,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,und]scores be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate italics 9 ! orig9al text1 h[ev]1 !y are also us$ to designate a subscript4 ,equal signs be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate bold 9 ! orig9al text4 ,c>at *>act]s are us$ to designate a sup]script4 ,small capitals h be5 conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d n break up p>agraphs4 ,old or antiquat$ spell+s h be5 pres]v$4 ,typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$ b o!r v>iations 9 spell+ & punctuation rema9 unalt]$4 ,,! ,,gases ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,/eph5 ,,hales4 ,,! ,,gases ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,_! ,,discov]y ,,by ,,william ,,ramsay1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,london ,,) ,,portraits ,london ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 #ahif ,all rights res]v$ 8,mod]n discov]ies h n be5 made by l>ge collections ( facts1 ) subsequ5t discussion1 sep>ation1 & result+ d$uction ( a tru? ?us r5d]$ p]ceptible4 ,a few facts h sugge/$ an hypo!sis1 :i* means a supposition prop] to expla9 !m4 ,! necess>y results ( ?is supposition are work$ out1 & !n1 & n till !n1 o!r facts are exam9$ to see if _! ult]ior results are f\nd 9 ,nature40 --,,de ,,morgan1 ,a ,budget ( ,p>adoxes1 ed4 #ahgb1 p4 #ee4 ,,preface ,! discov]y ( new elem5t>y gas 9 ! atmosph]e 9 #ahid ar\s$ mu* int]e/1 & public att5tion has aga9 be5 direct$ to ! air1 :i* 01 = _m c5turies1 a fruitful field = speculation & conjecture4 ,! acc\nt ( ?is discov]y1 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society 9 ,janu>y #ahie1 01 h[ev]1 necess>ily c\*$ 9 sci5tific language2 & _m matt]s ( int]e/ to ! *emi/ & physici/ 7 writt5 9 an abbreviat$ /yle1 9 ! k t ! passages describ+ !m w\ld be easily und]/ood by ! exp]ts to :om ! communication 0 prim>ily address$4 ,b p]sons )\t any special sci5tific tra9+ h frequ5tly express$ to me ! hope t an acc\nt ( ! discov]y w\ld be publi%$1 9 :i* ! conclusions drawn f ! physical behavi\r ( argon %\ld be accompani$ by a full acc\nt ( ! reason+ on :i* !y are bas$4 ,an endeav\r to fulfil ?is reque/ is to be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,& z ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ! bett] kn[n con/itu5ts ( ! atmosph]e is ( itself ( great int]e/1 & leads up to an acqua9tance ) ! new /rang]1 :o has s long be5 ) u incognito1 an ef=t has "h be5 made to tell ! tale ( ! air 9 popul> language4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,! ,,exp]im5ts ,,& ,,speculations ,,( ,,boyle1 ,,may[1 ,,& ,,hales #a ,,*apt] ,,ii 8,,fix$ ,,air0 ,,& 8,,mephitic ,,air0--,,_! ,,discov]y ,,by ,,black ,,& ,,by ,,ru!r=d #ch ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( 8,,dephlogi/icat$ ,,air0 ,,by ,,prie/ley ,,& ,,by ,,s*eele--,,! ,,ov]?r[ ,,( ,,! ,,phlogi/ic ,,!ory ,,by ,,lavoisi] #fh ,,*apt] ,,iv 8,,phlogi/icat$ ,,air0 ,,inve/igat$ ,,by ,,cav5di%--,,8 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,wat] #aai ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,argon #adf ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,argon #aha ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,argon ,,among ,,! ,,elem5ts #baf ,,li/ ,,( ,,portraits ,,/eph5 ,,hales ,frontispiece ,,rob]t ,,boyle ,to face page #h ,,john ,,may[ #ag ,,joseph ,,black #dh ,,daniel ,,ru!r=d #fb ,,joseph ,,prie/ley #gb ,,anto9e ,,augu/e ,,lavoisi] #ajb ,,hon4 ,,h5ry ,,cav5di% #aba ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,exp]im5ts ,,& ,,speculations ,,( ,,boyle1 ,,may[1 ,,& ,,hales ,to tell ! /ory ( ! developm5t ( m5's ideas reg>d+ ! nature ( atmosph]ic air is 9 great "p to write a hi/ory ( *emi/ry & physics4 ,?is hi/ory is an attractive & v>i$ "o3 9 its e>ly /ages x 0 express$ 9 ! qua9t t]ms ( anci5t my?ology1 :ile 9 its lat] developm5ts x illu/rates ! advantage ( c>eful exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,! human m9d is apt to reason f insuffici5t premisses2 & we meet ) _m in/ances ( incorrect conclusions1 bas$ ^u exp]im5t1 x is true1 b ^u exp]im5t inadequate to support _! burd54 ,fur!r rese>* has (t5 prov$ ! reason+ ( ! ,s*oolm5 to be futile2 n inde$ f want ( logical me?od1 b because important premisses _h be5 ov]look$4 ,among ! errors :i* misl$ ! old] speculators1 ?ree /& out conspicu\sly4 ,^! are-- ,fir/1 ,! confusion ( "o gas ) ano!r4 ,s9ce gases are = ! mo/ "p col\rless1 & always transp>5t1 !y make less impression on ! s5ses ?an liquids or solids d4 ,x 0 difficult to believe 9 ! sub/antiality ( bodies :i* c\ld n be se51 b ! exi/5ce ( :i* _h to be inf]r$ f ! te/imony ( o!r s5ses2 inde$1 9 c]ta9 in/ances only by ! s5se ( t\*1 = _m gases possess nei!r smell nor ta/e4 ,?is peculi>ity l$1 9 pa/ ages1 to ! notion t air possess$ a semi-spiritual nature2 t its sub/antiality 0 less ?an t ( o!r objects m accessible to our s5ses4 ,we meet ) a relic ( ?is view 9 words /ill 9 common use4 ,?us ! ,greek words 1 ,i bl[1 & 1 a _s or gho/1 are closely connect$2 9 ,lat9 we h spiro1 ,i brea!1 & spiritus1 ! human _s2 9 ,engli%1 ! words gho/ & gu/ are cognate4 ,& ! same connection c be trac$ 9 simil> words 9 _m o!r languages4 ,our s5se ( smell is affect$ by extremely m9ute traces ( gases & vap\rs--traces s small z to be unrecognisable by any o!r me?od ( p]ception1 direct or indirect4 ,a piece ( musk reta9s its fragrant od\r = ye>s1 & ! mo/ delicate balance fails to detect any appreciable loss ( weight 9 x4 ,we are capable ( smell+ gases only3 liquids & solids1 if introduc$ into ! no/rils1 irritate ! olfactory n]ves1 b d n /imulate !m s z to incite ! s5se ( smell2 yet ! admixture ( a m9ute trace ( "s odor\s vap\r ) air appe>s entirely to *ange its prop]ties4 ,! effect ( inhal+ su* air1 al?\gh sometimes pleasant1 is v diff]5t f ! s5sation produc$ by pure inodor\s air1 & su* admixtures 7 9 old5 times naturally tak5 to be air modifi$ 9 its prop]ties4 ,b su* modifications are obvi\sly almo/ inf9ite 9 numb]1 = v>ieties ( sc5t are excessively num]\s2 & x 0 !re=e p]haps deem$ useless to attempt to inve/igate su* a sub/ance z air1 ^: prop]ties c\ld *ange 9 s inexplicable & my/]i\s a mann]4 ,ow+1 !re=e1 to its elusive &1 z x 71 semi-spiritual prop]ties1 & to its unexpect$ *anges ( "*1 x 0 long be=e its true nature 0 discov]$4 ,x _h n escap$ obs]vation t 8air0 obta9$ by di/ill+ animal & vegetable matt]1 or by ! action ( acids on iron & z9c1 diff]$ f ord9>y air by be+ inflammable2 b su* 8airs0 7 reg>d$ z atmosph]ic air1 modifi$ 9 "s mann]1 z x is modifi$ :5 p]fum$4 ,& 8airs0 escap+ f f]m5t+ liquids1 or produc$ by ! action ( acids on c>bonates1 7 neglect$4 ,= long no attempt 0 made to cat* !m2 & ! fro?+ & bubbl+ 7 reg>d$ z a species ( boil+1 z is /ill se5 9 ! use ( our ^w 8f]m5tation0 7f]v]e1 to boil74 ,second1 ,errone\s ideas reg>d+ ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion4 ,:ile x 0 recognis$ t a burn+ c&le 0 ext+ui%$ if plac$ 9 a conf9$ space1 its ext9ction 0 attribut$ n to ! abs5ce ( air1 b to ! impossibility ( ! escape ( flame4 ,inde$1 flame 0 reg>d$ z possess+ ! same semi-spiritual1 semi-mat]ial nature z air4 ,toge!r ) e>? & wat]1 air & flame or fire =m$ ! f\r elem5t>y pr9ciples ( ! ,anci5ts2 & all sub/ances--/ones1 metals1 animals1 & vegetables--7 reg>d$ z p>tak+ ( ! prop]ties ( ^! elem5ts1 & (t5 z be+ con/itut$ ( ! latt] 9 v>y+ proportions1 accord+ z !y 7 cold & dry 7e>?71 cold & moi/ 7wat]71 hot & moi/ 7air71 or hot & dry 7fire74 ,x is n )9 ! scope ( ?is book to ent] into details reg>d+ su* anci5t views4 ,^? :o are int]e/$ 9 ! matt] w f9d !m exp\nd$ 9 ,kopps' ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 ,rodwell's ,dawn ( ,*emi/ry1 ,e4 von ,may]'s ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 & 9 o!r simil> works4 ,b we %all be oblig$ to consid] ! lat] developm5ts ( su* ideas 9 ! phlogi/ic !ory1 by means ( :i* all *emical *anges connect$ ) combu/ion 7 int]pret$ f ! latt] "p ( ! sev5te5? to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,) errone\s views reg>d+ ! nature ( combu/ion1 & ignorance z to ! "p play$ by ! atmosph]e 9 ! ph5om5a ( burn+1 ! true nature ( air 0 undiscov]able4 ,?ird1 ,! lack ( att5tion to ga9 or loss ( weight4 ,x 0 9 pa/ times n recognis$ t no?+ c\ld be creat$ & no?+ de/roy$4 ,9 popul> language1 a c&le is de/roy$ :5 x is burn$1 no?+ visible be+ produc$ f x4 ,! products1 we n[ "k1 are gase\s & invisible1 & possess$ ( great] weight ?an ! unburnt c&le2 b = want ( c>eful exp]im5t1 x 0 =m]ly conclud$ t ! c&le1 :5 burnt1 0 annihilat$4 ,! =mation ( a cl\d 9 a cl\dless sky2 ! gr[? ( vegetables 9 e>?1 f :i*1 app>5tly1 !y did n d]ive _! sub/ance2 & ! reput$ gr[? ( metallif]\s lodes 9 m9es--^! 7 all adduc$ z pro(s ( ! creative p[] ( ,nature4 ,) su* ideas1 !re=e1 ! necessity ( controll+ ! ga9 or loss ( mat]ial dur+ exp]im5t1 by det]m9+ ga9 or loss ( weight1 did n appe> imp]ative2 & h5ce b few quantitative exp]im5ts 7 made1 & little importance 0 atta*$ to ^! few4 ,x _h1 = example1 long be5 notic$ t c]ta9 metals ga9$ weight :5 burn$ & conv]t$ into a 8calx10 or1 z we %\ld n[ say1 a metallic oxide1 b su* ga9 9 weight 0 n reg>d$ z ( any consequ5ce4 ,:5 consid]$ 9 relation to ! suppos$ loss ( 8phlogi/on0 suff]$ by a metal on be+ conv]t$ into a calx1 x 0 expla9$ by ! hypo!sis t phlogi/on possess$ 8levity0--! anti!sis ( gravity--& t ! calx weigh$ m ?an ! metal1 ow+ to its hav+ lo/ a pr9ciple :i* 0 repell$ in/ead ( be+ attract$ by ! e>?4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable e>ly attempts to elucidate ! true nature ( air1 we meet ) "o by ! ,hon4 ,rob]t ,boyle1 :o publi%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury 8 ,memoirs = a ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,air4 ,boyle 0 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ sci5tific m5 ( 8 own1 or inde$ ( any1 age1 & 9 8 _s ( calm philosophical inquiry he 0 f> 9 advance ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,he 0 born 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ye> #afbf1 9 ,irel&1 :i!r 8 fa!r1 ,ri*>d ,boyle1 _h emigrat$ at ! age ( tw5ty-two4 ,boyle's "m1 daught] ( ,sir ,ge(frey ,f5ton1 pr9cipal ,secret>y ( ,/ate = ,irel&1 di$ :ile he 0 /ill a *ild4 ,yet %e mu/ h liv$ 9 ! recollection ( h] son ,rob]t1 = he wrote3 8,to be su* p>5ts' son1 & n _! elde/1 0 a happ9ess t our ,phil>e!s 7himself7 w\ld m5tion ) great expressions ( gratitude2 8 bir? s suit+ 8 incl9ations & designs1 t _h he be5 p]mitt$ an election1 8 *oice w\ld sc>ce h alt]$ ,god's disc]nm5t40 ,9 ^? days ( e>ly developm5t1 ,boyle _h f9i%$ 8 s*ool-days at ,eton by 8 twelf? ye>4 ,he in=ms u t he dev\r$ books omnivor\sly1 & c\ld h>dly be induc$ to jo9 9 games4 ,! next six ye>s ( 8 life he sp5t on ! ,cont95t ) 8 eld] bro!r2 & on 8 fa!r's dea?1 :i* happ5$ :5 he 0 abroad1 he return$ to ,engl&1 & settl$ at ,/albridge1 9 ,dorset%ire1 :]e he _h inh]it$ a manor4 ,"h he pass$ mo/ ( 8 life 9 great retirem5t1 ) only an occasional visit to ,london2 = ?\gh he liv$ ?r\gh tr\bl\s times1 he avoid$ politics4 ,inde$1 he is kn[n only to h appe>$ once on a public plat=m1 & t 0 9 def5ce ( ! ,royal ,society1 !n 9 its infancy1 f attacks made ^u x by "s too scrupul\sly loyal ,*ur*m54 ,illu/ration3 ,,rob]t ,,boyle4 ,boyle did n conf9e 8 att5tion exclusively to sci5tific pursuits3 he int]e/$ himself deeply 9 !ology1 & publi%$ num]\s tracts on religi\s subjects4 ,he wrote ) equal ease 9 ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 & ,lat91 & 8 books appe>$ simultane\sly 9 ! fir/ & la/ ( ^! languages4 ,8 rese>*es are rem>kable = _! wide range & = ! boldness ( 8 conceptions4 ,b ,boyle1 +5i\s ?\gh he 01 0 unable to fa?om ! my/]y ( atmosph]ic air4 ,8 views reg>d+ x are succ9ctly /at$ by him 9 8 ,memoirs = a ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,air1 & 9 ! same "w he sums up ! views ( ! ,anci5ts4 ,8 words are3 8,! ,s*ools tea* ! air to be a w>m & moi/ elem5t1 & consequ5tly a simple & homog5e\s body4 ,_m mod]n philosoph]s h1 inde$1 ju/ly giv5 up ?is elem5t>y purity 9 ! air1 yet few seem to ?9k x a body s greatly comp\nd$ z x really appe>s to be4 ,! atmosph]e1 !y all[1 is n absolutely pure1 b ) !m x diff]s f true & simple air only z turbid wat] f cle>4 ,our atmosph]e1 9 my op9ion1 consi/s n :olly ( pur] ae!r1 or subtile matt] :i* is diffus$ ?ro' ! univ]se1 b 9 great numb] ( numb]less exhalations ( ! t]raque\s globe2 & ! v>i\s mat]ials t g to compose x1 ) p]haps "s sub/antial emanations f ! cele/ial bodies1 make up toge!r1 n a b>e indet]m9$ feculancy1 b a confus$ aggregate ( diff]5t effluvia4 ,"o pr9cipal sort ( ^! effluvia 9 ! atmosph]e ,i take to be sal9e1 :i* float v>i\sly among ! re/ 9 t va/ ocean2 = !y seem n to be equally mix$ !re91 b are to be f\nd ( diff]5t k9ds1 9 diff]5t quantities & places1 9 diff]5t seasons4444 ,_m m5 talk mu* ( a volatile nitre 9 ! air1 z ! only salt :]e) t fluid is impregnat$4 ,i mu/ own ! air1 9 _m places1 seems to ab\nd 9 corpuscles ( a nitr\s nature2 b ,i don't f9d x prov$ by exp]im5ts to possess a volatile nitre4 ,9 all my exp]im5ts ^u salt-pet]1 ,i f\nd x difficult to raise t salt by a g5tle heat2 & spirits ( nitre1 :i* is drawn by means ( a vehem5t "o1 has q diff]5t prop]ties f crude nitre1 or ! suppos$ volatile k9d 9 ! air1 = 'tis exce$+ corrosive40#a ,boyle !n proce$s to collect & comm5t on ! effluvia f volcanoes & f decay+ vegetables & animals1 & proposes te/s = ! pres5ce ( su* +r$i5ts4 ,he ev5 attributes ! d>k5+ ( silv] *loride to its be+ a reag5t = c]ta9 salts pres5t 9 air at "o "t & n at ano!r1 & draws att5tion to ! sulphur\s smell produc$ by 8?und]40 ,f>!r on 7p4 #fa7 he writes3 8,! g5]ality ( m5 are s accu/om$ to judge ( ?+s by _! s5ses1 t because ! air is invisible !y ascribe b little to x1 & ?9k x b "o remove f no?+4 ,& ?is fluid is ev5 by ! ,s*oolm5 consid]$ only z a receptacle ( visible bodies1 )\t ex]t+ any action on !m unless by its manife/ qualities1 heat & moi/ure2 ?o'1 = my "p1 ,i all[ x o!r faculties1 & among !m1 su* z are g5]ative1 maturative1 & corruptive2 & t1 too1 9 respect n only ( animals & bodies ( a light texture1 b ev5 ( salts & m9]als40 ,9 ano!r place 7p4 #ag7 he /ates3 8,i conjecture t ! atmosph]ical air consi/s ( ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( corpuscles3 ! fir/1 ^? numb]less p>ticles :i*1 9 ! =m ( vap\rs or dry exhalations1 asc5d f ! e>?1 wat]1 m9]als1 vegetables1 animals1 etc42 9 a ^w1 :atev] sub/ances are elevat$ by ! cele/ial or subt]raneal heat1 & !nce diffus$ into ! atmosph]e4 ,! second may be yet m subtile1 & consi/ ( ^? exce$+ly m9ute atoms ! magnetical effluvia ( ! e>?1 ) o!r innum]able p>ticles s5t out f ! bodies ( ! cele/ial lum9>ies1 & caus+1 by _! impulse1 ! idea ( light 9 u4 ,! ?ird sort is its *>act]i/ic & ess5tial prop]ty1 ,i mean p]man5tly ela/ic p>ts40 ,boyle also relates exp]im5ts design$ to 8produce :at appe>s to be air02 & he describes ! production1 by ! action ( oil-(-vitriol on /eel fil+s1 ( 8air0 7n[ kn[n z hydrog57 :i* possess$ ! prop]ty ( ela/icity2 al?\gh he fail$ to notice its inflammability4 ,he fur!r obta9$ c>bon dioxide by ! f]m5tation ( rais9s1 & probably also hydrog5 *loride 9 ! gase\s =m by break+ a bulb conta9+ 8"s good _s-(-salt0 9 a vacu\s receiv]4 ,! result ( %rewd reason+ p[]1 appli$1 h[ev]1 to imp]fect obs]vations1 is well illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ passages3 8,= ?o'1 by reason ( its great ?9ness & ( its be+1 9 its usual /ate1 devoid bo? ( ta/e & smell1 air seems :olly unfit to be a m5/ruum or solv5t2 yet x may h a dissolv+1 or at lea/ a consum+1 p[] on _m bodies1 especially su* z are peculi>ly dispos$ to admit its op]ations4 ,= ! air has a great advantage by ! va/ quantity ( x t may come to "w1 9 proportion to ! bodies expos$ !reto4444 ,?us we f9d a ru/ on copp] t has be5 long expos$ to ! air40#b ,boyle1 %ortly aft]1 describes ! production ( 8an effloresc5ce ( a vitriolic nature0 on m>casite 7or sulphide ( iron7 :i* has be5 expos$ to ! air2 & he relates t ! 8ore ( alum1 robb'd ( its salt1 w 9 tract ( "t recov] x by be+ expos$ to ! air1 z we are assur$ by ! exp]i5c$ ,agricola40 ,to acc\nt = su* actions1 & = combu/ion1 he proce$s 7p4 #ha73 8,! difficulty we f9d 9 keep+ flame & fire alive1 ?o' b = a little "t1 )\t air1 r5d]s x suspici\s t !re may be disp]s$ ?ro' ! re/ ( ! atmosph]e "s odd sub/ance1 ei!r ( a sol>1 a/ral1 or o!r =eign nature2 on acc\nt :]e( ! air is s necess>y to ! subsi/ance ( flame4444 ,x also seems by ! sudd5 wa/+ or spoil+ ( ?is f9e sub/ance1 :atev] x be1 t ! bulk ( x is b v small 9 proportion to ! air x impregnates ) its v]tue2 = aft] ! ext9ction ( ! flame1 ! air 9 ! receiv] 0 n visibly alt]'d2 & = ought ,i c\ld p]ceive by sev]al ways ( judg+1 ! air reta9$ ei!r all1 or at lea/ ! f> greate/ "p1 ( its ela/icity2 :i* ,i take to be its mo/ g5u9e & di/+ui%+ prop]ty4 ,& ?is unde/roy$ spr+yness ( ! air1 ) ! necessity ( fre% air to ! life ( hot animals1 sugge/ a great suspicion ( "s vital sub/ance1 if ,i may s call x1 diffus$ ?ro' ! air2 :e!r x be a volatile nitre1 or r "s anonym\s sub/ance1 sid]eal or subt]raneal2 ?o' n improbably ( k9 to t :i* seems s necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( ! o!r flames40 ,! exp]im5tal "p ( ,boyle's "w relates to ! oxidation ( cupr\s to cupric comp\nds1 ) ! *ange ( col\r f br[n to blue or gre51 ei!r 9 ammoniacal or 9 hydro*loric acid solution2 & he goes s f> z to prove t two ounces ( m>casites brok5 into small lumps1 & kept 9 a room 8freely accessible to ! air1 :i* 0 e/eem$ to be v pure10 = some:at less ?an sev5 weeks1 ga9$ above twelve gra9s by oxidation4 ,9 8 ,memoirs = a ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,air1 ,boyle draws up a programme ( rese>*1 ( ! c>ry+ out ( :i*1 h[ev]1 !re is no record4 ,he proposes 7p4 #bc73 8#a4 ,to produce air by f]m5tation 9 well clos'd receiv]s4 8,to produce air by f]m5tation 9 seal$ glasses4 8,to sep>ate air f liquors by boil+4 8,to sep>ate air f liquors by ! air-pump4 8,to produce air by corrosion1 especially ) _s ( v9eg>4 8,to sep>ate air by animal & sulphure\s dissolvants4 8,to obta9 air 9 an exhau/$ receiv] by burn+-glasses & r$-hot irons4 8,to produce air out ( gunp[d] & o!r nitr\s bodies4 8#b4 ,to exam9e ! produc$ a]ial sub/ances by _! pres]v+ or reviv+ animals1 flame1 fire1 ! light ( rott5 wood1 & ( fi%4 8,to exam9e x by its ela/icity1 & ! duration !re(4 8,to d ! same by its weight1 & its elevat+ ! fumes ( liquors40 ,we %all all agree t if ,boyle _h successfully c>ri$ out su* exp]im5ts1 our k ( ! true nature ( air w\ld h come q a c5tury be=e x did4 ,"s ( ^! exp]im5ts 7 inde$ made by ,john ,may[1 8 contempor>y1 ^: "w & speculations we %all n[ proce$ to consid]4 ,john ,may[ 0 born 9 ! p>i% ( ,/4 ,dun/an1 ,london1 9 #afde4 ,8 family 0 orig9ally ,corni%1 hav+ come f ,bree1 9 ,cornwall4 ,he ent]$ ,wadham ,college1 ,ox=d1 at ! e>ly age ( sixte51 & 0 %ortly aft]w>ds made a probation]-fell[ ( ,all ,s\ls' ,college4 ,aft] ! usual ?ree ye>s ( /udy1 he took 8 degree 9 ,law2 b n be+ attract$ by ! legal pr(ession1 he turn$ 8 att5tion to m$ic9e1 & became a m$ical practition] at ,ba?1 :]e he liv$ dur+ ! fa%ionable season4 ,:5 n m ?an tw5ty-?ree ye>s ( age1 he wrote two essays on ,respiration1 ascrib+ ! inflation ( ! lungs to ! action ( ! int]co/al muscles4 ,^! 8,tractatus duo0 7 publi%$ 9 #affh4 ,"s ye>s lat] he produc$ ! treatise on :i* 8 fame re/s2 x is entitl$ 8,tractatus qu9que m$ico-physici1 quorum primus agit de sal-nitro et spiritu nitro-areo2 secundus1 de respiratione2 t]tius1 de respiratione foetus 9 ut]o et ovo2 qu>tus1 de motu muscul>i1 et spiritibus animalibus2 ultimus1 de rha*itide2 /udio ,joh4 ,may[1 ,,ll4,d4 ,m$ici1 nec non ,coll4 ,omn4 ,anim4 9 ,univ4 ,oxon4 ,socii4 ,oxonii e ,!atro ,%eldoniano1 ,an4 ,dom4 ,,mdclxxiv40 ,! "w 0 d$icat$ to ,sir ,h5ry ,cov5try4 ,x 0 ins]t$ 9 an abridg$ =m 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 "s "t aft] its publication1 b receiv$ only scant recognition1 = ! fame ( ,newton & ,boyle ov]%ad[$ ! lab\rs ( less well-kn[n inve/igators4 ,& ,may[ did n live to press 8 discov]ies on ! att5tion ( 8 contempor>ies1 = he di$ 9 #afgi1 five ye>s aft] ! publication ( 8 tracts1 9 8 ?irty-f\r? ye>4 ,little is kn[n ( ,may['s dome/ic life1 save t he m>ri$ %ortly be=e 8 dea?4 ,8 sci5tific "w proves t if he _h be5 grant$ ! usual span ( life1 8 extraord9>y g5ius w\ld h fur!r$ ! k ( ! true explanation ( ! nature ( air1 & its function 9 support+ combu/ion & respiration1 & t 8 views w\ld h be5 accept$ m ?an a c5tury be=e ,lavoisi]--) full] k1 & ) ! sci5tific position :i* at once ga9$ a he>+--=c$ precisely simil> doctr9es ^u ! att5tion ( ! sci5tific _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,john ,may[4 ,may[ 0 a contempor>y ( ,boyle1 & frequ5tly made use ( ,boyle's exp]im5ts 9 support ( ! !ories :i* he advanc$4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 :ile ,boyle seems to h read ,may['s "w1 he does n appe> to h be5 fav\rably impress$ by 8 conclusions4 ,boyle1 at ! age ( fifty-two1 _h d\btless =m$ 8 own op9ions1 & 0 unwill+ t !y %\ld be di/urb$ by ! speculations1 well f\nd$ ?\gh !y 71 ( s "y a man4 ,& %ortly aft] ,may['s dea?1 ! views ( ,be*]1 "o ( 8 contempor>ies1 exp\nd$ & made def9ite by ,/ahl1 reg>d+ ! nature ( combu/ion1 7 univ]sally receiv$4 ,aft] ,lavoisi]'s !ories _h ov]?r[n ^! false views1 att5tion 0 aga9 direct$ to ,may['s tracts by ,johann ,&reas ,s*]]1 9 a "w publi%$ at ,vi5na 9 #agic1 & also by ,dr4 ,yeats 9 #agih4 ,s*]] gives a c>eful analysis ( ,may['s "w1 some:at alt]+ ! ord] ( 8 p>agraphs1 ) a p>aphrase 9 ,g]man ( ! ,lat9 text1 :i* he quotes 9 full4 ,yeats' treatise is m especially conc]n$ ) ! m$ical aspect ( ,may['s "w1 al?\gh x also deals ) ! purely *emical portion at consid]able l5g?4 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ,may['s rese>*es1 free use has be5 made ( bo? ( ^! works1 z well z ( 8 own 8,tracts40 ,may['s contributions to ! *emi/ry ( ! atmosph]e may be classifi$ ?us3-- #a4 ,! atmosph]e consi/s ( p>ticles ( two k9ds ( gases at lea/3 "o ( ^!1 t]m$ 8nitro-a]ial p>ticles10 is necess>y = ! support ( life & = ! combu/ion ( inflammable bodies2 :ile ! o!r1 left aft] ?is con/itu5t has be5 remov$1 is incapable ( support+ ei!r life or combu/ion4 ,! portion :i* is necess>y = life ent]s1 dur+ respiration1 into ! blood4 ,x is ! *ief cause ( motion 9 animals & 9 plants4 #b4 ,^! 8nitro-a]ial p>ticles0 are also pres5t 9 saltpetre or nitre1 z c be %[n by mix+ inflammable sub/ances1 su* z sulphur & *>coal1 ) nitre to =m gunp[d]1 fill+ a tube ) ! p[d]1 &1 aft] sett+ x on fire1 imm$iately plung+ ! op5 end ( ! tube "u wat]4 ,! sulphur & *>coal w be z completely consum$ z if burn$ 9 ! op5 air4 ,su* combu/ion might1 h[ev]1 be ascrib$ to a 8sulphure\s0 con/itu5t 9 saltpetre2 by 8sulphure\s0 is to be und]/ood combu/ible1 = ^? sub/ances capable ( burn+ 7 imag9$ to conta9 a 8sulphur0 :i* gave !m t prop]ty4 ,t nitre does n conta9 su* 8sulphur0 c be %[n by expos+ x alone to heat1 :5 no *ange takes place1 except fusion4 ,besides1 nitre is comp\nd$ ( 8_s ( nitre0 or nitric acid & pure alkali1 nei!r ( :i* conta9s a combu/ible sulphur2 h5ce ! p>ticles ( fire-air mu/ be pres5t 9 nitre 9 no small am\nt4 ,b x is probable t x is ! _s ( nitre :i* conta9s su* fire-air p>ticles1 because1 z w be %[n lat]1 !y are n pres5t 9 ! alkali4 ,"o difficulty occurs to ,may[4 ,h[ is x t s l>ge a quantity ( gas z is necess>y to support combu/ion c be conta9$ 9 a relatively small bulk ( saltpetre8 ,he tries :e!r a solution ( saltpetre evolves air-bubbles :5 plac$ 9 a vacuum1 & f9ds t x eff]vesces less ?an pure wat] does4 ,he also prep>es saltpetre by mix+ nitric acid & alkali 9 a vacuum2 a brisk eff]vesc5ce occurs1 & ! dri$-up salt is ord9>y saltpetre4 ,h5ce saltpetre _c conta9 ela/ic air4 ,may[ consequ5tly draws a di/9ction betwe5 8air0 & 8air-p>ticles40 ,! residue left aft] ! 8fire-air10 or spiritus igneo-a]ius1 has be5 remov$ f ord9>y air by brea?+ or by combu/ion is prov$ to be light] ?an ! fire-air itself2 because a m\se dies soon] if kept at ! top ( air 9 a conf9$ bell-j> ?an at ! bottom2 & a c&le goes out soon]4 ,"h ! conclusion is "r1 al?\gh ! reason giv5 is wrong2 = x is ! temp]ature ( ! respir$ air :i* makes x rise1 & n ! fact t x is specifically light] ?an ! oxyg54 ,metallic antimony ga9s 9 weight :5 x is set on fire by a l5s1 & burns2 if ?is ga9 9 weight1 ,may[ rem>ks1 is n due to ! absorption ( nitro-a]ial p>ticles & to ! fire1 x is difficult to say to :at x is due4 ,! reason :y sub/ances burn s viol5tly 9 nitre comp>$ ) air1 is because ( ! proximity ( ! fire-air p>ticles2 & ^! are evid5tly due to ! nitric acid1 because ! residue--! alkali--if mix$ ) sulphur & inflam$1 does n produce ignition4 #c4 ,all acids conta9 fire-air p>ticles1 = acids h great simil>ity to ea* o!r4 ,?is is %[n z foll[s3--,antimony made into a calx by ! sun's rays ) a burn+-glass gives ! same calx z :5 x is evaporat$ repeat$ly ) nitric acid & conv]t$ into 8,bezo>-m9]al10 i4e4 oxide ( antimony4 ,& iron-ru/ obta9$ f sulphide ( iron appe>s to be =m$ by ! union ( ! fire-air p>ticles ) ! metallic 8sulphur0 ( ! iron4 ,x has up till n[ be5 believ$ t sulphuric acid is an +r$i5t ( common sulphur4 ,b ?is is unlikely1 = sulphur has a sweeti%1 & n an acid ta/e4 ,moreov]1 q a diff]5t sub/ance f a vitriol 7or sulphate7 is obta9$ by melt+ toge!r alkali & sulphur2 & no eff]vesc5ce takes place dur+ its prep>ation4 ,sulphur1 too1 is precipitat$ out ( ! 8liv] ( sulphur0 7potassium p]sulphide7 by ! addition ( sulphuric acid4 ,n[1 7 sulphuric acid conta9$ 9 sulphur1 x w\ld h9d] ! union ( ! sulphur ) ! alkali4 ,x is to be notic$ t ! volatile sulphuric acid1 f ! combu/ion ( sulphur1 is produc$ 9 ! foll[+ way3--8,! flame ( ! burn+ sulphur consi/s1 l e o!r flame1 9 ! viol5t motion ( ! sulphur p>ticles ) t ( ! nitro-a]ial p>ticles2 h5ce ! sulphur p>ticles1 at fir/ solid1 become %>p & acid1 & probably =m ! ord9>y #8_s ( sulphur' 7sulphuric acid74 ,if ?is be n s1 ,i "k n 9 :at mann] ?is acid c be produc$2 =1 z has be5 %[n1 x is v improbable t x previ\sly exi/$ 9 ! mass ( ! sulphur be=e its deflagration4 ,su* a *ange also1 9 all probability1 takes place 9 pyrites1 :5 x is conv]t$ to gre5 vitriol2 because pyrites yields sulphur on di/illation2 & ! gre5 vitriol on di/illation gives sulphuric acid1 leav+ r$ colco?> 7iron oxide7 beh9d40 ,simil>ly1 nitre appe>s to be a triple salt1 =m$ by ! union ( ! fi]y "p ( air ) a salt-l sub/ance exi/+ 9 ! e>?y mat]ial1 toge!r =m+ nitric acid2 & ?is add$ to e>?y salts 7alkali7 yields ord9>y nitre4 8,i h tri$ to %[ t all acids consi/ ( c]ta9 sal9e p>ticles r5d]$ fluid by ! nitro-a]ial p>ticles40 #d4 ,boyle has %[n t a flame is ext+ui%$ m rapidly 9 a vacu\s space ?an 9 a conf9$ space conta9+ air2 ?is is obvi\sly due to abs5ce ( n\ri%m5t 9 ! air1 r ?an to its *ok+ by its own vap\rs2 = 9 ! vacu\s vessel !re is evid5tly m space = su* noxi\s vap\rs ?an 9 ! air-fill$ vessel1 & yet ! flame is m rapidly ext+ui%$4 ,moreov]1 no combu/ible matt] c be k9dl$ 9 a vacuum by means ( a burn+-glass4 ,b x mu/ n be conclud$ t ?is fire-air con/itutes ! :ole ( ord9>y air2 because a c&le goes out 9 air conf9$ 9 a glass :ile a l>ge quantity ( air is /ill conta9$ 9 x4 ,:ile gunp[d] burns ow+ to ! fire-air p>ticles :i* x conta9s1 & requires no su/5ance f ext]nal air1 ! combu/ion ( vegetables is support$ p>tly by ! igno-a]ial p>ticles :i* !y !mselves conta91 p>tly by ^? ( ! ext]nal air4 ,air :i* has support$ combu/ion loses to "s ext5t its ela/icity 7i4e4 dim9i%es 9 volume71 z %[n by ! burn+ ( a c&le 9 air conf9$ ov] wat]4 ,?is is to be ascrib$ p>tly to actual loss ( ela/icity1 p>tly to ! absorption ( ! fire-air4 ,! loss ( volume am\nts to ab\t ?ree p] c5t ( ! :ole quantity ( air tak54 ,all ?is is exce$+ly cle>1 & 9 accordance ) our mod]n views1 b ,may['s m9d is some:at confus$ ) ref]5ce to flame & heat1 s9ce he imag9$ t ! dim9ution ( ! volume ( air 9 :i* combu/ible sub/ances h be5 burn$ is due to ! escape ( heat2 & inasmu* z a rise ( temp]ature 0 kn[n to increase ! volume ( air1 s a loss ( heat %\ld1 9 8 op9ion1 produce ! opposite effect4 ,! fire-air p>ticles are app>5tly reg>d$ z a sort ( comp\nd ( heat ) matt] 7z inde$ 9 a c]ta9 s5se !y are72 & by combu/ion or by respiration bo? are remov$4 ,! loss ( volume is to be expla9$ by ! removal ( bo? f ! air1 & ! ga9 9 weight by ! union ( ! matt] ) ! combu/ible body1 su* z antimony4 ,su* is a brief acc\nt ( ,may['s views on ! nature ( atmosph]ic air4 ,b ! tale w\ld be incomplete )\t m5tion ( ! fact t he prep>$ a gas by ! action ( nitric acid on iron1 viz4 nitric oxide1 :i*1 :5 introduc$ into ord9>y air conf9$ ov] wat]1 decreas$ its volume2 & he f\nd t fur!r admission ( nitric oxide produc$ no fur!r dim9ution 9 ! volume ( ! air4 ,a v little m1 & he w\ld h recognis$ 9 ?is a means ( analys+ air1 & depriv+ x :olly ( its oxyg54 ,he goes s f> z to speculate t a comp\nd is =m$ betwe5 ! nitric oxide & ! oxyg51 b ! solubility ( gases 9 wat] appe>s n to h /ruck him z important4 ,he notices1 h[ev]1 t ! comb9ation ( ! two gases is att5d$ by rise ( temp]ature1 & is 9 s f> analog\s to combu/ion4 ,x w\ld lead u too f> to consid] 9 detail ,may['s !ories ( f]m5tation & ( respiration4 ,suffice x to say t he ascribes ! production ( animal heat to ! consumption ( 8 fire-air p>ticles by ! animal1 & rem>ks t ! pulse is height5$ by respiration4 ,?is view 0 9 opposition to t held by 8 contempor>ies1 viz4 t ! purpose ( respiration 0 to cool ! blood4 ,x is impossible to avoid be+ impress$ ) ! cle>ness & ju/ice ( ,may['s inf]5tial reason+4 ,all t 0 want+ 0 ! discov]y ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide1 & ! id5tification ( ! fir/ ) 8 fire-air1 & ( ! second ) "o ( ! products ( combu/ion4 ,b ^! discov]ies 7 n made until a c5tury aft] 8 dea?4 ,_h he liv$1 !re c be little d\bt t1 unless disc\rag$ by ! want ( appreciation ) :i* 8 ideas 7 receiv$1 he w\ld h cont9u$ to lab\r 9 ! fruitful fields f :i* he _h already reap$ s ri* a h>ve/4 ,be=e leav+ ! sev5te5? c5tury1 x is p]haps fitt+ to m5tion ! "n ( ,jean ,rey1 a ,fr5* physician1 :o wrote 9 #afcj conc]n+ ! ga9 9 weight ( t9 & lead :5 calc9$4 ,:ile ,rey exhibit$ "s lean+ t[>ds ! mod]n me?ods ( exp]im5tation1 he /ill lay fett]$ 9 ! bonds ( m$ival s*ola/icism4 ,9 discuss+ ! weight ( air & fire1 he f9ds occasion to consid] ! "q :e!r a vacuum c exi/4 ,8 words are s qua9t t !y are wor? quot+3 8,x is q c]ta9 t 9 ! b\nds ( ,nature a vacuum1 :i* is no?+1 c f9d no place4 ,!re is no p[] 9 ,nature f :i* no?+ c\ld h made ! univ]se1 & none :i* c\ld r$uce ! univ]se to no?+3 t requires ! same virtue4 ,n[ ! matt] w\ld be o!rwise if !re c\ld be a vacuum4 ,= if x c\ld be "h1 x c\ld also be !re2 & be+ "h & !re1 :y n else:]e8 & :y n ev]y:]e8 ,?us ! univ]se c\ld rea* annihilation by its own =ces2 b to ,him alone :o c\ld make x is ! glory ( be+ able to compass its de/ruction40 ,& s9ce air _c be drawn d[n by a vacuum1 x mu/ desc5d by virtue ( its own weight :5 x fills a hole4 ,& h5ce1 z air has weight1 t9 & lead ga9 9 weight :5 !y comb9e ) air4 ,x w be admitt$ t ?is is v inf]ior to ! speculations & d$uctions ( ,boyle & ,may[4 ,! next /age 9 ! hi/ory ( our subject is ! consid]ation ( ! "w ( ,/eph5 ,hales & ( ,joseph ,prie/ley4 ,bo? ( ^! philosoph]s 7 ess5tially exp]im5tali/s4 ,:ile bo? discov]$ gases & prep>$ !m 9 a m or less pure /ate1 ,hales _h no !ory to guide him1 & conclud$ z ! result ( 8 rese>*es t air 0 possess$ ( 8a *aotic nature02 = he did n recognise 8 gases z diff]5t k9ds ( matt]1 b suppos$ !m all to be modifi$ air4 ,prie/ley1 on ! o!r h&1 0 an adh]5t ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on1 & int]pret$ all 8 exp]im5ts by its help4 ,hales 0 a c\ntry cl]gyman1 int]e/$ 9 botany1 & und]took rese>*es on air 9 ord] to ga9 k ( ! gr[? & developm5t ( plants4 ,prie/ley 0 also a div9e1 :o amus$ himself ) exp]im5ts dur+ ! int]vals ( compos+ s]mons or writ+ controv]sial pamphlets on disput$ doctr9es4 ,bo? possess$ ! exp]im5tal faculty1 & bo? employ$ x to good purpose4 ,hales' *ief "w is entitl$ 8,/atical ,essays1 conta9+ ,vegetable ,/aticks2 or an acc\nt ( ,/atical ,exp]im5ts on ! ,sap 9 ,vegetables1 be+ an ,essay t[>ds a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,vegetation3 ( use to ^? :o are curi\s 9 ! ,culture & ,improvem5t ( ,g>d5+1 etc43 ,also1 a specim5 ( an attempt to analyse ! air by a great ,v>iety ( ,*ymio/atical ,exp]im5ts1 :i* 7 read at sev]al meet+s be=e ! ,royal ,society4 ,by ,/eph5 ,hales1 ,d4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,rector ( ,f>r+don1 ,hamp%ire1 & ,m9i/] ( ,t$d+ton1 ,middlesex40 ,9 8 8,introduction0 ,hales reveals 8 me?od ( rese>*4 ,! det]m9ation ( weight & volume 0 at t date especially necess>y2 = want ( num]ical data ! exp]im5tal rese>*es ( ! "t 7 ( a some:at vague "*1 & x (t5 happ5$ t ! conclusions drawn f !m 7 incorrect4 ,h5ce x is ) a feel+ ( satisfaction t we read 7vol4 i4 p4 #b73-- 8,& s9ce we are assur$ t ! all-wise ,creator has obs]v$ ! mo/ exact proportions ( numb]1 weight1 & measure 9 ! make ( all ?+s1 ! mo/ likely way1 !re=e1 to get any insight into ! nature ( ^? p>ts ( ! creation :i* come )9 our obs]vation mu/ 9 all reason be to numb]1 weigh1 & measure4 ,& we h mu* enc\ragem5t to pursue ?is me?od ( se>*+ into ! nature ( ?+s1 f ! great success :i* has att5d$ any attempts ( ?is k9d40 ,= ,god has 8compreh5d$ ! du/ ( ! e>? 9 a measure1 & weigh$ ! m\nta9s 9 scales1 & ! hills 9 a balance40 ,f exp]im5ts on ! rise ( sap 9 plants1 _m ( !m v +5i\s & well adapt$ to secure _! end1 & :i* are /ill reg>d$ by botani/s z classic1 ,hales notic$ t a quantity ( air 0 inspir$ by plants4 ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! composition & am\nt ( ?is air1 ! process ( di/illation 0 resort$ to2 = ,hales rem>ks3 8,t ela/icity is no immutable prop]ty ( air is fur!r evid5t f ^! exp]im5ts2 because x 7 impossible = su* great quantities ( x to be conf9$ 9 ! sub/ances ( animals & vegetables1 9 an ela/ick /ate1 )\t r5d+ _! con/itu5t p>ts ) a va/ explosion0 7,preface1 p4 viii474 ,h5ce1 conclud+ t ! air absorb$ by plants & animals c\ld be recov]$ by _! di/illation1 ,hales proce$$ to di/il a great numb] ( sub/ances ( animal & vegetable orig91 su* z hogs' blood1 tall[1 a fall[-de]'s horn1 oy/]%ell1 oak1 :eat1 peas1 amb]1 tobacco1 camphor1 anise$ oil1 honey1 beeswax1 sug>1 ,newca/le coal1 e>?1 *alk1 pyrites1 a mixture ( salt & bone-a%1 ( nitre & bone-a%1 t>t>1 comp\nd aqua=tis1 & a numb] ( o!r sub/ances4 ,he collect$ ! 8air0 9 ea* case ov] wat]1 & gave num]ical data to %[ :at proportion ! air bore by weight to ! sub/ance f :i* x _h be5 obta9$4 ,he ev5 tri$ to comp>e ! weight ( ord9>y air ) t ( air f di/ill$ t>t>2 b 8 exp]im5t l$ to no positive conclusion1 because ( ! crud5ess ( 8 appliances4 ,! compressibility or 8ela/icity0 ( ! air f t>t>1 h[ev]1 0 f\nd to be id5tical ) t ( common air4 ,hales does n appe> to h made any special exp]im5ts on ! prop]ties ( 8 v>i\s airs1 by try+ :e!r !y support$ combu/ion1 :e!r !y 7 !mselves combu/ible1 etc4 ,we see f ?is li/ t he _h "u 8 h&s mixtures ( hydroc>bons1 c>bon dioxide1 probably sulphur dioxide1 hydro*loric acid & ammonia 7bo?1 h[ev]1 dissolv+ 9 wat] z !y 7 =m$71 oxides ( nitrog51 possibly *lor9e1 &1 z m9ium or r$-lead 0 "o ( ! sub/ances he tri$1 oxyg5 9 a m or less pure /ate4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 all cases ! gas obta9$ 0 mix$ ) ! air orig9ally pres5t 9 ! retort4 ,he next proce$$ to produce 8air0 by ! f]m5tation ( gra91 ( rais9s1 & ( o!r fruits2 ?is 8air0 obvi\sly 0 c>bon dioxide m or less pure4 ,x is curi\s to note "h t he anticipat$ ,"l ,kelv9 9 devis+ a s\nd+-lead :i* %\ld regi/] ! dep? ( ! sea by ! compression ( air1 ! di/ance to :i* ! air _h rec$$ along ! tube be+ %[n by ! entry ( treacle4 ,he successfully c>ri$ out a s\nd+ by means ( 8 app>atus4 ,! next s]ies ( exp]im5ts relat$ to ! g5]ation ( 8air0 by ! action ( acids on metals4 ,aqua-regia & gold1 aqua-regia & antimony1 aqua=tis & iron1 dilute oil-(-vitriol & iron1 yield$ gases :i* contract$ on /&+ 9 contact ) wat]4 ,?is1 9 ! case ( ! oxides ( nitrog51 is to be ascrib$ to _! react+ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air accid5tally pres5t 9 ! receiv]2 b 9 ! la/ case ,hales notic$ t ! gas absorb$ 9 cold wea!r 0 re-evolv$ on rise ( temp]ature1 z "o w\ld expect ) hydrog54 ,^! exp]im5ts l$ him to inve/igate ! action ( c]ta9 mixtures on ord9>y air4 ,?us a mixture ( spirits ( h>t%orn 7or ammonia7 ) iron fil+s absorb$ #a cubic in*es ( air1 & "o ) copp] fil+s1 twice z mu*4 ,fur!r1 a mixture ( iron fil+s & brim/one absorb$ 9 two days no less ?an #ai cubic in*es ( air4 ,b x is disappo9t+ to f9d t1 9 spite ( all ! exp]im5tal facts :i* ,hales accumulat$1 he 0 unable to make use ( !m4 ,! prejudice 9 fav\r ( ! unity & id5tity ( all ^! 8airs0 0 too great = him to ov]come4 ,true1 he sometimes !orises a little1 z = example :5 he rem>ks 7p4 #bhe73--8;,if fire 0 a p>ticul> k9d ( body inh]5t 9 sulphur 7i4e4 combu/ible matt] ( all k9ds71 z ,mr4 ,homb]g1 ,mr4 ,lem]y1 & "s o!rs imag9e1 !n su* sulphure\s bodies1 :5 ignit$1 %\ld r>efy & dilute all ! circumambi5t air2 :]eas x is f\nd by _m ( ! prec$+ exp]im5ts1 t acid sulphure\s fuel con/antly attracts & cond5ses a consid]able "p ( ! circumambi5t ela/ick air3 an argum5t t !re is no fire endu$ ) peculi> prop]ties inh]5t 9 sulphur2 & also t ! heat ( fire consi/s pr9cipally 9 ! brisk vibrat+ action & re-action betwe5 ! ela/ick repell+ air & ! /rongly attract+ acid sulphur1 :i* sulphur 9 its ,analysis is f\nd to conta9 an inflammable oil1 an acid salt1 a v fix'd e>?1 & a little metal40 ,en\gh has n[ be5 said to give a fair idea ( ,/eph5 ,hales' rese>*es4 ,x w suffice if 8 conclusions be /at$ 9 8 own words 7p4 #cad73-- 8,?us1 ^u ! :ole1 we see t air ab\nds 9 animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al sub/ances2 9 all :i* x be>s a consid]able "p2 if all ! p>ts ( matt] 7 only endu$ ) a /rongly attract+ p[]1 :ole nature w\ld !n imm$iately become "o unactive coh]+ lump2 :]e=e x 0 absolutely necess>y1 9 ord] to ! actuat+ & enliv5+ ?is va/ mass ( attract+ matt]1 t !re %\ld be ev]y:]e int]mix'd ) x a due proportion ( /rongly repell+ ela/ick p>ticles1 :i* might enliv5 ! :ole mass1 by ! incessant action betwe5 !m & ! attract+ p>ticles2 & s9ce ^! ela/ick p>ticles are cont9ually 9 great abundance r$uc$ by ! p[] ( ! /rong attract]s1 f an ela/ick to a fixt /ate1 x 0 !re=e necess>y t ^! p>ticles %\ld be endu$ ) a prop]ty ( resum+ _! ela/ick /ate1 :5ev] !y 7 dis5gag$ f t mass 9 :i* !y 7 fixt1 t !reby ?is beautiful frame ( ?+s might be ma9ta9$ 9 a cont9ual r\nd ( ! production & dissolution ( animal & vegetable bodies4 8,! air is v in/rum5tal 9 ! production & gr[? ( animals & vegetables1 bo? by invigorat+ _! sev]al juices :ile 9 an ela/ick active /ate1 & also by greatly contribut+ 9 a fix'd /ate to ! union & firm connection ( sev]al con/itu5t p>ts ( ^? bodies1 viz4 _! wat]1 salt1 sulphur1 & e>?4 ,?is b& ( union1 9 conjunction ) ! ext]nal air1 is also a v p[]ful ag5t 9 ! dissolution & corruption ( ! same bodies2 = x makes "o 9 e f]m5t+ mixture2 ! action & re-action ( ! a]ial & sulphure\s p>ticles is1 9 _m f]m5t+ mixtures1 s great z to excite a burn+ heat1 & 9 o!rs a sudd5 flame2 & x is1 we see1 by ! l action & re-action ( ! same pr9ciples1 9 fuel & ! ambi5t air1 t common cul9>y fires are produc$ & ma9ta9$4 8,?o' ! =ce ( its ela/icity is s great z to be able to be> a prodigi\s pressure1 )\t los+ t ela/icity1 yet we h1 f ! =ego+ ,exp]im5ts1 evid5t pro( t its ela/icity is easily1 & 9 great abundance de/roy$2 & is !reby r$uc$ to a fixt /ate by ! /rong attraction ( ! acid sulphure\s p>ticles :i* arise ei!r f fire or f f]m5tation2 & !re=e ela/icity is n an ess5tial immutable prop]ty ( air-p>ticles2 b !y are1 we see1 easily *ang$ f an ela/ick to a fixt /ate1 by ! /rong attraction ( ! acid1 sulphure\s1 & sal9e p>ticles :i* ab\nd 9 air4 ,:5ce x is reasonable to conclude t our atmosph]e is a ,*aos1 consi/+ n only ( ela/ick1 b also ( unela/ick air-p>ticles1 :i* 9 pl5ty float 9 x1 z well z ! sulphure\s1 sal9e1 wat]y1 & e>?y p>ticles1 :i* are no ways capable ( be+ ?r[n (f into a p]man5tly ela/ick /ate1 l ^? p>ticles :i* con/itute true p]man5t air4 ,s9ce1 !n1 air is f\nd s manife/ly to ab\nd 9 almo/ all natural bodies2 s9ce we f9d x s op]ative & active a pr9ciple 9 e *ymical op]ation2 s9ce its con/itu5t p>ts are ( s durable a nature1 t ! mo/ viol5t action ( fire or f]m5tation _c induce su* an alt]ation ( its texture z !reby to disqualify x f resum+1 ei!r by ! means ( fire or f]m5tation1 its =m] ela/ick /ate2 unless 9 ! case ( vitrification1 :51 ) ! vegetable ,salt & ,nitre 9 :i* x is incorporat$1 x may1 p]haps1 "s ( x1 ) o!r *ymical pr9ciples1 be immutably fixt1--s9ce !n ?is is ! case1 may we n ) good reason adopt ?is n[ fixt1 n[ volatile ,proteus among ! *ymical pr9ciples1 & t a v active "o1 z well z acid sulphur2 not)/&+ x has hi!rto be5 ov]look$ & reject$ by *ymi/s1 z no way intitl$ to t d5om9ation80 ,?is quotation %[s u h[ little ,may['s %rewd reason+ & well-devis$ exp]im5ts _h impress$ ! ?9k]s ( 8 age4 ,:ile ,hales quotes frequ5tly f ,boyle's & ,newton's works1 8 ref]5ce to ,may[ is meagre2 nor does he adopt any "o ( ,may['s conclusions4 ,"o w\ld h ?\ght t1 hav+ prep>$ s _m gases by means ( app>atus well adapt$ to _! purpose1 & hav+ obs]v$ t c]ta9 sub/ances introduc$ into air produc$ contraction1 he w\ld h drawn ! conclusion t su* 8airs0 7 ess5tially diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,b ! 8,proteus0 0 too mu* = him2 & he left ! subject practically 9 ! same /ate ( 8,*aos0 9 :i* he f\nd x4 #a ,memoirs = a ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,air2 ,%aw's ,abridgm5t ( ,boyle's works1 edition #agbe1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bf4 #b 8,suspicions ab\t "s hidd5 qualities ( ! ,air10 ibid4 p4 #gg4 ,,*apt] ,,ii 8,,fix$ ,,air0 ,,& 8,,mephitic ,,air0--,,_! ,,discov]y ,,by ,,black ,,& ,,by ,,ru!r=d ,be=e relat+ ! hi/ory ( ! discov]ies ( ,black1 ,ru!r=d1 & ,prie/ley1 x w be appropriate to give an acc\nt ( a !ory :i* pr(ess$ to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion1 & ) x ! conv]sion ( metals into calces1 & ! r$uction ( ^! calces to ! regul9e or metallic /ate4 ,l o!r !ories1 x 0 sl[ 9 develop+4 ,its g]m is to be trac$ to ! writ+s ( ,johann ,bapti/ van ,helmont ( ,brabant1 ,seigneur ( ,m]ode1 ,roy5bo*1 ,oor%ot1 & ,pell9es1 :o 0 born 9 ,brussels 9 #aegg4 ,he adopt$ a fanta/ical creation ( ,p>acelsus1 ! ar*aeus1 a k9d ( demon :i*1 by means ( f]m5tation1 draws toge!r all ! p>ticles ( matt]4 ,believ+ t wat] 0 ! true pr9ciple & orig9 ( ev]y?+ 7= he _h succe$$ 9 produc+ a will[ tree1 weigh+ #afd lbs41 f wat] alone1 ! e>? 9 :i* x grew hav+ nei!r ga9$ nor lo/ appreciably 9 weight71 he conceiv$ t x 0 act$ on by a f]m5t or pr9ciple pre-exi/+ 9 ! se$ develop$ by x1 & exhal+ an od\r by :i* ! ar*aeus 0 attract$4 ,wat] und]go+ ! action ( ?is f]m5t develop$ a vap\r1 to :i* van ,helmont gave ! "n ( 8gas40 ,a 8gas0 0 a sub/ance int]m$iate betwe5 _s & matt]1 & ! ^w 0 probably d]iv$ f ,gei/1 ! common ,g]man ^w = _s4 ,ano!r ^w introduc$ by him to d5ote ! life-pr9ciple ( ! />s 0 ,blas1 connect$ probably ) blas51 to bl[1 & our ,engli% ^w bla/4 ,x is curi\s to notice h[ ! idea ( an ar*aeus surviv$ d[n to lat] times "u ! "n ( a 8life-pr9ciple0--a conception t all organic sub/ances mu/ necess>ily owe _! orig9 to life itself1 & n to ! usual *emical & physical trans=mations4 ,van ,helmont 0 acqua9t$ ) v>i\s k9ds ( gases1 z appe>s f 8 treatise 8,de ,flatibus40 ,8 gas sylve/re 0 evolv$ f f]m5t+ liquors1 & he knew t x 0 =m$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 & also t x 0 pres5t 9 ! ,grotto del ,cane ne> ,naples4 ,he 0 likewise acqua9t$ ) combu/ible gases1 :i* he nam$ gas p+ue1 gas siccum1 or gas fulig9osum4 ,^! pr9ciples ( van ,helmont's app>5tly sugge/$ to 8 successors1 ,be*] & ,/ahl1 ! notion ( a pr9ciple inh]5t 9 e combu/ible sub/ance1 :i* 0 lo/ dur+ combu/ion4 ,! developm5t ( ?is--! phlogi/ic--!ory is almo/ :olly due to ! latt] *emi/1 & inde$ x is difficult to trace ,be*]'s %>e 9 x4 ,george ,erne/ ,/ahl 0 born at ,anspa* 9 #affj2 he /udi$ & graduat$ 9 m$ic9e at ,halle1 & 9 #afid he 0 appo9t$ second pr(essor ( m$ic9e at t ,univ]sity1 :]e he cont9u$ to tea* = tw5ty-two ye>s4 ,8 mo/ important "w 0 8 ,fundam5ta *ymiae dogmaticae et exp]im5tale4 ,8 !oretical views are conta9$ 9 ! la/ "p ( ?is "w4 ,he !re treats ( zymote*nia1 or f]m5tation2 halote*nia1 or ! production ( salts2 & pyrote*nia1 or ! doctr9e ( combu/ion4 ,x is ! la/ ( ^! sections :i* gives an acc\nt ( ! doctr9e ( phlogi/on4 ,! fundam5tal conception ( ?is doctr9e is t all combu/ible bodies are comp\nds4 ,dur+ combu/ion "o ( ^! con/itu5ts1 common to all1 0 dissipat$ & escap$1 :ile ! o!r1 sometimes an acid1 sometimes an e>?y p[d] or calx1 rema9$ beh9d4 ,?us sulphur & phosphorus1 :5 burnt1 give acids2 & ! metals =m calces4 ,non-combu/ible sub/ances1 su* z lime1 7 imag9$ to be calces1 & x 0 suppos$ t if phlogi/on 7 re/or$ to !m1 !y too w\ld be conv]t$ into metals4 ,?is combu/ible pr9ciple 0 ?\ght to be inh]5t 9 all combu/ible bodies :atsoev]2 x corresponds 9 k9d ) ! 8sulphur0 ( m anci5t writ]s1 b diff]s f ! latt] inasmu* z no v precise ideas 7 ent]ta9$ ( ! id5tity ( ! 8sulphur0 :i* conf]r$ on ! sub/ances conta9+ x z a con/itu5t1 or possess+ x z a prop]ty1 _! p[] ( combu/ion4 ,x 0 also made m def9ite by ,/ahl t sub/ances capable ( burn+ or conv]sion into calces are comp\nds conta9+ phlogi/on 9 comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances4 ,/ahl c h>dly be cr$it$ ) m ?an ! inv5tion ( ! t]m 8phlogi/on10 & ) br++ ! subject 9 a cle> & def9ite =m be=e 8 contempor>ies4 ,= ,/ahl wrote 9 #agbj2 & we f9d ,may[1 9 #afgd1 ent]+ into an elaborate argum5t to prove t sulphuric acid is n conta9$ 9 sulphur1 b t x is produc$ by ! union ( ! sulphur ) 8 fire-air p>ticles4 ,b ,/ahl amplifi$ ! doctr9e :i* ,may[ _h controv]t$1 9 po9t+ out t if su* sub/ances z phosphorus1 sulphur1 or metals are heat$1 !y burn1 & are *ang$ into phosphoric acid1 sulphuric acid1 or 8calces02 & reciprocally1 if phosphoric acid1 sulphuric acid1 or a calx su* z t ( t9 or lead1 is heat$ ) matt] ri* 9 phlogi/on1 su* z *>coal1 pitcoal1 sug>1 fl\r1 etc41 phlogi/on is re/or$ to ! burnt sub/ance1 & ! orig9al mat]ial1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 t91 or lead1 is reproduc$4 ,! idea at once captivat$ ! m9ds ( ! *emi/s ( t age1 :o receiv$ x ) approbation1 & devis$ exp]im5ts design$ to ext5d ! applications ( ! !ory & to confirm its tru?4 ,sub/ances 7 n suppos$ always to be completely depriv$ ( phlogi/on by combu/ion4 ,inde$1 if ! phlogi/on 7 remov$ :olly1 or ne>ly s1 x 0 by no means easy to re/ore x4 ,?us ! calx ( z9c1 or ( iron1 :i* 0 reg>d$ z ne>ly devoid ( phlogi/on1 is difficult to r$uce to ! metallic /ate by ignition ) sub/ances ri* 9 phlogi/on1 su* z coal or *>coal4 ,! addition ( phlogi/on alt]s ! appe>ance ( ! sub/ance z reg>ds col\r or metallic lu/re1 & ^! v>y accord+ to ! proportion ( phlogi/on pres5t4 ,!re exi/$ no v def9ite idea reg>d+ ! appe>ance or prop]ties ( phlogi/on itself4 ,be*]'s "n = x 0 t]ra p+uis1 & x 0 repres5t$ by ,be*] & by ,/ahl z a dry sub/ance ( an e>?y nature1 consi/+ ( v f9e p>ticles1 :i* 7 capable ( be+ set into viol5t motion2 ?is idea 0 d]iv$ p>tly f ! fact t combu/ion is usually accompani$ by flame1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be produc$ by ! motion ( ! p>ticles ( ! body1 communicat$ to x by ! phlogi/on4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t at ?is "t x 0 p]fectly well kn[n t metals ga9 weight on calc9ation4 ,jean ,rey 0 q aw>e ( ?is1 & ,boyle relates an exp]im5t to %[ t t9 ga9s weight :5 conv]t$ into calx2 & x w be rememb]$ t ,may[ made exp]im5ts on ! ignition ( antimony by ! aid ( a burn+-glass1 & rightly conjectur$ t ! sub/ance produc$ 0 ! same z t =m$ by treat+ x ) nitric acid1 & subsequ5t ignition4 ,boyle's view 0 t calx ( t9 0 a comp\nd ( t9 & heat2 ,may['s m correct view 0 t calx ( antimony 0 a comp\nd ( antimony & fire-air4 ,b 9 spite ( ^! well-prov$ facts1 ! adh]5ts ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on ignor$ !m1 & x does n appe> to h occurr$ to ,be*] or to ,/ahl t !y 7 inconsi/5t ) _! !ories4 ,:5 ?is difficulty 0 /at$1 :i* 0 n until a mu* lat] date1 a lame explanation ( a metaphysical nature1 & 9 itself contradictory1 0 all t c\ld be (f]$4 ,x 0 t phlogi/on is end[$ ) ! contr>y ( gravity or weight1 i4e4 levity or absolute lightness4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t x is repell$ by ! e>?4 ,b if repell$ by matt]1 h[ comes x t x ent]s into comb9ation ) matt]8 ,= x c\ld n rema9 unit$ if its prop]ty 7 to repel & n to attract4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 h[ev]1 ! idea satisfi$ "s z to ! ga9 9 weight :i* metals und]go 9 *ang+ into calces4 ,x is inde$ a/oni%+ t m5 ( su* great ability & acum5 z ,black & ,cav5di% %\ld h s long la9 "u ! yoke ( ?is absurd !ory4 ,x is probable t1 9 ! case ( ^! two great *emi/s1 !y /at$ _! results 9 t]ms ( ! !ory1 p>tly because !y 7 cont5t to express ! facts to :i* !y wi%$ to call att5tion 9 ?is mann]1 p>tly because !y 7 n 9 a position to replace ! !ory by a m rational "o4 ,x is n easy to revolutionise a language1 ev5 ?\gh its vocabul>y be a re/rict$ "o4 ,! object ( writ+ is to convey ?\ghts to o!rs2 & x is c]ta9ly m conv5i5t to make use ( t]ms und]/ood by o!rs1 ev5 if !y only imp]fectly convey ! mean+ :i* x is desir$ to express1 ?an to attempt a revolution :i* w probably be unsuccessful1 & ev5 if successful1 w at all ev5ts take "t4 ,x is n s difficult to und]/& ,prie/ley's attitude1 :i* we %all h to consid] lat]2 = ,prie/ley 0 fir/ ( all an exp]im5tali/1 & 0 captivat$ m by ! acquisition ( a new fact ?an by assign+ to t fact its prop] place 9 ! cosmogony ( nature4 ,! influ5ce ( ! phlogi/ic !ory on ! k ( ! nature ( air 0 ( su* a k9d z to ret>d its progress4 ,= h[ c\ld t k be fur!r$1 :5 ! mo/ active con/itu5t ( air 0 repres5t$ by a negation8 ,x may be said t x is easy to be wise aft] ! ev5t1--9 ?is case ! discov]y ( oxyg52 b "h 0 a !ory :i* 0 9 contradiction to _m kn[n facts1 & :i* furni%$ b a lame explanation ( ph5om5a1 & :i* _h be5 anticipat$ by ano!r !ory1 subsequ5tly prov$ to be correct4 ,its sole support 0 ! au?ority ( its inv5tors or adapt]s1 & ! deeply-+ra9$ notions ( c5turies4 ,we may read f x a lesson t x is wis] to seek out facts :i* te/ & prove a !ory r ?an ^? :i* support x1 & we may le>n = ! hundr$? "t ! folly ( rely+ on au?ority1 h[ev] anci5t & associat$ ) fam\s names x may be4 ,?is 0 happily express$ by ,boyle :5 he wrote3#c 8,= ,i am wont to judge ( op9ions z ( co9s3 ,i consid] mu* less 9 any "o t ,i am to receive1 ^: inscription x be>s1 ?an :at metal 'tis made (4 ',tis indiff]5t en\gh to me :e!r 'twas /amp$ _m ye>s or ages s9ce1 or came b ye/]day f ! m9t4 ,nor d ,i reg>d h[ _m or h[ few h&s x has pass$ ?r\gh1 provid$ ,i "k by ! t\*/one :e!r or no x be g5u9e1 & does or does n des]ve to h be5 curr5t4 ,= if1 on due pro(1 x appe>s to be good1 its hav+ be5 long1 & by _m1 receiv$ = su*1 w n tempt me to refuse x4 ,b if ,i f9d x c\nt]feit1 nei!r ! pr9ce's image nor sup]scription1 nor ! multitude ( h&s x has pass$ ?r\gh1 w engage me to receive x4 ,& "o disfav\r+ trial1 well made1 w mu* m discr$it x ) me ?an all ^! spuri\s ?+s ,i h nam$ c recomm5d x40 ,x has be5 necess>y to ent] at "s l5g? into ! nature ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 because ! discov]ies ( ! "t 7 express$ 9 its language4 ,! fire-air or vital air ( ,may[ 0 t]m$ dephlogi/icat$ air2 i4e4 air :olly depriv$ ( ! p[] ( burn+1 or air m capable ( support+ combu/ion ?an ord9>y air2 :ile airs capable ( burn+ 7 suppos$ to be m or less highly *>g$ ) phlogi/on2 inde$1 at "o "t1 x 0 imag9$ t hydrog5 0 phlogi/on itself4 ,x is to ,joseph ,black t ! discov]y ( c>bon dioxide1 t con/itu5t ( air fir/ to be def9itely recognis$1 if we except ,may['s e>ly "w1 is g5]ally ascrib$4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t x _h be5 prep>$ by ,be*] & by ,hales1 & _h be5 d\btless obta9$ 9 an impure /ate by _m o!rs4 ,x w be se5 t ,black's "w 0 s complete1 & e/abli%$ ! id5tity ( ?is gas 9 s def9ite a mann]1 t 8 "r to be nam$ z its true discov]] c h>dly be que/ion$4 ,black 0 born ne> ,bordeaux 9 #agbh4 ,8 fa!r1 a w9e-m]*ant1 0 orig9ally a native ( ,belfa/1 be+ desc5d$ f a ,scotti% family :i* _h be5 settl$ !re = "s "t4 ,:5 twelve ye>s ( age4 ,black return$ to ,belfa/1 & receiv$ 8 education 9 ! local gramm>-s*ool1 aft]w>ds proce$+ to ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[ 9 #agdf1 at ! age ( eighte54 ,he 0 a pupil ( ,dr4 ,cull51 !n ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry at ! ,college !re1 :o is m5tion$ by ,pr(essor ,?omas ,?omson1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 z an excell5t & in/ructive lectur]4 ,black int5d$ to *oose ! c>e] ( m$ic9e1 & he inde$ practis$ occasionally z a m$ical man dur+ ! great] "p ( 8 life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,joseph ,,black4 ,he began 8 m$ical /udies 9 ,ed9burgh 9 ! ye> #agea1 & 9 #agee he publi%$1 z 8 !sis = ! degree ( ,m4,d41 ! "w :i* has r5d]$ 8 "n fam\s4 ,x appe>s t z e>ly z #ageb he _h be5 occupi$ ) inve/igations on quicklime1 :i* 0 !n attract+ att5tion z a rem$y = ur9>y calculi4 ,op9ion 0 divid$ reg>d+ its virtue4 ,9 a manuscript copy ( notes ( ,black's lectures1 :i* ! au?or is s =tunate z to possess1 he m5tions t 8 att5tion 0 direct$ to ! subject ?r\gh ! rival views ( ,drs4 ,al/on & ,:ytt4 ,x 0 n long be=e he prov$ t1 9 opposition to ! commonly receiv$ notion1 quicklime _h ga9$ no?+ f ! fire 9 :i* x 0 made1 b t ! lime/one us$ = its prep>ation _h lo/ ne>ly half its weight 9 becom+ cau/ic4 ,he also attempt$ successfully to trap ! escap+ gas1 & aga9 plac$ x 9 pres5ce ( lime1 conf9+ x ov] wat]4 ,in/ead ( any escape ( mat]ial :5 ! lime became mild1 8no?+ escapes--! cup rises consid]ably by absorb+ air40 ,& 9 8 notes1 a few pages f>!r on1 he comp>es ! loss ( weight und]gone by lime/one on be+ calc9$1 ) its loss on be+ dissolv$ 9 muriatic acid4 ,^! exp]im5ts appe> f 8 j\rnal to h be5 made be=e ,novemb] #ageb4 ,8 !sis 0 n publi%$1 h[ev]1 until #agee4 ,imm$iately aft]1 9 #agef1 he succe$$ ,dr4 ,cull5 z ,pr(essor 9 ,glasg[1 :]e he rema9$ until #agff4 ,dur+ ^! t5 ye>s he began & made great progress ) 8 well-kn[n rese>*es on ! heat ( fusion ( ice1 & ! heat ( vaporisation ( wat]1 or1 z he t]m$ !m1 ! 8lat5t heats0 ( wat] & ( /eam4 ,9 #agff1 ,dr4 ,cull5 0 appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 & ,black aga9 succe$$ him z ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry4 ,!re he lectur$ until #agig1 :5 he retir$ f public life2 he di$ z peacefully z he _h liv$1 9 #agii1 9 ! sev5ty-fir/ ye> ( 8 age4 ,?omson1 :o relates ^! p>ticul>s1 0 "o ( 8 la/ /ud5ts2 he writes3--8,i nev] li/5$ to any lectures ) s mu* pleasure z to 82 & x 0 ! elegant simplicity ( 8 mann]1 ! p]fect cle>ness ( 8 /atem5ts1 & ! va/ quantity ( in=mation :i* he contriv$ 9 ?is way to communicate1 t delight$ me4444 ,8 illu/rations 7 j suffici5t to answ] completely ! object 9 view1 & no m40 ,black's orig9al !sis = 8 degree 0 entitl$ ,exp]im5ts ^u ,magnesia ,alba1 ,quicklime1 & o!r ,alcal9e ,sub/ances4 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 #agee1 & sev]al times repr9t$4 ,x is n[ to be _h 9 a conv5i5t =m z "o ( ! 8,alembic ,club ,repr9ts40 ,x 0 ! cu/om 9 ^? days to adm9i/] alkalies z a rem$y = ur9>y calculi2 & ab\t ! ye> #agej lime-wat] 0 tri$ z a sub/itute4 ,op9ion 0 divid$ z reg>d$ its efficacy2 & x 0 ) ! view ( prep>+ a bett] rem$y t ,black und]took rese>*es on magnesia alba4 ,black prep>$ magnesia f 8bitt]n10 :i* rema9s 9 ! pans aft] ! cry/allisation ( salt f sea-wat]1 & also f ,epsom salts1 8:i* is evid5tly compos$ ( magnesia & ! vitriolic acid40 ,! magnesia is ?r[n d[n f ! sulphate z c>bonate1 by ! addition ( pe>l a%es1 at ! temp]ature ( ebullition1 ! soluble product be+ 8vitriolat$ t>t>10 or potassium sulphate4 ,he describes h[ 8magnesia is quickly dissolv$ ) eff]vesc5ce or explosion ( air1 by ! acids ( vitriol1 nitre1 & ( common salt1 & by di/ill$ v9eg>10 & gives an acc\nt ( ! prop]ties ( ! sulphate1 nitrate1 *loride1 & acetate4 ,he subsequ5tly heat$ ?is magnesia1 & f\nd t x lo/ 8a rem>kable proportion ( its weight 9 ! fire10 & 8 8attempts 7 direct$ to ! inve/igation ( ?is volatile "p40 ,! residue 9 ! retort did n eff]vesce on ! addition ( acids2 h5ce ! volatile "p _h be5 driv5 away by ! heat4 8,*emi/s h (t5 obs]v$1 9 _! di/illations1 t "p ( ! body has vani%$ f _! s5ses1 not)/&+ ! utmo/ c>e to reta9 x2 & !y h always f\nd1 ^u fur!r inquiry1 t subtile "p to be air1 :i*1 hav+ be5 imprison$ 9 ! body1 "u a solid =m1 0 set free1 & r5d]$ fluid & ela/ic by ! fire4 ,we may safely conclude t ! volatile matt] lo/ 9 ! calc9ation ( magnesia is mo/ly air2 & h5ce ! calc9$ magnesia does n emit air1 or make an eff]vesc5ce :5 mix$ ) acids40 ,magnesia1 ?us fre$ f 8air0 by ignition1 0 dissolv$ 9 8_s ( vitriol0 & ?r[n d[n ) an alkali4 ,its weight 0 ne>ly equal to t :i* x possess$ be=e calc9ation1 & x aga9 eff]vesc$ ) acids4 8,! air seems to h be5 furni%$ by ! alkali1 f :i* x 0 sep>at$ by ! acid2 = ,dr4 ,hales has cle>ly prov$ t alkal9e salts conta9 a l>ge quantity ( fix$ air1 :i* !y emit 9 great abundance :5 jo9$ to a pure acid4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 ! alkali is really jo9$ to an acid1 b )\t any visible emission ( air3 & yet ! air is n reta9$ 9 x2 = ! neutral salt1 into :i* x is conv]t$1 is ! same 9 quantity1 & 9 e o!r respect1 z if ! acid employ$ _h n be5 previ\sly saturat$ ) magnesia1 b (f]$ to ! alkali 9 its pure /ate1 & _h driv5 ! air out ( x 9 _! conflict4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 evid5t t ! air 0 =c$ f ! alkali by ! acid1 & lodg$ itself 9 ! magnesia40 ,aft] an acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts %[+ t magnesia is n id5tical ) lime or ) alum9a1 he proce$s3--8,x is suffici5tly cle> t ! calc>e\s e>?s 9 _! native /ate1 & t ! alkalis & magnesia 9 _! ord9>y condition1 conta9 a l>ge quantity ( fix$ air2 & ?is air c]ta9ly adh]es to !m ) consid]able =ce1 s9ce a /rong fire is necess>y to sep>ate x f magnesia1 & ! /ronge/ is n suffici5t to expel x entirely f fix$ alkalis1 or take away _! p[] ( eff]vesc+ ) acid salts4 8,^! consid]ations l$ me to conclude t ! relation betwe5 fix$ air & alkal9e sub/ances 0 some:at simil> to ! relation betwe5 ^! & acids3 t z ! calc>e\s e>?s & alkalis attract acids /rongly1 & c be saturat$ ) !m1 s !y also attract fix$ air1 & are1 9 _! ord9>y /ate1 saturat$ ) x2 & :5 we mix an acid ) an alkali1 or ) an absorb5t e>?1 t ! air is !n set at lib]ty1 & breaks out ) viol5ce2 because ! alkal9e body attracts x m weakly ?an x does ! acid1 & because ! acid & air _c bo? be jo9$ to ! same body at ! same "t4444 ,crude lime 0 !re=e consid]$ z a peculi> acrid e>?1 r5d]$ mild by its union ) fix$ air2 & quicklime z ! same e>?1 9 :i*1 by hav+ sep>at$ ! air1 we discov] t acrimony or attraction = wat]1 = animal1 vegetable1 & = inflammable sub/ances40 ,! solubility ( slak$ lime 9 wat] is next discuss$4 ,if a solution ( lime 8be expos$ to ! op5 air1 ! p>ticles ( quicklime :i* are ne>e/ ! surface gradually attract ! p>ticles ( fix$ air :i* float 9 ! atmosph]e40 ,black next po9ts out t1 on mix+ magnesia alba ) lime-wat]1 ! air leaves ! magnesia & jo9s itself to ! lime2 & z bo? magnesia & calcium c>bonate are insoluble 9 wat]1 ! wat] is left pure4 ,simil>ly quicklime deprives alkalies ( _! air & r5d]s !m cau/ic4 ,& x foll[s t if cau/ic alkali be add$ to a salt ( magnesia or ( lime1 x w sep>ate ! magnesia or ! calc>e\s e>? f ! acid1 9 a condition free f 8air0 b comb9$ ) wat]4 ,9 ord] to %[ t ! 8air0 :i* exi/s 9 comb9ation ) lime or alkalies is n ! air :i* is conta9$ 9 solution 9 wat]1 lime-wat] 0 plac$ "u an air-pump1 along ) an equal quantity ( pure wat]2 on mak+ a vacuum1 an approximately equal am\nt ( air 0 evolv$ f ea*4 8,quicklime1 !re=e1 does n attract air :5 9 its mo/ ord9>y =m1 b is capable ( be+ jo9$ to "o p>ticul> species only1 :i* is disp]s$ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 ei!r 9 ! %ape ( an exce$+ly subtile p[d]1 or m probably 9 t ( an ela/ic fluid4 ,to ?is ,i h giv5 ! "n ( fix$ air1 & p]haps v improp]ly2 b ,i ?\ght x bett] to use a ^w already famili> 9 philosophy ?an to inv5t a new "n1 be=e we be m fully acqua9t$ ) ! nature & prop]ties ( ?is sub/ance1 :i* w probably be ! subject ( my fur!r inquiry40 ,! next proce$+ 0 to r5d] 8mild alkali0 cau/ic by means ( lime1 & to det]m9e t ne>ly ! same am\nt ( acid is requir$ to saturate ! cau/ic alkali z to saturate ! mild alkali f :i* ! cau/ic alkali _h be5 prep>$4 ,on exposure to air = a =tnight1 ! cau/ic alkali aga9 became mild1 ow+ to its absorption ( fix$ air4 ,c>eful exp]im5ts 7 made to prove t su* cau/ic alkali conta9s no lime1 & does n !re=e owe its cau/icity & corrosive prop]ties to ! pres5ce ( t +r$i5t4 ,! volatile alkali 7ammonium c>bonate7 0 also r5d]$ cau/ic1 & ,black 8obta9$ an exce$+ly volatile & acrid _s1 :i* nei!r eff]vesc$ ) acids nor alt]$ 9 ! lea/ ! transp>5cy ( lime-wat]2 & al?\gh v /rong 0 light] ?an wat]1 & float$ ^u x l _s ( w9e40 ,aft] a description ( "s unsuccessful attempts to r5d] mild alkalies cau/ic by heat alone 7i4e4 to expel c>bon dioxide f potassium c>bonate71 ,black exam9es ! action ( ! 8s$ative salt0 or boracic acid on mild alkalies1 by rubb+ !m toge!r 9 pres5ce ( "s wat]4 ,at fir/ !re is no eff]vesc5ce1 b on add+ successive quantities ( boracic acid1 brisk eff]vesc5ce f9ally takes place1 borax be+ =m$4 8,?is ph5om5on may be expla9$ by consid]+ ! fix$ alkalis z n p]fectly saturat$ ) air 444 if !y expel a small quantity ( air f "s ( ! salt1 ?is air is at ! same "t absorb$ by su* ( ! contigu\s p>ticles z are de/itute ( x40 ,& on 8expos+ a small quantity ( a pure vegetable fix$ alkali 7c>bonate ( soda7 to ! air1 9 a broad & %all[ vessel1 = ! space ( two mon?s10 cry/als 7 obta9$1 :i* possess$ a mild] ta/e ?an t ( ord9>y salt ( t>t>1 :i* eff]vesc$ ) acids m viol5tly ?an usual1 & :i* c\ld n be mix$ ) ! smalle/ portion ( boracic acid )\t emitt+ a s5sible quantity ( air 7hydrog5 sodium c>bonate74 ,x !re=e foll[s t su* alkal9e sub/ances h an attraction = fix$ air2 & ?is 0 prov$ by mix+ magnesia alba 9 f9e p[d] ) cau/ic alkali1 & %ak+ = "s "t4 ,! magnesia 0 conv]t$ into ! v>iety :i* did n eff]vesce ) acids1 & ! alkali 0 r5d]$ mild1 l a solution ( salt ( t>t>4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal results ( ,black's rese>*es1 & he concludes ) a table ( aff9ity ( acids = fix$ alkali1 calc>e\s e>?1 volatile alkali1 & magnesia1 contra/+ x ) ! aff9ity possess$ by fix$ air = ! same bases4 ,x 0 ! habit ( ! ,scotti% /ud5ts to pass d[n notes tak5 dur+ ! lectures ( _! pr(essors f "o g5]ation to ano!r4 ,z ! lectures 7 g5]ally read1 & n deliv]$ extempore1 ! process result$ 9 an almo/ v]batim report ( ! actual words ( ! lectur]4 ,"o ( ^! copies ( lectures1 be>+ ! date #aggh1 gives an acc\nt ( ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 describ$1 9 words almo/ id5tical ) ^? us$ 9 ! !sis ( #agee4 ,black appe>s to h %[n 8 class ?is air1 made1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,hales' plan1 by heat+ magnesium c>bonate 9 a b5t gun-b>rel1 & collect$ ov] wat] 9 ! usual way4 ,he demon/rat$ its weight by p\r+ x f "o vessel to ano!r1 & %[$ t x ext+ui%$ ! flame ( a c&le4 ,he m5tions also t 9 #ageb he discov]$ t ?is air is ! same z *oke-damp1 & t x is fatal to animal life4 ,he speaks ( ! ,grotto del ,cane1 & obs]ves t fix$ air is produc$ by f]m5tation1 & by ! burn+ ( *>coal1 & %[$ to 8 class exp]im5ts 9 :i* air f ea* s\rce is %ak5 ) lime-wat]1 giv+ a turbidity ( c>bonate4 ,! well-kn[n exp]im5t ( inspir+ air ?r\gh lime-wat]1 :i*1 ow+ to ! small am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride x conta9s1 does n produce a turbidity1 & expir+ ?r\gh lime-wat]1 %[+ ! =mation ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! lungs1 is describ$ & p]=m$4 ,he next describes ,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts on ! solubility ( fix$ air & its d5sity1 & rese>*es by ,dr4 ,br[nrigg & ,dr4 ,gahn ( ,sw$5 on its occurr5ce 9 m9]al wat]s4 ,he also expla9s h[ calc>e\s petrifactions are produc$ by ! escape ( fix$ air f wat]1 :i* !n deposits its dissolv$ calcium c>bonate1 pres5t 9 solution z bic>bonate4 ,! deposit ( iron f *alybeate wat]s is ascrib$ to ! same cause1 & ! explanation is attribut$ to ,mr4 ,lane4 8,^u ! :ole10 ^! manuscript notes relate1 8?is sort ( air is q di/9ct f common air1 ?\gh x is commonly mix$ ) x 9 small quantity40 8,) reg>d to its orig91 :5 treat+ ( inflammable sub/ances & metals ,i %all consid] ?is m completely4 ,i %all n[ only h9t t x is a vital air1 *ang$ by "s matt]1 seem+ly ! pr9ciple ( inflammability4 ,?is appe>s f sev]al ph5om5a :5 an animal or burn+ body is enclos$ ) a c]ta9 quantity ( ?is air1 until x is *ang$ z mu* z possible40 ,! air is dim9i%$ 9 volume by ! brea?+ ( ! animal or by ! burn+ ( ! c&le4 ,& ,dr4 ,prie/ley has f\nd t 8gr[+ vegetables _h ! p[] ( re/or+ ?is sort ( air to common or vital air aga91 :i* mu/ be by _! tak+ away "s matt] :i* x _h receiv$ f ! burn+ body or animal40 ,black's acc\nt ( fix$ air & its prop]ties is ! fir/ example we possess ( a cle> & well-reason$ s]ies ( exp]im5tal rese>*es1 :]e no?+ 0 tak5 on tru/1 b ev]y?+ 0 made ! subject ( c>eful quantitative measurem5t4 ,x 0 n long s9ce ,hales _h pron\nc$ air to be a *aotic mixture ( effluvia4 ,black %[$ t common air conta9s a small am\nt ( fix$ air1 & t fix$ air mu/ be consid]$ z a fluid diff]+ 9 _m ( its prop]ties f common air1 especially 9 its be+ absorb$ by quicklime & by alkalies4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t at t "t c>bon 0 n recognis$ z an elem5t2 & h5ce1 ?\gh ,black knew t fix$ air 0 a product ( ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 he did n attribute x to ! union ( c>bon ) oxyg51 al?\gh ! s5t5ce quot$ above closely approa*es to ! tru?4 ,! discov]y ( nitrog5 0 next 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,x 0 made by ,daniel ,ru!r=d1 a pupil ( ,black's1 & at 8 in/igation1 & its description =m$ a !sis = 8 degree ( ,doctor ( ,m$ic9e4 ,daniel ,ru!r=d 0 born at ,ed9burgh on ,novemb] #crd1 #agdi4 ,he 0 ! son ( a m$ical man1 ,dr4 ,john ,ru!r=d1 "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! ,m$ical ,s*ool 9 t city4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity1 & aft] graduat+ 9 ,arts1 became a m$ical /ud5t1 tak+ 8 degree ( ,m4,d4 9 #aggb4 ,8 diploma 0 obta9$ on #ab? ,septemb]4 ,he !n travell$ = ?ree ye>s 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,italy1 & 9 #agge he return$ to 8 native t[n1 :]e he practis$ 8 pr(ession4 ,9 #aghf he succe$$ ,dr4 ,john ,hope 9 ! ,*air ( ,botany 9 8 ,univ]sity1 b he did n on t acc\nt resign 8 practice4 ,he 0 presid5t ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians ( ,ed9burgh f #agif to #agih4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( 8 life he suff]$ f g\t2 he di$ 9 #ahai1 at ! age ( sev5ty4 ,ru!r=d does n seem to h pursu$ ! /udy ( *emi/ry fur!r3 8 duties l$ him into o!r fields4 ,8 g5ial1 pleasant face1 se5 9 ! portrait by ,raeburn1 %[s him to h possess$ a happy disposition2 & he is said to h ma9ta9$ until 8 dea? 8 fri5d%ip ) ,black1 & 8 int]e/ 9 ! progress :i* sci5ce 0 !n rapidly mak+4 ,! title ( ,ru!r=d's diss]tation1 ( :i* ,i h be5 able to f9d a copy only 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 is ,diss]tatio ,inauguralis de a]e fixo dicto1 aut mephitico4 ,x 0 publi%$ at ,ed9burgh 9 #aggb1 sev5te5 ye>s aft] ,black's memorable diss]tation on ,fix$ ,air4 ,z w be se5 %ortly1 x prec$es ,prie/ley's & ,s*eele's writ+s by a ye> or two4 ,evid5tly ,black _h notic$ t a residue 0 left aft] ! combu/ion ( c>bonace\s bodies 9 air1 & absorption ( ! fix$ air produc$ by ! combu/ion1 & _h sugge/$ to ,ru!r=d1 !n a /ud5t ( 81 ! advantage ( fur!r inve/igat+ ! matt]1 & asc]ta9+ ! prop]ties ( ! residual gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,daniel ,,ru!r=d4 ,ru!r=d beg9s 8 essay ) an apt quotation f ,lucretius3-- ,d5ique res omnes deb5t 9 corpore hab]e ,ara1 qu&oquidem r>a sunt corpora et ar ,omnibus e/ rebus circumdatus appositusque4 ,he next proce$s to def9e ! atmosph]e z a pellucid ?9 fluid1 9 :i* cl\ds float & vap\rs rise4 ,its necessity = animal & vegetable life is ackn[l$g$ by all4 ,x possesses weight & ela/icity4 ,x c be fix$ by o!r bodies2 b ! air obta9$ f !m by di/illation diff]s f ord9>y vital1 salubri\s air1 & is (t5 t]m$ mephitic or poison\s4 ,aft] ackn[l$g+ 8 debt to 8 illu/ri\s preceptor ,black1 he proce$s to quote f ! latt] to ! effect t mephitic or fix$ air is ! air :i* proves fatal to animals & ext+ui%es fire2 :i* is easily absorb$ by quicklime & by alkal9e salts2 :i* occurs 9 ! ,grotto del ,cane1 & 9 m9]al wat]s2 & :i* is produc$ dur+ exhalation f ! lungs1 by combu/ion1 & dur+ c]ta9 k9ds ( f]m5tation4 ,its d5sity1 comp>$ ) t ( ord9>y air1 is z #ae or #af to #i2 h5ce x c be kept = "s "t 9 an op5 glass1 & a c&le l[]$ into x is ext+ui%$4 ,x has an agreeable ta/e & smell2 & x *anges ! col\r ( syrup ( violets f blue to purple4 ,x prev5ts putrefaction1 b putrefi$ bodies are n made fre% by x4 ,x possesses ! p[] ( comb9+ ) lime1 :i* acquires new prop]ties z ! result ( its action4 ,ru!r=d !n recalls ,black's exp]im5ts on lime & on magnesia1 po9t+ out h[ ^! bases absorb fix$ air1 & h[ x c be recov]$ f !m & f its comp\nds ) alkalies1 sometimes by heat1 & always by ! action ( acids4 ,ru!r=d next describes exp]im5ts :i* %[ t a m\se1 plac$ 9 atmosph]ic air1 & left till dead1 dim9i%es ! volume ( ! air by "o-t5?2 & t ! residual air1 on treatm5t ) alkali1 loses "o-elev5? ( its volume4 ,! residue ext+ui%es ! flame ( a c&le2 b t9d] cont9ues to sm\ld] 9 x = a %ort "t4 ,x is ?us prov$ t aft] ! :ole ( ! fix$ air has be5 )drawn by alkalies1 ! residue is /ill incapable ( support+ life & combu/ion4 ,"s burn+ bodies deprive air ( its 8salubrity0 m easily ?an o!rs4 ,! phosphorus ( ur9e cont9ues to gl[ 9 air 9 :i* a c&le has ceas$ to burn1 or 9 :i* *>coal has burn$ until x is ext+ui%$4 ,ev5 aft] ! absorption ( all fix$ air by alkalies1 phosphorus burns1 emitt+ cl\ds ( ! dry acid ( phosphorus1 :i* c be absorb$ by lime-wat]4 8,x !re=e appe>s t pure air is n conv]t$ into mephitic air by =ce ( combu/ion1 b t ?is air r takes its rise or is ?r[n out f ! body ?us resolv$4 ,& f ?is x is p]missible to draw ! conclusion t t un:olesome air is compos$ ( atmosph]ic air 9 union )1 &1 s to say1 saturat$ )1 phlogi/on4 ,& ?is conjecture is confirm$ by ! fact t air :i* has s]v$ = ! calc9ation ( metals is simil>1 & has cle>ly tak5 away f !m _! phlogi/on40 ,su* air diff]s f ! air evolv$ f metals by ! action ( acids1 :i* is m ?or\ghly impregnat$ ) phlogi/on2 & also f t f decay+ fle%1 :i* is a mixture ( mephitic air & combu/ible air4 ,he proce$s3--8,i _h int5d$ to add some?+ reg>d+ ! composition ( mephitic air1 & to seek = a reason = its un:olesome effects1 b ,i h n be5 able to f9d out any?+ ) c]ta9ty4 ,c]ta9 exp]im5ts appe> to %[1 h[ev]1 t x consi/s ( atmosph]ic air 9 union ) phlogi/ic mat]ial2 = x is nev] produc$ except f bodies :i* ab\nd 9 inflammable p>ts3 ! phlogi/on appe>s to escape f su* bodies :5 !y become conv]t$ into ! calces ( metals4 ,i say f phlogi/ic mat]ial1 because1 z already m5tion$1 pure phlogi/on1 9 comb9ation ) common air1 c be se5 to yield ano!r k9d ( air viz4 hydrog54444 ,i h lately he>d t ,prie/ley believes t vegetables gr[+ 9 mephitic air dispel its noxi\s +r$i5ts1 or1 z x 71 extract !m1 & re/ore its orig9al :olesom5ess2 & t mephitic air1 add$ to air f putrid fle%1 p>tly mitigates its un:olesome "*4 ,b ,i h be5 unable to try su* exp]im5ts40 ,we see1 !n1 t ,ru!r=d's claims to ! discov]y ( nitrog5 am\nt to ?is3--he remov$ ! oxyg5 f ord9>y air by combu/ibles su* z *>coal1 phosphorus1 or a c&le2 & hav+ got rid ( ! c>bon dioxide1 9 ^? cases :5 x 0 =m$1 by alkali or lime1 he obta9$ a residue1 n[ kn[n z nitrog54 ,8 view ( ! nature ( ?is gas1 9 ! phlogi/ic language ( ! "t1 0 t ! burn+ bodies _h giv5 up "s ( _! 8phlogi/ic mat]ial0 to ! air1 :i* 0 ?us alt]$4 ,nitrog5 0 8phlogi/icat$ air10 ev5 ?\gh incombu/ible2 hydrog51 too1 0 phlogi/icat$ air1 b air produc$ by ! union ( pure phlogi/on ) atmosph]ic air4 ,! /ep tak5 by ,ru!r=d1 "u ,black's guidance1 0 an advance1 ?\gh n a great "o1 9 ! developm5t ( ! !ory ( ! true nature ( air2 & he may be well cr$it$ ) ! discov]y ( nitrog54 #c ,a ,free ,inquiry into ! ,vulg> ,notion ( ,nature2 ,prefatory rem>ks4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( 8,,dephlogi/icat$ ,,air0 ,,by ,,prie/ley ,,& ,,by ,,s*eele--,,! ,,ov]?r[ ,,( ,,! ,,phlogi/ic ,,!ory ,,by ,,lavoisi] ,we h se5 t ,/eph5 ,hales mu/ h prep>$ oxyg51 among ! num]\s gases & mixtures ( gases :i* he extract$ f v>i\s sub/ances2 =1 among ! _m mat]ials :i* he heat$1 "o 0 r$-lead4 ,! r$-lead ( t day1 h[ev]1 mu/ h conta9$ c>bonate1 because1 z we %all see1 ,prie/ley always obta9$ a mixture ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide f t s\rce4 ,9 ! acc\nt ( 8 rese>*es1 ,hales only incid5tally m5tions ! collection ( gas f m9ium2 & he appe>s to h made no exp]im5ts ) ! object ( asc]ta9+ its prop]ties4 ,! discov]y ( oxyg5 0 made ne>ly simultane\sly by ,prie/ley & ,s*eele1 ?\gh x appe>s f ! rec5t publication ( ,s*eele's laboratory notes by ,b>on ,nord5skjld t ,s*eele _h 9 reality anticipat$ ,prie/ley by ab\t two ye>s4 ,8 rese>*es1 h[ev]1 7 n publi%$ until a ye> aft] ,prie/ley _h giv5 to ! _w an acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,prie/ley _h no !ory to def5d2 8 exp]im5ts 7 und]tak5 9 an almo/ haphaz>d mann]1 probably z a relaxation4 8,= my own "p10 he says1#d 8,i w frankly ackn[l$ge t1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5ts recit$ 9 ?is section1 ,i 0 s f> f hav+ =m$ any hypo!sis t l$ to ! discov]ies made 9 pursu+ !m1 t !y w\ld h appe>$ v improbable to me _h ,i be5 told ( !m2 & :5 ! decisive facts did at l5g? obtrude !mselves ^u my notice1 x 0 v sl[ly1 & ) great hesitation1 t ,i yield$ to ! evid5ce ( my s5ses40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,s*eele 0 engag$ 9 =m+ a !ory ( ! nature ( fire4 ,he writes3#e--8;,i p]ceiv$ ! necessity ( a k ( fire1 because )\t ?is x is impossible to make any exp]im5t2 & )\t fire or heat1 x is impossible to utilise ! action ( any solv5t4 ,i began1 !re=e1 to dismiss f my m9d all explanations ( fire1 & und]took a s]ies ( exp]im5ts 9 ord] to ga9 z full k z possible ( ^! lovely ph5om5a4 ,i ere long f\nd1 h[ev]1 t x 0 n possible to =m any correct op9ion conc]n+ ! appe>ances :i* fire exhibits1 )\t a k ( ! air4 ,aft] a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 ,i saw t air really is conc]n$ 9 ! mixture t]m$ fire1 & t x is a con/itu5t ( flame & sp>ks4 ,i le>n$1 moreov]1 t su* a treatise on fire z ?is c\ld n be compil$ ) ?or\ghness )\t also tak+ air into consid]ation40 ,s*eele's views conc]n+ fire ne$ n be m5tion$ "h2 b 8 rese>*es on air are s me?odical & s complete z to comm& our entire admiration4 ,!y rem9d u ( ^? ( ,may[1 & _h ! latt] liv$ a little long]1 !y w\ld n improbably h be5 c>ri$ out by him4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ,prie/ley _h ! advantage ( priority ( publication1 we %all comm5ce ) an acc\nt ( 8 rese>*es4 99 99 99 99 99 ,joseph ,prie/ley 0 born 9 #agcc at ,fieldheads1 ab\t six miles f ,le$s4 ,8 fa!r1 a mak] & dress] ( wooll5 clo?1 lo/ 8 wife :5 8 son ,joseph 0 ab\t six ye>s ( age2 & be+ poor1 8 si/]1 ,mrs4 ,keighley1 (f]$ to br+ up ! boy4 ,! e>ly associations ( ! lad 7 closely connect$ ) diss5t2 & aft] "s "t sp5t at a public s*ool 9 ! neighb\rhood1 he 0 s5t1 9 #ageb1 to ! ,academy at ,dav5try1 9 :i* he 0 tra9$ = ! m9i/ry4 ,!re he ga9$ "s k ( me*anics & metaphysics1 & also acquir$ "s acqua9tance ) ,*aldee1 ,syriac1 & ,arabic1 besides be+ a compet5t ,fr5* & ,g]man s*ol>4 ,aft] leav+ ! ,academy1 he settl$ at ,ne$ham 9 ,suffolk1 z assi/ant 9 a small meet+-h\se1 :]e 8 income 0 n ov] #cj a ye>4 ,8 views 71 h[ev]1 too lib]al = 8 he>]s2 & aft] "s ye>s he mov$ to ,nantwi* 9 ,*e%ire1 :]e he prea*$ & also taught a s*ool4 ,"h 8 income 0 improv$1 ?\gh /ill mis]ably small2 yet he manag$ to buy "s books1 a small air-pump1 & an electrical ma*9e4 ,he subsequ5tly remov$ to ,w>r+ton1 be+ employ$ !re 9 tea*+ & 9 lit]>y "w2 among 8 writ+s 0 a ,hi/ory ( ,electricity1 :i* fir/ br\ght him into notice1 & :i* procur$ = him ! degree ( ,,ll4,d4 ( ,ed9burgh1 ?us giv+ him a "r to ! title ( ,doctor1 by :i* he 0 always aft]w>ds kn[n4 ,at ,w>r+ton1 too1 he m>ri$4 ,we next f9d him be+ ask$ 9 #agfg to take ! pa/or%ip ( ,millhill ,*apel at ,le$s1 a call :i* he accept$4 ,! *apel 0 next door to a brew]y1 & ?is circum/ance fir/ induc$ him to take up ! subject ( ! *emi/ry ( gases1 :i* has made 8 "n fam\s4 ,"h too he publi%$ 8 ,hi/ory ( ,discov]ies relative to ,light & ,col\rs4 ,aft] six ye>s sp5t at ,le$s1 he became libr>ian to ! ,e>l ( ,%elburne 7aft]w>ds ,m>quis ( ,lansd[ne7 & travell$ ) him on ! ,cont95t4 ,:ile ) ,"l ,%elburne he publi%$ ! fir/ ?ree volumes ( ,exp]im5ts on ,air1 & c>ri$ out inve/igations :i* 7 record$ 9 a f\r? volume1 publi%$ aft] 8 removal to ,birm+ham4 ,aft] "s ye>s sp5t 9 ?is way1 he 0 p5sion$ (f1 & settl$ z m9i/] ( a meet+-h\se 9 ,birm+ham1 :]e he employ$ 8 "t p>tly 9 !ological controv]sy1 & p>tly 9 prosecut+ rese>*es 9 *emi/ry4 ,he publi%$ dur+ ?is p]iod ano!r ?ree volumes giv+ a description ( 8 exp]im5ts on air1 & communicat$ sev]al pap]s to ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 ( :i* he _h be5 made a ,fell[4 ,t[>ds ! ye> #agij he 0 s un=tunate z to attack ,burke's book on ! ,fr5* ,revolution2 & ?is _h ! effect ( r\s+ popul> op9ion aga9/ him1 m especially t ( ! local cl]gy1 ^: political views he _h frequ5tly oppos$4 ,dur+ ! riots :i* took place at ,birm+ham 9 #agia1 8 h\se 0 burn$1 & he 0 oblig$ to escape to ,london "u an assum$ "n4 ,aft] "s ye>s sp5t 9 ! *>ge ( a meet+-h\se at ,hackney1 he left ,engl& = ,am]ica4 ,8 op9ions1 ?\gh by no means uncommon at ! pres5t day1 7 s antagoni/ic to ^? ( 8 ,engli% contempor>ies t he 0 cut by 8 ,fell[s ( ! ,royal ,society1 & he !re=e resign$ 8 ,fell[%ip4 ,& ?is feel+ 0 9 no way less5$ by ! action ( ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t ( ! "t1 :i* made him a ,citiz5 ( ! ,republic1 & ev5 *ose him z a memb] ( _! ,legislative ,assembly4 ,arriv+ 9 ,am]ica 9 #agie1 he 0 well receiv$1 & settl$ at ,nor?umb]l&1 n f> f ,philadelphia4 ,!re he di$ 9 #ahjd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,joseph ,,prie/ley4 ,9 ,prie/ley's "w on gases he employ$ ! =m ( app>atus :i* _h be5 us$ by ,may[ a c5tury be=e4 ,su* app>atus is inde$ g5]ally us$ n[3 ! flasks ) b5t deliv]y-tubes1 ! ,wolff's bottles ) two necks1 & ! pneumatic tr\gh fill$ ) wat] or m]cury 7 8 *ief ut5sils4 ,by means ( su* app>atus1 gases c be collect$ 9 a /ate ( comp>ative purity3 !y c be easily transf]r$ f "o vessel to ano!r1 & sub/ances :i* x is desir$ to submit to _! action c be readily introduc$4 ,s*eele1 on ! o!r h&1 employ$ less conv5i5t me?ods3 8 gases 7 g5]ally collect$ 9 bladd]s1 & _! transf]5ce to bottles mu/ h be5 att5d$ ) ! introduction ( atmosph]ic air4 ,s*eele's me?od 0 to all[ a c]ta9 am\nt ( gas to escape f ! g5]at+ flask 9 ord] to expel air2 an empty bladd] 0 !n ti$ ov] ! neck1 & ! gas ent]$ ! bladd]4 ,:5 he wi%$ to transf] ! gas to a bottle1 ! bladd] 0 ti$ at "s di/ance f ! neck1 & its loose op5 end 0 secur$ by a /r+ r\nd ! neck ( a bottle full ( wat]4 ,! /r+ conf9+ ! gas 0 !n unti$1 & ! bottle 0 inv]t$2 ! wat] ran into ! bladd] & 0 replac$ by gas4 ,a cork 0 also enclos$ 9 ! bladd]1 & x 0 possible to pu% ?is cork into ! neck ( ! bottle & re-tie ! /r+ :i* conf9$ ! gas2 & !n1 by loos+ ! /r+ :i* secur$ ! bottle to ! bladd]1 ! full bottle c\ld be convey$ away4 ,?is process is obvi\sly a clumsy "o1 al?\gh 9 ,s*eele's h&s x yield$ spl5did results2 & ! me?ods :i* ,prie/ley _h borr[$ f ,may[ h atte/$ _! sup]iority by _! survival4 ,! fir/ gas :i* ,prie/ley inve/igat$ 0 8nitr\s gas10 or1 z x is n[ nam$1 nitric oxide4 ,x _h previ\sly be5 prep>$ by ,may[ 7see p4 #be7 by ! action ( nitric acid on iron2 & ,may[ _h made ! important obs]vation t :5 x 0 introduc$ into ord9>y air conf9$ ov] wat]1 ! volume ( ! air 0 decreas$1 & a rise ( temp]ature occurr$4 ,b ,may[ did n apply 8 discov]y to ! analysis ( air1 ?\gh he rightly conjectur$ t ! reason ( ! decrease 9 volume ( ! latt] 0 due to comb9ation betwe5 ! nitric oxide & 8 8fire-air p>ticles40 ,x 0 left = ,prie/ley to r$iscov] ?is fact1 & to apply x to ! analysis ( air1 or1 z he express$ x1 to ! det]m9ation ( its 8goodness40 ,prie/ley's use ( a m]curial tr\gh enabl$ him to collect & inve/igate v>i\s k9ds ( airs1 among o!rs 8m>9e acid air0 or gase\s hydrog5 *loride1 a gas diff]+ entirely 9 prop]ties f ord9>y air4 ,?is made 8 m9d famili> ) ! ?\ght t diff]5t k9ds ( air exi/1 n necess>ily modifications ( atmosph]ic air4 ,he _h previ\sly f 8 exp]im5ts come to ! conclusion t 8atmosph]ic air is n an unalt]able ?+1 = t ! phlogi/on ) :i* x becomes load$ f bodies burn+ 9 x1 & animals brea?+ x1 & v>i\s o!r *emical processes1 s f> alt]s & depraves x1 z to r5d] x altoge!r unfit = inflammation1 respiration1 & o!r purposes to :i* x is subs]vi5t2 & ,i _h discov]$ t agitation 9 wat]1 ! process ( vegetation1 & probably o!r natural processes1 by tak+ out ! sup]flu\s phlogi/on1 re/ore x to its natural purity4 ,b ,i own ,i _h no idea ( ! possibility ( go+ any f>!r 9 ?is way1 & !reby procur+ air pur] ?an ! be/ common air40 ,on ! #a/ ( ,augu/ #aggd1 ,prie/ley heat$ by means ( a burn+-glass r$ oxide ( m]cury4 ,?is 0 produc$ by heat+ m]cury until x oxidis$1 & !re=e _h be5 unt\*$ by acids1 or by any sub/ance :i* c\ld h 8imp>t$ phlogi/on0 to atmosph]ic air4 ,! result+ air 0 insoluble 9 wat]1 & support$ combu/ion bett] ?an common air1 = a c&le burn$ m brightly1 & a piece ( r$-hot wood sp>kl$ 9 x4 ,?is air he also produc$ f 8r$ precipitate10 ! product ( heat+ nitrate ( m]cury2 & at ! same "t f r$-lead1 or m9ium4 ,x diff]$ f 8modifi$ nitr\s air10 9 :i* a c&le also burns brightly1 inasmu* z %ak+ ) wat] ! gases produc$ aft] a c&le _h burn$ = "s "t 9 x did n deprive x ( its p[] ( support+ combu/ion2 nor did x dim9i% ! bulk ( common air1 z ! nitr\s air does 9 "s degree4 ,prie/ley "h ref]s to a mixture obta9$ by di/ill+ nitrates1 :i* is ess5tially a mixture ( nitric p]oxide ) oxyg54 ,a c&le burns 9 su* a mixture1 depriv+ ! nitric p]oxide ( "p ( its oxyg51 & conv]t+ x into nitric oxide mix$ ) nitrog54 ,nitric oxide1 depriv$ ( ! excess ( p]oxide by %ak+ ) wat]1 ) :i* ! p]oxide reacts & is absorb$1 is no long] capable ( support+ ! combu/ion ( a c&le2 & :5 add$ to ord9>y air x comb9es ) its oxyg51 aga9 =m+ nitric p]oxide1 :i* 9 its turn is absorb$ by wat]4 ,prie/ley's exp]im5ts 7 p]=m$ at int]vals f ,augu/ #aggd till ,m>* #agge1 & at t date x occurr$ to him to mix ) 8 dephlogi/icat$ air "s nitric oxide ov] wat]2 absorption took place1 & he conclud$ t he might assume 8 new air to be respirable4 ,& :at surpris$ him especially 01 t ev5 aft] addition ( nitric oxide & agitation ) wat]1 ! residue /ill support$ ! combu/ion ( a c&le4 ,a m\se1 too1 liv$ half an h\r 9 ! new air1 & reviv$ aft] be+ remov$2 :]eas simil> exp]im5ts ) an equal volume ( common air _h %[n t1 aft] respir+ x = a qu>t] ( an h\r1 a m\se 0 indisputably dead4 ,ev5 aft] ! m\se _h brea!d x = s long a "t1 x 0 /ill capable ( support+ ! combu/ion ( a c&le2 & ?is induc$ him to add m nitric oxide to ! respir$ air1 :5 he f\nd t a fur!r contraction occurr$4 ,he re9troduc$ ! same un=tunate m\se into ! rema9d] ( ! air--a portion to :i* nitric oxide _h n be5 add$--:5 x liv$ = ano!r half-h\r1 & 0 q vigor\s :5 )drawn4 ,subsequ5t exp]im5ts ) nitric oxide %[$ t air f r$ precipitate or f 8m]curius calc9atus0 7r$ oxide ( m]cury 9 ea* case1 al?\gh prep>$ 9 diff]5t ways7 0 8betwe5 f\r & five times z good z common air40 ,he proce$s3#f--8;,be+ n[ satisfi$ ) respect to ! nature ( ?is new species ( air1 viz4 t be+ capable ( tak+ m phlogi/on f nitr\s air1 x !re=e orig9ally conta9s less ( ?is pr9ciple1 my next inquiry 01 by :at means x comes to be s pure1 or1 philosophically speak+1 to be s mu* dephlogi/icat$40 ,he !re=e w5t on to heat ! v>i\s oxides ( lead1 b )\t any special results wor? *ronicl+4 ,on moi/5+ r$-lead ) nitric acid1 h[ev]1 & di/ill+ ! mixture1 he obta9$1 9 successive op]ations1 air :i* 0 8five times z good0 z common air4 ,?is process =m$ lead nitrate1 :i* on di/illation yield$ nitric p]oxide & oxyg52 ! gas 01 ( c\rse1 collect$ ov] wat]1 :i* absorb$ ! p]oxide1 all[+ pure oxyg5 to pass4 ,he f\nd t r$-lead 0 n ! only 8e>?0 :i* produc$ ?is effect2 b t 8fl[]s ( z9c0 7z9c oxide71 *alk1 slak$ lime1 & o!r sub/ances also gave a gas1 :5 di/ill$ ) nitric acid1 :i* 0 8bett]0 ?an common air4 ,9 "s cases he broke up nitric acid by heat into wat]1 nitric p]oxide1 & oxyg52 9 o!rs he heat$ nitrates4 ,8 conclusion is3 8,atmosph]ical air1 or ! ?+ we brea!1 consi/s ( ! nitr\s acid & e>?1 ) s mu* phlogi/on z is necess>y to its ela/icity2 & likewise s mu* m z is requir$ to br+ x f its /ate ( p]fect purity to ! mean condition 9 :i* we f9d x40#g ,:5 su* exp]im5ts 7 made by heat+ nitrates 9 a gun-b>rel1 8phlogi/icat$ air0 0 obta9$4 ,?is 0 nitrog51 = ! iron _h r$uc$ ! oxides ( ! latt]1 & comb9+ ) _! oxyg51 _h =m$ nitrog52 moreov]1 x _h absorb$ to a great] or less ext5t ! oxyg5 simultane\sly produc$4 ,hav+ conclud$ t respirable air 0 a comp\nd ( nitr\s acid1 phlogi/on1 & e>?1 ,prie/ley endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 :at 0 ! nature ( ?is e>?4 ,he concludes 8t ! metallic e>?s1 if free f phlogi/on1 are ! mo/ prop]1 & next to !m ! calc>e\s e>?s40 8,dephlogi/icat$ air may be procur$ f any k9d ( e>? ) :i* ! _s ( nitre w unite40 ,a few quantitative exp]im5ts w\ld surely h refut$ ?is errone\s conclusion4 ,^? :i* he attempt$ to make 7 v crude4 ,a bladd] 7( :i* he does n give ! capacity7 0 fill$ ) ,phlogi/icat$ air1 & weigh$ #g dwts4 #ae grs4 ,nitr\s air #g #af ,common air #g #ag ,dephlogi/icat$ air #g #ai ,he concludes 7tak+ into consid]ation t inflammable air is v light7 8t ! less phlogi/on any k9d ( air conta9s1 ! heavi] x is2 & ! m phlogi/on x conta9s1 ! light] x is40#h ,/range t ?is %\ld n h l$ to ! rejection ( ! phlogi/ic hypo!sis6 ,prie/ley _h ! curiosity to brea! 8 8good0 air4 ,he says3 8,my read] w n wond] t1 aft] hav+ asc]ta9$ ! sup]ior goodness ( dephlogi/icat$ air by mice liv+ 9 x1 & ! o!r te/s above m5tion$1 ,i %\ld h ! curiosity to ta/e x myself4 ,i h gratifi$ t curiosity by brea?+ x1 draw+ x ?r\gh a glass syphon1 & by ?is means ,i r$uc$ a l>ge j> full ( x to ! /&>d ( common air4 ,! feel+ ( x to my lungs 0 n s5sibly diff]5t f t ( common air1 b ,i fanci$ t my brea/ felt peculi>ly light & easy = "s "t aft]w>ds4 ,:o c tell b t 9 "t ?is pure air may become a fa%ionable article 9 luxury8 ,hi!rto only two mice & myself h _h ! privilege ( brea?+ x40#i ,x w be se5 f ?is acc\nt t ,prie/ley's "w 0 to "s ext5t t ( an amateur4 ,he p]=m$ exp]im5ts1 (t5 )\t any def9ite object2 & he 0 n always successful 9 devis+ !ories4 ,z be=e rem>k$1 8 *emical pursuits 7 to him a recreation1 & 7 und]tak5 dur+ ! int]vals ( 8 necess>y "w4 ,8 m9d 0 !re=e n giv5 ov] to !m alone2 & ?is is to be se5 f ! "* ( 8 writ+s4 ,8 /yle is a delightfully famili> "o3 he exposes 8 inmo/ ?\ghts ) p]fect frankness1 & 8 writ+s are !re=e v readable4--,we h n[ to comp>e 8 "w ) t ( 8 contempor>y1 ,s*eele1 ^: mission 9 life 0 t ( a *emi/2 & ! read] w be int]e/$ 9 not+ ! diff]5t po9ts ( view :i* ^! two em95t discov]]s adopt$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,c>l ,wilhelm ,s*eele 0 born on ! #i? ( ,decemb] #agdb 9 ,/ralsund1 ! capital ( ,sw$i% ,pom]ania1 :]e 8 fa!r 0 a m]*ant & a burgess4 ,he 0 ! sev5? ( elev5 *ildr54 ,aft] receiv+ 8 education1 p>tly 9 a private s*ool1 p>tly 9 ! public s*ool 7gymnasium7 at ,/ralsund1 he 0 appr5tic$ at ! age ( f\rte5 to ! apo!c>y ,bau* 9 ,go!nburg4 ,9 ^? days an apo!c>y 0 9 l>ge measure a manufactur] z well z a retail] ( drugs4 ,he _h to prep>e 8 m$ic9es 9 a pure /ate f v impure mat]ials1 z well z to mix !m 9 ord] to c>ry out prescriptions2 &1 inde$1 he himself (t51 z sometimes happ5s /ill1 v5tur$ to prescribe 9 mild cases4 ,s*eele's ma/] taught him su* me?ods1 & 9 addition in/ruct$ him 9 ! use ( ! *emical symbols 9 vogue at t date2 ^! he aft]w>ds freely employ$ 9 8 manuscripts1 & ?is r5d]s !m exce$+ly difficult to deciph]4 ,!re /ill exi/s a catalogue ( ! drugs 8 ma/] kept2 _m ( !m are ( a fanta/ic nature1 su* z 8o9tm5t ( vip]s01 8human bra9 prep>$ )\t heat01 etc42 b among !m 7 _m ( ! well-kn[n salts ( metals1 & ! common] acids1 besides phosphorus1 sulphur1 rock-cry/al1 "s ores1 & "s c>bon comp\nds2 = example1 b5zoic acid & camphor4 ,!re 0 a fair *emical libr>y1 :i* includ$ ! works ( ,bo]haave & ,lem]y1 & 8 ma/] devot$ mu* pa9s to 8 in/ruction4 ,9 a lett] to ,s*eele's fa!r1 h[ev]1 he express$ a fe> t too great devotion to /udy & exp]im5tal "w w\ld und]m9e ! heal? ( a gr[+ lad4 ,9 #agfe ! bus9ess 0 sold1 & ,s*eele obta9$ a situation 9 ,malm ) an apo!c>y nam$ ,kjell/rm4 ,8 ma/] te/ifi$ t he _h extraord9>y application & ability1 & relat$ t he 0 9 ! habit ( criticis+ all t he read1 say+ ( "o /atem5t1 8,?is may be ! case02 ( ano!r1 8,?is is wrong02 ( a ?ird1 8,i %all look into ?is40 ,8 memory 0 prodigi\s3 he is said nev] to h =gott5 any?+ :i* he _h read relat+ to 8 fav\rite subject4 ,he took little int]e/ 9 any?+ else1 & bo? 8 employ]s appe> to h enc\rag$ him to ! utmo/ 9 8 fav\rite pursuit4 ,9 #agfh he left ,malm = ,/ockholm2 b "h ! exig5cies ( 8 duties int]f]$ ) 8 leisure = exp]im5tation4 ,:ile !re1 9 conjunction ) 8 fri5d ,retzius1 he discov]$ t>t>ic acid1 :i* up till !n _h nev] be5 sep>at$ f t>t>1 its potassium salt4 ,"h too he made inve/igations on ! acid ( fluor-sp> 7hydr(luoric acid72 b f9d+ 8 "t too greatly occupi$ ) r\t9e "w1 he took a situation at ,upsala1 ! seat ( ! l>ge/ univ]sity ( ,sw$51 9 #aggj4 ,at t "t ,b]gman 0 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry !re1 & ,l9naeus occupi$ ! ,*air ( ,botany2 bo? _h !n a*iev$ a wide reputation4 ,) ,b]gman he soon e/abli%$ close relations1 & ,retzius wrote t x 0 difficult to say :i* 0 pupil & :i* tea*]4 ,:ile at ,upsala he wrote 8 great "w on ,fire & ,air1 :i* we %all %ortly h to consid]4 ,f 8 laboratory notes x appe>s t be=e #aggc he _h obta9$ oxyg5 by ! ignition ( silv] c>bonate1 r$ m]curic oxide1 nitre1 magnesium nitrate1 & f a mixture ( ars5ic acid & manganese dioxide4 ,"h too he discov]$ *lor9e1 & made rese>*es on manganese1 ars5ic1 & b>yta4 ,9 #agge he 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,royal ,sw$i% ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 an hon\r :i* mu* improv$ 8 social /atus4 ,9 ! same ye> he became manag] ( a bus9ess at ,kp+1 :]e he pass$ ! re/ ( 8 days1 9 spite ( urg5t appeals to engage 9 m remun]ative "w2 inde$1 he 0 /rongly press$ to g to ,b]l91 & also1 x is said1 to ,london1 = 8 publications _h l$ to 8 recognition z "o ( ! greate/ *emi/s ( ! age4 ,8 book on ,fire & ,air 0 n publi%$ = "s ye>s aft] ! manuscript _h be5 9 ! pr9t]'s h&s4 ,we le>n f 8 lett]s t he 0 mu* afraid ( be+ anticipat$ 9 8 discov]ies1 z inde$ ev5ts %[$ t he _h reason to be4 ,f 8 lett]s & f ! v]dict ( 8 contempor>ies1 ,s*eele is depict$ z an amiable & hon\rable man1 s+ul>ly free f vanity & selfi%ness4 ,un=tunately no portrait ( him has surviv$4 ,8 la/ memoir on ! action ( sunlight on nitric acid 0 publi%$ 9 #aghf2 he di$ sudd5ly at ! e>ly age ( =ty-?ree 9 ,may ( t ye>1 two days aft] 8 m>riage to ,s>a ,m>g>e?a ,pohl4 ,8 devotion to sci5ce _h told on 8 heal?1 & 8 dea? 0 caus$ by a complication ( diseases4 ,yet he 0 dur+ 8 life1 z aft] 8 dea?1 reg>d$ z "o ( ! greate/ ( *emi/s3 8 great k1 extraord9>y aptitude 9 exp]im5t+1 & high intellectual p[]s plac$ him among ! =emo/ m5 ( sci5ce ( 8 day4 ,ne> ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,treatise on ,air & ,fire1#aj ,s*eele def9es air4 ,x is t fluid invisible sub/ance :i* we cont9ually brea!2 :i* surr\nds ! :ole surface ( ! e>?1 is v ela/ic1 & possesses weight4 8,x is always fill$ ) an a/oni%+ quantity ( all k9ds ( exhalations1 :i* are s f9ely divid$ 9 x t !y are sc>cely visible1 ev5 9 ! sun's rays40#aa ,x also conta9s ano!r ela/ic sub/ance resembl+ air1 t]m$ a]ial acid by ,b]gman 7id5tical ) ,black's fix$ air74 ,s9ce atmosph]ic air has n be5 completely conv]t$ into fix$ air by admixture ( =eign mat]ials1 8,i hope ,i d n err if ,i assume z _m k9ds ( air z exp]im5t reveals to me4 ,= :5 ,i h collect$ an ela/ic fluid1 & obs]ve conc]n+ x t its expansive p[] is increas$ by heat & dim9i%$ by cold1 :ile x /ill uni=mly reta9s its ela/ic fluidity1 b also discov] 9 x prop]ties & behavi\r diff]5t f ^? ( common air1 !n ,i consid] myself ju/ifi$ 9 believ+ t ?is is a peculi> k9d ( air4 ,i say t air ?us collect$ mu/ reta9 its ela/icity ev5 9 ! greate/ cold1 because o!rwise an innum]able multitude ( v>ieties ( air w\ld h to be assum$1 s9ce x is v probable t all sub/ances c be conv]t$ by excessive heat into a vap\r resembl+ air40#ab ,aft] def9+ ! prop]ties *>act]i/ic ( air1 namely1 its p[] ( support+ combu/ion1 its dim9ution by "o ?ird or "o qu>t] dur+ ! combu/ion ( any sub/ance :i* does n produce any fluid resembl+ air1 its insolubility 9 wat]1 its p[] ( support+ life1 & ! fact ( its be+ fav\rable to ! gr[? ( plants1 ,s*eele demon/rates t air mu/ consi/ ( at lea/ two ela/ic fluids4 ,?is he proves by expos+ x to 8liv] ( sulphur0 7polysulphide ( potassium71 :5 six p>ts out ( tw5ty 7 absorb$4 ,he obta9$ ! same result by employ+ a solution ( sulphur 9 cau/ic pota%1 & also by polysulphide ( calcium1 prep>$ by boil+ lime-wat] ) sulphur1 & by means ( yell[ sulphide ( ammonium4 ,nitric oxide1 8! nitr\s air :i* arises on ! dissolution ( metals 9 nitr\s acid10 produces a simil> contraction1 & s also d oil ( turp5t9e & 8dry+ oils0 9 g5]al4 ,dippel's animal oil1 obta9$ by di/ill+ bones1 & f]r\s hydroxide1 produc$ f 8vitriol ( iron0 & 8cau/ic ley10 or f]r\s sulphate & cau/ic pota%1 may also be us$ z absorb5ts2 z may also iron fil+s moi/5$ ) wat]1 a solution ( iron 9 v9eg>1 & a solution ( cupr\s *loride4 8,9 none ( ! =ego+ k9ds ( air c a c&le burn or ! smalle/ sp>k gl[40 ,he acc\nts = ^! results by ! !ory t all su* absorb5ts conta9 phlogi/on1 :i* is attract$ by ! air1 &1 comb9+ ) x1 dim9i%es its bulk4 ,! alkalies & lime attract ! vitriolic acid ( ! sulphides us$1 & ! air attracts ! phlogi/on4 8,b :e!r ! phlogi/on :i* 0 lo/ by ! sub/ances 0 /ill pres5t 9 ! air left beh9d 9 ! bottle1 or :e!r ! air :i* 0 lo/ _h unit$ & fix$ itself ) ! mat]ials1 su* z liv] ( sulphur1 oils1 etc41 are que/ions ( importance40#ac ,! conclusion t su* air1 :i* _h receiv$ phlogi/on & _h contract$ 9 volume1 ought to be specifically heavi] ?an common air 01 h[ev]1 rudely dissipat$ by exp]im5t4 ,! air mu/ !re=e conta9 two fluids1 "o ( :i* does n manife/ ! lea/ attraction = phlogi/on1 :ile ! o!r is peculi>ly dispos$ to su* attraction4 8,b :]e ?is latt] k9d ( air has gone to1 aft] x has unit$ ) ! inflammable sub/ance1 is a "q :i* mu/ be decid$ by fur!r exp]im5ts1 & n by conjectures40#ad ,to decide ?is "q1 ,s*eele burn$ 9 air sub/ances su* z phosphorus1 :i* d n produce by _! combu/ion any k9d ( 8air40 ,! result 0 t ! air lo/ #i volumes out ( an orig9al #cj1 or ab\t "o-?ird ( its bulk4 ,a flame ( hydrog5 burn+ 9 air caus$ x to lose "o-fif? ( its volume4 ,on burn+ a c&le1 "s spirits ( w9e1 or "s *>coal1 9 a conf9$ quantity ( air1 v little1 if any1 dim9ution ( volume 0 notic$2 b on %ak+ ! air ) milk ( lime1 contraction ensu$1 b n to ! same ext5t z :5 phosphorus 0 burnt 9 x4 ,?is greatly puzzl$ ,s*eele2 we n[ "k t su* combu/ibles are n able to remove all ! oxyg51 b t !y are ext+ui%$ :5 only a portion ( ea* has ent]$ into comb9ation4 ,"h1 aga91 h[ev]1 8 memory comes to 8 help1 = he says1 8,x is kn[n t "o "p ( a]ial acid mix$ ) t5 p>ts ( ord9>y air ext+ui%es fire2 & !re are "h 9 addition1 exp&$ by ! heat ( ! flame & surr\nd+ ! latt]1 ! wat]y vap\rs produc$ by ! de/ruction ( ^? oily sub/ances4 ,x is ^! two ela/ic fluids1 sep>at+ !mselves f su* a flame1 :i* pres5t no small h9drance to ! fire :i* w\ld o!rwise burn mu* long]1 especially s9ce !re is "h no curr5t ( air by means ( :i* !y c be driv5 away f ! flame4 ,:5 ! a]ial acid is sep>at$ f ?is air by milk ( lime1 !n a c&le c burn 9 x aga91 ?\gh only = a v %ort "t40#ae ,?us ! "q 0 correctly solv$4 ,s*eele's acum5 l$ him at once to make exp]im5ts admirably adapt$ to discov] ! true reason2 he 0 n turn$ aside by any imag9>y difficulties1 b w5t /raight to ! po9t4 ,he next burn$ sulphur 9 conf9$ air1 & f\nd little alt]ation ( volume1 b on %ak+ ) cle> lime-wat]1 absorption took place1 & "o-six? ( ! air 0 remov$4 8,! lime-wat] 0 n 9 ! lea/ precipitat$ 9 ?is case1 an indication t sulphur gives out no a]ial acid dur+ its combu/ion1 b ano!r sub/ance resembl+ air2 ?is is ! volatile acid ( sulphur1 :i* occupies aga9 ! empty space produc$ by ! union ( ! inflammable sub/ance ) air40#af ,! next set ( exp]im5ts 7 devis$ 8to prove t ord9>y air1 consi/+ ( two k9ds ( ela/ic fluids1 c be comp\nd$ aga91 aft] ^! h be5 sep>at$ f "o ano!r by means ( phlogi/on40 8,i h already /at$ t ,i 0 n able to f9d aga9 ! lo/ air4 ,"o might inde$ object t ! lo/ air rema9s 9 ! residual air :i* c no m unite ) phlogi/on2 =1 s9ce ,i h f\nd t x is light] ?an ord9>y air1 x might be believ$ t ! phlogi/on1 unit$ ) ?is air1 makes x light]1 z appe>s to be kn[n already f o!r exp]im5ts4 ,b s9ce phlogi/on is a sub/ance1 :i* always presupposes "s weight1 ,i mu* d\bt :e!r su* hypo!sis has any f\ndation40#ag ,he _h =m]ly conjectur$ t hydrog51 ! 8air0 obta9$ by ! action ( vitriol on z9c1 might be phlogi/on2 8/ill1 o!r exp]im5ts are contr>y to ?is40 ,s*eele next directs att5tion to acid ( nitre1 & po9ts out t :5 prep>$ 9 abs5ce ( organic mat]ial1 x is ne>ly col\rless2 b t if phlogi/on be giv5 to x1 x becomes r$4 ,at ! end ( a di/illation ( pure nitre ) pure sulphuric acid1 h[ev]1 r$ fumes are produc$3 8,:]e does ! acid n[ obta9 its phlogi/on8 ,!re is ! difficulty40 ,he collect$ "s ( ?is 8r$ air0 9 a bladd] conta9+ milk ( lime1 to prev5t its corrosive action2 & hav+ tri$ :e!r ! result+ gas1 :i* 0 n[ no long] r$1 w\ld support combu/ion1 8! c&le began to burn ) a l>ge flame1 :]eby x gave out su* a bright light t x 0 suffici5t to dazzle ! eyes4 ,i mix$ "o "p ( ?is air ) ?ree p>ts ( t air 9 :i* fire w\ld n burn2 ,i _h "h an air :i* 0 l ! ord9>y air 9 e respect4 ,s9ce ?is air is necess>ily requir$ = ! orig9ation ( fire1 & makes up ab\t ! ?ird "p ( our common air1 ,i %all call x aft] ?is1 = ! sake ( %ortness1 ,fire-air2 b ! o!r air1 :i* is n 9 ! lea/ s]viceable = ! fi]y ph5om5a1 ,i %all designate aft] ?is ) ! "n already kn[n1 ,vitiat$ air40#ah ,h[ hi/ory repeats itself6 ,"h is ,s*eele1 9 #aggb1 reproduc+ ,may['s "n 8fire-air p>ticles0 = ! same sub/ance ( :i* ,may[ _h inf]r$ ! exi/5ce a c5tury be=e1 & :i* he _h po9t$ out z be+ pres5t 9 ! acid ( nitre1 z well z 9 common air4 ,?is air is n a 8dry acid ( nitre conv]t$ into ela/ic vap\rs10 = x does n produce nitre ) alkalies2 moreov]1 x c be prep>$ f sub/ances :i* h no?+ 9 common ) nitre1 no comp\nd ( nitre hav+ be5 us$ dur+ _! prep>ation4 ,s*eele next describes exp]im5ts prov+ t 8fire-air0 is produc$ by ! di/illation ( black oxide ( manganese ) conc5trat$ oil ( vitriol1 or ) ! 8phosphorus acid ( ur9e0 7phosphoric acid71 by di/ill+ nitrate ( magnesium1 made by dissolv+ ! 8:ite magnesia employ$ 9 m$ic9e0 7magnesium c>bonate7 9 aqua=tis 7nitric acid71 or by di/ill+ 8m]curial nitre0 7m]curic nitrate74 ,! *eape/ & ! be/ me?od ( produc+ 8fire-air0 is to di/il purifi$ nitre 9 a glass retort4 ,b ,s*eele also obta9$ x f 8calx ( silv]0 7silv] c>bonate7 prep>$ f silv] nitrate & 8alkali ( t>t>0 7potassium c>bonate72 dur+ ?is process he got a]ial acid1 :i* _h be5 pres5t orig9ally 9 ! alkali ( t>t>2 b x 0 easily remov$ by means ( milk ( lime4 ,simil>ly1 8calx ( gold10 obta9$ f a solution ( gold ) 8alkali ( t>t>10 gave 8fire-air0 :5 heat$2 b no a]ial acid1 = t air escapes dur+ ! precipitation ( ! 8calx40 ,! br[n-r$ precipitate obta9$ by add+ 8alkali ( t>t>0 to 8corrosive sublimate0 7potassium c>bonate to m]curic *loride1 giv+ a basic c>bonate ( m]cury & potassium *loride7 yield$ a mixture ( fire-air & a]ial acid :5 heat$4 ,b if ! 8calx ( m]cury0 _h be5 prep>$ by means ( ! 8acid ( nitre10 or 9 mod]n language by heat+ m]curic nitrate1 a pure 8fire-air10 unmix$ ) 8a]ial acid10 0 ! product4 ,& la/ly1 ars5ic acid1 :5 heat$1 gave ord9>y :ite ars5ic toge!r ) 8fire-air40 ,?is fire-air 0 completely absorb$ by 8liv] ( sulphur0 7a polysulphide ( potassium1 =m$ by heat+ toge!r potassium c>bonate & sulphur72 & a mixture ( f\r p>ts ( 8fire-air0 ) f\rte5 p>ts ( 8vitiat$ air0 lo/ ! :ole ( its fire-air on /&+ = f\rte5 days 9 contact ) liv] ( sulphur4 ,dippel's animal oil1 & burn+ phosphorus1 *>coal1 & sulphur1 all absorb$ 8fire-air0--completely if x 0 pure1 incompletely if x 0 mix$ ) 8vitiat$ air02 9 %ort1 ! id5tity ( 8fire-air0 prep>$ f calces1 etc41 ) t 9 ord9>y air 0 completely e/abli%$4 ,z 8vitiat$ air0 is light] ?an ord9>y air1 x foll[s t 8fire-air0 mu/ be heavi]2 & exp]im5t prov$ ?is to be ! case4 ,to completely disprove ! possible cont5tion t nitre 0 necess>y = ! production ( 8fire-air10 "s 8calx ( m]cury0 7or r$ oxide71 :i* _h be5 prep>$ by boil+ m]cury = a long "t 9 contact ) air1 0 heat$4 ,! products 7 metallic m]cury & 8fire-air04 8,?is is a rem>kable circum/ance1 t ! fire-air :i* _h previ\sly remov$ f ! m]cury its phlogi/on 9 a sl[ calc9ation1 gives ! same phlogi/on up to x aga91 :5 ! calx is simply made r$-hot40#ai ,is x n rem>kable t ! true explanation %\ld n h =c$ itself ^u ,s*eele's m9d1 :i* 0 s acute1 & s capable ( =m+ true d$uctions8 ,! next set ( exp]im5ts dealt ) ! ph5om5a ( respiration4 ,a rat1 conf9$ 9 air until x di$1 pollut$ ! air ) "o-?irtie? ( a]ial acid4 ,respiration f ,s*eele's own lungs _h ! same effect4 ,a few flies1 bees1 & cat]pill>s also pollut$ ! air 9 ! same way4 ,peas1 roots1 h]bs1 & fl[]s all conv]t$ ab\t "o-f\r? "p ( ord9>y air into 8a]ial acid04 8,^! are accord+ly /range circum/ances1 t ! air is n noticeably absorb$ by animals end[$ ) lungs1 conta9s 9 x v little a]ial acid1 & yet ext+ui%es fire4 ,on ! o!r h&1 insects & plants alt] ! air 9 exactly ! same way1 b /ill !y conv]t ! f\r? "p ( x into a]ial acid40#bj ,& s he makes exp]im5ts :i* prove t x is ! fire-air :i* is conv]t$ into 8a]ial acid0 by peas2 & t 8fire-air0 is absorb$ by fre% blood1 & acquires no a]ial acid f x4 ,&1 fur!r1 he 0 able to brea! fire-air = a long "t1 especially if a 8h&ful ( pota%es0 0 put into ! bladd]4 ,a c\ple ( l>ge bees1 conf9$ 9 8fire-air10 along ) milk ( lime1 consum$ practically ! :ole ( ! air 9 eight days4 ,b plants1 conf9$ 9 8fire-air10 along ) milk ( lime1 w\ld n gr[2 h[ev]1 !y yield$ a little a]ial acid4 ,s*eele is aga9 puzzl$ "h by ! circum/ance t ! blood & ! lungs h n ! same action on air z insects & plants1 inasmu* z ! =m] conv]t x into vitiat$ air1 & ! latt] into a]ial acid4 ,we n[ "k t air w n support life ( w>m-blood$ animals :5 ! oxyg5 falls bel[ a c]ta9 n v small am\nt1 :ile insects appe> to be capable ( exhau/+ ! oxyg5 to a great ext5t2 & x is probable t ! plants1 "u ! unnatural circum/ances 9 :i* !y 7 plac$1 gave (f a consid]able am\nt ( c>bon dioxide4 ,s*eele's explanation 9 t]ms ( phlogi/on is n successful4 ,he wrote3--8,i am incl9$ to believe t fire-air consi/s ( a subtle acid sub/ance unit$ ) phlogi/on1 & x is probable t all acids d]ive _! orig9 f fire-air4 ,n[ if ?is air p5etrates into plants1 ^! mu/ attract ! phlogi/on1 & consequ5tly ! acid1 :i* manife/s itself z a]ial acid1 mu/ be produc$40#ba ,?is is rev]s+ :at may be t]m$ ! true explanation on ! basis ( ! phlogi/ic !ory4 ,= ,s*eele supposes t oxyg5 conta9s phlogi/on1 & by los+ x1 yields c>bon dioxide4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! consi/5t explanation w\ld be t c>bon is c>bonic acid plus phlogi/on1 & t :5 x burns x loses phlogi/on & becomes c>bonic acid aga94 ,we see h[ confus$ ! phlogi/ic ideas became aft] ! discov]y ( oxyg51 & h[ ripe ! "t 0 = ,lavoisi] to =mulate ! views :i* are n[ univ]sally accept$4 ,9 ! conclud+ sections ( 8 treatise ,s*eele describes exp]im5ts :i* prove ! solubility ( 8fire-air0 9 wat]2 he m5tions a conv5i5t te/ = free oxyg5 9 solution1 viz4 a mixture ( f]r\s sulphate & lime1 :i* turns d>k gre51 & f9ally ru/-col\r$1 :5 add$ to wat] conta9+ oxyg52 & he %[s t wat] is depriv$ ( oxyg5 by ! pres5ce ( a lee*1 kept 9 x = two days4 ,x is impossible n to recognise 9 ,s*eele "o ( ! mo/ acute intellects & able exp]im5t]s :om ! _w has ev] se54 ,& al?\gh we _c b feel surprise t 8 discov]ies did n lead him to take ! /ep ( r5\nc+ ! hypo!sis ( phlogi/on1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! doctr9e 0 surr\nd$ ) ! halo ( old age1 & sanction$ by _m names ( great repute 9 _! "t4 ,we %all see lat] t ,cav5di%1 "o ( ! greate/ ( ,engli% *emi/s1 on weigh+ ! rival !ories1 decid$ 9 fav\r ( ! phlogi/ic hypo!sis4 ,! actual escape ( flame1 a visible entity1 f a burn+ sub/ance1 may h _h mu* to d ) ?is decision2 & ! unc]ta9ty conc]n+ ! nature ( heat1 & ! d\bt :e!r x 0 n a =m ( impond]able matt]1 may h l$ bo? ,s*eele & ,cav5di% to reta9 ! old] views4 ,x 0 ,lavoisi] :o fir/ d>$ to ?r[ (f ! %ackles ( tradition2 & ?is he did be=e oxyg5 _h be5 discov]$1 z e>ly z #aggb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,anto9e ,augu/e ,lavoisi] 0 born 9 ,p>is on ! #bf? ( ,augu/ #agdc4 ,8 fa!r 0 weal?y1 & sp>$ no exp5se on 8 education4 ,9 8 tw5ty-fir/ ye> he obta9$ a gold m$al f ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces = an essay on ! be/ me?od ( light+ ! /reets ( ,p>is1 b x 0 "s ye>s be=e he made def9ite *oice ( 8 subject4 ,he publi%$ memoirs relat+ to geology & to ma!matics1 be=e ! fame ( ,black's & ,prie/ley's discov]ies rea*$ him & induc$ him to turn 8 att5tion to sci5tific *emi/ry4 ,lavoisi]'s life 0 divid$ betwe5 8 rese>*es & ! p]=mance ( public duties4 ,9 8 tw5ty-fif? ye> he 0 elect$ a ,memb] ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 &1 some:at lat]1 became its treasur]4 ,he drew up num]\s reports = ! ,gov]nm5t on que/ions on ! bord]l& ( ,sci5ce & ,te*nology2 = example1 on ! prep>ation ( pap] = bills1 :i* w\ld n admit ( =g]y2 on exp]im5tal agriculture2 & on ! manufacture ( gunp[d]4 ,9 #agga he m>ri$ ,m>ie ,anna ,pi]ette ,paulze1 ! daught] ( a 8f]mi]-gnral0 or collector ( ,gov]nm5t rev5ue2 & aft] 8 dea?1 %e became ! wife ( ,c\nt ,rum=d1 ano!r di/+ui%$ sci5tific man4 ,made a 8f]mi]-gnral0 himself1 x 0 dur+ 8 t5ure ( ?is (fice t ,lavoisi] 0 accus$--along ) o!rs hold+ simil> positions--( misappropriat+ rev5ue moneys1 ) ! result t1 "u ! dictator%ip ( ! infam\s ,robespi]re1 he & tw5ty-eight ( ^? :o held l (fice 7 guillot9$ publicly1 on ! #h? ( ,may #agid4 ,x is /at$ t ,lavoisi]'s la/ plea1 pres5t$ by ,hall--= p]mission to f9i% a rese>*--0 refus$ by ,c(f9hal1 ) ! brutal phrase1 8,la ,republique n'a pas beso9 de savants2 il faut que la ju/ice suive son c\rs40 ,)9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! execution took place4 ,lavoisi] 0 a tall1 h&some man1 ) a rem>kably pleas+ face4 ,he possess$ great influ5ce1 & us$ x all = good4 ,! fir/ acc\nt :i* we possess ( ,lavoisi]'s revolution>y ideas1 = revolution>y !y 7 !n deem$1 0 9 a seal$ note1 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,academy on ! #a/ ( ,novemb] #aggb4 ,x is to ! foll[+ effect3-- 8,ab\t eight days ago1 ,i discov]$ t sulphur1 :5 burn$1 in/ead ( los+ weight1 ga9s weight2 t is to say1 f "o p\nd ( sulphur mu* m ?an "o p\nd ( vitriolic acid is produc$1 n c\nt+ ! moi/ure ga9$ f ! air4 ,phosphorus pres5ts ! same ph5om5on4 ,?is increase ( weight is due to a great quantity ( air :i* becomes fix$ dur+ ! combu/ion1 & :i* comb9es ) ! vap\rs4 ,?is discov]y1 :i* ,i confirm$ by exp]im5ts :i* ,i reg>d z decisive1 l$ me to ?9k t :at is obs]v$ 9 ! combu/ion ( sulphur & phosphorus might likewise take place ) respect to all ! bodies :i* augm5t 9 weight by combu/ion & calc9ation2 & ,i 0 p]suad$ t ! ga9 ( weight 9 calces ( metals proce$$ f ! same cause4 ,exp]im5t fully confirm$ my conjectures4 ,i effect$ ! r$uction ( li?>ge 9 clos$ vessels ) ,hales' app>atus1 & ,i obs]v$ t at ! mom5t ( ! passage ( ! calx into ! metallic /ate1 !re 0 a dis5gagem5t ( air 9 consid]able quantity1 & t ?is air =m$ a volume at lea/ a ?\s& times great] ?an t ( ! li?>ge employ$4 ,z ?is discov]y appe>s to me to be "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ :i* has be5 made s9ce ! "t ( ,/ahl1 ,i ?\ght x exp$i5t to secure to myself ! prop]ty1 by deposit+ ! pres5t note 9 ! h&s ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,academy1 to rema9 secret till ! p]iod :5 ,i %all publi% my exp]im5ts40 ,,lavoisi]4 8,,p>is1 #aa? ,novemb] #aggb40 ,illu/ration3 ,,anto9e ,,augu/e ,,lavoisi]4 ,!re is no acc\nt 9 ,hales' "w ( 8 r$uc+ li?>ge 9 clos$ vessels4 ,x is to be presum$ t ,lavoisi] heat$ 9 a retort a mixture ( li?>ge & *>coal1 & t ! air :i* he speaks ( 0 a mixture ( oxides ( c>bon4 ,?is acc\nt does n in=m u ( ,lavoisi]'s views on combu/ion1 b m]ely %[s ! date at :i* he _h fir/ obta9$ :at he suppos$ 7 results new to sci5ce4 ,we recognise t ,may[ _h anticipat$ him 9 ?is4 ,x 0 n until ,prie/ley1 :5 d9+ ) him 9 ! autumn ( #aggd 7be+ 9 ,p>is ) ,"l ,%elburne at ! "t71 _h in=m$ ,lavoisi] ( 8 discov]y ( 8dephlogi/icat$0 air1 t ! ideas ( ! latt] ^u ! subject became precise4 ,prie/ley's own words are3--8,hav+ made ! discov]y "s "t be=e ,i 0 9 ,p>is1 9 ! ye> #aggd1 ,i m5tion$ x at ! table ( ,mr4 ,lavoisi]1 :5 mo/ ( ! philosophical p ( ! city 7 pres5t1 say+ t x 0 a k9d ( air 9 :i* a c&le burn$ mu* bett] ?an 9 common air1 b ,i _h n !n giv5 x any "n4 ,at ?is all ! company1 & ,mr4 & ,mrs4 ,lavoisi] z mu* z any1 express$ great surprise4 ,i told !m ,i _h gott5 x f precipitate p] se1 & also f r$-lead4 ,speak+ ,fr5* v imp]fectly1 & be+ little acqua9t$ ) ! t]ms ( *emi/ry1 ,i said plombe r\ge1 :i* 0 n und]/ood till ,mr4 ,macqu] said ,i mu/ mean m9ium40 ,%ortly aft] ?is1 ,lavoisi] repeat$ ,prie/ley's exp]im5ts & confirm$ _! tru?2 & ?is l$ to ! true explanation ( exp]im5ts ( :i* an acc\nt is giv5 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,fr5* ,academy = #aggd1 & :i* 7 fundam5tal 9 _! "*4 ,!y ref]r$ to ! calc9ation ( t9 9 h]metically-seal$ retorts4 ,! t9 0 plac$ 9 a retort :i* 0 heat$ on a s&-ba? until ! metal _h melt$4 ,! beak ( ! retort1 previ\sly drawn out into a capill>y1 0 !n seal$1 ! air expell$ hav+ be5 collect$ & its weight not$4 ,! retort 0 !n cool$ & weigh$4 ,x 0 aga9 heat$1 & ! temp]ature 0 ma9ta9$ until ! calc9ation ( ! t9 /opp$4 ,) a l>ge retort ! calc9ation 0 m complete ?an :5 a small] "o 0 employ$1 ?is imply+ t ! degree to :i* ! calc9ation proce$$ 0 dep5d5t ^u ! am\nt ( air pres5t4 ,aft] cool+ ! retort a second "t1 x 0 aga9 weigh$1 :5 x 0 f\nd to h und]gone no *ange ( weight4 ,! beak 0 !n brok51 & air ent]$ ) a hiss+ noise4 ,! ga9 9 weight 0 n[ ab\t #aj gra9s ) a l>ge retort4 ,! t9 & its calx 7 next weigh$1 & x 0 f\nd t ! ga9 9 weight ( ! t9 0 always equal to ! loss ( weight ( ! air 9 ! retort1 measur$ by ! quantity ( air :i* ent]$ on break+ ! beak ( ! retort1 less ! air driv5 out ( ! retort be=e h]metically seal+ x4 ,f ?is ,lavoisi] conclud$ t calx ( t9 is a comp\nd ( t9 & air4 ,lavoisi]'s next rese>*1 communicat$ to ! ,academy 9 #agge1 & publi%$ 9 #aggh1 0 entitl$ 8,on ! ,nature ( ! ,pr9ciple :i* comb9es ) ,metals dur+ _! ,calc9ation1 & :i* increases _! ,weight40 ,9 ?is he describes exp]im5ts %[+ t :5 metallic calces are conv]t$ into metals by heat+ ) *>coal1 a quantity ( fix$ air is expell$2 & "h = ! fir/ "t he po9ts out t fix$ air is a comp\nd ( c>bon ) ! ela/ic fluid conta9$ 9 ! calx4 ,he !n describes ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 by ,prie/ley's process ( heat+ r$ oxide ( m]cury 7m]curius precipitatus p] se71 & %[s t ! r$ oxide1 :5 heat$ ) *>coal1 manife/s ! prop]ties ( a true calx1 inasmu* z metallic m]cury is =m$1 & a l>ge quantity ( fix$ air is produc$4 ,8 next pap]1 :i* appe>$ 9 #aggg 9 ! ,mmoires ( ! ,academy1 deals ) ! combu/ion ( phosphorus2 & "h he recapitulates ,ru!r=d's exp]im5ts1 & %[s t "o-fif? ( ! air disappe>s1 & t ! residue1 to :i* he gave ! "n 8m\ffette atmosphrique10 is incapable ( support+ combu/ion4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,ru!r=d nam$ ?is residue 8phlogi/icat$ air10 inasmu* z he imag9$ x to h absorb$ phlogi/on f ! burn+ phosphorus2 ,s*eele1 too1 _h made a simil> exp]im5t ) a simil> result4 ,f ^! obs]vations1 ,lavoisi] conclud$ t air consi/s ( a mixture or comp\nd ( two gases1 "o capable ( absorption by burn+ bodies1 ! o!r incapable ( support+ combu/ion4 ,?is pap] 0 imm$iately foll[$ by ano!r1 also publi%$ 9 #aggg4 ,its title is1 8,on ! ,combu/ion ( ,c&les 9 ,atmosph]ic ,air1 & 9 ,air em95tly respirable40 ,9 ?is memoir he di/+ui%es betwe5 f\r k9ds ( air3--#a1 ,atmosph]ic air1 9 :i* we live & :i* we brea!4 #b1 ,pure air1 alone fit = brea?+1 con/itut+ ab\t "o-f\r? ( atmosph]ic air1 & t]m$ by ,prie/ley 8dephlogi/icat$ air40 #c1 ,azotic gas1 id5tical ) ,ru!r=d's 8mephitic air10 & ( :i* ! prop]ties 7 !n unkn[n4 #d1 ,fix$ air1 :i* he propos$ to call 8acide crayeux10 or acid ( *alk1 discov]$ tw5ty-five ye>s previ\sly by ,black4 ,by ?is "t 8 !ory 0 well develop$4 ,he acc\nt$ = ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion )\t hav+ rec\rse to ! phlogi/ic hypo!sis3 ! calx 0 produc$ by ! union ( ! metal ) ! active con/itu5t ( air2 & :5 c>bonace\s mat]ial burn$1 ! c>bon unit$ ) ?is same con/itu5t1 produc+ fix$ air4 ,b !re 7 /ill difficulties 9 8 way3 x 0 kn[n t 9 dissolv+ metals 9 dilute vitriol or muriatic acid1 a combu/ible & v light air 0 evolv$2 & t ! metals 7 !reby conv]t$ into calces 9 comb9ation ) ! respective acids4 ,?is fact 0 n expla9$ ev5 by ! support]s ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 b x _h ! effect ( prev5t+ !m f accept+ ,lavoisi]'s views4 ,"s consid]$ t hydrog5 & phlogi/on 7 id5tical1 & t on dissolv+ a metal ! calx 0 =m$ by ! escape ( ! phlogi/on2 :ile o!rs _h a hazy idea t hydrog5 0 a comp\nd ( wat] & phlogi/on2 b ( ?is m h]eaft]4 ,lavoisi]'s objection to su* a !ory 0 t ! calx 0 heavi] ?an ! metal1 & t hydrog51 ?\gh light1 /ill possess$ weight4#bb ,moreov]1 he _h asc]ta9$ t ! calces ( m]cury1 t91 & lead are comp\nds ( ^! metals ) active air1 & t z fix$ air is produc$ by heat+ su* calces ) c>bon1 fix$ air mu/ be a comp\nd ( c>bon & vital air1 or1 z he nam$ x1 ! 8oxyg9e pr9ciple10 inasmu* z its comb9ation ) phosphorus1 sulphur1 & c>bon result$ 9 ! =mation ( acids 71 an acid74 ,9 #aggg he read ano!r memoir1 8,on ! ,solution ( ,m]cury 9 ,vitriolic ,acid1 & on ! ,resolution ( t ,acid into ,a]i=m ,sulphur\s ,acid1 & into ,air em95tly respirable40 ,prie/ley _h already %[n t ?is process yield$ sulphur dioxide2 ,lavoisi] c>ri$ ! temp]ature high]1 &1 decompos+ ! sulphate ( m]cury1 produc$ metallic m]cury1 sulphur dioxide1 & oxyg54 ,x appe>$ !re=e t sulphur\s diff]$ f sulphuric acid 9 conta9+ a small] proportion ( oxyg54 ,he also exp]im5t$ ) iron pyrites1 & 8 exp]im5ts recall ^? ( ,boyle4 ,boyle f\nd t 8m>casite10 a disulphide ( iron1 on exposure to air1 ga9$ 9 weight1 :ile vitriol ( iron 0 =m$4 ,lavoisi] p]=m$ ! same exp]im5t1 n 89 a v pure air10 z ,boyle did :5 he left ! pyrites expos$ 9 a quiet du/-free room1 b 9 a conf9$ quantity ( ord9>y air2 & he f\nd t ! air 0 r5d]$ incapable ( support+ combu/ion1 or1 9 o!r words1 its oxyg5 0 remov$4 ,9 ! same volume ( ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aggh1 ano!r ( ,lavoisi]'s pap]s--8,on ,combu/ion 9 ,g5]al0--is to be f\nd4 ,9 ?is he %[$ t oxyg5 gas is ! only sub/ance :i* supports combu/ion2 t dur+ ! burn+ ( combu/ible sub/ances 9 air a portion ( ! oxyg5 disappe>s1 & conv]ts ! burn+ sub/ance into "o ( two k9ds ( comp\nds3 ei!r an acid1 su* z sulphuric acid f sulphur1 phosphoric acid f phosphorus1 or c>bonic acid f c>bon 7= 9 ^? days ! t]m 8acid0 0 appli$ to :at we n[ t]m an anhydride72 or 9 ! case ( metals a calx1 or comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) ! metal4 ,! processes are analog\s1 b diff] 9 ! rate at :i* !y take place2 = ! calc9ation ( metals is a mu* sl[] op]ation ?an ! combu/ion ( sulphur or phosphorus4 ,x is ! rapidity ( ! action :i* leads to actual inflammation4 ,he next exam9$ & attack$ ! !ory ( phlogi/on1 & ma9ta9$ t ! exi/5ce ( phlogi/on is purely hypo!tical1 & q unnecess>y = ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,b 8 pap]s 7 receiv$ ) d\bt4 ,! *ange dem&$ 0 too great2 ! trammels ( cu/om 7 too firmly b\nd4 ,he ga9$ no conv]ts4 ,until ! true nature ( hydrog5 _h be5 expla9$1 ! attack on ! phlogi/ic !ory c\ld n be said to be complete4 ,?is comb9ation ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 to =m wat] 0 fir/ prov$ by ,cav5di%4 ,& z soon z ,sir ,*>les ,blagd51 9 #aghc1 _h communicat$ ,cav5di%'s results to ,lavoisi]1 ! latt] at once saw _! be>+ on ! new !ory :i* he 0 endeav\r+ to uphold1 & p]ceiv$ h[ !y w\ld give a f9al bl[ to ! adh]5ts ( ! !ory ( phlogi/on4 ,= x _h be5 frequ5tly adduc$ z an objection to 8 new views1 t !y 7 incapable ( expla9+ :y hydrog5 %\ld be evolv$ dur+ ! solution ( metals 9 acids1 or :y x %\ld be absorb$ dur+ ! r$uction ( calces to ! metallic /ate4 ,lavoisi] at once repeat$ ,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts on a l>ge scale1 & 0 assi/$ on t occasion by ,laplace1 ,sir ,*>les ,blagd5 also be+ pres5t4 ,a consid]able quantity ( wat] 0 produc$1 & ! volumes ( ! comb9+ gases 7 f\nd to be #a ( oxyg5 to #aia ( hydrog54 ,%ortly aft]1 9 conjunction ) ,meuni]1 he p]=m$ ! conv]se op]ation1 9 decompos+ /eam by pass+ x ov] iron wire heat$ to r$ness 9 a porcela9 tube4 ,! iron )drew ! oxyg5 f ! wat]1 :ile ! hydrog5 pass$ on & 0 collect$ 9 ! ga%old]4 ,! explanation ( ! solution ( metals 9 acids 0 n[ easy3 x dep5d$ on ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,:ile ! oxyg5 unit$ ) ! metal to =m a calx1 ! hydrog5 0 evolv$2 ! calx dissolv$ 9 ! acid1 =m+ a salt ( ! metal4 ,& ! op]ation ( produc+ hydrog5 by ! action ( /eam on r$-hot iron met ) an equally simple explanation3 ! oxyg5 & iron unit$ to =m an oxide--! anci5t e?iops m>tial--:ile ! hydrog5 escap$4 ,! conv]se took place dur+ ! r$uction ( a calx to ! metallic /ate by hydrog54 ,"h ! hydrog5 seiz$ on ! oxyg5 ( ! calx1 remov$ x 9 ! =m ( wat]1 & ! metal 0 left4 ,^! exp]im5ts 7 due to ,cav5di%2 all t ,lavoisi] did 0 to %[ ! true nature ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! oppon5ts ( ! new doctr9es1 ,prie/ley *ief among !m1 did _! be/ to disprove ! view t wat] 0 a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,b 9 va94 ,_m ( ,lavoisi]'s oppon5ts _h to admit ! ju/ice ( 8 views2 & 9 #aghg ,de ,morveau1 ,b]?ollet1 & ,f\rcroy jo9$ ,lavoisi] 9 recon/ruct+ ! nom5clature ( *emi/ry on a new basis1 :i* is sub/antially t 9 use at ! pres5t day4 ,black1 too1 0 a conv]t1 b ,prie/ley & ,cav5di% rema9$ true to _! old fai?1 & "o ( ,prie/ley's la/ acts 0 to publi% a def5ce ( ! phlogi/ic !ory4 ,we %all see lat] h[ ,cav5di% c>efully consid]$ ! rival !ories1 & :at reasons induc$ him to ca/ 8 vote = ! old] "o4 ,among ! num]\s memoirs :i* ,lavoisi] communicat$ to ! ,academy dur+ ! t5 ye>s betwe5 #aggb & #aghb1 "o /ill rema9s to be m5tion$4 ,x 0 publi%$ z e>ly z #aggg1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t _m ( ^! memoirs 7 ant$at$4 ,x ref]r$ to ! respiration ( animals2 & ,lavoisi] conclud$1 on ! gr\nd t ! ph5om5a ( respiration are ess5tially simil> to ^? ( combu/ion & calc9ation1 t ! only portion ( ! air :i* supports animal life is ! oxyg54 ,! azote or nitrog5 is inhal$ along ) ! oxyg51 b is exhal$ unalt]$4 ,! oxyg51 h[ev]1 is gradually conv]t$ into c>bonic acid2 & :5 a c]ta9 am\nt1 b by no means ! :ole1 has be5 ?us *ang$1 ! air becomes unfit = respiration4 ,if ! c>bonic acid is )drawn by means ( lime-wat] or cau/ic alkali1 ! residue is air poor 9 oxyg51 & ! azote is ! same z t left aft] ! calc9ation ( metals1 or ! burn+ ( a c&le1 9 air4 ,at ! "t ( 8 impea*m5t1 ,lavoisi] 0 engag$ 9 exp]im5ts on p]spiration1 along ) ,sgu94 ,he _h ne>ly f9i%$ 8 exp]im5tal "w1 b _h drawn up no acc\nt ( x4 ,8 reque/ t 8 life might be prolong$ until he _h compil$ a /atem5t ( 8 results 0 refus$2 b ,sgu91 :o 0 =tunately sp>$1 und]took ! task4 ,! facts collect$ d n1 h[ev]1 be> directly on our subject1 & %all n be fur!r allud$ to "h4 ,?is acc\nt ( ,lavoisi]'s rese>*es w\ld be incomplete )\t a ref]5ce to 8 text-book ( *emi/ry1 ,trait lm5taire de ,*imie1 9 :i* 8 views are /at$ 9 ord]1 & ) great cle>ness4 ,! nom5clature curr5t at ! "t 0 s cumbr\s1 t x 0 almo/1 if n q1 impossible = ! support]s ( ! new !ory to express _! mean+ 9 an intelligible mann]4 ,de ,morveau _h sugge/$ a nom5clature = salts2 ,black1 too1 _h inv5t$ "o2 b nei!r ( ^! sy/ems 0 adapt$ to repres5t ! new views4 ,x 0 p>tly ) ! object ( avoid+ su* emb>rassm5t t ,lavoisi] wrote 8 ,treatise4 ,he beg9s ) a cle> /atem5t ( :at is g5]ally t]m$ 8! /ates ( matt]0--solid1 liquid1 & gase\s--& po9ts out t solids & liquids are almo/ all capable ( *ange into ! a]i=m /ate by ! addition ( 8caloric40 ,proce$+ next to ! consid]ation ( ! nature ( air1 he %[s t x mu/ necess>ily conta9 all ^? gases capable ( exi/5ce at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 & he expla9s h[ wat]-vap\r mu/ be "o ( !m1 see+ t ev5 ?\gh wat] is a liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x is capable1 l _m o!r liquids1 ( exi/+ z vap\r1 :5 mix$ ) o!r gases4 ,he next treats ( ! analysis ( air1 & describes 8 classical exp]im5t ( heat+ f\r ounces ( m]cury = twelve days 9 a retort communicat+ ) a bell-%ap$ receiv]1 /&+ 9 a m]cury tr\gh4 ,hav+ m>k$ ! initial height ( ! air 9 ! j> by means ( a piece ( gumm$ pap]1 he f\nd t1 aft] twelve days' heat+ close to ! boil+-po9t1 ! air _h dim9i%$ 9 volume by ab\t "o-six?1 & t ! m]cury _h become cov]$ ) a r$ deposit ( m]curius calc9atus p] se1 :i*1 :5 collect$1 weigh$ #de gra9s4 ,! residual air 9 ! retort & 9 ! j> 0 incapable ( support+ life or combu/ion2 b ! r$ precipitate1 :5 heat$1 lo/ #c gra9s ( its weight1 yield+ #da gra9s ( metallic m]cury1 :ile x evolv$ #g or #h cubic in*es ( oxyg51 capable ( support+ ! combu/ion ( a c&le vividly1 & ( caus+ *>coal to burn ) a crackl+ noise1 ?r[+ out sp>ks4 ,oxyg5 0 ?us successfully sep>at$ f air1 & obta9$ f x 9 a pure condition = ! fir/ "t1 9 a s+le s]ies ( op]ations4 ,9 ,lavoisi] we see a ma/] m9d1 n only capable ( devis+ & execut+ beautiful exp]im5ts1 b ( assimilat+ ^? ( o!rs1 & d$uc+ f !m _! true mean+4 ,al?\gh 8 additions to ! kn[n *emical comp\nds 7 few 9 numb]1 & _c be comp>$ ) ^? ( ,s*eele or ( ,prie/ley1 yet 8 reason+ 9 dispro( ( ! phlogi/ic !ory 0 s accurate & s exact t x rapidly secur$ conviction4 ,) ! exceptions already m5tion$1 almo/ all ! em95t *emi/s ( ! day accept$ 8 conclusions2 & "o1 ,kirwan1 :o _h writt5 a =mal treatise 9 def5ce ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 0 s fair-m9d$1 t aft] 8 "w _h be5 translat$ into ,fr5* & publi%$ ) comm5ts1 he ackn[l$g$ t ! old !ory 0 dead1 & t tru? _h conqu]$4 ,x w be int]e/+ n[ to trace ,cav5di%'s "p 9 develop+ ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ! con/itu5ts ( air1 & to note 8 argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ! phlogi/ic !ory4 ,al?\gh ,cav5di% nev] publicly ackn[l$g$ its insuffici5cy1 yet he _h ceas$ to occupy himself ) *emical problems at ! "t :5 its adoption 0 univ]sal1 & 8 true op9ions h nev] be5 record$4 #d ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air1 vol4 ii4 ,by ,joseph ,prie/ley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second edition 7#aggf71 p4 #bi4 #e ,*emical ,treatise on ,air & ,fire 7#aggg71 #c4 #f ,loc4 cit4 p4 #df4 #g ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ee4 #h ,loc4 cit4 p4 #id4 #i ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ajb4 #aj ,! accurate translation ( ,s*eele's ,treatise publi%$ by ! ,alembic ,club 7,william ,f4 ,clay1 #ahid7 has be5 made use ( "h4 #aa #d4 #ab #e4 #ac #af4 #ad #af4 #ae #bb4 #af #bc4 #ag #bd4 #ah #bi4 #ai #hj4 #bj #hg4 #ba #ic4 #bb ,?is1 z previ\sly rem>k$1 _h already be5 notic$4 ,9 ,maqu]'s lm5s de ,*ymie-pratique1 publi%$ 9 #ageb1 a "w :i* ran ?r\gh _m editions1 we read 7p4 #cjg73 8,!re happ5s dur+ all ^! calc9ations1 & especially 9 t ( lead1 a v /range ph5om5on = :i* x is v difficult to assign a reason4 ,x is t ^? bodies1 :i* lose no small proportion ( _! sub/ance1 :e!r by ! dissipation ( phlogi/on1 or because "p ( ! metal is exhal$ z vap\r1 yield calces increas$ 9 weight aft] calc9ation2 & ?is increase is by no means inconsid]able4444 ,physici/s & *emi/s h devis$ _m +5i\s sy/ems to acc\nt = ?is ph5om5on1 b no "o ( !m is absolutely satisfactory4 ,z no well-e/abli%$ !ory has be5 devis$1 we %all n und]take to attempt an explanation ( ?is s+ul> fact40 ,,*apt] ,,iv 8,,phlogi/icat$ ,,air0 ,,inve/igat$ ,,by ,,cav5di%--,,8 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,wat] ,:ile ,lavoisi] 0 engag$ 9 exp]im5ts on oxyg51 ,cav5di%1 too1 0 devot+ 8 att5tion to ! con/itu5ts ( air1 b 9 a some:at diff]5t mann]4 ,8 e>ly exp]im5ts l$ him to ! discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]2 & x has already be5 po9t$ out h[ necess>y a k ( ! true nature ( hydrog5 is to ! und]/&+ ( ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion4 ,8 second pap] deals ) ! inactive con/itu5t ( air1 ! mephitic portion1 n[ kn[n z nitrog5 or azote4 ,b be=e consid]+ ^!1 a sket* ( 8 life w prove ( int]e/4 ,! ,hon\rable ,h5ry ,cav5di% 0 a v s+ul> man1 retir+ & uncommunicative to a degree2 h5ce little is kn[n ( 8 e>ly life4 ,he 0 ! eld] son ( ,"l ,*>les ,cav5di%1 :o 0 ! ?ird son ( ! second ,duke ( ,devon%ire4 ,8 only bro!r1 ,fr$]ick1 0 also an ecc5tric1 b a v b5evol5t man1 & ! two bro!rs1 ?\gh !y seldom met1 liv$ on excell5t t]ms ) ea* o!r4 ,h5ry ,cav5di% 0 born at ,nice 9 ,octob] #agca4 ,8 "m di$ :5 he 0 two ye>s old4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( 8 *ildhood & y\?1 save t he att5d$ ,hackney ,s*ool f #agdb to #agdi1 & t he w5t to ,cambridge 9 ! end ( #agdi1 & rema9$ till #agec1 )\t tak+ a degree4 ,aft] leav+ ,cambridge1 x is suppos$ t he liv$ 9 ,london = t5 ye>s4 ,x is kn[n t 8 all[ance f 8 fa!r am\nt$ to #ejj a ye>1 & t 8 rooms 7 a set ( /ables fitt$ up = 8 accommodation4 ,x is probable t ?is 0 8 own *oice1 & t he made use ( !m *iefly z a laboratory & a work%op4 ,al?\gh at 8 fa!r's dea? & by ! legacy ( an aunt he acquir$ a l>ge =tune1 he nev] sp5t m ?an a fraction ( x4 ,he left m ?an a million /]l+ to 8 relative1 ,"l ,george ,cav5di%2 b !y saw ea* o!r only once a ye>1 & ! int]view seldom la/$ m ?an t5 m9utes4 ,! writ] ( 8 obitu>y notice1 ,m4 ,biot1 epigrammatically said3--8,il tait le plus ri*e de t\s les savans1 et le plus savant de t\s les ri*es40 ,illu/ration3 ,h4 ,cav5di% ,he 0 a regul> att5dant at ! meet+s ( ! ,royal ,society1 ( :i* he 0 made a ,fell[ 9 #agfj1 & 0 a con/ant d9] at ! ,royal ,society ,club4 ,x is said t he us$ to talk to 8 neighb\r at table s long z o!rs did n jo9 9 ! conv]sation2 b if ! conv]sation took a g5]al turn1 he 0 sil5t4 ,8 dea? took place 9 ,febru>y #ahaj1 & 0 z solit>y z 8 life4 ,x is relat$ by 8 s]vant t ,cav5di%1 on feel+ 8 end approa*+1 dismiss$ him f ! room1 tell+ him to come back 9 half an h\r4 ,he disobey$ in/ructions1 &1 be+ anxi\s1 f\nd "s pretext to ent] ! room4 ,cav5di% ord]$ him away 9 a voice ( displeasure2 & on return+1 ! man f\nd 8 ma/] dead4 ,su* a life dem&s our pity2 yet1 if an object ( human life is to give pleasure to its possessor1 we c h>dly say t ,cav5di%'s 0 a failure4 ,ord9>y mortals h a crav+ = ! sympa?y ( _! fell[s2 ,cav5di% appe>s to h be5 devoid ( any su* s5sation4 ,inde$1 8 exp]im5ts 7 9 _m cases n publi%$ until long aft] !y _h be5 made4 ,he appe>s to h c>ri$ on 8 "w = 8 own in=mation1 & to h be5 indiff]5t to ! impression :i* 8 lab\rs made on 8 fell[-m54 ,yet 8 inquiries cov] a m ext5sive field ?an ^? ( almo/ any o!r man ( sci5ce4 ,!y beg9 ) exp]im5ts on ars5ic1 by :i* he endeav\r$ to det]m9e ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! elem5t ars5ic & its two oxides4 ,he held t ars5ic acid 0 m ?or\ghly 8depriv$ ( phlogi/on0 ?an ars5i\s acid 7i4e4 m highly oxidis$72 & on ! same occasion he /udi$ ! effect ( ! addition ( air to nitric oxide1 produc$ by ! action ( nitric acid on ! elem5t ars5ic & on ars5i\s oxide4 ,8 next exp]im5ts relat$ to heat2 & _h he publi%$ !m1 he w\ld d\btless h anticipat$ ,black 9 8 discov]y ( lat5t heat4 ,8 pap] on 8,factiti\s ,airs10 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #agff1 deals ) ! prop]ties ( hydrog51 c>bon dioxide1 & ! gases produc$ by ! de/ructive di/illation ( organic sub/ances4 ,z we %all see lat]1 he suppos$ t hydrog51 g5]at$ by ! action ( acids on metals1 came out ( ! metal1 & 0 an unkn[n pr9ciple 9 comb9ation ) phlogi/on1 if inde$ x 0 n phlogi/on itself2 & ?is idea is n absurd1 = _m metals1 & inde$ a v l>ge numb] ( m9]als1 evolve hydrog5 :5 heat$1 ! gas hav+ be5 8occlud$0 9 _! pores4 ,9 #aggb he communicat$ privately to ,dr4 ,prie/ley ! results ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts deal+ ) nitrog54 ,to prep>e x1 he pass$ air repeat$ly ov] r$-hot *>coal1 & absorb$ ! result+ c>bon dioxide 9 pota%4 ,! residue 0 nitrog54 ,8 description ( x is3--8,! specific gravity ( ?is air 0 f\nd to diff] v little f t ( common air2 ( ! two x seem$ r light]4 ,x ext+ui%$ flame1 & r5d]$ common air unfit = mak+ bodies burn 9 ! same mann] z fix$ air1 b 9 a less degree1 z a c&le :i* burn$ ab\t #hj seconds 9 pure common air1 & :i* w5t out imm$iately 9 common air mix$ ) #f_/ee?s ( fix$ air1 burn$ ab\t #bf seconds 9 common air mix$ ) ! same proportion ( ?is burnt air40#bc ,he nam$ x1 z usual1 8mephitic air10 & x is c]ta9 t1 al?\gh ,cav5di% did n publi% 8 results1 8 discov]y 0 n lat] 9 date ?an ,ru!r=d's4 ,deal+ next ) ! ph5om5a obs]v$ :5 t curi\s fi%1 ! torp$o1 produces %ocks1 he ascrib$ !m to ! dis*>ge ( electricity1 & he 0 ! fir/ to di/+ui% betwe5 int5sity1 or pot5tial1 & quantity ( electricity1 a di/9ction n[ famili> to all4 ,x 0 9 #aggg t he comm5c$ 8 beautiful 8,exp]im5ts on ,air10 ! fir/ acc\nt ( :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #aghc4 ,!y l$ to ! discov]y ( ! con/ant quantitative composition ( ! atmosph]e1 ( ! comp\nd nature ( wat]1 & ( ! composition ( nitric acid1 & po9t$ ! way to ! rec5t discov]y ( argon4 ,9 det]m9+ ! composition ( ! atmosph]e1 ,cav5di% made use ( nitric oxide 9 pres5ce ( wat]1 z a means ( remov+ oxyg54 ,?is process1 orig9ally devis$ by ,may[1 0 r$iscov]$ by ,prie/ley1 :o employ$ x to asc]ta9 ! 8goodness0 ( v>i\s samples ( air2 9 ,cav5di%'s h&s x became an accurate quantitative me?od4 ,! title ( 8 pap]1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #aghc1 is 8,( a new ,eudiomet]40 ,! t]m 8eudiomet]10 signify+ 8measur] ( goodness10 0 devis$ :5 x 0 suppos$ t ord9>y air pres5t$ consid]able v>iations 9 its p[] ( support+ respiration & combu/ion1 accord+ to ! seasons1 & accord+ to ! place f :i* x 0 collect$4 ,dr4 ,+5h\sz _h f\nd a great] absorption :5 air f ne> ! sea-coa/ 0 te/$ by ,prie/ley's me?od ) nitric oxide1 ?an :5 t[n-air 0 employ$2 & he ascrib$ ! salubri\s nature ( sea-air to its be+ ri*] 9 8vital air40 ,! ,abb ,fontana1 too1 _h made simil> exp]im5ts1 & _h come to simil> conclusions4 ,cav5di% modifi$ ,fontana's app>atus1 r5d]+ x capable ( giv+ m accurate results2 & dur+ ! la/ half ( ! ye> #agha he analys$ ! air collect$ on sixty days1 "s f9e1 "s wet1 & "s foggy4 ,he also collect$ air f diff]5t localities1 sometimes at ,m>lbor\gh ,/reet1 sometimes at ,k5s+ton1 :i* 0 !n a c\ntry village4 ,! results ( 8 analyses e/abli% z ! composition ( air1 fre$ f c>bon dioxide by pota%3 #giaf p] c5t ( phlogi/icat$ air 7nitrog574 #bjhd p] c5t ( dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg574 ,?is result does n diff] mat]ially f ^? obta9$ by ! be/ mod]n analyses1 :i* give1 )9 v small v>iations3 #gijd p] c5t ( nitrog5 & argon1 #bjif p] c5t ( oxyg51 aft] absorption ( c>bon dioxide1 ammonia1 & wat]-vap\r4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 #aghd1 ,cav5di% publi%$ ! fir/ ( 8 great memoirs1 entitl$ ,exp]im5ts on ,air4 ,8 exp]im5ts 7 made pr9cipally 8) a view to f9d out ! cause ( ! dim9ution :i* common air is well kn[n to suff] by all ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* x is phlogi/icat$1 & to discov] :at becomes ( ! air ?us lo/ or cond5s$40 ,cav5di% *ose processes = 8phlogi/icat+0 air 9 ! c\rse ( :i* no fix$ air %\ld be produc$4 ,he !re=e avoid$ ! use ( animal & vegetable mat]ials1 & conf9$ himself to combu/ibles1 su* z sulphur or phosphorus1 to ! calc9ation ( metals1 ! explosion ( inflammable air1 & ! mixture ( nitr\s air4 ,he adds z a sugge/ion1 8,p]haps x may be suppos$ t ,i ought to add to ^! ! electric sp>k2 b ,i ?9k x mu* m likely t ! phlogi/ication ( ! air1 & production ( fix$ air1 9 ?is process is ow+ to ! burn+ ( "s inflammable matt] 9 ! app>atus40 ,we %all see lat] :at magnific5t results arose f ?is la/ mode ( 8phlogi/icat+0 air4 ,he beg9s ) an acc\nt ( a repetition ( an exp]im5t ( ,mr4 ,waltire's1 relat$ by ,prie/ley1 9 :i* a mixture ( hydrog5 & air 0 explod$ 9 a copp] vessel1 ) ! result t !y obs]v$ a loss ( a few gra9s 9 weight2 x is also /at$ by ,waltire t if ! explosion took place 9 a glass vessel1 x became dewy1 8:i* confirm$ an op9ion he _h long ent]ta9$1 t common air deposits its moi/ure by phlogi/ication40 ,b ,cav5di%1 us+ a glass vessel ( mu* great] capacity ?an ,waltire's1 c\ld rem>k no *ange ( weight2 & he conclud$ t #dbc measures ( hydrog51 or 8inflammable air0 z he nam$ x1 are 8ne>ly suffici5t to completely phlogi/icate #ajjj ( common air1 & t ! bulk ( ! air rema9+ aft] ! explosion is !n v little m ?an ?s ( ! common air employ$2 s t1 z common air _c be r$uc$ to a mu* less bulk ?an t1 by any me?od ( phlogi/ication1 we may safely conclude t1 :5 !y are mix$ 9 ?is proportion & explod$1 almo/ all ! inflammable air1 & ab\t ? "p ( ! common air1 lose _! ela/icity1 & are cond5s$ into ! dew :i* l9es ! glass4 8,! bett] to exam9e ! nature ( ?is #8dew1' #ejj1jjj gra9 measures ( inflammable air 7 burnt ) ab\t #b times t quantity ( common air1 & ! burnt air made to pass ?r\gh a glass cyl9d] #h feet long & ab\t ( an in* 9 diamet]1 9 ord] to deposit ! dew04 8,by ?is means upw>ds ( #ace gra9s ( wat] 7 cond5s$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 :i* _h no ta/e or smell1 & :i* left no s5sible s$im5t :5 evaporat$ to dryness1 nei!r did x yield any pung5t smell dur+ ! evaporation2 9 %ort1 x seem$ pure wat]04 8,& by ?is exp]im5t x appe>s t ?is dew is pla9 wat]1 & consequ5tly t almo/ all ! inflammable & ab\t ? ( ! common air are turn$ into pure wat]40 ,b on fir+ little by little a mixture ( 8dephlogi/icat$ air0 or oxyg51 obta9$ f r$ precipitate 7t is1 m]curic oxide prep>$ by heat+ ! nitrate71 ) twice its volume ( 8inflammable air0 or hydrog51 ! result+ wat] 0 acid to ! ta/e1 & on evaporation ) alkali gave a small quantity--ab\t #b gra9s--( nitre4 ,cav5di% suspect$ t ! acid came f ! nitrate ( m]cury 9 8 r$ precipitate1 &1 to te/ ?is1 procur$ 8 oxyg5 f o!r s\rces--f r$-lead & sulphuric acid1 & f ! leaves ( plants--b /ill ) ! same result2 nitric acid 0 =m$4 ,repeat+ ! exp]im5t s z to h pres5t an excess ( hydrog51 he f\nd t no acid 0 produc$4 8,f ! =ego+ exp]im5ts x appe>s t :5 a mixture ( inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air is explod$ 9 su* proportion t ! burnt air is n mu* phlogi/icat$1 ! cond5s$ liquor conta9s a little acid1 :i* is always ( ! nitr\s k9d1 :atev] sub/ance ! dephlogi/icat$ air is procur$ f2 b if ! proportion be su* t ! burnt air is almo/ entirely phlogi/icat$1 ! cond5s$ liquor is n at all acid1 b seems pure wat]1 )\t any addition :atev]2 & z1 :5 !y are mix$ 9 t proportion1 v little air rema9s aft] ! explosion1 almo/ ! :ole be+ cond5s$1 x foll[s t almo/ ! :ole ( ! inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air is conv]t$ into pure wat]40 ,! quantity ( uncomb9$ gas 0 s small t x mu/ be reg>d$ z an impurity4 8,!re c be little d\bt t x proce$s only f ! impurities mix$ ) ! dephlogi/icat$ & inflammable air1 & consequ5tly t if ^? airs c\ld be obta9$ p]fectly pure1 ! :ole w\ld be cond5s$40 ,! next p>agraph is int]e/+4 8,dur+ ! la/ summ] also ( #agha a fri5d ( m9e gave "s acc\nt ( !m ^! exp]im5ts to ,mr4 ,lavoisi]1 z well z ( ! conclusion drawn f !m1 t dephlogi/icat$ air is only wat] depriv$ ( phlogi/on2 b at t "t1 s f> 0 ,mr4 ,lavoisi] f ?9k+ any su* op9ion w>rant$1 t1 till he 0 prevail$ ^u to repeat ! exp]im5t himself1 he f\nd "s difficulty 9 believ+ t ne>ly ! :ole ( ! two airs c\ld be conv]t$ into wat]40 ,& next comes an important d$uction4 8,phlogi/icat$ air appe>s to be no?+ else ?an ! nitr\s acid unit$ to phlogi/on2 = :5 nitre is deflagrat$ ) *>coal1 ! acid is almo/ entirely conv]t$ into ?is k9d ( air40 ,?is is ! fir/ /atem5t ( ! true relation betwe5 nitrog5 & nitric acid2 we %\ld n[ /ate ! matt] by ! expression1 8,nitrog5 is no?+ else ?an nitric acid depriv$ ( oxyg540 ,& ! fur!r d$uction is made t 8x is well kn[n t nitr\s acid is also conv]t$ by phlogi/ication into nitr\s air1 9 :i* respect !re seems a consid]able analogy betwe5 t & ! vitriolic acid2 = ?is acid1 :5 unit$ to a small] proportion ( phlogi/on1 =ms ! volatile sulphur\s acid & vitriolic acid air1 bo? ( :i*1 by exposure to ! atmosph]e1 lose _! phlogi/on1 ?\gh n v fa/1 & are turn$ back into ! vitriolic acid2 b :5 unit$ to a great] proportion ( phlogi/on1 x =ms sulphur1 :i* %[s no signs ( acidity40 8,9 l mann] ! nitr\s acid1 unit$ to a c]ta9 quantity ( phlogi/on1 =ms nitr\s acid & nitr\s air1 :i* readily quit _! phlogi/on to common air2 b :5 unit$ to a diff]5t1 9 all probability a l>g] quantity1 x =ms phlogi/icat$ air1 :i* %[s no signs ( acidity1 & is /ill less dispos$ to "p ) its phlogi/on ?an sulphur40 ,b ! orig9 ( ! acid 9 wat] made f inflammable & dephlogi/icat$ air 0 /ill unexpla9$4 ,to settle ?is po9t ,cav5di% add$ to an explosive mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 a t5? ( its volume ( nitrog51 & f\nd t ! wat] 0 mu* m /rongly acid2 & if hydrog5 0 mu* 9 excess1 a /ill great] am\nt ( nitric acid 0 produc$4 ,aft] relat+ ^! exp]im5ts he proce$s3-- 8,f :at has be5 said !re seems ! utmo/ reason to ?9k t dephlogi/icat$ air is only wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on1 & t inflammable air1 z 0 be=e said1 is ei!r phlogi/icat$ wat] or else pure phlogi/on1 b 9 all probability ! =m]40 ,9 a foot-note he gives 8 reason = ! *oice1 viz4 t x requires a r$-heat to cause hydrog5 & oxyg5 to comb9e1 :ile nitr\s air comb9es ) oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 n[1 if hydrog5 7 pure phlogi/on1 "o w\ld expect x to comb9e m readily ?an nitr\s gas1 :i* has be5 %[n to be a comp\nd ( nitric acid ) phlogi/on4 ,x seems inexplicable t dephlogi/icat$ air %\ld refuse to unite at ! ord9>y temp]ature ) pure phlogi/on1 :5 x is able to extract x f sub/ances ) :i* x has an aff9ity4 ,h5ce x is unlikely t hydrog5 is phlogi/on itself4 ,& a few p>agraphs f>!r on ,cav5di% v ne>ly disc>ds ! phlogi/ic !ory by ?is /atem5t3 8,in/ead ( say+ air is phlogi/icat$ or dephlogi/icat$ by any means1 x w\ld be m /rictly j to say1 x is depriv$ (1 or receives1 an addition ( dephlogi/icat$ air2 b z ! o!r expression is conv5i5t1 & c sc>cely be consid]$ z improp]1 ,i %all /ill frequ5tly make use ( x 9 ! rema9d] ( ?is pap]40 ,& n[ we come to ! consid]ation ( ,lavoisi]'s new !ory1 & its rejection 9 fav\r ( ! old "o ( phlogi/on4 ,x is curi\s to foll[ ! reason+ :i* made su* an exceptionally acute ?9k] z ,cav5di% delib]ately reject ! true explanation4 ,cav5di% fir/ /ates 8 results 9 ,lavoisi]'s t]ms3-- 8,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 we mu/ suppose t wat] consi/s ( inflammable air unit$ to dephlogi/icat$ air2 t nitr\s air1 vitriolic acid air 7sulphur dioxide71 & ! phosphoric acid are also comb9ations ( phlogi/icat$ air1 sulphur1 & phosphorus ) dephlogi/icat$ air2 & t ! two =m]1 by a fur!r addition ( ! same sub/ance1 are r$uc$ to ! common nitr\s & vitriolic acids2 t ! metallic calces consi/ ( ! metals !mselves unit$ to ! same sub/ance1 commonly1 h[ev]1 ) a mixture ( fix$ air2 t on expos+ ! calces ( ! p]fect metals to a suffici5t heat1 all ! dephlogi/icat$ air is driv5 (f1 & ! calces are re/or$ to _! metallic =m2 b z ! calces ( ! imp]fect metals are vitrifi$ by heat1 in/ead ( recov]+ ! metallic =m1 x %\ld seem z if all ! dephlogi/icat$ air c\ld n be recov]$ f !m by heat alone4 ,9 l mann]1 accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 ! rationale ( ! production ( dephlogi/icat$ air f r$ precipitate is1 t dur+ ! solution ( ! quicksilv] 9 ! acid & ! subsequ5t calc9ation1 ! acid is decomp\nd$1 & quits "p ( its dephlogi/icat$ air to ! quicksilv]1 :5ce x comes ov] 9 ! =m ( nitr\s air1 & leaves ! quicksilv] beh9d unit$ to dephlogi/icat$ air1 :i*1 by a fur!r increase ( heat1 is driv5 (f1 :ile ! quicksilv] resumes its metallic =m4 ,9 procur+ dephlogi/icat$ air f nitre1 ! acid is also decomp\nd$2 b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t x suff]s "s ( its dephlogi/icat$ air to escape1 :ile x rema9s unit$ to ! alkali itself 9 ! =m ( phlogi/icat$ nitr\s acid4 ,z to ! production ( dephlogi/icat$ air f plants1 x may be said t vegetable sub/ances consi/ *iefly ( ?ree diff]5t bases1 "o ( :i* hydrog51 :5 unit$ to dephlogi/icat$ air1 =ms wat]2 ano!r c>bon fix$ air2 & ! ?ird phlogi/icat$ air nitrog52 & t1 by means ( vegetation1 ea* ( ^! sub/ances are decompos$1 & yield _! dephlogi/icat$ air2 & t1 9 burn+1 !y aga9 acquire dephlogi/icat$ air1 & are re/or$ to _! pri/9e =m4 8,x seems1 !re=e1 f :at has be5 said1 z if ! ph5om5a ( nature might be expla9$ v well on ?is pr9ciple1 )\t ! help ( phlogi/on2 & inde$1 z add+ dephlogi/icat$ air to a body comes to ! same ?+ z depriv+ x ( its phlogi/on & add+ wat] to x1 & z !re are p]haps no bodies de/itute ( wat]1 & z ,i "k no way by :i* phlogi/on may be transf]r$ f "o body to ano!r1 )\t leav+ x unc]ta9 :e!r wat] is n at ! same "t transf]r$1 x w be v difficult to det]m9e by exp]im5t :i* ( ^! op9ions is ! true/2 b z ! commonly-receiv$ pr9ciple ( phlogi/on expla9s all ph5om5a1 at lea/ z well z ,mr4 ,lavoisi]'s1 ,i h adh]$ to t40 8,ano!r ?+ :i* ,mr4 ,lavoisi] endeav\rs to prove is t dephlogi/icat$ air is ! acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,f :at has be5 expla9$1 x appe>s t ?is is no m ?an say+ t acids lose _! acidity by unit+ to phlogi/on1 :i*1 ) reg>d to ! nitr\s1 vitriolic1 phosphoric1 & ars5ical acids1 is c]ta9ly true04 8,b z to ! m>9e acid & acid ( t>t>1 x does n appe> t !y are capable ( los+ _! acidity by any union ) phlogi/on40 ,"h ,cav5di% does n consid] ! "q ( ga9 ( weight on loss ( phlogi/on1 or if he does1 he mu/ ascribe x to simultane\s entry ( wat]4 ,& exp]im5tal rese>* at t "t 0 n f> en\gh advanc$ to enable him to decide f9ally z to ! tru? ( ?is hypo!sis4 ,9 8 next memoir1 read be=e ! ,royal ,society on ,june #bnd1 #aghe1 ,cav5di% relates exp]im5ts on ! passage ( electric sp>ks ?r\gh air1 ! exp]im5t hav+ fir/ be5 tri$ by ,prie/ley4 ,prie/ley says3#bd--8,la/ly1 ! same effect i4e4 ! dim9ution ( ! volume ( common air1 ,i f9d1 is produc$ by ! electric sp>k1 ?\gh ,i _h no expectation ( ?is ev5t :5 ,i made ! exp]im5t40 ,& aga93--8,at ! "t ( my =m] publication1 ,i _h f\nd t tak+ ! electric sp>k 9 giv5 quantities ( sev]al k9ds ( air _h a v rem>kable effect on !m1 t x dim9i%$ common air & made x noxi\s1 mak+ x deposit its fix$ air exactly l any phlogi/ic process2 f :5ce ,i conclud$ t ! electric matt] ei!r is or conta9s phlogi/on40 ,cav5di% _h m5tion$ ?is process casually z "o ( ! me?ods ( phlogi/icat+ air2 9 beg9n+ 8 second pap] he says3--8,i n[ f9d t1 ?\gh ,i 0 "r 9 suppos+ ! phlogi/ication ( ! air does n proce$ f phlogi/on communicat$ to x by ! electric sp>k1 & t no "p ( ! air is conv]t$ into fix$ air2 yet t ! real cause ( ! dim9ution is v diff]5t f :at ,i suspect$1 & dep5ds ^u ! conv]sion ( phlogi/icat$ air into nitr\s acid40 ,! app>atus he us$ 0 v simple4 ,x consi/$ ( a glass siphon fill$ ) m]cury1 ea* leg dipp+ into a glass likewise conta9+ m]cury2 ! air 0 admitt$ by a gas-pipette into ! b5d ( ! siphon1 & on connect+ ! m]cury 9 "o ( ! glasses ) a ball plac$ ne> ! prime conductor ( an electric ma*9e1 & ! o!r ) ! e>?1 sp>ks c\ld be made to pass f ! m]cury 9 "o limb to t 9 ! o!r4 ,! product obta9$ by pass+ sp>ks ?r\gh air 9 ?is mann] turn$ litmus r$1 & gave rise to no cl\d 9 lime-wat]1 :ile ! air 0 r$uc$ to two-?irds ( its orig9al volume2 nor did ! lime-wat] give a precipitate on introduc+ "s fix$ air1 ?is %[+ t x _h be5 saturat$ by an acid4 ,x 0 f\nd1 too1 t 8soap-lees10 or solution ( cau/ic pota%1 if pres5t1 dim9i%$ ! volume m rapidly ?an did lime-wat]2 & repeat$ trials prov$ t 8:5 five p>ts ( pure dephlogi/icat$ air 7 mix$ ) ?ree p>ts ( common air1 almo/ ! :ole ( ! air 0 made to disappe>40 ,! nitrate ( potassium ?us produc$ caus$ pap] soak$ 9 x & dri$ to deflagrate2 & x conta9$ no sulphuric acid4 8,!re is no reason to ?9k t any o!r acid ent]$ into x except ! nitr\s40 ,b x gave a precipitate ) silv] nitrate2 & ,cav5di%1 suspect+ t ?is 0 silv] nitrite1 prep>$ "s potassium nitrite by heat+ ! nitrate2 on comp>+ ! :ite precipitate :i* ?is solution gave ) silv] nitrate ) t obta9$ f 8 8soap-lees10 he f\nd !m id5tical4 ,!re 0 !re=e no 8muriatic acid0 pres5t1 :i* w\ld h yield$ *loride ( silv]1 ( appe>ance some:at simil> to ! nitrite4 ,z x _h previ\sly be5 %[n to be probable t phlogi/icat$ air is nitr\s air unit$ ) phlogi/on1 & t nitr\s air is nitric acid unit$ ) phlogi/on1 8we may safely conclude t 9 ! pres5t exp]im5ts ! phlogi/icat$ air 0 enabl$1 by means ( ! electric sp>k1 to unite to1 or =m a *emical comb9ation )1 ! dephlogi/icat$ air1 & 0 !reby r$uc$ to nitr\s acid1 :i* unit$ to ! soap-lees & =m$ a solution ( nitre2 = 9 ^! exp]im5ts ! two airs actually disappe>$1 & nitr\s acid 0 actually =m$ 9 _! room04 8,a fur!r confirmation ( ! above-m5tion$ op9ion is t1 z f> z ,i c p]ceive1 no dim9ution ( air is produc$ :5 ! electric sp>k is pass$ ei!r ?r\gh pure dephlogi/icat$ air or ?r\gh p]fectly phlogi/icat$ air1 :i* indicates a necessity ( a comb9ation ( ^! two airs to produce ! acid4 ,moreov]1 x 0 f\nd 9 ! la/ exp]im5t t ! quantity ( nitre procur$ 0 ! same t ! soap-lees w\ld h produc$ if saturat$ ) nitr\s acid2 :i* %[s t ! production ( ! nitre 0 n ow+ to any decomposition ( ! soap-lees40 ,no?+ m cle>ly %[s ! c>e ) :i* ,cav5di% reason$ ?an ^! la/ quotations4 ,no loophole is left un/opp$2 e precaution is tak5 to make ! pro( z faultless z x is possible = a pro( to be4 ,b ?is 0 n en\gh4 ,x 0 necess>y = ,cav5di% to %[ t1 s f> z he c\ld asc]ta9 x exp]im5tally1 all ! phlogi/icat$ air 0 capable ( comb9+ ) dephlogi/icat$ air to =m nitre4 ,?is he next proce$$ to d4 8,z f> z ! exp]im5ts hi!rto publi%$ ext5d1 we sc>cely "k m ( ! phlogi/icat$ "p ( our atmosph]e ?an t x is n dim9i%$ by lime-wat]1 cau/ic alkalies1 or nitr\s air2 t x is unfit to support fire or ma9ta9 life 9 animals2 & t its specific gravity is n mu* less ?an t ( common air2 s t ?\gh ! nitr\s acid1 by be+ unit$ to phlogi/on1 is conv]t$ into air possess$ ( ^! prop]ties1 & consequ5tly1 ?\gh x 0 reasonable to suppose t "p at lea/ ( ! phlogi/icat$ air ( ! atmosph]e consi/s ( ?is acid unit$ to phlogi/on1 yet x might fairly be d\bt$ :e!r ! :ole is ( ?is k9d1 or :e!r !re are n 9 reality _m diff]5t sub/ances conf\nd$ toge!r by u "u ! "n ( dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,i !re=e made an exp]im5t to det]m9e :e!r ! :ole ( a giv5 portion ( ! phlogi/icat$ air ( ! atmosph]e c\ld be r$uc$ to nitr\s acid1 or :e!r !re 0 n a "p ( a diff]5t nature f ! re/1 :i* w\ld refuse to und]go t *ange4 ,! =ego+ exp]im5ts1 inde$1 9 "s measure decid$ ?is po9t1 z mu* ! greate/ "p ( ! air let up into ! tube lo/ its ela/icity2 yet1 z "s rema9$ unabsorb$1 x did n appe> = c]ta9 :e!r t 0 ( ! same nature z ! re/ or n4 ,= ?is purpose ,i dim9i%$ a simil> mixture ( dephlogi/icat$ & common air 9 ! same mann] z be=e1 till x 0 r$uc$ to a small "p ( its orig9al bulk4 ,i !n1 9 ord] to decomp\nd z mu* z ,i c\ld ( ! phlogi/icat$ air :i* rema9$ 9 ! tube1 add$ "s dephlogi/icat$ air to x1 & cont9u$ ! sp>k until no fur!r dim9ution took place4 ,hav+ by ^! means cond5s$ z mu* z ,i c\ld ( ! phlogi/icat$ air1 ,i let up "s solution ( liv] ( sulphur to absorb ! dephlogi/icat$ air2 aft] :i* only a small bubble ( air rema9$ unabsorb$1 :i* c]ta9ly 0 n m ?an #a_/abj? ( ! bulk ( ! phlogi/icat$ air let up into ! tube2 s t1 if !re is any "p ( ! phlogi/icat$ air ( our atmosph]e :i* diff]s f ! re/1 & _c be r$uc$ to nitr\s acid1 we may safely conclude t x is n m ?an #a_/abj? "p ( ! :ole40 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t ?is is a m>vell\sly close e/imate4 ,!re is actually #a_/hd? "p ( ! suppos$ nitrog5 ( ! air :i* w n comb9e ) oxyg5 :5 sp>k$ ) x 9 pres5ce ( pota%4 ,b !re /ill rema9$1 9 ,cav5di%'s op9ion1 "o po9t unprov$4 ,x 0 /ill conceivable t ! pota% might conta9 "s 8inflammable matt]0 :i* w\ld dim9i% ! air on sp>k+1 & !re=e oxyg5 ne>ly pure 0 sp>k$ 9 pres5ce ( pota%2 b only a v small dim9ution ( volume occurr$1 ow+ probably to "s nitrog5 pres5t z an impurity 9 ! oxyg54 ,wat] 0 sub/itut$ = pota% ) ! same result2 b if litmus 0 add$ to ! wat] ! col\r 0 dis*>g$1 & lime-wat] introduc$ into ! tube gave a cl\d1 %[+ t 8! litmus1 if n burnt1 0 at lea/ decomp\nd$1 s z to lose entirely its purple col\r & to yield fix$ air2 s t1 ?\gh soap-lees _c be decomp\nd$ by ! process1 yet ! solution ( litmus c1 & s v likely might ! solutions ( _m o!r combu/ible sub/ances40 ,su* are ! *emical rese>*es ( ,cav5di%4 ,( all exp]im5t]s on ! subject he 0 und\bt$ly ! greate/1 ?\gh ,may[ & ,s*eele 7 ne> rivals4 ,b 8 rese>*es 7 s complete t x is sc>cely possible to criticise4 ,he 0 n cont5t ) p>tial results3 e po9t 0 prov$ & re-prov$1 & e possibility ( errone\s conclusion 0 all[$ =4 ,x is curi\s t he did n employ ! balance to *eck 8 results4 ,_h he done s he c\ld n h rema9$ an adh]5t ( ! phlogi/ic !ory4 ,al?\gh1 z we h se51 he 0 p]fectly acqua9t$ ) ! me?od 9 :i* 8 results 7 int]pret$ by ,lavoisi]1 he *ose ! old well-trodd5 pa? lead+ to ! wild]ness ( di/ort$ facts4 ,lavoisi] tri$ to repeat ,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts1 b )\t success2 & 9 #aghh ! la/ "p ( 8 ,exp]im5ts on ,air 0 publi%$1 9 :i* he record$ ! successful repetition by a ,committee ( ! ,royal ,society ( ! conv]sion ( nitrog5 into nitric acid by ! electric sp>k 9 pres5ce ( oxyg5 & pota%4 ,8 rema9+ pap]s deal ) meteorological & a/ronomical subjects4 ,"o1 publi%$ 9 #agij1 ref]s to ! height ( a rem>kable aurora se5 9 #aghd2 ano!r to ! civil ye> ( ! ,h9doos2 & ano!r to a me?od = r$uc+ lun> di/ances4 ,& 9 #agih 8 fam\s memoir on ! d5sity ( ! e>? appe>$4 ,x w\ld be q beyond ! prov9ce ( ?is book to ent] into any detail reg>d+ x2 b x may be rem>k$ 9 pass+ t ! me?od consi/$ 9 measur+1 by means ( a torsion balance1 ! attraction ( "o lead5 ball = ano!r1 & t rec5t exp]im5ts1 made ) ! utmo/ ref9em5t1 h b>ely alt]$ ! numb] :i* he obta9$1 #ed1 to #eebg4 ,8 la/ pap]1 on an improvem5t 9 a ma*9e = divid+ a/ronomical in/rum5ts1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahji1 ! ye> be=e 8 dea?4 ,no?+ has be5 said "h reg>d+ ! rival claims ( ,watt to ! discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]1 & little ne$ be said4 ,! discov]y 0 made by bo? 9 #aghd1 yet ,cav5di% visit$ ,watt at ,birm+ham 9 #aghe1 & 0 app>5tly on ! be/ ( t]ms ) him2 & ,watt1 z prov$ by ,cav5di%'s di>y1 %[$ him _m ( 8 devices connect$ ) ! /eam-eng9e4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ,watt _h also discov]$ t :5 hydrog5 & oxyg5 are explod$ toge!r wat] is ! sole product1 b he c\pl$ ! ph5om5on ) views involv+ ! mat]ial nature ( heat1 or caloric1 z x 0 !n call$1 :i* ,cav5di% repudiat$4 ,cav5di%'s lat] "w 0 c>ri$ out 9 a villa at ,clapham1 :i* 0 fitt$ z a laboratory1 work%op1 & obs]vatory1 b he _h a t[n-h\se ne> ! ,briti% ,museum1 at ! corn] ( ,g[] ,/reet & ,montague ,place4 ,he _h also a libr>y 9 ,dean ,/reet1 ,soho1 :i* 0 available = any sci5tific man :o *ose to pres5t himself4 ,s s+ul> 7 ,cav5di%'s habits t :5 he wi%$ a book he w5t to ?is h\se & borr[$ x z f a public libr>y1 giv+ a receipt = x4 ,( all m51 ,cav5di% 0 probably ! mo/ s+ul>1 b !re c be no "q ( 8 extraord9>y g5ius4 #bc ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahci1 p4 #fd4 #bd ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air1 vol4 i4 p4 #aha1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #bch4 ,second edition1 #aggf4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,argon ,) ! adv5t ( ,lavoisi]'s sy/em ( repres5t+ ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion1 & ! expression 9 8 t]ms ( ! v>i\s *anges result+ 9 air :5 metals are oxidis$1 & :5 c>bonace\s sub/ances burn1 ! inve/igation ( air 0 ab&on$4 ,x 0 no long] reg>d$ z a my/]i\s elem5t1 possess$ ( 8*aotic0 prop]ties1 b 0 held to be a mixture ( oxyg51 nitrog51 & small quantities ( c>bon dioxide & wat] vap\r1 toge!r ) a trace ( ammonia4 ,m exact det]m9ations ( ! proportion betwe5 its oxyg5 & s-call$ nitrog5 ?an ,cav5di% _h made by ! nitric oxide me?od 7 c>ri$ out 9 #ahjd by ,gay-,lussac & ,humboldt1 by explosion ) measur$ quantities ( hydrog51 accord+ to ! me?od sugge/$ by ,volta2 & !y conclud$1 f a l>ge numb] ( analyses made on specim5s collect$ 9 all wea!rs & f v>i\s localities1 t #ajj volumes ( air conta9$ #ba volumes ( oxyg5 & #gi volumes ( nitrog54 ,^! exp]im5ts1 too1 l$ ,gay-,lussac to ! conviction t oxyg5 & hydrog5 unite to =m wat] 9 ! exact proportion ( "o volume ( ! =m] to two volumes ( ! latt]2 & he publi%$1 "s ye>s lat]1 acc\nts ( num]\s exp]im5ts ( ! same k9d1 z ! result ( :i* he f\nd t1 :5 two gases comb9e or react ) ea* o!r1 !y d s 9 "s simple numb] ( volumes2 = example1 "o to "o1 "o to two1 or "o to ?ree4 ,! almo/ con/ant relation betwe5 ! volumes ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 9 air made x appe> n unlikely1 9 ! op9ion ( "s1 t air 0 a comp\nd1 & n a mixture2 = ! law ( comb9ation 9 def9ite proportions _h by ?is "t be5 enunciat$ by ,pr(essor ,?omas ,?omson1 ,dalton's intimate fri5d4 ,b betwe5 ! numb]s #ba & #gi !re exi/s no su* simple ratio2 &1 moreov]1 on artificially produc+ air by mix+ oxyg5 & nitrog51 !re are none ( ! usual ph5om5a :i* *>act]ise ! =mation ( a comp\nd3 !re is no rise or fall ( temp]ature1 nor does ! product diff] 9 any way 9 prop]ties f ! con/itu5ts4 ,& 9 #ahdf ,buns5 %[$ t ! proportion betwe5 oxyg5 & nitrog5 is n a con/ant "o1 b t ! oxyg5 v>ies betwe5 #bjig & #bjhd2 ! exp]im5tal error did n exce$ #jjc volume1 :ile ! diff]5ce f\nd am\nt$ to #jac volume4 ,regnault1 ,angus ,smi?1 ,a4 ,r4 ,le$s1 & von ,jolly confirm$ ^! results at lat] dates1 f analyses ( air collect$ f all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,t air conta9s ammonia 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,s*eele4 ,he f\nd t ! /opp] ( a bottle conta9+ muriatic acid1 :5 expos$ to air became cov]$ ) a film or deposit :i* he recognis$ to be sal ammoniac1 or ammonium *loride4 ,! am\nt ( ammonia 9 atmosph]ic air is1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly small1 & x is be/ detect$ 9 ra9-wat]1 :i* dissolves x2 ?us ! air is consid]ably poor] 9 ammonia aft] a %[]4 ,! ammonia1 small ?\gh its proportion is1 plays a great "p1 al?\gh n an exclusive "o1 9 yield+ to plants _! supply ( nitrog54 ,! ra91 p]colat+ ?r\gh ! soil1 leaves ! ammonia beh9d1 9 "s =m ( comb9ation2 & x is !n attack$ by ! nitrify+ f]m5ts & conv]t$ into nitrates1 f :i* ! plants d]ive ! nitrog5 :i* =ms "p ( _! sub/ance1 9 comb9ation ) c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog54 ,!re are also traces ( nitric & nitr\s acids 9 air1 :i* are app>5tly 9 comb9ation ) ammonia4 ,:ile ! ammonia has be5 f\nd to v>y betwe5 #ja & #ajj volumes p] million volumes ( air--! latt] numb] ref]s to ,man*e/] /reets--nitr\s & nitric acids are pres5t 9 /ill small] am\nts2 & 9 spite ( ! widespread op9ion t ozone is conta9$ 9 air1 its occurr5ce is /ill a matt] ( dispute4 ,t "s p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t su* z ozone or hydrog5 p]oxide is pres5t appe>s c]ta92 b ! *>act]i/ic te/ = ozone--! =mation ( p]oxide ( silv] on exposure ( metallic silv] to its influ5ce--has nev] be5 successful4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a small quantity ( hydrog5 dioxide--also1 l wat]1 a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 b "o conta9+ m oxyg5 ?an wat]--appe>s to be almo/ con/antly pres5t 9 air4 ,its am\nt is also extremely m9ute3 x does n exce$ "o "p p] million4 ,its pres5ce 9 air 0 discov]$ by ,s*nbe94 ,! atmosph]e fur!r conta9s du/1 "s ( :i* appe>s to consi/ l>gely ( metallic iron1 :i* is conjectur$ to be ( extrat]re/rial orig9--m9ute meteorites 9 fact--& also ! spores ( micro-organisms2 b ^! spores1 h[ev] important f a biological or a sanit>y po9t ( view1 h>dly come )9 ! scope ( ! *emical composition ( air4 ,!y s]ve to emphasise ! conjectures ( ,boyle & ( ,s*eele t air may conta9 8corpuscles0 ( all sorts1 "s 9 ! =m ( dry exhalations1 :ile o!r innum]able p>ticles may be s5t out f ! cele/ial lum9>ies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,up to )9 ! la/ few ye>s x 0 suppos$ t ! con/itu5ts ( air _h all be5 discov]$4 ,b ,"l ,rayleigh & ,pr(essor ,william ,ramsay h rec5tly f\nd t ! suppos$ nitrog5 ( ! air is 9 reality a mixture ( nitrog5 ) a new gase\s elem5t1 to :i* !y h giv5 ! "n 8argon10 on acc\nt ( its *emical inactivity 71 idle1 inactive74 ,9 8 presid5tial address to ,section ,a ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,s\?ampton 9 #ahhb1 ,"l ,rayleigh allud$ to an inve/igation :i* he _h begun on ! d5sities ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 relatively to ea* o!r4 ,! object ( ! rese>* 0 to discov] :e!r ! atomic weights ( ^! gases1 det]m9able f _! d5sities & f ! proportions by volume 9 :i* !y comb9e1 0 actually z #a to #af1 or :e!r "s fractional numb] 0 necess>y to express ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg5 relatively to t ( hydrog54 ,9 #ahhh 8 fir/ acc\nt ( ! det]m9ation 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,9 #ahhi he publi%$ a cont9uation ( 8 fir/ pap]1 & 9 #ahib he gave 8 f9al results2 ! numb] obta9$ 0 #aehhb = ! atomic weight ( oxyg51 calculat$ f its d5sity1 hydrog5 be+ tak5 z #a4 ,9 #ahic fur!r exp]im5ts on d5sities 7 publi%$1#be ^? ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 be+ specially consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! d5sity ( air4 ,he f\nd ! weights ( "o litre ( oxyg51 nitrog51 & air to be ,oxyg5 #adbieb grams 8,nitrog50 #abegah ,air #abicbg ,a simple calculation leads to ! composition ( purifi$ air4 ,! p]c5tage ( oxyg5 mu/ be #bjida1 & t ( 8nitrog50 #gijei1 9 ord] to give a mixture ( :i* ! weight ( a litre is #abicbg4 ,n[1 ?is corresponds ) ! results ( ! be/ analyses1 quot$ above4 ,& ! accuracy ( ^! det]m9ations ( d5sity is confirm$ by ?is means1 z well z by results ( o!r exp]im5ts made by ,l$uc1 von ,jolly1 & ,morley4 ,b ,"l ,rayleigh 0 n cont5t to prep>e 8 gases by "o process only4 ,! oxyg51 ( :i* ! mean value ( ! weight ( a litre is giv5 above1 0 prep>$ 9 ?ree diff]5t ways3 by ! electrolysis ( wat]1 by heat+ *lorates1 & by heat+ potassium p]manganate4 ,! results %[$ t ! only diff]5ce :i* c\ld be detect$1 & t an extremely m9ute "o1 mu/ be attribut$ to exp]im5tal error4 ,! actual weights ( ! cont5ts ( 8 globe 7-- ,electrolysis1 ,may #ahib #bfbgb grams #bfbga ,heat+ *lorates1 ,may #ahib #bfbfi ,june #bfbfi ,heat+ p]manganate1 ,janu>y #ahic #bfbga ,^! numb]s are subject to a d$uction ( #jjjjef1 due to ! fact t :5 ! globe 0 empty ( air1 its capacity 0 some:at r$uc$1 ow+ to ! ext]nal pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,x 0 next deem$ necess>y to te/ :e!r nitrog5 0 homog5e\s by prep>+ x too by sev]al diff]5t me?ods4 ,9 ! same pap] ,"l ,rayleigh 7p4 #adf7 m5tions t nitrog51 prep>$ f ammonia1 its comp\nd ) hydrog51 is some:at light] ?an 8atmosph]ic nitrog510 ! defici5cy 9 weight am\nt+ to ab\t #a "p 9 #bjj4 ,n[ x is evid5t f inspection ( ! numb]s quot$ above1 t ! accuracy ( ! d5sity det]m9ation may be tru/$ to )9 #a "p 9 #aj1jjj1 & t ! balance w\ld detect a discrepancy "o-fiftie? ( t obs]v$ 9 ! d5sities ( 8atmosph]ic0 & 8*emical0 nitrog54 ,9 a lett] to ,nature1 ,"l ,rayleigh ask$ = sugge/ions f *emi/s z to ! reason ( ?is curi\s anomaly1 b 8 lett] w5t )\t reply4 ,he himself 0 incl9$ to believe t ! diff]5ce 0 due to ! decomposition ( "s ( ! ord9>y molecules ( nitrog51 usually believ$ to consi/ ( two atoms 9 union ) ea* o!r1 into molecules consi/+ ( "o atom2 & z x is held t equal numb]s ( molecules inhabit ! same volume1 temp]ature & pressure be+ equal1 if ! total numb] ( molecules 9 8 globe 7 increas$ by ! splitt+ ( "s d\ble-atom molecules into s+le-atom molecules1 ! effect w\ld be t1 ow+ to an admixture ( "s light] molecules1 ! d5sity w\ld be some:at r$uc$4 ,b two o!r suppositions 7 ent]ta9$ z possible4 ,! oxyg5 might h be5 imp]fectly remov$ f ! nitrog5 d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! nitrog5 f ammonia might conceivably h reta9$ traces ( hydrog54 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! nitrog5 w\ld h an increas$ weight ow+ to admixture ( "s heavi] oxyg52 9 ! latt]1 a dim9i%$ weight1 due to ! pres5ce ( ! light] hydrog54 ,! fir/ ( ^! suppositions is out ( ! "q1 inasmu* z x w\ld h requir$ t ! nitrog5 %\ld conta9 "o-?irtie? ( its volume ( oxyg51 or "o-six? ( t pres5t 9 air1 9 ord] t its d5sity %\ld be rais$ by "o two-hundr$?2 = ! d5sities ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 are n s v diff]5t4 ,! second supposition 0 negativ$ by introduc+ hydrog5 purposely1 & remov+ x by pass+ ! gas ov] r$-hot copp] oxide1 :i* oxidises ! hydrog5 to wat]4 ,?is yield$ nitrog5 ( ! same d5sity z t :i* _h n und]gone t treatm5t4 ,"o o!r possibility 0 consid]$3 ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 might conta9 "s molecules ( great] complexity ?an two-atom molecules1 say ,n#c-molecules4 ,n[ x is kn[n t :5 oxyg5 is electrifi$ by ! passage ( a ra9 ( small sp>ks ?r\gh x1 x acquires new prop]ties3 x possesses an od\r1 & attacks metallic m]cury & silv]4 ,& ?is product1 ozone1 has be5 %[n to consi/ ( ?ree-atom molecules ( oxyg51 by v>i\s exp]im5ts ( :i* an acc\nt _c be giv5 "h4 ,x 0 n inconceivable t if su* a 8sil5t electric dis*>ge0 7 to be pass$ ?r\gh 8atmosph]ic0 nitrog51 x might increase ! numb] ( su* ?ree-atom molecules1 & might r5d] ! gas /ill d5s]2 or if pass$ ?r\gh 8*emical0 nitrog51 x might increase its d5sity s z to make x equal to t ( 8atmosph]ic0 nitrog54 ,"l ,rayleigh made su* exp]im5ts1 b )\t *ang+ ! d5sity 9 ! lea/3 ! nitrog5 f ammonia or f oxides ( nitrog51 :i* has be5 t]m$ 8*emical0 nitrog51 /ill rema9$ too light by ab\t "o two-hundr$?1 & ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 /ill rema9$ too heavy by ! same am\nt4 ,at ?is /age ,pr(essor ,ramsay ask$ & receiv$ p]mission to make "s exp]im5ts on ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e1 ) ! view ( expla9+ its anomal\s behavi\r4 ,he _h sev]al ye>s be=e made exp]im5ts on ! possibility ( caus+ nitrog5 & hydrog5 to comb9e directly1 by pass+ ! mixture ov] heat$ metals2 among ^! 0 magnesium1 & al?\gh no direct comb9ation to any great ext5t 0 obs]v$1 /ill x 0 notic$ t magnesium 0 a good absorb5t = nitrog51 :5 t gas 0 pass$ ov] ! r$-hot fil+s ( ! metal4 ,?is process 0 !re=e appli$ to ! absorption ( 8atmosph]ic0 nitrog51 9 ord] to f9d out :e!r any portion ( x 0 diff]5t f ! re/4 ,! plan adopt$ 0 to heat turn+s ( magnesium1 :i* c be made v ?9 & loose1 to r$ness 9 a tube ( h>d glass1 9 contact ) ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e1 c>efully purifi$ f oxyg51 :i* w\ld o!rwise h also comb9$ ) ! metallic magnesium4 ,z absorption proce$$1 m nitrog5 0 admitt$ f a res]voir1 & aft] a c]ta9 quantity _h be5 absorb$1 ! residual gas 0 extract$ f ! tube by a m]cury pump1 & weigh$4 ,! am\nt weigh$ 0 v small1--small] p]haps ?an _h up till !n be5 ?\ght possible1 if accurate results 7 to be obta9$4 ,b "h l>ge diff]5ces 7 to be look$ =4 ,only #dj cubic c5timetres--! tw5ty-fif? "p ( a litre--0 weigh$2 & its weight 0 only #jjej gram4 ,b ) c>eful weigh+ ! error %\ld n exce$ "o five-hundr$? ( ! am\nt weigh$2 & if !re 7 to be any increase 9 d5sity1 t increase %\ld be expect$ greatly to exce$ ?is small fraction4 ,! fir/ weigh+--9 ,may #ahid--%[$ t ! nitrog5 _h increas$ 9 d5sity by reason ( ! op]ations1 & in/ead ( be+ f\rte5 times z heavy z hydrog51 x 0 ne>ly fifte5 times z heavy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,! result 0 enc\rag+1 & l$ to ! probability ( ! nitrog5 be+ alt]$ 9 "s way1 or ( ! pres5ce ( "s new compon5t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,an exp]im5t 0 !re=e begun on a l>g] scale1 ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 be+ pass$ backw>ds & =w>ds f "o l>ge glass ga%old] ,a to ano!r ,b1 ?r\gh a tube fill$ ) magnesium heat$ to r$ness ,g1 to absorb nitrog52 ov] r$-hot copp] oxide 7a7 7b71 s t any c>bonace\s matt] su* z du/ %\ld be oxidis$ to c>bon dioxide & wat]2 & ^!1 if produc$1 7 absorb$ by plac+ 9 ! tra9 ( tubes1 "o fill$ ) a mixture ( soda & lime ,f & ,i1 to absorb any c>bon dioxide :i* might possibly be =m$1 & two fill$ ) p5toxide ( phosphorus ,d & ,h1 to dry ! gas1 s t wat]-vap\r1 c>ri$ along ) ! gas f ! ga%old]s 7:i* conta9$ wat]7 might be remov$ be=e ! gas pass$ ov] ! r$-hot magnesium2 = wat] acts on hot magnesium1 =m+ oxide ( magnesium & hydrog51 & ! gas w\ld h become contam9at$ ) ! latt] _h ?is precaution n be5 tak54 ,! process 0 cont9u$ = t5 days1 by :i* "t mo/ ( ! nitrog5 _h become absorb$4 ,! app>atus 0 !n some:at alt]$1 s z to make x possible to "w ) a small] quantity ( gas2 b ! tubes de/9$ to absorb nitrog51 hydrog51 etc41 7 fill$ ) ! same mat]ials z be=e4 ,9 a few days m ! volume 0 r$uc$ to "o-sev5? ( :at x _h be5 :5 ! transf]5ce to ! small] app>atus 0 made1 or ab\t "o-eightie? ( ! orig9al volume ( ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 tak54 ,! gas 0 !n weigh$1 ?is "t 9 a l>g] bulb1 ! weight be+ #jbaij gram2 & su* is ! possibility ( precision 9 weigh+ on a good balance1 t a diff]5ce ( "o two-?\s&? ( ! :ole weight 0 detectable4 ,! d5sity ( ! gas 0 n[ f\nd to be #afa4 ,at ?is /age x 0 /ill believ$ t ! new gas 0 an ozone-l modification ( nitrog51 difficult to attack by magnesium4 ,x 0 suppos$ t j z oxyg51 :5 expos$ to an electric dis*>ge1 und]goes a cleavage ( its molecules1 two-atom molecules becom+ "o-atom molecules = an in/ant1 :i* !n unite to =m ?ree-atom molecules1 s ! action ( ! magnesium on ! nitrog5 might be to )draw "o atom ( nitrog5 f ! two-atom molecule1 leav+ a s+le uncomb9$ atom1 :i* might n improbably f9d two p>tn]s1 ea* ( its own k9d1 to =m ) !m a ?ree-atom molecule--a sort ( nitrog5-ozone1 9 fact4 ,h5ce x 0 resolv$ to cont9ue ! absorption ) fre% magnesium = a /ill long] "t1 9 ! hope ( its be+ possible to isolate ! ?ree-atom nitrog5 molecules4 ,b x became app>5t t ! bright metallic magnesium 0 n[ n mu* attack$2 & on e/imat+ ! total am\nt ( nitrog5 absorb$1 by treat+ ! comp\nd ( nitrog5 & magnesium ) wat]1 & lib]at+ ! nitrog5 z ammonia1 x appe>$ t only a small quantity ( magnesium nitride _h be5 =m$4 ,! d5sity ( ?is fur!r purifi$ gas 0 aga9 det]m9$1 :5 x 0 f\nd t a litre n[ weigh$ #agjed gram1 correspond+ to a d5sity ( #aijhf4 ,a portion ( ?is gas 0 mix$ ) oxyg5 & expos$ to a ra9 ( electric sp>ks 9 pres5ce ( cau/ic soda2 9 fact1 ,cav5di%'s old plan ( caus+ nitrog5 to comb9e 0 n[ resort$ to4 ,contraction occurr$1 & on remov+ ! excess ( oxyg51 ! dim9ution ( volume 0 f\nd to am\nt to #aed p] c5t ( ! orig9al volume tak54 ,mak+ ! supposition t ! gas ( d5sity #ai /ill conta9$ nitrog51 & all[+ = its influ5c+ ! d5sity1 x foll[$ t ! pure gas %\ld be tw5ty times z heavy z hydrog54 ,a tube su* z is usually employ$ 9 exam9+ ! spectra ( gases at l[ pressures 0 next fill$ ) ! gas ( d5sity #ai4 ,su* a tube1 call$ a ,pflck]'s tube1 aft] its inv5tor1 conta9s wires ( plat9um seal$ ?r\gh at ea* end1 :]e x is ab\t half an in* 9 wid?2 ! middle portion ( ! tube is ab\t #c in*es long1 & its bore is a f9e capill>y4 ,:5 ! plat9um wires are connect$ ) ! second>y t]m9als ( a ,ruhmkorff's coil1 & ! tube is p>tially exhau/$1 a brilliant gl[ appe>s 9 ! capill>y portion4 ,if view$ ?r\gh a glass prism1 diff]5t gases %[ diff]5t sets ( col\r$ l9es cross+ ! usual gradation ( col\rs ( ! spectrum4 ,?us hydrog5 exhibits ?ree /rik+ l9es1 "o bright r$1 "o peacock blue1 & "o violet2 nitrog5 %[s a l>ge numb] ( some:at hazy b&s1 r$1 orange1 yell[1 & yell[-gre5 9 col\r1 besides a numb] ( b&s ( a violet col\r2 b ! new gas1 :ile exhibit+ ! b&s *>act]i/ic ( nitrog51 %[$ 9 addition c]ta9 gr\ps ( r$ & gre5 l9es :i* did n appe> to belong to ! spectrum ( any kn[n gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,:ile ^! exp]im5ts 7 9 progress1 ,"l ,rayleigh 0 occupi$ 9 prep>+ nitrog5 f o!r s\rces1 & 9 det]m9+ its d5sity2 & 9 e case x 0 evid5t t nitrog5 f all s\rces except ! atmosph]e weigh$ some:at less ?an atmosph]ic nitrog54 ,he !re=e proce$$ to repeat ,cav5di%'s exp]im5t1 & l ,cav5di%1 he obta9$ a small residue ( gas :i* w\ld n disappe> on sp>k+ ) oxyg51 9 pres5ce ( cau/ic soda4 ,! sp>ks1 z !y pass$1 c\ld be obs]v$ ?r\gh a spectroscope 7:i* consi/s ( an arrangem5t ( prisms & l5ses s design$ z to exam9e ! compon5ts ( ! light emitt$ by ! sp>ks71 & he1 too1 0 /ruck ) ! unusual "* ( ! spectrum4 ,8 exp]im5ts prov$1 besides1 t ! am\nt ( residue 0 r\ghly proportional to ! am\nt ( air tak52 ?us1 beg9n+ ) #ej cubic c5timetres ( air1 ! residue 0 #jcb cubic c5timetre2 & f #e cubic c5timetres ( air1 only #jjf cubic c5timetre ( gas 0 obta9$4 ,^! small am\nts are n proportional to ! quantities ( air tak52 b1 z w aft]w>ds be se51 ! discrepancy is ow+ to ! solubility ( ! new gas 9 wat]4 ,/ill !y s]v$ to %[ t f a comp>atively l>ge am\nt ( air1 m ( ! new gas c\ld be obta9$ ?an f a small] am\nt4 ,at ?is /age ! two discov]]s jo9$ =ces1 & lett]s pass$ almo/ daily betwe5 !m1 describ+ ! results ( exp]im5ts :i* "o or o!r _h made4 ,& j prior to ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,ox=d 9 ,augu/ #ahie1 x 0 decid$ t ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( a new con/itu5t gas 9 air 0 suffici5tly cle> to r5d] x advisable to make to ! ,association a %ort ann\ncem5t ( ! discov]y4 ,! /atem5t 0 receiv$ ) surprise & int]e/2 *emi/s 7 naturally some:at incr$ul\s t air1 a sub/ance ( :i* ! composition _h be5 s long & s c>efully /udi$1 %\ld yield any?+ new4 ,"o ( ! audi5ce inquir$ :e!r ! "n ( ?is new sub/ance _h be5 discov]$2 z a matt] ( fact x 0 !n "u consid]ation4 ,b x 0 /ill conceivable1 al?\gh improbable1 t ! new gas 0 be+ produc$ by ! v processes design$ = its sep>ation1 & att5tion 0 fir/ turn$ to devis+ a complete pro( ( its actual pres5ce 9 air4 ,n[ x is kn[n t ! rates ( diffusion ( gases ?r\gh a n>r[ op5+1 or ?r\gh a numb] ( m9ute holes1 su* z exi/ 9 a pipe ( por\s clay1 e4g4 a tobacco-pipe /em1 are 9 inv]se proportion to ! squ>e roots ( ! d5sities ( ! gases4 ,oxyg5 is1 9 r\nd numb]s1 sixte5 times z d5se z hydrog52 ! squ>e roots ( #af & #a be+ #d & #a1 x 0 f\nd by ,graham1 :o fir/ c>efully inve/igat$ ?is subject1 t f\r times z mu* hydrog5 w\ld pass ?r\gh a por\s diaphragm1 9 a giv5 "t1 z oxyg54 ,! comp\nd ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 h[ev]1 9 ! /ate ( gas1 viz4 /eam1 is n sep>at$ by su* a process into its con/itu5ts2 x diffuses z su*1 & s9ce x is n9e times z d5se z hydrog51 ! relative rates ( diffusion ( /eam & hydrog5 are z #a3 #i1 or z #a to #c2 t is1 = e #c p>ts ( hydrog5 pass+ ?r\gh su* a septum1 #a "p ( /eam w\ld pass 9 ! same "t4 ,an exp]im5t 0 !re=e devis$1 9 :i* a l>ge quantity ( air 0 made to /ream sl[ly ?r\gh a long tra9 ( /ems ( *ur*w>d5 tobacco-pipes1 plac$ inside a glass tube1 ! latt] be+ clos$ at ea* end1 except = ! entrance & exit tubes ( ! tobacco-pipes2 9 ! encas+ glass tube a vacuum 0 ma9ta9$1 & ! gases1 pass+ ?r\gh ! walls ( ! pipe-/ems1 7 pump$ (f & dis*>g$4 ,accord+ to :at has j be5 said1 ^! %\ld be ! light] gases1 nitrog5 & oxyg51 :i* ought to pass ?r\gh ! por\s /ems m quickly ?an ! suppos$ heavi] con/itu5t ( air2 :ile ! air issu+ f ! end ( ! tra9 ( pipes %\ld conta9 relatively m ( ! heavi] con/itu5t1 & %\ld 9 consequ5ce h a great] weight ?an an equal volume ( air4 ,b x 0 obvi\sly conv5i5t to remove ! oxyg5 be=e weigh+ ?is sample ( alt]$ air1 & ?is 0 done 9 ! usual way by pass+ ! mix$ gases ov] r$-hot copp]4 ,x 0 f\nd t su* nitrog5 0 ev5 heavi] ?an ord9>y atmosph]ic nitrog52 n mu*1 x is true1 b /ill consi/5tly heavi]4 ,! d5s] con/itu5t c\ld1 9 fact1 be conc5trat$ by ?is means4 ,! pro( 0 !re=e indubitable t ! new gas exi/$ 9 air z su*4 ,!re is ano!r me?od ( pro(1 h[ev]1 :i* 0 n left untri$4 ,exp]im5t %[$ t ! solubility ( ! new gas 9 wat] is consid]ably great] ?an t ( nitrog51 al?\gh less ?an t ( oxyg54 ,9 #ajj volumes ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ab\t #ae volumes ( nitrog5 w dissolve1 ab\t #de volumes ( oxyg51 & ab\t #d volumes ( ! new gas1 to :i* ! "n f9ally *os5 = x1 8argon10 may n[ be appli$4 ,n[ ! proportion 9 :i* ! con/itu5ts ( a mixture ( gases w dissolve 9 a solv5t is condition$ fir/ by _! relative solubilities1 & second1 by _! relative proportion4 ,?us1 if air be consid]$ to be simply a mixture ( #a volume ( oxyg5 & #d volumes ( nitrog51 ! gas extract$ f wat] :i* has be5 %ak5 ) air w h ! composition-- ,oxyg5 #a x #de #de volumes ,nitrog5 #d x #ae #fj ,s t ! proportion ( oxyg5 to nitrog5 9 su* a mixture ( gases is consid]ably great] ?an 9 air3 in/ead ( be+ approximately #a to #d1 x is ne>ly #de to #f4 ,! discov]y ( ?is law conc]n+ ! composition ( ! gases dissolv$ 9 liquids 0 due to ,dr4 ,h5ry1 "o ( ! biograph]s ( ,dalton4 ,! gases c be almo/ entirely extract$ by boil+ ! wat]4 ,b to boil l>ge quantities ( wat] at "o op]ation 9 a vessel suitable = collect+ ! escap+ gas is n easy4 ,x is mu* simpl] to cause ! wat] to pass sl[ly ?r\gh a c bel[ :i* !re is a p[]ful flame1 s t ! wat] 9 its passage becomes heat$ to ! boil+-po9t1 & gives (f its gas be=e x escapes4 ,( c\rse ! gas collect$ conta9$ oxyg51 b ?is 0 easily remov$ by ! usual me?od ( pass+ x ov] r$-hot copp]4 ,! d5sity ( ! residual gas 0 det]m9$1 & x 0 f\nd to be at lea/ z mu* great] ?an t ( 8atmosph]ic0 nitrog5 z ! d5sity ( 8atmosph]ic0 nitrog5 exce$$ t f *emical s\rces4 ,h5ce x 0 to be conclud$ t ! new con/itu5t ( air1 argon1 0 be+ conc5trat$ by dissolv+ air 9 wat]1 & extract+ ! dissolv$ mixture ( gases4 ,a ?ird pro( t argon exi/s 9 air w be giv5 f>!r on4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,9 ord] t ! prop]ties ( ! newly-discov]$ gas1 argon1 might be ?or\ghly inve/igat$1 x 0 necess>y to prep>e x on a mu* l>g] scale ?an _h hi!rto be5 attempt$1 & ?is 0 c>ri$ out by ! two processes = remov+ ! oxyg5 & nitrog5 :i* h be5 already describ$4 ,suppos+ ! new gas to h ! d5sity #bj comp>$ ) oxyg5 z #af1 ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]ic mixture ( nitrog5 & argon comp>$ ) t ( nitrog5 alone %[s t air %\ld1 r\ghly speak+1 conta9 less ?an "o "p ( argon 9 "o hundr$4 ,h5ce1 to obta9 a litre ( argon1 x 0 necess>y to "w up a l>ge quantity ( atmosph]ic nitrog54 ,n[1 z has j be5 said1 !re are two ways ( do+ ?is4 7#a7 ,"o is to produce an electric flame betwe5 two pieces ( /\t plat9um 9 air1 conf9$ 9 a l>ge glass balloon ( ab\t #f litres capacity1 ov] a weak solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,= ?is purpose a v p[]ful rapidly alt]nat+ curr5t is necess>y4 ,! late/1 & app>5tly ! be/1 me?od ( c>ry+ ?is out1 0 describ$ by ,"l ,rayleigh 9 8 ,royal ,in/itution lecture 9 ,janu>y #ahif4 ,! neck ( ! balloon is plac$ d[nw>ds1 & connect$ by means ( a glass tube1 pass+ ?r\gh a cork :i* closes ! neck1 ) a rotat+ fan or paddle-:eel ) curv$ blades1 :i* =ces ?r\gh ! tube a weak solution ( cau/ic soda2 ano!r tube1 also ent]+ ?r\gh ! cork1 conveys away ! excess ( soda to ! fan1 :5ce x is aga9 =c$ into ! balloon4 ,! soda solution makes a f\nta9 9 ! balloon1 & fl[s 9 a uni=m /ream d[n its sides1 cov]+ its inn] surface ) a ?9 lay] ( liquid4 ,?r\gh ! cork ! two electrodes1 ) _! ?ick plat9um t]m9als1 ent]2 & !re is ano!r tube besides1 :i* conveys into ! balloon a mixture ( air & oxyg5 9 su* proportions t !y comb9e completely on exposure to ! flame4 ,! lay] ( soda solution plays a d\ble "p4 ,x prev5ts ! undue heat+ ( ! glass balloon1 :i* o!rwise mu/ be sunk 9 runn+ wat] 9 ord] to keep x cool2 & x exposes a v l>ge & con/antly r5ew$ surface ( soda to ! nitr\s fumes :i* are produc$ by ! comb9ation ( ! nitrog5 & ! oxyg51 & s removes !m z quickly z !y are =m$4 ,x appe>s probable t ! union results initially 9 ! =mation ( nitric oxide1 ,,no1 :i* !n unites p>tially ) oxyg5 to =m "s nitrog5 p]oxide1 ,,no#b4 ,?is is absorb$ by ! soda1 giv+ a mixture ( nitrite & nitrate ( sodium1 ,na,n,o#b & ,na,n,o#c4 ,work+ 9 ?is way1 f #g to #h litres ( mix$ gases c be made to comb9e p] h\r4 ,! rapidly alt]nat+ curr5t is be/ obta9$ by ! use ( a trans=m]2 & z ! heat+ effect on ! plat9um t]m9als is v great1 !y mu/ be made ( /\t rods4 7#b7 ,to prep>e a l>ge quantity ( argon by ! absorption ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 by magnesium is a some:at t$i\s process4 ,! air mu/ be fir/ fre$ f oxyg5 by means ( r$-hot copp]1 & ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 collect$ 9 a ga%old]4 ,long tubes ( combu/ion-glass tub+1 :i* /&s a bright r$ heat )\t becom+ de=m$1 are pack$ ) magnesium turn+s & heat$ to r$ness 9 long gas furnaces1 su* z are us$ 9 organic analyses2 & ?r\gh ^! ! 8atmosph]ic nitrog510 dri$ by passage ov] soda-lime & phosphorus p5toxide1 is !n pass$4 ,! magnesium beg9s to gl[ at t end ( ! tube ne>e/ ! entrance1 ow+ to its comb9ation ) nitrog51 & a hot r+ is se5 to travel sl[ly d[n ! tube to ! o!r end1 m>k+ ! place :]e su* combu/ion is 9 progress4 ,! gas issu+ f ! tube is collect$ 9 a small ga%old]4 ,:5 "o tube ( magnesium is exhau/$1 ano!r is sub/itut$ = x4 ,ea* tube is capable ( absorb+ ab\t sev5 litres ( nitrog51 s t to obta9 a litre ( argon ab\t "o hundr$ litres ( 8atmosph]ic nitrog50 mu/ be employ$1 & ab\t f\rte5 tubes ( magnesium are requir$4 ,m4 ,maqu5ne1 :o has prep>$ ! nitrides ( sev]al metals1 has /at$ t a mixture ( lime & magnesium1 yield+ metallic calcium1 is m easily manipulat$ ?an pure magnesium1 ow+ to ! absorption ( ! nitrog5 at a l[] temp]ature4 ,! process has n be5 tri$ on a l>ge scale1 b if ! temp]ature ( comb9ation ( magnesium & nitrog5 c\ld be ?us r$uc$1 x w\ld mu* facilitate ! op]ation1 = ! greate/ c>e has to be tak5 n to ov]heat ! combu/ion tube1 else x s(t5s1 & bl[s into holes4 ,porcela9 tubes are attack$ by ! magnesium1 & crack on cool+2 & iron tubes are difficult to clean out4 ,?is prelim9>y op]ation does n yield pure argon2 x m]ely removes a l>ge portion ( ! nitrog54 ,to free ! argon f ! rema9d]1 x is caus$ to circulate 7by means ( a specially contriv$ m]cury-pump1 :]e ea* drop ( m]cury 9 fall+ d[n a n>r[ glass tube c>ries be=e x a small bubble ( gas7 ?r\gh tubes conta9+ r$-hot copp]1 r$-hot copp] oxide1 r$-hot magnesium1 & cold soda-lime & phosphoric anhydride4 ,! copp] s]ves to remove traces ( oxyg52 ! copp] oxide yields up its oxyg5 to any hydrog5 or c>bon comp\nd--du/ & ! l--:i* may happ5 to be pres5t2 ! soda-lime absorbs any c>bon dioxide produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon comp\nds1 & at ! same "t p>tially dries ! gas2 :ile ! phosphoric anhydride effectually dries ! gas1 previ\s to its passage ov] ! r$-hot magnesium1 :i* 9 its turn removes ! nitrog54 ,x is necess>y to cont9ue ?is circulation = sev]al days be=e ! litre ( gas is entirely fre$ f nitrog54 ,x is difficult to *oose betwe5 ^! two me?ods3 bo? are tr\blesome1 & require a consid]able "t1 b 9 an ord9>y laboratory ! latt] is probably ! m easily set 9 op]ation1 = ! =m] requires a suitable electric curr5t1 & p[]1 s z to rotate ! wat]-fan4 ,up to ! pres5t date1 ! only s\rces :i* h yield$ argon are atmosph]ic air1 gases extract$ f m9]al wat]s or f spr+s1 "o meteorite1 & a few r>e m9]als4 ,no animal or vegetable sub/ance appe>s to conta9 x4 ,exp]im5ts 7 made 9 ! summ] ( #ahie by ,mr4 ,george ,mac,donald & ,mr4 ,alex&] ,kellas1 9 ord] to decide :e!r argon 0 a con/itu5t ( any liv+ matt]4 ,"s peas 7 r$uc$ to p[d] & dri$2 ! c>bon & hydrog5 ( ! peas 7 burn$ to c>bon dioxide & wat] by heat+ ) oxide ( copp]1 & "u ^! circum/ances ! nitrog5 is evolv$ 9 ! /ate ( gas4 ,_h argon be5 conta9$ 9 ! vegetable1 x too w\ld h accompani$ ! nitrog54 ,! nitrog5 0 !n1 z usual1 absorb$ = ! mo/ "p by means ( magnesium1 & ! small unabsorb$ residue 0 mix$ ) oxyg5 & expos$ to electric sp>ks = _m h\rs1 9 pres5ce ( cau/ic soda4 ,!re 0 no residue left aft] absorb+ ! excess oxyg53 ! gas 0 completely remov$4 ,simil> exp]im5ts c>ri$ out on animal tissue l$ to a simil> conclusion4 ,two mice 7 *lor(orm$1 & :5 dead !y 7 dri$ 9 an ov5 until all ! moi/ure ( _! bodies 0 completely driv5 (f1 & x 0 possible to r$uce !m to p[d]4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t "o ( ^! mice conta9$ #gc p] c5t ( wat]1 & ! o!r #gje p] c5t4 ,! dri$ animals yield$ ab\t #aa p] c5t ( _! weight ( nitrog54 ,absolutely no residue ( gas 0 obta9$ on caus+ ?is nitrog5 to comb9e2 h5ce x appe>s to be a legitimate conclusion t nei!r animal nor vegetable tissue conta9s any appreciable am\nt ( argon4 ,b ^! exp]im5ts lead to a fur!r result4 ,!y %[ t nitrog51 procur$ f its comp\nds1 :5 treat$ 9 ! same way z atmosph]ic nitrog51 yields no trace ( argon4 ,& x mu/ !re=e be tak5 z prov$ )\t d\bt t argon is actually pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e z su*1 & is n produc$ by any process to :i* ! nitrog5 has be5 submitt$ 9 ord] to extract x4 ,?is po9t hav+ be5 settl$1 ! actual p]c5tage ( argon 9 atmosph]ic air next invit$ inquiry4 ,x is by no means v easy to absorb quantitatively ! :ole ( ! nitrog5 f an accurately measur$ sample ( air1 = small ga9s & losses are apt to occur4 ,x is necess>y to keep ! air out ( contact ) wat] z mu* z possible1 because argon1 be+ m soluble ?an nitrog51 dissolves 9 l>g] proportional am\nt 9 ! wat]1 & is !reby p>tially remov$4 ,! air 0 !re=e entirely manipulat$ ov] m]cury4 ,! processes 7 l ^? previ\sly employ$3 mo/ ( ! nitrog5 0 remov$ ) magnesium1 & ! residue 0 fre$ f all nitrog5 by sp>k+ ) oxyg54 ,exp]im5ts direct$ to ?is end 7 c>ri$ out by ,mr4 ,kellas 9 ,pr(essor ,ramsay's laboratory1 & indep5d5tly by ,m4 ,h4 ,s*loes+ 9 ,p>is4 ,! results 7 id5tical4 8,atmosph]ic nitrog50 consi/s ( pure nitrog5 mix$ ) #aahf p] c5t ( its volume ( argon4 ,x is n[ possible1 kn[+ ! p]c5tage ( argon 9 atmosph]ic nitrog5 & its d5sity 7#aiid71 to calculate :e!r ,"l ,rayleigh's det]m9ations ( ! d5sity ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 7 correct4 ,! weight ( "o litre ( pure nitrog5 is #abeaa gram1 & ( argon1 #aghah gram2 h5ce a litre ( a mixture ( #ihhad volumes ( nitrog5 ) #aahf volume ( argon mu/ possess ! weight #abegd gram4 ,! actual numb] f\nd by ,"l ,rayleigh 0 #abegb gram1 :i* is almo/ exactly id5tical ) ! numb] calculat$4 ,m9]al wat]s1 z a rule1 conta9 small quantities ( argon mix$ ) oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bon dioxide1 & 9 "s cases sulphurett$ hydrog5 & helium1 a gas ( :i* m h]eaft]4 ,! wat]s actually exam9$ 7 ! ,ba? wat]s1 :i* conta9 mu* nitrog51 a little argon1 & a trace ( helium2 ! ,buxton wat]s1 conta9+ nitrog5 & a little argon2 ! wat] f 8,allhus5's ,well10 ,middlesbor\gh1 :i* evolv$ gas ( an inflammable nature consi/+ ma9ly ( nitrog51 b also conta9+ m>%-gas1 & argon to ! ext5t ( ,o#d p] c5t2 wat] f boil+ spr+s 9 ,icel& evolv$ gas conta9+ some:at m argon ?an air does1 viz4 #aad p] c5t2 & la/ly1 wat] f ! ,h>rogate sulphur spr+s yield$ a gas l>gely consi/+ ( a mixture ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 c>bon dioxide & nitrog51 b giv+ also an appreciable am\nt ( argon4 ,su* det]m9ations %[ t argon is n m]ely conf9$ to ! atmosph]e above ! e>?1 b t x p5etrates ! e>? & is conta9$ 9 subt]rane\s wat]4 ,^! results h be5 obta9$ by ,"l ,rayleigh1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 ,mr4 ,trav]s1 & ,mr4 ,kellas4#bf ,simil> exp]im5ts h be5 made by ,dr4 ,b\*>d 9 ,p>is#bg on eff]vesc+ wat]s f ,caut]ets 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,"o ( ^? spr+s yield$ a mixture ( nitrog5 ) a small am\nt ( argon & helium2 ano!r yield$ only nitrog5 & argon2 :ile a ?ird gave nitrog5 & helium4 ,su* are1 up to ! pres5t1 ! s\rces ( argon4 ,x has be5 sev]al times /at$ t ! elem5t helium1 :i* is closely alli$ to argon 9 its physical prop]ties1 & 9 its in]tness1 is a normal con/itu5t ( our atmosph]e1 al?\gh 9 v small am\nt4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,= ! argon ( ! atmosph]e has be5 v c>efully exam9$ = helium 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 ,"l ,rayleigh dissolv$ a l>ge quantity ( argon 9 wat]1 leav+ only a m9ute bubble undissolv$4 ,n[ :ile #ajjj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #dj p>ts ( argon1 !y dissolve only #g p>ts ( helium2 & if helium 7 pres5t1 x %\ld be f\nd 9 ! residue4 ,b c>eful spectroscopic exam9ation fail$ to reveal ! *>act]i/ic l9es ( helium4 ,next1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay & ,dr4 ,collie diffus$ argon fractionally2 & z ! d5sities ( argon & helium are v diff]5t 7#b & #bj71 ! helium %\ld h be5 visible 9 ! fir/ portion :i* diffus$4 ,!re 0 no trace to be detect$4 ,b1 fur!r1 !y submitt$ ?is portion ( argon to a dis*>ge ( electricity = sev]al h\rs 9 a vacuum-tube provid$ ) plat9um electrodes4 ,?is process1 z !y prov$1 c>ries out ! helium ) ! plat9um :i* is spla%$ on to ! sides ( ! tube4 ,! argon 0 !n remov$ by pump+ x (f 9 ! cold4 ,on heat+ ! spla%$-(f plat9um1 no helium spectrum c\ld be obs]v$4 ,9 a simil> exp]im5t1 9 :i* a v m9ute trace ( helium _h be5 add$ to ! argon1 !re 0 no difficulty 9 detect+ ! helium on heat+ ! tube4 ,! conclusion !re=e foll[s t no helium is pres5t 9 our atmosph]e4 ,x is1 besides1 exce$+ly improbable t helium %\ld be pres5t4 ,=1 z %[n by ,dr4 ,john/one ,/oney1 ! rate ( motion ( a molecule ( hydrog5 is s rapid t1 on f9d+ its way to ! conf9es ( ! atmosph]e1 x w\ld escape1 & travel ?r\gh space until x f\nd a planet ( suffici5t attractive =ce to hold x4 ,! same is true ( helium4 ,7 helium pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 x w\ld ultimately leave u = ! sun1 or = "s planet ( mu* great] mass ?an ! e>?4 ,?is conception ( ,dr4 ,/oney's tallies ) ! obs]vation t ! moon1 a planet ( small mass1 is devoid ( an atmosph]e1 & t ! sun1 a body ) a mass #cjj1jjj times z great z ! e>?1 %[s 9 its *romosph]e ! spectra bo? ( hydrog5 & ( helium ) great brilliancy4 ,x is n[ ( int]e/ to inquire :at are ! prop]ties ( argon & h[ x is relat$ to o!r elem5ts4 #be ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 liii4 p4 #acd4 #bf ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 lix4 p4 #fh4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 clxxxvi4 p4 #bbg4 #bg ,compt4 r5d4 vol4 cxxi4 p4 #cid4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,argon ,! d5sity ( a gas is "o ( its mo/ *>act]i/ic & important prop]ties4 ,avogadro's law1 :i* po/ulates t equal volumes ( gases1 at equal temp]ature & pressure1 conta9 equal numb]s ( molecules1 r5d]s x possible to comp>e ! weights ( ! molecules by det]m9+ ! relative weights ( ! gases4 ,?us1 z ! ratio betwe5 ! d5sities ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 is #g to #h1 a s+le molecule ( nitrog51 ! smalle/ portion :i* c exi/ 9 fre$om1 uncomb9$ ) o!r elem5ts1 is ?s ( ! weight ( a s+le molecule ( oxyg54 ,h5ce a det]m9ation ( ! d5sity ( argon leads directly to a k ( ! relative weight ( a s+le molecule ( ?is gas4 ,b ) :at %\ld ! d5sity ( argon be comp>$8 ,:at gas mu/ s]ve z ! /&>d ( d5sity8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 x is necess>y to give a %ort sket* ( ! developm5t ( *emical !ory reg>d+ ! atomic weights ( elem5ts & _! relative volumes4 ,dalton propos$ to adopt z ! unit ( atomic weight ! weight ( ! lighte/ atom1 namely1 t ( hydrog54 ,tak+1 = example1 wat] z "o sub/ance conta9+ hydrog51 its p]c5tage composition by weight is-- ,hydrog5 #aaaa p] c5t ,oxyg5 #hhhh ,if ! smalle/ portion ( wat] capable ( free exi/5ce conta9s "o atom ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg51 !n plac+ ! weight ( an atom ( hydrog5 z unity1 ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg5 is eight times z great4 ,& al?\gh we d n "k ! absolute weight ( any s+le atom1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 suppos+ t an atom ( oxyg5 is eight times z heavy z an atom ( hydrog54 ,b h we any "r to make ! assumption t a molecule ( wat] conta9s "o atom ( ea* elem5t8 ,dalton came to ! conclusion t ?is supposition 0 a ju/ifiable "o2 b !re are /rong reasons aga9/ x4 ,we h already se5 t ,cav5di% discov]$ approximately1 & t ,gay-,lussac & ,humboldt det]m9$ accurately1 t :5 hydrog5 & oxyg5 unite to =m wat]1 two volumes ( ! =m] comb9e ) "o ( ! latt]4 ,n[ x appe>s improbable on ! face ( x t any giv5 volume ( hydrog5 %\ld conta9 only half z _m p>ticles z an equal volume ( oxyg52 & x is /ill m improbable1 :5 we take into consid]ation 7#a7 ,boyle's discov]y t if ! pressure on a gas be increas$1 ! volume ( ! gas1 :atev] x may be1 dim9i%es 9 l proportion2 & 7#b7 ,gay-,lussac's & ,dalton's discov]y1 t all gases1 :5 equally rais$ 9 temp]ature1 exp& equally4 ,x w\ld be v rem>kable if "o gas1 conta9+ twice z _m p>ticles 9 unit volume z ano!r1 %\ld %[ exactly simil> behavi\r t[>ds pressure & temp]ature4 ,h5ce x appe>$ n unreasonable to suppose t ! composition ( wat] 0 express$ by "o p>ticle ( oxyg5 9 union ) two p>ticles ( hydrog54 7,! ^w 8p>ticle0 is "h us$ 9 ! mean+ ( 8small portion02 su* p>ticles may be molecules or !y may be atoms47 ,:5 /eam is =m$ by ! union ( hydrog5 ) oxyg51 x has a volume equal n to ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! hydrog5 & ! oxyg51 b to two-?irds ( ! sum1 or equal to t ( ! hydrog5 alone1 or twice t ( ! oxyg54 ,& z /eam1 l hydrog5 & oxyg51 foll[s ,boyle's & ,gay-,lussac's laws1 x mu/ be suppos$ t 9 ! /eam !re are z _m p>ticles z 9 ! hydrog5 f :i* x 0 =m$4 ,b ! p>ticles ( /eam mu/ necess>ily be m complex ?an ^? ( ! hydrog51 inasmu* z ! /eam conta9s oxyg5 z well z hydrog54 ,^! difficulties may1 h[ev]1 be easily ov]come by ! foll[+ supposition1 :i* 0 fir/ =mulat$ by ,avogadro 9 #ahaa4 ,! ord9>y p>ticles ( hydrog5 & ( oxyg5 are complex1 ea* conta9+ at lea/ two atoms1 or small] p>ticles1 :i* usually exi/ 9 comb9ation ) ea* o!r1 or ) atoms ( "s o!r elem5t4 ,two volumes ( hydrog51 !re=e1 conta9 twice z _m p>ticles z "o volume ( oxyg52 to su* p>ticles ! "n 8molecules0 is n[ univ]sally appli$4 ,& z ^! molecules are !mselves ea* made up ( two small] p>ticles1 n[ t]m$ 8atoms10 !re exi/ 9 two volumes ( hydrog5 twice z _m atoms z 9 "o volume ( oxyg54 ,on comb9ation1 ! atoms 9 ! molecules ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 re>range !mselves1 s t two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg5 comb9e to =m a molecule ( wat]-vap\r1 conta9+ ?ree atoms4 ,! /eam n[ conta9s z _m molecules z did ! hydrog5 be=e comb9ation2 b :]eas ! molecules ( hydrog5 orig9ally consi/$ ( two atoms ea*1 ! molecules ( /eam conta9 ?ree atoms4 ,x is ?is :i* causes ! contraction f ?ree volumes to two :5 hydrog5 & oxyg5 molecules ex*ange p>tn]s 9 =m+ wat] molecules4 ,( c\rse ! difficulty w\ld meet ) an equally good explanation if x 7 suppos$ t ! hydrog5 molecules & ! oxyg5 molecules ea* conta9$ f\r atoms1 or eight atoms2 b !re is no ne$ to increase ! complexity ( ! molecule1 & ! assumption t ^! molecules are 8diatomic0 completely s]ves ! purpose4 ,! composition ( wat] is !re=e believ$ to be two atoms ( hydrog5 9 comb9ation ) "o atom ( oxyg52 & :5 hydrog5 & oxyg5 unite to =m wat]1 a transaction simil> to an ex*ange ( p>tn]s is suppos$ to occur2 ! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 are imag9$ to leave _! p>tn]s ( l k9d1 & to re>range !mselves s t gr\ps ( atoms1 or molecules1 ea* conta9+ two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg51 are =m$4 ,to su* an arrangem5t ! =mula ,h#b,o is appli$1 :ile ord9>y hydrog5 molecules may be repres5t$ z ,h#b1 & molecules ( oxyg5 z ,o#b4 ,x has be5 %[n already 7p4 #aej7 h[ ,"l ,rayleigh obta9$ ! numb] #aehhb = ! d5sity ( oxyg5 comp>$ ) t ( hydrog54 ,to det]m9e ! atomic weights ( elem5ts1 ! usual process has be5 to analyse _! oxides1 = only a few elem5ts =m comp\nds ) hydrog54 ,?us ! analysis ( copp] oxide yields ! numb]s-- ,copp] #giif p] c5t ,oxyg5 #bjjd ,& z no comp\nd ( copp] & hydrog5 is kn[n :i* l5ds itself to analysis1 ! atomic weight ( copp] is necess>ily ref]r$ to t ( oxyg54 ,if ! atomic weight ( hydrog5 be tak5 z unity1 t ( oxyg51 f ,"l ,rayleigh's det]m9ation1 mu/ be #aehhb1 because1 9 comp>+ ! weights ( equal volumes ( ! gases1 a comp>ison is made ( ! weights ( equal numb]s ( molecules2 & z x is reasonable to suppose t ea* molecule ( hydrog5 & ( oxyg5 conta9s two atoms1 ! numb] #aehhb repres5ts ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg5 comp>$ ) t ( an atom ( hydrog5 tak5 z #a4 ,b ?is numb] has n be5 reg>d$ z suffici5tly e/abli%$ by exp]im5t4 ,o!r obs]v]s 7= ! importance ( ?is ratio has be5 ackn[l$g$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury7 h obta9$ results diff]+ f t giv5 above1 al?\gh n to any great ext5t4 ,& z x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce :at basis or /&>d be tak5 = atomic weights1 :i* repres5t only relative numb]s1 x is common to accept ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 z #af1 9 :i* case t ( hydrog51 if ,"l ,rayleigh's det]m9ation ( its d5sity be reg>d$ z accurate1 w\ld be #ajjgd4 ,h5ce if we place ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 z #af1 t ( copp] w\ld be #fccd4 ,& z ) copp]1 s ) mo/ o!r elem5ts4 ,x is v seldom t ! atomic weight ( an elem5t has be5 directly comp>$ ) t ( hydrog52 x is1 9 fact1 almo/ always asc]ta9$ by analysis ( its *loride1 bromide1 or oxide2 & ! atomic weights ( *lor9e & brom9e h be5 v c>efully comp>$ ) t ( oxyg54 ,!re is1 besides1 ano!r conv5i5ce 9 accept+ #af z ! atomic weight ( oxyg53 x is t _m atomic weights are !n repres5t$ by :ole numb]s in/ead ( by fractions2 ?us1 sulphur has ! atomic weight #cb1 if oxyg5 be made #af1 :]eas1 if x 7 #aehhb1 ! atomic weight ( sulphur w\ld be #cagfd1 a numb] mu* m difficult to rememb]4 ,we see !n t x is conv5i5t to ref] ! d5sity ( argon to oxyg5 tak5 z #af4 ,! d5sity obta9$ by ,pr(essor ,ramsay 9 ,febru>y #ahie1 us+ a globe ( small capacity 7only #afj cubic c5timetres71 0 #aiid2 exactly ! same result 0 giv5 by ,"l ,rayleigh's exp]im5ts 9 ,june #ahie on argon prep>$ by means ( ! electric dis*>ge1 ) a balloon ( mu* great] capacity1 :i* held ov] two litres ( gas4 ,n[ z a molecule ( oxyg5 consi/s ( two atoms1 ! weight ( a molecule is twice ! atomic weight1 or #cb2 & z a giv5 volume ( argon mu/ conta9 z _m molecules z ! same volume ( oxyg51 ! weight ( a molecule ( argon mu/ be twice #aiid1 or #cihh4 ,b ?is gives no in=mation reg>d+ ! relative weight ( an atom ( argon4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is important quantity two me?ods may be *os54 ,"o is to make comp\nds ( ! elem5t1 & ?is w be fir/ consid]$4 ,s9ce an atom ( an elem5t is def9$ z ! smalle/ am\nt :i* c exi/ 9 comb9ation1 !n1 if num]\s comp\nds ( an elem5t be exam9$1 t "o :i* conta9s proportionally ! lea/ am\nt ( ! elem5t may be reg>d$ z conta9+ an atom1 unless !re are reasons to ! contr>y4 ,= example1 rev]t+ to ! =m] in/ance ( wat]1 ! relative proportions by weight ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 are1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #af to #b4 ,reasons h already be5 giv5 %[+ :y its =mula %\ld be ,h#b,o & n ,,ho2 its molecule mu/ conta9 two atoms ( hydrog54 ,b ano!r comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 is kn[n 9 :i* ! proportions are #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 to #a "p by weight ( hydrog54 ,"h also !re are reasons = believ+ t ?is comp\nd1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 conta9s two atoms ( hydrog52 :5ce x foll[s t x mu/ conta9 two atoms ( oxyg51 or #cb p>ts by weight to #b p>ts by weight ( hydrog51 & mu/ !re=e h ! =mula ,h#b,o#b4 ,no o!r comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 is kn[n2 & x may be /at$ briefly t no comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) any elem5t :atev] is kn[n 9 :i* less ?an #af p>ts by weight ent]s1 comp>$1 ( c\rse1 ) ! atomic weight ( ! o!r elem5t or elem5ts 9 ! comp\nd4 ,h5ce #af is accept$ on ?is gr\nd z ! atomic weight ( oxyg54 ,if n[ x 7 possible to prep>e comp\nds ( argon1 simil> reason+ might be appli$ to !m1 & t comp\nd conta9+ lea/ argon w\ld be reg>d$ z indicat+ its atomic weight4 ,_m attempts 7 !re=e made to induce argon to ent] into comb9ation4 ,& ! consi/5t failure ( ^! attempts l$ to ! *oice ( ! "n 8argon0 or 8idle0 = ! newly discov]$ elem5t4 ,! me?ods employ$ to prep>e argon free f nitrog51 namely1 by expos+ ! mix$ gases to ! action ( oxyg5 9 a dis*>ge ( electric sp>ks1 & by pass+ !m ov] r$-hot magnesium1 %[ t x _c be induc$ to comb9e ) "o ( ! mo/ electro-negative ( elem5ts1 oxyg51 & "o ( ! mo/ electro-positive1 magnesium4 ,x also refuses to comb9e ) hydrog5 or ) *lor9e :5 sp>k$ ) ^! gases2 nor is x absorb$ or alt]$ 9 volume by passage ?r\gh a r$-hot tube along ) ! vap\rs ( phosphorus1 sulphur1 tellurium1 or sodium4 ,r$-hot cau/ic soda1 or a r$-hot mixture ( soda & lime1 :i* attacks ! exce$+ly refractory metal plat9um1 0 )\t action on argon4 ,! comb9$ influ5ce ( oxyg5 & an alkali 9 ! %ape ( fus$ potassium nitrate or r$-hot p]oxide ( sodium 0 also )\t effect4 ,gold w\ld1 h[ev]1 h resi/$ su* action1 b x w\ld h be5 attack$ by ! next ag5t tri$1 viz4 p]sulphide ( sodium & calcium4 ,?is mixture 0 expos$ at a r$-heat to a curr5t ( argon1 aga9 )\t result4 ,nasc5t *lor9e1 or *lor9e at ! mom5t ( lib]ation1 obta9$ f a mixture ( nitric & hydro*loric acids1 & f p]manganate ( potassium & hydro*loric acid1 0 )\t action4 ,a mixture ( argon ) fluor9e1 ! mo/ active ( all ! elem5ts1 0 expos$ to a ra9 ( electric sp>ks by ,m4 ,moissan1 ! di/+ui%$ *emi/ :o fir/ succe$$ 9 prep>+ l>ge quantities ( fluor9e 9 a pure /ate1 )\t 8 obs]v+ any sign ( *emical comb9ation4 ,an attempt 0 also made to cause argon to comb9e ) c>bon by mak+ an electric arc betwe5 two rods ( c>bon 9 an atmosph]e ( argon4 ,x 0 at fir/ believ$ t comb9ation _h tak5 place1 = expansion occurr$1 ! f9al volume ( gas be+ l>g] ?an ! volume tak52 b subsequ5t exp]im5ts h %[n t ! expansion 0 due to ! =mation ( "s oxide ( c>bon f ! oxyg5 adh]+ to ! c>bon rods4 ,on absorption ( ?is oxide by ! usual absorb5t1 a mixture ( cupr\s *loride & ammonia1 ! argon 0 recov]$ un*ang$4 ,m4 ,b]!lot1 ! celebrat$ ,fr5* *emi/1 has /at$ t1 on expos+ argon mix$ ) b5z5e vap\r to a ra9 ( electric sp>ks1 he has succe$$ 9 caus+ argon to comb9e4 ,its volume c]ta9ly decreases1 b :e!r ?is decrease is to be attribut$ to true comb9ation or n is v d\btful4 ,! b5z5e is conv]t$ into a res9\s mass1 :i* coats ! walls ( ! tube2 & x is n improbable t ! argon may be dissolv$1 or ev5 me*anically reta9$1 9 ! res9\s deposit4 ,helium1 a gas closely resembl+ argon 9 prop]ties1 may be made to ent] into a simil> comb9ation ) metallic plat9um1 if comb9ation x c be call$2 b ! am\nt absorb$ 9 bo? cases is extremely m9ute1 & ! gas is evolv$ un*ang$ on heat+ ! res9 or ! metal4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has also made exp]im5ts on ! action ( a sil5t electric dis*>ge ^u a mixture ( argon ) ! vap\r ( c>bon tetra*loride2 ! latt] decomposes1 giv+1 n a res91 b cry/als ( hexa*lorob5z5e & free *lor9e2 b ! volume ( ! argon 0 un*ang$4 ,x 0 all recov]$ )\t loss4 ,la/ly1 ! r>e elem5ts titanium & uranium h be5 heat$ to r$ness 9 a curr5t ( argon ) no alt]ation or absorption ( ! gas4 ,9 %ort1 all likely ag5ts h be5 tri$ z absorb5ts = argon1 b 9 no case has any true *emical comb9ation be5 obta9$4 ,^! failures to produce comp\nds make x impossible to ga9 any k reg>d+ ! atomic weight ( argon by a /udy ( its comp\nds1 = x =ms none4 ,x is1 inde$1 9 ! highe/ degree improbable t1 _h comp\nds exi/$1 none %\ld h be5 f\nd 9 ,nature4 ,!re are1 x is true1 a few elem5ts1 su* z plat9um & ^? resembl+ x1 :i* always occur native1 i4e4 9 ! elem5t>y /ate2 b ev5 !y yield to ! attack ( ! ag5ts tri$ ) argon4 ,x _c1 ( c\rse1 be /at$ ) absolute c]ta9ty t no elem5t c comb9e ) argon2 b x appe>s at lea/ improbable t any comp\nds w be =m$4 ,x 0 !re=e necess>y to adopt "s o!r me?od 9 attempt+ to det]m9e ! atomic weight ( argon1--"s me?od dep5d5t on its physical r ?an its *emical prop]ties1 = argon1 unlike almo/ all o!r elem5ts1 appe>s to be devoid ( *emical prop]ties4 ,9 ord] bett] to foll[ ! tra9 ( reason+ bas$ on exp]im5t1 x w be well to beg9 ) an acc\nt ( :y ! atomic weight ( m]cury is accept$ z #bjj4 ,! am\nt ( m]cury :i* comb9es ) #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 is easily f\nd by heat+ a weigh$ quantity ( oxide ( m]cury1 z ,prie/ley & ,s*eele did1 & weigh+ ! residue ( metal4 ,! results ( ! mo/ accurate exp]im5ts %[ t #bjjcf grams ( m]cury comb9e ) #af grams ( oxyg51 & if ! comp\nd consi/s ( "o atom ( ea* elem5t1 #bjjcf mu/ be ! atomic weight ( m]cury4 ,! fir/ idea :i* naturally occurs is to f9d out ! relative weight ( m]cury gas4 ,?is has be5 done1 & x is f\nd to h ! ratio to t ( oxyg5 ( #ajj to #af4 ,d\bl+ ^! numb]s w give ! molecul> weights1 s9ce a molecule ( oxyg5 consi/s ( two atoms1 & mu/ !re=e possess twice ! weight ( "o atom4 ,we ?us obta9 ! numb]s #bjj & #cb z ! molecul> weights ( m]cury & oxyg5 respectively4 ,x might !re=e be conclud$ t #bjj is n ! true atomic weight ( m]cury1 b #ajj1 & t ! comp\nd ( m]cury ) oxyg5 conta9s n "o b two atoms ( m]cury1 & %\ld !re=e be repres5t$ by ! =mula ,hg#b,o1 n ,hg,o4 ,b on survey+ all kn[n comp\nds ( m]cury1 !re is n "o :i* conta9s less ?an #bjj p>ts by weight ( m]cury 9 a molecule ( ! comp\nd1 or 9 :i* ! m]cury _c be conceiv$ to replace #b p>ts by weight ( hydrog54 ,& on weigh+ z gases ! comp\nds ( m]cury ) o!r elem5ts1 :]e su* comp\nds d n decompose on heat+ l ! oxide1 ! am\nt ( m]cury pres5t mu/ be always tak5 z #bjj1 9 ord] to add up to ! molecul> weight f\nd4 ,= example1 a comp\nd ( m]cury ) c>bon & hydrog51 nam$ m]cury me?ide1 has a d5sity ( #abj comp>$ ) oxyg5 tak5 z #af1 h5ce ! comp>ative weight ( its molecule mu/ be #bdj4 ,n[ x is kn[n to conta9 two atoms ( c>bon & six atoms ( hydrog51 ! atomic weights ( :i* are #bd #f #cj4 ,& d$uct+ #cj f #bdj1 #baj rema9s z an approximation to ! atomic weight ( m]cury4 ,x might1 x is true1 be ! weight ( two atoms ( m]cury1 b if s x is s+ul> t no comp\nd conta9s a small] proportion2 & !re is ano!r reason1 :i* foll[s imm$iately1 t leads u to believe t #bjj is correctly tak5 z ! true weight ( an atom4 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,dulong & ,petit1 e>ly 9 ! c5tury1 t ! high] ! atomic weight ( an elem5t ! less heat is requir$ to raise its temp]ature ?r\gh a giv5 numb] ( degrees4 ,?is heat c be measur$ by dropp+ a fragm5t ( ! elem5t1 c>efully weigh$ & heat$ to a kn[n temp]ature1 into a kn[n weight ( cold wat]1 & asc]ta9+ :at rise ( temp]ature ! wat] und]goes1 ow+ to ! heat communicat$ to x by ! elem5t4 ,^! comp>ative am\nts ( heat1 if wat] is *os5 z ! /&>d1 are t]m$ specific heats4 ,& z ! specific heats ( elem5ts h be5 f\nd by exp]im5t to be inv]sely z _! atomic weights1 ! product ( ! specific heat ( any elem5t & its atomic weight w give a con/ant numb]4 ,if ! quantity ( elem5t weigh$ is "o gram1 & its rise ( temp]ature "o degree1 ! num]ical value ( ?is product is ab\t #fd4 ,n[ ! specific heat ( m]cury has be5 f\nd to equal #jjcb2 t is to say1 x requires only a fraction ( ! value ( #jjcb ( heat to raise ! temp]ature ( say #a gram ( m]cury ?r\gh "o degree1 :]eas ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to raise #a gram ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree is repres5t$ by ! numb] #a4 ,h5ce ?is numb]1 #jjcb1 multipli$ by ! atomic weight ( m]cury1 %\ld yield ! product #fd2 & x is se5 at once t t numb] mu/ be #bjj1 = #bjj #jjcb #fd4 ,?is is an additional reason = believ+ t ! atomic weight ( m]cury mu/ be repres5t$ by ! numb] #bjj4 ,we come next to a confirmatory piece ( evid5ce :i* greatly /r5g!ns ! view t ! atomic weight ( m]cury mu/ be #bjj2 b be=e ent]+ into detail let u see :at an atomic weight ( #bjj involves4 ,! d5sity ( m]cury gas is #ajj1 & its molecul> weight mu/ be #bjj4 ,b if its atomic weight is also #bjj1 x foll[s ( necessity t its molecule & its atom mu/ be id5tical2 t unlike oxyg5 & hydrog51 its molecule consi/s1 n ( two atoms1 b ( "o s+le atom4 ,!re is no?+ /range 9 ?is conclusion2 !re is no evid5t reason :y s+le atoms %\ld n act z molecules1 or indep5d5t p>ticles1 able to exi/ 9 a free /ate1 uncomb9$ ) ea* o!r or ) any o!r molecules4 ,! specific heat ( a gas is measur$ 9 mu* ! same mann] z t ( a solid4 ,a kn[n volume ( ! gas is caus$ to pass ?r\gh a spiral tube1 heat$ to a c]ta9 def9ite high temp]ature2 x !n ent]s a vessel conta9+ a kn[n weight ( wat]1 trav]ses a spiral tube imm]s$ 9 ! wat]1 & p>ts ) its heat to ! wat]4 ,kn[+1 !re=e1 ! weight ( ! gas & its initial temp]ature1 & also ! rise ( temp]ature ( ! wat]1 ! specific heat ( ! gas c be comp>$ ) t requir$ to raise an equal weight ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree4 ,b gases are f\nd to possess two specific heats4 ,if ! volume ( ! gas is kept con/ant1 s t ! gas does n contract dur+ its loss ( heat1 "o numb] = its specific heat is obta9$2 :ile if x is all[$ to alt] its volume a high] figure repres5ts its specific heat4 ,x w be necess>y to consid] ! cause ( ?is diff]5ce1 9 ord] to und]/& :at conclusions c be drawn respect+ ! molecul> nature ( argon f a det]m9ation ( ! ratio betwe5 its two specific heats--t at con/ant pressure & t at con/ant volume4 ,if a gas is all[$ to exp& into a v]tical cyl9d] s z to drive up a pi/on load$ ) a weight1 x is said to 8d "w40 ,! "w is measur$ by ! weight on ! pi/on1 & also by ! height to :i* x is rais$4 ,?us1 if ! weight is "o p\nd1 & ! height "o foot1 "o foot-p\nd ( "w is done2 if ! mass is "o gram & ! height "o c5timetre1 "o gram-c5timetre ( "w is done4 ,dur+ ?is process ! gas mu/ exp&2 & if x 7 enclos$ 9 "s =m ( cas+ ?r\gh :i* heat c\ld n pass--we "k ( no su* cas+1 b we c contrive cas+s ?r\gh :i* heat passes v sl[ly--! temp]ature ( ! gas w\ld fall dur+ its expansion1 & x w\ld lose heat4 ,= ea* loss ( "o heat-unit or calory--i4e4 ! am\nt ( heat giv5 (f by #a gram ( wat] 9 cool+ ?r\gh #a ,c5tigrade--! gas w\ld p]=m #db1chj gram-c5timetres ( "w2 x w\ld raise a weight ( ne>ly #d kilograms1 or ab\t #i lbs41 ?r\gh #a c5timetre1 or ne>ly half an in*4 ,:5 a gas exp&s into ! atmosph]e x may be reg>d$ z 8rais+ ! atmosph]e0 ?r\gh a c]ta9 height1 = ! atmosph]e possesses weight1 equal on ! av]age to #ajcc grams on ea* squ>e c5timetre ( ! e>?'s surface1 or betwe5 #ae & #af lbs4 on ea* squ>e in*4 ,suppose a quantity ( air1 weigh+ #a gram1 to be enclos$ 9 a long cyl9drical tube ( "o squ>e c5timetre 9 section4 ,at ! usual pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! e>?'s surface1 & at #j ,c5tigrade1 ! volume ( ! air w\ld be #ggcc cubic c5timetres2 &1 z ! sectional area ( ! tube is #a squ>e c5timetre1 ! air w\ld occupy #ggcc c5timetres' l5g? ( ! tube4 ,if heat be giv5 to ?is air1 s t its temp]ature is rais$ f #j to #a1 x w exp&1 z ,gay-,lussac %[$1 by #a_/bgcrd ( its volume4 ,n[ ! product ( #ggcc & #a_/bgc is #bhc c5timetres2 ! level ( ! surface ( ! air w rise 9 ! tube ?r\gh t am\nt4 ,9 do+ s x w p]=m ! "w ( rais+ #ajcc grams ?r\gh #bhc c5timetres1 or #bibg gram-c5timetres4 ,c>eful measurem5ts h %[n t1 9 ord] to d ?is "w1 heat to ! am\nt ( #jjfib calory mu/ be giv5 to ! gas4 ,b x has be5 f\nd t to heat ! air ?r\gh "o degree1 )\t all[+ x to exp&1 requires #jafhc calory2 t is1 ! same am\nt ( heat :i* w\ld raise a gram ( air ?r\gh "o degree1 its volume be+ kept con/ant1 w raise a gram ( wat] ?r\gh #jafhc2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! specific heat ( air is #jafhc4 ,b if all[$ to exp&1 m heat is requir$--an additional #jjfib calory mu/ be giv5 x2 consequ5tly its specific heat at con/ant pressure is great]2 x is actually ! sum ( ^! two numb]s1 #jafhc #jjfib #jbcge4 ,we h ?us-- ,specific heat at con/ant pressure #jbcge volume #jafhc ,ratio betwe5 ^! numb]s3 #jbcge_/jafhc #ada ,?is ratio is t]m$ ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heats ( air1 & su* a ratio is repres5t$ usually by ! lett] 4 ,b x is n necess>y to det]m9e bo? k9ds ( specific heat 9 ord] to arrive at a k ( ! value ( ?is ratio4 ,"o plan1 adopt$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,dsormes at ! sugge/ion ( ,laplace1#bh is to actually measure ! fall ( temp]ature by all[+ a kn[n volume ( gas1 ( :i* ! weight c ( c\rse be d$uc$1 to exp& f a pressure some:at high] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e to atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x is true t heat w rapidly fl[ 9 ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel2 b by *oos+ a suffici5tly l>ge vessel1 & surr\nd+ its walls ) badly-conduct+ mat]ial1 ! entry ( heat w be s sl[ t x may1 = practical purposes1 be neglect$4 ,! numb] = ?is ratio1 actually f\nd by ,gay-,lussac & ,welt]s = air1 0 #acgf2 b subsequ5t & m accurate exp]im5ts h giv5 z a result #adje1 :i* is almo/ id5tical ) t calculat$ above4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 c be employ$ only :5 an unlimit$ supply ( gas is at disposal1 = x entails ! use ( l>ge vessels1 & ! compress$ gas mu/ be all[$ to escape into ! atmosph]e1 & is lo/4 ,!re is1 =tunately1 ano!r me?od by :i* ! same results c be obta9$1 & :i* requires only a small am\nt ( gas4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton calculat$ t ! velocity ( s\nd 9 a gas 0 dep5d5t on its pressure & on its d5sity1 9 su* a mann] t c 7p_/d71 :]e c /&s = velocity 7cel]ity71 p = pressure1 & d = d5sity4 ,:5 waves ( s\nd are transmitt$ ?r\gh air1 ! air is compress$ 9 p>ts & r>efi$ 9 p>ts1 9 su* a mann] t compression foll[s r>efaction v rapidly1 t "p :i* is compress$ at "o in/ant be+ r>efi$ at ! next1 compress$ aga9 at a ?ird1 & r>efi$ at a f\r?1 & s on4 ,laplace 0 ! fir/ to po9t out t dur+ su* rapid *anges ( pressure z occur :ile a s\nd-wave is pass+1 ! pressure w n rise proportionally to ! d5sity1 z w\ld be ! case if ,boyle's law 7 foll[$2 = on sudd5 rise ( pressure ! temp]ature ( ! compress$ portion ( ! gas w be increas$2 &1 correspond+ly1 on sudd5 fall ( pressure1 ! wave ( compression hav+ pass$1 ! temp]ature w fall4 ,he %[$ t in/ead ( two pressures be+ inv]sely proportional to _! two volumes1 "u su* circum/ances1 z !y are accord+ to ,boyle's law1 or p_/p#a v#a_/v1 !y mu/ be inv]sely proportional to ! volumes rais$ to a p[]1 ! num]ical expression ( :i* is ! ratio ( ! specific heats ( ! two gases1 1 ?us3 p_/p#a 7v#a_/v72 or z v#a 3 v 33 d 3 d#a1 c 7 p_/d71 & c#b;d_/p4 ,! ratio ( ! two specific heats c !re=e be det]m9$ by f9d+ ! velocity ( s\nd 9 ! gas1 & by not+ at ! same "t its d5sity & its pressure4 ,to det]m9e ! velocity ( s\nd 9 a gas1 x is n necess>y to adopt ! plan :i* has be5 successfully c>ri$ out ) air2 t is1 to make a sudd5 s\nd at "o spot & to measure ! int]val ( "t :i* ! s\nd takes to travel to ano!r spot "s miles di/ant4 ,!re is a simpl] me?od1 dep5d+ on ! fact t ! l5g?s ( ! waves ( compression & r>efaction are proportional to ! velocity ( ! s\nd4 ,s t1 kn[+ ! velocity ( s\nd 9 air1 ! velocity 9 any o!r gas may be f\nd by det]m9+ ! relative l5g? ( ! s\nd-waves 9 air & 9 t gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,! simple app>atus ) :i* su* det]m9ations are made is due to ! physici/ ,kundt4 ,x consi/s ( a glass tube1 ?r\gh "o end ( :i* a glass rod passes1 s t half ! rod is enclos$ 9 ! tube1 :ile ! o!r half projects outside x4 ,9 ! exp]im5ts on argon1 ! rod 0 seal$ into ! tube2 9 o!r cases1 x is bett] to atta* x ) indi>ubb]1 or to cause ! rod to pass ?r\gh a cork4 ,! op5 end ( ! tube is connect$ ) a supply ( ! gas1 s t1 aft] ! tube has be5 pump$ empty ( air1 ! gas1 9 a pure & dry condition1 c be admitt$4 ,"s light p[d] 7& = ?is purpose lycopodium du/--! dri$ spores ( a species ( fungus--is be/7 is plac$ 9 ! tube1 & di/ribut$ uni=mly ?r\gh\t x1 s t :5 ! latt] is 9 a horizontal position1 a /reak ( ! p[d] lies along x f end to end4 ,! portion ( rod outside ! tube is rubb$ ) a rag wett$ ) alcohol1 :5 x emits a %rill tone or squeak1 due to longitud9al vibrations2 ! pit* ( ! tone dep5ds1 naturally1 on ! l5g? ( ! rod1 a long rod giv+ a deep] tone ?an a %ort "o4 ,! vibrations ( ! rod set ! gas 9 ! tube 9 motion1 & ! s\nd-waves are convey$ f end to end ( ! tube ?r\gh ! gas4 ,z ! tube is clos$ at ! end ?r\gh :i* ! gas 0 admitt$1 ^! waves e*o back ?r\gh x2 & a great deal ( c>e mu/ be tak5 to make ! e*o /r5g!n ! waves1 s t ! compressions produc$ by ! back waves are co9cid5t 9 position ) ! compressions produc$ by ! =w>d waves travell+ onw>ds f ! rod4 ,! gas1 c\ld we see x1 w\ld repres5t portions compress$ & portions r>efi$ at regul> int]vals along ! tube4 ,:]e ! gas is compress$1 x ga!rs ! lycopodium du/ toge!r 9 small heaps1 ! position ( ea* heap signify+ a node ( compression4 ,h5ce1 comp>+ ! di/ances betwe5 ! nodes ( compression = any gas & = air1 we f9d ! relative wave-l5g?s ( s\nd 9 ! two gases2 &1 z ! velocity ( s\nd 9 air has be5 accurately measur$1 we ?us det]m9e ! velocity ( s\nd-waves 9 ! gas "u exp]im5t4 ,su* exp]im5ts 7 made by ,kundt & by 8 co-work] ,w>burg on m]cury gas1 & !y f\nd t 9 ?is case ! value ( 0 #afg2 t is1 9 ! equation c#b;d_/p ! value #afg _h to be ascrib$ to 1 9 ord] to r5d] x equal to ! product ( ! squ>e ( ! velocity into ! d5sity1 divid$ by ! pressure4 ,simil> exp]im5ts ) argon l$ to ! same result z ,kundt & ,w>burg f\nd = m]cury gas2 b ! calculation becomes m simple if x is all[able to take = grant$ t ! ela/icity1 or alt]ation ( pressure produc$ by unit alt]ation ( volume1 is id5tical 9 ! case ( argon & air4 ,! full equations are-- nair cair 7p_/d77#a at7air1 & nargon cargon 7p_/d77#a at7argon1 :]e n is ! numb] ( vibrations p] second1 ! wave-l5g? ( s\nd1 & a ! coeffici5t ( ! expansion ( a gas = a rise ( #a 9 temp]ature1 t1 viz4 #jjjcfg4 ,n[ if ! expression p 7#a at7 c be %[n to be id5tical = argon & = air1 ! value ( = argon c be calculat$ by ! v simple proportion-- #b;dair 3 #b;dargon 33 #adjh 3 argon4 ,?is involv$ a measurem5t ( ! rate ( rise ( pressure ( argon1 p1 p] degree ( rise ( temp]ature1 t2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! v]ification ( ,boyle's & ,gay-,lussac's laws = argon2 & ?is rese>* 0 successfully c>ri$ out by ,dr4 ,r&all ( ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity ( ,baltimore1 ,u4,s4,a41 & ,dr4 ,ku551 ( ,leyd51 work+ 9 ,pr(essor ,ramsay's laboratory4#bi ,!y made use ( a con/ant volume !rmomet]1 & measur$ ! rise ( pressure correspond+ to a def9ite rise ( temp]ature1 comp>+ ! gases argon & helium 9 ?is respect ) air4 ,! values f\nd betwe5 #j & #ajj = air1 argon1 & helium 7-- ,"o volume air1 heat$ f #j to #ajj1 raises pressure 9 ! proportion ( #a to #acffc ,argon #acffh ,helium #acffe ,x may !re=e be tak5 = c]ta9 t1 )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error1 ! value ( ! expression p7#a at7 is id5tical = all ?ree gases4 ,we see1 !n1 t = argon1 z = m]cury gas1 ! value ( 1 ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heats at con/ant volume & at con/ant pressure1 is #a to #aff1 :]eas = air1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bon monoxide1 & nitric oxide1 x is #a to #ad4 ,we h n[ to consid] :at conclusion c be drawn f ?is diff]5ce4 ,on ! usually accept$ !ory ( ! con/itution ( matt]1 x is held t atoms may be reg>d$ z sph]es1 h>d1 ela/ic1 smoo?1 & practically incompressible4 ,true1 we really "k little or no?+ reg>d+ ! prop]ties ( su* p>ticles1 if p>ticles !re be2 b 9 consid]+ _! behavi\r x is necess>y to make c]ta9 suppositions1 & to see :e!r obs]v$ facts c be pictur$ to our m9ds 9 accordance ) su* po/ulates4 ,if1 f ! kn[n behavi\r ( l>ge masses1 conclusions c be drawn reg>d+ small masses1 & if ^! conclusions h>monise ) :at is f\nd to be ! behavi\r ( l>ge numb]s ( small masses act+ at once1 ! ju/ice ( ! supposition is1 al?\gh n prov$1 at lea/ r5d]$ def5sible z "o mode ( reg>d+ natural ph5om5a4 ,molecules1 on ?is supposition1 may consi/ ( s+le atoms1 or !y may consi/ ( pairs ( su* atoms1 jo9$ 9 "s fa%ion l ! bulg$ ends ( a dumb-bell2 or la/ly1 !y may consi/ ( great] numb]s ( atoms arrang$ 9 "s diff]5t mann]1 ! arrangem5t dep5d+ on _! relative size & attraction = ea* o!r4 ,x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t su* m5tal pictures are n to be tak5 z actually repres5t+ ! true con/itution ( matt]1 b m]ely z attempts to picture su* =ms z w all[ ( our draw+ conclusions reg>d+ _! behavi\r f kn[n configurations ( l>ge masses4 ,! molecules ( gases are imag9$ to be 9 a /ate ( cont9ual motion1 up & d[n1 backw>ds & =w>ds1 & f side to side4 ,x is true t !y mu/ also move 9 directions :i* _c be describ$ by any ( ^! expressions1 b su* o!r directions may be conceiv$ z p>tak+ m or less ( motions 9 ! ?ree directions specifi$2 i4e4 9 be+ resolvable into ^!4 ,to ^! motions h be5 appli$ ! t]m 8degrees ( fre$om40 ,su* motions ?r\gh space1 9 :i* ! molecule is transport$ f "o position 9 space to ano!r1 =m ?ree ( ! possible six degrees ( fre$om :i* a molecule may possess1 & ! molecules are said to possess 8en]gy ( translation0 9 virtue ( ?is motion4 ,! o!r ?ree consi/ 9 rotations 9 ?ree planes at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,n[1 x c be %[n t ! product ( pressure & volume ( a gas1 pv1 is equal to rds ( ! en]gy ( translation ( all molecules ( ! gas1 or pv 7,,nr71 :]e ,n /&s = ! numb] ( molecules 9 unit volume1 & ,r = _! en]gy ( translation2 inasmu* z a pressure dim9i%+ a volume is ( ! nature ( "w1 or en]gy4 ,= "o gram ( air at ,o ,c4 & #gf cms4 pressure 7normal temp]ature & pressure71 ! pressure 7p71 measur$ 9 grams p] squ>e c5timetre1 is #ajcc1 & ! volume 7v7 is #ggcc cubic c5timetres2 & ! rais+ ( ! temp]ature ?r\gh #a1 z 0 %[n be=e1 requires #bibg gram-c5timetres ( "w4 ,fur!r1 s9ce ! product ( pressure into volume is equal to rds ( ! en]gy due to motion1 or ! translational en]gy ( ! gas1 ,,nr #c_/bpv #c_/b #bibg #dcia gram-c5timetres4 ,divid+ ?is numb] by #db1chj1 ! me*anical equival5t ( heat1 or ! numb] ( gram-c5timetres correspond+ to "o calory1 ! quoti5t is #jajdj calory4 ,if ! en]gy ( ! air 7 due to ! translational motion ( its molecules1 we %\ld expect ?is numb]1 #jajdj1 to /& = ! specific heat ( air at con/ant volume2 b x has be5 f\nd equal to #jafhc1 z already %[n4 ,we h se5 t to conv]t specific heat at con/ant volume into specific heat at con/ant pressure #jjfib mu/ be add$4 ,h5ce at con/ant pressure ! specific heat ( su* an ideal gas %\ld be #jagcb4 ,& ! relation betwe5 specific heat at con/ant volume & t at con/ant pressure %\ld be #jajdj to #jagcb1 or #a to #a4 ,! conclusion to be drawn f ^! numb]s = air1 #jafhc & #jbcge1 :i* be> to ea* o!r ! ratio ( #a3 #ada1 is t air _c be su* an ideal gas2 t 9 communicat+ heat to x "s ( t heat mu/ be employ$ 9 p]=m+ "s k9d ( "w o!r ?an t ( rais+ its temp]ature4 ,:at ?is "w may possibly be we %all consid] lat]4 ,b ,kundt & ,w>burg f\nd1 f _! exp]im5ts on ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heats ( m]cury gas1 ?is ideal ratio1 #a to #a2 & ,pr(essor ,ramsay obta9$ ! same ideal ratio1 or "o v close to x inde$1 #a to #afei1 = argon4 ,he subsequ5tly f\nd ?is ideal ratio also to hold = helium 7#a to #afeb71 & x mu/ !re=e be conclud$ t su* gases possess only ?ree degrees ( fre$om2 or1 9 o!r words1 _! molecules1 :5 heat$1 exp5d all ! en]gy imp>t$ to !m 9 translational motion ?r\gh space4 ,?is is ! consequ5ce :i* we %\ld inf] f ! supposition t su* molecules are h>d1 smoo?1 ela/ic sph]es4 ,7 !y ea* compos$ ( two atoms1 we %\ld h to picture !m z dumbbell-l /ructures2 & "h we ent] on a !oretical conception put =w>d by ,pr(essor ,boltzmann1 b :i* has n be5 accept$ univ]sally by physici/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,boltzmann imag9es t to ! ?ree 8degrees ( fre$om0 ( a s+le atom molecule !re may be add$1 provid$ ! molecule consi/s ( two atoms1 two o!r degrees ( fre$om1 namely1 fre$om to rotate ab\t two planes at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! knobs at ! end ( ea* imag9>y dumb-bell may revolve r\nd a c5tral po9t 9 ! h&le jo9+ !m1 & x is cle> t !y may revolve 9 "o horizontal & 9 "o v]tical plane1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,su* diatomic molecules are said to possess five 8degrees ( fre$om40 ,!y w n1 x is suppos$1 rotate r\nd ! l9e jo9+ ! c5tres ( ! sph]es1 because1 z be=e said1 ! atoms are pictur$ z p]fectly smoo?4 ,b if ! molecules are triatomic1 z1 = example1 ,,co#b or ,n#b,o1 !y w h six degrees ( fre$om1 = ) ! addition ( an additional atom !y h an additional plane ( rotation 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,boltzmann has attempt$ to %[ t ! ratio ( ! specific heats ( diatomic molecules %\ld be z #a to #ad4 ,9 actual fact x approximates to t numb]4 ,= ! common] gases x is-- ,oxyg5 #adjb ,nitrog5 #adaa ,hydrog5 #adab ,c>bon monoxide #adah ,9 all cases ! numb]s are too l>ge1 & ?is is a s]i\s difficulty1 because any t5d5cy to rotate r\nd ! c5tral l9e w\ld cause ! values to be less1 n great] ?an #ad4 ,= triatomic molecules ! calculat$ value ( is #a1 b 9 actual fact ! ratio 9 ! case ( triatomic molecules1 su* z ,h#b,o1 ,,co#b1 ,n#b,o1 etc41 is always less ?an #a4 ,^! speculations /& on a basis v diff]5t f ! fir/ conception1 namely1 t all heat mu/ be employ$ 9 communicat+ translational motion to molecules ( m]cury gas1 argon1 & helium1 & x appe>s t ! atoms ( ^! ?ree elem5ts mu/ necess>ily be reg>d$ z hav+ ! prop]ties ( smoo? ela/ic sph]es4 ,! atoms & ! molecules mu/ 9 _! sev]al cases be id5tical4 ,&1 inasmu* z ! *emical evid5ce reg>d+ m]cury leads to ! same conclusion1 x appe>s legitimate to inf] t argon & helium mu/ also be monatomic elem5ts4 #bh ,m*anique cle/e1 vol4 v4 p4 #abc4 #bi ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 lix4 p4 #fc4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,argon ,,among ,,! ,,elem5ts ,f :at has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ *apt] !re c be no d\bt t ! molecul> weight ( argon is #cihh4 ,we h n[ to consid] :at ?is conclusion involves4 ,tak5 9 conjunction ) ! fact t ! ratio betwe5 its specific heat at con/ant volume & t at con/ant pressure is #a1 x foll[s t en]gy imp>t$ to x is employ$ solely 9 communicat+ translational motion to its molecules4 ,9 ! case ( m]cury gas su* behavi\r is tak5 z evid5ce t ! conclusion foll[+ f ! =mulae ( its comp\nds1 f ! d5sity ( its comp\nds 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & f its own vap\r-d5sity1 z well z f its specific heat 9 ! liquid /ate1 namely1 t its molecules are monatomic1 is correct4 ,is x legitimate to conclude t because argon 9 ! gase\s /ate has ! same ratio ( specific heats1 !re=e x also is a monatomic gas8 ,! conclusion w dep5d on our conception ( an atom & a molecule1 & 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our ignorance reg>d+ ^! ab/ract entities no positive answ] c be giv54 ,x appe>s c]ta9 t1 on rais+ ! temp]ature ( argon1 v little1 if any1 en]gy is absorb$ 9 imp>t+ vibrational motion to its molecules2 & our *oice lies betwe5 our ability or inability to conceive ( a molecule s con/itut$ z to be incapable ( int]nal motion4 ,if !re be any tru? und]ly+ ,pr(essor ,boltzmann's conception1 a molecule ( argon _c consi/ ( any complex /ructure ( atoms1 o!rwise x w\ld possess m ?an ?ree degrees ( fre$om1 & heat w\ld be utilis$ 9 caus+ rotational motions4 ,z we "k = a fact t ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heats ( gases dim9i%es ) ! increas+ complexity ( _! molecules1 p]haps ! safe/ conclusion is ! "o adopt$ by ! discov]]s ( argon1 t ! balance ( evid5ce drawn f ?is s\rce is 9 fav\r ( its monatomic nature4 ,b ?is hypo!sis raises difficulties :i* are n lightly to be met4 ,^! difficulties arise f a consid]ation ( ! position ( argon :5 x is classifi$ ) o!r elem5ts4 ,9 #ahfc ,mr4 ,john ,newl&s po9t$ out 9 a lett] to ! ,*emical ,news t if ! elem5ts be arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights 9 a tabul> =m1 !y fall naturally into su* gr\ps t elem5ts simil> to ea* o!r 9 *emical behavi\r occur 9 ! same columns4 ,?is idea 0 elaborat$ f>!r 9 #ahfi by ,pr(essor ,m5deleff ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg & by ! late ,pr(essor ,lo?> ,mey]1 & ! table may be made to assume ! subjo9$ =m 7! atomic weights are giv5 ) only approximate accuracy73-- ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,sy/em4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,li?ium #gj;,b]yllium #ia;,boron #aaj;,c>bon #abj ,sodium #bcj,magnesium #bdc;,alum9ium #bgj,silicon #bhc ,potassium #cia;,calcium #dja,sc&ium #dda,titanium #dha ,rubidium #hee,/rontium #hge,yttrium #hij,zirconium #ijj ,caesium #acbi;,b>ium #acgj,lan?anum #adbc;,c]ium #adjc 8 #agjj8 #agb #j,ytt]bium #agcj8 #aggj 8 #bbaj8 #bbej8 #bcjj,?orium #bcbd ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,hydrog5 #aja;,helium #db ,nitrog5 #adj,oxyg5 #afj;,fluor9e #aij8 ,phosphorus #caj,sulphur #cba;,*lor9e #cee;,argon #cii ,ars5ic #gea,sel5ium #gij;,brom9e #hjj8 ,antimony #abjc,tellurium #abfc;,iod9e #abfi8 ,erbium #affj8 #afgj8 #afij8 ,bismu? #bjha8 #badj8 #baij8 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,li?ium #gj;,b]yllium #ia;,boron #aaj;,c>bon #abj ,sodium #bcj,magnesium #bdc;,alum9ium #bgj,silicon #bhc ,copp] #fcd,z9c #fec;,gallium #fii;,g]manium #gbc ,silv] #ajgi;,cadmium #aaba;,indium #aacg,t9 #aaia 8 #aefj8 #aehj8 #aeij,t]bium #afbj8 ,gold #aigb,m]cury #bjjb,?allium #bjdb,lead #bjfi ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,hydrog5 #aja;,helium #db ,nitrog5 #adj,oxyg5 #afj;,fluor9e #aij8 ,phosphorus #caj,sulphur #cba;,*lor9e #cee;,argon #cii ,iron #efj ,vanadium #ead;,*romium #ebc,manganese #eej;,cobalt #ehg ,nickel #ehf ,ru!nium #ajaf ,niobium #idj,molybd5um #ieg8 #ajjj,rhodium #ajcj ,palladium #ajfc ,neodymium #adjh,praseodymium #adcf,sam>ium #aejj8 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed ,osmium #aiac ,tantalum #ahbe,tung/5 #ahdj8 #aijj;,iridium #aicj ,plat9um #aidc 8 ,uranium #bdjj8 #bddj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! elem5ts 9 ! fir/ column all agree 9 t !y are :ite s(t sub/ances1 ) metallic lu/re1 b t>ni% rapidly 9 air1 ow+ to ! action ( wat]-vap\r2 !y are all viol5tly attack$ by wat]1 & !y are )\t exception monads1 t is1 !y replace hydrog5 9 its comp\nds atom = atom4 ,! elem5ts 9 column two are also all :ite metals1 attack$ by wat] ) m or less ease2 b 9 _! case "o atom replaces two atoms ( hydrog51 :5ce !y are call$ dyads1 or bival5t elem5ts 7wor? two74 ,& s on ) ! o!r columns4 ,all elem5ts 9 v]tical columns exhibit *emical simil>ity1 &1 inde$1 are (t5 /rik+ly l 9 prop]ties4 ,! subdivision1 produc$ by fold+ ! loose page1 is int5d$ to %[ t ! elem5ts repres5t$ on x h a d\ble set ( resemblances4 ,b !re are v>i\s anomal\s & inexplicable ph5om5a /ill atta*$ to ?is arrangem5t ( elem5ts4 ,= example1 copp]1 al?\gh x replaces "o atom ( hydrog5 9 "s ( its comp\nds1 & is ?us a monad1 =ms m num]\s & m /able comp\nds 9 act+ z a dyad & replac+ two atoms ( hydrog54 ,gold1 :i* belongs to ! same column1 is at once unival5t & t]val5t2 m]cury1 bo? unival5t & bival5t2 ?allium1 unival5t & t]val5t2 t9 & lead1 bival5t & quadrival5t1 & s on4 ,x is z if "s elem5ts _h a t5d5cy to ent] a column n _! own4 ,aga91 on comp>+ ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts1 x is se5 t ! diff]5ces are f> f be+ regul>4 ,z a rule1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! v]tical columns betwe5 any s+le elem5t & ! "o foll[+ x is approximately #af1 or "s multiple ( #af4 ,?us we h li?ium1 sodium1 & potassium2 b]yllium1 magnesium1 & calcium2 boron1 alum9ium1 & sc&ium2 c>bon & silicon2 oxyg5 & sulphur2 fluor9e & *lor9e--all ) a diff]5ce ( #af approximately4 ,b "h we come to a break3 silicon & titanium1 phosphorus & vanadium1 sulphur & *romium1 *lor9e & manganese1 ea* %[ a diff]5ce ( ab\t #bj4 ,pass+ on1 betwe5 ! atomic weights ( potassium1 rubidium1 & caesium !re is a diff]5ce ( ab\t #af #c2 a simil> diff]5ce betwe5 calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium2 betwe5 sc&ium & yttrium2 betwe5 titanium1 zirconium1 & c]ium1 & s on2 b ) wid] & wid] div]g5ce f ! suppos$ con/ant1 #dh #af #c4 ,9 %ort1 we h a seem+ regul>ity1 b only a v approximate "o--a regul>ity1 9 fact1 9 :i* a vivid imag9ation mu/ play a conspicu\s "p 9 ord] to detect x4 ,n[1 up to ! pres5t1 no reason has be5 sugge/$ to acc\nt = ! div]g5ce f ?is irregul> regul>ity1 :i* a little exp5diture ( "t w enable any "o to trace ?r\gh all ^! numb]s4 ,b "o ?+ has be5 rem>k$2 !re is ! same seem+ regul>ity betwe5 c]ta9 physical prop]ties ( elem5ts & _! comp\nds3 _! specific volumes1 _! melt+-po9ts1 _! refractive indices1 & o!r prop]ties v>y f memb] to memb] ( ! same column 9 a mann] be>+ m or less simil>ity to ! p]iodic v>iation ( ! atomic weights4 ,x happ5s t among comp\nds ( c>bon we are acqua9t$ ) s]ies ( comp\nds :i*1 9 v>iation ( molecul> weights & gradation ( prop]ties1 be> a /rik+ resemblance to ! elem5ts ?us arrang$4 ,?us we h ! s]ies3-- ,,*#d ,me?ane #af ,c#b;,h#f ,e?ane #cj ,c#c;,h#h ,propane #dd ,c#d;,h#aj ,butane #eh ,c#e;,h#ab ,p5tane #gb & a ho/ ( o!rs up to a comp\nd ( ! =mula ,c#cj;,h#fb2 9 ea* case !re is a con/ant diff]5ce ( #ad betwe5 ! molecul> weight ( any "o hydroc>bon & t imm$iately prec$+ or succe$+ x 9 ! column4 ,su* a s]ies is t]m$ a homolog\s s]ies4 ,! analogy is v tempt+2 to suppose t a simil> con/ant diff]5ce %\ld exi/ 9 ! relations ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts1 & t !y too are undecomposable comp\nds ( two unkn[n elem5ts1 is an attractive hypo!sis1 b "o = :i* !re exi/s no pro(2 inde$1 x is r5d]$ improbable by ! irregul>ities j po9t$ out4 ,b !re is "o noticeable feature 9 ! p]iodic arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts4 ,x is1 t al?\gh ! diff]5ces are irregul> 7e4g4 betwe5 ,b #aa & ,c #ab ! diff]5ce is #a1 :ile betwe5 ,o #af & ,f #ai ! diff]5ce is #c71 yet !re is no m>k$ displacem5t 9 ! ord] ( arrangem5ts ( ! elem5ts1 inasmu* z no elem5t has an atomic weight l[] ?an t prec$+ x 9 ! horizontal l9e4 ,x 0 = "s "t suppos$ t tellurium & iod9e 7 ?us misplac$2 & inde$ x is ev5 n[ n q e/abli%$ t !y are n1 b ! balance ( evid5ce is 9 fav\r ( tellurium hav+ a l[] atomic weight ?an iod9e4 ,argon1 h[ev]1 is a m>k$ exception4 ,) an atomic weight ( #cihh1 its natural position w\ld lie betwe5 ^? ( potassium & calcium2 b !re is no room = x4 ,& = ?is reason consid]able d\bts h be5 ?r[n on ! validity ( ! conclusion to be drawn f ! f\nd ratio ( its specific heats1 #a1 viz4 t its molecule & its atom are id5tical4 ,if x 7 a diatomic gas1 l *lor9e or hydrog51 its atomic weight w\ld be #aiid1 & x w\ld f9d a fitt+ position aft] fluor9e & be=e sodium4 ,& ! diff]5ce betwe5 its atomic weight & t ( helium1 to :i* ! atomic weight #ba w\ld = ! same reasons !n atta*1 w\ld be #aghd1 "o n incomp>able ) #af4 ,b1 z be=e rem>k$1 x is difficult1 if n altoge!r impossible1 to conceive ( a diatomic /ructure to :i* all en]gy imp>t$ 9 ! =m ( heat %\ld result 9 translational motion1 & z a matt] ( fact none su* is kn[n4 ,!re are two me?ods ( escape f ?is dilemma4 ,if ! gases t]m$ argon & helium are n s+le elem5ts1 b mixtures ( monatomic elem5ts1 !n :at has be5 t]m$ _! atomic weights w repres5t ! mean ( ! atomic weights ( two or m elem5ts1 tak5 9 ! proportion 9 :i* !y occur4 ,= example1 suppos+ t argon is a mixture ( an elem5t ( atomic weight #cg ) "o ( atomic weight #hb1 ! f\nd atomic weight1 ne>ly #dj1 w\ld imply a mixture ( #icc p] c5t ( ! light]1 ) #fg p] c5t ( ! heavi] elem5t4 ,we mu/ !re=e c>efully exam9e all evid5ce = or aga9/ ! supposition t argon is a mixture ( elem5ts4 ,x is well kn[n t elem5ts ) high atomic weights h1 z a rule1 high] boil+-po9ts ?an ^? ) l[ atomic weights 9 ! same columns4 ,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ case is t ( ! elem5ts fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,:]eas fluor9e has nev] be5 liquefi$ 7*iefly ow+ to difficulties ( manipulation1 due to its extraord9>ily en]getic action on almo/ e elem5t & comp\nd71 *lor9e boils at -#ajb1 brom9e at #ei1 & iod9e at #ahd4 ,& if a mixture ( *lor9e & brom9e gases be cool$1 ! brom9e1 if pres5t 9 suffici5t am\nt1 w cond5se fir/1 9 a fairly pure /ate1 little *lor9e cond5s+ ) x4 ,b 9 a mixture conta9+ only #g p] c5t ( brom9e ) #ic p] c5t ( *lor9e 7analog\s to a mixture ( ! two suppos$ con/itu5ts ( ! argon mixture7 ! pressure ( ! brom9e gas 9 ! mixture w\ld be only #g_/ajj?s ( ! normal pressure1 or #ecb millimetres4 ,at ?is pressure ! boil+-po9t ( brom9e is ab\t -#e1 s t1 on cool+ to t temp]ature1 brom9e w\ld beg9 to %[ signs ( liquefaction4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 /ill ne>ly #ajj above ! boil+-po9t ( *lor9e2 & !re w\ld !re=e be no difficulty :atev] 9 detect+ su* a p]c5tage ( brom9e 9 a mixture ( *lor9e & brom9e gases on cool+ ! mixture to a mod]ately l[ temp]ature4#cj ,argon has be5 liquefi$4 ,a sample ( pure argon 0 s5t by ,pr(essor ,ramsay to ,pr(essor ,olszewski ( ,crac[1 well kn[n = 8 accurate rese>*es at l[ temp]atures2 & he f\nd ! boil+-po9t ( argon at atmosph]ic pressure to be -#ahfi1 & its melt+-po9t to be -#ahif4 ,!re 0 no appe>ance ( liquid be=e ! boil+-po9t 0 rea*$1 nor 0 !re any alt]ation ( temp]ature z ! argon boil$ away1 & ^! are signs ( a s+le sub/ance1 n ( a mixture2 moreov]1 ! melt+-po9t 0 a def9ite "o2 & "h aga91 mixtures nev] melt sudd5ly1 b always %[ signs ( s(t5+ be=e melt+4 ,s f> z ?is evid5ce goes1 !re=e1 x po9ts to ! conclusion t argon is n a mixture ( two elem5ts4 ,o!r evid5ce may be s\ght = 9 ! spectrum ( argon1 :i* 0 c>efully exam9$ by ,mr4 ,crookes4 ,x consi/s ( a great numb] ( l9es1 ext5d+ all ?r\gh ! spectrum1 f f> d[n 9 ! r$ to f> beyond ! visible violet2 ! invisible l9es 7 exam9$ by ! aid ( photography1 = ultraviolet light1 al?\gh invisible to ! eye1 impresses a photographic plate4 ,! mo/ /rik+ feature ( ?is spectrum is ! *ange :i* c be produc$ 9 x by alt]+ ! int5sity ( ! electric dis*>ge :i* is pass$ ?r\gh ! tube conta9+ argon at a l[ pressure4 ,by int]pos+ a ,leyd5 j> betwe5 ! second>y t]m9als ( ! induction-coil f :i* sp>ks are tak5 ?r\gh ! gas1 ! col\r ( ! light 9 ! tube *anges f a brilliant r$ to an equally brilliant blue4 ,a l>ge numb] ( l9es 9 ! r$ spectrum disappe>1 on int]pos+ ! j>1 :ile _m l9es 9 ! blue-gre51 blue1 & violet "p ( ! spectrum1 invisible be=e1 %9e out ) great brilliancy4 ,!re is no o!r gas 9 :i* a simil> alt]ation ( int5sity ( dis*>ge produces su* a m>k$ diff]5ce1 al?\gh 9 _m gases1 suppos$ to be simple sub/ances1 simil> *anges may be produc$4 ,s f> z we "k at pres5t1 h[ev]1 su* a *ange _c be def9itely ascrib$ to ! pres5ce ( a mixture ( two elem5ts1 al?\gh x is 9 itself a v rem>kable ph5om5on4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,pr(essors ,runge & ,pas*51 9 a pap] communicat$ to ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ce ( ,b]l9 9 ,july #ahie1 h adduc$ reasons = conclud+ t helium1 ! gas f clveite1 is a mixture2 x appe>s to %[ l9es belong+ to two spectra1 ea* s]ies ( l9es exhibit+ c]ta9 regul>ities4 ,b ?is1 al?\gh an important conclusion 9 itself1 has no direct be>+ on ! "q ( ! simplicity ( argon4 ,"o me?od ( sep>at+ ! con/itu5ts ( a mixture is by tak+ advantage ( _! diff]5t solubilities 9 wat]1 or 9 "s o!r appropriate solv5t4 ,& z argon 0 f\nd to h ! solubility ( #d volumes 9 #ajj ( wat]1 :ile helium is v sp>+ly soluble1 only #jg volume p] #ajj1 x is n unreasonable to suppose t1 if argon consi/$ ( a mixture ( elem5ts 9 argon1 "o %\ld be m soluble ?an ano!r4 ,exhau/ive exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction h /ill to be c>ri$ out2 b ,"l ,rayleigh has made exp]im5ts :i* r5d] x v improbable t any sep>ation into its con/itu5ts1 if x be a mixture1 c be ?us effect$4 ,wi%+ to asc]ta9 if !re 7 any helium 9 ! air1 he %ook up atmosph]ic argon ) wat]1 until a v small fraction rema9$ undissolv$4 ,! spectrum ( ?is small residue 0 id5tical ) t ( ! orig9al argon1 f :i* x w\ld appe> t ?is me?od1 at lea/1 is incapable ( effect+ any sep>ation4 ,a completely decisive pro( t argon is n a mixture has j be5 furni%$ by exp]im5ts c>ri$ out by ,dr4 ,collie & ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 9 :i* a l>ge quantity ( argon 0 submitt$ to fractional diffusion4 ,f :at 0 said on p4 #afb1 x w be se5 t if argon consi/$ ( a mixture ( two gases ( diff]5t d5sities1 su* a process %\ld sep>ate ! mixture m or less completely into its two con/itu5ts4 ,aft] a long s]ies ( diffusions1 h[ev]1 ! d5sity ( t portion ( argon pass+ fir/ ?r\gh ! por\s plug1 :i* w\ld h be5 less _h any gas ( l[] d5sity be5 pres5t1 0 f\nd to be id5tical ) t ( ! la/ portions ( gas4 ,on ! o!r h&1 by aid ( ! same diffusion-app>atus1 a fair sep>ation ( oxyg5 7d5sity #af7 f c>bon dioxide 7d5sity #bb7 0 effect$1 al?\gh1 z ! read] w obs]ve1 ! d5sities ( ^! two gases d n diff] greatly4 ,h5ce1 if argon consi/s ( two k9ds ( matt] !y mu/ h ! same d5sity1 & h5ce ! same molecul> weights1 & ! difficulty is n remov$4 ,b z ! spectrum ( ! fir/ & la/ portions 0 ! same & 0 id5tical ) t ( argon1 ?is supposition is improbable4 ,! evid5ce is !re=e di/9ctly aga9/ ! supposition t argon is a mixture ( two or m elem5ts4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r possible me?od ( acc\nt+ = ! high atomic weight ( argon1 :i*1 if x c\ld be r$uc$ by a few units1 w\ld fall into its place aft] *lor9e & be=e potassium4 ,x is t argon consi/s ( a mixture ( _m monatomic1 ) comp>atively few diatomic1 molecules4 ,if !re 7 only ab\t #ejj molecules ( diatomic argon 9 e #aj1jjj molecules ( ! gas1 its d5sity1 suppos+ x to consi/ entirely ( monatomic molecules1 w\ld be #ai1 & its atomic & molecul> weights #ch1 a numb] :i* w\ld fit betwe5 ! atomic weight ( *lor9e1 #cee1 & t ( potassium1 #cia4 ,sev]al in/ances ( ?is k9d are kn[n4 ,*lor9e itself1 :5 heat$ to high temp]atures1 *anges f diatomic to monatomic molecules1 & ! d5sity decreases ) ! *ange4 ,= example1 at #ajjj ! f\nd d5sity ( *lor9e is #bg1 imply+ a molecul> weight ( #ed2 n[ #ed is nei!r ! weight ( a monatomic molecule ( *lor9e1 viz4 #cee1 nor ( a diatomic molecule1 :i* is #ga2 b x corresponds to t ( a mixture ( monatomic & diatomic molecules4 ,"h fall ( temp]ature causes comb9ation ( monatomic molecules ) ea* o!r to =m diatomic molecules2 & rise ( temp]ature increases ! numb] ( monatomic molecules1 at ! exp5se ( ! diatomic molecules4 ,is !re no sign ( simil> behavi\r ) argon8 ,x has already be5 m5tion$ t ! rise ( pressure ( argon ) rise ( temp]ature has be5 c>efully measur$ by ,drs4 ,r&all & ,ku551 & t x is q normal2 no sign ( splitt+ has be5 obs]v$4 ,b ! range ( temp]ature 0 n great 7x 0 only f #j to #bhj71 & x is q possible t ! *ange1 if !re 0 "o1 0 s m9ute z to h escap$ detection4 ,aga91 a m delicate me?od ( detect+ su* a *ange is 9 ! measurem5t ( ! ratio ( ! specific heats4 ,! mo/ tru/wor?y numb] obta9$ 0 #afei = ! ratio1 in/ead ( #affg1 ! !oretical figure4 ,a mixture ( #e p] c5t ( diatomic molecules %\ld h r$uc$ ?is ratio to #afdh4 ,"h ! evid5ce is1 h[ev]1 inconclusive4 ,b on ! :ole1 ! presumption is aga9/ ! hypo!sis t argon is a mixture ( monatomic ) diatomic molecules4 ,x /ill rema9s = u1 !re=e1 to acc\nt = ! fact t 9 ! p]iodic table !re is no place = argon1 provid$ x be insi/$ on t ! elem5ts mu/ foll[ ea* o!r 9 ! num]ical ord] ( _! atomic weights4 ,if ! numb]s 9 ! table actually %[$ regul> int]vals1 or if !re 7 any regul>ity to be detect$ 9 _! diff]5ces1 argon might be reg>d$ z ( :olly exceptional behavi\r4 ,b ?is is n s4 ,argon is an extreme in/ance ( div]g5ce1 b simil> div]g5ces1 ?\gh n ( equal magnitude1 are common4 ,9 attempt+ to (f] an explanation ( su* anomalies1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! "q is 9 itself a f>-rea*+ "o2 & t al?\gh argon has s]v$ to direct att5tion anew to ! anomalies ( ! p]iodic table1 yet ^! anomalies exi/$ be=e argon 0 discov]$4 ,x is necess>y above all ?+s to be cle> z to :at is "u discussion4 ,we speak ( 8atomic weights10 or 8atomic masses40 ,:at is meant precisely by ^! expressions8 ,by mass1 we und]/& t prop]ty ( a body1 9 virtue ( :i*1 :5 act$ on by a c]ta9 =ce = a c]ta9 "t1 x acquires a c]ta9 velocity4 ,! product ( ! mass into half ! velocity squ>$1 or ,,mv#b 7:]e ,m & ,v /& respectively = mass & = velocity71 is :at is t]m$ k9etic en]gy4 ,if ! mass *os5 be #a gram1 & ! velocity #a c5timetre p] second1 ! unit ( en]gy is ! product2 x is t]m$ an erg4 ,! same unit ( en]gy1 ! erg1 is d]iv$ by ! action ( unit =ce1 t]m$ #a dyne1 ?r\gh unit l5g?1 #a c5timetre4 ,we h ?us two equations1 :]e ,f & ,l repres5t =ce & l5g?1 ,k9etic ,en]gy 7,,mv7#b & ,l9e> ,en]gy ,,fl4 ,n[ we *oose mass z a unit ( measure ( ! quantity ( mat]ial2 & we are ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s1 because exp]im5ts h %[n t mat]ial1 conf9$ 9 a clos$ space1 does n appreciably alt] its mass4 ,! mass is proportional to ! weight1 g5]ally measur$ z ! =ce ex]t$ at "s def9ite latitude on ! e>?'s surface1 t5d+ to pull ! body t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,?is =ce is equal to ab\t #iha dynes at ,london4 ,!re is no kn[n reason :y mass & weight %\ld be proportional to ea* o!r2 = ! cause ( ! attraction ( ! e>? has nev] be5 satisfactorily elucidat$4 ,we !re=e use weight1 or ! attraction ( ! e>?1 z a conv5i5t means ( det]m9+ ! relative masses ( two objects4 ,h5ce x appe>s rational to pref] ! expression 8atomic weight0 to 8atomic mass10 see+ t ! =m] repres5ts ! actual result ( exp]im5t1 & also because we are deal+ 9 atomic weights ) relative numb]s4 ,b ?is is really a matt] ( *oice4 ,! atomic weights !re=e repres5t ! relative masses 9 :i* ! elem5ts g5]ally unite4 ,!y (t51 h[ev]1 unite 9 multiples ( ^! weights1 z =mulat$ by ,dalton's second law4 ,! weights1 arrang$ 9 num]ical ord] 9 columns1 give u ! p]iodic table4 ,n[ en]gy c be measur$ 9 o!r units besides ^? ( =ce & mass4 ,heat is "o =m ( en]gy1 & x is measur$ by an int]val ( temp]ature1 & by a prop]ty :i* we t]m specific heat4 ,x happ5s t ! latt] prop]ty v>ies1 n ) ! mass ( ! sub/ance heat$1 b ) its atom1 s t all elem5ts h approximately ! same atomic heat2 t is1 quantities ( elem5ts proportional 9 mass to _! atomic weights require approximately equal increm5ts ( heat to raise _! temp]ature ?r\gh an equal int]val1 say #a4 ,?is is ! =mulation ( ,dulong & ,petit's law previ\sly allud$ to4 ,b "h we meet ) irregul>ities1 :i* h up till n[ defi$ classification4 ,! heat imp>t$ to an aggregation ( atoms is n exp5d$ solely 9 rais+ _! temp]ature2 o!r "w is done also1 z is g5]ally suppos$1 9 ! nature ( expansion1 or sep>ation ( p>ts1 z 9 ov]com+ ! attraction betwe5 ! atoms 9 ! molecule1 or 9 imp>t+ special motion to ! atoms2 su* "w1 h[ev]1 involves an exp5diture ( en]gy :i* is ei!r v small 9 proportion to ! total en]gy imp>t$ z heat1 or is ne>ly ! same = all elem5ts4 ,at pres5t we _c decide betwe5 ^! alt]natives1 ow+ to ! lack ( k ( ! nature ( liquids & solids4 ,! ma9 fact1 h[ev]1 is inconte/able3 t ! heat en]gy requir$ to raise diff]5t elem5ts ?r\gh ! same int]val ( temp]ature is ! same1 n = equal masses or weights ( ! sub/ances1 b = _! atomic masses4 ,aga91 _m comp\nds :5 dissolv$ 9 wat] conduct an electric curr5t1 :ile !y !mselves are decompos$2 & ! diff]5t +r$i5ts ( ! comp\nd are (t5 deposit$ at ! po9ts :]e ! electric curr5t ent]s or leaves ! liquid4 ,:]e !y are n s deposit$1 x is usually because ( _! action on ! solv5t wat]4 ,n[ ,f>aday f\nd t :5 elem5ts are deposit$1 equal quantities ( electricity are convey$ ei!r by equal numb]s ( atoms or by "s simple fraction ( ^! numb]s4 ,to ?is fraction we apply ! t]m val5cy4 ,?us we say t an atom ( oxyg5 is bival5t1 or a dyad1 because x conveys twice z mu* electricity ?r\gh ! liquid 9 :i* x is pres5t z an atom ( hydrog51 :i* is t]m$ unival5t1 or a monad4 ,"h we see a direct connection betwe5 ! conveyance ( an electric *>ge & ! atomic weight4 ,! electric unit ( quantity is 9 fact def9$ z t :i* c be convey$ by a c]ta9 weight ( hydrog51 by #h times t weight ( oxyg51 by #ajh times t weight ( silv]1 & s on4 ,!re=e ! electrical unit is connect$1 n ) unit ( mass1 or ) ! gravitational unit1 b ) ! atomic unit4 ,we h !re=e a numb] ( sy/ems1 ea* capable ( be+ equat$ to a unit ( en]gy1 b ( :i* ! t]ms are 9 "s z yet unkn[n way relat$ to ea* o!r1 & (t5 m directly ?an !y c be relat$ to mass & weight4 ,?is relation is only an approximate "o 9 ! case ( specific heats2 x appe>s to be an absolute "o 9 ! conveyance ( electrical en]gy4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts 9 ! p]iodic table mu/ !re=e be consid]$ by ! light ( su* g5]al views4 ,i w\ld v5ture to sugge/1 z a t5tative me?od ( solv+ ?is problem1 t x be consid]$ :e!r mass or weight are su* inv>iable prop]ties ( matt] z h g5]ally be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,t ! relative weights or masses 9 :i* elem5ts comb9e always reta9 _! inv>iable proportion is true1 s f> z we c det]m9e2 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t we _c cause !m to comb9e except "u a v limit$ s]ies ( conditions4 ,= example1 ! act ( comb9ation equalises ! temp]ature ( two comb9+ atoms2 x also1 9 all probability1 equalises _! electrical *>ges4 ,x is a legitimate speculation :e!r1 c\ld we ma9ta9 a diff]5ce 9 _! temp]ature or 9 _! electric pot5tial1 _! atomic weights might n also *ange4 ,inde$1 we are ignorant :e!r mass is *ang$ by alt]ation ( temp]ature4 ,exp]im5ts made by ,sir ,john ,airy1 & int]pret$ by ,pr(essor ,hicks1 appe> to %[ t v>iation ( temp]ature is n )\t "s influ5ce on gravitational attraction4 ,o!rs by ,pr(essor ,l&olt po9t 9 ! same direction4 ,x !re=e appe>s to me n impossible t ! mass ( ! atoms may be affect$ by ! v>i\s & diff]5t prop]ties :i* !y possess1 "s to a great]1 "s to a less] ext5t4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t atoms diff] f ea* o!r 9 ! read9ess ) :i* !y comb9e ) ^? ( ! same k9d to =m molecules2 & t molecules ( diff]5t elem5ts diff] f ea* o!r 9 _! capacity to =m molecul> aggregates4 ,take1 = example1 su* cases z caesium & fluor9e1 ea* int5sely active1 b t[>ds diff]5t objects3 caesium ! mo/ electro-positive ( ! metals1 & fluor9e ! mo/ electro-negative ( elem5ts4 ,surely _! activity mu/ be due to "s cause :i* _c b ex]t influ5ce on _! o!r prop]ties1 su* z _! mass & _! gravitational attraction1 z x d\btless has influ5ce on _! specific heats1 & on _m ( _! o!r physical prop]ties4 ,& contra/ ^! in/ances ) helium & ) argon1 ! mo/ indiff]5t ( sub/ances1 ! atoms ( :i* are unwill+1 & app>5tly unable1 to pair ev5 ) !mselves2 x is h>dly conceivable t ^! peculi>ities %\ld leave _! o!r1 &1 z we are 9 ! habit ( ?9k+1 inv>iable1 prop]ties unaffect$4 ,i v5ture to sugge/ t ^! p[]s ( comb9ation1 due to "s configuration or to "s attractive =ce1 t5d to less5 ! gravitational attraction by :i* we measure _! atomic weights2 t helium & argon1 :i* possess little1 if any1 ( su* p[] to comb9e1 %[ :at may be t]m$ ! normal atomic weights1 inasmu* z _! gravitational attraction is subject to no d$uction attributable to _! react+ p[]s4 ,i _c b ?9k t1 :5 "s num]ical values are assign$ to ?is comb9ational p[]1 x w be f\nd t !y w s increase _! atomic weights z to display t regul>ity :i*1 s f> z we c see at pres5t1 is conspicu\s by its abs5ce4 ,i am aw>e t ^! sugge/ions are ( a :olly speculative "*2 & yet ,i v5ture to put !m =w>d 9 ! firm conviction t no true progress 9 k has ev] be5 made )\t su* speculations4 ,x 0 ! speculative phlogi/ic !ory :i* comb9$ ph5om5a app>5tly s di/9ct z ! burn+ ( a c&le & ! ru/+ ( iron4 ,x is true t t !ory is n[ a phantom ( ! pa/1 yet x s]v$ its purpose 9 direct+ att5tion to ph5om5a ( a simil> "*4 ,x w\ld be easy to multiply in/ances ( ! k9d2 9 almo/ e case "s useful object has be5 s]v$ by speculation prec$+ exact k4 ,! object ( sci5ce1 z inde$ ( inquiry 9 all dep>tm5ts ( human int]e/1 is to reconcile ! _w ( man ) ! _w ( nature1 & to endeav\r to "k 9 "p t ( :i* we hope "o day to atta9 to a p]fect k4 ,,! ,,end #cj ,^! consid]ations w\ld hold on ! assumption t no comb9ation takes place betwe5 *lor9e & brom9e4 ,pr9t$ by ,r4 ,r4 ,,cl>k1 ,,limit$1 ,ed9burgh4