
strong as to leave little room for doubt
 or  hesitation4    ,nobody1 so far as  
we know1 has ever hesitated to believe  

that the  ,round ,towers of ,ireland are
 the work of human hands4 ,and yet if   
some  incredulous skeptic were to raise 
the cry against this common opinion1    
were to argue that it is a mere         
hypothesis1 and call for proof1 we      
should be embarrassed how to answer him4
 ,we could only say that these          
monuments have all the characteristic   
marks of man's handiwork2  and that     
buildings of this kind have never been  
known to come into  existence except    
through the agency of ,man4 ,but should 
our vexatious  skeptic contend that they
 were possibly produced by a freak of   
,nature2  or that they were built in the
 beginning by the ,creator of the       
,world1  who certainly might have made  
them had ,he been so minded1 we should  
think him very unreasonable1 and        
probably not feel much disposed to      
prolong the discussion4 ,in like manner 
the theory of ,geology which we  are    
defending1 cannot be established by a   
rigid demonstration2 but we  believe    

there is not one man of sense and       
judgment1 who1 being fully  master of   
the evidence on which it rests1         
hesitates to accept that  theory1 at    
least in its more general outlines4 ,no 
doubt many able and  eminent men are to 
be found arrayed against ,geology2 but  
it would  be easy to show from their    
writings that they have never thoroughly
  examined the facts about which they   
talk so flippantly1 and which they      
often set aside so lightly4    ,for     
ourselves1 therefore1 we frankly avow   
that while we attach  but little        
importance to the mere conjectures and  
speculations of  ,geological writers2   
while we look with doubt and suspicion  
on many  plausible theories commonly    
enough adopted at the present day2 and  
while we consider that the discoveries  
of modern times1 wonderful  though they 
are1 have given rise to far more        
problems than they are  yet able to     
solve2 yet we do fully assent to those  
general principles  which we have been  

attempting to develop and to illustrate 
in this  ,volume4 ,absolutely           
metaphysical certainty we have not2 but 
we have a  firm and rational conviction4
 ,we feel quite satisfied that the great
  ,creator of the ,universe did not     
bring suddenly into existence the       
withered remains and broken fragments of
 animals which had never lived2  that   
,he did not stamp upon the massive      
rocks1 buried in the profound  recesses 
of the earth1 the impress of a luxuriant
 vegetation which had  never flourished2
 that ,he did not1 in short1 create     
under millions of  forms1 the delusive  
appearances of things which had never   
been1 and  scatter them through this    
world of ours in wild profusion1 well   
knowing  that after many centuries they 
would come to light to bewilder human   
reason1 and to lead it into error4 ,this
 conclusion1 of course1 we are  prepared
 to abandon if it should be found to    
clash with any certain  truth or with   
any demonstrated fact4 ,but1 in the mean

 lime1 it seems  to us as well grounded 
and as fairly established as the        
conclusions  we are accustomed to accept
 without hesitation in the matter of    
other  sciences1 and in the common      
business of life4    ,it is argued1     
however1 that ,geological theory is1 in 
fact1 at variance  with the very highest
 order of truth2 with that truth which  
comes to  us on the authority of ,god   
,himself4 ,the ,bible tells us that the 
world  first came into existence about  
six or eight thousand years ago3        
,geology1 on the contrary1 tells us that
 six or eight thousand years are  but as
 yesterday in the history of the        
revolutions through which our  ,globe   
has passed4 ,this is the argument to    
which we are now about to  address      
ourselves2 and it well deserves our best
 attention1 not only  from its intrinsic
 importance1 but also from the          
interesting nature of  the discussion to
 which it has given rise4    ,in the    
first place1 we fully admit that the    

extreme ,antiquity of the  ,earth is a  
necessary consequence of our theory4    
,setting out from the  present stage of 
the world's existence1 ,geology carries 
us back from  epoch to epoch1 through a 
long succession of ages1 each extending 
over  many thousand years1 until the    
mind is lost in the seeming infinity of 
the past4 ,it may be asked1 perhaps1 in 
what way ,geology can testify to  the   
great length of each successive period  
in the history of the ,globe4  ,a       
familiar example will furnish the most  
convenient reply to such a  question4   
,let the reader call to mind what we    
have already explained about the  origin
 and formation of ,coal2 and then let   
him examine the structure  of the       
,carboniferous ,rocks4 ,in the great    
,coal-fields of ,wales1 for  instance1  
he will find1 in a depth of #ab1jjj     
feet1 from fifty to  a hundred distinct 
beds of coals1 spread out one above     
another1  with intervening strata of    
clay several feet thick4 ,now each one  

of  these beds represents an ancient    
forest which must have grown up  and    
flourished and decayed2 or else an      
immense and varied mass of  ,drift-wood1
 transported from a distance by the     
action of moving water1  and deposited  
near the mouth of some great river4 ,in 
either case a  considerable lapse of    
time would have been necessary for such 
an  accumulation of vegetable matter as 
would furnish the elements even of  a   
single seam of ,coal4 ,and1 when that   
period came to an end1 only one  little 
stage in the long series had been       
accomplished3 one stratum of a  few feet
 had been laid down in that great       
,formation which was to reach  at length
 a height of more than two miles4 ,a new
 condition of things  then ensued4 ,this
 layer of vegetable matter1 sunk below  
the waters1 was  gradually covered over 
with a thick deposit of clay1 which1 in 
course  of time1 was to emerge1 and     
become dry land1 and give birth to a    
second  forest1 destined in its turn to 

wither and decay4 ,or1 at least1 when   
the stratum of clay had been deposited1 
it was to be overlaid1 in some  way or  
another1 with a second layer of         
vegetable matter sufficient  for the    
production of a second bed of coal4 ,and
 so this process must  have gone on1    
doubtless with many and long            
interruptions1 for a hundred  times in  
succession4    ,then it must be         
remembered that the ,coal-bearing strata
 represent  but one of many periods1 and
 that not the longest in the ,geological
  ,calendar4 ,before the age of the     
,coal1 ,england was for centuries at the
  bottom of the sea1 while the ,old ,red
 ,sandstone was slowly spread out  over 
its existing surface4 ,and after the age
 of the ,coal1 ,england was  again      
submerged1 and gigantic ,ichthyosaurs   
with their companions of the  deep1     
sported in the waters that rolled over  
her plains and covered  the tops of her 
mountains2 and1 when they had run their 
course1 left  their remains buried in   

the clays of ,oxfordshire and           
,warwickshire and  ,dorsetshire4        
,furthermore1 the beds in which these   
monstrous reptiles are entombed  were   
overlaid by a stratum of calcareous     
ooze1 now forming a solid  mass of      
,chalk ,rock1 often a thousand feet in  
thickness4 ,this ,chalk1  as we have    
seen1 is nothing else than a vast       
accumulation of shells1  so minute that 
millions of them would fit together on  
the blade of a  small pen-knife1 and    
hundreds of millions are carried about  
by every  carpenter in his waistcoat    
pocket4 ,how many generations of        
animalcules  it took to pile up such an 
immense thickness of rock1 by the action
 of  their vital powers1 and how many   
ages were consumed in the process it  is
 beyond the reach of science to         
calculate1 almost beyond the power  of  
imagination to conceive4 ,and yet the   
,chalk itself was followed by  the      
various ,formations of the ,tertiary    
,age2 while the last of these is        

separated by the ,drift and ,boulder    
,clay from the superficial deposits     
which correspond with the period of     
history1 and which go by the name  of   
,recent4    ,this topic has been        
illustrated in a lively and striking    
manner by  ,professor ,huxley1 in a     
,lecture delivered not long ago before  
the  working-men of ,norwich4 8,at      
,cromer10 he says1 8one of the most     
charming spots on the coast of ,norfolk1
 you will see the ,boulder ,clay        
forming a vast mass1 which lies upon the
 ,chalk1 and must consequently  have    
come into existence after it4 ,huge     
boulders of chalk are1 in fact1         
included in the clay1 and have evidently
 been brought to the position  they now 
occupy by the same agency as that which 
has planted blocks of  syenite from     
,norway side by side with them4    8,the
 ,chalk1 then1 is certainly older than  
the ,boulder ,clay4 ,if you ask  how    
much1 ,i will again take you no further 
than the same spot upon  your own coasts

 for evidence4 ,i have spoken of the    
,boulder ,clay and  ,drift as resting   
upon the ,chalk4 ,that is not strictly  
true4 ,interposed  between the ,chalk   
and the ,drift is a comparatively       
insignificant layer1  containing        
vegetable matter4 ,but that layer tells 
a wonderful history4  ,it is full of    
stumps of trees standing as they grew4  
,fir-trees are  there with their cones1 
and hazel-bushes with their nuts2 there 
stand  the stools of oak and yew trees1 
beeches and alders4 ,hence this stratum 
is appropriately called the ,forest-bed4
    8,it is obvious that the ,chalk must
 have been upheaved and converted  into 
dry land before the timber trees could  
grow upon it4 ,as the trunks  of some of
 these trees are from two to three feet 
in diameter1 it is no  less clear that  
the dry land thus formed remained in the
 same condition  for long ages4 ,and not
 only do the remains of stately oaks and
  well-grown firs testify to the        
duration of this condition of things1   

but additional evidence to the same     
effect is afforded by the abundant      
remains of elephants1 rhinoceroses1     
hippopotamuses1 and other great  wild   
beasts1 which it has yielded to the     
zealous search of such men as  the      
,reverend ,mr4 ,gunn4    8,when you look
 at such a collection as he has formed1 
and bethink  you that these elephantine 
bones did veritably carry their owners  
about1 and these great grinders crunch  
in the dark woods of which the          
,forest-bed is now the only trace1 it is
 impossible not to feel that  they are  
as good evidence of the lapse of time as
 the annual rings of  the tree-stumps4  
8,thus there is a writing upon the wall 
of cliffs at ,cromer1 and whoso  runs   
may read it4 ,it tells us with an       
authority which cannot be  impeached1   
that the ancient bed of the ,chalk sea  
was raised up and  remained dry land    
until it was covered with forest1       
stocked with the  great game whose      
spoils have rejoiced your ,geologists4  

,how long it  remained in that condition
 cannot be said2 but the #8whirligig of 
time  brought its revenges' in those    
days as in these4 ,that dry land1 with  
the bones and teeth of generations of   
long-lived elephants hidden away  among 
the gnarled roots and dry leaves of its 
ancient trees1 sank  gradually to the   
bottom of the icy sea1 which covered it 
with huge  masses of ,drift and ,boulder
 ,clay4 ,sea-beasts1 such as the walrus1
  now restricted to the extreme north1  
paddled about where birds had  twittered
 among the topmost twigs of the         
fir-trees4 ,how long this state  of     
things endured we know not1 but at      
length it came to an end4 ,the  upheaved
 glacial mud hardened into the soil of  
modern ,norfolk4 ,forests  grew once    
more1 the wolf and the beaver replaced  
the reindeer and the  elephant2 and at  
length what we called the history of    
,england1 dawned4    8,thus evidence    
which cannot be rebutted1 and which need
 not be  strengthened1 though1 if time  

permitted1 ,i might indefinitely        
increase  its quantity1 compels you to  
believe that the ,earth from the time of
  the ,chalk to the present day1 has    
been the theatre of a series of  changes
 as vast in their amount as they were   
slow in their progress4  ,the area on   
which we stand has been first sea and   
then land for at  least four            
alternations1 and has remained in each  
of these conditions  for a period of    
great length4    8,nor have these       
wonderful metamorphoses of the sea into 
land1 and of  land into sea1 been       
confined to one corner of ,england4     
,during the ,chalk  ,period not one of  
the present great physical features of  
the ,globe was  in existence4 ,our great
 mountain ranges1 ,pyrenees1 ,alps1     
,himalayas1  ,andes1 have all been      
upheaved since the ,chalk was deposited1
 and the  ,cretaceous sea flowed over   
the sites of ,sinai and ,ararat4        
8,all this is certain1 because rocks of 
,cretaceous or still later  date have   

shared in the elevatory movements which 
gave rise to these  mountain chains1 and
 may be found perched up1 in some cases1
 many  thousand feet high upon their    
flanks4 ,and evidence of equal cogency  
demonstrates that1 though in ,norfolk   
the ,forest-bed rests directly upon  the
 ,chalk1 yet it does so1 not because the
 period at which the forest  grew       
immediately followed that at which the  
,chalk was formed1 but  because an      
immense lapse of time1 represented      
elsewhere by thousands of  feet of rock1
 is not indicated at ,cromer4    8,i    
must ask you to believe that there is no
 less conclusive proof that  a still    
more prolonged succession of similar    
changes occurred before  the ,chalk was 
deposited4 ,nor have we any reason to   
think that the first  term in the series
 of these changes is known4 ,the oldest 
sea-beds  preserved to us are sands and 
mud and pebbles1 the wear and tear of   
rocks which were formed in still older  
oceans40#aje    ,it is needless to      

pursue this subject further1 or to seek 
for other  illustrations4 ,we may reject
 ,geology if we will3 but if we put any 
faith even in its main principles1 we   
must believe that the ,crust of  the    
,earth has passed through an indefinite 
series of revolutions1  during which the
 ,stratified ,rocks were slowly built up
 by the action of  natural causes4 ,and 
it would be utterly ridiculous to       
suppose that the  history of these      
revolutions can be compressed into the  
narrow compass  of six thousand years4  
,turning now to the other side of the   
question1 we maintain that this  extreme
 ,antiquity of the ,earth1 which we have
 learned from ,geology1  is perfectly   
consistent with the historical narrative
 of the ,bible4  ,the ,bible1 indeed1   
does fix the ,chronology of the ,human  
,race at a  comparatively recent period2
 but as for the ,chronology of the      
,world  itself1 the ,bible simply tells 
us that1 8,in the beginning ,god created
  the ,heavens and the ,earth40 ,for all

 that appears to the contrary1 this     
,earth of ours may have been in         
existence for millions of years before  
man was introduced upon the scene2 and  
during that time may have been  peopled 
with those countless tribes of plants   
and animals which play  so important a  
part in the records of ,geology4 ,this  
view1 which is not  only fully tolerated
 by the ,church1 but now largely        
supported by her  ,divines and          
,commentators1 we hope to bring home    
clearly to our readers  in the following
 pages2 and thus to satisfy them that1  
as regards  the ,antiquity of the       
,earth1 the discoveries of ,geology can 
offer no  prejudice to our religious    
belief4    ,at the outset it is of some 
importance to understand clearly the    
nature of that system of ,chronology    
which is gathered from the ,bible4      
,nowhere in the ,sacred ,text is the age
 of the human race explicitly set       
forth4 ,but various data are found      
scattered here and there through  the   

historical narrative1 which afford us   
sufficient materials to  compute the    
years that elapsed from the ,creation of
 ,adam to the ,birth  of ,christ4       
,unfortunately1 however1 these data are 
in some respects  obscure1 and in some  
respects uncertain4 ,and thus it has    
come to pass  that many different       
systems of ,chronology have come into   
vogue1 even  amongst those who profess  
to be guided entirely by the authority  
of the  ,bible4    ,the whole period may
 be conveniently divided into two       
parts2--from the  ,creation of ,adam to 
the ,call of ,abraham2 and from the call
 of ,abraham  to the ,birth of ,christ4 
,as regards the latter interval1 the    
difference  of opinion between          
,chronologists is not very substantial2 
the length  of the period may be roughly
 set down at about #b1jjj years4 ,but in
 the  computation of the former interval
 a very wide difference prevails1       
arising from a diversity of reading in  
the earliest versions of the            

,pentateuch4    ,the materials for the  
computation are derived from two        
genealogical  lists1 one extending from 
,adam to ,noah1#ajf the other from ,noah
 to  ,abraham4#ajg ,in these lists we   
have not only the direct line of        
descent from father to son1 extending   
through the whole period in  question1  
but1 moreover1 we have the age of each  
individual member of  the genealogy at  
the time when the next in succession was
 born4 ,as1  for example3--8,adam lived 
a hundred and thirty years1 and begot a 
son to his own image and likeness1 and  
called his name ,seth4 ,and the  days of
 ,adam1 after he had begot ,seth1 were  
eight hundred years3 and  he begot sons 
and daughters4 ,and all the time that   
,adam lived came to  nine hundred and   
thirty years1 and he died4 ,seth also   
lived a hundred  and five years1 and    
begot ,enos4 ,and ,seth lived1 after he 
begot ,enos1  eight hundred and seven   
years1 and begot sons and daughters4    
,and all  the days of ,seth were nine   

hundred and twelve years1 and he died4  
,and  ,enos lived ninety years1 and     
begot ,cainan30#ajh and so on4 ,now it  
is plain1 according to this statement1  
that from the ,creation of ,adam  to the
 birth of ,seth was a hundred and thirty
 years2 to the birth of  ,enos1 a       
hundred and thirty1 more a hundred and  
five years2 to the  birth of ,cainan1 a 
hundred and thirty1 more a hundred and  
five1 more  ninety years4 ,and in this  
way1 following the genealogies of the   
,book  of ,genesis1 we may easily       
compute the time from the ,creation of  
,adam  to the ,birth of ,abraham4       
,adding seventy-five years to this      
period1 we  reach the epoch known as the
 ,call of ,abraham2 for we are told that
  8,abraham was seventy and five years  
old when he went forth from             
,haran40#aji    ,now every one knows    
that when a long catalogue of names and 
numbers is  copied and recopied from age
 to age1 errors are very likely to creep
 in  and be perpetuated4 ,and so it has 

been in the present case4 ,the three    
earliest versions of the ,pentateuch are
 the ,hebrew1 the ,samaritan1 and  the  
,septuagint3 and between these three    
versions there is a very great          
discrepancy with regard to the figures  
in question2 so great1 indeed1  as to   
make up1 on the whole1 a difference of  
#aejj years1 or more1 in  the age of the
 human race4 ,in the table that appears 
on the following  page1 for which we are
 mainly indebted to the work of a modern
  writer1#aaj this diversity of reading 
is set forth in a very simple  and      
intelligible form4    ,it is plain that 
of these three different versions1 one  
only can  represent the true age of the 
human race when ,abraham went forth1 at 
the command of ,god1 from his country   
and his kindred and his father's  house1
 to go into the land of ,canaan3 and at 
this distance of time1  it is impossible
 to determine with anything like        
certainty1 which of  the three has the  
greatest claim on our acceptance4 ,the  

,church has not  pronounced upon the    
subject2 and the question is freely     
discussed among  ,biblical scholars4    
,but the details of this controversy    
have little to  do with our present     
argument4 ,enough it is for us to know  
that1 from  the ,creation of ,adam to   
the ,birth of ,christ1 cannot have been 
more than  six thousand years at the    
highest computation1 nor much less than 
four  thousand at the lowest4 ,adding   
#ahfi years of the ,christian ,era1 the 
present age of the ,human ,race         
according to the data of the ,bible     
would  seem to lie between six and eight
 thousand years4      ,,genealogies ,,of
 ,,genesis4      ,,list ,,of            
,,age ,,of ,,each ,,when ,,the ,,next   
,,patriarchs4                           
,,was ,,born4                           
,,according ,,to                        
,septuagint4 ,hebrew4 ,samaritan4       
,adam1                                  
#bcj        #acj     #acj    ,seth1     
#bje        #aje     #aje    ,enos1     

#aij         #ij      #ij    ,cainan1   
#agj         #gj      #gj    ,malaleel1 
#afe         #fe      #fe    ,jared1    
#afb        #afb      #fb    ,henoch1   
#afe         #fe      #fe    ,mathusala1
                            #afg        
#ahg      #fg    ,lamech1               
#ahh        #ahb      #ec    ,noe1      
#ejj        #ejj     #ejj    ,sem1      
#ajj        #ajj     #ajj    ,from the  
creation of ,adam to the    ----        
----    ----    birth of ,arphaxad1 two 
years after  #bbdb       #afef    #acjg 
the ,flood1#aaa                     ----
       ----    ----    ,arphaxad1       
#ace         #ce     #ace               
,cainan1#aab                            
#acj         --      --    ,sale1       
#acj         #cj     #acj    ,heber1    
#acd         #cd     #acd    ,phaleg1   
#acj         #cj     #acj    ,reu1      
#acb         #cb     #acb    ,sarug1    
#acj         #cj     #acj    ,nachor1   
#gi         #bi      #gi    ,thare1     
#gj         #gj      #gj    ,abraham    

called by ,god1                 #ge     
#ge      #ge                            
----       ----    ----    ,from the    
,flood to the ,call of       #aade      
#cfe    #ajae    ,abraham1              
----       ----    ----    ,from the    
,creation of ,adam to      the ,call of 
,abraham1                #cchg          
#bjba    #bcbb    ,the ,bible1 then1    
does determine1 though with some        
vagueness and  uncertainty1 the age of  
the ,human ,race4 ,we have now to       
consider  whether1 in fixing the age of 
the ,human ,race1 it fixes likewise the 
age  of the ,world itself4 ,for this    
purpose we must turn our attention to   
the  first chapter of ,genesis1 in which
 is briefly set forth the origin and    
early history of our ,globe from the    
,creation of the ,heavens and the       
,earth in the beginning to the ,creation
 of ,man at the close of the ,sixth     
,day4 ,if it should appear that these   
two events were comprised within a  very
 narrow limit of time1 as is not        

unfrequently supposed1 then indeed  the 
age of the world must agree pretty      
nearly with the age of the ,human       
,race4 ,but if on the other hand1       
between these two events the ,sacred    
,record allows us to suppose an interval
 of indefinite length1 then it  plainly 
follows that the age of the ,human      
,race1 as set forth in the  ,bible      
,genealogies1 can afford no evidence    
against the ,antiquity of the  ,earth4  
,the question is thus brought within    
very narrow limits4 ,we have  simply to 
take up the ,first ,chapter of ,genesis1
 and inquire whether or  no it is there 
conveyed that the ,creation of ,man1    
which is described  toward the close of 
the chapter1 followed after the lapse of
 only a few  days upon the ,creation of 
the ,heavens and the ,earth1 which is   
recorded  in the first verse4    ,for   
many centuries this question received   
but little attention from  the readers  
of the ,bible4 ,it was commonly assumed 
that1 as the various  events of the     

,creation are traced out in rapid       
succession by the  ,inspired ,writer1   
and strung together into one continuous 
narrative1 so  did they follow one      
another1 in reality1 with a             
corresponding rapidity1  and in the same
 unbroken continuity4 ,the progress of  
,physical ,science  had not yet shown   
any necessity for supposing a lengthened
 period of  time to have elapsed between
 the ,creation of the ,world and the    
,creation  of ,man3 nor was there       
anything in the narrative itself to     
suggest such  an idea4 ,thus it was     
generally taken for granted1 almost     
without  discussion1 that when ,god had 
created the ,heavens and the ,earth in  
the  beginning1 ,he at once set about   
the work of arranging and furnishing    
the universe1 and fitting it up for the 
use of man2 that ,he distributed  this  
work over a period of six ordinary days1
 and at the close of the  sixth day1    
introduced our ,first ,parents upon the 
scene3 and that1  therefore1 the        

beginning of the ,human ,race was but   
six days later than  the beginning of   
the ,world4    ,these notions about the 
history of the ,creation continued to   
prevail  almost down to our own time4   
,it is to be observed1 however1 that    
they  were not founded on a close and   
scientific examination of the ,sacred   
,text4 ,the hypothesis of a long and    
eventful state of existence prior to    
the ,creation of ,man may be said rather
 to have been overlooked1 than  to have 
been rejected1 by our ,commentators4    
,there was no good reasons  for         
entertaining such a speculation1 and so 
they said nothing about  it4 ,but now   
that the world is ringing with the      
wonderful discoveries  of ,geology1     
which seem to point more and more       
clearly every day to  the extreme       
,antiquity of the ,earth1 it becomes an 
imperative duty to  examine once again  
with all diligence and care the         
,inspired narrative  of the ,creation1  
and to consider well the relation in    

which it stands  with this new dogma of 
,physical ,science4    ,we are not the  
first to enter upon the inquiry4        
,already it has engaged  the attention  
and stimulated the industry of          
,theological writers  for more than half
 a century4 ,many eminent men1          
distinguished alike  for their extensive
 acquirements and for their religious   
zeal1 have  protested warmly against the
 opinion of ,geologists1 concerning the 
,antiquity of the ,earth1 as one that   
cannot be reconciled with the           
historical accuracy of the ,bible4 ,but1
 on the other hand1 there are  writers  
no less illustrious1 and no less        
sincerely attached to the  cause of     
religion1 who contend that there is     
nothing in the ,sacred  ,text to exclude
 the supposition of a long and          
indefinite interval--an  interval if    
necessary of many millions of           
years--between the first  creation of   
matter and the creation of man4 ,thirty 
years ago this  opinion was defended by 

,cardinal ,wiseman with great learning1 
and  with great felicity of             
illustration1 in his famous ,lectures on
 the  ,connection between ,science and  
,revealed ,religion4 ,the eminent ,roman
  ,jesuit1 ,father ,perrone1 has        
followed the same line of argument in   
his  ,prlectiones ,theologic1 which1 as 
every one knows1 has long since  become 
a classic work in schools of ,theology4 
,it has been yet more  fully discussed1 
and supported by more elaborate         
reasoning1 in a work  entitled          
,cosmogonia ,naturale ,comparata col    
,genesi1 lately published in  ,rome at  
the press of the ,civilt ,cattolica1 by 
another distinguished  ,jesuit1 ,john   
,baptist ,pianciani4 ,amongst           
,protestant writers1 too1 this  view of 
the ,mosaic narrative has found no      
inconsiderable number of able           
advocates4 ,it is defended by ,doctor   
,buckland1 the eminent ,geologist1  in  
his celebrated ,bridgewater ,treatise1  
by ,doctor ,chalmers in his  ,evidences 

of the ,christian ,revelation1 by       
,doctor ,pye ,smith in his              
dissertations on ,geology and           
,scripture1 by the eloquent and original
  ,hugh ,miller in his interesting work 
on the ,testimony of the ,rocks2 and  by
 a host of others scarcely less         
distinguished than these4    ,but these 
learned writers are not altogether of   
one accord as to the  precise point in  
the ,first ,chapter of ,genesis1 at     
which we may suppose  a long interval of
 time to have intervened4 ,some1 with   
,doctor ,buckland1  ,doctor ,pye ,smith1
 and ,doctor ,chalmers1 consider that   
this interval may  best be introduced   
between the beginning of all time1 when 
,god created  the ,heavens and the      
,earth1 and the beginning of the ,first 
,day1 when  ,he set about preparing the 
world as a dwelling-place for man4      
,sacred  ,scripture1 they say1 simply   
records these two events1 7#a7 that 8,in
  the beginning ,god created the        
,heavens and the ,earth10 and 7#b7 that1

  at some subsequent time1 8,god said3  
,let there be light3 and light  was     
made40 ,but ,sacred ,scripture does not 
tell us what length of time  elapsed    
between these two great acts of ,divine 
,omnipotence4 ,for aught  we know from  
,revelation1 it may have been but a     
single day1 or it may  have been a      
million of years4 ,others again1 as for 
instance ,pianciani1  prefer to suppose 
that each one of the ,six ,days may have
 been itself a  period of indefinite1   
nay of almost inconceivable duration4   
,so that1  between the beginning of the 
world and the creation of man six great 
ages of the ,earth's history may have   
rolled by1 each one distinguished  by a 
new manifestation of ,god's power1 and  
the introduction of new  forms of life4 
,these writers even fancy that they can 
discover a close  analogy between the   
successive acts of creation recorded in 
,genesis1  and the gradual development  
of organic life exhibited in the great  
,epochs of ,geology4    ,to us it seems 

that either one or the other of these   
two systems1 or  both together1 may be  
fairly admitted without any undue       
violence to the  text of the ,inspired  
narrative3 and this1 we would observe in
 passing1  is the opinion to which      
,cardinal ,wiseman appears to have      
inclined1  thirty years ago1 in his     
,lectures on the ,connection between    
,science and  ,religion4 ,we maintain1  
then1 in the first place1 that there is 
nothing  in the ,mosaic narrative1 when 
carefully examined1 at variance with the
  hypothesis of an indefinite interval  
between the creation of the world  and  
the work of the ,six ,days4 ,and1 in the
 second place1 we contend that  it is   
quite consistent with the usage of      
,sacred ,scripture to explain  these    
,days of ,creation as long periods of   
time4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,it may appear1 perhaps1 
to some of our readers that this is     
dangerous  ground on which we are about 
to venture4 ,they may have been         

accustomed  all their lives to view the 
history of ,creation through the medium 
of those notions that commonly prevailed
 before the discoveries of  ,geology3   
and from the influence of long          
association they may have  come1 in the 
end1 to regard their own interpretation 
with scarcely less  veneration than the 
,inspired ,text itself4 ,such persons   
will naturally  be disposed to look upon
 our undertaking with disfavor and      
suspicion4  ,they will think us guilty  
of irreverence toward ,holy ,scripture  
when  we seek to modify our views about 
its meaning1 in deference to the        
conclusions of ,physical ,science2 and  
they may be tempted even to charge  us  
with putting the idle interpretations of
 men into the balance  against the      
,inspired ,word of ,god4    ,to this    
line of objection we would answer1 that 
we cannot be guilty of  irreverence to  
the ,holy ,scripture1 when we are only  
striving1 with due  submission to the   
authority of the ,church1 to discover   

the true meaning  of an obscure and     
difficult passage1 on which the ,church 
has pronounced  no definite judgment4   
,nor can we be said to make light of the
 ,word  of ,god1 when we are but        
attempting to defend its unerring       
veracity  from the assaults of infidel  
writers4 ,furthermore we would add1     
that1  if it is a dangerous thing to    
modify the received interpretation of   
certain parts of ,scripture1 when the   
progress of science enables us to  see  
physical phenomena under a new light1 it
 is a far more dangerous  thing to      
persist in imputing to ,scripture a     
doctrine that1 in a very  short time1   
may be proved to be false1 beyond the   
possibility of  contradiction4    ,these
 sentiments are not altogether our own4 
,they have come to us1 in  great part1  
from an illustrious ,doctor of the      
,church2 and we are glad1  at this early
 stage of our discussion1 to be able to 
shelter our humble  efforts under the   
authority of his venerable name4 ,it is 

now more than  fourteen centuries and a 
half since ,saint ,augustine set about  
the  literal interpretation of ,genesis1
 which he accomplished in a ,treatise   
of twelve books4 ,toward the close of   
the first book he expatiates at  some   
length on the difficulty of his         
undertaking1 and on the variety of      
diverse interpretations1 which prevailed
 even in his time4 ,from this  he takes 
occasion to warn his readers that1 8if  
we find anything in  ,divine ,scripture 
that may be variously explained without 
any injury to  faith1 we should not rush
 headlong by positive assertion either  
to one  opinion or the other2 lest1 if  
perchance the opinion we have adopted   
should afterward turn out to be false1  
our faith should fall with it2  and we  
should be found contending1 not so much 
for the doctrine of the  ,sacred        
,scriptures as for our own2 endeavoring 
to make our doctrine  to be that of the 
,scriptures1 instead of taking the      
doctrine of the  ,scriptures to be      

ours40#aac ,and a little further on he  
again exposes  the imprudence of such a 
proceeding1 in words that cannot but be 
considered peculiarly applicable to our 
present subject3--    8,it often happens
 that one who is not a ,christian hath  
some knowledge  derived from the        
clearest arguments or from the evidence 
of his senses  about the earth1 about   
the heavens1 about the other elements of
 this  world1 about the movements and   
revolutions1 or about the size and      
distances of the stars1 about certain   
eclipses of the sun and moon1  about the
 course of the years and the seasons1   
about the nature of  animals1 plants1   
and minerals1 and about other things of 
a like kind4  ,now it is an unseemly and
 mischievous thing1 and greatly to be   
avoided1  that a ,christian man speaking
 on such matters1 as if according to the
  authority of ,christian ,scripture1   
should talk so foolishly that the       
unbeliever1 on hearing him1 and         
observing the extravagance of his       

error1 should hardly be able to refrain 
from laughing4 ,and the great  mischief 
is1 not so much that the man himself is 
laughed at for his  errors1 but that our
 authors are believed by people without 
the ,church  to have taught such things1
 and so are condemned as unlearned1 and 
cast aside1 to the great loss of those  
for whose salvation we are so  much     
concerned4 ,for1 when they find one     
belonging to the ,christian  body       
falling into error on a subject with    
which they themselves are  thoroughly   
conversant1 and when they see him1      
moreover1 enforcing  his groundless     
opinion by the authority of our ,sacred 
,books1 how are  they likely to put     
trust in these ,books about the         
resurrection of the  dead1 and the hope 
of eternal life1 and the kingdom of     
heaven1 having  already come to regard  
them as fallacious about those things   
they had  themselves learned from       
observation or from unquestionable      
evidence8  ,and1 indeed1 it were not    

easy to tell what trouble and sorrow    
some  rash and presumptuous men bring   
upon their prudent brethren1 who1 when  
they are charged with a perverse and    
false opinion by those who do  not      
accept the authority of our ,books1     
attempt to put forward these  same ,holy
 ,books in defence of that which they   
have lightly and falsely  asserted2     
sometimes even quoting from memory what 
they think will suit  their purpose1 and
 putting forth many words1 without well 
understanding  either what they say1 or 
what they are talking about40#aad       
,and many ages after1 ,saint ,thomas1   
the great luminary of the schools1      
appeals to this wise admonition of      
,saint ,augustine1 and applies it  to   
the circumstances of his own times4     
,writing about the work of  the ,second 
,day1 he says that 8in questions of this
 sort there are  two things to be       
observed4 ,first1 that the truth of     
,scripture be  inviolably maintained4   
,secondly1 since ,scripture doth admit  

of diverse  interpretations1 that we    
must not cling to any particular        
exposition  with such pertinacity1 that 
if what we supposed to be the teaching  
of  ,scripture should afterward turn out
 to be clearly false1 we should         
nevertheless still presume to put it    
forward2 lest thereby we should  expose 
the ,inspired ,word of ,god to the      
derision of unbelievers1 and  shut them 
out from the way of salvation40#aae     
,under the sanction of two such         
illustrious ,saints and ,doctors we     
need not hesitate to proceed in our     
attempt to reconcile the ,inspired      
narrative of the ,creation with the     
doctrine of the ,antiquity of the       
,earth1 as set forth by the advocates of
 ,geology4 ,let it be remembered1       
however1 that we do not undertake to    
prove the extreme ,antiquity of  the    
,earth from the language of ,scripture2 
but simply to show that  the language of
 ,scripture leaves the ,antiquity of the
 ,earth an open  question4 ,the         

,geologist holds that this ,globe of    
ours has been in  existence for hundreds
 of thousands1 perhaps for millions of  
years2 and  our object is to show that1 
while maintaining this opinion1 he may1 
nevertheless1 accept the historical     
truth of the ,bible narrative4    ,as   
before explained1 two points arise for  
discussion3 first1 can we  suppose an   
interval of indefinite length to have   
elapsed between the  ,creation of the   
,world1 and the work of the ,six ,days8 
and secondly1 is  it lawful to explain  
these ,days in the sense of long        
periods8 ,we shall  take these two      
questions in succession1 dealing with   
each upon its own  merits2 and if we    
fail to enforce conviction1 we hope1 at 
least1 to  vindicate our right to       
toleration4    ,illustration            
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,xix4 
,,first ,,hypothesis2--,,an ,,interval  
,,of ,,indefinite ,,duration ,,between  
,,the  ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,world    
,,and ,,the ,,first ,,mosaic ,,day4     

,the heavens and the earth were created 
before the first ,mosaic                
day--,objection from ,exodus1 xx4       
#i-aa--;,answer--,interpretation of     
the author supported by the best        
commentators--,confirmed by the         
,hebrew text--,the early fathers        
commonly held the existence of          
created matter prior to the work of the 
,six ,days--,saint ,basil1      ,saint  
,chrysostom1 ,saint ,ambrose1 ,venerable
 ,bede--,the most      eminent doctors  
in the schools concurred in this        
opinion--,peter      ,lombard1 ,hugh of 
,saint ,victor1 ,saint ,thomas--,also   
commentators      and                   
theologians--,perrerius1                
,petavius--,distinguished names      on 
the other side1 ,a ,lapide1 ,tostatus1  
,saint ,augustine--,the      opinion is 
at least not at variance with the voice 
of      tradition--,this period of      
created existence may have been of      
indefinite length--,and the earth may   
have been furnished then      as now    

with countless tribes of plants and     
animals--,objections      to this       
hypothesis proposed and explained4      
,the opening verses of the ,mosaic      
history may be rendered thus literally  
from the ,hebrew ,text3--    7#a7 8,in  
the beginning ,god created the ,heavens 
and the ,earth4    7#b7 8,and the ,earth
 was waste and empty2 and darkness was  
upon the face  of the deep2 and the     
spirit of ,god moved upon the face of   
the waters4    7#c7 8,and ,god said1    
,let there be light2 and there was      
light4    7#d7 8,and ,god saw the light 
that it was good2 and ,god divided the  
light  from the darkness4    7#e7 8,and 
,god called the light ,day1 and the     
darkness he called ,night4  ,and the    
evening was1 and the morning was1 the   
first day40    ,now it appears to us    
that the great event with which this    
narrative  begins1 the creation of the  
,heavens and the ,earth1 is not         
represented  as a part of the work that 
was accomplished within the ,six ,days4 

,it  is not said that on the first day  
,god created the ,heavens and the       
,earth1 but in the beginning4 ,besides1 
the ,sacred writer1 uniformly           
throughout the chapter1 employs one and 
the same peculiar phrase to  introduce  
the work of each successive day4 ,in    
describing the operations  of ,god on   
the second day1 he begins3 8,and ,god   
said1 ,let there be a  firmament in the 
midst of the waters30 on the third day1 
8,and ,god  said1 ,let the waters that  
are under the ,heavens be gathered      
together  into one place30 on the       
fourth1 8,and ,god said1 ,let there be  
lights  in the firmament of the ,heavens
 to divide the day from the night30 on  
the fifth1 8,and ,god said1 ,let the    
waters bring forth the creeping  thing  
having life30 on the sixth1 8,and ,god  
said1 ,let the earth bring  forth the   
living creature after its kind40 ,hence1
 when we meet this  same phrase for the 
first time in the third verse1 8,and    
,god said1  ,let there be light10 we may

 reasonably suppose that the work of the
  first day began with the decree which 
is set forth in these words4 ,if  so it 
plainly follows that we may allow the   
existence of created matter  before that
 particular epoch of time which1 in the 
language of ,moses1  is styled the      
,first ,day3 for1 before the creation of
 light1 the ,heavens  and the ,earth    
were already in existence1 and the      
,earth was waste and  empty1 and        
darkness was upon the face of the deep1 
and the spirit of  ,god moved upon the  
face of the waters4    ,an objection is 
sometimes raised from the words of ,god 
in the  promulgation of the third       
commandment3--8,six days shalt thou     
labor  and do all thy work4 ,but the    
seventh day is the sabbath of the ,lord 
thy ,god2 thou shalt do no work on      
it4444 ,for in six days the ,lord  made 
the ,heavens and the ,earth and the sea1
 and all that is in them1  and resteth  
the seventh day40#aaf ,it is argued that
 the creation of  the ,heavens and the  

,earth is here set forth as a part of   
the work  accomplished within the ,six  
,days2 which is directly against our    
opinion4 ,this difficulty would be      
simply insurmountable1 if it could be   
proved that the text refers to that     
first act of creation by which  the     
,heavens and the ,earth were brought    
into existence out of nothing4  ,we     
think1 however1 that the phrase may     
fairly be understood to mean1  in six   
days the ,lord fashioned the ,heavens   
and the ,earth2 that is to  say1 gave to
 them that form and shape and outward   
character which they  now possess4 ,in  
this sense the words would apply1 not to
 the first act  of creation out of      
nothing1 but rather to that subsequent  
series of  operations by which the      
,earth was fitted up and furnished for  
the use  of man4    ,and this           
interpretation is supported by the      
authority of our best  ,commentators4   
,perrerius formally discusses the point1
 and maintains  that ,god may truly be  

said to have made the ,heavens and the  
,earth in  ,six ,days1 although the     
,heavens and the ,earth1 as far as      
regards their  substantial matter1 had  
been created before the ,first ,day3 for
 it was  only within the ,six ,days that
 they were adorned and completed and    
perfected4 ,tostatus is not less        
explicit4 ,in this passage1 he says1 the
  word made is very properly employed2  
for the ,heavens and the ,earth  which  
are here referred to1 and the other     
things that are included  under this    
general designation1 were all made from 
matter already  existing1 but this      
matter itself was not made1 it was      
created4  ,petavius also adopts this    
view in his remarks upon the fourth     
verse of  the second chapter of         
,genesis4#aag    ,we may add that this  
mode of explaining the passage receives 
no small  support from the ,hebrew text4
 ,when it is said1 in the first chapter 
of ,genesis1 that 8,in the beginning    
,god created the ,heavens and the       

,earth10 the word used by the ,sacred   
writer is  7,bara71 which  strictly     
means to create out of nothing2 whereas1
 in describing the  operations of the   
,six ,days1 he commonly uses the word   
7,hasah71  which means to form and      
fashion1 or to produce something out of 
pre-existing materials4#aah ,now1 in the
 text of ,exodus we find the  word      
7,hasah71 to fashion or produce1 and not
 the word   7,bara71 to create4 ,we do  
not want to insist very rigorously upon 
this distinction between the two words  
7,bara7 and  7,hasah71  nor would we    
deny that they are sometimes            
interchanged as regards their  meaning4 
,we think they are related to one       
another pretty nearly as the            
corresponding words to create and to    
make in ,english1 and we know  that the 
distinction between these two words is  
not always strictly  observed4 ,thus1 we
 sometimes say that ,god made the world1
 meaning  that he brought it forth from 
nothing1 and we speak of the creation   

of peers2 and ,shakspeare says3--       
8,now is the time of help2 your eye in  
,scotland      ,would create soldiers1  
make our women fight      ,to doff their
 dire distresses40--,macbeth1 ,act iv41 
,sc4 iii4    ,nevertheless1 when we     
compare two such passages as            
these3--8,in the  beginning ,god created
 the ,heavens and the ,earth10 and 8,in 
,six ,days  the ,lord made the ,heavens 
and the ,earth and the sea1 and all that
 in  them is10 we think the studied     
contrast of expression is a fair ground 
for supposing that1 while the one refers
 to the ,divine decree by which  matter 
was first brought into existence out of 
nothing1 the other may  be understood of
 those subsequent operations by which it
 received its  present form and shape4  
,we see no difficulty1 then1 as far as  
the ,sacred ,text is concerned1  in     
supposing a condition of created        
existence prior to the period of  the   
,six ,days4 ,but since this opinion is  
the foundation on which our  whole      

argument rests1 we should wish to show1 
moreover1 even at the  risk of being    
tedious1 that it has been put forward   
and defended by  the most eminent       
writers in every age of the ,church4    
,amongst the early  ,fathers1 ,saint    
,basil reasons after this manner when   
commenting upon the  passage1 8,there   
was evening and there was morning the   
first day30--8,the  evening is the      
common term of day and night2 and1 in   
like manner1 the  morning is the point  
of union between night and day4         
,wherefore1 in  order to signify that to
 the day belonged the prerogative of    
being the  first begotten1 the sacred   
writer first commemorates the close of  
day1  and afterward the close of night2 
implying thereby that the day was       
followed by the night4 ,as to the       
condition of the world before the       
formation of light1 that is not called  
,night1 but simply ,darkness2  whereas  
that period which is distinguished from 
day and opposed to it1  is called       

night40#aai ,this great ,doctor1        
therefore1 teaches that the  ,first ,day
 began with a period of light which is  
called day1 and ended  with a period of 
darkness which is called night2 and he  
recognizes a  previous state of         
existence which was no part of the      
,first ,day4 ,so1  too1 ,saint          
,chrysostom1 in his third ,homily upon  
,genesis1 lays down that  the ,earth was
 first created a rude and shapeless     
mass1 without form or  ornament2 that   
afterward light was made1 and that1 with
 the creation  of light1 the ,first ,day
 began4#abj    ,in the ,western ,church1
 ,saint ,ambrose adopts the same line of
  interpretation4 ,he sets forth that   
,god first created the world1 in the    
beginning2 and afterward during the ,six
 ,days furnished and adorned it2  just  
as a skilful workman first lays the     
foundation of a building1  and afterward
 raises the superstructure1 and         
superadds the ornament4  ,and elsewhere1
 he says that1 when the voice of ,god   

went forth1 8,let  light be made10 in   
the same moment the ,first ,day began4  
,it follows1  therefore1 that the world 
existed before the beginning of the     
,first  ,day4 ,in another place he gives
 a new turn to the same idea1 telling   
us that in the beginning ,god made the  
world2 and with the world1 time  began4 
,but not with time did the ,first ,day  
begin3 for the ,first ,day is  not the  
beginning of time1 it is rather an epoch
 of time4#aba    ,passing on to the     
middle ages1 we find our view supported 
by the  authority of ,venerable ,bede1  
in several parts of his writings4 ,his  
notion is that1 during the ,six ,days1  
,god formed and fashioned the  world out
 of shapeless matter2 but1 before the   
,six ,days began1 ,he  had made this    
shapeless matter itself out of nothing4 
8,two things10  he says1 8did ,god make 
before all days1 the angelical nature1  
and  shapeless matter40 ,and again1 he  
dresses up this opinion in the form  of 
a dialogue3--8,disciple4 ,tell me the   

order in which things were  made        
throughout the ,six ,days8 ,master4     
,first1 in the very beginning  of       
created existence1 were made heaven and 
earth1 the angels1 air1 and  water4     
,disciple4 ,continue the order of       
creation8 ,master4 ,in the  beginning of
 the ,first ,day light was made2 on the 
second was made the  firmament10        
etc4#abb ,nothing can be more plain than
 the distinction  here set up between   
the beginning of all time1 when the     
,heavens and the  ,earth were made1 and 
the beginning of the ,first ,day1 when  
light was  made4    ,and when we come to
 still more recent times1 we find this  
interpretation was taken up and defended
 by the great masters in the  schools of
 ,theology4 ,peter ,lombard1 the famous 
,magister ,sententiarum1  referring to  
the first verse of ,genesis1 says that  
8in the beginning  ,god created ,heaven1
 which means the ,angels1 and the       
,earth1 which means  confused and       
unshapely matter1 the same that is      

called ,chaos by the  ,greeks2 and this 
was before any day40 ,not less clearly  
speaks out  ,hugh of ,saint ,victor1 who
 for his profound and varied erudition1 
was  called the second ,augustine4 ,in  
explaining the history of the ,six      
,days1  he says3 8,the first of the     
,divine operations was the creation of  
light4  ,but the light was not then     
created from nothing1 it was formed from
  pre-existing matter4 ,this was the    
work that was accomplished on the       
,first ,day3 but the material of this   
work had been created before the  ,first
 ,day4 ,directly with the light the day 
began2 for before the light  it was     
neither night or day1 though time       
already existed40#abc    ,later still1  
,st4 ,thomas himself clearly leans to   
this view when he  says3 8,it is better 
to maintain that the creation was before
 any day40  ,and ,perrerius1 the most   
learned1 perhaps1 of all our            
commentators  on ,genesis1 argues with  
us that the world was created before the

  production of light1 and before the   
commencement of the ,first ,day4 ,nay1  
he adds that he cannot tell how long    
that primeval state of existence  may   
have endured before the ,six ,days      
began2 nor does he think it can  be     
known except by a special revelation4   
,petavius1 too1 is with us4  ,he does   
not indeed accept our interpretation of 
the first verse4 ,when  it is said1 8,in
 the beginning ,god created the ,heavens
 and the ,earth10  he holds that these  
words do not describe any one particular
 act of  ,god1 but represent1 as it were
 in a brief summary1 the whole work  of 
creation4 ,thus we are informed1 at the 
outset1 that the ,heavens  and the      
,earth as we see them now are the work  
of ,god2 and afterward1  the various    
parts that make up this great whole are 
described1 and  the order in which they 
were accomplished is set forth4         
,according to  ,petavius1 then1 the     
creation of the ,heavens and the ,earth1
 recorded in  the first verse1 was not a

 distinct act from the operations of the
 ,six  ,days1 but rather includes them  
all4 ,nevertheless1 he maintains1 as we 
do1 that the earth1 at least1 and water1
 were in existence before the  creation 
of light2 and that1 therefore1 some     
period of time must have  elapsed before
 the beginning of the ,six ,days4       
,furthermore1 he says in  the same      
spirit as ,perrerius1 that it is beyond 
our power to conjecture  how long that  
period may have lasted4#abd    ,our     
opinion1 then1 is not open1 in the      
slightest degree1 to the  imputation of 
novelty or singularity4 ,on the         
contrary1 it would seem  rather to      
reflect the prevailing tradition of the 
,church4 ,we think  it right1 however1  
to add that there are great names       
against us4 ,a  ,lapide1 for instance1  
who considers that the ,heavens and the 
,earth  were created at the beginning of
 the ,first ,day4#abe ,and ,tostatus1   
who  incidentally notices our view1 and 
contents himself with saying that it  is

 unreasonable4 ,for himself he seems to 
waver between two opinions4 ,he  thinks 
the primeval darkness1 described in the 
second verse1 may have  been the night  
belonging to the ,first ,day2 and that  
during that night1  which probably      
lasted about twelve hours1 we may       
suppose the ,heavens  and the ,earth to 
have been created4 ,or else1 he says1 we
 may allow that  the ,first ,day of the 
,mosaic narrative began with the        
creation of light2  but in that case we 
must hold that the ,heavens and the     
,earth were  created at the same time   
with light4#abf    ,saint ,augustine1   
too1 we must reluctantly give up2 or1 at
 least1 we  must be content to regard   
him as neutral4 ,if he is not a decided 
opponent1 he is certainly not a         
consistent advocate1 of our opinion4    
,no doubt he is often quoted in its     
favor2 and it would be easy to  select  
passages from his works which seem to   
enforce it in the plainest  terms4 ,as  
for example3 8,in the beginning1 ,o my  

,god1 before any day1  ,thou didst make 
the ,heavens and the ,earth40#abg ,but1 
in truth1 this  opinion is utterly      
irreconcilable with the well known and  
very singular  teaching of ,saint       
,augustine concerning the creation of   
the world4  ,he held that all the great 
works recounted in the first chapter of 
,genesis were1 in fact1 accomplished in 
a single instant4 ,there was no  real   
succession1 according to him1 in the    
order of time1 between the  production  
of the ,heavens and the ,earth1 of light
 and the firmament1  of the sun1 moon1  
and stars1 of plants1 trees1 and        
animals4 ,in one and  the same instant  
of time all these came into existence   
together4 ,as to  the description given 
by ,moses1 it is accommodated to the    
capacity of  a rude people2 and the     
succession there set forth is intended  
only to  exhibit the several parts of a 
great whole1 in the manner best suited  
to the conceptions of human             
intelligence4#abh    ,this view of the  

creation is repeated again and again by 
,saint  ,augustine in his numerous works
 upon ,genesis1 and illustrated in      
diverse ways1 so as to leave no doubt   
that he held it deliberately  and       
persistently4 ,with regard to such      
passages as that quoted above1  in which
 he says that ,god created the ,heavens 
and the ,earth before  any day1 it may  
be maintained that ,saint ,augustine was
 not always  consistent with himself1   
and that he held different opinions at  
different times2 or even that he put    
forward opposite opinions at the  same  
time1 not setting them forth as true1   
but only as possible and                
legitimate4#abi    ,we think1 however1  
that his consistency1 in this case at   
least1 can be  defended1 and that he has
 himself sufficiently explained in what 
sense  he wished these passages to be   
understood4 ,he tells us that we must   
distinguish two kinds of succession3    
succession in the order of time1  and   
succession in the order of our          

conceptions4 ,thus1 for example1  in the
 order of time there is no succession   
between the sound of the  voice in      
singing and the musical note that is    
sung3 the sound is1 in  fact1 the note1 
and the note is the sound4 ,but in the  
order of our  conceptions we first      
apprehend a thing according to its      
substance1 and  then according to its   
qualities4 ,we first conceive the sound 
itself1 as  a sound1 and then we        
conceive it as having that peculiar     
quality which  makes it a musical note4 
,such as this is the succession ,saint  
,augustine  seems to admit in the order 
of the creation4 ,he tells us1 no doubt1
  that ,god first created shapeless     
matter1 and afterward gave to it form   
and beauty3 and certainly this          
statement1 if standing alone1 would1    
according to the ordinary use of        
language1 imply a real succession  in   
the order of time4 ,but then1 a little  
further on1 he expressly  repudiates the
 idea of a succession in point of time1 

and says that  the priority he ascribes 
to shapeless matter is only a priority  
in  the order of our conceptions4 ,we   
must first conceive matter to exist     
before we can conceive it to have this  
or that particular form2 and the        
,inspired ,writer follows the order of  
our conceptions1 in order to adapt  his 
narrative to the mental feebleness of   
our present condition4#acj    ,with the 
truth or falsehood of these views we are
 not concerned just  now4 ,we have dwelt
 upon them rather from an honest desire 
of showing  that ,saint ,augustine is   
not so clearly on our side in this      
question1  as might be supposed from    
some isolated passages of his writings4 
,he  says indeed that the world was     
created before light1 and before the    
beginning of the ,first ,day2 but then  
again he tells us that this is  only a  
way of speaking1 and that1 in reality1  
all things were created  together4      
,but although these high authorities--,a
 ,lapide1 ,tostatus1 ,saint             

,augustine--and some others less        
illustrious than these1 are unfavorable 
to our interpretation1 we think it is   
supported by a preponderance of  the    
best interpreters1 both in ancient and  
modern times4 ,at all events1  with such
 an array of venerable names as we have 
been able to bring  forward in its      
behalf1--and they are but a few chosen  
out of many1--no  one can deny that we  
are fairly entitled to hold it without  
any note of  censure1 without any       
suspicion of ,theological error4        
,setting out1 then1  from this point1   
that there was a state of created       
existence prior to  the ,six ,days of   
the ,mosaic history1 the question       
naturally arises1 how  long did that    
state of existence endure8 ,was it for  
an hour8 a day8  a week8 a month8 a     
century8 a million of years8 ,we cannot 
tell4 ,to  these questions the ,sacred  
,text gives no reply4 ,it simply records
 that  in the beginning ,god created the
 ,heavens and the ,earth1 and that1 at  

some subsequent epoch of time1 ,his     
decree again went forth1 ,let there  be 
light1 and light there was4 ,one thing1 
however1 is plain1 that1 if  this period
 existed at all1 it might just as well  
have lasted a hundred  millions of years
 as a hundred seconds4 ,it would be     
folly to attempt to  measure the        
succession of ,god's acts1 when he does 
please to produce  effects in           
succession1 according to our petty      
standards of time4 8,one  day with the  
,lord is as a thousand years1 and a     
thousand years as one  day40#aca    ,and
 it is not a little remarkable that1    
long before the discoveries of  ,geology
 had suggested any necessity for        
allowing the lapse of many ages  between
 the first creation of the world and the
 creation of man1 the  sagacity of our  
commentators led them to observe that   
the duration of  this interval is left  
undefined in the ,sacred ,record4 8,how 
long that  interval may have lasted10   
says ,petavius1 8it is absolutely       

impossible  to conjecture40 ,and        
,perrerius1 as we have seen1 declared   
that it  could not be known except by a 
special revelation4 ,and five centuries 
earlier1 at the very dawn of ,scholastic
 ,theology1 ,hugh of ,saint ,victor     
raised the same question1 and expressed 
his opinion that it could not  be solved
 from ,scripture4 ,citing the passage1  
,in the beginning ,god  created the     
,heavens and the ,earth1 he says1 8,from
 these words it is  plain that in the   
beginning of time1 or rather with time  
itself1 the  original matter of all     
things came into existence4 ,but how    
long it  remained in this confused and  
unshapely condition the ,scripture      
clearly  does not tell us40#acb    ,we  
may go further still4 ,if we are at     
liberty to admit an interval of         
indefinite length between the creation  
of the world and the work of the  ,six  
,days1 there is certainly nothing which 
forbids us to suppose that1  during this
 period1 the earth should have undergone

 many revolutions1  and have been       
peopled by countless tribes of plants   
and animals1 which1  as age rolled on   
after age1 came into existence1 and died
 out1 and  were succeeded by new        
creations4 ,we cannot1 perhaps1 see the 
use of  all this1 nor can we penetrate  
the motives the ,great ,creator might   
have had in bringing into existence such
 a boundless profusion of  organic life4
 ,granted3 but then we have studied the 
,sacred ,text to  little purpose if we  
have not yet realized the solemn truth  
that1 to  our poor and feeble           
intellects1 ,his judgments are          
incomprehensible1  and his ways         
unsearchable4 ,did ,he not set ,his     
stars in the remotest  regions of space1
 far beyond the reach of unaided human  
vision1 and did  they not shine there   
for ages1 though man could see them not8
 ,and for  ages1 too1 did not the wild  
flowers spring up1 and bloom1 and decay1
 in  many a fair and favored spot of    
this beautiful ,earth1 where there was  

none to admire their splendor1 none to  
inhale their sweetness8 ,then  again1   
look at that marvellous kingdom of      
minute animalcules1 in number  almost   
infinite1 which only within the last few
 years the microscope  has revealed to  
our wondering eyes4 ,they swarm around  
us in the air1  in the earth1 in the    
water4 ,millions of them would fit in   
the hollow  of your hand2 many hundreds 
might swim side by side1 without        
crowding1  through the eye of a cambric 
needle4 ,and they too1 we can hardly    
doubt1  must have flourished for        
centuries in countless myriads1 unseen  
and  unknown by man4 ,it is impossible  
for us1 in our present imperfect  state1
 to understand the motives of an        
,all-wise ,creator in this profuse      
expenditure of his goodness1 this lavish
 display of ,his power4 ,how  then can  
we presume to say that ,he may not have 
good reasons1 though  inscrutable to us1
 for peopling this ,earth with many     
tribes of plants  and animals1 through a

 long cycle of ages1 before it pleased  
,him to fit  it up for the habitation of
 man8 8,who is he among men that can    
know  the counsel of ,god8 or who can   
find out ,his designs8 ,for the         
judgments  of mortal men are hesitating1
 and uncertain are our thoughts4 ,for   
the  corruptible body is a load upon the
 soul1 and the earthly dwelling         
presseth down the mind that museth upon 
many things4 ,and hardly do we  guess   
aright at things that are upon earth3   
and with labor do we find  the things   
that are before us4 ,but the things that
 are in heaven who  shall search        
out80#acc    ,we have heard it sometimes
 objected that plants and animals could 
not have existed without light2 and that
 light was not created until  the       
beginning of the ,first ,mosaic ,day4   
,many curious and interesting  facts are
 adduced in support of this argument4   
,for example1 we are  reminded that     
certain ,fossil animals belonging to the
 earliest  ,geological ,periods1 are    

shown by the clearest evidence1 to have 
had  eyes constructed on the same       
optical principles1 and accommodated to 
the same optical conditions1 as the eyes
 of those animals that have  flourished 
on the ,earth during the period of      
history3 and such eyes1  it is          
contended1 plainly import the existence 
of light4 ,the answer to  this objection
 may be stated in a very few words4 ,we 
freely admit that  the hypothesis we    
have been defending would be of little  
use to account  for ,geological         
phenomena1 if it did not include the    
existence of light1  during that ,period
 of indefinite duration which we suppose
 to have  elapsed between the first     
creation of the world and the work of   
the ,six  ,days4 ,but in truth there is 
no difficulty in supposing that1 during 
such an interval1 light may have        
prevailed upon the earth1 and air1 and  
all the other conditions of organic     
life1 pretty much as they do at  the    
present day4 ,afterward1 at the close of

 the period1 when1 perhaps1  ages       
innumerable had rolled by1 this planet  
of ours would have appeared  in that    
condition which is described in the     
second verse of ,genesis3  8,and the    
earth was waste and empty1 and darkness 
was upon the face of  the deep40 ,then  
the command of ,god would have gone     
forth1 8,let there  be light30 and at   
once the darkness would have been       
dispelled1 a new  era of existence would
 have commenced1 and the ,earth would   
forthwith  have been set in order and   
furnished1 in a special manner1 for the 
habitation of man4    ,even as regards  
the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 they too   
may have existed  before the work of the
 ,six ,days began4 ,we read1 no doubt1  
that on the  ,fourth ,day1 ,god said1   
8,let there be lights in the firmament  
of the  heavens to divide the day from  
the night30 and a little farther on it  
is added that 8,god made two great      
lights2 the greater light to rule the   
day1 and the lesser light to rule the   

night2 and the stars40 ,but then  it    
must be remembered that some of our best
 ,commentators1 without any  reference  
to ,geology1 have taught that1 before   
this command was given1  the heavenly   
bodies were already in existence for    
three days1 and were  already           
discharging the office of dividing day  
and night4 ,they explain  the passage by
 saying that the ,sun1 ,moon1 and       
,stars1 are represented  as having been 
made on the ,fourth ,day1 not because   
they were then  produced for the first  
time out of nothing1 but because the    
vapors by  which they had been obscured 
were1 on that ,day1 dissipated1 and they
  began to shine visibly in the         
,firmament of ,heaven4 ,if this line of 
interpretation is admissible1 and it    
seems to us not unreasonable1  then we  
are certainly at liberty to hold1       
consistently with the ,mosaic           
narrative1 that the ,heavenly bodies may
 have been created with the  ,heavens   
and the ,earth in the beginning of all  

time2 and that on the  ,fourth ,day they
 were made manifest in the ,firmament to
 rule over the  day and the night1 and  
to regulate the course of the years and 
the  seasons4#acd    ,again it is urged 
against our hypothesis that ,moses could
 not have  passed over in complete      
silence such a long and eventful era in 
the  history of the world4 ,certainly   
not1 we admit1 if he professed to  write
 a complete history of the ,earth and   
all its revolutions4 ,but  this was not 
his purpose4 ,every book1 whether sacred
 or profane1 must  be examined and      
interpreted according to the end for    
which it was  designed4 ,now the end and
 scope of the ,book of ,genesis was not 
to  instruct mankind about the movements
 of the heavenly bodies1 or the         
physical changes of the ,earth's        
surface1 or the laws which govern the   
material universe4 ,it was1 first of    
all1 to impress on the minds of  the    
,jewish people that this world of ours  
is the work of one only ,god1  distinct 

from all creatures1 and ,himself the    
,creator of sun1 moon1  and stars1 and  
of every other object which pagan       
nations were wont to  worship3 and in   
the next place1 to set forth1 briefly   
and simply1 the  story of ,god's        
dealings with man in the first ages of  
the human race4  ,whatever we may hold1 
therefore1 about the revolutions and    
changes of  the ,earth's surface        
previous to the work of the ,six ,days1 
it is plain  that the history of these  
phenomena did not appertain to the      
object  which the ,sacred writer had in 
view4 ,consequently he cannot be said1  
by  the omission of these events1 to    
lead his readers into error2 he simply  
allows them to remain in ignorance4     
,what it was his purpose to tell1  he   
tells truly3 what did not belong to his 
purpose1 he passes by in  silence4      
,but it is further argued that this long
 interval of time we have  been         
contending for1 is incompatible with the
 use of the copulative  conjunction1 by 

which the several clauses of the        
narrative are  connected together4 ,the 
,sacred text runs thus3--8,in the       
beginning ,god  created the ,heavens and
 the ,earth4 ,and the ,earth was waste  
and empty3  and darkness was upon the   
face of the deep2 and the spirit of ,god
 moved  upon the face of the waters4    
,and ,god said1 ,let there be light2 and
  there was light40 ,is it possible1 we 
are asked1 to admit a period of         
indefinite length between events thus   
closely linked together8 ,our  answer is
 that1 according to the idiom of the    
,hebrew language1 the  conjunction  or  
7ve or va71 which is here employed1     
while it  serves to connect together the
 clauses of a narrative1 does not of    
necessity imply the immediate succession
 of the events recorded4 ,the  very wide
 and indefinite signification which     
belongs to this little  particle is well
 known to all who are familiar with the 
,hebrew text4 ,it  is sometimes         
copulative1 sometimes adversative1      

sometimes disjunctive1  sometimes       
causal4 ,very frequently it is used     
simply for the purpose of  continuing   
the discourse2#ace and this we believe  
is the true force  of the word in the   
passage under discussion4    ,an example
 very much to the point occurs in the   
,book of ,numbers1  twentieth chapter   
and first verse3--8,and the children of 
,israel1 the  whole congregation came   
into the desert of ,sin40 ,here the     
narrative  opens with the connecting    
particle     --34 ,and  yet the reader  
will find1 if he carefully examine the  
passage1 that  the event thus introduced
 by the sacred writer was separated by a
  period of eight-and-thirty years from 
those which had been related in  the    
preceding chapter4 ,this conjunction1   
therefore1 does not exclude  an interval
 of eight-and-thirty years between the  
events which it  links together in      
history4 ,and that being so1 there is no
 good reason  for supposing that it     
should1 of necessity1 exclude an        

interval of  indefinite length4    ,the 
,weakness of this objection may be made 
even more strikingly  manifest by an    
inspection of the opening words in the  
first chapter  of ,ezechiel3--  4 ,so   
little did the notion prevail that  the 
conjunction  7ve7 could be used only to 
connect together events  closely        
associated in point of time1 that here  
it actually begins the  narrative1 and  
is1 in fact1 the first word of the whole
 book4 ,in the  ,douay version the      
passage is not inaptly rendered after   
this manner3  8,now it came to pass in  
the thirtieth year1 in the fourth month1
 on the  fifth day of the month1 when ,i
 was in the midst of the captives by the
  ,river ,chobar1 the heavens were      
opened1 and ,i saw the visions of ,god40
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,we have now brought to a  
conclusion the first part of our        
inquiry4  ,we have endeavored to show   
that there is nothing in ,scripture or  
,tradition which forbids us to admit a  

long interval of time between  the      
,creation of the world and the work of  
the ,six ,days4 ,it remains to  examine 
what was the nature of these ,six ,days 
themselves4 ,were they1 as  ,saint      
,augustine maintained1 one single       
indivisible instant of time8 or  were   
they days of twenty-four hours1 as is   
more commonly supposed8 or  were they   
simply periods of time of which the     
duration is left wholly  undetermined in
 the ,sacred ,text8    ,illustration    
,illustration          ,,chapter ,,xx4  
,,second ,,hypothesis2--,,the ,,days    
,,of ,,creation ,,long ,,periods ,,of   
,,time4        ,diversity of opinion    
among the early fathers regarding the   
days of creation--,saint ,augustine1    
,philo ,judus1 ,clement      of         
,alexandria1 ,origen1 ,saint            
,athanasius1 ,saint ,eucherius1         
,procopius--,albertus ,magnus1 ,saint   
,thomas1 ,cardinal                      
,cajetan--,inference from these         
testimonies--,first argument in         

favor of the popular interpretation2 a  
day1 in the literal      sense1 means a 
period of twenty-four                   
hours--,answer--,this word      often   
used in ,scripture for an indefinite    
period--,examples      from the ,old and
 ,new ,testament--,second argument2 the 
days of      creation have an evening   
and a morning--,answer--,interpretation 
of ,saint ,augustine1 ,venerable ,bede1 
and other fathers of the                
church--,third argument2 the reason     
alleged for the institution      of the 
,sabbath-day--,answer--,the law of the  
,sabbath extended to      every seventh 
year as well as to every seventh        
day--,the seventh      day of ,god's    
rest a long period of indefinite        
duration4      ,no one who will take the
 trouble to investigate1 with any       
reasonable  diligence and research1 the 
nature of the ,mosaic ,days1 can fail to
 be  struck with the remarkable         
diversity of opinion that existed on the
  subject among the early ,fathers of   

the ,church4 ,yet this diversity of     
opinion is often overlooked by modern   
writers4 ,they fancy that the  meaning  
of the word ,day is so plain as to leave
 no room for doubt  or controversy2 that
 a day can be nothing else than a period
 of  twenty-four hours1 marked by the   
succession of light and darkness2 and   
that in this sense the ,mosaic narrative
 was universally understood  until quite
 recently1 when a new explanation was   
invented1 to meet the  requirements of  
modern science4 ,all this is far from   
true4 ,the meaning  of the ,mosaic ,days
 has been1 in point of fact1 a subject  
of controversy  from the earliest times4
 ,and ,saint ,augustine tells us that   
the question  appeared to him so        
difficult that he could pronounce no    
decisive  judgment upon it4 8,as to     
these ,days10 he says1 8what kind they  
were1 it  is very difficult1 nay1 it is 
impossible to imagine1 and much more so 
to explain40#acf    ,nevertheless1 this 
great ,doctor1 having long pondered over

 the subject1  and considered it on many
 sides1 does not hesitate to express his
 own  opinion4 ,and he departs very     
widely1 indeed1 from the literal and    
obvious interpretation4 ,he maintains1  
at great length1#acg as we had  before  
occasion to observe1 that ,god created  
all things in a single  instant of time1
 according to the words of              
,ecclesiasticus1 8,he who  liveth       
forever created all things at once40#ach
 ,thus he is led to  infer that the ,six
 ,days commemorated by ,moses were1 in  
reality1 but one  day2 and this not such
 a day as those which are now measured  
by the  revolution of the sun1 for we   
find three successive days recorded by  
,moses before the sun appeared in the   
,heavens4 ,it was1 in fact1 nothing     
else than that one single instant of    
time in which all things were  created  
together4#aci    ,nor was this opinion  
peculiar to ,saint ,augustine4 ,at the  
very dawn of  the ,christian ,era it was
 set forth by ,philo the ,jew2 and      

afterward it  was maintained by ,clement
 of ,alexandria1 and by ,origen4 ,the   
great ,saint  ,athanasius seems to throw
 the weight of his authority in the same
  direction1 when he says1 speaking of  
the ,creation1 that 8no one thing  was  
made before another1 but all things were
 produced at once together  by the      
self-same command40 ,and after the time 
of ,saint ,augustine this  figurative   
interpretation was defended by ,saint   
,eucherius1 ,bishop  of ,lyons1 in the  
course of the fifth century1 and by     
,procopius of  ,gaza in the sixth4 ,in  
the days of the schools we find it      
approved by  ,albertus ,magnus1 and     
treated respectfully by ,saint ,thomas2 
and later  still1 adopted by ,cardinal  
,cajetan1 in his commentary on the ,book
 of  ,genesis4#adj    ,it will be said1 
perhaps1 that we are here arguing       
against ourselves3  these eminent       
writers are in favor of reducing the    
days of ,creation to  one single point  
of time2 whereas it is our purpose to   

stretch them  out to periods of         
indefinite length4 ,but no3 our object  
just now is  not precisely to establish 
our own hypothesis1 but rather to       
prepare  the way for its discussion4 ,we
 want to show that we are quite free to 
abandon the popular view of the ,mosaic 
,days if there be good reason for  our  
doing so4 ,and it seems to us that we   
have abundantly established  this point 
by a long list of eminent ecclesiastical
 writers1 who1  without any note of     
censure1 have diverged very widely from 
the common  interpretation4 ,no doubt   
they have shortened the time1 and we    
want to  lengthen it4 ,but in this they 
agree with us1 that the days of         
,creation  are not of necessity days in 
the ordinary sense of the word4 ,nay1   
,saint  ,augustine goes farther1 and    
maintains1 from the evidence of the     
,sacred  ,text itself1 that they cannot 
be understood in this sense4#ada        
,having thus cleared away a serious     
difficulty that seemed to obstruct  our 

path1 we may proceed without hesitation 
to the direct object of  our inquiry4   
,the burden of proof1 let it be         
remembered1 is not with  us1 but rather 
with those who contend for ,days of     
twenty-four hours4  ,they must prove    
that this word ,day in the first chapter
 of ,genesis  means a period of         
twenty-four hours1 and can mean nothing 
else4 ,if it  may be understood in a    
wider sense1 consistently with the usage
 of  ,scripture1 that is quite enough   
for us4 ,we are perfectly at liberty to 
adopt an interpretation which1 on the   
one hand1 the ,sacred ,text fairly      
admits1 and on the other1 the           
discoveries of ,natural ,science would  
seem  to demand4 ,let us examine1 then1 
the arguments that are usually adduced  
in favor of the popular interpretation4 
,throughout the first chapter of        
,genesis the ,hebrew word  7yom7  is    
everywhere employed by ,moses to        
designate the ,days of ,creation4  ,and 
many writers contend that the use of    

this word is1 in itself1  evidence      
enough that he spoke of days in the     
common sense of the term4  ,it is plain1
 they say1 from the usage of ,scripture1
 that the word   7yom7 had a fixed and  
certain meaning in the ,hebrew language2
 the  same precisely as that which we   
now attach to the ,english word ,day4   
,sometimes1 when contra-distinguished   
from night1 it was applied to  the      
period of light1 from sunrise to sunset2
 otherwise1 it meant the  civil day of  
twenty-four hours1 measured by the      
revolution of the ,sun4  ,moreover1 it  
had unquestionably attained this meaning
 at the time when  ,moses wrote1 and    
therefore it could not have been        
employed by him in  any other sense4    
,this argument rests upon a false       
foundation4 ,it is true1 no doubt1  that
 the word  7yom7 was more usually       
employed in one or other  of the two    
senses just explained2--that is to say1 
7#a7 for the period  of light from      
sunrise to sunset1 or 7#b7 for the      

period of twenty-four  hours            
corresponding to a complete revolution  
of the ,sun4 ,but1 for the  validity of 
the argument1 it would be necessary to  
show that1 beside  these two senses1    
there is no other in which the word may 
be fairly  understood1 conformably to   
the usage of the ,hebrew language4 ,now 
this  has never yet been proved4 ,on the
 contrary1 the ,scripture affords       
abundant evidence that the word  7yom7  
had a third meaning quite  different    
from the other two2 that it was freely  
used to designate  a period of time much
 longer than a common day1 and generally
 of  uncertain and indefinite duration4 
,a few examples will be interesting1  we
 hope1 to our readers4    ,in the second
 chapter of ,genesis1 ,moses1 having    
completed his account  of the ,creation1
 says 7v4 #d73 8,these are the          
generations of the ,heavens  and the    
,earth when they were created1 in the   
,day 1 7yom7 that  the ,lord ,god       
created the ,earth and the ,heavens3 7v4

 #e71 and every  plant of the field     
before it was in the earth1 and every   
herb of the  field before it grew40     
,there is a good deal of controversy    
about the  precise meaning of this      
passage4 ,but one thing at least appears
 to be  plain1 that the word  7yom71 is 
not used to designate a day of          
twenty-four hours2 nor yet the period of
 light from sunrise to sunset2  but     
rather the whole period of the          
,creation4    ,on this point almost all 
our best commentators are agreed4 8,it  
is  manifest10 says ,venerable ,bede1   
8that in this place the sacred writer   
has put the word ,day for all that time 
during which the primeval  creation was 
brought into existence4 ,for it was not 
upon any one of  the ,six ,days that the
 sky was made and adorned with stars1   
and the  dry land was separated from the
 waters1 and furnished with trees and   
plants4 ,but1 according to its          
accustomed practice1 ,scripture here    
uses the word day in the sense of time40

 ,saint ,augustine gives even a  wider  
expansion to the word when he writes3   
8,seven ,days are enumerated  above1 and
 now that is called one ,day in which   
,god made the ,heavens  and the ,earth1 
and every green thing of the field2 by  
which term we  may well suppose that all
 time is meant4 ,for ,god then made all 
time  when ,he made creatures that live 
in time2 and these creatures are  here  
signified by the ,heavens and the       
,earth40 ,molina on the same  passage   
says3 8,learned writers tell us commonly
 that ,moses in this  place puts the    
word ,day in the sense of ,time1 just as
 in the passage  of ,deuteronomy1 #8,the
 day of perdition is at hand4'444 ,and  
elsewhere in  ,scripture ,day is often  
used for ,time40 ,bannez1 too1 concurs  
in this  opinion4 8,the word ,day10 he  
says1 8can be understood for any        
duration  whatsoever40 ,perrerius1      
answering an objection taken from this  
text1  says that 8,day is put for ,time1
 as is frequently done in ,scripture40  

,and ,petavius not only adopts this     
interpretation1 but contends that it  is
 conformable to the usage even of the   
,greek and ,latin writers4 ,he  gives an
 example from ,cicero against ,verres3  
8,itaque cum ego diem in  ,siciliam     
perexiguam postulavissem1 invenit iste  
qui sibi in ,achaiam  biduo breviorem   
diem postularet40#adb ,here1 then1 is an
 instance in  which ,moses himself uses 
the word ,day 71 yom7 not in the        
ordinary  sense1 but for a long period  
of time2--for all that time1 whatever it
  may have been1 which elapsed from the 
first act of creation to the  close of  
the ,six ,days4    ,another striking    
example occurs in the prophet ,amos4    
8,behold1 the days  are coming1 saith   
the ,lord ,god1 and ,i will send forth a
 famine into  the land3 not a famine of 
bread1 nor a thirst of water1 but of    
hearing  the word of the ,lord4 ,and    
they shall wander from sea to sea and   
from  the north to the east2 they shall 
go about seeking the word of the  ,lord1

 and shall not find it4 ,in that day 71 
yom7 shall the fair  virgins and the    
young men faint for thirst40#adc ,every 
one will see  at a glance that the word 
,day in the latter part of this passage 
does  not mean a day of twenty-four     
hours4 ,it evidently refers to the whole
  period during which the calamities    
here foretold were to be inflicted  on  
the ,jewish people4 ,what that period   
was may be a question of  dispute4 ,by  
some it is taken for the time of the    
,babylonian captivity2  by others1 for  
the present age of the world1 in which  
the ,jews are  wanderers on the face of 
the earth1 without a prophet and without
 a  pastor1 thirsting for the word of   
,god1 and seeking it in vain4 ,but1 in  
any case1 it is clear from the opening  
words3 8,behold1 the days are  coming10 
that it was a period not of one day     
only1 but of many4    ,then we have     
those well known words addressed by ,god
 the ,father to ,his  ,eternal ,son3    
8,thou art my ,son1 this day 71 yom7    

have ,i begotten  thee40#add ,the ,son  
of ,god was begotten of the ,father     
before all ages2  and the day1          
therefore1 on which he was begotten1    
cannot be a common  day of twenty-four  
hours1 but must rather be the long day  
of ,eternity1  without beginning and    
without end4    ,this text1 we know1 is 
sometimes applied to the day of our     
,lord's  ,resurrection2 and sometimes1  
too1 to the day of ,his ,incarnation3   
nor do we want to deny that it may be   
thus rightly explained in a  secondary  
and mystical sense4 ,but in its literal 
sense we think it  plainly refers to the
 ,eternal ,generation of the ,son4 ,this
 meaning is  sufficiently implied by the
 word begotten1 which cannot be         
understood  with propriety1 except of   
that ,generation by virtue of which our 
,divine  ,lord was from ,eternity the   
natural ,son of ,god4 ,moreover1 this is
 the  sense in which the passage is     
adopted by ,saint ,paul in his ,epistle 
to  the ,hebrews4 ,wishing to show that 

,our ,lord has received by inheritance  
a name more excellent than any given to 
the ,angels1 he argues thus3  8,for to  
which of the ,angels hath he said at any
 time1 ,thou art my ,son1  this day have
 ,i begotten thee80#ade ,now it seems to
 us that1 unless  we understand these   
words of the ,eternal ,generation1 the  
point of  the ,apostle's argument is    
completely lost4 ,the ,angels are       
sometimes  called in ,scripture the sons
 of ,god2 but they were only the adopted
  sons1 whereas ,our ,lord was the      
natural ,son in virtue of ,his ,eternal 
,generation4 ,consequently it was no    
other than the ,eternal ,generation     
which made the name of ,son more        
excellent when applied to ,christ than  
the same name when applied to the       
angels4    ,again1 it is quite a common 
thing1 with the prophets generally1 to  
use  the word 71 yom7 for the season of 
tribulation and affliction1  though the 
same may have extended over a period of 
many days or even  many years4 ,jeremias

 employs it in this sense when he       
describes so  vividly the manifold      
calamities that were impending over the 
ill-fated  ,babylon4 8,i have caused    
thee to fall into a snare1 and thou art 
taken1  ,o ,babylon1 and thou wast not  
aware of it3 thou art found and caught  
because thou hast provoked the ,lord4   
,the ,lord hath opened ,his armory1  and
 hath brought forth the weapons of his  
wrath3 for the ,lord the ,god  of hosts 
hath a work to be done in the land of   
the ,chaldeans4 ,come ye  against her   
from the uttermost borders3 open1 that  
they may go forth  that shall tread her 
down3 take the stones out of the way1   
and make  heaps1 and destroy her3 and   
let nothing of her be left4 ,destroy all
  her valiant men1 let them go down to  
the slaughter3 woe to them1 for  their  
day 71 yom7 is come1 the time of their  
visitation4 ,the  voice of them that    
flee1 and of them that have escaped out 
of the  land of ,babylon3 to declare in 
,sion the revenge of the ,lord our ,god1

  the revenge of ,his temple4 ,declare  
to many against ,babylon1 to all  that  
bend the bow3 stand together against her
 round about1 and let  none escape2 pay 
her according to her work3 according to 
all that she  hath done1 do ye to her3  
for she hath lifted up herself against  
the  ,lord1 against the ,holy ,one of   
,israel4 ,therefore shall her young men 
fall in her streets3 and all her men of 
war shall hold their peace in  that day 
71 yom71 saith the ,lord4 ,behold ,i    
come against thee1  ,o proud one1 saith 
the ,lord the ,god of hosts3 for the day
 71  yom7 is come1 the time of thy      
visitation4 ,and the proud one shall    
fall1 he shall fall down1 and there     
shall be none to lift him up3 and  ,i   
will kindle afire in his cities1 and it 
shall devour all round about  him40#adf 
,and in the following chapter3--8,thus  
saith the ,lord3 ,behold1  ,i will raise
 up as it were a pestilential wind      
against ,babylon1 and  against the      
inhabitants thereof who have lifted up  

their heart against  me4 ,and ,i will   
send to ,babylon fanners1 and they shall
 fan her1 and  shall destroy her land3  
for they are come upon her on every side
 in the  day 71 yom7 of her             
affliction40#adg    ,in another place   
the same prophet applies the word  7yom7
 to the  whole duration of a long       
campaign carried on by ,nabuchodonosor  
against  ,pharao ,nechao1 king of       
,egypt4 8,prepare ye the shield and     
buckler1 and  go forth to battle4       
,harness the horses1 and get up1 ye     
horsemen3 stand  forth with helmets1    
furbish the spears1 put on coats of     
mail4 ,what  then8 ,i have seen them    
dismayed1 and turning their backs1 their
 valiant  ones slain3 they fled apace1  
they looked not back3 terror was round  
about1 saith the ,lord4 ,let not the    
swift flee away1 nor the strong  think  
to escape3 they are overthrown and      
fallen down1 toward the north  by the   
river ,euphrates4 ,who is this that     
cometh up as a flood3 and  his streams  

swell like those of rivers8 ,egypt      
riseth up like a flood1  and the waves  
thereof shall be moved as rivers1 and he
 shall say3 ,i  will go up and will     
cover the earth3 ,i will destroy the    
city and its  inhabitants4 ,get ye up on
 horses1 and glory in chariots1 and let 
the  valiant men come forth1 the        
,ethiopians and the ,lybians1 that      
handle the  shield1 and the ,lydians    
that handle and bend the bow4 ,for this 
is the  day 71 yom7 of the ,lord the    
,god of hosts1 a day of vengeance  that 
,he may revenge ,himself of ,his        
enemies3 the sword shall devour1  and   
shall be filled1 and shall be drunk with
 their blood3 for there  is a sacrifice 
of the ,lord ,god of hosts in the north 
country1 by the  river ,euphrates4444   
,furnish thyself to go into captivity1  
thou daughter  inhabitant of ,egypt3 for
 ,memphis shall be made desolate1 and   
shall be  forsaken and uninhabited4     
,egypt is like a fair and beautiful     
heifer3  there shall come from the north

 one that shall goad her4 ,her hirelings
  also that lived in the midst of her1  
like fatted calves are turned  back1 and
 are fled away together1 and they could 
not stand3 for the  day71 yom7 of their 
slaughter is come upon them1 the time of
  their visitation40#adh    ,the prophet
 ,ezechiel1 too1 furnishes a forcible   
illustration when  he thus foreshadows  
the course of a second expedition       
against ,egypt  undertaken by the same  
prince3-- 8,therefore thus saith the    
,lord ,god3  ,behold ,i will set        
,nabuchodonosor the king of ,babylon in 
the land of  ,egypt3 and he shall take  
her multitude1 and take the booty       
thereof for  a prey1 and rifle the      
spoils thereof3 and it shall be wages   
for his  army2 and for the service he   
hath done me against it3 ,i have given  
him the land of ,egypt1 because he hath 
labored for me1 saith the ,lord  ,god4  
,in that day 71 yom7 a horn shall bud   
forth for the house  of ,israel1 and ,i 
will give thee an open mouth in the     

midst of them3  and they shall know that
 ,i am the ,lord40#adi ,and a little    
further  on3--8,for the day 71 yom7 is  
near1 yea the day of the ,lord  is near3
 a cloudy day1 it shall be the time of  
the nations4 ,and  the sword shall come 
upon ,egypt3 and there shall be dread in
 ,ethiopia1  when the wounded shall fall
 in ,egypt1 and the multitude thereof   
shall  be taken away1 and the           
foundations thereof shall be destroyed4 
,ethiopia  and ,lybia1 and ,lydia1 and  
all the rest of the crowd1 and ,chub1   
and  the children of the land of the    
covenant1 shall fall with them by the   
sword4444 ,and they shall know that ,i  
am the ,lord3 when ,i shall have  set a 
fire in ,egypt1 and all the helpers     
thereof shall be destroyed4  ,in that   
day 71 yom71 shall messengers go forth  
from my face in  ships to destroy the   
confidence of ,ethiopia1 and there shall
 be dread  among them in that day 71    
yom7 of ,egypt3 because it shall        
certainly come40#aej    ,once more1 this

 word is applied to the period of ,our  
,lord's life  upon earth1 and even to   
the whole duration of the ,christian    
,church4  ,sophonias1 for example1 thus 
foretells the coming of the kingdom  of 
,christ4 8,wherefore expect me1 saith   
the ,lord1 in the day of my             
resurrection that is to come1 for my    
judgment is to assemble the  ,gentiles1 
and to gather the kingdoms4444 ,from    
beyond the rivers of  ,ethiopia shall my
 suppliants1 the children of my         
dispersed people1  bring me an offering4
 ,in that day 71 yom7 thou shalt not be 
ashamed for all thy doings1 wherein thou
 hast transgressed against me3  for then
 ,i will take away out of the midst of  
thee thy proud boasters1  and thou shalt
 no more be lifted up because of my holy
 mountain4444  ,give praise1 ,o daughter
 of ,sion3 shout1 ,o ,israel3 be glad   
and rejoice  with all thy heart1 ,o     
daughter of ,jerusalem4 ,the ,lord hath 
taken away  thy judgment1 he hath turned
 away thy enemies3 the ,king of ,israel 

the  ,lord is in the midst of thee1 thou
 shalt fear evil no more4 ,in that  day 
71 yom7 it shall be said to ,jerusalem3 
,fear not2 to ,sion3  ,let not thy hands
 be weakened4 ,the ,lord thy ,god in the
 midst of thee is  mighty1 ,he will     
save3 ,he will rejoice over thee with   
gladness1 ,he will  be silent in ,his   
love1 ,he will be joyful over thee in   
praise40#aea    ,and ,isaias3 8,is it   
not yet a very little while1 and        
,libanon shall be  turned into a        
charmel1 and charmel shall be esteemed  
as a forest8 ,and  in that day 71 yom7  
the deaf shall hear the words of the    
book1  and out of darkness and obscurity
 the eyes of the blind shall see4 ,and  
the meek shall increase their joy in the
 ,lord1 and the poor men shall  rejoice 
in the ,holy ,one of ,israel40#aeb ,that
 this passage refers to  the time of the
 ,christian ,church there can be no     
doubt2 for our ,lord  himself appeals to
 it in proof of ,his divine mission3    
8,go and relate to  ,john what you have 

heard and seen4 ,the blind see1 the lame
 walk1 the  lepers are cleansed1 the    
deaf hear1 the dead rise again1 the poor
 have  the ,gospel preached to          
them40#aec    ,we may trace this use of 
the word even in the ,new ,testament4   
,our ,lord  says1 arguing with the      
,jews3 8,abraham your father rejoiced   
that he  might see my day3 he saw it and
 was glad40#aed ,saint ,paul1 too1      
though writing in the ,greek language to
 the ,corinthians1 does not  hesitate to
 adopt a passage from ,isaias1 in which 
the same meaning is  conspicuously      
brought out3 8,and we helping do exhort 
you1 that you  receive not the grace of 
,god in vain4 ,for he saith3 ,in an     
accepted  time have ,i heard thee1 and  
in the day of salvation have ,i helped  
thee4 ,behold1 now is the acceptable    
time3 behold1 now is the day of         
salvation40#aee ,and finally1 ,our      
,divine ,lord1 in ,his last touching    
address to the city of ,jerusalem1      
applies the word day to the season  of  

grace and mercy3 8,when he drew near1   
seeing the city1 ,he wept over  it1     
saying3 ,if thou also hadst known1 and  
that in this thy day1  the things that  
are to thy peace3 but now they are      
hidden from thy  eyes4 ,for the days    
shall come upon thee2 and thy enemies   
shall cast a  trench about thee1 and    
compass thee round1 and straiten thee on
 every  side40#aef    ,so much1 then1   
for the first argument4 ,from the       
numerous examples we  have given it is  
plain enough that the word word  7yom71 
in  ,scripture language1 was often used 
for a period of many days1 and even     
many years2 nay sometimes for a period  
of many centuries4 ,if so1 ,moses  was  
free to use it in this sense4 ,and      
consequently1 as far as the word  itself
 is concerned1 it affords no conclusive 
proof that the ,days  of ,creation were 
days of twenty-four hours only3 we may  
hold them to  belong and indefinite     
periods of time1 without departing in   
any degree  from the established usage  

of ,scripture4    ,but it is urged--and 
this is the second argument1--that1     
whatever  may be the meaning of the word
 word  7yom7 elsewhere1 in the  first   
chapter of ,genesis it must mean a day  
of twenty-four hours4 ,for  we are not  
merely told that there was a ,first     
,day1 and a ,second ,day1  and a ,third 
,day2 but each day is in a manner       
analyzed by the sacred  writer1 and its 
component parts set forth for our       
instruction4 ,there  was evening and    
there was morning1 he says1 the ,first  
,day2 there  was evening and there was  
morning the ,second ,day2 there was     
evening  and there was morning the      
,third ,day2 and so on4 ,now if the word
 were  understood of those indefinite   
periods we have been speaking about1    
there would be no meaning in this       
analysis3 for it could hardly be        
maintained that each of those periods   
had but one evening and one  morning    
like an ordinary day4 ,furthermore1 it  
is argued that there is  a peculiar     

appropriateness in this phrase1 which   
goes far to confirm  the common         
interpretation4 ,amongst the ,jews it   
was usual to compute  the civil day from
 sunset to sunset4 ,the civil day began 
then with the  evening4 ,and accordingly
 ,moses1 in describing the ,days of     
,creation1  puts the evening first1 and 
says3 ,there was evening and there was  
morning the ,first ,day2 there was      
evening and there was morning the       
,second ,day2 and so for the rest4      
,all this reasoning seems to us         
unsatisfactory and inconclusive4 ,in    
the first place1 it is not a fact1 as   
would seem to be supposed1 that  the    
civil day is made up of evening and     
morning4 ,the evening and the  morning  
do not make the whole day2 they are only
 certain periods of  the day4 ,neither  
do they mark the limits of the day3 for1
 though it is  quite true that1 in the  
computation of the ,jews1 the civil day 
began  with the evening1 it certainly   
did not end with the morning4 ,if1 then1

  by the word ,day1 ,moses here meant   
the civil day of twenty-four hours1  how
 is this clause to be understood1 ,there
 was evening and there was  morning the 
,first ,day8 ,it cannot mean that the   
evening and the morning  put together   
made up the ,first ,day3 for this is not
 a fact4 ,it cannot  mean that the      
evening marked the beginning of the day1
 and the morning  marked its close3 for 
the period included between the evening 
and the  morning is not the day but the 
night4 ,what does it mean1 then8        
,many writers seem to suppose that the  
evening and the morning are  intended by
 ,moses to designate the night and the  
day2--that is to say1  the whole period 
of darkness and the whole period of     
light1 which  put together make up the  
civil day of twenty-four hours4 ,if the 
text  could be explained in this way1 it
 would fit in1 no doubt1 much more      
appropriately with the theory of        
ordinary days than with the theory of   
indefinite periods4 ,but the text cannot

 be explained in this way4 ,the  evening
 is not the whole period of darkness1   
and the morning is not  the whole period
 of light4 ,no ,english writer could    
say1 with propriety1  that the ,day is  
made up of the evening and the morning4 
,neither could  ,moses have meant to say
 this in the first chapter of ,genesis3 
for the  ,hebrew words  7,ghereb7 and   
7,boker7 which are found in the         
original text1 have a meaning not less  
fixed and definite than the             
corresponding words ,evening and the    
,morning in the ,english language4      
,to prove the truth of this assertion by
 an investigation of all the  passages  
in the ,hebrew ,bible1 in which these   
words are found1 would  be a tedious and
 uninteresting task4 ,but it may be     
easily tested in  another way4 ,if the  
words  7,ghereb7 and  7,boker7 were ever
  used to mean1 not strictly the evening
 and morning1 but the whole  period of  
night and the whole period of day1 this 
fact would surely  have become known in 

the course of time to some of the many  
eminent  and accomplished ,hebrew       
lexicographers4 ,we ask1 then1 is there 
one  ,hebrew lexicon of note which      
assigns the sense of night to the word  
7,ghereb7 and the sense of day to the   
word  7,boker74 ,for  ourselves1 we have
 searched several of the best of them1  
and we have  not found a single one that
 even hints at such an explanation4     
,perhaps1 however1 some of our readers  
might be unwilling to accept  the       
authority of lexicons as conclusive on a
 point of this kind2  seeing that       
lexicons very often represent but       
imperfectly the full  power of a        
language4 ,well1 then1 there is another 
process1 and a  simple one enough1 by   
which they may demonstrate the          
inaccuracy of our  statement1 if        
inaccurate it be4 ,let them produce any 
passage from the  ,hebrew ,bible in     
which the words  7,ghereb7 and  7,boker7
 are  employed to designate the whole   
night and the whole day4 ,if they fail  

to do so1--and as far as we are aware1  
no such passage has yet been            
discovered1--then surely we may fairly  
contend that the interpretation  which  
thus explains the words in the first    
chapter of ,genesis  cannot be regarded 
as certain3 nor can the argument founded
 on that  interpretation be received as 
conclusive4    ,there is a text in the  
eighth chapter of the prophet ,daniel   
which  might1 perhaps1 appear at first  
sight to militate against our opinion4  
,the prophet had a vision in which it   
was foreshadowed that ,antiochus        
,epiphanes should come and prevail      
against the ,jews1 and should profane   
the temple of ,god1 and should abolish  
the daily sacrifice4 ,one of the        
,angels in the vision is heard asking of
 another1 for how long should  the daily
 sacrifice cease1 and the sanctuary     
remain desolate4 ,and  the answer is    
given in these words3 8,unto            
evening-morning 7   1 ghad ghereb boker7
 two thousand three hundred2 then shall 

the  sanctuary be cleansed40#aeg ,now1  
this is commonly understood to mean     
that the daily sacrifice should be      
abolished for two thousand three        
hundred days4 ,and therefore1 it would  
seem that1 in this passage1  the evening
 and morning are used to signify the    
whole civil day of  twenty-four hours4  
,we will not dispute the correctness of 
the interpretation which is here  set   
forth1 although the words of the ,angel 
are explained in a very  different sense
 by many eminent commentators4 ,but we  
think that the  passage1 even when      
understood according to this            
interpretation1 cannot  fairly be       
brought in evidence against us4 ,the    
evening and the morning  do not make up 
the whole day3 but they occur once1 and 
only once1 in  each day4 ,therefore a   
period of many days may be properly     
signified  by noting the recurrence of  
the evening and morning a certain number
  of times4 ,and in point of fact1 a    
usage of this kind seems to prevail  in 

most languages4 ,the common word        
fortnight1 in ,english1 affords a  good 
illustration4 ,it signifies a period of 
fourteen nights and days3  yet it does  
not specify the recurrence of fourteen  
days1 but only the  recurrence of       
fourteen nights4 ,again1 the poet says3 
8,fair was she to behold1 that maiden of
 seventeen summers40    ,nobody would   
argue from these examples that the word 
summer means a  period of twelve months2
 or that the word night means a period  
of  twenty-four hours4 ,and so1 in the  
case before us1 the recurrence of the   
evening and morning two thousand three  
hundred times may be pointed  out to    
mark a period of two thousand three     
hundred days1 although the  evening and 
morning are not the whole day1 but only 
certain parts of  the day4 ,nay1 more2  
we fancy we can see a good reason why   
the ,angel in  the vision should single 
out the evening and the morning for     
special  notice4 ,he had been asked     
about the profanation of the sanctuary1 

and  the abolition of the daily         
sacrifice4 ,now it was in the evening   
and the  morning that the daily         
sacrifice was wont to be offered4 ,and  
the ,angel  seems to answer3 ,the       
evening and the morning shall return two
 thousand  three hundred times2 and     
there shall be no evening and morning   
sacrifice3 but1 after that time1 the    
sanctuary shall be cleansed and         
sacrifice restored4    ,so far we have  
been arguing from the common usage of   
,scripture that  the evening and the    
morning mentioned in the history of the 
,creation  cannot mean the whole night  
and the whole day4 ,but there is a      
special  objection against this         
interpretation from the history of the  
,creation  itself4 ,the fifth verse in  
the first chapter of ,genesis runs thus3
  8,and ,god called the light ,day1 and 
the darkness he called ,night4 ,and     
there was evening and there was morning 
the ,first ,day40 ,in the first         
sentence it is recorded that ,god1      

having divided the light from the       
darkness1 gave to each its proper name3 
,he called the light1 ,day2  and the    
darkness1 ,night4 ,is it not highly     
improbable that1 after  this            
announcement1 the sacred writer would   
himself1 in the very next  sentence1    
employ names altogether different1 if he
 wished to designate  the period of     
light and the period of darkness8    ,we
 are not maintaining that the phrase    
under consideration--8there  was evening
 and there was morning the ,first       
,day0--cannot be explained  on the      
hypothesis that the ,days of ,creation  
were days of twenty-four  hours4 ,but we
 do contend that it affords no          
conclusive proof in favor  of that      
hypothesis2 because even in that        
hypothesis the meaning of  the phrase is
 still doubtful and obscure4 ,for       
ourselves1 we candidly  confess we can  
offer no explanation that seems to us1  
in any system of  interpretation1       
altogether satisfactory4 ,we may be     

allowed1 however1 to  call attention to 
an opinion put forward by ,saint        
,augustine1 which fits  in very         
appropriately with the doctrine that the
 ,days of ,creation were  long periods  
of time4 ,the distinctions of evening   
and morning1 he says1  are not to be    
understood in reference to the rising   
and setting of the  ,sun1 which1 in     
point of fact1 was not created until the
 ,fourth ,day2  but rather in reference 
to the works themselves that are        
recorded to  have been produced4 ,in    
this way the evening will naturally     
represent  the bringing to an end of the
 work that had been accomplished2 and   
the  morning1 on the other hand1 the    
coming in of the work that was to be4   
,this opinion was afterward adopted by  
,saint ,eucherius1 ,bishop of ,lyons1   
who seems almost to borrow the very     
words of ,saint ,augustine2 and also  by
 ,venerable ,bede1 who says3 8,what is  
the evening1 but the completion  of each
 work8 and the morning1 but the         

beginning of the next80 ,in  the twelfth
 century we find it again set forth by  
,saint ,hildegarde1  who was considered 
by ,saint ,bernard1 as well as by ,pope 
,eugenius the  ,third1 to have been     
gifted with the spirit of prophecy4#aeh 
,this  interpretation1 it is true1 does 
not explain the words evening and       
morning according to their literal      
signification3 but then the             
metaphorical sense it ascribes to them  
is both simple and appropriate2  more   
especially if we understand the word    
,day in the sense of a long  and        
indefinite period4 ,as the morning      
literally means the break of day1  and  
the evening its decline1 the ,sacred    
,writer might1 not inaptly1 have        
employed these words to represent       
metaphorically the opening and the      
close of the various works which are    
ascribed to each successive period  in  
the history of the ,creation4    ,it may
 be observed1 moreover1 that this       
explanation seems quite in  accord with 

the etymology of the ,hebrew words      
7,ghereb71 and   7,boker74 ,the latter  
is formed from the root  7,bakar71 to   
lay open1 and used to signify the       
morning1 because in the morning  the    
light of the sun is1 as it were1        
unveiled1 and laid open to  the earth4  
,hence1 the word might be applied with  
much propriety1 in  a metaphorical      
sense1 to the unfolding of the various  
works of ,god1  as each new period was1 
in its turn1 ushered in with a new act  
of  ,creation4 ,on the other hand1      
7,ghereb7 seems to be derived from      
7,gharab71 to mingle1 and has probably  
come to signify the  evening1 as the    
famous ,hebrew scholar1 ,aben ,ezra1    
suggests1 because1  in the uncertain    
light of evening1 the forms of external 
objects  lose their distinctness of     
outline1 and become1 in a manner1       
blended  together4 ,and so this word    
might have been employed1 not unfitly1  
to  represent the close of each period  
in the creation1 which was marked1  as  

,geologists tell us1 by the gradual     
dying out or extinction of the  various 
forms of life peculiar to that period4  
,anyhow1 in following the  opinion of so
 ancient and so venerable an authority  
as ,saint ,augustine1  we cannot be     
charged with unduly straining the       
,sacred ,text to meet the  exigencies of
 modern science4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,the next       
argument is founded on a passage in     
,exodus1 to which we have  already had  
occasion to refer3 8,six days shalt thou
 labor1 and do all  thy work4 ,but the  
seventh day is the ,sabbath of the ,lord
 thy ,god3 thou  shalt do no work on it1
 thou1 nor thy son1 nor thy daughter1   
nor thy  man-servant1 nor thy           
maid-servant1 nor thy beast1 nor the    
stranger  that is within thy gates4 ,for
 in six days the ,lord made the ,heavens
  and the ,earth1 and the sea1 and all  
that in them is1 and rested the  seventh
 day2 therefore the ,lord blessed the   
seventh day and sanctified  it40#aei ,we

 are to work upon six days1 and to rest 
upon the seventh2  because in six days  
,god accomplished all the works of the  
creation1  and rested on the seventh4   
,there can be no mistake as to the      
meaning  of this commandment4 ,the six  
days on which it is lawful to labor are1
  beyond all doubt1 six days in the     
common sense of the word2 six days of   
twenty-four hours each3 and the seventh 
day1 on which it is forbidden  to work1 
is a day of the same kind4 ,but the     
example of ,god's labor and  ,god's rest
 is set forth1 in the text1 as the      
pattern after which this  law of the    
,sabbath was framed4 ,and therefore1 the
 six days in which ,god  furnished and  
embellished the earth must have been    
likewise six days of  twenty-four hours 
each4 ,this argument is regarded by many
 writers as  decisive4    ,to us1 on the
 contrary1 it seems by no means         
necessary to understand  the days on    
which ,god labored and rested1 in       
precisely the same sense  as the days on

 which it is enjoined that we should    
labor and rest4 ,the  examples of ,god  
is1 no doubt1 represented in the ,sacred
 ,text as the  reason for the ,jewish   
,sabbath3 8,six days shalt thou labor1  
and rest  upon the seventh2 for in six  
days the ,lord made the ,heavens and the
  ,earth1 and rested on the seventh40   
,but1 suppose for a moment that the     
days of creation were long periods of   
time1 will not the significance  of this
 reason remain unchanged8 ,as ,god1 in  
the great work of the  creation1 labored
 for six successive periods1 and then   
rested for a  seventh1 so shall you     
likewise do all your work during six of 
those  successive periods into which    
your time is divided1 and rest upon the 
seventh4    ,in support of this view1 we
 may observe that the ,jews were        
commanded to  abstain from work1 not    
only every seventh day1 but also every  
seventh  year4 8,six years thou shalt   
sow thy ground1 and shalt gather the    
corn  thereof2 but the seventh year thou

 shalt let it alone1 and suffer it  to  
rest1 that the poor of thy people may   
eat1 and whatsoever shall be  left1 let 
the beasts of the field eat it3 in like 
manner shalt thou  do with thy vineyard 
and thy oliveyard4 ,six days shalt thou 
work3 the  seventh day thou shalt cease1
 that thy ox and thy ass may rest2 and  
the son of thy handmaid and the stranger
 may be refreshed40#afj ,and  in another
 place we read3 8,when you shall have   
entered into the land  which ,i will    
give you1 observe the rest of the       
,sabbath to the ,lord4  ,six years thou 
shalt sow thy field1 and six years thou 
shalt prune  thy vineyard1 and shalt    
gather the fruits thereof2 but in the   
seventh  year there shall be a ,sabbath 
to the land1 of the resting of the      
,lord2  thou shalt not sow thy field1   
nor prune thy vineyard4 ,what the ground
  shall bring forth of itself thou shalt
 not reap3 neither shalt thou  gather   
the grapes of the first fruits as a     
vintage2 for it is a year of  rest to   

the land3 ,but they shall be unto you   
for meat2 to thee1 and to  thy          
man-servant1 and to thy maid-servant1   
and to thy hireling1 and to  the        
strangers that sojourn with thee1 to thy
 beasts of burden1 and to  thy cattle1  
all things that grow shall be for       
meat40#afa ,the seventh  year1 then1    
according to ,divine command1 was a year
 of rest among the  ,jews1 just as the  
seventh day was a day of rest2 and it is
 evident  that the one precept1 no less 
than the other1 was founded on the great
  example of ,god's rest when ,he had   
finished the work of ,creation4 ,we  are
 satisfied1 therefore1 that whatever may
 have been the length of  those six days
 in which ,god labored1 and of the      
seventh day on which ,he  rested1 ,his  
example might still be properly set     
forth as the model on  which the law of 
the ,sabbath was founded4    ,it is     
urged1 however1 that in this passage of 
,exodus1 we have the same  word  7yom7  
applied in the very same context to the 

six days of  the ,creation and to the   
six days of the week2 and it can hardly 
be  supposed that the inspired writer   
would pass thus suddenly from one       
meaning of the word to another1 and a   
very different meaning1 without  giving 
any intimation to his readers of such a 
transition4 ,if this  argument is a good
 one1 we can only say that it completely
 oversets the  opinion of those against 
whom we are contending4 ,in the fifth   
verse  of the first chapter of ,genesis 
we read3 8,and ,god called the light    
,day1 and the darkness he called ,night4
 ,and there was evening and  there was  
morning the first ,day40 ,now1 those who
 reject the theory  of long periods1    
maintain that by the word ,day in the   
latter part of  this verse1 is meant the
 whole civil day of twenty-four hours2  
while it  is plain that1 in the earlier 
part of the verse1 the same word ,day is
  emphatically applied to only a part of
 that period--that is1 to the  time of  
light as distinguished from the time of 

darkness4 ,therefore1  they are         
themselves1 in fact1 upholding an       
interpretation which  supposes the      
inspired writer to pass from one meaning
 of the word ,day  to another1 without  
any intimation of a change of meaning4  
,but we do not want to shrink from      
dealing with this argument on its       
merits4 ,the principle on which it is   
founded seems to us unsound and         
inconsistent with the evidence of the   
,sacred ,books themselves4 ,it is  quite
 a common thing1 we contend1 in         
,scripture1 for the writer to pass  from
 one meaning of a word to another       
without any explicit indication  of such
 a transition1 when1 as in the case     
before us1 the two senses1  though      
different1 are analogous3 the one being1
 as it were1 the figure1  or the symbol1
 or the pattern1 of the other4 ,a few   
examples will make  this clear4 ,in the 
,second ,epistle of ,st4 ,paul to the   
,corinthians1 we  read as follows3 8,for
 the charity of ,christ presseth us3    

judging this1  that if one died for all1
 then all were dead2 and ,christ died   
for  all40#afb ,here1 when it is said   
that 8all were dead10 the meaning  is1  
that all men were dead spiritually by   
sin2 whereas1 in the clause  immediately
 preceding1 and in the clause           
immediately following1 the  same word is
 used in its literal sense for the death
 of ,christ upon  the cross4 ,and yet   
the ,apostle1 though he thus passed from
 the literal  to the metaphorical sense 
of the word1 and then back again from   
the  metaphorical sense to the literal1 
gives no express indication of these    
transitions4    ,again1 in the ,gospel1 
when a certain man1 being called by our 
,lord1  said3 8,lord1 suffer me first to
 go and bury my father10 ,jesus reproved
  him in these words3 8,let the dead    
bury their dead2 but go thou and  preach
 the kingdom of ,god40#afc ,there is    
some difference of opinion  amongst     
commentators as to the exact meaning of 
this phrase4 ,but  whatever             

interpretation be adopted1 it seems     
evident from the context  that the dead 
to be buried were those who were        
literally dead2  whereas1 the dead who  
were to bury them were manifestly not   
those  who were literally dead1 but     
those who were dead in some analogous or
  metaphorical sense4 ,another example  
occurs in the twentieth chapter of      
,saint ,john4 ,christ says to ,his      
,apostles3 8,i ascend to my ,father and 
your ,father1 to my ,god and your       
,god40#afd ,when ,he says1 8,i ascend   
to my ,father10 the meaning is1 8to ,him
 who has begotten me from all           
eternity40 ,when ,he adds1 8and your    
,father10 the meaning is1 8to ,him who  
has adopted you for ,his children40     
,here1 then1 the word ,father is  first 
used in the sense of a natural father1  
and immediately after in  the sense of a
 father by adoption1 without any        
explicit declaration of  a change in    
meaning4    ,the ,epistle of ,saint     
,paul to the ,romans furnishes an       

instance in which  the transition from  
one meaning to another occurs in the    
case of the  word ,day itself3 8,the    
night is passed1 and the day is at hand4
 ,let  us1 therefore1 cast off the works
 of darkness1 and put on the armor of   
light4 ,let us walk honestly as in the  
day40#afe ,the word ,day1 in  the       
earlier part of this passage1 is used by
 ,saint ,paul for the ,day of  ,eternity
 which is to follow the darkness of this
 life2 while1 in the  next sentence1 it 
means clearly the period of light       
between sunrise  and sunset4 ,another   
illustration of the same kind occurs in 
the first  ,epistle to the              
,thessalonians4 8,but you1 brethren1 are
 not in darkness  that that day should  
overtake you as a thief2 for you are all
 the  children of light and the children
 of the day40#aff ,no one familiar  with
 the language of ,scripture can doubt   
that the first day here is  the ,day of 
,judgment2 and it is quite plain that   
the second day is  not the ,day of      

,judgment4    ,our next example1 and one
 most appropriate to our purpose1 is    
taken  from the prophet ,amos3 8,and it 
shall come to pass in that day1 saith   
the ,lord ,god1 that ,i will make the   
sun go down at noon1 and ,i will  darken
 the earth in the clear day40#afg ,this 
prophecy is commonly  referred by the   
,fathers to the time of our ,lord1 when 
the earth was  darkened in the clear day
 on the occasion of ,his crucifixion2   
but some  eminent authorities1 with     
,saint ,jerome at their head1 explain it
 of the  ,captivity in ,babylon4 ,either
 interpretation will suit our argument4 
,the  sacred writer first employs the   
word ,day for a long period of time1 and
  afterward proceeds to use it in its   
more ordinary sense1 without giving  his
 readers any express intimation of such 
a transition4    ,we hope it is now     
pretty clear that neither the reason    
assigned for  the institution of the    
,sabbath ,day1 nor the particular form  
of words  in which that ordinance is set

 forth1 offers any insurmountable       
obstacle to the opinion we are          
defending4 ,and this is quite enough for
  our purpose4 ,for we would again      
remind our readers that we are not      
attempting to prove from the ,sacred    
,text that this opinion must be  true1  
but only that it may be true4 ,our      
object has been sufficiently  attained  
if we have succeeded in showing that the
 hypothesis which  makes the ,days of   
,creation long periods1 is not          
inconsistent with the  language of      
,scripture4    ,we are tempted1 however1
 in the case of this objection1 to go   
somewhat  further than the scope of our 
argument strictly demands4 ,the text we 
have just been discussing brings before 
us1 in fact1 a consideration  of great  
weight in favor of the system of long   
periods4 8,in six days  the ,lord made  
the ,heavens and the ,earth and the sea1
 and all that in  them is1 and rested on
 the seventh day40 ,now1 what was this  
,seventh ,day  on which ,god rested8    

,was it a common day of twenty-four     
hours8 or was  it not rather a long and 
undefined period of time8 ,saint        
,augustine  answers plainly enough3     
8,the seventh day10 he says1 8is without
 an  evening1 and has no setting40 ,and 
,venerable ,bede1 asking why the sacred 
writer had assigned no evening to the   
seventh day1 gives this answer3         
8,because it has no end1 and is shut in 
by no limit40#afh    ,the common        
sentiment of ,theologians1 as far as we 
know1 seems to point  in the same       
direction4 ,they tell us that ,god is   
said to have rested1  inasmuch as ,he   
ceased from the creation of new species2
 and they  hold that since the close of 
the ,sixth ,day no new species have been
  brought into existence4 ,but whether  
this be true or not1 it would be  very  
difficult1 we think1 to point out any   
sense in which ,god can be  said to have
 rested after the work of the ,six      
,days1 and in which ,he  is not resting 
at the present moment4 ,if so1 the day  

of ,his rest is  still going on2 and it 
is not a period of twenty-four hours    
only1 but  a period of many thousand    
years4 ,now1 if the ,seventh ,day on    
which ,god  rested is a period of many  
thousand years1 are we not fully        
justified  in supposing that the ,six   
,days on which ,he formed and furnished 
the  ,heavens and the ,earth were       
likewise periods of many ages8          
,illustration    ,illustration          
,,chapter ,,xxi4    ,,application ,,of  
,,the ,,second ,,hypothesis ,,to ,,the  
,,mosaic ,,history ,,of                 
,,creation--,,conclusion4               
,summary of the argument--,striking     
coincidence between the      order of   
creation as set forth in the narrative  
of ,moses      and in the records of    
,geology--,comparison illustrated       
and developed--,scheme of adjustment    
between the periods      of ,geology and
 the days of ,genesis--,tabular view of 
this      scheme--,objections           
considered--,it is not to be regarded as

 an      established theory1 but as an  
admissible hypothesis--,either      the 
first hypothesis or the second is       
sufficient to meet the      demands of  
,geology as regards the antiquity of the
 earth--,not      necessary to suppose  
that the sacred writer was made         
acquainted      with the long ages of   
geological time--,he simply records     
faithfully that which was committed to  
his charge--,the      ,mosaic history of
 creation stands alone1 without rivals  
or      competitors4      ,the results  
at which we have arrived by the long1   
and we fear tedious1  line of argument  
pursued in the last ,chapter1 may be    
briefly summed up4  ,first1 many        
illustrious ,fathers of the             
,church--,saint ,augustine1 ,origen1    
,clement of ,alexandria1 ,saint         
,athanasius1 and others--plainly        
declared  against the opinion that the  
,days of ,creation were days in the     
ordinary  sense of the word2 and1       
therefore1 it is a mistake to suppose   

that this  opinion is supported by the  
unanimous voice of ,christian tradition4
  ,secondly1 the word ,day is frequently
 used in ,scripture for a long  period  
of time1 and sometimes for a period of  
indefinite duration4  ,thirdly1 there is
 nothing in the language of ,moses that 
forbids us  to explain the word         
according to this sense1 in the first   
chapter of  ,genesis4 ,and fourthly1    
there is1 at least1 one grave           
consideration1  derived from ,holy      
,scripture itself1 which distinctly     
points to such  an interpretation4 ,the 
,six ,days of ,creation are contrasted  
with the  ,seventh ,day of ,god's rest2 
and this ,seventh ,day of ,god's rest is
  unquestionably a long period of       
undefined duration4 ,from all this it is
  obvious to conclude1 that we may      
fairly adopt this mode of interpreting  
the ,mosaic ,days1 if it will assist us 
in reconciling the received  conclusions
 of science with the truths of          
,revelation4    ,now1 there is a        

striking resemblance1 in some important 
respects1  between the order of         
,creation as exhibited in the successive
 days of  the ,sacred ,record1 and the  
order of ,creation as manifested in the 
successive periods of ,geological time4 
,three days are specially marked  out by
 the ,inspired ,historian as            
distinguished by the creation of        
vegetable and animal life--the ,third1  
the ,fifth1 and the ,sixth4 ,on  the    
,third ,day were created plants and     
trees2 on the ,fifth1 reptiles1  fish1  
and birds2 on the ,sixth1 cattle1 and   
the beasts of the earth1  and1 toward   
the end1 man himself4 ,geologists1 on   
the other hand1 not  influenced in the  
least degree by the ,scripture          
narrative1 but guided  chiefly by the   
remains of animal and vegetable life    
which are preserved  in the ,crust of   
the ,earth1 have established three      
leading divisions  of ,geological time2 
the ,palozoic1 or first age of organic  
life1 the  ,mesozoic1 or second great   

age of organic life1 and the ,kainozoic1
  or third great age of organic life4   
,here1 no doubt1 is a remarkable        
coincidence4    ,but it would be still  
more remarkable if we could recognize1  
in the  three epochs of ,geology1 the   
same general characteristics of organic 
life as we find ascribed by ,moses to   
the three successive days of the  ,bible
 narrative4 ,and so we may1 it is said1 
if we will only take the  pains to      
examine for ourselves the organic       
remains of these geological  epochs as  
they lie dispersed through the ,crust of
 the ,earth1 or even  as they are to be 
found collected and arranged for        
exhibition in our  museums4 ,the first  
great age of ,geology is eminently      
distinguished  for its plants and trees2
 the second1 for its huge reptiles and  
great  sea-monsters2 the third1 for its 
vast herds of noble quadrupeds4 ,nay1   
to complete the harmony between the two 
,records1 as man is represented  by the 
,inspired ,writer to have been created  

toward the close of the  last day1 so1  
toward the close of the last ,geological
 age1 the remains  of man and of his    
works are found1 for the first time1    
laid by in the  archives of the ,earth4 
,such is the coincidence which some     
ingenious writers fancy they can  trace 
between the history that is set forth in
 the written ,word of  ,god1 and the    
history that is so curiously inscribed  
upon ,his works4  ,our readers1 perhaps1
 will not be unwilling to consider it a 
little  more in detail4 ,we read in the 
first chapter of ,genesis1 that on the  
,third ,day ,god said3 8,let the earth  
bring forth the green herb1 and  such as
 may seed1 and the fruit-tree yielding  
fruit after its kind1  which may have   
seed in itself upon the earth4 ,and it  
was so done4 ,and  the earth brought    
forth the green herb1 and such as       
yieldeth seed  according to its kind1   
and the tree that beareth fruit1 having 
seed  each one according to its kind4   
,and ,god saw that it was good40#afi    

,let us now turn to the ,carboniferous  
,period of ,geology1 which occupies  a  
large space in the great ,palozoic age4 
,all writers agree that it  was         
specially marked by a gorgeous and      
luxuriant vegetation3 and as  we        
contemplate the multitudinous remains of
 plants and trees which  have been      
gathered so abundantly in our coal      
measures1 and ranged with  such striking
 effect along the walls of our museums1 
we can scarcely  help thinking that we  
have before us a practical commentary on
 the  text of ,moses4 ,the gifted ,hugh 
,miller1 who is universally allowed  to 
have been one of the most practical and 
experienced ,geologists of  the modern  
school1 gives a very picturesque and    
graphic sketch of the  ,carboniferous   
flora4 8,in no other age10 he says1 8did
 the world ever  witness such a flora3  
the youth of the earth was peculiarly a 
green  and umbrageous youth1--a youth of
 dusk and tangled forests1--of huge     
pines and stately araucarians1--of the  

reed-like calamite1 the tall  tree-fern1
 the sculptured sigillaria1 and the     
hirsute lepidodendron4  ,wherever dry   
land1 or shallow lake or running stream 
appeared1 from  where ,melville ,island 
now spreads out its ice-wastes under the
 star of  the pole1 to where the arid   
plains of ,australia lie solitary       
beneath  the bright cross of the south1 
a rank and luxuriant herbage cumbered   
every footbreadth of the dank and       
steaming soil2 and even to distant      
planets our earth must have shown1      
through the enveloping cloud1 with  a   
green and delicate ray40#agj ,such an   
age as this might well be  described in 
history as the age in which the earth   
brought forth the  green herb1 and the  
fruit-tree yielding seed according to   
its kind4    ,again1 the work of the    
,fifth ,day is thus described in the    
,sacred  ,narrative3--8,god also said3  
,let the waters bring forth the creeping
  creature having life1 and the fowl    
that may fly over the earth under  the  

firmament of ,heaven4 ,and ,god created 
the great whales1 and every  living and 
moving creature which the waters brought
 forth1 according  to their kinds1 and  
every winged fowl according to its kind4
 ,and ,god  saw that it was good40#aga  
,and in this case1 as in the former1 we 
may  find the counterpart of the ,bible 
story in the records of ,geology4 8,the 
secondary age of the geologist10 says   
the eminent writer from whom  we have   
already quoted1 8possessed1 like the    
earlier one1 its herbs  and plants1 but 
they were of a greatly less luxuriant   
and conspicuous  character than their   
predecessors1 and no longer formed the  
prominent  trait or feature of the      
creation to which they belong4 ,the     
period  had also its corals1 its        
crustaceans1 its molluscs1 its fishes1  
and1  in some one or two exceptional    
instances1 its dwarf mammals4 ,but the  
grand existences of the age1--the       
existences in which it excelled every   
other creation1 earlier or later1--were 

its huge creeping things1--its  enormous
 monsters of the deep1--and1 as shown by
 the impressions of  their footprints   
stamped upon the rocks1 its gigantic    
birds4 ,it was  peculiarly the age of   
egg-bearing animals1 winged and         
wingless4 ,its  wonderful whales1 not   
however as now1 of the mammalian1 but of
 the  reptilian class--ichthyosaurs1    
plesiosaurs1 and cetiosaurs--must have  
tempested the deep2 its creeping lizards
 and crocodiles1 such as the            
teleosaurus megalosaurus1 and           
iguanodon1--creatures some of which more
  than rival the existing elephant in   
height1 and greatly more than  rivalled 
him in bulk1--must have crowded the     
plains1 or haunted by  myriads the      
rivers of the period2 and we know that  
the foot-prints of1  at least1 one of   
its many birds1 are fully twice the size
 of those made  by the horse or camel4  
,we are thus prepared to demonstrate    
that the  second period of the geologist
 was peculiarly and characteristically a

  period of whale-like reptiles of the  
sea1 of enormous creeping reptiles  of  
the land1 and of numerous birds1 some of
 them of gigantic size40#agb    ,once   
more1 it is written that1 on the ,sixth 
,day1 8,god said3 ,let the  earth bring 
forth the living creature in its kind1  
cattle and creeping  things1 and beasts 
of the earth1 according to their kinds4 
,and it was  so done4 ,and ,god made the
 beasts of the earth according to their 
kinds1  and cattle and every thing that 
creepeth on the earth after its kind4   
,and ,god saw that it was good40#agc    
,and again ,geology seems to confirm    
the truth of the ,inspired narrative1   
and to fill up the details of the       
picture4 8,the ,tertiary period10       
continues ,hugh ,miller1 8had also its  
prominent class of existences4 ,its     
flora seems to have been no more        
conspicuous than that of the present    
time2 its reptiles occupy a very        
subordinate place2 but its beasts of the
 field were by far the most  wonderfully

 developed1 both in size and numbers1   
that ever appeared  upon the earth4 ,its
 mammoths and its mastodons1 its        
rhinoceri and  its hippopotami1 its     
enormous dimotherium and colossal       
megatherium1  greatly more than equalled
 in bulk the greatest mammals of the    
present  time1 and vastly exceeded them 
in number4 ,the remains of one of its   
elephants 7,elephas primigenius7 are    
still so abundant amid the frozen       
wastes of ,siberia1 that what have been 
not inappropriately termed  #8ivory     
quarries' have been wrought among their 
bones for more than a  hundred years4   
,even in our own country1 of which1 as  
,i have already  shown1 this elephant   
was for long ages a native1 so abundant 
are the  skeletons and tusks1 that there
 is scarcely a local museum in the      
kingdom that has not its specimens1 dug 
out of the ,pleistocene deposits  of the
 neighborhood4 ,and with this ancient   
elephant there were meetly  associated  
in ,britain1 as on the northern         

continents generally all  around the    
globe1 many other mammals of            
corresponding magnitude4 #8,grand       
indeed1' says an ,english naturalist1   
#8was the fauna of the ,british  islands
 in those early days4 ,tigers as large  
again as the biggest  ,asiatic species  
lurked in the ancient thickets2         
elephants nearly  twice the size of the 
largest individuals that now exist in   
,africa or  ,ceylon roamed in herds3 at 
least two species of the rhinoceros     
forced  their way through the primeval  
forests2 and the lakes and rivers were  
tenanted by hippopotami as bulky1 and   
with as great tusks1 as those  of       
,africa4' ,the massive cave-bear and    
large cave-hyna belong to the  same     
formidable group1 with at least two     
species of great oxen1 with a  horse of 
smaller size1 and an elk that stood ten 
feet four inches in  height4 ,truly this
 ,tertiary age--this third and last of  
the geologic  periods--was peculiarly   
the age of great #8beasts of the earth  

after  their kind1 and of cattle after  
their kind4'0#agd    ,we shall be told1 
perhaps1 that there are ,six ,days      
assigned to the  work of creation in the
 ,mosaic narrative1 and that we have    
accounted  but for three4 ,let it be    
remembered1 however1 that ,geology does 
not  profess to give a complete history 
of our ,globe4 ,it can set before us    
those events only which have left their 
impress indelibly stamped upon  the     
rocks that compose the ,crust of the    
,earth4 ,these events ,geologists  have 
attempted to reduce to the order of a   
chronological system2 and in            
prosecuting this task they have been    
guided almost exclusively by the        
evidence of ,organic ,remains4 ,hence it
 was not to be expected that1 in        
,geological ,chronology1 we should find 
a ,period specially set apart as  the   
,period in which ,light was made2 or    
another as the ,period in which  the    
,firmament was spread out over the      
,earth2 or a ,third as the ,period  in  

which the sun and moon and stars shone  
forth in the expanse of  ,heaven4 ,such 
phenomena had1 indeed1 a very important 
influence on the  physical condition of 
our globe4 ,but they must occupy a very 
secondary  place1 if indeed they are    
distinctly chronicled at all in the     
records  of ,geology4 ,it is the        
formation of rocks and the embedding    
therein of  ,fossil ,remains that       
constitute the main study of the        
,geologist1 and  that guide him in the  
distribution of ,geological time4       
,furthermore1 we would observe that the 
scheme of ,chronology which  ,geologists
 put before us1 affords abundant room   
for each and all of  the ,mosaic ,days4 
,let it be assumed for a moment that the
 ,carboniferous  ,period corresponds    
with the ,third ,day of the ,sacred     
narrative4 ,the  earlier ,periods of the
 ,palozoic ,age will then fit in with   
the ,first  and ,second ,days of        
,scripture2 and the ,permian1 which     
intervenes between  the ,carboniferous  

,period and the ,secondary ,age1 may be 
supposed to  correspond with the ,fourth
 ,day of ,scripture4 ,this adjustment   
between  the ,mosaic ,days and the      
,periods of ,geology will probably be   
made more  intelligible to the general  
reader by the ,table that appears on the
  following page4    ,the reader must   
not think it amiss1 in this distribution
 of the ,mosaic  ,days1 that four out of
 six are crowded together into one      
,geological  ,age1 while each of the    
other two has an entire ,age assigned to
  itself4 ,if the ,days of ,creation    
were indefinite periods1 there is no    
incongruity in supposing that one may   
have corresponded to a longer1  another 
to a shorter interval in the history of 
our planet4 ,but1 in  truth1 our scheme 
of distribution does not of necessity   
imply that  the ,mosaic ,days were      
periods of unequal length4 ,geologists  
do not  pretend that there is even a    
remote approximation to equality between
  the several divisions of ,geological  

time4 ,the three great ,epochs are      
distinguished from each other by reason 
of the very marked difference  in the   
character of their ,fossil ,remains4    
,and the multiplication  of ,periods in 
each ,epoch seems to depend rather upon 
the degree of  completeness with which  
the strata of that ,age have been       
examined1  than upon any conjecture as  
to the probable length of its duration4 
,thus1 for example1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell
 thinks that1 as far as the present     
condition of ,science affords the means 
of forming an opinion1 almost  any one  
of the ,periods in the ,palozoic ,age   
was as long as all the  ,periods of the 
,tertiary ,age taken together4#age      
,but there is another and a more serious
 objection against our  hypothesis4 ,it 
has been observed more than once that   
the periods of  ,geology are out of     
harmony with the ,days of ,genesis1 even
 as regards  the history of ,organic    
life4 ,according to the ,scripture      
narrative  no ,organic life appeared    

upon the ,earth previous to the ,third  
,day4  ,now the ,third ,day of          
,scripture corresponds1 in our scheme1  
with the  ,carboniferous ,period of     
,geology4 ,and yet there is abundant    
evidence  in the ,fossil ,remains of the
 ,devonian1 the ,silurian1 and the      
,cambrian  ,formations1 that ,organic   
life--both plants and animals--prevailed
 upon  the ,earth for many ages before  
the ,carboniferous ,period began4 ,nay1 
it is now commonly held1 since the      
discovery of the famous ,eozoon         
,canadense1 the oldest known ,fossil1   
that life already existed during  the   
deposition of the ,laurentian ,rocks1   
the earliest of all the  ,stratified    
,formations4 ,furthermore1 in the       
,mosaic account1 ,fish are  represented 
as having been created only on the      
,fifth ,day1 which we have  fitted in   
with the ,secondary ,age of ,geology3   
whereas in the ,geological  ,record we  
find ,fish as early as the ,silurian    
,period1 which is far back  in the      

,primary ,age4 ,these considerations1   
and divers others of a like  nature1    
have been regarded by some eminent      
writers as altogether fatal  to the     
hypothesis for which we are contending4 
----------------------------------------
--------------           ,,days4        
,,periods4        ,,epochs4             
,,day ,,of ,,god',s ,,rest4             
,,recent4       ,,historic ,,age4       
----------------------------------------
--------------                          
,,post-,,pliocene4                      
,,sixth ,,mosaic ,,day4    ,,pliocene4  
,,tertiary                              
,,miocene4              ,,or            
,,eocene4          ,,kainozoic ,,age4   
----------------------------------------
--------------                          
,,cretaceous4        ,,secondary        
,,fifth ,,mosaic ,,day4    ,,jurassic4  
,,or                                    
,,triassic4        ,,mesozoic ,,age4    
----------------------------------------
--------------     ,,fourth ,,mosaic    

,,day4   ,,permian4                     
,,third ,,mosaic ,,day4                 
,,carboniferous4      ,,primary         
,,devonian4           ,,or              
,,first ,,and ,,second      ,,silurian4 
,,pal,,ozoic ,,age4      ,,mosaic       
,,days4          ,,cambrian4            
,,laurentian4                           
----------------------------------------
--------------    ,to us1 however1 it   
appears that such points of discrepancy 
involve no  contradiction between the   
two ,records4 ,the ,sacred ,writer tells
 us1 no  doubt1 that on the ,third ,day 
,god created plants and trees3 but he   
does  not say1 either expressly or      
otherwise1 that previous to the ,third  
,day  the ,earth was devoid of          
vegetation4 ,again1 we read that        
reptiles1 fish1  and birds were created 
on the ,fifth ,day4 ,but there is       
nothing in the  language of the         
,inspired narrative from which it can be
 inferred that  these several classes of
 animal life may not have been          

represented  before that time1 by many  
and various species3 though probably1 it
  was only on the ,fifth ,day that they 
were developed in such vast  numbers1   
and assumed such gigantic proportions1  
as to become the most  conspicuous      
objects of creation4    ,the first      
chapter of ,genesis is but a brief      
summary of an inconceivably  vast series
 of events4 ,it is nothing more than a  
rapid sketch1  exhibiting1 as it were1  
to the eye the prominent features in the
  history of ,creation4 ,moreover1 we   
should remember that it was written     
with a specific end in view4 ,the       
purpose of the ,sacred ,writer was      
plainly to impress upon the ,hebrew     
people1 naturally prone to idolatry1    
the existence of ,one ,supreme ,being1  
who has made all things4 ,hence  we     
should naturally expect that1 amid the  
boundless variety of ,god's  works1 he  
would make choice of those that were    
most calculated to  strike the mind with
 wonder and awe1 and to bring home to a 

rude and  uncultivated race of men the  
,almighty ,power and ,supreme ,dominion 
of  the ,great ,creator4 ,now the       
,zoophytes1 and ,graptolites1 and       
,trilobites1  of the ,devonian and      
,silurian ,periods1 however curious and 
interesting  they may be to men of      
science1 would have had but little      
significance  for the ,jewish people4   
,let us suppose that these more humble  
forms of  animal life had1 in fact1     
existed during the ,first and ,second   
,days  of the ,mosaic narrative1 and    
where is the wonder that the ,inspired  
,historian1 under the guidance of the   
,holy ,spirit1 should pass them  by in  
silence1 and choose rather to           
commemorate the more striking and       
impressive facts1 that1 at the bidding  
of ,god1 ,light shone forth from  the   
midst of darkness1 and the blue         
firmament of ,heaven was expanded  above
 the waste of waters8    ,we say1 then1 
that events which are simply left       
unrecorded by the  ,sacred ,writer are  

not1 on that account1 untrue3#agf that  
he describes  to us1 not all the works  
of ,creation1 which would have been an  
endless  task1 but only the more        
conspicuous objects in each successive  
stage2  and that he sketches them1 most 
probably1 as they would have appeared   
to the eye of a human observer1 if a    
human observer at the time  had existed 
on the ,earth4 ,if this view be         
admitted1 then it is not  inconsistent  
with the ,scripture narrative to suppose
 that plants may  have existed before   
the ,third ,day1 and fish before the    
,fifth4 ,each  ,day in its turn would   
have been rendered conspicuous to an    
observing  spectator by those events    
which are recorded by ,moses4 ,but each 
,day1  too1 would have witnessed many   
other events1 unnoticed by ,moses1 of   
which the memorials have been preserved1
 even to our time1 in the ,crust  of the
 ,earth4    ,we should observe1 however1
 that though this scheme of adapting    
the ,periods of ,geology to the ,days of

 ,moses1 may be defended as a           
legitimate hypothesis1 it cannot be     
upheld as an established truth4 ,the    
geological records that have hitherto   
been brought to light represent  but the
 merest fragment of the ,earth's past   
history4 ,each year that  passes over   
our heads is adding largely to the store
 of facts already  accumulated4 ,and it 
needs but little reflection to perceive 
that an  hypothesis may be quite        
consistent with the knowledge we possess
  to-day1 and yet may be found          
altogether inconsistent with the        
knowledge  we shall possess to-morrow4  
,we must be content1 therefore1 to      
suspend  our judgment1 and to await the 
progress of events4 ,it may be that     
future discoveries shall bring to light 
new points of harmony between  the ,days
 of ,genesis and the ,periods of        
,geology2 it may be they shall          
demonstrate that no such harmony exists4
 ,for us it is enough to have  shown    
that this hypothesis is consistent1 on  

the one hand1 with the  story of        
,genesis--on the other1 with the actual 
discoveries of ,geology2  and1          
therefore1 that it may be adopted1 in   
the present condition of  our knowledge1
 as a legitimate means of reconciling   
the established  conclusions of that    
science with the truths of ,revelation4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,conclusion4--,we have1 then1 two      
distinct systems of interpretation1     
according to which the vast ,antiquity  
of the ,earth1 asserted by  ,geology1   
may be fairly brought into harmony with 
the history of  creation1 recorded in   
,scripture4 ,the one allows an interval 
of  incalculable duration between the   
creation of the ,heavens and the        
,earth1 and the work of the ,six ,days3 
the other supposes each one of  these   
,six ,days to have been itself an       
indefinite period of time4 ,we  cannot1 
indeed1 prove that either of these two  
systems is true in point  of fact2 but  
we have attempted to show that neither  

is at variance with  the language of the
 ,sacred ,text4 ,on the other hand1 when
 we look to the  evidence of geological 
facts1 we see no decisive reason for    
preferring  one to the other4 ,either   
mode of interpretation seems in itself  
quite sufficient to meet all the present
 requirements of ,geology2  for1        
according to either interpretation1 the 
,bible narrative would  allow time      
without limit for the past history of   
our ,globe2 and time  without limit is  
just what ,geology demands4 ,we may say1
 then1 on this  point1 what ,saint      
,augustine said long ago1 in speaking of
 the diverse  interpretations which the 
text of ,genesis admits3 8,let each one 
choose  according to the best of his    
power3 only let him not rashly put      
forward  as known that which is unknown2
 and let him not fail to remember  that 
he is but a man searching1 as far as may
 be1 into the works of  ,god40#agg      
,it must not be supposed that1 according
 to our view1 the ,sacred  ,writer1 in  

composing his account of the ,creation1 
had before his mind  those vast         
,geological ,periods about which we have
 said so much in  the course of this    
volume4 ,such an opinion is no part of  
our system4  ,we see no good reason for 
believing that the author of ,genesis   
was  specially enlightened from ,heaven 
on the subject of ,stratified ,rocks    
and ,fossil ,remains1 of ,upheaval and  
,denudation1 of ,volcanic ,action and   
,subterranean ,heat4 ,these are matters 
of ,physical1 not of ,religious         
,science4 ,and it seems to be the order 
of ,providence to leave the  discovery  
of such things to the industry and      
ingenuity of man3 8,cuncta  fecit bona  
in tempore suo1 et mundum tradidit      
disputationi eorum40#agh    ,what we    
maintain1 then1 is simply this3 that the
 ,sacred ,writer recorded  faithfully1  
in language fitted to the ideas of his  
time1 that portion  of ,revelation which
 was committed to him2 and1 in the      
accomplishment of  this task1 made such 

a choice of words and phrases1 under the
 guidance  of the ,holy ,spirit1 to whom
 all truth is present1 as to set forth  
plainly those facts that were unfolded  
to him1 without introducing any  error  
about those facts of which he was       
ignorant4 ,the language is the  language
 of men1 but the voice that speaks      
therein is the voice of ,god4  ,and thus
 it comes to pass that this ,mosaic     
story1 when fairly examined  according  
to the ordinary laws of human speech1 is
 found in every age  to accommodate     
itself1 with quite an unexpected        
simplicity1 to those  new and wonderful 
views of ,god's manifold power which    
each human  science in its turn brings  
to light4    ,before taking leave of the
 subject1 we would venture to bring     
under the  notice of our readers one    
very obvious reflection1 which is       
sometimes  lost sight of in the heat of 
controversy4 ,the ,mosaic history of the
  ,creation absolutely stands alone4 ,it
 has no rivals1 no competitors4  ,every 

other attempt that has been made to     
explain the origin of  the world1 and of
 the human race1 is refuted by its own  
intrinsic  extravagance and absurdity4  
,the wisest nations of antiquity failed 
to  discover that great fundamental     
truth1 which stands out so boldly on    
the first page of ,genesis1 that there  
is ,one ,god who hath made all  things4 
,the philosophers of ,chalda were       
familiar with the course of  the        
,heavens1 and could predict the eclipses
 of the sun and moon4 ,but  the         
philosophers of ,chalda could not rise  
from the contemplation of  creatures to 
the knowledge of the ,creator3 the      
creatures themselves  were the gods that
 ,chalda worshipped4 ,egypt had         
greatness of mind to  conceive the idea 
of the ,pyramids1 and skill to devise   
the plan of  their construction1 and    
strength of arms to lift up the huge    
stones on  these stupendous piles4 ,but 
,egypt raised up temples to the river   
that  waters its plain1 and offered     

sacrifice to the reptile that crawls    
upon the earth1 and the beast that      
grazes in the field4 ,in ,greece the    
human mind soared to its highest flight1
 and ranged over the widest and  most   
beautiful fields of thought4 ,peerless  
is she among the nations1  the mistress 
of the arts1 the fountain source of     
refined taste1 the  storehouse of       
intellectual power1 the great nurse of  
human genius4  ,her schools of          
philosophy have influenced and guided to
 a marvellous  extent the thoughts and  
speculations of all subsequent times4   
,the  song of her immortal bard has     
kindled the imagination of the poet in  
every generation1 and enriched his mind 
with glowing images4 ,orators  and      
statesmen still love to copy the lofty  
sentiments1 the graceful  diction1 the  
flowing periods1 of her golden          
eloquence4 ,and students  from every    
clime stand enraptured before the beauty
 and the majesty  of her sculptured     
marble4 ,but ,greece1 ,imperial ,greece1

 knew not the  ,one ,god1 the giver of  
all good gifts1 by whom she was so      
highly  endowed4 ,she fashioned for     
herself gods and goddesses after her own
  fancy1 and portioned out the universe 
between them4 ,jupiter hurled  his      
thunderbolts from the clouds3 ,neptune  
ruled the sea3 ,pluto swayed  the       
sceptre of the infernal regions3        
,minerva was the goddess of  wisdom3    
,vulcan the god of fire3 ,apollo the god
 of music4 ,nay1 the very  infirmities  
and vices of human nature were          
personified under the names  of         
divinities1 and worshipped in the       
,pantheon of the gods4 ,rome1 too1  the 
conqueror of the world1 had its         
philosophers and its orators1 its  poets
 and its sculptors1 whose productions   
still charm and instruct  mankind4 ,yet 
was ,rome no exception to the common lot
 of the gentile  world4 ,for ,rome1 like
 ,greece1 had its long array of gods and
 goddesses1  with their petty           
jealousies1 their vindictive malice1    

their shameless  passions4 ,alone1      
amidst all the ,mythologies and         
,cosmogonies of ancient  nations1 the   
story of the ,hebrew ,legislator rises  
superior to the gross  and silly        
speculations of mortal men4 ,it alone   
proclaims to mankind  what ,philosophy  
and ,science1 when left to themselves1  
have never been  able to teach1 that1   
,in the beginning ,god created the      
,heavens and the  ,earth2 that the      
plants and the animals1 the ocean and   
the elements1  the sun and moon and     
stars1 man himself1 and all that        
delights the eye  and charms the ear and
 fills the mind1 are ,his creatures2 and
 that  besides ,him there is no other   
,god4 ,away1 then1 with the idea that   
this ,sacred ,narrative1 stamped as it  
plainly is with the imprint of  its     
,divine ,author1 should ever be found at
 variance with the truths  of           
science1--or rather1 we should say1 with
 those scanty fragments  of truth1 those
 crumbs of knowledge1 falling from the  

table of our  ,heavenly ,father1 which  
it is given to man here below to gather 
up with  laborious care1 and which1     
however they may excite his longings1   
cannot  satisfy his hunger4    ,here1   
for the present1 we must stop4 ,at some 
future time1 perhaps1  if our           
opportunities permit1 we shall return to
 this subject1 and1  taking up the      
second branch of the controversy1       
investigate the recent  discoveries of  
,geology in reference to the teaching of
 the ,bible as  regards the ,antiquity  
of the ,human ,race4    ,illustration   
,,appendix4    ,,extracts ,,from ,,the  
,,fathers ,,and ,,theologians4          
,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,this ,,volume4   
7#a47 ,,saint ,,augustine4--,p4 #big4   
8,et in rebus obscuris atque a nostris  
oculis remotissimis1 si qua  inde       
scripta etiam divina legerimus1 quae    
possunt salva fida qua  imbuimur1 alias 
atque alias parere sententias2 in nullam
 earum nos  praecipiti affirmatione ita 
projiciamus1 ut si forte diligentius    

discussa veritas eam recte              
labefactaverit1 corruamus3 non pro      
sententia  divinarum ,scripturarum1 sed 
pro nostra ita dimicantes1 ut eam       
velimus  ,scripturarum esse1 quae nostra
 est2 cum potius eam quae ,scripturarum 
est1 nostram esse velle debeamus40--,de 
,genesi ad ,litteram1 lib4 i4 cap4  #ah1
 n4 #cg4      7#b47 ,,idem4--,p4 #bih4  
8,plerumque enim accidit ut aliquid de  
terra1 de coelo1 de caeteris  hujus     
mundi elementis1 de motu et conversione 
vel etiam de magnitudine  et intervallis
 siderum1 de certis defectibus solis ac 
lunae1 de  circuitibus annorum et       
temporum1 de naturis animalium1         
fruticum1  lapidum atque hujusmodi      
caeteris1 etiam non christianus ita     
noverit1  ut certissima ratione vel     
experientia teneat4 ,turpe est autem    
nimis et perniciosum ac maxime cavendum1
 ut christianum de his  rebus quasi     
secundum christianas ,litteras          
loquentem1 ita delirare  quilibet       
infidelis audiat1 ut1 quemadmodum       

dicitur1 toto coelo errare  conspiciens1
 risum tenere vix possit4 ,et non tam   
molestum est1 quod  errans homo         
deridetur1 sed quod auctores nostri ab  
eis qui foris sunt1  talia sensisse     
creduntur1 et cum magno eorum exitio de 
quorum salute  satagimus1 tanquam       
indocti reprehenduntur atque respuuntur4
 ,cum enim  quemquam de numero          
christianorum in ea re quam optime      
norunt1 errare  deprehenderint1 et vanam
 sententiam suam de nostris ,libris     
asserere2  quo pacto illis ,libris      
credituri sunt1 de resurrectione        
mortuorum1 et  de spe vitae aeternae1   
regnoque coelorum1 quando de his rebus  
quas  jam experiri1 vel indubitatis     
numeris percipere potuerunt1 fallaciter 
putaverint esse conscriptos8 ,quid enim 
molestiae tristitiaeque ingerant        
prudentibus fratribus temerarii         
praesumptores1 satis dici non potest1   
cum si quando de prava et falsa opinione
 sua reprehendi1 et convinci  coeperint 
ab eis qui nostrorum ,librorum          

auctoritate non tenentur1 ad            
defendendum id quod levissima temeritate
 et apertissima falsitate  dixerunt1    
eosdem ,libros sanctos1 unde id probent1
 proferre conantur1  vel etiam          
memoriter1 quae ad testimonium valere   
arbitrantur1 multa inde  verba          
pronuntiant1 #8non intelligentes neque  
quae loquuntur1 neque de  quibus        
affirmant' 7#a4 ,tim41 i4               
#g740--;,ibid41 cap4 #ai1 n4 #ci4       
7#c47 ,,saint ,,thomas4--,p4 #bih4      
8,dicendum quod1 sicut ,augustinus      
docet1 in hujusmodi quaestionibus  duo  
sunt observanda4 ,primo quidem1 ut      
veritas ,scripturae inconcusse          
teneatur4 ,secundo1 cum ,scriptura      
divina multipliciter exponi possit1     
quod nulli expositioni aliquis ita      
praecise inhaereat1 ut si certa  ratione
 constiterit hoc esse falsum quod       
aliquis sensum ,scripturae esse         
credebat id nihilominus asserere        
praesumat2 ne ,scriptura ex hoc ab      
infidelibus derideatur1 et ne eis via   

credendi praecludatur40--,summa         
,theologica1 ,pars ,prima1 ,quaest4     
lxviii4 art4 primus4      7#d47         
,,perrerius4--,p4 #cjb4    8,quod autem 
in xx4 et xxxi4 cap4 ,exod4 dictum est1 
,deum sex diebus  fecisse coelum et     
terram1 et omnia quae in eis sunt1 non  
est huic  opinioni contrarium3 illud    
enim spatium temporis ante primum diem  
annumeratur sex diebus1 quia fuit quam  
brevissimum1 et fuit continuata  ,dei   
operatio3 nec sane plures dies naturales
 consumpti sunt quam sex3  ac licet ante
 primum diem1 coelum et elementa facta  
sint secundum  substantiam1 tamen non   
fuerunt perfecta et omnino consummata1  
nisi  spatio illorum sex dierum2 tunc   
enim datus est illis ornatus1           
complementum1 et perfectio40--,comment4 
in ,genes41 cap4 #a1 v4 #d1 n4 #hj4     
7#e47 ,,tostatus4--,p4 #cjb4    8,sex   
diebus fecit ,dominus coelum et terram4 
,recte dicitur his  facere1 quia coelum 
et terra1 quae hic nominantur1 et omnia 
alia1  quae nomine eorum                

subintelliguntur1 ista quidem omnia de  
materia prima  facta sunt3 materia autem
 non facta sed creata est40--,comment4  
in  ,exod41 cap4 #bj1 quaest4 #ae4      
7#f47 ,,petavius4--,p4 #cjb4    ,writing
 on the phrase ,in die quo fecit        
,dominus ,deus coelum et terram1  he    
says1 8hoc est1 perpolitum et elaboratum
 esse sex continuis diebus1  id enim    
faceindi vox ,hebraeis ipsis            
interpretibus significare               
videtur40--,de ,opificio ,sex ,dierum1  
lib4 cap4 #ad1 sect4 #a4      7#g47     
,,saint ,,basil4--,p4 #cjd4    8,et     
facta est vespera1 et factum est mane1  
dies unus4 ,vespera igitur  diei ac     
noctis est communis terminus3 et        
similiter mane1 est noctis  cum die     
vicinitas4 ,itaque ut prioris           
generationis praerogativam  diei        
tribueret1 prius commemoravit finem     
diei1 deinde noctis1  velut insequente  
diem nocte4 ,nam qui status in mundo    
fuit ante  lucis generationem1 is non   
erat nox1 sed tenebrae3 quod autem a die

  distinguebatur1 eique opponebatur1 id 
nox appellatum est40--,homilia ii4  in  
,hexaemeron2 ,edit4 ,bened4 p4 #bj2     
,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4 ,graec4 ,cursus   
,completus1 tom4 #bi1 p4 #dg4      7#h47
 ,,saint ,,chrysostom4--,p4 #cjd4       
8,ostendimus enim heri1 ut meministis1  
quomodo beatus ,moses enarrans  nobis   
horum visibilium elementorum creationem 
et opificium1 dixerit3  ,in principio   
fecit ,deus coelum et terram3 terra     
autem erat invisibilis  et incomposita3 
et vos causam docuimus1 quare ,deus     
terram informen et  nullis figuris      
expolitam creaverit2 quae1 opinor1 omnia
 mente tenetis2  necessarium est igitur 
nos ad ea quae sequuntur hodie progredi4
 ,nam  postquam dixit1 ,terra autem erat
 invisibilis et incomposita1 nos        
accurate docet1 unde invisibilis erat et
 inculta1 dicens3 ,et tenebrae  erant   
super abyssum1 et ,spiritus ,dei        
superferebatur super aquam4444          
,quandoquidem igitur diffusa erat magna 
universi visibilis informitas1          

praecepto suo ,deus1 optimus ille       
artifex1 deformitatem illam depulit1  et
 immensa lucis visibilis pulchritudo    
producta tenebras fugavit  sensibiles1  
illustravitque omnia40--,in ,cap4 i4    
,genes4 ,homil4 iii42  ,edit4 ,migne1   
,patr4 ,graec4 ,cursus ,completus1 tom4 
#ec1 p4 #cc4 ,here ,saint  ,chrysostom  
plainly teaches that the world existed  
before the creation  of light4 ,in his  
,fifth ,homily he is equally clear that 
the ,first ,day  of the ,mosaic         
narrative began with a period of light1 
and not with a  period of darkness3     
8,vide quomodo de singulis diebus sic   
dicat3 ,et  factum est vespere1 et      
factum est mane1 dies tertius3 non      
simpliciter  nec absque causa3 sed ne   
ordinem confundamus neque putemus       
vespera  ingruente finem accepisse diem2
 sed sciamus vesperam finem esse lucis1 
et principium noctis3 mane autem finem  
noctis1 et complementum dici4  ,hoc enim
 nos docere vult beatus ,moses1 dicens3 
,et factum est vespere1  et factum est  

mane1 dies tertius40--,edit4 ,migne1 p4 
#eb4      7#i47 ,,saint ,,ambrose4--,p4 
#cje4    8,terra autem erat invisibilis 
et incomposita4 ,bonus artifex prius    
fundamentum ponit3 postea1 fundamento   
posito1 aedificationis membra           
distinguit1 et adjungit ornatum4 ,posito
 igitur fundamento terrae1 et           
confirmata coeli substantia1 duo enim   
ista sunt velut cardines rerum1         
subtexuit3 ,terra autem erat inanis et  
incomposita40--,hexaemeron1  ,lib4 i4   
cap4 #g2 ,edit4 ,bened4 p4 #ac2 ,edit4  
,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4 ,cursus            
,completus1 tom4 #ad1 p4 #ace4          
8,principium ergo diei1 vox ,dei est3   
fiat lux2 et facta est  lux40--,lib4 i4 
cap4 #aj2 ,edit4 ,bened4 p #ba2 ,edit4  
,migne1 p4 #add4    8,in principio      
itaque temporis coelum et terram ,deus  
fecit4 ,tempus enim  ab hoc mundo1 non  
ante mundum3 dies autem temporis portio 
est1 non  principium40--,lib4 i4 cap4   
#f2 ,edit4 ,bened4 p4 #aj2 ,edit4       
,migne1 p4 #acb4      7#aj47 ,,venerable

 ,,bede4--,p4 #cje4    8,scriptura ait3 
,qui fecisti mundum de materia informi4 
,sed materia  facta est de nihilo1 mundi
 vero species de informi materia4       
,proinde  duas res ante omnem diem et   
ante omne tempus condidit ,deus         
angelicam  videlicet creaturam et       
informem materiam40--,in ,pentateuch4   
,comment42  sub4 cap4 #a3 ,edit ,migne1 
,patr4 ,lat4 ,cursus ,completus1 tom4   
#ia1 p4  #aia4 ,in another place1 citing
 the words of ,ecclesiasticus1 ,qui     
vivit in aeternum creavit omnia simul1  
he says1 8hoc utique ante  omnem diem   
hujus saeculi fecit1 cum in principio   
coelum creavit et                       
terram40--,hexaemeron1 ,lib4 i4 in      
,genes1 ii4 #d2 ,edit4 ,migne1 tom4 #ia1
 p4  #ci4    8,discipulus4 ,da ordinem  
per sex dies factarum rerum8 ,magister4 
,in  ipso quidem principio conditionis  
facta sunt coelum1 terra1 aer1 et       
aqua4444 ,discipulus4 ,sequere ordinem  
generationis8 ,magister4 ,in  principio 
diei primae lux facta est2 secunda vero 

factum firmamentum20  etc4--,quaestiones
 super ,genesim2 ,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4  
,lat4 tom4 #ic1 p4  #bcf4 ,this work is 
classed by ,migne among the ,dubia et   
,spuria of ,bede4  ,the critics1        
however1 seem to be agreed that it      
belongs to a period not  later than the 
tenth century4 ,if it is not the genuine
 composition of  ,bede1 which is        
considered more probable1 then it only  
follows that we  have1 besides ,bede1   
another ancient authority in favor of   
our opinion4      7#aa47 ,,peter        
,,lombard4--,p4 #cjf4    8,cum ,deus in 
sapientia sua angelicos condidit        
spiritus1 alia etiam  creavit1 sicut    
ostendit supradicta ,scriptura1 quae    
dicit in principio  ,deum creasse       
coelum1 id est1 angelos1 et terram      
scilicet1 materiam  quatuor elementorum 
adhuc confusam et informem1 quae a      
,graecis dicta  est chaos1 et hoc fuit  
ante omnem diem4 ,deinde elementa       
distinguit  ,deus1 et species proprias  
atque distinctas singulis rebus secundum

  genus suum dedit2 quae non simul1 ut  
quibusdam sanctorum ,patrum  placuit1   
sed per intervalla temporum ac sex      
volumina dierum1 ut aliis  visum est    
formavit40--,sentent4 ,lib4 ii4         
,distinct4 #ab2 ,edit4 ,migne1  ,patr4  
,latin4 ,cursus ,completus1 tom4 #aib1  
p4 #fge4      7#ab47 ,,hugh ,,of ,,saint
 ,,victor4--,p4 #cjf4    8,principium   
ergo divinorum operum fuit creatio      
lucis1 quando ipsa  lux non materialiter
 de nihilo creata est2 sed de           
praejacenti illa  universitatis materia 
formaliter facta est ut lux esset1 et   
vim ac  proprietatem lucendi haberet4   
,hoc opus prima die factum est2 sed     
hujus operis materia ante primam diem   
creata4 ,moxque cum ipsa luce  dies     
cpit2 quia ante lucem nec nox fuit nec  
dies1 etiamsi tempus  fuit40--,de       
,sacram4 ,lib4 i4 ,pars i4 cap4 #i3     
,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4  tom4 #agf1 
p4 #aic4      7#ac47 ,,saint            
,,thomas4--,p4 #cjg4    8,sed melius    
videtur dicendum quod creatio fuerit    

ante omnem diem40 ,in  ,,ii4 ,sentent4  
,distinct4 xiii4 ,art4 #c1 ad tertium3  
see also ibidem ad  primum1 and ad      
secundum4 ,and again in the ,summa he   
says3 8,coelum et  terram fecit in prima
 die1 potius ante omnem diem40--,pars i4
 ,quaest4  lxxxiv4 ,art4 #b4      7#ad47
 ,,perrerius4--,p4 #cjg4    8,licet ante
 primum diem1 coelum et elementa facta  
sint secundum  substantiam1 tamen non   
fuerint perfecta et omnino consummata1  
nisi spatio illorum sex dierum3 tunc    
enim datus est illis ornatus1           
complementum1 et perfectio4 ,quanto     
autem tempore status ille mundi         
tenebrosus duraverit1 hoc est1 utrum    
plus an minus quam unus dies  continere 
solet1 nec mini compertum est1 nec      
opinor cuiquam mortalium  nisi cui      
divinitus id esset                      
patefactum40--,comment4 in ,genesim1    
cap4 #a1  v4 #d1 n4 #hj4      7#ae47    
,,petavius4--,p4 #cjg4    8,nostra      
itaque sententia haec est2 prima ilia   
,geneseos verba3 ,in  principio creavit 

,deus coelum et terram2 non peculiare   
opus aliquod  continere1 quod initio1 et
 ante dies sex molitus sit ,deus3 quasi 
ante  lucem1 ac reliquas deinceps       
opificii partes1 qualecumque coelum ac  
terram creaverit4 ,sed esse generale    
quoddam effatum1 quo omnia1 quae  sunt a
 ,deo facta1 complexus est4 ,etenim     
,moses1 ut initio dicebam1  ,judaeos    
statim edocere voluit2 totam illam      
aspectabilem rerum  universitatem a ,deo
 conditore profectam esse4 ,quare ita   
pronuntiavit1  tanquam diceret3         
,quidquid videtis et quodcumque coeli ac
 terrae  comprehendit ambitus1 una cum  
coelo ipso1 terrque1 id omne fabricatus 
est initio ,deus4 ,postea vero per      
partes1 ac singillatim1 ut quaeque est  
elaborata1 decripsit40--,de ,opificio   
,sex ,dierum1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 #b1 sect4   
#aj4    8,imprimis ante dierum sex      
initium solam cum aqua terram extitisse 
credimus34444 ,habet haec opinio fidem  
ex ,mosis narratione2 qui ante  coelum  
id est firmamentum1 terram1 et aquarum  

abyssum extitisse  refert4444 ,nam illud
 ,severiani valde probatur1 prima die   
,deum omnia  creasse3 reliquis autem    
diebus1 ex jam extantibus3 ,ubi primam  
diem non  lucis tantum creatione        
circumscribit3 sed quod ante illam      
factum est1  id eidem tribuit4 ,quod    
intervallum quantum fuerit1 nulla       
divinatio  posset assequi4 ,neque vero  
mundi corpora illa1 quae prima omnium   
extitisse docui1 aquam et terram1       
arbitror eodem1 in quem lucis ortus     
incidit1 fabricata esse die2 ut         
quibusdam placet1 haud satis firma      
ratione40--,ibid41 cap4 #aj1 sect4 #f4  
7#af47 ,a ,,lapide4--,p4 #cjg4    8,s4  
,basilius et ,beda putant coelum et     
terram non primo die1 sed paulo  ante   
primum diem1 utpote ante lucem1 create  
esse4 ,verum haec non ante1  sed ipso   
primo die1 puta initio primae diei1     
antequam lux produceretur1  creata esse1
 patet ,exodi xx4 v4 #aa40--;,comment4  
in ,genes41 cap4 #a1 v4 #a4      7#ag47 
,,saint ,,augustine4--,p4 #cjh4         

8,fecisti ante omnem diem in principio  
coelum et terram40--,confess4  ,lib4    
xii4 cap4 #ab3 see also ,lib4 xii4 cap4 
#h4 ,and again1 ,de ,genesi ad          
,litteram1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 #i1 he         
writes3--8,atque illud ante omnem diem  
fecisse intelligitur1 quod dictum est1  
,in principio fecit ,deus coelum  et    
terram2 444 ,terrae autem nomine        
invisibilis et incompositae1 ac         
tenebrosa abysso1 imperfectio corporalis
 substantiae significata est1  unde     
temporalia illa fierent1 quorum prima   
esset lux40      7#ah47 ,,petavius4--,p4
 #caa4    8,quod intervallum quantum    
fuerit1 nulla divinatio posset          
assequi40--,de  ,opific4 ,sex ,dierum1  
,lib4 i4 cap4 #aj1 sec4 #f4      7#ai47 
,,perrerius4--,p4 #caa4    8,quanto     
autem tempore status ille mundi         
tenebrosus duraverit1 hoc est1  utrum   
plus an minus quam unus dies continere  
solet1 nec mihi compertum  est1 nec     
opinor cuiquam mortalium1 nisi cui      
divinitus id esset                      

patefactum40--,comment4 in ,genes41 cap4
 #a1 v4 #d4      7#bj47 ,,hugh ,,of     
,,saint ,,victor4--,p4 #caa4            
8,fortassis jam satis est de his        
hactenus disputasse1 si hoc solum       
adjecerimus quanto tempore mundus in hac
 confusione1 prius quam ejus  dispositio
 inchoaretur1 perstiterit4 ,nam quod    
illa prima rerum omnium  materia1 in    
principio temporis1 vel potius cum ipso 
tempore exorta sit1  sonstat ex eo quod 
dictum est3 in principio creavit ,deus  
coelum et  terram4 ,quamdiu autem in hac
 informitate sive confusione            
permanserit1  ,scriptura manifeste non  
ostendit40--,de ,sacram41 ,lib4 i41 pars
 i4 cap4  #f4      7#ba47 ,,saint       
,,augustine4--,p4 #cai4    8,qui dies   
cujusmodi sint1 aut perdifficile nobis1 
aut etiam impossibile  est cogitare2    
quanto magis dicere40--,de ,civitate    
,dei1 ,lib4 xi4 cap4 #f4    ,again3     
8,arduum quidem et difficillimum est    
viribus intentionis  nostrae1 voluntatem
 scriptoris in istis sex diebus mentis  

vivacitate  penetrare40--,de ,genesi ad 
,litteram1 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 #a4           
7#bb47 ,,idem4--,p4 #cai4    8,ac sic   
per omnes illos dies units est dies1 non
 istorum dierum  consuetudine           
intelligendus1 quos videmus solis       
circuitu determinari  atque numerari2   
sed alio quodam modo1 a quo et illi tres
 dies1 qui  ante conditionem istorum    
luminarium commemorati sunt1 alieni esse
 non  possunt4 ,is enim modus non usque 
ad diem quartum1 ut inde jam istos      
usitatos cogitaremus1 sed usque ad      
sextum septimumque perductus est2 ut    
longe aliter accipiendus sit dies et    
nox1 inter quae duo divisit ,deus1  et  
aliter iste dies et nox1 inter quae     
dixit ut dividant luminaria  quae       
creavit1 cum ait1 #8,et dividant inter  
diem et noctem4' ,tunc enim  hunc diem  
condidit1 cum condidit solem1 cujus     
praesentia eumdem  exhibet diem3 ille   
autem dies primitus conditus jam triduum
 peregerat  cum haec luminaria illius   
diei quarta repetitione creata          

sunt40--,de  ,genesi ad ,litteram1 ,lib4
 iv4 cap4 #bf4 8,de quo enim ,creatore  
,scriptura  ista narravit1 quod sex     
diebus consummaverit omnia opera sua1 de
  illo alibi non utique dissonanter     
scriptum est1 quod creaverit omnia      
simul 7,eccles4 xviii4 #a74 ,ac per hoc 
et istos dies sex vel septem vel  potius
 unum sexies septiesve repetitum simul  
fecit qui fecit omnia  simul4 ,quid ergo
 opus erat sex dies tam distincte       
dispositeque narrari8  ,quia scilicet ii
 qui non possunt videre quod dictum est1
 #8,creavit  omnia simul2' nisi cum eis 
sermo tardius incedat ad id quo eos     
ducit1  pervenire non possunt40--,ib4   
cap4 #cc4      7#bc74 ,,philo           
,,jud,,us4--,p4 #cbj4    8,tum igitur   
omnia simul sunt condita4 ,in quo quidem
 universali  opificio necesse erat      
servari ordinem40--,de ,mundi ,opificio2
 ,edit4  ,francofurti1 p4 #ad4 ,this    
passage may1 at first sight1 appear     
somewhat  obscure2 but the meaning of it
 is made clear enough1 when we read     

elsewhere in the same writer3           
8,rusticanae simplicilatis est putare1  
sex diebus1 aut utique certo tempore    
mundum conditum4444 ,ergo cum  audis3   
#8,complevit sexto die opera1           
intelligere non debes de diebus         
aliquot1 sed de senario perfecto        
numero4'0--,de ,legis ,allegor42 ,edit4 
,francofurti1 p4 #da4      7#bd74       
,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria4--,p4 #cbj4 
,stromatum1 ,lib4 vi4 ,edit4 ,benid4 p4 
#bia2 ,edit4 ,migne1 ,patrum ,graec4    
,cursus ,completus1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #cgj-e4
 ,see also ,dissertatio de ,libris      
,stromatum1 by the learned ,benedictine1
 ,nicholas le ,nourry1 cap4 viii4       
artic4 #a4      7#be74 ,,origen4--,p4   
#cbj4    8,quod autem prima die lucem1  
secunda firmamentum creaverit1 tertia   
aquae quae sub coelo erant1 in suis     
fuerint collectae receptaculis1  atque  
ita terra solius naturae administratione
 suos fructus protulerit2  quod quarta  
creata fuerint luminaria et stellae1    
quinta vero natatilia1  sexta demum     

terrestria et homo1 haec omnia1 prout   
facultas tulit1 in  nostris in ,genesim 
commentariis explicavimus4 ,quin et     
supra contra  eos qui obvio sensu       
,scripturam interpretantes asserunt sex 
dies ad  creationem mundi insumptos     
fuisse1 adduximus hunc locum3 #8,iste   
est  liber generationis coeli et terrae 
quando creata sunt1 in die quo  fecit   
,deus coelum et terram1'0--,contra      
,celsum1 ,lib4 vi4 ,edit4 ,bened4  pp4  
#fgh1 #fgi2 ,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4       
,graecor4 ,cursus ,completus1 vol4 #aa1 
p4 #acij3 for the passage referred to at
 the close of the extract see  p4 #acgh4
 ,the ,commentary upon ,genesis of which
 ,origen here speaks no  longer exists1 
but the following passage has been      
preserved4 8,aliqui  jam absurdum       
existimantes ,deum architecti more non  
aliter1 quam plurium  dierum1 labore1   
fabricam valentis absolvere1 intra      
multos dies mundum  perfecisse uno      
cuncta momento ac simul extitisse aiunt1
 et hinc illud  adstruunt2 ordinis autem

 causa1 et ut series constet1 dierum et 
rerum  quae in illis factae sunt1       
numerum dictum putant4 ,hi probabiliter 
sententiam stabiliunt ea auctoritate qua
 dictum est3 #8,ipse dixit et  facta    
sunt2 ipse mandavit1 et creata          
sunt4'0--,selecta in ,genesim1 ,edit4   
,bened4 p4 #bg2 ,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4   
,graec4 ,cursus ,completus1 vol4 #ab1 p4
  #ih4 ,again1 in his ,treatise ,de     
,principiis1 ,lib4 iv41 he says3 8,quis 
igitur sanae mentis existimaverit primam
 et secundam et tertiam diem1  et       
vesperam1 et mane1 sine sole1 luna1 et  
stellis1 et eam quae veluti  prima erat1
 diem sine coelo fuisse80 ,edit4 ,bened4
 p4 #age2 ,edit4 ,migne1  vol4 #aa1 p4  
#cgh4 ,see also ,p4 ,danielis ,huetii   
,origeniana1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4  #b1        
,quaest4 #h1  #f2 ,edit4 ,migne1 vol4   
#ag1 p4 #igi4      7#bf47 ,,saint       
,,athanasius4--,p4 #cbj4    8,cum ex    
supra dictis constet1 nullam e rebus    
creatis prius altera  factam esse1 sed  
res omnes factas uno eodemque mandato   

simul  extitisse40--,oratio ii4 ,contra 
,arianos1 n4 #fc4 ,edit4 ,bened4 p4     
#dah4 ,new  ,edition1 p4 #ebh4 ,edit4   
,migne1 ,patr4 ,graecor4 ,cursus        
,completus1 p4 #bge4      7#bg47 ,,saint
 ,,eucherius4--,p4 #cbj4    ,speaking   
strictly we should rather say the author
 of a ,commentary upon  ,genesis        
belonging to a very early period of the 
,church1 ascribed by  some to ,saint    
,eucherius1 and usually published with  
his works4 ,this  author says1 no doubt1
 that ,god first1 in the beginning1     
created the  substance of all things1   
and afterward developed the various     
forms  on successive days 7,gen4 ii4    
#d73 but then he tells us expressly that
  the substance did not precede the     
forms by any priority of time1 but  only
 by priority of origin 7,gen4 i4 #b74   
,thus his view coincides pretty  nearly 
with that of ,saint ,augustine1 whose   
words1 indeed1 he seems to  borrow4     
8#8,terra autem erat inanis et vacua4'  
,id est1 adhuc informis  erat ipsa      

materia3 quia necdum ex ea coelum et    
terra1 necdum omnia  formata erant1 quae
 formari restabant3 haec enim materia1  
ex nihilo  facta1 praecessit tamen res  
ex se factas1 non quidem aeternitate    
vel tempore1 sicut praecedit lignum     
arcam2 sed sola origine1 sicut          
praecedit vox verbum1 vel sonus cantum3 
nam #8qui vivit in aeternum  creavit    
omnia simul4'0--,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4   
,latin ,cursus ,completus1 vol4  #ej1 p4
 #hid4      7#bh47 ,,procopius ,,of     
,,gaza4--,p4 #cbj4    ,we quote this    
writer on the authority of ,perrerius1  
from whom the  following passage is     
taken4 8,idem censet hoc loco ,procopius
 ,gazus3  ,mozen enim1 inquit1 in       
describendo mundi opificium1 sex dierum 
distinctione usum esse docendi gratia ob
 tarditatem1 videlicet1  ruditatemque   
,judorum1 quibus hc scribebat3 qui qu   
,deus simul  fecerat1 ob tantam eorum   
multitudinem atque varietatem simul et  
indiscrete capere et comprehendere1 ut  
erant angustissimis ingeniis  nequaquam 

potuissent40--,in ,genes41 cap4 #b1     
vers4 #d1 #e1 #f1 n4 #agi4      7#bi47  
,,albertus ,,magnus4--,p4 #cbj4         
8,videtur mihi ,augustino               
consentiendum40--,summa ,p4 #a1 ,qust4  
#ab1 art4 #f4  ,see ,pianciani1         
,cosmogonia ,naturale1 p4 #bc4          
7#cj47 ,,saint ,,thomas4--,p4 #cbj4     
,summa ,pars4 #a4 ,qust4 #gd1 art4 ii42 
also in an earlier work1 ,super  ,libros
 ,sententiarum ,petri ,lombardi         
,commentarius1 ,distinct4 xii4 art4 i4  
and iii4 ,having explained the opinion  
of ,saint ,augustine that there was  no 
real succession in the order of time    
between the various works of  the       
creation1 but that all were created     
together2 and also the opinion  of other
 ,holy ,fathers1 that there was a real  
succession1 he continues  thus3 8,prima 
ergo opinio ,sancti ,augustini magis    
convenit rationi1  nec est contra       
,scripturam2 quia ea quae in ,scriptura 
ordinem temporis  importare videntur1 ad
 ordinem naturae ,augustinus refert3    

secunda vero  magis convenit ,scripturae
 secundum suam superficiem4 ,quia ergo  
utraque  a ,sanctis patrocinium habet1  
utramque sustinendo1 objectionibus hinc 
inde factis respondendum est40--,loco   
citato1 art4 i4 ,solutio4      7#ca47   
,,cardinal ,,cajetan4--,p4 #cbj4    ,we 
are again indebted to ,perrerius for the
 views of ,cardinal ,cajetan4  ,he      
writes thus3 8,accedit huic sententi    
,cajet4 in ,comment4 super i4  cap4     
,genes41 et distinctionem sex dierum    
putat in id positam a ,mose1  quo       
facilius declararet naturalem rerum     
ordinem1 consequentiam et  dependentiam4
 ,sic enim res suapt natura inter se apt
 et connex sunt1  ut si mundum successiv
 voluisset ,deus facere1 non alio ordine
 vel  successione1 qum ut hic narratur1 
facturus eum fuisset40--,in ,genes41    
cap4 ii4 vers4 #d1 #e1 #f1 n4 #agi4     
7#cb47 ,,venerable ,,bede4--,p4 #cbc4   
8,aperte intelligi quia diem hoc loco   
,scriptura pro omni illo tempore  ponit 
quo primordialis natura formata est4    

,neque enim in unoquolibet  sex dierum  
coelum factum est et sideribus          
illustratum1 et terra est  separata ab  
aquis1 atque arboribus et herbis        
consita2 sed more  sibi solito          
,scriptura diem pro tempore ponit2      
quomodo ,apostolus1  cum ait1 #8,ecce   
nunc dies salutis1' non unum specialiter
 diem1 sed  totum significat tempus hoc 
quo in praesenti vita pro aeterna salute
  laboramus40--,hexaemeron1 ,lib4 i4 in 
,gen4 ii4 #d2 ,edit4 ,migne1 ,patr4     
,lat4  ,cursus ,completus1 vol4 #ia1 p4 
#ci4      7#cc47 ,,saint                
,,augustine4--,p4 #cbc4    8,superius   
septem dies numerantur1 nunc unus       
dicitur dies1 quo die fecit  ,deus      
coelum et terram1 et omne viride agri1  
et omne pabulum1 cujus  diei nomine omne
 tempus significari bene intelligitur4  
,fecit enim ,deus  omne tempus simul cum
 omnibus creaturis temporalibus1 quae   
creaturae  visibiles coeli et terrae    
nomine significantur40--,de ,genesi     
contra  ,manichaeos1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #c1 

n4 #d4      7#cd47 ,,molina4--,p4 #cbc4 
8,dicunt ,doctores communiter1 ,moysem  
eo loco sumpsisse diem pro  tempore     
juxta illud ,deuteronomii xxxii41 juxta 
est dies perditionis1  444 et alibi     
saepe1 in ,scriptura sumitur dies pro   
tempore40--,in primam  partem1 ,de opere
 sex dierum1 ,d4 ,i4 ,see ,pianciani1   
,cosmogonia ,naturale1  p4 #bg4         
7#ce47 ,,bannez4--,p4 #cbc4    8,dies   
potest accipi pro quacumque duratione et
 mensura40--,in ,summa1  ,pars #a4      
,qust4 #gc4      7#cf47                 
,,perrerius4--,p4 #cbc4    8,nec officit
 huic sententiae1 quod paullo superius  
ex cap4 ii4 ,geneseos  prolatum est1    
#8,in die quo fecit ,dominus ,deus      
coelum et terram4'  ,ibi enim dies pro  
tempore1 sicut crebro fit in ,scriptura1
 positus  est40--,in ,gen4 cap4 i4 v4   
#d1 n4 #hj2 see also cap4 ii41 n4 #ahf4 
7#cg47 ,,petavius4--,p4 #cbc4           
8,postquam ,moyses sex dierum opificium 
toto primo capite descripsit1  mox in   
sequenti summatim universeque colligens1

 #8,istae sunt1' inquit1  #8generationes
 coeli et terrae1 quando creata sunt1 in
 die quo fecit  ,dominus ,deus coelum et
 terram4' ,quae verba non unius diei    
mentionem  faciunt1 ut quibusdam        
videtur2 qui primum diem designari      
putant1 in quo  factum illud est1       
praeter lucem1 quod initio libri ,moyses
 explicat1 #8,in  principio creavit     
,deus coelum et terram4' ,sed eam nos   
opinionem minime  probamus1 ac supra    
docuimus1 diei nomen istic usurpari pro 
tempore3  quod apud ,graecos            
,latinosque1 non minus quam ,hebraeos1  
usitatem est4  ,exemplo sit ,ciceronis  
illud ex libro secundo in ,verrem3      
#8,itaque cum  ego diem in ,siciliam    
inquirendi prexiguam postulavissem1     
invenit iste1  qui sibi in ,achaiam     
biduo breviorem diem postularet4'       
,igitur cum  dixisset1 in die1 id est   
tempore illo1 factum esse coelum et     
terram1  hoc est perpolitum et          
elaboratum esse sex continuis diebus10  
etc4--,de  ,opificio ,sex ,dierum1 ,lib4

 i4 cap4 #ad1 sect4 #a4      7#ch47     
,,saint ,,augustine4--,p4 #cce4         
8,tres enim dies superiores quomodo esse
 sine sole potuerunt1 cum  videamus nunc
 solis ortu et occasu diem transigi1    
noctem vero fieri  solis absentia1 cum  
ab alia parte mundi ad orientem redit8  
,quibus  respondemus1 potuisse fieri ut 
tres superiores dies singuli per tantam 
moram temporis computarentur1 per       
quantam moram circumit sol1 ex quo      
procedit ab oriente quousque rursus ad  
orientem revertitur4 ,hanc  enim moram  
et longitudinem temporis possent sentire
 homines etiamsi  in speluncis          
habitarent1 ubi orientem et occidentem  
solem videre non  possent4 ,atque ita   
sentitur potuisse istam moram fieri     
etiam sine sole  antequam sol factus    
esset1 atque ipsam moram in illo triduo 
per dies  singulos computatam4 ,hoc ergo
 responderemus1 nisi nos revocaret1 quod
  ibi dicitur1 #8,et facta est vespera  
et factum est mane1' quod nunc sine     
solis cursu videmus fieri non posse4    

,restat ergo ut intelligamus1 in  ipsa  
quidem mora temporis ipsas distinctiones
 operum sic appellatas1  vesperam       
propter transactionem consummati operis1
 et mane propter  inchoationem futuri   
operis2 de similitudine scilicet        
humanorum operum1  quia plerumque a mane
 incipiunt1 et ad vesperam desinunt4    
,habent enim  consuetudinem ,divinae    
,scripturae de rebus humanis ad divinas 
res verba  transferre40--,de ,genesi    
contra ,manichaeos1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 #ad1  
n4 #bj4      7#ci47 ,,saint             
,,eucherius4--,p4 #cce4    ,it is       
uncertain1 as we before observed1 if    
this commentary is the  genuine work of 
,saint ,eucherius2 at all events it is  
the production of  some learned and     
,catholic writer of the fifth or sixth  
century4 ,his  words run thus3 8,vespere
 conditae creaturae terminus2 mane      
initium  condendae creaturae            
alterius40--,comment4 in ,genes4 cap4 i4
 v4 #d2 ,edit4  ,migne1 ,patr4 ,latin4  
,cursus ,completus1 vol4 #ej1 p4 #hig4  

,and again in v4  #aj et seqq43--8,si   
quarto die facta sunt luminaria1 quomodo
 tres dies  jam ante fuerunt8 nisi ut   
intelligamus1 in ipsa hora temporis     
ipsas  operum distinctiones ita         
appellatas2 vesperam propter            
transactionem  consummati operis2 mane  
propter inchoationem futuri diei2 in    
similitudinem humanorum operum quod     
plerique mane incipiunt et in  vesperam 
desinunt40--,ib4 p4 #hii4      7#dj47   
,,venerable ,,bede4--,p4 #cce4    8,quid
 est vespere nisi ipsa perfectio        
singulorum operum8 et mane1  id est     
inchoatio sequentium80--,de ,sex ,dierum
 ,creatione1 ,de ,prima ,die2  ,edit4   
,migne1 ,patrum ,lat4 ,cursus           
,completus1 vol4 #ic1 p4 #baj4    ,in   
another place he says3 8,vespere autem  
in toto illo triduo1 antequam  luminaria
 essent1 consummati operis terminus non 
absurde fortasse  intelligitur2 ,mane   
autem futur operationis                 
significatio40--,in  ,pentateuchum      
,comment4 ,gen4 cap4 i42 ,edit4 ,migne1 

vol4 #ia1 p4 #aid4      7#da47 ,,saint  
,,hildegarde4--,p4 #cce4    8,sex enim  
dies1 sex opera sunt2 quia inceptio et  
completio singuli  cujusque operis dies 
dicitur40--,epist4 ad ,colonienses4 ,see
 ,pianciani1  ,cosmogonia1 p4 #cd4      
7#db47 ,,saint ,,augustine4--,p4 #cdb4  
8,dies autem septimus sine vespere est  
nec habet occasum40--,confess4  ,lib4   
xiii4 cap4 xxxvi4      7#dc47           
,,venerable ,,bede4--,p4 #cdb4    8,quia
 finem non habet1 neque ullo termino    
clauditur40--,de ,sex ,dierum           
,creatione1 ,de ,die ,septima2 ,edit4   
,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4 ,cursus ,completus1
  vol4 #ic1 p4 #bah4 ,and elsewhere he  
says3 8,septimus dies coepit a mane et  
in nullo vespere terminatur40--,in      
,pentateuch ,comment41 ,gen4 ii42 ,edit4
  ,migne1 vol4 #ia1 p4 #bjc4      7#dd47
 ,,saint ,,augustine4--,p4 #cee4        
8,eligat quis quod potest3 tantum ne    
aliquid temere atque incognitum pro     
cognito asserat2 memineritque se hominem
 de divinis operibus quantum            

permittitur qurere40--,de ,genesi ,liber
 ,imperfectus1 cap4 ix41 n4 #hj4        
,illustration          ,,appendix ,,to  
,,the ,,american ,,edition4    ,from    
,prof4 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana's ,manual of       
,geology4 #hvo4 ,philadelphia3 ,t4      
,bliss  ,co4 ,by permission of the      
author4      ,,cosmogony4    ,the       
science of cosmogony treats of the      
history of creation4    ,geology        
comprises that later portion of the     
history which is within  the range of   
direct investigation1 beginning with the
 rock-covered  globe1 and gathering only
 a few hints as to a previous state of  
igneous  fluidity4    ,through          
,astronomy our knowledge of this earlier
 state becomes less  doubtful1 and we   
even discover evidence of a period still
 more remote4  ,ascertaining thence that
 the sun of our system is in intense    
ignition1  that the moon1 the earth's   
satellite1 was once a globe of fire1 but
 is  now cooled and covered with extinct
 craters1 and that space is filled  with

 burning suns1--and learning also from  
physical science that all  heated bodies
 in space must have been losing heat    
through past time1  the smallest most   
rapidly1--we safely conclude that the   
earth has  passed through a stage of    
igneous fluidity4    ,again1 as to the  
remoter period3 the forms of the nebul  
and of other  starry systems in the     
heavens1 and the relations which subsist
 between  the spheres in our own system1
 have been found to be such as would    
have resulted if the whole universe had 
been evolved from an original  nebula or
 gaseous fluid4 ,it is not necessary for
 the strength of this  argument that any
 portion of the primal nebula should    
exist now at  this late period in the   
history of the universe3 it is only what
 might  have been expected that the     
nebul of the present heavens should be  
turning out to be clusters of stars4    
,if1 then1 this nebular theory be  true1
 the universe has been developed from a 
primal unit1 and the earth  is one of   

the individual orbs produced in the     
course of its evolution4  ,its history  
is in kind like that which has been     
deciphered with regard  to the earth3 it
 only carries the action of physical    
forces1 under a  sustaining and         
directing hand1 further back in time4   
,the science also of ,chemistry is      
aiding in the study of the earth's      
earliest development1 and is preparing  
itself to write a history of the        
various changes which should have taken 
place among the elements from  the first
 commencement of combination to the     
formation of the solid  crust of our    
globe4    ,it is not proposed to enter  
either into chemical or astronomical    
details in this place1 but1 supposing   
the nebular theory to be true1  briefly 
to mention the great stages of progress 
in the history of the  earth1 or those  
successive periods which stand out      
prominently in  time through the        
exhibition of some new idea in the grand
 system of  progress4 ,the views here   

offered1 and the following on the       
cosmogony of  the ,bible1 are           
essentially those brought out by        
,professor ,guyot in his  lectures4     
,stages of progress4--,these stages of  
progress are as follow3--    7#a47 ,the 
,,beginning ,,of ,,activity ,,in        
,,matter4--,in such a beginning from    
matter in the state of a gaseous fluid  
the activity would be intense1  and it  
would show itself at once by a          
manifestation of light1 since  light is 
a resultant of molecular activity4 ,a   
flash of light through  the universe    
would therefore be the first            
announcement of the work  begun4        
7#b47 ,the development of the           
,,earth4--,a dividing and sub-dividing  
of  the original fluid going on would   
have evolved systems of various  grades1
 and ultimately the orbs of space1 among
 these the earth1 an  igneous sphere    
enveloped in vapors4    7#c47 ,the      
production of the ,,earth',s ,,physical 
,,features1--by the  outlining of the   

continents and oceans4 ,the condensible 
vapors would  have gradually settled    
upon the earth as cooling progressed4   
7#d47 ,the introduction of ,,life under 
its simplest forms1--as in the  lowest  
of plants1 and perhaps1 also of animals4
 ,as shown on page #cif1  the systems of
 structure characterizing the two       
kingdoms of nature1 the  ,radiate of the
 ,vegetable kingdom1 and the ,radiate1  
,molluscan1  ,articulate1 and           
,vertebrate of the ,animal1 are not     
brought out  in the simplest forms of   
life4 ,the true ,zoic era in history    
began  later4 ,as plants are primarily  
the food of animals1 there is reason for
  believing that the idea of life was   
first expressed in a plant4    7#e47    
,the display of the ,,systems in the    
,kingdoms of ,life1--the  exhibition of 
the four grand types under the ,animal  
kingdom1 being the  predominant idea in 
this phase of progress4    7#f47 ,the   
introduction of the highest class of    
,vertebrates--that of  the ,,mammals    

7the class to which ,,man belongs71     
viviparous species1  which are eminent  
above all other ,vertebrates for a      
quality prophetic  of a high moral      
purpose1--that of suckling their young4 
7#g47 ,the introduction of ,,man1--the  
first being of moral and  intellectual  
qualities1 and one in whom the unity of 
nature has its  full expression4        
,there is another great event in the    
,earth's history which has not  yet been
 mentioned1 because of a little         
uncertainty with regard to  its exact   
place among the others4 ,the event      
referred to is the first  shining of the
 sun upon the earth1 after the vapors   
which till then had  shrouded the sphere
 were mostly condensed4 ,this must have 
preceded the  introduction of the       
,animal system1 since the sun is the    
grand source  of activity throughout    
nature on the earth1 and is essential to
 the  existence of life1 excepting its  
lowest forms4 ,in the history of the    
globe which has been given on page #aif1

 it has been shown that the  outlining  
of the continents was one of the        
earliest events1 dating even  from the  
,azoic age2 and it is probable1 from the
 facts stated1 that it  preceded that   
clearing of the atmosphere which opened 
the sky to the  earth4 ,this would place
 the event between numbers #c and #e1   
and as the  sun's light was not         
essential to the earliest of organisms1 
probably  after number #d4    ,the order
 will1 then1 be--    7#a47 ,activity    
begun1--light an immediate result4      
7#b47 ,the earth made an independent    
sphere4    7#c47 ,outlining of the land 
and water1 determining the earth's      
general  configuration4    7#d47 ,the   
idea of life expressed in the lowest    
plants1 and afterward1  if not          
contemporaneously1 in the lowest or     
systemless animals1 or  ,protozoans4    
7#e47 ,the energizing light of the sun  
shining on the earth1--an  essential    
preliminary to the display of the       
systems of life4    7#f47 ,introduction 

of the system of life4    7#g47         
,introduction of ,mammals1 the highest  
order of ,vertebrates1--the  class      
afterward to be dignified by including a
 being of moral and  intellectual       
nature4    7#h47 ,introduction of ,man4 
,cosmogony of the ,bible4--,there is one
 ancient document on  cosmogony--that of
 the opening page of the ,bible--which  
is not only  admired for its sublimity1 
but is very generally believed to be  of
 divine origin1 and which1 therefore1   
demands at least a brief  consideration 
in this place4    ,in the first place1  
it may be observed that this document if
 true1 is  of divine origin4 ,for no    
human mind was witness of the events2   
and no  such mind in the early age of   
the world1 unless gifted with superhuman
  intelligence1 could have contrived    
such a scheme2--would have placed  the  
creation of the sun1 the source of light
 to the earth1 so long  after the       
creation of light1 even on the fourth   
day1 and1 what is  equally singular1    

between the creation of plants and that 
of animals1  when so important to both2 
and none could have reached to the      
depths of  philosophy exhibited in the  
whole plan4    ,again1 ,if divine1 the  
account must bear marks of human        
imperfection1  since it was communicated
 through man4 ,ideas suggested to a     
human mind  by the ,deity would take    
shape in that mind according to its     
range of  knowledge1 modes of thought1  
and use of language1 unless it were at  
the same time supernaturally gifted with
 the profound knowledge and  wisdom     
adequate to their conception2 and even  
then they could not be  intelligibly    
expressed1 for want of words to         
represent them4    ,the central thought 
of each step in the ,scripture          
cosmogony--for  example1 ,light1--the   
dividing of the fluid earth from the    
fluid  around it1 individualizing the   
earth1--the arrangement of its land  and
 water1--vegetation1--and so on--is     
brought out in the simple and  natural  

style of a sublime intellect1 wise for  
its times1 but unversed  in the depths  
of science which the future was to      
reveal4 ,the idea  of vegetation to such
 a one would be vegetation as he knew   
it2 and  so it is described4 ,the idea  
of dividing the earth from the fluid    
around it would take the form of a      
dividing from the fluid above1 in  the  
imperfect conceptions of a mind         
unacquainted with the earth's           
sphericity and the true nature of the   
firmament1--especially as the  event was
 beyond the reach of all ordinary       
thought4        ,objections are often   
made to the word 8day10--as if its use  
limited the time of each of the six     
periods to a day of      twenty-four    
hours4 ,but in the course of the        
document this word      8day0 has       
various significations1 and1 among them1
 all that      are common to it in      
ordinary language4 ,these are--7#a7 ,the
      light1--8,god called the light    
day10 v4 #e2 7#b7 the 8evening      and 

the morning0 before the appearance of   
the sun2 7#c7 the      8evening and the 
morning0 after the appearance of the    
sun2 7#d7      the hours of light in the
 twenty-four hours 7as well as the      
whole twenty-four hours71 in verse #ad2 
and 7#e7 in the following      chapter1 
at the commencement of another record of
 creation1      the whole period of     
creation is called a 8day40 ,the proper 
meaning of 8evening and morning10 in a  
history of creation1 is      beginning  
and completion2 and1 in this sense1     
darkness before      light is but a     
common metaphor4        ,a ,deity       
working in creation like a day-laborer  
by earth-days      of twenty-four hours1
 resting at night1 is a belittling      
conception1 and one probably never in   
the mind of the sacred      penman4 ,in 
the plan of an infinite ,god1 centuries 
are required      for the maturing of   
some of the plants with which the earth 
is      adorned4    ,the order of events
 in the ,scripture cosmogony corresponds

 essentially  with that which has been  
given4 ,there was first a void and      
formless  earth3 this was literally true
 of the 8heavens and the earth10 if they
  were in a condition of a gaseous      
fluid4 ,the succession is as follows3   
7#a47 ,light4    7#b47 ,the dividing of 
the waters below from the waters above  
the earth1  7the word translated waters 
may mean fluid47    7#c47 ,the dividing 
of the land and water on the earth4     
7#d47 ,vegetation2 which ,moses1        
appreciating the philosophical          
characteristic of the new creation      
distinguishing it from previous         
inorganic substances1 defines as that   
8which has seed in itself40    7#e47    
,the sun1 moon1 and stars4    7#f47 ,the
 lower animals1 those that swarm in the 
waters1 and the  creeping and flying    
species of the land4    7#g47 ,beasts of
 prey 78creeping0 here meaning          
8prowling07--    7#h47 ,man4    ,in this
 succession1 we observe not merely an   
order of events1 like  that deduced from

 science2 there is a system in the      
arrangement1 and  a far-reaching        
prophecy1 to which philosophy could not 
have attained1  however instructed4     
,the account recognizes in creation two 
great eras of three days  each1--an     
,inorganic and an ,organic4    ,each of 
these eras opens with the appearance of 
light3 the first1  light cosmical2 the  
second1 light from the sun for the      
special uses  of the earth4    ,each are
 ends in a 8day0 of two great           
works1--the two shown to be  distinct by
 being severally pronounced 8good40 ,on 
the third 8day10  that closing the      
,inorganic era1 there was first the     
dividing of the  land from the waters1  
and afterward the creation of           
vegetation1  or the institution of a    
kingdom of life1--a work widely diverse 
from  all preceding it in the era4 ,soon
 the sixth 8day10 terminating the       
,organic era1 there was first the       
creation of ,mammals1 and then a  second
 far greater work1 totally new in its   

grandest element1 the  creation of ,man4
    ,the arrangement is1 then1 as       
follows3--      #a4 ,the ,inorganic     
,era4      #ast ,day4--,,light cosmical4
      #b;d ,day4--,the earth divided    
from the fluid around it1 or            
individualized4                #a4      
,outlining of the land and water4       
#c;d ,day4-- #b4 ,creation of           
vegetation4        #b4 ,the ,organic    
,era4      #dth ,day4--,,light from the 
sun4      #eth ,day4--,creation of the  
lower orders of animals4      #fth      
,day4-- #a4 ,creation of ,mammals4      
#b4 ,creation of ,man4    ,in addition1 
the last day of each era included one   
work typical of the  era1 and another   
related to it in essential points1 but  
also prophetic  of the future4          
,vegetation1 while1 for physical        
reasons1 a part of the  creation of the 
third day1 was also prophetic of the    
future ,organic  era1 in which the      
progress of life was the grand          
characteristic4 ,the  record thus       

accords with the fundamental principle  
in history that the  characteristic of  
an age has its beginnings within the age
 preceding4  ,so1 again1 ,man1 while    
like other ,mammals in structure1 even  
to the  homologies of every bone and    
muscle1 was endowed with a spiritual    
nature1 which looked forward to another 
era1 that of spiritual  existence4--,the
 seventh 8day10 the day of rest from the
 work of  creation1 is man's period of  
preparation for that new existence2 and 
it  is to promote this special end      
that--in strict parallelism--the        
,sabbath  follows man's six days of     
work4    ,the record in the ,bible is1  
therefore1 profoundly philosophical in  
the  scheme of creation which it        
presents4 ,it is both true and divine4  
,it  is a declaration of authorship1    
both of ,creation and the ,bible1 on the
  first page of the sacred volume4      
,there can be no real conflict between  
the two ,books of the ,,great  ,,author4
 ,both are revelations made by ,him to  

man1--the earlier telling  of ,god-made 
harmonies coming up from the deep past1 
and rising to their  height when man    
appeared1 the later teaching man's      
relations to his  ,maker1 and speaking  
of loftier harmonies in the eternal     
future4          ,,footnotes3           
,footnote #a3 ,twelve ,lectures on the  
,connection between ,science and        
,revealed ,religion1 by ,,nicholas      
,,wiseman1 ,d4,d41 ,principal of the    
,english  ,college1 and ,professor in   
the ,university of ,rome4 ,andover3     
,gould   ,newman1 #ahcg4    ,footnote   
#b3 ,prelectiones ,theologic4           
,footnote #c3 ,cosmogonia ,naturale     
comparata ,col ,genesi4    ,footnote #d3
 ,a ,manual of ,geology2 treating of the
 ,principles of the  science with       
special reference to ,american          
,geological ,history1 etc41 by  ,,james 
,d4 ,,dana1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d41 etc41   
#hvo1 pp4 #iih4 ,philadelphia3 ,thos4   
,bliss  ,co4    ,footnote #e3 ,january  
and ,july1 #ahef1 and ,april and ,july1 

#aheg1 covering  in all #bai pages1     
#hvo4    ,footnote #f3 ,the ,six ,days  
of ,creation1 or the ,scriptural        
,cosmology2  with the ,ancient ,idea of 
,time ,worlds in ,distinction from      
,worlds in  ,space1 by ,,tayler ,,lewis1
 ,professor of ,greek in ,union         
,college4 #abmo1 pp4  #djg4             
,schenectady1 #ahee4    ,footnote #g3   
,man in ,genesis and ,geology2 or1 the  
,bible account of ,man's  ,creation     
tested by ,scientific ,theories of his  
,origin and ,antiquity1 by  ,,joseph ,p4
 ,,thompson1 ,d4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,new    
,york1 #abmo1 pp4 #adi4 #ahgj4          
,footnote #h3 ,the ,chemical ,history of
 the ,six ,days of ,creation1 by ,,john 
,,phin1 editor of the ,technologist4    
,american ,news ,company1 ,new ,york1   
pp4  #ie1 #abmo1 #ahgj4    ,footnote #i3
 ,genesis1 or the ,first ,book of       
,moses1 together with a  ,general       
,theological and ,homitetical           
,introduction to the ,old ,testament1   
by ,,john ,,peter ,,lange1 ,d4 ,d41     

,professor in ,ordinary of ,theology in 
the  ,university of ,bonn4 ,translated  
from the ,german1 with additions by     
,professor ,,tayler ,,lewis1 ,,ll4 ,d41 
,schenectady1 ,new ,york1 and ,a4       
,,gosman1  ,d4 ,d41 ,lawrenceville1 ,n4 
,j4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner      
,co41 #fed  ,broadway4 #ahfh4 #hvo1 pp4 
#ffe4    ,footnote #aj3 #b ,cor4 vi4 #a4
    ,footnote #aa3 #b ,pet4 iii4 #aj4   
,footnote #ab3 ,rom4 i4 #ah4            
,footnote #ac3 ,it may be useful once   
for all to inform the reader that  the  
term ,rock is employed by ,geologists in
 a technical sense4 ,it is  applied to  
every large mass of mineral matter that 
goes to form the  ,crust of the ,earth1 
whether it be hard and strong1 or soft  
and plastic4  ,thus1 for example1 gravel
 and clay1 coal and slate1 are called   
,rocks1  just as well as limestone and  
granite4 8,our older writers endeavored 
to avoid offering such violence to our  
language1 by speaking of the  component 
materials of the ,earth as consisting of

 rocks and soils4  ,but there is often  
so insensible a passage from a soft and 
incoherent  state to that of stone1 that
 ,geologists of all countries have found
  it indispensable to have one technical
 term to include both1 and in  this     
sense we find roche applied in ,french1 
rocca in ,italian1 and  felsart in      
,german4 ,the beginner1 however1 must   
constantly bear in  mind1 that the term 
rock by no means implies that a mineral 
mass is in  an indurated or stony       
condition40--,lyell's ,elements of      
,geology1 p4 #d4    ,footnote #ad3      
,lyell's ,elements of ,geology1 p4 #g4  
,footnote #ae3 ,see ,lyell's ,principles
 of ,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #daa-dac4    
,footnote #af3 ,see ,jukes1 ,the        
,student's ,manual of ,geology1 p4 #abe4
    ,footnote #ag3 ,professor ,tyndall1 
,odds and ,ends of ,alpine ,life4       
,footnote #ah3 ,ecclesiastes1 i4 #g4    
,footnote #ai3 ,page1 ,advanced         
,text-,book of ,geology1 p4 #ee4        
,footnote #bj3 ,see on this subject1    

,lyell's ,principles of ,geology1 vol4  
i41 p4 #deh1 and pp4 #dhj-c2 ,jukes1    
,manual of ,geology1 pp4 #aje-aa2 ,page1
  ,advanced ,text-,book of ,geology1 pp4
 #eb-ef4    ,footnote #ba3 ,lyell1      
,principles of ,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4   
#cef-g4    ,footnote #bb3 ,principles of
 ,geology1 vol4 i41 p4 #cfj4            
,footnote #bc3 ,see ,jukes1 ,manual of  
,geology1 pp4 #ajh-aj2 ,hopkins1        
,presidential ,address to the           
,geological ,society of ,london1 #aheb1 
p4  xxvii4    ,footnote #bd3 ,for these 
facts see ,lyell1 ,principles of        
,geology1 vol4  i41 pp4 #cdi1 #cej2     
,quarterly ,journal of ,science1 ,no4   
xiii41 ,new ,series2  ,the ,english     
,cyclopdia1 ,natural ,history ,division1
 ,alluvium4    ,footnote #be3 ,for these
 facts illustrating the destructive     
action  of the waves of the sea we are  
chiefly indebted to the following       
authorities3 ,hibbert1 ,description of  
the ,shetland ,isles2 ,phillips1        
,rivers1 ,mountains1 and ,sea-coast of  

,yorkshire2 ,geology of ,yorkshire1 by  
the same author2 ,pennant's ,arctic     
,zoology1 vol4 i42 ,lyell's ,principles 
of ,geology1 vol4 i41 chapters xx4 and  
xxi42 ,gardner's ,history of the        
,borough of ,dunwich2 the ,english      
,cyclopdia1 ,alluvium4    ,footnote #bf3
 ,rennell's ,investigation of the       
,currents in the ,atlantic  ,ocean2     
,maury's ,physical ,geography of the    
,sea1 chapters ii4 and iii42            
,humboldt's ,cosmos2 ,the ,english      
,cyclopdia1 ,atlantic ,ocean2 ,lyell's  
,principles of ,geology1 vol4 i41       
chapter xx4    ,footnote #bg3 ,mantell's
 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #gj4          
,footnote #bh3 ,in his notes to the     
translation of ,humboldt's ,cosmos1 p4  
xcvii4    ,footnote #bi3 ,a ,hymn before
 ,sunrise in the ,vale of ,chamouni1 by 
,samuel  ,taylor ,coleridge4            
,footnote #cj3 ,lyell's ,principles of  
,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cgd-e4          
,footnote #ca3 ,voyage in #ahbb1 p4     
#bcc4    ,footnote #cb3 ,elements of    

,geology1 pp4 #ade1 #adf4    ,footnote  
#cc3 ,captain ,horsburg1 ,on ,icebergs  
in ,low ,latitudes4 ,phil4  ,trans41    
#ahcj4    ,footnote #cd3 ,agassiz1      
,etudes sur les ,glaciers2 ,tyndall1    
,glaciers of  the ,alps2 also ,heat as a
 mode of ,motion1 by the same ,author2  
,lyell1  ,principles of ,geology1 vol4  
i41 chapter xvi42 ,elements of ,geology1
  chapters xi41 xii42 ,wallace1 ,ice    
,marks in ,north ,wales1 in the         
,quarterly  ,journal of ,science1 ,no4  
xiii4    ,footnote #ce3 ,elements of    
,geology1 p4 #ch4    ,footnote #cf3     
,mantell1 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i41
 p4 #ajb4    ,footnote #cg3 ,lyell1     
,elements of ,geology1 p4 #db2 also     
,principles1 vol4  i41 p4 #daj4         
,footnote #ch3 ,mantell's ,wonders of   
,geology1 pp4 #gj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc4       
,footnote #ci3 ,lyell1 ,principles of   
,geology1 vol4 i41 p4 #dca4    ,footnote
 #dj3 ,id4 ib41 p4 #dbi4    ,footnote   
#da3 ,the figures given by ,sir ,charles
 ,lyell1 and derived from  the          

observations of ,mr4 ,everest1 are      
these3 total discharge during the  four 
months of rain1 #f1jhb1jda1fjj cubic    
feet2 total discharge during  the three 
months of hot weather1 #ch1aed1bdj cubic
 feet4--,principles of  ,geology1 vol4  
i41 p4 #dha4    ,footnote #db3 ,from a  
,special ,correspondent1 in the ,times  
,newspaper1  ,december #g1 #ahff4       
,footnote #dc3 ,horner1 ,alluvial ,land 
of ,egypt1 ,phil4 ,trans41 part ,i41    
for #ahee2 ,lyell1 ,principles of       
,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #dca-i4          
,footnote #dd3 ,the ,english ,cyclopdia1
 ,alluvium4    ,footnote #de3 ,lyell1   
,principles of ,geology1 vol4 i41       
chapters ,,xviii41  ,,xix4    ,footnote 
#df3 ,consolations in ,travel1 p4 #abg4 
,footnote #dg3 ,handbook of ,rome and   
its ,environs3 ,murray1 #aheh1 p4 #cbe4 
,footnote #dh3 ,lyell1 ,principles of   
,geology1 vol4 i41 #djj-c4    ,footnote 
#di3 ,jukes1 ,manual of ,geology1 p4    
#abg4    ,footnote #ej3 ,see his        
,lecture ,on a ,piece of ,chalk1        

delivered during the  ,meeting of the   
,british ,association at ,norwich1      
#ahfh4    ,footnote #ea3 ,lyell1        
,elements of ,geology1 p4 #cah4         
,footnote #eb3 ,lyell1 ,principles of   
,geology1 vol4 ii41 chap4 xlix42        
,mantell1 ,wonders of ,geology1 ,lecture
 vi42 ,jukes1 ,manual of ,geology1 pp4  
#acj-c4    ,footnote #ec3 ,sacred       
,philosophy of the ,seasons1 by the     
,rev4 ,henry  ,duncan1 ,d4,d42 ,summer1 
p4 #afh4    ,footnote #ed3 ,ps4 xcix4   
#c4    ,footnote #ee3 ,kotzebue's       
,voyages1 #ahae-ah1 vol4 iii41 pp4      
#cca-cc4    ,footnote #ef3 ,wonders of  
,geology1 p4 #fdh4    ,footnote #eg3    
,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world1  
vol4 ii41 p4 #af4    ,footnote #eh3     
,carbonic acid gas contains two         
equivalents of oxygen to  one of carbon1
 the chemical expression for the        
compound being ,,co#b2  carburetted     
hydrogen1 which is the gas we employ in 
illuminating our  streets and houses1   
contains four equivalents of hydrogen to

 two of  carbon1 and is chemically      
expressed by the symbols ,c#b;,h#d2     
water is  composed of one equivalent of 
oxygen1 and one of hydrogen1 the        
symbolic  form being ,,ho4    ,footnote 
#ei3 ,see ,jukes1 ,manual of ,geology1  
pp4 #ach-ada2 ,lyell1  ,elements of     
,geology1 p4 #ejj4    ,footnote #fj3    
,jukes1 ,manual of ,geology1 p4 #adj4   
,footnote #fa3 ,see ,mantell1 ,wonders  
of ,geology1 pp4 #fhj-b2 also #gfj2     
,lyell1 ,elements of ,geology1 #dfd1    
#dfe4    ,footnote #fb3 ,elements of    
,geology1 p4 #dhh4    ,footnote #fc3    
,mantell1 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #fg4 
,footnote #fd3 ,mantell1 ,wonders of    
,geology1 p4 #ff4    ,footnote #fe3 ,id4
 ,ib4    ,footnote #ff3 ,chemical       
,technology1 ,ronalds and ,richardson1  
vol4 i41 p4  #cb4    ,footnote #fg3 ,see
 ,lyell1 ,elements of ,geology1 #dgg-ha2
 ,jukes1 ,manual  of ,geology1 #ach1    
#adi-ec2 ,the ,english ,cyclopdia1      
,natural ,history  ,department1         
,article1 ,coal2 ,mantell1 ,fossils of  

the ,british ,museum1  ,chapter i41     
,part ,i4    ,footnote #fh3 ,page1      
,advanced ,text-,book of ,geology1 n4   
#g1 pp4 #bj1 #ba4    ,footnote #fi3     
,from the ,latin ,fossilis1 dug up4     
,footnote #gj3 ,elements of ,geology1 p4
 #ch4    ,footnote #ga3 ,elements of    
,geology1 p4 #dj4    ,footnote #gb3     
,manual of ,geology1 p4 #cge4           
,footnote #gc3 ,lyell1 ,elements of     
,geology1 pp4 #dj-da4 ,the reader will  
find a singularly clear and simple      
exposition of this subject in ,doctor   
,haughton's ,manual of ,geology1        
,lecture ,,iii42 an exposition which it 
was not our good fortune to have read   
until our own brief summary was  already
 in type4    ,footnote #gd3 ,buckland1  
,bridgewater ,treatise1 vol4 i41 p4     
#abc2 ,mantell1  ,wonders of ,geology1  
p4 #bfi2 ,lyell1 ,elements of ,geology1 
p4 #fhg4    ,footnote #ge3 ,mantell1    
,wonders of ,geology1 ,lecture ,,iv41   
,fossils of the  ,british ,museum1      
chapter ,v42 see1 also1 ,medals of      

,creation1 and ,fossils  of the ,south  
,downs1 by the same ,author4            
,footnote #gf3 ,owen's ,palontology1 pp4
 #bjj-i2 ,buckland1 ,bridgewater        
,treatise1 vol4 i41 pp4 #afh-ahf2       
,mantell1 ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4     
#egf-eha2 ,lyell1 ,elements of ,geology1
 pp4 #dbj-dbe2 ,jukes1 ,manual of       
,geology1 pp4 #eih-eii4    ,footnote    
#gg3 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise1
 vol4 i41 pp4 #bjb-ad2  ,owen's         
,palontology1 #bbc-bcb4    ,footnote    
#gh3 ,buckland1 ,bridgewater ,treatise1 
vol4 i41 pp4 #aci-afd2  ,owen's         
,palontology1 pp4 #cij-b2 ,mantell1     
,wonders of ,geology1 pp4 #aff-i2       
,fossils of the ,british ,museum1 pp4   
#dfe-dhj2 ,the ,english ,cyclopdia1     
,natural ,history ,division1 ,article1  
,megatherid4    ,footnote #gi3 ,lyell1  
,elements of ,geology1 p4 #d4           
,footnote #hj3 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 
#djj4    ,footnote #ha3 ,see ,lyell1    
,principles of ,geology1 vol4 i41 p4    
#ca1 who  refers to ,da ,vinci's ,,mss4 

now in the ,library of the ,institute of
  ,france4    ,footnote #hb3 ,see       
,lyell1 ,elements of ,geology1 pp4      
#id-if2 ,principles of  ,geology1 p4    
#aaf2 ,jukes1 ,manual of ,geology1 pp4  
#daj1 #daa4    ,footnote #hc3 ,elements 
of ,geology1 p4 #ie4    ,footnote #hd3  
,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 vol4   
i41 p4 #aae4    ,footnote #he3 ,lyell1  
,elements of ,geology1 p4 #ajj4         
,footnote #hf3 ,principles of ,geology1 
vol4 i41 p4 #cab4    ,footnote #hg3 ,ib4
 #cac4    ,footnote #hh3 ,principles of 
,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cba1 #cbb4      
,footnote #hi3 ,familiar ,lectures on   
,scientific ,subjects3 ,london1 #ahfg2  
pp4 #i1 #aj4    ,footnote #ij3 ,it would
 be more strictly correct to say that   
the rate  of increase varies            
considerably in different places1 though
 the main  fact is everywhere palpably  
apparent that the deeper we descend into
  the ,earth the higher the temperature 
becomes4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell records  a
 number of careful experiments made in  

,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and        
,italy1 which seem to show that an      
increase of one degree ,fahrenheit for  
every sixty-five feet of descent would  
represent pretty correctly the  general 
average4 ,see his ,principles of        
,geology1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bje1 #bjf4     
,footnote #ia3 ,see ,sir ,john          
,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on       
,scientific  ,subjects1 pp4 #bf1 #bg4   
,footnote #ib3 ,see the elaborate work  
of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 entitled    
,campi ,phlegraei1 in which he gives a  
full account of the formation  of ,monte
 ,nuovo1 accompanied with colored       
plates4 ,he has preserved  two          
interesting narratives of the eruption  
written at the time by  eye-witnesses4  
,see also ,lyell1 ,principles of        
,geology1 vol4 i41 pp4  #fjf-faf4       
,footnote #ic3 ,sir ,john ,herschel1    
,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific      
,subjects1 p4 #cd2 see also ,lyell1     
,principles of ,geology1 chap4 xxvii42  
,mantell1 ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4     

#hgb-d4    ,footnote #id3 ,see          
,herschel1 ,familiar ,lectures on       
,scientific ,subjects1  pp4 #cd-f4      
,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 vol4   
ii41 pp4 #ajd-f4    ,footnote #ie3      
,familiar ,lectures on ,scientific      
,subjects1 pp4 #ca1 #cb4    ,footnote   
#if3 ,principles of ,geology1 vol4 ii41 
pp4 #ei1 #fj4    ,footnote #ig3         
,principles of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 pp4   
#fi1 #gj4    ,footnote #ih3 ,for the    
account of these various ,earthquakes we
 are  mainly indebted to the            
indefatigable industry of ,sir ,charles 
,lyell1 who  has collected the facts    
with great care partly from the         
descriptions  of eye-witnesses1 and     
partly from authentic documents written 
upon the  spot4 ,see his ,principles of 
,geology1 vol4 ii41 chap1 xxviii41      
xxix41  xxx4 ,see also ,mr4 ,mallet's   
,earthquake ,catalogue2 and the first of
 ,sir  ,john ,herschel's ,lectures on   
,familiar ,subjects4    ,footnote #ii3  
,the following are the sources from     

which we have chiefly  derived our      
information regarding the ,peruvian     
,earthquake of #ahfh3 7#a7  a series of 
letters written upon the scene of the   
catastrophe1 and  published in ,the     
,times of ,september #bf1 #ahfh2 amongst
 them is one  from the ,british         
,vice-consul1 and one from the agent of 
the ,pacific  ,steam ,navigation        
,company1 who were both at the time     
residents of ,arica3  7#b7 a letter of  
,mr4 ,clements ,markham in ,the ,times  
of ,september #ae1  #ahfh3 7#c7 ,captain
 ,powell's ,report to the ,admiralty1   
dated ,september #ad1  #ahfh4           
,footnote #ajj3 ,lyell1 ,principles of  
,geology1 vol4 ii41 p4 #agf4            
,footnote #aja3 ,id4 ib4    ,footnote   
#ajb3 ,letter from ,c4 ,hullmandel1     
,esq42 see ,mantell1 ,wonders of        
,geology1 ,appendix ,g41 p4 #dgj4 ,for a
 full and elaborate disquisition on  the
 ,temple of ,jupiter ,serapis1 see also 
,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1  vol4  
ii41 chap4 xxv4    ,footnote #ajc3      

,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 vol4   
ii41 chap4 xxxi4    ,footnote #ajd3     
,ibid4    ,footnote #aje3 ,on a ,piece  
of ,chalk3 ,a ,lecture to ,working ,men4
    ,footnote #ajf3 ,genesis1 v4 #c-cb4 
,footnote #ajg3 ,ib41 xi4 #aj-bf4       
,footnote #ajh3 ,ib41 v4 #c-i4          
,footnote #aji3 ,genesis1 xii4 #d4      
,footnote #aaj3 ,the ,genesis of the    
,earth and ,man1 ,edited by ,reginald   
,stuart ,poole3 ,london2 ,williams and  
,norgate2 #ahfj4    ,footnote #aaa3     
8,sem was a hundred years old when he   
begot ,arphaxad1 two  years after the   
flood40--,genesis1 xi4 #aj4    ,footnote
 #aab3 ,this second ,cainan does not    
appear in the ,hebrew or the  ,samaritan
 version4    ,footnote #aac3 ,appendix  
7#a74    ,footnote #aad3 ,appendix 7#b74
    ,footnote #aae3 ,appendix 7#c74     
,footnote #aaf3 ,exodus1 xx4 #i-aa4     
,footnote #aag3 ,appendix 7#d71 7#e71   
7#f74    ,footnote #aah3 ,see ,gesenius1
 sub vocibus4    ,footnote #aai3        
,appendix 7#g74    ,footnote #abj3      

,appendix 7#h74    ,footnote #aba3      
,appendix 7#i74    ,footnote #abb3      
,appendix 7#aj74    ,footnote #abc3     
,appendix 7#aa7 7#ab74    ,footnote     
#abd3 ,appendix 7#ac7 7#ad7 7#ae74      
,footnote #abe3 ,appendix 7#af74        
,footnote #abf3 ,in ,genes4 cap4 i4     
,qust4 xiv4    ,footnote #abg3 ,appendix
 7#ag74    ,footnote #abh3 ,see his     
various works upon ,genesis1 passim2 in 
particular de ,genesi ad ,literam1 ,lib4
 i4 cap4 xv41 ,lib4 iv4 cap4  xxxiii42  
,de ,genesi ,liber ,imperfectus1 cap4   
vii4 and cap4 ix4    ,footnote #abi3    
,this latter view might be fairly       
maintained in  conformity with the      
principles which ,saint ,augustine      
professes to  follow in the             
interpretation of ,genesis4 ,see ,de    
,genesi ad ,literam1 ,lib4  i4 cap4 xxi4
 and cap4 xxii4    ,footnote #acj3 ,see 
,de ,genesi ad ,literam1 ,lib4 i4 cap4  
xv42 ,de ,genesi  ,liber ,imperfectus1  
cap4 vii42 ,confess41 ,lib4 xii4 cap4   
xxix4    ,footnote #aca3 #b ,peter1 iii4

 #h4    ,footnote #acb3 ,appendix 7#ah7 
7#ai7 7#bj74    ,footnote #acc3 ,wisdom1
 ix4 #ac-af4    ,footnote #acd3 ,see    
,pianciani1 ,cosmogonia1 pp4 #chd-ij4   
,footnote #ace3 ,see ,gesenius1 ,hebrew 
and ,chaldee ,lexicon to the ,old       
,testament ,scriptures2 in voce4 ,he    
thus explains the first meaning  of this
 word3 8copulative1 and serves to       
connect both words and  sentences1      
especially in continuing a discourse40  
,footnote #acf3 ,appendix 7#ba74        
,footnote #acg3 ,see ,de ,genesi ad     
,literam1 ,lib4 iv4 capp4 xxvi4-xxxv41  
,lib4 v4 cap4 i4 n4 #c1 and cap4 iii4 n4
 #f4    ,footnote #ach3 ,ecclesiasticus1
 xviii4 #a4    ,footnote #aci3 ,appendix
 7#bb74    ,footnote #adj3 ,appendix    
7#bc7 7#bd7 7#be7 7#bf7 7#bg7 7#bh7     
7#bi7 7#cj7 7#ca74    ,footnote #ada3   
,see ,de ,genesi ad ,literam1 ,lib4 iv4 
capp4 xxvi41 xxvii42  also ,lib4 i4     
capp4 x41 xi41 xii4    ,footnote #adb3  
,appendix 7#cb7 7#cc7 7#cd7 7#ce7 7#cf7 
7#cg74    ,footnote #adc3 ,amos1 viii4  

#aa1 #ab4    ,footnote #add3 ,psalm ii4 
#g4    ,footnote #ade3 ,heb4 i4 #e4     
,footnote #adf3 ,jeremias1 cap4 l4 vv4  
#bd-cb4    ,footnote #adg3 ,jeremias1   
li4 #a1 #b4    ,footnote #adh3          
,jeremias1 xlvi4 #c-aj1 #ai-ba4         
,footnote #adi3 ,ezechiel1 xxix4 #ai-ba4
    ,footnote #aej3 ,ezechiel1 xxx4     
#c-i4    ,footnote #aea3 ,sophonias1 v4 
#h-aa1 #ad-ag4    ,footnote #aeb3       
,isaias1 xxix4 #ag-ai4    ,footnote     
#aec3 ,matth4 xi4 #d1 #e4    ,footnote  
#aed3 ,john1 viii4 #ef4    ,footnote    
#aee3 #b ,cor4 vii4 #a1 #b4    ,footnote
 #aef3 ,luke1 xix4 #da-dc4    ,footnote 
#aeg3 ,dan4 viii4 #ad4    ,footnote     
#aeh3 ,appendix 7#ch7 7#ci7 7#dj7 7#da74
    ,footnote #aei3 ,exodus1 xx4 #i-aa4 
,footnote #afj3 ,exodus1 xxiii4 #aj-ab4 
,footnote #afa3 ,leviticus1 xxv4 #b-g4  
,footnote #afb3 #b ,cor4 v4 #ad1 #ae4   
,footnote #afc3 ,matt4 viii4 #bb2 ,luke1
 ix4 #fj4    ,footnote #afd3 ,john1 xx4 
#ag4    ,footnote #afe3 ,rom4 xiii4 #ab1
 #ac4    ,footnote #aff3 ,i4 ,thessal4  

v4 #d1 #e4    ,footnote #afg3 ,amos1    
viii4 #i4    ,footnote #afh3 ,appendix  
7#db7 7#dc74    ,footnote #afi3 ,gen4 i4
 #aa1 #ab4    ,footnote #agj3 ,the      
,testimony of the ,rocks1 p4 #abe4      
,footnote #aga3 ,genesis1 i4 #bj1 #ba4  
,footnote #agb3 ,testimony of the       
,rocks1 p4 #abf4    ,footnote #agc3     
,genesis1 i4 #bd1 #be4    ,footnote     
#agd3 ,testimony of the ,rocks1 pp4     
#abg1 #abh4    ,footnote #age3 ,elements
 of ,geology1 p4 #ajj4    ,footnote     
#agf3 8,aliquid esse a ,deo conditum1 de
 quo sileat liber  ,genesis1 nihil      
repugnat40 ,saint ,augustine1 ,confess4 
,lib4 xii41 cap4  xxii4    ,footnote    
#agg3 ,appendix 7#dd74    ,footnote     
#agh3 ,ecclesiastes1 iii4 #b4           
,transcriber's ,note3    ,inconsistent  
spelling and hyphenation are as in the  
original4