,transcriber's ,note3 ,bold text delimited by equal signs1 italics by underscores4 ,the ,wallsend ,slipway ,engineering ,,wallsend-,,on-,,tyne ,company1 ,ltd4 ,,marine ,,engine ,,boiler ,,builders ,,ship ,,repairers ,manufacturers of ,installations for ,,burning ,,liquid ,,fuel ,illustration3 ,installation mounted on a ,tray ,horse ,power of ,boilers for which ,installations have been supplied by the ,company exceeds #c1jjj1jjj h4p4 ,head ,office and ,works-- ,,wallsend-,,on-,,tyne ,telegraphic ,address-- 8,,wall10 ,,newcastle-,,on-,,tyne ,london ,office-- #cj ,,great ,,st4 ,,helens4 ,e ,c4 #c ,illustration ,,anglo-,,mexican ,,petroleum ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,exporters and marketers of the products of the ,mexican ,eagle ,oil ,co41 ,ltd41 including ,mexican ,fuel ,oil and ,diesel ,oil1 ,mexphalte1 ,fluxphalte1 ,mexican ,eagle ,bitumen1 ,lubricants1 ,gas ,oil1 ,kerosene and ,motor ,spirit4 ,,eagle ,,oil ,,transport ,,company1 ,,limited4 ,owners of the fleet of modern ,oil ,tank ,steamers engaged in the transport of the above products4 ,,bowring ,,petroleum ,,company1 ,,limited4 ,marketing ,agents in the ,united ,kingdom for ,mex ,motor ,spirit and ,kerosene1 etc4 ,head ,offices3 #af4 ,,finsbury ,,circus4 --,,london4 ,e4,c4 #b-- ,telephone3 ,,london ,,wall #abjj 7,twenty ,lines7 ,illustration3 ,oil ,well ,supply ,co ,oil and 8,,oilwell0 have grown up together4 ,the oldest and largest manufacturers of well drilling tools4 ,,drilling ,,plant of every description ,,pumping ,,outfits for every service ,,pipe-,,lines and ,,storage ,,tanks ,illustration ,,trade 8,,oilwell0 ,,mark ,dashwood ,house1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 #b ,,anglo-,,american ,,oil ,,company ,,limited ,importers1 ,refiners and ,distributors ,,refined ,,petroleum ,,oils ,,white ,,rose 7,water ,white71 ,,royal ,,daylight and ,,crown ,,diamond--for ,household use4 ,,anglo',s ,,vaporising ,,oil--for ,oil ,engines1 ,agricultural ,tractors1 etc4 ,,motor ,,spirit ,,pratt',s ,,aviation--,refined to super-excellence for ,aeroplanes and ,motor ,cars4 ,,pratt',s ,,perfection--for all classes of ,motor ,cars4 ,,taxibus--for ,commercial ,vehicles4 ,,anglo',s ,,benzol--for ,motor ,cars and ,commercial ,vehicles4 ,,anglo',s ,,victory ,,spirit--a perfect ,petrol-,benzol blend4 ,,fuel ,,oil--for ,diesel ,engines1 ,furnaces1 ,ships' ,bunkers1 etc4 ,,gas ,,oil--for ,gas-making4 ,,lubricating ,,oils ,,and ,,greases1 ,,paraffin ,,wax ,,and ,,scale4 ,,nujol--,finest ,medicinal ,oil4 ,,head ,,office3 #cf ,,queen ,,anne',s ,,gate1 ,,westminster1 ,s4,w4#a ,branches and ,depots throughout the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the ,largest ,makers of ,,oil ,,storage ,,tanks ,tanks of ,any ,size ,supplied and ,erected ,anywhere4 ,illustration3 ,,whessoe ,,foundry ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,darlington1 ,,england ,established #agij ,,petroleum ,,refinery ,,plants ,telegrams-- 8,,whessoe1 ,,london40 8,,whessoe1 ,,darlington40 ,london ,office3-- #ajf ,,cannon ,,street1 ,e4,c4#d ,illustration3 ,,england',s ,,first ,,oil ,,well ,,in ,,derbyshire 7,drilled under ,government authority and brought into production in ,june1 #aiai7 ,frontispiece ,,pitman',s ,,common ,,commodities ,,and ,,industries ,,petroleum ,,by ,,albert ,,lidgett ,,editor ,,of ,,the 8,,petroleum ,,times0 ,,late ,,editor ,,of ,,the 8,,petroleum ,,review0 ,,london ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 #a ,,amen ,,corner1 ,e4,c4#d ,,bath1 ,,melbourne ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,printed ,,by ,,sir ,,isaac ,,pitman ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,london1 ,,bath1 ,,melbourne ,,and ,,new ,,york ,,preface ,although numerous volumes have been written upon petroleum1 and some very educational works on this important subject are to be found in technological literature1 it is strange that prior to the appearance of this little book1 it has been impossible to turn to any publication which deals with this ,common ,commodity of ,commerce in a popular manner4 ,of a truth1 we to-day live in an age of ,oil1 for the products of petroleum are inseparable from our daily life4 ,refined petroleum breathes the breath of power to the internal combustion engine which claims a realm of its own on land and sea1 in the air1 and under ocean waters2 it also gives artificial light to countless millions in all corners of the world under a variety of circumstances and dissimilar conditions1 while the wheels of industry unceasingly revolve consequent upon oil lubrication4 ,and in no sphere of commercial and industrial activity has greater progress been made during the past few decades than in regard to the multiplication in the uses of the products of petroleum4 ,the avenues for advantageous consumption are constantly increasing1 and this to such an extent that the production of crude petroleum--enormous though this is--has been outstripped by the demands for the refined product4 ,in the following pages ,i have striven to deal with the chief phases of the petroleum industry in a manner which1 ,i have reason to believe1 will be acceptable to the general reader1 and the fact that the volume is written in language free from technicalities1 will1 ,i trust1 render it particularly interesting to those who would know something of that immense class of commercial products covered by the name 8,petroleum40 ,,albert ,,lidgett4 ,,royal ,,automobile ,,club1 ,,pall ,,mall1 ,,london1 ,s4,w4#a4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,,preface iii ,i4 ,,petroleum ,,and ,,its ,,origin #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,oil-,,fields ,,of ,,the ,,world #f ,,iii4 ,,how ,,petroleum ,,is ,,produced #da ,,iv4 ,,the ,,refining ,,of ,,petroleum #ea ,v4 ,,transport ,,by ,,land ,,and ,,sea #fc ,,vi4 ,,petroleum ,,as ,,fuel #gf ,,vii4 ,,petroleum ,,as ,a ,,lighting ,,agent #hi ,,viii4 ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engines #ie ,,ix4 ,,petroleum ,,in ,,england #ajd ,x4 ,,petroleum ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,empire #aad ,,xi4 ,,petroleum',s ,,part ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,war #abc ,,xii4 ,,the ,,scottish ,,shale-,,oil ,,industry #acb ,,xiii4 ,a ,,few ,,notable ,,petroleum ,,enterprises #adh ,,xiv4 ,,statistical #aeh ,,index #afe ,illustration3 ,taken from an actual photo of a trip spear with mechanic alongside for comparison of size4 ,this is for #ba inch ,o4,d4 drive pipe4 ,we have facilities for producing the heaviest tools required4 ,the ,,oil ,,well ,,engineering ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,works3 ,,cheadle ,,heath1 ,,stockport ,the largest ,manufacturers of ,oil ,well ,drilling ,plant and oil ,well ,supplies in the ,british ,empire ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,,england',s ,,first ,,oil ,,well ,frontispiece ,,the ,,glen ,,pool #aa ,,geological ,,section ,,showing ,,oil ,,sands #ac ,a ,,gusher ,,under ,,control #ae ,,derrick ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,oil ,,well #ag ,,roumanian ,,hand-,,dug ,,wells #bg ,,bustenari--,,the ,,roumanian ,,oil ,,region #ca ,,early ,,burmese ,,oil ,,production ,,methods #cd ,,early ,,japanese ,,drilling ,,method #ce ,,view ,,in ,,the ,,galician ,,fields #cg 8,,oilwell0 ,,heavy ,,rotary ,,outfit #dg ,,primitive ,,method ,,of ,,transport #fe ,,oil ,,pipe-,,line ,,connections #fg ,a ,,mammoth ,,tanker #gc ,,taking ,,oil ,,fuel ,,aboard #ha ,,liquid ,,fuel ,,burners #hc ,,oil ,,fuel ,,for ,,marine ,,purposes #he ,,the 8,,scarab0 ,,oil ,,burner #hg ,,an ,,oil ,,cooker #ic ,,vickers' ,,new ,,engine 7,,front ,,view7 #ii ,,vickers' ,,new ,,engine 7,,rear ,,view7 #ii ,,high ,,duty ,,engine ,,for ,,light ,,craft #aja ,,low ,,duty ,,marine ,,engine #aja ,,the ,,pumpherston ,,oil ,,shale ,,works #ach ,,some ,,burmah ,,producers #aed ,,the ,,petroleum ,,times ,,published ,,weekly ,,price #f;d4 ,the ,international ,petroleum ,journal 8,the ,petroleum ,times0 is ,edited by ,,albert ,,lidgett and is the most influential and widely circulated petroleum journal printed in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the fact that you are reading this advertisement suggests that it has some interest to you4 ,then write for a specimen copy which will gladly be sent4 ,editorial and ,publishing ,offices3 ,,broad ,,street ,,place1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4#b ,,petroleum ,,chapter ,i ,,petroleum ,,and ,,its ,,origin ,in dealing with the question of petroleum and its origin1 the subject can well be defined under two headings3 one1 the origin of the word 8petroleum02 the other1 the origin of the mineral itself4 ,as to the former1 this is a matter of historical interest2 of the latter1 the question is still in doubt--and the doubt becomes even the more doubtful1 the more the question is debated4 ,let us1 therefore1 take first the word 8petroleum0 as we know it to-day4 ,it covers a multitude of products derived from the refining of crude oil1 though the word does not suggest any of them4 ,it is quite a generic term1 and in a general way represents the whole of that ever-increasing family of hydrocarbons--the refined products of crude oil4 ,there is no doubt that it derives its name from the ,latin petra oleum1 which1 literally1 is rock oil1 and equivalents of the name are found in all languages4 ,even in modern practice we use the word1 though not in a specific sense1 while our own ,government usually refers to 8petroleum oil10 which1 of course1 involves tautology4 ,crude petroleum is known throughout the oil-fields of the world as denoting the crude oil coming from the wells3 then we have petroleum spirit1 otherwise the lightest form of refined oil2 we have petroleum distillate1 designating an illuminating oil2 but1 8petroleum oil0 is1 it is to be regretted1 generally used as suggesting some form of petroleum product4 ,though the petroleum industry--in its commercial sense--only goes back some sixty years1 the use of petroleum can be traced to ,biblical times1 for was it not the great ,prophet ,elisha who told the widow to 8,go1 sell the oil and pay thy debts and live08 ,job also speaks of the rock which poured him out rivers of oil2 in ,maccabees we find that the priests hid the fire which they took from the altar in a deep pit without water2 while ,nehemiah called the liquid which burst into flame and kindled a great fire by the name 8,nephthar1 which is as much as to say1 a cleansing2 but many call it ,nephai40 ,and so1 in many parts of the ,old as well as in the ,new ,testament1 oil is clearly referred to1 and1 in ,biblical times1 as much later1 was looked upon as a sacred fire4 ,many ancient authors make extensive reference to oil1 prominent among them being ,herodotus1 who described the methods adopted at the pits of ,kirab for the raising of the oil1 which liquid 8gives off a very strong odour40 ,petroleum1 as known in ,biblical times1 and as so widely known to-day1 occurs in greater or less quantity throughout the world1 and it is found in the whole range of strata of the earth's crust1 from the ,laurentian rocks to the most recent members of the ,quaternary period1 though it is found in commercial quantities almost wholly in the comparatively old ,devonian and ,carboniferous formations on the one hand or in the various divisions of the comparatively young ,tertiary rocks on the other4 ,the problem of the origin of petroleum has been the subject of considerable scientific controversy for many years4 ,not a few of the leading scientists hold to the theory that petroleum is derived from metallic carbides lying far beneath the porous strata in which the oil is stored by ,nature1 and that even at the present time the process is in operation4 ,this idea1 which may be termed the inorganic theory of petroleum origin1 was considered to have received substantial support when it was found that the action of water on the carbides of certain metals resulted in the liberation of hydrocarbons4 ,the view that petroleum is of organic origin is to-day almost universally accepted1 although there is no general agreement either as to whether petroleum is derived from vegetable or animal matter1 or as to the forms of life that provided for its genesis4 ,in certain places in the world--notably on the eastern side of the ,caspian ,sea and also near the ,mediterranean--there is some conversion of organic matter into petroleum actually to be seen to-day4 ,it is not difficult1 as the late ,sir ,boverton ,redwood1 ,bart41 pointed out in an address before the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain in #aiah1 to account for the formation of adequate deposits of the necessary material4 ,in the comparatively deep and quiescent water along the margin of the land in past ages1 there would be abundant opportunity for the deposition not only of the remains of marine animals and plants1 but also of vegetable matter brought down to the coast by the water courses1 and the changes which the earth has undergone would result in the burial of these substances under sedimentary mineral matter1 the deposits thus formed being ultimately1 as the result of further alterations in the earth's surface1 frequently found occupying positions far removed from the sea1 and sometimes beneath immense thicknesses of subsequent deposits4 ,that vegetable matter may be the source of certain petroleums is an opinion that has found increasing evidence to support it4 ,there are two kinds of vegetable matter which are possible1 terrestrial and aquatic1 and in the deltaic conditions that characterize so many oil-fields1 either could be equally well appealed to as a source of accumulation4 ,the extensive coal and lignite deposits in many geological periods bear eloquent testimony to the presence of carbonaceous matter far in excess of that required to provide proved supplies of petroleum4 ,every important coal-field demonstrates the fact that vegetable matter can be partially converted into bituminous compounds or hydrocarbons by natural processes4 ,marsh gases often occur in great quantities in faulted zones in the coal measures1 though the bituminous substances found in coal are not true bitumens that dissolve in the usual solvents1 while the tars derived from the destructive distillation of coal in no way resemble natural petroleums or the products of oil-shale distillation4 ,in spite1 however1 of the outstanding differences between petroleum1 oil-shales and coal1 ,i might here point out in favour of the vegetable theory of origin1 that actual petroleum and true bitumens have been found in some coals1 though in small quantities1 while solid paraffins have been extracted by means of pyridine and chloroform4 ,again1 low temperature distillations have yielded petroleum hydrocarbons1 all of which appear to indicate that even when coal was the overwhelming product1 at certain times and places the conditions were merging into those which could yield petroleum4 ,there is no doubt that each of the various views expressed as to the organic origin of petroleum contains elements of truth1 and it is reasonable to assume that a substance so varied in its physical and chemical properties as petroleum has not in all cases been created under precisely the same conditions1 or from an exactly similar source4 ,summing up the whole question of origin1 however1 the balance of opinion points to its being the result of organic action1 and that the petroleum which we now find in the ,palaeozoic and ,tertiary rocks is substantially of the same geological age as the rocks themselves4 ,volumes of technological literature have been written upon this complex question of petroleum origin1 and though these may be of intense interest to the student of geology1 the brief references which ,i have already given to the question are sufficient for the purpose of this little publication4 ,the geographical distribution of petroleum throughout the two hemispheres is no less wide than the geological4 ,the deposits mainly occur along well-defined lines1 often associated with the mountain ranges4 ,this is chiefly due to the formation1 in the elevatory process1 of minor folds which have arrested and collected the oil in richly productive belts4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,oil-,,fields ,,of ,,the ,,world ,ever since petroleum and its products entered the realm of commercial commodities1 there has been a ceaseless search throughout the two hemispheres for crude oil1 and to-day there are comparatively few countries in the world where the presence of petroleum has not been proved4 ,the ever-expanding uses of petroleum1 which in their train have called for a continually increasing demand for crude oil1 have given an impetus to the search for commercially productive oil-fields1 which1 in mining history1 has no parallel4 ,on the one hand1 we have those important oil-producing regions which embrace enormous regions of the ,united ,states1 ,mexico1 ,russia1 ,roumania1 the ,dutch ,indies1 ,india1 and ,galicia2 on the other1 we find comparatively recent enterprise which is bringing into prominence the newer oil-producing regions of ,egypt1 ,trinidad1 ,canada1 the ,argentine1 ,algeria1 and various parts of ,australia and ,japan1 though in several of these latter mentioned countries1 the production of petroleum has been carried on by private means for not only many years1 but even for centuries4 ,it naturally follows that1 with the constant withdrawal of large supplies of crude oil from ,mother ,earth1 ,nature's stores must be growing less1 and it is not surprising1 therefore1 to hear1 with persistent regularity1 alarming rumours of the coming dearth of crude oil4 ,experts have devoted considerable time and thought in an endeavour to arrive at a conclusion as to the length of time it will take for the withdrawal of practically the whole of the crude oil from the known deposits in the more developed fields3 their conclusions1 however1 are widely different1 for while some assert that in the ,united ,states1 for instance1 the known fields will cease to be commercially productive within forty years1 others there are who declare that centuries must elapse before the question of a failing supply need call for serious consideration4 ,but there is one point which must not be overlooked in this connection1 and that is the fact that1 while thus far very few thoroughly developed oil-fields have shown signs of permanent decay1 there are numerous others which1 while having already furnished conclusive proof of their productivity1 have1 for the most part1 been but slightly developed4 ,each passing year registers the incoming of fresh oil-producing areas1 while numerous regions in practically every part of the world1 giving much promise of the success of ultimate oil developments1 are as yet virgin territory4 ,the cry of possible shortage of supply was1 fortunately1 made at the opportune moment3 it was a word of warning1 and was taken to heart especially by those associated with the development of the older producing oil-fields4 ,in these fields--whether we look to ,america or ,russia--there has always been considerable waste of crude oil1 mostly in regard to furnishing power for oil-field operations1 while the natural gases which exude from the wells themselves1 and to which reference is made in another chapter1 have1 in times past1 been allowed to pass uncontrolled into the atmosphere4 ,to-day1 however1 we see conservation in every direction--thanks to the application of scientific and engineering knowledge1 combined with the exercise of care--and there is no doubt that this new factor will tend in a greater degree than may at first be imagined toward the preservation of ,nature's stores of crude oil for unlimited time4 ,with these few general remarks1 let us proceed to briefly survey the principal oil-fields of the world1 leaving those which are in the process of development or exploitation to later consideration4 ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,in no other country has such continuous progress been recorded in connection with the production of petroleum as in the case of the ,united ,states4 ,quite recently1 the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey estimated that there are no less than #i1jjj square miles of oil-bearing territory in the ,states1 yet the petroleum industry was not commercially established until the early sixties of the last century4 ,it was in ,pennsylvania that the industry had its birth1 and the troubles which beset ,drake1 the pioneer1 have filled many pages of early oil literature4 ,his first well1 which produced quite a modest yield of crude oil1 was at ,titusville1 ,pa41 which spot soon became a thriving town4 ,and as ,pennsylvania was the scene of the early successes1 it also became the pivot round which the petroleum industry of the ,states prospered for many years4 ,until #ahhe1 the ,pennsylvanian fields furnished over #ih per cent4 of the production of crude oil3 then a gradual decline set in1 until1 at the present time1 ,pennsylvanian regions do not produce #aj per cent4 of the oil output of the ,united ,states4 ,no sooner had the petroleum industry been firmly established in ,pennsylvania than an active search was made for the precious fluid in various parts of the ,states1 and one by one new oil regions were opened up1 but it is interesting to recall the fact that1 even in the first developed oil-producing region1 no district has been entirely abandoned as exhausted of oil1 for to-day wells are being pumped quite close to ,drake's first well and the scene of the birth of the ,american petroleum industry4 ,in the zenith of its prosperity1 the ,pennsylvanian field produced nearly #e1jjj1jjj tons of crude oil per annum1 but to-day the output has fallen off nearly #dj per cent4 ,when it is mentioned that the output of crude petroleum from the various fields of the ,united ,states last year was over #dj1jjj1jjj tons1 the magnitude of ,america's oil industry will at once be apparent4 ,the regions known as the ,mid-,continent fields--and which embrace the extensive oil-producing regions of ,kansas and ,oklahoma--are responsible for a very large portion of this output4 ,each field has its various 8pools10 the most famous of this part1 perhaps1 being the ,cushing pool1 which came into prominence but a few years ago4 ,toward the end of #aiad1 it was estimated that the daily output of ,cushing was #ce1jjj tons of crude oil4 ,cushing1 like all other prolific oil districts1 has many interesting stories associated with its rapid rise as an oil-producing centre1 and there are instances on record where1 in the course of a few days1 land values have increased tenfold4 ,the rise of the ,californian fields1 too1 is an example of the rapidity with which oil regions can be developed4 ,california's output in #aiai was1 roughly1 #abj1jjj1jjj barrels of crude oil1 or over #ad1jjj1jjj tons4 ,it possesses nearly #ijj square miles of oil-lands1 and though at one time a great difficulty was experienced in disposing of the crude oil production1 since it was of a somewhat low grade1 the position has now been reversed1 and the consumption of petroleum products is greater than the supply4 ,with the improvement of the methods of drilling1 and the debut of the rotary system1 it has been possible not only to drill to much greater depths1 but to considerably reduce the time requisite for drilling a well to the oil sands4 ,californian records for quick drilling with the rotary machine show that wells have been got down to the producing sands1 in some fields nearly #d1jjj feet below the surface1 within one month4 ,this deep drilling policy1 which is now much in vogue among ,californian oil operators1 has proved the existence at the greater depth of larger volume of oil of far better quality than that met with in the shallow strata1 and it is to the discovery and consequent development of the deeper oil horizons that much of ,california's recent advance is due4 ,though but of small significance1 the oil-wells in ,summerland1 ,cal41 call for mention for the reason that these are drilled in the sea at quite a distance from the coast4 ,the encroachment of sea-water to the wells themselves is prevented by the continuance of the tubes in the wells to a height above the level of high-water mark1 the produced oil being piped to the mainland4 ,there is no doubt that a wonderful future awaits ,california in regard to its oil export trade4 ,the ,far ,east is largely drawing upon the ,state for crude oil for treatment in the ,far ,eastern refineries3 the oil-burning vessels of the ,pacific rely upon ,californian fuel oil for their supplies1 while the opening of the ,panama ,canal1 and the establishment of oil storage depots there1 has brought ,california within easy transport distance of the ,european markets4 ,during the past few years several cargoes of ,californian refined oil have1 in fact1 come upon the ,english market4 ,the oil-fields of ,texas have1 perhaps1 witnessed more 8boom0 periods than any other oil regions of the ,states4 ,the ,gulf coastal fields which embrace ,texas and ,louisiana1 came into prominence some seventeen years ago1 and they were not long in recording an output of over #e1jjj1jjj tons in a single twelve months4 ,the prolific districts of ,spindle ,top1 ,sour ,lake1 ,humble1 etc41 attracted rapid attention1 and the speculator in oil lands became immensely rich4 ,but these boom periods cannot be said to be of much real value to the oil industry1 for they are always followed by times of depression1 when fortunes are lost almost as quickly as they have been made4 ,to-day1 the ,gulf coast fields have settled down to a period of steady expansion2 systematic development is taking place in every field1 and1 as in ,california1 the policy of deep drilling has been eminently successful4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,glen ,,pool--,,one ,,of ,,america',s ,,oil ,,producing ,,centres ,space forbids my entering into details respecting the more recently developed or partially exploited fields of ,america1 but it is safe to say that there is scarcely a single ,state that does not hold out hope for profitable oil development3 this is evidenced by the large amounts of new capital which are to-day finding employment in regions which are only commencing their oil-field history4 ,there is no other oil-producing country in the world where the petroleum industry has reached such a highly organized state as in the ,united ,states4 ,each producing field is connected by means of underground pipe-lines with the trunk pipe-line system1 by which it is possible to pump oil from the most distant fields direct to the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,some of the principal lines are hundreds of miles in length4 ,in another chapter ,i deal with this wonderful system of oil transportation3 it is1 therefore1 unnecessary here to more than mention it en passant4 ,the oil-refining branch of the ,american petroleum industry is also particularly well organized and up to date1 but with this subject1 too1 ,i deal at length elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,geological ,,section ,,showing ,,the ,,oil ,,sands ,,mexico4--,the oil-fields of ,mexico can claim to have leapt into prominence at a far more rapid rate than any other oil-field of importance in the world4 ,their development has been phenomenal1 and from being practically unknown sixteen years ago1 they now rank as the third largest producing regions1 coming but next to the ,united ,states and ,russia4 ,my object in dealing with the ,mexican fields prior to referring to the ,russian petroleum industry is that they may be said to form an integral part of the fields of the ,new ,continent1 and1 from many points of view1 are linked up with the petroleum industry of the ,united ,states4 ,indeed1 there are several authorities who are now urging that it is to ,mexico that the ,united ,states ,government must look if it is to be in a position to furnish the major portion of the petroleum products required for the markets of the world4 ,another reason for my dealing with ,mexico at the moment is that1 when development operations are carried a little further1 and when ocean transport facilities are available for adequately dealing with the flood of ,mexican petroleum1 there is not the slightest doubt that ,mexico will rank as the second largest country of petroleum production4 ,its annual output of crude oil is1 approximately1 #h1jjj1jjj tons1 but even this figure in no way represents the productivity of its prolific oil-producing regions1 for according to the official statement of the ,mexican ,government the production in #aiah represented only #aj per cent4 of that possible4 ,the ,mexican wells have no parallel in the world1 large as have been some of the oil-fountains in ,russia4 ,it will be of great interest here to refer briefly to these1 and though it would be impossible to detail all those ,mexican wells which have ranked quite outside the limits of ordinary producers1 ,i will touch only upon two of these remarkable oil gushers4 ,they both were drilled on the properties owned by the well-known ,english firm of ,pearsons1 the operating company being the 8,aguila0 7,mexican ,eagle7 ,company4 ,it was in #aijf when the ,company commenced active drilling operations in ,northern ,vera ,cruz1 and though these were very successful from the start1 it was two years later that the famous 8,dos ,bocas0 well came in4 ,a heavy gas pressure developed when the rotary drill was down just over #a1hjj feet1 and in a few minutes the internal pressure manifested itself by bursting the wire-wrapped hose connected with the drilling apparatus4 ,the oil then commenced to come to the surface in an immense stream1 and in twenty minutes the well was beyond control4 ,fissures began to appear in the ground at considerable distance from the well1 and through these came oil and gas4 ,one of these fissures opened directly under the boilers1 and though the fires had been drawn1 the gas ignited4 ,the position was well-nigh hopeless from the start1 the well itself was throwing out an #h-;inch column of oil hundreds of feet in the air4 ,the force of the volume of oil below ground flung the heavy ,english drill pipe out of the well1 and soon it became impossible to approach within #cjj feet of the 8mad gusher40 ,the flames of fire are said to have reached #a1jjj feet in height1 and inasmuch as all ground round the well had fallen into the cavity caused1 they were over #ej feet in diameter4 ,and for #eh days did this gusher burn with all the fury imaginable1 its glare being seen far out at sea4 ,anything approaching an approximate production of oil from this well will never be made3 it can safely be recorded1 however1 that its mad flow of oil ran into many millions of barrels1 and it is placed on record that nearly #b1jjj1jjj tons of solid earth were carried away by the force of the oil from the well's mouth1 for a crater of nearly #abj1jjj square metres was formed round the well4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,gusher ,,of ,,the ,,mexican ,,eagle ,,co4 ,,under ,,control--,a ,,dome ,,built ,,over ,,the ,,mouth ,toward the end of #aiaj another surprise was in store for those in charge of drilling operations for the ,company1 for it was then that the world famous 8,protero del ,llano0 gusher came in4 ,this well ranks as one of the largest1 if not the largest1 ever associated with the petroleum industry4 ,its estimated daily flow was over #abe1jjj barrels1 and within three months the well had produced over #h1jjj1jjj barrels of crude oil4 ,during ,november1 #aiai1 a new field at ,naranjos was developed by the ,mexican ,eagle ,co41 and the first three wells to come into production1 commenced to yield over #cj1jjj tons daily4 ,it says much for the enterprise of the ,pearson 7,lord ,cowdray7 interests that they have been able to build up such a remarkable business in ,mexico's oil industry in so comparatively a short space of time4 ,the production of crude oil1 as everyone knows1 is but the first link in a long chain of commercial oil operations4 ,to-day1 the ,mexican ,eagle ,oil ,company owns considerably over #bej miles of pipe-line 7mostly of #h-;inch capacity71 possess several miniature railways1 and on the fields of production has bulk oil storage accommodation for several million barrels of crude oil4 ,it has also two large refineries--one at ,minatitlan and another at ,tampico1 which together are capable of handling over #e1jjj tons 7about #ce1jjj barrels7 of crude oil daily1 and turning the same into a complete range of high-grade products--motor spirit1 illuminating oils1 lubricants1 fuel oil1 paraffin wax1 and an asphalt for road-making4 ,an interesting equipment of this ,company in ,mexico is that of its sea-loading pipe-lines at ,tuxpam4 ,here1 the water inside the bar is too shallow to allow the gigantic bulk oil-carriers of the ,company's associated concern--the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company1 ,ltd4--to come alongside and load4 ,pipe-lines have accordingly been laid on the bed of the sea reaching out to a loading terminal a mile and a half out at sea4 ,here1 the pipe-lines are connected with the steamers by means of flexible hose1 and three or four tank vessels can be loaded simultaneously from the storage tanks on shore4 ,in one recent twelve months alone over #bjj oil tankers were so loaded in this way1 and on the average1 each was loaded and dispatched within #b days1 for the pipe-line facilities permit of #aj1jjj tons of oil being pumped into the vessel's tanks every #bd hours4 ,illustration3 ,,inside ,,the ,,derrick ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,oil ,,well ,there are several large amalgamations of capital interested in the development of the ,mexican fields--,american and ,english1 while1 prior to the war1 the ,germans had anxious eyes upon this growing industry1 and even formulated plans whereby ,german interests would be largely represented in its future4 ,while on the subject of the ,mexican fields1 might ,i say that no other oil-producing regions have1 in the short space of time during which developments have taken place1 exercised such an influence upon the international oil situation as has ,mexico4 ,this may be traced to the fact that ,mexican oil is an admirable liquid fuel1 and as such is now in regular use the world over4 ,the vast consuming centres in the ,south ,american ,continent have seen that1 whereas coal is very dear1 it is possible to secure almost unlimited supplies of ,mexican fuel oil almost at their own doors1 while overseas1 consequent upon the advent of the fuel oil age1 ,mexican fuel oil is playing a most important part1 and to-day is in great demand for the mercantile fleet4 ,,russia4--,long before the commercial value of petroleum and its products was established1 ,baku--the present centre of the ,russian petroleum industry--had become famous for its 8,eternal ,fires10 and it was to that place the ,parsees made pilgrimages for over #a1jjj years2 in fact1 centuries before the ,russians occupied the ,caucasus1 the tribes of ,persia eagerly sought the oils of ,baku for their curative qualities4 ,the ,russian oil-fields have an output of1 approximately1 #aj1jjj1jjj tons annually1 or1 roughly1 #ae per cent4 of the world's total production of crude oil4 ,since the time when the petroleum industry was placed upon a commercial footing1 the ,russian fields have produced #bcj1jjj1jjj tons of petroleum4 ,enormous though this quantity is1 it has been more than doubled by the ,united ,states4 ,the oil-fields of ,baku have gained a distinction for the reason that numerous individual wells have given forth a flood of crude oil which has1 with very few exceptions1 been unknown in other petroliferous regions4 ,the ,baku fields proper embrace the districts of ,balakhany1 ,saboontchi1 ,romany1 and ,bibi ,eibat3 the first three districts stand on a plateau but a few miles from ,baku1 while ,bibi ,eibat is located quite near the ,caspian ,sea1 on a bay from which the field takes its name4 ,one remarkable feature of these fields--as showing their prolific oil content--is that the four main oil-producing districts in ,baku have an area of less than #d1jjj acres4 ,it is in this locality that the ,russian petroleum industry1 having had its birth1 became centred1 and though it is known that there are several really promising oil areas in this south-western part of the ,caucasus1 the fact that the lands belong to the ,state has been a sufficient stumbling-block to development in the past4 ,apart from the ,baku fields1 the most highly developed oil-field of importance in ,russia is that of ,grosny1 which is situated on the northern slopes of the ,caucasian range and connected with the ,vladicaucas railway by a branch line4 ,the ,grosny field1 however1 has only been developed during the past fifteen years in what may be called a commercial sense1 but its operated area is almost double that of ,baku4 ,it has greatly suffered owing to the inadequacy of transport facilities1 but in #aiai a project was drafted to build a pipe-line to the ,black ,sea4 ,it is not a feature of this little publication that minor regions shall be all enumerated1 and thus ,i may be forgiven if ,i refer but to one of the several new districts which have recently attracted the attention of both oil operators and speculators4 ,i refer to the ,maikop fields1 which prominently came before the ,british investing public in #aiaj1 and which were directly responsible for the oil boom of that year4 ,a few months before1 a very prolific spouter of oil had been struck in ,maikop1 which was then quite an agricultural centre1 and enormous excitement followed4 ,land was quickly taken over at ever-increasing prices1 and the boom1 for which ,english capital was largely responsible1 lasted for several months4 ,there have been many opinions put forward by supposed experts in oil geology for and against the ,maikop oil region1 but the kindest thing of all that can be said for the district is that1 while there was really no justification for the remarkable ,maikop oil boom of #aiaj1 there was certainly no reason why public opinion should so rapidly change in regard to its potentialities4 ,i have every reason to believe that some day ,maikop will justify the optimistic opinions held for it during the boom1 but in the eyes of the ,english investor the region bears the stamp of fraud1 for the simple reason that so many have invested their savings in it1 and have been doomed to acute disappointment4 ,some millions of ,english money went into ,maikop oil enterprises during that ill-fated oil boom1 but a very small percentage of this went to really prove the contents of the lower strata4 ,the fact that the ground was simply 8scratched0 and condemned because it did not respond with oil fountains1 cannot in the slightest affect the ultimate career of the ,maikop oil region1 the presence of oil in which has been known even from ancient times4 ,looking back upon that ,maikop oil boom1 one cannot but express surprise at our gullibility generally3 we stake our faith and our capital upon what at the best is a sheer gamble1 and we seem content if we find that anything approaching #bj per cent4 of the money subscribed actually goes into the serious development of the scheme which we fancied4 ,there are a few who grow suddenly rich upon the spoils of such oil booms--,i know some of these personally1 and to me it has always been a source of keen regret that the ,state does not exercise something of a rigid control over these publicly invested funds4 ,i cannot here refrain1 while on the subject of the ,maikop oil boom1 just making a remark as to the overrated value which the public generally attach to the reports of many gentlemen looked upon as oil experts4 ,some remarkable stories are associated with the locking up 7and loss7 of ,english moneys in the ,maikop boom1 but the strangest ,i know is of a ,russian who came to ,england when the boom was at its height1 for the purpose of selling a number of ,maikop oil claims4 ,there were many prospective buyers1 but it was necessary to possess a report from some supposed 8oil expert40 ,to save time1 the seller of the claims drafted what he considered quite an alluring statement1 and the next day the report1 couched in the same language1 bore the 8expert's0 signature4 ,and the 8wheeze0 worked4 ,but to return to the main subject4 ,prior to #ahgj1 the crude petroleum in the ,baku district1 as well as in the minor fields of ,russia1 was obtained from surface pits1 dug by hand1 and rarely more than #ej feet deep1 and the production was carried away from the mouth of the shaft in leathern bottles4 ,the general arrangements were on the most primitive lines1 but1 nevertheless1 the industry--such as it was then--thrived4 ,even to-day in several fields in ,russia we see the survival of the hand-dug wells1 but they are steadily becoming a feature of a page of oil-field history which is almost filled4 ,it was in #ahgc that ,robert ,nobel went to ,baku1 and to his enterprise and technical genius a great deal of the subsequent rapid development of the ,russian industry is due4 ,boring by steam power was introduced1 and the deeper oil horizons were reached1 but1 owing to the depth at which the strata became commercially productive1 it was necessary to commence the well with a starting diameter of #cf-dj inches1 so as to ensure the requisite depth being obtained with a workable size of baler--for the ,baku crude oils are 8baled0 from the wells4 ,upon the question of baling wells1 ,i shall have something to say in another chapter4 ,under the improved conditions which were introduced in methods of boring and operating the oil-wells1 the industry steadily expanded1 the general awakening of boring enterprise being best reflected in the number of oil-wells in operation in subsequent years4 ,for instance1 in #ahic1 the ,baku fields could boast of but #deh bore-holes2 in #ahih1 the number had increased to #a1ajg2 in #aijc1 it was about #b1jjj2 while in #aiaa1 there were over #c1jjj bore-holes in the ,baku fields4 ,there has been a steady decline in the number of these bore-holes since #aiad due in some part1 ,i assume1 to the difficulties of securing the requisite materials for new boring1 combined with the enormous increase in the cost of the same4 ,the drilling of the wells in ,russia is a very expensive item1 for they cost from anything over #aj1jjj up to #ae1jjj1 and usually take a couple of years to drill4 ,but when they are down to the producing strata and commence production1 it can be taken for granted that they will continue1 providing ordinary care is taken of the well itself1 for many years to profitably produce4 ,the ,russian petroleum industry is in the hands of a large number of operating firms1 the majority of which work quite independently of each other1 and these independent firms are responsible for more than one-half of the total output4 ,the other production of the crude oil1 representing certainly over #dj per cent41 is in the hands of combines representing the large and middle-class firms1 prominent among which we get the firm of ,messrs4 ,nobel ,brothers1 the 8,shell0 group1 and the ,general ,russian ,corporation4 ,the refining of the crude oil is carried out in ,baku1 the portion of the town in which this operation takes place being known as ,blacktown4 ,it does not belie its name either4 ,at one time these refineries1 or at least many of them1 were erected in the centre of the town of ,baku1 or near it1 and made it almost uninhabitable by their smoke1 smell1 and refuse1 the latter flowing into the streets and the harbour4 ,a special district was therefore selected1 to which all had to remove1 and it is this portion of the town which forms 8,blacktown0 to-day4 ,one of the great difficulties of the ,russian refining industry in its commencement was due to the fact that sulphuric acid1 so absolute a necessity in petroleum refining1 had to be brought from ,europe at great expense1 but in #ahhc1 ,messrs4 ,nobel built a factory for its production on the spot from ,caucasian pyrites1 mined in the neighbourhood of ,alexandropol4 ,other factories for the same purpose and for the regeneration of the acids have since that time been established4 ,as in other great industries1 so in regard to the methods by which the ,russian crude oil is transported and to-day handled1 great strides forward have been made since the early days4 ,then the whole of the prevailing conditions were primitive3 crude oil1 for instance1 was carried from the ,baku wells to the refineries in skins and barrels loaded on carts or camels4 ,messrs4 ,nobel ,brothers were the first to lay a pipe-line to their factory1 but later on pipes were laid between the refineries and the harbour1 these obvious improvements meeting with fierce resistance on the part of the workpeople4 ,the transport of the refined products from ,baku to the consumers was equally difficult4 ,there was then no railway from ,baku to ,tiflis1 and the only way to the ,black ,sea was thus effectively shut off4 ,on the other hand1 the navigation of the ,volga was only possible during six months of the year1 while the monopoly of water transport on the ,caspian ,sea imposed high rates on all ,baku petroleum products4 ,improvements were again due to the enterprise of ,messrs4 ,nobel ,brothers1 who built the first cistern waggons for transporting oil on the railways1 instead of using the old wooden barrels1 which were far from satisfactory4 ,in order1 too1 to open an outlet on the ,black ,sea1 the same firm1 in #ahhi1 constructed a pipe-line from ,mikhailovo to ,kvirili1 over the ,suram mountains4 ,now1 of course1 we have the great pipe-line running from ,baku to ,batoum1 a distance of nearly #efj miles1 and which is responsible for the transport of the quantities of ,russian oil exported4 ,but the ,russian petroleum industry has always existed more or less under a cloud4 ,the old regime of ,government did not attempt to foster and encourage the industry from which it received so much yearly in royalties1 for it must be recollected that the ,russian ,state was the chief gainer by the exploitation of the ,baku oil lands1 owing to the prevalence of the system of royalties4 ,it seemed to be content to leave the industry to its fate1 so long as it received therefrom so substantial a sum in royalties1 etc4 ,instances are on record where operating firms pay the ,government #dj per cent41 or even more1 of their crude oil production as royalties--payment for the privilege of taking the oil from the ground4 ,such conditions have been relentlessly imposed1 and it is not surprising to find that1 operating under this burden of expense1 numerous firms find it quite out of the question to earn profits for their shareholders4 ,several ,english enterprises come into this category1 but the fault is not of their seeking2 it is1 however1 to be regretted1 for once an equitable system of payments is arranged1 the ,russian petroleum industry will expand in a healthy manner1 and become a much greater source of revenue to the ,state than it is at present4 ,but1 apart from the troubles which have to be faced by the ,baku oil producers1 and which we may call ,governmental1 the relation between the employers and workpeople is far from being friendly4 ,to-day1 of course1 it is worse than it was under the old regime of the ,tzar1 and then it was bad enough4 ,the oil-field workman in ,russia is the incarnation of all that is unsatisfactory4 ,he works when he thinks he will1 he labours under grievances1 many of which are purely imaginary1 and then he ventilates his spite upon his masters4 ,the pages of history tell of many a conflict between capital and labour in the ,baku oil-fields1 with the consequent burning of all that would take fire on the fields1 and the damaging of the producing wells by the workpeople4 ,instances are placed on record where1 in a single night1 dozens of productive oil-wells1 which have taken years to bring into production1 have been irreparably damaged by these oil-field workers4 ,their life1 admitted1 is nothing to write books upon1 and their environments are in some cases of the worst description1 rendered no better by the natural aptitude of the people themselves4 ,but their views upon labour are of the most ,utopian imaginable4 ,during recent years1 there has been a sort of combination between these operatives1 whose socialistic tendencies run high1 and less than two years ago they collectively put before the managers of the oil-fields the conditions under which they would in future work4 ,there were nearly #ajj different claims detailed1 and a few of these are worthy of mention1 as showing the appreciation of fairness which is instilled in the mind of the ,russian oil-field worker4 ,in the first place1 a #ej per cent4 increase in wages was desired1 this to be retrospective4 ,holidays had to be paid for by the masters1 and when the worker went on strike he had to receive his full pay from the master until such strike was settled4 ,then the workmen had to be represented on the board of management of the companies1 their houses had to be improved by the masters1 free railway and tramway accommodation had to be provided1 etc4 ,generally1 the demands put forward were distinctly arbitrary1 though in many cases very humorous4 ,recent events in the conduct of affairs in ,russia do not suggest that great improvements may be expected in the near future1 either in regard to the attitude of the ,government toward the ,russian petroleum industry1 or to the attitude of the workers to those responsible for oil-field operations4 ,even before the ,european ,war1 the ,russian petroleum industry was rather on the decline4 ,the only hope that can be expressed at this juncture is that when ,russia possesses a stable government1 and the country enters upon a period of peaceful progress1 the ,mining ,department will take care that ,russia takes its proper position as one of the most important oil-producing countries in the world4 ,but before this comes about1 there will have to be a complete revision of the ,government's policy respecting oil royalties4 ,the destruction1 however1 wrought in ,baku towards the end of #aiah will take several years to make good4 ,illustration3 ,,roumania3 ,a ,,few ,,of ,,the ,,hand ,,dug ,,wells ,,in ,,bustenari ,,roumania4--,during comparatively recent time1 ,roumania has come prominently forward as one of the large petroleum-producing countries of the world1 and its yearly output of crude oil1 according to latest returns1 is about #aa1jjj1jjj barrels1 or1 say1 #a1fjj1jjj tons4 ,the production of petroleum in the country1 however1 has been proceeding for centuries1 for1 in the seventeenth century1 the peasants were in the habit of digging wells by hand and selling the crude oil for medicinal purposes1 the greasing of cart-wheels1 as well as for lighting4 ,there are many places in ,roumania which are named from petroleum1 a fact which points to the existence of the industry long before the present-day methods of extraction were thought of4 ,several hundreds of these hand-dug wells still exist round the fringe of the ,transylvanian and ,carpathian ,alps1 and though many of them have now fallen into decay1 there are numerous others from which a payable quantity of petroleum is extracted by primitive methods4 ,the hand-dug wells in ,roumania are highly interesting relics of a period which is now relegated to the past1 though so long as the ,roumanian petroleum industry exists1 so long will the old hand-dug wells be associated with it4 ,these wells are about #e feet in diameter1 and are sunk through alternate layers of clay1 schisty clay1 sandy clay1 sandstone1 and petroliferous sand to the more shallow oil horizons4 ,they are dug by workmen who descend dressed with the minimum of clothing1 usually saturated with oil1 and wearing a tin hat to protect the head from falling stones1 etc4 ,the sides of the wells are lined with impermeable clay1 which is protected by wicker-work4 ,the man is lowered by a rope1 air being supplied to him by means of bellows4 ,at some places the rotary fan was employed more recently1 but somehow it frequently happened that it was operated in the wrong direction1 and the unfortunate digger was asphyxiated4 ,these old wells have a depth of about #dej feet1 and though their yield of oil is not considerable1 it has for many years been a paying proposition to those engaged in this primitive method of petroleum production4 ,the excavated earth1 when digging these wells1 was brought to the surface in buckets1 lowered and raised by means of either manual labour or horse traction4 ,when the first oil source was reached and the extraction of the crude oil commenced1 this was accomplished by means of the use of wooden buckets or leather skins1 one being lowered empty while the other was raised full4 ,by this means it was possible to raise as much as #bj tons of the oil per day--quite a considerable amount1 considering the primitive means adopted4 ,mechanical developments throughout the ,roumanian oil-fields on a more or less serious scale began about #ahih1 as the result of the introduction of foreign capital1 and1 from that time to the present1 the history of the ,roumanian petroleum industry has been one steady period of continued expansion4 ,various systems of drilling have been introduced into the work of developing old fields or opening up new centres1 but in regard to these ,i shall deal at length in another chapter4 ,the advent of the rotary method of drilling1 however1 opened up a new era for expansion in #aiab1 and since that time ,roumania has made more marked progress than at any time previously4 ,the ,roumanian oil-fields1 as at present defined1 cover a region roughly #bj miles in width1 and extend to a length of between #cjj and #djj miles1 with1 of course1 numerous breaks4 ,of the numerous petroliferous regions in ,roumania1 those of ,campina-,bustenari1 ,gura-,ocnitza1 ,moreni1 and ,baicoi-,tzintea among them provide about #ie per cent4 of the total production1 and1 with the one exception of the ,moreni field1 all have been previously exploited by hand-dug wells4 ,the prosperity of the ,roumanian industry has been directly the result of the influx of foreign capital1 and the majority of the #eej1jjj1jjj francs employed in it1 is mostly made up of ,british1 ,american1 and ,german capital4 ,the principal ,english ,company in the fields is the ,roumanian ,consolidated ,oil-fields1 ,ltd41 which concern1 with its capital of one and three-quarter millions sterling1 represents an amalgamation of many small companies4 ,space forbids my referring at length to the momentous happenings in the ,roumanian fields towards the end of #aiaf1 but they will ever form one of the most interesting--and at the same time the most tragic--incidents associated with ,roumania's petroleum industry4 ,at that time1 the ,german armies were pushing their way toward ,roumania1 and1 in fact1 having crossed the border1 were marching on for possession not merely of territorial gains1 but in order to secure themselves of large quantities of petroleum products by capturing the prolific oil-fields of the country4 ,it was at that critical time that the ,british ,government sent out its ,military ,mission1 headed by ,colonel 7now ,sir7 ,john ,norton ,griffiths1 completely to destroy all that was valuable in connection with the oil-fields1 the refineries1 and the installations4 ,one night the ,mission arrived at the offices of the ,roumanian ,consolidated ,oil-fields1 ,ltd41 and made its plan of campaign clear4 ,there was nothing to be done but to fall in with it1 and the following morning practically everything was destroyed1 or rather1 a start was made to destroy it4 ,and the destruction was carried out in a complete manner1 for not only one1 but several concerns which had been steadily built up to perfection as the result of many years of careful and systematic expansion1 were all wiped out1 excepting in name4 ,the oil-wells were plugged beyond all hope of repair1 the refineries were dismantled1 machinery broken1 pipe-line connections damaged1 and both crude and refined oil stocks burned4 ,it was the most tragic proceeding ever recorded in oil-field history1 but it was necessary1 and not carried out one day too soon1 for the incoming armies were dangerously near4 ,illustration3 ,,bustenari--,,roumania',s ,,famous ,,oil ,,region ,the ,germans lost no time in making good a great deal of the damage to the fields1 and at the time of the armistice it was stated that the crude oil output of ,roumania was up to #hj per cent4 of its pre-war level4 ,now that the various allied interests are again operating in the ,roumanian fields1 considerable expansion of the country's petroleum industry is being planned1 though the pre-war ,german interests therein are now taken over by the ,allies4 ,during the past decade ,roumania has necessarily catered for the export trade1 for the volume of crude oil produced has been far beyond its requirements4 ,the great petroleum storage port of ,constantza has been made the centre for this export business1 and the completion of a trunk pipe-line from the ,roumanian refineries to the port was one of the most recent enterprises undertaken by the ,roumanian ,government prior to the war4 ,during the period when ,roumania was under ,german control its terminal point was so changed that the line ran to a spot which rendered the transport of petroleum to ,germany a matter of ease4 ,now1 however1 ,germany's plans have been frustrated1 and ,roumania's great pipe-line will have its terminal point at ,constantza1 where all kinds of petroleum products can be pumped direct to the oil tankers4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,indies4--,the growth of the petroleum industry in the ,dutch ,indies has been surprisingly rapid1 and this growth synchronizes with the advent of the 8,shell0 ,company into the ,far ,eastern fields4 ,it is stated that there are many hundreds of square miles of territory in the ,east ,indian ,islands which can be remuneratively developed2 at the moment1 however1 though but the fringe of exploitation has been touched1 the production has been amazing4 ,eighteen years ago1 it was placed at #cjj1jjj tons of crude oil2 last year it nearly reached #b1jjj1jjj tons4 ,in ,sumatra several companies successfully operated for many years1 but most of them eventually became merged with the ,royal ,dutch ,company1 whose interests now are also those of the 8,shell0 ,company4 ,as to ,borneo1 the 8,shell0 ,company commenced active developments in #aijj1 or thereabouts1 for it had acquired an area of approximately #dfj square miles4 ,the fields rapidly responded to the drill1 and the crude oil production rose by leaps and bounds4 ,the crude was of a high-grade character1 and for a long time it taxed the energies of those responsible for the good conduct of the concern1 as to exactly what should be done with some of the refined products4 ,as a matter of fact1 some thousands of tons were burned1 for at that time there was little or no demand for motor spirit4 ,i well remember when the ,company's ,chairman--,sir ,marcus ,samuel--faced the shareholders in #aijj and explained that if only the ,company could realize #f;d4 per gallon for its motor spirit1 what handsome profits would accrue4 ,but events have marched quickly since those days4 ,the motor-car has come to stay1 and what seemed a useless product of the ,far ,eastern oils in the early days of development1 is now one of the chief sources of revenue4 ,the advent of the heavier motor spirits has also been of great benefit to the ,borneo petroleum industry1 for the public has grown accustomed to recognize that it is not specific gravity which counts in the quality of motor spirit1 but the closeness of the boiling points of its constituent fractions4 ,to-day1 the ,far ,eastern fields supply enormous quantities of refined products to the consuming markets of the ,eastern hemisphere1 and so long as the supplying centres continue their present productivity1 there need be no talk of approaching famine1 for1 if necessary--providing facilities permitted--these regions could materially increase their present output of petroleum products4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,production ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,days ,,of ,,the ,,industry ,,in ,,burmah ,,india also ranks to-day as a very important petroleum producing region1 the fields of ,upper ,burmah--in which the ,burmah ,oil ,company operates--being responsible for practically the whole production4 ,in another part of this little publication1 ,i deal briefly with this ,company's operations1 so1 for the moment1 it is sufficient to mention that1 though to-day they produce large quantities of petroleum1 there are several new districts which show much promise of new production4 ,for many years the ,upper ,burmah fields were exploited by means of very shallow wells3 it was only when the deeper strata were reached that the potentialities of the region became fully manifest4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,japanese ,,way ,,of ,,operating ,,the ,,wells ,,japan1 as an oil-producing country1 affords food for an interesting story1 for it was here that very early attempts were made to develop production4 ,even in the seventh century1 the ,emperor was presented with 8burning water0 with which the ,palace was lighted4 ,the crude oil was collected from pools1 or1 alternately1 wells were dug by hand1 the process of extraction being very picturesque1 if very primitive4 ,to-day1 ,echigo is the centre of the industry1 for which the introduction of ,european methods of drilling have worked wonders in regard to progress4 ,the ,celestials consume large quantities of petroleum1 especially for lighting purposes1 and in spite of the now considerable yields from the wells1 a gigantic trade is regularly done in imported oils1 especially those of ,american origin1 for which there is a most up-to-date organization for distribution4 ,the statement that ,american petroleum products find their way to every quarter of the globe is strangely exemplified in ,japan 7as also in ,china71 where the ubiquitous tin container for petroleum can be seen in the most isolated parts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,galician ,,fields1 ,,showing ,,damage ,,done ,,by ,,the ,,russian ,,armies ,,when ,,retreating ,,in #aiaf ,,galicia4--,since the commencement of the period when petroleum and its products assumed a degree of industrial importance1 the ,galician oil regions have attracted considerable attention4 ,the area of the oil-fields extends over a length of #bjj miles1 and in width varies from #dj to #fj miles1 and though in this territory several fields of considerable note have for many years been systematically developed1 there is enormous scope for future operations4 ,its annual output of crude oil1 which nearly reached #a1ijj1jjj tons in #aiji1 is in itself suggestive of the extensive manner in which the oil-producing fields have been developed during late years4 ,the oil-field history of ,galicia is particularly interesting1 for the oil seepages round ,boryslaw have been exploited for very many years4 ,long before the introduction of the drilling methods of modern times1 the shallow oil sources in the ,galician fields were tapped by means of the hand-dug wells1 but it was only when the first drilled well was sunk in #ahfb that the real value of the ,galician ozokerite1 which abounds in many places in the oil-fields1 was appreciated by the operators4 ,this ozokerite is one of the most valuable of bitumens1 and though found in several countries1 is nowhere met with in such large quantities as in ,galicia4 ,the ozokerite there fills the fissures in the much disturbed cpaly1 and evidently originates from a natural process of concentration4 ,the mines are operated by modern machinery1 and the industry in ,galicia has reached a stage of great importance1 some thousands of tons of the mineral being yearly raised4 ,the material is refined1 and the resulting wax serves numerous commercial purposes1 the refining taking place in the ,austro-,hungarian refineries4 ,considerable quantities of the raw material are exported to ,germany and ,russia1 while the refined products are well known on the export markets4 ,about seven years ago1 serious water trouble materially reduced the production of the ,galician oil-wells 7for when the water courses are not properly shut off1 water may encroach and cause the loss of the producing well71 but the trouble was to some extent surmounted by the taking of greater care in cementing the wells4 ,the introduction and consequent popularity of the modern drilling methods which were introduced by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,margarvey in #ahhb permitted the testing of the deeper horizons of the ,galician fields1 and to-day wells are by no means uncommon with depths up to and sometimes exceeding #d1jjj feet4 ,the ,boryslaw-,tustanowice district still continues to be the centre of the crude oil production1 but several new oil areas with great promise have been opened up during the past six years4 ,naturally1 the ,european ,war has retarded development work considerably1 and the ,galician fields have on more than one occasion been the scene of battle4 ,at one time in #aiae they passed over to the ,russians1 but when the ,russian retreat occurred later from ,lemberg1 considerable damage was done to the fields in order to prevent their being of immediate use to the enemy4 ,the wells were seriously damaged1 and the ,state refinery at ,drohobitz was partially dismantled1 while immense reserves of refined oil stocks were burned4 ,the ,galician oil industry has for years attracted the attention of foreign capitalists1 for the highly remunerative nature of petroleum exploitation is generally appreciated4 ,prior to the ,european war ,german capital was very largely interested in the ,galician industry1 and the majority of ,allied companies had ,germans as their local representatives1 but all this is now changed1 and in the future ,allied capital will be considerably increased4 ,the ,premier ,company is the largest ,english concern in the ,galician fields4 ,,germany has made great endeavours in the past to institute a petroleum industry of its own1 but no great success has been recorded1 for while it does possess several oil-producing areas1 these are only small fields1 with a very limited yield of heavy petroleums4 ,the wells1 though producing for many years steadily1 do not give forth those large quantities of petroleum so characteristic of the best wells in other petroleum-producing fields1 and flowing wells are indeed very rare4 ,germany1 therefore1 has to look to imported petroleum for its large demands4 ,in a succeeding chapter ,i refer at length to those oil regions which come within the limits of a chapter1 8,petroleum in the ,british ,empire03 there is no need at the moment to make reference to them here4 ,space does not permit my even briefly touching upon the many other oil regions of the world which are now being successfully operated2 it is certain1 however1 as time goes on that their number will be materially increased4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,petroleum ,,is ,,produced ,time was when the engineering aspect of the production of petroleum was practically non-existent4 ,the ancients1 and even those of the last century1 were content to resort to the most primitive means for winning petroleum from the earth4 ,shallow wells were sunk or dug by hand1 the eventual securing of the oil being carried out by lowering primitive receptacles 7generally leather bottles7 into the hole4 ,it was a period long before the advent of the ,oil ,age1 and the methods employed were clearly in keeping with the mode of life of that day4 ,in practically every oil-producing field of the world--though in this respect the ,united ,states is almost an exception--the history records the fact that for many years the extraction of oil from the ground was confined to the use of the primitive methods which held sway in those days--those associated with the operations of the hand-dug wells4 ,in the ,far ,east1 notably in ,japan1 we find the first serious attempts to obtain and utilize petroleum1 for as far back as ,a4,d4 #fae1 there were shallow wells in existence1 from which the 8burning water10 as it was called1 was collected4 ,in ,roumania and ,russia1 too1 the earlier attempts to create a petroleum industry were confined to these methods4 ,it was only when the demand for petroleum became large and consistently increased with the opening up of new fields1 that we find other and more practical methods were introduced for winning larger quantities of the oil from the earth4 ,to-day1 in every branch of the industry associated with petroleum--whether it be in producing the crude oil1 in transporting it1 or in refining ,nature's product into those numerous commodities which are part and parcel of everyday life--the engineering aspect is one of very great importance4 ,in fact1 throughout the petroleum industry1 engineering science is the ,alpha and ,omega4 ,by its means we are now able to carefully study the nature of the ground at depths of #f1jjj feet1 and to extract from the deep lying strata a wealth of minerals2 we are able1 too1 to transport thousands of tons of crude oil daily across thousands of miles of continent1 while is it not the direct result of engineering science which allows over #ae1jjj tons of petroleum products to be carried across the oceans of the world in one vessel with the same ease that one would take a rowing boat from one side of a lake to another8 ,great1 however1 as have been the degrees of progress recorded in connection with drilling for petroleum1 the old methods1 generally speaking1 and which date back to the days of early ,china1 are still largely copied in all pole and percussion systems of drilling1 and though steam has replaced manual labour 7and electricity now bids fair to replace steam71 the operating principles to-day are the same as then4 ,the only exception1 of course1 is the advent and growing popularity of the rotary method of drilling1 to which interesting phase of the subject ,i will briefly refer later4 ,the old ,eastern method of drilling has obviously been the forerunner of the ,canadian1 standard1 and other systems of to-day1 the wire rope replacing the use of poles4 ,in oil-field work1 the principal types of percussion drills used are known 7#a7 as the ,pennsylvanian cable1 7#b7 the ,canadian pole1 and 7#c7 the ,russian free-fall system1 and though from time to time many attempts have been made to introduce modifications of these1 the vast majority have been unsuccessful in their operation4 ,the ,pennsylvanian cable system was used for drilling the earliest oil-wells in the ,united ,states1 and doubtless took its name from the fact that it was so largely used in that oil region4 ,as may also be gathered from the name1 the principal feature in this system is the cable by which the tools are suspended and connected to the walking beam4 ,there is no doubt that this system of drilling1 which has been so universally used in the oil-fields1 gives most satisfactory results4 ,when first introduced in ,pennsylvania1 the cable system of drilling was particularly simple1 and did remarkably good work1 for the reason that the strata usually encountered was of such a nature that it did not cave1 and1 as a result1 the well-pipe was only lowered when the full depth of that string had been drilled4 ,the drilling bits were seldom more than #d inches thick4 ,in order to give a rotary motion to the bit1 the continuous twisting of the cable to and fro was necessary2 but when in other fields1 where deeper strata had to be explored1 the cable system was introduced1 the semi-sandy nature of the strata called for wells of larger diameter with correspondingly larger drilling bits4 ,as a consequence of the additional weight of the drilling bit1 it was found that the swing of the tools was sufficient to give them a rotating movement for the drilling of a circular hole4 ,in regions where caving-in of the walls of the wells was liable to occur1 the string of pipe had to closely follow the tools1 which1 with the old ,pennsylvanian type of rig1 meant frequent winding of the cable from the bull wheel1 so as to allow of the well pipes being handled4 ,in order to prevent the waste of time which these operations occasioned1 the calf wheel was added1 by means of which the pipe could be lowered into the hole without the removal of the drilling cable4 ,this cable almost invariably was of the ,manila character1 and in many instances this rope is retained to-day1 though wire ropes have been introduced frequently4 ,the ,canadian pole system1 which is largely in use in oil-field operations1 is1 like the first-mentioned method of drilling1 of the percussion type1 the chief essential difference being that1 instead of a cable connecting the tools to the surface1 poles are used4 ,in former times1 these poles were of ash-wood1 but with the extended use of the system1 iron rods took their place4 ,the introduction of these iron rods was a distinct advantage1 for they could be welded to whatever lengths are required1 whereas the wooden poles1 which were seldom more than #bj feet long1 had to be spliced for practical work4 ,the rig used with the ,canadian system is not so powerful as that for the ,pennsylvanian method1 but the one great advantage of the ,canadian system is that1 for the drilling of shallow oil-wells1 it could be operated by men of less experience4 ,the success which has attended the operation of the pole system lies in the fact that although drilling by its means is very slow--for seldom is #bej feet per month exceeded--it is one of the best methods of drilling through complicated strata1 and1 in the hands of conscientious men1 does highly satisfactory work4 ,it might be of interest to very briefly refer to the operations of the system when a well is being drilled4 ,the rig 7that is1 the superstructure above ground7 is quite a simple framing1 #gj or more feet high1 with a base of about #bj feet4 ,the power is usually derived from a steam engine1 with the usual means for operating the gear from the derrick2 fuel found locally1 natural gas1 or other form of heating agent used4 ,one shaft and two spools running in bearings transmit the various motions desired1 the drive being taken up by a pulley attached to the main shaft4 ,on this shaft are keyed two band pulleys1 which communicate by belting with two spools running immediately overhead in the upper part of the framework4 ,fastened to one extremity of the main shaft is a disc crank1 which1 through the medium of a connecting rod1 transmits an oscillating movement to an overhead pivoted walking beam4 ,in all systems of percussion drilling1 the drilling bit is raised and then dropped a distance of several feet1 the result being that the strata to be drilled are steadily pounded away4 ,as the ground is pulverized by the percussion tools1 the debris has to be cleared away so as to enable the drill to fall freely and to deliver clean blows to the unbroken strata1 and this work is performed by appliances known as bailers and sand pumps4 ,there is no need for me to go into the numerous technical details regarding this or any other system of drilling1 for my only desire is to give a general impression as to the usual methods adopted for the winning of petroleum4 ,i will therefore pass on to deal briefly with the ,russian free-fall system so much in vogue in the ,russian fields4 ,incidentally1 ,i may here say that when drilling for oil in ,russia1 one has to recollect several features which are not common to the development of other oil-fields4 ,bearing in mind the great depth to which wells have to be sunk to reach the prolific oil horizons in the majority of the fields in ,russia1 which necessitates starting the well with a very large diameter--frequently #cj inches--it will be easily appreciated that the loss of a hole in the course of drilling is a very expensive affair4 ,the ,russian free-fall system of boring necessitates patient and hard manual labour4 ,it is1 as its name implies1 of the percussion type1 and is1 in fact1 a modified pole-tool system which well suits the local conditions4 ,the clumsy drilling tools have a practically free drop1 being picked up when the walking beam is at its lowest point1 and released at the top of the stroke4 ,when released1 the tools naturally force their way downwards in the strata1 and are released only with difficulty1 although in a measure this difficulty is minimized on account of the fact that the under-reaming 7slightly enlarging the diameter of the hole7 is done simultaneously with the drilling4 ,after a ,russian well has been started by means of a slip-hook suspended from a haulage rope1 and a depth of some #cj feet obtained1 the free-fall is added to the string of tools4 ,this free-fall is composed of two separate parts--the rod and the body--and these are held together by means of a wedge working in vertical slots cut in the sides of the body4 ,in operating the free-fall1 the handles1 fixed to the temper screw1 are held by the driller4 ,on the downward stroke these are pushed forward from right to left1 but as soon as the downward stroke is completed1 they are quickly pulled backwards4 ,the steel wedge enters the recess and the tools are carried to the top of the stroke1 where1 by a quick forward jerk1 the wedge is thrown clear of the recess1 and the tools drop freely1 the momentum of the string of tools driving the drilling bit deeper into the hole4 ,after several feet of the hole are drilled1 the tools have to be withdrawn in order to allow the pulverized mass of debris to be cleared away1 while1 owing to the caving nature of the strata1 it is necessary to case the well as drilling proceeds4 ,as ,i have said1 the system is very cumbersome1 but1 in the hands of experienced men1 it does its work well1 if but slowly4 ,there are many cases on record where1 when the well has assumed a considerable depth1 it has been completely spoiled by the carelessness of the operators1 but1 more often than not1 this has been deliberate1 for the ,caucasian oil-field worker has many grievances1 admittedly more or less imaginary4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,of ,,the 8,,oilwell0 ,,heavy ,,rotary ,,outfit1 ,,showing ,,ring ,,and ,,wedge 7,,on ,,left-,,hand ,,side ,,of ,,foreground7 ,,to ,,grip ,,the ,,casing ,during recent years1 the rotary method of drilling has been successfully adopted1 and it is in regard to this revolutionary method of speedy drilling that ,i will now touch upon4 ,the rotary method of drilling made its dbut in ,texas some fourteen years ago1 and since then it is not any exaggeration to say that nearly #bj1jjj wells for oil have been drilled with the system1 which has found popularity in all the oil-fields of the world4 ,its main operation is simplicity itself3 a rigid stem of heavy pipe rotates a fish-tail drilling bit at the bottom of the hole1 cutting and stirring up the formation to be drilled4 ,it cuts its way through the underground formations1 much in the same way as a screw when rotated forces its way through wood4 ,it is the essence of speed in drilling1 for1 unlike the necessary principles to be adopted in the percussion methods of drilling1 the rotary drill does not have to be lifted from the hole for the purposes of clearing4 ,the pulverized strata are continuously washed from the hole by a stream of water reaching the bottom of the drill4 ,very frequently1 a pressure-fed mud is used1 and this serves a double purpose1 for in its return to the surface it tends to plaster the walls of the well4 ,the mud emerges in streams of high velocity from the two apertures in the drilling bit 7for in its downward course it is carried through the drilling pipe or stem71 but naturally loses this velocity considerably in its return to the surface4 ,it is1 however1 very easy to detect the kind of stratum being drilled through from the returned cuttings1 these reaching the surface but a few minutes after the drilling bit has entered the formation4 ,from time to time various grievances have been ventilated against this improved system of boring for petroleum1 but to-day its adoption is world-wide1 and by its use wells which1 with the old-fashioned method of drilling would take many months if not two or three years1 are now got down to the producing horizons in but a few weeks4 ,it is1 in fact1 solely due to the ever-increasing use of the rotary drill that the universally increased demands for petroleum products have been met by an ever-increasing production of the crude oil4 ,leaving the question of drilling methods1 ,i cannot fail to mention the interesting fact that in oil-field operations progress is now being recorded in another direction1 and that is by the increasing utilization of electrical power in the place of steam4 ,at the time of writing1 it is safe to say that fully #fj per cent4 of the power requirements on the oil-fields is provided for by steam plants1 with their attendant waste4 ,oil and gas engines1 with their greater efficiency1 may claim to be operated to an extent of #ce per cent41 while not more than #e per cent4 of the requirements are satisfied by the use of electric motors4 ,there is no doubt that prejudice has had a deal to do with the very minimized use of electrical power on the oil-fields in the past1 but this is being gradually swept aside1 and1 in the next few years1 ,i have no doubt that both electrical manufacturers and the petroleum industry generally will materially benefit from the use of this cheap and very economical form of power4 ,in the past1 many disastrous oil-field conflagrations have been due solely to the use of open-fired engines in close proximity to the wells1 but with the use of electrical energy this fire danger will be rapidly removed4 ,before closing this chapter1 ,i would say a word or two with respect to the bringing into the producing stage of the oil-wells when once they have been drilled4 ,in the early history of oil-held developments1 it was not infrequent to find the crude oil ejected from the well by natural pressure1 but to-day it is the exception to find those oil-fountains which have made the early history of the ,russian oil-fields so famous4 ,in many of the fields1 explosives are used to promote the flow of oil1 and when the well 8comes in0 to production1 the ordinary methods of bailing or pumping are resorted to4 ,compressed air is also used for bringing about and sustaining production4 ,the quantity of air and the periods of admission naturally vary with the diameters of the wells1 the amount of gas present1 the level of the liquid1 etc41 which latter also determines the pressure of air necessary4 ,the natural exhaustion of oil-wells can obviously have no remedy1 but areas conveying that impression can often be revived by methods1 the study of which is being carefully continued4 ,as ,i write1 ,i find that the officials of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,mines1 who have been studying this question of exhaustion1 have arrived at the conclusion that from #bj to as much as #ij per cent4 of the crude oil remains in the strata tapped by the well1 even when it is abandoned as no longer capable of profitable production4 ,this conclusion opens up what may prove some day to be a most interesting chapter in oil-field history4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,refining ,,of ,,petroleum ,inasmuch as the aim of this little volume is to interest other than those who are directly associated with the petroleum industry1 ,i shall endeavour in this chapter to refer to the refining of petroleum in a manner which shall be readily understood by the reader1 and shall1 wherever possible1 refrain from entering into those highly technical matters which do not lend themselves to popular expression4 ,the refining of crude oil as it is produced from the earth1 consists in the classification of its various hydrocarbons by means of fractional distillation1 into the various products which so largely enter into our commercial and domestic life of to-day4 ,the refined products1 in the order in which they are received by distillation1 are3 motor spirit1 illuminating oils1 solar oils1 lubricating oils1 fuel oils1 residuum1 etc4--the first mentioned being the lightest and the last the heaviest in specific gravity4 ,almost simultaneously with the discovery of petroleum1 there sprung up the first attempts to refine ,nature's product1 and though these early experiments were of a most primitive character1 they doubtless served their purpose admirably4 ,in this respect1 probably the most primitive oil refinery in the world was built near the ,tigris1 in ,mesopotamia4 ,crude petroleum varies in its character1 for while certain crudes are pale in colour and almost transparent1 others are almost black and viscid4 ,some1 indeed1 would appear to have undergone a course of refining by ,nature itself1 for in some fields the crude oil will freely burn in lamps without any refining treatment3 in the vast majority of cases1 however1 the crude oil1 as withdrawn from the producing wells1 represents a liquid somewhat like molten tar4 ,the chemical composition of petroleum consists essentially of carbon and hydrogen1 together with oxygen and varying amounts of nitrogen and sulphur4 ,the crude from ,pennsylvania--and this is the finest crude in the ,united ,states--consists chiefly of a large number of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series1 whilst in the ,russian petroleums1 the predominant constituents are naphthenes or polymethylenes4 ,then the crude petroleum of the ,dutch ,indies and ,burmah is of a different character from that found elsewhere1 for in it aromatic hydrocarbons are largely present4 ,the various series of hydrocarbons found in crude oils--the paraffins and naphthenes--readily lend themselves to conversion into other compounds of carbon and hydrogen by dissociation1 and this conversion produces compounds of higher volatility1 such as motor spirits1 etc4 ,when the compounds of hydrogen and carbon are submitted to distillation1 certain chemical changes occur1 as the result of which other series of hydrocarbons are formed1 and1 though it is not my intention here to dive into this comparatively new realm of chemical investigation1 it is interesting to mention that1 by carrying the treatment of the compounds still further1 it is possible to obtain aromatic hydrocarbons1 including trinitrotoluene 7generally known as the explosive ,t4,n4,t471 in addition to various dye products4 ,in the earlier methods of refining1 the stills usually consisted of a vertical cylinder in which the charge of crude oil was distilled almost to dryness1 but this method was completely revolutionized many years ago1 especially in the ,united ,states1 by the introduction and immediate success of a principle known as the 8cracking0 process1 and by the separation of the distillation into two portions1 one for the removal of the more volatile constituents in the crude oil 7such as motor spirit7 and the other for the treatment of the heavier products4 ,,crude ,,oil ,,fractional ,,distillation ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,crude ,naphtha ,heavy ,crude ,natural ------------- ,cylinder ,stock ,naphtha ,lamp ,oil ,lubricating ,steam ,distillation ,distillate ,steam ,distillation ,distillate ------------- ------------ ,acid ,clay -------- ,treatment ,cold ,pressing ,percolation ,gasoline ,bottoms ,bottoms --------- ---------- ------------ ,naphtha ------------ ,sludge ,slack ,wax ------------- ,distillate ,naphtha ,pressed ------------ ,distillate --------- ,sweating ,lub'g ,dist4 ------------ ,w ,w ,oil ,process ------------- ,acid ,treatment --------- --------- ---------- --------------- ,foots ,asphalt ,sludge ,deodorized ,oil ---------- ,naphtha ,cylinder -------------- ,oil ,crude ---------- ,paraffin ,wax ,fractional -------------- ,distillation ,clay ------------ ,percolation ------------ ----------- -------------- ,gas ,fuel ,neutral ,oil ,stock ,oil ,stock ,asphalt ------------ ----------- -------------- ,paraffin ,wax ,clay -------------- ,percolation ------------- ,asphalt ------------- ,neutral ,oil ------------- ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,products ,,of ,,petroleum ,,by ,,fractional ,,distillation ,i will first deal with the method of refining known as the 8straight0 process1 or the process which does not involve 8cracking40 ,at one time1 the refiner had to consider the saleability of his refined products before he commenced to refine them1 but to-day1 with the perfect system which prevails for the handling of huge quantities of refined products1 and the transporting of them to the most distant markets1 the one desire of the refiner is1 naturally1 to secure from his treatment of the crude oil1 as many refined products as possible1 always keeping an eye on the production of the largest quantities of the higher priced products than upon those which are of low value4 ,the process of refining to be applied to any particular oil naturally depends upon its composition as shown by analysis4 ,it may be that the crude oil to be treated1 apart from containing a small percentage of distillates with a low boiling point 7motor spirit71 is principally made up of residues of little value except as fuel1 or1 on the other hand1 it may be that the crude oil is of high quality and contains all possible products4 ,in the former case1 the process of distillation is brief1 and the plant inexpensive1 as compared with the lengthy process of full refining necessitated in the latter case4 ,the refining operations consist of three distinct branches3 7#a7 the distillation1 7#b7 the extracting of paraffin and refining1 and 7#c7 the chemical treatment4 ,when only a small percentage of the low boiling fractions has to be removed from the crude oil1 the process is known as 8topping10 and a convenient form of apparatus for the purpose is the tower still4 ,this consists of a vertical cylinder fitted with perforated plates resting at intervals on pipes through which superheated steam travels4 ,the pipes serve the double purpose of conveying the steam to its inlet and of heating the oil to be distilled4 ,the steam1 on entering the cylinder1 ascends1 meeting the crude oil1 as it descends from plate to plate in a regulated stream1 and carrying with it to the outlet the light fractions which the operation is intended to remove4 ,,crude ,,oil ,,cracking ,,distillation ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,crude ,naphtha --------- ,natural ,cracked ,distillate ,tar ,crude ,lamp ,oil ,steam ,distillation ,heavy ,distillate ,steam ,distillation ,mild ,cracking ,naphtha ,distillation ----------------------- -------- ,acid ,treatment ------------------ ----------------------------- ,gasoline ,bottoms --------- --------- ------------ ------------ ,crude ,test ------------ ---------- ,coke ,naphtha ,steam ,sludge ,lamp ,naphtha ,cracked ,cracked ,wax ,distillate ,distillation ,oil --------- ,distillate ,distillate ,tailings ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------- ---------- ,acid ,acid ,treatment ,treatment ,acid ---------------------- ------------ ,bottoms ,treatment ,paraffin ,distillate ------------- ,naphtha --------- ---------------------- ,distillate ----------- ,sludge ------------ ,sludge ,cold ,pressing ------------ ,separated ---------- ,sludge ,deodorized by boiling ,gasoline ------------ ----------------- ,naphtha with water ,stock ,treated ------------ ---------- ,test ,slack ,pressed ,paraffin ----------- ,distillate ,wax ,distillate ,steam ------------ ----------- ,acid ,distillation ,sweating ,fractional ,weak ,oil ,fractional ,process ,distillation ,sulphuric -------- ,distillation ,acid -------------- ----------- ,gasoline ,bottoms --------------- ,fractional ------------ ----------- ,distillation ------------ ---------- ,gas ,fuel ,paraffin ,standard ,gas and ,oil ,stock ,oil ,stock ---------- ,white ,fuel ,oil ------------ ----------- ,distillate ,stock ,acid ,oil ,asphalt ------------ ---------- -------- ,distillate ,acid ,treatment ,foots ,acid ,oil ,treatment ------------------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ,sludge ,crude ,standard ,white ,oil ,paraffin ---------- ,sludge -------------------- ,wax ,paraffin ---------- ,oil ---------- ,clay ,percolation ---------- ,asphalt -------------- ,paraffin ,wax -------------- ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,products ,,of ,,petroleum ,,obtained ,,by ,,the 8,,cracking0 ,,process ,a few years ago1 a ,californian chemist invented an improvement of the principles of maximum heating and evaporating surfaces4 ,his name was ,trumble1 and the process is known as the ,trumble process4 ,the crude oil is heated to the desired temperature in pipes or retorts set in a primary furnace1 the hot gases of combustion from which are utilized to heat the distillation chamber proper4 ,entering the vertical cylinder at the top1 the oil is spread over and through perforated plates falling on a cone-shaped plate to divert the continuous stream of oil to the sides of the still1 down which it flows in a thin film4 ,other conical plates1 arranged at intervals underneath1 maintain the flow in the desired channel until it reaches the outlet at the bottom4 ,when #fj or #gj per cent4 7comprising the motor spirit series1 the kerosenes1 and perhaps the intermediate fractions7 are to be removed1 it is common practice to distil the crude oil in a series of stills1 cylindrical in shape1 connected continuously4 ,the best-known system is that patented #ce years ago by ,mr4 ,henderson1 of the ,broxburn ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 for the distillation of shale oil1 and since adopted by many refiners of petroleum4 ,in this system1 the crude oil flows from a charging tank by gravity through a pre-heater1 heated by the passage1 from the second or other still1 of distillates of suitable temperature1 and thence into the first still4 ,here it is raised to distillation temperature1 and the specific gravity of the distillate therefrom fixed4 ,the feed of the crude oil is constant1 the residue formed in the still passing through a connection at the bottom into the second still in the series1 at the top1 and led from back to front so that the inlet and outlet shall be as far apart as possible4 ,it is here raised to a higher temperature1 yielding a distillate of higher specific gravity1 the residue passing on to the next still1 and so on through the series of stills until it reaches the point where all the motor spirit 7or benzine1 as it is called71 kerosene1 and the intermediate distillates are removed4 ,the distillates obtained from the refining of the crude are usually purified by treatment successively with sulphuric acid and solution of caustic soda1 this process of chemical treatment being necessary before the products are fit for the market4 ,the 8cracking0 process of distillation briefly consists in distilling the oils at a temperature higher than the normal boiling points of the constituents it is desired to decompose1 and1 in practice1 the result is that the heavier oils are turned into lighter hydrocarbons of lower boiling points3 thus the yield of the more valuable of the refined products is materially increased4 ,the 8cracking0 process1 which very largely obtains to-day1 was quite accidentally discovered by a small refiner in ,america many years ago4 ,the man in charge of the still left it with the intention of returning very shortly4 ,he was1 however1 absent for several hours1 and to his dismay found that2 as the result of his neglect in attending to the still1 a very light coloured distillate of much lower density than that which it was usual to obtain1 was issuing from the condenser4 ,upon investigation1 it was found that a portion of the distillate had condensed upon the upper part of the still1 which was cooler1 and had dropped back into the still1 where the temperature was sufficient to produce products of a lower boiling point--certainly a distinct improvement4 ,as may be imagined1 this 8cracking0 process does not commence until the lighter products of distillation have been removed1 and is now so popular because by its use a greater yield can be obtained of those more valuable products for which there is an ever-increasing demand4 ,it is unnecessary here to enter into those various improvements which have been introduced from time to time1 all of which have as their aim the production of larger quantities of refined oils1 and it would likewise be invidious to enumerate even the more popular scientists to whose energies much of the resulting progress has been due1 for the simple reason that it has ever been the aim of the petroleum chemist to turn his abilities in the direction indicated4 ,as may be imagined1 the industry of petroleum refining has had to adapt itself to the altered conditions of to-day4 ,for instance1 prior to the advent of the internal combustion engine1 which now is responsible for such a wide application of motor spirit1 the demand for this1 the lightest product of petroleum distillation1 was non-existent4 ,consequently1 when such spirit was produced1 there was no market for it1 and its production represented sheer loss to the refiners4 ,both in the ,far ,east and in ,russia1 we have examples of the enormous loss which accrued to the refiners by reason of there being no market for this highly inflammable product4 ,in the ,far ,eastern fields1 in particular1 this loss was very heavy1 for in the earlier days of its operations1 the 8,shell0 ,company had to remove thousands of tons of this now valuable motor spirit from its refineries and burn it in the open fields4 ,the successful introduction of the internal combustion engine1 however1 completely changed the aspect of petroleum refining1 and the desire became general1 not to see how little motor spirit could be produced1 but to perfect methods by which the yield of the benzene series of hydrocarbons should be as large as possible4 ,even to-day progress is still being recorded in this direction1 and each ,american refiner is vying with his neighbour as to how far that output of gasoline1 as it is there called1 can be increased4 ,many and varied are the means which have been resorted to for this purpose1 but most of them have reference to improvements in the processes for refining the crude oil4 ,one1 however1 is worthy of being mentioned in this little treatise1 inasmuch as it deals with quite another aspect of the problem of increased motor spirit supply4 ,as ,i have mentioned in another chapter1 enormous quantities of natural gas exude from the oil-wells1 and this in the past has been for the most part allowed to go to waste in the air1 causing an ever-present danger to oil-field operations on account of its liability to ignite4 ,being heavier than the air itself1 for it is impregnated with oil gases1 it remains for long periods in the lower air strata1 and1 consequently1 not infrequently1 has been the direct cause of great oil-field fires4 ,this gas--casing-head gas1 as it is termed--comes from the oil-wells between the casing and the tubing1 and1 in the case of numerous wells1 the flow is remarkable1 some wells giving forth #cjj1jjj cubic feet of gas every #bd hours1 and the only useful purpose that this vapour has served until recent years has been to light several towns situated comparatively near to the oil-producing fields4 ,the great volume of the gas1 however1 has been allowed to go to waste4 ,but experiments have proved that the gas is capable of condensation into motor spirit1 and the general yield of such spirit may be taken as fully #b gallons per #a1jjj cubic feet of natural gas treated4 ,what wonderful possibilities lie in the direction of the conversion of this vapour into motor spirit6 ,the oil-producers in the ,united ,states have not been slow to appreciate this1 and to-day there are hundreds of plants in the ,united ,states which have been erected solely to condense these oil-well gas vapours4 ,some of these plants are dealing with as much as #c1jjj1jjj cubic feet of gas a day4 ,the most recent official returns available from the ,united ,states show that the production of gasoline 7motor spirit7 from this process of oil gas condensation is1 approximately1 #aej1jjj1jjj gallons per annum1 and even this substantial figure is being steadily increased4 ,there is also another phase of the oil-refining industry which1 during recent years1 has materially altered4 ,i refer to the production of solar oil during distillation4 ,it is an apt saying that we can scarcely look to any section of our commercial or domestic life without being confronted with the fact that oil products play some part therein3 there are few1 however1 who1 without reflection1 would agree that when they light their gas they are dependent upon petroleum for much of the light the gas gives4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 a fact1 as ,i will proceed to show4 ,many years ago1 the oil refiners in ,baku were confronted with a problem which appeared for some time to be insurmountable4 ,after the distillation of their kerosene1 or illuminating oil1 and before they could commence to take off the lubricating oil fractions1 there was an intermediary product which1 while being of no use for lamp oil1 did not possess the necessary constituents of viscosity to make it acceptable as a lubricant4 ,it was a fairly decent volume of something for which there was no market at the time4 ,experiments were made1 and with these the name of ,dr4 ,paul ,dvorkovitz will ever be associated1 and it was found that by the passage of a current of gas over the surface of this intermediate product1 the gas caught up as it were a richness which materially increased the lighting power of the gas4 ,to cut a long1 but highly interesting1 story short1 this solar or gas oil was subsequently introduced by ,dr4 ,dvorkovitz to ,england for gas enrichment purposes1 and the extent of its employment to-day may be judged from the fact that the ,united ,kingdom regularly imports between #fj1jjj1jjj and #gj1jjj1jjj gallons per annum for the enrichment of the coal gas which finds useful employment in practically every home throughout the land4 ,as is known1 the gas companies have to produce gas of a certain lighting quality1 and it is in the upholding of the lighting strength of the gas that solar oil to-day plays so important a part4 ,at first1 the oil came almost exclusively from ,russia1 but now the competition from the ,united ,states has secured for our ,american friends the vast bulk of the trade1 which1 as ,i have shown1 has reached enormous proportions4 ,solar oil is also largely utilized for the production of refined perfumery oils1 which are quite colourless and inodorous1 while the finest quality is used in pharmacy and known as paraffinum liquidum1 and is in much demand1 but in this connection it is the ,russian petroleums that have gained distinction4 ,it was held for many years that such tasteless and colourless oils could not be produced from the ,united ,states petroleums1 but from the commencement of the ,european ,war1 and the consequent closure of ,russia's export port1 whereby all overseas trade in ,russian petroleums was held up1 much progress was made in the manufacture of tasteless medicinal petroleums in the ,united ,states1 such articles having now become popular throughout the world4 ,one of the most important discoveries made during recent years has been the finding of large quantities of toluol in petroleum4 ,this article is necessary for the manufacture of high explosives4 ,in ,borneo heavy petroleum1 toluol exists to a very large extent1 and it was its discovery and consequent use by the allies--thanks to the offer made to the ,governments by ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart4--that almost unlimited quantities of high explosives were manufactured4 ,vaseline is another useful commodity which is derived from the refining of crude petroleum1 and this article is turned out of the ,american refineries as well as those of ,russia and ,galicia1 in large quantities1 but1 beyond mentioning this fact1 no useful purpose would here be served by relating the various processes employed4 ,with reference to the methods generally adopted in the refining of the products from the distillation of the ,scottish oil shales1 these are briefly dealt with in the chapter devoted to the ,scottish oil industry4 ,it is safe to say that the past two or three decades have witnessed marked progress in perfecting the methods by which crude petroleums are refined into the innumerable common commodities of commerce1 and it is doubtful whether in any branch of chemical research there has been such concerted energy shown as in regard to the refining of mineral oils4 ,signs1 however1 are not wanting to show that the zenith of this progress has by no means been reached4 ,,chapter ,v ,,transport ,,by ,,land ,,and ,,sea ,the remarkably perfect methods by which petroleum and its products are transported by land and sea before they reach the consumer may not at first sight appear to be anything but commonplace1 but a moment's reflection will be sufficient to suggest that a vast and complete organization must be required in order that petroleum may be brought from practically the ends of the earth to the consumer in the most remote village in the ,british ,isles4 ,but it is the demands of necessity that have been responsible for the building up of this vast organization of transportation which represents1 in the ,united ,states alone1 the investment of many millions of pounds sterling4 ,taking first the methods of oil transportation by land1 in no other oil-producing country do we find such an elaborate system for dealing with enormous quantities of petroleum as in ,america1 for it is safe to say that at least #ejj1jjj barrels of crude oil have to be dealt with daily at the present time4 ,going back to the time when petroleum first became a commercial commodity--when the first wells in ,oil ,creek commenced to open up a period of new prosperity for the ,united ,states--these wells were situated so close to the water that their product could easily be loaded into canoes and barges1 and floated down the ,alleghany river4 ,in the dry season1 the flow was insufficient to float the craft1 and then some hundreds of the boats1 carrying each from #ej to #a1jjj barrels1 would be assembled in a mill-pond near the wells1 and the water impounded while the loading was in progress4 ,then the gates would be opened1 and the fleet1 carried on the flood of rushing water1 would be hurried down the river in charge of pilots4 ,the fleet of creek and river boats engaged in this novel work at one time numbered #b1jjj4 ,but1 as the production of oil increased1 and new districts were successfully tapped1 it became obvious that some different method of handling the crude oil would have to be adopted4 ,the inland wells could not get rid of their production1 and it is not surprising to find that at one time--about #ahfb--;crude oil prices at the well fell to #aj cents per barrel4 ,a system of horse haulage was initiated1 and in time thousands of animals were required to haul the oil from the inland wells to shipping points4 ,the waggon train of the oil country in the pre-pipe-line days at its maximum consisted of #f1jjj two-horse teams and waggons1 and a traveller in the oil region in those early sixties could not lose sight of an endless train of waggons each laden with from five to seven barrels4 ,the roads were almost bottomless1 and the teamsters tore down fences and drove where they liked4 ,these men1 always of the roving1 picturesque type1 would earn anything from #aj to #be dollars per day1 spending the most part in revelry on the ,saturday night4 ,it was at this time that a ,bill was introduced into the ,states legislature authorizing the construction of a pipe-line from ,oil ,creek to a spot known as ,kittanning1 but the opposition of #d1jjj teamsters defeated the ,bill and the first effort to organize an oil pipe-line company4 ,the modest beginning of the present-day system of oil transportation on land by pipe-line was due to the enterprise of a ,jerseyman named ,hutchings1 who laid a #b-;inch pipe from some wells to the ,humbolt refinery4 ,the teamsters1 foreseeing the possibilities of this innovation1 proceeded to tear up the line1 and warned the oil-producers not to adopt these new methods of oil transportation4 ,but ,hutchings was undismayed1 for he laid a second line1 this being composed of cast-iron joints caulked with lead4 ,although this was impracticable1 the teamsters again wrought vengeance on the proposition1 and completely destroyed it4 ,hutchings still persisted in his efforts1 but died--disappointed and penniless--a genius living a little before his time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,primitive ,,method ,,of ,,transporting ,,oil ,at the end of #ahfe1 a ,henry ,harley commenced the laying of a pipe-line to the terminus of the ,oil ,creek railroad1 but teamsters cut the pipes1 burned the collecting tanks1 and retarded the work in every possible way4 ,armed guards eventually came on the scene1 the mob was quelled and dispersed1 and the line completed4 ,it was of #b-;inch diameter1 and laid to handle #hjj barrels of oil daily3 this was the first successful and profitable pipe-line on record for the handling of oil4 ,from this time1 the number of pipe-lines have multiplied1 until to-day there are thousands of them scattered throughout every oil-producing field of ,america4 ,the first long main transportation line for oil was laid in #ahhj from ,butler ,county to ,cleveland1 a distance of over #ajj miles1 and immediately after its completion1 trunk lines were commenced from the ,bradford oil region to the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,the popularity of this new method of oil transportation may be judged from the fact that within three years from the completion of these first propositions1 the ,national ,transit ,company possessed over #c1jjj miles of oil pipe-lines1 and had iron tank storage for #ce1jjj1jjj barrels of crude oil4 ,then a few master minds came to the front1 and loyally supported by ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 of ,standard ,oil fame1 they undertook the herculean task of practically girdling the ,states with a system of oil pipe-lines that has no parallel anywhere4 ,they eliminated the jaded horses1 oil-boats1 wooden tankage1 and slow freights1 tedious methods1 and questionable practices of handling petroleum1 and substituted therefor the stem pump1 the iron conduit1 the steel tank storage1 and systematic and businesslike methods which soon commanded the confidence and respect of all oil-producers4 ,they extended their pipe-lines to practically every producing well and established a transportation system which serves the industry to-day as no other on earth is served4 ,the advantages of the modern pipe-line to the oil-producer are obvious4 ,a pipe-line connection to a producer's tank ensures prompt service and a cash market for his product at all times4 ,the small line connected with his tank conveys the crude oil therefrom1 either by gravity or by means of a pump1 into a receiving tank of the gathering or field lines of the pipe-line system1 from which it is pumped into the main trunk pipe-lines to the refineries4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,pipe-,,line ,,connections ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,fields ,the system by which the producer can have payment for his oil at any time1 for he is credited with its value when it once enters the pipe-line1 is the perfection of simplicity1 accuracy1 and efficiency4 ,the pipe-line of which the gathering or field lines are composed varies in diameter from #b to #h inches1 the joints of which are screw threaded4 ,the main trunk lines are from #f to #aj inches in diameter1 and pumping stations1 supplied with powerful plant driven by steam or internal combustion engines of the ,diesel type1 are located at suitable points of the line4 ,according to the nature of the crude oils to be passed through the pipe-line must the erection of pumping houses be governed3 for instance1 in handling the heavy ,californian or ,mexican crudes1 the pumping stations have to be much nearer each other than when a lighter crude oil is transported4 ,some of the heavier oils have1 in fact1 to be heated before they enter the pipes at all4 ,as already mentioned1 the total oil transported to-day by the ,american pipe-line system exceeds half a million barrels daily4 ,the lines themselves--all laid1 of course1 below ground--are so unobtrusive and do their work so quietly and unseen1 that they attract no attention1 and yet they are vastly important to not only the business of the ,states1 but to those myriads of consumers abroad4 ,it is1 in fact1 impossible to over-estimate the importance of this up-to-date system of oil transportation in the ,united ,states as it exists to-day4 ,to show the impossibility of conducting the present-day ,american petroleum industry without the use of pipe-lines1 let me give a few facts4 ,the large oil-tank cars1 which are not unusual sights on our railways1 hold1 at the maximum1 about #be tons of oil4 ,excluding ,california altogether from these illustrations1 the half-a-million barrels of oil which are transported daily in the ,states by pipe-lines would fill over #b1ejj tank cars4 ,taking #be cars to make up a freight train1 it would require fully #ajj trains daily to transport the oil that now goes by pipe-line1 and inasmuch as it is estimated that the oil on the average is transported overland 7or1 rather1 under-land7 #a1jjj miles1 it would require1 approximately1 #bjj1jjj railroad tank cars to do the daily work in connection with the transport of oil in the ,united ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 for the average movement of tank cars is #cj miles daily1 and all empty cars must be returned4 ,no less than #h1jjj railroad engines would be required to do this work1 which1 on the face of it1 is a railway impossibility4 ,i am afraid ,i have devoted more space to the question of pipe-line transport in the ,states than the confines of this little work warrants1 but the subject is one of great interest to all who would know the magnitude of the organization which is comprised in the limits of the petroleum industry4 ,the ,united ,states1 however1 is but one of the large oil-producing countries where the pipe-line system for the land transport of oil has become the backbone of transport4 ,in ,russia1 for instance1 the fields of production are situated hundreds of miles from the exporting ports1 and1 following upon the principles which obtain in the ,united ,states1 the pipe-line system had1 perforce1 to be adopted4 ,in this respect1 however1 ,russia has still a great deal to learn from our ,western friends1 and the conservative policy which permeated the ,russian ,empire as a whole has precluded the making of much headway4 ,the ,russian oil-fields--those of ,baku and ,grosny--are situated at great distance from the coast1 and the necessity of connecting both fields with the export port of ,batoum1 on the ,black ,sea1 has frequently been put forward as a project offering the one solution of the difficulties attending the retention of a large export oil trade4 ,the ,grosny pipe-line is still a scheme for future solution1 but that affecting ,baku has been solved by the laying of a pipe-line from ,baku to ,batoum4 ,this line1 which is approximately #fej miles long1 runs direct between the two oil centres and1 assuming it operates #bd hours in the day1 has a capacity of transporting over #c1jjj tons of oil daily4 ,inasmuch as the ,russian oil refineries are at ,baku1 the line is used solely for the transportation of the refined products4 ,the line itself is laid alongside the railway line of the ,transcaucasian ,railway1 at a depth of #d feet1 but many strange stories are related as to the tapping of it at various points1 and a lucrative trade being done in the oil so caught4 ,when normal conditions return to ,russia and the petroleum industry rights itself1 ,russian petroleum products will again come on the international markets1 and in this respect the ,grozny oil will be able to secure an outlet via ,novorossisk4 ,roumania can also boast of a main trunk pipe-line for refined products from the inland refineries direct to the port of ,constantza4 ,this important project1 which has been carried out practically by the ,government itself1 was just about ready for service when the ,european ,war broke out3 it has1 therefore1 had little time in which to display its practical use to the petroleum industry at large4 ,when one recollects that ,roumania's future1 so far as the petroleum industry is concerned1 lies in the direction of the building up of its already established export trade in petroleum products1 the necessity for such a trunk pipe-line to the seaboard has been obvious for many years4 ,unlike the case of the ,united ,states1 there are no interesting events to recall which delayed the advent of this new form of land oil transportation4 ,there is only one oil pipe-line of any considerable length in the ,united ,kingdom and this runs across ,scotland from ,old ,kilpatrick 7on the west7 to ,grangemouth 7on the east coast71 its terminal being in close proximity to the naval base at ,rosyth4 ,the line1 which is #cf miles long1 was laid to circumvent the activity of enemy submarines1 but was only completed in ,november1 #aiah1 after the conclusion of the ,european hostilities4 ,the one other important oil-pipe-line which calls for mention is that connecting the oil-fields of ,persia with the coast4 ,in this scheme1 the ,british ,government is heavily interested1 and1 though there has been much criticism of its action1 there is no doubt that1 in due time1 the ,persian fields will play an important part in the supply of petroleum products to ,england1 and1 in that connection1 the ,persian pipe-line must naturally prominently figure1 since1 without it1 there would be numerous difficulties to be contended with in getting the oil to the coast4 ,the carrying of large quantities of petroleum products over the seas of the world is a subject which has taxed the minds of experts quite as much as that of land transport4 ,for many years it was the rule to ship petroleum products overseas in the ordinary barrels 7approximately1 #db gallons each7 to the consuming countries4 ,it was a costly business1 for1 apart from the initial cost of the barrels themselves1 they took up a very considerable space on the vessels1 which was not proportionate with the quantity of oils carried4 ,leakage also played a very important rle in this ocean transport1 and1 generally1 the principle left much to be desired4 ,the ,atlantic was doubtless the first vessel designed to carry petroleum in bulk from ,america1 but records show that some years previously--in #ahfc--;a ,mr4 ,henry ,duncan1 of ,kent1 sent the first oil-carrying vessel to ,europe4 ,the vessel1 however1 never completed her voyage1 for she was lost in the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 just as she was starting on her trip across the ,atlantic4 ,the ,charles--quite a small vessel--also played a part in the early days of bulk oil transport across the ,atlantic1 for this steamer was1 ,i believe1 the first to employ iron tanks for the bulk transport of petroleum4 ,after these first few attempts to convey petroleum in bulk from continent to continent1 tank vessels steadily wiped the barrel-carrying boats off the seas4 ,it was found that not only did oils carried in bulk take up but one-half the space of those in barrels1 but the cost of the oak-staved barrels themselves 7usually #es4 each7 was obviated4 ,at first1 sailing ships were adopted to meet the newer requirements1 but later1 vessels propelled by steam were introduced4 ,at first the shipbuilders had nothing to guide them in the shape of practical experience of bulk oil carriers1 but1 from small things1 a great ocean trade in bulk petroleum products soon grew4 ,it is interesting to note the enterprise which ,english shipbuilders displayed in this new method of handling petroleum for ocean transport1 for during at least two decades the vast bulk of construction of oil carriers took place in ,english shipbuilding yards4 ,the opening of the ,far ,eastern fields of production led to the construction of a large number of oil tankers--each of increasing size--for ,messrs4 ,m4 ,samuel and ,company1 and these were named after various shells4 ,the fleet of 8,shell0 tankers to-day ranks as one of the finest in the world1 and forms the connecting link between the prolific oil-producing properties of the 8,shell0 ,transport and ,trading ,company1 ,ltd41 in the ,far ,east1 and the demand for petroleum products in this and other countries1 the vessels themselves being owned by the ,anglo-,saxon ,petroleum ,company1 ,ltd41 one of the influential owning interests in the wide ramifications of the 8,shell0 ,company4 ,for several years the oil tanker ,narragansett1 owned by the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company1 ,ltd4 7,london71 held claim to being the largest bulk oil carrier in the world1 for the good ship had a capacity of nearly #aa1jjj tons of products4 ,the size of this vessel may be judged from the fact that she had a length between perpendiculars of over #eaj feet1 with a #fc feet beam1 while her moulded depth was #db feet4 ,this vessel1 which marked a distinct step forward in oil tanker construction1 belonged to ,lloyd's ,a#a three-deck class4 ,the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company has shown its belief in oil fuel for ocean power purposes by contracting for internal combustion-engined tankers1 and the first of this class was launched in ,november1 #aiai4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,mammoth ,,tankers ,,of ,,the ,,eagle ,,oil ,,company',s ,,fleet ,it was left to the enterprise of the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company--that important concern associated with ,lord ,cowdray's immense oil organization for handling ,mexican petroleum products--to make what will ever go down as the most bold policy of increasing the size of oil tankers by #ej per cent4 upon all predecessors4 ,some six years ago1 just when the ,mexican fields were commencing to pour forth their flood of oil for the world's requirements1 the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company included in its programme of activities the building of an immense fleet of oil tankers1 and it was decided that a number of these should each have a capacity of #ae1jjj tons of petroleum products4 ,there were many who asserted that the limit to the size of oil tankers had been reached1 but1 undaunted1 the ,company went forth with their policy4 ,it was a bold stroke1 yet a successful one1 for not only have the vessels proved to be very practical1 but they have taught a lesson in economy of ocean transport which has been seriously taken to heart by practically all engaged in ocean oil transport4 ,i had the honour of being one of the invited guests at the launch of the first of these gigantic oil carriers1 and of subsequently experiencing a trip in the mammoth floating 8tank40 ,the vessel behaved admirably at sea1 and in a chat with the designer1 ,i recollect asking if there were any reason to believe that the limit in size had been reached4 ,the reply was pointed3 8,so long as we can have loading and discharging berths large enough to enable such large vessels to be manipulated1 we can easily go beyond the present size40 ,events have proved that the policy adopted by the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company was justifiable1 for already a new oil tanker1 the ,san ,florentino1 has been built1 having a capacity of over #ah1jjj tons4 ,before leaving this interesting subject of ocean oil transportation1 ,i should like to emphasize the distinct step forward which is marked by these latest oil tankers4 ,to-day1 we have entered the era when oil fuel has passed its experimental stages and become one of the greatest boons to those associated with the navigation of the seas4 ,the ease with which oil fuel is handled is remarkable1 for vessels of the largest size--that is1 those using oil instead of coal for power purposes--could replenish their stores within a few hours at any oil port4 ,in the transport of petroleum by the modern tankers1 the taking on board of a full cargo is accomplished in about a single day1 thanks to the most improved means of pumping oil from the shore tanks through flexible pipes4 ,the great oil tankers trading between this and other countries and ,mexico1 load up off the ,mexican coast by means of a submarine pipe-line1 and1 reckoning but fourteen return trips per annum1 it will easily be apparent what immense stores of petroleum can with ease be brought to the centres of consumption4 ,compare this with the primitive methods of transport in barrels1 and it will be readily seen with what rapidity the hands of progress have moved during comparatively recent years4 ,the vast majority of oil tankers to-day1 true to their calling1 derive their power from oil1 for they burn it under their furnaces1 and1 therefore1 are not liable to those tedious delays so inseparable from the use of coal1 and should severe storms beset their passage in ,mid-,atlantic1 then a little oil pumped overboard will quell the most turbulent sea and permit a safe passage onward4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the motor-engined oil tanker will be the order of the future1 for already vessels are being built which utilize oil fuel internally--a much more economical process than burning it under boilers4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,petroleum ,,as ,,fuel ,so much has been written of late as to the use of petroleum as fuel for the purposes of steam-raising1 that the reader is bound to be more or less au fait with the subject4 ,it is1 of course1 one of vast importance1 and during the next decade is certain to receive far more consideration than it has hitherto done1 owing to the general desire that our coal wealth shall be conserved as much as possible4 ,given the one allowance that oil fuel can be procured at anything approaching a reasonable figure--and there is no reason why1 in normal times1 this reasonable price should not be prevalent all over the world--then petroleum offers many advantages over its older competitor1 coal4 ,the ease with which large quantities can be handled1 the simple method of operating anything which is fired by petroleum as fuel1 and the fact that its heat-giving units are far higher than those of coal1 will ever be the chief factors governing its popularity4 ,many years ago1 fuel oil made its serious dbut1 but at that time the supply of the product was very uncertain1 and1 consequently1 progress in passing from the old to the new form of power-raising was slow4 ,to-day1 however1 matters have materially changed4 ,the crude oil output has been immeasurably increased1 and many fields whose production of crude oil is essentially suited for fuel purposes have been opened up4 ,in this respect1 the oil-fields of ,mexico have no parallel1 and it is recorded that1 once these fields are provided with adequate storage and transport facilities1 they can easily supply the whole of the fuel oil necessary for the world1 and at the same time have immense quantities to spare4 ,but1 though the subject of petroleum as fuel has aroused much attention for some years1 there is still an erroneous idea prevailing as to what really is fuel oil4 ,a word or two on this question will1 therefore1 not be without interest4 ,fuel oil is that portion of crude oil which is incapable of giving off by the process of ordinary distillation those lighter products of petroleum known as motor spirit1 illuminating oils1 or lubricants4 ,it is1 in a word1 the residue of distillation which is unsuitable for refining purposes4 ,it represents a black1 tarry liquid1 and is1 of course1 minus those fractions that go to produce the refined products4 ,many there are who refer to crude oil as fuel oil1 but this is a misnomer1 though crude oil1 in many instances1 is utilized for the purposes of fuel4 ,in this chapter1 however1 when ,i speak of fuel oil1 ,i am referring not to the crude oil as it comes from the ground 7and which has a comparatively low flash7 but to the article of commerce1 the residue of distillation1 which is the real article--fuel oil4 ,the headway which fuel oil has made during the past few years has been remarkable1 though it is safe to say that its general use is still in its infancy4 ,in no matter what capacity it has been tried as a heating or steam-raising agent1 it has proved itself capable of withstanding most successfully the most stringent tests1 and has convinced all who have given the question serious consideration that it holds numerous advantages over coal1 yet has no drawbacks4 ,perhaps the most recent impetus which has been given to the use of fuel oil is that following the introduction of it1 and now its general adoption1 throughout the units composing the ,british ,navy4 ,on land1 however1 it has for some years achieved marked distinction4 ,especially is this the case in regard to its use on locomotives1 the ,united ,states railways alone consuming last year over #f1jjj1jjj tons of fuel oil4 ,in the realms of industry1 fuel oil1 too1 is claiming the attention of those large industrial establishments1 and to-day is largely used for creating intense heats1 such as are necessary in hardening1 annealing1 melting and smelting1 rivet heating1 glass-melting1 etc4 ,let me first of all refer to the use of oil fuel for marine purposes4 ,fifteen years ago1 its use was very strongly advocated by ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart41 for marine purposes1 and he approached the ,british ,government in an endeavour to get it taken up4 ,matters moved very slowly1 but eventually oil fuel was adopted1 and ,admiral ,sir ,william ,pakenham asserts that it was due to the unceasing efforts of ,sir ,marcus ,samuel that the ,admiralty vessels constructed during the war were oil burners4 ,the largest of this new class of vessels is the ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,oil fuel is now largely used in place of coal on our great liners1 vessels like the ,aquatania and ,olympic having gone over to its general use4 ,there are1 of course1 many reasons which have commended fuel oil to the experts as a substitute for coal4 ,in the first place1 inasmuch as one ton of fuel oil is equal to more than one-and-a-half tons of coal1 the radius of action of units fitted for utilizing fuel oil is increased over #ej per cent4--,i speak from the point of view of bunker weight4 ,again1 one ton of oil occupies considerably less space than an equivalent weight of coal1 while this advantage can be materially increased--as is now the usual practice--by carrying the fuel oil in double-bottom tanks4 ,then the bunkering question is one of vital moment4 ,fuel oil can be taken on board under far cleaner conditions1 and at a greatly accelerated rate1 than would be possible with coal4 ,there is no arduous manual labour required4 ,once the hose connections have been made1 the fuel oil is pumped on board at the rate of hundreds of tons an hour1 and a few hours suffice to re-fuel our largest battleship4 ,but it is when bunkering at sea is required that fuel oil further emphasizes its immense advantages4 ,this question was some years ago one of the problems of naval strategy3 to-day it is regularly carried out in the simplest possible fashion1 hose connections to a standing-by oil tanker being all that is required4 ,another advantage of fuel oil is that materially increased speed can rapidly be attained1 for1 with fuel oil fired furnaces1 the ship's boilers can be forced to nearly #ej per cent4 above normal rating without that great strain on the personnel which would be essential in burning coal under forced draught4 ,then there is the great saving of labour effected when burning fuel oil1 the stokehold staffs being reduced by quite #ij per cent4 ,the fuel oil is automatically fed to the furnaces and mechanically fired1 the maximum heat of the oil burners being attained within a few minutes of starting4 ,but the absence of smoke when the battleship is proceeding at full speed is1 perhaps1 one of the most important advantages which the use of fuel oil gives to the units of the fleets employing it4 ,the emission of dense volumes of smoke1 which are ever present on a coal-fired vessel1 is quite absent when fuel oil is used1 and this advantage is twofold1 for not only does it prevent the giving away of the location of the battleship1 but it also renders its own gun-fire more efficient4 ,the advantages attendant upon the use of fuel oil for naval vessels are1 in the main1 also strikingly apparent when oil is adopted for the mercantile marine4 ,it is many years ago since the oil tankers of the 8,shell0 ,transport and ,trading ,company1 ,ltd41 commenced to do the voyage regularly from the ,far ,east to this country and back without an intermediate port of call4 ,to-day1 practically every oil tanker afloat burns fuel oil4 ,but1 of recent date1 fuel oil has reached wider application by reason of its being adopted on many cargo and passenger vessels1 and1 had the ,european ,war not considerably hampered ordinary shipbuilding construction1 we should have seen ere this a number of the largest vessels crossing the ,atlantic exclusively running on oil4 ,in fact1 arrangements have been made whereby many of our ,transatlantic lines will operate exclusively on fuel oil1 which will be taken on board in the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,taking ,,oil ,,fuel ,,supplies ,,on ,,board ,my friend1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,kermode1 of ,liverpool--the well-known fuel oil expert--has taken the most prominent part in calling general attention to the immense superiority of fuel oil over coal1 and it is due to this gentleman's untiring energies that not only does our ,navy to-day use fuel oil to such an extent1 but that those responsible for ocean passenger transport have taken the matter up so seriously4 ,there are three general headings under which fuel oil use will affect transport costs4 ,they are as follow3 7a7 by increased passenger or cargo capacity1 7b7 by increased speed1 and 7c7 by a great reduction in running costs4 ,as to the increased capacity1 ,i have already shown that fuel oil can be stored in considerably less space than coal1 and the simplicity of both bunkering fuel oil1 and using it on vessels1 has also been touched upon4 ,with reference to the increased speed which vessels utilizing fuel oil can attain over those running on coal1 ,i have a concrete example in front of me4 ,two sister ships of the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company--the ,san ,dunstano and the ,san ,eduardo--each of #i1jjj tons deadweight capacity1 are fitted to burn coal and fuel oil respectively4 ,upon a trip carried out under careful observation1 the weight of fuel consumed worked out as two to three in favour of fuel oil1 while the indicated horse-power developed showed an #ah per cent4 improvement in the case of the oil-fired vessel4 ,but the striking fact of the comparison is that the ,san ,eduardo made the round voyage to ,mexico--out and home--eight days quicker than the other1 this additional speed being solely due to the fact that with fuel oil it was possible to maintain consistent speed throughout the voyage--an impossible matter when coal is consumed4 ,if space permitted1 ,i could enumerate many cases where the results in favour of fuel oil are even more strikingly apparent1 but ,i will content myself by briefly referring to calculations made by ,mr4 ,kermode1 based upon voyages of our largest liners3 they are sufficiently interesting and suggestive to record here4 ,on an average1 says ,mr4 ,kermode1 to maintain a speed of #be knots1 #e1ejj tons of coal are consumed upon the voyage between ,liverpool and ,new ,york by one of the mammoth liners2 or #aa1jjj tons for the round trip4 ,some #c1cjj tons of fuel oil--which could be stored if necessary 7and as will frequently be done in the future7 in the double bottom of the vessel--would1 by automatic stoking1 do even more work than #e1ejj tons of coal4 ,calculating the daily consumption of #fjj tons of coal now used for #bd hours1 this represents about #b1jjj tons less fuel on a five days' trip1 land to land run1 or #d1jjj tons less1 out and home4 ,the utilizing of the vacant space thus saved for merchandise would bring in a very handsome income4 ,of the #cab firemen and trimmers now employed for a coal-fired liner1 #bhe might be dispensed with1 and occupation found for them under healthier conditions ashore1 say in handling the additional cargo which would be carried4 ,the saved accommodation in this respect could be allotted to third-class passengers1 of whom at least another #bej could be carried4 ,our mammoth liners are fitted with #aib furnaces in order to produce #fh1jjj horse-power 7as was the case of the ,mauretania and the ,lusitania71 and1 on the assumption that thirty-two fires are cleaned every watch1 #aj1jjj indicated horse-power is lost every four hours through burning down and cleaning1 a quite unnecessary operation with fuel oil4 ,figures such as these show the startling possibilities of fuel oil for marine purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,liquid ,,fuel ,,burners ,,the ,,kermode ,,steam ,,burner ,illustration3 ,,kermode',s ,,air ,,jet ,,burner ,in the steam burner1 the oil enters through ,b1 the valve ,g giving it a whirling motion4 ,the steam goes round the cone ,a4 ,f is the air cone1 the amount of air being adjusted by the openings ,d by means of a perforated strap ,e4 ,in the air jet burner the oil enters at ,a4 ,the previously heated air enters at the branches ,b and ,c1 and as the air passes ,c it meets the oil as it passes the control valve operated by ,e4 ,but it is on land1 as well as on sea1 that we find fuel oil rapidly making headway1 for1 as far back as #ahhi1 hundreds of the ,russian locomotives went over to the burning of a petroleum residue4 ,this was the first practical application of fuel oil for railway haulage4 ,to-day1 nearly #ej1jjj1jjj barrels of fuel oil are consumed annually by the various railroads in the ,united ,states1 and1 according to the official figures ,i have of the total mileage of fuel oil for the past twelve months1 the ,united ,states oil-burning locomotives did journeys aggregating over #ade1jjj1jjj miles4 ,mr4 ,hall1 of the ,american ,international ,railway ,fuel ,association1 is responsible for the statement that1 owing to the fact that the steaming capacity of the engines is materially increased1 a locomotive running on fuel oil can haul a load of considerably greater tonnage and at a much increased speed than would be possible with a coal-fired engine4 ,many ,continental railways use fuel oil rather than coal2 the ,roumanian and ,austrian ,state ,railways1 the ,western ,railway of ,france1 the ,paris and ,orleans ,railway1 being a few of the principal4 ,so far as ,england is concerned1 the use of fuel oil has not made great headway1 for the reason that1 while on the one hand1 the majority of our great railway systems pass through the coal-producing fields1 there has1 on the other hand1 until recently been an absence of organization for the supply of fuel oil4 ,the ,great ,eastern ,railway many years ago successfully ran oil-fired locomotives4 ,it is evident that oil fuel will be increasingly used in the future for locomotive purposes1 and at the time of writing--,december1 #aiai--the ,l4 and ,n4,w4 ,railway are carrying out experiments on express engines1 with a view to being able to some extent to discard coal4 ,in our industrial life of to-day there are a vast number of instances where fuel oil is rapidly displacing coal3 the oil-fired furnace has been brought to a stage of perfection1 and is being extensively and increasingly employed both in this country and abroad in regard to metallurgical and industrial processes4 ,without going into detail respecting the numerous spheres in which the new fuel finds profitable employment it is safe to say that these are being extended every year4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,fuel ,,for ,,marine ,,purposes ,arrangement of heaters1 filters and pumps for burning oil fuel for marine purposes4 ,the installation is that of the ,wallsend-,howden pressure system4 ,a wealth of inventive effort has been bestowed in the perfection of the burners employed to consume fuel oil4 ,leaving aside for the moment the principles governing the use of oil in the internal combustion engines of the ,diesel or semi-,diesel type1 fuel oil used for the production of power is introduced into the furnace in the form of a spray1 this being accomplished by atomizing the oil in its passage through a specially designed burner4 ,of these burners1 there are numerous makes upon the market1 each of which possesses its own characteristics and advantages4 ,the one feature common to all fuel oil burners is the arrangement for atomizing the oil fuel into a fine spray1 so that each particle of fuel shall receive sufficient oxygen to ensure its complete combustion4 ,theoretically1 it requires about #ad lb4 of air to effect the combustion of #a lb4 of oil1 and on the thorough combustion of the fuel oil depends the efficiency of the furnace4 ,there are three distinct methods by which the atomization is brought about1 and each of these means possesses its advantages and limitations4 ,by one method1 the fuel oil is atomized by the use of steam2 by the second method1 compressed air is used2 while a third system--that of applying pressure to the oil supply itself--is sometimes adopted4 ,steam is the method usually employed for stationary boilers and locomotives1 for it is the simplest to manipulate1 and does not call for the employment of auxiliary apparatus in the shape of air compressors or oil pumps1 but most industrial oil furnaces work on compressed air1 which gives exceptionally good results4 ,there is no doubt that1 with the use of compressed air1 say admitted at a pressure of #hj lb41 a saving in fuel oil is shown over using steam at similar pressure1 but the cost of the compressing plant1 which must be taken into consideration1 is sufficient to wipe out the greater part of this advantage4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,scarab0 ,,oil ,,burner ,with respect to the use of the fuel oil direct under pressure1 this system generally involves the heating of the fuel oil1 as well as its filtration1 the fuel being supplied under pressure by means of pumps4 ,the system is extensively employed at the present time on marine boilers operating with forced or induced draught1 and1 in this connection1 the ,wallsend system stands pre-eminent4 ,since writing the first edition of this little volume considerable advance has been made in connection with the use of oil fuel for general power-raising purposes1 and much of this expansion has been consequent upon the introduction of a new burner--the 8,scarab0--which is here illustrated4 ,it is the invention of ,lieut4-,col4 ,macdonald1 and is the outcome of the war4 ,when the ,lieut4-,colonel was on service in ,mesopotamia1 he recognized the possibilities of oil fuel1 for while wood and coal were being transported from ,india at great cost1 oil was running to waste on the neighbouring fields of the ,anglo ,persian ,oil ,company4 ,the ,lieut4-,colonel therefore introduced a method of cooking by oil fuel1 and immediately on his return to ,england he carried out experiments which led to the introduction of the 8,scarab0 burner4 ,it is a simple contrivance1 and is practically fool-proof1 since there are really no parts to get out of order4 ,the oil fuel flows through a tube by gravity1 while another tube carries air compressed to about #aj lbs4 pressure4 ,the oil and air meet some inches distant from the mouth of the burner1 and the combustion of the fuel1 which is turned into a finely atomised spray1 is complete4 ,experiments have been made with the burner for domestic purposes1 and it has been adopted already in several ,london hotels for cooking purposes1 though its general application is practically unlimited4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,petroleum ,,as ,a ,,lighting ,,and ,,cooking ,,agent ,from times immemorial1 petroleum has been utilized as a lighting agent4 ,fifteen hundred years ago we have records of its use in the ,far ,eastern countries1 and in the seventh century one of the ,emperors of ,japan ordered that his temples should be illuminated by the sacred oil light4 ,and from that long distant date to the present times1 petroleum has played a not insignificant part in the provision of artificial light throughout the world4 ,for centuries1 petroleum1 as a means of artificial light1 had the field to itself1 and1 though the ,ancients consumed large quantities for lighting purposes1 the apparatus used for burning the oil were of a most primitive type1 giving results which to-day would be considered far from satisfactory4 ,about the middle of the last century1 when the petroleum industry was making steady advance in several ,european countries1 and a little later1 when the ,united ,states entered upon its era of oil progress1 there was marked development in the use of oil for lighting purposes4 ,the more modern oil lamp was introduced1 and it is worthy of record that in one year alone over fifty patents were taken out in the ,united ,states for oil lamp improvements4 ,the ,germans1 too1 were not behind in this respect2 in fact1 it is very largely due to the numerous ,german improvements that the general governing principles of present-day oil lamps became so popular4 ,there is no doubt that the ordinary oil lamp has often been1 and still is1 unjustifiably condemned for certain defects which are not inherent in it4 ,it necessarily demands attention if it is to give a satisfactory light1 but1 unfortunately1 this attention is not adequately bestowed upon it1 and complaints are the result4 ,i have frequently argued that1 just as it is possible with inattention to make the most improved pattern of oil lamp operate unsatisfactorily1 so is it possible1 with a little care and common sense1 to get a really good and satisfactory light from the cheapest oil lamp obtainable4 ,in days gone by1 the quality of the oil was1 in many cases1 unsuitable for burning in the ordinary lamps2 its lighting power was very inferior1 and it gave off a distinctly unpleasant smell4 ,to-day1 however1 the illuminating oil sold throughout the world is a first-class article1 and its flash-point has been so raised that it can be used freely without there being any suggestion of its lack of safety4 ,one still hears of the 8dangerous0 paraffin lamp1 but1 to all intents and purposes1 whatever danger was attendant upon the use of oil lamps has long ago departed1 though1 of course1 care must always be exercised1 a remark which naturally applies to every illuminant4 ,it is not within my province to give a series of hints to the ordinary user of illuminating oil1 but it is well to draw attention to a point which is frequently overlooked3 that is1 to see that lamps should be kept well filled4 ,it has been established that the light from an oil lamp is greatly affected by the quantity of oil in the reservoir4 ,an increase of #bj per cent4 can be secured in the illuminating power of the lamp if only the oil is kept to a good level in the container4 ,this is due to the assistance given to the capillary action of the wick by the higher level4 ,the advent of gas1 and1 at a later period1 electric current1 for illuminating purposes has1 to an extent1 restricted the use of oil as an illuminant1 yet the reader will be surprised to learn that at least #b1jjj1jjj oil lamps are nightly lighted throughout ,great ,britain4 ,the inhabitants of the majority of our villages have to fall back upon oil lamps after nightfall1 and even in remote spots where enterprising gas companies have laid gas mains large numbers still keep faith with oil1 no doubt by reason of its cheapness in normal times4 ,the greatest improvement made in regard to oil lighting has been in connection with the introduction of the incandescent mantle4 ,as a result of this innovation1 several elaborate designs of lamps have been placed on the market1 and to-day oil is frequently used in large residences in preference to the more modern illuminants4 ,this is due1 without doubt1 to the fact that oil light is particularly soft1 and1 while giving a great illuminating power when consumed under the best conditions1 lacks that dazzling brilliancy which causes injury to the eyes4 ,one of the earliest methods of utilizing petroleum under an incandescent mantle was the ,kitson system1 according to which illuminating oil is compressed to about #ej lb4 per square inch in a suitable vessel1 forced through a soft brass tube of very small bore into a heating chamber1 and1 subsequently1 through a needle orifice to a ,bunsen burner4 ,the ,kitson system1 which has found many adherents in the ,united ,kingdom and abroad1 is particularly adapted for lighthouse illumination1 and in such cases where large units are essential4 ,it is interesting to record the fact that for some time one of ,london's main ,west-end thoroughfares was illuminated by incandescent oil lamps1 and1 though they are now superseded1 no tangible reason was given as to why these highly economical means of illumination were ever removed4 ,space forbids my referring to the various designs of oil lamps on the ,english market to-day3 they may be counted by their hundreds1 while still a larger number of those which have either been unsuccessful or have found no sale may be found in the records of the ,patent ,office4 ,during comparatively recent times1 devices have been brought forward whereby remarkably good results have been achieved by the use of gaseous vapour for portable lamps4 ,in these cases1 motor spirit is vapourized and used under an incandescent mantle4 ,the best known of these lamps is the 8,petrolite40 ,in this lamp1 a porous stone is impregnated with suitable hydrocarbons--motor spirit--and a current of air is introduced1 the necessary draught being provided by the use of a fairly long chimney4 ,the great advantage of the 8,petrolite0 lamp is that of its perfect safety1 for if by any chance the lamp becomes overturned and the chimney displaced or broken1 the draught ceases1 and with it1 the generation of the inflammable vapour2 the lamp1 therefore1 immediately going out4 ,but while this method of utilizing motor spirit for illuminating purposes has been adopted to a very large extent by means of portable lamps1 a greater field has been developed both in this and other countries in connection with the domestic and industrial use of petrol air-gas for lighting purposes4 ,these apparatus in the main possess but slight differences4 ,the essential principle of each is that motor spirit is carburetted and then1 in the form of an oil gas1 conducted through pipes in the same manner as coal gas is burned1 to the rooms in which it is required4 ,the carburetted air-gas is automatically produced1 and the small cost at which these automatic plants can be supplied has rendered this system of lighting deservedly popular4 ,its great economy also is an important point1 for #a gallon of motor spirit will yield almost #cj cubic feet of vapour4 ,this vapour1 in order to form a lighting agent1 is mixed to the extent of over #ih per cent4 air and less than #b per cent4 petrol vapour1 so that #a gallon of motor spirit will produce1 approximately1 #a1ejj cubic feet of air-gas4 ,the plants1 which are usually worked by a small hot-air engine 7or1 alternately1 by the use of weights71 supply only the demand created1 and their control is automatic perfection4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,anglo-,,american ,,oil ,,company',s ,,oil ,,cooker ,to-day1 petroleum plays quite an important part in heating arrangements1 and several stoves are upon the market which burn the ordinary illuminating oil4 ,the prettily designed heating stoves of the 8,perfection0 or 8,reform0 make are largely in use1 the efficacy and economy of these being responsible for their popularity4 ,various makes of oil cookers are also in large demand4 ,these range from the small variety like the 8,primus0 stove1 which burns illuminating oil under pressure1 to the oil cooking stoves of the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 which are quite competent to meet the requirements of practically any household4 ,these latter stoves consume illuminating oil by means of the circular wick arrangement1 and are in several sizes1 one of the best being that containing three lighters4 ,two of these are under the oven1 and one at the end can be used for boiling purposes4 ,speaking from several years' experience of these stoves1 ,i can say that they are truly perfection4 ,they are very economical1 are easily cleaned1 and when in full operation give off not the slightest odour4 ,the oven is more readily heated than with the coal gas apparatus1 and the properly diffused heat cooks all kinds of food most readily and perfectly4 ,the illustration of the stove given on the preceding page will afford the reader a good idea of the apparatus1 which deserves to be even more popular than it is at present4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engines ,in no other sphere of employment has petroleum made such rapid strides during the past two or three decades as those recorded in connection with its use in internal combustion engines1 and one of the most interesting features of modern mechanical engineering is their development4 ,the advent and immediate popularity of this kind of engine has been responsible for some of the most remarkable conquests of mankind over the forces of ,nature1 for it has brought into being the automobile1 the aeroplane1 the dirigible airship1 and a host of other inventions4 ,it has also been responsible for quite a new departure in ocean transport1 for experiments have proved that the largest vessels can be very economically operated by means of the internal combustion engine4 ,it might1 by way of introduction1 be well to explain for the benefit of the uninitiated1 the meaning of the term 8,internal combustion engine40 ,as most of my readers are well aware1 the steam1 or1 rather1 to be exact1 the highly heated water vapour which drives the steam engine1 is supplied from boilers which are heated by the burning of coal1 oil fuel1 or1 sometimes1 gas1 and such engines might1 therefore1 be called 8external combustion engines10 since the fuel is consumed in apparatus external to the engine proper4 ,such a term1 however1 is not in use amongst engineers1 and might raise a superior sort of smile if used in their presence4 ,it will be readily seen from the foregoing that a great deal of weight and apparatus of some complication is required before the water vapour which drives the steam engine can even be provided4 ,in the case of the internal combustion engine1 the fuel 7motor spirit or the heavier oils7 is introduced directly into the engine and there vapourized and mixed with air so as to form an explosive mixture1 so that all boilers1 with the necessarily complicated systems of piping1 etc41 are done away with4 ,it needs no imagination to understand the enormous saving of weight and space resulting from this elimination of the boiler1 and of the room which it would occupy4 ,the latter-day demands for the provision of lighter and yet lighter1 as well as space-saving propelling machinery for submarines1 airships1 aeroplanes1 motor-cars1 etc41 especially during the war1 have enormously stimulated the development of the engine which consumes its own fuel1 and which is known as the internal combustion engine4 ,a very wide field has thus been opened out for the exercise of the engineer's ingenuity1 and he has availed himself to the full of the opportunities thus created1 never failing to rise to the occasion when fresh demands have been made upon him4 ,in these circumstances1 it is not at all surprising to find that numerous firms have given considerable attention to the manufacture of the internal combustion class of engine1 and many varieties1 for a multiplicity of purposes1 are upon the market4 ,the limits of space effectively prevent my detailing the list of even the largest manufacturers2 ,i will therefore content myself by referring to but one firm--,messrs4 ,vickers1 ,ltd4--who are now the largest manufacturers in the ,kingdom4 ,this progressive firm has grappled with the internal combustion engine problem from the earliest stages of the petrol engine to the latest forms of the heavy oil engine and its remarkable developments1 and a large section of their establishment at ,barrow-in-,furness is1 and has long been1 set aside exclusively for the design and manufacture of the heavy oil internal combustion engine4 ,a very large staff of expert engineers has been selected for the work1 while experiments with a view to improvements being effected in details are continually being conducted in the establishment4 ,the result is that the development of this engine at the ,barrow works has been attended with the highest success1 a fact which is not widely known to the general public4 ,i take it as a great compliment that permission has been given me in this book to refer somewhat in detail to the achievements of ,messrs4 ,vickers1 ,ltd41 in this respect1 for1 hitherto1 publicity in connection with this section of the firm's operations has been strictly withheld4 ,one of the latest and1 it might well be said1 the most important developments in connection with ,messrs4 ,vickers' activities1 is the ,vickers patent system of fuel injection1 which enables an engine of the ,diesel type 7that is1 using heavy oil7 to be successfully run without the use of an air compressor for injecting the fuel into the engine4 ,before the introduction of this system1 an air compressor1 with its attendant complication and weight1 had to be used for the introduction of the fuel into the engine4 ,the elimination of this compressor has resulted in considerable economy in weight1 space1 and attendance1 which1 it will readily be seen1 is a step in the right direction1 whilst the efficiency of the engine has also been improved4 ,the disadvantages attendant upon the use of the air compressor were early comprehended by ,messrs4 ,vickers1 and they have spared no efforts 7nor expense7 in developing the system which has led to its elimination4 ,the reader will require no knowledge of the subject to understand that the question of fuel consumption is one of the highest importance in any engine system1 and1 in regard to this point1 ,messrs4 ,vickers have made a special study1 with the result that whilst the ordinary consumption in a ,diesel engine with air compressor is #da lb4 brake horse-power an hour 7or #ahd grammes par force de cheval71 that firm have been able to reach the low figure of #cgf lbs4 ,b4,h4,p4 an hour 7or #agj grammes par force de cheval74 ,as one might expect1 ,messrs4 ,vickers1 in bringing their engine to its present state of perfection1 have1 perforce1 had a varied experience with fuel oils--and a considerable one1 too1--for they have experimented with oils from all the well-known producing fields1 and find that1 under their system1 practically any fuel oil which can be made to flow may be utilized in their engines--a fact which1 in its importance1 speaks for itself4 ,the physical properties of the oils used by them have1 naturally1 differed very considerably4 ,for instance1 specific gravities have varied from #haj to #iej flash points from #ajj ,fahr41 to upwards of #bej ,fahr41 whilst the viscosities1 which the lay mind might well be excused for thinking of as 8degrees of stickiness10 have varied from that of the ordinary kerosene 7illuminating oil7 to the thick asphaltic fuel oil which comes from ,mexico4 ,readers may judge from this of the painstaking and difficult experiments that have been carried out in the ,barrow works4 ,the advantages derivable from the use of the ,vickers system could not1 obviously1 be withheld from general use1 and the firm have upwards of twenty licensees now manufacturing internal combustion engines under their designs4 ,this fact1 though not familiar to 8the man in the street10 is known in the manufacturing world4 ,illustration3 #ijj ,b4,h4,p4 ,,low ,,duty ,,vickers ,,engine ,,for ,,oil ,,tank ,,vessels ,illustration3 ,,back ,,view ,,of ,,engine ,already a very large number of their engines have been constructed1 the approximate brake horse-power produced by same being upwards of #ccg1fjj4 ,these engines are of various sizes1 ranging from #bjj to #b1jjj horse-power4 ,the cylinders vary in diameter from #aj to #bi inches1 and are arranged to work in groups to suit the power required1 and may be either two-stroke or four-stroke cycle4 ,the high temperatures set up in starting the engine are sufficient to ignite the fuel1 the introduction of which in a finely-divided condition has been the object of so many experiments at ,barrow2 and so successful in this direction have ,messrs4 ,vickers been that they are now able to deal satisfactorily1 by careful adjustments of the engine to suit the various fuels1 with the most troublesome oils4 ,as already referred to1 the elimination of the air compressor constitutes the chief improvement embodied in the ,vickers type of engine1 seeing that the greatest worry which the ,diesel engineer has had to encounter has been this very compressor4 ,needless to remark1 therefore1 this feature alone strongly recommends the new system to the experienced man4 ,further1 the power required to drive the compressor above-mentioned is considerable1 so that economy is not one of the least results due to its absence4 ,the principal advantages that can be claimed for the ,vickers engine may be summarized as under-- #a4 ,safety in working4 7,many accidents have been due to the use of the air compressor47 #b4 ,weight is saved4 #c4 ,space is saved4 #d4 ,lower air compression in the cylinders for ignition1 and economy in air for starting the engine4 #e4 ,reduction in first costs2 and #f4 ,reduction in upkeep expenses4 ,illustration3 #ijj ,b4,h4,p4 ,,high ,,duty ,,reversing ,,engine ,,for ,,light ,,craft ,illustration3 #a1bej ,b4,h4,p4 ,,low ,,duty ,,vickers ,,marine ,,engine ,,for ,,oil ,,tank ,,vessel ,with regard to 7#d71 the low compression claimed is rather interesting1 as ,messrs4 ,vickers have successfully demonstrated that1 although a high compression temperature is necessary in the ordinary ,diesel engine with the usual air spraying compressor1 a much lower degree suffices for their mechanical injection system1 whilst there is a greater certainty of ignition of the fuel on its first introduction1 even with the existence of lower compression in the cylinder4 ,the reason of this is that the spraying air used in the ordinary ,diesel is usually compressed to about #fj atmospheres 7#ijj lb4 per square inch74 ,what happens when air spraying is practised is this4 ,when the cold air carrying the very high pressure above mentioned enters the cylinder1 it necessarily expands1 owing to the lower temperature already existent there1 and such expansion chills the whole mixture1 frequently preventing ignition on the first introduction of the fuel4 ,under the ,vickers system of mechanical fuel injection1 there is1 of course1 no introduction of very highly compressed air1 and1 consequently1 first ignition is rendered easier4 ,from this1 it will at once be seen that an oil possessing a high flash point can be more easily burned in the ,vickers engine than in the ordinary ,diesel1 with the necessary adjunct of an air compressor4 ,provision is also made 7should the type of fuel used require it7 for a higher temperature of compression1 and such oils are1 therefore1 much more easily dealt with than in the ordinary ,diesel engine4 ,from what ,i have already said1 it will be evident to the reader that it is only a question of time for air spraying1 with its attendant use of the compressor1 to become a thing of the past4 ,the mechanism involved by the adoption of the new system of fuel injection developed by ,messrs4 ,vickers is exceptionally simple4 ,it consists of a small fuel pump1 such as is ordinarily used for pumping fuel1 a reservoir or accumulator of novel form to retain the charge1 and a valve with a special nozzle to admit the fuel in the form of a fine spray into the cylinder4 ,the accumulator1 ,i may here mention1 is merely a tube1 flattened slightly on the sides1 and of sufficient length1 when the oil is forced into it1 to enable it to yield and store up a charge of fuel at the required high pressure1 as explained in the next paragraph4 ,the principal feature of the system 7and the secret of its great success7 is the very high pressure at which the oil is injected into the cylinder4 ,this pressure is kept up at about #d1jjj lb4 the square inch1 so that the oil fuel1 when it enters the cylinder and encounters the hot compressed air therein1 is in the form of a very finely atomized mist1 a conjunction of circumstances most favourable for ignition4 ,as in all great inventions1 the simplicity of the arrangement is not the least of its merits4 ,this somewhat rough1 yet brief1 outline will suffice to explain the astonishing success of the ,vickers heavy oil engine1 but1 if the whole history of these 7and other7 noteworthy experiments could be written1 a highly interesting story would be produced1 showing indomitable perseverance in the face of discouragement1 difficulty1 and very heavy expense4 ,i have avoided touching upon the ordinary kerosene engines1 for ,i imagine they are too well known to need more than passing reference here2 nor have ,i gone into the details concerning the advent of the ordinary ,diesel engine1 which was a ,german invention4 ,i have preferred rather to deal with a ,british invention which is already revolutionizing oil engine construction generally1 and which1 obviously1 has limitless fields open to it4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,petroleum ,,in ,,england ,there will be no chapter in this little treatise which will be more carefully perused than the present one1 for the subject is of direct interest to every reader1 whether actually associated with the search for oil or not4 ,to-day1 as ,i have already mentioned in another chapter1 this country is dependent for practically the whole of its petroleum requirements upon foreign oil-producing countries1 and though ample evidence is forthcoming to suggest that there are possibilities of obtaining liquid oil in ,england--in fact1 many years ago this was actually obtained in not inconsiderable quantities--it is very strange that only recently have serious efforts been made in the direction of systematic search for the valuable liquid4 ,that large quantities of petroleum can be produced in this country is agreed by all who have given the subject more than passing thought2 the question is1 by what means shall this production be brought about4 ,while it is problematical as to the amount of commercial success which will attend the present search for liquid oil1 though those who are most competent to judge believe that large stores of liquid oil will be found1 it is already certain that there are vast possibilities in ,england for the production of petroleum from the treatment of the bituminous shales which freely abound in many parts4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the subject really divides itself under two heads1 and it is with the first of these--that of the possibilities of finding liquid oil reserves in commercial quantity in this country--that ,i will now proceed to deal4 ,for this purpose1 it is better that we divide the country into three zones--western1 middle1 and eastern4 ,the western zone will include the whole of ,england between the third meridian of ,west ,longitude and the ,irish ,sea1 the ,bristol ,channel1 and the ,north ,atlantic4 ,it will be bounded on the north by a line running near ,whitehaven to the mouth of the ,river ,tees1 and having the ,english ,channel as its southern boundary4 ,in this zone1 the most northern occurrence of petroleum is found at ,whitehaven1 ,cumberland1 and the next is found on the ,lancashire coast4 ,other indications are to be found in ,denbighshire and in the northern part of the ,south ,wales coalfield4 ,the occurrences of petroleum in what may be described as the middle zone are far more important and numerous than those of the western zone4 ,they are important in the physical conditions to which they are subordinate1 and in their greater productiveness4 ,they are more numerous1 and their geological position is more in direct relationship with later dynamical alterations in the rock structures4 ,in this zone occurs the most important occurrence which has so far been recorded--,i refer to that at ,alfreton1 in ,derbyshire--for it was from this natural flow of petroleum over #gj years ago that ,dr4 ,young1 the founder of the ,scottish shale oil industry1 manufactured paraffin wax4 ,near ,chesterfield is also unmistakable evidence of the presence of liquid oil at depth1 for considerable quantities have flowed from the workings at the ,southgate ,colliery4 ,in this middle zone1 too1 are the occurrences of petroleum found near ,wigan and ,west ,leigh1 while flows of oil are recorded from several spots round ,barnsley and ,ilkeston4 ,the petroleum find at ,kelham1 near ,newark1 some few years ago1 is important for the reason that the drill in this case1 at a depth of somewhere about #b1djj feet1 struck true petroliferous sands1 underlain by dark1 waxy shales4 ,the oil rock has been proved to consist of loose1 coarsely grained sand1 having all the features of strata in which petroleum is ordinarily met with4 ,the great value of this boring is that it has demonstrated the fact1 so long doubted by many of the best geological authorities in ,great ,britain1 that all the geological conditions1 dynamical as well as historical1 are present in this locality for the formation and subsequent retention of liquid petroleum1 and that1 as ,dr4 ,william ,forbes-,leslie puts it1 despite all contention to the contrary1 a true oil-field exists in ,england4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 however1 ,north ,staffordshire alone1 among all the places in ,england1 has the distinction of so far having produced liquid petroleum in sufficient quantity for refining purposes4 ,it was in #ahgd that oil was discovered in a seam of coal in one of the pits of the ,mear ,hay ,collieries1 ,longton1 and a contract was ultimately made with a ,mr4 ,william ,walker1 ,senr41 of ,hanley1 who erected plant at ,cobridge for the purpose of refining the oil4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,walker for the following facts1 though in a general way ,i have full corroboration for them1 for it was within a couple of miles from the collieries that ,i was born and spent my earlier days4 ,the seam of coal wherein the oil was discovered was one of the deeper seams1 and by no means one of the best in the district4 ,at that time1 the flow produced more than #e tons of crude oil per week1 and inasmuch as ,england then was not inundated with ,american petroleums1 great possibilities were seen in the discovery4 ,but almost before the refining of the crude had settled down to be a commercial undertaking1 the plans of operation were upset1 for a serious explosion occurred at the colliery1 which rendered necessary the closing of the pit4 ,twelve months later1 however1 they were re-opened1 and after the re-sinking had proceeded awhile1 the oil was found far up the shaft1 and in due course the shaft was cleared and the mines re-opened4 ,refining operations were resumed and continued for a year or two1 when the pits had to be closed on account of the shafts shrinking4 ,however1 in the course of a number of years1 petroleum appeared in another colliery less than a mile from the ,mear ,hay ,colliery1 and again ,mr4 ,walker secured the contract for the whole of the output4 ,the quantity of crude oil found was several tons weekly1 and a large stock had accumulated when ,mr4 ,walker's attention was drawn to this new find4 ,this time1 the supply continued for a longer period1 and then again the seam of coal in which the deposit occurred had to be abandoned4 ,thus1 while the resources of this part of the ,charnian axis have not been properly tested--for1 in the opinion of the colliery owners1 it is not possible profitably to work coal and oil at the same time--there is ample evidence to suggest that1 in the not distant future1 there may be most interesting oil developments in this part of ,north ,staffordshire4 ,the eastern zone of the country doubtless furnishes the most interesting petroleum occurrences in ,england4 ,here1 the interest does not so much depend upon the number of escapes1 as upon the promising geological conditions subserving the production and possible retention of petroleum4 ,according to the investigations of ,dr4 ,w4 ,forbes-,leslie1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 whose valuable contribution on the subject of the occurrence of petroleum in ,england forms one of the most important papers ever read before the ,institution of ,petroleum ,technologists1 the northern line of oil occurrences runs from ,filey1 north-westerly1 the principal finds being located at ,filey1 ,pickering1 and ,kirby ,moorside4 ,oil1 too1 has been found at ,brigg1 in ,lincolnshire1 at ,market-,rasen1 ,haugmont1 and ,donnington-on-,bain4 ,the line of oil occurrences starts at ,king's ,lynn1 on the ,wash1 and runs south-westwards as far as ,cottenham1 in ,cambridgeshire1 the principal occurrences being at ,king's ,lynn1 ,downham1 ,littleport1 and ,ely4 ,the information obtained by the bore-hole at ,kelham1 to which ,i have already referred1 is a factor of great value when taken into consideration and applied to an analytical review of the petroleum seepages in ,england4 ,it is a positive proof that a true oil-bearing stratum underlies the surface rocks1 at any rate1 in one part of the ,british ,isles1 and1 when it is considered in relation with the surface position of the oil escapes on the eastern flank of the ,pennine ,chain1 it suggests a possible connection between those underground sources of oil and those surface escapes which are scattered1 seemingly at such random1 along the ,pennines4 ,the attempts which were made but a few years ago to develop the possibilities of the ,heathfield district of ,sussex1 with a view to obtaining commercial quantities of natural gas1 were also prompted with the idea of maybe striking deposits of liquid petroleum1 though it is doubtful1 both from a geological point of view1 and from the nature of the natural gas which is there in abundance1 whether liquid oil will be met with in that part of the country4 ,what has been established1 however1 is the fact that large quantities of natural gas are to be found in this delightful part of rural ,sussex1 and it is a great pity that the necessary enterprise has not been forthcoming to permit of a really serious development4 ,some years ago1 ,i motored an ,american oil-man over the gas-fields of ,heathfield1 and he assured me that1 if such evidences were found in the ,states1 there would immediately be a great boom1 and finance would freely flow in to stimulate development4 ,but not so with ,heathfield1 for the opinion is freely held that this field is too near our midst for real speculative enterprise4 ,remove it to the wilds of ,russia1 and ,british finance would appreciate the immense potentialities which to-day lie dormant4 ,for those readers who are1 perhaps1 not conversant with the history of the ,heathfield gas developments it is well to record the fact that attention to these deposits was drawn years ago1 when a well was being drilled for water on the property of the ,brighton and ,south ,coast ,railway1 near the present station4 ,strong smells of gas prevented working for some time1 and as these increased it was decided that the better course would be to suspend drilling operations4 ,the tubes of the well were partially drawn out1 and the well sides caved in1 yet the gas pressure increased4 ,the well was abandoned as a water well1 but pipes were attached to the cap at the mouth1 and a steady pressure of gas was emitted4 ,it was decided that1 inasmuch as the gas burned with a pure flame1 the station should be lighted with it4 ,that was over twenty years ago1 and to-day the well is still producing1 and the station is still lighted with the natural gas1 which needs no refining4 ,not only so1 but a well-appointed hotel close by utilizes the gas for lighting and cooking4 ,a project was set on foot for sinking further wells and piping the gas to the southern coast resorts for general use1 but lack of capital prevented progress being made1 and so1 to-day1 ,heathfield1 like many other centres in the country1 awaits the attention of the carefully-directed drill to open up its underground wealth4 ,in ,august1 #aiag1 the feeling in many parts of the country that the ,government should take some action in order to develop these latent resources became so strong that a ,bill was introduced into ,parliament with this object in view4 ,no attempt was made to progress with it until the following ,october1 when a financial resolution was rejected by the ,house of ,commons on the question of royalties4 ,an amendment was adopted against the payment of royalties to the owners of surface lands who had made no attempt to obtain liquid oil1 and who1 as a matter of fact1 did not know that it was there4 ,two months later the ,petroleum 7,production7 ,bill was dropped4 ,in ,march1 #aiah1 however1 a most encouraging turn of events occurred1 for ,lord ,cowdray1 head of the great firm of ,messrs4 ,s4 ,pearson ,son1 and associated with those influential interests in oil represented by the ,mexican ,eagle ,oil ,company1 the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company1 and the ,anglo-,mexican ,petroleum ,company1 made offers to the ,government which were couched in the following terms-- 7a7 ,for the period of the war to place at the disposal of the ,government1 free of all cost1 the services of his firm and geological staff for the purpose of exploration and development4 7b7 ,if the ,government did not wish to risk public money on what had to be deemed a speculative enterprise1 ,messrs4 ,s4 ,pearson ,son were prepared to drill1 at their own risk and expense as licensees1 subject to certain areas being reserved to them4 ,the offer committed the firm to an expenditure of1 possibly1 #ejj1jjj4 ,the public spirited offer of ,lord ,cowdray was most thankfully accepted by the ,government and1 with a minimum of delay1 drilling sites were marked out for the commencement of active operations4 ,lord ,cowdray's geological staff particularly favoured the neighbourhood in ,derbyshire1 near to which ,young made his first discoveries of oil1 and ,chesterfield was selected as headquarters for the new oil developments4 ,the first oil well to be drilled in this country was commenced in ,september1 #aiah1 at ,hardstoft1 near ,pilsley1 on the ,great ,central main line between ,sheffield and ,nottingham1 and on ,tuesday1 #ahth ,october1 the inauguration of ,england's oil industry took place there in the presence of many oil notabilities4 ,american drilling machinery of the percussion type was installed and1 in view of the great depth to which it was expected the drill would have to proceed before encountering commercial quantities of oil1 the well was commenced with a diameter of #ah inches4 ,a depth of just over #c1jjj ft4 had been reached at the commencement of ,june1 #aiai1 at which depth oil production started4 ,the well was put on the pump and began its steady yield of a good grade crude oil1 the production being about fifty barrels per week4 ,up to the time of writing 7,december1 #aiai7 the well is maintaining its yield4 ,other wells have been sunk in the ,chesterfield area at ,ironville1 ,heath1 ,renishaw1 ,brimington1 ,ridgeway and in ,north ,staffordshire and ,scotland1 but so far the success met with is not promising1 though it is quite possible that commercial oil may be encountered4 ,private enterprise has also commenced the sinking of a well at ,kelham1 ,nottinghamshire1 near a site where1 many years ago1 small quantities of oil were found in an experimental coal bore4 ,here1 however1 no definite result has been attained4 ,the ,company--,the ,oilfields of ,england1 ,ltd4--is operating under a drilling license from the ,government under which the ,government may take over the properties on a valuation should commercial oil be found4 ,let us now briefly turn to the other aspect of the question of the production of petroleum in ,england--that is1 of producing oils from the treatment of the bituminous shales4 ,there are several sources from which petroleum can be obtained in this country by distillation1 and these are3 7#a7 oil-shales1 7#b7 coal1 7#c7 cannel coals and torbanites1 7#d7 blackband ironstones1 7#e7 lignite1 and 7#f7 peat4 ,though in the past the oil shales of ,england have not been recognized as possessing great potential value1 comparatively recent discoveries have proved that at home we have enormous deposits of oil shales of remarkable richness4 ,these are1 so far as at present proved1 situate in ,norfolk and at short distance from ,king's ,lynn4 ,dr4 ,forbes ,leslie1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 has for many years carried out a number of tests as to the quality and quantity of the shales in the ,norfolk field1 and as a result of his work it has been proved that upwards of twenty miles square1 there is an area in ,norfolk underlaid with rich oil-shales4 ,from a geological point of view the shales are remarkable1 for they uniformly lie within #cjj ft4 of the surface1 several of the seams being but a few feet below ground4 ,their prolific nature may be judged from the fact that in sinking test wells to depths of #cjj ft4 in various parts of the field1 over #aej ft4 of this oil shale has been drilled through1 and it is thus established beyond all possible doubt that at home we have all the materials at hand for a huge home production of oil4 ,the whole of the field has been secured by ,english ,oilfields1 ,ltd41 a company which1 by reason of the influential interest behind it1 is bound to be strikingly successful in its future developments in ,norfolk4 ,the crude oil content of the shales is surprisingly great1 for these shales yield approximately #fj gallons of oil per ton1 or considerably more than double as much as the ,midlothian shales4 ,dr4 ,forbes ,leslie asserts that there is already proved over #b1jjj1jjj1jjj tons of shale on the properties in ,norfolk1 and after having carefully inspected the whole of the fields on many occasions1 ,i think ,dr4 ,leslie's statement may be taken as very conservative1 for after all it is only a question of a simple sum of calculation which allows one to arrive at the figures above quoted4 ,commercial developments have already been commenced on the ,norfolk fields1 and it is safe to assume that they will become of enormous ,national importance1 since the production of home oil supplies is to-day considered of vast ,national interest4 ,the other shales--such as the ,kimmeridge shales of ,dorset and ,sussex--are not being worked commercially in spite of strenuous efforts1 and there remains much to be done before a steady supply of petroleum can be counted upon from these sources4 ,of the other possible sources of supply1 coal yields too little1 and at the same time is considered too valuable to be utilized on a general scale2 lignites are not yet opened for development on a sufficient scale2 and peat has proved troublesome and expensive to treat owing to the difficulty of eliminating the water4 ,this1 therefore1 leaves cannel coals1 torbanites1 and blackband ironstones1 which are closely associated and1 in numerous cases1 easily obtainable4 ,cannel coal1 ,i should explain1 differs from the ordinarily known coal on account of its being less carbonized2 it contains many fragments and particles of vegetable matter still showing their natural forms1 though flattened by pressure4 ,the percentage of hydrogen to carbon is higher in a cannel coal than in the bituminous coal1 the percentage of inorganic matter is usually higher also1 and the fracture and general appearance serve to distinguish this variety of carbonaceous deposit4 ,,chapter ,x ,,petroleum ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,empire ,the desire that the ,british ,empire should be self-supporting in every possible way has been the predominating idea of our statesmen for many years3 it is to be regretted1 however1 that such little progress has been recorded in the direction of the achievement of a practical result4 ,this remark applies to many commodities1 yet to none more so than to petroleum and its products4 ,to-day1 as much as at any preceding time1 the ,empire is dependent upon foreign sources of supply for the vast bulk of its petroleum products4 ,it is true that in the ,united ,kingdom there is a growing production of oil from the shale-fields of ,scotland1 but this total represents but a fraction of the large quantities of products which are annually required to meet the ever-increasing demands in commercial and domestic circles4 ,at the outbreak of the ,european ,war1 it was forcibly brought home to us as a nation that we were in a position regarding our petroleum supplies of absolute dependence upon other countries4 ,the refined products were an essential part of the war1 for without them it would have been impossible to have continued for almost a single day1 and yet1 practically every gallon used had to be transported thousands of miles1 and from a country which at that time was neutral4 ,to make matters even worse1 the ,continental sources of supply from which we had been previously drawing large quantities of petroleum were closed to export1 for1 through the ,dardanelles1 the ,roumanian and ,russian export ports were effectively shut off from the outside world4 ,fortunately for ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states came forward with the offer of all the petroleum products required for the successful prosecution of the war1 and we owe to the ,united ,states alone all success which has been the natural result of possessing ample requirements of petroleum products both on sea and land4 ,the fact1 nevertheless1 stands out tragically prominent that we as a nation have not developed our own oil resources in a manner we ought to have done1 although everyone conversant with the oil business has been for years advocating the giving of serious attention to this important subject4 ,to-day1 speculative drilling for petroleum is proceeding in ,england1 and it is to be hoped that some success will be ultimately recorded1 but1 inasmuch as ,i dealt with the question of ,petroleum in ,england in the previous chapter1 ,i will at the moment pass over this very interesting phase of the problem1 and briefly look at the subject from an ,empire point of view4 ,under the ,british ,flag1 we already have1 or control1 some excellent oil-fields in ,burmah1 ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,trinidad1 and ,assam1 and each producing steadily increasing quantities of crude oil4 ,the ,burmah fields have achieved fame mainly owing to the very large profits made by the chief operating company--the ,burmah ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 whose head offices are at ,glasgow4 ,these have of recent years been developed upon most up-to-date lines1 and the producing limits of the territory greatly extended1 until now the annual crude oil production is upwards of #a1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the fields of ,persia are very prolific1 and their control to-day is in the hands of the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 an influential concern largely controlled by the ,british ,government1 by reason of the investment of large sums of public moneys a few years ago4 ,the development of the ,persian fields is more or less in its initial stages1 and though huge quantities of oil have already been produced therefrom1 the limits of the presumably oil-bearing areas have by no means been defined4 ,in order to facilitate the export of ,persian oil1 a pipe-line has been laid from the fields to ,abadan1 on the ,persian ,gulf1 and a programme has already been laid down under which large quantities of ,persian petroleum products will come upon the ,english markets4 ,the ,egyptian oil-fields have lately witnessed developments upon an important scale1 thanks to the enterprise of the ,anglo-,egyptian ,oil-fields1 ,ltd41 a concern closely allied with the 8,shell0 ,combination1 and having as its ,chairman1 ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart4 ,commercial supplies of crude oil have been found at several points near the coast of the ,gulf of ,suez1 and a large refinery has been built for the refining of the oil4 ,down to #aiad1 the only oil finds of importance had been at ,gemsah1 where a number of oil gushers were struck1 but the field there proved to be one of most irregular formation1 and none of the wells gave anything like a permanent yield4 ,fortunately1 in that year a field was discovered at ,hurgada1 the formation of which was found to be singularly regular1 and the yield of which has steadily increased until1 at the time of writing1 the production of crude oil in it is over #ae1jjj tons per month4 ,that additional wells have not been sunk and the field further increased has been primarily due to the difficulties of obtaining the necessary plant under war conditions4 ,some very large wells have already been brought in1 but1 so far1 the petroleum industry in ,egypt is quite in its infancy4 ,it is quite obvious1 however1 that in the next few years the production of petroleum in ,egypt will be increasingly large1 and the developments are bound to have a significant bearing upon the oil situation generally4 ,the same remarks equally apply to the ,trinidad fields1 where the anticipations of those associated with the pioneer oil operations have been more than fulfilled4 ,some prolific fields have been opened up1 and the production to-day is such that an export trade of considerable magnitude can be maintained4 ,developments upon the ,island were impeded by the total absence of roads in the oil districts1 and much pioneer work had to be undertaken before it was possible to commence the serious exploitation of the fields themselves4 ,the crude oil of ,trinidad is of both the light and the heavy grades1 the former showing remarkable percentages of motor spirit1 while the latter is used not only as fuel oil but also for the treatment of roads so as to render them dustless4 ,it is in ,trinidad that there is the famous pitch lake1 from which for many years large quantities of asphalt have been removed and exported for a variety of purposes4 ,trinidad asphalt1 in fact1 is well known all over the world4 ,the potentialities of the ,island are rapidly being appreciated1 for its geographical position is such that would make it a practical base for the 8oiling0 of the great ocean-going vessels which are rapidly passing over from coal to fuel oil burning4 ,while on the subject of oil-fields which are under the ,british ,flag1 mention must be made of ,canada1 whose oil industry has been developed for many years4 ,the principal producing fields are in ,ontario1 and the town of ,petrolia is the centre of the petroleum interests4 ,but the wells are not of the prolific class1 and almost without exception show a very poor return for operating4 ,many of them are sunk only to the shallow strata1 and their operation would certainly be profitless were not a system employed by which quite a number of small producing wells are pumped by central power4 ,from time to time1 ,canada has experienced various oil booms1 one of the most recent being that which occurred in ,calgary1 in #aiad4 ,a well showed a small production of high-grade oils1 and immediately the country for miles round became the centre of an oil fever1 which gradually died down when a number of unsuccessful developments took place4 ,to-day1 the output of the ,canadian fields is steadily declining1 and all efforts to stimulate the production have so far failed4 ,even a ,government bounty of #a cents a gallon of oil produced has failed to encourage an increase in output1 and it is evident that1 unless new fields are opened out1 the future offers little hope4 ,the total production of petroleum to-day by the oil-fields developed in the ,british ,empire represents but about #b per cent4 of the world's total petroleum output3 it is therefore clear that1 if we intend to secure our oil supplies in the future from territory under the ,british ,flag1 large supplementary sources of supply must be found4 ,it is doubtful whether any additional liquid oil regions will be found to produce oil in commercial quantity1 for1 though several attempts have been made in various parts with this end in view1 they have not achieved success1 and numerous instances might be quoted where the employment of ,british capital in an endeavour to bring about this much desired result has met with failure4 ,the question then arises3 ,is it possible to augment considerably ,empire-produced oils from other means of development8 ,in this direction1 the future is full of promise1 for1 though ,nature has not given the ,empire freely of liquid oil-producing fields1 there are immense areas of oil-bearing shales at home and in our ,dominions overseas which can1 without great difficulty1 be turned into most useful account4 ,it is well known that great deposits of retortable material exist within the ,empire's bounds1 and many of these deposits are exceedingly rich4 ,at the moment1 however1 scarcely any have been exploited1 and none adequately developed4 ,from time to time1 many samples of oil-bearing shales from various parts of the ,empire have been sent to this country for analysis1 and these have usually been put through ,scottish retorts with varying results4 ,but the unsatisfactory analyses have not been due to the qualities of the shale or torbanite examined1 but to the methods by which the distillations were carried out4 ,the well-known consulting oil engineer--,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,cunningham-,craig--made a special point of this in a most interesting article which recently appeared in one of the ,empire magazines1 and he pointed out that the reasons for the unsatisfactory conclusions arrived at were very simple and obvious4 ,the ,scottish retorts are designed to deal effectually with highly inspissated and1 as a rule1 not very rich1 oil-shales4 ,the recovery of the maximum amount of sulphate of ammonia is a desideratum2 a sufficient supply of incondensable gases to fire the retort must be produced2 while the recovery of the lighter fractions 7motor spirit7 of the material treated was not an object of the first consideration4 ,for these purposes1 says ,mr4 ,cunningham-,craig1 large and high vertical retorts are used1 the temperature of distillation is comparatively high1 superheated steam is blown into the retorts1 and a fairly complete extraction of volatile matter is achieved4 ,but to apply such methods to a very rich and fresh torbanite--such as the richer shales of ,new ,south ,wales--is absurd1 involving many practical difficulties and not giving the most remunerative results4 ,similarly1 the rich oil-shales of ,new ,brunswick 7,canada71 though more nearly allied to the ,scottish shales1 differ from them both chemically and physically to such an extent as to require different treatment4 ,let me now briefly refer to the deposits which are known in the ,dominions and ,colonies that give promise of yielding oil in commercial quantities by destructive distillation4 ,i will first take the shales of ,canada1 for though1 as ,i have pointed out1 the ,dominion's production of liquid oil is steadily decreasing1 there are numerous deposits of shales which only await careful exploitation and development in order to render ,canada a petroleum-producing country of considerable magnitude4 ,the oil-shales of ,new ,brunswick have been known for many years1 yet only a fraction of the area has been yet prospected4 ,experiments with the shales have shown that they are capable of producing nearly #ej gallons of crude oil the ton of shale treated1 while ammonium sulphate has been produced at the remarkable proportion of #gg lb4 a ton4 ,albert ,county is one of the best shale-fields1 and it is here that a ,government scheme has now been promulgated4 ,the shales of ,nova ,scotia are likewise to be commercially developed1 but so far no serious attempt has been proposed to deal with the enormous areas in ,newfoundland1 the ,province of ,quebec1 and other already known regions of ,canadian oil-shales4 ,australia can boast of very large areas of shales3 some deposits have been operated for several years1 but others are still awaiting development4 ,from a variety of causes1 however1 the shale-oil industry of ,australia has never been set upon a profitable footing4 ,the ,commonwealth ,oil ,corporation some years ago set out to accomplish much1 but the only thing which it seemed to do with energy was to sail to destruction4 ,its failure cannot be said to have been due to any absence of the material it set out to treat for petroleum1 for at every turn enormous quantities were opened up4 ,it would appear that the immensity of the possibilities which awaited its operations was one of the prime reasons for its premature decay1 while there is no doubt that the system it employed was by no means the best for treating the shales4 ,a more simple and less expensive method of retorting the shales would doubtless ensure successful working4 ,in ,queensland1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand the presence of these shales has been proved over extensive areas1 and though for the most part they have so far been neglected1 there is reason to hope that1 in the not distant future1 the advantage to be derived from their commercial exploitation will be the more widely appreciated4 ,a most lucrative industry could be built up by the ,commonwealth of ,australia by the distillation of the torbanites there1 and though1 perhaps1 it is too much to expect that an export trade in petroleum products could be built up1 there is no doubt whatever that the large requirements for petroleum products in the ,dominion could easily be met by the production from home sources4 ,the possibilities of developing a shale industry in ,africa are not particularly promising1 though they are by no means out of the range of probability4 ,in the coal series in the ,transvaal1 beds of what are known as 8oil-shales0 are encountered in several localities ,the seams generally are thin1 and in some cases unworkable1 but the material is very rich1 and has proved capable of yielding high percentages of crude oil4 ,in ,sarawak 7,british ,north ,borneo7 the 8,shell0 ,company is carrying out most important and highly successful developments1 which are bound to have far-reaching and gratifying results in regard to developments under the ,british ,flag4 ,as ,i have shown1 the problem of ,imperial oil supply would be far on its way to solution by the development of the various shales in the ,british ,empire1 and the pity is that a more progressive policy has not been adopted in regard thereto long before the subject became of such pressing importance4 ,each of our ,colonies--like the ,mother ,country--is a large consumer of petroleum products1 and each is also totally dependent upon imported supplies1 yet within the borders of each are to be found large deposits of the necessary crude material4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,petroleum',s ,,part ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,war ,a perusal of the preceding chapters of this little work will have made it clear to the reader that petroleum and its products play a most important part to-day in the life of nations3 if1 however1 one would be impressed with the immensely significant rle which petroleum products have played in the conduct of the great ,european ,war1 a brief reference to the subject will amply suffice4 ,from the commencement of the ,titanic struggle in #aiad1 it became obvious to those who were most competent to judge that1 if victory was to be on the side of the ,allies1 it was imperative that they should possess sufficient reserves of petroleum products for all purposes1 for it was evident then that activity would not be limited to armies on the land1 but that the air and the sea would also become battle-grounds whereon the destinies of nations would in part be decided4 ,germany1 too1 saw this2 before the war it had been practically dependent upon regular supplies from the ,united ,states as well as from ,roumania1 but the bulk of its requirements came from the former mentioned country4 ,with its ,states' oil shipments cut off1 it turned its attention to securing at least part of its stocks from the neutral ,north-,western ,european countries1 which1 in their turn1 were likewise dependent upon ,america4 ,the ruse worked for some time1 and the unsuspecting ,american exporters shipped cargoes to ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,sweden with little idea that the bulk of these were ultimately to find their way into ,germany4 ,it was only when the figures were published in the ,states as to the abnormally large quantities of petroleum products that had been sent to the ,european neutral countries that1 to the thinking mind1 it became obvious something was wrong4 ,i can modestly claim to have called the attention of the ,british ,government to this underhand proceeding early in #aiae1 when ,i not only gave them details of cargoes which had been delivered to various ,north-,western ,european ports en route to ,germany1 but also managed to secure the names of vessels all laden with such supplies1 which at that time were crossing the ,atlantic4 ,mr4 ,winston ,churchill1 to his credit be it said1 acted without delay1 and within a few days1 as the vessels passed the ,north of ,scotland1 they were stopped1 and--well1 to cut a long story short1 this country got the petroleum products which1 in accordance with the original plan1 would have gone to ,germany4 ,some time afterwards there came a voice of protest from one or two interested persons in those neutral countries1 for they declared that not a single barrel of petroleum had gone over to ,germany1 but evidence was soon forthcoming to show how well ,germany's ruse had worked for some months1 and a prosecution in one of those countries made against an importing firm1 for actually sending petroleum supplies into ,germany1 effectively closed the protest from those who would have liked the enemy's desires to have been undisturbed4 ,there is not the slightest doubt that ,germany at that time was in dire straits for sufficient petroleum products for its military purposes3 had the war been somewhat delayed in its commencement1 she would have been far better prepared1 for1 under the auspices of the ,government1 there had been laid down an elaborate programme for the importation and distribution of ,roumanian petroleum products throughout ,germany4 ,as it was1 the country was unprepared1 and1 though in other directions every possible precaution had been taken to carry through an elaborate military programme of offence1 the prospective dearth of sufficient supplies of petroleum products necessitated the enforcing of the most stringent regulations with regard to the uses of all petroleum products1 excepting for military purposes4 ,the taking of the ,galician fields from the ,central ,armies by ,russia gave a serious set-back to ,germany's military plans1 and it was only when the ,russians had to withdraw from ,lemberg that the enemy was able to count upon sufficient supplies to meet his military requirements4 ,to an extent1 he was even then doomed to disappointment1 for1 when his armies arrived on the ,galician fields1 they found that practically the whole of the petroleum reserves had been destroyed1 and a large number of the prolific producing wells more or less permanently damaged4 ,nor1 to my mind1 was the advance into ,roumania prompted by the idea of territorial gains so much as to secure control of the country's oil-fields4 ,here1 again1 ,germany's desires were in part thwarted1 for the efforts of the ,british ,military ,mission1 to which ,i refer elsewhere1 had been eminently successful4 ,from that time onward1 however1 ,germany's supplies of petroleum products were secured1 and that she turned them to account was a matter of common knowledge4 ,germany1 naturally1 greatly valued the acquisition of the ,roumanian oil-fields1 and it must be to its people a great disappointment that the whole of these immensely prolific regions for oil production are now permanently removed from the nation's grasp4 ,unfortunately1 the ,british ,government did not seriously appreciate the importance of petroleum products in war as well as peace until the war cloud of #aiad was about to burst4 ,it had taken no notice of the suggestions made from time to time that in our own country there might be vast petroleum reserves awaiting development1 and it had not even shown any encouragement to the ,scottish shale-oil industry4 ,all that it had done1 and even this was on the eve of war1 was to invest over #b1jjj1jjj in the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 for the development of the ,persian oil-fields1 so that the ,navy could secure ample supplies of fuel oil4 ,but here1 however1 there were difficulties ahead1 for the ,persian fields are in the interior of the country and have to rely upon pipe-lines to bring the supplies to the coast4 ,everything1 therefore1 depended upon the security of the pipe-line1 and the idea which was in the minds of many who opposed the scheme as to the possibility of supplies being cut off by the activities of the insurgents1 was by no means a mistaken one2 the pipe-line was1 in fact1 partially destroyed1 and the transport of fuel oil held up for a long time4 ,as a nation1 we have all along had to depend upon imported petroleum products1 and1 inasmuch as our supplies could be drawn at will from a variety of producing countries1 the idea that we might at one time find ourselves cut off from supply does not appear to have occurred to many4 ,no sooner had the war started1 however1 than we found1 owing to the closing of the ,dardanelles1 that both ,russia and ,roumania could no longer attend to our requirements1 while the ,far ,east1 owing to the great ocean journey necessitated to this country 7and the quickest way lay through the ,mediterranean7 could not maintain regular shipments with us4 ,it is fortunate that we found the ,united ,states willing1 and from the start very desirous1 to do all that was possible to help us out of a difficulty2 while ,mexico1 with its wealth of ,british oil interests1 catered in every way for the meeting of the enormous demands we made upon its resources4 ,to say that petroleum products have played a highly-important part in the conduct of the war is but to under-estimate facts4 ,the importance of their part has been equal to that of the supply of guns and shells1 and1 when the statement was made in the ,house of ,commons in #aiag that adequate supplies of petroleum were quite as essential as men and munitions1 petroleum's part was then not over-stated4 ,rather would ,i say it was on the contrary1 for1 had there been at any time a dearth of any classification of petroleum products1 then the vast naval and army organization1 both on and across the water1 would immediately have lost its balance1 and our great fighting units would automatically have become useless4 ,just think of it for a moment4 ,to-day1 our great naval fighters--take the ,queen ,elizabeth1 for instance--rely upon fuel oil for purposes of power1 while our second and third line units must also have it1 for1 whether it be fuel oil or the lighter products of the oil refinery--,i refer to motor spirit--it matters not1 so far as supply is concerned4 ,the whole of our winged fleets in the air must1 of necessity1 be useless unless they can regularly draw large quantities of motor spirit1 and the volume they consume1 even on a single trip1 would surprise many1 though it is not possible here to enter into figures4 ,at first sight one might be inclined to think that1 apart from petroleum products being a very useful adjunct to the organization of battles on land1 their use is not of a very real nature1 but1 if we pause for one moment1 our first impressions are disillusioned4 ,it was my privilege at the end of #aiag1 thanks to the kindness of the ,british ,foreign ,office1 to pay a visit to the fronts of ,france and ,flanders1 and there to have an opportunity of seeing the part which petroleum products did actually play4 ,the immensity of this importance cannot be easily grasped1 nor easily described4 ,we all know the remarkable progress which had been made in regard to the extension of the railway systems throughout the zones of battle1 but it will surprise many to learn that it was when the rail-heads had been reached1 and between there and the real battle front1 that motor spirit had the realm of transport to itself4 ,tens of thousands of heavy motor vehicles took up the work of transport when it left the railway1 and it was this service that was required to see not only that our millions of men daily received their food1 but each and every sort of ammunition also4 ,but it was not even when the front line of battle was reached that motor spirit had finished its work4 ,those great machines of war--the tanks--had to remain stationary if they were not fed by large supplies of spirit1 while petroleum1 too1 took a primary position in the making of the liquid fire which now and again we heard of as causing such havoc to ,fritz4 ,but1 at its best1 the railway was somewhat slow at the ,front1 no doubt owing to the enormous congestion which was inseparable from the reign of a state of war4 ,consequently1 whole fleets of motor vehicles were employed day and night in a ceaseless stream of traffic1 from the coastal ports right up to the zone of battle4 ,without divulging secrets1 it is safe to say that that branch of the service alone demanded millions of gallons of motor spirit weekly4 ,both after as well as before battle1 the products of petroleum were essential1 for1 when the ,red ,cross vehicles took up their humane work of transporting the wounded heroes of the fight1 those1 too1 called for innumerable quantities of motor spirit4 ,and when darkness had fallen the oil lamp came into general use4 ,it was to be found wherever there was a vestige of life in those zones of battle3 the soldiers in their1 at times1 lonely dug-outs1 used oil for cooking as well as for light1 and all vehicular traffic was guided from disaster along the roads by the use of oil1 which also offered the only source of artificial light in the ,red ,cross vehicles4 ,what an immense organization it was which depended for its ceaseless activities upon the products of petroleum6 ,one day1 while at ,general ,headquarters1 ,i expressed a desire to see the methods by which all that world of activity secured its necessary supplies of petroleum products regularly1 when once they had arrived in ,france in bulk4 ,a few days later1 ,i was1 accordingly1 allowed to visit the immense central depot at ,calais1 at which all the petroleum products required for use in the organization of transport were dealt with4 ,it is safe to say that at no centre in the world did there exist such an extensive petroleum depot1 nor anywhere else was there an organization upon whose perfect working so much depended4 ,though motor spirit necessarily occupied the first position of importance1 practically the whole range of products was dealt with4 ,the motor spirit was received in bulk1 but at the depot had to be measured into the familiar #b-;gallon can 7which was made on the spot7 and sent up country in special trains each day4 ,specially coloured tins denoted the best quality of the spirit1 and it was that which was reserved for the numerous aerodromes in ,france and ,flanders4 ,the magnitude of that branch of the depot might be guessed when ,i state that at the time of my visit considerably over #b1jjj1jjj #b-;gallon petrol tins were being either stored or filled for up country dispatch4 ,all kinds of lubricants were also essential for the purposes of war1 for even motor spirit itself would be of little use for the internal combustion engines1 if the engines could not secure their regular supplies of lubricating oils4 ,these1 too1 had to be dispatched with remarkable regularity to every section of the battle zones1 whilst1 as ,i have suggested earlier1 the daily requirements of war necessitated the distribution of illuminating oil in large quantities4 ,but no reference to petroleum's part in the great ,european war would be complete were it not to include mention of the way in which supplies of toluol assisted in securing victory to the ,allies4 ,toluol1 as is known1 is necessary for the production of high explosives1 and in the early stages of the great conflict1 the output of high explosives was considerably restricted by the absence of sufficient quantities of this necessary explosive primary4 ,it was at that time that a discovery of the utmost importance was made1 for1 as the result of investigations carried out at the ,cambridge ,university1 it was found that the heavy petroleums of ,borneo contained large percentages of toluol4 ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart41 the ,chairman 7and the founder7 of the ,shell ,transport and ,trading ,company1 ,ltd41 lost no time in apprising the ,british ,government of the discovery1 for it is in the ,borneo oils that the ,shell ,company and its allied concerns are chiefly interested4 ,the offer for the delivery of these immense quantities of toluol was eagerly accepted by the ,british and ,allied ,governments1 and from that time onward1 the supply of high explosives was practically unlimited4 ,the ,french and ,italian ,governments have asserted that1 but for this specific offer of toluol1 the manufacture of high explosives would have had to remain so limited1 that it would have been impossible to bring about an ,allied ,victory in #aiah4 ,their thanks were publicly extended to the ,shell ,company at the conclusion of hostilities1 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,deterding and the ,asiatic ,petroleum ,company were specially thanked1 while as far back as #aiae1 ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart41 received the thanks of the ,british ,government for his invaluable war services4 ,it was only after the firing of the guns had ceased on all ,fronts1 that it was permissible to record in what a remarkable manner these services were rendered4 ,the exigencies of space have prevented my dealing1 excepting in the most brief manner1 with this interesting subject3 ,i only hope ,i have succeeded in showing that1 in times of war1 as well as in those of peace1 petroleum products occupy the position of first importance4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,scottish ,,shale-,,oil ,,industry ,in view of the great interest which is now being centred in the production of petroleum in the ,british ,isles--thus making this country to a large extent less dependent upon foreign sources of supply--the ,shale-oil ,industry of ,scotland is assuming a new importance1 for the reason that it is in the direction of the development of new oil-shale areas in several parts of the country that experts look with a great amount of confidence4 ,it is specially interesting1 therefore1 to deal at some length with the growth of the industry1 the methods by which the oil shales are operated1 and the prospects for its extension4 ,the name of ,dr4 ,james ,young1 of ,renfrewshire1 will ever be associated with the commercial exploitation of the oil-bearing shales in the ,midlothians1 for it was due to his enterprise that the ,scottish shale-oil industry really owed its birth and much of its later development4 ,it was while ,young was managing a chemical works at ,liverpool that his attention was drawn to small flows of oil which came from a coal seam at ,alfreton1 in ,derbyshire4 ,this was in #ahdg1 and after experimenting with the liquid1 ,young succeeded in extracting therefrom on a commercial scale both a light burning oil and a lubricant1 as well as wax4 ,when the supply became exhausted1 ,dr4 ,young had an idea to imitate the natural processes by which he believed the oil had been formed4 ,the outcome of this was the well-known ,young patent for obtaining paraffin oil and other products from bituminous coals at slow distillation4 ,the ,young process was utilized with much success in the ,united ,states until such time as it became unprofitable owing to the largely increasing production in ,america of liquid oils obtained direct from the earth4 ,it was about this time that a bituminous mineral known as ,boghead coal1 and existing in the ,midlothians1 was discovered1 and from this ,young secured upwards of #ajj gallons of oil from each ton treated1 but soon this mineral was1 in a practical sense1 exhausted1 and so the bituminous shales1 now known as oil-shales1 came in for attention4 ,before passing away from ,dr4 ,young's services in connection with the establishment of the ,scottish shale-oil industry1 it should be mentioned that he figures very largely in more than one of the earlier ,scottish shale concerns4 ,he founded the ,bathgate ,oil ,company1 which1 in the zenith of its operations1 treated #a1jjj tons of shale daily1 this ,company being later merged into the ,young's ,paraffin ,light and ,mineral ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 one of the large ,scottish shale-oil undertakings and well known throughout the world to-day4 ,the ,scottish shale-oil fields1 as exploited to-day1 cover a belt of territory which is about #f miles broad and stretches from ,dalmeny and ,abercorn1 on the ,firth of ,forth1 southwards across the fertile tract between the ,river ,almond and the ,bathgate ,hills to the moorland district of ,cobbinshaw and ,tarbrax4 ,throughout this region there are various important mining centres1 such as ,broxburn1 ,uphall1 ,east ,calder1 ,mid-,calder1 ,west ,calder1 and ,addiwell2 and in connection with the shale-oil industry1 upwards of #be1jjj persons now find regular employment4 ,the shale measures on which the shale-oil industry depends1 form part of the calciferous sandstone series of ,mid and ,west ,lothian and the southern coast of ,fife4 ,the carboniferous system of ,scotland may be arranged in descending order in four divisions1 as under-- #d4 ,coal measures1 comprising red sandstone1 shales1 and marls with no workable coals1 underlaid by white and grey sandstones and shales with numerous valuable coal seams and ironstones4 #c4 ,millstone grit1 consisting of coarse sandstones1 with beds of fireclay1 a few thin coals1 ironstones1 and thin limestones4 #b4 ,carboniferous limestone series1 embracing three subdivisions1 the highest of which contains three or more limestones with thick beds of sandstone and some coals1 the middle includes several valuable seams of coal and ironstone1 and the lowest is characterized by several beds of marine limestone with sandstone1 shales1 some coals1 and ironstones4 #a4 ,calciferous sandstone series1 forming two subdivisions4 ,the upper is known as the oil-shale group1 and is over #c1jjj feet in thickness1 and contains1 in its highest part1 beds of coal1 usually of inferior quality1 and1 farther down1 about six main seams of oil-shale1 inter-stratified with beds of sandstone1 shale1 fire-clay1 marl1 and estuarine limestones4 ,although the calciferous sandstone series is well developed in other parts of ,scotland1 it has not hitherto yielded any oil-shale of economic importance beyond the limits of ,west ,lothian1 ,mid ,lothian1 and ,fife4 ,thin seams of oil-shale do occur in various places in the counties of ,haddington and ,berwick1 but1 generally speaking1 the quantity is not sufficient to be practically worked4 ,a word or two as to the oil-shales themselves4 ,the shales1 as known in the ,lothians1 are fine black or brownish clay shales1 with certain special features which enable them to be easily distinguished in the field4 ,miners draw a distinction between 8plain0 and 8curly0 shale1 the former variety being flat and smooth1 and the latter contorted or 8curled10 and polished or glossy on the squeezed faces4 ,in internal structure1 oil-shale is minutely laminated1 which is apparent in the 8spent0 shale after distillation1 when it is thrown out in fragments1 composed of extremely thin sheets like the leaves of a book4 ,before touching upon the methods employed in mining the shale and the treatment it receives during distillation1 it is interesting to note that the industry in ,scotland has passed through many vicissitudes since its establishment4 ,at that time1 the ,american oil industry was but in its infancy1 and the production in the ,states was utilized mainly on the ,american markets4 ,consequently1 there was a great demand for the ,scottish oils in this country1 and in #ahgj there were no fewer than ninety small oil-works in the ,lothians1 the majority of which were operating the shales4 ,it was about this time that the ,american illuminating oil came over to this country1 and a very sorry blow was dealt the ,scottish industry4 ,so disastrous was the resulting competition between the ,scottish products on the one hand1 and the ,american and ,russian petroleums on the other1 that one by one the ,scottish companies closed down1 and1 after less than eight years of competition1 the number of operating companies had fallen to twenty-six4 ,the decay continued until the number of active concerns in the ,scottish shale-oil industry could be counted on one's fingers4 ,the industry exists to-day simply as a result of the great improvements which have been made in the retorting of the shale1 by which larger quantities of products are produced--including ammonia4 ,it is thus able to withstand foreign competition4 ,to-day1 it is estimated that nearly #d1jjj1jjj tons of the ,scottish shales are treated every twelve months by the several operating oil companies4 ,the most important of these concerns--the ,pumpherston ,oil ,company--has been regularly operating since #ahhc1 and1 inasmuch as it deals with by far the largest quantities of shale treated1 a brief account of its operations will be of advantage in enabling the reader to understand the methods by which a total of nearly #djj1jjj tons of oil are produced each year in ,scotland4 ,the operations of the ,pumpherston ,oil ,company are upon a scale of considerable magnitude1 for the ,company's works comprise the crude oil plant1 the sulphate of ammonia plant1 oil and wax refineries1 etc4 ,the ,seafield and ,deans works1 #g and #d miles distant respectively1 possess only crude-oil and sulphate-producing plants1 the refining plants being confined to ,pumpherston4 ,the ,company's works cover #ajj acres1 while the shale fields extend over many thousands of acres in and around the district of ,pumpherston4 ,as has already been mentioned1 the shale fields so far operated lie1 in the main1 in the ,lothians1 and1 as one motors by road from ,edinburgh to ,glasgow1 the shale country is passed through4 ,before the commercial development of a shale field1 trial borings are sunk1 now more generally by means of a diamond bore1 for by its revolving action a solid core is obtained which readily shows the character and inclination of the strata passed through4 ,when a seam of shale has been found by boring operations1 and the exact position and depth of outcrop determined1 it is necessary1 before sinking a mine1 to put down a trial shaft for the purpose of making sure as to the true gradient at which the shale is lying1 and the thickness as well as the quality of the same4 ,in the shales in the ,pumpherston district there are five distinct seams1 dipping from #bi degrees to #ch degrees1 and the mine is driven in the middle seam1 the other seams being entered by level cross-cut mines driven from one to another4 ,each of these seams is worked separately1 the cross-cut shown in the sketch serving the purposes of communication and transit4 ,in some cases1 where the inclination of the shales is at a different angle1 it is necessary to sink a vertical shaft1 and this method is applied to the series known as the ,mid-,calder4 ,the usual dimensions of the inclined shaft are a width of from #aj to #ab feet1 and the height is from #f to #h feet4 ,if the sides of the shaft prove to be of a soft nature1 as is generally the case with the shale at the crop1 walls are run up and the roof is supported by larch crowns1 but1 where the shale is hard and the roof good1 then the less costly method of timbering is adopted4 ,the supports to the roof in many cases are fixed 8centre0 fashion1 dividing the shaft into two unequal parts4 ,the smaller division has generally a width of just over #c feet1 and is used for haulage ropes and water pipes1 while the larger division is utilized for winding4 ,during the progress of sinking1 levels are broken away in the seam at regular distances1 and driven so as to get communication with1 and drive headings to form1 the outer mine4 ,these headings are driven in the same direction as the sinking mine to the levels above1 until they connect with the outer mine or shaft4 ,the outer mine is then used for winding the shale up to the surface1 and the other is kept for sinking purposes1 and by this means winding and sinking can go on simultaneously4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pumpherston ,,works ,the seams of shale in the ,midlothian fields vary generally from #d to #aj feet in thickness1 say #g feet as an average1 and1 on the whole1 they are comparatively free from ribs of unproductive rock4 ,with a thickness of #g feet1 experience has shown that the method best adapted for the efficient working of the shale is 8stoop and room10 but in the case of two seams of shale1 separated by a bed of foreign material of sufficient thickness for packing1 the long wall method proves the more suitable4 ,the 8stoop and room0 method1 however1 is more generally used throughout the ,scottish shale district than any other1 its chief characteristics being the 7#a7 8whole0 or first working1 and 7#b7 the broken or second working4 ,the whole working consists of a series of excavations made in the shale1 whereby it is divided into rectangular blocks or pillars4 ,these excavations are called rooms1 one set being driven at right angles to the dip of the shale and at regular distances from one another1 and commonly called 8levels02 another set1 driven to the rise of these levels and at right angles to them1 being usually known as 8ends0 or 8upsets40 ,the latter are broken off the levels at regular intervals and driven upwards to meet the levels above4 ,the shale miner holes as far as he can reach--probably three or more feet--and brings down the shale by blasting1 the process being repeated until he penetrates a distance of from #i to #ab feet from the face at road-head4 ,the shale1 being loosened from its natural bed1 is then placed in 8hutches10 which are taken to the bottom of the shaft by either horse or chain haulage 7much as with coal71 and then the journey to the mouth is commenced4 ,before leaving the question of shale mining1 it should be explained that the shale miner is subject to dangers much as his colleague in the coal-pit1 but the volume of gases found in the shale seams is not so great as in the coal measures4 ,these1 however1 are of an explosive nature1 the most common being fire-damp4 ,once above ground1 the shale is conveyed to breaking machines by endless wire-rope haulage4 ,passing through the machines1 it is broken into suitable sizes for distillation1 and drops into hopper-shaped hutches4 ,these hutches have a capacity of about a ton1 and each in turn is conveyed to the top of the retorts on an inclined scaffold by an endless chain4 ,the shale then falls by the operation of a lever into a hopper or magazine communicating directly with the retorts1 one hopper with a storage capacity of #bd hours' supply of shale being connected to each retort of the ,pumpherston ,company4 ,this ,company's retorts--they are patented--are in use at the various works of the ,pumpherston ,company1 and are an interesting feature to visitors4 ,the shale is fed by gravitation into cylindrical-shaped retorts1 and built vertically in ovens of four1 each oven having four chambers4 ,the upper portion is of cast-iron1 #aa feet long by #b feet in diameter at the top1 and slightly enlarged toward the bottom4 ,heat is applied externally from the incondensable gases obtained from the distillation of the shale1 and this heat is made to circulate round the retort4 ,in the case of the poorer qualities of the shale1 however1 the heat is assisted by producer-gas4 ,the heating gas enters near the bottom portion of the retort1 which is of fire-brick1 along with a certain quantity of air1 and a high temperature--from #a1bjj;,f4 to #a1fjj;,f4--is maintained1 in this portion converting the nitrogen of the shale into ammonia1 which is preserved by a continuous supply of steam delivered at a slight pressure at the bottom of the hopper4 ,the oil gases are distilled from the shale in the cast-iron portion of the retort at a temperature of about #ijj ,f41 and1 along with the ammonia gas1 are drawn off by the exhausters through a branch pipe at the top of the retort1 through the atmospheric condensers1 from which the condensed liquid oil and water containing ammonia flow into a small separator tank4 ,it is here that1 owing to their different specific gravities--for one is lighter than the other--they assume different levels1 and are thus drawn off into separate tanks4 ,the gases then pass through ammonia scrubbers1 in which they are washed for ammonia1 and then through the naphtha scrubbers1 where the lighter gases1 which could not be caught in the atmospheric condensers1 are washed with oil and a good quality of light oil or naphtha is recovered4 ,the incondensable portion passing from these scrubbers is burned in the retorts as previously mentioned4 ,with a shale of average yield1 the retort can be heated by these incondensable gases from the distillation1 and a surplus obtained for burning under steam boilers4 ,what is doubtless a very unique feature of the ,pumpherston retort is the mechanical arrangement for withdrawing the spent shale continuously1 and thus keeping the whole mass inside the retorts in constant movement4 ,below each pair of retorts is fixed a hopper made of cast-iron1 and fixed to girders supported on the brick piers or columns between the ovens4 ,at the top of each hopper1 and immediately underneath the bottom of the retorts1 is fixed a cast-iron disc or table1 with a space left between its edge and the sides of the hopper4 ,the whole mass of shale in the retort rests upon the table1 the space permitting some to pass over the edge4 ,through the centre of the table a steel spindle projects1 on the upper end of which is fixed a curved arm1 and this1 when rotated1 pushes some of the shale off1 causing it to fall over the edge of the table into the hopper below4 ,the shaft carrying the curved arm passes through a stuffing-box on the hopper1 and has a ratchet and lever fitted to the lower end1 actuated by a rod of ,t-iron which is made to travel horizontally1 and is driven by a small electric motor4 ,the motion is comparatively slow1 the arm making but one revolution in about #bj minutes1 but the action is most satisfactory1 the through-put of shale being regulated at will4 ,the ammonia water got from the atmospheric condensers is pumped through a heater1 in which it is raised in temperature by the waste water flowing from the still1 and passes into the top of the still1 which is circular in shape1 about #cj feet high1 and has a series of cast-iron shelves or trays fixed horizontally every #b feet or thereabouts from the top to near the bottom4 ,steam is put into the bottom of the still at a pressure of #dj lb41 and passes to the top through a series of conical arrangements on the shelves carrying with it the volatile ammonia1 while the water1 after traversing the whole area of each tray1 passes out into a concrete tank containing a cast-iron worm1 which is the heater already referred to1 for the ammonia water on its way to the still4 ,during its progress from the top to the bottom of the still1 the water is diverted into a chamber containing milk of lime1 setting free the fixed ammonia which cannot be got by steaming4 ,the steam and ammonia gas liberated in the still pass over into a large lead-lined tub or saturator1 and bubbles through holes in a lead worm placed round the circumference at the bottom of the vessel4 ,sulphuric acid is at the same time run into the saturator1 and1 at a certain temperature1 sulphate of ammonia is formed4 ,the sulphate falls into a well1 formed in the centre of the bottom of the vessel1 in which are placed two steam ejectors1 and these blow it out along with some liquor4 ,this mixture is delivered into hutches having perforated bottoms1 through which the ammonia liquor drains off1 the solid sulphate being left in the hutch4 ,this is now run by an overhead railway to the drying or storage stalls1 and from these it is packed up and dispatched to the market4 ,the exhaust steam and waste gases from the saturator are passed into the retorts1 and utilized for the formation of ammonia from the shale1 while the spent water is pumped to the spent shale bing1 and thoroughly filtered before being allowed to escape from the works4 ,for dealing with the weak acid water recovered from the refinery1 the ,pumpherston plant consists of lead-lined tubs or crackers1 into which a quantity of the acid water is run1 and saturated with ammonia gas until it is near the salting point1 when it gravitates into settling vessels in order to separate any tar carried over with the acid water4 ,the clear liquid is then drawn into the saturator1 where it is quickly converted into sulphate and blown out in the manner already described4 ,so up to date is the whole of the system governing the treatment of the shales and the resulting products1 that the pumping of water from the mines1 the haulage of the shale to the refineries1 as well as driving of machinery in the works1 is performed by electric power1 the exhaust steam from the engines driving the generators1 as in the case of the sulphate of ammonia exhaust1 being sent to the retorts for use in the production of ammonia4 ,the process of refining the crude oil obtained from the shale into the various products is somewhat complicated and perplexing to those unassociated with the industry on account of the many distillations and treatments which have to be carried out before a good marketable article is produced4 ,the following outline1 however1 will give a fair idea of the process adopted throughout ,scotland4 ,the crude oil is delivered at the refinery into large tanks1 which are placed at a sufficient height to feed the stills by gravitation4 ,the crude oil is allowed to settle for twelve or more hours at a temperature sufficiently high to separate any water that may have passed the test at the retorts1 and after this water has been run off1 the oil is fed into the centre boiler of a battery of oil boilers4 ,the lightest fraction of the oil--ultimately motor spirit and illuminating oils--is distilled off the feeding boiler and condensed in a coil of cast-iron pipes immersed in water in a tank1 cold water being continuously run into the tank1 while heated water is run off4 ,the boilers on each side of the feed vessel receive their oil by a pipe connecting with the bottom of the latter1 and they also distil over the lighter portion of oil with which they have been fed1 the heavier portions passing on to a third boiler1 where the process of distillation is repeated4 ,the oil now left is delivered into a cast-iron pot-still1 in which it is ultimately distilled to dryness1 the residue left in the still forming oil coke1 which is valuable as a fuel on account of its high percentage of fixed carbon and low yield of ash4 ,steam is admitted to the still in large quantities at all distillations4 ,the various stages of distillation are carried through in almost identically the same manner as that of crude oil1 and1 therefore1 need not be described in detail4 ,the treatment or washing of the oil to remove the impurities that cannot be eliminated by distillation1 consists in stirring the oil by compressed air for a given time in an iron vessel1 with a fixed quantity of sulphuric acid1 allowing it to settle1 and running off the heavy mixture of tar and acid which separates4 ,the acid-treated oil is then run into another similar vessel1 treated with a solution of caustic soda1 settles1 and the soda tar which separates is run off4 ,the acid tars are steamed and washed1 the resulting acid water being sent to the sulphate of ammonia house for the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia1 whilst the tar is mixed with that from the soda treatments and burned under the stills as liquid oil4 ,as there is more than sufficient of this tar to distil all the oil at the various stages1 the distillation is carried out without cost for fuel1 excepting that necessary for steam-raising purposes4 ,a portion of the oil distilled at the second distillation1 or green oil stage1 is sent from the stills to the paraffin sheds to be cooled and the scale extracted1 this eventually being made into paraffin wax4 ,stored in tanks until brought down to atmospheric temperature1 the oil is pumped into the inner chamber of a cooler1 which consists of a series of four vessels having inner and outer compartments4 ,at the same time1 anhydrous ammonia is forced into the outer compartment or jacket1 and absorbs heat from the cooler1 freezing the oil in the inner jacket into a pasty mixture of liquid oil and solid crystals of wax4 ,this mixture is then pumped into filter-presses1 where a portion of the oil flows away through the cloth1 while the wax is left behind in solid cakes1 still containing a quantity of oil4 ,these cakes are delivered by conveyors to the back of the hydraulic presses1 where they are wrapped in cloth and placed on shelves between iron frames in the presses1 most of the remaining oils being thus squeezed out4 ,the material obtained from the hydraulic presses is known to the trade as paraffin scale1 and as it is discoloured by the small quantity of oil which cannot be removed by pressing1 a process of sweating by steaming in large brick compartments is adopted1 in order to remove the oil4 ,the scale1 consequent upon the removal of the oil therefrom1 becomes whiter and of higher melting point1 and after further treatment is finally passed through filter paper and run into moulding trays4 ,when cooled1 this product is known as paraffin wax1 of which there are many grades4 ,one cannot enter into the technical arrangements involved1 for obvious reasons1 the chief one of which is that these cannot interest the reader2 but sufficient has already been written in this chapter to suggest to the reader the perfection which has now been reached in the treatment of the shales of the ,midlothians4 ,as to the future1 it is full of promise4 ,there is no doubt that for many years to come the full force of foreign competition1 as it has existed in previous times1 will not be felt4 ,there is a free field for ,scottish enterprise in connection with the distillation of its oil-bearing shales4 ,nor is the region for development limited to its present area4 ,reports point to the fact that much area of commercial ground exists1 not only on the eastern side of ,scotland1 but also in the north and north-west1 while it is already an open secret that those responsible for the conduct of ,government operations are viewing with favour even the liquid extraction of oil from certain areas not far distant from the zone of the present operations4 ,the ,scottish shale-oil industry has1 so far1 managed to defy competition from abroad to an extent which is reflected in the balance sheets of the several operating companies1 whose yearly dividends have been from #ej per cent4 downward during recent years4 ,one thing is certain1 and that is1 the ,government is well aware that there are great possibilities associated with the shale-oil industry of ,scotland1 and it is not only watching developments with direct interest1 but is doing all in its power to foster the industry1 and by all means possible encourage the exploitation of areas so far not commercially developed4 ,at some future date there is a great possibility that the present area for developments will be largely extended1 and as this is written1 there is much evidence forthcoming to suggest that this commercial development of new lands will not long be delayed4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,a ,,few ,,notable ,,petroleum ,,enterprises ,no brief survey of the petroleum industry would be complete were reference not made to a few of those remarkable commercial undertakings in various parts of the world whose interests are not only closely associated with it1 but to whose energies has been due much of the expansion that has been witnessed in every direction during the past few decades4 ,it is safe to assert that1 had it not been that the petroleum industry has1 in its various industrial and commercial aspects attracted the attention of some of the finest financial and business houses in the world1 the wonderful progress which has been recorded would1 for the most part1 have been impossible4 ,the first place must of necessity be given to that much maligned amalgamation of capital1 the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,new ,jersey1 which was formed as far back as #cf years ago by ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller and his associates for the primary purpose of developments in the petroleum industry of the ,united ,states4 ,at that time1 the petroleum production of ,america had become quite a factor in commerce1 but it was1 obviously1 in want of a guiding hand which could not only place it upon a basis of solidity1 but which would tend to remove much of that gambling element which had become almost part and parcel of all developments4 ,the ,company1 at the head of which were several gentlemen who had already made themselves famous in the land of oil1 launched out in several directions1 and1 through the numerous subsidiary concerns which it soon created1 it owned very extensive oil-bearing properties in practically every oil-field of the ,states1 while it built quite a network of pipe-lines for the conveyance of the oil from the fields to the refineries1 and from the refineries to seaboard4 ,it erected and equipped oil refineries1 and1 so as to provide the much-needed foreign markets for ,american petroleum products1 it built its fleet of oil tankers2 and1 lastly1 opened depots for the distribution of ,american petroleum products all the world over4 ,at one time1 the ultimate success of its vast operations was open to question1 and many there were who predicted that one day it would ignominiously pass on to the list of oil failures4 ,indeed1 it nearly came to this on one or two occasions1 and it was only owing to the remarkable perseverance of those at the head of the ,company's affairs that prevented headlong disaster4 ,the ,standard ,oil ,company soon became an integral part of the petroleum industry of the ,united ,states1 with which it grew up and steadily assumed a position of world-wide importance1 though one which was not unassailable4 ,its ultimate success was the chief cause for the multiplication of its critics1 and volumes have been written of its wrong-doings by writers whose knowledge of the petroleum industry was mostly based upon wilful ignorance of facts4 ,consequent upon a decision of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court some seven years ago1 which held that the ,company was violating the ,anti-,trust ,law of #ahij1 the ,standard had to rid itself of its various subsidiary companies 7over thirty in number71 but it still controls almost a similar number of concerns to-day which are actively engaged in the production of crude oil and natural gas4 ,it also owns several of the largest refineries in the ,states1 while its fleet of oil tankers will1 when present building is completed1 be considerably over #cjj1jjj tonnage4 ,its capital is #ajj1jjj1jjj1 and during the last twelve years it has paid in dividends over #djj per cent41 in addition to an additional cash distribution of #dj per cent4 ,the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,new ,york is another immense concern which1 with a capital of #ge1jjj1jjj1 has its headquarters in the ,standard's palatial building at #bf ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 and interested principally in the refining industry1 its facilities permitting of #bj1jjj barrels of crude oil being treated daily4 ,another very prominent company is the ,standard ,oil ,company of ,california1 with its capital of #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,this ,company not only produces its crude oil1 but refines it1 and engages in the export business4 ,its refinery at ,point ,richmond1 ,california1 is reported to be the largest in the world1 for it can treat #fe1jjj barrels of crude oil daily4 ,its fleet of tankers and barges for the export trade is capable of carrying at one trip over #ajj1jjj tons of products1 and1 for the purposes of its land transport1 it possesses pipe-lines over #a1jjj miles long4 ,the second place of importance in regard to the petroleum enterprises of international influence must be given to the 8,shell0 ,transport and ,trading ,company1 ,ltd41 whose headquarters are in ,london1 with that well-known oil pioneer1 ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart41 as its ,chairman4 ,formed just over twenty years ago for dealing primarily as a transporter of petroleum products in the ,far ,east1 the 8,shell0 has steadily and continuously extended the sphere of its operations1 until the result of a carefully thought out policy is seen in its activities in almost every oil-field of the world4 ,just over ten years ago1 the ,company made an amalgamation with the ,royal ,dutch ,petroleum ,company1 or1 to give it its correct name1 the ,koninklijke ,nederlandsche ,maatschappij tot exploitatie van petroleum-bronnen in ,nederlandsch ,indie 7whose capital is #ab1ejj1jjj71 and by reason of so doing it materially increased its international position and importance4 ,the 8,shell0--,royal ,dutch ,combine to-day has a controlling interest in some of the largest operating companies in ,russia1 ,roumania1 ,california1 ,mexico1 ,venezuela1 and other oil regions1 one of its most recent extensions being in its advent into the petroleum industry of ,trinidad4 ,the 8,shell0 ,company has a record for successful industrial expansion which is achieved by few companies in the world of commerce3 its capital is now #ae1jjj1jjj1 and in dividends it has distributed over #cjj per cent4 ,among the 8,shell0 ,company's associated concerns1 that of the ,anglo-,saxon ,petroleum ,company1 ,ltd41 which is responsible for the ocean transportation of the petroleum products of the ,combine1 takes first place1 with its capital of #h1jjj1jjj2 while the ,asiatic ,petroleum ,company1 ,ltd4 7capital1 #b1jjj1jjj71 ranks but second4 ,the recent fusion of the interests of ,lord ,cowdray with those of the 8,shell10 for the latter has acquired the control of the great ,mexican interests associated with the ,pearson company1 is another instance of how the 8,shell0 ,company has trod the road of progress and expansion4 ,the sudden rise to fame of the oil-fields of ,mexico gave birth to what may safely be referred to as one of the most enterprising amalgamations of capital in the long list of concerns associated with the petroleum industry1 and it is gratifying to note that this enterprise was solely due to the well-known firm of ,messrs4 ,s4 ,pearson ,sons4 ,lord ,cowdray1 as the head1 was not slow to recognize the vast opportunities which awaited the development of the ,mexican fields1 and the formation of the ,mexican ,eagle ,oil ,company1 in #aijh1 with a capital of now #fj1jjj1jjj 7,mexican71 or about #f1abe1jjj sterling1 was the initial result of his efforts4 ,it was just about this time that the serious fuel oil era opened1 both in this country and others1 and it was evident that1 for the purpose of adequately distributing the products of ,mexican oil 7and these include the whole range of refined oils1 as well as fuel oil71 there was room for the operations of a large and influential company4 ,the ,anglo-,mexican ,petroleum ,company1 ,ltd41 was accordingly formed1 with ,lord ,cowdray's son 7the ,hon4 ,b4 ,c4 ,pearson7 as ,chairman1 and a capital of #b1jjj1jjj1 to deal with the importation and distribution of ,mexican petroleum products on the ,english market4 ,as already stated1 the control of this ,company has now passed under the 8,shell10 and its future expansion is assured1 both at home and abroad4 ,the ,mexican products are transported from ,mexico to this country1 as well as many others1 by the large fleet of ,eagle oil tankers1 the property of the ,eagle ,oil ,transport ,company1 ,ltd41 which admirably managed concern of #c1jjj1jjj capital is also presided over by the ,hon4 ,b4 ,c4 ,pearson4 ,the ,eagle ,company possesses the largest oil tankers afloat1 many of them carrying over #ae1jjj tons of bulk oil1 though others to be built are to be considerably larger2 an #ah1jjj ton tanker is1 indeed1 already in commission4 ,another highly important enterprise in the world of petroleum is that of the ,burmah ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 which1 as its name suggests1 is occupied with the petroleum industry in ,burmah1 and catering for the almost unlimited needs of the ,far ,east in regard to refined petroleum products4 ,it controls enormous acres of oil-bearing territory held under lease from the ,burmah ,government1 possesses extensive refineries at ,rangoon1 and has quite a fleet of oil tankers4 ,its capital is three and a half millions sterling1 and its consistent success may be judged from the fact that it has paid over #djj per cent4 in dividends4 ,of comparatively recent date1 the ,burmah ,oil ,company has turned its attention to other fields1 particularly to ,trinidad1 but it is in connection with the development and subsequent operations of the fields of ,burmah that the ,company is chiefly concerned4 ,the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 which is closely allied to the ,burmah ,oil ,company 7capital1 #f1jjj1jjj7 by reason of its large interest therein1 has come into prominence during recent years1 owing mainly to its agreement with the ,british ,government1 in which the latter has invested over #d1jjj1jjj of the public moneys in the enterprise4 ,the ,company acquired its petroliferous concessions from several interests1 including the ,burmah ,oil ,company and the late ,lord ,strathcona1 which had been granted to them by the ,persian ,government4 ,when ,i mention that the ,company's concessions cover an area of1 approximately1 half a million square miles1 and on which petroleum has been found in quantity on the majority of the small areas already examined1 the significance of the enterprise will be somewhat appreciated4 ,there is no doubt that the company's success is doubly assured1 and1 from this point of view1 the investment of the public moneys in the undertaking has been sound finance1 especially when one considers the important part which petroleum products under ,british control must hereafter play4 ,as a matter of fact1 the proposition is a well-paying one to-day1 and it is asserted that the ,government's interest is already worth no less than #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,persia as an oil-producing country will occupy a very prominent place4 ,the ,company has immense petroleum-producing fields3 it has its pipe-line to seaboard1 and its refineries1 situate on the ,persian ,gulf4 ,it has possibilities without end1 and it is rapidly availing itself of them4 ,the ,company also now owns the entire capital of three formerly ,german-owned concerns in ,london--the ,british ,petroleum ,company1 ,ltd41 the ,homelight ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 and the ,petroleum ,steamship ,company1 ,ltd4 ,consequent upon these acquisitions1 the ,anglo-,persian ,company1 ,ltd41 is making arrangements to enter the ,english market as distributors of ,persian petroleum4 ,the question of transport need not here be considered1 for the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company owns the entire capital of the ,british ,tanker ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the ,company thus has the producing and refining possibilities3 the acquired concern of the ,tanker ,company1 together with that of the ,petroleum ,steamship ,co41 will suffice to bring its products to the ,english market1 while the large distributing organizations of the ,british ,petroleum ,company and the ,homelight ,oil ,company1 owning depots all over the country1 will offer easy facilities for the distribution of the petroleum products imported4 ,my argument all along has been that the advent of the ,british ,government into this enterprise--,i will not call it a speculation1 though at one time it looked like it--places all that private enterprise1 which in the past has brought all the products of petroleum to our own doors at a reasonable and competitive price1 at absolute discount4 ,ever since the petroleum industry assumed proportions of international magnitude1 and we became more or less 7,i should have said more than less7 dependent upon our necessities being met by petroleum and its products1 private enterprise has always kept us well supplied4 ,but the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company has made immense headway since the ,government took an interest in its operations1 and its appearance on the ,english market as a refiner of ,persian crude oil and a distributor of the products thereof1 is but a reflection of the prolific nature of the vast fields in ,persia which it possesses4 ,it has decided upon having its first ,english oil refinery near ,swansea1 and it is reported that this will be in operation before the end of #aibj4 ,it has also secured the control of the ,scottish shale oil refineries which will be used for the treatment of ,persian crude oil when occasion warrants4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,few ,,of ,,the ,,burmah ,,company',s ,,prolific ,,producers ,one might go on to interminable length in briefly referring to the great concerns whose operations have been responsible for the expansion of the world's petroleum industry to its present magnitude1 but the exigencies of space prevent this4 ,the brief list of companies already referred to represents an amalgamation of capital to the extent of nearly #abj1jjj1jjj sterling1 though this cannot be considered as representing more than one-half the total world's investments in petroleum enterprises4 ,so far1 ,i have not touched with the magnitude of the petroleum companies operating in the distributing oil trade of ,england1 though1 to some extent1 this may be gathered from the references to such companies as the 8,shell10 the ,anglo-,mexican ,petroleum ,company1 etc4 ,practically the first company of any magnitude to distribute petroleum products in this country was the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,co41 ,ltd41 which has actively engaged in this branch of commerce for the past thirty years4 ,it imported and dealt in ,american oils long before the advent of the companies before mentioned1 and1 to-day1 is certainly one of the largest--if not the largest--company so engaged4 ,its name is known in every hamlet in the country3 its tank cars are seen on every railway1 and its depots are to be found in every centre throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,its name is legion4 ,its capital is #c1jjj1jjj1 and it is to the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company that1 throughout the clatter of ,european ,war1 the credit is due for having supplied us with those almost unlimited quantities of petroleum products so necessary both on sea and land1 for it is the largest importer in the ,kingdom4 ,as its name implies1 the 8,anglo0 deals mostly in ,american petroleum products3 it was at one time the importing concern of the ,standard ,oil ,company1 but to-day it purchases broadcast in an endeavour--and a very successful one1 too--to supply the ,british consumer with all the petroleum products he requires4 ,the present chapter deals1 ,i feel1 most inadequately with the general question of concerns whose interests are directly allied with that of petroleum2 in fact1 it was not my desire to give an encyclopaedia of the thousands of companies so engaged1 but1 rather1 to suggest the names of a few which have secured world-wide distinction4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,statistical ,,the ,,world',s ,,output ,,of ,,petroleum ,the world's total production of crude oil for #aiag1 and for the period of years #aheg to #aiag1 is given in the following table4 ,the details are given in barrels1 which1 divided by seven1 will give the output in tons4 ,,production4 ,,total ,,production4 #aiag4 #aheg-aiag4 ,barrels ,p4,c4 ,barrels ,p4,c4 of #db of of #db of ,gallons4 ,total4 ,gallons4 ,total4 ,,country4 ,united ,states 99#cce1cae1fja #ffih #d1beb1fdd1jjc #fjhi ,russia #fi1jjj1jjj #acgh #a1hcb1ehc1jag #bfbd ,mexico #ee1bib1ggj #aajd #bbb1jhb1dgb #cah ,dutch ,east ,indies #ab1ibh1iee #beh #age1ajc1bfg #bea ,india #h1ejj1jjj #agj #ih1ehc1ebb #bda ,galicia #e1ife1ddg #aai #adh1dei1fec #bac ,japan and ,formosa #b1hih1fed #jeh #cf1jfe1ded #jeb ,roumania #b1fha1hgj #jed #adb1iib1dfe #bje ,peru #b1ecc1dag #jea #ba1hgh1bhe #jca ,trinidad #a1eii1dee #jcb #e1dah1hhe #jjh ,argentina #a1add1gcg #jbc #c1jdg1heh #jjd ,egypt #a1jjh1gej #jbj #b1gfh1fhf #jjd ,germany #iie1gfd #jbj #ae1ieb1hfa #bcj ,canada #bje1ccb #jjd #bd1aab1ebi #cej ,italy #ej1ccd #jaa #idg1bhi #jja ,other countries #ecj1jjj #ibg1jjj #jja ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #ejj1fea1jhf #ajjjj #f1ihc1efg1bdf #ajjjj 99 ,quantity marketed4 ,estimated4 ,includes ,british ,borneo4 ,includes #ai1afg barrels produced in ,cuba4 ,,the ,,petroleum ,,import ,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom ,the imports of petroleum products into the ,united ,kingdom for the past seven years are given in the following table4 ,those for #aiag are only approximate quantities inasmuch as1 toward the end of the year1 the ,custom ,house authorities decided for the time being not to compile such statistics for general use4 ,the figures in every case are given in gallons-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,oils4 #aiab4 #aiac4 #aiad4 #aiae4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,petroleum 7,crude7 #ab1gdb #a1ajh1ijj #ae1aje1ehh ---- ,petroleum 7lamp7 #adf1jcj1jicaeg1ada1bdaaej1aca1bccada1db d1cec ,petroleum 7lubricating7 #fi1cbg1jfa #fg1ifb1dic #ff1fdf1eab #fi1igd1agj ,petroleum 7,gas ,oil7 #gc1bgc1ebf #fe1idi1fgg #hc1aje1cdf #hh1jhi1bjb ,petroleum 7,fuel ,oil7 #dh1ace1hde #ie1jfb1ahgbab1fge1hee #bg1bhh1hej ,petroleum 7,other prdcts7 #ifc1hef #bd1agh #ag1idb #gje1cec ,motor ,spirit #gi1eij1aeeajj1heh1jagaai1jcj1aeeadf1ccd 1gjb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,oils4 #aiaf4 #aiag4 #aiah4 #aiai4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,petroleum 7,crude7 ---- ---- ---- #g1egg1edi ,petroleum 7lamp7 #abf1hdj1didabg1ieh1ffeadh1jba1bcdaec1cg a1heh ,petroleum 7lubricating7 #hj1ddc1fid #hg1ggi1gcgajb1bgc1hda #fe1hcb1iih ,petroleum 7,gas ,oil7 #eg1afj1dic #ca1cjc1hbj #ch1hce1dfj #cj1jcc1jjb ,petroleum 7,fuel ,oil7 #bb1fdf1ffiddj1ehb1afhhdb1dje1ecfbfe1dje 1bjc ,petroleum 7,other prdcts7 #a1gbh1jib ---- ---- ---- ,motor ,spirit #afc1ife1hcdaci1bgj1ahaaib1iei1jedbjj1cc b1fdh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,america',s ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,,during ,,the ,,past ,,fifty ,,years ,the output of crude petroleum in the oil-fields of ,america during the past fifty years has been as under1 the figures being given in barrels of #db gallons 7usually reckoned at seven to the ton7-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #ahfi #d1bae1jjj #ahgj #e1bfj1gde #ahga #e1bje1bcd #ahgb #f1bic1aid #ahgc #i1hic1ghf #ahgd #aj1ibf1ide #ahge #h1ghg1ead #ahgf #i1acb1ffi #ahgg #ac1cej1cfc #ahgh #ae1cif1hfh #ahgi #ai1iad1adf #ahhj #bf1bhf1abc #ahha #bg1ffa1bch #ahhb #cj1cdi1hig #ahhc #bc1ddi1fcc #ahhd #bd1bah1dch #ahhe #ba1heh1ghe #ahhf #bh1jfd1hda #ahhg #bh1bhc1dhc #ahhh #bg1fab1jbe #ahhi #ce1afc1eac #ahij #de1hbc1egb #ahia #ed1bib1fee #ahib #ej1ead1feg #ahic #dh1dca1jff #ahid #di1cdd1eaf #ahie #eb1hib1bgf #ahif #fj1ifj1cfa #ahig #fj1dge1eaf #ahih #ee1cfd1bcc #ahii #eg1jgj1hej #aijj #fc1fbj1ebi #aija #fi1chi1aid #aijb #hh1gff1iaf #aijc #ajj1dfa1ccg #aijd #aag1jhj1ifj #aije #acd1gag1ehj #aijf #abf1dic1icf #aijg #aff1jie1cce #aijh #agh1ebg1cee #aiji #ahc1agj1hgd #aiaj #bji1eeg1bdh #aiaa #bbj1ddi1cia #aiab #bbb1ice1jdd #aiac #bdh1ddf1bcj #aiad #bfe1gfb1ece #aiae #bha1ajd1ajd #aiaf #cjj1gfg1aeh #aiag #cce1cae1fja #aiah #cfj1jjj1jjj ,,roumania',s ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,,during ,,the ,,past ,,fifty ,,years ,roumania's crude oil production for the past fifty years is given in the following table in barrels of #db gallons 7seven to the ton74 ,the officially recorded output goes back as far as #aheg1 when the twelve months' yield was just under #b1jjj barrels4 ,during #ahfa1 the production passed the #aj1jjj barrel mark for the first time1 and six years later reached #ej1jjj barrels for the year4 ,the figures are as under-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #ahfh #ee1cfi #ahfi #eh1ecc #ahgj #hc1gfe #ahga #ij1jcj #ahgb #ia1bea #ahgc #ajd1jcf #ahgd #ajc1agg #ahge #ajh1efi #ahgf #aaa1cad #ahgg #ajh1eii #ahgh #aji1cjj #ahgi #aaj1jjg #ahhj #aad1cba #ahha #aba1eaa #ahhb #acf1faj #ahhc #aci1dhf #ahhd #baj1ffg #ahhe #aic1daa #ahhf #afh1fjf #ahhg #aha1ijg #ahhh #bah1egf #ahhi #big1fff #ahij #chc1bbg #ahia #dhh1bja #ahib #eic1age #ahic #ece1fee #ahid #ejg1bee #ahie #ege1bjj #ahif #edc1cdh #ahig #egj1hhf #ahih #ggf1bch #ahii #a1dbe1ggg #aijj #a1fbh1ece #aija #a1fgh1cbj #aijb #b1jei1ice #aijc #b1gfc1aag #aijd #c1eii1jbf #aije #d1dbj1ihg #aijf #f1cgh1ahd #aijg #h1aah1bjg #aijh #h1beb1aeg #aiji #i1cbg1bgh #aiaj #i1gbc1hjf #aiaa #aa1ajg1dej #aiab #ab1igf1bcb #aiac #ac1eed1gfh #aiad #ab1hbf1egh #aiae #ab1jbi1iac #aiaf #aj1bih1bjh #aiag #b1fha1hgj ,,mexico',s ,,remarkable ,,progress ,,in ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,fourteen years ago1 the crude petroleum production in the oil-fields of ,mexico was officially recorded for the first time4 ,its remarkable progress since that time will be seen from the following table1 the figures being in barrels of #db gallons-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #aijd #bbj1fec #aije #cbj1cgi #aijf #a1jig1bfd #aijg #a1gag1fij #aijh #c1dha1faj #aiji #b1dhh1gdb #aiaj #c1ccb1hjg #aiaa #ad1jea1fdc #aiab #af1eeh1bae #aiac #be1ijb1dci #aiad #ba1ahh1dbg #aiae #cb1iaj1ejh #aiaf #ci1hag1djb #aiag #ee1bib1ggj #aiah #fd1fje1dbb ,,galician ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,the output of crude petroleum in the ,galician fields during the past thirty years is given herewith-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #ahhh #dff1ecg #ahhi #eae1bfh #ahij #fei1jab #ahia #fcj1gcj #ahib #fdf1bbj #ahic #fib1ffi #ahid #idi1adf #ahie #a1deb1iii #ahif #b1ddc1jhj #ahig #b1bbf1cfh #ahih #b1cgf1ajh #ahii #b1cac1jdg #aijj #b1cdf1eje #aija #c1bea1edd #aijb #d1adb1aei #aijc #e1bcd1dge #aijd #e1idg1chc #aije #e1gfe1cag #aijf #e1dfg1ifg #aijg #h1dee1hda #aijh #ab1fab1bie #aiji #ad1icb1gii #aiaj #ab1fgc1fhh #aiaa #aj1eai1bgj #aiab #h1ece1agd #aiac #g1hah1acj #aiad #e1jcc1cej #aiae #d1aeh1hii #aiaf #f1dfa1gjf #aiag #e1ife1ddg #aiah #d1cda1jej ,,germany',s ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,official figures were first recorded of ,germany's crude oil production in #ahhj1 when the total output for the twelve months was about #i1jjj barrels4 ,for the past thirty years1 the yearly output has been as under-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #ahhh #hd1ghb #ahhi #fh1bag #ahij #ajh1bif #ahia #ajh1ibi #ahib #aja1djd #ahic #ii1cij #ahid #abb1efd #ahie #aba1bgg #ahif #ade1jfa #ahig #afe1gde #ahih #ahc1dbg #ahii #aib1bcb #aijj #ceh1big #aija #cac1fcj #aijb #cec1fgd #aijc #dde1hah #aijd #fcg1dca #aije #efj1ifc #aijf #egh1faj #aijg #gef1fca #aijh #a1jji1bgh #aiji #a1jah1hcg #aiaj #a1jcb1ebb #aiaa #a1jag1jde #aiab #a1jca1jej #aiac #a1jjb1gjj #aiad #icf1djj #aiae #ifj1dcj #aiaf #idh1cbj #aiag #iie1gfd #aiah #hbj1caj ,,exports ,,of ,,petroleum ,,products ,,from ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the following table gives the total export movement of petroleum products from the ,united ,states from the year #ahfe1 when ,american petroleum products commenced to have an international overseas market-- ,year4 ,gallons4 ,value in ,dollars4 #aiah #b1gad1dcj1deb #cdd1bij1ddd #aiag #b1eif1ijj1jjj #bec1jba1jjj #aiaf #b1fjg1dhb1jjj #bja1gba1jjj #aiae #b1cbh1gbe1jjj #adb1ida1jjj #aiad #b1bdj1jcc1jjj #aci1ijj1jjj #aiac #b1acf1dfe1jjj #adi1caf1jjj #aiab #a1hhc1dgi1jjj #abd1baj1jjj #aiaa #a1gfh1gca1jjj #aje1ibb1jjj #aiaj #a1edf1jfg1jjj #ii1jij1jjj #aiji #a1efa1fga1jjj #aje1iii1jjj #aijh #a1ddc1ecg1jjj #ajd1aaf1jjj #aijg #a1beg1dcj1jjj #hd1hee1jjj #aijf #a1beg1idi1jjj #hd1jda1jjj #aije #a1abc1ccd1jjj #gi1gic1jjj #aijd #ihd1dbd1jjj #gi1jfj1jjj #aijc #ida1fii1jjj #fg1bec1jjj #aijb #a1ajf1bjh1jjj #gb1cjb1jjj #aija #a1jcd1fdc1jjj #ga1aab1jjj #aijj #ifg1beb1jjj #ge1faa1jjj #ahii #iii1gac1jjj #ef1bgc1jjj #ahih #a1jcd1bdi1jjj #ef1abe1jjj #ahig #igc1ead1jjj #fb1fce1jjj #ahif #hij1deh1jjj #fb1chc1jjj #ahie #hhd1ejb1jjj #df1ffj1jjj #ahid #ijh1beb1jjj #da1dii1jjj #ahic #ijd1ccg1jjj #db1adb1jjj #ahib #gae1dga1jjj #dd1hje1jjj #ahia #gaj1abd1jjj #eb1jbf1jjj #ahij #ffd1dia1jjj #ea1djc1jjj #ahhi #faf1aie1jjj #di1iac1jjj #ahhh #egh1cea1jjj #dg1jdb1jjj #ahhg #eib1hjc1jjj #df1hbd1jjj #ahhf #egg1fbh1jjj #ej1aii1jjj #ahhe #egd1fbh1jjj #ej1beg1jjj #ahhd #eac1ffj1jjj #dg1ajc1jjj #ahhc #eje1ica1jjj #dd1iac1jjj #ahhb #eei1ied1jjj #ea1bcb1jjj #ahha #cig1ffj1jjj #dj1cae1jjj #ahhj #dbc1ifd1jjj #cf1bjh1jjj #ahgi #cgh1caj1jjj #dj1cje1jjj #ahgh #cch1hda1jjj #df1egd1jjj #ahgg #cji1aih1jjj #fa1ghi1jjj #ahgf #bdc1ffj1jjj #cb1iae1jjj #ahge #bba1iee1jjj #cj1jgh1jjj #ahgd #bdg1hjf1jjj #da1bde1jjj #ahgc #ahg1hae1jjj #db1jej1jjj #ahgb #ade1aga1jjj #cd1jeh1jjj #ahga #adi1hib1jjj #cf1hid1jjj #ahgj #aac1gce1jjj #cb1ffh1jjj #ahfi #ajj1fcf1jjj #ca1abg1jjj #ahfh #gi1def1jjj #ba1haj1jjj #ahfg #gj1bee1jjj #bd1djg1jjj #ahff #ej1ihg1jjj #bd1hcj1jjj #ahfe #be1dif1jjj #af1efc1jjj ,,russia',s ,,crude ,,oil ,,production ,,during ,,the ,,past ,,fifty ,,years ,the output of crude petroleum in the ,russian oil-fields during the past fifty years is given in the following table4 ,for the purpose of comparison1 the figures are given in barrels of #db gallons1 rather than in poods 7#fb to the ton7 which is the usual manner of recording ,russian quantities4 ,the figures are as under-- ,year4 ,barrels4 #ahfi #bjb1cjh #ahgj #bjd1fah #ahga #afe1abi #ahgb #ahd1cia #ahgc #dgd1cgi #ahgd #ehc1gea #ahge #fig1cfd #ahgf #a1cbj1ebh #ahgg #a1hjj1gbj #ahgh #b1djj1ifj #ahgi #b1gfa1ajd #ahhj #c1jja1bjj #ahha #c1fja1dda #ahhb #d1ecg1hae #ahhc #f1jjb1dja #ahhd #aj1hjd1egg #ahhe #ac1ibd1eif #ahhf #ah1jjf1djg #ahhg #ah1cfg1gha #ahhh #bc1jdh1ghg #ahhi #bd1fji1djg #ahij #bh1fia1bah #ahia #cd1egc1aha #ahib #ce1ggd1ejd #ahic #dj1def1eai #ahid #cf1cge1dbh #ahie #df1adj1agd #ahif #dg1bbj1fcc #ahig #ed1cii1efh #ahih #fa1fji1ceg #ahii #fe1ied1ifh #aijj #ge1ggi1dag #aija #he1afh1eef #aijb #hj1edj1jdd #aijc #ge1eia1bef #aijd #gh1ecf1fee #aije #ed1ifj1bgj #aijf #eh1hig1caa #aijg #fa1hej1gcd #aijh #fb1ahf1ddg #aiji #fe1igj1bej #aiaj #gj1ccf1egd #aiaa #ff1ahc1fia #aiab #fh1jai1bjh #aiac #fb1hcd1cef #aiad #fg1jbj1ebb #aiae #fh1edh1jfb #aiaf #gb1hja1aaj #aiag #fi1jjj1jjj ,,index ,advantages of liquid fuel1 #gh ,a few notable petroleum enterprises1 #adh ,american petroleum exports1 #afc ,america's crude oil production1 #afj ,america1 the petroleum industry in1 #h ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 the1 #aef ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 the1 #aec ,baku-,batoum pipe-line1 #bd1 #fi ,baku1 boring operations in1 #bb ----1 the oil-fields of1 #ai ,british ,empire1 petroleum in1 #aad ,burmah ,oil ,company1 ,ltd41 the1 #aeb ----1 the oil fields of1 #ce ,california petroleum industry1 #i ,canada1 petroleum in1 #aah ,chemical composition of petroleum1 #eb ,cooking by means of oil1 #ic ,distillation of ,scottish oil shales1 #add ,drilling methods for oil1 #da ,dutch ,indies1 petroleum in the1 #bc ,egyptian oil-fields1 the1 #aaf ,empire oil1 #aad ,england1 petroleum in1 #ajd ,england's petroleum trade1 #afj ,famous oil companies1 #adh ,fifty years' ,american production1 #afj ---- ---- ,russian production1 #afd ,galicia's crude oil production1 #afb ,galicia1 the oil-fields of1 #cf ,germany's attempts at oil production1 #ci ---- march on ,roumania1 #cj ---- output of crude oil1 #afb ,hand-dug wells in ,roumania1 #bi ,heathfield1 natural gas in1 #aji ,how petroleum is produced1 #da ---- ---- is refined1 #ea ---- the ,scottish shales are operated1 #acf ,internal combustion engines1 #ie ,japan1 petroleum in1 #cf ,liquid fuel in the ,navy1 #gh ,lord ,cowdray's enterprise in ,england1 #aaa ---- ---- ---- ,mexico1 #af1 #aea ,maikop oil boom1 the1 #bj ,messrs4 ,vickers1 ,ltd41 new engines of1 #if1 #ajb ,methods of drilling wells1 #dc ,mexico's crude oil production1 #afa ----- petroleum industry1 #ab ,ocean oil transport facilities1 #ga ,oil fuel advantages1 #hb ,origin of petroleum1 #c ,petroleum as fuel1 #gf ---- in ,england1 #ajd ---- in historical times1 #b ,petroleum's part in the ,great ,war1 #abc ,petroleum1 the production of1 #da ----1 the refining of1 #ea ----1 the world's output of1 #aeh ,remarkable oil wells in ,mexico1 #ad ,rotary system of drilling1 #dh ,roumania1 petroleum industry of1 #bh ,roumania's crude oil production1 #afj ,russia1 petroleum industry of1 #ah ,russia's crude oil production1 #afd ,scottish oil pipe-line1 #gj ---- shale-oil industry1 #acb 8,shell0 ,company and the ,dutch ,indies1 #cc ---- ,transport and ,trading ,co41 the1 #aej ,sir ,marcus ,samuel1 ,bart41 and toluol supplies1 #acj ,solar oil for gas enrichment purposes1 #fa ,staffordshire1 petroleum in1 #ajf ,texas1 the oil-fields of1 #aj ,toluol from ,borneo petroleum1 #fb ,transport of petroleum1 #fc ,trinidad1 progress in1 #aag ,vicker's oil engines1 #ajb ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,sir ,isaac ,pitman ,sons1 ,ltd41 ,bath1 ,england ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original4