,the ,arts and ,crafts of the ,nations ,,general ,,editor3 ,s4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,capenny ,,the ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt ,illustration3 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,relief #ee4 ,wood-carving of ,ra-hesy ,,the ,,arts ,,crafts ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt ,,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,flinders ,,petrie ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,,etc41 ,,professor ,,of ,,egyptology ,,in ,,london ,,university2 ,,author ,,of 8,a ,,history ,,of ,,egypt10 ,,etc4 ,,containing ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,forty ,,illustrations ,,second ,,edition ,,with ,,additional ,,chapter ,t4 ,n4 ,,foulis ,,london ,,edinburgh #aiaj ,first ,edition1 ,november #aiji ,second ,edition1 ,october #aiaj ,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,edinburgh ,,preface ,this present handbook is intended to aid in the understanding of ,egyptian art1 and the illustrations and descriptions are selected for that purpose only4 ,the history of the art would require a far greater range of examples1 in order to illustrate the growth and decay of each of the great periods2 whereas here only the most striking works of each period are shown1 in order to contrast the different civilisations4 ,the origins and connections of the art in each age are scarcely touched1 and the technical details are only such as are needed to see the conditions of the art4 ,the archaeology of the subject would need as wide a treatment as the history1 and these subjects can only appear here incidentally4 ,it should be noticed that the divisions of artistic periods are often not the same as those of political history4 ,politically1 the history divides at the ,x,v,i,ith dynasty with the fall of the ,hyksos1 and at the ,x,x,i,ind dynasty with the rise of the ,delta government4 ,but artistically the changes are under ,tahutmes ,i1 when ,syrian influences broke in1 and under the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty1 when the classical ,greeks began to dominate the art4 ,the effect of foreign influence in art is quite apart from political power2 it is due to rival activities which may or may not mean a physical domination4 ,the reader should ponder different cases1 such as those of the spiral design of early ,europe entering ,egypt1 of the ,syrian and ,cretan art in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 of the effect of ,persia upon ,greece1 and of ,greece upon ,italy 7both through ,magna ,graecia and the conquest of ,greece71 of the effect of the ,goth1 ,lombard1 and ,northman on ,europe1 and of ,japan on modern ,europe4 ,some reflection on these great artistic movements will give a little insight as to the history of art4 ,regarding the illustrations1 ,i have thought it more useful to give details large enough to be clearly seen1 rather than to contract too much surface into a space where it cannot well be studied4 ,portions of subjects are therefore often preferred to general views of a whole4 ,the outlines of artistic value1 such as contours of faces or figures1 are left quite untouched1 as an outline cannot be taken seriously which is dependent on the block-maker clearing a white or black ground4 ,this latter treatment1 unfortunately1 puts out of artistic use many of the lavishly spaced plates of the ,cairo ,catalogue1 where art is subjected to bibliophily4 ,the liberal policy of all publications and photographs of the ,cairo ,museum being free of copyright1 has enabled me to use many of the excellent untouched photographs of ,brugsch ,pasha and others4 ,my best thanks are due to ,freiherr von ,bissing and the publisher of his ,denkmaeler ,aegypt4 ,sculptur1 for permission to use figures #ci1 #dd1 #df1 #dh1 #fb1 #aaa1 and #aab from that work4 ,over a third of the illustrations here are from my own photographs not yet published1 and principally taken for this volume4 ,w4 ,m4 ,f4 ,p4 ,,periods ,,and ,,kings ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,this ,,volume ,period4 ,dynasty4 ,names4 ,b4,c4 ,prehistoric4 #hjjj-eejj ,early ,i4 ,narmer1 ,mena1 ,zer1 #eejj-edjj kings4 ,,ii4 ,kha-sekhem1 #ejjj ,,iii4 ,zeser1 ,senoferu1 #dijj-dgjj ,pyramid ,,iv4 ,khufu1 ,khafra1 ,menkaura1 #dgjj-dejj age3 ,old ,v4 ,nofer-ar-ka-ra1 ,unas1 #ddjj-dbjj ,kingdom4 ,,vi4 ,pepy ,,ii1 #dajj-djjj ,,ix4 ,khety1 #chjj ,,xi4 ,antef ,v1 #cejj ,middle ,,xii4 ,senusert ,i1 ,senusert ,,ii1 #cdjj-ccjj ,kingdom4 ,senusert ,,iii1 ,amenemhat ,,iii1 #ccjj-cbei ,,xiii4 ,hor1 #cbjj ,new ,,xviii4 ,aahmes1 ,queens ,aah-hotep1 #aehg-aefb ,kingdom4 ,aahmes1 ,tahutmes ,i1 ,tahutmes ,,ii1 #aeda-adha ,hatshepsut ,tahutmes ,,iii1 ,amenhotep ,,ii1 #adha-adad ,tahutmes ,,iv1 ,amenhotep ,,iii1 ,akhenaten1 #adad-acdd ,tut-ankh-amen1 ,,xix4 ,sety ,i1 ,ramessu ,,ii1 ,merenptah1 #acbf-abad ,sety ,,ii1 ,tausert1 #abad-abjc ,,xx4 ,ramessu ,,iii1 ,,iv1 ,,xii1 #abjb-aabi ,,xxi4 ,isiemkheb1 #ajej ,,xxii4 ,shishak kings1 #ieb-gdi ,,xxiii4 ,pedubast1 ,pefaabast1 #gee-gbe ,ethiopian4 ,,xxv4 ,amenardys1 ,taharqa1 ,tanut-amen1 #gbj-ffd ,saite4 ,,xxvi4 ,aahmes ,,ii1 #egj-ebf ,,xxx4 ,nekhthorheb 7,nectanebo71 #cgh-cfa ,ptolemies4 ,cleopatra ,cocce1 #acj-ajf ,romans4 #cj-;,a4,d4 #fdj ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page #a4 ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,egyptian ,,art #a #b4 ,,the ,,periods ,,and ,,schools #aa #c4 ,,the ,,statuary #bi #d4 ,,the ,,reliefs #dh #e4 ,,the ,,painting ,,and ,,drawing #ee #f4 ,,the ,,architecture #fb #g4 ,,the ,,stone-,,working #fi #h4 ,,jewellery #hc #i4 ,,metal ,,work #ih #aj4 ,,glazed ,,ware ,,and ,,glass #ajg #aa4 ,,the ,,pottery #abf #ab4 ,,ivory-,,working #acd #ac4 ,,woodwork #acg #ad4 ,,plaster ,,and ,,stucco #adb #ae4 ,,clothing #adg #af4 ,,egypt',s ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,world #aeb ,,index #aei ,,bibliography #aff ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,fig4 ,dynasty4 ,subject4 ,material4 ,source4 ,position4 ,page4 ,scenery4 #a ,,xviii ,temple below ,limestone ,deir el ,thebes4 #d cliffs4 ,bahri4 #b ''' ,palms and canal4 ''' ,illahun4 ,fayum4 0 ,periods4 #c ,prehist4 ,dog and deer4 ,ivory4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 #ac #d 0 ,bull and enemy4 ,slate4 8 ,louvre4 0 #e ,,iv ,servant of ,ainofer4 ,limestone4 ,saqqareh4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #f ,,xii ,senusert ,i4 0 ,memphis4 ,carlsberg ,m4 0 #g ,,xviii ,servant of 0 ,tomb4 ,thebes4 #ai ,kha-em-hat4 #h ,,xix ,sons of ,ramessu ,,ii4 ,sandstone4 ,luqsor4 0 0 #i ,,xxvi ,aahmes-si- ,limestone4 ,memphis4 ,cambridge4 0 neit-rannu4 #aj ,ptolem4 ,cleopatra ,cocce4 ,sandstone4 0 ,kom ,ombo4 0 ,schools4 #aa ,,xix ,ramessu ,,ii4 ,black ,eastern ,turin4 #bd granite4 desert4 #ab 0 0 ,hard ,memphis4 ,memphis4 0 limestone4 #ac 0 0 ,red granite4 ,aswan4 ,thebes4 0 #ad 0 0 ,sandstone4 ,nubia4 ,abu ,simbel4 0 ,sculpture4 #ae ,prehist4 ,female figure4 ,ivory4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 #cj #af 0 0 0 ,limestone4 ,naqadeh4 ,oxford ,mus4 0 #ag 0 ,male heads4 ,ivory4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 #ah 0 ,lion4 ,limestone4 8 0 0 #ai1 ,i ,narmer8 head2 0 8 0 #cb #bj sculptor's study4 #ba ,i ,king standing4 ,ivory4 ,abydos4 ,british 0 ,mus4 #bb ,,ii ,head of ,kha-sekhem4 ,limestone4 ,hierakon- ,oxford ,mus4 0 polis4 #bc ,,iii ,head of ,mertitefs4 0 8 ,leyden ,mus4 #cc #bd 0 ,head of ,nofert4 0 ,medum4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #be ,,iv ,head of ,ka-aper4 ,wood4 ,saqqareh4 0 0 #bf 0 ,female figure4 ,wood4 0 0 0 #bg 0 ,khafra4 ,diorite4 ,gizeh4 0 #cd #bh 0 ,head of ,khafra4 ,cast4 0 0 0 #bi ,v ,scribe seated4 ,limestone4 ,saqqareh4 ,louvre4 #ce #cj 0 ,family of ,khui4 0 0 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #ca 0 ,ranofer4 0 0 0 0 #cb ,,xii ,head of ,senusert ,i4 0 ,lisht4 0 #ci #cc 0 0 ,senusert ,red ,karnak4 0 0 ,,iii4 granite4 #cd 8 0 ,sphinx4 ,black ,tanis4 0 0 granite4 #ce ,,xii 0 ,amenemhat ,grey 8 ,univ4 ,coll41 0 ,,iii4 granite4 ,lond4 #cf ,,xviii 0 statue4 ,quartzite4 ,thebes4 ,cairo ,mus4 #db #cg 0 0 ,tahutmes ,basalt4 ,karnak4 0 0 ,,iii4 #ch 0 0 ,tut-ankh- ,grey 0 0 0 amen4 granite4 #ci 0 0 ,akhenaten4 ,limestone4 ,thebes4 ,louvre4 0 #dj 0 ,young negress4 ,ebony4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 #dc #da 0 ,girl on tray ,wood4 8 ,louvre4 0 handle4 #db 0 ,girl playing lute4 0 ,sedment4 ,univ4 ,coll41 0 ,lond4 #dc ,,xix ,head of ,ramessu ,,ii4 ,black ,thebes4 ,turin ,mus4 #dd granite4 #dd 0 0 ,bak-en- ,hard 0 ,munich ,mus4 0 khonsu4 limestone4 #de 0 0 ,merenptah4 ,black 0 ,cairo ,mus4 0 granite4 #df ,,xxv 0 ,taharqa4 ,black 0 0 0 granite4 #dg 0 0 ,amenardys4 ,alabaster4 0 0 #df #dh 0 0 ,mentu-em- ,black ,karnak4 0 0 hat4 granite4 #di ,,xxx 0 man 7cast74 ,basalt4 ,memphis4 ,berlin ,mus4 0 #ej ,ptol4 0 woman ,wood4 8 0 0 7coffin74 ,reliefs4 #ea ,prehist4 ,hyaena and calf4 ,limestone4 ,koptos4 ,cairo ,mus4 #dh #eb ,prehist4 ,gazelles and palms4 ,slate4 8 ,oxford and 0 ,louvre4 #ec 0 ,group of animals4 0 ,hierakon- ,oxford ,mus4 0 polis4 #ed 0 ,narmer and enemy4 0 ,hierakon- ,cairo ,mus4 0 polis4 #ee ,,iii ,ra-hesy1 half ,wood4 ,saqqareh4 0 ,front4 length4 #ef ,v ,sacrificing bull4 ,limestone4 ,ty tomb4 ,saqqareh4 #ea #eg 0 ,oxherd4 0 ,ptah-hotep 0 0 tomb4 #eh ,,xi ,toilet of princess4 0 ,deir el ,cairo ,mus4 #eb ,bahri4 #ei ,,xii ,heads of ,ptah and 0 ,karnak4 0 0 ,senusert ,i4 #fj ,,xviii ,hatshepsut4 0 ,deir el ,thebes4 #ec ,bahri4 #fa 0 ,servant of ,kha-em-hat4 0 ,tomb4 0 0 #fb 0 ,akhenaten and queen4 0 8 ,berlin ,mus4 0 #fc ,,xx ,bulls in marsh4 ,sandstone4 ,medinet1 ,thebes4 #ed ,habu4 #fd ,,xxvi ,youths and girls ,limestone4 ,memphis4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 with animals4 ,paintings4 #fe ,prehist4 ,men fighting1 vase4 ,pottery4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 #ef #ff 0 ,ship1 vase4 0 8 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #fg 0 ,ship1 tomb4 ,fresco4 ,hierakon- 0 0 polis4 #fh ,,iii ,geese walking4 0 ,medum4 0 0 #fi ,,xviii ,pelicans and keeper4 0 ,horemheb ,thebes4 #eg tomb4 #gj 0 ,gleaning girls4 0 ,menna 0 0 tomb4 #ga 0 ,harvesters4 0 ,nekht 0 0 tomb4 #gb 0 ,pattern in stages4 0 ,amenmes 0 #eh tomb4 #gc 0 ,boating scene4 0 ,menna 0 0 tomb4 #gd 0 ,guests and girl4 0 ,nekht 0 0 tomb4 #ge 0 ,girl somersaulting4 ,limestone4 ,thebes8 ,turin ,mus4 #fj #gf 0 ,young princesses4 ,fresco4 ,tell-el- ,oxford ,mus4 0 ,amarna4 #gg ,,xviii ,man hauling rope4 ,fresco4 ,amenmes ,thebes4 0 tomb4 #gh 0 ,four races4 ,rock wall4 ,rames 0 0 tomb4 #gi ,,xix ,man adoring4 ,limestone4 ,thebes4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #hj 0 ,sety ,i offering to ,rock pillar4 ,tomb of ,thebes4 0 ,osiris4 ,sety ,i4 ,architecture4 #ha ,,iv ,temple of ,khafra4 ,red granite4 ,gizeh4 ''' #ff #hb ,,xx 0 ,ramessu ,sandstone4 ,medinet ,thebes4 0 ,,iii4 ,habu4 #hc ,ptolem4 ,temple of ,ergamenes4 0 ,dakkeh4 ,nubia4 0 #hd ,v ,palm column1 ,unas4 ,red granite4 ,saqqareh4 ,cairo ,mus4 #fg #he 0 ,rose lotus capital4 ,limestone4 0 0 0 #hf 0 ,blue lotus capital4 0 ,abusir4 0 0 ,stone working4 #hg ,pre-,,xviii ,stone vases4 ,various4 ,various4 0 #gh #hh ,,xviii ,trial piece1 ,limestone4 ,thebes4 ,petrie ,coll4 0 king's head4 #hi 8 ,figure in first ,rock-crystal4 8 0 0 outlines4 #ij ,ptolem4 ,lion's head in ,limestone4 8 0 0 outlines4 #ia ,,xviii8 ,man's head1 0 ,thebes4 0 0 unfinished4 #ib ,prehist4 ,flint knives1 etc4 ,chert4 ,naqadeh1 0 #ha etc4 ,jewellery4 #ic ,i ,bracelets1 gold1 ,amethyst4 ,tomb of ,cairo ,mus4 #hg turquoise4 ,zer4 #id ,,vi ,chain4 ,gold4 ,mahasnah4 0 0 #ie 0 8 ,seal with hawk 0 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 heads4 #if ,,xii ,uraeus1 wire work4 0 8 0 0 #ig 0 ,pectoral of ,senusert 0 ,dahshur4 ,cairo ,mus4 #hh ,,ii4 #ih 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,,iii4 #ii 0 ,inlaid crown of ,gold and 0 0 #ij ,khnumt4 stones4 #ajj 0 ,floret 0 ,gold and 0 0 0 stones4 #aja 0 ,granulated work4 ,gold4 0 0 0 #ajb ,,xviii ,bracelet of ,aahmes4 ,gold and ,thebes4 0 #ib lazuli4 #ajc ,,xviii ,dagger of ,aahmes4 ,gold and ,thebes4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 bronze4 #ajd 0 ,axe of ,aahmes4 ,gold and 0 0 0 bronze4 #aje ,,xix ,pectoral of ,gold and ,saqqareh4 ,louvre4 #id ,ramessu ,,ii4 stones4 #ajf ,,xx ,earrings of ,gold4 ,abydos4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 ,ramessu ,,xii4 #ajg ,,xxv ,statuette of 0 ,ehnasya4 ,boston ,mus4 0 ,hershefi4 #ajh ,,xxvi8 ,bowls from temple4 ,silver4 ,mendes4 ,cairo ,mus4 #if #aji ,rom48 ,chain fastening4 ,gold4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 ,metal-working4 #aaj ,,vi ,head of prince4 ,copper4 ,hierakon- ,cairo ,mus4 #ajj polis #aaa ,,xxv8 ,bust of ,takushet4 ,gold in 8 ,athens ,mus4 0 bronze4 #aab 0 0 0 side4 0 8 0 0 #aac ,,xviii ,flask of sandal ,bronze4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 #aja washer4 #aad ,,xix ,fluted vases4 0 ,abydos4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 #aae ,,xxii8 ,anti-splash bowl4 ,silver4 ,bubastis4 ,petrie ,coll4 0 ,glaze and ,glass4 #aaf ,i ,inlaid glazes ,green and ,abydos4 ,brit4 ,mus4 #ajh of ,mena4 violet glaze4 #aag ,,xx ,lotus and grape ,coloured ,yehudiyeh4 ,cairo ,mus4 0 border4 glaze4 #aah ,,xxvi ,head of ,isis4 ,blue glaze4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 #aai 0 ,royal fan-bearer4 0 8 0 0 #abj ,,xviii ,dragged pattern ,coloured 8 ,british ,mus4 #abj vase4 glass4 #aba 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 #abb ,ptol4 ,coloured mosaics4 ,glass4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 ,ivory4 #abc ,,iv ,khufu4 ,ivory4 ,abydos4 ,cairo ,mus4 #acf #abd ,,vi8 ,girl standing4 0 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 #abe ,,xxvi ,lotus flower4 0 ,memphis4 ,edin4 ,mus4 0 #abf 0 ,man with offerings4 0 0 0 0 ,wood4 #abg ,,xviii ,bracing of chair4 ,wood4 ,tomb of ,cairo ,mus4 #acg ,yuaa4 #abh 0 ,chair of ,sitamen4 0 0 0 0 #abi 0 ,coffer of ,wood 0 0 0 ,amenhotep ,,iii4 inlaid4 #acj 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 #aca 0 ,couch of ,yuaa4 ,wood4 0 0 0 ,plaster4 #acb ,,xviii ,reliefs on chariot4 ,stucco on ,tomb of ,cairo ,mus4 #add wood4 ,tahutmes4 #acc ,ptol4 ,lion's head1 ,plaster4 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 casting4 #acd 0 ,king's head1 casting4 0 8 0 0 #ace ,roman4 ,man's head from 0 8 0 #adf coffin4 #acf 0 0 0 0 ,kom el ,cairo ,mus4 0 ,ahmar4 #acg 0 ,woman's head from 0 8 ,petrie ,coll4 0 coffin4 #ach 0 ,man's head and skull4 0 ,hu4 ,british ,mus4 0 ,clothing4 #aci ,,xviii ,woven patterns1 ,thread4 ,tomb of ,cairo ,mus4 #adh ,amenhotep ,,ii4 ,tahutmes ,,iv4 #adj 0 ,cut-out network4 ,leather4 0 0 0 ,arts and ,crafts of ,ancient ,egypt ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,egyptian ,,art ,the art of a country1 like the character of the inhabitants1 belongs to the nature of the land4 ,the climate1 the scenery1 the contrasts of each country1 all clothe the artistic impulse as diversely as they clothe the people themselves4 ,a burly1 florid ,teuton in his furs and jewellery1 and a lithe brown ,indian in his waist-cloth1 would each look entirely absurd in the other's dress4 ,there is no question of which dress is intrinsically the best in the world2 each is relatively the best for its own conditions1 and each is out of place in other conditions4 ,so it is with art3 it is the expression of thought and feeling in harmony with its own conditions4 ,the only bad art is that which is mechanical1 where the impulse to give expression has decayed1 and it is reduced to mere copying of styles and motives which do not belong to its actual conditions4 ,an age of copying is the only despicable age4 ,it is but a confusion of thought1 therefore1 to try to pit the art of one country against that of another4 ,a ,corinthian temple1 a ,norman church1 or a ,chinese pavilion are each perfect in their own conditions2 but if the temple is of ,aberdeen granite1 the church of ,pacific island coral1 and the pavilion amid the ,brighton downs1 they are each of them hopelessly wrong4 ,to understand any art we must first begin by grasping its conditions1 and feeling the contrasts1 the necessities1 the atmosphere1 which underlie the whole terms of expression4 ,now the essential conditions in ,egypt are before all1 an overwhelming sunshine2 next1 the strongest of contrasts between a vast sterility of desert and the most prolific verdure of the narrow plain2 and thirdly1 the illimitable level lines of the cultivation1 of the desert plateau1 and of the limestone strata1 crossed by the vertical precipices on either hand rising hundreds of feet without a break4 ,in such conditions the architecture of other lands would look weak or tawdry4 ,but the style of ,egypt never fails in all its varieties and changes4 ,the brilliancy of light led to adopting an architecture of blank walls without windows4 ,the reflected light through open doorways was enough to show most interiors2 and for chambers far from the outer door1 a square opening about six inches each way in the roof1 or a slit along the wall a couple of inches high1 let in sufficient light4 ,the results of this system were1 that as the walls were not divided by structural features1 they were dominated by the scenes that were carved upon them4 ,the wall surface ceased to be regarded as part of a building1 and became an expansion of the papyrus or tablet4 ,the ,egyptian belief in the magical value of representations led to the figuring of the various parts of the worship on the walls of the temples or tombs1 so that the divine service should be perpetually renewed in figure2 and thus what we see is not so much a building in the ordinary sense1 as an illustrated service-book enclosing the centre of worship4 ,another result of the fierce indirect light was that which dominated sculpture4 ,the reliefs1 beautiful as they often were1 would not be distinct in the diffuse facing light2 hence strong colouring was applied to render them clear and effective4 ,so much did colouring take the lead that the finest sculptures were often smothered in a stucco facing1 laid on to receive the colour4 ,this almost spiteful ignoring of the delicate craft of the sculptor is seen in the ,x,i,ith dynasty1 and was the ruling method in ,ptolemaic work4 ,the extreme contrast between the desert and the cultivation gave its tone to the artistic sense of the people4 ,on either hand1 always in sight1 there rose the margin of the boundless waste without life or verdure1 the dreaded region of evil spirits and fierce beasts1 the home of the nomads that were always ready to swoop on unprotected fields and cattle1 if they did not sit down on the borders and eat up the country4 ,between these two expanses of wilderness lay the narrow strip of richest earth1 black1 wet1 and fertile under the powerful sun2 teeming with the force of life1 bearing the greenest of crops1 as often in the year as it could be watered4 ,in parts may be seen three full crops of corn or beans raised each year beneath the palms that also give their annual burden of fruit2 fourfold does the rich ground yield its ever-growing stream of life4 ,illustration3 ,,scenery #a4 ,the barren desert background #b4 ,the luxuriance of the plain ,this exuberance amid absolute sterility is reflected in the proportion between the minuteness of detail and the vastness of the architecture4 ,the most gigantic buildings may have their surfaces crowded with delicate sculpture and minute colouring4 ,what would be disproportionate elsewhere1 seems in harmony amid such natural contrasts4 ,the strongly marked horizontal and vertical lines of the scenery condition the style of buildings that can be placed before such a background4 ,as the temples were approached1 the dominant line was the absolute level of the green plain of the ,nile valley1 without a rise or slope upon it4 ,behind the building the sky line was the level top of the desert plateau1 only broken by an occasional valley1 but with never a peak rising above it4 ,and the face of the cliffs that form the stern setting is ruled across with level lines of strata1 which rise in a step-like background or a wall lined across as with courses of masonry4 ,the weathering of the cliffs breaks up the walls of rock into vertical pillars with deep shadows between them4 ,in the face of such an overwhelming rectangular framing any architecture less massive and square than that of ,egypt would be hopelessly defeated4 ,the pediments of ,greece1 the circular arches of ,rome1 the pointed arches of ,england1 would all seem crushed by so stern a setting4 ,the harmony is shown most clearly in the temple of ,deir el ,bahri 7fig4 #a7 below its cliffs which overshadow it4 ,let any other kind of building be set there1 and it would be an impertinent intrusion2 the long level lines of the terraces and roofs1 the vertical shadows of the colonnades1 repose in perfect harmony with the mass of ,nature around them4 ,the ,egyptian was quite familiar with the arch3 he constantly used it in brickwork on a large scale1 and he imitated its curve in stone2 yet he always hid it in his building1 and kept it away from the external forms1 instinctively knowing that it could not serve any part of his decorative construction4 ,these principles1 which were thus imposed on the architecture of ,egypt1 were doubly enforced upon its sculpture4 ,not only did ,nature set the framing of plain and cliff1 but her work was reflected and reiterated by the massive walls1 square pillars1 and flat architraves1 amid which ,egyptian sculpture had to take its place4 ,in such shrines it would be disastrously incongruous to place a ,victory poising on one foot1 or a dancing faun4 ,they belong to the peaks of ,greece1 divided by rushing streams1 and clothed with woods1--to a transient world of fleeting beauty1 not to a landscape and an architecture of eternity4 ,egyptian art1 however luxurious1 however playful it might be1 was always framed on a tacit groundwork of its natural conditions4 ,within those conditions there was scope for most vivid portraiture1 most beautiful harmony1 most delicate expression1 but the ,egyptian was wise enough to know his conditions and to obey them4 ,in that obedience lay his greatness4 ,the truest analysis of art--that of ,tolstoy--results in defining it as a means of communicating emotion4 ,it may be the emotion produced by beauty or by loathsomeness2 each expression is equally art1 though each is not equally desirable art4 ,the emotion may be imparted by words1 by forms1 by sounds2 all are equally vehicles of different kinds of art4 ,but without imparting an emotional perception to the mind there is no art4 ,the emotion may be the highest1 that of apprehending character1 and the innate meaning of mind and of ,nature2 or it may be the lower form of sharing in the transient interests and excitements of others2 or the basest form of all1 that of enjoying their evil4 ,how does the ,egyptian appear under this analysis8 ,what emotions can we consider were intended by his art8 ,how far did he succeed in imparting them to the spectators8 ,to understand the mind of the artist we must look to those qualities which in their literature were held up as the ideals of life4 ,stability and ,strength were the qualities most admired1 and the name for public monuments was 8firm things40 ,assuredly all mankind has looked on the works of ,egypt as giving a sense of these qualities before all others4 ,closely connected is the sense of ,endurance1 which was enjoined in words1 and carried into practice in the laborious work on the hardest rocks4 ,it was for endurance that statues were made of diorite or granite1 though they were painted with life-like hues1 so that their material was scarcely seen4 ,upon these primary qualities was built a rich and varied character1 reflected in the elaborate and beautiful sculpture which covered1 but never interfered with1 the grand mass of a monument4 ,truth and ,justice were qualities much sought for in life1 and were expressed by the artist in the reality of his immense blocks of stone1 often more hidden than seen1 and in the fair and even bearing of all material1 without any tricks or paradoxes of structure4 ,in all his earlier work his monolith columns and pillars were a protest that a structural unit must express unity1 that what supports others must not be in itself divided4 ,the ,discipline and ,harmony which were looked on as the bond of social life are shown by the subordination of the whole1 by the carrying out of single schemes of decoration illustrating the use of every part of a building on all its walls1 by the balance of the proportions of the whole so that there seems a perfect fitness of connection through all parts4 ,and the happy union of vigorous ,action with prudent ,reserve1 which showed the wise man in the proverbs1 is the basis of those life-like scenes which cover the walls of the tombs1 but which never betray the artist into attempting impossibilities or revealing too much4 ,as true art1 then--that is1 the expression of his being1 and the communication to others of his best feelings and sense of things--the ,egyptian work must stand on the highest plane of reality4 ,it would have been a falsehood to his nature to aspire1 as a ,gothic architect sometimes did1 in towers and pinnacles which crush their foundations and will not hold together without incongruous bonds4 ,nor did he wish to express the romantic sense of beauty1 in structure which may tend to exceed the limits of stability4 ,all that belongs to the atmosphere of troubadours and knights errant4 ,the ,egyptian possessed in splendid perfection the sense of ,strength1 ,permanence1 ,majesty1 ,harmony1 and effective ,action1 tempered with a sympathy and kindliness which cemented a vast disciplined fabric4 ,and these aims of life as a whole he embodied and expressed in his art1 with a force and truth which has impressed his character on all who look on his works4 ,he fulfils the canon of true art as completely as any race that has come after him4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,periods ,,and ,,schools ,before we can understand any art the first step is to discriminate between the different periods and their various styles1 and to observe the characteristics of the several schools4 ,if we consider medieval architecture1 we separate the many periods from ,saxon to ,renaissance2 if we turn to painting1 we distinguish many stages between ,cimabue and ,canaletto1 yet these variations belong but to a single revolution of civilisation1 and are comprised within some centuries2 in ,egyptian art we have to deal with seven revolutions of civilisation and thousands of years4 ,and not only the period1 but also the source and traditions of each local branch of the art are to be recognised1 and we discriminate a dozen schools of painting between ,rome and ,venice1 each with its own style4 ,so in ,egypt we need to learn the various schools and understand their differences4 ,in this chapter we shall notice the essential characters of each period and school as compared together2 while in the following chapters the more technical detail of the statuary1 reliefs1 and paintings will be considered4 ,in order to grasp more readily the differences of period and of place1 there are given here eight typical examples of different periods 7figs4 #c to #aj71 and four examples of different schools during one reign 7figs4 #aa to #ad74 ,these may be supplemented by reference to subsequent illustrations1 but the contrasts will be more readily seen in a simultaneous view4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,art #c4 ,prehistoric #d4 ,earliest dynastic #e4 ,old ,kingdom 7,,iv7 #f4 ,middle ,kingdom 7,,xii7 ,the ,prehistoric work 7#hjjj-eejj ,b4,c47 shows much more mechanical than artistic ability4 ,the treatment of the hardest materials was masterful2 granite and porphyry were wrought as freely as limestone and alabaster2 perfectly regular forms of vases were cut entirely by hand without any lathe4 ,but with this there was a very tentative idea of animate forms4 ,the feet and hands were omitted1 and limbs ended only in points4 ,the form of an outline was not thought to imply a solid1 and it needed to be hatched over with cross lines 7fig4 #c7 to show that it was a continuous body4 ,the noses of animals are frequently shown touching1 as in this instance of the dog and addax4 ,in short1 the figures are mere symbols of ideas1 with little regard to their actual nature and appearance4 ,this symbolic stage of art is found in most countries1 and often with a higher sense of form and expression than among the prehistoric people of the ,nile2 there is nothing of this age in ,egypt to compare with the carvings of the cave men of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,early4 ,,late4 ,there is no sign of progress in art during this time4 ,the slate palettes1 cut in the forms of animal outlines1 which were made through the whole age1 begin with recognisable forms2 and these were degraded by copying1 until at the end their original types could hardly be guessed4 ,the animal figures on ivory combs are passable in the earlier part of the age1 and disappear entirely later on4 ,the human figures1 which are frequent in early times1 are very rarely found later4 ,the flint working shows degeneration long before historic times4 ,and the pottery loses its fine forms1 regularity1 and brilliant finish1 and becomes rough and coarse4 ,in every direction it seems that the earliest prehistoric civilisation1 which was probably connected with ,libya1 was superseded by a lower race1 which was probably from the ,east4 ,the first dynasty 7#eejj ,b4,c47 appears to have brought in entirely new influences4 ,while the material civilisation naturally went on with many of the older elements1 yet in all directions a new spirit and moving power is seen4 ,the conquest of the country by a race of invaders is shown on many carvings1 most of which are probably of the three centuries of unification1 before the start of the dynastic history of the whole country4 ,one of the most typical of these carvings is fig4 #d1 where the king is represented as a bull trampling upon his enemy4 ,other examples are given in figs4 #ea to #ed4 ,the whole character of the art is changed4 ,instead of the clumsy and spiritless figures of the prehistoric people1 we meet with vigorous forms full of life and character4 ,perhaps one of the earliest is the hyaena 7fig4 #ea72 the slates are rather later1 reaching down to the beginning of the first dynasty2 and the figures in the round 7#ai to #bb7 show what a living and powerful art had suddenly sprung up and was developed under the early kings4 ,the same growth is seen in the advance of glazing for important architectural use on a large scale4 ,and the introduction and rapid development of hieroglyphic writing stamps the new age as the beginning of written history1 the start of the conscious preservation by man of a regular record of his past acts4 ,this new growth of art rejoiced in its fresh found powers4 ,it searched for the truth1 it carefully observed anatomy1 and--like a learner--it was proud of its knowledge1 and emphasised the precise place of the muscles which it had traced out4 ,for that very reason it is essentially a true art1 without any of the slovenly substitutes for ,nature which are termed conventions4 ,it had no traditions to spoil it or hold it back3 it was full of observation as the only method for its work4 ,it is always simple and dignified1 and shows more truth and precision than any art of a later age4 ,after the conscious study of ,nature1 the greatest step in any art is the deliberate work for the sake of its own beauty1 and not merely because it has to tell a story4 ,it may be said that this is the birth of true art2 all before that merely consists of representations for another purpose4 ,but work for the sake of beauty alone is art pure and simple1 and this stage was reached at the very beginning of the history1 in the beautiful carving of the palm tree and long-necked gazelles 7fig4 #eb74 ,the ,pyramid age 7#dgjj-djjj ,b4,c47 brought in fresh ideals4 ,the early kings had expanded a chieftainship into a kingdom1 without realising all the new conditions of organization which were involved4 ,the great work of the early pyramid kings1 ,senoferu and ,khufu1 was the massive organizing of the civil service of the country1 the establishment of a social organism which resisted all the invasions and disasters of the land1 and survived in parts to our own times4 ,these new ideals were naturally reflected in the art4 ,in place of tombs such as any great chief might have ordered1 the most gigantic pyramids were erected1 buildings yet unsurpassed in bulk and in accuracy of workmanship4 ,the new social order of the official world followed in the same lines1 and dozens of tombs were sculptured in each reign1 larger and more elaborate than most of the royal sepulchres of other lands and ages4 ,the host of these tombs which remain constitute a larger treasury of artistic work than there is of any other period in the world's history4 ,a typical example of this new order is the figure of a servant of a noble named ,ainofer 7fig4 #e74 ,the high rounded relief1 the sense of action1 the delicacy of detail and expression1 all mark this new time4 ,the greater part of the really fine sculpture that we possess in ,egypt comes from this time4 ,the statuary 7figs4 #bc to #ca71 the reliefs 7figs4 #ee to #eg71 the painting 7fig4 #fh71 all show the noble spaciousness and grandeur of the age4 ,its style is severe and never trifles with superfluities4 ,the smallest as well as the largest work seems complete and inevitable1 without being constrained by any limitations of time1 or labour1 or thought4 ,for the expression of royal energy1 dignity1 and equanimity the figures of ,khufu and ,khafra are unsurpassed4 ,in the vivid expression of personal character no age has surpassed the statues of the officials and their wives4 ,the style of other ages may be more scholastic1 more amusing1 or more graceful1 but for all that constitutes great art no period can compare with that of the mighty pyramid kings4 ,all things pass away1 and during the centuries of disruption which followed the ,v,ith dynasty the old style ran down to an incredible coarseness and clumsy copying4 ,at the close of the ,x,ith dynasty a revival took place4 ,like all great developments of art it rose with extraordinary rapidity1 and within a generation or two the new movement was fully grown4 ,its characteristic was the use of very low relief1 with faint but perfectly clear outlines 7see fig4 #f74 ,it was the style of a school1 and not that of ,nature4 ,a regular course of artistic training is described by an artist2 first was taught the positions of figures in slow action1 then the differences of male and female figures1 next mythological subjects1 and lastly1 the attitudes of rapid action4 ,this mechanical training naturally went with elaboration of detail4 ,the minute lining over large masses of hair1 the carving of every bead of a necklace1 were the outcome of scholastic training4 ,the artificial reduction of figures in the round to a very delicate variation of planes in low relief was according to the same system4 ,the whole works of the ,x,i,ith dynasty are beautiful1 reserved1 and pleasing1 with a clearness and finish which appeals to a sense of orderly perfection4 ,they have neither the grandeur of what went before nor the grace of what followed them4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,art #g4 ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty #h4 ,x,i,xth dynasty #i4 ,saite 7,,xxvi7 #aj4 ,ptolemaic ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,i,xth dynasties are the most popularly known age of the art4 ,the profusion of remains1 their accessibility at ,thebes1 and the more intimate style of the designs1 have led to their general acceptance as typical4 ,this position must not be allowed in a wider knowledge of the subject4 ,the whole level of art of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty is as much below that of the ,x,i,ith1 as the style of the ,x,i,ith is below that of the ,i,vth dynasty4 ,the scholastic work of the ,x,i,ith is followed by a treatment which is almost always conventional in the ,x,v,i,i,ith2 and the ,x,i,xth dynasty shows merely a degradation of what preceded it4 ,at the close of the ,x,v,i,ith dynasty there emerges from the turmoil of the ,hyksos barbarism a rude but lively style of drawing1 with sculpture of clumsy figures and badly-formed hieroglyphs4 ,stepping into the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty we meet with stiff and rather heavy statuettes1 the female figures1 however1 showing the dawn of the seductive grace which followed4 ,little can be said to have changed in ideals since the ,x,i,ith dynasty1 until the ,asiatic conquests altered the civilisation of ,egypt4 ,thothmes ,i and ,,iii brought back thousands of ,syrian captives1 many of whom were selected for their beauty and their artistic ability2 their work and their influence transformed the art1 and the ideal became that of a light1 graceful1 fascinating type which posed much and suggested more4 ,the art of character had become secondary to the art of emotion4 ,vivacity and romance led the way1 and the older studies of deeper life and fine anatomy were out of date4 ,fluttering ribbons and prancing horses and galloping calves were represented without the laborious sculpture1 but merely painted with a flowing line on the tomb walls1 which were plastered smooth over the roughest hewing in the rock4 ,the cheapest road to effect was the favourite way1 and the eternal solidity and dignified simplicity of the older ages had vanished4 ,the figure of an official of ,kha-em-hat 7fig4 #g7 is typical of the best work of this age4 ,the other examples are shown in figs4 #cf-db1 #fj-fb1 #fi-gh4 ,this new order of things culminated under ,akhenaten1 when naturalism1 influenced largely from ,greece1 removed the older principles of ,egyptian art2 and all the passing incidents of life1 the domestic affections of the king and the festivities of his court1 became the subjects of even funerary sculptures and painting in the tombs4 ,after that stage there was nothing left to do but to fall back on the old stock subjects and copy and re-copy them worse and worse during the succeeding dynasties4 ,egyptian art perishes with ,akhenaten2 all that came after was a bloodless imitation4 ,the ,x,i,xth dynasty art is fairly represented by a figure of one of the king's sons 7fig4 #h74 ,here is seen the baldness of the style4 ,the profile is mechanical1 the hair hangs in a heavy and ugly flap1 the body has no anatomy1 the legs are badly drawn1 and the long streamers flying from the waist are out of keeping4 ,the coarse1 heavy work of the temples of ,abu ,simbel1 or the great hall of ,karnak1 is obtrusive in spite of their grandiose conception4 ,in the ,x,xth dynasty the inscriptions also suffered by being cut very deeply1 so that the signs appeared as black shadows without any detail4 ,the decay was only arrested by a deliberate copying of the style of the pyramid age4 ,the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty tried to recover the early grandeur of sculpture by close imitation1 but it is rarely that any fragment of this work does not betray itself by its inane treatment1 bad jointing of the limbs1 and want of proportion4 ,one of the best examples of the more original work is the figure of an elderly official 7fig4 #i74 ,the want of detail is hidden by the stiff robe without a fold or curve1 leaving only the head and extremities to be represented4 ,another example is in fig4 #fd1 where the bad jointing and lack of anatomy is too evident4 ,in the ,ptolemaic time these faults are even more apparent1 when the bad copy of a copy was the ideal4 ,in fig4 #aj is seen the hopelessly wrong proportioning of the parts1 the clumsy lumps of flesh and exaggerated muscles1 which are the extreme opposite to the over-refined flat relief of the ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,the hair partakes of the same faults1 being carved as rows of lumps representing separate curls4 ,portraiture1 which compelled some attention to ,nature1 is the latest surviving form of art4 ,in the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty fairly good heads were occasionally done1 but often with some disproportion4 ,the modelled stucco heads of the ,roman age are the last stage4 ,some of them show a real ability and feeling for character 7figs4 #ace to #acg71 and one example which can be compared with the skull proves the accuracy of the modelling 7fig4 #ach74 ,the various ,schools of ,art should now be noticed4 ,the styles of the different periods that we have considered were of course obvious in all the schools2 the character of an age affected all parts of the country4 ,owing to the absence of any artists' names1 and the extreme rarity of those of architects1 it is impossible to trace the personal origin of any works4 ,and as we cannot say how much the artists travelled about the country1 mere locality does not prove a conclusive test2 probably for royal works the artists went to any city according to orders4 ,among private tombs we can see great differences of style1 as between ,memphis1 ,thebes1 and ,aswan4 ,but the difficulty of exact dating makes comparison doubtful1 as we might set side by side works of the rise and of the climax of a period4 ,the most satisfactory evidence about the schools is from the statuary in different materials4 ,when once a sculptor was trained to the peculiarities of one stone he would not be likely to enter on all the difficulties of a fresh material4 ,a man trained for years to slicing and bruising out granite without the least fear of a crack1 would not relish hewing soft sandstones that split1 or limestone that could not be trusted with its own weight on a finished surface4 ,certainly the men who learned sculpture on the softer materials would be helpless on the granite4 ,then we know that the statues were at least dressed into shape--if not entirely finished--at the quarries1 and hence the work in one material would continue in the hands of one local school4 ,it is therefore likely that the stone workers of each material formed an unbroken succession1 probably in certain families for the most part1 and handed on their traditions for several dynasties successively1 perhaps even throughout thousands of years4 ,this would not be so much the case in relief sculpture1 as there the blocks were built in and sculptured at the building1 wherever that might be4 ,when we look for differences of treatment we see how strongly one style of work is continued in one material through a long period4 ,we have here contemporaneous examples in four different stones1 the statues of ,rameses ,,ii in black granite1 hard limestone1 red granite and ,nubian sandstone 7figs4 #aa to #ad74 ,in all cases work in black granite is finer than that in the other stones at the same period4 ,the figures of the so-called ,hyksos type 7fig4 #cd71 of the ,x,i,i,ith1 the ,x,v,i,i,ith1 the ,x,i,xth and the ,x,x,vth dynasties1 and the sarcophagi of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 in black granite1 all show far finer forms and finish than those in the other materials4 ,of briefer use there were two other stones which show equally fine work--diorite1 which was hardly ever sculptured except in the ,i,vth dynasty 7fig4 #bg71 and green basalt1 used in the ,x,v,i,i,ith 7fig4 #cg74 ,the green basalt must be put in the highest place as regards minute handling and freedom of curves2 the fine grain and moderate hardness were most favourable to the artist4 ,the black granite work comes next in quality1 having fine curves but not quite the same freedom1 owing to the coarser grain4 ,the diorite has a beautiful grain for work1 but the hardness has influenced the detail of recesses1 and it is seldom that inner angles are as truly worked out as in the black granite4 ,the comparison is perhaps hardly just1 as there are no contemporary works in these two stones4 ,it seems not improbable that all these hard stones were found in the same region1 the ,eastern desert1 and that they were all worked by one school4 ,that there was a fine technical training there in early times is shown by the splendid bowls and vases of the hardest rocks which were wrought in prehistoric ages and the first dynasty4 ,such vases were made in the mountain district1 as the figures of a warmly-clad race bear them in tribute to the ,egyptian king 7,jour4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 xxxi41 pl4 xix41 #ac-ae74 ,thus we may look on this black-granite school as belonging really to the border people of the ,eastern desert1 and not to the ,nile plain4 ,illustration3 ,,ramessu ,,ii1 ,,by ,,different ,,schools #aa4 ,black granite #ab4 ,hard limestone #ac4 ,red granite #ad4 ,nubian sandstone ,the limestone school was expressly that of ,memphis and ,middle ,egypt4 ,it is best known from the host of private statues found in the cemetery of ,saqqareh4 ,work of the finest delicacy was done in this soft and uniform material 7see figs4 #bd1 #bi-cb72 and a branch of the same school was that working the harder limestones which were a favourite stone in the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,i,xth dynasties in upper ,egypt1 as in the colossus of ,rameses ,,ii 7fig4 #ab74 ,both branches of this school excelled in the delicate expression of physiognomy2 the proportions of the limbs and the finish of the extremities are usually excellent4 ,the alabaster work is a branch of this same school1 with similar proportion and finish4 ,it is a rare material for sculpture till the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 but under ,amenhotep ,,ii to ,,iv it was often used2 and it serves for one of the best works of later time1 the statue of ,amenardys 7fig4 #dg74 ,the quarries were in the midst of the limestone hills1 especially where the hard limestone occurs near ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,thus the same school dealt with this whole group of calcareous rocks4 ,another very fine school was that of the quartzite sandstone of ,gebel ,ahmar1 near ,cairo4 ,the material was closely limited to a single hill cemented by hot springs2 and what is now seen there is only the immense heap of chippings left by workers of all ages3 the hill itself has almost vanished4 ,this material was worked in the pyramid times1 but only roughly4 ,the ,x,i,ith dynasty kings saw its value1 and quarried it for sarcophagi and chambers1 but seldom used it for sculpture4 ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty attacked it on an enormous scale2 the two great colossi of ,amenhotep ,,iii1 weighing #aage tons each1 were cut and carried up-stream #dej miles to ,thebes4 ,statues are found1 royal and private1 in all parts of the land1 and naturally this stone was largely used at ,tanis4 ,the work is usually excellent1 almost equal to the limestone sculpture2 but it generally falls a little below that of the previous schools in the depth of cutting and the freedom of work in hollows4 ,the red granite school was at ,aswan1 where the statues and obelisks are still lying unfinished in the quarries4 ,the artist was much hindered by the coarse grain of the stone1 which made fine work difficult4 ,on the obelisks this has been fairly overcome by a great amount of emery cutting1 and sharp smooth hieroglyphs were cleanly cut4 ,but for statuary1 even in the pyramid age the features are coarsely worked and the detail scanty2 and when used later on a large scale1 the forms are heavy1 the inner angles seldom worked out1 and the extremities thick and massive4 ,this is seen in the colossus of ,rameses ,,ii 7fig4 #ac71 as well as in earlier figures4 ,the ,nubian sandstone school was the least artistic4 ,the softness and ready splitting of the stone prevented clean and well-finished work4 ,detail was almost impossible1 and it was a mistake to use a good building stone for the wrong purpose of fine carving4 ,in early times this stone was never used1 except locally in its own region4 ,the ,x,i,ith dynasty rarely used it1 but by the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith it became general1 and it was the main stone of the ,x,i,xth dynasty in ,upper ,egypt4 ,its use1 however1 does not come down to ,middle or ,lower ,egypt4 ,the long avenue of sphinxes at ,thebes are the most familiar sculpture in this material1 and similar figures were also placed by ,amenhotep ,,iii in his temple on the ,western bank4 ,the great colossi of ,abu ,simbel are the main example of sculpture in this stone 7fig4 #ad74 ,they show the defects of the other southern school1 that of red granite4 ,the limbs are square and heavy1 the feet and hands are flat and mechanical1 and the muscles are crude ridges4 ,but the face is fairly rendered1 as well perhaps as was practicable in such material4 ,we thus see that there were essential differences between the various schools of ,egyptian art1 partly due to the various peoples1 but mainly resulting from the material used by each school4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,statuary ,figures in the round are the earliest mode of modelling1 and remain the most important1 as they are less conditioned than reliefs1 and give full scope to ability and knowledge4 ,the earliest human figures are found in the second stage of the prehistoric age1 immediately after the white-lined pottery4 ,they are of ivory1 limestone1 slate1 pottery1 or of stick and paste4 ,such figures did not continue to be made after the middle of the prehistoric civilisation4 ,the ivory figures usually end in a mere peg below1 with wide hips and shoulders1 but no arms4 ,the eyes are marked1 though often the mouth and nose are omitted 7fig4 #ae74 ,the limestone or cement figures have the division of the legs lined out2 some are standing1 as fig4 #af1 with tatu marks painted on the stone2 others are of the armless form1 seated1 and clearly of the steatopygous ,bushman type4 ,the slate figures are always of men1 with pointed beards1 and white beads inserted for eyes4 ,the pottery figures are roughly modelled1 but with the legs separated4 ,the stick and paste figures are made by modelling a vegetable paste over a stick2 the legs are marked1 sometimes arms are added1 or else there are merely shoulder stumps4 ,in one case the head is modelled bald1 painted red1 and has a black wig modelled over it1 showing that separate wigs are as old as the prehistoric time4 ,some ivory tusks are carved with a much more advanced style of heads 7fig4 #ag71 which give the best idea that we have of the type of the people4 ,the animal figures are rudely cut1 but have a certain ferocious air 7fig4 #ah74 ,some much more advanced figures in ivory have the legs and arms separate1 and a passable amount of modelling in the head and body4 ,though quite of prehistoric style1 they are probably influenced by the school of highly developed ivory-work of the ,ist dynasty1 and may shortly precede that time4 ,illustration3 ,,prehistoric #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah4 ,prehistoric figures in the round ,the early dynastic age brought in entirely new ideals4 ,the oldest figures of this time are the colossal statues of the god ,min from ,koptos4 ,these are of much the same work as the prehistoric human figures1 but have spirited drawings of animals incised on them 7see fig4 #ea74 ,just before the ,ist dynasty there came a finely developed style of ivory-carving1 which is known to us by the many figures of men and women found at ,hierakonpolis4 ,the finest stone-work of that age is a study in limestone of a king's head 7figs4 #ai1 #bj71 which is so closely like ,narmer 7fig4 #ed7 that it must be just at the beginning of the ,ist dynasty4 ,it is a sculptor's study of a king preparatory to making his statue1 and1 as ,professor ,a4 ,michaelis says1 8it renders the race-type with astounding keenness1 and shows an excellent power of observation in the exact representation of the eyes40 ,the delicacy of the facial curves should be noticed1 and the entire absence of any conventions in the modelling of the mouth as well as the eyes4 ,the widely prominent ears are a characteristic of the earliest historic figures2 such a feature belongs to a hunting race who need to catch sounds1 and suggests that they always slept on their backs4 ,this is unlike the prehistoric folk1 who were always buried contracted and lying on the side1 as being their natural attitude2 but it agrees with the modern ,egyptian1 who sleeps in the mummy posture1 lying on the back4 ,a large number of ivory figures were found at ,abydos1 fully developed in style1 beyond those of ,hierakonpolis4 ,they comprise figures of girls1 boys1 dogs1 apes1 a bear1 and many lions4 ,they are admirably easy in their pose1 and perfectly natural in form with a simplicity and truthfulness better than any later work4 ,the figure of an old king 7fig4 #ba7 was with these2 notice the subtle expression of the face1 the droop of the head forward1 and the natural air4 ,this is probably early in the ,ist dynasty4 ,rather later is the hard limestone head of ,king ,kha-sekhem1 of the ,i,ind dynasty 7fig4 #bb74 ,fine as the modelling is about the mouth1 yet convention has already crept in2 the edges of the lips are sharpened1 and the extended line at the outer corner of the eye has been introduced4 ,we see then under the earliest dynasties the observation of ,nature free from any artificial trammels1 unconscious1 simple and dignified1 on a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than is found in later art4 ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,dynasties #ai1 #bj4 ,ist dynasty king1 limestone #ba4 ,ist dynasty king1 ivory #bb4 ,kha-sekhem 7,i,ind dynasty7 ,in the pyramid age we will first observe the earlier private figures 7#bc to #bf74 ,queen ,mertitefs 7fig4 #bc7 was the wife of ,seneferu1 at the close of the ,i,i,ird dynasty4 ,in her type of face1 and the treatment of it1 we see an earlier race and earlier work than that of the pyramid times4 ,the large1 staring eyes1 the mouth turning down1 the natural hair cut short and brushed straight down over the forehead beneath the wig1--all these details disappear after this4 ,when we compare this with the head of ,nofert 7fig4 #bd71 who was of the next generation1 the change of type and work is at once seen4 ,in ,nofert the eyes are admirably placed1 the brow is perfectly natural1 and the modelling of the features is irreproachable4 ,yet there is less absolute naturalism than in the older work of the ,ist dynasty4 ,the hair is evidently kept complete beneath the wig1 and is laid out smoothly over the forehead4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #bc4 ,mertitefs #bd4 ,nofert #be4 ,ka-aper #bf4 ,unknown ,the celebrated figure of ,ka-aper1 or the 8,sheykh el ,beled10 belongs to the same period4 ,the figure is so well known that it need not appear here1 but the full face is less familiar 7fig4 #be74 ,the mouth and chin are perhaps the most truthful part1 and seem entirely free from convention4 ,the eyes are excellent in form1 but affected by the technical detail of inserting the eyeball of stone and crystal in a copper frame4 ,the similar eyes in the head of ,nofert are more carefully inserted1 so that the frame is not obvious4 ,the hair is represented as closely cut1 so as to allow the wig to be put over it4 ,we can1 however1 hardly judge of this figure as it is1 stripped of the coat of coloured stucco which covered such work4 ,the portions of similar wooden figures in the temple of ,abydos had all been thus painted4 ,such a coat would modify the eye setting1 and leave only the dark line visible which imitated the kohl on the eyelids4 ,another work of the same age is the best for the pose of the figure 7fig4 #bf74 ,the vigorous1 independent1 frank attitude is perhaps the finest in any portrait1 ancient or modern4 ,the profile is of the same type as that of ,nofert1 alike in the strong brow and the form of the nose and chin2 the eye is more prominent1 and the mouth less luxurious1 while the under-chin is firmer4 ,such differences are all in keeping with the character1 that of an active mistress of an estate rather than an easy-going noble4 ,we shall not find in any of the subsequent work of the pyramid age--still less in the later ages--such vitality and strength of individual character as we have seen in these early portraits4 ,with these stands also the minute head of ,khufu 7fig4 #abc71 which we shall notice with the ivory-work4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #bg1 #bh4 ,king ,khafra 7,i,vth dynasty7 ,the statue of ,khafra 7fig4 #bg7 carved in diorite is one of the grandest works of ,egypt4 ,the entire dignity and majesty shown contrast strongly with the active air of the subordinate classes4 ,the muscular detail is powerful1 but yet in keeping with the serenity of the figure4 ,the whole is best grasped from below1 as it was intended to be seen2 but the head should be studied at its own level1 and the profile1 from a cast 7fig4 #bh71 shows the form as it originally appeared when covered with a facing which concealed the grain of the stone4 ,the difference of character between the calm1 easy dignity of this1 and the terrible energy of ,khufu 7fig4 #abc71 should be observed4 ,it shows how free the art is from any mere convention of majesty4 ,the hawk behind the king is shown as spreading out its wings to protect the royal head4 ,this symbolism is ingeniously hidden in the front view1 so as not to interfere with the effect of the whole figure as it was intended to be seen4 ,the figures of the ,vth and ,v,ith dynasties have more vivacity than those earlier1 but scarcely such a real vitality4 ,the well-known scribe 7fig4 #bi7 is a good piece of expression1 showing the attentive1 waiting air of a man who is following dictation4 ,the anatomy is not detailed1 and the surfaces look rather blocked out and bald as compared with ,khafra4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #bi4 ,the scribe #cj4 ,wife and daughter #ca4 ,ranofer ,the lower part of a group is given here 7fig4 #cj7 for figures of the seated wife and daughter4 ,these show good modelling of the figure in a close-fitting garment1 and the hair is worn over the forehead beneath the wig1 as by ,nofert4 ,the figure of ,ranofer 7fig4 #ca7 is one of the most dignified of the portraits of officials4 ,the pose is strong2 the muscles are well rendered1 and not too full though clear4 ,the wig stands well off the head1 and gives a continuous outline with the figure4 ,it is hard to see how the whole expression could be better than this4 ,on looking closely at the detail of these early statues1 there is very little that can be set down as conventional4 ,all the features are natural1 well placed1 and harmonious4 ,the relation of the brow to the eyes is generally true4 ,but this point was entirely missed in later times4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the eye is rather too forward2 and in the ,x,v,i,i,ith there is hardly a single statue that is correct1 the eyes usually projecting to the plane of the brow4 ,on observing even the finest figures of later times it will be seen how purely conventional is their treatment2 the mouth and eyes are cold and mechanical1 and it is seldom that any one feature even approaches the truth of the early art4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the work shows the scholastic style of deliberate accuracy1 without as much personal vitality as in earlier times4 ,yet it is full of carefully observed detail1 and is by no means perfunctory like the later work4 ,the facial surfaces are well rendered3 observe the varied treatment of the cheek below the eye in figs4 #cb1 #cc1 and #ce1 which are clearly individual4 ,the entirely different form of the mouth in these three is as evidently personal4 ,throughout ,egyptian work the eye is of two distinct types1 both of which we see here in the ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,in one type 7fig4 #cb7 the upper lid rises to its highest point near the inner side2 and with this form the actual corner1 or canthus major1 may end in a mere angle or in a lachrymal fossa more or less developed1 an extreme case of the long and wide fossa being seen in fig4 #cb1 and in the black granite figure from ,alexandria 7so-called ,hyksos7 in ,cairo4 ,this may be called the gibbous form of lid1 and it is the more usual in the sculpture and on coffins4 ,the use of a copper frame round the inserted eye in ,old ,kingdom statues makes it uncertain how far the lachrymal fossa was intended to appear4 ,but the statues of a single material show a small fossa in most cases1 such as ,khafra1 ,dadefra1 the 7so-called7 wife of the ,sheykh1 and ,sebekhotep ,,iii4 ,in later work there is no fossa1 but only an angle1 as in ,tahutmes ,,iii1 ,amenhotep ,,iii1 ,amenhotep son of ,hapi1 and other instances to the end of the dynasties4 ,but a slight fossa is shown in ,akhenaten and his family1 and in ,ramessu ,,ii2 and1 under the ,ethiopians1 ,taharqa and ,amenardys are both shown with a long fossa4 ,the other type of eye seen in figs4 #cc1 #ce may be called the narrow eye4 ,this seems to belong mainly to the ,middle ,kingdom1 and is seen in ,senusert ,,iii1 ,amenemhat ,,iii1 ,queen ,nofert1 and ,noferhotep4 ,it is perhaps unknown at an earlier age2 and later it rarely occurs1 but may be seen in ,merenptah1 and somewhat in ,mentu-em-hat and some portraits of the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty4 ,these remarks are merely to draw attention to a detail which is easily observed and seldom defaced2 but for drawing conclusions an extensive study is needed of all the varieties of form and treatment1 not only of the eye1 but also of the lips1 nostrils1 ears1 and hair4 ,how far such detail belonged to the subject1 and how much is due to artistic conventions1 we cannot yet say2 but from the similarities of portraits of the same person it seems probable that the details are really due to differences of type4 ,illustration3 ,,middle ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #cb4 ,senusert ,i #cc4 ,senusert ,,iii #cd4 ,foreign type #ce4 ,amenemhat ,,iii ,we now have a very difficult question to state as to the origin of the remarkable type of fig4 #cd4 ,this is one of the class of sphinxes and statues commonly described as being of the ,hyksos4 ,yet1 as the ,hyksos kings' names are roughly cut on the shoulders of the sphinxes1 they are clearly not the original inscriptions2 and1 as clearly1 these figures are older than the ,hyksos4 ,the type is distinguished by an extreme muscularity of the face1 deeply cut1 powerful lips with strong flexures1 and the long nose1 not very prominent1 but broad4 ,all these points are much in excess of such features on any statue of a named ,egyptian king4 ,some similarities may be seen in the type of ,senusert ,,iii and ,amenemhat ,,iii 7figs4 #cc1 #ce72 but these latter are much less strong and unconventional4 ,it is probable that some of the stock of fig4 #cd has gone to form the type of figs4 #cc and #ce1 but it is impossible to see in them a uniform single type4 ,it seems most probable that fig4 #cd belongs to an invading people from ,syria during the decadence of the ,old ,kingdom1 between the ,v,i,ith and ,xth dynasties2 but until some example with an original name may be found1 it is useless to be more definite4 ,it is noticeable how all of the heads of this type are in black granite1 or rarely some other igneous rock2 this suggests that they were wrought by the school of the eastern desert1 and may therefore not be controlled by the decadence of ordinary ,egyptian work between the ,old and ,middle ,kingdoms4 ,whether other strange works in black granite--such as the fish-offerers of ,tanis--belong to the same age1 has been questioned4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that the sphinxes and the black granite bust from ,alexandria have a large lachrymal fossa1 while the fish-offerers have no fossa1 but only an inner angle to the eye4 ,the so-called ,hyksos figures from ,bubastis are not really of this type1 but show an inheritance of some of its characters1 such as belong to the royal family in the ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,whenever the royal portraiture of the ,x,i,ith dynasty is fully collected and studied1 it will be possible to clear the attribution of many statues1 and so to separate those which really belong to the earlier stock4 ,on coming to the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty a more mechanical style prevails 7figs4 #cf-ci74 ,this is obvious in the formal raised band of eyebrow1 and the eyes being brought forward to the plane of the forehead4 ,the lips remain more natural1 and are still treated expressively4 ,the best work of this age is the green basalt statue of ,tahutmes ,,iii in ,cairo 7fig4 #cg74 ,it accords closely with another figure of black granite of the same king2 but the red granite head in the ,british ,museum is much coarser and less expressive1 as is natural from that school of granite work4 ,the large nose is vouched for as a family characteristic in the reliefs of ,tahutmes ,,ii and ,hatshepsut at ,deir el ,bahri1 which have precisely the same outline of brow and nose2 the under-side of the nose1 the slightly rising curve of the lips to the outer corner1 and the flatness of the facing of the lips1 seem to be individual details4 ,the head fig4 #cf is of an official of ,amenhotep ,,iii1 in quartzite4 ,it has a fairly good outline of the cheek1 and well-cut lips2 and it shows the more florid and romantic turn of this age in the wavy hair marked out with lines4 ,under ,akhenaten 7fig4 #ci7 there came a revolution of art1 which was perhaps only a culmination of the naturalistic tendencies that were growing during the preceding reigns4 ,but it was enforced and supported by the surrounding changes in religion1 ethics1 and politics which were carried out by the humanist reformer who ruled4 ,it was probably also stimulated by the influence of the contemporary art of ,crete and ,greece1 the whole eastern ,mediterranean apparently sharing in a general movement4 ,we shall notice this further when considering reliefs and painting4 ,of round sculpture the best figure remaining is that of ,akhenaten now in ,paris 7fig4 #ci74 ,it has been part of a group of the king and queen sitting together1 and it shows all the characteristics of this school in the best form4 ,the eyes are quite natural2 the lips are emphasised by a sharp edge along their borders2 the jaw and neck are excellently rendered2 and the ear1 with its large pierced lobe1 is clearly true to life4 ,though the reforms of ,akhenaten mostly perished with him1 yet the training of his artists is still to be seen in the sculpture of ,tut-ankh-amen 7fig4 #ch74 ,this has not the professional completeness of style seen under ,tahutmes ,,iii 7fig4 #cg71 but it carries on the less precise sentimentalism of ,akhenaten 7fig4 #ci71 with much feeling for expression and beauty1 but a lack of grip and force4 ,the brow is neglected1 the eye is feeble1 the cheek is without detail1 but the lips and chin are enforced as far as possible4 ,the whole effect is sweet but not impressive4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #cf4 ,under ,amenhotep ,,iii #cg4 ,tahutmes ,,iii #ch4 ,tut-ankh-amen #ci4 ,akhenaten ,we now turn to the minor work in wood4 ,in the ,old ,kingdom1 wood was frequently carved on a large scale2 of the ,middle ,kingdom there is the statue of ,king ,hor2 but under the ,new ,kingdom the only large figures are some rather coarse funeral statues4 ,on the other hand1 in small figures there is a profusion of wood-carving4 ,the wooden ushabtis are often beautifully treated2 the draped figures of women are graceful and dignified1 with minute working of the hair and dress2 the grotesque figures of toilet objects are full of character2 but here our space limits us to one class1 and we give the nude figures 7figs4 #dj-db71 as such are rarely found in other material4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #dj1 #da1 #db4 ,wood-carvings of girls 7,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty7 ,the little negress 7fig4 #dj71 carved in ebony1 is part of a group representing her carrying a tray1 which is supported by a monkey before her4 ,but these accessories are inferior1 and merely hide the figure2 the edge of the tray has been slightly cut in on the breast and thus disfigured it4 ,the detail of this statuette is better than any other such work2 the perfect pose of the attitude1 the poise of the head1 the fulness of the muscles1 the innocent gravity of the expression1 are all excellent4 ,other figures are carved in the handles of toilet trays4 ,the girl in fig4 #da holding flowers and birds is on a smaller and coarser scale than the preceding1 but is excellent in expression and in the modelling of the trunk4 ,the damsel playing a lute on her boat amid the papyrus thicket 7fig4 #db7 shows one of the graceful adjuncts of water-parties in high life4 ,the length of leg is exaggerated to harmonise with the long stems around2 but the pose is skilfully seized1 the distance of the feet being needful for balance in a little shallop1 while the cling of the thighs is maintained4 ,there is more self-consciousness and deliberate effect in this expression than in that of the little girls seen before4 ,the age of decadence now begins with the ,ramessides4 ,one fine piece arrests us in the black granite statue of ,ramessu ,,ii 7fig4 #dc71 of which an entire view is given in fig4 #aa4 ,the whole pose is fairly good1 the face looking down toward the spectator below4 ,the king is no longer the dignified organiser of the ,old ,kingdom1 with a vision far away beyond everyday matters1 but he is obviously considering the opinion of the man in front of him4 ,the detail is almost equal to that of the previous dynasty2 the eye is natural1 the nose rather formal1 the lips with the sharp edge even more developed than before1 and the chin and throat less modelled4 ,the elbow is carefully wrought1 bringing out the fold of flesh and the muscle separately1 the accuracy of which is questionable4 ,a good example of a private sculpture is the head of ,bak-en-khonsu 7fig4 #dd74 ,the eye is only slightly indicated1 leaning to the conventional blocking out seen in figs4 #ia and #acg4 ,the profile is good1 and the lips are less exaggerated than in the royal statues4 ,the artist could give all his attention to the face alone1 as the figure is entirely hidden in an almost cubic block1 which represents the man seated with knees drawn up before the chest4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,sculpture #dc4 ,ramessu ,,ii #dd4 ,bak-en-khonsu #de4 ,merenptah #df4 ,taharqa ,the head of ,merenptah 7fig4 #de7 shows him as inheriting and imitating his father's face and attitude4 ,the style is cold and formal2 the eyes are so forward as to be even beyond the plane of the forehead1 and scarcely capped by the brow4 ,but the nose and lips are natural and free of the forcing which is seen rather earlier4 ,there is no attempt at any delicacy of facial curves1 and the chin and throat are masked by the official beard4 ,as this is in gray granite1 and was executed as the ka statue of the king's personal temple1 it may be taken as the best that could be done at that time4 ,a different feeling comes in with the massive individual portrait of ,taharqa 7fig4 #df74 ,the facial muscles are strongly marked1 but the mouth is singularly unformed1 and is exactly the opposite of that in the strong type of fig4 #cd4 ,the eyes are of the gibbous form1 with a long slot of lachrymal fossa1 which is also shown in the kindred figure of ,queen ,amenardys 7fig4 #dg74 ,the style is not akin to any other ,egyptian work1 and it seems as if an entirely different physiognomy had challenged the sculptor and made him drop his usual treatment and study ,nature afresh4 ,the alabaster statue of ,amenardys 7fig4 #dg7 is disproportioned as a whole1 though parts are good separately4 ,it has just the faults due to an imitator who does not trust to observation4 ,the head is too large1 the jointing is weak4 ,each of the features is fairly well rendered2 and within the limits of later mannerism there is no forcing or exaggeration4 ,the portrait of ,mentu-em-hat 7fig4 #dh7 belongs to the same style as that of ,taharqa1 and both are in black granite4 ,the eyes seem too small1 but this is rather due to the depth and massiveness of the jaws1 which overweight the face4 ,the apparent disproportion in the low forehead is only due to the photograph being taken too close and low down4 ,the height above the eyes is really equal to that down to the upper edge of the chin4 ,the facial curves are carefully observed1 and we can well credit this with being a true portrait of the capable governor of ,thebes who continued in office under ,taharqa and ,tanut-amen1 and who repaired the devastations of the ,assyrian invasion4 ,illustration3 ,,late ,,sculpture #dg4 ,amenardys #dh4 ,mentu-em-hat #di4 ,basalt head #ej4 ,wooden head ,a head broken from a statue1 found at ,memphis 7fig4 #di71 is remarkable for the deep and searching modelling4 ,the bony structure1 the facial muscles1 and the surface folds are all scrupulously observed4 ,the artist's triumph is shown in the harmony and the living character which he has infused into his laborious precision4 ,very rarely can a man rise superior to such a rigorous training4 ,the character of work is scarcely ,egyptian2 it belongs rather to the same school as the republican ,roman portraits1 but is earlier than those1 as it has more precision of detail4 ,lastly1 we have one of the best examples of ,greek influence in ,egypt shown by the wood-carving of a coffin 7fig4 #ej74 ,the long narrow face shaded by thick wavy hair is ,greek in feeling1 while the feather head-dress is old ,egyptian4 ,unfortunately1 the decay of the wood has broken the surface1 but it still remains an impressive example of ,egyptian influence on art which is mainly ,greek4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,reliefs ,in reliefs the representation of ,nature is complicated by the inevitable use of some conventions1 and some kind of perspective1 to reduce solid objects to a plane delineation4 ,it follows that for the study of naturalistic art they are inferior to statuary1 though they give rise to a whole system of artistic conventions which are of interest in themselves4 ,it appears that among most races drawings precede reliefs1 and hence relief must be looked on as developed drawing1 and not as trammelled statuary4 ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,reliefs #ea4 ,hyaena and bull #eb4 ,gazelles and palm #ec4 ,group of animals #ed4 ,king ,narmer ,the oldest reliefs are those of the prehistoric ivory carvings 7see fig4 #c71 in which we see maintained the pictorial convention of crossing lines to substantiate the outline of a solid body1 although the body was now expressed by the relief4 ,a large quantity of ivory reliefs showing rows of animals were found at ,hierakonpolis1 belonging to the earliest historic times4 ,of the same class are the reliefs upon the primitive figures from ,koptos 7fig4 #ea74 ,these comprise the elephant1 stag's head1 and swordfish1 as well as the hyaena and ox4 ,the design is spirited1 and seizes the characteristics of the animals2 while hills are conventionally shown by lumps under each foot4 ,the method of work is by bruising out the surface with a pointed stone pick around the outline1 and so lowering the surrounding ground 7here shaded71 while the body of the animal remains of the original face of the stone4 ,the next stage is that of the astonishing slate reliefs4 ,the purely artistic motive is seen in the group of two long-necked gazelles with a palm-tree 7fig4 #eb74 ,the detail of the forms of the joints and the general pose of the animals is excellent1 and the feeling for the graceful1 slender outline and smooth surfaces is enforced by the rugged palm stem placed between the gazelles4 ,the love of the strange and wild elements is seen in the rout of animals1 real and mythical1 in fig4 #ec1 which shows the lion1 giraffe1 wild ox1 and many kinds of deer1 well known to the early artists4 ,the figure of ,king ,narmer 7fig4 #ed7 is the historical point in these slate carvings4 ,as it is more advanced in style than any of the others1 it shows that they all belong to the age just before the ,ist dynasty1 about #eejj ,b4,c4 ,here the pose and jointing are excellent1 and the muscles are proclaimed by the artist as the results of his observation4 ,the later ,egyptian canon is observed that a straight line should pass through the middle of the head1 middle of the trunk1 point of the backward knee1 and middle between the heels3 only1 as the king is here leaning forward in action1 the line is not vertical as it is in later standing figures4 ,the facial characters of the king and his foe are well distinguished2 altogether five different types of race are shown on these early carvings4 ,the surface of the slate has been worked down with a metal scraper1 shown by the parallel grooves in the face4 ,on reaching the beginning of the pyramid age the finest work is seen in the three wooden panels of ,ra-hesy 7fig4 #ee1 frontispiece74 ,the anatomy is full1 though not so excessive as in the earlier work4 ,the facial curves are carefully rendered1 and the mouth is excellently formed4 ,the eye is of course placed in front view1 as it always was by ,egyptians4 ,the whole figure has an air of stark vigour1 which is fitting to a high official who managed a dozen different offices4 ,the multitude of the mastaba tomb-chapels of the pyramid age contain so many thousands of scenes1 illustrating every act of life of men and animals1 that it is impossible to give any view of their variety4 ,here we can only give two scenes illustrating composition4 ,in fig4 #ef is a group of men dragging down an ox for sacrifice4 ,the arrangement of the lines is clear1 each figure stands out separately1 the action is vigorous and simple4 ,another scene of an ox-herd 7fig4 #eg7 shows quiet motion1 with the unusual turning of the head4 ,this might be thought unnatural1 but exactly the same twist of the body may be seen among ,egyptians now4 ,this style of relief deteriorated in the ,v,ith dynasty1 and then continuously decayed until the middle of the ,x,ith dynasty1 by which time it has reached a most degraded state4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,kingdom ,,reliefs #ef4 ,the sacrifice #eg4 ,the ox-herd ,suddenly1 in the middle of the ,x,ith dynasty1 a new style of careful elaboration begins to appear1 a true archaic germ of a new school4 ,this rapidly grew1 until at the later part of that dynasty there is a stiff and over-elaborate style1 which is well shown in the figure of the princess ,kauat having her hair curled 7fig4 #eh74 ,the eyes of all the figures are gibbous1 with a moderate fossa2 the lips have usually a sharp edge1 though sometimes merely rounded2 and there is the beginning of facial modelling4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the surface modelling became elaborate1 most delicate gradations being wrought with faint outlines1 as seen in the ,memphite head1 fig4 #f4 ,a bold high relief and simpler treatment was followed by the ,theban school1 as in fig4 #ei of the god ,ptah and ,senusert ,i embracing4 ,the use of sunk relief1 as fig4 #eh1 was as early as the ,i,vth dynasty1 though most of the tomb sculptures are in high relief4 ,sunk relief became commoner in the ,middle ,kingdom1 and almost universal in the ,new ,kingdom4 ,it saved a large amount of labour1 and it protected the sculptures from injury2 but it is so forcible a convention that it is never so pleasing as the raised work4 ,illustration3 ,,middle ,,kingdom ,,reliefs #eh4 ,toilet of princess #ei4 ,senusert ,i and ,ptah ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty opens with another revival of art1 but yet it never reached the levels of the earlier ages4 ,the profusion of reliefs of ,thebes and other great sites has made the style of the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,i,xth dynasties the most familiar to us1 but its inferiority to that of the previous periods is more obvious the more it is studied4 ,the sculptures of ,hatshepsut at ,deir el ,bahri are celebrated1 yet the detail in fig4 #fj is not rich4 ,there is scarcely any modelling of face or muscles1 mere flat surfaces sufficing2 there is but little expression in the features2 and the whole effect is flat and tame4 ,more character appears under ,amenhotep ,,iii 7fig4 #fa71 though even here there is none of the muscular detail which was constantly shown in early work4 ,the features smile gracefully without any real expression1 and the trivial details of dress are worked out to give a picturesque elaboration4 ,the taste for mere prettiness and graceful personalities ruled more and more as the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty developed4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,reliefs #fj4 ,hatshepsut #fa4 ,servant of ,kha-em-hat #fb4 ,akhenaten and queen ,at last this taste1 stimulated by the influence of the ,greek art and its love of expressing motion1 broke all bounds in the movement under ,akhenaten4 ,the example in fig4 #fb gives the essence of ,atenism4 ,the natural but ungainly attitudes1 the flourishing ribands1 the heavy collars and kilt1 the ungraceful realism of the figures1 the loss of all expression and detail of structure1--all these show the death of a permanent art in the fever of novelty and vociferation4 ,this ferment being passed1 the ,egyptian went back on his older style2 but it had lost its life1 it could only be copied4 ,the exquisite smoothness and finish of the good work of ,sety ,i at ,abydos is entirely lifeless and destitute of observation4 ,it has no anatomical detail1 but was made by well-constructed human machines who could not express an emotion which they did not feel4 ,the historical scenes of the great sculptures of ,karnak are full of interest1 but almost destitute of art4 ,some parts of the work of ,ramessu ,,iii at ,medinet ,habu show more observation1 such as the hunting scene1 fig4 #fc4 ,the wild bulls are well studied1 and the marsh-plants with feathery tops show a real appreciation of natural growth and beauty4 ,under the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty came the deliberate imitation of the work of the ,old ,kingdom4 ,in a few cases this is passably done1 and even some invention may be seen4 ,but in general there is only a lifeless imitation of various parts clumsily put together4 ,one of the best pieces of such art is the procession of youths and maids carrying animals and farm produce 7fig4 #fd74 ,the forms are true1 there is none of the later exaggeration 7as in fig4 #aj71 and there is a loving touch in the details1 especially of the animals1 which belongs to the true artist4 ,observe how the girls carry the flowers and the birds1 while the boys take the heavy loads of papyrus stems and a calf and a basket of flour4 ,such work is the last flicker of ,egyptian art in reliefs1 and nothing later claims our notice4 ,illustration3 ,,late ,,reliefs #fc4 ,bulls in marshes #fd4 ,bearers of offerings ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,painting ,,and ,,drawing ,painting is certainly the earliest art of ,egypt2 but1 being more perishable than sculpture1 many periods of it are hardly represented at present4 ,a very early prehistoric vase1 painted with white slip on the red ground1 shows the crude figures of two men fighting 7fig4 #fe74 ,other such vases have plants and other objects painted4 ,from the middle of the prehistoric age1 belonging to the second civilisation1 are the light-brown vases painted in red1 with figures of ships and people 7fig4 #ff71 plants1 and imitations of stone and wicker patterns4 ,the joints are fairly correct in the men and animals1 though deficient in the woman with raised arms4 ,but the whole air is very crude as compared with the roughest efforts of the dynastic race4 ,another painting rather later in the prehistoric age is the ship from a tomb fresco 7fig4 #fg74 ,the arms of the woman are more correctly drawn as straight1 but the men are worse posed than in the earlier work4 ,the idea of the figures seen above the ships1 but entirely detached from them1 may be that they are seen on the opposite bank of a narrow river1 beyond the ships4 ,the advanced painting of the early pyramid times is shown by the geese 7fig4 #fh71 stalking along in a meadow amid tufts of herbage4 ,the air of grave self-sufficiency is admirably caught1 and this small piece of a great wall-scene at ,medum is deservedly admired4 ,of the ,middle ,kingdom there is no fine example remaining4 ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,painting #fe4 ,first age of prehistoric painting #ff4 ,second age #fg4 ,ship on wall-painting #fh4 ,geese of ,medum ,the great age of painting was the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,i,xth dynasties4 ,the sculpturing of tombs was then abandoned in favour of the cheaper paint2 and the taste of the age for graceful and light treatment found its best scope in the use of the brush4 ,here we have a group of pelicans 7fig4 #fi7 with an old herdsman and baskets of eggs4 ,next 7fig4 #gj7 is a harvest scene4 ,two men are carrying a load of the ears of corn in a net4 ,behind are the stalks of straw after the ears have been cut4 ,two girls who were gleaning have stopped to quarrel over the corn2 one has seized a wrist of the other1 and the two free hands have each taken a grip of the other one's hair4 ,to the right1 under a sycamore fig-tree1 one boy is asleep1 while another plays on a long reed pipe1 with a water-skin hung over his head4 ,in the lower line a girl with a thorn in her foot is stretching it out to be examined by another girl4 ,further1 a lad is stripping the heads of millet by dragging them through a fixed fork4 ,the whole scene is full of incident1 and the drawing of the figures in unusual action is excellent4 ,the curious dress of the men is a linen waist-cloth1 with a net of slit leather-work to take the wear1 and a solid piece of leather left in the middle of it for sitting on1 as in fig4 #adj4 ,such slit leather-work is dealt with in the last chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,painting #fi4 ,pelicans and keeper #gj1 #ga4 ,harvest scenes ,a third scene 7fig4 #ga7 is in the harvest field2 the ears have been put into a net1 and to press them down a stick is passed through a hole on one edge1 while a man has hooked his arm over the stick1 and jumped up so as to bring his weight with a jerk to press the stick down2 with his other hand he holds the end of a cord tied to the net1 so as to be ready to secure the stick when pressed down and prevent it springing up again4 ,the spirit shown in this action is very good1 and it is perhaps the only figure given in the act of jumping4 ,on the left is a young woman1 one of the daughters1 behind the owner of the tomb2 on the right is a gleaning girl1 stopping in the tall corn to drink1 with her basket set on the ground4 ,on the next plate a portion of a ceiling pattern 7fig4 #gb7 shows how such designs were drawn4 ,the rhombic lines were done first1 then the dark groundwork1 leaving white discs1 and lastly these were filled up with the spirals4 ,the whole was copied from appliqu leather-work1 with lines of stitching4 ,a boating scene 7fig4 #gc7 shows the beautifully bold1 clean lines of the drawing1 for which in this case there does not seem to have been any preliminary sketch of position4 ,the crouching girl picking a lotus bud from the water is very unusual4 ,the drawing of wavy water-lines1 with lotus flowers1 is the general convention1 and the figures of fish and birds are often seen4 ,a scene at a party 7fig4 #gd7 shows the guests seated on the ground holding lotus flowers1 while a serving-girl stretches forward to arrange the earrings of one of the guests4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,painting #gb4 ,ceiling #gc4 ,boating scene #gd4 ,a party ,painting received a great stimulus under ,akhenaten3 the new movement suited the brush much better than the chisel4 ,the two figures of the princesses 7fig4 #gf7 show possibilities which were not then fully carried out4 ,the conventional attitudes are dropped1 and the actual positions of two little girls are carefully copied4 ,the elder is seated on a cushion1 with the knees drawn up1 and resting one arm on the knee1 while with the other hand she pushes up her little sister's chin4 ,the younger has none of this self-possession1 but is propping herself up with one arm1 while she clings to her elder's shoulder with the other4 ,the drawing is free and true1 within the usual conventions of perspective4 ,further1 the colouring has shade on the backs of the figures1 and a high light on the thigh of the younger daughter4 ,such shade does not appear in ,greek art till a thousand years later4 ,the pattern in front is the border of the carpet on which the queen was seated1 her foot and drapery appearing above4 ,a surprising drawing which belongs to the same school of observation is the tumbler 7fig4 #ge74 ,here an acrobatic position is so skilfully drawn as to suggest its truth and to avoid any impossibility4 ,the form of each part is admirable2 and if we trace it piece by piece into an upright position1 the resulting figure is correctly proportioned1 except in the length of the arms4 ,in reality such an attitude requires the hands to rest on the finger-tips where the wrist now is drawn4 ,as a drawing of a violent attitude this is a marvellous work1 not only for the directness and perfection of the line1 but also for the complete lightness and swing of the whole figure4 ,another good piece of action is the man 7fig4 #gg7 who is standing on a boat's cabin hauling in a rope4 ,the dead-weight of the body is well thrown back2 and as the base is small1 one leg is kept in reserve behind so as to recover any slip4 ,the dead pull1 with both feet planted together and the whole body rigidly leaning back1 is often drawn in the early fishing scenes2 but such an attitude would be unsafe when standing on the top of a narrow cabin4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,painting #ge4 ,girl somersaulting #gf4 ,the young princesses ,we now turn to outline drawing1 in which the ,egyptians always had a grand facility4 ,there is no instance1 even in degraded times1 of an outline made as in modern work by little tentative touches feeling the way4 ,if they made a mistake1 they at least 8sinned splendidly40 ,the long free strokes1 always taking the whole length of a bone at once1 and often going down a whole figure without raising the hand--even1 true1 without a quiver or hesitation--shame most modern outlines4 ,the group of heads 7fig4 #gh7 shows well the amount of character given by a simple outline4 ,the furthest is a negro1 the next a ,syrian1 the third an ,abyssinian1 the last a ,libyan4 ,the type of each is shown with zest and energy1 and the line-work could not be improved4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,kingdom ,,drawing #gg4 ,the boatman hauling #gh4 ,the four races #gi4 ,sketched tablet #hj4 ,tomb decoration ,in fig4 #gi is a very rough sketch for a little tablet of adoration4 ,it shows the faint outlines in red which were laid in first to space out the figure4 ,such were used in nearly all cases as a preliminary guide2 but they were freely improved on in the final black drawing1 as here the whole base has been lowered4 ,this also shows the sketch-forms of hieroglyphic writing4 ,the final work for a royal tomb is seen in fig4 #hj1 ,sety ,i offering to ,osiris4 ,we can here admire the perfect freedom and exactitude of the handling1 although this was only intended as a guide to the sculptor1 and was not to be finally visible4 ,a large branch of drawing which we have not space to illustrate here is that of the papyri and hieroglyphs4 ,the papyri show the clear1 fine outlines in the good examples4 ,in later times1 rough as the work may be1 the feeling for expression never deserts the artist4 ,the hieroglyphs form a great study by themselves4 ,the sources of the signs1 the various treatment of them1 the minute details introduced1 are all full of interest4 ,the great result was that the ,egyptian had a writing which1 though cumbrous1 was a continual pleasure to see1 and which adorned the artistic monuments on which it was placed4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,architecture ,strange to say1 ,egyptian architecture has never yet been systematically studied2 we know nothing of its proportions and variations4 ,the earliest constructions were of brick1 or of palm-sticks interwoven4 ,from the necessary forms of these all the details of the stone architecture have been copied4 ,a parallel is seen in ,greece1 where the architecture was an exact transcription of a wooden building1 the triglyphs1 mutules1 and guttae being the beam-ends1 tie-boards1 and pegs formerly belonging to woodwork4 ,illustration ,for the greater security of the corners of brick buildings1 the ,egyptians tilted the courses up at each end1 thus building in a concave bed1 with faces sloping inwards4 ,this slope was copied in the stone-work1 and is seen on the outsides of all ,egyptian buildings 7see fig4 #hc74 ,the inside faces are always vertical1 and this serves to distinguish the meaning of small portions of wall in excavations4 ,illustration ,illustration ,slight structures were made of palm-sticks1 set upright1 and lashed to a cross stick near the top1 with other palm-sticks interwoven to stiffen the face1 and the whole plastered with mud4 ,such construction is made now in ,egypt1 and is seen in the earliest figures of shrines4 ,at the top the ends of the palm-sticks nod over1 and form a fence to keep out intruders4 ,this row of tops is the origin of the stone cavetto cornice1 which always stands free above the level of the roof4 ,at the corners the structure of palm-stick was strengthened by a bundle of sticks or reeds lashed round1 and put as a buffer to prevent a blow breaking in the edge4 ,this became the roll with lashing pattern which is seen down the edges of the stone buildings1 and also beneath the cavetto cornice where it is copied from the line of sticks below the loose tops 7see fig4 #hc74 ,illustration ,another form of construction was with papyrus stems4 ,these had a loose1 wiry head like an ,equisetum or mare's tail4 ,when used for a cabin on a boat1 the roofing stems were put through the loose head1 which was tied above and below to hold them4 ,hence the row of heads became copied as an ornament along the tops of walls1 and continued in use thus down to the latest times4 ,the use of the arch was familiar from early times4 ,even before the pyramid-builders small arches of bricks were made4 ,they were the general mode of roofing in the ,x,i,ith dynasty1 when we see them drawn and imitated in stone4 ,from the ,x,i,xth dynasty there remain the great arched store-rooms of the ,ramesseum4 ,being of dried mud brick1 which is far more easily crushed than stone or burnt brick1 the circular form was not suitable1 as the apex would yield by crushing4 ,a more or less parabolic form was therefore used1 so as to give a sharper curve at the top4 ,to protect these arches from the weather1 they were laid four courses thick1 with a deep layer of sand and gravel over the top1 to absorb any rain as a sponge4 ,arches were usually built without any centring2 and to this day the ,egyptian similarly builds arches and domes of any size without centring or support4 ,each ring of arch is laid on a sloping bed1 so that the thin arch bricks on edge will stick in place by the mud-mortar until the ring is completed4 ,the same construction is started in each corner of a room until the arching meets in a circle1 when the dome is carried round ring on ring1 increasing the dip toward the top4 ,the successive coats of an arch are often bedded on opposite slopes1 so that the rings cross each other4 ,the outer form of a temple was always a blank wall on all sides1 as at ,edfu1 which preserves its circuit wall complete4 ,usually the outer wall has been removed for building 7fig4 #hc71 and the inner courts with columns are exposed4 ,in further ruin all the walls of squared blocks are gone1 and only a group of pillars is left on the site4 ,a typical building of the early age is the temple of red granite built by ,khafra at ,gizeh 7fig4 #ha74 ,the pillars are #da inches square1 and there are sixteen of them in the two halls4 ,the work is perfectly plain2 not a trace of ornament is to be seen in this or other temples of the ,i,i,ird-,i,vth dynasties4 ,only on the outside was there a panelling1 like that on the brick buildings and stone sarcophagi of this age4 ,the masonry of this temple is much less exact than that of the early pyramids4 ,the whole effect of it is grand and severe1 with the noble breadth which belongs to the early times4 ,the tower front of the temple at ,medinet ,habu 7fig4 #hb7 is one of the few faades that is preserved4 ,it was copied from the ,syrian fortresses1 and shows how the ,asiatic influences had entered ,egypt during the three centuries from about #aejj to #abjj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,architecture #ha4 ,granite temple #hb4 ,medinet ,habu #hc4 ,dakkeh ,the most complete view of a whole temple is that of ,dakkeh 7fig4 #hc74 ,the girdle wall has been destroyed1 thus exposing the components of the temple clearly4 ,at the left is the great pylon1 the gateway through the girdle wall4 ,this led to the portico1 which was the front of the house of the god1 like the porticoes to human houses4 ,behind this a cross passage1 of which the door is seen at the side1 passed in front of the shrine and its ante-chamber4 ,this was one of the most perfect small temples1 but it has been much destroyed in recent years4 ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,forms ,,of ,,column #hd4 ,palm capital #he4 ,rose lotus #hf4 ,blue lotus ,the massive square pillars of the granite temple gave place before long to more ornamental forms4 ,the principal types are the palm and lotus in the ,vth dynasty1 and later the papyrus4 ,the palm capital is shown on the granite columns of ,unas 7fig4 #hd74 ,it was probably derived from a bundle of palm-sticks bound together and plastered with mud to stiffen them1 like the bundles of maize-stalks which are still used for columns4 ,around the top of it some of the loose ends of the palm-sticks were left with the leaves to form a head4 ,the lotus capital appears likewise as a shaft decorated with buds around it 7fig4 #he74 ,in this case the buds are the short1 thick ones of the rose lotus1 with flowers of the blue lotus put in the intervals under the abacus4 ,but the lotus bud soon became treated as a solid support1 and in the capital of the blue lotus 7fig4 #hf7 the whole is formed of four lotus buds4 ,the bands of the tie were always strongly marked1 however changed the capital might become in later time4 ,the papyrus column belongs mainly to the ,x,i,xth dynasty1 as in the great hall of ,karnak4 ,it was the most incongruous of all1 as a single gigantic head of loose filaments was represented as supporting the whole weight4 ,plain polygonal shafts were also common4 ,some octagonal ones occur in the ,vth dynasty4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty they are sixteen-sided1 keeping the four main faces flat and slightly hollowing the others4 ,this was continued in the earlier part of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 but after that the polygonal form almost disappears4 ,here we can only touch on some of the artistic elements2 the architecture as a whole is beyond the scope of so small a volume4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,stone-,,working ,we here begin to deal with the more technical rather than the purely artistic view--the crafts as well as the arts4 ,connected with the last chapter is the study of the materials and methods used for the architecture4 ,limestone was the main material of the land1 the ,eocene cliffs fencing in the ,nile valley along four hundred miles4 ,the two finest kinds are the ,mokattam stone opposite the pyramids1 which is perfectly uniform and free from splitting or flaws2 and the hard silicified stone occurring at ,tell el ,amarna and elsewhere4 ,the next commonest material was soft sandstone from ,silsileh1 used generally after the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 especially in the ,thebaid4 ,the less usual stones are the red granite of ,aswan1 which was used from the ,ist dynasty onwards2 the quartzite sandstone of ,gebel ,ahmar near ,cairo1 begun on a large scale by the ,x,i,ith dynasty2 basalt from ,khankah and other eruptions1 used in the ,i,vth and ,x,i,xth dynasties2 alabaster from the quarries near ,tell el ,amarna2 and diorite1 used by the pyramid builders only4 ,the quarrying of the limestone was usually by large galleries run into the best strata4 ,blocks of two or three feet in size were cut out by picking a trench wide enough for the arm to pass downward around the block1 and then inward below it1 until it could be cracked away from the bed4 ,the blocks were thus cut out in regular rows1 from top to bottom of the gallery face4 ,the same method is still kept up in the open-air quarry at ,helwan4 ,for larger blocks a trench eighteen inches wide1 in which the workman could pass1 was cut around the block4 ,in the sandstone quarries the same mode of cutting was followed1 only the quarry was open to the sky4 ,so carefully was inferior stone rejected1 that instead of following cracks in the rock1 a wall of stone was left on each side of a crack2 and such walls1 each containing a fissure1 divide the quarry to its whole depth4 ,the granite was first obtained from loose water-worn blocks at the ,cataract1 a great advantage of such a source being that any cracks are made visible4 ,later it was quarried in the bed2 a large mass still in the quarry has been trimmed and marked across to be cut up for shrines or sarcophagi4 ,the early mode of fissuring was by cutting a groove and jumping holes through the thickness of the stone1 to determine the direction of the fissure4 ,probably the active force was dried wood driven in and wetted1 as there is no trace of bruising by metal wedges on the sides of the groove4 ,in later times1 instead of holes1 mere pockets were sunk rather deeper in the groove to hold the splitting agent4 ,for cutting passages or chambers in rock1 the method was to make a rough drift-way1 then finish a true plane for the roof1 next mark an axis upon the roof plane1 trim the sides true to the distance from a plumb bob held at the axis1 and finally smooth the floor to a uniform distance from the roof4 ,in a rock chamber the roof was finished first1 and a shaft was sunk to the intended depth of the chamber to mark it out4 ,the surfaces of rock and of dressed stones were picked smooth by a short adze1 with cuts crossing in all directions4 ,the edges of a stone were first dressed true1 and then the space between was referred to the edges4 ,to do this1 two offset sticks with a string stretched between the tops of them were stood on the edges1 and a third offset was used to test the depth to the face1 so as to see how much was to be cut away4 ,for larger stones1 a diagonal draft-line was cut true as well as the edge drafts1 so as to avoid any twist4 ,the face was finally tested with a portable plane smeared with red ochre1 and wherever that left a touch of red1 the stone was cut down2 this was continued until the red touched at intervals of not more than an inch4 ,this was the quality of face for joints2 but it was further smoothed by grinding on outer finished surfaces4 ,the rough hewing of rock tombs was generally done with mauls of silicified limestone1 which is found as nodules left on the surface4 ,the granite and hard stones were also sawn1 and cut with tubular drills4 ,the saws were blades of copper1 which carried the hard cutting points4 ,the cutting material was sand for working the softer stones1 and emery for harder rocks4 ,as far back as prehistoric times1 blocks of emery were used for grinding beads1 and even a plummet and a vase were cut out of emery rock 7now in ,university ,college74 ,there can be no doubt1 therefore1 of emery being known and used4 ,the difficult question is whether the cutting material was used as loose powder1 or was set in the metal tool as separate teeth4 ,an actual example was found at the prehistoric ,greek palace of ,tiryns4 ,the hard limestone there has been sawn1 and ,i found a broken bit of the saw left in a cut4 ,the copper blade had rusted away to green carbonate2 and with it were some little blocks of emery about a sixteenth of an inch long1 rectangular1 and quite capable of being set1 but far too large to act as a loose powder with a plain blade4 ,on the ,egyptian examples there are long grooves in the faces of the cuts of both saws and drills2 and grooves may be made by working a loose powder4 ,but1 further1 the groove certainly seems to run spirally round a core1 which would show that it was cut by a single point2 and where quartz and softer felspar are cut through the groove floor runs on one level1 and as the felspar is worn down by general rubbing1 the quartz is actually cut through to a greater depth than the softer felspar4 ,this shows that a fixed cutting point ploughed the groove1 and not a loose powder4 ,also1 the hieroglyphs on diorite bowls are ploughed out with a single cut of a fixed point1 only one hundred and fiftieth of an inch wide1 so it is certain that fixed cutting points were used for hand-graving4 ,there is no doubt that sawing and grinding with loose powder was the general method1 but the use of fixed stones seems clearly shown by the instances above4 ,the large hieroglyphs on hard stones were cut by copper blades fed with emery1 and sawn along the outline by hand2 the block between the cuts was broken out1 and the floor of the sign was hammer-dressed1 and finally ground down with emery4 ,hammer-dressing was largely used in all ages on the hard stones2 the blows crushed the stone to powder1 and the stunning of the surface was often not quite removed by grinding1 and shows as white spots4 ,the hammer was usually of black hornstone1 a tough amorphous quartz rock4 ,the methods of placing the stones in the building have been often debated4 ,the foundations were usually laid on a bed of clean sand1 and this enabled the whole course to be accurately adjusted level to begin with4 ,for temples1 it seems most likely that the interior was filled with earth as the building advanced2 and thus the walls1 drums1 and architraves could be as easily dealt with as on the lowest course4 ,this plan is successfully used at ,karnak in present repairs4 ,but where stones needed to be raised for a pyramid or a pylon1 some staging was required4 ,remains of a massive brick slope still stand against each face of the unfinished pylons at ,karnak4 ,this1 however1 is only the general mass of the staging1 and the actual steps for the stones must have been of stone1 as brick would crumble to powder if any lifting work was done directly upon it4 ,illustration ,for short blocks a cradle of wood was used1 of which many models have been found in foundation deposits along with model tools4 ,on tilting this to one end1 and putting a wedge beneath it1 it could be rocked up the slope1 and so gradually raised1 first to one end and then to the other4 ,for large blocks1 the actual lifting was probably done by rocking up4 ,if a beam be supported by two piles near the middle1 a small force will tilt it up clear of one pile2 on raising that pile the beam may be tilted the other way1 and the lower pile raised in its turn4 ,thus rocking from pile to pile1 a beam can be quickly raised till it is high enough to be moved on to the next step4 ,it was probably thus that the fifty-six granite beams1 weighing over fifty tons each1 were raised in the pyramid of ,khufu4 ,the obelisks were transported on great barges1 as shown in the sculptures4 ,the method of raising such stones is partly explained by an account of setting up colossi of ,ramessu ,,iv4 ,a causeway of earth was made sloping up for a length of a quarter of a mile2 it was ninety-five feet wide1 and one hundred and three feet high on the slope1 probably about sixty or seventy feet vertically1 as the slopes were held up steeply with facings of timber and brushwood4 ,the purpose of this evidently was to raise the great block by sliding on its side up the slope1 and then to tilt it upright by gravity over the head of the slope4 ,how the mass would be turned we have nothing to show1 but probably the simplest way1 by gradually removing earth1 would be followed4 ,by next ramming earth beneath the obelisk as it lay on a slope1 it would be quite practicable to force it forward into an upright position4 ,after a building was finished the sculpturing of its walls had to be executed4 ,for this1 a long training of sculptors was needful1 and the art schools filled an important part in education4 ,the simplest subjects of outlines in limestone were a first step1 the sign neb requiring a straight and a curved line only4 ,after the geometric forms came studies of heads and of hands4 ,in fig4 #hh we see how1 after a fair control of the graver had been attained1 there was still much to be learned in detail and harmony before the artist could be trusted to decorate a temple4 ,statuary also needed a long training4 ,the work was first marked out in profile of the front and sides1 and then cut along these outlines1 as in the rock-crystal figure 7fig4 #hi71 where the outlines at right angles have been cut1 but the corners are yet unrounded4 ,in the block for the head of a lion 7fig4 #ij7 the various planes have been already cut for the face1 before attempting any rounding4 ,the limestone head 7fig4 #ia7 shows a further stage1 where the general rounding is done1 but the details of the lips1 ears1 eyes1 and eyebrows are yet left in the block4 ,all of these stages needed incessant practice1 and years must have been spent in training in the schools before final work was undertaken4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,vases #hg4 ,a-,h4 ,prehistoric ,j4 ,v,ith dynasty ,k4 ,x,i,ith dynasty ,l1 ,m4 ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty ,turning now to stone-work on a smaller scale1 the hardest materials were wrought for vases in the prehistoric age4 ,in the first civilisation1 basalt1 syenite1 and porphyry were in use as well as the softer stones1 alabaster and limestone4 ,the later civilisation brought in slate1 coloured limestone1 serpentine1 and lastly diorite1 which continued to be the favourite stone into the pyramid age4 ,the main differences of form are shown in fig4 #hg4 ,the earlier type of vase is the standing form ,f1 with a foot1 and no piercing for suspension4 ,the later prehistoric age brought in the suspended stone as well as pottery vases4 ,the main types were ,a1 ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,g1 ,h1 and lastly ,c1 cut out of coloured marbles1 of syenite1 and of basalt4 ,all of these vases were cut entirely by hand without any turning1 or even any circular grinding1 on the outside4 ,the polish lines cross diagonally on the curved sides1 and the slight irregularities of form1 though imperceptible to the eye1 can be felt by rotation in the fingers4 ,the greatest triumph of this stone-work is the vase from ,hierakonpolis in black and white syenite1 of the type ,a1 ,e1 two feet across and sixteen inches high1 which is highly polished1 and hollowed out so thin that it can be lifted by one finger1 though if solid it would weigh four hundred pounds4 ,the interior of these vases was ground out with stone grinders fed with emery1 and in softer stones cut out by crescent-shaped flint drills4 ,illustration3 ,,methods ,,of ,,sculpture #hh4 ,trial piece of learner #hi4 ,rough drafting #ij4 ,lion's head drafted #ia4 ,head nearly finished ,the historic times show a continual decline in the quality of the stone used4 ,in the ,ist dynasty the hard stones decreased1 and the softer slate and alabaster were more common4 ,in the pyramid age only diorite continued in use among the hard materials1 and that but rarely compared to soft stones2 while in the ,x,i,ith and ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasties1 beyond an occasional vase of obsidian or serpentine1 nothing is seen but the soft alabaster4 ,the form ,j belongs to the ,v,ith dynasty4 ,k is a type which descends from the ,ist dynasty1 but in this form wide at the top belongs to the ,x,i,ith1 after which it disappears4 ,l and ,m are of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty4 ,amulets of fine stone were used from prehistoric days onwards4 ,of the early ones1 the bull's head is the commonest1 made of carnelian1 haematite1 or glazed quartz4 ,the fly is made of slate1 lazuli1 and serpentine in prehistoric times1 and of gold in historic jewellery4 ,the hawk is found of glazed quartz and limestone1 the serpent of lazuli and limestone2 the crocodile1 the frog1 the claw1 the spear-head are all found in prehistoric use4 ,in the ,old ,kingdom1 small amulets of carnelian or ivory were usual2 the forms are the hand1 the fist1 the eye1 lion1 jackal-head1 frog1 and bee4 ,in the ,middle ,kingdom the more usual material was silver or electrum4 ,the ,new ,kingdom used amulets but little2 the great profusion comes from the mummies of the ,saite time1 when dozens may be found on one body4 ,the great variety of forms and materials would require a volume to explain them4 ,beads were used from prehistoric times4 ,the hard stones were cut then--quartz1 amethyst1 agate1 carnelian1 turquoise1 lazuli1 haematite1 serpentine1 as well as glazes on quartz and on paste4 ,glazed pottery beads became the more usual in historic times2 glass beads were made from the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty onward1 and hardly any other material was used in ,roman times4 ,there are hundreds of varieties known1 and an accurate knowledge of their dates is essential in excavating4 ,flint was worked to the highest perfection in the prehistoric age1 and continued in use till ,roman times4 ,strictly1 it is chert rather than flint1 as the beds in which it is found are of ,eocene limestone4 ,but in general appearance and nature they are closely the equivalent of the chalk with flints in ,england1 only harder4 ,the prehistoric forms are shown in fig4 #ib4 ,they exceed the flint-work of all other countries in the regularity of the flaking1 the thinness of the weapon1 and the minute serration of the edges4 ,at present such work is entirely a lost art1 and we cannot imagine the methods or the skill required to produce such results4 ,besides the weapons1 flint armlets were made1 chipped out of a solid block1 yet no thicker than a straw4 ,these were ground with emery finally to smooth them for wearing4 ,flint was commonly used down to the ,x,i,ith dynasty for knives1 but all the dynastic working is far inferior to the earlier4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 and later1 sickle teeth were still made of flint2 and flakes were chipped and used in abundance at some centres in the ,roman period4 ,illustration3 ,,flint-,,working #ib4 ,knives and lances of the best prehistoric work ,before leaving the stone-working we may note the accuracy of work1 as this is better seen here than in any other subject4 ,the highest pitch of accuracy on a large scale was reached under ,khufu in the ,i,vth dynasty2 his pyramid had an error of less than #f of an inch on its side of #ijfi inches1 or #a in #ae1jjj2 and its corners were square to #ab4 ,a change of temperature during a day would make larger errors than this in a measuring-rod4 ,the accuracy of levelling1 and of finish of the stones1 is on a par with this2 joints over six feet long are straight to a hundredth of an inch4 ,the pyramid of ,khafra has three times this error1 varying #ae inch on #hdge1 and #cc of angle4 ,that of ,menkaura is worse1 being on an average #c inches out on #daed1 and #a #ej of angle4 ,at ,dahshur the errors are #cg on #gdei inches base1 and #aa on #bjfe1 with angular errors of #d and #aj4 ,in smaller work1 a beautiful example is the granite sarcophagus of ,senusert ,,ii1 which is ground flat on the sides with a matt face like ground glass1 and only has about a two-hundredth of an inch error of flatness and parallelism of the sides4 ,the later ages1 so far as we know1 have left nothing that can be compared with the accuracy of the early dynasties4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,jewellery ,native gold is1 in all countries1 one of the earliest materials for manufactured ornaments1 and it appears to have been much used in prehistoric ,egypt4 ,though gold is not now sought in or near ,egypt1 we must remember that it is found in the stream deposits of most countries1 and its absence from the ,mediterranean lands now is only due to the ancient workers having exhausted the supply4 ,the immediate sources of the metal were in ,nubia and ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,asiatic gold was certainly used in the first dynasty1 as it is marked by having a variable amount of silver alloy1 about a sixth2 but looking at the ,african influence on ,egypt it is probable that ,nubia was the first source1 though whether gold 7nb7 was called from the country 7nb71 or the reverse1 is uncertain4 ,illustration ,so general was the use of gold for necklaces1 that the picture of a collar of beads became the hieroglyph for gold4 ,strings of minute gold beads were worn on the ankles in prehistoric times 7#hjjj-ejjj ,b4,c474 ,larger beads were economically made by beating out a thin tube1 and then drawing down the ends over a core of limestone4 ,a thin gold finger ring has been found1 and a flat pendant with punched dots4 ,but most of the prehistoric gold is seen on the lips of stone vases1 overlaying the handles of vases1 and forming the wire loops for carrying them4 ,similarly it was used for covering the handles of flint knives2 a sheet of gold was fitted over the flint1 embossed with figures of women1 animals1 twisted snakes1 a boat1 etc4 ,but the use of thin gold leaf which adheres to its base1 is not found until the pyramid times4 ,at the close of the prehistoric period we meet with a gold cylinder seal engraved with signs4 ,when we remember that it is very rarely that an unplundered grave is discovered1 the quantity of gold objects found show that the metal must have been generally used in the ages when commerce developed1 before writing was known4 ,on reaching the historic times we obtain a good view of the production and variety of jewellery1 in the four bracelets of the ,queen of ,zer1 early in the first dynasty1 #edjj ,b4,c4 ,these bracelets 7fig4 #ic7 show how each separate piece was made to fit its own place in a complete design1 and that the later custom of merely stringing ready-made beads was not then followed4 ,the bracelet of hawks has the gold blocks alternating with turquoise4 ,the hawks on the gold pieces are all equal1 but the sizes of the blocks vary in the height4 ,this is due to their being all cast in the same mould1 which was filled to varying amounts4 ,the surfaces were hammered and chiselled1 but not either ground or filed4 ,the order of the hawks was marked by numbering them with cross cuts on the base2 these cuts are directly across for the blocks on one half1 and diagonally across for the other half4 ,the bracelet with spiral beads has the gold spiral formed of a hammered gold wire1 thicker at the middle1 where it forms the barrel of the beads4 ,this form is imitated in the three dark lazuli beads down the middle4 ,the triple gold balls1 on either side of those1 are each beaten hollow and drawn into a thread-hole left at each end2 so perfectly wrought are they that only in one instance does the slightest ruck of metal remain4 ,to join the three balls together they were soldered1 but without leaving the least excess or difference of colour4 ,in the lowest bracelet the hour-glass-shaped beads are of gold1 with one of amethyst between each pair4 ,the gold is doubtless cast1 being solid4 ,none of these are pierced1 but they were secured by tying round a groove at the middle of each bead4 ,there was also a fourth bracelet with a ball and loop fastening which shows the skill in soldering4 ,the ball is beaten hollow1 leaving about a quarter of it open2 inside it a hook of gold wire is soldered in without leaving the smallest trace of solder visible4 ,the band round the wrist was formed of very thick black hair plaited with gold wire1 which was hammered to exactly the same thickness4 ,we see from these bracelets that casting1 chiselling1 and soldering were perfectly understood at the beginning of the monarchy4 ,of about the ,ist dynasty there are also copies of spiral shells made by pressing gold foil1 perhaps over shells4 ,these were threaded as a necklace1 imitating the shell necklaces of earlier ages4 ,on coming to the ,v,ith dynasty 7#djjj ,b4,c47 we see gold chains 7fig4 #id7 made of rings1 each folded into a double loop and put through the next2 these may be called loop-in-loop chain4 ,gold seals 7fig4 #ie7 are also found1 probably made by foreigners and worn as buttons1 like many similar stone buttons4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #ic4 ,bracelets 7,ist dynasty7 #id4 ,chain 7,v,ith dynasty7 #ie4 ,gold seal 7,v,ith dynasty87 #if4 ,gold uraeus 7,x,i,ith dynasty7 ,the ,x,i,ith dynasty has left us some magnificent groups of jewellery1 which were found at ,dahshur4 ,the general effect of this work is graceful and sincere in design and pure in colour4 ,there is no glitter and pomp about it1 but it has the highest beauty of careful harmony and perfect finish4 ,the tints of the carnelian1 turquoise1 and lazuli which are used have been precisely chosen for their clear strength of colour1 while the ,egyptian system of putting a line of gold between two bright colours prevents any dazzling or clashing4 ,the charm of this jewellery lies in the calm1 fresh1 cool colouring with the unhesitating perfection of the work1 which seems to ignore all difficulty or compromise4 ,three pectoral ornaments made in successive reigns are each formed of an open-work gold plate1 engraved on one side and inlaid with coloured stones on the other4 ,the engraved sides of two are here given 7figs4 #ig1 #ih71 as they are better suited for illustration4 ,the earlier pectoral1 bearing the names of ,senusert ,,ii1 is by far the better in design4 ,the scheme of the whole is grasped at once1 and rests the eye2 there is repose and dignity in it4 ,although clear open spaces are left1 the parts are sufficiently connected for strength4 ,the second pectoral1 of ,senusert ,,iii1 is too complex for a single piece of jewellery for the breast4 ,the heavy mass of the vulture at the top over-weights the design2 the head-dress of the royal sphinxes is too tall2 and the combination of four captives between the eight legs of the sphinxes1 or twenty-four limbs in action1 is far too complex and distracting4 ,but in the detail we must admire the expression of the captives2 and also the skill with which the parts are united1 especially where the frail length of the tails is held in by the extra lotus flowers4 ,the third pectoral1 of ,amenemhat ,,iii1 is the least successful in design4 ,it is made too large in order to take in whole figures of the king fighting2 the action is violent2 and1 not content with four figures1 the outlines are lost in a maze of emblems which fill all the space around1 so that nothing is clear or restful to the eye4 ,the earliest pectoral was evidently designed to be seen at a respectful distance on royalty in movement4 ,to see the last design the queen would need to be closely stared at1 in order to make out the cumbrous historical document on her breast4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #ig1 #ih4 ,chased gold pectoral ornaments 7,x,i,ith dynasty7 ,two crowns of gold and inlaid stones belonged also to the princesses4 ,the floret crown 7fig4 #ajj7 is perhaps the most charmingly graceful head-dress ever seen2 the fine wavy threads of gold harmonised with the hair1 and the delicate little flowers and berries seem scattered with the wild grace of ,nature4 ,each floret is held by two wires crossing in an eye behind it1 and each pair of berries has likewise an eye in which the wires cross4 ,the florets are not stamped1 but each gold socket is made by hand for the four inserted stones4 ,the berries are of lazuli4 ,in no instance1 however small1 was the polishing of the stone done in its cloison2 it was always finished before setting4 ,the upper crown 7fig4 #ii7 is less unusual4 ,the motive is the old one seen on the head-dress of ,nofert 7fig4 #bd72 but the flowers have become conventionalised4 ,the band form is broken by the upright flowers rising from each rosette2 and in front there was an aigrette of gold with flowers formed of coloured stones4 ,turning now to the technical details1 some small gold lions were cast1 but not all from a single mould4 ,they seem to have been modelled in wax1 and after forming the mould around the model the wax was melted out1 and the metal run in4 ,this method1 known as cire perdue1 was usual in later periods4 ,the details are slightly chiselled upon the gold4 ,moulding by pressure was used in making cowry beads and tie beads1 which were impressed in stout foil1 aided by burnishing on to the model so as to tool the detail4 ,soldering was done most delicately for the side joints of the hollow cowry beads2 it was also used on a large scale for the dozens of delicate ribs of gold which were fixed to the back plates for the cloison work of the pectorals4 ,to attach this multitude of minute ribs exactly in place shows most practised work1 for they could not be treated separately1 being so close together4 ,wire was made in large quantity for the floret crown4 ,this wire was all cut in strips1 and pieces soldered together to form a length4 ,the same method was later used by the ,jews3 8they did beat the gold into thin plates and cut it into wires0 7,ex4 xxxix4 #c74 ,drawn wire has not been found in any ancient work4 ,a favourite style of work for figures of gods and sacred animals in this age was a mixture of wirework and sheet metal2 such amulets and sacred animals are usually half an inch high3 the example of the sacred cobra here shown 7fig4 #if7 is by far the finest known4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #ii1 #ajj4 ,crowns of gold inlaid with stones #aja4 ,granulated gold work 7all ,x,i,ith dynasty7 ,a new decoration which first appears in this age is that of granulated work 7fig4 #aja74 ,here it is seen on a case in a zigzag pattern1 and on two pendants4 ,another example is a pattern of small rhombs on the bezel of a ring4 ,the granules are #e #e in each rhomb1 and eight rhombs on the bezel1 or forty granules in about six-tenths of an inch2 allowing for spaces1 the granules must be an eightieth of an inch wide4 ,this kind of work is found also later on in ,egypt1 but it may not be native2 in ,etruria it was the national type of jewellery about three thousand years after this4 ,illustration ,the mode of fastening the necklaces was by grooved pieces4 ,one of the gold cowries1 or lion's heads1 or ties which formed the necklace1 was made in two halves with dovetail groove and tongue fitting into each other along the whole length of the piece4 ,the tongue ran up against a butt end when the halves coincided4 ,when we reach the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty we see in the jewellery of ,queen ,aah-hotep 7#aegj ,b4,c47 much the same system of work as in the ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,the whole style is less substantial1 exact1 and dignified2 both in design and execution it is at all points inferior to the previous work4 ,one new art appears1 the plaiting of gold wire chains1 in what is now commonly called ,trichinopoly pattern4 ,this method was continued down to ,roman times4 ,the ,aah-hotep-,aahmes bracelet 7fig4 #ajb7 is a broad band of metal1 with the figures in raised gold on a dark blue ground4 ,at first it looks as if enamelled1 as the ground runs in the small intervals between the gold2 but it is really a surface formed of pieces of dark lazuli1 cut approximately to the forms and patched around with a dark blue paste to match it4 ,two other bracelets 7or perhaps anklets7 are formed of minute beads of stones and gold threaded on parallel wires1 forming a band about #a inches wide4 ,the pattern seems an imitation of plaiting1 as each colour forms a half square divided diagonally4 ,the necklace of large gold flies is heavy1 and lacks the grace of earlier times4 ,the axe of ,aahmes 7fig4 #ajd7 is beautifully inlaid with gold1 bearing the king's names1 the figures of the king smiting an enemy1 and the gryphon-sphinx of the god ,mentu4 ,the dagger 7fig4 #ajc7 has more of the ,mykenaean ,greek style in the inlaying of the blade1 with figures of a lion chasing a bull1 and four grasshoppers4 ,the four heads which form the pommel are unlike any other ,egyptian design2 but the squares divided diagonally on the handle are like the patterns of the bead anklets1 and are probably of ,egyptian source4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #ajb4 ,bracelet #ajc4 ,dagger 7both parts7 #ajd4 ,axe 7all of ,king ,aahmes1 ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty7 ,of the ,x,i,xth dynasty there is the ,serapeum jewellery1 found with the ,apis burials4 ,the pectoral of ,ramessu ,,ii 7fig4 #aje7 is of good design2 the wings of the vulture are boldly spread in wide curves1 and the king's name is simple1 without titles1 and well placed4 ,the border band is heavy1 and the colouring is rich4 ,it is a creditable work1 but entirely missing the grace and sense of perfection of the best work from ,dahshur4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the gold bracelets with name of ,ramessu ,,ii found at ,bubastis1 are of inferior work1 probably for one of his fifty-nine daughters4 ,the name is only impressed on stout foil1 which is set in a framework of the bracelet1 but the surfaces are ornamented with gold granular work1 showing that such was commonly used4 ,there is a pair of collar fasteners1 clumsily made by filing the bent gold and working thread-holes in the cut2 there are thirty-six thread-holes1 so the collar must have been a very wide one4 ,the fastening by two halves sliding together is made by two wires soldered in to form the dovetail4 ,in this same group are thick wire bracelets of silver1 with a coarse hatched pattern on the ends2 also many plain silver earrings1 such as were worn by the common people of this time4 ,illustration ,slightly later is the jewellery of ,sety ,,ii and ,tausert from the ,kings' ,tombs4 ,here are also solid wire bangles1 but of gold4 ,and square wire bangles have the thin tail of each end of the bar twisted round the stem on the other side1 a fastening also commonly found on finger-rings1 of this age and rather earlier4 ,some clumsy little open-work beads are made by rough circles of gold wire soldered together2 a wide equatorial circle is joined to a small polar circle at each end by six small circles touching4 ,flowers are made by stamping the petals out of foil2 there are ten petals to each1 and four of them are stamped with the king's name4 ,some monstrous earrings overloaded with ornament belong to the end of the ,ramessides 7fig4 #ajf74 ,base gold was much used at the close of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 and many of the finger-rings of that age almost verge into copper4 ,but stones were used for inlay work until the later ,ramessides1 and glass or paste does not become usual till up to #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,enamel fused upon metal is not known until ,roman times4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #aje4 ,pectoral of ,ramessu ,,ii #ajf4 ,earrings of ,ramessu ,,xii #ajg4 ,gold statuette 7,x,x,vth dynasty7 ,in the ,v,i,i,ith century ,b4,c4 gold working was well maintained1 as seen 7fig4 #ajg7 in the statuette made by the local king ,pafaabast4 ,the modelling of the limbs is exact1 the pose is free1 and it shows the maintenance of a good tradition4 ,about a century later there is fine cloison work on the gold birds of the ,hawara amulets1 as minute as any of earlier times4 ,a free use of gold-work comes in with the wealth of the ,ptolemaic age1 especially for bracelets and chains4 ,a usual type of bracelet1 in gold or silver1 was with busts of ,serapis and ,isis on the two ends of a strip1 which were turned up at right angles to the circle4 ,these are generally of coarse work4 ,plain bangles1 bracelets with the two tails of a bar twisted each round the other1 coiled wire bracelets which were elastic1 and hingeing bracelets1 are all found in use at this age4 ,much ,greek influence is seen in the patterns1 both now and in the ,roman period4 ,the bangle bracelets were often made hollow1 both for lightness and economy of metal4 ,cheaper styles were of thin gold foil worked over a core of plaster2 the decoration of cross lines on such shows that they are probably ,roman4 ,the chains of ,ptolemaic and ,roman age 7fig4 #aji7 are simple1 but of pleasing style4 ,in ,coptic times bracelets of various forms were made1 mostly of silver and baser metal2 but they are all plain and tasteless4 ,large earrings were made with a big hoop and a bunch of small pendants1 or an open-work metal bead4 ,necklets of silver were usual1 with the tails of the strip wound round each other1 so as to slide open for passing over the head4 ,gold was also used largely for gilding both metals and wood4 ,the gold leaf was often about a #ejjjth of an inch thick1 weighing one grain to the square inch4 ,thus a pound's weight of gold would cover about six feet square2 and the gilding of doors and of the caps of obelisks as described is not at all unlikely4 ,silver was known to the ,egyptians later than gold1 as it is called 8white gold02 and it was scarcer than gold in the early ages4 ,of the prehistoric time there is a cap of a jar1 and a small spoon with twisted handle4 ,a few silver amulets are known in the ,x,i,ith dynasty4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty silver became commoner1 as the source in northern ,syria which supplied the ,hittites became accessible4 ,the silver dishes of this age are rather thick1 and not finely beaten4 ,one bowl1 probably of ,ramesside date from ,bubastis1 has the brim turned inward like a modern anti-splash basin 7fig4 #aae74 ,it seems to have been made by spinning the metal1 as thin vessels are now wrought4 ,illustration3 ,,jewellery #ajh4 ,silver bowls #aji4 ,roman gold chain ,the most elaborate style of silver work is that of the bowls from ,mendes 7fig4 #ajh74 ,these are entirely made by hammer work1 and no moulds or matrices were used for the forms4 ,but the finish of the surfaces is so fine that no trace of hammer or polishing is left4 ,the design is derived from the fluted vases and bowls of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty2 the fluting was made deeper and stronger1 and it was suppressed below1 as it interfered with the using of the bowl1 while round the sides it remained as deep bosses4 ,the detail was all put in by the graving tool1 the sinking round the central rosette1 the hollows in the petals1 and the outlines of the petals4 ,there is no sign of punch-work4 ,the number of ribs is1 curiously1 indivisible1 being #ah1 #bf1 #bh1 and #cj2 these show that it was not divided either by triangles1 hexagons1 or repeated halving4 ,probably a suitable size of rib was designed1 and then repeated an even number of times2 and the divisions not being truly radial1 show that eye-design was followed rather than geometrical scaling4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,metal ,,work ,here we shall deal with the useful metals1 apart from the ornamental work of jewellery previously described4 ,copper was worked from the beginning of the prehistoric civilisation4 ,in one of the earliest graves a little copper pin was found1 used to fasten over the shoulders the goat-skin1 which was worn before the weaving of linen4 ,not long after1 a small chisel appears1 then an adze and harpoon1 then needles1 and larger sizes of tools come at the close of the prehistoric age4 ,all of this copper was shaped by hammering4 ,polished stone hammers were used1 and the work was so exquisitely regular that a polished surface still remains on an adze1 which shows no trace of the method of manufacture2 certainly it was not ground4 ,the mode of hammering is shown in some early historical sculptures2 a stone hammer was held in the palm of the right hand1 which was swung overhead1 and brought down on the metal4 ,how such work could be done without hurting the hand by concussion is not clear to us4 ,it is strange that down to ,greek times the ,egyptians never used a long handle to a hammer4 ,illustration ,in the beginning of the kingdom1 copper ewers and basins were made2 these are known from the sculpture of ,narmer1 and examples are found in the royal tombs4 ,they were skilfully hammered out1 with cast spouts inserted4 ,the main example of early copper-work is the life-size statue of ,king ,pepy1 and the smaller figure of his son 7fig4 #aaj74 ,the trunk and limbs are of hammered copper1 riveted together2 the face1 hands1 and feet are cast doubtless by cire perdue4 ,the ease and truth of the whole figure shows that there must have been long practice in the artistic working of copper2 yet no traces of such figures are found earlier1 nor for over a thousand years later1 and we may thus realise how scattered are the points we have1 in the view of the art as a whole4 ,the ,i,xth dynasty has left a coarse example of cast copper tooled with a graver1 the brazier of ,khety1 now in ,paris4 ,of the ,x,i,ith dynasty there is not much copper work1 except for tools4 ,the moulds for casting tools were found at ,kahun4 ,they were open moulds1 cut out of a thick piece of pottery1 and lined smooth with fine clay and ash4 ,down to this age copper was used with only small amounts of hardening mixture2 after this1 bronze of copper and tin came into general use4 ,the earlier copper of the ,ist dynasty usually contains one per cent4 of bismuth1 and later than that one or two per cent4 of arsenic1 and is 8underpoled10 in modern terms1 that is1 a good deal of unreduced oxide of copper is left in the metal4 ,both of these mixtures harden it2 and by strong hammering it is made still harder4 ,copper so treated at present can be made as hard as mild steel4 ,thus the metal was fit for the wood-cutting tools1 and for the chisels used for cutting limestone4 ,the harder stones were worked with emery4#a #a ,the earlier source of copper was ,sinai1 where there yet remain thousands of tons of copper slag in the ,wady ,nasb4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty and onwards1 ,cyprus--the ,kupros island of copper--came into regular connection with ,egypt1 and probably supplied most of the metal4 ,illustration3 ,,metal ,,statuary #aaj4 ,merenra 7,v,ith dynasty7 #aaa1 #aab4 ,takushet 7,x,x,vth dynasty7 ,bronze has been found in one case as far back as the ,i,i,ird dynasty1 but this was only a chance alloy4 ,it began to be regularly used in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 #afjj ,b4,c42 and the source of the tin for it is a point of interest in early trade4 ,cornwall and the ,malay ,states are the only modern sources of importance2 but probably other surface sources have been exhausted1 as in the case of gold deposits4 ,now bronze is found in ,central ,europe about as early as in ,egypt1 and it is unlikely to have been imported there from ,egypt1 or to have been traded there as soon as it would be to a great state like ,egypt4 ,the presumption would be that it originated about ,central ,europe4 ,as a district in ,saxony is known as ,zinnwald1 and crystallised oxide of tin is still brought from there and from ,bohemia1 it is very likely that there may have been stream tin deposits capable of supplying ,europe and ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,metal ,,vases #aac4 ,bronze pouring vase #aad4 ,bronze fluted vase #aae4 ,silver anti-splash bowl ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty bronze vessels were wrought very skilfully by hammer-work4 ,the flask 7fig4 #aac7 for washing the sandals of ,amen1 inscribed with the owner's name and titles1 is #i inches high and has a body #d inches across2 it has been hammered on anvils introduced through the neck1 which is only #a inches wide4 ,by the weight of it 7#g ounces7 it cannot average more than th inch in thickness4 ,a general mode of stiffening the thin metal vases was by fluting the surface 7fig4 #aad71 a method also used in prehistoric ,greece4 ,the casting of bronze was generally done by the cire perdue method4 ,a core of blackened sand is usually found in the casting4 ,this was probably sand mixed with a little organic matter2 as it is never reddened1 probably no clay or mud was used4 ,over the core the wax was modelled1 and the traces of the modelling tool can be seen clearly on unfinished bronzes4 ,on an ibis there was a rolled pellet of wax put between the beak and the breast1 so as to induce the flow of the metal along the beak2 this would be easily cut away in finishing4 ,an example of a kneeling figure shows the legs completely modelled before putting the pleated dress over them1 and then the whole was cast4 ,how the core was fixed within the outer mould is a difficult question4 ,on the many unfinished bronzes that ,i have examined ,i have never found a definite connection above the base1 but only casual blowholes4 ,yet the metal was often run as thin as th so that a shift of the core by as little as th inch would throw the casting out1 and make a flaw4 ,how the core was retained so firmly in position against the flotation of the melted metal is not clear4 ,no metal bars were put through the core to steady it1 as ,cellini did in his large castings4 ,a system was used of stiffening bronze-work by casting it over iron rods2 by the free use of iron1 this must be of the ,greek period4 ,solid bronze castings come into use in ,ptolemaic and ,roman work4 ,a favourite decoration of copper-work in later times1 from about #gjj ,b4,c41 was by inlaying lines of gold or silver in it4 ,this is a common system in ,india now1 where it is known as ,keft work2 the name suggests that it was introduced from ,egypt1 where ,keft was the starting-point of the ,indian trade route from the ,nile4 ,one of the finest examples of this is the statue in the ,athens ,museum 7figs4 #aaa1 #aab72 another is the hawk-head and collar with the name of ,aahmes ,,ii in the ,british ,museum4 ,the lines were first chiselled or punched in the copper1 and then the gold was beaten into the grooves4 ,no instance of using soft solder to copper or bronze is known till ,roman times4 ,lead is found in the prehistoric times in the form of small figures and little objects2 it was probably brought from ,syria4 ,it next appears as a rather common metal in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 when net-sinkers were generally made by bending a piece of sheet lead round the edge lines of the net1 much as at the present day4 ,in the filling of bronze weights it is found both in the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,x,v,ith dynasties4 ,and an alloy of copper and lead--now known as pot-metal--was commonly used for statuettes in ,greek and ,roman times4 ,in ,coptic times pewter bowls and ladles were made2 the bowls are apparently formed by spinning4 ,tin is first known in a piece of bronze rod from ,medum1 of the ,i,i,ird dynasty4 ,but this was only a freak1 and bronze did not come into use till about #afjj ,b4,c41 probably introduced from ,hungary1 as we have noticed4 ,at about #adjj ,b4,c4 there is a finger-ring of pure tin1 known by its crackling when bent4 ,the metal is1 however1 scarcely known separate otherwise4 ,antimony occurs in the form of beads about #hjj ,b4,c42 as it was familiar to the ,assyrians also1 it may have been traded from them4 ,iron working is an important subject in the history of culture1 and the appearances of this metal in ,egypt are curiously sporadic4 ,the notion1 often suggested1 that it might rust away and disappear1 is absurd2 nothing is more permanent and noticeable than iron rust4 ,the early examples are3 7#a7 a piece of sheet iron said to be found between the stones of ,khufu's pyramid2 7#b7 a lump of iron found wrapped up with copper axes of the ,v,ith dynasty form1 and placed at the corresponding level in the foundations of the ,abydos temples2 this is absolutely certain and not open to any doubt2 7#c7 iron ferules said to be found in the masonry of a pyramid at ,dahshur2 7#d7 an iron falchion said to be found beneath the base of a statue of ,ramessu ,,ii4 ,the certainty about the second example--which was found by trained workmen1 levelled at the time1 and is stuck together with tools of known date--prevents our needing to hesitate about accepting the less precise authentication of the other examples4 ,yet iron continued so scarce until about #hjj ,b4,c4 that we find then a thin iron knife with a handle of bronze cast on it as being the cheaper metal4 ,the explanation of this intermittent use of iron lies in an observation of ,professor ,ridgeway's1 that all the sites of native iron in the world are where carboniferous strata and ironstone have been heated by eruptions of basalt1 and thus produced iron by natural reduction of the ore4 ,exactly this combination is found in ,sinai4 ,carboniferous sandstone has beds of pure black haematite with it1 and a thick flow of basalt has extended over the country4 ,probably1 therefore1 occasional pockets of native iron were found there by the ,egyptians at long intervals1 and thus the use of it was intermittent4 ,the artificial production of iron seems to have been known earliest in ,assyria2 it probably arose among the ,chalybes at the head of the ,euphrates1 from whom the ,greek name of the metal was derived4 ,large quantities of iron and steel tools have been found in the ,assyrian ruins1 but were neglected by excavators4 ,a set of armourer's tools was found at ,thebes with a copper helmet of ,assyrian form1 and therefore probably left by the expedition under ,asshur-bani-pal in #fff ,b4,c4 ,these tools comprise flat chisels1 mortise chisels1 saws1 a punch1 a rasp1 a file1 a twist scoop1 and two centre-bits4 ,the forms of most of these tools have already attained to the modern types2 but the file is only slight and irregular1 and the centre-bits are only fit for hard wood4 ,the edges of these tools are of steel1 probably produced by case-hardening the iron4 ,we next find iron tools brought in by the ,greeks at ,naukratis4 ,chisels1 flat and mortise1 with both tang and socket handles1 borers and axe-heads1 were all familiar to the ,greek before the ,egyptian adopted them4 ,one instance of an iron adze of ,egyptian type is known1 but otherwise it is not till ,coptic times that we find a free use of iron for knives1 chisels1 flesh-hooks1 hoes1 pruning hooks1 and other tools1 probably due to ,roman influence4 ,to go further in this subject would lead into the general history of tools1 which is beyond our scope here4 ,,chapter ,x ,,glazed ,,ware ,the use of glazing begins far back in the prehistoric age1 some thousands of years before any examples of glass are known4 ,glaze is found on a quartz base as early as on a pottery base2 and it seems probable that it was invented from finding quartz pebbles fluxed by wood ashes in a hot fire4 ,hence glazing on quartz was the starting-point1 and glazing on artificial wares was a later stage4 ,amulets of quartz rock are found covered with a coat of blue-green glaze2 a model boat was made of quartz rock in sections1 glazed over1 and united by gold bands2 and a large sphinx of quartz1 about eighteen inches long1 has evidently been glazed4 ,the fusion of glaze on the stone partly dissolves the surface2 and even after the glaze has been lost its effect can be seen by the surface having the appearance of water-worn marble or sugar candy4 ,this system of glazing on quartz was continued in historic times2 clear crystal beads flashed over with a rich blue glaze are found in the ,x,i,ith dynasty2 and large blocks were glazed in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty4 ,the use of a pottery ware for covering with glaze begins with beads of blue and green in the prehistoric necklaces4 ,the pottery base for glazing is never a clay in ,egypt1 but always a porous body of finely-ground silica1 either sand or quartz rock4 ,this was slightly bound together1 but the whole strength of the object was in the soaking of glaze on the outer surface4 ,illustration3 ,,glazes #aaf4 ,two-colour glaze of ,mena #aag4 ,lotus border 7,x,xth dynasty7 #aah4 ,head of ,isis #aai4 ,royal fan-bearer ,an astonishing development of glazed ware came at the beginning of the monarchy4 ,a piece of a vase 7fig4 #aaf7 with the name of ,mena1 the first king of ,egypt1 is of green glazed pottery1 and it is surprising to find the royal name inlaid in a second coloured glaze1 which has probably been violet1 though now decomposed4 ,thus two-colour glazing in designs was used as early as #eejj ,b4,c4 ,and at this date glazing was not only a fine art1 it was used on a large scale for the lining of rooms4 ,tiles have been found about a foot long1 stoutly made1 with dovetails on the back1 and holes through them edgeways in order to tie them back to the wall with copper wire4 ,they are glazed all over with hard blue-green glaze4 ,the front is ribbed in imitation of reedwork1 and they probably were copied from reed mats used to line the walls4 ,part of a tile has large hieroglyphs inlaid in colour1 showing that decorative inscriptions were set up4 ,rather later1 at the beginning of the ,i,i,ird dynasty1 there is the doorway of glazed tiles of ,king ,zeser1 with his name and titles in various colours2 this doorway1 now in ,berlin1 belonged to a room in the ,step pyramid entirely lined with glazed tile4 ,smaller objects were also made in glaze4 ,a tablet of the first dynasty bears a relief of the figure and titles of an aboriginal chief1 apparently made to be left as a memorial of his visit to temples--a sort of visiting card1--as it was found in the temple of ,abydos4 ,figures of women and animals were found with it1 and glazed toggles to be used in place of buttons on garments4 ,very little glazing has been preserved to us from the pyramid age2 there are small tablets with the name of ,king ,pepy 7#dajj ,b4,c47 in relief1 but roughly done4 ,the general colour of the early glaze is greenish-blue or blue-green1 never distinctly of either colour4 ,such appears from the prehistoric age to the pyramid time4 ,the glaze is full1 and was not heated long enough to soak into the body4 ,it often has pit-holes in it1 and does not seem to have been very fluid4 ,in the ,v,ith dynasty a second colour appears1 a dark indigo blue2 this is on a scarab of ,merenra1 and on small toilet vases of the period4 ,some earlier scarabs are probably of the age of the ,i,vth1 and even of the ,i,i,ird dynasty2 these have a clear brilliant blue glaze1 thin and well fused4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the glaze is thin and hard4 ,on ring-stands and vases it is often dry and of a greyish green4 ,a rich clear blue glaze was also used1 and is best seen on scarabs and on the favourite figures of hippopotami1 which were only made in this period4 ,the designs and inscriptions in the glaze were of a fine black1 apparently coloured with manganese4 ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty was the great age of the development of glazing4 ,it began with so close a continuance of the style of the ,x,i,ith dynasty that it is hard to discriminate one from the other4 ,down to the time of ,tahutmes ,,iii the small pieces and beads with blue colour are as those of the previous age2 but the large bowls are of a brighter blue and rather a wetter glaze4 ,at the beginning of the dynasty there is also a dark green glaze used upon schist1 mostly seen on the elaborately carved kohl pots4 ,under ,amenhotep ,,ii was made the largest piece of glazing that is known from ,egypt1 now in ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,this was a great uas sceptre made as an offering1 the stem of which is five feet long4 ,this length was built up of separate sections of body ware1 made each about nine inches long1 so as to have sufficient firmness2 after they were each baked they were then united with a slip paste of the same ware1 and finally fired with a single flow of glaze over the whole five-feet length4 ,the head was made separately4 ,the special difficulty of firing such large pieces is to maintain a uniform heat over the whole1 and to avoid any reducing flame from the fuel1 which would discolour the glaze1 and produce lustre ware4 ,the heating must also be brief1 so as to avoid the glaze running down1 or soaking into the porous body and leaving it dry4 ,under ,amenhotep ,,iii and ,,iv the art of glazing reached its most brilliant development1 both in its colours and in the variety of its applications4 ,beside the previously used shades of blue and green we meet with purple-blue1 violet1 a brilliant apple-green1 bright chrome-yellow1 lemon-yellow1 crimson-red1 brown-red1 and milk-white4 ,besides the previous uses of glaze for bowls and vases1 beads and scarabs1 we now meet with a great variety of pendants and ornaments for necklaces1 more than two hundred and fifty forms of which are known from the objects and the moulds2 also flat emblems and name plaques1 with stitch holes or loops at the edge1 for stitching on to the muslin dresses then worn4 ,the private person thus wore the king's name on his arm1 and the king wore the titles of the sun-god to whom he was devoted4 ,the effect of the white muslin dresses with dazzling blue plaques and natural coloured daisies and other flowers scattered over them1 must have been very striking4 ,another use of glaze was for architectural inlaying 7fig4 #aag74 ,the capitals of great columns were inlaid all over with stripes of red and blue along the palm leaf design1 separated into small squares by gilt bands between4 ,the whole capital was thus copied on a vast scale from cloison jewellery4 ,another use of glaze was for inlaying coloured hieroglyphs in the white limestone walls4 ,this system was carried on in a simpler way into the next dynasty1 where a great quantity of cartouches of ,sety ,,ii are known2 and in the walls of the temple of ,luqsor are rows of holes of corresponding size1 from which they have probably been taken4 ,a favourite form of glazed ware in the ,x,v,i,i,ith and ,x,i,xth dynasties is that of the graceful lotus flower cup4 ,in the ,x,i,xth dynasty there is much less variety of glazing2 but we meet with the rise of a new industry which was to eclipse all the others in its output4 ,sety ,i had many glazed figures of ushabtis of blue colour inscribed in black1 or of glazed steatite1 in his tomb4 ,under ,ramessu ,,ii they became usual for private persons1 and for a thousand years later they were made in enormous numbers1 usually four hundred being buried in any wealthy tomb4 ,the ,ramesside ushabtis are usually green with black inscriptions1 rarely white with purple4 ,in the ,x,x,ist dynasty they are of very intense blue with purple-black inscriptions1 and very roughly made1 deteriorating throughout the dynasty4 ,in the ,x,x,i,ind and ,x,x,i,i,ird dynasties they are small1 and usually green and black4 ,in the ,x,x,vth they are mere red pottery dipped in blue wash1 or little slips of mud were substituted4 ,the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty started a different class of very large figures1 up to ten inches high1 beautifully modelled1 with incised inscriptions1 back pillar1 and beard1 always of green glaze2 and these deteriorated to ,ptolemaic times1 excepting that there are some splendid blue ones of ,nectanebo1 and smaller ones of bright colour with ink inscriptions of private persons of his time4 ,about the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty1 glazed figures of the gods were made for popular use1 and by about #cjj ,b4,c4 they appear in vast numbers1 very roughly moulded4 ,some of the earlier pieces are very beautifully modelled1 and glazed so exactly that the hollows are not at all filled up4 ,a head of ,isis 7fig4 #aah71 and a half-length figure of a fan-bearer 7fig4 #aai7 are perhaps the finest pieces of such work4 ,the latter figure is remarkable for the vigour of the muscles and the overbearing official dignity of the expression4 ,great numbers of amulets were also made to be buried with the mummies or worn by the living4 ,the earlier examples are fairly modelled1 of apple-green tint2 in ,persian times they are sharp and dry in form and of an olive-grey colour1 but they became very roughly and coarsely moulded in ,ptolemaic times4 ,there are some interesting modelled heads of this age1 covered with blue or green glaze1 such as a ,ptolemaic queen1 and a woman wearing a face veil4 ,vases of ,greek and ,roman styles were also common4 ,a delicate thin ware with ,assyrianesque figures1 in white on a slightly sunk blue ground1 was made in the ,persian time and continued into the ,ptolemaic age4 ,large blocks for legs of furniture1 and stands1 were also made now4 ,the characteristic colours are of a dark ,prussian blue bordering on violet1 and an apple-green4 ,in the ,roman age there is an entirely new style4 ,the body of the vase is of a purple-black colour1 with a wreath of bright green leaves around it4 ,such continued almost to ,coptic times4 ,the bulk of the ,roman glaze is of coarse forms1 and bright ,prussian blue in tint4 ,the vases have animals in relief1 apparently under ,persian influence4 ,the flat trays with straight sides are copies of the silver dishes of the time4 ,the old style of glazing continued down to ,arab times2 a steatite amulet1 in the cutting1 and colour of the glaze1 might well have been of the ,shishak age1 but for the ,arabic inscription upon it4 ,and at the present day some creditable imitations of ancient glazing are made for fraudulent trade at ,thebes4 ,turning to the more technical matters1 the body of the ware is always a porous1 friable1 siliceous paste2 in some cases so soft that it can be rubbed away from the broken surfaces by the finger4 ,the unglazed beads and figures occasionally found can hardly be handled without breaking4 ,this paste was moulded roughly into form1 and when dry it was graved with a point to give the detail4 ,if it broke in the fingers a good figure would be stuck together again with a scrap of the paste before glazing4 ,large objects were made in sections1 dried and baked1 and then joined up with some of the same paste1 and re-baked before covering with glaze4 ,in the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty there is a beautiful hard stoneware1 apparently made by mixing some glaze with the body1 enough to fuse it together into a solid mass throughout4 ,the surface of these works is always very fine and smooth1 without any face glaze1 but only the compact polished body4 ,the usual colour is apple-green1 but violet is sometimes found in the early examples of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty4 ,the colours were rarely anything beyond shades of green and blue4 ,these were produced by compounds of copper2 the blue is especially free from iron1 which even in traces produces a green tint4 ,the blue if exposed to damp fades white2 the green changes to brown1 owing to the decomposition of green silicate of iron and the production of brown oxide of iron4 ,this decomposition may go on beneath an unbroken polished face of glaze1 changing the glaze to brown4 ,the shades of blue and green were all experimentally produced in modern times by ,dr ,russell1 ,f4,r4,s41 who succeeded in exactly copying the purple blue1 full blue1 light blue and ,french blue1 and the green-blues and full greens in more than a hundred tints4 ,the method was indicated by the half-baked pans of colour found at ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,quartz rock pebbles had been collected1 and served for the floor of the glazing furnaces4 ,after many heatings which cracked them they were pounded into fine chips4 ,these were mixed with lime and potash and some carbonate of copper4 ,the mixture was roasted in pans1 and the exact shade depended on the degree of roasting4 ,the mass was half fused and became pasty2 it was then kneaded and toasted gradually1 sampling the colour until the exact tint was reached4 ,a porous mass of frit of uniform colour results4 ,this was then ground up in water1 and made into a blue or green paint1 which was either used with a flux to glaze objects in a furnace1 or was used with gum or white of egg as a wet paint for frescoes4 ,the ovens were small1 about two or three feet across2 cylindrical pots were set upside down and a fire lighted between them1 and the pans of colour rested on the bottom edges of the pots4 ,in ,roman times the glazing furnaces were about eight feet square and deep1 with an open arch to windward half way up4 ,the vases and dishes were stacked in the furnace upon cylinder pots1 and the successive dishes in the piles were kept apart by cones of pottery nearly an inch high4 ,the failure of a furnace-load has revealed the system2 by too long heating the glaze soaked through the porous body1 and it all settled down and partly fell to pieces4 ,the other colours used were3 for the red a body mixed with haematite and covered with a transparent glaze2 bright yellow1 the composition of which is unknown2 violet in various depths1 from a faint tinge on the white lotus petals to a deep strong colour1 probably made by copper blue and one of the purples2 purple in various strengths from a rich bright tint upon white to a black purple for designs upon blue1 all produced by manganese2 occasionally purple-blue made with cobalt2 dead white1 which was doubtless produced by tin as at present4 ,before leaving the subject of glazing we may notice the system of moulding pendants and figures in red pottery moulds1 of all sizes from a quarter of an inch to three or four inches across4 ,a great variety of these is found at ,tell-el-,amarna of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 and at ,memphis of later periods4 ,they sometimes contain the remains of the siliceous paste with which they were choked when they were thrown away4 ,at ,naukratis hundreds were found for making scarabs for the ,greek trade4 ,the moulded objects were covered with glazing wash1 and put into the furnace4 ,beads were commonly made on a thread1 dried1 and the thread burnt out2 they were then dipped in glaze-wash1 and fired4 ,in early times small beads were rolled between the thumb and finger on the thread1 producing a long tapering form like a grain of corn4 ,,glass ,there has been much misunderstanding about the age of glass in ,egypt4 ,figures of smiths blowing a fire with reeds tipped with clay have been quoted as figures blowing glass1 though no blown glass is known in ,egypt before ,roman times4 ,a cylinder of glass of ,king ,pepy has been quoted2 but this is really of clear iceland-spar or selenite lined with coloured paste4 ,a panther's head with the name of ,antef ,v has been called glass1 but it is really of blue paste4 ,various pieces of inlaid stone jewellery have been mistaken for glass1 but none such is known till late times4 ,there does not seem to have been any working of glassy material by itself1 apart from a base of stone or pottery1 until after #afjj ,b4,c4 ,the earliest dated pieces are an eye of blue glass imitating turquoise1 with the name of ,amenhotep ,i 7#aeej ,b4,c471 and a piece of a glass vase with an inlaid name of ,tahutmes ,,iii4 ,beads of this age are plain black with a white spot on opposite sides2 black and white glass cups probably belong to the same date4 ,the variety of colours quickly increased1 and by the time of ,amenhotep ,,iii and ,,iv1 about #adjj ,b4,c41 there were violet1 deep ,prussian blue1 light blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 red 7rare71 clear white1 milky white1 and black4 ,illustration3 ,,glass #abj1 #aba4 ,vases 7,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty7 #abb4 ,mosaic 7late7 ,the designs were entirely ruled by the method of manufacture4 ,the glass was never cast1 but was worked as a pasty mass1 and all the decoration was made by inlaying threads of glass drawn out to various thicknesses4 ,the actual production of the glass we deal with below4 ,the patterns on a vase or bead were produced by winding threads around the body1 and then dragging the surface at regular intervals 7figs4 #abj1 #aba74 ,if dragged always in one direction1 it made a series of loops or ,u pattern2 if dragged alternately each way it made an ogee pattern4 ,around the neck and foot a thick thread was often put on1 with a thin thread spirally round it1 usually white with black spiral4 ,the forms of the vases are those usual in other materials at this period1 such as ,illustration4 ,this same method was followed in the glass found at ,cumae near ,naples1 dating from about #gjj ,b4,c4 ,it is distinguished from the ,egyptian fabric by a duller surface and duller colouring1 and a common form unknown before is ,illustration4 ,this later glass is usually mixed with the earlier in museums1 and occasionally it is difficult to distinguish it2 but both the forms and the colour leave very little doubt as to the age4 ,this system of winding threads of glass was usual for beads also4 ,a mere chip of a glass bead can be distinguished1 whether ,egyptian or ,roman1 by the direction of the streaks and bubbles in it4 ,the early glass is all wound1 with lines running around2 the ,roman glass is all drawn out and nicked off1 with lines running along2 the medieval and modern ,venetian beads are again wound1 and some of the recent ones closely imitate ,egyptian dragged patterns1 but can be distinguished by the opacity of most of the colours4 ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty workers also cut and engraved glass1 though but rarely4 ,they sometimes produced a clear glass entirely free of colouring1 even in a thickness of half an inch4 ,about the ,x,x,i,i,ird dynasty 7#gej ,b4,c47 a clear1 greenish ,prussian blue glass was usual for beads1 and continued to ,persian times for scarabs 7#ejj ,b4,c474 ,rather later1 about #djj-bjj ,b4,c41 there appears a large development of opaque glass figures of hieroglyphs1 cut and polished1 to inlay in wooden caskets and coffins4 ,opaque red and blue to imitate jasper and lazuli were the most usual colours4 ,figures of the four genii of the dead and other usual amulets were commonly made by pressing the glass into moulds while heated4 ,a favourite colouring for such was a deep1 clear1 true blue1 backed with opaque white to show up the colour4 ,about the later ,ptolemaic time and through the ,roman age the main work in glass is that of minute mosaics 7fig4 #abb74 ,they were built up with glass rods1 heated until they half fused together1 and then drawn out so as to produce a great length of much reduced section4 ,thus patterns of extreme delicacy were produced2 and one single piece of construction could be cut across into a hundred slices1 each repeating the whole design4 ,the patterns are sometimes purely ,egyptian1 as ankh and uas alternately1 but more usually ,roman1 such as heads and flower patterns4 ,such mosaics were mounted in jewellery1 or1 on a coarser scale1 set in large designs for caskets and temple furniture4 ,the characteristic of ,roman times is the use of blown glass4 ,the cups1 bottles1 and vases were nearly all blown1 often with threads woven around1 dabs attached and impressed1 or patterns stamped while soft4 ,the feet of cups were modelled into form while pasty1 the tool marks showing plainly upon them4 ,ornamental stamps were pressed on soft lumps put on the sides of vases4 ,such stamps became used for official marks1 and in early ,arab times they registered the substance for which the glass measure was intended1 also the amount of the capacity1 and the maker's name in many cases4 ,another main development of ,byzantine and ,arab glass was for weights1 usually to test gold and silver coins1 but also for larger amounts up to a pound4 ,these weights bear the stamps of the ,byzantine epochs in a few cases1 but are found by the hundred of the ,v,i,i,ith to ,xth centuries1 and by the thousand of the ,xth to ,x,ith centuries1 dying out at the early crusading age4 ,we now turn to the purely technical side1 to describe the process of manufacture in the time of ,amenhotep ,,iv1 about #acgj ,b4,c41 when it is best known to us1 from the remains of the factory at ,tell-el-,amarna4 ,a clear glass could be produced1 which was usually not quite colourless1 but sufficiently so to take up various colours4 ,it was free of lead and borates1 and consisted of pure silica from crushed quartz pebbles1 and alkali doubtless from wood ashes4 ,it was fused in pans of earthenware4 ,this glass was coloured by dissolving the blue or green frit in it1 or mixing other opaque colours4 ,samples were taken out by pincers to test the colour at different stages4 ,the whole mass was fairly fused1 and then left to get cold in the earthen pan1 which was about four or five inches across1 and held half an inch to an inch deep of the glass4 ,when cold the pan was chipped away1 the frothy top of the glass was chipped off1 and lumps of pure glass were obtained free from sediment and scum4 ,a lump of glass thus purified was heated to a pasty state1 and patted into a cylindrical form1 then rolled under a bar of metal1 which was run diagonally across it1 until it was reduced to a rod about the size of a lead pencil1 or rather less4 ,such a rod was then heated1 and drawn out into 8cane0 about inch thick4 ,every vase was built up from such cane4 ,for making a vase a copper mandril was taken1 slightly tapering1 of the size of the interior of the neck4 ,upon the end of this was built a body of soft siliceous paste1 tied up in rag1 and baked upon it1 of the size of the interior of the intended vase4 ,the marks of the string and cloth can still be seen inside the vases4 ,on this body of powdery material glass cane was wound hot until it was uniformly coated4 ,it was re-heated by sticking the end of the mandril into the oven as often as needful2 glass threads of various colours were wound round it2 and the whole was rolled to and fro so as to bed in the threads and make a smooth surface4 ,a brim1 a foot1 and handles were attached4 ,finally1 on cooling1 the copper mandril contracted1 and could be taken out of the neck1 the soft paste could be rubbed out of the interior1 and the vase was finished4 ,the final face is always a fused surface1 and was never ground or polished4 ,a similar mode was followed for the glass beads4 ,the thread of glass was wound upon a hot copper wire of the size of the hole required2 and after piling on enough1 and completing the pattern of colour the wire contracted in cooling and could be withdrawn4 ,the little point where the thread of glass broke off can be seen at each end of the beads4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,pottery ,the varieties of pottery are so extensive that from the prehistoric age alone a thousand are figured1 and the later ages give at least thrice that number4 ,we cannot attempt to give even an outline of a subject which alone would far outrun this volume4 ,a single most typical form of each main period is here shown1 to illustrate the entirely different ideas which prevailed4 ,illustration3 ,,pre4 ,i ,v ,,xii ,,xviii ,,xix ,,xxvi ,,ro4 ,forms4--,in the prehistoric age many of the forms have no marked brim4 ,the bowls1 conical cups1 and jars simply end at a plain edge1 like this marked ,pre4 ,brims were more usual in the later prehistoric age4 ,a great variety of fancy forms appeared--double vases1 square bottles1 fish1 birds1 or women were modelled2 and as the whole pottery was handmade1 such were no more difficult to make than circular forms4 ,on coming to the ,ist dynasty the forms were more clumsy1 such as that marked ,i2 and some of the earlier forms were continued in a very degraded state4 ,the main feature is the class of very large jars1 two to three feet high1 which were used for storing food and drink4 ,this class rapidly deteriorated and became almost extinct by the ,i,i,ird dynasty4 ,in the pyramid age some neatly-made pottery is found2 thin sharp-brimmed bowls were usual1 and the form marked ,v1 with a sharply pointed base1 was peculiar to this time4 ,by the ,x,i,ith dynasty the globular or drop-shaped pot was the prevalent type1 and varies in size from a couple of inches to a couple of feet4 ,drinking-cups of a hemispherical form1 very thin1 without any brim1 are also of this age4 ,the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty was begun with long graceful forms1 such as ,,xviii2 and later some beautiful long-necked vases are found4 ,all of these forms rapidly degraded in the ,x,i,xth dynasty1 and ugly small handles come into use1 probably influenced by ,greek design4 ,in the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty1 lids with knob handles became common1 and accordingly the brim disappeared1 and a plain edge was used which could be easily capped4 ,the large jars of this age are of ,greek origin4 ,during the ,ptolemaic time debasement went on2 and the most ugly1 smug1 commonplace forms belong to the ,roman age4 ,they are mostly ribbed1 as in this marked ,ro4 ,the big amphorae begin with ribbing in the latter part of the second century1 in broad fluting curves4 ,these became narrower and sharper1 until in the sixth and seventh centuries the ribbing had become almost a mere combed pattern around the jar4 ,the jars also decreased in size1 were thicker1 softer1 and coarser1 until the type vanished with the ,arab times4 ,decoration4--,the earliest painting on prehistoric vases was of white slip1 in line patterns1 copied from basket-work1 and rarely in figures1 such as fig4 #fe4 ,this white paint was put over a bright red facing of haematite2 and such red and white pottery is still made with closely similar patterns by the mountain tribes of ,algeria1 where the style seems never to have died out4 ,the black tops of the early red vases we shall deal with under ,materials4 ,the later prehistoric painting was in dull red on a buff body1 such as fig4 #ff4 ,in the pyramid age there was only a polished red haematite facing1 and in the ,x,i,ith dynasty even this was not used4 ,about the ,x,v,i,ith dynasty a fine red polish was common1 which ceased early in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty2 white on the brims1 or dabbed in finger-spots over the inside of saucers1 was also of the ,x,v,i,ith dynasty4 ,black or red edges to pottery next appeared1 and by ,tahutmes ,,iii there was a style of narrow black and red stripes alternating4 ,the use of blue paint1 of copper frit1 began under ,amenhotep ,,ii1 but it was not usual until ,amenhotep ,,iii1 and it was common until the close of the ,x,i,xth dynasty1 though much flatter and poorer than at first4 ,after this there was no decoration on pottery until the late ,roman time4 ,about the age of ,constantine a hard1 fine pottery came into use1 with a thin red wash on it1 and often of a pale salmon colour throughout4 ,when the southern tribes pushed down into ,egypt1 the brown and red patterns which were usual in ,nubia were carried with the invaders1 and such painting was the main influence in the painted ,coptic pottery4 ,materials4--,the prehistoric pottery of the earlier period is all of a soft body1 faced with red haematite4 ,as the pots were usually baked mouth downward1 the brim was covered with the ashes2 and these not being burnt through1 reduced the red peroxide of iron to the black magnetic sesqui-oxide1 such as is familiar to us in the black scale on sheet steel4 ,the interior of the pots is likewise black1 owing to the reducing gases from the ashes below2 rarely the heat after the combustion has lasted long enough for the oxygen to pass through the pottery1 and so redden the inside4 ,open dishes were also haematite-faced inside1 and the iron is reduced to a brilliant mirror-like coat of black all over4 ,the reason of the polish being smoother on the black than on the red parts is that carbonyl gas--which is the result of imperfect combustion--is a solvent of magnetic oxide of iron1 and so dissolves and re-composes the surface facing4 ,on once understanding the chemistry of this1 it is needless to discuss the old idea that smoke blackened this pottery4 ,smoke--or fine carbon dust--could not possibly penetrate through close-grained pottery1 and the black extends all through the mass1 naturally owing to the action of reducing gases to which the pottery is quite pervious4 ,there may perhaps be some other kinds of black pottery influenced by smoke2 but it is far more probable that all black pottery is due to black oxide of iron produced by imperfect combustion1 which is accompanied by smoke4 ,in the later prehistoric age the pottery has a hard reddish buff body with white specks4 ,in the pyramid period a smooth soft brown body is usual4 ,hard drab pottery also appears in the ,vth and ,v,ith dynasties4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the common soft brown body is general1 and extends to the ,x,v,i,i,ith4 ,by the middle of the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty a hard drab ware with white specks and faced with a drab polish is very characteristic1 and continues into the ,x,i,xth4 ,thence onward the brown body reasserts itself1 with some inferior greenish drab ware about the ,x,x,i,ind dynasty4 ,greek clays appear during the ,x,x,v,ith1 but probably all imported from ,greece4 ,soft red pottery belongs to the ,ptolemaic age4 ,but the old soft brown rules in the ,roman time1 being at its worst in the early ,coptic4 ,the thin hard ware of the ,constantine age is apparently not native1 and may be due either to ,nubian or ,roman influence4 ,modelling4--,a constant use of pottery for modelling should be mentioned1 although we cannot illustrate such a large subject here1 as it is only subsidiary to stone-work in each age4 ,in the prehistoric time rude figures are often found1 both of men and women4 ,little is known of pottery modelling in the ,old and ,middle ,kingdoms4 ,rough figures of cows are placed upon the brims of bowls about the ,x,ith and ,x,i,ith dynasties4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith-,x,x,vth dynasties a large use of roughly modelled ushabti figures of servants prevailed4 ,but it is rarely that the other modelling is apart from foreign influence4 ,a class of exquisitely formed figure-bottles1 of women and animals1 was made of fine foreign clay1 probably by ,greeks1 at this age4 ,also rude solid figures of men and horses extend from this time onwards4 ,the great age of pottery figures begins with the modelled heads of foreigners from the foreign quarter of ,memphis1 certainly due to ,greek admixture4 ,these are admirably done1 and each hand-modelled singly4 ,they begin about #ejj ,b4,c41 and by about #cjj ,b4,c4 moulded figures come into use4 ,at first these are solid1 but from about #bjj ,b4,c4 down to #cjj ,a4,d4 they are moulded hollow1 being made of a front and back half united4 ,the enormous number of these figures1 and of figure-lamps made similarly1 is very familiar from the ,roman period4 ,it is remarkable what good work is shown in some figures even as late as #bej ,a4,d4 ,the late dating of the figures and the varieties of the lamps are illustrated in ,roman ,ehnasya from my own excavations4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,ivory-,,working ,in prehistoric times ivory was much used1 doubtless owing to the elephant being still abundant in southern ,egypt4 ,the natural form of the tusk was often left1 and the surface worked in low relief2 but the earlier work was on small pieces1 as in figs4 #c1 #ae1 #ag4 ,not only elephant ivory was used1 but also that of the hippopotamus4 ,at the beginning of the ,ist dynasty ivory was largely used for statuettes and carvings4 ,one of the best examples of this school is the figure of the aged king 7fig4 #ba74 ,many other carvings of girls1 boys1 apes1 lions and dogs were found with this at ,abydos4 ,at ,hierakonpolis a great mass of ivories was found in a trench six feet long1 and many of them have been preserved4 ,they are figures of men and women1 carved tusks1 wands1 and cylinders4 ,in the tomb of ,mena's queen at ,naqadeh were ivory lions and dogs1 and such were also found in the tomb of ,king ,zer at ,abydos1 used for gaming pieces4 ,all of this early ivory-work is vigorous1 and has the character and spirit of the early art4 ,the finest work known in ivory is the portrait of ,khufu1 the builder of the great pyramid 7fig4 #abc74 ,it is here much magnified1 as the face is only a quarter of an inch high4 ,yet in this minute space one of the most striking portraits has been given4 ,the far-seeing determination1 the energy and will expressed in this compass1 would animate a life-size figure2 indeed1 it would be hard in the illustration to distinguish it from a work on a large scale4 ,the correct position of the ear should be noted1 as it is always put too high up in later sculpture4 ,quite apart from the marvellous minuteness of the work1 we must estimate this as one of the finest character-sculptures that remain to us4 ,a piece of open work1 of a girl standing1 is probably of the ,old ,kingdom 7fig4 #abd74 ,it is not of the style of hair or treatment of the ,middle or ,new ,kingdom2 and in the ,saitic age1 when the older style was copied1 the work is worse in pose and much more detailed and punctilious4 ,there are some beautiful pieces of architectural models in ivory1 from the inlaying of a casket1 and1 also1 a figure of the ,vth dynasty4 ,of the ,middle ,kingdom an ivory baboon is perhaps the finest work2 it has disappeared from the museum when at ,bulak1 and its place is unknown4 ,a broken figure of a boy carrying a calf shows great truth and spirit4 ,ivory was also used for lion-head draughtsmen in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 but there are no fine works of that time4 ,of the ,x,x,v,ith dynasty two fine pieces have been found at ,memphis1 a lotus flower 7fig4 #abe7 and a man bearing offerings 7fig4 #abf74 ,these had been applied to the sides of caskets or other small woodwork4 ,the figure of the man is but a stiff and coarse copy of the ,old ,kingdom work1 lacking the truth and freedom of the early time4 ,there does not seem to have been any distinctive school of ivory-work in ,egypt4 ,the methods and nature of the objects are just what might have been done in stone or in wood at the same period4 ,there is no sign of a special development due to the material1 as there is in the ,chinese ivory-carving4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory #abc4 ,king ,khufu #abd4 ,girl1 ,old ,kingdom #abe4 ,lotus 7,x,x,v,ith dynasty7 #abf4 ,bearer of offerings ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,woodwork ,illustration3 ,,furniture #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca4 ,chair1 caskets1 and bed of ,amenhotep ,,iii ,wood was by no means so rare in early times as it is now in ,egypt4 ,floyer has shown how much the desert has been stripped by the introduction of the tree-feeding camel4 ,we see in the royal tombs of the ,ist dynasty a large use of wood4 ,the funeral chamber sunk in the ground was entirely built of massive beams and planks4 ,the area of this room was #ijj square feet in the largest tomb1 varying down to #cjj in the lesser4 ,the framing of the floor1 the supports1 and the roof beams were about #aj #g inches in section and up to #ba feet in length4 ,the planking of the floor still remains #b to #b inches thick2 and probably that of the roof was equal to it1 as it had to bear about three feet of sand over it4 ,the great scale of this timber work agrees with the 8royal axe-man0 being one of the high officials2 before stone came into use1 this title was the equivalent of chief architect4 ,such a free use of wood shows that the elaborate framing of faades1 which is represented as a usual pattern in early stone-work1 was actually copied from wooden mansions1 just as the ,greek architecture was an elaborate copy of woodwork4 ,at the close of the ,i,i,ird dynasty we have a glimpse of the large use of wood for shipbuilding1 when ,senoferu built in one year sixty ships1 and imported forty ships of cedar4 ,the great gates of the temple enclosures and palaces must also have been massive works2 the outer and inner pylon at ,karnak had gates fifteen feet wide on either side1 and over sixty feet high4 ,the wooden coffins of the ,old ,kingdom are heavy boxes with sides two to three inches thick4 ,they are fastened together by bolts of wood2 and such wooden pegs are run diagonally in different directions so as to prevent the parts being separated4 ,coffins hollowed out of a single block1 to fit the outline of the mummy1 were also used in all the earlier periods4 ,in late times such forms were built up of boards4 ,for securing the joints of furniture from racking1 two correct systems were used4 ,for chairs1 angle-pieces were cut from wood with bent grain1 and fitted on inside the angles4 ,there must have been a constant demand for such bent pieces1 and probably they were grown into shape4 ,in other cases forms of wood have been found which had clearly been grown for many years into the shape required4 ,the angle-pieces can be seen under the front of the seat in fig4 #abh4 ,another system for stands was to put in diagonal bars1 as in fig4 #acj4 ,sometimes merely the stiffness of deep panelling was trusted1 as in fig4 #abi4 ,for the backs of chairs an excellent triangular stay was made1 as in fig4 #abg4 ,the light and skilful forms of the woodwork are well shown in the furniture 7figs4 #abg-aca7 from the tomb of ,yuaa and ,thuiu1 the parents of ,queen ,thyi1 in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty4 ,the reliefs on the chair are carved in wood and gilded4 ,the decoration on the casket 7fig4 #abi7 is of blue glazed hieroglyphs and inlays4 ,wood was also much used for statuettes4 ,the ebony negress and other figures 7figs4 #dj-db7 show it on a small scale2 larger figures were also made1 such as several in the ,turin ,museum1 and some of life-size1 but the latter are coarser in work1 as the figure of ,sety ,i in the ,british ,museum4 ,a fine figure almost life-size remains from the ,x,i,i,ith dynasty1 ,king ,hor1 in the ,cairo ,museum4 ,a system of inlaying coloured stones1 glazes or glass1 in wood as a basis1 is found as early as the ,vth dynasty1 in the model vases of ,nofer-ar-ka-ra4 ,in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty this method of decoration is seen on the gigantic mummy-cases of the ,queens ,aah-hotep and ,aahmes1 which were inlaid1 probably with lazuli4 ,the inlay was so valuable that soon after it was all prised out with the corner of an adze1 and blue paint substituted for it4 ,in the ,x,x,i,i,ird dynasty decorative figures were wrought in wood1 with the whole detail in inlay1 as in the group of ,pedubast4 ,and in the ,greek period large wooden coffins were encrusted with inlay of coloured glass1 and the sides of wooden shrines were similarly the basis for brilliant polychrome adornment4 ,regarding the methods of woodworking1 certainly the axe was the primitive tool1 as shown by the royal architect being designated by the axe4 ,in the scenes of the pyramid age we find the saw about three feet long worked with both hands1 the mallet and chisel for cutting mortise-holes1 and the adze in constant use for shaping and for smoothing wood4 ,to this day the small adze is a favourite tool of the ,egyptian carpenter and boat-builder4 ,for smoothing down the caulking inside a boat1 heavy pounders of stone were used1 held by a handle worked out on each side of the block4 ,drills were also commonly used both on wood and stone1 worked by a bow4 ,the subject of tools and their variations is a very wide one1 which cannot be entered upon here4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,plaster ,,and ,,stucco ,in the masonry of the pyramids1 plaster is constantly used1 both to fill joints as a bedding1 and to level up hollows in a face4 ,the plaster used is a mixture of ordinary lime and plaster of ,paris1 the carbonate and sulphate of lime4 ,how it was introduced into the joints of the pyramid casing is a mystery4 ,the blocks at the base weigh sixteen tons1 so that no free sliding to reduce the joint-filling could be done2 yet the vertical joint1 five feet high and seven feet long1 is filled with a film of plaster only a fiftieth of an inch thick4 ,the joints of the masonry in the passages and chambers are all filled with plaster1 though so close as to be almost imperceptible4 ,in the core masonry a coarse plaster was poured between the stones and filled into hollows4 ,the flaws and defects in the faces of stones were freely filled with plaster1 which was coloured to match the stone4 ,in rock tombs plaster was used to fill up cracks and hollows2 and it often remains in perfect condition while the rock around has decayed4 ,plaster was also used on the brick walls1 which were faced with a hard coat about a tenth to a sixteenth of an inch thick1 upon which paintings were executed4 ,by the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty this became a mere whitewash over the mud-facing of the wall4 ,in the roughly-hewn rock tombs of that age at ,thebes1 the jagged surfaces were smoothed by a coat of plaster1 often two or three inches thick in the hollows4 ,a strange use of stucco was for a thin coat over sculpture1 as a basis for colouring4 ,such a coat was even laid over statuary4 ,in all ages this hid to some extent the full detail of the sculptor's work in reliefs4 ,in the ,x,i,ith dynasty the finest lines were hidden by it2 and on coming down to the ,ptolemaic times the plasterer ignored all the sculpture below1 filling the figures with a smooth daub of plaster on which the painter drew what he liked4 ,it seems strange why the sculptors should have continued to put fine work and detail on to a surface where they were going to be at once ignored4 ,it suggests a rigid bureaucracy in which the sculpture had to be passed by one man1 and the painting by another1 without any collaboration4 ,stucco was used for independent modelling1 as in ,italy4 ,it was laid on a flat canvas base1 stretched over wood1 and the whole relief was in the stucco4 ,the chariot of ,tahutmes ,,iv is one of the main examples of such work1 of which a small portion is shown in fig4 #acb4 ,the relief is low and smooth1 and full of detail2 there is none of the sketchy rough tooling1 as seen in ,roman stucco reliefs4 ,minute details of dress and hair are all tooled in1 and supply some of the best studies of ,syrian robes4 ,the varying patterns on the shields of different branches of ,syrians1 the feathering of the arrows1 the shape of the daggers1 and the flowers of the papyrus and lotus of north and south1 are all most precisely rendered4 ,it would be hard to find any point in which more details could be introduced4 ,illustration3 ,,plaster #acb4 ,stucco relief modelling 7,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty7 #acc1 #acd4 ,plaster castings for studies ,plaster was also used for casting in moulds1 and for making moulds4 ,the death mask of ,akhenaten shows how such castings were produced in the ,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty1 from a single mould without any undercutting1 to serve the purpose of the sculptor as a model4 ,of later examples of such castings we have here a lion's head and a king's head 7figs4 #acc1 #acd74 ,they were probably made to be supplied as school copies to the workshops where the sculptors were trained4 ,plaster moulds are very common at ,memphis1 and it is said they were even used for casting bronze work4 ,this is very doubtful1 as plaster is reduced to powder at #bfj ,c41 while moulds for bronze casting must be heated to #aejj to #ahjj ,c42 they are more probably for casting pewter4 ,plaster moulds were also used for moulding pottery lamps4 ,the oiling of plaster was done on painted plaster statuettes1 so as to make them waterproof4 ,they can still be scrubbed in water without disturbing the colour4 ,the most artistic use of plaster was for the modelled heads1 which were placed on mummy cases in ,roman times4 ,though most such works were rather crude1 some are found which show real ability of portraiture4 ,in fig4 #ace we have a sympathetic study of the face of a young man4 ,the lips are beautifully true1 the modelling of the cheek is quite natural1 the nose and brow well formed2 only the eyes have been left blank1 and marked afterwards with colour4 ,the head1 fig4 #acf1 is evidently a careful study1 giving the cautious1 cold expression of the man4 ,another face 7fig4 #acg7 is subtle1 and full of feeling3 the faint smile on the lips1 the gracious contour of the cheek1 the wavy hair1 give a memory in death of a real personality4 ,the only jarring feature is the square brow1 copied from an unfortunate convention in ,greek art4 ,the eyes are here again left blank2 but they seem to have been intended to be open1 by the slight ridge of the raised lid4 ,was there a convention of regarding the dead as incapable of seeing1 though seen by memory8 ,how far these modelled heads were portraits is answered in a curious way by fig4 #ach4 ,the light outline there is that of the plaster modelling1 the dark outline within it is the skull from the interior of the coffin4 ,it will be seen how exactly they agree2 there is a thin skin over the forehead1 then a fleshy part to the brow4 ,along the bridge of the nose the model closely follows the bone2 below the nose the angle of meeting of the jaws exactly agrees1 leaving a uniform thickness of lips2 and lastly1 the fleshy fulness of the chin is seen projecting4 ,this agreement is one which the artist could never have expected to be thus tested1 and therefore gives us the more confidence in his skill4 ,illustration3 ,,plaster #ace1 #acf1 #acg4 ,modelled heads #ach4 ,modelled head and skull ,,chapter ,,xv ,,clothing ,though leather hides1 with the hair on1 are found over bodies in the earliest graves1 yet linen cloth was introduced early in the prehistoric times1 and is frequently found wrapped around the bodies4 ,on reaching the first dynasty the weaving is seen to be very fine and regular1 though we only have some of the stuff used for mummy wrappings1 from the tomb of ,king ,zer4 ,the threads are very uniform1 and there are #afj to the inch in the warp and #abj in the woof4 ,modern fine cambric has #adj threads to the inch1 so it was quite equalled by hand work at the beginning of ,egyptian history4 ,a group of a dozen different cloths on one mummy of the ,x,v,i,ith dynasty show #ach x #dj and #abh x #ef as the finest1 and #ba x #ae as the coarsest mesh4 ,the greatest disproportion of the threads is #ach to #dj1 or #c to #a1 and the least is #gj to #fb1 or #i to #h2 it is recognised as a principle of ,egyptian weaving that the woof was not beaten up as closely as the lay of the warp4 ,unfortunately we have scarcely any cloth except mummy wrappings1 and it is not to be expected that the finest work would be thus used4 ,the size of the looms was considerable4 ,the cloths on the mummy just named are up to five feet wide2 and one edge has been torn off that amount1 so it was originally more4 ,the pieces are up to sixty feet long1 and yet not complete4 ,the looms were horizontal on the ground for coarse work1 such as mats2 but fine work was done on a vertical loom1 and from the ease of displacing threads in tapestry the warp threads were separately weighted and not fastened to a beam4 ,loom weights of baked clay or of limestone are common4 ,illustration3 ,,clothing #aci4 ,coloured tapestry 7,x,v,i,i,ith dynasty7 #adj4 ,cut leather net ,a few pieces of woven tapestry have been found in the tomb of ,tahutmes ,,iv1 and part of one is given here full size in fig4 #aci4 ,the colours used are red1 blue1 green1 yellow1 brown and grey4 ,the coloured threads pass to and fro over the space assigned to them1 thus entirely parting the warp threads from the neighbouring ones1 so that a slit is left along the vertical margins of the colours4 ,this was remedied by stitching2 but the same weakness is seen in the ,roman and ,coptic woven tapestries4 ,these are known from the pagan period1 as there are many mythological subjects2 but the greater part belong to the ,christian and ,mohammedan ages4 ,the ,roman and ,coptic tapestries are placed upon garments as derivatives from darning1 or from patches put on the garments to prevent them wearing through4 ,the positions are broad stripes over the shoulders where any object would rest when carried1 circular patches on the breasts and on the knees4 ,on referring to the hundreds of figures in ,roman dress from the third to fifth centuries 7in ,garucci1 ,vetri ornati di figure in oro71 embroideries or tapestries are unusual in ,italy4 ,a dozen robes with scrolls or foliage patterns are shown1 but only three with knee patches1 and one of those 7xxxi1 #a7 is a female servant holding an ,egyptian fan1 probably therefore an ,egyptian slave4 ,it seems1 then1 that this system of circular patches on the wearing parts is not ,roman but ,egyptian4 ,beside the woven tapestries1 which are nearly all in purple1 embroidery was done with the needle in white thread on the purple ground4 ,leatherwork was of importance in ,egypt in all ages4 ,the two principal arts in it were the appliqu work in colours1 and the cutting of network4 ,the great example of the appliqu work is the funeral tent of ,queen ,isiemkheb1 about #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,it was eight feet long and seven feet wide1 with sides over five feet high4 ,six vultures are outspread along the top1 and the sides have a long inscription4 ,the whole of the figures and signs are cut out in variously coloured leather1 and stitched on to the crimson leather ground4 ,this work we can trace in the style of earlier decorations1 back to the head fillet of ,nofert1 fig4 #bd4 ,it is also continued down to the present day in the appliqu work in coloured stuffs on the inside of ,egyptian tents4 ,the cutting of leather nets was an art of great skill4 ,rows of slits were cut1 breaking joint one with other1 so that a piece of leather could be drawn out sideways into a wide net4 ,one of the most delicate of such nets is partly shown in fig4 #adj4 ,the square patch left in the middle of the net was for the wear of sitting on when the net was put over the linen waist cloth4 ,such nets over the cloth are shown in the figures of the harvesters1 fig4 #gj1 with the slit network and the square patch4 ,to cut the leather in such extremely fine threads must have required great skill and care2 and not only is the leather slit1 but considerable slips have been removed so as to produce an open net close up to the edge band of solid leather2 on some edges an inch or two is cut away to form one side of the rhombic opening4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in many directions we have now traced the outlines of the artistic skill of the ,egyptians1 but only outlines1 which point incessantly to the wide spaces that need to be filled in by further detail4 ,much of that has yet to be discovered1 but much is ready to hand whensoever a careful observer may choose to devote attention to any of the branches of art or technical work which we have so briefly noticed4 ,in every direction a complete collecting of materials and an adequate publication of them would bring a full reward in results4 ,the powerful technical skill of ,egyptian art1 its good sense of limitations1 and its true feeling for harmony and expression1 will always make it of the first importance to the countries of the ,west with which it was so early and so long connected4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,egypt',s ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,world ,in the opening chapter we have considered the point of view from which the art of ,egypt--like that of every other country--must be approached4 ,the physical conditions which surround man will necessarily control his expression of thought and his perception of beauty4 ,forms and designs growing out of the conditions of one land will be inappropriate in another land1 and lose most1 or all1 of their value if transported to different surroundings4 ,hence it is futile to attempt to contrast the art of one country directly with that of another4 ,we might as well compare the beauty of a tropical garden with that of an alpine forest4 ,the only ground of comparison is that of expressing the character and emotions of the artists2 and that art which conveys the mental state of the people most readily is the most perfect art4 ,this criticism leaves aside altogether the moral question of our appreciation of the people themselves2 that does not belong to art but to ethics4 ,and before we can begin to judge of that1 we must know their surroundings1 and the position in which they were conditioned in the world4 ,our consideration here is with the art4 ,when we look over the varied artistic expression of different races1 we see that each people has seized some one excellence1 growing out of its conditions1 and adapted to its feelings and utilities4 ,we can admire each excellence in turn1 and see that in each of these qualities no other people has reached the same perfection4 ,we must recognise that artistic expression is not only shown in sculpture and painting1 but in literature1 mechanical design1 and the amenities and adaptation of the social organism4 ,in ,egypt1 as we have noticed1 the ruling principles of the art are durability1 strength1 and dignity1 and such were the features of the national character4 ,in vain do we look in any other country for as great an expression of any of these principles4 ,and1 with the single exception of ,greece1 it was also supreme in precision of work4 ,its work was the true expression of character1 and in perfect harmony with the nature of the country4 ,in ,crete1 so far as we can yet see1 the pre-eminent facilities were the expression of motion1 and the development of decorative form1 and especially colour1 upon pottery4 ,classical art never attained to the skill shown by the prehistoric art in these directions4 ,in ,assyria1 figure and animal sculpture stood very high in the best period2 and the free adaptation of this to the purposes of life1 as we see in the great development of friezes on the palace walls1 was the distinguishing feature4 ,no people seem to have lived amidst their art more than the ,assyrians4 ,in classical ,greece1 the supremacy in vital sculpture and architectural proportion has so filled the attention of the modern world that the higher achievement of surrounding nations in other directions has been largely overlooked4 ,in each of the special qualities that we note in other peoples the ,greeks were their inferiors4 ,rome was largely dominated by other races in its development2 but in the art of civilisation and raising subject peoples1 in the shaping of life and rule of law1 it stood far above any ancient nation4 ,in this--as in the arts elsewhere--we must look at its best period1 when the impartiality and probity of its administrators brought all ,greece under their sway4 ,the ,celtic and ,northern arts stood first in the rhythm of intricate decoration1 and the subtlety of the curves2 the ideal may not appeal to us1 but no other region has ever produced such perfect and complex design4 ,in ,medieval ,europe1 though sculpture scarcely reached the vitality of classical work1 yet in expression it stood as high as in any school of art2 and in the architecture the sense of expansion and aspiration--the spiritual aspect--reaches a higher level than man has touched elsewhere4 ,in ,italy1 the expression of art in painting was its great achievement1 in harmony with the character of grace seen in other lines of ,italian production4 ,the ,persian and ,mesopotamian civilisation triumphed in its glorious use of coloured glaze decoration1 which has been carried westward to ,syria and ,rhodes1 and still continues in the vast domes of coloured tiles in ,spain4 ,in ,arab art we meet the exquisite calm of geometrical design with various angles1 which cannot be analysed at a glance like a ,roman pavement3 they arrest the eye to linger over them1 to seek how they arise1 and what they mean4 ,further east1 it is difficult for us to enter sufficiently into the fundamental feelings of the races1 to enable us to value their art truly4 ,but we can at least feel the grand sense of profusion when looking at the mountainous structures of the immense topes and pagodas of ,india1 peopled with innumerable figures on countless stages4 ,to the minds which produce and live amongst such forms1 all other work must seem poor and bare4 ,in ,chinese art we can admire the fine adaptation and the sense of minute perfection in the articles before us1 the dignity and reserve shown2 and1 in the literature1 even a stranger to the land can feel the intimate harmony with ,nature1 and the mystic sense of mood in the mountains and trees and lakes around4 ,hardly any other poetry that we know touches the spirit of life so essentially4 ,the facile ,japanese may well claim an unsurpassed skill and deftness in the painting of ,nature1 and a power to grasp the greatest amount of reality with the least means4 ,their perception of ,nature in its strange and mysterious moods1 which they show by the brush1 is almost as penetrating as in the literature of ,china4 ,their exquisite sense of fitness1 and of taste for beauty of workmanship1 only makes us begin to realise the clumsiness of our own cast-iron performances4 ,to wander so far from ,egypt may seem needless2 and it would be so if the essentials of other arts were more familiar in ,english works4 ,we have read lately of an alleged 8tyranny of the ,nile02 but the real tyranny over ,english minds for a century past has been the 8tyranny of the ,hellene40 ,the one side of art in sculpture has obscured all others2 and the ,english mind has1 with its usual idolatry1 made the standard of ,greece its sole measure4 ,we need to see that a dozen national arts have each been supreme over the others in some one aspect4 ,then we shall see how meaningless it is to contrast the excellence of one national art with another4 ,each country has to confess that it has only fully expressed one aspect out of many in the immense range of human life4 ,now we can begin to see the real meaning of the so-called limitations of ,egyptian art4 ,every people has had its limitations likewise1 fitting it to its conditions2 and if we look at them all impartially1 and not by the standard of any one of them1 we shall see that the deficiencies and limitations of most races are of much the same extent4 ,if the ,egyptian had tried to render not only character1 but emotion also1 he would have been defying his true conditions1 as much as if we put a dado of ,persian glazed tiles on the ,parthenon4 ,to refer this artistic perception to the uniformity of the ,nile1 is about as true as if we attributed any deficiencies in ,german art or literature to the prevalence of cold and snow1 which is a far greater tyranny than the inundation4 ,every physical circumstance is a factor in human work1 but none of them singly dominates it4 ,there is no point in calling the ,egyptian childish in his abilities1 as every other nation has been equally childish in some other respects--the ,roman in his abject submission to omens1 the ,greek in playing with words1 the ,assyrian in his inaccuracy1 the ,arab in his drawing4 ,in short1 there is no essential difference in the capacity for showing national life and feeling by the art of each country2 and in the facility and truth of expression ,egypt stands in the first rank of those lands where ,art has exhibited the character of man4 ,,index ,aah-hotep jewellery1 #ia1 #ib4 ,aahmes ,i1 jewellery1 #ib4 ,,ii1 inlaid hawk-head1 #ajc4 ,aahmes-si neit-rannu 7fig4 #i71 #ba4 ,abu ,simbel1 #bh4 ,accuracy of work1 #ha1 #hb4 ,ainofer servant1 #af4 ,akhenaten 7,amenhotep ,,iv71 art of1 #bj1 #ec2 sculpture1 #da2 relief1 #ec2 death mask1 #add4 ,alabaster sculpture1 #be2 vases1 #gh4 ,amenardys1 statue of1 #bf1 #dd4 ,amenemhat1 ,,iii1 #ci1 #hh4 ,amenhotep1 ,i1 #abj4 ,,ii1 #bf1 #aaa1 #abi4 ,,iii1 #bf1 #bh1 #ec1 #aaa1 #abj1 #abi4 official of1 #da4 ,,iv1 #bf1 #aaa1 #abj4 ,amethyst beads1 #hj1 #hf4 ,amulets of stone1 #gi4 of glaze1 #aad4 ,animals1 real and mythical1 #di4 ,antef ,v1 #aai4 ,antimony used1 #ajd4 ,arab art1 #aee4 ,arch avoided externally1 #f4 known early1 #fd4 form of brick1 #fd4 built without centring1 #fe4 ,architecture1 #fb-fh4 ,armlets of flint1 #ha4 ,see ,bangles4 ,art belongs to country1 #a1 #b1 #aeb4 absent from copying1 #b1 #ec4 conditions in ,egypt1 #b4 ,art dominated by strong light1 #c4 accepted strong contrasts1 #d4 ruled by level and vertical lines1 #e4 analysis by ,tolstoy1 #g4 expression of character1 #g-aj1 #ai4 truth of ,egyptian1 #i4 greatest under pyramid kings1 #af1 #ag4 rapidity of development1 #ag1 #ea4 decay of1 #ah4 of character and of emotion1 #ai4 of different peoples1 #aec-aef4 ,asiatic conquests influence art1 #ai4 ,assyria1 art of1 #aed4 ,aswan1 school of1 #bg4 ,axe of ,aahmes1 #ib4 ,baboon1 ivory1 #acf4 ,bak-en-khonsu1 head of1 #dd4 ,bangles1 #id4 ,see ,bracelets1 ,armlets4 ,basalt1 green1 sculpture in1 #bd1 #dj4 black1 for building1 #gj4 ,basalt1 used for vases1 #gh4 ,beads1 materials of1 #hj4 gold1 #hd4 open-work1 #id4 glazed1 #aai4 glass1 #aba1 #abe4 ,bee amulet1 #hj4 ,blue1 manufacture of1 #aag4 paint on vases1 #abi4 ,bracelets of ,zer1 #hd4 of ,aah-hotep1 #ib4 of ,ramessu ,,ii1 #ic4 silver1 #ic4 gold1 #ie4 ,coptic1 #ie4 ,brick building1 sloping inward1 #fb4 ,bronze1 use of1 #ajj1 #aja4 origin of1 #aja4 ,building transport1 #gd4 ,bull hunt1 #ed4 ,bull trampling on enemy1 #ad4 ,bull's head amulet1 #gi4 ,bushman type1 #bi4 ,button seals1 #hf4 ,canon of drawing figures1 #ej4 ,capitals1 early forms of1 #fg4 ,captives1 influence on art1 #ai4 ,casting of gold1 #he1 #hi4 of bronze1 #aja4 in plaster1 #add4 ,ceiling pattern1 #eh4 ,celtic art1 #aeg4 ,chains1 patterns of1 #hf1 #ia4 ,character in art1 #h1 #i1 #ai4 ,chinese art1 #aef4 ,civil service1 organizing1 #af4 ,claw amulet1 #gi4 ,cleopatra ,cocce 7,ptolemaic71 #ba4 ,cloison inlaying1 #hg-hi1 #ic1 #ie4 ,cobalt colour of glaze1 #aah4 ,colossi1 raising of1 #gg4 weight of1 #bf4 ,colours1 making of1 #aag4 ,columns1 palm1 lotus1 polygonal1 #fg4 ,comparative art1 #aeb4 ,conditions of ,egyptian art1 #b-e4 ,conquest of ,egypt by artistic race1 #ad4 ,constantine1 pottery of1 #abi1 #aca4 ,contrasts of desert and cultivation1 #d4 ,conventions absent in early art1 #ae1 #ce1 #cf4 ,copper1 colours from1 #aaf-aah4 ,copper work1 #ih-ajj4 ,coptic pottery1 painted1 #acj4 tapestry1 #adh4 ,copying1 a degradation1 #b1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba4 ,cornice1 origin of1 #fc4 ,crete1 art of1 #aec4 ,crocodile amulet1 #gi4 ,crowns of ,x,i,ith ,dynasty1 #hh4 ,cumaean glass1 #aba4 ,daggers of ,aahmes1 #ib4 ,degradation of art1 #ag1 #bj1 #ea4 ,deir el ,bahri1 #e1 #eb4 ,desert1 contrasts of1 #d4 art in ,eastern1 #be1 #ci4 ,detail1 treatment of1 #ah4 ,diorite1 sculpture in1 #bd1 #cd1 #gj1 #gh4 ,divisions1 political and artistic1 v4 ,drawing1 #eh-fa4 ,dressing stone faces1 #ga1 #gb4 ,drills1 tubular1 #gb4 flint1 #gi4 ,dynastic new art1 #ad1 #cj4 ,dynasty ,i1 #ad1 #di1 #hd-hf1 #ajh1 #abf1 #ace1 #adg4 ,,ii1 #cb4 ,,iv1 #af1 #ej1 #abi1 #ace4 ,v1 #fg1 #abg1 #aca1 #adj4 ,,vi1 #ag1 #hf1 #aji1 #aca4 ,,xi1 #ag1 #ea4 ,,xii1 #ah1 #bf1 #bg1 #cf1 #eb1 #hg1 #aaj1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #acf4 ,,xviii1 #ai1 #bf1 #bg1 #dj1 #eb1 #ia1 #aaj1 #abj1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #aci1 #adj1 #adc1 #add1 #adh4 ,,xix1 #bj1 #bg1 #ec1 #ib-id1 #aac1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca4 ,,xx1 #ba1 #ed4 ,,xxiii1 #id1 #aac1 #aba4 ,,xxvi1 #ba1 #ed1 #aac1 #abh1 #aca1 #acf4 ,ptolemaic1 #ba1 #ie1 #aae1 #aca4 ,roman1 #bb1 #ie1 #aae1 #abc1 #aca1 #ade4 ,earrings1 #ic1 #id4 ,coptic1 #ie4 ,embroidery1 #adi4 ,emery1 used for cutting1 #gb1 #gc4 ,emotional art1 #ai4 ,enamel1 ,roman1 #id4 ,eye amulet1 #hj4 ,eyes inserted in copper frames1 #cc4 relation to brow1 #cf1 #dj4 gibbous and narrow1 #cg1 #ch4 not detailed1 #gg1 #ade1 #adf4 ,fan bearer1 figure of1 #aad4 ,figures1 canon of drawing1 #ej4 modelled in pottery1 #acb4 ,fish offerers1 #ci4 ,fist amulet1 #hj4 ,flask of bronze1 #aja4 ,flint drills1 #gi4 working1 #hj4 ,floret crown1 #hh4 ,fluted metal vases1 #aja4 ,fly amulet1 #gi4 ,foil1 impressed1 #hf1 #ij1 #ic1 #id4 ,foreign influences on art1 vi4 ,foundations1 #gd4 ,frog amulet1 #gi1 #hj4 ,furnaces for glazing1 #aag1 #aah4 ,furniture1 #ach1 #aci4 ,gates of temples1 immense1 #ach4 ,gazelles of palm1 #ae1 #di4 ,geese of ,medum1 #ef4 ,gilding1 #hd1 #if4 ,girl somersaulting1 #ei4 ,glass1 #aai1 #abe4 earliest1 #aai4 black and white1 #abj4 varied colours1 #abj1 #abb4 patterns on1 #abj4 forms of vases1 #aba4 beads1 #aba1 #abe4 engraved1 #aba4 mosaic1 #abb4 blown1 #abc4 weights1 #abc4 manufacture of1 #abc-abe4 ,glazed ware1 #ajg-aai4 origin of1 #ajg4 two-coloured1 #ajh4 tiles1 #ajh4 tablets1 #aji4 colours of1 #aji-aae1 #aah4 pendants1 #aab4 architectural1 #aab4 ushabtis1 #aac4 figures1 #aad4 late1 #aad1 #aae4 body1 #aae4 stone ware1 #aaf4 decomposition of1 #aaf4 manufacture of frit1 #aag4 moulded1 #aah4 inlay in wood1 #adj4 ,glazing on quartz1 #ajg4 on pottery1 #ajh1 #aae4 ,gleaners1 paintings of1 #ef1 #eg4 ,gold1 sources of1 #hc4 leaf1 #hd1 #if4 ,gold casting1 #he1 #hi4 wire1 #he1 #hf1 #ij4 soldering1 #he1 #hf1 #ij4 base1 #id4 over plaster1 #ie4 ,granite1 black1 school of1 #bd4 red1 school of1 #bg4 temple1 #fe4 quarrying1 #gj1 #ga4 sawn1 #gb4 ,granulated work1 #ij4 ,greek art1 #aed1 #aeg4 influence in ,egypt1 #dg1 #adf4 pottery figures1 #acb4 ,hammer dressing of stone1 #gd4 ,hand amulet1 #hj4 ,hand work on stone vases1 #gh4 ,harvest scenes1 #ef1 #eg4 ,hatshepsut1 sculpture of1 #eb4 ,hawk amulet1 #gi4 protecting king1 #ce4 ,heads modelled in plaster1 #ade1 #adf4 ,helwan quarries1 #gj4 ,hieroglyphs1 cutting of1 #gd4 ,hor1 statue of1 #db1 #aci4 ,hyaena and bull relief1 #ad1 #di4 ,hyksos type1 so-called1 #bd1 #cg1 #ch4 ,indian art1 #aef4 ,inlaid metal1 #ib1 #ajc4 ,iron1 rare appearances of1 #ajd4 sources of1 #aje4 tools1 #ajf4 cores for bronze1 #ajb4 ,isiemkheb1 tent of1 #aej4 ,isis1 head of1 #aad4 ,italy1 art of1 #aee4 ,ivory carving1 prehistoric1 #ab1 #acd4 ,ist dynasty1 #ca1 #cb1 #acd4 ,i,vth dynasty1 #ace4 ,x,i,ith dynasty1 #acf4 ,x,x,v,ith dynasty1 #acf4 ,jackal head amulet1 #hj4 ,japanese art1 #aef4 ,jewellery1 #hc-ig4 ,ka-aper1 #cc4 ,kauat1 princess1 #ea4 ,keft inlaying1 #ajc4 ,kha-em-hat1 tomb of1 #bj4 ,khafra1 statue of1 #cd4 accuracy of1 #hb4 ,khaker ornament1 #fd4 ,kha-sekhem1 head of1 #cb4 ,khety1 copper brazier of1 #ii4 ,khufu1 organizing by1 #af4 figure of1 #cd1 #ace4 accuracy of1 #ha4 ,koptos1 colossi from1 #cj4 ,lazuli beads1 #hj1 #he4 inlaying1 #hh1 #ia4 ,lead used1 #ajc4 ,leather the earliest clothing1 #adg4 appliqu work1 #adi4 slit network1 #aej4 ,lifting of stones1 #ge4 ,light1 conditions of strong1 #c4 ,limitations of national arts1 #aeg4 ,limestone sculpture1 school of1 #be4 earliest1 #ca4 working in1 #fi4 ,linen1 fineness of1 #adg4 ,lines level and vertical in ,egypt1 #e4 ,lion1 figures of1 #cj1 #ci4 amulet1 #hj4 ,literature compared with art1 #g1 #h4 ,looms1 #adh4 ,lotus capitals1 #fg4 flower1 ivory1 #acf4 ,manganese colour of glaze1 #aah4 ,mastaba tomb-chapels1 #af1 #ej4 ,materials of sculpture1 #bc4 ,medieval ,european art1 #aee4 ,medinet ,habu temple1 #ff4 ,memphis1 head from1 #df4 ,mendes bowls1 #if4 ,menkaura1 accuracy of1 #hb4 ,mentu-em-hat1 head of1 #df4 ,merenptah1 #dd4 ,mertitefs1 queen1 #cb4 ,middle kingdom style1 #ag1 #ah4 statuary1 #cf-dj4 ,min1 statues of1 #cj4 ,modelling in pottery1 #acb4 ,mosaics of glass1 #abb4 ,moulding by pressure1 #ij4 ,moulds for casting copper1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajb4 for glazed ware1 #aah4 of plaster1 #add1 #ade4 ,mykenaean style of inlays1 #ib4 ,narmer1 #ca1 #di4 ,national arts1 #aeg4 ,naturalism of early art1 #ag4 later1 #bj4 ,necklace fastening1 #ia1 fig4 #aji1 #ic4 ,necklets of silver1 #ie4 ,negress statuette1 #dc4 ,new ,kingdom1 #ah-bj4 statuary1 #dj-de4 ,nofert1 head of1 #cc4 ,nubian sandstone1 #bg1 #fi4 ,obelisks1 raising of1 #gg4 transport of1 #gg4 ,observation in early art1 #ae4 ,organization1 system of social1 #af4 ,ovens for glazing1 #aag4 ,oxherd1 #ea4 ,ox1 sacrifice of1 #ea4 ,pafaabast statuette1 #id4 ,painting on tombs1 #ai4 earliest1 #ee4 in ,new ,kingdom1 #ef-fj4 light and shade1 #ei4 ,palettes of slate1 #ac4 ,palm capital1 #fg4 scenery1 #d4 ,palm-stick construction1 #fc4 ,papyrus structures1 #fd4 capital1 #fg4 ,pectorals of ,senusert ,,ii1 #hg2 ,senusert ,,iii1 #hg2 ,amenemhat ,,iii1 #hh2 ,ramessu ,,ii1 #ic4 ,pedubast1 #adj4 ,pelicans1 painting of1 #ef4 ,pepy1 copper statue of1 #ii4 ,periods of art1 #aa-ba4 ,persian glazing1 #aee4 ,pewter1 #ajd4 ,plaited wire chains1 #ia4 ,planes for testing faces1 #gb4 ,plaster1 #adb-adf4 in masonry1 #adb4 coating statues1 #adc4 modelling1 #add-adf4 castings1 #add4 moulds1 #add1 #ade4 heads1 #ade1 #adf4 oiled1 #ade4 ,political divisions different from artistic1 v4 ,porphyry used for vases1 #gh4 ,portraiture1 late1 #bb1 #ch4 ,pot metal1 #ajc4 ,pottery1 #abf-acc4 forms1 #abf4 decoration1 #abh4 materials1 #acj4 ,pottery1 modelling1 #acb4 ,prehistoric character of art1 #ab1 #ac4 statuary1 #bi1 #cj4 reliefs1 #dh4 painting1 #ee4 stone vases1 #gh4 amulets1 #gi4 ,princesses1 fresco1 #eh4 ,ptolemaic art1 #ba4 ,pyramid age1 #ae4 sculpture1 #cb-cf4 ,pyramids1 accuracy of1 #ha1 #hb4 ,qualities of ,egyptians1 #h1 #i4 ,quarrying1 modes of1 #gj1 #ga4 ,quartzite sandstone school1 #bf1 #da4 ,races1 types of1 #fj4 ,ra-hesy1 panel of1 #ej1 frontispiece4 ,rameses ,,ii1 #bd1 #be1 #bg1 #dd1 #aac4 ,,iii1 #ed4 ,,xii1 #id4 ,ramesseum arches1 #fd4 ,ranofer1 statue of1 #cf4 ,reliefs1 quality of1 #ah1 #dh4 oldest1 #dh4 pyramid age1 #ej4 ,middle ,kingdom1 #ea4 ,new ,kingdom1 #eb4 late1 #ed4 sunk1 #eb4 ,rock cutting1 #gj1 #ga4 ,roll at corner of building1 #fc4 ,rome1 art of1 #aeg4 ,sacrifice of ox1 #ea4 ,sandstone1 ,nubian1 #bg4 quartzite1 #bf4 ,sawing of hard stones1 #gb4 ,scaffolding of brick1 #gd4 ,scenery1 influence of1 #d1 #e4 ,scenes dominate wall surfaces1 #c4 ,schools of art1 #bb4 ,scribe1 figure of1 #ce4 ,sculptors1 training of1 #ag1 #gg4 ,sculpture dominated by architecture and conditions1 #f4 ,seals of gold1 #hf4 ,senoferu1 #af4 ,senusert ,i1 #cg1 #ec4 ,,ii1 #hb1 #hg4 ,,iii1 #ch1 #ci1 #hg4 ,serapeum pectoral1 #ib4 ,sety ,i1 #ec1 #fa1 #aac1 #aci4 ,,ii1 #ic1 #aab4 ,shells of gold1 #hf1 #ia4 ,sheykh el ,beled statue1 #cc4 ,ship1 painting of1 #ee4 building1 #ach4 ,shrines of palm sticks1 #fc4 ,silsileh sandstone1 #bg1 #fi4 ,silver1 early1 #if4 historic1 #if4 bowls1 #if4 ,slate palettes1 #ac1 #di4 ,sleep1 position in1 #ca4 ,social organization1 #af4 ,soldering1 #he1 #hf1 #ij1 #ajc4 ,spear-head amulet1 #gi4 ,spinning metal bowls1 #if4 ,statuary1 painted1 #h4 local art1 #bc4 earliest1 #bi4 pyramid age1 #cb-cf4 ,middle ,kingdom1 #cf-dj4 ,new ,kingdom1 #dj-de4 late1 #de-dg4 outlined and cut1 #gg4 ,steatopygous type1 #bi4 ,steel tools1 #ajf4 ,stone buildings copied from brick1 #fb4 copied from wooden1 #fb4 ,stone vases1 #gh4 ,stones1 moving of1 #gd4 ,stucco on wood statues1 #cc1 #dd1 #adc4 ,see ,plaster1 modelling1 #add4 ,study in limestone1 earliest1 #ca4 ,syenite used for vases1 #gh4 ,syrian influence1 #ai1 #ff4 ,taharqa1 head of1 #dd4 ,tahutmes ,i1 #ai4 ,,ii1 #dj4 ,,iii1 #ai1 #dj1 #aaj1 #abj1 #abi4 ,,iv1 #adh1 xvi1 fig4 #aci4 ,takushet inlaid statue1 #ajc4 ,tapestry1 woven1 #adh4 use of1 on clothing1 #adi4 ,tausert1 #id4 ,temple1 circuit wall1 #fe4 of ,khafra1 #fe4 of ,medinet ,habu1 #ff4 of ,dakkeh1 #ff4 ,tin1 sources of1 #ajj4 used1 #ajd4 ,tiryns1 stone-sawing at1 #gc4 ,toilet tray figures1 #dc4 ,tolstoy's analysis of art1 #g4 ,tombs1 early sculptured1 #af4 later painted1 #ai1 #ef4 ,tools of modern types1 #ajf4 ,torus roll1 origin of1 #fc4 ,training of artists1 #ag4 ,trichinopoly pattern chains1 #ia4 ,tubular drills1 #gb4 ,turin statue of ,ramessu ,,ii1 #dd4 ,turquoise beads1 #hj1 #he4 ,tut-ankh-amen1 #db4 ,ushabtis of glazed ware1 #aac4 of pottery1 #acb4 ,vases of bronze1 #ii1 #aja4 of glass1 #aba1 #abd4 of pottery1 #abg-acc4 of stone1 prehistoric1 #gh4 from ,eastern desert1 #be4 ,wall surfaces dominated by scenes1 #c4 ,wax used for modelling1 #hi1 #ajb4 ,weaving1 fineness of1 #adg1 #adh4 ,wigs1 prehistoric1 #cj4 put on over hair1 #cc4 ,wire1 #he1 #hf1 #ij4 amulets1 #ij4 plaited chains1 #ia4 ,wooden statues stuccoed1 #cc1 #cd4 sculpture1 #db4 ,woodwork1 #acg-ada4 early1 #acg4 shipbuilding1 #ach4 doors1 #ach4 coffins1 #ach4 furniture1 #ach1 #aci4 statuettes1 #dc1 #aci4 inlaid1 #adj4 methods1 #adj4 ,writing1 start of1 #ad4 ,youths' and maids' procession1 #ed4 ,zer1 bracelet of1 #hd4 linen of1 #adg4 ,zeser1 glazed tiles of1 #aji4 ,,publications ,,on ,,subjects ,,of ,,this ,,volume ,by ,prof4 ,,petrie where not otherwise stated ,general4 ,bissing1 ,denkmaeler ,aegypt4 ,sculptur2 ,capart1 ,recueil de ,monuments4 ,decorative ,art in ,egypt2 ,racial ,portraits2 ,student's ,history1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,prehistoric4 ,capart1 ,primitive ,art in ,egypt4 ,naqada1 ,diospolis4 ,i-,,ii ,dynasty4 ,royal ,tombs1 ,i1 ,,ii2 ,abydos1 ,i1 ,,ii2 ,quibell1 ,hierakonpolis1 ,i1 ,,ii2 ,koptos4 ,,iii ,medum4 ,garstang1 ,mahasna 7,e4,r4,a474 ,,iv ,pyramids and ,temples of ,gizeh4 ,v ,deshasheh4 ,murray1 ,saqqara ,mastabas4 7,e4,r4,a472 ,davies1 ,mastaba of ,ptah-hetep2 ,weigall1 ,die ,mastaba des ,gem ni kai4 ,,vi-,,xi ,dendereh4 ,,xi ,naville1 ,deir el ,bahari1 ,,xi dynasty4 ,,xii ,kahun4 ,illahun4 ,memphis1 ,,ii 7,e4,r4,a472 ,newberry1 ,beni ,hasan4 ,houses in ,gizeh and ,rifeh 7,e4,r4,a474 ,,xviii ,qurneh 7,e4,r4,a472 ,naville1 ,deir el ,bahari1 ,i-,,vi4 ,researches in ,sinai2 ,tell el ,amarna2 ,davies1 ,rock ,tombs of ,el ,amarna4 ,,xix ,caulfield1 ,temple of the ,kings 7,e4,r4,a472 ,murray1 ,the ,osireion 7,e4,r4,a472 ,six ,temples at ,thebes4 ,,xxvi ,tanis1 ,nebesheh1 and ,defenneh2 ,naukratis4 ,greek terra-cotta heads in ,memphis ,i 7,e4,r4,a474 ,ptolemaic ,athribis4 ,roman ,portraits in ,hawara2 ,kahun2 terra-cottas in ,roman ,ehnasya4 ,popular small volumes3 ,ten ,years' ,digging1 #fs42 ,egyptian ,tales1 i1 ii1 #cs4 #f;d42 ,religion and ,conscience1 #bs4 #f;d42 ,methods and ,aims in ,archaeology1 #fs42 ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt1 #as42 ,personal ,religion in ,egypt before ,christianity1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,e4,r4,a4 ,publications of ,egyptian ,research ,account4