,,lightships ,,and ,,lighthouses ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the #dc1jjj1jjj ,,candle-,,power ,,beams ,,thrown ,,from ,,the ,,heligoland ,,lighthouse4 ,being projected from a height of #bgb feet above the sea1 the beacon has a range of #bc miles1 and on a clear night the rays are seen from ,bsun1 #ce miles away4 ,frontispiece4 ,,conquests ,,of ,,science ,,lightships ,,and ,,lighthouses ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot ,,author ,,of 8,,moving ,,pictures10 8,,railway ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world10 8,,the ,,steamship ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world10 ,,etc4 ,,illustrated ,,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann #aiac ,printed in ,england4 ,,preface ,romances innumerable have been woven around the flaming guardians of the coast1 but it is doubtful whether any purely imaginative work is so fascinating and absorbing as the plain unvarnished narrative of how some famous lightship or lighthouse has been brought into existence4 ,and the story of construction is equalled in every way by that relating to the operation and maintenance of the light1 against all odds1 for the guidance of those who have business upon the ocean4 ,this volume is not a history of lightships and lighthouses2 neither is it a technical treatise4 ,rather my object has been to relate how the difficulties1 peculiar and prodigious1 have been overcome by the builders in their efforts to mark some terrible danger-spots1 both on the mainland and isolated sea-rocks4 ,while the lines of the lightship and lighthouse are familiar to all1 popular knowledge concerning the internal apparatus of the building or ship is somewhat hazy4 ,therefore ,i have explained1 with technicalities simplified as much as possible1 the equipment of the tower and vessel1 and the methods whereby both visual and audible warnings are given4 ,the very latest developments in this field of engineering and science are incorporated1 so as to render the subject as comprehensive as possible within the limits of a single volume4 ,in the compilation of this book ,i have received the heartiest assistance from those who are prominently associated with the work of providing adequate aids to navigation1 and am particularly indebted to the engineers to the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lights1 ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson2 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,william ,p4 ,anderson1 the ,engineer-in-,chief to the ,lighthouse ,department of the ,canadian ,government2 the various officials of the ,lighthouse ,board of the ,united ,states of ,america2 the ,engineer-in-,chief to the ,french ,service des ,phares2 the lighthouse authorities of ,new ,south ,wales and ,new ,zealand2 ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln and his assistants2 ,messrs4 ,chance ,brothers and ,company1 ,limited1 of ,birmingham2 ,messrs4 ,edmondsons1 ,limited1 of ,dublin2 ,samuel ,strain1 ,esq41 the ,director of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission1 ,belfast2 the ,scientific ,american1 and the ,syren and ,shipping1 etc4 ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot4 ,june1 #aiac4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,lighthouse #a ,,ii4 ,,building ,a ,,lighthouse #aa ,,iii4 ,,the ,,light ,,and ,,illuminants #bh ,,iv4 ,,fog-,,signals #eg ,v4 ,,the ,,eddystone ,,lighthouse #gb ,,vi4 ,,some ,,famous ,,lights ,,of ,,england #ha ,,vii4 ,,the ,,bell ,,rock ,,and ,,skerryvore ,,lights #if ,,viii4 ,,the ,,lonely ,,lights ,,of ,,scotland #ajh ,,ix4 ,,the ,,fastnet1 ,,the ,,outpost ,,of ,,europe #aba ,x4 ,,lighthouses ,,built ,,on ,,sand #acb ,,xi4 ,,some ,,light ,,patrols ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,coast #adh ,,xii4 ,,the ,,guardian ,,lights ,,of ,,canada',s ,,coast #afa ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,minot',s ,,ledge ,,light #agf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,tillamook ,,rock ,,light-,,station #ahc ,,xv4 ,,the ,,coast ,,lights ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states #aif ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,lamp-,,posts ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,lakes ,,of ,,north ,,america #bjh ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,most ,,powerful ,,electric ,,lighthouses ,,of ,,the ,,world #bah ,,xviii4 ,,some ,,lighthouses ,,in ,,australian ,,waters #bbi ,,xix4 ,,the ,,signposts ,,of ,,the ,,sandbanks #bdj ,,xx4 ,a ,,flaming ,,sentinel ,,of ,,the ,,malacca ,,straits #beg ,,xxi4 ,,unattended ,,lighthouses #bfg ,,xxii4 ,,floating ,,lighthouses #bhd ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,light-,,keeper ,,and ,,his ,,life #cja ,,index #cah ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,facing ,,page ,the #dc1jjj1jjj ,candle-,power ,beams thrown from the ,heligoland ,lighthouse ,frontispiece ,how the ,beachy ,head ,lighthouse was built #f ,workmen returning by the ,aerial ,cableway to the ,top of ,beachy ,head #g ,the ,sanganeb ,reef ,lighthouse in the ,red ,sea #ad ,the ,alcatraz ,lighthouse under ,construction #ae ,the ,alcatraz ,lighthouse completed #ae ,the ,thimble ,shoals ,light #bb ,setting the ,last ,stone of the ,beachy ,head ,lighthouse #bc ,the ,hyperradial ,apparatus for the ,manora ,point ,light1 ,karachi1 ,india #dh ,first ,order ,triple ,flashing ,light of #ibj ,millimetres ,focal ,distance for ,chilang ,lighthouse1 ,china #di ,looking up the ,lantern of the ,needles ,lighthouse #eb ,fixed ,apparatus of the ,fourth ,order for ,sarawak #ec ,a ,modern ,lighthouse ,siren ,plant #eh ,the ,sirens of the ,lizard #ei ,the ,acetylene ,fog-,gun #fd ,the ,rattray ,head ,lighthouse #fe ,sule ,skerry ,light #fe ,the ,eddystone1 the ,most ,famous ,lighthouse of ,england #gf ,a ,thrilling ,experience #gg ,the 8,bishop10 the ,western ,outpost of ,england #hb ,the ,wolf ,rock ,lighthouse #hc ,the ,longships ,light #hh ,the ,godrevy ,light1 ,scilly ,islands #hi ,the ,chicken ,rock ,lighthouse1 off the ,isle of ,man #ib ,how the ,skerryvore is built #ic ,the ,skerryvore1 ,scotland's ,most ,famous ,lighthouse #ajb ,barra ,head ,lighthouse1 ,scotland #ajc ,the ,homes of the ,keepers of the ,skerryvore and ,dhu-,heartach ,lights #ajc ,the ,dhu-,heartach ,lighthouse #aaj ,the ,north ,unst1 ,britain's most ,northerly ,lighthouse #aaa ,the ,north ,unst ,light #aaf ,landing ,water at the ,north ,unst #aaf ,the ,flannen ,islands ,light-,station #aag ,building the ,fastnet ,rock ,lighthouse #abb ,building the ,fastnet ,tower #abc ,erecting the ,fastnet ,lantern #abc ,the ,fastnet1 the ,outpost of ,europe #abh ,the ,lantern of the ,fastnet ,rock ,lighthouse #abi ,the ,rothersand ,lighthouse #acf ,the ,fourteen-,foot ,bank ,lighthouse1 built on ,sand #acg ,the ,heaux de ,brhat ,light #aej ,fitting the ,lantern of ,la ,jument ,light #aea ,preparing the ,foundations of the ,jument ,tower #aed ,the ,jument ,light recently erected off ,ushant #aee ,the ,cape ,race ,lighthouse1 ,newfoundland #afb ,cann ,island ,lighthouse1 on the ,east ,coast of ,newfoundland #afc ,the ,light at the ,southern ,end of ,belle ,ile #aff ,the ,north ,belle ,ile ,lighthouse #afg ,a ,magnificent ,canadian ,light on the ,pacific ,coast #afh ,the ,west ,end ,guardian of ,sable ,island #afh ,st4 ,esprit ,island ,light1 ,nova ,scotia #afi ,the ,gull ,island ,light1 ,newfoundland #afi ,the ,batiscan ,front ,range ,lighthouse1 ,river ,st4 ,lawrence #agj ,isle ,st4 ,thrse ,upper ,range ,back ,lighthouse1 ,river ,st4 ,lawrence #agj ,upper ,traverse ,lighthouse in the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence #aga ,an 8,ice ,shove0 upon the ,back ,range ,light in ,lake ,st4 ,peter #aga ,the ,minot's ,ledge ,light #agh ,tender landing ,building ,material upon the ,tillamook ,rock #agi ,the ,tillamook ,rock ,light-,station from the ,south #ahf ,the ,conquest of the ,tillamook #ahg ,the ,terrible ,tillamook ,rock #ahg ,famous ,united ,states ,lighthouses of ,two ,centuries #aib ,the ,race ,rock ,light #aic ,the ,carquinez ,strait ,light #aih ,a ,church as a ,lighthouse #aii ,the ,bonita ,point ,lighthouse off the ,californian ,coast #bjb ,point ,pinos ,light-,station1 ,california #bjc ,the ,farallon ,rock and ,light #bjd ,the ,farallon ,lighthouse off ,san ,francisco #bjd ,the ,punta ,gorda ,light-,station1 ,california #bje ,a ,lighthouse on the ,great ,lakes in the ,grip of ,winter #baj ,building the ,barre ,boulard ,light in the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence #baa ,colchester ,reef ,lighthouse1 ,lake ,erie #bad ,the ,latest ,development in ,lighthouse ,engineering #bae ,the ,electric ,searchlights of the ,heligoland ,lighthouse #bbb ,the ,heligoland ,lighthouse #bbc ,green ,cape ,lighthouse1 ,new ,south ,wales #bcb ,the ,sentinel of ,sugar ,loaf ,point1 ,new ,south ,wales #bcb 8,bungaree ,norah0 ,station1 ,new ,south ,wales #bcb ,the ,cape ,byron ,lighthouse1 ,new ,south ,wales #bcc ,the ,macquarie ,lighthouse1 ,south ,head of ,sydney ,harbour #bcc ,painting the ,troubridge ,lighthouse1 ,south ,australia #bcd ,green ,point ,lighthouse1 ,natal #bce ,the ,pacific ,outpost of the ,united ,states of ,america #bce ,the ,seven ,stones ,lightship #bdb ,the ,san ,francisco ,lightship #bdc ,the ,norderney ,lightship #bej ,the ,fire ,island ,lightship1 the ,atlantic ,outpost of the ,united ,states #bea ,completing the ,one-,fathom ,bank ,lighthouse in the ,malacca ,straits #bfb ,the ,one-,fathom ,bank ,lighthouse1 ,malacca ,straits1 in ,course of ,erection #bfc ,the ,platte ,fougre ,lighthouse under ,construction #bfh ,the ,platte ,fougre ,lighthouse #bfi ,setting the ,compressed-,air ,reservoir at ,fort ,doyle #bgj ,the ,fort ,doyle ,siren #bga ,an ,unattended ,beacon ,light placed upon a ,wild ,part of the ,scottish ,coast #bgb ,the ,gasfeten ,light3 a ,lonely ,beacon in ,swedish ,waters #bgc ,the ,daln 8,sun-,valve10 the ,most ,wonderful ,invention of ,modern ,lighthouse ,engineering #bgd ,the ,gas ,accumulators ,employed with the ,daln ,automatic ,system #bge ,the ,lagerholmen ,lighthouse #bgh ,an ,unattended ,beacon ,light in the ,straits of ,magellan #bgi ,an ,automatic ,lightboat #bgi ,the ,wigham ,thirty-,one ,day ,unattended ,petroleum ,light #bhj ,willson ,automatic ,gas and ,whistling ,light off ,egg ,island1 ,nova ,scotia #bha ,the 8,outer ,automatic0 ,combined ,gas and ,whistling ,light1 ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia #bha ,the ,svinbdan ,unattended ,lightship in ,swedish ,waters #bib ,the ,kalkgrundet1 ,sweden's ,latest ,automatic ,lightship #bic ,the ,lantern used in the ,wigham ,automatic ,petroleum ,beacon #bih ,the 8#f-;,bar0 ,floating ,wigham ,light in ,portsmouth ,harbour #bii ,the ,pumps whereby the ,oil is lifted from the ,lowest ,floor to the ,lantern ,room #cjf ,combined ,kitchen and ,living-,room in the ,lighthouse #cjg ,keeper cleaning the ,lamp after it has cooled down #cab ,a ,lighthouse ,bedroom #cac ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,lighthouse ,the mariner1 in pursuit of his daily business1 is exposed to dangers innumerable4 ,in mid-ocean1 for the most part1 he need not fear them particularly1 because he has plenty of sea-room in which to navigate his ship1 and in case of thick fog he can ease up until this dreaded enemy lifts or disperses4 ,but in crowded coastal waters his position is often precarious1 for he may be menaced by lurking shoals or hidden reefs1 which betray little or no indication of their whereabouts1 and which may be crossed with apparent safety4 ,if the ship blunders on in ignorance1 it is brought up with a thud as it buries its nose in the sucking sand1 or gives a mighty shiver as it scrapes over the rocky teeth1 perhaps to be clasped as in a vice1 or to be battered and broken so fearfully that1 when at last it tears itself free and slips off into deep water1 it can only founder immediately4 ,here1 if fog blots out the scene1 the ship is in danger of being lured to certain destruction by currents and other natural forces1 since the captain is condemned to a helplessness as complete as of a blind man in a busy street4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that the captain1 as he approaches or wanders along a tortuous shoreline1 scans the waters eagerly for a glimpse of the guardian monitor1 which1 as he knows from his reckonings and chart1 should come within sight to guide him on his way4 ,the danger-signal may be one of many kinds--a misty1 star-like glimmer thrown from a buoy dancing on the waves1 the radiant orb from a lightship bobbing up and down and swinging rhythmically to and fro1 a fixed flare-light1 or dazzling1 spoke-like rays revolving across the sky4 ,if sight be impossible owing to fog1 he must depend upon his ear for the measured tolling of a bell1 the shriek of a whistle1 the deep blare of a siren1 or the sharp report of an explosive4 ,when he has picked up one or other of these warnings1 he feels more at ease1 and proceeds upon his way1 eyes and ears keenly strained for warning of the next danger ahead4 ,the lighthouse is the greatest blessing that has been bestowed upon navigation4 ,it renders advance through the waters at night as safe and as simple as in the brilliancy of the midday sun4 ,but for these beacons the safe movement of ships at night or during fog along the crowded steamship highways which surround the serrated shores of the five continents would be impossible4 ,it is only natural1 therefore1 that the various nations of the world should strenuously endeavour to light their coasts so adequately that the ship may proceed at night as safely and as comfortably as a man may walk down an illuminated city thoroughfare4 ,whence came the idea of lighting the coastline with flaring beacons8 ,it is impossible to say4 ,they have been handed down to modern civilization through the mists of time4 ,the first authentic lighthouse was ,sigeum1 on the ,hellespont1 which undoubtedly antedates the famous ,pharos of ,alexandria4 ,the latter was a massive square tower1 #djj feet high1 and was known as one of the ,seven ,wonders of the ,world4 ,it was built about #cca ,b4,c4 ,the warning light was emitted from a huge wood fire1 which was kept burning at the summit continuously during the night2 the illumination is stated to have been visible for a distance of forty miles1 but modern knowledge disputes this range4 ,the precise design of this wonderful tower is unknown1 but it must have been a huge structure1 inasmuch as it is computed to have cost the equivalent in modern money of over #bjj1jjj1 or #a1jjj1jjj4 ,for sixteen hundred years it guided the navigators among the waters from which it reared its smoking crest1 and then it disappeared4 ,how1 no one knows1 although it is surmised that it was razed by an earthquake2 but1 although it was swept from sight1 its memory has been preserved1 and the ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish nations use its name in connection with the lighthouse1 which in ,france is called phare2 in the other two countries mentioned1 faro4 ,the ,romans in their conquest of ,gaul and ,britain brought the lighthouse with them1 and several remains of their efforts in this direction are to be found in ,england1 notably the pharos at ,dover4 ,in all probability1 however1 the lighthouse in its most primitive form is at least as old as the earliest books of the ,bible4 ,undoubtedly it sprang from the practice of guiding the incoming boatman to his home by means of a blazing bonfire set up in a conspicuous position near by4 ,such a guide is a perfectly obvious device1 which even to-day is practised by certain savage tribes4 ,when the ,phnicians traded in tin with the ancient ,britons of ,cornwall1 their boats continually traversed the rough waters washing the western coasts of ,spain1 where1 for the safer passage of their sailors1 doubtless1 they erected beacons upon prominent headlands4 ,the oldest lighthouse in the world to-day1 which in some quarters is held to be of ,phnician origin1 is that at ,corunna1 a few miles north of ,cape ,finisterre4 ,other authorities maintain that it was built during the reign of the ,roman ,emperor ,trajan4 ,in #afcd it was reconstructed1 and is still in existence4 ,at the mouth of the ,gironde is another highly interesting link with past efforts and triumphs in lighthouse engineering4 ,the ,gironde ,river empties itself into the ,bay of ,biscay through a wide estuary1 in the centre of which is a bunch of rocks offering a terrible menace to vessels4 ,this situation achieved an unenviable reputation in the days when ships first ventured out to sea4 ,being exposed to the broad ,atlantic1 it receives the full force of the gales which rage in the ,bay of ,biscay1 and which make of the ,gironde ,river estuary a fearful trap4 ,the trading town of ,bordeaux suffered severely from the ill fame attached to the mouth of the waterway upon which it was dependent1 for both the sea and the roads exacted a heavy toll among the ships which traded with the famous wine capital of ,gascony4 ,how many fine vessels struck the rocks of ,cordouan and went to pieces within sight of land1 history does not record1 but the casualties became so numerous that at last the firms trading with ,bordeaux refused to venture into the ,gironde unless a light were placed on the reef to guide their captains4 ,alarmed at the prospect of losing their remunerative traffic1 the citizens of ,bordeaux built a tower upon the deadly reef1 with a beacon which they kept stoked with wood1 four men being reserved for its service4 ,in return the authorities exacted a tax from each vessel arriving and leaving the port1 in order to defray the expense thus incurred4 ,probably from this action originated the custom of lighthouse dues4 ,this bonfire served its purposes until the ,black ,prince brought ,gascony under his power4 ,he demolished the primitive beacon1 and erected in its place another tower1 #dj feet high1 on which the chauffer was placed1 a hermit being entrusted with the maintenance of the light at night4 ,near the lighthouse--if such it can be called--a chapel was built1 around which a few fishermen erected their dwellings4 ,when the hermit died1 no one offered to take his place4 ,the beacon went untended1 the fishermen departed1 and the reef once more was allowed to claim its victims from shipping venturing into the estuary4 ,in #aehd an eminent ,french architect1 ,louis de ,foix1 secured the requisite concession to build a new structure4 ,he evolved the fantastic idea of a single building which should comprise a beacon1 a church and a royal residence in one4 ,for nearly twenty-seven years he laboured upon the rock1 exposed to the elements1 before he 7or rather his successor7 was able to throw the welcome warning rays from the summit of his creation4 ,this was certainly the most remarkable lighthouse that has ever been set up4 ,it was richly decorated and artistically embellished1 and the tower was in reality a series of galleries rising tier upon tier4 ,at the base was a circular stone platform1 #acd feet in diameter1 flanked by an elegant parapet surrounding the light-keepers' abode4 ,this lower structure was intended to form a kind of breakwater which should protect the main building from the force of the waves4 ,on the first floor was a magnificent entrance hall1 leading to the ,king's apartment1 a salon finely decorated with pillars and mural sculptures4 ,above was a beautiful chapel with a lofty roof supported by carved ,corinthian columns4 ,finally came the beacon1 which at that date was about #ajj feet above the sea-level4 ,access to the successive floors was provided by a beautiful spiral staircase1 the newels of which were flanked by busts of the two ,french ,kings1 ,henry ,,iii4 and ,henry ,,iv41 and of the designer de ,foix4 ,the architect died not long before his work was completed1 but the directions he left behind him were so explicit that no difficulty was experienced in consummating his ideas1 and the ,tour de ,cordouan shed its beneficial light for the first time over the waters of the ,bay of ,biscay in #afaa4 ,so strongly was the building founded that it has defied the attacks of ,nature to this day1 although it did not escape those of the vandals of the ,french ,revolution1 who penetrated the tower1 where the busts of the two ,henrys at once excited their passion4 ,the symbols of monarchy were promptly hurled to the floor1 and other damage was inflicted4 ,when order was restored1 the busts were replaced1 and all the carvings which had suffered mutilation from mob law were restored4 ,at the same time1 in accordance with the spirit of progress1 the tower was modified to bring it into line with modern lighting principles2 it was extended to a height of #aig feet1 and was crowned with an up-to-date light1 visible twenty-seven miles out to sea4 ,for more than three centuries it has fulfilled its designed purpose1 and still ranks as the most magnificent lighthouse that ever has been built4 ,its cost is not recorded1 but it must necessarily have been enormous4 ,in ,great ,britain the seafarer's warning light followed the lines of those in vogue upon the older part of the ,continent1 consisting chiefly of wood and coal fires mounted on conspicuous lofty points around the coast4 ,these braziers were maintained both by public and by private enterprise4 ,patents were granted to certain individuals for the upkeep of beacons in ,england and ,scotland1 and from time to time the holders of these rights came into conflict with the public authority which was created subsequently for the maintenance of various aids to navigation around the coasts4 ,in ,england these monopolies were not extinguished until #ahcf1 when the ,brethren of ,trinity ,house were empowered1 by special ,act of ,parliament1 to purchase the lights which had been provided both by the ,crown and by private interests1 so as to bring the control under one corporation4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,messrs4 ,bullivant ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,how ,,the ,,beachy ,,head ,,lighthouse ,,was ,,built4 ,to facilitate erection a cableway was stretched between the top of ,beachy ,head and a staging placed beside the site of the tower in the water4 ,a stone is being sent down4 ,the chauffer1 however1 was an unsatisfactory as well as an expensive type of beacon4 ,some of these grates consumed as many as #djj tons of coal per annum--more than a ton of coal per night--in addition to vast quantities of wood4 ,being completely exposed1 they were subject to the caprices of the wind4 ,when a gale blew off the land1 the light on the sea side was of great relative brilliancy2 but when off the water1 the side of the fire facing the sea would be quite black1 whereas on the landward side the fire bars were almost melting under the fierce heat generated by the intense draughts4 ,this was the greater drawback1 because it was1 of course1 precisely when the wind was making a lee shore below the beacon that the more brilliant light was required4 ,when the ,pilgrim ,fathers made their historic trek to the ,united ,states1 they took ,old ,world ideas with them4 ,the first light provided on the ,north ,american continent was at ,point ,allerton1 the most prominent headland near the entrance to ,boston ,harbour1 where #djj boatloads of stone were devoted to the erection of a tower capped with a large basket of iron in which 8fier-bales of pitch and ocum0 were burned4 ,this beacon served the purpose of guiding navigators into and out of ,boston ,harbour for several years4 ,when1 however1 the shortcomings of the exposed fire were realized1 attempts were made to evolve a lighting system1 which does in reality constitute the foundation of modern practice4 ,but the beacon fire held its own for many years after the new principle came into vogue1 the last coal fire in ,england being the ,flat ,holme ,light1 in the ,bristol ,channel1 which was not superseded until #ahbb4 ,in ,scotland the coal fire survived until #ahaf1 one of the most important of these beacons being that on the ,isle of ,may1 in the ,firth of ,forth1 which fulfilled its function for #aha years4 ,this was a lofty tower1 erected in #afcf1 on which a primitive type of pulley was installed for the purpose of raising the fuel to the level of the brazier1 while three men were deputed to the task of stoking the fire4 ,it was one of the private erections1 and the owner of the ,isle of ,may1 the ,duke of ,portland1 in return for maintaining the light1 was allowed to exact a toll from passing vessels4 ,when the welfare of the ,scottish aids to navigation was placed under the control of the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 this body1 realizing the importance of the position1 wished to erect upon the island a commanding lighthouse illuminated with oil lamps2 but it was necessary first to buy out the owner's rights1 and an ,act of ,parliament was passed authorizing this action1 together with the purchase of the island and the right to levy tolls1 at an expenditure of #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj4 ,in #ahaf the coal fire was finally extinguished4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,messrs4 ,bullivant ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,workmen ,,returning ,,by ,,the ,,aerial ,,cableway ,,to ,,the ,,top ,,of ,,beachy ,,head4 ,the ,english lights are maintained by the ,brethren of ,trinity ,house1 and their cost is defrayed by passing shipping4 ,this corporation received its first charter during the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,trinity ,house1 as it is called colloquially1 also possesses certain powers over the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lights and the ,commissioners of ,irish ,lights1 and is itself under the sway1 in regard to certain powers1 such as the levy of light dues1 of the ,board of ,trade4 ,this system of compelling shipowners to maintain the coast lights is somewhat anomalous2 it possesses many drawbacks1 and has provoked quaint situations at times4 ,thus1 when the ,mohegan and the ,paris were wrecked on the ,manacles within the space of a few months1 the outcry for better lighting of this part of the ,devon and ,cornish coasts was loud and bitter4 ,the shipowners clamoured for more protection1 but at the same time1 knowing that they would have to foot the bill1 maintained that further lighting was unnecessary4 ,the ,british ,isles might very well emulate the example of the ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,canada1 and other countries1 which regard coast lighting as a work of humanity1 for the benefit of one and all1 and so defray the cost out of the ,government revenues4 ,some years ago1 when an ,international ,conference was held to discuss this question1 some of the representatives suggested that those nations which give their lighthouse services free to the world should distinguish against ,british shipping1 and levy light-dues upon ,british ships1 with a view to compelling the abolition of the tax upon foreign vessels visiting ,british ports4 ,fortunately1 the threat was not carried into execution4 ,the design and construction of lighthouses have developed into a highly specialized branch of engineering4 ,among the many illustrious names associated with this phase of enterprise--de ,foix1 ,rudyerd1 ,smeaton1 ,walker1 ,douglass1 ,alexander1 and ,ribire--the ,stevenson family stands pre-eminent4 ,ever since the maintenance of the ,scottish coast lights was handed over to the ,northern ,commissioners1 the engineering chair has remained in the hands of this family1 the names of whose members are identified with many lights that have become famous throughout the world for their daring nature1 design1 and construction4 ,moreover1 the family's contributions to the science of this privileged craft have been of incalculable value4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson has written a fascinating story around their exploits in 8,a ,family of ,engineers40 ,it was at first intended that the great author himself should follow in the footsteps of his forbears4 ,he completed his apprenticeship at the drawing-table under his father and uncle1 and became initiated into the mysteries of the craft4 ,at the outset he apparently had visions of becoming numbered among those of his family who had achieved eminence in lighthouse construction1 and he often accompanied his father or uncle on their periodical rounds of inspection4 ,probably the rough and tumble life in a small tender among the wild seas of ,scotland1 the excitement of landing upon dangerous rocks1 the aspect of loneliness revealed by acquaintance with the keepers1 and the following of the growth of a new tower from its foundations1 stirred his imagination1 so that the dormant literary instinct1 which1 like that of engineering1 he had inherited1 became fired4 ,mathematical formul1 figures1 and drawings1 wrestled for a time with imagination and letters1 but the call of the literary heritage proved triumphant1 and1 unlike his grandfather1 who combined literature with lighthouse construction1 and who1 indeed1 was a polished author1 as his stirring story of the 8,bell ,rock ,lighthouse0 conclusively shows1 he finally threw in his lot with letters4 ,the fact that for more than a century one family has held the exacting position of chief engineer to the ,northern ,commissioners1 and has been responsible for the lights around ,scotland's troublous coasts1 is unique in the annals of engineering4 ,each generation has been identified with some notable enterprise in this field4 ,thomas ,smith1 the father-in-law of ,robert ,stevenson1 founded the service1 and was the first engineer to the ,commissioners4 ,robert ,stevenson assumed his mantle and produced the 8,bell ,rock40 ,his son1 ,alan ,stevenson1 was the creator of the 8,skerryvore40 ,the next in the chain1 ,david ,stevenson1 built the 8,north ,unst40 ,david and ,thomas ,stevenson1 who followed1 contributed the 8,dhu-,heartach0 and the 8,chicken ,rock0 lights2 while the present generation1 ,david and ,charles1 have erected such works as 8,rattray ,briggs10 8,sule ,skerry10 and the ,flannen ,islands lighthouses4 ,in addition1 the latter have developed lighthouse engineering in many novel directions1 such as the unattended ,otter ,rock lightship1 the unattended ,guernsey lighthouse1 and the automatic1 acetylene1 fog-signal gun1 which are described elsewhere in this volume4 ,some forty years ago the ,stevensons also drew up the scheme and designed the first lighthouses for guarding the coasts of ,japan4 ,the essential optical apparatus and other fittings were built and temporarily erected in ,england1 then dismantled and shipped to the ,east1 to be set up in their designed places4 ,the ,japanese did not fail to manifest their characteristic trait in connection with lighthouses as with other branches of engineering4 ,the structures produced by the ,scottish engineers fulfilled the requirements so perfectly1 and were such excellent models1 as to be considered a first-class foundation for the ,japanese lighthouse service4 ,the native engineers took these lights as their pattern1 and1 unaided1 extended their coast lighting system upon the lines laid down by the ,stevensons4 ,since that date ,japan has never gone outside her own borders for assistance in lighthouse engineering4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,building ,a ,,lighthouse ,obviously1 the task of erecting a lighthouse varies considerably with the situation4 ,on the mainland construction is straightforward1 and offers little more difficulty than the building of a house4 ,the work assumes its most romantic and fascinating form when it is associated with a small rocky islet out to sea1 such as the ,eddystone1 ,skerryvore1 or ,minot's ,ledge2 or with a treacherous1 exposed stretch of sand1 such as that upon which the ,rothersand light is raised4 ,under such conditions the operation is truly herculean1 and the ingenuity and resource of the engineer are taxed to a superlative degree2 then he is pitted against ,nature in her most awful guise4 ,wind and wave1 moreover1 are such formidable and relentless antagonists that for the most momentary failure of vigilance and care the full penalty is exacted4 ,then there are the fiercely scurrying currents1 tides1 breakers1 and surf1 against which battle must be waged1 with the odds so overwhelmingly ranged against frail human endeavour that advance can only be made by inches4 ,the lighthouse engineer must possess the patience of a ,job1 the tenacity of a limpet1 a determination which cannot be measured1 and a perseverance which defies galling delays and repeated rebuffs4 ,perils of an extreme character beset him on every hand2 thrilling escape and sensational incident are inseparable from his calling4 ,the first step is the survey of the site1 the determination of the character of the rock and of its general configuration1 and the takings of levels and measurements for the foundations4 ,when the rugged hump is only a few feet in diameter little latitude is afforded the engineer for selection1 but in instances where the islet is of appreciable area some little time may be occupied in deciding just where the structure shall be placed4 ,it seems a simple enough task to determine2 one capable of solution within a few minutes1 and so for the most part it is--not from choice1 but necessity--when once the surface of the rock is gained4 ,the paramount difficulty is to secure a landing upon the site4 ,the islet is certain to be the centre of madly surging currents1 eddies1 and surf1 demanding wary approach in a small boat1 while the search for a suitable point upon which to plant a foot is invariably perplexing4 ,somehow1 the majority of these bleak1 wave-swept rocks have only one little place where a landing may be made1 and that only at certain infrequent periods1 the discovery of which in the first instance often taxes the engineer sorely4 ,often weeks will be expended in reconnoitring the position1 awaiting a favourable wind and a placid sea4 ,time to the surveyor must be no object4 ,he is the sport of the elements1 and he must curb his impatience4 ,to do otherwise is to court disaster4 ,the actual operations on the rock may only occupy twenty minutes or so1 but the task of landing is equalled by that of getting off again--the latter frequently a more hazardous job than the former4 ,the west coast of ,scotland is dreaded1 if such a term may be used1 by the engineer1 because the survey inevitably is associated with bitter disappointments and maddening delays owing to the caprices of the ocean4 ,this is not surprising when it is remembered that this coastline is of a cruel1 forbidding character and is exposed to the full reach of the ,atlantic1 with its puzzling swell and vicious currents4 ,the same applies to the west coast of ,ireland and the open parts of the ,south of ,england4 ,the ,casquets1 off the coast of ,alderney1 are particularly difficult of approach1 as they are washed on all sides by wild races of water4 ,there is only one little cove where a landing may be effected by stepping directly from a boat1 and this place can be approached only in the calmest weather and when the wind is blowing in a certain direction4 ,on one occasion1 when ,i had received permission to visit the lighthouse1 ,i frittered away three weeks in ,alderney awaiting a favourable opportunity to go out1 and then gave up the attempt in disgust4 ,as it happened1 another month elapsed before the rock was approachable to make the relief4 ,when the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board sanctioned the construction of the ,tillamook lighthouse on the rock of that name1 off the ,oregon coast1 the engineer in charge of the survey was compelled to wait six months before he could venture to approach the island4 ,in this instance1 however1 his time was not wasted entirely1 as there were many preparations to be completed on the mainland to facilitate construction when it should be commenced4 ,early in ,june1 #ahgi1 the weather moderated1 and the ,pacific assumed an aspect in keeping with its name4 ,stimulated by the prospect of carrying out his appointed task1 the engineer pushed off in a boat1 but1 to his chagrin1 when he drew near the rock he found the prospects of landing to be hopeless4 ,he cruised about1 reconnoitring generally from the water1 and then returned to shore somewhat disgusted4 ,a fortnight later he was instructed to take up his position at ,astoria1 to keep a sharp eye on the weather1 to take the first chance that presented itself of gaining the rock1 and not to return to headquarters until he had made a landing4 ,he fretted and fumed day after day1 and at last pushed off with a gang of men when the sea where it lapped the beach of the mainland was as smooth as a lake2 but as they drew near the ,tillamook it was the same old story4 ,a treacherous swell was running1 the waves were curling wickedly and fussily around the islet2 but the engineer had made up his mind that he would be balked no longer1 so the boat was pulled in warily1 in the face of terrible risk1 and two sailors were ordered to get ashore by hook or by crook4 ,the boat swung to and fro in the swell4 ,time after time it was carried forward to the landing spot by a wave1 and then1 just as the men were ready to jump1 the receding waters would throw it back4 ,at last1 as it swung by the spot1 the two men gave a leap and landed safely4 ,the next proceeding was to pass instruments ashore1 but the swell1 as if incensed at the partial success achieved1 grew more boisterous1 and the boat had to back away from the rock4 ,the men who had landed1 and who had not moved a yard from the spot they had gained1 became frightened at this manuvre1 and1 fearing that they might be marooned1 jumped into the sea1 and were pulled into the boat by means of their life-lines1 without having accomplished a stroke4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,sanganeb ,,reef ,,lighthouse ,,in ,,the ,,red ,,sea4 ,it indicates a treacherous coral reef1 #gjc miles from ,suez4 ,it is an iron tower #ahj feet high1 with a white flashing light having a range of #ai miles4 ,the engineer chafed under these disappointments1 and himself determined to incur the risk of landing at all hazards4 ,with his tape-line in his pocket1 he set out once more a few days later1 and in a surf-boat pulled steadily into the froth and foam around the rock2 while the men sawed to and fro the landing-place1 he crouched in the bow1 watching his opportunity4 ,presently1 the boat steadying itself for a moment1 he made a spring and reached the rock4 ,he could not get his instruments ashore1 so without loss of time he ran his line from point to point as rapidly as he could1 jotted down hurried notes1 and1 when the swell was growing restive again1 hailed the boat1 and at a favourable moment1 as it manuvred round1 jumped into it4 ,the details he had secured1 though hastily prepared1 were sufficient for the purpose4 ,his report was considered and the character of the beacon decided4 ,there was some discussion as to the most favourable situation for the light upon the rock1 so a more detailed survey was demanded to settle this problem4 ,this task was entrusted to an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,john ,r4 ,trewavas1 who was familiar with work under such conditions4 ,he was a master-mason of ,portland and had been engaged upon the construction of the ,wolf ,rock1 one of the most notable and difficult works of its kind in the history of lighthouse engineering4 ,he pushed off to the rock on ,september #ah1 #ahgi1 in a surf-boat1 only to find the usual state of things prevailing4 ,the boat was run in1 and1 emulating the first engineer's feat1 he cleared the water and landed on the steep1 rocky slope2 but it was wet and slippery1 and his feet played him false4 ,he stumbled1 and stooped to regain his balance1 but just then a roller curled in1 snatched him up and threw him into the whirlpool of currents4 ,life-lines were thrown1 and the surf-boat struggled desperately to get near him1 but he was dragged down by the undertow and never seen again4 ,this fatality scared his companions1 who returned hastily to the mainland4 ,the recital of their dramatic story stirred the public to such a pitch that the authorities were frantically urged to abandon the project of lighting the ,tillamook4 ,mr4 ,david ,stevenson related to me an exciting twenty minutes which befell him and his brother while surveying a rock off the west coast of ,scotland4 ,they had been waiting patiently for a favourable moment to effect a landing1 and when at last it appeared they drew in and clambered ashore4 ,but they could not advance another inch4 ,the rock was jagged and broken1 while its surface was as slippery as ice owing to a thick covering of slimy seaweed whereon boots could not possibly secure a hold4 ,having gained the rock with so much difficulty1 they were not going away empty-handed4 ,as they could not stand in their boots1 they promptly removed them1 and1 taking their line and levels1 picked their way gingerly over the jagged1 slippery surface in their stockinged feet4 ,movement certainly was exceedingly uncomfortable1 because their toes displayed an uncanny readiness to find every needle-point on the islet2 but the wool of their footwear enabled them to obtain a firm grip upon the treacherous surface1 without the risk of being upset and having a limb battered or broken in the process4 ,twenty minutes were spent in making investigations under these disconcerting conditions1 but the time was adequate to provide all the details required4 ,when they had completed the survey and had regained their boat--a matter of no little difficulty in the circumstances--their feet bore sad traces of the ordeal through which they had passed4 ,however1 their one concern was the completion of the survey2 that had been made successfully and was well worth the toll exacted in the form of physical discomfort4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alcatraz ,,lighthouse ,,under ,,construction4 ,,the ,,alcatraz ,,lighthouse ,,completed4 ,this tower off the ,californian coast is one of the latest works of the ,american ,lighthouse ,department4 ,it has a range of #ba miles4 ,as a rule1 on a wave-swept rock which only shows itself at short intervals during the day1 the preparation of the foundations is not an exacting task4 ,a little paring with chisels and dynamite may be requisite here and there1 but invariably the engineer takes the exposed surface as the basis for his work4 ,the sea has eaten away all the soft1 friable material in its ceaseless erosion1 leaving an excellent foundation to which the superstructure can be keyed to become as solid as the rock itself4 ,when the beacon is to be erected upon a sandy bottom1 the engineer's work becomes more baffling1 as he is compelled to carry his underwater work down to a point where a stable foundation may be secured4 ,when the ,leasowe lighthouse was built on the sandy ,wirral shore1 the builders were puzzled by the lack of a suitable foundation for the masonry tower4 ,an ingenious way out of the difficulty was effected4 ,in the vicinity an incoming ship1 laden with a cargo of cotton1 had gone ashore and had become a total wreck4 ,the cotton was useless for its intended purpose1 so the bales were salvaged and dumped into the sand at the point where the lighthouse was to be erected4 ,the fleecy mass settled into the sand1 and under compression became as solid as a rock1 while its permanency was assured by its complete submersion4 ,the stability of this strange foundation may be gathered from the fact that the tower erected thereon stood1 and shed its welcome light regularly every night1 for about a century and a half1 only being extinguished two or three years ago as it was no longer required4 ,in the ,old ,world1 and1 indeed1 in the great majority of instances1 the lighthouse is what is described as a 8monolithic structure10 being built of courses of masonry1 the blocks of which are dovetailed together not only laterally1 but also perpendicularly1 so that1 when completed1 the tower comprises a solid mass with each stone jointed to its fellow on four or five of its six sides4 ,this method was first tried in connection with the ,hanois lighthouse1 off the ,guernsey coast1 and was found so successful that it has been adopted universally in all lighthouses which are exposed to the action of the waves4 ,the upper face and one end of each block are provided with projections1 while the lower face and the other end are given indentations4 ,thus1 when the block is set in position1 the projections fit into corresponding indentations in the adjacent blocks1 while the indentations receive the projections from two other neighbouring pieces4 ,the whole is locked together by the aid of hydraulic cement4 ,consequently the waves1 or any other agency1 cannot possibly dislodge a stone without breaking the dovetails or smashing the stone itself4 ,for the bottom layer1 of course1 the surface of the rock is pared away sufficiently to receive the stone1 which is bedded in cement adhering to both the rock and the superimposed block4 ,a hole is then drilled through the latter deep into the rock beneath1 into which a steel rod or bolt is driven well home1 and the hole is sealed up with cement forced in under such pressure as to penetrate every interstice and crevice4 ,the iron supports constitute the roots1 as it were1 of the tower1 penetrating deep into the heart of the rock to secure a firm grip1 while the tower itself resembles1 in its general appearance1 a symmetrical tree trunk1 this form offering the minimum of resistance to the waves4 ,the lower part of the tower is made completely solid by the dovetailing of the integral blocks1 and is cylindrical in shape up to a certain predetermined level which varies according to the surrounding conditions and the situation of the light4 ,some years ago the lighthouse assumed its trunk-like shape at the bottom course1 rising in a graceful concave curve to the lantern2 but this method has been abandoned1 inasmuch as1 owing to the decreasing diameter of the tower as it rose course by course above its foundations1 the lowest outer rings of masonry did not have to withstand any of the superimposed weight1 which naturally bears in a vertical line4 ,by carrying the lower part to a certain height in the form of a cylinder1 and then commencing the concave curve of the tower1 the pressure of the latter is imposed equally upon the whole of its foundations4 ,the latter may be stepped--i4e41 one tier of stones may project a little beyond that of the one immediately above--but this arrangement is adopted in order to break the smashing force of the waves4 ,the conditions attending the actual building operations upon the rock1 which may be accessible only for an hour or two per day in calm weather1 prevent the blocks of granite being shaped and trimmed upon the site4 ,accordingly1 the lighthouse in the first place is erected piecemeal on shore4 ,a horizontal course of stones is laid to see that each dovetail fits tightly and dead true4 ,the next course is laid upon this1 and so on for perhaps eight or ten courses1 the trimming and finicking being accomplished as the work proceeds4 ,each projection has to be only just big enough to enter its relative indentation1 while the latter must be exactly of the requisite dimensions to receive the projection1 and no more4 ,each stone is then given an identification mark1 so that the masons on the rock may perceive at a glance its precise position in a course1 and to what ring of stones it belongs4 ,therefore the mason at the site has no anxiety about a stone fitting accurately2 he has merely to set it in position upon its bed of cement4 ,on shore--generally in the quarry yard--when a series of courses have been temporarily built up in this manner and have received the critical approbation of the resident engineer1 the topmost course is removed and retained1 while the other blocks are despatched to the site4 ,this topmost course forms the bottom ring in the next section of the lighthouse which is built up in the yard1 and the topmost course of this section in turn is held to form the bottom course of the succeeding part of the tower1 and so on from foundation to lantern parapet4 ,during the past two or three years reinforced concrete has been employed to a certain extent for lighthouse construction1 but granite of the finest and hardest quality still remains the material par excellence for towers erected in exposed1 sea-swept positions4 ,the ,russian lighthouse authorities have adopted the ferro-concrete system in regard to one or two shore lights1 especially on the ,black ,sea1 while another fine structure upon this principle was built by the ,french ,service des ,phares in #aije at the entrance to the ,river ,gironde4 ,the system has also been adopted by the ,canadian lighthouse authorities2 one or two recent notable lights under their jurisdiction have been constructed in this material1 although on somewhat different lines from those almost invariably followed1 so far as the general design is concerned4 ,while the masonry or monolithic structure is the most durable and substantial structure1 it is also the most expensive4 ,in many parts of the world1 notably along the ,atlantic coastline of the ,united ,states1 what are known as 8screw-pile lighthouses0 are used4 ,these buildings vary in form1 some resembling a huge beacon1 such as indicates the entrance to a river1 while others convey the impression of being bungalows or pavilions on stilts4 ,the legs are stout1 cylindrical1 iron members1 the lower ends of which are shaped somewhat after the manner of an auger1 whereby they may be screwed into the sea-bed--hence the name4 ,this system has been employed for beacons over dangerous shoals2 and while they are somewhat squat1 low-lying lights1 they have proved to be highly serviceable4 ,iron has been employed also for lighthouse constructional work1 the system in this case being a combination of the screw pile and the tower1 the latter1 extending from a platform whereon the living-quarters are placed and mounted clear of the water1 on piles1 being a huge cylindrical pipe crowned by the lantern4 ,one of the most interesting and novel of these iron lighthouses is the ,hunting ,island tower off the coast of ,south ,carolina4 ,in general design it resembles the ordinary lighthouse wrought in masonry1 and it is #aba feet in height from the ground to the focal plane4 ,it is built of iron throughout1 the shell being in the form of panels1 each of which weighs #a1bjj pounds4 ,this type of tower was selected owing to the severe erosion of the sea at the point where it is placed4 ,when it was erected in #ahge1 at a cost of #bj1djj1 or #ajb1jjj1 it was planted a quarter of a mile back from the sea4 ,this action was severely criticized at the time1 it being maintained that the light was set too far from the water's edge to be of practical value2 but the hungry ocean disappointed the critics1 because in the course of a few years the intervening strip of shore disappeared1 and the necessity of demolishing the light and re-erecting it farther inland arose4 ,on this occasion the engineers determined to postpone a second removal for some time4 ,the tower was re-erected at a point one and a quarter miles inland1 and the sum of #aj1bjj1 or #ea1jjj1 was expended upon the undertaking4 ,the iron system1 which was adopted1 proved its value in this work of removal piece by piece1 because1 had the tower been carried out in masonry1 it would have been cheaper to set up a new light1 as was done at ,cape ,henry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,sectional ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,ar-,,men ,,lighthouse1 ,,showing ,,yearly ,,progress ,,in ,,construction4 ,it guards the 8,bay of the ,dead10 off ,cape ,finisterre4 ,commenced in #ahfg1 it was not finished until #ahha4 ,some of the ,american coast lights are of the most primitive and odd-looking character1 comprising merely a lofty skeleton of ironwork4 ,the lamp is a head-light1 such as is carried by railway engines1 fitted with a parabolic reflector4 ,every morning the lamp is lowered1 cleaned1 and stored in a shack at the foot of the pyramid1 to be lighted and hauled into position at dusk4 ,this is the most economical form of lighthouse which has been devised1 the total cost of the installation being only about #b1ejj1 or #ab1ejj1 while the maintenance charges are equally low4 ,lights of this description are employed for the most part in connection with the lighting of waterways1 constituting what is known as the 8back-light0 in a range or group of lights studded along the river to guide the navigator through its twists and shallows1 instead of buoying of the channel4 ,the task of constructing a sea-rock lighthouse is as tedious and protracted an enterprise as one could conceive1 because the engineer and his workmen are entirely at the mercy of the weather4 ,each great work has bristled with its particular difficulties2 each has presented its individual problems for solution4 ,few modern lighthouses1 however1 have so baffled the engineer and have occupied such a number of years in completion1 as the ,ar-men light off ,cape ,finisterre4 ,this tower was commenced in #ahfg1 but so great and so many were the difficulties involved in its erection that the light was not first thrown over the ,atlantic from its lantern until #ahha4 ,this light is situated at one of the most dreaded parts of a sinister coast4 ,at this spot a number of granite points thrust themselves at times above the water in an indentation which has received the lugubrious name ,bay of the ,dead4 ,the title is well deserved1 for it is impossible to say how many ships have gone down through fouling these greedy fangs1 or how many lives have been lost in its vicinity4 ,the waters around the spot are a seething race of currents1 eddies1 and whirlpools4 ,it is an ocean graveyard in very truth1 and although mariners are only too cognizant of its terrible character1 and endeavour to give this corner of the ,european mainland a wide birth1 yet storms and fogs upset the calculations of the most careful navigators4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thimble ,,shoals ,,light4 ,a typical example of the ,american iron screw pile system4 ,a vessel ran into this beacon and wrecked it2 the ruins caught fire1 and the keepers only escaped in the nick of time4 ,as the streams of traffic across the ,bay of ,biscay grew denser and denser1 it became imperative to provide a guardian light at this spot1 and the engineers embarked upon their task4 ,they knew well that they were faced with a daring and trying enterprise1 and weeks were spent in these troubled waters seeking for the most favourable site4 ,as a result of their elaborate surveys1 they decided that the rock of ,ar-men offered the only suitable situation2 but what a precarious foundation upon which to lift a massive masonry tower6 ,the hump is only #be feet wide by #ej feet in length2 no more than three little pinnacles projected above the sea-level1 and at low-tide less than #e feet of the tough gneiss were exposed4 ,nor was this the most adverse feature4 ,the rock is in the centre of the bad waters1 and is swept from end to end1 under all conditions of weather1 by the furious swell4 ,some idea of the prospect confronting the engineers may be gathered from the fact that a whole year was spent in the effort to make one landing to take levels4 ,when construction was taken in hand the outlook was even more appalling4 ,it was as if the sea recognized that its day of plunder was to draw to a close4 ,the workmen were brought1 with all materials and appliances1 to the nearest strategical point on the mainland1 where a depot was established4 ,yet in the course of two years the workmen1 although they strove day after day to land upon the rock1 only succeeded twenty-three times1 while during this period only twenty-six hours' work was accomplished6 ,it is not surprising that1 when the men did land1 they toiled like ,trojans to make the most of the brief interval4 ,the sum of their work in this time was the planting of the lighthouse's roots in the form of fifty-five circular bars1 each #b inches in diameter and spaced #c feet apart at a depth of about #ab inches in the granite mass4 ,by the end of #ahgj the cylindrical foundation had crept a few feet above the highest projection2 this plinth was #bd feet in diameter1 #ah feet in height1 and was solid throughout4 ,a greater diameter was impossible as the wall was brought almost to the edge of the rock4 ,by dint of great effort this part of the work was completed by the end of #ahgd1 which year1 by the way1 showed the greatest advance that had been attained in a single twelvemonth4 ,as much of the foundations was completed in this year as had been achieved during the three previous years4 ,although the heavy gales pounded the structure mercilessly1 so well was the masonry laid that it offered quite effective resistance4 ,upon this plinth was placed the base of the tower4 ,this likewise is #bd feet in diameter1 and about #aj feet in height4 ,it is also of massive construction1 being solid except for a central cylindrical space which is capable of receiving some #e tons of coal4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,bullivant ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,setting ,,the ,,last ,,stone ,,of ,,the ,,beachy ,,head ,,lighthouse4 ,the base was completed in a single year1 and in #ahgf the erection of the tower proper was commenced1 together with the completion of the approaching stairway leading from the water-level to the base of the structure4 ,the latter1 divided into seven stories1 rises in the form of a slender cone1 tapering from a diameter of #ba feet at the bottom to #af feet at the top beneath the lantern4 ,some idea of the massive character of the work which was demanded in order to resist the intense fury of the waves may be realized when it is mentioned that the wall at the first and second floors is #e feet in thickness1 leaving a diameter of #aj feet for the apartment on the first floor1 which is devoted to the storage of water1 and of #g feet for that on the second floor1 which contains the oil reservoirs for the lamps4 ,the living-rooms have a diameter of #aa feet1 this increased space being obtained by reducing the thickness of the wall to #b feet4 ,the erection of the superstructure went forward steadily1 five years being occupied in carrying the masonry from the base to the lantern gallery1 so that in #ahha for the first time powerful warning was given of a danger dreaded1 and often unavoidable1 from the time when ships first sailed these seas4 ,fifteen years' labour and peril on the part of the engineers and their assistants were crowned with success4 ,whereas the ,ar-men light off ,cape ,finisterre demanded fifteen years for its completion1 the construction of the ,beachy ,head lighthouse off the ,south of ,england coast was completed within a few months4 ,it is true that the conditions were vastly dissimilar1 but the ,sussex shore is exposed to the full brunt of the south-westerly and south-easterly gales4 ,this lighthouse thrusts its slender lines from the water1 its foundations being sunk into the chalk bed of the ,channel1 #eej feet from the base of the towering white cliffs1 which constitute a striking background4 ,this beacon was brought into service in #aijb1 its construction having occupied about two years4 ,the light formerly was placed on the crown of the precipice behind1 but1 being then some #bhe feet above the water1 was far from being satisfactory1 as its rays were frequently blotted out by the ruffle of mist which gathers around ,beachy ,head on the approach of evening4 ,indeed1 this is one of the great objections to placing a light upon a lofty headland4 ,in such a position it does not serve as an aid1 but more often than not as a danger1 to navigation1 owing to the light being invisible at the time when its assistance is required and sought most urgently4 ,consequently lighthouse engineers endeavour to set their towers at such a level that the light is not raised more than from #afj to #bjj feet above the water4 ,in the case of ,beachy ,head1 a further reason for a new structure was the disintegration of the cliff upon which the light stood1 under the terrific poundings of the sea1 huge falls of chalk having occurred from time to time1 which imperilled the safety of the building4 ,when the new lighthouse was taken in hand1 investigation of the sea-bed revealed an excellent foundation in the dense hard chalk1 and accordingly a hole #aj feet deep was excavated out of the solid mass to receive the footings of the building4 ,as the site is submerged to a great depth at high-tide1 the first operation was the erection of a circular dam carried to a sufficient height to enable the men to toil within4 ,by this arrangement the working spells were lengthened considerably1 labour only being suspended at high-tide4 ,when the sea ebbed below the edge of the dam1 the water within was pumped out1 leaving a dry clear space for the workmen4 ,excavation had to be carried out with pickaxe and shovel1 blasting not being permitted for fear of shattering and splitting up the mass forming the crust of the sea-bed4 ,beside the site a substantial iron staging was erected1 and from this point to the top of the cliffs behind a ,bullivant cableway was stretched1 up and down which the various requirements were carried1 together with the workmen4 ,this cableway1 designed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,h4 ,carrington1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 consulting engineer to ,messrs4 ,bullivant and ,co41 ,ltd41 facilitated rapid and economical construction very appreciably4 ,the span was about #fjj feet between the erecting stage and the cliff summit1 and there were two fixed ropes stretched parallel from point to point4 ,one rope1 #f inches in diameter1 had a breaking strain of #abj tons2 the second1 #e inches thick1 had a breaking strain of #ajj tons4 ,at the seaward end the cables were anchored into the solid chalk4 ,everything required for the constructional operations was handled by this carrying system1 and when it is recalled that some of the blocks for the lower courses weighed from #d to #e tons1 it will be recognized that such a method of handling these ungainly loads1 with the care that was demanded to preserve the edges and faces from injury1 solved an abstruse problem completely4 ,the base of the tower1 the diameter of which is #dg feet1 is solid to a height of #dh feet1 except for a central circular space for storing drinking water4 ,it was designed by ,sir ,thomas ,matthews1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 the ,engineer-in-,chief to the ,trinity ,brethren1 and is a graceful building1 the tower rising in a curve which is described as a 8concave elliptic frustum40 ,from the base to the lantern gallery is #abc feet1 and #c1ffj tons of ,cornish granite were used in its construction4 ,the over-all height to the top of the lantern is #aec feet4 ,the building is provided with eight floors1 comprising the living and sleeping quarters for the keepers1 storage of oil1 and other necessaries4 ,the light1 of the dioptric order1 is of #hc1jjj candle-power1 and the two white flashes given every fifteen seconds are distinguishable for a distance of seventeen miles1 which is the average range of modern ,british lighthouses4 ,although the constructional work was frequently interrupted by rough weather1 every advantage was taken of calm periods4 ,while from the point of daring engineering it does not compare with many of the other great lights of the world1 yet it certainly ranks as a fine example of the lighthouse builder's skill4 ,owing to the elaborate precautions observed1 the achievement was not marred by a single fatality1 although there were many thrilling moments1 the sole result of which1 however1 was the loss of tools and sections of the plant1 which in the majority of cases were recovered when the tide fell4 ,the most serious accident was a crushed toe1 which befell one of the masons when a stone was being bedded4 ,although the lighthouse is subjected to the full fury of wind and wave1 if skilfully erected it will withstand the ravages of both without creating the slightest apprehensions in the engineer's mind4 ,the stones are prepared so carefully that they fit one another like the proverbial glove1 while the cement fills every nook and cranny4 ,occasionally1 however1 the cement will succumb to the natural disintegrating forces1 and1 becoming detached1 reveal a point vulnerable to attack4 ,the air within the interstice becomes compressed by the surging water1 and thereby the fabric is liable to be shattered4 ,some years ago one or two of the lighthouses guarding the ,great ,lakes of ,north ,america were found to have become weakened from this cause4 ,a novel remedy was evolved by an ingenious engineer4 ,he provided each tottering lighthouse with an iron overcoat1 enveloping it from top to bottom4 ,the metal was not laid directly upon the masonry1 but was so placed as to leave about a quarter of an inch between the inner face of the metal and the surface of the masonry4 ,liquid cement was then admitted under pressure--8grouting0 it is called--into this annular space1 and penetrating every crack and crevice in the masonry1 and adhering both to the metal and the stonework1 it practically formed another intermediate jacket1 binding the two so firmly together as to make them virtually one4 ,this novel procedure absolutely restored the menaced building to its original homogeneity and rigidity1 so that it became as sound as the day on which it was built4 ,nowadays1 owing to the skill in designing and the workmanship displayed1 one never hears of a modern lighthouse collapsing4 ,expense is no object2 the engineer does not endeavour to thwart the elements1 but follows a design wherein the minimum of resistance is offered to them4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,light ,,and ,,illuminants ,while it is the tower that probably creates the deepest impression upon the popular mind1 owing to the round of difficulties overcome associated with its erection1 yet1 after all1 it is the light which is the vital thing to the navigator4 ,to him symmetry of outline in the tower1 the searching problems that had to be solved before it was planted in a forbidding spot1 the risks that were incurred in its erection--these are minor details4 ,his one concern is the light thrown from the topmost height1 warning him to keep off a dangerous spot and by its characteristic enabling him to determine his position4 ,i have described the earliest type of light1 the open wood or coal fire blazing on an eminence4 ,in due course the brazier gave way to tallow candles4 ,this was an advance1 certainly1 but the range of the naked light was extremely limited4 ,consequently efforts were made to intensify it and to throw it in the desired direction4 ,the first step was made with a reflector placed behind the illuminant1 similar to that used with the cheap wall-lamp so common in village workshops4 ,this1 in its improved form1 is known as the 8catoptric system10 the reflector being of parabolic shape1 with the light so disposed that all its rays 7both horizontal and vertical7 are reflected in one direction by the aid of a highly polished surface4 ,while the catoptric system is still used on some light-vessels1 its application to important lighthouses has fallen into desuetude1 as it has been superseded by vastly improved methods4 ,but the reflector1 made either of silvered glass set in a plaster-of-,paris mould or of brightly polished metallic surfaces1 held the field until the great invention of ,augustin ,fresnel1 which completely revolutionized the science of lighthouse optics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,fixed ,,apparatus ,,of #cfj ,,degrees4 ,shows one ray throughout the complete circle4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,fresnel was appointed a member of the ,french ,lighthouse ,commission in #ahaa1 and he realized the shortcomings of the existing catoptric method only too well4 ,everyone knows that when a lamp is lighted the luminous rays are diffused on every side1 horizontally as well as vertically4 ,in lighthouse operations the beam has to be thrown in a horizontal line only1 while the light which is shed towards the top and bottom must be diverted1 so that the proportion of waste luminosity may be reduced to the minimum4 ,while the parabolic reflector achieved this end partially1 it was far from being satisfactory1 and ,fresnel set to work to condense the whole of the rays into a horizontal beam4 ,buffon1 a contemporary investigator1 as well as ,sir ,david ,brewster1 had suggested that the end might be met by building up a lens in separate concentric rings1 but neither reduced his theories to practice4 ,fresnel invented a very simple system4 ,he took a central piece of glass1 which may be described as a bull's-eye1 and around this disposed a number of concentric rings of glass4 ,but these rings projected beyond one another4 ,each constituted the edge of a lens which1 while its radius differed from that of its neighbour1 owing to its position1 yet was of the same focus in regard to the source of illumination4 ,the parts were shaped with extreme care and were united in position by the aid of fish glue1 the whole being mounted in a metal frame4 ,the advantage of the system was apparent in the first demonstrations4 ,the lenses being comparatively thin1 only one-tenth of the light passing through was absorbed1 whereas in the old parabolic reflectors one-half of the light was lost4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,single ,,flashing ,,apparatus 7,,one ,,panel ,,and ,,mirror74 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,this revolutionary development was perfected in #ahbb1 and in the following year it was submitted to its first practical application on the tower of ,cordouan in the ,gironde4 ,several modifications were made by the inventor for the purpose of adapting his system to varying conditions4 ,one of the most important was the disposition of lenses and mirrors above the optical apparatus for the purpose of collecting and driving back the rays which were sent out vertically from the illuminant1 so that they might be mingled with the horizontal beam1 thereby reinforcing it4 ,at a later date similar equiangular prisms were placed below the horizontal beam so as to catch the light thrown downwards from the luminous source1 the result being that finally none1 or very little1 of the light emitted by the illuminant was lost1 except by absorption in the process of bending the rays into the desired direction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,a ,,twenty-,,four ,,panel ,,light1 ,,which ,,was ,,introduced ,,into ,,certain ,,french ,,lighthouses4 ,in this ingenious manner the circle of light is divided into sections1 called 8panels10 each of which comprises its bull's-eye and its group of concentric rings and prisms4 ,the extent of this division varies appreciably1 as many as sixteen panels being utilized in some instances4 ,in this direction1 however1 subdivision can be carried too far4 ,thus1 in some of the ,french lighthouses no less than twenty-four panels were introduced4 ,the disadvantage is obvious4 ,the total volume of light emitted from the luminous source has to be divided into twenty-four parts1 one for each panel4 ,but the fewer the panels1 the more light is thrown through each1 and the correspondingly greater power of the beam4 ,thus1 in a four-panel light each beam will be six times as powerful as that thrown from a twenty-four panel apparatus of the same type4 ,fresnel also introduced the system of revolving the optical apparatus1 and by the introduction of suitable devices was able to give the light a flashing characteristic1 so that it became possible to provide a means of identifying a light from a distance entirely by the peculiarity of its flash4 ,the ,french authorities were so impressed with the wonderful improvement produced by ,fresnel's epoch-making invention that it was adopted immediately for all ,french lights4 ,great ,britain followed suit a few years later1 while other countries embraced the system subsequently1 so that the ,fresnel lens eventually came into universal use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,a ,,four-,,panel ,,light4 ,the ray thrown through each panel is six times as powerful as the beam thrown through a twenty-four panel apparatus4 ,but the ,frenchman's ingenious invention has been developed out of recognition4 ,to-day only the fundamental basis is retained4 ,marked improvements were made by ,mr4 ,alan ,stevenson1 the famous ,scottish lighthouse engineer4 ,in fact1 he carried the idea to a far greater degree than ,fresnel ever contemplated1 and in some instances even anticipated the latter's subsequent modifications and improvements4 ,this was demonstrated more particularly in the holophotal revolving apparatus1 the first example of which he designed for the ,north ,ronaldshay lighthouse in #ahej1 a similar apparatus being devised some years later by ,fresnel4 ,in #ahfb another great improvement was made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,chance1 of the well-known lighthouse engineering firm of ,birmingham1 which proved so successful that it was incorporated for first and third order apparatuses in the ,new ,zealand lights designed by ,messrs4 ,stevenson in the same year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,single ,,apparatus ,,in ,,four ,,panels4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,the ,french and ,british investigators1 however1 were not having things entirely their own way4 ,the ,united ,states played a part in these developments1 although they did not enter very successfully into the problem4 ,the first lighthouse at ,boston ,harbour carried candles until superseded by an ordinary lamp1 which was hung in the lantern in much the same way as it might have been suspended behind the window of a private dwelling4 ,an inventor1 ,mr4 ,winslow ,lewis1 who confessed that he knew nothing about lighthouse optics1 patented what he called a 8magnifying and reflecting lantern0 for lighthouse work1 which he claimed was a lamp1 a reflector1 and a magnifier1 all in one4 ,it was as crude a device as has ever emanated from an inventive brain1 but the designer succeeded in impressing the ,government so effectively that they gave him #d1jjj1 or #bj1jjj1 for his invention4 ,the reflector was wrought of thin copper with a silvered surface1 while the magnifier1 the essence of the invention1 was what he called a 8lens10 but which in reality comprised only a circular transparent mass1 #i inches in diameter1 and varying from #b to #d inches in thickness1 made of bottle-green glass4 ,the ,government considered that it had acquired a valuable invention1 and was somewhat dismayed by the blunt opinion of one of its inspectors who held contrary views concerning the magnifier1 inasmuch as he reported cynically that its only merit was that it made 8a bad light worse40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,double ,,flashing ,,apparatus3 ,,two ,,panels ,,and ,,mirror4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,double ,,flashing ,,apparatus3 ,,two ,,groups ,,each ,,of ,,two ,,panels4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,the inventor did not manifest any antagonism to this criticism1 but immediately pointed out the great economy in the consumption of oil that was arising from the use of his idea4 ,indeed1 he prosecuted his claims so successfully that he clinched a profitable bargain to himself with the ,government4 ,his apparatus had been fitted to thirty-four lights1 and he contracted to maintain them on the basis of receiving one-half of the oil previously consumed by the lamps which his invention superseded4 ,this arrangement was in vogue for five years1 when it was renewed1 with the difference that on this occasion the ,government1 concluding that the inventor was making too much out of the transaction1 reduced the allowance to one-third4 ,subsequently the invention received higher commendation from the officials than that advanced by the critical inspector1 although it must be pointed out that meanwhile the magnifying bull's-eye had been abandoned1 and a new type of reflector introduced1 so that the sole remaining feature of the wonderful invention was the lamp4 ,even that had been modified4 ,when the ,lighthouse ,board was established in #aheb it abolished the much-discussed invention1 and introduced the ,fresnel system1 bringing the ,united ,states into line with the rest of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,triple ,,flashing ,,apparatus3 ,,three ,,panels ,,and ,,mirror4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,one feature of the subject cannot fail to arrest attention4 ,this is the possibility of producing a variety of combinations by the aid of the lenses to fulfil different requirements4 ,the ,fresnel1 ,stevenson1 and ,chance developments in the science of lighthouse optics facilitated this work very significantly4 ,accordingly1 to-day a variety of lights1 evolved from the variations in the mounting of the lenses1 is in vogue4 ,for purposes of identification they have been divided into a number of classifications1 and1 for the convenience of the navigator1 are described as lights of the first order1 second order1 and so on4 ,broadly speaking1 there are seven main groups1 or orders1 the rating only applying to dioptric or catadioptric lights1 indicating the bending of the luminous rays in the desired direction1 either by refraction and reflection through the medium of prisms1 or a combination of both4 ,actually there is a distinction between these two1 the true dioptric system referring only to refraction1 where the ray is bent in the desired direction by a glass agent1 known as a 8refracting prism40 ,in the catadioptric system1 on the other hand1 both methods are employed1 since the prism performs the dual purpose of reflecting and refracting the rays4 ,however1 in modern lighthouse parlance both are grouped under the one distinction 8dioptric40 ,the rating or classification of the lights varies according to the inside radius or focal distance of the lens--in other words1 the distance from the centre of the light to the inner surface of the lens4 ,the main groups are as follows3 ,hyperradial1 #a1ccj millimetres 7#ebc inches7 focal distance4 #ast order1 #ibj 0 7#cfb 0 7 0 #bnd 0 #gjj 0 7#bgf 0 7 0 #crd 0 #ejj 0 7#aig 0 7 0 #c 0 #cge 0 7#adg 0 7 0 #dth 0 #bej 0 7 #ih 0 7 0 #eth 0 #ahge 0 7 #gd 0 7 0 #fth 0 #aej 0 7 #ei 0 7 0 ,the most powerful apparatus used to-day1 however1 is that known as the 8hyperradiant10 and it is the largest which has yet been devised4 ,for this1 lighthouse engineering is indebted to ,messrs4 ,stevenson1 the engineers to the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses4 ,it was first suggested as far back as #ahfi1 and experiments were carried out which emphasized the fact that such an apparatus was required1 since it was found that when large gas-burners were used much of the light in revolving apparatuses was out of focus and escaped condensation4 ,the ,scottish engineers thereupon suggested that an apparatus should be used having a focal distance of #a1ccj millimetres1 or #ebc inches4 ,in fact1 they went farther and suggested even larger apparatuses1 but this idea has not matured4 ,but it was not until #ahhe that ,messrs4 ,stevenson had such a system manufactured1 and then it was tested at the ,south ,foreland beside the powerful lenses which had just been built for the new ,eddystone and the ,mew ,island lighthouses4 ,the merits of the theories advanced by ,messrs4 ,stevenson were then completely proved1 for it was found that with a ten-ring gas-burner the hyperradiant apparatus threw a light nearly twice as powerful as that given by the rival lenses with the same burner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,quadruple ,,flashing ,,apparatus3 ,,four ,,panels4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,at the present moment the hyperradiant is regarded as the ultima thule of lighthouse optical engineering1 and ,messrs4 ,chance ,brothers and ,co41 of ,birmingham1 have built some very magnificent apparatuses of this order4 ,at present there are not more than a dozen such powerful lights in operation4 ,three are on the ,english coast1 at ,bishop ,rock1 ,spurn ,point1 and ,round ,island1 respectively2 two in ,scotland1 at ,fair ,isle and ,sule ,skerry2 two in ,ireland1 at ,bull ,rock and ,tory ,island2 one in ,france1 at ,cap d',antifer2 one in ,china1 at ,pei ,yu-shan2 one in ,india1 at ,manora ,point1 ,karachi2 and the ,cape ,race light in ,newfoundland4 ,the hyperradiant apparatus is a massive cage of glass1 standing some #ab feet in height1 and1 as may be supposed1 is extremely expensive4 ,there is another point in lighthouse optics which demands explanation4 ,this is the term 8divergence10 which plays an important part in the duration of the flash4 ,in speaking about focus1 the engineer follows somewhat in ,euclid's footsteps in regard to the definition of a point2 in a way it is equally imaginary4 ,the focal point does not mean the whole of the flame1 but the centre of the luminous source1 and1 as is obvious1 it is impossible to secure a flame without dimensions4 ,it may be an attenuated1 round1 oval1 or fan-shaped light--the result is the same4 ,the focal point is the theoretical centre of the luminous source1 and the rays1 coming from the top1 sides1 and bottom of the flame cannot come from the true focus4 ,if they did1 all the light from one panel would be emitted in absolutely parallel lines1 and therefore in a revolving apparatus the beam would pass any given point on the horizon in an infinitely short period of time--to be precise1 instantaneously4 ,but the ex-focal rays of the flame1 in passing through the lens1 emerge at an angle to those coming from the absolute centre1 so that the whole beam becomes 8diverged10 and throws a cone of light from the lens4 ,consequently the beam occupies an appreciable period of time in passing a given point on the horizon4 ,as may be supposed1 the intricate character of the lenses constituting the optical apparatus of the modern lighthouse demands the highest skill and infinite care in their preparation1 while the composition of the glass itself is a closely guarded secret4 ,there are less than half a dozen firms in the world engaged in this delicate and highly specialized work1 of which ,france claims three1 ,germany one1 and ,great ,britain one4 ,all the lighthouse authorities of the various nations have to secure their requirements from one or other of these organizations4 ,the industry commenced in ,france1 and for many years the ,french reigned supreme4 ,then it contrived to make its entrance into ,england1 and was taken up by the family of ,chance in ,birmingham1 who soon proved themselves equal to their ,french leaders4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,red ,,and ,,white ,,flashing ,,apparatus4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,the ,british firm has established a unique reputation1 as it has been responsible for the majority of the great lights of the world1 some of which are not only of huge dimensions and weight1 but also of novel form4 ,the hyperradial apparatuses which have been placed recently in the towers of ,manora ,point and ,cape ,race probably rank as the most powerful and the finest in existence4 ,these are used in conjunction with the petroleum vapour incandescent burner4 ,the ,cape ,race light1 for instance1 comprises a revolving optic of four panels1 subtending a horizontal angle of #ij degrees1 with a vertical angle of #aba degrees4 ,each lens comprises the central disc1 or bull's-eye1 around which are placed nine rings of glass1 giving a total refracting angle of #eg degrees4 ,in order to bend the vertical rays into a horizontal path twenty-two catadioptric reflecting prisms are disposed above the lens1 while below are thirteen similar prisms4 ,the total amount of glass worked into the four panels is about #f1gbj pounds1 and the prisms are mounted in gun-metal frames1 which weigh approximately #d1hjj pounds1 so that the total weight of the glass portion and its mounting alone1 standing some #ab feet in height1 is over #aa1ejj pounds4 ,the installation completed for the equipment of the ,manora ,point lighthouse1 ,karachi1 is very similar4 ,in some cases the demand for a powerful light has been met with a system differing from the 8hyperradiant40 ,the lenses and respective groups of refractors are superimposed1 each tier having its individual burner and flues for carrying off the products of combustion4 ,in this way we have the biform1 comprising two such panels arranged one above the other1 as in the ,fastnet and ,eddystone lights2 and the quadriform1 wherein four tiers are built one above the other1 as installed at the ,mew ,island light in ,ireland4 ,the advantage of this arrangement is that a beam of great intensity is secured with a lantern of comparatively small diameter4 ,the ,french authorities adopted a modification of this system4 ,instead of placing two lenses and refractors one above the other1 they ranged them side by side1 the effect being analogous to a couple of squinting eyes1 the panels being parallel and therefore throwing out parallel beams4 ,but these adaptations have not come into extensive use1 as they have been superseded by more simple means of achieving similar requirements with an even more powerful ray4 ,the hyperradiant stands as the finest type of apparatus yet devised1 and therefore is employed when an extremely powerful light is required4 ,while the design and arrangement of the optical apparatus is certainly a most vital and delicate task1 the mounting thereof upon a substantial support in such a way that it may perform its work with the highest efficiency is equally imperative1 since the finest apparatus might be very adversely affected by being improperly mounted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,apparatus ,,showing ,a ,,double ,,flash1 ,,followed ,,by ,a ,,single ,,flash4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,obviously1 owing to the great weight of the glass1 the support must be heavy and substantial4 ,a massive cast-iron pedestal is employed for this purpose4 ,when the light is of the revolving character1 means have to be incorporated to secure the requisite rotation4 ,in the early days the turntable upon which the lens is mounted ran upon rollers1 but now a very much better system is universally employed4 ,this has been brought to a high standard of perfection by ,messrs4 ,chance of ,birmingham1 who have carried out unceasing experiments in this field4 ,the objection to rollers was the enormous friction that was set up1 and the great effort that was required1 not only to set the lenses revolving1 but to keep them rotating at a steady pace4 ,in the modern apparatus the rollers are superseded by an iron trough filled with mercury1 upon which floats the turntable carrying the lenses4 ,when the apparatus is properly built and balanced1 the friction is so slight that the turntable can be set in motion by the little finger1 notwithstanding that several tons have to be moved4 ,although the optical part of the apparatus floats upon the bed of quicksilver in the same way as a cork lifebelt floats upon water1 it is provided with rollers which serve to hold the whole apparatus steady and to overcome any oscillation4 ,in the case of an immense apparatus such as a hyperradiant lens1 which1 together with the turntable1 may have a total weight of #ag1jjj pounds1 an enormous quantity of mercury is required4 ,the trough of the ,cape ,race hyperradiant light carries #iej pounds of quicksilver1 upon which the lantern is floated4 ,in such an instance1 also1 the pedestal is a weighty part of the apparatus1 representing in this case about #bf1hjj pounds1 so that the complete apparatus utilized to throw the #a1ajj1jjj candle-power beam from the guardian of the ,newfoundland coast aggregates1 when in working order1 some #dd1jjj pounds1 or approximately #bj tons4 ,within the base of the pedestal is mounted the mechanism for rotating the optical apparatus4 ,this is of the clockwork type driven by a weight4 ,the latter moves up and down a tube which extends vertically to a certain depth through the centre of the tower4 ,the weight of the driving force and the depth of its fall naturally vary according to the character of the light4 ,in the ,cape ,race light the weight is of #ijj pounds1 and it falls #ad feet per hour4 ,similarly1 the length of time which the clock will run on one winding fluctuates4 ,as a rule it requires to be rewound once every sixty or ninety minutes4 ,a longer run is not recommended1 as it would demand a longer weight-tube1 while many authorities prefer the frequent winding1 as the man on duty is kept on the alert thereby4 ,as the weight approaches the bottom of its tube it sets an electric bell or gong in action1 which serves to warn the light-keeper that the mechanism demands rewinding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,lights1 ,,showing ,,the ,,respective ,,radius ,,or ,,focal ,,distance ,,of ,,lens ,,from #aej ,,to #a1ccj ,,millimetres4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,the weight and clockwork mechanism perfected by ,messrs4 ,chance is regarded as one of the best in service4 ,the rotation is perfect and even1 owing to the governing system incorporated1 while the steel wire carrying the weight is preferable to the chain1 which is subject to wear and is noisy in action4 ,in the ,chance clockwork gear the weight is just sufficient to start the apparatus from a state of rest1 the advantage of such a method being that1 should the apparatus be stopped in its revolution from any untoward incident1 it is able to restart itself4 ,of course1 the clockwork mechanism is required only in those cases where the lenticular apparatus has to be revolved4 ,this introduces the question of avoiding confusion between lights4 ,when beacons were first brought into service1 the lights were of the fixed type1 and the navigator1 although warned by the glare to keep away from the spot so marked1 was given no information as to his position4 ,accordingly1 lighthouse engineers sought to assist him in this direction during the blackness of the night by providing a ready visual means of identification4 ,owing to the ingenuity which has been displayed1 it has been rendered possible to ring the changes upon a light very extensively4 ,these may be subdivided broadly as follows3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,type of ,light4 ,symbol4 ,characteristics4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,fixed ,f4 ,a steady continuous light4 ,flashing ,fl4 ,a revolving light showing a single flash at regular intervals1 or a fixed light with total eclipses4 ,fixed and flashing ,f4,fl4 ,a fixed light varied at regular intervals by a single flash of greater brilliancy4 ,group flashing ,gp4,fl4 ,various combinations of flashes shown at regular intervals4 ,occulting ,occ4 ,a steady light suddenly and totally eclipsed at regular intervals4 ,group occulting ,gp4,occ4 ,a steady light suddenly and totally eclipsed by a group of two or more eclipses4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,in the foregoing classifications only a white light is used4 ,but it may so happen that the lighthouse1 owing to its position and the dangerous character of the spot which it marks1 carries a light which changes colour from white to red or green1 which are shown alternately in various combinations4 ,these characteristics are indicated as follows3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,type of ,light4 ,symbol4 ,characteristics4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,alternating ,alt4 ,white and colour alternating4 ,alternating ,alt4,fl4 ,flashing alternations by flashing revolving mechanism4 ,alternating fixed ,alt4,f4,fl4 ,fixed and flashing alternating4 and flashing ,alternating group ,alt4,gp4,fl4 ,group flashing alternating4 flashing ,alternating ,alt4,occ4 ,occulting alternately with occulting white and coloured ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,in timing a revolving or flashing light1 the cycle is taken from the beginning of one flash to the beginning of the next4 ,in these readings the flash is always shorter than the duration of the eclipse1 while an occultation is shorter than1 or equal to1 the length of the light interval4 ,since flashing and occulting may be carried out with a fixed light suddenly extinguished or eclipsed1 the characterization is determined solely according to the relative duration of light and darkness1 irrespective of the type of apparatus employed or the relative brilliancy4 ,there is one peculiarity of the flashing light which may be remarked4 ,at short distances and in clear weather a faint continuous light may be shown4 ,hand in hand with the development of the optical apparatus has been the wonderful improvement in regard to the illuminants and the methods of producing a brilliant clear flame4 ,the fuel first used upon the introduction of the oil lamp was sperm or colza oil1 the former being obtained from the whale1 and the latter from seeds and a wild-cabbage4 ,both were very expensive1 so that the maintenance of a light was costly--so much so that the ,united ,states authorities devoted their efforts to the perfection of a high-class lard-oil4 ,this proved highly satisfactory1 possessing only one drawback4 ,in winter it congealed so much under the low temperature that it had to be heated before it could be placed in the lamp2 but once the light was set going1 the heat radiated from the burner served to keep the oil sufficiently fluid to enable it to mount the wick to the point of combustion under capillary action4 ,so far as the ,american authorities were concerned1 the advantages of lard-oil sufficed to bring a cheaper medium than colza-oil into vogue4 ,a company1 which had been induced by the ,government to install an elaborate and expensive plant for the production of colza-oil1 after prolonged experiment and efforts to reduce the cost of production1 announced that it could not compete with the lard-oil1 and suggested that the latter should be employed in preference to the colza4 ,the ,government agreed1 but1 to compensate the company for its trouble1 purchased the plant which the latter had laid down4 ,the advances in the processes for refining petroleum1 and the exploitation of the extensive resources of the latter1 led to 8earth-oil10 in some form or other1 being employed for lighthouse purposes4 ,the attempt was facilitated by the invention and improvement of the ,argand burner1 whereby a brilliant white annular sheet of flame is produced4 ,various lighthouse engineers devoted their attention to the improvement of this burner in conjunction with paraffin4 ,their results were completely successful1 and at last paraffin became universally utilized as the cheapest and most efficient illuminant known4 ,the general method of feeding the lamps was to pump the oil from a low level to the burner1 thereby producing practically a pressure-feed system in preference to the capillary action which is used in the ordinary household lamp4 ,by increasing the number of rings the intensity of the flame was increased1 until at last it was thought that with this development perfection had been attained so far as lamps were concerned4 ,then came another radical revolution4 ,the invention of the incandescent gas mantle by ,dr4 von ,auer1 and the complete change that it wrought in connection with gas lighting1 induced lighthouse engineers to experiment in this field4 ,as they could not use coal-gas1 they devoted their investigations to the perfection of a gas from petroleum1 which should be capable of combustion with the incandescent burner4 ,many years were devoted to these experiments1 and many petroleum vapour systems were devised4 ,one of the best known1 most successful1 and most scientifically perfect1 is the ,chance incandescent light4 ,this burner is used in many of the most powerful lights of the world and has given complete satisfaction4 ,the mantle varies in size with the size and type of the light1 ranging from #ce to #he millimetres in diameter1 the latter1 in conjunction with a hyperradial apparatus1 producing a light exceeding #a1jjj1jjj candle-power4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,hyperradial ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,manora ,,point ,,light1 ,,karachi1 ,,india4 ,of #a1ccj millimetres focus1 this is the most powerful and largest lighthouse apparatus made4 ,not only was a far more powerful light obtained in this manner with the assistance of the petroleum vapour burner and incandescent mantle1 but the cost of maintaining the light was reduced1 owing to the great economy in oil consumption that was effected thereby1 the largest mantle and burner--#he millimetres--burning only #b pints of oil per hour4 ,the light thus obtained1 while being vastly superior to that derived from a six-wick oil-burner1 enables a saving of nearly #dh1 or #bdj1 per annum to be recorded1 taking the cost of the petroleum at #as41 or #be cents1 per gallon delivered to the lighthouse4 ,while petroleum is generally used1 some countries have adopted other oil fuels for small permanent lights4 ,thus1 in ,germany compressed oil-gas1 water-gas associated with benzine vapour1 and ,blau liquid gas1 are utilized4 ,the last-named is coming very extensively into vogue1 also1 in ,holland1 ,denmark1 and ,austria4 ,blau gas has the advantage that it can be transported in small steel tanks under extremely high pressure--up to #ajj atmospheres1 or approximately #a1djj pounds per square inch4 ,it is an extract of oil-gas produced at a low pressure in the gas retorts1 and then compressed so severely that it liquefies4 ,the fuel1 as it is drawn from the cylinder in which it is stored1 has the pressure reduced by means of a valve1 so that it reaches the burner in a gaseous form at a pressure equivalent to that of the coal-gas used in private houses1 and is burned in the same way with an incandescent mantle4 ,the advantage of this method lies in the facility with which large volumes of gas may be transported1 a steel cylinder containing #g1ejj cubic feet weighing only #acb pounds4 ,it is also inexpensive1 a bottle of the foregoing capacity costing only #abs4 #f;d41 or #c4 ,in some cases the incandescent mantles1 the average life of which is about a fortnight1 are of large diameter1 running up to #ajj millimetres1 or about #d inches4 ,recently ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln1 of the ,gas ,accumulator ,company of ,stockholm1 the inventor of the ,daln flasher and sun-valve1 which are described elsewhere1 has introduced a new illuminant1 which is coming into vogue1 especially on the ,continent4 ,this is called 8,dalngas10 and is a mixture of #i per cent4 dissolved acetylene and #ia per cent4 atmospheric air4 ,here the dissolved acetylene gas is conducted from a storage reservoir or high-pressure gas cylinder1 of special construction1 to a governor1 where the pressure is reduced1 and then to the mixing apparatus1 where the acetylene gas is associated with the air in the above proportions4 ,the idea of this combination and method is to enable an acetylene gas mixture to be used with the ordinary incandescent mantles4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,first ,,order ,,triple ,,flashing ,,light ,,of #ibj ,,millimetres ,,focal ,,distance ,,for ,,chilang ,,lighthouse1 ,,china4 ,the advantage of the ,dalngas1 according to present experience1 is the increased candle-power that is obtainable as compared with other systems1 the superiority being about #ge per cent4 under ordinary conditions4 ,with the largest ,fresnel lenses a lighting power of #bjj1jjj ,hefner candle-power is secured1 while with revolving lenses of the latest type a beam of #c1jjj1jjj candle-power can be obtained4 ,the flame is small1 and thus becomes concentrated more in the focus of the lens1 so that the divergence of the light may be diminished if desired4 ,when a light of a certain range is to be installed1 the optical apparatus can be made smaller for ,dalngas than for other illuminants1 and the cost is reduced correspondingly4 ,similarly1 if the system is introduced into an existing light1 the latter can be made appreciably more powerful1 without changing the optical apparatus or affecting the divergence4 ,in this system the gas is conducted into the lens apparatus from above1 and the lighting arrangement is quite independent of1 and does not interfere in any way with1 the revolving apparatus1 while the time spent in changing the mantle is less than half a minute4 ,all combustible gases1 mixed with air in certain proportions1 may produce more or less violent detonations when fired4 ,but the quantity of mixed gas in this instance is confined in the length of piping between the burner and the mixing apparatus1 and this quantity is so small that an explosion cannot be dangerous4 ,in fact1 all such danger has been guarded against completely--is1 indeed1 impossible in any circumstances4 ,electric light has been adopted in one or two cases2 but while the foremost authorities agree that it throws the best1 most brilliant and most powerful beam of light1 the system is generally impracticable on account of its great cost4 ,when tests with this light were made some years ago in comparison with the light thrown from oil burners1 it was claimed that the latter1 owing to its reddish-yellow tinge1 was the most suitable from the all-round point of view1 and that it could penetrate to a greater distance in foggy weather4 ,i have been informed by several authorities1 who have gone more deeply into this question since1 that this is a fallacy1 and that the advantage rests completely with electric light4 ,experience in ,germany1 which has two magnificent electric lighthouses1 and in ,scotland1 certainly supports this contention1 and ,i have been assured that the sole reason why electric lighting has not been adopted more widely is the heavy cost1 both of installation and of maintenance4 ,when electric lighting is rendered cheaper and is brought more to the level of existing lighting arrangements1 one may expect another complete change in lighthouse practice4 ,in this direction1 as explained in another chapter1 the ,germans have carried out practical experiments in their characteristic manner1 and have brought the cost of maintaining a most powerful electric light to the minimum4 ,one very great advantage of the electric light is the ease with which the power of the beam may be increased during thick weather1 so as to secure penetration to the greatest distance1 and decreased to suit easier conditions in clear weather4 ,this point raises the question1 8,from how far can a light be seen out at sea80 ,this factor is influenced by climatic conditions1 and also by the curvature of the earth4 ,the higher the light1 or the spectator1 or both1 is elevated above the water1 the greater the distance from which the light can be seen4 ,the table on p4 #eb1 prepared by ,mr4 ,alan ,stevenson1 the eminent ,scottish lighthouse engineer1 gives the distances at which objects can be seen at sea1 according to the respective elevations of the object and the eye of the observer4 ,for instance1 the passenger on a liner the boat-deck of which is #dj feet above the water1 approaching the ,english ,channel1 will sight the ,bishop ,rock light from a distance of about #bb miles1 because the focal plane--that is1 the bull's-eye of the lens--is #afc feet above the water1 which1 according to the following table1 equals about #ad miles1 to which must be added the height of the boat's deck1 #dj feet representing #gbe miles4 ,similarly1 the ray of the ,belle ,ile light will come into view when the vessel is #cb miles distant--height of focal plane of light1 #dgj feet #be miles1 eye of observer on board the liner1 #de feet #gfi miles2 while the ,navesink light1 being #bdf feet above the water1 may be picked up by the captain of a liner from a distance of #bh miles4 ,the range of many lights1 however1 owing to the curvature of the earth1 is greatly in excess of their geographical range1 and with the most powerful lights the glare of the luminous beams sweeping the clouds overhead may be seen for a full hour or more before the ray itself comes into view4 ,,table ,,of ,,distances ,,at ,,which ,,objects ,,can ,,be ,,seen ,,at ,,sea1 ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,respective ,,elevations ,,and ,,the ,,elevation ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,of ,,the ,,observer4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,heights in ,distances in ,distances in ,feet4 ,statute or ,english ,geographical or ,miles4 ,nautical ,miles4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #e #bieh #befe #aj #dahd #cfbh #ae #eabc #dddc #bj #eiaf #eacj #be #ffad #egcf #cj #gbde #fbhc #ce #ghbf #fghg #dj #hcff #gbee #de #hhgd #gfif #ej #iced #haab #ee #ihaa #heji #fj #ajbdf #hhhf #fe #ajffe #ibdi #gj #aajfg #ieih #ge #aadef #iice #hj #aahcb #ajbfj #he #abaif #ajegj #ij #abedi #ajhhj #ie #abhic #aaahj #ajj #acbbh #aadgj #aaj #achgd #abjcj #abj #addij #abefj #acj #aejhc #acjhj #adj #aefeb #acegj #aej #afbja #adbbj #bjj #ahgjh #afbbj #bej #bjiaf #ahad #cjj #bbiab #aihg #cej #bdgdh #badf #djj #bfdeg #bbid #dej #bhjfb #bdcj #ejj #biehj #befe #eej #cajbd #bfij #fjj #cbdjc #bhaj #fej #ccgbf #bibe #gjj #cejjj #cjbh #hjj #cgdaf #cbde #ijj #cihcf #cded #a1jjj #dahcc #cfbh ---------------------------------------- --------- ,illustration3 ,by permission of the 8,syren and ,shipping40 ,,looking ,,up ,,the ,,lantern ,,of ,,the ,,needles ,,lighthouse4 ,so far as the candle-power of any light is concerned1 the method of determining this factor1 varying according to the calculating methods adopted1 is somewhat misleading4 ,so far as ,great ,britain is concerned1 the practice of setting out the candle-power of any light in the official list has been abandoned1 the authorities merely stating that such and such a light is of great power4 ,the ,united ,states and ,canada1 on the other hand1 indicate the approximate candle-power4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,fixed ,,apparatus ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,order ,,for ,,sarawak4 ,the focal distance is #bej millimetres1 and the diameter of lantern inside glazing #f feet #g inches4 ,by combining and arranging the integral parts of the optical apparatus1 the lighthouse engineer is able to accomplish many astonishing results4 ,thus1 while the various types generally follow accepted broad lines1 coinciding with the order which they represent1 here and there some very striking divergences are made4 ,the ,bell ,rock light is perhaps the most interesting example in this direction4 ,it was designed by ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,t4 ,stevenson1 and built by ,messrs4 ,chance ,brothers and ,co4 ,the light is alternating1 the colours being white and red4 ,externally the optical apparatus appears to be bizarre1 yet it is one of the most perfect which has ever been installed4 ,in its design and construction almost all the known lighthouse optical elements are incorporated1 including the equiangular refractor1 the reflecting prism1 the double-reflecting prism1 and the dioptric mirror4 ,another noteworthy fact is that1 by an exceedingly ingenious arrangement1 the absorption of the rays by the glass used in producing the red flashes is neutralized to such a vast degree that the white and red flashes are of equal intensity4 ,the subsidiary light is another striking feature which the lighthouse engineer has introduced4 ,for instance1 a light may be shown from a dangerous reef1 and give the mariner all the warning desired4 ,but some distance away may lurk another isolated rock1 which it is just as imperative to indicate1 and yet on which another tower cannot be erected4 ,this necessity is met by the subsidiary light4 ,a portion of the light from the main apparatus is deflected and thrown to the desired spot by an ingenious arrangement of the prisms4 ,on the west coast of ,scotland1 at ,stornoway1 a stream of light used to be deflected from the lantern in a vertical direction down the tower1 and there bent at right angles1 to be thrown through a lower window and fall upon a prism placed on the crest of a rock several hundred feet distant4 ,from the deck of a vessel1 the effect of the light striking the prism was akin to that produced by a beacon4 ,similarly in the case of ,st4 ,catherine's light in the ,isle of ,wight3 a portion of the light1 which would otherwise be wasted over the area on the landward side1 is carried vertically down the tower by a disposal of lenses and prisms1 and is projected horizontally through a small window1 after being coloured into a red ray by passing through some glass of the desired tint1 to mark a danger spot some distance away4 ,this method1 however1 is not favoured now1 as the peril can be more efficiently marked by means of an independent beacon1 a system which has become feasible owing to the vast improvements that have been made in automatic lights requiring no attention for several weeks or months at a time4 ,but in those instances where the latter expedient is not adopted1 the practice is to cover the danger with a ray thrown from an entirely different light4 ,when the present ,eddystone tower was completed1 a 8low-light room10 as it is called1 was incorporated1 and a low-powered light was thrown from two ,argand burners and reflectors through a window to mark a dangerous reef some three miles distant4 ,but perhaps the best example of a subsidiary light is that which was carried out by ,messrs4 ,chance in connection with the ,cap de ,couedie lighthouse4 ,in this instance two dangers had to be indicated in a subsidiary manner1 one being covered with a red1 the other with a green1 ray4 ,the red sector marks a danger spot known as ,lipson's ,reef1 lying #h miles distant1 while the green light indicates ,casuarina ,island1 #a miles away4 ,this installation1 it may be pointed out1 has proved highly successful1 and certainly is very economical4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,the ,,means ,,whereby ,,the ,,rays ,,are ,,deflected ,,from ,,the ,,main ,,light ,,to ,,form ,a ,,subsidiary ,,light4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 and ,co41 ,ltd47 ,there is another point which deserves mention--the duration of the flash in a revolving light4 ,there was considerable discussion and difference of opinion upon this question some years ago4 ,it was maintained that the shorter the duration of the flash1 and the more rapidly it were thrown1 the better it would be for the mariner4 ,the ,scottish engineers realized the significance of this problem1 and1 despite the hostile criticism of contemporary engineers1 adopted a specific principle which was to give a flash of two and three-quarter seconds' duration4 ,subsequently it was reduced to one second4 ,the introduction of the mercury float enabled the optical apparatus to be revolved faster1 and also facilitated the reduction in the number of panels or faces1 so that ultimately the ,scottish engineers reduced the flash to one of four-tenths of a second4 ,when ,mr4 ,bourdelles devised the mercury float which enabled rotation to be accelerated1 the ,french authorities rushed to the opposite extreme4 ,they reduced the faces to four1 and arranged for the apparatus to be revolved at a high speed1 so that the duration of the flash was only one-tenth of a second at rapidly-recurring intervals4 ,this type of light was called the feu-clair1 and was adopted as a result of prolonged laboratory investigation4 ,but this was an instance where laboratory experiments and scientific reasoning failed to go hand in glove with practical experience and navigation1 where the mariner has to contend with all sorts and conditions of weather4 ,the seafarer expressed his opinion of the one-tenth of a second flash in uncomplimentary terms1 displaying an indifferent appreciation of artificially-produced sheet-lightning4 ,eventually there was a general agreement1 among all those countries which had investigated the problem closely1 that a flash of about three-tenths of a second was the most satisfactory1 and this has since become tacitly standardized4 ,the ,french authorities recognized the fallacy of their idea1 and soon came into line with the other countries4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,fog-,,signals ,notwithstanding the wonderful ingenuity that is displayed in the concentration of light into powerful beams1 these all count for nothing when fog settles upon the sea4 ,the ray of #a1jjj1jjj candle-power is almost as futile then as the glimmer from a tallow dip4 ,fog is the peril of the sea which the mariner dreads more than any other4 ,the blanket of mist1 descending upon the water1 not only shuts everything from sight1 but deadens every sound as well4 ,the sea is absolutely calm1 so that no intimation of danger ahead is conveyed by the breaking of the waves upon rock1 shoal1 sandbank1 or iron-bound coast4 ,it is in times of fog that the navigator must be given the greatest protection4 ,as this is impossible to accomplish visually1 appeal must be made to his ear4 ,in the early days of lighthouse engineering the methods of conveying audible warning were very crude4 ,the discharge of a gun was the most popular1 but it was neither serviceable nor reliable1 and was made upon somewhat haphazard lines4 ,thus1 in the case of a dangerous headland on the ,north ,american coast1 which the ,boston steamer had to round on its journey1 the keepers mounted guard at the probable time of the vessel's arrival off this point4 ,they listened eagerly for the steamer's whistle1 and when it came screaming over the water they began hurriedly firing a carronade1 keeping up the blank-cartridge bombardment until another shriek told them that those on the vessel had heard their signals4 ,sometimes the whistle was heard from a distance of six miles2 at others from not more than two miles away4 ,it depended upon circumstances4 ,obviously1 such a primitive system was attended with considerable danger1 as an accident was liable to happen to the men in their feverish haste to load and discharge the gun1 while the plight of the boat was far from being enviable at times4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,a ,,modern ,,lighthouse ,,siren ,,plant4 ,showing gas engines and air-compressors in duplicate1 with siren at side4 ,in the early days every lighthouse tower was provided with a heavy bell4 ,indeed1 the ponderous dome of metal projecting from the lantern gallery was considered indispensable4 ,the bell varied in weight from #a1bjj to #b1bdj pounds1 was fitted with a massive clapper1 and when struck emitted a deep musical note4 ,in order to enable the seafarer to gain some idea of his whereabouts1 the fog-signals were given a sound-characteristic somewhat upon the lines of those in connection with the light4 ,thus1 one lighthouse would give one stroke every ten seconds2 another would give two strokes in quick succession1 followed by a long silence1 and so on4 ,this system suffers from the severe handicap that the sound does not travel very far during foggy weather4 ,another ingenious engineer recommended the utilization of the locomotive whistle1 giving a high-toned1 ear-piercing shriek1 but the same objection as attended the use of the bell prevailed3 the sound could not be heard more than a short distance away4 ,the ,british lighthouse authorities submitted the idea to a series of searching investigations to ascertain its possibilities1 but eventually were compelled to conclude that it was not superior to1 if as good as1 the other systems then in vogue4 ,the ,united ,states authorities1 as a result of their independent experiments1 expressed a similar opinion2 but in ,canada practical application gave this whistle a favourable verdict4 ,rockets also have been adopted1 and are highly successful4 ,indeed1 this method of conveying audible warning prevails still in many countries4 ,the practicability of such a means of throwing sound over a wide area was advanced by ,sir ,richard ,collinson1 when ,deputy-,master of ,trinity ,house1 and his idea comprised the insertion of a gun-cotton charge1 timed to explode at a given height1 in the head of the rocket4 ,the height could be varied up to about #a1jjj feet1 and the weight of the charge fluctuated according to requirements4 ,the rocket system was tested very severely1 and in some instances the report was heard as many as twenty-five miles away4 ,it received the approbation of ,professor ,tyndall1 and1 although superior methods of signalling have been devised since1 there remain one or two lighthouse stations where it is considered to be the most satisfactory fog-signalling device1 notably the station on the island of ,heligoland1 where the rocket is hurled into the air to explode at a height of nearly #gjj feet4 ,in many lighthouses the detonation of gun-cotton constitutes the means of conveying warning to passing vessels1 but is accomplished in a different manner4 ,the charge1 instead of being sent into the air to be exploded1 is attached to a special device which is supported upon a simple frame at a point above the lantern1 so that no damage may be inflicted upon the glass of the latter from the concussion4 ,the apparatus is fitted with a safety device which prevents premature explosion1 so that the keeper is preserved from personal injury1 and1 unless culpable negligence is manifested1 the charge cannot be ignited until it has been raised to its designed position4 ,the report is of great volume1 and as a rule can be heard a considerable distance2 but in this1 as in all other cases1 the atmosphere plays many strange tricks4 ,still1 it has not been superseded yet for isolated sea-rock lighthouses1 such as the ,eddystone1 ,skerryvore1 and ,bell ,rock1 where there is lack of adequate space for the installation of any other equally efficient fog-signalling facilities4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the ,,sirens ,,of ,,the ,,lizard4 ,owing to the importance of the ,lizard ,station and the fact that the coast often is obscured by fog1 a powerful fog-signalling station is imperative4 ,in the early seventies an ,american investigator1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,daboll1 contrived an entirely new system1 which developed into the foundation of one of the most successful fog-signalling devices for lighthouses which has been discovered--the siren4 ,the ,daboll invention was a huge trumpet1 recalling a mammoth phonograph horn4 ,it was #ag feet in length1 and its mouth was #ch inches in diameter4 ,in the lower end of this trumpet--the throat--was placed a tongue of steel measuring #aj inches in length and secured at one end to form a reed4 ,it was blown by air compressed in a reservoir to the desired degree1 and then permitted to escape through the trumpet4 ,the mad rush of the expanding air through the constricted passage set the reed vibrating violently1 causing the emission of a penetrating1 discordant bellow4 ,when ,daboll commenced his experiments1 he suffered from the lack of a suitable mechanical means for compressing the air1 and made shift with a donkey for this purpose until the hot-air engine was improved1 when the latter was substituted4 ,trinity ,house adopted the idea and found it serviceable2 but the ,canadian authorities1 after four years' experiment1 dissented from this view1 remarking that the trumpet was expensive to maintain1 unreliable in working1 and liable to break down when most urgently needed4 ,in fact1 they characterized the ,daboll trumpets which they had installed as 8sources of danger instead of aids to navigation40 ,from the trumpet to the siren was not a very big step4 ,the history of the latter's invention is somewhat obscure1 but it was brought before the ,united ,states ,government in a primitive form4 ,the ,american engineers1 recognizing its latent possibilities1 took it up1 and endeavoured to improve it to such a degree as to render it suitable for lighthouse work4 ,their efforts were only partially successful4 ,the solution of the many difficulties attending its perfection was effected in ,great ,britain by ,professor ,frederick ,hale ,holmes1 whose magneto-electric machine brought electricity within reach of the lighthouse as an illuminant1 and it was due to the efforts of this scientist that the siren became one of the most efficient sound-producing instruments which have been discovered for this class of work4 ,the reason that made ,professor ,holmes bring his energies and knowledge to bear upon this subject was somewhat curious4 ,the siren in its first form made its way from the ,united ,states to ,great ,britain4 ,the ,british ,admiralty realized the power and penetration of its sound1 and forthwith adopted it in the navy1 operating it by steam instead of by air4 ,at this there arose a great outcry from the mercantile marine4 ,captains argued that the similarity of the signals confused and often misled them1 as they could not tell in the fog whether the sound proceeded from a warship or a lighthouse4 ,the ,board of ,trade was forced to intervene1 but1 as it had no jurisdiction over the ,admiralty1 it sought to extricate itself from an awkward situation by inviting ,professor ,holmes to perfect a siren which would emit a distinctive sound4 ,his efforts were crowned with complete success4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,the ,,fixed 7,a7 ,,and ,,revolving 7,b7 ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,siren4 ,professor ,holmes exhibited his wonderful device at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg4 ,he installed it in working order1 and the visitors displayed an anxiety to hear it4 ,it was brought into action1 and those around never forgot the experience4 ,it was the most diabolical ear-splitting noise which had been heard1 and1 apprehensive that serious results might arise from its demonstration when the buildings were thronged with sight-seers1 the authorities refused to permit it to be sounded again4 ,the humorous illustrated papers did not suffer such a golden opportunity to escape4 ,grotesque and laughable cartoons appeared depicting the curious effects produced by the blast of the instrument1 one showing the various statues being frightened off their pedestals proving exceptionally popular4 ,the siren in its simplest form is an enlarged edition of the 8,deviline0 toy whistle4 ,there is a ,daboll trumpet with a small throat1 in which is placed horizontally1 not a reed1 but a metal disc1 so as to fill the whole circular space of the throat4 ,the sheet of metal is pierced with a number of radial slits4 ,behind this disc is a second plate of a similar character1 and likewise pierced with radial slits of the same size1 shape and number2 but whereas the first disc is fixed1 the second is mounted on a spindle4 ,the free disc rotates at high speed1 so that the twelve jets of air which are driven through the throat are interrupted intermittently by the blanks of the revolving disc coming over the openings in the fixed disc1 while when the two slits are in line the air has a free passage4 ,if the revolving disc completes #c1jjj revolutions per minute1 and there are twelve slits in the discs1 then a total of #cf1jjj vibrations per minute is produced while the instrument is in operation4 ,the speed of the revolving disc1 as well as the number and size of the openings1 varies according to the size and class of the siren2 but in any case an intensely powerful1 dense and penetrating musical tone is emitted1 which can be heard a considerable distance away4 ,the blast of a high-powered large siren has been heard at a distance of twenty to thirty miles in clear weather1 though of course in thick weather its range is reduced4 ,while ,professor ,holmes was experimenting with this device1 another investigator1 ,mr4 ,slight1 of ,trinity ,house1 was wrestling with the same problem4 ,indeed1 he may be described as the inventor of the modern siren4 ,although he effected only an apparently slight modification1 it was the touch which rendered the instrument perfect1 while it also removed the possibility of a breakdown at a critical moment1 as he rendered the moving part freer in its working and eliminated the severe strains to which it was subjected4 ,the improvement was appreciated by ,professor ,holmes1 who adopted it immediately4 ,while these indefatigable efforts were in progress1 ingenious attempts were made to press ,nature herself into operation4 ,as is well known1 there are many 8blowing-holes0 distributed throughout the world1 where the water by erosion has produced a long1 narrow cavern in the base of a rock1 with a constricted outlet into the outer air4 ,the waves1 rushing into the cave1 compress the air within1 which1 in its escape at high velocity through the small vent1 produces a bellowing sound4 ,it was this curious phenomenon which gave the ,wolf ,rock its name4 ,general ,hartmann ,bache1 of the ,united ,states ,engineers1 attempted in #aheh to make use of a blowing-hole on one of the ,farallon ,isles1 lying forty miles off the entrance to ,san ,francisco ,bay4 ,a chimney was built with bricks above the orifice1 through which the air compressed by the waves below made its escape1 and on top of this shaft a locomotive whistle was placed4 ,the first effort was a dead failure1 because the force of the rush of air was so great that it carried away the chimney2 but in the second attempt success was achieved1 and an excellent automatic whistle blared out night and day almost continuously and was audible for some distance out to sea4 ,the only drawback was that in foggy weather1 when the most intense sound was required1 the signal was dumb owing to the smoothness of the water4 ,this novel signal was maintained for some time and then was superseded by a powerful siren4 ,one of the most interesting fog-signalling installations in service is that on the bald formidable hump of rock lying in the estuary of the ,clyde1 known as ,ailsa ,craig4 ,for years this rock constituted a terrible menace to the crowded shipping of this important marine thoroughfare1 and its victims were numerous4 ,while the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses mitigated its terrors as far as possible by the provision of a powerful light1 they recognized the fact that a visual warning did not meet the situation completely4 ,but the installation of a fog-signal was a somewhat peculiar problem1 owing to the configuration of the rock4 ,a single station would not meet requirements1 because it was necessary to throw the warning from both sides of the obstruction4 ,the provision of two sound-stations would have been an expensive matter1 even if it had been feasible1 which it was not1 owing to the precipitous nature of the cliffs4 ,an ingenious solution was advanced by ,mr4 ,charles ,ingrey1 ,c4,e4 ,he proposed to erect a central power-station and to control the sounding of two sirens1 placed on opposite sides of the island1 therefrom1 the compressed air being led through underground piping4 ,the plans were submitted to ,messrs4 ,stevenson1 the engineers to the ,northern ,lighthouse ,board1 who1 after examining the proposal thoroughly1 gave it their approval4 ,but when it came to obtaining the sanction for the requisite expenditure from the ,board of ,trade1 that august body1 despite the fact that the project had been investigated and had received the approbation of the engineers to the ,northern ,lighthouse ,commissioners1 declined to permit public money to be expended upon an untried scheme4 ,such is the way in which pioneering effort and ingenuity are stifled by ,government departments4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,acetylene ,,fog-,,gun4 ,the latest ingenious device for giving both audible and visual warning automatically4 ,many another engineer would have abandoned the project after such a rebuff1 but ,mr4 ,ingrey without any delay laid down a complete installation upon the lines he contemplated on the island of ,pladda1 where a ,holmes fog-horn was in service4 ,with the aid of a workman whom he took from ,glasgow1 the light-keepers and some farm labourers1 this trial installation was completed1 the piping being carried round the island from the air-compressing plant to the fog-signal4 ,the work occupied about a fortnight1 and then1 everything being ready to convince the sceptical ,board of ,trade1 the inspecting engineers were treated to a comprehensive and conclusive demonstration4 ,they were satisfied with what they saw1 appreciated the reliability of the idea and gave the requisite sanction4 ,forthwith the ,ailsa ,craig ,island installation was put in hand and duly completed4 ,this plant possesses many ingenious features4 ,as the light is derived from gas distilled from crude oil1 a small gas-making plant is installed on the island1 and this is used also for driving a battery of five eight-horse-power gas-engines--four are used at a time1 the fifth being in reserve--to supply the thirty-horse-power demanded to operate the fog-signal4 ,the energy thus developed drives two sets of powerful air-compressors1 the four cylinders of which have a bore of #aj inches by a stroke of #bj inches1 the air being compressed to #hj pounds per square inch and stored in two large air-receivers which hold #aid cubic feet4 ,from this reservoir pipes buried in a trench excavated from the solid rock extend to the two trumpets1 placed on the north and south sides of the island respectively4 ,the length of piping on the north side is #c1djj feet1 and on the south side #b1ejj feet4 ,at places where the pipe makes a dip1 owing to the configuration of the rock1 facilities are provided to draw off any water which may collect4 ,extreme care had to be displayed in connecting the lengths of piping1 so that there might be no leakage1 in which event1 of course1 the pressure of the air would drop and thereby incapacitate the signal4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rattray ,,head ,,lighthouse4 ,a very exposed ,scottish rock tower4 ,it is unique because a full-powered siren fog-signal is installed therein4 ,each signal is mounted in a domed house built of concrete1 the mouth of the trumpet extending from the crown of the roof4 ,within the house is an air-receiver #i feet in height by #d feet in diameter1 of about #adj cubic feet capacity1 which receives the compressed air transmitted through the piping from the compressing-station4 ,it also contains the automatic apparatus whereby the signal is brought into action at the stipulated intervals1 so as to produce the requisite sound characteristic4 ,this is a self-winding clockwork mechanism which admits and cuts off the supply of air to the trumpets1 its chief feature being that the clock is wound up by the compressed air itself1 so that it is entirely free from human control4 ,however1 as a breakdown even with the best-designed and most-carefully-tended machinery cannot be circumvented entirely1 there is a duplicate electrical mechanism1 also automatically controlled from the power-generating station1 the electric cables for which are laid in the pipe trenches4 ,this acts as an emergency control4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson4 ,,sule ,,skerry ,,light4 ,a lonely light of ,scotland4 ,the nearest land is the ,butt of ,lewis1 #cj miles distant4 ,the two signals are not sounded simultaneously2 neither are they alike nor of the same tone4 ,the north signal gives a single blast of high tone1 lasting five seconds1 and then is silent for #age seconds4 ,on the south side the siren gives a double note1 although there are three blasts--viz41 high1 low1 high--corresponding to the letter ,r of the ,morse code4 ,the notes are sounded for two seconds1 with similar intervening periods of silence1 and silence for #agj seconds between the groups4 ,the complete signal from the two stations is given once in three minutes1 the north signal commencing to sound ninety seconds after the south signal has ceased4 ,the high note corresponds to the fourth ,e in the musical compass1 there being #ch1djj vibrations per minute2 while the low note is tuned to the third ,d in the musical compass1 with #af1hjj vibrations per minute4 ,the notes are purposely timed more than an octave apart and made discordant1 as thereby the sound is more likely to attract attention and to be readily distinguished4 ,about eighteen minutes are required to bring the apparatus into operation--that is1 to start compressing and to raise the pressure of the air to the requisite degree--but1 as fogs descend upon the ,clyde with startling suddenness1 the signals may be started within five minutes of the fog-alarm4 ,the air-reservoirs are kept charged to the working pressure1 the machinery being run once or twice for a short time every week for this purpose and to keep the plant in working order4 ,up to this time it had been the practice to place the siren in close proximity to the air-compressing machinery1 but the installation at ,ailsa ,craig proves conclusively that this is not essential to success2 also it demonstrates the fact that a number of signals can be operated reliably and effectively from a central station4 ,indeed1 this ,scottish plant aroused such widespread interest that the ,pulsometer ,engineering ,company of ,reading1 who had acquired ,professor ,holmes's patents and who carried out the above installation1 received several inquiries from abroad with regard to its suitability for similar situations4 ,in one instance the compressed air was to be transmitted for a distance of nearly four miles4 ,while the siren has been adopted and found adequate by the majority of nations1 the ,canadian ,government has installed a far more powerful instrument upon the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence1 as the ordinary siren signals originally established near the mouth of the river1 although of great power1 were found to be inadequate4 ,the new apparatus1 which is known as the 8diaphone10 gives an extraordinarily powerful sound4 ,it comprises a cylindrical chamber1 in the walls of which are cut a number of parallel slits4 ,concentrically disposed within the chamber is a cylindrical hollow piston1 with similar slits and a flange at one end1 the whole being enclosed in an outer casing4 ,air under pressure is admitted into the outer casing1 and drives the piston backwards and forwards with great rapidity4 ,the result is that the air effects its escape through the orifices1 when they come into line1 in intermittent puffs4 ,while the broad principle is not unlike that of the conventional siren1 the main difference is that in the latter there is a rotary motion1 whereas in the diaphone the action is reciprocating4 ,the great advantage of the latter is that all the vibrations are synchronous1 owing to the symmetrical disposition of the slits1 and consequently the note produced is very pure4 ,the mechanism is so devised that the piston's motion is controlled to a nicety1 and the sound is constant4 ,experience has proved that the best results are obtained by using air at a pressure of #cj pounds per square inch4 ,the sound thus produced is intensified to a markedly greater degree by means of a resonator properly attuned4 ,this instrument has displaced the siren among the stations upon the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river4 ,the general type of apparatus has a piston #d inches in diameter1 and uses #aa pounds of air per second during the sounding of the blast4 ,but at more important stations a far larger and more powerful class of apparatus is used1 the diaphone at ,cape ,race having a piston #h inches in diameter and using #bg feet of air per second while sounding4 ,this does not indicate the limit of size1 however1 since the builders of this terrible noise-producer are experimenting with an apparatus having a piston #ad inches in diameter4 ,the sound issuing from such a huge apparatus would be almost as deafening as the report of a big gun and should succeed in warning a mariner several miles away4 ,the atmosphere1 however1 plays many strange pranks with the most powerful sound-producing instruments4 ,to-day1 for instance1 a fog-signal may be heard at a distance of ten miles2 to-morrow it will fail to be audible more than a mile away4 ,this aberration of sound is extraordinary and constitutes one of the unsolved problems of science4 ,innumerable investigations have been made with the object of finding the cause of this erratic action1 but no conclusive explanation has been forthcoming4 ,another strange trick is that1 while a sound may be audible at distances of two and four miles during a fog1 it fails to strike the ear at three miles4 ,it is as if the sound struck the water at a range of two miles1 bounded high into the air1 and again fell upon the water at four miles1 giving a second leap to hit the water again farther on1 in much the same way as a thin flat stone1 when thrown horizontally into the water1 will hop1 skip1 and jump over the surface4 ,this trick renders the task of the lighthouse engineer additionally exasperating and taxes his ingenuity to the utmost1 as it appears to baffle completely any attempt towards its elimination4 ,recently another ingenious and novel system has been perfected by ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson4 ,this is an acetylene gun which acts automatically4 ,hitherto an unattended fog-signal--except the bell-buoy tolled by the movement of the waves1 which is far from satisfactory1 or the whistling buoy1 which is operated upon the same lines and is equally ineffective except at very short range--has found little favour4 ,the objections to the bell and whistle buoys are the faintness of the sounds1 which may be drowned by the noises produced on the ship herself2 while1 if the wind is blowing away from the vessel1 she may pass within a few feet of the signal1 yet outside its range4 ,thus it will be recognized that the fog-gun serves to fill a very important gap in connection with the warning of seafarers during thick weather4 ,as is well known1 even a small charge of acetylene1 when fired1 will produce a loud report1 and this characteristic of the gas induced ,messrs4 ,stevenson to apply it to a fog-signal4 ,they have developed the automatic acetylene system of lighting to a very high degree around the coasts of ,scotland1 and there are now more than twenty lights of this class1 mostly unattended1 in operation1 some of which have been established for many years4 ,these lights have proved highly satisfactory4 ,there has never been an accident1 a freedom which is due to the fact that ,moye's system is used1 wherein the possibilities of mishap are surmounted very effectively4 ,accordingly1 the engineers saw no reason why a similar system should not be adapted to the emission of sound instead of light signals1 or1 if desired1 of both simultaneously4 ,their experiments have been crowned with complete success1 and1 as the gun uses no more gas than would be consumed if a flashing light system were used1 the cost of operation is very low4 ,the general features of the acetylene fog-gun may be observed from the illustration 7facing p4 #fd74 ,the acetylene1 dissolved in acetone1 is contained under pressure in a cylinder1 and thence passes through a reducing valve to an annular space1 where it is ignited by an electric spark4 ,a trumpet is attached to the firing chamber1 so that the sound becomes intensified4 ,if desired1 the explosion can be effected at the burner1 so that1 in addition to a sound-signal1 a flashing light is given4 ,the applications vary according to the circumstances4 ,suppose there is an unlighted bell-buoy at the bar of a port4 ,here the procedure is to install a gun and light combined1 so that the flash of the explosion may give visual and the report audible warning4 ,or1 should there be a lighted buoy already in position1 its effectiveness may be enhanced by adding the gun1 the detonation alone being employed for warning purposes4 ,the size of the cylinder containing the dissolved acetylene may be varied1 so that renewal need only be carried out once in one1 two1 or more months1 according to conditions4 ,if the increasing traffic around a certain rock demand that the latter should be marked1 a combined sound and light apparatus can be installed4 ,it may be that the head of a pier which is accessible only at certain times1 or a beacon which can be reached only at rare intervals1 may require improved facilities4 ,in this case the gun can be set up and a cable laid to a convenient spot which may be approached at all times by an attendant4 ,then the latter1 by the movement of a switch1 can bring the gun instantly into action upon the alarm of fog1 and it will keep firing at the set intervals until1 the fog lifting1 the gun is switched off4 ,in some cases1 where the apparatus is set upon a lonely rock1 a submarine cable may be laid between the marked point and the control-station4 ,the cable is not a very costly addition4 ,there are many lights where wages have to be paid merely for a man to bring the fog-signalling bell machinery into action4 ,in such cases a fog-gun can be installed and the annual cost of maintenance decreased enormously1 thereby enabling the outlay on the gun to be recouped within a very short time2 while the light may be improved by using the flashes1 so that the warning can be rendered more distinctive4 ,the invention is also applicable to lightships1 many of which are manned by four men or more at a large cost per annum4 ,in the majority of cases an unattended ,stevenson lightship--such as described in another chapter1 six of which are in use around the coasts of ,scotland1 and which give1 not only a first-class light1 but1 by the aid of the fog-signal gun1 can be made to give an excellent fog-signal as well--offers a means of reducing the heavy maintenance charges arising in connection with a manned light-vessel4 ,in many instances existing lightships can be converted to the automatic system and completed by the gun4 ,each case must1 of course1 be decided upon its merits as regards the time the gun and light are required to work upon a single charge of acetylene1 but there are no insuperable obstacles to its utilization4 ,of course1 in an isolated station lying perhaps some miles off the mainland1 it may be necessary to keep the gun going night and day in fog and in clear weather alike4 ,in this case1 naturally1 the great number of explosions involves considerable expense2 but the inventors are carrying out experiments with a view to switching the gun on and off1 as required1 from a distant point by means of wireless telegraphy1 so as to effect a saving in the expenditure of acetylene when there is no need on account of fine weather to keep the gun going4 ,still1 it must not be supposed that the detonations even during clear weather are altogether abortive1 inasmuch as a sound-signal at sea1 where the atmosphere has a long-distance-carrying capacity as a rule1 in conjunction with a light1 draws double attention to a danger spot4 ,under such circumstances the waste of acetylene gas during periods of clear weather is more apparent than real4 ,the contest against the elements is still being waged1 and slowly but surely engineering science is improving its position1 and is hopeful of rendering audible signals as completely effective as those of a visual character4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,eddystone ,,lighthouse ,it is doubtful whether the name of any lighthouse is so familiar throughout the ,english-speaking world as the 8,eddystone40 ,certainly no other 8pillar of fire by night1 of cloud by day10 can offer so romantic a story of dogged engineering perseverance1 of heartrending disappointments1 disaster1 blasted hopes1 and brilliant success4 ,standing out in the ,english ,channel1 about sixty miles east of the ,lizard1 is a straggling ridge of rocks which stretches for hundreds of yards across the marine thoroughfare1 and also obstructs the western approach to ,plymouth ,harbour4 ,but at a point some nine and a half miles south of ,rame ,head1 on the mainland1 the reef rises somewhat abruptly to the surface1 so that at low-water two or three ugly granite knots are bared1 which tell only too poignantly the complete destruction they could wreak upon a vessel which had the temerity or the ill luck to scrape over them at high-tide4 ,even in the calmest weather the sea curls and eddies viciously around these stones2 hence the name 8,eddystones0 is derived4 ,from the days when trading vessels first used the ,english ,channel the reef has been a spot of evil fame4 ,how many ships escaped the perils and dangers of the seven seas only to come to grief on this ridge within sight of home1 or how many lives have been lost upon it1 will never be known4 ,only the more staggering holocausts1 such as the wreck of the ,winchelsea1 stand out prominently in the annals of history1 but these serve to emphasize the terrible character of the menace offered4 ,the port of ,plymouth1 as may be supposed1 suffered with especial severity4 ,as ,british overseas traffic expanded1 the idea of indicating the spot for the benefit of vessels was discussed4 ,the first practical suggestion was put forward about the year #affd1 but thirty-two years elapsed before any attempt was made to reduce theory to practice4 ,then an eccentric ,english country gentleman1 ,henry ,winstanley1 who dabbled in mechanical engineering upon unorthodox lines1 came forward and offered to build a lighthouse upon the terrible rock4 ,those who knew this ambitious amateur were dubious of his success1 and wondered what manifestation his eccentricity would assume on this occasion4 ,nor was their scepticism entirely misplaced4 ,winstanley raised the most fantastic lighthouse which has ever been known1 and which would have been more at home in a ,chinese cemetery than in the ,english ,channel4 ,it was wrought in wood and most lavishly embellished with carvings and gilding4 ,four years were occupied in its construction1 and the tower was anchored to the rock by means of long1 heavy irons4 ,the light1 merely a flicker1 flashed out from this tower in #afii and for the first time the proximity of the ,eddystones was indicated all round the horizon by night4 ,winstanley's critics were rather free in expressing their opinion that the tower would come down with the first sou'-wester1 but the eccentric builder was so intensely proud of his achievement as to venture the statement that it would resist the fiercest gale that ever blew1 and1 when such did occur1 he hoped that he might be in the tower at the time4 ,fate gratified his wish1 for while he was on the rock in the year #agjc one of the most terrible tempests that ever have assailed the coasts of ,britain gripped the structure1 tore it up by the roots1 and hurled it into the ,channel1 where it was battered to pieces1 its designer and five keepers going down with the wreck4 ,when the inhabitants of ,plymouth1 having vainly scanned the horizon for a sign of the tower on the following morning1 put off to the rock to investigate1 they found only the bent and twisted iron rods by which the tower had been held in position projecting mournfully into the air from the rock-face4 ,shortly after the demolition of the tower1 the reef1 as if enraged at having been denied a number of victims owing to the existence of the warning light1 trapped the ,winchelsea as she was swinging up ,channel1 and smashed her to atoms1 with enormous loss of life4 ,although the first attempt to conquer the ,eddystone had terminated so disastrously1 it was not long before another effort was made to mark the reef4 ,the builder this time was a ,cornish labourer's son1 ,john ,rudyerd1 who had established himself in business on ,ludgate ,hill as a silk-mercer4 ,in his youth he had studied civil engineering1 but his friends had small opinion of his abilities in this craft4 ,however1 he attacked the problem boldly1 and1 although his tower was a plain1 business-looking structure1 it would have been impossible to conceive a design capable of meeting the peculiar requirements of the situation more efficiently4 ,it was a cone1 wrought in timber1 built upon a stone and wood foundation anchored to the rock1 and of great weight and strength4 ,the top of the cone was cut off to permit the lantern to be set in position4 ,the result was that externally the tower resembled the trunk of an oak-tree1 and appeared to be just about as strong4 ,it offered the minimum of resistance to the waves1 which1 tumbling upon the ledge1 rose and curled around the tapering form without starting a timber4 ,rudyerd1 indeed1 may be considered to be the father of the science of modern lighthouse designing1 because the lines that he evolved have never been superseded for exposed positions even in these days of advanced engineering science1 greater constructional facilities1 and improved materials4 ,rudyerd's ingenuity and skill received a triumphant vindication when the ,american engineers set out to build the ,minot's ,ledge and ,spectacle ,reef lighthouses1 inasmuch as these men followed slavishly in the lines he laid down1 and their achievements are numbered among the great lighthouses of the world to-day4 ,rudyerd built his tower with infinite care1 although he was harassed in his operations by the depredations of ,french privateers1 who haunted this part of the ,british coast4 ,on one occasion the whole of the men were surprised while at their work1 and were borne off in triumph as prisoners of war to ,france4 ,louis ,,xiv41 however1 heard of the capture1 and the privateers1 instead of being honoured for the catch1 as they anticipated1 were strongly reprimanded and compelled to release their captures4 8,their work is for the benefit of all nations4 ,i am at war with ,england1 not with humanity10 was the ,sovereign's comment2 and by way of compensation the prisoners were loaded with presents and reconveyed to the rock1 to resume their toil4 ,for forty years ,rudyerd's structure defied the elements1 and probably would have been standing to this day had it not possessed one weak point4 ,it was built of wood instead of stone4 ,consequently1 when a fire broke out in the lantern on ,december #d1 #agee1 the flames1 fanned by the breeze1 rapidly made their way downwards4 ,the keepers were impotent and sought what refuge they could find under projecting crags below1 as the lead which had been employed in construction melted into drops and rained down on all sides1 so that the unfortunate men were exposed to another and more alarming danger4 ,in fact1 one man1 while watching the progress of the fire1 was drenched with a shower of molten metal1 some of which1 he declared1 had entered his open mouth and had penetrated into his stomach4 ,when rescued he was writhing in fearful agony1 but his story was received with incredulity1 his comrades believing that the experience had turned his brain and that this was merely one of his delusions4 ,when the man died1 a post-mortem examination was made1 and the doctors discovered ample corroboration of the man's story in the form of a lump of lead weighing some seven ounces6 ,no time was lost in erecting another tower on the rock1 for now it was more imperative than ever that the reef should be lighted adequately4 ,the third engineer was ,john ,smeaton1 who first landed on the rock to make the surveys on ,april #e1 #agef4 ,he was able to stay there for only two and a quarter hours before the rising tide drove him off1 but in that brief period he had completed the work necessary to the preparation of his design4 ,wood had succumbed to the attacks of tempest and of fire in turn4 ,he would use a material which would defy both--,portland stone4 ,he also introduced a slight change in the design for such structures1 and one which has been universally copied1 producing the graceful form of lighthouse with which everyone is so familiar4 ,instead of causing the sides to slope upwards in the straight lines of a cone1 such as ,rudyerd adopted1 ,smeaton preferred a slightly concave curve1 so that the tower was given a waist at about half its height4 ,he also selected the oak-tree as his guide1 but one having an extensive spread of branches1 wherein will be found a shape in the trunk1 so far as the broad lines are concerned1 which coincides with the form of ,smeaton's lighthouse4 ,he chose a foundation where the rock shelved gradually to its highest point1 and dropped vertically into the water upon the opposite side4 ,the face of the rock was roughly trimmed to permit the foundation-stones of the tower to be laid4 ,the base of the building was perfectly solid to the entrance level1 and each stone was dovetailed securely into its neighbour4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the ,,eddystone1 ,,the ,,most ,,famous ,,lighthouse ,,of ,,england4 ,to the right is the stump of ,smeaton's historic tower4 ,from the entrance1 which was about #ae feet above high-water1 a central well1 some #e feet in diameter1 containing a staircase1 led to the storeroom1 nearly #cj feet above high-water4 ,above this was a second storeroom1 a living-room as the third floor1 and the bedroom beneath the lantern4 ,the light was placed about #gb feet above high-water1 and comprised a candelabra having two rings1 one smaller than1 and placed within1 the other1 but raised about a foot above its level1 the two being held firmly in position by means of chains suspended from the roof and secured to the floor4 ,the rings were adapted to receive twenty-four lights1 each candle weighing about #b ounces4 ,even candle manufacture was in its infancy in those days1 and periodically the keepers had to enter the lantern to snuff the wicks4 ,in order to keep the watchers of the lights on the alert1 ,smeaton installed a clock of the grandfather pattern in the tower1 and fitted it with a gong1 which struck every half-hour to apprise the men of these duties4 ,this clock is now one of the most interesting relics in the museum at ,trinity ,house4 ,the first stone of the tower was laid on a ,sunday in ,june1 #ageg1 as the date on the block indicates2 and although work had to be pursued fitfully and for only a few hours at a time between the tides1 in the early stages1 ,smeaton seized every opportunity offered by the wind and sea to push the task forward4 ,for four years the men slaved upon the rock1 and1 although the mechanical handling appliances of those days were primitive1 the tower was completed without a single mishap4 ,the solidity of the structure1 and its lines1 which1 as the engineer stated1 would offer the minimum of resistance to the ,atlantic rollers1 but at the same time would insure the utmost stability1 aroused widespread admiration1 for it was felt that the engineer had triumphed over ,nature at last4 ,many people expressed a desire to see how the tower would weather such a storm as carried away ,winstanley's freakish building1 especially as1 in a roaring sou'-wester1 the waves hurled themselves upon the ledge to wreathe and curl upwards to a point far above the dome1 blotting the light from sight4 ,the supreme test came in #agfb1 when the lighthouse was subjected to a battering and pounding far heavier than any that it had previously known4 ,but the tower emerged from this ordeal unscathed1 and ,smeaton's work was accepted as invulnerable4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,a ,,thrilling ,,experience4 ,landing upon the ,eddystone by the crane rope during a rough sea4 ,the lighthouse had been standing for #abj years1 when ominous reports were received by the ,trinity ,brethren concerning the stability of the tower4 ,the keepers stated that during severe storms the building shook alarmingly4 ,a minute inspection of the structure was made1 and it was found that1 although the work of ,smeaton's masons was above reproach1 time and weather had left their mark4 ,the tower was becoming decrepit4 ,the binding cement had decayed1 and the air imprisoned and compressed within the interstices by the waves was disintegrating the structure slowly but surely4 ,while there was no occasion to apprehend a sudden collapse1 still it was considered advisable to take precautionary measures in time4 ,unfortunately1 it was not feasible to strengthen ,smeaton's tower so adequately as to give it a new lease of life1 while lighthouse engineering had made rapid strides in certain details since it was completed4 ,another factor to be considered was the desire for a more elevated light1 capable of throwing its rays to a greater distance4 ,under these circumstances it was decided to build a new tower on another convenient ledge1 forming part of the main reef1 about #abj feet distant4 ,sir ,james ,douglass1 the ,engineer-in-,chief to ,trinity ,house1 completed the designs and personally superintended their execution4 ,the ,smeaton lines were taken as a basis1 with one important exception4 ,instead of the curve commencing at the foundations1 the latter comprised a perfect cylindrical monolith of masonry #bb feet in height by #dd feet in diameter4 ,from this base the tower springs to a height which brings the focal plane #acj feet above the highest spring-tides4 ,the top of the base is #cj inches above high-water1 and the tower's diameter at this point being less than that of its plinth1 the set-off forms an excellent landing-stage when the weather permits4 ,the site selected for the ,douglass tower being lower than that chosen by ,smeaton1 the initial work was more exacting1 as the duration of the working period was reduced4 ,the rock1 being gneiss1 was extremely tough1 and the preliminary quarrying operations for the foundation-stones which had to be sunk into the rock were tedious and difficult1 especially as the working area was limited4 ,each stone was dovetailed1 not only to its neighbour on either side1 but below and above as well4 ,the foundation-stones were dovetailed into the reef1 and were secured still further by the aid of two bolts1 each #a inches in diameter1 which were passed through the stone and sunk deeply into the rock below4 ,the exposed position of the reef enabled work to be continued only fitfully during the calmest weather1 for often when wind and sea were quiet the rock was inaccessible owing to the swell4 ,upon the approach of bad weather everything was made fast under the direct supervision of the engineer--a man who took no chances4 ,from the set-off the tower is solid to a height of #be feet1 except for two fresh-water tanks sunk in the floor of the entrance-room1 which hold #d1gjj gallons4 ,at this point the walls are no less than #h feet thick1 and the heavy teak door is protected by an outer door of gun-metal1 weighing a ton1 both of which are closed during rough weather4 ,the tower has eight floors1 exclusive of the entrance2 there are two oilrooms1 one above the other1 holding #d1cjj gallons of oil1 above which is a coal and store room1 followed by a second storeroom4 ,outside the tower at this level is a crane1 by which supplies are hoisted1 and which also facilitates the landing and embarkation of the keepers1 who are swung through the air in a stirrup attached to the crane rope4 ,then in turn come the living-room1 the 8low-light0 room1 bedroom1 service-room1 and finally the lantern4 ,for the erection of the tower1 #b1aga blocks of granite1 which were previously fitted temporarily in their respective positions on shore1 and none of which weighed less than #b tons1 were used4 ,when the work was commenced1 the engineer estimated that the task would occupy five years1 but on ,may #ah1 #ahhb1 the lamp was lighted by the ,duke of ,edinburgh1 the ,master of ,trinity ,house at the time1 the enterprise having occupied only four years4 ,some idea may thus be obtained of the energy with which the labour was pressed forward1 once the most trying sections were overcome4 ,whereas the former lights on this rock had been of the fixed type1 a distinctive double flash was now introduced4 ,the optical apparatus is of the biform dioptric type1 emitting a beam of some #cjj1jjj candle-power intensity1 which is visible for seventeen miles4 ,in addition to this measure of warning1 two powerful ,argand burners1 with reflectors1 were set up in the low-light room for the purpose of throwing a fixed ray from a point #dj feet below the main flashing beam1 to mark a dangerous reef lying #c miles to the north-west1 known as ,hand ,deeps4 ,when the new tower was completed and brought into service1 the ,smeaton building was demolished4 ,this task was carried out with extreme care1 inasmuch as the citizens of ,plymouth had requested that the historic ,eddystone structure might be re-erected on ,plymouth ,hoe1 on the spot occupied by the existing ,trinity ,house landmark4 ,the authorities agreed to this proposal1 and the ownership of the ,smeaton tower was forthwith transferred to the people of ,plymouth4 ,but demolition was carried out only to the level of ,smeaton's lower storeroom4 ,the staircase1 well and entrance were filled up with masonry1 the top was bevelled off1 and in the centre of the stump an iron pole was planted4 ,while the ,plymouth ,hoe relic is but one half of the tower1 its re-erection was completed faithfully1 and1 moreover1 carries the original candelabra which the famous engineer devised4 ,not only is the ,douglass tower a beautiful example of lighthouse engineering1 but it was relatively cheap4 ,the engineer1 when he prepared the designs1 estimated that an outlay of #gh1jjj1 or #cij1jjj1 would be incurred4 ,as a matter of fact1 the building cost only #ei1bee1 or #bif1bge1 and a saving of #ah1jjj1 or #ij1jjj1 in a work of this magnitude is no mean achievement4 ,all things considered1 the ,eddystone is one of the cheapest sea-rock lights which has ever been consummated4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,some ,,famous ,,lights ,,of ,,england ,the captain of the lordly liner1 as he swings down ,channel or approaches the ,english coast from the broad ,atlantic1 maintains a vigilant watch until the light or the slender proportions of the lonely outpost rising apparently from the ocean's depths off the south-west corner of the ,scilly ,islands1 become visible4 ,this is the ,bishop ,rock1 the western sentinel of the ,english ,channel1 mounting guard over as wicked a stretch of sea as may be found anywhere between the two ,poles1 where the maritime traffic is densest and where wrecks1 unfortunately1 are only too frequent2 for the toll levied by the sea off the ,cornish coast is fearful4 ,among these islands was planted one of the first beacons erected off the ,british coasts4 ,at the outset it was merely a wood bonfire1 then a brazier1 and finally a lighthouse1 which crowned ,st4 ,agnes's height1 to guide the mariner on his way4 ,but to-day the ,st4 ,agnes light is no more than a memory4 ,two or three years ago the keepers quenched the light in the misty grey of the dawn for the last time4 ,the vigil which had been maintained over shipping uninterruptedly through some #bcj years was ended4 ,on a neighbouring point a superior modern light had been planted which took up the sacred duty4 ,although established in #afhj1 the ,st4 ,agnes was not the oldest light in ,england4 ,this distinction belongs to the ,north ,foreland light on the ,east ,kentish coast1 which was set going as far back as #afcf4 ,this warning was shed from a tower of timber1 lath1 and plaster1 built by ,sir ,john ,meldrum1 but it fell a victim to fire forty-seven years later4 ,the light was reconstructed promptly1 and to-day throws a red and white gleam of #ce1jjj candle-power1 which may be picked up twenty miles away4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the 8,,bishop10 ,,the ,,western ,,outpost ,,of ,,england4 ,this tower marks a treacherous reef1 rising from the depths of the ,atlantic off the ,scilly ,islands4 ,its slim proportions are familiar to ,transatlantic passengers4 ,the south-western extremity of ,england1 however1 is far more to be dreaded than the south-eastern4 ,here ,nature mixed land and water in an inextricable maze during her moulding process4 ,deep1 tortuous1 wide channels separate rugged granite islets1 while long1 ugly ridges creep stealthily out to sea beneath the pall of water1 ready to trap the unsuspecting vessel which ventures too closely4 ,if one were to take a map of this part of the country1 were to dig one leg of a compass into the ,lizard ,head1 stretching the other so as to reach the ,eddystone light1 and then were to describe a circle1 the enclosed space would contain more famous sea-rock lights than a similar area on any other part of the globe4 ,within its circumference there would be the ,eddystone1 ,bishop ,rock1 ,wolf1 and ,longships1 each of which lifts its cupola above a wave-swept ledge of rocks4 ,the need for an adequate indication of the ,scillies was felt long before the ,eddystone gained its ill fame4 ,these scattered masses of granite1 numbering about #adj in all1 break up the expanse of the ,atlantic about twenty miles south-west of the ,cornish mainland4 ,now1 the maritime traffic flowing in and out of the ,english ,channel is divided into two broad classes--the coastal and the oversea trade respectively4 ,the former is able to creep through the dangerous channel separating the ,scillies from the mainland1 but the latter has to make a dtour to the south4 ,one fringe of the broken cluster is as dangerous as the other1 so that both streams of trade demand protection4 ,on the south side the knots dot the sea in all directions4 ,they are mere black specks1 many only revealing themselves at lowest tides2 others do not betray their existence even then4 ,the outermost ledge is the ,bishop ,rock1 where disasters have been fearful and numerous4 ,one of the most terrible catastrophes on record happened here1 when three vessels of ,sir ,cloudesley ,shovel's fleet went to pieces in the year #agjg1 and dragged #b1jjj men down with them1 including the ,admiral himself4 ,in more recent times1 some two or three years ago1 the ,atlantic transport liner ,minnehaha dragged her lumbering body over the selfsame attenuated rampart1 and was badly damaged before she could be rescued4 ,as may be supposed1 in days gone by the awful character of the coast brought prosperity to the inhabitants of ,cornwall1 who reaped rich harvests from the inhuman practice of wrecking1 in which horrible work the ,scilly ,islanders were easily pre-eminent and more successful1 since they held the outer lines upon which the majority of ships came to grief4 ,in the forties of last century it was decided that this graveyard should be marked1 but there was one great difficulty4 ,this was the exposure of the low-lying rock to some #d1jjj miles of open ,atlantic1 where the rollers rise and fall with a force that turns the waters for miles around into a seething maelstrom of foam and surf4 ,the aspect presented at this spot during a stiff south-westerly or westerly gale is terrifying in the extreme1 and it is not surprising that approaching vessels stand so far off that the tower is often barely discernible against the background of cloud and banks of mist caused by the spray hurled into the air from the breakers smashing on the rocks4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the ,,wolf ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,one of the famous lights of ,england4 ,owing to the rocks being exposed to the full fury of the ,atlantic1 its erection was attended with prodigious difficulty4 ,when it was proposed to build a lighthouse upon a crag in the heart of this vortex1 many people who knew the neighbourhood shook their heads doubtfully4 ,the ledge was so small1 the force of the elements so powerful1 that it appeared to be tempting ,fate unduly to attempt the erection of a slim stalk of stonework thereon4 ,some records of the wind pressure exerted during the heaviest tempests were taken1 and they showed that the pressure of the wind at times exceeded #g1jjj pounds per square foot4 ,it was decided to provide a structure which should offer the minimum of resistance to the waves4 ,this assumed the form of the iron screw-pile tower so common in ,american waters4 ,the legs were cast-iron tubes sunk into the solid granite1 braced and stayed by means of wrought-iron rods4 ,the engineers maintained that the waves would be able to roll unrestrainedly among the piles1 instead of being obstructed1 so that the skeleton building would escape the heavy buffetings which solid masonry would experience4 ,but engineering science proved woefully frail when pitted against the unharnessed forces of ,nature4 ,a heavy gale sprang up one night2 the waves rose and fell upon the stilts1 broke them up like reeds1 and carried away the whole of the superstructure4 ,the following low-tide revealed only a few short lengths of broken and bent tubes1 around which the waves bubbled and hissed as if in triumph at their victory4 ,thus ended the first attempt to provide the ,bishop ,rock with a lighthouse4 ,the engineer1 though defeated1 was not dismayed4 ,as a skeleton structure was impotent1 he would erect a massive masonry tower which not all the force of the waves could avail to demolish4 ,although the reef is about #aej feet in length by #eb feet in width1 the engineer1 ,james ,walker1 was not afforded much space upon which to place his creation4 ,he reconnoitred the ridge1 and finally chose a small lump just sufficiently large upon which to effect a foothold4 ,the ,smeaton type of tower was his model1 and the surface of the rock was trimmed to receive the first blocks4 ,this was the greatest difficulty4 ,unless the sea were as smooth as a millpond1 he was helpless1 as the lowest blocks had to be laid a foot beneath low-water mark4 ,a heavy cofferdam was erected around the site1 and the water within was pumped out1 so that the masons might be able to toil upon a dry rock-face4 ,the exposed1 isolated character of the spot rendered the housing of the workmen a problem in itself4 ,they could not be accommodated on the site2 a temporary dwelling on piles for their accommodation could not be established1 as it would come down with the first gale1 and housing on a tender was equally impracticable4 ,there was a small uninhabited islet within convenient distance of the reef1 and on this the living-quarters and workshops were erected1 the men being transported to and fro whenever the conditions were suitable4 ,traces of this bygone industrial activity still remain on the island1 but the sea-fowl have once more claimed it exclusively as their home4 ,the working spells were brief1 as well as being somewhat few and far between1 while the base was being prepared4 ,the granite was brought to the island depot1 fashioned into shape1 and then sent to the ,bishop for erection4 ,granite was used exclusively1 and in #ahgh1 after seven years' arduous labour1 the tower1 #abj feet in height1 capped by a powerful light1 was completed3 the dreaded ,bishop ,rock was conquered at last4 ,when it was first commissioned1 four men were deputed to watch this light1 three being on the rock1 and the fourth man on leave at ,st4 ,mary's4 ,the duty was for three months continuous1 one man being relieved every month if possible2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the spell on the rock often was increased1 owing to the weather rendering it impossible to exchange the men4 ,the character of their duty1 under the terrible assaults of the sea1 played havoc with the constitutions and nerves of the lighthouse-keepers4 ,they became taciturn1 and inevitably fell victims to neurasthenia1 owing to their long periods of isolation4 ,accordingly the authorities gradually relaxed the spell of duty1 until now it comprises a month on the rock1 followed by a fortnight ashore1 while six men1 instead of four1 are appointed to the station4 ,the ,bishop light demands watchers of iron constitution and prolonged experience of the rigours of imprisonment upon a lonely rock4 ,the men appear to suffer most from the fear that one day the seas will regain the upper hand and carry the slender-looking shaft of masonry away4 ,when the ,atlantic is roused to fury1 the din created by the waves smashing against the tower and reef is so deafening that the keepers can only converse by signs4 ,the attacks which this tower has to withstand are fearful4 ,when the equinoxes are raging1 it is no uncommon circumstance for the waves to roll up the side of the tower and hurl themselves clean over the lantern4 ,the enormous force of the water was brought home very startlingly to the attendants of the light one night1 when a more than usually wicked breaker slid up the curved round face and wrenched the fog-bell1 weighing #eej pounds1 from its fastenings on the lantern gallery4 ,the ponderous piece of metal was dashed on to the reef and smashed to fragments4 ,a small piece was recovered after the gale1 and is now preserved in the ,trinity ,house museum as an interesting memento of the night when the ,atlantic almost got the upper hand4 ,the nerves of the men are tried severely1 also1 by memories of the terrible marine disasters which have happened on or near the ridge1 such as that of the ,german packet ,schiller1 which went down in #ahge with the loss of #cca lives4 ,it is not surprising that the ceaseless attacks of the waves should have left their traces at last4 ,the light had been burning for about twenty years1 when tremors and quakings1 similar to those observed in connection with ,smeaton's ,eddystone tower1 were reported to the authorities4 ,sir ,james ,douglass visited the rock1 and made a minute inspection4 ,it was apparent that the lighthouse demanded extensive overhauling and strengthening if it were to be preserved4 ,in fact1 this was the only feasible course of action1 as there was not another suitable spot whereon a new structure could be raised4 ,the ,eddystone had been completed1 and as the same tackle was available1 the protective work was undertaken at once4 ,in conjunction with this enterprise1 the engineer also advocated an increase in the height of the tower4 ,his plans met with approval1 and an ingenious means of strengthening the existing building was evolved4 ,virtually it comprised the erection of a new tower around the old shaft1 and connected to the latter1 so as to form one homogeneous structure4 ,in order to strengthen the foundations1 massive blocks of masonry were sunk into the rock1 cemented1 and held in position by heavy bolts4 ,from the masons' point of view1 the task of overhauling was more exciting and dangerous than that which had attended the erection of the original tower2 for the men had to toil on narrow1 swinging platforms1 cutting notches in the face of every stone in the existing structure to receive dovetails on the blocks of the new outer shell4 ,thus the latter were dovetailed to adjacent blocks on five out of their six faces4 ,a massive chain was slung round the upper part of the tower1 from which life-lines hung down to the men working below4 ,a man was stationed as a lookout4 ,when he saw a breaker approaching he gave a signal2 each man clutched his life-rope tenaciously and retained his foothold as best he could on his perilous perch while the water swept over him4 ,often the men were submerged by a rushing wave1 and when the water subsided shook themselves like dogs emerging from the water4 ,but the provision of the life-ropes prevented serious injury and loss of life1 although the masons at times were considerably knocked about4 ,the tower has been given an enormous1 massive1 cylindrical base1 while the shaft is solid to the entrance level1 except for the usual water-tanks4 ,the attachment of the outer shell reinforced it remarkably1 the walls at the entrance being increased to a thickness of #h feet4 ,the addition of the four extra floors elevated the light by a further #dj feet1 the focal plane now being #afc feet above high-water4 ,the light1 of #fbb1ejj candle-power1 visible for eighteen miles1 is a white group-flash1 there being two flashes1 each of four seconds' duration1 with an intervening eclipse of five seconds1 while the groups are separated by intervals of forty-seven seconds4 ,off the northern shores of the ,scillies1 standing in the strait which provides a short-cut around the toe of ,england1 is another magnificent tower4 ,this is the ,wolf ,rock lighthouse1 marking the reef of that name1 which lies eight miles off ,land's ,end in the fairway of the coastal traffic4 ,the cluster of rocks from which it rises is just as dangerous as that to the south1 and is exposed likewise to the full fury of the south-westerly gales coming in from the ,atlantic4 ,it was one of the most attractive spots to the old ,cornish wreckers1 for ships which lost their way during the fogs which hang about this coast invariably blundered into the reef1 to be smashed to pieces within a very short time4 ,this spot was not so greatly feared by the seafarer when heavy gales prevailed4 ,there was a hollow rock on the ridge1 into which the waves were driven4 ,in so doing they compressed the air within the space1 which1 as it escaped1 produced a long1 distinctive wail1 recalling the cry of the wolf4 ,it was this natural phenomenon which gave the rock its name4 ,the harder the wind blew1 and the higher the waves rose1 the louder was the reverberating bellow1 and1 as it could be heard distinctly above the music of the storm1 the navigator was able to steer clear of the formidable obstruction4 ,on the other hand1 during periods of heavy fog1 when the waves were usually quiet1 there was scarcely any perceptible sound4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the ,,longships ,,light4 ,in the background is the forbidding iron-bound ,cornish coast1 where wrecks unfortunately are frequent4 ,the ,wolf ,rock would be growling to this day had it not been for the inhuman action of the ,cornish plunderers4 ,they detested the weird noise as cordially as the mariner blessed it4 ,it robbed them of so many rich hauls that at last they decided to silence the rock for ever4 ,they filled the cavity with large boulders1 which were carried out in boats from the mainland and dumped overboard4 ,then the ,cornishmen met with a spell of enhanced prosperity from the increased number of wrecks which occurred4 ,when the exigencies of commerce demanded that the reef should be guarded1 a most fantastic device was prepared4 ,an attempt was made to restore artificially the natural siren4 ,a fabric wrought in copper in the form of a huge wolf with distended jaws was contrived1 the designers averring that the air would rush in and produce a distinctive whistle4 ,this grotesque danger-signal never reached its destination4 ,it would have been absolutely useless even had it been placed over the rock1 as the first lively sea would have carried it away1 while the noise produced1 if any1 would have been inaudible more than a few feet away4 ,the ,trinity ,brethren at last took the matter up1 but their investigations caused them to doubt the possibility of building a lighthouse on such a forbidding spot4 ,they did the next best thing4 ,they drove a thick oak joist into the rock1 and attached a coloured sphere to its upper extremity4 ,this constituted a valuable landmark by day1 but was useless at night4 ,but its life was brief4 ,the first storm which swept the reef after the erection of the beacon tore it up by the roots4 ,it was replaced by a heavy mast of wrought-iron1 which suffered a similar fate1 as did also a third iron pole #i inches in diameter4 ,at last a low conical stump was built upon the ridge1 with the staff and sphere projecting from its centre4 ,this defied wind and wave successfully for many years4 ,its permanency impressed the builders of the ,bishop ,rock light1 who came to the conclusion that1 as the small conical tower held hard and fast1 a masonry tower could be given just as firm a hold4 ,when the engineer approached the reef to make his surveys1 he found the water boiling and bubbling madly1 and it was some time before he could get a foothold4 ,he completed his examination1 and then found1 to his dismay1 that the boat could not approach to take him off4 ,he could not stay where he was1 as the tide1 which was rising1 would engulf the reef within a short time1 so he resorted to a bold expedient4 ,he had taken the precaution to bring a life-line with him1 so that he was in touch with the boat4 ,he looped this round his waist securely1 and then1 telling the men to pull as hard as they could1 he plunged into the water4 ,in this manner he was dragged through the furious surf and pulled into the boat1 thoroughly drenched1 but otherwise none the worse for his adventure4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the ,,godrevy ,,light1 ,,scilly ,,islands4 ,it marks a forbidding clump of rocks1 landing on which is always exciting4 ,the work was begun in #ahfb1 when the masons were despatched to the rock to prepare the face for the reception of the bottom masonry blocks4 ,the tedious and exceptionally dangerous character of the work was emphasized very forcibly upon those engaged in the task4 ,it was seldom that the water was sufficiently placid to enable a landing to be made4 ,then1 as the working spell was very brief1 being restricted to low-tide1 the men could pause only for a few minutes at a time1 and even during these were menaced by the breakers4 ,during the first working season only eighty-three hours of labour were possible--a fact which conveys a graphic idea of the exposed character of the site1 its difficulty of access1 and the short time available for work between the tides4 ,while excavations were under way1 the preparation of a landing-stage was taken in hand4 ,as only small blocks of stone could be used1 naturally it occupied a considerable time4 ,it was1 however1 essential1 in order to permit the erection of a derrick by which the heavy blocks for the tower could be lifted from the construction boat to the rock4 ,on the rock-face itself the masons toiled strenuously1 chipping1 scraping1 and paring away all the faulty pieces of gneiss1 so that a firm1 solid foundation was secured1 into which the bottom course of stones was dovetailed and anchored4 ,owing to the frequency with which the rock was swept by the seas1 special precautions had to be adopted to insure the safety of the workmen4 ,iron dogs were driven into the rock at frequent points1 to which ropes were fastened and allowed to trail across the rock1 each mason being urged to keep one of these life-lines always within arm's length4 ,as an additional precaution he was compelled to wear a lifebelt1 which1 although it hampered free movement somewhat1 yet gave the wearer1 if he lost his foothold or were thrown into the water1 a chance of keeping afloat until the lifeboat standing by was able to reach him4 ,a ,cornish fisherman1 who was familiar with the seas on this part of the coast1 and who could judge a breaking wave from a distance1 acted as a lookout4 ,when he saw a comber about to creep over the rock1 he gave a signal1 when the workmen clutched their life-lines1 and1 with feet firmly planted and the ropes drawn taut1 or throwing themselves prostrate1 with heads pointed to the advancing wave1 allowed the breaker to roll over them and expend its violence harmlessly4 ,time after time the masons were buried beneath huge tumbling hills of water4 ,work under such conditions was decidedly irksome1 and progress was very appreciably retarded1 but the safety of the workmen was1 of course1 the pre-eminent consideration4 ,curiously enough1 these men who face the perils1 privations1 and exciting incessant dangers1 incidental to lighthouse building1 are extremely superstitious4 ,if an undertaking such as the ,wolf were attended by a disaster and loss of life in its initial stages1 the completion of the task might be seriously jeopardized4 ,the rock would be regarded as a 8hoo-doo10 and would be shunned like a fever-stricken city4 ,therefore the engineer will go to any lengths to secure1 so far as is humanly possible1 the preservation of the lives and limbs of those in his employ4 ,this is the chief reason why the erection of these wonderful towers has been attended by so few accidents or fatalities1 while the men fitted for the task are so few that the engineer cannot afford to disturb their peace of mind4 ,the ,wolf tower follows the generally accepted lines1 and is solid at the base4 ,it is wrought throughout of granite1 the stones being joggled together4 ,one ingenious measure was adopted in connection with the lower courses in order to prevent the action of the waves from breaking up the cement in the exposed joints and setting up disintegration4 ,the upper surface of each stone is given a wide rabbet1 and the stone above fits into the recess so that the horizontal joint between the two is covered by the outer fillet1 thereby protecting it completely4 ,this practice was followed throughout all the lower courses to a height of #ci feet1 and the security thus obtained is reflected by the strength of the tower to-day after half a century's wear4 ,work proceeded so slowly in the early stages1 owing to the abnormal conditions1 that by the end of #ahfd only thirty-seven stones in the second course of masonry were laid4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the landing-stage had been practically completed1 and the erection of the crane enabled the blocks for the tower to be transferred to the rock with greater ease and rapidity4 ,the tower1 #ace feet in height1 was completed on ,july #ai1 #ahfi1 while the light was brought into service early in the following year4 ,eight years were expended upon the enterprise1 and during this period #bif landings were effected upon the rock and #a1had hours of labour were consummated4 ,this is equal to about #aja working days of ten hours each1 or1 on the average1 less than one hour every day of the years occupied in the undertaking4 ,the lantern throws a powerful white light1 which in clear weather may be seen from twenty to twenty-five miles away4 ,the cost of the enterprise was #fb1gbf1 or #cac1fcj--nearly twice that of the first ,bishop ,rock light4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson4 ,,the ,,chicken ,,rock ,,lighthouse1 ,,off ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,man4 ,it marks a dangerous reef4 ,the revolving light of #adc1jjj candle-power is visible for sixteen miles4 ,although the lantern is #adc feet above the water1 the waves frequently engulf it4 ,another gaunt structure rears itself from a reef a few miles to the north-west of the ,wolf1 and a short distance off the ,land's ,end4 ,this is the ,longships light4 ,the name itself suggests a light-vessel1 and a stranger is surprised to learn that it is an imposing building1 worthy of comparison with the two other structures already described which guard the ,scillies4 ,although it is within a short distance of the mainland1 its exposed situation rendered its construction as exasperatingly difficult as that of both the ,bishop and ,wolf lights4 ,a few miles farther north another powerful light indicates the 8,kingdom of ,heaven10 as the black hump of ,lundy ,island1 rising out of the ,bristol ,channel1 is colloquially called1 from the name of its clerical owner4 ,on the opposite side and due north of this bight1 the ,pembrokeshire coast breaks off abruptly at ,st4 ,david's ,head1 only to reappear out at sea in some twenty little rugged islets known as ,the ,smalls4 ,they occur some twenty-one miles off the mainland1 and for years they played havoc with the shipping plying between ,north of ,england ports and the ,bristol ,channel4 ,these rocks--for they are little else--were the private property of a ,liverpool gentleman1 who became so distracted by the frequency of disaster that1 in #aggc1 he decided to crown them with a beacon4 ,he selected a musical instrument manufacturer named ,whiteside as his engineer1 and this amateur mechanic1 after an inspection1 decided to place the warning light on a tiny crag which projected about #e feet above high-water4 ,it is somewhat strange that the adequate safeguarding of two devastating parts of the south-western coast of ,england should have been placed in the hands of men who were not professional engineers4 ,rudyerd1 the silk-mercer1 was responsible for the second ,eddystone1 and here was an instrument-maker taking over one of the most difficult enterprises it was possible to find4 ,yet both these amateur engineers inscribed their names ineffaceably upon two of the most evil spots around the coasts of the ,british ,islands4 ,rudyerd gave us the true conical design1 which has never been superseded for strength and stability2 while ,whiteside evolved a skeleton tower which braved the most tempestuous seas for some eighty years4 ,in the first instance the latter carried out his work in iron1 thinking that metal would prove irresistible1 but within a short time he replaced it with heavy legs of oak4 ,the frail-looking structure was submitted to storms of almost seismic violence1 but it withstood them all for over half a century1 when a peculiarly vicious wave1 as it rolled between the supports1 suddenly flew upwards1 driving the floor of the keepers' quarters into the roof4 ,it was an exceptional accident1 which no engineer could have foreseen4 ,when the ,trinity ,house ,brethren took over the light1 their chief engineer1 ,mr4 ,james ,walker1 looked upon the erection as such a fine piece of work that the damage was repaired1 and the ,whiteside light gleamed for a further twenty years before it gave place to the present graceful stone building4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,how ,,the ,,skerryvore ,,is ,,built4 ,in the centre1 a vertical section4 ,at sides1 transverse sections at different masonry courses1 showing method of laying the stones4 ,it was a grim episode at this light which brought about the practice of appointing three men at least to a sea light-station4 ,when first completed1 ,the ,smalls was provided with only two keepers1 and on one occasion one of the two died4 ,his companion refrained from committing the body to the sea1 lest he might be suspected of foul-play1 so he constructed a rough shell1 in which he placed the body of his dead chum1 and stood the grisly burden on end beside his flag of distress on the gallery outside the lantern4 ,as the spell of duty in those days was four months1 it was some time before the relief came out4 ,then they discovered a shattered human wreck tending the lights1 who had never neglected his duty under the onerous and weird conditions1 but who nevertheless had become broken down and aged under the terrible ordeal4 ,after this experience three men instead of two were placed on duty at all such exposed and inaccessible lights4 ,it may be recalled that ,alphonse ,daudet tells a similar creepy story which was related to him by a light-keeper on the rugged ,corsican coast1 and which he narrates in the 8,phares des ,sanguinaires40 ,a similar experience is also associated with ,rudyerd's ,eddystone light4 ,off the ,north ,welsh coast there are the famous lights of the ,south ,stack and the ,skerries1 the latter rising out of the water on a dangerous cluster of rocks off ,carmel ,head4 ,the ,isle of ,man also possesses a magnificent specimen of lighthouse engineering in the ,chicken ,rock light1 the work of the brothers ,stevenson1 which1 although in the ,irish ,sea1 comes within the jurisdiction of the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lights4 ,this tower stands on a reef which is submerged by #f feet of water even at high neap-tides4 ,when a gale is raging and the spring-tides are at their highest1 the waves frequently engulf the lantern1 although it is perched #adc feet above the water4 ,the light is of #adc1jjj candle-power1 of the revolving type1 and visible for sixteen miles in clear weather4 ,entering the ,english ,channel from the ,scillies1 the voyager observes the powerful ,lizard light gleaming like two brilliant white stars from a prominent elevated point on the cliff4 ,formerly three lights were shown1 but two were found to meet the necessities of the situation adequately4 ,the steamship lane lies across the chord of the arc formed by the coastline between the ,lizard and ,start ,point1 leaving the ,eddystone to the north4 ,the next important light is the ,needles1 at the entrance to the ,solent4 ,a few miles farther on the brilliant spoke-light flashes of ,st4 ,catherine's1 described in another chapter1 compel attention4 ,no other light after this is seen until ,beachy ,head is approached4 ,another dreary stretch brings the vessel abeam the nose of ,kentish coast known as ,dungeness1 a particularly notorious danger spot4 ,here there is a continual struggle between the engineers and the sea4 ,while the waves gnaw into the coastline at other neighbouring places1 here they surrender their capture1 so that the headland is persistently creeping farther and farther out to sea4 ,it is lighted1 and has been guarded for years1 but the tower is left at a constantly increasing distance from the water's edge4 ,the light has been moved once or twice1 so as to fulfil its purpose to the best advantage1 but the engineer will be kept on the alert until the currents change their courses and refrain from piling up further drift at this point4 ,this light1 coming as it does at the entrance to the bottle-neck of the ,english ,channel1 is of prime importance to navigation1 because vessels1 after they have rounded the ,south ,foreland1 make a bee-line for this headland4 ,since the eastern coast of ,england is flanked by sandbanks and shoals1 the lighthouse is not in powerful evidence1 the aids to navigation consisting chiefly of light-vessels1 which are distributed liberally so as to patrol completely a treacherous stretch of shoals4 ,northwards the sandy1 low-lying wastes give way to towering cliffs1 amongst which ,flamborough ,head and its light are conspicuous4 ,at the far northern limit of the operations of ,trinity ,house comes the ,longstones1 mounting guard over the terrible ,farne ,islands and their rocky outposts4 ,who has not heard of the heroism of ,grace ,darling1 the light-keeper's daughter1 and the thrilling rescue1 in the teeth of a hurricane1 of the exhausted survivors of the ,forfarshire8 ,complaints have been made often regarding the paucity of powerful lights around the coast of ,england1 but the criticism scarcely is deserved4 ,all the prominent and most dangerous spots are lighted adequately1 and1 as may be recognized1 the provision of these lights has proved an exacting and costly enterprise4 ,what ,england may lack in numbers in this particular field of engineering is compensated for by the daring nature of the works completed1 which are regarded throughout the world as marvellous achievements4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,bell ,,rock ,,and ,,skerryvore ,,lights ,at first sight it seems somewhat remarkable--some might feel disposed to challenge the assertion--that so small a country as ,scotland should stand pre-eminent among the nations of the world as being that possessed of the greatest number of imposing sea-rock lights4 ,but such is the case4 ,moreover1 ,north ,britain offers some of the finest and most impressive specimens of the lighthouse builder's resource and skill to be found in any part of the globe4 ,when the responsibility for lighting the ,scottish coasts was handed over to the ,commissioners for ,northern ,lighthouses1 one of their first tasks was the adequate illumination of the wave-swept ,inchcape or ,bell ,rock1 which lies some twelve miles off the ,scottish mainland in the busy portal of the ,firth of ,tay4 ,at that time this sinister menace to navigation was not marked in any way whatever1 and apparently had remained in this unprotected condition ever since the notorious pirate1 ,ralph the ,rover1 cut away the buoy-bell which had been placed upon it by the ,abbot of ,aberbrothock1 as narrated in ,southey's famous ballad4 ,the rock1 or rather reef--inasmuch as it measures #b1jjj feet from end to end1 and lies athwart the fairway--is submerged completely to a depth of #af feet at high spring-tides1 while at lowest water only some #d feet of its crest are laid bare here and there4 ,this is not all4 ,the ledge is the summit of a dangerous1 slowly-rising submarine hillock1 where1 for a distance of about #ajj yards on either side1 the lead sounds only #c fathoms4 ,wrecks were so numerous and terrible at this spot that the protection of the seafaring community became imperative1 and the newly-appointed guardians of the ,scottish coast lost no time in justifying the trust reposed in them1 but erected a first-class light4 ,the ,eddystone had been conquered1 and1 although the conditions were dissimilar and the enterprise bolder1 no tangible reason against its imitation was advanced4 ,the engineer ,john ,rennie was entrusted with the work1 while ,robert ,stevenson was appointed as his assistant4 ,the rock was surveyed1 and a tower similar in its broad lines to that evolved by ,smeaton for the ,eddystone was elaborated1 and the authority for its construction given in the year #ahjf4 ,work upon the rock in the earliest stages was confined to the calmest days of the summer season1 when the tides were lowest1 the water was smoothest1 and the wind in its calmest mood4 ,under such conditions the men were able to stay on the site for about five hours4 ,the engineer hoped against hope that the elements would be kind to him1 and that he would be able to complete the preliminary work upon the rock in one season4 ,the constructional plans were prepared carefully1 so that advantage might be taken of every promising opportunity4 ,one distinct drawback was the necessity to establish a depot some distance from the erecting site4 ,those were the days before steam navigation1 and the capricious sailing craft offered the only means of maintaining communication between rock and shore1 and for the conveyance of men and material to and fro4 ,the year #ahjg was devoted to the construction of vessels for the work1 and to the establishment of workshops with machinery and other facilities at ,arbroath1 the nearest suitable point on the mainland to the rock4 ,a temporary beacon was placed on the reef1 while adjacent to the site selected for the tower a smith's forge was made fast1 so as to withstand the dragging motion of the waves when the rock was submerged4 ,the men were housed on the ,smeaton1 which during the spells of work on the rock rode at anchor a short distance away in deep water4 ,the arrangements stipulated that three boats1 which were employed to bring the men from the vessel to the rock1 should always be moored at the landing-place1 so that1 in the event of the weather changing for the worse1 the masons1 forced to cease work suddenly1 might regain the ,smeaton safely in one trip1 the three boats being able to convey thirty men1 which constituted the average complement on the rock4 ,while the preparations were proceeding ashore1 a little body of workers toiled1 whenever possible1 at clearing the face of the rock and carrying out the requisite excavation work4 ,while this was in progress a disaster was averted very narrowly1 which would have jeopardized the completion of the tower1 owing to the superstitious natures of the men engaged4 ,on ,september #b1 #ahjg1 the ,smeaton1 as usual1 had brought out some thirty masons1 had landed them safely on the rock1 and was riding at anchor4 ,suddenly the wind freshened1 and the engineer on the rock grew apprehensive of the ,smeaton dragging her cables4 ,a party at once put off from the rock in one of the three boats and regained the ship1 but were scarcely aboard when the cables parted1 and the vessel1 caught by the wind and tide1 made off4 ,before the men regained control of her she had drifted some three miles to leeward4 ,meantime on the rock the situation was growing serious4 ,only ,mr4 ,stevenson1 who was supervising operations on the spot1 and the landing-master were aware of its gravity4 ,the masons were so busy hewing1 boring and chiselling1 that they had not noticed the ,smeaton's drift4 ,but the engineer1 observing the flowing of the tide1 realized that the rock must be submerged before the ship could be brought up again4 ,he racked his brains to find some means of getting his gang of men off safely in the nick of time1 but it was a searching problem to solve with only two boats1 which1 at the utmost1 could carry twenty-four persons4 ,to make matters worse1 one of those mists which are so peculiar to the ,scottish coast began to settle down1 blotting everything from sight4 ,the water rose higher4 ,the men toiling on the lowest levels receded higher and higher before the advancing tide1 though still too deeply occupied in their labours to bestow a thought upon the ,smeaton4 ,at last the smith's forge was quenched1 and this was the general signal to the men to prepare to leave the rock4 ,tools were collected1 and the party strode towards the landing-stage to enter the boats4 ,conceive their consternation when they saw that one boat was missing6 ,when they glanced over the water the ,smeaton was not riding in her usual place--in fact1 was nowhere to be seen6 ,one and all gathered around the engineer to learn the reason for this remarkable breach in the arrangements for their safety1 and yet all were too dumbfounded to question or protest4 ,as for the luckless engineer1 he was at his wits' end and could not offer a word of explanation to the inquiring looks that besieged him4 ,one and all1 as the water lapped their feet1 realized the hopelessness of the position4 ,suddenly1 when they were beginning to despair1 one of the men described the phantom form of a vessel making for the rock4 8,a boat60 he shouted in exultation4 ,sure enough the shadow matured into the familiar form of the ,tay pilot-boat1 the master of which1 observing the workmen on the rock1 the rising tide1 and the absence of the ,smeaton1 had realized that something must have gone wrong1 and approached the rock to make inquiries4 ,he came up at the critical moment4 ,the men were drenched1 and1 their feelings having been strung to a high pitch with anxiety1 they nearly collapsed at the arrival of this unexpected assistance4 ,the pilot-boat1 after taking off the men1 awaited the return of the ,smeaton1 which took them on board about midnight4 ,this narrow escape so terrified the men that on the following day the engineer found only eight of his staff of thirty-two1 who were willing to venture upon the rock again4 ,when this gang returned in the evening1 their safety appeared to restore courage to their companions1 so that next day all expressed their readiness to resume their tasks4 ,the fitful character of the work did not leave its mark so distinctly as might be supposed4 ,whenever there was a chance1 the men worked with an amazing will and zeal2 and although the first stone of the tower was not laid until ,july #aj1 #ahjh1 three courses of masonry were completed when the undertaking was suspended at the end of ,november for the winter4 ,the succeeding season's toil saw the addition of about #bg feet more of the tower1 which was finally completed by the close of #ahaj4 ,the building was #abj feet in height1 and the light was shown for the first time on ,february #a1 #ahaa4 ,in view of the difficulties which had to be surmounted1 this 8ruddy gem of changeful light10 as it is described by ,sir ,walter ,scott1 was not particularly costly4 ,by the time it was brought into commission1 #fa1ccj1 or #cjf1fej1 had been expended4 ,in #aijb1 after nearly a century's service1 the tower was provided with a new light-room1 so as to bring it into conformity with modern practice4 ,while the ,bell ,rock tower stands as a monument to the engineering ability of ,robert ,stevenson1 the ,skerryvore1 on the western coast1 is a striking tribute to the genius of his son1 ,alan4 ,for forty years or more previous to #ahdd one ship at least had been caught and shattered every year on this tumbled mass of gneiss4 ,from the navigator's point of view1 the danger of this spot lay chiefly in the fact that it was so widely scattered4 ,the ridge runs like a broken backbone for a distance of some eight miles in a west-south-westerly direction1 and it is flanked on each side by isolated rocks which jut from a badly-broken sea-bed4 ,the whole mass lies some distance out to sea1 being ten miles south-west of ,tyree and twenty-four miles west of ,iona4 ,in rough weather the whole of the rocks are covered1 and the waves1 beating heavily on the mass1 convert the scene into one of indescribable tumult4 ,the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lights acknowledged the urgent need of a light upon this ridge1 but it was realized that its erection would represent the most daring feat of lighthouse engineering that had been attempted up to this time4 ,there was only one point where a tower could be placed1 and this was so exposed that the safe handling of the men and materials constituted a grave responsibility4 ,the rock has to withstand the full impetus of the ,atlantic waves1 gathered in their #c1jjj miles' roll1 and investigations revealed the fact that they bear down upon the ,skerryvore with a force equal to some #c tons per square foot4 ,it was apparent that any masonry tower must be of prodigious strength to resist such a battering1 while at the same time a lofty stack was imperative1 because the light not only would have to mount guard over the rock upon which it stood1 but also over a vast stretch of dangerous water on either side4 ,after he had completed the ,bell ,rock light1 ,robert ,stevenson attacked the problem of the ,skerryvore4 ,in order to realize the magnitude of the undertaking1 some of the ,commissioners accompanied the engineer1 but the experience of pulling out into the open ,atlantic on a day when it was slightly ruffled somewhat shook their determination to investigate the reef from close quarters4 ,sir ,walter ,scott was a member of the party1 and he has described the journey very graphically4 ,before they had gone far the ,commissioners on board expressed their willingness to leave the matter entirely in the hands of their engineer4 ,with grim ,scottish humour1 however1 ,robert ,stevenson insisted that the rock should be gained1 so that the ,commissioners might be able to grasp the problem at first hand4 ,but after all nothing was done4 ,the difficulties surrounding the work were only too apparent to the officials4 ,they agreed that the expense must be prodigious and that the risks to the workmen would be grave4 ,in #ahcd a second expedition was despatched to the reef under ,alan ,stevenson1 who had accompanied his father on the previous occasion1 and who now occupied the engineering chair4 ,he surveyed the reef thoroughly1 traversing the dangerous channels around the isolated humps1 of which no less than #acj were counted1 at great risk to himself and his companions4 ,however1 he achieved his object4 ,he discovered the best site for the tower and returned home to prepare his plans4 ,his proposals1 for those days1 certainly were startling4 ,he decided to follow generally the principles of design1 which had been laid down by his father in regard to the ,bell ,rock4 ,but he planned something bigger and more daring4 ,he maintained that a tower #acj feet high1 with a base diameter of #db feet1 tapering in a curve to #af feet at the top1 was absolutely necessary4 ,it was the loftiest and weightiest work of its character that had ever been contemplated up to this time1 while the peculiar situation of the reef demanded pioneering work in all directions4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,skerryvore1 ,,scotland',s ,,most ,,famous ,,lighthouse4 ,the erection of this tower upon a straggling low-lying reef #bd miles off ,iona1 and exposed to the full fury of the ,atlantic1 ranks as one of the world's engineering wonders4 ,the confidence of the ,commissioners in the ability of their engineer was so complete that he received the official sanction to begin1 and in #ahch the undertaking was commenced4 ,the engineer immediately formulated his plans of campaign for a stiff struggle with ,nature4 ,one of the greatest difficulties was the necessity to transport men1 supplies and material over a long distance1 as the ,scottish coast in this vicinity is wild and sparsely populated4 ,he established his base on the neighbouring island of ,tyree1 where barracks for the workmen1 and yards for the preparation of the material1 were erected1 while another colony was established on the ,isle of ,mull for the quarrying of the granite4 ,a tiny pier or jetty had to be built at this point to facilitate the shipment of the stone1 and at ,tyree a small harbour had to be completed to receive the vessel which was built specially for transportation purposes between the base and the rock4 ,another preliminary was the provision of accommodation for the masons upon the reef4 ,the ,atlantic swell1 which rendered landing on the ridge precarious and hazardous1 did not permit the men to be housed upon a floating home1 as had been the practice in the early days of the ,bell ,rock tower4 ,in order to permit the work to go forward as uninterruptedly as the sea would permit1 a peculiar barrack was erected4 ,it was a house on stilts1 the legs being sunk firmly into the rock1 with the living-quarters perched some #dj feet up in the air4 ,the skeleton type of structure was selected because it did not impede the natural movement of the waves4 ,it was an ingenious idea1 and fulfilled the purpose of its designer admirably1 while the men became accustomed to their strange home after a time4 ,for two years it withstood the seas without incident1 and the engineer and men came to regard the eyrie as safe as a house on shore4 ,but one night the little colony received a shock4 ,the angry ,atlantic got one or two of its trip-hammer blows well home1 and smashed the structure to fragments4 ,fortunately1 at the time it was untenanted4 ,the workmen1 who were on shore waiting to go out to the rock to resume their toil1 were downcast at this unexpected disaster1 but the engineer was not at all ruffled4 ,he promptly sent to ,glasgow for further material1 and lost no time in rebuilding the quaint barrack upon new and stronger lines4 ,this erection defied the waves successfully until its demolition after the ,skerryvore was finished4 ,residence in this tower was eerie4 ,the men climbed the ladder and entered a small room1 which served the purposes of kitchen1 dining-room1 and parlour4 ,it was barely #ab feet across--quarters somewhat cramped for thirty men4 ,when a storm was raging1 the waves1 as they combed over the rock1 shook the legs violently and scurried under the floor in seething foam4 ,now and again a roller1 rising higher than its fellows1 broke upon the rock and sent a mass of water against the flooring to hammer at the door4 ,above the living-room were the sleeping-quarters1 high and dry1 save when a shower of spray fell upon the roof and walls like heavy hail1 and occasionally percolated the joints of the woodwork4 ,the men1 however1 were not perturbed4 ,sleeping1 even under such conditions1 was far preferable to doubtful rest in a bunk upon an attendant vessel1 rolling and pitching with the motion of the sea4 ,they had had a surfeit of such experience during the first season's work1 while the barrack was under erection4 ,illustration3 ,,barra ,,head ,,lighthouse1 ,,scotland4 ,the tower is #fj feet in height1 but owing to its position on the cliffs1 the white occulting light is #fhc feet above high water1 and is visible #cc miles4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,keepers ,,of ,,the ,,skerryvore ,,and ,,dhu-,,heartach ,,lights4 ,on the ,island of ,tiree1 ,argyllshire1 #aj miles away4 ,yet the men could not grumble4 ,the engineer responsible for the work shared their privations and discomforts1 for ,alan ,stevenson clung to the rock night and day while work was in progress1 and he has given a very vivid impression of life in this quaint home on legs4 ,he relates how he 8spent many a weary day and night--at those times when the sea prevented anyone going down to the rock--anxiously looking for supplies from the shore1 and earnestly looking for a change of weather favourable for prosecuting the works4 ,for miles around nothing could be seen but white foaming breakers1 and nothing heard but howling winds and lashing waves4 ,at such seasons much of our time was spent in bed1 for there alone we had effectual shelter from the winds and spray1 which searched every cranny in the walls of the barrack4 ,our slumbers1 too1 were at times fearfully interrupted by the sudden pouring of the sea over the roof1 the rocking of the house on its pillars1 and the spurting of water through the seams of the doors and windows--symptoms which1 to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep1 recalled the appalling fate of the former barrack1 which had been engulfed in the foam not #bj yards from our dwelling1 and for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar fate40 ,the work upon the rock was tedious and exasperating in the extreme4 ,the gneiss was of maddening hardness and obstinacy--8four times as tough as ,aberdeen granite0 was the general opinion4 ,the ,atlantic1 pounding the rock continuously through the centuries1 had faced it smoother than could any mason with his tools1 yet had not left it sufficiently sound to receive the foundations4 ,in the external layer1 which the masons laboured strenuously to remove with their puny tools1 there were cracks and crevices here and there4 ,the stubborn rock played havoc with the finest chisels and drills1 and clearing had to be effected for the most part by the aid of gunpowder4 ,this powerful agent1 however1 could only be used sparingly and with extreme skill1 so that the rock-face might not be shivered or shattered too severely4 ,moreover1 the men ran extreme risks1 for the rock splintered like glass1 and the flying chips were capable of doing as much damage1 when thus impelled1 as a bullet4 ,while the foundations were being prepared1 and until the barrack was constructed1 the men ran other terrible risks every morning and night in landing upon and leaving the polished surface of the reef4 ,five months during the summer was the working season1 but even then many days and weeks were often lost owing to the swell being too great to permit the rowing-boat to come alongside4 ,the engineer relates that the work was 8a good lesson in the school of patience10 because the delays were frequent and galling1 while every storm which got up and expended its rage upon the reef left its mark indelibly among the engineer's stock-in-trade4 ,cranes and other material were swept away as if they were corks2 lashings1 no matter how strong1 were snapped like pack-threads4 ,time after time the tender lying alongside had to weigh anchor hurriedly1 and make a spirited run to its haven at ,tyree4 ,when the barrack was erected1 the situation was eased somewhat1 but then the hours became long4 ,operations being confined to the summer months1 the average working day was from four in the morning until nine in the evening--seventeen hours--with intervals for meals2 but the men were not averse to the prolonged daily toil1 inasmuch as cessation brought no welcome relaxations1 but rather encouraged broodings over their isolated position1 whereas occupation served to keep the mind engaged4 ,twice the men had severe frights during the night4 ,on each occasion a violent storm sprang up after they had gone to bed1 and one or two ugly breakers1 getting their blows home1 shook the eyrie with the force of an earthquake4 ,every man leaped out of his bunk1 and one or two of the more timid1 in their fright1 hurried down the ladder and spent the remaining spell of darkness shivering and quaking on the completed trunk of the lighthouse1 deeming it to be safer than the crazy-looking structure which served as their home4 ,two years were occupied upon the foundations1 the first stone being laid by the ,duke of ,argyll on ,july #g1 #ahdj4 ,this eminent personage evinced a deep interest in the work and the difficulties which had to be overcome1 and as proprietor of the island of ,tyree extended to the ,commissioners free permission to quarry any granite they required from any part of his estate4 ,for a height of some #ba feet from the foundation level the tower is a solid trunk of masonry4 ,then come the entrance and water-tanks1 followed by nine floors1 comprising successively coal-store1 workshop1 storeroom1 kitchen1 two bedrooms1 library1 oil-store1 and light-room1 the whole occupying a height of #acj feet1 crowned by the lantern4 ,as a specimen of lighthouse engineering1 the ,skerryvore has become famous throughout the world4 ,the stones forming the solid courses at the bottom are attached to one another so firmly and ingeniously as to secure the maximum of strength and solidity1 the result being that nothing short of an earthquake could overthrow the stalk of masonry4 ,the erection of the superstructure was by no means free from danger and excitement4 ,the working space both on the tower itself and around the base was severely cramped4 ,the men at the latter point had to keep a vigilant eye upon those working above1 since1 despite the most elaborate precautions1 falls of tools and other heavy bodies were by no means infrequent4 ,notwithstanding its perilous character1 the undertaking was free from accident and fatality1 and1 although the men were compelled by force of circumstances to depend mostly upon salt foodstuffs1 the little colony suffered very slightly from the ravages of dysentery4 ,probably the worst experience was when the men on the rock were weather-bound for seven weeks during one season4 ,the weather broke suddenly4 ,heavy seas and adverse winds raged so furiously that the steamboat dared not put out of its haven1 but remained there with steam up1 patiently waiting for a lull in the storm1 during which they might succour the unfortunate men on the reef4 ,the latter passed a dreary1 pitiable time4 ,their provisions sank to a very low level1 they ran short of fuel1 their sodden clothing was worn to rags1 and1 what was far worse from their point of view1 their tobacco became exhausted4 ,the average working man will tolerate extreme discomfort and privation so long as the friendship of his pipe remains1 but the denial of this companion comes as the last straw4 ,the lantern is of special design1 and is one of the most powerful around the ,scottish coasts4 ,it is of the revolving class1 reaching its brightest state once every minute1 and may be seen from the deck of a vessel eighteen miles away ,six years were occupied in the completion of the work1 and1 as may be imagined1 the final touches were welcomed with thankfulness by all those who had been concerned in the enterprise4 ,the tower contains #d1cjh tons of granite1 and the total cost was #hf1igg1 or #dcd1hhe1 rendering it one of the costliest in the world4 ,this sum1 however1 included the purchase of the steam-vessel which now attends the lighthouse1 and the construction of the little harbour at ,hynish4 ,the lighthouse-keepers live on the island of ,tyree1 where are provided substantial1 spacious1 single-floor1 masonry dwellings with gardens attached4 ,this is practically a small colony in itself1 inasmuch as the accommodation includes1 not only that for the keepers of the ,skerryvore1 but for the guardians of the ,dhu-,heartach light as well4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,lonely ,,lights ,,of ,,scotland ,barren ruggedness1 ragged reefs1 and towering cliffs form an apt description of the north and west coasts of ,scotland1 and he is a prudent navigator who acknowledges the respect which these shores demand1 by giving them a wide berth4 ,the ,norwegian coast is serrated1 the island of ,newfoundland may be likened to the battered edge of a saw1 but ,scotland is unique in its formation4 ,the coastline is torn and tattered by bays and firths1 with scattered outlying ramparts4 ,the captain of a 8tramp0 who has sailed the seven seas once confessed to me that no stretch of coastline ever gave him the shivers so badly as the stretch of shore between ,duncansby ,head and the ,mull of ,kintyre4 ,certainly a ship 8going north about0 is menaced every mile of her way between these two points unless she takes a very circuitous course4 ,if the weather conditions are favourable and daylight prevails1 the ,north of ,britain may be rounded through the narrow strait washing the mainland and the ,orkney ,islands1 but the ,pentland ,firth is not an attractive short-cut4 ,the ships that run between ,scandinavian ports and ,north ,america naturally follow this route1 as it is several hundred miles shorter than that via the ,north ,sea and ,english ,channel2 but they keep a sharp eye on the weather and are extremely cautious4 ,when the ,pentland ,firth is uninviting1 they may either choose the path between the ,orkneys and the ,shetlands1 or1 to eliminate every element of risk1 may stand well out to sea1 and round the most northern stretches of the ,shetlands4 ,these are lonely seas1 comparatively speaking1 and yet are well lighted4 ,although a wicked rock lies in the centre of the eastern entrance to the ,pentland channel1 it is indicated by the ,pentland ,skerries light4 ,when the mariner in his wisdom pushes still farther north1 he falls within the glare of the rays thrown from the beacon near ,muckle ,flugga4 ,this is the northernmost point of the ,british ,islands1 and it is truly forbidding4 ,the rock lies three-quarters of a mile off the ,shetland ,islands1 and is a huge fang1 sheering to a height of #aif feet above high-water4 ,on the side facing north it rears up so abruptly that it appears to lean over1 while on the opposite side it is almost as steep4 ,the majority of lighthouses have been called into existence by the claims of commerce purely and simply4 ,but it was not so with the ,north ,unst lighthouse1 as the beacon crowning this pinnacle is called4 ,war was responsible for its creation1 though probably sooner or later the requirements of peace would have brought about a similar result4 ,while the armies of ,france and ,britain were fighting the ,russians in the ,crimea1 the ,british fleet was hovering about these waters1 watching the mouth of the ,baltic1 so as to frustrate any attempts on the part of the ,russian fleet to dash around the northern coast of ,scotland4 ,in those days these lonely seas were badly lighted1 and the ,admiralty realized only too well the many perils to which the warships were exposed while cruising about the pitiless coasts of the ,orkneys and ,shetlands4 ,accordingly1 the department called upon the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses to mark ,muckle ,flugga4 ,time was everything1 and the engineers were urged to bring a temporary light into operation with the least delay4 ,the engineers hurriedly evolved a tower which would meet the ,government needs4 ,it was thought that the extreme height of the rock would lend itself to the erection of a building which1 while possible of early completion1 would be adequate for subsequent purposes4 ,the materials for the light1 together with a lantern1 and a second building for the storage of the oil and other requisites1 were shipped northward from ,glasgow4 ,simultaneously the engineers1 with another small gang of men who had already reached the rock1 pushed on with the preliminary preparations1 so that when the constructional vessel arrived erection might go ahead straightforwardly and rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,dhu-,,heartach ,,lighthouse4 ,to the left is the lower part of the temporary structure in which the builders lived while erection was in progress4 ,the engineers tried the rock from all sides to find a safe landing4 ,this was no light matter1 owing to the steepness of the slope even upon the easiest face of the pinnacle4 ,the attempt represented a mild form of mountaineering1 for the sea had battered away the projection of the lower-lying levels1 and the men found it trying to effect a foothold1 even in stepping from the boat on to the rock4 ,they had to climb hand over hand up the precipice1 with life-lines round their waists1 taking advantage of every narrow ledge4 ,with infinite labour they gained the summit1 and then they found that there was just sufficient space1 and no more1 upon which to plant the lighthouse buildings4 ,the top was cleared quickly1 and then the advance party set to work to improve the landing-place on the south side of the rock for the reception of the building materials4 ,a small site was prepared with great difficulty1 as the tough rock offered a stern resistance to the chisels1 drills1 and wedges2 while in addition the men had to cut steps in the flank of the rock to facilitate the ascent to the site4 ,on ,september #ad1 #ahed1 the constructional vessel ,pharos hove in sight1 and1 the weather being favourable1 the landing of the material was hurried forward4 ,the men had to become pack-animals for the time1 carrying the loads on their backs4 ,in this manner they tramped laboriously up and down the cliff-face with material and stores of all descriptions4 ,the heavier and bulkier parts were hauled up by rope and tackle1 a few feet at a time1 and this task was quite as exacting4 ,in all1 #abj tons were conveyed to the top of the crag4 ,construction was hastened just as feverishly1 and on ,october #aa1 #ahed1 twenty-six days after the ,pharos anchored off ,muckle ,flugga1 the ,north ,unst light shone out for the first time4 ,this is probably one of the most brilliant exploits that has ever been consummated in connection with lighthouse engineering1 the merit of which is additionally impressive from the fact that almost everything had to be accomplished by manual effort4 ,while the light was admittedly of a temporary character1 the importance of the outpost had been appreciated1 and it was determined to erect a permanent light upon the rock for the guidance of those who compass the ,north of ,scotland in order to pass from and to the ,north ,atlantic4 ,it was decided to commence the permanent masonry building the following year1 and a gang of men volunteered to stay behind on the rock throughout the winter to complete all the essential preparations for the foundations4 ,accommodation was available for this staff in a substantial iron shelter1 in which they made themselves comfortable for the winter4 ,but it is during this season that the winds from the north1 lashing the sea to fury1 create huge rollers which thunder upon the base of the pinnacle to crawl up its perpendicular face in the form of broken water and spray4 ,the men standing on the brink often watched these rollers1 but never for a moment thought that one would be able to leap to a height of nearly #bjj feet and sweep over the rock4 ,the ,december gales dispelled this illusion very convincingly4 ,one morning the workmen1 while breakfasting in their warm shelter1 received a big surprise4 ,a terrific blow struck the door1 which flew open as if hit by a cannon-ball4 ,it was followed instantly by a three-foot wall of water4 ,the broken wave rushed round the apartment1 seething and foaming1 and then out again4 ,the workmen were dumbfounded1 but had scarcely recovered from the shock when another roll of water came crashing in and gave the apartment another thorough flushing out4 ,one of the ,scottish workmen vouchsafed the remark that the man responsible for cleaning the floors that day would be spared his job1 but he was silenced when1 a few seconds later1 another angry sheet of water dropped on the roof of the building and threatened to smash it in4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,north ,,unst1 ,,britain',s ,,most ,,northerly ,,light4 ,the tower is perched on the top of a precipitous crag1 the light being #bfj feet above the sea4 ,despite this height1 the waves often dash over the lantern4 ,the closing month of that year was particularly boisterous4 ,time after time when the sea rose1 the lighthouse tower was drenched in water4 ,one might think it impossible that a wave could get up sufficient impetus to mount a height of #bjj feet2 but this experience offered conclusive testimony to the contrary and to the immense power of the waves when they have an uninterrupted run over several hundred miles of open ocean4 ,in a way1 the terrifying experience of these marooned workmen was invaluable4 ,they reported the bare facts to the engineers upon the first opportunity1 and this intelligence brought about a revision in the designs for the permanent masonry structure4 ,the present ,north ,unst lighthouse is a massive masonry building1 standing in the centre of the small flat space on the top of the pinnacle1 with heavy masonry walls bounding it on all sides4 ,the tower is #fd feet in height1 while the red and white light may be seen from a distance of twenty-one miles in clear weather4 ,that the winter storms of #ahed were by no means exceptional has been proved up to the hilt on several occasions since4 ,when the nor'-wester is roused thoroughly1 the breaking waves curl up the cliff and rush over the lantern4 ,such a climb of #bfj feet conveys a compelling notion of the force of the sea4 ,the weight of the water thrown into the air has threatened to overthrow the massive boundary walls1 while now and again the invader leaves tangible evidences of its power by smashing the windows of the lantern4 ,upon one occasion it burst open the heavy door1 which weighs the best part of a ton4 ,the light-station is served by four keepers1 two on duty simultaneously1 their homes being on the island of ,unst1 four miles away4 ,for the conveyance of water1 fuel1 provisions1 and other requirements1 from the landing-stage to the lighthouse #bjj feet above1 an inclined railway has been provided on the easier slope1 so that the men are no longer called upon to pack their provisions1 like mules1 from the water-level up a steep cliff1 as was formerly required4 ,rounding these island dangers1 the navigator picks up the light of ,cape ,wrath1 glimmering from a height of #cgj feet above the water-level and standing at the western corner of the rectangular head of the ,scottish mainland4 ,going south1 he has two passages available--the inner1 which extends through the ,minches and inside the ,hebrides2 or the outer1 which lies beyond the latter rampart4 ,in making the outer passage he comes within range of the light shining from the summit of a lonely group of rocks standing some twenty-two miles out to sea off the ,isle of ,lewis4 ,these are the ,flannen ,islands1 or ,seven ,hunters1 one of many similar lonely ,scottish stations4 ,the tower is mounted upon the crown of one of the highest points1 and the white group-flashing light is visible over a radius of twenty-four miles4 ,farther south the seafarer picks up and drops the ,monach ,islands light1 likewise lying out in the ,atlantic1 some ten miles from the nearest land4 ,finally1 rounding ,barra ,head1 the most southerly point of the reef lying off ,barra ,island1 the light from which is cast #ehj feet above the water owing to the height of the cliff1 the vessel slips into a huge indentation1 where isolated rocks peep above the ,atlantic1 one of the most dangerous of which is indicated by the ,skerryvore lighthouse4 ,i have described the ,skerryvore light in the previous chapter2 but nineteen and a half miles to the south-east of the latter is another reef1 just as exposed1 which is as perilous in every respect4 ,indeed1 it may be said to constitute a greater menace to the navigation of these waters1 since it lies in the cross-roads of the entrance to the ,irish ,channel1 the ,firth of the ,clyde1 and the ,minches4 ,a powerful light mounts guard on the ,rhins of ,islay1 twenty-seven miles due south1 but between the latter and ,skerryvore there are forty-three miles of coast1 as dangerous as the mariner could wish to avoid1 with this rock looming up almost halfway4 ,this peril is the ,dhu-,heartach1 lying out to sea in deep water1 fourteen miles from the nearest point of the mainland4 ,the physical configuration of the sea-bed at this point is somewhat similar to that prevailing at ,skerryvore4 ,the ,ross of ,mull tumbles abruptly into the ,atlantic1 to reappear out to sea in the form of the ,torrin ,rocks1 which run for a distance of four and a half miles in the direction of ,dhu-,heartach4 ,then the reef comes to a sudden stop1 to be seen once more1 nine miles farther out1 in the rounded hump of ,dhu-,heartach1 this being practically the outermost point of the ridge4 ,being so isolated and projecting so suddenly from deep water1 this ledge claimed many victims among the vessels frequenting these unlighted waters4 ,the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses were assailed for not marking the danger spot in some form or other4 ,the authorities1 however1 were fully alive to the need of such protection1 but it was not until #ahfg that they were able to proceed with the erection of a lighthouse4 ,the situation is peculiar1 and the engineers1 ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,t4 ,stevenson1 were faced with a somewhat perplexing problem recalling those which had arisen in conjunction with the ,skerryvore1 not far distant4 ,indeed1 the ,dhu-,heartach undertaking might very well be described as a repetition of those struggles1 with a few more difficulties of a different character thrown in4 ,the rock itself in reality is a series of islets1 or hummocks1 surrounding the main hump1 which is #bdj feet in length by #acj feet in breadth1 the highest point of the rounded top being #ce feet above high-water at ordinary spring-tides4 ,on all sides the lead marks very deep water1 the result being that in times of storm and tempest the rollers of the ,atlantic1 having a 8fetch0 of some #c1jjj miles or more1 thunder upon it with terrific force1 the broken water leaping high into the air4 ,it is very seldom that the rock can be approached even in a small boat and with a calm sea1 as the hump is invariably encircled in a scarf of ugly surf4 ,the swell strikes the western face of the rock1 is divided1 flows round the northern and southern ends of the obstruction1 and reunites on the eastern side4 ,consequently the rock is nearly always a centre of disturbance4 ,the distance of the rock from the mainland complicated the issue very materially4 ,a suitable site had to be prepared on shore as a base1 where the stones could be prepared for shipment1 while a special steam-tender was necessary to run to and fro4 ,the handling of the workmen had to be carried out upon the lines which were adopted at ,skerryvore--namely1 the erection of a barrack upon a skeleton framework on the rock1 where the men might be left safely for days or weeks at a time4 ,the shore station selected was at ,earraid1 on the neighbouring island of ,mull1 because it was the nearest strategical point to the work1 and because ample supplies of first-class granite were available in the immediate vicinity1 the proprietor1 the ,duke of ,argyll1 as in the previous instance1 facilitating the work as far as possible4 ,the authority to commence operations was given on ,march #aa1 #ahfg1 and this year was devoted to completing preparations1 so that in the following season work might be started in earnest and carried on throughout the summer at high pressure4 ,the first task was the erection of the barrack on the rock4 ,the workmen got ashore for the first time on ,june #be1 #ahfg1 and1 although landing at all times was trying and perilous1 attempts often having to be abandoned owing to the swell1 the engineer succeeded in landing twenty-seven times up to ,september #c1 when work had to be suspended until the following year4 ,despite the shortness of the season1 the men made appreciable headway4 ,the iron framework of the barrack was completed to the first tier1 while a good beginning was made upon the rock-face in connection with the foundations for the lighthouse4 ,when the autumnal gales approached1 everything in connection with the barrack was left secure1 the builders being anxious to ascertain how it would weather the winter gales and the force and weight of the waves which bore down upon it4 ,the engineers finally decided upon a tower #ajg feet in height4 ,after trying various curves for the outline1 they came to the decision that a parabolic frustum would afford the most serviceable design1 as well as providing the maximum of strength4 ,a diameter of #cf feet was chosen for the base1 tapering gradually and gracefully to one of #af feet at the top1 with the entrance #cb feet above the base1 to which point the cone was to be solid4 ,the arrangements were that work should be resumed in the early spring of #ahfh1 so as to secure full advantage of the favourable easterly winds4 ,accordingly1 when the special steam-tender arrived on ,april #ad1 she was loaded up with necessaries and men1 ready to proceed to the site directly the wind should veer round to the desired point of the compass4 ,but with aggravating persistency it clung to the west and south-west until the end of ,june1 so that many valuable weeks were unfortunately lost4 ,time after time1 when there was a lull in the weather1 the steamer put out from ,earraid1 the engineers determined to make a dash for the rock1 and as many times they were foiled1 as the men could not be got through the surf4 ,one day1 however1 an hour and a half was snatched on the rock1 and1 although no work could be done in that time1 yet the interval was sufficient to enable the engineers to take a look round and to see how their handiwork had withstood the heavy gales of the previous winter4 ,there was only one marked evidence of the ,atlantic's wrath4 ,one section of the iron ring connecting the heads of the legs of the barrack at a height of #cj feet had been carried away4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,north ,,unst ,,light4 ,the first light was built in twenty-six days during the ,crimean ,war at the ,british ,government's urgent request4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,landing ,,water ,,at ,,the ,,north ,,unst4 ,showing tramway connecting with tower1 #bjj feet above4 ,on ,june #bi the wind moderated sufficiently to enable the men to be landed1 but the climatic conditions remained adverse4 ,the wind refused to swing round to the east2 a westerly swell was the luck day after day4 ,the engineers had to dodge the ocean as best they could1 and some idea of the handicap under which they laboured may be gathered from the fact that only four landings were made during the sixty-one days of ,may and ,june4 ,july enabled the greatest number of landings to be effected--thirteen2 while during ,august and ,september the men only gained the rock on twenty-one occasions1 making a total of thirty-eight landings in the course of #aec days4 ,during this interrupted season1 however1 the barrack was completed4 ,it was a massive structure1 and resembled a huge iron barrel secured endwise upon an intricate arrangement of stilts which were heavily stayed and tied together by diagonals and cross-members4 ,in the two previous instances where a similar arrangement had been adopted the temporary dwelling had been wrought in wood1 but on this occasion the engineers decided to adopt iron1 as they concluded that a wooden structure would not fare well against the heavy seas4 ,this was a fortunate decision1 because1 as subsequent experience proved1 a wooden barrack would have received very short shrift from the ,atlantic breakers2 in fact1 probably it would have gone down with the first sou'-wester4 ,the iron barrack1 as the workmen narrated1 was pounded and battered by the waves most unmercifully2 but although it suffered at times1 quivering and shaking under the terrific impacts1 it weathered all the onslaughts4 ,one interesting incident serves to illustrate the perils to which the workmen were exposed4 ,a date had been set down when all the men were to be brought off the rock for the season1 as the approach of the equinox rendered further toil extremely doubtful1 and there was no intention of unduly imperilling them4 ,the engineer's resident representative1 ,mr4 ,alexander ,brebner1 went out to the rock on ,august #bj1 the day fixed for the suspension of operations1 to inspect the progress that had been made and to have a last look round4 ,at the time of his arrival the weather was beautifully calm1 and held out every promise of remaining settled for several days4 ,as the season had been so adverse1 he decided1 on his own responsibility1 to delay the cessation of toil1 so1 with the thirteen men1 he remained on the rock1 determined to make up leeway somewhat while the weather held out4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,flannen ,,islands ,,light ,,station4 ,one of ,scotland's lonely beacons4 ,it marks a group of islets #ae miles off the ,hebrides4 ,in #aijj the three keepers mysteriously disappeared1 and their fate remains unsolved to this day4 ,but the resident paid the penalty for his disobedience4 ,the little party retired that night with the stars shining brilliantly overhead from a cloudless sky1 and with the sea like a mirror4 ,in the middle of the night one and all were roused suddenly from their slumbers4 ,the wind was roaring1 and the breakers were hammering upon the rock1 while the foam and surf rushed violently between the legs of the barracks4 ,when the men looked out they were confronted with a terrifying spectacle4 ,the night was black as pitch1 but the sea white as a snow-covered plain1 from the crests of the rollers and the surf playing on and around the rocks4 ,a furious gale had sprung up with the characteristic suddenness of the ,atlantic1 and was already raging4 ,the next morning no one dared to venture outside the iron home1 while the gale1 instead of abating1 appeared to be increasing in fury4 ,for five days the men were held fast1 and at times their fears got the better of them4 ,this was particularly the case when1 now and again1 a more than ugly wave got up1 rolled over the rock1 and crashed with full force against the barrack4 ,the building shook and trembled fearfully1 but its legs were driven too deeply into the rock for it to be overturned1 while the cross-bracing was too intricate for the legs to be snapped off4 ,again and again the men were plunged into darkness1 as a wall of water rushed right over the drum1 notwithstanding that the roof was #gg feet above high-water4 ,their fears rose almost to frenzy when a breaker1 leaping the rock1 drove full tilt against the floor of the barrack4 ,in this upward rush of #ee feet the building suffered4 ,the men's entrance to the home was by means of a heavy hatch1 or trapdoor1 which was bolted securely upon the inside4 ,this particular comber burst in the hatch as if it were no thicker than the wood of a matchbox1 flooding the whole compartment4 ,meantime the engineer-in-chief at ,edinburgh had heard of the incident4 ,he had given strict instructions that the men should be brought off on ,august #bj1 and when the intelligence was communicated to him that his order had been disobeyed1 and that his men were in serious straits1 he became distracted4 ,he knew only too well how the waves bombard ,dhu-,heartach4 ,mr4 ,david ,stevenson related to me how his father paced the offices during the day1 and his own home at night1 unable to drown his thoughts in work or sleep4 ,his worry was intensified as the true character of the gale came to his ears4 ,he had planned everything with such care that neither life nor limb of a single workman need be jeopardized1 and here he was confronted with the possibility of losing fourteen men at one stroke6 ,the iron barrack1 although staunchly constructed1 was just as likely as not to succumb to the full brunt of a very vicious sou'-wester1 so there was every excuse for his anxiety4 ,he gave orders that the steam-tender was to stand by with steam raised1 so as to make a dash for the rock upon the first opportunity4 ,no one had a moment's peace until at last the news came through that the steam-tender had been out to the rock1 and with much difficulty had got hold of the fourteen men and brought them ashore1 somewhat scared and bearing evidences of their experience1 but unharmed4 ,mr4 ,stevenson told me that he could not quite say which was worse--the distracted wanderings of his father1 or the expression of his pent-up feelings when he met the unfortunate resident a few days later1 who was taken severely to task for his flagrant breach of orders1 whereby the lives of the workmen had been imperilled so unnecessarily4 ,the year #ahfi was kinder to the engineers1 and great headway was made4 ,the men were able to make their first landing on the rock as early as ,march #be1 and it was accessible up to ,october #bi1 when all forces withdrew from the scene for the winter4 ,during this period sixty landings were effected1 while heavy supplies of masonry and other materials were shipped to the site4 ,the masons took up their permanent residence in the barrack on ,april #bf1 and did not leave it until ,september #c1 while they were able to squeeze in #aac days of toil1 with a welcome rest from their labours on ,sundays4 ,the excavations for the foundations were completed speedily1 and on ,june #bd the erection of the tower was commenced4 ,the stones were brought ready for setting in position1 and were laid so rapidly that by the end of the month two courses were completed and the third had been well advanced4 ,then came a temporary setback4 ,a blusterous summer gale sprang up1 and the sea1 after assaulting the rock for two days1 succeeded in leaving its mark4 ,the crane and other tackle at the landing-stage were washed away1 while fourteen stones laid in the third course were uprooted1 of which eleven were seen no more4 ,the water in this case had to leap upwards for #ce feet1 while the stones which it carried away weighed #b tons apiece1 and were firmly joggled1 so that the wrench which displaced them must have been terrific indeed4 ,if a summer gale could wreak such damage1 what was the dreaded equinox likely to achieve8 ,the engineers were so much impressed that they thereupon made assurance doubly sure by effecting a modification of the original plans4 ,when the work was commenced1 it was intended to take the solid part of the tower up to a height of #eb feet #aj inches above high-water4 ,the effects of this summer gale induced them to continue the solid section a further #aa feet1 so that the entrance level is #fd feet #d inches above high-water mark4 ,the result is that the solid base of the ,dhu-,heartach tower weighs no less than #a1hdj tons--more than one-half the total weight of the structure--and is executed throughout in massive blocks of grey granite4 ,the tower contains six floors above the entrance hall1 these1 on ascending the spiral staircase1 being as follows3 oil-store1 kitchen1 provision-store1 bedroom1 dry-room1 and light-room4 ,the masonry part of the work was completed by the end of the season of #ahga1 and the first-order dioptric1 fixed1 white light was exhibited on ,november #a1 #ahgb4 ,the focal plane1 being #ade feet above the water-level1 has a range of eighteen nautical miles4 ,the total cost of the work was #gf1jhd1 or #chj1dbj1 of which sum the shore station was responsible for #aj1cjj1 or #ea1ejj4 ,the ocean made an attempt to defeat the workmanship and skill of the engineers in the very winter following the opening of the lighthouse4 ,on the lee side of the tower there is a copper lightning-conductor1 #a inch thick by #a inches wide1 which is let into a channel cut in the stonework1 so that it comes flush with the face of the building4 ,this conductor is fixed at intervals of #e feet in a substantial manner4 ,the winter storms of #ahgb tore some #aj feet out of this channel near the base of the structure1 and wrenched the screws from their sockets2 while at the kitchen window level1 which is #ib feet above high-water1 the rod was similarly disturbed for some distance4 ,it will be seen that the waves which assail ,dhu-,heartach are by no means to be despised4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,fastnet1 ,,the ,,outpost ,,of ,,europe ,four and a half miles out to sea1 separated from ,cape ,clear1 the most south-westerly point of ,ireland1 by a treacherous channel1 rises the jagged1 formidable shape of the ,fastnet4 ,to mariners the rock1 with its brilliant shaft of light by night1 has developed into more than a mere beacon4 ,it is the first and last light of the ,old ,world on the eastward and westward passages across the ,atlantic4 ,all passing vessels are 8spoken0 from this point to ,london1 ,new ,york1 and elsewhere4 ,it was in the early fifties of the past century that the engineer conceived the idea of planting a light upon this lonely crag4 ,maritime interests had agitated for a beacon for many years previously1 since1 although a warning gleam was thrown from the station on ,cape ,clear1 this ray often was invisible1 or partially obscured1 owing to the wreaths of cloud and mist which draped the summit of the headland4 ,the builder was ,mr4 ,george ,halpin1 engineer to the ,port of ,dublin ,corporation1 which was responsible at that time for the illumination of the shores of ,ireland4 ,his task was not to be despised4 ,the ,fastnet itself is merely a pinnacle1 rising precipitously to a height of about #ajj feet above low-water1 but it is the centre of many dangers4 ,it is flanked on all sides by needle-points and ridges2 the currents run strongly1 and the tides are wicked1 rendering approach uncertain even in the smoothest weather4 ,the indefatigable engineer attacked his task boldly4 ,he chose the highest point of the rock as the site for his tower1 which was a cast-iron cylindrical building1 #ia feet in height4 ,the lantern was equipped with a revolving apparatus which threw a flash of #ch1jjj candle-power for fifteen seconds once every two minutes from an elevation of #adh feet1 rotation being obtained through a belt and a weight-driven clock4 ,its erection was a tedious undertaking2 although a start was made in #ahdh1 it was not until ,january #a1 #ahed1 that the light first cast its welcome rays over the wastes of the ,atlantic1 by which time #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 had been spent upon the undertaking4 ,illustration3 ,from the 8,scientific ,american40 ,,building ,,the ,,fastnet ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,looking down from the top of the rock upon the men setting one of the solid masonry courses4 ,for ten years ,halpin's work successfully defied the elements1 although at times the keepers grew somewhat apprehensive concerning its stability4 ,time after time1 during heavy gales1 it seemed as if it must succumb to the storm4 ,the waves curled up the cliff and struck the tower with staggering force1 causing it to tremble like a leaf4 ,on one occasion a cup of coffee standing upon the table was thrown to the floor4 ,while the shaft defied the most severe poundings1 the cliff itself gave way1 and large masses of rock on which the tower stood were carried away4 ,one huge chunk1 weighing some #c tons1 was detached1 and1 as it slipped down1 was picked up by the next incoming wave1 to be hurled with terrific force against the tower1 but without inflicting any marked damage4 ,on another occasion a cask containing #fj gallons of fresh water1 which the keepers had made fast to the railing of the gallery surrounding the lantern1 #acc feet above the water1 was wrenched free by a wave which dashed over the rock1 and was swept away as if it were an empty tin4 ,the keepers' anxiety under these circumstances may be understood4 ,at last1 in ,april1 #ahfe1 the consulting engineer to the ,corporation visited the lighthouse in company with ,mr4 ,george ,stevenson1 the famous ,scottish lighthouse builder1 to examine the rock thoroughly4 ,the latter suggested certain recommendations to insure the stability of the tower2 but when the sanction of the ,brethren of ,trinity ,house was sought1 they deferred a decision until their own engineer had visited the works1 although they appreciated ,mr4 ,stevenson's advice4 ,some of the recommendations advanced by ,mr4 ,stevenson were followed subsequently1 and this reluctant recognition of his knowledge brought its reward4 ,the authorities--now the ,commissioners of ,irish ,lights--had a fright in #ahha4 ,the storms of that winter were among the heaviest that have ever assailed the ,british ,islands4 ,the ,calf ,rock light1 which was a similar tower to the ,fastnet1 and which had been strengthened upon identical lines1 came to grief4 ,the tower was broken off at the point where the reinforcement ceased4 ,this disaster naturally aroused many misgivings concerning the luck of the ,fastnet4 ,had it shared a similar fate during the same gale8 ,to their intense relief1 the ,commissioners found that it had issued from the conflict with no more injuries than a few broken panes of glass4 ,the tower withstood the attacks of wind and wave successfully until #ahia1 when the ,commissioners came to the conclusion that it was time the ,fastnet light was improved1 to meet the requirements of the busier mercantile traffic passing the point4 ,accordingly1 ,mr4 ,william ,douglass1 the engineer to the ,commissioners1 recommended a new tower1 fitted with the latest form of illumination1 so as to bring it into line with the other leading lights of the world4 ,he advocated a tower of masonry with the focal plane at an elevation of #aei feet2 the shaft1 #adg feet high1 springing from a position #f inches below high-water1 with a diameter at the base of #db feet4 ,the cost of the light was estimated at #gj1jjj or #cej1jjj4 ,one cannot help admiring the daring of the engineer1 since he declined to be assisted by the rock summit in his purpose4 ,instead he preferred the ledge of a chasm on the hardest part of the rock below high-tide1 and directly exposed to the full force of the sea4 ,he maintained that such a tower1 planted on this shelf1 would receive the force of the heaviest seas before they rose to their full height2 also by building the base of the tower in the form of steps1 as in the case of a breakwater1 an excellent buffer would be offered to the rollers4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,fastnet ,,tower4 ,showing derrick for setting the stones into position4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,scientific ,american40 ,,erecting ,,the ,,fastnet ,,lantern4 ,this illustration gives a striking idea of its height4 ,the new design came at an opportune moment4 ,another inspection of the existing tower by ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,scott1 the present engineer-in-chief to the ,commissioners1 revealed a parlous state of affairs4 ,halpin's building was on the verge of collapse4 ,many of the plates in the upper stories had worked loose under the poundings inflicted by the seas1 and in many instances the bolts holding the fabric together were sheared4 ,repairs had to be made hastily to enable the old tower to hold out until the new lighthouse was erected4 ,before the work was commenced1 the designer1 as a result of further investigation1 decided to increase the diameter of his tower to #eb feet at the base4 ,the lowest courses did not comprise complete rings of masonry1 but were anchored at the points where the circle was broken into the face of the cliff1 so as to form an integral part thereof1 as it were4 ,the depth of this partial ringwork is #bf feet1 at which level the first complete ring of masonry was laid4 ,thenceforward the tower is solid throughout its thickness for a further height of #cj feet1 except for a central circular space forming the water-tank1 which holds #c1bej gallons of water4 ,from this point the masonry structure rises gracefully to a height of #hh-a_/h feet to the lantern gallery4 ,the lighthouse is divided into eight floors1 affording living-rooms for the keepers1 storerooms for oil1 fog-signals1 provisions1 coal1 etc4 ,the lighthouse1 the landing-stage1 and other appurtenances1 are executed in ,cornish granite throughout4 ,the blocks were fashioned from picked stone of fine1 close1 hard grain1 and ranged up to #d and #e tons in weight4 ,the method of construction followed the approved lines of to-day1 in which each stone is dovetailed into its neighbour1 above1 below1 and on either side4 ,as the stones were cut and fitted in the ,cornish quarries1 they were set up and fitted course by course4 ,then1 when they had met the approbation of the engineer deputed for this duty1 they were numbered and given other identification marks1 so that upon reaching the base at ,rock ,island1 upon the ,irish mainland1 within easy reach of the ,fastnet1 they could be despatched in rotation to the site1 to be set in position4 ,it was in ,august1 #ahif1 that the first little squad of labourers landed on the ,fastnet1 under the superintendence of ,james ,kavanagh1 a first-class all-round mason--one of those men who occupy a unique position when emergency calls4 ,he was just the type of foreman that the task demanded1 careful1 daring1 a hard worker1 zealous1 dauntless4 ,once he had landed on the rock to prepare the foundations1 he seldom left it2 and1 what is more1 every stone constituting the tower was well and truly laid by his own hand4 ,it was indeed unfortunate that ,kavanagh1 after his momentous round of toil was over1 should be stricken down with apoplexy1 to which he succumbed1 after virtually years of imprisonment upon an ill-famed rock1 facing discomforts and privations of all descriptions1 and seizing every opportunity to drive the task forward4 ,it was as if ,nature1 baffled in her efforts to circumvent the work of human ingenuity1 had taken revenge upon the man who had laboured mightily to complete her subjection4 ,kavanagh took with him upon the rock a small boiler and steam-winch1 which he set up without delay1 to land both workmen and necessaries4 ,he lost no time in cutting away at the toe of the cliff1 to admit the first partial ring of stones4 ,it was a ding-dong battle between the masons and the sea for the first few rounds4 ,the men toiled heroically with their chisels between the coming of the rollers1 with one eye on the water and the other on a handy life-line1 which they grabbed when the ,atlantic endeavoured to steal a march upon them4 ,on some days splendid progress was made2 on others the masons never drove the chisels once into the rock-face4 ,landing was an exciting experience in itself4 ,the tender1 naturally1 could not draw right in1 owing to the swell and other dangers4 ,she stood off a little way1 and there anchored4 ,when men were coming to or going from the rock1 the rope was run out from the derrick4 ,to this was attached a kind of double stirrup1 not unlike a child's swing4 ,the men took up their position1 two at a time1 on these stirrups1 standing face to face4 ,at the command1 8,lower away60 or 8,heave ho60 the derrick winch commenced to grunt and rattle1 and the men were whisked into mid-air1 clutching tightly to their frail1 cramped hold1 and steadied in their aerial journey by another rope extending to the rowing-boat below4 ,it was an exciting trip while it lasted1 and at first glimpse appeared to be dangerous1 so much so that on one or two occasions the courage of raw hands broke down at the last moment1 and they hesitated to trust themselves to such a flimsy-looking vehicle4 ,bringing the stones ashore was even more difficult4 ,it was imperative that the edges and corners of the blocks should be protected from blows which might chip and scar them1 thereby impairing their true fit1 and possibly allowing the sea to get a purchase in its efforts to destroy4 ,accordingly1 the blocks were packed in skeleton crates1 with substantial wooden battens completely protecting the vital parts4 ,it was impossible to swing them singly direct through the air from steamer to rock1 and it was inadvisable to transfer them first to a rowing-boat2 so an ingenious alternative method was perfected4 ,the tender was brought as near the rock as possible1 and the derrick boom was swung out1 so that a hook carried at the end of the rope could be attached to the stone1 which rested on rollers upon the tender's deck leading to an open doorway in the taffrail4 ,when the rope was secured1 the word was given to haul in the derrick rope slowly and gently4 ,this brought the stone gradually to the vessel's side1 when it was permitted to fall into the water where it could suffer no injury4 ,the derrick rope meanwhile was wound in1 and the stone1 still submerged1 at last brought to rest against the side of the tower4 ,a vertical series of wooden battens had been attached to the outside of the building1 so as to form a slide up which the blocks could be hauled to the required level4 ,of course1 as the tower increased in height1 the latter part of the operation had to be varied1 owing to the concave curve of the structure4 ,then the stone had to complete its final stage through the air1 being steadied in its ascent by a rope held below to prevent it swinging and coming to grief against the completed part of the shaft4 ,in this manner #b1jgd stones1 representing a dead-weight of #d1fcc tons1 were landed and set in position4 ,work was painfully slow and tedious at times1 owing to adverse weather4 ,although the men on the rock were condemned inevitably to periods of idleness1 they were made as comfortable as conditions would permit1 so as to remove any longing on their part to return to the mainland for a change4 ,this was a necessary precaution4 ,although the men might leave the rock in perfectly calm weather1 the ,atlantic is so fickle that an interval of two or three hours was quite sufficient to permit the wind to freshen1 and the swell to grow restive1 to such a degree as to render a return to the rock impossible for several days4 ,owing to the cramped nature of the quarters on the rock1 elaborate care had to be exercised to protect the men from the ravages of disease4 ,the toilers had to board themselves1 and the authorities demanded that each man should maintain a fortnight's reserve supply of provisions upon the rock to tide him over a spell of bad weather4 ,this rule was enforced very rigidly1 any infringement of it being attended with instant dismissal4 ,for emergency purposes the ,commissioners maintained a small stock of salt beef1 pork1 tinned meats1 tea1 sugar1 milk1 biscuits1 and so forth1 on the rock1 from which the men could replenish their larders4 ,the foreman acted as a kind of medical officer of health1 as well as fulfilling his other duties4 ,he was supplied with a ship's medicine-chest1 plenty of bandages1 liniment1 and antiseptics1 in case of accident4 ,at five o'clock every morning the men were compelled to tumble out of their bunks1 to indulge in a thorough wash1 to turn their bedding into the air when the weather was agreeable1 and to wash out their quarters4 ,the strictest supervision was maintained over matters pertaining to sanitation1 and1 thanks to these elaborate precautions1 cases of sickness were very few4 ,extreme care was observed in the building operations1 so that no workman might be exposed to any unnecessary risks1 although the task at times bristled with unavoidable perils4 ,as a matter of fact1 the whole enterprise was attended by only three accidents on the rock4 ,one man was cutting a tram-rail1 when a piece of steel flew into one eye1 completely blinding it4 ,another suffered a similar calamity from a chip of stone while quarrying4 ,the third man met misfortune while at work at the windlass of the derrick4 ,as a breaker rolled in1 his companion dropped his handle1 with the result that the other workman was knocked down and had one leg broken4 ,there was a true ,hibernian flavour about this last-named accident1 in keeping with the setting in which it occurred4 ,the man was incapacitated for some months1 and then brought an action for compensation1 claiming that he had been rendered unfit for any further manual labour4 ,the sympathetic court solaced him with an award of #cej1 or #a1gej4 ,the amazement and disgust of the engineer may be imagined when1 three months after the action1 he suddenly espied the supposedly totally incapacitated workman assisting in the transference of coal from a barge to the tender6 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the 8,scientific ,american40 ,,the ,,fastnet1 ,,the ,,outpost ,,of ,,europe4 ,on the top of the rock is the first light1 opened in #ahed4 ,at the side is the present noble tower1 completed in #aijf4 ,the flashing beam of #gej1jjj candle-power has a range of #bj miles4 ,as the tower grew above the existing building1 which it was to exceed in height1 it obscured the light thrown from the latter in a certain direction4 ,at this juncture1 accordingly1 a temporary scaffolding was erected upon the summit of the new shaft1 on which were rigged two ordinary lightship lights1 and these were kept going until the new lantern was completed4 ,the last stone was set on ,june #c1 #aijc1 after some four years' labour4 ,during the winter everything was brought virtually to a standstill1 owing to the succession of gales1 but the men on the rock never missed an opportunity to advance the undertaking4 ,kavanagh1 the foreman1 absolutely refused to go ashore so long as any work could be completed4 ,often he remained on the ,fastnet the whole year round1 and never was away for more than two months in the year1 when work was impossible4 ,other workmen1 when they had lived down the first feelings of loneliness1 became imbued with the same spirit1 and appeared loth to forsake the scene of their labours even for a day or two4 ,when the men settled down to their toil1 it was very seldom that a wish was expressed to be taken ashore more than once in three months4 ,the lantern was undertaken directly the stonework was completed4 ,the landing of this apparatus was an exciting task1 for1 the season being advanced1 it was decided to run unusual risks1 lest the rock should become unapproachable4 ,it was accomplished successfully1 and the various parts were stored on the rock in what was considered a safe place4 ,the weather looked fine and gave no signs of breaking2 yet two hours after all had been inspected and secured for the night a terrific gale sprang up1 and the rock was enveloped in water1 which dashed right over it4 ,the waves caught some of the lantern apparatus and smashed it2 other parts were carried away and never seen again4 ,this was an unexpected catastrophe4 ,the remaining damaged parts of the apparatus were sent back to ,birmingham to be overhauled and the missing portions replaced4 ,as there was no possibility of being able to complete the lantern that winter1 and the authorities did not like to entrust the marking of the rock solely to the temporary lightship lights--the lantern of the ,halpin tower had been taken down meanwhile--it was thereupon decided to erect the dismantled old lamp in the new tower for the time being4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,chance ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,lantern ,,of ,,the ,,fastnet ,,rock ,,lighthouse4 ,it consists of two tiers each of four panels of #ibj millimetres focal distance4 ,the next summer the new apparatus was got on to the rock and erected safely4 ,the light is of the dioptric type1 derived from a series of incandescent burners1 giving a total power of #a1bjj candles4 ,this part of the installation is the invention of the chief engineer to the ,commissioners1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,scott1 and it has proved to be one of the most perfect and economical devices of this type yet submitted to practical operations4 ,the oil is vaporized by being passed through a spraying device under pressure1 similar to the forced carburation in automobile practice1 and the gas is fed to the ,bunsen burners4 ,the lenses1 together with their revolving apparatus1 weigh #ac1ddj pounds1 and rotate upon a bed of mercury under the fall of a weight of #bij pounds1 which descends #dj feet per hour1 this being sufficient to secure three complete revolutions per minute4 ,in case the incandescent gas installation should break down from any cause1 a four-wick oil-burner is held in reserve1 and can be brought into action instantly4 ,the power of the rays thrown from the #a1bjj candle-power burners is intensified by the lenses to some #gej1jjj candle-power1 of extremely white brilliancy1 recalling the beam thrown by an electric searchlight4 ,the flash1 of three-twenty-fifths of a second's duration1 recurs every five seconds1 and on a clear night the light is readily distinguishable from a distance of twenty miles1 while its reflection in the sky may be observed from a considerably greater distance4 ,the erection of this lighthouse was not without one humorous incident4 ,while the lantern apparatus was being set in position1 a plumber was sent to the rock4 ,he spent one day and night there1 a period that proved to be more than enough for him4 ,the murmuring of the waves lost all their musical glamour for him when he was imprisoned on a wild1 isolated1 wind-and-wave-swept eyrie4 ,he did not get a wink of sleep1 and was scared nearly out of his wits4 ,when morning broke1 and the men were turned out of their bunks1 the plumber expressed his fixed determination to return to the shore at once4 ,his companions laughed at his fears1 ridiculed his anxieties1 coaxed and upbraided him in turn4 ,it was of no avail4 ,he would not do another stroke of work4 ,realizing the hopelessness of such a workman1 the engineer in charge signalled the mainland for assistance4 ,the steamer could not put out1 but the lifeboat1 not understanding the import of such an unusual call1 made the dangerous pull to the rock1 to ascertain what was the matter4 ,when they found that it was to take off a scared workman1 their feelings may be imagined4 ,the demoralized plumber was bundled into the lifeboat and rowed back to shore4 ,the blood did not return to his face1 nor did he collect his scattered wits1 until he planted his two feet firmly on the mainland1 when he very vehemently and picturesquely expressed his determination never to accept a job in such a forsaken place again4 ,the old tower was reduced to the level of its solid base1 and converted into an oil-store4 ,the finishing touches were applied to the new tower1 and on ,june #bg1 #aijf1 the scintillating and penetrating ray of the present ,fastnet was shown for the first time4 ,it is a magnificent light1 and1 being the latest expression of ,british lighthouse engineering upon a large scale1 compels more than passing interest4 ,the light is fully in keeping with the importance of the spot it marks1 and the #hd1jjj1 or #dbj1jjj1 which it cost has been laid out to excellent purpose4 ,the light and fog-signal station is tended by six keepers1 four being on the rock simultaneously1 and two ashore4 ,the latter constitute the relief1 which is made twice a month if the weather permits1 the service being one month on the rock1 followed by a fortnight on shore4 ,one keeper has day duty1 maintaining a lookout for fog and to signal passing ships2 two are on duty at night1 the one having charge of the light and its operation1 while his comrade devotes his attention to signalling ships and watching the weather4 ,when a mist creeps over the light1 the fourth keeper is called up to manipulate the explosive fog-signal4 ,the lighthouse1 being an important landfall1 is a signalling-station for ,lloyd's1 and is also fitted with wireless telegraphy1 wherewith the movements of outgoing and incoming vessels are reported to the mainland for notification to all parts of the world4 ,,chapter ,x ,,lighthouses ,,built ,,on ,,sand ,while the greater number of the most famous sea-lights have been erected upon the solid foundation offered by rock1 in one or two instances notable works have been consummated upon sand4 ,the two most remarkable achievements in this particular field of enterprise are the ,rothersand lighthouse1 off the coast of ,germany1 in the ,north ,sea1 and the ,fourteen ,foot ,bank1 in ,delaware ,bay1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,the ,rothersand light became necessary owing to the expansion of the ,german mercantile marine and the development of the ports of the ,weser and ,elbe4 ,the estuary of the ,weser ,river is hemmed in by shoals and sandbanks1 similar to those found at the entrance to ,liverpool1 ,london1 and ,new ,york1 rendering navigation extremely hazardous under the most favourable circumstances4 ,bremerhaven1 on the ,weser1 had been selected as the home port for the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,atlantic liners1 but it was threatened with abandonment unless the entrance to the waterway should undergo improvement4 ,it was of no avail to dredge a deep channel through the treacherous ridges of sand1 if the general proximity of the shoal were left unmarked4 ,consequently1 in order to secure the interests of ,bremerhaven1 it was decided by the three border ,states--,prussia1 ,oldenburg1 and ,bremen--to provide a powerful light at this danger-point4 ,the financial problem was solved by the agreement to levy a special tax upon all vessels entering the ,weser1 to defray the cost of providing the safeguard4 ,the undertaking was somewhat formidable4 ,the shoal1 being of soft sand1 was liable to erosion and movement1 owing to fluctuating and changing currents4 ,then1 again1 the proposed site1 some thirty miles from ,bremerhaven and about halfway between that port and the island of ,heligoland1 was exposed to the assaults of the ,north ,sea1 where even slight breezes ruffle the water considerably4 ,from the soundings and observations that were made1 it was evident that the foundations would have to be carried down to a great depth1 and that ordinary systems of construction were quite impracticable4 ,at this juncture the ,society ,harkort of ,duisburg1 which had accumulated great experience in subaqueous work1 was approached and asked if it would undertake the enterprise at its own risk4 ,this was tantamount to a 8no cure1 no pay0 proposal4 ,if they succeeded1 they would be rewarded for their labours2 if they failed1 they would have to face a heavy loss4 ,this firm1 after careful deliberation1 allowed that the work could be accomplished1 but in one way only4 ,this was to construct a huge caisson--practically a gigantic barrel of steel--on shore1 to launch and tow it to the site1 and there to lower it until it rested on the bottom4 ,then1 by a removal of the sand from beneath this caisson1 it could be sunk to a great depth1 and1 the interior being filled with concrete1 a huge artificial core of rock would be created1 capable of supporting a tower4 ,this system is employed extensively in connection with bridge-building operations1 and the firm entertained no doubts concerning its feasibility at ,rothersand4 ,the society accordingly prepared its designs1 and advanced an estimate for the cost of the work4 ,at this juncture an unexpected competitor appeared on the scene4 ,one of the engineers engaged in the preparation of the ,harkort designs severed his connection with that firm1 and1 securing the collaboration of two engineering colleagues1 established a rival concern1 which tendered for the contract4 ,they would follow the same lines1 but would complete it for #bb1gej1 or #aac1gej1 instead of #bd1jbe1 or #abj1abe1 asked by the ,duisburg firm4 ,the lower price was accepted1 the more readily since it included the foundations1 whereas the ,society ,harkort set these down as an extra4 ,naturally1 the society was somewhat chagrined at this turn of events1 after all the trouble and care it had taken to discover the most satisfactory solution of the problem1 but subsequently it had good reason not to regret its loss4 ,the new engineers set to work and during the winter of #ahhj-ha constructed a huge caisson1 which was launched and on ,may #bb of the latter year started down the ,weser in charge of tugs4 ,then came a whole string of accidents4 ,one night the unwieldy fabric got adrift and drove its nose into a sandbank1 where it settled down with the tide4 ,the towing cables were attached once more1 and after a great struggle the structure was extricated on the next high-tide1 and resumed its journey4 ,reaching the site without further incident1 it was lowered by admitting the water within the barrel4 ,but this task being accomplished somewhat crudely1 the water rushed in with such force that the caisson commenced to spin round like a top1 as well as bobbing up and down like an angler's float4 ,it threatened to topple over and founder every moment1 but1 luckily keeping upright1 finally touched bottom4 ,lowering was completed4 ,night having approached1 workmen made themselves comfortable on the caisson1 while the constructional steamer stood off and cast its anchor4 ,the men on the caisson1 however1 experienced one of the most sensational nights in their lives4 ,as the tide rose1 they found their novel home to be behaving somewhat curiously4 ,it moved1 and then heeled over4 ,this was an alarming state of affairs1 especially as the list gradually became worse and worse4 ,they shouted frantically for help1 but1 a heavy fog having descended upon the shoal1 their cries were absorbed by the white pall4 ,at last the caisson careened over to such a degree that the men could not keep their feet1 while the depressed edge was in danger of being submerged4 ,the men crawled to the opposite or elevated side1 and held on for their lives1 expecting every moment that the structure would give a heave and roll over4 ,it was a terribly anxious time for them1 and at last1 when the constructional steamer came alongside in the morning1 they scuttled down the ropes from their perilous perch to the deck below1 thankful for having escaped1 as they thought1 a certain watery grave4 ,the engineers spared no effort to save their work4 ,they were harassed at every tide because the water rose above the depressed edge and flooded the interior4 ,with all speed the wall at this point was increased in height1 so as to prevent inundation4 ,then1 stormy weather having cut away the sand under the elevated side1 the structure gradually righted itself4 ,when it had regained its vertical position1 it was found that no serious damage had been done1 but rather that the engineers had profited1 inasmuch as the caisson had buried itself some #af feet into the sand4 ,winter was approaching1 and so the engineers crowded on every man and effort possible1 in order to get the structure sunk to the requisite level before work would have to be abandoned for the season4 ,they departed from the engineer's axiom1 8,make haste slowly10 and paid the penalty4 ,when the bad weather broke1 compelling the return of all the workmen to shore1 the fabric was left insecure4 ,the lower part had been given its filling of concrete1 but above a certain level the fabric depended only upon the iron shell of the cylinder4 ,it was stiffened as much as possible with cross-timbers and bracing1 but the elements soon made short work of this puny defence4 ,the ,north ,sea1 in common with the other large stretches of water throughout the world1 was swept by terrible storms that winter1 and one morning1 when the sea was scanned from shore through glasses1 strange to say the caisson was nowhere to be seen4 ,all sorts of rumours were circulated to account for its disappearance1 among others being a sensational theory that the caisson1 having reached swampy ground while being sunk1 had simply dropped suddenly into the submarine quagmire1 and had been swallowed up completely4 ,but the divers1 when they could get out to the site and could venture into the ocean depths1 returned to the surface with a very different story4 ,the waves had snapped off the top of the caisson at the upper level of the concrete within1 and had carried it away4 ,thus ended summarily the first attempt to build a lighthouse upon the red sand at the entrance to the ,river ,weser4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,s4,s4 ,co4 ,,the ,,rothersand ,,lighthouse4 ,this magnificent light marks a dangerous shoal in the estuary of the ,weser4 ,the masonry tower is built upon a massive concrete caisson driven deeply into the sand4 ,the project1 however1 was not abandoned4 ,the ,society ,harkort was approached once more1 and requested to undertake the work upon its own terms4 ,the invitation was accepted1 but the firm1 realizing the abnormal risks incidental to the enterprise1 revised their price1 so as to provide for contingencies4 ,it demanded a sum of #db1fej1 or #bac1bej1 in return for which it undertook to supply a fully-equipped lighthouse less the illuminating apparatus4 ,the terms were accepted1 but the responsible authorities1 having suffered a heavy loss from the first failure1 decided to protect themselves against a similar disaster1 so exacted a bond for #ab1jjj1 or #fj1jjj1 to be returned when the work should be completed and accepted by the ,government4 ,the ,society ,harkort1 on its part1 reserved the right to withdraw from the undertaking in the event of the caisson sharing the fate which overtook the first structure4 ,the contracts were signed in ,september1 #ahhb1 and the task was commenced4 ,the first disaster was a blessing in disguise1 for the new engineers were able to turn the mistakes of their predecessors to advantage4 ,they designed a caisson of oval shape1 with pointed ends1 measuring #df feet in length by #cf feet wide4 ,it was an elaborate1 staunch structure1 towering to a height of #fj feet when launched4 ,at a height of #h feet from the bottom edge was a massive flooring built of iron4 ,the space below constituted the area in which the men were to work upon the sea-bed1 excavating the sand under compressed air1 while the lower rim was a cutting edge1 so as to facilitate the sinking of the mass as the sand was removed4 ,the upper part of the caisson was divided into four floors1 each of which was set aside for a specific purpose4 ,the lowest was the concrete-mixing chamber2 that above carried the machinery and boilers2 the third floor formed the living-quarters for the men who worked and slept on the structure2 while the top floor formed a deck1 and carried two powerful cranes whereby the material was lifted from the boats which drew alongside4 ,of course1 when the caisson had been lowered into the water and was eating its way deeper and deeper into the sand1 these platforms had to be moved higher and higher from time to time1 as the base of the tun became filled with concrete1 the outer walls of the fabric being increased to keep the top well above high-water mark4 ,when the caisson was completed on shore and sent into the water1 it was an impressive-looking monster4 ,the shell itself weighed #bde tons1 and with the various accessories aboard the weight was brought up to some #cce tons4 ,it then had to be loaded down to the required depth for towing1 for which purpose ballast in the form of pig-iron1 concrete1 and bricks1 to the extent of another #bde tons1 was stowed aboard1 while delicate precautions were taken to maintain stability4 ,the combined efforts of #abj men1 working day and night for #abg days1 were required to erect this caisson1 and on ,april #a1 #ahhc1 it was ready for its transportation to the site4 ,the towing operation was extremely difficult1 and the voyage out was full of exciting incident4 ,it was possible to advance only on the ebb-tide1 and the towing cables1 #e inches in diameter1 were specially manufactured for the operation4 ,two of the most powerful tugs owned by the ,north ,german ,lloyd ,steamship ,company were requisitioned1 three other steamers engaged in the conveyance of requirements between tower and shore accompanying the procession4 ,although the engineers were ready1 the weather1 with aggravating persistence1 refused to clear sufficiently to produce the smooth sea and calm demanded for the safe journey of the ungainly craft4 ,day after day slipped by1 with eighty men on the alert1 and with fires banked and steam raised on the vessels1 ready to weigh anchor at the first favourable moment4 ,fifty-five days passed before the weather bureau recommended that the conditions were suitable4 ,under the foregoing circumstances the expense of this delay may be realized4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fourteen-,,foot ,,bank ,,lighthouse1 ,,built ,,on ,,sand4 ,the erection of this structure constitutes a brilliant achievement in ,united ,states lighthouse engineering4 ,directly the intimation was conveyed that the tow could be attempted1 there was a scene of indescribable activity and bustle in the ,bremerhaven dock1 where the caisson was moored4 ,full steam was raised on the tugs1 and at half-past three in the morning of ,may #bf the mighty steel barrel moved out of the dock4 ,the towing ropes were hitched on1 and very slowly the 8,colossus10 as the caisson was named1 moved down the harbour1 accompanied by the whole fleet of nine vessels engaged in construction work1 so that the procession was imposing4 ,it dropped down the river without incident1 when1 the tide turning1 anchor was cast1 and all was made fast until another advance could be made at four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,but the rising tide was stronger than had been anticipated1 and trouble was soon encountered4 ,the caisson1 pressed by the current1 dragged and strained at the two tugs by which she was being towed1 causing them to slip their anchors4 ,it was an anxious moment4 ,the two vessels could not hold the 8,colossus02 in fact1 they were being towed backwards by it4 ,hurriedly another tug was called up1 and helped in the effort2 but although the three steamers put on full steam ahead1 they failed to keep the mass in check4 ,another tug was signalled1 and then1 under the combined effort of #cej horse-power1 driving for all it was worth against the current1 the four vessels mastered the swing of the scurrying water1 and had the 8,colossus0 under control4 ,a little later the procession continued on its way to the ,north ,sea1 but when the boats came up with the ,hoheweg lighthouse further disquieting news was received4 ,the keepers signalled that the barometer was falling1 and that a thunderstorm was hurrying across the ,north ,sea from ,england4 ,anchors were thrown out hurriedly1 and everything made snug and tight for the approaching storm4 ,it burst with fearful severity4 ,the waves got up1 the wind blew with fiendish velocity in terrifying gusts1 and the rain tumbled down in sheets4 ,the engineers were on tenterhooks the whole hour and a half the storm raged1 as they foresaw lively times if the unmanageable hulk broke loose4 ,but the 8,colossus0 rode the gale as quietly as if moored to a wharf in dock4 ,the storm1 however1 upset all calculations for the day4 ,there was no possibility of getting the caisson out and sunk before nightfall1 so the engineers prepared to pass the night at anchor1 and to start off again with the dawn4 ,the weather1 ruffled by the thunderstorm1 refused to settle down until a further day and night had been wasted4 ,then1 at #g4cj in the morning1 on a favourable tide1 anchors were weighed1 and1 steaming hard through a broken sea1 the tugs conveyed the caisson on its journey4 ,at last the procession reached the buoy marking the site4 ,the caisson was brought to rest1 the water was admitted gently through the valves1 and slowly1 steadily1 and vertically1 the shell sank lower and lower1 until a scarcely perceptible shock conveyed the intimation that it had touched bottom4 ,the most anxious part of the task was consummated with complete success3 the caisson had been got to the site and sunk4 ,then the task of burying it deeply and irremovably in the sand was hurried forward4 ,workmen descended into the space beneath the bottom floor and the sea-bed4 ,under compressed air they excavated the sand within the area to permit the cutting edge to sink lower and lower4 ,the sand1 as removed1 was lifted to the top of the 8,colossus0 and discharged overboard4 ,meanwhile the concrete-mixing machine got busy1 and the stone heart of the tun was fashioned rapidly4 ,under this increasing weight the sinking operation was assisted very appreciably4 ,by the middle of ,october the work had been advanced to such a stage that the total weight of the structure had been increased to over #c1cej tons1 and the top deck of the caisson1 which had grown in height by the attaching of successive rings of plates1 was about #ii feet above the cutting edge1 which had buried itself to a depth of #ea feet below low-water4 ,then work had to be abandoned1 as the autumnal gales sprang up4 ,the whole of the staff1 with the exception of two men1 who mounted guard over the work1 were taken back to ,bremerhaven4 ,the gales increased in fury1 culminating in a tempest similar to that which had destroyed the first caisson4 ,remembering the fate of that enterprise under such fearful pounding from wind and wave1 the ,harkort engineers naturally were somewhat anxious concerning the welfare of their handiwork under identical conditions4 ,but the new creation was overwhelmingly strong where its predecessor was weak1 although the seas1 baffled in their efforts to upset the caisson1 did not fail to leave their mark by knocking the superstructure and scaffolding about somewhat1 as well as carrying away a few weighty pieces of the top hamper4 ,work was resumed in ,february1 #ahhd1 and continued more or less regularly until ,november4 ,interruptions were of frequent occurrence1 so that only about one-quarter of the time available could be turned to useful account4 ,the structure which had been towed out of ,bremerhaven a year previously had disappeared from sight1 the rim of the barrel built on dry land being about #d feet below water2 but1 of course1 as the work proceeded and the caisson sank1 its walls were extended upwards1 as already explained4 ,when the structure had been sunk to its designed depth1 the steel shell was #ajg feet in height1 from the cutting edge to the top projecting above the water1 and nearly #dj feet of its height was buried in the ,rothersand4 ,to sink it to this level required the removal of #c1jjj cubic yards of sand from beneath the bottom floor of the structure2 while #di1ajj tons of material were brought out from ,bremerhaven and built into the steel shell to render it a solid elliptical mass1 with the exception of a short central hollow space which has a narrow conduit connection with the outer sea1 and which1 fitted with a float1 acts as a tide-gauge which may be read in the lighthouse4 ,from this massive concrete pedestal rises the tower proper1 which at the base is circular1 with a diameter of #cc feet4 ,this base rises in the form of a graceful concave curve to a height of #bf feet1 and is solid except for two water-tanks4 ,at the entrance level the tower is #bc feet in diameter4 ,above this are disposed four floors1 comprising the cellar1 storeroom1 kitchen1 and living-quarters for the men1 crowned by the lantern1 the gallery of which is #hj feet above low-water4 ,the external appearance of this interesting lighthouse is somewhat different from the general conception of such a building4 ,instead of being merely a circular top and lantern1 there are three semicircular turret-like projections on the dwelling-room and lantern levels1 which serve for directing and warning lights as well as for a lookout station4 ,the fickle character of the ,north ,sea where it rolls over the ,rothersand is reflected by an experience which befell the ,harkort engineer and the superintendent of erection for the authorities1 who wished to complete his duty of inspection4 ,the finishing touches were being applied1 a squad of twelve workmen being in the tower to continue the work during the winter4 ,the early ,december day was fair and the sea smooth1 as well as giving every indication of remaining quiescent for some hours4 ,the superintendent had arranged to spend his ,christmas holidays with some friends1 and desired to complete his duty in good time1 so that his sojourn might be free from care4 ,the two started off in the steamer1 and landed without effort4 ,but while they were engaged in their work of inspection the wind and sea freshened1 so that a boat could not be sent from the steamer to take them off4 ,it was an amusing situation which was keenly enjoyed at ,bremerhaven2 but all would be right on the morrow1 said everyone4 ,but the next day the weather was worse1 and continued so for day after day4 ,when a fortnight had passed without it being possible to succour the weather-bound engineers1 amusement gave way to anxiety1 more especially as a signal was flying from the tower which conveyed the unwelcome intelligence that one of the workmen had fallen ill4 ,the feelings of the superintendent may be imagined4 ,he had visions of spending his ,yuletide in a draughty1 half-finished lighthouse tower1 where comfort was conspicuous by its absence1 and where seasonal fare such as he had been anticipating keenly was unknown4 ,but on ,december #ba the constructional engineers1 having grown impatient with the weather1 sent out one of their boats1 with instructions to bring everyone ashore at all hazards4 ,the waves were running high and the wind was gusty1 but the steamer anchored as near the lighthouse as she dared1 and by means of her boats1 which were in momentary danger of being swamped1 brought off the two engineers as well as all the workmen except two4 ,the latter remained behind as a guard1 and1 being given a good stock of seasonal provisions and other necessities1 were left in their splendid isolation4 ,the superintendent1 after all1 was able to enjoy his ,christmas holidays4 ,the succeeding spring brought a resumption of toil1 and by ,september the tower was completed except for the illuminating apparatus4 ,one feature was observed during construction and had to receive attention4 ,the free swing of the currents and tides1 being obstructed by the tower1 had commenced heavy erosion1 big hollows being scooped out of the soft sea-bed around the caisson4 ,as it was quite possible that in the course of time this scouring might imperil the safety of the building1 protective works had to be undertaken4 ,these were of an elaborate character1 and comprised the sinking of mattresses1 fashioned from brushwood1 around the foundations1 upon which were dumped boatloads of broken stone4 ,this mattress had to be nearly #ej feet in width1 and in some places about #ae feet in thickness4 ,for this protective work alone some #agf1eej cubic feet of brushwood1 and #fjj tons of block-stone to hold it down1 were used4 ,these measures1 however1 effectually overcame the danger of erosion4 ,on ,november #a1 #ahhe1 the light was shown for the first time1 and the greatest peril at the entrance to the ,weser was indicated far and wide by night and day4 ,it was a magnificent achievement1 carried through in the face of enormous difficulties1 sensational incidents innumerable1 and upon a foundation of disaster4 ,the lighthouse is as firm as if it were anchored upon a solid granite rock1 instead of having its roots thrust deep into treacherous shifting sand1 and constitutes an imperishable monument to ,german engineering ability2 while1 all things considered1 the cost was low1 being only #dc1djj1 or #bag1jjj1 in all4 ,the light is electric1 the power being supplied from a station on shore1 and fed to the lighthouse through a submarine cable2 the keepers are also in submarine telegraphic communication with the mainland4 ,when the ,united ,states set out to build a similar structure in the spacious ,delaware ,bay1 they were confronted with a prospect just as forbidding1 and a task in every way as difficult1 as that offered in connection with the ,rothersand4 ,there is a dangerous shoal about twenty miles off the land1 where the ,atlantic beats with furious rage1 and where vessels were apt to stick hard and fast4 ,it was described as 8,fourteen ,foot ,bank0 by mariners1 from the depth of the water flowing over the shoal1 and this colloquialism has provided the name for the present guardian light4 ,the open situation did not augur favourably for the completion of a lighthouse at this spot1 but the ,american engineers were resolved to make the attempt4 ,accordingly1 plans were prepared for a construction upon the caisson principle1 which was the only method promising success4 ,the preliminary step was the fabrication of a caisson4 ,the first part was more like a raft with sides4 ,it was about #dj feet square1 #e feet thick1 and with walls #g feet deep4 ,it was built of timber1 the staves being #ab inches square1 and upside down--that is1 with the floor uppermost--on a building-slip1 as if it were a ship1 and was launched into the water upon similar lines4 ,the sides and top were lined1 so as to secure water-tightness4 ,in the centre there was a circular space #e feet in diameter to form the air-shaft4 ,as the structure was built upside down1 the rim was brought to the lowermost position1 and this formed the cutting edge1 which was to be sunk into the sand4 ,on this floating platform a circular iron cylinder was erected4 ,this tube was #ce feet in diameter1 and was built up in plates1 #f feet in width by #a inches thick4 ,when three rings of iron were set up the cylinder was #ah feet in height4 ,in order to sink it to a depth of #ae feet into the water for towing purposes1 it was charged with a layer of concrete1 #i inches in thickness1 to serve as ballast1 and in this condition the caisson weighed #djj tons4 ,this huge barrel was built at ,lewes1 ,delaware1 and when it was launched two powerful steam-tugs set out to drag it to the shoal1 twenty miles away4 ,as the tide rises and falls a matter of #f feet in these waters1 and the currents are somewhat wicked1 the engineers displayed no undue haste4 ,they waited for the first favourable opportunity1 and seized it4 ,but it took the two tugs some six hours to reach the site2 an average speed of about three and a half miles per hour cannot be construed into fast travelling4 ,when the mighty caisson had been warped and nudged dead into position over the desired spot1 water was admitted4 ,with a gurgling and hissing the hulk sank slowly into the sea4 ,at last a slight jolt1 which quivered through the mass1 signified that the structure was resting on the bottom4 ,the engineers gave a sigh of relief1 but the next instant changed it to a cry of dismay4 ,the caisson began to heel over to one side4 ,was it going to capsize8 ,that was the absorbing fear4 ,it canted more and more1 until at last it had a list of #ab degrees4 ,it had not sunk vertically6 ,there was less than #af inches of water between the sea-level and the rim when the caisson first jarred against the sand1 and if it careened over too far the water certainly would rush in1 roll the whole tub over1 and tumble it hither and thither over the sea-bed4 ,the engineers watched that caisson as closely as a cat watches a mouse-hole4 ,presently it eased up1 and then1 as the tide rose some six hours later1 it began to right itself4 ,the engineers were relieved once more4 ,the danger was over4 ,but their self-satisfaction was soon upset as the tide began to ebb1 because again the cylinder gradually fell over on its side4 ,the cause of this strange behaviour flashed upon them4 ,the surface of the sandbank was not level6 ,the mass in sinking had touched bottom on the highest point of the shoal1 and was trying to find its own level4 ,without any further delay1 the engineers decided upon an ingenious means of correcting this erratic and dangerous action4 ,the tugs were despatched hurriedly to ,lewes to bring out cargoes of broken stone1 which had been delivered for the preparation of the concrete4 ,while the steamers pursued their errand1 the engineers fashioned large pockets on the elevated section of the structure1 into which the stone upon its arrival was placed4 ,gradually but surely the caisson not only was corrected1 but the weighted end was induced to settle into the sand1 until the opposite free edge in its turn was resting upon the shoal4 ,in this manner all danger of further canting now was removed4 ,as the rim had been brought perilously near the water-level1 and there was a possibility of flooding from a rough sea1 the walls of the caisson were extended vertically with all haste2 meanwhile two additional rings of iron were placed in position1 and the top was brought about #bj feet above the water4 ,while this work was in progress the structure gradually bit farther and farther into the sand1 until at last it secured a firm hold4 ,at the earliest possible moment the air-compressors were set to work1 and air was driven into the space between the cutting edge and the roof1 in which the men were to work4 ,this space was #dj feet square and #g feet deep4 ,the greater pressure of the air drove the water out from this space1 and the men were able to enter through the air-lock and to work upon a dry surface1 isolated from the surrounding sea by the fence formed by the cutting edge4 ,the men toiled in eight-hour shifts continuously1 removing the sand within the space and sending it upwards to be discharged overboard4 ,as the area was excavated1 the cutting edge sank deeper and deeper1 so that the structure became more and more firmly embedded4 ,there was apprehension that the obstruction offered by the caisson to the movement of the currents might set up undermining around the cylinder1 as in the case of the ,rothersand2 but the engineers arrested any tendency in this direction by dumping large pieces of stone overboard around the tub4 ,some #f1jjj tons of stone were used for this purpose1 so that the caisson has an impregnable protection4 ,as the structure sank lower and lower1 owing to the excavation1 concrete was dumped around the air-tube above the floor of the space in which the men were labouring1 while successive rings of iron were added to the top of the cylinder4 ,the men worked with great gusto in their novel situation1 and1 the task being prosecuted uninterruptedly throughout the day and night1 the cylinder sank from #ab to #bd inches during the twenty-four hours4 ,this labour was maintained until the cutting edge of the caisson was #cc feet below the surface of the shoal1 when the engineers called halt4 ,they considered that the task had been continued to a sufficient depth to secure the requisite rigidity for their lighthouse4 ,the men left the working chamber1 which was then tightly underrammed with sand1 so as to form a solid foundation1 while the air-shaft was filled up with rammed sand and sealed with a thick plug of concrete4 ,the wall of the iron cylinder had been intermittently increased in height by the addition of successive rings of plates1 until the rim was #gj feet above the cutting edge and projected about #cj feet above the water at low-tide4 ,from the bottom to a height of #dj feet it is virtually a solid mass of concrete1 protected by a skin of iron #a inches thick4 ,further concrete was added1 bringing the solid section to within #aj feet of the rim1 so that the concrete heart is about #ec feet in height and #ce feet in diameter4 ,it is a solid circular rock sunk into the sand1 and as firm and free from vibration as a granite core4 ,upon this foundation a house for the light-keepers1 crowned by a tower1 was erected1 the focal plane being #ei feet above mean high-water4 ,it is fitted with a light of the fourth order1 visible for thirteen miles4 ,one of the most important features in connection with the ,fourteen ,foot ,bank light was its small cost1 which was below the estimate1 especially when it is compared with the ,german work4 ,the ,united ,states ,government appropriated a sum of #ce1jjj1 or #age1jjj1 for the undertaking1 but the total expenditure was less than #be1jjj1 or #abe1jjj1 so that a sum of #aj1jjj1 or #ej1jjj1 was handed back to the ,treasury--a most unusual event in connection with ,government contracts4 ,the lighthouse was finished and brought into service in #ahhf4 ,the success of this novel enterprise prompted the authorities to essay a more daring project--the erection of a lighthouse upon the caisson principle on the ,outer ,diamond ,shoal1 off ,cape ,hatteras1 ,north ,carolina4 ,but the storms encountered off this inhospitable coast have proved too overpowering for the engineer4 ,numerous attempts have been made1 but disaster has been their invariable fate4 ,the ,diamond ,shoal refuses to be indicated by anything except a lightship4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,some ,,light ,,patrols ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,coast ,in the matter of safeguarding its shores the ,french nation has displayed considerable enterprise1 and its engineers have added some magnificent contributions to this field of engineering4 ,the maintenance and welfare of these aids to navigation is placed in the hands of the ,service des ,phares1 which is controlled by the ,department of ,bridges and ,roads4 ,the ,french scheme is the disposition of the lights along the shore in such a way that their ranges overlap on either side1 so that1 as one passes along the coast1 before one ray is dropped the next is picked up4 ,electricity is employed extensively as the illuminant1 so that the lights are of great power and twinkle like brilliant white stars on a clear night4 ,while the majority of these guides are erected on the mainland1 others rise from islands lying off the coast1 which1 by their position in deep water1 render navigation hazardous4 ,the finest expressions of ,french lighthouse engineering are to be found along the rugged islet-dotted coast of the huge indentation in which lie the ,channel ,islands--the cruel coast of ,brittany4 ,it was off the western extremity of ,brittany1 which thrusts itself well out into the ,atlantic ,ocean1 forming the point generally known as ,ushant1 that the ,drummond ,castle lost her way1 to pull up with a fatal crash against one of the jagged reefs stretching to seaward4 ,while this wreck was but one of many in these troubled waters1 it sent a thrill round the world1 owing to the terrible loss of life with which it was accompanied4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the ,french ,government has endeavoured to remove the evil notoriety which this coast has reaped1 and to render it as safe as the other stretches lying to the north and south4 ,the conditions1 however1 are against the engineer1 as the nose of the mainland projects well into the ocean1 and receives the full brunt of its attacks when gales rage1 so that a foothold is precarious4 ,when the question of lighting this inhospitable stretch of coast arose1 the ,french authorities debated whether it would not be easier1 cheaper1 and more satisfactory1 to place the lighthouses on the mainland at a sufficient altitude1 and to fit them with adequately powerful lights to indicate the outlying reefs4 ,the general opinion was in favour of such a practice4 ,so when ,lonce ,reynaud proposed to mark the ,heaux de ,brhat with a magnificent tower1 there was considerable opposition4 ,the critics maintained that it was a flagrant temptation of ,fate to attempt the conquest of such an evil wave-swept rock1 the head of which was barely visible above high-water1 and was of such small dimensions that work would be possible for only a few hours daily and then by no more than a mere handful of men4 ,the engineer was confident that he could surmount all difficulties in construction1 and that he would be able to erect a tower which would defy wind and wave1 so he gained the day and received the requisite sanction to proceed with his undertaking4 ,he had surveyed the rock and its surroundings thoroughly2 had discovered the velocity of the currents1 and their varying directions under all conditions of weather4 ,they tore along at about nine and a half miles an hour1 and this speed was augmented considerably in rough weather4 ,he selected the site for the lighthouse about nine miles from the ,isle of ,brhat1 where landing would have to be made at low-water1 owing to the water rushing first from the island to the rock1 and then in the opposite direction1 according to the movements of the tides4 ,the ,isle of ,brhat was made the base for operations4 ,it is freely indented1 and one of the coves was found to form an excellent little harbour4 ,a rough stone jetty was run out for a length of #agj feet1 and while one fleet of boats was retained to convey material from the island to the rock1 another was kept to bring supplies to the island for preparation1 and the support of the men1 whose quarters were established at this depot4 ,sixty men were employed on the work4 ,they dressed the granite stones and prepared the woodwork as it arrived in the raw condition1 ample workshops being provided for these purposes4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,heaux ,,de ,,br,,hat ,,light4 ,a striking tower built by ,lonce ,reynaud off the exposed ,brittany coast4 ,it is #aei feet high and took six years to complete4 ,the face of the rock was cleaned off during the brief intervals when it was bared by the sea1 and rough stones and masonry were laid in concrete and continued solidly to a point #ac feet above high-water4 ,around this confined platform quarters were built for the handful of men who stayed on the rock during the periods of calm weather1 as too much time was lost in travelling to and from the island1 while there were risks of landing being interrupted by the swell4 ,a temporary light was also placed in position while constructional work was proceeding1 to warn navigation4 ,the facilities also included a small forge for the fashioning upon the spot of the iron dogs and bolts whereby the stones were clamped together1 and this proved highly convenient1 except for one thing3 when the water was somewhat rough and playful1 the waves1 striking the rock1 flew into the air1 soused the forge1 and extinguished the fire4 ,the preparations of the foundations proved exceedingly tedious4 ,the rock is a very hard black porphyry1 but the surface was so scarred with fissures and deep cracks that the whole of the upper surface had to be cleaned off1 so as to remove all rotten and splintered rock in order to secure a firm1 solid foundation4 ,then a circle #ch feet in diameter was marked off1 and masons cut away all the rock around this line to a depth of about #bj inches and of sufficient width to take the stones--a trench1 as it were4 ,this work had to be executed during the short period of low-water1 and a special schedule was prepared to insure the men concentrating the whole of their energies upon the task when opportunity offered4 ,as the ebbing tide began to bare the space1 the workmen were called1 and they followed the receding water1 never leaving the spot for meals1 but toiling continuously until the returning tide drove them off4 ,as a rule the men were sufficiently fleet to get clear untouched1 although they delayed their retreat until the very last moment2 but at other times the sea was a trifle quicker1 and the men received an unexpected douche from a scurrying wave4 ,when this trench had been cleared out and the face levelled1 the outer ring of stones was laid and secured firmly in position4 ,the inner space of the rock was left in its roughly trimmed condition1 and was then buried beneath cement and rock to the level of the outer ring of stones1 forming a platform ready to receive the mass of the tower4 ,the outer ring was the main consideration1 and the work had to be finished in such a manner that a tight joint was made with the rock1 to resist the penetration of the water4 ,when the men were compelled to lay down their tools for the coming tide1 they hastily applied a thick covering of quick-drying cement to the work completed1 thereby protecting it against the disintegrating and percolating action of the sea4 ,ere the work had started thoroughly1 the engineer was faced with a trouble which he had not anticipated4 ,the men were left to attend to their own desires in the way of provisions4 ,this haphazard arrangement had the inevitable sequel4 ,some of the men were stricken down with scurvy1 and the disease promised to secure a firm hold1 when the engineer stepped in with a firm hand4 ,he established a canteen1 the contractor of which was compelled to maintain a supply of varied provisions for six months at least1 lest the little colony should become isolated by rough weather4 ,a regular varied bill of fare was imposed upon the workmen1 who were compelled to purchase their requirements from the canteen4 ,by this firm and timely action the disease was stamped out4 ,the engineer also enforced other stringent regulations in the interests of health4 ,the men were compelled to bathe once a week1 and had to turn their sleeping-blankets into the open air every day2 while the quarters had to be washed out and the walls given a dressing of limewash at frequent intervals4 ,illustration3 ,,fitting ,,the ,,lantern ,,of ,,la ,,jument ,,light4 ,when the visitor approaches the tower for the first time1 he cannot fail to be impressed by its unusual design4 ,it appears as if a former tower of great diameter had been decapitated1 and another more slender building placed upon its butt4 ,this is due to the ingenious idea adopted by ,reynaud4 ,the lower part of the tower rises like the trunk of a tree from the base1 which is a solid plinth1 to a height of #ci feet above highest spring-tides4 ,at the top this lower tower is #bh feet in diameter1 as compared with #ch feet at the base4 ,here the butt is levelled off1 and from its surface rises the lighthouse proper1 in the form of a slightly tapering cone1 leaving a narrow gallery around the superimposed structure to serve as a 8set-off0 and landing or entrance platform4 ,in carrying out his work1 ,reynaud followed a principle quite divergent from the prevailing practice in lighthouse construction4 ,he did not attach every stone irremovably to its neighbours1 but merely made fast the masonry at varying points1 where the mass of water might be expected to expend the greater part of its violence4 ,the method he adopted is very simple4 ,keystones are introduced at selected points in each course1 and these are driven up and held tight by granite plugs and wedges4 ,the principle was assailed at the time as being deficient in strength1 but no apprehensions ever have arisen concerning the safety of the tower1 so that the engineer's daring ingenuity has been completely justified4 ,considering the isolation of the rock and its wind-swept position1 it was built in a very short time4 ,the whole of the year #ahcd was devoted to the survey of the rock1 close observations of the prevailing meteorological conditions1 and the preparation of the design4 ,the succeeding year was confined to the establishment of the workmen's quarters1 the cutting of the annular trench in the rock1 and the setting of the masonry course4 ,the erection of the superstructure occupied nearly four years1 the work being completed and the light exhibited in #ahei1 according to the inscription4 ,the tower is #aei feet in height1 and the light has a range of eighteen miles4 ,since the ,heaux de ,brhat was conquered so successfully1 ,french lighthouse engineering skill has been manifested actively around the ill-famed ,brittany coast1 which now is robbed of the greater part of its dangers4 ,reynaud's work1 however1 did not bring complete safety to the waters from which it lifts its imposing form4 ,four miles off the self-same island is the plateau of ,horaine4 ,this is a chain of rocks1 the greatest peril of which is that at high-tide nothing whatever of them is seen1 and their existence is betrayed only by the agitated and broken waves rushing over them with fearful force4 ,as the tide falls the water becomes more tormented1 and is torn into flying foam1 until1 when it has almost ebbed1 these jagged fangs may be seen projecting above the surf4 ,bearing in mind these terrible characteristics1 it is not surprising that time after time vessels which had been driven out of their course by tempestuous weather1 or had got lost in a dense fog1 blundered into this death-trap and were lost4 ,the ,french ,government was sorely puzzled as to how to overcome this danger4 ,the engineers fought the elements valiantly for forty years in an effort to crown ,horaine with a beacon1 but time after time they were defeated4 ,landing on the reef is highly dangerous4 ,the rocks are surrounded by surging1 eddying currents1 running at anything from six miles upwards per hour1 while the slightest ruffle of wind is quite sufficient to stir up the water so as to fling it swirling over the rocks even at lowest tide4 ,once or twice1 when a period of abnormal calm prevailed1 the engineers struggled on to the rock and hurriedly built a substantial masonry beacon1 but its life was always brief4 ,the first two or three gales which pounded and roared over the chain invariably scattered the handiwork of man in all directions4 ,then another expedient was attempted4 ,a party landed upon the ridge1 drove a hole into the solid rock1 and there set a vertical iron girder #d inches in thickness1 trusting that it would hold fast and indicate the reef sufficiently during the day4 ,but its life was short4 ,a gale came along and snapped the post in twain1 leaving a twisted1 bent stump1 some #cf inches long1 remaining on the rock4 ,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,jument ,,light4 ,this illustration conveys an idea of the difficulties encountered in connection with this work4 ,in #ahij another bold effort to subjugate the ridge was made4 ,an hexagonal structure was designed1 and it was determined to plant this on the rock by hook or by crook1 and so firmly as to resist the most powerful hammerings to which it could be subjected by the waves4 ,six holes were bored into the rock surface to form the corners of the hexagon4 ,but before commencing the work proper it was decided to insert an iron post1 #f inches thick1 into one of the holes1 and to leave it to see what would happen4 ,time after time it was inspected1 and was found to be safe and sound4 ,two years had slipped by1 practically1 since the post was planted1 and it was still intact4 ,the engineers thought they had triumphed1 and were preparing their plans1 when the news came that a heavy storm1 which had swept the coast1 had broken the pillar off flush with the rock4 ,this necessitated another change in the designs and the plan of campaign4 ,after further discussion it was decided to proceed right away with a masonry tower1 although the engineers were prepared for a mighty tussle4 ,the surveys showed that1 as the rock upon which the building was to be erected was covered by #aj feet of water during the highest spring-tides1 work upon the foundations would be confined to the lowest neap-tides1 when about #d feet of the rock were exposed4 ,but the tide sinks to the very low level desired infrequently--about four days in every month4 ,even then work would be possible for only about an hour per day--four hours per month6 ,the prospect certainly was far from being attractive1 especially as even to accomplish this meed of toil the calmest weather and smoothest sea were imperative1 and it was scarcely to be expected that everything would be in favour of the engineers at one and the same time4 ,another adverse feature was only too apparent4 ,if unpropitious weather prevailed just after an hour or two's work had been completed1 the chances were a thousand to one that it would be swept away4 ,but this was a contingency which had to be faced4 ,the engineer could only do the utmost humanly possible to secure his work1 and then must trust to luck4 ,with infinite difficulty a small corps of daring workmen and appliances of the simplest description1 together with materials1 were got out to the rock upon the first favourable day when there was a very low tide4 ,an outer wall of bricks was built piecemeal1 and the space within was filled with concrete4 ,this stood1 and so the engineer secured a level plinth upon which to place his tower4 ,he selected an octagonal building1 the angles of which touch the circumference of a circle #bj feet in diameter described on the rock4 ,it was to be #ej feet in height1 bringing the warning light about #dj feet above high-water4 ,the beacon was to be a concrete monolithic structure at least for the greater part of its height1 as the light was to be of the unattended class4 ,accordingly1 the mould was formed by setting a cast-iron post1 #ah inches in height1 at each corner of the octagon1 this support being anchored into the solid rock beneath4 ,these posts contained grooves to admit sliding wooden uprights1 which were to be firmly wedged1 these joists being inclined to take the angle1 or batter1 proposed for the tower4 ,heavy transverse pieces of timber were laid between these posts1 forming a capacious octagonal box1 into which the concrete was poured4 ,as the filling process behind the wooden wall advanced1 angle pieces of steel were superimposed and bolted up4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,jument ,,light ,,recently ,,erected ,,off ,,ushant4 ,this beacon was built with a legacy left by ,m4 ,potron1 a distinguished ,french traveller1 in the interests of humanity4 ,the security of the structure occupied the sole attention of the engineer4 ,when work had to cease1 and the boat put off with the workmen after a spell of toil1 the engineer would watch the rising tide and the waves sweeping over his structure1 until at last it disappeared from sight4 ,as the tide fell he followed the receding waters just as eagerly1 and gave a sigh of relief when he saw that the tower was still withstanding the blind forces of ,nature4 ,in the early stages an effort to protect the work1 when the men had to retreat before the rising tide1 was made by covering it with a heavy piece of sailcloth1 lashed down and weighted in position with huge masses of pig-iron4 ,this served its purpose for a time1 but finally the sea got the upper hand1 tore the canvas from its lashings1 and carried it away1 together with the whole of its weights4 ,then a wooden protective device was employed1 and this likewise held out until a particularly unfriendly ,september gale smashed it to matchwood1 as well as damaging the concrete slightly here and there4 ,the men took their tools and materials with them on every visit1 and1 as the tower rose1 the working spells between the tides became longer and longer1 until1 when a point above high-water was reached1 work was continued throughout the day whenever the rock was approachable4 ,a small wooden platform was erected on one side1 on which the concrete was mixed1 while on the other there was a little shelf with a small cistern1 which was filled with water from the boats below1 through the agency of a pump4 ,a jury derrick was rigged up to lift the material and men to the working level4 ,as the tower rose in height1 the wooden mould had to be dismembered and re-erected upon the new level1 this operation being repeated no less than forty times until the desired height was gained4 ,work was exasperatingly slow and intermittent1 while it had to be suspended entirely for about six or seven months1 as no one dared to venture near the rock in winter4 ,taken on the whole1 it was one of the most anxious and difficult pieces of the work of this character which the ,french ,government has ever undertaken1 while the working area was so confined that less than a dozen men could toil simultaneously without getting in one another's way4 ,recently the ,brittany coast has been further protected by another magnificent beacon1 the ,jument lighthouse1 off ,ushant4 ,this awful spot has long been marked by a very powerful electric light at ,creach1 which may be seen over twenty miles away1 and1 together with its fellow on the opposite end of the island1 may be said to guide the crowded shipping around this promontory very effectively4 ,but foggy weather reduces the mariner to helplessness1 as the sea for two miles round the island is studded with reefs1 ridges and rocky humps of a very formidable character1 so that vessels have to keep well beyond this zone4 ,when the light is obscured1 safe travelling is possible only by going very slowly and making liberal use of the lead1 while the captain must keep a sharp eye upon the rapid currents which set inshore if he would not be thrown upon the rocks he is seeking sedulously to avoid4 ,the ,french ,government1 with its characteristic thoroughness1 determined to secure the complete indication of the ,ushant and all its dangers by a carefully-conceived and comprehensive chain of lights distributed over the dangerous area4 ,the urgency of such a scheme is obvious when it is remembered that it is computed that #bd1jjj vessels of all classes pass ,ushant in the course of the year4 ,at the same time the sea's harvest of vessels and lives off this rocky shore every year is appallingly heavy4 ,the only handicap to the immediate completion of the ,government's humane project is the extreme difficulty of the work and its prodigious cost4 ,fortunately1 through the extreme generosity of a ,french traveller--,m4 ,potron--it was rendered possible to commence the scheme4 ,upon his death1 and according to the terms of his will1 dated ,january #i1 #aijd1 this gentleman left #djj1jjj francs--#af1jjj1 or #hj1jjj--;for the erection of a lighthouse of the latest type and with the most powerful lighting apparatus off the coast washed by the open ,atlantic1 and even suggested that a site off ,ushant would be found the most beneficial to humanity4 ,after consultation between his executor1 residuary legatee1 and the ,government1 a rock known as ,la ,jument1 off the south of the ,ile d',ouessant 7,ushant7 was selected for the site of his monument4 ,the lighthouse engineers advocated a tower #aah feet in height1 with a light of the latest type and a modern fog-signalling apparatus4 ,this proposal was accepted1 and was sanctioned on ,november #ah1 #aijd1 by the parties concerned4 ,headquarters were established in the ,bay of ,lampaul1 on ,ushant ,island1 which immediately faces the site1 and by the end of #aijd the preparations were well advanced4 ,a steamboat1 a launch and a lifeboat were secured1 the first-named for the purpose of maintaining communication with the mainland and to bring in supplies1 together with suitable craft for transporting material and provisions to the rock4 ,the situation of the ledge and its exposure to the worst weather rendered approach very difficult4 ,the danger spot itself is completely covered at high-tide1 and only projects #d feet at low-water4 ,so far as the foundations were concerned1 work was only possible for a few hours at a time4 ,during the closing months of #aijd seventeen landings were made and fifty-two hours in all spent upon the rock1 while in the succeeding year the men landed fifty-nine times1 to put in an aggregate of #bjf hours4 ,the current rushes round the reef with a velocity of some ten miles per hour1 varying its direction according to the movements of the tides4 ,investigation proved the existence of a small space of water on one side where the boats could approach and moor safely in an eddy4 ,the men were brought out in the steamer1 which also towed the launch and the lifeboat4 ,the latter was kept in readiness alongside the rock while the men were at work1 in case of emergency4 ,a sharp eye had to be kept upon the weather while the handful of men laboured hastily preparing the face of the rock1 and at the first signs of a threatening sky or increased movement in the swell the steamer blew its siren1 the men scrambled aboard1 and were hurried back to the island4 ,the year #aijf was one of bad weather1 rendering frequent approach impossible4 ,during this season the men landed only thirty-nine times and toiled for #aeb hours1 while the sum of their achievement was the least throughout the whole seven years which the tower occupied in its erection4 ,the building is solid for about #cj feet above the rock1 and in #aijh the construction of the tower proper was commenced4 ,the base is circular1 with a diameter of #cc feet2 but the tower itself is of octagonal form1 with a diameter at the base of #bh feet1 tapering slightly to the top4 ,one notable feature in connection with the work was the utilization of electricity for the operation of the derrick1 which was driven by a petrol motor coupled thereto4 ,this was supplemented in times of pressure with another derrick1 driven by current generated on the steamer1 from which a cable trailed to the rock4 ,altogether #d1ahj tons of masonry were transported to the rock and set in position4 ,during the seven years the work was in progress1 from the first landing to the final withdrawal of the workmen1 #ddi landings were made and #b1icg hours of work put in4 ,the largest annual aggregate of labour was in #aiaa1 when #gj landings were made and #djj hours turned to useful purpose4 ,the tower1 which is of imposing appearance1 has six floors for the convenience of the keeper1 stores1 etc4 ,the apartment immediately beneath the lantern contains the fog-signalling apparatus1 which comprises a siren driven by air which is compressed for the purpose by means of a fourteen horse-power petrol motor4 ,the signal is as follows3 ,three blasts of one and a half seconds' duration with intervening intervals of one and a half seconds1 followed by a silent period of fifty-two and a half seconds1 one cycle thus being emitted every minute4 ,the light1 which is thrown from an elevation of #aaj feet above high-water1 throws groups of three red flashes at intervals of fifteen seconds1 and has a maximum range of twenty miles in very clear weather4 ,in accordance with the terms of the donor's will1 the light is named after the rock upon which it stands1 and therefore is known as the ,jument of ,ushant lighthouse4 ,the benefactor's second wish is also respected in the inscription wrought in the solid granite1 which translated runs3 8,this lighthouse was built with the legacy of ,charles ,eugne ,potron1 traveller1 and member of the ,geographical ,society of ,paris40 ,the sum set aside by this benefactor of humanity1 however1 did not defray the entire cost of the lighthouse4 ,as a matter of fact1 the total outlay on the undertaking was more than twice the sum left for the purpose1 totalling #hej1jjj francs--#cd1jjj1 or #agj1jjj4 ,the ,government decided that the munificence of its citizen offered the opportunity to carry out the first instalment of the scheme it had in view upon the most complete lines--hence the heavy disbursement4 ,nevertheless the origin of the ,jument lighthouse is almost unprecedented in the annals of lighthouse engineering1 and it probably ranks as the first important light which has been built in accordance with the terms1 and with funds1 left by a will4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,guardian ,,lights ,,of ,,canada',s ,,coast ,the phenomenal commercial expansion of the ,dominion of ,canada1 which has brought about an amazing development in the maritime traffic with that country on both its seaboards1 naturally has been responsible for the display of striking activity in the provision of aids to navigation4 ,both the ,atlantic and ,pacific coastlines bristle with dangers of a most terrible nature2 the innumerable islands and precipitous flanks of rock recall the wild ruggedness of the western coast of ,scotland or the forbidding ,atlantic shoreline of ,france and ,spain4 ,when the ships of ,britain first traded with ,canadian shores1 shipwrecks and ocean tragedies were numerous2 there is no escape for a ship which is caught on those pitiless coasts4 ,the early settlers1 therefore1 did not hesitate to provide ways and means of guiding navigators to safety4 ,their first lights were primitive1 comprising bonfires fed with wood1 of which ample supplies abounded1 pitched on prominent headlands2 and these flickering rays1 when not obscured by smoke and fog1 served to speed the ship safely on her way4 ,the ,british pioneers1 naturally1 did not hesitate to improve upon these uncertain crude methods of warning1 in course of time1 by the erection of more substantial lights4 ,these for the most part comprised timber-frame dwellings1 used by the family entrusted with the maintenance of the light1 from the roof of which a wooden tower extended1 similar in design to the buildings favoured for a similar purpose in the ,united ,states4 ,many lights of this class are still doing faithful service to-day1 and although one might anticipate the destruction of such a beacon from fire1 yet1 owing to the unremitting care displayed by the families associated with the upkeep thereof1 this awful fiend has not been responsible for the temporary extinction of many lights in the country's history4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,the ,,cape ,,race ,,lighthouse1 ,,newfoundland4 ,one of the finest and most powerful beacons in the world4 ,it is filled with the hyperradiant apparatus1 and the ray is of #a1ajj1jjj candle-power4 ,one of the oldest1 if not the first light to be established1 was that on ,sambro ,island1 to indicate the entrance into ,halifax ,harbour1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,this signpost of the sea was set up in #ageh1 and fulfilled its purpose for #adh years1 when it was reconstructed and fitted with the most up-to-date appliances4 ,the white flash now bursts forth1 at an elevation of #adj feet above mean high-water1 from the top of a white octagonal stone and concrete tower1 and is visible from a distance of seventeen miles4 ,when it is blotted out by fog1 a powerful signal is given once every ten minutes by a cotton-powder charge4 ,mariners1 however1 are cautioned against attempting to make ,sambro in fog1 as the shore is wild and cruel4 ,this explosive signal is emitted rather to communicate a timely warning to vessels which have lost their way4 ,the two most dangerous spots in the approach to ,canada1 however1 lie off the mainland4 ,one is the irregular triangular island of ,newfoundland2 the other is a low-lying stretch of sand known as ,sable ,island4 ,both are amongst the most ill-famed graveyards in the ,north ,atlantic1 where hundreds of ships have gone to their doom4 ,even to-day1 although both are well protected by lights1 wrecks are by no means uncommon4 ,sable ,island is stalked by the ghosts of scores of seafarers who have been the victims of some ghastly ocean tragedy upon its banks4 ,the island of ,newfoundland lies in the jaw of the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence1 with two narrow passages leading between the ,gulf behind and the broad ,atlantic4 ,both straits offer dangers to navigation1 although in this respect that of ,belle ,ile1 whereby the northern corner of the island is rounded1 is the worse offender4 ,yet the most dangerous corner of the island is1 not where the waterways are hemmed in1 but that tongue which thrusts itself far out to sea1 to terminate in the bluff headland of ,cape ,race4 ,this shoreline is as serrated as a fine saw1 being a succession of indentations and steep promontories1 with submerged reefs running far out to sea4 ,to the south lies that great submerged tableland1 invariably curtained in fog1 where mighty icebergs that have come down from the north pound and grate themselves to pieces1 which throughout the shipping world is regarded with dread--the ,grand ,banks4 ,this south-eastward corner of the island1 by being thrust so far outwards1 brings the rocky headlands into the path of the vessels plying between ,europe1 ,canada1 and ,new ,york4 ,the shortest route between the ,old and ,new ,world extends across the northern half of the ,banks1 with a slight swing southwards to avoid ,cape ,race4 ,so far as the great liners are concerned1 they are spared this peril1 inasmuch as their prescribed lanes give the cruel coast a wide berth2 but all other shipping has either to swing round the headland to enter the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 or strike farther north and pass through the ,strait of ,belle ,ile4 ,the latter route1 however1 is available for only five months in the year2 the greater volume of the traffic skirts the southern shores of the island4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,cann ,,island ,,lighthouse ,,on ,,the ,,east ,,coast ,,of ,,newfoundland4 ,this is a typical example of a wooden frame building4 ,the tower projects from the roof of the home of the lighthouse-keeper and his family4 ,under these circumstances ,cape ,race is to the western side of the ,atlantic what the ,fastnet and ,bishop ,rocks are to the eastern boundaries of this ocean4 ,even if the wild character of the coast were not sufficient justification for a light1 the currents experienced off these shores1 which are of high velocity and violently broken up by the indentations and protuberances1 would demand the provision of a beacon4 ,over one hundred vessels of all descriptions have been smashed to pieces in the vicinity of ,cape ,race alone4 ,the ,allan liner ,anglo-,saxon crashed into the cliffs and went down in #ahfd with #bij souls4 ,in this instance the death-roll would have been far heavier had it not been for the pluck and grit of the lighthouse-keepers1 who1 observing the wreck1 hurried to the water's edge1 lowered themselves with ropes from the heights above1 and1 stumbling1 groping1 and feeling their way through the darkness1 at imminent risk to their own limbs and lives1 rescued #acj of the luckless passengers and crew from the wreck1 who were huddled on a ledge under the cliffs1 hungry1 shivering with cold1 and too exhausted to assist themselves4 ,the light-keepers and men from the telegraph-station had to lift these helpless survivors one by one to the top of the precipice1 a task demanding herculean effort1 patience1 and intrepidity1 and to lead and help them to the lighthouse1 where they were tended until a steamer1 answering the telegraphic call for help1 came round from ,st4 ,john's and took the hapless people off4 ,in #aija the ,assyrian ran ashore in calm weather1 and was too firmly jammed on a reef to extricate herself4 ,a week later another fine vessel and cargo worth #hj1jjj1 or #djj1jjj1 was battered to pulp by the waves1 the lighthouse-keepers once more1 at great risk to themselves1 putting out and rescuing those on board in the nick of time4 ,ere the excitement of this wreck had died down1 a ,french emigrant steamer1 the ,lusitania1 ran full-tilt on to a reef1 and but for the timely aid rendered by the lighthouse-keepers and the fisherfolk #eej people would have been drowned4 ,more fearful catastrophes have been enacted within hail of the lights at ,cape ,race and ,cape ,ray1 hard by to the west1 and more millions sterling of cargo and ship have been shattered and lost here than upon any other corresponding stretch of coast in the world4 ,the most noticeable point in connection with these disasters is the large number of big boats which have ended their careers abruptly off this spot1 although the rocks have claimed a big share of small fry as well4 ,the first beacon was placed on the headland in #ahef4 ,it was a cylindrical tower1 built up of cast-iron plates1 erected near the edge of the cliff1 which is #hg feet high4 ,the tower itself being #ch feet in height1 the focal plane of the beam was at an elevation of #abe feet above the sea4 ,it was erected jointly by the ,british and ,newfoundland ,government authorities1 although the maintenance thereof was entrusted to ,great ,britain4 ,in return for the provision of this warning1 a tax of one-sixteenth of a penny1 or an eighth of a cent1 per ton1 was collected in ,england from vessels passing the light4 ,the beacon was not particularly powerful1 the ray being only of some #f1jjj candle-power4 ,some years ago the lighthouse was handed over to the ,canadian ,government to be included in its service1 together with the balance of the fund which had accrued from the levy of the special tax4 ,this sum represented #bj1egi1 or #ajb1hie4 ,the ,canadian ,government abolished the light-due1 and the surplus funds were absorbed into the general revenue of the country4 ,the new owners1 realizing the importance of the light1 subsequently decided to provide a new beacon of greater power to meet the demands of shipping1 which had increased amazingly4 ,in #aijg this structure was completed4 ,it is a cylindrical tower1 carried out in reinforced concrete1 #ajj feet in height1 surmounted by a lantern of the first order with hyperradial apparatus4 ,this is the largest type of optical apparatus in use at the present time1 and the ray of light produced by an incandescent oil-burner and mantle is of #a1ajj1jjj candle-power1 shed from an elevation of #aie feet above the water4 ,the warning flash of a quarter of a second every seven and a half seconds is visible from a distance of nineteen miles4 ,in addition1 the fog-signalling apparatus was brought up to date4 ,the steam-whistle1 which had sufficed up to the date of reconstruction1 was replaced by a diaphone of the greatest power installed up to that time4 ,this is set up about #bej feet south of the lighthouse1 with which it is connected by a covered passage4 ,the air required to emit the warning blast1 lasting three and a half seconds once in every half-minute1 is compressed by the aid of steam4 ,by day the lighthouse is readily distinguishable from its red and white vertical stripes1 red lantern1 and white dwelling with red roof1 in which the keepers have their quarters4 ,to-day the station ranks as one of the finest in the world1 complying in every respect with the requisitions for one of a first-class character4 ,sable ,island is perhaps an even more evil spot in the ,north ,atlantic than the ill-famed ,newfoundland coast4 ,it is a bleak1 inhospitable1 crescent-shaped collection of sand-dunes1 eighty-five miles due east of ,nova ,scotia and lying right in the steamship tracks4 ,a more uninviting stretch of dry land could not be conceived4 ,little grows here beyond a special kind of brush1 which appears to flourish in sea-swept billows of sand4 ,but the obstacle is formidable1 being twenty-two miles in length by a mile in width at its broadest part4 ,this does not constitute the extent of its dangers--far from it4 ,the island is slowly but surely being swallowed up by the restless1 hissing sea1 with the result that1 when one stands on the almost indistinguishable line where sea meets land1 an aspect of white ruffs of foam curl in all directions as far as the eye can see1 where the surf is thundering over the shoals4 ,i have related the toll that this island of the dead has exacted from shipping1,a and now confine myself to describing the means that have been provided to warn the mariner off its bars4 ,the ,canadian ,government maintains two lighthouses1 at the western and eastern extremities respectively1 and those entrusted with their safe-keeping have as lonely an existence as may be conceived4 ,the welcome face of a stranger never brightens their lives1 except when the relief-boat draws in as far as it dares in the calmest weather1 or when some luckless wretches are snatched from a vessel which has fallen into the toils of the sand and is doomed4 ,the sea-birds and seals are their sole companions on this lonely outpost4 ,a 8,the ,steamship ,conquest of the ,world10 chapter xxi41 p4 #bii4 ,illustration3 ,photo by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,the ,,light ,,at ,,the ,,southern ,,end ,,of ,,belle ,,ile4 ,this ,canadian beacon throws its rays from a height of #dgj feet4 ,in foggy weather the headland often is obscured by fog1 so an auxiliary light has been provided #cdf feet below4 ,the necessity of indicating this death-trap to the mariner was realized at the end of the seventeenth century1 but it was not until #ahjb that a forward step was taken to ease the plight of those who were thrown upon its shores4 ,then the province of ,nova ,scotia voted a sum of #djj or #b1jjj1 per annum1 for the maintenance of a fully-equipped life-saving station4 ,this sum was too slender to fulfil the purposes conceived1 but in #ahbg the ,imperial ,government1 recognizing the humane character of the enterprise1 voted a similar appropriation1 which is paid regularly1 or was up to a few years ago1 towards its support4 ,when the ,dominion of ,canada became an accomplished fact in #ahfg1 by the confederation of the provinces1 the matter was taken up whole-heartedly1 and since that date enormous sums have been expended upon the island for the protection of shipping and the mitigation of the sufferings of those cast upon its inhospitable shores4 ,at the present time three life-saving stations and six relief stations1 equipped with the best modern apparatuses1 are maintained1 connected by telephone and equipped with a staff of about twenty men4 ,when the gales are raging and the island is encircled in a broad band of maddened spray stretching to the horizon1 these men are out patrolling the shore1 ready to man the lifeboat upon the first signals of distress4 ,the life of these lonely workers now is lightened very appreciably1 as the island is fitted with a wireless station1 wherewith the men are able to talk through space with the mainland and with passing vessels4 ,illustration3 ,photo by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,the ,,north ,,belle ,,ile ,,lighthouse4 ,the warning flash1 thrown from a height of #acg feet1 can be seen from a distance of #ag miles4 ,the west end light has passed through many vicissitudes1 and the keepers have experienced innumerable thrills4 ,at this point the ocean is devouring the island rapidly4 ,in #ahgc the tower was raised in what was considered a safe position4 ,it was placed some distance from the water's edge on a favourable knoll1 and thought to be immune from the gnawing of the sea for many years to come4 ,but ,nature disposed otherwise4 ,the awful winter of #ahha played havoc with the island4 ,one mighty gale carried away a solid chunk #gj feet wide by nearly #a1djj feet long4 ,when the summer came1 and an inspection was made1 fears were entertained concerning the safety of the lighthouse4 ,the keepers had observed violent tremblings1 for the tower vibrated considerably under the smashing blows of the waves4 ,nothing could be done that summer1 and it was hoped that the succeeding winter would be milder1 to enable plans to be prepared for the construction of a new tower in a safer position4 ,the keepers1 however1 were urged to keep a sharp eye on developments1 and to be prepared for any emergency4 ,the winter of #ahhb proved to be worse than that of the previous year1 and the island suffered more than ever4 ,the keepers and their isolated comrades viewed the advance of the waves with ill-disguised alarm4 ,would the island around the light hold out until the spring8 ,that was the uppermost thought4 ,every gale brought the waves nearer1 and at last it was recognized that one good gale would finish matters4 ,so the men prepared for the emergency4 ,the demolition of the tower commenced1 a race between the waters and human labour4 ,the men worked well and had just got the superstructure away1 when there was a creak1 a groan1 and a crash6 ,the foundations1 which had been undermined1 disappeared into the ,atlantic4 ,in less than ten years the hungry ocean had carried a mile of ,sable ,island away4 ,illustration3 ,by kind permission of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,a ,,magnificent ,,canadian ,,light ,,on ,,the ,,pacific ,,coast4 ,an octagonal tower1 #abg feet high1 built of ferro-concrete4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the ,,west ,,end ,,guardian ,,of ,,sable ,,island1 ,,the ,,graveyard ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic4 ,this tower replaces the structure demolished by the waves4 ,in #ahhh the present magnificent lighthouse was brought into service4 ,it is a ferro-concrete tower of octagonal shape rising from a massive plinth of the same form1 and is provided with four equidistantly-spaced wing buttresses to hold the structure more rigid in rough weather4 ,the building is set on a knoll rising #bj feet above the water1 and about #b1ajj yards east of the extremity of the western dry spit of land1 so that the ,atlantic will have to gnaw a considerable distance before it will render the position of this light untenable4 ,the tower is #ig feet in height1 bringing the white ray #aah feet above the level of the sea4 ,the light is of the group revolving type1 thrown once every three minutes4 ,the warning is made up of three flashes1 with an eclipse of thirty seconds between each flash1 followed by darkness for ninety seconds1 and may be seen sixteen miles away4 ,while the beacon mounts guard over the main end of the island on one side1 there is a dangerous submerged bar which runs north-westwards and westwards for seventeen miles4 ,the light at the east end1 which was erected in #ahgc1 is likewise carried on an octagonal tower #ha feet high1 but1 being set upon a more commanding position1 the beam is elevated to #abc feet4 ,it is erected five miles south-westwards of the extreme tip of the island1 and gives a white flash at intervals of three seconds1 followed by an eclipse of fifteen seconds2 it may be picked up seventeen miles away4 ,similarly1 this light mounts guard over a submerged sand-bar1 which extends eastwards for at least fourteen miles4 ,during the late summer and autumn the majority of the vessels plying between ports on the ,st4 ,lawrence and ,europe take the shorter route round the northern corner of ,newfoundland through the ,straits of ,belle ,ile4 ,this is a highly dangerous passage1 inasmuch as the narrow streak of water1 seventy miles in length1 with a maximum width of eleven miles1 separating the frowning coasts of ,newfoundland and ,labrador1 is strewn with menaces1 the most formidable of which is ,belle ,ile1 which lies right in the centre of the entrance from the ocean4 ,the island is really a lofty hump of rock1 twenty-one miles in circumference1 with the shores for the most part dropping precipitously into the water4 ,it is an extremely lonely spot1 and1 naturally1 is feared by the mariner4 ,his apprehensions1 however1 have been considerably relieved1 because the channel is brilliantly lighted by several powerful lights visible from twelve to twenty-eight miles1 while another is being established4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,st4 ,,esprit ,,island ,,light1 ,,nova ,,scotia4 ,its white revolving light is visible for #ad miles4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gull ,,island ,,light1 ,,newfoundland4 ,a very lonely beacon1 visible for #bg miles4 ,the beacons are distributed along the shores of ,newfoundland1 ,belle ,ile1 and ,labrador1 one powerful light being placed on ,cape ,bauld1 the northernmost point of ,newfoundland1 and another on ,cape ,norman1 another promontory to the west4 ,these two lights are visible from twenty and sixteen miles respectively1 while on the opposite side of the strait is ,amour ,point light1 guarding the south-east side of ,forteau ,bay on the ,labrador shore1 which has a range of eighteen miles4 ,cape ,bauld is the most important mainland beacon1 inasmuch as it indicates the entrance to the ,belle ,ile ,straits4 ,belle ,ile is well protected at its two extreme tips1 the principal light being at the southern end4 ,the necessity of guiding ships between the island and ,newfoundland was recognized half a century ago1 for this light was erected in #aheh4 ,it is perched on the summit of the cliff1 #djj feet above the sea1 the occulting light of ten seconds' duration and five seconds' eclipse being thrown from an altitude of #dgj feet1 rendering it distinguishable twenty-eight miles away4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the extreme elevation of the light often causes it to be enshrouded in impenetrable banks of clouds1 which drape the headland2 so in #ahhj an auxiliary light was established1 #cdf feet below the upper light4 ,this beam is similar in character to the one above1 and1 from its elevation of #abd feet above the water1 it may be picked up from seventeen miles out4 ,consequently1 in foggy weather the lower light may be seen when the upper beacon is obscured4 ,this is one of the most important points on the coast1 being a marine telegraph1 signal1 and ice-report station1 while it is also fitted with wireless telegraphy4 ,an interesting feature in connection with this light is that it was kept going for three generations by one family1 the ,coltons1 whose name is legendary in ,quebec1 and some of whom were born and died on ,belle ,ile4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,batiscan ,,front ,,range ,,lighthouse1 ,,river ,,st4 ,,lawrence4 ,by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,illustration3 ,,isle ,,st4 ,,th,r,,se ,,upper ,,range ,,back ,,lighthouse1 ,,river ,,st4 ,,lawrence4 ,by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,the second light1 on the northern extremity of the island1 to indicate the northern entrance into the straits1 is of recent date1 having been brought into operation in #aije4 ,it is a tower of iron1 encased in a white octagonal reinforced concrete covering capped with a red polygonal-shaped lantern throwing a flash of half a second once every eleven seconds from a height of #acg feet1 visible from a distance of seventeen miles4 ,fogs and mists are two great perils peculiar to this northern waterway1 so the splendid lighting arrangements are supported by excellent and powerful fog-signals4 ,the northern light has a diaphone giving a blare lasting three and a half seconds every minute1 while the southern station has a siren giving a double tone4 ,first there is a low note of two and a half seconds followed by silence for two and a half seconds2 then a high note of two and a half seconds and a silent interval of #aab seconds4 ,this signal is emitted from a point midway between the upper and lower lights1 the air for the blast being compressed by water-power4 ,another humane provision is the depot at the southern station1 which is kept stocked with food supplies for the benefit of shipwrecked mariners4 ,in #ahih a freighter carrying a deck-load of #djj oxen went ashore beneath this light and became a hopeless wreck4 ,the crew1 realizing the impossibility of saving the animals1 fired the ship1 so that the animals were suffocated and bruised1 thereby sparing the inhabitants of the island a deadly risk1 and solving the difficult problem which otherwise would have arisen1 had the brutes been drowned in the ordinary way and their decomposing carcasses cast up on the beach4 ,in the following year the ,dominion liner ,scotsman crashed on to the rocks near the same spot1 and likewise became a total loss1 with a death-roll of nine4 ,by dint of great effort the survivors scrambled ashore1 and had a weary trudge of nine miles over a broken1 rock-strewn wilderness to gain the lighthouse station and assistance1 arriving in a famished and exhausted condition1 to be tended by the light-keepers and their families4 ,belle ,ile is a lonely station in the fullest sense of the word1 although the keepers are better off now than they were a few years ago4 ,the straits are busy in the summer1 being crowded with shipping1 but with the coming of ,november all life disappears1 and the liners do not return until the following ,may or ,june4 ,the rock is cut off from the mainland by the masses of ice which pile up in the estuary1 together with the crowds of icebergs which come down from ,greenland4 ,for six months the guardians of the light are isolated from the world at large1 although they have a slender link of communication in the submarine cable4 ,but the storms and stress of winter often rupture this line1 and1 as the wireless installation is closed down when navigation ceases1 the keepers and their families settle down to a silent1 weary vigil1 knowing nothing of the rest of the world1 and all but forgotten by civilization1 because an interruption in the cable cannot be repaired until the ice disappears4 ,illustration3 ,,upper ,,traverse ,,lighthouse ,,in ,,the ,,river ,,st4 ,,lawrence4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,an 8,,ice ,,shove0 ,,upon ,,the ,,back ,,range ,,light ,,in ,,lake ,,st4 ,,peter4 ,this photo gives a striking idea of the trouble experienced with ice in ,canadian waters4 ,even when the ,gulf of the ,st4 ,lawrence is entered1 the navigator is not free from peril4 ,the waterway is littered with rocks and islands4 ,among these are ,coffin ,island and ,anticosti1 the latter being the private property of ,m4 ,henri ,mnier1 the ,french chocolate magnate4 ,for many years the ,st4 ,lawrence was a byword to navigation1 and wrecks were numerous4 ,it was shunned by navigators and abhorred by underwriters4 ,even to this day the latter regard it askance1 and the insurance rates are high upon vessels trading in these waters4 ,through the efforts of the ,department of ,marine and ,fisheries1 the ,dominion ,government is removing this stigma from their great marine avenue1 and their engineer-in-chief4 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,william ,p4 ,anderson1 to whom ,i am indebted for much information concerning the guardians of the ,canadian coasts1 has displayed commendable enterprise and ingenuity in combating the natural odds pitted against human endeavour to render the coasts of the country more friendly to navigation4 ,in the ,st4 ,lawrence the great foe is ice4 ,its onslaughts are terrific1 and none but the strongest works has a chance to survive the enormous pressure exerted when the ice is on the run after the break of winter4 ,as is well known1 for some five months in the year the river is frozen so thick and solid that it will support a train4 ,naturally1 when this armour collapses1 and the floes are hurled seawards by the current1 they concentrate their destructive energies upon any obstacles in their way1 piling up in huge masses weighing thousands of tons4 ,it is no uncommon circumstance for the floes to pack in a jagged heap #ej feet high1 while all the time there is a continual push against the obstruction4 ,under these circumstances extreme ingenuity has to be displayed in the erection of the fixed lights4 ,the floating lights1 such as buoys1 escape this peril1 as they are picked up when navigation ceases1 to be housed in quarters on dry land1 and replaced when the river is open once more4 ,yet it is not only the ice in itself which causes trouble4 ,the level of the river rises when the ice is running1 and this pressure alone is enormous1 while the scouring action about the foundations is terrific4 ,the type of structure adopted varies with the situation and character of the light4 ,the beacons for the aid of navigation1 in common with the practice upon ,american waterways1 are divided into groups or ranges1 and the captain picks out his channel by keeping these lights and marks in various lines4 ,maybe four or five lights have to be brought into line1 and accordingly the height of the unit of each range varies from its fellow4 ,thus1 the front light will be low1 that behind a little higher1 and so on1 until the last light in the group1 or 8back light0 of the range1 as it is called1 is a lofty structure4 ,in some places the light is placed in mid-stream1 and perhaps mounted upon a massive1 high1 steel caisson1 resting upon a concrete foundation1 thereby proving immovable to the most powerful of ice-shoves4 ,or a large pier carried out in ferro-concrete and pyramidal in shape is used4 ,in the case of the back light there is a skeleton tower1 which structure is employed to gain the necessary height4 ,this is carried upon a high1 huge1 solid plinth of concrete1 even if built against the bank4 ,the frazil ice dams the channel1 causing the water to rise1 and unless the foregoing precautions were adopted widespread damage would result4 ,all the lights between the gulf and ,montreal have to be protected in this manner1 so that it will be seen that the adequate lighting of this waterway bristles with engineering difficulties of no light character1 and is expensive4 ,the ,canadian ,government also is responsible1 to a certain extent1 for the lighting of the ,great ,lakes1 which is described in another chapter1 where similar difficulties prevail4 ,it has also a long stretch of the most rugged part of the ,pacific coast to patrol1 aggregating about #fjj miles between ,victoria and ,vancouver to the ,portland ,canal1 where ,canadian meets ,alaskan territory4 ,this is a wicked coast1 broken and battered1 as well as flanked by an outer barrier of islands1 recalling the ,scandinavian ,peninsula in its general topographical characteristics4 ,during the past few years the necessity of lighting this seaboard adequately has become more pronounced1 owing to the creation of the new port of ,prince ,rupert1 a few miles below ,alaskan territory1 where the ,grand ,trunk ,pacific reaches down to the western sea1 and the growing sea-borne traffic with ,alaska4 ,the fact that a large portion of this navigation is maintained through the inside passages1 bristling with sharp turns1 narrow defiles1 and jagged headlands1 which for the most part are wrapped generally in fog1 renders the lighting problem more intricate4 ,probably the most important light1 and certainly the loftiest on the ,pacific seacoast north of the ,equator1 is that on the summit of ,triangle ,island1 ,british ,columbia4 ,it was built in #aiaj1 and although the lantern itself is only #df feet in height1 the elevation of the headland brings the white group-flashing light of #a1jjj1jjj candle-power #gjj feet above the sea1 giving it a range of thirty-four miles4 ,four flashes are emitted during each ten seconds1 each flash lasting #jbh second with intervening eclipses each of #abh seconds1 with an eclipse between each group of #eid seconds4 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,anderson has introduced a new type of reinforced concrete lighthouse with flying buttresses4 ,the latter are not required for strength1 but are utilized to give greater stiffness to the tower1 as a column #ajj feet or more in height1 no matter how strongly it may be built1 must vibrate and swing in high winds4 ,yet it is desirable to keep the lantern as steady as possible1 and this is achieved much more completely upon the above principle4 ,the engineer-in-chief of the lighthouse authority of the ,canadian ,government considers this method of construction to be the last word in lighthouse building1 and has completed some notable works upon these lines4 ,perhaps the most important is the ,estevan ,point light1 on the west coast of ,vancouver1 at a place known as ,hole-in-the-,wall4 ,the tower1 of octagonal1 tapering form1 is #abg feet in height1 and throws a white group-flashing light1 comprising three flashes each of #ic seconds with two eclipses1 each of #acg seconds1 and a final eclipse of #fcf seconds between each group1 seventeen miles out to sea4 ,the surroundings of this station are most romantic4 ,landing anywhere in its vicinity is extremely difficult and dangerous1 and the engineer had to select a point about two miles distant for this purpose4 ,from this place a road and tramway have been laid through a grand primeval forest1 such as is to be found only upon ,vancouver ,island1 wherein roams a drove of magnificent wild cattle4 ,while the ,canadian coast cannot point to any lighthouse work comparing with the ,eddystone1 ,skerryvore1 or ,heaux de ,brhat1 yet its most powerful beacons are of a commanding character1 representing as they do the latest and best in connection with coast lighting4 ,there is an enormous stretch of difficult shore to patrol1 along which has to be guided an immense volume of valuable shipping4 ,in addition to the attended lights1 the ,government has been extremely enterprising in the adoption of unattended beacons 7described in another chapter71 miles of lonely1 inhospitable shore being guarded in this way4 ,although the development in this direction is of comparatively recent date1 the protection of maritime trade is being carried out in accordance with a comprehensive policy1 so that within a few years the coasts of the ,dominion will be rendered as safe to the shipping of the world as human ingenuity can contrive4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,minot',s ,,ledge ,,light ,lovers of ,longfellow will recall the poet's song to the lighthouse1 but how many of his admirers know to what beacon these stirring lines refer8 ,when they were penned the author had in his mind's eye an example of the engineer's handiwork which ranks as one of the finest sea-rock lights in existence1 worthy of comparison with the most famous of similar structures scattered throughout the waters washing the ,old ,world4 ,this is the far-famed ,minot's ,ledge light1 warning the seafarer making to and from ,boston ,bay of the terrible peril which lurks beneath the waves on the southern side of the entrance to this busy indentation4 8,like the great giant ,christopher it stands10 a powerful monument to engineering genius1 dogged perseverance against overwhelming odds1 and a grim1 bitter contest lasting five weary years between the implacable elements and human endeavour4 ,the ,minot ,ledge is one of those jagged reefs which thrust themselves far out into the sea1 studded with pinnacles and chisel-like edges1 which never1 or very seldom1 protrude above the waves4 ,ship after ship fouled this danger spot1 either to be sunk or to be so badly crippled that it barely could contrive to crawl to safety4 ,the prosperity of ,boston was threatened by this peril to shipping1 and therefore it is not surprising that a resolution was passed to devise some ways and means of indicating its presence to those who go down to the sea in ships4 ,the solution was offered in a skeleton structure fashioned from iron1 which was designed by ,captain ,w4 ,h4 ,swift1 of the ,united ,states ,topographical ,engineers4 ,he searched the reef through and through to ascertain the point where the beacon should be placed so as to prove of the greatest value4 ,this in itself was no simple matter1 inasmuch as ,minot's ,ledge is but one of a great area of wicked crags1 which collectively are known as the ,cohasset ,rocks1 and which straggle over the sea-bed in all directions4 ,after the position had been reconnoitred thoroughly1 and sounding and levels had been taken1 the engineer decided that the most seaward rock of the group1 known as the ,outer ,minot1 would be the most strategical position1 and accordingly he planned to erect his beacon thereon4 ,it was a daring proposal1 because the reef at the point selected only exposes some #be feet of its mass above the falling tide1 and then the highest point of the rock scarcely thrusts itself #c feet into the air4 ,it was realized that the periods of working between the tides would inevitably be very brief1 while even then1 owing to the open position of the ridge1 a landing would only be possible in very smooth weather1 and the men would have to suffer exposure to the fury of the waves as they dashed over the ledge4 ,captain ,swift decided upon a skeleton iron structure1 not only because it would be quicker to erect and would cost less1 but because it would offer the least resistance to the waves1 which would be free to expend their energy among the stilts4 ,the task was taken in hand at the first favourable opportunity1 and1 the system lending itself to rapid construction1 marked progress was made every time the workmen succeeded in getting on the ledge4 ,the lantern and keepers' quarters were supported upon nine piles1 #fj feet above the rock4 ,the legs were so disposed that eight described the circumference of a circle1 while the ninth constituted the axis4 ,this tower was completed in #ahdh1 and for the first time the navigator making these treacherous waters received a powerful warning to keep clear of ,minot's ,ledge4 ,for three years the beacon survived the battering of wind and wave1 but its welcome beam was last seen on the night of ,april #af1 #ahea4 ,in the spring of that year a gale of terrific fury beat upon the ,massachusetts coast4 ,the wind freshened on ,april #ac2 the next day it rose to its full force1 and did not abate for four days4 ,the good people of ,boston grew apprehensive concerning the plight of the two keepers of the lonely ,minot's light1 but1 however willing they might have been to have put out to the beacon1 they were absolutely impotent before the ferocity of the elements4 ,time after time the light vanished from sight as it was enveloped in an angry curling mountain of water4 ,on ,april #ag the doleful tolling of the lighthouse bell was heard1 but the light was never seen again4 ,the structure had slipped completely from sight1 together with its faithful keepers1 swallowed by the hungry ,atlantic4 ,evidently the wail of the bell was a last plea for assistance1 because no doubt the lighthouse had bowed to the storm and was tottering when the tolling rang out4 ,but the call brought no help2 it was the funeral knell of the guardians of the beacon4 ,when the sea went down a boat pushed off to the ledge1 and all that was seen were a few bent piles4 ,captain ,swift had done his work well4 ,the waves could not tear his beacon up by the roots1 so had snapped off the piles like carrots1 and had carried away the lantern4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,minot',s ,,ledge ,,light4 ,marking the rock off ,boston ,harbour1 it is one of the greatest works completed by the lighthouse builders of the ,united ,states4 ,it forms the theme of ,longfellow's well-known poem4 ,this sensational disaster1 after a brief existence of three years1 did not augur well for the permanence of a light upon this precarious ledge4 ,the ,outer ,minot appeared to be determined to continue its plunder of ships1 cargoes1 and lives1 untrammelled4 ,accordingly1 for three years no effort was made to bring about its subjugation4 ,in #ahee ,general ,barnard1 one of the most illustrious engineers which the ,united ,states has ever produced1 brought forward the plans for a structure which he thought would resist the most formidable attacks of wind and wave4 ,he took ,rudyerd's famous ,eddystone tower as his pattern4 ,this was perhaps the strongest design that could be carried out against the sea1 having one weak point only--it was built of wood4 ,general ,barnard contemplated a similar structure for ,minot's ,ledge1 but in masonry4 ,the ,lighthouse ,board1 which had recently been inaugurated to control the lighthouses around the coasts of the country1 examined the idea minutely1 and submitted the design to the most expert criticism and discussion1 but all were so impressed with its outstanding features that they decided to support it whole-heartedly4 ,a minute survey of the rock was prepared1 and the plans were straight away perfected for the preparation of the masonry on shore4 ,so carefully was this work carried out1 that1 with the exception of a few blocks of masonry constituting the foundations1 which had to be prepared on the site1 and some slight variations in the method of construction1 the original ideas were fulfilled4 ,work was commenced in #ahee1 the building operations being placed in the hands of ,b4 ,s4 ,alexander1 at that time ,lieutenant of ,engineers1 and the successful completion of the work was due in a very great measure to his ability and ingenuity1 because the whole undertaking was placed in his hands and he had to overcome difficulties at every turn as they arose4 ,the builder was handicapped in every way4 ,first there was the brief period in which operations could be carried out upon the site1 the working season extending only from ,april #a to ,september #ae in each year4 ,this is not to say that the masons were able to toil upon the rock continuously every day during this interval--far from it4 ,in order to get the foundations laid there were three essentials--a perfectly smooth sea1 a dead calm1 and low spring-tides4 ,needless to say1 it was on very rare occasions indeed that these three requirements were in harmony4 ,as a matter of fact1 they could occur only about six times during every lunar month--three times during full moon1 and three at the change4 ,even then1 either the wind or the sea intervened to nullify the benefits arising from the lowest tides4 ,so much so that1 although work commenced at daybreak on ,sunday1 ,july #a1 #ahee1 only #acj working hours were possible upon the rock before labours ceased for the season in the middle of the following ,september4 ,illustration3 ,,tender ,,landing ,,building ,,material ,,upon ,,the ,,tillamook ,,rock4 ,a derrick has been provided to facilitate these operations1 while a stairway leads from the landing point to the lighthouse4 ,on gaining the rock1 ,lieutenant ,alexander decided to make use of the holes which had been driven into the granitic mass by ,captain ,swift to receive the piles of the previous structure4 ,the twisted and broken pieces of iron were withdrawn and the holes cleaned out4 ,simultaneously the upper surface of the rock was pared and trimmed by the aid of chisels1 which was no easy task1 because at times the masons were compelled to manipulate their tools as best they could in two or three feet of water4 ,this preparation of the rock to receive the base constituted one of the most notable features of the work4 ,in the greater number of other outstanding achievements upon sea-rocks the surface of the latter has been above the waves at lowest spring-tides1 whereas in this case a great part of the foundation work was continuously submerged4 ,this preparation of the rock-face necessitated the final trimming and shaping upon the site of many of the masonry blocks forming the root of the tower4 ,they could not possibly be prepared ashore to bring about the tight fit which was imperative4 ,accordingly1 all but the bottom faces of the blocks were prepared in the depot on the mainland1 and they were then shipped to the ledge for final paring and trimming4 ,the attachment of the bottom courses to the rock-face was carried out very ingeniously4 ,bags of sand were brought on to the rock and laid around the spot upon which a particular block of stone was to be laid4 ,the sacks1 being filled with sand1 were pliable1 so that1 when deposited1 they adapted themselves to the contour of the ledge1 and prevented the water making its way in under the rampart4 ,the water within this small dam was then removed1 sponges being used in the final emptying task1 so as to suck out the salt sea from the cracks and crevices1 leaving the surface on which the block of stone was to be laid quite dry4 ,a film of cement was then trowelled upon the rock surface1 and upon this was laid a sheet of muslin4 ,the inclusion of the muslin was a wise precaution1 because while the work was in progress a wandering wave was liable to curl over the rock1 swamping the small dried space1 when1 but for the presence of the muslin1 the cement would have been carried away4 ,at the same time the cement was able to penetrate the meshes of the muslin when the stone was deposited1 so as to grip the surface of the latter and to hold it tightly in position4 ,under such abnormal conditions of working the masons had many exciting moments4 ,no matter how smooth was the sea1 several renegade waves would plunge over the ledge4 ,the masons had to be prepared for these unwelcome visitors1 and precautions had to be introduced to prevent them being washed off their slender foothold4 ,a substantial iron staging was erected over the working area on the rock1 to facilitate the handling of the building material4 ,a number of ropes were attached to this staging1 the free ends of which dangled beside the workmen4 ,these were the life-lines1 one being provided for each man4 ,a lookout was posted1 who1 when he saw a wave approaching and bent upon sweeping the rock1 gave a shrill signal4 ,instantly each workman dropped his tools1 clutched his life-line tightly1 threw himself prostrate on the rock1 and allowed the wave to pass over him4 ,the situation certainly was uncomfortable1 and the men often toiled in soddened clothes1 but an involuntary bath was preferable to the loss of a life or to broken limbs4 ,work advanced so slowly that during the first two years1 which were devoted to the excavation of the pit and the preparations of the rock-face1 only #bhg hours' work were accomplished4 ,in the third year this task was completed1 and four stones laid in a further #acj hours #ba minutes4 ,by the end of the working season of #ahei twenty-six courses were finished1 so that1 while the volume of work fulfilled in #a1ajb hours #ba minutes1 and spread over five years1 certainly was not imposing1 it was remarkable under the circumstances4 ,the stones for the foundations were sent from shore with the indication -#c' #e01 -#b' #i01 -#a' #c01 and so on1 indicating that these stones were prepared for positions #c feet #e inches1 #b feet #i inches1 and so on1 below zero4 ,and the zero mark was #ba inches below water6 ,above the zero mark the stones were prefixed by a 8plus0 sign4 ,the shaft is purely conical1 and solid except for a central well extending from the foundations up to the level of the entrance4 ,the successive courses of stones were secured to one another1 and each stone was attached to its neighbour in the ring by the aid of heavy iron dogs1 so that the lower part of the shaft forms a practically solid homogenous mass4 ,what are known as continuous 8dowels0 were sunk through each course of masonry into the holes in the solid rock prepared by ,captain ,swift for his skeleton light1 this further attachment of the mass to the ledge being continued until the twelfth course was gained4 ,thus additional security is obtained by anchoring the tower firmly to the reef4 ,the solid portion of the building is #dj feet in height from the level of the first complete ring of stones1 and the tower is #hj feet high to the lantern gallery4 ,the over-all height to the top of the lantern cupola is #ajb feet1 while the focal plane is #hd feet above mean high-water4 ,the first stone was laid on ,july #i1 #aheg1 while the masons completed their duties on ,june #bi1 #ahfj1 so that five years were occupied upon the work4 ,in erection #c1ead tons of rough and #b1cfg tons of hammered stone1 in addition to #a1jgi numbered stones1 were used1 and the total cost1 including the light-keepers' houses on the mainland1 was #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj1 so that it ranks among the more costly lights which have been provided for the seafarer's benefit4 ,on ,november #ae1 #ahfj1 nine and a half years after the destruction of the first beacon1 the light was once more thrown from ,minot's ,ledge for the benefit of passing ships4 ,the light is of the second order1 visible fourteen and three-quarter miles out to sea1 and is of the flashing type1 signalling 8#adc0 every thirty seconds thus--one flash followed by three seconds' darkness1 four flashes with three seconds' eclipse1 and three flashes with an interval of fifteen seconds' darkness4 ,the tower has been subjected to repeated prodigious assaults1 the north-east gales in particular thundering upon this reef with tremendous fury1 but it has withstood all attacks with complete success4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,tillamook ,,rock ,,light-,,station ,while the ,northern ,pacific ,ocean is the loneliest stretch of salt water in the world1 yet it possesses one or two busy corners4 ,prominent among the latter is that where it washes the shores of the ,united ,states around the entrance to the mighty ,columbia ,river4 ,the estuary is wide1 and1 although navigation is handicapped by a bar1 it is well protected4 ,but coming up from the south there is a stretch of terribly forbidding coastline1 with the cliffs at places towering #a1ejj feet or more into the air and dropping sheer into the water4 ,rock-slides are of frequent occurrence1 and the beach is littered with heavy falls from above4 ,here and there protuberances rise from the sea1 formed of rock sufficiently dense and hard to withstand more effectively the process of erosion1 only to constitute fearful menaces to navigation4 ,often the mainland is completely obscured1 either by streaks of mist or heavy clouds of smoke produced by forest fires1 which in the dry season rage with great violence4 ,a ship caught within the toils of this stern coast has no possible chance of escape1 while the crew would find it difficult to get ashore1 inasmuch as at places there is not a single landing-place within a distance of twenty miles4 ,owing to the coast being frequently blotted from view1 and to the fact that this stretch of sea is swept by furious storms1 the plight of the mariner making to or from the ,columbia ,river became exceedingly precarious4 ,the worst tragedy of these waters was enacted on the dark and stormy night of ,january #c1 #ahha1 when the sailing-ship ,lupata lost her way and went to pieces on the rocks off ,tillamook ,head4 ,under these circumstances it is not surprising that an outcry arose for protection along this lonely reach of ,oregon's jagged shoreline4 ,the authorities responded to the agitation by the promise to erect a lighthouse1 once they should have decided the site1 which was the really perplexing question4 ,in the first instance it was thought that its location upon the mainland would suffice1 but a survey betrayed the futility of such a choice4 ,the light would be too elevated to be of any service2 for the greater part of its time it would be rendered invisible by land fogs4 ,then1 again1 it would mean cutting a road for a distance of twenty miles through heavy1 undulating country and primeval forest to gain the point1 as the verdant sea of green timber extends to the very brink of the cliffs4 ,after prolonged consideration1 it was decided to erect the light upon the ,tillamook ,rock4 ,this is a hard mass of basalt1 rising boldly from the water to a height of #abj feet1 which1 when viewed from one side1 presented the appearance of a clenched fist4 ,it stands about a mile off the mainland1 twenty miles south of the ,columbia ,river mouth1 and drops plumb into the sea1 where the lead gives readings ranging from #if to #bdj feet4 ,the whole area of the rock is less than one acre1 and it is split almost in two2 another isolated knot of basalt1 upon which the seas break heavily when a storm is raging1 rears its shaggy head into the air near by at low-tide4 ,the only possible landing-point is on the east side1 where there is a beach sloping upwards sharply from the water to the crest4 ,when the ocean is roused the sight certainly is terrifying4 ,the waves fall with shivering force upon the base of the rock1 to rush up its ragged sides and sweep right over its crest in a dense curtain of angrily frothing water and whipping spray4 ,despite its fearsome character1 this rock constituted the most serviceable situation for a light1 for the reason that1 being a mile from the shore1 it was free from land fogs and clouds4 ,the decision of the authorities depended upon three factors only--that a landing could be made1 the rock occupied1 and the requisite building materials unloaded4 ,the introduction of such a saving clause was politic1 because at first it seemed as if the rock would defy the gaining of a foothold4 ,the ghastly failure attending the survey1 as described in a previous chapter1 brought public opinion into dead opposition to the project1 and many fearsome stories were circulated sedulously up and down the coast and among the towns fringing the ,columbia ,river concerning the perils1 hardships1 and terrible death-roll1 which would attend any attempt to place a beacon on this rock4 ,after the disaster the authorities pressed forward the enterprise with greater vigour than ever1 so as to get work well under way before public opinion would be able to make its influence felt upon the unsophisticated minds of workmen required to carry out the undertaking4 ,a daring1 determined1 and energetic leader was secured in ,mr4 ,a4 ,ballantyne1 and he was deputed to rally a force of eight or more highly skilled quarrymen with whom to proceed to ,astoria1 where the land headquarters were to be established4 ,he was informed that upon arrival at this point he would find everything in readiness for his immediate departure to the rock1 with all essentials to enable him to commence work at once and to provide quarters for the workmen1 who would be compelled to suffer isolation and a certain amount of discomfort for weeks at a time4 ,it was impossible to take more than a handful of men at first1 owing to the difficulty of landing provisions4 ,mr4 ,ballantyne started off with his small picked force1 reached ,astoria on ,september #bd1 #ahgi1 and there suffered his first check4 ,the autumn gales had sprung up1 rendering approach to the rock absolutely hopeless4 ,there was no alternative2 he must wait until the weather moderated4 ,as this might be a question of a few hours1 days1 or perhaps a week or two1 the chief grew anxious concerning his force4 ,if the men1 having nothing to do1 wandered idly about the town1 making acquaintance with all and sundry and listening to gossip1 then they could not fail to be impressed with the extraordinary stories concerning dangers1 hardships1 perils1 and adventures2 would conclude that the ,tillamook was a 8hoodoo0 rock2 and would desert him promptly4 ,to guard against this contingency1 the quarrymen were hurried off and temporarily housed in the old light-keeper's dwelling at the ,cape ,disappointment light1 some miles away on the northern portal of the estuary1 where they were safe from pernicious influences4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tillamook ,,rock ,,light ,,station ,,from ,,the ,,south4 ,rising from the sea one mile off the ,oregon ,coast1 it was for years a terrible danger spot4 ,the light of #afj1jjj candle-power1 #acb feet above high water1 is visible for #ah miles4 ,after twenty-six days of enforced idleness the squad was picked up by a revenue cutter1 which steamed to the rock1 and made fast to a buoy that had been laid previously for mooring the vessels deputed to transport building materials and other requirements4 ,with extreme difficulty four men were got on the rock1 together with a supply of hammers1 drills1 iron ring-bolts1 a stove1 provisions1 supplies1 and an abundance of canvas1 with which the advance staff were to erect temporary shelters and to make themselves as comfortable as they could4 ,while the work was in progress the wind freshened1 the swell rose1 and the boat had to retire hurriedly before the remainder of the force could be landed2 but five days later they were transferred to the rock1 together with further provisions and supplies1 as well as a derrick4 ,the little party soon received a taste of what life would be in this lonely spot4 ,three days after the second landing1 and before they had shaken down to their strange surroundings1 a gale sprang up4 ,heavy seas pounded the rock1 and the waves1 mounting its vertical face1 threw themselves over its crest1 drenching the workmen and their sleeping blankets4 ,it was a startling episode1 but it became so frequent that the quarrymen became inured to their fate1 and were not perturbed in any way1 except when the ,pacific was roused to exceptional fury4 ,when the first four men gained the rock it was seen that the landing of material1 especially the heavier incidentals1 would constitute the greatest difficulty4 ,then an ingenious idea was advanced4 ,why not rig a heavy rope between the mast of the vessel and the top of the rock1 draw it taut1 and devise a traveller to run to and fro8 ,it was a practical suggestion and was adopted forthwith4 ,with much difficulty a #d-;inch rope was towed from the vessel--to the mast of which one end was secured--to the rock1 and grabbed by those in occupation4 ,this end was anchored firmly1 and constituted the track4 ,then a large single block was rigged to this main line in such a way that it could move freely to and fro along the cable4 ,this block was provided with a heavy hook on which the weights could be slung4 ,other blocks were fixed on the vessel and on the rock1 while an endless line1 passing through these blocks at each end1 and attached to the shank of the hook on the travelling block1 enabled the traveller to be pulled freely and easily in either direction4 ,both men and supplies were transferred from ship to shore by this primitive1 albeit ingenious1 system4 ,the men were carried in a novel device1 described as a 8breeches-buoy10 such as is used with the rocket life-saving apparatus1 but of very crude design improvised on the spot4 ,it was contrived from an ordinary circular rubber life-preserver1 to which a pair of trousers cut short at the knees were lashed tightly4 ,this was suspended from the block-hook by means of three short lengths of rope4 ,the trip through the air certainly was novel1 and not free from excitement2 indeed1 there was just sufficient spice of adventure about it to appeal to the rough-and-ready1 intrepid spirits who constituted the forces of the lighthouse engineer4 ,also1 owing to the primitive character of the apparatus1 there was just the chance that something would go wrong when the man was between ship and rock4 ,the breeches were provided to hold the man in a safe position while in the air1 to guard against a loss of balance and tipping out2 while should anything give way1 and the man make an unexpected plunge into the water1 the life-preserver would keep him afloat until a boat could draw alongside to rescue him4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,tillamook4 ,the top of the crag was blasted off to provide a level space for the lighthouse4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,terrible ,,tillamook ,,rock4 ,showing how the menace rises abruptly from the sea on one side4 ,there was another factor which had to be taken into consideration1 and which certainly contributed to the novelty of the trip4 ,as the boat responded to the action of the waves the rope alternately drew tight and sagged4 ,when she rolled towards the rock the cable was slackened1 and the man generally had a ducking2 the next moment1 when the vessel rolled in the opposite direction1 he was whisked unceremoniously and suddenly into the air4 ,it was like being suspended at the end of a piece of elastic4 ,the men for the most part enjoyed the fun of the journey1 and considered it a new and exhilarating 8divarshun40 ,among themselves the effort was to travel in either direction so as to escape a cold douche on the journey4 ,when the water was rough1 speculation took the form of guessing how many dips into the water would be made before either terminus was gained4 ,this novel landing method provoked one amusing incident4 ,the supply-boat came out to the rock one day bringing a new raw hand4 ,the cableway was rigged up1 and the workman prepared for his ride to the rock4 ,but the man was somewhat corpulent1 and could not be thrust through the preserver4 ,this was an unexpected contretemps1 and it seemed as if the superintendent would have to let his recruit return4 ,but ,ballantyne did not worry over trifles1 neither did he relish the idea of losing a hand after having him brought so far1 so he put forward a somewhat daring proposal4 ,he told the captain of the steamer to lash the workman to the top of the buoy1 and they would pull him ashore all right4 ,the labourer was scared out of his wits at this suggestion1 and resented being handled as if he were a balk of timber4 ,why1 even the perishable articles were unloaded in casks to protect them from the wet4 ,he expressed his determination to see them to perdition before he would make a trip through the air under such conditions4 ,ballantyne was somewhat crestfallen at the cold reception of his brilliant idea1 so told the captain to take the workman back to ,astoria1 and to ransack the place to discover a buoy which would be big enough to fit him4 ,two days later the vessel returned with the larger buoy and also the corpulent quarryman4 ,his second glimpse of the primitive travelling frightened him worse than ever1 and he point blank refused to budge4 ,in order to reassure the raw hand1 ,ballantyne hauled the buoy ashore1 and1 jumping into it1 made a journey1 to illustrate that the system was perfectly safe1 and that one need not even get wet4 ,but ,ballantyne's demonstration was rather unfortunate4 ,the cable was slack1 and the ship rolled heavily4 ,result3 the superintendent was dragged through the water for nearly the whole distance1 and at times nothing of him could be seen4 ,when he landed on the boat1 half-winded and drenched to the skin1 the quarryman was scared more than ever1 and announced his intention to return to ,astoria4 ,ballantyne cajoled1 coaxed1 argued1 and stormed1 in turn1 but to no avail4 ,then another idea came to his fertile mind4 ,if the man would not travel via the breeches-buoy1 why not send him ashore in a bos'n's chair8 ,this was rigged up satisfactorily1 and therein the workman consented to go ashore1 though not without the display of considerable trepidation and anxiety to keep out of the water4 ,they got him on the rock safely1 and without so much as wetting the soles of his feet4 ,the quarryman by his resolute opposition set up a record4 ,he was the first man to land dry on the ,tillamook4 ,subsequently this novel and1 so far as it went1 efficient method of 8quick transit0 was superseded when the men on the rock got their big derrick to work4 ,the long arm of this appliance leaned over the water far enough to pick up the goods direct from the deck of the vessel moored off the rock4 ,this system was quicker1 and enabled the goods to be got ashore unsoiled4 ,the first men to land found the rock in the occupation of sea-lions1 who swarmed its scaly sides in huge numbers1 even making their way to the crest to bask in the sunshine4 ,these tenants at first resented the white man's invasion1 and were somewhat troublesome2 but at last they recognized that their eviction was certain1 so suddenly deserted in a body to another equally wild spot farther south4 ,the first task was the preparation of the site for the building4 ,the fist-like overhanging crest was attacked to prepare a foundation1 thereby reducing the height from #abj to #ia feet4 ,the rock surface was scarred and riven in a fantastic manner1 owing to the scouring action of the waves eroding the soft portions leaving the hard rock behind in the form of needles1 scales1 and ugly crevices4 ,the outer part of the rock1 moreover1 was found to be of an unreliable character1 being more or less rotten1 while the core1 on the other hand1 was intensely hard1 and promised an excellent foundation for the beacon4 ,the superfluous mass was removed by blasting1 this being carried out with extreme care and in small sections at a time4 ,the largest blasts did not remove more than #acj cubic yards1 or tons1 of dbris at one time4 ,this slow blasting1 by handfuls as it were1 was necessary so as not to shatter or impair the solidity of the heart of the rock1 which was to support the buildings4 ,drilling and blasting were carried out in the face of great difficulties4 ,rain1 rough seas1 spray1 and heavy winds1 combined to thwart the little band of workers toiling strenuously in solemn loneliness upon this bleak crag4 ,often days would pass without any tangible impression being made upon the surface4 ,the drilling holes would be swamped1 and unless care was observed the powder charges ran the risk of being damped and rendered impotent or uncertain in firing4 ,in the attack upon the crest the workmen distributed themselves around the crown4 ,on the precipitous side1 as there was not a friendly ledge on which to secure a foothold to work the drills1 bolts were driven into the rock-face1 from which staging was suspended by ropes1 and on this swinging1 crazy foothold the men drove their tools with salt fleece whirling round them4 ,until the men were able to erect more or less permanent quarters1 their plight at times was pitiable4 ,the canvas was cut up and an ,a-tent was rigged up4 ,it was a cramped home1 measuring #af feet long by #f feet wide1 while the ridge pole was only #d feet above the ground4 ,this domicile just held the ten men in their sleeping-blankets4 ,naturally1 they had to crawl rather than walk about1 and1 as the shelter served as a dining-room as well1 the little band had to tolerate many discomforts4 ,when the wind howled round the rock1 causing the canvas to flap violently and threatening to carry it away at every turn1 when the sea swarmed over the rock1 and when the heavy rains to which this coast is subject poured down pitilessly1 the men never knew what it was to have dry clothing or bedding4 ,cooking was carried on in the open1 and the kitchen arrangements had to be shifted from time to time1 according to the direction of the wind1 so that the fire was brought on the lee side of the shelter4 ,the workers were exposed to danger on all sides incessantly1 but fortunately in their chief1 ,ballantyne1 they had one of those men who appear to be made for such contingencies2 who was alert1 ready for any emergency1 nursed his staff sedulously1 and whose buoyant spirits dispelled all feelings of gloom1 loneliness1 or homesickness4 ,the little band toiled hard and long through the rough autumnal weather1 and the arrival of stern winter did not bring any cessation in their labours4 ,they fought the rock grimly and ignored hardship4 ,certainly1 they were cheered by the arrival of the boats with supplies1 but occasionally a fortnight or more would pass without a call being made at the rock1 and often1 when a boat did come up and prepare to land material1 it had to slip its anchor hastily to make a frantic run for safety before the rising swell and the gathering storm4 ,early in ,january ,nature concentrated her forces1 as if bent upon a supreme effort to shake the determination and courage of the little army striving so valiantly upon the rock4 ,on the night of ,new ,year's ,day the clouds assumed an ominous appearance1 and accordingly the workmen were not surprised to meet a stormy and rainy reception when they made their way to their duties the following morning4 ,the weather grew worse on the third day1 the spray enveloping the rock and drenching the men1 while the wind blew so fiercely that they could scarcely keep their feet4 ,during the next two days it increased in force1 while the sea grew angrier4 ,on the #fth the elements were raging in torment1 and in the afternoon ,ballantyne1 taking stock of the meteorological signs1 came to the conclusion that the party 8were in for it40 ,a hurricane1 or possibly a tornado1 was looming4 ,the tools were being swung with infinite difficulty1 when suddenly came the signal 8,stop work60 ,ballantyne urged them to set to at once to lash everything securely4 ,at six o'clock in the evening the hurricane burst1 and the workmen witnessed a sight such as they had never seen before4 ,the whole coast was in the grip of a tornado1 of which the ,tillamook ,rock was the vortex1 whereon the elements concentrated their destructive forces4 ,the huge rollers assumed an uglier appearance than ever2 the broken water rushed up the steep sides into the air1 where it was caught by the whirling wind and dashed on the tiny camp4 ,it was impossible to escape that savage attack1 as it was driven home from all sides simultaneously4 ,the men took to their permanent quarters in silence and very gloomy4 ,by midnight the roof was being peppered with huge masses of rock1 which1 detached by the waves1 were caught up and thrown clean over the rock4 ,ballantyne urged the men to stay in their bunks1 to keep up their spirits1 and to seek a little rest4 ,illustration3 ,,famous ,,united ,,states ,,lighthouses ,,of ,,two ,,centuries4 ,the rear tower was built on ,cape ,henry in #aghi1 with stones shipped from ,great ,britain4 ,owing to the sand thrown up by the sea1 another light had to be provided nearer the water1 and was completed in #ahgi4 ,the old light is retained as an historic building4 ,but sleep was impossible4 ,the quarrymen were scared out of their wits1 and there was every cause for their dismay4 ,it seemed as if the very rock itself must succumb to the savage onslaught4 ,the din was deafening2 the rock shivered and trembled as the breakers hurled themselves upon it4 ,it had just turned two4 ,suddenly one and all sat up in terror4 ,there was a fearful crash--a rending and splitting1 which was heard plainly above the weird howling of the hurricane4 ,the men tumbled out of their bunks panic-stricken1 and were about to stampede from their shelter to seek refuge upon a higher ledge4 ,but ,ballantyne's pluck asserted itself4 ,he1 too1 had been scared by the awful noise1 but he collected his scattered wits more quickly than did his comrades4 ,he grasped the situation1 and with iron nerve commanded all the men to stick tightly where they were4 ,an ugly rush seemed imminent1 but he stood with his back to the door1 and in plain ,english dared the men to leave their cover4 ,any man who attempted to fight his way to the upper refuge would be swept overboard by the wind and sea4 ,the quarrymen were not cowards1 and ,ballantyne's action steadied them4 ,then the foreman announced his intention to go out to see what had happened4 ,he grabbed a storm-lantern and opened the door4 ,instantly he was hurled back by the wind and sea1 which appeared to be submerging the rock4 ,for two hours he stood waiting an opportunity to slip out against the hurricane4 ,at last he succeeded1 and in the intense darkness endeavoured to grope his way over the rock4 ,he had been gone only a few minutes when he staggered back1 battered1 shaken1 and almost exhausted4 ,he could not make headway against the gale4 ,so the men sat down and silently waited the approach of dawn4 ,then they found that the rushing waves had fallen upon the building in which all their supplies were stored1 had smashed it to atoms1 and had destroyed and carried away nearly all the provisions1 the fresh-water tank1 and other articles1 although the requisites for work were left untouched4 ,it was the break-up of this storehouse which had woke them from their slumbers and had provoked the panic4 ,for ten days the gale raged1 being more furious on some days than others4 ,when it decreased in fury the men were able to settle to their work for an hour or two1 but progress was painfully slow2 on other days not a tool could be picked up4 ,on the #ahth the revenue cutter came out from ,astoria to ascertain how the men had weathered the tornado1 and the signal for coal and provisions was answered immediately by the lowering of a surf-boat4 ,the sailors had a stiff pull to reach the rock1 found that the men still had a scanty supply of hard bread1 coffee1 and bacon--this was all--and1 taking off the letters1 promised to send supplies immediately4 ,the construction ship also came up2 the captain sent ashore all the provisions he could spare1 and undertook to return at once with a full supply4 ,but another ten days passed before the sea went down enough to permit these to be landed1 together with five more men4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,race ,,rock ,,light4 ,it marks a dangerous reef in ,long ,island ,sound1 where1 owing to the swift currents1 construction of the foundations proved very difficult4 ,nature appeared to capitulate after this terrible assault1 and work proceeded rapidly4 ,the crest of the rock was removed and levelled off1 to form an excellent platform for the reception of the beacon and other buildings4 ,an inclined tramway was excavated out of the rock-face1 communicating with the landing-stage1 to facilitate the haulage of the light-keepers' necessities1 and then the arrangements for the completion of the building were hurried forward4 ,when the public saw that the work was being accomplished without loss to life or limb1 and that the plucky little party of toilers weathered the gales1 an intense interest was manifested in the undertaking4 ,the foreman was provided with an international code of signals1 and passing vessels1 as an act of courtesy and in recognition of the work that was being done to further their safety1 always stood towards the rock to render assistance in case it was required4 ,the workmen appreciated this feeling1 and on two occasions1 during dense fog1 intimated to captains who had lost their way1 and were groping blindly round the rock1 that they were venturing into dangerous waters4 ,the warning was primitive but effective4 ,it comprised the explosion of giant-powder cartridges over the sea in the direction whence the ships' sirens sounded4 ,in both instances the navigators heard the signals in the nick of time1 and were able to steer clear4 ,the lighthouse itself comprises a group of buildings for the keepers1 from which rises a square tower #dh feet in height1 bringing the light #acb feet above mean high-water4 ,the dwelling is built of stone1 measures #dh feet by #de feet1 and is one story in height4 ,in addition there is an extension for housing the powerful siren and its machinery4 ,the building contains adequate living-quarters1 together with storage rooms and a kitchen4 ,as this light is particularly lonely1 four keepers are stationed on the rock1 and their rooms each have a clear length of #ab feet by #aj feet wide4 ,also1 as the rock is so difficult to approach1 and relief may suffer extreme delay from adverse weather1 sufficient provisions are stored to insure full rations for six months4 ,the light is of the first order1 of #afj1jjj candle-power1 and is visible at a distance of eighteen miles in clear weather4 ,it is a brilliant white flashing beam1 occurring once every five seconds1 the flash being of two seconds1 followed by an eclipse of three seconds4 ,the fog-siren is likewise of the first order1 driven by steam-engines4 ,this plant is in duplicate1 and the signal is given every forty-five seconds1 the blast being of five seconds1 followed by silence for forty seconds4 ,the conquest of the ,tillamook ,rock has been one of the most difficult tasks that the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board ever has accomplished4 ,the little band of quarrymen who braved danger1 hardship1 and privation1 effected occupation of the rock on ,october #ba1 #ahgi1 and the light was exhibited for the first time on ,january #ba1 #ahha1 the total time occupied in the task being #ege days4 ,it has robbed the dreaded ,oregon coast of one of its worst perils1 and the money which was devoted to the provision of this stalwart guardian--#bd1fih1 or #abc1dic--was indeed expended to good purpose4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,coast ,,lights ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,few nations have such a varied coastline to guard as the ,united ,states4 ,on the ,atlantic seaboard the northern shore is a shaggy bold rampart of lofty cliff1 hard and pitiless4 ,farther south the rock gradually gives way to sandy dunes1 which the hungry sea is continually gnawing away here and piling up somewhere else4 ,then1 as the tropics are entered1 the sand in turn gives way to coral reefs1 every whit as formidable as rock and as treacherous as sand1 where the hurricane reigns supreme and makes its presence felt only too frequently4 ,across the continent a similar variation1 though not perhaps so intense1 is observable on the ,pacific side4 ,the coast range runs parallel with the shore1 and consequently cliff and precipice are common1 owing to the lateral spurs of the range coming to an abrupt termination where land and water meet4 ,the result is that no one type of beacon is possible of adoption as a standard for the whole coastline4 ,the class of structure has to be modified to meet local conditions1 but the battle between destruction and preservation is none the less bitter and continuous4 ,when ships began to trade with the ,atlantic seaboard of the ,united ,states1 the erection of warning lights became imperative4 ,this duty was fulfilled in the early days by local enterprise1 and the first lighthouse on the continent was built on ,little ,brewster ,island1 at the entrance to ,boston ,harbour4 ,it was completed about #agaf1 was a conical masonry tower1 and its cost1 which is interesting as being set out to the uttermost farthing--#b1bhe #ags4 #h;d4--betrays the scrupulous commercial integrity of the first financiers of the ,united ,states4 ,the light was maintained by the levy of a due of one penny per ton on all incoming and outgoing vessels1 except those engaged in coastal traffic1 and was collected by the same authority which subsequently got into trouble in the endeavour to collect the tax on tea4 ,this pioneer light is still in service1 although in #aghc it was rebuilt4 ,the light1 of the second order1 is #ajb feet above mean high-water1 and gives a white flash every thirty seconds1 which is visible from a distance of sixteen miles2 the fog-signal is a first-class siren1 giving a blast of five seconds1 followed by silence for ten seconds1 with a succeeding blast of five seconds and silence for forty seconds4 ,the excellent example thus set by the good people of ,boston was followed by other ,states and individual authorities along the coast4 ,this system of local and arbitrary control was by no means satisfactory1 so in #aghi the ,federal ,government took over the control of the lighthouse service1 and entrusted its safe-keeping to the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,there were only eight lights to watch when the cession was effected1 but the growth of the country soon increased the duties of the department4 ,accordingly1 a decree was passed in #ahag whereby the control was transferred from the ,secretary of the ,treasury to the fifth auditor of the same department1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,pleasanton1 who became known as the ,general ,superintendent of ,lights4 ,he assumed the new office in #ahbj1 taking over fifty-five lights1 so that during the thirty years the aids to navigation had been under the jurisdiction of the ,secretary of the ,treasury forty-seven new stations had been established4 ,the new official held the post for thirty-two years1 and prosecuted his work so diligently and systematically that by #aheb the service had grown to #cbe lighthouses1 lightships1 buoys1 and other guides4 ,the lighthouses were maintained under contract1 the contractor for each light undertaking for a fixed annual sum to keep his charge in a perfect state of repair1 to supply all illuminant1 wicks1 chimneys1 and stores1 that were required1 as well as making one visit to the lighthouse in the course of the year4 ,subsequently it became necessary to award the contracts for terms of five years4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,carquinez ,,strait ,,light4 ,an imposing station on the north side of the entrance to the ,strait4 ,as time progressed1 and the duties of the ,superintendent became more onerous1 certain individuals took exception to the idea of such an important service being entrusted to the charge of one man1 vested with wide discretionary powers4 ,accordingly1 complaints were formulated liberally1 and the superintendent became the butt of venomous attack4 ,the outcome of this agitation was the formation of a committee1 two members of which were sent upon a mission of inspection to ,great ,britain and ,france1 the lighthouse services of which were stated to be far superior to that of the ,united ,states1 and more efficiently controlled4 ,the result of this investigation was the inauguration of an official department known as the ,lighthouse ,board1 constituted of capable engineers4 ,in #aheb this authority took over the administration of the light service1 which has remained under its control ever since4 ,in order to secure the utmost efficiency1 the coasts were divided into districts1 each of which is presided over by an accomplished officer of the ,united ,states ,corps of ,engineers1 who is held directly responsible to the ,board at ,washington for the lights in his area4 ,so admirably was the new authority constituted that it has never failed to give the utmost satisfaction1 and the result is that to-day the ,lighthouse ,board of the ,united ,states is comparable with contemporary authorities in the ,old ,world4 ,in the early days the majority of the lights were placed on the mainland1 and as a rule comprised wooden towers1 projecting from the roof of the keepers' dwelling1 similar in character to some of the older lights to be found on the coasts of ,newfoundland and ,new ,brunswick in ,canada4 ,these buildings were cheap to construct1 as they were carried out upon the timber-frame principle2 but they possessed many disadvantages4 ,the greatest objection arose from the attachment of the tower to the roof frames of the house4 ,being exposed to the full fury of the tempest1 the tower in time would become loosened1 and the roof itself distorted1 so that the inmates had to suffer the inconvenience of water penetrating into their rooms4 ,even the few masonry towers which were erected were of the most primitive description1 and soon fell victims to the ravages of the weather4 ,accordingly1 when the lighthouse administration was placed upon an efficient footing1 the first task was the complete overhaul1 and reconstruction where necessary1 of many of the existing lights4 ,of the eight beacons which were taken over by the ,federal ,government in #aghi1 six have been rebuilt4 ,the only two exceptions are the ,sandy ,hook light--a stone tower #hh feet high--and ,cape ,henlopen1 at the entrance to ,delaware ,bay1 both of which were built in #agfd4 ,naturally1 their illuminating apparatus has been remodelled from time to time1 in accordance with the advances in this field of lighthouse engineering1 but that is the only change which has been effected4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,church ,,as ,a ,,lighthouse4 ,a fixed white light1 thrown from the tower of ,st4 ,philip's ,church1 and visible for #ah miles1 forms the rear light of the main channel range in ,charleston ,harbour1 ,south ,carolina4 ,one lighthouse on the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states possesses a pathetic and romantic interest4 ,it indicates the treacherous shores around ,cape ,henry1 and mounts sentinel on the headland at the southerly side of the entrance to ,chesapeake ,bay1 ,virginia4 ,the stranger on the passing ship1 as he scans the dreary bench of sand rising from the water's edge at this point1 has his attention arrested by two gaunt towers4 ,the foremost is almost lapped by the water2 the other is some distance to the rear1 and upon a higher level4 8,two lights1 and for what80 is a natural exclamation4 ,but only one tower--that nearer the waves--throws its glare by night4 ,its companion behind has passed its cycle of utility long since1 but it has not been demolished because of its unique history4 ,it was built in #aghi with bricks and stones brought from ,england4 ,in shape it is a tapering octagonal cone1 and when first erected the waves almost washed its base4 ,but the sea1 which eats away the rock and soft soil at some parts1 casts this dbris ashore here1 so that ,cape ,henry is slowly but surely thrusting its dismal tongue of sand farther and farther into the ,atlantic4 ,the old tower fulfilled faithful service until the seventies1 when1 being considered too far from the water1 it was superseded by the shaft rising from the sand-dunes below4 ,after a century's service the old light was extinguished1 to permit the fixed white light of the first order in the new tower to take its place4 ,the new building1 completed in #ahha1 is likewise octagonal in section1 gradually tapering from the base to the lantern gallery4 ,it is built upon what is described as the 8double-shell principle10 there being two iron cylinders1 one within the other4 ,it is #aeb feet in height1 and the powerful white beam has a range of twenty miles1 while a red beam is cast from one side to mark a dangerous shoal4 ,as a powerful flashing white light of a similar character is shed from a tower on ,cape ,charles opposite1 the mariner has a well-illumined entrance into ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,ice was one of the great difficulties against which the ,american lighthouse builders had to contend1 and they laboured valiantly to mitigate this evil4 ,it caused more damage to their works than wind and wave of the most terrifying violence4 ,the upper reaches of the great rivers are encased with thick ice throughout the winter4 ,when the spring comes round1 this brittle armour is broken up1 and1 caught by the current1 is swept toward the ocean1 the floes jostling and crashing among one another4 ,when the slightest obstruction is offered to their free movement1 the pieces mount one another1 forming large hummocks1 and the pressure thus imposed is terrific4 ,the 8ice-shove10 when it assumes large proportions1 is quite capable of wreaking widespread damage4 ,when the screw-pile lighthouses came into vogue1 this danger was advanced as one of the greatest objections to the adoption of this idea4 ,it was pointed out that the ice would pack around the slender legs1 and either snap them1 or would bring about such severe distortion as to imperil the safety of the superstructure4 ,when ,major ,hartman ,bache undertook the erection of the ,brandywine ,shoal light in ,delaware ,bay1 he determined to frustrate the effects of this peril4 ,the light1 being eight miles from the ocean1 was right in the path of the ice-shoves of the ,potomac1 so the nine iron legs upon which the beacon is supported--eight in a circle and one central--are protected by what is known as an 8ice-breaker40 ,this is a pier of thirty iron piles1 which likewise are screwed into the sea-bed4 ,each pile is #bc feet long by #e inches in diameter1 and they are connected at their heads1 and at a point just above low-water1 by what are known as 8spider-web braces40 ,the result is that1 when a shock is inflicted upon one pile1 it is communicated throughout the entire breaker4 ,this system has proved entirely successful1 and has protected the lighthouse within completely4 ,the main building1 although subjected to heavy attacks by the piled ice1 has never been damaged thereby1 although subsequently it became necessary to strengthen the ice-breaker1 because the onslaughts of several winters had left their mark4 ,off the coast of ,florida1 and in the waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 this type of lighthouse is very strongly in evidence1 as it was found to be the most suitable for the coral sea-bed4 ,the most notable structure of this class is the ,fowey ,rocks light1 which rises1 a flame-crowned skeleton1 from the extreme northern point of the ,florida reefs4 ,it is in an exposed position1 where inclement weather is often experienced4 ,at this point there is not more than #c feet of water1 and the spot is as bad as a mariner could wish to avoid1 for no ship could hope to escape destruction once it became entangled in these submerged toils4 ,the building of this light presented many perplexing difficulties1 the greatest of which was offered by the weather4 ,the structure is an octagonal pyramid1 with the keepers' quarters on a lower deck1 communication with the lantern being afforded by a winding staircase encircling a vertical cylinder4 ,the light is #aaj feet above high-water1 of the fixed type1 with red sectors guarding dangerous shoals in the vicinity1 while the white beams can be picked up some eleven miles away4 ,the integral parts of this building were prepared by three different contractors1 were fitted together1 and the building set up temporarily1 on the mainland1 so as to facilitate erection at the site4 ,the work was started in #ahgf1 the first move being the provision of a platform about #hj feet square and #ab feet above low-water1 from which to conduct operations4 ,the lower piles were driven about #aj feet into the live coral reef4 ,extreme care was observed during this operation1 the pile after every stroke of the driver being tested with a plumb-line1 to make sure that it was being sent home absolutely vertically4 ,if it diverged1 however slightly1 from the perpendicular1 the error was corrected immediately4 ,when the piles had been driven to the requisite depth1 the tops were levelled to the height of the most deeply driven pile2 then the horizontal members were placed in position1 followed by the diagonal bracing4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bonita ,,point ,,lighthouse ,,off ,,the ,,californian ,,coast4 ,while the tower is only #ba feet in height1 its position on a lofty cliff gives the light of #bg1jjj candle-power a range of #ag miles4 ,this task occupied some two months1 and then a spell of bad weather broke over the coast1 interspersed with brief intervals of smooth seas and calms4 ,as the land depot was four miles away1 this involved frequent journeys to and fro for the workmen1 who had to be brought off the work upon the slightest sign of rough weather4 ,to eliminate the interruptions arising from this procedure1 tents were despatched to the site and pitched on the wooden platform1 so that the men might reside there4 ,at times their situation was alarming2 the heavy seas rushed and tumbled among the piles beneath the crazy perch1 and the men were always on tenterhooks lest a hurricane1 such as is experienced often in this region1 should bear down upon them and carry the whole colony away4 ,when work was in progress1 they did not realize their lonely1 perilous position so much1 since their minds were otherwise occupied2 but it was the enforced periods of idleness1 often lasting several days on end1 which made them grow despondent1 as they were virtually imprisoned1 and there was very little space in which to obtain exercise4 ,the material was brought out in lighters towed by a steam-launch1 on which steam was kept up day and night1 because the material had to be sent out at any moment when the conditions were favourable4 ,again1 this 8standing by0 was imperative1 in case a sudden call for assistance should be given by the little isolated community when faced with disaster during a storm4 ,when the men got the keepers' quarters completed1 their minds became easier1 as they were now in possession of a more stable camp4 ,the superstructure advanced at a rapid rate1 and the light was shown for the first time on ,june #ae1 #ahgh4 ,toil of a different character was associated with the building of the ,race ,rock lighthouse1 eight miles from ,new ,london1 ,connecticut4 ,this peril is a submerged ledge off ,fisher's ,island ,sound1 and is of formidable magnitude1 since the ledge is at the mouth of the race1 where the waters1 according to the tide1 sweep along with great velocity and force1 while in heavy weather the waves get up high and thunder with awful power4 ,the main ledge bristles with ugly sharp spurs1 some of which rise above the main cluster1 known as ,race ,rock1 which is about #c feet below mean low-water4 ,the situation of this lurking danger called for the erection of an efficient beacon1 though not demanding a light of the calibre of ,minot's ,ledge1 because even in rough weather the water does not mount in the form of thick curtains of spray4 ,a smaller and different type of light1 therefore1 was considered to be adequate for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,point ,,pinos ,,light ,,station1 ,,california4 ,this mariners' friend has been tended by a woman for the past #cj years4 ,even then1 however1 erection was not an easy matter by any means4 ,the velocity of the water and the submerged character of the reef demanded the aid of divers to prepare the ledge-face and to complete the foundations4 ,the rock was levelled as much as possible by the aid of small broken stone and riprap4 ,on this a heavy circular stepped plinth of solid mass-concrete was laid4 ,this foundation is #i feet in thickness1 and is disposed in four concentric layers1 the lowermost of which is #fj feet in diameter by #c feet in thickness4 ,the concrete was laid in huge hoops of iron1 of the desired height and diameter for the respective layers1 to prevent the mass from spreading4 ,when this task was completed1 there was a level platform1 as solid as the rock itself1 and projecting #h inches above mean low-water4 ,on this a conical stone pier was built to a height of #cj feet1 by #eg feet in diameter at the base4 ,the top was crowned with a projecting coping #ee feet in diameter4 ,the outer face of this pier is composed of massive blocks of stone backed with concrete2 while in its heart are the spaces for cisterns and cellars4 ,from one side of this pier stretches a short jetty1 to form a landing-place4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,farallon ,,rock ,,and ,,light4 ,the light of #aaj1jjj candle-power is placed on the highest peak of the rock1 #ceh feet above the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,farallon ,,lighthouse ,,off ,,san ,,francisco4 ,owing to the height of the rock1 a tower #bi feet high was adequate to carry the lantern and its equipment4 ,the lighthouse comprises a granite dwelling of two floors for the accommodation of the keepers1 from the centre of the front of which rises a granite tower1 square at the base1 but round at the top1 to carry the lantern1 the light of which1 of the fourth order1 is #fg feet above mean high-water4 ,the warning is an alternate flash of red and white1 with a ten seconds' dark interval4 ,for the protection of the base of the pier1 the ledge on all sides is covered with a thick layer of boulders4 ,the work was commenced in #ahgb1 but1 owing to its difficult character1 occupied six years4 ,the ,race ,rock lost its terrors for all time when the beam flashed out on the night of ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahgi4 ,on the ,pacific seaboard1 while the ,american lighthouse engineers have not been so active in regard to engineering work of an impressive nature1 owing to the more slender proportions of the maritime traffic1 they have accomplished some notable triumphs4 ,the ,tillamook ,rock light1 described in the previous chapter1 is the most important1 and is to the ,pacific seaboard of the country what the ,minot's ,ledge light is to the ,atlantic coast4 ,the majority of the lights on the ,pacific are stationed on the mainland1 or contiguous thereto4 ,these beacons are of more modern construction than those on the ,atlantic shore1 and in some instances are very powerful4 ,pride of place in this respect is shared between ,point ,arena and ,cape ,mendocino4 ,the former1 perched on the cliff-shore of ,california1 has a flashing group of two flashes of #c_/h second in five seconds1 with eclipses of #a-a_/h and #d-a_/h seconds respectively1 thrown by its light of #a1jjj1jjj candle-power over the water for a radius of eighteen miles from a height of #aee feet4 ,cape ,mendocino light1 on the same coastline1 has the further distinction of being the most elevated light on the ,united ,states ,pacific coast1 the #cdj1jjj candle-power beam being thrown for ten seconds once every thirty seconds from an elevation of #dbb feet4 ,although the tower itself is only #bj feet in height1 the cliff sheers up for #djb feet4 ,consequently the flash may be detected from twenty-eight miles out to sea in clear weather4 ,on the other hand1 the ,point ,cabrillo light1 a few miles south1 whose flashing ray is of #fej1jjj candle-power1 is picked up from a distance of only fourteen miles1 because the light is but #hd feet above mean high-water4 ,the ,farallon beacon1 comprising a tower #bi feet high planted on the highest point of ,farallon ,island1 off ,san ,francisco1 comes a good second in point of elevation1 as the #aaj1jjj candle-power flash1 occurring for ten seconds once in every minute1 is projected from an altitude of #ceh feet1 and can be discerned twenty-six miles away4 ,for many years the ,point ,reyes light held the distinction of being the loftiest beacon1 since its flash of #afj1jjj candle-power once every five seconds is shed from an elevation of #bid feet1 but is now relegated to third place in this respect4 ,taken on the whole1 the lights scattered along the rugged1 lonely ,pacific seaboard are far more powerful than their contemporaries guarding busier shipping on the eastern coast of the country2 but whereas the latter are placed somewhat close together1 the former are spaced far apart4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,punta ,,gorda ,,light ,,station1 ,,california4 ,one of the latest built by the ,united ,states4 ,commodious and handsome buildings are provided for the wardens of this light4 ,there are some points which1 while being so extremely perilous to the mariner as to demand the provision of a lighthouse1 yet cannot be guarded at present4 ,the peculiarity of their situations and their physical characteristics completely defy the ingenuity1 skill1 and resource1 of the engineer4 ,cape ,hatteras1 perhaps1 is the most forcible illustration of this defeat of science by ,nature4 ,the sea-bed for miles off this point is littered with the most treacherous sandbanks1 beside which the ,goodwins of ,britain appear insignificant4 ,every seafarer knows the ,diamond ,shoals1 and gives them a wider berth than any other danger spot in the seven seas4 ,for some seven and a half miles out to sea from the prominent headland1 the ,atlantic1 according to its mood1 bubbles1 boils1 or rolls calmly1 over shoals and serried rows of submerged banks4 ,the currents are wild and frantic2 the storms which rage off this point are difficult to equal in any other part of the world2 and the number of ships which have gone to pieces or have been abandoned to their fate in these inhospitable stretches of sea is incalculable4 ,time after time the engineers have sought to subjugate this danger1 but without avail4 ,the sea-bed is so soft and absorbing that a firm foundation for a tower defies discovery4 ,one brilliant attempt was made to sink a caisson1 similar to that employed for the famous ,rothersand light in the ,river ,weser4 ,the mammoth structure was built1 and with extreme difficulty was towed out to the selected site4 ,but the seas roared against this attempt to deprive them of their prey4 ,they bore down upon the caisson and smashed it to fragments1 causing the engineers to retire from the scene thoroughly discomfited4 ,when a huge mass1 weighing several hundred tons1 could be broken up by the maddened seas so easily1 of what avail were the knowledge and effort of man8 ,the ,diamond ,shoals still resist conquest4 ,the only means of warning ships of their presence is a lightship moored well out beyond the pale of their sucking embrace4 ,at the present time the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board mounts guard over #ag1fie miles of coastline4 ,this aggregate embraces1 not only the two seaboards of the ,north ,american continent1 but sections of the ,great ,lakes1 the ,philippines1 ,alaska1 ,hawaiian ,islands1 and the ,american ,samoan ,islands1 the total detailed coast or channel line being no less than #dh1hha miles4 ,in order to guide the mariner on his way through waters over which the ,stars and ,stripes wave1 no less than #ab1aej lights of all descriptions are required1 demanding the services of an army of #e1ehb men and women2 while the cost of maintenance exceeds #a1bjj1jjj1 or #f1jjj1jjj1 per annum4 ,seeing that the country levies no tolls for services rendered in this connection1 the shipping community1 and humanity in general1 owe a deep debt of gratitude to a powerful nation4 ,the ,united ,states share with ,great ,britain1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,italy1 the ,netherlands1 and ,sweden1 the expense of maintaining a lighthouse which is situate on the property of none of them4 ,this is a kind of no man's1 and yet it is every man's1 light4 ,the beacon is not located in an out-of-the-way part of the world1 such as the ,arctic ,sea1 as might be supposed1 but mounts guard over one of the busiest marine thoroughfares of the globe--the western entrance to the ,mediterranean4 ,this unique light is that of ,cape ,spartel1 on the ,moroccan coast4 ,while it was built at the expense of ,morocco1 the responsibility for its maintenance was assumed by the foregoing ,powers1 in accordance with the convention of ,march #ab1 #ahfg1 which has remained in force since4 ,there is no other light upon the seven seas which has so many ,powers concerned in its welfare and maintenance4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,lamp-,,posts ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,lakes ,,of ,,north ,,america ,on the ,north ,american continent the efficient lighting of the coasts washed by two salt oceans is only one1 although the most important1 concern of the ,united ,states and ,canadian ,governments4 ,in addition each has a long stretch of rugged1 tortuous shore hemming in those capacious depressions draining a vast tract of country1 and known generally as the ,great ,lakes4 ,these unsalted seas are rightly named1 seeing that they constitute the largest sheets of fresh water on the inhabited globe4 ,the responsibility of safeguarding the navigator as he makes his way across these wastes is shared equally by the two countries which they divide1 with one exception4 ,this is ,lake ,michigan1 which lies entirely within the ,united ,states4 ,the narrow necks of water which link these lakes into one long chain likewise are lighted by the two nations4 ,for some years the ,lower ,detroit ,river1 connecting ,lakes ,erie and ,st4 ,clair1 was maintained for the most part by the ,united ,states1 but the practice was not satisfactory2 so1 as the result of a conference between the two ,governments1 ,canada assumed charge of the aids in certain specified portions of the navigable channel lying entirely in ,canadian waters4 ,the result of this new arrangement has been the better patrolling of the waterway4 ,the water-borne commerce on these lakes1 although possible for only half the year1 is tremendous1 while navigation is extremely difficult and beset with innumerable dangers4,b ,the different means whereby a ship is handled and maintained on its course upon the salt-water ocean are not completely applicable in this case4 ,the greater number of the boats are freighters and engaged in the transport of ore1 which1 from its metallic character1 is apt to disturb the compass1 rendering it somewhat unreliable4 ,nor is the lead of much avail in thick weather1 as the lake-bed varies suddenly from comparative shallowness to great depths4 ,navigation on these lakes has been likened to coastal traffic1 only with land on both sides of the mariner1 and the intervals when the ship is out of sight of the shoreline are comparatively brief4 ,accordingly1 the captain picks his way rather by the aid of landmarks1 and the vessels are fitted with a bowsprit1 to give the master a point whereby to judge his direction4 ,but landmarks1 however conspicuous and trustworthy they may be by day and in clear weather1 are useless at night and in fog1 to which latter visitation1 by the way1 these waters are extremely susceptible4 ,b ,for a full description of the marine traffic on the ,great ,lakes1 see 8,the ,steamship ,conquest of the ,world10 chapter ix41 p4 #aai4 ,steamship traffic cannot be carried on with financial success by daylight and in fair weather only1 so it became necessary to distribute beacons around the indented shores4 ,this procedure was rendered additionally necessary owing to the formidable character of many of the dangers besetting navigation1 in the form of shoals1 projecting ridges1 and submerged reefs1 quite as terrifying to the master of a fresh-water ship as similar dangers on an ocean-swept coast4 ,at the same time1 however1 one would not expect to find examples of lighthouse engineering comparable with the great sea-rock lights rearing above the ocean1 such as the ,minot's ,ledge1 ,dhu-,heartach1 or ,bishop's ,rock4 ,on the other hand1 the uninitiated might conclude that buoys and small lights1 such as indicate the entrance to harbours1 would fulfil requirements4 ,so they would but for two or three adverse factors4 ,these lakes are ravaged at times by storms of great violence1 which burst with startling suddenness4 ,fogs also are of frequent occurrence1 especially in the spring and autumn1 often descending and lifting instantly like a thick blanket of cloud4 ,but the most implacable enemy is the ice4 ,the engineer can design a tower which will withstand the most savage onslaughts of wind and wave with comparative ease1 at1 relatively speaking1 little expense2 but the ice introduces another factor which scarcely can be calculated4 ,the whole of these lakes are frozen over during the winter to such a thickness as to defy all efforts to cut a channel1 becoming1 in fact1 as solid as terra firma4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,a ,,lighthouse ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,lakes ,,in ,,the ,,grip ,,of ,,winter4 ,this tower marks the ,racine ,reef in #bj feet of water near the entrance to ,racine ,harbour on the west coast of ,lake ,michigan4 ,in the spring this armour cracks and breaks up like glass shattered with a hammer4 ,it then becomes the sport of the currents1 which in many places sweep and swirl with enormous force round the headlands and spits projecting into the lake4 ,this action sets the ice moving in stately majesty1 but crushing everything that rears in its way1 or piling and breaking against the obstruction4 ,ice-shoves1 ice-jams1 and ice-runs1 are the three forces against which the engineer has to contend1 and at places his efforts are so puny as to be useless4 ,the ice1 if it collects across one of the outlets so as to form a massive dam reaching to the lake-bed1 immediately causes the level of the lake to rise2 and when at last the barrage breaks1 then the water is released in a mad rush4 ,lighthouse building on the ,great ,lakes demands the highest skill1 incalculable ingenuity1 and the soundest of design and workmanship4 ,consequently1 some of the guardian lights distributed around these shores1 such as ,spectacle ,reef1 the ,rock of ,ages1 ,colchester1 and ,red ,rock lighthouses1 are striking evidences of the engineer's handiwork4 ,of course1 where the land presses in on either hand1 transforming the waterway into a kind of canal1 or where the shore is free from submerged obstructions1 the type of lighthouse on either shore follows the wooden frame dwelling with a low tower1 as it is completely adequate for the purpose4 ,the one erection1 however1 which commands the greatest attention is the ,spectacle ,reef light1 which has been called the ,eddystone1 or ,minot's ,ledge1 of the ,lakes4 ,in its way it was quite as bold an undertaking as either of these far-famed works1 and in some respects was far more difficult to carry out1 although the builder was spared the capriciousness and extreme restlessness of tidal waters4 ,spectacle ,reef lighthouse rears its tapering head from a particularly dangerous reef in an awkward corner of ,lake ,huron1 where commences the ,strait of ,mackinac1 leading to ,lake ,michigan4 ,the spot is dangerous1 because it is covered by about #g feet of water2 awkward1 because it occurs about ten and a half miles off the nearest land1 which is ,bois ,blanc ,island4 ,the reef in reality comprises two shoals1 which lie in such relation to one another as to suggest a pair of spectacles--hence the name4 ,as it is exposed to #agj miles of open sea on one side1 when these waters are roused the rollers hammer on the reef with terrible violence1 while at times the currents skirl by at a velocity of two or three miles per hour1 and the ice in its movement grinds1 piles1 and grates itself upon the reef in impotent fury4 ,when this ice is forced forward with the push exerted by the currents1 the pressure is tremendous and the force wellnigh irresistible4 ,when the lighthouse was projected1 it was realized that it would have to be of massive proportions and provided with adequate measures to protect it from the assault and battering of the ice4 ,the task was undertaken by ,general ,o4 ,m4 ,poe1 who was engineer-in-chief to ,general ,sherman on his historic march to the sea4 ,this engineer decided to take the ,minot's ,ledge monolithic structure as his model1 seeing that the latter had withstood the savage onslaughts of the ,atlantic4 ,fortunately1 the foundations were of an excellent character1 the reef being formed of hard limestone4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,building ,,the ,,barre ,,boulard ,,light ,,in ,,the ,,river ,,st4 ,,lawrence4 ,owing to the severity of the ice piling in this waterway1 the structures have to be provided with massive foundations4 ,the engineer selected as the site for the tower a point where the ridge is submerged by #aa feet of water4 ,seeing that the base was to be laid under water1 obviously it seemed to be an operation for divers2 but ,general ,poe prepared a superior means of getting the subaqueous foundations laid4 ,he built a cofferdam around the site1 and1 as the work would have to be protected from the winter ice1 he built another cofferdam1 entirely for protective purposes1 outside the former4 ,the nearest point on the mainland where he could establish a depot was ,scammon's ,harbour1 some sixteen miles away1 and here everything in connection with the work was prepared and shipped to the site ready for placing in position4 ,the protective work comprised a wooden pier1 built up of timbers #ab inches square1 #bd feet in height4 ,this structure was divided into a series of vertical compartments on all four sides1 leaving a clear internal space #dh feet square4 ,the outer compartments or pockets were filled with stone1 to secure solidity and stability4 ,landing facilities were provided on this pier1 together with quarters for the men engaged in the construction work4 ,in the inner space1 containing #dh square feet of still water1 the cofferdam1 in which the subaqueous work was to be carried out1 was lowered4 ,this structure was cylindrical in form4 ,it was built up of staves1 banded with heavy hoops of iron1 so that in reality it resembled a huge barrel #cf feet across4 ,it was fashioned at the site1 being built while suspended directly over the spot on which it was to be lowered4 ,when the tub was finished1 loosely twisted oakum1 #a inches thick1 was nailed all round the lower edge1 while a flap of heavy canvas was secured to the outside bottom rim in such a way as to leave #cf inches dangling free4 ,the exact circular shape of the cofferdam was insured by liberal cross-bracing from a central vertical post1 which constituted the axis of the barrel1 corresponding to the vertical axis of the tower4 ,while this work was in progress1 the face of the rock was cleared of loose boulders1 and then the cofferdam was lowered bodily with extreme care1 so that it descended with unerring accuracy perpendicularly into the water1 to come to rest over the desired spot4 ,as the surface of the reef was very uneven1 the cofferdam stopped when it reached the highest projection under its edge4 ,then each stave of the barrel was driven downwards until it came to rest upon the sea-bed1 and1 as the oakum rope was forced down likewise1 this served to act as caulking4 ,the outer flap of canvas1 when the cofferdam was driven right home1 spread out on all sides1 and lay upon the surface of the reef4 ,pumps capable of discharging #e1jjj gallons per minute then were set to work1 removing the water from within the cofferdam4 ,the oakum rope seal prevented the water regaining the internal space under the bottom edge of the tub1 while the canvas assisted in securing absolute water-tightness1 because the outer water-pressure forced it into all the nooks and crevices4 ,by these means the workmen were given an absolutely dry space in which to carry out their erecting work4 ,the face of the reef was cleaned and levelled off1 and the first layer of stones was laid4 ,these were first fitted temporarily upon a false platform on shore1 so that when they reached the site they could be set at once without finicking4 ,the bottom layer is #cb feet in diameter1 and the tower is solid to a height of #cd feet above the rock4 ,the stones are each #b feet in thickness1 and are secured to one another on all sides with wrought-iron bolts1 #bd inches long by #b inches in diameter2 while the tower is anchored to the rock by cement and bolts #c feet long1 driven through the bottom course into the real rock beneath1 entering the latter to a depth of #ba inches4 ,liquid cement was driven into the holes so as to fill up all the remaining interstices1 and this now has become as hard as the stone itself4 ,the exterior of the tower is the frustum of a cone1 and at #hj feet above the base is #ah feet in diameter4 ,the total height of the masonry is #ic feet1 and the focal plane is brought #ig feet above the rock1 or #hf feet above the water-level4 ,the tower is provided with five rooms1 each #ad feet in diameter1 while the entrance is #bc feet above the water4 ,the undertaking was commenced in ,may1 #ahgj1 and the light was shown first in ,june1 #ahgd4 ,as work had been confined to the summer months1 and a fortnight every spring was devoted to preparations1 as well as an equal period in the autumn to making all fast to withstand the rigours of winter1 the total working period was only some twenty months4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson4 ,,colchester ,,reef ,,lighthouse1 ,,lake ,,erie4 ,an isolated station maintained by the ,canadian ,government4 ,it is a fixed light1 visible throughout a circle of #af miles radius4 ,the protection against the ice has proved its value completely4 ,the ice as it moves becomes crushed against the defence1 and then has its advance impeded by the shoal upon which it grinds and packs1 to form in itself a barrier and ice-breaker against other approaching ice-fields4 ,this structure was soon submitted to a stern test to prove its efficacy4 ,in the spring of #ahge1 when the keepers returned to the lighthouse--the light1 in common with all other beacons guarding the ,great ,lakes1 is shut down during the winter1 when navigation is closed--they found the tower unapproachable4 ,the ice-shove had jammed1 packed1 and been frozen into a solid berg to a height of #cj feet1 of which the tower itself formed the core4 ,the doorway was buried to a depth of #g feet1 and the keepers had to carve their way with pickaxes to the entrance4 ,owing to the success of the design for the ,spectacle ,reef lighthouse1 which ranks as a striking engineering achievement1 it was adopted for the ,stannard's ,rock tower4 ,this ledge rises from the water #bh feet from shore1 and the plant and tackle which were employed in connection with the first-named structure were utilized in this undertaking4 ,the tower is #aia feet in height1 and the light can be seen for about twenty miles4 ,during the past two or three years the ,united ,states ,government has erected two other noble lighthouses in ,lakes ,superior and ,michigan4 ,the first warns all and sundry off a rock having three ugly pinnacles projecting above the water1 and known as the 8,rock of ,ages40 ,this danger stands right in the steamship tracks between ,port ,arthur and ,duluth1 off the western end of ,isle ,royale4 ,the engineers selected one of the pinnacles as the base for the tower1 decapitating the projection to #ab inches above mean low-water1 so as to secure a sufficiently large and level plinth4 ,on this bed a cylindrical foundation pier1 of massive proportions and strength so as to withstand the ice action1 was planted1 to support a lofty tower in reinforced concrete4 ,the building has seven floors1 one being set aside for housing the two twenty-four horse-power oil-engines which are used to drive the air-compressors for the fog-siren4 ,the light is #abe feet above water-level1 and gives a double flash at ten-second intervals1 which can be picked up twenty-one miles away4 ,this tower was erected in a very short time1 the work1 commenced in ,may1 #aijg1 being completed1 except for the installation of the permanent lens1 thirteen months later4 ,the optical apparatus was fixed and the light shown first on ,september #ae1 #aiaj4 ,the second light has been placed on ,white ,shoal1 at the north end of ,lake ,michigan1 and supersedes a lightship which fulfilled all requirements for many years4 ,the shoal is exceptionally dangerous1 and the crowded character of the shipping demanded the installation of a more powerful light and fog-signal4 ,the structure is a striking piece of work1 comprising a steel cylindrical tower1 or shell1 lined on the inside with brick and faced externally with terra-cotta--an unusual material for lighthouse construction4 ,the superstructure is built upon a massive concrete pier1 about #gj feet square1 rising #bj feet above water-level1 this being borne in turn upon a heavy stone-filled timber crib laid on a block-stone foundation1 the whole being protected thoroughly with riprap4 ,the lantern is of the second flashing order1 with the focal plane #abe feet above the lake-level1 and the #fe1jjj candle-power ray is visible twenty-five miles away4 ,the tower is fitted with a duplicate plant of twenty-four horse-power oil-engines and air-compressors1 operating an eight-inch whistle2 and there is also an electrically-operated submarine bell1 the power for which is generated by an independent oil-engine1 the bell being operated from the engine-room4 ,this station is equipped also with a compressed air water-supply system and a motor-boat4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,latest ,,development ,,in ,,lighthouse ,,engineering4 ,building the hexagonal tower on ,caribou ,island1 ,lake ,superior1 upon the lines evolved by ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,p4 ,anderson1 the chief engineer to the ,canadian ,lighthouse ,department4 ,owing to the peculiar prevailing conditions1 the provision of adequate beacons upon the ,great ,lakes is highly expensive4 ,up to the year #ahhc more money had been devoted to the lighting of the shoreline of ,lake ,michigan than to the illumination of any ocean or gulf in any other ,state in the country4 ,the total expenditure up to the above year exceeded #dgj1jjj1 or #b1cej1jjj4 ,the ,spectacle ,reef light was considered cheap at #ge1jjj1 or #cge1jjj2 and the ,stannard ,rock lighthouse1 owing to the plant and other facilities being available from the foregoing work1 cost #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj4 ,by the time the 8,rock of ,ages0 tower threw its light1 #bg1fdi1 or #ach1bde1 had been sunk2 and the ,white ,shoals lighthouse absorbed #ej1jjj1 or #bej1jjj4 ,the ,canadian ,government1 too1 has completed some notable works upon the ,great ,lakes during recent years4 ,in ,lake ,erie1 in the fairway of passing traffic1 is a ledge known as ,colchester ,reef1 on the south-east edge of which a lighthouse1 one of the most isolated in ,canadian waters1 has been placed4 ,the circular stone pier is built in #ad feet of water1 and the lighthouse1 comprising a two-story dwelling and tower1 supports the beacon #fj feet above the lake4 ,the light is a fixed white1 of the third dioptric order1 visible throughout a circle of fourteen miles radius4 ,at the entrance to ,parry ,sound1 on a convenient site offered by the solid granite mass of ,red ,rock1 a new lighthouse was constructed in #aiaa4 ,this was the third beacon placed at this point1 the two previous lights dating from #ahgj and #ahha respectively4 ,it is a particularly bad spot1 since the waters of ,georgian ,bay have a free run1 so that the rock experiences the full hammering of the sea4 ,the beacon comprises a reinforced concrete building1 nearly elliptical in section1 supported upon a heavy stone foundation1 which is encased in steel1 and which is #ab feet high4 ,the tower has a height of #eg feet1 bringing the occulting flash of twelve seconds1 with an eclipse of four seconds1 #fj feet above the water4 ,this station is also equipped with a powerful diaphone4 ,the keepers of this light experience exciting times1 as in a furious gale1 such as the lakes only can produce1 the waves frequently crash over the building4 ,another fine light in the stretch of these waters under ,canadian jurisdiction is found about halfway across ,lake ,superior1 where ,caribou ,island thrusts its scrub-clothed hump above the water1 almost directly in the path of the vessels running between ,sault ,ste4 ,marie and ,sarnia4 ,this magnificent structure1 placed on a small islet lying off the main island1 is built in ferro-concrete1 in accordance with ,lieutenant-,colonel ,anderson's latest ideas1 and was opened for service in #aiab4 ,it is of hexagonal shape1 with six flying buttresses1 and the focal plane is brought #ii feet above the water-level1 so that the white flash of half a second may be seen all round from a distance of fifteen miles4 ,the steamship lanes across the ,great ,lakes are now well lighted4 ,canada alone maintains over #dfj lights of all descriptions throughout its waters between the eastern extremity of ,lake ,ontario and the head of ,lake ,superior at ,port ,arthur4 ,the ,united ,states authorities watch over #fid attended and unattended aids to navigation in the same seas1 of which total #aeb are scattered around the coastline of ,lake ,michigan4 ,the mariner in these fresh-water oceans1 consequently1 has a round thousand lights to guide him on his way1 and the number is being steadily increased to keep pace with the growth of the traffic1 so that these seas may become regarded as the safest and best protected in the world4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,most ,,powerful ,,electric ,,lighthouses ,,of ,,the ,,world ,in a previous chapter ,i have mentioned that1 although oil is the most popular form of illuminant in lighthouse engineering1 electricity is maintained to be preferable1 but labours under one heavy disadvantage which militates against its more general adoption4 ,it is expensive to install and to maintain4 ,under these circumstances the system has been restricted to lights of the most important character1 preferably landfalls or beacons indicating the entrance to a harbour4 ,thus1 we have the ,lizard at the entrance to the ,english ,channel2 ,st4 ,catherine's on the ,isle of ,wight2 the ,rothersand at the entrance to the ,weser2 the ,heligoland flaring over the island of that name2 the ,isle of ,may at the entrance to the ,firth of ,forth2 ,cape ,hve near ,havre2 and the ,navesink light on the highlands of the ,new ,jersey coast1 to guide the mariner into ,new ,york harbour4 ,the first attempt to apply electricity to lighthouse illumination was made in the year #ahei1 by the ,trinity ,brethren1 on the strong recommendations of ,professor ,faraday1 who was then scientific adviser to the ,british lighthouse authorities4 ,the ,south ,foreland light was selected for the experiments1 and the magneto-electric machine invented by ,professor ,holmes1 who subsequently perfected the siren1 was used4 ,the installation was built with extreme care1 as the imperative necessity of reliability1 owing to the peculiar nature of the application1 was recognized very fully4 ,the large wheels made eighty-five revolutions per minute1 and at this speed produced a very steady light4 ,on a clear night1 owing to the elevation of the cliff the light was visible for over twenty-seven miles1 and could be descried readily from the upper galleries of the lighthouses on the opposite ,french shore4 ,in order to determine the relative value of electric lighting in comparison with the other methods of illumination then in vogue1 another light emitted by an oil-lamp1 with reflectors characteristic of the period1 was burned simultaneously from a point below the top light1 so that passing mariners were able to compare the two systems of illumination under identical conditions4 ,the ,french lighthouse authorities were not dilatory in adopting the new idea1 and electricity was installed in the ,cape ,hve lighthouse in #ahfc4 ,the light was brilliant for those times1 being approximately of #fj1jjj candle-power4 ,the ,french investigators then embarked upon an elaborate series of experiments1 and in #ahha an electric light of about #a1bgj1jjj candle-power was established at the ,planier lighthouse1 near ,marseilles4 ,the investigations culminated in the great achievement of ,m4 ,bourdelles1 who1 while engineer-in-chief of the ,service des ,phares1 designed a new electric installation for the ,cape ,hve light1 of #be1jjj1jjj candle-power4 ,meantime ,british engineers had not been idle4 ,in #ahga ,messrs4 ,stevenson1 the engineers-in-chief to the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 advocated strongly the establishment of an electric light upon the ,scottish coast2 but it was not until #ahhc that the ,board of ,trade sanctioned the sum necessary to complete such an enterprise1 and suggested that the innovation should be made at the ,isle of ,may lighthouse1 as being the most important on the ,east ,scottish coast4 ,this is one of the historic light-stations of ,scotland4 ,lying in the ,firth of ,forth1 five miles off the ,fifeshire shore1 the islet obstructs a busy marine thoroughfare4 ,for #bgf years a light has gleamed from its summit1 the change from the coal fire to ,argand lamps with reflectors having been made by ,thomas ,smith1 the first engineer to the ,commissioners of ,northern ,lighthouses1 when this body assumed its control in #ahaf4 ,twenty years later it was converted to the dioptric system1 with a first-order fixed light apparatus having a four-wick burner4 ,this arrangement was in service for half a century1 when it was converted to electricity in conjunction with a dioptric condensing apparatus4 ,the electric installation was designed throughout by ,messrs4 ,stevenson1 and it possesses many ingenious and novel features to this day1 while it was the pioneer of modern electric lighting systems as applied to lighthouse engineering4 ,although marked improvements have been effected in electrical engineering and science since its completion1 it still ranks as one of1 if not the1 most powerful electric lighthouses in the world4 ,the beacon is a prominent edifice on the summit of the island4 ,the building is somewhat pretentious1 rather resembling a battlemented castle than a warning for the mariner1 the optical apparatus being housed in a square turret rising above the main part of the building4 ,when electric illumination was adopted1 the existing accommodation for three keepers was found insufficient1 while a generating-station was necessary4 ,instead of extending the old building to accommodate the additional facilities1 a second station was built at a low-lying point near the sea-level4 ,this contains the engine and generating house1 together with quarters for three more keepers and their families4 ,this decision was made because at this point1 #haj feet away and #age feet below the lighthouse1 there is a small fresh-water loch whence water is available for the boilers and condensers1 while a marked saving in the cost of handling fuel as well as of the haulage of the building materials and machinery was feasible4 ,the current is led from the power-house to the lighthouse by means of overhead copper conductors4 ,some difficulty was experienced in securing electrical apparatus suited to the searching exigencies of lighthouse engineering1 and the designers made one stipulation1 which at first appeared to baffle fulfilment4 ,this was the placing of the positive carbon below1 instead of above1 so as to enable the strongest light to be thrown upwards1 to be dealt with by the upper part of the dioptric apparatus1 whereby it could be used more effectively4 ,one firm struggled with this problem for many months1 and then was compelled to admit defeat1 as time for further experimenting was unavailable1 since the lighthouse was almost completed4 ,accordingly1 the designing engineers had to revise their plans1 and had to acquire alternate-current ,de ,meriten machines1 which1 although more expensive and less powerful than those originally intended1 yet were1 and are still1 wonderfully steady in working1 while they had previously proved highly efficient for lighthouse service4 ,two generators of this description were secured1 and they constituted the largest that had been made up to this period1 each plant weighing about #d tons4 ,each machine has sixty permanent magnets1 disposed in five sets of twelve each1 while each magnet is made up of eight steel plates4 ,the armature makes #fjj revolutions per minute1 and develops an average current of #bbj ampres4 ,the installation is so designed that one-1 two-1 three-1 or four-fifths1 or the whole1 of the current can be sent from each unit to the distributor for transmission to the lantern1 or the two machines may be coupled and the full current from both utilized4 ,the current is conveyed to the lantern through copper rods #a inch in diameter1 and this was the first occasion on which such conductors were utilized for lighthouse work4 ,there are three lamps of a modified ,serrin-,berjot type1 one being in service1 and the other two held in reserve4 ,by means of a by-pass1 or shunt1 a large percentage of the current is sent direct to the lower carbon1 only a sufficient amount to regulate the carbons being sent through the lamp4 ,the carbons used are about #a inches in diameter1 though two-inch carbons can be employed when both machines are running1 and the rate of consumption is #a inches1 or1 including waste1 #b inches1 per hour4 ,the power of the arc thus obtained with the current fed from one generator is between #ab1jjj and #af1jjj candles4 ,in the event of the electric installation breaking down1 a three-wick paraffin oil lamp is kept in reserve1 ready for instant service1 and it can be brought into use within three minutes4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,electric ,,searchlights ,,of ,,the ,,heligoland ,,lighthouse4 ,on the lower level are three projectors spaced #abj degrees apart4 ,above is a fourth searchlight revolving three times as rapidly as those below4 ,the dioptric apparatus1 designed by ,messrs4 ,stevenson1 and manufactured by ,messrs4 ,chance ,brothers and ,co4 of ,birmingham1 is of a novel character1 inasmuch as the condensing principle has been carried to a pronounced degree4 ,the light characteristic is four brilliant flashes in quick succession every thirty seconds4 ,the lenticular apparatus also includes the ingenious idea advocated by ,mr4 ,thomas ,stevenson1 an earlier engineer-in-chief to the ,northern ,commissioners and perhaps the greatest authority on lighthouse optical engineering1 whereby the light may be dipped during a fog4 ,thus1 in clear weather the strongest part of the ray may be directed to the horizon1 while in thick weather it can be brought to bear upon a point1 say1 four or five miles away4 ,the flashes are produced by a revolving cage of straight vertical prisms1 which enclose the fixed-light apparatus4 ,this cage makes one complete revolution every minute1 the rotary movement being secured through a train of wheels and a weight1 which has a fall of #fj feet in a tube extending vertically through the centre of the tower1 the mechanism being wound up once an hour by manual effort4 ,the beam of light obtained by the aid of electricity is of intense brilliancy and penetration4 ,its equivalent in candle-power is somewhat difficult to determine1 because the methods of calculation are somewhat arbitrary and misleading4 ,by their own method of calculation1 the engineers responsible for the installation rate it at #c1jjj1jjj candle-power with one generator in use1 and #f1jjj1jjj candle-power when both are going4 ,this is from #cjj to #fjj times as intense as the oil light which was superseded4 ,by another method of calculation the beam is of #bf1jjj1jjj candle-power1 while another principle of rating brings it to upwards of #ej1jjj1jjj candle-power4 ,in clear weather the light has a range of twenty-two miles1 being indistinguishable at a greater distance1 owing to the curvature of the earth2 but the flashes of light illuminating the clouds overhead may be picked up forty or fifty miles away4 ,the total cost of electrifying the ,isle of ,may light was #ae1hce1 or #gi1age2 while the annual cost of maintenance is over #a1jjj1 or #e1jjj4 ,the most famous ,english electric lighthouse is that of ,st4 ,catherine's1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,this point1 like the ,isle of ,may1 has been a beacon for centuries4 ,its creation for this work even antedates its northern contemporary1 because in the fourteenth century a chantry was built by a benevolent knight on the highest point of ,st4 ,catherine's ,downs1 who furthermore provided an endowment for a priest 8who should chant ,masses and maintain a burning light at night for the safety of mariners40 ,but this protection fell into desuetude4 ,the station1 however1 was revived upon the old site in #aghe1 but it had to be abandoned1 because it was found to be built at too high an elevation4 ,it was so often enveloped in fog as to be useless1 or at least unreliable1 to the seafarer4 ,a new tower1 accordingly1 was erected at a lower level1 and brought into service in #ahdj1 the warning rays being thrown from a height of #acd feet above the water4 ,oil was used with a burner of six rings1 the light being officially known as a 8fixed oil light of the first class10 while the beam was diffused over an arc of #bdj degrees4 ,in the middle eighties the ,brethren of ,trinity ,house decided to bring it up to date1 and selected electricity as the illuminant1 at the same time changing the light from the fixed to the revolving class1 with a five-second flash once every thirty seconds4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,siemens ,bros4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,heligoland ,,lighthouse4 ,one of the most powerful electric beacons in the world4 ,its maximum candle-power is #dc1jjj1jjj4 ,the installation is not widely dissimilar from that used at the ,isle of ,may4 ,it comprises two ,de ,meriten dynamos in duplicate1 while the lamps are of the modified ,serrin-,berjot type1 using carbons1 not of circular section1 but with fluted sides4 ,this shape was introduced by ,sir ,james ,douglass1 who contended that the former type did not produce the requisite candle-like steadiness of the flame so essential to lighthouse illumination4 ,the dioptric apparatus was of the sixteen panel type1 so that the rays were thrown out in sixteen brilliantly white horizontal spokes4 ,to one approaching the lighthouse at night-time1 the effect in the sky was somewhat curious4 ,it recalled a huge and illuminated cart wheel or ,catherine wheel1 lying flat on its side1 throwing its rays to all points of the compass in a steadily moving circle4 ,this practice had been borrowed from the ,french1 who went so far as to introduce a twenty-four panel system1 and1 as in ,france1 the ,st4 ,catherine's light1 when first brought into service1 was not a complete success4 ,the ,french considered that1 by distributing the light through as many panels as possible1 the question of bringing the flashes into action at short intervals would be facilitated1 ignoring the fact that by so doing the intensity of each ray was impoverished4 ,in other words1 with the twenty-four panel light each panel only received and threw out one-twenty-fourth part of the volume of light emitted by the arc4 ,similarly1 in the ,st4 ,catherine's light only one-sixteenth part of the light produced was thrown through each panel4 ,a few years ago the optical system was replaced by an apparatus having fewer panels4 ,the light thrown from the ,isle of ,wight pharos1 with its beam exceeding #e1jjj1jjj candle-power1 represents a marked advance upon the oil light which it displaced1 and certainly it ranks as the most brilliant light in the ,english ,channel4 ,a few years ago another magnificent light was brought into service in the ,north ,sea by the installation of electricity in the lighthouse of ,heligoland4 ,with characteristic ,teuton thoroughness1 the ,germans discussed the question of the illuminant for this beacon in all its bearings1 and resolved to introduce the most powerful light possible4 ,this decision was influenced by the dangerous character of the waters washing the island1 as it is flanked on all sides by highly perilous ridges and sandbanks1 which must become accentuated owing to the heavy sea-erosion that prevails4 ,the ,german authorities investigated the various electrical installations that had been laid down for lighthouse work1 with a view to discovering the most suitable system1 the advantages and defects of existing electric lights1 and how the drawbacks might be overcome most successfully4 ,meantime the famous ,siemens firm discovered a means of grinding glass mirrors into parabolic form1 and this discovery was accepted as the solution to the problem4 ,in this type of mirror the back is silvered4 ,the metallic polished surface is protected completely from mechanical injury and from all possibility of tarnishing4 ,the inventors claim that mirrors so prepared are able to compete successfully with lenses and totally reflecting prisms--in fact1 it was maintained that the silvered glass parabolic mirror possessed the advantages of greater reflecting power and enhanced accuracy1 with less divergence of the beam of light4 ,owing to the perfection of the lenses and prisms system of lighthouse optics1 the introduction of arc lights in conjunction with parabolic mirrors was received with considerable hesitation4 ,in order to dispel these doubts1 the above-mentioned firm forthwith embarked upon an elaborate series of comparative tests at ,nuremberg to ascertain the relative value of the two systems1 and as a result of these experiments they concluded that quite as good an effect is obtainable with the arc and parabolic mirror as with the best examples of any other method4 ,accordingly1 the authorities decided to install the system in the ,heligoland lighthouse4 ,they stipulated that the intensity of the beam of light should be at least #cj1jjj1jjj candle-power1 with a maximum current of #ajj ampres4 ,the duration of the flash was to be one-tenth of a second1 followed by eclipses of five seconds' duration4 ,the electrical engineering firm entrusted with the contract fulfilled these conditions by mounting three searchlights spaced #abj degrees apart upon a rotating platform4 ,that is to say1 each light is projected outwards from a point equal to a third of the circumference of a circle4 ,the mirror diameter was settled at #ge centimetres 7#bi inches7 and the focal length at #bej millimetres 7#aj inches71 the current being taken at #cd ampres when the table made four revolutions per minute4 ,subsequently a fourth searchlight was introduced into the apparatus1 for the purpose of practical experiments and observations concerning the duration of the light-flash4 ,this fourth unit was mounted above the three searchlights1 but in the axis itself4 ,it is so disposed that its flash comes midway between any of the two below1 and it is arranged to rotate three times as quickly as the main group of lights4 ,accordingly1 the duration of the flash thrown from the fourth searchlight is only one-third of the flash thrown by the others--that is1 one-thirtieth of a second4 ,this lamp is provided with all the necessary mechanism for keeping it in steady rotation at the increased speed1 and for drawing current from its feed-cable4 ,before the installation was placed in the lighthouse at ,heligoland1 it was submitted to searching tests at the ,nuremberg works of the builders4 ,these trials proved that with a current of only #bf ampres the average intensity was as high as #cd1jjj1jjj candle-power1 with a maximum of nearly #dj1jjj1jjj candle-power2 while with #cd ampres the average intensity rose to approximately #dj1jjj1jjj1 with a maximum of nearly #dc1jjj1jjj candle-power4 ,accordingly1 the terms of the contract were fulfilled completely4 ,the searchlights throw their rays from a massive conical tower1 the focal plane of which is #bgb feet above sea-level4 ,in average weather the rays are visible at a distance of twenty-three nautical miles1 and under the most advantageous weather conditions visibility is limited only by the curvature of the earth1 although on a clear night the light is seen from ,bsun1 which is about thirty-five miles away4 ,the ,heligoland electric light ranks as a remarkable development in the application of electricity to lighthouse illumination1 but it never has been duplicated4 ,the cost of maintenance--about #a1djj1 or #h1jjj1 per annum--is an insuperable handicap4 ,on the other hand1 the ,hornum electric light1 which is the most modern of its type in ,germany1 is more economical1 although by no means so powerful4 ,the tower is of cast-steel1 and carries two electric lights2 while about half a mile distant is a second tower1 which throws a third electric light4 ,in the main tower1 on the ground floor1 is installed the electric generating plant 7in duplicate71 together with all accessories1 such as switchboards1 etc4 ,the floor above is devoted to housing #ajj accumulators1 which are charged during the day4 ,this task can be completed by one generating set in about six hours4 ,a single charge is sufficient to keep the three lights going for ten or eleven hours1 and the lights are controlled by a simple throw-over switch4 ,by this arrangement the cost of the maintenance of the light is reduced very appreciably1 as only one keeper is on duty at a time1 the station being equipped with two men1 who have proved adequate for the purpose4 ,above the accumulator-room is the storeroom and a general workshop1 followed by a bedroom and above that the service-room4 ,as only one keeper is on duty at a time1 he is provided with ample devices whereby he can summon his comrade in times of emergency2 the generating machinery is also controllable from this floor4 ,from the service-room the lower light-room is entered4 ,this is a secondary or back light in the range1 the front light being in the tower half a mile away4 ,each of these two light-rooms is fitted with two #aej candle-power incandescent electric lights1 but only one is burned in each set at a time3 the second is a reserve4 ,should the light in action fail from any cause1 although the keeper is warned of the occurrence1 he does not have to stir a finger to bring the reserve light into service4 ,the short-circuit produced by the accident to the light automatically revolves the table upon which the lamps are mounted1 swings the reserve light into focus1 and then sets it going4 ,above the secondary light in the main tower is the principal beacon1 comprising a brilliant rapidly-flashing light1 the characteristic of which is groups of two flashes alternating with four flashes1 the cycle being completed once in thirty seconds4 ,the optical apparatus has been devised especially for the 8differential arc-light10 as it is called1 with a reflecting lens having a focal distance of #bej millimetres 7#aj inches71 the lens itself being #a1ahj millimetres 7approximately #dg inches7 in diameter4 ,in front of the lens is placed a disperser1 having a diameter of #a1bjj millimetres 7#dh inches7 whereby the ray of light is dispersed through an arc of #aj degrees4 ,before the disperser is the means for producing the characteristic flash4 ,this comprises a blind1 or shutter1 which is opened and closed by mechanism adjusted to requirements2 while the rotating mechanism1 instead of being weight-driven1 is actuated by an electric motor4 ,the 8differential arc10 which is utilized in this installation1 is considered by ,german engineers to be the best system that has yet been devised for the exacting purposes of lighthouse engineering1 and the description has arisen from the disposition of the carbons4 ,while the positive carbon is held horizontally1 the negative carbon is placed at an angle of #gj degrees thereto1 and only the crater of the positive carbon is considered for the lighting effect1 this being placed in the focus of the apparatus4 ,the positive carbon is #c_/e inch1 and the negative carbon #b_/e inch1 in diameter1 although both have a common length of #ai inches1 which is sufficient for nine hours' service4 ,the beam emitted is of some #e1jjj1jjj candle-power4 ,this is one of the cheapest electric stations at present in operation1 the annual running charges averaging less than #cjj1 or #a1ejj4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,some ,,lighthouses ,,in ,,australian ,,waters ,although the waters washing the ,australian continent are not so thickly intersected with steamship lanes1 and the mercantile traffic is not so dense there as in the seas of the ,northern ,hemisphere1 yet1 owing to the activity in emigration from ,great ,britain1 as well as to the increasing prosperity of the various rising industries under the ,southern ,cross1 they are becoming more crowded with each succeeding year4 ,the efficient lighting of the coasts is an inevitable corollary of this expansion4 ,lighthouse engineering1 however1 is unavoidably expensive1 especially when sea-rocks demand indication4 ,from time to time severe strictures are passed by ,european shipping interests upon the apparent lack of coastal lights in ,australasian waters1 and the various ,government departments concerned with this responsibility are often accused of parsimony and neglect4 ,unfortunately1 the greater number of these critics are apt to consider the situation through ,european glasses2 to take the countries of the ,old ,world and the ,united ,states as a basis for their arguments1 and to ignore local conditions4 ,it has taken a century or more for ,europe and the ,united ,states to develop their respective organizations1 and in the majority of instances there are ample funds from which expenses in this direction may be met1 especially when passing shipping is mulcted a small sum in light-dues for the purpose4 ,when the shipping is heavy1 these levies are certain to represent in the aggregate a large sum every year4 ,from time to time ,new ,zealand has been roundly assailed for its apparent negligence in the extension of its lighthouse system4 ,it maintains thirty-four lighthouses and beacons1 which represent a capital outlay of over #bjj1jjj1 or #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the total maintenance charges average about #af1ejj1 or #hb1jjj1 per annum1 while the dues collected from shipping for the maintenance of these aids to navigation approximate #ch1jjj1 or #aij1jjj1 per annum4 ,the balance is not amazing1 and certainly is not sufficient to warrant heavy expenditure towards new lights1 as the installation of such warnings nowadays is highly expensive if they are to conform with modern requirements4 ,if the demands of the critics were met1 and a comprehensive scheme1 such as is advised1 were taken in hand1 the shipowner would have to pay to meet the deficiency on the revenue account1 and this individual complains that he is overtaxed already4 ,those ,australian ,states which possess what may be described as a normal coastline--that is1 one fairly free from solitary rocks rising from the sea some distance from land--are fortunate1 since the sea-rock light is notoriously costly4 ,on the other hand1 lights placed on the mainland1 even of the most powerful type1 may be completed for a small outlay1 relatively speaking4 ,such a fortunate condition exists in connection with ,new ,south ,wales4 ,here and there off the mainland are small reefs and ridges1 but1 taken on the whole1 all these danger spots are adequately covered1 so that the ,state has not been faced with searching problems of a technical or financial character in this connection4 ,the ,state boasts only two 8rock0 lighthouses1 and these obstructions are large enough to be called 8islands40 ,the one is ,south ,solitary ,island1 off the coast north of ,sydney2 the other is ,montague ,island1 to the south of the port4 ,on the other hand1 the mainland is very well patrolled1 some thirty lights being scattered between ,point ,danger and ,cape ,howe1 the respective northern and southern sea-limits of the country4 ,although the light-keepers upon the rocks may consider themselves somewhat isolated1 yet their plight is enviable as compared with that of some of their comrades in other parts of the world4 ,at ,montague ,island the three keepers and their families are housed in comfortable cottages in close proximity to their ward1 and they maintain a small farm1 including a horse1 goats1 well-stocked gardens1 and so forth4 ,the keepers on ,south ,solitary ,island used to be able to vary the monotony of their daily or nightly round by indulgence in exciting sport4 ,this assumed the form of rabbit trapping and hunting1 as the island was overrun with these animals4 ,one form of game must have become somewhat nauseating in time upon the menu of the keepers1 but this diversion is now a thing of the past4 ,a mysterious disease appeared among the rabbits1 and its ravages were so devastating that within a short time ,montague ,island knew them no more4 ,the lighthouses of ,new ,south ,wales deserve distinction in one direction4 ,as specimens of architecture they are magnificent pieces of work1 so that what the towers lack in romance they make up in attractiveness4 ,the most imposing is the ,macquarie tower1 or ,sydney lighthouse1 mounting guard over the harbour4 ,the first beacon was erected upon this site as far back as #ahaf1 thereby rendering it the first lighthouse in the ,state1 and it was fitted with an oil light1 while one or two of the ,english lights were still open coal fires4 ,in #ahhc it was decided to modernize the lighting apparatus1 so that a more powerful beam might be thrown4 ,electricity was the illuminant selected1 the machinery for the generation of the requisite current being designed for installation in the original tower4 ,but three-quarters of a century's exposure to the elements had rendered this building somewhat too weak to carry the requisite heavy lenses and machinery1 so a new tower was projected4 ,the old light was kept going while its successor sprang up alongside2 when the latter was completed1 the oil light in the famous old tower was extinguished for ever and the building demolished4 ,the new lighthouse is a fine structure4 ,at the foot of the tower is a spacious1 well-lighted1 and artistic one-floor building housing the electrical machinery as well as the office4 ,the domiciles for the keepers and the engineers are placed on either side of the spreading lawn surrounding the station4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,striking ,,guardians ,,oe ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,new ,,south ,,wales4 #a4 ,green ,cape ,lighthouse4 #b4 ,the sentinel of ,sugar ,loaf ,point1 or ,seal ,rocks4 #c4 8,bungaree ,norah0 station1 one of the loneliest on the coast4 ,the most southerly light upon the ,new ,south ,wales coastline is that at ,green ,cape1 a few miles north of ,cape ,howe4 ,as at the other stations1 three keepers are maintained1 being accommodated1 with their families1 in roomy cottages2 while a small patch of land is turned to agricultural advantage1 cows1 horses1 etc41 being maintained by the men4 ,the most easterly light on the ,australian continent is at ,cape ,byron4 ,this light is perched on a dangerous cliff1 which drops almost vertically into the water #cga feet below2 but it is within touch of civilization1 a winding road having been cut down the flank of the promontory on the land side into the neighbouring town of ,byron ,bay1 so that the tradesmen's carts are able to make their rounds up the cliff to satisfy the varied wants of the wardens of the light4 ,one of the loneliest lights is that on ,norah ,head--,bungaree ,norah it is called--and this is also the latest light erected by the ,state1 as it dates from #aijc4 ,although somewhat out of the way1 it is not to be compared with some of the isolated ,british1 ,canadian1 and ,united ,states lights1 being1 in fact1 no more inaccessible or lonely than most localities in the ,australian ,bush4 ,sugar-,loaf ,point is one of the most serious danger spots along the shoreline1 but is now well guarded with a fine lighthouse planted on its summit1 the welcome rays of which are visible for many miles out to sea4 ,the light-keepers here had a surprising discovery one morning in #aiaj4 ,the ,satara fouled the point and was wrecked1 though fortunately her passengers were succoured by passing steamers4 ,on this vessel at the time of the disaster there was a staghound1 and although1 when the rescues were effected1 search for the animal was made high and low on the wreck1 no signs of it could be seen4 ,it was given up as lost4 ,some days later the lighthouse-keepers ventured to the beach below to have a look round1 and to their astonishment a staghound come bounding towards them1 yelping with joy at the sight of a human face4 ,for a dog to be in such a lonely spot was a strange circumstance1 but at last it was surmised to be the animal which was missed on the ,satara4 ,apparently the animal clung to the crippled craft for some time1 and then1 realizing that the ship was abandoned1 dived overboard and swam ashore4 ,it fraternized with the keepers1 and for some time kept them company at the station4 ,one of the worst wrecks which have happened upon the shores of ,new ,south ,wales was that of the steamer ,ly-ce-moon4 ,by some inexplicable means the ship got out of her course on a fine ,sunday night1 and came to grief off ,green ,cape4 ,the lighthouse-keepers at once hurried to the rescue1 the hapless passengers1 as they were got ashore1 being tended at the station until they were removed to their homes4 ,the lighthouse-keepers worked tremendously hard1 but they were not entirely successful4 ,although by herculean effort they brought a large number of people to safety1 there is a small fenced enclosure in the ,bush behind the station where lie the remains of some fifty persons who lost their lives in the wreck1 and whose bodies were washed ashore4 ,while ,new ,south ,wales has a comparatively easy length of coastline to protect1 the neighbouring colony of ,new ,zealand1 on the other hand1 has a wild1 forbidding1 and extensive stretch of shore4 ,up to the present the ,government has concentrated its energies upon the illumination of the busiest reaches of water1 and has planted prominent outposts at the respective extreme tips of the twin islands4 ,during the financial year ending ,march #ca1 #aiab1 sixteen wrecks occurred in these seas1 of which six were total losses4 ,the most ill-famed corner appears to be the large sweeping indentation at the southern end of ,north ,island1 lying between ,cape ,egmont and ,wellington1 particularly in the vicinity of ,wanganui1 since this stretch of coast claimed five victims4 ,cook's ,strait1 which is dangerous to navigators1 is well protected1 however1 the most prominent beacon being that on ,stephens ,island1 its group-flashes1 occurring every thirty seconds1 being particularly powerful1 and having a range of thirty-two miles4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cape ,,byron ,,lighthouse1 ,,new ,,south ,,wales4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,macquarie ,,lighthouse1 ,,south ,,head ,,of ,,sydney ,,harbour1 ,,new ,,south ,,wales4 ,the original tower1 erected in #ahaf1 was the first lighthouse built in the ,state4 ,in #ahhb it made way for the present magnificent station4 ,the ,marine ,department maintains thirty-two coastal lights1 of which twenty-two are on the mainland1 and ten situate on islands off the coast4 ,they are of a varied description1 ranging from powerful lights of the first order to beacons dependent upon dissolved acetylene1 stored in cylinders of sufficient capacity to keep the light gleaming for sixty days continuously4 ,some of the places in which the warning lights are placed are exceedingly lonely and inaccessible1 so that the perfection of the unattended light has solved a complex problem1 and has enabled many terrible stretches of forbidding coast to be well indicated4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,painting ,,the ,,troubridge ,,lighthouse1 ,,south ,,australia4 ,keeping the building in repair is one of the lighthouse-keepers' duties4 ,this is especially urgent in the case of an iron structure4 ,this tower is #gh feet high1 the light being visible for #ae miles4 ,the first tower to be brought into service in ,new ,zealand was that on ,pencarrow ,head1 to indicate the entrance to the inlet in which ,wellington nestles4 ,it shed its rays for the first time on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahei4 ,it is an iron structure1 from the top of which a fixed white light may be picked up by a vessel twenty-seven miles off the coast4 ,the iron had to be prepared and shaped in ,england1 as there was no foundry in the islands at that time capable of executing the work4 ,the building was shipped to ,new ,zealand in sections and erected4 ,to-day1 owing to the growth of the iron industry1 the country can supply all its own needs in this field without difficulty1 but in all cases the lanterns1 mechanism1 and lenses1 have to be acquired in ,europe4 ,as may be imagined1 with such a rugged coastline as ,new ,zealand possesses1 some of the stations are terribly lonely and difficult of access1 owing to the treacherous nature of the waters over which they mount guard4 ,with the exception of the ,brothers light1 which is situated on an exposed rock in ,cook's ,strait1 three keepers are maintained at each island lighthouse--one as relief--and at the more isolated mainland lights4 ,those of the latter stations which are within easy reach of civilization have only two keepers4 ,the ,brothers light1 which is ,new ,zealand's most lonely station1 has four keepers1 three on the rock at one time1 while the fourth is ashore4 ,the spell of service on the rock is three months1 followed by one month's leave4 ,the wives and families of the men reside at ,wellington4 ,the authorities1 however1 do not condemn the light-keeper to one station throughout his whole term of service4 ,he undergoes frequent transference1 so that all may have a turn at good and bad stations4 ,the duration of the stay at each light averages about three years1 so that there is very little possibility of these patient1 long-suffering stalwarts being condemned to such a period of loneliness as to provoke taciturnity and melancholia4 ,the keeper of the lighthouse light in ,new ,zealand is as well provided for as his colleague in any other part of the world4 ,when he enters the service1 he is placed on probation as assistant keeper for six months1 at an annual salary of #ij1 or #dej4 ,emerging from this ordeal satisfactorily1 he finds his salary increased at once to #ajj1 or #ejj1 per annum1 rising by increments of #aj every two years1 until it reaches #acj1 or #fej1 per annum4 ,it remains at this figure until he is promoted to the position of head-keeper1 which post brings an annual wage of #adj1 or #gjj1 rising by biennial increments of #aj to a maximum annual remuneration of #ahj1 or #ijj4 ,in addition to the foregoing scale1 a keeper receives an extra annual station allowance of #aj in the case of third-class stations1 which are those on lonely rocks and islands1 and #e in the case of stations which are not isolated or difficult of access4 ,all keepers in the service live rent-free1 and are supplied with coal and oil1 together with the free use of sufficient land1 if available1 to prepare gardens1 as well as grazing for two or three cows and a few sheep1 etc42 while their stores and provisions are carried without charge by the ,government steamer ,hinemoa4 ,this vessel is retained solely for attending upon the lighthouses and buoys1 and visits every light1 save in exceptionally rough weather1 once in three months4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,green ,,point ,,lighthouse1 ,,natal4 ,a well-known ,south ,african warning with a range of #bc miles4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pacific ,,outpost ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,san ,francisco ,lightship throws a flashing electric beam of #gjj candle-power and is fitted also with the submarine bell4 ,at all the isolated and rock stations landing is a hazardous task1 even under the most favourable conditions4 ,the swell and currents breaking upon the rocks render it impossible for freight and men to be landed direct from the steamer to the rock4 ,consequently all the work has to be carried out by means of surf-boats1 and heavy drenchings from breaking waves1 and exciting moments1 are unavoidable4 ,at times the task assumes exceptional difficulty1 and is attended with fatal mishaps4 ,on ,june #b1 #ahii1 the ,hinemoa stood in towards the ,east ,cape1 the most easterly promontory on the islands1 on the southern arm enclosing the ,bay of ,plenty4 ,the sea looked wicked1 but the relieving ship decided to go ahead with its work4 ,all went well until a heavy roller suddenly came in and caught one of the boats at a disadvantage4 ,the craft was capsized before the crew realized their position1 and the chief officer1 with three of his men1 was drowned4 ,such is one of the penalties which have been exacted by the relentless sea1 while courageous men have been engaged in the risky occupation of keeping the coast lights shining for the guidance of seafarers4 ,the ,new ,zealand shores have been the scenes of some heartrending catastrophes4 ,the steamship ,tararua1 of #efc tons register1 was making her way from ,dunedin to the ,bluff1 when she crashed on to the reef which juts seaward from ,waipapapa ,point4 ,there was no light to warn the ship--hence the accident4 ,the vessel1 battered by sledge-hammer seas1 broke up very rapidly1 and #acj passengers lost their lives4 ,if the point had been guarded1 no accident would have happened4 ,now a second-order dioptric flashing light of ten seconds guards the reef1 and may be seen from a distance of thirteen and a half miles4 ,another calamity was the loss of the ,huddart ,parker liner on a danger spot known as the ,three ,kings ,rock4 ,the fearsome character of this peril has been recognized for many years past1 but1 as it is to be marked by a light suited to the locality1 it is hoped that its evil harvest will come to an end4 ,yet at the same time it must be pointed out that the provision of a light does not always prevent a wreck even in the clearest weather1 owing to the weakness of human nature4 ,this was proved by the steamship ,triumph1 of #a1gig tons register4 ,she left ,auckland on the night of ,november #bi1 #ahhc1 picked up the ,tiri-,tiri ,island light--this fixed star can be seen from a distance of twenty-four miles--and yet within two hours of her sailing was wrecked almost under the lighthouse4 ,in this instance gross negligence was only too palpable1 and the court of inquiry1 after its investigation of the wreck1 signified its opinion of the carelessness displayed by suspending the certificate of the master for three years1 and that of the chief officer for six months4 ,apart from ,cook's ,strait1 the narrow passage between the two islands1 the extreme points of the country are well guarded1 the towers for the most part being located upon the prominent headlands4 ,the southern extremity of the ,south ,island is a dangerous coast to navigate1 since going east1 after the ,puysegur ,point ten seconds flashing light is dropped at a distance of nineteen miles from the headland1 the vessel's course is set to traverse ,foveaux ,strait1 between the mainland and ,stewart ,island4 ,in the centre of the neck of water is an ominous rock1 ,centre ,island1 which1 however1 is well guarded by a first-order catadioptric fixed light1 shining from a wooden tower1 the range of which extends for twenty-two and a half miles1 with red arcs marking the inshore dangers4 ,overlapping this beacon's field of patrol is a light mounted on ,dog ,island1 revolving once in thirty seconds1 and visible for eighteen miles1 which in turn meets the ,waipapapa light4 ,thus the approach to ,invercargill is well indicated1 and1 with the east coast promontories all protected1 the possibility of a repetition of the ,tararua disaster is rendered remote4 ,on the extreme northern tip of the sister isle1 the headland known as ,cape ,maria ,van ,diemen carries a first-order dioptric light1 revolving once a minute1 illuminating a circle of sea having a radius of twenty-four and a half miles4 ,the adjacent headland at the opposite corner of this spit1 ,north ,cape1 has not been protected hitherto2 but this deficiency is now being remedied by the erection of a second-order1 incandescent1 group-flashing white light1 giving three flashes in quick succession every half-minute4 ,the brilliant illumination of this part of the coast is imperative1 inasmuch as shipping bound for and from ,auckland has to bear round this heavily indented and rock-strewn coast4 ,the entrance to ,auckland harbour in particular is disconcerting1 but the navigator is assisted by the friendly guardians placed on ,cape ,brett1 ,moko ,hinou1 and ,tiri-,tiri1 which have ranges of thirty and a half1 twenty-six1 and twenty-four miles1 respectively4 ,the task of the mariner1 however1 is to be further simplified by the erection of another powerful light on ,chicken ,island1 in the ,hauraki ,gulf1 which will overlap the ,moko ,hinou and ,tiri-,tiri lights4 ,when this light and that at ,north ,cape are placed in commission1 the sea between ,cape ,maria ,van ,diemen and ,auckland will be very well lighted1 and will offer the ship's master few causes for complaint4 ,two other points are being equipped1 ,castle ,point and ,cape ,terawhiti1 the former with a second-order1 incandescent1 group-flashing white light1 flashing at intervals of forty-five seconds1 with periods of darkness lasting eight seconds between each group4 ,while the majority of the ,new ,zealand coastal lights are attended1 certain beacons1 from their exposed position1 come in the category of unattended lights1 as described elsewhere4 ,these burn acetylene gas1 and are replaced with fresh supplies of dissolved acetylene every three months by the ,hinemoa4 ,simultaneously with the provision of additional beacons the existing lights are being overhauled and fitted with modern apparatus1 rendering them more reliable1 economical1 and of greater power4 ,when the service was established1 the ,doty burner1 using paraffin-oil1 was adopted2 but the perfection of the incandescent oil system1 and its many advantages over that in vogue1 have influenced the ,government towards its adoption4 ,the transformation will be completed as soon as practicable1 the work being in active progress1 as maintenance expenses are reduced appreciably thereby1 because kerosene1 a cheaper oil1 is used in lieu of paraffin1 while1 furthermore1 less oil is burned under the incandescent system4 ,before many years have passed1 the coasts of ,new ,zealand will be as adequately protected as is humanly possible by a complete chain of coastal lights1 which is being forged as rapidly as the circumstances permit4 ,the ,government has revised its light-dues in order to meet the increased expenditure in connection with the lighthouse service4 ,vessels arriving from outside the ,dominion have to pay oversea light-dues at the first port of call1 and coastal dues at all other ,new ,zealand ports which they touch2 while vessels arriving from the ,chatham1 ,auckland1 ,campbell1 ,antipodes1 and ,bounty ,islands also have to contribute to the funds4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,signposts ,,of ,,the ,,sandbanks ,although by dint of great effort and the expenditure of considerable ingenuity the lighthouse engineer has succeeded in erecting a permanent masonry tower upon a foundation no more substantial than quicksand1 yet the general method of indicating these menaces is by the aid of a lightship4 ,in this way the estuaries leading to the great ports of the world1 which are littered with ridges1 humps1 and mounds1 of mud and sand brought down by the river or thrown up by the sea1 are guarded very completely4 ,there is the ,nore lightship at the entrance to the ,thames1 the ,bar and ,north-,west lightships off the mouth of the ,mersey1 ,fire ,island near the portal to ,new ,york1 and so on4 ,similarly1 the whereabouts of huge stretches of sand lying off a coast1 which either defy detection altogether or only partially expose themselves at low-water1 and which constitute certain death-traps1 are shown4 ,the most striking illustrations of this application are supplied by the ,goodwin ,sands1 the submerged sandy plateau lying off the east coast of ,england1 and by the serried rows of ridges running seven and a half miles out to sea from ,cape ,hatteras1 the ill-famed headland of ,north ,carolina4 ,the utilization of the lightship1 however1 is not restricted by any means to marking shoals and sandbanks4 ,here and there are clusters of rocks obstructing the ocean highway1 which from their extremely exposed character would offer the engineer a searching and expensive problem to solve1 and which1 accordingly1 are protected by a floating light4 ,but1 taken on the whole1 the lightship is used very sparingly4 ,if it is at all possible to provide a permanent structure1 even at an apparently prohibitive cost1 upon a danger spot1 this practice is followed in preference to the mooring of a light-vessel thereto4 ,a masonry tower is stationary in its resistance to the assaults of the wildest tempest1 but the lightship swings like a cork at the free end of a chain4 ,at times it drags its anchors1 and thereby unconsciously shifts its position1 so that it may throw its light from some distance beyond the actual area of danger4 ,again1 a lightship1 although not costly in the first instance1 is somewhat expensive to maintain4 ,it cannot withstand the poundings of the waves and the force of the wind for long without developing some signs of weakness4 ,it may ride over its reef or shoal for several years1 but depreciation is sure to set in1 so that at last it becomes too decrepit to be trusted4 ,moreover1 the number of men required to man a lightship exceeds the force necessary to maintain a lighthouse4 ,lightships follow much the same general shape and construction the whole world over4 ,there is very little opportunity to depart from well-tried lines2 the experience of a century and more has indicated conclusively the form of hull1 as regards both material and shape1 best adapted to the peculiar work which has to be fulfilled4 ,the modern lightship is essentially a ,british idea1 the first floating beacon of this description having been built and placed in the mouth of the ,thames as far back as #agac4 ,from this small beginning1 which virtually was an experiment1 has grown the large fleet of light-vessels scattered all over the globe4 ,the craft is sturdily built1 and1 although of clumsy appearance1 is capable of withstanding the onslaughts of the fiercest gales4 ,internally it is made as snug as possible1 but the opportunities in this direction are not very extensive1 as the beacon is built primarily to protect ships and lives against accident1 and comfort is necessarily made subordinate to reliability1 durability1 and serviceability4 ,a mere hulk would be the most apt description as applied to the average lightship4 ,it is intended to cling to one spot through thick and thin1 and not to move about4 ,in the majority of instances the vessel is without any propelling or sailing accessories4 ,if it should happen to break its leashes1 it then becomes the sport of the waves1 as helpless as a derelict1 until its signals of distress are espied and it is picked up by a passing vessel4 ,although every precaution is adopted to preserve the lightship from this mishap1 when the waves become exceptionally heavy and violent the strongest chains are apt to snap under the sawing and tugging of the vessel4 ,in one or two instances lively times have been experienced by the handful of men on board1 especially off the wicked stretches of the ,american seaboard which is exposed to the attack of hurricane and cyclone4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,paul1 ,penzance4 ,,the 8,,seven-,,stones0 ,,lightship4 ,this vessel1 probably occupying the most exposed position around ,england1 marks a terrible danger spot off the ,cornish coast4 ,in her helplessness1 the light-vessel depends upon the friendly aid of any craft4 ,the rescuer may be the alert tender1 which1 having received intimation that the floating beacon has got adrift1 raises steam in all haste1 hurries out1 scours the seas for the wanderer1 recovers and rechains her to the danger spot below4 ,or it may be that a passing steamer sights the breakaway1 retrieves and restores her to the allotted position1 making her temporarily secure1 and reporting her condition when passing or entering a port4 ,the lightship may be identified easily4 ,there is nothing inspiring about her lines4 ,her ugly hull1 built for strength and not beauty1 is painted red1 black1 or white1 according to the colour practice of the country to which she belongs1 while on her sides in huge letters1 stretching almost from water-line to taffrail1 is the name of her station1 8,nore10 8,seven ,stones10 8,norderney10 8,ruytingen10 8,fire ,island10 or whatever it may be4 ,nor is this the sole means of identification4 ,from afar the mariner learns her character and business by a huge skeleton sphere1 a triangular cage1 or some other device1 carried at the top of the mast or masts4 ,at night a lantern1 entirely surrounding the mast1 and large enough to enable a person to stand upright within to trim the lamps1 throws its warning glare from an elevation about halfway between the deck and the mast-top with the intensity of #ab1jjj or more candles4 ,oil is the illuminant most generally employed for the purpose1 although in one or two instances electric light is used4 ,the specific purpose of the lightship1 as already mentioned1 is to warn passing vessels4 ,but the ,french ,government1 when they made an elaborate investigation of their lightship service with a view to its modernization and elaboration1 discovered that at times the floating signpost fulfils another and unofficial duty4 ,the entrance to ,st4 ,malo ,harbour is flanked by an uneven group of rocks lying about midway between the ,french coast and the island of ,jersey4 ,though a terrible spot for mariners1 it is one of incalculable value to the sturdy ,french and ,jersey fishermen1 as in the waters around these barriers rich hauls may be made with the net2 indeed1 the fishing industry here affords employment for several score of persons4 ,the ,french ,government contemplated the withdrawal of the lightship marking the ,minquiers1 as these rocks are called1 and the substitution in its stead of a number of powerful automatic buoys which would indicate the exact position of the most conspicuous dangers1 whereas the lightship only indicated their general whereabouts1 compelling mariners to calculate their distances from the peril1 which1 by the way1 was no easy matter owing to the short range of the beacon4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,san ,,francisco0 ,,lightship4 ,this vessel1 riding in #ah fathoms1 marks the entrance to the ,golden ,gate and ,san ,francisco ,bay4 ,before making a decision1 the ,commission interviewed the ,french fishermen to ascertain their views upon the subject4 ,to their intense surprise1 a suggestion which they thought would be received with unmixed approval was condemned unequivocally4 ,there was not a single fisherman who could be found to support the buoy system4 ,the unanimity of the objection aroused suspicions1 and further investigation was made to probe the cause of this unveiled hostility4 ,the answer was found without effort4 ,the fishermen pushed off in their boats every night to the grounds1 but they did not spend the whole of their time throwing and hauling their nets4 ,when their luck was in1 or they were satisfied with the catch1 one and all pulled for the lightship4 ,there was not another caf within a dozen miles1 and fishing is thirsty work4 ,so the lightship was converted into a nocturnal hostelry4 ,the keepers charged the glasses1 and the captains courageous sipped and quaffed to a whistling accompaniment1 finally indulging in terpsichorean acts on the lightship's decks1 to give vent to their exuberant spirits4 ,they did not care whether the light overhead were throwing its yellow beams over the waters or not4 ,they made merry1 and kept up the orgy until the approaching dawn or the watch showed that it was high time to pull for the shore with their catches4 ,it was a fortunate circumstance for these happy-go-lucky spirits that the beacon was not regarded by mariners as of much utility at night1 owing to the feebleness of its light4 ,if seafarers failed to pick up the ,minquiers's shimmering star1 they attributed the obscurity to the haze4 ,that was all4 ,this revelation1 needless to say1 clinched the ,commission's decision4 ,to-day four unattended gas-buoys mount vigil over these rocks1 and the rollicking days on the floating caf chantant are known no more4 ,the average crew for a lightship numbers some seven men under a captain and mate1 who take it in turns to have charge of the vessel1 the second official being responsible during the former's spell of leave on shore4 ,the crew is not a man too many1 owing to the several and varied duties to be performed1 especially when the storm-fiend is roused or fog pays a visit4 ,the arrival of the latter demands the foghorn's mournful dirge to penetrate the dense white curtain4 ,some of the vessels possess a hooter1 the unmusical wail of which in its discordance is almost sufficient to put false teeth on edge1 because a blast runs through the whole chromatic gamut with variations which would startle a disciple of ,tschaikowsky or ,wagner4 ,but discordance in this instance is of incalculable value4 ,the ear of the captain of a passing vessel is unconsciously arrested2 he can distinguish the sound readily1 and by noting its character can identify the particular light-vessel from which it proceeds1 although he cannot get a glimpse of her form4 ,the southern coasts of ,england1 owing to the density of the maritime traffic1 especially on both sides of the bottle-neck formed by the ,straits of ,dover1 are well patrolled by this form of warning which supplements the lighthouses4 ,those guarding the dreaded ,goodwin ,sands perhaps are the most important4 ,the crew of a vessel in these waters is busy throughout the day and night even in calm1 clear weather1 and the feeling of isolation is not so pronounced1 since the continuous sight of traffic dispels despondency4 ,the ,nore light is another station which encounters very few minutes of rest throughout the complete revolution of the clock hands2 especially is this the case when fog settles down1 rendering the ,thames inapproachable1 so that incoming craft have to line up in long queues1 ready to dash forward directly the pall lifts sufficiently for them to see #ajj yards ahead4 ,there have been some exciting incidents among the lights strung around the south-eastern toe of ,england4 ,the vessel outside ,dover harbour appears to be particularly unlucky1 or to exercise such a peculiar magnetism upon passing vessels that they must needs embrace her4 ,this is the peril that a lightship crew dreads more than any other4 ,certainly it seems a sorry trick of ,fortune that occasionally the workers in the cause of humanity should be compelled to fight desperately for their lives from a blow inflicted by the very interests they strive might and main to protect4 ,the ,dover light was sent to the bottom twice within a very short time1 and in each instance the men were rescued only in the nick of time4 ,on another occasion a relief lightship was being towed to a station on the east coast1 the acting vessel being much in need of overhaul and repair4 ,the tug laboured through the ,north ,sea with her charge1 and just before daybreak sighted the twinkling light which was her goal4 ,she eased up1 meaning to stand by with her charge until the beacon's round of vigilance should be over1 and the light extinguished before the gathering dawn4 ,her crew saw the light grow dimmer1 until it was no longer of sufficient power to penetrate the whitening haze4 ,with the sun just creeping over the horizon the tug weighed anchor1 and1 heralding her approach vociferously on the siren1 steamed slowly towards the danger spot4 ,to the surprise of the captain1 there came no answering blare4 ,when he thought he was alongside the light-vessel he stopped1 and the haze lifted4 ,but there was no sign of the light-vessel2 she had vanished completely4 ,the captain of the tug and the master of the relief-boat wondered what had happened1 but without more ado the relief-ship was moored in position1 and the tug returned home empty-handed4 ,there the crew heard one of those grim stories sometimes related in the service4 ,the light-keepers had sighted the tug with the relief-vessel1 and were anticipating keenly their return to civilization1 when there was a crash6 ,a cliff of steel reared above them like a knife-edge2 a vessel had blundered into them1 cutting their home in two4 ,the next moment they were shot pell-mell into the water as their craft sank beneath their feet4 ,on a calm day1 when the lightship is riding quietly at anchor1 and the members of the crew1 maybe1 are beguiling the tedium by fishing1 a passer-by on a liner is apt to consider the life one of quietness and enjoyment1 albeit monotonous4 ,but contrast this placidity with the hours of storm4 ,then the ungainly vessel writhes and twists1 saws and rasps at the chains which hold her prisoner4 ,at one moment1 with bow uplifted1 she is on the crest of a spray-enveloped roller2 the next instant she drives her dipping nose into the hissing white and green valley1 meanwhile lurching and staggering wildly as she ships a sea1 first on this side and then on that4 ,the plight of the lighthouse-keeper in a gale is unenviable1 but it is far and away preferable to that of the lightship crew under similar circumstances4 ,the tower may bow slightly like a tree before the storm1 and the waves may cause it to shiver at times1 but that is the only movement4 ,on the lightship the crew appear to be tossed1 rolled1 and spun1 in all directions simultaneously4 ,the deck becomes untenable1 but the men in the performance of their duties have to grope and crawl from point to point1 holding on grimly with both hands when an angry sea douches them4 ,the spherical ball overhead gyrates in an amazing manner1 as if it were a pendulum bob boxing the compass4 ,the crew have a stiff struggle1 to keep everything below safe and sound1 while the waves1 as they come aboard1 thump on the deck as if determined to smash it to splinters1 and to drive the whole fabric to the bottom4 ,to be so unlucky as to be run down by a passing craft under such conditions is certain death1 as there is no hope of rescue in such maddened seas4 ,the crew of an ,english ship emerged badly battered from one heavy gale4 ,two or three rollers got aboard1 and drove their blows well home1 pulverizing the lifeboat on deck1 and tearing up stretches of the bulwarks by the roots4 ,the crew were flung about like shuttlecocks4 ,one of the hands was making his way cautiously along the deck1 trying to maintain equilibrium upon an alarming incline1 when a breaker struck him from behind4 ,he grabbed the ratlins to secure himself1 but his hand was wrenched away1 and he was flung against the mast1 where the wave left him4 ,he was half stunned by the concussion1 but a comrade1 realizing his plight1 dashed forward while the vessel rolled over in the other direction1 grabbed the prostrate form by the collar of its coat1 and dragged it into the companion-way4 ,the man's face was disfigured1 and when bathed it was found to have been cut1 or rather burst1 open from the eye to the chin by the force of the blow4 ,bad weather tends to make the crew despondent at times1 inasmuch as its persistency holds them prisoners1 so that they cannot get ashore when the relief day comes round4 ,during some seasons of the year a delay of ten or twelve days is not uncommon1 owing to the weather1 but the men on the relief tender are so used to hard knocks and rough seas that they do not wait for an absolute calm to achieve their purpose4 ,heavy risks are incurred often in order to lighten the lives of those who guard the deep by bringing them ashore as near to the scheduled date as possible4 ,another ship that has to mount guard over a dangerous corner of the coast of ,england is that which indicates the cluster of rocks lying between ,land's ,end and the ,scilly ,isles1 about sixteen miles off the mainland4 ,for the most part the reef is submerged1 but as the water goes down seven ugly scattered pinnacles thrust themselves into the air4 ,they are terrible fangs with which to rip out the bottom of a steamer1 and they have accomplished their fell work only too often4 ,the number of the projections has given its name to the graveyard1 which is known far and wide as the ,seven ,stones1 though the mariner refers to them simply as ,the ,stones4 ,it would be difficult to say offhand which has claimed the greater number of victims from the mercantile marine--the sucking1 glue-like sands of the ,goodwins1 or the splitting granite teeth of the ,seven ,stones2 they run a close race for ill-fame4 ,the latter lie right in the path of vessels rounding the western toe of ,england1 and the sea-bed on all sides of them is littered with the shivered timbers of wooden sailing-ships1 the splintered iron and steel of steamers1 and the bones of scores of unfortunate passengers and crews4 ,although a light of #ab1jjj candle-power strives to warn the seafarer1 now and again there is a miscalculation1 and the intimation is conveyed to the mainland3 8,ship and all hands lost40 ,it was in #ahda1 owing to the frequency and severity of the disasters at this spot1 that ,trinity ,house decided to guard it with a lightship4 ,a lighthouse would be preferable1 but there is such small foothold for the engineer1 and the position is so fearfully exposed1 that the erection of a masonry tower would prove a costly and tedious enterprise4 ,so the only feasible alternative was adopted1 and the vessel is kept abreast of modern developments in this phase of coast lighting4 ,lying as it does in a somewhat narrow channel1 yet open to the full roll of the terrible westerly gales1 it meets the ,atlantic thundering through this constricted passage with awe-inspiring violence4 ,it has often suffered greatly from the fury of the sea4 ,once a wave tumbled aboard1 crashed a man against the pump1 knocked him half senseless2 picked up the lifeboat and threw it against the deck-house1 and in so doing caught another member of the crew1 mauling his thigh badly in passing4 ,two out of the seven men forming the crew were thus put hors de combat by a single wave4 ,the taut little vessel rides in #dj fathoms of water1 about one and a half miles eastward of the danger spot1 as even a lightship must not be moored too closely to a ridge1 or she herself would incur the risk of being pounded to fragments4 ,the ,french lighthouse service has a magnificent lightship in the ,ruytingen1 which rides in #fj feet of water over a treacherous sandbank outside ,dunkirk4 ,it is a steel vessel about #ajj feet in length1 and displaces in loaded condition about #chg tons4 ,it is held in position by massive umbrella-like anchors1 weighing some #b tons1 which1 burying themselves in the ground1 refuse to drag even under the most fearful tugs and jerks imposed by a gale1 while the chains which hold the ship in leash are able to give her a run of approximately #a1jjj feet4 ,the ,german coast is as dangerous to approach1 owing to the shoals and banks1 as the eastern shores of ,england1 and one or two magnificent lightships have been built and stationed over the most notorious danger areas1 among which may be mentioned the ,norderney and ,eider vessels4 ,the latter is about #acc feet in length by #bd feet wide1 and is fitted with three masts4 ,it throws a fixed white light1 which may be seen on all sides from eight to eleven miles away4 ,this boat is fitted with every modern device to increase its warning powers and service1 including wireless telegraphy and the submarine bell4 ,these two latter inventions have improved the serviceability of the lightship to a vast degree1 inasmuch as the ocean liners and many freighters are equipped with both these useful handmaids to navigation4 ,the tolling of the bell under water may be heard for several miles1 and conveys intimation of the approach to danger in foggy weather1 when the siren or other fog-signal is somewhat precarious4 ,the ,norderney lightship is probably one of the finest craft in operation upon the seven seas4 ,before it was designed the ,german engineers carried out a thorough inspection of all the most modern lightships in service in ,europe1 and from the results of their investigations contrived this magnificent aid to navigation4 ,the vessel is about #aej feet in length1 and is built of steel4 ,the light is shown from a lantern fitted with a third-order pendular lens carried at the top of a hollow steel mast4 ,the illuminant used is ,pintsch's oil-gas1 with incandescent mantle1 the fuel being stored in reservoirs stowed in the hold of the ship2 fresh supplies are brought out by the tender at periodical intervals4 ,weight-driven clockwork mechanism is employed to revolve the lantern4 ,the light is one of the most powerful in ,european waters1 #ej1jjj candle-power being emitted with an incandescent gas mantle having a diameter of #cj millimetres 7#a inches74 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission4 ,,the 8,,norderney0 ,,lightship4 ,one of the finest in the world4 ,the vessel is also equipped with #bjj horse-power oil-engines1 driving an air-compressor for the operation of the fog-siren1 the air being stored in reservoirs in the hold and maintained at the working pressure1 so that the signal may be brought into service at a moment's notice4 ,the vessel is also furnished with a ,pintsch submarine bell1 driven by compressed air4 ,when not required1 this bell is housed amidships on the spar-deck1 and when the occasion arises for its service it is lowered into the water through an open tube built in the ship for this purpose4 ,this important light-vessel carries a full complement of thirteen men1 including the captain1 mate1 and engineer4 ,the arrangement is1 one-third of the crew on shore-leave at a time2 but this does not apply to the winter months1 when the full number has to remain on board1 owing to the duties being more arduous and continuous during that season of the year4 8,fire ,island60 ,what a thrill the sound of this name sends through the floating town approaching the ,new ,world from ,europe4 ,its effect is magical among the emigrants who scan the horizon eagerly for the first glimpse of this outpost of the new home1 in which all their hopes are centred4 ,the sullen red hull of this flush-deck1 schooner-rigged steam-vessel1 with her two masts1 and name painted in huge white letters on her flanks1 rides in #if feet of water1 nine and three-eighth miles south of ,fire ,island lighthouse4 ,a few miles beyond is a similar craft marking the ,nantucket ,shoals1 whence incoming and outgoing vessels are reported1 while the end of the chain is 8,no4 #hg10 marking the ,ambrose ,channel off the entrance to ,new ,york4 ,but the light-vessel controlled by the ,united ,states which occupies the most responsible and perilous post is the ,diamond ,shoal1 off ,cape ,hatteras4 ,it throws its warning rays from a spot about four and five-eighth miles beyond the most seaward point of this terrible ocean graveyard1 and is thirteen and five-eighth miles distant from ,cape ,hatteras light on the mainland4 ,a long way from the actual danger spot1 you say1 but the little squad of men who have to maintain the light through storm and calm will tell you that the situation1 in #ahj feet of water1 is quite as near as is pleasant when there is the ever-present danger of anchors being dragged1 or of the craft breaking adrift under the force of the cyclonic disturbances which ravage this sinister coast4 ,even in calm weather the relief-boat has many anxious moments1 owing to the swell and currents1 while storms rise with startling suddenness4 ,while the exchange of men is being made and stores are being transferred1 a keen lookout is kept by the relief-boat hands so as to be ready to cut and run for the open sea the moment the clouds begin to collect ominously4 ,in these latitudes the weather is placid one minute2 the next the elements are writhing in fury4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,fire ,,island0 ,,lightship1 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,outpost ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,this vessel rides in #if feet of water1 #i miles south of the ,fire ,island ,lighthouse4 ,probably this is the most dangerous station on the whole seaboard1 and if any heavy trouble is caused by the tempest1 the ,diamond ,shoal inevitably bears grim evidence of the conflict4 ,the skill of the engineers is taxed sorely to devise ways and means of keeping the vessel in the position she is designed to occupy1 but moorings and anchors must be of great weight and strength to stand up against a wind blowing eighty miles an hour1 with the waves running 8mountains high0 and repeatedly sweeping the vessel from stem to stern4 ,after every battle a careful look round has to be made to determine how far the vessel has shifted4 ,being steam-driven1 this craft is not condemned to absolute helplessness when her moorings snap4 ,the crew get her under control and keep her head pointed in the desired direction1 so as to mitigate the battering of the wind and waves1 and not moving more than is essential for safety4 ,subsequently the vessel crawls back to her position1 the bearings are taken1 and she is anchored firmly once more4 ,one hurricane swept ,cape ,hatteras1 and the lightship received its full energy4 ,the boat strained and groaned at her chains4 ,suddenly they snapped4 ,no steam could hold the boat against the assault4 ,she was picked up1 thrown about like an empty box1 and carried inshore1 luckily missing the ridges of sand4 ,had she plumped into one1 it would have gripped her tightly while the waves pounded her to fragments4 ,the crew were helpless and could only wonder what the end would be1 as they saw the rugged coastline approach nearer and nearer4 ,when they thought all was over and that their fate was sealed1 a big incoming wave snatched the lightship1 hurried her along on its bosom1 and dropped her on the beach1 practically uninjured1 and safe from further attack4 ,when the crew surveyed their position1 they found themselves faced with a difficult proposition4 ,the ship was safe and sound1 but on the wrong side of the shoals1 and the question was how to lift her over those greedy ridges4 ,there was only one method4 ,that was to dig a pit around her on the beach1 let in the water so that she could float1 and then to cut a wide deep trench out to sea so as to regain deep water4 ,it was feasible1 and was attempted4 ,while the pond on the beach was being dug1 a powerful dredger came up1 and ploughed its way through the shoals from deep water to the stranded light-vessel4 ,when the craft was once more afloat1 the dredger carved its way back again1 the light-vessel being taken through the narrow1 shallow ditch thus provided1 which was closed up by the running sand as the two boats crept slowly forward1 until at last the shoals were negotiated4 ,the ship was taken to headquarters1 the relief-vessel1 which is always kept ready for an emergency1 having taken up her position on the station immediately the hurricane had blown itself out4 ,under these circumstances it will be realized that the maintenance of the ,diamond ,shoal light is by no means a sinecure4 ,when these adversities are aggravated by the relief-boat being unable to fulfil its scheduled duty1 when week after week slips by without the men receiving the welcome spell ashore1 while they are suffering privations and experiencing the nerve-shattering pangs of isolation and monotony1 it is not surprising that despondency shows signs of getting the upper hand among the crew4 ,melancholia is the malady which is feared most on a light-vessel such as this1 and the men have to pull themselves together to resist its insidious grip4 ,probably at times there is half an inclination to desert the light1 but fortunately there is little fear of this temptation succeeding4 ,the axiom 8,never abandon the light0 is too deeply rooted2 besides1 the men are safer where they are1 although it appears a crazy refuge in rough weather4 ,prolonged imprisonment on the ,diamond ,shoal precipitated one mutiny4 ,the crew on duty were awaiting the arrival of the reserve vessel to take them home2 but the weather disposed otherwise4 ,with that inexplicable persistence1 the wind got round to a rough quarter and kept there tenaciously1 never moderating for a few hours1 but just blowing1 blowing1 blowing1 getting up a nasty sea which made the lightship reel and tumble1 while at intervals a comber came aboard to flush the decks4 ,in the course of ten days or so the crew began to fret and fume at the obstinacy of the elements2 when a month slipped by without bringing any welcome relief1 the mate and the engineer incurred the captain's dire displeasure by fraternizing and playing cards with the crew1 thereby creating a breach of discipline and etiquette4 ,the offenders1 somewhat overwrought by their continued incarceration1 ignored the captain's reprimand4 ,this arrant disobedience played upon his nerves1 which similarly were strung up4 ,it did not require a very big spark to start a conflagration of tempers4 ,the mate and engineer brooded over the captain's remarks1 and at last they waited upon him1 forcibly ventilated their opinions concerning his lack of civility and of endeavours to make one and all comfortable under the trying circumstances1 and expressed their determination to tolerate his overbearing manner no longer4 ,this was the last straw from the captain's point of view4 ,drawing his revolver1 he growled that he was master of the lightship1 and that they would have to do as he told them4 ,there was a tussle1 but the firearm was wrenched away from the master's hands as being a somewhat too dangerous tool for a man in his overstrung condition4 ,the crew naturally sided with the officers1 and the captain was kept under surveillance until the relief-vessel came up some weeks later4 ,the moment the crew stepped on dry land1 every man1 with the exception of the mate1 deserted the ship1 thoroughly satiated with the uncertainty pertaining to watching the ,diamond ,shoals4 ,they indulged in a hearty carousal1 and were arrested4 ,and the captain1 who also was not averse to enjoyment on shore1 having lodged the charge of mutiny1 followed their example4 ,an inquiry was held1 and the sequel is interesting4 ,the captain1 having deserted his ship upon reaching port1 was dismissed from the service2 the mate1 who had provoked the captain1 not only was acquitted of the grave charge1 but was promoted to the command of the light-vessel1 because there was one outstanding feature in his favour which negatived everything else--he had stuck to his post4 ,life on a lightship1 although somewhat strenuous1 has its interludes4 ,in fine weather the men have considerable time on their hands1 and while away the hours in various occupations4 ,fretwork1 mat-making1 carpentering1 and other hobbies1 are followed with keen enjoyment4 ,owing to the light attracting flocks of birds during the migratory seasons1 the men often effect valuable captures on the deck1 rare songsters and other specimens falling exhausted into their hands4 ,cages are contrived1 and the silence of the living-quarters is relieved by the piping and trilling of the birds when once they have shaken down to their captivity4 ,meteorological work1 which is practised in some cases1 relieves the round of toil1 while contributions to science are made by investigating the depths of the sea and its bed with small trawls and other devices1 so as to secure data concerning life in the deep1 the vagaries of currents1 submarine temperatures1 and so forth4 ,the lightship1 however1 is both a safeguard and a menace4 ,when she is riding quietly at the end of her chains she is an incalculable boon to the passing mariner1 but after a gale the navigator and the light-keepers are suspicious4 ,the boat may1 and indeed probably has1 dragged her anchors somewhat4 ,now1 the seafarer on his chart has the precise position which the lightship should occupy4 ,consequently1 if she has shifted and he is unaware of the error1 his calculations will lead him astray4 ,after a tempest the master of a lightship endeavours to ascertain if his craft has moved1 and if he can he takes his bearings at once4 ,if this is impossible1 or if he entertains any doubt in his mind1 he flies a signal1 which warns the navigator that the lightship has moved4 ,unless the vessel is able to regain her station under her own steam1 she communicates with the shore at once1 and a boat is sent out to reset her4 ,every time the relief is effected the officer in charge takes the bearings1 so that the lightship may be truly in the position she is intended to assume1 and able to effect her humane work satisfactorily4 ,the evolution of the most efficient illuminating apparatus for the lightship has been a most perplexing problem to the lighthouse engineer4 ,what is applicable for the masonry tower is not necessarily adapted to its floating contemporary1 since the conditions are so dissimilar4 ,the ,united ,states service has adopted electric lighting on all its steam-driven vessels1 the current being easily obtainable in this instance4 ,on the whole1 however1 oil is the most popular form of illuminant1 the burners--there are several lamps arranged in a ring round the mast--being fitted with two circular wicks1 one within the other2 while behind the lamp an ordinary parabolic reflector is placed in order to increase the intensity of the light produced4 ,these reflectors are disposed in such a manner around the mast that the concentrated beam of light from one lamp just overlaps the rays which are projected similarly from the lamp placed on either side1 the result being that a fixed white light of equal luminosity throughout the circle is projected4 ,but1 unlike the illuminant in the lighthouse1 the light is not stationary in its vertical plane2 it is swung from side to side and up and down in rhythm with the movement of the vessel4 ,under these circumstances1 at one moment the light would project a short ray owing to the declination of the beam in relation to the line of the water1 thereby bringing it below the horizon1 while the next moment1 when the ship lurched in the opposite direction1 the ray of light would be thrown into the air and above the horizon4 ,the problem is to keep the light at one steady angle1 irrespective of the motion of the vessel1 and this end is achieved by hanging each reflector upon gimbals1 so that the rolling practically is counteracted1 the reflectors maintaining a constant vertical position4 ,some lights are of the flashing type1 and in this instance the reflectors are disposed in groups4 ,here the gimbals1 carrying the reflectors1 are mounted upon the framework which revolves around the mast by clockwork mechanism1 and are so arranged as to give any type of distinguishing flash that may be desired4 ,in the most approved types of modern lightships1 however1 the dioptric apparatus is incorporated1 means having been discovered to avoid breakage from the rolling motion of the ship1 while the risk of throwing the beam above or below the horizon according to the rolling of the boat is overcome4 ,in this case the lamps and reflectors are disposed on a turntable in the lantern1 with the dioptric apparatus mounted very carefully so as to secure a true balance upon gimbals4 ,the apparatus for revolving the light is erected in a deck-house1 the weight actuating the mechanism being permitted to rise and fall in a special tube extending from the bottom of the ship to the deck4 ,the rotary action thus produced is transmitted from the deck to the lantern above by means of a vertical shaft and pinion4 ,while ordinary lamps are installed as a rule in the lanterns1 ,messrs4 ,chance ,brothers and ,co41 the ,birmingham lighthouse illuminating engineers1 have succeeded in adapting their incandescent oil-vapour system1 which has proved so eminently successful in lighthouses1 to light-vessels1 with a very decided increase in the candle-power1 and marked economy in oil consumption and cost of upkeep4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,a ,,flaming ,,sentinel ,,of ,,the ,,malacca ,,straits ,with the development of commerce between ,europe1 ,china1 and ,japan1 following the awakening of the ,east1 it became imperative to render the seas approaching these countries far safer to navigation4 ,if one consults the atlas1 and follows the routes taken by the great liners from ,britain and the ,continent to the ,orient1 he will see a rampart forming the boundary between the ,indian ,ocean and the ,south ,china ,sea4 ,this is the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 and it bristles with dangers of all descriptions to the mercantile traffic flowing to and fro4 ,after leaving ,india1 the steamships turn their noses towards ,singapore1 at the extremity of the ,malay ,peninsula2 but this busy port is shut in on the south by the attenuated rocky chain of islands forming the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 of which ,sumatra and ,java are the most important4 ,the steamship lane lies between ,sumatra and the ,asian mainland1 and is known as the ,straits of ,malacca4 ,it is a fearsome neck of water1 studded with islands and sandbanks1 some visible above high-water1 others revealed only by the falling tide2 while still more never see daylight at all1 yet owing to their shallow position are none the less perilous4 ,in order to foster the growth of the sea-traffic with ,china1 these unattractive waters demanded full illumination1 while the rock-girt shores of ,china and ,japan were similarly in need of protective outposts4 ,japan was particularly enterprising in this forward movement4 ,the country was emerging from the state of suspended civilization in which it had reposed so calmly for centuries4 ,the rising forces were not slow to realize that unless they safeguarded steamship traffic their ports would wait in vain for the ships from ,europe4 ,in fact1 the mercantile interests of the ,western world bluntly stated that unless this course were followed their ships would not come to trade4 ,japan at that time had not capable men at home for the purpose of completing the first part of a comprehensive coast-lighting scheme1 and it was acknowledged that years must elapse before the country would be able to walk alone in this field4 ,accordingly they sought ,britain's assistance4 ,the ,stevenson family1 as narrated already1 elaborated a comprehensive scheme1 which was accepted4 ,the structures were prepared in ,britain1 sent out piecemeal to ,japan together with a force of competent men1 and erected at the desired points4 ,upon this foundation the ,japanese built up their excellent lighthouse service4 ,the ,eastern pupil1 in his own estimation1 became as competent as the ,scottish teachers4 ,at all events1 ,japan has since completed all works of this description at home and unaided4 ,china followed suit1 but in this instance it was due to ,british initiative purely and simply4 ,the ,british ,inspector-,general of the ,imperial ,maritime ,customs took up the question4 ,he appointed an engineer-in-chief1 to whom the construction and repair of the lights were entrusted4 ,the chief engineer was provided with a coast inspector1 upon whom devolved the responsibility for the personnel and the maintenance of the stations1 he in turn being assisted in his exacting and1 at that time1 difficult work by a corps of zealous officers4 ,although the countries concerned and the shipping companies of ,europe appreciated this forward policy1 one class of individuals resented this introduction of ,western ideas into ,oriental life4 ,this was the population who lived by wrecking and piracy4 ,they recognized the fact only too well1 that1 if brilliant beacons were to be permitted to be erected freely throughout these troublous seas1 their despicable but remunerative calling would cease4 ,their solution of the problem assumed a characteristic ,chinese and ,malay form2 they endeavoured to wreak their revenge upon the lights4 ,now and again there were sharp tussles between the engineering staffs and these high-water brigands1 but firearms well handled by the white men invariably got the better of the argument4 ,pirates caught in the attempt to tamper with the lights received very short shrift4 ,one engineer who had seen service in these waters related to me that in the early days the amount of lead expended in protecting a light from these marauders exceeded the quantity of this metal used in the tower itself4 ,the ,malacca ,straits1 from their exceedingly dangerous nature1 constituted a happy hunting-ground for these gentlemen1 and the lighting of these waters was effected as soon as possible4 ,among the innumerable menaces abounding1 a shoal some sixteen miles west of the coastline was particularly harassing to mariners4 ,it became known as ,one ,fathom ,bank1 and the shallowest part was only about #ah feet below the surface at high-water4 ,when these waters were guarded first1 a lightship did duty2 but the position is so open1 and is so exposed to the full fury of the monsoon1 that she frequently dragged her anchors1 so that the warning became somewhat uncertain4 ,accordingly1 it was decided to supersede the floating light by a permanent structure1 and a lighthouse on stilts1 similar to those familiar to ,american waters1 was erected in #ahgd1 and emitted a white flash once a minute4 ,although this ironwork structure was pounded mercilessly by the seas1 it withstood all assaults completely1 and was only superseded eventually owing to the ever-increasing exigencies of commerce1 which demanded a more powerful and elevated light4 ,the present tower was commenced in #aijg4 ,the engineers appreciated the fact that they were being called upon to carry out an undertaking in an especially trying position4 ,the bank is well out to sea1 and when the monsoon is in full blast waves #h feet in height thunder upon the shoal1 their ferocity varying according to the state of the tide1 which rises and falls a matter of #ad feet4 ,the difficulties attending the building of the ,rothersand and ,fourteen ,foot ,bank lighthouses under closely similar conditions were not forgotten1 and the prospect of building a huge caisson on the mainland1 and then towing it to the site to be sunk1 was by no means attractive1 even if the fullest avail were taken of the spells of calmest weather4 ,therefore an alternative method of construction1 possessing the qualities of being simpler1 quicker1 and less expensive1 which was advanced by a well-known firm of engineers in ,singapore1 ,messrs4 ,hargreaves1 ,riley and ,co41 upon the designs of ,mr4 ,o4 ,p4 ,thomas1 received the closest consideration4 ,this scheme proposed a lighthouse constructed on piles1 with the focal plane #ib feet above water-level1 wrought in ferro-concrete4 ,the project was somewhat novel and daring1 because1 although this constructive principle had been adopted previously for stations upon the mainland1 it had never been utilized in connection with exposed sea-lights4 ,the system recommended was that known as the ,hennebique1 which had been employed extensively for buildings1 bridges1 sea-defences1 and other works4 ,the proposal was investigated thoroughly by the ,hon4 ,a4 ,murray1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 the ,colonial ,engineer and ,surveyor-,general for the ,straits ,settlements1 and1 as it met with his full approval1 the work was handed over to the ,singapore engineers to fulfil upon the lines advanced4 ,the structure comprises the main building1 including the living-quarters1 supported upon piles disposed in two rings1 an inner and an outer1 about a central pile1 the whole being well braced together4 ,the shape is octagonal in plan4 ,from the roof of the living-quarters1 to which point the outer piles are carried vertically from the sea-bed1 these members rise with an inward rake1 forming an octagonal pyramid1 with the lantern and its room below forming the apex4 ,the underwater work was the most difficult1 owing to the situation and the climatic conditions4 ,seeing that the nearest land is sixteen miles distant1 it was impossible to carry the men to and from the scene of their labours every day when the weather permitted4 ,a base was established on the coast for the preparation of materials and as a point for shipping all requirements to the site1 but the men were accommodated with special facilities upon the spot4 ,here a temporary staging was built on piles1 on which platform a large hut was erected to provide quarters for the men1 as well as a workshop4 ,the piles forming the main support to the building were made #ej feet long1 and hollow4 ,the concrete1 composed of broken granite and ,portland cement1 encased a steel skeleton1 consisting of four longitudinal round steel rods1 #a inches in diameter1 laid at the corners1 and laced together with steel wire #c_/af inch thick4 ,eight of these piles were made #ah inches square1 while nine were #bd inches square1 and each was fitted with a pointed end to facilitate driving into the sea-bed4 ,as these piles were prepared on shore1 their transference to the site was a pretty problem in itself4 ,ordinary methods of transport were impracticable4 ,the engineer overcame the difficulty in an ingenious manner4 ,he built up a raft of barrels1 twenty-six of which were lashed together in two rows1 between which the pile was laid flat and evenly4 ,the raft was built upon peculiar lines1 so as to facilitate the unshipping of the pile when it reached its destination4 ,it was divided into four sections1 each of which could be detached without disturbing the other three parts4 ,the raft and its pile were towed out to sea by a steamer1 and when the work was gained the raft was cast off1 to be floated under the staging and to the exact point where it was to be set up4 ,a chain sling was lowered from the platform and attached to the head of the pile1 and the lashings to the first section of the raft were released1 thus permitting the strapped barrels concerned to float away and to be recovered4 ,the pile was then slowly and carefully hoisted at the head1 the second part of the raft being released when the pile had gained a certain height4 ,this procedure was repeated until finally1 when the last part of the raft was freed1 the pile hung free1 as vertically true as a plumb-line1 with the pointed foot resting on the sand4 ,in order to send it truly into the sea-bed1 heavy timber guides were set up1 and as the pile descended it was frequently tested with the plummet1 to see that it was sinking in an absolutely perpendicular manner4 ,illustration3 ,,completing ,,the ,,one ,,fathom ,,bank ,,lighthouse ,,in ,,the ,,malacca ,,straits4 ,the keepers live on the lower floors4 ,the upper floor beneath the lantern is the service room4 ,the piles were sunk into the soft sea-bed by means of water-jets1 which1 playing about the foot of the pile1 burrowed a hole into which it could move downwards4 ,a depth of #ae feet had been considered necessary to secure the desired rigidity1 and as a rule the pile could be driven to this depth in about four hours4 ,when the pile-driving commenced1 however1 it was found that the sandbank had undergone a marked change since the surveys were made4 ,erosion had been very active owing to the currents having been checked by the obstructions which the legs of the staging offered4 ,under these circumstances a novel experiment was made upon the site4 ,one of the piles was lengthened by #ad feet1 to be driven to its limits1 just to ascertain how far it would go into the sand4 ,this in itself was a somewhat daring undertaking1 seeing that the tiny colony on the staging did not possess the facilities which were available on shore for the work4 ,however1 it was accomplished satisfactorily1 and when the pile was sunk it was found to descend another #ac feet1 where it touched hard rock4 ,this discovery brought about a modification in the plans4 ,as a solid foundation could be gained at a depth of #bh feet1 and as the piles could be lengthened successfully upon the site1 it was decided to extend all the piles to a complete length of #fd feet1 and to drive them down to the hard bottom4 ,when the piles were all lowered1 they were subjected to four blows from a 8monkey0 weighing #b tons1 dropped from a height of #d feet4 ,but these four final blows only drove the piles from to #g_/h inch farther into the sea-bed1 whereas1 according to the specification1 a margin of #a inch was allowed for this test4 ,the diameter of the tower at the base is #dj feet1 and heavy bracing is introduced at a point #d feet below high-water to hold the fabric together1 and to supply the requisite strength and rigidity4 ,at a height of #ba feet above this main bracing is the floor of the superstructure1 comprising an octagonal two-floor building1 surrounded by an overhanging gallery1 built on the cantilever principle1 #e feet in width1 which forms the landing platform4 ,the two floors have a total height of #bd feet1 and constitute the keepers' home4 ,the roof is flat1 in order to facilitate the collection and conduct of rain-water into two ferro-concrete cisterns1 each holding #a1jjj gallons4 ,the lower floor is devoted to housing stores1 oil1 etc41 while the upper story forms the living-quarters4 ,the roof is caused to overhang a distance of #d feet on all sides1 thereby providing a flat surface #dd feet across4 ,from this point the eight main columns of the building slope inwards1 until1 at a height of #cj feet1 they have a diameter of #ah feet1 where the lantern is introduced4 ,the lower part of the latter constitutes the service-room1 and leads directly to the lantern above4 ,access to the different levels is afforded by means of a teak-wood staircase1 while that leading from the entrance floor to the water for landing purposes is hinged1 so that it may be accommodated to the condition of the tide4 ,the lantern1 which weighs #ag tons1 is of the modern type1 and is more powerful than that of the #ahgd light1 which it displaced4 ,the white light is thrown in groups of flashes every fifteen seconds1 and the warning is visible from the deck of a vessel some fifteen miles away4 ,the central pier1 which carries a great proportion of the total weight of the tower1 and which extends continuously from the bed-rock foundation to the lantern-room1 is solid to the roof of the living-quarters4 ,above this point it is hollow1 having a bore of #ab inches1 and in this space the weight actuating the revolving mechanism of the light moves up and down4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,one ,,fathom ,,bank ,,lighthouse1 ,,malacca ,,straits1 ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,erection4 ,it is built throughout of ferro-concrete1 and is supported on piles driven into the sand4 ,at the left are the quarters provided for the lighthouse builders who lived on the spot4 ,although the idea was novel at the time1 the complete success of the work justified the recommendations of the designers as to the suitability of this form of construction for open-sea lighthouses4 ,in this instance the enterprise not only was completed for a less sum than would have been required for a corresponding lighthouse erected in masonry upon orthodox lines1 but the structure is lighter1 was more rapidly built1 and is thoroughly hygienic4 ,the complete weight of the whole tower is less than #a1jjj tons2 and from the setting of the first pile to the lighting of the lamps only fourteen months elapsed1 notwithstanding the fact that work was interrupted and hindered frequently by inclement weather4 ,any doubts that were entertained concerning the ability of the structure to resist the attacks of the wind and seas encountered in these latitudes was dispelled during erection1 because the monsoons which broke during the period of erection were abnormally heavy1 and submitted the fabric to exceptional strains and stresses1 which it withstood with complete success4 ,another fine light which has been provided for the benefit of the navigator in these ,eastern seas is that on ,gap ,rock4 ,this is a rugged1 lofty eminence1 rising from the sea1 thirty-two miles south of ,hong-,kong4 ,being exposed on all sides1 it is difficult to approach1 while at the same time it lies in the path of vessels4 ,a few years ago the ,hong-,kong ,government decided to conquer this islet1 and to deprive it of its perils to shipping4 ,with great effort a landing was effected1 and one of the pinnacles was decapitated and levelled off1 to form a spacious platform for landing4 ,the light itself rises from the highest point of the rock1 and its rays are visible through a circle of twenty miles radius4 ,the ,gap ,rock light is also a signal-station1 being in telegraphic communication with ,hong-,kong4 ,although the days of human hostility to the lighthouse in ,eastern waters have passed1 the engineer is confronted by an enemy which is in every way as destructive4 ,this is the white ant4 ,the ravages of this insect are so relentless and complete where wood is concerned that timber towers are quite impracticable4 ,moreover1 this material has to be used only sparingly for fittings1 even in masonry and iron buildings4 ,a curious experience with this insidious and implacable foe was related to me by a lighthouse engineer4 ,he was engaged in the erection of a new beacon at a remote point on the coast4 ,the lenses and lantern apparatus1 as usual1 had been ordered in ,england1 and were despatched to the ,east carefully packed in substantial tin-lined cases4 ,in order to secure the utmost protection during transit1 each metallic and lenticular part was wrapped in tow4 ,care also was bestowed upon the sealing of the tin case1 since the propensity of the ant to discover the smallest pinhole so as to reach the interior was emphasized upon the packers4 ,accordingly the seams were doubly soldered4 ,in due course the cases with their precious contents reached the site of erection1 but unfortunately the season was so far advanced that the engineer concluded he could not complete the erection of the lantern before the monsoon broke4 ,as the contents of the cases were preserved by the tin armour from climatic attacks1 he stored the cases securely1 and with his workmen left the place until favourable weather returned4 ,some weeks later the chief and his toilers reappeared upon the scene4 ,all preparations for setting the optical apparatus were completed4 ,imagine the dismay of the engineer when1 on opening the case containing the most important parts of the lantern1 he found that it had been raided by white ants4 ,they had driven their tracks spirally through the tow1 which evidently they had enjoyed1 and although this was of little consequence1 the formic acid had played sad havoc with the bright surfaces of the spindles4 ,in lighthouse engineering the surfaces of these parts must be as bright and as clean as a mirror to insure smooth1 steady working4 ,but now these spindles were as pitted and marked as a victim to smallpox4 ,it was a maddening contretemps1 since the only way to restore the vital bright surfaces was to turn them in the lathe4 ,such a tool was not available within a hundred or more miles4 ,erection had to be delayed1 however1 until this treatment was effected4 ,seeing that the tin case was soldered up with such infinite care1 the question arises4 ,how did the ants get into it8 ,to the engineer it seemed an inscrutable puzzle1 but he subjected the case to a minute examination4 ,finally he solved the problem4 ,at one corner he found that a nail1 while being driven during the process of nailing up the heavy outer wooden case at the ,english factory1 had turned slightly1 so that its point had punctured the inner metal case4 ,the ants1 too1 had discovered this minute breach1 and through it had swarmed to the attack upon the interior4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,unattended ,,lighthouses ,during the past fifty years engineering science as applied to lighthouses has made remarkable advances4 ,this has been due largely to the indefatigable perseverance and ceaseless labour of the chemist in regard to illumination4 ,this wonder-worker has given us acetylene1 has evolved means whereby oil-gas may be compressed to a pressure of several atmospheres with safety1 and has discovered other gases obtainable by inexpensive and simple means4 ,the engineer has not hesitated to profit from these developments1 and has devised highly ingenious apparatuses whereby these illuminating mediums may be stored and used1 so as to dispense with the human element almost entirely2 in fact1 in these instances the latter factor has been reduced to such a degree that it is only called upon to perform certain perfunctory operations1 such as the recharging of the storage vessels at long intervals--three1 six1 or twelve months1 according to circumstances4 ,this combination has provided the lighthouse engineer with a new1 powerful1 and efficient means of overcoming abnormal difficulties4 ,many a rock1 reef1 or stretch of uninhabited coastline has demanded indication1 but has defied such protection from motives of cost1 inaccessibility1 or searching problems concerning the accommodation and relief of the keepers4 ,as ,i have shown in the course of this volume1 the erection of a first-class lighthouse is a costly undertaking1 and the shipping interests1 which in the case of ,great ,britain and a few other countries are called upon to pay the bill1 naturally demur1 unless the rock or other obstacle is situate in the centre of the marine thoroughfare1 or the approach to a pitiless coast is extremely hazardous1 when the erection of the tower becomes absolutely imperative4 ,if one were to add up the costs of all the great lights scattered throughout the seven seas1 it would be found that several millions sterling had been sunk in this humane effort1 and yet1 relatively speaking1 but a small area of danger in the aggregate is safeguarded4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,platte ,,foug,,re ,,lighthouse ,,under ,,construction4 ,this automatic light marks a dangerous reef1 off the ,guernsey coast1 which is familiar to readers of ,victor ,hugo's 8,toilers of the ,sea40 ,then the human factor demands consideration4 ,a colony of four or six men scarcely could be found willing to suffer isolation from the world at large and to be deprived of intercourse with their fellow-beings in the interests of shipping1 say1 through the ,straits of ,magellan1 around ,cape ,horn1 among the icy fastnesses of the ,northern ,labrador coast1 or in ,hudson ,bay4 ,life in the lighthouses which guard the busy steamship lanes is monotonous and nerve-shattering enough1 but to maroon men in such remote places as those mentioned above would be to promote a wholesale rush of inmates for the lunatic asylums4 ,this is where the chemist and the engineer in collaboration have triumphed4 ,by their joint efforts it is now possible to supply the most inhospitable shore with a belt of lights equal in every respect to those mounting sentinel over the more densely populated reaches of coast in the civilized parts of the globe4 ,the unattended lighthouse is a modern development born of necessity1 which has proved highly serviceable1 effective1 and reliable4 ,the passenger1 as he lolls against the taffrail of the steamer ploughing her way carefully through the lane #cge miles long separating the mainland of ,south ,america from ,tierra del ,fuego1 and watches the faithful star twinkling upon the top of a frowning cliff and urging the mariner to keep clear1 may cherish a feeling of pity for the man who has to keep that beam shining4 ,but his commiseration is misplaced4 ,no human hands touch that beacon1 perhaps1 for six months or more at a time4 ,it is a triumph of automatic operation4 ,the same applies to the wicked shores of ,new ,zealand1 the uninviting northern stretches of the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 the iron-bound coasts of ,norway and ,sweden1 and many another unattractive mainland and island4 ,all the great maritime nations possess several of these silent1 faithful lights1 which1 although upon their introduction they were regarded with a certain amount of suspicion1 owing to the urgent necessity of a light never failing in its duty for the guidance of the seafarer1 yet have been proved by the convincing lesson of experience to be as reliable in every respect as the light which is tended by human hands4 ,so far as ,great ,britain is concerned1 the unattended light has been brought to a high stage of efficiency and utility by the efforts of ,messrs4 ,david and ,charles ,stevenson1 while in other parts of the world the apparatus and methods perfected by ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln of ,stockholm are used extensively4 ,the most interesting example of the ,stevenson unattended lighthouse is provided in the ,english ,channel1 indicating the entrance to the strait which leads to the ,guernsey capital of ,st4 ,peter ,port4 ,this was one of the first of its character to be erected1 but the type is now being adopted widely owing to the success of this initial undertaking4 ,the ,channel ,islands have achieved an unsavoury reputation in marine annals1 as they form a graveyard of the ,channel2 they have claimed their victims1 during recent years at any rate1 mostly from the ranks of the heavy cross-,channel traffic4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,platte ,,foug,,re ,,lighthouse4 ,this beacon1 designed by ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson1 probably is the finest unattended lighthouse in existence4 ,on the top of the tower is the automatically controlled acetylene light4 ,the ,russell ,channel1 leading to ,st4 ,peter ,port from the north1 is exceedingly dangerous1 the sea being littered with granite rocks both submerged and exposed1 of which the ,grande ,braye1 ,barsier1 and ,platte ,fougre1 form the outer rampart4 ,readers of ,victor ,hugo may gather some realistic idea of the perilous nature of these waters by perusing 8,the ,toilers of the ,sea10 in which these rocks figure very prominently1 particularly the ,platte ,fougre4 ,the menace of this corner of the channel is accentuated by the velocity of the tidal currents which swing and swirl round the reefs1 together with the extreme range of the tides1 which averages about #cj feet4 ,formerly1 in thick weather1 vessels found it almost impossible to pick up the ,russell1 and often a captain1 by the rip and crash of metal being torn1 to his dismay learned that he had swung too far to the westward4 ,illustration3 ,,setting ,,the ,,compressed-,,air ,,reservoir ,,at ,,fort ,,doyle4 ,the ,platte ,fougre automatic light is supplemented by a land station on the island of ,guernsey a mile away4 ,the companies engaged in this traffic repeatedly petitioned the authorities to mark the entrance to the strait by some adequate means4 ,a light was not required so keenly as a sound-signal1 because in clear weather navigation was tolerably safe4 ,the proposal was discussed time after time1 but no solution appeared to be forthcoming4 ,to erect a lighthouse on the outer fringe of the barrier would have entailed prodigious expenditure1 which the island authorities could ill afford1 even if such a scheme were practicable4 ,the question was taken up boldly by ,general ,campbell during his occupation of the post of ,governor-,general of the ,island of ,guernsey1 and he pressed forward the scheme vigorously in a resolute determination to bring about a diminution in the number of maritime disasters at this point4 ,he approached ,messrs4 ,david and ,charles ,stevenson1 who had considerable experience of similar conditions around the ,scottish coasts1 and they1 after an elaborate survey of the site1 recommended the erection of a light and fog-signal station upon the ,platte ,fougre1 which should be controlled from the land a mile distant4 ,they agreed that the erection of a tower similar to those generally planted on sea-rocks would be a formidable undertaking and enormously expensive1 owing to the conditions prevailing1 but the station they suggested was quite practicable1 and would serve the purposes equally well4 ,instead of a massive1 gracefully-curving tower1 measuring some #dj feet in diameter at the base1 these engineers suggested a building of irregular octagonal shape1 measuring #ad and #ag feet across the faces1 #hj feet in height1 and carried out in ferro-concrete4 ,they advocated its erection upon the ,platte ,fougre1 because there the fog-signal would be brought into the most serviceable position for shipping4 ,a narrow or thin building was advised1 to offer the minimum of surface to the waves1 which break very heavily on these ridges4 ,the wisdom of this design has been revealed very convincingly since the tower has been in service4 ,the seas fall on either side1 divide and rush round the building1 so that it does not experience the full brunt of their heavy1 smashing blows4 ,as the engineers pointed out1 8,it is better to avoid heavy sea pressures1 where feasible1 in preference to courting them40 ,still1 the ,platte ,fougre was not an ideal rock from the engineers' point of view1 although it is a solid knot of granite4 ,its head is visible only at low-water spring-tides1 while it is difficult to approach1 even in the smoothest weather1 owing to the tides and currents4 ,much of the foundation work had to be carried out under water4 ,the season was unavoidably limited1 as the days when both the wind and the sea are calm in this part of the channel are very few and far between4 ,the tower is solid for a height of #df feet above the rock1 and the base is formed of ,portland cement placed in iron moulds1 with iron bars driven into the solid rock to anchor the concrete firmly4 ,on the side to which the building is exposed to the heaviest seas1 massive beams of rolled steel are driven into the rock1 so as to impart additional strength to the part of the tower where the greatest strains are likely to be set up4 ,on the entrance level is a compartment containing an electric motor and air-compressor1 while on the floor immediately above is a duplicate installation4 ,the siren projects through the top of the tower1 the trumpet being so turned as to throw the sounds in a horizontal direction over the water4 ,on the top of the tower is a small automatic acetylene gas plant and light1 such as the engineers have employed so successfully in their unattended ,scottish light-stations1 two air-receivers1 and a water-tank4 ,a new type of burner is used1 and a clockwork mechanism is incorporated to extinguish the light at dawn and to ignite it at dusk1 with a special arrangement to allow for the short summer nights and the long periods of darkness during the winter4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fort ,,doyle ,,siren4 ,this installation on the island is maintained so as to take the place of the automatic lighthouse a mile out to sea1 in the remote event of the latter breaking down4 ,as mentioned above1 the station is controlled electrically from a point on shore4 ,in deciding the latter1 it was necessary to discover the most favourable landing-place for the submarine cable in relation to its route1 and ,doyle ,fort was selected as meeting all requirements in this direction4 ,here a two-floor dwelling has been erected for the keepers1 together with an adjoining engine-house1 which measures #cb feet in length by #bj feet wide4 ,the tower being a mile distant1 the designers had to meet the possibility of the machinery therein breaking down4 ,accordingly1 at the shore station there is an auxiliary fog-siren and air-compressing plant1 which is brought into use when the sea apparatus is deranged4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson4 ,,an ,,unattended ,,beacon ,,light ,,placed ,,upon ,a ,,wild ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,scottish ,,coast4 ,these lights will run for several months without any human attention1 and1 by means of ingenious mechanism1 light and extinguish themselves automatically4 ,the machinery includes two oil-engines which drive three-phase alternators1 and an air-compressor for working the land siren when required4 ,one of the greatest difficulties arose in connection with the submarine cable which connects the land-station with the sea-tower4 ,owing to the broken1 rocky nature of the sea-bed1 the viciousness of the currents1 and the heavy seas1 the cable had to be of exceptional strength2 indeed1 it had to be made specially for the purpose4 ,it is a double-sheathed1 steel-armoured cable of the heaviest 8rock0 type1 being #aa inches in circumference1 and weighing #de tons per nautical mile4 ,as the current used is three-phase1 there are three conductors1 which weigh #a1ajj pounds per mile1 protected by a thick layer of gutta-percha averaging #dej pounds per mile4 ,in the centre of the core are two other wires for switching and telephone purposes respectively4 ,the laying of the cable was a peculiar and exacting task in itself2 #f1ejd feet had to be paid out4 ,but by waiting for a very calm day and slack water this task was achieved without mishap4 ,in the tower there is a simple switch operated by an electro-magnet1 whereby the motor-driven air-compressors are thrown in and out of action4 ,the two compressors are used alternately1 so as to keep them in thorough working order2 and as they have to be left sometimes for months without being examined1 special attention has been devoted to their lubrication4 ,a visit to this lighthouse is a somewhat curious experience4 ,climbing the ladder and entering the building1 one finds it apparently abandoned4 ,not a sound beyond the murmuring of the waves playing about the rocks below disturbs a silence which is uncannily tense4 ,suddenly there is an almost imperceptible click4 ,the keeper at the light-station has moved his switch1 and simultaneously that in the tower has closed4 ,the electric motors instantly commence to revolve1 with a low grunt at first1 but rising quickly to a loud humming as they settle down to their stride1 driving the air-compressors4 ,then comes the ear-splitting1 deep-toned roar from the siren overhead1 attended by the whirr of machinery in motion4 ,the humming of the motors and the compressors dies down1 and in a few seconds absolute stillness prevails once more4 ,the sensation is decidedly eerie4 ,it seems impossible that a silence so intense as to be felt should be interrupted by a click--the result of a slight movement by an unseen hand a mile away--which gives forth such a nerve-shattering din as to convey the idea that ,bedlam had been let loose4 ,at the land-station the experience is similarly weird4 ,the keeper moves his switch which brings the tower machinery into action4 ,presently there is the sharp tinkle of an electric bell4 ,this notifies the keeper that the blast on the tower has been given1 but conclusive evidence of this fact does not arrive until five seconds later1 when the baying of the siren comes rolling over the water4 ,a complete check is kept upon the isolated station out at sea4 ,if the electric bell does not ring out at the appointed period1 to notify the keeper that the siren has emitted its warning note1 he knows that something is amiss4 ,the land-station is brought into service without delay1 the intimation to the mariner to stand clear being thrown from ,doyle ,fort once every ninety seconds4 ,the men on shore take it in turns to mount watch for fog both day and night1 and their vigil is checked4 ,there is an electric alarm1 which maintains silence only so long as the man on duty fulfils his appointed task and records this fact upon his mechanical register at scheduled intervals4 ,should he fail to perform this function1 there is a frenzied clanging by the alarm-bell1 which summons the second keeper to duty4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gasfeten ,,light3 ,a ,,lonely ,,beacon ,,in ,,swedish ,,waters4 ,this was the first tower to be fitted with the ,daln 8sun-valve0 in conjunction with the ,daln flasher4 ,several automatic lights of this type are used to show the way through the ,panama ,canal4 ,apparently1 the weakest point in the installation is the submarine cable1 but the engineers entertain no apprehensions on this score4 ,it is too stoutly made and too heavily armoured to rupture very readily4 ,experience has proved its efficiency and reliability1 while a long life is anticipated for it4 ,the ,platte ,fougre unattended lighthouse has opened up new possibilities for protecting wild coasts4 ,it has proved conclusively that there is no difficulty in maintaining such a station and controlling it from a distance so long as automatic apparatus which has proved its worth is employed4 ,this practical application should serve to solve many peculiar problems4 ,no longer can the bogie of expense be put forward as an argument against safeguarding a notoriously evil length of shoreline or isolated rock1 even if the latter is exposed to the heaviest seas known4 ,the ,guernsey installation was completed for #h1ejj1 or #db1ejj1 and is as serviceable as the ordinary type of tower1 which in this instance would have cost at least #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj1 to build and equip4 ,from the maintenance point of view it is equally convincing and economical1 inasmuch as only two keepers are required in the place of the four who otherwise would have been necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dal,n 8,,sun-,,valve10 ,,the ,,most ,,wonderful ,,invention ,,of ,,modern ,,lighthouse ,,engineering4 ,depending upon the action of daylight alone1 it automatically ignites and extinguishes the light at dusk and dawn respectively4 ,the system which has been devised by ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln of ,stockholm1 and which is exploited by the ,gas ,accumulator ,company of the ,swedish capital1 operates with dissolved acetylene4 ,the first light in ,scandinavian waters to be brought into action upon the 8,aga0 principle1 as it is called1 was installed in the ,gasfeten tower1 an exceedingly isolated beacon which offered every means of testing it thoroughly4 ,the idea follows the broad lines of that adopted in connection with lightships1 and1 the ,gasfeten experiments proving completely successful1 it has been adopted extensively since1 not only by the ,swedish authorities for the lighting of lonely waters in the ,baltic ,sea and ,gulf of ,bothnia1 but by various other ,powers4 ,the ,straits of ,magellan are protected in this way1 and when one recalls the sparse population which dwells upon the banks of this short-cut between the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans1 and bears in mind the fact that the lights have to be left to their own automatic action for some months on end1 then one may realize the perfection and reliability of the invention4 ,the failure of a light in such treacherous waters would be notified speedily to the authorities responsible for the illumination of this sea-lane1 but no such complaints appear to have been received from passing vessels4 ,these lonely lights for the most part are of a very simple character1 a result due to local conditions4 ,as a rule they are planted on lofty eminences--not at too high an elevation1 as thereby they might be rendered useless by headland fogs--at a height varying between #aej and #bej feet4 ,the base of the tower forms a space for the accommodation of the gas-accumulators1 wherein the illuminating medium is stored under pressure1 surmounted by the lantern which carries the requisite optical apparatus1 and the flasher whereby the characteristic visual warning is given4 ,although adoption of the flasher enabled the consumption of gas to be reduced very appreciably1 there was one noticeable drawback3 the light had to burn both night and day1 unless clockwork mechanism were introduced to extinguish the light at sunrise and to ignite it at twilight4 ,some authorities1 however1 do not place trust in clockwork mechanism4 ,certainly it is liable to fail at a critical moment1 and in the case of an isolated light1 several hundred miles from the nearest base1 this would be a serious calamity1 intimation of the fact not being available until several weeks after the disability had been observed4 ,in order to overcome the fallibility of clockwork1 and to insure a still further marked decrease in the consumption of gas1 ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln devoted his energies to the perfection of a device which should achieve the self-same end1 but be operated by ,nature herself4 ,his efforts were crowned with complete success by the invention of the 8light-valve10 but which has become more widely known as the 8sun-valve40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gas ,,accumulators ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,dal,n ,,automatic ,,system4 ,the size of the storage cylinder varies according to the work1 character1 and position of the beacon4 ,this device is based upon a well-known principle4 ,if two objects1 fashioned from the same metal1 and identical in every respect except that one is made light-absorbing and the other light-reflecting1 are exposed to daylight1 while the former will expand1 the latter will remain unaffected4 ,this result is due to the fact that the one which absorbs light transforms it into energy4 ,the acting part of the 8sun-valve0 therefore is a light-absorber4 ,it consists of a central rod1 the surface of which is coated with lampblack1 so that its light-absorbing qualities are enhanced as much as possible4 ,the lower part of this rod is connected to a small lever1 which opens and shuts an orifice through which the gas passes to the flasher in the lantern above4 ,around this central black copper rod are three other copper rods1 disposed equidistantly4 ,they resemble the former in every respect except that they have no light-absorbing qualities1 but they are given polished gold surfaces1 so that their light-reflecting properties are raised to the maximum4 ,this sun-valve is exposed4 ,at the break of dawn1 under the gathering intensity of daylight1 the central black rod absorbs the luminosity1 the amount of which is increased by the light thrown from the gold-burnished outer rods1 and1 converting it into energy1 expands longitudinally4 ,in so doing it forces the lever at the base downwards1 closing the opening through which the gas flows to the flasher4 ,in a short while1 when the day has broken fairly and there is no further need for the beacon's services1 the gas-feed is cut off entirely1 only the pilot burner remaining alight1 the gas-supply to this not being affected by the sun-valve4 ,in order to bring the greatest possible pressure upon the lever1 the blackened rod is so arranged that it can expand only in one direction--namely1 downwards4 ,upon the approach of evening1 owing to the daylight becoming weaker1 the blackened rod contracts1 and1 the pressure upon the lever being released1 the gas commences to flow once more to the burner4 ,it is a small stream at first1 but as the darkness gathers1 and the shrinking continues1 the valve opens wider and wider1 until at last1 when night has settled down and the copper central rod has fully contracted1 the gas-valve is opened to its fullest extent1 permitting the greatest pressure of gas to flow to the burner1 so that the beacon throws its most brilliant light4 ,this automatic action continues infallibly every dawn and dusk1 and is the simplest and at the same time most reliable means of economizing gas during the day that has yet been devised4 ,there is another feature of this system which must not be overlooked4 ,suppose1 for some reason or other1 that the sea becomes shrouded in suffused light1 such as might arise from the obscuring of the sun by an overhanging bank of fog or smoke1 the beacon comes automatically into service1 as the cutting off of the daylight must bring about a contraction of the blackened copper rod controlling the valve4 ,the central rod can be adjusted to any degree of sensitiveness1 by means of a screw1 while protection of the vital parts is insured by enclosure within a heavy glass cylinder4 ,the first apparatus of this character was tested by the ,swedish authorities in #aijg1 and proved so successful that it is now in service at all the exposed unattended lighthouses in ,swedish and ,finnish waters2 while it has been adopted1 also1 very extensively by the ,united ,states1 more particularly for the lighting of the lonely stretches of the ,alaskan coastline and of the ,panama ,canal4 ,of course1 the saving of gas which is rendered possible by the use of the sun-valve varies according to the season of the year4 ,during the winter1 when the nights are long1 the saving may not be very marked1 but in the summer1 when darkness does not last more than four or five hours1 the economy is very noticeable4 ,according to the experience of the ,swedish authorities1 the average saving of gas during the year varies from #ce to #dj per cent41 as compared with similar lights not fitted with this device4 ,but there is another factor which is influenced to a very appreciable degree by the utilization of the sun-valve4 ,by cutting off the light when it is not required1 the capacity of--i4e41 the duration of service upon--one charge is lengthened1 and this in the case of an isolated light is a very important consideration4 ,in fact1 with the 8,aga0 system wherein the sun-valve is combined with the flasher1 it is possible for the light to work a round twelve months without the least control or necessity for intermediate inspection1 and at as low an annual charge as #b #aes41 or about #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lagerholmen ,,lighthouse4 ,it marks a lonely dangerous rock in the ,baltic ,sea1 and operates upon the ,aga unattended automatic system1 with ,daln flasher and 8sun-valve40 ,one of the latest unattended installations which have been carried out upon these lines is the ,lagerholmen lighthouse1 marking a dangerous rock in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,it is a cylindrical tower1 with the focal plane #ef feet #d inches above sea-level1 and the flashing light1 with sun-valve control1 has a range of eighteen miles4 ,the geographical range1 however1 is only thirteen miles1 owing to the comparatively low height of the tower4 ,an interesting and ingenious automatic unattended light has also been established in an isolated part of the ,bristol ,channel4 ,it was designed by ,sir ,thomas ,matthews1 the engineer to the ,brethren of ,trinity ,house4 ,this is purely and simply a clockwork-controlled apparatus in which extreme care has been taken to eliminate the disadvantages incidental to such mechanism4 ,this type of light was designed to fulfil three conditions--to give a flashing light2 to light up and go out at the proper times2 and to require attention only at long intervals4 ,acetylene is the illuminant used1 the gas being stored in a reservoir under high pressure4 ,the gas as it emerges from the supply cylinder is expanded1 so that the pressure at the burner does not exceed #b pounds per square inch4 ,the outstanding feature of this apparatus is that the clockwork control cutting off and turning on the gas does not require to be wound by hand1 but is actuated by the mechanism which revolves the lenses1 through a simple set of gearing4 ,the gas as it issues from the reservoir passes into one of two cylinders4 ,each of these is provided with an inlet and an exhaust valve1 while the upper end is closed with a lid of leather1 covering the top like the vellum of a drum4 ,to each leather cover is attached a circular piece of metal1 smaller than the leather diaphragm1 and from this in turn extends a vertical rod1 the upper end of which is connected to one end of a centrally pivoted rocking arm4 ,when the gas enters one cylinder1 naturally in expanding it forces the leather lid upwards1 and with it the vertical rod4 ,this elevates the corresponding end of the rocking arm1 and simultaneously drives down the rod attached to the opposite end of the beam1 which in turn drives down the leather lid of the second cylinder1 and forces out any gas that may be therein4 ,the apparatus consequently is something like a double pump1 owing to the rocking arm having a seesaw motion4 ,this reciprocating action serves to wind up the clock1 and also to revolve the lenses through spurs and pinions4 ,the mechanism1 however1 is controlled completely by the clock whereby the light is started1 inasmuch as without this the apparatus cannot be set in motion4 ,there are two dials1 one of which is divided into twenty-four divisions1 corresponding to the hours of the day1 and the other into twelve divisions1 representing the twelve months of the year4 ,the clocks work together1 and the time of lighting up is advanced or retarded1 according to the time of the year1 through the clock train wheels4 ,the apparatus is very compact1 highly ingenious1 and has proved efficient in service4 ,although this is the first application of the idea for rotating the lenses by the gas which feeds the burners1 so far as ,england is concerned1 it has been employed under similar circumstances in ,germany with conspicuous success1 in combination with the ,pintsch oil-gas apparatuses1 but it lacks the simplicity and reliability of the sun-valve4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,unattended ,,beacon ,,lighting ,,the ,,straits ,,of ,,magellan4 ,this warning1 fitted with ,daln flasher and sun-valve1 is visited once in six months4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,automatic ,,light-,,boat4 ,this novel warning was constructed for installation at the mouth of a ,swedish river owing to the extreme velocity of the current4 ,such a boat may be left unvisited for a year if desired4 ,a different system1 which has been adopted widely throughout the ,east and in ,australian waters1 is the ,wigham petroleum beacon4 ,this system possesses many notable features1 the most important being that well-refined petroleum oil is employed4 ,in many parts of the world carbide of calcium is not readily obtainable1 and1 moreover1 is somewhat expensive1 whereas1 on the other hand1 oil is comparatively cheap and available in unlimited quantities4 ,the principle of working is somewhat novel4 ,the wick is not burned in the manner generally followed in regard to lamps--viz41 at the end1 which within a short time becomes carbonized and brings a marked diminution of the illuminating power--but it is moved so that the same part is not exposed continuously to the action of the heat arising from combustion4 ,it is caused to travel horizontally over a small roller1 in a specially-constructed burner1 combustion taking place1 therefore1 on its flat side4 ,it is moved slowly and continuously over this roller1 so that it cannot burn through1 and in this manner the flame1 being constantly emitted from a fresh surface1 is of uniform intensity4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wigham ,,thirty-,,one ,,day ,,unattended ,,petroleum ,,light4 ,the type at left shows the lamp carried upon a cast-iron pillar2 while on the right it is mounted upon a lattice tower4 ,the lamp comprises three main parts4 ,there is the lantern1 with the lens and the projecting panes of plate-glass1 in the focus of which the burner is fixed4 ,then there is the burning-oil reservoir1 which feeds the wick as it moves towards the burner4 ,this reservoir is circular in shape1 somewhat shallow1 and serves as a deck on which the lantern is built up4 ,the third part is the float cylinder1 made of copper1 which is attached to the underside of the oil reservoir4 ,this cylinder is filled with oil1 which is kept quite distinct from the burning oil1 and thereon floats a weighted copper drum1 to which one end of the wick is secured by means of a hook4 ,at the lower end of this cylinder is a micrometer valve1 which when opened permits the oil to drip away at a certain speed4 ,this causes the float to fall with the oil in the cylinder1 and to drag the wick over the burner roller and down the float cylinder after it1 so that a fresh surface of the wick is presented continuously for combustion4 ,the lamps themselves may be divided into two broad classes--the single-wick and the three-wick respectively4 ,the latter obviously emits the more brilliant light1 and is the type which is coming into more extensive use at the present time4 ,in the latest type a duplex burner is employed1 and this has been found to give a very powerful light with a comparatively low oil consumption4 ,the light is generally carried at the top of a lattice-work steel tower4 ,a support of this character can be taken to pieces1 packed within small compass1 and transported without difficulty1 while erection is simplified and facilitated4 ,seeing that a large number of these beacons have been erected on headlands along the wildest stretches of the ,african continent and the loneliest coasts of ,australia1 where the methods of transport are restricted to coolies or mules1 this method of packing is distinctly advantageous4 ,the lamp is secured to the top of the tower1 with the float cylinder of the lamp depending from the centre4 ,in this arrangement1 as a rule1 a small tank is provided into which a drain-pipe empties the oil dropping from the drip-valve4 ,in this way the oil may be drawn off1 filtered1 and used again in the float cylinder4 ,in some instances the lamp is mounted upon a cast-iron column1 in which case the float cylinder and the oil-drip tank are placed within the tube1 access thereto being obtained through a door4 ,the length of service on one charge varies according to the situation of the light4 ,if in a very exposed and inaccessible place1 it may be required to burn for two or three months without attention4 ,taken on the average1 however1 a monthly charge has been found to offer the greatest advantages4 ,but in some places the longer interval is unavoidable4 ,for instance1 the ,wigham light which is mounted upon the extremity of the ,manora breakwater at ,karachi cannot be approached for three months at a time during the monsoon4 ,under these circumstances a one-hundred-day service is imperative4 ,the lenses are of the dioptric order1 consisting of six elements built up into a strong gun-metal framework4 ,the internal diameter naturally varies with the size and number of the wicks1 and ranges from #aj inches for a #a-a_/h inch single wick1 to #ae inches in the case of a #a-e_/h inch three-wick lamp4 ,in the larger sizes a curved plate-glass pane is fitted outside the lens as a protection from the action of the weather4 ,these storm-panes are set in copper doors1 so that the glasses may be easily cleaned and polished when the lamp is being retrimmed4 ,illustration3 ,,willson ,,gas ,,and ,,whistling ,,floating ,,light ,,off ,,egg ,,island1 ,,nova ,,scotia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,willson 8,,outer ,,automatic10 ,,halifax1 ,,nova ,,scotia4 ,the maintenance charges are guided by the local market values of materials and labour1 the item of repairs and renewals being practically negligible4 ,so far as oil consumption per month is concerned1 this fluctuates according to the type of lamp used1 ranging from #a-a_/e pints per twenty-four hours1 or #dh gallons per month1 in the case of a #a-a_/h-;inch single-wick burner1 to #b pints per twenty-four hours1 or #h gallons of oil per month1 in the case of the latest #a-e_/h-;inch duplex-wick burner4 ,american petroleum-oil1 of a specific gravity of about #jgie1 gives the best results and the brightest and clearest flame4 ,russian and other heavier oils generally used in lighthouses are unsuitable4 ,in view of the world-wide operations of the ,standard ,oil ,company1 however1 no difficulty is experienced in procuring adequate supplies of this oil anywhere between the two ,poles4 ,the oil used in the float cylinder1 as mentioned previously1 is quite distinct from the burning oil1 and is used only to support the float to which the wick is attached4 ,as the oil escapes through the drip-valve1 it may be allowed to run to waste1 or1 what is far preferable1 it may be caught1 filtered1 and used again for this purpose1 to bring about a reduction in the cost of upkeep4 ,the float cylinder of a thirty-one-day light1 irrespective of the number of wicks1 requires the same quantity of oil for the float cylinder--#i gallons4 ,the advantages of the unattended1 automatic light have been appreciated by the various maritime ,powers1 and their application is being developed rapidly4 ,they are inexpensive in first cost1 and their maintenance charges are very low4 ,in ,sweden a second-order light1 consuming #f cubic feet of acetylene gas per hour1 throwing a fixed white light of #d1jjj candle-power1 and visible for seventeen miles in clear weather1 costs about #ae1 or #ge1 per annum2 while the smaller lights1 with a #cjj-millimetre lens and a #ab-;inch burner emitting #cfj candle-power1 may be run for #b1 or #aj1 per annum1 the low cost in this instance being attributable to use of the ,daln flasher and sun-valve4 ,the cost of the acetylene gas averages d41 or #a cents1 per cubic foot1 a result attributable to the fact that ,scandinavia is the world's largest producer of carbide of calcium4 ,the ,wigham petroleum system has proved similarly economical and reliable1 and has been installed in some of the wildest corners of the globe4 ,the ,congested ,districts ,board for ,ireland have established a number of these beacons on the rugged west coast to assist the fishermen in making their harbours at night4 ,many are placed in very exposed positions on headlands1 where they are frequently swept by the full force of the ,atlantic gales4 ,the ,austrian ,government has adopted the principle for lighting the dangerous coasts of the ,adriatic near ,trieste1 while the shoreline of ,jamaica is safeguarded by more than sixteen lights of this type4 ,many of these lights suffered severely from the effects of the earthquake which overwhelmed the island a few years ago1 but others withstood all the shocks successfully4 ,in this instance1 had expensive and massive lighthouses of the usual type been erected1 the loss would have been considerable1 in view of the severity of this seismic disturbance and the widespread destruction which was wrought4 ,these lights play a very prominent part in the guarding of the southern ocean1 the ,australian shores being protected by over sixty such beacons1 many of which are established in very exposed and isolated positions off the mainland4 ,while the day is still far distant when expensive graceful towers1 carrying immensely powerful lights1 will be no longer constructed1 the perfection and utility of the unattended light1 in one or other of its many forms1 are assisting tangibly in the solution of the problem of lighting busy shorelines adequately and inexpensively4 ,structures costing tens of thousands sterling in future will be restricted to important places1 especially in connection with sea-rocks1 such as landfalls1 or to those some distance from the land1 where a fog-signal station must be maintained1 unless the example of the ,platte ,fougre land-controlled station becomes adopted4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,floating ,,lighthouses ,hand in hand with the development of the unattended light for service on land positions has proceeded the adaptation of the floating light4 ,this may be described briefly as an enlarged edition of the lighted buoy1 which is such a conspicuous feature of our harbours and estuaries4 ,yet it is more than a buoy4 ,it can fulfil all the purposes of a light-vessel1 both as regards the emission of a ray of light or a distinctive sound1 so that both audible and visual warning are given simultaneously4 ,these lights likewise are automatic in their action1 and1 when set going1 require no further attention for some time4 ,nine months or more are often permitted to pass without human hands touching them1 and they have solved some very abstruse problems in connection with coast lighting4 ,for instance1 there is probably no such lonely stretch of coastline as that of ,british ,columbia and ,alaska4 ,there is only one large port north of ,vancouver--,prince ,rupert--and this rising hive of maritime activity is #eej miles distant4 ,the coast is as wild as that of ,norway1 which1 indeed1 it resembles very closely1 bristling as it does with fjords and islands1 with rugged cliffs rising abruptly from the water to a height of several hundred feet4 ,navigation at night is extremely hazardous1 as the path leads by devious ways through deep channels intersecting the outer barriers of islands1 where fogs hang low and thickly4 ,the captain has to pick his way carefully1 determining his course by timing the period between the blast of his siren and its echo1 as it is thrown from headland to headland4 ,as the passenger traffic developed1 the masters of the vessels entrusted with so many human lives felt the increased responsibility keenly1 and agitated for more adequate protection4 ,the erection of lighthouses1 even of the most economical type1 would have entailed huge expenditure by both the ,united ,states and ,canadian ,governments1 while the question of maintenance would have bristled with searching problems4 ,accordingly1 it was decided to adopt the floating automatic system1 which had proved eminently satisfactory in other parts of the world4 ,in this manner a highly successful and inexpensive solution of the difficulty was found4 ,these buoys have been installed at all the most treacherous points leading to sounds and canals1 as the lochs are called1 and have been found in every way equal to the simplest type of attended lighthouse4 ,the southern coast of ,nova ,scotia has been protected in a similar manner1 a chain of automatic lights1 spaced ten miles apart1 having been completed1 so that this wild1 rugged shore is patrolled very efficiently at the present moment4 ,other countries have not been dilatory in adopting the same methods4 ,consequently1 to-day the automatic floating lighthouse is one of the handiest1 most efficient and reliable devices for assisting navigation that the lighthouse engineer has at his command4 ,the lights assume different forms1 this factor being influenced by position1 specific duty1 and local conditions4 ,similarly1 the character of the illuminant employed also varies1 acetylene1 compressed oil-gas1 petroleum1 and electricity1 being utilized1 according to circumstances4 ,on the whole1 however1 acetylene gas appears to be the most favoured illuminating medium1 inasmuch as the preparation of the carbide of calcium has undergone such marked improvement4 ,when ,mr4 ,thomas ,l4 ,willson discovered the cheap process for the manufacture of carbide of calcium upon a commercial scale1 and the new industry became placed upon a firm footing1 it was only natural that the inventor should realize the possibilities of applying the new illuminant to the assistance of navigation4 ,acetylene gas gives a brilliant clear light of intense whiteness1 which is capable of penetrating a great distance4 ,accordingly1 he set to work to devise a buoy lighted by this gas1 and able to carry sufficient storage of calcium carbide to burn for weeks or months without attention4 ,when he had completed the first apparatus of this character1 he handed it over to the ,marine ,department of the ,canadian ,government for submission to any test that they might consider expedient1 in order to ascertain the limits of its application4 ,the buoy was set in position and watched carefully4 ,periodically it was examined to ascertain whether overhauling and cleaning were necessary1 as well as the behaviour of the light under all conditions of weather4 ,captains of vessels passing the beacon were requested to pronounce their opinions upon the quality of the light1 and their remarks concerning its range1 facility with which it might be picked up1 reliability1 and so forth1 were carefully marshalled and digested by the authorities4 ,precisely what the officials thought of the invention is reflected most convincingly by the fact that to-day over #cjj lights working upon this principle are stationed in ,canadian waters1 both upon the storm-bound ocean coasts and upon the wind-swept shores of the ,great ,lakes and waterways4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,sectional ,,elevation ,,of ,,the ,,willson ,,automatic ,,floating ,,light4 7,see next page47 ,the ,willson buoys are absolutely automatic in their operation4 ,all the impurities in the gas are removed by passing it through a special purifier1 so that the burner cannot become clogged or the light impoverished4 ,a charge of #a1cjj to #a1ejj pounds of carbide is carried within the apparatus1 and the gas is generated under low pressure4 ,the lantern is fitted with a ,fresnel lens1 so that the light is condensed into an intensely powerful and penetrating horizontal beam4 ,one prominent feature is that the candle-power of acetylene gas is seven times as high as that of compressed oil-gas1 while the reservoir of a given size will contain this equivalent of more light4 ,the candle-power of these floating lights obviously varies1 the largest size being capable of emitting a beam of #a1jjj candle-power1 this flame being the maximum that the lens will stand without breaking4 ,the construction and the principle of operation are exceedingly simple1 as may be gathered from reference to ,fig4 #af4 ,the beacon comprises a gas generator tube of steel 7#a71 which is supported by the steel float chamber 7#b71 on the upper side of which is placed the support 7#c7 carrying the lantern 7#d74 ,stability is insured by means of the counterweight 7#f7 attached to the lower end of the generator tube4 ,a few feet from the bottom of the latter is a diaphragm 7#g71 fitted centrally with a conically-seated valve 7#h7 which is mounted on a stem 7#i74 ,this extends through the centre of the generator and its head 7#aj74 ,the upper end of the valve stem carries a hexagonal nut 7#aa71 while the stem itself at this point has a keyway cut into it4 ,a spline is fitted into the generator head to engage the keyway1 and when the nut 7#aa7 is turned to close or to open the valve1 the stem itself cannot move with it1 except in two directions only--up or down4 ,the nut itself cannot be turned too far1 in which event it might drop the stem and valve1 as there is a stop-collar 7#ab74 ,leakage of gas is prevented by a cap 7#ad71 which is screwed into the generator head and sealed with a rubber washer4 ,this cap is sufficiently long to permit the valve stem to be raised or lowered so as to adjust the movement of the valve4 ,the stem of the valve is protected from the carbide by enclosure within a tube 7#ac71 which works through a guide bar 7#bd7 bolted to the side of the generator tube4 ,a grid 7#bc7 is fitted in the centre of the diaphragm 7#g7 and surrounding the valve 7#h71 so as to prevent small pieces of carbide1 which may pass through the grate 7#af71 from falling into the water1 and thereby being wasted4 ,the steel grate upon which the carbide rests is attached to the inside of the generator1 a short distance above the diaphragm4 ,the grid 7#bc7 also acts as a valve seat1 and is provided with a rubber packing 7#ae71 which is held in a groove in the seat1 and projects a sufficient distance to make a good joint with the valve 7#h7 when it is closed1 even if the valve happen to be foul4 ,the carbide of calcium1 in the form of large crystals measuring about #h by #d inches1 is placed in the generator tube when the beacon is immersed in the water1 the valve 7#h7 being opened and the valve-cap 7#ad7 screwed down4 ,in the centre of the counterweight 7#f7 is an orifice through which the water enters from the outside1 and passes through the open valve1 to come into contact with the carbide resting upon the grate4 ,gas is generated instantly1 to ascend through the carbide into the purifying chamber 7#e71 where all deleterious matter is removed1 the gas escaping thence through the small aperture 7#ag7 and pipe 7#ah7 to the lantern1 to which the supply-pipe is connected by the aid of the coupling 7#ai74 ,of course1 at times gas is liable to be generated more rapidly than it can be consumed4 ,what happens8 ,the apparatus is not provided with facilities to receive the surplus gas4 ,being unable to escape upwards through the generator tube1 it collects at the bottom1 and as the pressure increases it gradually forces the water away from the carbide1 so that generation ceases1 and is not resumed until the surplus gas has been absorbed1 when the water once more is able to come into contact with the carbide4 ,thus it will be seen that the gas generation is controlled automatically1 and that it is almost impossible for the gas pressure within the plant to reach a disruptive degree1 owing to the fact that when it exceeds a certain limit it has a free vent from the bottom of the device1 where the water normally is permitted to enter to carry out its designed purpose4 ,this invention has been utilized for a wide variety of purposes1 from the lighting of harbours1 navigable channels1 rivers1 bays1 and so forth1 to that of exposed coasts4 ,the automatic beacon1 properly so called1 has a tower1 which brings the focal plane to an elevation varying between #ej and #ajj feet1 this tower being built of lattice steelwork attached to the top half of the buoy1 with a day mark surrounding the lantern gallery1 access to which is secured by an iron ladder4 ,this type of light carries a sufficient storage of carbide in a single charge to keep the light burning continuously for about forty weeks4 ,in this instance the only modification from that already described is that the water for the production of the gas is admitted into the top instead of to the bottom of the generator4 ,when an excess of gas occurs1 the pressure thereof drives the water away from the carbide until the surplus has been consumed4 ,another type1 somewhat smaller1 carrying a charge sufficient for nearly six months1 has proved highly successful as a coastal light1 some thirty beacons of this class being stationed along the shore of ,british ,columbia4 ,the only trouble experienced therewith in these waters has been due to frost1 which1 solidifying the water around the buoy1 has interrupted the designed functions4 ,but probably the most complete and useful type of ,willson acetylene gas beacon is that in which the ,courtenay whistling device is incorporated1 so that in thick weather audible warning of the danger may be extended4 ,in this instance the floating chamber which supports the superstructure carrying the light and also the generator tube1 is fitted with two further tubes which project from the base like huge legs4 ,these tubes are open at the bottom1 but are closed at the top except for a connection with a valve-casing1 which is fitted with a ball-valve1 and upon which a powerful whistle is bolted4 ,now1 if the buoy is lowered and anchored in absolutely still water1 the water will rise to the same level within the tubes as it is outside2 but when the buoy is lifted upon the crest of a wave1 the level of the water falls1 so that the air space within the tubes is increased4 ,air enters this augmented space through the ball-check inlet valve in the valve-casing4 ,when the beacon falls1 naturally the water endeavours to maintain its level within the tubes1 and therefore the air which was admitted into the space becomes compressed1 to be expelled through the only possible vent--the whistle--thereby producing a very powerful blast4 ,thirty of these combined light and whistling buoys have been strung along the rugged ,nova ,scotia coast1 and have proved highly popular1 that outside ,halifax harbour being known colloquially among seafarers as the 8,outer ,automatic40 ,another acetylene system1 but working upon a better principle1 has been perfected in ,sweden1 and1 indeed1 now has been adopted universally1 owing to its many excellent features4 ,this is the 8,aga0 light1 which is the invention of ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln1,c and which has been brought to a high stage of commercial success by the ,gas ,accumulator ,company of ,stockholm4 ,i have pointed out the one objection to the ,willson acetylene automatic light--namely1 its uselessness when the surrounding water becomes frozen4 ,while this drawback does not affect its sphere of utility to a noticeable degree in ,canadian waters1 it acts somewhat adversely in other seas where similar conditions prevail1 but where the navigable channels are kept open by ice-breakers1 such as1 for instance1 in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,mr4 ,daln recognized this weak point in any system wherein contact with water is responsible for the generation of the gas1 and accordingly sought for a superior method4 ,fortunately1 the perfection of a new means of handling acetylene1 by ,french inventors1 offered the complete solution of the problem in a practical way4 ,the principle of this lies in the use of dissolved acetylene1 which is perfectly safe from explosion1 and can be handled with the greatest facility4 ,the gas can be stored in cylinders similar to those used for containing oxygen and hydrogen under pressure1 gases which are easier to transport than carbide of calcium1 and1 what is far more important1 climatic conditions do not exercise the slightest influence upon it4 ,c ,the humane labours of ,mr4 ,daln received recognition by the award of the ,nobel ,peace ,prize in #aiab4 ,dissolved acetylene may be stored within the cylinder1 or accumulator1 as it is called1 to a pressure of at least ten atmospheres1 and at this pressure it contains #ajj times its own volume of acetylene gas4 ,the accumulators may be made of any desired size1 this factor being governed by considerations of transport and application1 as well as of the consumption of the burner4 ,the perfection of the dissolved acetylene process came as a great boon to the ,swedish lighting authorities1 inasmuch as they have probably the most difficult stretch of coastline in the world to protect4 ,at the same time1 owing to the wild1 exposed character of many of the points which demanded lighting1 a perfect1 economical1 and reliable automatic system was in urgent demand4 ,acetylene was an obvious illuminant1 since1 while the country is deficient in the essential resources for the preparation of other fuels1 carbide of calcium is very cheap1 ,sweden1 in fact1 being the largest producer of this commodity4 ,the ,swedish ,board of ,pilotage experimented with acetylene lighting for six or seven years1 submitting every known acetylene lighting system to searching practical trials1 but failed to be sufficiently convinced on the vital question of reliability4 ,freezing-up was the most pronounced shortcoming1 but when dissolved acetylene appeared as a commercial product this disadvantage was removed completely1 and acetylene was adopted4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,kalkgrundet10 ,,sweden',s ,,latest ,,automatic ,,lightship4 ,the ,daln ,flasher is used1 and this undoubtedly is the finest vessel of its type in the world4 ,yet dissolved acetylene1 though completely successful1 possessed one drawback4 ,it was expensive as compared with oil-gas4 ,accordingly1 there was great scope for a means of economizing the consumption of the fuel without interfering with its lighting value and efficiency4 ,at the same time a superior flashing system was desired4 ,the methods which were in vogue to this end were satisfactory so far as they went1 but they involved a considerable useless consumption of gas4 ,this is where ,mr4 ,gustaf ,daln completed one of his greatest achievements4 ,he perfected a flashing apparatus wherein the gas passes to the burner in intermittent puffs1 to be ignited by a small invisible pilot light4 ,the device was tested and proved so successful that it was adopted throughout the service4 ,in ,swedish waters to-day there are #abg aids to navigation operating upon this system1 of which five are lightships4 ,the success of the invention in the land of its origin attracted other nations to its possibilities4 ,at the present moment over #gjj lights1 scattered throughout the world1 are working upon this principle4 ,if a beacon throws a fixed light1 unless it is of extreme power1 it is liable to be confused with a ship's mast-light1 a fact which was found to be one of the greatest objections to the fixed white light of the acetylene aid to navigation4 ,on the other hand1 a flashing warning must be of such a character that it cannot be mistaken for the twinkling of a brilliant star1 or of a light which has nothing to do with navigation4 ,this is where the 8,aga0 flasher emphasizes its value4 ,it throws a short1 powerful gleam at brief intervals4 ,the mariner cannot possibly confuse or misconstrue it2 the regularity of the flash arrests his immediate attention1 and its purport may be divined instantly4 ,the apparatus is simple and highly effective1 while it has the advantage that the periods of light and darkness can be altered in relation to one another1 or grouped1 as desired4 ,from the maintenance point of view1 however1 the invention is of far greater significance4 ,as the gas is consumed only during the light periods1 which are very brief in comparison with the eclipse1 the economy effected is very appreciable4 ,when the apparatus was first brought within the range of practical application1 many authorities1 which had become wedded to the oil-gas lighting system1 wherein the light flashes are of long duration in comparison with the dark periods1 maintained that the ,daln flash was too short to be of any value4 ,they disregarded the fact that the power of the acetylene-gas flash is about seven times as intense as that of the oil-gas light4 ,for instance1 when the ,united ,states acquired the first ,aga light in the autumn of #aijh1 the authorities demanded either a characteristic signal comprising ten seconds of light followed by five seconds of darkness1 or flashes and eclipses of equal duration--five seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,svinb,,dan10 ,,unattended ,,lightship ,,in ,,swedish ,,waters4 ,it works upon the ,daln system with flasher1 giving a flash of #jc second duration1 followed by darkness for #bg seconds4 ,there was a prejudice against short1 powerful1 and oft-repeating flashes1 mainly because their advantages were misunderstood4 ,practical experience1 however1 demonstrated the fact that the period of light might be reduced very considerably1 and1 as a result of prolonged investigations1 the ,swedish ,board of ,pilotage adopted a characteristic comprising #jc second light followed by darkness for #bg seconds4 ,this has become known since as the 8one-tenth flash10 owing to the luminous interval occupying one-tenth of the combined period of light and darkness4 ,it will be seen that1 as a result of this arrangement1 twenty flashes are thrown per minute4 ,as the flame is lighted for only one-tenth of the signal period1 it will be seen that the saving of gas amounts to #ij per cent41 as compared with the light which is burning constantly4 ,accordingly1 the gas charge will last ten times as long with the flashing apparatus2 consequently1 the accumulator need have only one-tenth of the capacity of that for a similar beacon which burns constantly4 ,the economy really is not quite #ij per cent41 as a certain volume of gas is consumed by the pilot flame1 which ignites the charge of gas issuing from the flasher burner4 ,this1 however1 is an insignificant item1 inasmuch as the quantity of gas burned by the pilot light does not exceed one-third of a cubic foot per twenty-four hours4 ,not only has this highly ingenious system been adapted to varying types of buoys1 similar in design and range of action to those described in connection with the ,willson apparatus1 wherein the light may be left unattended for as long as twelve months1 according to the capacity of the accumulator1 but it has also been applied to 8light-boats0 and light-vessels4 ,the 8light-boat0 is a hybrid1 being a combination of the buoy and the lightship1 and was devised to meet special conditions4 ,thus1 the 8,gerholmen0 light-boat stationed in the mouth of a ,swedish river1 where the current runs exceedingly strongly1 resembles a small boat with a water-tight deck4 ,from the centre of this rises a steel tripod1 at the top of which the lantern is placed4 ,the gas accumulators are stored within the hull1 and are of sufficient capacity to maintain the light for a round twelvemonth without attention1 as the flashing apparatus is incorporated4 ,the ,aga light has come to be regarded as one of the greatest developments in lighthouse engineering1 and has been adopted extensively throughout the world in connection with either floating or fixed aids to navigation4 ,the ,united ,states have decided to adopt the system exclusively henceforth1 until a further progressive step is achieved1 and several floating lights of this type have been acquired already to guard wild and lonely stretches of the coastline4 ,here and there attempts have been made to apply electricity to inaccessible lights4 ,the most interesting endeavour in this direction was in connection with the lighting of the ,gedney ,channel from the open ,atlantic to ,new ,york harbour4 ,this formerly constituted the only available highway for the big liners1 and it is exceedingly tortuous and treacherous--so much so that vessels arriving off ,sandy ,hook in waning daylight invariably anchored and awaited the dawn before resuming the journey4 ,the great difficulty in connection with ,gedney's ,channel was the distance of the main lights on shore1 the direct range at one part being over thirteen miles4 ,consequently the land lights were of little utility to the pilot4 ,the authorities decided to convert the channel into an electric-lighted waterway4 ,buoys were laid down on either side of the thoroughfare4 ,they were of the spar type1 resembling decapitated masts projecting from the water1 and were held in position by mushroom anchors1 weighing #d1jjj pounds1 or nearly #b tons1 apiece4 ,each buoy was crowned with a #ajj candle-power incandescent electric lamp1 encased within a special globe having a diameter of #e inches4 ,an electric cable was laid on either side of this street and connected with each buoy4 ,the first section was completed in #ahhh1 the electric gleams being shed for the first time on ,november #g of that year4 ,the system appeared to give such complete satisfaction that it was extended4 ,altogether six and a quarter miles of cable were laid down1 which in itself was no easy feat1 while prodigious difficulties were experienced in its maintenance1 owing to the severity of the currents and the treacherous character of the sea-bed4 ,the lights were controlled from a central point ashore1 and the idea of being able to switch on and off a chain of aids to navigation by a simple movement presented many attractive features4 ,although navigation appreciated this improvement1 the ,great ,white ,waterway did not prove a complete success4 ,it did not possess that vital element of complete reliability which is so essential to navigation4 ,compressed oil-gas has been employed extensively for unattended floating lights1 but it possesses so many shortcomings that it is being superseded on all sides by acetylene1 with the exception of one or two countries which appear to be inseparably wedded to this principle4 ,it is expensive both to install and to maintain1 while the 8radius of action0--otherwise1 the period during which it may be left without human attention--is unavoidably brief4 ,for temporary purposes1 such as the indication of a submerged wreck1 it is efficient1 while it is also serviceable for accessible positions1 but it is not regarded as being a satisfactory system for places which human hands cannot reach for months at a time4 ,crude petroleum in conjunction with the ,wigham long-burning petroleum lamp1 wherein the flame is produced from a moving wick1 has been adopted widely4 ,lights installed upon this principle may be left for ninety-three days at a time without anxiety4 ,in many instances the ,wigham light is mounted upon steel boats2 in other cases it is attached to floating wooden structures4 ,the ,british ,admiralty in particular is partial to this type of light1 and it must be confessed that it has proved highly serviceable and reliable4 ,i have described already the general principles and features of this system4 ,when it is applied to a floating beacon1 and it is desired to save the oil dropping from the drip valve1 a tank is fixed to the deck of the floating structure1 and connected by a flexible pipe to the coupling at the bottom of the float cylinder4 ,a universal joint is attached to the connection on the top of the tank to prevent the pipe being twisted by the swinging and swaying motion of the lamp on the gimbals4 ,when the lamp is inspected1 the oil may be pumped out of the tank1 strained1 and used time after time in the float cylinder4 ,one of the most interesting of this type of floating boat-lights is to be seen in ,queenstown harbour4 ,the hull is #cj feet in length1 and has a beam of #aa feet4 ,on this1 within a conical structure measuring #g feet high and #f feet in diameter at the deck1 is mounted the lantern4 ,although the lamp is exposed to drenching seas and heavy storms1 it has never yet failed1 a fact which conclusively points to its efficiency4 ,it rides well1 and the lamp is kept much drier than the lights on ordinary buoys1 according to the observations of the engineer responsible for its maintenance4 ,in this case the focus of the light is brought #ab feet above the level of the sea4 ,probably the most compelling illustration of the utility of the automatic beacon is offered by the unattended lightship4 ,the ,otter ,rock vessel is one of the most interesting examples of this development4 ,it was designed by ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson1 and comprises a substantial steel hull1 the deck of which is covered so that the interior is absolutely water-tight4 ,the craft is provided with a central and heavy bilge keels1 so as to reduce rolling to the minimum4 ,two heavy steel bulkheads divide the craft into three water-tight compartments1 in the centre of which two large welded-steel gas tanks are stowed4 ,these are of sufficient capacity to feed the light for several months without replenishment4 ,the light is mounted upon a steel tower placed amidships1 which brings the focal plane #be feet above the water4 ,the gas is fed from the tanks to the lantern through the tower1 a valve reducing the pressure1 while a ladder enables the attendants to climb to the lantern gallery to adjust the burner and flame1 and to clean the lenses1 upon the occasion of their periodical visits4 ,the gas cylinders are charged from the supply-ship through flexible hoses1 the gas being compressed to about #ahj pounds per square inch4 ,the light is of sufficient power and elevation to be seen from a distance of some twelve miles4 ,the beacon gives not only a visual1 but also an audible warning4 ,on the deck of the boat a bell is mounted1 this being rung not only by the motion of the ship1 in the manner of a bell-buoy1 but also by the gas on its passage from the tanks to the lantern1 the bell being fitted with two clappers for this purpose4 ,the gas in passing from the tank enters a receptacle having a flexible diaphragm1 which1 as it becomes filled with gas1 is naturally pressed outwards4 ,on this is mounted a central metal piece1 which is connected to a rod and lever4 ,as the diaphragm is forced outwards1 it moves the rod and actuates the lever1 which1 when the diaphragm falls1 return to their normal positions4 ,attached to this mechanical arrangement is the bell-clapper1 which alternately is lifted and dropped upon the dome of the bell1 thereby causing it to ring4 ,after the gas has performed its duty in raising the clapper lever and rod1 it passes to the lantern to be consumed4 ,thus1 while the light gleams brightly and steadily1 the bell rings with unerring regularity--about three times per minute--day and night for months on a single charge2 both must continue in operation until the supply of gas is expended4 ,the success of this interesting and novel lightship has been responsible for similar installations in other similarly wild and exposed positions where approach is uncertain and often impossible for weeks at a time4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,messrs4 ,edmondsons ,ltd41 ,dublin4 ,,the ,,lantern ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,wigham ,,automatic ,,petroleum ,,beacon4 ,the circular shallow reservoir contains the burning-oil1 which feeds the wick as it moves towards the burner1 and also acts as a deck on which the lantern is built4 ,in this ingenious system the flame is not produced at the end of the wick as in the ordinary lamp1 but from the flat side of the wick1 which is moved continuously in a horizontal direction over a small roller4 ,by this means a light of uniform intensity is obtained1 as carbonization cannot occur4 ,one misadventure befell the ,otter ,rock light-vessel1 which is moored in an open position over the rock of that name near ,islay1 although it was not the fault of either the system or the designing engineers4 ,there was a flaw in one of the shackles1 and while the ship was sawing and tugging at her anchors during a heavy gale the flaw asserted itself1 the shackle broke1 and the lightship got away4 ,she was recovered with some difficulty1 after having drifted about twenty miles4 ,she was found stove in1 having embraced the rocks during her wayward journey1 but otherwise was unharmed4 ,she was towed into port1 repaired1 and then taken back to her station1 where she was secured more firmly than ever1 while her chains were closely inspected to make assurance doubly sure4 ,no repetition of the accident has occurred since1 and the ,otter ,rock lightship1 tethered firmly to the rock1 rides gales and calms1 throwing her welcome rays and droning her musical warning the whole year round as steadily and efficiently as if she had a crew aboard4 ,a similar lightship was built for the ,trinity ,house authorities from the designs of their engineer1 ,sir ,thomas ,matthews1 for service on the ,english coast4 ,this boat1 built of steel1 measures #fe feet in length1 by #ah feet beam and #aj feet depth1 with the lantern carried at the point of an open steel pyramidal structure1 rising sufficiently high above the boat's deck amidships to bring the focal plane #bf feet above the level of the water1 thereby giving it a visible range of some ten miles4 ,the boat is provided with two holds1 in which the gas reservoirs are placed1 the total gas capacity being about #a1ejj cubic feet--enough to keep the light burning for one hundred days4 ,this light is of the revolving type1 and the rotation of the apparatus is accomplished very ingeniously4 ,before the gas passes to the burner1 it drives a tiny three-cylinder engine1 the crank-shaft of which is connected to the revolving apparatus through gearing4 ,the speed of the turntable is kept constant by the aid of a governor1 and the apparatus works so smoothly and perfectly that there is not the slightest divergence from the rate at which the apparatus is set4 ,as the gas emerges from the engine1 it passes to the burner to be consumed4 ,by means of a novel apparatus1 should anything befall the little motor or the rotating mechanism1 the light does not drop out of service4 ,in that event the gas flows directly to the burner1 the only difference being that a fixed instead of a revolving light is emitted4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,messrs4 ,edmondsons ,ltd41 ,dublin4 ,,the 8#f-;,,bar0 ,,floating ,,automatic ,,wigham ,,light ,,in ,,portsmouth ,,harbour4 ,this beacon1 burning crude petroleum1 burns for thirty days on a single oil charge4 ,when the ,scandinavian liner ,norge1 while on her way to the ,united ,states in ,july1 #aijd1 fouled the terrible ,rockall and lost #gej of her passengers1 the outcry about the absence of all means of indicating this spot to the navigator vibrated round the world4 ,yet it was a useless agitation4 ,rockall is a no-man's land2 no nation has planted its flag upon its cone of granite2 no ,power cares whether it continues its harvest of human lives or otherwise4 ,the various countries appear to think that it is too much off the map to be worthy of a moment's thought2 its existence is brought home only by a holocaust4 ,after this heartrending disaster1 ,messrs4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,stevenson adumbrated a promising means of indicating this awful graveyard to the seafarer4 ,they suggested that two automatic unattended lightships should be constructed1 and that one should relieve the other every six months4 ,the project was eminently practicable1 but every country seemed to shirk responsibility in the expense of its adoption4 ,but ,rockall is a unique danger spot2 in no other part of the known world does such a formidable isolated peak of granite rise from the ocean depths1 for it is in mid-,atlantic1 #afj miles west of ,st4 ,kilda1 and #bij miles off the ,scottish mainland4 ,it may be away from the great steamship lanes of the ,atlantic1 yet a vast volume of shipping passes within sight of its curious formation4 ,seeing that the foremost maritime ,powers defray between them the cost of maintaining the light off ,cape ,spartel1 surely the dictates of humanity are sufficiently pressing to secure the indication of this islet4 ,the maintenance of an unattended automatic beacon1 such as ,messrs4 ,stevenson advocated1 would not impose a severe strain upon the treasuries of the leading ,powers of the world1 whose interests are associated intimately with the ,north ,atlantic4 ,the perfection of the unattended lightship1 working automatically1 has provided the lighthouse engineer with a powerful weapon for marking the most exposed and out-of-the-way danger spots4 ,when the new development is carried to its uttermost lengths1 no graveyard of the ocean1 no matter how remote and inaccessible1 need be without means of warning shipping of its whereabouts4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,light-,,keeper ,,and ,,his ,,life ,the life of the guardian of a blazing signpost of the coast is much the same the whole world over4 ,it is unavoidably monotonous under the best conditions4 ,each succeeding day and night brings a similar round of toil1 with very little variation4 ,there are the same duties to be performed in strict accordance with routine1 and under normal circumstances there are many idle hours which have to be whiled away as best one can4 ,on the mainland1 especially in the ,south of ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states1 the loneliness and monotony are not felt so keenly by the wardens of the light1 as in many instances they are in close proximity to ports and towns1 where a little welcome relaxation may be obtained during the rest spells2 while in the summer evenings1 if the lights should be only a few miles away from civilization1 visitors are frequent4 ,again1 the keepers as a rule live with their families in cosy solid buildings1 and1 having a stretch of garden flanking their homes1 can expend their hours of leisure to advantage4 ,on the isolated1 lonely rock1 however1 the conditions are vastly different4 ,the average person1 when regarding on a calm day the tall slim outlines of a tower rising from the water1 is apt to regard the life of those responsible for keeping the light going as one enveloped in romance and peace1 far removed from the trials and worries of the maelstrom of civilization4 ,but twenty-four hours on one of these beacons completely dispel all romantic impression4 ,the gilt of fascination wears away quickly1 and the visitor recognizes only too forcibly the terrible desolation of it all1 and admires the little band of men who watch vigilantly over the deep for the guidance of those who go down to the sea in ships4 ,the keepers of such stations are marooned as completely as any castaway on a barren island4 ,in many instances they cannot even signal to the shore4 ,if anything should go wrong1 they must wait until a ship comes in sight1 to communicate their tidings by flag signals4 ,if the call is urgent1 say for illness1 and the passing boat carries a doctor1 she will heave to1 and1 if conditions permit1 will launch a boat to carry the medical man to the rock to administer aid4 ,if it is a matter of life or death1 the ship will take the man off4 ,as may be imagined1 upon a sea-rock1 owing to the slender proportions of the tower1 the quarters are inevitably very cramped1 with no facilities for the men to stretch their limbs4 ,the manner in which space is economized in the small circular apartments is astonishing4 ,the essential furniture is built to the wall1 and liberal cupboard space is provided1 the governing consideration being to provide the men with as much open space as the restricted circumstances will permit4 ,the only exercise that the men can obtain in the open air is upon the narrow shelf forming the landing platform1 or the narrow gallery around the lantern4 ,in the majority of circumstances it is less than that provided for the benefit of a prisoner in an exercise yard4 ,the lamp is lighted at dusk1 and1 unless it is a fixed white light1 the clockwork driving the occulting and revolving mechanism has to be wound up4 ,seeing that this entails the lifting of a ton or so up the vertical cylinder in which the weight travels1 this is no mean task in itself4 ,unremitting vigilance has to be maintained while the lamp is burning4 ,it demands attention from time to time1 while1 should anything serious go wrong1 the attendant must bring the reserve lamp into service without a moment's loss of time and without interruption of the ray4 8,the light must not go out60 ,that is the inflexible rule of all attended lights between the two ,poles4 ,even if it failed only for a minute1 the circumstance would not escape observation4 ,some vessel would detect the breakdown2 it would be recorded in the captain's log-book4 ,when he touched the first port1 intimation would be sent to the organization responsible for the beacon1 setting forth the fact that on such and such a night1 at a certain hour1 this light was not showing in accordance with the official light list1 or was giving a warning different from that laid down for the guidance of the seafarer4 ,an inquiry would be instituted immediately to ascertain the reason1 and the light-keeper probably would find himself in an awkward position1 although months might have elapsed since the incident4 ,there is nothing haphazard about the control of lights4 ,the circumstances are too serious to permit the slightest deviation from hard-and-fast regulations4 ,the passing mariner is entirely dependent upon these blazing guardians1 maybe from a distance of fifteen miles or more4 ,he has his chart wherewith he is able to steer his way1 but he must have certain marks to guide him at night1 so that he may be sure of his course and position4 ,accordingly1 every lighthouse possesses some individual characteristic in regard to its light4 ,as explained elsewhere1 it may be a group flash1 an occulting flash of a distinctive nature1 a revolving light which completes a revolution once in a certain period of time1 or a fixed blaze4 ,fortunately1 the men watching over the lights appreciate the gravity of their responsibility1 and are reliable to an heroic degree4 ,each is a man picked for the duty1 who is not appalled by loneliness1 and is of unimpeachable precision4 ,of course1 accidents will happen1 but dereliction of duty is criminal1 because it may bring about loss of life4 ,carelessness on the part of a light-keeper precipitated the loss of the steamer ,victoria when crossing the ,english ,channel from ,newhaven to ,dieppe on ,april #ab1 #ahhg4 ,the ,french coast1 as it was being approached1 became shrouded by the inexorable fog-fiend4 ,the captain lost his way1 although he knew1 from the time he had been steaming1 that he must be perilously near the ,french shore4 ,he listened for the droning of the fog-siren mounted on ,pointe d',ailly1 but in vain4 ,he sent to the engine-room to ascertain the number of revolutions the engines had made1 and this convinced him that he must be close inshore1 despite the silence of the fog-signal4 ,thinking that he might have strayed some distance east of ,dieppe1 he brought his vessel round1 and then crawled slowly ahead4 ,but he had scarcely settled into his forward stride when there was a crash--a terrible splitting and crunching4 ,the vessel had kept a true course1 and now had hit the very rocks which the captain had sought to avoid4 ,the passengers1 being ready to land1 were got into the boats and pushed through the dense curtain for land1 but some thirty passengers and crew were never seen again4 ,the subsequent inquiry revealed an amazing breach of duty on the part of those in charge of the light-station4 ,the head lighthouse-keeper1 off duty at the time1 was asleep in bed1 but his wife awoke him as she observed the fog settling upon the water4 ,he dressed hurriedly1 and rushed to see what his companion was doing4 ,this official had failed lamentably in his duties4 ,instead of starting the boiler fires to raise the steam to work the siren upon the first signs of the approaching enemy1 as he should have done1 he had delayed the duty4 ,the result was that an hour was wasted1 and during this interval the unfortunate captain took his ship upon the rocks4 ,to make matters worse1 the keepers did not perceive the wreck until some two hours after the disaster1 although they admitted that they heard the cries of people an hour and a half previously1 but never suspected the cause of the turmoil4 ,the man on watch during the night maintains a keen lookout4 ,the faintest signs of a gathering mist are sufficient to cause him to wake his assistant to manipulate the fog-signal1 even if the precaution proves to be unnecessary4 8,it is better to be safe than sorry10 is the lighthouse-keeper's motto2 so he runs no risks4 ,when the gathering brightness of the dawn enables the form of the tower to be identified from a distance of several miles1 the light is extinguished4 ,heavy curtains are drawn across the windows1 not only to protect the lenses from the sun1 but also to give a characteristic colour to the lantern4 ,thus1 by daylight a lantern may appear to be a dull red or an intense black4 ,to give a brilliant light by night and be a prominent landmark by day forms the dual duty of the guardian of the coast4 ,when the lantern has cooled1 the keepers coming on the day shift have to clean the lamps and put them in order for service the following evening4 ,everything has to be overhauled and got ready for use at a moment's notice4 ,the oil reservoirs have to be examined and charged1 and the panes of glass1 with which the lantern is glazed1 cleaned and brightened4 ,the reflectors have to be polished1 for they must be kept in a constant state of mirror-like brilliancy4 ,all brasswork has to be cleaned and polished until it gleams like burnished gold1 while the rooms must be washed and kept in the pink of condition1 free from the smallest specks of dust4 ,the necessity for extreme cleanliness and spotlessness is emphasized in every lighthouse4 ,the inspector has a highly-trained1 quick eye for detecting carelessness1 and he has one instinct developed peculiarly--the discovery of dust4 ,he draws his fingers over everything1 and squints quizzically at an object from all angles4 ,woe betide the keeper if the slightest trace of dirt is detected4 ,then the inspector closes the other eye1 and the keeper receives a squint which does not augur well for his future4 ,a few sharp1 pointed remarks are rasped out1 and it is not long before the relief-boat comes out with another man4 ,the engineers and other representatives of authority are remorseless4 ,a man is judged from apparently trifling details4 ,if he permits a door-knob to become sullied1 he is just as likely to overlook the polishing of the lenses1 or to perform some other vital task in a perfunctory manner4 ,one of the ,stevensons achieved a peculiar notoriety among the ,scottish keepers for his unbending attitude in this connection4 ,he had a scent for dust and untidiness developed as keenly as that of a mouse for cheese4 ,when his boat came alongside a light1 and the keeper stepped forward to extend a helping hand1 the eyes of the engineer scanned him searchingly4 ,if the man's appearance were not immaculate1 trouble loomed ahead4 ,this engineer maintained that if a man were indifferent to his own appearance1 and permitted dust to collect upon his own clothes1 he could not be trusted to maintain the delicate apparatus of a lighthouse in apple-pie order6 ,what was more to the point1 the engineer generally was correct in his deductions4 ,he spared no effort to place the most responsible lights in the hands of men above suspicion in regard to cleanliness4 ,although1 as this martinet confessed1 nothing pained him more than to have words with any of his keepers1 cleanliness had to be maintained4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the 8,syren and ,shipping40 ,,the ,,pumps ,,whereby ,,the ,,oil ,,is ,,lifted ,,from ,,the ,,lowest ,,floor ,,to ,,the ,,lantern-,,room4 ,when the keeper has completed his routine duties1 he is at liberty to spend his leisure according to his inclinations4 ,as a rule the men turn these periods to advantage4 ,reading is a popular recreation1 and the authorities maintain a circulating library1 the books being changed with every relief4 ,but the men could accept twice as much literature as is available at present4 ,here a word should be said concerning the ,lighthouse ,literature ,mission and its work1 which is international4 ,the idea was conceived by ,mr4 ,samuel ,h4 ,strain1 and the work is conducted from ,belfast1 ,ireland4 ,the most conspicuous feature of this organization is that every penny received is turned to good and useful purpose in connection with the object4 ,the founder conducts it without monetary reward1 so that the item of 8operating0 charges does not swamp the greater proportion of receipts1 as is the case with so many so-called missions in other fields4 ,there are few organizations which are so deserving of financial support1 because this mission brings welcome relaxation to a hard-worked community whose vigil secures the safety of those who travel on the sea4 ,the labours of ,mr4 ,strain are highly appreciated by those who keep watch and ward in seagirt prisons1 and the mission deserves far stauncher support from the philanthropic than it receives at present4 ,sympathizers with the loneliness of the lighthouse-keeper are prone to think that these men are in dire need of spiritual pabulum1 and are apt to send literature of an emphatic goody-goody nature4 ,but the keeper of the light is as human as the clerk in the city4 ,he is so accustomed to the company of ,nature1 and has cultivated such a deep respect for the ,master of the ,universe during his spells of duty1 that he welcomes a diversion therefrom in his hours of leisure4 ,a humorous paper is more welcome than a tract on the evils of drink4 ,when the weather is favourable the men seek a little relaxation in fishing1 but here again they have to suffer considerable denial1 as the tackle invariably becomes inextricably entangled with the rocks1 so that the losses exceed the prizes4 ,in the ,united ,states the greater number of the keepers maintain a garden well stocked with vegetables and flowers4 ,the tending of these charges carries the minds of the men from their work completely1 and for the opportunity to practise this hobby they are indebted to the kindness of the ,government1 which supplies seeds free of charge4 ,it is when the gale is raging tumultuously that the men in the tower are compelled to realize their position4 ,the waves pound the rock and building so ceaselessly and relentlessly that the latter trembles and shakes like a leaf4 ,at times the din is so deafening that the men cannot converse2 they are compelled to communicate with each other by signs4 ,the waves pick up stones and hurl them with terrific force against the lantern4 ,occasionally the elements triumph in their assault1 and the missiles shatter the glass4 ,to step out on the gallery in the teeth of a blizzard to clear the snow away demands no little courage4 ,as the man emerges upon the narrow platform1 he is engulfed in the swirling flakes1 and often is pinned against the masonry so tightly by the wind that he cannot move a limb2 at other times he is swept almost off his feet4 ,while engaged in his freezing task1 he also runs the risk of being drenched by a rising comber4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the 8,syren and ,shipping40 ,,combined ,,kitchen ,,and ,,living-,,room ,,in ,,the ,,lighthouse4 ,the men on the lonely1 exposed ,tillamook ,rock1 off the ,oregon coast1 have had more than one occasion to respect the storm-fiend4 ,one night1 while a fearful gale was raging1 a huge mass of rock was torn away from the islet1 snatched by the waves1 and thrown high into the air4 ,it fell with terrific force upon the dome of the lantern1 splintering the roof and smashing the light1 so that no welcome rays could be thrown from the tower again that night4 ,the keepers at once set to work with the fog-signal1 and during the hours of darkness worked like slaves1 blaring out a warning by sound which they were unable to give visually4 ,fortunately1 such an experience as befell the keepers of the ,american ,thimble ,shoal light is very rare4 ,this beacon marks the shoal of that name1 and is1 or rather was1 a screw-pile iron lighthouse1 marking #aa feet of water at the entrance to ,chesapeake ,bay1 ,virginia1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,on ,december #bg1 #aiji1 the keepers were immersed in their tasks1 when there was a terrible crash followed by a dismal rending and splitting4 ,the building shivered from top to bottom4 ,the keepers were thrown off their feet1 and when they regained their wits they found that the schooner ,malcolm ,baxter ,junior1 while being towed by a tug1 had blundered into them1 and had carried a considerable portion of the building away4 ,the impact upset the light2 the scattered oil burst into flame1 and within a few minutes the lighthouse was blazing like a gigantic bonfire4 ,the keepers stuck to their posts1 and endeavoured frantically to extinguish the outbreak1 but their efforts were too puny to make any impression4 ,at last1 when a foothold was no longer possible with safety1 and under extreme pressure1 they abandoned their charge4 ,when the flames had completed their destructive work the lighthouse presented a sorry sight1 being a mass of broken and twisted ironwork4 ,a wooden tower was erected with all despatch1 and a fog-signal was installed1 so that the men could carry on their duties while the reconstruction of the station was hurried forward4 ,the keepers turn their hands to strange occupations4 ,fretwork1 wood-carving1 poker-work1 and similar hobbies1 are practised freely4 ,a few devote their leisure to intellectual improvement to fit them for other walks in life4 ,the keeper of ,windward ,point1 ,guantanamo ,bay1 ,cuba1 devoted his energies to studying1 and obtaining diplomas in1 mechano-therapy and suggestive therapeutics1 as well as becoming proficient in ,esperanto4 ,the keepers of two other ,american lights set themselves to the mastery of jurisprudence1 and in due course resigned their positions and rented offices in the city1 where in the course of a few years they built up very remunerative legal practices4 ,as a rule the lighthouse-keeper is an expert handy-man1 as he is compelled to complete a whole list of duties in addition to maintaining the lights4 ,in the summer the metal and wooden lights have to be given a coat of paint1 while plumbing and other displays of skill in metal have to be carried out1 even if only temporarily4 ,the calling is exceedingly healthy1 which accounts for the immunity from illness which these men enjoy4 ,also1 as a rule1 the land-lights are set amidst wild romantic surroundings4 ,some years ago a number of ,american families1 in the search for a quiet1 health-restoring rest1 were in the habit of spending their vacations at lighthouses1 to the financial profit of the keepers4 ,eventually1 however1 the authorities1 fearing that the keeper might be distracted from his duties1 issued a summary order forbidding this practice1 much to the disgust of the men1 and 8attractive lighthouse apartments0 became a thing of the past4 ,in ,great ,britain an order was issued that 8no ale or other intoxicating liquor be allowed to be sold in any lighthouse40 ,the precise reason for this strange ordinance is not quite clear1 but it is significant to note that it came into force immediately after the disastrous fire at the ,leasowe lighthouse1 on the ,wirral shore4 ,the lighthouse invariably is an object of attraction among the general public1 but this interest seldom goes to the length narrated by a keeper of one of the ,west ,indian lights4 ,one night two of the men at this particular station decided to hunt for red crabs on the beach below4 ,they started off with a hurricane lamp1 but were astonished1 when they gained the foreshore1 to see a large sloop hard and fast on the reef1 although the night was beautifully clear and the light was burning brilliantly4 ,with much effort the keepers got out their dory1 put off to the wreck1 and endeavoured to get the sloop out of her uncomfortable position1 but1 finding her too well fixed1 took off the passengers4 ,the survivors were housed in the keepers' quarters until next morning1 when they were succoured4 ,the head-keeper asked the captain how he managed to get into such a position1 and to his surprise learned that1 as the passengers were anxious to obtain a clear close view of the light1 the master had stood inshore1 not knowing that the reef over which vigil was mounted ran out far into the water4 ,that navigator paid dearly for his attempt to satisfy curiosity4 ,his sloop broke up1 since she was impaled too firmly to be salvaged4 ,it is not often that the utter loneliness and monotony of the daily round unhinges a keeper's mind1 but this awful fate overtook the warden of a somewhat isolated ,american light4 ,the man had served with ,admiral ,dewey off ,manila1 and upon his return home the ,government placed him in charge of a station as an occupation for the evening of his life1 and as a recompense for faithful service4 ,he settled down with his wife and family1 but the isolation soon began to affect his brain4 ,for days he would absent himself from the light1 which would soon have failed had it not been for the unswerving devotion of his wife and the assistance of one of two friends living in the locality4 ,they spared no effort to keep the beacon burning1 lest the authorities might hear about the keeper's strange behaviour1 and deprive him of his charge1 and1 incidentally1 of his livelihood4 ,in due course the incident did reach the authorities1 and1 not knowing what was the matter with the man1 they took action accordingly4 ,as the keeper entered the station after one of his inexplicable expeditions of a fortnight's duration1 he was arrested for desertion4 ,he was examined promptly by two doctors1 who found him hopelessly insane1 and was incarcerated in an asylum1 where in the course of a few days he became a raving lunatic4 ,often the keepers1 although only condemned to imprisonment for a certain period at a time1 have to tolerate a longer stay1 owing to the relief-boat being unable to approach them4 ,in some instances the delay may run into five weeks or more4 ,during the winter the relief of the ,eddystone1 ,longships1 ,wolf1 ,fastnet1 ,skerryvore1 and ,dhu-,heartach lights is always a matter of extreme uncertainty4 ,although the men have to provide themselves with supplies1 a reserve is maintained at the station by the authorities for such emergencies4 ,even some of the land stations are not approachable readily4 ,there is the ,punta ,gorda light-station on the ,californian coast1 the situation of which is wild and forbidding4 ,there is a landing about eight miles above the station1 but it is extremely precarious4 ,still1 unless a certain element of risk is accepted in coming ashore here1 it is necessary to face a tramp or stage journey of nearly fifty miles across country in order to gain the lighthouse4 ,the lighthouses in the ,red ,sea are1 perhaps1 among the most unenviable and trying in the world4 ,this stretch of water1 lying between two blistered coasts of sand1 is no more or less than an oven1 where even the strongest constitution finds it difficult to hold out for long4 ,moreover1 the absence of civilization1 owing to the extreme aridity of the country1 renders the life exceptionally depressing4 ,in the summer the heat is wellnigh intolerable4 ,the thermometer hovers between #ie and #aaj ,f4 in the shade throughout the twenty-four hours1 so that night brings no relief to the oppressiveness4 ,at some of the stations the men seek a little diversion1 and incidentally add occasionally to their pocket-money1 by shark-catching1 which is a tolerably profitable pursuit1 since these waters are thickly infested with this fish4 ,the jawbone and backbone invariably find ready purchasers1 the former being mounted as a curiosity1 while the backbone forms a novel and serviceable walking-stick4 ,one method of trapping these monsters which affords keen delight was related to me4 ,the requirements are an electric battery1 some rope1 a few feet of electric wire1 a cartridge1 and an empty box1 with a chunk or two of bad meat4 ,the cartridge is fitted with an electric primer1 the wire of which stretches to the battery4 ,this cartridge is buried in a hunk of meat1 the whole being dangled from a box--an empty cask is better--which serves as a float1 while a rope is stretched from the box to the shore1 with the electric wire spirally wound round it4 ,a short length of chain is preferable1 if available1 to attach the bait to the float1 but a short piece of rope will do4 ,this novel line is thrown into the water1 and the man keeps his eye on the float1 with one finger on the battery4 ,the hungry shark1 espying the tempting morsel1 makes a grab and swallows it1 but the chain prevents him tearing away with it4 ,the pull causes the float to disappear1 the man's finger presses the button1 and the trick is done4 ,there is an explosion1 and pieces of shark and showers of water fly into the air4 ,the incident is all over too quickly for the fish to marvel about the strange indigestibility of the tainted meat he grabbed so greedily4 ,the men enjoy this sport hugely when it can be followed1 as they regard the shark with intense detestation4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the 8,syren and ,shipping40 ,,keeper ,,cleaning ,,the ,,lamp ,,after ,,it ,,has ,,cooled ,,down4 ,despite the vigilance of the various ,powers1 slave-running is still a lucrative business on these forbidding coasts4 ,now and again a forced labourer gets away from his taskmaster1 and comes panting into the lighthouse territory4 ,this is sanctuary to the hapless wretch1 and although the keepers invariably receive a call from the runaway's master1 he meets with scant courtesy1 while his demand for the surrender of the fugitive is answered by a point-blank refusal4 ,the slave-driver may storm1 threaten1 and abuse1 to his heart's content1 and1 as he is generally a past-master in ,arabian invective1 the keepers have to listen to a pretty tune4 ,but the slave is kept in the lighthouse until the relief-tender makes its periodical call1 when he is taken back to ,suez and liberated4 ,fortunately1 owing to the extreme care that is manifested by the authorities1 mishaps at a lighthouse are few and far between4 ,the men are supplied with rules and regulations which are drawn up with an eye for every possible emergency4 ,yet accidents will happen1 due in the majority of instances to familiarity bred of contempt4 ,the majority of these calamities occur in connection with the explosive fog-signalling apparatus1 although every device is adopted to safeguard the men4 ,at one of the ,scottish stations a keeper was manipulating the fog-signal1 but1 flying in the face of instructions1 he caused the charge to explode prematurely4 ,the man escaped injury1 but the detonation shattered several panes of glass in the lantern4 ,one of the keepers of the ,rathlin light1 on ,altacarry ,head1 was not so fortunate4 ,the ,white ,star ,canadian liner ,megantic was rounding the corner of ,ireland to enter the last lap of the homeward journey one ,saturday evening1 when the captain's attention was arrested by a signal of distress flying from the lighthouse4 ,the interpretation of the signal revealed the fact that a doctor was wanted1 so1 easing up the ship1 he lowered a boat1 and the doctor was sent away to the island4 ,upon landing he found one of the men in dire straits4 ,he had been cleaning the fog-gun1 when a charge1 which had been left in the weapon inadvertently upon the last occasion it was used1 exploded4 ,the man's arm had been wrenched off1 and he was burned terribly4 ,it was a stroke of luck that the liner hove in sight at the moment she did4 ,there was no chance of extending succour to the injured man on the spot1 and he would have died before a doctor could have been summoned by boat from ,ballycastle1 nine miles away4 ,the surgeon bound up the man's injuries1 lowered him into his boat1 and1 on regaining the liner1 placed him in the hospital1 where he was tended until the vessel's arrival in ,liverpool1 where he was landed and placed in hospital4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of 8,syren and ,shipping40 ,a ,,lighthouse ,,bedroom4 ,owing to the limited space the furniture is reduced to the minimum1 the bunks being built against the wall4 ,more remarkable was the accident which happened at the ,flannen ,islands light-station in #aijj2 it remains an unsolved mystery to this day4 ,this is one of ,scotland's lonely lights1 mounting guard over a group of islets fifteen miles off the ,hebrides4 ,on ,december #bf the relief-tender approached the station on her usual fortnightly visit1 but1 to the amazement of those on board1 no signs of the keepers or the usual signals were to be seen1 while the lantern was not dressed in its daylight garb4 ,the crew landed hurriedly1 wondering what was amiss4 ,they found the lighthouse absolutely deserted2 not a sign of any of the three keepers was to be seen or heard4 ,they examined the log1 and found that the light had not been burning for some days1 the last entry being made about #d a4m4 nearly a week previously4 ,the rock was searched1 but yielded no clue to the mystery of the complete disappearance of the men4 ,the light had not been abandoned2 it had simply burned itself out4 ,it was a fortunate circumstance that very little shipping frequents these seas during the winter1 or there would have been one or two marine disasters1 as the islands are often wrapped in fog4 ,it is surmised that one of the men ventured outside on to a rocky ledge in the early hours of the morning4 ,according to the log1 a vicious storm was raging at the time1 and probably in the darkness the man was swept off his feet and carried into the sea4 ,the second keeper on duty1 marvelling at the non-return of his assistant1 evidently had roused his other companion1 and the two had instituted a search in the storm1 only in turn to be caught by a wave and carried away4 ,in ,great ,britain1 since #ahfj1 men only have been employed by the ,trinity ,house ,brethren for the maintenance of the lights1 but in the ,united ,states women still are engaged in this duty4 ,some of the ,british lights have been controlled by one family through two or three generations4 ,it was only a few years ago that a ,darling retired from the vigil on the ,longstones of ,farne ,islands1 the scene of ,grace ,darling's heroism1 while for a century and a half one family kept the ,south ,foreland light faithfully4 ,the ,casquets light off ,alderney1 in the ,channel ,islands1 was maintained by one family1 some of the children spending the whole of their lives on the rock1 son succeeding father at the post of duty4 ,on the ,american coast1 however1 women are more extensively employed4 ,seeing that many of the lights are burned in a low tower projecting from the dwelling-house1 this circumstance may be readily understood1 as the duties beyond the maintenance of the light are not exacting4 ,one of the most notable instances1 however1 is the ,point ,pino light at the entrance to ,monterey ,bay1 on the ,californian coast1 the guardianship of which has been in feminine hands for the past thirty years4 ,for something approaching half a century a woman maintained the ,michigan ,city harbour light on the ,great ,lake of that name4 ,indeed1 the associations were so deep-rooted and long that the beacon became popularly known as 8,miss ,colfax's light10 after the name of its keeper4 ,even when she attained the age of eighty years she was as active and attentive to her charge as on the day1 in #ahfa1 when she first assumed responsibility for its safe-keeping4 ,in those times there was a beacon established on the end of the wooden pier1 which railed off an area of the restless lake for the purposes of the inland port4 ,those were strenuous days4 ,her home was on shore1 and every night and morning she tramped the long arm of woodwork to light and extinguish the lamp4 ,lard-oil was used1 and during the winter the food for the lamp had to be heated to bring it into a fluid condition before she set out from home4 ,it was no easy matter struggling along on a blusterous1 gusty evening1 with a pail of hot oil in one hand and a lamp in the other1 over a narrow plank4 ,often1 when a gale was raging1 progress was so slow that by the time the beacon was reached the oil had cooled and congealed1 rendering it a difficult matter to induce the lamp to burn4 ,once set going1 however1 it was safe for the night1 as the heat radiated from the burner kept the lard melted4 ,in addition to this lamp1 there was another light in the tower projecting from the roof of her house1 which had to be maintained1 and this1 being the main light1 was the more important of the two4 ,in #ahhf the pier tower was taken out of her hands for ever4 ,a furious gale1 such as is peculiar to these inland seas1 and which cannot be rivalled on the ocean for fury1 was raging4 ,at dusk she started on her usual journey4 ,time after time she was wellnigh swept off her feet1 so that she staggered rather than walked1 for the spray and sand flecking her face nearly blinded her4 ,when she gained the tower she paused1 and observed that it was trembling violently4 ,undismayed1 she ascended1 lit the light1 and tramped back to the shore4 ,scarcely had she gained the mainland1 when1 glancing seawards1 she saw the light sway from side to side for a second or two1 and then make a dive into the water4 ,a few moments later a crash reverberated above the noise of the storm3 the decrepit pier had succumbed at last4 ,hers was a lucky escape1 but she hurried home1 and sat by the main light gleaming from her roof all that night1 apprehensive that some vessel might endeavour to make the harbour and come to grief4 ,when the pier was rebuilt1 a new beacon was placed on its extremity1 but its upkeep was taken over by the harbour authorities1 leaving only the shore light in the trusty woman's keeping1 the wicks of which for over forty years were trimmed and lit at dusk1 and extinguished with the dawn1 with her own hands4 ,during the migratory season of the birds extraordinary sights are witnessed around the light at night4 ,the brilliant glare attracts enormous flocks1 which flit to and fro4 ,as the monster flaming spoke swings round1 the birds1 evidently blinded by the glare1 dash with such fury against the glass panes of the lantern as to flutter to the floor of the gallery with broken necks and wings1 while large numbers1 dazed or killed1 fall into the water4 ,the birds are of all species1 and at times may be picked up by the basketful4 ,then the light-keepers are able to secure a welcome change in their dietary4 ,moths1 too1 often hover in clouds round the light1 and are of such variety that an hour on the gallery would bring infinite delight and rich harvests to the youthful entomologist who has to be content to hunt around electric lamps in quiet streets at night4 ,while the lamp is burning1 time cannot drag1 owing to the multitude of details which compel the keeper's constant attention4 ,the official log has to be kept posted with a host of facts1 such as temperature1 barometric readings1 weather conditions as they vary from hour to hour1 behaviour of the lamps1 etc42 while1 when the lighthouse is a marine signal-station as well1 passing ships have to be signalled and reported4 ,the spell of labour varies from four to five hours or more4 ,obviously1 the task is more exacting and arduous in the winter than in summer4 ,during the former season the lamps have to be lighted as early as #c4ae p4m41 and are not extinguished until eight o'clock the next morning4 ,in the summer1 on the other hand1 the lamps may be required for less than six hours or so4 ,in northern latitudes where the daylight is continuous owing to the midnight sun1 the light scarcely seems necessary4 ,yet it is kept burning during the scheduled hours of darkness4 ,thus1 night in and night out the whole year round1 a comparatively small band of faithful toilers keeps alert vigil over the dangers of the deep1 for the benefit of those who 8go down to the sea in ships1 and do their business in great waters40 ,the safety of thousands of human lives and of millions sterling of merchandise is vested in their keeping4 ,the resources of the shipbuilder1 the staunchness of the ship1 the skill and knowledge of the captain--all would count for nothing were it not for the persistent1 steady glare of the fixed1 the twinkling of the occulting1 or the rhythmic1 monotonous turning spokes of the revolving light1 thrown over the waste of waters from the lighthouse and the lightship4 ,,index ,aberbrothock1 ,abbot of1 #if ,acetylene3 as illuminant1 ,dalngas1 #di1 #bgd2 systems for floating lighthouses1 #bch1 #bgh1 #bhe-ie2 cost of lighting by1 #bhb2 dissolved1 ,french system of using1 #bia2 use in ,sweden1 #bia-id ,acetylene gun1 the1 #fh-ga ,admiralty1 the3 adoption of the siren1 #fj-fa2 use of the ,wigham light1 #bif ,adriatic shoreline1 #bjc 8,aga0 principle of lighting1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bia1 #bic2 adopted by the ,united ,states1 #bid-ie ,ailly1 ,pointe d'1 #cjc ,ailsa ,crag1 system of fog-signalling1 #fc-fe1 #ff ,alaska3 trade of1 #agc2 controlled by the ,lighthouse ,board1 #bjf2 unattended lighthouses1 #bgg2 coastline #bhd ,alderney coastline1 #ab-ac ,alexander1 ,lieutenant ,b4 ,s41 the ,minot's ledge-light1 #h1 #agi ,alexandria1 ,pharos of1 #b-c ,allerton ,point lighthouse1 #f ,altacarry ,head1 #cac ,ambrose ,channel1 #bea ,american ,thimble ,shoal lighthouse1 #cjh ,amour ,point light1 #afi ,anderson1 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,william ,p41 #agb1 #agd1 #bag ,anglo-,saxon1 ,allan liner1 wreck1 #afc-fd ,anticosti1 #aga ,antifer1 ,cap d'1 lighthouse1 #ci ,antipodes1 the1 #bci ,arbroath1 #ig ,arena ,point1 #bjd ,argand burner1 the1 #dg1 #ee1 #gi1 #bai ,argyll1 ,duke of1 #aae2 lays foundation-stone of ,skerryvore1 #aje ,ar-men light1 ,finisterre1 #bj-bd ,arthur1 ,port1 #bad1 #bag ,assyrian1 the1 wreck1 #afd ,astoria1 #ac1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aic ,auckland coastline1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bch harbour1 #bch ,islands1 #bci ,auer1 ,dr4 von1 the incandescent mantle1 #dg-dh ,australia3 lighthouses of1 #bbi-ci2 unattended lighthouses1 #bhc ,austria1 lighthouses1 #dh ,bache1 ,general ,hartmann1 #fc2 ,brandywine ,shoal light1 #bjj-bja 8,back lights10 #bj ,ballantyne1 ,a41 the ,tillamook ,rock lighthouse1 #ahe-ie ,ballycastle1 #cac ,baltic ,sea1 unattended lighthouses of the1 #bgd1 #bgh1 #bia ,bar lightship1 ,mersey1 #bdj ,barnard1 ,general1 the ,minot's ,ledge light1 #agh-hb ,barra ,head1 #aac ,barra ,island1 #aac ,barsier rock1 #bfi ,bauld ,cape light1 #afi 8,bay of the ,dead10 ,finisterre1 #ba1 #bb ,beachy ,head lighthouse1 #bd-bg1 #id ,belfast1 #cjf ,bell ,rock lighthouse1 #i2 lighting1 #ec2 fog-signals1 #ei2 the reef1 #if-ig ,bell-buoys1 #fh ,belle ,ile1 #ea2 the beacons1 #afi2 the ,northern light1 #agj-ga2 the ,southern light1 #afi2 the auxiliary light1 #afi-gj2 isolation of1 #aga ,belle ,ile1 ,straits of1 #afb1 #afc1 #afi ,bells3 on lighthouses1 #eh2 submarine1 #bdi-ej ,biscay1 ,bay of1 gales1 #c-d ,bishop ,rock lighthouse1 #ch1 #ea1 #ha-hg ,black ,prince1 the1 in ,gascony1 #d ,black ,sea1 lighthouses on the1 #ah-ai ,blau liquid gas1 #dh-di 8,blowing-holes10 #fb-fc ,bluff1 the1 #bcf ,bois ,blanc ,island1 #baa ,bordeaux1 trade of1 #c-d ,boston ,harbour3 lighting1 #f1 #cc-d1 #aif2 ,minot's ,ledge light1 #agf-hb ,bothnia1 ,gulf of1 unattended lighthouses1 #bfh1 #bgd ,bounty ,islands1 #bci ,bourdelles1 ,m41 investigations1 #ef1 #bai ,brandywine ,shoal light1 #bjj-bja ,brebner1 ,alexander1 #aag 8,breeches-buoy10 used at ,tillamook ,rock1 #ahg-hi ,brhat1 ,heaux de1 ,reynaud's tower1 #adi-ec ,brhat1 ,isle of1 #adi ,bremerhaven1 #acb1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada ,brett1 ,cape1 lighthouse1 #bch ,brewster1 ,sir ,david1 lighting methods1 #bi ,bridges and ,roads1 ,department of1 #adh ,bristol ,channel3 the ,flat ,holme light1 #g2 unattended lighthouses1 #bgh-gi ,british ,columbia coastline1 #bhd ,brittany coastline1 #adh ,brothers light1 the1 #bcd-ce ,bull ,rock lighthouse1 #ci ,bullivant cableways1 #be-bf ,bungaree ,norah4 ,see ,norah ,head ,buoys3 bell and whistle1 #fh2 gas-buoys1 #bdd2 the ,willson1 #bhf-hi2 combined light and whistling1 #bij ,bsun1 #bbf ,byron ,bay1 #bcb ,byron ,cape1 #bcb ,cabrillo ,point light1 #bje ,calf ,rock light1 #abc ,california coastline1 #bjd ,campbell1 ,general1 #bgj ,campbell ,island1 #bci ,canadian ,marine ,department1 #h2 systems of building1 #ah-ai2 fog-signalling apparatus1 #ff-fh2 lighting of the coastline1 #afa-ge2 lighting of the ,great ,lakes1 #bjh-ag2 floating lighthouses1 #bhf ,caribou ,island lighthouse1 #baf-ag ,carmel ,head1 #id ,carolina1 ,north1 #bdj ,carrington1 ,w4 ,h4 ,t41 #be ,casquets lighthouse3 the approach to1 #ab-ac2 keepers of the1 #cad ,castle ,point lighthouse1 #bch ,casuarina ,island1 #ee ,catoptric system of lighting1 #bh ,centre ,island lighthouse1 #bcg ,chance ,bros4 and ,co43 systems of lighting1 #cc1 #cf1 #db1 #ee1 #bef2 the hyperradiant method1 #ch-ci2 lenses1 #dj2 clockwork mechanism1 #dc-dd2 the incandescent mantle1 #dh2 works carried out by1 #ec1 #bbb ,channel ,islands coastline1 #bfi ,charles1 ,cape1 #bjj ,chatham ,island1 #bci ,chauffer1 the1 #d-f ,chesapeake ,bay lights1 #aii1 #bjj1 #cjh ,chicken ,rock light1 #i1 #id1 #bch ,china1 coast-lighting1 #beh-ei ,clear1 ,cape1 #aba ,coffin ,island1 #aga ,cohasset ,rocks1 #agg ,colchester ,reef lighthouse1 #baj1 #baf ,colfax3 8,miss ,colfax's light10 #cae-af ,collinson1 ,sir ,richard1 rocket system invented by1 #eh-ei 8,colossus10 the ,rothersand caisson1 #ach-i ,colton family1 the1 #agj ,columbia ,river1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe ,colza oil as illuminant1 #df1 #dg ,concrete1 reinforced1 use of1 #ah1 #agd ,cook's ,strait1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bcg ,cordouan1 rocks of1 #d ,cordouan1 ,tour de1 #d-e1 #cj ,cornish plunderers of the ,wolf ,rock1 #hh ,corunna lighthouse1 #c ,couedie1 ,cap de1 lighthouse1 #ee ,courtenay1 whistling device1 #bij ,creach1 electric light at1 #aef ,daboll1 ,c4 ,l41 invention of the trumpet fog-signal1 #ei1 #fj ,daln1 ,gustaf3 the sun-valve1 #di2 system of lighting1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bia2 unattended lights1 #bfi2 honour for1 #bia note2 experiments1 #bib-ic ,danger ,point1 #bcj ,darling1 ,grace1 #ie1 #cad ,daudet1 ,alphonse1 8,phares de ,sanguinaires10 #ic ,delaware ,bay1 #adc1 #aii1 #bjj ,denmark1 coastline1 lighting1 #dh ,detroit ,river1 ,lower1 #bjh 8,deviline0 toy whistle1 #fa ,dewey1 ,admiral1 #caj ,dhu-,heartach lighthouse1 #i1 #ajg1 #aac-bj1 #caa ,diamond ,shoal1 dangers of1 #bje-f2 the lightship1 #bea-ec 8,diaphone10 the1 #fg1 #fh1 #afe ,dieppe1 #cjc-cjd ,differential arc1 use of1 #bbg-bh ,dioptric system of lighting1 #cg1 #bbj ,disappointment ,cape lighthouse1 #ahf ,distances1 table of1 #eb 8,divergence10 #ci ,dog ,island lighthouse1 #bcg ,doty burner1 the1 #bch 8,double-shell0 principle of construction1 #bjj ,douglass1 ,sir ,james3 design for the new ,eddystone1 #gh-hj2 preservation of the ,bishop ,rock1 #hf-hg2 system of lighting1 #bbc ,douglass1 ,william1 and the ,fastnet1 #abc ,dover ,harbour lightship1 #bde ,dover1 the pharos at1 #c ,doyle ,fort1 #bga-gd ,drummond ,castle1 wreck1 #adh ,dues1 lighthouse1 #d1 #g1 #bci ,duluth1 #bad ,duncansby ,head1 #ajh ,dunedin1 ,n4,z41 #bcf ,dungeness light1 #id ,dunkirk1 #bdi ,earraid1 #aae1 #aaf ,east ,cape1 ,n4,z41 #bcf ,east ,indies ,archipelago1 #beg ,eddystone lighthouse3 lighting of1 #ch1 #da1 #ee2 fog-signals1 #ei2 description1 #gb1 #hb2 the ,winstanley construction1 #gc-d2 ,john ,rudyerd's lighthouse1 #gd1 #ge1 #id2 ,smeaton's work1 #ge1 #gh1 #hj2 the ,douglass tower1 #gh-hj2 keepers of1 #caa 8,eddystones10 #gb ,edinburgh1 ,duke of1 #gi ,egmont1 ,cape1 #bcc ,electricity3 as luminant1 #ej-ea1 #adh1 #bah1 #bie-if2 used in operation of derrick1 #aei ,eider lightship1 #bdi ,erie1 ,lake1 #bjh1 #baf ,estevan ,point light1 #agd ,fair ,isle lighthouse1 #ci 8,family of ,engineers 7,a710 #h-i ,faraday1 ,professor1 #bah ,farallon ,beacon1 #bje ,farallon ,isles1 fog-signalling on1 #fc ,farne ,islands1 #ie1 #cad ,faro1 the1 #c ,fastnet lighthouse1 #aba-ca2 lighting1 #da2 keepers1 #caa ,ferro-concrete1 use in construction1 #ah-ai ,feu-clair1 the1 #ef ,finisterre1 ,cape1 #c2 the ,ar-men light1 #bj-bd ,fire ,island lighthouse1 #bej ,fire ,island lightship1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bej ,fisher's ,island ,sound1 #bjc ,flamborough ,head light1 #ie ,flannen ,islands lighthouse1 #i1 #aac2 disappearance of keepers1 #cac-ad ,flat ,holme light1 the1 #g ,florida coastline1 #bja 8,focal point10 #ci ,fog-signals3 discharge of guns1 #eg-eh2 rockets1 #eh-ei2 explosion of gun-cotton1 #ei2 the ,daboll trumpet1 #ei-fj2 the siren1 #fj-fb2 blowing-holes1 #fb-fc2 installation on ,ailsa ,crag1 #fc-ff2 diaphone on ,ailsa ,crag1 #ff-fh2 the acetylene gun1 #fh-ga2 diaphone at ,cape ,race1 #afe2 ,belle ,ile diaphone1 #agj ,foix1 ,louis de1 #d-e1 #h ,forfarshire1 the1 #ie1 #cad ,forteau ,bay1 #afi ,forth1 ,firth of1 lighthouses in1 #g1 #bah-ai ,fourteen ,foot ,bank1 #acb1 #adc-dg ,foveaux ,strait1 #bcg ,fowey ,rocks lights1 #bja-c ,french coast3 lighting of1 #adh2 lightships1 #bdc1 #bdi ,french ,lighthouse ,commission 7#ahaa71 #bi ,fresnel1 ,augustin3 system of lighting1 #bh1 #cc1 #bhf2 adopted by the ,united ,states1 #cf ,gap ,rock lighthouse and signal-station1 #bfd ,gas ,accumulator ,company1 of ,stockholm1 #di1 #bgd1 #bia ,gas as illuminant1 the incandescent mantle1 #dg-dh ,gasfeten tower1 #bgd ,gedney's ,channel1 lighting of1 #bie-if ,general ,superintendent of ,lights1 office of1 #aig-ih ,georgian ,bay1 #baf ,gerholmen light-boat1 #bid ,germany3 coastline of1 lighting1 #dh1 #ej-ea2 the lightship service1 #bdi-ej ,gironde lighthouse1 #ai ,gironde1 the1 rocks of the estuary1 #c-d ,goodwin ,sands1 #bje1 #bdj1 #bdd-de1 #bdh ,grand ,banks1 the1 #afc ,grande ,braye ,rock1 #bif ,grand ,trunk ,pacific1 #agc ,granite1 use of1 #ah ,great ,lakes of ,north ,america3 lighting of the1 #bg1 #agc1 #bjh-ag2 ,lighthouse ,board1 control of1 #bjf2 floating lighthouses1 #bhf ,green ,cape lighthouse1 #bcb-cc 8,grouting10 #bg ,guantanamo ,bay1 #cjh ,guernsey coast lighthouse1 #i1 #af2 unattended lights1 #bfi ,gun-cotton1 explosion of1 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,john1 the ,bell ,rock light1 #ig ,reyes ,point1 #bje ,reynaud1 ,lonce1 tower on the ,heaux de ,brhat1 #adi-ec ,rhins of ,islay1 #aac ,ribire1 #h ,rock ,island1 #abd ,rock of ,ages lighthouse1 #baj1 #bad-ae1 #baf ,rockall1 the1 #bii-cjj ,rockets1 use of1 #eh-ei ,rose of ,mull1 the1 #aac ,rothersand lighthouse1 #aa1 #bah2 the first attempt1 #acb-cf2 work of the ,society ,harkort1 #acf-dc ,round ,island lighthouse1 #ci ,royale1 ,isle1 #bad ,rudyerd1 ,john1 the ,eddystone lighthouse1 #gd1 #ge1 #ib-ic ,russell ,channel1 the1 #bfi-gj ,russian lighthouse authorities1 #ah ,rutingen lightship1 #bdb1 #bdi ,sable ,island1 #afb2 description1 #afe-ff2 lighthouses and chief station1 #aff-fg2 the west end light1 #afg-fh2 the east end light1 #afh ,st4 ,agnes light1 #ha ,st4 ,catherine's ,downs1 #bbc ,st4 ,catherine's lighthouse1 #ee1 #id1 #bah2 the electric installation1 #bbc-bd ,st4 ,clair1 ,lake1 #bjh ,st4 ,david's ,head1 #ib ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 #afd ,st4 ,kilda1 #cjj ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,gulf of1 #afc2 dangers1 #aga ,st4 ,lawrence ,river3 fog-signalling apparatus1 #ff-fh2 entrance1 #afb2 the ice1 #agb2 lighting of the1 #agb-gc ,st4 ,malo ,harbour1 #bdc ,st4 ,mary's1 #he ,st4 ,peter ,port lighthouse1 #bfi-gj ,sambro ,island lighthouse1 #afb ,samoan ,islands1 ,american1 controlled by the ,lighthouse ,board1 #bjf ,san ,francisco3 bay1 #fc2 coastline1 #bje ,sand1 lighthouses built on1 #acb-dg ,sandbanks1 signposts of the1 #bdj-ef ,sandy ,hook lighthouse1 #aii1 #bie ,sarnia1 #baf ,salara1 the1 wreck1 #bcb-cc ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 #baf ,scammon's ,harbour1 #bab ,schiller1 ,german packet1 wreck of1 #hf ,schukert1 #bbe ,scilly ,island1 #ha1 #hb1 #bdg ,scotland3 lighting1 #ej2 sea-rock lights of1 #if2 the coastline1 #ajh ,scotsman1 ,dominion liner1 #aga ,scott1 ,c4 ,w41 and the ,fastnet1 #abc-bd1 #abi ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 quoted1 #ajj1 #aja 8,screw-pile lighthouses10 #ai1 #hc1 #bjj-bjc1 #bfa-fb ,sea-rock lighthouses1 construction1 #bj et seq4 ,serrin-,berjot lamps1 #bba-bc ,seven ,hunters4 ,see ,flannen ,islands ,seven ,stones lightship1 #bdb1 #bdh-di ,seven ,wonders of the world1 #b ,shark-catching1 #caa-ab ,sherman1 ,general1 #baa ,shetlands coastline1 #ajh-aji ,shovel1 ,sir ,cloudesley1 #hb ,sigeum lighthouse1 on the ,hellespont1 #b ,singapore1 #beg ,siren1 the1 developments1 #ei-fj1 #aei ,skerries light1 #id ,skerryvore lighthouse1 #aa1 #ei1 #ajj-ajg1 #aac1 #caa ,slave-running1 #cab ,slight1 ,mr41 the modern siren1 #fb ,smalls1 ,the1 #ib-ic ,smeaton1 ,john1 the ,eddystone lighthouse1 #h1 #ge-gh1 #hj ,smeaton1 the1 #ig-ii ,smith1 ,thomas1 #i1 #bai ,solent1 the1 #id ,sound1 aberration of1 #fh ,south ,carolina1 lighthouses of1 #ai-bj ,south ,foreland lighthouse3 lighting1 #ch1 #ie2 electricity adopted1 #bah-ai2 keepers of the1 #cad ,south ,island1 ,n4,z41 coastline1 #bcg ,south ,solitary ,island lighthouse1 #bcj1 #bca ,south ,stock light1 #id ,southey1 ballad of the ,bell ,rock1 #if ,spain1 early beacons1 #c ,spartel ,cape lighthouse1 #bjg1 #cjj ,spectacle ,reef lighthouse1 #gd1 #baj-ad1 #bae-af ,sperm-oil1 as luminant1 #df 8,spider-web braces10 #bja ,spurn ,point lighthouse1 #ch-ci ,standard ,oil ,co41 #bhb ,stannard's ,rock lighthouse1 #bad1 #baf ,start ,point1 #id ,stephens ,island1 #bcc ,stevenson1 ,alan3 8,skerryvore10 #i1 #ajj-ajg2 improvements in lighting1 #cb-cc2 table of distances by1 #ea-eb ,stevenson1 ,charles1 #i ,stevenson1 ,david1 8,north ,unst10 #i ,stevenson1 ,david and ,charles3 the acetylene gun1 #fh-ga2 the unattended light1 #bfi2 the ,platte ,fougre fog-signal1 #bgj-ga2 the ,otter ,rock light1 #big2 scheme for ,rockall1 #cjj ,stevenson1 ,david and ,thomas3 works carried out by1 #ae1 #ec2 the ,chicken ,rock light1 #id2 building of the ,dhu-,heartach1 #aad-bj ,stevenson1 family of engineers3 preeminence of1 #h-aj2 systems of lighting1 #cf-ch2 adoption of electricity1 #bai-bb2 work in ,japan1 #beh2 characteristics1 #cje ,stevenson1 ,george1 and the ,fastnet1 #abb ,stevenson1 ,robert1 and the ,bell ,rock lighthouse1 #i1 #ig-ajj2 ,skerryvore1 #aja ,stevenson1 ,robert ,louis1 8,a ,family of ,engineers10 #h-i ,stevenson1 ,thomas1 #i1 #bbb ,stewart ,island1 #bcg ,stornoway lighthouse1 lighting1 #ec-ed ,strain1 ,samuel ,h41 #cjf ,subsidiary lights1 #ec-ee ,suez1 #cab ,sugar-,loaf ,point lighthouse1 #bcb ,sule ,skerry lighthouse1 #i1 #ci ,sumatra1 #beg 8,sun-valve10 the ,daln1 #bge-gh ,superior1 ,lake1 lighting of1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag ,sweden3 floating lighthouses1 #bia2 unattended lighthouses1 #bgg-hb ,swift1 ,captain ,w4 ,h41 the ,minot's ,ledge light1 #agf-gh1 #ahb ,sydney lighthouse4 ,see ,macquarie ,tower ,tararua1 steamship1 wreck of the1 #bcf1 #bcg ,tay1 ,firth of1 #if ,terawhiti1 ,cape1 #bch ,thames lightships1 #bdj-da ,thomas1 ,o4 ,p41 #bfj ,three ,kings ,rock1 #bcf ,tierra del ,fuego1 #bfh ,tillamook ,head1 #ahc ,tillamook ,rock lighthouse1 #ac-ae1 #ahc-ie1 #bjd2 the keepers1 #cjg-h ,tiri-,tiri ,island lighthouse1 #bcf-ch ,torrain ,rocks1 #aac ,tory ,island lighthouse1 #ci ,trade1 ,board of3 collection of light dues1 #g-h2 and the siren1 #fa2 ,mr4 ,ingrey's scheme1 #fd2 adoption of electricity1 #bai ,trewavas1 ,john ,r41 death of1 #ad-ae ,triangle ,island1 ,british ,columbia1 light1 #agd ,trinity ,house ,brethren3 purchase of patents1 #f2 maintenance of ,english lights1 #g1 #bf2 adoption of the ,daboll trumpet1 #fj2 and the ,eddystone1 #gg2 and the ,wolf ,rock1 #hh-hi2 and the ,whiteside light1 #ic2 and the ,fastnet1 #abb2 adoption of electricity1 #bah1 #bbc2 the light on the ,seven ,stones1 #bdh ,trinity ,house ,museum3 ,smeaton's clock1 #gf-gg2 ,bishop ,rock fog-bell1 #he-hf ,triumph1 steamship1 wreck1 #bcf ,tyndall1 ,professor1 #ei ,tyree1 island of1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #aje1 #ajg ,united ,states ,corps of ,engineers1 #fc1 #aih ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board1 #ac #cf1 #aie2 coastline lighting1 #bj1 #aif-bjg2 methods of lighting1 #df-dg2 inauguration1 #aih2 extent of control #bjf-g2 lighting of the ,great ,lakes1 #bjh-ag2 lightship service1 #bee2 adoption of the ,aga light1 #bid-ie ,united ,states ,typographical ,engineers1 #agf ,unst1 island of1 #aab ,ushant1 #adh1 #aef1 #aeg ,ushant ,island1 #aeh ,vancouver1 #agc2 coastline1 #bhd ,vancouver ,island1 #agd ,victoria1 #agc ,victoria1 steamer1 wreck1 #cjc-d ,waipapapa ,point lighthouse1 #bcf1 #bcg ,walker1 ,james1 #h2 ,bishop ,rock light1 #hd-e ,wanganui1 ,n4,z41 #bcc ,water-gas1 #dh ,wellington1 ,n4,z41 #bcc-d ,weser ,river estuary1 #acb ,west ,indies lighthouses1 #cji ,white ant1 ravages of the1 #bfd-ff ,white ,shoal lighthouse1 #bae1 #baf ,whiteside light1 #ib1 #ic ,whistles on lighthouses1 #eh ,wigham light1 #bgi-bhj1 #bhb1 #bif-ig ,willson1 ,mr4 ,thomas3 the acetylene automatic light1 #bhe-hi1 #bia1 #bid ,winchelsea1 wreck of the1 #gb1 #gd ,windward ,point1 ,cuba1 #cjh ,winstanley1 ,henry3 the ,eddystone lighthouse1 #gc ,wireless installation3 on the ,fastnet1 #aca2 station1 ,sable ,island1 #afg2 ,belle ,ile1 ,southern ,point1 #agj2 the ,eider lightship1 #bdi ,wirral1 #af1 #cji ,wolf ,rock lighthouse1 #ad2 blowing holes1 #fc1 #hg-ib2 relief1 #caa ,women as lighthouse-keepers1 #cad-ae ,wrath1 ,cape1 #aab ,wreckers of the ,wolf ,rock1 #hh2 ,chinese1 #beh-ei ,,billing ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,printers1 ,,guildford ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,ditto marks in the ,index have been replaced by the actual text4 ,empty1 featureless areas along the side7s7 of some illustrations have been removed by ,transcriber4 ,this allowed those illustrations to be shown larger and with greater detail4 ,page #bcc3 8,ly-ce-moon0 likely is a misprint for 8,ly-ee-moon04