,illu/ration3 ,,boil+ ,,wat] ,,9 ,a ,,pap] ,,case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,a ,,slip ,,( ,,pap] ,,f ,,b5ea? ,a ,,co94 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,talk+ ,,head4 ,,popul> ,,sci5tific ,,recreations ,,9 ,,natural ,,philosophy1 ,,a/ronomy1 ,,geology1 ,,*emi/ry1 ,,etc41 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,translat$ & ,enl>g$ f 8,les ,rcrations ,sci5tifiques0 ,,( ,,ga/on ,,tiss&i]4 7,editor ( 8,la ,nature407 ,,pr(usely ,,illu/rat$4 ,london3 ,,w>d1 ,,lock1 ,,& ,,co41 ,,w>wick ,,h\se1 ,,salisbury ,,squ>e1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york3 #aj1 ,,bond ,,/reet4 ,,preface4 ,a le>n$ ma!matician ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ,ozanam by "n1 a memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces & au?or ( sev]al di/+ui%$ works1 did n ?9k x d]ogatory to 8 dignity to write1 "u ! title ( 8,ma!matical & ,physical ,recreations10 a book design$ = ! amusem5t ( y\?1 9 :i* sci5ce l5ds itself to e pa/ime1 ev5 juggl]y & tricks ( leg]dema94 8,jeux d'esprit0 says ,ozanam1 8are = all seasons & all ages2 !y in/ruct ! "y1 !y amuse ! old1 !y are welcom$ by ! ri*1 & are n above ! rea* ( ! poor40 ,! object ( ! book n[ pres5t$ to ! read] is also to in/ruct :ile x amuses1 b we h n ?\ght prop] to make use1 z ,ozanam did1 ( any physical feats1 s call$ amus+4 ,su* d n con/itute exp]im5ts1 & are b +5i\s deceptions1 int5d$ to disguise ! true mode ( op]ation1 & we h n desir$ to make use ( or popul>ise su* me?ods4 ,we wi%1 on ! contr>y1 t e game we describe1 e pa/ime or amusem5t ( :i* we give ! exposition1 %\ld be rigor\sly bas$ on ! sci5tific me?od1 & look$ ^u z a g5u9e ex]cise 9 physics1 *emi/ry1 me*anics1 or natural sci5ce4 ,x does n appe> to u desirable to tea* deception1 ev5 9 play4 ,sci5ce 9 ! op5 air1 9 ! fields1 9 ! sun%9e1 is our fir/ /udy2 we po9t out h[1 9 ! c\ntry1 x is possible1 pleasantly & unceas+ly1 to occupy "o's leisure 9 obs]v+ nature1 9 captur+ insects or aquatic animals1 or 9 not+ atmosph]ic ph5om5a4 ,we next tea* a complete c\rse ( physics )\t any app>atus1 & po9t out ! me?ods = /udy+ ! diff]5t ph5om5a ( heat1 light1 optics1 & electricity1 by means ( a simple wat]-bottle1 tumbl]1 /ick ( seal+-wax1 & o!r ord9>y objects1 su* z ev]yone has at h&4 ,a s]ies ( *emical exp]im5ts1 p]=m$ by means ( "s phials & inexp5sive appliances1 completes t "p ( ! book relat+ to ! physical sci5ces4 ,ano!r k9d ( recreation1 bo? intellig5t & useful1 consi/s 9 collect+ ! +5i\s inv5tions :i* are con/antly be+ suppli$ to our requirem5ts by ! appli$ sci5ces1 & le>n+ h[ to use !m4 ,we h collect$ a numb] ( me*anical inv5tions & appliances1 ) :i* mo/ +5i\s & skilful p w wi% to supply !mselves1 f ,edison's electric p51 or ! *romograph1 :i* w produce a l>ge numb] ( copies ( a lett]1 draw+1 etc41 to ! m complicat$1 b n less valuable contrivances1 = mak+ sci5ce useful 9 ! h\se4 ,hav+ describ$ "s sci5tific toys = ! "y1 we h endeav\r$ to po9t out ^? int]e/+ to p]sons ( rip] ye>s1 & h gr\p$ toge!r curi\s sy/ems ( locomotion1 & +5i\s me*anical appliances1 su* z small /eam-boats1 ice-boats1 swimm+ app>atus1 etc41 "u prop] heads4 ,9 addition to ! =ego+ subjects1 we h includ$ "s ( ! exp]im5tal details ( ,*emical ,sci5ce1 ) illu/rations4 ,we h add$ a *apt] ^u ,arial ,navigation & ,balloon+1 ) anecdotes ( "s ( our celebrat$ aronauts4 ,we h also enl>g$ ^u ,light1 ,s\nd1 ,heat1 ,physical ,geography1 ,m9]alogy1 ,geology1 ,electrical ,appliances1 ! ,electric ,light1 & mo/ ( ! late/ adaptations ( electricity4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ! pres5t "w is n only int5d$ = ! "y2 ev]yone1 x is hop$1 w f9d 9 x some?+ int]e/+ & also pr(itable1 :i*1 if n desir$ = self-in/ruction1 may at any rate be turn$ to acc\nt z a means ( tea*+ o!rs t sci5ce1 :i* is univ]sal1 c1 :5 rightly appreh5d$1 preside ev5 ov] our pleasures & amusem5ts4 ,,! ,,editor4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,introductory4 ,,page ,sci5ce & ,recreation--,! ,book ( ,nature--,! ,s5ses--,natural ,hi/ory--,natural ,philosophy--,matt]--,objects--,prop]tie s ( ,matt] #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,op5-,,air ,,sci5ce4 ,sci5ce 9 ! ,op5 ,air--,aphides--,evaporation by ,leaves--,an ,aqu>ium--,! ,cataleptic ,f[l--,ne$le ,po9ts & ,?orns--,microscopic ,aqu>ium--,cape ,grisnez--,cry/als--,ice on ! ,gas ,lamps #f ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,physics4 ,physics--,! ,mean+ ( ,physics--,=ces ( ,nature--,gravity--,cohesion--,*emical ,attraction--,c5tre ( ,gravity--,exp]im5ts--,automaton ,tumbl]s #bb ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,physics 7,cont9u$74 ,"s ,prop]ties ( ,solid ,bodies--,in]tia--,motion--,friction--,! ,p5dulum--,equilibrium #ce ,,*apt] ,v4--,,gases4 ,gases & ,liquids--,pressure ( ! ,air--,exp]im5ts #dd ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,wat]4 ,ab\t ,wat]--,hydro/atics & ,hydraulics--,law ( ,ar*im$es--,! ,bramah ,press--,! ,syphon #ei ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,heat4 ,heat--,:at x is--,!ory ( ,heat--,! ,!rmomet]--,expansion by ,heat--,ebullition & ,di/illation #gb ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,heat 7,cont9u$74 ,specific ,heat--,fusion--,lat5t ,heat--,conduction & ,convection ( ,heat--,caloresc5ce #hh ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,,light4 ,light & its ,s\rces--,:at is ,light8--,velocity ( ,light--,reflection & ,refraction--,relative ,value ( ,lights #ic ,,*apt] ,x4--,,light 7,cont9u$74 ,vision & ,optical ,illusions--,! ,eye ,describ$--,accommodation ( ! ,eye--,*romatic ,ab]ration--,sp9n+ ,tops #ajb ,,*apt] ,,xi4--,,optics4 ,optical ,illusions--,zolln]'s ,designs--,! ,?aumatrope--,ph5oki/oscope--,! ,zootrope--,! ,prax9oscope--,! ,dazzl+ ,top #aaf ,,*apt] ,,xii4--,,optics 7,cont9u$74 ,optical ,illusions ,cont9u$--,exp]im5ts--,! ,talk+ ,head--,gho/ ,illusions #abi ,,*apt] ,,xiii4--,,optics 7,cont9u$74 ,vision--,! ,eye--,! ,/]eoscope--,spectrum ,analysis--,! ,spectroscope--,! ,telescope & ,microscope--,photography--,dissolv+ ,views--,lum9\s ,pa9t #adj ,,*apt] ,,xiv4--,,spectral ,,illusions4 ,a ,spectre ,visible--,curi\s ,illusions--,gho/s #afa ,,*apt] ,,xv4--,,ac\/ics4 ,! ,e> & ,he>+--,physiology ( ,he>+ & ,s\nd--,s\nd z ,comp>$ ) ,light--,:at is ,s\nd8--,velocity ( ,s\nd--,conductibility--,! ,h>monograph #aff ,,*apt] ,,xvi4--,,ac\/ics 7,cont9u$74 ,! ,topophone--,! ,megaphone--,! ,autophone--,! ,audiphone--,! ,telephone--,! ,phonograph--,! ,microphone #ahj ,,*apt] ,,xvii4--,,ac\/ics 7,cont9u$74 ,! ,tun+-,=k--,! ,syr5--,s\nd ,figures--,s++ ,flames #aic ,,*apt] ,,xviii4--,,electricity4 ,d]ivation ( ,electricity--,seal+ ,wax ,exp]im5t--,! ,electrophorus--,leyd5 ,j>--,positive & ,negative--,! ,electroscope--,electric ,ma*9es #aig ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,velocity ( ,electricity--,exp]im5ts--,! ,electric ,egg--,=ce ( ! ,electric ,sp>k #bab ,,*apt] ,,xx4--,,galvanism4 ,galvani's ,discov]y--,! ,frogs ,electrifi$--,exp]im5ts--,volta's ,pile--,! ,te/--,its ,usefulness--,f>aday's 8,rese>*es40 #bag ,,*apt] ,,xxi4--,,magnetism4 ,! ,load/one--,magnetic ,curves--,! ,magnetic ,ne$le--,! ,m>9]'s ,compass--,magneto-,electricity #bed ,,*apt] ,,xxii4--,,appli$ ,,electricity4 ,sundry ,electrical ,appliances--,mr4 ,edison's ,inv5tions--,! ,electric ,light--,! ,gyroscope--,a ,new ,electrophorus--,electric ,toys #bfb ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4--,,a]onautics4 ,pressure ( ,air 9 ,bodies--,e>ly ,attempts to fly 9 ! ,air--,discov]y ( ,hydrog5--,! ,montgolfi] ,balloons--,fir/ ,exp]im5ts 9 ,p>is--,not$ ,asc5ts #bic ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4--,,*emi/ry4 ,:at ,*emi/ry is--,! ,elem5ts--,metallic & ,non-,metallic--,atomic ,weight--,acids--,alkalis--,bases--,salt s--,*emical ,comb9ation & ,/udy #cjg ,,*apt] ,,xxv4--,,*emi/ry 7,cont9u$74 ,*emi/ry )\t a ,laboratory #cac ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4--,,*emi/ry 7,cont9u$74 ,*emi/ry & ,al*emy--,*emical ,comb9ations--,! ,atmosph]ic ,air #ccf ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4--,,! ,,elem5ts4 ,non-,metallic ,elem5ts #cdh ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4--,,non-,,metallic ,,elem5ts 7,cont9u$74 ,*lor9e--,brom9e--,iod9e--,fluor9e--,c>b on--,sulphur--,phosphorus--,silicon-- ,boron--,tellurium--,ars5ic #cff ,,*apt] ,,xxix4--,,! ,,metals4 ,:at ,metals are--,*>act]i/ics & ,g5]al ,prop]ties ( ,metals--,classification--,specific ,gravity--,descriptions #chf ,,*apt] ,,xxx4--,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,radicals--,acids--,bases--,neutrals #daj ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4--,,m9]alogy ,,& ,,cry/allography4 ,! ,m9]als--,*>act]i/ics--,cry/als & _! ,=ms--,descriptions ( ,m9]als #dbd ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4--,,new ,,locomotive ,,appliances4 ,! ,kite--,! ,a]ophane--,ice ,ya*ts--,sail+ ,trucks--,wat] ,velocip$es #ddh ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4--,,a/ronomy4 ,introductory--,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy--,nom5clature #dff ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4--,,angles ,,& ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,angles4 ,! ,quadrant--,transit ,in/rum5t--,clocks--,/ell> ,"t--,sol> ,"t--8,mean ,"t0 #dgd ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4--,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em4 ,gravitation--,! ,planets--,size & ,measurem5t ( ! ,planets--,satellites--,fall+ ,/>s--,comets--,a]olites #dhf ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4--,,! ,,sun4 ,motion ( ! ,sun--,! ,seasons--,"* ( ! ,sun--,sun-,spots--,zodiacal ,light #dif ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4--,,! ,,e>?4 ,=m ( ! ,e>?--,motion ( ! ,globe--,rate & ,mann] ( ,progression--,latitude & ,longitude--,! ,seasons #ejd ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4--,,! ,,moon4 ,:at is x ,l8--,moon ,sup]/itions--,description ( ! ,moon--,phases--,tides--,eclipses #eaj ,,*apt] ,,xxxix4--,,! ,,/>s4 ,! ,planets & ,a/]oids #eba ,,*apt] ,,xl4--,,! ,,fix$ ,,/>s4 ,fix$-,/>s--,magnitude ( ! ,/>s--,con/ellations--,descriptions ( ! ,zodiacal ,con/ellations--,nor!rn & ,s\!rn ,/> ,gr\ps--,di/ance ( ,/>s #ece ,,*apt] ,,xli4--,,! ,,/>s 7,cont9u$74 ,d\ble & ,multiple ,/>s--,col\r$ & ,v>iable ,/>s--,clu/]s1 ,gr\ps1 & ,nebul--,! ,galaxy1 or ,milky ,way--,h[ to ,f9d out ! ,pr9cipal ,/>s #edf ,,*apt] ,,xlii4--,,new ,,a/ronomical ,,appliances4 ,a ,cele/ial ,indicator--,a/ronomical or ,cosmographical ,clock--,a ,simple ,globe--,a ,sol> ,*ronomet] #eeg ,,*apt] ,,xliii4--,,physical ,,geography ,,& ,,geology4 ,geography & ,geology--,! ,e>?'s ,cru/--,orig9 ( ! ,e>?--,d5udation & ,excavation by ,wat]--,rocks1 ,gravel1 & ,s&--,classes ( ,rocks #efd ,,*apt] ,,xliv4--,,geology4 ,cru/ ( ! ,e>?--,geological ,sy/ems--,eozoic1 ,prim>y1 ,second>y1 ,t]ti>y1 ,pre-,hi/oric ,=mations #egc ,,*apt] ,,xlv4--,,geology 7,cont9u$74 ,! ,mesozoic ,sy/em--,! ,triassic1 ,oolitic1 & ,cretace\s ,=mations--,! ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e--,! ,glacial ,p]iod--,pre-,hi/oric ,man #ehd ,,*apt] ,,xlvi4--,,physical ,,geography4 ,igne\s ,rocks--,l& & ,wat]--,spr+s1 ,wells1 & ,geys]s--,sn[ & ,ice--,_! ,effects #fja ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4--,,! ,,sea ,,& ,,! ,,sky4 ,! ,sea--,salt ,wat]--,waves & _! ,effects--,"u ,wat]--,! ,floor ( ! ,ocean #faj ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4--,,physical ,,geography4 ,,meteorology4 ,! ,atmosph]e--,w9ds & ,air ,curr5ts--,w9d ,pressure--,/orms--,ra9-cl\ds-- ,wat]-,sp\ts--,atmosph]ical ,ph5om5a #fbh ,,*apt] ,,xlix4--,,physical ,,geography4 ,,meteorology 7,cont9u$74 ,atmosph]ic ,ph5om5a--,?und] & ,lightn+--,aurora ,borealis--,! ,ra9b[--,mock-,suns & ,mock-,moons--,halos--,fata ,morgana--,reflection & ,refraction--,mirage--,spectre ( ! ,brock5 #fdb ,,*apt] ,l4--,,physical ,,geography4 ,,climatology4 ,wea!r2 ,climate1 & ,temp]ature--,iso!rmal ,l9es--,isob>s1 ,wea!r ,=eca/s1 & ,signs ( ! ,sky #fea ,,*apt] ,,li4--,,biology4 ,,"p ,i43 ,,botany4 ,plants & ,animals--,/ructure ( ,plants--,fl[]+ ,plants--,! ,/em--,! ,leaves--,=ms ( ,leaves #feh ,,*apt] ,,lii4--,,fl[]+ ,,plants4 ,organs ( ,increase & ,reproduction--,! ,fl[]--,! ,calyx--,! ,corolla--,! ,/am5--,! ,pi/il #fge ,,*apt] ,,liii4--,,fl[]+ ,,plants 7,cont9u$74 ,! ,floral ,axis--,infloresc5ce--,fruit--,se$--,nut rition ( ,plants--,absorbtion ( ,con/itu5ts #fgi ,,*apt] ,,liv4--,,zoology4 ,classification ( ,animals--,v]tebrates & ,inv]tebrates--,protozoa--,hydrozoa--,ac t9ozoa #gjj ,,*apt] ,,lv4--,,e*9od]mata--,,annulosa--,,entoz oa--,,insecta4 ,sea-,ur*9s--,/>-,fi%es--,fea!ry ,/>s--,sea-,cucumb]s--,worms--,lee*es-- ,rotif]s--,tape ,worms--,insects #gab ,,*apt] ,,lvi4--,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,*ance ,,& ,,ma!matical ,,games4 ,magic ,squ>es--,! ,sixte5 ,puzzle--,solitaire--,equival5ts #gbf ,,*apt] ,,lvii4--,,games 7,cont9u$74 ,! ,magic ,top--,! ,gyroscope & ,sci5tific ,games #gdj ,,*apt] ,,lviii4--,,sci5ce ,,at ,,home4 ,sci5tific ,objects = ! ,h\sehold #gdg ,,*apt] ,,lix4--,,dome/ic ,,sci5ce4 ,sci5ce & ,dome/ic ,economy #geg ,,*apt] ,,lx4--,,curi\s ,,inv5tions4 ,"s ,curi\s ,modes ( ,transit #ggj ,,sci5tific ,,recreations4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,introductory4 ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,recreation--,,! ,,book ,,( ,,nature--,,! ,,s5ses--,,natural ,,hi/ory--,,natural ,,philosophy--,,matt]--,,objects--,,prop ]ties ,,( ,,matt]4 ,x may at ! fir/ glance appe> p>adoxical to comb9e ,sci5ce & ,recreation1 b we hope to %[ t true sci5tific recreation is any?+ b ! dry bones ( le>n+4 ,to ^? :o /udy sci5ce ) u1 we w po9t out fir/ h[ easy & pleasant x is to wat* ! sky & ! plants & ,nature g5]ally 9 ! op5 air4 ,!n we w c>ry our read]s along ) u1 & by means ( illu/rations & diagrams in/ruct !m pleasantly 9 ! reasons = ?+s4 8,h[80 & 8,:y80 w be que/ions fully answ]$4 ,n only w ! usual sci5tific c\rses be t\*$ ^u1 b we w %[ h[ ,sci5ce is appli$ to ,dome/ic ,economy4 ,we w h ,*emi/ry put be=e u )\t ne$+ a laboratory1 & we w exp]im5t 9 ,physics )\t elaborate app>atus4 ,we w h1 9 %ort1 a complete ,encyclopdia ( ,sci5ce free f dryness & te*nicalities--an amus+ volume suit$ to old & "y :o wi% to f9d out :at is go+ on ar\nd !m 9 _! daily life 9 e>? & sea & sky4 ,b]n>d ,palissy us$ to say t he wi%$ 8no o!r book ?an ! e>? & ! sky10 & t 8x 0 giv5 to all to read ?is wond]ful book40 ,x is inde$ by ! /udy ( ! mat]ial _w t discov]ies are accompli%$4 ,let an att5tive obs]v] wat* a ray ( light pass+ f ! air into wat]1 & he w see x deviate f ! /raight l9e by refraction2 let him seek ! orig9 ( a s\nd1 & he w discov] t x results f a %ock or a vibration4 ,?is is physical sci5ce 9 its infancy4 ,x is said t ,newton 0 l$ to discov] ! laws ( univ]sal gravitation by behold+ an apple fall to ! gr\nd1 & t ,montgolfi] fir/ dreamt ( air-balloons :ile wat*+ fogs float+ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! idea ( ! inn] *amb] ( ! eye may1 9 l mann]1 be develop$ 9 ! m9d ( any obs]v]1 :o1 seat$ b5ea? ! %ade ( a tree1 looks fix$ly at ! r\nd =m ( ! sun ?r\gh ! op5+s 9 ! leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,lum9\s ,cross se5 at ,havre1 ,may #g?1 #ahgg4 ,sket*$ f ,nature4 ,e "o1 ( c\rse1 may n possess ! ambition to make su* discov]ies1 b !re is no "o :o _c compel himself to le>n to enjoy ! pleasure t c be d]iv$ f ! obs]vation ( ,nature4 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t 9 ord] to cultivate sci5ce x is absolutely necess>y to h laboratories & sci5tific "w-rooms4 ,! book ( :i* ,palissy spoke is ev] pres5t2 its pages are always op51 :]ev] we turn our eyes or direct our /eps4 ,s we may hope to introduce all our fri5ds to a pleasant & la/+ acqua9tance ) ,dame ,nature4 8,b :at is ,nature80 ,we are fond ( admir+ ,nature1 & ! effects ( c]ta9 causes 9 ! _w1 & we want to "k :y ?+s are s4 ,v well--s y %all2 & z to ! "q 8,:at is ,nature80 we w endeav\r to answ] y at once4 ,nature is ! unit$ totality ( all t ! v>i\s ,s5ses c p]ceive4 ,9 fact1 all t _c be made by man is t]m$ 8,nature02 i4e41 ,god's creation4 ,f ! e>lie/ ages man has s\ght to read ! op5 leaves ( ! ,book ( ,nature1 & ev5 n[1 ) all our atta9m5ts1 we _c grasp all1 or ne>ly all4 ,"o discov]y only leads up to ano!r4 ,cause & ,effect are foll[$ up /ep by /ep till we lose ourselves 9 ! se>*4 ,e effect mu/ h a cause4 ,"o ?+ dep5ds ^u ano!r 9 ! _w1 & x does n ne$ ,div9e revelation to tell u t4 ,no?+ happ5s by 8m]e *ance40 8,*ance60 said a ,pr(essor to u at ! ,univ]sity1 8,*ance6--,rememb]1 !re is no su* ?+ 9 ! _w z *ance40 ,betwe5 our m9ds or consci\sness & ,nature are our ,s5ses4 ,we feel1 we see1 we he>1 we ta/e1 we smell1--s x is only ?r\gh ! ,s5ses t we c come to any k ( ! out] _w4 ,^! attributes1 or ,s5ses1 act directly ^u a c]ta9 8prim>y faculty0 call$ ,consci\sness1 & ?us we are enabl$ to und]/& :at is go+ on ar\nd u4 ,! m ?is great exi/+ faculty is educat$ & tra9$1 ! m useful x w become4 ,s if we accu/om our m9ds to obs]vation ( ,nature1 we %all f9d out c]ta9 causes & effects1 & discov] ,objects4 ,n[ an ,object is a ?+ p]ceptible bo? to feel+ & sight1 & an ,object occupies space4 ,!re=e !re are objects ,artificial z well z ,natural4 ,! =m] are creat$ by man f "o or m ,natural products4 ,natural ,objects are ^? su* z trees1 rocks1 plants1 & animals4 ,we may also class ! heav5ly bodies1 etc41 z ,objects1 ?\gh we _c t\* !m1 b we c feel _! effects1 & see !m4 ,! ,,ph5om5a ( ,nature include ^? results :i* are p]ceptible by only "o s5se1 z ?und]2 light & s\nd may also be class$ z ,ph5om5a4 ,take a famili> in/ance4 ,a /one is a ,natural ,object4 ,we take x up1 op5 our f+]s1 & x falls4 ,! motion ( t object is a ,ph5om5on4 ,we "k x falls because we see x fall1 & x possesses :at we t]m weight2 b we _c tell :y x possesses weight4 ,pr(essor ,huxley says3 8,/ones d n fall to ! gr\nd 9 consequ5ce ( a law ( nature10 = a law is n a cause4 8,a law ( nature m]ely tells u :at we may expect natural objects w d "u c]ta9 circum/ances40 ,a cause ( a ,ph5om5on be+ indep5d5t ( human w is call$ a ,=ce1 & ! /one falls by ! =ce ( ,gravitation1 or t natural law :i* compels e mat]ial object to approa* e o!r mat]ial object4 ,a s+le ,=ce may produce a great numb] ( ,ph5om5a4 ,nature be+ reveal$ to u by ,objects1 & by means ( ,ph5om5a1 we h got already two ,bran*es ( ,sci5ce ext5d+ f su* ,roots2 viz41 ,,natural ,,hi/ory1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,objects2 & ,,natural ,,philosophy1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,ph5om5a4 ,bo? ( ^! ,bran*es h be5 subdivid$ ?us3 ,zoology1 ref]r+ to ,animals ,biology4 ,natural ,hi/ory ,botany1 ref]r+ to ,plants ,m9]alogy ref]r+ to ,m9]als1 etc4 ,geology ,physics4 ,ph5om5a )\t ess5tial *ange ,natural ,philosophy ( ! ,objects4 ,*emi/ry4 ,ph5om5a ) *ange ( ! ,objects4 ,physiology4 ,ph5om5a ( animat$ ,objects4 ,^! two great divisions compreh5d1 9 _! ext5d$ s5ses1 all t is kn[n respect+ ! mat]ial _w4 ,we h spok5 ( ,objects4 ,objects occupy ,space4 ,:at is ,space8 ,space is magnitude :i* c be conceiv$ z ext5d+ 9 ?ree directions--,l5g?1 ,bread?1 & ,dep?4 ,,matt] occupies portions ( ,space1 :i* is inf9ite4 ,matt]1 :5 f9ite1 is t]m$ a body or object4 ,! g5]al prop]ties ( ,matt] are ,magnitude1 ,=m1 ,imp5etrability1 ,in]tia1 ,divisibility1 ,porosity1 ,ela/icity1 ,compressibility1 ,expansibility4 ,matt] is pres5t 9 ,nature 9 ?ree conditions4 ,we f9d x z a ,,solid1 a ,,liquid1 & a ,,gas4 ,we %all expla9 ! v>i\s prop]ties ( ,solids1 ,liquids1 & ,gases 9 _! prop] places 79 ,physics74 ,to te/ ! actual exi/5ce ( ,matt] 9 "o or o!r ( ^! =ms our ,s5ses help u4 ,we c t\* a ,solid1 or ta/e x & see x4 ,b t\* is ! te/4 ,we h said t ,matt] possesses c]ta9 prop]ties4 ,we w exam9e ^! briefly4 ,! two :i* belong to all mat]ial bodies are ,imp5etrability & ,magnitude4 ,y _c1 /rictly speak+1 p5etrate ,matt]4 ,y c f9d ! =m ( an object by t\* or sight1 b y _c p5etrate x4 ,y w ?9k y c drive a nail or a screw into a bo>d1 b y _c2 y only displace ! fibres ( ! wood by ! screw4 ,take wat] z a v common in/ance4 ,wat] is ,matt]1 = x occupies a c]ta9 space4 ,wat] is imp5etrable1 = if y put y\r h& or foot into a bas9 full ( x1 x w ov]fl[1 ?us prov+ t y displace1 & d n p5etrate x4 ,x is almo/ impossible to compress wat]4 ,divisibility is ano!r quality ( ,matt]2 & :5 we attempt to %[ h[ f> ,matt] c be divid$1 ! bra9 refuses to grasp ! inf9ity4 ,a p9's head is a small object1 b x is gigantic comp>$ to "s animals1 ( :i* millions w\ld occupy a space no l>g] ?an ! head ( a p94 ,^! t9y animals mu/ conta9 organs & ve9s1 etc41 & ^? ve9s are full ( blood globules4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall in=ms u t a drop ( blood conta9s ?ree millions ( r$ globules4 ,s ^! inf9itesimally small animals mu/ h millions ( globules 9 _! blood also4 ,?us we see to :at an ext5t1 f> beyond our ,s5ses' p[] to grasp1 ,matt] c be divid$4 ,b !re is some?+ ev5 m a/oni%+ ?an ?is4 ,x is /at$ t !re are m animals 9 ! milt ( a s+le codfi% ?an !re are m5 9 ! _w2 & t "o gra9 ( s& is l>g] ?an f\r millions ( ^! animals6 ea* ( :i* mu/ be possess$ ( life g]ms ( an equal am\nt1 :i* w\ld gr[ up z x grew to maturity4 ,?is c>ries u back aga91 & 8,imag9ation's utmo/ /ret* ,9 wond] dies away40 ,or take o!r int]e/+ facts4 ,"o hundr$ ?reads ( ! silkworm mu/ be plac$ side by side to make up ! ?ickness ( a l9e 7--7 ab\t #a_/be? ( an in*2 & metals c be drawn out to su* exce$+ f95ess t twelve hundr$ ( ! f9e wires w occupy only ! space ( "o hundr$ silkworms' ?reads1 or "o millimetre4 ,porosity is ano!r attribute ( ,matt]1 = 9 all ,matt] !re are pores1 or spaces1 betwe5 ! p>ticles4 ,sometimes su* op5+s are pla9ly visible2 9 v 8solid0 bodies !y are1 to a great ext5t1 indi/+ui%able4 ,b we "k t ! spaces exi/1 because we c compress ! p>ticles toge!r4 ,in]tia is also a g5]al prop]ty ( ,matt]1 & ! mean+ ( ! t]m is 8inactivity10 or passiv5ess--a want ( p[] 9 an object to move1 or :5 mov+1 to /op ( itself4 ,x w come to re/ app>5tly by itself1 b ! resi/ance ( ! air & ! friction ( ! gr\nd1 or ! attraction ( ! e>?1 w really occasion ! /oppage ( ! object4 ,we w speak m fully ( ,in]tia pres5tly4 ,ela/icity & ,expansibility are evid5t 9 fluids & gases4 ,we h ?us introduc$ our read]s to "s ( ! mo/ evid5t facts connect$ ) ,matt]4 ,! v>i\s ,=ces & ,ph5om5a ( attraction w be fully consid]$ f>!r on2 at pres5t we are ab\t to %[ our read]s h[ !y may fir/ pr(itably /udy ,sci5ce 9 ! op5 air = !mselves1 & we w give !m our exp]i5ce ( ! ,book ( ,nature4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,op5 ,,air--,,aphides--,,evaporation ,,by ,,leaves--,,an ,,aqu>ium--,,! ,,cataleptic ,,f[l--,,ne$le ,,po9ts ,,& ,,?orns--,,microscopic ,,aqu>ium--,,cape ,,grisnez--,,cry/als--,,ice ,,on ,,! ,,gas ,,lamps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,ants engag$ 9 extract+ aphides f a rose-tree 7highly magnifi$7 ,"s ye>s ago we 7 /ay+ 9 ,norm&y1 n f> f ! t[n ( ,c----1 enjoy+1 9 ! mid/ ( mo/ cordial hospitality1 ! peacefulness ( c\ntry life2 & my k9d ho/s1 ) me1 took great pleasure 9 hav+ :at we call$ 8a c\rse ( sci5ce 9 ! op5 air40 ,! recollections ( t "t are "s ( ! pleasante/ 9 ! :ole c\rse ( my life1 because all our leisure 0 intellig5tly occupi$4 ,ea* ( u set himself to provide ! subject ( "s curi\s obs]vation or in/ructive exp]im5t2 "o made a collection ( insects1 ano!r /udi$ botany4 ,9 ! daytime we might h be5 se5 exam9+1 "u a magnify+ glass1 ! bran* ( a rose-tree1 f :i* ! ants 7 endeav\r+ to extract ! aphides#a 7fig4 #a74 ,at night we admir$ ?r\gh ! telescope ! />s & planets t 7 visible2 or if ! sky 0 n cle>1 we exam9$ "u a /rong magnifi] gra9s ( poll5 f fl[]s1 or ! infusoria 9 a drop ( /agnant wat]4 ,frequ5tly "s v insignificant object became ! occasion = "s sci5tific discussion1 :i* t]m9at$ ) an exp]im5tal v]ification4 ,i recollect t "o day "o ( u rem>k$ t aft] a week ( dry wea!r a /ream ( wat] _h ne>ly dri$ up1 al?\gh %elt]$ by ?ick trees1 :i* necess>ily imp$$ ! calorific action ( ! sun2 & he express$ surprise at ! rapid evaporation4 ,an agriculturi/ among ! company1 h[ev]1 drew 8 att5tion to ! fact t ! roots ( ! trees 7 buri$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! /ream1 & t1 f> f prev5t+ ! evaporation ( ! wat]1 ! leaves _h contribut$ to accel]ate x4 ,z ! fir/ speak] 0 n conv9c$1 ! agriculturi/1 on our return to ! h\se1 prep>$ an exp]im5t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #b4 ,he plac$ ! bran* ( a tree cov]$ ) foliage 9 a ,u-%ap$ tube1 ! two bran*es ( unequal diamet]1 & fill$ ) wat]4 ,he plac$ ! vegetable /em 9 ! wat]1 & secur$ x to ! tube by means ( a cork cov]$ ) a piece ( india-rubb]1 & ti$ tightly to make x h]metically clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,exp]im5t %[+ evaporation ( wat] by leaves4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t ! wat] 0 level ) ,a 9 ! l>g] bran* ( ! tube1 & level ) ,b 9 ! small]1 ris+ by capill>ity to a high] po9t 9 ! m sl5d] ( ! two4 ,! evaporation ( ! wat] caus$ by ! leaves 0 s active t 9 a v %ort "t we beheld ! wat] s9k to ! po9ts ,c & ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,aqu>ium =m$ by means ( a melon glass4 ,?us did ! excell5t me?od ( seek+ ! cause ( ph5om5a by exp]im5ts (t5 lead u to int]e/+ results4 ,we _h among u _m *ildr5 & "y p :o _h rea*$ ! age ( ard5t curiosity4 ,we took pleasure 9 po9t+ out to !m ! means ( /udy+ natural sci5ce2 & we 7 n long be=e feel+ conv9c$ t our lessons out 9 ! fields _h mu* great] success ?an ^? giv5 betwe5 ! f\r walls ( a class-room4 ,insects 7 collect$1 & pres]v$ by be+ c>efully plac$ 9 a small bottle1 into :i* 0 let fall a drop ( sulphuret ( c>bon2#b ! insect 0 imm$iately asphyxiat$1 & we ?us avoid$ ! cruelty ( pass+ a p9 ?r\gh a liv+ body4 ,hav+ *as$ butt]flies & insects1 we next desir$ to /udy ! aquatic creatures :i* sw>m$ 9 ! pools ( ! neighb\rhood4 ,= ?is purpose ,i con/ruct$ a fi%+-net fitt$ to an iron r+1 & firmly secur$ to a wood5 h&le4 ,:5 ?is 0 plung$ "u ! wat] & drawn quickly out aga91 x came back full ( slime4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is muddy sub/ance "o g5]ally succe$$ 9 f9d+ ! hydrophilus1 tadpoles1 coleopt]a1 _m curi\s k9ds ( caddis-worms1 tritons1 & sometimes frogs1 completely a/\nd$ by ! rapidity ( _! capture4 ,all ^! creatures 7 transport$ 9 a bottle to ! h\se1 & ,i !n con/ruct$1 at small exp5se1 a glass aqu>ium1 by means ( ! bell ( a melon-glass turn$ upside d[n1 ?us =m+ a transp>5t receptacle ( consid]able size4 ,f\r wood5 /akes 7 !n fix$ 9 ! gr\nd1 & a plank ) a circul> hole nail$ on ! top1 9 :i* ! glass bell 0 plac$4 ,i next scatt]$ "s l>ge pebbles & %ells at ! bottom ( ! vase to =m a /ony b$1 p\r$ 9 "s wat]1 plac$ a few re$s & wat] plants among ! pebbles1 & !n ?rew a h&ful ( wat] l5tils on ! surface2 ?us a com=table home 0 contriv$ = all ! captur$ animals4#c ,! aqu>ium1 :5 plac$ "u ! %ade ( a f9e tree 9 a ru/ic spot ab\nd+ ) field fl[]s1 became a fav\rite r5dezv\s1 & we (t5 took pleasure 9 wat*+ ! antics ( ! little inmates 7fig4 #c74 ,sometimes we beheld v sangu9>y sc5es2 ! voraci\s hydrophilus w\ld seize a poor def5celess tadpole1 & r5d him 9 pieces = a meal )\t any compunction4 ,! m robu/ tritons def5d$ !mselves bett]1 b sometimes !y also succumb$ 9 ! /ruggle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,cage = pres]v+ liv+ insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,small aqu>ium1 ) frogs' ladd]4 ,! success ( ! aqu>ium 0 s complete t "o ( u resolv$ to cont9ue ?is museum 9 m9iature1 & "o day provid$ himself ) an insects palace1 :i* ne>ly made u =get ! tadpoles & tritons4 ,x 0 a *>m+ little cage1 hav+ ! =m ( a h\se1 cov]$ ) a ro(2 wires plac$ at equal di/ances =m+ ! sides4 ,9 x 0 a l>ge cricket beside a leaf ( lettuce1 :i* s]v$ z 8 food 7fig4 #d74 ,! little creature mov$ up & d[n 8 prison1 :i* 0 susp5d$ f ! bran* ( a tree1 & :5 "o approa*$ him v closely gave v5t to 8 lively *irps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,frog ly+ 9 wait = a fly4 ,! m5ag]ie 0 soon fur!r augm5t$ by a hi!rto un?\ght-( object2 namely1 a frogs' ladd]4 ,x 0 made ) mu* skill4 ,a l>ge bottle s]v$ = ! base ( ! /ructure4 ,! ladd] :i* 0 fix$ 9 x 0 compos$ ( ! twigs ( v small bran*es1 rec5tly cut f a tree1 & undive/$ ( _! b>k1 :i* gave to ! little edifice a m picturesque & ru/ic appe>ance4 ,! pieces ( wood1 clev]ly fix$ into two po/s1 conduct$ ! gre5 frogs 7tree-frogs7 on to a plat=m1 :5ce !y asc5d$ ! /eps ( a g5u9e ladd]4 ,!re !y c\ld disport !mselves at pleasure1 or climb up fur!r to a bran* ( bir*-tree plac$ upright 9 ! c5tre ( ! bottle 7fig4 #e74 ,a net ) f9e me%es prev5t$ ! little animals f escap+4 ,we gave ! tree-frogs flies = _! food1 & sometimes !y caught !m ) rem>kable dext]ity4 ,i h (t5 se5 a frog :5 at lib]ty wat*+ a fly1 on :i* x p\nces z a cat does on a bird 7fig4 #f74 ,! obs]vations t we made on ! animals ( our m5ag]ie l$ u to und]take o!rs ( a v diff]5t nature2 ,i recollect p>ticul>ly a case ( catalepsy produc$ 9 a cock4 ,i w describe ?is rem>kable exp]im5t1 c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ curi\s we ev] p]=m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,exp]im5t ( ! cataleptic cock4 ,we place a cock on a table ( d>k col\r1 re/ its beak on ! surface1 :]e x is firmly held1 & ) a piece ( *alk sl[ly draw a :ite l9e 9 cont9uation f ! beak1 z %[n 9 our engrav+4 ,if ! cre/ is ?ick1 x is necess>y to draw x back1 s t ! animal may foll[ ) 8 eyes ! trac+ ( ! l9e4 ,:5 ! l9e has rea*$ a l5g? ( ab\t two feet ! cock has become cataleptic4 ,he is absolutely motionless1 8 eyes are fix$1 & he w rema9 f ?irty to sixty seconds 9 ! same po/ure 9 :i* he _h at fir/ only be5 held by =ce4 ,8 head rema9s re/+ on ! table 9 ! position %[n 9 fig4 #g4 ,?is exp]im5t1 :i* we h successfully p]=m$ on diff]5t animals1 c also be accompli%$ by draw+ a /raight l9e ) a piece ( *alk on a slate4 ,m4 ,azam decl>es t ! same result is also produc$ by draw+ a black l9e on a table ( :ite wood4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,balbiani1 ,g]man /ud5ts _h =m]ly a great pr$ilection = ?is exp]im5t1 :i* !y always p]=m$ ) m>k$ success4 ,h5s d n1 :5 op]at$ on1 fall into a cataleptic condition s easily z cocks2 b !y may (t5 be r5d]$ motionless by hold+ _! heads fix$ 9 ! same position = sev]al m9utes4 ,! facts we h j cit$ come prop]ly "u ! little /udi$ ph5om5a1 designat$ by ,m4 ,braid 9 #ahdc by ! title ( ,hypnotism4 ,,mm4 ,littr & ,*4 ,rob9 h giv5 a description ( ! hypnotic condition 9 _! ,dictionnaire de ,mdec9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,ord9>y p9 & ne$le1 se5 ?r\gh a microscope 7magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,?orn ( a rose1 & wasp's /+ ?r\gh a microscope 7magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s74 ,if any %9+ object1 su* z a lancet1 or a disc ( silv]-pap] gumm$ to a plate1 is plac$ at ab\t ! di/ance ( a foot f ! eyes ( a p]son1 slightly above ! head1 & ! pati5t reg>ds ?is object fix$ly1 & )\t int]ruption = tw5ty or ?irty m9utes1 he w become gradually motionless1 & 9 a great numb] ( cases w fall into a condition ( torpor & g5u9e sleep4 ,dr4 ,braid affirms t "u su* circum/ances he has be5 able to p]=m surgical op]ations1 )\t ! pati5t hav+ any consci\sness ( pa94 ,lat] also1 ,m4 ,azam has prov$ ! complete ins5sibility to prick+ on ! "p ( individuals :om he has r5d]$ cataleptic by ! fix+ ( a brilliant object4 ,! exp]im5t ( ! cataleptic cock 0 fir/ describ$ "u ! "n ( ,exp]im5tum ,mirabile1 by ,p4 ,kir*]1 9 8 ,ars ,magna1 publi%$ at ,rome 9 #afdf4 ,x evid5tly belongs to ! class ( exp]im5ts :i* 7 p]=m$ at ! ,salptrire asylum at ,p>is1 by ,m4 ,*>cot1 on pati5ts suff]+ f special disord]s4 ,x mu/ n[ be evid5t to our read]s t our sci5tific occupations 7 suffici5tly v>i$1 & t we easily f\nd ar\nd u _m objects ( /udy4 ,:5 ! wea!r 0 wet & cl\dy we rema9$ indoors1 & devot$ ourselves to microscopical exam9ations4 ,ev]y?+ t came "u our h&s1 insects1 vegetables1 etc41 7 wor?y ( obs]vation4 ,"o day1 :ile engag$ ov] a microscopical prep>ation1 ,i 0 mak+ use ( "o ( ^? /eel po9ts g5]ally employ$ 9 su* purposes1 :5 happ5+ to pass x accid5tally b5ea? ! microscope1 ,i 0 a/oni%$ to see h[ r\gh & unev5 x appe>$ :5 highly magnifi$4 ,! idea !n occurr$ to me to h rec\rse to some?+ /ill m po9t$1 & ,i 0 ?us l$ to make comp>isons betwe5 ! diff]5t objects repres5t$ 9 figs4 #h & #i4 ,x w "h be se5 h[ v co>se is ! product ( our indu/ry :5 comp>$ ) ! product ( ,nature4 ,no4 #a ( fig4 #h repres5ts ! po9t ( a p9 t has already be5 us$1 magnifi$ #ejj diamet]s4 ,! po9t is evid5tly slightly blunt$ & flatt5$4 ,! malleable metal has yield$ a little "u ! pressure necess>y to make x pass ?r\gh a mat]ial4 ,no4 #b is a little m po9t$2 x is a ne$le4 ,?is1 too1 w be se5 to be defective :5 reg>d$ by ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :at f95ess & delicacy d ! rose ?orn & wasp's /+ pres5t :5 exam9$ "u ! same magnifi]6 7,see ! two po9ts 9 fig4 #i47 ,an exam9ation ( ?is exact draw+ has l$ me to make a calculation :i* leads to r curi\s results3 at a half millimetre f ! po9t1 ! diamet]s ( ! f\r objects repres5t$ are 9 ?\s&?s ( a millimetre respectively1 #cd2 #bb2 #aa2 #jch4 ,! correspond+ sections 9 million?s ( a squ>e millimetre are3 #ijgib2 #chjac2 #iejc2 #aacd2 or1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #ijh2 #chj2 #ie2 #aa4 ,if "o be>s 9 m9d1 :i* is mu* bel[ ! tru?1 t ! pressure ex]cis$ on ! po9t mu/ be proportional to ! section1 & admitt+ t a pressure ( #aa c5tigrams suffices to ?ru/ 9 ! /+ ( a wasp half a millimetre1 x w require m ?an #i grams ( pressure to ?ru/ 9 a ne$le to ! same ext5t4 ,9 fact1 ?is latt] figure is mu* too small1 = we h n tak5 into acc\nt ! advantage result+ f ! elongat$ %ape ( ! rose ?orn1 :i* r5d]s x m fav\rable = p5etration ?an a ne$le ?r\gh a drop ( tall[4 ,x w\ld be easy to ext5d obs]vations ( ?is k9d to a numb] ( o!r objects1 & ! rem>ks ,i h j made on natural & artificial po9ts w apply inconte/ably to textures = example4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ?read ( a spid]'s web w\ld f> surpass ! ?read ( ! f9e/ lace1 & t art w always f9d itself completely di/anc$ by nature4 ,we amus$ ourselves frequ5tly by exam9+ ! infusoria :i* are s easily procur$ by tak+ f "s /agnant wat] ! mucilage adh]+ to ! vegetation on ! banks1 or atta*$ to ! l[] "p ( wat] l5tils4 ,9 ?is way we easily captur$ infusoria1 :i*1 :5 plac$ "u a /rong magnifi]1 pres5t$ ! mo/ rem>kable spectacle t "o c imag9e4 ,!y are animalcules1 hav+ ! =m ( transp>5t tulips atta*$ to a long /em4 ,!y =m bun*es :i* exp& & l5g!n2 !n1 sudd5ly1 !y are se5 to contract ) su* consid]able rapidity t ! eye c sc>cely foll[ ! movem5t1 & all ! /ems & fl[]-bells are fold$ up into ! =m ( a ball4 ,!n1 9 ano!r mom5t1 ! /ems l5g!n1 & ! tulip-bells op5 once m4 ,"o c easily enc\rage ! production ( infusoria by con/ruct+ a small microscopic aqu>ium1 9 :i* "o arranges ! c5tre 9 a mann] fav\rable to ! developm5t ( ! l[e/ organisms4 ,x suffices to put a few leaves 7a piece ( p>sley answ]s ! purpose p]fectly7#d 9 a small vase conta9+ wat] 7fig4 #aj71 ov] :i* a glass cov] is plac$1 & x is !n expos$ to ! rays ( ! sun4 ,9 two or ?ree days' "t1 a drop ( ?is wat] se5 "u ! microscope w exhibit infusoria4 ,aft] a c]ta9 "t1 too1 ! diff]5t species w beg9 to %[ !mselves4 ,microscopical obs]vations c be made on a numb] ( diff]5t objects4 ,expose to ! air "s fl\r moi/5$ by wat]1 & be=e long a m\ld9ess w =m on x2 x is ! p5icillium glaucum1 & :5 exam9$ "u a magnifi] ( #bjj to #cjj diamet]s1 cells are di/+ui%able1 bran*+ out f an organism rem>kable = its simplicity4 ,we (t5 amus$ ourselves by exam9+1 almo/ at haz>d1 ev]y?+ t came )9 our rea*1 & sometimes we 7 l$ to make v in/ructive inve/igations4 ,:5 ! sky 0 cle>1 & ! wea!r fav\rable to walk+1 we enc\rag$ our "y p to run ab\t 9 ! fields & *ase butt]flies4 ,! capture ( butt]flies is accompli%$1 z e "o kn[s1 by means ( a gauze net1 ) :i* we provid$ ! *ildr51 & ! op]ation ( *as+ af=d$ !m "s v salut>y ex]cise4 ,x sometimes happ5s t butt]flies ab\nd 9 su* numb]s1 t x is comp>atively easy to capture !m4 ,dur+ ! mon? ( ,june #ahgi1 a l>ge "p ( ,we/]n ,europe 0 ?rong$ ) sw>ms ( ,vanessa alg9a butt]flies1 9 su* numb]s t _! appe>ance 0 reg>d$ z an important ev5t1 & attract$ ! lively att5tion ( all entomologi/s 7fig4 #aa74 ,?is passage ( butt]flies provid$ ! occasion = _m int]e/+ /udies on ! "p ( naturali/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,arrangem5t ( a microscopic aqu>ium = exam9+ infusoria4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,flight ( butt]flies se5 ne> ,b]ne1 ,june #ae?1 #ahgi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,gr\p ( rock cry/al4 ,we _c po9t out too /rongly to our read]s t ! ess5tial condition = ! /ud5t ( natural sci5ce1 is ! possession ( t sacr$ fire :i* imp>ts ! en]gy & p]sev]ance necess>y = acquir+ & enl>g+ collections4 ,x is also necess>y t ! inve/igator %\ld furni% himself ) c]ta9 indisp5sable tools4 ,= collect+ plants1 ! botani/ %\ld be arm$ ) a pickaxe set 9 a ?or\ghly /rong h&le1 a tr[el1 ( :i* !re is a v>iety ( %apes1 & a knife ) a %>p blade4 ,a botanical case mu/ also be includ$1 = c>ry+ ! plants4 ,! geologi/1 or m9]alogi/1 ne$s no m elaborate in/rum5ts2 a hamm]1 a *isel1 & a pickaxe ) a %>p po9t = break+ ! rocks1 & a bag = c>ry+ ! specim5s1 w complete 8 outfit4 ,we amus$ ourselves by hav+ ^! in/rum5ts made by ! blacksmi?1 sometimes ev5 by manufactur+ !m ourselves2 !y 7 simple1 b solid1 & admirably adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( rese>*4 ,(t5 we direct$ our walks to ! sea%ore1 :]e we lik$ to collect %ells on ! s&y bea*1 or fossils among ! cliffs & rocks4 ,i recollect1 9 a walk ,i _h tak5 "s ye>s previ\sly along ! foot ( ! cliffs ( ,cape ,blanc-,nez1 ne> ,calais1 hav+ f\nd an impression ( an ammonite ( rem>kable size1 :i* has (t5 excit$ ! admiration ( amateurs2 ?is ammonite measur$ no less ?an twelve in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! rocks ( ,cape ,grisnez1 n f> f ,b\logne1 also af=d ! geologian ! opportunity ( a numb] ( curi\s inve/igations4 ,9 ! ,ard5nes & ! ,alps ,i h frequ5tly procur$ "s f9e m9]al specim5s2 9 ! fir/ locality cry/alliz$ pyrites1 9 ! second1 f9e fragm5ts ( rock cry/al 7fig4 #ab74 ,i did n fail to rec\nt ^! successful exp$itions to ! "y p :o accompani$ me1 & _! ard\r 0 !reby inflam$ by ! hope t !y also %\ld f9d some?+ valuable4 ,x (t5 happ5$ :5 ! sun 0 p[]ful1 & ! air extremely calm1 t my "y companions & ,i rem>k$ "s v beautiful effects ( mirage on ! bea*1 due to ! heat+ ( ! l[] /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! trees & h\ses appe>$ to be rais$ above a %eet ( silv]1 9 :i* _! reflections 7 visible z 9 a %eet ( tranquil wat]4 ,x c h>dly be believ$ h[ frequ5tly ! atmosph]e af=ds int]e/+ spectacles :i* pass unp]ceiv$ be=e ! eyes ( ^? :o "k n h[ to obs]ve4 ,i recollect hav+ once beheld at ,j]sey a magnific5t ph5om5on ( ?is nature1 on ! #bd? ,june1 #ahgg1 at eight o'clock 9 ! ev5+3 x 0 a column ( light :i* rose above ! s9k+ sun l a %eaf ( fire4 ,i 0 walk+ on ! ,/4 ,heli] pi]1 :]e !re 7 also _m prom5ad]s1 b !re 7 n m ?an two or ?ree :o reg>d$ ) me ?is mighty spectacle4 ,columns & crosses ( light are mu* m frequ5t ?an is commonly suppos$1 b !y (t5 pass unp]ceiv$ be=e indiff]5t spectators4 ,we w describe an example ( ?is ph5om5on obs]v$ at ,havre on ! #g? ,may1 #ahgg4 ,! sun =m$ ! c5tre ( ! cross1 :i* 0 ( a yell[1 gold5 col\r4 ,?is cross _h f\r bran*es4 ,! upp] bran* 0 mu* m brilliant ?an ! o!rs2 its height 0 ab\t #ae4 ,! l[] bran* 0 small]1 z se5 9 ! sket* on page #b1 tak5 f nature by ,monsieur ,alb]t ,tiss&i]4 ,! two horizontal bran*es 7 at times sc>cely visible1 & m]g$ 9 a /reak ( r$di%-yell[ col\r1 :i* cov]$ a l>ge "p ( ! horizon4 ,a mass ( cl\d1 :i* ! sett+ sun t+$ ) a deep violet col\r1 =m$ ! =egr\nd ( ! picture4 ,! atmosph]e ov] ! sea 0 v foggy4 ,! ph5om5on did n la/ m ?an a qu>t] ( an h\r1 b ! conclusion ( ! spectacle 0 signaliz$ by an int]e/+ circum/ance4 ,! two horizontal bran*es1 & ! l[] bran* ( ! lum9\s cross1 completely disappe>$1 :il/ ! upp] bran* rema9$ alone = "s m9utes long]4 ,x _h n[ ! appe>ance ( a v]tical column ris+ f ! sun1 l t :i* ,cass9i /udi$ on ! #ba/ ,may1 #afgb1 & t :i* ,m4 ,r5on#e & ,m4 ,a4 ,guillem9 obs]v$ on ! #ab? ,july1 #ahgf4f ,v]tical columns1 :i*1 x is well kn[n1 are extremely r>e ph5om5a1 may !re=e indicate ! exi/5ce ( a lum9\s cross1 :i* c]ta9 atmosph]ic conditions h r5d]$ b p>tially visible4 ,h[ (t5 "o sees along ! roads little :irlw9ds ( du/ rais$ by ! w9d accompli%+ a rotatory movem5t1 ?us produc+ ! imitation ( a wat]sp\t6 ,h[ (t5 halos encompass ) a circle ( fire ! sun or ! />s6 ,h[ (t5 we see ! ra9b[ develop its iridesc5t beauties 9 ! mid/ ( a body ( air trav]s$ by bright ra9drops6 ,& !re is n "o ( ^! great natural manife/ations :i* may n give rise to in/ructive obs]vations1 & become ! object ( /udy & rese>*4 ,?us1 9 walks & travels alike1 ! /udy ( ,sci5ce may always be ex]cis$2 & ?is me?od ( /udy & in/ruction 9 ! op5 air contributes bo? to heal? ( body & ( m9d4 ,z we consid] ! spectacles :i* ,nature spreads be=e u1--f ! insect crawl+ on ! blade ( grass1 to ! cele/ial bodies mov+ 9 ! dome ( ! heav5s1--we feel a vivify+ & salut>y influ5ce awak5 9 ! m9d4 ,! habit ( obs]vation1 too1 may be ev]y:]e ex]cis$--ev5 9 t[ns1 :]e ,nature /ill ass]ts h]self2 z1 = example1 9 displays ( meteorological ph5om5a4 ,we w give an example ( su*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,icicles on gas lamp4 ,! extraord9>y abundance ( sn[ :i* fell 9 ,p>is = m ?an t5 consecutive h\rs1 comm5c+ on ! aft]noon ( ,w$nesday1 ,janu>y #bbnd1 #ahhj1 w always be look$ ^u z memorable among ! meteorological ev5ts ( ! city ( ,p>is4 ,x 0 /at$ t 9 ! c5tre ( ,p>is1 ! ?ickness ( ! sn[ t _h fall5 at diff]5t times exce$$ f\rte5 in*es4 ,! sn[ _h be5 prec$$ by a fall ( small transp>5t icicles1 ( r m ?an a millimetre 9 diamet]1 "s hav+ cry/all9e facets4 ,!y =m$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd a v slipp]y glaz$ fro/4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ! #bbnd ,janu>y1 flakes ( sn[ began to hov] 9 ! atmosph]e l volum9\s masses ( wool4 ,! great] "p ( ! gas-lamps 7 ornam5t$ by froz5 /alactites1 :i* cont9ually attract$ ! att5tion ( pass]s-by4 ,! =mation ( ^! /alactites1 ( :i* we give a specim5 7fig4 #ac71 is easy ( explanation4 ,! sn[ fall+ on ! glass ( ! lamp became heat$ by ! flame ( gas1 melt$1 & trickl$ d[n1 freez+ anew into ! %ape ( a /alactite bel[ ! lamp1 at a temp]ature ( #j c5tigrade4 ,n only c meteorology be /udi$ 9 t[ns1 b c]ta9 o!r bran*es ( natural sci5ce--entomology1 = example4 ,we w quote :at a "y /ud5t 9 sci5ce1 ,m4 ,a4 ,dubois1 says on ?is v subject3 8,coleopt]a10 he decl>es1 8are to be met ) ev]y:]e1 & ,i ?9k x may be useful to notice ?is fact1 support+ x by examples4 ,i desire to prove t !re are 9 ! mid/ ( our l>ge t[ns spots t rema9 unexplor$1 :]e "s f9e captures are to be made4 ,let u visit1 at c]ta9 times1 ! approa*es to ! quays1 ev5 at l[ tide1 & we %all be surpris$ to f9d !re species :i* we h se>*$ = f> & ne>40 ,?is op9ion is confirm$ by ! enum]ation ( sev]al int]e/+ captures4 ,0 n ! great ,bacon "r :5 he said1 8,= ! ke5 obs]v]1 no?+ 9 ,nature is mute08 ,illu/ration3 ,! cliffs ( ,cape ,grisnez4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,x is well kn[n t ants1 by t\*+ ! sk9 ( aphides1 extract !refrom a secretion ( visc\s matt]1 :i* n\ri%es !m4 ,!y w frequ5tly c>ry (f ! aphides to _! habitations1 & keep !m !re2 ?us "o may say !y keep a c[ 9 _! /able4 #b ,! pres]vation ( insects1 & _! prep>ation = collections1 necessitates "s precaution4 ,entomologi/s are 9 ! habit ( spread+ !m out on a small bo>d1 & arrang+ ! legs & ant5n by means ( l>ge p9s4 ,! w+s %\ld be dri$ by plac+ !m on /rips ( pap]1 :i* pres]ves !m4 ,^! precautions are indisp5sable if x is wi%$ t ! insects 9 a collection %\ld reta9 _! di/9ctive *>act]s4 ,worms & cat]pill>s c be rais$ 9 pots fill$ ) e>?1 if c>efully cov]$ ov] ) musl9 or wire gauze ) v f9e me%es4 ,! process ( hat*+ may give rise to _m int]e/+ obs]vations4 #c ,x frequ5tly happ5s t 9 a small aqu>ium1 con/ruct$ aft] ?is fa%ion1 ! animals escape4 ,?is is avoid$ by cov]+ ! vase ) a net4 #d ,! infusion ( p>sley has ! advantage ( n s5sibly obscur+ ! wat]4 #e ,detail$ acc\nts 9 ,vol4 lxxxiii41 pp4 #bdc & #bib ( 8,la ,nature40 #f ,see 8,la ,nature10 #d? ye>1 #ahgf1 #bnd half-ye>1 p4 #afg4 ,m4 ,a4 ,guillem9 m5tions1 9 connection ) ! ph5om5on ( ,july #ab?1 #ahgf1 ! pres5ce ( light masses ( cl\d ( a greyi%-blue col\r1 simil> to ^? p]ceiv$ 9 ! ph5om5a j describ$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,physics--,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,physics--,,=ces ,,( ,,nature--,,gravity--,,cohesion--,,*emic al ,,attraction--,,c5tre ,,( ,,gravity--,,exp]im5ts--,,automaton ,,tumbl]s4 ,hav+ n[ introduc$ our read]s to ,sci5ce :i* !y c f9d = !mselves 9 ! op5 air1 & ! pursuit ( :i* w bo? in/ruct & amuse1 we w proce$ to inve/igate ! ,bran* ( ,sci5ce call$ ,,physics4 ,,physics may be briefly describ$ z ! ,bran* ( ,natural ,sci5ce :i* treats ( su* ph5om5a z are unaccompani$ by any important *anges 9 ! objects :]e9 su* ph5om5a are obs]v$4 ,= in/ance1 ! s\nd+ ( a bell or ! fall+ ( a /one are physical ph5om5a1 = ! objects :i* cause ! s\nd1 or ! fall1 und]go no *ange4 ,heat is set free :5 coal burns4 ,?is dis5gagem5t ( heat is a physical ph5om5on2 b ! *ange dur+ combu/ion :i* coal und]goes is a *emical ph5om5on4 ,s ! objects may be ! same1 b ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y are plac$1 & ! =ces :i* act ^u !m1 may *ange _! appe>ance or position4 ,?is br+s u at once to ! ,=ces ( ,nature1 :i* are ?ree 9 numb]2 viz41 ,gravity1 ,cohesion1 & ,aff9ity1 or ,*emical ,attraction4 ,! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! la/-nam$ =ms ! ,sci5ce ( ,*emi/ry4 ,we give ^! ?ree ,=ces ^! names4 ,b fir/ we mu/ see :at is ,=ce1 = ?is is v important4 ,=ce is a ,,cause--! cause ( ,motion or ( ,re/4 ,?is may appe> p>adoxical1 b a little reflection w prove x4 ,x requires =ce to set any object 9 motion1 & ?is body w\ld nev] /op unless "s o!r =ce or =ces prev5t$ its movem5t beyond a c]ta9 po9t4 ,=ce is !re=e ! cause ( a *ange ( 8/ate0 9 matt]4 ,we h said !re are ?ree =ces 9 nature4 ,! fir/ is ,gravity1 or ! attraction ( p>ticles at a di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,we may say t ,gravity1 or ,gravitation1 is ! mutual attraction betwe5 diff]5t portions ( matt] act+ at all di/ances1--! =ce ( attraction be+1 ( c\rse1 9 proportion to ! mass ( ! bodies respectively4 ,! greate/ body is ! ,e>?1 s f> z our purposes are conc]n$4 ,s ! attraction ( ! ,e>? is ,gravity1 or :at we call ,weight4 ,we c easily prove ?is4 ,we "k if we jump f a *air we %all come to ! floor2 & if !re 7 no?+ betwe5 u & ! actual gr\nd suffici5t to su/a9 ! =ce ( ! attract+ p[] ( ! e>?1 we %\ld fall to ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 a teacup ! spoon w attract air bubbles1 & l>ge air bubbles w attract small ones1 till we f9d a small mass ( bubbles =m$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! cup ( tea4 ,divide ?is bubble1 & ! compon5t p>ts w ru% to ! sides ( ! cup4 ,?is =m ( attraction is illu/rat$ by ! accompany+ diagrams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,suppose two balls ( equal magnitude1 ,a & ,b 7fig4 #ad74 ,^! be+ ( equal magnitude1 attract ea* o!r ) equal =ce1 & w meet1 if n oppos$1 at a po9t 7,m7 half-way betwe5 ! two4 ,b !y d n meet1 because ! attraction ( ! e>? is great] ?an ! attraction !y relatively & collectively ex]cise t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,b if ! size ( ! balls be diff]5t1 ! attraction ( ! great] w be m evid5t1 z %[n bel[1 :]e ! po9ts ( meet+ are indicat$ respectively 7figs4 #ae & #af74 ,^! exp]im5ts w illu/rate ! ph5om5a ( fall+ bodies4 ,gravity is ! cause ( ?is1 because e object on ! surface ( ! e>? is v mu* small] ?an ! e>? itself1 & !re=e all bodies fall t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,a c]ta9 "t is ?us occupi$1 & we c f9d ! velocity or rapidity ( a fall+ body v easily4 ,on ! e>? a body1 if let fall1 w pass ?r\gh a space sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second2 & z ! attraction ( ! e>? /ill cont9ues & is ex]cis$ ^u a body already 9 rapid motion1 ?is rate ( progress mu/ be proportionately increas$4 ,j z :5 /eam is kept up 9 an eng9e runn+ d[n hill1 ! velocity ( ! tra9 w rapidly increase z x desc5ds ! gradi5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ae & #af4 ,a body fall+1 !n1 desc5ds sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second1 & = e succe$+ second x assumes a great] velocity4 ,! di/ance ! body travels has be5 calculat$1 & ! space x passes ?r\gh has be5 f\nd to increase 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! "t x takes to fall4 ,= in/ance1 suppose y drop a /one f ! top ( a cliff to ! bea*1 & x occupies two seconds 9 fall+1 if y multiply #b #b1 & ! result by sixte51 y w f9d h[ high ! cliff is3 9 ?is 7suppos$7 case x is 7omitt+ decimals7 sixty-f\r feet high4 ,! dep? ( a well c also be asc]ta9$ 9 ! same way1 leav+ out ! effect ( air resi/ance4 ,b if we g up into ! air1 ! =ce ( gravity w be dim9i%$4 ,! attraction w be less1 because we are m di/ant f ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,?is decrease is sc>cely1 if at all1 p]ceptible1 ev5 on v high m\nta9s1 because _! size is n great 9 comp>ison ) ! mass ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! rule = ?is is t gravity decreases 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,s t if at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! e>?'s surface ! =ce ( attraction be #a1 if ! di/ance be d\bl$ ! attraction w be only "o qu>t] z mu* z be=e--n "o-half4 ,gravity has exactly ! same influ5ce ^u all bodies1 & ! =ce ( ! attraction is 9 proportion to ! mass4 ,all bodies ( equal mass w fall 9 ! same "t 9 a giv5 di/ance4 ,two co9s 7or a co9 & a fea!r 9 vacuo7 w fall toge!r4 ,b 9 ! air ! fea!r w rema9 f> beh9d ! co91 because ne>ly all ! atoms ( ! =m] are resi/$ by ! air1 :ile 9 ! co9 only "s p>ticles are expos$ to ! resi/ance1 ! d5sity ( ! latt] prev5t+ ! air f rea*+ m ?an a few atoms1 comp>atively speak+4 ,! !ory ( weight & gravitation1 & exp]im5ts relat+ to ! fall+ ( bodies1 may be easily demon/rat$ ) ord9>y objects t we h at h&4 ,i take a halfp5ny & a piece ( pap]1 :i* ,i cut 9 ! %ape ( ! co91 & hold+ !m side by side1 ,i drop !m simultane\sly2 ! halfp5ny rea*es ! gr\nd "s "t be=e ! pap]1 a result q 9 accordance ) ! laws ( gravitation1 z "o mu/ be> 9 m9d ! pres5ce ( air1 & ! diff]5t resi/ance x (f]s to two bodies diff]+ 9 d5sity4 ,i next place ! pap] disc on ! upp] surface ( ! piece ( money1 & !n drop !m simultane\sly4 ,! two objects n[ rea* ! gr\nd at ! same "t1 ! pap]1 9 contact ) ! halfp5ny1 be+ pres]v$ f ! action ( ! air4 ,?is exp]im5t is s well kn[n t we ne$ n fur!r discuss x2 b x mu/ be pla9ly evid5t t x is capable ( developm5t 9 exp]im5ts on ph5om5a relat+ to fall+ bodies4#g ,:5 a body influ5c$ by ! action ( a =ce acts1 9 its turn1 ^u ano!r1 ! latt] reacts 9 an opposite mann] ^u ! fir/1 & ) ! same int5sity4 ,! ,attraction ( ,cohesion is ! attraction ( p>ticles ( bodies to ea* o!r at v small di/ances ap>t4 ,cohesion has receiv$ v>i\s names 9 ord] to express its v>i\s degrees4 ,= in/ance1 we say a body is t\gh or brittle1 or s(t or h>d1 accord+ to ! degrees ( cohesion ! p>ticles ex]cise4 ,we "k if we break a glass we de/roy ! cohesion2 ! p>ticles _c be reunit$4 ,mo/ ,liquid p>ticles c be unit$1 b n all4 ,oil w n mix ) wat]4 ,! =ce ( cohesion dep5ds ^u heat4 ,heat exp&s ev]y?+1 & ! cohesion dim9i%es z temp]ature increases4 ,!re are "s objects or sub/ances ^u ! e>? ! p>ticles ( :i* adh]e mu* m closely ?an o!rs1 & c only1 ) v great difficulty1 be sep>at$4 ,^! are t]m$ ,solids4 ,!re are o!r sub/ances ^: p>ticles c easily be divid$1 or _! position alt]$4 ,^! are call$ ,fluids4 ,a ?ird class seem to h little or no cohesion at all4 ,^! are t]m$ ,gases4 ,adhesion is also a =m ( attraction1 & is cohesion exi/+ on ! surfaces ( two bodies4 ,:5 a fluid adh]es to a solid we say ! solid is wet4 ,we turn ?is natural adhesion to our own purposes 9 _m ways1--we :itewa% our walls1 & pa9t our h\ses2 we pa/e our pap]s toge!r1 etc4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m fluids w hot adh]e4 ,oil & wat] h already be5 in/anc$4 ,m]cury w n /ick to a glass tube1 nor w ! oil$ glass tube reta9 any wat]4 ,we c %[ ! attraction & repulsion 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,let "o glass tube be dipp$ into wat] & ano!r into m]cury1 y w see t ! wat] w asc5d slightly at ! side1 ow+ to ! attraction ( ! glass1 :ile ! m]cury w be high] 9 ! c5tre1 = x possesses no attraction = ! glass 7fig4 #ag74 ,if small1 or :at are t]m$ capill>y 7or hair7 tubes1 be us$ 7fig4 #ah71 ! wat] w rise up 9 ! "o tube1 :ile 9 ! o!r ! m]cury w rema9 l[] ?an ! m]cury outside ! tube4 7,see ,capill>ity47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,*emical ,attraction is ! =ce by :i* two diff]5t bodies unite to =m a new & diff]5t body f ei!r4 ,?is =ce w be fully consid]$ 9 ,,*emi/ry1 9 a future "p4 ,x is ne$less = u to dwell ^u ! uses ( ^! ,=ces ( ,nature4 ,gravity & ,cohesion be+ left out ( our _w1 we c imag9e ! result4 ,! e>? & sun & planets w\ld w&] aimlessly ab\t2 we %\ld float away into space1 & ev]y?+ w\ld fall to pieces1 :ile our bodies w\ld dissolve into _! compon5t p>ts4 ,! ,balance & ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,we h spok5 at "s l5g? ab\t ,gravity1 & n[ we mu/ say some?+ respect+ t po9t call$ ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 & ! ,balance1 & ^u ! latt] we h a few rem>ks to make fir/1 = a well-adju/$ balance is a mo/ useful ?+1 & we w %[ y h[ to make "o1 & !n proce$ to our illu/rations ( ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 & expla9 x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,torsion balance1 :i* c easily be con/ruct$1 capable ( weigh+ a milligram "o-t5? ( full size4 ,all ^? :o cultivate exp]im5tal sci5ce are aw>e t x is useful to unite ) !oretical ideas t manual dext]ity :i* is acquir$ by ! /ud5t accu/om+ himself to practical op]ations4 ,"o _c too /rongly urge bo? *emi/s & physici/s to ex]cise !mselves 9 ! con/ruction ( ! appliances !y require1 & also to modify ^? already exi/+1 :i* may be adapt$ to _! wants4 ,9 a l>ge numb] ( cases x is possible to manufacture1 at small exp5se1 delicate in/rum5ts1 capable ( r5d]+ ! same s]vice z ! mo/ elaborate app>atus4 ,important sci5tific lab\rs h (t5 be5 und]tak5 by m5 ^: laboratories 7 mo/ simple1 :o1 by means ( skill & p]sev]ance1 knew h[ to d great ?+s ) small res\rces4 ,a delicate balance1 = in/ance1 indisp5sable alike to *emi/ & physici/1 c be manufactur$ at little co/ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,a ?9 plat9um wire & a piece ( wood is all t is ne$$ to make a balance capable ( weigh+ a milligram2 & to make a v s5sitive hydro/atic balance1 little is requir$ besides a glass balloon4 ,fig4 #ai repres5ts a small torsion balance ( extreme simplicity4 ,a ?9 plat9um wire is /ret*$ horizontally ?r\gh two /aples1 f ! wood5 supports1 ,a ,b1 :i* are fix$ 9 a deal bo>d4 ,a v ?91 delicate lev]1 ,c ,d1 cut 9 wood1 or made ) a wisp ( /raw1 is fix$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! plat9um wire by means ( a small clip1 :i* secures x firmly4 ,?is lev] is plac$ 9 su* a mann] t x is rais$ p]ceptibly out ( ! horizontal l9e4 ,at ,d is fix$ a pap] scale1 on :i* is put ! weight ( a c5tigram4 ,! lev] is l[]$ to a c]ta9 po9t1 slightly twi/+ ! plat9um wire4 ,ne> ! end ( ! lev] a piece ( wood1 ,f1 is fix$1 on :i* is m>k$ ! extreme po9t ( its movem5ts4 ,t5 equi-di/ant divisions are m>k$ betwe5 ^! two po9ts1 :i* repres5t ! di/ance trav]s$ by ! lev] "u ! weight ( ! milligram4 ,if a small] weight ?an a c5tigram is plac$ on ! pap] scale ! lev] falls1 & balances itself aft] a few oscillations4 ,if x falls f\r divisions1 x is evid5t t ! sub/ance weighs f\r milligrams4 ,tak+ a r ?ick] plat9um wire1 to :i* a %ort] lev] mu/ be adapt$1 "o c weigh ! decigram1 & s on4 ,x w\ld be an easy matt]1 also1 to make1 on ! same model1 balances = weigh+ consid]able weights4 ,! plat9um wire %\ld be replac$ by iron wires ( l>g] diamet]1 firmly /ret*$1 & ! lev] %\ld be made ( a piece ( v resi/+ wood4 ,"o c also1 by adaptation1 f9d ! exact value ( ! mo/ trifl+ weights4 ,by l5g!n+ a v f9e plat9um wire sev]al y>ds1 & adapt+ a long1 sl5d] lev]1 x w n be impossible to asc]ta9 ! t5? ( a milligram4 ,9 ?is latt] case ! balance c be set :5 x is want$4 ,fig4 #bj repres5ts ,ni*olson's ,areomet]1 :i* any "o may con/ruct = himself1 & :i*1 z x is "h repres5t$1 con/itutes ano!r k9d ( balance4 ,a glass balloon1 fill$ ) air1 is h]metically clos$ ) a cork1 ?r\gh :i* is pass$ a cyl9d] ( wood1 surm\nt$ by a wood5 disc1 ,d4 ,! app>atus is t]m9at$ at its l[] end by a small tray1 ,c1 on :i* "o c put pieces ( lead 9 v>iable quantities4 ,x is !n plung$ into a glass fill$ ) wat]4 ,! pieces ( lead on ! tray1 ,c1 are add$ by degrees1 until ! /em ( ! areomet] rises almo/ entirely above ! level ( ! wat]2 x is next pass$ ?r\gh a r+1 :i* keeps x 9 position1 & :i* is fa/5$ to ! upp] "p ( ! glass by means ( f\r iron wires 9 ! %ape ( a cross4 ,! /em is divid$ 9 su* a way t ! space compris$ 9 ea* division repres5ts ! volume ( a cubic c5timetre4 ,?us arrang$1 ! app>atus con/itutes a balance4 ,! object to be weigh$ is plac$ on ! disc1 ,d1 & ! areomet] s9ks 9 ! wat]1 oscillates1 & !n rema9s 9 equilibrium4 ,if ! /em s9ks five divisions1 x is evid5t t ! weight ( ! object corresponds to t ( five cubic c5timetres ( displac$ wat]1 or five grams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,ni*olson's ,areomet]1 contriv$ to s]ve z a balance4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 f ! prec$+ examples1 t x is n impossible to con/ruct a weigh+ app>atus ) ord9>y & v inexp5sive objects4 ,we c1 9 ! same way1 %[ t x is possible to p]=m in/ructive exp]im5ts ) no appliances at all1 or1 at any rate1 ) common ?+s1 su* z ev]yone has at h&4 ,! lam5t$ ,bal>d1 ^: loss sci5ce has _h rec5tly to deplore1 excell$ 9 *emical exp]im5ts )\t a laboratory2 fragm5ts ( brok5 glass or e>!nw>e 7 us$ by him = improvis+ retorts1 bottles & vases = =m+ precipitates1 & c>ry+ on _m important op]ations4 ,s*eele also op]at$ 9 l mann]2 he knew h[ to make great discov]ies ) ! humble/ appliances & mo/ sl5d] res\rces4 ,"o _c too e>ne/ly endeav\r to imitate su* lead]s1 bo? 9 tea*+ o!rs & in/ruct+ oneself4 ,! laws relat+ to ! weight ( bodies1 ! c5tre ( gravity1 & /able or un/able equilibrium1 may be easily taught & demon/rat$ by means ( a numb] ( v famili> objects4 ,by putt+ into ! h&s ( a *ild a box ( soldi]s cut 9 eld]-wood1 ! end ( ea* fix$ into half a bullet1 we provide him ) ! means ( mak+ "s easy exp]im5ts on ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,accord+ to "s au?orities on equilibrium1 x is n impossible1 ) a little pati5ce & delicacy ( manipulation1 to keep an egg balanc$ on "o ( its ends4 ,?is exp]im5t %\ld be p]=m$ on a p]fectly horizontal surface1 a m>ble *imney-piece1 = example4 ,if "o c succe$ 9 keep+ ! egg up1 x is1 accord+ to ! mo/ elem5t>y pr9ciples ( physics1 because ! v]tical l9e ( ! c5tre ( gravity passes ?r\gh ! po9t ( contact betwe5 ! end ( ! egg & ! surface on :i* x re/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,exp]im5t on 8c5tre ( gravity40 ,fig4 #ba reproduces a curi\s exp]im5t 9 equilibrium1 :i* is p]=m$ ) great facility4 ,two =ks are /uck into a cork1 & ! cork is plac$ on ! brim ( ! neck ( a bottle4 ,! =ks & ! cork =m a :ole1 ( :i* ! c5tre ( gravity is fix$ ov] ! po9t ( support4 ,we c b5d ! bottle1 empty x ev51 if x conta9s fluid1 )\t ! little con/ruction ov] its m\? be+ 9 ! lea/ di/urb$ f its balance4 ,! v]tical l9e ( ! c5tre ( gravity passes ?r\gh ! po9t ( support1 & ! =ks oscillate ) ! cork1 :i* s]ves z _! support1 ?us =m+ a movable /ructure1 b mu* m /able ?an "o is incl9$ to suppose4 ,?is curi\s exp]im5t is (t5 p]=m$ by conjurors1 :o in=m _! audi5ce1 t !y w und]take to empty ! bottle )\t di/urb+ ! cork4 ,if a woodcock has be5 s]v$ = d9n]1 or any o!r bird ) a long beak1 take (f ! head at ! extreme end ( ! neck2 !n split a cork s t y c ins]t into x ! neck ( ! bird1 :i* mu/ be tightly clipp$ to keep x 9 place2 two =ks are !n fix$ into ! cork1 exactly z 9 ! prec$+ example1 & into ! bottom ( ! cork a p9 is ins]t$4 ,?is little contrivance is next plac$ on a piece ( money1 :i* has be5 put on ! op5+ ( ! neck ( ! bottle1 & :5 x is fairly balanc$1 we give x a rotatory movem5t1 by pu%+ "o ( ! =ks z rapidly z we please1 b z mu* z possible )\t any j]k 7fig4 #bb74 ,we !n see ! two =ks1 & ! cork surm\nt$ by ! woodcock's head1 turn+ on ! sl5d] pivot ( a p94 ,no?+ c be m comical ?an to witness ! long beak ( ! bird turn+ r\nd & r\nd1 successively fac+ all ! company assembl$ r\nd ! table1 sometimes ) a little oscillation1 :i* gives x an almo/ lifelike appe>ance4 ,?is rotatory movem5t w la/ "s "t1 & wag]s are (t5 laid z to :i* ( ! company ! beak w po9t at :5 x /ops4 ,9 laboratories1 wood5 cyl9d]s are (t5 to be se5 :i* w asc5d an incl9$ plane )\t any impulsion4 ,?is appe>s v surpris+ at fir/1 b a/oni%m5t ceases :5 we p]ceive t ! c5tre ( gravity is close to ! end ( ! cyl9d]1 because ( a piece ( lead1 :i* has be5 fix$ 9 x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,ano!r exp]im5t on ! same subject4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,automatic puppets4 ,fig4 #bc gives a v exact repres5tation ( a play?+ :i* 0 sold ext5sively on ! ,b\lev>ds at ,p>is at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,new ,ye>4 ,?is little contrivance1 :i* has be5 kn[n = "s "t1 is "o ( ! mo/ *>m+ applications ( ! pr9ciples relat+ to ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,) a little skill1 any "o may con/ruct x = himself4 ,x consi/s ( two little puppets1 :i* turn r\nd axles adapt$ to two p>allel tubes conta9+ m]cury4 ,:5 we place ! little contrivance 9 ! position ( fig4 #bd1 ! m]cury be+ at a1 ! two dolls rema9 motionless1 b if we l[] ! doll ,s1 s t x /&s on ! second /ep 7,no4 #b7 ( ! flight1 z indicat$ 9 fig4 #be1 ! m]cury desc5ds to b at ! o!r end ( ! tube2 ! c5tre ( gravity is sudd5ly displac$2 ! doll ,r !n accompli%es a rotatory movem5t1 z %[n by ! arr[ 9 fig4 #be1 & f9ally alights on /ep ,no4 #c4 ,! same movem5t is also effect$ by ! doll ,s1 & s on1 z _m times z !re are /eps4 ,! dolls may be replac$ by a holl[ cyl9d] ( c>tridge pap] clos$ at bo? ends1 & conta9+ a m>ble2 ! cyl9d]1 :5 plac$ v]tically on an incl9$ plane1 desc5ds 9 ! same way z ! puppets4 ,! laws ( equilibrium & displacem5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 are rigor\sly obs]v$ by juggl]s1 :o a*ieve _m wond]ful feats1 g5]ally facilitat$ by ! rotatory motion giv5 to ! bodies on :i* !y op]ate1 :i* br+s into play ! c5trifugal =ce4 ,! juggl] :o balances on 8 =ehead a sl5d] rod1 on ! end ( :i* a plate turns r\nd1 w\ld nev] succe$ 9 ! exp]im5t if ! plate did n turn on its axis ) great rapidity4 ,b by quick rotation ! c5tre ( gravity is kept ne> ! po9t ( support4 ,we ne$ h>dly rem>k1 too1 t x is ! motion ( a top t t5ds to keep x 9 a v]tical position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,fir/ position ( ! puppets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--,second position ( ! puppets4 ,_m exp]im5ts 9 me*anical physics may occur to "o's m9d4 ,to conclude ! enum]ation ( ^? we h collect$ on ! subject1 ,i w describe ! me?od ( lift+ a glass bottle full ( wat] by means ( a simple wisp ( /raw4 ,! /raw is b5t be=e be+ pass$ into ! bottle ( wat]1 s t1 :5 x is lift$1 ! c5tre ( gravity is displac$1 & br\ght directly "u ! po9t ( susp5sion4 ,fig4 #bf %[s ! me?od ( op]ation v pla9ly4 ,x is well to h at h& sev]al pieces ( /raw p]fectly intact1 & free f cracks1 9 case ! exp]im5t does n succe$ ) ! fir/ attempt4 ,hav+ n[ se5 h[ ?is po9t we call ! c5tre ( gravity acts1 we may briefly expla9 x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,lift+ a bottle ) a s+le /raw4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( a body is t po9t 9 :i* ! sum ( ! =ces ( gravity1 act+ ^u all ! p>ticles1 may be said to be unit$4 ,we "k ! attraction ( ! e>? causes bodies to h a prop]ty we call ,weight4 ,?is prop]ty ( weight presses ^u e p>ticle ( ! body1 & acts ^u !m z p>allel =ces4 ,= if a /one be brok5 all ! portions w equal ! weight ( ! /one2 & if "s ( !m be susp5d$1 x w be se5 t !y hang p>allel to ea* o!r1 s we may call ^! weights p>allel =ces unit$ 9 ! :ole /one1 & equal to a s+le resultant4 ,n[1 to f9d ! c5tre ( gravity1 we mu/ susp5d ! body1 & x w hang 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,draw a l9e f ! po9t ( susp5sion1 & susp5d ! body aga93 a l9e drawn f t po9t ( susp5sion w pass ?r\gh ! same place z ! =m] l9e did1 & s on4 ,t po9t is ! c5tre ( gravity ( t susp5d$ body4 ,if ! =m ( x be regul>1 l a ball or cyl9d]1 ! c5tre ( gravity is ! same z ! ma!matically c5tral po9t4 ,9 su* =ms z pyramids x w be f\nd ne> ! l>ge/ mass2 viz41 at ! bases1 ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! apex & ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! base4 ,:5 ! c5tre ( gravity ( any body is support$1 t body _c fall4 ,s ! well-kn[n lean+ t[]s are p]fectly safe1 because _! l9es ( direction fall )9 ! bases4 ,! c5tre ( gravity is 9 ! c5tre ( ! lean+ figure4 ,! l9e ( direction drawn v]tically f t po9t falls )9 ! base2 b if ! t[] 7 built up high]1 s t ! c5tre ( gravity 7 high]1 !n ! /ructure w\ld fall1 because ! l9e ( direction w\ld fall )\t ! base4 ,we see t animals 7& m57 are cont9ually alt]+ ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity2 = if a man be>s a load he w lean =w>d1 & if he takes up a c ( wat] 9 "o h& he w ext5d ! o!r to pres]ve 8 balance or equilibrium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,balanc+ a weight on a nail & key4 ,! exp]im5t %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration is app>5tly v difficult1 b x w be f\nd easy en\gh 9 practice if ! h& be /eady4 ,take a key1 & by means ( a crook$ nail1 or 8holdfa/10 atta* x to a b> ( wood by a /r+ ti$ tightly r\nd ! b>1 z 9 ! picture4 ,to ! o!r extremity ( ! b> atta* a weight1 & !n drive a l>ge-head$ nail into ! table4 ,x w be f\nd t ! key w balance1 & ev5 move ^u ! head ( ! nail1 )\t fall+4 ,! weight is "u ! table1 & ! c5tre ( gravity is exactly b5ea? ! po9t ( susp5sion4 ,ano!r simple exp]im5t may prove amus+4 ,into a piece ( wood ins]t ! po9ts ( two knives1 & at ! c5tre ( ! end ( ! b> ins]t a ne$le betwe5 ! knife h&les4 ,! wood & ! knives may !n be balanc$ on ano!r ne$le fix$ 9 a cork at ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,ano!r exp]im5t4 ,we may conclude ?is *apt] by summ+ up 9 a few words :at ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity is4 ,we c def9e x z 8t po9t 9 a body ^u :i* ! body1 act$ on solely by ! =ce ( gravity1 w balance itself 9 all positions40 ,su* a po9t exi/s 9 e body1 & equally 9 a numb] ( bodies fa/5$ tightly toge!r4 ,! ,c5tre ( ,gravity has by "s writ]s be5 d5om9at$ ! ,c5tre ( ,p>allel ,=ces1 or ! ,c5tre ( ,magnitude1 b ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity is ! mo/ usual & be/ und]/ood t]m4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,m4 ,a4 ,g4 has writt5 u an int]e/+ lett] on ! subject ( simil> exp]im5ts1 :i* we "h transcribe3-- 8,:5 a siphon ( seltz] wat] has be5 op5$ "s little "t1 & ! equilibrium ( t5sion is ne>ly e/abli%$ betwe5 ! escap$ gas & ! dissolv$ gas1 a v]tical /ream ( bubbles is se5 to rise f ! bottom ( ! app>atus1 :i* pres5t a v cle> example ( ! law ( asc5sion ( bubbles2 t is to say 7putt+ out ( ! "q ! expansion ( ! bubbles 9 _! passage upw>ds71 x is an inv]se repres5tation ( ! law ( gravity affect+ fall+ bodies4 ,! bubbles1 9 fact1 deta* !mselves f _! />t+ po9t ) p]fect regul>ity2 & z ! int]val v>ies 9 "o file f ano!r1 we h be=e u a multipli$ repres5tation ( t t]rible law :i* ,attwood's ma*9e made su* a bugbe> to ! comm]cial _w4 ,i believe x is possible1 by c\nt+ ! numb] ( bubbles t deta* !mselves 9 a second1 9 ea* file1 & ! numb] :i* ! :ole /ream conta9s at a giv5 in/ant1 to c>ry ! v]ification fur!r2 b ,i mu/ confess t ,i h n done s myself40 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,"s ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,solid ,,bodies--,,in]tia--,,motion--,,friction --,,! ,,p5dulum--,,equilibrium4 ,^? :o h foll[$ u ?r\gh ! prec$+ pages h n[1 we hope1 "s ideas ^u ,gravity & ! ,=ces ( ,nature4 ,9 speak+ ( ,=ces we said 8,=ce 0 a cause ( ,motion40 ,let u n[ consid] ,in]tia1 & ,motion ) its accompany+ oppon5t1 ,friction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,%ock communicat$ by ela/icity4 ,,in]tia is ! passiv5ess ( ,matt]4 ,?is p]fect indiff]5ce to ei!r re/ or motion makes ! great di/9ction betwe5 liv+ & lifeless matt]4 ,in]tia1 or ,vis ,in]tia1 is ?is passiv5ess4 ,n[1 to ov]come ?is indiff]5ce we mu/ use =ce1 & :5 we h appli$ =ce to matt] we set x 9 motion2 t is1 we move x4 ,:5 we move x we f9d a c]ta9 resi/ance :i* is always proportionate to ! =ce appli$4 ,9 me*anics ?is is t]m$ ,action1 & ,reaction1 :i* are always equal =ces act+ 9 opposite directions4 ,?is is ,newton's law1 & may be expla9$ by a 8weight0 on a table1 :i* presses aga9/ ! table ) ! same =ce ) :i* ! table presses aga9/ ! 8weight02 or :5 y /rike a ball1 x /rikes ! h& ) ! same =ce4 ,we c communicate motion by ela/icity4 ,= in/ance1 if we place a numb] ( co9s ^u a table t\*+ ea* o!r & 9 a /raight l9e1 & /rike ! la/ co9 ( ! l9e by pu%+ ano!r %>ply aga9/ x1 ! piece at ! opposite extremity w slip out ( its place f ! effect ( ! %ock transmitt$ by ! co9 at ! o!r end 7fig4 #bi74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,exp]im5t to illu/rate in]tia4 ,:5 two =ces act ^u a body at ! same "t1 x takes a direction int]m$iate4 ,?is is kn[n z ! resultant4 ,! enorm\s =ces ex]cis$ by ! heav5ly bodies w be treat$ ( lat]4 ,we w fir/ consid] ,in]tia4 ,!re are sev]al exp]im5ts relat+ to ! subject ( ,in]tia :i* may be p]=m$4 ,i once witness$ "o q accid5tally :5 tak+ a walk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,ano!r exp]im5t on ! same subject4 ,i 0 "o day pass+ ! ,obs]vatory at ,p>is1 :5 ,i notic$ a numb] ( p collect$ r\nd a pr(essor1 :o aft] execut+ sev]al juggl+ tricks1 proce$$ to p]=m ! curi\s exp]im5t ,i am ab\t to describe4 ,he took a broom/ick & plac$ x horizontally1 pass+ ! ends ?r\gh two pap] r+s4 ,he !n ask$ two *ildr5 to hold ! pap] r+s by means ( two razors1 s t ! r+s re/$ on ! blade4 ,?is done1 ! op]ator took a /\t /ick1 &1 ) all 8 /r5g?1 /ruck ! broom/ick 9 ! c5tre2 x 0 brok5 into %iv]s1 b ! pap] r+s 7 n torn 9 ! lea/1 or ev5 cut by ! razors6 ,"o ( my fri5ds1 ,m4 ,m----1 a pa9t]1 %[$ me h[ to p]=m ?is exp]im5t z repres5t$ 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cj74 ,a ne$le is fix$ at ea* end ( ! broom/ick1 & ^! ne$les are made to re/ on two glasses1 plac$ on *airs2 ! ne$les alone mu/ be 9 contact ) ! glasses4 ,if ! broom/ick is !n /ruck viol5tly ) ano!r /\t /ick1 ! =m] w be brok51 b ! glasses w rema9 intact4 ,! exp]im5t answ]s all ! bett] ! m en]getic ! action4 ,x is expla9$ by ! resi/ance ( in]tia 9 ! broom/ick4 ,! %ock sudd5ly giv51 ! impulse has n "t to pass on f ! p>ticles directly affect$ to ! adjac5t p>ticles2 ! =m] sep>ate be=e ! movem5t c be transmitt$ to ! glasses s]v+ z supports4#h ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,extract+ a 8man0 f a pile ( draughts )\t ov]turn+ ! pile4 ,! exp]im5t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ca is ( ! same nature4 ,a wood5 ball is susp5d$ f ! ceil+ by a r sl5d] ?read1 & a simil> ?read is atta*$ to ! l[] end ( ! ball4 ,if ! l[] ?read is pull$ =cibly x w break1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration2 ! movem5t communicat$ to x has n "t to pass into ! ball2 if1 on ! contr>y1 x is pull$ v gradually & )\t any %ock1 ! upp] ?read in/ead w break1 because 9 ?is case x supports ! weight ( ! ball4 ,motion is n imp>t$ simultane\sly to all p>ts ( a body1 b only to ! p>ticles fir/ expos$ to a bl[1 = in/ance4 ,"o might multiply examples ( ?is4 ,if a bullet be %ot f a gun1 x w make a r\nd hole 9 a piece ( wood or glass1 :il/ if ?r[n by ! h&1--t is to say1 ) mu* less =ce1-- x w %iv] ! wood or ! pane ( glass to pieces4 ,:5 ! cel]ity ( ! motive =ce is v great1 ! p>ticles directly affect$ are di/urb$ s quickly t !y sep>ate f ! adjac5t p>ticles be=e !re is "t = ! movem5t to be communicat$ to ! latt]4 ,x is possible1 = ! same reason1 to extract f a pile ( money a piece plac$ 9 ! middle ( ! pile )\t ov]turn+ ! o!rs4 ,x suffices to move !m =cibly & quickly ) a flat wood5 rul]4 ,! exp]im5t succe$s v well also if p]=m$ ) draughtsm5 pil$ up on ! draught-bo>d 7fig4 #cb74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,call+ out a sixp5ce f ! glass4 ,fig4 #cc repres5ts ano!r exp]im5t :i* belongs to ! laws ( resi/+ =ce4 ,a sixp5ce is plac$ on a table cov]$ ) a clo? or napk94 ,x is cov]$ ) a glass1 turn$ ov] s t its brim re/s on two p5ny pieces4 ,! problem to be solv$ is h[ to extract ! sixp5ce f und]nea? ! glass )\t t\*+ x1 or slipp+ any?+ b5ea? x4 ,to d ?is x is necess>y to scrat* ! clo? ) ! nail ( ! =ef+]2 ! ela/icity ( ! mat]ial communicates ! movem5t to ! sixp5ce1 :i* sl[ly moves 9 ! direction ( ! f+]1 until x f9ally comes out completely f b5ea? ! glass4 ,we may give ano!r exp]im5t conc]n+ ,in]tia4 ,take a /rip ( pap]1 & ^u x place a co91 on a m>ble *imney-piece1 z 9 ! illu/ration4 ,if1 hold+ ! pap] 9 ! left h&1 y /rike x rapidly & =cibly1 y w be enabl$ to draw away ! pap] )\t caus+ ! co9 7say a five-%ill+-piece7 to fall d[n 7fig4 #cd74 ,x is n impossible to draw away a napk9 laid z a tableclo? = "o p]son's d9n]1 )\t di/urb+ ! v>i\s articles laid ^u x4 ,a quick motion is all t is necess>y1 keep+ ! napk9 tightly ext5d$ by ! h&s at ! same "t4 ,?is latt] exp]im5t1 h[ev]1 is n recomm5d$ to boys home = ! holidays1 z !y may unwill+ly practise a feat analog\s to t execut$ by ,humpty-,dumpty1 & f9d equal difficulty to mat* ! pieces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,draw+ a slip ( pap] f b5ea? a co94 ,we w n[ exam9e ! t]m ,motion4 ,a body is said to be 9 motion :5 x *anges its position 9 relation to surr\nd+ objects4 ,to p]ceive motion ! surr\nd+ objects mu/ be relatively at re/1 = if !y all hurri$ along at ! same rate no motion w\ld be p]ceptible4 ,?is is evid5t1 = :5 we /& /ill trees & h\ses appe> /ation>y1 z d we ourselves1 b we "k we all are ru%+ r\nd ) ! e>?1 ?\gh our relative positions are un*ang$4 ,h5ce !re is no absolute re/4 ,:at are ! causes ( motion8--,gravity is "o4 ,! influ5ce ( heat1 :i* is itself caus$ by ! motion ( atoms1 ! effects ( electricity1 etc41 & f9ally1 ! p[] ( =ce 9 m5 or animals--any ( ^! causes w produce motion4 ,b a body at re/ _c put itself 9 motion1 nor c a body 9 motion /op itself1 or *ange its condition ( motion4 ,b y may say a body w /op itself4 ,y\r ball on ! gr\nd1 or ev5 ^u ice1 w ev5tually come to a /op4 ,we fire a bullet1 & x w /op 9 "t4 ,we reply x does n /op ( itself4 ,! resi/ance ( ! ,air & ,friction t5d to br+ ! body 9 motion to a /ate ( re/4 ,9 ! case ( a bullet gravity br+s x d[n4 ,!re is no ne$ to insi/ ^u ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! air ev5 :5 x is n ru%+ viol5tly pa/ to fill up a vacuum beyond u1 & call$ a breeze1 or high w9d4 ,b we may say some?+ ( ,friction4 ,friction is d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 frico1 to rub1 & expresses ! resi/ance to motion :i* arises f unev5 surfaces4 ,x is a passive resi/ance1 & dep5ds ^u ! =ce :i* keeps ! bodies toge!r4 ,?us a tra9 runn+ ^u a smoo? iron rail w\ld nev] be able to proce$ b = friction1 :i* gives ! necess>y pur*ase or grip to ! :eel & rail 9 contact4 ,no surface is p]fectly smoo?1 = we mu/ pu% a body ^u ! smoo!/ surface we possess4 ,friction t5ds to resi/ motion always1 & is ! cause ( a great loss ( p[] 9 me*anics1 ?\gh x is employ$ to /op motion by c]ta9 appliances1 su* z 8brakes0 & 8drags10 = slid+ friction is great] ?an roll+ friction4 ,b )\t friction mo/ /ructures w\ld fall to pieces1 & all =w>d motion w\ld cease4 ,s ?\gh x is an inconv5i5t =ce to ov]come1 we c\ld n d )\t x4 ,if a body is set 9 motion1 we see t ! t5d5cy ( x is to g on = ev]4 ,su*1 inde$1 is ! case ) ! />s2 b s long z we are )9 ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s attraction1 we _c expect su* a result4 ,we "k n[ :at motion is2 we mu/ also1 to und]/& x p]fectly1 consid] its direction & its velocity4 ,! l9e :i* indicates ! way f ! />t+ po9t to ! end is ! direction ( ! object 9 motion1 & ! rate x moves at its velocity4 ,! latt] is calculat$ at s _m miles an h\r1 z a tra92 or s _m feet 9 a second if ! object be a %ot1 or o!r v rapidly-mov+ body4 ,9 equal velocity ! same di/ance is trav]s$ 9 ! same "t2 & s if a tra9 run a mile 9 a m9ute1 we "k x w travel sixty miles 9 an h\r1 & is !re=e dur+ t m9ute go+ at ! rate ( sixty miles an h\r4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! velocity ( a /one fall+ f a cliff z sixte5 feet 9 a second1 & a /one ?r[n into ! air to rise sixte5 feet w be a second 9 go+ up1 & a second 9 desc5d+4 ,b ! velocity w be accel]at$ 9 ! desc5t aft] ! fir/ second ( "t1 & ret>d$ 9 ! upw>d ca/ by gravity4 ,s we h two t]ms--accel]at$ & ret>d$ velocity--us$ to express an increas$ or decreas$ =ce ( attraction4 ,p]petual motion has (t5 be5 s\ght1 b nev] discov]$1 nor w x ev] be till ! elixir ( life has be5 f\nd4 ,x is q impossible to con/ruct any ma*9e t w "w )\t friction2 if any "w be done en]gy w be exp5d$ & trans=m$ into o!r en]gy1 s ! total mu/ be dim9i%$ by s mu* z 0 employ$ to trans=m ! rema9d]4 ,no body c give unlimit$ "w1 !re=e ! p]petual motion !ory is unt5able & impossible4 ,! p5dulum is consid]$ ! ne>e/ approa* to p]petual motion4 ,?is is s well kn[n t no description is ne$$1 b we may say a few words conc]n+ x4 ,by ! diagram1 we see t if we lift ! ball to b1 & let x fall1 x w desc5d to l1 & pass x to a opposite1 ne>ly z f> f l z b is f x4 ,s ! oscillations w cont9ue1 ea* beat be+ less & less1 till re/ is rea*$ by ! action ( gravity 7page #bc74 ,7 x n = friction & ! pressure ( ! air1 ! oscillations w\ld cont9ue = ev]2 z x is1 x decl9es by %ort] sw+s till x rema9s 9 equilibrium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,! p5dulum4 ,! seconds' p5dulum oscillates sixty times an h\r1 & mu/ be ( a c]ta9 l5g? 9 c]ta9 places4 ,9 ,london x is #ciacic in*es1 & furni%es a c]ta9 /&>d ( l5g?1 & by an ,act ( ,p>liam5t ! y>d is divid$ into #cf p>ts1 & #ciacic su* p>ts make ! seconds' p5dulum 9 ! latitude ( ,london 79 vacuo7 9 a temp]ature ( #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,c5trifugal ,=ce4 ,b ! same p5dulum w n p]=m ! same numb] ( oscillations 9 "o m9ute 9 all p>ts ( ! globe4 ,at ! equator !y w be less1 & at ! pole m4 ,?us x 0 discov]$ t1 z ! movem5ts ( ! p5dulum are dep5d5t ^u ! =ce ( gravity1 & z ?is =ce decreases ! f>!r we get f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 ! equator mu/ be f>!r f ! e>?'s c5tre ?an ! poles1 & !re=e ! poles mu/ be depress$4 ,! decl9e ( ! p5dulum at ! equator is also1 9 a measure1 due to ,c5trifugal ,=ce4 ,c5trifugal ,=ce1 :i* means 8fly+ f ! c5tre10 is ! =ce :i* causes an object to describe a circle ) uni=m velocity1 & fly away f ! c5tre2 ! =ce t c\nt]acts x is call$ ! c5tripetal =ce4 ,a v simple exp]im5t w illu/rate x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,ano!r illu/ration ( c5trifugal =ce4 ,to repres5t its action1 we %all h rec\rse to an ord9>y glass tumbl] plac$ on a r\nd piece ( c>dbo>d1 held firmly 9 place by cords4 ,"s wat] is p\r$ 9 ! glass1 & we !n %[ t x c be swung to & fro & r\nd )\t ! wat] be+ spilt1 ev5 :5 ! glass is upside d[n 7fig4 #cf74 ,ano!r exp]im5t on ! same subject is z %[n 9 ! above illu/ration1 by :i* a napk9 r+ c be kept 9 revolution ar\nd ! =ef+]1 & by a cont9u$ =ce ! r+ may be ev5 held susp5d$ at ! tip ( ! f+]1 app>5tly 9 ! air1 )\t support 7fig4 #cg74 ,,footnotes3 #h ,! exp]im5t we h j describ$ is a v old "o4 ,m4 ,v4 ,sirc\lon has told u t x 0 describ$ at l5g? 9 ! works ( ,rabelais4 ,! foll[+ rem>ks are 9 8,pantagruel10 book ,,ii41 *ap4 xvii4 8,panur !n took two glasses ( ! same size1 fill$ !m ) wat]1 & put "o on "o /ool1 & ! o!r on ano!r1 ab\t five feet ap>t1 & plac$ ! /aff ( a javel9 ab\t five-&-a-half feet long across1 s t ! ends ( ! /aff j t\*$ ! brim ( ! glasses4 ,t done1 he took a /\t piece ( wood1 & said to ! o!rs3 8,g5tlem51 ?is is h[ we %all conqu] our enemies2 = 9 ! same way t ,i %all break ?is /aff betwe5 ^! two glasses1 )\t ! glasses be+ brok5 or injur$1 or spill+ a s+le drop ( wat]1 s %all we break ! head ( our ,dipsodes1 )\t any injury to ourselves1 & )\t gett+ w\nd$4 ,b t y may n ?9k !re is magic 9 x1 y1 ,eu/h5es1 /rike ) ?is /ick z h>d z y c 9 ! c5tre40 ,?is ,eu/h5es did1 & ! /aff broke 9 two pieces1 )\t a drop ( wat] be+ spilt4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,gases ,,& ,,liquids--,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,air--,,exp]im5ts4 ,we h m ?an once ref]r$ to ! pressure ( ! air :i* ex]ts a great influ5ce ^u bodies 9 motion1 b a few exp]im5ts w make ?is m obvi\s1 & cle>ly demon/rate ! fact4 ,we h also told y "s ( ! prop]ties ( ,solids1 su* z ,weight1 ,in]tia1 ,friction1 & ,resi/ance1 or ,/r5g?4 ,solids also1 z we h se51 occupy space1 & _c be readily compress$1 nor b5t to o!r %apes4 ,n[ ! subject ( ! ,pressure ( ! ,air leads u to ! o!r =ms ( ,matt]2 namely1 ,gases & ,liquids1 :i* w be f\nd v int]e/+ to /udy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,bl[+ an egg f "o glass to ano!r4 ,! =ce ( air c v soon be %[n z act+ ) consid]able pressure ^u an egg 9 a glass4 ,by bl[+ 9 a cl>et glass conta9+ a h>d-boil$ egg1 x is possible to cause ! egg to jump out ( ! glass2 & ) practice & /r5g? ( lungs x is n impossible to make x pass f "o glass to ano!r1 z p] illu/ration 7fig4 #ch74 ,! =ce ( heat$ air asc5d+ c also be asc]ta9$ by cutt+ up a c>d into a spiral1 & hold+ x above ! flame ( a lamp 7fig4 #ci74 ,! spiral1 if lightly pois$1 w turn r\nd rapidly4 ,n[ let u turn to a few exp]im5ts ) ! air1 :i* is compos$ 9 two gases1 ,oxyg5 & ,nitrog51 ( :i* we %all he> m :5 we come to ,,*emi/ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,movem5t ( heat$ air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,pressure ( ! air4 ,x is n int5d$ "h to prosecute rese>*es1 b r to sket* a programme = in/ruction1 bas$ on amus+ exp]im5ts 9 ,physics1 p]=m$ )\t app>atus4 ,! great] "p ( ^! exp]im5ts are probably well kn[n1 & we desire to say t we m]ely claim to h collect$ & arrang$ !m = our descriptions4 ,we mu/ also add t we h p]=m$ & v]ifi$ ^! exp]im5ts2 ! read]1 !re=e1 c attempt !m ) e c]ta9ty ( success4 ,we w suppose t we are address+ a "y auditory1 & comm5ce our c\rse ( ,physics ) "s facts relat+ to ! pressure ( air4 ,a w9e glass1 a plate1 & wat]1 w s]ve = our fir/ exp]im5ts4 ,p\r "s wat] on ! plate1 light a piece ( pap] re/+ on a cork1 & cov] ! flame ) ! glass :i* ,i turn upside d[n 7fig4 #dj74 ,:at foll[s8--,! wat] rises 9 ! glass4 ,:y8--,because ! burn+ ( ! pap] hav+ absorb$ a "p ( ! oxyg51 & ! volume ( conf9$ gas be+ dim9i%$1 ! pressure ( ! out] air has driv5 back ! fluid4 ,i next fill a goblet ) wat] up to ! brim1 & cov] x ) a %eet ( pap] :i* t\*es bo? ! edge ( ! glass & ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,i turn ! glass upside d[n1 & ! %eet ( pap] prev5ts ! wat] runn+ out1 because x is held 9 place by atmosph]ic pressure 7fig4 #da74 ,x sometimes happ5s t ?is exp]im5t does n succe$ till aft] a few attempts on ! "p ( ! op]ator2 ?us x is prud5t to turn ! glass ov] a bas91 s t1 9 case ( failure1 ! wat] is n spilt4 ,hav+ obta9$ a vase & a bottle1 bo? q full ( wat]1 take ! bottle1 hold+ x r\nd ! neck s t ! ?umb c be us$ z a /opp]1 !n turn x upside d[n1 & pass ! neck into ! wat] 9 ! vase4 ,remove y\r ?umb1 or /opp]1 keep+ ! bottle 9 a v]tical position1 & y w see t ! wat] x conta9s does n escape1 b rema9s 9 susp5sion4 ,x is atmosph]ic pressure :i* produces ?is ph5om5on4 ,if1 in/ead ( wat]1 we put milk 9 ! bottle1 or "s o!r fluid d5s] ?an wat]1 we %all see t ! milk also rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! bottle1 only !re is a movem5t ( ! fluid 9 ! neck ( ! bottle1 & on c>eful exam9ation we p]ceive v pla9ly t ! milk desc5ds to ! bottom ( ! vase1 & ! wat] rises into ! bottle4 ,"h1 aga91 x is atmosph]ic pressure :i* ma9ta9s ! fluid 9 ! bottle1 b ! milk desc5ds1 because fluids are sup]pos$ accord+ to _! ord] ( d5sity1 & ! d5se/ liquid falls to ! bottom4 ,?is c be v]ifi$ by means ( ! phial ( ! f\r elem5ts1 :i* is a pla91 long1 & n>r[ bottle1 conta9+ equal volumes ( metallic m]cury1 salt wat]1 alcohol1 & oil4 ,^! f\r liquids w lie "o on ! top ( ! o!r )\t ev] mix+1 ev5 if %ak54 ,ano!r exp]im5t z to ! pressure ( ! air may be made 7fig4 #db74 ,take a p5ny & press x aga9/ "s oak5 bookcase or press1 rub ! co9 aga9/ ! wood = a few seconds1 !n press x1 & )draw ! f+]s4 ,! co9 w cont9ue to adh]e to ! wood4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 because by ! rubb+ & ! pressure y h disp]s$ ! film ( air :i* 0 betwe5 ! p5ny & ! wood1 & "u ^? conditions ! pressure ( ! atmosph]ic air 0 suffici5t to keep ! p5ny 9 its place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4--,pressure ( ! air4 ,or1 aga91 let u n[ add a wat]-bottle & a h>d-boil$ egg to our appliances2 we w make use ( ! air-pump1 & easily p]=m ano!r exp]im5t4 ,i light a piece ( pap]1 & let x burn1 plung+ x into a wat]-bottle full ( air4 ,:5 ! pap] has be5 burn+ a few seconds ,i close ! op5+ ( ! wat]-bottle by means ( a h>d-boil$ egg1 :i* ,i h previ\sly dive/$ ( its %ell1 s t x =ms a h]metic /opp]4 ,! burn+ ( ! pap] has n[ caus$ a vacuum ( air 9 ! bottle1 & ! egg is gradually ?ru/ 9 by ! atmosph]ic pressure outside4 ,fig4 #dc exhibits x sl[ly l5g!n+ & /ret*+ out z x passes ?r\gh ! ap]ture2 !n x is sudd5ly ?ru/ completely into ! bottle ) a little explosive s\nd1 l t produc$ by /rik+ a pap] bag exp&$ ) air4 ,?is is atmosph]ic pressure demon/rat$ 9 ! cle>e/ mann]1 & at little co/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,co9 adh]+ by pressure ( air4 ,if x is desir$ to pursue a little fur!r ! exp]im5ts relat+ to atmosph]ic pressure1 x w be easy en\gh to add to ! be=e-m5tion$ appliances a clos$ glass-tube & "s m]cury1 & "o w !n h ! necess>y elem5ts = p]=m+ ,torricelli's & ,pascal's exp]im5ts1 & expla9+ ! !ory ( ! b>omet] 7page #eb74 ,an amus+ toy1 well-kn[n to s*oolboys1 call$ ! 8suck]10 may also be made ! object ( _m diss]tations on ! vacuum & ! pressure ( air4 ,x is compos$ ( a r\nd piece ( s(t lea!r1 to ! c5tre ( :i* is atta*$ a small cord4 ,?is lea!r is plac$ on ! gr\nd & press$ "u foot1 & :5 ! cord is pull$ x =ms a cupp+-glass1 & is only sep>at$ ) difficulty f ! pavem5t4 ,atmosph]ic air1 9 common ) o!r gases1 has a t5d5cy to fill any space into :i* x may ent]4 ,! mutual attraction ( p>ticles ( air is nil2 on ! contr>y1 !y appe> to h a t5d5cy to fly away f ea* o!r2 ?is prop]ty is call$ 8repulsion40 ,air also possesses an expansive prop]ty--a t5d5cy to press aga9/ all ! sides ( any vessel 9 :i* x may be enclos$4 ,( c\rse ! l>g] ! vessel conta9+ a giv5 quantity ( air1 ! less actual pressure x w ex]t on ! sides ( ! vessel4 ,! ela/icity ( air !re=e decreases ) increas+ expansion1 b x ga9s 9 ela/icity or =ce :5 compress$4 ,!re is a law 9 ,physics :i* expresses ! relation betwe5 expansion & ela/icity ( gases1 :i* may be said to be z foll[s3-- ,! ela/icity 7( a gas7 is 9 inv]se ratio to ! space x occupies1 & !re=e by compress+ air into a small space we c obta9 a great =ce1 z 9 ! air-gun & ! pop-gun ( our y\?ful days4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,h>d boil$ egg1 dive/$ ( its %ell1 pass+ ?r\gh ! neck ( a glass bottle1 "u ! influ5ce ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 ! cut bel[ we c illu/rate ! pr9ciple ( ! pop-gun4 ,! *amb] full ( air is clos$ by a cork & by an air-tight pi/on 7,s7 at p & p4 ,:5 ! pi/on is pu%$ into ! *amb] ! air is compress$ betwe5 x & ! /opp]1 :i* at l5g? flies out =cibly ) a l\d report ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,! pr9ciple ( ! pop-gun4 ,we h said t ! t5d5cy ( air p>ticles is to fly away f ea* o!r1 & 7 x n = ! e>?'s attraction ! air might be disp]s$4 ,! height ( ! atmosph]e has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ f a height ( #de miles to #bab miles 9 an att5uat$ =m2 b p]haps #ajj miles high w\ld be a fair e/imate ( ! height to :i* our atmosph]e ext5ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--,weigh+ ! air4 ,! pressure ( su* an enorm\s body ( gas is v great4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ?is pressure on ! av]age human body am\nts to f\rte5 tons1 b be+ balanc$ by ela/ic fluids 9 ! body1 ! inconv5i5ce is n felt4 ,! ,weight ( ,air c easily be asc]ta9$1 ?\gh till ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ! air 0 believ$ to be )\t weight4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration w prove ! weight ( air4 ,take an ord9>y balance2 & susp5d to "o side a glass globe fitt$ ) a /op-cock4 ,f ?is globe extract ! air by means ( ! air-pump1 & weigh x4 ,:5 ! exact weight is asc]ta9$ turn ! /op-cock1 ! air w ru% 91 & ! globe w !n pull d[n ! balance1 ?us prov+ t air possesses weight4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,torricelli & ,otto von ,gu]ike1 h[ev]1 demon/rat$ t ! air has weight & great pressure4 ,torricelli practically inv5t$ ! b>omet]1 b ,otto von ,gu]ike1 by ! cups kn[n z ,magdeburg ,hemisph]es1 prov$ ! pressure ( ! outw>d air4 ,?is app>atus is well kn[n1 & consi/s ( two holl[ copp] hemisph]es :i* fit v closely4 ,by means ( ! air-pump :i* he inv5t$ 9 #afej1 ,otto von ,gu]ike exhau/$ ! air f ! clos$ hemisph]es4 ,s long z air rema9$ 9 !m1 !re 0 no great difficulty 9 sep>at+ !m2 b :5 x _h be5 f9ally exhau/$1 ! pressure ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e 0 s great t ! holl[ sph]es c\ld n be dragg$ asund] ev5 by horses h>ness$ to r+s :i* _h be5 ins]t$ 9 ! globes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--,magdeburg ,hemisph]es4 ,! ,air-,pump is a v useful ma*9e1 & we w n[ briefly expla9 its action4 ,! inv5tor 01 z rem>k$ above1 ,otto von ,gu]ike1 ( ,magdeburg4 ,! pump consi/s ( a cyl9d] & pi/on & rod1 ) two valves op5+ upw>ds--"o valve be+ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! o!r 9 ! pi/on4 ,?is pump is atta*$ by a tube to a plate ) a hole 9 x1 "o extremity ( ! tube be+ fix$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! plate1 & ! o!r at ! valve at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,a glass %ade1 call$ ! receiv]1 is plac$ on ! top ( ! plate1 & ( c\rse ?is %ade w be full ( air 7fig4 #dg74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,! air-pump4 ,:5 ! receiv] is 9 position1 we beg9 to "w ! pump4 ,we h said !re are two valves4 ,s :5 ! pi/on is drawn up1 ! cyl9d] w\ld be q empty did n ! valve at ! bottom1 op5+ upw>ds1 admit "s air f ! glass %ade ?r\gh ! tube to ent] ! cyl9d]4 ,n[ ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d] is full ( air drawn f ! glass %ade4 ,:5 we press ! pi/on d[n aga91 we press aga9/ ! air 9 x1 :i*1 be+ compress$1 tries to escape4 ,x _c g back1 because ! valve at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] won't op51 s x escapes by ! valve 9 ! pi/on1 & goes away4 ,?us a c]ta9 am\nt ( air is got rid ( at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,two cyl9d]s & pi/ons c be us$1 & s by means ( cog-:eels1 etc41 ! air may be rapidly exhau/$ f ! receiv]4 ,_m exp]im5ts are made ) ! assi/ance ( ! air-pump & receiv]1 ?\gh ! air is nev] entirely exhau/$ f ! glass4 ,! 8,spr5gel0 air-pump is us$ to create an almo/ p]fect vacuum1 by putt+ a vessel to be exhau/$ 9 connection ) ! vacuum at ! top ( a tube ( m]cury ?irty in*es high4 ,"s air w bubble out1 & ! m]cury w fall4 ,by fill+ up aga9 & repeat+ ! process1 ! air vessel w 9 "t be completely exhau/$4 ,?is is done by ,mr4 ,spr5gel's pump1 & a practically p]fect vacuum is obta9$1 l ! ,torricellian vacuum4 ,! 8,torricellian vacuum0 is ! empty space above ! column ( m]cury 9 ! b>omet] :i* we w proce$ to describe4 ,air has a c]ta9 weight or pressure :i* is suffici5t to raise a column ( m]cury ?irty in*es4 ,we w prove ?is by illu/ration4 ,take a b5t tube & fill x ) m]cury2 ! liquid w /& equally high 9 bo? arms1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ratio ( equilibrium 9 fluids1 ( :i* we %all read m :5 we come to consid] ,wat]4 ,s ! two columns ( m]cury are 9 equilibrium4 7,see ,a47 ,n[ /op ! arm a ) a cork1 & take out half ! m]cury4 ,x w rema9 9 "o arm only4 ,remove ! cork1 & ! fluid w fall 9 bo? arms1 & rema9 9 equilibrio4 ,if a long b5t glass tube be us$1 ! arms be+ ?irty-six in*es high1 ! m]cury w fall to a po9t c1 :i* measures #bii in*es f ! bottom4 ,if ! tube be a squ>e in* 9 bore1 we h #bii cubic in*es ( m]cury1 weigh+ #ad lbs41 balanc+ a column ( air "o squ>e in* ?ick & z high z ! atmosph]e4 ,s ! m]cury & ! column ( air mu/ weigh ! same4 ,?us e squ>e in* on ! e>? supports a weight ( 7ne>ly7 #ae lbs 7figs4 #dh & #ej74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--;,air ,pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,! ,b>omet]4 ,! b>omet] inv5t$ by ,pascal1 work+ on ! inve/igations ( ,torricelli1 is a v simple & useful in/rum5t4 ,fill a tube ) m]cury f :i* all moi/ure has be5 expell$1 & turn x ov] 9 a di% ( m]cury2 ! m]cury w rise to a c]ta9 height 7#cj in*es71 & no high] 9 vacuo4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! air increases ! m]cury rises a little1 & falls :5 ! pressure is remov$4 ,air *>g$ ) aque\s vap\r is light] ?an dry air1 s a fall 9 ! m]cury indicates a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]-vap\r 9 ! air1 :i* may cond5se & become ra94 ,! action ( m]cury is !re=e us$ z a wea!r-glass1 by :i* an index-po9t %[s ! movem5ts ( ! fluid1 by means ( a :eel ov] :i* a ?read passes1 su/a9+ a float & a c\nt]poise4 ,:5 ! m]cury rises ! float goes up1 & ! weight falls1 & turns ! :eel by means ( ! ?read4 ,! :eel hav+ a po9t] on ! dial tells u h[ ! m]cury moves4 ,?is wea!r-glass is ! usual syphon b>omet] ) ! float on ! surface & a weight 7fig4 #ej74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,syphon b>omet]4 ,! ,syphon ,b>omet] is a b5t tube l ! "o already %[n1 ) "o limb mu* %ort] ?an ! o!r4 ,! ,an]oid ,b>omet]1 s call$ because x is 8)\t moi/ure10 is n[ 9 common use4 ,9 ^! in/rum5ts ! atmosph]ic pressure is held 9 equilibrium by an ela/ic metal spr+ or tube4 ,a metal box1 or tube1 is fre$ f air1 & !n h]metically seal$4 ,?is box has a flexible side1 ! ela/icity ( :i*1 & ! pressure ( ! air on x1 keep ea* o!r 9 equilibrium4 ,^u ?is ela/ic side ! %ort arm ( a lev] is press$1 :ile ! long] arm works an index-po9t1 z 9 ! circul> b>omet]4 ,:5 pressure increases ! ela/ic box 8gives02 :5 pressure dim9i%es x returns to its =m] place1 & ! index moves 9 ! opposite direction4 ,x is necess>y to comp>e & 8set0 ! an]oid ) ! m]curial b>omet] to ensure correctness4 ,a curv$ tube is sometimes us$1 :i* coils & uncoils l a spr+1 accord+ to ! pressure on x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,! ,wat] ,b>omet]4 ,!re are o!r b>omet]s1 su* z ! ,wat] ,b>omet]1 :i* c be fix$ aga9/ ! side ( a h\se1 & if ! wat] be col\r$1 x w prove a useful indicator4 ,z ! "n indicates1 wat] is us$ in/ead ( m]cury1 b z ! latt] is ?irte5-&-half times heavi] ?an wat]1 a mu* long] tube is necess>y2 viz41 "o ab\t ?irty-five feet 9 l5g?4 ,! con/ruction is easy en\gh4 ,a lead5 pipe c be fix$ aga9/ ! h\se2 on ! top is a funnel furni%$ ) a /op-cock1 & plac$ 9 a vase ( wat]4 ,! l[] "p ( ! tube is b5t1 & a glass cyl9d] atta*$1 ) ano!r /op-cock--! glass be+ ab\t ?ree feet long1 & graduat$4 ,fill ! tube ) wat]1 %ut ! upp] /op-cock1 & op5 ! l[] "o4 ,! vacuum w be =m$ 9 ! top ( ! tube1 & ! b>omet] w act on a l>g] scale ?an ! m]cury4 ,! ,glyc]9e ,b>omet]1 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,jordan1 & 9 use at ! ,times (fice1 regi/]s z m ?an "o in* movem5ts :i* on ! m]curial !rmomet] are only "o-t5? ( an in*1 & s are v di/9ctly visible4 ,! specific gravity ( pure glyc]9e is less ?an "o-t5? t ( m]cury1 s ! mean height ( ! glyc]9e column is tw5ty-sev5 feet at sea level4 ,! glyc]9e has1 h[ev]1 a t5d5cy to absorb moi/ure f ! air1 b ,mr4 ,jordan1 by putt+ "s petroleum oil ^u ! glyc]9e1 neutraliz$ t t5d5cy1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure rema9s ! same4 ,a full description ( ?is in/rum5t 0 giv5 9 ! ,times ( #be? ,octob]1 #ahhj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,! pr9ciple ( ! div+-bell4 ,! uses ( ! b>omet] are v>i\s4 ,x is employ$ to calculate ! heights ( m\nta9s2 = if a b>omet] at sea level /& at #cj1 x w be l[] on a m\nta9 top1 because ! am\nt ( air at an elevation ( t5 ?\s& feet is less ?an at ! level ( ! sea1 & consequ5tly ex]cises less pressure1 & ! m]cury desc5ds4 ,! pressure is on ! bulb ( m]cury at ! bottom1 n on ! top1 rememb]4 ,! pressure ( ! air at ! tops ( m\nta9s sometimes decreases v mu*1 & x is n suffici5tly d5se = p]fect respiration1 z _m p f9d4 ,"s climb]s suff] f ble$+ at ! nose1 etc41 at great altitudes4 ,?is is occasion$ by ! action ( ! he>t1 :i* pumps ) great =ce1 & ! outw>d pressure ^u ! little ve9s be+ s mu* less ?an usual1 !y give way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,div] "u wat]4 ,_m important in/rum5ts dep5d ^u atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! pump1 :i* w c>ry u to ! consid]ation ( wat] & ,,fluids g5]ally4 ,! fire-eng9e is ano!r example1 b we w n[ proce$ to expla9 ! div+-bell already ref]r$ to4 ,fig4 #eb repres5ts ! exp]im5t ( ! div+-bell1 :i* is s simple1 & is expla9$ bel[4 ,x belongs to ! same category ( exp]im5ts z ^? relat+ to ! pressure ( air & compression ( gas4 ,two or ?ree flies h be5 introduc$ into ! glass1 & !y prove by _! buzz+ ab\t t !y are q at _! ease 9 ! r conf9$ space4 ,! ,,div+-,,bell 9 a crude =m appe>s to h be5 us$ z e>ly z #aech4 ,x 0 us$ by two ,greeks 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,emp]or ,*>les ,v41 & num]\s spectators4 ,9 ! ye> #agbj ,doctor ,halley improv$ ! div+-bell1 :i* 0 a wood5 box or *amb] op5 at ! bottom4 ,air casks 7 us$ to keep ! inmate suppli$ ) air4 ,! mod]n div+-bell 0 us$ by ,smeaton 9 #aghh1 & 0 made ( ca/ iron4 ,x s9ks by its own weight4 ,! pressure ( ! air inside is suffici5t to keep ! wat] out4 ,air be+ easily compress$1 x is always pump$ 9 to keep ! holl[ iron 8bell0 full1 & to supply ! workm54 ,!re are inv5tions n[ 9 use by :i* ! div] c>ries a supply ( air ) him on 8 back1 & by turn+ a tap c supply himself = a long "t at a di/ance f ! place ( desc5t1 & ?us is able to disp5se ) ! air-tube f ! boat at ! surface4 ,?is app>atus 0 exhibit$ at ! ,cry/al ,palace "s ye>s ago4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,! ,h& ,fire-,eng9e4 ,,! ,,pump4 ,we h se5 9 ! case ( ! ,wat] ,b>omet] t ! pressure ( ! air w su/a9 a column ( wat] ab\t ?irty feet high4 ,s ! di/ance betwe5 ! l[] valve & ! res]voir or ci/]n mu/ n be m ?an ?irty-two feet1 practically ! di/ance is ab\t tw5ty-five feet 9 pumps4 ,we c see by ! illu/ration t ! work+ is mu* ! same z 9 ! air-pump4 ,! suction pipe ,b is clos$ by ! valve ,c1 ! cyl9d] ,d & sp\t ,e are above1 ! pi/on rod ,f lifts ! air-tight pi/on 9 :i* is a valve ,h4 ,:5 ! pi/on is rais$ ! valve ,c op5s & admits ! wat] into ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on is depress$ ! valve ,c is clos$1 ! wat] already 9 =ces ,h op51 & pass+ ?r\gh ! pi/on1 rea*es ! cyl9d] & ! sp\t 7fig4 #ee74 ,! h& fire-eng9e dep5ds ^u ! action ( compress$ air1 :i* is s compress$ by pump+ wat] into ! air *amb] a4 ,! tube is clos$ at g1 & ! pumps e e drive wat] into ! air *amb]4 ,at l5g? ! tap is op5$1 & ! air drives ! wat] out z x is cont9ually suppli$ 7fig4 #ed74 ,compress$ air 0 also us$ = driv+ ! bor+ ma*9es 9 ! ,m\nt ,c5is tunnel4 ,9 ?is case also ! air 0 compress$ by wat]1 & !n let loose1 l /eam1 to drive a ma*9e furni%$ ) bor+ in/rum5ts4 ,a pretty little toy may be made1 & at ! same "t exemplify an int]e/+ fact 9 ,physics4 ,x is call$ ! ludion1 & x 8lies 9 a nut %ell0 9 e s5se4 ,:5 ! k]nel has be5 extract$ f ! %ell1 fa/5 ! portions toge!r ) seal+ wax1 s t no wat] c ent]4 ,at "o end ,o1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 leave a small hole ab\t z l>ge z a p9's head2 fa/5 two ?reads to ! seal+ wax1 & to ! ?reads a wood5 doll4 ,let a weight be atta*$ to 8 wai/4 ,:5 ! figure is 9 equilibrium1 & w float1 put x into a j> ( wat]1 & tie a piece ( bladd] ov] ! top4 ,if ?is cov]+ be press$ ) ! f+]1 ! doll w desc5d & rem\nt :5 ! f+] is remov$4 ,by quick successive pressure ! figure may be made to execute a pas seul4 ,! reason ( ! movem5t is because ! slight cu%ion ( air 9 ! upp] "p ( ! vase is compress$1 & ! little wat] ?us caus$ to ent] ! nut %ell makes x heavi]1 & x desc5ds ) ! figure 7fig4 #ef74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,! ,pump4 ,we h n[ se5 t air is a gas1 t x ex]cises pressure1 t x possesses weight4 ,we "k x c be appli$ to _m useful purposes1 & t ! air ma*9es & inv5tions--su* z ! air-pump & ! 8,pneumatic ,despat*0--are 9 daily use 9 our laboratories1 our /eam eng9es1 our cond5s$ milk manufactories1 & 9 _m o!r indu/ries1 & = our social b5efit4 ,compress$ air is a p[]ful motor = bor+ ma*9]y 9 tunnels :]e /eam _c be us$1 ev5 if wat] c\ld be suppli$1 = smoke or fire w\ld suffocate ! work]s4 ,to air we owe our life & our happ9ess on e>?4 ,pneumatics1 !n1 deals ) ! me*anical prop]ties ( ela/ic fluids repres5t$ by air4 ,a gas is an ela/ic fluid1 & diff]s v consid]ably1 f wat]2 = a gas w fill a l>ge or small space ) equal conv5i5ce1 l ! g5ii :i* came out ( ! bottle & oblig+ly retir$ into x aga9 to please ! fi%]man4 ,we h se5 t ! pressure ( ! air is #ad p] squ>e in* at a temp]ature ( #cb4 ,x is n s easy to det]m9e ! pressure ( air at v>i\s times z t ( wat]4 ,we c always tell ! pressure ( a column ( wat] :5 we f9d ! height ( ! column1 z x is ! weight ( s _m cubic in*es ( ! liquid4 ,b ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e p] squ>e in* at any po9t is equal to ! weight ( a v]tical column ( air "o in* squ>e1 rea*+ f t po9t to ! limit ( ! atmosph]e above x4 ,/ill ! d5sity is n ! same at all po9ts1 s we h to calculate4 ,! av]age pressure at sea level is #adg p] squ>e in*1 & su/a9s a column ( m]cury #a squ>e in* 9 ?ickness1 #biib1 or say #cj in*es high4 ,^! are ! data ^u :i* ! b>omet] is bas$1 z we h se54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig3 #ef4--,! 8,ludion40 ,9 our article ^u 8,*emi/ry0 we w speak m fully ( ! atmosph]e & ( its con/itu5ts1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,ab\t ,,wat]--,,hydro/atics ,,& ,,hydraulics--,,law ,,( ,,ar*im$es--,,! ,,bramah ,,press--,,! ,,syphon4 ,at pres5t we w pass f ,air to ,wat]1 f ,pneumatics to ,hydro/atics & ,hydraulics4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ,hydro/atics & ,hydraulics are v diff]5t4 ,! =m] treats ( ! weight & pressure ( liquids :5 !y are at re/1 ! latt] treats ( !m 9 motion4 ,we w n[ speak ( ! prop]ties ( ,liquids1 ( :i* ,wat] may be tak5 z ! mo/ famili> example4 ,we h already se5 t ,matt] exi/s 9 ! =m ( ,solids1 ,liquids1 & ,gases1 & ( c\rse ,wat] is "o =m ( ,matt]4 ,x occupies a c]ta9 space1 is slightly compressible2 x possesses weight1 & ex]cises =ce :5 9 motion4 ,x is a fluid1 b also a liquid4 ,!re are fluids n liquid1 su* z air or /eam1 to take equally famili> examples4 ,^! are ela/ic fluids & compressible1 :ile wat] is inela/ic1 & t]m$ incompressible4 ,! *emical composition ( wat] w be consid]$ h]eaft]1 b at pres5t we may /ate t wat] is compos$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & proportions ( eight ( ! =m] to "o ( ! latt] by weight2 9 volume ! hydrog5 is z two to "o4 ,f ^! facts1 z reg>ds wat]1 we le>n t volume & weight are v diff]5t ?+s1--t equal volumes ( v>i\s ?+s may h diff]5t weights1 & t volume 7or bulk7 by no means indicates weight ,equal volumes ( fea!rs & s& w weigh v diff]5tly4 ,! old 8cat*0 "q ( ! 8diff]5ce 9 weight betwe5 a p\nd ( lead & a p\nd ( fea!rs0 "h comes to ! m9d4 ,! answ] g5]ally giv5 is t 8fea!rs make ! heavi] #8p\nd' because !y are weigh$ by avoirdupois1 & lead by troy weight40 ,?is is an error4 ,!y are bo? weigh$ 9 ! same way1 & p\nd = p\nd are ! same weight1 ?\gh diff]5t 9 volume4 ,fluids 9 equilibrium h all _! p>ticles at ! same di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 & al?\gh )9 small di/ances liquids appe> p]fectly level 79 a direct l9e71 !y mu/1 z ! sea does1 con=m to ! %ape ( ! e>?1 ?\gh 9 small levels ! space is too limit$ to admit ( any deviation f ! plane at "r angle to ! direction ( gravity4 ,liquids always fall to a p]fectly level surface1 & wat] w seek to f9d its orig9al level1 :e!r x be 9 "o side ( a b5t tube1 9 a wat]+ pot & its sp\t1 or z a f\nta94 ,! surface ( ! wat] w be on ! same level 9 ! arms ( a b5t tube1 & ! f\nta9 w rise to a height correspond+ ) ! elevation ( ! p>5t spr+ :5ce x issues4 ,! wat]works companies fir/ pump ! wat] to a high res]voir1 & !n x rises equally high 9 our high-level ci/]ns4 ,z an example ( ! =ce ( wat]1 a pretty little exp]im5t may be easily tri$1 &1 z _m ( our read]s h se5 9 a %op 9 ! ,/r& 9 ,london1 x always is attractive4 ,a good-siz$ glass %ade %\ld be procur$ & plac$ ov] a wat] tap & bas91 z p] ! illu/ration h]e)4 ,)9 ! glass put a numb] ( balls ( cork or o!r light mat]ial4 ,let a /op-cock1 ) a small ap]ture1 be fix$ ^u ! tube lead+ into ! glass4 ,ano!r tube to c>ry away ! wat] %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be provid$1 b x may be us$ ov] aga94 ,:5 ! tap is prop]ly fix$1 if ! pressure ( ! wat] be suffici5t1 x w ru% out ) "s =ce1 & cat*+ ! balls z !y fall to ! bottom ( ! glass %ade be> !m up z a juggl] w\ld ?r[ oranges f h& to h&4 ,if col\r$ balls be us$ ! effect may be enhanc$1 & mu* v>iety imp>t$ to ! exp]im5t1 :i* is v easy to make4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,wat] jet & balls4 ,wat] ex]cises an enorm\s pressure1 b ! pressure does n dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! vessel4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! vessel's height1 & ! dim5sions ( ! base4 ,?is has be5 prov$ by fill+ vessels ^: bases & heights are equal1 b ^: %apes are diff]5t1 ea* hold+ a diff]5t quantity ( wat]4 ,! pressure at ! bottom ( ea* vessel is ! same1 & dep5ds ^u ! dep? ( ! wat]4 ,if we subject a portion ( ! liquid surface to c]ta9 =ce1 ?is pressure w be disp]s$ equally 9 all directions1 & f an acqua9tance ) ?is fact ! ,hydraulic ,press 0 br\ght into notice4 ,if a vessel ) a horizontal bottom be fill$ ) wat] to a dep? ( "o foot1 e squ>e foot w su/a9 a pressure ( #fbcg lbs41 & ea* squ>e in* ( #jdcc lbs4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa4--,pressure ( ,wat]4 ,we w n[ expla9 ! pr9ciple ( ?is ,,wat] ,,press4 ,9 ! small diagram1 ! lett]s ,a ,b repres5t ! bottom ( a cyl9d] :i* has a pi/on fitt$ 9 x 7,p74 ,into ! opposite side a pipe is let 91 :i* leads f a =ce-pump ,d1 :i* is fitt$ ) a valve ,e1 op5+ upw>ds4 ,:5 ! pi/on 9 ,d is pull$ up wat] ent]s ?r\gh ! valve2 :5 ! pi/on is =c$ d[n ! valve %uts1 & ! wat] ru%es into ! *amb] ,a ,b4 ,! pressure pu%es up ! l>ge pi/on ) a =ce multipli$ z _m times z ! area ( ! small pi/on is conta9$ 9 ! l>ge "o4 ,s if ! l>ge "o be t5 times z great z ! small "o1 & ! latt] be =c$ d[n ) a #aj lb4 pressure1 ! pressure on ! l>ge "o w be #ajj lbs41 & s on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,wat] ,press4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration %[s ! =m ( ! ,hydraulic or ,bramah ,press4 ,a ,b ,c ,d is a /rong frame1 ,f ! =ce-pump work$ by means ( a lev] fix$ at ,g1 & ,h is ! c\nt]prise4 ,e is ! /op-cock to admit ! wat] 7fig4 #fc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,bramah ,press4 ,! pr9ciples ( hydro/atics w be easily expla9$4 ,! ,lectures ( ,m4 ,aim ,s*u/]1 ,pr(essor & ,libr>ian at ,metz1 h taught u 9 a v simple mann] ! pr9ciple ( ,ar*im$es1 9 :i* x is laid d[n t 8a body imm]s$ 9 a liquid loses a portion ( its weight equal to ! weight ( ! liquid displac$ by x40 ,we take a body ( z irregul> =m z we please2 a /one1 = example4 ,a ?read is atta*$ to ! /one1 & x is !n plac$ 9 a glass ( wat] full up to ! brim4 ,! wat] ov]fl[s2 a volume ( ! liquid equal to t ( ! /one runs ov]4 ,! glass ?us p>tially empti$ is !n dri$1 & plac$ on ! scale ( a balance1 b5ea? :i* we susp5d ! /one2 equilibrium is e/abli%$ by plac+ "s pieces ( lead 9 ! o!r scale4 ,we !n take a vase full ( wat]1 into :i* we plunge ! /one susp5d$ f ! scale1 support+ ! vase by means ( bricks4 ,! equilibrium is n[ brok52 to re-e/abli% x1 x is necess>y to fill up ) wat] ! glass plac$ on ! scale2 t is to say1 we put back 9 ! glass ! weight ( a volume ( wat] precisely equal to t ( ! /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,demon/ration ( ! upw>d pressure ( liquids4 ,if x is desir$ to inve/igate ! pr9ciples relat+ to connect$ vessels1 spr+s ( wat]1 artesian wells1 etc41 two funnels1 connect$ by means ( an india-rubb] tube ( c]ta9 l5g?1 w s]ve = ! demon/ration2 & by plac+ ! fir/ funnel at a high] level1 & p\r+ 9 wat] abundantly1 we %all see t x ov]fl[s f ! second4 ,a disc ( c>dbo>d & a lamp-glass w be all t is requir$ to %[ ! upw>d pressure ( liquids4 ,i apply to ! op5+ ( ! lamp-glass a r\nd piece ( c>dbo>d1 :i* ,i hold 9 place by means ( a /r+2 ! tube ?us clos$ ,i plunge into a vessel fill$ ) wat]4 ,! piece ( c>dbo>d is held by ! pressure ( ! wat] upw>ds4 ,to sep>ate x f ! op5+ x suffices to p\r "s wat] into ! tube up to ! level ( ! wat] outside 7fig4 #fd74 ,! out] pressure ex]cis$ on ! disc1 z well z ! pressure b5ea?1 is n[ equal to ! weight ( a body ( wat] hav+ = its base ! surface ( ! op5+ ( ! tube1 its dep? be+ ! di/ance f ! c>dbo>d to ! level ( ! wat]4 ,syr+es1 pumps1 etc41 are ! effects ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,balloons rise 9 ! air by means ( ! pressure ( gas2 a balloon be+ a body plung$ 9 gas1 is consequ5tly submitt$ to ! same laws z a body plung$ 9 wat]4 ,boats float because ( ! pressure ( liquid1 & wat] spurts f a f\nta9 = ! same reason4 ,i recollect hav+ read a v useful application ( ! pr9ciples ( fluid pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #fe4--;,exp]im5t on ! convexity ( a m5iscus4 ,a horse 0 lad5 ) two tubs = c>ry+ a supply ( wat]1 & 9 ! bottom ( ! tubs a valve 0 fix$4 ,:5 ! horse ent]$ ! /ream ! tubs 7 p>tly imm]s$2 ! wat] !n ex]cis$ its upw>d pressure1 ! valve op5$1 & ! tubs sl[ly fill$4 ,:5 !y 7 ne>ly full ! horse turn$ r\nd & came out ( ! wat]2 ! pressure _h ceas$4 ,?us ! action ( ! wat] fir/ op5$ ! valve1 & !n clos$ x4 ,! p>ticul> ph5om5a obs]vable 9 ! wat] level 9 n>r[ spaces1 z ( a f9e glass tube1 or ! level ( two adjo9+ waves1 capill>y ph5om5a1 etc41 d n ne$ any special appliance = demon/ration1 & x is ! same ) ! convexity or concavity ( m5iscuses4 ,fig4 #fe repres5ts a pretty exp]im5t 9 connection ) ^! ph5om5a4 ,i take a glass1 :i* ,i fill up to ! brim1 tak+ c>e t ! m5iscus be concave1 & ne> x ,i place a pile ( p5nies4 ,i !n ask my "y fri5ds h[ _m p5nies c be ?r[n into ! glass )\t ! wat] ov]fl[+4 ,ev]yone :o is n famili> ) ! exp]im5t w answ] t x w only be possible to put 9 "o or two1 :]eas x is possible to put 9 a consid]able numb]1 ev5 t5 or twelve4 ,z ! p5nies are c>efully & sl[ly dropp$ 91 ! surface ( ! liquid w be se5 to become m & m convex1 & "o is surpris$ to :at an ext5t ?is convexity increases be=e ! wat] ov]fl[s4 ,! common syphon may be m5tion$ "h4 ,x consi/s ( a b5t tube ) limbs ( unequal l5g?4 ,we give an illu/ration ( ! syphon 7fig4 #ff74 ,! %ort] leg be+ put into ! mixture1 ! air is exhau/$ f ! tube at o1 ! ap]ture at g be+ clos$ ) ! f+]4 ,:5 ! f+] is remov$ ! liquid w run out4 ,if ! wat] 7 equally high 9 bo? legs ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e w\ld hold ! fluid 9 equilibrium1 b "o leg be+ long]1 ! column ( wat] 9 x prepond]ates1 & z x falls1 ! pressure on ! wat] 9 ! vessel keeps up ! supply4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,! ,syphon4 ,apropos ( ! syphon1 we may m5tion a v simple application ( ! pr9ciple4 ,cut (f a /rip ( clo?1 & arrange x s t "o end %all rema9 9 a glass ( wat] :ile ! o!r hangs d[n1 z 9 ! illu/ration4 ,9 a %ort "t ! wat] f ! upp] glass w h pass$ ?r\gh ! clo?-fibres to ! l[] "o 7fig4 #fg74 ,?is attribute ( por\s sub/ances is call$ capill>ity1 & %[s itself by capill>y attraction 9 v f9e pores or tubes4 ,! same ph5om5on is exhibit$ 9 blott+ pap]1 sug>1 wood1 s&1 & lamp-wicks1 all ( :i* give famili> in/ances ( capill>ity4 ,! cook makes use ( ?is prop]ty by us+ ?9 pap] to absorb grease f ! surface ( s\ps4 ,capill>ity 7ref]r$ to on page #be7 is ! t]m us$ to def9e capill>y =ce1 & is d]iv$ f ! ^w capillus1 a hair2 & s v small bore tubes are call$ capill>y tubes4 ,we "k t :5 we plunge a glass tube into wat] ! liquid w rise up 9 x1 & ! n>r[] ! tube ! high] ! wat] w g2 moreov]1 ! wat] inside w be high] ?an at ! outside4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) a well-kn[n law ( adhesion1 :i* induces concave or convex surfaces#i 9 ! liquids 9 ! tubes1 accord+ z ! tube is wett$ ) ! liquid or n4 ,= in/ance1 wat]1 z we h said1 w be high] 9 ! tube1 & concave 9 =m2 b m]cury w be depress$ bel[ ! outside level1 & convex1 because m]cury w n adh]e to glass4 ,:5 ! =ce ( cohesion to ! sides ( ! tube is m ?an twice z great z ! adhesion ( ! p>ticles ( ! liquid1 x w rise up ! sides1 & if ! =ces be rev]s$1 ! r\nd$ appe>ance w foll[4 ,?is acc\nts = ! convex appe>ance1 or 8m5iscus10 9 ! column ( m]cury 9 a b>omet]4 ,among/ ! complicat$ exp]im5ts to demon/rate molecul> attraction1 ! foll[+ is v simple & v pretty3--,take two small balls ( cork1 & hav+ plac$ !m 9 a bas9 half-fill$ ) wat]1 let !m come close to ea* o!r4 ,:5 !y h approa*$ )9 a c]ta9 di/ance !y w ru% toge!r4 ,if y fix "o ( !m on ! blade ( y\r p5knife1 x w attract ! o!r z a magnet1 s t y c lead x r\nd ! bas9 7fig4 #fh74 ,b if ! balls ( cork are cov]$ ) grease !y w repel ea* o!r1 :i* fact is acc\nt$ = by ! =m ( ! m5isques1 :i* are convex or concave1 accord+ z !y are moi/5$1 or pres]v$ f action ( ! wat] by ! grease4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,an improvis$ syphon4 ,?is attribute is ( great use 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,! ris+ ( ! sap is "o in/ance ( ! latt]4 ,exp]i5ce 9 hydro/atics c be easily appli$ to amus+ little exp]im5ts4 ,= in/ance1 z reg>ds ! syphon1 we may make an image ( ,tantalus z p] illu/ration 7fig4 #fi74 ,a wood5 figure may be cut 9 a /oop+ po/ure1 & plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( a wide vase1 z if ab\t to dr9k4 ,if wat] be p\r$ sl[ly into ! vase x w nev] rise to ! m\? ( ! figure1 & ! unhappy ,tantalus w rema9 9 expectancy4 ,?is result is obta9$ by ! aid ( a syphon hidd5 9 ! figure1 ! %ort] limb ( :i* is 9 ! *e/4 ,! long] limb desc5ds ?r\gh a hole 9 ! table1 & c>ries (f ! wat]4 ,^! vases are call$ vases ( ,tantalus4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! syphon may also be adapt$ to our dome/ic filt]s4 ,*>coal1 z we "k1 makes an excell5t filt]1 & if we h a block ( *>coal 9 "o ( ^? filt]s1--n[ s common1--we c fix a tube into x1 & cle> any wat] we may require4 ,x sometimes 79 ! c\ntry7 happ5s t dr9k+-wat] may become turgid1 & 9 su* a case ! syphon filt] w be f\nd useful4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,molecul> attraction4 ,! old 8deception0 jugs h (t5 puzzl$ p4 ,we give an illu/ration ( "o1 & also a sket* ( ! 8deceptive0 portion 7figs4 #gj & #ga74 ,?is deception is v well manag$1 & w create mu* amusem5t if a jug c be procur$2 !y 7 fa%ionable 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & previ\sly4 ,a cursory inspection ( ^! curi\s ut5sils w lead "o to vote !m utt]ly useless4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 v qua9t1 & if n exactly useful are ornam5tal4 ,!y are s con/ruct$1 t if an inexp]i5c$ p]son wi% to p\r out ! w9e or wat] conta9$ 9 !m1 ! liquid w run out ?r\gh ! holes cut 9 ! jug4 ,to use !m ) safety x is necess>y to put ! sp\t ,a 9 "o's m\?1 & close ! op5+ ,b ) ! f+]1 & !n by draw+ 9 ! brea?1 cause ! wat] to m\nt to ! lips by ! tube :i* runs ar\nd ! jug4 ,! specim5s h]e9 del9eat$ h be5 copi$ f "s n[ exi/5t 9 ! museum ( ! ,svres *9a manufactory4 ,! ,buoyancy ( ,wat] is a v int]e/+ subject1 & a great deal may be writt5 respect+ x4 ,! swimm] w tell u t x is easi] to float 9 salt wat] ?an 9 fre%4 ,he kn[s by exp]i5ce h[ difficult x is to s9k 9 ! sea2 & yet hundr$s ( p are dr[n$ 9 ! wat]1 :i*1 if !y p]mitt$ x to ex]cise its p[] ( buoyancy1 w\ld help to save life4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,vase ( ,tantalus4 ,! sea-wat] holds a consid]able quantity ( salt 9 solution1 & ?is adds to its resi/ance1 or float+ p[]4 ,x is heavi] ?an fre% wat]1 & ! ,dead ,sea is s salt t a man _c possibly s9k 9 x4 ,?is means t ! man's body1 bulk = bulk1 is mu* light] ?an ! wat] ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,a man w s9k 9 fre%1 or ord9>y salt wat] if ! air 9 8 lungs be exhau/$1 because )\t ! air he is mu* heavi] ?an wat]1 bulk = bulk4 ,s if any?+ is weigh$ 9 wat]1 x app>5tly loses 9 weight exactly equal to its own bulk ( wat]4 ,wat] is ! means by :i* ! ,specific ,gravity ( liquids or solids is f\nd1 & by x we c det]m9e ! relative d5sities ( matt] 9 proportion4 ,air is ! /&>d = gases & vap\rs4 ,let u exam9e ?is1 & see :at is meant by ,,specific ,,gravity4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! diff]5ce exi/+ betwe5 two equal volumes ( diff]5t sub/ances1 & _! weight1 :i* proves t !y may conta9 a diff]5t numb] ( atoms 9 ! same space4 ,we also "k1 f ! pr9ciple ( ,ar*im$es1 t if a body be imm]s$ 9 a fluid1 a portion ( its weight w be su/a9$ by ! fluid equal to ! weight ( ! fluid displac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4--;,deception jugs ( old patt]n4 ,?is !orem is easily prov$ by fill+ a bucket ) wat]1 & mov+ x ab\t 9 wat]1 :5 x w be easy to lift2 & likewise ! human body may be easily su/a9$ 9 wat] by a f+] "u ! *94 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,ar*im$es discov]$ ! displacem5t ( liquids is well kn[n1 b is always int]e/+4 ,k+ ,hi]o1 ( ,syracuse1 ord]$ a cr[n ( gold to be made1 & :5 x _h be5 complet$ & deliv]$ to ,8 ,maje/y1 he _h 8 d\bts ab\t ! hone/y ( ! goldsmi?1 & call$ to ,ar*im$es to tell him :e!r or n ! cr[n 0 ( gold1 pure & simple4 ,ar*im$es 0 puzzl$1 & w5t home deep 9 ?\ght4 ,/ill consid]+ ! problem he w5t to ! ba?1 & 9 8 ab/raction fill$ x to ! brim4 ,/epp+ 9 he spilt a consid]able quantity ( wat]1 & at once ! idea /ruck him t any body put into wat] w\ld displace its own weight ( ! liquid4 ,he did n wait to dress1 b ran half-nak$ to ! palace1 cry+ out1 8,eureka1 ,eureka6 ,i h f\nd x1 ,i h f\nd x6 8,:at _h he f\nd8--,he _h solv$ ! problem4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,section ( jug4 ,he got a lump ( gold ! same weight z ! cr[n1 & imm]s$ x 9 wat]4 ,he f\nd x weigh$ n9ete5 times z mu* z its own bulk ( wat]4 ,b :5 he weigh$ ! k+s cr[n he f\nd x displac$ m wat] ?an ! pure gold _h done1 & consequ5tly x _h be5 adult]at$ by a light] metal4 ,he assum$ t ! alloy 0 silv]1 & by imm]s+ lumps ( silv] & gold ( equal weight ) ! cr[n1 & weigh+ ! wat] t ov]fl[$ f ea* dip1 he 0 able to tell ! k+ h[ f> he _h be5 *eat$ by ! goldsmi?4 ,x is by ?is me?od n[ t we c asc]ta9 ! specific gravity ( bodies4 ,"o cubic in* ( wat] weighs ab\t half an ounce 7or to be exact1 #beb gra9s74 ,take a piece ( lead & weigh x 9 air2 x weighs1 say1 elev5 ounces4 ,!n weigh x 9 a vase ( wat]1 & x w be only t5 ounces 9 weight4 ,s lead is elev5 times heavi] ?an wat]1 or elev5 ounces ( lead occupy ! same space z "o ounce ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,weigh+ metal 9 wat]4 ,! heavi] a fluid is1 or ! great] its d5sity1 ! great] w be ! weight x w support4 ,!re=e we c asc]ta9 ! purity or o!rwise ( c]ta9 liquids by us+ hydromet]s1 etc41 :i* w float high] or l[] 9 diff]5t liquids1 & be+ gaug$ at ! /&>d ( purity1 we c asc]ta9 7= in/ance7 h[ mu* wat] is 9 ! milk :5 suppli$ f ! dairy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4--;,hydromet]4 ,b to return to ,,specific ,,gravity1 :i* means ! 8,comp>ative d5sity ( any sub/ance relatively to wat]10 or z ,pr(essor ,huxley says1 8,! weight ( a volume ( any liquid or solid 9 proportion to ! weight ( ! same volume ( wat]1 at a kn[n temp]ature & pressure40 ,wat]1 !re=e1 is tak5 z ! unit2 s any?+ ^: equal volume "u ! same circum/ances is twice z heavy z ! wat]1 is decl>$ to h its specific gravity #b2 if ?ree-&-a-half times x is #ce1 & s on4 ,we app5d a few examples2 s we see t ?+s :i* possess a high] specific gravity ?an wat] s9k1 :i* comes to ! same ?+ z say+ !y are heavi] ?an wat]1 & vice v]s4 ,to f9d ! specific gravity ( any solid body proce$ z above1 9 ! exp]im5t ( ! lead4 ,by weigh+ ! sub/ance 9 & out ( wat] we f9d ! weight ( ! wat] displac$2 t is1 ! fir/ weight less ! second4 ,divide ! weight 9 air by ! rema9d]1 & we %all f9d ! specific gravity ( ! sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,ov]-%ot :eel ( mill4 ,! foll[+ is a table ( specific gravities ( "s v diff]5t sub/ances1 tak+ wat] z ! unit4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,sub/ance4 ,specific ,sub/ance4 ,specific ,sub/ance4 ,specific ,gravity4 ,gravity4 ,gravity4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,plat9um #bae ,iron #ggi ,wat] #ajjj ,gold #aie ,t9 #gbi ,sea ,wat] #ajbf ,m]cury #acei ,granite #bfb ,ra9 ,wat] #ajja ,lead #aade ,oak ,wood #jgg ,ice #iaf ,silv] #ajej ,cork #jbd ,e!r #jgbc ,copp] #hif ,milk #ajcb ,alcohol #jgic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,b we h by no means exhau/$ ! uses ( wat]4 ,hydrodynamics1 :i* is ! alt]native t]m = hydraulics1 includes ! consid]ation ( _m =ms ( wat]-:eels1 mo/ ( :i*1 z mill-:eels1 are "u-%ot1 or ov]-%ot accord+ly z ! wat] passes horizontally ov] ! floats1 or acts b5ea? !m4 ,^! :eels are us$ 9 relation to ! fall ( wat]4 ,if !re is pl5ty ( wat] & a slight fall1 ! "u-%ot :eel is us$4 ,if !re is a good fall less wat] w suffice1 z ! weight & mom5tum ( ! fall+ liquid ^u ! paddles w turn ! :eel4 ,"h is ! ,p]sian wat]-:eel1 us$ = irrigation 7fig4 #ge74 ,! ,ar*im$ian ,screw1 call$ aft] its inv5tor1 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ modes ( rais+ wat]4 ,x consi/s ( a cyl9d] some:at incl9$1 & a tube b5t l a screw )9 x4 ,by turn+ ! h&le ( ! screw ! wat] is drawn up & fl[s out f ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--;,irrigation :eel 9 ,egypt4 ,! ,wat] ,ram is a ma*9e us$ = rais+ wat] to a great height by means ( ! mom5tum ( fall+ wat]4 ,! ,hydraulic ,lift is famili> to u all1 z x acts 9 our hotels1 & we ne$ only m5tion ^! appliances "h2 full descriptions w be f\nd 9 ,cyclopdias4 ,we h by no means exhau/$ ! subject ( ,wat] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,f> f x4 ,b :5 we come to ,*emi/ry & ,physical ,geography we %all h m to tell1 & our rem>ks z to ! application ( sci5ce to ,dome/ic ,economy1 9 accordance ) our plan1 w also lead u up to "s ( ! uses ( wat]4 ,s = ! pres5t we w take our leave ( wat] 9 a liquid =m1 & meet x aga9 "u ! application ( ,heat1 :i* subject w take u to ,ice & ,/eam1--two v diff]5t conditions ( wat]4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,! curv$ surface ( a column ( liquid is t]m$ a 8m5iscus10 f ! ,greek ^w m5iskos1 mean+ 8a little l5s40 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,heat--,,:at ,,x ,,is--,,!ory ,,( ,,heat--,,! ,,!rmomet]--,,expansion ,,by ,,heat--,,ebullition ,,& ,,di/illation--,,lat5t ,,heat--,,specific ,,heat4 ,:at is ,heat8--,we w consid] ?is "q1 & endeav\r to expla9 x be=e we speak ( its effects on wat] & o!r matt]4 ,heat is n[ believ$ to be ! effects ( ! rapid motion ( all ! p>ticles ( a body4 ,x is q c]ta9 t a heat$ body is no heavi] ?an ! same body be=e x 0 made 8hot10 s ! heat c\ld n h gone into x1 nor does ! 8heat0 leave x :5 x has become :at we call 8cold10 :i* is a relative t]m4 ,heat is !re=e believ$ to be a vibratory motion1 or ! effects ( v rapid motion ( matt]4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,heat1 z we may t]m x1 is only 9 its infancy1 or c]ta9ly has sc>cely come ( age4 ,=m]ly heat 0 consid]$ a *emical ag5t1 & 0 t]m$ caloric1 b n[ heat is f\nd to be motion1 :i* affects our n]ves ( feel+ & sight2 &1 z ,pr(essor ,/ew>t tells u1 8a heat$ body gives a s]ies ( bl[s to ! m$ium ar\nd x2 & al?\gh ^! bl[s d n affect ! e>1 !y affect ! eye1 & give u a s5se ( light40 ,al?\gh x is only )9 a comp>atively few ye>s t heat has be5 really look$ ^u z o!r ?an matt]1 _m anci5t philosoph]s reg>d$ x z m]ely a quality ( matt]4 ,!y ?\ght x ! active pr9ciple ( ! univ]se4 ,epicurus decl>$ t heat 0 an effluxion ( m9ute sph]ical p>ticles possess+ rapid motion1 & ,lucretius ma9ta9$ t ! sun's light & heat are ! result ( motion ( prim>y p>ticles4 ,fire 0 wor%ipp$ z ! active ag5t ( ! univ]se1 & ,prome!us 0 fabl$ to h /ol5 fire f heav5 to vivify mank9d4 ,! views ( ! anci5ts 7 m or less adopt$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages2 b ,john ,locke recogniz$ ! !ory ( heat be+ a motion ( matt]4 ,he says3 8,:at 9 our s5sation is heat1 9 ! object is no?+ b motion40 ,gradually two !ories arose conc]n+ heat2--"o1 ! ,mat]ial !ory--! !ory ( ,caloric or ,phlogi/on2 ! o!r1 ! ,k9etic !ory4 ,be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury ! =m] !ory 0 g5]ally accept$1 & ! developm5t ( heat 0 acc\nt$ = by ass]t+ t ! friction or p]cussion alt]$ ! capacity = heat ( ! sub/ances act$ ^u4 ,! heat 0 squeez$ out by ! hamm]1 & ! am\nt ( heat 9 ! _w 0 reg>d$ z a c]ta9 quantity1 :i* pass$ f "o body to ano!r1 & t "s sub/ances conta9$1 or c\ld 8/ore away10 m ( ! mat]ial call$ heat ?an o!r sub/ances4 ,heat 0 ! mat]ial ( fire--! pr9ciple ( x1 or mat]ia ignis2 & by ^! !ories ,heat1 or ,caloric1 0 gradually adopt$ z a sep>ate mat]ial ag5t--an invisible & subtle matt] produc+ c]ta9 ph5om5a :5 lib]at$4 ,s ! two !ories conc]n+ heat arose at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,"o1 z we h said1 is kn[n z ! ,mat]ial1 ! o!r z ! ,k9etic !ory4 ,! latt] is ! !ory ( motion1 s call$ f ! ,greek k9esis 7motion71 or sometimes kn[n z ! ,dynamic !ory ( heat1 f dunamis 7=ce72 or aga9 z ,!rmo-dynamics4 ,b any possibility ( produc+ a new supply ( heat 0 d5i$ by ! mat]iali/s4 ,!y knew t "s bodies possess$ a great] capacity = heat ?an o!rs2 b ,c\nt ,rum=d1 at ,muni*1 9 #agig1 a/oni%$ an audi5ce by mak+ wat] boil )\t any fire6 ,he _h obs]v$ ! great ext5t to :i* a cannon became heat$ :ile be+ bor$ 9 ! gun factory1 & influ5c$ by ^? :o ma9ta9$ ! mat]ial !ory ( heat1 paid great att5tion to ! evolution ( heat4 ,he accord+ly endeav\r$ to produce heat by friction1 & by means ( horse p[] he caus$ a /eel bor] to "w ^u a cyl9d] ( metal4 ,! %av+s 7 p]mitt$ to drop into a pan ( wat] at #fj ,fahr5heit4 ,9 an h\r aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation ! temp]ature ( ! wat] _h ris5 to #ajg3 9 ano!r half-h\r ! heat ( x 0 up to #adb3 & 9 two h\rs _h measur$ #agj4 ,^u ?is he says3 8,x is h>dly necess>y to add t any?+ :i* any insulat$ body or sy/em ( bodies c cont9ue to furni% )\t limitation _c possibly be a mat]ial sub/ance1 & x appe>s to me to be extremely difficult1 if n q impossible1 to =m any di/9ct idea ( any?+ capable ( be+ excit$ & communicat$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts except by motion40 ,a few ye>s lat] ,sir ,humphrey ,davy made 8 conclusive exp]im5ts1 & ! ,mat]ial !ory ( heat receiv$ its dea?-bl[4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy--ref]r+ to ! fact t wat] at a freez+ temp]ature has 8m heat 9 x0 7z x 0 believ$7 ?an ice at ! same temp]ature--said3 8,if ,i1 by friction1 liquify ice1 a sub/ance w be produc$ :i* conta9s a f> great] absolute am\nt ( heat ?an ice4 ,9 ?is case x _c reasonably be affirm$ t ,i m]ely r5d] s5sible heat :i* _h be5 previ\sly ins5sible 9 ! froz5 mass4 ,liquification w conclusively prove ! g5]ation ( heat4 ,?is reason+ c\ld n be d\bt$4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy made ! exp]im5t4 ,he rubb$ toge!r two pieces ( ice 9 ! air1 & 9 a vacuum surr\nd$ by a freez+ mixture4 ,! ice became liquifi$1 & s ! g5]ation ( heat by 8me*anical means0 0 prov$4 ,its immat]iality 0 demon/rat$1 b ! ,mat]ial !ory 0 n ev5 !n ab&on$ by its adh]5ts4 ,s ?+s cont9u$1 until 9 #ahdb-c1 ,doctor ,julius ,mey]1 ( ,heilbronn1 & ,doctor ,j\le1 ( ,man*e/]1 sep>ately1 & by diff]5t means1 arriv$ at ! conclusion t a c]ta9 def9ite am\nt ( me*anical "w corresponds to a c]ta9 def9ite am\nt ( ,heat1 & vice v]s4 ,?us 0 a great support af=d$ to ! ,dynamic !ory4 ,?is fact ,doctor ,j\le communicat$ to ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e 9 #ahdc1 & ! conclusions he came to 7-- #a4 8,t ! quantity ( heat produc$ by ! friction ( bodies1 :e!r solid or liquid1 is always 9 proportion to ! =ce exp5d$2 #b4 8,t ! quantity ( heat capable ( increas+ ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] 7weigh$ 9 vacuo & tak5 at betwe5 #ee & #fj ,fahr47 by #a ,fahr41 requires = its evolution ! exp5diture ( a me*anical =ce repres5t$ by ! fall ( #ggb lbs4 ?r\gh ! space ( "o foot40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,melt+ a piece ( t9 on a c>d4 ,?is is ! 8me*anical equival5t ( heat40 ,! fir/ pap] writt5 by ,mr4 ,j\le demon/rat$ t ! temp]ature ( wat] rises :5 =c$ ?r\gh n>r[ tubes2 & to heat x "o degree1 ! =ce ( #ggj foot p\nds 0 necess>y1 :i* means t ! #a lb4 ( wat] fall+ #ggj feet1 got hott] by "o degree :5 x rea*$ ! e>?4 ,he subsequ5tly arriv$ at ! m exact conclusions quot$ above4 ,s heat is n[ kn[n to be a s]ies ( vibrations1 or vibratory motions1 z s\nd vibrations1 :i* we _c he> nor see1 b ! effects ( :i* are kn[n to u z light & heat4 ,9 consid]+ heat we mu/ put aside ! idea ( w>m? & cold1 = !y are only diff]5t degrees ( heat1 n ! abs5ce ( x4 ,! /udy ( heat c be briefly und]tak5 )\t any complicat$ app>atus4 ,if we desire a pro( ( ! great conduct+ p[] ( metals1 let u place a f9e piece ( musl9 tightly /ret*$ ov] a lump ( poli%$ metal4 ,on ! musl9 we put a burn+ emb]1 & excite combu/ion by bl[+ on x2 ! musl9 is n burn$ 9 ! lea/1 ! heat be+ entirely absorb$ by ! metal1 :i* draws x ?r\gh ! mat]ial into itself4 ,fig4 #gf repres5ts a simil> exp]im5t3 x consi/s ( melt+ "s t9 on a play+ c>d1 held ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp4 ,! metal becomes completely melt$ )\t ! c>d be+ burnt4 ,x is ?r\gh a simil> effect t metals appe> cold to u :5 we take !m 9 our h&s2 by _! conductibility !y remove ! heat f our h&s1 & give u ! peculi> impression :i* we d n exp]i5ce :5 9 contact ) sub/ances t are bad conductors1 su* z wood1 wooll5 mat]ials1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,boil+ wat] 9 a pap] case4 ,fig4 #gg %[s ! me?od ( boil+ wat] 9 pap]4 ,we make a small pap] box1 su* z ^? made by s*ool-boys1 & susp5d x by f\r ?reads to a piece ( wood held horizontally at a suitable height4 ,we fill ?is improvis$ vessel ) wat]1 & place x ov] ! flame ( a _s lamp4 ,! pap] is n burnt1 because ! wat] absorbs all ! heat into itself4 ,aft] a few m9utes ! wat] beg9s to boil1 s5d+ =? cl\ds ( /eam1 b ! pap] rema9s intact4 ,x is well to p]=m ?is op]ation ov] a plate1 9 case ( accid5t1 z ! wat] may be spilt4 ,we may also make use ( an egg-%ell z a little vessel 9 :i* to heat ! wat]1 by re/+ x on a wire r+ ov] ! flame ( ! _s lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4--;,exp]im5t on ! regelation ( ice4 ,fig4 #gh %[s ! arrangem5t ( a v rem>kable exp]im5t1 b little kn[n1 on ! refreez+ ( ice4 ,a block ( ice is plac$ on ! edge ( two iron *airs1 & is encircl$ by a piece ( wire1 to :i* is susp5d$ ! weight ( say five p\nds4 ,! wire p5etrates sl[ly1 & 9 ab\t an h\r's "t has pass$ completely ?r\gh ! lump ( ice1 & ! weight1 ) ! piece ( wire1 falls to ! gr\nd4 ,:at happ5s !n to ! block ( ice8--,y imag9e1 d\btless1 t x is cut 9 two4 ,no su* ?+2 x is intact1 & 9 a s+le lump z x 0 previ\s to ! exp]im5t4 ,9 proportion z ! wire 0 sunk ?r\gh ! mass1 ! slit has be5 clos$ aga9 by refreez+4 ,ice or sn[ dur+ ! w9t] may s]ve = a numb] ( exp]im5ts relat+ to heat4 ,if we wi% to demon/rate ! influ5ce ( col\rs on radiation1 we take two pieces ( clo? ( ! same size1--"o :ite1 & ! o!r black1--& place !m bo? on ! sn[1 if possible1 :5 !re is a gleam ( sunlight4 ,9 a %ort "t x w be f\nd t ! sn[ und]nea? ! black clo? has melt$ to a mu* great] ext5t ?an t b5ea? ! :ite clo?1 because black absorbs heat m ?an :ite1 :i*1 on ! contr>y1 has a t5d5cy to reflect x4 ,we p]ceive v pla9ly ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature by t\*+ ! two clo?s4 ,! :ite clo? feels cold 9 comp>ison ) ! black clo?4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out exp]im5ts on ! expansion ( bodies4 ,!y c be p]=m$ 9 a numb] ( diff]5t ways2 by plac+ wat] 9 a n>r[-neck$ bottle1 & w>m+ x ov] ! fire1 we c asc]ta9 ! expansion ( liquids "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,we may 9 ?is way con/ruct a complete !rmomet]4 ,we may n[ consid] ! ,s\rces ( ,heat1 or causes ( its developm5t1 :i* are v>i\s1 & 9 _m cases app>5t4 ,! fir/ great s\rce is ! ,sun1 & x has be5 calculat$ t ! heat receiv$ by ! e>? 9 "o ye> is suffici5t to melt an envelope ( ice surr\nd+ x "o hundr$ & five feet ?ick4 ,( c\rse ! heat at ! surface ( ! sun is enorm\sly great] ?an ?is1 ab\t "o-half be+ absorb$ 9 ! atmosph]e be=e x rea*es u at all4 ,9 fact1 x is impossible to give y an idea ( ! enorm\s heat giv5 out by ! sun to ! e>? 7:i* is a v small fraction inde$ ( ! :ole71 />s1 & planets1 all ( :i* give out heat4 ,we "k t heat is /or$ 9 ! e>?1 & t x is 9 a v active condition we c p]ceive f ! hot spr+s1 lava1 & flame :i* are cont9ually erupt+ f ! e>? 9 v>i\s places4 ,^! s\rces ( heat are beyond our control4 ,b ap>t f ! extra- & intra-t]re/rial s\rces ( heat !re are me*anical causes = its g5]ation ^u our globe1 su* z friction1 p]cussion1 or compression4 ,! savage or ! woodman c procure heat & fire by rubb+ a po9t$ /ick 9 a groov$ log4 ,! wood5 8breaks0 ( a locomotive are (t5 set on fire by friction ( ! :eels1 s !y require grease1 & ! :eels on ! rails w develop heat & sp>ks4 ,our mat*es1 & _m o!r common in/ances ( ! g5]ation ( heat 7& fire7 by friction1 w occur to e read]4 ,wat] may be heat$ by %ak+ x 9 a bottle1 tak+ c>e to wrap some?+ r\nd x to keep ! w>m? ( ! h& f ! glass4 ,by p]cussion1 su* z hamm]+ a nail or piece ( iron1 ! solid b> may be made 8r$-hot02 & :5 cannon are bor$ at ,woolwi* ! %av+s ( /eel are too hot to hold ev5 if soap-&-wat] has be5 play+ ^u ! bor+-ma*9e4 ,! production ( heat by *emical action is t]m$ combu/ion1 & ?is is ! means by :i* all artificial heat = our daily wants is suppli$4 ,we c also produce heat by electricity4 ,a famili> & n always pleasant in/ance ( ?is is se5 9 ! fla% ( lightn+ :i* w fuse metals1 & exp]im5t may d ! same ^u a small] scale4 ,^! are1 9 brief1 ! ,s\rces ( ,heat1 & we may speak ( its effects4 ,we may take x = grant$ t no matt] f :at s\rce heat is d]iv$1 x exhibits ! same ph5om5a 9 its relation to objects4 ,"o ( ! mo/ usual ( ^! ph5om5a is expansion4 ,let u take wat]1 & see ! effect ( heat ^u x4 ,we "k t a c]ta9 weight ( wat] "u ! same conditions has always ! same volume2 & al?\gh ! attributes ( ! liquid v>y "u diff]5t circum/ances1 "u ! same conditions its prop]ties are exactly ! same4 ,n[1 wat] exp&s v mu* :5 "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 l all liquids2 solids & gases also exp& ^u ! application ( heat4 ,we c easily e/abli% ^! /atem5ts4 ,a metallic r+ :5 heat$ is l>g] ?an :5 cool4 ,a small quantity ( air 9 a bladd] :5 heat$ w fill ! bladd]1 & wat] w boil ov] ! vessel1 or exp& into /eam1 & p]haps bur/ ! boil]4 ,s expansion is ! t5d5cy ( :at we t]m heat4 ,we make use ( ?is quality ( heat 9 ! !rmomet]1 by :i* we c measure ! temp]ature n only ( liquids or solids1 b ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! read+ ( ! !rmomet] v>ies 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 = ! degrees are diff]5tly m>k$1 b ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t is ! same4 ,x is call$ !rmomet] f two ,greek words signify+ ! measure ( heat4 ,x is a notable fact t ,ca/elli1 writ+ 9 #afch1 says to ,f]d9& ,cs>9a3 8,i rememb]$ an exp]im5t :i* ,signor ,galileo _h %[n me m ?an ?irty-five ye>s ago4 ,he took a glass bottle ab\t ! size ( a h5's egg1 ! neck ( :i* 0 two palms long1 & z n>r[ z a /raw4 ,hav+ well heat$ ! bulb 9 8 h&s1 he plac$ its m\? 9 a vessel conta9+ wat]1 & )draw+ ! heat ( 8 h& f ! bulb1 ! wat] in/antly rose 9 ! neck m ?an a palm above ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! vessel40 ,"h1 !n1 we h an air-!rmomet]1 b z x 0 affect$ by ! pressure z well z ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 x c\ld n be reli$ ^u z a 8measur] ( heat40 ,until ,torricelli prop\nd$ ! pr9ciple ( ! b>omet]1 ?is 8wea!r-glass0 ( ,galileo 0 us$1 = ! philosoph] divid$ ! /em into divisions1 & ! air-!rmomet] s]v$ ! purpose ( our mod]n in/rum5ts4 ,! actual inv5tor ( ! !rmomet] is n kn[n4 ,x has be5 attribut$ to ,galileo1 to ,drebbel1 & to ,rob]t ,fludd4 ,!re is little d\bt1 h[ev]1 t ,galileo & ,drebbel 7 bo? acqua9t$ ) x1 b :e!r ei!r claim$ ! hon\r ( ! inv5tion1 :e!r !y discov]$ x indep5d5tly1 or toge!r1 we _c say4 ,sanctorio1 ( ,padua1 & ,drebbel h also be5 cr$it$ ) ! inv5tion4 ,we may add t ! _s !rmomet] 0 inv5t$ 9 #afee-afef4 ,x 0 a r\gh =m ( our pres5t !rmomet]1 & r\ghly graduat$4 ,b x 0 h]metically clos$ to ! air1 & a great improvem5t on ! old 8wea!r-glass4 ,edmond ,halley introduc$ m]cury z ! liquid = ! in/rum5t 9 #afhj4 ,otto von ,gu]ike fir/ sugge/$ ! freez+ po9t ( wat] z ! l[e/ limit1 & ,r5ald9i1 9 #afid1 propos$ t ! boil+ & freez+ po9ts ( wat] %\ld be ! limit ( ! scale4 ,let u n[ expla9 ! con/ruction & v>i$ m>k+s ( ! ?ree k9ds ( !rmomet]s 9 use4 ,by not+ ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! scales e read] w be able to read ! records f =eign c\ntries not$ ^u ! ,c5tigrade & ,raumur in/rum5ts1 :i* are all bas$ ^u ! !ory t heat exp&s liquids4 ,we us$ to he> ! expression1 8,heat exp&s1 & cold contracts10 b we tru/ t all our read]s h n[ le>nt t !re is no su* ?+ z cold4 ,x is only a negative t]m4 ,we feel ?+s cold because !y extract "s w>m? f our f+]s1 n because ! sub/ances h no heat4 ,!rmomet]s are made ( v f9e bore glass tubes4 ,"o end has a b[l1 or bulb1 ! o!r is at fir/ op54 ,by heat+ ! b[l ! air 9 ! tube is driv5 away by ! op5 end1 :i* is quickly dipp$ 9 a b[l ( m]cury4 ,! m]cury w !n occupy a c]ta9 space 9 ! tube2 & if x be heat$ till ! liquid boils1 all ! air w be driv5 out by ! m]curial vap\r4 ,by once aga9 dipp+ ! tube 9 ! quicksilv] ! glass w be fill$4 ,!n1 be=e x cools1 close ! op5 end ( ! tube1 & ! !rmomet] is s f> made4 ,hav+ n[ caught our !rmomet] we mu/ proce$ to m>k x1 :i* is an easy process4 ,by plung+ ! m]cury into p\nd$ melt+ ice we c get ! freez+ po9t1 & boil+ wat] w give u ! boil+ po9t4 ,! int]m$iate scale c be !n indicat$4 ,if m]cury & glass exp&$ equally !re w\ld be no rise 9 ! latt]4 ,extreme delicacy ( ! !rmomet] c be arriv$ at by us+ a v f9e tube1 p>ticul>ly if x be also flat4 ,! freez+ po9t 9 ,fahr5heit's scale is #cb2 9 ! ,c5tigrade x is #j1 & ! boil+ po9t #ajj4 ,?is 0 ! scale adopt$ by ,celsius1 a ,sw$e1 & is mu* us$4 ,raumur call$ ! freez+ po9t #j1 & ! boil+ po9t #hj4 ,!re is ano!r scale1 almo/ obsolete1--t ( ,delisle1 :o call$ boil+ po9t z]o1 & freez+ po9t #aej4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 conv]t+ degrees on "o scale into degrees on ! o!r4 ,fahr5heit made 8 z]o at ! greate/ cold he c\ld get2 viz41 sn[ & salt4 ,! freez+ po9t ( wat] is #cb above 8 z]o4 ,!re=e #bab-cb gives #ahj ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! freez+ & boil+ po9ts ( wat]4 ,s #ahj ,fahr4 corresponds to #ajj ,c5t41 & to #hj ,raumur1 reckon+ f freez+ po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,!rmomet]4 ,! foll[+ tables w expla9 ! diff]5ces3-- ,,table ,i4 #a ,fahr4 #jee ,c5t41 or #jdd ,raumur4 #a ,c5t4 #hj ,raumur1 or #ahj ,fahr4 #a ,raumur #abe ,c5t41 or #bbe ,fahr4 ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,fahr4 ,c5t4 ,raumur4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,boil+ po9t #bab #ajj #hj #aid #ij #gb #agf #hj #fd #aeh #gj #ef #adj #fj #dh #abb #ej #dj #ajd #dj #cb #hf #cj #bd #fh #bj #af #ej #aj #h ,freez+ po9t ( wat] #cb #j #j #ad -#aj -#h -#d -#bj -#af ,freez+ po9t ( ,m]cury -#dj -#dj -#cb ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,alcohol is us$ 9 !rmomet]s 9 v cold di/ricts1 z x does n freeze ev5 at a temp]ature ( -#acb ,fahr4 ,we h n[ expla9$ ! way 9 :i* we c measure heat by ! expansion ( m]cury 9 a tube4 ,we c also f9d out t solids & gases exp& also4 ,eng9e]s always make all[ances = ! effects ( w9t] & summ] wea!r :5 build+ bridges2 9 summ] ! bridge gets long]1 & unless due provision 7 made x w\ld become /ra9$ & weak5$4 ,s !re are comp5sat+ gird]s1 & ! /ructure rema9s safe4 ,! effects ( expansion by heat are v great & v de/ructive at times4 ,in/ances ( boil]s bur/+ w occur to e read]4 ,x is v important to be able to asc]ta9 ! ext5t to :i* solid bodies w exp&4 ,su* calculations h be5 made1 & are 9 daily use4 ,we c crack a tumbl] by p\r+ hot wat] into x1 or by plac+ x on ! 8hob40 ,a few m9utes' consid]ation w assure u t ! l[] p>ticles ( ! glass exp&$ be=e ! re/1 & crack$ our tumbl]4 ,a gradual heat+1 p>ticul>ly if ! glass be ?91 w ensure safety4 ,?ick glass w crack soon] ?an ?94 ,aga91 _m p at railway /ations h ask$ u1 8,:y don't !y jo9 ! rails toge!r on ?is l9e80 ,we reply t if e l5g? ( rail 7 tightly fix$ aga9/ its neighb\r1 ! :ole railway w\ld be displac$4 ,! iron exp&s & jo9s up close 9 hot wea!r4 ,9 wet wea!r1 also1 ! wood5 pegs & ! sleep]s swell ) moi/ure1 & get tight5$ up4 ,ev]yone kn[s h[ mu* m smoo?ly a tra9 travels 9 w>m1 wet wea!r4 ,?is is due to ! expansion ( ! iron & ! swell+ ( ! sleep]s & pegs 9 ! 8*airs40 ,a railway #djj miles long exp&s #cch y>ds 9 summ]1--t is ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? betwe5 ! laid railroad 9 summ] & 9 w9t]4 ,?is c be prov$4 ,iron exp&s #jjjabce ( its l5g? = e #ahj ,fahr4 ,divid$ by #ahj x gives u ! expansion = #a1 :i* is #jjjjjjfhf1 tak+ ! diff]5ce ( w9t] & summ] at #gj ,fahr4 ,multiply ^! toge!r1 & ! result 7#jjjjdhfbj ( its l5g?7 by ! numb] ( y>ds 9 #djj miles1 & we f9d our answ] #cch y>ds4 ,expansion acts 9 solids & mo/ liquids by ! de/ruction ( cohesion betwe5 ! p>ticles4 ,gases1 h[ev]1 hav+ mu* less cohesion amid ! p>ticles1 w exp& f> m "u a giv5 heat ?an ei!r solids or liquids1 & liquids exp& m ?an solids = ! same reason1 & m rapidly at a high temp]ature ?an at a l[ "o4 ,we h spok5 ( expansion4 ,we may give an in/ance 9 :i* ! subsequ5t contraction ( heat$ metal is useful4 ,walls sometimes get out ( ! p]p5dicul>1 & require pull+ toge!r4 ,no =ce :i* c be conv5i5tly appli$ w\ld accompli% ?is s well z ! cool+ =ce due to ! pot5tial en]gy ( iron4 ,rods are pass$ ?r\gh ! walls & brac$ up by nuts4 ,! rods are !n heat$1 & z !y cool !y contract & pull ! walls ) !m4 ,:5 glass is sudd5ly cool$1 ! inn] sk91 z x 71 presses ) great =ce aga9/ ! cool$ surface1 b z x is q tight no explosion c foll[4 ,b break ! tail1 or scrat* x ) a diamond1 & ! /ra9 is tak5 (f4 ,! glass drop crumbles ) ! effect ( ! explosion1 z 9 ! cases ( ,pr9ce ,rup]t's drops1 & ! ,bologna flasks2 ! cont9uity is brok51 & pulv]ization results4 ,b a v curi\s exception to ! g5]al laws ( expansion is notic$ 9 ! case ( ne>ly freez+ wat]4 ,we "k wat] exp&s by heat1 at fir/ gradually1 & !n to an enorm\s ext5t 9 /eam4 ,b :5 cool+ wat]1 in/ead ( gett+ m & m contract$1 only contracts d[n to #cib ,fahr41 x !n beg9s to exp&1 & at ! mom5t x freezes into ice x exp&s v mu*--ab\t "o-twelf? ( its volume1 b accord+ to ,pr(essor ,huxley x weighs exactly ! same1 & ! /eam produc$ f t giv5 quantity ( wat] w weigh j exactly :at ! wat] & ! ice produc$ by x weigh individually4 ,at #cib ,fahr4 wat] is at its maximum d5sity1 or 9 o!r words1 a vessel ( a c]ta9 size w hold m wat] :5 x is at #ci ,fahr4 ?an at any o!r "t4 ,:e!r ! wat] be heat$ or cool$ at ?is temp]ature1 x exp&s to ! boil+ or freez+ po9t :5 x becomes /eam or ice1 z ! case may be4 ,wat]1 :5 heat$1 is light] ?an cold wat]4 ,y c prove ?is 9 fill+ a ba? f two taps ( hot & cold wat] at ! same "t4 ,! cold falls to ! bottom1 & if y d n /ir up ! wat] :5 mix$ y w h a hot surface & a cold f\ndation4 ,! heat increases ! volume ( wat]1 x becomes light]1 & comes upp]mo/4 ,/eam & ,wat] & ,ice are all ! same ?+s "u diff]5t conditions1 al?\gh to ! eye !y are s diff]5t4 ,!y are alike inasmu* z a giv5 weight ( wat] w weigh z mu* :5 conv]t$ into ice or develop$ into /eam4 ,! half ounce ( wat] w weigh half an ounce z ice or z /eam1 b ! volume or bulk w v>y greatly1 z w be und]/ood :5 we /ate t "o cubic in* ( wat] w produce #a1gjj cubic in*es ( /eam1 & #a-a_/aa cubic in* ( ice2 b at ! same "t ea* w yield1 :5 decompos$1 j ! same am\nt ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,let u n[ consid] ! ,effects ( ,heat ^u ,wat]4 ,we h all se5 ! vap\r t hangs above a locomotive eng9e4 ,we call x 8/eam40 ,x is n pure /eam1 = /eam is really invisible4 ,! visible vap\r is /eam on its way to become wat] aga94 ,on a v hot dry day we _c di/+ui% ! vap\r at all4 ,! fir/ effect ( heat ^u wat] is to exp& x2 & z ! heat is appli$ we "k t ! wat] cont9ues to exp& & bubble up2 & at la/1 :5 ! temp]ature is z high z #bab1 we say wat] 8boils0--t is1 at t heat x beg9s to pass away 9 vap\r1 & y w f9d t ! temp]ature ( ! /eam is ! same z ! boil+ wat]4 ,:ile und]go+ ?is trans=mation1 ! wat] increases 9 volume to #a1gjj times its orig9al bulk1 al?\gh x w weigh ! same z ! wat]4 ,s /eam has #a1gjj less specific gravity ?an wat]4 ,x is p]haps sc>cely necess>y to rem9d our read]s t wat]1 :5 heat$1 assumes trem5d\s =ce4 ,air likewise exp&s ) great viol5ce1 & ! vessels conta9+ ei!r /eam or air frequ5tly bur/1 ) de/ructive effects4 ,solid bodies also exp& :5 heat$1 & ! mo/ useful & accurate obs]vations h be5 made1 s t ! temp]atures at :i* solid bodies exp& are n[ exactly kn[n4 ,air also exp&s by heat4 ,:ile speak+ ( ,expansion by ,heat1 we may rem>k t a rapid movem5t is imp>t$ to ! air by ,heat4 ,9 any ord9>y room ! air bel[ is cool1 :ile if we m\nt a ladd] to hang up a picture1 = in/ance1 we %all f9d ! air q hot ne> ! ceil+4 ,?is is q 9 keep+ ) ! effects ( heat ^u wat]4 ,! hot p>ticles rise to ! top 9 a vessel1 & ?us a motion is convey$ to ! wat]4 ,s 9 our rooms4 ,! heat$ air ru%es up ! *imney & causes a draught1 & ?is produces motion1 z we h se5 by fig4 #ci1 9 :i* ! c>dbo>d spiral 0 set 9 motion by heat$ air4 ,a balloon w asc5d1 because x is fill$ ) heat$ air or gas2 & we all h se5 ! pap] balloons :i* w asc5d if a sponge conta9+ _s ( w9e be set on fire und]nea? !m4 ,w9ds are also only curr5ts ( air produc$ by unequal temp]ature 9 diff]5t places4 ,! heat$ air asc5ds1 & ! cold] fluid ru%es 9 sometimes ) great velocity to fill ! space4 8,l&0 & 8sea0 breezes are con/ant2 ! cool air bl[s 9 f ! sea dur+ ! day1 & z ! l& cools m rapidly at night1 ! breeze passes out aga94 ,:5 we t\* ^u ,meteorology1 we w h m to say respect+ ,air ,curr5ts & ! v>i\s ,atmosph]ic ,ph5om5a4 ,we "k t wat] c be made to boil by heat1 b x is n p]haps g5]ally kn[n t x w app>5tly boil by cold1 & ! exp]im5t may ?us be made3--,a flask half-full ( wat] is ma9ta9$ at ebullition = "s m9utes4 ,x is remov$ f ! s\rce ( heat1 cork$1 inv]t$1 & plac$ 9 "o ( ! r+s ( a retort /&4 ,if cold wat] is p\r$ on ! upturn$ bottom ( ! flask1 ! fluid w />t into viol5t ebullition4 ,! upp] portion ( ! flask is fill$ ) /eam1 :i* ma9ta9s a c]ta9 pressure on ! wat]4 ,by cool+ ! upp] portion ( ! flask "s ( ?is is cond5s$1 & ! pressure r$uc$4 ,! temp]ature at :i* wat] boils v>ies ) ! pressure4 ,:5 x is r$uc$1 wat] boils at a l[] heat4 ,by p\r+ ! cold wat] ov] ! flask we cond5se ! /eam s t ! wat] is hot en\gh to boil at ! r$uc$ pressure4 ,to ass]t t wat] boils by ! application ( cold is a *emical sophism4 ,ebullition & ,evaporation may be n[ consid]$1 & ^! are ! two pr9cipal modes by :i* liquids assume ! gase\s condition4 ,! diff]5ce is1 :5 wat] boils we t]m x ebullition 7f ! ,lat9 ebullio1 ,i boil72 evaporation means vap\r giv5 out by wat] n boil+ 7f evaporo1 ,i disp]se 9 vap\r74 ,!re are two op]ations bas$ ^u ! prop]ties :i* bodies possess ( assum+ ! =m ( vap\r "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 :i* are call$ ,di/illation & ,sublimation4 ,^! we w consid] pres5tly4 ,ebullition !n means a bubbl+ up or boil+2 & :5 wat] is heat$ 9 an op5 vessel two =ces oppose its conv]sion into vap\r2 viz41 its own cohesive =ce & atmosph]ic pressure4 ,at l5g?1 at #bab ,fahr41 ! p>ticles ( wat] h ga9$ by heat a =ce great] ?an ! oppos+ =ces2 bubbles ( vap\r rise up f ! bottom & g (f 9 vap\r4 ,?is is ebullition1 & at t po9t ! t5sion ( ! vap\r is equal to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 = if n1 ! bubbles w\ld n =m4 ,all ?is "t ( boil+1 not)/&+ any increase ( heat1 ! !rmomet] w n rise above #bab 7,fahr471 = all ! heat is employ$ 9 turn+ ! wat] to /eam4 ,we h said ! ebullition takes place at #bab ,fahr4 7or #ajj ,c471 b t is only at a c]ta9 level4 ,if we asc5d #fjj feet high we %all f9d t wat] w boil at a less temp]ature2 & on ! top ( a m\nta9 7say ,mont ,blanc7 wat] w boil at #ahe ,fahr42 s at an elevation ( ?ree miles wat] boils at a temp]ature less by #bg ,fahr4 ,an increase ( pressure simil>ly w raise ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,! heights ( m\nta9s are (t5 asc]ta9$ by notic+ ! boil+ po9t ( wat] on _! summits1 ! g5]al rule be+ a fall ( "o degree = e #ecj feet elevation at m$ium altitudes4 ,we app5d a few in/ances tak5 at r&om3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,place4 ,height above level ,b>omet] ,boil+ po9t ( ! sea--,feet4 mean height4( wat]1 ,fahr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,quito #i1eda #bjge #aidb ,mexico #g1dga #bbeb #aiha ,/4 ,go?>d #f1hjh #bcjg #aiib ,g>onne 7,pyr5ees7 #d1gch #bdif #bjcj ,g5eva #a1bba #bhed #bjie ,p>is 7#a/ floor7 #bac #bifi #baae ,sea level #j #cjjj #babj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,! diff]5ce = a degree dep5ds ^u ! height1 v>y+ betwe5 #eaj & #eij feet1 accord+ to ! elevation rea*$4 ,! approximate height ( a m\nta9 c be f\nd by multiply+ #ecj by ! numb] ( degrees betwe5 ! boil+ po9t & #bab4 ,9 "s v elevat$ regions travell]s h ev5 fail$ to boil potatoes4 ,! boil+ po9t ( liquid may be alt]$ by mix+ "s sub/ance ) x2 & al?\gh su* a sub/ance z sawdu/ w\ld n alt] ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 yet if ! =eign matt] be dissolv$ 9 ! liquid x w alt] ! boil+ po9t4 ,ev5 ! air dissolv$ 9 liquids alt]s _! boil+ po9t1 & wat] fre$ f air w n boil till x is rais$ to a temp]ature mu* high] ?an #bab ,fahr4 ,wat] w boil at a high] temp]ature 9 a glass vessel ?an 9 metal1 because !re is a great] attraction betwe5 wat] & glass4 ,we said above t an increase ( pressure w raise ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,"u ! pressure ( "o atmosph]e--t is1 :5 !re is a pressure ( #ae lbs4 on ! squ>e in*--wat] boils at #bab4 ,b "u a pressure ( two atmosph]es1 ! boil+ po9t rises to #bcd1 & ( f\r atmosph]es1 #bid4 ,s we see by increas+ ! pressure ! wat] may be almo/ indef9itely heat$1 & x w n boil4 ,we c und]/& t 9 a v deep vessel ! lay] ( wat] at ! bottom has to su/a9 ! pressure ( ! wat] 9 addition to ! weight ( ! atmosph]e above x4 ,! pressure ( ?irty-f\r feet ( wat] is equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure ( #ae lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 & ?us at su* a di/ance wat] mu/ be heat$ to #bcd be=e x w boil4 ,pr(essor ,buns5 f\nd$ 8 ,!ory ( ! ,geys]s ^u ?is fact1 = he ma9ta9$ t wat] fall+ into ! e>? lo/ mu* air1 & requir$ ) ! sup]-incumb5t pressure a v high temp]ature to boil x4 ,:5 x did boil x g5]at$ /eam s sudd5ly t x explod$ upw>ds1 ?r[+ up vap\r & ! wat] ) x1 z wat] p\r$ into a v hot bas9 w d4 ,evaporation may n[ be consid]$1 & is di/+ui%$ f ,ebullition by ! production ( vap\r on ! surface ( liquids1 ! latt] t]m signify+ ! =mation ( vap\r 9 ! body ( ! liquid4 ,evaporation takes place at all temp]atures1 & f e liquid surface expos$ to ! air4 ,we "k :at we call a 8dry+ w9d40 ,! air 9 fre% lay]s cont9ually pass+ ov] ! wet gr\nd1 takes up ! moi/ure2 l ! ea/ w9d1 = in/ance1 :i* has great capabilities ( t nature4 ,damp air c only take up a c]ta9 quantity1 & :5 x conta9s z mu* wat] z corresponds to ! temp]ature x c take no m1 & is 8saturat$ ) moi/ure02 !n evaporation ceases4 ,heat is a great cause ( evaporation1 & ! great] ! surface ! m rapid ! process1 & 9 a vacuum m readily ?an 9 atmosph]ic air4 ,evaporation is resort$ to v commonly to produce coolness2 = in/ance1 ! univ]sal fan1 by increas+ evaporation f a heat$ sk91 g5]ates a feel+ ( coolness2 & we "k ! vaporization ( e!r w freeze into ins5sibility4 ,:5 a fluid evaporates we c tell t ! heat passes away at ! same "t1 = we cool wat] 9 por\s j>s1 :i* p]mit "s ( x to pass (f 9 vap\r1 ! rema9d] be+ cool$4 ,sir ,john ,leslie inv5t$ a me?od ( freez+ wat] by rapid evaporation on sulphuric acid "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 & wat] has be5 froz5 ev5 on a hot plate by ^! means4 ,by p\r+ sulphur\s acid & wat] on ?is plate1 ! acid evaporates s quickly t x produces suffici5t cold to freeze ! wat] x quitt$ into solid ice4 ,we leave ! ph5om5a ( cl\ds & wat]y vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e = consid]ation on ano!r opportunity1 "u ! head ( ,meteorology1 ,ra91 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,app>atus = freez+ c>afes ( wat]4 ,an exp]im5t is (t5 p]=m$ by :i* wat] is froz5 9 a vacuum4 ,by putt+ a sauc] full ( wat] "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump x w fir/ boil1 & !n become a solid mass ( ice4 ,x is n difficult to und]/& ! cause ( ?is4 ,! wat] boils z soon z ! air is remov$2 b 9 ord] to pass f ! liquid to ! gase\s /ate )\t ! assi/ance ( ext]ior heat1 x gives out heat to ! surr\nd+s1 & 9 s do+ becomes ice itself4 ,?is fact ,mr4 ,c>r has made use ( 9 ! app>atus %[n above 7fig4 #hj74 ,a small pump creates a vacuum 9 ! wat] bottles1 & ice is =m$ 9 !m4 ,?is app>atus might easily be adopt$ 9 c\ntry h\ses1 & 9 places :]e ice is difficult to procure 9 summ]4 ,! only inconv5i5ce att5d+ x is ! employm5t ( sulphuric acid1 ( :i* a consid]able quantity is us$ to absorb ! vap\r f ! wat]1 z already ref]r$ to4 ,if prop] precautions are tak51 h[ev]1 !re w be no dang] 9 us+ ! app>atus4 ,! mode ( proce$+ is z foll[s3--,! bottle full ( wat] is jo9$ to ! air-pump by a tube1 & aft] a few /rokes ! wat] is se5 9 ebullition4 ,! vap\r ?us dis5gag$ trav]ses an int]m$iate res]voir fill$ ) sulphuric acid1 :i* absorbs x1 & imm$iately cond5ses x1 produc+ int5se cold4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! liquid rema9+ 9 ! c>afe "s ne$les ( ice w be se51 :i* gr[ rapidly1 & aft] a few m /rokes ( ! pump ! wat] w be f\nd trans=m$ into a mass ( ice4 ,?is is v easy ( accompli%m5t1 & 9 less ?an a m9ute ! c>afe full ( wat] w be f\nd froz54 ,! problem = ! truly economical =mation ( ice by artificial means is "o ( ^? :i* h occupi$ *emi/s = a long "t1 b hi!rto1 not)/&+ all _! ef=ts1 no satisfactory conclusion has be5 arriv$ at4 ,ne>ly e arrangem5t possesses "s drawback to its complete success1 :i* greatly increases ! co/ ( ! ice1 & causes inconv5i5ce 9 its production4 ,! usual mode 9 l>ge t[ns is to collect ! ice1 9 h\ses con/ruct$ = ! purpose1 dur+ ! w9t]1 & ?is simple me?od is also ! be/1 s f> z at pres5t has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,retort & ,receiv]4 ,9 connection ) vaporization we may n[ m5tion two processes ref]r$ to j n[ 7page #hc72 viz41 sublimation & di/illation4 ,! =m] is ! means :]eby we *ange solid bodies into vap\r & cond5se ! vap\r into prop] vessels4 ,! cond5s$ sub/ances :5 deposit$ are call$ sublimates1 & :5 we g into ,*emi/ry we %all he> m ( !m4 ,! mode ( proce$+ is to place ! sub/ance 9 a glass tube1 & apply heat to x4 ,vap\r w be =m$1 & w cond5se at ! cool end ( ! tube4 ,! sublimate ( sulphur is call$ 8,fl[]s ( ,sulphur10 & t ( p]*loride ( m]cury 8,corrosive ,sublimate40 ,di/illation is a m useful process1 or1 at any rate1 "o m frequ5tly employ$1 & is us$ to sep>ate a volatile body f sub/ances n volatile4 ,a di/ill+ app>atus 7di/illo1 to drop7 conv]ts a liquid to vap\r by means ( heat1 & !n cond5ses x by cold 9 a sep>ate vessel4 ,! di/ill+ app>atus consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1--! vessel 9 :i* ! liquid is heat$ 7! /ill1 or retort71 ! cond5s]1 & ! receiv]4 ,! simple retort & receiv] are %[n 9 fig4 #ha4 ,b :5 v volatile vap\rs are dealt )1 ! arrangem5t %[n on next page is us$ 7fig4 #hb74 ,!n ! vap\r passes into ! tube encas$ 9 a l>g] "o1 ! int]v5+ space be+ fill$ ) cold wat] f ! tap above 7c71 ! w>m wat] dropp+ f g4 ,! vap\rs are ?us cond5s$1 & drop into ! bottle 7or receiv]7 ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4--;,di/ill+ app>atus4 ,! app>atus = di/ill+ spirits is %[n bel[4 ,! 8/ill0 ,a is fitt$ into a furnace1 & communicates ) a worm ,o 9 a metal cyl9d] fill$ ) wat]1 kept con/antly r5ew$ ?r\gh ! tube ,,tt4 ,?is _s passes ?r\gh ! spiral1 & be+ cond5s$1 goes out into ! receiv] ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,_s /ill4 ,!re are ev5 m simple app>atus = _s di/ill+1 b ! diagram above w %[ ! pr9ciple ( all 8/ills40 ,9 =m] days1 9 ,irel&1 :iskey 0 g5]ally procur$ illegally by ^! means4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,specific ,,heat--,,fusion--,,lat5t ,,heat--,,conduction ,,& ,,convection ,,( ,,heat--,,caloresc5ce4 ,we h consid]$ ! effects ( heat ^u wat]1 & t\*$ ^u "o or two k9dr$ exp]im5ts4 ,b we h "s o!r subjects to discuss1 two 9 p>ticul>2 viz41 ,specific ,heat1 & ,lat5t ,heat4 ,! specific heat ( any sub/ance is 8! numb] ( units ( heat requir$ to raise "o p\nd ( su* sub/ance "o degree40 ,we c expla9 ?is f>!r4 ,:5 heat is communicat$ to a body x has two or ?ree functions to p]=m4 ,"s ( x has to ov]come ! resi/ance ( ! air 9 exp&+ ! body1 m ( x exp&s1 & ! rema9d] increases ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,s "s heat disappe>s z heat1 & is turn$ into en]gy1--8molecul> pot5tial en]gy10--z x is call$1 & ! re/ rema9s4 ,( c\rse 9 objects ! molecules v>y v mu* 9 weight & 9 _! mutual attraction1 & ! heat requisite to raise equal weights ( diff]5t sub/ances ?r\gh ! same numb] ( degrees ( temp]ature w v>y4 ,?is is call$ capacity = heat1 or specific heat4 ,! capacity ( diff]5t metals = heat c easily be %[n4 ,! specific heat ( wat] is v high1 because its capacity = heat is great4 ,we c cool a hot iron 9 v little wat]1 & x takes ?irty times z mu* heat to raise a giv5 weight ( wat] a c]ta9 numb] ( degrees1 z x w\ld to raise ! same weight ( m]cury to ! same temp]ature4 ,wat] has great] specific heat1 g5]ally speak+1 ?an o!r bodies1 & x is ow+ to ?is circum/ance t ! climate is s affect$ by ocean curr5ts4 ,ne>ly all sub/ances c be melt$ by heat1 if we g f> en\gh1 or froz51 if we c\ld take ! heat away4 ,solid c be made liquid1 & ^! liquids c be made gases & fly (f 9 vap\r4 ,simil>ly1 if we c\ld only get heat away suffici5tly f ! atoms ( a sub/ance we c\ld freeze x4 ,we _c freeze alcohol1 nor make ice f air1 nor c we liquify x1 = we are unable to take away its heat suffici5tly4 ,b we c turn wat] into /eam1 & into ice2 or ice into wat]1 & !n into /eam4 ,b !re is "o body we _c melt by heat1 t is c>bon4 ,9 ! hotte/ fire coal w n melt1 x becomes s(t4 ,we call ?is melt+ fusion1 & e body has its melt+ po9t1 or fus+ po9t1 :i* is ! same at all times if ! air pressure be ! same4 ,x is a curi\s fact t :5 a body is melt+ x rises to a c]ta9 temp]ature 7its fus+ po9t71 & !n gets no hott]1 no matt] :e!r or n ! fire be increas$2--all ! extra heat goes to melt ! rema9d] ( ! sub/ance4 ,! heat only produces *anges ( /ate4 ,s ?is heat above fus+ po9t disappe>s app>5tly1 & is call$ ,lat5t ,heat4 ,?is c easily be prov$ by melt+ ice4 ,ice melts at #cb ,fahr41 or #j ,c5t41 & at t temp]ature x w rema9 s long z any ice is left2 b ! wat] at #cb1 into :i* ! ice has melt$1 conta9s a great deal ( lat5t heat1 = x has melt$ ! ice quickly1 & yet ! !rmomet] does n %[ x4 ,x is j ! same ) boil+ wat]4 ,:5 sub/ances are fus$ !y exp& z a rule1 b ice contracts2 s does antimony4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 wat] solidifies x does n contract z mo/ ?+s d4 ,x exp&s1 z _m ( u are aw>e1 by f9d+ our wat] pipes bur/ 9 ! w9t]2 & ! geologi/ w tell u h[ ! t9y trickl+ rills ( wat] fall 9 betwe5 ! cracks ( rocks & !re freeze4 ,9 freez+ ! drops exp& & split ! granite blocks4 ,type-metal exp&s also :5 x becomes solid1 & leaves u a cle> type2 b copp] contracts1 & won't d = m\ld+1 s we h to /amp x :5 we want an impression on x4 ,!re is no d\bt t *emical comb9ations produce heat1 z we c see e day 9 h\se-build+ op]ations1 :5 wat] is p\r$ ^u lime2 b !re are also *emical comb9ations :i* produce cold4 ,fahr5heit produc$ 8 greate/ cold by comb9+ sn[ & salt1 = 9 ! act ( comb9+1 a great quantity ( heat is swall[$ up by reason ( ! heat becom+ lat5t1 z x w d :5 solid bodies become liquid4 ,su* mixtures or comb9ations are us$ z ,freez+ ,mixtures :5 x is necess>y to produce int5se cold artificially4 ,sulphate ( ,sodium & ,hydro*loric acid w also produce great cold1 & !re are _m o!r comb9ations equally or ev5 m efficaci\s4 ,heat is communicat$ to surr\nd+ objects 9 ?ree well-kn[n ways--by conduction1 by radiation1 & by convection4 ,conduction ( heat is easily und]/ood1 & is ! propagation ( heat ?r\gh any body1 & x v>ies v mu* accord+ to ! sub/ance ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,"s sub/ances are bett] conductors ( heat ?an o!rs4 ,silv] has a f> great] conductivity ?an gold1 & copp] is a bett] heat-conductor ?an t94 ,flannel is a non-conductor1 or r a bad conductor1 = no sub/ance c be t]m$ actually a non-conductor4 ,flannel1 we "k1 w keep ice f melt+1 & a %eep's wool or a bird's fea!rs are also bad conductors ( heat2 s ,nature has provid$ ^! cov]+s to keep 9 ! animal heat ( ! body4 ,a good conductor ( heat feels cold to ! t\* ( our f+]s1 because x takes ! heat f our h&s4 ,?is c be tri$ by t\*+ silv]1 lead1 m>ble1 wood1 & wool4 ,ea* 9 turn w feel cold & less cold1 because !y respectively draw away1 or conduct less & less heat f our bodies4 ,s our clo!s are made ( bad-conduct+ sub/ances4 ,! b>k ( a tree is a bad conductor1 & if y /rip (f ?is clo?+ ! tree w die4 ,solids conduct heat ! bett] ! m compact !y are4 ,air be+ a bad conductor x foll[s t ! less tightly ! molecules are pack$ ! less conductibility !re w be2 & ev5 a sub/ance p[d]$ w be a worse conductor ?an ! same sub/ance 9 solid =m2 & also m readily 9 ! direction ( ! fibres ?an crossways4 ,liquids d n possess great conductivity1 b !y1 z well z gases1 are influ5c$ by convection1 or ! transport ( heat f ! bottom lay]s to ! top 7conveho1 to c>ry up74 ,we h already m5tion$ t ! heat$ p>ticles ( wat] rise to ! top because !y exp&1 & s become light]4 ,?is is convection ( heat2 & by x liquids & gases1 ?\gh actually bad conductors1 may become heat$ ?r\gh\t to a uni=m temp]ature4 ,( c\rse ! m easily expansible ! body is ! m rapidly w convection take place--s gases are m readily affect$ ?an liquids4 ,solids are n affect$1 because convection ( heat dep5ds ^u molecul> movem5t or mobility1 & x is obvi\s t ! p>ticles ( solid bodies are n mobile4 ,pr(essor ,balf\r ,/ew>t says ) ref]5ce to ?is t 87 !re no gravity !re w\ld be no convection10 = ! displacem5t ( ! light w>m p>ticles by ! heavi] cold ones is due to gravity4 ,! in/ances ( convection ( heat 9 nature are num]\s1 & on a gigantic scale4 ,! ocean curr5ts1 trade w9ds1 lake freez+1 etc41 :ile ! *imney draught already ref]r$ to1 is ano!r example2 & 9 all ^! cases ! p>ticles ( air or wat] are replac$ by convection4 ,9 ! case ( ! lake freez+ ! cold p>ticles at ! top s9k1 & ! w>m] ones asc5d1 until all ! lake is at a temp]ature ( #cfb1 or say #d above freez+4 ,at ?is temp]ature wat] assumes its maximum d5sity1 & !n exp&s1 z we h se51 in/ead ( contract+4 ,ice is =m$1 & be+ ?us light] ?an wat]1 floats2 & s unites to cov] 9 ! wat] und]nea?1 :i* is nev] froz5 solid1 because ! cold ( ! atmosph]e _c rea* x ?r\gh ! ice 9 "t to solidify ! :ole mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,radiant heat4 ,radiant heat is ! motion ( heat transmitt$ to ! e!r1 & ?r\gh x 9 ! =m ( waves4 ,! sun's heat is radiant heat1 & radiation may be def9$ z 8,! communication ( ! motion ( heat f ! articles ( a heat$ sub/ance to ! e!r40 ,! fire gives out radiant heat1 & s does heat$ metal1 & x is transmitt$ by an unse5 m$ium4 ,x is q c]ta9 t ! heat ( a susp5d$ r$-hot pok] is n communicat$ to ! air1 because x w cool equally 9 a vacuum4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy prov$ t radiant heat c\ld trav]se a vacuum1 = by putt+ t9 reflectors 9 an exhau/$ receiv] he f\nd t a hot sub/ance 9 ! focus ( "o reflector caus$ an increase 9 ! heat ( ! o!r4 ,if we put a r$-hot or a hot sub/ance 9 "o reflector1 & t9d] 9 ! o!r1 ! latt] w take fire4 ,! velocity ( heat rays is equal to t ( light1 #ahf1jjj miles 9 a second1 & inde$1 radiant heat is id5tical ) light4 ,heat is reflect$ z is light1 & is refract$ 9 ! same way z s\nd4 ,"s bodies all[ ! heat rays to pass ?r\gh !m1 z air does1 & z rock salt w d4 ,:ite clo?+ is pref]able 9 summ] 7& also 9 w9t] if we c\ld only make p believe x74 ,:ite g>m5ts radiate less heat 9 w9t]1 & absorb less heat 9 summ]4 ,an old black kettle w boil wat] m quickly ?an a new bright "o1 b ! latt] w keep ! wat] hott] = ! long] "t :5 n on ! fire4 ,heat1 !n1 is movem5t ( p>ticles4 ,en]gy c be *ang$ into heat1 z ! savage f9ds :5 he rubs ! bits ( wood to produce heat & fire4 ,friction causes heat1 & *emical comb9ation produces heat2 &1 if 8visible en]gy c be turn$ into heat1 heat c be turn$ back into visible en]gy40 ,= fire heats wat]1 wat] exp&s into /eam1 & /eam produces motion & en]gy 9 ! /eam-eng9e4 ,if we heat wat] 9 ,wolla/on's bulb1--! op5+ ( :i* is h]metically /opp$ by a pi/on1--! vap\r w raise ! pi/on4 ,if we cool ! bulb we cond5se ! /eam1 & ! pi/on falls4 ,"h we h ! pr9ciple ( ! /eam-eng9e4 ,,/eam is ! vap\r ( wat] educ$ by heat1 & we may give a few p>ticul>s conc]n+ x4 ,its me*anical prop]ties are ! same z ^? ( o!r gases1 & pure /eam is col\rless & transp>5t--9 fact1 invisible4 ,its p[] :5 conf9$ 9 boil]s & subject$ to pressure is enorm\s1 = ! volume ( ! /eam is f> great] ?an ! wat] :i* gave rise to x4 ,"o cubic in* ( wat] w produce #a1gjj cubic in*es ( /eam--9 o!r words1 a cubic in* ( wat] produces a cubic foot ( /eam4 ,:5 we obta9 /eam at #bab1 we d s "u ! pressure ( "o atmosph]e2 b by increas+ ! pressure we c raise ! boil+ po9t1 & ?us wat] at ! pressures ( sixte5 atmosph]es w n /eam till x rea*es #cih4 ,x is ?us we obta9 pressure = locomotives1 & o!r eng9es1 al?\gh a v small portion ( ! /eam does "w4 ,mu* ! l>ge/ portion is exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ cohesion1 & "o way & ano!r1 tak+ into consid]ation defects 9 ma*9]y1 only ab\t "o-t5? ( ! heat is employ$ 9 do+ ! "w4 ,! =ce ex]cis$ by /eam "u atmosph]ic pressure is suffici5t to raise a ton weight "o foot4 ,to obta9 v high temp]atures we %all f9d ! !rmomet] ( no use1 = m]cury boils at #ffb1 s an in/rum5t call$ a ,pyromet] is us$ to asc]ta9 ! fus+ po9t ( metals4 ,mr4 ,w$gwood1 ! celebrat$ *9a manufactur]1 inv5t$ an in/rum5t made ( small cyl9d]s ( clay m\ld$ & back$1 plac$ betwe5 two brass rods z gauges divid$ into in*es & t5?s4 ,b ?is in/rum5t has be5 long sup]s$$ by ,pr(essor ,daniell's ,pyromet]1 :i* consi/s ( a small b> ( plat9a 9 an e>!nw>e tube4 ,! diff]5ce ( expansion betwe5 ! plat9a & ! tube is measur$ on a scale on :i* "o degree is equal to sev5 degrees ( ,fahr5heit4 ,?us ! melt+ temp]atures ( metals are asc]ta9$4 ,! reflection & refraction ( heat are rul$ by ! same laws z ! reflection & refraction ( light4 ,a convex l5s w br+ ! heat or light to a focus1 & w act z a burn+-glass if held 9 ! sunlight4 ,gunp[d] has be5 ignit$ by a l5s ( ice1 & m ?an "o h\se has be5 my/]i\sly set on fire at midday 9 summ] by ! sun's rays %9+ ?r\gh a glass globe ( wat] conta9+ gold fi%1 & fall+ ^u "s inflammable sub/ance4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall p]=m$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ( a v int]e/+ nature1 describ$ 9 8 book1 8,heat consid]$ z a ,mode or ,motion10 & %[$ ! transmutation ( invisible heat rays into visible rays1 by pass+ a beam ( electric light ?r\gh an opaque solution1 & conc5trat+ x ^u a l5s4 ,! d>k heat rays 7 ?us br\ght to a focus1 all ! light 0 cut (f1 & at ! d>k focus ! heat 0 f\nd to be int5se en\gh to melt copp] & explode gunp[d]4 ,?is *ange ( invisible heat into light is t]m$ ,caloresc5ce4 ,x 0 ,sir ,william ,h]s*ell :o discov]$ t !re 7 heat rays beyond ! r$ end ( ! spectrum4 ,:5 light is split up into its compon5t rays1 or decompos$1 ,sir ,william f\nd t ! heat increas$ z ! !rmomet] pass$ f violet to indigo1 & s on to blue1 gre51 orange1 & r$1 & ! la/ 7 ! hotte/1 :ile beyond ! spectrum !re 0 heat ev5 great]4 ,a ,heat ,spectrum 0 ?us discov]$1 & by comp>+1 by means ( ! !rmomet]1 ! v>i\s degrees ( heat )9 c]ta9 limits1 ,pr(essor ,tyndall f\nd t ! invisible ,heat ,spectrum is long] ?an ! visible ,light ,spectrum4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,light ,,& ,,its ,,s\rces--,,:at ,,is ,,light8--,,velocity ,,( ,,light--,,reflection ,,& ,,refraction--,,relative ,,value ,,( ,,lights4 ,! subject ( ,light & ! sci5ce ( ,optics are s int]e/+ to all ( u t "s %ort hi/ory ( light is necess>y be=e we c ent] ^u ! sci5tific portion ( ! subject4 ,! nature ( ! ag5t 7z we may t]m light7 ^u :i* our sight dep5ds has employ$ man's m9d f a v e>ly p]iod4 ,! anci5ts 7 ( op9ion t ! light proce$$ f ! eye to ! object look$ at4 ,b !y discov]$ "s ( ! prop]ties ( light4 ,ptolemy ( ,alex&ria1 :o 0 born ,a4,d4 #gj1 made "s attempts to discov] ! law ( ,refraction2 & we are in=m$ t ,ar*im$es set ! ,roman fleet on fire ) burn+-glasses at ,syracuse4 ,! ,arabian treatise ( ,alhag51 9 #aajj ,a4,d41 conta9s a description ( ! eye & its sev]al p>ts2 & ! writ] notices refraction & ! effects ( magnify+ glasses 7or spectacles74 ,gal51 ! physician1 practically discov]$ ! pr9ciple ( ! /]eoscope1 = he laid d[n ! law t our view ( a solid body is made up ( two pictures se5 by ea* eye sep>ately4 ,/ill ! sci5ce ( optics made little progress till ! law det]m9+ ! pa? ( a ray ( light 0 made kn[n1 & ! laws ( refraction discov]$4 ,refraction means t a ray is deflect$ f its /raight c\rse by its passage f "o transp>5t m$ium to ano!r ( diff]5t d5sity4 ,! old philosoph]s f\nd out ! !ory ( s\nd1 & !y appli$ !mselves to light4 ,newton said light consi/$ ( m9ute p>ticles emanat+ f lum9\s bodies4 ,huygh5s & ,eul] oppos$ ,newton's !ory ( ! emission ( light2 & x 0 n till ! celebrat$ ,?omas ,"y1 ,pr(essor at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 grappl$ ) ! "q t ! undulat+ or wave !ory ( light 0 f\nd out4 ,he bas$ 8 inve/igations ^u ! !ory ( s\nd waves2 & we "k t heat1 light1 & s\nd are mo/ wond]fully alli$ 9 _! mann] ( motion by vibration4 ,b he 0 ridicul$1 & 8 "w tempor>ily suppress$ by ,mr4 ,br\gham4 ,light1 !n1 is a vibratory motion 7l s\nd & heat71 a motion ( ! atoms ( our e!r4 ,b h[ is ! motion transmitt$8 ,s\nd has its m$ium1 air2 & 9 a vacuum s\nds w be v indi/9ctly he>d1 if he>d at all4 ,b :at is ! m$ium ( communication ( light8 ,x is decid$ t light is transmitt$ ?r\gh a m$ium call$ e!r1 a v ela/ic sub/ance surr\nd+ u4 ,! vibrations1 ,pr(essor ,tyndall & o!r philosoph]s tell u1 ( ! lum9\s atoms are communicat$ to ?is e!r1 or propagat$ ?r\gh x 9 waves2 ^! waves ent] ! pupil ( ! eye1 & /rike ^u ! ret9a4 ,! motion is ?us communicat$ by ! optic n]ve to ! bra91 & !n arises ! great prim>y faculty1 ,consci\sness4 ,we see light1 ! waves ( :i*1 or e!r vibrations1 are transv]sal2 air waves or s\nd vibrations are longitud9al4 ,we h spok5 ( radiant heat4 ,light acts 9 ! same way ?r\gh ! e!r2 & :5 we consid] ,s\nd we %all le>n t a c]ta9 numb] ( vibrations ( a /r+ give a c]ta9 s\nd1 & ! quick] ! vibration ! %rill] ! tone4 ,s 9 light4 ,! m quickly ! waves ( lum9osity travel to our eye1 & ! fa/] !y /rike x1 ! great] ! diff]5ce 9 ! col\r1 or :at we call col\r4 ,light z we see x is compos$ ( diff]5t col\rs1 z visible 9 ! ra9b[4 ,!re are sev5 prim>y col\rs 9 ! sunlight1 :i* is :ite4 ,^! c be divid$ or 8disp]s$10 & ! %orte/ rays ( ! spectrum are f\nd to be violet1 ! longe/ r$4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t #ci1jjj r$ waves make an in* 9 l5g?4 ,light travels at a rate ( ne>ly #aij1jjj miles a second1 s if we multiply ! numb] ( in*es 9 t di/ance by ! numb] ( r$ waves1 we %all h millions ( millions ( waves ent]+ ! eye 9 a s+le second ( "t4 ,! o!r waves ent] m rapidly /ill1 & 8! numb] ( %ocks correspond+ to ! impression ( violet is sev5 hundr$ & eighty-n9e millions ( millions0 p] second6 ,or tak+ ! velocity ( light at #ahf1jjj miles 9 a second1 x w\ld be six hundr$ & sev5ty-eight millions ( millions 7,tyndall74 ,!re may be o!r col\rs :i* we _c see because ! impressions come too rapidly ^u ! ret9a2 b ! violet impression has be5 ?us accurately det]m9$4 ,see page #afh4 ,we h se5 t heat is a k9d ( motion ( p>ticles 9 a body--a vibratory motion :i*1 in/ead ( be+ app>5t to ! e>1 is app>5t to ! eye 9 rays ( light4 ,?us heat1 s\nd1 & light are all intimately connect$ 9 ?is way4 ,we h also le>nt t rays ( light radiate & travel ) trem5d\s spe$ to our eyes1 b )\t any %ock4 ,!re is no feel+ connect$ ) ! entrance ( light to ! eye any m ?an !re is any s5sation ( s\nd :5 ent]+ ! e>1 except :5 ! light is vividly & v sudd5ly reveal$1 or :5 a v pi]c+ s\nd is he>d4 ,!n ! n]ves are excit$1 & a pa9ful s5sation is ! result2 b "u ord9>y circum/ances we are n physically consci\s ( ! entrance ( light or s\nd4 ,heat & light are consid]$ to be "o & ! same ?+ 9 diff]5t degrees ( int5sity4 ,! s\rces ( light are v>i\s4 ,! sun & fix$ />s1 heat1 electricity1 _m animals1 & "s plants1 z well z decay+ animal matt]1 give out light4 ,!re are lum9\s & non-lum9\s bodies4 ,! moon is non-lum9\s1 z %e d]ives h] light f ! sun1 z does ! e>?1 etc4 ,light is di/ribut$ 9 rays4 ,^! rays are /raight 9 all directions4 ,! velocity ( light is almo/ inconceivable4 ,x travels at a rate ( #ahf1ejj miles a second4 ,! late/ computation ) electric light has giv5 a rate ( #ahg1bjj miles a second2 b ! blue rays 9 ! light exp]im5t$ on probably acc\nt = ! diff]5ce1 = blue rays travel quick] by "o p] c5t4 ?an r$ rays4 ,rm] fir/ f\nd out ! velocity ( light1 :i* comes to u f ! sun--n9ety millions ( miles--9 eight m9utes4 ,fizeau calculat$ ! velocity by means ( a :eel1 :i* 0 set mov+ ) trem5d\s spe$ by mak+ ! light pass betwe5 ! tee? ( ! :eel & back aga94 ,:5 rays ( light meet sub/ances !y are deflect$1 & ! ph5om5a "u ^! circum/ances are some:at simil> to ! ph5om5a ( heat & s\nd4 ,!re are ?ree p>ticul> conditions ( rays ( light3 7#a7 !y are absorb$2 7#b7 !y are reflect$2 7#c7 !y are refract$4 ,fir/ly4 ,let u see :at we mean by light be+ absorb$2 & ?is is n difficult to und]/&1 = any 8black0 sub/ance %[s u at once t all ! sunlight is tak5 9 by ! black object1 & does n come out aga94 ,x does n take 9 ! light & radiate x1 z x might heat4 ,! rose is r$1 because ! rays ( light pass ?r\gh x1 & c]ta9 ( !m are reflect$ f )94 ,s col\r may be /at$ to be ! rays ?r[n out by ! objects !mselves--^? !y reject or reflect be+ ! 8col\r0 ( ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,angle ( reflection1 etc4 ,secondly4 ,bodies :i* reflect light v p]fectly are kn[n z mirrors1 & !y are t]m$ plane1 concave1 or convex mirrors1 accord+ to =m4 ,a plane mirror reflects s t ! reflect$ ray d i =ms ! same angle ) ! p]p5dicul> z ! incid5t ray r i2 9 o!r words1 ! angle ( incid5ce is always equal to ! angle ( reflection1 & ^! rays are p]p5dicul> to ! plane f :i* !y are reflect$4 ,! rays div]ge1 s t !y appe> to come f a po9t z f> beh9d ! mirror z ! lum9\s po9t is 9 front1 & ! images reflect$ h ! same appe>ance1 b rev]s$4 ,!re is ano!r law1 :i* is t 8! angul> velocity ( a beam reflect$ f a mirror is twice t ( ! mirror40 ,! ,kaleidoscope1 ) :i* we are all famili>1 is bas$ ^u ! fact ( ! multiplication ( images by two mirrors incl9+ t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,concave mirror4 ,a concave mirror is se5 9 ! accompany+ diagram1 & may be call$ ! segm5t ( a holl[ sph]e--,v ,w4 ,! po9t ,c is ! geometrical c5tre1 & ,o ,c ! radius2 ,f is ! focus2 ! l9e pass+ ?r\gh x is ! optical axis2 ,o be+ ! optical c5tre4 ,all p]p5dicul> rays pass ?r\gh ,c4 ,all rays fall+ 9 a direction p>allel ) ! optical axis are reflect$ & collect$ at ,f4 ,magnifi$ images w be produc$1 & if ! object be plac$ betwe5 ! mirror & ! focus1 ! image w appe> at ! back2 :ile if ! object be plac$ betwe5 ! geometrical c5tre & ! focus1 ! image w appe> to be 9 front ( ! mirror4 ,we c und]/& ^! ph5om5a by ! accompany+ diagrams4 ,suppose a ray ,a n passes f "o object1 ,a ,b1 at "r angles1 x w be reflect$ z n ,a ,c1 ! ray ,a ,c be+ reflect$ to ,f4 ,^! _c meet 9 front ( ! mirror1 b !y w if produc$ meet at a1 & ! po9t ,a w be reflect$ !re2 simil>ly ,b w be reflect$ at b1 & ?us a magnifi$ image w appe> beh9d or at ! back ( ! mirror's surface4 ,9 ! next diagram ! second suppos$ case w produce ! image 9 ! air at a b1 & if a %eet ( pap] be held s t ! rays are int]cept$1 ! image w be visible on ! %eet4 ,9 ?is case ! p]p5dicul> ray1 ,a n1 is reflect$ 9 ! same direction1 & ! ray1 a c1 p>allel ) ! axis is reflect$ to ! focus4 ,^! rays meet at a & correspond+ rays at b1 :5 ! image w be reproduc$2 viz41 9 front ( ! mirror4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,reflection ( mirrors 7,i74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,reflection ( mirrors 7,,ii74 ,! concave mirror is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( telescopes1 :i*1 ) o!r optical in/rum5ts1 w be describ$ 9 _! prop] places4 ,we w n[ look at ! ,refraction ( light4 ,bodies :i* p]mit rays ( light to pass ?r\gh !m are t]m$ transp>5t4 ,"s possess ?is prop]ty m ?an o!rs1 & s long z ! light passes ?r\gh ! same m$ium ! direction w rema9 ! same4 ,b if a ray fall ^u a body ( a diff]5t degree ( d5sity x _c proce$ 9 ! same direction1 & x w be brok5 or refract$1 ! angle x makes be+ t]m$ ! angle ( refraction4 ,= in/ance1 a /raight /ick :5 plung$ into wat] appe>s to be brok5 at ! po9t ( imm]sion4 ,?is appe>ance is caus$ by ! rays ( light tak+ a diff]5t direction to our eyes4 ,if 9 ! diagram 7fig4 #hi7 our eye 7 at o1 & ! vessel 7 empty1 we %\ld n see m2 b :5 wat] is p\r$ into ! vessel ! object w appe> high] up at n1 & all objects "u wat] appe> high] ?an !y really are4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,refraction 9 wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,a wat]-bottle employ$ z a conv]g5t l5s4 ,"o may also place a piece ( money at ! bottom ( a bas91 & !n /oop d[n gradually1 until1 ! edge ( ! bas9 int]v5+1 ! co9 is lo/ to view4 ,if an op]ator !n fills ! bas9 ) wat]1 ! piece ( money appe>s z ?\gh ! bottom _h be5 rais$4 ,! glass l5ses us$ by pr(essors may be v well replac$ by a r\nd wat]-bottle full ( wat]4 ,a c&le is light$ 9 ! d>kness1 & on hold+ ! bottle betwe5 ! light & a wall :i* acts z a scre51 we see ! reflect$ light turn$ upside d[n by means ( ! conv]g5t l5s we h improvis$ 7fig4 #ij74 ,a balloon ( glass con/itutes an excell5t microscope4 ,x mu/ be fill$ ) p]fectly cle>1 limpid wat]1 & clos$ by means ( a cork4 ,a piece ( wire is !n roll$ r\nd its neck1 & "o end is rais$1 & turn$ up t[>ds ! focus2 viz41 to support ! object we wi% to exam9e1 :i* is magnifi$ sev]al diamet]s4 ,if a fly1 = in/ance1 is at ! end ( ! wire1 we f9d x is highly magnifi$ :5 se5 ?r\gh ! glass balloon 7fig4 #ia74 ,by exam9+ ! insect ?r\gh ! wat] 9 ! balloon1 we c di/+ui% e feature ( its organism1 ?anks to ?is improvis$ magnifi]4 ,?is little app>atus may also s]ve to increase ! int5sity ( a lum9\s focus ( feeble p[]1 su* z a light$ c&le4 ,x is (t5 employ$ 9 ?is mann] by wat*mak]s4 ,if a bottle full ( wat] is plac$ on a table1 & expos$ to ! rays ( ! sun1 ! head ( a lucif] mat* be+ plac$ 9 ! brighte/ c5tre ( light caus$ by ! refract$ rays1 ! mat* w n fail to ignite4 ,i h succe$$ 9 ?is exp]im5t ev5 "u an ,octob] sun1 & /ill m readily 9 w>m wea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,a simple microscope =m$ ) a glass balloon full ( wat]4 ,9 ! ,cons]vatoire des ,arts 9 ,p>is a visitor w always notice a numb] ( p look+ at ! mirrors 9 ! 8optical0 cab9ets4 ,^! mirrors de=m & di/ort objects 9 a v curi\s mann]1 & p f9d mu* amusem5t 9 gaz+ into !m till !y are 8mov$ on0 by ! att5dants4 ,su* exp]im5ts create great int]e/1 & a v excell5t sub/itute = ^! may be f\nd 9 a c(fee-pot or ev5 9 a l>ge spoon1 & all ! grotesque appe>ance w be se5 9 ! poli%$ surface4 ,! lea/ co/ly app>atus w sometimes produce ! mo/ m>vell\s effects4 ,look at a soap-bubble bl[n f ! end ( a /raw4 ,:5 ! sph]e has a v small diamet] ! pellicule is col\rless & transp>5t2 b z ! air ent]s by degrees1 press+ ^u all p>ts ( ! concave surface equally1 ! bubble gets bigg] z ! ?ickness decreases1 & !n ! col\rs appe>1--feeble at fir/1 b /rong] & /rong] z ! ?ickness dim9i%es4 ,! /udy ( soap-bubbles & ( ! effects ( ! light is v int]e/+4 ,newton made ! soap-bubble ! object ( 8 /udies & m$itations1 & x w ev] hold its place among/ ! curi\s ph5om5a ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,optics4 ,b be=e go+ into all ! phases ( ,lights & ,optics we w proce$ to expla9 ! /ructure ( ! eye1 z x is ?r\gh t organ t we are enabl$ to appreciate light & its m>vell\s effects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,grotesque effects ( curv$ surfaces4 ,x is (t5 consid]$ an emb>rass+ matt] to fix precisely ! value ( two lights4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 c be easi] 9 reality1 z we w %[4 ,9 comp>+ diff]5t lights1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d ! am\nt ( wa/e1 ! col\r ( ! light1 ! lum9\s value ( ! s\rce1 & ! /ead9ess ( ! flame4 ,! lum9\s value ( a lamp-burn] is g5]ally equall$ by t ( a wax c&le1 & we w take z an example "o ( ^? at six to ! p\nd4 ,v precise appliances are us$ = ?is exp]im5t :5 great exactness is requir$2 b x is easy to calculate 9 a simple mann] ! diff]5ces 9 ord9>y lights4 ,suppos+ we desire to te/ ! value ( light giv5 by a lamp & a wax c&le1 !y mu/ bo? be plac$ on ! table at an equal height1 ,b & ,a1 7fig4 #ic71 9 front ( "s opaque body1 ,a1 & !n a l>ge %eet ( pap] mu/ be fix$ z v]tically z possible to =m a scre54 ,:5 ,b & ,a are light$1 two %ad[s1 ,e & ,f1 are produc$1 to :i* x is easy to give exactly ! same int5sity1 by advanc+ or )draw+ "o ( ! two s\rces ( light4 ,! int5sities ( ! two lights w !n be inv]sely proportional to ! squ>es ( ! measur$ di/ances1 ,,ab & ,,ac4 ,by a simil> c>eful calculation x has be5 possible to draw up a table ( ! relative values ( v>i\s ord9>y lights4 ,we h n includ$ "h ! electric light1 :i* has rec5tly attract$ s mu* att5tion1 because ?is sy/em ( light+ c h>dly be said to h yet p5etrat$ ! doma9 ( dome/ic life2 b :5 we consid] electricity1 z we hope to d 9 a future "p1 we int5d to /udy ?is "q fully1 = !re is no d\bt t electricity is becom+ m & m adapt$ to our daily life4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,an elem5t>y ,photomet]4 ,! measurem5t ( int5sity ( light is call$ ,photometry1 & ! in/rum5ts us$ are ,photomet]s4 ,buns5's in/rum5t consi/s ( a scre5 ( writ+-pap]1 saturat$ 9 places ) sp]maceti to make x transp>5t4 ,a sp]m c&le is plac$ on "o side1 & ! light to be comp>$ on ! o!r4 ,! lights are provid$ ) graduat$ b>s1 & ^! lights are !n remov$ f>!r & f>!r f ! scre5 till ! spots ( grease are invisible4 ,! relative int5sities are z ! squ>es ( ! di/ance f ! scre54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4--,! soap-bubble4 ,we app5d a table %[+ ! comp>ative co/ ( light giv5 by ,dr4 ,frankl& at ! ,royal ,in/itution "s few ye>s ago4 ,! /&>d ( comp>ison 0 #bj sp]m c&les burn+ = #aj h\rs at ! rate ( #abj gra9s an h\r3-- s4 d4 ,wax #g #b ,sp]m ,oil #a #aj ,p>aff9 #c #aj ,sp]maceti #f #h ,coal ,gas #j #d ,p>aff9 ,oil #j #f ,tall[ #b #h ,cannel ,gas #j #c ,rock ,oil #j #g ,!re are _m o!r int]e/+ exp]im5ts connect$ ) ,light1--,spectrum ,analysis1 etc41 etc41--all ( :i* we w def] = a "t until we h exam9$ ! ,eye & "s effects produc$ ^u x by ,light1 illu/rat$ by num]\s diagrams 9 ! pages next foll[+4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,vision ,,& ,,optical ,,illusions--,,! ,,eye ,,describ$--,,accommodation ,,( ,,! ,,eye--,,*romatic ,,ab]ration--,,sp9n+ ,,tops4 ,! eye is an optical in/rum5t t may be comp>$ ) ^? con/ruct$ by physici/s !mselves2 ! m$ia ( :i* x is compos$ h surfaces l ^? :i* ent] into ! con/ruction ( optical in/rum5ts4 ,x 0 ,kepl] :o at ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury discov]$ ! passage ( light into ! eye4 ,soon aft] ! discov]y ( ! inn] *amb] he f\nd t ! eye realiz$ ! conditions t ,porta _h comb9$ to obta9 ! reflection ( ext]nal objects4 ,we w n[ briefly /ate t ! coats ( ?is organ are con/itut$ ( a fibr\s membrane1 ,t 7fig4 #ie71 t]m$ scl]otic1 :i* is opaque1 except 9 ! ant]ior portion ( ! eye1 :]e x =ms ! transp>5t cornea4 ,! cry/all9e1 ,c1 en%r9$ beh9d ! cornea1 is ! conv]g5t l5s ( ! inn] *amb]2 x is cov]$ ) a transp>5t membrane1 or capsule1 & is ba!d 9 two fluids1 ! aque\s hum\r1 betwe5 ! cry/all9e hum\r & ! cornea1 & ! vitre\s body1 a gelat9\s hum\r lodg$ betwe5 ! cry/all9e & ! back ( ! eye4 ,! image ( ext]ior objects :i* is produc$ by ! passage ( light ?r\gh ^! refract+ surfaces1 is receiv$ by a n]v\s membrane1 ! ret9a1 ,b1 =m$ by an expansion ( ! optic n]ve1 ,n4 ,we mu/ also m5tion ! *oroid1 a membrane l9$ ) a d>k pigm5t1 :i* absorbs ! light1 & prev5ts int]ior reflections1 & 9 front ( ! cry/all9e l5s1 a curta9 ) an op5+1 ,h1 call$ ! iris1 :i* gives to ! eyes _! col\r ( blue1 grey1 or black4 ,! op5+ 9 ! c5tre ( ! iris is call$ ! pupil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,/ructure ( ! eye4 ,! p5etration ( light ?r\gh ! surfaces ( ! eye is easily demon/rat$4 ,an object ?r[s div]g5t rays on ! cornea1 a "p p5etrates into ! eye & falls ^u ! ret9a1 leav+ a p]fectly reta9$ image ( ! object4 ,mag5die has prov$ 9 ! foll[+ mann] ! tru? ( ?is ma!matical d$uction4 ,! eye ( a rabbit is v simil> to an alb9o's2 t is to say1 ! *oroid conta9s no black pigm5t1 b a transp>5t matt]1 & :5 plac$ be=e a brilliant object1 ! image c be se5 inv]t$ on ! ret9a4 ,! exp]im5t succe$s also ) ! eye ( a %eep or a c[1 if ! scl]otic has be5 less5$4 ,! optic c5tre ( ! eye is ! po9t :]e ! second>y axes cross2 ! optic axis passes ?r\gh ! geometrical axis ( ! organ1 & directs itself spontane\sly t[>ds ! po9t t attracts ! eye4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,diagram ( mode ( vision4 ,we w n[ po9t out 9 :at di/9ct vision consi/s4 ,a scre5 plac$ beh9d a l5s w only receive ! image ( a light$ object1 ,a ,b1 if plac$ 9 a position1 ,r ,r 7fig4 #if74 ,if plac$ ne>] at ,r ,r1 or fur!r (f at ,r ,r1 ! light f ! object is ?r[n on ! scre51 & ! image is confus$4 ,to prove ! imp]fection ( sight :i* is %[n by ! application ( ^! !oretic rules1 ,,mm4 ,b\tan & d',almda#aj cite ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,if ! head ( a p9 is plac$ f "o to two in*es f ! eye1 no?+ w be p]ceiv$ b a confus$ haz9ess ( vague outl9e4 ,! di/ance ( di/9ct vision is t at :i* an object ( small dim5sions may be plac$ to be pla9ly p]ceiv$4 ,?is di/ance1 :i* av]ages fifte5 in*es1 v>ies ) diff]5t individuals4 ,x c be det]m9$ = diff]5t sights by means ( an app>atus con/ruct$ by ,lepot4 ,a :ite ?read1 a1 is /ret*$ horizontally on a d>k bo>d 7fig4 #ig74 ,we look at x by plac+ our eye at "o end beh9d a little scre5 pi]c$ ) an ap]ture1 ,o2 x !n appe>s mu* r$uc$ 9 l5g?1 b ei!r ne>] or f>!r (f x seems to enl>ge & swell1 hav+ ! appe>ance ( a :ite surface1 becom+ l>g] & l>g] 9 proportion z we move away f ! po9t at :i* x is se5 mo/ di/9ctly4 ,9 ?is mann] we c easily obta9 a measure ( ! di/ance ( di/9ct vision4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable prop]ties ( ! eye consi/s 9 ! faculty :i* ?is organ possesses ( see+ diff]5t di/ances4 ,if we consid] x z a d>k *amb]1 !re is b "o di/ance at :i* an object w be p]fectly visible2 nev]!less a metal wire1 = example1 c be se5 z well at a di/ance ( sev51 z t51 fifte51 or tw5ty in*es by good sights4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,exp]im5t = sight4 ,?is faculty ( accommodation 9 ! eye is ?us demon/rat$3 we place two p9s1 "o 9 front ( ! o!r1 "o eye only be+ op52 we fir/ look at ! ne>e/ p91 :i* appe>s confus$ if x is ne> ! eye1 b by an ef=t ( w ! image becomes cle>4 ,if1 :ile pres]v+ ! cle>ness ( ! image1 we !n c>ry our att5tion to ! second p91 we f9d t x1 too1 pres5ts a confus$ appe>ance4 ,if we make an ef=t to di/+ui% ! cont\r ( ! second p91 we at la/ succe$1 & ! fir/ once m appe>s ill-def9$4 ,x is only s9ce ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,cram] & ,m4 ,helmholtz t ! explanation ( ?is ph5om5on c\ld h be5 giv54 ,m4 ,cram] has succe$$ 9 det]m9+ on ! liv+ eye ! curv$ ray ( ! cornea1 & ( ! two surfaces ( ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,9 s do+ he foll[$ ,samson's me?od1 & obs]v$ ! images ?r[n by a lum9\s object1 ^: rays /rike ! diff]5t refract+ surfaces ( ! eye4 ,a c&le1 ,l 7fig4 #ih71 is plac$ be=e ! eye1 ,o1 & ?r[s z 9 a convex mirror a /raight image ( ! flame1 ,a 7fig4 #ii74 ,! o!r portion ( ! light1 :i* has p5etrat$ ! pupil1 falls on ! cry/all9e l5s1 & produces likewise a second /raight image1 ,b4 ,!n ! light refract$ by ! l5s rea*es ! po/]ior surface2 a portion is reflect$ on a concave mirror1 & gives ! inv]t$ image1 ,c1 v small & brilliant4 ,m4 ,cram] obs]v$ x ?r\gh a microscope1 & /udi$ ! v>iations 9 ! size ( images :5 ! eye pass$ f ! obs]vation ( adjac5t to di/ant objects4 ,he /at$3-- #a4 ,t ! image1 ,a1 =m$ on ! surface ( ! cornea1 rema9s ! same size 9 bo? cases2 ! =m ( ! cornea !re=e rema9s unalt]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,m4 ,cram]'s exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,images 9 ! eye4 #b4 ,t ! image1 ,b1 =m$ on ! upp] surface ( ! l5s1 dim9i%es 9 proportion z ! eye is ne>] ! object2 ! surface !re=e becom+ m & m convex1 z ! focal di/ance dim9i%es--a result indicat$ by ! !ory t x is possible 9 ! vision ( ne> objects to receive ! image on ! ret9a4 #c4 ,t ! ?ird image1 ,c1 produc$ on ! po/]ior surface ( ! l5s1 rema9s ne>ly inv>iable4 ,we may confirm ,cram]'s /atem5ts by an easy exp]im5t4 ,we place ourselves 9 front ( ! eye ( someone :o looks 9 turn at two objects plac$ on ! same black l9e at unequal di/ances f him1 & are able to di/+ui% by ! dim5sion ( ! images ( ! c&le1 :i* object x is t he is reg>d+4 ,m4 ,helmholtz has c>ri$ ,m4 ,cram]'s me?ods to p]fection1 & has be5 able to =mulate a complete !ory ( all ! ph5om5a ( accommodation4 ,! laws ( optics %[ t ! rays emitt$ by a lum9\s po9t may unite at ano!r po9t by ! action ( ! refract+ surfaces ( ! eye4 ,nev]!less1 a :ite light be+ compos$ ( rays ( div]se refrangibility1 p>ticul> effects1 kn[n "u ! "n ( *romatic ab]ration1 are produc$ ?r\gh ! decomposition ( light1 :i* we w proce$ to /udy1 "u ,m4 ,helmholtz's auspices#aa4 ,we make a n>r[ op5+ 9 a scre51 & fix beh9d ?is op5+ a violet glass1 p5etrable only by r$ & violet rays4 ,we !n place a light1 ! r$ rays ( :i* rea* ! eye ( ! obs]v] aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! glass & ! op5+ 9 ! scre54 ,if ! eye is adapt$ to ! r$ rays1 ! violet rays w =m a circle ( diffusion1 & a r$ po9t encircl$ ) a violet aureola is se54 ,! eye may also be br\ght to a /ate ( refraction1 s t ! po9t ( conv]g5ce ( ! violet rays is 9 front1 & t ( ! r$ rays beh9d ! ret9a1 ! diamet]s ( ! r$ & violet circles ( diffusion be+ equal4 ,x is !n only t ! lum9\s po9t appe>s mono*romatic4 ,:5 ! eye is 9 ?is /ate ( refraction1 ! simple rays1 ^: refrangibility is ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! r$ & ! violet rays1 unite on ! ret9a4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( ab]ration ( lum9\s rays ( "o col\r emitt$ ?r\gh a hole1 :i* g5]ally only approa* approximately to a ma!matical focus1 9 consequ5ce ( ! prop]ties ( refract+ surfaces2 x is call$ ab]ration ( sph]icity4 ,! ph5om5a are z foll[s3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 #a4 ,we take = our object a v small lum9\s po9t 7! hole made by a p9 9 "s black pap]1 ?r\gh :i* ! light passes71 & hav+ also plac$ be=e ! eye a convex glass1 if we are n ne>-sight$1 we fix x a little beyond ! po9t ( accommodation1 s t x produces on ! ret9a a little circle ( diffusion4 ,we !n see1 in/ead ( ! lum9\s po9t1 a figure repres5t+ f f\r to eight irregul> rays1 :i* g5]ally diff] ) bo? eyes1 & also ) diff]5t p4 ,we h giv5 ! result ( ,m4 ,helmholtz's obs]vations 9 fig4 #ajj2 a corresponds to ! "r eye1 & b to ! left4 ,! out] edges ( ! lum9\s p>ts ( an image1 produc$ 9 ?is way by a :ite light1 are bord]$ ) blue2 ! edges t[>ds ! c5tre are ( a r$di% yell[4 ,! writ] adds t ! figure appe>s to him to h great] l5g? ?an bread?4 ,if ! light is feeble1 only ! mo/ brilliant p>ts ( ! figure c be se51 & sev]al images ( ! lum9\s po9t are visible1 ( :i* "o is g5]ally m brilliant ?an ! o!rs4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! light is v int5se1--if1 = example1 ! direct light ( ! sun passes ?r\gh a small op5+1--! rays m+le ) ea* o!r1 & are surr\nd$ by aureola ( rays1 compos$ ( numb]less extremely f9e l9es1 ( all col\rs1 possess+ a mu* l>g] diamet]1 & :i* we di/+ui% by ! "n ( ! aureola ( capill>y rays4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,! radiat+ =m ( />s1 & ! di/ant light ( /reet-lamps belong to ! prec$+ ph5om5a4 ,if ! eye is accommodat$ to a great] di/ance ?an t ( ! lum9\s po9t1--& = ?is purpose1 if ! lum9\s po9t itself is di/ant1 we place be=e ! eye a slightly convex l5s1--we see ano!r radiat+ image appe>1 :i* ,m4 ,helmholtz repres5ts ?us 7fig4 #aja73 at c z x is pres5t$ to ! "r eye1 & at d z se5 by ! left4 ,if ! pupil is cov]$ on "o side1 ! side opposite to ! image ( diffusion disappe>s2 t is to say1 t "p ( ! ret9al image situat$ on ! same side z ! cov]$ half ( ! pupil4 ,?is figure1 !n1 is =m$ by rays :i* h n yet cross$ ! axis ( ! eye4 ,if we place ! lum9\s po9t at a di/ance to :i* ! eye c accommodate itself1 we see1 ?r\gh a mod]ate light1 a small1 r\nd1 lum9\s spot1 )\t any irregul>ities4 ,if ! light1 on ! contr>y1 is int5se1 ! image is radiat$ 9 e position ( accommodation1 & we m]ely f9d t on approa*+ ne>]1 ! figure :i* 0 elongat$1 answ]+ to a di/ant accommodation1 gradually dim9i%es1 gr[s r\nd]1 & gives place to ! v]tically elongat$ figure1 :i* belongs to ! accommodation ( a ne>] po9t4 ,:5 we exam9e a sl5d]1 lum9\s l9e1 we behold images develop$1 :i* are easily =ese51 if = e po9t ( ! l9e we suppose radiat+ images ( diffusion1 :i* encroa* on ea* o!r4 ,! cle>e/ portions ( ^! images ( diffusion m+le toge!r & =m di/9ct l9es1 :i* %[ multipli$ images ( ! lum9\s l9e4 ,mo/ p]sons w see two ( ^! images2 "s1 ) ! eyes 9 c]ta9 positions1 w see five or six4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,to %[ cle>ly by exp]im5t ! connection exi/+ betwe5 d\ble images & radiat$ images f po9ts1 x is suffici5t to make 9 a d>k %eet ( pap] a small rectil9e> slit1 & at a little di/ance f "o end1 on a l9e ) ! slit1 a small r\nd hole1 z %[n at a 9 fig4 #ajb4 ,look+ at x f a di/ance we %all see t ! d\ble images ( ! l9e h exactly ! same di/ance betwe5 !m t ! mo/ brilliant p>ts ( ! />r$ figure ( diffusion h f ! po9t1 & t ! latt] are 9 a l9e ) ! fir/1 z w be se5 at b 7fig4 #ajb71 :]e 9 ! image ( diffusion ( ! lum9\s po9t1 we only see ! cle>e/ p>ts ( /> a ( ! figure4 ,on light$ surfaces1 to :i* ! eye is n exactly accommodat$1 multipli$ images are (t5 rem>k$ ?r\gh ! passage f light to d>kness be+ made by two or ?ree successive /eps4 ,a s]ies ( facts :i* h be5 collect$ "u ! title ( irradiation1 & :i* %[ t brightly-light$ surfaces appe> l>g] ?an !y are 9 reality1 & t ! d>k surfaces :i* surr\nd !m appe> dim9i%$ to a correspond+ degree1 expla9s ?is by ! circum/ance t ! lum9\s s5sation is n proportional to ! int5sity ( ! objective light4 ,^! ph5om5a affect v v>i\s appe>ances1 accord+ to ! =m ( respective figures2 !y are g5]ally se5 ) ! greate/ ease & int5sity :5 ! eye is n exactly accommodat$ to ! object exam9$1 ei!r by ! eye be+ too ne> or too f> (f1 or by us+ a concave or convex l5s1 :i* prev5ts ! object be+ se5 cle>ly4 ,irradiation is n completely want+1 ev5 :5 ! accommodation is exact1 & we notice x cle>ly 9 v lum9\s objects1 above all :5 !y are small2 small circles ( diffusion increase relatively ! dim5sions ( small objects mu* m ?an ( l>ge ones1 ) reg>d to :i*1 ! dim5sions ( ! small circles ( diffusion :i* ! eye furni%es1 :5 prop]ly accommodat$1 become ins5sible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,exp]im5t #a4 #a4 ,lum9\s surfaces appe> l>g]4 ,we c nev] judge exactly ( ! dim5sions ( a slit or small hole ?r\gh :i* a bright light escapes2 x always appe>s to u l>g] ?an x really is1 ev5 ) ! mo/ exact accommodation4 ,simil>ly1 ! fix$ />s appe> 9 ! =m ( small lum9\s surfaces1 ev5 :5 we make use ( a glass :i* all[s ( p]fect accommodation4 ,if a gridiron ) n>r[ b>s--! spaces int]v5+ be+ exactly equal to ! ?ickness ( ! b>s--is held ov] a light surface1 ! spaces w always appe> wid] ?an ! b>s4 ,) an inexact accommodation1 ^! ph5om5a are /ill m rem>kable4 ,fig4 #ajc exhibits a :ite squ>e on a black f\ndation1 & a black squ>e on a :ite f\ndation4 ,al?\gh ! two squ>es h exactly ! same dim5sions1 ! :ite appe>s l>g] ?an ! black1 unless ) an int5se light & an inexact accommodation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--;,exp]im5t #b4 #b4 ,two adjac5t lum9\s surfaces m+le toge!r4 ,if we hold a f9e metallic wire betwe5 ! eye & ! sun1 or ! light ( a p[]ful lamp1 we %all cease to see x2 ! light$ surfaces on all sides ( ! wire 9 ! visual range pass "o into ! o!r1 & become m+l$4 ,9 objects compos$ ( black & :ite squ>es1 l ^? ( a draught-bo>d 7fig4 #ajd71 ! angles ( ! :ite squ>es jo9 by irradiation1 & sep>ate ! black squ>es4 #c4 ,/raight l9es appe> int]rupt$4 ,if a rul] is held betwe5 ! eye & ! light ( a bright lamp or ! sun1 we p]ceive a v di/9ct holl[ on ! edge ( ! rul] 9 ! "p correspond+ to ! light4 ,:5 "o po9t ( ! ret9a is affect$ by a light :i* und]goes p]iodical & regul> v>iations1 ! duration ( ! p]iod be+ suffici5tly %ort1 !re results a cont9u\s impression1 l t :i* w\ld be produc$ if ! light giv5 dur+ ea* p]iod 7 di/ribut$ 9 an equal mann] ?r\gh\t ! :ole duration ( ! p]iod4 ,to v]ify ! tru? ( ?is law1 we w make use ( "s discs1 su* z t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aje4 ,! inn]mo/ circle is half :ite & half black2 ! middle circle has two qu>t]s1 or half its p]iph]y1 :ite1 & ! out] circle has f\r eigh?s' :ite1 ! re/ be+ black4 ,if su* a disc is turn$ r\nd1 its entire surface w appe> grey2 only x is necess>y to turn x ) suffici5t =ce to produce a cont9u\s effect4 ,! :ite may also be di/ribut$ 9 o!r ways1 & provid$ only t on all ! circles ( ! disc ! proportion ( ! angles cov]$ ) :ite is ! same1 !y w always exhibit ! same grey col\r4 ,in/ead ( black & :ite we may make use ( diff]5t col\rs1 & obta9 ! same resultant col\r f all ! circles1 :5 ! proportion ( ! angles occupi$ by ea* ( ! col\rs 9 ! diff]5t circles is ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,disc :i* appe>s uni=mly grey by reason ( its rotation4 ,if we pa9t on a disc a col\r$ />1 :i* is deta*$ f a f\ndation ( ano!r col\r 7fig4 #ajf71 dur+ ! rapid rotation ( ! disc ! c5tre affects ! col\r ( ! />2 ! out] circle assumes t ( ! backgr\nd1 & ! int]m$iate p>ts ( ! disc pres5t ! cont9u\s s]ies ( ! resultant col\rs4 ,^! results are 9 accordance ) ! !ory ( ! mixture ( col\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,disc ) a /> pa9t$ on ! backgr\nd ( ano!r col\r4 ,rotative discs1 :i* are s mu* us$ 9 exp]im5ts 9 optical physiology1 7 employ$ = ! fir/ "t by ,mss*5broeck2 ! mo/ simple is ! top4 ,m4 ,helmholtz ord9>ily uses a brass sp9n+-top1 :i* fig4 #ajg repres5ts at a ?ird ! natural size4 ,x is set 9 motion by ! h&1 & its quickness may be increas$ or mod]at$ at w2 b x _c be made to sp9 quick] ?an six r\nds 9 a second2 ?is motion w be kept up = ?ree or f\r m9utes4 ,?us1 ) a feeble movem5t ( rotation1 a uni=m lum9\s impression c only be obta9$ by divid+ ! disc into f\r or six sections1 on ea* ( :i* we repeat ! same arrangem5t ( col\rs1 light1 & %ade4 ,if ! numb] ( repetitions ( ! design is less1 we obta91 ) a bright light1 a m or less %ot-col\r$ disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--,m4 ,helmholtz's top = /udy+ ! impression ( light on ! ret9a4 ,x is easy to place designs on ! disc1 ev5 :5 9 motion1 or to make any desir$ modification1 by sup]pos+ on ! fir/ disc ano!r disc ) sectors1 ( :i* we c v>y ! position by slightly t\*+ x1 or ev5 bl[+ on x1 ?us produc+ dur+ ! rotation ( ! disc v v>i$ modifications4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we place on a disc cov]$ ) blue & r$ sectors ( equal size1 a black disc1 ( :i* ! sectors are alt]nately fill$ 9 or empty1 ! disc1 z x turns r\nd1 w appe> blue if ! black sectors ( ! upp] disc exactly cov] ! r$ sectors ( ! l[] disc2 & x appe>s r$1 if1 on ! contr>y1 ! blue sectors are cov]$ ) ! black2 :ile 9 ! int]m$iate positions we obta9 diff]5t mixtures ( r$ & :ite1 & dur+ ! rotation ( ! disc may v>y ! col\r ins5sibly by a g5tle t\*4 ,by divid+ ! diff]5t sectors ) brok5 or curv$ l9es1 in/ead ( /raight ones1 we c produce an arrangem5t ( col\r$ r+s ( great v>iety & beauty4 ,to give ! top great] spe$1 we set x 9 motion by draw+ a /r+ tw9$ r\nd its /em4 ,! simple/ me?od1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ajh1 consi/s 9 ! employm5t ( a h&le simil> to t ( ! ,g]man top4 ,x is a holl[ cyl9d] ( wood set into a h&le ) two circul> holes2 & at "r angles ) ^! is a groove = ! passage ( ! /r+4 ,! /em ( ! top is pass$ ?r\gh ! holes ( ! cyl9d]1 "o end ( ! /r+ is fix$ 9 ! small hole 9 ! /em1 & is roll$ r\nd by turn+ ! top 9 ! h&4 ,! "p ( ! /em on :i* ! /r+ is twi/$ becomes suffici5tly ?ick = ! top to rema9 susp5d$ to ! h&le2 !n hold+ x a little above ! table1 & giv+ ! /r+ a p[]ful pull1 we set ! top 9 motion1 & z ! /r+ unrolls x falls on ! table1 :]e x w cont9ue its rotation = "s "t4 ,! top repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aji is con/ruct$ s t ! discs may be firmly press$ by ! /em1 :i* is necess>y 9 exp]im5ts = demon/rat+ ,newton's !ory ( ! m+l+ ( col\rs4 ,we make use = ?is purpose ( a v>iety ( discs1 made ( /rong pap] ( diff]5t sizes1 hav+ an op5+ 9 ! c5tre & a slit1 z 9 fig4 #aaj2 ea* ( ! discs is cov]$ uni=mly ) a s+le col\r2 & if two or m are sup]pos$1 ) _! slits plac$ "o ov] ! o!r1 we obta9 sectors1 ! size ( :i* we may v>y at w1 s t we c modify 9 a cont9u\s mann] ! proportions ( ! col\rs4 ,! mo/ p]fect con/ruction is t ( ,busold's *romatic top 7fig4 #aaa71 :i* %\ld only be employ$ = v rapid rotations4 ,! disc1 :i* weighs #e lbs41 is made ( an alloy ( z9c & lead1 ab\t an in* & a qu>t] 9 diamet]4 ,! brass axis t]m9ates at its l[] end ) a blunt po9t ( untemp]$ /eel2 ! cyl9drical "p ( ! axis is r\gh5$ to enc\rage ! adh]5ce ( ! /r+2 ! axis is plac$ betwe5 ! clamps ( a vice1 & a plate is put und]nea?2 we !n pull ! /r+ firmly ) ! "r h&1 & :5 ! top is 9 motion x is sep>at$ f ! clamps4 ,by pull+ ! /r+ v p[]fully x is possible to obta9 a spe$ ( sixty turns 9 a second1 & ! movem5t w be kept up = ?ree qu>t]s ( an h\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,sp9n+ a top ) col\r$ discs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,top = exp]im5ts demon/rat+ ,newton's !ory ( ! m+l+ ( col\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,busold's *romatic top4 ,besides tops1 we may make use ( diff]5t k9ds ( discs1 ) an axis rotat+ betwe5 two clamps2 !y are mov$ ei!r by a k9d ( clock-"w1 or by ! unroll+ ( a /r+1 l ! tops4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ^! contrivances h ?is inconv5i5ce1 t ! discs _c be *ang$ )\t /opp+ ! in/rum5t1 & p>tly tak+ x to pieces4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we h ! advantage ( be+ able to turn !m on a v]tical plane1 s t we c conv5i5tly c>ry on our exp]im5ts be=e a num]\s auditory1 :i* is a m difficult matt] ) tops4 ,montigny contriv$ to obta9 ! m+l+ ( col\rs by means ( a turn+ prism1 :i* he caus$ to ?r[ its %ad[ on a :ite scre54 ,! ,?aumatrope is a small rectangle ( c>dbo>d1 :i* is made to rotate on an axis pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tres ( ! longe/ sides4 ,we %all describe x at great] l5g? :5 we come to consid] a new app>atus kn[n "u ! "n ( ! ,prax9oscope4 ,m complicat$ contrivances h also be5 con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple1 by :i* "o may p]ceive ! rotat+ disc ?r\gh slits :i* turn at ! same "t4 ,we w n[ describe ! con/ruction ( "s discs inv5t$ by ,plateau "u ! "n ( ! ,ph5aki/oscope4 ,^! discs are made ( /rong c>dbo>d1 f six to t5 in*es 9 diamet] 7fig4 #aab71 on :i* a c]ta9 numb] ( figures 7eight to twelve7 are plac$ 9 circles at an equal di/ance f ea* o!r1 pres5t+ ! successive phases ( a p]iodical movem5t4 ,?is disc is plac$ on ano!r opaque circle ( r l>g] diamet]1 :i* has on its m>g9 z _m op5+s z ! fir/ disc has figures4 ,! two discs are plac$ "o on ! o!r1 & are fix$ 9 ! c5tre by means ( a screw at ! ant]ior extremity ( a small iron axis1 ! o!r end be+ fitt$ into a h&le4 ,to make use ( ?is contrivance we place ourselves 9 front ( ! glass1 t[>ds :i* we turn ! disc ) ! figures1 plac+ ! eye s z to see ! figures ?r\gh "o ( ! holes ( ! l>ge disc4 ,directly ! app>atus beg9s to turn r\nd1 ! figures se5 9 ! glass appe> to execute ! p>ticul> movem5ts :i* !y repres5t 9 diff]5t positions4 ,let u designate by means ( ! figures #a1 #b1 #c1 ! diff]5t op5+s ?r\gh :i* ! eye successively looks1 & po9t out by ! same numb]s ! figures 9 ! radiuses ?us numb]$4 ,if ! exp]im5t] looks 9 ! glass ?r\gh op5+ #a1 he w see fir/ figure #a1 :i* appe>s 9 ! glass to pass be=e 8 eyes2 !n ! rotation ( ! disc displaces op5+ #a1 & ! c>dbo>d int]v5es1 until op5+ #b appe>s2 !n figure #b takes ! place ( figure #a1 until x 9 turn disappe>s1 & op5+ #c pres5ts figure #c to view4 ,if ^! figures 7 all simil>1 ! spectator w\ld h b a s]ies ( visual impressions1 sep>ate b alike1 :i* by a suffici5tly rapid rotation m+le toge!r 9 "o durable impression l a p]fectly immovable object4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! figures diff] slightly f ea* o!r1 ! lum9\s s5sations w also m+le 9 a s+le object1 :i* w h[ev] appe> to be modifi$ 9 a cont9u\s mann]1 con=mably ) ! diff]5ces ( successive images4 ,) a diff]5ce ( spe$1 we obta9 a new s]ies ( ph5om5a4 ,a mo/ simple contrivance ( ?is k9d is a top ( ,c4 ,b4 ,danc]1 ( ,man*e/] 7fig4 #aac74 ,x w be se5 t ! axis c>ries ano!r disc1 pi]c$ ) op5+s ( diff]5t %apes1 to ! edge ( :i* a ?read is atta*$4 ,?is second disc is c>ri$ along by ! friction ( ! axis1 b its rotation is less rapid because ( ! great resi/ance (f]$ by ! air to ! piece ( ?read :i* p>ticipates 9 ! movem5t4 ,if ! l[] disc has sev]al diff]5tly-col\r$ sectors1 !y produce a v motley appe>ance1 :i* seems to move sometimes by leaps1 & sometimes by cont9u\s motion4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( successive contra/ & simultane\s contra/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,rotat+ disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,mr4 ,danc]'s top4 ,ph5om5a ( successive contra/ develop :at are call$ accid5tal images4 ,if we fix our eyes = a consid]able "t on a col\r$ object1 & !n sudd5ly direct !m t[>ds a uni=m :ite surface1 we exp]i5ce ! s5sation ( ! object z x is1 b x appe>s col\r$ ) a complem5t>y t9t2 t is to say1 x has ! col\r :i*1 sup]pos$ on ! g5u9e t9t1 we obta9 f pure :ite4 ,?us a r$ object produces a consecutive gre5 object4 ,! exp]im5t c be tri$ by gaz+ at ! sun :5 x is sett+1 & !n direct+ "o's eyes t[>ds a :ite wall 9 ! same direction4 ,ph5om5a ( simultane\s contra/ arise f ! influ5ce ex]cis$ ov] ea* o!r by diff]5t %ades & col\rs :i* we see simultane\sly4 ,t we may be c]ta9 t we h really obta9$ ph5om5a ( ?is k9d1 ! exp]im5ts mu/ be arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t accid5tal images are n produc$1 & t ! "p ( ! ret9a affect$ by ! s5sation ( col\r does n receive1 ev5 mom5t>ily1 a pass+ image4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4--;,disc1 :i* exhibits1 :5 9 rotation1 a s]ies ( conc5tric r+s4 ,! ph5om5a ( simultane\s contra/ appe> ) ! greate/ cle>ness ) slight diff]5ces ( col\r1 & are !re=e exactly ! contr>y ( ph5om5a ( successive contra/1 :i* are fav\r$ by /rong oppositions ( col\r & light4 ,we c1 9 g5]al1 *>act]ise ph5om5a ( simultane\s contra/ z gov]n$ by ?is law1 common to all p]ceptions ( ! s5ses3 ! diff]5ces cle>ly p]ceiv$ appe> great] ?an ! diff]5ces equal to !m1 b p]ceiv$ ) great] difficulty1 ei!r because !y only affect ! obs]vation 9 an unc]ta9 mann]1 or t ! memory fails to judge ( !m4 ,a man ( middle height appe>s small beside a tall man1 because at ! mom5t x is =cibly impress$ on u t !re are tall] m5 ?an he1 & we lose sight ( ! fact t !re are small]4 ,! same man ( m$ium height appe>s tall beside a man ( small /ature4 ,we c easily make exp]im5ts on simultane\s contra/ ) a %eet ( transp>5t pap]4 ,we fa/5 toge!r a %eet ( gre5 & a %eet ( rose-col\r$ pap]1 s z to obta9 a %eet half r$ & half gre54 ,on ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! two col\rs we place a /rip ( grey pap]1 & cov] ! :ole ) a %eet ( ?9 lett]-pap] ( ! same size4 ,! grey /rip w !n appe> r$ at ! edge t\*+ ! gre51 & gre5 at ! edge t\*+ ! r$2 ! c5tre pres5t+ an int]m$iate %ade4 ,x pres5ts a /ill m decid$ appe>ance if ! grey /rip is p]p5dicul> ) ! l9e ( sep>ation ( ! two col\rs2 ! piece ( grey !n /ret*+ into ! gre5 w pres5t z deep a r$ z ! r$ f\ndation on ! o!r side4 ,if ! l9e ( grey col\r exactly cov]s ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! two col\rs1 ! contra/+ col\r is m feeble2 ! edges ( ! grey pap] !n pres5t complem5t>y /rips ( col\r4 ,simil> effects may be obta9$ by sup]pos+1 9 gradually dim9i%+ lay]s1 /rips ( ?9 pap]1 s z to =m successive b&s ( diff]5t ?icknesses4 ,if x is !n lit up f beh9d1 ! objective int5sity is evid5tly con/ant ?r\gh ! ext5t ( ea* lay]2 nev]!less e /rip appe>s d>k] at ! edge t\*+ a m transp>5t lay]1 & light] at ! edge 9 contact ) a ?ick] lay]4 ,! dull t9ts ( ,*9a ink1 sup]pos$ 9 lay]s1 w produce a simil> effect4 ,! ph5om5a are produc$ by means ( rotative discs ( mo/ beautiful & delicate gradations ( col\r4 ,let u give ! sectors ( ! disc ! =m repres5t$ by fig4 #aad1 & make !m black & :ite2 & :5 9 rotation we %all see a s]ies ( conc5tric r+s ( a %ade t becomes d>k] & d>k] t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,! angul> surface ( ! d>k portions is con/ant 9 ea* ( ^! r+s4 ,! int5sity1 !re=e1 ( ea* r+ is uni=m dur+ rapid rotation2 x is only betwe5 "o r+ & ano!r t ! int5sity v>ies4 ,ea* r+ also appe>s light] on its inn] side :5 x bord]s on a d>k] r+1 & d>k] on its out] side :5 9 contact ) a light] r+4 ,if ! diff]5ces ( int5sity 9 ! r+s are v slight1 "o c sc>cely judge sometimes if ! inn] r+s are d>k] ?an ! out]2 ! eye is only /ruck by ! p]iodical alt]nations ( light & %ade pres5t$ by ! edges ( ! r+s4 ,if1 in/ead ( :ite & black1 we take two diff]5t col\rs1 ea* r+ w pres5t two col\rs on its two edges1 al?\gh ! col\r ( ! re/ ( ! r+ w be uni=m4 ,ea* ( ! con/itu5t col\rs pres5ts itself ) m int5sity on t edge ( ! r+ :i* bord]s on ano!r r+ conta9+ a small] quantity ( ! col\r4 ,?us1 if we mix blue & yell[1 & ! blue pr$om9ates 9 ! ext]ior & ! yell[ 9 ! int]ior1 e r+ w appe> yell[ at its out]1 & blue at its inn] edge2 & if ! col\rs pres5t toge!r v slight diff]5ces1 we may fall into ! illusion :i* causes ! diff]5ces really exi/+ betwe5 ! col\rs ( ! diff]5t r+s to disappe>1 leav+ in/ead1 on a uni=mly col\r$ backgr\nd1 ! contra/+ blue & yell[ ( ! edges ( ! r+s4 ,x is v *>act]i/ic t 9 ^! cases we d n see ! mix$ col\rs1 b seem to see ! con/itu5t col\rs sep>ately1 "o beside ! o!r1 & "o ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,all ! exp]im5ts we h describ$ af=d great int]e/ to ! /ud5t2 !y c easily be p]=m$ by ^? ( our read]s :o are p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 ^! little-kn[n subjects4 ,any "o may con/ruct ! great] "p ( ! appliances we h enum]at$1 & o!rs c be obta9$ at an optician's4 ,! discs 9 p>ticul> are ext5sively manufactur$1 & ) great success4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,trait de ,physique1 ,p>is #ahgd4 #aa ,trait d'optique ,physiologique4 ,fr5* translation by ,,mm4 ,javal & ,kle94 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,optical ,,illusions--,,zolln]',s ,,designs--,,! ,,?aumatrope--,,ph5oki/oscope--,,! ,,zootrope--,,! ,,prax9oscope--,,! ,,dazzl+ ,,top4 ,we %all n[ cont9ue ! subject by describ+ "s illusions m curi\s /ill--^? ( ocul> e/imation4 ,^! illusions dep5d r on ! p>ticul> prop]ties ( ! figures we exam9e1 & ! great] "p ( ^! ph5om5a may be plac$ 9 t category ^: law we h j =mulat$3 ! diff]5ces cle>ly p]ceiv$ appe> great] ?an ! diff]5ces equal to !m1 b p]ceiv$ ) great] difficulty4 ,?us a l9e ---- :5 divid$ appe>s great] ?an :5 n divid$2 ! direct p]ception ( ! p>ts makes u notice ! numb] ( ! sub-divisions1 ! size ( :i* is m p]ceptible ?an :5 ! p>ts are n cle>ly m>k$ (f4 ,?us1 9 fig4 #aae1 we imag9e ! l5g? ab equals bc1 al?\gh ab is 9 reality long] ?an bc4 ,9 an exp]im5t consi/+ ( divid+ a l9e into two equal p>ts1 ! "r eye t5ds to increase ! half on ! "r1 & ! left eye to enl>ge t on ! left4 ,to arrive at an exact e/imate1 we turn ov] ! pap] & f9d ! exact c5tre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,illusions ( ?is k9d become m /rik+ :5 ! di/ances to be comp>$ run 9 diff]5t directions4 ,if we look at ,a & ,b 7fig4 #aaf71 :i* are p]fect squ>es1 ,a appe>s great] 9 l5g? ?an wid?1 :il/ ,b1 on ! contr>y1 appe>s to h great] wid? ?an l5g?4 ,! case is ! same ) angles4 ,on look+ at fig4 #aag1 angles #a1 #b1 #c1 #d are /raight1 & %\ld appe> s :5 exam9$4 ,b #a & #b appe> po9t$1 & #c & #d obtuse4 ,! illusion is /ill great] if we look at ! figure ) ! "r eye4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 we turn x1 s t #b & #c are at ! bottom1 #a & #b w appe> greatly po9t$ to ! left eye4 ,! divid$ angles always appe> relatively great] ?an !y w\ld appe> )\t divisions4 ,! same illusion is pres5t$ 9 a numb] ( examples 9 ! c\rse ( daily life4 ,an empty room appe>s small] ?an a furni%$ room1 & a wall cov]$ ) pap]hang+s appe>s l>g] ?an a b>e wall4 ,x is a well-kn[n s\rce ( amusem5t to pres5t someone 9 company ) a hat1 & reque/ him to m>k on ! wall its suppos$ height f ! gr\nd4 ,! height g5]ally indicat$ w be a size & a half too l>ge4 ,we w relate an exp]i5ce describ$ by ,bravais3 8,:5 at sea10 he says1 8at a c]ta9 di/ance f a coa/ :i* pres5ts _m inequalities1 if we attempt to draw ! coa/l9e z x pres5ts itself to ! eye1 we %all f9d on v]ification t ! horizontal dim5sions h be5 correctly sket*$ at a c]ta9 scale1 :ile all ! v]tical angul> objects h be5 repres5t$ on a scale twice z l>ge4 ,?is illusion1 :i* is sure to occur 9 e/imates ( ?is k9d1 c be demon/rat$ by num]\s obs]vations40 ,m4 ,helmholtz has also indicat$ sev]al optical illusions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,if we exam9e fig4 #aah1 ! cont9uation ( ! l9e a does n appe> to be d1--:i* x is 9 reality1--b f1 :i* is a little l[]4 ,?is illusion is /ill m /rik+ :5 we make ! figure on a small] scale 7fig4 #aai71 z at ,b1 :]e ! two f9e l9es are 9 cont9uation ) ea* o!r1 b d n appe> to be s1 & at ,c1 :]e !y appe> s1 b are n 9 reality4 ,if we draw ! figures z at ,a 7fig4 #aah71 leav+ out ! l9e d1 & look at !m f a gradually increas+ di/ance1 s t !y appe> to dim9i%1 x w be f\nd t ! fur!r (f ! figure is plac$1 ! m x seems necess>y to l[] ! l9e f to make x appe> a cont9uation ( a4 ,^! effects are produc$ by irradiation2 !y c also be produc$ by black l9es on a :ite f\ndation4 ,ne> ! po9t ( ! two acute angles1 ! circles ( diffusion ( ! two black l9es t\* & mutually re9=ce ea* o!r2 consequ5tly ! ret9al image ( ! n>r[ l9e pres5ts its maximum ( d>kness ne>e/ to ! broad l9e1 & appe>s to deviate on t side4 ,9 figures ( ?is k9d1 h[ev]1 execut$ on a l>g] scale1 z 9 fig4 #aah1 irradiation c sc>cely be ! only cause ( illusion4 ,we w cont9ue our exposition z a means ( f9d+ an explanation4 ,9 fig4 #abj1 ,a & ,b pres5t "s examples po9t$ out by ,h]+2 ! /raight1 p>allel l9es1 a b1 & c d1 appe> to b5d outw>ds at ,a1 & inw>ds at ,b4 ,b ! mo/ /rik+ example is t repres5t$ by fig4 #aba1 publi%$ by ,zolln]4 ,! v]tical black /rips ( ?is figure are p>allel ) ea* o!r1 b !y appe> conv]g5t & div]g5t1 & seem con/antly turn$ out ( a v]tical position into a direction inv]se to t ( ! oblique l9es :i* divide !m4 ,! sep>ate halves ( ! oblique l9es are displac$ respectively1 l ! n>r[ l9es 9 fig4 #aai4 ,if ! figure is turn$ s t ! broad v]tical l9es pres5t an incl9ation ( #de to ! horizon1 ! conv]g5ce appe>s ev5 m rem>kable1 :il/ we notice less ! app>5t deviation ( ! halves ( ! small l9es1 :i* are !n horizontal & v]tical4 ,! direction ( ! v]tical & horizontal l9es is less modifi$ ?an t ( ! oblique l9es4 ,we may look ^u ^! latt] illusions z fre% examples ( ! a=esaid rule1 accord+ to :i* acute angles cle>ly def9$1 b ( small size1 appe>1 z a rule1 relatively l>g] :5 we comp>e ) obtuse or "r angles :i* are undivid$2 b if ! app>5t enl>gem5t ( an acute angle %[s itself 9 su* a mann] t ! two sides appe> to div]ge1 ! illusions giv5 9 figs4 #aah1 #abj1 & #aba1 w be ! result4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,! horizontal l9es1 a1 b1 c1 d1 are /rictly p>allel2 _! appe>ance ( deviation is caus$ by ! oblique l9es4 ,9 fig4 #aah ! n>r[ l9es appe> to turn t[>ds ! po9t :]e !y p5etrate ! ?ick l9e & disappe>1 to appe> aft]w>ds 9 cont9uation ( ea* o!r4 ,9 fig4 #abj ! two halves ( ea* ( ! two /raight l9es seem to deviate ?r\gh ! entire l5g? 9 su* a mann] t ! acute angles :i* !y =m ) ! oblique l9es appe> enl>g$4 ,! same effect is %[n by ! v]tical l9es ( fig4 #aba4 ,m4 ,helmholtz is ( op9ion 7figs4 #abj1 #aba7 t ! law ( contra/ is insuffici5t to entirely expla9 ! ph5om5a1 & believes t ! effect is also caus$ by ! movem5ts ( ! eye4 ,9 fact1 ! illusions almo/ entirely disappe>1 if we fix on a po9t ( ! object 9 ord] to develop an accid5tal image1 & :5 we h obta9$ "o v di/9ctly1 :i* is q possible ) ,zolln]'s design 7fig4 #aba71 ?is image w pres5t n ! slighte/ trace ( illusion4 ,9 fig4 #aah ! displacem5t ( ! gaze w ex]cise no v decid$ influ5ce on ! /r5g!n+ ( ! illusion2 on ! contr>y1 x disappe>s :5 we turn our eyes on ! n>r[ l9e1 ad4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fix+ ( ! eyes causes ! illusion to disappe> ) relative facility 9 fig4 #abj1 & ) m difficulty 9 fig4 #aba2 x w1 h[ev]1 disappe> equally 9 ! latt] design1 if we fix x immovably1 & in/ead ( consid]+ x z compos$ ( black l9es on a :ite backgr\nd1 we compel ourselves to picture x z :ite l9es on a black f\ndation2 !n ! illusion vani%es4 ,b if we let our eyes w&] ov] ! illu/ration1 ! illusion w return 9 full =ce4 ,we c inde$ succe$ 9 completely de/roy+ ! illusion produc$ by ^! designs by cov]+ !m ) a %eet ( opaque pap]1 on :i* we re/ ! po9t ( a p94 ,look+ fix$ly at ! po9t1 we sudd5ly draw away ! pap]1 & c !n judge if ! gaze has be5 fix$ & /eady accord+ to ! cle>ness ( ! accid5tal image :i* is =m$ z a result ( ! exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,! v]tical /rips are p>allel2 !y appe> conv]g5t or div]g5t "u ! influ5ce ( ! oblique l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,obs]vation ( electric sp>k4 ,! light ( an electric sp>k furni%es ! sure/ & simple/ means ( c\nt]act+ ! influ5ce ( movem5ts ( ! eyes1 z dur+ ! mom5t>y duration ( ! sp>k ! eye _c execute any s5sible movem5t4 ,= ?is exp]im5t ! pres5t writ] has made use ( a wood5 box1 ,a ,b ,c ,d 7fig4 #abb71 black5$ on ! inside4 ,two holes are made = ! eyes on ea* side ( ! box1 f & g4 ,! obs]v] looks ?r\gh ! op5+s1 f1 & 9 front ( op5+s1 g1 ! objects are plac$2 ^! are pi]c$ ?r\gh ) a p91 :i* c be fix$ by ! eyes 9 ! abs5ce ( ! electric sp>k1 :5 ! box is p]fectly d>k4 ,! box is op51 & re/s on ! table1 ,b ,d1 to all[ ( *ang+ ! object4 ,! conduct+ wires ( electricity are at h & i2 9 ! c5tre ( ! box is a /rip ( c>dbo>d1 :ite on ! side fac+ ! sp>k1 ! light ( :i* x %elt]s f ! eye ( ! obs]v] & ?r[s back aga9 on ! object4 ,) ! electric light ! illusion 0 completely p]ceptible ) fig4 #aah1 :ile x disappe>$ altoge!r 9 fig4 #abj2 ) fig4 #aba x 0 n entirely abs5t1 b :5 x %[$ itself1 x 0 mu* m feeble & d\btful ?an usual1 ?\gh ! int5sity ( light 0 q suffici5t to all[ ( ! =m ( ! object be+ v di/9ctly exam9$4 ,?us two diff]5t ph5om5a h to be expla9$2 fir/1 ! feeble illusion :i* is produc$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( movem5ts ( ! eye2 & secondly1 ! /r5g!n+ ( ! illusion 9 consequ5ce ( ^! movem5ts4 ,! law ( contra/ suffici5tly expla9s ! fir/2 t :i* "o p]ceives mo/ di/9ctly ) indirect vision is ! concordance ( directions ) dim5sions ( ! same k9d4 ,we p]ceive m di/9ctly ! diff]5ce ( direction pres5t$ at _! int]section by ! two sides ( an acute or obtuse angle1 ?an ! deviation t exi/s betwe5 "o ( ! sides & ! p]p5dicul> :i* we imag9e plac$ on ! o!r side1 b :i* is n m>k$4 ,by be+ di/ribut$ on bo? sides1 ! app>5t enl>gem5t ( ! angles gives way to displacem5ts1 & *anges ( direction ( ! sides4 ,x is difficult to correct ! app>5t displacem5t ( ! l9es :5 !y rema9 p>allel to _! true direction2 = ?is reason1 ! illusion ( ! figure is relatively m inflexible4 ,*anges ( direction1 on ! contr>y1 are recognis$ m easily if we exam9e ! figure att5tively1 :5 ^! *anges h ! effect ( caus+ ! concordance ( ! l9es 7:i* accord 9 reality7 to disappe>2 x is probably because ( ! diff]5ce 9 aspect ( ! num]\s oblique l9es ( figs4 #abj & #aba t ! concordance ( ^! l9es escapes ! obs]v]'s notice4 ,z reg>ds ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by ! motion ( ! eyes 9 ! app>5t direction ( ! l9es1 ,m4 ,helmholtz1 aft] discuss+ ! matt] v ?or\ghly1 proves ! /r5g!n+ ( ! illusion 9 ,zolln]'s illu/ration to be caus$ by ^? motions4 ,x is n n[ our int5tion to foll[ out ! :ole ( ?is demon/ration2 x w be suffici5t to po9t out to ! read] a fruitful =ce ( /udy1 ) b little kn[n results4 ,! ,romans 7 well acqua9t$ ) ! influ5ce ( oblique l9es4 ,at ,pompeii1 fresco pa9t+s are to be f\nd1 9 :i* ! l9es are n p>allel1 s t !y satisfy ! eye influ5c$ by adjac5t l9es4 ,engrav]s 9 copp]-plate h also /udi$ ! influ5ce ( et*+s on ! p>allelism ( /raight l9es1 & !y calculate ! effect t !y w produce on ! engrav+4 ,9 "s ornam5tations 9 :i* ^! results h n be5 calculat$1 x sometimes happ5s t p>allel l9es d n appe> p>allel because ( ! influ5ce ( o!r oblique l9es1 & a disagreeable effect is produc$4 ,a simil> result is to be se5 at ! railway /ation at ,lyons1 ! ro( ( :i* is cov]$ ) inlaid "w 9 po9t de ,hongrie4 ,! wide p>allel l9es ( ?is ceil+ appe> to deviate1 a result produc$ by a s]ies ( oblique l9es =m$ by ! planks ( wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,two sides ( a ,?aumatrope disc4 ,hav+ giv5 a long acc\nt ( ! result ( ,m4 ,helmholtz's lab\rs1 we w pass to ! consid]ation ( ano!r k9d ( exp]im5ts1 or r appliances1 bas$ on ! illusions ( vision1 & ! p]si/5ce ( impressions on ! ret9a4 ,! ,?aumatrope1 to :i* we h already ref]r$1 is a play?+ ( v anci5t orig91 bas$ on ! pr9ciple we h m5tion$4 ,x consi/s ( a c>dbo>d disc1 :i* we put 9 motion by pull+ two cords4 ,on "o side ( ! disc a cage1 a1 is portray$1 on ! o!r a bird1 b 7fig4 #abc74 ,:5 ! little contrivance is turn$ r\nd1 ! two designs are se5 at ! same "t1 & =m b "o image--t ( a bird 9 its cage 7fig4 #abd74 ,x is ( c\rse h>dly necess>y to add t ! designs may be v>i$4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ,m4 ,plateau's rotat+ disc 7! ,ph5aki/oscope74 ,?r\gh ! n>r[ slits we p]ceive 9 succession repres5tations ( diff]5t positions ( a c]ta9 action4 ,! p]si/5ce ( ! lum9\s impressions on ! ret9a gives to ! eye ! s5sation ( a cont9u\s image1 :i* seems animat$ by ! same movem5ts z ^? portray$ 9 ! diff]5t phases 7fig4 #abe74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4--;,appe>ance ( ! ,?aumatrope 9 rotation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4--,plateau's ,ph5oki/oscope4 ,! ,zootrope 7fig4 #abf7 is a p]fect$ specim5 ( ?is app>atus4 ,x is compos$ ( a cyl9d] ( c>dbo>d1 turn+ on a c5tral axis4 ,! cyl9d] is pi]c$ ) v]tical slits at regul> int]vals1 & ?r\gh :i* ! spectator c see ! designs ^u a b& ( pap] adapt$ to ! int]ior ( ! app>atus 9 rotation4 ,! designs are s execut$ t !y repres5t ! diff]5t times ( a movem5t betwe5 two extremes2 & 9 consequ5ce ( ! impressions ^u ! ret9a ! successive phases are m+l$1 s ! spectator believes he sees1 )\t transition1 ! entire movem5t4 ,we give a few specim5s ( ! pictures = ! ,zootrope 7fig4 #abg74 ,we h "h an ape leap+ ov] a h$ge1 a danc+ 8,pun*10 a g5d>me pursu+ a ?ief1 a p]son hold+ ! devil by ! tail1 a robb] com+ out ( a box1 & a sportsman fir+ at a bird4 ,! extremes ( ! movem5t are "r & left2 ! int]m$i>y figures make ! transitions1 & !y are usually equal 9 numb] to ! slits 9 ! ,zootrope4 ,x is n difficult to con/ruct su* an in/rum5t1 & bett] draw+s c\ld be made ?an ! specim5s tak5 at r&om f a model4 ,! e>? might be repres5t$ turn+ 9 space1 or a fire-eng9e pump+ wat] c\ld be giv51 & ?us ! ,zootrope might be q a vehicle ( in/ruction z well z ( amusem5t4 ,?is in/rum5t is c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ curi\s 9 ! range ( optics1 & nev] fails to excite int]e/4 ,! +5i\s contrivances :i* h up to ! pres5t "t reproduc$ x1 all consi/ 9 ! employm5t ( n>r[ slits1 :i* besides r$uc+ ! light to a great ext5t1 & consequ5tly ! light & cle>ness ( ! object1 require ! in/rum5t to be set 9 rapid rotation1 :i* greatly exagg]ates ! rapidity ( ! movem5ts repres5t$1 & )\t :i* ! int]missions ( ! spectacle c\ld n unite 9 a cont9u\s s5sation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4--,! ,zootrope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,pictures us$ 9 ! ,zootrope4 ,we pres5t "h an app>atus bas$ on a v diff]5t optical arrangem5t4 ,9 ! ,prax9oscope#ab 7a "n giv5 by ! inv5tor1 ,mr4 ,reynaud1 to ?is new app>atus71 ! sub/itution ( "o object = ano!r is accompli%$ )\t int]ruption 9 ! vision1 or solution ( cont9uity1 & consequ5tly )\t a s5sible r$uction ( light2 9 a ^w1 ! eye beholds cont9u\sly an image :i*1 nev]!less1 is incessantly *ang+ be=e x4 ,! result 0 obta9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,hav+ s\ght unsuccessfully by me*anical means to sub/itute "o object = ano!r )\t int]rupt+ ! cont9uity ( ! spectacle1 ! inv5tor 0 seiz$ ) ! idea ( produc+ ?is sub/itution1 n ) ! objects !mselves1 b ) _! virtual images4 ,he !n contriv$ ! arrangem5t :i* we w n[ describe4 ,a plane mirror1 ,,ab 7fig4 #abi71 is plac$ at a c]ta9 di/ance f an object1 ,,cd1 & ! virtual image w be se5 at ,c,d4 ,if we !n turn ! plane mirror & object t[>ds ! po9t1 ,o1 lett+ ,,be & ,,df be _! new positions1 ! image w be at ,c,d4 ,its axis1 ,o1 w n be displac$4 ,9 ! positions1 ,,ab & ,,cd1 fir/ occupi$ by ! plane mirror & ! object1 we n[ place ano!r mirror & object4 ,let u imag9e ! eye plac$ at ,m4 ,half ( ! fir/ object w be se5 at ,,od1 & half ( ! second at ,,oc4 ,if we cont9ue ! rotation ( ! in/rum5t1 we %all soon h mirror ,no4 #b at ,,tt1 & object ,no4 #b at ,,ss4 ,at ! same mom5t ! image ( object ,no4 #b w be se5 entirely at ,c,d4 ,mirror ,no4 #b & its object w soon aft] be at ,,be & ,,df4 ,if we !n imag9e ano!r mirror & its correspond+ object at ,,ab & ,,cd1 ! same succession ( ph5om5a w be reproduc$4 ,?is exp]im5t !re=e %[s t a s]ies ( objects plac$ on ! p]imet] ( a polygon w be se5 successively at ! c5tre1 if ! plane mirrors are plac$ on a conc5tric polygon1 ! 8apo?me0 ( :i* w be less by "o-half1 & :i* w be c>ri$ on by ! same movem5t4 ,9 its practical =m1 ,m4 ,reynaud's app>atus consi/s ( a polygonal or simply circul> box 7fig4 #abh71 7= ! polygon may be replac$ by a circle )\t ! pr9ciple or result be+ *ang$71 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is plac$ a prism ( exactly half a diamet] less1 ! surface ( :i* is cov]$ ) plane mirrors4 ,a /rip ( c>dbo>d be>+ a numb] ( designs ( ! same object1 portray$ 9 diff]5t phases ( action1 is plac$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! circul> rim ( ! box1 s t ea* position corresponds to a plate ( ! glass prism4 ,a mod]ate movem5t ( rotation giv5 to ! app>atus1 :i* is rais$ on a c5tral pivot1 suffices to produce ! sub/itution ( ! figures1 & ! animat$ object is reflect$ on ! c5tre ( ! glass prism ) rem>kable brightness1 cle>ness1 & delicacy ( movem5t4 ,con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann]1 ! ,prax9oscope =ms an optical toy bo? int]e/+ & amus+4 ,9 ! ev5+1 a lamp plac$ on a support ad hoc1 9 ! c5tre ( ! app>atus1 suffices to light x up v cle>ly1 & a numb] ( p]sons may conv5i5tly assemble r\nd x1 & witness ! effects produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4--,m4 ,reynaud's ,prax9oscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,besides ! attractions (f]$ by ! animat$ sc5es ( ! ,prax9oscope1 ! app>atus may also be made ! object ( useful applications 9 ! /udy ( optics4 ,x p]mits an object1 a draw+1 or a col\r1 to be sub/itut$ in/antane\sly 9 exp]im5ts on second>y or subjective images1 etc41 on ! contra/ ( col\rs or ! p]si/5ce ( impressions1 etc4 ,we c also make :at is call$ a syn!sis ( movem5ts by plac+ be=e ! prism a s]ies ( diagrams ( natural objects by means ( photography4 ,m4 ,reynaud has already arrang$ an app>atus :i* exhibits 9 ! l>ge/ dim5sions ! animat$ reflection ( ! ,prax9oscope1 & :i* l5ds itself to ! demon/ration ( curi\s effects be=e a num]\s auditory4 ,! +5i\s inv5tor has rec5tly contriv$ also a v curi\s improvem5t 9 ! orig9al app>atus4 ,9 ! ,prax9oscope ,!atre he has succe$$ 9 produc+ truly ornam5tal tableaux1 z on a small ,lilliputian /age1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* ! pr9cipal object moves ) />tl+ effect4 ,to obta9 ?is result1 ,m4 ,reynaud comm5ces by cutt+ out 9 black pap] ! diff]5t figures1 ! :ole ( :i* w =m an object animat$ by ! rotation giv5 to ! ,prax9oscope4 ,to supply ! decorations1 he arranges on ! black f\ndation ! image ( an appropriate col\r$ design by means ( a piece ( glass4 ,x is well kn[n t transp>5t glass possesses ! prop]ty ( giv+ a reflection ( ! objects on ! ne>e/ side z well z on ! f>!/4 ,we may recall ! applications ( ?is optical effect 9 !atres1 & also 9 c\rses ( physics1 "u ! title ( impalpable spectres4 ,x is also by reflection on ?91 transp>5t glass1 t ,m4 ,reynaud produces ! image ( ! ornam5tations 9 ! ,prax9oscope ,!atre4 ,! decorations are really plac$ 9 ! lid1 :i* is held by a hook 9 a v]tical position1 ?us =m+ ! front side ( ! app>atus 7fig4 #acj74 ,9 ?is side a rectangul> op5+ is made1 ?r\gh :i* ! spectator 7us+ bo? eyes7 p]ceives at ! same "t ! animat$ reflection ( ! ,prax9oscope1 & ! immovable image ( ! decorations reflect$ 9 ! transp>5t glass4 ,! position ( ! latt] & its di/ance f ! col\r$ decorations are arrang$ s t ! reflection is ?r[n beh9d ! mov+ figure1 :i* consequ5tly appe>s 9 /rong relief aga9/ ! backgr\nd1 ! effect produc$ be+ v /rik+4 ,x is evid5t t to *ange ! decorations x is only necess>y to place 9 succession on a slide ! diff]5t *romos repres5t+ l&scapes1 build+s1 ! int]ior ( a circus1 etc4 ,x is easy to *oose an arrangem5t suitable = ea* ( ! mov+ figures plac$ 9 ! ,prax9oscope4 ,by ?is clev] & entirely novel optical comb9ation1 ! me*anism ( ! contrivance is entirely lo/ sight (1 leav+ only ! effect produc$ by ! animat$ figures1 :i* fulfil _! diff]5t movem5ts on ! little /age4 ,! ,prax9oscope ,!atre c also be us$ z well 9 ! ev5+ z 9 ! daytime4 ,by daylight1 x is suffici5t to place x be=e a w9d[1 & 9 ! ev5+ ! same effects may be produc$1 p]haps 9 ev5 a m /rik+ mann]1 by simply plac+ a lamp on ! /&1 ) a small plat$ reflector1 & a lamp-%ade4 ,! illusion produc$ by ?is sci5tific play?+ is v complete & curi\s1 & ,m4 ,reynaud _c be too mu* comm5d$ = s clev]ly apply+ 8 k ( physics 9 ! con/ruction ( an app>atus :i* is at ! same "t bo? an optical in/rum5t & a *>m+ s\rce ( amusem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #acj4--,! ,prax9oscope ,!atre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,! ,dazzl+ ,top4 ,among/ ! toys f\nd$ ^u ! p]si/5cy ( impressions ^u ! ret9a we may in/ance ! 8,dazzl+ ,top0 7fig4 #aca74 ,?is rem>kable inv5tion is q wor?y ( a place 9 e cab9et1 & is an +5i\s specim5 ( a p]fect$ ,helmholtz top4 ,x is a metallic toy put 9 motion by means ( a cord w\nd r\nd a groove4 ,! axis is holl[1 admits a metallic /em1 & fits into a h&le :i* is held 9 ! h&4 ,! top is plac$ ^u a little cup 9 an upright position1 & x is !n set sp9n+ 9 ! usual way ) ! cord4 ,! /em & h&le are !n )drawn1 & z ! top w cont9ue to sp9 = a long "t1 discs & v>i\s outl9e %apes c be fix$ ^u x1 & v>i\s objects w be %ad[$ !reon4 ,cups1 b[ls1 c&le/icks1 & jugs c be se5 pla9ly revolv+ z ! top c>ries ! wire repres5tation 9 outl9e rapidly pa/ ! eyes4 ,col\r$ c>dbo>d c be work$ into v>i\s patt]ns1 & mu* amusem5t w be creat$ among/ *ildr5 & "y p4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,f praxis1 action1 & skope91 to %[4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,optical ,,illusions ,,cont9u$--,,exp]im5ts--,,! ,,talk+ ,,head--,,gho/ ,,illusions4 ,! enum]ation ( optical illusions is s consid]able t we h no int5tion ( describ+ !m all1 & w m]ely cite a few o!r examples4 ,! foll[+ facts h be5 communicat$ to u by ,m4 ,na*et3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;,hexagonal appe>ance =m$ by circles jo9$ toge!r4 ,:5 exam9+ alg "u ! microscope1 we notice ! spaces :i* sep>ate ! /reaks ornam5t+ ! silici\s cov]+ ( ^! v>i\s organisms1 & x is expla9$ t !y are =m$ by hexagons visible only :5 we exam9e ! object ) a p[]ful microscope4 8,= a long "t10 says ,m4 ,na*et1 8,i occupi$ myself ) ! exam9ation ( ! hexagonal appe>ance ( ! po9ts con/itut+ ! /reaks4 ,:y %\ld ^! hexagons %[ !mselves1 & h[ c\ld !y be o!r ?an ! visible base ( small pyramids pil$ v closely "o on ! o!r2 & if ?is 7 ! case1 :y 7 n ! po9ts ( ! little pyramids visible8 ,or1 0 ! /ructure be=e me analog\s to t ( ! eyes ( insects8 ,!n ! c>apace w\ld be b a surface ( p]=at$ polygonal op5+s4 ,?is latt] hypo!sis 0 attractive en\gh1 & w\ld h expla9$ _m ?+s2 b "s c>eful obs]vations ) v p[]ful object-glasses1 q free f blemi%es1 _h %[n me t ^! hexagons _h r\nd po9ts1 contr>y to ! descriptions ( micrographs4 ,^! obs]vations1 corroborat$ by ! micrographic photographs ( ,lack]bau]1 ! mu*-regrett$ design]1 & by ,colonels ,woodw>d & ,wa%+ton1 left n ! slighte/ d\bt t x 0 necess>y to discov] :y ! eye p]si/5tly saw hexagons :]e !re 7 circles4 ,to elucidate ?is po9t1 x 0 necess>y to f9d "s means ( reproduc+ artificially :at nature _h accompli%$ ) s mu* precision on ! surfaces ( alg4 ,aft] _m fruitless attempts1 ,i decid$ on mak+ a trial ( a /]eotype plate cov]$ ) dots arrang$ 9 qu9cunxes1 v close toge!r0 7figs4 #acb & #acc74 8,! result 0 m successful ?an ,i _h hop$2 ! effect produc$ is exactly t ( ! arrangem5t ( ! s-call$ hexagons ( ! mo/ beautiful ( ! alg1 ! ,pleurosigma angulata4 ,if ^! /]eotypes are exam9$ ) "o eye only1 we %all be imm$iately conv9c$ t we h to d ) hexagonal polygons40 ,x is useless to give any long exposition ( a figure s cle>ly explanatory2 x is simply an effect ( ! contra/ & opposition ( ! black & :ite 9 ! s5sation ( ! ret9a4 ,?is effect is p>ticul>ly /rik+ ) fig4 #acd1 a negative photograph heliographically engrav$ accord+ to fig4 #acc4 ,9 ?is ! :ite po9ts seem to de/roy ! black spaces1 & to approa* ea* o!r tang5tially1 & ! irradiation is s int5se t ! :ite circles appe> mu* l>g] ?an ! black ( fig4 #acc1 al?\gh ( ! same diamet]4 ,!re are 9 ^! facts _m po9ts :i* may int]e/ n only /ud5ts ( micrography1 b also arti/s4 ,z to ! alg1 ! orig9 ( ?is inve/igation1 x rema9s to be discov]$ if ^! circles :i* cov] _! silici\s c>apace are ! projection ( small hemisph]es1 or ! section ( op5+s made 9 ! ?ick cov]+4 ,c]ta9 exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1 seem to prove t !y are hemisph]es1 & ! !ory is also confirm$ by a microscopic photograph f ,lack]bau]'s collection1 magnifi$ #c1jjj diamet]s1 9 :i* a black c5tral po9t is se5 9 ! c5tre ( ea* circle1 a c]ta9 reflection ( ! lum9\s s\rce reproduc$ 9 ! focus ( ea* ( ! small demi-sph]es :i* con/itute ! ornam5t ( ! alg4 ,! microscope1 :i* has progressively %[n fir/ ! /reaks1 !n ! hexagons1 & !n ! r\nd po9ts1 w surely cle> up ! po9t "s day or o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,ano!r figure ( ! same k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,?ird figure4 ,mr4 ,silvanus ,p4 ,?ompson1 ,pr(essor ( ,physics at ,univ]sity ,college1 ,bri/ol1 has rec5tly pres5t$ ! ,fr5* ,society ( ,physical ,sci5ce ) a curi\s example ( optical illusion1 ! true cause ( :i* is n cle>ly kn[n1 b :i* we may comp>e ) o!r facts made kn[n "s "t ago1 ( :i* no precise explanation has be5 giv54 ,let u fir/ consid] 9 :at ! effect discov]$ by ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,?ompson consi/s1 accord+ to ! description t has be5 giv5 ( x by ,m4 ,c4 ,m4 ,g>iel2 ! illu/rations "h giv5 w also all[ ( our v]ify+ ! tru? ( ! /atem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,mr4 ,?ompson's optical illusion4 ,give a circul> movem5t to ^! figures1 & ! circles w appe> to turn r\nd4 ,! fir/ illu/ration consi/s ( a s]ies ( conc5tric circles ( ab\t ! wid? ( a millimetre1 sep>at$ by :ite int]vals ( ! same size 7fig4 #ace74 ,^! dim5sions are n absolute2 !y v>y ) ! di/ance1 & may ev5 be a few in*es 9 wid? if x is desir$ to %[ ! ph5om5on to a r num]\s auditory4 ,if we hold ! design 9 ! h&1 & give x a twirl by a little movem5t ( ! wri/1 ! circle appe>s to turn r\nd its c5tre1 & ! rotation is 9 ! same direction1 & is equally swift2 t is to say1 ! circle appe>s to accompli% a complete turn1 :il/ ! c>dbo>d really accompli%es "o 9 ! same direction4 ,= ! second effect we draw a d>k circle1 9 ! int]ior ( :i* are plac$ a numb] ( ind5tations at regul> int]vals 7fig4 #acf74 ,op]at+ 9 ! same mann] z describ$ above1 ?is not*$ :eel appe>s to turn r\nd its c5tre1 b ?is "t 9 a diff]5t direction f ! real movem5t4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! o!r design1 ! effect is m satisfactory if we d n look directly at x2 ! movem5ts also are p>ticul>ly /rik+ 9 comb9ations su* z t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #acg1 9 :i* ! multiplicity ( circles does n all[ u to fix "o specially4 ,we may add t ! same effects may be obta9$ ) ecc5tric :eels1 or ev5 ) o!r curves ?an circles4 ,by means ( a photograph on glass1 ,mr4 ,?ompson has be5 able to reflect ^! designs on a scre5 :]e !y 7 obta9$ on a l>ge scale2 a circul> movem5t 0 communicat$ to ! photographic plate1 s t ! design mov$ 9 a circul> mann] on ! scre51 & 9 ?is case also !re exi/$ ! illusion t e circle seem$ turn+ r\nd its c5tre4 ,& :at is ! explanation ( ^! curi\s effects8 ,mr4 ,?ompson does n believe 7& we %>e 8 op9ion7 t ! faculty possess$ by ! ret9a ( pres]v+ images dur+ a c]ta9 "t 7p]si/5ce ( impressions on ! ret9a7 c entirely expla9 ^! ph5om5a4 ,)\t desir+ to =mulate a decid$ !ory1 ,mr4 ,?ompson is ( op9ion t we may class ^! facts ) o!rs :i* h be5 kn[n = "s "t1 & t p]haps x is necess>y to attribute to ! eye "s new faculty :i* may expla9 ! :ole at once4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4--;,ano!r figure ( ,mr4 ,?ompson's4 ,! diff]5t circles appe> to turn r\nd if we give ! design a rotat+ movem5t4 ,brew/] & ,adams h describ$ ph5om5a :i* are equally curi\s1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* we w describe1 add+ also "s analog\s inve/igations due to ,mr4 ,?ompson4 ,! result seems to be t !re exi/s 9 ! eye a badly-def9$ purpose ( nature1 :i* 9 a c]ta9 way comp5sates 7,brew/]7 = ! real ph5om5on1 because x has a contr>y effect1 :i* w cont9ue = "s "t aft] ! cessation ( ! ph5om5a1 & :i* gives by itself a s5sation contr>y to t :i* ! real movem5t w\ld h produc$4 ,?us1 aft] hav+ fix$ our eyes = two or ?ree m9utes on a ru%+ wat]fall1 if we sudd5ly turn our glance on ! adjac5t rocks1 ! latt] appe> to move f top to bottom4 ,x is n a "q "h ( ! effect ( ! relative movem5t to be obs]v$ on reg>d+ simultane\sly ! fall+ wat] & ! rocks2 if "o c succe$ 9 ab/ract+ oneself to su* an ext5t t ! wat] appe>s motionless1 ! rocks appe> to take a contr>y movem5t4 ,9 ! ph5om5on we describe !re is no simultane\s comp>ison2 ! eyes are turn$ successively fir/ on ! wat]1 & !n on ! rocks4 ,9 a rapid riv]1 su* z ! ,rh9e above ! fall at ,s*affhaus51 ! /ream is n equally swift 9 e "p1 & ! curr5t is noticeably m rapid 9 ! middle ( ! riv] ?an ne> ! banks4 ,if we look fix$ly at ! c5tre ( ! /ream1 & !n sudd5ly turn our eyes t[>ds ! banks1 x w appe> z ?\gh ! riv] 7 fl[+ back t[>ds its s\rce4 ,?is k9d ( comp5sation does n only produce an app>5t displacem5t1 b also *anges 9 size4 ,:5 travell+ at great spe$ 9 a railway tra91 ! objects ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry z "o flies by !m gradually appe> small] & small]4 ,if1 :5 ?is occurs1 we sudd5ly remove our eyes to ! int]ior ( ! railway c>riage1 & fix !m on immovable objects1 su* z ! sides ( ! comp>tm5t1 or ! faces ( our travell+ companions1 ! images on ! ret9a w really pres]ve ! same size1 & yet ! objects w appe> l>g]4 ,su* are "s ( ! int]e/+ facts among ^? discov]$ by ,mr4 ,?ompson2 & ?\gh we d n int5d to pu% ! inquiry fur!r1 we ?9k x may n be )\t int]e/ to describe "h ano!r illusion ( t organ ^: prop]ties are 9 e way s curi\s & rem>kable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4--;,exp]im5t on complem5t>y col\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4--;,design = exp]im5t or ! punctum ccum4 ,ano!r exp]im5t to %[ ! exi/5ce ( impressions receiv$ by ! ret9a c be made ) ! figure above 7#ach74 ,if ! gaze be fix$ ^u ! d>k spot 9 ! c5tre ( ! :ite figure = ab\t half a m9ute1 & ! eyes !n direct$ to ! ceil+1 or a %eet ( :ite pap]1 ! :ite figure w be reproduc$ 9 black4 ,?is result is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple ( complem5t>y col\rs4 ,a r$ design1 = in/ance1 w be reproduc$ 9 gre54 ,!re is a d>k spot 9 e human eye--t is1 a spot :i* is ins5sible to light4 ,! eye is g5]ally reg>d$ z a p]fect in/rum5t1 b x is n yet s by any means4 ,"o ( our great philosoph]s rem>k$ t if an in/rum5t 7 s5t home to him s full ( errors he w\ld feel ju/ifi$ 9 return+ x to ! optician4 ,b ! eye has its d>k place1 ! punctum ccum1 & x c be discov]$ by cov]+ ! left eye ) ! h&1 & hold+ ! pres5t page at arm's l5g? ) ! o!r4 ,!n fix ! gaze on ! small cross 9 ! picture1 & br+ ! book close up4 ,at a little di/ance ! :ite ball w disappe> f ! page 7fig4 #aci74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #adj4--;,an optical illusion4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #adj7 %[s u a v curi\s optical illusion1 & "o v easy to practise4 ,roll up a %eet ( pap]1 & look ?r\gh x1 z ?r\gh a telescope1 ) ! "r eye1 keep+ bo? eyes op54 ,!n place ! left h& op5 palm t[>ds y aga9/ ! roll ( pap]1 y w !n appe> to be look+ ?r\gh a hole 9 y\r left h&4 ,sometimes ! effect is produc$ )\t hold+ up ! o!r h& to ! roll1 z %[n 9 fig4 #adj4 ,among optical illusions !re are a great numb] t may be produc$ by means ( mirrors4 ,! divid$ telescope is an example4 ,! app>atus1 rais$ on a firm /&1 all[s ( "o app>5tly see+ an object ?r\gh a /one or o!r opaque object1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ada4 ,! illu/ration %[s ! arrangem5t ( ! app>atus4 ,! obs]v]1 look+ ?r\gh x1 pla9ly p]ceives ! object ?r\gh ! glass2 ! image is reflect$ f\r times be=e rea*+ 8 eye1 by means ( small mirrors conceal$ 9 ! in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,a divid$ telescope4 ,convex or concave mirrors di/ort images 9 a s+ul> mann]1 & produce v int]e/+ effects4 ,anamorphoses con/itute p>ticul> objects belong+ specially to ! class ( exp]im5ts relat+ to cyl9drical mirrors4 ,!y are images made accord+ to det]m9$ rules1 b s di/ort$ t :5 reg>d+ !m fix$ly we c only di/+ui% confus$ /rokes4 ,:5 !y are se5 reflect$ 9 ! curv$ mirrors1 !y pres5t1 on ! contr>y1 a p]fectly regul> appe>ance4 ,fig4 #adb exhibits an ,anamorphosis made by a cyl9drical mirror4 ,x w be se5 t ! confus$ image ( ! horizontal pap] is reflect$ 9 ! cyl9drical mirror1 produc+ ! figure ( a juggl]4 ,x is easy to contrive simil> designs "o's-self2 & comical mirrors may also be employ$ :i* produce p>ticul> effects ( a no less int]e/+ k9d4 ,! next illu/ration is ( a set ( figures :i* 9 a cyl9drical mirror look l ! t5 ( he>ts 7fig4 #adc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,cyl9drical ,mirror & ,anamorphosis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,anamorphus design = ! t5 ( he>ts4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable applications ( mirrors 9 amus+ exp]im5ts is und\bt$ly t ( ! sev]$ & talk+ head4 ,a few ye>s back ?is trick obta9$ consid]able success 9 ,p>is & a numb] ( o!r t[ns4 ,! spectators beheld a small space set ap>t1 9 :i* 0 plac$ a table on ?ree legs2 on ?is table 0 a human head1 plac$ 9 clo? on a di%4 ,! head mov$ its eyes & spoke2 x evid5tly belong$ to a man ^: body 0 completely hidd54 ,! spectators ?\ght !y saw an empty space b5ea? ! table1 b ! body ( ! individual :o 0 really seat$ !re 0 conceal$ by two glasses plac$ at an incl9ation ( #de to ! walls on ! "r & left4 ,! :ole 0 arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t ! reflection ( ! walls co9cid$ ) ! visible "p ( ! wall at ! back ( ! room4 ,! ?ree walls 7 pa9t$ 9 "o col\r1 & a subdu$ light increas$ ! illusion1 ! effect ( :i* 0 rem>kable 7fig4 #add74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4--,! talk+ head4 ,! spectres design$ by ,rob9 also attract$ consid]able public att5tion )9 rec5t times4 ,!y 7 images =m$ by ! m$ium ( transp>5t glass4 ,glass panes (t5 produce ! ph5om5on ( spectres4 ,9 ! ev5+1 :5 x is d>k out ( doors1 x is easy to prove t ! reflection ( objects 9 a light$ room c be reproduc$ beh9d ! w9d[ panes by reason ( ! d>kness outside4 ,if we approa* ! w9d[ pane1 we see also ! real objects outside1 a balcony1 tree1 etc4 ,^! real objects m+le ) ! reflect$ image1 & comb9e to produce v curi\s effects4 ,9 ?is way ,m4 ,rob9 has contriv$ ! effects ( ! !atre4 ,he ?r[s on ! /age ! reflection ( a p]son dress$ z a ,z\ave1 & he himself1 arm$ ) a sabre1 /abs ! spectre ?r\gh ! body4 ,a great numb] ( o!r s+ul> effects h be5 obta9$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,pepp]'s ,gho/ 0 manag$ 9 ?is way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4--,! gho/ effect4 ,)9 rec5t times1 images produc$ 9 a simil> way h be5 utiliz$ to facilitate ! /udy ( draw+4 ,a piece ( glass is fix$ v]tically on a black bo>d 7fig4 #adf74 ,a model to copy f is plac$ on "o side ( ! piece ( glass1 & is arrang$ s t ! visual ray passes obliquely ?r\gh ! glass1 & we p]ceive ! reflection ( ! design v cle>ly on ! o!r side4 ,x is !n v easily reproduc$ ) a p5cil on a %eet ( :ite pap] by trac+ ! outl9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;,draw+ by reflection4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,vision--,,! ,,eye--,,! ,,/]eoscope--,,spectrum ,,analysis--,,! ,,spectroscope--,,! ,,telescope ,,& ,,microscope--,,photography--,,dissolv+ ,,views--,,lum9\s ,,pa9t4 ,! eye & vision are su* important subjects to all ( u t we may be excus$ = say+ some?+ m conc]n+ ph5om5a connect$ ) !m1 & ! in/rum5ts we use = assi/+ !m4 ,we d n propose to write a treatise ^u ! physiology ( vision1 = we "k ! image 9 ! eye is produc$ physically 9 ! same mann] z ! image 9 a cam]a obscura4 ,9 ! eye ! sides ( ! box are repres5t$ by ! scl]otic 7see *ap4 x4 fig4 #ie72 ! d>k inn] surface has its p>allel 9 ! pigm5t ( ! *oroid2 ! op5+ 9 ! box 9 ! pupil ( ! eye2 ! convex l5s 9 ! cry/all9e & ! cornea2 & ! ret9a receives ! image4 ,b :y we see--beyond ! fact t we d see--no "o c expla94 ,sci5ce is dumb on ! subject4 ,?\ght & consci\sness elude our grasp2 &1 z ,pr(essor ,tyndall says on ?is subject1 8we /& face to face ) ! incompreh5sible40 ,b !re are _m int]e/+ facts connect$ ) our vision :i* may be pla9ly describ$4 ,"s p are oblig$ to c>ry an object 7or a book7 to )9 t5 in*es ( ! eye to see x di/9ctly2 & a p]son :o does n possess conv]g5t p[] ( ! eye w h to move x f>!r (f1 or use convex glasses2 :ile a 8ne>-sight$0 p]son1 ^: eyes are too quickly conv]g5t1 w use concave glasses to br+ ! object ne> to ! eye4 ,!re is b "o small place 9 ! ret9a ( ! eye :i* admits ( p]fect vision4 ,?is1 ! mo/ s5sitive portion1 is call$ ! 8yell[ spot10 & vision becomes m & m indi/9ct f ?is po9t t[>ds ! circumf]5ce4 ,?is c be prov$ by any "o2 = 9 read+ we are oblig$ to c>ry our eyes f ^w to ^w1 & backw>ds & =w>ds along ! l9es ( pr9t4 ,ano!r v important elem5t 9 our vision is ! contraction & enl>gem5t ( ! iris ar\nd ! pupil4 ,9 cases :]e /rong light w\ld only dazzle u ! iris exp&s1 & ! pupil is contract$ to a suffici5t size to accommodate our vision4 ,at night1 or 9 a d>k5$ room1 ! pupil is enl>g$4 ,?is *ange w acc\nt = our n be+ imm$iately able to see objects :5 we h pass$ f d>kness to great light1 or vice v]s4 ,! iris mu/ h "t to accommodate itself to ! light4 ,n[1 outside ! small space ( p]fect vision above m5tion$1 !re is a circle ( consid]able ext5t1 call$ ! 8field ( vision40 ,9 man ?is field1 :5 ! eyes are fix$1 subt5ds an angle ( ab\t #ahj1 because beyond t ! rays _c ent] ! pupil ( ! eye4 ,b 9 ! l[] animals1 ! fi% & birds1--notably ! o/ri*1--! field ( vision is mu* m ext5sive1 because ! pupils are m prom95t1 or ! eyes are set m t[>ds ! sides ( ! head4 ,! o/ri* c see beh9d him1 & fi% c see 9 any direction )\t app>5t limit4 ,man c only see indi/9ctly2 & ?\gh he c move 8 eyes rapidly1 he c see di/9ctly b a small portion ( any object at a "t1 yet he sees ) bo? eyes simultane\sly a s+le object1 because ! two l9es ( vision unite at a s+le po9t1 & z ! two images cov] ea* o!r we p]ceive only "o image4 ,beyond or )9 ?is po9t ( meet+ ! vision is indi/9ct1 b ! angle ( conv]g5ce is always v>i$ accord+ to ! di/ance ( ! object4 ,if we hold up a p5hold] 9 front ( u1 & 9 a l9e ) any o!r def9$ object1--say an ink-bottle1--we c see ! p5hold] di/9ctly1 & ! ink-bottle indi/9ctly1 z two images4 ,if we !n look at ! ink-bottle we %all see x s+le1 :ile ! p5hold] w appe> d\ble1 b ) imp]fect outl9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4--,! ,/]eoscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,mode ( tak+ photograph = ,/]eoscope4 ,aga91 if we look at a box bo? eyes w see x equally well1 b ! "r eye w see a little m on its "r side1 & ! left eye on ! left4 ,x is on ?is pr9ciple t ! ,/]eoscope is con/ruct$4 ,sir ,*>les ,:eat/one 0 ! inv5tor1 & ! in/rum5t may be ?us describ$3--,two pictures are tak5 by photography--"o z ! l&scape is se5 by ! "r eye1 ! o!r z x is view$ by ! left2 ! po9ts ( view ?us diff]+ slightly4 ,:5 bo? eyes are simultane\sly appli$ to ! in/rum5t ! view is se5 exactly z x w\ld appe> to ! behold] at ! actual place x repres5ts4 ,! views are tak5 s+ly2 "o side at "o "t1 & ano!r aft]1 z 9 ! cam]a 7fig4 #adh74 ,a is ! fir/ view2 ,b is kept d>k2 ,c is ! %utt] = ,a4 ,!re are ,reflect+ & ,refract+ ,/]eoscopes4 ,9 ! =m] a mirror reflects ! image into ea* eye2 9 ! latt] ! views are pa/$ on a c>d1 side by side1 & look$ at ?r\gh prismatic l5ses4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,b9ocul> ,vision h be5 appli$ to ! ,microscope4 ,9 =ego+ *apt]s we h giv5 _m examples ) diagrams ( ! tempor>y impressions made ^u ! ret9a ( ! eye4 ,x is a fact t a :eel revolv+ at a great rate w appe> to be /&+ /ill :5 sudd5ly illum9at$ by a fla% ( lightn+1 because ! eye has n "t to take 9 ! motion 9 ! in/ant ( "t1 = ! spokes ( ! :eel are n mov+ fa/ en\gh to convey ! impression ( motion 9 t half second to ! eye2 yet ! p]fect outl9e ( ! :eel is di/9ctly visible4 ,inde$1 di/9ct vision c be ex]cis$ 9 a v small fraction ( a second4 ,x 0 calculat$ by ,pr(essor ,rood1 & prov$ by exp]im5t1 t =ty billion?s ( a second is suffici5t "t = ! eye to di/+ui% lett]s on a pr9t$ page4 ,x ?is in/ance ! illum9at+ p[] 0 an electric sp>k f a ,leyd5 ,j>4 ,we h rem>k$ ^u ! di/9ctness ) :i* we c see an object :5 we direct our gaze ^u x1 & ?is appe>s a self-evid5t proposition2 b h any ( our read]s rem>k$ ! curi\s fact t :5 !y want to see a fa9t & p>ticul> /> 9 ! sky x w at once disappe> :5 !y gaze at x8 ,! be/ way to see su* v fa9t orbs z ?is is to look away f !m1--a little to "o side or ! o!r1--& !n ! t9y po9t w become visible aga9 to ! eye4 ,!re is also a degree ( phosphoresc5ce 9 ! eye1 :i* any "o :o receives a bl[ ^u t organ w readily admit4 ,ev5 a simple pressure on ! clos$ lid w %[ u a circle ( light & 8col\rs l a peacock's tail10 z ! great ,newton express$ x4 ,!re are _m occasions 9 :i* light is p]ceiv$ 9 ! eye--g5]ally ! result ( muscul> action2 & ! ,iri% t]m to 8knock fire out ( my eye0 is f\nd$ ^u philosophical facts4 ,we are _m ( u aw>e ( 8spots0 on our eyes :5 our dige/ion is out ( ord]1 & ! inability ( ! eye to see figures di/9ctly 9 a fa9t light--)9 a prop] see+ di/ance1 too--has (t5 giv5 rise to ! 8gho/40 ,^! %ad[y =ms are no?+ m ?an affections ( ! eye1 &1 z well rem>k$ 9 ,brew/]'s ,lett]s on ,natural ,magic1 8are always :ite because no o!r col\r c be se540 ,! light is n suffici5tly /rong to enable ! p]son to see di/9ctly2 & z ! eye passes f side to side1 & /rives to take 9 ! figure1 x naturally seems %ad[y & indi/9ct1 & appe>s to move z our eyes move4 8,:5 ! eye dimly descries an inanimate object ^: diff]5t p>ts reflect diff]5t degrees ( light1 its bright] p>ts may enable ! spectator to keep up a cont9u$ view ( x2 b ! disappe>ance & reappe>ance ( its fa9t] p>ts1 & ! *ange ( %ape :i* ensues1 w necess>ily give x ! semblance ( a liv+ =m2 & if x occupies a position :i* is unapproa*able1 & :]e animate objects _c f9d _! way1 ! m9d w soon transf] to x a sup]natural exi/5ce4 ,9 l mann] a human figure %ad[$ =? 9 a feeble twilight may und]go simil> *anges1 & aft] be+ di/9ctly se5 :ile x is 9 a situation fav\rable = receiv+ & reflect+ light1 x may sudd5ly disappe> 9 a position be=e & )9 ! rea* ( ! obs]v]'s eye2 & if ?is evanesc5ce takes place 9 a pa? or roadway :]e !re is no sideway by :i* ! figure c\ld escape1 x is n easy = an ord9>y m9d to efface ! impression :i* x _c fail to receive40 ,?is w acc\nt = _m s-call$ 8gho/s40 ,accid5tal col\rs1 or ocul> spectra1 are1 s to speak1 illusions1 & diff]5tly-col\r$ objects w1 :5 our gaze is turn$ f !m1 give u diff]5t 8spectra0 or images4 ,= in/ance1 a violet object w1 :5 we turn to a %eet ( :ite pap]1 give u a yell[ 8spectrum02 orange w be blue2 black & :ite w *ange respectively2 r$ w become a blue-gre54 ,f a v /rong :ite light ! accid5tal col\rs w v>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,! ,sol> ,spectrum4 ,! ,sol> ,spectrum is ! "n giv5 to ! col\r$ b& =m$ by ! decomposition ( a beam ( light into its elem5t>y col\rs1 ( :i* !re are sev54 ,?is is an easy exp]im5t4 ,a ray ( light c be admitt$ into a d>k5$ room ?r\gh a hole 9 ! %utt]1 & ?us admitt$ w produce a :ite spot on ! scre5 opposite1 z at g 9 ! diagram 7fig4 #adi74 ,if we int]pose a prism--a triangul> piece ( glass--! 8drop0 ( a *&eli] w d--we cause x to div]ge f its direct l9e1 & x w produce a long] /reak ( light l[] d[n4 ,?is /reak w exhibit ! prismatic col\rs1 or ! 8col\rs ( ! ra9b[02 viz41 r$ 7at ! top71 orange1 yell[1 gre51 blue1 indigo 7blue71 & violet la/4 ,^! are ! col\rs ( ! ,sol> ,spectrum4 ,! :ite light is ?us decompos$1 & x is call$ mix$ light1 because ( ! sev5 rays ( :i* x is compos$4 ,^! rays c be aga9 collect$ & return$ to ! :ite light by means ( a convex l5s4 8,:ite light10 said ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 8is compos$ ( rays diff]5tly refrangible10 & z we c obta9 ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[ f :ite light1 we c1 by pa9t+ !m on a circul> plate & turn+ x rapidly r\nd1 make ! plate appe> :ite4 ,?us we c prove t ! sev5 col\rs make 8:ite0 :5 int]m+l$4 ,b ,newton 7#afge7 did n arrive at ! great importance ( 8 exp]im5t4 ,he made a r\nd hole 9 ! %utt]1 & f\nd t ! v>i\s col\rs ov]lapp$ ea* o!r4 ,b1 9 #ahjb1 ,dr4 ,wolla/on improv$ on ?is exp]im5t1 & by admitt+ ! light ?r\gh a t9y slit 9 ! wood1 procur$ an almo/ p]fect spectrum ( 8simple0 col\rs1 ea* "o p]fectly di/9ct & divid$ by black l9es4 ,b twelve ye>s lat]1 ,pr(essor ,fraunh(] made a *>t ( ^! l9es1 :i* are /ill kn[n by 8 "n4 ,only1 in/ead ( ! #egf he discov]$1 !re are n[ ?\s&s kn[n to u6 ,to ,fraunh(]'s telescope ,mr4 ,simms add$ a collimat+ l5s1 & s ! ,spectroscope 0 begun2 & n[ we use a numb] ( prisms & almo/ p]fect in/rum5ts1 disp]s+ ! light ?r\gh ea*4 ,we h "h an illu/ration ( a simple ,spectroscope1 :i* is mu* us$ = *emical analysis 7fig4 #aej74 ,9 ! spectrum we h long & %ort waves ( light1 z we h long & %ort 7high & l[7 waves 9 music1 call$ notes4 ,! long or l[ notes are z ! r$ rays1 ! high notes z ! blue waves ( light4 7,"h we h ano!r in/ance ( ! simil>ity betwe5 light & s\nd47 ,b suppose we %ut out ! daylight & sub/itute an artificial light4 ,if we use a lamp burn+ alcohol ) salt 7*loride ( sodium71 ! spectrum w only consi/ ( two yell[ b&s1 all ! o!r col\rs be+ abs5t4 ,) li?ium we obta9 only two1 "o orange & "o r$4 ,f ?is we d$uce ! fact t diff]5t sub/ances :5 burn+ produce diff]5t spectra2 & al?\gh a solid may 7& plat9um w7 give all sev5 col\rs 9 its spectrum1 o!rs1 z we h se51 w only give u a few1 ! portion ( ! spectrum betwe5 ! col\rs be+ black4 ,o!rs are cont9u\s1 & transv]s$ by 8l9es0 or n>r[ spaces devoid ( light2 su* is ! spectrum ( ! sun1 & by c>eful & att5tive calculation & obs]vation we c get an approximate idea ( ! matt] surr\nd+ ! heav5ly bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4--,! ,spectroscope4 ,we h said !re are l9es cross+ ! spectrum transv]sely2 ^! are call$ ,fraunh(]'s l9es1 aft] ! philosoph] :o /udi$ !m2 !y 71 h[ev]1 discov]$ by ,wolla/on4 ,^! l9es are caus$ by light f ! l[] portion ( ! sun pass+ ?r\gh ! metallic vap\rs surr\nd+ ! orb 9 a /ate ( inc&esc5ce1 su* z sodium1 iron1 etc4 ,"o ( ,fraunh(]'s l9es1 a black d\ble l9e kn[n z ,d 9 ! yell[ portion ( ! spectrum1 0 kn[n to occupy ! same place z a c]ta9 lum9\s l9e produc$ by sodium comp\nds 9 ! flame ( a _s lamp4 ,?is gave rise to mu* consid]ation1 & at l5g? ,kir*k(f prov$ t ! sodium vap\r :i* gives out yell[ light c also absorb t light2 & ?is fact1 viz41 t e sub/ance1 :i* at a c]ta9 temp]ature emits light ( a c]ta9 refrangibility1 possesses at t temp]ature ! p[] to absorb t same light4 ,s ! black l9es are n[ consid]$ ! rev]sal ( lum9\s l9es due to ! inc&esc5t vap\rs by :i* ! sun is surr\nd$4 ,?us ! pres5ce ( an elem5t c be f\nd f black or lum9\s l9es1 s ! exi/5ce ( t]re/rial elem5ts 9 cele/ial bodies has be5 discov]$ by means ( prep>+ *>ts ( ! l9es ( ! t]re/rial elem5ts1 & comp>+ !m ) ! l9es ( /ella spectra4 ,we h suppos$ ! beam ( light to ent] ?r\gh a slit 9 ! %utt]1 & fall ^u a scre5 or %eet4 ,! sol> spectrum %[n by ! passage ( ! beam ?r\gh a prism is r\ghly z bel[-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4--;,example ( ! ,spectrum4 ,fraunh(] sub/itut$ a telescope = ! l5s & ! scre51 & call$ 8 in/rum5t a ,,spectroscope4 ,he !n obs]v$ ! l9es1 :i* are always 9 ! same position 9 ! sol> spectrum4 ,! pr9cipal ( !m he designat$ z ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h4 ,! fir/ ?ree are 9 ! r$ "p ( ! spectrum2 "o 9 ! yell[1 !n "o 9 ! gre52 ,f comes betwe5 gre5 & blue1 ,g 9 ! indigo-blue1 & ,h 9 ! violet4 ,b ^! by no means exhau/ ! l9es n[ visible4 ,ye> by ye> ! /udy ( ,spectrum ,analysis has be5 p]fect$ m & m1 & n[ we are aw>e ( m ?an ?ree ?\s& 8l9es0 exi/+ 9 ! sol> spectrum4 ,! spectra ( ! moon & planets conta9 simil> d>k l9es z are se5 9 ! sol> spectrum1 b ! fix$ />s %[ diff]5t l9es4 ,by spectrum analysis we "k ! v>i\s con/itu5ts ( ! sun's atmosph]e1 & we c fix ! result ( our obs]vations made by means ( ! ,spectroscope 9 ! photographic cam]a4 ,by ! m rec5t discov]ies great /udies h be5 made 9 8sol> *emi/ry40 ,:at c we d ) ! ,spectroscope1 or r1 ,:at c we n d8 ,by ,spectroscopy we c f9d out1 & h already f> advanc$ ^u our pa? ( discov]y1 8! measure ( ! sun's rotation1 ! spe$ & direction ( ! fi]ce tornados :i* sweep ov] its surface1 & give rise to ! #8mael/roms' we t]m #8sunspots1' & ! mighty alps ( gl[+ gas t %oot f> beyond ! visible orb1 ev] *ang+ _! =m & size2 ev5 ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! sev]al lay]s & _! fluctuations are 9 process ( be+ def9$ & det]m9$40 ,?is is :at sci5ce is do+ = u1 & :5 we h actually succe$$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! wea!r at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun1 we %all be able to pr$ict our own1 :i* dep5ds s mu* ^u ! sun4 ,la/ ye> 7#ahhj7 ,pr(essor ,adams1 9 8 address to ! ,briti% ,association1 %[$ t magnetic di/urbances1 id5tical 9 k9d1 took place at places widely ap>t simultane\sly4 ,he argues t ! cause ( ^! id5tical di/urbances mu/ be f> remov$ f ! e>?4 8,if10 he says1 8we imag9e ! masses ( iron1 nickel1 & magnesium 9 ! sun to reta9 ev5 9 a slight degree _! magnetic p[] 9 a gase\s /ate1 we h a suffici5t cause = all our magnetic *anges4 ,we "k t masses ( metal are ev] boil+ up f ! l[] & hott] levels ( ! sun's atmosph]e to ! cool] upp] regions1 :]e !y mu/ aga9 =m cl\ds to ?r[ out _! light & heat1 & to absorb ! light & heat com+ f ! hott] l[] regions2 !n !y become cond5s$1 & are drawn back aga9 t[>ds ! body ( ! sun1 s =m+ ^? rem>kable d>k spaces or sunspots by _! d[n ru% to _! =m] levels4 ,9 ^! va/ *anges we h abundant cause = ^? magnetic *anges :i* we obs]ve at ! same in/ant at di/ant po9ts on ! surface ( ! e>?40 ,s we are indebt$ to ! ,spectroscope = _m wond]ful results--! con/itution ( ! />s1 :e!r !y are solid or gase\s1 & _m o!r wond]s4 ,! mann] 9 :i* we h arriv$ at ^! />tl+ conclusions is n difficult to be und]/ood1 b "s little explanation w be necess>y4 ,! exi/5ce ( d>k l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum proves t c]ta9 rays ( sol> light are abs5t1 or t !re is less light4 ,:5 we look ?r\gh ! prism we p]ceive ! spaces or l9es1 & we c produce ^! ourselves by int]pos+ "s sub/ance betwe5 ! slit 9 ! %utt] be=e m5tion$ & ! prism4 ,! vap\r ( sodium w answ] our purpose1 & we %all f9d a d>k l9e 9 ! spectrum1 ! bright l9es be+ absorb$ by ! vap\r4 ,we c subject a sub/ance to any temp]ature we please1 & into any condition--solid1 liquid1 or gase\s2 we c also s5d ! light ! sub/ance may give out ?r\gh c]ta9 m$ia1 & we c photograph ! spectrum giv5 out "u all conditions4 ,! di/ance ( ! s\rce ( ! light makes no diff]5ce4 ,s :e!r x be ! sun1 or a f>-di/ant />1 we c tell by ! light s5t to u :at ! physical condition ( ! /> may be4 ,x 0 discov]$ 9 #ahfd t ! same metallic body may give diff]5t spectra2 = in/ance1 ! spectrum might be a b& ( light1--l ! ra9b[1--or a few isolat$ col\rs2 or aga91 c]ta9 deta*$ l9es 9 gr\ps4 ,! brightness ( ! spectrum l9es w *ange ) ! dep? ( ! light-giv+ s\rce1 or matt] :i* produces x4 ,we h become aw>e by means ( ! ,spectroscope t num]\s metals kn[n to u on e>? are 9 combu/ion 9 ! sun1 & new ones h ?us be5 discov]$4 ,9 ! imm5se ocean ( gas surr\nd+ ! sun !re are tw5ty-two elem5ts z giv5 by ,mr4 ,locky]1 includ+ iron1 sodium1 nickel1 b>ium1 z9c1 lead1 calcium1 cobalt1 hydrog51 potassium1 cadmium1 uranium1 /rontium1 etc4 ,n only is ! visible spectrum capable ( m9ute exam9ation1 b1 z 9 ! case ( ! heat spectrum already m5tion$ :5 speak+ ( ,caloresc5ce1 ! light spectrum has be5 trac$ & photograph$ f> beyond ! d>k space aft] ! blue & violet rays1 sev5 times long] ?an ! visible sol> spectrum--a spectrum ( light invisible to our f9ite vision4 ,al?\gh a telescope has be5 inv5t$ = ! exam9ation ( ^! 8ultra violet0 rays1 no human eye c see !m4 ,b--& "h sci5ce comes 9--:5 a photographic plate is put 9 place ( ! eye1 ! t9ie/ /> c be se5 & def9$4 ,ev5 ! ,spectroscope at l5g? fails1 because light at su* limits has be5 held to be 8too co>se-gra9$ = our purposes06 8,light10 says a writ] on ?is subject 8we c !n no long] reg>d z made ( smoo? rays2 we h to take into acc\nt--& to our annoyance--! fact t its #8long levell$ rules' are rippl$1 & its texture1 z x 71 loose wov506 ,tw5ty ye>s ago ,pr(essors ,kir*k(f & ,buns5 appli$ ,fraunh(]'s me?od to ! exam9ation ( col\r$ flames ( v>i\s sub/ances1 & s9ce !n we h be5 cont9ually inve/igat+ ! subject2 yet mu* rema9s to be le>nt ( ,spectrum ,analysis1 & ,spectroscopy has /ill mu* to reveal4 ,f ,newton's "t to ! pres5t our sci5ti/s h be5 sl[ly b surely exam9+ ) ! ,spectroscope ! composition ( spectra1 & ! ,spectroscope is n[ ! greate/ assi/ant we possess4 8,spectrum ,analysis1 !n1 tea*es u ! great fact t solids & liquids give out cont9u\s spectra1 & vap\rs & gases give out discont9u\s spectra in/ead ( an unbrok5 light0 7,locky]74 ,we h f\nd out t ! sunlight & moonlight are id5tical1 t ! moon gives u spectrum l a reflection ( ! =m]1 b has no atmosph]e1 & t comets are b gases or vap\rs4 ,! mo/ m9ute p>ticles ( a gra9 ( any sub/ance c be detect$ to ! million? fraction4 ,! #a_/ajjj ( a gra9 ( blood c be v readily di/+ui%$ 9 a /a9 aft] ye>s h pass$4 ,! v ye> ( a c]ta9 v9tage ( w9e has be5 told by means ( 8absorption10 or ! action ( diff]5t bodies on light 9 ! spectrum4 ,x is n[ easy1 8by means ( ! absorption ( diff]5t vap\rs & diff]5t sub/ances held 9 solution1 to det]m9e n only :at ! absorb]s really are1 b also to detect a m9ute quantity40 ,! application ( ?is !ory is due to ,dr4 ,glad/one1 :o us$ holl[ prisms fill$ ) c]ta9 sub/ances1 & s ?ick5$ ! 8absorption l9es40 ,by ^! l9es1 or b&s1 ) ! aid ( ! ,spectrum ,microscope1 mo/ wond]ful discov]ies h be5 made1 & w cont9ue to be made4 ,we w close ?is portion ( ! subject ) a brief description ( ! ,spectroscope 9 pr9ciple4 ,! in/rum5t consi/s ( two telescopes arrang$ ) two object-glasses on a /& 7fig4 #aej74 ,a n>r[ slit is put 9 place ( ! eye-piece ( "o1 ! arrangem5t admitt+ ( ! slit be+ made small] or l>g] by means ( screws4 ,! glass to :i* ! slit is atta*$ is call$ ! collimat+ l5s4 ,! light1 at ! end ( ! slit se5 f ! o!r telescope1 be+ sep>at$ by ! prisms betwe5 ! two telescopes1 w produce ! spectrum4 ,! ,spectroscope is enclos$1 s t no ext]ior light %all int]f]e ) ! spectra ! /ud5t wi%es to obs]ve4 ,?is m]ely indicates ! pr9ciple1 n ! details1 ( ! ,spectroscope1 :i* v>y 9 diff]5t in/rum5ts4 ,we may n[ pass f ! ,spectroscope to ! ,telescope & ! ,microscope1 in/rum5ts to :i* we are mo/ l>gely indebt$ = our k ( our surr\nd+s 9 e>?1 air1 & wat]4 ,! ^w ,telescope is d]iv$ f ! ,greek tele1 f>1 & skope91 to see2 & ! in/rum5t is bas$ ^u ! prop]ty possess$ by a convex l5s or concave mirror1 ( conv]g+ to a focus ! rays ( light fall+ on x f any object1 & at t po9t or focus =m+ an image ( ! object4 ,! foll[+ diagram w illu/rate ?is4 ,let ,,vw be a l5s1 & ,,ab an object betwe5 ! glass1 & ,f ! focus4 ,! ray1 ,ac1 is s refract$ z to appe> to come f a4 ,! ray f b likewise appe>s 9 a simil> way1 & a magnifi$ image1 ab1 is ! result 7fig4 #aeb74 ,! ord9>y ,telescope consi/s ( an object-glass & an eye-l5s1 ) two int]m$iates to br+ ! object into an erect position4 ,a l5s br+s x ne> to u1 & a magnifi] enl>ges x = inspection4 ,we w n[ give a %ort hi/ory ( ! ,telescope & its improv$ con/ruction4 ,rog] ,bacon 0 suppos$ to h _h "s k ( ! ,telescope1 = 9 #aeea x 0 writt53 8,great talke !re is ( a glass he made at ,ox=d1 9 :i* m5 see ?+s t 7 don40 ,b a little lat]1 ,bapti/a ,porta f\nd out ! p[] ( ! convex l5s to br+ objects 8ne>]40 ,x 01 h[ev]1 accord+ to ! old tale1 q by an accid5t t ! ,telescope 0 discov]$ ab\t ! ye> #afjh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--;,conv]g+ rays to a focus4 ,9 ,middleburg1 9 ,holl&1 liv$ a spectacle-mak] nam$ ,za*>y ,jans51 & 8 sons1 :5 play+ ) ! l5ses 9 ! %op1 happ5$ to fix two ( !m at ! prop] di/ance1 & !n to look ?r\gh bo?4 ,to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! boys1 !y p]ceiv$ an inv]t$ image ( ! *ur* wea!rcock mu* ne>] & mu* l>g] ?an usual4 ,!y at once told _! fa!r :at !y _h se54 ,he fix$ ! glasses 9 a tube1 & hav+ satisfi$ himself t 8 sons 7 correct1 ?\ght little m ab\t ! matt]4 ,?is is ! /ory z told1 b !re is little d\bt t = ! fir/ ,telescope ! _w 0 indebt$ ei!r to ,hans ,lipp]%eim or ,joseph ,adriansz1 ! =m] a spectacle-mak] ( ,middleburg2 & 9 ,octob] #afjh1 ,lipp]%eim pres5t$ to ! ,gov]nm5t ?ree in/rum5ts1 ) :i* he 8c\ld see ?+s at a di/ance40 ,jans5 came aft] ?is4 ,! report ( ! inv5tion soon spread1 & ,galileo1 :o 0 !n 9 ,v5ice1 eag]ly seiz$ ^u ! idea1 & return+ to ,padua ) "s l5ses1 he manag$ to con/ruct a telescope1 & began to /udy ! heav5s4 ,?is 0 9 #afji4 ,galileo's ,tube became celebrat$1 & all ! fir/ telescopes 7 made ) ! concave eye-l5s4 ,rheita1 a monk1 made a b9ocul> telescope1 z n[ us$ 9 our op]a- & field-glasses approximately4 ,b ! prismatic col\rs :i* %[$ !mselves 9 ! e>ly telescopes 7 n got rid (1 nor 0 x till #agbi t ,hall1 by /udy+ ! me*anism ( ! eye1 manag$ a comb9ation ( l5ses free f col\r4 ,t5 ye>s be=e 79 #agah7 ,hadley _h e/abli%$ ! ,reflector ,telescope2 ,h]s*el made 8 celebrat$ =ty-foot 8reflector0 9 #aghi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,! ,microscope4 ,h[ev]1 to resume4 ,9 #agdg1 ,eul] decl>$ t x 0 q possible to con/ruct an arrangem5t ( l5ses s z to obta9 a col\rless image1 b he 0 at fir/ *all5g$ by ,john ,dollond4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 0 aft]w>ds induc$ to make exp]im5ts ) prisms ( cr[n & fl9t glass4 ,he !n tri$ l5ses1 & ) a concave l5s ( fl9t1 & a convex l5s ( cr[n1 he correct$ ! col\rs4 ,! "q ( prop] curvature 0 f9ally settl$1 & ! 8,a*romatic0 ,telescope became an accompli%$ fact4 ,!re are two classes ( ,telescopes--! reflect+ & refract+4 ,"l ,rosse's is an in/ance ( ! =m]4 ,mr4 ,grubb's imm5se in/rum5t 9 ,dubl9 is a refractor4 ,! ,microscope has be5 also attribut$ to ,za*>ias ,jans51 & ,drebbel1 9 #afai1 possess$ ! in/rum5t 9 ,london1 b x 0 ( little or no use4 ,! l5s inv5t$ by ,hall1 z already m5tion$1 gave an impetus to ! ,microscope4 ,9 ! simple ,microscope ! objects are se5 directly ?r\gh ! l5s or l5ses act+ z "o4 ,! comp\nd in/rum5t is compos$ ( two l5ses 7or a numb] =m$ to d duty z two71 an eye-l5s1 & an object-l5s4 ,betwe5 ^! is a 8/op0 to re/ra9 all light1 except :at is necess>y to view ! object di/9ctly4 ,! l>ge glass ne> ! object b5ds ! rays on to ! eyeglass1 & a p]fect magnifi$ image is p]ceiv$4 ,we annex diagrams1 f :i* ! con/ruction w be readily und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4--;,image on ! ,ret9a4 ,we h 9 ! previ\s *apt] m5tion$ ! effect ( light ^u ! eye & its direction1 & :5 an object is plac$ v ne> ! eye we "k x _c be di/9ctly se52 a magnifi$ image is ?r[n ^u ! ret9a1 & ! div]g5cy ( ! rays prev5ts a cle> image be+ p]ceiv$4 ,b if a small l5s ( a %ort 8focal l5g?0 be plac$ 9 front ( ! eye1 hav+ ,,pq = its focus1 ! rays ( light w be p>allel1 or v ne>ly s1 & w z su* produce 8di/9ct vision10 & ! image w be magnifi$ at pq4 ,9 ! ,comp\nd ,refract+ ,microscope1 ,,bab is ! convex l5s1 ne> :i* an object1 ,,pq1 is plac$ a little beyond its focal l5g?4 ,an inv]t$ image1 pq1 w !n be =m$4 ,?is image is produc$ 9 ! convex l5s1 bab1 & :5 ! rays are reflect$ out !y are p>allel1 & are di/9ctly se54 ,s ! eye ( ! obs]v] at ! po9t ,e w see a magnifi$ image ( ! object at ,,pq br\ght up to pq 7fig4 #aee74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,! ,microscope l5ses4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton sugge/$ ! ,reflect+ ,microscope1 & ,dr4 ,wolla/on & ,sir ,david ,brew/] improv$ ! in/rum5t call$ ! 8,p]iscopic ,microscope10 9 :i* two hemisph]ical l5ses 7 cem5t$ toge!r by ! plane surfaces1 & hav+ a 8/op0 betwe5 !m to limit ! ap]ture4 ,!n ! 8,a*romatic0 in/rum5t came into use1 & s9ce !n ! ,microscope has gradually atta9$ p]fection4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4--;,concave l5s4 ,we h s frequ5tly m5tion$ l5ses t x may be z well to say some?+ ab\t !m4 ,l5ses may be sph]ical1 d\ble-convex1 plane-convex1 plane-concave1 d\ble-concave1 & concave-convex4 ,convex l5ses br+ ! p>allel l9es :i* /rike !m to a focus1 z we see 9 ! 8burn+-glass40 ,! concave or holl[ l5s appe>s z 9 fig4 #aef4 ,! rays t foll[ x p>allel to its axis are refract$1 & z if !y came f a po9t ,f 9 ! diagram4 ,b conv]g+ rays fall+ on x em]ge 9 a p>allel direction z above1 or div]ge z 9 fig4 #aeh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 #a4 ,focus ( p>allel rays4 #b4 ,focus ( div]g5t rays4 #c4 ,focus ( div]g5t rays br\ght =w>d by m convex l5s4 ,! use ( spectacles to long or %ort-sight$ p is a necessity1 & ! l5ses us$ v>y4 ,! eye has usually ! capacity ( suit+ itself to view+ objects--its accommodation1 z x is t]m$--ne> or f>4 ,b :5 ! =ep>t ( ! eye is curv$1 & _c adapt itself to di/ant objects1 ! p]son is said to be %ort-sight$4 ,9 long sight ! axis ( ! eyeball is too %ort1 & ! focus falls beyond ! ret9a2 9 %ort sight x is too long4 ,9 ! diagrams h]e) fig4 #aei %[s by ! dott$ l9es ! position ( ! ret9a 9 long sight1 & fig4 #afj 9 %ort sight1 ! cle> l9es %[+ 9 ea* case ! p]fectly-=m$ eye4 ,= long sight & old sight ! d\ble-convex glass is us$1 = %ort sight ! d\ble-concave 7fig4 #afb74 ,we "k ! burn+-glass gives u a small image ( ! sun z x conv]ges ! rays to its focus4 ,b l5ses w d m ?an ?is1 & 9 ! ,,photographic ,,cam]a we f9d great int]e/ & amusem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--;,div]g+ rays4 ,photography 7or writ+ by light7 dep5ds ^u ! prop]ty :i* c]ta9 prep>ations possess ( be+ black5$ by exposure to light :ile 9 contact ) matt]4 ,by an a*romatic arrangem5t ( l5ses ! cam]a gives u a repres5tation ( ! desir$ object ,fig4 #afc %[s ! image on ! plate1 & figs4 #afd & #afe ! arrangem5t ( l5ses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4--;,hyp]metropia 7long sight744 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,myopia 7%ort sight74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4--;,concave & convex l5ses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4--,l5ses = long & %ort sight4 ,to ,porta1 ! ,neapolitan physician1 ^: "n we h already m5tion$ m ?an once1 is due ! fir/ idea ( ! ,photographic ,cam]a4 ,he f\nd t if light 0 admitt$ ?r\gh a small ap]ture1 objects f :i* rays rea*$ ! hole w\ld be reflect$ on ! wall l a picture4 ,to ?is fact we are indebt$ = ! ,,cam]a ,,obscura1 :i* receives ! picture ^u a plane surface by an arrangem5t ( l5ses4 ,9 fact1 ,porta ne>ly arriv$ at ! ,dagu]reotype process4 ,he ?\ght he c\ld tea* p to draw by foll[+ ! focuss$ picture ) a crayon1 b he c\ld n conqu] ! arial p]spective4 ,s ! cam]a langui%$ till #ahbj1 :5 ,w$gwood & ,sir ,humphrey ,davy attempt$ to obta9 "s views ) nitrate ( silv]1 b !y became oblit]at$ :5 expos$ to ! daylight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4--,! ,cam]a4 ,z e>ly z #ahad1 h[ev]1 ,m4 ,niepce _h made a s]ies ( exp]im5ts 9 photography1 & subsequ5tly hav+ he>d t ,m4 ,dagu]re 0 turn+ 8 att5tion to ! same subject1 he communicat$ ) him4 ,9 #ahbg a pap] 0 read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 & 9 #ahbi a p>tn]%ip de$ 0 drawn up betwe5 ,dagu]re & ,niepce = 8copy+ engrav+s by photography40 ,dagu]re work$ h>d1 & at l5g? succe$$ 9 obta9+ a picture by a long process1 to :i*1 p]haps1 "s ( our read]s are indebt$ = _! lik5esses =ty ye>s ago4 ,by means ( iod9e evaporat$ on a metal plate cov]$ ) 8gold-yell[10 & expos+ ! plate !n 9 a second box to m]curial vap\r1 he m>k$ ! image 9 ! cam]a1 & !n he imm]s$ ! plate 9 hyposulphate ( soda1 & 0 able to expose ! image obta9$ to daylight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,arrangem5t ( l5ses ,fig4 #afe4 ,b ! mode n[ 9 use is ! 8collodion0 process4 ,we h all se5 ! photograph] p\r+ ! iodiz$ collodion on ! plate1 & lett+ ! sup]flu\s liquid dra9 f a corn] ( ! glass4 ,:5 x is dry ! glass-plate is dipp$ into a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 & !n 9 a few m9utes ! glass is ready4 ,! focus is !n arrang$1 & ! prep>$ plate convey$ 9 a special slide--to keep x f ! light--to ! cam]a4 ,:5 ! 8pati5t0 is ready1 ! cov]+ ( ! l5s is remov$1 & ! light works ! image into ! s5sitive plate4 ,! impression is !n 8br\ght up10 & :5 develop$ is wa%$ 9 wat]1 & aft] by a solution :i* dissolves all ! silv] f ! p>ts n d>k5$ by ! light4 ,?us ! negative is obta9$ & pr9t$ f 9 ! usual mann]4 ,in/antane\s photography is n[ practis$ ) great success4 ,an express tra91 or ! movem5ts ( a horse at full spe$1 c ?us be tak5 9 a second or less4 ,^! results are obta9$ by us+ prep>$ plates1 & ! 8emulsion process10 z x is call$1 succe$s admirably4 ,! mode ( prep>ation is giv5 9 a late "w ^u ! subject1 & ! photographic plates may also be obta9$ ready = use4 ,gelat9e & wat]1 mix$ ) bromide ( ammonium1 nitrate ( silv]1 & c>bonate ( ammonium1 mix$ ) c]ta9 proportions ( wat]1 =m ! 8emulsion40 ,we ne$ n g into all ! details "h4 ,in=mation c easily be obta9$ f publi%$ works1 & z ! plates c be pur*as$ by amateurs1 !y w f9d t ! be/ way4 ,aside f ! art int]e/ 9 ! new plates is q ano!r1 t spr+s f ! fact t x is n[ possible to take pictures ( m51 animals1 & ma*9]y 9 rapid motion1 ?us enabl+ u to view !m 9 a way t w\ld be impossible ) ! unaid$ eye4 ,! fir/ exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction 7 appli$ to ! movem5ts ( a horse mov+ at full spe$4 ,! pictures1 tak5 9 s]ies1 %[$ t he p]=m$ muscul> actions t 7 n be=e compreh5d$ or ev5 imag9$4 ,^! pictures at ! "t attract$ great att5tion1 & in/antane\s pictures h be5 s9ce tak5 ( danc]s 9 a ball-room1 ( vessels & /eam-boats 9 rapid movem5t1 ( all k9ds ( animals 9 motion1 & ( ma*9]y 9 op]ation4 ,z ! pictures repres5t ! movem5ts at "o in/ant ( "t1 !y give1 z x 71 a fix$ view ( a motion1 precisely z if x 7 sudd5ly arre/$ 9 full action4 ,9 ! case ( animals1 ! motions ( ! no/rils are repres5t$ 9 ! mo/ s+ul> mann]1 & ! spokes ( a /eam-boat's paddle-:eel are %[n app>5tly p]fectly /ill :ile ! spray & waves appe> 9 active motion1 or1 r1 z !y w\ld look if !y c\ld be in/antly froz54 ,x is cle> ! new process & pictures w op5 a wide & in/ructive field 9 art & 9 ! /udy ( me*anical action4 ,:ile on ! subject ( ,photography we may m5tion a v +5i\s little app>atus call$ a ,,sc5ograph1 ! inv5tion ( ,dr4 ,c&ize4 ,x is really a pocket-cam]a1 & is s easily manipulat$ t x w be f\nd a mo/ pleasant & useful holiday companion4 ,any "o may obta9 good results ) x1 & fri5ds ( ours h _h occasion to put x 9 practice dur+ a s]ies ( excursions1 :5 x 0 f\nd to answ] 9 e in/ance4 ,! ,sc5ograph is some?+ l a common ,/]eoscope 9 outw>d appe>ance1 & w\ld1 p]haps1 be at fir/ reg>d$ z a m]e toy1 did n a m intimate acqua9tance prove x a great acquisition1 p>ticul>ly to explor]s & t\ri/s4 ,! tripod /& :i* supports ! app>atus is1 :5 n 9 actual use 9 t capacity1 a v excell5t walk+-/ick1 9 :i* ! two o!r 8legs0 are c>ri$4 ,! in/rum5t1 z w be p]ceiv$ f ! illu/ration 7fig4 #aff71 is v h&y4 ,x produces pictures ab\t ! 8cab9et0 size1 & ! :ole is s arrang$ t x c be pack$ & c>ri$ 9 ! pocket ) ease4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,! ,sc5ograph4 ,photography1 z a rule1 necessitates a d>k room or cab9et1 & _m prep>ations z we all "k--a 8mess+0 ab\t ) *emicals & consid]able practice be=e we c become pr(ici5t2 s x is n surpris+ t few amateurs take to x--!y pref] to pur*ase ! pictures4 ,b 9 ! new app>atus ( :i* we are speak+1 ! glass plates are already prep>$ to receive ! image4 ,x is n at all necess>y = ! op]ator to /a9 8 f+]s & knuckles & nails ) nitrate ( silv]1 or any o!r 8*emicals0 :atev]4 ,he j ins]ts ! plate 9 ! ,sc5ograph1 & !n 8 app>atus be+ /eadily set up1 he removes ! cov]+ f ! l5s4 ,to develop ! image 79 ! dusk ( ! ev5+ or by c&le-light7 x is necess>y to put "s drops ( ammonia 9 a sauc]1 brea! ^u ! plate s z to s(t5 ! collodion1 & hold x above ! ammonia1 & !n1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! vap\r1 ! picture w appe>4 ,aft] ?is simple op]ation ! picture w be f\nd fix$ = a l5g!n$ p]iod--practically indef9itely4 ,?us on ! return ( ! p$e/rian he c reproduce1 at small exp5se1 a :ole s]ies ( little pictures fai?fully repres5t+ 8 holiday t\r4 ,! illu/ration %[s a small app>atus by :i* on ?9 plates small photographs c be tak5 & fix$ till x is f\nd desirable to enl>ge !m4 ,! ,photophone1 "o ( ! mo/ rec5t contributions to sci5ce1 is an in/rum5t :i*1 9 comb9ation ) ! telephone pr9ciple1 makes x possible to convey s\nds by means ( a ray ( light1 & by means ( a quiv]+ beam 8to produce articulate spee* at a di/ance4 ,! success ( ! ,photophone dep5ds ^u a r>e elem5t1 sel5ium1 :i* has its 8electrical resi/ance0 affect$ by light4 ,pr(essor ,adams demon/rat$ t ! resi/ance ( sel5ium 0 r$uc$ j 9 proportion z ! int5sity ( ! light :i* 0 act+ ^u x4 ,"h 0 ! key to ! ,photophone z ?\ght out by ,pr(essor ,bell4 ,he fanci$ t he might by means ( 8 telephone produce s\nd if he c\ld v>y ! int5sity ( ! beam ( light ^u ! sel5ium1 :i* he connect$ ) 8 telephone & batt]y4 ,! ,photophone consi/s ( a transmitt] = receiv+ ! voice & convey+ x along ! beam ( light1 & a receiv] = tak+ ! light & conv]t+ x into s\nd--! receiv] be+ ! telephone4 ,!re is a small mirror 7silv]$ mica has be5 us$7 susp5d$ freely = vibration4 ,a l5s is us$ to transmit to ?is ! beam ( light1 & ?is beam is aga9 reflect$ by ano!r l5s to ! receiv]1 :i* consi/s ( a reflector :i* has a cell ( sel5ium 9 its focus1 connect$1 z already /at$1 ) ! telephone & batt]y4 ,! speak] /&s beh9d ! mirror1 & ! s\nd ( 8 voice aga9/ ! rev]se side makes x vibrate 9 unison ) ! s\nds utt]$4 ,! movem5ts cause a quiv]+ 9 ! reflect$ beam1 & ?is 9 its *ang+ int5sity acts on ! sel5ium1 :i* *anges its resi/ance accord+ly1 & ?r\gh ! telephone gives =? a s\nd6 ,?is is ! app>5tly complicat$ b really simple1 & at ! same "t wond]ful1 inv5tion ( ,pr(essor ,bell4 ,by ! ,photophone n only s\nds b movem5ts c be conv]t$ into s\nd2 ev5 ! burn+ ( a c&le c be he>d6 ,! ,photophone is /ill capable ( improvem5t1 & has n z yet arriv$ at its full developm5t1 = x is /at$ x c be made q indep5d5t ( a batt]y or telephone4 ,!re are _m ph5om5a connect$ ) ! ,pol>ization ( ,light4 ,?is requires "s notice at our h&s4 ,we "k t a ray ( ord9>y light is suppos$ to be caus$ by vibrations ( ! highly att5uat$ m$ium1 !r4 ,^! vibrations occur across ! direction ( ! ray2 b :5 !y occur only 9 "o plane ! light is said to be 8pol>iz$40 ,pol>ization means possess+ poles 7l a magnet72 ! pol>iz$ rays h 8sides10 z ,newton said1 or1 z expla9$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 8opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions1 s exactly equal z to be capable ( accurately neutraliz+ ea* o!r40 ,!re are "s cry/als :i* possess ! prop]ty ( 8d\ble refraction10 & ?us a ray ( common light pass+ ?r\gh su* a cry/al is divid$ into two pol>iz$ rays1 tak+ diff]5t directions4 ,"o is refract$ accord+ to ! usual laws ( refraction2 ! o!r is n1 & ! planes ( pol>ization are at "r angles4 ,x is difficult )9 ! limits ( ?is *apt] to expla9 ! :ole !ory ( ,pol>ization4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = c]ta9 ph5om5a 9 optics1 philosoph]s h assum$ t rays possess pol>ity2 & pol>iz$ light is light :i* has _h ! prop]ty ( ,pol>ization conf]r$ ^u x by reflection1 refraction1 or absorption4 ,common light has be5 comp>$ to a r\nd rul]1 & pol>iz$ light to a flat ribbon4 ,huyg5s f\nd out1 :5 engag$ ^u ! inve/igation ( d\ble refraction1 t ! rays ( light1 divid$ by pass+ ?r\gh a cry/al 7a rhomb7 ( ,icel& sp>1 possess$ c]ta9 qualities4 ,:5 he pass$ !m ?r\gh a second rhomb1 he f\nd t ! brightness1 relatively1 ( ! rays dep5d$ ^u ! position ( ! second prism1 & 9 "s positions "o ray disappe>$ entirely4 ,! light _h be5 r$uc$ to vibrations 9 "o plane4 ,9 #ahjh1 ,malus1 happ5+ to direct a d\ble refract+ prism to ! w9d[s !n reflect+ ! sunset1 f\nd t z he turn$ ! prism r\nd1 ! ord9>y image ( ! w9d[ ne>ly disappe>$ 9 two opposite positions2 & 9 two o!r positions1 at "r angles1 ! 8extraord9>y0 image ne>ly vani%$4 ,s he f\nd t pol>ization 0 produc$ by reflection z well z by transmission4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 common & pol>iz$ light h be5 summ$ up by ,mr4 ,godd>d z foll[s3-- ,,common ,,light ,,pol>iz$ ,,light 8,is capable ( reflection at 8,is capable ( reflection at oblique angles ( incid5ce 9 oblique angles only 9 e position ( ! reflector4 c]ta9 positions ( ! reflector4 8,w pass ?r\gh a bundle ( 8,w only pass ?r\gh su* plates ( glass 9 any position glasses :5 !y are 9 9 :i* !y may be plac$4 c]ta9 positions4 8,w pass ?r\gh a plate ( 8,w only pass 9 c]ta9 t\rmal9e1 cut p>allel to ! positions1 & 9 o!rs axis ( ! cry/al1 9 e w n pass at all40 position ( ! plate40 ,! bundle ( glass plates or ! t\rmal9e plate is ?us ! te/ = pol>iz$ light1 & is t]m$ an analyz]4 ,! arrangem5t call$ a 8,ni*ol's prism10 made by cutt+ a prism ( ,icel& sp> & unit+ ! halves ) a cem5t1 s t only "o pol>iz$ ray c pass ?r\gh x1 is t]m$ a ,pol>iz]4 ,x only p]mits "o ( ! two rays produc$ by 8d\ble refraction0 to pass1 & ! ray 7z said above7 w conta9 none b transv]se vibrations4 ,pol>iz$ light w produce beautiful col\rs4 ,! :ole subject is v int]e/+ to ! sci5ti/1 b r a difficult "o = ! g5]al read] to und]/&4 ,among/ ! uses to :i* light has be5 put is t ( a milk-te/]4 ,! ,,lactoscope w %[ ! quantity ( butt] conta9$ 9 a c]ta9 quantity ( milk1 by dilut+ x till x displays a c]ta9 degree ( transp>5cy4 ,!re is ano!r me?od1 by ! transmission ( light4 ,! fir/ te/ is obta9$ by means ( a glass tube ab\t n9e in*es long1 clos$ at "o end1 & conta9+ a small porcela9 rod m>k$ ) black l9es4 ,a small quantity ( milk is measur$ & plac$ 9 ! tube4 ,! black l9es _c at fir/ be se5 ?r\gh ! tube1 b by add+ wat] ! milk is r5d]$ transp>5t1 & ! black l9es become visible4 ,! surface ( milk 9 ! tube1 by a graduat$ scale ^u x1 %[s ! p]c5tage ( butt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,cut c>d figures4 ,! second me?od is n s simple4 ,a %ort tube ( t91 black5$ on ! inside1 & support$ upright1 has an op5+ on "o side1 & opposite ?is1 inside ! tube1 is a mirror plac$ at an angle ( #de4 8,by plac+ a light$ c&le at a kn[n di/ance opposite ! op5+1 its light is reflect$ 9 ! mirror & ?r[n upw>d ?r\gh ! tube4 ,on top ( ! tube is plac$ a r\nd vessel ( glass or metal1 clos$ at ! bottom by a %eet ( cle> glass4 ,! vessel is clos$ at ! top by a cov] hav+ an op5+ 9 ! c5tre1 9 :i* slides up & d[n a small tube clos$ at ! bottom ) glass1 & hav+ an eye-piece at ! top4 ,! milk to be te/$ is plac$ 9 ?is vessel on ! top ( ! t9 tube1 s t ! light ( ! c&le reflect$ f ! mirror passes upw>d ?r\gh ! milk4 ,!n1 by look+ ?r\gh ! slid+ tube & mov+ x up & d[n1 a po9t may be f\nd :]e ! image ( ! c&le 9 ! mirror c be se5 ?r\gh ! milk4 ,?is device dep5ds1 z w be se51 on obs]v+ ! light transmitt$ ?r\gh a film ( milk1 & ! ?ickness ( ! film is ! measure ( ! value ( ! milk4 ,! movable tube conta9s a graduat$ scale1 & by comp>ison ( ?is ) a pr9t$ table1 ! p]c5tage ( butt] 9 ! milk may be asc]ta9$40 ,9 conclud+ ?is *apt] we give a few h9ts = "s pleasant relaxation = "y p1 :i* has _m a "t creat$ amusem5t4 ,! exp]im5t consi/s 9 cutt+ out 9 pap] or c>dbo>d c]ta9 portions ( a face or figure1 z p] ! illu/ration h]e)4 ,fig4 #afg gives ! c>d z cut ) ! scissors1 & ! two subsequ5t faces are ! result ( ! same held at a less or great] di/ance f a scre54 ,! illu/rations 7fig4 #afh7 w assi/ ^? :o wi% to amuse *ildr5 by mak+ rabbits1 etc41 on ! wall4 ,! %ad[s w be se5 p]fectly ?r[n if ! h&s be c>efully fix$ ne> a good light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,h&-%ad[s on ! wall4 ,we are all s famili> ) ! 8,magic ,lant]n10 & ! app>atus = dissolv+ views by an arrangem5t ( l5ses & manipulation ( slides1 t we ne$ d no m ?an ref] to !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4--;,dissolv+ views app>atus4 ,! v>i\s gho/ illusions1 etc41 produc$ by indirect mirrors1 h already be5 ref]r$ to1 ! gho/ be+ m]ely ! reflection ( an individual se5 ?r\gh a %eet ( glass betwe5 ! spectators & ! /age4 ,! /rong light ?r[s a reflection f a p>allel mirror l[] d[n1 & ?is reflect$ image c be made to appe> among/ ! real actors :o are beh9d ! plate-glass 9 full view ( ! audi5ce1 :o are1 h[ev]1 ignorant ( ! exi/5ce ( ! glass scre54 ,= ! w9t] ev5+s "o may easily procure an app>atus = dissolv+ views by ! oxy-hydrog5 light4 ,"o1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration h]e) 7fig4 #afi71 w answ] e purpose1 & by ?is d\ble arrangem5t phantasmagoria may be produc$1 or a fairy tale may be illu/rat$4 ,! effect ( gradually-approa*+ night may be giv5 to ! picture by means ( a special glass 9 ! l[] lan?orn4 ,! app>atus is exhibit$ by means ( a ,drummond light1 & is v simple1 al?\gh a c]ta9 supply ( gas is necess>y = ! p]=mance4 ,b ?is c be easily procur$ by an indi>ubb] tube1 or 9 a bag suppli$ = ! purpose4 ,almo/ any objects c be us$1 photographs1 etc41 etc41 & _m v comical arrangem5ts c be made4 ,we h lately be5 read+ a curi\s me?od ( obta9+ light f oy/]-%ells 9 a ,trans-,atlantic magaz9e4 ,we give an extract :]e) to close ?is *apt]4 ,! comp\nd is 8lum9\s pa9t40 8,x has be5 kn[n t c]ta9 comp\nds ( lime & sulphur _h ! prop]ty ( absorb+ light1 & giv+ x out aga9 :5 plac$ 9 ! d>k4 ,a simple way to d ?is is to expose clean oy/]-%ells to a r$ heat = half an h\r4 ,:5 cold1 ! be/ pieces are pick$ out & pack$ ) alt]nate lay]s ( sulphur 9 a crucible1 & expos$ to a r$ heat = an h\r4 ,:5 cold1 ! mass is brok5 up1 & ! :ite/ pieces are plac$ 9 a clean glass bottle4 ,on expos+ ! bottle to bright sun%9e dur+ ! day1 x is f\nd t at night its cont5ts w give out a pale light 9 ! d>k4 ,su* a bottle fill$ m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago /ill gives out light :5 expos$ to ! sun1 prov+ ! p]si/5cy ( ! prop]ty ( reproduc+ light4 ,v _m exp]im5ts h be5 m rec5tly made 9 ?is direction1 & ! light-giv+ prop]ty greatly enhanc$4 ,! *emicals1 gr\nd to a fl\r1 may n[ be mix$ ) oils or wat] = pa9ts1 may be p[d]$ on hot glass1 & glass cov]$ ) a film ( cle> glass1 or mix$ ) celluloid1 papi]-ma*1 or o!r pla/ic mat]ials4 ,z a pa9t1 x may be appli$ to a div]'s dress1 to c>ds1 clock dials1 sign-bo>ds1 & o!r surfaces expos$ to sunlight dur+ ! day2 ! pa9t gives out a pale violet light at night suffici5t to enable ! objects to be readily se5 9 ! d>k4 ,if ! object cov]$ ) ! prep>$ pa9t is n expos$ to ! sun1 or if ! light fades 9 ! d>k1 a %ort piece ( magnesium wire burn$ be=e x s]ves to re/ore ! light-giv+ prop]ty40 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,spectral ,,illusions4 ,a ,,spectre ,,visible--,,curi\s ,,illusions--,,gho/s4 ,we h already giv5 num]\s examples ( ! effects produc$ by impressions on ! ret9a by me*anical appliances4 ,we c n[ 9 a %ort *apt] speak ( ! cause ( _m spectral illusions1 commonly suppos$ to be 8gho/s0 or 8spirits40 ,t !re are _m 8well-au!nticat$ #8gho/ /ories'0 no "o c d\bt :o has read ! lit]ature ( ! day2 & we ourselves d n 9 any way desire to ?r[ any d\bt ^u ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 s-call$ 8gho/s40 ,t appe>ances ( "s k9d or ano!r are se5 by p we "k4 ,we ourselves h se5 su*1 b we _c say we believe 9 ! popul> gho/4 ,9 anci5t times mirrors 7 mu* employ$ by ! s-call$ magicians1 & 9 our day _m wond]ful gho/ effects h be5 %[n at ! 7late7 ,polyte*nic ,in/itution4 ,"s p are believ]s 9 table-turn+ & spiritualism1 & mesm]i/s /ill attract l>ge audi5ces1 & appe> to possess extraord9>y p[] ov] "s individuals4 ,b app>itions h be5 se5 by p em95tly wor?y ( cr$it4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! le>n$ ,doctor1 :i* appe>$ "s mon?s ago 9 ! ,a!num1 is a case 9 po9t4 ,?is n>rative is concise & cle>4 ,! spectre 0 !re4 ,h[ did x get !re8 ,0 ! 8appe>ance0 objective or subjective8 ,let u give an extract f ! ,rev]5d ,doctor's n>rative1 & comm5t ^u x aft]w>ds4 ,we may premise t ,dr4 ,jessopp _h gone ov] to ,"l ,or=d's 7,mann+ton ,hall71 & at elev5 o'clock 0 busy writ+ 9 ! libr>y1 & 0 8! only p]son d[n/airs40 ,we w give ?is gho/ /ory 9 ! ,doctor's own words4 ,aft] tak+ up a c]ta9 volume--"t ab\t #a a4m43-- 8,i _h be5 engag$ on x ab\t half an h\r1 & 0 beg9n+ to ?9k my "w 0 draw+ to a close1 :51 z ,i 0 actually writ+1 ,i saw a l>ge :ite h& )9 a foot ( my elb[4 ,turn+ my head1 !re sat a figure ( a some:at l>ge man ) 8 back to ! fire1 b5d+ slightly ov] ! table1 & app>5tly exam9+ ! pile ( books t ,i _h be5 at "w ^u40444 ,aft] describ+ ! appe>ance ( ! nocturnal visitor1 ,dr4 ,jessopp proce$s3-- 8,!re he sat1 & ,i 0 fasc9at$2 afraid n ( 8 /ay+1 b le/ he %\ld g4 ,/opp+ 9 my writ+ ,i lift$ my left h& f ! pap]1 /ret*$ x out to ! pile ( books1 & mov$ ! top "o--my arm pass$ 9 front ( ! figure1 & x vani%$40444 ,%ortly aft] ! figure appe>$ aga91 & 8,i 0 p5n+ a s5t5ce to address to him1 :5 ,i discov]$ ,i did n d>e to speak4 ,i 0 afraid ( ! s\nd ( my own voice6 ,!re he sat1 & !re sat ,i4 ,i turn$ my head & f9i%$ writ+4 ,hav+ f9i%$ my task1 ,i %ut ! book1 & ?rew x on ! table2 x made a slight noise z x fell2--! figure vani%$40 ,n[ "h we h a p]fectly pla9 n>rative1 cle> & full4 ,a gho/ appe>$2 he is describ$ di/9ctly4 ,h[ c we acc\nt = ! app>ition8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 someone might h play$ a trick1 b t idea 0 put aside by ,dr4 ,wilks1 :o attempt$ to expla9 ! appe>ances4 ,he w5t fully into ! "q1 & z x be>s ^u our explanation ( ! reality ( ,spectral ,illusions1 we may cond5se 8 evid5ce4 ,x w ( c\rse be conc$$ t all ! usual objects se5 by p are mat]ial1 & ! image ( :at we look at is =m$ ^u ! ret9a 9 ! mann] already expla9$4 ,b all images ^u ! ret9a are n imm$iately obs]v$2 ! impression may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 rema94 ,words are (t5 impress$ ^u ! bra91--words :i* we 9 our sob] s5ses w\ld nev] ?9k ( repeat+1--& yet :5 we are deliri\s we give v5t to ^! expressions1 ( ^: v nature & mean+ we are p]fectly unconsci\s4 ,x is1 accord+ to our ref]5ce 7,dr4 ,wilks71 8q possible = ! p]ceptive "p ( ! bra9 to be ?r[n into an active condition q indep5d5t ( ! normal /imulus conduct$ to x f ! ret9a40 ,if1 "u ^! circum/ances1 an object be view$ indep5d5tly1 &1 z x 71 unconsci\sly1 x is m]ely1 we believe1 a p>allel to ! impression ( words be=e not$4 ,s\nd & light are gov]n$ by ! same laws4 ,9 fev]s we fancy we see all k9ds ( ?+s :i* h no exi/5ce4 ,9 dreams we he> noises2 & _m a "t p dream+ h be5 awak5$ by ! report ( a gun1 or ! r++ ( a bell :i* _h no mat]ial orig91--! n]ves 7 excit$1 ! 8p]ceptive c5tre0 ( ! bra9 0 mov$4 ,b if sight & he>+ ?us h _! orig9 f ! bra9 & n f )\t1 !re mu/ h be5 "s pr$ispos+ cause1 "s excitem5t to induce su* a condition ( ?+s4 8,! impressions become abnormal & subjective1--! normal condition be+ objective1--! impression is receiv$ f )\t1 & impress$ ^u ! eye4 ,n[1 let u consid] ! 8gho/06 ,lately !re h be5 _m in/ances br\ght =w>d ( 8spiritual0 appe>ances1 b we ?9k nobody has ev] se5 a 8mat]ial0 gho/2 yet on ! o!r h& none ( u h any k ( any?+ 9 ! lik5ess ( a gho/1 or t has n a mat]ial basis :i* c br+ =w>d an image on ! ret9a6 ,!re=e we are br\ght to ! conclusion t app>itions are spectres emanat+ f )9 ! bra91 n f any outw>d manife/ation1 because x is )9 ! exp]i5ce ( ev]ybody t 9 bad heal?1 or disord]$ dige/ive functions1 images are produc$ 9 ! bra9 & n]ves ( ! eye4 ,^! rem>ks h p]haps be5 made be=e 9 "o =m or o!r1 b z mu* popul> int]e/ is always awak5$ by ! sup]natural1 or :at is suppos$ to be sup]natural1 we may g a little f>!r1 & inquire h[ x 0 t ! gho/ se5 by ,dr4 ,jessopp disappe>$ :5 he rais$ 8 arm4 ,w\ld any gho/ be afraid ( ! ,doctor ext5d+ 8 h&8 ,! fact no d\bt occurr$ z relat$4 ,! explanation is t ! n>rator _h be5 mu* impress$ by a c]ta9 picture1 :i* a correspond5t soon id5tifi$ z a portrait ( 8,p>sons1 ! ,jesuit ,fa!r40 ,! description giv5 is t ( ! prie/ :o 0 describ$ by ! ,doctor 9 "o ( 8 books4 ,! association ( ideas 9 ! libr>y ( a ,norfolk h\se connect$ ) ! ,walpoles1 ) :om ,p>sons _h be5 a lead]1 gave rise1 dur+ a p]iod ( 8=ty w9ks0 at midnight1 to ! spectre4 ,9 ! int]e/+ lett]s writt5 ^u 8,natural ,magic0 by ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 ! subject ( ,spectral ,illusions is treat$ at "s l5g?1 & ) und\bt$ au?ority4 ,sir ,david ?\ght ! subject wor? discuss+ ) ref]5ce to ! illusions or spectres m5tion$ by ,dr4 ,hibb]t4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] gives 8 own exp]i5ces :i* occurr$ :ile he 0 /ay+ at ! h\se ( a lady 9 ! c\ntry4 ,! illusions appe> to h affect$ h] e> z well z ! eye4 ,we %all see 9 ! next *apt] h[ intimately s\nd & light are connect$1 & h[ ! eyes & e>s are equally impress$1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t way1 by ! vibration ( p>ticles4 ,! lady ref]r$ to 0 ab\t to g up/airs to dress = d9n] "o aft]noon1 :5 %e he>d h] husb&'s voice call+ to h] by "n4 ,%e op5$ ! door1 & nobody 0 outside2 & :5 %e return$ = a mom5t to ! fire %e he>d ! voice aga9 call+1 8,come to me2 come1 come away10 9 a some:at impati5t tone4 ,%e imm$iately w5t 9 se>* ( h] husb&1 b he did n come 9 till half an h\r aft]w>ds1 & ( c\rse said he _h n call$1 & told h] :]e he _h be5 at ! "t--"s di/ance away4 ,?is happ5$ on ! #bf? ,decemb]1 #ahcj1 b a m al>m+ occurr5ce took place f\r days aft]4 ,ab\t ! same "t 9 ! aft]noon ( ! #cj? ,decemb]1 ! lady came into ! draw+-room1 & to h] great a/oni%m5t %e p]ceiv$ h] husb& /&+ ) 8 back to ! fireplace4 ,%e _h se5 him g out walk+ a %ort "t previ\sly1 & 0 naturally surpris$ to f9d he _h return$ s soon4 ,he look$ at h] v ?\ghtfully1 & made no answ]4 ,%e sat d[n close beside him at ! fire1 & z he /ill gaz$ ^u h] %e said1 8,:y don't y say some?+60 ,! figure imm$iately mov$ away t[>ds ! w9d[ at ! f>!r end ( ! room1 /ill gaz+ at h]1 8& x pass$ s close t %e 0 /ruck by ! circum/ance ( he>+ no /ep nor s\nd1 nor feel+ h] dress bru%$ aga9/1 nor ev5 any agitation ( ! air40 ,al?\gh conv9c$ ?is 0 n h] husb&1 ! lady nev] fanci$ !re 0 any?+ sup]natural 9 ! appe>ance ( ! figure4 ,subsequ5tly %e 0 conv9c$ t x 0 a spectral illusion1 al?\gh %e c\ld n see ?r\gh ! figure :i* appe>$ z sub/antial z ! reality4 ,7 x advisable1 we c\ld multiply in/ances4 ,9 ! ,ed9burgh ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce ^!1 & _m m in/ances ( spectral illusions 7 n>rat$ by ! husb& ( ! lady4 ,%e frequ5tly beheld deceas$ relatives or abs5t fri5ds1 & describ$ _! dress & g5]al appe>ance v m9utely4 ,on "o occasion %e p]ceiv$ a coa* full ( skeletons drive up to ! door1 & notic$ spectral dogs & cats 7h] own pets' lik5esses7 9 ! room4 ,!re c be no d\bt ^u ^! po9ts2 ! appe>ances 7 manife/ & di/9ct4 ,!y 7 se5 9 ! pres5ce ( o!r p1 9 solitude1 & 9 ! society ( h] husb&4 ,! lady 0 9 delicate heal?1 & v s5sitive4 ,! spectres appe>$ 9 daylight z well z 9 ! d>k1 or by c&le-light4 ,let u n[1 guid$ by :at we h already writt51 & by ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s exp]i5ce1 endeav\r to give a rational explanation ( ^! illusions4 8,! m9d's eye is really ! body's eye1 & ! ret9a is ! common tablet ^u :i* bo? classes ( impressions are pa9t$1 & by means ( :i* !y receive _! visual exi/5ce accord+ to ! same optical laws40 8,9 ! heal?y /ate ( m9d & body ! relative int5sity ( ! two classes ( impressions on ! ret9a are nicely adju/$--! bodily & m5tal are balanc$4 ,! latt] are feeble & transi5t1 & 9 ord9>y temp]am5ts are nev] capable ( di/urb+ or effac+ ! direct images ( visible objects4444 ,! m9d _c p]=m two diff]5t functions at ! same in/ant1 & ! direction ( its att5tion to "o ( ! two classes ( impressions necess>ily produces ! ext9ction ( ! o!r2 b s rapid is ! ex]cise ( m5tal p[]1 t ! alt]nate appe>ance & disappe>ance ( ! two cont5d+ impressions is no m recogniz$ ?an ! successive obs]vations ( ext]nal objects dur+ ! tw9kl+ ( ! eyelids40 ,we h be=e illu/rat$1 by means ( ! p5 & ! ink-bottle1 h[ "o object is lo/ sight ( :5 ! o!r is att5tively reg>d$1 & a mat]ial picture or sc5e may be equally lo/ sight (1 & a m5tal picture take its place 9 ! eye1 :5 we recall places or p we h se5 or rememb]$4 ,we h all he>d num]\s anecdotes ( :at is t]m$ 8abs5t-m9d$ness40 ,"s p are q absorb$ 9 /udy1 & c see or he> no "o 9 ! room :5 deeply occupi$4 ,we may be satisfi$ !n t 8pictures ( ! m9d & spectral illusions are equally impressions ^u ! ret9a1 & only diff] 9 ! degree ( vividness ) :i* !y are se540 ,if we press our eyes ! phosphoresc5ce becomes app>5t1 & we c make a picture ( ! sun or a lamp visible = a long "t to our clos$ eyes if we />e at ei!r object = a few seconds1 & %ut our lids4 ,s by increas+ ! s5sibility ( ! ret9a we c obta9 ! image1 & alt] its col\r by pressure on ! eye4 ,x is well kn[n t poisons w affect sight1 & belladonna appli$ to ! eyes w s affect !m z to r5d] ! sight nil1 by enl>gem5t ( ! 8pupil40 ,if "o is out ( heal? !re is practically a poison+ ( ! sy/em1 & :5 we h a 8bili\s heada*e0 we see col\rs & />s because !re is a pressure ^u ! blood-vessels ( ! eye4 ,! effects ( a disord]$ /oma*1 induc$ by dr9k+ too mu*1 are well kn[n2 objects are se5 d\ble1 & mo/ gho/s may be trac$ to a disord]$ /ate ( heal? ( m9d or body1 br\ght on by excitem5t or fatigue4 ,we c\ld relate a s]ies ( gho/ /ories1--"s 9 our own exp]i5ce1 = we h se5 a gho/ equally ) our neighb\rs1--b ?is is n ! place = !m4 ,al?\gh _m app>5tly incontrov]tible ass]tions are made1 & _m spectres h be5 produc$ to adorn a tale1 we mu/ put on record our own op9ion1 t e "o c\ld be trac$ to m5tal impression or bodily affection _h we only ! key to ! life & circum/ances ( ! gho/-se]4 ,_m celebrat$ conjur]s w conv9ce u almo/ aga9/ our reason t our pocket-h&k]*ief is 9 ! orange j cut up4 ,!y w br+ live rabbits f our coat-pockets or ve/s1 & pigeons f our op]a-hats4 ,^! are equally illusions4 ,we "k :at c be done ) mirrors4 ,we h se5 gho/s at ! ,polyte*nic1 b we mu/ put d[n all app>itions z ! result ( m5tal or bodily1 ev5 unconsci\s impressions ^u ! ret9a ( ! eye4 ,!re are num]\s illusions1 su* z ! ,fata ,morgana1 ! ,spectre ( ! ,brock51 etc41 :i* are due to a peculi> /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 & to ! unequal reflection & refraction ( light4 ,^?1 & _m o!r optical ph5om5a1 w1 ) ph5om5a ( heat & s\nd1 be treat$ "u ,,meteorology1 :5 we w consid] ! ra9b[ & ! aurora1 ) _m o!r atmosph]ic effects4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,ac\/ics4 ,,! ,,e>1 ,,& ,,he>+--,,physiology ,,( ,,he>+ ,,& ,,s\nd--,,s\nd ,,z ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,light--,,:at ,,is ,,s\nd8--,,velocity ,,( ,,s\nd--,,conductibility--,,! ,,h>monograph4 ,be=e ent]+ ^u ! sci5ce ( ,,ac\/ics1 a %ort description ( ! e>1 & ! mode 9 :i* s\nd is convey$ to our bra91 w be no d\bt acceptable to our read]s4 ,! /udy ( ! organs ( he>+ is n an easy "o2 al?\gh we c see ! ext]ior portion1 ! int]ior & delicate membranes are hidd5 f u 9 ! v h>de/ bone ( ! body--! petr\s bone1 ! temporal & rock-l bone ( ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4--a4 ,temple bone4 #b4 ,out] surface ( temple4 #c4 ,upp] wall ( bony "p ( he>+ canal4 #d4 ,ligature hold+ 8hamm]0 bone to ro( ( drum cavity4 #e4 ,ro( to drum cavity4 #f4 ,semicircul> canals4 #g4 ,anvil bone4 #h4 ,hamm] bone4 #i4 ,/irrup bone4 #aj4 ,co*lea4 #aa4 ,drum-head cut across4 #ab4 ,i/hmus ( ,eu/a*ian tube4 #ac4 ,m\? ( tube 9 ! ?roat4 #ad4 ,auditory canal4 #ae4 ,l[] wall ( canal4 #af4 ,l[] wall ( c>tilag9\s "p ( canal4 #ag4 ,wax gl&s4 #ah4 ,lobule4 #ai4 ,upp] wall ( c>tilag9\s portion ( canal4 #bj4 ,m\? ( auditory canal4 #ba4 ,anti-tragus4 ,! e> 7ext]nal7 is compos$ ( ! auricle1 ! visible e>1 ! auditory canal1 & ! drum-head1 or membra tympani4 ,! tympanum1 or 8drum10 is situat$ betwe5 ! ext]nal & ! int]nal portions ( ! e>4 ,?is "p is ! 8middle e>10 & is an air cavity1 & ?r\gh x pass two n]ves1 "o to ! face1 & ! o!r to ! tongue4 ,! int]nal e> is call$ ! 8labyr9?10 f its intricate /ructure4 ,we give an illu/ration ( ! auditory app>atus ( man 7fig4 #agj74 ,! auricle1 or ext]ior e>1 is also repres5t$1 b we ne$ n g into any m9ute description ( ! p>ts4 ,we w j "n !m 7fig4 #aga74 ,s\nd is ! motion imp>t$ to ! auditory n]ve1 & we %all see 9 a mom5t h[ s\nd is produc$4 ,! undulations ent] ! auditory canal1 hav+ be5 tak5 up by ! auricle2 ! waves or vibrations move at ! rate ( #a1ajj feet a second1 & rea* ! drum-head1 :i* has motion imp>t$ to x4 ,?is motion or oscillation is imp>t$ to o!r portions1 & ?r\gh ! liquid 9 ! labyr9?4 ,! impressions ( ! s\nd wave are convey$ to ! n]ve1 & ?is p]ception ( ! movem5t 9 ! wat] ( ! labyr9? by ! n]ve ?reads & ! bra9 causes :at we t]m 8he>+40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4--a4 ,pit ( anti-helix4 #b1 #f1 #aj4 ,curv$ edge ( ! auricle4 #c4 ,m\? ( auditory canal4 #d4 ,tragus4 #e4 ,lobe4 #g4 ,anti-helix4 #h4 ,con*a4 #i4 ,anti-tragus4 ,let u n[ endeav\r to expla9 :at s\nd is1 & h[ x arises4 ,!re are "s curi\s p>allels betwe5 s\nd & light4 ,:5 speak+ ( light we m5tion$ "s ( ! analogies betwe5 s\nd & light1 & z we proce$ to consid] s\nd1 we w n lose sight ( ! light we h j pass$ by4 ,s\nd is ! influ5ce ( air 9 motion ^u ! he>+ or auditory n]ves4 ,light1 z we h se51 is ! e!r 9 motion1 ! vibrations /rik+ ! n]ves ( ! eye4 ,!re are musical & unmusical s\nds4 ,! =m] are audible :5 ! vibrations ( ! air rea* our n]ves at regul> int]vals4 ,unmusical s\nds1 or irregul> vibrations1 create noise4 ,n[1 musical tones be> ! same relation to ! e> z col\rs d to ! eye4 ,we mu/ h a c]ta9 numb] ( vibrations ( e!r to give u a c]ta9 col\r 7vide table74 8,ab\t f\r hundr$ & fifty billion impulses 9 a second0 give r$ light4 ,! violet rays require ne>ly d\ble4 ,s we obta9 col\rs by ! diff]5t rate ( ! imp+em5t ( impulses on ! ret9a4 ,! eyes1 z we h already le>n$1 _c receive any m rapidly-recurr+ impressions ?an ^? produc+ violet1 al?\gh z prov$1 ! spectrum is by no means exhau/$1 ev5 if !y are invisible4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ,caloresc5ce we po9t$ ?is out4 ,^! invisible rays "w great *emical *anges :5 !y get beyond violet1 & are %[n to be heat4 ,s ! rays :i* d n rea* ! velocity ( r$ rays are also heat1 :i* is ! effect ( motion4 ,?us we h ,,heat1 ,,light1 & ,,s\nd1 all ! asc]ta9$ results ( vibratory motion4 ,! /illness ( ! e!r ar\nd u is kn[n z 8,d>kness02 ! /illness ( ! air is 8,sil5ce02 ! comp>ative abs5ce ( heat1 or molecul> motion ( bodies is 8,cold06 ,9 ! fir/ "p we %[$ h[ co9s imp>t motion to ea* o!r4 ,,velocity ,,( ,,light ,,waves4 ,accord+ to ,,sir ,j4 ,,h]s*el4 ,col\r ( ! ,no4 ( ,undulations ,no4 ( ,undulations ,spectrum4 9 an in*4 9 a second4 ,extreme ,r$ #cg1fdj #deh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,r$ #ci1ahj #dgg1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #dj1gbj #die1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,orange #da1faj #ejf1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #db1eaj #eag1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,yell[ #dd1jjj #ece1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #de1fjj #eee1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,gre5 #dg1dfj #egg1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #di1cbj #fjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,blue #ea1aaj #fbb1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #eb1iaj #fdd1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,indigo #ed1jgj #feh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,int]m$iate #ee1bdj #fgb1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,violet #eg1dij #fii1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,extreme ,violet #ei1gej #gbg1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,:5 an impulse 0 giv5 ! motion 0 c>ri$ f co9 to co91 & at l5g? ! la/ "o 9 ! r[ flew out4 ,?is is ! case ) s\nd4 ,! air molecules /rike "o ^u ano!r1 & ! wave ( 8s\nd0 rea*es ! tympanum1 & ?us ! impression is convey$ to ! bra94 ,we say we he>--b :y we he>1 9 :at mann] ! movem5t ( c]ta9 p>ticles affects our consci\sness1 we _c det]m9e4 ,t ! air is absolutely necess>y to enable u to he> c readily be prov$4 ,! exp]im5t has frequ5tly be5 made2 place a bell "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 & we c he> x r+4 ,b if we exhau/ ! air ! s\nd w get fa9t] & fa9t]4 ,simil>ly1 z _m ( u h exp]i5c$ ^u high m\nta9s1 s\nds are less m>k$4 ,s\nd dim9i%es 9 its int5sity1 j z heat & light d4 ,s\nd is reflect$ & refract$1 z are light & radiant heat4 ,we h already %[n ! effect ( reflectors ^u heat4 ,s\nd is caught & reflect$ 9 ! same way z light f mirrors1 or z ! heat waves 9 ! reflectors4 ,we h :at we t]m 8s\nd+ bo>ds0 9 pulpits1 & speak+ tubes w c>ry s\nd = u )\t loss ( p[]4 ,e*oes are m]ely reflect$ s\nds4 ,! velocity ( s\nd is accept$ z #a1ajj feet 9 a second1 :i* is f> inf]ior to ! velocity ( light4 ,fogs w ret>d s\nd1 :ile wat] w c>ry x4 ,^? :o h ev] r[$ ^u a lake w rememb] h[ easily ! s\nd ( _! voices rea*$ f boat to boat1 & ,dr4 ,hutton says t at ,*elsea1 on ! ,?ames1 he he>d a p]son read+ f a di/ance ( a hundr$ & =ty feet4 ,"s extraord9>y in/ances c\ld be d$uc$ ( ! enorm\s di/ances s\nd is said to h travell$4 ,guns h be5 he>d at eighty miles di/ant1 & ! noise ( a battle betwe5 ! ,engli% & ,dut*1 9 #afgb1 0 he>d ev5 9 ,wales1 a di/ance ( two hundr$ miles f ! sc5e ( action4 ,s\nd always travels ) uni=m velocity 9 ! air 9 ! same temp]ature4 ,b s\nd6 ,:at is ! cause ( x8 ,h[ does x arise8 ,^! que/ions c n[ be fully answ]$ ) ref]5ce to ! =ego+ obs]vations4 ,ph5om5a ( vibration r5d] !mselves visible by light1 heat1 & s\nd1 & to arrive at "s def9ite ideas ( s\nd vibrations we may comp>e !m to waves1 su* z may be produc$ by ?r[+ a /one into a pond4 ,!re are1 s to speak1 8/&+0 waves & 8progressive0 waves4 ,! =m] c be produc$ 7= in/ance7 by ?rumm+ a fiddle-/r+1 & :5 ! equilibrium ( ! cord is di/urb$1 ! position ( ! equilibrium is pass$ simultane\sly by ! /r+-waves4 ,9 wat] ! waves or vibrat+ po9ts pass ! position ( equilibrium 9 succession4 ,waves consi/ ( elevations & depressions alt]nately1 & :5 we obta9 two 8sy/ems0 ( waves by ?r[+ two /ones into wat]1 we c obs]ve "s curi\s effects4 ,x c be se5 h[ "o s]ies ( depressions w come 9 contact ) ! o!r s]ies ( depressions1 & ! elevations w likewise unite ) ! result ( long] depressions & elevations respectively2 or x may v well be t elevation w meet depression1 & !n ! s-call$ 8int]f]5ce0 ( waves w produce po9ts ( repose4 ,^! po9ts are t]m$ nodes4 ,! waves ( ! /r+ proce$ 9 ! plane ( its axis2 wat] waves ext5d 9 circles :i* increase 9 circumf]5ce4 ,! progression or propagation ( s\nd may be said to beg9 :5 "s t9y globule ( matt] exp&s 9 ! air4 ,! air p>ticles /rike "o aga9/ ! o!r1 & s ! motion is communicat$ to ! air waves1 :i* 9 "t rea* ! e>4 ,b ! velocity ( ! s\nd is n equal 9 all sub/ances4 ,air w convey x ar\nd our e>? at ! rate ( #gfe miles an h\r1 or #a1jij feet 9 a second4 ,t is1 we may accept su* rate z correct at a temp]ature ( #cb ,fahr41 & at a pressure ( ?irty in*es1 & ! velocity increases almo/ exactly "o foot p] second = ea* degree ( temp]ature above #cb4 ,!re=e on an av]age1 & speak+ 9 8r\nd numb]s10 ! e/imate ( #a1ajj feet 9 a second may be accept$ z correct4 ,9 hydrog5 gas ! rate is mu* high]4 ,?r\gh wat] aga9 x is diff]5t1 & /ill fa/] ?r\gh iron1 glass1 & wood1 z w be se5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,,tak+ ,,air ,,z #a4 ,:alebone #f ,t9 #g ,silv] #i ,walnut #aj ,brass #aj ,oak #aj ,e>!n pipes #aa ,copp] #ab ,pe>-wood #ab ,ebony #ad ,*]ry #ae ,will[ #af ,glass #af ,iron or ,/eel #af ,deal #ah ,s !re is a consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! velocities ( s\nd ?r\gh ! solid sub/ances quot$1 b ^! figures _c be tak5 z exact1 z diff]5t samples may give diff]5t results4 ,9 wires & bells ! bodies !mselves produce ! s\nds we he>4 ,9 w9d in/rum5ts & ! voice ! air is ! cause ( ! s\nd4 ,! v deepe/ notes are produc$ by ! fewe/ vibrations4 ,f\rte5 or fifte5 vibrations w give u a v l[ note1 if n ! v l[e/4 ,! pipe ( sixte5 feet1 clos$ at its upp] end1 w produce s\nd waves ( ?irty-two feet4 ,high notes c be =m$ f vibrations up to #dh1jjj 9 a second4 ,beyond ^! limits ! e> _c accept a musical s\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4--,! vibration ( /r+s4 ,we w expla9 ! ph5om5on ( ! vibration ( /r+s by means ( ! illu/ration4 ,9 ! cut we f9d a /r+ or wire1 :i* c be l5g!n$ or %ort5$ at pleasure by a movable bridge1 & /ret*$ by weights atta*$ to ! end 7fig4 #agb74 ,we c n[ easily p]ceive t ! %ort] & ?9n] ! /r+ is1 & ! tight] x is1 ! numb] ( vibrations w be great] & great]4 ,! d5sity ( x is also to be consid]$1 & :5 ^! conditions are 9 ! smalle/ proportion !n ! tone w be highe/4 ,! dep? w naturally increase ) ! ?ickness1 d5sity1 & l5g?1 & ) a decreas+ t5sion4 ,b we h /r+s ( same ?ickness /ret*$ to diff]5t degrees ( t5sion1 & ?us produc+ diff]5t notes4 ,"s /r+s are cov]$ ) wire to increase _! gravity1 & ?us to produce l[ notes4 ,:5 a numb] ( sep>ate s\nds succe$ ea* o!r 9 v rapid c\rse !y produce a s\nd1 b to appe> z "o s\nd to ! e> !y mu/ am\nt to fifte5 or sixte5 vibrations e second4 ,! p>ticles ( matt] 9 ! air =m a connect$ sy/em1 & till !y are di/urb$ !y rema9 9 equilibrium2 b ! mom5t !y are 9 any way ?r[n out ( ?is /ate !y vibrate z ! p5dulum vibrates4 ,! p>ticles ?us /rike ea* o!r1 & imp>t a motion to ! ela/ic m$ium air1 s a s\nd comes to u4 ,! int5sity ( s\nds gets less ! f>!r x goes f u1 or ! l\dness ( s\nd is less ! great] its di/ance4 ,! law is1 t 9 an unv>y+ m$ium ! l\dness v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,b ,poisson has %[n t :5 air-/rata1 diff]+ 9 d5sity1 are exi/+ betwe5 ! e> & ! s\rce ( ! s\nd1 ! int5sity or l\dness ) :i* x is he>d dep5ds only on ! d5sity ( ! air at ! place ! s\nd orig9at$4 ,?is fact has be5 sub/antiat$ by ballooni/s :o he>d a railway :i/le q di/9ctly :5 !y 7 ne>ly #bj1jjj feet above ! gr\nd4 ,x !re=e foll[s t s\nd c be he>d 9 a balloon equally well z on ! e>? at c]ta9 giv5 di/ances4 ,b z ! d5sity ( ! air dim9i%es ! s\nd becomes fa9t]1 z has be5 prov$ by ! bell rung 9 ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,! velocity ( s\nd1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 dep5ds ^u its int5sity1 z ,e>n%aw s\ght to prove2 = he in/anc$ a fact t 9 ! ,arctic regions1 :]e s\nd c be he>d = an imm5se di/ance1 9 consequ5ce ( ! /ill & homog5e\s air1 ! report ( a cannon two miles & a half away 0 he>d be=e ! l\d comm& to 8fire10 :i* mu/ h prec$$ ! dis*>ge4 ,ano!r in/ance %[+ ! diff]5ce 9 he>+ ?r\gh mix$ & homog5e\s m$ia may be ref]r$ to4 ,9 ! w> ) ,am]ica1 :5 ! ,engli% & _! foes 7 on opposite sides ( a /ream1 an ,am]ican 0 se5 to beat 8 drum1 b no s\nd came across4 8,a coat+ ( s(t sn[ & a ?ick atmosph]e absorb$ ! noise40 ,glaz$1 or h>d sn[1 w\ld h a contr>y effect4 ,reynault also exp]im5tally v]ifi$ 8 !ory1 t s\nd :5 pass+ ?r\gh a space ( ne>ly #h1jjj feet lo/ velocity z its int5sity dim9i%$1 & 9 t di/ance betwe5 its arrival at #d1jjj feet & at #g1ejj feet1 ! s\nd velocity dim9i%$ by #bb feet p] second4 ,he also tri$ to demon/rate t s\nd velocity dep5d$ ^u its pit*1 & t l[] notes travell$ ) ! great] spe$4 ,! reflection & refraction ( s\nd foll[s ! same fundam5tal laws z ! reflection & refraction ( light4 ,! reflection ( s\nd is t]m$ an ,e*o1 :i* is famili> to all t\ri/s 9 ,switz]l& & ,irel& p>ticul>ly4 ,!re are sev]al v rem>kable e*oes 9 ! _w3 at ,wood/ock1 & at ! ,sicilian ca!dral ( ,g]g5ti1 :]e ! confessions p\r$ =? ne> ! door to prie/ly e>s 7 he>d by a man conceal$ beh9d ! high alt> at ! opposite end4 ,x is curi\s t su* a spot %\ld h be5 accid5tally *os5 = ! ,confessional4 ,! :isp]+ gall]y 9 ,/4 ,paul's is ano!r in/ance ( ! e*o4 ,e*oes are produc$ by ! reflection ( s\nd waves f a plane or ev5 surface4 ,a wall1 or ev5 a cl\d1 w produce e*oes4 ,?und] is e*o$ f ! cl\ds4 7,! celebrat$ e*o ( 8,paddy ,blake10 at ,kill>ney1 :i*1 :5 y say 8,h[ d y d10 is report$ to reply1 8,v well1 ?ank y10 c sc>cely be quot$ z a sci5tific illu/ration47 ,& ! hills ( ,kill>ney conta9 an e*o1 & ! bugle s\nds are beautifully repeat$4 ,9 ! cases ( ord9>y e*o1 :5 ! speak] waits = ! answ]1 he mu/ place himself opposite ! rock4 ,if he /& at ! side ! e*o w reply to ano!r p]son 9 a correspond+ place on ! f>!r side1 = ! voice !n /rikes ! rock at an angle1 & ! angle ( reflection is ! same1 z 9 ! case ( light4 ,b if x %\ld happ5 t !re are a numb] ( reflect+ surfaces ! e*o w be repeat$ ov] & ov] aga91 z at ! ,lakes ( ,kill>ney4 ,! ,wood/ock ,e*o1 already ref]r$ to1 & m5tion$ by sev]al writ]s1 repeats sev5te5 syllables by day1 & tw5ty by night4 ,9 ,%ipley !re is ev5 a great] repetition4 ,( c\rse ! e*o is fa9t]1 because ! waves are weak] if ! reflect+ surface be flat4 ,b1 z 9 ! case ( ! mirrors reflect+ light1 a circul> or concave surface w increase ! int5sity4 ,a wat* plac$ 9 "o mirror w be he>d tick+ 9 ! o!r focus4 ,:isp]+ gall]ies c>ry s\nd by means ( ! curv$ surface4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el m5tions an e*o 9 ! ,m5ai ,susp5sion ,bridge4 ,! bl[ ( a hamm] on "o ( ! ma9 pi]s w produce ! s\nd f ea* ( ! crossbeams support+ ! roadway1 & f ! opposite pi] #egf feet di/ant1 z well z _m o!r repetitions4 ,refraction ( s\nd is caus$ by a wave ( s\nd meet+ ano!r m$ium ( diff]5t d5sity1 j z a beam ( light is refract$ f wat]4 ,"o s\nd wave imp>ts its motion to ! new m$ium1 & ! new wave travels 9 a diff]5t direction4 ,?is *ange is refraction4 ,! s\nd waves are refract$ 9 diff]5t directions1 accord+ to ! velocity x c acquire 9 ! m$ium4 ,if a s\nd pass f wat] into air x w be b5t t[>ds ! p]p5dicul>1 because s\nd c travel fa/] 9 wat] ?an 9 air4 ,if x pass f air into wat] its =ce w cause x to assume a less p]p5dicul> direction1 !re be+ great] velocity 9 wat]4 ,! velocity 9 air is only #a1ajj feet 9 a second 9 our atmosph]e4 ,9 wat] s\nd travels #d1gjj feet 9 ! same "t4 ,:5 ! wave ( s\nd falls ^u a m$ium p>allel to ! refract+ surface !re is1 h[ev]1 no refraction--only a *ange ( velocity1 n direction4 ,:5 s\nd waves are prev5t$ f disp]s+ ! voice c be c>ri$ a great di/ance4 ,speak+ tubes & trumpets1 z well z e> trumpets1 are examples ( ?is pr9ciple1 & ( ! reflection ( s\nd4 ,!re are _m v int]e/+ exp]im5ts 9 connection ) ,ac\/ics1 "s ( :i* we w n[ imp>t to our read]s4 ,we %all !n f9d _m +5i\s inv5tions to exam9e1--! ,audiphone1 ,telephone1 ,megaphone1 & ,phonograph1 :i* w occupy a sep>ate *apt]4 ,we n[ resume4 ,among/ ! exp]im5ts usually includ$ 9 ! c\rse ( pr(essors & lectur]s :o h a complete app>atus at _! comm&1 & :i* at fir/ appe> v complicat$ & difficult1 !re are "s :i* c be p]=m$ ) e-day articles at h&4 ,!re is no exp]im5t 9 ac\/ics m int]e/+ ?an t ( ,m4 ,lissajons1 :i* consi/s1 z is well kn[n to our sci5ti/s1 ( project+ ^u a table or o!r surface1 ) ! aid ( oxy-hydrog5 light1 ! vibratory curves trac$ by "o ( ! prongs ( a tun+-=k4 ,we c p]=m )\t difficulty a v simil> exp]im5t ) ! humble assi/ance ( ! common knitt+-ne$le4 ,fix ! flexible /eel ne$le firmly 9 a cork1 :i* w give x suffici5t support2 fa/5 !n at ! upp] extremity a small ball ( seal+ wax1 or a piece ( pap] ab\t ! size ( a l>ge pea4 ,if ! cork 9 :i* ! ne$le is fix$ be held firmly 9 "o h&1 & y cause ! ne$le to vibrate by /rik+ x1 & !n lett+ x sway ( itself1 or ) a pretty /rong bl[ ) a piece ( wood1 y w p]ceive ! little pellet ( wax or pap] describe an ellipse m or less elongat$1 or ev5 a circle w be describ$ if ! vibrations be frequ5t4 ,! effect is mu* enhanc$ if ! exp]im5t be p]=m$ b5ea? a lamp1 s t pl5ty ( light may fall ^u ! vibrat+ ne$le4 ,9 ?is case1 ! p]si/5ce ( impressions ^u ! ret9a admits ( "o see+ ! vibrat+ circle 9 successive positions1 & we may almo/ fancy :5 ! ne$le is /ruck ) suffici5t =ce1 t an elongat$ conical glass1 l ! old =m ( *ampagne glass1 is ris+ f ! cork1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration annex$ 7fig4 #agc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4--;,exp]im5t %[+ vibration ( s\nd waves4 ,ac\/ics may be /udi$ 9 ! same way z o!r bran*es ( physical sci5ce4 ,we w describe an int]e/+ exp]im5t1 :i* gives a v good idea ( ! transmission ( s\nds ?r\gh solid bodies4 ,a silv] spoon is fa/5$ to a ?read1 ! ends ( :i* are ?ru/ into bo? e>s1 z %[n 9 fig4 #agd2 we !n slightly sw+ ! spoon until we make x t\* ! edge ( ! table2 ! transmission ( s\nd is 9 consequ5ce s int5se t we are ready to believe we are li/5+ to ! d\ble diapason ( an organ4 ,?is exp]im5t expla9s p]fectly ! transmission ( spok5 words by means ( ! /r+ ( a telephone1 ano!r contrivance :i* any "o may make = himself )\t any tr\ble :atev]4 ,two r\nd pieces ( c>dbo>d are fitt$ to two cyl9d]s ( t9-plate1 z l>ge r\nd z a lamp-glass1 & f\r-&-a-half in*es 9 l5g?4 ,if ! two r\nds ( c>dbo>d are connect$ by a long /r+ ( sixte5 to eighte5 y>ds1 we c transmit s\nds f "o end to ! o!r ( ?is long cord2 ! speak] pron\nc+ ! words into ! fir/ cyl9d]1 & ! li/5] plac+ 8 e> aga9/ ! o!r4 ,x is easy to demon/rate t s\nd takes a c]ta9 "t to pass f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,:5 "o sees 9 ! di/ance a c>p5t] driv+ 9 a /ake1 we f9d t ! s\nd produc$ by ! bl[ ( ! hamm] aga9/ ! wood only rea*es ! e> a few seconds aft] ! contact ( ! two objects4 ,we see ! fla% at ! fir+ ( a gun1 be=e he>+ ! s\nd ( ! report--( c\rse on ! condition t we are at a fairly consid]able di/ance1 z already rem>k$ ^u4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4--;,conductibility ( s\nd by solid bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4--,musical glasses4 ,we c %[ ! production ( ! ,gamut by cutt+ little pieces ( wood ( diff]5t sizes1 :i* "o ?r[s on to a table2 ! s\nds produc$ v>y accord+ to ! size ( ! diff]5t pieces4 ,! same effect may be obta9$ mu* bett] by means ( goblets m or less fill$ ) wat]2 !y are /ruck ) a %ort rod1 & emit a s\nd :i* c be modifi$ by p\r+ 9 a great] or less quantity ( wat]2 if ! p]=m] is gift$ ) a musical e>1 he c obta91 by a little arrangem5t1 a p]fect ,gamut by means ( sev5 glasses :i* ea* give a note 7fig4 #age74 ,a piece ( music may be fairly r5d]$ 9 ?is mann]1 = ! musical glasses frequ5tly produce a v pure silv]y s\nd4 ,we w complete ! elem5t>y pr9ciples ( ac\/ics by describ+ a v curi\s app>atus inv5t$ by ,m4 ,tisley1 ! ,,h>monograph4 ,?is in/rum5t1 :i* we c easily describe1 is a mo/ int]e/+ object ( /udy4 ,! ,h>monograph belongs to me*anics 9 pr9ciple1 & to ! sci5ce ( ac\/ics 9 application4 ,we w fir/ exam9e ! app>atus itself4 ,x is compos$ ( two p5dulums1 ,a & ,b 7fig4 #agf71 fix$ to susp5sions4 ,p5dulum ,b supports a circul> plate1 ,p1 on :i* we may place a small %eet ( pap]1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,?is pap] is fix$ by means ( small brass clips4 ,p5dulum ,a supports a horizontal b>1 at ! extremity ( :i* is a glass tube1 ,t1 t]m9at+ at its l[] extremity ) a capill>y op5+2 ?is tube is fill$ ) anil9e ink1 & j re/s on ! %eet ( pap]2 ! support & ! tube are balanc$ by a c\nt]poise on ! "r4 ,! two p5dulums1 ,a & ,b1 are weight$ ) r\nd pieces ( lead1 :i* c be mov$ at pleasure1 s t v>i\s oscillations may be obta9$4 ,! ratio betwe5 ! oscillations ( ! two p5dulums may be exactly regulat$ by means ( p5dulum ,a c>ry+ a small additional weight1 ! height ( :i* may be regulat$ by means ( a screw & a small w9dlass4 ,if we give to p5dulum ,a a slight movem5t ( oscillation1 ! po9t ( tube ,t traces a /raight l9e on ! pap] plac$ 9 ,p2 b if we move p5dulum ,b1 ! pap] also is displac$1 & ! po9t ( tube ,t w trace curves1 ! %ape ( :i* v>ies ) ! nature ( ! movem5t ( p5dulum ,b1 ! relation betwe5 ! oscillations ( ! two p5dulums1 etc4 ,if ! p5dulums oscillate )\t any friction ! curve w be cle>1 & ! po9t w pass indef9itely ov] ! same track1 b :5 ! oscillations dim9i%1 ! curve also dim9i%es 9 size1 /ill pres]v+ its =m1 & t5d+ to a po9t correspond+ ) ! position ( repose ( ! two p5dulums4 ,! result is !re=e t ! curves trac$ by ! app>atus1 ( :i* we produce ?ree specim5s 7figs4 #agg1 #agh1 #agi71 are trac$ 9 a cont9u\s /roke1 comm5c+ ) ! "p ( ! greate/ amplitude4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agf4--,m4 ,tisley's ,h>monograph4 ,by *ang+ ! relation & phases ( ! oscillations we obta9 curves ( inf9itely v>i$ aspect4 ,m4 ,tisley has a collection ( m ?an ?ree ?\s& curves1 :i* we h _h occasion to glance ov]1 9 :i* we fail$ to meet ) two correspond+ figures4 ,! ratio betwe5 ^! curves corresponds ) "s special class1 ( :i* ! analy/ may def9e ! g5]al *>act]s1 b :i* is outside our pres5t subject4 ,by giv+ ! plate ,p a rotatory movem5t1 we obta9 spiral curves ( a v curi\s effect1 b ! app>atus is m complicat$4 ,consid]$ f ?is po9t ( view x con/itutes an int]e/+ me*anical app>atus1 %[+ ! comb9ation ( oscillations1 & resolv+ c]ta9 que/ions ( pure me*anics4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ac\/ics x con/itutes a less curi\s object ( /udy4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,lissajons h prov$ t ! vibrations ( diapasons are oscillations simil> to1 ?\gh mu* m rapid ?an ^? ( ! p5dulum4 ,we c !re=e ) ?is app>atus reproduce all ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,lissajons1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! movem5ts be+ sl[] are easi] to /udy4 ,:5 ! ratio betwe5 ! numb] ( vibrations--we purposely use ! t]m vibration in/ead ( ! t]m oscillation--is a :ole numb]1 we obta9 figs4 #agg & #agh4 ,if ! ratio is n exact1 we obta9 fig4 #agi1 :i* is r irregul> 9 appe>ance1 correspond+ to ! di/ortions noticeable 9 ,m4 ,lissajon's exp]im5ts4 ,fig4 #agh has be5 trac$ 9 ! exact ratio #b3c2 fig4 #agg 9 ! ratio #a3b2 & fig4 #agi corresponds to ! ratio #a3b & a small fraction1 :i* causes ! irregul>ity ( ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg4--,ratio #a3b4 ,fig4 #agh4--,ratio #b3c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4--,ratio #a3b & a fraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,con/ruction ( ! ,h>monograph4 ,fig4 #aha4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,me?od ( con/ruct+ an ,h>monograph4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,! app>atus complet$4 ,9 consid]+ ! h>mony ( figs4 #agg & #agh1--! fir/ ( :i* corresponds to ! octave1 ! second to ! fif?1 :il/ fig4 #agi corresponds to ! disagreeable int]val ( ! n9?1--"o is almo/ tempt$ to put a c]ta9 fai? 9 ! fundam5tal law ( simple ratios z ! basis ( h>mony4 ,at fir/ sight ?is appe>s beyond d\bt1 b p]haps musicians w\ld be h>dly cont5t ) ! explanation4 ,m4 ,tisley's ,h>monograph1 x w be se51 is a r complicat$ app>atus2 & ,i w n[ expla9 h[ x may be con/ruct$ by means ( a few pieces ( wood4 ,i endeav\r$ to con/ruct z simple an app>atus z possible1 & ) ! commone/ mat]ials1 feel+ t x is ! be/ means ( %[+ h[ x is possible = ev]ybody to reproduce ^! *>m+ curves ( musical int]vals4 ,also ,i completely exclud$ ! employm5t ( metals1 & ,i con/ruct$ my app>atus entirely ) pieces ( wood5 rul]s1 & old cig> boxes4 ,i set to "w 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 on ! two consecutive sides ( a draw+ bo>d ,i fix$ f\r small pieces ( wood 7fig4 #ahj71 side by side 9 twos1 hav+ at ! end a small piece ( t9-plate =m+ a groove 7fig4 #aha74 ,9 ^! grooves nails are plac$ :i* support ! p5dulums4 ,! piece ( wood is plac$ on ! corn] ( ! table1 s t ! p5dulums :i* oscillate 9 two planes at "r angles1 are 9 two planes t are s5sibly p>allel to ! sides ( ! table4 ,! p5dulums are made ( a ?9 la?1 ) two small pieces ( wood fix$ to !m conta9+ "s v po9t$ nails1 on :i* ! p5dulum oscillates4 ,fig4 #ahb gives an illu/ration4 ,! p5dulums h a p9 fix$ 9 v]tically1 :i* passes ?r\gh a piece ( wood1 & by means ( a h+e connects ! upp] ends ( ! two p5dulums4 ,?is contrivance ( ! p9 is v useful1 & if c>e is tak5 to make ! hole ?r\gh ! h+e 9 ! =m ( a d\ble cone1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ahb1 c1 x makes a p]fect jo9t1 :i* all[s ! piece ( wood to be freely mov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd4--;,details ( me*anism4 ,to complete ! app>atus1 ! heads ( ! two p5dulums are unit$ by ! h+e1 at ! b5d ( :i* a sl5d] glass tube is fix$1 :i* traces ! curves4 ,! h+e is giv5 9 fig4 #ahd1 & to its two extremities are adju/$ ! two p9s ( ! p5dulum 7fig4 #ahc74 ,! p5dulums are encircl$ ) r\nd pieces ( lead1 :i* c be fix$ at any height by means ( a screw4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,ac\/ics 7,cont9u$74 ,,! ,,topophone--,,! ,,megaphone--,,! ,,autophone--,,! ,,audiphone--,,! ,,telephone--,,! ,,phonograph--,,! ,,microphone4 ,we propose 9 ?is *apt] to give z %ortly z possible a description ( ! v>i\s in/rum5ts lately come into use1 by means ( :i*1 & electricity1 s\nds c be c>ri$ f place to place1 & _! locality id5tifi$4 ,x is only )9 ! la/ few ye>s t ^! wond]ful inv5tions h come into use1 & 9 a measure sup]s$$ ! at "o "t inv9cible electric telegraph4 ,! ,telephone is n[ 9 daily use 9 ,london & o!r places1 & its novelty1 if n all its capability1 has be5 disc\nt$4 ,! ,phonograph has also be5 frequ5tly se54 ,s we w on ?is occasion comm5ce ) ! ,,topophone1 a r novel in/rum5t4 ,z ! "n indicates1 ! ,,topophone is an app>atus = discov]+ ! position ( a s\nd1 f ! ,greek words signify+ a 8place0 & 8s\nd40 ,! s\rces ( s\nd c be f\nd by x1 & inde$ ?is is its actual & practical use4 ,x is claim$ = ?is new app>atus t x /&s 9 ! same relation to ! sailor z 8 old & tru/y fri5ds1 ! compass & sextant4 ,^! 9 navigation in=m ! /e]sman z to 8 c\rse1 & tells him 8 position by obs]vation4 ,! ,topophone w tell him :5ce a s\nd arises1 its orig9 :]ev] x may be2 & ?is 9 a fog is no mean advantage4 ,suppose a %ip to be approa*+ a dang]\s coa/ 9 a fog4 ,we are all aw>e h[ deceptive s\nds are :5 he>d ?r\gh su* a m$ium4 ,we _c tell f :at precise direction ! horn1 :i/le1 or bell is s\nd+4 ,! ,topophone w give u ! exact spot1 & we c !n1 f our g5]al k ( ! locality1 "w our vessel up ! riv]1 or into ! h>b\r1 9 safety4 ,! ,topophone 0 inv5t$ 9 #ahhj1 by ,pr(essor ,alfr$ ,may]1 an ,am]ican1 & is bas$ ^u ! well-kn[n !ory ( s\nd waves4 ,^!1 z we h already expla9$1 exi/ 9 ! air2 & if ! !ory ( s\nd waves has p]fect$ ! ,topophone1 we c fairly say t x has confirm$ ! suppos$ =m ( ! s\nd waves4 8,s\nd10 says ! inv5tor ( ! app>atus1 8is suppos$ to be a p>ticle cont9ually exp&+ 9 ! air1 compos$ ( a wave produc$ by compression1 & foll[$ by r>efaction4 ,a cont9u\s s\nd is a s]ies ( ^! p>ticles or globules spread+ & exp&+ z ! wat]-r+s 9 a pond40 ,?is mu* w be at once p]ceiv$4 ,n[1 suppose a p]son up to 8 %\ld]s 9 a pond ( wat]1 & someone ?r[s a /one into x4 ,if t p]son ext5d 8 arms & h&s at "r angles fac+ ! s\nd1 ea* h& w\ld t\* ! edge ( a ripple z x came t[>ds him across ! pond4 ,he w\ld !n be fac+ ! s\rce ( ! ripples or waves1 & look along a radius ( ! circle =m$ by ! waves4 ,b if he please1 he c move 8 body s t bo? h&s %all t\* ! same wave at ! same "t1 or he might turn away f ! s\rce1 & only "o h& w\ld t\* ! wave4 ,b :5 bo? h&s are actually wa%$ by ! same circul> ripple he mu/ be fac+ ! s\rce ( x4 ,any position 9 :i* 8 f+]s did n t\* ! ripple almo/ at ! same in/ant1 w\ld n be fac+ ! s\rce ( ! wave ripples4 ,s by turn+ & ext5d+ 8 h&s1 he c\ld ) 8 eyes %ut f9d out :e!r he 0 or 0 n fac+ ! orig9al s\rce ( ! waves4 ,?is appli$ to s\nd waves 9 ! air is ! :ole !ory ( ! ,topophone1 :i*1 h[ev]1 dep5ds = its usefulness ^u ! same note be+ s\nd$ by all horns & :i/les4 ,"o note mu/ be bett] ?an all ! o!rs1 & t note1 probably ,c 7treble71 caus$ by ab\t two hundr$ & sixty vibrations p] second1 has be5 f\nd mo/ applicable4 ,if all :i/les & horns c by law be compell$ to adju/ !mselves to ?is note1 !n ! ,topophone w be a real & la/+ b5efit4 ,let u n[ look at ! app>atus itself4 ,x be+ conc$$ t ! resonators are 9 ! same key z ! ,foghorn1--& ?is is necess>y1--!y are plac$ ^u ! deck ( ! vessel4 ,an e>-tube ( indi>ubb] is c>ri$ f ea* ( ^! 8resonators0 into ! cab94 ,^! tubes unite & aga9 sep>ate1 end+ 9 small pieces ready to be fitt$ to ! e>s4 ,! app>atus is fix$ on deck1 & ! arrangem5t :i* supports x passes into ! cab91 & c be turn$ ab\t 9 any direction4 ,( c\rse 9 ?is case a dial po9t is necess>y to indicate ! direction 9 :i* ! in/rum5t is turn$4 ,if ! ma*9e be worn on ! %\ld]s ( ! (fic] ( ! wat* he c move z he pleases1 & wants no indicator4 ,! ,topophone :5 us$ is s con/ruct$1 t :5 a horn is he>d1 & :5 ! li/5] is fac+ ! s\nd1 he c he> no?+6 ,:5 n fac+ ! orig9 ( ! s\nd he c he> ! horn v well1 b ! mom5t ! resonators receive ! s\nd toge!r z !y face ! s\rce1 a v l[ murmur is he>d1 or p]haps no s\nd at all4--,:y8 ,a c]ta9 pit* ( tone is compos$ ( vibrations or waves ( equal l5g?4 ,9 all waves !re is a holl[ & a cre/4 ,"o neutralizes ! o!r4 ,! holl[ ( a s\nd wave meet+ ! cre/ ( ano!r wave 8int]f]es0 to produce sil5ce1 /illness1 a dead level4 ,s 9 8light02 two rays w produce d>kness4 ,we w endeav\r to expla9 ?is4 ,if we h two equal /r+s1 ea* p]=m+ an equal numb] ( vibrations 9 a second1 !y w produce equal s\nd waves1 & ! s\nd produc$ by bo? toge!r w be un9t]rupt$1 & twice z l\d z "o ( !m4 ,b if "o /r+ vibrate1 say "o hundr$ times1 & ! o!r "o hundr$ & "o times 9 a second1 !y w n be 9 unison1 & "o w ga9 ^u ! o!r /r+1 till aft] x has got to fifty vibrations x w be half a vibration ahead4 ,at t mom5t !y w neutralize ea* o!r1 & sil5ce w ensue = an appreciable "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--,! ,megaphone4 ,9 ! case ( light suppose a r$ ray /rikes ! eye1 & ano!r r$ ray to come ^u x f some:]e else4 ,if ! diff]5ce betwe5 its di/ance & ! o!r po9t f ! spot 9 ! ret9a on :i* ! fir/ ray fell1 is ! #beh_/ajjj "p ( an in*1 or exactly twice1 ?rice1 f\r times z mu*1 etc41 t di/ance1 ! light w be se5 twice z /rong4 ,b if ! diff]5ce 9 ! di/ances betwe5 ! po9ts :5ce ! light comes be only "o-half ! #beh_/ajjj "p ( an in*1 or #a1 #b1 #c1 or #d times t di/ance1 "o light w ext+ui% ! o!r1 & d>kness w be ! result4 ,n[ ?is is precisely :at happ5s 9 ! case ( ! ,topophone4 ,to return to our simile ( wat] waves4 ,if two /ones be ca/ into a pond1 & two equal & simil> waves produc$1 & if !y rea* a c]ta9 place at ! same mom5t1 !y w make "o l>ge wave4 ,b if "o foll[$ ! o!r a little1 s t ! holl[ ( "o co9cid$ ) ! cre/ ( ! o!r1 & vice v]s1 ! waves w\ld oblit]ate ea* o!r1 & a dead level w\ld result4 ,"o tube ( ! ,topophone is half a wave l5g? long] ?an ! o!r1 & :5 ! resonators are 9 a l9e & receive ! wave at ! same "t1 "o e> he>s ! elevation ( ! s\nd wave1 & ! o!r ! depression1--! s\nd is neutraliz$1 & comp>ative1 if n actual1 sil5ce results4 ,! sailor kn[s 9 :at direction ! l& lies1 & c calculate 8 di/ance1 or an*or if he please4 ,if among/ our read]s !re be any :o wi% to make = !mselves an ac\/ic signall+ app>atus !re is physically no?+ to prev5t !m f con/ruct+ su* an in/rum5t z t %[n 9 ! annex$ woodcut 7fig4 #ahe74 ,x is f\nd$ ^u ! speak+-trumpet pr9ciple1 :i* is suppos$ to h be5 orig9at$ by ,samuel ,m>kl&1 9 #afgj4 ,kir*]1 9 8 8,ars magna et umbra10 & 9 8 8,phonurgia10 m5tions a k9d ( speak+-trumpet1 or porte voix1 ( gigantic dim5sions1 & call$ ! 8,horn ( ,alex&]40 ,accord+ to ,kir*]1 ! in/rum5t 0 us$ by ,alex&] ! ,great to summon 8 soldi]s f a di/ance ( t5 miles4 ,! diamet] ( ! circumf]5ce 0 ab\t eight feet1 & ,kir*] conjectur$ t ! in/rum5t 0 m\nt$ ^u ?ree supports4 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 a ,g]man pr(essor1 nam$ ,hu?1 made a model ( ! horn1 & f\nd x answ]$ e purpose ( a speak+-trumpet ) mo/ p[]ful results1 b we beg leave to d\bt :e!r ! in/rum5t really c>ri$ ! voice to any v great di/ance4 ,! ,ac\/ic ,cornet1 :i* is ! c\nt]p>t ( ! speak+-trumpet1 has be5 made 9 _m diff]5t =ms dur+ ! la/ two c5turies1 b none ( !m to ! pres5t "t consi/ ( any?+ m intricate ?an a simple tube ) a m\?piece & bell-%ap$ orifice4 ,pr(essor ,edison1 h[ev]1 9 8 rese>*es reg>d+ ! conveyance ( s\nds1 has made num]\s & int]e/+ exp]im5ts4 ,on "o occasion1 ) 8 ,megaphone he c>ri$ on a conv]sation at a di/ance ( ne>ly two miles1 )\t any o!r assi/ance f in/rum5ts except a few little cornets ( c>dbo>d4 ,^! con/itute ! ,megaphone1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a curiosity1 consid]+ ! effects produc$ by su* simple means4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #ahe7 repres5ts ! in/rum5t :i* is 7or 0 lately7 fix$ ^u ! balcony ( ,mr4 ,edison's h\se4 ,at a mile-&-a-half di/ant f ! h\se1 at a spot indicat$ by ! two birds 9 ! picture1 ano!r in/rum5t 0 fix$1 & conv]sation 0 c>ri$ on ) ease4 ,p]haps ! pres5t opportunity w be ! mo/ conv5i5t to speak ( ! ,,autophone1 al?\gh x is m a musical ?an an ac\/ic in/rum5t4 ,until lately ,b>b>y organs & piano organs h be5 ! only means by :i* poor p h be5 able to he> any music1 & t n ( a v elevat$ class4 ,besides1 !re is a good deal ( exp5se connect$ ) ! possession ( an organ4 ,b ! ,am]icans1 ) a view to popul>ize music1 h inv5t$ ! ,,autophone1 :i* is simply a me*anical accordeon1 manufactur$ by ! ,autophone ,company1 ( ,i?aca1 ,new ,york4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! in/rum5t is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ahf1 & is extremely simple4 ,an upright frame c>ries )9 x on "o side a bell[s1 & on ! o!r a flexible air *amb]1 :i* s]ves z a res]voir4 ,! upp] portion conta9s a set ( /ops l an accordeon1 b ! escape ( ! air ?r\gh ! small vibrat+ plates c only take place by ! upp] surface ( ! frame "w1 ^u :i* slides a ?9 plate ( ,bri/ol bo>d pi]c$ ) holes at conv5i5t di/ances1 & set 9 motion by ! me*anism %[n 9 ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #ahg74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--,! ,autophone4 ,! figure repres5ts an axle furni%$ ) a s]ies ( 8wa%]s10 :i*1 act+ ^u ! plate1 cause x to move r\nd4 ,x is ! bell[s movem5t t turns ! axle by ! aid ( two 8cat*es10 ,b & ,c1 :i* "w ^u a too!d :eel fix$ ^u x4 ,! 8cat*0 ,b moves ! pap] on :i* ! tune is 8p]=at$10 :5 ! bell[s is empty1 ! o!r cat* :5 x is di/5d$2 b a c\nt] cat*1 ,d1 repres5t$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ! illu/ration1 is s arrang$ t ! pap] _c pass on except ! too? ( ! cat* ,d is opposite a hole pi]c$ ^u ! plate above4 ,9 ! contr>y case !re is no movem5t ( ! pap] dur+ ! dilatation ( ! bell[s4 ,! effect ( ?is v +5i\s arrangem5t is to give to ! 8musical0 b& ( 8bo>d0 an irregul> movem5t1 b x economises x 9 ! case ( su/a9$ notes4 ,! :ole action ( ! in/rum5t dep5ds ^u ! correct work+ ( ! bell[s4 ,! effect1 f an arti/ic po9t ( view1 c]ta9ly leaves some?+ to be desir$1 b ! in/rum5t is *eap1 & n cumb]some1 & ! slips ( pap] ^u :i* ! music is 8cut out0 c be made by ma*9]y1 & consequ5tly are n de>4 ,s f>1 ! ,autophone is fitt$ = popul> fav\r & use1 & may sup]s$e ! b>rel organ4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--;,detail ( ! ,autophone4 ,! ,,audiphone is an in/rum5t to conduct s\nd to ! e>1 to supplem5t x :5 tempor>y or p>tial deafness has occurr$4 ,v likely _m ( our read]s h obs]v$ ladies c>ry+ l>ge black fans on occasions1--at *ur*1 or lecture1 or !atre1--& wond]$ :y1 p]haps4 ,^? 8fans0 are ,audiphones4 ,! in/rum5t is made ( vulcaniz$ rubb]1 & consi/s ( a long flexible disc support$ by a h&le4 ,to ! upp] edge ( ! 8fan0 are atta*$ cords1 :i* pass ?r\gh a clip on ! h&le4 ,if ! p]son :o wi%es to he> by means ( ! ,audiphone w hold ! fan aga9/ ! upp] tee?1--! convex side ( ! fan outw>d1--he or %e w he> di/9ctly1 = ! vibrations ( s\nd are collect$ & /rike ^u ! tee? & bones1 & act ^u ! auditory n]ves f )91 precisely z ! vibrations act f )\t ?r\gh ! auricle4 ,we ne$ h>dly add t if ! e> be injur$ ! ,audiphone w be ( no use4 ,a writ] says3 8,f p]sonal obs]vation ) ! ,audiphone x appe>s to convey ! sonor\s vibrations to ! e> ?r\gh ! tee?1 j z a long wood5 rod held 9 ! tee? w convey ! vibrations ( ! s\nd+-bo>d ( a piano1 ?\gh ! piano is 9 ano!r room & out ( he>+ by ! e>4 ,9 us+ ! ,audiphone dur+ conv]sation !re is no movem5t or vibration felt by ! tee?2 9 li/5+ to a piano !re is a v fa9t s5sation z if ! ,audiphone vibrat$ slightly1 :ile ) ! h&le ( ! ,audiphone re/+ on ! s\nd+-bo>d ( ! piano ! vibrations are s viol5t z to be pa9ful to ! tee?4 ,by clos+ ! e>s a p]son ) ev5 acute he>+ c obs]ve ! admirable mann] 9 :i* ! in/rum5t conveys spok5 words to ! e>4 ,! ,audiphone w prove to be ( great value to deaf mutes1 z x enables !m to he> _! own voices1 & ?us to tra9 !m to express words1 :ile1 be=e1 !y c\ld only make in>ticulate s\nds40 ,we h a v>iation ( ?is in/rum5t :i* has be5 introduc$ employ+ a diaphragm held 9 a telephone m\?piece1 & free to vibrate "u ! influ5ce ( s\nds4 ,?is is connect$ by a /r+ to a bit ( wood t may be held 9 ! tee?4 ,9 use ! he>] places ! wood betwe5 8 tee?1 ! /r+ is drawn tight1 & ! speak] speaks ?r\gh ! telephone m\?piece1 ! vibrations ( ! diaphragm be+ !n convey$ to ! tee? ?r\gh ! /ret*$ /r+4 ,?is app>atus works v successfully1 & ladies use x1 b x is n s conv5i5t = g5]al use z ! ,audiphone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,! ,telephone4 ,! ,telephone is n[ 9 daily use 9 ,london1 & is by no means /range to ! majority ( our c\ntrym51 /ill "s description ( x w probably be acceptable1 & a glance at its hi/ory may prove int]e/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,! 8receiv+0 app>atus4 ,9 speak+ ( ! ,telephone1 we mu/ n lose sight ( ! facts be=e m5tion$1 z reg>ds our s5se ( he>+1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! e> acts by ! s]ies ( bones t]m$ ! hamm]1 ! anvil1 & /irrup4 ,9 ! process ( reproduction ( tone 9 ! magnetic in/rum5ts1 ! me*anism ( ! human e> 01 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 imitat$1 & a diaphragm1 by vibrations1 g5]ates & controls an electric curr5t4 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one 0 ! fir/ p]son to employ ! electric wire = ! transmission ( s\nds1 b ,pr(essor ,philip ,reiss1 ( ,fri$ri*sdorf1 0 ! fir/ to make ! exp]im5t ( produc+ musical s\nds at a di/ance4 ,8 fir/ in/rum5t 0 ( a mo/ primitive nature2 subsequ5tly he produc$ an in/rum5t ( :i* fig4 #ahh is ! ,telephone1 fig4 #ahi ! 8receiv]40 ,9 fig4 #ahh1 x w be se5 t !re is an ap]ture on ! top & "o at ! side2 ! latt] is ! m\?piece4 ,! top ap]ture is cov]$ ) a membrane :i* is /ret*$ v tightly4 ,:5 a p]son speaks or s+s into ! m\?piece 8 voice is at once conc5trat$ ^u ! tight membrane1 :i* x causes to vibrate 9 a mann] correspond+ ) ! vibrations ( ! voice4 ,!re are two b9d+ screws1 "o at ea* side4 ,to ! c5tre ( ! tight membrane a piece ( plat9um is fix$1 & ?is is connect$ ) ! b9d+ screw on "o side1 9 :i* a wire f ! batt]y is fix$4 ,on ! membrane is a tripod1 ! feet ( :i* 7two7 re/ 9 metal cups1 "o ( !m be+ 9 a m]cury cup connect$ ) ! b9d+ screw at ! opposite side to t already m5tion$4 ,! ?ird 8foot0--a plat9um po9t--is on ! plat9um 9 ! c5tre ( ! membrane or top1 & moves ) x4 ,e "t ! membrane is /ret*$ by a vibration ! plat9um po9t is t\*$1 & ! clos$ circuit is brok5 by ! return ( ea* vibration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4--;,bell's fir/ ,telephone 7,transmitt]74 a4 ,electro-magnet4 b4 ,diaphragm4 c4 ,coll>4 d4 ,coll> & tube4 f4 ,screw4 g4 ,m\?piece4 h4 ,batt]y4 i4 ,wire f batt]y to coil4 k4 ,telegraph wire4 l4 ,?r\gh b9d+ screw4 m4 ,pill> hold+ magnet4 ,! receiv+ in/rum5t 7fig4 #ahi7 consi/s ( a coil enclos+ an iron rod1 & fix$ ^u a holl[ s\nd+ box4 ,x is f\nd$ ^u a fact discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,h5ry1 t iron b>s :5 magnetiz$ by an electric curr5t become a little long]1 & at ! int]ruption ( ! curr5t resume _! =m] l5g?4 ,?us 9 ! receiv] ! iron w become alt]nately long] & %ort] 9 accordance ) ! vibrations ( ! membrane 9 ! box f> away1 & s ! longitud9al vibrations ( ! b> ( iron w be communicat$ to ! s\nd+ box1 & become p]fectly audible4 ,?is in/rum5t1 h[ev]1 c\ld only produce ! 8pit*0 ( s\nd1 8n diff]5t degrees ( int5sity1 or o!r qualities ( tones40 ,x m]ely sang ) its own little trumpet :atev] 0 sung into x2 = all ! waves 7 produc$ by an electric curr5t ( a c]ta9 & uni=m /r5g?1 & !re=e ! s\nd waves 7 ( ! same size4 ,b 9 #ahgd1 ,mr4 ,eli%a ,gray1 ( ,*icago1 improv$ ,reiss' in/rum5t1 & discov]$ a me?od by :i* ! int5sity or l\dness ( tones1 z well z _! 8pit*10 7 transmitt$ & reproduc$4 ,9 ?is me?od he employ$ electrical vibrations ( v>y+ /r5g? & rapidity1 & s 0 enabl$ to reproduce a tune4 ,subsequ5tly he conceiv$ ! notion ( controll+ ! vibrations by means ( a diaphragm1 :i* respond$ to e kn[n s\nd1 & by ?is he manag$ to transmit spee* 9 an articulate mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,bell's ,telephone 7,receiv]74 ,9 #ahgf1 ,pr(essor ,graham ,bell s5t a ,telephone to ! ,c5t5nial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia4 ,mr4 ,bell1 accord+ to ! report1 manag$ to produce a v>iation ( /r5g? ( curr5t 9 exact proportion to ! p>ticle ( air mov$ by ! s\nd4 ,a piece ( iron atta*$ to a membrane1 & mov$ to & fro 9 proximity to an electro magnet1 prov$ successful4 ,! batt]y & wire ( ! electro magnet are 9 circuit ) ! telegraph wire1 & ! wire ( ano!r electro magnet at ! receiv+ /ation4 ,?is second magnet has a solid b> ( iron = core1 :i* is connect$ at "o end1 by a ?ick disc ( iron1 to an iron tube surr\nd+ ! coil & b>4 ,! free circul> end ( ! tube con/itutes "o pole ( ! electro magnet1 & ! adjac5t free end ( ! b> core ! o!r4 ,a ?9 circul> iron disc held press$ aga9/ ! end ( ! tube by ! electro-magnetic attraction1 & free to vibrate ?r\gh a v small space )\t t\*+ ! c5tral pole1 con/itutes ! s\nd] by :i* ! electric effect is reconv]t$ into s\nd4 ,! accompany+ illu/rations 7figs4 #aij1 #aia7 %[ ,mr4 ,bell's ,telephone z describ$4 ,! ,telephone1 subsequ5tly simplifi$ by ,pr(essor ,bell1 is %[n 9 ! two foll[+ illu/rations 7figs4 #aib1 #aic74 ,! voice /rikes aga9/ ! diaphragm1 & x beg9s to vibrate4 ,! s\nd is n convey$ by ! wire2 ! motion is communicat$1 & ! vibrations become s\nd waves aga94 ,! ,telephone consi/s ( a cyl9drical magnet encircl$ at "o end by a bobb91 on :i* is w\nd a quantity ( f9e insulat$ copp] wire4 ,! magnet & coil are conta9$ 9 a wood5 case1 ! ends ( ! coil be+ sold]$ to ?ick copp] wire1 :i* trav]se ! 8wood5 envelope10 & t]m9ate 9 ! b9d+ screws4 ,9 front ( ! magnet is a ?9 circul> iron plate1 9 :i* is ! m\?piece4 ,! draw+s w expla9 ! in/rum5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,ext]nal appe>ance ( ,bell ,telephone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;a4 ,bobb9 ( coil wire r\nd magnet4 b4 ,diaphragm4 c4 ,m\?piece4 d4 ,p]man5t magnet4 e4 ,wires to b9d+ screws4 f4 ,bo? wires z "o = conv5i5ce4 g4 ,adju/+ screw-hold+ magnet4 ,mr4 ,edison also inv5t$ a ,telephone l ,gray's1 & made ! discov]y1 t :5 prop]ly prep>$1 c>bon w\ld *ange its resi/ance ) pressure1 & t ! ratio ( ^! *anges correspond$ ) ! pressure4 ,?is solv$ ! problem ( ! production ( spee*4 ,! c>bon is plac$ betwe5 two plates ( plat9um connect$ 9 ! circuit & ne> ! diaphragm1 & ! c>bon receives ! pressure f x by means ( ! m\?piece4 ,:5 we come to ,,magnetism & ,,electricity we may h some?+ m to say respect+ ! my/]ies ( ! ,telephone & its lat] developm5ts4 ,at pres5t we are only conc]n$ ) x z a s\nd convey]1 & x answ]s its purpose admirably1 al?\gh some:at liable to attract o!r s\nds or vibrations f neighb\r+ wires4 ,! ,,phonograph1 a me*anical inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,edison1 does n make use ( electricity1 al?\gh ! vibratory motion ( ! diaphragm is utiliz$4 ,x1 9 a simple =m1 consi/s ( a diaphragm s arrang$ z to op]ate ^u a small /ylus1 plac$ j opposite & bel[ ! c5tre1 & a brass cyl9d]1 six or eight in*es long1 by ?ree or f\r 9 diamet]1 m\nt$ ^u a horizontal axis1 ext5d+ ea* way beyond its ends = a di/ance ab\t its own l5g?4 8,a spiral groove is cut 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! cyl9d]1 f "o end to ! o!r1 ea* spiral ( ! groove be+ sep>at$ f its neighb\r by ab\t "o-t5? ( an in*4 ,! %aft or axis is also cut by a screw ?read correspond+ to ! spiral groove ( ! cyl9d]1 & works 9 screw be>+s2 consequ5tly :5 ! cyl9d] is caus$ to revolve1 by means ( a crank t is fitt$ to ! axis = ?is purpose1 x receives a =w>d or backw>d movem5t ( ab\t "o-t5? ( an in* = e turn ( ! same1 ! direction1 ( c\rse1 dep5d+ ^u ! way ! crank is turn$4 ,! diaphragm is firmly support$ by an upright ca/+ capable ( adju/m5t1 & s arrang$ t x may be remov$ altoge!r :5 necess>y4 ,:5 9 use1 h[ev]1 x is clamp$ 9 a fix$ position above or 9 front ( ! cyl9d]1 ?us br++ ! /ylus always opposite ! groove z ! cyl9d] is turn$4 ,a small1 flat spr+ atta*$ to ! ca/+ ext5ds und]nea? ! diaphragm z f> z its c5tre & c>ries ! /ylus1 & betwe5 ! diaphragm & spr+ a small piece ( india-rubb] is plac$ to modify ! action1 x hav+ be5 f\nd t bett] results are obta9$ by ?is means ?an :5 ! /ylus is rigidly atta*$ to ! diaphragm itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4--,mode ( us+ ! ,telephone4 8,! action ( ! app>atus w n[ be readily und]/ood f :at foll[s4 ,! cyl9d] is fir/ v smoo?ly cov]$ ) t9-foil1 & ! diaphragm securely fa/5$ 9 place by clamp+ its support to ! base ( ! in/rum5t4 ,:5 ?is has be5 prop]ly done1 ! /ylus %\ld lightly press aga9/ t "p ( ! foil ov] ! groove4 ,! crank is n[ turn$1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 someone speaks into ! m\?piece ( ! in/rum5t1 :i* w cause ! diaphragm to vibrate1 & z ! vibrations ( ! latt] correspond ) ! movem5ts ( ! air produc+ !m1 ! s(t & yield+ foil w become m>k$ along ! l9e ( ! groove by a s]ies ( ind5tations ( diff]5t dep?s1 v>y+ ) ! amplitude ( ! vibrations ( ! diaphragm2 or 9 o!r words1 ) ! inflections or modulations ( ! speak]'s voice4 ,^! inflections may !re=e be look$ ^u z a sort ( visible spee*1 :i*1 9 fact1 !y really are4 ,if n[ ! diaphragm is remov$1 by loos5+ ! clamp1 & ! cyl9d] !n turn$ back to ! />t+ po9t1 we h only to replace ! diaphragm & turn 9 ! same direction z at fir/1 to he> repeat$ all t has be5 spok5 into ! m\?piece ( ! app>atus2 ! /ylus1 by ?is means1 be+ caus$ to trav]se its =m] pa?1 & consequ5tly1 ris+ & fall+ ) ! depressions 9 ! foil1 its motion is communicat$ to ! diaphragm1 & !nce ?r\gh ! int]v5+ air to ! e>1 :]e ! s5sation ( s\nd is produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,,bell',s ,,long-,,di/ance ,,telephone a4 ,comp\nd magnet4 d4 ,diaphragm4 e4 ,speak+ tube4 f4 ,telegraph wire4 g4 ,l9e to e>?4 b1 c4 ,small spaces4 8,z ! fai?ful reproduction ( a s\nd is 9 reality no?+ m ?an a reproduction ( simil> ac\/ic vibrations 9 a giv5 "t1 x at once becomes evid5t t ! cyl9d] %\ld be made to revolve ) absolute uni=mity at all times1 o!rwise a diff]5ce m or less m>k$ betwe5 ! orig9al s\nd & ! reproduction w become manife/4 ,to secure ?is uni=mity ( motion1 & produce a practically work+ ma*9e = automatically record+ spee*es1 vocal & in/rum5tal music1 & p]fectly reproduc+ ! same1 ! inv5tor devis$ an app>atus 9 :i* a plate replaces ! cyl9d]4 ,?is plate1 :i* is t5 in*es 9 diamet]1 has a volute spiral groove cut 9 its surface on bo? sides f its c5tre to )9 "o in* ( its out] edge2 an arm guid$ by ! spiral ^u ! "u side ( ! plate c>ries a diaphragm & m\?piece at its extreme end4 ,if ! arm be plac$ ne> ! c5tre ( ! plate & ! latt] rotat$1 ! motion w cause ! arm to foll[ ! spiral outw>d to ! edge4 ,a spr+ & tra9 ( :eel-"w regulat$ by a friction gov]nor s]ves to give uni=m motion to ! plate4 ,! %eet ^u :i* ! record is made is ( t9-foil4 ,?is is fa/5$ to a pap] frame1 made by cutt+ a n9e-in* disc f a squ>e piece ( pap] ( ! same dim5sions z ! plate4 ,f\r p9s ^u ! plate pass ?r\gh correspond+ eyelet-holes pun*$ 9 ! f\r corn]s ( ! pap]1 :5 ! latt] is laid ^u x1 & ?us secure accurate regi/ration1 :ile a clamp+-frame h+$ to ! plate fa/5s ! foil & its pap] frame securely to ! latt]4 ,! me*anism is s arrang$ t ! plate may be />t$ & /opp$ in/antly1 or its motion rev]s$ at w1 ?us giv+ ! greate/ conv5i5ce to bo? speak] & copyi/4 8,! articulation & quality ( ! ,phonograph1 al?\gh n yet p]fect1 is full z good z ! ,telephone 04 ,! in/rum5t1 :5 p]fect$ & mov$ by clock-"w1 w und\bt$ly reproduce e condition ( ! human voice1 includ+ ! :ole _w ( expression 9 spee* & song1 & w be us$ univ]sally4 8,! %eet ( t9-foil or o!r pla/ic mat]ial receiv+ ! impressions ( s\nd1 w be /]eotyp$ or electrotyp$ s z to be multipli$ & made durable2 or ! cyl9d] w be made ( a mat]ial pla/ic :5 us$1 & h>d5+ aft]w>d4 ,?9 %eets ( papi] ma*1 or ( v>i\s sub/ances :i* s(t5 by heat1 w\ld be ( ?is "*4 ,hav+ provid$ ?us = ! durability ( ! ,phonograph plate1 x w be v easy to make x sep>able f ! cyl9d] produc+ x1 & atta*able to a correspond+ cyl9d] any:]e & at any "t4 ,!re w d\btless be a /&>d ( diamet] & pit* ( screw = ,phonograph cyl9d]s4 ,fri5ds at a di/ance w !n s5d to ea* o!r ,phonograph lett]s1 :i* w talk at any "t 9 ! fri5d's voice :5 put ^u ! in/rum5t40 7,scribn]47 ,! ,,microphone 7an outcome ( ! ,telephone7 0 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,hughes1 ( ,london4 ,x is an in/rum5t :i* 9 its ma9 features consi/s ( a c>bon 8p5cil10 s susp5d$ t "o end re/s ^u a c>bon 8die40 ,! in/rum5t be+ connect$ ) a ,telephone by ! circuit wires1 w reproduce fa9t s\nds v di/9ctly4 ,once a ,microphone 0 put into a prea*]'s pulpit1 & jo9$ to a private telegraph wire :i* l$ to a g5tleman's h\se4 ,! own] 0 ?us enabl$ to he> ! s]mon4 ,s long z x is ?us connect$ e m9ute s\nd1 ev5 a fly's foot/ep1 w be fai?fully reproduc$4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,tun+-,,=k--,,! ,,syr5--,,s\nd ,,figures--,,s++ ,,flames4 ,we _c close ! subject ( ,s\nd )\t "s m5tion ( ! ,musical ,pit*1 & v>i\s in/rum5ts & exp]im5ts :i* h f "t to "t be5 made to discov] ! pit*1 s\nd1 & vibrations1 & ev5 to see ,s\nd4 ,to und]/& ! vibrations or 8pit*0 ( a musical note we may /udy ! illu/ration1 :i* %[s u a tun+-=k 9 vibration4 ,y w p]ceive t ea* prong ( ! tun+-=k beats ! air 9 an opposite direction at ! same "t1 say f a to b 7fig4 #aif74 ,! prong /rikes ! air1 & ! wave ?us creat$ /rikes aga9 outw>d1 & ! cond5sation ?us creat$ travels along ! back beat1 r>efy+ ! air1 & bo? ^!1 ! r>efaction & ! cond5sation1 move ) ! same rapidity "o beh9d ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,! tun+-=k ( c\rse vibrates a v great _m times 9 a second1 e vibration g5]at+ a wave4 8,pit*10 9 a g5]al s5se1 is ! numb] ( vibrations p] second :i* con/itute a note4 ,= in/ance1 ! note ,a1 ! /&>d pit* consi/s ( f\r hundr$ & ?irty-five complete vibrations p] second4 ,conc]t pit* is slightly high]1 = !re are a few m vibrations 9 ! second4 ,! l[e/ s\nd pit* is =ty vibrations1 ! highe/ =ty ?\s&4 8,pit*0 may be det]m9$ by an in/rum5t t]m$ ! 8,syr510 or by a too?-:eel$ app>atus4 ,! ,,syr5 0 inv5t$ by ,cagni>d de ,lat\r4 ,x consi/s ( a metal cyl9d]1 a tube passes ?r\gh ! bottom1 & ?r\gh ! tube air is bl[n into ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! top a numb] ( holes are drill$1 :ile j ov] ! cyl9d] top1 almo/ 9 contact ) x1 is a metallic disc1 :i* rotates ^u a v]tical axis4 ,! disc is p]=at$ ) holes equal 9 numb] to ^? 9 ! cyl9d] top1 b ! holes are n p]p5dicul>1 !y slope 9 opposite directions4 ,s :5 ! air is =c$ ?r\gh ! holes 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d] x imp+es ^u "o side ( ! holes 9 ! rotat+ disc1 & bl[s x r\nd4 ,! disc 9 "o revolution w !re=e op5 & %ut z _m holes z !re are 9 ! disc & cyl9d]1 & ! air bl[n 9 w escape 9 s _m puffs--! numb] ( puffs 9 a giv5 "t dep5d+ ^u ! rapidity ( rotation4 ,!re is an arrangem5t to %[ ! numb] ( turns4 ,by ^! rotations a s\nd is produc$ :i* rises 9 pit* z ! revolutions are increas$ 9 numb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,s\nd ,figures4 ,fig4 #aii4 ,to det]m9e ! pit* ( a c]ta9 s\nd we mu/ f9d ! numb] ( times ! plate revolves 9 t "t1 !n we %all h ! numb] ( vibrations p] second requir$ to produce ! note we desire4 ,! arrangem5t work+ 9 a not*$ :eel tells u ! numb] ( rotations ( ! disc4 ,successive1 & rapidly-successive puffs or beats are he>d z ! rotation increases1 & at l5g? ! two s\nds w disappe>1 & m]ge into "o1 :i* is p]haps t ( ! tun+-=k1 ^: note y require to f9d ! 8pit*0 (4 ,by ma9ta9+ ?is rate = a m9ute or less1 & sett+ ! ge> to tell ! revolutions1 ! numb] w be f\nd m>k$ on ! dial ( ! app>atus4 ,s by multiply+ ! numb] ( revolutions ( ! disc by ! numb] ( ! holes1 & divid+ ! product by ! numb] ( seconds dur+ :i* ! disc 0 9 connection ) ! record+ ge>1 we %all h ! numb] ( vibrations p] second necess>y to produce ! pit* correspond+ to ! giv5 s\nd4 ,! above is ! description ( "o =m ( ,syr52 !re are o!rs1 :i*1 h[ev]1 we ne$ n detail4 ,we h se5 t !re are c]ta9 nodal po9ts1 or re/+-places1 9 vibrations1 & ?is c easily be %[n ^u a fiddle-/r+1 f :i* pap] discs w fall (f except on ! nodal po9t1 %[+ t !re is no vibration !re4 ,! same exp]im5t may be made by means ( plates1 :i* w give u :at are t]m$ ,*ladni's figures4 ,suppose we /rew a glass-plate ) f9e s&1 & /roke ! edge ) a fiddle-b[4 ,! vibrations ( ! plates w make c]ta9 patt]ns1 & ca/ ! s& ^u ^? po9ts ( repose to =m nodal l9es 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! plates mu/1 ( c\rse1 be held or fa/5$1 & a v>iety ( s\nd figures may be produc$4 7,see figs4 #aih & #aii47 ,! relation betwe5 ! numb] ( segm5ts on ! plate & ! pit* ( ! note1 c be asc]ta9$ by us+ a circul> plate clamp$ 9 ! c5tre4 8,if ! f+] on ! plate & ! fiddle-b[ are "o-eigh? ( ! circumf]5ce ap>t1 ! fundam5tal note w be produc$4 ,if "o-sixte5? ap>t1 ! high] octave w be he>d40 ,s5sitive flames w detect air vibrations1 & flames c also be made to s+4 ,s5sitive flames 7 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,b>rett1 :o notic$ ! effect a %rill note _h ^u a gas flame f a tap]+ jet4 ,! flame 0 a v long "o 7f\rte5 in*es71 & :5 ! s\nd 0 produc$ x %ort5$ at once1 :ile ! upp] "p exp&$ l a fan2 ! same effects1 9 a less m>k$ degree1 7 obs]vable :5 ! %rill s\nd 0 prolong$ f a di/ance ( =ty feet4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall 0 imm$iately int]e/$ 9 ?is discov]y1 & 9 ,janu>y #ahfg he lectur$ ^u x at ! ,royal ,in/itution4 ,if any "o wi% to try ! exp]im5t1 a piece ( glass tub+ %\ld be obta9$1 & let ! m\? be tap]$ d[n to a small orifice "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,!n :5 ! highe/ pressure is on = ! ev5+1 light ! gas & s\nd a %rill :i/le4 ,! flame w s9k d[n & spread out4 ,! illum9at+ p[] may ?us be increas$1 & _m exp]im5ts may be made4 ,= in/ance1 if a p]son be 9 ! room & try to read1 he w probably n be able to d s at a little di/ance2 b if 8 fri5d :i/le to ! gas x w s exp& itself z to enable him to read1 s long z ! :i/le la/s4 ,a v +5i\s burgl>-detector 0 made ^u ! pr9ciple ( ! s5sitive flame1 :i* exp&s at a noise & heats a weld$ plate ( gold1 silv]1 & plat9um4 ,! plate sw]ves aside1 ! metals be+ unequally affect$ by heat1 & z x is connect$ ) a batt]y1 r+s a bell by electricity4 ,a small high flame has be5 made s5sitive to ! *9k+ ( co91 or ev5 to ! tick+ ( a wat*4 ,we w n[ give "s explanation1 d]iv$ p>tly f ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 ( ! cause ( s5sitive flames4 ,a s5sitive flame is "o j on ! po9t ( 8ro>+10 & ab\t to *ange its aspect4 8,x /&s10 says ,tyndall1 8on ! edge ( a precipice4 ,! prop] s\nd pu%es x ov]4444 ,we br+ x to ! v]ge ( fall+1 & ! sonor\s pulses precipitate :at 0 already imm95t40 ,! flame is 9 a /ate ( vibration1 s s\nds be+ vibrations1 practically increase ! pressure2 & ! flame ackn[l$ges ! pressure ?us invisibly appli$ by air waves4 ,,s++ ,,flames are produc$ by burn+ hydrog5 9 a tube2 a musical note is ?us produc$ 9 ! same way z ! air causes a note 9 an organ pipe4 ,f>aday attribut$ ! s\nd to rapid vibration caus$ by successive explosions ( ! burn+ gas4 ,! ,gas ,h>monicon has be5 made on ?is pr9ciple4 ,! air1 be+ heat$ 9 ! glass tube1 asc5ds1 & ! flame is ?us p]mitt$ to come up m =cibly 9 ! tube2 s viol5t agitation results :5 ! air tries to get into ! op5+ above4 ,! size ( ! flame & its position 9 ! tube w give a c]ta9 note :i* w be ! same note z ! air w\ld emit if 9 a pipe1 = ! vibrations give ! s\nd4 ,sir ,*>les ,:eat/one has %[n by exp]im5t h[ s\nd c be transmitt$ by plac+ a rod on a musical-box1 & c>ry+ ! rod ?r\gh ! ceil+4 ,:5 a guit> or viol9 0 plac$ ^u ! rod1 ! s\nds ( ! musical-box 7 di/9ctly he>d 9 ! upp] room4 ,a ,phantom ,b& c be made by connect+ c]ta9 in/rum5ts ) o!rs be+ play$ on "u ! /age4 ,e "o w !n appe> to play by itself4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,electricity4 ,,d]ivation ,,( ,,electricity--,,seal+-,,wax ,,exp]im5t--,,! ,,electrophorus--,,leyd5 ,,j>--,,positive ,,& ,,negative--,,! ,,electroscope--,,electric ,,ma*9es4 ,we h n[ briefly & ( c\rse imp]fectly review$ ! ph5om5a ( ,vibration1 z exemplifi$ 9 :at we t]m ,heat1 ,light1 & ,s\nd4 ,we n[ come to a mo/ my/]i\s s]vant ( mank9d1 z my/]i\s z any ,dj9n ( romance2 viz41 ,,electricity4 ,! t]m ,electricity is d]iv$ f ! ,greek ^w electron1 mean+ 8amb]02 because f amb] ! prop]ties ( :at we call 8,electricity0 7 fir/ discov]$4 ,six hundr$ ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 ,?ales wrote conc]n+ ! attraction :i* amb]1 :5 rubb$1 possess$ = light & dry bodies4 ,b x is to an ,engli%man nam$ ,gilb]t t we owe ! ^w 8,electricity10 :i* he d]iv$ f ! ,greek1 & 9 8 works 7ab\t #afjj ,a4,d47 he discusses ! =ce ( ! s-call$ 8fluid40 ,otto von ,gu]ike1 ( 8air-pump0 celebrity1 & _m o!r philosoph]s aft] him1 cont9u$ ! inve/igation ( ! subject4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury great att5tion 0 paid to ! ,electric ,ma*9e4 ,! ,leyd5 ,j> 01 z its "n d5otes1 discov]$ by ,mus*5brock1 ( ,leyd51 7?\gh ! hon\r 0 disput$74 ,frankl9 made ! fir/ lightn+ conductor 9 #agfj4 ,volta & ,galvani1 to ^: inv5tion we owe 8,voltaic ,electricity0 & 8,galvanism10 & ,f>aday 9 m mod]n times gave a great impetus to electrical sci5ce4 ,! great "p t electricity has be5 play+ 9 ! dome/ic hi/ory ( ! _w s9ce ,f>aday's lam5t$ dea?1 is probably kn[n to ! y\nge/ ( our read]s4 ,:at ! future ( ?is ag5t may be we c only guess1 b ev5 n[ we may reg>d electricity z only 9 its infancy4 ,!re are few sci5tific /udies m attractive to ! g5]al read] ?an electricity1 & few admit ( m popul> demon/ration4 ,! success ( ! late electrical exhibition 9 ,p>is1 & its successor 9 ,london at ! pres5t "t1 are pro(s ( ! int]e/ tak5 9 ?is great & my/]i\s ag5t ^: orig9 we are 9 ignorance (1 & ( ^: nature & p[]s we are daily discov]+ m & m1 & f9d+ !re is /ill an imm5se field = its application4 ,"s fundam5tal facts reg>d+ electricity may v easily be /udi$ ) ! assi/ance ( e-day objects at h&4 ,amb] 0 ! fir/ sub/ance to %[ attraction :5 rubb$1 b ,gilb]t f\nd out t glass & seal+-wax1 etc41 possess$ l prop]ties ) amb]4 ,if we rub a /ick ( seal+-wax ) a piece ( clo?1 we %all see t x w attract "s small fragm5ts ( pap] plac$ ne> x4 ,no?+ is easi] ?an to con/ruct a small p5dulum to %[ ) p]fect cle>ness ! ph5om5on ( electric attraction4 ,a piece ( iron is fix$ on a wood5 p$e/al1 & supports a ?read ( silk1 to ! end ( :i* is fa/5$ a little ball cut out ( a piece ( cork4 ,! /ick ( seal+-wax aft] be+ rubb$ ) ! clo? w attract ! ball z %[n 9 fig4 #bjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,seal+-wax attract+ a piece ( cork4 ,by means ( a piece ( pap] we c produce a sp>k4 ,i take a l>ge1 /rong %eet ( draw+ pap]1 heat x v ?or\ghly1 & lay x on a wood5 table4 ,i rub x ) a p]fectly dry h&1 or ) a piece ( wooll5 mat]ial until x adh]es to ! table4 ,t done1 ,i place a bun* ( keys 9 ! c5tre ( ! %eet ( pap]1 :i* ,i raise1 lift+ x by two corn]s4 ,if at ?is mom5t any "o t\*es ! bun* ( keys ) 8 f+]1 a bright sp>k w be elicit$4 ,! metal is *>g$ ) ! electricity develop$ on ! pap]2 if ! wea!r is dry1 & ! pap] ?or\ghly heat$ sev]al times1 ! sp>k may atta9 ne>ly an in* 9 l5g?4 ,we c easily con/ruct o!r electrical app>atus4 ,= in/ance1 an 8,electrophorus10 or in/rum5t = obta9+ electricity by means ( induction1 or a ,leyd5 j>1 c bo? be made at home4 ,let u proce$ to con/ruct ! =m]1 ( :i* we give an illu/ration 7fig4 #bja74 ,we take a lacqu]$ tea-tray ab\t a foot long1 & cut out a %eet ( ?ick wrapp+ pap]1 s t x w lie ov] all ! level portion ( ! tray4 ,at ea* side ( ?is %eet ( pap] we fix two b&s ( pap]1 z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bja71 s z to s]ve z h&les4 ,! tea-tray %\ld be plac$ ^u two tumbl]s to support x & to insulate x1 glass be+ a 8non-conductor40 7,we w speak ( conductors & non-conductors pres5tly47 ,we h n[ our ,electrophorus made ready = action2 let u proce$ to see h[ x w act4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja--,simple ,electrophorus4 ,fir/1 rub ! ?ick pack+ pap] ov] a hot fire or a /ove1 & ! friction mu/ be cont9u$ = "s "t1 until ! pap] has become ?or\ghly dry1 & z hot z possible )\t *>r+4 ,:5 ?is has be5 accompli%$1 place x quickly ^u a wood5 table1 & rub x rapidly & en]getically ) a clo!s' bru%1 dry & h>d z c be obta9$4 ,place ! pap] ^u ! tray2 t\* ! tray ) ! knuckle1 & draw away ! pap] by ! h&les fix$ to x 7see fig4 #bja72 a sp>k w result4 ,!n if ! pap] be replac$ ^u ! tray1 & ! h& aga9 pres5t$1 ! same result w foll[4 ,?is exp]im5t may be repeat$ five or six times1 at lea/1 ) success4 ,we h 9 ?is tea-tray & its pap] cov]+ a real electric ma*9e4 ,h[ c we manage to provide a ,leyd5 j> to conta9 our electricity8 ,no?+ is m easy4 ,let u take a tumbl] & p>tly fill x ) %ot2 ins]t into ! glass a tea-spoon1 & if all ! articles are q dry we %all possess a ,leyd5 j>4 ,to *>ge ! j> we h ?us provid$ we mu/ "w ! ,electrophorus we h already describ$4 ,:ile "o p]son lifts (f ! pap] z direct$1 ano!r mu/ hold ! glass fill$ ) %ot close to ! edge ( ! tray1 & t\* ! corn] ) ! tea-spoon2 ! sp>k w !n ent] ! 8j>0 or tumbl]4 ,we c ?us *>ge ! j> z we please1 & by pres5t+ ! f+] z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bjb71 we %all obta9 a dis*>ge f x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,a ,leyd5 j>4 ,mr4 ,l\is ,figui]1 9 8 8,m]veilles de la ,sci5ce10 relates t ,wolla/on1 meet+ "o ( 8 fri5ds "o ev5+ 9 ! /reets ( ,london1 drew f 8 pocket a copp] ?imble1 & proce$$ to turn x into a microscopic pile4#ac ,9 ord] to d ?is he remov$ ! bottom ( ! ?imble1 flatt5$ x ) a /one1 s z to br+ ! two int]nal surfaces ab\t on a l9e ) ea* o!r1 !n plac$ betwe5 ! copp] surfaces a small /rip ( z9c1 :i* 0 n 9 contact ) ! copp]1 ow+ to ! int]position ( a little seal+-wax4 ,he !n plac$ x 9 a glass cup1 previ\sly fill$ ) ! cont5ts ( a small phial ( wat]1 acidulat$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,he next w\nd r\nd ! /rip ( z9c & its copp] cov]+ a piece ( plat9um wire1 ! wire becom+ r$ ?r\gh ! electricity develop$ 9 ! pile4 ,! dim5sions ( ?is plat9um wire 7 extremely small2 x 0 only #cj_/ajjj ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & #a_/cj ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,by reason ( its small dim5sions x c\ld n only be r$d5$1 b fus$ by ! little batt]y4 ,?us ,wolla/on's fri5d1 :o 0 a witness ( ! exp]im5t1 0 able to light a t9d] at ! r$ wire4 ,9 ?is little batt]y ( ,wolla/on's ! copp] envelop$ ! /rip ( z9c 9 e "p2 t is to say1 ! negative elem5t 0 on a high] surface ?an ! positive metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4-;,a simple compass4 ,aft] consid]+ ,electricity1 x is n impossible to approa* ! /udy ( ,magnetism1 & ev5 to con/ruct a m>9]'s compass4 ,we %all f9d ! me?od ( do+ s by borr[+ an int]e/+ passage f ! 8,magas9 ,pittoresque40 ,let u take a small cork & pass ?r\gh x an ord9>y knitt+-ne$le 7fig4 #bjc71 :i* we h already magnetiz$ by plac+ x ,n4,s41 rubb+ x g5tly1 & always 9 ! same direction1 ) "o ( ^? little iron magnets ) :i* *ildr5 amuse !mselves4 ,aft] ! ne$le has be5 pass$ ?r\gh ! cork1 we also fix into x a sew+-ne$le1 or r a p91 ! po9t ( :i* re/s 9 "o ( ! little holes 9 ! upp] "p ( ! ?imble4 ,9 ord] to balance ! magnetis$ ne$le1 we ?ru/ a mat* into bo? sides ( ! cork1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration1 & fa/5 to ! ends ( ea* a ball ( wax4 ,?us ! ne$le1 ! balls1 & ! p9 are all balanc$ at once1 s t ! contrivance has ! appe>ance ( ! illu/ration4 ,z x is v important t ) su* a s5sitive in/rum5t any agitation ( ! air %\ld be avoid$1 ! ?imble mu/ be plac$ at ! bottom ( a common e>!n pan1 ,b ,d ,t1 :i* %\ld be cov]$ ov] ) a piece ( glass1 ,v4 ,to graduate ! compass a circle is describ$ on a piece ( pap]4 ,on ?is dial we trace ! divisions suffici5tly close only at ! nor? extremity ( ! ne$le1 & ! pap] is fix$ und]nea?1 z 9 fig4 #bjc4 ,!n we fix a piece ( wax at ! end ( ! mat* po9t+ ,n41 opposite ! nor!rn extremity ( ! ne$le inside ! bas94 ,9 ?is way we h a v useful & inexp5sive compass4 ,we may also magnetize a f9e sew+-ne$le1 & grease x by rubb+ x ) a little suet4 ,x is !n capable ( float+ on ! surface ( wat] runn+ 9 ! direction ( ! nor? pole4 ,we might g on multiply+ indef9itely examples ( physical exp]im5ts )\t app>atus1 b we h probably already giv5 a suffici5t numb] to aid our read]s 9 imag9+ o!rs4 ,we h n[ 9 a simple mann] %[n h[ we c easily produce electricity4 ,we may und]/& t electrical ph5om5a are produc$--7#a7 friction betwe5 diff]5t bodies2 7#b7 by plac+ bodies :i* diff] 9 contact2 7#c7 by ! transition ( bodies f "o condition to ano!r2 7#d7 by *emical *anges2 7#e7 by animals4 ,! two fir/1 & ! f\r?1 are ! mo/ usual causes4 ,we "k t c]ta9 sub/ances :5 rubb$ ) silk or wool acquire ! prop]ty ( attract+ o!r sub/ances4 ,b 9 ! case ( a rod ( glass or /ick ( wax1 ! attraction w only be p]ceiv$ :5 ! rubb+ has be5 appli$4 ,b metal w behave diff]5tly4 ,any "p ( ! metal rod w cont9ue to attract4 ,s metals are ,,conductors ( electricity2 :ile glass1 wax1 silk1 amb]1 sulphur1 etc41 are bad1 or ,,non-,,conductors4 ,metals are ! be/ conductors we h1 b trees1 plants1 liquids1 & ! bodies ( animals1 includ+ m51 are all good conductors ( electricity4 ,dry air is a bad conductor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;,attraction & repulsion4 ,!re are two k9ds ( electricity1 kn[n z positive & negative 7plus or m9us71 vitre\s or res9\s4 ,we saw 9 fig4 #bjj t we c attract a small ball ( pi? or cork by a piece ( seal+-wax rubb$ ) flannel4 ,if we !n pres5t a glass rod rubb$ ) silk to x1 x w be equally attract$1 b w be at once repell$2 & aft] be+ s repell$1 if we put ! wax to x1 x w be attract$ to ! seal+-wax aga94 ,s wax at fir/ attracts !n repels ! ball1 & s does glass1 b ei!r w attract ! ball if pres5t$ alt]nately 7fig4 #bjd74 ,! reason = ?is is z foll[s3-- ,:5 we h rubb$ ! glass ) silk1 we *>ge x ) positive electricity1 & :5 ! rod t\*es ! ball1 ! latt] imbibes t electricity1 & flies away f ! glass rod4 ,! seal+-wax imp>ts negative electricity 9 ! same way4 ,! law is1 t bodies *>g$ ) ! same k9d ( electricity repel ea* o!r1 & ^? conta9+ ! opposite k9ds attract ea* o!r4 ,positive repels positive2 negative repels negative4 ,b positive attracts negative1 & negative attracts positive4 ,opposite electricities unite1 & s neutralize ea* o!r t no effect is p]ceiv$2 b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t all bodies possess bo? electricities 9 "s quantity1 great] or less4 ,by rubb+ we sep>ate ^! electricities1 ! rubb] becom+ negative1 ! rubbee positive4 ,! friction ( glass supplies positive electricity1 & seal+-wax supplies negative electricity1 or we c obta9 ! same effect by rubb+ ei!r ) c]ta9 mat]ial4 ,! mann] 9 :i* a body is electrifi$ dep5ds ^u its nature & condition2 b we may accept z a g5]al axiom1--b by no means z a law1--t :5 two bodies are rubb$ toge!r1 t :i* gets ! hott] 9 ! process takes ! negative k9d ( electricity4 ,9 ! foll[+ li/ ! sub/ances h be5 s arrang$ t ea* is negatively electrifi$ by ^? prec$+1 & positively by ^? succe$+ x4 #a1 cat's sk92 #b1 glass2 #c1 wooll5 /uffs2 #d1 fea!rs2 #e1 wood2 #f1 pap]2 #g1 silk2 #h1 %ellac2 #i1 r\gh glass4 ,we app5d a li/ ( conduct+ & non-conduct+ bodies 9 _! ord]3-- ,,conductors4 ,metals4 ,lime1 coal1 or coke4 ,sal9e mixtures4 ,pure wat]4 ,vegetable tissues4 ,animal tissues4 ,hot air4 ,/eam4 ,r>efi$ air4 ,,non-,,conductors4 ,ice4 ,india-rubb]4 ,m>ble4 ,porcela94 ,res94 ,dry gases4 ,pap]4 ,wool4 ,silk4 ,%ell-lac4 ,diamond4 ,glass4 ,wax4 ,sulphur4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4--,positive & negative4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,! ,batt]y4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! degree ( value z a conductor or non-conductor dep5ds some:at ^u ! atmosph]e4 ,= in/ance1 glass is an excell5t insulator1 or non-conductor1 :5 dry1 b :5 wet x *anges to a conductor4 ,s insulators are at times cov]$ ) a solution ( %ell-lac1 or fat1 to keep away moi/ure4 ,we may reasonably conclude t bodies :i* are good & bad conductors are good & bad conductors ( electricity4 ,wat] is a good conductor1 air is a bad "o2 7 x o!rwise1 electricity w\ld escape f ! gr\nd into ! air2 z x is1 ! air manages 9 "s degree to reta9 ! electricity at ! surface ( bodies1 = x is on ! surface t we f9d ! electric 8fluid40 ,we h m5tion$ electrical induction 9 a =m] exp]im5t ) ! tea-tray4 ,we w n[ expla9 x m fully1 z a consid]ation ( x w br+ u to ! electric sp>k1 or lightn+1 ) ! acc\nt ( ! discov]y ( ! ,conductor & ! ,electrical ,ma*9e4 ,let u look at ! illu/ration next bel[4 ,a ,b is a cyl9d] support$ on a glass rod1 & at ea* extremity is a small pi? ball1 a & b4 ,! cyl9d] is 9 a neutral condition1 z is evid5c$ at fir/ by ! pellets be+ 9 a v]tical position4 ,b suppose we br+ a ball1 ,c1 t[>ds ! cyl9d]4 ,c is *>g$ ) positive electricity1 :i* attracts ! negative to itself1 & s repels ! positive away at ! opposite side4 ,s ! pellet at "o side w be attract$ to ,c1 & ! o!r w fly 9 an opposite direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--;,electrical induction4 ,let u take ano!r illu/ration4 ,"h we h a horizontal metal rod1 cc1 insulat$ on a glass /&4 ,two balls ( cork are atta*$ at bo? ends ( ! rod by metallic wires4 ,hold a rod ( res91 r1 :i* has be5 made negatively electrical1 & apply x to "o pair ( ! cork balls4 ,! positive electricity w be attract$ at c & ! negative repuls$1 & fly away at c4 ,if we remove ! res9 ! equilibrium w be aga9 e/abli%$1 & ! balls w fall to a v]tical position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--;,induction4 ,we c also by draw+ (f ! negative electricity by ! f+] at c1 :ile ! res9 rod is /ill held to ! o!r side1 c1 fill ! :ole ( ! metal rod ) ! positive electricity :5 ! f+] & ! res9 h be5 remov$ respectively fir/ & la/4 ,! balls w !n fly 9 opposite directions aga91 9 consequ5ce ( ! repulsion ex]cis$ by ! positive poles4 ,! 8,electrophore10 or 8,electrophorus10 we h already le>n$ to make = ourselves1 z also ! ,leyd5 ,j>4 ,b we give cuts ( !m4 ,! =m] is v simple1 & c be made by mix+ two p>ts ( %ell-lac & "o ( turp5t9e1 & p\r+ ! mixture ^u a metal plate4 ,if ?is be rubb$ ) a cat's sk9 :5 dry1 & a metal cov] ) a glass h&le be plac$ ^u x1 x w be f\nd t ! positive & negative electricity are collect$ on ! l[] & upp] surfaces ( ! plate respectively1 & c be drawn away ) a sp>k z be=e1 & made use (4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4--;,electrophorus4 ,! ,leyd5 ,j> requires a little m detail$ description1 z x is to x we are indebt$ = our ,batt]y4 ,x is a common glass bottle or j>1 coat$ bo? inside & out ) t9foil ne>ly z high z ! %\ld]1 a a4 ,! m\? %\ld be firmly clos$ ) a bung ( wood1 g g2 a hole %\ld be bor$ 9 ! bung1 ?r\gh :i* a brass rod is tightly pu%$4 ,! rod1 too1 is topp$ by a brass knob1 & a brass *a9 is atta*$ to ! o!r extremity4 ,! int]ior ( ! t9foil receives positive electricity1 & ! ext]ior negative :5 ! j> is *>g$ f ! 8,electrophorus40 ,to dis*>ge ! j> & create a %ock x is necess>y to put "o h& on ! outside1 & ! o!r on ! knob ( ! j>4 ,a brilliant sp>k & a sev]e %ock w result if ! j> has be5 fully *>g$4 ,x is z well to be cauti\s :5 try+ ?is exp]im5t4 ,! effect ( ! %ock may be felt by any numb] ( p]sons jo9+ h&s1 if "o at "o end ( ! r[1 & "o at ! o!r end1 t\* ! knob & ! outside ( ! j> simultane\sly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baj4--,! ,leyd5 ,j>4 ,?is electric dis*>ge is lightn+ 9 m9iature1 & x is to ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 t ! _w is indebt$ = ! discov]y4 ,! philosoph] 0 greatly int]e/$ 9 ! sci5ce ( ,electricity &1 hav+ retir$ f bus9ess1 he devot$ himself to ! consid]ation ( ?und]/orms4 ,he wrote a treatise to %[ t po9ts drew (f electricity1 & t electricity & lightn+ 7 simil>4 ,he urg$ t metallic rods might be atta*$ to %ips & build+s1 s t dur+ ?und]/orms1 or at o!r times1 ! electricity might be h>mlessly c>ri$ into ! gr\nd4 ,?is sugge/ion he made )\t be+ able to expla9 :y po9ts did c>ry (f electricity )\t a sp>k4 ,! reason is because !re is no place to /ore x2 x runs away at once1 )\t hav+ "t to collect1 z 9 a ball4 ,frankl9 made "o or two exp]im5ts be=e 8 r5[n$ kite-fly+ arrangem5t1 :i* conv9c$ him t electricity 0 by no means an ag5t to be play$ )4 ,he endeav\r$ to kill a turkey by electricity1 b by incauti\s h&l+ ( ! j>s 9 :i* ! 8fluid0 0 /or$1 he dis*>g$ !m1 & describes ! result3 8,! fla% 0 v great1 & ! crack 0 z l\d z a pi/ol2 yet my s5ses be+ in/antly gone1 ,i nei!r saw ! "o nor he>d ! o!r1 nor did ,i feel ! /roke on my h&1 ?\gh ,i aft]w>ds f\nd x rais$ a r\nd swell+ :]e ! fire ent]$ z big z half a pi/ol bullet40 ,on a subsequ5t occasion he 0 aga9 /ruck s5seless :ile endeav\r+ to adm9i/] a %ock to a p>alytic pati5t4 ,x 0 n until ,june #ageb t ,frankl9 made ! exp]im5t ) ! kite1 :i* result$ 9 su* great discov]ies4 ,he made 8 kite ( a silk pocket-h&k]*ief1 & he fix$ a po9t$ rod ^u ! upright portion ( ! frame at ! top2 ! /r+ end$ 9 a foot or s ( silk1 :i* 0 held by ! philosoph]1 & to ! end ( ! hemp5 portion ( ! /r+ a l>ge key 0 ti$4 ,= "s "t1 not)/&+ ! approa* ( mo/ unmi/akable ?und]-cl\ds1 8 pati5ce 0 tri$4 ,b at la/ ! /r&s ( ! hemp5 /r+ began to bri/le up1 & soon aft]1 :5 ,frankl9 appli$ 8 knuckle to ! key1 a sp>k 0 obta9$4 ,! great discov]y 0 made4 ,frankl9 subsequ5tly obta9$ lightn+ 9 8 own h\se1 & p]=m$ sev]al exp]im5ts ) x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4--,! ,electroscope4 ,! ,electroscope 7fig4 #baa7 is an in/rum5t by :i* we c asc]ta9 :e!r electricity is pres5t or n1 & ! nature ( x4 ,if we br+ an object unelectrifi$ close to ! ball or knob on ! top ( ! glass %ade1 ! two ne$les1 or /rips ( gold-leaf1 :i* are (t5 us$1 w rema9 /ill4 ,b if ! body has be5 electrifi$ x w communicate ! electricity to ! rod inside1 & attract to itself ! fluid ( opposite quality2 ! same k9d ( electricity !n is 9 action 9 ! gold-leaf or ne$les1 & !y fly ap>t--repel ea* o!r4 ,suppos+ t positive electricity 7 fir/ communicat$1 we c cause ! contraction ( ! leaves or wires by apply+ a negative k9d1 :i*1 meet+ ! positive1 neutralizes x1 & ! wires collapse4 ,if ! electricity ) :i* ! in/rum5t is *>g$ be positive1 by approa*+ ! baton to ! ball1 ,a1 we %all see ! wires div]ge m ?an be=e1 & !y w f9ally be dis*>g$ by ! knobs )94 ,if ! electricity be contr>y to t 9 ! baton1 ! wires w approa* ea* o!r1 b by gradually )draw+ ! baton !y w aga9 sep>ate1 & ev5 to a great] di/ance ?an be=e4 ,! ,electric ,ma*9e is %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bab74 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge plate ( glass fix$ ^u a glass /&1 betwe5 wood5 supports4 ,! h&le is ( glass2 two pairs ( rubb]s are fa/5$ above & bel[2 ! plate is turn$ betwe5 !m1 & becomes 8positively0 electrifi$4 ,! rubb]s are cov]$ ) lea!r & /uff$ ) horsehair1 ,,dd1 & press v tightly aga9/ ! glass1 s t ! friction is con/ant4 ,! rubb]s are cov]$ ) an amalgam made ( m]cury1 z9c1 & t91 two p>ts ( ! fir/ to "o ea* ( ! o!rs4 ,a *a9 7( metal7 connects ! ma*9e ) ! gr\nd4 ,! conductors1 ,,pp1 are unit$ by a cross-piece1 ,q1 & su/a9$ ^u glass supports4 ,at ! end ( ! conductors are two curv$ rods1 ,,cc1 :i* are provid$ ) po9ts to take ! electricity f ! plate1 b d n t\* x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4--,! ,electric ,ma*9e4 ,! electricity is ?us /or$ 9 ! insulat$ conductors z ! ma*9e is turn$4 ,! negative portion is c>ri$ into ! gr\nd by ! *a9 f ! rubb]s1 :ile ! positive electricity is reta9$4 ,! long] we turn ! m we %all obta91 & ! quantity is measur$ by an electric p5dulum on "o ( ! conductors1 :i* flies out by degrees z ! *>ge increases1 & indicates its p[] by means ( a ne$le x works ^u an ivory index4 ,x is n difficult to make an electric ma*9e out ( a glass bottle4 ,?is w furni% ! glass cyl9d]4 ,if a /ick be run ?r\gh x 7= :i* purpose a hole mu/ be drill$ 9 ! bottom ( ! bottle71 a h&le c be fix$1 & ! bottle m\nt$ on a /&4 ,a wa%-lea!r cu%ion1 /uff$1 c be s arrang$ t x w press aga9/ ! bottle z x is turn$2 a piece ( silk %\ld be p]mitt$ to hang f ! cu%ion frame ov] ! glass4 ,a conductor may be made f a piece ( wood neatly r\nd$ & smoo!d1 & coat$ ) t9foil4 ,! ends %\ld be r\nd$ l 8knobs40 ,/ick p9s 9 to collect ! electricity 7& x w be readily obta9$74 ,! cu%ion %\ld ( c\rse be well sme>$ ) amalgam4 ,f ?is1 z well z f ! glass-plate ma*9e1 ! 8positive0 electricity c be drawn (f & /or$ 9 a ,leyd5 j>1 & !n dis*>g$ by ! 8dis*>g+ rod10 :i* is repres5t$ on ! cut4 ,x may h "o or two h&les1 & "o knob is plac$ outside ! j>1 ! o!r ne> ! ball surm\nt+ x4 ,! glass be+ a non-conductor saves ! op]ator1 & "s long sp>ks & l\d reports may be obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,cyl9d] ma*9e4 ,! ,electric ,ma*9e is always assum$ to give (f positive electricity4 ,sir ,william ,arm/rong's ,electric ,ma*9e is a mode ( obta9+ electricity by moi/ /eam4 ,! design is ,arm/rong's1 & ,pr(essor ,f>aday subsequ5tly w5t into all ! conditions to produce ! 8fluid0 by ! friction ( /eam4 ,! ma*9e 0 some?+ l a small boil] support$ on glass legs4 ,a r[ ( nozzles 0 fix$ ^u ! escape pipe s z to create a great velocity & friction 9 ! escap+ /eam4 ,r\nd ! nozzles 0 a box ( cold wat]1 = t fluid 0 f\nd necess>y = ! production ( electricity z demon/rat$ by ,pr(essor ,f>aday4 ,! /eam ru%$ aga9/ a r[ ( po9ts atta*$ to ! prime conductor ( an electric ma*9e1 & ! electricity ( ! /eam 0 ?us giv5 (f to ! conductor4 ,!re are _m o!r =ms ( electric ma*9es1 b x w s]ve no purpose to detail !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bad4--;,dis*>g+ rod4 ,! ,electric ,batt]y 7see fig4 #bjf7 is =m$ by a collection ( ,leyd5 j>s4 ,! inside & outside coat+s are connect$ 9 a box divid$ into p>titions l9$ ) t9foil4 ,! rods ( ! j>s are also connect$1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 by brass rods1 & :5 ?is batt]y is *>g$ p %\ld be c>eful h[ !y h&le x1 = a %ock may be produc$ :i* w\ld cause s]i\s injury1 if n dea?4 ,! batt]y c be *>g$ f ! ma*9e by a *a9 fa/5$ to ! c5tral ball1 :ile a second *a9 connects ! ext]ior ( ! box & all ! outside ( ! j>s1 by means ( ! h&le1 to ! gr\nd4 ,:5 electricity is at re/ x is t]m$ 8/atic electricity10 & :5 9 motion 8dynamic0 electricity4 ,! latt] treats ( electric curr5ts :i* c be s5t ?r\gh wires or *a9s4 ,we c keep ?is curr5t mov+ by means ( a ma*9e1 & ! batt]y call$ a ,voltaic batt]y1 f ,volta4 ,we w describe x pres5tly4 ,electric curr5ts c be measur$1 = !y may be ( diff]5t /r5g?s accord+ to ! batt]y1 & !y are measur$ by ! ,,galvanomet]4 ,electricity c !re=e be transf]r$ & c>ri$ by ! conduct+ sub/ances1 & mu* heat w be eng5d]$ z ! 8electric fluid0 passes along a wire4 ,lightn+ frequ5tly fuses bell-wires z x passes1 & :5 we t\* ^u ,galvanism or ,dynamical ,electricity we %all he> m ab\t x4 ,by ! ,electric ,ma*9e we c obta9 "s v p[]ful curr5ts ( electricity2 we c produce _m pleas+ effects1 & p]=m a numb] ( exp]im5ts1 su* z mak+ balls or figures ( pi? dance1 & sev]al o!r easy & ent]ta9+ tricks1 :i* w be f\nd 9 books m specially devot$ to ! ent]ta9m5t ( "y p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,leyd5 ,j>4 ,we h n[ giv5 "s explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* electrical ph5om5a c be produc$1--viz41 by ! ,electric ,ma*9e & by ! ,leyd5 ,j>1--b we mu/ n expect to f9d any electricity inside any *>g$ body4 ,x has be5 prov$ t all ! electricity is ^u ! surface ( bodies1 ev5 if 9 v>y+ quantity1 & t equal quantities ( electricity are always produc$ :5 bodies are excit$ by friction1 b ! k9ds are diff]5t4 ,! rubb+ body is ( "o k9d1 ! body rubb$ ano!r1 & consequ5tly ! =ces neutralize ea* o!r4 ,! two =ces or k9ds ( electricity we h se5 repel or attract ea* o!r1 & we c imag9e ! f>!r !y are ap>t ! less w be ! =ce1 & ! rate ( dim9ution ( =ce1 accord+ to di/ance1 is asc]ta9$ by an +5i\s app>atus call$ a 8,torsion0 ,electromot]1 :i* 0 con/ruct$ by ,c\lomb1 & 0 frequ5tly us$ by ,f>aday4 ,p]haps "s p may n be aw>e ( ! t]m 8torsion40 ,x means twi/+1 & 8! torsion ( a ?read susp5d$ v]tically is ! =ce t5d+ to twi/ ! l[] extremity :5 ! upp] end is turn$ ?r\gh an angle40 ,?is in/rum5t is really an ,electromot]1 & is n consid]$ suit$ to beg9n]s1 & x is sc>cely accurate 9 its work+s4 ,we ne$ n !re=e describe x 9 detail4 ,!re are "s excell5t ,electromot]s1 ! ,elliott be+1 we believe1 ! be/ = use4 ,a full & detail$ description ( ! ,quadrant ,electromot] w be f\nd 9 ,mr4 ,gordon's treatise on ,electricity4 ,recapitulation ( =ego+ ,*apt]4 ,s f>1 we h se5 !re is electricity 9 ev]y?+1 al?\gh "s bodies are t]m$ conductors & o!rs non-conductors2 ?\gh1 z 9 apply+ ! t]ms heat & cold1 we mu/ rememb] t no body is entirely devoid ( electricity1 & no body is !re=e an absolute non-conductor any m ?an any object is absolutely devoid ( heat4 ,f>aday1 inde$1 0 ( op9ion t 8conduction & insulation are only extreme degrees ( "o common condition02 !y are id5tical bo? 9 pr9ciple & action1 except t 9 conduction an effect common to bo? is rais$ to ! highe/ degree1 & 9 ! case ( insulation x occurs 9 an almo/ ins5sible quantity4 ,we h also read ( positive & negative electricities1 & we mu/ n fancy !re is any p>ticul> reason = ?is di/9ction4 ,x 0 ,du ,fay1 :om we h m5tion$1 :o gave ! names 8vitre\s0 & 8res9\s0 to ! two k9ds1 z "o 0 develop$ by rubb+ glass1 & ! o!r by rubb+ res94 ,b1 z %[n by our exp]im5ts1 ei!r k9d ( electricity c be excit$ 9 glass or seal+-wax1 & bo? k9ds are produc$ at once4 ,y _c get 8positive0 )\t negative electricity4 8,positive0 is ! t]m appli$ to ! k9d produc$ by rubb+ glass ) silk or wool2 8negative0 is ! t]m appli$ to ! k9d develop$ by rubb+ seal+-wax1 b ! k9d develop$ by friction dep5ds on ! rubb+ sub/ance & c]ta9 conditions4 ,bodies *>g$ ) ! same electricity repel2 if *>g$ ) diff]5t k9ds !y attract ea* o!r4 ,! m readily displac$ p>ticles :5 bodies are rubb$ become negatively electrifi$ z a rule4 ,simil> electricities repel ea* o!r ) a =ce inv]sely proportional to ! squ>es ( ! di/ance betwe5 _! c5tres1 z e/abli%$ by ,c\lomb4 ,s if ! space betwe5 any two simil>ly electrifi$ bodies be r$uc$ by say "o-half1 ! =ce ( ! repulsion w be increas$ f\r times4 ,! rule = attraction is simil>2 s :5 two bodies are *>g$ ) opposite electricities1 & ! di/ance betwe5 !m is increas$1 ! attractive =ce is dim9i%$ 9 proportion z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,_m confirmations ( ?is !ory 7 made by ! late fri5d ( our boyhood1 ,sir ,w4 ,sn[ ,h>ris1 & publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,! foll[+ full li/ ( conductors & non-conductors 7copi$ f ,pr(essor ,noad's ,text-book ( ,electricity1 & comp>$ ) ,de ,la ,rive's ,treatise7 may be useful3-- ,,conduct+ ,,bodies ,,9 ,,ord] ,,( ,,conduct+ ,,p[]4 ,all ! metals4 ,well-burnt *>coal4 ,plumbago4 ,conc5trat$ acids4 ,p[d]$ *>coal4 ,dilute acids4 ,sal9e solutions4 ,,insulators ,,9 ,,! ,,inv]se ,,ord] ,,( ,,insulat+ ,,p[]4 ,dry metallic oxides4 ,oils 7heavi] ! bett]74 ,vegetable a%es4 ,transp>5t dry cry/als4 ,ice bel[ #ac ,fahr4 ,phosphorus4 ,lime4 ,,conduct+ ,,bodies ,,9 ,,ord] ,,( ,,conduct+ ,,p[]4 ,metallic ores4 ,animal fluids4 ,sea-wat]4 ,spr+-wat]4 ,ra9-wat]4 ,ice above #ac ,fahr4 ,sn[4 ,liv+ vegetables4 ,liv+ animals4 ,flame smoke4 ,/eam4 ,salts soluble 9 wat]4 ,r>efi$ air4 ,vap\r ( alcohol4 ,vap\r ( e!r4 ,moi/ e>? & /ones4 ,p[d]$ glass4 ,fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,,insulators ,,9 ,,! ,,inv]se ,,ord] ,,( ,,insulat+ ,,p[]4 ,dry *alk4 ,native c>bonate ( b>yta4 ,lycopodium4 ,ca\t*\c4 ,camphor4 ,silici\s & argillace\s /ones4 ,dry m>ble4 ,porcela94 ,dry vegetables4 ,bak$ wood4 ,lea!r4 ,p>*m5t4 ,dry pap]4 ,hair4 ,wool4 ,dy$ silk4 ,blea*$ silk4 ,raw silk4 ,! foll[+ may be add$ to ! ,insulators1 viz43-- ,transp>5t preci\s /ones4 ,diamond4 ,mica4 ,all vitrefactions4 ,glass4 ,jet4 ,wax4 ,sulphur4 ,res9s4 ,amb]4 ,gutta-p]*a4 ,%ell-lac 7or gum-lac74 ,ebonite4 ,!re are1 z we "k1 two k9ds ( electricity1 ! /atic & dynamic2 & :5 ! latt] /ate is in/antane\s1 x is ref]r$ to z ! 8electric dis*>ge10 :i* occurs :5 opposite electricities seek ea* o!r1 & ! bodies return to a /ate ( equilibrium or neutralization4 8,^! bodies1 if insulat$1 obta9 no m electricity aft] ! sp>k has pass$2 b if !re be a con/ant s\rce ( negative electricity supply+ "o1 & a con/ant s\rce ( negative electricity supply+ ! o!r1 !re w be a succession ( sp>ks2 & if !y communicate by a conductor !re w be1 ?r\gh ?is conductor1 an un9t]rupt$ neutralization ( a cont9ual reunion ( ! two electricities1 & ?is is :at is t]m$ ! cont9u\s dynamic /ate or electric curr5t0 7,de la ,rive74 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,?is int]e/+ exp]im5t1 :i* we h exactly v]ifi$1 0 describ$ to u by ,pr(essor ,waldn]1 & ,m4 ,a4 ,keppl]4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,velocity ,,( ,,electricity--,,exp]im5ts--,,! ,,electric ,,egg--,,=ce ,,( ,,! ,,electric ,,sp>k4 ,we are n[ acqua9t$ ) _m facts conc]n+ electricity1 & h se5 t electrical ph5om5a c be produc$ by ! ,electric ,ma*9e & ! ,leyd5 ,j>4 7,an insulat+ /ool--a /ool ) glass legs--is a v desirable adjunct = ^? :o wi% to exp]im5t ) ! ma*9e74 ,glass is a great insulator1 or non-conductor1 z a ,russian philosoph] f\nd to 8 co/4 ,he _h an iron lightn+-conductor f 8 h\se into 8 room1 ! end n connect$ ) ! e>? b ) a glass4 ,"o day ! lightn+ came d[n ! rod & rea*$ ! glass2 _h a communication be5 made ) ! e>? by a *a91 or directly1 no mis*ief w\ld h ensu$4 ,z x happ5$1 h[ev]1 ! curr5t 0 *eck$ by ! glass1 & imm$iately d>t$ t[>ds him2 x /ruck him 9 ! head1 & kill$ ! poor man on ! spot4 ,if no insulat+ /ool 7 us$1 ! body *>g$ w\ld be dis*>g$ ^u contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,! velocity ( electricity is v great1 & exp]im5ts h frequ5tly be5 made4 ,:eat/one und]took to asc]ta9 ! spe$ ( ! electric fluid1 & ! in/rum5t he employ$ he call$ a 8,*ronoscope40 ,he caus$ a mirror to revolve ) enorm\s velocity1 & measur$ ! spe$ by ! vibrations ( air1 :i* produc$ a c]ta9 note by ! same motive p[]4 7,we "k already t c]ta9 notes are produc$ by a c]ta9 numb] ( vibrations p] second47 ,:eat/one's ,*ronoscope consi/$ ( ?is mirror1 9 front ( :i* 0 plac$ a circul> block ( wood1 9 :i*1 9 a r[1 7 set six wires c>ry+ small knobs2 r\nd ^! & ov] ! wood he put an insulat+ v>ni%4 ,a ,leyd5 j> 0 connect$ outside ) ! fir/ knob2 betwe5 ! second & ?ird a qu>t] ( a mile ( copp] wire 0 coil$1 & a l l5g? ( wire betwe5 ! f\r? & fif?2 ! inside ( ! ,leyd5 j> 0 !n connect$ ) ! la/ knob1 & ! sp>k pass$2 x ran f knob to knob ov] ! long coils ( wire4 ,if all ! fla%es ov] ! wire & knobs occurr$ simultane\sly ! mirror w\ld %[ !m side by side2 if n1 z ! mirror turn$ a trifle1 ! diff]5ce w\ld be obs]v$4 ,! mirror did %[ a slight ret>dation 9 ! passage ( ! fla%1 & f c]ta9 measurem5ts & calculations ,:eat/one e/imat$ ! velocity ( ! sp>k to be #bhh1jjj miles a second4 ,?is rate w c>ry electricity r\nd ! e>? 9 ab\t a twelf? ( a second1 a rate ,puck nev] dream$ ( :5 he promis$ to 8put a girdle r\nd ! e>? 9 =ty m9utes40 ,b x appe>$ f inve/igations subsequ5tly made t x 0 n possible to express ! velocity ( electricity ) any c]ta9ty1 & a numb] ( exp]im5ts 7 made z p] ! foll[+ table1 ) v diff]5t results4 ,sir ,william ,?omson & ,f>aday endeav\r$ to acc\nt = ^! /up5d\s discrepancies1 & ! pr9ciples ( ret>dation ( electricity 7 e/abli%$4 ,! diff]5ces are %[n bel[3-- ,nature ( ,velocity p] ,wire4 ,second4 ,:eat/one's ,exp]im5t 9 #ahcd ,copp] #bhh1jjj ,gonella & ,fizeau ,copp] #aaa1hcd ,iron #fb1acj ,mit*ell ,iron #bh1cca ,walk] ,iron #ah1fci ,g\ld ,iron #ae1hcj ,a/ronom]s 9 ,gre5wi* ,copp] #g1fjj 8 ,brussels ,copp] #b1gjj ,result 9 ,atlantic ,cable1 #aheg ,copp] #a1dcj 8 8 #aheh ,copp] #c1jjj ,to acc\nt = ! comp>atively l[ velocities ( ! cables1 ,f>aday prov$ t !y act v mu* z a ,leyd5 j> acts2 t is1 x takes "t to fill1 z x 71 & to dis*>ge !m1 ! wire coat+ ( ! cable 9 air act+ l ! out] coat+ ( ! j> or ! wat] 9 ! case ( an imm]s$ cable1 & ! ret>dation obs]v$ is ow+ to resi/ance ( conduction1 & dep5ds ^u ! way 9 :i* ! electrical impulses trav]se ! wire4 8,!re is a long1 gradual swell1 & /ill m gradual subsid5ce ( ! electric curr5t1 & ! l5g? ( "t t elapses betwe5 ! initial impulse & ! atta9m5t ( maximum /r5g?1 is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! l5g? ( ! l9e40 ,! duration ( ! electric sp>k has be5 calculat$ at ! #a_/bdjjj "p ( a second1 b ,pr(essor ,tyndall reg>ds ?is z ! longe/ or ne>ly ! longe/ "t x is p]ceptible2 ! %orte/ "t is almo/ inconceivable4 ,! brighte/ portion ( a sp>k has be5 asc]ta9$ to la/ only =ty-six million?s ( a second1 & c]ta9 exp]im5ts 7 made to asc]ta9 ! actual duration ) v>i\s numb]s ( ,leyd5 j>s4 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,messrs4 ,lucas & ,cuz91 by an application ( ! ,v]ni]1 ) batt]ies consi/+ v>i\sly ( two to eight j>s1 & obta9$ ! foll[+ results#ad-- ,duration 9 ,no4 ( ,j>s4 million?s ( a ,second4 #b #bf #d #da #f #de #h #dg 8,s10 adds ! writ]1 8! duration 7( sp>k7 increases 9 proportion ) ! numb] ( ! j>s4 ,x increases also ) ! /rik+ di/ance1 b is indep5d5t ( ! diamet] ( ! balls or globes betwe5 :i* ! sp>k /rikes40 ,_m examples might be giv5 ( ! sp>k dis*>ge ( ! electric curr5t4 ,?is =m is se5 9 ! blue l9e ext5d+ betwe5 ! knob ( a ma*9e & ! h&1 & ! duration ( a sp>k ) a j> *>g$ ) an induction coil is /at$ by ,pr(essor ,rood to v>y1 b ! brighte/ portion ) a j> ( #aad squ>e in*es only exi/$ = ! #age? billion? ( a second1 & ) a small] surface 0 mu* %ort]4 ,su* a sp>k may be conduct$ to a plate ( gunp[d] & w n ignite x1 because ! "t ( ! duration ( ! 8fire0 is n suffici5tly long2 ! p[d] w be scatt]$1 b n ignit$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a p>tly non-conduct+ m$ium be int]pos$ betwe5 ! j> & ! p[d]1 s t ! sp>k be ret>d$ a little1 ! gunp[d] w be fir$4 ,:ile speak+ ( electric dis*>ge we may rem>k ^u ! beautiful effect ( lightn+4 ,^! dis*>ges are sometimes miles long1 & by ! return /roke f ! cl\d may kill a p]son a long way f ! actual dis*>ge4 ,?is ph5om5on 0 illu/rat$ by ,visc\nt ,mahon 9 #aggi1 9 a v int]e/+ book on ! pr9ciples ( electricity4 ,!re are diff]5t ways 9 :i* ! electric dis*>ge %[s itself4 ,we h spok5 ab\t ! sp>k dis*>ge :i*1 h[ev]1 is f\nd to pres5t v diff]5t appe>ances 9 v>y+ conditions4 ,pr(essor ,f>aday prov$ t ! col\r ( ! electric sp>ks %[$ 9 air1 :5 obta9$ ) brass balls1 ! int5se light & blue col\r s famili> to all4 ,9 nitrog5 !y are ev5 blu]4 ,9 oxyg5 aga9 ! sp>ks are mu* bright] ?an 9 air1 b n s brilliant4 ,9 hydrog5 !y become crimson1 b ! s\nd is almo/ inaudible because ( ! physical "* ( ! gas4 ,9 c>bonic acid gas !y are almo/ ! same z 9 atmosph]ic air1 only m irregul>4 ,9 dry muriatic gas !y are ne>ly :ite & v bright4 ,9 coal gas ! col\rs v>y--sometimes be+ gre5 & sometimes r$4 ,occasionally ! same sp>k w be r$ & gre5 at diff]5t extremities1 & ev5 black portions h be5 obs]v$4 ,! d5sity & pressure ( ! atmosph]e has be5 prov$ to ex]cise consid]able influ5ce ^u ! sp>k dis*>ge4 ,! 8,bru%0 dis*>ge is %[n 9 8a s]ies ( int]mitt5t dis*>ges :i* appe> cont9u\s40 ,?is dis*>ge assumes ! %ape ( a fan4 8,x is accompani$ ) a l[ *att]+ s\nd10 :i* is ! result ( ! sep>ate & cont9u\s dis*>ges1 & ,f>aday also demon/rat$ t its effects v>i$ accord+ to ! m$ium 9 :i* x 0 exhibit$4 ,! effect ( ! air pressure on electricity may be obs]v$ 9 ! foll[+ way3-- ,if we pass a sp>k ?r\gh r>efi$ air by an app>atus kn[n z ! ,electric ,egg1 we may obta9 _m curi\s effects4 ,! 8egg0 consi/s ( a glass globe1 ?r\gh :i* ent] two rods ) a knob ^u ea* inside end4 ,! upp] rod is moveable1 & held 9 its place by a 8cap0 l ! l[] rod4 ,!re is a /op-cock 9 ! l[] cap1 s t ! egg may be fa/5$ to any plate or /&4 ,:5 ! egg is fill$ ) air1 ! electric sp>k pass$ into ! glass globe has ! usual appe>ance1 b z ! air is gradually r>efi$ by an air-pump1 ! sp>k assumes beautiful =ms & col\rs4 ,z ! exhau/ion cont9ues1 h[ev]1 we %all f9d ! sp>k decreas+ 9 brilliancy1 & f9ally ! sp>k w cease to be visible4 ,x ?us is %[n t ! col\r ( ! sp>k dep5ds ^u ! gase\s m$ium & on ! mat]ial ( ! conductors1 & :5 ! electric sp>k is fa9t ?is m$ium c be obs]v$1 = nitrog5 w produce a blue t+e & c>bonic acid a gre52 hydrog5 gives u a r$1 z already rem>k$4 ,by multiply+ ! numb] ( eggs & plates ( glass1 & plac+ discs ( t9foil 9 v>i\s %apes at c]ta9 di/ances1 _m beautiful figures may be obs]v$ :5 ! sp>k is set free4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall at ! ,royal ,in/itution %[$ a v pretty exp]im5t4 ,he took a funnel ) a v f9e bore1 & p]mitt$ s& to fl[ f x z x w 9 ! h\r-glass4 ,:5 he p]mitt$ ! electric curr5t to come 9 contact ) ! s&1 h[ev]1 x1 in/ead ( fall+ v]tically to ! table1 spread out fan-l1 ea* gra9 repell+ & be+ repell$ by its neighb\r ) an effect v beautiful to see4 ,lum9\s effects h frequ5tly be5 produc$ by pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh v>i\s bodies4 ,= in/ance1 a lump ( sug> c be made q brilliant 9 ! d>k by pass+ electricity ?r\gh x1 & !re are o!r sub/ances simil>ly affect$4 ,ev5 eggs & "s fruits are ?us made phosphoresc5t4 ,! illum9ation ( ! 8diamond0 cov]$ ,leyd5 j> is famili> to all :o ev] att5d$ a lecture on ,electricity4 ,! v>i\s effects ( ! electric dis*>ge ne$ n "h be describ$4 ,we h witness$ ! results ( lightn+1 b ev5 9 our laboratory _m pretty little exp]im5ts c be made1 su* z ! p]=ation ( a c>d by ! electric dis*>ge4 ,! *emical effects are v>i\s4 ,decomposition ( wat] is effect$ by electricity1 & ! dis*>ge c also be1 & has be5 utiliz$ = milit>y purposes1 su* z employ$ by ,pr(essor ,abel 9 8 fuse1 & 9 8 app>atus = fir+ m9es4 ,exp]im5ts at ,*a?am & else:]e h be5 v successful 9 ! application ( electricity to mod]n w>f>e4 ,we w illu/rate "o or two ( ^!4 ,a ?ick c>d %\ld be plac$1 z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #baf71 betwe5 two insulat$ po9ts1 & to ! l[] portion ( ! app>atus a *a9 be atta*$1 held 9 ! h&1 & w\nd r\nd ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,if !n ! knob ( ! j> & ! knob above ! upp] po9t be br\ght toge!r1 ! sp>k w pass ?r\gh ! c>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,exp]im5t ) c>d4 ,9 ! same mann] a glass may be p]=at$ if ! curr5t be /rong]4 ,( c\rse ! :ole app>atus--& p>ticul>ly ! plate--mu/ be q dry1 & x w be bett] to put a drop ( oil "u ! upp] ne$le po9t s z to prev5t ! electricity spread+ ov] ! glass4 ,! glass w be f\nd pi]c$ by ! electric sp>k :5 ! ,leyd5 j> is br\ght into requisition 7fig4 #bag74 ,x 0 at "o "t cont5d$ t ! sudd5 expansion ( ! air by ! electric sp>k caus$ heat to be g5]at$1 & a !rmomet] 0 inv5t$ by ,k9n]sley to %[ ?is4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #bah7 w expla9 x4 ,:5 ! electric sp>k pass$ betwe5 ! balls 9 ! l>ge tube ! wat] rose 9 ! small]4 ,b ! imm$iate return ( ! wat] to its level %[$ t ! di/urbance 0 only me*anical1 & n ow+ to heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bag4--;,exp]im5t ) glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bah4--,k9n]sley's !rmomet]4 ,we may n[ pass f ! 8frictional0 to ! o!r k9d--viz41 8dynamical0 electricity1 & we %all beg9 ) ! consid]ation ( ,,galvani',s exp]im5ts & ! ,,voltaic ,,pile4 ,illu/ration3 ,electric cond5s]4 ,,footnotes3 #ad ,,ganot3 ,elm5ts de ,physique4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,galvanism4 ,,galvani',s ,,discov]y--,,! ,,frogs ,,electrifi$--,,exp]im5ts--,,volta',s ,,pile--,,! ,,te/--,,its ,,usefulness--,,f>aday',s 8,,rese>*es40 ,galvanism owes its orig9 to ! rese>*es ( ,galvani1 ! celebrat$ pr(essor ( ,bologna1 & we are indebt$ to :at 0 a m]e 8accid5t0 = our k ( ?is sci5ce4 ,be=e ,galvani's "t !re _h be5 _m in/ances adduc$ ( animal electricity4 ,! ,rev4 ,f4 ,lunn1 9 8 article ^u ,electricity1#ae m5tions ! fact t fire /ream$ f ! head ( ,s]vius ,tullius :5 ab\t sev5 ye>s ( age1 & ,virgil we "k ref]s to flame emitt$ by ! hair ( ,ascanius-- 8,lamb]e flamma comas1 et circum tempora pasci02 & if any "o w comb 8 or h] hair ) an ebonite comb 9 ! d>k1 ) :at is sometimes call$ an 8india-rubb] comb10 ! hair w give out suffici5t light to enable ! op]ator to see himself 9 a look+-glass4 ,9 old5 days x is relat$ t a lady :5 t\*$ ) a l95 clo? emitt$ sp>ks1 & ! same ph5om5on 0 obs]vable :5 a booksell] at ,pisa remov$ 8 "u-g>m5t or ve/ 7,de ,ca/ro74 ,we are all aw>e ( ! electricity ( ! cat & ( c]ta9 fi%es 7see ,electricity ( ,animals 9 sequel71 & 8torp$os40 ,galvani _h ( c\rse a k ( ?is prop]ty1 & _h occupi$ himself = "s "t mak+ exp]im5ts ^u ! electricity 9 animals4 ,he 0 n 9 8 laboratory t day :5 ! great discov]y 0 made by means ( ! edible frog4 ,galvani's wife 0 j !n 9 a v delicate /ate ( heal?1 & 9 accordance ) usage _h be5 ord]$ s\p made f frogs4 ,x is relat$ t "s ( ^! animals1 ready sk9n$1 7 ly+ ^u ! laboratory table1 = ! ,pr(essor _h be5 j previ\sly inve/igat+ ! "q ( :at he op9$ 0 8animal0 electricity2 t is1 he fanci$ t muscul> motion dep5d$ ^u t subtle =ce4 ,! electric ma*9e 0 9 action1 & "o ( ! att5dants happ5+ to approa* or t\* "o ( ! frogs1 ! man z well z ,madame ,galvani obs]v$ t ! limbs 7 viol5tly agitat$4 ,galvani 0 at once in=m$ ( ?is1 & he made repeat$ exp]im5ts1 :i* %[$ him t ! convulsive movem5ts only took place :5 a sp>k 0 drawn f ! prime conductor ( ! electric ma*9e1 & :ile ! n]ve 0 t\*$ by a conductor4 ,galvani !n susp5d$ a numb] ( frogs to a rail+ by metal hooks1 ) a view to exp]im5t ^u !m ) atmosph]ical electricity4 ,b ! frogs' limbs 7 aga9 agitat$ :5 no electricity 0 app>5t1 & ,galvani aft] "s consid]ation came to ! conclusion t ! movem5t 0 ow+ to ! position ! animals assum$ ) ref]5ce to ! metallic bodies4 ,?us :5 muscle & n]ve 7 9 contact ) metallic bodies & connect$ by metal1 ! movem5ts ( ! limbs 7 obs]vable1 & ! great] ! surface contact ! great] 0 ! convulsion4 ,! philosoph] next tri$ v>i\s metals1 & discov]$ t ! mo/ p[]ful comb9ation 0 z9c & silv]4 ,galvani1 9 #agia1 publi%$ 8 discov]y & 8 !ory t ! body act$ z a ,leyd5 j>1 diff]5t p>ts be+ 9 a diff]5t /ate ( electricity4 ,no soon] 7 8 d$uctions publi%$ ?an all ,europe 0 9 a f]m5t1 & philosoph]s ( all nations 7 discuss+ x4 ,f[l]1 ,valli1 ,robison1 ,wells1 ,humboldt1 etc41 all 7 deeply int]e/$1 b none ( !m appe> to h arriv$ at s correct conclusions z did ,volta1 ! physician ( ,pavia4 8,:]ev] frogs 7 to be f\nd10 says ,du ,bois ,reymond1 8& :]e two diff]5t k9ds ( metal c\ld be procur$1 ev]ybody 0 anxi\s to see ! mangl$ limbs ( frogs br\ght to life 9 ?is wond]ful way4 ,physiologi/s believ$ t at l5g? !y %\ld realize _! visions ( a vital p[]1 & physicians ?\ght no cure 0 impossible40 ,b not)/&+ ! popul> !ory1 ,volta1 9 8 lett]s to ,c>allo1 :ile giv+ a full & cle> acc\nt ( ! discov]y made by ,galvani & 8 own exp]im5ts1 attack$ & f9ally defeat$ ! ,pr(essor4 ,volta q upset ,galvani's ,leyd5-j> !ory2 ,volta says t x 0 by accid5t t ,mr4 ,galvani discov]$ ! ph5om5on1 & by :i* he 0 m a/oni%$ ?an he ought to h be54 ,volta's lett]s w be f\nd 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society 79 ,fr5*71 & he attributes ! effect to ! metals :i* produc$ a small am\nt ( electricity4 ,he f\nd t ! n]ve 0 act$ ^u on ev5 p>ts ( a muscle laid ^u two diff]5t metals1 & if ^? 7 unit$1 a contraction took place4 8,_m exp]im5ts 7 made 9 all p>ts ( ,europe10 says ,doctor ,roget1 & 8an op9ion _h be5 v preval5t t ! real s\rce ( ! p[] develop$ exi/$ 9 ! muscle & n]ve :i* =m$ "p ( ! circuit1 & t ! metals :i* compos$ ! o!r "p act$ m]ely z ! conductors by :i* t ag5cy 0 transf]r$ f ! "o to ! o!r ( ^! animal /ructures4 ,b ! discov]ies ( ,volta dispell$ ! error1 by prov+ t ! s\rces ( p[] 7 d]iv$ f ! galvanic prop]ties ( ! metals !mselves :5 comb9$ ) c]ta9 fluids10 & decid$ t ?is pr9ciple 0 electricity4 ,f ?is ! 8g5]al fact0 0 d$uc$--viz41 8t :5 a c]ta9 portion ( a n]ve :i* is di/ribut$ to any muscle is made "p ( a galvanic circuit1 convulsions1 g5]ally ( a viol5t & convulsive k9d1 are produc$ 9 t muscle40 ,volta at l5g? made ! discov]y t :5 two metals 7 br\ght toge!r electricity 0 develop$1 & by unit+ a disc ( copp] & "o ( z9c1 & subject+ !m to ! te/ ( an ,electroscope1 he f\nd positive & negative electricity develop$ 9 ! z9c & copp] respectively2 s ,volta came to ! conclusion t ea* metal p>t$ ) electricity1 & "o became all 8positive0 & ! o!r all 8negative40 ,b :5 he came fur!r to consid] ! possibility ( build+ up a 8pile0 ( ^! metal discs suffici5tly /rong to produce electric effects1 he f\nd t if 8 !ory 7 correct he w\ld lose f "o side ( ! metal all he w\ld ga9 f ! o!r1 & !re=e he c\ld nev] obta9 m ?an ! slight effect he _h orig9ally produc$4 ,?is 0 at fir/ a difficulty app>5tly impossible to remove4 ,x 0 s self-evid5t t ! discs ( metal1 if plac$ 9 a pile 9 a s]ies ( pairs1 w\ld cont9ually ex]cise l effects to ! fir/ pair ( discs1 t ,volta 0 puzzl$1 & = "s "t he c\ld n arrive at any reasonable solution4 ,at la/ x /ruck him t if he plac$ betwe5 ! discs "s sl[-conduct+ sub/ance1 ! electricity w\ld n pass f disc to disc1 & ! =ce develop$ or set 9 motion w\ld be m p[]ful4 ,he made ! exp]im5t4 ,! result 0 ! ,voltaic pile made 9 #ahjj1 ( :i* we give an illu/ration 7fig4 #bai74 ,a communication on ! subject ( ,electricity by contact1 writt5 by ,m4 ,volta1 is to be f\nd 9 ! ,philosophical ,proce$+s = ! ye> #ahjj4 ,volta con/ruct$ ! pile :i* be>s 8 "n1 on ! assumption t 8e two het]og5e\s bodies =m a galvanic circle or arc 9 :i* electricity is g5]at$40 ,! 8pile0 consi/$ ( a numb] ( discs ( z9c & copp] sep>at$ by discs ( c>d soak$ 9 wat]4 ,?is comb9ation ( metals sep>at$ by a bad conductor1 develop$ consid]able electricity1 ! 8positive0 go+ to ! z9c at ! top1 & ! 8negative0 turn+ to ! opposite end4 ,by t\*+ ! z9c & copp] extremities simultane\sly ) wett$ f+]s we %all exp]i5ce a %ock4 8,i don't ne$ y\r frog10 ,volta said1 :5 he _h prov$ 8 !ory2 8give me two metals & a moi/ rag1 & ,i w produce y\r animal electricity4 ,y\r frog is no?+ b a moi/ conductor1 & 9 ?is respect x is inf]ior to my wet rag60 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bai4--,voltaic ,pile4 ,aft] ?is discov]y ! !ory ( animal electricity di$ away = _m ye>s1 till 9 #ahbe1 ,nobili1 & aft]w>ds ,matteucci1 prov$ ! exi/5ce ( galvanic curr5ts 9 muscles4 ,aft] ,volta _h succe$$ 9 obta9+ a %ock f 8 8pile10 he proce$$ to ! con/ruction ( ano!r in/rum5t1 or r app>atus1 :i* he d5om9at$ 8,c\ronne des tasses0 7fig4 #bbj74 ,x consi/$ ( a s]ies ( small glasses conta9+ wat] or a sal9e solution4 ,he !n procur$ a numb] ( 8metallic arcs10 p>tly compos$ ( z9c & p>tly ( copp]2 ^! 7 ins]t$ into ! glasses1 s t e glass conta9$ ! z9c ( "o & ! copp] ( ano!r arc1 n 9 contact1 b "o at ! "r h& ! o!r at ! left4 ,! electro motion1 suppos$ to be ! prim>y cause ( ! galvanic action1 0 ?us produc$ z well z f ! 8pile40 ,! pr9ciple 0 j ! same 9 bo? app>atus1 ! metals be+ divid$ by ! wat] 9 "o case1 & by a wet c>d or clo? 9 ! o!r4 ,volta1 9 #ahjj1 address$ to ! ,royal ,society 8 celebrat$ lett] ^u electricity excit$ by contact ( conduct+ sub/ances1 & !n ! ,engli% philosoph]s proce$$ to make fur!r exp]im5ts4 ,x 0 ,fabroni ( ,flor5ce :o _h j be=e sugge/$ t *emical action 0 really ! cause ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy w>mly advocat$ ?is !ory1 & made num]\s exp]im5ts ) ! view to e/abli% x4 ,ni*olson1 ,c>lisle1 & ,cruick%ank also paid great att5tion to ! subject4 ,volta1 al?\gh he _h laid ! f\ndation1 did n v5ture to build ^u x4 ,messrs4 ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle f\nd ! two k9ds ( electricity 9 ! pile1 ! z9c be+ positive & ! silv] negative4 ,!y also f\nd t ! wat] 0 decompos$ bo? 9 ! circuit & 9 ! body ( ! pile4 ,subsequ5tly ,cruick%ank confirm$ ,ni*olson's obs]vations1 & made use ( :at is t]m$ ! 8tr\gh0 app>atus4 ,he f\nd t hydrog5 0 emitt$ f ! silv] or upp] end1 & oxyg5 f ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,volta's c\ronne des tasses4 ,^! discov]ies op5$ up a wide field4 8,! p[] ( ! pile 9 decompos+ *emical sub/ances 0 n[ e/abli%$40 ,dr4 ,h5ry employ$ galvanism = analysis1 & ,sir ,humphrey ,davy inv5t$ new comb9ations ( sub/ances4 ,he =m$ a pile ( *>coal & z9c1 & f\nd out t a pile c\ld consi/ ( only "o metal1 diff]5t fluids be+ appli$ to ! opposite surfaces sep>at$ by wat]1 & "o fluid 8capable ( oxidat+ ! metal1 ! o!r ( prev5t+ ! effect ( oxidation40 ,soon aft] a pile 0 made ( *>coal4 ,9 #ahjf1 ,sir ,h4 ,davy gave ! results ( 8 rese>*es to ! _w ^u ! electro-*emical action ( bodies4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 exp]im5ts he f\nd out ! *emical con/itu5ts ( ! alkalies1 & a surpris+ numb] ( new ?+s 7 br\ght to light1 & *emical sci5ce receiv$ a mo/ a/oni%+ ally4 ,sir ,w4 ,s4 ,h>ris says3 8,a s]ies ( new sub/ances 7 spe$ily discov]$1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* _h nev] be=e be5 imag9$4 ,oxyg51 *lor9e1 & acids 7 all dragg$1 z x 71 to ! positive pole1 :ile metals1 inflammable bodies1 alkalies1 & e>?s became det]m9$ to ! negative pole ( ! 7galvanic7 batt]y4 ,:5 wires connect$ ) ea* extremity ( ! new batt]y 7 tipp$ ) prep>$ & well-po9t$ *>coal1 & ! po9ts br\ght ne> ea* o!r1 !n a mo/ int5se & pure evolution ( light foll[$1 :i* on sep>at+ ! po9ts ext5d$ to a gorge\s arc40 ,s ! elem5ts ( all bodies 7 sep>at$ & ! composition ( _! comp\nds closely inve/igat$4 ,mi*ael ,f>aday ?rew himself con amore into ! "q4 ,he set ab\t to classify ! pile ph5om5a1 & arrang$ !m ) appropriate t]ms1 & 9 a s]ies ( pap]s1 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahcj & #ahdj 7see 8 8,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es071 he expla9$ ! *emical effects ( voltaic electricity & electro-magnetic induction4 ,he %[$ t ! electricities obta9able f ! voltaic pile & ! electrical ma*9e are ess5tially ! same 9 _! action4 ,he prov$ t ! !ory held respect+ ! necessity = ! pres5ce ( wat] 9 electro-*emical composition 0 errone\s1 & t _m o!r fluids & comp\nds 7 equally effective4 ,we h n space at our disposal to include a dige/ ( 8 v>i\s lectures & pap]s4 ,he calculat$ t z mu* electricity is employ$ 9 hold+ ! gases oxyg5 & hydrog5 toge!r 9 a gra9 ( wat]1 8z is pres5t 9 a dis*>ge ( lightn+40 ,:5 wat] is decompos$ by ! electric curr5t1 ! =ce :i* det]m9es ! oxyg5 & acid matt] held 9 solution to ! positive1 :ile ! hydrog5 passes to ! negative pole1 is n 9 ! poles1 b 9 ! body decompos$1 he says4 8,! poles10 writes ,f>aday1 8are m]ely ! surfaces or doors by :i* ! electricity ent]s into or passes out ( ! decompos+ sub/ance4 ,!y limit ! ext5t ( t sub/ance 9 ! c\rse ( ! electric curr5t1 be+ its t]m9ation 9 t direction4 ,h5ce ! elem5ts evolv$ pass$ s f> & no f>!r40 ,f>aday nam$ ! poles 8electrodes0--! way 79 or out7 ( electricity4 ,a v simple voltaic pile may be con/ruct$ ) 8gold-leaf0 pap]4 ,take two %eets ( ! gold pap] & pa/e !m back to back1 & two ( silv] pap]2 cut !m into discs ab\t ! size ( a five-%ill+-piece 7or ev5 ( half-a-cr[n71 & place !m "o on ! top ( ! o!r1 s z ! gold & silv] may be alt]nate2 press ! discs toge!r slightly :5 a good _m lay]s h be5 pil$ up1 & introduce !m into a glass tube2 close ! ends ( ! tubes ) corks ?r\gh :i* wires are pass$ f ! discs top & bottom4 ,x w be f\nd t ! ends are *>g$ ) opposite electricities4 ,?is is ! ,zamboni pile1 or ! dry pile1 :i* 0 con/ruct$ ( hundr$s ( pap] discs 8t9n$ on "o side1 & cov]$ ) b9oxide ( manganese on ! o!r10 put into a tube1 & clos$ ) brass /opp]s4 ,! electricity w la/ a long "t 9 a dry pile4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4--,! ,galvanic ,pile4 ,9 ! accompany+ illu/ration ( ! ,galvanic ,pile a disc ( copp] is at ! bottom & a disc ( z9c at ! top4 ,! latt]1 ,p1 is ! positive pole2 ! =m]1 ,n1 ! negative4 ,:5 ! wires are unit$ ! curr5t is clos$1 & no sign ( di/urbance c be detect$1 al?\gh ! action1 ( c\rse1 is proce$+ )9 ! pile4 ,! opposite k9ds ( electricity neutralize ea* o!r1 & if a cont9u\s supply 7 n kept up ! electricity w\ld disappe>2 b z x is1 a p[]ful curr5t is obta9$1 & if ! wire be divid$ a sp>k w be obs]v$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,buns5 ,batt]y4 ,!re are _m =ms ( galvanic batt]ies4 ,! ,tr\gh ,batt]y or ,cruick%ank has be5 m5tion$4 ,!re is ,wolla/on's ,pile1 ,buns5's ,batt]y1 ,grove's ,batt]y1 & ,daniell's1 call$ ! 8,con/ant0 ,batt]y4 ,9 ?is la/ a por\s e>!nw>e cell is plac$ )9 a cyl9d] ( copp]2 9 ! cell a rod ( z9c is ins]t$1 ! cell be+ fill$ ) dilut$ sulphuric acid1--"o "p ( acid to t5 p>ts ( wat]1--& 9 ! out] cyl9d] is a solution ( sulphate ( copp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--;,daniell's ,batt]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--;,grove's ,batt]y4 ,! cut above illu/rates ,daniell's ,batt]y 7fig4 #bbc7 ) connectors4 ,9 ,buns5's ,batt]y 7or ! ,z9c-,c>bon ,batt]y71 :i* is v l ! 8,daniell0 arrangem5t1 z w be se5 f ! plates 7figs4 #bbb1 #bbc71 ! por\s cell has a prism ( c>bon imm]s$ 9 x1 & is app>5tly a modification ( ! p[]ful 8,grove0 ,batt]y 7fig4 #bbd74 ,?is consi/s ( slips ( plat9um1 h1 plac$ 9 por\s cells1 g1 ea* cell be+ surr\nd$ by a glass cyl9d]4 ,! out] 7glass7 cells are fill$1 or ne>ly fill$1 ) dilut$ sulphuric acid2 nitric acid is us$ 9 ! por\s cells1 & a plat9um plate ins]t$4 ,! *emical action ( ! ,grove cell is ?us expla9$ by ,pr(essor ,/ew>t3 8,! z9c dissolves 9 ! dilute sulphuric acid1 & dur+ ?is process hydrog5 gas is giv5 (f4 ,b ?is hydrog5 does n rise up 9 ! %ape ( bubbles2 x f9ds its way into ! por\s vessel :i* conta9s ! /rong nitric acid4 ,x !re decomposes ! acid1 tak+ "s oxyg5 to itself1 s z to become wat] 7hydrog5 & oxyg5 =m+ wat]71 & !reby turn+ ! nitric into nitr\s acid1 :i* %[s its pres5ce by /rong orange-col\r$ fumes40 ,by ?is decomposition ( ! nitric acid ! pol>ization ( ! plat9um 7due to hydrog57 is avoid$4 ,! por\s cell1 :ile keep+ ! liquids ap>t1 does n int]f]e ) ! *emical action4 ,a great numb] ( cells are us$ 9 ! ,grove ,batt]y2 p]haps ev5 a hundr$ may be employ$4 ,smee's ,batt]y consi/s ( a plate ( plat9iz$ silv]1 ,s1 ) a b> ( wood to prev5t contact ) ! z9c on ea* side1 ,z4 ,^! are imm]s$ 9 a glass j>1 ,a1 :i* conta9s dilute sulphuric acid4 ,! curr5t is obta9$ by metallic communication ) ! b9d+-screws on ! top4 ,?is batt]y has mu* ! same g5]al arrangem5t z ,wolla/on's--! position ( ! plates be+1 h[ev]1 rev]s$2 9 ! latt] !re are two negative plates to "o positive4 ,9 ,smee's ,batt]y !re are two positive 7z9c7 plates to "o negative plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--,smee's ,cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--,smee's ,batt]y4 ,x w n[ be und]/ood h[ an electric curr5t is produc$2 ! electricity pass+ ?r\gh ! cells1 etc41 to wires1 conf]s c]ta9 prop]ties ^u ! wires1 & we c asc]ta9 ! effect ( ! curr5t by means ( a ,galvanomet]1 an in/rum5t us$ to detect ! /r5g? & direction ( electric curr5ts4 ,! curr5t w evolve heat & light2 x w excite muscul> action1 & w decompose sub/ances into _! con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,! deflection ( ! magnetic ne$le by ! electric curr5t is consid]$ ! be/ evid5ce ( its p[]2 x is on ?is t ! ,galvanomet] is bas$4 ,we c p]=m a few simple exp]im5ts ) ! curr5t4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 t a piece ( f9e wire be fix$ betwe5 ! pole wires ( ! batt]y2 x w be heat$ 8:ite hot40 ,or if two c>bon po9ts be approa*$ 9 a glass ( wat]1 z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bbg71 !y w emit a brilliant light 9 ! fluid f ! voltaic arc :i* has giv5 u ! electric light4 ,! curr5t is ! passage ( electricity along ! wire1 & cont9ues until ! work+ p[] or 8pot5tial0 ( "o conductor is equal to t ( ! o!r4 ,:5 !y become equal ( c\rse ! action ceases1 z !re is equilibrium4 ,b :5 an app>atus l ! galvanic batt]y is br\ght to be> s t ! =ce ( electricity f "o conductor is made always great] ?an t ( ! o!r conductor1 we h a cont9u\s fl[ :ile ! action ( ! batt]y goes on4 ,"o view ( ! pr9ciple is ?us express$ by ,pr(essor ,gordon3#af 8,if two metals be plac$ ne> toge!r1 b n 9 contact1 9 a liquid :i* acts *emically m ^u "o ?an ^u ! o!r1 ! metals become *>g$1 s t ! "o lea/ act$ on is ( high] pot5tial ?an ! "o mo/ act$ on4 ,! diff]5ce ( pot5tial produc$ dep5ds only ^u ! nature ( ! metals & ( ! liquid1 & n on ! size or position ( ! plates4 ,z soon z ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial has rea*$ its con/ant value ! *emical action ceases4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--,! ,voltaic arc4 8,if n[ ! metals are connect$ by a wire outside ! liquid ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial beg9s to dim9i%1 & an electric curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ! wire4 ,z soon z ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial becomes less ?an ! maximum = ! metals & liquid1 *emical action recomm5ces & br+s x up to ! maximum2 & ?us if no di/urb+ cause int]f]es ! curr5t w cont9ue until ! metal mo/ act$ on is entirely dissolv$40 ,! metal mo/ act$ on is consid]$ ! 8g5]at+ plate10 & is 8positive40 ,! o!r attack$ less is 8negative10 & is kn[n z ! 8collect+ plate10 & ! z9c is ! positive plate4 ,sir ,w4 ,?omson has %[n t ! electrical movem5t 9 ! galvanic circuit is entirely due to ! electrical diff]5ce produc$ at ! surfaces ( contact ( ! dissimil> metals4 ,! electro-motive =ce obta9$ is n ! same ) all metals4 ,we h m5tion$ t "s are electro-positive & "s electro-negative1 & x is ) ref]5ce to ea* o!r t ! metals are consid]$ to be end[$ ) ^! prop]ties respectively4 ,x all dep5ds h[ ! metals are arrang$ or c\pl$4 ,) ref]5ce to _! behavi\r 9 ?is respect sci5ti/s h arrang$ !m 9 a s]ies1 z foll[s3-- #a4 ,z9c4 #b4 ,cadmium4 #c4 ,t94 #d4 ,lead4 #e4 ,iron4 #f4 ,nickel4 #g4 ,bismu?4 #h4 ,antimony4 #i4 ,copp]4 #aj4 ,silv]4 #aa4 ,gold4 #ab4 ,plat9um4 #ac4 ,graphite4 ,ea* metal 9 ! li/ is arrang$ s t x is electro-positive to any "o bel[1 & electro-negative to any "o above x4 ,!re is ano!r curi\s fact :i* %\ld be m5tion$4 ,9 associat+ ^! metals x has be5 f\nd t :5 two are br\ght into contact ! electro-motive =ce becomes great] ! m di/ant !y are 9 ! s]ies giv5 above2 9 o!r words1 ! =ce betwe5 any two is equal to ! sum ( ! =ces betwe5 ^? int]v5+ betwe5 ^? two4 ,s :5 z9c is us$ ) copp] its =ce is n s great z :5 us$ ) plat9um4 ,x 0 ,h]r ,g4 ,s4 ,ohm :o laid d[n ! law t ! /r5g? ( ! electric curr5t is equal to ! electro-motive =ce divid$ by ! resi/ance1 = he prov$ t ! 8resi/ance 0 inv]sely proportional to ! /r5g? ( a curr5t40 ,!re are two o!r laws respect+ curr5ts2 viz41-- 7#a47 ,p>allel curr5ts 9 ! same direction attract ea* o!r4 7#b47 ,p>allel curr5ts 9 opposite directions repel ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,*emical action ( electricity4 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,^u ^! two hang all ! v>i$ ph5om5a ( electro-dynamics4 ,t *emical action develops electricity we c p]ceive ) ! aid ( ! two cuts 7figs4 #bbh & #bbi74 ,if ! wires be atta*$ to ! collect+-plate ( a cond5s] ( electricity & ! metal plate ( a cell1 z %[n 9 ! figure 7fig4 #bbh71 ! electricity on ! plate w be negative4 ,if ! op]ation be rev]s$1 & ! plate be put 9 connection ) ! acid1 & ! metal ) ! e>?1 ! in/rum5t w be *>g$ ) positive electricity4 ,9 ! o!r case1 :5 two cups are us$1 unit$ by a magnet s t ! solutions 7"o acid & ! o!r alkal9e7 c by capill>y attraction unite ^u ! b9d+ ( ! magnet1 & we place ! wires z 9 fig4 #bbi1 ! *>ge on ! plate w be positive if x be 9 connection ) ! acid1 & negative if 9 communication ) ! alkal9e solution4 ,e "t !re is *emical action betwe5 two bodies 9 contact electricity is produc$--positive on "o negative on ! o!r1 & t is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! voltaic pile4 ,! decomposition ( wat] c also be effect$ by means ( ! electric curr5t4 ,if two tubes or vessels be plac$ 9 a vase ( wat]1 & ! wires f ! batt]y be ins]t$ 9 !m respectively1 ! oxyg5 w g to ! plat9um or positive pole wire1 & ! hydrog5 to ! z9c or negative pole4 ,?is decomposition or 8splitt+ up0 ( compon5ts 0 t]m$ ,,electrolysis by ,f>aday1 :o gave a s]ies ( names to ! action & ! actors 9 ^! ph5om5a 7fig4 #bcj74 ,any liquid body1 su* z ! wat] we h j decompos$ = in/ance1 ,f>aday t]m$ an electrolyte2 ! surfaces :]e ! curr5t ent]s or leaves ! body 7 call$ electrodes--! 8ways10 f odos1 a 8way02 ! entry is ! anode2 ! leav+ po9t ! katode1 f ana1 8up10 & kata1 8d[n40 ,! electrolyte is divid$ into two portions1 8ions0 78mov]s071 :i* move t[>ds ! electrodes1 :i* are positive & negative4 ,9 ! case ( ! decomposition ( wat] ! hydrog5 goes to ! negative electrode1 ! oxyg5 to ! positive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--;,decomposition ( wat]4 ,!re are a few obs]vations to be made respect+ electrolysis4 ,"o rule is1 t x 8nev] takes place unless ! electrolyte is 9 a liquid /ate40 ,! liquid /ate is ess5tial4 ,x is also obs]v$ t ! compon5ts g to ! diff]5t electrodes2 su* elem5ts z g to ! negative electrode are t]m$ electro-positive1 ! o!rs electro-negative2 or1 z ,f>aday t]m$ !m1 8anions0 or 8kations30 ,! *emical p[] or electrolytic action ( ! curr5t is ! same at all p>ts ( ! circuit2 ! quantity ( ! sub/ance decompos$ is 9 exact proportion to ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t4 ,f>aday measur$ ! /r5g? ( ! electric curr5t1 & inv5t$ = ! purpose an in/rum5t call$ ! ,voltamet]4 ,we h m5tion$ ! ,galvanomet] m ?an once1 & w proce$ to describe x4 ,!re are sev]al =ms ( ?is in/rum5t3 ! ,tang5t1 ! ,m>9e1 & ! ,reflect+ ,galvanomet]s1 & ! ,a/atic1 or 8,multipli]40 ,9 ! fir/-nam$ ! direction ( ! curr5t is det]m9$ by ,ampre's rule1 :i* is z foll[s3-- 8,imag9e an obs]v] plac$ 9 ! wire s t ! curr5t %all pass ?r\gh him f 8 feet to 8 head2 let him turn 8 face to ! ne$le3 its nor? pole is always deflect$ to 8 left side40 ,! 8,tang5t0 ,galvanomet] consi/s ( a v]tical circle l an upright r+1 across :i* is a support 9 ! c5tre hold+ a copp] wire1 ?r\gh :i* ! electric curr5t passes4 ,on ?is po9t 7:]e ! wire is7 a ne$le is v lightly support$1 & :5 ! in/rum5t is to be us$ x is plac$ s t ! plane ( ! circle is p>allel to ! l9e 9 :i* ! ne$le po9ts4 ,! curr5t passes1 & ! ne$le is deviat$4 ,by not+ :i* side ! nor? end ( ! ne$le goes ! direction ( ! curr5t is asc]ta9$1 & ! l5g? ( ! ne$le be+ small 9 comp>ison ) ! diamet] ( ! circle ?r\gh :i* ! curr5t passes1 ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t 9 ! v]tical circle is 9 proportion to ! tang5t ( ! angle ?r\gh :i* ! ne$le turns4 ,h5ce ! t]m 8,tang5t0 ,galvanomet]4 ,! 8,reflect+0 in/rum5t is ! inv5tion ( ,sir ,william ,?omson1 9 :i* a mirror is atta*$ to ! ne$le1 & reflects a small focus ( light ^u a scale4 ,! movem5ts1 h[ev] m9ute1 are easily read4 ,sir ,w4 ,?omson's ,galvanomet]s are extremely s5sitive4 ,we ne$ n m5tion any o!r v>ieties1 z full descriptions c easily be obta9$4 ,we only ne$ to indicate ! mode ( work+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4--;,galvanomet]4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #bca7 %[s an ,a/atic ,galvanomet] :i* may be us$ 9 two ways--ei!r to measure /r5g? ( curr5t1 or to f9d out a curr5t2 9 ! latt] case x w\ld be t]m$ a ,galvanoscope4 ,x is a comp\nd ne$le in/rum5t1 & consi/s ( two ne$les plac$ 9 p>allel directions ) opposite poles above ea* o!r 9 a coil4 ,! wire coil is w\nd r\nd a bobb91 & ! a/atic ne$le is plac$ !re9 & susp5d$ freely1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 by a cocoon ?read4 ,! upp] ne$le moves ^u a scale1 ,o ,o1 & ! in/rum5t is enclos$ 9 a glass %ade4 ,! screw1 ,v1 communicates ) ! upp] ne$le1 & fixes x at z]o po9t :5 ready = use4 ,! wires are fa/5$ to ! b9d+-screws1 & ! curr5t is !n s5t4 ,! ne$le is deflect$ accord+ly1 & ! numb] ( degrees on ! scale c be read (f4 ,! uses ( ! galvanic curr5t are _m4 ,among/ !m ,electroplat+ is p]haps ! mo/ g5]ally useful1 ?\gh ,electrotyp+ is also a v important process 9 art4 ,a visitor to ,birm+ham may view ! process c>ri$ on !re by "s ent]pris+ firms1 :o h succe$$ wond]fully 9 produc+ electro-plate4 ,! pr9ciple is v simple & easy to und]/&1 b ! greate/ c>e & wat*fulness are requir$ on ! "p ( ! m5 employ$4 ,! pr9ciple1 z we h said1 is simple1 & consi/s 9 ! fact t if a plate ( metal be susp5d$ & atta*$ to ! positive pole ( a galvanic batt]y & imm]s$ 9 a solution ( ! same metal1 ! conduct+ sub/ance hung opposite at ! negative pole becomes coat$ ) ! metal imm]s$ 9 ! solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,tr\gh = electro-deposition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,plates imm]s$4 ,suppose we take a plate ( silv]1 & imm]se x 9 cyanide ( silv] dissolv$ 9 cyanide ( potassium2 a coat+ ( silv] w be deposit$ ^u ! nickel spoon or o!r article susp5d$ at ! o!r pole4 ,b to make ! coat+ adh]e ! spoons1 =ks1 etc41 are prep>$ = ! ba? by cleans+ 9 cau/ic pota% to remove grease1 & wa%$ 9 nitric acid to remove all traces ( oxide1 !n are sc\r$ ) s&4 ,next1 a ?9 coat+ ( m]cury is put on by imm]sion 9 solution ( nitrate ( m]cury4 ,f9ally1 !y are hung 9 ! ba?4 ,a metal rod is hung across ! ba? 7fig4 #bcb71 & ! plate is imm]s$4 ,if ! rod to :i* ! articles are susp5d$ be atta*$ to ! z9c or negative pole1 & ! plate ( silv] to ! positive pole ( ! batt]y1 decomposition beg9s1 & ! silv] beg9s to atta* itself to ! susp5d$ objects4 ,if x be desirable to give ! plat$ articles a ?ick coat+1 !y are reta9$ = a long "t 9 ! ba?1 :i* is ( "s non-conduct+ mat]ial4 ,! dull appe>ance is easily remov$ by bru%+ & burni%+1 & !n ! 8,electro-plate0 is ready = ! w>eh\se4 ,! gild+ process is p]=m$ 9 ! same mann]1 a gold plate be+ sub/itut$ = ! silv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,m$ico-galvanic ,batt]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4--;,batt]y 9 case4 ,,electrotyp+ may be briefly expla9$ z foll[s3--,take two vessels1 ,a & ,b1 & 9 "o1 ,a1 put "s dilute sulphuric acid & two plates1 "o ( z9c1 ,z1 ! o!r ( copp]1 ,d1 b be sure !y are n t\*+ ea* o!r2 ea* ( ^! plates mu/ h a piece ( wire fa/5$1 by sold]+ to _! upp] p>ts4 ,9 ! vessel1 ,b1 put "s solution ( sulphate ( copp] & a small quantity ( dilute sulphuric acid1 & atta* ano!r copp] plate to ! wire :i* comes f ! copp] plate 9 ! acid2 ?is second copp] plate is to be imm]s$ 9 ! solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 & to ! wire f ! z9c plate is to be fix$ ! object to be coat$4 ,if a m$allion or o!r object 9 pla/]1 x %\ld be soak$ 9 v hot wax & !n bru%$ ov] ) blacklead until ! surface is p]fectly black5$ & bright2 ! wire %\ld be b\nd all r\nd ! m>g9 & sold]$ 7z x 77 ) melt$ wax to ! m$allion1 tak+ c>e t ?is wax also is well coat$ ) blacklead4 ,if ! object be n[ imm]s$ 9 ! sulphate ( copp] solution & kept at a %ort di/ance f ! plate 7x mu/ n t\* x71 a coat+ ( copp] w soon cov] ! surface & =m a p]fect ca/1 :i*1 :5 ( suffici5t ?ickness1 may be remov$ by fil+ ! edge all r\nd4 ,if in/ead ( ! pla/] ca/ a copp] co9 or o!r copp] object be us$1 ! blacklead+ is n requir$1 b ! surface mu/ be fir/ made clean & bright4 ,_m uses are made ( ! galvanic curr5t by m$ical m54 ,if ! circuit ( ! pile is clos$ & we take a wire 9 ea* h& & break contact1 a concussion w be felt 9 ! jo9ts ( ! arm & f+]s1 & a c]ta9 contraction ( ! muscles4 ,! curr5ts ( electricity cause ! %ocks1 & by a peculi> arrangem5t by :i* ! circuit c be clos$ or brok5 at pleasure1 a s]ies ( %ocks c be s5t ?r\gh ! body :5 x =ms ! connection betwe5 ! poles ( ! batt]y4 ,we give illu/rations ( a m$ico-galvanic ma*9e4 ,9 fig4 #bce !re are two batt]ies1 ,a & ,b1 ) cells1 ,c ,d4 ,ea* batt]y consi/s ( a c5tral plate ( plat9iz$ silv] sep>at$ f ! z9c plates by a piece ( wood1 ,e & ,f2 ! b9d+-screws are fa/5$ to ! silv] plates1 & ,g ,h reta9 ! z9c plates2 ,i is a copp] b& connect+ ! z9c plate ( "o batt]y ) ! silv] plate ( ! o!r4 ,at ,z & opposite are wires lead+ to ! coil ma*9e4 ,! quantity & int5sity ( ! curr5t are regulat$ respectively by ! indicator1 ,o1 & ! wires1 ,q4 ,!re is a po9t1 ,r ,s1 = ! break+ ( ! contact2 ,p ,n are screws reta9+ ! wires :i* lead to ! h&les1 ,u ,v1 grasp$ by ! pati5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,fig4 #bch4 ,horse-%oe magnets4 ,! electric curr5t is employ$ 9 _m diseases1 & is ( great use 9 "s cases1 b ! fur!r consid]ation ( x ) ref]5ce to its m$ical applications does n fall )9 ! scope ( our pres5t "w4 ,we w n[ pass on to "o ( ! mo/ useful applications ( ! electric =ce1 ! ,telegraph1 & 9 deal+ ) x we mu/ make a few rem>ks ^u magnetism4 ,fir/1 let u make an exp]im5t or two1 & see ! reciprocal action betwe5 electricity & magnetism4 7#a47 ,if we take a piece ( iron ( ! =m ( a horse-%oe 7fig4 #bcf71 & w9d ar\nd x copp] wire1 & pass ?r\gh ! wire an electric curr5t f our batt]y1 ! iron w exhibit /rong magnetic prop]ties1 :i* x w lose :5 ! curr5t is int]rupt$4 ,! conduct+ wires are insulat$ ) silk1 & ! curr5t w !n travel 9 "o direction4 7#b47 ,if we cov] ! ends ( a non-magnetic piece ( iron ) coils ( wire1 & rotate ! magnet1 ,a ,b1 s z to cause ! poles to approa* ea* end ( ! iron alt]nately1 an electric curr5t w be e/abli%$ 9 ! wire4 7#c47 ,ref]r+ to ! fir/ exp]im5t1 if we br+ a ne$le 9 contact ) ! iron horse-%oe1 :ile ! curr5t is pass+ ?r\gh ! wire we %all f9d t ! ne$le has become a magnet2 i4e41 t x w po9t due nor? & s\? :5 susp5d$4 ,we w n[ see :at a ,magnet is1 & :y x has obta9$ ?is "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4--,magnetic attraction4 ,9 ,magnesia1 9 ,lydia1 9 old5 times 0 f\nd a /one ( peculi> attributes1 :i* _h ! prop]ty ( attract+ small portions ( iron4 ,! ,*9ese 7 acqua9t$ ) x1 & n[adays x is f\nd 9 _m places4 ,9 our *ildhood we h all read ( x 9 ! /ory ( 8,s9bad ! ,sailor40 ,popul>ly x is kn[n z ! load/one2 *emi/s call x magnetic oxide ( iron 7,f#b,o#c74 ,?is /one is a natural magnet4 ,9 ,sw$5 x exi/s 9 great quantities z 8magnetic iron10 = x has a great aff9ity = t metal4 ,if we rub a piece ( /eel ^u ! load/one we conv]t ! =m] into a magnet--an artificial magnet z x is call$1 & ! magnetic ne$le s useful to u 9 our compasses & 9 ! work+ ( "o =m ( ! electric telegraph is ?us obta9$4 ,let u see h[ ?is ne$le acts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,simple t\*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4--;,d\ble t\*4 ,take a magnetic ne$le & du/ ^u x "s iron fil+s4 ,y w obs]ve t ! fil+s w be attract$ to bo? ends ( ! magnet1 b ! c5tre w rema9 uncov]$4 ,! ends ( a magnet are t]m$ 8poles10 ! c5tre ! equator4 ,s "o end is nor? & ! o!r s\?1 & we might p]haps imag9e t ! same *>act]i/ics w\ld abide 9 ! b> :5 x is cut 9 two4 ,b we f9d t z :5 a worm is divid$1 ea* portion gets a new head or tail1 & makes a p]fect worm1 s 9 ! magnet ea* divid$ half becomes a p]fect magnet ) sep>ate poles1 "o ( :i* always po9ts to ! nor?4 ,! poles ( ! magnet display ! same ph5om5a z reg>ds attraction & repulsion1 z d ! opposite k9ds ( electricity4 ,if we susp5d a magnet & br+ ! nor? pole ( ano!r to ! nor? pole ( ! susp5d$ magnet1 ! latt] w turn away2 b if we apply ! nor? pole ( "o to ! s\? pole ( ! o!r !y w be attract$ j z opposite electricities attract ea* o!r4 ,,magnetization is ! t]m appli$ to ! mak+ ( artificial magnets1 :i* act is accompli%$ by br++ ! ne$le 9 contact ) o!r magnets1 or sometimes by means ( ! electric curr5t4 ,if we c>efully /roke ! ne$le ) ! magnet1 always 9 ! same direction1 lift+ ! magnet & beg9n+ afre% e "t1 we %all magnetize ! ne$le1 b ) a diff]5t pol>ity f ! pole x 0 rubb$ )4 ,a magnet rubb+ its nor? pole aga9/ a ne$le w make ! latt]'s po9t s\?1 & vice v]s4 ,n[ t we h se5 h[ ! 8magnetic ne$le0 is arriv$ at1 we c proce$ to expla9 ! electric telegraph4 ,! t]m telegraph is d]iv$ f ! ,greek words tele1 8f>10 & graphe91 8to write10 & n[ includes all modes ( signall+4 ,signall+1 or telegraph+1 is ( v anci5t orig92 ! ,roman g5]als spelt words by fire4 ,! beacons fir$ on ! hills1 ! 8,fi]y ,cross10 & o!r anci5t modes are well kn[n4 ,! semaphore & flags h long be5 & are /ill us$ z modes ( signall+1 :ile ! fla%+ ( ! heliograph 8telegraphs0 to a di/ant camp4 ,! ,semaphore 0 inv5t$ by ,*app1 & 0 really ! fir/ practical sy/em ( telegraphy4 ,x 0 adopt$ 9 #agid1 b be=e ?is1 9 #agec1 a lett] appe>$ 9 ! ,scots ,magaz9e1 by ,*>les ,m>%all1 sugge/+ t signals %\ld be giv5 by means ( electric wires1 equal 9 numb] to ! lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,soon aft]w>ds ,lesage1 ( ,g5eva1 made an electric telegraph to be work$ by frictional electricity1 & _m +5i\s attempts 7 subsequ5tly made to utilize electricity = signall+ purposes1 b )\t any p]man5t success2 inde$1 ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 7 q cont5t ) _! semaphores1 = !y wrote t 8telegraphs ( any k9d are n[ :olly unnecess>y1 & no o!r ?an ! "o n[ 9 use w be adopt$06 ,! ,electric ,telegraph has _h consid]able antiquity claim$ = x1 b x is pretty c]ta9 t ! discov]y made by ,doctor ,watson1 9 #agdg1 t electricity w\ld pass ?r\gh wires1 & t ! e>? w\ld complete ! circuit1 gave ! fir/ impetus to ! ,electric ,telegraph4 ,doctor ,watson 0 enabl$ to transmit %ocks across ! ,?ames1 & made exp]im5ts at ,%oot]s ,hill4 ,frankl9 did likewise across ! ,s*uykill 9 #agdh1 & ,de ,luc p]=m$ ! same exp]im5ts on ! ,lake ( ,g5eva4 ,bo? ,lesage & ,lomond caus$ pi? balls to div]ge at di/ant po9ts1 & 9 #agid ,reiz5 made use ( ! electric sp>k = transmitt+ signals1 & made /rips ( foil %[ out c]ta9 lett]s :5 ! sp>k pass$4 ,he _h a wire & a return wire = ea* lett] ( ! alphabet4 ,^! 7 all sl[ advances1 & subsequ5tly _m le>n$ m5 9 ,europe s\ght to improve ^u ! ideas !n promulgat$4 ,we read ( telegraphs con/ruct$ at ,madrid by ,salv & ,betanc\rt 9 #agig & #agih1 "o ext5d+ = m ?an tw5ty miles4 ,! fir/-nam$ g5tleman f9ally propos$ to sub/itute ! ,voltaic pile = ! usual ma*9e1 & ,ronalds & ,dy> 9 ,engl& & ,new ,york respectively employ$ frictional electricity ) "s success4 ,! latt] s5t *>ges ( frictional electricity ?r\gh a wire1 & !y 7 record$ by be+ made to pass ?r\gh litmus pap]4 ,! di/ances betwe5 ! dis*>ges 7 int5d$ to indicate ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 b ev5 if ! exp]im5t 0 fairly tri$ x fail$1 = little 0 he>d ( ! result4 ,aft] ! inv5tion ( ,volta's pile1 :i* ,salv wi%$ to adopt1 ,smm]+ began 8 exp]im5ts4 ,he us$ ?irty-five wires1 set up v]tically at ! bottom ( a glass res]voir ( wat]1 & t]m9at+ 9 gold po9ts4 ,^! wires end$ 9 ! opposite direction 9 brass plates atta*$ to a b> ( wood4 ,at "o end ! po9ts & at ! o!r ! plates bore ! same lett]s respectively2 hydrog5 at "o gold po9t1 & oxyg5 at ano!r1 & two diff]5t lett]s 7 indicat$ :5 ! curr5t 0 s5t ?r\gh any two plates4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 aft]w>ds improv$ ^u1 & only two wires reta9$4 ,x 0 n until electro-magnetism _h be5 develop$1 h[ev]1 t r/ead f\nd out ! p[] ( electricity to deflect ! magnetis$ ne$le1 & 9 #ahbj1 ,s*eweigg] add$ a 8multipli]40 ,!n came ,arago into ! field ) 8 discov]y1 t a 8wire c>ry+ a curr5t c\ld magnetise a /eel rod40 ,ampre sub/itut$ a helix = a /raight wire1 & ,/urgeon us$ s(t iron = /eel1 & develop$ ! electro-magnet4 ,daniell's batt]y1 & ,f>aday's discov]ies ( magneto-electricity & ! induction coil 7 ! means ( putt+ a con/ant supply ( electricity at ! s]vice ( ! telegraph & s on1 till #ahcj br\ght out a m practical me?od introduc$ by ,s*ill+4 ,9 t ye> ,b>on ,s*ill+ made a telegraph1 & exhibit$ x 9 #ahcb at ,bonn4 ,?is inv5tion1 ) five v]tical ne$les1 0 %[n to ,mr4 ,cooke 9 #ahcf4 ,b 9 #ahcd1 ,gauss & ,web] _h succe$$ 9 s5d+ signals by means ( a voltaic curr5t act+ ^u a magnetis$ ne$le1 & ?is app>atus 0 really ! fir/ practical electric telegraph 9 use1 & x 0 mu* improv$ by ,pr(essor ,/e9heil ( ,muni*4 ,!y employ$ a magnetic-electro ma*9e1 & caus$ a b> to move 9 c]ta9 directions to indicate c]ta9 lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,?is 0 really ( value1 b ,/e9heil1 ! pupil ( ,gauss1 assi/$ by 8 gov]nm5t1 employ$ only a s+le wire1 & made ! e>? complete ! circuit = him in/ead ( hav+ a return wire z 8 pr$ecessors _h4 ,?is telegraph 0 p]fect$ by a s]ies ( bells1 :i* gave diff]5t tones = diff]5t lett]s1 & he also caus$ ! ne$le to make c]ta9 trac+s z x mov$ ^u a pap] slip1 some?+ l ! ,morse patt]n1 :i* 0 complet$ 9 #ahcg4 ,pr(essor ,morse1 9 #ahcb1 conceiv$ ! idea ( an electric telegraph b 8 claim 0 disput$ by a ,doctor ,jackson1 :o 0 on ! same vessel :5 ! subject 0 discuss$4 ,we ne$ n ent] into ! details ( ! controv]sy4 ,mr4 ,morse won ! day1 & pat5t$ 8 inv5tion4 8,x 0 once a popul> fallacy 9 ,engl& & else:]e t ,messrs4 ,cooke & ,:eat/one 7 ! orig9al inv5tors ( ! electric telegraph4 ,! electric telegraph _h1 prop]ly speak+1 no inv5tor4444 ,messrs4 ,cooke & ,:eat/one 71 h[ev]1 ! fir/ :o e/abli%$ a telegraph = practical purposes comp>atively on a l>ge scale1 & 9 :i* ! public 7 m ne>ly conc]n$4444 ,!re=e x 0 t ! names ( ^! ent]pris+ & tal5t$ inv5tors came to ! public e>1 :ile ^? ( ,ampre & ,/e9heil rema9$ comp>atively unkn[n4#ag ,! telegraph1 z us$ 9 ,great ,brita91 0 ! result ( ! co-op]ation ( ,pr(essors ,cooke & ,:eat/one4 ,mr4 ,cooke1 9 #ahcf1 hav+ se5 ! ne$le telegraph :5 9 ,heidelb]g1 made c]ta9 designs1 & soon ent]$ into p>tn]%ip ) ,pr(essor ,:eat/one = ! application ( electric telegraphs to railways4 ,_! app>atus ) five ne$les & five wires 0 put up on ! ,london & ,nor?-,we/]n 7!n ,london & ,birm+ham7 & ,great ,we/]n l9es1 b prov$ too exp5sive4 ,! in/rum5t 0 subsequ5tly modifi$1 & is us$ on ! ,engli% railways /ill4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,cell4 ,we may n[ proce$ to look at ! ,:eat/one ne$le telegraph & see ! me?od ( work+ x4 ,we "k already t :5 a pair ( metallic plates are imm]s$ 9 a fluid :i* acts *emically m rapidly on ! "o ?an ! o!r1 & a wire connects ! upp] p>ts ( ^! plates1 ?is wond]ful ag5cy is set 9 motion1 & circulates f ! "o plate to ! o!r 7fig4 #bdb74 ,?is arrangem5t may be be/ %[n by us+ "o plate ( z9c & ! o!r ( copp]1 & a dilute solution ( sulphuric acid = ! liquid2 ?is1 h[ev]1 produces by f> too little ( ! ag5t to be us$ on a telegraphic l9e1 !re are !re=e comb9ations ( su* pairs ( plates1 s arrang$ t ! p[] ( "o pair %all be add$ to ! next 9 su* a way t at ! end ( ! s]ies 7call$ a 8batt]y07 !re %all be a great increase ( ! p[] accumulat$2 ?is arrangem5t is %[n 9 fig4 #bdd4 ,n[ 7if ! p[] be suffici5t7 x does n signify :at l5g? ( wire !re may be betwe5 ! two ends ( ?is arrangem5t or 8batt]y02 :e!r !y be connect$ by a few feet or _m hundr$ miles1 ! electricity passes in/antane\sly f "o end to ! o!r2 & fur!rmore1 x has be5 f\nd 9 practice1 t ?is electrical influ5ce c be transmitt$ ?r\gh ! e>? 9 "o direction if s5t by a wire 9 ! o!r2 = in/ance1 if a wire f "o end ( ! batt]y be c>ri$ on f ,london to ,liv]pool1 in/ead ( hav+ ano!r f ,liv]pool to ,london1 to connect ! two ends ( ! batt]y1 x is f\nd to answ] ! same purpose if ! end ( ! wire at ,liv]pool be fa/5$ to a plate ( metal buri$ b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ! o!r end ( ! batt]y at ,london furni%$ ) a simil> plate1 also buri$4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t1 ! electricity w pass b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>? f ,liv]pool to ,london1 & ?r\gh ! wire f ,london to ,liv]pool1 ?us complet+ ! circuit4 ,! end f :i* ! electricity passes is call$ ! 8positive electrode10 t to :i* x returns1 ! 8negative electrode40 ,fig4 #bde w %[ ?is arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--,! ,ne$le ,telegraph4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--,! ,batt]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,! circuit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,magnetic ne$les4 ,if a b>-magnet be susp5d$ on a pivot s t x may turn freely1 x w 7z is well kn[n7 turn ) "o end to ! nor?1 :i* is ow+ to a curr5t ( natural electricity pass+ r\nd ! e>? 9 ! direction ( ea/ & we/1 ! magnet cross+ ! curr5t at a "r angle2 & if a coil ( wire coat$ ) silk 7to keep "o "p ( ! coil f ano!r7 be plac$ r\nd1 above1 & bel[ ! long axis ( a b> ( /eel1 z %[n at fig4 #bdf1 & a curr5t ( electricity pass$ ?r\gh ! wire1 ! /eel becomes a magnet1 & w take a direction simil> to ! natural magnet1 m or less1 at "r angles to ?is coil1 z 9 fig4 #bdg1 accord+ to ! int5sity ( ! curr5t2 & ! in/ant ?is electrical curr5t is /opp$1 x w resume its =m] direction4 ,?is fact has be5 made use ( to =m ! pr9cipal feature ( all ,engli% telegraphs2 su* a ne$le is m\nt$ 9 an upright position1 & in/ead ( its t5d5cy to turn to ! nor?1 a t5d5cy to ma9ta9 ! upright position is giv5 to x by hav+ "o ( ! arms ( ! magnet a little heavi] ?an ! o!r2 su* a magnet hav+ a coil ( wire surr\nd+ x4 ,:5 ! electric curr5t passes ?r\gh ! coil1 x w turn out ( ! upright position to ei!r "o side or ! o!r1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! curr5t1 f its t5d5cy to assume a position at an angle !reto 7fig4 #bdh72 if ! curr5t be /opp$ ev5 = an in/ant1 !n ! ne$le1 or magnet1 w aga9 assume its upright position4 ,! pivot ( ?is magnet is br\ght =w>d1 & has on its front "p ano!r ne$le1 :i* turns ) x2 ?is is visible on ! outside ( ! app>atus1 & is look$ at to asc]ta9 ! movem5t ( ! "o )94 ,!re is also an arrangem5t call$ a 8commutator10 s contriv$1 t by mov+ a h&le to ! "r or left1 a connection %all be made ) ei!r end ( ! batt]y1 & !reby cause ! direction ( ! curr5t & ne$le to be *ang$ at pleasure2 also by mov+ ! h&le into an upright position ! curr5t %all be /opp$2 & f9ally1 by a ?ird movem5t1 a bell %all be rung4 ,n[1 z has already be5 expla9$1 :5 ! curr5t goes 9 "o direction1 ! magnetic ne$le is deflect$ 9 t direction2 & :5 ! curr5t is rev]s$ ! position ( ! ne$le is also rev]s$1 & :5 ! curr5t is cut (f ! ne$le w resume its p]p5dicul> position4 ,if two su* ne$les & two su* h&les be at ea* /ation1 :5 ! h&les at "o /ation are mov$1 ! ne$les at ! o!r /ation w take on a simil> movem5t2 & :5 ! h&les at t /ation are mov$1 ! ne$les at ! fir/ /ation w be mov$ to correspond4 ,?is con/itutes ! sy/em ( communication kept up by ! electric telegraphs 9 ,engl&2 b x rema9s to be %[n h[ all ! lett]s ( ! alphabet & num]als c be repres5t$ by ! movem5ts ( ! two h&les4 ,^! h&les c be plac$ 9 eight positions 7besides ! upright "o7 by a s+le movem5t ( ea* h&1 z may be se5 9 fig4 #bdi2 & ^! eight signals if repeat$1 or made twice 9 rapid succession w make eight m1 & by be+ repeat$ ?ree times w con/itute a ?ird eight1 mak+ tw5ty-f\r2 f9ally1 by a rapid motion "r & left1 !y may be caus$ to signify a f\r? eight1 or ?irty-two signals1 :i* are f\nd to be suffici5t = e purpose1 & by practice may be bo? produc$ & read (f ) facility4 ,be=e a message is ab\t to be deliv]$ ! commutator is s plac$ z to r+ a bell1 :i* is done by ! same arrangem5t z 9 a common al>m-clock1 b ! action is set 9 motion by a peculi> contrivance1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! prop]ty a b> ( s(t iron has ( becom+ magnetic :5 a wire is w\nd r\nd x & a curr5t ( electricity pass$ ?r\gh ?is wire2 ?is magnetic prop]ty exi/s only z long z ! curr5t passes1 & /ops ! in/ant x is cut (f4 ,! cat* ( ! al>m is dis5gag$ by ! movem5t ( a b> ( iron be+ drawn to ! magnet :ile ! curr5t passes1 & =c$ back aga9 by a spr+ :5 x is /opp$1 ?us sett+ 9 action ! me*anism ( ! al>m2 or 9 "s cases !re is a simple contrivance = caus+ a rapid fl[ & /oppage ( ! electricity1 s t ! b> is alt]nately attract$ by ! magnet & releas$ by ! spr+1 & ?is motion r+s ! bell z long z x is cont9u$4 ,! bell is always rung to give notice t a message is ab\t to be s5t1 & at ! /ation :]e x r+s1 ! bell at ! =m] /ation is rung 9 return1 to %[ t !y are prep>$ to receive ! message3 :i* is !n spelt1 lett] aft] lett]1 by mov+ ! h&les into ! prop] positions1 & z x is be+ s5t1 ! eye is kept on ! dials1 c]ta9 s+le signs are made & recognis$1 :i* w communicate any reply f ! /ation to :i* ! message is be+ s5t1 su* z 8repeat10 or 8n und]/ood40 ,! wires :i* convey ! electricity are made ( galvanis$ iron 7iron coat$ ) z9c71 & z !y mu/ be kept f all communication ) ! e>? by "s sub/ance incapable ( conduct+ x1 !y are !re=e /ret*$ betwe5 wood5 poles 7fig4 #bej71 & re/ ^u sockets or supports ( glass or glaz$ e>!nw>e1 :i* are bo? sub/ances incapable ( conduct+ ! electricity to ! e>? 7fig4 #bea71 & 9 ord] t ^! may be q dry1 an inv]t$ cup ( metal1 glass1 or e>!nw>e is plac$ ov] x1 or ! :ole is bl[n or m\ld$ 9 "o piece4 ,if ! support = ! wires 7 n kept f ! ra91 ! wet w\ld =m a conduct+ surface1 & all[ ! electricity to escape into ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--;,h&les & ne$les ( telegraph4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,telegraph wires4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4--;,insulator4 ,! ,telegraph ,alphabet1 9 ! two-ne$le in/rum5t1 n[ n g5]ally us$ 9 ,engl&1 is giv5 bel[4 ,,two-,,ne$le ,,alphabet4 ,movem5ts ( ,fir/ ,ne$le4 ,( ,second ,ne$le4 ,( bo? ,ne$les toge!r4 ,a is signifi$ by mov+ ne$le once to "r ,b 8 8 8 once to left ,c ,by mov+ ne$le once to "r ,d 8 8 once to left ,e ,mov+ to "r4 ,f ,mov+ to left4 ,g twice to "r ,h 8 to left ,i 7or ,j7 ,twice to "r ,k 8 left ,l ,twice to "r4 ,m ,twice to left4 ,n ,"o to "r1 "o to left ,o ,"o to left1 "o to "r ,p ,"o to "r1 "o to left ,o ,"o to left1 "o to "r ,r ,"o to "r1 "o to left4 ,s ,"o to left1 "o to "r4 ,t ,two to "r1 "o to left ,u ,"o to "r1 two to left ,v ,two to "r1 "o to left ,w ,x ,"o to "r1 two to left ,y ,two to "r1 "o to left4 ,z ,"o to "r1 two to left4 ,9 ! s+le ne$le in/rum5t ! lett]s are indicat$ by "r & left vibrations1 f ,a "o "r1 to ,b "o "r & left1 & s on1 increas+ to ,z4 ,?is mode is n[ g5]ally us$4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! curr5t passes is %[n by ! foll[+ illu/rations 7figs4 #beb1 #bec74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #beb4--,passage ( ! curr5t 7#a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4--,passage ( ! curr5t 7#b74 ,= ! sake ( cle>ness1 ! diagram has be5 drawn ) simple l9es only4 ,9 ! real ne$le-ma*9e ! con/ruction is mu* m complicat$2 p]spective draw+s ( x may be se5 9 ,l>dn]'s 8,electric ,telegraph10 & num]\s o!r works4 ,9 fig4 #a1 ,b is a s+le cell ( a batt]y conta9+ a plate ( copp]1 ,c1 & a plate ( z9c1 ,z1 imm]s$ 9 sulphuric acid & wat]4 ,h is ! h&le ( ! in/rum5t1 turn+ f left to "r1 & vice v]s1 l ! h&le ( a door1 consi/+ ( two pieces ( brass insulat$ f ea* o!r by be+ ins]t$ 9 an axis ( ivory4 ,to ! ends ( ! two pieces ( brass are fix$ ! wires1 ,,cw & ,,zw1 lead+ f ! copp] & z9c ends ( ! cell respectively4 ,fix$ on ea* side ( ! h&le are two plates ( metal1 :i* may be call$ ,,lp1 ! left plate1 & ,,rp1 ! "r plate4 ,!y are connect$ ) ! ne$le wire1 ,,nw1 :i* passes be=e & beh9d ! magnetiz$ ne$le1 ,n1 susp5d$ p]p5dicul>ly on its axis1 ) its nor? pole upw>ds4 ,z long z ! wires1 ,,cw & ,,zw1 rema9 insulat$ f ea* o!r1 no curr5t passes f ! cell2 b z soon z ! h&le1 ,h1 is turn$1 s t ! copp] end t\*es ! left plate 7fig4 #b71 & ! z9c end t\*es ! "r1 communication is e/abli%$ betwe5 ! plates ( ! cell1 & ! curr5t comm5c+ at ! copp] passes along ,,cw1 ! top half ( ,h1 into ,,lp1 along ,n ,w1 travell+ up be=e & d[n beh9d ! ne$le1 caus+ x to deflect to ! obs]v]'s left1 accord+ to ! rule giv5 above4 ,rea*+ ,,rp1 x passes d[nw>ds to ! cell to ,z1 & s on to ,c1 cont9u+ its travels & keep+ ! ne$le deflect$ z long z ! h&le rema9s 9 contact ) ! plates4 ,if x is requir$ to deflect ! ne$le to ! "r1 ! h&le is turn$ to ! "r1 br++ its copp] end 9 contact ) ! "r plate1 caus+ ! curr5t to travel 9 ! opposite direction4 ,by foll[+ ! curr5t f ! copp] to ! z9c1 z indicat$ by ! arr[s 9 fig4 #c1 x w be se5 t x n[ travels up beh9d & d[n be=e ! ne$le1 deflect+ x to ! obs]v]'s "r4 ,?us1 by caus+ a curr5t ( voltaic electricity to pass alt]nately up be=e & d[n beh9d1 & up beh9d & d[n be=e1 ! ne$le is mov$ to ! left or ! "r at w4 ,! way 9 :i* ! curr5t is made to act on a di/ant ne$le is n[ simple4 ,! foll[+ figure 7fig4 #bec7 %[s ! arrangem5t4 ,! left portion ( ! figure repres5ts an in/rum5t at ,london1 t on ! "r an in/rum5t at ,york4 ,! ne$le-wire1 in/ead ( be+ cont9u$ directly to ! z9c plate ( ! batt]y1 passes away f ! ne$le ov] poles to ,york1 :]e x jo9s an in/rum5t simil> 9 all respects to t at ,london4 ,x passes simil>ly be=e & beh9d a magnetiz$ ne$le1 jo9+ ! "r plate ( ! in/rum5t4 ,z long z ! two plates are unconnect$1 no curr5t c pass4 ,! curr5t is !re=e complet$ by a contrivance :i* may be repres5t$ by ! semicircul> piece ( metal1 ,k4 ,9 practice ! two plates or spr+s1 :i*1 :5 n 9 use1 are always press$ aga9/ ! connector1 ,k1 :i* is a cross-piece on ! top ( ! h&le1 keep+ ! ,london ne$le 9 circuit ) ! ,york batt]y1 & vice v]s4 ,z soon z ,london uses 8 h&le1 x presses ! spr+-plate1 & puts 8 ne$le out ( ! ,york circuit1 ! curr5t he sets up s5d+ ,york ne$le to ! "r or left1 z ! case maybe4 ,! second wire connect+ ! left ,york plate ) ! "r ,london plate is1 x w be se51 n c>ri$ along l ! fir/ wire4 ,use is made 9 ?is case ( ! conduct+ p[] ( ! e>? itself1 plates f ! wires be+ buri$ _m feet bel[ ! surface at ,london & ,york4 ,:5 ,london wi%es to speak to ,york1 he fir/ signifies 8 int5tion ( s do+ by r++ ,york's al>um4 ,?is he effects by s5d+ a curr5t ?r\gh an electro-magnet plac$ above ,york's in/rum5t4 ,! armature is attract$1 & frees ! det5t ( ! al>um1 sett+ x r++ until ,york signals ready4 ,london !n /ops ! bell1 & comm5ces 8 message4 ,by foll[+ ! direction ( ! curr5t1 :5 ! h&le is turn$ to ! left1 z 9 fig4 #d )9 fig4 #bec1 x w be readily se5 h[ ?is is effect$3 comm5c+ ) ,london's copp]1 ,,lc1 x passes up be=e & d[n beh9d ,london's ne$le1 fl[+ along ! wire betwe5 ! two cities to ,york's ne$le1 up be=e & d[n beh9d :i* x travels1 s5d+ x also to ! left4 ,x !n passes to ,york's "r plate1 ?r\gh ! connector to ! left plate1 & s on to e>? at ,york1 com+ to ! surface aga9 at ,london1 pass+ ?r\gh ,london's "r plate & ?r\gh ! l[] "p ( ! h&le to ! z9c ( ! batt]y4 ,! rev]se curr5t may be easily foll[$4 ,any numb] ( in/rum5ts ) simil> ne$les may be int]pos$ along ! c\rse ( ! wire4 ,:5 ! op]ator wi%es to speak to any p>ticul> "o1 he r+s all ! bells = att5tion1 & !n signals ,d]by or ,nott+ham1 z ! case may be4 ,!y all !n ?r[ _! in/rum5ts out ( curr5t except ! "o requir$4 ,! mode by :i* ! ne$le movem5ts are conv]t$ into language is simple4 ,a is signall$ by caus+ ! ne$le to vibrate once to ! "r1 ,b once "r & once left1 ,c once "r & twice left2 & s on1 z arrang$4 ,! foll[+ is ! alphabet 7) numb]s7 once 9 use on ! ,s\?-,ea/]n ,railway = ! d\ble-ne$le in/rum5t4 ,! table is tak5 f ,mr4 ,walk]'s translation ( ,de la ,rive's "w on ,electricity & ,magnetism4 ,a is signifi$ by two movem5ts ( left ne$le to left4 ,b 0 by ?ree 0 0 0 ,c 7& fig4 #a7 by two 0 0 "r fir/1 !n left4 ,d 7& fig4 #b7 by two 0 0 left fir/1 !n "r4 ,e 7& fig4 #c7 by "o 0 0 to ! "r4 ,f by two 0 0 0 ,g by ?ree 0 0 0 ,h 7& fig4 #d7 by "o 0 "r ne$le to ! left4 ,i by two 0 0 0 ,j 7same z ,g74 ,k by ?ree 0 0 0 ,l 7& fig4 #e7 by two 0 0 "r & left4 ,m 7& fig4 #f7 by two 0 0 left & "r4 ,n 7& fig4 #g7 by "o 0 0 to ! "r4 ,o by two 0 0 0 ,p by ?ree 0 0 0 ,q 7same z ,k74 ,r 7& fig4 #h7 by "o p>allel movem5t ( l[] po9ts1 bo? ne$les to ! left4 ,s by two 0 0 0 ,t by ?ree 0 0 0 ,u 7& fig4 #i7 by two 0 0 fir/ "r1 !n left4 ,v 7& fig4 #j7 by two 0 0 fir/ left1 !n "r4 ,w by "o movem5t ( bo? ne$les 7l[] po9ts7 to "r4 ,x by two 0 0 0 0 ,y by ?ree 0 0 0 0 ,z 7same z ,s7 or specially4 ,! ,morse sy/em ( telegraphy 0 fir/ br\ght out 9 #ahdd1 & 0 work$ by means ( a ,voltaic batt]y1 an electro-magnet be+ us$ at ! receiv+ /ation4 ,?is magnet attract$ an 8armature10 & by x dots or l9es are m>k$ on a mov+ pap] b& by a po9t at ! o!r end ( ! wire1 on ! regi/] 9 :i* ! pap] is c>ri$ by roll]s :i* move out by clockwork4 ,! lev] be+ 8tapp$0 d[n 9 fa/ or sl[ pressures w give a correspond+ s]ies ( dots or l9es 7accord+ z ! pressure is long or %ort7 ^u ! mov+ /rip ( pap] at ! receiv+ /ation4 ,?ree taps w give ,c1 "o tap & a pause w make ,a4 ,! dots are 8taps0 on ! key1 ! l9es brief 8re/s0 on x1 z w be se5 f ! alphabet bel[1 :i* is giv5 z a specim54 ,,morse ,,alphabet4 ,a 4- ,b -444 ,c 44 4 ,d -44 ,e 4 ,f 4-4 ,g --4 ,h 4444 ,i 44 ,j -4-4 ,k -4- ,l - ,m -- ,n -4 ,o 4 4 ,p 44444 ,q 44-4 ,r 4 44 ,s 444 ,t - ,u 44- ,v 444- ,w 4-- ,x 4-44 ,y 44 44 ,z 444 4 ,,numb]s4 #a 4--4 #b 44-44 #c 444-4 #d 4444- #e --- #f 444444 #g --44 #h -4444 #i -44- #j ,! v>i\s /ops are also indicat$ 9 ! same mann] by comb9ations ( dots & l9es4 ,! ,atlantic telegraph cables & simil> enclos$ wires betwe5 o!r c\ntries are too well kn[n to ne$ detail$ description4 ,!re is a great v>iety ( telegraphic in/rum5ts4 ,! dial1 & o!r arrangem5ts1 are v common1 & ! ,:eat/one ,key in/rum5t is suppli$ to private firms z be+ ! mo/ h&y4 ,x requires b a v %ort appr5tice%ip1 & any p]son :o is h&y c easily le>n to "w x 9 a few m9utes4 ,! app>atus consi/s ( a dial ^u :i* ! lett]s ( ! alphabet are pr9t$1 ea* lett] be+ suppli$ ) a key or /op4 ,a po9t] is plac$ 9 ! c5tre1 z 9 ! :eel b>omet]1 & !re is a h&le b5ea?4 ,9 front1 ^u a slop+ bo>d1 is ano!r dial plate & po9t]2 ?us we h ! receiv] & transmitt] be=e u 9 a v small space4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bed4--,receiv]4 ,dial ,telegraph4 ,fig4 #bee4--,manipulator4 ,:5 x is necess>y to "w ! in/rum5t a bell is rung by turn+ ! h&le rapidly4 ,to speak by ! in/rum5t x is necess>y to keep turn+ ! h&le ) ! "r h& :ile ! f+]s ( ! left are employ$ 9 press+ d[n 9 z rapid succession z practice w p]mit ! keys correspond+ to ! lett]s on ! dial :ile ! h&le is kept turn+4 ,:5 a ^w is complet$ ! op]ator mu/ /op at ! at ! top1 & !n beg9 aga91 /opp+ aft] ea* ^w4 ,:5 all is said1 a c\ple ( rapid turns ( ! dial w signify t y h end$4 ,!re are _m o!r sy/ems ( telegraph1 b all are dep5d5t ^u ! same pr9ciples4 ,! accompany+ illu/rations 7figs4 #bed1 #bee7 %[ a dial telegraph ( a simple k9d1 :i* almo/ expla9s itself4 ,! fir/ figure is ! receiv]1 on :i* is a po9t] fix$ to a dial-plate hav+ ! lett]s ( ! alphabet inscrib$ ar\nd x4 ,:5 ! manipulator is be+ work$ ! d>t po9ts to ! lett]s 9 succession ( ! words us$1 & !y are sep>ately spelt4 ,! manipulator 7fig4 #bee71 by clos+ & op5+ ! circuit1 works ! ne$le4 ,9 ! manipulator we h a :eel ) an index po9t fix$ above x4 ,9 ?is :eel are ?irte5 tee?1 ) ! op5+s betwe5 !m fill$ ) ivory4 ,! axis ( ! :eel is 9 contact ) ! wire f ! positive pole1 p1 & a spr+ atta*$ to ! wire or by ! b9d+-screw1 t1 presses aga9/ ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 & completes ! circuit4 ,:5 ! :eel is plac$ s t ! arr[ po9t is above ! 1 ! ne$le ( ! receiv] is also at 4 ,by turn+ ! :eel to br+ ! ne$le to ,a1 ! spr+ on ! circumf]5ce is pass$ f an ivory 8too?0 to a 8metal0 "o2 ! circuit is clos$1 ! po9t ( ! receiv] also turns to ,a1 & s on ?r\gh ! ^w by successive clos+ & break+ ( ! circuit4 ,z !re are a great _m o!r applications ( electricity ( :i* we h to treat1--! ,electric ,light1 & ,mr4 ,edison's o!r inv5tions1--our space w n p]mit a mu* m detail$ acc\nt ( ! telegraph1 b !re are "s incid5ts connect$ ) its progress :i* x w\ld be z well to m5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bef4--;,electric cable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beg4--,ocean cable4 ,alex&] ,ba91 ab\t #ahdj1 attempt$ to produce a pr9t+ telegraph1 & 9 #ahdf he actually accompli%$ a regi/]+ app>atus1 :i* 0 an application ( ! pr9ciples ( ,dy> & ,davy4 ,b al?\gh ,ba9's sy/em 0 good1 ,morse _h ! advantage ( possession 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e x 0 tri$1 & ,ba9 w5t out ( fa%ion4 ,ba9's sy/em 01 9 fact1 ! pres5t *emical 8automatic0 telegraph1 :i* has be5 p]fect$ = rapid transmission4 ,bakewell's in/rum5t1 :i* has be5 improv$ ^u by lat] electricians1 is t]m$ ! fac-simile telegraph4 ,! message to be s5t is writt5 ) a p5 :i* has be5 dipp$ 9 v>ni% 7= ink71 & ! *>act]s are inscrib$ ^u prep>$ t9foil4 ,! message is !n put ^u a cyl9d] cov]$ ) prep>$ pap]1 & has a po9t] atta*$4 ,!re is a precisely simil> cyl9d] at ! receiv+ /ation4 ,:5 ! cyl9d]s are simultane\sly set go+1 ! po9t at "o w trace a spiral l9e z ! fir/ 7transmitt+7 po9t passes r\nd its cyl9d]4 ,h[ev]1 z ! latt] 8/ylus0 meets ! v>ni% lett]s a break occurs1 & ^! spaces are exactly reproduc$ z blanks at ! o!r end1 & ! =m ( ! lett]s c be se54 ,coselli1 9 8 adaptation1 caus$ d>k lett]s to be regi/]$ on a :ite gr\nd1 & ?us simplifi$ matt]s4 ,s9ce !n we h _h pr9t+ telegraphs1 & dials1 & writ+ ma*9es1 "o ( :i* w be describ$ pres5tly4 ,subm>9e telegraphs 71 x is said1 fir/ sugge/$ by ,salv 9 #agig1 & ,:eat/one1 9 #ahdj1 decl>$ t x 0 q possible to connect ,engl& & ,france by wire4 ,morse & ,calt exp]im5t$ ) subm>9e cables 9 ,am]ica1 & ,lieut5ant ,siem5s fir/ appli$ gutta-p]*a to ! wires z an insulator 9 ! ,prussian l9e ( telegraph across ! ,rh9e4 ,! ,engli% laid a wire betwe5 ,dov] & ,calais1 :i* 0 brok51 b successfully relaid4 ,& s on1 till 9 #aheg ! great project ( ! ,atlantic cable 0 broa*$4 ,we give illu/rations ( ! cables2 ! circum/ances connect$ ) ! lay+ ( :i*1 & ! en?usiasm ov] ! successful accompli%m5t ( ! task1 mu/ be 9 ! memory ( all4 ,! read+s ( ! messages 7 %[n by delicate galvanomet]s1 ! beam ( light be+ reflect$ f a mirror4 ,?is cable 0 lo/1 & 9 #ahfb ,mr4 ,field came ov] to urge ! importance ( ! subm>9e cable betwe5 ?is c\ntry & ,am]ica4 ,! cable 0 %ipp$ on ! ,great ,ea/]n 9 #ahfe1 & 0 #b1ahf miles long4 ,x consi/$ ( sev5 copp] wires twi/$1 & cov]$ ) gutta-p]*a4 ,! outside coat+ consi/s ( t5 iron wires surr\nd$ by manilla y>n4 ,b ?is cable broke1 & a ?ird 0 made & laid 9 #ahff4 ,! old cable 0 !n recov]$ & splic$4 ,!re are "s two hundr$ cables n[ 9 exi/5ce1 ! la/ be+ ! ,cape cable1 laid :5 ! ,bo] ,w> 0 engag+ our att5tion4 ,! transmitt+ app>atus ( ,mr4 ,v>ley & ,sir ,w4 ,?omson has greatly accel]at$ ! rapidity ( messages1 & ,?omson's syphon record] f>!r increas$ ! spe$4 ,! foll[+ description ( a new sy/em is f ,scribn]'s ,magaz9e = #ahhj3-- 8,,new ,,telegraphic ,,sy/em4 8,a new sy/em ( s5d+ & receiv+ electrical impulses ov] an insulat$ wire has rec5tly be5 br\ght into successful op]ation1 t seems to promise n only a radical *ange 9 ! pres5t me?ods ( telegraph+1 b a mat]ial ga9 9 ! spe$ & co/ ( s5d+ messages by wire4 ,x is f\nd$ on a union ( ! s-call$ 8automatic0 & 8*emical0 sy/ems ( telegraphy4 ,! fir/ ( ^! employs a /rip ( pap] hav+1 by "s me*anical means1 a s]ies ( small holes pun*$ 9 x1 ! design be+ to pass ! p]=at$ /rip "u a ne$le1 or /ylus1 9 electrical connection ) ! l9e4 ,?is /ylus1 on pass+ ov] ! pap]1 op5s ! circuit1 b 9 pass+ "o ( ! holes1 drops ?r\gh & closes x1--?is alt]nate mak+ & break+ ( ! circuit transmitt+ ! message4 ,! *emical telegraph records any electrical impulses s5t ov] a l9e by /a9+ a /rip ( prep>$ pap] pass+ "u x4 ,?is is f\nd$ on ! fact t electricity has ! p[] ( decompos+ c]ta9 *emicals1 & if pap] is soak$ 9 ^! *emicals & submitt$ to ! action ( electricity1 x w be discol\r$ :]ev] ! curr5t passes4 ,:ile bo? ( ^! sy/ems h be5 us$1 nei!r has be5 able to compete ) ! m simple ,morse key & s\nd]1 & x has rema9$ = ! new sy/em to br+ !m to a position :]e !y may come into g5]al use4 ,! new sy/em is a modification & comb9ation ( ! automatic & *emical sy/ems1 ! transmitt+ be+ p]=m$ by means ( a p]=at$ /rip ( pap]1 & ! receiv+ ( ! message be+ record$ by ! discol\ration ( *emically prep>$ pap]4 ,! process is entirely me*anical & *emical1 ! telegraph op]ator hav+ no direct control ov] ! message1 ei!r by sight1 s\nd1 or t\*4 ,! writt5 message is s5t to ! op]at+-room1 & giv5 to ! p]son us+ ! p]=at+ ma*9e4 ,?is consi/s ( a small key-bo>d1 ) black & :ite keys1 ea* m>k$ ) a lett] or sign1 & an +5i\s sy/em ( lev]s1 op]at$ by ! keys1 = pun*+ small holes 9 a ribbon ( pap] mov+ pa/ ! side ( ! ma*9e4 ,! ma*9e /&s ^u a small table1 & "u x is a treadle = giv+ motion to ! fe$+ app>atus = supply+ ! pap] to ! ma*9e4 ,! op]ator moves ! treadle ) 8 feet1 & at ! same "t t\*es ea* key to spell out ! message4 ,9 a v few seconds ! message is impr9t$ on ! ribbon 9 ! =m ( a d\ble r[ ( small p]=ations1 ea* gr\p ( two holes repres5t+ a da%1 & ea* s+le hole a dot1 z 9 ! ,morse alphabet4 ,ea* lett] is sep>at$ f ! next by a long] da%1 & ea* ^w by a /ill long] da%1 & ea* s5t5ce by a da% ( indef9ite l5g?4 ,?is spac+ ( ! lett]s is p]=m$ automatically1 ! spac+ ( words & s5t5ces is p]=m$ by ! op]ator4 ,! p]=at$ slip conta9+ ! message is !n s5t to ! transmitt+ ma*9e4 ,?is consi/s ess5tially ( a metallic :eel1 divid$ into two sections by means ( a ?9 insulation ( h>d rubb]4 ,"o section ( ! :eel is connect$ ) ! positive pole ( ! batt]y1 & ! o!r section ) ! negative pole4 ,a pair ( f9e metallic bru%es1 bo? ( :i* are connect$ directly ) ! l9e1 are susp5d$ above ! :eel1 & are arrang$ s z to press lightly ^u ! latt]1 :5 desir$4 ,:5 re/+ on ! :eel ! circuit is clos$1 & :5 rais$ above x ! circuit is brok54 ,! p]=at$ /rip is1 by a simple piece ( me*anism1 made to pass ov] ! face ( ?is :eel & "u ! bru%es4 ,:ile ! pap] is pass+1 bo? bru%es are rais$ f ! :eel1 & slide ov] ! pap]1 & ! circuit is brok54 ,on pass+ a hole1 "o ( ! bru%es drops ?r\gh & closes ! circuit = an in/ant4 ,on pass+ two or m holes1 arrang$ 9 a s]ies close toge!r1 ! bru% closes ! circuit = a %ort] or long] "t1 accord+ to ! numb] ( holes1 & z ! p]=ations on ! pap] are arrang$ 9 two r[s1 alt]nat+ f "o to ! o!r1 ! bru%es are us$ alt]nately1 & ! pol>ity ( ! curr5t is cont9ually *ang$ ) e impulse s5t ov] ! l9e4 ,no special skill is requir$ 9 s5d+ a message1 z ! op]ator has only to put ! p]=at$ /rip 9 ! ma*9e & turn a h&-crank1 to cause x to pass rapidly "u ! bru%es1 & ) a little practice1 a "y girl c s5d messages at ! rate ( "o ?\s& words a m9ute1 ) absolute precision4 ,! receiv+ app>atus consi/s ess5tially ( a simple piece ( me*anism = caus+ a /rip ( *emically prep>$ pap] to pass rapidly "u two small ne$les t are connect$ ) ! l9e4 ,z ! pap] passes ! ne$les1 ! electricity s5t ov] ! l9e f ! transmitt+ ma*9e seeks ! e>? ?r\gh ! wet pap] & ! ma*9e1 & 9 pass+ discol\rs ! pap]1 ea* /a9 repres5t+ a dot or da%1 & ! message is pr9t$ on ! pap] 9 a d\ble r[ ( m>ks at ! same spe$ ) :i* x 0 dispat*$4 ,9 practice1 a ,morse key & s\nd] is plac$ at ea* end ( ! l9e1 & on s5d+ a message ! transmitt+ op]ator calls ! receiv+ /ation1 & :5 ! op]ator at ! di/ant end replies1 bo? turn ! cranks 9 _! ma*9e swiftly1 & ! message is s5t & receiv$ at an av]age spe$ ( "o ?\s& words a m9ute4 ,! message receiv$ is giv5 to a p]son us+ a type-writ]1 & at once translat$ into pr9t & s5t out by ! mess5g] boy4 ,x is f\nd 9 practice t two op]ators1 "o at ea* end ( a s+le wire ( indef9ite l5g?1 c keep fifte5 op]ators fully employ$ 9 prep>+ ! messages1 & fifte5 girls busy 9 translat+ & pr9t+ ! messages = deliv]y4 ,! sy/em is ( ,am]ican orig940 ,( ! hundr$ & "o uses to :i* electric wires are n[ appropriat$--( ! al>ms1 fire-calls1 clocks1 etc4--we ne$ n speak4 ,we mu/ pass on to ! ,writ+ ,ma*9e 7fig4 #beh7 be=e we make m5tion ( ,mr4 ,edison's inv5tions4 ,! ,writ+ ,ma*9e is z rem>kable = ! simplicity ( its me*anism z = ! facility & ease ) :i* x c be us$4 ,x 0 inv5t$ by ,rem+ton1 ! ,am]ican1 ^: "n is s univ]sally kn[n 9 connection ) a repeat+ rifle4 ,he makes ^! writ+ ma*9es 9 8 own factory1 :]e he associates !m ) rifles & sew+ ma*9es--implem5ts = w> & peace4 ,! appe>ance ( ! ,writ+ ,ma*9e may be easily p]ceiv$ f ! illu/ration 7fig4 #beh71 :i* is drawn to scale "o-f\r? ( ! actual size4 ,x comprises a key-bo>d1 ^u :i* !re are =ty-f\r keys or /ops1 includ+ numb]s f #b to #i1 ! i & o ( ! alphabet s]v+ = numb]s #a & #j1 & all ! lett]s ( ! alphabet arrang$ 9 ! mann] mo/ conv5i5t = manipulation4 ,!re are also ! v>i\s acc5ts & /ops1 ) note ( int]rogation1 etc4 ,! flat rul] at ! base ( ! key-bo>d is /ruck :5 x is necess>y to sep>ate "o ^w f ano!r4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! app>atus e lett] is atta*$ to a small hamm]1 & corresponds to ! pressure be/[$ ^u ! notes1 :i* are dispos$ 9 a circle4 ,if ,a1 = example1 be t\*$ ^u ! key-bo>d1 ! hamm] w br+ ,a to ! c5tre ( ! circle1 & s e lett] ( ! ^w w be1 by su* action1 br\ght to ! c5tre ( ! circle 9 succession4 ,! pap] ^u :i* ! lett] is pr9t$ is w\nd ^u a cyl9d] m\nt$ ^u a slide1 z se5 9 ! upp] portion ( ! illu/ration4 ,:5 ! lett] is press$ d[n on ! key-bo>d ! correspond+ hamm] /rikes aga9/ ! cyl9d]1 betwe5 :i* & ! hamm] is a ribbon prep>$ ) a special ink4 ,! lett] be+ 9 relief l ord9>y type is impress$ ^u ! pap]4 ,! slide ^u :i* ! pap] is m\nt$ is s arrang$ z to move f "r to left exactly a lett]-bread? aft] ea* impression4 ,?us z e hamm] /rikes at ! same spot a regul> succession ( lett]s are pr9t$ (f1 ! pap] mov+ ) regul>ity4 ,:5 ! l9e is fill$--t is1 :5 ! pap] has mov$ across ! cyl9d]--a bell r+s1 & a h&le is mov$ by ! op]ator :o is ?us w>n$4 ,! lev] mov$ br+s ! slide back aga91 & a new pla9 surface is ready to comm5ce ^u ! cyl9d] mov+ upw>ds at ! same "t1 & display+ ! pr9t$ l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beh4--,rem+ton's ,writ+ ,ma*9e4 ,9 op]at+ bo? h&s may be employ$1 b betwe5 ea* ^w c>e %\ld be tak5 to press d[n ! flat bo>d at ! base ( ! key-bo>d1 :i* has ! effect ( leav+ a space ^u ! pap]4 ,imm$iately ! s\nd ( ! w>n+ bell is he>d ! lev] at ! "r-h& side mu/ be l[]$4 ,! ^w c be f9i%$ 9 ! l9e foll[+ if x be n conclud$1 ! hyph5 button be+ press$ to indicate ! cont9uation4 ,! pap] us$ mu/ n exce$ ! wid? ( ! cyl9d]1 b x may be ( any less wid?1 & a po/-c>d or any small %eet ( pap] may be sub/itut$4 ,if ! wid? be ?us limit$ ! l5g? may be indef9ite1 & a v long l9e ( pap] may be us$ if desirable4 ,! cyl9d] be+ made ( gutta-p]*a (f]s a s(t surface to ! impression ( ! hamm]1 & causes ! lett] to assume great] di/9ctness4 ,! ink$ ribbon :i* passes und]nea? ! pap] is s arrang$ t no two successive lett]s /rike x on ! same place4 ,x moves f an ink res]voir on ! "r to ano!r on ! opposite side1 & x c be made to return b5ea? ! pap]1 ?us keep+ up ! supply4 ,! impression be+ made 9 copy+ ink1 ! message or lett] :5 f9i%$ c easily be reproduc$ 9 an ord9>y press4 ,! *>act]s are all 8capitals40 ,at fir/ x may be f\nd a sl[ means ( writ+1 & ! manipulator may imag9e he c d bett] )\t x4 ,b if ! au?or be c]ta9 ( :at he int5ds to say1 aft] a little practice at ! in/rum5t1 & :5 he becomes accu/om$ to ! positions ( ! v>i\s lett]s1 etc41 ! rate at :i* words c be pr9t$ (f w f> exce$ t at :i* ev5 rapid writ]s c "w4 ,a "y ,engli% lady aft] "s days' practice 0 able to write z _m z n9ety words a m9ute ) ?is ma*9e--a rate m ?an d\ble ! av]age writ+ rate ( p5man%ip4 ,:5 su* a rate or an approximation to x c be atta9$1 ^? :o are quick 9 _! ideas w f9d ! ma*9e a great sav+ ( "t1 & = any "o afflict$ ) 8writ]'s cramp0 ! ga9 mu/ be enorm\s4 ,we ne$ n insi/ ^u ! advantages ! adaptation ( ! app>atus w\ld conf] ^u editors & read]s ( ,,mss4 too (t5 badly writt51 & to compositors ! inv5tion is a great boon4 ,f9ally1 ! work+ ( ! ma*9e c\ld be entru/$ to ! bl9d1 & by tea*+ !m ! =m ( lett]s :i* c\ld be rais$ ^u ! key-bo>d1 ^? s sadly afflict$ c\ld write ) facility4 ,"s me?ods = tea*+ ! bl9d to manipulate & to read f ! impressions ( ! hamm]s on ! pap] h already be5 tri$ ) success4 ,! ,electric ,p51 an inv5tion ( ! f]tile bra9 ( ,mr4 ,edison1 is %[n 9 fig4 #bei4 ,! 8writ+0 consi/s ( a s]ies ( little holes close toge!r1 made by a f9e /eel po9t l a put-crayon4 ,?is po9t is ?ru/ 9 & out ) great rapidity1 & passes quickly ov] ! pap]4 ,if ! *>act]s _c be =m$ s quickly z ) an ord9>y p51 ! writ+ is v di/9ct4 ,! alt]native movem5t is giv5 to ! p5 by an electric motor at once simple & +5i\s1 :i* is plac$ on ! top ( ! p5hold]4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! app>atus w be und]/ood f ! cut on next page4 ,! po9t is ! t]m9ation ( a wire :i* trav]ses ! p5hold]1 & ! upp] extremity ( :i* cat*es on ! motor by an ecc5tric4 ,?is ecc5tric has ?ree tee? or cogs1 & x makes sixty revolutions a second1 ?us produc+ "o hundr$ & eighty beats 9 t "t4 ,! axle c>ries a plate ( s(t iron1 :i* acts l ! armature ( an electro-magnet1 be=e :i* x turns ) great rapidity1 ! curr5t be+ int]rupt$ twice 9 e revolution by ! commutator4 ,! curr5t :i* moves ?is little app>atus is furni%$ by a pile ( two elem5ts 9 bi*romate ( pota%1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,edison's arrangem5t1 :i* is consid]$ v successful4 ,c>bon & z9c are employ$1 & :5 ready = action ! batt]y assumes ! appe>ance ( ! cells 9 ! illu/ration4 ,:5 ! op]ator wi%es to discont9ue writ+1 he simply raises ! /em :i* has ! electrodes atta*$ to x1 & ! elem5ts are ?us pres]v$ = a future "t4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! batt]y c\ld be made to la/ sev]al days )\t any r5ewal ( ! liquid1 & ! plates w la/ = weeks4 ,?us a v simple arrangem5t is at our disposal4 ,let u see :at use c be made ( x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei4--;,edison's ,electric ,p54 ,:5 we use ! electric p5 we obta9 a great numb] ( small holes close to ea* o!r4 ,su* h&-writ+ is n easy to deciph] by m]e inspection l ord9>y writ+4 ,by hold+ x up to ! light x is m easy to read1 b 9 bo? in/ances read+ is n easy1 nor does x come by nature z ,dogb]ry decl>es4 ,b if we consid] ! pap] z a 8negative10 we may obta9 a numb] ( positive pro(s or copies ( ! writ+4 ,to obta9 ^! successfully we mu/ use a press1 z %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #bfj74 ,! writ+1 or negative1 is plac$ ^u ! cov] to ! left1 :]e x is firmly fa/5$4 ,^u ! body ( ! press a %eet ( :ite pap] is plac$1 & :5 ! lid is %ut d[n ! negative comes 9 contact ) ! pap]4 ,by means ( a roll]1 repres5t$ 9 ! box1 ! writ+ is black5$1--! ink p5etrates into all ! holes :i* are ^u ! pap]1--& aft] ! mann] ( a /5cil plate ! impression w be f\nd ^u ! pap] :5 ! cov] is remov$4 ,! writ+ w h a curi\s effect1 b practice w spe$ily remove all defici5cies4 ,! same negative w s]ve = a great _m impressions1 q a ?\s& hav+ be5 tak5 f "o4 ,by p accu/om$ to su* "w z _m z six pro(s a m9ute may be obta9$4 ,( c\rse a little practice w be necess>y 9 ?is1 z 9 e o!r case1 be=e a correct or rapid result c be obta9$1 b !re is no difficulty 9 ! practice4 ,!re are two or ?ree o!r applications ( electricity :i* we mu/ ref] to2 su* z ! electric /amp1 ( :i* we give an illu/ration1 & a curi\s me?od ( /opp+ a horse by electricity4 ,! electric /amp might be v advantage\sly employ$ 9 our po/ (fices to oblit]ate ! 8,que5's ,head40 ,! description1 ) illu/ration ( ?is app>atus1 is annex$4 7,see fig4 #bfa47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--;,duplicat+ press4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! app>atus is a ?9 plat9um wire1 s arrang$ z to =m ei!r a design or an initial2 by ?is ! po/age /amp c be defac$4 ,! /amp be+ put 9 communication ) ! pile1 ! circuit is clos$ by ! pressure ( ! f+]1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! plat9um gr[s heat$ & c>bonises ! pap]1 & ?us proves itself an ineffaceable /amp4 ,?is app>atus may easily be us$1 n only by ! po/ (fice au?orities1 b by e "o :o is oblig$ to deface a c]ta9 numb] ( /amps e day1 & wi%es to d s rapidly & )\t possibility ( error4 ,an +5i\s1 if sc>cely necess>y arrangem5t = conqu]+ re/ive horses1 & fright5+ !m into submission1 is %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bfb74 ,_m means h be5 tri$ to /op or conqu] a re/ive horse1 b ! mo/ efficaci\s has be5 design$ by ,m4 ,defoy2 & ! director ( ! ,p>is ,g5]al ,omnibus ,company has exp]im5t$ successfully1 z we are in=m$1 ) ! arrangem5t we are ab\t to describe4 ,a small magneto-electric ma*9e is conta9$ 9 a box beside ! driv]1 )9 easy & conv5i5t rea* ( 8 h&4 ,! re9s conta9 a wire1 "o end ( :i* t]m9ates 9 ! horse's bit1 & ! o!r 9 ! electro-magnetic app>atus4 ,:5 ! electro-magnet is put 9 action an electric curr5t is g5]at$1 :i* gives ! horse a %ock 9 ! m\?1 & s a/oni%es him t he sudd5ly /ops 9 8 c\rse4 ,if ! op]ator h ! humanity & good s5se to unite k9dness to ! abrupt application ( ! electricity1--:i* 9 our op9ion %\ld be only us$ z a la/ res\rce1--no d\bt "s excell5t results may be obta9$ ev5 ) vici\s animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,! electric /amp4 ,m4 ,bella1 ! ,director ( ! ,omnibus ,company1 has report$ t ! app>atus 0 tri$ 9 8 pres5ce & f\nd v successful1 & q easy ( application2 & t ev5 ! mo/ unruly animals h be5 subject$ by x4 ,on "o occasion a mo/ re/ive animal 0 ?us treat$ on ! way to ! =ge4 ,he _h a trem5d\s objection to be %od1 & made no secret ( 8 dislike4 ,b a g5tle application ( ! electric curr5t put q an opposite complexion ^u ! matt]1 & aft] a few m9utes ! animal p]mitt$ himself to be patt$ & c>ess$1 & ev5 all[$ ! smi? to feel 8 legs & inspect 8 feet )\t mak+ any objection :atev]4 ,8 %oes 7 tak5 (f1 & ! horse 0 re-%od )\t any ( ! dang]\s demon/rations hi!rto indulg$ 9 by ! animal4 ,we may quote ano!r in/ance ( ! efficacy ( ?is me?od1 :i* is report$ f ,p>is by ,m4 ,camille4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--;,electric app>atus = *eck+ vici\s horses4 8,_m exp]im5ts h be5 made ^u horses :i* _h be5 mo/ difficult to %oe1 & 9 ea* case we h succe$$ :5 ! electric app>atus has be5 put 9 requisition4 ,"o horse1 9 p>ticul>1 no?+ c\ld subdue4 ,he kick$ & bit & jump$ ab\t 9 su* a mann] z to r5d] all approa* impossible4 ,we _h rec\rse at l5g? to ,m4 ,defoy's app>atus1 & aft] ! fir/ application1 & )\t any great difficulty1 we 7 able to raise ! animal's feet2 b aft] a second lesson we 7 p]mitt$ to %oe him )\t 8 (f]+ ! slighte/ resi/ance4 ,he 0 completely subdu$40 ,m4 ,defoy rec5tly made ! exp]im5t ) a v dang]\s animal1 :i* he /opp$ in/antane\sly 9 full gallop 7see fig4 #bfb74 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! application ( ! curr5t is n suffici5tly /rong to /op ! horse too sudd5ly4 ,x m]ely causes a v unpleasant s5sation--he is n /upefi$ nor galvaniz$ by ! electricity4 ,! n>rator has felt ! %ock appli$ )\t inconv5i5ce1 & ! conclusion arriv$ at is1 t ?is me?od ( employ+ electricity is f> sup]ior to ! viol5t & inhuman treatm5t s (t5 employ$ to break horses1 :i* r5d]s !m subsequ5tly sulky & v9dictive4 ,m4 ,defoy has complet$ an electric bit & an electric /ick q z +5i\s z ! electric re94 ,! modus op]&i is simple & effective1 ! wires be+ insulat$ by lea!r1 & t]m9at+ at ! extremities ( ! /ick4 ,! curr5t is induc$1 z be=e1 by a small magneto-electric ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,electric ,"t ,ball4 ,,footnotes3 #ae ,encly4 ,metrop4 #af 8,treatise on ,electricity & ,magnetism40 #ag ,sab9e3 8,! ,electric ,telegraph40 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,magnetism4 ,,! ,,load/one--,,magnetic ,,curves--,,! ,,magnetic ,,ne$le--,,! ,,m>9]',s ,,compass--,,magneto-,,electricity4 ,we h already m5tion$ "s ( ! prop]ties ( ! load/one or magnet2 b z we are n[ ab\t to ent] m fully into ! consid]ations ( its attributes & ( ! compass1 etc41 we w add "s fur!r int]e/+ p>ticul>s4 ,anci5t writ]s 7,pl9y1 ,hom]1 & ,ari/otle7 m5tion$ ! exi/5ce ( ! magnet1 & ,humboldt ref]s to ! k ( x possess$ by ! anci5ts4 ,pl9y says 8! magnet-/one is f\nd 9 ,cantabria10 & we h he>d ( ! load/ones t are suppos$ to support ,mahomet's c(f9 at ,m$9a4 ,! orig9 ( ?is fable 0 7probably7 ow+ to ! ord] giv5 by ,ptolemy to 8 ar*itect1 ,d9o*>es4 ,ptolemy wi%$ ! ro( ( a temple at ,alex&ria to be ro($ ) ! magnet-/one1 s t ! own image ( 8 si/]1 ,ars9oe1 %\ld rema9 susp5d$ !re94 ,b ! dea? ( ! k+ & 8 ar*itect prev5t$ ! project f be+ c>ri$ out4 ,! "n 8magnet0 is said to h be5 d]iv$ f a %eph]d nam$ ,,magnes1 :o1 :5 t5d+ 8 flock on ,m\nt ,ida1 f\nd t 8 iron crook 0 attract$ to a c]ta9 /one2 & six hundr$ ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era ,?ales wrote respect+ amb] & ! magnet2 & because !y attract$ v>i\s sub/ances1 he suppos$ !y possess$ life & p[]4 ,!y 7 ! g]ms ( ! sci5ce n[ s develop$ 9 _! applications1 & ^: full p[]s we are sc>cely yet acqua9t$ )4 ,we may rem>k t o!r bodies besides iron & /eel are capable ( magnetization2 nickel & cobalt h ! l prop]ty4 ,magnetism1 prop]ly s call$1 treats ( c]ta9 bodies kn[n z ,,magnets1 describes ! prop]ties !y possess1 & ! influ5ce ( magnetic =ce ^u o!r sub/ances4 ,electricity & magnetism are always associat$1 b practically ! =ce is ! same1 electricity be+ ! curr5t or motive p[]1 s to speak2 & x is to ,f>aday t ! _w is indebt$ = ! discov]y ( magneto-electricity4 ,ep9us' !ory ( magnetism 0 t all bodies possess$ a sub/ance he t]m$ magnetic fluid1 ! p>ticles ( :i* repell$ ea* o!r4 ,b :ile suppos$ to repel ea* o!r1 !y attract$ p>ticles 9 o!r bodies4 ,?us !y attract$ iron4 ,c\lomb ass]t$ t !re 7 two fluids--a nor? & s\? fluid4 ,ampre's !ory 0 t magnetic bodies are made up ( molecules1 r\nd :i* curr5ts are always circulat+ 9 all directions :5 non-magnetiz$1 b :5 magnetiz$ ! curr5ts all fl[ 9 ! same direction4 ,! space ?r\gh :i* a magnet diffuses its influ5ce 0 call$ by ,f>aday ! ,magnetic ,field4 ,! l9es ( magnetic =ce w be und]/ood f ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #bfc74 ,if we cov] a magnet ) a pap] & scatt] iron fil+s ov] x1 we %all see ! mann] 9 :i* ! fil+s arrange !mselves4 ,!y radiate 9 curves f ! poles ( ! magnet1 & are dep5d5t ^u its =m4 ,if x be a /raight b> magnet1 ev5ly magnetiz$1 !y w turn inw>d 9 oval curves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,l9es ( magnetic =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd4--,magnetization4 ,! mann] ( magnetization has already be5 m5tion$1 b "h we w give fur!r illu/rations ( ! me?od ( magnetization4 ,f\r magnets are us$1 two be+ plac$ ) _! opposite poles ap>t1 & ^u !m is plac$ ! b> ( :i* a magnet is to be made4 ,two o!r magnets sep>at$ by a piece ( wood are !n br\ght ne>1 & subsequ5tly drawn f ! c5tre to ! ends ( ! b>4 ,?is is ! sep>at$ t\* sy/em2 ! d\ble t\* ( ,mit*ell is complet$ by mov+ ! upp] two magnets f end to end backw>ds & =w>ds1 & f9ally lift+ !m away f ! c5tre4 ,a magnet1 !n1 is a b> ( /eel end[$ ) c]ta9 prop]ties1 su* z attract+ iron1 etc42 & electro-magnetism is ! t]m appli$ to ! production ( magnetism by means ( electricity1 ! m$ium be+ ! electro-magnet4 ,to und]/& ! sci5ce x w be necess>y to m5tion ,ampre's !ory ( magnetism4 ,x 0 r/$ :o obs]v$ t :5 a magnet is plac$ )9 rea* ( an electric curr5t & free to move1 x sets itself at "r angles to ! direction ( ! curr5t2 & ,ampre def9$ ! law already ref]r$ to :5 treat+ ( ! electric curr5t1--viz41 8t if a p]son be imag9$ z plac$ 9 ! wire s t ! curr5t %all pass ?r\gh him f feet to head1 if he turn 8 face t[>d ! magnetic ne$le ! nor? pole w always be deflect$ to 8 left-h& side40 ,:5 ! curr5t is pass$ above ! ne$le f s\? to nor? poles1 ! deflection is to ! we/2 :5 f nor? to s\? ! deflection is ea/4 ,:5 ! curr5t is bel[ ! ne$le ! contr>y is ! case4 ,ampre decid$ t curr5ts circulat+ 9 ! same direction attract$ ea* o!r1 & :5 runn+ 9 opposite ways !y repell$ ea* o!r4 ,he suppos$ curr5ts to circulate )9 all magnetic sub/ances1 & !n--t is1 :5 ! body is magnetiz$--^! curr5ts fl[ 9 planes p>allel to ea* o!r1 & ! mat]ial :i* (f]s ! lea/ resi/ance to ! circulation ( ^! curr5ts becomes ! mo/ magnetic4 ,! e>? be+ suppos$ to be an imm5se magnet has curr5ts circulat+ ?r\gh x 9 a direction f ea/ to we/2 & hav+ ! prop]ty or p[] ( turn+ a magnetiz$ b> 9 a direction simil> to t 9 :i* ! b> w\ld be turn$ by a magnet1 ! e>? is consid]$ a magnetic mass4 ,?is influ5ce is due to :at is call$ 8t]re/rial magnetism40 ,if we susp5d a b> by a ?read x w po9t 9 no p>ticul> direction1 b may be turn$ t[>ds any side we please4 ,b :5 once ! ne$le is magnetiz$ x w po9t nor? & s\?2 or1 z we say 7b n correctly71 ! nor? pole ( ! magnet po9ts to ! nor? ( ! globe4 ,x is really ! s\? pole t po9ts to ! nor?1 & ! nor? pole ( ! magnet po9ts s\?1 z c be prov$ by susp5d+ ! b> ov] ano!r magnetiz$ b>4 ,s if ! e>? be consid]$ a magnet our ,engli% t]ms are inconsi/5t ) our !ories4 ,cont95tal writ]s are m correct4 ,! l9e ( ! magnetic ne$le's direction1 :i* diff]s 9 diff]5t places1 is call$ ! magnetic m]idian1 & ! am\nt ( its div]g5ce f ! a/ronomical m]idian is t]m$ its decl9ation or v>iation4 ,:5 ! am\nt ( ?is v>iation is kn[n x is all[$ =1 & ! ne$le c be consid]$ z po9t+ due nor? & s\?4 ,b ! ne$le does n assume a position p]fectly p>allel to ! horizon4 ,x dips d[n 9 diff]5t hemisph]es4 ,z we approa* ! nor? pole ! dip or incl9ation w become great]1 & ! same effect is obs]vable at ! s\? pole4 ,aga91 !re are c]ta9 places on ! e>? :]e ! attraction is s ev5ly balanc$ t ! ne$le is p]fectly horizontal4 ,! l9e unit+ ^! places is ! magnetic equator4 ,?is does n co9cide ) ! e>?'s equator any m ?an ! magnetic poles co9cide ) ! geographical poles ( ! e>?4 ,! decl9ation ( ! ne$le v>ies f ! m]idian ( ,gre5wi* at diff]5t times4 ,if we travel to ! we/ ! v>iation increases we/]ly1 & is greate/ 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,x !n decreases2 ! ne$le po9ts due nor? 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,go+ /ill =w>d ! v>iation becomes ea/]ly1 increases1 & decreases to no?+ 9 ,ea/]n ,russia4 ,!nce ! v>iations are we/]ly4 ,columbus discov]$ ! v>iation ( ! compass ne$le 9 ,septemb] #adic4 ,9 places :]e ! ne$le is due nor? & s\? ! l9es drawn ?r\gh !m are t]m$ l9es ( no v>iation4 ,! v>iation1 h[ev]1 is n always ! same 9 ! same place4 ,9 ! ye> #aehj1 9 ,london1 = in/ance1 ! v>iation 0 #aa #aa ,e4 ,a little m ?an "o hundr$ ye>s lat] ,london 0 on ! l9e ( no v>iation1 & n[ ! t5d5cy is we/]ly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are places :]e !re is no deviation1 & ,sir ,john ,h]s*ell says t ,we/ ,india prop]ty has be5 sav$ f litigation 9 consequ5ce ( ! inv>iability ( magnetic decl9ation !re1 = all surveys 7 made by ! compass4 ,l9es ( equal v>iation are call$ isogonial2 ^? ( equal dip or incl9ation1 isocl9ical2 & ^? ( equal int5sity1 isodynamical4 ,z we h said1 ! magnetic elem5ts are n always ! same1 & ! v>iations ( ! compass are daily & annually obs]v$ ) c]ta9 in/rum5ts4 ,:at are t]m$ secul> v>iations take place at long int]vals1 z ! foll[+ table w %[3-- ,9 #aegf ! angle ( decl9ation 9 ,engl& 0 #aa #ae ,ea/4 #afbb 0 0 #f #ab 0 #affj 0 0 #j 0 0 #agcj 0 0 #ac ,we/4 #agfj 0 0 #ai #cj 0 #ahjj 0 0 #bd #cf 0 #ahah 0 0 #bd #da 0 #ahej 0 0 #bb #bi 0 #ahgj 0 0 #ai #ee 0 #ahgc 0 0 #ai #eh 0 #ahgi 0 0 #ai #g 0 ,9 ! ye> #ahah !re=e ! maximum decl9ation 0 rea*$ 9 ,london4 ,9 ,p>is ! maximum 0 arriv$ at 9 #ahad1 & 0 #bb #cd4 ,! rate ( decrease is ab\t #h a ye>1 b v>ies 9 diff]5t p]iods1 z may be se54 ,! discov]y ( ! fact t an annual v>iation took place 9 ! angle ( decl9ation1 is attributable to ,cass9i1 & ! diurnal v>iation 0 discov]$ by ,graham 9 #agbb4 ,f #h o'clock 9 ! morn+1 :5 ! ne$le is po9t+ a little to ! ea/ ( its 8mean position10 x turns t[>ds ! we/ until #a p4m4 ,x !n returns t[>ds ! ea/ aga91 & pass+ we/]ly aga9 betwe5 midnight & ?ree o'clock a4m41 settles d[n till eight a4m41 :5 x beg9s afre%4 ,?is v>iation does n apply to all places4 ,magnetic incl9ation is besides subject to *anges4 ,!re are also v>iations ( magnetic =ce :i* occur at v irregul> p]iods1 & _c be said to foll[ any laws4 ,^! di/urbances are call$ ,magnetic ,/orms1 ( :i* ! ,aurora ,borealis is "o result4 ,pr(essor ,f>aday 9 8 memorable exp]im5ts divid$ a long li/ ( diff]5t sub/ances into p>a-magnetic & dia-magnetic bodies4 ,he class$ !m "u ^! two heads1 accord+ z !y took up a c]ta9 position p>allel or p]p5dicul> to ! axial or equatorial l9e4 ,?is def9ition ( 8dia-magnetic0 0 8a body ?r\gh :i* ! l9es ( magnetic =ce are pass+1 & :i* does n by _! action assume ! usual magnetic /ate ( iron or load/one40 ,he conclud$ t all bodies 7 magnetic1 & by susp5d+ a great numb] ( v>i\s sub/ances he f\nd !y plac$ !mselves axially1--t is1 ly+ betwe5 ! poles ( ! magnet1 or equatorially1--viz41 at "r angles to t l9e4 ,if ! magnets be susp5d$ at ea* side ! same bodies w assume a position ) _! longe/ diamet]s betwe5 ! poles1 :ile o!rs w be repell$ by ! magnets ev5 if ! poles be rev]s$4 ,s ^? bodies :i* are attract$ & lie 9 ! axial l9e are t]m$ p>a-magnetic2 ^? repell$ into ! equatorial l9e are t]m$ dia-magnetic4 ,9 ! 8,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society = #ahdf10 ,f>aday's acc\nt ( ! v>i\s exp]im5ts c be /udi$ 9 detail4 ,we c only give a brief resum ( !m "h2 & he %[$ t ! motions display$ by dia-magnetic bodies 9 a magnetic field are all r$ucible to "o simple law--viz41 t ! p>ticles ( ! dia-magnetic t5d to move into ! positions ( ! weake/ magnetic =ce4 ,he exp]im5t$ ^u a l>ge numb] ( bodies & gases2 he te/$ cry/als1 metals1 liquids1 & solids1 & prov$ 9 :atev] /ate a body might be 9 ! effect 0 ! same2 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 x made no diff]5ce4 ,( c\rse 9 a comp\nd ! prepond]ance ( ! dia-magnetic or p>a-magnetic prop]ty w\ld influ5ce ! result1 & ! m$ium 9 :i* ! body op]at$ on 0 plac$1 0 a condition 9 ! exp]im5t4 ,he prov$ t if a body be susp5d$ 9 a m$ium or surr\nd$ by a m$ium ^: p[] ei!r way is /rong] ?an ! body1 t body is p>a-magnetic or dia-magnetic1 accord+ z x is surr\nd$ by a m$ium ^: p[] is weak] or /rong] ?an ! body itself4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! bodies is z foll[s1 f ! p>a-magnetic to ! dia-magnetic1 bismu? be+ ! mo/ dia-magnetic ( all3-- ,,p>a-,,magnetic ,,metals4 ,iron4 ,nickel4 ,cobalt4 ,manganese4 ,*romium4 ,c]ium4 ,titanium4 ,palladium4 ,plat9um4 ,osmium4 ,,dia-,,magnetic4 ,bismu?4 ,antimony4 ,z9c4 ,t94 ,cadmium4 ,sodium4 ,m]cury4 ,lead4 ,silv]4 ,copp]4 ,gold4 ,ars5ic4 ,uranium4 ,rhodium4 ,iridium1 etc4 ,common air 0 also discov]$ to h a magnetic action1 & hot air is m dia-magnetic ?an cold4 ,oxyg5 is z p>a-magnetic 9 ! air z iron is on ! e>?1 & ?is1 x 0 consid]$1 may give rise to magnetic /orms1 & acc\nt = ! decl9ation ( ! ne$le4 ,we may n[ proce$ to consid] ! ,m>9]'s ,compass4 ,! compass1 or ! m>9]'s compass1 is s common t x is sc>cely necess>y to give a long description ( x4 ,its hi/ory is unkn[n4 ,! ,*9ese seem to h be5 aw>e ( its usefulness long be=e ! we/]n nations adopt$ x4 ,x 0 ab\t ! "t ( ! ,crusades t x 0 br\ght into we/]n prom95ce1 b 0 n g5]ally kn[n till ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,*9ese writ+s ascribe to ! compass a great antiquity2 !y ma9ta9 t x 0 discov]$ two ?\s& five hundr$ ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 & us$ = travell+ on l&4 ,b1 accord+ to o!r acc\nts1 x 0 n us$ at sea till ! ye> #cjj ,a4,d4 ,! ,*9ese put ! s\? fir/ :5 speak+ ( ! po9ts ( ! compass1 & 9 ! ,*9ese empire & ,?ibet we/ goes likewise be=e ea/4 ,s ! imp]ial edifices 9 ,*9a face ! s\?1 & ! ne$le1 9 _! expression1 po9ts s\? & nor?--n z we say1 nor? & s\?4 ,! antiquity ( ! compass may be inf]r$ f ! record$ fact 9 ,*9ese *ronicles1 writt5 9 ! second c5tury be=e ! ,*ri/ian ,era1 t n9e hundr$ ye>s previ\sly to ! date ( ! *ronicle ! ,emp]or gave magnetic c>s to c]ta9 ambassadors to guide !m home 9 safety4 ,^! c>s 7 fitt$ ) a magnetic ne$le :i* communicat$ ) a figure4 ,its out/ret*$ h& & f+] foll[$ ! compass-direction1 & po9t$ out ! way4 ,! ,*9ese subsequ5tly 79 ! twelf? c5tury7 susp5d$ ! ne$le by a ?read1 & x is said _! philosoph]s at t "t notic$ ! v>iation ( ! ne$le4 ,b ,columbus fir/1 9 #adib1 & ,cabot1 9 #aedj1 c]ta9ly rem>k$ x 9 ,europe4 ,x is to ,m>co ,polo t we are indebt$ = ! direct introduction ( ! ne$le into ,europe1 al?\gh x probably _h be5 9 use 9 ! ,levant previ\sly1 = we h se5 a quotation by an ,arab writ]1 :o1 9 #abdb1 describ$ ! ne$le z be+ us$ at t "t on 8 voyage f ,tripoli 9 ,syria to ,alex&ria1 two ye>s previ\sly4 ,fri> ,bacon possess$ a load/one1 & !re are _m in/ances 9 :i* x is ref]r$ to 9 anci5t writ+s4 ,! inv5tor ( ! compass we _c trace1 b no d\bt exi/s z to its be+ ( ,*9ese orig94 ,! ord9>y compass is %[n 9 ! illu/ration h]e) 7fig4 #bfe74 ,x consi/s ( a magnetiz$ ne$le1 susp5d$ freely1 & fix$ to a circul> c>d1 :i* is divid$ & subdivid$ into ?irty-two po9ts1 z 9 ! cut4 ,?is compass is susp5d$ ^u gimbals to keep x 9 an upright position :5 ! vessel rolls or plunges4 ,! gimbals are conc5tric r+s1 ! compass be+ fa/5$ to ! inn] "o1 & keeps its position 9 all wea!rs4 ,x is !n enclos$ 9 ! b9nacle1 a glass receptacle4 ,! c>d moves ) ! ne$le :i* po9ts nor?4 ,!re is a d>k l9e 7lubb] l9e7 :i* indicates ! %ip's c\rse1 & :5 sail+ ! /e]sman mu/ keep t l9e opposite ! compass direction-po9t :i* indicates ! c\rse4 ,at night a lamp is light$ 9 ! b9nacle1 & ! c>d be+ transp>5t & ! po9ts opaque !y are easily se54 ,! magnetism ( iron %ips has a t5d5cy to di/urb ! ne$le1 & _m sugge/ions h be5 made & discuss$ ) a view to obviate ?is4 ,to put ! compass at ! ma/-head 0 "o1 to surr\nd ! compass ) 8c\nt]-irritants0 ano!r4 ,b ! usual way is to 8sw+ ! %ip10 & s adju/ ! compass4 ,sw++ ! %ip means turn+ h] r\nd po9t by po9t1 & m>k+ ! deflection ( ! ne$le ) ref]5ce to a c]ta9 object4 ,! am\nt ( deflection at ea* po9t is read & not$1 & subsequ5tly tak5 into consid]ation :5 sail+4 ,! ,azimu? ,compass is a m>9]'s compass fitt$ ) brass uprights slit ?r\gh ! c5tre1 ?r\gh :i* ! heav5ly bodies may be se54 ,^! are ! sights4 ,! c>d is divid$ into degrees & qu>t]s4 ,a f9e wire is fix$ ^u "o ( ! sights1 & 9 ! o!r slit is a prism to reflect ! divisions ( ! c>d to ! eye4 ,! object--! azimu? di/ance ( :i* x is desirable to "k--is look$ at ?r\gh ! slit1 & bisect$ by ! wire4 ,! divisions ( ! scale are at ! same "t reflect$1 & ! numb] read gives ! azimu? di/ance requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--;,compass4 ,! compass has l$ u away slightly f our consid]ation ( ! electro-magnet1 b we w n[ exam9e x & its effects z briefly z possible4 ,an electro-magnet is =m$ by wrapp+ a copp] wire r\nd a piece ( s(t iron %ap$ l a horse-%oe2 ! wire %\ld be insulat$ ) silk4 ,if ! wire be w\nd r\nd ! iron 9 ! same direction1 & a curr5t be m]ely s5t ?r\gh ! coil1 x w be f\nd t ! horse-%oe iron is highly magnetic1 b if ! curr5t be /opp$ ! p[] is lo/4 ,su* magnets w c>ry weights mu* heavi] ?an !mselves1 & by c>eful consid]ation ( c]ta9 laws1 & ) ref]5ce to ! numb] ( coils & ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t1 ^! magnets w su/a9 a weight "s ?\s&s ( times great] ?an _! own weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4--;,electro-,magnet4 ,if we cov] a non-magnetic piece ( iron ) a wire coil1 & tak+ a magnet turn x rapidly b5ea? ! wire-b\nd iron1 s t ! magnetic poles approa* ea* o!r alt]nately1 an electrical curr5t w be g5]at$ 9 ! wire4 ,! electro-magnetic ma*9e is ?us made2 b al?\gh /rong curr5ts may be g5]at$ z a s\rce ( motive p[] x is a failure4 ,to ,f>aday our k ( magneto-electricity is due4 8,he knew0 7says ,pr(essor ,tyndall 9 8 int]e/+ "w1 8,f>aday z a ,discov]]07 8t "u ord9>y circum/ances ! pres5ce ( an electrifi$ body 0 suffici5t to excite by induction an unelectrifi$ body4 ,he knew t ! wire :i* c>ri$ an electric curr5t 0 an electrifi$ body1 & /ill all attempts _h fail$ to make x excite 9 o!r wires a /ate simil> to its own40 ,b :ile he 0 mak+ 8 exp]im5ts on ! induction ( electric curr5ts he notic$ t at ! "t ! curr5t 0 pass+ f ! batt]y ?r\gh ! coils ( wire t no motion 0 p]ceptible 9 ! galvanomet]4 ,b :5 ! circuit 0 op5$1 & :5 x 0 clos$1 !re 0 a slight motion ( ! ne$le 9 ! galvanomet]1 b 9 diff]5t directions4 ,aft] consid]ation ! philosoph] came to ! conclusion 8t a batt]y curr5t ?r\gh "o wire induc$ a simil> curr5t ?r\gh ! o!r1 b = an in/ant only40 r/$ _h already demon/rat$ t all magnetic effects 7 attributable to ! attraction & repulsion ( electric curr5ts2 & f\nd+ 8 views ^u ! !ory ( ,ampre1 ,f>aday came to ! conclusion t electricity c\ld be produc$ f magnetism1 or t ! electric curr5t c\ld be obta9$ f magnets4 ,?is he succe$$ 9 do+4 ,by ins]t+ a /eel magnet ab\t half its l5g? into a coil ( wire1 ,f>aday induc$ a curr5t to pass ?r\gh ! wire 9 two directions4 ,?us he proce$$ to solve all ! my/]ies ( magneto-electricity1 & /at$ t to produce curr5ts x 0 only necess>y to 8cut appropriately ! l9es ( magnetic =ce40 ,! application ( ! magnet to ! ma*9es = electric light+ w be %[n fur!r on4 ,v p[]ful curr5ts are obta9$ by ! induction coil2 b ! curr5ts w\ld n be ( practical s]vice 7 x n = ! app>atus call$ a ,commutator1 or key1 :i* rev]ses ! connection ( ! bobb9s1 & turns ! curr5t at e half revolution4 ,j z if a curr5t 7 be+ s5t across & back ov] a table1 & :5 ! curr5t has rea*$ ! end1 an in/antane\s :eel r\nd1 or pivot+ ( ! table1 s5ds ! curr5t on1 9 cont9uation 7b on ! table all ! "t71 because ( ! sudd5 *ange ( its position4 ,! back ru% be+ on ! table1 ! movem5t ( ! latt] really makes ! l9e cont9u\s1 & by quickly break+ & rev]s+ ! curr5t 9 ! commutator1 ! effect is ga9$ 9 ! ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,electro-magnets & bobb91 etc4 7,cl>ke's ma*9e7 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,sundry ,,electrical ,,appliances--,,mr4 ,,edison',s ,,inv5tions--,,! ,,electric ,,light--,,! ,,gyroscope--,a ,,new ,,electrophorus--,,electric ,,toys4 ,,! ,,electro-,,motograph--al?\gh p]haps ev5 yet sc>cely develop$--has already prov$ a v useful inv5tion4 ,! idea ( x fir/ occurr$ to ,mr4 ,edison 9 #ahgc1 :5 he 0 prosecut+ "s rese>*es 9 *emical telegraphy4 8,"o day10 says ,mr4 ,fox1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! inv5tion1 8z he sat pond]+ ov] 8 "w1 he happ5$ to take 9 h& ! metallic po9t ?r\gh :i*1 z x re/$ ^u ! pap]1 ! curr5t 0 wont to pass4 ,:5 aga9 he clos$ ! circuit to let ! curr5t ?r\gh ! pap]1 he held ! metallic po9t loosely1 & un9t5tionally all[$ x to re/ ^u ! pap]4 ,e "t he mov$ ! metallic /rip on ! pap] ! latt] became wond]fully smoo?4 ,edison 0 det]m9$ to f9d ! reason ( ?is1 & he decid$ t ! electricity v mu* less5$ ! friction ( ! metal on ! pap]4 ,he made _m exp]im5ts1 & br\ght ! subject be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahgd1 b no?+ came ( ! idea till #ahgf1 :5 ,edison 0 p]fect+ 8 musical telephone4 8,! new appliance is1 9 fact1 ! same inv5tion reviv$ & n[ p]fect$ by ! orig9al inv5tor1 & br\ght to complete practical success "u ! title ( ! #8electro-motograph4' ,! action ( ! #8electro-motograph' dep5ds on ! fact1 discov]$ dur+ =m] exp]im5ts1 & employ$ imp]fectly 9 ! musical telephone1 t ! friction ( mov+ bodies v>ies 9 great] or less degree ) _! electrical condition4 ,9 ! electro-motograph a cyl9d] made ( prep>$ *alk1 & saturat$ ) a /rong solution ( cau/ic alkali1 is set ^u supports1 s t x c be turn$ ^u its axis4 ,a /rip ( metal fa/5$ to ! mica diaphragm re/s on ! cyl9d]1 & is press$ s firmly by its spr+ ^u ! cyl9d] t :5 x is turn$ by means ( ! h&le ! friction ( ! /rip on ! cyl9d] t5ds to pull ! diaphragm out ( %ape1 caus+ x to bulge inw>d z long z ! cyl9d] is 9 motion4 ,if n[1 :ile ?is motion ( ! cyl9d] is ma9ta9$1 an electric curr5t passes ?r\gh ! /rip ( metal1 & !n ?r\gh ! *alk cyl9d] to e>?1 ! am\nt ( ?is friction is v>i$ or x is de/roy$ altoge!r1 & ! /rip slides freely on ! cyl9d]4 ,?is 0 ! basis ( ! =m] inv5tion4 ,! release f friction by a *ange 9 electric condition 9 ! fir/ in/rum5t fail$ simply f ignorance ( "s slight matt]s ( detail1 t 9 ! electro-motograph are correct$ & made practical4 ,9 ! musical telephone ! releas+ ( ! frictional resi/ance by electric action caus$ ! s\nd+-bo>d ( a guit> to vibrate1 & ?us set up sonor\s vibrations4 ,9 ! electro-motograph ! mica disc takes ! place ( ! guit>1 &1 by ! improv$ con/ruction ( ! app>atus1 intricate & complex vibrations1 su* z are produc$ 9 speak+1 are reproduc$ 9 _! orig9al or ev5 9 great] volume4 ,:5 ! app>atus is at re/ ! diaphragm is motionless1 & electric curr5ts %ot ?r\gh ! app>atus produce no effect4 ,9 ! same mann] ! m]e turn+ ( ! cyl9d] )\t electric action produces no effect1 except to pull ! diaphragm slightly out ( %ape4 ,if :ile ! cyl9d] is be+ turn$ an electric impulse arrives1 ! pull on ! diaphragm1 caus$ by ! friction ( ! /rip on ! cyl9d]1 is m or less releas$1 & ! diaphragm is free to vibrate or spr+ back into its orig9al condition4 ,if n[1 ! electric impulses foll[ "o ano!r 9 regul> ord] 9 correspond5ce ) ! sonor\s vibrations imp>t$ to ! transmitt+ telephone1 ! alt]nate slipp+ & cat*+ ( ! metal /rip on ! cyl9d] w foll[ 9 ! same ord]1 & ?us ! diaphragm w be made to vibrate 9 unison ) ! orig9al vibrations1 & ?us reproduce ! orig9al words4 ,z ! mica disc is mu* l>g] ?an ! disc ( ! transmitt+ in/rum5t1 ! amplitude ( its sw+ may be mu* great]1 & consequ5tly x w repeat ! words ) great] p[]4 ,! electro-motograph is practically an app>atus = trans=m+ electric action receiv$ f a di/ance into me*anical "w4 ,! am\nt ( electric action has no?+ to d ) ! am\nt ( ! me*anical "w p]=m$1 because ! movem5t ( ! cyl9d] is controll$ by p[] indep5d5tly ( ! electric action1 ! electricity m]ely releas+ ?is p[] by de/roy+ ! friction 9 great] or less degree4 ,! electric action set up by ! sonor\s vibrations at ! transmitt+ end ( ! l9e may be v slight1 :ile ! me*anical action at ! di/ant end may be p[]ful1 & 9 ?is mann] ! amplitude ( ! vibrations may be increas$ to an indef9ite ext5t1 & a :isp] may reappe> z a l\d %\t4 8,! electro-motograph is n only a solution ( ! telephone1 mak+ x capable ( s\nds ( e quality & pit* & 9 greatly increas$ volume1 b by ?is conv]sion ( electrical action into me*anical "w at a di/ance makes x possible to unite ! telephone & phonograph4 ,telephonic messages by ! electro-motograph may be impress$ ^u a self-act+ 7clock-"w7 phonograph1 ! same curr5t />t+ & /opp+ ! phonograph aft] ! mann] ( ! /ock-report+ ma*9es1 & aft]w>d ! phonograph may be made to repeat ! message impress$ ^u x40 ,! above extract1 :i* expla9s ! pr9ciple fully1 has be5 tak5 f a long article on ! subject :i* =m]ly appe>$ 9 ,scribn]'s ,magaz9e4 ,! uses to :i* ! electro-motograph may be appli$ are v>i\s4 ,x c produce me*anical motion ev5 at a di/ance1 & is useful to less5 friction by ma*9]y2 & 9 ?is way its s]vice to railways & o!r locomotive sy/ems may be e/imat$4 ,x is a great help to telegraphy by increas+ ! spe$ ( transmission1 & c asc]ta9 ! beat+s ( ! he>t ( ! app>5tly dead4 ,x amplifies s\nd 9 a mu* great] degree ?an ! microphone1 by :i* ev5 a fly c be he>d mov+4 ,9 fact1 ! limit ( ! usefulness ( ?is wond]ful ma*9e has n be5 rea*$4 ,ano!r v +5i\s app>atus has be5 develop$ by ,pr(essor ,bell4 ,?is is = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! position ( bullets 9 ! body4 ,! foll[+ is cond5s$ f ! ,times3-- 8,two conductors are us$1 & ! ball completes ! circuit4 ,pr(essor ,bell ins]ts a f9e ne$le 9 ! suspect$ region4 ,x is connect$ by wire ) "o ( ! b9d+ screws ( a telephone1 :i* ! surgeon holds to 8 e>2 ! o!r b9d+ screw be+ connect$ ) a metallic mass appli$ to ! sk94 ,:5 ! ne$le po9t t\*es ! ball1 an electric c\ple is =m$1 & ! curr5t g5]ates ! s\nd 9 ! telephone4 ,! surgeon may !n use 8 knife ) confid5ce1 guid$ by ! ne$le4 ,he may make sev]al ins]tions ( ! ne$le if necess>y )\t dang]1 & any pa9 may be obviat$ by e!rization4 ,?is simple me?od 7:i* %\ld prove useful on ! field ( battle7 0 tri$ ) success ) a lead ball introduc$ into a piece ( beef4 ,contact ( ! ne$le ) bone _h no effect1 b a v di/9ct s\nd 0 he>d ea* "t ! ball 0 rea*$4 ,a modification consi/s 9 ins]t+ a vibrator 9 ! circuit2 ?is gives a musical note 9 ! telephone at ea* contact ( ball & ne$le4 ,aga91 if ! circuit include a batt]y1 ! telephone s\nds may be he>d by sev]al p]sons at once4 ,a s\nd is he>d1 9 ?is case1 :5ev] ! ne$le ent]s ! sk92 b1 on rea*+ ! ball1 x is mu* int5sifi$1 ow+ to less5$ resi/ance4 ,a galvanomet] may be us$ 9 place ( ! telephone40 ,mr4 ,c4 ,v]non ,boys has exhibit$ & describ$ a v +5i\s new integrat+ ma*9e ( 8 inv5tion1 & its application z a measur] ( ! electric en]gy 9 ! circuit ( an electric lamp or a dynamo-electric motor4 ,mr4 ,boys' me*anical integrator belongs to ! class t]m$ tang5t ma*9es1 & consi/s ess5tially ( a small disc or :eel runn+ along ! surface ( a drum or cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! :eel runs /raight along ! drum p>allel to its axis !re is no rotation ( ! latt]1 b :5 ! :eel is incl9$ to ! axis ! drum rotates1 & ! integral is repres5t$ by ! am\nt ( rotation4 ,cont9u\s action is secur$ 9 giv+ ! drum a reciprocat+ motion along its axis1 s t :5 ! :eel has travell$ to "o end ( ! cyl9d] x c travel back aga94 ,! new integrator is especially adapt$ = measur+ =ces :i* are ei!r delicate or v>iable4 ,x is appli$ by caus+ ! v>y+ =ce to be measur$ to v>y 9 a correspond+ mann] ! incl9ation ( ! :eel to ! axis ( ! rotat+ cyl9d]4 ,9 ?is way x c be us$ to f9d ! "w done by a fluid pressure reciprocat+ eng9e1 or ! en]gy transmitt$ by a %aft or belt f "o "p ( a factory to ano!r4 ,by mak+ ! :eel v small & light1 ! /r5g? ( an electric curr5t may be cont9u\sly measur$1 if ! disc is incl9$ by means ( ! ne$le ( a galvanomet] 9 circuit4 ,mr4 ,boys has con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple an electric en]gy met]1 :i* integrates ! product ( ! /r5g? ( curr5t & ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial betwe5 two po9ts ) respect to "t4 ,9 x ! curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh a pair ( conc5tric sol5oids or coils ( wire1 & 9 ! annul> space betwe5 ^! is hung a ?ird sol5oid1 ! upp] half ( :i* is w\nd 9 ! opposite direction to its l[] half4 ,by ! use ( :at ,mr4 ,boys calls 8induction traps0 ( s(t iron1 ! magnetic =ce is conf9$ to a small portion ( ! susp5d$ sol5oid1 & by ?is means ! attract+ =ce ( ! fix$ sol5oids ^u x is indep5d5t ( position4 ,! middle sol5oid is hung f ! end ( a balance beam1 & its motion is ret>d$ by a c\nt]weight1 :i* admits ( regulat+ ! met] to give /&>d measure z a clock gives /&>d "t4 ,! motion ( ! beam is caus$ to incl9e ! integrat+ :eel1 & ! rotation ( ! cyl9d] gives ! en]gy exp5d$ 9 foot-p\nds by means ( an indicator or diagram1 z ! case may be4 ,! object 9 giv+ an equal numb] ( turns 9 opposite directions to ! susp5d$ sol5oid is to r5d] ! in/rum5t ins5sible to ext]nal magnetic =ces4 ,we h1 9 a =m] portion ( ?is "w1 expla9$ ! con/ruction ( ! telephone & phonograph ) o!r inv5tions to make s\nds audible at a di/ance1 s we ne$ n repeat ! explanations "h4 ,a brief ref]5ce to !m w1 h[ev]1 be f\nd 9 ?is *apt]1 9 :i* ! electro-magnet & ! me?ods ( light+ by magneto-electric ma*9es are treat$ (4 ,we w proce$ to give "s p>ticul>s conc]n+ ! electric light be=e consid]+ ! means by :i* x is produc$1 z su* an arrangem5t is m conv5i5t4 ,! light is v easily produc$ by unit+ & !n sep>at+ ! t]m9als ( a /rong batt]y4 ,! passage ( ! electric curr5t induces int5se heat & a mo/ brilliant light4 ,b if ?is 7 cont9u$ ! wires w\ld melt1 & !re=e "s non-fusible sub/ance is plac$ at ! ends ( ! wires1 :i* w be at once a conductor & infusible4 ,n[ 9 gas-c>bon 7! deposit$ sub/ance f\nd 9 gas retorts7 we h a sub/ance suit$ to ^! conditions4 ,! c>bon is heat$ to an int5se brightness1 & p>ticles ( x are pass$ across ! arc ( flame almo/ 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,combu/ion does n actually take place1 because x has be5 prov$ t ! wires w give out light "u wat]1 & 9 ! vacuum ( an air-pump ! light is ev5 increas$1 s t _h ! oxyg5 ( ! air any "p 9 ! production ( ! light x w\ld n rema9 unaffect$ "u ^! conditions4 ,! heat aris+ f ?is ,voltaic arc is int5se1 & ev5 plat9um may be fus$ ) ! assi/ance ( ! gas c>bon4 ,! c>bon po9ts are ( c\rse liable to be worn away1 & "o side m ?an ano!r4 ,! positive pole is g5]ally m concave ?an ! o!r1 = x %$s its p>ticles 9 a great] degree1 & is ! m int5sely heat$4 ,! electric light fir/ appe>$ 9 public at ! op]a 9 ,p>is 9 #ahcf1 to illu/rate a sunrise1 b x 0 n till #ahdc t x 0 exp]im5t$ ^u 9 ! op5 air4 ,we ne$ n trace x f>!r at pres5t1 = a full acc\nt ( its orig91 rise1 & progress is publi%$ 9 a small %ill+ volume by ,messrs4 ,w>d1 ,lock1 ,co4 ,we w proce$ to ! me?ods ( br++ out ! light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,! ,maxim light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--,me*anism ( ,maxim's lamp4 ,!re are v>i\s lamps1 _m ( :i* requir$ a regulator 9 consequ5ce ( ! we>+ away ( ! c>bon po9ts1 z already expla9$4 ,we app5d two illu/rations ( ! ,maxim lamp1 ! inv5tion ( ,hiram ,maxim1 ( ,new ,york4 ,9 bo? cuts ! lett]s ref] to ! same portions4 ,9 ! fir/ illu/ration 7fig4 #bfg71 ,a & ,b are ! positive & negative c>bon-hold]s respectively1 & ! c>bon po9ts are controll$ by an armature1 :i* is1 9 its turn1 adju/$ by ! screw1 ,d4 ,:5 x happ5s t ! magnetic =ce is r$uc$ ! spr+ acts & p]mits ! po9ts to approa* aga91 & ! light is rek9dl$2 ! c>bons are !n lock$ till requir$ to move4 ,! second illu/ration 7fig4 #bfh7 %[s a section ( ! lamp ) ! :eel arrangem5ts = controll+ ! advance ( ! c>bon po9ts z !y wa/e away4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--,wallace lamp ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--;,h\/on lamp4 ,9 ! 8,bru%0 light1 :i* is 9 use 9 ,london1 & is fitt$ = l>ge spaces1 ! c>bon po9ts are held by a regulator side by side1 & !y la/ eight h\rs )\t r5ewal4 ,! p[] is g5]at$ by an electro-dynamic eng9e4 ,we give illu/rations ( ! lamps ( ,wallace & ,h\/on 7figs4 #bfi1 #bgj74 ,! curr5t is convey$ ?r\gh b & ! magnet1 m4 ,! armature1 a1 sep>ates ! electrodes1 & ! weak5$ curr5t is re/or$ by b1 & ! light cont9ues4 ,! pill>1 p1 is holl[1 ) a wire runn+ ?r\gh x4 ,! positive electrode is support$ by ,j1 ! negative by ,c2 ,v is a button :i* comes 9 contact ) ! lev]1 ,t1 :5 ! c>bon po9ts are exhau/$1 & cuts ! lamp out ( ! circuit by pass+ x direct ?r\gh m]cury cups4 ,! ,jablo*k(f c&le & *&eli] are also repres5t$ 7figs4 #bga1 #bgb74 ,! c&les consi/ ( c>bons connect$ at ! top1 b o!rwise insulat$1 & fix$ 9 a socket4 ,!y d n la/ v long )\t r5ewal4 ,! exhibition at ! ,cry/al ,palace w be ess5tially an ,electric ,light ,exhibition1 & all ! late/ =ms c be /udi$ !re4 ,! great attraction w d\btless be1 z at ,p>is1 ! v>i$ & num]\s inv5tions ( ,mr4 ,edison4 ,! e>ly c>e] ( t ,am]ican 8magician0 is n[ tol]ably well kn[n2 8 trem5d\s en]gy & application are fully appreciat$4 ,) only a few mon?s s*ool+ all 8 life he has tak5 a =emo/ place 9 ! sci5tific _w4 ,9 t5 ye>s he has inv5t$ ! phonograph1 ! electric p51 a sy/em ( fa/ telegraphy1 ! electro-motograph1 ! telephone1 a tasimet]1 & o!r useful applications ( electricity1 besides solv+ ! problem ( electric light = dome/ic purposes4 ,mr4 ,edison's electric light#ah requires some?+ m ?an a pass+ notice1 & we w !re=e endeav\r to give a sket* ( ! g5]al subject4 ,n[ t ! electric light has be5 made available = dome/ic purposes1 & ! v simple lamp 7consi/+ ( an exhau/$ glass globe1 two plat9um wires1 & a piece ( *>r$ pap]7 c be obta9$1 p w no d\bt soon l>gely adopt electric light+ 9 _! h\ses4 ,! light has f\nd a success at ! !atre1 9 ! /reets1 & 9 ! tra92 !re is no reason :y x %\ld n be adopt$ g5]ally1 be+ m economical & m heal?y ?an gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,electric c&le4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgb4--;,*&eli]4 ,if we sev] an electric wire1 & br+ ! ends1 tipp$ ) c>bon1 into juxtaposition1 we obta9 a brilliant light4 ,?is is ! ,voltaic arc we h already m5tion$1 produc$ by ! inc&esc5ce ( f9ely-divid$ matt]2 x 0 ! fir/ me?od ( illum9at+ by electricity1 & 0 discov]$ by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 :o obta9$ a v brilliant light1 b at great exp5se--ab\t a gu9ea a m9ute6 ,b ! ,daniell & ,grove batt]ies & g5]ators1 & mod]n improvem5ts 9 #ahfj1 br\ght ! use ( ! electric light into prom95ce4 ,f>aday light$ a ligh?\se ) its assi/ance4 ,b :5 ! ,,gramme ,,g5]ator 0 inv5t$ ! ne$$ impetus 0 appli$4 ,! ,jablo*k(f c&les foll[$1 & n[ we h ! electric light 9 full op]ation4 ,s f> we h sket*$ ! hi/ory ( illum9ation by ! ,voltaic arc1 & descriptions ( ! v>i\s app>atus w be f\nd at ! end ( ?is *apt]4 ,b ! me?od ( light+ ) an inc&esc5t solid 0 introduc$ 9 #ahde by ,/>r & ,peabody1 :o took out a pat5t = ! use ( plat9um4 ,lat] on ,drs4 ,drap] & ,despretz made exp]im5ts ) plat9um & c>bon4 ,! latt] g5tleman seal$ ! c>bon 9 an exhau/$ globe1 & !n introduc$ nitrog5 9 place ( ! air4 ,b ! me?od di$ out & 0 =gott51 & 9 #ahgc a m$al 0 actually giv5 by ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg = ! 8discov]y0 to ,messrs4 ,sawy] & ,mann4 ,9 #ahgh ,p>is 0 light$ ) ! electric c&les ( ,jablo*k(f4 ,?is application ( electricity /irr$ up our transatlantic c\s9s1 & ,mr4 ,edison 0 reque/$--back$ up by _m influ5tial p]sons--to make ! inve/igation :e!r ! light c\ld be produc$ = dome/ic purposes4 ,! celebrat$ electrician und]took ! commission1 & c]ta9ly came unprejudic$ to ! enc\nt]1 = he _h n at t "t ev5 se5 an electric light4 ,he p]ceiv$ at once t 8p]man5ce 9 ! lamp & ! subdivision ( ! light0 7 ! two desid]ata4 ,he put ! ,voltaic arc aside z unsuitable1 & address$ himself to ! problem ( obta9+ ! desir$ results f an inc&esc5t solid4 ,! subdivision ( ! light is really an important po9t1 & a comp>ison betwe5 divid$ & undivid$ burn]s is 9 fav\r ( ! m diffus$ light 9 a numb] ( burn]s4 ,?is subdivision ,edison work$ h>d to secure1 &1 z x is said ( him1 8,) a /eadfa/ fai? 9 ! fulness ( nature1 a pr(\nd conviction t if a new sub/ance 7 dem&$ = ! c>ry+ out ( "s b5eficial project1 t sub/ance ne$ only be s\ght =1 he set to "w40 ,mr4 ,edison f\nd difficulties 9 8 way4 ,"o 0 ! app>5t impossibility ( illum9at+ by means ( an inc&esc5t solid1 = ev5 plat9um w melt at a heat too l[ = use4 ,b ?is app>5t impossibility 0 ov]come by ! inv5tor's g5ius4 ,he1 aft] _m trials1 f\nd t if he rais$ ! plat9um to a :ite heat 9 a vacuum he w\ld practically obta9 a new metal :i* w\ld su/a9 ! requir$ heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc4--;,edison's plat9um lamp4 8,9 mak+ an electric lamp )\t a regulator10 says ,mr4 ,upton1 8two ?+s are ess5tial1--great resi/ance 9 ! wire1 & a small radiat+ surface4 ,mr4 ,edison s\ght to comb9e ^! two ess5tial conditions by us+ a consid]able quantity ( insulat$ plat9um wire w\nd l ?read on a spool40 ,?is plat9um1 z %[n 9 ! accompany+ cut 7fig4 #bgc71 0 susp5d$ 9 a glass bulb 9 vacuo1 ! air conta9$ 9 x be+ expell$ by electricity1 heat+ x1 & sudd5ly cool+ ! plat9um1 & squeez+ out ! air by ! process4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! great difficulty ( ! inv5tor 0 to insulate 8 wires s p]fectly t !y w\ld n meet & become a conductor4 ,=1 to p]fect 8 lamp1 ?is non-conduct+ pr9ciple 0 a necessity1 o!rwise ! curr5t w\ld fl[ across in/ead ( go+ all along ! wires4 ,he _h previ\sly made _m uses ( c>bon1 :i* we "k is infusible4 ,he tri$ lampblack t>1 b x conta9$ air1 & w\ld n d4 ,?read answ]$ 8 purpose1 b 0 too fragile & unev5 9 texture4 ,x sudd5ly occurr$ to him t pap]--*>r$ pap]--cut into a ?read-l =m w\ld satisfy all 8 conditions4 ,! problem 0 solv$--! lamp 0 a fact4 ,b h[ c pap]1 s easily burn$1 answ]8 ,we w endeav\r to expla94 8,a piece ( *>r$ pap]1 cut into horse-%oe %ape1 s delicate t x look$ l a f9e wire firmly clamp$ to ! two ends ( ! conduct+ & dis*>g+ wires1 s z to =m "p ( ! electric circuit1 prov$ to be ! long-s\ght comb9ation40 ,we w n[ expla9 ! con/ruction ( ?is little lamp1 :i* is %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bgd7 "o-half ( its actual size4 ,! illum9at+ is equal to t5 or twelve ord9>y gas jets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgd4--;,edison's electric lamp4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! pap] is prep>$ is1 l _m o!r v important inv5tions1 extremely simple1 &1 we may add1 almo/ co/less4 ,c>dbo>d w furni% u ) ! loops1 & ^! 8horse%oes0 are plac$ 9 lay]s 9 an iron box ) tissue pap] betwe5 ea*4 ,! box is !n h]metically seal$1 & made r$ hot4 ,! c>boniz$ pap] rema9s till all ! air has be5 got rid (1 & al?\gh x w burn freely to a%es 9 atmosph]ic air1 9 ! vacuum prep>$ = x x is nev] consum$4 ,t is ! pla9 fact--! secret ( ! ,edison lamp4 ,a vacuum c n[ be produc$ almo/ p]fect4 ,x is ( c\rse impossible to extract e t9y p>ticle ( air f ! globes1 b by ! ,spr5gel pump1 9 :i* m]cury is employ$1 excell5t vacuums are obta9$4 ,sev]al v curi\s ph5om5a h be5 obs]v$ 9 ^! vacuums1 & ! ,royal ,society has be5 engag$ ^u _! consid]ation4 ,ano!r advantage ( ! vacuum1 z appli$ by ,edison1 is t little or no heat is g5]at$4 ,! electricity is all1 or v ne>ly all1 conv]t$ into light4 ,?us ! glass globes rema9 almo/ unheat$1 & are unbrok54 ,! electric curr5t passes along ! wire1 ,w1 & at a c]ta9 place m>k$ ,b1 ! copp] is sold]$ to a plat9um wire1 :i* ent]s at ,c1 & s by plat9um clamps into ! horse-%oe1 ,l4 ,! return wire is simil>ly arrang$2 ! c>bon is enclos$ 9 a glass bulb1 ,,gg1 & all ! air is extract$ by ! pumps2 ! end is !n seal$ up by melt+ x at ,f4 ,! _w is n[ 9 possession ( a lamp = h\sehold use1 & we are surpris$ t x is n m ext5sively adopt$ 9 ,engl&4 ,!re are "s ,swan lamps us$ 9 p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 & :5 we h expla9$ ! application ( ! light1 & ! uses to :i* ! motive p[] c be appli$1 we %all1 we believe1 conv9ce ! mo/ cons]vative gas bill advocate t ,edison's lamp is *eap]1 saf]1 & f> bett] 9 illum9at+ p[] ?an gas1 if ! success ( ! electric lamp c be assur$4 ,we ne$ n dwell ^u ! con/ruction ( ! 8pump+ /ation10 = t is virtually :at ! magneto-electric g5]ator is4 ,sev]al ( ^! /ations c be e/abli%$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! city1 & ea* /ation w supply a di/rict ) electricity4 ,! wires are laid 9 a tight box along ! /reet1 b5ea? ! footpa?1 or o!r conv5i5t position1 & we are in=m$ t ! fro/ r improves _! electrical condition4 ,"h is "o advantage ov] gas4 ,f ! ma9 wires small] ones ent] ! h\ses1 & are c>ri$ ?r\gh a 8met]0 conta9+ a safety valve4 ,!re are two wires--a di/ribut+ wire & a wa/e--col\r$1 "o r$ & ! o!r gre51 :i* communicate respectively ) ! ma9 supply & return wires to ! 8pump+ /ation0 or g5]ator4 ,! electricity is admitt$ betwe5 c>bon po9ts & fl[s r\nd a magnet1 ! armature ( :i* is held above x by a spr+4 ,if too mu* =ce be put on & any dang] incurr$1 ! magnet w attract ! armature1 & ! curr5t w cease4 ,a snap connect$ by a small wire w !n be clos$ by ! electricity1 & melt+ f ! heat w cut (f all ! curr5t4 ,9 ord9>y circum/ances ! electricity passes ?r\gh regulators 7wire w\nd on spools7 & on to a copp] plate1 8?r\gh a solution ( copp] salt40 ,?us = e unit ( curr5t a c]ta9 quantity ( copp] is deposit$4 ,a c]ta9 /&>d am\nt repres5ts five cubic feet1 & ! bills1 bas$ on ! accumulation ( copp]1 are made out l gas bills4 ,:5 ! lamp is requir$ a small h&le is turn$1 & is in/antly light$2 ! rev]se motion cuts (f ! curr5t4 8,by t\*+ a knob 9 ! b$room ! :ole h\se c be simultane\sly light$ up0 if desirable4 ,no mat*es are necess>y1 z ! lamps light !mselves4 ,by add+ a small electro-motor to ! furniture ( ! h\se1 & turn+ a h&le1 ! sew+-ma*9e c be work$ by electricity1 or la!s turn$2 & any bus9ess op]ations1 su* z lift+ by cranes1 etc41 c be easily c>ri$ on4 ,! ,swan electric lamps1 :i*1 ) ,mr4 ,edison's1 7 exhibit$ 9 ,p>is1 & w be f\nd at ,syd5ham1 give ab\t twelve c&le-p[] light4 ,edison's lamps are made 9 two sizes1 & v>y accord+ly4 ,! ,swan lamps give a v s(t light1 & are z easily manipulat$ z ,edison's4 ,! ,siem5s sy/em ( light+ 0 also well se5 9 ,p>is1 & ! ,faure /orage sy/em enables our tra9s to be light$ in/antane\sly by simply turn+ a h&le4 ,a full description ( ! ,faure batt]y 0 giv5 9 ! ,times by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 & 9 8 address to ! ,briti% ,association at ,york 9 ,septemb] la/4 ,he po9t$ out t 9 ! accumulators ( ,m4 ,faure1--:i* c be se5 at #ddf1 ,we/ ,/r&1 ,london1--by means ( a l>ge batt]y x is q easy to draw (f electricity & to apply x z ,edison propos$ to d1 9 light+ our h\ses & d any little s]vice4 ,! electricity ?us /or$ w\ld be always ready = use1 & w\ld be suppli$ & paid =4 ,x c be appli$ to any purpose1 & locomotion by its means w ere long become m g5]al4 ,9 ,p>is ,dr4 ,siem5s exhibit$ 8 electric tramway4 ,?is 0 an improvem5t ^u ! fir/ ,b]l9 tramway1 = 9 x ! horses frequ5tly receiv$ %ocks :i* !y res5t$4 ,9 ! lat] application ! curr5t comes f ! g5]ator by metal rods c>ri$ above ! heads ( ! pass5g]s alongside ! l9e4 ,little roll]s ^u ^! are unit$ ) an electric ma*9e 9 ! tram-c>4 ,! curr5t is s5t along ! wires1 & reconv]t$ into me*anical en]gy 9 ! second ma*9e1 turns ! :eels ( ! c>s4 ,9 ?is way1 z ! c> proce$s1 ! roll]s ov]head or alongside ! track are kept mov+ by ! c>1 & ! connection is nev] brok54 ,b ?is is a digression4 ,! electric light z appli$ to ligh?\ses 0 also exhibit$1 & any read] desir\s to obta9 full in=mation ^u ! subject ( lights & ligh?\ses w f9d x 9 a v pleasantly-writt5 "w by ,mr4 ,?omas ,/ev5son1 9 :i* ! v>i\s sy/ems ( light+ by electricity & o!rwise are fully rec\nt$1 ! conclusion be+ 9 fav\r ( electricity1 :i* is employ$ & has be5 us$ = ye>s 9 ,france & 9 "s ,engli% beacons4 ,if its p5etrative p[] c be f9ally e/abli%$1--= "s au?orities ma9ta9 t ! electric is m easily absorb$ by fog ?an o!r light1--!re is no d\bt ab\t its be+ univ]sally adopt$4 ,x is v int]e/+ to wat* ! uses to :i* ! electric light is be+ put4 ,! late/ exp]im5t has be5 made by an ,au/rian1 ,doctor ,mik]liez4 ,almo/ incr$ible z x may seem1 ! int]ior ( ! human /oma* c n[ be illum9at$ by means ( a wond]ful little in/rum5t call$ ! ,ga/roscope1 :i* is said to be actually 9 use & to h be5 fav\rably report$ ^u by ! m$ical faculty ( ,vi5na4 ,!re is at ! end ( a jo9t$ flexible tube 7:i* c be pass$ d[n ! gullet7 a m9iature lamp1 f> m m>vell\s & my/]i\s ?an t ( ,aladd91 9 :i* a /rip ( plat9um is fix$ & connect$ ) f9e wires conduct+ ! electricity f a small batt]y4 ,:5 contact is made1 & ! 8light turn$ on10 ! cav]n\s int]ior ( ! /oma* is lit up4 ,/ill m extraord9>y is ! fact t ! tube c be made to revolve1 & ! light reflect$ f ! walls ( ! /oma* & direct$ to ! eye ( ! obs]v]4 ,!re is necess>ily a b5d 9 ! in/rum5t1 s t ! light has lit]ally to turn a corn] be=e x rea*es ! surgeon's eye2 "h ! inv5tor's skill & ?or\gh k ( ! laws ( optics are br\ght into requisition4 ,! reflect$ rays ( light fall ^u a sort ( w9d[ situat$ a little above ! lant]n1 & by means ( prisms & a s]ies ( l5ses1 ! light is twi/$ & turn$ ab\t until x arrives at ! eye-piece4 ,no s5sation ( heat is to be fe>$1 ! little lamp be+ kept con/antly cool by a res]voir ( wat]4 ,sev]al contrivances h be5 inv5t$ )9 ! la/ few ye>s = exam9+ ! int]ior ( ! body1 b !y are v co/ly2 ! ,ga/roscope is likely to r5d] great s]vice to m$ical sci5ce4 ,! t]m 8magneto-electric ma*9e0 is giv5 to a collection ( p>ts ( me*anism int5d$ to create or ga!r toge!r induc$ electric curr5ts4 ,! inv5tion ( ! magneto-electric ma*9e 0 by no means a sudd5 inspiration1 b ! gradual result ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts & discov]ies1 ! fir/ ( :i*1 dat+ f #ahbj1 may be said to be r/$'s obs]vation1 t a magnetis$ ne$le is deflect$ by ! approa* ( an electric curr5t z well z by t ( a magnet1 cle>ly prov+ t magnetism & electricity h "s relation to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! same ye> ,arago discov]$ t a coil ( insulat$ wire w\nd r\nd a core ( s(t iron1 conv]ts x into a p[]ful magnet 7i4e41 an electro-magnet7 :5 a curr5t passes ?r\gh ! coil4 ,x 0 9 #ahcj1 h[ev]1 t our c\ntryman ,f>aday prov$ ! creation ( a curr5t by ! action ( a magnet on a coil ( wire1 & 8 exp]im5t prov$ %ortly z foll[s3--,if a coil ( wire be w\nd on a holl[ core1 & a p]man5t b> magnet be introduc$ into ! holl[ core1 :il/ introduc+ x a curr5t may be prov$ 7by a galvanomet]71 to be induc$ 9 ! coil fl[+ 9 a c]ta9 direction1 ,a ,b1 :i* ceases z soon z ! magnet is at re/ 9 ! c5tre ( coil4 ,on ! )drawal ( ! magnet a second curr5t is induc$ fl[+ 9 ! opposite direction1 ,b ,a4 ,!re=e x is cle> t if a magnet be incessantly approa*$ to & )drawn f a coil ( wire a con/ant succession ( curr5ts w be produc$1 & if a *>g$ coil 7i4e41 a coil connect$ ) ! poles ( a voltaic batt]y7 take ! place ( ! magnet a precisely simil> result w be obta9$4 ,n[ x w h be5 notic$ t two opposite curr5ts are con/antly be+ =m$1 & z ! object is to obta9 a cont9u\s fl[ ( electricity 9 "o giv5 direction1 or1 9 fact1 div]t or rev]se ! curr5t in/antly on its =mation to make x practically ! same curr5t1 = ?is purpose a commutator is us$1 & z = mo/ purposes a commutator is "o ( ! ess5tials ( a magneto-electric ma*9e1 we w "h give a description !re(4 7,see fig4 #bge47 ,! ma*9e is compos$ ( a cyl9d]1 consi/+ ( two metallic conduct+ halves1 sep>at$ by a non-conduct+ lay]4 ,:il/ x is at re/ ! alt]nat+ curr5ts1 f be+ connect$ ) ! halves by ! curr5t1 w pass to ! two contact spr+s1 & !nce ?r\gh ! circuit4 ,n[ if 7z is ! case7 ! curr5t is con/antly *ang+1 z has be5 notic$1 ! inv]se curr5t w at ! fir/ *ange pass ?r\gh ! same *annels1 b 9 ano!r direction2 b if at ! in/ant ( ! rev]sal ( ! curr5t ! cyl9d] be revolv$1 ! curr5t fl[+ ! rev]se way w be guid$ ?r\gh o!r *annels respectively1 in/ead ( ! orig9al *annels1 & ! direction ( ! curr5t be+ *ang$ at ! same mom5t z ! curr5t itself1 ! two inv]sions neutralize !mselves1 & "o con/ant curr5t is produc$4 ,9 a magneto-electric ma*9e ! commutator revolves id5tically ) ! magnet or armature1 & ! po9t at :i* sp>ks are be+ con/antly produc$ is :]e ! contact is be+ cont9ually brok5 & made by ! passage ( ! friction spr+s f ov] ! non-conduct+ lay]4 ,! fir/ ma*9e =m$ on ! basis ( ,f>aday's exp]im5ts 0 ,pixii's4 ,x 0 compos$ ( two uprights & a cross b>1 to :i* is atta*$1 hang+ poles d[nw>ds1 an electro-magnet2 und]nea? ?is1 ! poles upw>ds1 revolves a magnet4 ,! commutator is fix$ on ! same axle & revolves ) ! p]man5t magnet4 ,saxton1 & subsequ5tly ,cl>ke1 made ! obvi\s improvem5t ( mak+ ! magnet less cumbr\s & fix$1 & caus+ ! bobb9s ( ! electro-magnet to revolve be=e or r beside its poles2 ! commutator 0 fix$ at ! end ( ! axle on :i* ! revolv+ bobb9s 7or armature7 are fix$4 ,niaudat =m$ a comp\nd ,cl>ke ma*9e1 by sett+ two horse-%oe magnets a %ort di/ance ap>t4 ,! armature revolves betwe5 !m1 & consi/s ( twelve coils set betwe5 two plates2 ! coils are set alt]nately & connect$1--i4e41 ! poles ( ! electro-magnets are set beside "o ano!r1--,n4 to ,s41 ,s4 to ,n41 & s on1 s t ! ,n4 pole rec$+ produces a curr5t2 b ! ,n4 pole rec$+ makes ! ,s4 pole approa*1 & produces ano!r curr5t1 ,a ,b2 9 fact1 a cont9uation ( ! same1 = ! approa* ( a ,n4 pole naturally produces ! same curr5t z ! recession ( a ,s4 pole2 !n z ! ,s4 pole 9 turn rec$es x produces an inv]se curr5t1 ,b ,a1 :i* is 9 turn kept up by ! approa* ( ! next ,n4 pole1 & s on4 ,ea* coil is atta*$ to a radiat+ metal b>1 :i* conveys ! curr5t to be r$irect$ to ! commutator1 :i* is affix$ to ! axle ( ! revolv+ armature z 9 ,cl>ke's ma*9e4 ,9 #ahed ,siem5s complet$ 8 ma*9e1 ! *ief peculi>ity ( :i* 0 its cyl9drical bobb92 ! core is groov$ deeply1 p>allel ) its axis1 & ! wire is w\nd on cyl9drically & cov]$ ) plates ( brass2 "o end ( ! coil is fix$ to ! metal axis1 ! o!r to an insulat$ f]ule at ! end ( ! axis1 :]e is also situate ! commutator4 ,?is armature revolves betwe5 ! poles by :i* x is closely embrac$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ! magneto-electrical ma*9es is t kn[n z ! 8,alliance10 inv5t$ by ,nollet1 & p]fect$ by ,van ,mald]54 ,x is compos$ ( f\r or six bronze discs1 revolv+ on an axle1 r\nd ! ext]nal circumf]5ce ( ea* ( :i* are set sixte5 bobb9s4 ,?is rotat+ comp\nd armature revolves betwe5 f\r to six sets ( horse-%oe magnets1 :i*1 be+ fix$ radially to ! c5tre1 pres5t 9 ea* set sixte5 poles to ! sixte5 bobb9s4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t ?is imm5se quantity ( poles & bobb9s produces a highly conc5trat$ curr5t1 ! ends ( :i* proce$ f ! axle & an insulat$ f]ule at its extremity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge4--,! ,wallace ,ma*9e4 ,9 #ahfi ,mr4 ,holmes p]fect$ 8 ma*9e1 :i* diff]s f all previ\s ones 7except ,pixii's71 9 t ! electro-magnets revolve 9 front ( ! coils in/ead ( vice v]s2 & besides magnetis+ 8 electro-magnets ) "p ( ! self-produc$ electricity1 8 bobb9s are s dispos$ z to be able to keep sev]al indep5d5t lights go+ at once4 ,! ,wylde ma*9e consi/s1 z x 71 ( two ,siem5s ma*9es1 "o on ! top ( ! o!r1 ! l[] & l>g] ( :i* is work$ by an electro-magnet1 :i* is magnetis$ by ! action ( ! upp] or small] "o1 consi/+ 9 ! ord9>y way ( a p]man5t magnet app>atus1 :i* is t]m$ 8! excit+ ma*9e40 ,! longitud9al bobb9 revolv$ betwe5 ^! p]man5t poles produces alt]nat+ curr5ts1 :i* are commutat$ 7or r$irect$71 & pass to "w ! l>g] & l[] electro-magnet1 :i* is compos$ ( two l>ge %eets ( iron connect$ by a plate 7on :i* /&s ! excit]74 ,its poles are two masses ( iron sep>at$ by a lay] ( copp]1 & 9 ?is armature revolves ! l>g] longitud9al bobb94 ,?is l[] ma*9e is call$ ! g5]ator4 ,bo? bobb9s are simultane\sly revolv$1 & an int5se curr5t ( electricity is !reby g5]at$4 ,almo/ simultane\sly ) ?is "o ,mr4 ,ladd inv5t$ 8 ma*9e1 :i* is di/+ui%$ f all hi!rto describ$ by be+ compos$ ( two p>allel b> electro-magnets1 betwe5 ! extremities ( :i* are plac$ two ,siem5s armatures1 "o small] ?an ! o!r2 bo? be+ revolv$1 ! small] excites ! electro-magnets1 & ! l>g] g5]ates ! electricity requir$4 ,! wire is w\nd r\nd ! magnets s t ! ,n4 & ,s4 poles face ea* o!r at ea* end4 ,! *ief advantage ( ! ,ladd ma*9e is ! conv]sion ( dynamic =ce into electricity1 !re always be+ j suffici5t magnetism 9 an iron b> 7by induction f t]re/rial magnetism & o!r causes7 to produce a v feeble curr5t 9 ! ,siem5s bobb91 & ! bobb9 tak+ x up & return+ x to ! electro-magnet1 & ! electro-magnet at once giv+ x back to ! bobb91 ! curr5t gradually increases till ! maximum is rea*$4 ,& :5 we take into consid]ation ?is modicum ( utilisable t]re/rial magnetism1 we may truly say 9 ! words ( ,m4 ,hippolyte ,fonta9e1 8,! m9d is lo/ 9 contemplation ( ! succession ( discov]ies complet+ "o ano!r1 & %[+ t ) app>atus ( small dim5sions an inf9ite s\rce ( electricity c\ld be produc$ if matt] c\ld )/& inf9ite velocities40 ,! ,lont9 ma*9e1 :i* suppli$ ! curr5t = ! electric light :i* us$ to make night bright outside ! ,gaiety1 is also compos$ ( two p>ts1 "o divid+1 ! o!r g5]at+ ! electricity produc$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! divid+ ma*9e is some:at simil> to ! alliance1 except+ t a numb] ( electro-magnets arrang$ radially r\nd a core1 revolve close to a correspond+ numb] ( bobb9s fix$ inside an iron cyl9d]1 outside :i* is ! collect+ & divid+ app>atus4 ,! ,maxim ma*9e is con/ruct$ on ! pr9ciple ( sets ( coils rotat+ betwe5 p[]ful electro-magnets4 ,! ,wallace ma*9e 0 inv5t$ by ! inv5tor ( ! ,wallace-,f>m] lamp4 ,x consi/s ( two horse-%oe electro-magnets plac$ side by side1 ! oppos+ poles fac+ ea* o!r4 ,ea* magnet has a rotat+ armature ( tw5ty-five bobb9s1 on :i* ! wire is w\nd quadruply1 & ! curr5t g5]at$ by ^! coils is conduct$ away1 pass+ ?r\gh & excit+ ! electro-magnets1 ?us utiliz+ ! residual & t]re/rial magnetism be=e m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! ,ladd ma*9e2 o!rwise x p>takes ( ! nature ( ! ,niaudet ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgf4--,! ,gramme ,ma*9e4 ,we n[ come to :at is p]haps ! mo/ p]fect magneto-electric ma*9e1 :i* 0 fir/ con/ruct$ by ,m4 ,gramme1 a ,p>isian1 9 #ahgb1 & diff]s 9 pr9ciple & con/ruction f all ^? hi!rto notic$4 ,its ess5tial *>act]i/ic is a s(t iron r+1 r\nd :i* is coil$ "o s+le cont9u\s wire 7i4e41 ! two ends are jo9$74 ,r\nd ! ext]ior surface ( ! wire coil a b& is b>$1 & on ?is b>$ "p two friction spr+s act4 ,if ! r+ & coil be plac$ be=e ! poles ( a magnet1 ! r+ w h two poles1 ,s4 & ,n41 induc$ opposite ! oppos+ poles ,n4 & ,s4 ( ! magnet2 & if ! r+ revolve ! poles w rema9 /ation>y1 & z ! coil revolves ea* coil ( ! wire w pass ?is induc$ pole1 & z naturally half ! coil w be induct$ ) "o curr5t1 ! o!r half 7act$ on by ! o!r pole7 w be *>g$ ) ano!r or opposite curr5t1 :i* two k9ds ( electricity are c>ri$ away by ! friction spr+s be=e m5tion$4 ,9 ! ma*9e1 z actually con/ruct$1 ! s(t iron r+ is compos$ l ! magnet or wire bundle ( an induction coil1 & ! coils are set ^u x side by side4 ,inside ! r+ are radially set insulat$ pieces1 to ea* ( :i* is atta*$ ! issu+ end ( "o & ! ent]+ end ( ano!r bobb92 ^! answ] ! same purpose z ! d5udation ( ! ext]nal lay] ( wire4 ,^! pieces are b5t s z to come out ( ! c5tre ( ! r+ at "r angles1 & lay side by side 7insulat$7 r\nd a small cyl9d]4 ,^!1 z !y revolve1 are t\*$ by friction spr+s1 :i* draw (f ! electricity induc$ 9 ! coils 9 "o cont9u\s curr5t4 ,no sp>ks are produc$ at ! contact ( ! friction spr+s1 & !re is no t5d5cy to become heat$4 ,to obviate ! inconv5i5ce ( ! second>y or inv]t$ curr5t produc$ by ! /opp+ ( ! ma*9e1 ! inv5tor has contriv$ a circuit break] on ! pr9ciple ( ! electro-magnet1 ! magnets hold+ ! circuit break] 9 contact s long z ! ma*9e is work+2 b ! decrease ( velocity less5+ ! attractive p[] ( ! magnet1 ! circuit break] op5s by its own weight 7or a c\nt]-weight71 & all dang] ( a rev]se curr5t is obviat$4 ,exp]im5tal ma*9es are manufactur$ by ,brquet ,cie 7,p>is71 compos$ ( ,jam9's magnets1 & turn$ ) a h&le1 & produce a =ce ( eight ,buns5 cells4 ,a great revolution1 or r ! beg9n+ ( a new era 9 ! hi/ory ( electricity1 may be said to h comm5c$ ) ! p]fection ( ,m4 ,faure's accumulators4 ,^! are tr\ghs conta9+ elev5 lead plates1 ea* coat$ ) oxide ( lead & wrapp$ 9 felt1 ! fluid be+ dilute sulphuric acid4 ,! application ( !m to ! electric light is "o ( _! mo/ valuable features2 at ! dept 9 ! ,/r&1 :]e !y may be se5 at "w1 !re are ?irty su* elem5ts1 ea* weigh+ ab\t #ej lbs4 ,x takes a two-horse-p[] eng9e work+ an ,edison or ,gramme ma*9e six to eight h\rs to *>ge !m1 & :5 *>g$ !y w keep almo/ any numb] ( lamps ( sixte5-c&le-p[] go+ "s eight h\rs4 ,!y are us$ on ! ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/ ,railway1 & seem peculi>ly adapt$ to light+ by inc&esc5ce1 by ,swan1 or ,edison's lamp4 ,! elem5ts fully *>g$ may be c>ri$ any di/ance )\t los+ _! electric p[]4 ,& ! /or$ =ce may be us$ = *>g+ ! accumulators !mselves afre% f ! ma*9e4 ,^! accumulators may be se5 any day at #ddf1 ,/r&1 & are well wor? a visit4 ,! ,gyroscope1 ?\gh n[ an in/rum5t common & famili> to all /ud5ts1 is none ! less ! subject ( a problem1 ! solution ( :i* is /ill to seek4 ,x has inde$ be5 entitl$ ! p>adox ( me*anics2 = ?\gh x dep5ds on gravitation1 gravitation yet appe>s indiff]5t to x4 ,9 ord] to r5d] ! op]ation ( ! ,gyroscope z cont9u\s z possible1 s z to facilitate ! pr(\nd /udy ( its work+1 & also to unite ano!r influ5ce ) ^? ( ! ord9>y ,gyroscope1 produc+ ph5om5a ( :i* ?is in/rum5t af=ds u ! spectacle1 a le>n$ ,am]ican has employ$ electricity z a motive p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgg4--,! ,gyroscope4 ,! ,gyroscope1 %[n 9 fig4 #bgg1 has a l>ge1 heavy p$e/al1 ) a po9t$ column1 :i* supports ! in/rum5t itself4 ,! frame1 ( :i* ! electro-magnets =m a "p1 is connect$ ) a rod1 hav+ at "o end a holl[ cavity :i* re/s on ! po9t ( ! v]tical column4 ,"o ( ! extremities ( ! magnetic spool is atta*$ to ?is cavity1 ! o!r end communicat+ ) ! b> :i* unites ! two magnets4 ,ov] ?is b> is a spr+ :i* breaks ! curr5t1 support$ by an insulator 9 h>d india-rubb]2 x is adju/$ s t x t\*es a small cyl9d] on ! axis ( ! :eel twice dur+ e rotation ( ! latt]4 ,! :eel's plane ( rotation is at "r angles ) ! magnets1 & x c>ries an armature ( s(t iron1 :i* rotates close to ! magnet )\t t\*+ x4 ,! armature is s plac$ 9 relation to ! surface ( contact ) ! cyl9d] t breaks ! curr5t1 t twice dur+ ea* rotation1 z ! armature approa*es ! magnets1 x is attract$2 b imm$iately aft]w>ds1 z ! armature comes directly 9 front ( ! magnets1 ! curr5t is brok51 & ! acquir$ impulsion is suffici5t to move ! :eel until ! armature comes aga9 "u ! influ5ce ( ! magnet4 ,! spr+ :i* int]rupts ! curr5t is connect$ ) a ?9 copp] wire1 :i* /ret*es back z f> z ! po9t ( ! column1 entw9+ x sev]al times to r5d] x flexible1 f9ally b5d+ d[n & plung+ into "s m]cury enclos$ 9 a r\nd vulcanite cup plac$ on ! column ne> ! p$e/al4 ,! p$e/al also be>s two small /akes = receiv+ ! wires ( ! batt]y1 "o connect$ ) ! column1 & ! o!r communicat+ by a small wire ) ! m]cury conta9$ 9 ! vulcanite vessel4 ,! magnets1 ! :eel1 & all ! connect$ p>ts c move 9 any direction r\nd ! po9t ( ! column4 ,:5 two l>ge ,buns5 cells1 or f\r small ones1 are connect$ ) ! ,gyroscope1 ! :eel turns ) great rapidity1 & all[+ ! magnets to op]ate1 x n only su/a9s itself1 b also ! magnets & ! o!r objects :i* are betwe5 x & ! po9t ( ! column 9 opposition to ! laws ( gravitation4 ,! :eel1 besides turn+ rapidly r\nd its axis1 also effects a sl[ rotation r\nd ! column 9 ! direction ( ! movem5t exp]i5c$ by ! l[] "p ( ! :eel4 ,by plac+ ! arm & ! c\nt]poise ( ! ma*9e z %[n 9 fig4 #bgg1 s t ! :eel & ! magnets balance exactly on ! po9t$ column1 ! :ole ma*9e re/s /ation>y2 b if we give ! prepond]ance to ! :eel & ! magnets1 ! app>atus beg9s to rotate 9 a direction contr>y to or foll[+ t ( ! upp] "p ( ! :eel4 ,! ,gyroscope exemplifies v cle>ly ! p]si/5ce ) :i* a body und]go+ a movem5t ( rotation ma9ta9s itself 9 ! plane ( its rotation 9 spite ( gravitation4 ,x %[s also ! result ( ! comb9$ action ( two =ces t5d+ to produce rotations r\nd two axes :i* are sep>ate1 b situat$ 9 ! same plane4 ,! rotation ( ! :eel r\nd its axis1 produc$1 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 by ! electro-magnet1 & ! t5d5cy ( ! :eel to fall or turn 9 a v]tical plane1 p>allel to its axis1 produce1 z a result1 ! rotation ( ! entire in/rum5t r\nd a new axis :i* co9cides ) ! column4 ,,peiff]',s ,,electrophorus4 ,x w n[ p]haps int]e/ our read]s to describe a *>m+ little play?+ :i* is a great fav\rite ) *ildr51 & :i* has ! inconte/able m]it ( e>ly initiat+ !m into all ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( ! /atics ( electricity1 & tea*+ !m ! sci5ce ( physics 9 an amus+ =m4 ,x is a small electrophorus inv5t$ by ,m4 ,j4 ,peiff]1 & r$uc$ to su* a po9t ( simplicity1 t x consi/s m]ely ( a ?9 plate ( ebonite1 ab\t ! size ( a l>ge %eet ( lett] pap]4 ,! t9n$ wood5 disc ( ! electrophorus :i* is f\nd describ$ 9 mo/ treatises on physics1 is replac$ by a small %eet ( t91 ab\t ! size ( a play+-c>d1 fa/5$ on to ! surface ( ! ebonite4 ,! ebonite electrophorus produces electricity ) rem>kable facility4 ,x mu/ be plac$ flat on a wood5 table1 & ?or\ghly rubb$ ) ! h&2 if x is !n lift$1 & ! %eet ( t9 lightly t\*$1 a sp>k is elicit$ f in* to in* 9 l5g?4 ,! electrophorus is complet$ by ! addition ( a numb] ( small accessories 9 ! %ape ( small dolls made ( eld]-wood1 :i* exhibit 9 a v amus+ mann] ! ph5om5a ( attraction & repulsion4 ,aft] ! bo>d has be5 *>g$ ) electricity1 place ! ?ree little figures on ! %eet ( t91 & lift up ! app>atus1 s z to isolate x f any support4 ,y w !n see "o little doll ext5d+ its arms1 ano!r ) its silky hair /&+ on end1 & a ?ird1 light] ?an ! o!rs1 leap+ l a cl[n1 & displac+ z he does s ! two small balls ( eld]-wood :i* h be5 plac$ on ea* side ( him4 ,we h giv5 an illu/ration ( ! ?ree figures p]=m+ at once 7fig4 #bgh71 b !y are g5]ally us$ sep>ately4 ,m4 ,peiff] has inde$ collect$ e kn[n accessory = an electric ma*9e1 su* z ,geissl]'s tube1 ! electric c>illon1 etc4 ,^! diff]5t exp]im5ts are all r$uc$ to _! simple/ =m1 &1 ) _! appliances1 are all conta9$ 9 a c>dbo>d box4 ,!y are plac$ beside ! electrophorus1 :i* ?us takes ! place ( an unwieldy electric ma*9e4 ,m4 ,j4 ,peiff] accompanies ?is little portable cab9et ) an exhau/ive pamphlet1 :i* is a valuable guide to ! "y physici/ 9 /udy+ ! fir/ pr9ciples ( electricity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--,m4 ,j4 ,peiff]'s electrophorus ) dolls4 8,x is easy to discov] 9 ! education ( *ildr510 says ,m4 ,peiff] 9 8 preface1 8h[ to turn _! budd+ faculties to ! be/ acc\nt4 ,w\ld y utilize !m 9 a satisfactory mann]8--,!n put 9 _! h&s play?+s :i*1 9 an attractive =m1 s]ve to famili>ize !m at an e>ly age ) ^? sci5ces1 a k ( :i* w be at a lat] p]iod absolutely indisp5sable to !m2 & !y w be mu* m amus$ ?an ) ord9>y commonplace toys40 ,^! are s5sible words1 9 :i* we he>tily concur4 ,yes6 ,sci5ce prop]ly taught1 & prop]ly und]/ood1 c inde$ be br\ght )9 ! range ( *ildr52 x %\ld give a la/+ int]e/ to all amusem5ts1 & =m a "p ( ! culture ( ! y\?ful m9d1 z at a lat] p]iod x w contribute to ! p]fect developm5t ( ! gr[n man4 ,,magic ,,fi%4 ,an +5i\s physici/1 ,m4 de4 ,combettes1 :o is a civil eng9e] at ,p>is1 has devot$ himself to con/ruct+ a numb] ( play?+s & sci5tific appliances = "y p1 among :i* we w describe ! v curi\s "o repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bgi4 ,a j> is fill$ ) wat]1 hold+ 9 susp5sion "s fi% made ( t91 simil> to ^? :i* *ildr5 put 9 wat] & attract ) a magnet4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! me*anism is hidd51 & ! op]ator c turn ! fi% fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r at pleasure4 ,! secret ( ?is exp]im5t is easily expla9$ by exam9+ ! illu/ration 7fig4 #bgi74 ,9 ! wood5 /& :i* supports ! j> !re is conceal$ a small electro-magnet :i* acts on ! s(t iron conta9$ 9 ! float+ fi%4 ,:5 ! curr5t passes ! small magnet turns r\nd & attracts ! little fi% swimm+ 9 ! wat]4 ,?is gyratory movem5t c be *ang$ at pleasure by means ( a regulator4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgi4--;,exp]im5t ( magic fi% set 9 motion by electricity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj4--;,an electric toy4 ,we w give an illu/ration ( a few electric toys :i* ,m4 ,tr\v has f\nd = u4 ,9 ! picture 7fig4 #bha7 we see ?ree diff]5t objects1--a rabbit beat+ a small bell1 a repres5tation ( a bird ) out/ret*$ w+s1 & a p9 surm\nt$ by a skull4 ,all ^! are capable ( hav+ movem5t imp>t$ to !m by means ( electricity1 al?\gh made & int5d$ = ord9>y use 9 ! =m ( sc>f-p9 or o!r ornam5t4 ,let u take ! 8dea?'s head0 p9 fir/4 ,x is 9 gold1 & enamell$ ) diamond eyes & articulat$ jaws4 ,! rabbit is also gold1 & c>ries two small drum/icks1 ) :i* he c play a t9y bell4 ,?is device also c be worn z a sc>f-p94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bha4--,magic toys4 ,a conduct+ wire leads f ! p9 into ! wai/coat pocket1 :]e a small 8pile10 ab\t ! size ( a cig>ette1 is hidd5 away4 ,if any "o p>ticul>ly admires ! sc>f-p91 all y h to d is to ins9uate y\r f+]s into y\r pocket1 & y w1 by contact1 cause ! electric curr5t to act ^u ! p9 9 y\r sc>f4 ,! dea?'s head w at once beg9 to roll its eyes & gr9d its tee?1 :ile ! rabbit1 "u simil> circum/ances1 w beg9 to play its bell ) ! greate/ en]gy4 ,! h&some diamond bird repres5t$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! illu/ration belongs to ,madame de ,mett]ni*4 ,:5 any lady we>s x 9 h] hair1 %e c1 by ! conceal$ wire1 make x flap its jewell$ w+s1 & by s do+ cause mu* surprise among/ ! spectators4 ,we w n[ endeav\r to give a description ( ! mann] 9 :i* ^! toys play _! p>ts 9 company ) ! 8h]metic-pile0 :i* ,m4 ,tr\v has appli$ to _m specialities t he has suppli$ to doctors1 :o use !m l>gely4 ,?is pile is =m$ by a 8c\ple0 ( c>bon & z9c h]metically enclos$ 9 an ebonite box4 ,! c>bon & z9c only occupy "o-half ( ! case4 ,! liquid occupies ! o!r4 ,! sket* 7fig4 #bhj7 on prec$+ page w expla9 ! app>atus4 ,s long z ! case is 9 its normal position ! elem5ts are n imm]s$ 9 ! solution1 & consequ5tly no electricity is develop$4 ,b z soon z ! figure is plac$ 9 a horizontal or lean+ position ! =ce is g5]at$2 on readju/+ ! box ! electric curr5t is cut (f1 & all developm5t ceases4 ,_m curi\s electrical toys c be se5 9 ,p>is4 ,dolls are made to talk1 & _m o!r wond]s = *ildr5 c be easily procur$4 ,,animal ,,& ,,atmosph]ic ,,electricity4 ,be=e conclud+ ! subject ( electricity we mu/ devote a few pages to ! consid]ation ( ! electric influ5ce possess$ by c]ta9 fi%es1 & to "s ( ! ph5om5a ( ! atmosph]e1 especially ?und]/orms4 ,we h se5 h[ ,galvani exp]im5t$ ^u ! limbs ( frogs1 & ma9ta9$ t !y possess$ electricity2 he attribut$ ! curr5t 9 ! muscles to t cause4 ,?is !ory ,volta d5i$1 b subsequ5tly ,nobili1 9 #ahbg1 prov$ ! exi/5ce ( a curr5t 9 ! frog by means ( a ,galvanomet]4 ,?is 0 conclusive1 & ! exp]im5t 0 p]=m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,he fill$ two vessels ) salt & wat]1 & into "o he dipp$ ! crucal muscles ( a frog1 & 9 ! o!r ! lumb> n]ves 7 imm]s$4 ,by putt+ ^! vessels 9 communication ) 8 improv$ ,galvanomet]1 :i* 0 extremely s5sitive1 he p]ceiv$ a curr5t pass+ f ! feet t[>ds ! head ( ! animal4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to ,matteucci & ,du ,bois ,reymond t ! inve/igation ( ! ph5om5a ( ! c\rant propre are due4 ,! =m] =m$ a 8pile0 ( ! ?ighs ( frogs1 & by plac+ ! int]ior & ext]ior muscles 9 contact he =m$ a curr5t f ! inside to ! outside muscles4 ,?is curr5t is suppos$ to be occasion$ by c]ta9 *emical *anges :i* are cont9ually tak+ place1 & x cont9ues long] 9 ! case ( a cold-blood$ animal ?an 9 a w>m-blood$ "o4 ,!re are _m int]e/+ pap]s on ?is subject includ$ among/ ! 8,philosophical ,transactions02 & ! 8,physical ,ph5om5a ( ,liv+ ,be+s0 is fully treat$ 9 ,matteucci's lectures on t subject4 ,9 ! 8,transactions0 = #ahdh & subsequ5t ye>s1 o!r exp]im5ts may be p]us$1 b space w n p]mit u to dilate ^u !m4 ,! fact has be5 e/abli%$1 & we are told t muscles & n]ves1 z well z c]ta9 gl&s ( ! body1 possess c]ta9 electrical prop]ties4 ,! electricity ( fi%es1 & ! p[] possess$ by ! torp$o--^: "n is n[ *iefly kn[n 9 connection ) w>like appliances--& ! gymnotus1 h be5 kn[n = a v long "t4 ,?is fi%1 popul>ly kn[n z ! electric eel1 inhabits ! w>m fre%-wat] lakes ( ,africa1 ,asia1 & ,am]ica4 ,a specim5 0 exhibit$ at ! ,polyte*nic "s ye>s ago4 ,?is 0 ! fi% exp]im5t$ on at ! ,adelaide ,gall]y by ,pr(essor ,f>aday1 :o cle>ly demon/rat$ ! fact t ! electricity ( ! animal & ! common electricity are id5tical4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts 7 made1 & ! circuit %ock & ev5 sp>ks 7 obta9$ f ! gymnotus4 ,9 fact1 ! gymnotus is a natural electric ma*9e4 ,! =ce ( ! %ock giv5 by ! electric eel is v great1 = ,f>aday has put on record t a s+le dis*>ge ( ! eel is equal to fifte5 ,leyd5 j>s *>g$ z highly z possible4 ,its p[] does n ev5 end !re1 = hav+ %ock$ p to t ext5t1 x 0 capable ( a second & occasionally ( a ?ird %ock ( less viol5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhb4--;,electric eel4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! gymnotus acts is f a regul> batt]y 9 ! head1 ! sides ( :i* are fill$ ) a fluid4 ,^! cells are some?+ l a honeycomb 9 appe>ance4 ,! %ock is q volunt>y on ! "p ( ! fi%4 ,sometimes x w kill its prey1 on o!r occasions x is m]ely numb$4 ,pr(essor ,f>aday on "o occasion plac$ a live fi% 9 ! tub ) ! gymnotus1 :i* curl$ itself s z to enclose ! unsuspect+ "o4 ,9 a second ! prey 0 /ruck dead1 & float$ on ! wat]4 ,! gymnotus imm$iately dev\r$ x1 & w5t 9 que/ ( m4 ,ano!r1 b an injur$ fi%1 0 !n introduc$1 b ! electric eel took no tr\ble ab\t ?is "o4 ,x did n tr\ble to give x a %ock1 see+ x 0 disabl$1 x m]ely swall[$ )\t kill+ x4 ,x is also on record t on "o occasion an electric eel _h /unn$ a fi% :i*1 be=e he began to eat x1 gave signs ( return+ animation2 ! eel imm$iately gave x ano!r %ock & kill$ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhc4--,l>ge gymnotus4 ,!re 7 "s o!r curi\s peculi>ities connect$ ) ! electric eel4 ,x appe>s to be q capable ( discrim9at+ betwe5 animate & inanimate t\*4 ,= in/ance1 :5 t\*$ ) a glass rod x at fir/ gave signs ( electricity1 & dis*>g$ a %ock at ! attack+ p>ty4 ,b on subsequ5t occasions1 :5 t\*$ ) metal rods or glass1 ! fi% decl9$ to 8%ock02 nev]!less ! ,pr(essor succe$$ ! mom5t he t\*$ ! animal ) 8 h&s4 ,! torp$o is some?+ l ! well-kn[n skate2 x is sometimes call$ ! electric ray1 & is common en\gh 9 ! ,bay ( ,biscay & 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,x sometimes pays ,engl& a visit1 or is caught by fi%]m5 & br\ght 94 ,we h se5 "o at ,plym\?1 & a v ugly-look+ fi% x 04 ,its electric p[] is consid]able4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhd4--,ray torp$o4 c1 bra92 m e1 sp9al *ord2 o1 eye2 e1 electric organs2 b1 gills2 np1 nl1 n]ves2 n1 sp9al n]ve4 ,!re is yet ano!r fi% kn[n z ! malapt]urus2 "o species is call$ ! ?und]-fi%4 ,pr(essor ,wilson has writt5 a pap] ^u ! electric fi%es z appli$ to ! rem$y ( disease1 & consid]s !m ! 8e>lie/ electric ma*9es ev] kn[n40 ,humboldt relates t ! ,s\?-,am]ican ,indians capture ! gymnotus by driv+ horses into ponds :i* ! electric eels are kn[n to inhabit4 ,! result is t ! fi% deliv] %ock aft] %ock ^u ! un=tunate quadrup$s4 ,mules & horses h frequ5tly be5 kill$ by ^! p[]ful eels1 & ev5 ,f>aday exp]i5c$ a v great %ock :5 he t\*$ ! head & tail ( ! captive gymnotus ) ei!r h&4 ,! malapt]urus to :i* we h ref]r$ is an inhabitant ( ! ,african riv]s1 *iefly 9 ! ,nile & ,s5egal4 ,su* a fi% has be5 kn[n ) o!rs = "s hundr$s ( ye>s2 its electrical p[]s are n great4 ,!re are "o or two o!r species ( fi% :i* possess electrical qualities1 b none app>5tly to ! same ext5t z ! torp$o & ! gymnotus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhe4--,! ,malapt]urus4 ,! electricity ( plants also is 9 "s cases v m>k$4 ,fla%es h be5 se5 to come f "s fl[]s 9 hot & dry wea!r4 ,curr5ts ( electricity h be5 detect$1 & ,w>tmann inve/igat$ ! subject closely4 ,he says ! curr5ts 9 fl[]s are feeble1 b 9 succul5t fruits & "s k9ds ( gra9 !y are v m>k$4 ,^! curr5ts dep5d ^u ! season1 & are greate/ 9 ! spr+1 :5 ! plant is ba!d 9 sap4 ,^! exp]i5ces 7 confirm$ by ,bequ]el 9 #ahej1 & he concludes t ! rank vegetation 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w mu/ ex]cise consid]able influ5ce on ! electric ph5om5a ( ! atmosph]e4 ,m4 ,buff has m rec5tly made exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction1 & he exam9$ plants & trees1 & ev5 mu%rooms4 ,m4 de la ,rive1 aft] c>efully summ+ up ! v>i\s !ories1 comes to ! conclusion t x is to *emical reactions t ! traces ( electricity are due4 ,! subject ( atmosph]ical electricity prop]ly belongs to meteorology1 & "u t head+ we w treat ( x m fully4 ,b lightn+ is s id5tifi$ ) electricity1 & be+ ! mo/ common =m obs]vable to all1 we w say some?+ ab\t ?und]/orms & ! electric dis*>ges accompany+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhf4--;,b5jam9 ,frankl94 ,be=e ,frankl9's ev]-memorable exp]im5t ) 8 kite e/abli%$ ! id5tity ( lightn+ & electricity1 ! resemblance betwe5 ! two dis*>ges _h be5 frequ5tly notic$4 ,! ,etruscans pret5d$ to br+ d[n lightn+ f heav51 & ,tullus ,ho/ilius1 :5 exp]im5t+ or p]=m+ c]ta9 8c]emonies10 0 kill$ by ! electric dis*>ge he desir$ to attract4 ,b aft] all1 we _c attribute any k ( electric sci5ce to ! anci5ts1 al?\gh !y 71 ( c\rse1 famili> ) electric ph5om5a4 ,x is to ,dr4 ,wall t te/imony po9ts z ! fir/ p]son :o rem>k$ ! analogy betwe5 ! electric sp>k & lightn+4 ,?is 0 9 #agjh4 ,grey & o!r philosoph]s support$ ! !ory1 b c\ld n e/abli% x4 ,to ,frankl91 :o 9 ,june #ageb actually br\ght d[n ! lightn+ by 8 kite & a key1 is ! actual discov]y due4 ,we h already detail$ ! circum/ances 7page #bjf7 & ne$ n repeat ! acc\nt ( ! exp]im5t4 ,( c\rse ! ,am]ican philosoph] f\nd num]\s imitators1 n always ) impunity4 ,pr(essor ,ri*mann 0 kill$ by ! _s he 0 invok+2 ,lem\ni] & ,becc>ia confirm$ ! !ory t ! air 0 full ( electricity2 :ile ,du ,saussure1 f 8 inve/igations on ! ,alps1 & ,volta f ! inv5tion ( ! pile1 are mo/ fam\s 9 ! hi/ory ( electricity4 ,!y appli$ !mselves ) mu* success to ! inve/igation ( ! electric condition ( ! atmosph]e1 ( :i* ! di/urbances call$ ?und]/orms are ! result4 ,! am\nt ( electricity v>ies 9 ! atmosph]e at diff]5t times 9 ! day & night4 ,t[>ds midday & midnight ! developm5t is g5]ally greate/1 & ?is fact w acc\nt = ! preval5ce ( /orms dur+ our h\rs ( re/4 ,aga91 diff]5t k9ds ( cl\ds h diff]5t degrees ( electricity1 & ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions ^! cl\ds w give =? lightn+1 & a /orm w beg94 ,! m cl\ds ! m globules1 & !re=e 9 summ]1 :ile !re is m production ( vap\r f solutions ( salts1 etc41 we are m likely to h ! /orms4 ,we are mo/ ( u famili> ) ! mass ( ! 8?und] cl\d0 ris+ 9 ! di/ance1 light at ! upp] "p1 v d>k bel[1 & ?r[+ out t5tacles l ! octopus1 com+ up sometimes--frequ5tly1 inde$--8aga9/ ! w9d10 impell$ by an upp] curr5t1 or foll[+ ! c\rse ( a riv]1 :i* is n unusual4 ,bel[1 !re is p]haps an army ( ?9 d>k cl\ds4 ,! nature & height ( cl\ds h also a great deal to d ) ! ph5om5a display$4 ,9 g5]al1 /orm-cl\ds are positively electrifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--;,cirrus cl\d4 ,cl\ds are good conductors ( electricity1 & yet !y may be s insulat$ by ! dry air surr\nd+ !m t !y w accumulate x2 & :5 ?us *>g$1 if !y enc\nt] o!r cl\ds *>g$ ) opposite electricity1 ! oppos+ masses w attract ea* o!r until a dis*>ge takes place4 ,?is is :at we t]m lightn+1 & "u su* conditions electricity1 ?\gh v dazzl+1 is h>mless4 ,x is :5 ! cl\d comes ne> to ! e>?1 & a dis*>ge is releas$1 t lightn+ is s dang]\s to p]sons :o rema9 9 ! fields4 ,sometimes ! dis*>ge comes f ! e>? to meet t f ! cl\d4 ,%eep are frequ5tly kill$ by gr\nd lightn+1 & once1 at ,malv]n1 we _h an escape f an upw>d /roke4 ,! back-/roke f a cl\d is also dang]\s4 ,x may happ5 t ! cl\d has dis*>g$ itself ^u ! e>? _m miles away1 b a return dis*>ge takes place at ! o!r end1 & if t end be ne> ! e>? ! consequ5ces may be s]i\s4 ,z a rule1 ! return /roke is n s viol5t z ! fir/ dis*>ge4 ,! col\r ( lightn+ v>ies v mu*4 ,we h ! :ite1 ! blue1 ! violet1 & r$4 ,! col\r dep5ds ^u ! di/ance & int5sity ( ! lightn+1 & ! m !re is ( x ! :it] ! light4 ,we c illu/rate ! v>i$ hues ( ! electric 8fluid0 by pass+ a sp>k ?r\gh ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,if ! air be r>efi$1 or !re be a vacuum1 we %all p]ceive a blue or violet light4 ,!re=e we may conclude t ! blue & violet fla%es h bir? 9 high /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhh4--;,cumulus cl\d4 ,we h all he>d h[ dang]\s x is to /& "u a tree dur+ a ?und]/orm1 or r1 we %\ld say1 :5 ! /orm is approa*+ u ne>ly4 ,! tree is a conductor1 & ! lightn+ hav+ no bett] "o at h& w pass ?r\gh ! tree on its way to ! e>?1 & if we are /&+ aga9/ ! tree we %all be includ$ 9 ! c\rse1 & die f ! %ock to ! n]ves :ile ! lightn+ is pass+ ?r\gh u4 ,! be/ position 9 a ?und]/orm1 if we are 9 ! neighb\rhood ( trees1 is to sit or lie d[n on ! gr\nd "s little di/ance f ! base ( ! ne>e/ tree4 ,if ! tree be sixty feet high suppose1 & we sit fifty feet or less f ! trunk1 we %all be pretty safe1 because ! lightn+ w rea* ! tree top be=e x c rea* u4 ,we are protect$ by x z by a conductor1 bad ?\gh x be4 ,/&+ up 9 a boat dur+ a /orm is n wise4 ,lightn+ has an aff9ity = wat]1 & besides1 if no high] objects are ne>1 our body w act z a conductor4 ,b$ is ! safe/ place1 z blankets are non-conductors4 ,cell>s are n ! safe/ by any means4 ,lightn+ may1 & x frequ5tly does1 /rike ! h\se & desc5d to ! basem5t4 ,if ! air be v full ( electricity1 & a fla% be ne>1 a p]son runn+ away may conduct ! lightn+ to himself by creat+ a vacuum into :i* ! fla% may d>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhi4--,nimbus1 or ra9 cl\d4 ,arago classifi$ lightn+ into ?ree k9ds3 zig-zag1 globul>1 & %eet4 ,! fir/ we call =k$ lightn+1 & frequ5tly ?is k9d bran*es out at ! end1 s t al?\gh !re may be only "o fla%1 x may /rike out 9 two or ?ree directions at ! same "t4 ,?is may be acc\nt$ = by ! unequal p[] ( ! air /rata to conduct ! electricity4 ,! =k$ fla%es are ( v great l5g?1 ext5d+ frequ5tly = miles1 & ! bifurcations also are (t5 miles ap>t4 ,! duration ( ! fla% is less ?an ! ?\s&? "p ( a second2 s in/antane\s is x t no motion c be p]ceiv$ ev5 9 a mo/ rapidly-mov+ :eel1 z prov$ by ,pr(essor ,:eat/one4 ,we sometimes fancy t ! fla% la/s long]1 b ! impression receiv$ by ! eye q acc\nts = ! app>5tly prolong$ sight ( ! lightn+4 ,%eet lightn+1 ! fa9t fla%es frequ5tly se5 ^u ! horizon1 are q h>mless4 ,%eet lightn+ is t :i* is se5 reflect$ beh9d cl\ds or f f>-di/ant /orms4 ,x is sometimes v beautiful4 ,ball1 or globul> lightn+1 is dang]\s1 & globes ( fire h be5 se5 to desc5d1 & /rik+ ! gr\nd1 b\nd onw>ds = "s di/ance4 ,! desc5t ( ^! =ms ( electric dis*>ge has giv5 rise to ! popul> notion ( 8?und]bolts40 ,! 8,m>9]'s ,lights10 or ,/4 ,elmo's fire1 is frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 %ips4 ,x is usually reg>d$ z a =tunate occurr5ce4 ,x 0 notic$ by ,columbus4 ,"o voyag] describes ! ph5om5a z foll[s3--8,! sky 0 sudd5ly cov]$ ) ?ick cl\ds4444 ,!re 7 m ?an ?irty ( ,/4 ,elmo's fires on ! %ip4 ,"o ( !m occupi$ ! vane ( ! ma9ma/4 ,i s5t a sailor to fet* x4 ,:5 he 0 al(t he he>d a noise l t :i* is made :5 moi/ gunp[d] is burn$4 ,i ord]$ him to take (f ! vane4 ,he _h sc>cely execut$ ?is ord]1 :5 ! fire quitt$ x & plac$ itself at ! apex ( ! ma9ma/1 :5ce x c\ld n possibly be remov$40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bij4--,?und]/orm4 ,!re h be5 occasions :5 ! manes & tails ( horses1 & ev5 ! e>s ( human be+s1 h %[n a phosphoresc5t light :i* emitt$ a hiss+ noise4 ,alp9e travell]s h notic$ simil> ph5om5a2 & ,pr(essor ,=bes1 :5 cross+ ! ,!odule ,pass into ,italy1 he>d ! hiss+ s\nd 9 8 alp5/ock4 ,! tips ( rocks & grass po9ts 7 all hiss+ too4 ,! p>ty 7 9 ! mid/ ( an electric cl\d4 ,:5 ! ,pr(essor turn$ ! po9t ( 8 alp5/ock upw>ds1 a vivid fla% 0 emitt$1 b no ?und] foll[$4 ,!y desc5d$ z quickly z possible f su* a dang]\s neighb\rhood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bia4--,/4 ,elmo's fire4 ,x is obs]vable t ! prop]ties ( lightn+ & ( ! electric sp>k are id5tical--! fa9t crackle ( ! latt] be+ magnifi$ into ! l\d roll+ ( ! ?und]4 ,! di/urbance ( ! atmosph]e is ! cause ( ! l\d rev]b]ations1 & e*oes produc$ f cl\ds t5d to int5sify & prolong ! peal4 ,! s\nd rises & falls1 & v>ies accord+ly z ! cl\d is ne> or f>4 ,a sm>t %>p report or rattle d5otes ! ne>ness ( ! lightn+1 :ile ! gradual swell+ & subsid5ce1 foll[$1 mayhap1 by an increas+ volume ( s\nd1 :i* 9 its turn dies away1 tells u t ! dang] is n imm95t4 ,! cause o ?is l\d roll+1 unless x proce$s f e*oes f diff]5t cl\ds1 has n be5 satisfactorily expla9$4 ,s\nd travels less quickly ?an light1 & !re=e we only he> ! ?und] "s seconds aft] we h p]ceiv$ ! fla%4 ,x is !re=e conceivable t we may he> ! la/ rev]b]ations & its e*oes fir/1 & ! s\nd ( ! fir/ di/urbance ) its e*oes la/ ( all4 ,?us !re w be di/9ct s\nds4 ,fir/ly1 ! actual noise we call ?und] f ! air /rata ne>e/ to u2 secondly1 ! e*oes ( t di/urbance f ! cl\ds1 ( c\rse fa9t]2 !n we he> ! s\nd caus$ by ! te>+ asund] ( ! air p>ticles f>!/ (f1 & aga9 ! e*oes ( t di/urbance4 ,?is !ory w1 we ?9k1 acc\nt = ! swell+ peals ( ?und]1 & ! successive l\d & fa9t] rev]b]ations4 ,at any rate1 9 ! abs5ce ( any o!r !ory1 we submit x = consid]ation4 ,! s\nd ( ?und] is seldom or nev] he>d at a di/ance great] ?an fifte5 miles4 ,lightn+ conductors are su* e-day objects t no description is necess>y2 b ! reason ! lightn+ runs along x h>mlessly is because ! galvaniz$ iron rod is ! be/ conductor 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,:]e !re is n a good conductor lightn+ w accept ! next be/1 & s on1 any conductor be+ bett] ?an none4 ,! po9t ( ! rod _c conta9 any electricity1 !re be+ no room = x1 & ! 8fluid10 z x is t]m$1 runs d[n to ! gr\nd1 to t]m9ate1 :5 possible1 9 wat] or *>coal4 ,a great deal ( electricity is no d\bt c>ri$ away f ! air by ! num]\s conductors )\t any sp>k pass+4 ,until ,sir ,w4 ,sn[ ,h>ris br\ght =w>d 8 lightn+ conductors = %ips1 ! loss 0 great at sea4 ,b n[ we r>ely he> ( any vessel be+ disabl$ by lightn+4 ,we owe to ,frankl9 ! idea ( ! lightn+ conductor4 ,accord+ to obs]vations made by ,mr4 ,crosse1 ! foll[+ /atem5t %[s ! t5d5cy ( ! atmosph]e1 9 c]ta9 conditions1 to ?und]/orms4 ,we may accept ! d$uction ( ,m4 ,pelti] t grey & slate-col\r cl\ds are *>g$ ) negative1 & :ite1 rose-col\r1 & orange cl\ds ) positive electricity4 ,! ord] ( arrangem5t 9 ! foll[+ table places ! mo/ likely s\rce ( ?und]/orms fir/1 & ! lea/ likely s\rce at ! end1 ) regul> rotation ( int]m$iate probabilities int]v5+3-- #a4 ,regul> ?und] cl\ds4 #b4 ,driv+ fog ) small ra94 #c4 ,fall ( sn[1 or hail/orm4 #d4 ,sm>t %[] on a hot day4 #e4 ,sm>t %[] on a cold day4 #f4 ,hot wea!r aft] wet days4 #g4 ,wet wea!r aft] dry days4 #h4 ,cle> fro/y wea!r4 #i4 ,cle> w>m wea!r4 #aj4 ,cl\dy days4 #aa4 8,mack]el0 sky4 #ab4 ,sultry wea!r & hazy cl\ds4 #ac4 ,cold damp night4 #ad4 ,cold1 dry nor?-ea/ w9ds4 ,we h ?us briefly t\*$ ^u "s ( ! atmosph]ical ph5om5a directly attributable to electricity4 ,9 our articles ^u ,meteorology we w consid] ! aurora & _m o!r int]e/+ facts conc]n+ ! atmosph]e1 & ! effects ( s\nd1 heat1 & light ^u ! air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bib4--,lightn+ conductor4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,we are indebt$ = _m facts respect+ ,mr4 ,edison's light 9 ?is *apt] to a pap] by ,mr4 ,upton4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,a]onautics4 ,,pressure ,,( ,,air ,,9 ,,bodies--,,e>ly ,,attempts ,,to ,,fly ,,9 ,,! ,,air--,,discov]y ,,( ,,hydrog5--,,! ,,montgolfi] ,,balloons--,,fir/ ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 ,,p>is--,,not$ ,,asc5ts4 ,9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is volume we ent]$ into ! circum/ances ( air pressure1 & 9 ! ,*emi/ry section we %all be told ab\t ! atmosph]e & its con/itu5ts4 ,we "k t ! air ar\nd u is compos$ pr9cipally ( two gases1 oxyg5 & nitrog51 ) aque\s vap\r & "s c>bonic acid4 ,an enorm\s quantity ( c>bonic acid is produc$ e day1 & 7 x n = ! action ( vegetation ! am\nt produc$ w\ld spe$ily set all animal life at re/4 ,b our fri5ds1 ! plants1 decompose ! c>bonic acid by assimilat+ ! c>bon & sett+ free ! oxyg5 :i* animals consume4 ,?us our atmosph]e keeps its balance1 s to speak4 ,no?+ is lo/ 9 nature4 ,we h illu/rat$ ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e by ! ,magdeburg hemisph]es1 & we "k t ! high] we asc5d ! pressure is less5$4 ,! weight ( ! atmosph]e is #ae lbs4 to ! squ>e in* at sea level4 ,?is we h se5 9 ! b>omet]4 ,n[ pressure is equal4 ,any body imm]s$ 9 a liquid suff]s pressure1 & we rememb] ,ar*im$es & ! cr[n4 ,x displac$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] :5 imm]s$4 ,a body 9 air displaces x j ! same4 ,!re=e :5 any body is heavi] ?an ! air1 x w fall j z a /one w fall 9 wat]4 ,if x be ( equal weight1 x w rema9 balanc$ 9 ! air1 if light] x w rise1 till x atta9s a height :]e ! weight ( ! atmosph]e & its own are equal2 !re x w rema9 till ! conditions are alt]$4 ,n[ we w readily und]/& :y balloons float 9 ! air1 & :y cl\ds asc5d & desc5d 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ! foll[+ pages we propose to consid] ! "q ( balloon+1 & ! possibility ( fly+4 ,we all h be5 anxi\s conc]n+ ! un=tunate ballooni/ :o 0 lo/ 9 ! ,*annel1 s "s details conc]n+ ! sci5ce g5]ally1 ) ! exp]i5ces ( skill$ a]onauts1 w guide u 9 our selection ( mat]ial4 ,we w fir/ give a hi/ory ( ! ef=ts made by ! anci5ts to fly1 & ?is ambition to so> above ! e>? has n yet di$ out4 ,f a v e>ly p]iod man appe>s to h be5 desir\s to /udy ! art ( fly+4 ,! old my?s ( ,ddalus & ,ic>us %[ u ?is1 & x is n to be wond]$ at4 ,:5 ! graceful flight ( birds is notic$1 we feel envi\s almo/ t we _c rise f ! e>? & sail away at our pleasure ov] l& & sea4 ,any "o :o has wat*$ ! flight ( ! /orks ar\nd & above ,/rasburg w feel desir\s to emulate t long1 swift-sail+ flight )\t app>5t motion ( w+1 & envy ! accuracy ) :i* ! bird hits ! po9t aim$ at on ! *imney1 h[ev] small4 ,x is small wond] t "s hea!ns ( old "t look$ ^u birds z deities4 ,! e>lie/ fly+ ma*9e t we c trace is t inv5t$ by ,ar*ytas1 ( ,t>5tum1 ,b4,c4 #djj4 ,! hi/orian ( ! 8,braz5 ,age0 tells u h[ ! geometrician1 ,ar*ytas1 made a wood5 pigeon :i* 0 able to su/a9 itself 9 ! air = a few m9utes1 b x came d[n to ! gr\nd aft] a %ort "t1 not)/&+ ! my/]i\s 8aura _s0 ) :i* x 0 suppos$ to be end[$4 ,! capability ( fly+ has = c5turies be5 reg>d$ z sup]natural4 ,putt+ angels aside1 demons are depict$ ) w+s l bats' w+s1 :ile wit*es1 etc41 possess$ ! faculty ( fly+ up *imneys ^u broom/icks4 ,we ev5 read 9 *ildi% lore ( an old woman :o 8w5t up 9 a basket0 7p]haps a balloon-c>71 & atta9$ a mo/ a/oni%+ altitude-an elevation no less ?an 8sev5ty times z high z ! moon60 ,b to desc5d to hi/ory4 ,x is und\bt$ly true t 9 ! "t ( ,n]o1 ,simon ,magus attempt$ to fly f "o h\se to ano!r by means ( "s me*anical contrivance1 & fail+1 kill$ himself4 ,rog] ,bacon1 ! 8admirable doctor10 to :om ! inv5tion ( gunp[d] is g5]ally attribut$1 _h di/9ct notions ( fly+ by means ( ma*9es1 & 8holl[ globes10 & 8liquid fire40 ,b he did n succe$1 nor did _m successive attempts succe$ any bett] 9 subsequ5t ye>s4 ,bi%op ,wilk9s treat$ ( ! art ( fly+1 b mo/1 if n all :o discuss$ ! subject appe> to h be5 indebt$ to ,rog] ,bacon = ! idea4 ,:5 ! nature & pressure ( ! atmosph]e by ,torricelli's exp]im5ts became bett] kn[n1 ,fa!r ,lana1 a ,jesuit prie/1 con/ruct$ a fly+ ma*9e or balloon ( curi\s %ape4 ,he propos$ to fix f\r copp] globes1 v ?91 & ab\t tw5ty feet 9 diamet]1 & to ^! he fa/5$ a boat or c>1 look+ v mu* l a bas94 ,8 idea 0 to empty 8 great copp] globes1 & t _! buoyancy w\ld !n be> ! weight ( ! travell]4 ,b he ov]look$ or 0 ignorant ( ! effect ( ! atmosph]ic pressure1 :i* w\ld h spe$ily cru%$ ! ?9 copp] globes :5 empty4 ,lana's sugge/ion 0 made 9 #afgj1 ! b>omet] _h be5 discov]$ 9 #afdc4 ,!re 7 "s fairly successful exp]im5ts made 9 fly+ 9 #afgh & 9 #agji4 ,! =m] attempt 0 made by ,besmir1 a locksmi? ( ,sable1 :o rais$ himself by means ( w+s up to ! top ( a h\se by leaps1 & !n succe$$ 9 pass+ f "o h\se to ano!r l[] d[n by support+ himself 9 ! air = a "t4 ,he />t$ f an elevat$ position1 & came d[n by degrees4 ,dante1 a ma!matician1 also tri$ to fly1 b )\t great success4 ,he broke 8 ?igh on "o occasion4 ,laur5ce de ,gusman claim$ an inv5tion = fly+ 9 #agji1 & petition$ = a 8pat5t10 :i* 0 grant$ by ! k+'s lett]4 ,! ma*9e appe>s to h borne "s resemblance to a bird4 ,x 0 n till #aghb1 h[ev]1 t ! true art ( a]ial navigation 0 discov]$4 ,! k ( hydrog5 gas possess$ by ,cav5di% 9 #agff no d\bt l$ up to x1 & 9 ! ye> foll[+ its discov]y ,pr(essor ,black1 lectur+ 9 ,ed9burgh1 /at$ t x 0 mu* light] ?an ! atmosph]e1 & t any vessel fill$ ) ! gas w\ld rise 9 ! air4 ,we n[ come to ! inv5tion ( ! ,,balloon 7s call$ f its %ape be+ simil> to a vessel us$ 9 ! laboratory7 by ! ,bro!rs ,montgolfi]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bic4--,montgolfi] balloon4 ,/eph5 & ,james ,montgolfi] 7 pap]-mak]s1 & c>ri$ on _! bus9ess at ,annonay1 ne> ,lyons1 b x 0 p>tly by accid5t t ! great discov]y 0 made4 ,!y _h no k ( ! buoyancy ( hydrog5 gas4 ,!y took _! idea ( ! balloon 7inflat$7 f notic+ an asc5d+ column ( smoke4 ,x occurr$ to ,/eph5 t if a pap] bag 7 fill$ ) smoke x w\ld asc5d into ! air4 ,a l>ge bag 0 made & "s pap] burnt b5ea? x 9 a room4 ,:5 ! smoke _h fill$ ! bag x 0 releas$1 & imm$iately asc5d$ to ! ceil+4 ,"h 0 ! g]m ( ! ,montgolfi] or heat$ air balloon4 ,! exp]im5t 0 repeat$ 9 ! op5 air ) ev5 great] success1 & a trial ^u a l>g] scale 0 imm$iately det]m9$ ^u4 ,a /ory is relat$ ( ,mongolfi] :5 prosecut+ 8 rese>*es1 t a wid[ ^: husb& _h belong$ to ! pr9t+ firm ) :om ,montgolfi] 0 !n connect$ 9 bus9ess1 saw ! smoke issu+ f ! room 9 :i* ! little balloon 0 be+ fill$4 ,%e ent]$1 & 0 a/oni%$ to see ! difficulty exp]i5c$ by ! exp]im5t] 9 fill+ ! balloon4 ,x sw]v$ aside1 & increas$ ! tr\ble he _h to keep x above ! *af+ di%4 ,montgolfi] 0 greatly tr\bl$1 & see+ 8 disappo9tm5t1 ! wid[ said1 8,:y don't y fa/5 ! balloon to ! *af+ di%80 ,?is _h n occurr$ to ! exp]im5t]1 & ! idea 0 a valuable "o4 ,t 0 ! secret ( success4 ,! ,montgolfi] ,bro!rs det]m9$ to exhibit _! successful exp]im5t1 & accord+ly on ! #e? ( ,june1 #aghc1 a great conc\rse assembl$ to see ! wond]ful sight4 ,a l>ge canvas or l95 balloon 0 made & susp5d$ ov] a fire ( *opp$ /raw4 ,! heat$ air quickly fill$ ! balloon1 :i* rose high 9 ! air1 & desc5d$ m ?an a mile away4 ,?is balloon conta9$ #bb1jjj cubic feet ( heat$ air1 :i* is light] ?an cold air1 & ( c\rse ris+ c>ri$ ! globe ) x4 ,z soon z ! air began to cool ! balloon ceas$ to rise1 & z x got cold] desc5d$4 ,"h 0 ! actual discov]y ( ! sci5ce ( ,a]o/atics4 ,! intellig5ce ( ! success a*iev$ soon spread f ,france to o!r c\ntries4 ,p>is1 h[ev]1 0 9 advance1 & ! ,bro!rs ,rob]t appli$ hydrog5 gas to a balloon :i* 0 s5t up f ! ,*amp de ,m>s 9 ,augu/ #aghc4 ,!re 0 "s tr\ble exp]i5c$ 9 fill+ x1 b :5 ! balloon 0 at l5g? releas$ x realiz$ all expectations by rema9+ 9 ! air ne>ly an h\r4 ,:5 at l5g? x fell x met ) a worse fate ?an x des]v$1 = ! ignorant & sup]/iti\s peasantry at once de/roy$ x4 ,aft] ?is ,montgolfi] exhibit$ 8 exp]im5t next "t at ,v]sailles 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,c\rt4 ,! fir/ a]ial travell]s appe>$ on ?is occasion--viz41 a %eep1 a cock1 & a duck1 :i* 7 secur$ 9 ! c>4 ,!y all desc5d$ 9 safety1 & ?is success enc\rag$ ,m4 ,pilatre de ,rozi] to make an attempt 9 a 8fire balloon40 ,he w5t up fir/ 9 a captive balloon1 & at l5g? he & a fri5d1 ! ,m>quis d',arl&es1 asc5d$ f ! ,bois de ,b\logne4 ,! trip 0 a decid$ success1 & ! possibility ( navigat+ ! air 0 fully demon/rat$4 ,soon aft] ?is1--viz41 9 ,decemb] #aghc1--;an ,italian ,c\nt1 nam$ ,zambecc>i1 made an asc5t 9 ,london1 & came d[n safely at ,petwor?4 ,,mm4 ,*>les & ,rob]t asc5d$ f ,p>is 9 ,decemb]1 & 9 ,febru>y a balloon cross$ ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,we mu/ pass ov] "s "t & come to ! asc5ts ( ,lun>di1 :i* caus$ great excitem5t 9 ,london4 ,8 balloon 0 a v l>ge "o1 & 0 inflat$1 or r p>tially s1 at ! ,artill]y gr\nd4 ,"s delay occurr$1 & fe>+ a riot1 ,m4 ,lun>di propos$ to g up alone ) ! p>tially-fill$ balloon4 ,a ,mr4 ,bigg9 :o _h int5d$ to asc5d 0 left beh9d4 ,! ,pr9ce ( ,wales 0 pres5t1 ) ?\s&s ( spectators4 ,lun>di ca/ (f & asc5d$ rapidly1 caus+ great admiration f ! :ole metropolis4 ,judge & jury1 sov]eign & m9i/]s1 all turn$ out to gaze at ! balloon2 a guilty prison] 0 acquitt$ hurri$ly1 s t no "t 0 lo/ 9 discussion1 & "o lady di$ ( excitem5t4 ,lun>di 0 reg>d$ z a h]o1 & made _m o!r asc5ts4 ,he di$ 9 #ahjf4 ,9 ^? e>li] days "o or two fatal accid5ts happ5$4 ,c\nt ,zambecc>i & a companion 7 9 a balloon :i* caught fire1 & bo? occupants ( ! c> leap$ f x z !y 7 desc5d+4 ,! ,c\nt 0 kill$ on ! spot1 & 8 companion 0 mu* injur$4 ,pilatre de ,rozi] made an attempt to cross ! *annel to ,engl& 9 #aghe2 he _h rea*$ ?ree ?\s& feet :5 ! balloon caught fire1 & ! un=tunate travell] 0 precipitat$ to ! gr\nd4 ,8 associate only surviv$ him a few m9utes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bid4--,,mm4 ,*>les' & ,rob]ts' balloon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bie4--;,blan*>d's balloon4 ,x is to ! celebrat$ ,engli% a]onaut1 ,mr4 ,gre51 t ! sub/itution ( c>burett$ hydrog5 or /reet gas = hydrog5 is due1 & s9ce 8 asc5t 9 #ahba no o!r means ( inflation h be5 us$4 ,a great _m q successful & a few unsuccessful asc5ts h be5 made = pleasure or pr(it4 ,mr4 ,gre51 9 ! ,nassau balloon1 pass$ ov] to ,nassau1 a di/ance ( five hundr$ miles1 9 eighte5 h\rs4 ,?is exploit 0 ! cause ( ! "n be+ be/[$ ^u ! balloon4 ,! ,giant ( ,m4 ,nad> 0 exhibit$ 9 ,engl&1 & x 0 an enorm\s "o1 be+ an hundr$ feet high1 & ne>ly z wide 9 ! wide/ "p4 ,b ev5 ?is ma*9e 0 outdone by ! ,god>d 8,montgolfi]0 balloon1 :i* 0 "o hundr$ & sev5te5 feet high1 & c>ri$ a /ove4 ,we give illu/rations ( ^! celebrat$ balloons1 & w n[ pass on to ! m sci5tific portion ( ! subject & ! asc5ts ( ,mr4 ,glai%] & o!r a]onauts = ! purpose ( mak+ meteorological obs]vations1 & ! use ( balloons = purposes ( obs]vation 9 w>4 ,x appe>s t ! fir/ asc5t = sci5tific inve/igation 0 made 9 ! ye> #ahjc4 ,! a]onauts 7 ,messrs4 ,rob]tson & ,lhoe/4 ,!y asc5d$ f ,hamburg & came d[n at ,hanov]1 & made meantime sev]al exp]im5ts ) ref]5ce to ! electrical condition ( ! atmosph]e1 its influ5ce ^u a magnetic ne$le1 & "s exp]im5ts ) reg>d to ac\/ics & heat4 ,! report 0 pres5t$ to ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy1 & conta9s ! result ( _! int]e/+ obs]vations4 ,! travell]s asc]ta9$ t at ! elevation to :i* !y atta9$1--viz41 #be1ejj feet1--! temp]ature 0 on t ,july day fifty degrees cold]1 fall+ to #aif1 :ile on ! e>? ! !rmomet] _h %[n #fh4 ,!y asc]ta9$ t glass & wax did n become electric :5 rubb$1 t ! ,voltaic batt]y lo/ mu* ( its p[]1 t ! oscillation ( a 8dipp+ ne$le0 increas$ z !y m\nt$ into ! air1 :ile s\nd 0 c]ta9ly less easily transmitt$ at t elevation1 & /ruck !m z less p[]ful 9 tone4 ,! heat exp]im5t 0 n a success1 ow+ to ! break+ ( ! !rmomet]4 ,!y wi%$ to f9d ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat] at t elevation1 b :5 ! exp]im5t 0 ab\t to be made ,rob]tson accid5tally plung$ ! in/rum5t into ! fire in/ead ( into ! wat]4 ,s ! "q 0 n settl$4 ,! effect ^u ! a]onauts 0 a s5sation ( sleep9ess1 & two birds di$4 ,! muscul> p[]s ( ! voyag]s also appe> to h be5 mu* affect$1 & simil> s5sations may be exp]i5c$ by travell]s on high m\nta9s :o f9d _! brea? v %ort & a dis9cl9ation to ex]tion oppress !m4 ,,mm4 ,biot & ,gay-,lussac made a v int]e/+ asc5t 9 #ahjd4 ,we w detail _! exp]i5ces at "s l5g?1 = ! coolness display$ & ! value ( ! obs]vations made are rem>kable 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific balloon+4 ,!y />t$1 at #aj o'clock a4m4 on ! #bcrd ( ,augu/1 & :5 ! balloon _h c>ri$ !m up to an altitude ( #h1fjj feet !y comm5c$ _! exp]im5ts4 ,!y _h "s animals 9 ! c> ) !m1 a bee among/ ! numb]1 & ! insect 0 let g fir/4 ,x flew away swiftly1 n at all inconv5i5c$ app>5tly4 ,! sun 0 v hot at #ef ,fahr4 ,_! pulses 7 beat+ v fa/1 b no inconv5i5ce 0 felt4 ,:5 #aa1jjj feet _h be5 rea*$ a l9net 0 p]mitt$ to g at l>ge1 b aft] a little "t ! bird return$ to ! balloon4 ,x rema9$ p]*$ = a few m9utes1 & !n da%$ d[nw>ds at a trem5d\s pace4 ,a pigeon 0 !n lib]at$4 ,x also appe>$ v unc]ta91 & :eel$ ar\nd 9 circles = a "t4 ,at la/ x ga9$ confid5ce1 & desc5d$1 & disappe>$ 9 ! cl\ds b5ea?4 ,!y made o!r exp]im5ts1 b desc5d$ )\t hav+ obta9$ z accurate results z _h be5 anticipat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bif4--,! ,nassau balloon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #big4--,! 8,giant0 balloon ( ,m4 ,nad>4 ,on ! next occasion1 h[ev]1 e c>e 0 tak51 & on ! #ae? ( ,septemb] ! important asc5t 0 made by ,gay-,lussac alone4 ,he fix$ hang+ ropes to ! balloon ) ! view to *eck ! rotat+ movem5ts1 & hav+ provid$ himself ) all necess>y app>atus & two vacuum flasks to br+ d[n "s ( ! upp] air1 ! "y man />t$4 ,! b>omet] m>k$ #cjff1 ! !rmomet] #hb 7,fahr474 ,at an elevation ( #ab1fhj feet ,lussac p]ceiv$ t ! v>iation ( ! compass 0 ! same z on l&4 ,two hundr$ feet high] up he asc]ta9$ t a key held 9 ! magnetic direction repell$ ) ! l[]1 & attract$ ) its upp] extremity ! nor? pole ( a ne$le4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 repeat$ ) ! same result at an elevation ( #bj1jjj feet1 :i* %[s h[ ! e>? ex]cises its magnetic influ5ce4 ,! temp]ature ( ! air 0 f\nd to decrease 9 proportion z ! asc5t up to #ab1jjj feet1 :]e ! read+ 0 #dgc4 ,x !n increas$ up to #ad1jjj feet by #f1 & !n regul>ly dim9i%$ aga9 z ! balloon rose1 till at ! greate/ elevation rea*$1 #bc1jjj feet1 !re 0 a diff]5ce ( #fg 9 ! temp]ature on ! e>?1 = at ! maximum height atta9$ ! !rmomet] /ood at #adi4 ,b ! mo/ important fact asc]ta9$1 & "o :i* set _m !ories at re/1 0 ! composition ( ! atmosph]e 9 ^? high altitudes4 ,we m5tion$ t ,gay-,lussac took up two empty flasks f :i* ! air _h be5 tak54 ,! vacuum 0 almo/ p]fect4 ,:5 ! a]onaut _h rea*$ #ba1dfj feet he op5$ "o flask1 & x 0 quickly fill$2 he secur$ x c>efully2 & :5 at 8 highe/ po9t1--f\r miles & a half above ! sea-level1--he op5$ ! o!r flask4 ,! b>omet] /ood at #ab4ie in*es1 & ! cold 0 v great4 ,! voyag] felt b5umb$1 & exp]i5c$ difficulty ( brea?+2 8 ?roat 0 p>*$ & dry4 ,s ,lussac det]m9$ to return1 he c\ld g no high]4 ,he dropp$ g5tly ne> ,r\51 & soon rea*$ ,p>is4 ,z soon z possible ! air 9 ! flasks 0 submitt$ to v delicate te/s1 & to ! satisfaction ( ! sci5ti/s engag$ x 0 f\nd to be 9 exactly ! same proportions z t collect$ ne> ! e>?--two hundr$ & fifte5 p>ts ( oxyg5 to e ?\s& ( atmosph]ic air4 ,messrs4 ,banal & ,bixio1 9 #ahej1 also made "s obs]vations1 & f\nd ! temp]ature v v>iable4 ,at #bc1jjj feet !y f\nd ! !rmomet] at m9us #chb ,fahr41 :i* 0 mu* bel[ ! cold exp]i5c$ by ,gay-,lussac4 ,we may /ill conclude t ! v>i\s curr5ts ( ! atmosph]e cause consid]able v>iation1 & t x is impossible to lay d[n any?+ respect+ ! degrees ( heat & cold likely to be f\nd at c]ta9 elevations4 ,we quote ,arago's obs]vations ^u ?is asc5t3-- 8,?is discov]y0 7! ice p>ticles f\nd 9 ! air7 8expla9s h[ ^! m9ute cry/als may become ! nucleus ( l>ge hail/ones1 = !y may cond5se r\nd !m ! aque\s vap\r conta9$ 9 ! portion ( ! atmosph]e :]e !y exi/4 ,!y g f> to prove ! tru? ( ,m>iotte's !ory1 accord+ to :i* ^! cry/als ( ice susp5d$ 9 ! air are ! cause ( p>ahelia--or mock-suns & mock-moons4 ,moreov]1 ! great ext5t ( s cold a cl\d expla9s v satisfactorily ! sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature :i* occur 9 our climates40 ,m4 ,flamm>ion gives 9 8 8,voyages0 "s v int]e/+ & amus+ p>ticul>s1 z well z _m valuable sci5tific obs]vations4 ,dur+ "o asc5t he rem>k$ t ! %ad[ ( ! balloon 0 :ite1 & at ano!r "t d>k4 ,:5 :ite ! surface ^u :i* x fell look$ m lum9\s ?an any o!r "p ( ! c\ntry6 ,! ph5om5on 0 an an!lion4 ,! absolute sil5ce impress$ ! voyag] v mu*4 ,he adds1 8,! sil5ce 0 s oppressive t we _c help ask+ ourselves are we /ill alive6 ,we appe> to app]ta9 no long] to ! _w bel[40 ,m4 ,flamm>ion's obs]vations on ! col\r ( :at we t]m ! sky are wor? quot+--n because !y are novel1 b because !y put s v cle>ly be=e u ! appe>ance we call ! 8blue vault40 ,he says1--speak+ ( ! non-exi/5ce ( ! 8cele/ial vault10--8,! air reflects ! blue rays ( ! sol> spectrum f e side4 ,! :ite light ( ! sun conta9s e col\r1 & ! air all[s all t9ts to pass ?r\gh x except ! blue4 ,?is causes u to suppose ! atmosph]e is blue4 ,b ! air has no su* col\r1 & ! t9t 9 "q is m]ely ow+ to ! reflection ( light4 ,planet>y space is absolutely black2 ! high] we rise ! ?9n] ! lay] ( atmosph]e t sep>ates u f x1 & ! d>k] ! sky appe>s40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bih4--,! 8,eagle0 ( ,m4 ,god>d4 ,"s beautiful effects may be witness$ at night f a balloon1 & consid]+ ! few accid5ts !re h be5 9 proportion to ! numb] ( asc5ts1 we d n wond] at balloon voyages be+ und]tak5 = m]e pleasure4 ,:5 sci5ce has to be advanc$ !re c be no objection made1 = !n exp]i5ce goes h&-9-h& ) caution4 ,x is only ! ignorant :o are ra%2 ! /ud5t ( ,nature le>ns to respect h]1 & to att5d to h] admonitions & w>n+s 9 "t4 ,! details ( ! asc5ts ( fam\s a]onauts give u a great deal ( pleasant & pr(itable read+4 ,! ph5om5a ( ! sky & cl\ds1 & ( ! heav5s1 are all /udi$ ) great advantage f a balloon1 or 8a]o/at10 z x is ! fa%ion to call x4 ,! gr& ph5om5a ( 8,ulloa's circles10 or an!lia1 :i* repres5t ! balloon 9 air1 & surr\nd$ by a k9d ( glory1 or aureola1 l ^? repres5t$ beh9d sa9tly heads1 appe>1 z ! "n d5otes1 opposite to ! sun4 ,! v>i\s exp]im5ts made to asc]ta9 ! int5sity ( s\nds h result$ 9 ! conclusion t !y c be he>d at great di/ances4 ,= in/ance1 ! /eam :i/le is di/9ctly audible #aj1jjj feet up 9 ! air1 & human voices are he>d at an altitude ( #e1jjj feet4 ,a man's voice alone w p5etrate m ?an #c1jjj feet into ! air2 & at t elevation ! croak+ ( frogs is q di/+ui%able4 ,?is %[s t s\nd asc5ds ) ease1 b x meets ) great resi/ance 9 its d[nw>d c\rse1 = ! a]onaut _c make himself audible to a li/5] on ! e>? at a great] di/ance ?an #cjj or #djj feet1 ?\gh ! latt] c be di/9ctly he>d at an elevation ( #a1fjj feet4 ,! dim9ution ( temp]ature not$ by ,m4 ,flamm>ion is /at$ to be #a ,fahr4 = e #cde feet on a f9e day4 ,on a cl\dy day ! mean decrease 0 #a = e #ced feet ( altitude4 ,! temp]ature ( cl\ds is high] ?an ! air surr\nd+ !m1 & ! decrease is m rapid ne> ! surface1 less rapid z ! balloon asc5ds4 ,we may add t at high elevations ! cork f a wat]-bottle w pop out z if f a *ampagne flask4 ,we h hi!rto ref]r$ m to ,m4 ,flamm>ion & o!r ,fr5* a]onauts1 b we mu/ n be consid]$ 9 any way oblivi\s ( our c\ntrym51 ,messrs4 ,glai%]1 ,gre51 & ,coxwell1 nor ( ! ,am]ican1--"o ( ! mo/ exp]i5c$ ( a]ial voyag]s1--,mr4 ,wise4 ,! sci5tific obs]vations made by ! ,fr5* voyag]s confirm$ g5]ally ,mr4 ,glai%]'s exp]im5ts4 ,?is not$ air-travell] made tw5ty-eight asc5ts 9 ! cause ( sci5ce1 & 8 exp]i5ces relat$ 9 8,travels 9 ! ,air10 & 9 ! 8,reports0 ( ! ,briti% ,association1 are bo? useful & ent]ta9+4 ,= 8,s5sational balloon+0 "o wi%es to g no f>!r ?an 8 acc\nt ( 8 exp]i5ce ) ,mr4 ,coxwell1 :5 7on ! #e? ( ,septemb]1 #ahfb7 he atta9$ ! greate/ elevation ev] rea*$1 viz41 sev5 miles1 or ?irty-sev5 ?\s& feet4 ,we cond5se ?is excit+ n>rative = ! b5efit ( ^? :o h n se5 x already4 ,! asc5t 0 made f ,wolv]hampton4 ,at #a4ci p4m41 ! balloon 0 f\r miles high1 ! temp]ature 0 #h1 & by ! "t ! fif? mile _h be5 rea*$ ! m]cury 0 bel[ z]o1 & up to ?is "t obs]vations _h be5 made )\t discom=t1 ?\gh ,mr4 ,coxwell1 hav+ ex]t$ himself z a]onaut1 f\nd "s difficulty 9 brea?+4 ,ab\t #b o'clock1 ! balloon /ill asc5d+1 ,mr4 ,glai%] c\ld n see ! m]cury 9 ! !rmomet]1 & ,mr4 ,coxwell _h j !n asc5d$ into ! r+ above ! c> to release ! valve l9e :i* _h become twi/$4 ,mr4 ,glai%] 0 able to note ! b>omet]1 h[ev]1 & f\nd x m>k$ #aj in*es1 & 0 rapidly decreas+4 ,x fell to #i in*es1 & ?is indicat$ an elevation ( #bi1jjj feet6 ,b ! idea 0 to asc5d z high z possible1 s ! upw>d direction 0 ma9ta9$4 8,%ortly aft]w>ds10 writes ,mr4 ,glai%]1 8,i laid my arm ^u ! table possess$ ( its full vig\r1 & on be+ desir\s ( us+ x ,i f\nd x p[]less1--x mu/ h lo/ p[] mom5t>ily4 ,i tri$ to move ! o!r arm1 & f\nd x p[]less also4 ,i !n tri$ to %ake myself1 & succe$$ 9 %ak+ my body4 ,i seem$ to h no limbs4 ,i !n look$ at ! b>omet]1 & :il/ do+ s my head fell on my left %\ld]40 ,mr4 ,glai%] subsequ5tly q lo/ consci\sness1 & 8black d>kness0 came4 ,:ile p[]less he he>d ,mr4 ,coxwell speak+1 & !n ! words1 8,d try1 n[ d40 ,!n sight sl[ly return$1 & r\s+ himself1 ,mr4 ,glai%] said1 8,i h be5 ins5sible40 ,mr4 ,coxwell repli$1 8,y h1 & ,i1 too1 v ne>ly40 ,mr4 ,coxwell's h&s 7 black1 & 8 companion _h to p\r br&y ^u !m4 ,mr4 ,coxwell's situation 0 a p]il\s "o4 ,he _h lo/ ! use ( 8 h&s1 :i* 7 froz51 & _h to hang by 8 arms to ! r+ & drop into ! c>4 ,he !n p]ceiv$ 8 fri5d 0 ins5sible1 & f\nd ins5sibility com+ on himself4 ,!re 0 only "o c\rse to pursue--to pull ! valve l9e & let ! gas escape1 s z to desc5d4 ,b 8 h&s 7 p[]less6 ,z a la/ res\rce he gripp$ ! l9e ) 8 tee?1 & b5d+ d[n 8 head1 aft] _m attempts succe$$ 9 op5+ ! valve & lett+ ! gas escape4 ,! desc5t 0 easily made1 & accompli%$ 9 safety4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bii4--;,a desc5d+ balloon4 ,"s pigeons 7 tak5 up on ?is occasion1 & 7 set free at diff]5t altitudes4 ,! fir/1 at ?ree miles1 8dropp$ z a piece ( pap]02 ! second1 at f\r miles1 8flew vigor\sly r\nd & r\nd1 app>5tly tak+ a dip ea* "t02 a ?ird1 a little lat]1 8fell l a /one40 ,on desc5d+ a f\r? 0 ?r[n out at f\r miles1 & aft] fly+ 9 a circle1 8alight$ on ! top ( ! balloon40 ,( ! rema9+ pair "o 0 dead :5 ! gr\nd 0 ga9$1 & ! o!r recov]$4 ,! obs]vations not$ are too num]\s to be includ$ "h4 ,"s1 we h se51 7 confirm$ by subsequ5t a]onauts1 & z we h m5tion$ !m 9 =m] pages we ne$ n repeat !m4 ,! results diff]$ v mu* "u diff]5t conditions1 & x is almo/ impossible to decide ^u any law4 ,! direction ( ! w9d 9 ! high] & l[] regions sometimes diff]$1 sometimes 0 ! same1 & s on4 ,! 8,reports0 ( ! ,briti% ,association 7#ahfb-ahff7 w furni% full p>ticul>s ( all ,mr4 ,glai%]'s exp]im5ts4 ,we h sc>cely space left to m5tion ! p>a*utes or umbrella-l balloons :i* h occasionally be5 us$4 ,its inv5tion is trac$ to v e>ly times2 b ,g>n]9 0 ! fir/ :o desc5d$ 9 a p>a*ute1 9 #agig1 & cont9u$ to d s 9 safety on _m subsequ5t occasions4 ,! p>a*ute 0 susp5d$ to a balloon1 & at a c]ta9 elevation ! voyag] let g & came d[n 9 safety4 ,he asc5d$ once f ,london1 & let g :5 #h1jjj feet up4 ,! p>a*ute did n exp& z usual1 & fell at a trem5d\s rate4 ,at l5g? x op5$ out1 & ! occupi] ( ! c> came d[n =cibly1 x is true1 b safely4 ,! =m ( ! p>a*ute is n unlike an umbrella op5$1 ) cords atta*+ ! c> to ! extremities ( ! 8ribs10 ! top ( ! basket c> be+ fa/5$ to ! 8/ick0 ( ! umbrella4 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,cock+ inv5t$ a novel k9d ( p>a*ute1 b :5 he attempt$ to desc5d by x f ,mr4 ,gre5's balloon x collaps$1 & ! un=tunate voyag] 0 da%$ to pieces4 ,8 rema9s 7 f\nd ne> ,lee1 9 ,k5t4 ,mr4 ,hampton did bett] on ,g>n]9's pr9ciple1 & made sev]al desc5ts 9 safety & )\t injury4 ,! problem ( fly+ 9 ! air has attract$ ! notice ( ! ,a]onautical ,society1 e/abli%$ 9 #ahgc1 b s f> )\t lead+ to practical results1 ?\gh _m d>+ & +5i\s sugge/ions h be5 put =? 9 ! 8,reports40 ,x is n )9 our prov9ce to d m ?an ref] to ! uses ( ! balloon = sci5tific purposes1 b we may m5tion ! s]vices x 0 employ$ ^u dur+ ! ,fr5* w>1 #ahgj-ga4 ,! inve/m5t ( ,p>is by ! ,g]man army necessitat$ a]ial communication1 = no o!r means 7 available4 ,balloon manufactories 7 e/abli%$1 & a great numb] 7 made1 & c>ri$ millions ( lett]s to ! prov9ces4 ,c>ri]-pigeons 7 us$ to c>ry ! return messages to ! city1 & photography 0 appli$ to br+ ! correspond5ce into ! smalle/ legible compass4 ,! _m adv5tures ( ! a]onauts are )9 ! recollection ( all4 ,a few ( ! balloons nev] reappe>$2 "s 7 c>ri$ into ,norway1 & beyond ! ,fr5* fronti] 9 o!r directions4 ,! av]age capacity ( ^! balloons 0 #gj1jjj cubic feet4 ,( c\rse x w be und]/ood h[ balloons are enabl$ to navigate ! air4 ,! envelope be+ p>tly fill$ ) coal-gas-heat$ air & hydrog51 is mu* light] ?an ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 & rises to a height accord+ z ! d5sity ( ! air /rata dim9i%es4 ,! d5sity is less z we asc5d1 & ! buoyant =ce also is less5$ 9 proportion4 ,s :5 ! weight ( ! balloon & its occupants is ! same z ! p[] ( buoyancy1 x w come to a /&1 & g no high]4 ,x c also be und]/ood t z ! pressure ( ! outside becomes less1 ! expansive =ce ( ! gas )9 becomes great]4 ,we "k t gas is v compressible1 & yet a little gas w fill a l>ge space4 ,!re=e1 z ! balloon rises1 x reta9s its r\nd$ =m1 & appe>s full ev5 at great altitudes2 b if ! upp] "p 7 q fill$ be=e x left ! gr\nd1 ! balloon w\ld inevitably bur/ at a c]ta9 elevation :5 ! ext]nal pressure ( ! air w\ld be remov$1 unless an escape 7 provid$4 ,?is escape is arrang$ = by a valve at ! top ( ! balloon1 & ! l[] "p above ! c> is also left op5 v (t51 s t ! gas c escape ( itself4 ,:5 a rapid desc5t is necess>y1 ! top valve is op5$ by means ( a rope1 & ! balloon s9ks by its own weight4 ,mr4 ,glai%] advises = great asc5sions a balloon ( a capacity ( #ij1jjj cubic feet1 & only fill$ "o-?ird ( t capacity ) gas4 ,six hundr$ p\nds ( balla/ %\ld be tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjj4--;,fill+ a balloon4 ,a v small quantity ( balla/ ?r[n away w make a great diff]5ce2 a h&ful w raise ! balloon _m feet1 & a *ick5 bone ca/ out occasions a rise ( ?irty y>ds4 ,! balla/ is c>ri$ 9 small bags1 & consi/s ( dry s&1 :i* spe$ily dissipates 9 ! air z x falls4 ,by ?r[+ out balla/ ! a]onaut c asc5d to a great height--9 fact1 z high z he c g1 ! limit app>5tly = human exi/5ce be+ ab\t sev5 miles1 :5 cold & r>efi$ air w spe$ily put an end to exi/5ce4 ,x is a curi\s fact1 t h[ev] rapidly ! balloon may be travell+ ?r\gh ! air1 ! occupants are n s5sible ( ! motion4 ,?is1 9 "p1 arises f ! impossibility ( comp>+ x ) o!r objects4 ,we pass no?+ /ation>y :i* w\ld indicate ! pace at :i* we travel4 ,b ! abs5ce ( oscillation is also rem>kable2 ev5 a glass ( wat] may be fill$ brim-full1 & to su* a level t ! wat] is above ! rim ( ! glass1 & yet n a drop w fall4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 made by ,m4 ,flamm>ion4 ,:5 ! a]onaut has asc5d$ "s di/ance ! e>? loses its flat appe>ance1 & appe>s z concave z ! firmam5t above4 ,guide ropes are usually atta*$ to balloons1 & z !y re/ ^u ! gr\nd !y relieve ! balloon ( ! am\nt ( weight ! l5g? trail+ w\ld cause4 ,!y ?us act z a k9d ( sub/itute = balla/ z ! balloon is desc5d+4 ,mo/ ( ! dang] ( a]ial travell+ lies 9 ! desc5t2 & ?\gh 9 f9e wea!r ! a]onaut c calculate to a nicety :]e he w desc5d1 on a w9dy day1 he mu/ ca/ a grapnel1 :i* cat*es ) an ugly j]k1 & ! balloon b\nds & /ra9s at h] moor+s4 ,al?\gh _m attempts h be5 made to guide balloons ?r\gh ! air1 no successful app>atus has ev] be5 complet$ = use4 ,paddles1 sails1 fans1 & screws h all be5 tri$1 b h fail$ to a*ieve ! desir$ end4 ,:e!r man w ev] be able to fly we _c ( c\rse say4 ,9 ! pres5t advanc+ /ate ( sci5ce x may n be impossible ere long to supply human be+s ) an app>atus work$ by electricity1 p]haps1 :i* w enable !m to m\nt into ! air & su/a9 !mselves4 ,b ev5 ! bird _c always fly )\t previ\s mom5tum4 ,a rook w run be=e x rises1 & _m o!r birds h to 8get up /eam10 z x 71 be=e !y c so> 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,eagles & su* heavy birds f9d x v difficult to rise f ! gr\nd4 ,we "k t vultures :5 gorg$ _c move at all1 or c]ta9ly _c fly away2 & eagles take up _! positions on high rocks1 s t !y may laun* d[n on _! prey1 & avoid ! difficulty ( ris+ f ! gr\nd4 ,!y swoop d[n ) trem5d\s mom5tum & c>ry (f _! booty1 b (t5 lose _! lives f ! initial difficulty ( so>+ imm$iately4 ,we fe> man's weight w militate aga9/ 8 ev] becom+ a fly+ animal4 ,:5 we obta9 a k ( ! atmosph]ic curr5ts we %all no d\bt be able to navigate our balloons2 b until !n--& ! in=mation is z yet v limit$1 & ! curr5ts !mselves v v>iable--we mu/ be cont5t to rise & fall 9 ! air1 & travel at ! w ( ! w9d 9 ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,*emi/ry4 ,,introduction4 ,,:at ,,*emi/ry ,,is--,,! ,,elem5ts--,,metallic ,,& ,,non-,,metallic--,,atomic ,,weight--,,acids--,,alkalis--,,bases--, ,salts--,,*emical ,,comb9ation ,,& ,,/udy4 ,*emi/ry is ! sci5ce ( ph5om5a :i* are att5d$ by a *ange ( ! objects :i* produce !m4 ,we "k t :5 a c&le burns1 or :5 wood is burn$1 or ev5 a piece ( metal becomes :at we t]m 8ru/y10 t c]ta9 *emical *anges take place4 ,!re is a *ange by :at is t]m$ *emical action4 ,ru/ on iron is n iron2 x is oxide ( iron4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air causes x4 ,s we endeav\r1 by ,*emi/ry1 to f9d out ! nature ( v>i\s bodies1 _! *anges1 & ! results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cja4--,! ,laboratory4 ,9 nature we h simple & comp\nd bodies4 ,! =m] are call$ ,,elem5ts4 ,we mu/ n confuse ^! elem5ts ) ! s-call$ elem5ts--e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]4 ,^! are really comp\nd bodies4 ,an elem5t is a sub/ance or a gas :i* is n compos$ ( m ?an "o con/itu5t2 x is itself--a comp\nd ( p]fectly id5tical p>ticles4 ,e 8comp\nd0 body1 !re=e1 mu/ be made up ( "s ( ! elem5ts1 ( :i* !re are sixty-five4 ,^! bodies are divid$ into non-metallic & metallic elem5ts1 & all bodies are compos$ ( !m1 or are ^! bodies !mselves4 ,! li/ is z foll[s4 ,! non-metallic elem5ts are 8metalloids40 ,we h omitt$ fractions f ! weights1 on :i* *emi/s diff]4 ,,table ,,( ,,elem5ts ,,) ,,_! ,,*emical ,,symbols ,,& ,,comb9+ ,,weights4 ,non-,metallic ,atomic or ,elem5ts4 ,symbols4 ,comb9+ ,d]ivation ( ,"n4 ,weights4 ,oxyg5 ,o #af ,gr4 ,oxus1 acid2 g5na1 to make4 ,hydrog5 ,h #a ,gr4 ,udor1 wat]2 g5na1 to make4 ,nitrog5 ,gase\s ,n #ad ,gr4 ,natron1 nitre2 g5na1 to make4 ,*lor9e ,cl #ce ,gr4 ,*loros1 gre54 ,iod9e ,i #abg ,gr4 ,ioeides1 violet4 ,fluor9e ,f #ai ,fluor sp>1 ! m9]al4 ,c>bon ,c #ab ,lat4 ,c>bo1 coal4 ,sulphur ,s #cb ,lat4 ,sulphurium4 ,phosphorus ,p #ca ,gr4 ,phos1 light2 ph]e91 to c>ry4 ,ars5ic99 ,solid ,z #ge ,gr4 ,ars5icon1 pot5t4 ,silicon ,si #bh ,gr4 ,silex1 fl9t4 ,boron ,b #aa ,gr4 ,borax1 ,arab41 b>aga1 to %9e4 ,sel5ium ,se #gi ,gr4 ,sel5e1 ! moon4 ,tellurium ,te #abi ,lat4 ,tellus1 ! e>?4 ,brom9e ,fluid #hj ,gr4 ,bromos1 (f5sive smell4 ,,metals4 ,"n4 ,symbols4 ,atomic or ,d]ivation4 ,comb9+ ,weights4 ,alum9ium ,al #bg ,lat4 ,alum51 alum4 ,antimony 7,/ibium7 ,sb #abb ,gr4 ,anti1 aga9/2 m9os1 "o4 ,ars5ic ,z #ge 7,n kn[n47 ,b>ium ,ba #acg ,gr4 ,b>s1 heavy4 ,bismu? ,bi #baj ,g]4 ,weissmu?1 :ite matt]4 ,cadmium ,cd #aab ,gr4 ,cadmeia1 calamite4 ,csium ,cs #acc ,lat4 ,csius1 sky-blue4 ,calcium ,ca #dj ,lat4 ,calx1 lime4 ,c]ium ,ce #ada ,! planet ,c]es4 ,*romium ,cr #eb ,gr4 ,*roma1 col\r4 ,cobalt ,co #eh ,g]4 ,kobald1 a sprite4 ,copp] ,cu #fc ,lat4 ,cuprum 7,cyprium71 ,cyprus4 ,didymium ,d #adg ,gr4 ,didumos1 tw9s4 ,erbium ,e -- ,ytt]by 9 ,sw$54 ,gallium ,ga #gj 7,n kn[n47 ,gluc9um ,gl #i ,gr4 ,glukos1 sweet4 ,gold ,au #aig ,f ,hebrew1 to %9e 7d\btful74 ,indium ,9 #aac ,indigo col\r4 ,iridium ,ir #aih ,gr4 ,iris1 ra9b[4 ,iron ,fe #ef ,hebrew1 to meet 7d\btful74 ,lan?anum ,la #aci ,gr4 ,lan?ane91 to lie hid4 ,lead ,pb #bjg 7,plumbum7 malubodos 7gal5a74 ,li?ium ,li #g ,gr4 ,li?os1 /one4 ,magnesium ,mg #bd ,magnesia1 ,asia ,m9or4 ,manganese ,mn #ee ,mangana1 ,e4 ,i4 7or ,magnesia74 ,m]cury ,hg #bjj ,hea!n deity 7quick74 ,molybd5um ,mo #if ,gr4 ,molybd5a1 lead ore1 l lead4 ,nickel ,ni #eh ,g]4 ,kupf] nikel1 false copp]4 ,niobium 7,columbium7 ,nb #id ,columbite4 ,osmium ,os #aii ,osme1 an od\r4 ,palladium ,pl #ajf ,pallas1 ,m9]va4 ,plat9um ,pt #aig ,spani%1 plat9a1 little silv]4 ,potassium 7,kalium7 ,k #ci ,pota%4 ,rhodium ,rh #ajd ,gr4 ,roda1 rose4 ,rubidium ,rb #he ,lat4 ,rubidus1 r$4 ,ru!nium ,ru #ajd 7,n kn[n47 ,silv] 7,arg5tum7 ,ag #ajh ,hebrew1 money4 ,sodium 7,natrium7 ,na #bc ,salsoda plant4 ,/rontium ,sr #hg ,/rontian1 ,n4,b4 ,tantalum ,ta #ahb ,tantalite m9]al4 ,t]bium ,tr -- 7,n kn[n47 ,?allium ,tl #bjd ,gr4 ,?allos1 gre5 twig4 ,?orium ,? #bcj ,?or1 deity4 ,t9 7,/annum7 ,sn #aah 7,n kn[n47 ,titanium ,ti #ej ,titans4 ,tung/5 7,wolfram7 ,w #ahd ,sw$i%4 ,uranium ,u #bdj ,urania4 ,vanadium ,v #ea ,vanadis1 a goddess 9 ,sw$51 etc4 ,yttrium ,y #ic 7,n kn[n47 ,z9c ,zn #fe ,g]4 ,z9k51 nails4 ,zirconium ,zr #hi ,g]4 ,zircon1 f\r-corn]$ 7,ceylon74 99,ars5ic is sometimes consid]$ a non-metallic & sometimes a metallic sub/ance4 ,! t]m 8comb9+ weight0 requires a little explanation4 ,we are aw>e t wat]1 = in/ance1 is made up ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 c]ta9 proportions4 ,?is we w prove by-&-by4 ,! proportions are 9 eighte5 gra9s or p>ts ( wat]1 sixte5 p>ts 7by weight7 ( oxyg51 & two p>ts 7by weight7 ( hydrog54 ,^! are ! weights or proportions 9 :i* oxyg5 & hydrog5 comb9e to =m wat]1 & su* weights are always ! same 9 ^! proportions4 ,*emical comb9ation always occurs = c]ta9 sub/ances 9 c]ta9 proportions :i* nev] v>y 9 ^? comp\nds1 & if we wi% to extract oxyg5 f an oxide we mu/ take ! aggregate am\nt ( ! comb9+ weights ( ! oxide1 & we %all f9d ! proportion ( oxyg52 = ! comp\nd always weighs ! same z ! sum ( ! elem5ts t compose x4 ,to return to ! illu/ration ( wat]4 ,! molecule ( wat] is made up ( "o atom ( oxyg5 & two atoms ( hydrog54 ,"o atom ( ! =m] weighs sixte5 times ! atom ( ! latt]4 ,! weights giv5 9 ! =ego+ table are atomic weights1 & ! law ( _! proportions is call$ ! ,atomic ,!ory4 ,an atom 9 *emi/ry is usually consid]$ ! smalle/ quantity ( matt] t exi/s1 & is indivisible4 ,a molecule is suppos$ to conta9 two or m atoms1 & is ! smalle/ portion ( a comp\nd body4 ,! /&>d atom is hydrog51 :i* is put d[n z #a1 because we f9d t :5 "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 is put 9 comb9ation1 x mu/ h _m m p>ts by weight ( o!rs to =m a comp\nd4 ,two gra9s ( hydrog51 comb9+ ) sixte5 ( oxyg51 makes eighte5 ( wat]1 z we h already se54 ,take an example s pla9ly giv5 by ,pr(essor ,roscoe1 rememb]+ t ! numb]s 9 our table repres5t ! fix$ weight or proportion by weight 9 :i* ! simple body comb9es4 ,! r$ oxide ( m]cury conta9s sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 to two hundr$ p>ts by weight ( m]cury 7we see ! same numb]s 9 ! table72 ^! comb9$ make two hundr$ & sixte5 p>ts ( oxide4 ,s to obta9 #af lbs4 ( oxyg5 we mu/ get #baf lbs4 ( ! p[d]4 ,x is ! same all ?r\gh1 & x w be f\nd by exp]im5t t if any m p>ts ?an ^! fix$ proportions be tak5 to =m a comp\nd1 "s ( t elem5t us$ 9 excess w rema9 free4 ,lime is made up ( calcium & oxyg54 ,we f9d calcium comb9+ weight is =ty1 oxyg5 sixte54 ,lime is oxide ( calcium 9 ^! proportions 7by weight74 ,:5 we wi% to express ! numb] ( atoms 9 a comp\nd we write ! numb] und]nea? :5 m ?an "o2 ?us wat] is ,h#b,o4 ,sulphuric acid ,h#b,,s#d4 ,z we proce$ we w give ! v>i\s =mul :5 consid]+ ! *ief elem5ts4 ,9 *emi/ry we h acids1 alkalis1 & salts1 ) metallic oxides1 t]m$ bases1 or bodies1 t :5 comb9$ ) acids =m salts4 ,alkalis are bases4 ,,acids are comp\nds :i* possess an acid ta/e1 imp>t r$ col\r to vegetable blues1 b lose _! qualities :5 comb9$ ) bases4 ,hydrog5 is pres5t 9 all acids4 ,!re are insoluble acids4 ,silicic acid1 = in/ance1 is n soluble 9 wat]1 has no s\r ta/e1 & w n r$d5 ! te/ litmus pap]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are sub/ances 7n acids7 :i* possess ! *>act]i/ics ( acids1 & mo/ acids h only "o or two ( ^! *>act]i/ics4 ,?us x has come to pass t ! t]m 8acid0 has 9 a measure dropp$ out f sci5tific nom5clature1 & salt ( hydrog5 has be5 sub/itut$ by *emi/s4 ,= popul> exposition1 h[ev]1 ! t]m is reta9$4 ,,alkalis are bases di/+ui%$ by an alkal9e ta/e4 ,! d]ivation is f ,arabic1 al-kali4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by c]ta9 prop]ties1 & !y *ange vegetable blues to gre51 & w re/ore ! blue to a sub/ance :i* has be5 r$d5$ by acid4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat]1 & ! solutions are cau/ic 9 _! effects4 ,pota%1 soda1 & ammonia are alkalis1 or *emically1 ! oxides ( potassium1 sodium1 ammonium1 li?ium1 & csium are all alkalis4 ,pota% is sometimes call$ 8cau/ic0 pota%4 ,!re are alkal9e e>?s1 su* z oxides ( b>ium1 /rontium1 etc4 ,bases may be def9$ z ! conv]se ( acids4 ,acids & alkalis are !n evid5tly opposite 9 "*1 & yet !y readily comb9e1 & 9 *emi/ry we %all f9d t unlike bodies are v fond ( comb9+ 7j z opposite electricities attract ea* o!r71 & ! body made by ?is comb9ation diff]s 9 its prop]ties f its con/itu5ts4 ,,salts are compos$ ( acids & bases1 & are consid]$ neutral comp\nds1 b !re are o!r bodies n salts1 :i* likewise come "u t def9ition--sug>1 = in/ance4 ,z a rule1 :5 acids & alkalis comb9e salts are f\nd4 ,*emical ph5om5a are divid$ into two gr\ps1 call$ inorganic & organic1 compris+ ! simple & comp\nd aspects ( ! subject1 ! elem5t>y sub/ances be+ 9 ! fir/1 & ! *emi/ry ( animals or vegetables1 or organic sub/ances1 9 ! latt]4 ,9 ! inorganic section we %all become acqua9t$ ) ! elem5ts & _! comb9ations s (t5 se5 z m9]als 9 nature4 ,*emical prep>ations are artificially prep>$4 ,to consid] ^! elem5ts we mu/ h c]ta9 appliances1 & inde$ a laboratory is ne$$4 ,heat1 z we h already se51 plays a great "p 9 develop+ sub/ances1 & by means ( heat we c d a great deal 9 ! way ( *emical decomposition4 ,x exp&s1 & ?us dim9i%es cohesion2 x c\nt]acts ! *emical attraction4 ,light & electricity also decompose *emical comb9ations4 ,b be=e proce$+ x w be z well to notice a few facts %[+ h[ ,nature has balanc$ all ?+s4 ,! e>?1 & its surr\nd+ envelope1 ! atmosph]e1 consi/ ( a numb] ( elem5ts1 :i* 9 myriad comb9ations give u ev]y?+ we possess1--! air we brea!1 ! wat] we dr9k1 ! fire t w>ms u1 are all made up ( c]ta9 elem5ts or gases4 ,wat]1 hydrog5 & oxyg52 air1 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,fire is combu/ion evolv+ light & heat4 ,*emical union always evolves heat1 & :5 su* union proce$s v rapidly fire is ! result4 ,9 all ^! comb9ations we %all f9d :5 we /udy *emi/ry t n a p>ticle or atom ( matt] is ev] lo/4 ,x may *ange or comb9e or be 8giv5 (f10 b ! matt] 9 "s %ape or way exi/s /ill4 ,we may burn ?+s1 & rid ourselves1 z we ?9k1 ( !m4 ,we d rid ourselves ( ! comp\nds1 ! elem5ts rema9 some:]e4 ,we only alt] ! condition4 ,dur+ combu/ion1 z 9 a c&le or a fire1 ! simple bodies assume gase\s or o!r =ms1 su* z c>bon1 b !y d n escape f>4 ,true !y pass beyond our k51 b nature is s nicely balanc$ t !re is a place = ev]y?+1 & ev]y?+ is 9 its place "u c]ta9 conditions :i* nev] alt]4 ,we _c de/roy & we _c create4 ,we may prep>e a comb9ation1 & sci5ce has ev5 succe$$ 9 produc+ a =m l ! diamond--a cry/al ( c>bon :i* looks l t mo/ beautiful ( all cry/als1 b we _c make a diamond aft] all4 ,we c only sep>ate ! *emical comp\nds4 ,we c turn diamonds into *>coal x is true1 b we _c create 8natural0 products4 ,we c take a p>ticle ( an elem5t & hide x1 or let x pass beyond our k51 & rema9 incapable ( detection1 b ! p>ticle is !re all ! "t1 & :5 we retrace our /eps we %all f9d x z x 0 be=e4 ,?is view ( *emi/ry c>ries x z a sci5ce beyond ! m]e holiday amusem5t we frequ5tly take x to be4 ,x is a gr& /udy1 a /udy = a lifetime4 ,nature is always will+1 l a k9d1 good "m z %e is1 to r5d] u up h] secrets if we inquire respectfully & lov+ly4 ,! m we inquire ! m we %all f9d we h to le>n4 ,9 ^! & ! foll[+ pages we c only tell y a few ?+s1 b no "o ne$ be turn$ away because he does n f9d all he wants4 ,we nev] d get all we want 9 life1 & !re are _m fir/-rate m5--sci5ti/s--:o w\ld give 8half _! k+dom0 = a c]ta9 bit ( k conc]n+ "s natural ph5om5a4 ,!re are num]\s excell5t treatises on *emi/ry1 & exhau/ive z !y are1 at pres5t !y d n tell u all4 ,let ^! popul> pages lead u to ! /udy ( nature1 & we %all f9d our lab\r f> f on]\s & full ( int]e/1 daily increas+ to ! end1 :5 we %all "k no m ( e>?1 or *emi/ry4 ,z a prelim9>y we w put our work%op aside1 & %[ y some?+ ( ,*emi/ry )\t a ,laboratory4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,*emi/ry ,,)\t ,a ,,laboratory4 ,we h already po9t$ out ! possibility ( go+ ?r\gh a c\rse ( physics )\t any special app>atus1 we %all n[ endeav\r to %[ our read]s ! me?od ( p]=m+ "s exp]im5ts 9 *emi/ry )\t a laboratory1 or at any rate ) only a few simple & inexp5sive appliances4 ,! prep>ation ( gases1 su* z hydrog51 c>bonic acid1 & oxyg51 is v easily accompli%$1 b we %all "h po9t out pr9cipally a s]ies ( exp]im5ts t are n s mu* kn[n4 ,we w comm5ce1 = example1 by describ+ an int]e/+ exp]im5t :i* (t5 occurs 9 a c\rse ( *emi/ry4 ,ammoniacal gas comb9$ ) ! elem5ts ( wat] is analog\s to a metallic oxide :i* includes a metallic root1 ammonium4 ,?is hypo!tically compos$ metal may be 9 a mann] p]ceiv$1 s9ce x is possible to amalgamate x ) m]cury by op]at+ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,we take a porcela9 mort>1 9 :i* we p\r a quantity ( m]cury1 & !n cut "s ?9 /rips ( sodium1 :i* are ?r[n into ! m]cury4 ,by /irr+ x ab\t ) ! pe/le a l\d crack+ is produc$1 accompani$ by a flame1 :i* be>s evid5ce to ! union ( ! m]cury & ! sodium1 & ! =mation ( an amalgam ( sodium4 ,if ?is amalgam ( sodium is put into a sl5d] glass tube conta9+ a conc5trat$ solution ( hydro*lorate ( ammonia 9 wat]1 we see ! ammonia exp& 9 an extraord9>y mann]1 & sp\t out f ! end ( ! tube1 :i* is n[ too small to conta9 x1 9 ! =m ( a metallic sub/ance 7fig4 #cjb74 ,9 ?is case1 ! ammonium1 ! radical :i* exi/s 9 ! ammoniacal salts1 becomes amalgamat$ ) ! m]cury1 driv+ out ! sodium ) :i* x _h previ\sly be5 comb9$2 ! ammonium ?us unit$ ) ! m]cury becomes decompos$ 9 ammoniacal gas & hydrog51 ! m]cury assum+ its ord9>y =m4 ,phosphate ( ammonia is v valuable f its prop]ty ( r5d]+ ! lighte/ mat]ials1 su* z gauze or musl91 incombu/ible4 ,dip a piece ( musl9 9 a solution ( phosphate ( ammonia1 & dry x 9 contact ) ! air2 t done1 y w f9d x is impossible to set fire to ! mat]ial2 x w get *>r$1 b y _c make x burn4 ,x is to be wi%$ t ?is useful precaution 7 (t5] tak5 9 ! matt] ( ball-dresses1 :i* h s frequ5tly be5 ! cause ( s]i\s accid5ts4 ,!re is no dang] :atev] ) a dress t has be5 soak$ 9 phosphate ( ammonia1 :i* is v inexp5sive1 & easily procur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjb4--;,exp]im5t ) ammonium4 ,= prep>+ cool dr9ks 9 ! summ] ammoniacal salts are v useful2 "s nitrate ( ammonia mix$ ) its weight 9 wat]1 produces a consid]able l[]+ ( ! temp]ature1 & is v useful = mak+ ice4 ,volatile alkali1 :i* is s useful an application = /+s f insects1 is a solution ( ammoniacal gas 9 wat]1 & sal-volatile1 :i* has su* a refre%+ & reanimat+ od\r1 is a c>bonate ( ammonia4 ,we (t5 see 9 *emi/s' %ops l>ge glass j>s1 ! insides ( :i* are cov]$ ) beautiful transp>5t :ite cry/als1 :i* are =m$ ov] a r$ p[d] plac$ at ! bottom ( ! vase4 ,^! cry/als are ! result ( a comb9ation ( cyanog5 & iod9e4 ,no?+ is easi] ?an ! prep>ation ( iodide ( cyanog51 a v volatile body1 :i* possesses a /rong t5d5cy to assume a def9ite cry/all9e =m4 ,we p\nd 9 a mort> a mixture ( #ej grams ( cyanide ( m]cury1 & #ajj grams ( iod9e2 "u ! action ( ! pe/le ! p[d]1 :i* 0 at fir/ a br[ni% col\r1 assumes a %ade ( bright v]milion r$4 ,! cyanog5 comb9es ) ! iod9e1 & trans=ms itself into fumes ) great rapidity4 ,if ! p[d] is plac$ at ! bottom ( a /opp]$ glass j>1 ! fumes ( ! iodide ( cyanog5 imm$iately cond5se1 !reby produc+ beautiful cry/als :i* (t5 atta9 consid]able size 7fig4 #cjc74 ,cyanog5 =ms ) sulphur a rem>kable sub/ance1 sulpho-cyanog51 ! prop]ties ( :i* we _c describe )\t exce$+ ! limits ( our pres5t treatise2 we %all !re=e conf9e ourselves to po9t+ out "o ( its comb9ations1 :i* is well kn[n at ! pres5t day1 ow+ to its s+ul> prop]ties4 ,?is is sulpho-cyanide ( m]cury1 ) :i* small combu/ible cones are made1 g5]ally designat$ by ! pomp\s title ( ,ph>aoh's s]p5ts4 ,= mak+ ^!1 "s sulpho-cyanide ( potassium is p\r$ into a solution ( nitrate acid on m]cury1 :i* =ms a precipitate ( sulpho-cyanide ( m]cury4 ,?is is a :ite1 combu/ible p[d]1 :i* aft] pass+ ?r\gh a filt]1 %\ld be trans=m$ into a /iff pulp by means ( wat] conta9+ a solution ( gum4 ,! pulp is aft]w>ds mix$ ) a small quantity ( nitrate ( pota%1 & fa%ion$ into cones or cyl9d]s ( ab\t an in* & a qu>t] 9 l5g?1 :i* %\ld be ?or\ghly dri$4 ,! egg ?us obta9$ c be hat*$ by ! simple application ( a light$ mat*1 & gives rise to ! ph5om5on4 ,! sulpho-cyanide sl[ly exp&s1 ! cyl9d] increases 9 l5g?1 & *anges to a yell[i% sub/ance1 :i* dilates & ext5ds to a l5g? ( tw5ty or five-&-tw5ty in*es4 ,x has ! appe>ance ( a g5u9e s]p5t1 :i* has j />t$ into exi/5ce1 & /ret*es out its tortu\s coils1 endeav\r+ to escape f its n>r[ prison 7fig4 #cjd74 ,! residue is compos$ p>tly ( cyanide ( m]cury & ( p>a-cyanog52 x con/itutes a v poison\s sub/ance1 :i* %\ld be imm$iately ?r[n away or burn$4 ,x c be easily p[d]$ into du/ 9 ! f+]s4 ,dur+ ! decomposition ( ! sulpho-cyanide ( m]cury1 quantities ( sulphur\s acid are ?r[n (f1 & x is to be regrett$ t ,ph>aoh's s]p5t %\ld h]ald 8 appe>ance by su* a disagreeable1 suffocat+ od\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjc4--;,iodide ( cyanog54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjd4--,ph>aoh's s]p5t4 ,aft] ^! few prelim9>y exp]im5ts1 we w endeav\r to %[ ! int]e/ af=d$ by ! /udy ( *emi/ry 9 relation to ! commone/ sub/ances ( e-day life4 ,we w fir/ consid] ! nature ( a few p9*es ( salt4 ,we "k t kit*5 salt1 or sea salt1 is :ite or greyi%1 accord+ to its degree ( purity2 t x has a peculi> flav\r1 is soluble 9 wat]1 & makes a peculi> crackl+ :5 ?r[n 9 ! fire4 ,b ?\gh its pr9cipal physical prop]ties may be famili> en\gh1 _m p are entirely ignorant ( its *emical nature & elem5t>y composition4 ,kit*5 salt conta9s a metal1 comb9$ ) a gas possess+ a v suffocat+ od\r2 ! metal is sodium1 ! gas is *lor9e4 ,! sci5tific "n = ! sub/ance is *loride ( sodium 7salt74#ai ,! metal conta9$ 9 common salt 9 no way resembles ord9>y metals2 x is :ite l silv]1 b t>ni%es imm$iately 9 contact ) air1 & unites ) oxyg51 ?us trans=m+ itself into oxide ( sodium4 ,to pres]ve ?is s+ul> metal x is necess>y to protect x f ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 & to keep x 9 a bottle conta9+ oil ( nap?a4 ,sodium is s(t1 & x is possible ) a pair ( scissors to cut x l a ball ( s(t bread t has be5 knead$ 9 ! h&4 ,x is light] ?an wat]1 & :5 plac$ 9 a bas9 ( wat] floats on ! top l a piece ( cork2 only x is di/urb$1 & takes ! =m ( a small brilliant sph]e2 great eff]vesc5ce is also produc$ z x floats along1 = x r$uces ! wat] to a common temp]ature by its contact4 ,by degrees ! small metallic ball disappe>s f view1 aft] blaz+ into flame 7fig4 #cje74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cje4--;,combu/ion ( sodium 9 wat]4 ,?is rem>kable exp]im5t is v easy to c>ry out1 & sodium is n[ easily procur$ at any %op :]e *emicals are sold4 ,! combu/ion ( sodium 9 wat] c be expla9$ 9 a v simple mann]4 ,wat]1 z we "k1 is compos$ ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,sodium1 by reason ( its great aff9ity = ! latt] gas1 comb9es ) x1 & =ms a v soluble oxide2 ! hydrog5 is releas$ & ?r[n (f1 z we %all p]ceive by plac+ a light$ mat* 9 ! j>1 :5 ! combu/ible gas ignites4 ,oxide ( sodium has a great aff9ity = wat]2 x comb9es ) x1 & absorbs x 9 great quantities4 ,x is a solid1 :ite sub/ance1 :i* burns & caut]izes ! sk92 x is also alkal9e1 & br+s back ! blue col\r to litmus pap] t has be5 r$d5$ by acids4 ,sodium comb9es easily also ) *lor9e4 ,if plung$ into a j> conta9+ ?is gas x is trans=m$ into a sub/ance1 :i* is sea salt4 ,if ! *lor9e is 9 excess a "p ( ! gas rema9s free1 = simple sub/ances d n m+le 9 undet]m9$ ratios2 !y comb9e1 on ! contr>y1 9 v def9ite proportions1 & #cee gr4 ( dry *lor9e always unites ) ! same quantity ( soda equal to #bc grams4 ,a gram ( kit*5 salt is =m$1 !re=e1 ( #jfjf gr4 ( *lor9e1 & #jcid gr4 ( sodium4 ,besides sea salt1 !re are a numb] ( diff]5t salts :i* may be made ! object ( curi\s exp]im5ts4 ,we "k t cau/ic soda1 or oxide ( sodium1 is an alkal9e product possess+ v p[]ful prop]ties2 x burns ! sk91 & de/roys organic sub/ances4 ,sulphuric acid is end[$ ) no less p[]ful prop]ties2 if a little is dropp$ on ! h& x produces great pa9 & a s5se ( burn+2 a piece ( wood plung$ into ?is acid is almo/ imm$iately c>boniz$4 ,if we mix =ty-n9e grams ( sulphuric acid & ?irty-"o grams ( cau/ic soda a v int5se reaction is produc$1 accompani$ by a consid]able elevation ( temp]ature2 aft] x has cool$ we h a sub/ance :i* c be h&l$ ) impunity2 ! acid & alkali h comb9$1 & _! prop]ties h be5 reciprocally de/roy$4 ,!y h n[ orig9at$ a salt :i* is sulphate ( soda4 ,?is sub/ance ex]cises no influ5ce on litmus pap]1 & resembles 9 no way ! sub/ances f :i* x orig9at$4 ,!re are an inf9ite numb] ( salts :i* result 9 l mann] f ! comb9ation ( an acid ) an alkali or base4 ,"s1 su* z sulphate ( copp]1 or *romate ( pota%1 are col\r$2 o!rs1 l sulphate ( soda1 are col\rless4 ,! la/-m5tion$ salt1 ) a numb] ( o!rs1 w take a cry/all9e =m2 if dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 & ! solution left to /&1 we %all p]ceive a deposit ( transp>5t prisms ( v rem>kable appe>ance4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,glaub]1 & 0 =m]ly call$ ,glaub]'s salts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjf4--,prep>ation ( a solution saturat$ ) sulphate ( soda4 ,sulphate ( soda is v soluble 9 wat]1 & at a temp]ature ( ?irty-?ree 7,c5tigr47 wat] c dissolve x 9 ! greate/ degree4 ,if we p\r a lay] ( oil on a solution saturat$ ) ,glaub]'s salts1 & let x /&1 x w n produce cry/als2 b if we ?ru/ a glass rod ?r\gh ! oil into contact ) ! solution1 cry/allization w be in/antane\s4 ,?is s+ul> ph5om5on becomes ev5 m /rik+ :5 we put ! w>m conc5trat$ solution into a sl5d] glass tube1 ,a ,b1 :i* we close aft] hav+ driv5 out ! air by ! bubbl+ ( ! liquid 7fig4 #cjf74 ,:5 ! tube has be5 clos$1 ! cry/als ( sulphate ( soda w n =m1 ev5 ) ! temp]ature at z]o2 nev]!less ! salts1 be+ less soluble cold ?an hot1 are f\nd 9 ! fluid 9 a proportion t5 times l>g] ?an !y w\ld conta9 "u ord9>y conditions4 ,if ! end ( ! tube be brok5 ! salt w cry/allize imm$iately4 ,we w describe ano!r exp]im5t1 b little kn[n & v rem>kable1 :i* exhibits 9 a /rik+ mann] ! process ( in/antane\s cry/allizations4 ,let "o hundr$ & fifty p>ts ( hyposulphite ( soda be dissolv$ 9 fifte5 p>ts ( wat]1 & ! solution sl[ly p\r$ into a te/-glass1 previ\sly w>m$ by means ( boil+ wat]1 until ! vessel is ab\t half-full4 ,"o hundr$ p>ts ( acetate ( soda is !n dissolv$ 9 fifte5 p>ts ( wat]1 & p\r$ sl[ly into ! fir/ solution1 s t !y =m two lay]s p]fectly di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,! two solutions are !n cov]$ ) a little boil+ wat]1 :i*1 h[ev] is n repres5t$ 9 our illu/ration4 ,aft] x has be5 left to /& & cool sl[ly1 we h two solutions ( hyposulphite ( soda & acetate ( soda sup]pos$ on ea* o!r4 ,a ?read1 at ! end ( :i* is fix$ a small cry/al ( hyposulphite ( soda1 is !n l[]$ into ! te/-glass2 ! cry/al passes ?r\gh ! solution ( acetate )\t di/urb+ x1 b x has sc>cely rea*$ ! l[] solution ( hyposulphite ?an ! salt cry/allizes in/antane\sly4 7,see ! te/-glass on ! left ( fig4 #cjg47 ,we !n l[] into ! upp] solution a cry/al ( acetate ( soda1 susp5d$ f ano!r ?read4 ,?is salt !n cry/allizes also4 7,see exp]im5t glass on ! "r ( fig4 #cjg47 ,?is v successful exp]im5t is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable belong+ to ! subject ( in/antane\s cry/als4 ,! successive appe>ance ( cry/als ( hyposulphite ( soda1 :i* take ! =m ( l>ge1 rhomboidal prisms1 t]m9at+ at ! two extremities ) an oblique surface1 & ! cry/als ( acetate ( soda1 :i* h ! appe>ance ( rhomboidal1 oblique prisms1 _c fail to /rike ! att5tion & excite ! int]e/ ( ^? :o are n initiat$ into ^! k9ds ( exp]im5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg4--;,exp]im5t ( in/antane\s cry/allization4 ,ano!r rem>kable in/antane\s cry/allization is t ( alum4 ,if we leave /&+ a solution ( ?is salt x gradually cools1 at ! same "t becom+ limpid & cle>4 ,:5 x is p]fectly cold1 if we plunge into x a small octah$ral cry/al ( alum susp5d$ f a ?read1 we p]ceive t cry/allization in/antly comm5ces on ! surface ( ! small cry/al2 x rapidly & p]ceptibly increases 9 size1 until x ne>ly fills ! :ole j>4 ,,common ,,metals ,,& ,,preci\s ,,metals4 ,h[ _m invalids h swall[$ magnesia )\t suspect+ t ?is p[d] conta9s a metal ne>ly z :ite z silv]1 & is malleable1 & capable ( burn+ ) s int5se a light t x rivals ev5 ! electric light 9 brilliancy6 ,if any ( our read]s desire to prep>e magnesium !mselves x c be done 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,"s :ite magnesia mu/ be obta9$ f ! *emi/1 & aft] hav+ be5 calc9$1 mu/ be submitt$ to ! influ5ce ( hydro*loric acid & hydro*lorate ( ammonia4 ,a cle> solution w ?us be obta9$1 :i* by means ( evaporation "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 furni%es a d\ble *loride1 hydrat$ & cry/allis$4 ,?is *loride1 if heat$ to r$ness 9 an e>!nw>e crucible1 leaves z a residue a nacre\s product1 compos$ ( micace\s1 :ite scales1 *loride ( anhydr\s magnesium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjh4--;,gr\p ( alum cry/als4 ,if six hundr$ grams ( ?is *loride ( magnesium are mix$ ) "o hundr$ grams ( *loride ( sodium1 or kit*5 salt1 & ! same quantity ( fluoride ( calcium & metallic sodium 9 small fragm5ts1 & ! mixture is put into an e>!nw>e crucible made r$-hot1 & heat$ = a qu>t] ( an h\r "u a clos$ lid1 we %all f9d on p\r+ out ! fluid on to a h&ful ( e>?1 t we h obta9$ in/ead ( scoria1 =ty-five grams ( metallic magnesium4 ,! metal ?us obta9$ is impure1 & to remove all =eign sub/ances x mu/ be heat$ 9 a *>coal tube1 ?r\gh :i* passes a curr5t ( hydrog54 ,magnesium is n[ produc$ 9 great abundance1 & is v inexp5sive4 ,x is a metal end[$ ) a great aff9ity = oxyg51 & x is only necess>y to ?ru/ x into ! flame ( a c&le to produce combu/ion2 x burns ) a brightness t ! eye c sc>cely tol]ate1 & is trans=m$ into a :ite p[d]--oxide ( magnesium1 or magnesia4 ,combu/ion is /ill m active 9 oxyg51 & p[d] ( magnesium plac$ 9 a j> fill$ ) ?is gas produces a p]fect %[] ( fire ( v beautiful effect4 ,to give an idea ( ! light+ p[] ( magnesium1 we may add t a wire ( ?is metal1 :i* is #bi_/ajj ( a millimetre 9 diamet]1 produces by combu/ion a light equal to t ( sev5ty-f\r c&les4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cji4--;,calc9$ alum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caj4--,prep>ation ( metallic iron4 ,! humble e>? ( ! fields--! clay :i* is us$ 9 our pott]ies1 also conta9s alum9ium1 t brilliant metal :i* is z malleable z silv]1 & unspoilable z gold4 ,:5 clay is submitt$ to ! influ5ce ( sulphuric acid & *loride ( potassium1 we obta9 alum1 :i* is a sulphate ( alum9a & pota%4 ,alum is a col\rless salt1 :i* cry/allizes on ! surface ( wat] 9 beautiful octah$rons ( /rik+ regul>ity4 ,fig4 #cjh repres5ts a gr\p ( alum cry/als4 ,?is salt is mu* us$ 9 ! col\r+ ( fabrics2 x is also us$ = ! siz+ ( pap]s1 & ! cl>ification ( tall[4 ,doctors also use x z an a/r+5t & cau/ic sub/ance4 ,:5 alum is submitt$ to ! action ( heat 9 an e>!nw>e crucible1 x loses ! wat] ( cry/allization :i* x conta9s1 & exp&s 9 a s+ul> mann]1 ov]fl[+ f ! j> 9 :i* x is calc9$ 7fig4 #cji74 ,iron1 ! mo/ important ( common metals1 rapidly unites ) oxyg51 &1 z we "k1 :5 a piece ( ?is metal is expos$ to ! influ5ce ( damp air1 x becomes cov]$ ) a r$di% sub/ance4 ,9 ! well-kn[n exp]im5t ( ! =mation ( ru/1 ! iron gradually oxidises )\t its temp]ature ris+1 b ?is comb9ation ( iron ) oxyg5 is effect$ mu* m rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,if1 = example1 we r$d5 at ! fire a nail atta*$ to a wire1 & give x a movem5t ( rotation z ( a sl+1 we see fla%+ out f ! metal a ?\s& bright sp>ks due to ! comb9ation ( iron ) oxyg51 & ! =mation ( an oxide4 ,p>ticles ( iron burn spontane\sly 9 contact ) air1 & ?is prop]ty = _m c5turies has be5 utiliz$ 9 /rik+ a t9d]-box2 t is to say1 9 sep>at+1 by /rik+ a fl9t1 small p>ticles ( iron1 :i* ignite "u ! influ5ce ( ! heat produc$ by ! friction4 ,we c prep>e iron 9 su* atoms t x ignites at an ord9>y temp]ature by simple contact ) ! air4 ,to br+ x to ?is /ate ( extreme t5uity1 we r$uce its oxalate by hydrog54 ,we prep>e an app>atus = hydrog5 z %[n 9 fig4 #caj1 & ! gas produc$ at ,a is pass$ ?r\gh a desiccative tube1 ,b1 & f9ally rea*es a glass receptacle1 ,c1 9 :i* "s oxalate ( iron is plac$4 ,! latt] salt1 "u ! comb9$ influ5ce ( hydrog5 & heat1 is r$uc$ to metallic iron1 :i* assumes ! appe>ance ( a f9e black p[d]4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t is complet$ ! glass vessel is clos$1 & ! iron1 ?us protect$ f contact ) ! air1 c be pres]v$ indef9itely2 b if x is expos$ to ! air by break+ (f ! end ( ! receptacle 7fig4 #caa71 x ignites imm$iately1 produc+ a %[] ( fire ( v beautiful effect4 ,iron ?us prep>$ is kn[n "u ! "n ( pyrophoric iron4 ,iron is act$ ^u 9 a v p[]ful mann] by mo/ acids4 ,if "s nitric acid is p\r$ on iron nails1 a /ream ( r$1 nitr\s vap\r is let loose1 & ! oxidis$ iron is dissolv$ 9 ! liquid to ! condition ( nitrate ( iron4 ,?is exp]im5t is v easy to p]=m1 & x gives an idea ( ! en]gy ( c]ta9 *emical actions4 ,we h endeav\r$ to repres5t its appe>ance 9 fig4 #cab4 ,fum+ nitric acid does n act on iron1 & prev5ts x be+ attack$ by ord9>y nitric acid4 ,?is prop]ty has giv5 rise to a v rem>kable exp]im5t on passive iron4 ,x consi/s 9 plac+ "s nails 9 a glass1 into :i* "s fum+ nitric acid is p\r$1 :i* produces no result2 ! fum+ acid is !n tak5 out1 & is replac$ by ord9>y nitric acid1 :i* no long] acts on ! iron r5d]$ passive by ! smok+ acid4 ,aft] ?is1 if ! nails are t\*$ by a piece ( iron1 :i* has n und]gone ! action ( nitric acid1 !y are imm$iately act$ ^u1 & a giv+ (f ( nitr\s vap\r is manife/$ ) great en]gy4 ,lead is a v s(t metal1 & c ev5 be scrat*$ by ! nails4 ,x is also extremely pliable1 & s entirely devoid ( ela/icity t :5 b5t x has no t5d5cy :atev] to return to its primitive =m4 ,lead is heavy1 & has a d5sity repres5t$ by #aad2 t is to say1 ! weight ( a qu>t ( wat] be+ "o kilogram1 t ( ! same volume ( lead is #aadjj k4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caa4--,pyrophoric iron4 ,fig4 #cac repres5ts cyl9drical b>s ( ! be/ kn[n metals1 all weigh+ ! same1 %[+ _! comp>ative d5sity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab4--;,iron & nitric acid4 ,lead1 l t91 is capable ( tak+ a beautiful cry/all9e =m :5 plac$ 9 solution by a metal t is less oxydisable4 ,! cry/allization ( lead1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cad1 is designat$ by ! "n ( ! ,tree ( ,saturn4 ,?is is h[ ! exp]im5t is produc$3 ,?irty grams ( acetate ( lead are dissolv$ 9 a qu>t ( wat]1 & ! solution is p\r$ into a vase ( a sph]ical %ape4 ,a /opp] = ?is vase is made out ( a piece ( z9c1 to :i* five or six sep>ate brass wires are atta*$2 ^! are plung$ into ! fluid1 & we see ! wires become imm$iately cov]$ ) brilliant cry/alliz$ spangles ( lead1 :i* cont9ue increas+ 9 size4 ,! al*emi/s1 :o 7 famili> ) ?is exp]im5t1 believ$ t x consi/$ 9 a trans=mation ( copp] into lead1 :ile 9 reality x only consi/s 9 ! sub/itution ( "o metal = ano!r4 ,! copp] is dissolv$ 9 ! liquid1 & is replac$ by ! lead1 b no metamorphosis is br\ght ab\t4 ,we may v>y at w ! =m ( ! vase or ! arrangem5t ( ! wire2 ?us x is easy to =m lett]s1 numb]s1 or figures1 by ! cry/allization ( brilliant spangles4 ,illu/ration3 ,plat9um ,d5sity #ba4ej ,gold ,d4 #ai4be ,m]cury ,d4 #ac4ef ,lead ,d4 #aa4ce ,silv] ,d4 #aj4dg ,bismu? ,d4 #i4hb ,copp] ,d4 #h4gh ,nickel ,d4 #h4bg ,t9 ,d4 #g4bi ,iron ,d4 #g4bj ,z9c ,d4 #f4hf ,alum9ium ,d4 #b4ef ,magnesium ,d4 #a4dc ,sodium ,d4 #j4ig ,fig4 #cac4--,repres5tation ( b>s ( metal1 all ( ! same weight4 ,copp]1 :5 x is pure1 has a *>act]i/ic r$ col\r1 :i* prev5ts x be+ conf\nd$ ) any o!r metal2 x dissolves easily 9 nitric acid1 & ) consid]able eff]vesc5ce1 giv+ (f vap\r v abundantly4 ,?is prop]ty has be5 put to good use 9 engrav+ ) aqua =tis4 ,a copp] plate is cov]$ ) a lay] ( v>ni%1 & :5 x is dry "s /rokes are made on x by means ( a grav]2 if nitric acid is p\r$ on ! plate :5 ?us prep>$1 ! copp] is only act$ on 9 ! p>ts t h be5 expos$ by ! po9t ( /eel4 ,by aft]w>ds remov+ ! v>ni%1 we h an engrav$ plate1 :i* w s]ve = pr9t+ purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad4--,tree ( ,saturn4 ,among exp]im5ts t may be attempt$ ) common metals1 we may m5tion t 9 :i* salts ( t9 are employ$4 ,t9 has a great t5d5cy to assume a cry/all9e =m1 & x w be easy to %[ ?is prop]ty by an int]e/+ exp]im5t4 ,a conc5trat$ solution ( proto-*loride ( t91 prep>$ by dissolv+ "s metallic t9 9 hydro*loric acid1 is plac$ 9 a te/ glass2 !n a rod ( t9 is introduc$1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cae4 ,"s wat] is next sl[ly p\r$ on ! rod1 s t x gradually trickles d[n1 & prev5ts ! m+l+ ( ! proto-*loride ( t94 ,! vessel is !n left to /&1 & we soon see brilliant cry/als />t+ out f ! rod4 ,?is cry/allization is n effect$ 9 ! wat]2 x is expla9$ by an electric influ5ce1 into ! details ( :i* we _c ent] )\t ov]/epp+ our limits2 x is kn[n z 8,jupit]'s ,tree40 ,x is well kn[n t al*emi/s1 ) _! /range sy/em ( nom5clature1 believ$ !re 0 a c]ta9 my/]i\s relation betwe5 ! sev5 metals !n kn[n & ! sev5 planets2 ea* metal 0 d$icat$ to a planet2 t9 0 call$ ,jupit]2 silv]1 ,luna2 gold1 ,sol2 lead1 ,saturn2 iron1 ,m>s2 quicksilv]1 ,m]cury2 & copp]1 ,v5us4 ,! cry/allization ( t9 may be recognis$ also by rubb+ a piece ( ?is metal ) hydro*loric acid2 ! fragm5ts ?us rubb$ (f exhibit specim5s ( bran*+ cry/als simil> to ! ho>-fro/ :i* we see 9 sev]e w9t] wea!r4 ,if we b5d a rod ( t9 9 our h&s ! cry/als break1 ) a peculi> ru/l+ s\nd4 ,:5 speak+ ( preci\s metals1 we may call to m9d t ! al*emi/s consid]$ gold z ! k+ ( metals1 & ! o!r valuable ones z noble metals4 ,?is def9ition is errone\s1 if we look ^u ! useful z ! mo/ preci\s2 =1 9 t case1 iron & copp] w\ld be plac$ 9 ! fir/ rank4 ,if gold 7 f\nd abundantly on ! surface ( ! soil1 & iron 0 extremely r>e1 we %\ld seek mo/ eag]ly = ?is useful metal1 & %\ld despise ! =m]1 ) :i* we c nei!r make a pl\gh%>e nor any o!r implem5t ( indu/ry4 ,nev]!less1 ! sc>city ( gold1 its beautiful yell[ col\r1 & its unalt]ability :5 9 contact ) air1 comb9e to place x 9 ! fir/ rank 9 ! li/ ( preci\s metals4 ,gold is v heavy2 its d5sity is repres5t$ by ! figure #aie4 ,x is ! mo/ malleable & ! mo/ ductile ( metals1 & c be r$uc$ by beat+ to su* ?9 %eets t t5 ?\s& c be laid1 "o ov] ! o!r1 to obta9 ! ?ickness ( a millimetre4 ,) a gra9 ( gold a ?read may be manufactur$ ext5d+ a league 9 l5g?1 & s f9e t x resembles a spid]'s web4 ,:5 gold is beat5 into ?9 %eets x is no long] opaque2 if x is fa/5$1 by means ( a solution ( gum1 on to a %eet ( glass1 ! light passes "r ?r\gh x1 & pres5ts a v p]ceptible gre5 %ade4 ,gold is sometimes f\nd scatt]$ 9 s&1 9 a condition ( impalpable du/1 &1 9 c]ta9 localities1 9 irregul> lumps ( v>y+ size1 call$ nuggets4 ,gold is ! lea/ alt]able ( ! metals1 & c be expos$1 indef9itely1 to ! contact ( humid atmosph]e )\t oxidiz+4 ,x is n act$ on by ! mo/ p[]ful acids1 & only dissolves 9 a mixture ( nitric acid & hydro*loric acid4 ,we c prove t gold resi/s ! influ5ce ( acids by ! foll[+ op]ation3-- ,"s gold-leaf is plac$ 9 two small phials1 ! fir/ conta9+ hydro*loric acid1 & ! second nitric acid4 ,! two vessels are w>m$ on ! /ove1 & :atev] ! duration ( ! ebullition ( ! acids1 ! gold-leaf rema9s intact1 & completely resi/s _! action4 ,if we !n empty ! cont5ts ( "o phial into ! o!r1 ! hydro*loric & nitric acids are mix$1 & we see ! gold-leaf imm$iately disappe>1 easily dissolv$ by ! action ( ! liquid 7aqua regia74 ,gold also *anges :5 9 contact ) m]cury2 ?is is prov$ by susp5d+ "s gold-leaf above ! surface ( ?is liquid 7fig4 #caf72 x quickly *anges1 & unites ) ! fumes ( ! m]cury1 becom+ ( a greyi% col\r4 ,silv] is m easily affect$ ?an gold1 & ?\gh s :ite :5 fus$1 t>ni%es rapidly 9 contact ) air4 ,x does n oxidize1 b sulphurizes "u ! influ5ce ( hydro-sulphuric emanations4 ,silv] does n comb9e directly ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e2 b "u c]ta9 conditions x c dissolve great quantities ( ?is gas4 ,if x is fus$ 9 a small bone cupel1 9 contact ) ! air1 & left to cool quickly1 x exp&s 9 a rem>kable mann]1 & gives (f oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cae4--;,jupit]'s ,tree4 ,nitric acid dissolves silv] v easily1 by caus+ ! =mation ( abundant fumes4 ,:5 ! solution evaporates1 we p]ceive :ite cry/als =m+1 :i* are nitrate ( silv]4 ,?is fus$ nitrate ( silv] takes ! "n ( lun> cau/ic1 & is employ$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,nitrate ( silv] is v poison\s2 x possesses ! s+ul> prop]ty ( turn+ black "u ! action ( ! sun's rays1 & is us$ 9 _m curi\s op]ations 9 photography4 ,x is also employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( dyes = ! hair2 x is appli$ to :ite hair ) gall-nut1 & "u ! influ5ce ( ! light x turns black1 & gives ! hair a v d>k %ade4 ,salts ( silv] 9 solution ) wat] h ! prop]ty ( =m+ a precipitate "u ! influ5ce ( *lorides1 su* z sea salt4 ,if a few gra9s ( common salt are ?r[n into a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 x =ms an abundant precipitate ( *loride ( silv]1 :i* black5s 9 ! light4 ,?is precipitate1 insoluble 9 nitric acid1 dissolves v easily 9 ammonia4 ,plat9um1 :i* is ! la/ ( ! preci\s metals t we h to consid]1 is a greyi%-:ite col\r1 & l gold is only affect$ by a mixture ( nitric acid & hydro*loric acid4 ,x is ! heavie/ ( all ! ord9>y metals2 its d5sity is #baej4 ,x is v malleable & ductile1 & c be beat5 into v ?9 %eets1 & into wires z sl5d] z wires ( gold4 ,plat9um wires h ev5 be5 made s f9e t ! eye c sc>cely p]ceive !m2 ^! are kn[n z ,wolla/on's invisible wires4 ,plat9um resi/s ! action ( ! mo/ int5se fire1 & we c only fuse x by means ( a bl[-pipe & hydro-oxide gas4 ,its inalt]ability & ! resi/ance x opposes to fire r5d] x v valuable = use 9 ! laboratory4 ,small crucibles are made ( x1 :i* are us$ by *emi/s to calc9e _! precipitates 9 analytical op]ations1 or to br+ ab\t reactions "u ! influ5ce ( a high temp]ature4 ,plat9um may be r$uc$ to v small p>ticles2 x !n takes ! =m ( a black p[d]4 ,9 ?is pulv]ul5t condition x absorbs gases ) great rapidity1 to su* an ext5t t a cubic c5timetre c cond5se sev5 hundr$ & fifty times its own volume ( hydrog5 gas4 ,x also cond5ses oxyg51 & 9 a numb] ( cases acts z a p[]ful ag5t4 ,plat9um is also obta9$ 9 por\s masses 78spongy plat9um071 :i* produce ph5om5a ( oxidation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caf4--;,gold-leaf expos$ to ! fumes ( m]cury4 ,a v +5i\s little lamp may be con/ruct$ :i* lights ( itself )\t ! help ( a flame4 ,x conta9s a bell ( glass1 :i* is fill$ ) hydrog5 gas1 produc$ by ! action ex]cis$ by a f\ndation ( z9c on acidulat$ wat]4 ,if ! knob on ! upp] "p ( ! app>atus is press$1 ! hydrog5 escapes1 & comes 9 contact ) a piece ( spongy plat9um1 :i*1 act+ by oxidation1 becomes ignit$4 ,! flame produc$ sets fire to a small oil lamp1 :i* is opposite ! jet ( gas4 ,?is v +5i\s lamp is kn[n "u ! "n ( ,gay-,lussac's lamp4 ,plat9um c also produce1 by m]e contact1 a great numb] ( *emical reactions4 ,place 9 a te/ glass an explosive mixture =m$ ( two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg52 9 ?is gas plunge a small piece ( spongy plat9um1 & ! comb9ation ( ! two bodies w be in/antly br\ght ab\t1 mak+ a viol5t explosion4 ,make a small spiral ( plat9um r$-hot 9 ! flame ( a lamp1 hav+ susp5d$ x to a c>d2 !n plunge x quickly into a glass conta9+ e!r1 & y w see ! metallic spiral rema9 r$ = "s "t1 :ile 9 ! air x w\ld cool imm$iately4 ,?is ph5om5on is due to ! action ( oxidation :i* ! plat9um ex]cises ov] ! fumes ( e!r4 ,?is curi\s exp]im5t is kn[n "u ! "n ( ! lamp )\t a flame4 ,?is rem>kable oxidiz+ p[] ( plat9um1 :i* has n yet be5 expla9$1 0 =m]ly designat$ by ! title ( catalytic action4 ,b a phrase is n a !ory1 & x is always pref]able to av[ "o's ignorance ?an to simulate an app>5t k4 ,sci5ce is p[]ful en\gh to be able to express h] d\bts & unc]ta9ties boldly4 ,9 obs]v+ nature we f9d an exp]i5ce ( ?is1 & (t5 meet ) facts :i* may be put to pr(it1 & become useful 9 application2 nev]!less x is (t5 ! case t ! :y & ! :]e=e w = a long "t escape ! mo/ p5etrat+ eye & lucid intellig5ce4 ,x is true ! admirable applications ( sci5ce /rike u ) ! importance ( _! results1 & ! wond]ful inv5tions !y orig9ate2 b if !y turn to acc\nt ! obs]v$ facts ( nature1 :at d !y tea* u z to ! fir/ cause ( all ?+s1 ! :]e=e ( nature8--,almo/ no?+4 ,we mu/ humbly confess our p[]lessness1 & say ) d',alemb]t3 8,! encyclopdia is v abundant1 b :at ( t if x disc\rses ( :at we d n und]/&80 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cag4--;,discol\ration ( p]iw9kles by sulphuric acid4 ,,artificial ,,col\r+ ,,( ,,fl[]s4 ,9 a c\rse ( *emi/ry1 ! action ex]cis$ by sulphur\s acid on col\r$ vegetable matt] is prov$ by expos+ violets to ! influ5ce ( ?is gas1 :i* :it5s !m in/antane\sly4 ,sulphur\s acid1 by its dis-oxidat+ prop]ties1 de/roys ! col\r ( _m fl[]s1 su* z roses1 p]iw9kles1 etc4 ,! exp]im5t succe$s v readily by means ( ! little app>atus :i* we give 9 fig4 #cag4 ,we dissolve 9 a small vessel "s sulphur1 :i* ignites 9 contact ) air1 & gives rise1 by its comb9ation ) oxyg51 to sulphur\s acid2 ! capsule is cov]$ ) a conical *imney1 made out ( a ?9 %eet ( copp]1 & at ! op5+ at ! top ! fl[]s t are to be discol\r$ are plac$4 ,! action is v rapid1 & a few seconds only are necess>y to r5d] roses1 p]iw9kles1 & violets absolutely :ite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cah4--;,exp]im5t = turn+ columb9es a gre5 col\r ) ammoniacal e!r4 ,m4 ,filpol1 a di/+ui%$ savant1 has exhibit$ to ! memb]s ( ! ,sci5tific ,association1 ,p>is1 ! results :i* he obta9$ by subject+ fl[]s to ! influ5ce ( a mixture ( sulphuric e!r & "s drops ( ammonia2 he has %[n t1 "u ! influ5ce ( ?is liquid1 a great numb] ( violets or roses turn a deep gre54 ,we h rec5tly made on ?is subject a s]ies ( exp]im5ts :i* we w "h describe1 & :i* may be easily attempt$ by ^? ( our read]s :o are int]e/$ 9 ! "q4 ,"s common e!r is p\r$ into a glass1 & to x is add$ a small quantity ( liquid ammonia 7ab\t "o-t5? ( ! volume74 ,! fl[]s ) :i* x is desir$ to exp]im5t are !n plung$ into ! fluid 7fig4 #cah74 ,a numb] ( fl[]s1 ^: natural col\r is r$ or violet1 take in/antane\sly a bright gre5 t9t2 ^! are r$ g]anium1 violet1 p]iw9kle1 lilac1 r$ & p9k roses1 wall-fl[]1 ?yme1 small blue campanula1 fumet]1 myosotis1 & heliotrope4 ,o!r fl[]s1 ^: col\rs are n ( ! same %ade1 take diff]5t t9ts :5 9 contact ) ammoniacal e!r4 ,! upp] petal ( ! violet sweet-pea becomes d>k blue1 :il/ ! l[] petal turns a bright gre5 col\r4 ,! /reak$ c>nation becomes br[n & bright gre54 ,:ite fl[]s g5]ally turn yell[1 su* z ! :ite poppy1 ! v>iegat$ sn[-dragon1 :i* becomes yell[ & d>k violet1 ! :ite rose1 :i* takes a /raw col\r1 :ite columb9e1 camomile1 syr+a1 :ite daisy1 potatoe blossom1 :ite julian1 honeysuckle1 & :ite foxglove1 :i* 9 contact ) ammoniacal e!r assume m or less deep %ades ( yell[4 ,:ite snap-dragon becomes yell[ & d>k orange4 ,r$ g]anium turns blue 9 a v rem>kable fa%ion2 ) ! monkey-fl[] ! ammoniacal e!r only affects ! r$ spots1 :i* turn a br[ni% gre52 r$ snap-dragon turns a beautiful br[n2 val]ian takes a %ade ( grey2 & ! r$ corn-poppy assumes a d>k violet4 ,yell[ fl[]s are n *ang$ by ammoniacal e!r2 butt]cups1 m>igolds1 & yell[ snap-dragon pres]ve _! natural col\r4 ,leaves ( a r$ col\r are in/antly turn$ gre5 :5 plac$ 9 contact ) ammoniacal e!r4 ,! action ( ?is liquid is s rapid t x is easy to procure gre5 spots by p\r+ "h & !re a drop ( ! solution4 ,9 l mann] violet fl[]s1 su* z p]iw9kles1 c be spott$ ) :ite1 ev5 )\t ga!r+ !m4 ,we w complete our rem>ks on ?is subject ) a description ( exp]im5ts p]=m$ by ,m4 ,gabba 9 ,italy by means ( ammonia act+ on fl[]s4 ,m4 ,gabba simply us$ a plate1 9 :i* he p\r$ a c]ta9 quantity ( solution ( ammonia4 ,he plac$ on ! plate a funnel turn$ upside d[n1 9 ! tube ( :i* he arrang$ ! fl[]s on :i* he wi%$ to exp]im5t4 ,he !n f\nd t "u ! influ5ce ( ! ammonia ! blue1 violet1 & purple fl[]s became a beautiful gre51 r$ fl[]s black1 & :ite yell[1 etc4 ,! mo/ s+ul> *anges ( col\r are %[n by fl[]s :i* are compos$ ( diff]5t t9ts1 _! r$ /reaks turn+ gre51 ! :ite yell[1 etc4 ,ano!r curi\s example is t ( r$ & :ite fu*sias1 :i*1 ?r\gh ! action ( ammonia1 turn yell[1 blue1 & gre54 ,:5 fl[]s h be5 subject$ to ^! *anges ( col\r1 & aft]w>ds plung$ into pure wat]1 !y pres]ve _! new t9t = sev]al h\rs1 aft] :i* !y gradually return to _! natural col\r4 ,ano!r int]e/+ obs]vation1 due to ,m4 ,gabba1 is t a/]s1 :i* are naturally inodor\s1 acquire an agreeable aromatic od\r "u ! influ5ce ( ammonia4 ,a/]s ( a violet col\r become r$ :5 wett$ ) nitric acid mix$ ) wat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ^! same fl[]s are enclos$ 9 a wood5 box1 :]e !y are expos$ to ! fumes ( hydro*loric acid1 !y become1 9 six h\rs' "t1 a beautiful r$ col\r1 :i* !y pres]ve :5 plac$ 9 a dry1 %ady place1 aft] hav+ be5 prop]ly dri$4 ,hydro*loric acid has ! effect ( mak+ fl[]s r$ t h be5 r5d]$ gre5 by ! action ( ammonia1 & also alt]s _! appe>ance v s5sibly4 ,we may also m5tion1 9 conclusion1 t ammonia1 comb9$ ) e!r1 acts mu* m promptly ?an :5 employ$ alone4 ,,phosphoresc5ce4 ,artificial fl[]s are frequ5tly to be se5 prep>$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 :i* h ! prop]ty ( becom+ phosphoresc5t 9 d>kness1 :5 !y h be5 expos$ to ! action ( a ray ( light1 sol> or electric4 ,^! curi\s *emical objects are connect$ ) "s v int]e/+ ph5om5a & rem>kable exp]im5ts b little kn[n at ! pres5t "t1 to :i* we w n[ draw ! read]'s att5tion4 ,! faculty possess$ by c]ta9 bodies ( emitt+ light :5 plac$ 9 c]ta9 conditions1 is mu* m g5]al ?an is usually suppos$4 ,m4 ,edmond ,becqu]el1 to :om we owe a rem>kable "w on ?is subject1 divides ! ph5om5a ( phosphoresc5ce into five di/9ct classes3 #a4 ,phosphoresc5ce ?r\gh elevation ( temp]ature4 ,among ! sub/ances :i* exhibit ?is ph5om5on 9 a high degree we may m5tion c]ta9 diamonds1 col\r$ v>ieties ( fluoride ( calcium1 "s m9]als2 & sulphur1 kn[n "u ! "n ( artificial phosphorus1 :5 x has previ\sly be5 expos$ to ! action ( ! light4 #b4 ,phosphoresc5ce ?r\gh me*anical action4 ,?is is to be obs]v$ :5 we rub c]ta9 bodies toge!r1 or aga9/ a h>d sub/ance4 ,if we rub toge!r two qu>tz cry/als 9 ! d>k1 we p]ceive r$ sp>ks2 & :5 p\nd+ *alk or sug>1 !re is also an emission ( sp>ks4 #c4 ,phosphoresc5ce ?r\gh electricity4 ,?is is manife/$ by ! light accompany+ dis5gagem5t ( electricity1 & :5 gases & r>efi$ vap\rs transmit electric dis*>ges4 #d4 ,spontane\s ,phosphoresc5ce is obs]v$1 z e "o kn[s1 9 connection ) sev]al k9ds ( liv+ creatures1--gl[-worms1 noctilucids1 etc41 & simil> phosphoresc5t effects are produc$ also ) organic sub/ances1 animal or vegetable1 be=e putrefaction sets 94 ,x is manife/$ also at ! fl[]+ "t ( c]ta9 plants1 etc4 #e4 ,phosphoresc5ce ?r\gh insolation & ! action ( light4 8,x consi/s10 says ,m4 ,edmond ,becqu]el1 89 expos+ = "s in/ants to ! action ( ! sun1 or to t ( rays emanat+ f a p[]ful lum9\s s\rce1 c]ta9 m9]al or organic sub/ances1 :i* imm$iately become lum9\s1 & %9e 9 ! d>k ) a light1 ! col\r & brilliancy ( :i* dep5d on _! nature & physical "*2 ! light gradually dim9i%es 9 int5sity dur+ a p]iod v>y+ f "s seconds to sev]al h\rs4 ,:5 ^! sub/ances are expos$ anew to ! action ( light1 ! same effect is reproduc$4 ,! int5sity ( ! light emitt$ aft] insolation is always mu* less ?an t ( ! incid5tal light40 ,^! ph5om5a appe> to h be5 fir/ obs]v$ ) preci\s /ones2 !n1 9 #afjd1 9 calc9$ ,bologna /one1 & lat]1 9 a diamond by ,boyle1 9 #affc2 9 #afge x 0 notic$ 9 ,baudo9 phosphorus 7residuum ( ! calc9ation ( nitrate ( lime71 & m rec5tly /ill 9 connection ) o!r sub/ances :i* we w m5tion4 ,! sub/ances mo/ p[]fully influ5c$ by ! action ( light are sulphates ( calcium & b>ium1 sulphate ( /rontium1 c]ta9 k9ds ( diamonds1 & t v>iety ( fluoride ( calcium1 :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( *lorophane4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cai4--;,artificial fl[] coat$ ) phosphoresc5t p[d]1 expos$ to ! light ( magnesium wire4 ,phosphoresc5t sulphate ( calcium is prep>$ by calc9+ 9 an e>!nw>e crucible a mixture ( fl[]s ( sulphur & c>bonate ( lime4 ,b ! prep>ation only succe$s ) c>bonate ( lime ( a p>ticul> "*4 ,t obta9$ f ! calc9ation ( oy/] %ells produces v good results4 ,?ree p>ts ( ?is sub/ance is mix$ ) "o "p ( fl[]s ( sulphur1 & is made r$-hot 9 a crucible cov]$ 9 f contact ) ! air4 ,! sub/ance ?us obta9$ gives1 aft] its insolation1 a yell[ light 9 ! d>k4 ,! %ells ( oy/]s1 h[ev]1 are n always pure1 & ! result is sometimes n v satisfactory2 x is !re=e bett] to make use ( "s sub/ance ^: composition is m to be reli$ on4 8,:5 we desire to prep>e a phosphoresc5t sulphate ) lime1 or c>bonate ( lime10 says ,m4 ,e4 ,becqu]el1 8! mo/ suitable proportions are ^? :i* 9 a hundr$ p>ts ( ! sub/ance are compos$ ( eighty to a hundr$ ( fl[]s ( sulphur 9 ! fir/ case1 & =ty-eight to a hundr$ 9 ! second1 t is1 :5 we employ ! quantity ( sulphur :i* w be necess>y = burn+ ) c>bonate ( lime to produce a monosulphate4#bj ,x is necess>y to h reg>d to ! elevation ( ! temp]ature 9 ! prep>ation4 ,by us+ lime procur$ f arragonite1 & r$uc+ ! temp]ature bel[ five hundr$ degrees = a suffici5t "t = ! reaction betwe5 ! sulphur & lime to take place1 ! excess ( sulphur is elim9at$1 & we h a feebly lum9\s mass1 ( a blui% t9t2 if ?is mass is rais$ to a temp]ature ( eight hundr$ or n9e hundr$ degrees1 x w exhibit a v bright light40 ,sulphate ( calcium possesses diff]5t phosphoresc5t prop]ties accord+ to ! nature ( ! salt :i* has s]v$ to produce ! c>bonate ( lime employ$4 ,if we trans=m m>ble into nitrate ( lime1 by dissolv+ x 9 wat] & nitric acid1 & =m a precipitate ) c>bonate ( ammonium1 & use ! c>bonate ( lime ?us obta9$ 9 ! prep>ation ( sulphate ( calcium1 we h a product :i* gives a phosphoresc5ce ( a violet-r$ col\r4 ,if ! c>bonate ( lime us$ is obta9$ f *loride ( calcium precipitat$ by c>bonate ( ammonia1 ! phosphoresc5ce is yell[4 ,if we submit c>bonate ( lime1 prep>$ ) lime wat] & c>bonic acid1 to ! influ5ce ( sulphur1 we obta9 a sulphur giv+ a phosphoresc5t light ( v pure violet4 ,c>bonate ( lime obta9$ by =m+ a precipitate ( cry/alliz$ *loride ( calcium ) diff]5t alkal9e c>bonates also gives satisfactory results4 ,lum9\s sulphates ( /rontium may be obta9$1 l ^? ( calcium1 by ! action ( sulphur on /rontia or ! c>bonate ( ?is base1 by ! r$uction ( sulphates ( /rontia ) *>coal4 ,blue & gre5 %ades are ! mo/ common4 ,sulphates ( b>ium also pres5t v rem>kable ph5om5a ( phosphoresc5ce2 b to obta9 v lum9\s int5sity a high] temp]ature is ne$$ ?an ) ! o!r sub/ances m5tion$1 & we h ! same result :5 we r$uce native sulphate ( b>yta ) *>coal2 t is to say1 :5 ! reaction takes place :i* produces ! phosphorus =m]ly kn[n z phosphorus ( ,bologna4 ,prep>ations obta9$ f b>yta h a phosphoresc5ce v>y+ f orange-r$ to gre54 ,! prep>ation ( su* sub/ances z we h j enum]at$ af=d an easy explanation ( ! me?od ( manufactur+ ! lum9\s fl[]s :i* we describ$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is *apt]4 ,we obta9 "s artificial fl[]s1 cov] !m ) "s liquid gum1 spr9kle ) phosphoresc5t sulphur1 & let !m dry4 ,! pulv]ul5t matt] !n adh]es to !m securely1 & x is only necess>y to expose ! fl[]s ?us prep>$ to ! light ( ! sun1 or ! rays emanat+ f magnesium wire 9 a /ate ( combu/ion 7fig4 #cai71 to produce imm$iate phosphoresc5t effects4 ,if tak5 into a d>k room 7fig4 #cbj7 !y %9e ) great brilliancy1 & give (f v exquisite col\r$ rays4 ,phosphoresc5t sulphates are us$ also 9 trac+ names or designs on a pap] surface1 etc41 & x c easily be conceiv$ t su* exp]im5ts may be inf9itely v>i$ accord+ to ! pleasure ( ! exp]im5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbj4--,phosphoresc5t fl[] emitt+ light 9 a d>k room4 ,b let u ask ourselves if ^! sub/ances are n capable ( be+ put to m s]i\s uses1 & ( be+ class$ among useful products4 ,to ?is we c reply v decid$ly 9 ! affirmative4 ,) phosphoresc5t matt] we c obta9 lum9\s faces = clocks plac$ 9 d>k1 obscure spots1 & x is n impossible to use x = mak+ sign-bo>ds = %ops1 or numb]s ( h\ses1 :i* c be lit up at night4 ,pr(essor ,norton ev5 goes s f> z to propose 9 ! 8,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute10 n only coat+ ! walls ( rooms ) ^! phosphoresc5t sub/ances1 b also ! fronts ( h\ses1 :5 he consid]s x w\ld be possible to d away entirely ) /reet lights1 ! h\se-fronts absorb+ suffici5t light dur+ ! day to rema9 lum9\s ! :ole ( ! night4 ,,*emi/ry ,,appli$ ,,to ,,sleight ,,( ,,h&4 ,:ile physics has provid$ ! species ( ent]ta9m5t call$ 8sleight ( h&0 ) a numb] ( int]e/+ effects1 *emi/ry has only (f]$ x v feeble contributions4 ,rob]t ,h\d9 =m]ly made use ( electricity to move ! h&s ( 8 magic clock1 & ! electric magnet 9 mak+ an iron box s heavy in/antane\sly t no "o c\ld lift x4 ,rob9 has made use ( optics to produce ! curi\s spectacle ( ! decapitat$ man1 spectres1 etc4 ,^? p]sons :o are fond ( ?is k9d ( amusem5t may1 h[ev]1 borr[ f *emi/ry "s orig9al exp]im5ts1 :i* c be easily und]tak51 & ,i w conclude ?is *apt] by describ+ a juggl+ feat :i* ,i h se5 rec5tly execut$ be=e a num]\s audi5ce by a v clev] conjuror4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cba4--;,amus+ exp]im5t 9 *emi/ry4 ,! op]ator took a glass t 0 p]fectly transp>5t1 & plac$ x on a table1 ann\nc+ t he %\ld cov] ! glass ) a sauc]1 & !n1 retir+ to "s di/ance1 w\ld fill x ) ! smoke f a cig>ette4 ,& ?is he c>ri$ out exactly1 /&+ smok+ 8 cig>ette 9 ! backgr\nd1 :ile ! glass1 z ?\gh by en*antm5t1 sl[ly fill$ ) ! fumes ( ! smoke4 ,?is trick is easily accompli%$4 ,x is only necess>y to p\r previ\sly into ! glass two or ?ree drops ( hydro*loric acid1 & to moi/5 ! bottom ( ! sauc] ) a few drops ( ammonia4 ,^! two liquids are unp]ceiv$ by ! spectators1 b z soon z ! sauc] is plac$ ov] ! glass1 !y unite 9 =m+ :ite fumes ( hydro*lorate ( ammonia1 :i* be> a complete resemblance to ! smoke ( tobacco4 ,?is exp]im5t excit$ ! greate/ a/oni%m5t among ! spectators pres5t on ! occasion1 b und]/&+ some?+ ( *emi/ry myself1 ,i easily guess$ at ! solution ( ! my/]y4 ,! same result is obta9$ 9 a c\rse ( *emi/ry 9 a m simple mann]1 & )\t any attempt at trick]y1 by plac+ ! op5+ ( a bottle ( ammonia aga9/ ! op5+ ( ano!r bottle conta9+ hydro*loric acid4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,x is ! same ) a numb] ( o!r common products1 su* z clay1 s&/one1 etc41 ! composition ( :i* *emi/ry has reveal$4 ,argil1 or clay1 slate1 & s*i/ all conta9 a metal--alum9ium1 :i* has become mo/ valuable = indu/rial purposes4 ,/ones = build+ are compos$ ( a metal comb9$ ) c>bon & oxyg5--calcium2 s&/one is compos$ ( silicium1 a metallic body unit$ ) oxyg52 & sulphate ( magnesia1 :i* ent]s into ! composition ( a purgative dr9k1 also conta9s a metal--magnesium4 #bj ,^! sub/ances mu/ be f9ely p[d]$ & ?or\ghly mix$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,*emi/ry ,,& ,,al*emy--,,*emical ,,comb9ations--,,! ,,atmosph]ic ,,air4 ,we h 9 ! =ego+ pages giv5 "s exp]im5ts1 & consid]$ sev]al ( ! metals1 b !re are num]\s v int]e/+ subjects /ill rema9+2 inde$1 ! numb] is s great t we c only pick & *oose4 ,all p are desir\s to he> some?+ ( ! atmosph]e1 ( wat]1 & ! e>?2 & z we proce$ to speak ( cry/als & m9]als1 & s on to geology1 we %all le>n a good deal respect+ our globe--its con=mation & con/itu5ts4 ,b ! atmosph]ic air mu/ be treat$ ( fir/4 ,?is w lead u to speak ( oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,wat] w s]ve to introduce hydrog5 ) a few exp]im5ts1 & ?us we %all h cov]$ a good deal ( gr\nd on our way t[>ds v>i\s o!r elem5ts 9 daily use & appreciation4 ,n[ let u beg9 ) a few words conc]n+ ,,*emi/ry itself4 ,at ! v outset we are oblig$ to grope 9 ! d>k aft] ! orig9 ( ?is fasc9at+ sci5ce4 ,%em1 or 8,*em10 ! son ( ,noah1 has be5 cr$it$ ) its introduction1 &1 at any rate1 magicians 7 9 ,egypt 9 ! "t ( ,moses1 & ! lawgiv] is /at$ by anci5t writ]s to h ga9$ 8 k f ! ,egyptians4 ,b we ne$ n pursue t l9e ( argum5t4 ,9 m mod]n times ! se>* = ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one & ! ,elixir ( ,life1 :i* respectively turn$ ev]y?+ to gold1 & be/[$ long life ^u ! =tunate f9d]1 occupi$ _m p1 :o 9 _! rese>*es no d\bt discov]$ ! g]ms ( ! popul> sci5ce ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,al*emy1 :ile ! pursuit took a firm hold ( ! popul> imag9ation = c5turies2 & ev5 n[ *emi/ry is ! mo/ fav\r$ sci5ce1 because ( its adaptability to all m9ds1 = x holds pla9 & simple tru?s = our e-day exp]i5ce to confirm1 :ile x leads u /ep by /ep into ! inf9ite1 pleas+ u ) exp]im5ts z we proce$4 ,al*emy 0 practis$ by num]\s quacks 9 anci5t times & ! ,middle ,ages1 b all its pr(essors 7 n quacks4 ,a/rology & al*emy 7 associat$ by ! ,arabians4 ,geb] 0 a philosoph] :o devot$ himself entirely to al*emy1 & :o liv$ 9 ! ye> #gcj ,a4,d4 ,he fanci$ gold w\ld cure all disease1 & he did actually discov] corrosive sublimate1 nitric acid1 & nitrate ( silv]4 ,to give ev5 a li/ ( ! not$ al*emi/s & magicians w\ld fill too mu* space4 ,raymond ,sully1 ,p>acelsus1 ,fri> ,bacon1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,flamel1 ,b]n>d ( ,treves1 ,doctor ,dee1 ) 8 assi/ant ,kelly1 & 9 lat] times ,jean ,delisle1 & ,joseph ,balsamo 7,caglio/ro71 :o 0 "o ( ! mo/ notori\s p]sons 9 ,europe ab\t "o hundr$ ye>s ago 7#agfe-aghi71 are names tak5 at r&om2 & ) ! old] philosoph]s *emi/ry 0 an all-absorb+ occupation--n = gold1 b k4 ,! revelation 0 sl[4 ,on ! temp]ature ( bodies ! old arts ( heal+ 7 bas$--= *emi/ry & m$ic9e 7 allies4 ,! elem5ts1 we read1 exi/$ on ! supposition 8t bodies 7 hot or cold1 dry or moi/02 & on ?is di/9ction = a long "t 80 bas$ ! practice ( m$ic9e40 ,! doctr9e ( ! 8?ree pr9ciples0 ( exi/5ce sup]s$$ ?is1--! pr9ciples be+ salt1 m]cury1 & sulphur4 ,metals _h be5 reg>d$ z liv+ bodies1 gases z s\ls or spirits4 ,! idea rema9$ t ! =m ( ! sub/ance gave x its "*4 ,acid 0 po9t$2 sweet ?+s 7 r\nd4 ,*emi/ry1 !n1 has _h a great deal to cont5d aga9/4 ,f ! "t ( ! ,egyptians & ,*9ese1 :o 7 evid5tly acqua9t$ ) v>i\s processes1--dye+1 etc41--! sci5ce filt]$ ?r\gh ! al*emi/s to ,bee*] & ,/ahl1 & !n ! pr9ciple ( aff9ity--a disposition to comb9e--0 promulgat$1 supplem5t$ 9 #afgd by ,may[1 by ! !ory ( divorce or analysis4 ,he conclud$ t :]e union c\ld be effect$1 sep>ation 0 equally possible4 ,9 #agah ! fir/ 8,table ( ,aff9ities0 0 produc$4 ,aff9ity _h be5 %[n to be elective1 = ,may[ po9t$ out t fix$ salts *ose "o acid r ?an ano!r4 ,ri*t] & ,dalton made great advances4 ,be=e !m ,hales1 ,black1 ,prie/ley1 ,s*eele1 ,lavoisi]1 & num]\s o!rs p5etrat$ ! my/]ies ( ! sci5ce ^: hi/ory has be5 pleasantly writt5 by m ?an "o au?or :o we h n be5 able to consult1 & h no space to d m ?an indicate4 ,9 lat] days ,f>aday1 ,de la ,rive1 ,roscoe1 & _m o!rs h r5d]$ *emi/ry mu* m popul>1 :ile !y h add$ to its treasures4 ,! /ory ( ! progress ( *emi/ry w\ld fill a l>ge volume1 & we h regretfully to put aside ! introduction & pass on4 ,be=e proce$+ to inve/igate ! elem5ts1 a few words conc]n+ ! g5]al t]ms us$ 9 *emi/ry w be b5eficial to ! read]4 ,if we look at ! li/ ( ! elem5ts1 pp4 #cjh-i1 we %all see v>i\s t]m9ations4 ,"s are app>5tly nam$ f places1 "s f _! *>act]i/ics4 ,metals lately discov]$ by ! spectroscope 7& rec5tly7 end 9 ium2 "s end 9 8ine10 "s 9 8on40 ,z f> z possible 9 late ye>s a c]ta9 sy/em ( nom5clature has be5 adh]$ to1 b ! old popul> names h n be5 int]f]$ )4 ,:5 elem5ts comb9e toge!r 9 c]ta9 proportions ( ea* !y receive c]ta9 names4 ,! foll[+ table w expla9 ! t]ms us$2 = in/ance1 we f9d t-- ,comp\nds ( ,oxyg5 are t]m$ ,oxides1 z oxide ( copp]4 0 ,hydrog5 0 ,hydrides1 z hydride ( potassium4 0 ,*lor9e 0 ,*lorides1 z *loride ( sodium4 0 ,nitrog5 0 ,nitrides1 z nitride ( boron4 0 ,brom9e 0 ,bromides1 z bromide ( potassium4 0 ,iod9e 0 ,iodides1 z iodide ( potassium4 0 ,sulphur 0 ,sulphides1 or ,sulphurets1 z sulphuret ( lead4 0 ,sel5ium 0 ,sel5ides1 z sel5ide ( m]cury4 0 ,c>bon 0 ,c>bides1 or z c>bide ( nitrog51 ,c>burets1 & s on4 ,! above examples ref] to ! union 9 s+le proportion ( ea*1 & are call$ ,b9>y ,comp\nds4 ,:5 m ?an "o atom ( ea* elem5t exi/s 9 diff]5t proportions we h diff]5t t]ms to express su* union4 ,if "o atom ( oxyg5 be 9 ! comp\nd x is call$ a 8monoxide0 or 8protoxide02 two atoms ( oxyg5 9 comb9ation is t]m$ 8dioxide0 or 8b9oxide02 ?ree1 8trioxide10 or 8tritoxide02 f\r is ! 8tetroxide0 or 8p]-oxide10 etc4 ,:5 m ?an "o atom1 b n two atoms is involv$1 we speak ( ! sesqui-oxide 7"o-&-a-half71--8oxide0 be+ int]*angeable = 8sulphide0 or 8*loride10 accord+ to ! elem5t4 ,!re are o!r di/9ctions adopt$ :5 metals =m two s]ies ( comb9ations1 su* z ous & ic1 :i* apply1 z w be se51 to acids4 ,sulphuric & sulphurous acids1 nitric & nitrous acid are famili> examples4 ,9 ^! cases we %all f9d t 9 ! acids end+ 9 8ous0 oxyg5 is pres5t 9 less quantity ?an 9 ! acids end+ 9 ic4 ,! symbolic =m w prove ?is directly1 ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 be+ writt5 bel[1 ,sulphur\s ,acid ,h#b ,,s#c4 ,nitr\s ,acid ,,hno#b4 ,sulphuric ,acid ,h#b,,s#d4 ,nitric ,acid ,,hno#c4 ,:5ev] a /rong] comp\nd ( oxyg5 is discov]$ ?an t d5om9at$ by ic1 *emi/s adopt ! plan ( dubb+ x ! p] 7 ov]71 z p]-*loric acid1 :i* possesses f\r atoms ( oxyg5 7,h,cl,o#d71 *loric acid be+ ,h,cl,o#c4 ,! opposite ,greek t]m1 7hupo1 bel[71 is us$ = an acid ) less ?an two atoms ( oxyg51 & 9 books is writt5 8hypo0-*lor\s 7= in/ance74 ,c>e has be5 tak5 to di/+ui% betwe5 ! high] & l[]2 = 8hyp]0 is us$ 9 ,engli% to d5ote excess1 z hyp]-critical2 & hypo might to a read] unacqua9t$ ) ! d]ivation convey j ! opposite mean+ to :at is int5d$4 ,:ile speak+ ( ^! t]m9ations we may %[ h[ ^! di/9ctive end+s are c>ri$ out4 ,we %all f9d1 if we pursue ! subject1 t :5 we h a salt ( any acid end+ 9 ic ! salt t]m9ates 9 8ate40 ,simil>ly ! salts ( acids end+ 9 ous1 end 9 8ite40 ,to cont9ue ! same example we h-- ,sulphurous ,acid1 :i* =ms salts call$ ,sulphites4 ,sulphuric ,acid1 0 0 ,sulphates4 ,besides ^! are sulphides1 :i* are results ( ! unions or comp\nds ( elem5t>y bodies4 ,sulphites are m complicat$ unions ( ! comp\nds4 ,sulphates are ! salts =m$ by ! union ( sulphuric acid ) bases4 ,sulphides or sulphurets are comp\nds 9 :i* sulphur =ms ! electro-negative elem5t1 & sulphites are salts =m$ by ! union ( sulphurous acids ) bases1 or by _! action ^u !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbb4--;,comb9ations ( elem5ts4 ,! symbolical nom5clature ( ! *emi/ is worse ?an ,greek to ! un9itiat$4 ,we frequ5tly see 9 s-call$ popul> *emical books a numb] ( hi]oglyphics & comb9ations ( lett]s ) figures v difficult to deciph]1 mu* less to int]pret4 ,^! symbols take ! place ( ! names ( ! *emical comp\nds4 ,?us wat] is made up ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 c]ta9 proportions2 t is1 two ( hydrog5 to "o ( oxyg54 ,! symbolic read+ is simple1 ,h#b,o1 ! oxide ( hydrog54 ,potassium aga9 m+les ) oxyg54 ,potassium is ,k 9 our li/2 ,,ko is oxide ( potassium 7pota%74 ,let u look into ?is a little clos]4 ,! union ( "o p>ticle ( a simple body ) a p>ticle ( ano!r simple body c be easily und]/ood2 b1 z we h se51 x is possible to h sub/ances consi/+ ( f\r or five diff]5t p>ticles1 ?\gh ! great] numb] ( *emical comb9ations consi/ ( two or ?ree dissimil> ones4 ,9 ! diagram 7fig4 #cbb7 we h "s possible comb9ations4 ,9 ^! comb9ations we may h "o p>ticle ( a 9 comb9ation ) "o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r1 or five ( b1 & _m p>ticles ( a c unite ) v>i\s molecules ( b4 ,suppose we h oxyg5 & sulphur comp\nds z foll[s3-- ,?us !re are ?ree diff]5t comp\nds ( ^! two elem5ts--,,s1 ,,s#b1 ,,s#c 7)\t wat]74 ,illu/ration3 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 ,fig4 #cbc4-7a7 ,hydrosulphur\s ,acid4 7#b7 ,sulphur\s ,acid4 7#c7 ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,a comp\nd body may comb9e ) ano!r comp\nd body1 & ?is makes a complicat$ comp\nd4 ,suppose we h a mixture ( sulphuric acid & pota%4 ,we h a sulphate ( potassium 7,k#b,,s#d7 & comb9ations ( ^! comb9ations may likewise be =m$4 ,we mu/ read ^! symbols by ! light ( ! comb9+ weights giv5 9 ! table1 & !n we %all f9d ! weight ( oxyg5 or o!r elem5ts 9 comb9ation4 ,?us :5 we see a c]ta9 symbol 7,hg4,s = in/ance71 we und]/& t !y =m a comp\nd includ+ s _m p>ts ( m]cury & s _m ( sulphur1 :i* is kn[n z v]milion4 ,hg4,o is oxide ( m]cury1 & by ref]5ce to ! table ( ,atomic ,weights1 we f9d m]cury is ,hg41 & its comb9+ weight is #bjj2 :ile oxyg5 is ,o1 & its weight is #af4 ,?us we see at once h[ mu* ( ea* elem5t is conta9$ 9 oxide ( m]cury1 & ?is proportion nev] v>ies2 !re mu/ be #bjj ( "o & #af ( ! o!r1 by weight1 to produce ! oxide4 ,s if ! oxyg5 has to be sep>at$ f x1 ! sum ( #baf p>ts mu/ be tak5 to procure ! #af p>ts ( oxyg54 ,:5 we see1 z above1 ,o#b or ,o#c1 we "k t ! weight mu/ be calculat$ twice or ?ree times1 ,o be+ #af2 ,o#b is !re=e #cb p>ts by weight4 ,s :5 we h f\nd :at ! comp\nds consi/ (1 we c write !m symbolically ) ease4 ,,composition ,,( ,,! ,,atmosph]ic ,,air4 ,we h already communicat$ a v>iety ( facts conc]n+ ! air4 ,we h se5 t x possesses pressure & weight4 ,we call ! gase\s envelope ( ! e>? ! atmosph]e1 & we are ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t o!r planets possess an atmosph]e also1 ?\gh ( a diff]5t nature to ours4 ,we h se5 h[ easy x is to weigh ! air1 b we may repeat ! exp]im5t4 7,see illu/ration1 fig4 #de1 page #ej47 ,we %all f9d t a p]fectly empty glass globe w balance ! weights 9 ! scale-pan2 admit ! air1 & ! glass globe w s9k4 ,s air possesses weight4 ,we h m5tion$ ! ,magdeburg hemisph]es1 ! b>omet]1 ! air-pump1 & ! height & ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e h be5 indicat$4 ,! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e decreases z we asc5d2 = ! fir/ sev5 miles ! d5sity dim9i%es "o-f\r? t ( ! air at ! sea-level1 & s on = e succe$+ sev54 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! equal1 if enorm\s1 pressure ex]cis$ 9 e direction1 we d n p]ceive ! inconv5i5ce1 b if ! air 7 remov$ f inside ( a drum1 ! p>*m5t w\ld quickly collapse4 ,we feel ! air :5 we move rapidly4 ,we brea! ! air1 & t /atem5t br+s u to consid] ! composition ( ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 *emically speak+1 may v>y a little 7z comp>$ ) ! :ole mass7 9 consequ5ce ( *anges :i* are cont9ually tak+ place1 b to all int5ts & purposes ! air is compos$ z foll[s1 9 #ajj p>ts3 ,nitrog5 #gi p>ts4 ,oxyg5 #bj 0 ,c>bonic ,acid 4#jd 0 ) m9ute quantities ( o!r +r$i5ts1 su* z ammonia1 iod9e1 c>bonett$ hydrog51 hydro*loric acid1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 nitric acid1 c>bonic oxide1 & du/ p>ticles1 z visible 9 ! sunbeams1 add$4 ,! true composition ( ! atmosph]e 0 n kn[n till ,lavoisi] demon/rat$ t x consi/$ ( two gases1 "o ( :i* 0 ! vital fluid1 or oxyg51 discov]$ by ,prie/ley4 ,to ! o!r gas ,lavoisi] gave ! "n ( ,azote1--an enemy ( life1--because x caus$ dea? if inhal$ alone4 ,! c>bonic acid 9 ! air v>ies v mu*1 & 9 close1 heat$1 & cr[d$ rooms increases to a l>ge quantity1 :i* causes lassitude & heada*e4 ,we c easily prove ! exi/5ce ( c>bonic acid gas z exhal$ f ! lungs4 ,suppose we take a glass & fill x p>tly ) cle> lime-wat]2 brea! ?r\gh a glass tube into ! wat] 9 ! glass1 & v quickly y w p]ceive t ! lime-wat] is becom+ cl\dy & turbid4 ,?is cl\d9ess is due to ! pres5ce ( *alk1 :i* has be5 produc$ by ! action ( ! c>bonic acid gas 9 ! lime-wat]4 ,?is is a well kn[n & always int]e/+ exp]im5t1 because x leads up to ! vital "q ( our exi/5ce1 & ! functions ( brea?+ & liv+4 ,a popul> writ] once wrote a book entitl$1 8,is ,life ,wor? ,liv+80 & a witty comm5tator repli$ to ! impli$ "q by say+1 8,x dep5ds ^u ! liv]40 ,?is 0 felt to be true by _m p :o suff]1 b ! sci5tific man w g f>!r1 & tell y x dep5ds ^u ! air y brea!1 & on ! c>bonic acid y c raise to create heat1--animal heat1--:i* is s ess5tial to our well-be+4 ,we are always burn+2 a furnace is )9 u1 nev] ceas+ to burn )\t visible combu/ion4 ,we are g5]at+ heat by means ( ! blood4 ,we "k t we inhale air into ! lungs1 & probably are aw>e t ! air s receiv$ p>ts ) ! oxyg5 to r5ew ! blood4 ,! nitrog5 dilutes ! oxyg51 = if we inhal$ a less-mix$ air we %\ld ei!r be burnt up or become lunatics1 z light-head$ z :5 inhal+ 8laugh+-gas40 ,?is beautifully graduat$ mixture is tak5 into our bodies1 ! oxyg5 r5ews ! blood & gives x its bright r$ col\r2 ! c>bon :i* exi/s 9 all our bodies is cold & dead :5 n s vivifi$ by oxyg54 ,! c>bonic acid giv5 (f produces heat1 & our bodies are w>m4 ,b :5 ! action ceases we become cold1 we die away1 & cease to live4 ,man's life exemplifies a tap] burn+2 ! c>bon wa/e is consum$ z ! wax is1 & :5 ! c&le burns away--x dies6 ,x is a beautiful /udy1 full ( sugge/iv5ess to all :o c>e to /udy ! great facts ( ,nature1 :i* works by ! same means 9 all matt]4 ,we w ref] to plants pres5tly1 aft] hav+ prov$ by exp]im5t ! exi/5ce ( nitrog5 9 ! air4 ,ru!r=d exp]im5t$ v cruelly ^u a bird1 :i* he plac$ b5ea? a glass %ade1 & !re let x rema9 9 ! c>bonic acid exhal$ f its lungs1 till ! oxyg5 be+ at l5g? all consum$ by ! bird1 x di$4 ,:5 ! atmosph]e _h be5 *emically purifi$ by a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 ano!r bird 0 introduc$1 b ?\gh x liv$ = "s "t1 x did n exi/ s long z ! fir/4 ,aga9 ! air 0 depriv$ ( ! c>bonic acid1 & a ?ird bird 0 introduc$4 ,! exp]im5t 0 ?us repeat$1 till at l5g? a bird 0 plac$ b5ea? ! receiv]1 & x p]i%$ at once4 ,?is is at once a cruel & clumsy me?od ( mak+ an exp]im5t1 :i* c be m pleasantly & satisfactorily practis$ by burn+ "s sub/ance 9 ! air b5ea? ! glass4 ,phosphorus1 hav+ a great aff9ity = oxyg51 is usually *os54 ,! exp]im5t c be p]=m$ z foll[s ) a tap]1 b ! phosphorus is a bett] expon5t4 ,let u take a %all[ bas9 ) "s wat] 9 x1 a cork or small plate float+ ^u ! wat]1 & 9 ! plate a piece ( phosphorus4 ,we mu/ be c>eful h[ we h&le phosphorus1 = x has a habit1 well kn[n1 b sometimes =gott5 by amateur *emi/s1 ( sudd5ly tak+ fire4 ,light ?is piece ( phosphorus1--a small piece w d if ! j> be ( av]age 8%ade0 size1--& place ! glass ov] x1 z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cbe74 ,! smoke w quickly spread 9 ! j>1 & ! entry ( air be+ prev5t$1 because ! j> is re/+ "u wat]1 phosphoric acid w be =m$1 & ! oxyg5 !reby consum$4 ,! wat]1 mean:ile1 w rise 9 ! j>1 ! pressure ( ! air be+ remov$4 ,! burn+ phosphorus w soon g out1 & :5 ! glass is cool1 y w be able to asc]ta9 :at is inside ! j>4 ,put a light$ tap] und]nea?1 & x w g out4 ,! tap] w\ld n g out be=e ! phosphorus 0 burnt 9 ! glass1 & s n[ we p]ceive we h azote 9 ! receptacle--t is1 nitrog54 ,! o!r1 ! con/itu5t ( our atmosph]e1 c>bonic acid1 z we h se51 is v injuri\s to ! life ( animals1 & z e animal brea!s x out into ! air1 :at becomes ( x8 ,:]e does all ?is enorm\s volume ( c>bonic acid1 ! quantities ( ?is poison :i* are daily & nightly exhal$1 :]e d !y all g to8 ,we may be sure nature has provid$ = ! safe disposal ( x all4 ,n only because we live & move ab\t /ill1--& ( c\rse t is a pro(1--b because nature always has a comp5sat+ law4 ,rememb] no?+ is wa/$2 n ev5 ! refuse1 poison\s air we get rid ( f our lungs4 ,:]e does x g8 ,illu/ration3 #cbd4--,ru!r=d's exp]im5t4 ,x goes to n\ri% ! plants & trees & vegetables t we delight to look ^u & to eat ! fruit (4 ,?us ! vegetable _w =ms a l9k betwe5 ! animals & ! m9]als4 ,vegetables obta9 food1 s to speak1 & n\ri%m5t f wat]1 ammonia1 & c>bonic acid1 all comp\nd bodies1 b inorganic4 ,wat] consi/s ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 c>bonic acid ( c>bon & oxyg51 & ammonia ( hydrog5 & nitrog54 ,wat] & ammonia are pres5t 9 ! air2 s are oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,wat] falls 9 ! =m ( ra91 dew1 etc4 ,s 9 ! atmosph]e ar\nd u we f9d ne>ly e necess>y = plant-life2 & 9 ! gr\nd1 :i* supplies "s metallic oxides = _! use1 we f9d ! rema9d]4 ,f ! air1 !n1 ! plant d]ives its life4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbe--;,draw+ ! oxyg5 f air by combu/ion4 ,! vegetable k+dom 9 turn gives all animals _! food4 ,?is y w see at a glance is true4 ,c]ta9ly animals live on animals4 ,man & wild] animals live on ! bea/s ( ! field 9 a measure1 b ^? bea/s d]ive _! n\ri%m5t f vegetables--! vegetable k+dom4 ,s we live on ! vegetable k+dom1 & x sep>ates ! c>bonic acid f ! air1 & absorbs x4 ,:at we d n want x takes4 ,:at we want x gives4 ,vegetables give out oxyg51 & we consume x gladly4 ,we ?r[ away c>bonic acid1 & ! plants take x gre$ily2 & ?us ! atmosph]e is reta9$ pure = our use4 ,we c1 if desirable1 prove t plants absorb c>bonic acid & give out oxyg5 by plac+ leaves ( a plant 9 wat]1 hold+ ! acid 9 solution1 & let ! sun %9e ^u !m4 ,be=e long we %all f9d t ! c>bonic acid has disappe>$1 & t oxyg5 has come into ! wat]4 ,c>bonic acid is suffici5tly heavy to be p\r$ f "o vessel to ano!r2 & if we h obta9$ "s 9 a glass1 we c ext+ui% a tap] by p\r+ ! invisible gas on to ! light$ tap]1 :5 x w be imm$iately ext+ui%$4 ,f ! =ego+ obs]vations x w be p]ceiv$ h[ v desirable x is t v5tilation %\ld be att5d$ to4 ,p close up w9d[s & doors & fireplaces1 & g to b$ & sleep4 ,9 ! morn+ !y compla9 ( heada*e & lassitude2 !y wond] :at is ! matt]1 & :y ! *ildr5 are n well4 ,simply because !y h be5 rebrea?+ ! c>bonic acid4 ,g into a clos$ railway c>riage :i* is ne>ly fill$ 7& x is a/oni%+ to u h[ p c be s fooli% z to close e outlet71 & y w recoil 9 disgu/4 ,^! travell]s %ut ! v5tilators & w9d[s 8because ( ! cold40 ,a v small ap]ture w v5tilate a railway c>riage2 b a close c>riage is sick5+ & en]vat+1 z ^! k9d ( travell]s f9d out by ! "t !y rea* _! j\rney's end4 ,air 0 giv5 u to brea! at night z well z by day2 & ?\gh f man's acts or omissions !re may be circum/ances 9 :i* 8night0 air may affect ! heal?1 we ma9ta9 t air is no m injuri\s naturally ?an 8day0 air4 ,cold] x may be1 b any air at night is 8night0 air1 9 or out ( doors at night2 & we are c]ta9 t night air 9 itself nev] hurt any heal?y p]son4 ,x is n nature's plan to de/roy1 b to save4 ,if a p]son delicate 9 con/itution gets hot1 & comes out into a cold] atmosph]e1 & defy nature 9 t way1 he 7or %e7 mu/ take ! consequ5ces4 ,b air & v5tilation 7n draught7 are necess>ies ( heal?1 & to say !y injure is to accuse nature falsely4 ,!re are _m impurities 9 ! air 9 cities1 & 9 c\ntry places sometimes1 b su* impurities are ow+ to man's acts & omissions4 ,) av]age sanit>y arrangem5ts & appliances 9 a neighb\rhood no "o ne$ be afraid to brea! fre% air night or day2 & :ile _m invalids h1 we believe1 be5 ret>d$ 9 recov]y f be+ kept 9 a close room1 hundr$s w be b5efit$ by pl5ty ( fre% air4 ,we %\ld n s insi/ ^u ^! pla9 & simple tru?s 7 !re n s _m individuals :o ?9k x b5eficial to close up e av5ue by :i* air c ent]1 & :o !n feel ill & out ( spirits1 blam+ ev]y?+ b _! own %ort-sight$ness = ! effect ( _! own acts4 ,an in* or two ( a w9d[ may be op5 at night 9 a room1 z ! *imney regi/] %\ld be always fully up 9 b$rooms4 ,:5 !re are fires ! draught supplies fre% air to ! room ) suffici5t rapidity4 ,b _m seaside j\rneys might be avoid$ if fre% air 7 insi/$ on at home4 ,!re is ano!r & an important con/itu5t ( ! atmosph]e call$ ,,ozone1 :i* is v sup]ior oxyg51 or oxyg5 9 :at is t]m$ ! 8,allotropic0 /ate1 & is di/antly relat$ to electricity1 inasmu* z x c be produc$ by an electrical dis*>ge4 ,?is p>tly acc\nts = ! fre%ness 9 ! air aft] a ?und]/orm1 = we are all consci\s t ! /orm has 8cle>$ ! air40 ,! fre%1 crisp ozone 9 ! atmosph]e is evid5t4 ,ozone diff]s f oxyg5 9 possess+ ta/e & smell1 & x is heavi] by "o-half ?an ! oxyg5 gas4 ,!re is a good deal ( ozone 9 ! sea breeze1 & we c1 ?\gh n infallibly1 detect its pres5ce by te/-pap] prep>$ ) iodide ( potassium1 :i*1 :5 ozone is pres5t1 w turn blue4 ,we h /ill some?+ to le>n ab\t ozone1 :i* may be consid]$ z 8cond5s$ oxyg540 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,developm5t ( gas by combu/ion4 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,we h frequ5tly m5tion$ 8combu/ion10 & z "u ord9>y circum/ances su* effects _c take place )\t atmosph]ic air1 we w consid] x4 ,combu/ion is *emical action accompani$ by light & heat4 ,*emical union is always att5d$ by ! developm5t ( heat1 n always by light1 because ! union v>ies 9 int5sity & quickness4 ,b :5 a c&le is burn+ we c /udy all ! int]e/+ ph5om5a ( combu/ion4 ,we h already spok5 ( ,,heat & ,,light1 s we ne$ only ref] ! read]s to ^? subjects 9 ! =m] p>ts ( ?is volume4 ,heat is ref]able to *emical action1 & v>ies accord+ to ! en]gy ( union4 ,heat is always pres5t1 rememb]1 9 a great] or less degree2 & :5 visible combu/ion takes place we see light4 ,invisible combu/ion goes on 9 our bodies1 & we feel heat2 :5 we get cold we fe$ ! fire by eat+1 or bl[ x by ex]cise & air 9 our lungs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbh4--;,gas evolv$ f flame4 ,we %all speak1 h[ev]1 ( combu/ion n[ z x affects u 9 daily life2 our fires1 our c&les1 gas1 etc41 & "u ^! ord9>y circum/ances hydrog5 & c>bon are pres5t4 7,we %all he> m ab\t c>bon pres5tly47 ,^! unite ) ! oxyg5 to =m wat] & c>bonic acid2 ! wat] be+ visible z we fir/ put ! cold %ade ^u ! light$ lamp1 & ! c>bonic acid r5d]s ! air impure4 ,9 ! case ( a common c&le1 or lamp1 combu/ion takes place 9 ! same way4 ,! wick is ! int]m$i>y4 ,! oil m\nts 9 ! lamp wick1 :]e x is conv]t$ into a gas by heat2 x !n 8takes fire10 & gives u light & heat4 ,! c&le-flame is j ! same ) "o exception3 ! burn+ mat]ial is solid1 n liquid1 ?\gh ! diff]5ce is only app>5t1 = ! wax is melt$ & goes up z gas4 ,! burn+ "p ( ! wick has a c5tre :]e !re is no combu/ion1 & conta9s c>bon4 ,we c prove ?is by plac+ a b5t tube1 z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cbf71 "o end 9 ! unburn+ "p ( ! flame4 ,we %all soon see a d>k vap\r come ov] into ! receiv]4 ,?is is combu/ible1 = if we raise ! tube )\t ! glass we c light ! gas 7fig4 #cbg74 ,if we ins]t ! end ( ! tube into ! brilliant portion ( ! flame we %all p]ceive a black vap\r1 :i* w ext+ui% ! combu/ion1 = x is a mixture ( c>bonic acid gas & aque\s vap\r1 9 :i* 7fig4 #cbh7 p>ticles ( c>bon are float+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbi4--;,davy's safety lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccj4--;,davy lamp 7section74 ,:5 we proce$ to light our lamps to read or to write by1 we f9d "s difficulty 9 mak+ ! wick burn at fir/4 ,we pres5t to x a light$ tap]1 & x has no imm$iate effect4 ,"h we h oil & cotton1 two ?+s :i* w\ld spe$ily set a w>eh\se 9 flames f top to bottom1 b we _c ev5 ignite !m1 try all we c4 ,:y8--,because we mu/ fir/ obta9 a gas1 oil w n burn liquid2 x mu/ be heat$ to a gase\s po9t be=e x w burn1 z all combu/ion dep5ds ^u t1--s flames m\nt high 9 air4 ,n[ 9 a c&le-flame1 z w be se5 9 ! diagram 7fig4 #cca471 !re are ?ree portions1--! inn] d>k core1 :i* consi/s ( unburnt gas2 ! out] flame1 :i* gives light2 & ! outside rim ( p]fect combu/ion non-lum9\s4 ,9 ! c5tre1 ,a1 !re is no heat4 ,if we place a piece ( gauze wire ov] ! flame at a little di/ance ! flame w n p5etrate x4 ,x w rema9 und]nea?1 because ! wire1 be+ ( metal1 quickly absorbs ! heat1 & consequ5tly !re is no flame4 ,?is idea l$ to ! inv5tion ( ! 8safety0 lamp by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 :i*1 al?\gh x is n infallible1 is ! only lamp 9 g5]al use 9 m9es 7figs4 #cbi1 #ccj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cca4--;,con/ruction ( a c&le flame4 ,m9es mu/ h light1 b !re is a gas 9 m9es1 a 8m>%0 gas1 :i* becomes v explosive :5 x mixes ) oxyg54 ,( c\rse ! gas w be h>mless till x meets oxyg51 b1 9 its ef=ts to meet1 x explodes ! mom5t ! union takes place2 in/ead ( burn+ sl[ly l a c&le x goes (f all at once4 ,?is gas1 call$ 8fire damp10 is c>burett$ hydrog51 & :5 x explodes x develops into c>bonic acid gas1 :i* suffocates ! m9]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccb4--,p\r+ c>bonic acid on a light$ tap]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,non-,,metallic ,,elem5ts4 ,,oxyg5--,,symbol ,o2 ,,atomic ,,weight #af4 ,oxyg5 is c]ta9ly ! mo/ abundant elem5t 9 nature4 ,x exi/s all ar\nd u1 & ! animal & vegetable worlds are dep5d5t ^u x4 ,x con/itutes 9 comb9ation ab\t "o-half ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & composes eight-n9?s ( its weight ( wat]4 ,x is a gas )\t ta/e or col\r4 ,oxyg5 0 discov]$ by ,prie/ley & ,s*eele1 9 #aggd1 indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccc4--,oxyg5 f oxide ( m]cury4 ,oxyg5 c be procur$ f ! oxides ( ! metals1 p>ticul>ly f gold1 silv]1 & plat9um4 ,! noble metals are r$ucible f _! oxides by heat1 & ?is fact assi/s u at once4 ,if we heat *lorate ( pota%1 mix$ ) b9oxide ( manganese1 9 a retort 9 a furnace1 ! gas w be giv5 (f4 ,!re are _m o!r ways ( obta9+ oxyg51 & we illu/rate two 7figs4 #ccc1 #cce74 ,! r$ oxide ( m]cury w v readily evolve oxyg51 & if we heat a small quantity ( ! comp\nd 9 a retort z p] illu/ration 7fig4 #ccc7 we %all get ! gas4 ,9 a bas9 ( wat] we place a tube te/-glass1 & ! gas f ! retort w pass ov] & collect 9 ! te/ tube1 driv+ out ! wat]4 ,! o!r me?od m5tion$ above1--viz41 by heat+ *lorate ( pota%1 etc41 9 a furnace1 is %[n 9 ! foll[+ illu/ration4 ,oxyg51 z we h said1 is a col\rless & inodor\s gas1 & = a long "t x c\ld n be obta9$ 9 any o!r =m2 b lately bo? oxyg5 & hydrog5 h be5 liquifi$ "u trem5d\s pressure at a v l[ temp]ature4 ,oxyg5 causes any r$-hot sub/ance plung$ into x to burn brightly2 a mat* w readily inflame if a sp>k be rema9+1 :ile phosphorus is exce$+ly brilliant1 & ^! appe>ances1 ) _m o!rs equally /rik+1 are caus$ by ! aff9ity = ^? sub/ances possess$ by ! gas4 ,combu/ion is m]ely oxidation1 j z ! process ( ru/+ is1 only 9 ! latt] case ! action is s sl[ t no s5sible heat is produc$4 ,b :5 an aggregate ( sl[ly oxidis+ masses are heap$ toge!r1 heat is g5]at$1 & at l5g? bur/s into flame4 ,?is ph5om5on is call$ 8spontane\s combu/ion40 ,cases h be5 kn[n 9 :i* ! gases develop$ 9 ! human body by ! abuse ( alcoholic dr9ks h end$ fatally2 9 l mann] ! body be+ completely *>r$4 7,combu/ion mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ignition1 z 9 ! electric light47 ,oxyg5 !n1 we see1 is a great support] ( combu/ion1 ?\gh n a combu/ible itself z coal is4 ,:5 ! *emical union ( oxyg5 ) ano!r sub/ance is v rapid an explosion takes place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccd4--,%[+ retort plac$ 9 furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cce4--,! g5]ation ( oxyg5 f oxide ( manganese & pota%4 ,oxidation occurs 9 v>i\s ways4 ,besides ^? already m5tion$1 all v]digris produc$ on copp]1 all decays ( :atev] k9d1 dis9tegration1 & respiration1 are ! effects ( oxyg54 ,! foll[+ exp]im5t = ! extraction ( oxyg5 directly f ! air 0 made by ,m4 ,b\ss+ault1 :o pass$ ! gas ^u a sub/ance at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 & releas$ x at a high]4 ,! illu/ration on page #cea w %[ ! way 9 :i* ! exp]im5t 0 p]=m$4 ,b\ss+ault p]mitt$ a ?9 /ream ( wat] to fl[ into a l>ge empty flask1 & by ?is wat] ! air 0 gradually driv5 out into a flask conta9+ *loride ( calcium & sulphuric acid1 :i* effectually dri$ x4 ,?is dry air !n pass$ into a l>ge tube inside ! rev]b]atory furnace1 9 :i* tube 7 pieces ( cau/ic b>yta4 ,heat$ to a dull r$ness ?is absorbs oxyg51 & :5 ! heat is increas$ to a bright r$ ! sup]abundant gas is giv5 (f4 ,?us ! oxyg5 0 p]mitt$ to pass f ! furnace-tube into ! receiv+ glass1 & s pure oxyg5 0 obta9$ f ! air :i* _h be5 9 ! glass bottle at fir/ 7fig4 #cch74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccf4--,phosphorus burn+ 9 oxyg54 ,,hydrog5--,,symbol ,h2 ,,atomic ,,weight #a4 ,hydrog5 is abundant 9 nature1 b nev] free4 ,unit$ ) oxyg5 x =ms wat]1 h5ce its "n1 8wat]-=m]40 ,x is to ,p>celcus t its discov]y is due1 = he f\nd t oil ( vitriol 9 contact ) iron dis5gag$ a gas :i* 0 a con/itu5t ( wat]4 ,?is gas 0 subsequ5tly f\nd to be inflammable1 b x is to ,cav5di% t ! real explanation ( hydrog5 is ow+4 ,he expla9$ 8 views 9 #agff4 ,hydrog5 is obta9$ 9 ! mann] illu/rat$ 9 ! cut1 by means ( a furnace1 z 9 fig4 #cci1 or by ! bottle me?od1 z p] fig4 #cdj4 ,! fir/ me?od is less conv5i5t ?an ! second4 ,a gun-b>rel or fire-pro( tube is pass$ ?r\gh ! furnace1 & fill$ ) iron nails or fil+s2 a deliv]y tube is at ! f>!r end1 & a flask ( wat] boil+ at ! o!r4 ,! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! iron 9 ! tube1 & ! hydrog5 passes ov]4 ,! second me?od is easily arrang$4 ,a flask1 z 9 ! cut1 is provid$1 & 9 x "s z9c %av+s are put4 ,dilut$ sulphuric acid is !n p\r$ ^u ! metal4 ,sulphate ( z9c is =m$ 9 ! flask1 & ! hydrog5 passes (f4 ,hydrog5 be+ ! lighte/ ( all kn[n bodies1 its weight is put z #a1 & ?us we are relatively ) x enabl$ to write d[n ! weights ( all ! o!r elem5ts4 ,hydrog5 is f\rte5-&-a-half times light] ?an atmosph]ic air1 & w\ld d admirably = ! inflation ( balloons 7 x n s exp5sive to procure 9 su* l>ge quantities z w\ld be necess>y4 ,ord9>y coal gas1 h[ev]1 conta9s a great deal ( hydrog51 & answ]s ! same purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccg4--,magnesium wire burn+ 9 oxyg54 ,a v pretty exp]im5t may be made ) a bladd] full ( hydrog5 gas4 ,if a tube be fitt$ to ! bladd] already provid$ ) a /op-cock1 & a bas9 ( ord9>y soap-suds be at h&1 by dipp+ ! end ( ! tube 9 ! solution & g5tly express+ ! gas1 bubbles w be =m$ :i* are ( exce$+ lightness 7fig4 #cda74 ,!y c also be fir$ ) a tap]4 ,ano!r exp]im5t may be made ) hydrog5 z foll[s3--,if we p]mit ! gas to escape f ! flask1 & light x1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 & put a glass ov] x1 we %all obta9 a musical note1 high] or l[]1 accord+ to ! l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness ( ! op5 glass-tube 7fig4 #cdb74 ,if a numb] ( diff]5t tubes be employ$1 we c obta9 a musical in/rum5t--a gas h>monium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cch4--;,extraction ( oxyg5 f air4 ,hydrog5 burns ) a blue flame1 & is v inflammable4 ,ev5 wat] spr9kl$ ^u a fire w increase its fi]c5ess1 because ! hydrog5 burns ) great heat1 & ! oxyg5 is lib]at$4 ,be+ v light1 ,h c be transf]r$ f "o vessel to ano!r if bo? be held upside d[n4 ,"s mixtures ( ,h & ,o are v explosive4 ,! oxyhydrog5 bl[-pipe is us$ ) a mixture ( ,o & ,h1 :i* is =cibly bl[n ?r\gh a tube & !n ignit$4 ,! flame ?us produc$ has a mo/ int5se heat+-p[]4 ,a v easy me?od ( produc+ hydrog5 is to put a piece ( sodium into an inv]t$ cyl9d] full ( wat]1 /&+ 9 a bas9 ( wat]4 ,! sodium lib]ates ! hydrog5 by remov+ ! oxyg5 f ! liquid4 ,,wat]--,,symbol ,h#b,o2 ,,atomic ,,weight #ah4 ,at page #ei ( ?is volume we said some?+ ab\t wat]1 & rem>k$ 7z we h s9ce p]ceiv$ by exp]im5t7 t 8wat] is compos$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 proportions1 by weight1 ( eight ( ! =m] to "o ( ! latt] gas2 9 volume1 hydrog5 is two to "o02 & we saw t 8volume & weight 7 v diff]5t ?+s40 ,?is we w d well to be> 9 m9d1 & t1 to quote ,pr(essor ,roscoe1 8,wat] is always made up ( sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg5 to two p>ts ( hydrog5 by weight02 sixte5 & two be+ eighte51 ! comb9+ weight ( wat] is eighte54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cci4--,prep>ation ( hydrog5 ) furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdj4--;,app>atus = g5]at+ hydrog5 by flask4 ,we c prove by ! ,eudiomet] t hydrog5 :5 burnt ) oxyg5 =ms wat]2 & "h we mu/ rem>k t wat] is n a m]e me*anical mixture ( gases1 z air is4 ,wat] is ! product ( *emical comb9ation1 & z we h be=e said1 is really an oxide ( hydrog51 & !re=e combu/ion1 or electricity1 mu/ be call$ to our assi/ance be=e we c =m wat]1 :i* is ! result ( an explosion1 ! mixture meet+ ) an ignit$ body--! aque\s vap\r be+ exp&$ by heat4 ,! anci5ts suppos$ wat] to be a simple body1 b ,lavoisi] & ,cav5di% demon/rat$ its true "*4 ,pure wat]1 at ord9>y temp]atures1 is devoid ( ta/e & smell1 & is a transp>5t1 ne>ly col\rless1 liquid4 ,:5 view$ 9 masses x is blue1 z visible 9 a m>k$ degree 9 ! ,rhone & ,rh9e1 at ,g5eva1 & ,ble respectively4 ,its specific gravity is #a1 & x is tak5 z ! /&>d = ,sp4 ,gravity1 z hydrog5 is tak5 z ! /&>d = ,atomic ,weight4 ,! uses ( wat] & ! v important "p x plays 9 ! arrangem5ts ( nature z a me*anical ag5t1 geology c atte/1 & meteorology confirm4 ,x composes ! great] portions ( animals & plants2 )\t wat] ! _w w\ld be a des]t--a dead planet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cda4--;,bl[+ bubbles ) hydrog5 gas4 ,we sometimes speak ( 8pure0 spr+ wat]1 b su* a fluid absolutely pure c sc>cely be obta9$2 & ?\gh we c filt] wat] !re w always rema9 "s =eign sub/ance or sub/ances 9 solution4 ,x is well kn[n t ! action ( wat] we>s away & r\nds (f h>d rocks1 & ?is p[] ( dis9tegration is supplem5t$ by its /r5g? z a solv5t1 :i* is v great4 ,ra9-wat] is pure/ 9 ! c\ntry z x falls f ! cl\ds4 ,9 smoky t[ns x becomes sooty & dirty4 ,x is ow+ to ! solv5t prop]ties ( wat]1 !re=e1 t we h su* difficulty 9 obta9+ a pure supply4 ,!re is h>d wat] & s(t wat]4 ,! =m] is d]iv$ f ! calc>e\s =mations1 & conta9s lime1 l ! ,k5t wat]4 ,?is c be asc]ta9$ by notic+ ! incru/ations ( ! vessels :]e9 ! wat] is boil$4 ,b wat] ris+ f h>d rocks1 su* z granite1 c d little to dis9tegrate !m at ! mom5t1 & !re=e ! wat] rises pur]4 ,spr+s f a great dep? are w>m1 & are kn[n z 8!rmal spr+s02 & :5 !y come 9 contact ) c>bonic acid & "s salts 9 _! passage to ! surface1 !y are kn[n z 8m9]al wat]s40 ,^! wat]s hold 9 solution salts ( lime & magnesia1 or c>bonates ( soda ) ^? ( lime & magnesia2 salts ( iron1 & comp\nds ( iod9e & brom9e are f\nd 9 ! natural m9]al wat]s also1 z well z sulphur\s impregnations1 in/ances ( :i* w occur to e read]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdb4--;,exp]im5t ) hydrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdc4--,! composition ( wat]4 ,we m5tion$ ! ,eudiomet] j n[1 & we give an illu/ration ( x4 ,?is in/rum5t is us$ to asc]ta9 ! proportions 9 :i* ! elem5ts ( wat] are compos$ by syn!sis1 or a putt+ toge!r ( ! con/itu5ts ( a body to make x up4 ,?is is di/+ui%$ f analysis1 :i* means sep>at+ ! comp\nd body into its elem5ts1 z we d :5 we pass ! electric curr5t ?r\gh wat]4 ,! ,eudiomet] consi/s ( a /\t glass tube seal$ h]metically at "o end2 two plat9um wires are pu%$ 9 ?r\gh ! glass j be=e ! end is seal$4 ,! tube is n[ fill$ ) m]cury1 & inv]t$ 9 a b[l ( ! same metal4 ,hydrog51 & !n oxyg51 are admitt$ ?r\gh ! m]cury 9 ! recognis$ proportions ( two to "o4 ,by ! "t ! m]cury is some:at m ?an half displac$1 ! tube %\ld be held ^u a %eet ( india-rubb] at ! bottom ( ! vessel to keep ! metal 9 ! tube1 = :5 ! necess>y explosion takes place ! m]cury might also be driv5 out4 ,a sp>k f ! electrophorus or f a ,leyd5 j> may n[ be pass$ ?r\gh ! gases 9 ! tube4 ,! explosion occurs1 & wat] is =m$ inside4 ,if ! m]cury be aga9 admitt$ x w rise ne>ly to ! v top ( ! tube1 driv+ ! bubble up4 ,?us we f9d we h =m$ wat] f ! two gases4 ,! decomposition ( wat] is easily affect$ by electricity1 & if a little sulphuric acid be add$ to ! wat]1 ! exp]im5t w be !reby facilitat$4 ,two wires f a batt]y %\ld be ins]t$ ?r\gh a glass fill$ ) ! wat]1 & into two te/ tubes also fill$4 ,! wires t]m9ate 9 plat9um /rips1 & are fa/5$ at ! o!r end to ! positive & negative poles ( ! galvanic batt]y4 ,! gases w collect 9 ! te/ tubes1 & w be f\nd 9 prop] proportions :5 ! curr5t passes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdd4--,! ,eudiomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cde4--;,decomposition ( wat]4 ,s mu* = wat] 9 its liquid /ate4 ,! solid condition ( wat] 7ice7 is equally int]e/+4 ,:5 we apply heat to wat]1 we get a vap\r call$ 8/eam02 :5 we cool wat] to #cb ,fahr41 we get a solid mass :i* weighs j ! same z ! liquid we h congeal$1 or ! /eam we h rais$ f an equal am\nt ( wat]4 ,b wat] exp&s :ile 9 ! process ( solidification1 j z x does :5 x becomes gase\s1 & z we h rem>k$ be=e1 our wat]-pipes be> full te/imony to ?is sci5tific fact4 ,:5 ice =ms x has a t5d5cy to cry/allize1 & "s ( ^! ice cry/als are1 z we see1 v beautiful4 ,sn[ is only wat] 9 a ne>ly solid =m1 & ! cry/als are extremely elegant1 appe>+ m l fl[]s ?an congeal$ wat]1 9 t9y six-po9t$ ice cry/als4 ,_m philosoph]s ( late ye>s h writt5 conc]n+ ^! t9y cry/als1 :i*1 9 common ) all cry/als1 h _! own c]ta9 =m1 f :i* !y nev] dep>t4 ,sn[flakes are regul> six-sid$ prisms gr\p$ ar\nd a c5tre =m+ angles ( #fj & #abj4 ,!re are a numb] ( =ms1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ illu/rations1 & at lea/ n9ety-six v>ieties h be5 obs]v$4 ,"o sn[flake1 app>5tly s l all o!r flakes t fall1 c ?us be view$ ) mu* int]e/1 & yet1 :ile s v v>i\s1 sn[flakes nev] get away f _! prop] hexagonal /ructure4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t sn[flakes fall+ at ! same "t h g5]ally ! same =m4 ,( ! lat5t heat ( ice1 etc41 we h already spok5 9 our article ^u ,heat1 & !re=e x w be suffici5t to /ate t ! lat5t heat ( wat] is #gi !rmal units1 because :5 pass+ f ! liquid to ! solid /ate a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] absorbs suffici5t heat to raise an equal quantity ( ! liquid #gi4 ,?is c be prov$ by tak+ a measur$ quantity 7say a p9t7 ( wat] at #gi & add+ ice ( ! same weight to ! wat]4 ,! mixture w be f\nd to be at z]o4 ,!re=e ! ice has absorb$ or r5d]$ lat5t #gi ( heat :i* ! wat] possess$4 ,if we melt ice until only a trace ( x is left1 we %all /ill f9d ! wat] z cold z ! ice 02 all ! lat5t heat is employ$ 9 melt+ ! ice4 ,s x w take z mu* heat to br+ a p\nd ( ice at z]o to a p\nd ( wat] at z]o1 z x w\ld to raise #gi p\nds ( wat] #a4 ,! same law applies to /eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdf4--,sn[ cry/als4 ,wat] c be di/ill$ 9 small quantities by an app>atus1 z figur$ 9 ! illu/ration1 & by ^! means we get rid ( all impurities :i* are insep>able f ! liquid o!rwise4 ,:5 x is desirable to di/il l>ge quantities ( wat] a l>g] app>atus is us$1 call$ an 8,alembic40 ,! pr9ciple is simply to conv]t ! liquid by heat into vap\r1 !n cool x1 by cond5sation1 9 ano!r vessel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdg4--;,di/ill+ wat]4 ,! evaporation ( wat]1 ) its effects ^u our globe1 belong m to ! /udy ( ,meteorology4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdh4--;,di/illation4 ,ra9-wat] is ! pure/1 z we h said1 because x goes ?r\gh ! process ( di/illation by nature4 ,! sun takes x up1 by evaporation1 into ! air1 :]e x is cond5s$1 & falls z ra9-wat]4 ,wat] conta9+ c>bonate ( lime w petrify or h>d51 z 9 /alactite cav]ns4 ,! c>bonic acid escapes f ! dripp+ wat]1 ! c>bonate 9 solution is deposit$ z a /alactite1 & f9ally =ms pill>s 9 ! cave4 ,sea-wat] conta9s _m salts2 its composition is z foll[s1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,s*w]tz]1 ( ,brighton3-- ,wat] #ifdgdcgb gra9s4 ,*loride ( sodium 7salt7 #bhjeidh 0 ,*loride ( potassium #jgfeeb 0 ,*loride ( magnesium #cfffeh 0 ,bromide ( magnesium #jjbibi 0 ,sulphate ( magnesia #bbiegh 0 ,sulphate ( lime #jdjffb 0 ,c>bonate ( lime #jjccja 0 7,) traces ( iod9e & ammonia74 ------------ #ajjjjjjjj gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdi4--,/alactite ,cav]n4 ,!re is mu* m oxyg5 9 wat] ?an 9 air1 z c be asc]ta9$ by analysis ( ^! comp\nds4 ,?is great proportion 9 fav\r ( wat] enables fi% to brea! by pass+ ! wat] ?r\gh ! gills4 ,m>9e animals 7n fi%es71 l ! :ale1--:i* is a w>m-blood$ creature1 & !re=e n suit$ to exi/ )\t air1--are oblig$ to come to ! surface to brea!4 ,! d5sity ( salt wat] is mu* great] ?an t ( fre% wat]1 & !re=e swimm+ & flotation is easi] 9 ! sea ?an 9 a riv]4 ,we %all h m to say ( wat] by-&-by4 ,,nitrog5--,,symbol ,n2 ,,atomic ,,weight #ad4 ,we h already made "s ref]5ce to ?is gas :5 speak+ ( ! atmosph]e & its con/itu5ts1 ( :i* nitrog5 is ! pr9cipal4 ,f its life-de/roy+ prop]ties x is call$ 8azote0 by ,fr5* *emi/s1 & :5 we wi% to obta9 a supply ( nitrog5 all we h to d is to take away ! oxyg5 f ! air by burn+ phosphorus on wat] "u a glass4 ,nitrog5 is n f\nd frequ5tly 9 solid portions ( ! globe4 ,x is abundant 9 animals4 ,x is )\t col\r or smell1 & c be brea!d 9 air )\t dang]4 ,x is heavy & sluggi%2 b if we put a tap] into a j> ( nitrog5 x w g out1 & animals die 9 ! gas = want ( oxyg51 z nitrog5 alone _c support life4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cej4--,obta9+ nitrog54 ,! aff9ity ( nitrog5 = o!r sub/ances is n great1 b x gives rise to five comp\nds1 :i* are z bel[1 9 ! ord] !y are comb9$ ) oxyg53-- ,nitr\s oxide 78laugh+ gas07 7,monoxide7 ,n#b,o4 ,nitric oxide ,dioxide ,n#b,o#b4 ,nitr\s acid ,trioxide ,n#b,o#c4 ,nitric p]oxide ,tetroxide ,n#b,o#d4 ,nitric acid ,p5toxide ,n#b,o#e4 ,^! comp\nds are usually tak5 z repres5tative examples ( comb9+ weight1 & z explanatory ( ! symbolic nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 z !y advance 9 su* regul> proportions ( oxyg5 ) nitrog54 ,! comb9+ weight ( nitrog5 is #ad1 & :5 two p>ts comb9e ) five ( oxyg5 x makes nitric acid1 & we put x d[n z ,n#b,o#e2 on add+ wat]1 ,,hno#c1 z we c see by elim9at+ ! con/itu5ts & putt+ 9 ! proportions4 ,actually x is ,h#b,n#b,o#f1 or1 by division1 ,,hno#c4 ,nitrog5 plays a v important "p 9 nature1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,nitric acid has be5 kn[n = c5turies4 ,geb]1 ! al*emi/1 0 acqua9t$ ) a sub/ance call$ 8nitric10 :i* he f\nd w\ld yield a dissolv5t "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,he call$ x 8dissolv+ fluid40 ,at ! end ( ! twelf? c5tury ,alb]t ,magnus inve/igat$ ! prop]ties ( ?is acid1 & 9 #abce ,raymond ,lully prep>$ nitre ) clay1 & gave ! liquid ! "n ( 8aqua-=tis40 ,b till #ahdi nitric acid 0 only kn[n z a hydrate1--t is1 9 comb9ation ) wat]1--b n[ we h ! anhydr\s acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cea4--;,app>atus = obta9+ nitrog5 by us+ metal to absorb ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,oxyg5 & nitrog5 comb9e "u ! influ5ce ( electricity1 z %[n by ,cav5di%1 :o pass$ a curr5t ?r\gh an atmosph]ic mixture ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 9 a tube t]m9at+ 9 a solution ( pota%1 lime1 & soda4 ,e "t ! sp>k pass$1 ! volume ( gas dim9i%$1 & nitric acid 0 =m$1 z x is 9 ?und]/orms1 :5 x does n rema9 free1 b unites ) ammonia1 & =ms a highly useful salt1 :i* promotes vegetable gr[?4 ,"h is ano!r in/ance ( ! usefulness ( ?und]/orms1 & ( ! gr& provisions ( nature = our b5efit4 ,nitric acid is obta9$ by di/ill+ nitre ) sulphuric acid4 ,! liquid is1 :5 pure1 col\rless1 & is a p[]ful oxidiz]4 ,x dissolves mo/ metals1 & de/roys vegetable & animal sub/ances4 ,by an addition ( a little sulphuric acid ! wat] is tak5 f ! nitric acid1 & a v p[]ful =m ( x is ! result4 ,! acid is ( great use 9 m$ic9e1 & z an application to bites ( rabid animals or s]p5ts4 ,x conv]ts cotton wa/e into 8gun-cotton0 by a v simple process ( /eep+1 wa%+1 & press+4 ,f ! hydraulic press x comes 9 discs l 8quoits10 :i* w burn h>mlessly & sm\ld] away1 b if detonat$ !y explode ) great viol5ce4 ,z a rule1 :5 damp1 x is n dang]\s1 b x c be fir$ ev5 :5 wet4 ,x w explode at a less temp]ature ?an gunp[d]1 &1 moreov]1 yields no smoke1 nor does x f\l a gun4 ,gun-cotton1 :5 dissolv$ 9 e!r1 gives u collodion = photographic purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceb4--,nitric acid obta9$ f nitre & sulphuric acid4 ,9 speak+ f>!r ( ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 ) oxyg51 we w limit ourselves to ! monoxide1 or laugh+ gas4 ,?is is n[ us$ z an an/hetic 9 d5ti/ry1 etc41 & is q successful1 z a rule4 ,p afflict$ ) he>t disease %\ld n use x )\t advice1 h[ev]4 ,:5 inhal$ into ! lungs x makes ! subject v hil>i\s1 & ! effect is r noisy4 ,x is obta9$ f ! nitrate ( ammonia1 :i*1 on ! application ( heat1 decomposes into nitr\s oxide & vap\r4 ,w>m wat] %\ld be us$ = ! tr\gh4 ,! gas is a p[]ful support] ( combu/ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cec4--;,cav5di%'s exp]im5t4 ,b9oxide ( nitrog5 is ( importance 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,nitrog5 comb9es ) hydrog51 =m+ v>i\s comp\nds4 ,^! are ! 8am9es10 also ammonia1 & ammonium4 ,ammonia possesses ! prop]ties ( a base4 ,its "n is d]iv$ f ,jupit] ,ammon1 ne> ^: temple x 0 prep>$1 f camels' dung4 ,b bodies conta9+ nitrog5 give (f ammonia 9 c\rse ( di/ill+1 & h>t%orn is ! t]m appli$ to horn-cutt+s1 :i* yield ammonia1 :i* is a col\rless gas ( /rong od\r & ta/e n[ obta9$ f gas-works4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ced4--;,exp]im5t to obta9 nitric acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cee4--;,app>atus = obta9+ laugh+-gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cef4--;,inhal+ laugh+ gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceg4--;,g5]ation ( ammonia4 ,to obta9 ammonia heat equal p>ts ( *loride ( ammonia 7sal ammoniac7 & quick-lime p[d]$ 7see fig4 #ceg74 ,! gas mu/ be collect$ ov] m]cury1 because x is v soluble 9 wat]4 ,ammonia is useful to re/ore tipsy p & fa9t+ ladies4 ,a solution ( ammonia is us$ = caut]ies4 ,ammoniacal gas is rem>kable = its solubility 9 wat]4 ,to prep>e ! solution ! gas is =c$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( flasks4 ,! tubes c>ry+ ! gas %\ld be cont9u$ to ! bottoms ( ! flasks1 else ! solution1 be+ light] ?an wat]1 ! upp] portion alone w\ld be saturat$4 ,! tubes c>ry+ away ! solution are rais$ a little1 s t ! r5ewal is cont9ually proce$+4 ,! gas liquifies "u a pressure ( six atmosph]es1 at a temp]ature ( #aj ,c5t4 ,?is exp]im5t c be artificially p]=m$ by heat+ *loride ( silv] saturat$ ) ammonia1 & ! silv] w "p ) ! gas at a temp]ature ( #dj ,c4 ,! gas w !n cond5se 9 a liquid =m 9 ! tube4 ,! exp]im5t may be facilitat$ by plac+ ! o!r extremity ( ! tube 9 sn[ & salt1 & by ! liquid we c obta9 int5se cold4 ,?is exp]im5t has be5 made use ( by ,m4 ,c>r 9 8 refrig]ator 7:i* 0 describ$ 9 ! ,physics' section71 by :i* he freezes wat]4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 j ref] to ! process4 ,:5ev] ! condition ( a body is *ang$ f t ( liquid to a gas1 ! temp]ature is greatly l[]$1 because ! heat becomes 8lat5t40 ,! late/ freez+ ma*9e consi/s ( an app>atus z %[n 9 ! illu/rations h]e) 7figs4 #cei & #cfj74 ,! ma*9e is ( wr\ght iron1 & conta9s1 :5 ready = action1 a saturat$ solution ( ammonia at z]o4 ,?is is 9 communication ) ano!r & an air-tight vessel1 ( :i* ! c5tre is holl[4 ,! fir/ process is to heat ! solution1 & ! gas escapes into ! second 8vase10 :i* is surr\nd$ by cold wat]1 & q unable to escape4 ,a trem5d\s pressure is soon obta9$1 & ?is1 add$ to ! cold wat]1 be=e long liquifies ! ammonia1 & :5 ! temp]ature indicates #acj ! hot vessel is sudd5ly cool$ by be+ put into ! wat]4 ,! gas is ?us sudd5ly conv]t$ into a liquid1 ! wat] 9 ! second holl[ vase is tak5 out1 & ! bottle to be froz5 is put into ! cavity4 ,! cold is s great1 9 consequ5ce ( ! trans=mation ( ! liquid ammonia into a gas1 t x freezes ! wat] 9 any vessel put into ! receiv]4 ,! ammonia c be reconv]t$ into liquid & back aga91 s no loss is occasion$ by ! process1 :i* is rapid & simple4 ,?is is h[ great blocks ( ice are produc$ 9 wat]-bottles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceh4--,liquefaction ( ammonia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cei4--;,c>r's refrig]ator 7fir/ action74 ,! "o important po9t ^u :i* c>e is necess>y is ! rais+ ( ! temp]ature4 ,if x be elevat$ beyond #acj ,c41 ! pressure w be too great1 & an explosion w occur4 ,! abundant =mation ( ammonia f decay+ animal matt] is evid5t to ev]yone1 & dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( moi/ure to a great ext5t4 ,*loride ( ammonia is call$ sal-ammoniac1 & ! c>bonate ( ammonia cry/allizes f ! alkal9e liquid produc$ by ! di/illation ( c]ta9 animal matt]4 ,! comp\nds ( ammonia are easily recogniz$ by a c]ta9 %>p ta/e4 ,!y are highly valuable rem$ial ag5ts1 act+ p>ticul>ly ^u ! cutane\s sy/em1 & :5 tak5 int]nally1 produce ! effect ( p[]ful sudorifics4 ,_! volatility1 & ! facility ) :i* !y are expell$ f o!r sub/ances1 r5d] !m ( great importance 9 *emi/ry1 & peculi>ly fit !m = ! purposes ( _m *emical analyses4 ,! ammonia comp\nds display a rem>kable analogy to ! correspond+ comb9ations ( pota% & soda4 ,! comp\nds ( ammonia are highly important 9 _! relation to ! vegetable k+dom4 ,x may be assum$ t all ! nitrog5 ( plants is d]iv$ f ! ammonia :i* !y absorb f ! soil1 & f ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfj4--;,c>r's refrig]ator 7second action74 ,! simil>ity ( ammonia to ! metallic oxides has l$ to ! conjecture t all its comb9ations conta9 a comp\nd metallic body1 :i* has receiv$ ! "n ammonium 7,,nh#d72 b no "o has yet succe$$ 9 its prep>ation1 al?\gh by peculi> processes x may be obta9$ 9 ! =m ( an amalgam4 ,ammonias1 9 :i* "o or m atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by basic radicals1 are t]m$ ,amides1 or ,am9es4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,non-,,metallic ,,elem5ts 7cont9u$74 ,,*lor9e--,,brom9e--,,iod9e--,,fluor9e-- ,,c>bon--,,sulphur--,,phosphorus--,,sili con-- ,,boron--,,tellurium--,,ars5ic4 ,*lor9e 7,cl47 is usually f\nd ) sodium 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 & ?is *loride ( sodium is our common salt4 ,*lor9e c be obta9$ by heat+ hydro*loric acid ) b9oxide ( manganese4 7,atomic weight #cee47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfa4--;,g5]ation ( *lor9e4 ,*lor9e possesses a gre5i%-yell[ col\r1 h5ce its "n 8,*loros10 gre54 ,x %\ld be h&l$ c>efully1 = x is highly injuri\s & suffocat+4 ,x possesses a great aff9ity = o!r sub/ances1 & attacks ! metals4 ,= hydrog5 x has a great affection1 & :5 hydrog5 is comb9$ ) any o!r sub/ances *lor9e imm$iately attacks !m1 & 9 "t de/roys !m4 ,b ev5 ?is de/ructive & app>5tly objectionable quality makes *lor9e v valuable2 = if we c>ry ! idea to its conclusion1 we %all f9d t x also de/roys (f5sive & putrid matt]1 & purifies ! atmosph]e v mu*4 ,mo/ col\r+ matt]s include hydrog51 & !re=e !y are de/roy$ by *lor9e1 :i* is a great 8blea*]0 z well z a purifi]4 ,if we dip any vegetable dyes into a j> ( *lor9e1 !y w become :ite if ! dy$ sub/ances are damp4 ,hydro*loric acid is kn[n z muriatic acid & spirits ( salt4 ,x is obta9$ :5 salt is treat$ ) sulphuric acid & ! gas comes (f into wat]4 ,equal p>ts ( ! acid & ! salt are put into a flask z 9 ! cut 7fig4 #cfb71 & dilut$ ) wat]4 ,! mixture is !n heat$4 ,! gas is cond5s$ 9 ! bottles half-full ( wat]4 ,! result gives sulphate ( soda & hydro*loric acid4 ,?is acid is procur$ 9 soda manufactories1 & ) nitric acid is call$ 8aqua regia10 a solv5t = gold4 ,:5 *lor9e & hydrog5 are mix$ 9 equal proportions !y explode 9 sunlight4 ,9 ! d>k or by c&le-light !y are h>mless4 ,dry *lor9e gas c be obta9$ by int]pos+ a glass fill$ ) "s *loride ( calcium4 ,! gas be+ heavi] ?an air 7ab\t #b times71 displaces x 9 ! flask1 & :5 x is fill$ ano!r c be plac$ 9 position4 ,?is mode causes a little wa/e ( gas1 :i* %\ld n be brea!d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfb4--,production ( hydro*loric acid4 ,*lor9e possesses a great aff9ity = c]ta9 bodies4 ,if ! gas be ?r[n ^u phosphorus1 ! latt] w burn brilliantly4 ,ars5ic1 t91 & antimony :5 p[d]$ & p\r$ f a %oot into a vase ( *lor9e w bur/ into brilliant sp>ks1 & o!r metals w gl[ :5 introduc$ to ?is gas4 ,*lor9e =ms _m un/able comb9ations ) oxyg54 ,its comb9ation ) hydrog5 has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,,brom9e is a r>e elem5t4 7,symbol ,br4 ,atomic weight #hj47 ,x is deep br[ni% r$1 v volatile1 & ( a peculi> od\r4 ,brom9e unites ) ! elem5t>y bodies1 & =ms "s oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,x resembles *lor9e 9 its prop]ties1 & is us$ 9 m$ic9e & 9 photography4 ,x is f\nd 9 sal9e spr+s & 9 salt wat]1 comb9$ ) soda & magnesium4 ,! pres5ce ( brom9e may easily be detect$ 9 ! /rong smell ( seawe$4 ,its comb9ations ) metals are t]m$ bromides4 ,x is a p[]ful poison4 ,,iod9e is ano!r relative ( *lor9e4 ,x is f\nd 9 seawe$1 :i* by burn+ is r$uc$ to kelp4 ,:5 iod9e is heat$ a beautiful violet vap\r comes (f1 & ?is *>act]i/ic has giv5 x its "n 78iodes10 violet74 ,iod9e 0 discov]$ by ,c\rtois1 ( ,p>is1 & 9 #ahac1 ,gay ,lussac made x a special /udy4 ,x is solid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & assumes cry/alliz$ =ms 9 plates ( metallic lu/re4 ,x is an excell5t rem$y 9 8goitre0 & su* affections4 7,symbol ,i4 ,atomic weight #abg47 ,,fluor9e is v difficult to prep>e4 ,fluor sp> is a comp\nd ( fluor9e & calcium4 ,?is elem5t is gase\s1 & comb9es s rapidly t x is v difficult to obta9 9 a free /ate4 ,et*+ on glass is accompli%$ by means ( hydr(luoric acid1 = fluor9e has a great aff9ity = silicic acid1 :i* is conta9$ 9 glass4 ,! glass is cov]$ ) wax1 & ! design is trac$ ) a ne$le4 ,! acid attacks ! glass & leaves ! wax1 s ! design is eat5 94 7,symbol ,f4 ,atomic weight #ai47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfc4--;,app>atus = obta9+ dry *lor9e gas4 ,*lor9e1 fluor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e are t]m$ 8,halog5s0 7produc]s ( salts74 ,!y appe>1 z we h se51 9 a gase\s1 liquid1 & solid =m respectively4 ,,c>bon is ! mo/1 or "o ( ! mo/1 l>gely diffus$ elem5ts 9 nature1 & claims m ?an a pass+ notice at our h&s1 ?\gh ev5 t mu/ be brief4 ,we may put d[n c>bon next to oxyg5 z ! mo/ important elem5t 9 ! _w4 ,! =ms assum$ by c>bon are v v>iable1 & p]vade nature 9 all its phases4 ,we h c>bon 9 cry/als1 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 & among/ ! *ief m9]als a solid1 od\rless1 ta/eless1 infusible1 & almo/ insoluble body4 ,9 v>i\s comb9ations c>bon meets u at e turn2 unit$ ) oxyg5 x =ms c>bonic acid1 :i* we exhale = ! plants to imbibe4 ,we h x 9 coal1 ) hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,we h x build+ up animal tissues1 & x is nev] abs5t 9 two out ( ! ?ree great divisions ( nature--! plants & ! animals 7,symbol ,c2 ,atomic ,w4 #ab74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfd4--;,facets ( a brilliant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfe4--;,facets ( a rose diamond4 ,we h c>bon 9 ?ree diff]5t & well-kn[n conditions2 z ! diamond1 z graphite1 or black-lead1 & z *>coal4 ,! prop]ties ( ! diamond are well kn[n1 & we %all1 :5 we get to ,cry/allography1 le>n ! =ms ( diamond or cry/als ( c>bon4 ,at pres5t we give an illu/ration or two1 res]v+ all explanation = ! pres5t4 ,diamond cutt+ is a matt] ( "s difficulty1 & x requires skill to cut 9 ! prop] direction4 ,diamonds are f\nd 9 ,india1 ,brazil1 & at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 9 alluvial soil4 ,! id5tity ( diamond & *>coal 0 discov]$ accid5tally4 ,an exp]im5t to fuse a few small diamonds result$ 9 _! disappe>ance1 & :5 ! residue 0 exam9$ x 0 f\nd t ! diamonds _h be5 burn$1 t !y _h comb9$ ) oxyg5 & =m$ c>bonic acid1 j z :5 coal burns4 ,! diamond is ! h>de/ ( all sub/ances1 ! mo/ valuable ( gems1 & ! pure/ condition 9 :i* c>bon appe>s4 ,,graphite 7,plumbago7 is t]m$ 8black-lead10 & is ! next pure/ =m ( c>bon4 ,x cry/allizes & belongs to ! primitive =mations4 ,9 ,cumb]l& x is dug up & us$ to make p5cils2 ! op]ations c be se5 at ,keswick4 ,x has o!r uses ( a dome/ic "*4 ,*>coal is ! ?ird =m ( c>bon1 & z x possesses no def9ite =m1 is said to be amorph\s4 ,*>coal is prep>$ 9 air-tight ov5s1 s t no oxyg5 c ent] & burn ! wood ?us treat$4 ,coke is ! result ( ! same process appli$ to coal4 ,! gas manufactories are ! *ief depts = ?is article1 & x is us$ 9 locomotive eng9es4 ,! v>i\s smokeless coals & prep>$ fuels1 h[ev]1 are frequ5tly sub/itut$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cff4 --,coke ov5s4 ,coke ov5s 7 =m]ly mu* resort$ to by ! railway companies1 :o f\nd ! ord9>y coal too smoky = locomotive purposes1 & apt to give rise to compla9ts by pass5g]s & resid5ts ne> ! l9e4 ,! orig9 ( wood *>coal we h se54 ,all vegetable sub/ances conta9 c>bon4 ,:5 we burn wood1 9 ! abs5ce ( air z f> z possible1 oxyg5 & hydrog5 are expell$4 ,! wood is pil$ 9 lay]s z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cfh71 cov]$ ov] ) turf & m\ld1 ) occasional ap]tures = air4 ,?is mass is ignit$1 ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 are driv5 (f1 & c>bon rema9s4 7,animal *>coal is obta9$ f calc9+ bones74 ,wood *>coal attracts vap\rs1 & wat]1 if impure1 c be purifi$ by *>coal1 & any impure or ta9t$ animal matt] c be r5d]$ in(f5sive by reason ( *>coal absorb+ ! gases1 :ile ! process ( decay goes on j ! same4 ,h\sekeep]s %\ld !re=e n always decide t meat is good because x is n (f5sive to ! olfactory n]ves4 ,*>coal w remove ! aroma1 b ! meat may be nev]!less bad4 ,! use ( *>coal 9 filt]s is ackn[l$g$ univ]sally1 & z a con/itu5t ( gunp[d] x is important4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfg4--;,*>coal burn+4 ,c>bon is n easily affect$ by ! atmosph]ic air1 or 9 ! e>?2 s 9 _m in/ances wood is *>r$ be=e be+ driv5 into ! gr\nd2 & casks = wat] are prep>$ s4 ,soot is c>bon 9 a pulv]is$ condition1 & ,indian ink is manufactur$ ) its assi/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfh4--,wood piles ( *>coal burn]s4 ,! prep>ation ( wood *>coal gives occupation to m5 :o are frequ5tly wild & untutor$1 b ! results ( _! lab\r are v b5eficial4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to sleep 9 a room ) a *>coal /ove burn+1 unless !re is ample v5t = ! c>bonic acid gas1 = x w cause suffocation4 ,lampblack is obta9$ by hold+ a plate ov] ! flame ( "s res9\s sub/ance1 :i* deposits ! black ^u x4 ,!re is a special app>atus = ?is purpose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfi4--,seltz]-wat] manufactory4 ,c>bon comb9es ) oxyg5 to make c>bonic acid gas1 z we h already m5tion$1 & 9 o!r proportions to =m a m deadly comp\nd ?an ! o!r4 ,! =m] is ! dioxide 7,,co#b71 ! latt] ! monoxide1 or c>bonic oxide 7,,co74 ,! dioxide is ! m important1 be+ held 9 ! atmosph]e1 & comb9$ ) lime 9 *alk4 ,all sp>kl+ bev]ages conta9 c>bonic acid1 to :i* _! eff]vesc5ce is due4 ,! soda & o!r m9]al wat]s owe _! sp>kle to ?is gas4 ,soda-wat] consi/s ( a weak solution ( c>bonate ( soda & ! acid4 ,!re is a vessel hold+ *alk & wat]1 & ano!r conta9+ "s sulphuric acid4 ,:5 ! sulphuric acid is p]mitt$ to unite ) ! *alk & wat]1 c>bonic acid is lib]at$4 ,a boy turn+ a :eel =ces ! gas into ! wat] 9 ! bottles1 or ! wat] & c>bonate ( soda is drawn (f ?us impregnat$ into bottles & cork$ d[n1 9 ! mann] s famili> to all4 ,! bottles are made ( ! %ape depict$1 s t ! bubble ( air %all be at ! top :5 ! bottle lies d[n4 ,if x be n kept s1 ! air w ev5tually escape1 no matt] h[ tightly ! cork be put 94 ,! ord9>y 8soda-wat]0 conta9s sc>cely any soda4 ,x is m]ely wat]1 *alk1 & c>bonic acid4 ,! 8,gazog5e0 is made useful = small quantities ( soda-wat]1 & is arrang$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! appe>ance ( x is famili> to all4 ,x consi/s ( a d\ble vessel1 into ! upp] "p ( :i* a solution ( any k9d--w9e & wat]1 or ev5 pla9 wat]--is put1 to be saturat$ ) c>bonic acid1 or 8a]at$10 & into ! l[] "o "s c>bonate ( soda & t>t>ic acid4 ,a tube leads f ?is l[] to ! top ( ! upp] vessel1 :i* screws on & (f4 ,by %ak+ ! app>atus :5 ?us *>g$ & screw$ toge!r1 "s ( ! liquid desc5ds ?r\gh ! tube into ! l[] vessel & moi/5s ! soda & acid1 :i* !re=e act on ea* o!r1 & cause c>bonic acid to be dis5gag$2 ?is1 ris+ up ?r\gh ! tube 7:i* is p]=at$ ) small holes at ! upp] "p71 disp]ses itself ?r\gh ! liquid 9 small bubbles1 & causes suffici5t pressure to enable ! liquid to absorb x1 :i* !re=e eff]vesces :5 drawn (f by ! tap4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgj4--;,gazog5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cga4--,soda-wat] app>atus4 ,c>bonic acid c be liquifi$1 & !n x is col\rless4 ,9 a solid =m x resembles sn[1 & if press$ ) ! f+]s x w bli/] !m4 ,be+ v heavy ! gas c be p\r$ into a vase1 & if !re be a light 9 ! receptacle ! flame w be imm$iately ext+ui%$4 ,t ev5 ! gas introduc$ into seltz]-wat] is capable ( de/roy+ life1 ! foll[+ exp]im5t w prove4 ,let u place a bird )9 a glass case z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cgc71 & connect ! glass ) a bottle ( seltz]-wat] or a siphon4 ,z soon z ! liquid ent]s1 ! c>bonic acid w asc5d1 & ?is1 if cont9u$ = a long "t1 w\ld suffocate ! bird1 :i* soon beg9s to develop an appe>ance ( re/lessness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgb4--,p\r+ out ! c>bonic acid gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgc4--;,exp]im5t ) c>bonic acid4 ,we h already rem>k$ ^u ! important "p tak5 by ?is gas 9 nature1 s we ne$ only m5tion its exi/5ce 9 pits & caves4 ,!re are _m places 9 :i* ! vap\r is s /rong z to r5d] ! localities un9habitable4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages ! vap\rs 7 attribut$ to ! pres5ce ( evil spirits1 :o 7 suppos$ to ext+ui% m9]s' lamps1 & suffocate p :o v5tur$ into ! caves4 ,9 ! ,grotto ,del ,cane !re is /ill an example1 & c]ta9 caves ( ,montr\ge are (t5 fill$ ) ! gas4 ,a light$ tap] held 9 ! h& w1 by its ext9ction1 give ! necess>y w>n+4 ,oxyg5 & c>bon are cond5s$ 9 c>bonic acid1 = ! gas conta9s a volume ( oxyg5 equal to its own4 ,if we fill a glass globe1 z p] illu/ration 7fig4 #cgd71 ) pure oxyg51 & 9 ! globe ins]t two c>bon po9ts1 ?r\gh :i* we pass a curr5t ( electricity1 we %all f9d1 aft] ! exp]im5t1 t if ! /op-cock be op5$1 !re is no escape ( gas1 & yet ! m]cury does n rise 9 ! tube1 s ! oxyg5 absorb$ has be5 replac$ by an equal volume ( c>bonic acid4 ,! o!r comb9ation ( c>bon ) oxyg5 is ! c>bonic oxide 7,,co71 & :5 a small quantity ( oxyg5 is burnt ) x x gives a blue flame1 z on ! top ( ! fire 9 our ord9>y grates4 ,?is gas is pres5t 9 lime kilns1 & is a v deadly "o4 ,we mu/ n[ pass rapidly ?r\gh ! comp\nds ( c>bon ) hydrog51 m]ely ref]r+ to coal = a mom5t z we g on4 ,coal1 ( :i* we %all le>n m 9 ,m9]alogy & ,geology1 is a comb9ation1 me*anical or o!rwise1 & is ! result ( ! decomposition ( vegetable matt] 9 remote ages1--! s-call$ 8=e/s10 :i* 7 m l ! jungles ?an ! woods ( ! pres5t day4 ,moss & f]n play$ prom95t p>ts 9 ?is great trans=mation1 z we c see 9 ! ,iri% peat-bogs1 :]e ! fir/ /eps to ! coal measures are tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgd4--;,exp]im5t %[+ t c>bonic acid conta9s oxyg5 & c>bon4 ,! comp\nds ( c>bon ) hydrog5 are important4 ,!re is ! 8light0 c>burett$ hydrog5 7,,*#d71 :i* is usually kn[n z fire-damp 9 coal m9es4 ,x is highly inflammable & dang]\s4 ,! safety-lamp inv5t$ by ,davy is a great protection aga9/ x1 = z ! gas ent]s x is cool$ by ! wire1 & burns )9 h>mlessly4 ,! explosion w>ns ! m9]4 8,heavy0 c>burett$ hydrog5 possesses d\ble ! quantity ( c>bon 7,c#b;,h#d74 ,x is also explosive :5 mix$ ) oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cge4--,temp]ature r$uc$ by contact ) wire4 ,! mo/ useful comp\nd is coal-gas1 & ?\gh its pr9cipal function appe>s to be 9 "s mann] sup]s$$ by electricity1 8gas0 is /ill too important to be put aside4 ,x c easily be obta9$ by putt+ small fragm5ts ( coal 9 ! b[l ( a tobacco-pipe1 clos+ ! b[l ) clay1 & putt+ x 9 ! fire4 ,be=e long ! gas w issue f ! /em ( ! pipe1 & may ei!r be light$ or collect$ 9 a bladd]4 ,= ! use ( ! 8million10 h[ev]1 gas is prep>$ ^u a v l>ge scale1 & is divid$ into ?ree processes--its 8=mation10 8purification10 & its 8collection0 = di/ribution to consum]s4 ,! fir/ process is c>ri$ on by means ( retorts %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cgf74 ,! fir/ portion ( ! next figure is a section ( a furnace1 ! o!r "p %[s two furnaces f ! front4 ,! foll[+ is ! mode employ$4 ,! coal is put into retorts fitt$ to ! furnace1 s t !y are surr\nd$ by ! flames1 & t]m9at+ 9 a horizontal tube call$ ! hydraulic ma91 ,e1 :i* is 9 its turn connect$ ) a pit or op5+ = ! reception ( ! t> & ammoniacal liquor1 etc41 :i* cond5ses f ! gas4 ,x !n passes up & d[n a s]ies ( tubes 9 wat]1 call$ a 8cond5s]10 & 9 ?is are res]voirs or receptacles = any t> & ammonia t rema94 ,b sulphur is /ill pres5t1 s ! gas is c>ri$ to ! purify+ app>atus 7,d 9 fig4 #cgh71 :i* consi/s ( a l>ge cyl9drical vessel air-tight1 ) an inv]t$ funnel1 ne>ly fill$ ) a mixture ( lime & wat]4 ,! gas bubbles 91 & ! sulphur unites ) ! lime1 :ile ! gas rises to ! top 7trays ( lime are us$ :5 ! gas ent]s f ! bottom74 ,! ,gasomet]1 a l>ge vessel clos$ at ! top & op5 bel[1 dips into a l>ge tr\gh ( circul> %ape4 ,! gasomet] is balanc$ by weights & *a9s1 & may be rais$ 7,see fig4 #cgi74 ,:5 q empty ! top re/s ^u ! gr\nd1 & :5 ! gas ent]s x is rais$ to ! top ( ! frame :i* supports x4 ,we h n[ our ,gasomet] full4 ,:5 ! "t comes to fill ! pipes = light+ purposes1 "s ( ! weights are remov$1 ! ,gasomet] falls d[n sl[ly1 & =ces ! gas ?r\gh ! tubes into ! ma9 supply to be di/ribut$4 ,ab\t f\r cubic feet ( gas is obta9$ f e p\nd ( coal4 ,:5 gas & air become mix$1 ! mixture is v explosive4 ,9 a h\se :]e an escape ( gas is detect$ let ! w9d[s be op5$ at ! top1 & no light introduc$ = sev]al m9utes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgf4--,retorts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgg4--,section4 ,front view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgh4--;,cond5s]4 ,purifi]4 ,gasomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgi4--;,gasomet]4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t "o ton ( good coal produces ! foll[+3-- #a ,*aldron ( coke weigh+ #a1did lbs4 #ab ,gallons ( t> 0 #ace lbs4 #ab ,gallons ( ammoniacal liquor 0 #ajj lbs4 #e1ijj ,cubic feet ( gas 0 #bia lbs4 ,loss 7wat]7 0 #bbj lbs4 ---------- ,total #b1bdj lbs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chj4--;,gasomet] ,we c ?us e/imate ! pr(its ( our gas companies at leisure4 ,! analysis ( gas made by ,pr(essor ,buns5 is z "u1 9 #ajj p>ts4 ,hydrog5 #deeh ,m>% gas #cdij ,c>bonic oxide #ffd ,olefiant gas #djh ,butyl9e #bch ,sulphide ( hydrog5 #jbi ,nitrog5 #bdf ,c>bonic acid #cfg ------ #ajjjj ,gas1 !re=e1 is v injuri\s1 = x rapidly vitiates ! atmosph]e x burns 91 & is v try+ to ! eyes1 z well z de/ructive to gilt ornam5ts4 ,t> is famili> to all read]s1 & ?\gh unpleasant to h&le or to smell1 x produces ! beautiful anil9e dyes4 ,t> pills are v efficaci\s = "s blood disord]s1 & w remove pimples1 etc41 f ! face1 & cure 8boils0 effectually4 ,if a dose ( five be tak5 fir/1 9 a day or two f\r1 & s on1 no second rem$y ne$ be appli$4 ,we h kn[n cases f9ally cur$1 & no recurr5ce ( boils ev] ensu$ aft] ?is simple rem$y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cha4--,t> manufactory ,t> is "o ( ! results left 9 ! di/illation bo? ( wood & coal3 9 places :]e wood is pl5tiful & t> 9 reque/1 x is produc$ by burn+ ! wood = t purpose2 & 9 "s ( ! pits 9 :i* *>coal is produc$1 an arrangem5t is made to collect ! t> also4 ,coal-t> & wood-t> are diff]5t 9 "s respects1 & are bo? di/ill$ to procure ! nap?as :i* be> _! respective names4 ,f wood-t> creosote is also extract$1 & x is ?is sub/ance :i* gives ! peculi> t>ry flav\rs to provisions1 su* z ham1 bacon1 or h]r+s1 cur$ or pres]v$ by be+ smok$ ov] wood fires4 ,t> is us$ z a sort ( pa9t = cov]+ wood-"w & cordage :5 mu* expos$ to wet1 :i* x resi/s bett] ?an any?+ else at ! same price2 b ! t> *iefly us$ = ^! purposes is t produc$ by burn+ fir or deal wood & cond5s+ ! t> 9 a pit bel[ ! /ack ( wood2 x is call$ ,/ockholm t>1 z x comes *iefly f t place4 ,c>bon only comb9es ) nitrog5 "u peculi> circum/ances4 ,?is indirect comb9ation is t]m$ cyanog5 7,,cn74 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,gay-,lussac1 & is us$ = ! production ( ,prussian blue4 ,hydrocyanide ( potassium 7,prussic acid7 is prep>$ by heat+ cyanide ( potassium ) sulphuric acid4 ,x is a deadly poison1 & f\nd 9 pea*-/ones4 ,free cyanog5 is a gas4 ,! bisulphide ( c>bon is a col\rless1 transp>5t liquid4 ,x w easily dissolve sulphur & phosphorus & sev]al res9s4 ,:5 phosphorus is dissolv$ 9 x1 x makes a v dang]\s 8fire10 & "o difficult to ext+ui%4 ,we mu/ n[ leave c>bon & its comb9ations1 & come to sulphur4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chb4--,sulphur furnace4 ,,sulphur is f\nd 9 a native /ate 9 ,sicily & _m o!r localities :i* are volcanic4 ,x is a yell[1 solid body1 & z x is nev] p]fectly free f e>?y matt]1 x mu/ be purifi$ be=e x c be us$4 ,x possesses nei!r ta/e nor smell1 & is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,sulphur is purifi$ 9 a retort1 ,c ,d1 :i* communicates ) a brick *amb]1 ,a4 ,! retort is plac$ ov] a furnace1 ,k1 & ! vap\r passes into ! *imney ?r\gh ! tube1 ,d1 :]e x cond5ses into f9e p[d] call$ 8fl[]s ( sulphur0 7brim/one74 ,a valve p]mits ! heat$ air to pass (f1 :ile no ext]ior air c pass 91 = explosions w\ld take place 7 ! heat$ vap\r to meet ! atmosph]ic air4 ,! dang] is avoid$ by putt+ an air res]voir outside ! *imney :i* is heat$ by ! furnace4 ,! sulphur is drawn out ?r\gh ! ap]ture1 r1 :5 deposit$ on ! floor ( ! *amb]4 ,! sulphur is ca/ into cyl9d]s & sold4 ,sulphur is soluble 9 bisulphide ( c>bon1 & is us$ z a m$ical ag5t4 ,! comp\nds ( sulphurs ) oxyg5 =m an int]e/+ s]ies4 ,!re are two anhydr\s oxides 7anhydrides71--viz41 sulphur\s & sulphuric anhydride 7,,s#b & ,,s#c74 ,!re are two notable acids =m$ by ! comb9ation ) wat]1 sulphur\s & sulphuric1 & "s o!rs1 :i*1 z 9 ! case ( nitrog51 =m a s]ies ( multiple proportions1 ! oxyg5 be+ pres5t 9 an increas+ regul>ity ( progression1 z foll[s3-- ,"n ( ,acid4 ,*emical ,=mula4 ,hypo-sulphur\s acid ,h#b,,s#b ,sulphur\s acid ,h#b,,s#c ,sulphuric acid ,h#b,,s#d ,?io-sulphuric1 or hypo-sulphuric acid ,h#b,s#b,o#c ,di?ionic acid ,h#b,s#b,o#f ,tri?ionic acid ,h#b,s#c,o#f ,tetra?ionic acid ,h#b,s#d,o#f ,p5ta?ionic acid ,h#b,s#e,o#f ,! la/ f\r are t]m$ 8poly?ionic10 because ! proportions ( sulphur v>y ) con/ant proportions ( ! o!r con/itu5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chc4--,liquefaction ( sulphuric acid4 ,! sulphur\s anhydride m5tion$ above is produc$ :5 we burn sulphur 9 ! air1 or 9 oxyg52 x may be obta9$ 9 o!r ways4 ,x is a col\rless gas1 & :5 subject$ to pressure may be liquifi$1 & cry/alliz$ at v l[ temp]ature4 ,x 0 =m]ly call$ sulphuric acid4 ,x is a p[]ful 8r$uc+ ag5t10 & a good antiseptic4 ,x dissolves 9 wat]1 & =ms ! ,h#b,,s#c1 n[ kn[n z sulphur\s acid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chd4--,retorts & receiv]s = acid4 ,sulphuric acid is a mo/ dang]\s ag5t 9 wick$ or inexp]i5c$ h&s1 & amateurs %\ld be v c>eful :5 deal+ ) x4 ,x takes ! wat] f ! moi/ air1 & f vegetable & animal sub/ances4 ,x c>bonizes & de/roys all animal tissues4 ,its discov]y is due to ,basil ,val5t9e1 9 #addj4 ,he di/ill$ sulphate ( iron1 or gre5 vitriol1 & ! result 0 8oil ( vitriol40 ,x is /ill manufactur$ 9 ?is way 9 ! ,h>tz di/rict1 & ! acid passes by retorts into receiv]s4 ,! e>!n retorts1 ,a1 are arrang$ 9 ! furnace z 9 ! illu/ration1 & ! receiv]s1 ,b1 conta9+ a little sulphuric acid1 are firmly fix$ to !m4 ,! oily br[n product fumes 9 ! air1 & is call$ 8fum+ sulphuric acid10 or ,nordhaus5 acid4 ,sulphuric acid is v mu* us$ 9 *emical manufactures1 & ! prices ( _m necess>ies1 su* z soap1 soda1 calico1 /e>91 pap]1 etc41 are 9 close relation%ip ) ! co/ & production ( sulphur1 :i* also plays an important "p 9 ! mak+ ( gunp[d]4 ,! manufacture ( ! acid is c>ri$ on 9 plat9um /ills4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #che4--;,exp]im5t to %[ ! exi/5ce ( gases 9 solution4 ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 or ! hydric sulphide 7,h#b,s71 is a col\rless & horribly-smell+ gas1 & arises f putrefy+ vegetable & animal matt] :i* conta9s sulphur4 ,! od\r ( rott5 eggs is due to ?is gas1 :i* is v dang]\s :5 brea!d 9 a pure /ate 9 dra9s1 etc4 ,x c be made by treat+ a sulphide ) sulphuric acid4 ,x is capable ( precipitat+ ! metals :5 9 solution1 & s by its aid we c discov] ! metallic +r$i5t if x be pres5t4 ,! gas is soluble 9 wat]1 & makes its pres5ce kn[n 9 c]ta9 sulphur spr+s4 ,! col\r imp>t$ to egg-spoons & fi%-knives & =ks sometimes is due to ! pres5ce ( metallic sulphides4 ,! solution is call$ hydro-sulphuric acid4 ,,phosphorus occurs 9 v small quantities1 ?\gh 9 ! =m ( phosphates we are acqua9t$ ) x pretty g5]ally1 & z su* x is absorb$ by plants1 & is useful 9 agricultural op]ations4 ,9 our organization--9 ! bra91 ! n]ves1 fle%1 & p>ticul>ly 9 bones--phosphorus is pres5t1 & likewise 9 all animals4 ,nev]!less x is highly poison\s4 ,x is usually obta9$ f ! calc9$ bones ( mammalia by obta9+ phosphoric acid by means ( act+ ^u ! bone-a% ) sulphuric acid4 ,phosphorus :5 pure is col\rless1 ne>ly transp>5t1 s(t1 & easily cut4 ,x has a /rong aff9ity = oxyg54 ,x evolves :ite vap\r 9 atmosph]ic air1 & is lum9\s2 to ?is elem5t is attributable ! lum9osity ( bones ( decay+ animal matt]4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 wat]1 & h&l$--or inde$ n h&l$--b grasp$ ) a prop] in/rum5t4 ,phosphorus is mu* us$ 9 ! manufacture ( lucif] mat*es1 & we are all aw>e ( ! gha/ly appe>ance & gho/ly pres5tm5t x gives :5 rubb$ ^u ! face & h&s 9 ! d>k4 ,9 ! ripples ( ! waves & "u ! c\nt] ( %ips at sea1 ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! ocean is v m>k$4 ,9 ,calais h>b\r we h frequ5tly notic$ x ( a v brilliant appe>ance z ! mail /eam] sl[ly came to h] moor+s4 ,?is appe>ance is due to ! pres5ce ( phosphorus 9 ! t9y animalcul ( ! sea4 ,x is also obs]vable 9 ! female gl[-worm1 & ! 8fire-fly40 ,phosphorus 0 discov]$ by ,br&t 9 #affi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chf4--,manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,x =ms two comp\nds ) oxyg5-phosphor\s acid1 ,h#b,,po#d1 & phosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d4 ,! comp\nd ) hydrog5 is well m>k$ z phosphurett$ hydrog51 & is a product ( animal & vegetable decomposition4 ,x may frequ5tly be obs]v$ 9 /agnant pools1 = :5 emitt$ x becomes lum9\s by contact ) atmosph]ic air4 ,!re is a v pretty b n altoge!r safe exp]im5t to be p]=m$ :5 phosphurett$ hydrog5 has be5 prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,heat small pieces ( phosphorus ) milk ( lime or a solution ( cau/ic pota%2 or make a pa/e ( quick-lime & phosphorus1 & put into ! flask ) "s quick-lime p[d]$4 ,fix a tube to ! neck1 & let ! o!r end be ins]t$ 9 a bas9 ( wat]4 7,see illu/ration1 fig4 #chh47 ,apply heat2 ! phosphurett$ hydrog5 w be giv5 (f1 & w em]ge f ! wat] 9 ! bas9 9 lum9\s r+s ( a v beautiful appe>ance4 ,! greate/ c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! p]=mance ( ?is v simple exp]im5t4 ,no wat] mu/ on any acc\nt come 9 contact ) ! mixture 9 ! flask4 ,if ev5 a drop or two f9d its way 9 ?r\gh ! b5t tube a trem5d\s explosion w result1 & !n ! fire g5]at$ w surely prove disa/r\s4 ,! exp]im5t c be p]=m$ 9 a *eap] & less dang]\s fa%ion by dropp+ phosphate ( lime into ! bas94 ,we /rongly recomm5d ! latt] c\rse to ! /ud5t unless he has _h "s practice 9 ! h&l+ ( ^! inflammable sub/ances1 & le>nt caution by exp]i5ce4 ,! effect :5 ! exp]im5t is prop]ly p]=m$ is v good1 ! smoke ris+ 9 a succession ( col\r$ r+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chg4--7,phosphurett$ hydrog5 & m>% gas7 ,w-o'-!-,wisp4 ,,silicon is n f\nd 9 a free /ate 9 nature1 b1 comb9$ ) oxyg51 z ,silica x con/itutes ! major portion ( our e>?1 & ev5 occurs 9 :eat /alks & bones ( animals4 ,z fl9t or qu>tz 7see ,m9]alogy7 x is v pl5tiful1 & 9 its pure/ =m is kn[n z rock cry/al1 & approa*es ! =m ( c>bon kn[n z diamond4 ,:5 sep>at$ f oxyg51 silicon is a p[d] ( greyi%-br[n appe>ance1 & :5 heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( oxyg5 =ms silicic 8acid0 aga91 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n acid to ! ta/e1 & is also t]m$ 8silica10 or 8silex40 ,x is fus$ ) great difficulty1 b ent]s into ! manufacture ( glass 9 ! =m ( s&4 ,! *emical composition ( glass is mix$ silicate ( potassium or sodium1 ) silicates ( calcium1 lead1 etc4 ,ord9>y w9d[-glass is a mixture ( silicates ( sodium & calcium2 cr[n glass conta9s calcium & silicate ( potassium4 ,cry/al glass is a mixture ( ! same silicate & lead4 ,fl9t glass is ( a heavi] composition4 ,glass c be col\r$ by copp] to a gold t+e1 blue by cobalt1 gre5 by *romium1 etc4 ,glass made on a l>ge scale is compos$ ( ! foll[+ mat]ials1 accord+ to ! k9d ( glass t is requir$4 ,fl9t glass 78cry/al07 is v heavy & mod]ately s(t1 v :ite & bright4 ,x is ess5tially a table-glass1 & 0 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ,cry/al ,palace4 ,its composition is--pure :ite sea-s&1 #eb p>ts1 pota% #ad p>ts1 oxide ( lead1 #cd p>ts #ajj4 ,plate ,glass4 ,cr[n ,glass4 ,gre5 7,bottle7 ,glass4 ,pure :ite s& #ee p>ts4 ,f9e s& #fc p>ts4 ,sea s& #hj p>ts4 ,soda #ce 0 ,*alk #g 0 ,salt #aj 0 ,nitre #h 0 ,soda #cj 0 ,lime #aj 0 ,lime #b 0 --- --- --- #ajj 0 #ajj 0 #ajj 0 ,! +r$i5ts to be made into glass 7( :atev] k9d x may be7 are ?or\ghly mix$ toge!r & ?r[n f "t to "t into l>ge crucibles plac$ 9 a circle1 ,a ,a 7fig4 #chi71 9 a furnace re/+ on buttresses1 ,b ,b1 & heat$ to :it5ess by means ( a fire 9 ! c5tre1 ,c1 bl[n by a bl[+ ma*9e1 ! tube ( :i* is se5 at ,d4 ,?is furnace is %[n 9 prospective 9 fig4 #cij4 ,! +r$i5ts melt & s9k d[n into a cle> fluid1 ?r[+ up a scum1 :i* is remov$4 ,?is cle> glass 9 ! fus$ /ate is kept at a :ite heat till all air-bubbles h disappe>$2 ! heat is !n l[]$ to a bright r$ness1 :5 ! glass assumes a consi/5ce & ductility suitable to ! purposes ( ! 8bl[]40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chh4--;,exp]im5t ) phosphurett$ hydrog54 ,glass bl[+ requires great c>e & dext]ity1 & is done by twirl+ a holl[ rod ( iron on "o end ( :i* is a globe ( melt$ glass1 ! workman bl[+ into ! o!r end all ! "t4 ,by reheat+ & twirl+ a %eet ( glass is produc$4 ,plate glass is =m$ by p\r+ ! molt5 glass ^u a table ) rais$ edges4 ,:5 cold x is gr\nd ) em]y p[d]1 & !n poli%$ by ma*9]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chi4--;,crucibles4 ,_m glass articles are ca/1 or 8/ruck-up10 by compression 9 m\lds1 & are made to resemble cut-glass1 b !y are mu* inf]ior 9 appe>ance4 ,! be/ are fir/ bl[n1 & aft]w>ds cut & poli%$4 ,( :atev] k9d ( glass ! article may be1 x is s brittle t ! slighte/ bl[ w\ld break x1 a bad quality :i* is got rid ( by a process call$ 8anneal+10 t is1 plac+ x :ile q hot on ! floor ( an ov51 :i* is all[$ to cool v gradually4 ,?is sl[ cool+ takes (f ! brittl5ess1 consequ5tly articles ( glass well anneal$ are v mu* t\gh] ?an o!rs1 & w sc>cely break 9 boil+ wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cij4--,plate-glass ca/+--br++ out ! pot4 ,! k9d g5]ally us$ = ornam5tal cutt+ is fl9t-glass4 ,decant]s & w9e-glasses are !re=e made ( x2 x is v bright1 :ite1 & easily cut4 ,! cutt+ is p]=m$ by means ( :eels ( diff]5t sizes & mat]ials1 turn$ by a treadle1 z 9 a common la!1 or by /eam p[]2 "s :eels are made ( f9e s&/one1 "s ( iron1 o!rs ( t9 or copp]2 ! edges ( "s are squ>e1or r\nd1 or %>p4 ,!y are us$ ) s& & wat]1 or em]y & wat]1 /one :eels ) wat] only4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cia4--;,glass furnace4 7,see also fig4 #cij = detail47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cib4--;,glass-cutt+4 ,9 a soluble =m silicic acid is f\nd 9 spr+s1 & ?us ent]s into ! composition ( mo/ plants & grasses1 :ile ! %ells & scales ( 8infusoria0 consi/ ( silica4 ,z silicate ( alum9a1--i4e41 clay1--x plays a v important rle 9 our porcela9 & pott]y works4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,boron is f\nd 9 volcanic di/ricts1 9 lakes z boracic acid1 9 comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,x is a br[ni%-gre51 insoluble p[d]1 9 a free /ate1 b z boracic acid x is :ite4 ,x is us$ to col\r fireworks ) ! beautiful gre5 t9ts we see4 ,soda & boracic acid comb9e to make borax 7or biborate ( soda74 ,ano!r & inf]ior quality ( ?is comb9ation is t9kal1 f\nd 9 ,?ibet4 ,borax is mu* us$ 9 art & manufactures1 & 9 glaz+ porcela94 7,symbol ,b1 ,atomic ,weight #aa74 ,,sel5ium is a v r>e elem5t4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,b]zilius 9 a sulphuric-acid factory4 ,x is n f\nd 9 a free /ate 9 nature4 ,x closely resembles sulphur 9 its prop]ties4 ,its union ) hydrog5 produces a gas1 sel5iurett$ hydrog51 :i* is ev5 m (f5sive ?an sulphurett$ hydrog54 7,symbol ,se1 ,atomic ,weight #gi74 ,,tellurium is also a r>e sub/ance g5]ally f\nd 9 comb9ation ) gold & silv]4 ,x is l bismu?1 & is lu/r\s 9 appe>ance4 ,tellurett$ hydrog5 is horrible z a gas4 ,tellurium1 l sel5ium1 sulphur1 & oxyg51 comb9es ) two atoms ( hydrog54 7,symbol ,te1 ,atomic ,weight #abi74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cic4--;,ca/+ plate-glass4 ,,ars5ic1 l tellurium1 possesses _m attributes ( a metal1 & on ! o!r h& has "s resemblance to phosphorus4 ,ars5ic is sometimes f\nd free1 b usually comb9$ ) metals1 & is r$uc$ f ! ores by roa/+2 & unit+ ) oxyg5 9 ! air1 is kn[n z 8:ite ars5ic40 ,! brilliant gre5s on pap]s1 etc41 conta9 ars5ic1 & are poison\s on t acc\nt4 ,ars5ic & hydrog5 unite 7z d sulphur & hydrog51 etc471 & produce a foetid gas ( a mo/ deadly quality4 ,?is elem5t also unites ) sulphur4 ,if p\r$ into a glass conta9+ *lor9e x w sp>kle & sc9tillate z 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #cie74 7,symbol ,z1 ,atomic ,weight #ge74 ,be=e clos+ ?is division1 & pass+ on to a brief review ( ! ,,metals1 we w\ld call att5tion to a few facts connect$ ) ! metalloids we h be5 consid]+4 ,"s1 we h se51 unite ) hydrog5 only1 z *lor9e2 "s ) two atoms ( hydrog51 z oxyg51 sulphur1 etc41 & "s ) ?ree1 z nitrog5 & phosphorus2 "s aga9 ) f\r1 z c>bon & silicon4 ,x has be5 impossible 9 ! pages we h be5 able to devote to ! ,metalloids to d m ?an m5tion ea* briefly & incompletely1 b ! /ud5t w f9d suffici5t1 we tru/1 to int]e/ him1 & to induce him to se>* f>!r1 :ile ! g5]al read] w h ga!r$ "s few facts to add to 8 /ore ( int]e/+ k4 ,we n[ pass on to ! ,metals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #cid--,! manufacture ( porcela9 9 ,*9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cie4--;,exp]im5t %[+ aff9ity betwe5 ars5ic & *lor9e4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,! ,,metals4 ,,:at ,,metals ,,are--,,*>act]i/ics ,,& ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,metals--,,classification--,,specific ,,gravity--,,descriptions4 ,we h le>nt t ! elem5ts are divid$ into metalloids & metals1 b ! l9e ( dem>cation is v fa9t4 ,x is v difficult to def9e :at a metal is1 ?\gh we c say :at x is n4 ,x is inde$ impossible to give any absolute def9ition ( a metal1 except z 8an elem5t :i* does n unite ) hydrog51 or ) ano!r metal to =m a *emical comp\nd40 ,?is def9ition has be5 lately giv5 by ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 & we may accept x z ! ne>e/ affirmative def9ition ( a metal1 ?\gh obvi\sly n q accurate4 ,a metal is usually suppos$ to be solid1 heavy1 opaque1 ductile1 malleable1 & t5aci\s2 to possess good conduct+ p[]s = heat & electricity1 & to exhibit a c]ta9 %9y appe>ance kn[n z 8metallic lu/re40 ,^! are all ! conditions1 b !y are by no means necess>y1 = v few metals possess !m all1 & _m non-metallic elem5ts possess sev]al4 ,! 8alkali0 metals are light] ?an wat]2 m]cury is a fluid4 ,! opacity ( a mass is only 9 relation to its ?ickness1 = ,f>aday beat out metals into plates s ?9 t !y became transp>5t4 ,all metals are n malleable1 nor are !y ductile4 ,t9 & lead1 = example1 h v little ductility or t5acity1 :ile bismu? & antimony h none at all4 ,c>bon is a mu* bett] conductor ( electricity ?an _m metals 9 :i* su* p[] is extremely v>i$4 ,lu/re1 aga91 ?\gh possess$ by metals1 is a *>act]i/ic ( "s non-metals4 ,s we see t :ile we c easily say :at is n a metal1 we c sc>cely def9e an actual metal1 nor dep5d ^u unv>y+ prop]ties to guide u 9 our det]m9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cif4--,lam9at]4 ,! aff9ity ( metals = oxyg5 is 9 an inv]se ratio to _! specific gravity1 z c be asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t1 :5 ! heavie/ metal w be ! lea/ ready to oxidise4 ,metals diff] 9 o!r respects1 & ?us classification & division become easi]4 ,! fusibility ( metals is ( a v wide range1 ris+ f a temp]ature bel[ z]o to ! highe/ heat obta9able 9 ! bl[-pipe1 & ev5 !n 9 ! case ( osmium !re is a difficulty4 ,:ile !re c be no "q t c]ta9 elem5ts1 iron1 copp]1 gold1 silv]1 etc41 are metals prop]1 !re are _m :i* bord] ^u ! l9e ( dem>cation v closely1 & z 9 ! case ( ars5ic ev5 occupy ! debatable l&4 ,,specific ,,gravity is ! relation :i* ! weight ( sub/ance be>s to ! weight ( an equal volume ( wat]1 z already po9t$ out 9 ,,physics4 ,! specific gravities ( ! metals v>y v mu*1 z w be se5 f ! table foll[+--wat] be+1 z usual1 tak5 z #a3-- ,alum9ium #bef ,antimony #fg ,ars5ic #f ,bismu? #ig ,cadmium #hf ,calcium #ae ,*romium #fh ,cobalt #hi ,copp] #hi ,gold #aic ,indium #gc ,iridium #baa ,iron #gh ,lead #aac ,li?ium #eic ,magnesium #agd ,manganese #h ,m]cury #ace ,molybd5um #hf ,nickel #hh ,osmium #bad ,palladium #aah ,plat9um #bae ,potassium #hfe ,rhodium #aba ,rubidium #ae ,ru!nium #aad ,silv] #aje ,sodium #igb ,/rontium #be ,?allium #aah ,t9 #gb ,titanium #ec ,tung/5 #agf ,uranium #ahd ,z9c #ga ,zircon #dc ,"s metals are !re=e light] & "s heavi] ?an wat]4 ,! table und]nea? gives ! approximate fus+ po9ts ( "s ( ! metals 7,c5tigrade ,scale7-- 7,ice melts at #j47 ,plat9um#ba ab\t #aejj ,gold 0 #abjj ,silv] 0 #ajjj ,ca/ iron #ajjj-abjj ,wr\ght iron 0 #aejj ,copp] 0 #aajj ,antimony 0 #dcb ,z9c 0 #djj ,lead 0 #ccj ,bismu? 0 #bfe ,t9 0 #bce ,sodium 0 #ig ,potassium 0 #fj ,m]cury 0 #dj ,!re are "s metals :i*1 in/ead ( fus+1--t is1 pass+ f ! solid to ! liquid /ate1--g away 9 vap\r4 ,^! are volatile metals4 ,m]cury1 potassium1 & sodium1 c be ?us di/ill$4 ,"s d n exp& ) heat1 b contract 7l ice71 antimony & bismu?1 = in/ance1 :ile air pressure has a consid]able effect ^u ! fus+ po9t4 ,"s vaporise at once )\t liquefy+2 o!rs1 su* z iron1 become s(t be=e melt+4 ,,alloys are comb9ations ( metals :i* are us$ = _m purposes1 & become h>d] 9 union4 ,amalgams are alloys 9 :i* m]cury is "o con/itu5t4 ,"s ( ! mo/ useful alloys are "u-/at$3-- ,"n ( ,alloy4 ,composition4 ,alum9ium bronze ,copp] & alum9ium4 ,bell metal ,copp] & t94 ,bronze 0 0 ,gun metal 0 0 ,brass ,copp] & z9c4 ,dut* metal 0 0 ,mosaic gold 0 0 ,ormulu 0 0 ,tombac 0 0 ,g]man silv] ,copp]1 nickel1 & z9c4 ,britannia metal ,antimony & t94 ,sold] 0 0 ,pewt] ,t9 & lead4 ,type metal ,lead & antimony 7also copp] at times74 ,%ot ,lead & ars5ic4 ,gold curr5cy ,gold & copp]4 ,silv] curr5cy ,silv] & copp]4 ,/]eotype metal ,lead1 antimony1 & bismu?4 ,metals comb9e ) *lor9e1 & produce *lorides1 ,metals 0 0 sulphur 0 0 sulphides1 ,metals 0 0 oxyg5 0 0 oxides1 & s on4 ,! metals may be class$ z foll[s 9 divisions3-- ,metals ( ! alkalies z ,,potassium1 ,,sodium1 ,,li?ium1 ,,ammonium4 ,metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s z ,,b>ium1 ,,calcium1 ,,magnesium1 ,,/rontium4 ,metals ( ! e>?s z ,,alum9ium1 ,c]ium1 ,didymium1 ,erbium1 ,gluc9ium1 ,lan?anum1 ,t]bium1 ,?orium1 ,yttrium1 ,zirconium4 ,metals prop]-- ,common ,metals z ,,iron1 ,,manganese1 ,,cobalt1 ,,nickel1 ,,copp]1 ,bismu?1 ,,lead1 ,,t91 ,,z9c1 ,,*romium1 ,antimony4 ,noble ,metals z ,,m]cury1 ,,silv]1 ,,gold1 ,,plat9um1 ,palladium1 ,rhodium1 ,ru!nium1 ,osmium1 ,iridium4 ,we _c attempt an elaborate description ( all ! metals1 b we w endeav\r to give a few p>ticul>s conc]n+ ! important ones1 leav+ _m p>ts = ,m9]alogy to supplem5t & enl>ge ^u4 ,we %all !re=e m5tion only ! mo/ useful ( ! metals 9 ?is place4 ,we w comm5ce ) ,,potassium4 ,,metals ,,( ,,! ,,alkalies4 ,,potassium has a bright1 almo/ silv]y1 appe>ance1 & is s greatly attract$ by oxyg5 t x _c be kept any:]e if t elem5t be pres5t--n ev5 9 wat]1 = combu/ion w imm$iately ensue on wat]2 & 9 air x is rapidly t>ni%$4 ,x burns ) a beautiful violet col\r1 & a v pretty exp]im5t may easily be p]=m$ by ?r[+ a piece ^u a bas9 ( wat]4 ,! fragm5t comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! wat]1 ! hydrog5 is evolv$1 & burns1 & ! potassium vap\r gives ! gas its purple or violet col\r4 ,! metal c be procur$ by pulv]iz+ c>bonate ( potassium & *>coal1 & heat+ !m 9 an iron retort4 ,! vap\r cond5ses into globules 9 ! receiv]1 :i* is surr\nd$ by ice 9 a wire basket4 ,x mu/ be collect$ & kept 9 naph?a1 or x w\ld be oxidis$4 ,potassium 0 fir/ obta9$ by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy 9 #ahjg4 ,pota% is ! oxide ( potassium1 & comes f ! 8a%es0 ( wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cig4--,prep>ation ( potassium4 ,! comp\nds ( potassium are num]\s1 & exi/ 9 nature1 & by burn+ plants we c obta9 pota% 78pe>la%074 ,nitrate ( potassium1 or nitre 7saltpetre71 7,,kno#c71 is a v important salt4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,x is a con/itu5t ( gunp[d]1 :i* consi/s ( sev5ty-five p>ts ( nitre1 fifte5 ( *>coal1 & t5 ( sulphur4 ,! hydrat$ oxide ( potassium1 or 8cau/ic pota%0 7obta9$ f ! c>bonate71 is mu* us$ 9 soap manufactories4 ,x is call$ 8cau/ic0 f its prop]ty ( caut]iz+ ! tissues4 ,iodide1 bromide1 & cyanide ( potassium1 are us$ 9 m$ic9e & photography4 ,soap is made by comb9+ soda 7= h>d soap71 or pota% 7= s(t soap71 ) oil or tall[4 ,yell[ soap has turp5t9e1 & occasionally palm oil1 add$4 ,oils & fats comb9e ) metallic oxides1 & oxide ( lead ) olive oil & res9 =ms ! adhesive plai/] ) :i* we are all famili> :5 ! mixture is spread ^u l954 ,fats boil$ ) pota% or soda make soaps2 ! glyc]9e is sometimes set free & purifi$ z we h x4 ,sometimes x is reta9$ = glyc]9e soap4 ,fancy soap is only common soap col\r$4 ,:ite & br[n ,w9dsor are ! same soap--9 ! latt] case br[n$ to imitate age6 ,soap is q soluble 9 spirits1 b 9 ord9>y wat] x is n s greatly soluble1 & produces a la!r1 ow+ to ! lime 9 ! wat] be+ pres5t 9 m or less quantity1 to make ! wat] m or less 8h>d40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cih4--,ma*9e = cutt+ soap 9 b>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cii4--,soap-boil+ h\se4 ,,sodium is n unlike potassium1 n only 9 appe>ance1 b 9 its attributes2 x c be obta9$ f ! c>bonate1 z potassium is obta9$ f its c>bonate4 ,soda is ! oxide ( sodium1 b ! mo/ common & useful comp\nd ( sodium is ! *loride1 or common salt1 :i* is f\nd 9 m9es 9 ,engl&1 ,pol&1 & else:]e4 ,salt may also be obta9$ by ! evaporation ( sea wat]4 ,rock salt is got at ,salzburg1 & ! ,g]man salt m9es & works produce a l>ge quantity4 ,! ,c>bonate ( ,soda is manufactur$ f ! *loride ( sodium1 al?\gh x c be procur$ f ! salsoda plants by burn+4 ,! *loride ( sodium is conv]t$ into sulphate1 & !n ignit$ ) c>bonate ( lime & *>coal4 ,! soluble c>bonate is extract$ 9 w>m wat]1 & sold 9 cry/als z soda1 or 7anhydr\s7 8soda a%40 ,! l>ge quantity ( hydro*loric acid produc$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! process is us$ 9 ! process ( mak+ *loride ( lime4 ,a few ye>s back1 soda 0 got f ,hung>y & v>i\s o!r c\ntries :]e x exi/s z a natural effloresc5ce on ! %ores ( "s lakes1 also by burn+ sea-we$s1 especially ! common bladd] wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus71 ! a%es ( :i* 7 melt$ into masses1 & came to m>ket 9 v>i\s /ates ( purity4 ,! bi-c>bonate ( soda is obta9$ by pass+ c>bonic acid gas ov] ! c>bonate cry/als4 ,soda does n attract moi/ure f ! air4 ,x is us$ 9 wa%+1 9 glass manufactories1 9 dye+1 soap-mak+1 etc4 ,sulphate ( ,soda is 8,glaub]'s ,salt02 x is also employ$ 9 glass-mak+4 ,mix$ ) sulphuric acid & wat]1 x =ms a freez+ mixture4 ,glass1 z we h se51 is made ) silicic acid 7s&71 soda1 potassa1 oxide ( lead1 & lime1 & is an artificial silicate ( soda4 ,,li?ium is ! lighte/ ( metals1 & =ms ! l9k betwe5 alkal9e & ! alkal9e e>? metals4 ,! salts are f\nd 9 _m places 9 solution4 ,! *loride :5 decompos$ by electricity yields ! metal4 ,c,,sium & ,,rubidium require no detail$ notice f u4 ,!y 7 fir/ f\nd 9 ! sol> spectrum1 & resemble potassium4 ,,ammonium is only a conjectural metal4 ,ammonia1 ( :i* we h already treat$1 is s l a metallic oxide t *emi/s h come to ! conclusion t its comp\nds conta9 a metallic body1 :i* !y h nam$ hypo!tically ,,ammonium4 ,x is usually class$ among/ ! alkal9e metals4 ,! salts ( ammonia are important1 & h already be5 m5tion$4 ,muriate 7*loride7 ( ammonia1 or sal-ammoniac1 is analog\s to *loride ( sodium & *loride ( potassium4 ,x is decompos$ by heat+ x ) slak$ lime1 & !n gase\s ammonia is giv5 (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djj4--,mottl$ soap-frames4 ,,! ,,metals ,,( ,,! ,,alkal9e ,,e>?s4 ,,b>ium is ! fir/ ( ! f\r metals we h to notice 9 ?is gr\p1 & w n deta9 u long1 = x is little kn[n 9 a free condition4 ,its mo/ important comp\nd is heavy sp> 7sulphate ( b>yta71 :i*1 :5 p[d]$1 is employ$ z a :ite pa9t4 ,! oxide ( b>ium1 ,ba,o1 is t]m$ b>yta4 ,nitrate ( ,b>yta is us$ = 8gre5 fire10 :i* is made z foll[s3--,sulphur1 tw5ty p>ts2 *lorate ( potassium1 ?irty-?ree p>ts2 & nitrate ( b>yta1 eighty p>ts 7by weight74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dja4--,soda furnace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,calcium =ms a consid]able quantity ( our e>?'s cru/4 ,x is ! metal ( lime1 :i* is ! oxide ( calcium4 ,9 a metallic /ate x possesses no great int]e/1 b its comb9ations are v important to u4 ,lime is1 ( c\rse1 famili> to all4 ,x is obta9$ by evolv+ ! c>bonic acid f c>bonate ( lime 7,ca,o74 ,! prop]ties ( ?is lime are its :ite appe>ance1 & x develops a consid]able am\nt ( heat :5 mix$ ) wat]1 comb9+ to make hydrate ( lime1 or 8slak$ lime40 ,?is soon crumbles into p[d]1 & z a mort> attracts ! c>bonic acid f ! air1 by :i* means x assumes ! c>bonate & v solid =m1 :i* r5d]s x valuable = cem5t & mort>1 :i*1 :5 mix$ ) s&1 h>d5s4 ,cau/ic lime is us$ 9 :itewa%+1 etc4 ,c>bonate ( ,lime 7,ca,c,o#c7 occurs 9 nature 9 v>i\s =ms1 z lime/one1 *alk1 m>ble1 etc4 ,calc-sp> 7arragonite7 is col\rless1 & occurs z cry/als4 ,m>ble is :ite 7sometimes col\r$ by metallic oxides71 h>d1 & granul>4 ,*alk is s(t & pulv]iz+4 ,x occurs 9 m\nta9\s masses1 & 9 ! t9ie/ %ells1 = c>bonate ( lime is ! ma9 compon5t ( ! %ells ( ! cru/acea1 ( corals1 & ( ! %ell ( ! egg2 x ent]s likewise into ! composition ( bones1 & h5ce we mu/ reg>d x z "o ( ! necess>y con/itu5ts ( ! food ( animals4 ,x is an almo/ inv>iable con/itu5t ( ! wat]s we meet ) 9 ,nature1 conta9+1 z !y always d1 a portion ( c>bonic acid1 :i* has ! p[] ( dissolv+ c>bonate ( lime4 ,b :5 g5tly w>m$1 ! volatile gas is expell$1 & ! c>bonate ( lime deposit$ 9 ! =m ( :ite incru/ations ^u ! bottom ( ! vessel1 :i* are p>ticul>ly obs]v$ on ! bottoms ( tea-kettles1 & if ! wat] conta9s a l>ge quantity ( calc>e\s matt]1 ev5 our wat]-bottles & dr9k+-glasses become cov]$ ) a ?9 film ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,^! depositions may readily be remov$ by p\r+ into ! vessels a little dilute hydro*loric acid1 or "s /rong v9eg>1 :i* 9 a %ort "t dissolves ! c>bonate ( lime4 ,sulphate ( ,lime 7,ca,s,o#d7 is f\nd 9 consid]able masses1 & is commonly kn[n "u ! "n ( ,gypsum4 ,x occurs ei!r cry/alliz$ or granulat$1 & is ( dazzl+ :it5ess2 9 ! latt] =m x is t]m$ ,alaba/]1 :i* is s s(t z to admit ( be+ cut ) a *isel1 & is admirably adapt$ = v>i\s k9ds ( works ( art4 ,gypsum conta9s wat] ( cry/allization1 :i* is expell$ at a g5tle heat4 ,b :5 ignit$1 gr\nd1 & mix$ into a pa/e ) wat]1 x acquires ! prop]ty ( ent]+ into *emical comb9ation ) x1 & =m+ ! orig9al hydrate1 :i* 9 a %ort "t becomes p]fectly solid4 ,?us x (f]s to ! arti/ a highly valuable mat]ial = prep>+ ! well-kn[n pla/] ( ,p>is figures1 & by its use ! noble/ /atues ( anci5t & mod]n art h n[ be5 plac$ )9 ! rea* ( all4 ,gypsum1 moreov]1 has receiv$ a valuable application z manure4 ,9 wat] x is slightly soluble1 & imp>ts to x a disagreeable & some:at bitt]i%1 e>?y ta/e4 ,x is call$ 8sel5ite0 :5 transp>5t4 ,phosphate ( ,lime con/itutes ! pr9cipal mass ( ! bones ( animals1 & is ext5sively employ$ 9 ! prep>ation ( phosphorus2 9 ! =m ( gr\nd bones x is likewise us$ z a manure4 ,x appe>s to belong to ^? m9]al con/itu5ts :i* are ess5tial to ! nutrition ( animals4 ,x is f\nd 9 corn & c]eals1 & us$ 9 mak+ bread2 s we d]ive ! phosphorus :i* is s useful to our sy/em4 ,*loride ( ,lime is a :ite p[d] smell+ ( *lor9e1 & is produc$ by pass+ ! gas ov] ! hydrate ( lime spread on trays = ! purpose4 ,x is ! well-kn[n 8blea*+ p[d]40 ,x is also us$ z a dis9fectant4 ,! ,fluoride ( ,calcium is ,d]by%ire sp>1 or 8,blue ,john40 ,fluor sp> is g5]ally ( a purple hue4 ,we may add t h>d wat] c be s(t5$ by add+ a little p[d]$ lime to x4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,magnesium sometimes f9ds a place ) ! o!r metals1 = x be>s a resemblance to z9c4 ,magnesium may be prep>$ by heat+ its *loride ) sodium4 ,salt is =m$1 & ! metal is procur$4 ,x burns v brightly1 & =ms an oxide ( magnesia 7,mg,o74 ,magnesium appe>s 9 ! =mation ( m\nta9s occasionally4 ,x is ductile & malleable1 & may be easily melt$4 ,c>bonate ( ,magnesia1 comb9+ ) c>bonate ( lime1 =m ! ,dolomite ,hills4 ,:5 pure1 ! c>bonate is a light p[d]1 & :5 ! c>bonic acid is tak5 f x by burn+ x is call$ ,calc9$ ,magnesia4 ,! ,sulphate ( ,magnesia occurs 9 sea-wat]1 & 9 sal9e spr+s su* z ,epsom4 ,x is call$ 8,epsom ,salts40 ,magnesium wire burns brightly1 & may be us$ z an illum9at+ ag5t = f9al sc5es 9 private !atricals4 ,magnesite w be m5tion$ among ,m9]als4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,/rontium is a r>e metal1 & is p>ticul>ly useful 9 ! composition ( 8r$-fire40 ,!re are ! c>bonate & sulphate ( /rontium2 ! latt] is kn[n z ,cele/9e4 ,! r$ fire above ref]r$ to c be made z foll[s1 9 a dry mixture4 ,t5 p>ts nitrate ( /rontia1 #a p>ts *lorate ( potassium1 #c p>ts ( sulphur1 #a "p sulphide ( antimony1 & "p *>coal4 ,mix well )\t moi/ure1 enclose 9 t\* pap]1 & burn4 ,a gorge\s crimson fire w result4 ,,metals ,,( ,,! ,,e>?s4 ,,alum9ium 7,alum9um7 is l gold 9 appe>ance :5 9 alloy ) copp]1 & c be procur$ f its *loride by decomposition ) electricity4 ,x occurs l>gely 9 nature 9 composition ) clays & slates4 ,its oxide1 alum9a 7,al#b,o#c71 composes a numb] ( m9]als1 & accord+ly =ms a great mass ( ! e>?4 ,alum9a is pres5t 9 v>i\s =ms 7see ,m9]als7 9 ! e>?1 all ( :i* w be m5tion$ "u ,cry/allography & ,m9]alogy4 ,! o!r n9e metals 9 ?is class d n call = special notice4 ,,heavy ,,metals ,,iron1 :i* is ! mo/ valuable ( all our metals1 may fitly head our li/4 ,s _m useful articles are made ( x1 t )\t consid]ation any "o c "n tw5ty4 ,! arts ( peace & ! glories ( w> are all produc$ ) ! assi/ance ( iron1 & its occurr5ce ) coal has r5d]$ u ! greate/ s]vice1 & plac$ u at ! head ( nations4 ,x occurs native 9 meteoric /ones4 ,iron is obta9$ f c]ta9 ores 9 ,engl& & ,sw$51 & ^! conta9 oxyg5 & iron 7see ,m9]alogy74 ,we h ?us to drive away ! =m] to obta9 ! latt]4 ,?is is done by putt+ ! ores 9 small pieces into a bla/ furnace 7fig4 #djb7 mix$ ) lime/one & coal4 ,! process ( sev]+ ! metal f its ores is t]m$ smelt+1 ! air suppli$ to ! furnace be+ w>m$1 & t]m$ ! 8hot bla/40 ,! 8cold bla/0 is sometimes us$4 ,! ores :5 dug f ! m9e are g5]ally /amp$ into p[d]1 !n 8roa/$10--t is1 made hot1 & kept s = "s "t to drive (f wat]1 sulphur1 or ars5ic1 :i* w\ld prev5t ! 8fluxes0 act+ prop]ly4 ,! fluxes are sub/ances :i* w mix )1 melt1 & sep>ate ! matt]s to be got rid (1 ! *ief be+ *>coal1 coke1 & lime/one4 ,! ore is !n mix$ ) ! flux1 & ! :ole rais$ to a great heat2 z ! metal is sep>at$ x melts1 runs to ! bottom ( ! 8smelt+ furnace10 & is drawn (f into m\lds made ( s&2 x is ?us ca/ into %ort ?ick b>s call$ 8pigs10 s we he> ( pig-iron1 & pig-lead4 ,iron is smelt$ f 8iron/one10 :i* is mix$ ) coke & lime/one4 ,! heat requir$ to smelt iron is s v great1 t a /eam-eng9e is n[ g5]ally employ$ to bl[ ! furnace4 7,be=e ! inv5tion ( ! /eam-eng9e1 wat]-mills 7 us$ = ! same purpose47 ,! smelt+ is conduct$ 9 :at is call$ a bla/ furnace4 ,:5 ! metal has all be5 8r$uc$10 or melt$1 & run d[n to ! bottom ( ! furnace1 a hole is made1 out ( :i* x runs into ! m\lds2 ?is is call$ 8tapp+ ! furnace40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djb4--;,bla/ furnace4 ,smelt+ is (t5 conf\nd$ ) melt+1 z ! names are some:at alike1 b ! processes are entirely diff]5t2 9 melt+1 ! metal is simply liquefi$1 9 smelt+1 ! metal has to be produc$ f ores :i* (t5 h no appe>ance ( conta9+ any1 z 9 ! case ( iron/one1 :i* looks l br[n clay4 ,! cone ( ! furnace1 ,a1 is l9$ ) fire-bricks1 i i1 :i* is encas$ by a l9+1 l l2 outside are m fire-bricks1 & !n masonry1 m n2 ,c is ! ?roat ( ! furnace2 ,d ! *imney4 ,! l[] "p1 ,b1 is call$ ! bo%es4 ,z soon z ! ore 9 ! furnace has become ignit$ ! c>bon & oxyg5 unite & =m c>bonic acid1 :i* escapes1 & ! metal fuses at la/ & runs away4 ,! coal & ore are cont9ually add$ ye> aft] ye>4 ,! glassy scum call$ 8slag 8 protects ! molt5 iron f oxidation4 ,! metal drawn f ! bla/ furnace is 8pig iron10 or 8ca/0 iron1 & conta9s c>bon4 ,?is k9d ( iron is us$ = ca/+ op]ations1 & runs into s&-m\lds4 ,x contracts v little :5 cool+4 ,x is h>d & brittle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djc4--;,g5]al f\ndry1 ,woolwi* ,ars5al4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djd4--,wire roll]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dje4--;,cutt+ edges4 ,b> ,iron is ! almo/ pure metal4 ,x is rem>kably t5aci\s1 & may be drawn into v f9e wire or roll$4 ,b x is n h>d en\gh = tools4 ,x is difficult to fuse1 & mu/ be weld$ by hamm]+ at a r$ heat4 ,wire-draw+ is p]=m$ by tak+ ! metal z a b>1 & pass+ x betwe5 roll]s 7fig4 #djd71 :i* flatt5s x1 & !n betwe5 a new set1 :i* =m cutt+ edges on ! roll$ plate 7fig4 #dje71 ! projections ( "o set fitt+ into ! holl[s ( ! o!r closely z 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! /rips ( metal come out at ! ap]ture se5 at ,a 9 ! next illu/ration4 ,^! rods are drawn ?r\gh a s]ies ( dim9i%+ holes 9 a /eel plate1 occasionally be+ heat$ to keep x s(t & ductile4 ,:5 ! wire has got to a c]ta9 f95ess x is atta*$ to a cyl9d] & drawn away1 at ! same "t be+ w\nd r\nd ! cyl9d] ov] a small fire4 ,"s metals c be drawn mu* f9] ?an o!rs4 ,gold wire c be obta9$ ( a 8?ickness0 7or ?9ness7 ( only ! #e1jjj? "p ( an in*1 #eej feet weigh+ "o gra96 ,b plat9um has exce$$ ?is m>vell\s ?9ness1 & wire ! #cj1jjj? "p ( an in* has be5 produc$4 ,ductility & malleability are n always f\nd 9 ! same metal 9 proportion4 ,! sizes ( wires are gaug$ by ! in/rum5t %[n 9 ! m>g94 ,! f>!r ! wire w g into ! groove ! small] its 8size40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djf4--,roll]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djg4--,wire size4 ,/eel conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon1 g5]ally ab\t #a to #b p] c5t4 ,ca/ /eel is prep>$ f ca/ iron4 ,/eel f b>-iron has c>bon add$1 & is t]m$ b>-/eel4 ,! process is call$ 8cem5tation10 & is c>ri$ on by pack+ ! b>s ( iron 9 brick-"w boxes1 ) a mixture ( salt & soot1 or ) *>coal1 :i* is t]m$ 8cem5t40 ,/eel is really a c>bide ( iron1 & ,mr4 ,bessem] f\nd$ 8 process ( mak+ /eel by bl[+ out ! excess ( c>bon f ! iron1 s t ! prop] am\nt--#ae p] c5t4--%\ld rema94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djh4--;,co>se wire-draw+4 ,a brief summ>y ( ! ,bessem] process may be int]e/+4 ,if a b> ( /eel z s(t z iron be made r$-hot & plung$ into cold wat]1 x w become v h>d4 ,if x be !n g5tly heat$ x w become less h>d1 & is !n fitt$ = surgical in/rum5ts4 ,! v>i\s %ades ( /eel are c>efully wat*$1--! *ange ( col\r be+ due to ! v>y+ ?ickness ( ! oxide2 = we "k t :5 light falls ^u v ?9 films ( a sub/ance1--soap-bubbles1 = in/ance1--! light reflect$ f ! "u & upp] surfaces int]f]e1 & cause col\r1 :i* v>ies ) ! ?ickness ( ! film4 ,^! col\rs 9 /eel correspond to diff]5t temp]atures1 & ! 8temp]0 ( ! /eel dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature x has rea*$4 ,! foll[+ table extract$ f ,haydn's 8,diction>y ( ,sci5ce0 gives ! 8temp]10 ! col\r1 & ! uses ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dji4--;,f9e wire-draw+4 ,temp]ature ,col\r4 ,uses ( ,/eel4 ,c5t4 ,fahr4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #bbj #dcj ,fa9t yell[ ,lancets4 #bcb #dej ,pale /raw ,be/ razors & surgical in/rum5ts4 #bdc #dgj ,yell[ ,ord9>y razors1 p5-knives1 etc4 #bed #dij ,br[n ,small %e>s1 scissors1 cold *isels1 etc4 #bfe #eaj ,br[n & purple ,axes1 pocket-knives1 plane-irons1 etc4 spots #bgg #ecj ,purple ,table-knives1 etc4 #bhh #eej ,light blue ,swords1 wat*-spr+s1 etc4 #bic #efj ,full blue ,f9e saws1 dagg]s1 etc4 #caf #fjj ,d>k blue ,h& & pit saws4 ,! ,bessem] process transf]s ! metal into a vessel 9 :i* !re are tubes1 ?r\gh :i* air is =c$1 :i* produces a mu* great] heat ?an a bell[s does4 ,?us 9 ! process ! c>bon ( ! iron acts z fuel to ma9ta9 ! fusion1 & at ! same "t by ! bubbl+ ( ! c>bonic acid mixes ! molt5 iron ?or\ghly4 ,dur+ ! bubbl+ up ( ! :ole mass ( iron1 & ! extreme elevation ( temp]ature caus$ by ! union ( ! c>bon ( ! impure iron ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 ! oxide ( iron is =m$1 & z fa/ z x =ms fuses into a sort ( glass2 ?is unites ) ! e>?y matt]s ( ! 8impure0 iron1 & floats on ! upp] "p z a flux1 ?us ridd+ ! 8ca/ iron0 ( all its impurities1 ) no o!r fuel ?an t conta9$ 9 ! metal itself1 & 9 ! air us$4 ,:5 ! flame issu+ f ! 8conv]t]0 contracts & *anges its col\r1 !n ! "t is kn[n to h arriv$ :5 ! iron is 8 de-c>boniz$40 ,! am\nt ( c>bon necess>y is artificially add$1 ebullition takes place1 a flame ( c>bonic oxide comes out1 & ! metal is !n run into +ots4 ,! comp\nds ( iron :i* are soluble 9 wat] h a peculi> ta/e call$ *alybeate 7l ink74 ,_m m9]al spr+s are s flav\r$1 & ta/e1 z ! immortal ,samuel ,well] put x1 8l w>m flat-irons40 ,iron is frequ5tly us$ z a m$ic9e to r5ew ! blood globules4 ,protoxide ( ,iron is kn[n only 9 comb9ation4 ,sesqui-,oxide ( ,iron is 8r$ iron/one40 ,p[d]$ x is call$ ,engli% r\ge1 a pigm5t n altoge!r =eign to our use4 ,9 a pure /ate x is a rem$y = ars5ical poison+1 & is really ! 8ru/0 ^u iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daj4--;,bessem]'s process4 ,bisulphide ( ,iron is iron pyrites1 & is cry/all9e4 ,*loride ( ,iron is dissolv$ f iron ) hydro*loric acid4 ,x is us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,cyanide ( ,iron makes1 ) cyanide ( potassium1 ! well-kn[n prussiate ( pota% 7f]ro-cyanide ( potassium71 :i*1 :5 heat$1 precipitates ,prussian blue 7cyanog5 & iron74 ,! ,sulphate ( ! ,protoxide is kn[n z copp]as1 or gre5 vitriol1 & is appli$ to ! prep>ation ( ,prussian blue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manganese is f\nd ext5sively1 b n 9 any l>ge quantities1 9 "o place2 iron ore conta9s x4 ,x is v h>d to fuse1 & is easily oxidis$4 ,! b9oxide is us$ to obta9 oxyg51 & :5 treat$ ) potassium & dilut$1 x becomes ! p]manganate ( potassium1 & is us$ z 8,condy's fluid40 ,x readily oxides organic matt]s1 & is ?us a dis9fectant4 ,x cry/allizes 9 long1 deep1 r$ ne$les1 :i* are dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,x is a /&>d laboratory te/4 ,!re are o!r comp\nds1 b 9 ^! pages we ne$ n detail !m4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cobalt & ,,nickel occur toge!r4 ,!y are h>d1 brittle1 & fusible4 ,! salts ( cobalt produce beautiful col\rs1 & ! *loride yields an 8invisible0 or sympa!tic ink4 ,! oxide ( cobalt =ms a blue pigm5t = /a9+ glass :i* is call$ 8smalt40 ,nickel is *iefly us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ,g]man silv] & electro-plat+4 ,! salts ( nickel are gre54 ,nickel is difficult to melt1 & always is "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( meteoric iron1 :i* falls f ! sky 9 arolites4 ,x is magnetic l cobalt1 & is extract$ f ! ore call$ kupf]-nickel4 ,a small ,unit$-,/ates co9 is t]m$ a 8nickel40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,copp] is ! next metal we h to notice4 ,x has be5 kn[n = c5turies4 ,x is enc\nt]$ native 9 _m places4 ,! ,corni% copp] ore is ! copp] pyrites4 ,! fumes ( ! smelt+ works are v injuri\s1 conta9+1 z !y d1 ars5ic & sulphur4 ,! gr\nd ne> ! m9es is usually b>e ( vegetation 9 consequ5ce ( ! 8smoke40 ,%eet copp] is work$ into _m dome/ic ut5sils1 & ! alloy ) z9c1 t]m$ ,brass1 is bo? useful & ornam5tal4 ,r$ brass is beat5 into ?9 leaves1 & is by "s suppos$ to be 8gold leaf02 x is us$ 9 decorative "w4 ,bronze is also an alloy ( copp]1 z are gun-metal1 bell-metal1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daa4--,native copp]4 ,next to silv]1 copp] is ! be/ conductor ( electricity we h4 ,x is v h>d & t\gh1 yet ela/ic1 & possesses malleability & ductility 9 a high degree4 ,x =ms two oxides1 & !re are sev]al sulphides2 ! pr9cipal ( ! latt] are f\nd native1 & work$ z ores4 ,! sulphate ( copp] is t]m$ blue vitriol1 & is us$ 9 calico-pr9t+1 & f x all ! 7copp]7 pigm5ts are d]iv$4 ,x is also us$ 9 solution by agriculturi/s to protect :eat f insects4 ,:5 copp] or its alloys are expos$ to air & wat]1 a c>bonate ( copp] =ms1 :i* is t]m$ v]digris4 ,all copp] salts are poison\s2 :ite ( eggs is an excell5t rem$y 9 su* cases ( poison+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lead is obta9$ f gal5a1 a sulphide ( lead4 ,x is a s(t & easily-work$ metal4 ,:5 fre%ly cut x has q a bright appe>ance1 :i* is quickly t>ni%$4 ,silv] is (t5 pres5t 9 lead ore1 & is extract$ by ,pattison's process1 :i* consi/s 9 ! adaptation ( ! k t lead conta9+ silv] becomes solid1 aft] melt+1 at a l[] temp]ature ?an lead does :5 pure4 ,pure lead !re=e solidifies soon]4 ,"o great use ( lead is = our dome/ic wat]-pipes1 :i* rem9d u 9 w9t] ( _! pres5ce s disagreeably4 ,%ot is made f lead1 & bullets are ca/ f ! same metal4 ,%ot-mak+ is v simple1 & be=e ! days ( bree*-load+ guns & c>tridges1 no d\bt _m read]s h ca/ bullets 9 ! kit*5 & run !m into ! m\ld ov] a bas9 ( wat] or a box ( s&4 ,= sport+ purposes lead is mix$ ) ars5ic1 & :5 x is melt$ x is p\r$ ?r\gh a sort ( sieve 7z 9 ! cut7 at ! top ( a high t[]4 7,see figs4 #dac & #dad74 ,! latt] illu/ration gives ! section ( ! %ot t[]2 ,a is ! furnace1 ,b is ! tank = melt+ ! lead1 & ! metal is p]mitt$ by ! workman at ,c to run ?r\gh ! sieve 9 f9e /reams4 ,z ! lead falls x congeals into drops1 :i* are receiv$ 9 wat] bel[ to cool !m4 ,!y are1 ( c\rse1 n all r\nd1 & mu/ be sort$4 ,?is op]ation is p]=m$ by plac+ !m on a bo>d tilt$ up1 & "u :i* are two boxes4 ,! r\nd %ot ru% ov] ! fir/ holes & drop into ! second box1 b ! unev5 ones are caught lagg+1 & drop into box ,no4 #a4 ,!y are accord+ly s5t to ! furnace aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dab4--,%ot t[]4 ,! next process is to sort ! good %ot = size4 ,?is is done by sieves--"o hav+ holes a little l>g] ?an ! size ( %ot requir$4 ,?is sieve passes ?r\gh x all ( ! "r size & small]1 & keeps ! bigg] ones4 ,^? t h pass$ ?is exam9ation are !n put into ano!r sieve1 :i* has holes 9 x a little small] ?an ! size ( %ot want$4 ,?is sieve reta9s ! "r %ot1 & lets ! small] sizes pass1 & s on4 ,! %ot are siz$ & numb]$1 glaz$ by roll+ !m 9 a b>rel ) graphite1 & !n !y are ready = use4 ,bullets are made by ma*9]y by ! ?\s&1 & made up into c>tridges ) great spe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dac4--,sieve = mak+ %ot4 ,! comp\nds ( lead are also poison\s1 & produce 8colic10 to :i* pa9t]s are subject4 ,r$ lead1 or m9ium1 is a comp\nd ( ! protoxide & ! b9oxide1 & may be f\nd native4 ,! =m] oxide is li?>ge2 :ite lead1 or ! c>bonate ( lead1 is a pa9t1 & is easily obta9$ by pass+ a /ream ( c>bonic acid into a solution ( acetate ( lead4 ,x is us$ z a basis ( _m pa9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dad4--,section ( %ot t[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dae4--,prep>+ lead = bullets4 ,,t9 is ano!r well-kn[n metal4 ,x is m5tion$ by ,moses4 ,x possesses a silv]-l lu/re1 & is n liable to be oxidis$4 ,! only really important ore is call$ ,t9/one1 f :i* ! oxyg5 is sep>at$1 & ! metal rema9s4 ,cornwall has ext5sive t9 m9es4 ,t9 is malleable & ductile1 & c be beat5 into foil or 8silv] leaf10 or drawn into wire4 ,x prev5ts oxidation ( iron if ! latt] be cov]$ ) x1 & = t9n+ copp] vessels = cul9>y purposes4 ,! ,romans f\nd t9 9 ,cornwall1 & ! t]m 8,/ann]ies0 0 appli$ to ! c\rts ( ju/ice among ! t9 m9]s 9 ,edw>d ! ,fir/'s "t4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! alloys ( t94 ,! oxides ( t91 8,/ann\s0 & 8,/annic10 are useful to dy]s4 ,! latt] is ! t9/one 7,sn,o#b74 ,sulphide ( t9 is call$ 8,mosaic gold10 & is mu* us$ = decorative purposes4 ,,z9c is procur$ f calam9e1 or c>bonate ( z9c1 & bl5de1 or sulphide ( z9c4 ,x has = "s ye>s be5 us$ = _m purposes = :i* lead 0 once employ$1 z x is *eap & light4 ,z9c is a h>d metal ( a greyi% col\r1 n easily b5t1 & r brittle2 b :5 made ne>ly r$-hot1 x c be roll$ out into %eets or beat5 into =m by ! hamm]4 ,z9c is ab\t six-&-?ree-qu>t] times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,l _m o!r metals1 x is volatile 7:5 heat$ to a c]ta9 ext5t x passes (f into vap\r71 & ! probable reason t x 0 n kn[n or us$ ( old is t x 0 lo/ 9 ! attempt to smelt its ores4 ,z9c is n[ obta9$ by a sort ( di/illation2 ! ores are mix$ ) ! flux 9 a l>ge e>!n crucible or pot4 ,we h already notic$ ! alloy ( z9c ) copp] 7brass71 & ! use ( z9c to galvanize iron by cov]+ ! latt] ) a coat+ ( z9c 9 a ba? is some:at analog\s to electro-plat+4 ,! metal is l>gely us$ z ! positive elem5t 9 galvanic batt]ies1 & = ! production ( hydrog5 9 ! laboratory4 ,z9c =ms "o oxide 7,zn,o71 us$ = z9c-:ite4 ,! sulphate ( z9c is :ite vitriol1 & ! *loride ( z9c is an 8antiseptic40 ,c]ta9 prep>ations ( ! metal are us$ 9 m$ic9e z 8o9tm5ts0 or 8wa%es10 & are ( use 9 inflammation ( ! eyelids4 ,,*romium4 ,?is 8metallic elem5t0 is almo/ unkn[n 9 ! metallic /ate4 ,b al?\gh little kn[n1 ! beautiful col\rs ( its comp\nds make x a v int]e/+ /udy4 ,! v "n leads "o to expect some?+ diff]5t to ! o!r metals--*roma1 col\r4 ,! metal is procur$ f :at is kn[n z *rome-iron/one1 a comb9ation ( protoxide ( iron & sesqui-oxide ( *romium 7,fe,o,cr#b,o#c74 ,by ignition ) potassium we get *romic acid & *romate ( potassium1 a yell[ salt :i* is us$ to make ! o!r comp\nds ( *romium4 ,! metal is by no means easy to fuse4 ,sesqui-,oxide ( ,*romium is a f9e gre5 p[d] employ$ 9 pa9t+ porcela94 ,*romate ( ,lead is t]m$ 8*rome yell[10 & 9 its v>ieties is employ$ z a pa9t4 ,*romate ( ,m]cury is a beautiful v]milion4 ,!re are num]\s o!r comb9ations :i* ne$ n be m5tion$ "h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daf4--,type-ca/+4 ,,antimony 0 discov]$ by ,basil ,val5t9e4 ,! ,lat9 t]m is ,/ibium1 h5ce its symbol1 ,sb4 ,x is v cry/all9e1 & ( a peculi> blui%-:ite t9t4 ,x w take fire at a c]ta9 high temp]ature1 & c be us$ = ! manufacture ( 8,b5gal ,lights10 ) nitre & sulphur 9 ! proportions ( antimony 8"o10 ! o!rs two & ?ree respectively4 ,! comp\nds ( antimony are us$ 9 m$ic9e1 & are dang]\s :5 tak5 )\t advice4 ,!y act z emetics if tak5 9 l>ge quantities4 ,our 8t>t> emetic0 is well kn[n4 ,antimony1 9 alloy ) lead & a little t91 =m ! type metal to :i* we are indebt$ = our pr9t+4 ,type-ca/+ is done by h&1 & requires mu* dext]ity4 ,a ladle is dipp$ into ! molt5 metal1 & ! m\ld j]k$ 9 to fill x prop]ly1 & !n ! type is remov$ & ! m\ld %ut ready = ano!r type2 & a skilful workman c p]=m ^! op]ations five hundr$ times 9 an h\r1--r m ?an eight times a m9ute1--produc+ a type ea* "t2 ?is has aft]w>ds to be f9i%$ (f by o!rs4 ,! metal ( :i* type is made consi/s ( lead & antimony2 ! antimony h>d5s x & makes x take a %>p] impression4 ,! lett]s are fir/ cut 9 /eel1 & f ^! 8dies0 ! m\lds are made 9 brass1 by /amp+1 & 9 ^! ! types are ca/4 ,/]eotype consi/s ( plates ( metal tak51 by ca/+1 f a =me ( type set up = ! purpose3 an impression 0 =m]ly c>ri$ on by pla/]-(-,p>is m\lds1 b lately :at is t]m$ ! papi]-ma* process is adopt$4 ,! pap] us$ is n[ made 9 ,engl&1 & ! prep>$ %eet is plac$ ^u ! type & beat5 ^u x4 ,pa/e is !n fill$ 9 :]e !re are blanks1 & ano!r & ?ick] %eet ( ! prep>$ pap] is plac$ ov] all1 dri$1 & press$4 ,:5 ?is is prop]ly done ! pap] is h>d5$1 & pres]ves an impression ( ! type set up4 ,! pap] m\ld is !n put into an iron box1 & molt5 metal run 94 ,9 a v %ort "t a 8/]eotype0 plate is prep>$ f ! pap]1 :i* c be us$ aga9 if necess>y4 ,! metal plate is put on ! ma*9e4 ,!re are sev]al comp\nds ( antimony1 :i*1 ?\gh valuable to *emi/s1 w\ld n be v int]e/+ to ! majority ( read]s4 ,we w !re=e at once pass to ! ,noble ,metals4 ,,! ,,noble ,,metals4 ,!re are n9e metals :i* rank "u ! above d5om9ation3--,m]cury1 ,silv]1 ,gold1 ,plat9um1 ,palladium1 ,rhodium1 ,ru!nium1 ,osmium1 ,iridium4 ,we w conf9e ourselves *iefly to ! fir/ f\r on ! li/4 ,,m]cury1 or ,,quicksilv]1 is ! fir/ ( ! metals :i* rema9 unalt]$ by exposure to atmosph]ic air1 & ?us are suppos$ to e>n _! title ( nobility4 ,m]cury is famili> to u 9 our b>omet]s1 etc41 & is fluid 9 ord9>y temp]atures1 ?\gh "o ( ! heavie/ metals we possess4 ,x is pr9cipally obta9$ f native c9nab>1 or sulphide ( m]cury 7v]milion71 & ! process ( extraction is v easy4 ,m]cury 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & is sometimes f\nd native4 ,9 ! m9es ! evil effects ( ! contact ) m]cury are app>5t4 ,?is metal =ms two oxides1--! black 7m]cur\s7 oxide1 or suboxide 7,hg#b,o71 & ! r$ 7m]curic7 oxide1 or r$ precipitate4 ,! *lorides are two1--! sub*loride1 or calomel1 & ! p]*loride1 or corrosive sublimate4 ,! sulphides correspond ) ! oxides2 ! m]curic sulphide has be5 m5tion$4 ,its crimson col\r is app>5t 9 nature1 b ! ,*9ese prep>e x 9 a p>ticul>ly beautiful =m4 ,_m amalgams are made ) m]cury1 :i* is useful 9 v>i\s ways t w at once occur to ! read]4 ,,silv] is ! :ite/ & mo/ beautiful ( metals1 & its use = our plate & ornam5ts is g5]al4 ,x is malleable & ductile1 & ! be/ conductor ( electricity & heat t we h4 ,x is n unfrequ5tly met ) 9 its native /ate1 b m g5]ally x is f\nd 9 comb9ation ) gold & m]cury1 or 9 lead1 copp]1 & antimony ores4 ,! m9es ( ,p]u & ,mexico1 ) o!r ,we/]n ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 are celebrat$--,nevada1 ,colorado1 & ,utah 9 p>ticul>4 ,! /ory ( ! silv] m9e w\ld be z int]e/+ z any n>rative ev] pr9t$4 ,! slav]y & ! dea?-roll w\ld equal 9 horror & 9 its l5g? ! t]rible records ( w> or pe/il5ce4 ,we h no opportunity "h to foll[ x1 or its k9dr$ metals ) :i* x unites1 on ! s5tim5tal side2 b 7 ! /ory ( silv] production writt5 9 full1 x w\ld be mo/ in/ructive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dag4--,native silv]4 ,silv] is f\nd ) lead 7gal5a71 :i* is !n smelt$4 ,! lead is volatiliz$1 & ! silv] rema9s4 ,x is also extract$ by ! foll[+ process1 :]e9 ! silv] & gold5 ore is cru%$ & wa%$1 & quicksilv]1 salt1 & sulphate ( copp] add$1 :ile heat is appli$ to ! mass4 ,f tank to tank ! slime fl[s1 & deposits ! metals1 :i* are put into retorts & heat$4 ,! m]cury flies (f2 ! silv] & gold rema9 9 b>s4 ,9 "s c\ntries1 z 9 ,saxony & ,s\? ,am]ica1 rec\rse is _h to ano!r process1 t ( amalgamation1 :i* dep5ds on ! easy solubility ( silv] & o!r metals 9 m]cury4 ,! ore1 aft] be+ r$uc$ to a f9e p[d]1 is mix$ ) common salt1 & roa/$ at a l[ r$ heat1 :]eby any sulphide ( silv] ! ore may conta9 is conv]t$ into *loride4 ,! mixture is !n plac$1 ) "s wat] & iron fil+s1 9 a b>rel :i* revolves r\nd its axis1 & ! :ole agitat$ = "s "t1 dur+ :i* process ! *loride ( silv] becomes r$uc$ to ! metallic /ate4 ,a portion ( m]cury is !n introduc$1 & ! agitation cont9u$4 ,! m]cury comb9es ) ! silv]1 & ! amalgam is !n sep>at$ by wa%+4 ,x is aft]w>ds press$ 9 wooll5 bags to free x f ! great] "p ( ! m]cury1 & !n heat$1 :5 ! la/ trace ( m]cury volatilizes & leaves ! silv] beh9d4 ,nitrate ( ,silv] is obta9$ :5 metallic silv] is dissolv$ 9 nitric acid4 ,x is kn[n popul>ly z lun> cau/ic1 & =ms ! base ( 8m>k+ inks40 ,*loride ( silv] is alt]$ by light1 b ! iodide ( silv] is ev5 m rapidly act$ on1 & is employ$ 9 photography4 ,fulm9at+ silv] is oxide ( silv] dige/$ 9 ammonia4 ,x is v dang]\s 9 inexp]i5c$ h&s4 ,x is also prep>$ by dissolv+ silv] 9 nitric acid1 & add+ alcohol4 ,x cools 9 cry/als4 ,fulm9at+ m]cury is prep>$ 9 ! same way4 ,,gold is ! mo/ valuable ( all metals1--! 8k+ ( metals10 z x 0 t]m$ by ! anci5ts4 ,x is always f\nd 8native10 frequ5tly ) silv] & copp]4 ,qu>tz is ! rock :]e9 x occurs4 ,f ! dis9tegration ( ^! rocks ! gold s&s ( riv]s are =m$1 & sep>at$ f ! s&s by 8wa%+40 ,9 ,au/ralia & ,cali=nia 8nuggets0 are pick$ up ( consid]able size4 ,x is a r s(t metal1 &1 be+ likewise co/ly1 is nev] us$ 9 an absolutely pure /ate4 ,co9s & jewell]y are all alloy$ ) copp] & silv] to give !m ! requisite h>dness & durability4 ,gold is extremely ductile1 & v malleable4 ,"o gra9 ( gold may be drawn into a wire five hundr$ feet 9 l5g?1 & ! metal may be beat5 into almo/ transp>5t leaves #a_/bjjjjj ( an in* 9 ?ickness6 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dah4--,native gold4 ,aqua-regia1 a mixture ( hydro*loric & nitric acids1 is us$ to dissolve gold1 :i* is solv$ only by sel5ic acid1 ?\gh ! free *lor9e w dissolve x4 ,f>aday made _m exp]im5ts z to ! relation ( gold to light4 7,see 8,phil4 ,trans410 #aheg1 p4 #ade47 ,! v>i\s uses ( gold are s well kn[n t we ne$ n occupy "t & space 9 record+ !m4 ,gild+ c be accompli%$ by imm]s+ ! articles 9 a hot solution ( *loride ( gold & bic>bonate ( pota% mix$2 b ! electro process is t n[ 9 use1 by :i* ! gold precipitates on ! article to be plat$4 ,we h already describ$ ! process ( electro-plat+ 9 ! case ( silv]$ articles1 & we ne$ only m5tion t electro-gild+ is p]=m$ v mu* 9 ! same way4 ,b gild+ is also p]=m$ 9 o!r ways2 "o ( :i*1 ! s-call$ wat] gild+1 is manag$ z foll[s4 ,gild+ ) ! gold-leaf is m]ely a me*anical op]ation1 b wat]-gild+ is effect$ by *emi/ry4 ,wat]-gild+ is a process 79 :i*1 h[ev]1 no wat] is us$7 = cov]+ ! surface ( metal ) a ?9 coat+ ( gold2 ! be/ metal = wat]-gild+ is ei!r brass1 or a mixture ( brass & copp]4 ,a mixture ( gold & m]cury1 9 ! proportion ( "o "p ( gold to eight ( m]cury1 is made hot ov] a fire till !y h unit$2 x is !n put into a bag ( *amois-lea!r1 & ! sup]flu\s m]cury press$ out4 ,:at rema9s is call$ an 8amalgam02 x is s(t1 & ( a greasy nature1 s t x c be sme>$ ov] any surface ) ! f+]s4 ,! articles to be gilt are made p]fectly clean on ! surface1 & a liquid1 made by dissolv+ m]cury 9 nitric acid 7aqua-=tis71 is pass$ ov] !m ) a bru% made ( f9e brass wire1 call$ a 8scrat*-bru%40 ,! m]cury imm$iately adh]es to ! surface ( ! metal1 mak+ x look l silv]2 :5 ?is is done1 a little ( ! amalgam is rubb$ on1 & ! article ev5ly cov]$ ) x4 ,x is !n heat$ 9 a *>coal fire till all ! m]cury evaporates1 & ! brass is left ) a coat+ ( gold1 :i* is v dull1 b may be burni%$ ) a /eel burni%] & made bright if necess>y4 ,9 =m] times articles 7 inlaid ) ?9 plates ( gold1 :i* 7 plac$ 9 holl[s made ) a grav]1 & melt$ 91 a little borax be+ appli$ betwe54 ,:5 a solution ( 8*loride ( gold0 is mix$ ) e!r1 ! e!r takes ! gold away f ! solution1 & may be p\r$ (f ! top *>g$ ) x4 ,?is solution1 if appli$ to poli%$ /eel by means ( a camel-hair p5cil1 rapidly evaporates1 leav+ a film ( gold adh]+ to ! /eel1 :i*1 :5 burni%$ ) any h>d sub/ance1 has a v elegant appe>ance4 ,9 ?is way any ornam5tal design 9 gold may be produc$1 b x is n v durable4 ,! gilt ornam5ts1 scrolls1 & mottoes on sword-blades1 are sometimes done 9 ?is way4 ,,plat9um is ! heavie/ ( all metals1 gold be+ next4 ,plat9um is practically infusible1 & q indiff]5t to reag5ts4 ,x is !re=e v useful 9 c]ta9 manufactories1 & 9 ! laboratory4 ,x c be dissolv$ by aqua-regia4 ,! /ills = sulphuric acid are made ( plat9um1 & ! metal is us$ = ,russian co9age1 b mu/ be v difficult to "w on acc\nt ( its infusible prop]ty4 ,9 ! f9ely-divid$ /ate x =ms a gray & v por\s mass1 :i* is kn[n z spongy plat9um1 & possesses ! rem>kable prop]ty ( cond5s+ gases )9 its pores4 ,h5ce1 :5 a jet ( hydrog5 is direct$ ^u a piece ( spongy plat9um1 ! heat caus$ by its cond5sation suffices to inflame ! gas4 ,?is s+ul> p[] has be5 appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a v beautiful app>atus1 kn[n z ,db]e9]'s lamp1 :i* consi/s ( a glass j>1 a1 cov]$ by a brass lid1 e1 :i* is furni%$ ) a suitable /op-cock1 c1 & 9 connection ) a small bell j>1 f1 9 :i* is susp5d$1 by means ( a wire1 a cyl9d] ( metallic z9c1 z4 ,:5 requir$ = use1 ! out] j> is two-?irds fill$ ) a mixture ( "o "p sulphuric acid & f\r p>ts wat]1 & ! /op-cock op5$ to all[ ! escape ( atmosph]ic air1 ! spongy plat9um conta9$ 9 ! small brass cyl9d]1 d1 be+ cov]$ by a piece ( pap]4 ,! /op-cock is !n clos$1 & ! bell j>1 f1 all[$ to fill ) hydrog51 & aft] x has be5 fill$ & empti$ sev]al times1 ! pap] is remov$ f ! plat9um & ! cock is aga9 op5$1 :5 ! gas1 :i* escapes fir/1 makes ! metal r$-hot & f9ally inflames4 ,?is prop]ty ( plat9um is also us$ 9 ! 8,davy0 lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dai4--;,db]e9]'s lamp4 ,! rema9+ metals d n call = detail$ notice4 ,9 conclusion1 we may ref] to ! foll[+ /atem5t1 :i* 9 g5]al t]ms gives ! prop]ties ( ! metals1 _! oxides & sulphides = ord9>y read]s4 ,,g5]al ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,metals4 7,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! table has be5 divid$ into two p>ts to fit )9 wid? con/ra9ts7 ,! metals admit ( be+ really di/+ui%$ by ! foll[+ table1 9 :i* !y are pres5t$ 9 sev]al gr\ps1 accord+ to _! peculi> prop]ties1 & ea* di/+ui%$ by a p>ticul> "n3-- --------------------------------------- ,,metals4 -------------------------------------- 7,a47 ,light ,metals4 ,specific gravity f #jh to #a2 nev] occur 9 ! uncomb9$ /ate4 -------------------------------------- 7a47 ,alkal9e ,metals4 #a4 ,potassium4 #b4 ,sodium4 7,ammonium47 -------------------------------------- 7b47 ,metals ( ! ,alkal9e ,e>?s4 #c4 ,calcium4 #d4 ,b>ium4 #e4 ,/rontium4 -------------------------------------- 7c47 ,metals ( ! ,e>?s prop]4 #f4 ,magnesium4 #g4 ,alum9ium4 -------------------------------------- 7,b47 ,heavy ,metals4 ,specific gravity f #e to #ba2 are f\nd *iefly 9 comb9ation ) oxyg51 & frequ5tly ) sulphur & ars5ic2 "s are native4 -------------------------------------- 7a47 ,common ,metals4 ,become oxidiz$ 9 ! air4 #h4 ,iron4 #ad4 ,lead4 #i4 ,manganese4 #ae4 ,t94 #aj4 ,cobalt4 #af4 ,z9c4 #aa4 ,nickel4 #ag4 ,*romium4 #ab4 ,copp]4 #ah4 ,antimony4 #ac4 ,bismu?4 -------------------------------------- 7b47 ,noble ,metals4 ,un*angeable 9 ! air4 #ai4 ,m]cury4 #ba4 ,gold4 #bj4 ,silv]4 #bb4 ,plat9um4 --------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,prop]ties ( ! ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,oxides4 ,sulphides4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,a,p[]ful bases2 possess+ a ,p[]ful bases1 :i* oxidize 9 /rong aff9ity = wat]1 & ! air1 & =m sulphates2 =m ) x hydrates4 ,!y :5 treat$ ) acids evolve yield _! oxyg5 to c>bon hydrosulphuric acid4 only at a :ite heat4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- a,highly cau/ic2 p[]ful bases1 ,cau/ic2 /rong bases2 v soluble sep>ate all o!r oxides f 9 wat]1 & dissolve a _! comb9ations ) acids2 l>ge quantity ( sulphur1 :i* are v soluble 9 wat]1 & is sep>at$ on addition ( an d n lose _! wat] ( acid z a :ite p[d]1 t]m$ hydration at ! highe/ milk ( sulphur2 !y 7 temp]atures2 attract c>bonic =m]ly t]m$ liv] ( sulphur4 acid rapidly f ! air4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- b,cau/ic2 /rong bases2 slightly ,cau/ic2 /rong bases2 dissolve soluble 9 wat]2 lose _! sulphur1 & are p>tly soluble wat] ( hydration at a mod]ate 9 wat]1 & p>tly insoluble4 heat1 & p[]fully absorb c>bonic acid4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- c ,weak bases1 ,insoluble 9 wat]4 ,feebly cau/ic4 insoluble 9 ,n cau/ic4 wat]4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,b,feebl] bases ?an ! =ego+1 ,neutral comp\nds2 insoluble 9 "s are acids2 insoluble 9 wat]2 antimony & sev]al wat]1 & lose _! wat] ( ( ! r>] metals produce hydration at a mod]ate heat4 comp\nds ) sulphur1 :i* deport !mselves z acids4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- a,) few exceptions1 are soluble ,^? occurr+ 9 nature are 9 acids1 &1 :5 ignit$ ) some:at brass-l 9 appe>ance1 c>bon at a r$ heat1 yield & are t]m$ pyrites _! oxyg52 are1 = ! mo/ & bl5des4 ,^? :i* are "p1 fusible & non-volatile4 artificially prep>$ h peculi>col\rs2 by heat !y are conv]t$ into sulphates4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- b,h m ! prop]ties ( acids ,) ! exception ( sulphide ?an ( bases2 are decompos$ ( m]cury1 !y leave ! pure by ignition into oxyg5 & metal :5 ignit$4 metal4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,footnotes3 #ba ,requires oxy-hydrog5 bl[-pipe4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,,radicals--,,acids--,,bases--,,neutrals 4 ,9 ! introduction to ^! brief *apt]s ^u ,*emi/ry1 we said t ! sci5ce 0 divid$ into two sections1 ! fir/ section consi/+ ( ! simple comb9ations1 & ! o!r ( comp\nd comb9ations4 ,! latt] be+ met ) *iefly 9 animal & vegetable matt]1 z di/+ui%$ f dead or in]t matt]1 0 t]m$ ,organic4 ,?is di/9ction w be se5 bel[4 ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,simple ,,gr\ps4 ,,inorganic4 ,i4 ,elem5ts & _! ,comb9ations4 7#a7 ,non-,metallic4 7#b7 ,metallic4 ,,ii4 ,peculi> ,decompositions ( ! above4 7#a7 ,by ,electricity4 7#b7 ,by ,light4 ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,comp\nd ,,gr\ps4 ,,organic4 ,i4 ,comp\nd ,radicals & _! ,comb9ations4 ,,ii4 ,peculi> ,decompositions ( ! above4 7#a7 ,spontane\s4 7#b7 ,dry ,di/illation4 ,we h already plac$ be=e our read]s ! elem5ts & _! simple comb9ations1 & h incid5tally m5tion$ ! decomposition by electricity & by light4 ,9 ! section ^u ,electricity ! positive & negative poles are expla9$4 ,oxyg5 appe>s always at ! positive pole1 potassium at ! negative4 ,! o!r simple bodies v>y4 ,*lor9e1 9 comb9ation ) oxyg51 is evolv$ at ! negative pole1 b :5 ) hydrog5 at ! positive pole4 ,9 ! s]ies bel[ ea* elem5t behaves electro-negatively to ^? foll[+ x1 & electro-positively to ^? above x2 & ! f>!r !y are ap>t ! /rong] _! opposite aff9ities are4 ,,electrical ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts4 ,oxyg54 ,sulphur4 ,nitrog54 ,*lor9e4 ,brom9e4 ,iod9e4 ,fluor9e4 ,phosphorus4 ,ars5ic4 ,c>bon4 ,*romium4 ,boron4 ,antimony4 ,silicium4 ,gold4 ,plat9um4 ,m]cury4 ,silv]4 ,copp]4 ,bismu?4 ,lead4 ,cobalt4 ,nickel4 ,iron4 ,z9c4 ,hydrog54 ,manganese4 ,alum9ium4 ,magnesium4 ,calcium4 ,/rontium4 ,b>ium4 ,sodium4 ,potassium4 ,! importance ( ^! facts to sci5ce is unmi/akable1 &1 inde$1 _m attempts h be5 made to expla91 f ! electrical condition ( ! elem5ts1 ! nature ( *emical aff9ity1 & ( *emical ph5om5a 9 g5]al4 ,electrotyp+ is ano!r in/ance ( decomposition by means ( electricity1 & respect+ decomposition by light we "k h[ p[]ful ! action ( ! sun's rays are ^u plants1 & = ! evolution ( oxyg54 ,! dagu]reotype & photographic processes are also in/ances :i* we h comm5t$ ^u4 ,s we c pass directly to ! consid]ation ( ! comp\nd gr\ps4 ,9 ne>ly e complex organic comp\nd we h a relatively simple "o ( great /ability1 :i* is t]m$ ! radical1 :i* =ms1 ) o!r bodies1 a comp\nd radical4#bb ,9 ^! complex gr\ps we f9d c]ta9 elem5ts g5]ally1--viz41 c>bon1 hydrog51 nitrog51 sulphur1 & phosphorus4 ,"s comp\nds may consi/ ( two ( ^!1 b ! majority conta9 ?ree 7hydrog51 oxyg51 & c>bon74 ,_m h f\r 7c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog571 & "s m ?an f\r1 includ+ phosphorus & sulphur4 ,o!rs1 aga91 may conta9 *lor9e & its relatives1 ars5ic1 etc41 9 addition4 ,n[ we w all admit t 9 any case 9 :i* c>bon is pres5t 9 composition ) o!r simple bodies =m+ an organic body1 & if t body be ignit$ 9 ! air1 x burns & leaves 7g5]ally7 a black mass4 ,?is is a sure te/ ( ! pres5ce ( c>bon1 & =ms an organic comp\nd4 ,simil>ly 9 decomposition nitrog5 & sulphur 9 comb9ation in=m u !y are pres5t by ! od\r !y give (f4 ,we ne$ n g f>!r into ?is "q ( radicals & comp\nd radicals ?an to /ate t a comp\nd radical plays ! "p ( an elem5t 9 comb9ation4 ,we f9d 9 alcohol & e!r a c]ta9 comb9ation t]m$ ,e?yl4 ,?is 8comp\nd radical0 occurs 9 same proportions 9 e!r1 *loride ( e?yl1 iodide ( e?yl1 etc41 z ,c#b;,h#e2 s x really acts z a simple body or elem5t1 ?\gh x is a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog54 ,a simple radical is easily und]/ood2 x is an elem5t1 l potassium1 = in/ance4 ,we may n[ pass to ! organic comb9ations classifi$ into ,,acids1 ,,bases1 & ,,indiff]5t1 or ,,neutral1 ,,bodies4 ,i4 ,,acids4 ,!re are sev]al well-kn[n organic acids1 :i* we f9d 9 fruits & 9 plants4 ,!y are volatile & non-volatile2 acids are sometimes kn[n z 8,salts ( ,hydrog540 ,we h a numb] ( acids ^: names are famili> to u1--viz41 acetic1 t>t>ic1 citric1 malic1 oxalic1 tannic1 =mic1 lactic1 etc4 ,acetic acid 7,,hc#b;,h#d,o#b7 is a v important "o1 & is easily f\nd :5 vegetable juices1 :i* f]m5t1 are expos$ to ! air1 or :5 wood & o!r vegetable matt] is subject$ to ! process ( 8dry di/illation40 ,v9eg> conta9s acetic acid1 :i* is di/ill$ f wood1 z we %all see pres5tly4 ,v9eg> is made abroad by m]ely p]mitt+ w9e to get s\r2 h5ce ! t]m ,v9-aigre4 ,9 ,engl& v9eg> is made f 8wort10 ( malt :i* is f]m5t$ = a few days1 & !n put into casks1 ! bung-holes ( :i* are left op5 = sev]al weeks1 until ! cont5ts h become q s\r4 ,! liquid is !n cle>$ by is+lass4 ,! v9eg> ( comm]ce conta9s ab\t #f p] c5t4 ( pure acetic acid1 & "s _s1 "s col\r+ matt]1 &1 ( c\rse1 wat]4 ,wood v9eg> 7pyroligne\s acid7 is us$ = pickles4 ,! ord9>y v9eg> :5 di/ill$ is call$ :ite v9eg>1 & x may also be obta9$ f fruits1 su* z gooseb]ries or raspb]ries4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbj4--,v9eg> gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dba4--;,boil] or copp]4 ,acetic acid1 or 8wood v9eg>10 is prep>$ z foll[s3--,!re are "s l>ge iron cyl9d]s set 9 brickwork ov] furnaces1 & ^! cyl9d]s h ea* a tube lead+ to a ma9 pipe 9 :i* ! liquid is receiv$ = cond5sation4 ,! cyl9d]s1 :i* conta9 ab\t sev5 or eight hundr$weight1 are fill$ ) logs ( wood1 ei!r oak1 bee*1 bir*1 or a%1 ! door is closely fa/5$1 & ! jo9ts sme>$ ) clay2 ! fires are n[ light$ & kept up all day1 till ! cyl9d]s are r$-hot2 at night !y are all[$ to cool4 ,9 ! morn+1 ! *>coal1 into :i* ! wood is n[ conv]t$1 is )drawn1 & a fre% *>ge suppli$2 x is !n f\nd t ab\t ?irty or =ty gallons ( liquid has cond5s$ 9 ! ma9 tube f ea* cyl9d]1 ! rema9d] be+ *>coal & gases :i* pass (f2 ! liquid is acid1 br[n1 & v (f5sive1 & conta9s acetic acid1 t>1 & sev]al o!r +r$i5ts1 among :i* may be nam$ creosote2 x is f ?is s\rce all ! creosote1 = ! cure ( too?a*e1 is obta9$4 ,to purify ?is liquid x is fir/ di/ill$1 & ?is sep>ates mu* ( ! t>2 x is !n mix$ ) lime1 evaporat$ to dryness1 & heat$ to expel ! rema9+ t> & o!r impurities2 x is next mix$ ) sulphate ( soda & wat]1 & ! :ole /irr$ toge!r2 ! soda1 n[ 9 union ) ! acetic acid1 is wa%$ out f ! lime & /ra9$ q cle>2 x is aft]w>ds evaporat$ till x cry/allises1 & vitriol 7sulphuric acid7 !n add$2 f9ally ! acetic acid is di/ill$ ov]1 & ! sulphuric acid left 9 union ) ! soda1 =m+ sulphate ( soda1 to be us$ 9 a simil> process = ! next bat* ( acid4 ,! acetic acid is n[ q col\rless1 transp>5t1 & v s\r1 possess+ a fragrant smell4 ,?is is n pure acetic acid1 b conta9s a consid]able quantity ( wat]4 ,! acetic acid ( comm]ce1 mix$ ) sev5 times its bulk ( wat]1 =ms an acid ( ab\t ! /r5g? ( malt v9eg>1 p]fectly :olesome1 & agreeable z a condim5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbb4--,v9eg>-cool+ process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbc4--,tan-y>d & pits4 ,pure acetic acid may be made by mix+ dry acetate ( pota% ) oil ( vitriol 9 a retort1 & di/ill+ ! acetic acid into a v cold receiv]2 ?is1 :5 flav\r$ ) v>i\s volatile oils1 =ms ! aromatic v9eg> sold by druggi/s4 ,x is a v /rong acid1 & if appli$ to ! sk9 w quickly bli/] x4 ,acetate ( lead1 or sug> ( lead1 is obta9$ by dissolv+ oxide ( lead 9 v9eg>4 ,a solution ( ?is salt makes ! g\l>d wat] s famili> to all4 ,acetate ( lead is highly poison\s4 ,acetate ( copp] is v]digris1 & poison\s4 ,o!r acetates are us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,we may pass quickly ov] "s o!r acids4 ,!y are z foll[s3-- ,,t>t>ic ,,acid 7,c#d;,h#f,o#f7 is conta9$ 9 grape juice1 & cry/allizes 9 tabul> =m4 ,! purifi$ p[d]$ salt is cream ( ,t>t>4 ,,citric ,,acid 7,c#f;,h#h,o#g7 is f\nd native 9 citrons & lemons1 z well z 9 currants & o!r fruits4 ,x is an excell5t anti-scorbutic4 ,,malic ,,acid 7,c#d;,h#f,o#e7 is f\nd *iefly 9 apples1 z its "n d5otes 7malum1 an apple74 ,x is prep>$ f m\nta9-a% b]ries4 ,,oxalic ,,acid 7,c#b;,h#b,o#d74 ,if we heat sug> ) nitric acid we %all procure ?is acid4 ,x is f\nd 9 sorrel plants4 ,,tannic ,,acid 7,c#bg;,h#bb,o#ag74 ,x is assum$ t all vegetables ) an a/r+5t ta/e conta9 ?is acid4 ,tann9 is kn[n = its a/r+5t qualities4 ,! "n giv5 to ?is acid is d]iv$ f ! fact t x possesses a prop]ty ( =m+ an insoluble comp\nd ) wat]1 kn[n z lea!r4 ,tann+ is ! t]m employ$4 ,tann9 is f\nd 9 _m vegetable sub/ances1 b oak b>k is usually employ$1 be+ ! *eape/4 ,! 8pelts10 hides1 or sk9s1 h fir/ to be fre$ f all fat or hair by scrap+1 & aft]w>ds soak+ !m 9 lime & wat]4 ,!n !y are plac$ 9 ! tan-pit betwe5 lay]s ( ! b>k1 wat] is pump$ 91 & ! hides rema9 = weeks1 occasionally be+ mov$ f pit to pit1 or relaid1 s z to give all an equal proportion ( pressure1 etc4 ,! long] ! lea!r is tann$--x may be a ye>--! bett] x we>s4 ,sk9s = gloves & b9d+ are tann$ ) 8suma*10 or alum & salt4 ,sometimes ! lea!r is split by ma*9]y = f9e work+4 ,p>*m5t is prep>$ f ! sk9s ( asses1 %eep1 goats1 & calves1 :i* are clean$1 & rubb$ smoo? ) pumice /one4 ,tannic acid1 ) oxide ( iron1 produces ,ink1 = ! gall-nut conta9s a quantity ( ! acid4 ,all ! black inks 9 use g5]ally are compos$ ( gre5 vitriol 7sulphate ( iron7 9 union ) "s a/r+5t vegetable matt]2 ! be/ is ! gall-nut1 al?\gh1 = *eapness1 logwood & oak b>k h ea* be5 us$4 ,an excell5t black ink may be made by putt+ into a gallon /one bottle twelve ounces ( bruis$ galls1 six ounces ( gre5 vitriol1 & six ( common gum1 & fill+ up ! bottle ) ra9 wat]2 ?is %\ld be kept ?ree or f\r weeks be=e us+1 %ak+ ! bottle f "t to "t4 ,blue ink has lately be5 mu* us$2 x is made by dissolv+ newly-=m$ ,prussian blue 9 a solution ( oxalic acid4 ,to make x1 dissolve "s yell[ prussiate ( pota% 9 wat] 9 "o vessel1 & "s sulphate ( iron 9 ano!r1 add+ a few drops ( nitric acid to ! sulphate ( iron2 n[ mix ! two liquids1 & a magnific5t blue col\r w appe>1 9 ! =m ( a light s$im5t2 ?is is to be put ^u a pap] filt]1 & well wa%$ by p\r+ ov] x w>m wat]1 & all[+ x to run ?r\gh2 a w>m solution ( oxalic acid %\ld n[ be mix$ ) x1 & ! ,prussian blue w dissolve into a bright blue ink4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbd4--,unhair+ ! hide4 ,r$ ink is made by boil+ *ips or rasp+s ( ,brazil wood 9 v9eg>1 & add+ a little alum & gum2 x keeps well1 & is ( a good col\r4 ,a r$ ink ( m beautiful appe>ance1 b n s durable1 may be made by dissolv+ a few gra9s ( c>m9e 9 two or ?ree teaspoonfuls ( _s ( h>t%orn4 ,m>k+ ink is made by dissolv+ nitrate ( silv] 9 wat]1 & !n add+ "s solution ( ammonia1 a little gum wat]1 & "s ,indian ink to col\r x4 ,pr9t]s' ink is made by gr9d+ dry+ oil ) lamp-black4 ,! p[d]$ gall-nut is an excell5t te/ = iron 9 wat]4 ,x w turn violet if any iron be pres5t4 ,,=mic ,,acid 7,,*#b,o#b7 is ! cau/ic means ( def5ce employ$ by ants1 h5ce ! t]m =mic4 ,x c be artificially prep>$ by di/ill+ a mixture ( sug>1 b9oxide ( manganese1 & sulphuric acid4 ,on ! sk9 x w raise bli/]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbe4--;,dry+ rooms = hides4 ,,lactic ,,acid 7,c#c;,h#f,o#c7 is pres5t 9 vegetable & animal sub/ances4 ,s\r :ey conta9s x1 & ! pres5ce ( ! acid 9 ! :ey acc\nts = its p[] ( remov+ f table-l95 /a9s4 ,:5 :at is call$ 8lactic f]m5tation0 occurs1 milk is said to be 8turn$40 ,,ii4 ,,bases4 ,! def9ition ( a base is n easy4 ,we h describ$ bases z sub/ances :i*1 comb9+ ) acids1 =m salts1 b ! def9ition ( a base is z unsatisfactory z t ( acid or salt4 ,all vegetable bases conta9 nitrog51 are usually v bitt]1 possess no smell or col\r1 & are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,!y are usually /rong poisons1 b v useful 9 m$ic9e4 ,! mo/ important are ! foll[+ bases3-- ,,qu99e is conta9$ 9 ! c9*ona 7yell[7 b>k4 ,"o hundr$ p>ts ( ! b>k h be5 calculat$ to yield ?ree ( qu99e4 ,,morph9e is ! poison\s base ( opium1 :i* is ! juice ( ! poppy1 & is prep>$ *iefly 9 ,india & ,*9a4 ,,nicot9e is ! active pr9ciple ( tobacco1 & v>ies 9 quantity 9 diff]5t tobaccos4 ,havannah tobacco possesses ! lea/4 ,x is a p[]ful poison1 v oily1 volatile1 & inflammable4 ,,conia is prep>$ f ! hemlock4 ,x is fluid & volatile4 ,x is also a deadly poison1 & p>alyses ! sp9e directly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbf4--;,hemlock4 ,,/ry*n9e is f\nd 9 poison\s trees1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! nux-vomica se$s ( ,corom&el4 ,x produces lock-jaw & p>alysis4 ,!re is no antidote = /ry*n9e2 emetics are ! only rem$y4 ,! above are *iefly rem>kable = _! uses 9 m$ic9e1 & 9 consequ5ce ( _! highly poison\s "* are be/ left alone by unpractis$ h&s4 ,a ,g]man *emi/1 nam$ ,s]turn]1 0 ! fir/ to extract ! active pr9ciple f ,opium4 ,! "q ( opium importation has lately be5 attract+ mu* att5tion1 & ! op9ions conc]n+ its use are divid$4 ,probably 9 mod]ation1 & :5 us$ by ord9>y p 7n demoraliz$ creatures71 x does little h>m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbg4--,! ,poppy4 ,opium is ! juice ( ! 8common0 poppy1 & d]ives its "n f ! ,greek opos1 juice4 ,! plant is cultivat$ 9 ,india1 ,p]sia1 & ,turkey4 ,aft] ! poppy has fl[]$ ! natives g r\nd1 & ) a %>p in/rum5t w\nd1 or puncture1 e poppy head4 ,?is is done v e>ly 9 ! morn+1 & "u ! influ5ce ( ! sun dur+ ! day ! juice oozes out4 ,next morn+ ! drops are scrap$ (f4 ,! juice is !n plac$ 9 pots1 dri$1 & s5t = export4 ,! 8con/ruction0 ( opium is v complicat$1 = x conta9s a numb] ( +r$i5ts1 ! mo/ important be+ morphia1 n>cot9e1 meconic acid1 & codeia4 ,x is to ! fir/ nam$ con/itu5t t ! somnol5t effect ( opium is due4 ,,iii4 ,,indiff]5t ,,sub/ances4 ,!re are a great numb] ( s-call$ 8indiff]5t0 sub/ances to :i* we _c be indiff]5t4 ,su* bodies z ^! h nei!r acid nor basic prop]ties1 & /& no comp>ison ) salts4 ,!y are ( great importance1 =m+1 z !y d1 ! pr9cipal nutrim5t ( animals4 ,"s conta9 nitrog51 "s d n2 !y may !re=e be divid$ into nitrog5\s & non-nitrog5\s sub/ances2 ! =m] = solid portions ( ! body1 ! latt] = w>m?4 ,we w take ! latt] fir/1 & speak ( "s ( !m--su* z />*1 gum1 sug>1 etc4 ,,/>* is f\nd 9 ! roots ( gra91 9 ! potato1 dahlia1 arti*oke1 etc41 & by cru%+ ! p>ts ( ! plant1 & wa%+ !m1 ! />* c be collect$ z a s$im5t4 ,9 cold wat] & 9 spirits ( w9e />* is insoluble4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( />* usually take _! names f ! plants :5ce !y come4 ,arr[root is obta9$ f ! ,we/ ,indian plant ,m>anta ,arund9acea4 ,cassava & tapioca are f ! manioc2 sago1 f ! sago palm2 :eat />*1 & potato />* are o!r examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbh4--,plantation ( sug>-canes4 ,if />* be bak$ 9 an ov5 at a temp]ature ( ab\t #cjj x becomes1 to a great ext5t1 soluble 9 cold wat]1 =m+ :at is call$ 8,briti% gum02 ?is is l>gely us$ = calico pr9t+ & o!r purposes2 if boil$ 9 wat] "u great pressure1 s t ! temp]ature c be rais$ to ! same degree1 x is also *ang$ into an adhesive sort ( gum1 8mucilage02 ?is is ! sub/ance made use ( by ! gov]nm5t (ficials to spread ov] ! backs ( po/age & receipt /amps to make !m adh]e4 ,! />* ( gra91 dur+ g]m9ation1 or gr[?1 conta9s dia/ase1 :i* conv]ts ! />* into gum & sug>2 ! same effect c be produc$ by heat+ />* ) dilut$ sulphuric acid4 ,,gum f\nd 9 plants is *iefly procur$ f ! ,mimosa trees1 f :i* x fl[s 9 drops1 & is call$ ,gum ,arabic4 ,!re are o!r s-call$ 8gums10 b ?is is ! "o g5]ally ref]r$ to4 ,,sug> exi/s 9 fruits1 roots1 & 9 ! /alks ( plants1 9 ! juice ( ! cane1 maple1 & beet-root p>ticul>ly4 ,! canes are cru%$1 ! juice is cl>ifi$ ) lime to prev5t f]m5tation1 & ! liquid is evaporat$4 ,x is !n granulat$ & cle>$ f ! molasses4 ,sug>1 :5 heat$1 becomes d>k1 & is call$ 8c>amel40 ,x is us$ = col\r+ br&y1 & gives mu* difficulty to ! sug> ref9]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbi4--,ref9+ vacuum pan4 ,sug> ref9+ is conduct$ z foll[s4 ,! raw 7br[n7 sug> is mix$ into a pa/e ) wat]1 & all[$ to dra94 ,! sug> ?us becomes :ite4 ,x is !n dissolv$ 9 wat]1 ) animal *>coal & bullocks' blood4 ,! liquid is boil$1 & put into a d>k ci/]n ) holes at ! bottom1 & cotton fibres be+ fa/5$ 9 ! holes1 are hung into ano!r d>k ci/]n1 into :i* ! liquid runs pure & :ite4 ,x is !n pump$ into a copp] vessel1--vacuum pan1--& cond5s$ to ! prop] consi/5ce4 ,subsequ5tly x is p\r$ into conical m\lds1 & pure syrup p\r$ ^u ! cry/al %apes4 ,! c>amel is !n remov$ ?r\gh a hole at ! end4 ,! m\lds or loaves are !n dri$1 & if n ev5 or elegant !y are turn$ 9 a la!4 ,f9ally !y are pack$ up z 8loaf sug>40 ,sug> und]goes no decomposition1 & is ! cause ( non-decomposition 9 o!r sub/ances4 ,= ?is reason x is employ$ 9 8pres]v+0 fruit1 etc4 ,sug> is obta9$ f beet by cru%+ & rasp+ ! roots1 z ! cane is treat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcj4--,sug> m\lds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dca4--,turn+ ! loaves4 ,,_s ,,( ,,w9e1 ,,or ,,alcohol1 is n a natural product4 ,x is f\nd by ! decomposition ( grape-sug> by f]m5tation4 ,!re is a s]ies ( alcohols :i* exhibit a regul> gradation1 f\nd$1 s to speak1 ^u "o1 two1 or ?ree molecules ( wat]4 ,!y are call$ respectively alcohols1 glycols1 & glyc]9s4 ,?us we h-- ,alcohols4 ,me?ylic alcohol4 ,e?ylic 0 ,prophylic 0 ,amylic 0 ,glycols4 ,en!le9 glycol4 ,prophyl5e 0 ,butyl5e 0 ,amyl5e 0 ,glyc]9s4 7,ord9>y ,glyc]9e is ! only "o kn[n47 ,! cetyl & melissylic alcohols are conta9$ 9 sp]maceti & bees-wax respectively4 ,! usual alcohol is ! ,v9ic1 a transp>5t1 col\rless liquid1 :i* is ! spiritu\s pr9ciple ( w9e1 spirits1 & be]1 & :5 sug> is f]m5t$ ! alcohol & c>bonic acid rema94 ,spirits ( w9e has a v p[]ful aff9ity = wat]1 & ?us ! use ( /imulants 9 great quantity is to be deprecat$1 = alcohol absorbs ! wat] f ! muc\s membranes ( ! /oma* & ! m\?1 mak+ !m dry & h>d4 ,! /ate ( 8intoxication10 un=tunately s famili>1 is ! effect produc$ by alcohol ^u ! n]ves4 ,we app5d a li/ ( ! bev]ages :i* are mo/ 9 use1 & ! p]c5tage ( alcohol 9 ea* accord+ to ,pr(essor ,h>t3-- ,port #ae p] c5t4 ,madeira #ade 0 ,%]ry #ad 0 ,cl>et #h 0 ,ale #f 0 ,port] #e 0 ,_s ( w9e is conta9$ 9 _m mixtures1 & = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ h[ mu* alcohol may be 9 w9e1 or any o!r liquid1 a hydromet] is us$ 7fig4 #dcb74 ,?is in/rum5t consi/s ( a glass tube ) a bulb at ! end4 ,x is put into wat]1 & ! place ! wat] 8cuts0 is m>k$ by a l9e on ! /em1 & call$ z]o #j4 ,_s ( w9e has less specific gravity ?an wat]1 s 9 absolute alcohol ! in/rum5t w s9k l[] ?an 9 wat]1 & w desc5d to a po9t :i* is m>k$ #ajj4 ,9 any mixture ( alcohol & wat]1 ( c\rse ! hydromet] w rise or s9k betwe5 ! extreme po9ts accord+ly z ! mixture may conta9 less alcohol or m4 ,s a scale c be furni%$4 ,! in/rum5t1 z describ$1 0 inv5t$ by ,,mm4 ,gay-,lussac & ,tralles1 & call$ ! 8p]c5tage0 hydromet]4 ,!re are _m o!r in/rum5ts m>k$ 9 a m or less arbitr>y mann]4 ,we app5d a comp>ative table ( a few hydromet]s4 7,see page #dbj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcb4--;,hydromet]4 ,,e!r1 or sulphuric e!r1 is a mixture ( spirits ( w9e ) sulphuric acid1 & di/ill$4 ,x loses wat]1 & ! product is e!r1 :i* is volatile1 & transp>5t1 ) a peculi>ly p5etrat+ od\r4 ,x w n mix ) wat]1 & if inhal$ w produce a simil> effect to *lor(orm4 ,,comp>ative ,,table ,,( ,,hydromet]s4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,specific ,p]c5tage ,p]c5tage ,degree1 ,degree1 ,degree1 ,gravity4 ,volume ,weight1 accord+ accord+ accord+ 7,tralles74 at #fj ,f4 to ,c>ti]4 to ,beck4 to ,baum4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ajjj #j #j #aj #j #aj #jiia #e #dj 444 444 444 #jihe #aj #hj #ab 444 444 #jihj #ae #aba 444 #c #ac #jige #bj #afb 444 444 444 #jigj #be #bjd #ad #e 444 #jifd #cj #bdf #ae #f #ae #jieh #ce #bhi 444 444 #af #jiea #dj #ccd 444 #i #ag #jidb #de #cgi #ah 444 444 #jicc #ej #dbe 444 #ab #bj #jibc #ee #dgb #ba #ad 444 #jiab #fj #ebb 444 #af #bd #jija #fe #egb #bd #ai 444 #jhhi #gj #fbe #bg 444 #bh #jhgf #ge #fgi 444 #bd 444 #jhfc #hj #gce #cj #bg #cb #jhdh #he #gie #ce #cj #ce #jhcc #ij #heg 444 #cd #ch #jhae #ie #ibd #dj #ch #db #jgic #ajj #ajjj #dd #dd #dh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,*lor(orm is transp>5t1 & w s9k 9 wat]4 ,dilut$ alcohol ) hypo-*loride ( lime1 w produce x4 ,:5 inhal$1 *lor(orm produces a pleas+ ins5sibility to pa91 & is useful 9 surg]y4 ,a c]ta9 comp\nd ( alcohol ) m]cury dissolv$ 9 nitric acid w cause decomposition1 & :ite cry/als w ev5tuate4 ,^! comp\nd cry/als are t]m$ fulm9at+ m]cury4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we mu/ n[ pass rapidly ov] ! few rema9+ subjects we h to notice1 su* z fats & soaps1 wax1 oils1 etc4 ,fats are ( ! greate/ use to man1 p>ticul>ly 9 cold climates1 = ^u !m dep5ds ! heat ( ! body4 ,fatty acid1 if liquid1 is kn[n z oleic acid2 if solid1 /e>ic acid4 ,soaps are comp\nds ( fatty acids4 ,_m 8fats0 are consum$ z food1 o!rs z fuel or = light+ purposes1 9 ! %ape ( oils4 ,su* oils are n prim>ily useful = burn+4 ,petroleum & o!r m9]al oils are f\nd 9 enorm\s quantities 9 ,am]ica4 ,!re are :at we t]m fix$ oils1 & ess5tial or volatile oils4 ,a li/ is annex$ z giv5 by 8,hadyn's ,diction>y ( ,sci5ce03-- ,,fix$ ,,oils4 ,dry+4 ,l9se$ oil4 ,poppy oil4 ,sunfl[] oil4 ,walnut oil4 ,tobacco-se$ oil4 ,cress-se$ oil4 ,non-,dry+4 ,almond oil4 ,ca/or oil4 ,colza oil4 ,oil ( mu/>d4 ,rape-se$ oil4 ,olive oil1 etc4 ,,ess5tial ,,oils4 ,oil ( anise4 ,oil ( b]gamot4 ,oil ( c>raway4 ,oil ( cassia4 ,oil ( c$>4 ,oil ( cloves4 ,oil ( lav5d]4 ,oil ( lemon4 ,oil ( m9t4 ,oil ( myrrh4 ,oil ( nutmeg4 ,oil ( pepp]m9t4 ,oil ( rose4 ,oil ( turp5t9e4 ,vegetable oils are obta9$ by cru%+ se$s2 animal oils come f ! :ale & seal tribe4 ,p>aff9 oil comes f coal4 ,l9se$ is a v dry+ oil1 & on x dep5ds ! dry+ p[] ( pa9t4 ,we "k olive oil w n dry on exposure to ! air4 ,oil$ silk is made ) l9se$ oil4 ,:5 oil is dry+ 9 ! air consid]able heat is evolv$1 & if oil$ sub/ances be left ne> o!rs likely to cat* fire1 spontane\s combu/ion may ensue4 ,oil ( turp5t9e is f\nd 9 ! p9e & fir trees1 & _m ( ! oils above m5tion$ are us$ by p]fum]s1 etc41 ! rose oil1 or att> ( roses1 be+ an ,ea/]n comp\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcc4--;,cru%+ mill4 ,alli$ to ! volatile oils are ! ,,res9s1 :i* are non-conductors ( electricity4 ,!y are vegetable products4 ,!y are soluble 9 alcohol1 9 ! volatile oils1 or 9 e!r1 & ^! solutions are call$ v>ni%es2 ! solv5t evaporates & leaves ! coat+4 ,turp5t9e1 copal1 ma/ic1 %ellac1 ca\t*\c1 & gutta-p]*a are all res9\s bodies4 ,amb] is a m9]al res91 :i* 0 by ! anci5ts suppos$ to be ! 8te>s ( birds0 dropp$ ^u ! sea%ore4 ,moore ref]s to ?is 9 8 poetic 8,f>ewell to ,araby's ,daught]0-- 8,ar\nd !e %all gli/5 ! lovelie/ amb] ,t ev] ! sorr[+ sea-bird has wept40 ,amb] is n soluble ei!r 9 wat] or alcohol2 x is1 h[ev]1 soluble 9 sulphuric acid4 ,x takes a good poli%1 & :5 rubb$ is v electrical4 ,x is compos$ ( wat]1 an acid1 "s oil1 & an inflammable gas1 :i* goes (f :5 ! amb] is di/ill$4 ,! well-kn[n camphor is got f a tree call$ ! 8,laurus ,camphora02 x is a :ite1 waxy sub/ance1 & c be obta9$ by oxidiz+ c]ta9 volatile oils4 ,x is g5]ally produc$ f ! ,laurus ,camphora 9 a 8/ill40 ,! behavi\r ( a piece ( camphor 9 pure wat] is curi\s1 b its motions c be at once arre/$ by t\*+ ! wat] or dropp+ oil on ! surface4 ,?is ph5om5on is due to ! surface t5sion ( ! liquid1 :i* dim9i%es :5 x is 9 contact ) ! vap\r ( ! sub/ance4 ,,nitrog5\s ,,sub/ances4 ,!re are c]ta9 album9\s comp\nds :i* we mu/ m5tion "h4 ,^! are album51 fibr9e1 & case9e4 ,album5 is ! :ite ( egg2 fibr9e is1 :5 solid1 our fle% & muscul> fibre1 :ile case9e is ! sub/ance ( *eese4 ,^! are v important comp\nds1 & ! album9\s bodies are ( ! v highe/ importance z food1 = ! solid portion ( blood1 bra91 & fle% consi/1 9 a great measure1 ( !m4 ,album51 fibr9e1 & case9e conta9 c>bon1 hydrog51 nitrog51 & oxyg51 ) sulphur & phosphorus4 ,,album54 ,! mo/ famili> & ! almo/ pure =m ( album5 is 9 ! :ite ( eggs1 :i* is album9ate ( sodium4 ,x also exi/s 9 ! s]um ( ! blood1 & !re=e x is l>gely f\nd 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,x c also be extract$ f se$ or o!r vegetable sub/ances1 b x is ess5tially ! same4 ,album5 is v useful z an antidote to metallic poisons4 ,x =ms ab\t #g p] c5t4 ( human blood4 ,x is soluble up to ab\t #adj ,fah42 x !n solidifies1 & is precipitat$ 9 a :ite mass4 ,album5 is us$ 9 ! purification ( sug>1 etc4 ,,fibr9e is f\nd 9 a liquid condition 9 blood4 ,! vegetable fibr9e 7glut57 is prep>$ by knead+ :eat fl\r 9 a bag till ! wa%+s are no long] :it5$4 ,l album5 x is f\nd bo? 9 a solid & liquid /ate4 ,case9e is se5 9 ! sk9 :i* =ms ^u milk :5 heat$1 & =ms ab\t #c p] c5t4 ( milk1 :]e x exi/s 9 a soluble /ate1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( alkali2 b case9e1 l album51 is only soluble 9 alkal9e solutions4 ,z we h said1 x is ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( *eeses4 ,case9e is precipitat$ by ! lactic acid ( milk1 :i* is produc$ by keep+ ! milk too w>m4 ,case9e1 or curds1 z !y are call$1 are ?us precipitat$4 ,! milk is said to be 8s\r10 or turn$4 ,,milk1 ! food ( ! "y ( all mammalia1 is compos$ *iefly ( wat]1 a peculi> k9d ( sug>1 butt]1 & case9e4 ,x is ?is sug> 9 milk :i* causes ! lactic acid m5tion$ above4 ,! actual con/itu5ts ( milk are z foll[s3-- ,wat] #hgcjj ,butt] #cjjj ,sug> #dcij ,case9e #dhbj ,calcium 7phosphate7 #bca ,magnesia #jdb ,iron #jjg ,potassium 7*loride7 #add ,sodium #jbd ,soda 7) case9e7 #jdb ------- #ajjjjj ,! sug> ( milk is non-f]m5t+1 & c be procur$ f :ey by evaporation4 ,,decomposition4 ,we h se5 t animals & plants are compos$ ( _m diff]5t sub/ances1 & s x w be at once und]/ood t ^! sub/ances c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & !n ! decomposition ( ! body w be complet$4 ,:5 ! sap s9ks or dries up 9 plants !y are dead4 ,:5 our he>t ceases to beat & our blood to fl[ we die1 & !n1 gradually b surely1 decay sets 94 ,!re is no fuel left to keep ! body w>m2 cold results1 & ! action ( oxyg5 ( ! air & light or wat] decays ! body1 accord+ to ! great & unalt]able laws ( ,nature4 8,du/ ?\ art1 & unto du/ %alt ?\ return10 is an awful tru?4 ,! con/itu5ts ( our bodies mu/ be resolv$ aga91 & ! unfail+ law ( *emical attraction is c>ri$ out1 :]eby ! beautiful organism1 depriv$ ( ! animat+ pr9ciple1 seeks to r5d] itself into less complicat$ gr\ps & _! prim>y elem5ts4 ,?is resolution ( ! organic bodies is decomposition1 or 8spontane\s decomposition10 & is call$ decay1 f]m5tation1 or putrefaction1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,! ,egyptians1 by fir/ dry+ ! bodies ( ! dead 7& !n embalm+ !m71 remov$ "o great s\rce ( decay--viz41 wat]1 & aft]w>ds1 by ! addition ( spices1 manag$ to arre/ putrefaction4 ,f]m5tation is famili> 9 its results1 :i* may be di/ill$ = spiritu\s liquors1 or m]ely rema9 f]m5t$1 z be] & w9e4 ,fusel oil is prep>$ f potatoes1 rum f cane sug>1 arrack f rice4 ,! p[] ( f]m5tation exi/s 9 nature ev]y:]e1 & putrefaction is consid]$ to be ow+ to ! pres5ce ( m9ute g]ms 9 ! atmosph]e1 ^u :i* ,pr(essors ,tyndall & ,huxley h disc\rs$ eloqu5tly4 ,plants are subject$ to a process ( decomposition1 :i* has be5 t]m$ 8sl[ c>bonization10 "u c]ta9 circum/ances :i* exclude ! air4 ,! gases are giv5 (f1 & ! c>bon rema9s & increases4 ,?us we h a k9d ( moss becom+ peat1 br[n coal1 & coal4 ,! imm5se p]iod dur+ :i* "s b$s ( coal mu/ h la9 9 ! gr\nd c only be approximately asc]ta9$1 b ! rema9s f\nd 9 ! coal-measures h guid$ geologi/s 9 _! calculations4 ,hav+ already m5tion$ "s products ( di/illation1 we may n[ close ?is portion ( ! subject & pass on to a brief consid]ation ( m9]als & cry/als4 ,we h left _m ?+s unnotic$1 :i* 9 ! limit$ space at our disposal we c\ld n conv5i5tly include 9 our sket* ( *emi/ry & *emical ph5om5a4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,cyanog51 e?yl1 & cacodyl1 are comp\nd radicals4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,m9]alogy ,,& ,,cry/allography4 ,,! ,,m9]als--,,*>act]i/ics--,,cry/als ,,& ,,_! ,,=ms--,,descriptions ,,( ,,m9]als4 ,,m9]als are con/itu5t p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,all p>ts ( m9]als are alike4 ,!re are simple m9]als & mix$4 ,! =m] are ! true m9]als1 & are g5]ally consid]$ "u ! head+ ,,m9]alogy4 ,! o!rs con/itute a bran* ( ,,geology1 z !y =m aggregate masses1 & z su* compose a l>ge portion ( ! e>?4 ,we mu/ le>n to di/+ui% m9]als & cry/als z inorganic =ms ( nature4 ,9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms we h =ms :i* are possess$ ( organs ( sight1 smell1 ta/e1 & c]ta9 /ructures indisp5sable to _! exi/5ce & developm5t4 ,b 9 m9]als we h no su* attributes4 ,!y are ,,inorganic1 & h a simil> /ructure2 a fragm5t w tell u ! /ory z well z a block ( ! same m9]al4 ,^! inorganic sub/ances are possess$ ( c]ta9 attributes or *>act]i/ics4 ,we f9d !y h ,,=m4 ,!y h *emical prop]ties1 & !y behave diff]5tly :5 expos$ to light & electricity4 ,!y are g5]ally solid4 ,all ! elem5ts are f\nd 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 & a m9]al may be an elem5t itself1 or a *emical comb9ation ( elem5ts4 ,^! comp\nds are class$ accord+ z ! comb9ation is m or less simple4 ,an alliance ( two elem5ts is t]m$ a b9>y comp\nd1 ( ?ree a t]n>y comp\nd1 =m+ a base & an acid4 ,we h le>nt f our *emi/ry pap] t !re are betwe5 sixty & sev5ty elem5t>y bodies 9 nature4 ,:5 we speak ( 8elem5ts10 we d n mean to apply ! popul> & errone\s def9ition ( ! ^w4 ,e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat] are n elem5ts2 !y are comp\nds1 z we h se54 ,! li/ ( elem5ts has be5 giv52 we w n[ give ! names ( ! m important m9]als4 ,we h no space = a detail$ description1 b 9 ! ,briti% ,museum ! cases conta9 "s hundr$s1 & ! /ud5t w f9d !m classifi$ & describ$ ) ! greate/ c>e1 & accord+ to ! arrangem5t ( ,b]zelius4 ,,pr9cipal ,,m9]als ,,z ,,arrang$ ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,an/$4 ,i4 ,diamond4 ,graphite4 ,an?racite4 ,coal4 ,lignite4 ,bitum54 ,amb]4 ,sulphur4 ,qu>tz4 ,ame?y/4 ,agate4 ,*alc$ony4 ,fl9t4 ,jasp]4 ,opal4 ,,ii4 ,sal-ammoniac4 ,nitre4 ,rock-salt4 ,borax4 ,,iii4 ,)]ite4 ,sp>4 ,/rontianite4 ,cele/9e4 ,calc-sp>4 ,m>ble4 ,dolomite4 ,fluor-sp>4 ,gypsum4 ,apatite4 ,magnesite4 ,corundum4 ,sapphire4 ,em]y4 ,turquoise4 ,alum-/one4 ,,iv4 ,cyanite4 ,*ri/olite4 ,clay4 ,full]s-e>?4 ,g>net4 ,iolite4 ,jade4 ,em]ald4 ,b]yl4 ,felsp>4 ,obsidian4 ,pumice4 ,talc4 ,s]p5t9e4 ,zircon4 ,hornbl5de4 ,asbe/os4 ,augite4 ,diallage4 ,topaz4 ,t\rmal9e4 ,lapis-lazuli4 ,*rysob]yl4 ,v4 ,wolfram4 ,molybd5ite4 ,*romite4 ,pit*-bl5de4 ,uranite4 ,pyrolusite4 ,wad4 ,manganese-sp>4 ,ars5ic4 ,realg>4 ,orpim5t4 ,antimony 7grey74 ,bismu?4 ,bl5de4 ,calam9e4 ,sp>talite4 ,t9/one4 ,gal5a4 ,pyromorphite4 ,iron-pyrites4 ,mispickel4 ,magnetic iron ore4 ,micace\s iron4 ,hematite4 ,spa?ic iron4 ,cobalt4 ,copp]4 ,oxides ( copp]4 ,copp] pyrites4 ,azurite4 ,mala*ite4 ,m]cury4 ,c9nab>4 ,silv]4 ,gold4 ,plat9um4 ,palladium4 ,! above is ! arrangem5t be/ suit$ = beg9n]s4 ,pr(essor ,ni*ol pref]s ! foll[+ arrangem5t3-- ,,ord] ,i4--,,! ,,oxidis$ ,,/ones4 ,qu>tz4 ,felsp>4 ,scapolite4 ,haloid /ones4 ,leucite4 ,zeolite4 ,mica4 ,s]p5t9e4 ,hornbl5de4 ,clays4 ,g>net4 ,cyanite4 ,gems4 ,metallic /ones4 ,,ord] ,,ii4--,,sal9e ,,/ones4 ,calc-sp>4 ,fluor-sp>4 ,heavy-sp>4 ,gypsum4 ,rock-salt4 ,,ord] ,,iii4--,,sal9e ,,ores4 ,sp>ry iron ores4 ,iron salts4 ,copp] salts4 ,lead salts4 ,,ord] ,,iv4--,,oxidiz$ ,,ores4 ,iron ores4 ,t9/one4 ,manganese ores4 ,r$ copp] ores4 ,:ite antimony ores4 ,,ord] ,v4--,,! ,,native ,,metals4 ,,ord] ,,vi4--,,sulphurett$ ,,metals4 ,iron pyrites4 ,gal5a4 ,grey antimony ore4 ,grey copp] ore4 ,bl5de4 ,ruby-bl5de4 ,,inflammables4 ,sulphur4 ,diamond4 ,coal4 ,m9]al res9s4 ,combu/ible salts4 ,^! are only a portion ( ! m9]als1 b x w\ld be sc>cely int]e/+ to give ! li/ at great] l5g?4 ,9 ! =ego+ we recognize ! metals & v>i\s combu/ible & non-combu/ible sub/ances famili> to u1 exi/+1 z p say sometimes1 9 8lumps40 ,b if any "o w take ! tr\ble to exam9e a 8lump10 he w f9d ! %ape is def9ite & ev54 ,^! regul> =ms ( ! m9]als are call$ ,,cry/als1 f ! ,greek ^w kru/allos1 ice4 ,! t]m 0 orig9ally appli$ to qu>tz1 = 9 old5 times x 0 ?\ght t qu>tz 0 really congeal$ wat]4 ,we c def9e a cry/al z 8an inorganic solid b\nd$ by plane surfaces arrang$ r\nd imag9>y l9es kn[n z axes40 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t cry/als are small bodies2 !y may be ( any size4 ,!re are cry/als ( _m hundr$weight2 & al?\gh ! usual cry/al is comp>atively small1 x may be any size4 ,cry/allization has occurr$ by cool+1 or by o!r natural means2 & we c =m cry/als by evaporation f c]ta9 salts deposit$ 9 wat]4 ,s we may conclude also t ! evaporation ( wat] 9 ! e>ly p]iods deposit$ _m =ms ( cry/als4 ,we h cry/als 9 ! air1 su* z sn[flakes1 :i* are vap\rs cry/alliz$4 ,c>bon1 :5 cry/alliz$1 is ! diamond4 ,boron is v l x4 ,oxyg5 _c be cry/alliz$4 ,alum9a makes sapphires & ruby ) silica4 ,alum9a & e>? give u sp>s1 t\rmal9e1 & g>nets4 ,lime/one also has beautiful =ms1 z 9 ,icel& sp>4 ,cry/als1 !re=e1 are c]ta9 =ms ( nature1 correspond+ 9 ! inorganic k+dom to ! animals & plants ( ! organic4 ,let u look a little m at ^!4 ,"h we h a gr\p ( cry/als ( diff]5t =ms4 ,e>?s are metals comb9$ ) oxyg51 & ! pr9cipal e>?s are alum9a1 lime1 & silica4 ,to ^! ?ree we are *iefly indebt$ = ! gr\nd we live on1 & f :i* we dig s _m useful metals & o!r m9]als4 ,e>?s are col\r$ by ! sub/ances mix$ ) !m4 ,we c ?us f9d copp]1 silv]1 gold1 lead1 etc41 by not+ ! appe>ance ( ! soil4 ,true e>?s are :ite4 ,/rontia & b>yta are also e>?s1 & ! latt] is us$ 9 firework manufactories4 ,our *ief assi/ants are ,,alum9a1 :i* furni%es u ) bricks & slate2 ,,lime1 :i* gives u m>ble or /ones = build+ 9 a c>bonate =m4 ,quicklime1 by :i* is meant lime fre$ f ! c>bonic acid1 is well kn[n2 & pla/] ( ,p>is is only lime & sulphuric acid 9 comb9ation4 ,! ,,silicates1 su* z s& & fl9t1 are 9 daily dem&4 ,agate1 cornelian1 ,scot* pebbles1 rock-cry/al1 etc41 belong to ! same family4 ,ev5 our gems are cry/alliz$ e>?s1 &1 z already /at$1 diamonds are m]ely c>bon4 ,/one1 z we "k1 is qu>ri$2 t is1 x is dug out ( ! e>?4 ,b p]haps _m read]s d n "k :y a /one-m9e is call$ a 8qu>ry40 ,mo/ k9ds ( /one 7granite & m>ble are ! exceptions7 are f\nd 9 lay]s1 or /rata1 r5d]+ !m easy ( removal4 ,! blocks ( /one are cut ) ref]5ce to ^! lay]s 9 a m or less squ>e mann]1 & 8squ>$ up0 be=e !y are c>ri$ away4 ,?us ! t]m 8qu>ry10 f an old ,fr5* ^w1 qu>r1 or c>r1 z n[ writt51 signify+ a squ>e4 ,9 granite qu>ries ! /one be+ v h>d is bor$1 & loos5$ by means ( gunp[d] or dynamite bla/+4 ,slate1 on ! contr>y1 is easily divid$ into slabs4 ,we w n[ resume ! subject ( ,cry/als4 ,illu/ration3 #a4--;,em]ald4 #c4--;,g>net4 #e4--;,diamond4 ,fig4 #dcd4 #b4--;,agate4 #d4--,ruby4 #f4--,rock cry/al4 ,we h said t cry/als v>y 9 size1 & ?is v>iety may be trac$1 9 ! cases ( cry/allization f fluids1 to ! sl[ness or ! rapidity ( ! cool+ process4 ,if ! "w be done sl[ly1 !n ! cry/als obta9 a size comm5surate ) ! "t ( cool+1 z !y are deposit$ "o ^u ! o!r4 ,! =m ( m9]als is ! fir/ important po9t1 & to asc]ta9 _! =ms & /ructure we mu/ /udy ,,cry/allography4 ,we %all f9d faces1 or planes1--! l9es ( contact ( any two planes1--call$ edges1 & ! angles =m$ :]e ^! planes meet4 ,we may add t cry/als h1 at lea/1 f\r planes1 mak+ six edges & f\r angles4 ,ne>ly all cry/als h m ?an ?is1 = ! =ms are1 if n inf9ite1 v num]\s1 & are divid$ into six 7by "s writ]s into sev57 diff]5t sy/ems or fundam5tal =ms f :i* ! v>ieties are d]iv$4 ,! axis ( a cry/al is an imag9>y l9e drawn f an angle to ! opposite "o4 ,! fir/ =m1 ! monometric1 or cubic sy/em1 ) ?ree equal axes at "r angles1 is repres5t$ by fig4 #dcf4 ,?is cry/al is limit$ by eight equilat]al triangles4 ,x has twelve edges & six angles4 ,if we describe a l9e f any "o angle to an opposite "o1 t l9e is call$ an axis1 & 9 ! case be=e u !re are ?ree su* axes1 :i* int]sect ea* o!r at "r angles4#bc ,su* cry/als are regul> octoh$ra4 ,!re are irregul> =ms also1 ^: axes d n come at "r angles1 or !y may be ( unequal l5g?4 ,! sub/ances :i* we f9d cry/alliz$ 9 ?is =m or sy/em are ! diamond1 ne>ly all metals1 *loride ( sodium 7salt71 fluor-sp>1 alum1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dce4--,/one qu>ry4 ,:5 we say 9 ?is =m we d n mean t all ! m9]als are %ap$ l ! illu/ration 7fig4 #dcf74 ,we %all at once see t ! sy/em admits ( o!r %apes4 ,= in/ance1 a regul> cry/al may h be5 cut or rubb$ 7& ! exp]im5t c be made ) a raw turnip74 ,suppose we cut (f ! angles 9 fig4 #dcf2 we !n %all h a totally diff]5t appe>ance1 & yet ! cry/al is ! same1 & by cutt+ t d[n we c obta9 a cube 7fig4 #dcg74 ,take (f its angles aga9 we obta9 a regul> octoh$ron once m1 z %[n 9 ! diagram opposite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcf4--,regul> octah$ron--fir/ sy/em4 ,we w exhibit ! gradations4 ,suppose we cut fig4 #dcg2 we w obta9 7fig4 #dch7 ! cube4 ,! next is m]ely ! cube ) angles & edges cut (f2 & if we proce$ regul>ly we %all arrive at fig4 #ddb1 ! rhombic dodecah$ron1 or twelve-sid$ figure1 ^: equal planes are rhombs4 ,we c1 by tak+ away alt]nate angles or edges situat$ opposite1 arrive at o!r second>y cry/als4 ,f ! orig9al octoh$ron we c ?us obta9 figs4 #ddc & #ddd4 ,^! are kn[n z tetrah$ron4 ,! p5tagonal dodecah$ron is ano!r second>y =m 7fig4 #dde74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcg4--,octoh$ron angles remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dch4--,! cube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dci4--;,cube ) angles remov$4 ,! cube1 or hexah$ron1 ! octoh$ron1 & ! rhomboh$ron are all simple =ms1 be+ ea* b\nd$ by equal & simil> faces1 or surfaces4 ,we c ?us und]/& h[ c]ta9 prim>y or orig9al natural =ms ( cry/als c be *ang$ 9 appe>ance by connection4 ,( ! v>i\s sub/ances cry/alliz+ 9 ?is sy/em we f9d salt1 iron pyrites1 gold1 silv]1 copp]1 & plat9um1 & ! sulphide ( lead call$ gal5a1 9 ! cube or hexah$ron =m4 ,! diamond & fluor-sp>1 alum1 etc41 appe> 9 ! fir/ =m 7,i71 fig4 #dcf 7octoh$ron74 ,! cube1 we see1 has six equal faces1 eight equal angles1 & twelve equal edges4 ,gal5a1 z w be obs]v$ f ! illu/ration h]e)1 %[s ?is peculi>ity 9 a v m>k$ mann] 7fig4 #ddf74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddj4--;,ano!r int]m$iate =m ( octoh$ron betwe5 figs4 #dcf & #dch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dda4--;,cube depriv$ ( edges & angles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddb4--,rhombic dodecah$ron 7g>net cry/al74 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ddc & #ddd4--,second>y =ms ( fir/ sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dde4--,p5tagonal dodecah$ron4 ,! second cry/all9e =m is ! ,,hexagonal1 & 9 ?is sy/em ?ree ( ! f\r axes are equal & 9 ! same plane1 incl9$ at an angle ( #fj1 ) a pr9cipal axis at "r angles to ! o!rs4 ,9 cry/als ( ?is sy/em are f\nd qu>tz & calc-sp>4 ,! ?ird sy/em is t]m$ ! ,,quadratic or ! diametric4 ,?is =m has ?ree axes1 all at "r angles1 two be+ equal & ! o!r long] or %ort] ?an ! =m] two4 ,9 ?is sy/em cry/allize sulphate ( nickel1 zircon1 oxide ( t91 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddf4--;,gal5a1 or sulphide ( lead4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddg4--,oxide ( t94 ,! f\r?1 or ,,rhombic sy/em1 or ! trimetric4 ,"h we h ?ree rectangul> axes1 all unequal & int]sect+ at "r angles4 ,! sulphate & nitrate ( potassium cry/allize 9 ?is sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddh4--,rock cry/al--second sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ddi & #dej4--,quadratic1 or ?ird sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dea4--,prism ( quadratic sy/em4 ,! fif? is ! oblique1 or ,,monocl9ic sy/em1 :i* displays ?ree unequal axes1 two ( :i* are at "r angles2 ! ?ird1 or pr9cipal axis1 is at "r angles to "o & oblique to ! o!r ( ! prec$+4 ,f]r\s sulphate1 t>t>ic acid1 & gypsum cry/allize 9 ?is sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deb4--,rhombic1 or fif? sy/em ( cry/als4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dec4--;,cry/als ( ! fif? sy/em4 ,! six?1 or ,,tricl9ic sy/em1 or ! d\bly oblique4 ,9 ?is sy/em we h ?ree axes diff]+ 9 l5g?1 & all =ms :i* c be arrang$ ab\t ^! unequal & oblique axes4 ,sulphate ( copp] w be f\nd 9 ?is gr\p4 ,! sy/em has be5 call$ anor?ic1 or tricl9ic1 because ! axes are unequal & incl9$1 z 9 ! oblique prism bas$ ^u an obliqu$ angl$ p>allelogram4 ,ax9ite cry/al1 z annex$1 w %[ "o =m 9 ?is sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ded4--,six? sy/em4 ,z may be ga!r$ f ! =ego+1 x is n easy to det]m9e a cry/all9e =m ) c]ta9ty1--a great "p ( ! cry/al may be invisible4 ,a cry/all9e mass is a m9]al1 :i* consi/s ( an arrangem5t ( cry/als heap$ toge!r4 ,if x does n possess ^! ! m9]al is amorph\s1 or %apeless4 ,we w n[ endeav\r to describe "s ( ! physical *>act]i/ics ( m9]als4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dee4--,wolla/on's ,goniomet]1 an in/rum5t = measur+ ! angles ( cry/als4 ,! ,,goniomet] 7see fig4 #dee7 is ! in/rum5t us$ = measur+ ! angles ( cry/als4 ,wolla/on's reflect+ in/rum5t is mo/ g5]ally us$4 ,x consi/s ( a divid$ circle1 graduat$ to degrees1 & subdivid$ ) ! v]ni]4 ,! mann] ( work+ is easy1 ?\gh app>5tly complicat$4 ,! v]ni] is br\ght to z]o1 :5 an object is reflect$ 9 "o face ( ! cry/al4 ,! cry/al is turn$ till ! same object is view$ f ano!r face4 ,! angle ( reflection is !n measur$1 & c be read (f on ! circle4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! physical *>act]i/ics ( ! m9]als1 & "o ( ^! attributes is cohesion4 ,:5 we f9d a sub/ance is difficult to break1 we say x is 8h>d40 ,?is means t ! cohesion ( ! diff]5t p>ticles is v great4 ,m9]als v>y 9 h>dness2 "s are extremely difficult to act ^u by =ce1 & a file appe>s useless4 ,at ! o!r side we f9d "s :i* c be prick$ or scrat*$ ) a p92 & ^! degrees ( h>dness be+ put z extremes1 we c 9 a mann] relatively e/imate ! h>dness ( all o!r m9]als4 ,we c te/ ?is by scrat*+ "o aga9/ ano!r2 :i*ev] scrat*es ! o!r is ! h>d] ( ! two1 & ?us by tak+ up & disc>d+ alt]nately1 we c at l5g? arrive at a comp>ative e/imate ( ! h>dness ( all4 ,su* a scale 0 arriv$ at by ,mohs1 & arrang$ 9 ! foll[+ ord]4 ,! s(te/ m9]al comes fir/3-- #a4 ,talc4 #b4 ,gypsum 7rock-salt74 #c4 ,calc>e\s sp>4 #d4 ,fluor-sp>4 #e4 ,apatite-sp>4 #f4 ,felsp>4 #g4 ,qu>tz4 #h4 ,topaz4 #i4 ,corundum4 #aj4 ,diamond4 ,talc1 we see1 is ! s(te/1 & diamond ! h>de/4 ,?us 8diamond cut diamond0 has pass$ into a prov]b expressive ( ! difficulties "o 8%>p0 p]son has to circumv5t or 8cut out0 ano!r4 ,diamond is us$ by glass-cutt]s4 ,:5 geologi/s wi% to express ! degree ( h>dness ( any sub/ance1 !y m5tion x ) ref]5ce to ! =ego+ li/2 & if ! sub/ance be h>d] ?an fluor-sp>1 b n s h>d z felsp>1 !y det]m9e its h>dness five1 or p]haps betwe5 five & six1 or betwe5 f\r & five1 accord+ z x is h>d] or less h>d ?an apatite4 ,?us h>dness1 or p[] ( cohesion1 resi/ance to ext]ior =ce & pressure1 is a prime *>act]i/ic ( ! m9]al k+dom4 ,! file is ! be/ te/4 ,we n[ come to ano!r phase ( ! physical "* ( our m9]als--cleavage4 ,?is is ! t]m employ$ to express ! facility ( cutt+ 9 a c]ta9 direction :i* 9 ! m9]al is its direction ( cleavage4 ,take mica1 = in/ance4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 sep>at+ mica into ?9 lay]s2 we c d s ) our f+]s4 ,! lay]s1 or flakes1 or lam9 are s arrang$ t !y exhibit less cohesion 9 "o direction ?an :5 tri$ 9 o!r ways4 ,we cut ) ! gra91 z x 7 9 ! direction ( ! fibre :5 wood is conc]n$4 ,"h we h ano!r popul> say+ expressive ( ?is1--8aga9/ ! gra910--:i* signifies an act p]=m$ unwill+ly & unpleasantly4 ,cleavability1 !re=e1 means cutt+ ) ! gra91 z x 71 & v>i\s m9]als are possess$ ( diff]5t degrees ( cleavage4 ,x sometimes happ5s t electric excitem5t is obs]v$ :5 cleavage takes place4 ,"o place w become positive1 & ! o!r negative4 ,mica1 arragonite1 & calc>e\s sp> w exhibit ?is action aft] cleavage or pressure4 ,:5 a cry/al ( t\rmal9e is heat$1 x w develop positive electricity at "o end ( its pr9cipal axis1 & negative at ! o!r4 ,ev5 if x be brok51 ! extremities ( ! fragm5ts w exhibit simil> ph5om5a1 & s f> l a magnet1 :i*1 z we h se51 possesses ?is attribute ( 8pol>ity40 ,b a curi\s fact 9 connection ) ?is is t1 if ! heat+ cease ! pol>ity ceases = a second or two1 & yet z cool+ goes on ! pol>ity is re/or$1 ) ! diff]5ce t ! positive end has become negative1 & ! end previ\sly negative has come ov] to ! opposite pole4 ,electricity1 !re=e1 mu/ be hidd5 away 9 e portion ( our globe1 & w "s day be prov$ to be ! ma9spr+ ( all life4 ,fracture 9 m9]als is also to be notic$4 ,^? sub/ances :i* we _c lam9ate we are oblig$ to break1 & we may require to break a m9]al 9 a direction diff]5t f or oppos$ to its direction ( cleavage4 ,"u su* circum/ances we mu/ break x1 dis9tegrate x1 & obs]ve ! fracture4 ,sometimes we %all f9d ! surfaces v ev51 or unev51 or :at is t]m$ con*oidal4 ,?is is obs]vable 9 ! break+ ( fl9t4 ,!re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* m9]als display fracture1 & ! p>ticul> mann] & appe>ance d5otes ! class to :i* ! m9]al belongs4 ,we may pass ov] ! "q ( ! specific gravity ( m9]als1 z we h 9 a =m] "p expla9$ ?is4 ,x is important1 h[ev]1 to asc]ta9 ! specific gravity4 ,z a g5]al rule1 m9]als conta9+ heavy metals are ( high specific gravity4 ,b ! relation ( m9]als 7cry/als7 ) reg>d to light is ( great int]e/ & importance4 ,:5 we 7 writ+ ( pol>ization1 we m5tion$ ! faculty a cry/al has = d\ble refraction1 by :i* x divides a ray ( light into two prolong$ rays tak+ diff]5t directions1 ! plane ( vibration ( "o be+ at "r angles to t ( ! o!r4 ,?is prop]ty is n possess$ by all cry/als4 ,"s act z ord9>y transp>5t m$ia4 ,"s cry/als transmit only "o pol>iz$ ray1 & t\rmal9e is call$ a pol>iz]2 & if light be pass$ ?r\gh x to ano!r pol>iz]1 x w be transmitt$ if ! latt] be simil>ly held2 b if ! second be held at "r angles to x ! ray w be /opp$4 ,we c easily und]/& ?is if we suppose a grat+ ?r\gh :i* a /rip ( t9 is pass$2 b ! /rip w be /opp$ by b>s at "r angles to x4 ,! col\r$ r+s 9 cry/als c be obs]v$ :5 a slice ( a d\ble refract+ cry/al is exam9$4 ,! r+s are se5 surr\nd+ a black cross 9 "s in/ances1 & a :ite cross 9 ano!r4 ,! effect :5 exam9$ 9 ! pol>iscope is v beautiful4 ,sel5ite is probably ! be/ cry/al = exhibit+ col\rs4 ,m9]als sometimes reflect1 sometimes refract light2 !y are said to possess lu/re & phosphoresc5ce4 ,all ^! prop]ties may be consid]$ z belong+ to ! cry/als :i* are transp>5t1 semi-transp>5t1 transluc5t1 or opaque1 accord+ to ! degrees 9 :i* !y p]mit light to pass ?r\gh !m4 ,all m9]als are electric or non-electric1 & ! v>iety c be asc]ta9$ by rubb+ & plac+ ! m9]al ne> ! electromet]4 ,b all d n exhibit magnetic prop]ties4 ,ta/e & smell are /rongly m>k$ 9 "s m9]als--salts1 = in/ance1 & sulphur2 "s are soapy to ! t\*1 "s appe> cold to ! f+]s4 ,*emi/ry is v useful to u 9 det]m9+ ! nature ( ! m9]al1 & ! am\nt ( x enclos$ 9 ! sub/ance "u exam9ation4 ,^! delicate op]ations are t]m$ qualitative & quantitative analysis4 ,! application ( heat is increas$ by means ( ! bl[pipe1 :i* is 9 effect a small bell[s4 ,we c ?us1 & p>ticul>ly by means ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe1 obta9 a v int5se heat ) little tr\ble4 ,:5 ! fragm5ts ( a m9]al are held 9 ! flame by plat9um 8tweez]s10 or tongs1 !n ! fusibility ( ! sub/ance1 & ! col\r ( ! bl[-pipe flame w be ( great assi/ance 9 det]m9+ ! nature ( ! m9]al4 ,x is also curi\s to obs]ve ! diff]5t =ms into :i* ! v>i\s sub/ances exp& or contract "u ! influ5ce ( ! bl[pipe4 ,we may h a rugg$ slag1 an enamel1 or a glass1 or a bead1 or 8drop0 ( metal4 ,! v>i$ sub/ances produce v>i\s col\rs--yell[1 gre51 orange1 or r$1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,/rontia is a vivid r$1 copp] is gre51 lime orange1 & s on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #def4--,! bl[pipe4 ,x is v little use to attempt a /udy ( m9]alogy )\t "s acqua9tance ) *emi/ry4 ,9 deal+ ) m9]als1 & 9 /udy+ geology1 we mu/ try to keep our k ( *emical sci5ce 9 our m9ds1 & ?us =tifi$ we c m easily und]/& ! /eps lead+ to ! classification ( m9]als4 ,x is impossible to tea* m9]alogy or geology f books4 ,nature mu/ be /udi$1 ! specim5s mu/ be se51 ! e>? mu/ be exam9$4 ,! advance 9 m9]alogy may be--probably w be--sl[1 b cry/als w tea* some?+2 & :5 we c pass a viva voce exam9ation 9 *emi/ry & cry/allography1 express+1 by ! symbols1 ! v>i\s sub/ances "u discussion1 we %all h made a consid]able advance 9 ! sci5ce4 ,we %all h an idea ( ! compon5t p>ts ( v>i\s sub/ances1 & be able to class ! v>i\s m9]als accord+ to _! *emical con/itution4 ,beg9n+ ) ! metalloids1 we %all pass to ! metals & v>i\s comp\nds1 salts1 res9\s sub/ances1 etc41 su* z amb]4 ,x is impossible 9 ! space at our comm& to describe all ! m9]als1 & yet x is necess>y to enum]ate ! mo/ important4 ,we may1 !re=e1 take !m 9 ! foll[+ ord]4 ,x %\ld be add$ t mo/ ( ! simple m9]als occur 9 comp>atively small quantities1 b sometimes we f9d !m 9 aggregate masses 7rocks74 ,we app5d a table4 ,,synoptical ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,m9]als4 ,fir/ ,class4--,metalloids4 ,sulphur4 ,boron4 ,c>bon4 ,silicium 7,silicon74 ,second ,class4--,light ,metals4 ,potassium4 ,sodium4 ,ammonium4 ,calcium4 ,b>ium4 ,/rontium4 ,magnesium4 ,alum9um4 ,heavy ,metals4 ,iron4 ,manganese4 ,cobalt4 ,copp]4 ,bismu?4 ,lead4 ,t94 ,z9c4 ,*romium4 ,antimony4 ,ars5ic4 ,m]cury4 ,silv]4 ,gold4 ,plat9um4 ,?ird ,class4 ,salts4 ,e>?y res9s4 ,,sulphur is f\nd 9 ,sicily & ,italy & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 9 a native /ate1 b z su* has to be purifi$4 ,! cry/als take ! =m z %[n 9 ! m>g94 ,cleavage imp]fect2 x is brittle4 ,sulphuric acid is a v important comb9ation1 & a v dang]\s "o 9 inexp]i5c$ h&s4 ,sulphur comb9es ) a numb] ( elem5ts1 :i* comb9ations are 8,sulphides40 7,see ,*emi/ry section47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deg4--;,cry/als ( sulphur4 ,,sel5ium is a metalloid resembl+ sulphur1 b less common4 ,x is inodor\s4 ,,boron is usually f\nd ne> volcanic spr+s1 & 9 comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,x is soluble4 ,ta/e1 acid bitt]1 & :ite 9 col\r2 friable4 ,x is kn[n z ,,sassol9e1 or boracic acid4 7,see ,biborate ( ,soda = "o ( ! borates47 ,,c>bon is "o ( ! mo/ important ( our m9]als4 ,9 ! =m ( coal we h x 9 daily use1 & 9 ! =m ( diamond x is our mo/ valuable gem4 ,9 ! latt] =m x is ! h>de/ ( all m9]als1 a p[]ful refractor ( light1 lu/r\s1 & transp>5t4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies & ,brazil2 m lately ,cape diamonds h be5 br\ght to ,europe1 b !y d n equal ! ,ea/]n gem4 ,almo/ fabul\s prices h be5 giv5 = diamonds1 :i*1 aft] all1 are only c>bon 9 a pure /ate4 ,ano!r =m ( c>bon is graphite 7plumbago1 or blacklead74 ,x is mu* us$ = p5cils & 9 h\seholds4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,cumb]l&1 & 9 _m o!r localities 9 ,europe & ,canada4 ,c>bon appe>s 9 "o or o!r ( ! above =ms 9 regul> octah$rons or _! alli$ %apes4 ,an?racite1 ano!r =m ( c>bon1 is us$ z fuel = /rong furnaces4 ,x leaves little 8a%10 & is smokeless :5 burn$4 ,coal1 9 all its =ms1 is evid5tly d]iv$ f wood4 ,?\s&s ( ye>s ago vegetable matt] mu/ h be5 emb$d$ 9 ! gr\nd & subject$ to c>bonization4 ,!re are diff]5t k9ds ( coal1 all ( :i* come "u "o or o!r ( ! foll[+ heads3 cubical coal1 slate coal1 cannel coal1 glance-lignite1--! la/ be+1 z its "n implies1 an imp]fect developm5t ( wood2 x is a br[n coal4 ,we are n "h conc]n$ ) coal z a fuel4 ,*>coal is also a =m ( c>bon prep>$ f wood & f9ds a c\nt]p>t 9 coke1 :i* is prep>$ f coal4 ,c>bon1 z we h already se51 plays an important "p 9 electric light+ & 9 ! ,voltaic ,batt]y4 ,peat1 or z x is call$ 9 ,irel&1 8turf10 is "o ( ! mo/ rec5t ( ! c>bonif]\s =mations4 ,x is mu* us$ z fuel4 ,x is cut f moors 78bogs10 z !y are sometimes call$71 & ! v>i\s deposits c be trac$4 ,bog-oak is no d\bt ! fir/ /ep t[>ds peat1 z peat is ! /ep t[>ds coal4 ,! br[n turf is new] ?an ! black1 & bo? k9ds may be se5 /ack$ 9 small squ>e 8bricks0 along ! ,iri% canals & 9 ! y>ds ( retail]s ( fuel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deh4--;,cry/als ( c>bon4 ,,silicon4 ,silica occurs g5]ally 9 comb9ation ) alum9a1 & nev] 9 a free /ate4 ,9 comb9ation ) oxyg5 x is call$ silicic acid4 ,silica1 :5 cry/alliz$1 is usually call$ qu>tz4 ,,qu>tz has sev]al v>ieties4 ,we ne$ only enum]ate !m1 !y w all be imm$iately recogniz$4 ,we give illu/rations ( ! cry/als ( qu>tz 7fig4 #dei73-- #a4 ,rock cry/al appe>s 9 beautiful six-sid$ prisms4 #b4 ,ame?y/ is col\r$ by protoxide ( manganese1 suppos$ by ! anci5ts to be a *>m aga9/ drunk5ness4 #c4 ,common qu>tz1 or qu>tz rock1 =ms granite 9 comb9ation1 & is also kn[n z 8cat's-eye10 8rose0 qu>tz1 etc4 #d4 ,*alc$ony1 sometimes t]m$ cornelian3 us$ = seals1 etc4 #e4 ,fl9t3 mu* us$ 9 pott]ies4 8,fl9t & /eel0 h be5 sup]s$$ by phosphorus4 #f4 ,horn/one3 some?+ l fl9t1 resembl+ horn4 #g4 ,jasp]3 ( v>i\s col\rs2 opaque & dull 9 appe>ance4 #h4 ,silici\s slate3 a comb9ation2 us$ z a :et/one4 #i4 ,agate3 a mixture ( qu>tz1 ame?y/1 jasp]1 & cornelian2 v ornam5tal4 #aj4 ,opal3 a peculi> v>iety1 conta9+ wat]4 ,x is n f\nd 9 ! =m ( cry/al1 b 9 vitre\s masses4 ,its *angeabl5ess ( hue is prov]bial4 ,! 8noble0 opal is mu* priz$4 #aa4 ,smoky qu>tz1 or cairngorm4 #ab4 ,onyx & ,s>donyx4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dei4--,qu>tz cry/als 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,we n[ arrive at "s m9]als :i* conta9 metals4 ,,potassium4 ,?is metal is s frequ5tly comb9$ 9 m9]als ) alum9a t we may ref] to x ) ! latt] 9 sequel4 ,!re are two natural potassa salts--nitre1 & sulphate ( potassa4 ,nitre is kn[n z saltpetre1 & is ( great use 9 m$ic9e4 ,x is ! *ief +r$i5t 9 ! composition ( gunp[d]4 ,,sodium4 ,we h a numb] ( m9]als 9 ?is gr\p--viz41 nitrate ( soda 7nitrat9e71 :i* occurs 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,p]u2 rock salt1 *loride ( sodium1 kn[n z salt4 ,x cry/allizes 9 ! cubic sy/em4 ,col\r usually :ite1 b x occurs 9 second>y rocks 9 company ) gypsum1 etc4 ,x is sometimes ( a r$di% col\r1 or ev5 gre5 & yell[4 ,biborate ( soda is borax1 & is f\nd 9 & on ! bord]s ( a ,?ibetian lake4 ,!re are sev]al o!r comb9ations ) soda3 ! sulphates ( soda--viz41 !n>dite & glaub]ite1 anhydr\s & hydrat$ respectively1 c>bonate ( soda1 & s on4 ,,ammonia comb9ations occur 9 lava fissures1 & are n (t5 met ) 9 consequ5ce ( _! volatile nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfj4--,sp> cry/al4 ,,calcium4 ,?is =ms an important gr\p ( ! m9]als1 :i* are v :ite 9 col\r1 & n v h>d 9 sub/ance4 ,calcium is ! metallic basis ( lime4 ,fluoride ( calcium1 kn[n z fluor-sp>1 mo/ frequ5tly cry/allizes 9 cubes 9 ! fir/ sy/em4 ,anhydrite is ! anhydr\s sulphate ( calcium4 ,! hydrat$ sulphate is call$ gypsum4 ,"o v>iety ( ! hydrat$ sulphate is sel5ite1 ano!r is kn[n z alaba/]4 ,apatite1 or asp>agus /one1 & ph>macolite are 9 ?is gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,rhomboh$ron 7r74 ,prim>y rhomboh$ron 7r74 ,six-sid$ prism 7g7 regul>4 ,primitive rhomboh$ron 7r71 ) acute =m 7r74 ,obtuse rhomtrah$ron 7r71 end+ 9 prism 7g74 ,equal six-sid$ prism 7a71 end+ 9 regul> 7r74 ,obtuse rhomboh$ron4 ,fig4 #dfa4--;,,cry/als ,,( ,,c>bonate ,,( ,,lime4 ,c>bonate ( lime1 n cont5t ) "o sy/em ( cry/als1 makes its appe>ance 9 two4 ,x is !re=e divid$ into two m9]als--namely1 calc>e\s sp> & arragonite4 ,9 ! =m] x possesses v>i\s =ms1 z w be obs]v$ 9 ! accompany+ diagrams4 ,x is a v important m9]al1 z w be readily ackn[l$g$2 x ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( all %ells & bones4 ,! m9ute %ells1 deposit$ by millions at ! bottom ( ! sea1 h comb9$ to raise our *alk cliffs4 ,c>bonate ( lime is a con/itu5t ( wat]1 z ! deposits at ! bottoms ( kettles1 ^u ! sides & bottoms ( wat]-bottles1 & ! /alactites all te/ify4 ,a little good v9eg> w quickly dissolve ?is deposit4 ,calc-sp> is cry/alliz$1 & ! ,icel& sp> is celebrat$4 ,m>ble1 :i* is ano!r =m ( c>bonate ( lime1 is :ite1 h>d1 & granul>4 ,x is sometimes v>i$1 b ! pure :ite is ! mo/ valuable4 ,*alk1 we "k well1 is s(t1 & is useful = writ+4 ,we h also aphrite1 s*ief] sp>1--compact lime/one 9 v>i\s =ms1--& f9ally1 arragonite1 call$ f ! place ( its nativity1 ,arragon1--a col\rless & some:at transp>5t vitre\s cry/al4 ,,b>ytes4 ,! sulphate ( b>yta is kn[n z heavy sp>2 ! cry/als are ( tabul> =ms1 b num]\s modifications exi/4 ,"o ( ! =ms is repres5t$ 9 ! m>g94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfb4--,tabul> =m ( heavy sp>4 ,,/rontium is ! metallic basis ( /rontia4 ,sulphate ( /rontium is cele/9e1 ! m9]al :i* col\rs ! bl[-pipe flame a f9e crimson4 ,!re are c]ta9 v>ieties4 ,/rontia salts are *emical prep>ations4 ,a beautiful pyrote*nic 8r$ fire0 is produc$ by mix+ nitrate ( /rontia ) sulphur1 antimony1 *>coal1 & *lorate ( potassia4#bd ,!re is a c>bonate ( /rontia 9 ! same cry/all9e sy/em4 ,,magnesium4 ,) ?is metal we h a l>ge gr\p ( m9]als4 ,magnesite is c>bonate ( magnesia1 & occurs z talc-sp>4 ,! magnesium lime/one cry/allizes z bitt] sp>4 ,?is dolomite is l m>ble or common lime/one1 accord+ to col\r4 ,talc is a comb9ation ( magnesia ) silicic acid4 ,! hydrat$ c>bonate is t]m$ 8:ite magnesia40 ,! sulphate ( magnesia is f\nd 9 ,sib]ia1 & we h boracite1 & native magnesia call$ p]iclase4 ,! sulphate is g5]ally pres5t 9 m9]al wat]s1 su* z ! ,seidlitz & ,epsom ,spr+s4 ,l>ge masses h be5 f\nd 9 ! ext5sive cav]ns ( ,k5tucky & ,t5nessee1 etc4 ,me]s*aum is a hydrat$ silicate ( magnesia4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,anatolia & ,negropont1 also 9 ,france & ,au/ralasia4 ,s]p5t9e is ano!r simil> composition4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,cornwall1 :]e x is c>v$ into v>i\s ornam5ts4 ,x is sometimes call$ snake/one4 ,!re are _m o!r hydrat$ silicates ( magnesia--viz41 gymnite1 picrosm9e1 pycrophyll1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfc4--;,cry/al ( augite4 ,!re is ano!r family alli$ to magnesia1 call$ ,,augites4 ,^! m9]als are black or d>k-gre51 & are conta9$ 9 lava & basalt3 ,,augite & ,,hornbl5de are ! *ief repres5tatives ( ?is family4 ,! =m] cry/allizes 9 ! f\r? sy/em 7see fig4 #dfc71 & !re are sev]al v>ieties--diallage1 bronzite1 diopside1 etc4 ,,hornbl5de belongs to ! same sy/em1 & is a l>ge factor 9 ! composition ( gneiss1 sy5ite1 & porphyry4 ,tremolite is a hornbl5de1 & asbe/os 7amian?os71 & m\nta9-cork are also v>ieties4 ,! attribute ( asbe/os = su/a9+ heat is well kn[n1 & may be usefully employ$ = fire-pro( purposes4 ,! well-kn[n jade-/one ( ,*9a & calamite are o!r v>ieties4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfd4--;,alum cry/als4 ,,alum9um1 or ,,alum9ium1 gives u a l>ge class ( m9]als4 ,x is ! metallic basis ( alum9a1 :i*1 comb9$ ) silica1 is ! *ief compon5t ( our clay4 ,silicic acid & ?is base comb9e to =m _m m9]als1 & conta9s ne>ly all ! preci\s /ones4 ,corundums consi/ ( pure alum9a1 & cry/allize 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,! foll[+ /ones are v>ieties ( ?is m9]al3--,sapphire1 a beautiful blue2 ruby1 a r$ ori5tal2 topaz1 yell[ ori5tal2 ame?y/1 violet2 all be+ sapphires m or less4 ,! f9e/ cry/als are f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies 9 ! s&s ( riv]s & diluvial soils4 ,! common corundum is v h>d1 & is us$ = poli%+4 ,em]y is well kn[n1 & is f\nd 9 mica-slate4 ,x is ( a blui%-grey col\r1 & is also a poli%]4 ,,alum =ms ano!r family1 ( :i* we may fir/ m5tion alum9ite1 a 8basic sulphate0 ( alum9a & f\nd 9 small quantities4 ,alum-/one is f\nd 9 ,italy4 ,alum occurs 9 l>ge cry/alliz$ masses4 7,see illu/ration1 fig4 #dfd47 ,!re are diff]5t m9]als ) a composition v simil> to alum1 9 :i* ! potassa base ( alum is suppli$ by o!rs4 ,?us we h ! potassa alum1 soda alum1 manganese alum1 ammonia alum--all be+ v ne>ly ( ! same con/itu5ts1 & hav+ simil> cry/als 9 ! regul> sy/em1 & are ?us t]m$ isomorph\s1 or simil>ly-=m$4 ,! potassa1 or pota% alum1 is ! commone/ =m1 & is f\nd abundantly 9 ,engl&1 on ! ,cont95t ( ,europe1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,soda alum is call$ salfat>ite1 & magnesia alum pick]+ite2 manganese alum is apjohnite2 phosphate ( alum9a is wavellite4 ,!re are comp\nds ( alum9a & magnesia call$ ,,sp9els4 ,!y are h>d m9]als1 & ! same isomorph\s *anges take place ) !m z are obs]vable ) ! bases ( alum4 ,!re are !re=e v>ieties su* z ! sp9el ruby f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies1 v r$ 9 col\r2 ! balas ruby n s r$1 & ! orange-r$1 t]m$ rubicelle4 ,ceylon is rem>kable = "s f9e specim5s ( sp9els4 ,*romite is l ! sp9el1 b is kn[n z *rome iron4 ,,zeolites are pr9cipally compositions ( silica & alum9a4 ,!y conta9 wat]1 & are :ite1 vitre\s1 & transp>5t4 ,!re are sev]al v>ieties ( !m--natrolite1 /ilbite1 etc4 ,we w n[ pass on to ! ,clays1 :i* are a v important family ( ! alum9um gr\p4 ,!re are a numb] ( h>d m9]als :i*1 :5 dis9tegrat$1 =m c]ta9 e>?y masses4 ,^! we t]m clay1 or clays1 :i* possess v>i\s col\rs & receive c]ta9 names1 accord+ to ! proportion ( metallic oxides !y conta94 ,all clays h an aff9ity = wat]1 & reta9 x to a v great ext5t4 ,! e>? has also a peculi> smell4 ,clay is us$ 9 v>i\s ways2 pott]y1 = in/ance1 we read 9 ! ,bible z hav+ be5 an employm5t f v anci5t times4 ,"o attribute ( clays1 ! ret5tion ( wat]1 is ( ! greate/ use to ! _w 9 provid+ moi/ure = plants & se$s4 ,we may m5tion o!r *>act]i/ics ( clay4 ,x absorbs oil v quickly1 & !re=e is useful = remov+ grease-spots4 ,x _c be burn$1 s we h fire-bricks & fire-clay 9 our /oves & furnaces4 ,!re are v>i\s clays--pipe-clay1 = in/ance1 :i* is :ite2 pott]s' clay is co>s]4 ,!re is porcela9 clay z well z porcela9 e>?1 ( :i* m bel[4 ,yell[ o*re & si5na are clays us$ by arti/s4 ,bole is a r$di% clay2 & tripoli is employ$ = poli%+4 ,!re are1 besides1 &alusite1 or *ia/olite & di/h5e1 cry/all9e =ms ( clay4 99 99 99 99 99 ,porcela9 has be5 kn[n to ! ,*9ese = c5turies4 ,9 #agja x 0 discov]$ 9 ,g]many by ,btt*]1 a *emi/1 :o :ile endeav\r+ to make gold by ,royal comm&1 f\nd ! porcela91 & 0 !reby enri*$4 ,porcela9 e>? is frequ5tly f\nd2 is kn[n 9 _m places z kaol91 & usually comes f ! decomposition ( felsp>4 ,b 9 ,cornwall we f9d x z decompos$ granite1 & ! filt]+ process c be view$ f ! railway1 :ile bo? gneiss & granulite h be5 kn[n to yield kaol94 ,x is also f\nd 9 ,*9a1 ,saxony1 & ,france4 ,x is free f iron1 & :5 gr\nd & mix$ ) silicic acid1 x is h&$ to ! pott] or m\ld]4 ,aft] ! vessels h be5 dri$ 9 ! air !y are put into ! kiln1 & !n become :ite & h>d4 ,aft] t !y are glaz$ 9 a mixture ( porcela9 e>? & gypsum1 or gr\nd fl9ts & oxide ( lead1 made fluid ) wat] 9 ! glaz+ ( e>!nw>e4 ,! vessel is !n put into ! furnace aga91 or 8fir$10 z ! process is call$1 & !n comes out :ite1 h>d1 & p>tly transp>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfe4--,porcela9 furnace4 ,e>!nw>e ut5sils are made ( a co>s] mat]ial1--clay & p[d]$ fl9ts1--f :i* all ! gross matt] has be5 elim9at$4 ,fl9t is n difficult to break1 if made hot & ?r[n into cold wat]4 ,a /amp] is !n us$ to break ! fl9ts4 ,!y are fir/ gr\nd 9 a mill & purifi$ l ! clay1 !n !y are mix$ & beat51 :ile moi/1 into 8putty10 & turn$1 or =c$1 into m\lds4 ,! h&les are fix$ on aft]w>ds4 ,! w>e is bak$ = two days & glaz$4 ,! v>i\s col\rs are obta9$ by mix+ diff]5t clays & oxides--iron or manganese4 ,biscuit porcela9 is made by p\r+ a creamy mixture ( porcela9 e>? into pla/]-(-,p>is m\lds1 & :5 a ?9 case has =m$ )91 ! liquid is p\r$ out aga94 ,x is !n dri$ 9 ! m\ld & %r9ks4 ,! m\ld is tak5 to pieces1 & ! ?9 biscuit porcela9 is left4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dff4--,/amp]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfg4--;,fl9t mill4 ,,felsp>s are v l ! zeolites1 except t ! =m] conta9 no wat]4 ,felsp> cry/allizes 9 a numb] ( diff]5t =ms4 ,we annex illu/rations ( specim5s4 ,?is sp> is f\nd 9 rocks1 granite1 gneiss1 etc4 ,"o v>iety is ! moon/one1 ( a peculi> lu/re4 ,felsite is amorph\s felsp>4 ,albite conta9s soda in/ead ( pota%4 ,labradorite is ne>ly a pure lime felsp>1 & is rem>kable = its col\rs1 l a pigeon's brea/4 ,spodum5e is l albite1 & leucite1 soda-lite1 etc41 belong to ?is family4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfh4--;,felsp>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfi4--;,felsp> cry/al4 ,,lapis-,,lazuli is a felsp> di/+ui%$ by its blue t9t4 ,x 0 us$ = ultram>9e col\r+ at "o "t1 :i* col\r c also be made *emically4 ,lapis-lazuli is f\nd 9 ,sib]ia & ,*9a4 ,x is a mixture ( m9]al species4 ,hauyne is some?+ l x4 ,obsidian is a sort ( black glass1 & occurs 9 v>i\s col\rs 9 vitre\s masses4 ,x is d]iv$ f ! fusion ( rocks1 & is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( boxes1 etc4 ,pumice /one be>s a resemblance 9 composition to ! =ego+1 b is por\s1 & s call$ spongy4 ,x conta9s bo? pota% & soda 9 "s quantities4 ,pe>l/one & pit*/one also atta* !mselves to ?is family gr\p4 ,! ,,g>nets possess _m curi\s =ms ( cry/als1 :i* are col\r$ & us$ z gems4 ,t\rmal9e is a v p>ticul>ly useful cry/al1 & is us$ 9 ! inve/igations conc]n+ ! pol>ization ( light4 ,x is f\nd ( ne>ly all col\rs4 ,! g>net & /aurolite cry/als are %[n 7figs4 #dgj1 #dga74 ,! =m] is silicate ( alum9a ) ! silicate ( "s o!r oxide1 :i* is n always ! same4 ,?is *ange1 ( c\rse1 gives u a s]ies1 z 9 ! case ( alum above m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgj4--;,g>net cry/al4 ,! r$ v>ieties1 call$ alm&9e1 or preci\s g>nets1 are di/+ui%$ f ! dull]1 8common0 species by _! cle> col\r4 ,bohemia is ! mo/ productive soil = ! g>nets4 ,,mica includes1 z we h already notic$1 a gr\p ( m9]als :i* h a peculi>ly lam9at$ /ructure4 ,^! lay]s are by no means all alike1 b !y pres5t a smoo?ness to ! f+]s :i* is highly *>act]i/ic4 ,! *ief con/itu5ts are alum9a & silica1 occasionally ) magnesia4 ,mica slate is v common1 & is (t5 us$ in/ead ( glass 9 w9d[-frames4 ,muscovite1 lepidolite1 & phlogopite are all micas ( ! 8pota%10 8li?ia10 & 8magnesia0 v>ieties4 ,9 ! li/ ( m9]als associat$ ) ! light] metals1 we ne$ only n[ m5tion ! ,gems1 s well kn[n4 ,^! /ones are v h>d 9 _m in/ances1 infusible1 & exhibit+ beautiful col\rs4 ,among/ !m are diamonds1 sapphires1 & rubies1 ( :i* we h spok52 ! topaz1 notic$ "u corundum4 ,! *rysob]yl 7( a pale gre51 or occasionally r$di% hue71 ( :i* ! alex&rite ( ,sib]ia is a v>iety1 is a comp\nd ( gluc9a ) alum9a2 ! b]yl1 a silicate ( ! same1 & ! em]ald ( beautiful gre54 ,zircon is ano!r gem1 & 8hyac9?0 is its mo/ valu$ =m4 ,! latt] is f\nd 9 basaltic rocks4 ,! em]ald cry/allizes 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dga4--,/aurolite cry/al4 ,we may n[ consid] ! m9]als =m$ by ! heavi] metals1 su* z ,iron1 ,copp]1 ,nickel1 etc4 ,,iron4 ,?is well-kn[n metal fills a v important place 9 our m9]al arrangem5ts1 = ! sub/ances =m$ ) iron ores occur 9 great v>iety ( /ructure1 & occasionally 9 v l>ge masses4 ,!y are highly magnetic1 & v h>d4 ,7 we "h treat+ ( iron z a metal1 we c\ld give "s in=mation respect+ its extraction & manifold uses4 ,all we ne$ m5tion "h is ! fact t iron occurs 9 nature 9 v>i\s ores :i* are ess5tially compos$ ( iron & oxyg54 ,! iron is extract$ 9 ! bla/ furnace1 9 :i* ! process is cont9u$ = ye>s4 ,! 8slag10 or glassy scum1 protects ! molt5 iron f ! air2 its pres5ce is necess>y 9 all bla/ furnaces4 ,! mo/ important ( ! iron gr\p ( m9]als are ,,magnetic ,,iron 7magnetite71 or load/one4 ,?is m9]al occurs 9 ,sw$5 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 & is f\nd 9 prim>y rocks1 & 9 ,sc&9avia =ms m\nta9s4 ,x cry/allizes 9 ! regul> 7octah$ron7 sy/em1 & (t5 9 ! =m 9 illu/ration 9 ! m>g94 ,x is highly magnetic1 z its "n implies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgb4--,magnetic iron4 ,native iron v r>ely occurs1 & !n only 9 ?9 lay]s4 ,! mo/ extraord9>y specim5s are ^? t]m$ meteoric iron1 :i* fall f ! atmosph]e 9 great masses2 & ! meteoric /ones1 :i* conta9 n9ety p] c5t ( iron1 toge!r ) o!r con/itu5ts 9 small quantities--viz41 nickel1 cobalt1 copp]1 manganese1 c>bon1 sulphur1 ars5ic1 etc4 ,r$ hematite cry/allizes 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,x possesses mu* ! same 7*emical7 con/itution z corundum 7q4 v474 ,x is brightly metallic1 & %[s a r$ /reak4 ,x occurs 9 v>i\s =ms1 z iron glance or specul> iron1 :i* is f\nd 9 ,sw$5 & ,russia2 micace\s iron1 blood/one1 clay1 iron/one1 etc4 ,br[n hematite has n be5 f\nd 9 cry/als1 b br[n iron/one 7fibr\s7 is cry/all9e4 ,! e>?y br[n1 conta9+ clay1 gives u yell[ o*re & umb]4 ,pea-iron ore & 8morass0 or 8bog0 ore also belong to ?is class4 ,limonite is ! "n giv5 to ^! m rec5t =mations1 ( :i* yell[ o*re is a pure specim54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgc4--,native oxide ( iron4 ,! comb9ations ( iron ) sulphur 7pyrites7 are also important4 ,iron pyrites & magnetic iron pyrites are two :i* may be m5tion$4 ,! latt] fir/4 ,magnetic iron pyrites 7or pyrrhot97 cry/allizes 9 six-sid$ prisms1 & is attract$ by ! magnet4 ,! composition ( ?is m9]al has n be5 exactly asc]ta9$1 & no *emical =mula has be5 f\nd = x4 ,,iron ,,pyrites 7bisulphide ( iron7 is kn[n z cubic pyrites1 yell[ pyrites1 & mundic4 ,x is g5]ally f\nd 9 ! regul> sy/em ( cry/als1 ei!r z a cube or z a p5tagonal dodecah$ron4 7,see fir/ sy/em ( cry/als1 ante47 ,its col\r is yell[i%4 ,x is kn[n also z gre5 vitriol :5 oxidis$1 & =ms beautiful gre5 cry/als 7copp]as74 ,?is salt is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ,prussian blue & violet dyes4 ,) gallic acid x makes ink4 ,!re are _m o!r 8f]rug9\s0 m9]als1 su* z vivianite1 gre5 iron/one1 :ite iron pyrites1 ars5ical pyrites1 or mispickel1 etc4 ,a c>bonate ( iron1 call$ *alybite1 or spa?ic iron/one1 is v abundant 9 nature1 & =ms obtuse rhomboh$rons4 ,x is v useful = ! production ( /eel1 z x =ms ! clay iron ore f\nd 9 coal di/ricts 9 comb9ation4 ,9 a fibr\s =m x is kn[n z sphrosid]ite4 ,x is a mo/ useful m9]al4 ,*rome iron 7*romite7 is useful = ! prep>ation ( *romium comp\nds4 ,x cry/allizes 9 ! cubic sy/em4 ,x is magnetic1 especially :5 treat$4 ,*romic acid =ms sc>let 8ne$le0 cry/als1 & by its assi/ance *romate ( lead1 or *rome yell[1 is prep>$4 7,*romate ( lead is f\nd 9 a native /ate z crocoisite74 ,see ,*romium4 ,,manganese is conta9$ 9 sev]al m9]als4 ,x usually occurs z an oxide4 ,x col\rs m9]als v>i\sly4 ,9 a pure /ate manganese is :ite & brittle4 ,! *ief m9]als are-- ,pyrolusite 7! b9oxide ( manganese ( comm]ce7 occurs 9 cry/als4 ,x is black4 ,x is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( *lor9e & oxyg54 ,! o!r m9]als are kn[n z manganite1 :i* is also f\nd associat$ ) pyrolusite1 z are hausmannite & braunite1 ! o!r oxides4 ,,nickel & ,,cobalt are g5]ally f\nd toge!r1 bo? be+ simil>1 & ! m9]als are comp\nds ( ars5ic or sulphur1 & occur "u simil> circum/ances4 ,! pr9cipal are ( ,,nickel & ( ,,cobalt-- ,sulphide ( nickel 7ullmanite74 ,ars5ical nickel 7nickel9e74 ,nickel glance 7g]sdorffite74 ,nickel pyrites 7sieg5ite74 ,ars5ical cobalt 7smalt9e74 ,cobalt glance 7cobalt9e74 ,cobalt bloom 7ery?r9e74 ,cobalt pyrites 7l9nite74 ,nickel ores are us$ = extraction ( ! metal1 :i* is us$ z a sub/itute = silv]4 ,! "n is d]iv$ f ! ,g]man1 kupf]nickel1 or false copp]4 ,x 0 discov]$ 9 #agea4 ,,copp]1 aga91 =ms a numb] ( m9]als1 & ! *ief is ! r$ oxide ( ! metal1 call$ cuprite4 ,x cry/allizes 9 ! cubic sy/em4 ,its col\r is r$1 & t+es a flame gre54 ,cuprite yields excell5t copp]1 & is f\nd 9 ,cornwall1 & 9 _m places on ! cont95t4 ,! black oxide is r>ely f\nd4 ,x is kn[n z melaconite4 ,mala*ite 7c>bonate ( copp]7 is rem>kable = its beautiful gre5 col\r4 ,9 ,au/ralia x is work$ = copp]4 ,x is *iefly ornam5tal4 ,sib]ia yields ! f9e/ specim5s1 b ! m9]al is f\nd 9 ,cornwall & ,cumb]l&1 z well z on ! cont95t4 ,*essylite 7f ,*essy1 9 ,france7 is frequ5tly f\nd ) mala*ite4 ,x has be5 call$ blue mala*ite1 or ! azure copp] ore4 ,x is us$ z a pa9t4 ,besides ! above1 copp] unites ) sulphur to =m m9]als1 su* z ! ne$le ore 7bismu?ic sulphide ( copp]71 antimonial sulphide1 b\rnonite2 purple copp]1 & copp] pyrites1 :i* is v abundant1 & furni%es u ) mo/ ( our copp]4 ,!re is also ! 8grey0 copp] ore1 :i* conta9s v>i\s metals2 ev5 silv] is obta9$ f x at times4 ,,bismu? gives u only a few m9]als1 ( second>y importance4 ,native bismu? resembles antimony1 b is r$di% 9 hue4 ,bismu? o*re1 bismu? bl5de1 & bismu?9e are ! *ief comb9ations4 ,,lead is m important1 & is obta9$ f gal5a1 ! sulphide ( lead1 :i* is v abundant1 & ! pr9cipal lead ore4 ,x c be at once di/+ui%$ by its high specific gravity & metallic lu/re2 ! 8cubic cleavage0 also is v easy4 ,x frequ5tly is f\nd conta9+ silv]1 & ev5 gold1 antimony1 iron1 etc4 ,!re are sev]al suphantimonites ( lead1 su* z z9k5ite1 geocronite1 etc41 & ! salts1 su* z sulphate ( lead & :ite lead ore1 or c>bonate ( lead 7c]asite74 ,! *romate ( lead is f\nd 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s4 ,,t9 is n f\nd 9 a native /ate1 b z t9/one1 or b9oxide ( t91 nam$ cassit]ite4 ,x is f\nd l>gely 9 ,cornwall1 & ! m9es !re h yield$ great quantities = g5]ations4 ,t9 pyrites1 a union ( sulphides ( t91 iron1 & copp]1 is also f\nd 9 ,cornwall4 ,,z9c is produc$ f ! ore call$ 7z9c7 bl5de1 or sulphide ( z9c 7black ,jack74 ,its col\r is v v>iable1 sometimes r$1 b :5 pure is gre5i%-yell[4 ,x is also f\nd black & br[n4 ,! r$ oxide ( z9c 7or sp>talite7 is also work$ = z9c4 ,! c>bonate1 or z9c sp>1 is common1 & us$ to make brass1 z is calam9e1 :i* is possess$ ( a rem>kable lu/re1 & is ev5 lum9\s :5 rubb$4 ,x is a silici\s oxide ( z9c1 & is f\nd 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,:5 heat$1 x displays /rong electric prop]ties4 ,,*romium occurs 9 v few m9]al comb9ations2 *romate ( lead1 *rome iron1 & *rome o*re1 or sesqui-oxide ( *romium are ! only important ones4 ,,antimony m9]als are v h>d2 ! t]sulphide is ! mo/ common1 & f ?is ! metallic antimony is produc$4 ,r$ antimony1 ! oxide1 is a r>] ore4 ,,ars5ic resembles antimony1 & occurs 9 comb9ation ) _m metals4 ,:ite ars5ic1 or ars5i\s acid1 is f\nd 9 ,bohemia1 ,alsace1 ,transylvania1 etc4 ,orpim5t & realg> are sulphides ( ars5ic1 & are employ$ z col\r+ matt]s 9 pa9t & fireworks4 ,ars5ic is v poison\s4 ,,m]cury is occasionally f\nd native1 b m g5]ally z c9nab>4 ,*loride ( m]cury 7or calomel7 is f\nd associat$ ) ! c9nab>1 or hepatic ore4 ,c9nab> is easily volatiliz$1 & possesses high specific gravity4 ,! ,cali=nian m9es are v ri*4 ,spa9 also produces a l>ge quantity4 ,x is opaque1 & c>m9e 9 col\r4 ,,silv] occurs native1 or 9 ores4 ,! latt] are z foll[s3--,! sulphide1 or ! vitre\s silv] 7arg5tite72 antimonial silv]2 & ! comb9$ sulphides1 ( antimony & silv]4 ,!re are _m silv] m9]als1 su* z ! *loride 7horn silv]1 or k]>gyrite71 bromide1 & c>bonate ( silv]1 bismu?ic silv]1 etc4 ,! bromide & iodide are brom>gyrite & iod>gyrite4 ,silv] occurs mo/ frequ5tly associat$ ) gold2 natural alloys ( ^! two metals are f\nd1 conta9+ f #jaf to #chg p] c5t4 ( silv]1 :i* causes consid]able v>iations bo? ( col\r & d5sity4 ,9 addition to ?is alloy1 we may m5tion sylvanite 7graphic tellurium71 :i* conta9s1 besides gold & silv]1 "o ( ! r>] metals--viz41 tellurium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgd4--;,gold cry/als4 ,,gold is our mo/ preci\s m9]al1 & is g5]ally f\nd native4 ,x exi/s 9 s& & 9 c]ta9 rocks4 ,x cry/allizes 9 v>i\s =ms1 & 9 ,mexico x is f\nd 9 companion%ip ) silv] & copp] sulphides4 ,au/ralia & ,cali=nia r5d] ! mo/ valuable supplies ( ! metal4 ,,plat9um is also f\nd native1 & r>ely is cry/als4 ,x is (t5 alloy$ ) o!r metals1 *iefly ) iron or gold2 also ) diamonds4 ,we h already consid]$ x z a metal4 ,little rema9s to be said ab\t salts & res9s1 = ) ! exception ( ^? we h ref]r$ to "u ,*emi/ry1 !y are ( little value4 ,! bitum5s1 rock oil1 etc41 :i* exude f ! e>?1 are v useful1 & z asphalt & petroleum play an important "p 9 ! civiliz$ _w1 b sc>cely come "u ! /rict rule ( m9]als z we consid] !m1 & ) ?is ref]5ce we close our sket* ( ,m9]alogy4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,a cry/al %\ld be held s t "o ( its axes is v]tical to ! spectator4 ,?is axis is t]m$ ! pr9cipal axis1 & :5 !re is inequality ! longe/ axis is ! pr9cipal4 #bd ,see 8,/rontium0 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,new ,,locomotive ,,appliances4 ,,! ,,kite--,,! ,,a]ophane--,,ice ,,ya*ts--,,sail+ ,,trucks--,,wat] ,,velocip$es4 ,! kite1 kn[n f ! e>lie/ times1 & con/ruct$ by a numb] ( p1 is a v famili> object1 :i* we %all n describe2 = we w n[ speak ( "s simil> appliances ( a m int]e/+ & uncommon description4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dge4--,mr4 ,p5aud's 8,high-fli]40 ,m4 ,p5aud has inv5t$ "s appliances 9 :i* twi/$ india-rubb] is ! pr9cipal ag5t4 ,fig4 #dge repres5ts a sort ( kite1 :i* rises 9 ! air if "o twi/s & !n looses ! india-rubb] r\nd ! c5tral b[4 ,fig4 #dgf repres5ts ano!r k9d ( inv5tion2 x is an 8a]ophane10 ) a screw at ! back1 s fix$ t x receives no %ock f /rik+ aga9/ any ob/acle4 ,aft] hav+ twi/$ ! india-rubb]1 & loos5$ our hold ( ! app>atus 9 a horizontal position1 x w fir/ desc5d = an in/ant1 !n1 acquir+ increas$ spe$1 x rises sev5 or eight feet f ! gr\nd1 & describes a regul> movem5t 9 ! air = a di/ance ( ab\t fifty y>ds2 ! motion la/s = sev]al seconds4 ,"s models h also be5 con/ruct$ capable ( trav]s+ a di/ance ( ov] sev5ty y>ds1 rema9+ = ?irte5 seconds 9 ! air1 z lightly pois$ z a bird1 & )\t any connection ) ! gr\nd4 ,dur+ ! :ole "t ! rudd] re/ra9s ) p]fect exactitude ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ movem5ts z !y occur2 & we c pla9ly obs]ve ! v>i\s oscillations l ^? ( sp>r[s1 or m especially woodpeck]s4 ,at la/1 :5 ! movem5ts are com+ to an end1 ! app>atus falls g5tly to ! gr\nd 9 a slant+ l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #dgf4--,m4 ,p5aud's 8,a]ophane40 ,m4 ,p5aud has also succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ a me*anical bird1 t we h se5 set 9 motion1 :i* w cont9ue fly+ = sev]al seconds2 we give an illu/ration ( x 9 fig4 #dgg4 ,ano!r sci5ti/1 ,m4 ,tat91 has also produc$ "s rem>kable results4 ,8 ef=ts h be5 unceas+ly direct$ t[>ds ! reproduction ( ! flight ( a bird by means ( m or less complicat$ arrangem5ts4 ,he has endeav\r$ to discov] 9 ! small appliances made ) indi>ubb]1 & us$ by ,,mm4 ,p5aud & ,hureau de ,vill5euve1 :at 7 ! be/ %apes 9 :i* to reproduce ! w+s1 9 ord] to adapt !m to a l>ge app>atus act+ by compress$ air4 ,aft] sev]al attempts1 he decid$ on ! employm5t ( long1 n>r[ w+s4 ,w5ham _h previ\sly prov$ t a w+ may be equally effectual :e!r x be n>r[ or wide1 & ,m4 ,m>cy has also decl>$ t birds ) a quick1 n>r[ w+-/roke h always v long w+s4 ,by means ( ^! long1 n>r[ w+s 7fig4 #dgh7 ,m4 ,tat9 has r$uc$ ! "t dur+ :i* ! w+ rea*es a suitable position = act+ on ! air :5 x fir/ desc5ds4 ,grant$ ! fact1 s long e/abli%$1 t a bird flies m easily if x re/s its w+ aga9/ a great volume ( air1 x w be und]/ood t ! maximum spe$ ( movem5t w also be ! mo/ advantage\s z reg>ds ! r$uction ( exp5d$ =ce4 ,! inv5tor1 f9d+ t he c\ld n prev5t 8 me*anical birds f los+ =ce 9 proportion z !y atta9$ consid]able spe$1 rem$i$ ?is defect by plac+ ! c5tre ( gravity 9 front4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! bird 9 full flight pres]ves ! same equilibrium z ! bird hov]+ 9 ! air1 & its spe$ is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 passive1 ! mass ( air press+ ( its own accord aga9/ ! w+s1 all exp5diture ( =ce !re=e be+ utiliz$ = susp5sion4 ,?us has ,m4 ,tat9 be5 enabl$ to increase ! weight ( 8 appliances1 )\t increas+ ! motive p[]1 & yet obta9s a d\ble c\rse4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgg4--,me*anical bird4 ,! movem5t made by ! w+ r\nd a longitud9al axis1 by means ( :i* x always exposes its l[] surface 9 front on ris+1 is obta9$ by ! me*anism illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #dgh a4 ,m4 ,,tat9',s ,,bird4 ,?is app>atus1 look$ at sideways or f beh9d1 is compos$ ( a light wood5 frame1 on :i* are two small supports cross$ by an axletree s z to =m two cranks4 ,?is axle receives a circul> movem5t f an india-rubb] spr+4 ,! crank on ! =emo/ plane causes ! ris+ & fall+ ( ! w+s1 :i* move r\nd a common axis1 & pass ! dead po9ts z ! cranks ( a locomotive d--s ! action is ma9ta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgh4--,m4 ,tat9's bird4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgh a4--,detail ( fig4 #dgh4 ,b ! w+ does n only move z a :ole2 e "p ( x1 p>ticul>ly z x rises1 %[s a t5d5cy to incl9ation1 :i* is mo/ m>k$ t[>ds ! extremity2 ! "p ne> ! body alone pres]ves an inv>iable obliquity4 ,m4 ,tat9 0 ( op9ion t x is ) ! screw t x is necess>y to direct ! twi/+ movem5t2 & to obta9 x ) all its transitions1 he has sub/itut$ = silk w+s1 :i* fold up1 "s w+s compos$ entirely ( /rong fea!rs1 arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t !y slipp$ "o ov] ! o!r :5 9 motion4 ,! arrangem5t 0 p]fect1 b /ill n suitable = adaptation to ! l>ge bird4 ,! inv5tor !re=e aga9 return$ to ! use ( ! silk w+s1 :i* he appe>s to h def9itely adopt$4 ,by means ( c]ta9 modifications :i* he has rec5tly introduc$ 9 8 l>g] app>atus--viz41 a *ange 9 ! %ape ( ! w+s1 v>iation ( ! amplitude 9 ! flapp+1 etc41 ,m4 ,tat9 has be5 enabl$ to make great progress4 ,! bird1 act+ by means ( compress$ air1 at fir/ c\ld only raise ?ree-qu>t]s ( its own weight1 b f9ally lift$ itself entirely4 ,& we mu/ take into consid]ation t ! app>atus has to /ruggle aga9/ ! weight ( ! /e]+ app>atus1 :i* nullify+ ! v]tical & horizontal reactions ( ! bird dur+ flight1 con/antly fulfils ! (fice ( regulator4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgi4--;,back view ( app>atus4 ,we w n[ pass to ! consid]ation ( two +5i\s appliances ( a v clev] inv5tor1 ,m4 ,sall]on4 ,,small ,,atmosph]ic ,,boat4 ,! little boat %[n 9 fig4 #dhj1 :i* is ab\t ! size ( an ord9>y play?+1 is a v +5i\s1 if n a practical1 application ( ! specific lightness ( air act+ z a propell+ =ce4 ,9 ?is in/ance /eam plays b a second>y "p1 :i* consi/s 9 c>ry+ (f ! air t causes ! mov+ ( ! boat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhj4--;,atmosph]ic boat4 ,! app>atus1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dha1 is ( extreme simplicity1 z w be se5 at a glance4 ,a small cyl9drical boil]1 ,b1 connect$ ) a capill>y tube1 is plac$ on two supports ov] a _s-lamp1 9 su* a mann] t ! op5+ f :i* ! /eam issues is directly opposite ! m\? ( ! tube1 ,t4 ,?is tube1 aft] =m+ a sudd5 incl9ation1 t]m9ates at ! back ( ! boat 9 an incl9$ dra91 ,r4 ,! /eam driv5 ?r\gh ! tube1 ,t1 c>ries along ) x a c]ta9 quantity ( air1 :i*1 =c$ "u ! wat]1 propels ! boat along4 ,! little vessel soon rea*es consid]able spe$1 leav+ a long track beh9d x4 ,x w be se5 t ?is is n a me*anical app>atus1 capable ( absorb+ =ce or dim9i%+ ! action ( /eam by caus+ its cond5sation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dha4--,section ( 8atmosph]ic0 boat4 ,let u n[ calculate ! =ce eng5d]$ by ?is app>atus4 ,we "k t a litre ( wat] at boil+ po9t gives #a1gjj times its volume4 ,! /eam1 z x quickly issues f ! op5+ ( ! boil]1 c>ries along at lea/ t5 times its volume1 or #ag1jjj litres ( air1 :i*1 driv5 "u ! wat]1 assumes an asc5d+ =ce equal to ! diff]5ce ( ! d5sities ( wat] & air1 or ab\t ! weight ( ! displac$ wat]4 ,!re=e 9 a litre ( wat] trans=m$ into #a1gjj litres ( ! /eam1 :i* c>ries (f into ! wat] #a1gjj #aj #ag1jjj litres ( air1 a =ce is develop$ repres5t$ by #cd1jjj kilograms4 ,9 fact1 by reason ( ! incl9$ position ( ! dra9 on :i* ! pressure ( air acts1 & its re/rict$ dim5sions1 ! quantity ( =ce employ$ 9 ! propulsion ( ! boat is b a fraction ( ! total =ce produc$4 ,moreov]1 ! resi/ance ( traction increases ) ! size ( ! boat1 & z ! dim5sions ( ! incl9$ pipe _c be indef9itely enl>g$1 ! result is t ! propulsive action is soon insuffici5t1 s t ! inv5tion is n1 9 its pres5t condition1 applicable to navigation on a l>ge scale4 ,its sup]iority to ! /eam-eng9e _c1 !re=e1 be demon/rat$2 & we are only n[ discuss+ ! contrivance 9 ord] to %[ t x is possible1 ) only mod]ately p[]ful g5]ators & extremely simple me*anical appliances1 to obta9 consid]able dynamic effects1 susceptible ( m s]viceable application ?an is commonly believ$4 ,,circulat+ ,,f\nta94 ,! app>atus giv5 9 fig4 #dhb is ! subject ( a v *>m+ exp]im5t1 %[+ ! influ5ce ( capill>ity on ! movem5ts ( liquids4 ,two glass balls1 ,b ,b1 are connect$ by two tubes2 "o /raight & ( r l>ge diamet]1 ! o!r extremely sl5d]1 & w9d+ 9 & out 9 a m or less complicat$ mann]4 ,! l>ge tube passes into ball ,b1 & =ms a sl5d] po9t1 ,j1 at ! orifice ( ! n>r[ tube4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! ball is a bulb1 :i* is clos$ ) a cork1 & conta9s a col\r$ liquid4 ,! app>atus is fix$ to a bo>d ) a r+ at ea* end1 by :i* x c be hung on ! wall4 ,:5 comm5c+ ! exp]im5t1 x %\ld be hung s t ! ball ,b is upp]mo/4 ,! liquid !n fl[s ?r\gh into ! ball ,b1 )\t pres5t+ any p>ticul> ph5om5on4 ,! app>atus is !n turn$1 & ! liquid desc5ds aga9 ) great spe$1 %oots ?r\gh ! op5+1 ,j1 & rises into ! twi/$ tube4 ,! air displac$ f ball ,b also rises1 h[ev]1 & m+les ) ! liquid1 & x c be se5 circulat+ ?r\gh ! w9d+ tube 9 a numb] ( air-bubbles1 m+l$ ) drops ( liquid1 gradually transmitt+ ! pressure ( ! column conta9$ 9 ! upp] ball & /raight tube2 s t by means ( a simil> ph5om5on to t ( ! f\nta9 ( ,n]o1 ! liquid rises high] ?an ! level ( ! res]voir1 a "p fall+ into ball ,b1 :i* causes ! exp]im5t to be a little prolong$4 ,?is circulation ( air-bubbles & col\r$ drops ?r\gh ! twi/$ tube ( ! app>atus has a v pretty effect4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhb4--;,circulat+ f\nta94 ,,! ,,pneumatic ,,p5cil4 ,?is +5i\s inv5tion is productive ( results simil> to ,edison's electric p54 ,x is ! inv5tion ( an ,am]ican g5tleman1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brick5ridge1 ( ,lafayette1 ,indiana4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #dhc7 expla9s ! me*anism ( ! pneumatic p5cil4 ,! :ole app>atus is figur$ on ! left side ( ! picture1 :ile ! longitud9al section ( ! p5cil is %[n on ! "r1 ! small cut at ! top be+ a v]tical section ( a portion ( ! motive p[]4 ,compress$ air furni%es ! p[] ( pressure1 :i* is accompli%$ by means ( a p]=at+ ne$le4 ,if ! treadle is put 9 motion1 a backw>d & =w>d movem5t is imp>t$ to a flexible diaphragm1 z 9 ! upp] section 9 ! c5tre ( ! illu/ration4 ,by ?is movem5t ! air is p]mitt$ to ent]1 & is compress$ by ! diaphragm into ! flexible tube ) :i* ! diaphragm is connect$4 ,! air is ?us br\ght into contact ) ano!r diaphragm at ! end ( ! tube & presses on x4 ,! p5cil is fix$ to ! latt]4 ,:5 x is desir$ to use ! p5cil ! app>atus is set 9 motion1 & by a s]ies ( %>p1 quick p]=ations1 any writ+ c be trac$1 z by ! electric p54 ,?is ind5tation c be copi$ ov] & ov] aga9 9 a press1 ! writ+ act+ z ! negative2 & if ink be fir/ run ov] x1 z 9 a /5cil plate1 by a prop] 8roll]10 ! latt] w come out z pla9ly z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhc4--,pneumatic p5cil4 ,,tube ,,wells4 ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! tube well dep5ds is v simple4 ,x is well kn[n t 9 c]ta9 localities wat] lies a %ort di/ance b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & a v little tr\ble w\ld satisfy u ^u ! po9t1 & r5d] u q indep5d5t ( ! wat] companies' supply4 ,on ! supposition t ! wat] exi/s und]nea? our g>d5 at1 say1 tw5ty-five feet b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 we h only to drive into ! soil a tube = t di/ance1 & by ! assi/ance ( a common pump we %all obta9 a pure supply ( wat]4 ,we w n[ proce$ to describe ! mann] 9 :i* ^! wells are sunk4 ,! fir/ /ep is to fix a plat=m firmly ^u ! gr\nd & bore a hole1 by :i* ! tube is to ent] ! gr\nd4 ,?is tube %\ld be v ?ick1 ) an ap]ture ( two in*es or r less1 & ?ree or f\r y>ds 9 l5g?4 ,! l[] portion %\ld be pi]c$ ) holes1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 & t]m9at+ 9 a po9t ( extremely f9e-temp]$ /eel4 ,?is tube c be driv5 into ! gr\nd by mallets1 or by ! susp5d$ hamm]1 work$ z %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #dhd74 ,?is "w w be easily accompli%$1 & :5 ! fir/ l5g? ( tube has be5 driv5 91 ano!r c be fix$ to x & hamm]$ d[n 9 ! same way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhd4--,tube ,well4 ,:5 ! tubes h be5 driv5 to ! dep? indicat$ x w be z well to let d[n a s\nd+ l9e1 a simple cord su/a9+ a pebble4 ,if ! /one be pull$ up dry1 ano!r l5g? ( tube c be add$1 or ! tubes c be pull$ up1 & ano!r trial made4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! pebble come up wet1 ! object is accompli%$1 & a small pump c be fix$ to ! upp] end ( ! tube1 z 9 fig4 #dhe4 ,at fir/ ! wat] w be f\nd a little ?ick & muddy1 9 consequ5ce ( ! di/urbance ( ! soil & ! p>ticles adh]+ to ! end ( ! fir/ tube2 b aft] an h\r or s x w be f\nd t ! wat] has become q cle>4 ,x ne$ sc>cely be said t if ! wat] possesses suffici5t asc5sional =ce to rise to ! level ( ! gr\nd a pump ne$ n be employ$4 ,an ,artesian ,well w1 9 t case1 be ! result4 ,! op]ation describ$ on page #def c usually be p]=m$ )\t any difficulty4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! tube may come 9 contact ) a l>ge /one1 & 9 t case ! exp]im5t mu/ be tri$ else:]e2 b1 z a rule1 ! po9t$ tube1 9 consequ5ce ( its small size & p5etrative p[]1 pu%es any mod]ately-siz$ ob/acle aside1 readily turns aside itself1 or passes betwe5 pieces ( /one to ! desir$ dep?4 ,n9e times out ( t5 ! op]ation w be successful1 & ! exp]im5t w n occupy m ?an an h\r1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 & ! tub+ 7& pump7 may be obta9$ at a mod]ate price1 :i* c ev5 be dim9i%$ by arrangem5t4 ,ord9>y wells are relatively v difficult to s9k1 & ! soil ?r[n out f ! pit is 9 ! way1 :ile a p>apet is necess>y to protect ! op5+4 ,besides1 %\ld wat] n be f\nd aft] mu* "w1 ! exp5se & tr\ble ( digg+ w be uselessly incurr$4 ,?anks to ! tube sy/em1 we c se>* or probe = wat] any:]e ) ease1 & if we d n f9d x 9 "o spot we c easily move on to ano!r )\t incurr+ any s]i\s tr\ble or exp5se4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhe4--;,abyss9ian ,pump4 ,we believe ! idea ( ^! 8in/antane\s wells0 orig9at$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! ,w> ( ,secession1 :5 "s soldi]s ( ! ,nor!rn army sunk rifle b>rels into ! gr\nd1 & obta9$ wat] 9 a b>r5 l&4 ,to ,mr4 ,norton ! developm5t ( ! idea is due1 & 9 ! ,abyss9ian ,exp$ition ! utility ( ! notion 0 fully demon/rat$4 ,s9ce t "t ,m4 ,donnet ( ,lyons has modifi$ & improv$ ! tube-well1 & arrang$ all ! mat]ials1 includ+ wid] tub+ & ! hamm]s ^u a c>riage1 ?us giv+ great] facilities to ! workm5 & to ^? desir\s ( s9k+ su* wells4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ,m4 ,donnet1 & ! c>riage ) its equipm5ts utiliz$1 is depict$ 9 fig4 #dhd2 ! actual s9k+ ( ! well is c>ri$ out j z orig9ally p]=m$ by ,mr4 ,norton4 ,a ,,new ,,swimm+ ,,app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhf4--,swimm+ app>atus4 ,we h to m5tion a novel means ( swimm+1 :i* may prove useful to ^? :o di/ru/ ! natural buoyancy ( wat] & _! own p[]s ( keep+ afloat or swimm+4 ,! simple app>atus1 %[n 9 fig4 #dhf1 is ! inv5tion ( an ,am]ican nam$ ,ri*>dson1 a citiz5 ( ,mobile1 ,u4,s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhg4--,nautical ,velocip$e4 ,! ma*9e consi/s1 ess5tially1 ( a %aft1 ^u :i* a float is fix$1 & at ! end ( ! %aft is a small screw propell]4 ,! %aft is put 9 motion by a :eel arrangem5t work$ by ! h&s1 & by a crank mov$ by ! feet4 ,! swimm] re/s ^u ! float1 ) 8 head well above wat]4 ,! float su/a9s him1 :ile ! propell] =ces him ?r\gh ! wat]1 )\t 8 feel+ fatigu$1 at ! rate ( ab\t five miles an h\r4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( practice is necess>y to obta9 complete comm& ( ! ma*9e1 b :5 ma/]$ ! swimm] c proce$1 )\t mu* ex]tion1 at a rapid rate4 ,! app>atus itself is n difficult to make1 & p]sons :o h tri$ x speak highly ( its conv5i5ce & ( ! facilities x may af=d4 ,capta9 ,boyton's swimm+-dress is ano!r useful inv5tion1 b ! means ( me*anical propulsion are want+1 :ile 9 ?is new app>atus ! swimm] c drive himself ?r\gh ! sea ) ease & exp$ition1 & ev5 a non-swimm] may !reby save life )\t dang] to himself1 or ! p]son he wi%es to rescue4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhh4--,tra9$ seal draw+ canoe4 ,! ,,nautical ,,velocip$e1 :i* also des]ves "s notice at our h&s1 is ! inv5tion ( ,m4 ,croce-,sp9elli1 :o tri$ x ^u ! great lake ( ,v9c5nes & also on ! ,se9e1 :5 x 0 ! object ( mu* curiosity2 b :5 ! ,franco-,g]man w> broke out ! exp]im5ts 7 discont9u$1 & ! inv5tor did n live to p]fect ! app>atus4 ,he fell a victim to 8 love = balloon+4 ,b ,m4 ,job]ts1 a practical ma*9i/1 has lately tak5 up ! idea broa*$ by ,croce-,sp9elli1 & has br\ght out a new wat] velocip$e ( v +5i\s con/ruction1 ) satisfactory results4 ,! ma*9e is describ$ z foll[s4 ,!re are two holl[ t9 8floats0 ( cyl9drical =m1 & tap]$ at ! ends4 ,^! floats are jo9$ toge!r by a plat=m made ( v light wood1 on :i* ! seat ( ! work] is rais$1 & und]nea? is ! ma*9]y = propell+ ! velocip$e4 ,! motive p[] is v simple1 & corresponds to t employ$ to propel ! bicycle on l&1 by ! feet ( ! rid]1 ! :eel be+ furni%$ ) paddles 9 ! wat] velocip$e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhi4--;,d\ble ya*ts4 ,a rudd]1 :i* c easily be work$ by cords1 gives ! velocip$i/ complete control ( ! ma*9e1 ! /e]+ be+ p]=m$ by a h&le simil> to t :i* ! bicycli/ uses to turn ! ma*9e he rides4 ,9 fact1 ! 8wat]0 velocip$e is an adaptation ( ! 8t]re/rial0 ma*9e s famili> to all read]s4 ,?is velocip$e is equally adapt$ = sea or lake progression1 ! waves ( ! =m] be+1 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 no ob/ruction1 = v little motion is imp>t$ to ! sitt]4 ,= ^? desir\s to ba! 9 deep wat] ! ma*9e (f]s _m facilities2 & 9 ! case ( attack ( cramp or fa9tness1 rescue w\ld n be difficult1 z ! swimm] c\ld support himself ^u ! po9t$ cyl9d]s ( ! wat] velocip$e till assi/ance arriv$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is v necess>y to "k h[ to swim be=e attempt+ to "w ! ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dij4--;,ice boats4 ,be=e describ+ ! ice-ya*ts :i* are us$ 9 ,canada :5 w9t]'s cold grasp lies on wat] & l&1 we w m5tion a v curi\s exp]im5t 9 wat] locomotion made a ye> or two ago4 ,! illu/ration expla9s itself4 ,x is n an imag9>y sket*1 x is ! record ( fact4 ,?is sagaci\s seal 0 exhibit$ 9 ,london1 & 0 9 ! habit ( p]=m+ c]ta9 tricks1 "o item ( 8 p]=mance be+ to draw ! light canoe 7z repres5t$71 & ano!r accompli%m5t consi/$ 9 8/rik+ ! light guit>10 to ! a/oni%m5t ( ! spectators1 among/ :om 0 ! writ]4 ,! in/rum5t 0 plac$ betwe5 8 f9s1 or 8flapp]s10 & ! seal twang$ x m or less melodi\sly4 ,he 0 v tame1 & ob$i5t to 8 ma/] & tra9]4 ,we all h he>d (1 ev5 if we h n se51 ! tw9 /eam] ,ca/alia1 :i*1 p5d+ ! op5+ ( ! tunnel b5ea? ! ,*annel1 0 suppos$ to r$uce sea-sickness to a m9imum4 ,! ,ca/alia did n answ]1 h[ev]1 b an ,am]ican has plann$ c]ta9 d\ble ya*ts1 ( :i* we give an illu/ration4 ,! sail+-boats1 z repres5t$1 h _h mu* success ^u ! lake ( ,cayuga1 & are q seawor?y1--9 fact1 x is impossible to ov]turn !m4 ,! weight ( "o ( ^! ya*ts is ab\t fifte5 hundr$ p\nds1 & ! draught six in*es4 ,hav+ two keels !y answ] ! helm v readily4 ,! boat1 9 ! c5tre ( ! illu/ration1 belongs to ,mr4 ,pr5tiss1 & is call$ ! ,p]a ,ladronia4 ,x is a v fa/ 8%ip40 ,f navigation 9 wat]1 we n[ come to navigation on wat]4 ,! ice-boats are mu* us$ 9 ,canada1 & _! simple b effective con/ruction w be readily p]ceiv$ f ! accompany+ illu/ration4 ,! ,am]icans /ate t ^! ice-ya*ts c run be=e a good breeze z fa/ z an ord9>y tra94 ,!re are1 or 71 models ( "s su* 7,f9l&7 ya*ts 9 ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,museum ) two sails4 ,! ,am]ican ya*t1 z a rule1 has only "o sail1 & ! own]s say--b we w n v\* = ! tru? ( ! allegation--t !y frequ5tly run f> ahead ( ! w9d t prim>ily propell$ !m6 ,,sail+ ,,on ,,l&4 ,x is q possible to sail ^u l&1 al?\gh ?is /atem5t may appe> contradictory 9 t]ms4 8,! =ce ( ! w9d ^u sails10 says ,bi%op ,wilk9s 9 8 "w1 8,ma!matical ,magic10 pr9t$ 9 ,london 9 #afdh1 8c be appli$ to vehicles on l& z well z to %ips at sea4 ,su* conveyances10 he adds1 8h long be5 9 use 9 ,*9a & 9 ,spa91 z well z 9 flat c\ntries1 su* z ,holl&1 :]e !y h be5 employ$ ) great success4 ,9 ! la/-nam$ c\ntry !y are propell$ ) great] spe$ ?an are %ips be=e a fair w9d2 s t 9 a few h\rs a boat conta9+ sev]al p]sons actually travell$ ne>ly two hundr$ miles1 ) no tr\ble to any "o on bo>d except ! /e]sman1 :o _h little difficulty 9 guid+ ! boat40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dia4--,sail+ c>riage ( ! #ag? c5tury1 f a draw+ ( ! p]iod4 ,! a/oni%m5t express$ by ! good bi%op 0 q ju/ifi$1 =1 z a matt] ( fact1 a c>riage or boat on :eels1 ) sails1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration1 a*iev$ a di/ance ( ne>ly ?irty-eight miles 9 an h\r4 ,?is pace 0 q unkn[n at t "t2 su* a rate ( travell+ _h nev] ent]$ ! m9ds ( p !n4 8,m5 runn+ 9 front ( ! ma*9e aft] a :ile appe>$ to be go+ backw>ds1 s quickly 7 !y ov]tak5 & pass$40 8,objects at a di/ance 7 approa*$ 9 ! tw9kl+ ( an eye1 & 7 left f> 9 ! re>40 ,s x is evid5t t1 _h locomotion by /eam n be5 adopt$1 ! mode ( sail+ on l& w\ld h ev5tually become ! mo/ rapid mode ( transit1 & x is r rem>kable t x 0 nev] adopt$ z a mode ( travel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dib4--,on ! ,kansas ,pacific ,railway4 ,b ,bi%op ,wilk9s _h n to reproa* himself on ?is acc\nt1 = he adapt$ ! pr9ciple ( ! w9dmill to c>riages1 8s t ! sails w\ld turn & move 8 c>1 no matt] 9 :at direction ! w9d 0 bl[+40 ,he propos$ to make ^! sails act ^u ! :eels ( a c>riage1 & tru/$ to 8make x move 9 any direction1 ei!r ) ! w9d or aga9/ x60 ,?is sugge/ion has be5 lately adopt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & x is curi\s t aft] two hundr$ & fifty ye>s no bett] mode = utiliz+ w9d-p[] on l& has ev] be5 f\nd4 ,p]haps ! ice-boats already m5tion$ may be ! =]unn]s ( "s new sy/em ( 8l& transport10 = :i* enorm\s kites h be5 made available4 ,x is some:at rem>kable t if ! introduction ( railroads q 8took ! w9d out ( ! sails0 ( any o!r mode ( locomotion on t]ra firma1 x is t v iron track :i* has l$ to ! re9troduction ( sails z a mode ( progression ^u ! rails4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! pres5t "t !re are _m vehicles propell$ by sails across ! imm5se prairies at a pace1 ) a /rong w9d1 :i* equals t ( ! tra9s4 ,we are indebt$ to ,mr4 ,wood1 ( ,hayes ,city1 ,kansas1 = ! photograph f :i* ! picture ( ! sail+-waggon1 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,bascom1 ( ! ,kansas ,pacific ,railway1 is copi$4 ,?is c>riage travels usually at ?irty miles an h\r1 & a spe$ ( =ty miles an h\r has be5 obta9$ :5 ! w9d has be5 high & bl[+ directly 8aft40 ,! di/ance ( eighty-f\r miles has be5 accompli%$ 9 f\r h\rs :5 ! w9d 0 8on ! beam10 or a little =w>d ( x1 & on "s curves ) an almo/ contr>y breeze4 ,! newe/ ma*9e has f\r :eels1 ea* ?irty in*es 9 diamet]2 x is six feet 9 l5g?1 & weighs six hundr$ p\nds4 ,! sails are c>ri$ ^u two ma/s1 & !y conta9 ab\t eighty-"o squ>e feet ( canvas4 ,! ma91 or pr9cipal ma/1 is elev5 feet high1 f\r in*es 9 diamet] at ! base1 & two in*es at ! top4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ice-boats1 x is claim$ = ! sail+ c>riage t x frequ5tly out/rips ! w9d t propels x along ! track4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! be/ sail+ po9ts ( ! two k9ds ( vehicle4 ,! ice-boat goes quicke/ ) ! w9d 8dead aft10 ! c>riage makes be/ "t ) ! w9d 8on ! beam0--i4e41 sideways4 ,! great] friction & l>g] surface expos$ to ! influ5ce ( a side-w9d no d\bt w acc\nt = ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! spe$ ( ! railway sail+-c>riage & ! ice-boat4 ,mr4 ,bascom in=ms u t ! c>riage we h describ$ is 9 frequ5t use ^u ! ,kansas ,pacific ,railway1 :]e x is employ$ to transport mat]ials = ! necess>y repairs ( ! l9e1 telegraph1 etc41 etc4 ,x is a v *eap contrivance1 & a great economiz] ( lab\r4 ,we all h notic$ ! cumbr\s me?od ( 8trolly-kick+0 by 8navvies0 along ! l9e4 ,a trolly fitt$ ) a sail w\ld1 9 _m cases1 & on _m ,engli% l9es1 save a great deal ( tr\ble1 "t1 & ex]tion to ! plate-lay]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,a/ronomy4 ,,introductory--,,hi/ory ,,( ,,a/ronomy--,,nom5clature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dic4--;,cele/ial globe4 ,a/ronomy is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! heav5ly bodies & ! laws :i* gov]n !m4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f two ,greek words1 a/ron1 a />1 & nomos1 a law4 ,x may be includ$ 9 ! /udy ( ,physics1 = ! motion ( ! planet>y bodies & equilibrium1 gravity1 etc41 all h some?+ to say to ! arrangem5ts & positions ( ! />s4 ,! space 9 :i* !y are set is inf9ite1 & kn[n z ! 8,firmam5t10 or 8,heav540 ,! numb] ( ! heav5ly bodies mu/ !re=e be inf9ite also4 ,we c see a few />s1 comp>atively speak+1 & !re mu/ be numb]s ^: light has nev] yet rea*$ ! e>?4 ,:5 we calmly reason ^u ! immeasurable di/ances & ! awful rapidity ( motion1 ) ! masses ( matt] ?us 9 movem5t1 we are con/ra9$ to ackn[l$ge t all our boa/$ k is z no?+ 9 ! wondr\s disp5sations ( ,him 8:o telle? ! numb] ( ! />s1 & calle? !m all by _! names40 ,a/ronomy1 no m ?an any o!r ( ! physical sci5ces1 _c /& by itself4 ,we h se5 h[ heat1 light1 electricity1 etc41 are all1 9 a mann]1 int]-dep5d5t4 ,s a/ronomy is dep5d5t ^u ma!matics1 p>ticul>ly geometry & trigonometry1 = ! wondr\s problems to be solv$4 ,b 9 ! foll[+ sket* we d n propose to plunge ! read] 9 ! sl\gh ( calculations4 ,we only desire to put pla9ly be=e him ! great ph5om5a ( nature ) reg>d to ! heav5s1 & ! glori\s orbs :i* s ?ickly /ud ! space above u4 ,we ne$ n detail ! labori\s calculations by :i* philosoph]s h arriv$ at c]ta9 discov]ies4 ,we may ref] to ! results & expla9 g5]al pr9ciples1 !reby indicat+ ! road by :i* ! /ud5t may arrive at ! m difficult bypa?s 9 ! fields ( sci5tific discov]y4 ,! hi/ory ( a/ronomy is ne>ly z old z ! _w itself1 or r z old z ! human race4 ,f ! e>lie/ ages we c picture m5 gaz+ ^u ! 8spangl$ heav5s10 & ! w&]+ tribes ( ! des]t 7 always v c>eful obs]v]s ( ! pa?s ( ! />s4 ,to ! nomads ( ! ,ea/ ! planet>y sy/em s]v$ z compass & clock1 cal5d> & b>omet]4 ,we %all f9d1 !re=e1 t _m obs]vations ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 made by ! anci5ts1 & h desc5d$ to m advanc$ g5]ations1 & ?is leads u to rem>k t ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy c be /udi$ )\t any v special or co/ly app>atus4 ,9 o!r bran*es ( sci5ce num]\s in/rum5ts are indisp5sable be=e we c reveal to ourselves ! desir$ results4 ,9 a/ronomy1 a telescope--ev5 a good field glass1 su* z possess$ by any h\sehold1 w reveal _m int]e/+ facts4 ,we w1 by means ( m exp5sive in/rum5ts1 & by ! aid ( l>ge telescopes p>ticul>ly1 enjoy ! sight ( ! moon & planets4 ,b ev5 ) ! nak$ eye a great v>iety ( ph5om5a may be obs]v$4 ,) a cele/ial globe 9 our h&s ^u a f9e />ry night1 we c easily f9d out ! position ( ! con/ellations1 & trace _! =ms 9 ! firmam5t4 ,x is to ! ,*aldeans1 ,indians1 ,*9ese1 & ,egyptians1 t our k ( a/ronomy is prim>ily due4 ,!y did mu* to facilitate ! obs]vation ( ! />s2 !y nam$ ! planets1 gr\p$ ! />s1 & m>k$ ! sun's track 9 ! sky4 ,a/rology 0 cultivat$ 9 v remote ages4 ,! ,jews practis$ x2 & ! a/rolog]s ( subsequ5t p]iods play$ v important p>ts 9 div9+ ! future ( individuals1 & ca/+ _! horoscopes4 ,_m ( ^! s-call$ pr$ictions came true1 8because10 z 0 rem>k$ by ,pascal1 8z mis=tunes are common !y0 7! a/rolog]s7 8are (t5 "r10 z !y =etold mis=tune (t5] ?an good =tune4 ,/ill ! fact rema9s t occasionally a v />tl+ pr$iction 0 made1 & prov$ true2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! lay+ wa/e ( ,g]many by ,gu/avus ,adolphus1 :i* 0 =etold by ,ty*o ,brah aft] 8 consid]ation ( a c]ta9 comet1 & ! date ( ! k+'s dea? 0 also correctly prophesi$4 ,a/rology1 !re=e1 held a v consid]able influ5ce ov] ! human race dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,we c only give a v brief hi/orical summ>y ( ! sci5ce4 ,we "k t ! de/9ies ( individuals & nations 7 at a v e>ly p]iod attribut$ to ! influ5ce ( ! />s4 ,we read t 8! />s 9 _! c\rses f\ght aga9/ ,sis]a10 & _m expressions surviv+ to ! pres5t "t s]ve to rem9d u t ! />s 7 at "o "t p>am\nt 9 m5's m9ds4 ,?us we h ! phrases--8unlucky />10 8born "u a lucky />10 8m>k my />s10 8moon/ruck10 etc4 ,ev5 ! common t]m 8consid]0--to take c\nsel ( ! />s--is ?us acc\nt$ =1 & _m m5 h a habit ( look+ up to ! ceil+ ( a room or to ! sky :5 ?9k+ deeply--consid]+ ) ! />s4 8,contemplate0 is ano!r t]m signify+ ! same ?+2 = templum1 a temple1 0 =m]ly a space m>k$ ^u ! sky 9 imag9>y l9es1 & trac$ on ! gr\nd 9 accordance ) ! suppos$ diagram4 ,?us temple became a place = heav5ly 8contemplation10 & by an easy transition to a place ( wor%ip4 ,9 our old poets' writ+s we h _m allusions to ! influ5ces ( ! />s4 8,n[ gl[$ ! firmam5t ,) liv+ sapphires2 ,hesp]us1 t l$ ,! />ry ho/1 rode brighte/1 till ! moon1 ,rid+ 9 cl\d$ maje/y1 at l5g? ,app>5t que51 unveil$ h] pe]less light1 ,& o'er ! d>k h] silv] mantle ?rew40--,,milton4 ,al?\gh f ,?ales1 :o liv$ ,b4,c4 #faj1 ! real sci5ce ( a/ronomy may be all[$ to date1 !re c be no d\bt t ! anci5ts 7 acqua9t$ ) _m ph5om5a4 ,! ,*aldeans 71 d\btless1 ! fir/ to place on record ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! cele/ial bodies & eclipses1 & us$ ! wat]-clock 7clepsydra74 ,a li/ ( eclipses f #bbcd ,b4,c4 is /at$ to h be5 f\nd at ,babylon by ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,! ,*aldeans also divid$ ! ecliptic into twelve equal p>ts1 & ! day & night into tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! ,*9ese1 aga91 h record$ a/ronomical ph5om5a z f> back z #bheg ,b4,c42 & ! ,egyptians also 7 well v]s$ 9 ! sci5ce1 al?\gh no records ( mu* importance rema9 to u1 unless ! zodiac signs 7 _! inv5tion4 ,?ales pr$ict$ ! eclipse ( ! sun ,b4,c4 #faj4 ,ari/>*us & ,erato/h5es also made important obs]vations4 ,hipp>*us 7#afj-abe ,b4,c47 discov]$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 calculat$ eclipses1 det]m9$ ! l5g? ( ! ye>1 etc41 etc4 ,ptolemy1 ( ,alex&ria1 ,a4,d4 #acj-aej1 0 ! f\nd] ( a !ory call$ ! ,ptolemaic ,sy/em1 :i* recogniz$ ! e>? z ! c5tre ( all--! sun1 moon1 />s1 etc41 all revolv+ 9 v complicat$ c\rses ar\nd x1 z figur$ 9 ! diagram h]e)4 ,ev5 ?\gh 8 !ory turn$ out to be unt5able1 he pav$ ! way = 8 successors 9 o!r ways1 & left a valuable collection ( obs]vations on record4 ,9 ?is volume1 call$ ! 8,almage/10 he review$ ! /ate ( ! sci5ce1 & gave a catalogue ( />s1 z well z a description ( ! heav5s4 ,he discov]$ ! lun> evection4 ,aft] 8 "t a/ronomy1 ?\gh x 0 n neglect$1 appe>$ to droop1 & x is at a comp>atively late p]iod t we aga9 op5 ! records--viz41 9 #aedc1 ! ye> 9 :i* ,cop]nicus di$4 ,?is philosoph]1 :o 0 born 9 #adgc1 promulgat$ ! true !ory ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,he plac$ ! sun 9 ! c5tre ( ! planets1 & by ?is he expla9$ _! motion ar\nd ! sun1 ?\gh !y appe>$ to be c>ri$ r\nd ! e>?4 ,! book 9 :i* he expla9$ 8 !ory1 8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,cele/ium10 0 n f9i%$ till a day or two be=e he di$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #did4--,ptolemaic ,sy/em4 ,! ju/ly celebrat$ ,ty*o ,brah 0 ! mo/ important ( ! successors ( ,cop]nicus1 b he oppos$ ! ,cop]nican !ory1 :ile o!r able philosoph]s agre$ ) x4 ,brah 0 a ,dane2 he di$ 9 #afja4 ,he adopt$ ! !ory t ! sun & moon revolv$ ar\nd ! e>?1 :ile ! 7o!r7 planets mov$ ar\nd ! sun4 ,?is !ory did n ga9 mu* cr$5ce1 b he1 aga91 ?\gh he c\ld n defeat ,cop]nicus1 & ?\gh he 0 wrong 9 8 assumption1 made _m important inve/igations4 ,aft] him came ,kepl]1 ^: obs]vations ^u ! planet ,m>s cle>$ away _m complications1 & he laid d[n ?ree laws1 :i* are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,e planet describes an elliptic orbit ab\t ! sun1 :i* occupies "o focus ( ea* su* ellipse4 #b4 ,if a l9e be drawn f ! sun1 cont9ually1 to any planet1 ?is l9e w sweep ov] equal areas 9 equal times4 #c4 ,! squ>es ( ! p]iodic times ( ! planets are proportional to ! cubes ( _! mean di/ances f ! sun4 ,kepl] also rem>k$ t gravity 0 a p[] exi/+ betwe5 all bodies1 & reason$ ^u ! tides be+ caus$ by ! attraction ( ! moon = ! wat]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #die4--;,cop]nican ,sy/em4 ,x 0 ab\t ?is "t--viz41 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury--t ! telescope 0 inv5t$1 & log>i?ms came into use4 ,! actual discov]] ( ?is n[ almo/ p]fect$ in/rum5t is unc]ta94 ,borelli1 :o wrote 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ascribes ! discov]y to ,za*>iah ,jans5 & ,hans ,lipp]%eim1 spectacle mak]s ( ,middleburg4 ,bapti/a ,porta1 also a spectacle mak]1 has _h ! cr$it ( discov]+ ! magnify+ p[] ( ! l5s1 &1 s f>1 ! orig9ator ( ! telescope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dif4--;,ellipse4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dig4--,radii ,vectores4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dih4--;,ecliptic & ,equator4 ,b :oev] inv5t$ x1 ! telescope did n p5etrate into s\!rn ,europe till #afjh-i4 ,galileo !n made inquiries conc]n+ ! new in/rum5t1 & ,kepl] made "s propositions = _! con/ruction4 ,b ,h>riot _h us$ ! in/rum5t s f> back z #afaa or #afab1 & _h obs]v$ spots ^u ! sun's disc4 ,galileo1 9 #afaj1 _h also made obs]vations ) ! telescope1 & discov]$ ! satellites ( ,jupit]4 ,he !reby confirm$ ! ,cop]nican !ory2#be & :5 ,newton promulgat$ 8 immortal discov]y ( gravitation1 aft] ,pic>d's rese>*es1 ! relations ( ! sun & planets became m evid5t4 ,8 rese>*es 7 publi%$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 & !n "o-half ! sci5tific _w began to "q ! pr9ciple ( gravitation1 :i* 0 support$ by ,newton & 8 adh]5ts4 ,subsequ5tly ! rese>*es ( ,lagrange & ,laplace1 ,adams & ,lev]ri]1 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 etc41 br\ght a/ronomy into prom95ce m & m2 & ! innum]able />s h be5 indicat$ z new planets h be5 discov]$4 ,! spectroscope1 :i* gives u ! analyses ( ! sun & o!r heav5ly bodies1 has1 9 ! able h&s ( liv+ a/ronom]s1 reveal$ to u elem5ts exi/+ 9 ! vap\rs & composition ( ! sun1 etc4 ,/>s are n[ kn[n to be suns1 "s be>+ a great resemblance to our sun1 o!rs diff]+ mat]ially4 ,! nebul h be5 analys$1 & f\nd to be />s1 or gas1 burn+ 9 space--hydrog5 & nitrog5 be+ ! *ief con/itu5ts ( ?is gl[+ matt]4 ,in/rum5ts = a/ronomical obs]vation h n[ be5 br\ght to a pit* ( p]fection sc>cely ev] dream$ (1 & mon? by mon? discov]ies are made & record$1 :ile calculations z to c]ta9 comb9ations c be made ) almo/ miracul\s accuracy4 ,! transit ( ,v5us1 ! approa*es ( comets1 eclipses1 & ! movem5ts ( />s1 are n[ kn[n accurately1 & comm5t$ ^u long be=e ! ev5t c take place4 ,we w close ?is *apt] by giv+ a brief explanation ( ! v>i\s def9itions mo/ usually employ$ 9 a/ronomy4 #a4 ,! ,axis ( ! e>? is an imag9>y l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre 7nor? & s\?72 ! poles are ! extremities ( ?is l9e4 #b4 ,! ,equator is an imag9>y circle pass+ r\nd ! globe1 divid+ x into nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es4 ,! equ9octial is ! plane ( ! =m] circle ext5d$ to ! heav5s1 & :5 ! sun appe>s 9 t l9e ! days & nights are ( equal duration--twelve h\rs ea*4 #c4 ,! ,ecliptic is ! sun's pa? ?r\gh ! heav5s--?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! sun does n actually move1 & !re=e ! track1 or suppos$ circle1 is really ! e>?'s motion obs]vable f ! sun4 ,:5 ! moon is ne> ?is circle eclipses happ54 ,! ecliptic cuts ! equ9octial at an angle ( ab\t #bc4 ,"o half is to ! nor? & ! o!r to ! s\? ( ! equ9octial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dii4--,! ,zodiac4 #d4 ,! ,zodiac is a girdle ext5d+ #h on ea* side ( ! ecliptic1 9 :i* space ( #af ! planets move4 ,! zodiac is divid$ into twelve p>ts ( #cj ea*1 call$ ! 8,signs40 ,^! names are z "u writt53-- ,,nor!rn ,,signs4 ,spr+4 ,aries1 ! ,ram1 ,m>*4 ,taurus1 ! ,bull1 ,april4 ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 ,may4 ,summ]4 ,canc]1 ! ,crab1 ,june4 ,leo1 ! ,lion1 ,july4 ,virgo1 ! ,virg91 ,augu/4 ,,s\!rn ,,signs4 ,autumn4 ,libra1 ! ,balance1 ,septemb]4 ,scorpio1 ! ,scorpion1 ,octob]4 ,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]1 ,novemb]4 ,w9t]4 ,capricornus1 ! ,goat1 ,decemb]4 ,aqu>ius1 ! ,wat]be>]1 ,janu>y4 ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es1 ,febru>y4 #e4 ,colures are two circles divid+ ! ecliptic into f\r equal p>ts1 & mak+ ! seasons4 #f4 ,! ,horizon is ! b\nd>y l9e ( our vision1 & is call$ ! s5sible 7app>5t7 horizon4 ,! true horizon is ! circle--z on a globe--divid+ ! heav5s into two hemisph]es4 ,! s5sible horizon is enl>g$ accord+ z ! eye is elevat$ above ! gr\nd4 ,a man six feet high c see a di/ance ( ?ree miles :5 /&+ on a pla94 ,we c always f9d ! di/ance visible :5 we "k ! height at :i* we /&1 or1 inv]sely1 we c tell ! height ( an object if we "k ! di/ance4 ,we h only to increase ! height "o half 9 feet1 & extract ! squ>e root = ! di/ance 9 miles4 ,on giv+ ! di/ance 9 miles rev]se ! op]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejj4--,"r asc5sion4 ,= in/ance1 = ! man six feet high1 z suppos$1 add ?ree feet1 be+ half 8 height2 t makes n9e feet4 ,! squ>e root 7or numb] multipli$ by itself to give n9e7 is ?ree1 :i* is ! numb] ( miles ! man c see on a pla94 ,or1 aga91 suppose we c see a t[] on ! level1 & we "k we are twelve miles away f x4 ,! squ>e ( twelve is "o hundr$ & =ty-f\r feet1 "o-?ird ( t is =ty-eight feet1 :i* repres5ts ! half ( ! orig9al height add$ to ! :ole t[] 9 feet2 s ! :ole t[] is n9ety-six feet high4 ,rev]s+1 z 9 ! =m] case1 we c prove ?is by tak+ ! t[] at n9ety-six feet high & try+ to f9d ! di/ance we c see f its summit #if #dh #add2 ! squ>e root ( #add #ab1 ! di/ance requir$4 #g4 ,! ,nadir & ! ,z5i? are ! poles ( ! horizon4 ,! z5i? is exactly ov]head1 ! nadir exactly "u foot4 ,circles drawn ?r\gh ^! po9ts are azimu? circles4 #h4 ,m]idians are circles pass+ ?r\gh ! poles at "r angles to ! equ9octial4 ,e place is suppos$ to h a m]idian1 b only tw5ty-f\r are ^u ! globe1 & !y repres5t ! sun's1 or ! planets'1 8movem5ts0 e h\r--#ae be+ "o h\r1 #cfj be+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs 7see fig4 #ejj74 ,"o qu>t] ( a degree equals "o m9ute ( "t4 ,p>allels ( latitude are famili> circles p>allel to ! equator4 ,latitude 9 a/ronomy is ! di/ance f ! ecliptic at a "r angle nor? or s\?4 ,?is w be expla9$ z we proce$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eja4--,orbit ( planet4 #i4 ,decl9ation is ! di/ance ( ! heav5ly bodies f ! equ9octial measur$ z a m]idian4 ,! ,tropics indicate ! limits ( ! sun's decl9ation4 #aj4 ,disc is ! t]m appli$ to ! app>5tly flat surface ( a planet1 su* z ! moon1 = in/ance4 #aa4 ,! ,orbit is ! pa? describ$ by a planet revolv+ r\nd ! sun4 ,! plane ( ! orbit is an imag9>y surface cutt+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! sun & ! planet1 & ext5d+ to ! />s4 ,! diagram %[s ! plane ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,! circle1 ,a ,b ,c ,d 7fig4 #eja71 is ! ecliptic4 ,! incl9ation ( an orbit is ! plane ( ! orbit ) ref]5ce to ! plane ( ! e>?2 &1 suppos+ ! %ad$ "p ( ! illu/ration to be wat]1 a hoop held incl9$ t[>ds ! e>?1 ) "o half 9 & ! o!r half out ( ! wat]1 w describe ! planet>y orbit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejb4--;,conjunction ( ,v5us & ,saturn4 #ab4 ,nodes are ! opposite po9ts ( a planet :]e its orbit cuts ! ecliptic or ! e>?'s orbit4 #ac4 ,apogee is ! po9t ( a planet's orbit f>!/ f ! e>?4 ,p]igee is ! ne>e/ po9t4 #ad4 ,! t]ms ,culm9ation1 ,conjunction1 & ,opposition require no special explanation4 ,b planets are 9 conjunction ) ea* o!r :5 9 ! same sign & degree4 ,a planet ) ! sun betwe5 x & ! e>? is 9 conjunction ) ! sun4 ,) ! e>? betwe5 x & ! sun x is 9 opposition4 #ae4 ,latitude & longitude ^u a cele/ial globe are kn[n respectively z 8,decl9ation0 & 8,"r ,asc5sion40 #af4 ,! ,radius ,vector is a l9e drawn f a planet to ! sun1 :]ev] ! planet may be 7see fig4 #dig74 ,,footnotes3 #be ,he 0 oblig$ to recant be=e ! ,inquisition1 & to repudiate 8 rese>*es4 ,he 0 releas$ on ! condition ( obs]v+ sil5ce ^u ! !ory he _h support$1 b aga9 oblig$ to recant4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,angles ,,& ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,angles4 ,,! ,,quadrant--,,transit ,,in/rum5t--,,clocks--,,/ell> ,,"t--,,sol> ,,"t--8,,mean0 ,,"t4 ,we mu/ say a few words respect+ ! v>i\s in/rum5ts & aids to a/ronomical obs]vation be=e proce$+1 = a/ronomy requires v accurate calculations2 & ?\gh we d n propose to be v sci5tific 9 our descriptions1 "s little idea ( ! mann] 9 :i* obs]vations may be made is necess>y4 ,! fir/ ?+ to see ab\t is ! ,,angle4 ,suppose we draw f\r l9es on a piece ( pap]1 ab & cd4 ,^! int]sect at a po9t1 m4 ,we h !n f\r spaces m>k$ out1 & call$ angles4 ,! f\r angles are 9 ! diagram all ! same size1 & are t]m$ "r angles1 & ! l9es conta9+ !m are p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejc4--,"r angles4 ,b by alt]+ ! position ( ! l9es 7see fig4 #ejd71 we h two pairs ( angles q diff]5t f "r angles2 "o angle1 a m c1 is small]1 :ile a m d is mu* l>g] ?an ! "r angle4 ,! =m] k9d are call$ acute1 ! latt] obtuse angles4 ,we c !re=e obta9 a great numb] ( acute angles1 b only ?ree obtuse1 & f\r "r angles ar\nd a giv5 po9t1 m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejd4--,obtuse & acute angles4 ,! l5g? ( ! sides ( an angle h no effect on its magnitude1 :i* is det]m9$ by ! incl9ation ( ! l9es t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,we n[ may consid] ! magnitude ( angles1 & ! way to det]m9e !m4 ,= ?is purpose we mu/ describe a circle1 :i* is figur$ 9 ! diagram4 ,b :at is a circle8--,a circle is a curv$ l9e :i* always is at ! same di/ance f a c]ta9 fix$ po9t1 & ! ends ( ?is l9e meet at ! po9t f :i* ! l9e />t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eje4--,! circle1 etc4 ,if we fa/5 a nail or hold a p5cil on ! table1 & tie a ?read to x1 & to ! o!r end ( ! ?read ano!r p5cil1 we c describe a l9e ar\nd ! fir/ p5cil by keep+ ! ?read tightly /ret*$4 ,?is l9e is at all po9ts at equal di/ance f ! c5tre po9t4 ,any l9e f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce is call$ a radius1 & a l9e ?r\gh ! c5tre to ea* side ( ! circumf]5ce is ! diamet]1 or d\ble ! radius4 ,! circumf]5ce is ?ree 7#cad7 times ! diamet]4 ,any portion1 say k i l1 is an arc1 & ! l9e1 k l1 is ! *ord ( t arc4 ,a l9e l m n is a secant1 & o p is a tang5t1 or a l9e t\*+ at "o po9t only4 ,we may n[ resume our consid]ation ( ! angles by means ( ! circle4 ,let u recur to our previ\s figure ( ! "r angles1 ar\nd :i* we w describe a circle4 ,we see t ! portion ( ! circumf]5ce conta9$ betwe5 ! sides ( ! "r angle is exactly "o-f\r? ( ! :ole4 ,?is is t]m$ a quadrant1 & is divid$ into #ij--! f\r? ( #cfj equal p>ts or degrees into :i* ! :ole circumf]5ce is divid$4 ,! angle ( #de s (t5 quot$ z an angle ( incl9ation is half a "r angle4 ,to measure angles an in/rum5t call$ a ,protractor is us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejf4--;,circle & angles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejg4--,! ,protractor4 ,! ,protractor1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #ejg71 is a semi-circle conta9+ #ahj4 ,! l[] portion is a diagonal scale1 ! use ( :i* w be expla9$ pres5tly4 ,! ,protractor measures any actual angle ) accuracy4 ,if we put ! v]tical po9t ( ! angle & ! c5tre po9t ( ! circle toge!r1 we c arrive at ! dim5sions ( ! angle by produc+ ! l9es conta9+ x to ! circumf]5ce4 ,an angle in/rum5t1 figur$ h]e)1 may be assum$ z ! basis ( mo/ app>atus = measur+ angles4 ,an index h&1 ,r ,r1 moves r\nd a dial l ! h& ( a clock1 & ! in/rum5t is us$ by gaz+ fir/ at "o ( ! two objects1 betwe5 :i* ! angle we wi% to det]m9e is made--l ! *ur* /eeples 7fig4 #ejh7 = in/ance4 ,! c5tre ( ! in/rum5t is plac$ ^u ! spot :]e l9es1 if drawn f ! eye to ea* ( ! objects1 w\ld int]sect4 ,! index h& is !n put at #j1 & 9 a l9e betwe5 ! obs]v] & ! object1 ,a4 ,!n ! index is mov$ into a simil> position t[>ds ,b1 & :5 9 l9e ) x ! numb]s ( degrees pass$ ov] 79 ?is imag9>y case #bj71 %[s ! magnitude ( ! angle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejh4--;,det]m9ation ( di/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eji4--,measur+ angles4 ,! simple quadrant is %[n 9 ! cut 7fig4 #eaj74 ,?is 0 s arrang$ t :5 any object 9 ! horizon 0 be+ look$ at ?r\gh ! telescope atta*$1 a plummet l9e is at #j4 ,b if ! telescope be rais$ to ,c ,s1 ! quadrant w move1 & ! l9e w m>k a c]ta9 numb] ( degrees ( ! angle :i* a l9e if drawn f ! /> makes ) ! l9e ( ! horizon4 ,! 8,a/ronomical ,quadrants0 are z %[n 9 fig4 #eaf1 & consi/ ( a quadrant ( wood /r5g!n$ & fitt$ ) a telescope4 ,! circle is graduat$ on ! out] edge1 & a 8v]ni]0 is atta*$4 ,! "t is det]m9$ by ! obs]vation ( ! altitude ( a />1 & !n by calculation f9d+ out at :at "t ! /> w\ld h ! obs]v$ altitude4 ,! quadrant is n[ sup]s$$ by circul> in/rum5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaj4--,! quadrant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaa4--;,ellipse4 ,an ellipse is a flatt5$ circle1 or oval1 & w be und]/ood f ! diagrams4 ,let u fix two pegs ^u a %eet ( pap]1 & take a ?read long] ?an ! di/ance betwe5 ! pegs2 draw ) ! p5cil controll$ by ! ?read a figure1 keep+ ! ?read tight4 ,we %all ?us describe an oval1 or ellipse4 ,! orbit ( ne>ly all ! heav5ly bodies is an ellipse4 ,! p>abola is ano!r curv$ l9e1 b its ends nev] meet2 !y become m & m di/ant z !y are cont9u$4 ,! comets move 9 p>abolic curves1 & consequ5tly d n aga9 come )9 our vision unless _! direction be alt]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eab4--;,ellipse4 ,?is figure has a long axis1 ab 7fig4 #eab72 & p]p5dicul> to ?is a %ort axis1 de1 pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre1 c4 ,! two po9ts1 ,,ss1 are call$ ! foci ( ! ellipse2 also1 z is evid5t f ! con/ruction ( ! figure1 any two l9es drawn f ! two foci1 to any po9t ( ! circumf]5ce1 = in/ance1 ,s & ,sm1 or ,sm & ,sm1 etc41 :i* repres5t ! ?read :5 ! p5cil is at m or m1 are toge!r equal to ! l>g] axis ( ! ellipse4 ,^! l9es1 & we may imag9e an inf9ite numb] ( su*1 are call$ radii vectores4 ,! di/ance ( ! foci1 ,s or ,s1 f ! c5tre1 c1 is call$ ! ecc5tricity ( ! ellipse4 ,x is evid5t t ! small] ! ecc5tricity is1 ! ne>] ! figure approa*es to t ( ! circle4 ,! sup]ficies ( ! ellipse is f\nd by multiply+ ! two half axes1 ac & dc1 by ea* o!r1 & ?is product by ! numb] #cad4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eac4--;,diagonal scale4 ,! ,diagonal ,scale is %[n 9 ! m>g94 ,x is us$ to make diagrams s z to br+ ! relative di/ances be=e ! eye4 ,! l>g] divisions repres5t1 x may be1 miles1 or any giv5 di/ance2 ! figures on ! left side t5?s1 & ! upp] range hundr$?s ( a mile4 ,s a measurem5t f ,z to ,z w repres5t two miles1 we may say1 ) s _m t5?s & hundr$?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ead4--,transit in/rum5t4 ,! ,transit in/rum5t is due to ,roem]1 a ,dani% a/ronom]4 ,x consi/s ( a telescope s con/ruct$ z always to po9t to ! m]idian1 & rotates ^u a holl[ axis1 direct$ ea/ & we/4 ,at "o end is a graduat$ circle4 ,! optical axis ( ! telescope mu/ be at exactly "r angles to ! axis ( ! in/rum5t2 x w !n move on ! m]idian4 ,!re is an eye-piece fill$ ) two horizontal & five v]tical wires1 v f9e1 ! latt] at equal di/ances ap>t4 ,! /> appe>s1 & ! "t x takes to cross is not$ z x passes betwe5 ea* wire1 & ! mean ( all ! transits w be ! transit on ! m]idian4 ,= if we add ! times ( all ! transits across ! wires1 & divide by five ! numb] ( !m we %all get at a true result4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eae4--,! eyepiece ( transit in/rum5t4 ,a good clock is also a necess>y adjunct = a/ronomical obs]vations1 & ! a/ronomical clocks & *ronomet]s n[ 9 use record ! "t ) almo/ p]fect accuracy4 ,! improvem5t 9 telescopes1 ! use ( micromet]s1 etc41 h greatly facilitat$ obs]vations4 ,9 ! transit clock we h a mo/ useful timekeep]1 = ! ord9>y clocks are n suffici5tly accurate = v close obs]vations4 ,! sid]eal "t diff]s f sol> "t1 & ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs' p]iod is calculat$ f ! mom5t a /> passes ! m]idian until x passes x aga94 ,! sid]eal day is ne>ly f\r m9utes %ort] ?an ! sol> day1 & ! sid]eal clock m>ks tw5ty-f\r h\rs in/ead ( twelve1 l ! old dial at ,hampton ,c\rt ,palace ov] ! inn] gate4 ,! ,*ronograph has also be5 useful to a/ronom]s1 = by 8prick+ (f0 ! seconds on a roll] by itself1 ! obs]v] c m>k on ! same cyl9d] ! actual mom5t ( transit across ea* wire ( ! in/rum5t1 & on inspection ! exact mom5t ( transit may be not$4 ,! ,equitorial is ano!r useful in/rum5t1 & by its means ! :ole progress ( a /> c be trac$4 ,! ,equitorial consi/s ( a telescope fix$ s t :5 x has be5 po9t$ at a c]ta9 /> a clock-"w movem5t c be set 9 motion1 :i* exactly corresponds ) ! motion ( ! /> across ! heav5s1 & s :ile ! /> moves f its ris+ to sett+ x is "u obs]vation4 ,?us cont9u\s obs]vations maybe made ( t p>ticul> /> or comet )\t any j]k+ or irregul> movem5t4 ,we c ?us see ! uni=m motion ( ! />s :i* g on 9 great] or less] circles z !y are ne>] to or f>!r f ! pole2 & ) ! exception ( ! pol> />1 :i*1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 may be consid]$ /ation>y1 e /> moves r\nd f ea/ to we/--t is1 f ! ea/ ( ! pol> /> to ! we/ ( x1 9 an oblique direction4 ,!re=e1 z ,pr(essor ,airy rem>ks1 8,ei!r ! heav5s are solid1 & g all ( a piece1 or ! heav5s may be assum$ to be fix$ or immovable1 & t we & ! e>? are turn+ in/ead ( !m40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaf4--;,a/ronomical quadrant4 ,! ,mural ,circle is ano!r v useful in/rum5t1 & is us$ by call+ to aid ! p[]s ( reflection ( quicksilv]1 9 :i* a bright /> w appe> bel[ ! horizon at ! same angle z ! real /> above ! horizon1 & ?us ! angul> di/ance f ! pole or ! horizon ( any /> c be calculat$ :5 we "k ! incl9ation ( ! telescope4 ,! ,transit ,circle is also us$ = ?is purpose1 & is a comb9ation ( ! transit in/rum5t ) ! circle4 ,9 all calculations all[ance mu/ be made = refraction1 = :i* a 8,table ( ,refractions0 has be5 compil$4 ,f ! z5i? to ! horizon refraction increases4 ,! effect ( refraction c be imag9$1 = :5 we see ! sun app>5tly t\*+ ! horizon ! orb is really bel[ x1 = ! refraction ( ! rays by ! air app>5tly raises ! disc4 ,! clock & *ronomet] are bo? v useful z well z v common objects1 b a brief description ( ! p5dulum & ! clock may fitly close our rem>ks ^u a/ronomical app>atus & in/rum5ts4 ,! telescope has be5 already describ$ 9 a previ\s portion ( ?is "w1 s no m ?an a pass+ ref]5ce to x has be5 consid]$ necess>y4 ,we !re=e pass on to a consid]ation ( ! measurem5t ( "t1 s important to all a/ronom]s & to ! public g5]ally4 ,"t 0 measur$ by ! anci5ts by divid+ ! day & night into twelve h\rs ea*1 !n by sun-dials & wat]-clocks1 or clepsydra1 & s&-clocks4 ,! />s 7 ! timekeep]s = night be=e any me*anical means ( measurem5t 7 inv5t$4 8,:at is ! /> n[ pass+8-- ,! ,pleiades %[ !mselves 9 ! ea/1 ,! eagle is so>+ 9 ! summit ( heav540--,,euripides4 ,sun-dials 7 9 use 9 ,elijah's "t1 & ! ref]5ce to ! miracle ( ! sun's %ad[ go+ back on ! dial z a gu>antee to ,hezekiah1 w be recall$ at once by our read]s4 ,^! dials 7 univ]sal1 & till sunset answ]$ ! purpose4 ,b ! h\rs mu/ h be5 v v>y+1 & on cl\dy days ! sun-dials 7 practically useless4 ,! wat]-clocks measur$ "t by ! dripp+ or fl[ ( wat]1 & !y 7 us$ to det]m9e ! duration ( spee*es1 = orators 7 ea* allott$ a c]ta9 "t if a numb] ( debat]s 7 pres5t4 ,?is me?od might p]haps be adapt$ to ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 & speak+ by ! clock might sup]s$e clture4 ,we f9d allusions to ^! practices 9 ! orations ( ,demo/h5es4 ,ev5 ?is sy/em 0 op5 to objection1 = ! vases 7 frequ5tly tamp]$ )1 & an illib]al or objectionable p]son 0 mulct$ ( a portion ( ! wat]1 :ile a g5]\s or popul> adv]s>y _h 8 clepsydra brimm+ full4 ,"s ( ^! wat]-clocks 7 ( elegant design1 & a ,cupid m>k$ ! "t ) arr[s on ! column ( ! clock ( ,ctesibius1 :ile ano!r weep+ kept up ! supply ( wat]4 ,! motive p[] 0 ! wat]1 :i* fill$ a :eel-tr\gh 9 a c]ta9 "t1 & :5 full ?is tr\gh turn$ ov]1 & ano!r 0 fill$4 ,! :eel revolv$ once 9 six days2 & by a s]ies ( p9ions & :eels ! movem5ts 7 communicat$ m sl[ly to ! pill> on :i* ! "t 0 m>k$ = #cfj days1 or ) o!r arrangem5ts = tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! repeat+ ( psalms by monks also m>k$ ! "t1 = by practice a monk c\ld tell pretty accurately h[ _m pat]no/]s or o!r pray] he c\ld repeat 9 sixty seconds4 ,at ! appo9t$ h\r he !n awoke ! mona/]y to mat9s4 ,nature also m>ks "t = u--z1 = example1 ! age ( trees by means ( r+s--"o = ea* ye>2 & horses' tee? w guide ! initiat$ to a guess at ! ages ( ! animals1 :ile ! horns ( de] or cattle s]ve a l purpose4 ,b man requir$ accuracy & m9ute divisions ( "t4 ,he _h rec\rse !re=e1 to ma*9]y & too!d :eels4 ,till ! me*anical measurem5t ( "t 0 adopt$1 ! sunrise & sunset only m>k$ ! day1 & ! ,italians z well z ,jews c\nt$ tw5ty-f\r h\rs f sunset to sunset4 ,?is 0 a manife/ly irregul> me?od4 ,to ?is day we h m>k$ diff]5ces ( "t 9 v>i\s places1 & at ,g5eva we h ,swiss & ,fr5* clocks keep+ diff]5t h\rs accord+ to ,p>is or ,b]ne 8"t40 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is easily acc\nt$ =1 & w be ref]r$ to subsequ5tly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eag4--;,clock movem5t4 ,we h read t ! fir/ clock 9 ,engl& 0 put up 9 ,old ,palace y>d 9 #abhh1 & ! fir/ application ( ! too!d-:eel clock to a/ronomical purposes 0 9 #adhd1 by ,wal!rus1 ( ,nuremb]g4 ,ty*o ,brah _h a clock :i* m>k$ ! m9utes & seconds4 ,if we _h _h any =ce indep5d5t ( gravitation :i* w\ld act ) p]fect uni=mity1 s t x w\ld measure an equal di/ance 9 equal spaces ( "t1 all ! v>i\s appliances = *ronomet]s w\ld h be5 r5d]$ useless4 ,9 ! suppos$ case ! simple me*anism1 z %[n 9 ! m>g9 7fig4 #eag71 w\ld h suffic$4 ,! same effect w\ld be produc$ by ! spr+1 7 x possible t ! spr+ by itself w\ld always uncoil ) ! same =ce4 ,b x w n d s3 we !re=e h to *eck ! unw9d+ ( ! cord & weight1 = left to itself x w\ld rapidly increase 9 velocity2 & if we likewise make an arrangem5t ( :eels :]eby ! spr+ %all uncoil ) ev5 pressure all ! "t1 we %all h ! pr9ciple ( ! wat*4 ,x is to ,huyg5s t ! employm5t ( ! p5dulum 9 clocks is due1 & ! escapem5t action subsequ5tly r5d]$ ! p5dulum available 9 simple clocks1 :ile ! mann] ( mak+ p5dulums self-regulat+ by us+ diff]5t metals1 has r5d]$ timepieces v exact4 ,( c\rse ! l5g? ( a p5dulum det]m9es ! movem5t1 fa/ or sl[2 a long p5dulum w cause ! h&s ( ! clock to g sl[]1 = ! sw+ w be a fraction long]4 ,a common p5dulum ) ! escapem5t is %[n 7fig4 #eah74 ,ea* movem5t lib]ates a too? ( ! escapem5t4 ,! arrangem5t ( :eels sets ! clock go+4 ,! =ms ( p5dulum are n[ v v>i$4 ,b 9 wat*es ! p5dulum _c be us$4 ,! wat* 0 inv5t$ by ,pet] ,hele1 & 8 wat*es 7 call$ 8,nuremburg eggs0 f _! %ape4 ,! weight _c be introduc$ into a wat*1 & s ! spr+ & fusee are us$4 ,! latt] is s arrang$ t imm$iately ! wat* is w\nd & ! spr+ at its greate/ t5sion1 ! *a9 is ^u ! smalle/ diamet] ( ! fusee1 & ! mo/ difficult to move4 ,b z ! spr+ is relax$ ! lev] arm becomes long]1 & ! necess>y comp5sat+ p[] is reta9$4 ,wat*es )\t a 8fusee0 h a too!d arrangem5t b5ea? ! spr+4 ,! ,p5dulum4 ,a 8simple0 p5dulum is impossible to make1 = we _c put ! connect+ l9e betwe5 ! 8bob0 & ! clock-"w out ( consid]ation1 s 8simple p5dulums0 are look$ ^u z 8ma!matical ab/ractions40 ,! mo/ mod]n clocks h :at is call$ a 8deadbeat0 escapem5t1 & a comp5sat+ p5dulum4 ,clocks are liable to alt] by reason ( ! /ate ( ! air & v>y+ temp]ature1 & until all our clocks are plac$ 9 vacuo we mu/ be cont5t to h !m lose or ga9 a little4 ,!re is a magnet arrangem5t by :i* ! ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory clocks keep "t by comp5sation1 correspond+ ) ! fall or rise ( ! syphon b>omet] atta*$ to x4 ,! description ne$ n be add$4 ,we may "h /ate t detail$ descriptions ( all ! in/rum5ts us$ 9 ! ,obs]vatory1 toge!r ) full in=mation z to _! use1 w be f\nd 9 a v int]e/+ "w by ,mr4 ,locky]1 entitl$ 8,/>gaz+10 to :i* we are indebt$ = "s corrections 9 our summ>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eah4--,p5dulum & escapem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eai4--;,balance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebj--,regulator4 ,we h spok5 ( sol> "t & sid]eal "t1 & no d\bt someone w inquire :at is meant by mean "t--an expression s con/antly appli$ to ! ,gre5wi* clock "t4 ,/ell> "t1 we h se51 corresponds to ! daily revolution ( a /> or />s4 ,sol> "t is regulat$ by ! sun1 & ?is is ! a/ronomical "t g5]ally obs]v$1 except = sid]eal inve/igations4 ,b ! sun is n always regul>2 ! orbit ( ! e>? causes ?is irregul>ity p>tly4 ,! e>? moves fa/] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 s ! sun is sometimes a little fa/ & sometimes a little sl[4 ,a/ronom]s !re=e /rike an av]age1 & calculate ^u a ,,mean ,,sun1 or uni=m timekeep]4 ,mean "t & true 7app>5t7 "t are at "s p]iods ! same--viz41 on ! #ae? ( ,april1 on ! #ad? ( ,june1 on ! #ca/ ( ,augu/1 & on ! #bd? ( ,decemb]4 ,twice x is aft]1 & twice be=e x4 ,! "t occupi$ by ?is 8mean0 sun pass+ f ! m]idian & its return to x1 is a mean sol> day1 & clocks & *ronomet]s are adju/$ by x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eba4--;,fusee & spr+4 ,tw5ty-f\r h\rs repres5ts a complete revolution ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! mean sol> "t is #bc;h #ef #djia1 :ile tw5ty-f\r h\rs ( mean "t are equal to #bd;h #c #efee ( sid]eal "t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! times is giv5 by ,dr4 ,newcomb z foll[s1 & is call$ ! ,equation ( ,"t3-- ,,diff]5ces ,,betwe5 ,,mean ,,& ,,app>5t ,,"t4 ,febru>y #aj? ,true ,sun #ae m9utes sl[4 ,april #ae? 8 ,correct4 ,may #ad? 8 #d m9utes fa/4 ,june #ad? 8 ,correct4 ,july #be? 8 #f m9utes sl[4 ,augu/ #ca/ 8 ,correct4 ,novemb] #bnd 8 #af m9utes fa/4 ,decemb] #bd? 8 ,correct4 ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,di/ances4 ,be=e pass+ to consid] ! planet>y sy/em we mu/ say a few words respect+ ! mann] ( asc]ta9+ ! di/ances ( inaccessible objects1 & by s do+1 we %all arrive at an idea h[ ! imm5se di/ances betwe5 ! sun 7& ! planets7 & ! e>? h be5 s accurately arriv$ at4 ,to d ?is we mu/ speak ( p>allax1 a v unmean+ ^w to ! g5]al read]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebb4--,works ( a clock4 ,p>allax is simply ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! directions ( an object :5 se5 f two diff]5t positions4 ,n[ we c illu/rate ?is by a v simple me?od1 :i* we h (t5 tri$ z a 8trick10 b :i* has be5 v happily us$ by ,pr(essor ,airy to illu/rate ! doctr9e ( p>allax4 ,we give ! extract 9 8 own words3-- 8,if y place y\r head 9 a corn] ( a room1 or on a high-back$ *air1 & if y close "o eye & all[ ano!r p]son to put a light$ c&le ^u a table1 & if y !n try to snuff ! c&le ) "o eye %ut1 y w f9d y _c d x4444 ,y w hold ! snuff]s too ne> or too di/ant--y _c =m any idea ( ! di/ance4 ,b if y op5 ! o!r eye1 or if y move y\r head s5sibly y are enabl$ to judge ( ! di/ance40 ,! diff]5ce ( direction betwe5 ! eyes1 :i* is s well kn[n to all1 is ready a p>allax4 ,x c also be illu/rat$ by ! diagram h]e)4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebc4--,p>allax4 ,if two p]sons1 ,a & ,c 7fig4 #ebc71 f diff]5t /ations1 obs]ve ! same po9t1 ,m1 ! visual l9es naturally meet 9 ! po9t1 ,m1 & =m an angle1 :i* is call$ ! angle ( p>allax4 ,if ! eye 7 at ,m1 ?is angle w\ld be ! angle ( vision1 or ! angle "u :i* ! base l9e1 ,a ,c1 ( ! two obs]v]s appe>s to ! eye4 ,! angle at ,m also expresses ! app>5t magnitude ( ,a ,c :5 view$ f ,m1 & ?is app>5t magnitude is call$ ! p>allax ( ,m4 ,let ,m repres5t ! moon1 ,c ! c5tre ( ! e>? repres5t$ by ! circle1 !n ,a ,c is ! p>allax ( ! moon2 t is1 ! app>5t magnitude ! semi-diamet] ( ! e>? w\ld h if se5 f ! moon4 ,if ! moon be obs]v$ at ! same "t f ,a1 be+ !n on ! horizon1 & f ! po9t ,b1 be+ !n 9 ! z5i?1 & ! visual l9e ( :i* :5 ext5d$ passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 we obta91 by unit+ ! po9ts1 ,a ,c ,m1 by l9es1 ! triangle1 ,a ,c ,m4 ,!re=e1 z ,a ,m1 ! tang5t ( ! circle /&s at "r angles to ! radius1 ,a ,c1 ! angle at ,a is a "r angle1 & ! magnitude ( ! angle at ,c is f\nd by means ( ! arc1 ,a ,b1 ! di/ance ( ! two obs]v]s f ea* o!r4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z we are acqua9t$ ) ! magnitude ( two angles ( a triangle1 we arrive at t ( ! ?ird1 because we "k t all ! angles ( a triangle toge!r equal two "r angles 7#ahj74 ,! angle at ,m1 g5]ally call$ ! moon's p>allax1 is ?us f\nd to be fifty-six m9utes & fifty-eight seconds4 ,we "k t 9 ! "r-angl$ triangle ,m ,c ,a1 ! measure ( ! angle1 ,m #ef #eh1 & also t ,a ,c1 ! semi-diamet] ( ! e>? #c1ifd miles4 ,?is is suffici5t1 9 ord] by trigonometry1 to obta9 ! l5g? ( ! side1 ,m ,c2 t is1 to f9d ! moon's di/ance f ! e>?4 ,a ,c is ! s9e ( ! angle1 ,m1 & by ! table ! s9e ( an angle ( #ef #eh is equal to #afeb_/ajjjjj2 or1 9 o!r words1 if we divide ! con/ant1 ,m ,c1 ! di/ance ( ! moon1 into #ajj1jjj equal p>ts1 ! s9e1 ,a ,c1 ! e>?'s semi-diamet] #a1feb ( ^! p>ts4 ,& ?is la/ quantity be+ conta9$ #fj times 9 #ajj1jjj1 ! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>? is equal to #fj semi-diamet]s ( ! e>?1 or #fj #cifd #bcg1hdj miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebd4--,p>allax expla9$4 ,9 a simil> way ! p>allax ( ! sun has be5 f\nd #hf1 & ! di/ance ( ! sun f ! e>? to be #ia1jjj1jjj miles4 ,let u fir/ see h[ we c obta9 ! di/ance ( any inaccessible or di/ant object4 ,we h already m5tion$ an exp]im5t1 b ?is me?od is by a calculation ( angles4 ,! ?ree angles ( a triangle1 we "k1 are equal to two "r angles2 t is an axiom :i* _c be expla9$ away4 ,we fir/ e/abli% a base l9e2 t is1 we plant a pole at "o po9t1 ,a1 & take up our position at ano!r po9t1 ,b1 at "s di/ance 9 a /raight l9e1 & measure t di/ance v c>efully4 ,by means ( ! !odolite we c calculate ! angles :i* our eye1 or a suppos$ l9e drawn f our eye to ! top ( ! object 7,c7 we wi% to f9d ! di/ance (1 makes ) t object4 ,we n[ h an imag9>y triangle ) ! l5g? ( "o side1 ,a ,b1 kn[n1 & all ! angles kn[n2 = if all ?ree angles are equal to #ahj1 & we h calculat$ ! angles at ! base1 we c easily f9d ! o!r4 ,we c !n complete our triangle on pap] to scale1 & f9d out ! l5g? ( ! side ( ! triangle by measurem5t2 t is ! di/ance betwe5 our fir/ position1 ,a1 & ! object1 ,c4 ,x is ( c\rse necess>y t all measurem5ts %\ld be exact1 & ! l9e we adopt = a base %\ld be> "s relative proportion to ! di/ance at :i* we may guess ! object to be4 ,9 cele/ial measurem5ts two obs]v]s g to diff]5t po9ts ( ! e>?1 & _! di/ance 9 a /raight l9e is kn[n1 & ! diff]5ce ( ! latitudes4 ,by call+ ! l9e betwe5 ! obs]v]s a base l9e1 a figure may be con/ruct$ & angles measur$2 !n by "s ab/ruse calculation ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tre ( ! e>? & ! c5tre ( ! moon may be asc]ta9$4 ,! mean di/ance is sixty times ! radius ( ! e>?4 ,! measurem5t ( ! sun's di/ance is calculat$ by ! obs]vations ( ! transit ( ,v5us across 8 disc1 a ph5om5on :i* w aga9 occur on #f? ,decemb]1 #ahhb1 & on #h? ,june1 #bjjd1 ! next transit w take place2 !re w be no o!rs = a long "t aft] #bjjd4 ,all a/ronomical obs]vations are ref]r$ to ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 b ( c\rse c only be view$ f ! surface1 & correction is made4 ,9 ! cut above1 let ,e be ! e>? & ,b a po9t on ! surface4 ,f ,b ! />s1 a b c d1 w be se5 9 ! direction ( ! dott$ l9es1 & be project$ to e i k l respectively4 ,b f ! c5tre ( ! e>? !y w\ld appe> at e f g h correctly4 ,! angles =m$ by ! l9es at b c d are ! p>allactic angles1 f i g h & h l %[ ! p>allax4 ,an object on ! z5i? ?us has no p>allax4 7,see fig4 #ebd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebe4--;,halo ,nebul4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em4 ,,gravitation--,,! ,,planets--,,size ,,& ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,! ,,planets--,,satellites--,,fall+ ,,/>s--,,comets--,,a]olites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebf4--,planets comp>$ ) a qu>t] ( ! sun4 ,,gravitation is ! =ce :i* keeps ! planets 9 _! orbits1 & ?is !ory1 p]fect$ by ,newton1 0 p>tially kn[n to ,kepl]4 ,newton br\ght ?is idea into practical %ape1 & appli$ x ma!matically4 ,we "k t e object 9 ! _w t5ds to attract e o!r object 9 proportion to ! quantity ( matt] ( :i* ea* consi/s4 ,s ! sun attracts ! planets1 & !y influ5ce him 9 a m9or degree4 ,likewise ! moon & our e>? reciprocally attract ea* o!r4 ,b z ! sun's mass is f> great] ?an ! masses ( ! planets he influ5ces !m m1 & c\ld absorb !m all )\t inconv5i5ce or di/urbance f 8 c5tre ( gravity4 ,we h1 9 a =m] portion ( ?is "w1 spok5 ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 :i* is ! mutual attraction ( any two bodies to ea* o!r1 is directly proportion$ to _! masses 7n size71 & inv]sely to ! squ>e ( _! di/ances ap>t4 ,?is law op]ates among/ ! heav5ly bodies1 & x is to ! nev]-*ang+ action ( gravitation t ! planets are kept 9 _! places4 ,let u see h[ ?is is effect$4 ,we h read ( =ce1 & motion1 & re/4 ,e body w rema9 at re/ unless =ce compels x to *ange its position1 & x w !n g on = ev] 9 a /raight pa? unless some?+ /ops x4 ,b if ?is body be act$ on simultane\sly by two =ces 9 diff]5t directions1 x w g 9 ! direction ( ! great] =ce4 ,two equal =ces w t5d to give x an int]m$iate direction1 & an equal oppos+ =ce w /op x4 ,! la/ axiom b "o--viz41 ! two equal =ces 9 diff]5t1 n oppos+ directions1 gives u ! key to ! curv+ l9e ( ! planet>y motions4 ,7 x n = ! attraction ( ! sun ! planets w\ld fly (f at a tang5t2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 7 n ! impell+ =ce z great z x is1 !y w\ld fall into ! sun4 ,?us !y take an int]m$iate l9e1 & circle r\nd ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em--! ,,sun4 ,! sol> sy/em consi/s ( ! sun & ! planets :i* revolve 9 space ar\nd him4 ,^! />s are call$ planets because !y move 9 ! heav5s4 ,we %all see t !y h c]ta9 motions--go+ f ea/ to we/1 f we/ to ea/1 & sometimes !y appe> to be q motionless4 ,?is *ange ( place1 appe>+ n[ at "o side ( ! sun & n[ at ano!r1 has giv5 !m _! title ( 8w&]]s0 7planets74 ,besides ! planets !re are comets & meteors1 a/]oids & satellites1 all circl+ r\nd ! sun 9 m or less regul> orbits4 ,& !re mu/ be families ( comets1 & :ole sy/ems ( meteors t h n yet appe>$ to u1 & :i* make up ! comets1 z has be5 lately sugge/$4 ,five planets 7 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & 7 nam$ aft] gods & a goddess3 ,,m]cury1 ,,v5us1 ,,m>s1 ,,jupit]1 ,,saturn4 ,9 lat] ye>s a great numb] 7 discov]$4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 conf9e ourselves to ! consid]ation ( ! pr9cipal ones1 eight 9 numb]1 includ+ our own ,,e>?1 ,,uranus & ,,neptune complet+ ! li/4 ,( ^! ,,v5us & ,,m]cury are ! inf]ior1 or int]ior planets mov+ betwe5 u & ! sun4 ,,m>s1 ,,jupit]1 ,,saturn1 ,,uranus1 & ,,neptune are sup]ior1 or ext]ior1 & pass q r\nd ! heav5s4 ,all ! planets are sph]oids1 & v>y greatly 9 _! magnitude1 z w be se5 by ! illu/ration 7fig4 #ebh71 ! l>ge/ body be+ ! sun4 ,m]cury1 ,m>s1 & ,v5us1 are n s l>ge z ! ,e>?4 ,! o!r pr9cipal planets are consid]ably l>g] ?an our globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebg4--,! ,moon4 ,m]cury is ! smalle/ ( ! planets1 ,v5us be+ ne>ly z l>ge z ! e>?4 ,!n comes ,m>s1 :i*1 ?\gh small] ?an ,v5us1 is l>g] ?an ,m]cury4 ,jupit] is ! l>ge/ ( all--! giant among/ planets1 z ,jove 0 ! rul] ( ! gods ( my?ology4 ,saturn comes next1 ?\gh mu* small] ?an ,jupit]1 b bigg] ?an all ! re/ toge!r4 ,next ,uranus1 !n ,neptune1 l>g] ?an ,uranus1 b f>!r away f u4 ,we %all speak m 9 detail ab\t ^! 9 _! ord] sep>ately4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebh4--;,comp>ative size ( ! sun se5 f ! planets4 ,tak+ ! e>? z #a1 ! comp>ative ,,volumes ( ! planets are z foll[s3-- ,m]cury #a_/be1 ,v5us #d_/e1 ,m>s #a_/e1 ,jupit] #acjj1 ,saturn #ijj1 ,uranus #hj1 ,neptune #bcj4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el gives ! foll[+ illu/ration ( magnitudes & di/ances3-- 8,*oose any well-levell$ field or b[l+ gre52 on x place a globe two feet 9 diamet]2 ?is w repres5t ! sun4 ,m]cury w be repres5t$ by a gra9 ( mu/>d se$ on ! circumf]5ce ( a circle #afd feet 9 diamet] = its orbit2 ,v5us a pea1 on a circle #bhd feet 9 diamet]2 ! ,e>? also a pea on a circle #dcj feet2 ,m>s a r l>ge p9's head on a circle ( #fed feet2 ,juno1 ,c]es1 ,ve/a1 & ,pallas gra9s ( s& 9 orbits ( #a1jjj to #a1bjj feet2 ,jupit] a mod]ate-siz$ orange on a circle ne>ly half a mile across2 ,saturn a small orange on a circle f\r-fif?s ( a mile2 & ,uranus a full-siz$ *]ry1 or small plum1 ^u ! circumf]5ce ( a circle m ?an a mile & a half 9 diamet]0 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebi4--,sizes ( ! planets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #ecj4--,sizes ( planets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eca4--,orbits ( planets4 ,f an inspection ( ! foll[+ table ! relative di/ances ( ! pr9cipal planets f ! sun1 _! diamet]s1 & o!r in=mation respect+ !m may approximately be obta9$4 ,! dates ( ! discov]y ( ! m mod]n pair are add$3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,names4 ,diamet]s,di/ance f ,sid]eal ,"t ( ,date ( 9 ! sun p]iod ( rotation discov]y4 ,engli% 7ab\t74 revolution4 on _! miles axis4 7ab\t74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- d4 h4 m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,m]cury #c1jjj #ce1jjj1jjj #hg #bc #af #bd #e -- ,antiquity ,,v5us #g1ejj #ff1jjj1jjj #bbd #af #ej #bc #ba #ba d4 ,,e>? #h1jjj #ia1jjj1jjj #cfe #f #i #bc #ef #d d4 ,,m>s #d1ejj #aci1jjj1jjj #fhf #bc #ca #bd #cg #bj d4 ,,jupit] #he1jjj #dgf1jjj1jjj #d1ccb #ad #b #i #ee #ba d4 ,,saturn #gj1jjj #hgb1jjj1jjjaj1gei #e #af #aj #af -- d4 ,,uranus #cc1jjj #a1gec1jjj1jjjcj1fhf #ag #ba #i #cj -- ,h]s*el1 #agha4 ,,neptune #cg1jjj #b1gdf1jjj1jjjfj1abf #ag #e 4 4 4 ,lev]ri] & ,galle1 #ahdf4 ,,! ,,sun #hej1jjj 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #be #g #dh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,altoge!r !re are a great numb] ( planets & a/]oids1 :i* latt] are m9or planets circulat+ outside ! orbit ( ,m>s4 ,!y h ne>ly all classical names1 su* z ,juno1 ,c]es1 ,ve/a1 ,flora1 ,ariadne1 ,pallas1 ,pomona1 ,?alia1 etc41 & are all at di/ances f ! sun rang+ betwe5 #bjj1jjj1jjj & #cjj1jjj1jjj ( miles1 ! p]iods ( sid]eal revolution rang+ f #a1ajj to #c1jjj days1 s _! ye>s mu/ be f f\r times to n9e times z long z ours4 ,altoge!r ab\t two hundr$ ( ! m9or planets h be5 discov]$1 & !y are all v mu* small] ?an ! e>?2 "s1 inde$1 be+ v t9y--only a few miles 9 diamet]1 b v massive4 ,!y d n appe> to possess any satellites--at lea/1 none h be5 discov]$1 = su* v small bodies z !y mu/ be1 suppos+ !y exi/1 w\ld be q invisible ev5 ) our p]fect$ in/rum5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecb4--,m>s4 ,,satellites1 h[ev]1 or 8planet>y moons10 z !y are sometimes designat$1 are pla9ly p]ceiv$ att5d+ ^u ! great planets4 ,!re are tw5ty ( ^! at pres5t "u obs]vation4 ,"o we are all famili> )1 & ! moon1 p> excell5ce1 l5ds a beauty to our nights :i* no o!r light t we c enjoy or comm& c ev] d4 ,x is rem>kable t only ?is moon is specially m5tion$ 9 ! ,bible 9 connection ) ! sun4 ,! />s are usually gr\p$1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! sun & moon are equally 8/>s0 9 ! firmam5t4 ,m>s possesses two moons & ,jupit] f\r2 ,uranus also rejoices 9 ! latt] numb]2 ,neptune1 l ! ,e>?1 has only "o4 ,x is res]v$ = ,saturn to out/rip all ! re/ 9 8 att5dants1 = no less ?an eight satellites wait ^u t enorm\s planet4 ,no d\bt !re are _m m ( ^! moons to be f\nd1 & e ye> w d\btless br+ u fur!r k respect+ !m4 ,m>s' moons 7 only discov]$ v lately 79 #ahgg71 al?\gh !y 7 kn[n to exi/2 b be+ v small1 unlike ! o!rs1 !y 7 miss$4 ,s we may conclude t ! rema9+ satellites w rema9 = "s "t undiscov]$1 ev5 if !y actually are 9 exi/5ce4 ,jupit]'s moons are suppos$ to be z l>ge z our own moon2 ,neptune & ,uranus c boa/ ( equally-siz$ att5dants4 ,b x is impossible to e/imate ! ri*es ( a/ronomical lore :i* are beyond our k54 ,millions ( t9y planets are believ$ to exi/1 b _! imm5se di/ance f u precludes all inve/igation4 ,we are b mites 9 ! scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecc4--;,jupit]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecd4--,saturn4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ece4--,meteor %[]4 ,,meteors1 to :i* we h already ref]r$1 are small erratic bodies ru%+ ?r\gh ! planet>y sy/em1 & gett+ hot 9 ! process1 appe> 9 ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ our e>? z 8%oot+ />s40 ,"s ( ^! fall+ bodies h rea*$ ! e>?1 & sev]al c be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,numb]s1 ( c\rse1 are burnt up be=e !y rea* u1 & :o c tell :at de/ruction su* a cata/rophe may repres5t1 or :e!r x be or be n an inhabit$ _w :i* has ?us plung$ to de/ruction by fire8 ,!y are ( a metallic or /ony nature4 ,on c]ta9 nights 9 ,augu/ & ,novemb] x has be5 calculat$ t ^! meteors w appe>4 ,!y fall f c]ta9 con/ellations app>5tly on ^! occasions1 & are call$ aft] _! names--z ,leonides1 f ,leo1 9 ! ,novemb] displays4 ,! />-%[]s at times atta9 ! dim5sions ( a v beautiful display ( rockets4 ,millions ( !m ru% r\nd ! sun2 & :51 z occasionally happ5s1 our e>? comes ne> !m1 we h 7z 9 #ahff7 a gr& display ( cele/ial 8fireworks40 ,b ! individuals compos+ ! mass ( fall+ />s are v small4 ,^! meteors are v mu* l ! comets we la/ ye> _h an example (1 & x has be5 lately sugge/$ t !re is a great degree ( aff9ity betwe5 ! comets & ! meteors2--9 fact1 t a comet is m]ely an aggregation ( meteors4 ,!y h be5 suppos$ to be bodies ( burn+ gas4 ,_! mass is v great1 & _! brilliant tails are _m millions ( miles 9 ext5t4 ,comets are ?us di/+ui%$ by _! tails1 & diff] v mu* 9 _! orbits f ! planets4 ,! latt] are direct 9 _! w&]+s1 b comets are mo/ irregul> & ecc5tric4 ,! "n be/[$ ^u comets is f ! ,greek ,kome1 hair2 = :5 ! comet rec$es f ! sun ! 8tail0 may be said to come out ( ! head1 & appe> z a hair 9 front1 s to speak4 ,b ?\gh all comets h tails1 !re are _m lum9\s bodies 7class$ ) comets7 :i* h no tails4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecf4--,/> %[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecg4--;,halley's ,comet4 ,! comet :i* creat$ ! mo/ excitem5t 0 ,halley's 9 #adef1 ( :i* we app5d an illu/ration 7fig4 #ecg74 ,a comet _h be5 obs]v$ 9 #afjg1 & ,halley made a calculation t x w\ld reappe> 9 #ageg4 ,! calculation = its actual appe>ance 0 made by ,claivant1 & ! expect$ visitor pass$ ! p]ihelion 9 ,m>* #agei4 ,?is comet1 on its appe>ance at ,con/ant9ople1 is said to h caus$ mu* con/]nation1 & ,*ri/ians reg>d$ x z a 8sign10 = ! ,turks _h j !n captur$ ,con/ant9ople1 & 7 ?reat5+ ,europe4 ,pi\s p includ$ x 9 _! supplications = deliv]ance f _! mo/ dread$ enemies1 & 8,"l1 save u f ! ,turks1 ! devil1 & ! comet10 0 a common pray]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ech4--;,great comet ( #ahaa4 ,!re h be5 sev]al v beautiful comets4 ,encke's1 ,coggia's1 etc41 & ! comet ( #aheh 7,donatis7 mu/ be 9 ! recollection ( middle-ag$ read]s4 ,o!rs came 9 #ahfa & #ahgd4 ,9 #ahha two comets appe>$4 ,"s comets ( antiquity 7 v rem>kable1 & are reput$ to h equall$ ! sun 9 magnitude4 ,"o tail is usually suppos$ to be ! di/+ui%+ m>k ( a comet1 b 9 #aggd "o appe>$ ) six tails1 arrang$ some?+ l a fan4 ,sometimes ! tail is sep>at$ f ! head4 ,( ! actual consi/5cy ( comets we _c give any l5g!n$ details4 ,!y app>5tly consi/ ( elem5ts simil> to ! meteors--namely1 ( solid masses1 & h be5 suppos$ to be aggregations ( meteors4 ,"s appe> at regul> int]vals1 & _! approa* c be det]m9$ ) accuracy4 ,( c\rse we only see ^? :i* are attract$ by ! sun1 or ^? :i* revolve 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,!re mu/ be ?\s&s ( o!r comets :i* we nev] see at all4 ,! diagram 7fig4 #edj 9 ! next page7 repres5ts a portion ( ! pa? ( ! comet ( #afhj4 ,?is visitor pursu$ its c\rse = two mon?s at a velocity ( #hjj1jjj miles an h\r4 ,! tail 0 e/imat$ to ext5d #abc1jjj1jjj ( miles1 & a l5g? ( #fj1jjj1jjj ( miles 0 emitt$ 9 two days4 ,:5 ?is great comet 0 approa*+ ! sun1 or its p]ihelion1 z su* approa* is t]m$1 ?ree m9utes m w\ld h se5 x ru% into ! orb _h its enorm\s pace be5 slack5$1 b z x 0 proce$+ s rapidly1 & be+ j !n #add1jjj miles away1 x escap$4 ,we c sc>cely e/imate ! results ( su* a collision4 ,?is comet appe>$ ,b4,c4 #cd1 & aga9 at int]vals ( ab\t #ege ye>s4 ,x may be expect$ 9 #bbee4 ,x is to ,halley t ! discov]y ( ! elliptical orbits ( comets is due4 ,m4 ,biela's comet 0 ! cause ( mu* anxiety 9 #ahcb1 = a collision ) ! e>? 0 appreh5d$4 ,=tunately a mon? int]v5$ betwe5 ! p]iod at :i* ! comet 0 expect$ at a c]ta9 place 9 ! sy/em & ! e>?'s arrival at t spot1 s1 z x happ5$1 ab\t #fj1jjj1jjj ( miles int]v5$4 ,we _c say :at ! exact effect ( su* a collision w\ld be1 b "s wond]ful atmosph]ic ph5om5a & increas$ temp]ature w\ld c]ta9ly result f ! contact4 ,n[ ! comet is suppos$ to h an effect ^u ! v9tage1 z 8comet0 w9es are reg>d$ ) mu* fav\r4 ,if comets1 z is believ$1 d consi/ p>tly ( solid p>ticles1 a collision might be unpleasant2 b ! weight is1 z a rule1 a m]e no?+ comp>$ to _! vap\ry volume1 :i* is enorm\s4 ,t ! tails mu/ be ( a v att5uat$ m$ium is evid5t1 z we c see ! />s ?r\gh !m1 & we "k t a v ?9 cl\d w obscure a />4 ,! 8m5ac+0 comet1 m5tion$ 9 ! ,spectator ,febru>y #ahha1 w n d mu* damage1 s ! sc>e 0 ne$less1 z ,mr4 ,proctor has expla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eci4--,pa? ( ,biela's ,comet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edj4--,pa? ( comet1 #afhj4 ,,a]olites1 or 8,meteorites10 are fall+ bodies 7meteors71 :i* rea* ! e>? 9 solid =m4 ,! great] mass ( fall+ />s are burnt up ere !y rea* u1 or are dissipat$ 9 space4 ,b _m in/ances ( a]olites desc5d+ might be adduc$4 ,!y usually consi/ ( metals1 su* z iron & nickel mix$ ) sulphur1 magnesia1 & silica4 ,! !ory conc]n+ fall+ />s has be5 already m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eda4--,! heav5s z se5 f ,saturn4 ,we h ?us f> tak5 a brief g5]al view ( ! sol> sy/em1 ) a few ( ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s4 ,our next /ep w be to consid] ! sun1 ! planets1 & ! a/]oids1 accord+ to ! ord] ( magnitude4 ,! a/]oids we _c consid] sep>ately1 b ! sun1 moon1 e>?1 & ! pr9cipal planets w yield u mu* int]e/+ in=mation z we exam9e !m m closely4 ,we %all !n1 z f> z possible1 look into ! doma9 ( ! fix$ />s1 con/ellations1 & ! nebul1 comm5t+1 z we proce$1 ^u ! v>i$ cele/ial & t]re/rial ph5om5a connect$ ) ! movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,z is due to ! great c5tre ( our sy/em1 we w comm5ce ) ! ,,sun4 ,b be=e proce$+ to d s1 we mu/ say a few words ab\t ! motion ( ! heav5ly bodies--t is1 ! app>5t motion ( ! ris+ & sett+ ( ! sun & />s4 ,! att5tive obs]vation ( ! />ry heav5s1 ev5 dur+ a s+le night1 w conv9ce u t all ! visible />s describe circles :i* are ! small]1 ! ne>] ! />s are to a c]ta9 po9t ( ! heav5s1 ,p 7fig4 #edb74 ,9 close proximity to ?is po9t !re is a tol]ably bright />1 call$ ! ,pole ,/>1 :i* has sc>cely any motion1 b appe>s to ! eye z always occupy+ ! same position4 ,h5ce a l9e1 ,,pp1 drawn f ?is />1 ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 c1 repres5ts ! axis ar\nd :i* all ! heav5ly bodies p]=m _! app>5t motions4 ,! "p ( ! cele/ial axis1 ,,pp1 pass+ ?r\gh ! e>?1 is ! e>?'s axis2 ! nor? pole1 ( :i* p is on ! same side z ! pole />1 & ! s\? pole1 p1 is on ! opposite side4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edb4--;,cele/ial axis4 ,we h1 !re=e1 by ! aid ( ! />s1 det]m9$ ! position ( ! e>?'s axis1 & by ?is latt] we c assign to ! equator its prop] place4 ,= if pp be ! e>?'s axis1 aq is ! greate/ circle drawn r\nd ! e>?1 equally di/ant f bo? poles1 & ! plane ( :i* cuts ! e>?'s axis at "r angles4 ,fur!rmore1 let u suppose ! plane ( ! equator to be ext5d$ till x rea* ! cele/ial concave2 we ?us f9d ! place ( ! cele/ial equator1 ,a ,q1 or equ9octial1 z x is g5]ally t]m$ 9 opposition to ! equator1 :i* always means ! t]re/rial equator4 ,! equ9octial divides ! heav5s into ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es4 ,we _c actually describe ! equ9octial & make x visible1 b we c imag9e its l9e ( direction by obs]v+ ^? />s ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,we are n[ 9 a condition to assign to an obs]v] diff]5t /ations 9 relation to ! e>?'s axis on ! e>?'s surface1 :i* w ess5tially modify ! aspects "u :i* cele/ial ph5om5a are repres5t$4 ,"o ( ^! /ations may be suppos$ to be at "o ( ! two poles1 = example1 at p1 or at any "o po9t ( ! equator1 z at a1 or1 f9ally1 on any portion ( ! surface ( ! e>? :i* lies betwe5 ! pole & ! equator1 z1 = example1 o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #edc4--;,great ,nebul 9 ,orion4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi ,,! ,,sun4 ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,sun--,,! ,,seasons--,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,sun--,,sunspots--,,zodiacal ,,light4 ,suppose t we rise e>ly 9 ! morn+ we %all1 z ! read] w say see ! sun rise--t is1 he appe>s to u to rise z ! e>? rotates4 ,by ! accompany+ diagram 7fig4 #edd7 we c und]/& h[ ,sol makes 8 appe>ance1 & h[ he comes up aga92 n1 x w be obs]v$1 aft] ! mann] /at$ by ! ,iri%man1 :o decl>$ t ! sun 8w5t d[n1 & ran r\nd dur+ ! night :5 nobody 0 look+40 ,! e>? rotates f we/ to ea/1 & s ! sun appe>s to move f ea/ to we/4 ,if we look at ! diagram we %all see t aft] ris+ at ,o1 ! sun advances t[>ds ! m]idian 9 an oblique arc to ,a1 ! highe/ or culm9at+ po9t--midday4 ,he !n returns1 desc5d+ to ,w2 ?is pa? is ! diurnal arc4 ,at ,q simil>ly1 dur+ 8 passage 9 ! nocturnal arc1 he rea*es ! l[e/ or inf]ior culm9ation4 ,,hh is ! m]idian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edd4--,sun's motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ede4--,! ecliptic4 ,on ! #ba/ ( ,m>*1 ?is pa? br+s ! sun on ! 8 equ9octial0 l9e m5tion$ at ! close ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,day & night are !n ( equal duration z ! arcs are equal4 ,s ?is is ! ,v]nal 7or spr+7 ,equ9ox4 ,"s weeks aft] ! sun is at midday high] up at ,s1 s ! diurnal arc be+ long]1 ! day is long]1 7,z is ! z5i?1 ,z is ! nadir1 ,p ,p is ! cele/ial axis74 ,f t "t he desc5ds aga9 t[>ds ! equ9octial to ! autumnal equ9ox1 & s on1 ! diurnal arc becom+ small] & small] until ! w9t] sol/ice is rea*$ 7,s74 ,f :at has be5 previ\sly said1 x is evid5t t ! sun has a tw(old app>5t motion--viz41 a circul> motion obliquely asc5d+ f ! horizon1 :i* is expla9$ by ! rotation ( ! e>?1 & by our position1 o1 to ! e>?'s axis1 ,p ,p1 & also by a ris+ & sett+ motion betwe5 ! sol/itial po9ts1 ,s & ,s1 :i* causes ! inequality ( ! days & nights4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! daily motion ( ! sun1 we obs]ve t at ! summ] sol/ice1 on ! #ba/ ( ,june1 at midday1 ! sun is at ,s1 & "o half ye> lat]--viz41 on ! #ba/ ( ,decemb]1 at midnight1 ! sun is at s1 f :i* he arrives aga9 9 ! space ( half a ye> at ,s2 s we are able to repres5t ?is annual motion ( ! sun by a circle1 ! diamet] ( :i* is ! l9e1 ,s s4 ,?is circle is call$ ! ,ecliptic4 ,! plane ( ! ecliptic1 ,s s1 cuts ! plane ( ! equ9octial1 ,a ,q1 at an angle ( #bc1 & ! axis ( ! ecliptic1 ,s s1 makes ! same angle ) ! axis ( ! heav5s1 ,p ,p4 ,! two p>allel circles1 ,s s & ,s s1 include a zone ext5d+ to bo? sides ( ! equ9octial1 & beyond :i* ! sun nev] passes4 ,^! circles are call$ ! ,tropics1 f 1 ,i turn1 because ! sun turns back at ^! po9ts1 & aga9 approa*es ! equ9octial4 ,! p>allel circles1 ,s s1 & ,s s1 describ$ by ! poles ( ! ecliptic1 ,s s1 ab\t ! cele/ial poles1 ,p ,p1 are call$ ! arctic & ant>ctic circles4 ,:5ev] ! sun crosses ! equ9octial1 !re is ! equ9ox2 b ! po9ts ( int]section are n inv>iably ! same e ye>4 ,!re is a gradual we/]ly movem5t1 s x is a little beh9d its =m] cross+ place e ye>4 7,see diagram1 fig4 #edg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edf4--,! ,seasons4 ,?is is ! 8,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes10 because ! "t ( ! equ9oxes is ha/5$1 b x is really a retrograde movem5t4 ,hipp>*us discov]$ ?is motion1 :i* am\nts to ab\t fifty seconds 9 a ye>4 ,s ! :ole revolution w be complet$ 9 ab\t #bh1jjj ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edg4--,precession ( ,equ9oxes4 ,x is obvi\s1 !n1 t ! sun is ! mo/ important /> 9 ! univ]se2 & :5 we come to speak ab\t ! e>? we %all consid] ! seasons1 etc41 m fully4 ,n[ we mu/ endeav\r to expla9 :at ! sun is l1 & ?is c only be done ) specially d>k5$ glasses1 = a look at ! sun ?r\gh an ord9>y telescope may result 9 great1 if n p]man5t1 injury to ! eye4 ,! sun is n solid s f> z we c tell4 ,x is a mass ( 8:ite-hot0 vap\r1 & is enabl$ to %9e by reason ( its own light1 :i* ! planets & />s _c d2 !y %9e only by ! sun's reflect$ light4 ,s we may conclude ! sun to be entirely gase\s1 b1 ?anks to ! rec5t rese>*es 9 spectrum analysis 7already expla9$71 by :i* ! light ( ! sun has be5 exam9$ by means ( ! spectroscope1 & split up into its compon5t col\rs1 ,mr4 ,locky] & o!r sci5ti/s h discov]$ t a numb] ( elem5ts 7metals7 exi/ 9 ! sun 9 a fus$1 or r vap\r\s /ate1 9 consequ5ce ( ! int5se heat4 ,hydrog5 exi/s 9 ! sun1 ) o!r gases unkn[n to u "h1 & _m metals1 discov]$ by _! spectra1 :i* are ! same "u simil> circum/ances4 ,! sun is suppos$ to be sph]ical 9 %ape1--n l ! e>?1 flatt5$ at ! poles1--& to be compos$ ( mat]ials simil> to :at ! e>? is compos$ (1 & :at x w\ld be if x 7 z hot z ! sun is4 ,?us we c argue by analogy f ! spectra ( e>?ly elem5ts1 t1 z ! sun & /> light gives u simil> spectra1 ! heav5ly bodies are compos$ ( ! same elem5ts z our globe4 ,we c ?us =m our op9ion ( ! sun's con/itution4 ,mr4 ,neis5 says3-- 8,) ! aid1 !re=e1 ( ! additional in=mation giv5 u by ! spectroscope1 x is n v difficult to =m a true idea ( ! probable condition ( ! surface ( ! sun1 :i* is all t we c see4 ,x is ! upp]-ly+ /rata ( a v d5se atmosph]e ( v high temp]ature--an atmosph]e agitat$ by /orms1 :irlw9ds1 & cyclones ( all k9ds1 trav]s$ by innum]able curr5ts1 & n[ & !n brok5 by viol5t explosions4 ,above ! brilliant surface :i* we see is a less d5se & some:at cool] upp] /ratum1 :i*1 ?\gh hot en\gh to %9e q brightly1 is q invisible 9 ! pres5ce ( ! bright] /rata b5ea? x40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edh4--,sun spots4 ,,sun ,,spots1 z !y are g5]ally call$1 are holl[s 9 ! sun's vap\ry sub/ance1 & are ( enorm\s ext5t2 & !re are brilliant places ne> ^? spots1 :i* are t]m$ facul4 ,^! spots h be5 obs]v$ to be *ang+ cont9u\sly1 & pass+ f ea/ to we/ across ! sun1 & !n to come aga9 at ! ea/ to g ov] ! same space aga94 ,n[ ?is fact has prov$ t ! sun turns r\nd ^u 8 axis1 & al?\gh he does n move z we imag9e1 f ea/ to we/1 r\nd ! e>?1 ! orb does move--9 fact1 ! sun has ?ree motions3 "o on 8 axis2 secondly1 a motion ab\t ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! sol> sy/em1 & a progressive movem5t t[>ds ! planet ,h]cules4 ,if we exam9e ! surface ( ! sun ?r\gh a prop] telescope1 we %all f9d t ! ev5 surface we c pla9ly di/+ui% at sunset is m>k$1 & ! brightness is great] t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! orb4 ,we c p]ceive v>i\s irregul>ities2 we %all f9d spots1 facul 7little tor*es71 etc4 ,^! spots 7 discov]$ by ,galileo & o!r a/ronom]s1 & 71 z we h /at$1 f\nd to be surface m>k+s1 & n a s]ies ( bodies pass+ betwe5 ! e>? & ! sun4 ,! rotation ( ! sun 0 measur$1 & x 0 f\nd t ! orb revolv$ 9 ab\t #be days1 & 9 su* a mann] z to be slightly incl9$ to ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,h]s*el obs]v$ a spot at lea/ #ej1jjj miles 9 diamet]1 :i* is m ?an six times ! diamet] ( ! e>?4 ,! sun spots are obs]v$ to be con/antly *ang+1 & are naturally obs]v$ diff]5tly z ! revolution proce$s4 ,! d>k pole1 or 8nucleus0 7umbra71 z x is call$1 is surr\nd$ by a less d>k surface call$ ! p5umbra1 b ! umbra is n really d>k2 x is extremely bright :5 view$ alone1 z has be5 prov$ by ,pr(essor ,langley1 :ile ! heat is ev5 great] 9 proportion4 ,b ! umbra ( a sun spot mu/ be bel[ ! level ( ! p5umbra1 = ! %ape *ang$ z ! sun revolv$ on its axis4 ,! p5umbra 0 wid] on ! side ne>e/ ! edge ( ! sol> disc1 & ! umbra may be due to ! upru%+ or d[np\r+ ( gas or vap\r l 8:irlpools 9 ! sol> atmosph]e40 ,ne> ! sun spots ! long /reaks1 or facul1 are (t5 obs]v$ by ! bord]s ( ! disc1 & a transition ( ! lum9\s "p ( ! photosph]e#bf into d>kness has be5 obs]v$1 & bright bridges cross+ ! spots1 & !n gradually gett+ d>k1 7 se5 by ,m4 ,*acomac4 ,! sun spots v>y 9 direction1 b ! same g5]al c\rse is cont9u$4 ,sometimes !y describe curves1 sometimes l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #edi4--;,direction ( sun spots4 ,dur+ sol> eclipses ! sun exhibits :at are t]m$ 8r$ prom95ces10 :i* are ! lum9\s vap\rs exi/+ ar\nd ! sun4 ,:5 ! orb is eclips$1 we c see ! bright-col\r$ vap\rs %oot+ out f und]nea? ! d>k %ad[1 & ?is light is t]m$ ! 8coronal atmosph]e02 ! vap\rs are call$ ! sun's *romosph]e4 ,9 ! coronal atmosph]e are c]ta9 curi\s %apes ( vap\r ?r[n up1 & frequ5tly *ang+1--project+1 9 fact1 f ! gase\s envelope4 ,^! r$ prom95ces 7 fir/ obs]v$ 9 #ahdb1 & 9 #ahea x 0 prov$ t !y app]ta9$ to ! sun1 = ! moon hid !m z ! eclipse began4 ,be=e ! prom95ces 7 discov]$1 ! r$ light surr\nd+ ! sol> disc 0 kn[n1 & call$ ! 8si]ra0 7n[ *romosph]e71 or *romatosph]e4 8,! lum9osity ( ^! prom95ces is int5se10 says ,sec*i1 8& !y rise (t5 to a height ( #hj1jjj miles1 & occasionally to m ?an twice t2 !n b5d+ back1 !y fall aga9 ^u ! sun l ! jets ( our f\nta9s4 ,!n !y spread into figures resembl+ gigantic trees1 m or less ri* 9 bran*es40 ,we give "s illu/rations ( ! appe>ances ( ^! prom95ces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eej4--,sol> prom95ces4 ,! zodiacal light is (t5 obs]v$4 ,x is a gl[1 & frequ5tly ( a rosy t9t4 ,x may be se5 9 ,engl& 9 ,m>* or ,april be=e sunset1 or 9 ! autumn be=e sunrise2 & x is d\btful :e!r x be a t]re/rial or an extra-t]re/rial light--a l5s-%ap$ object surr\nd+ ! sun4 ,"s philosoph]s ma9ta9 t ! light is caus$ by multitudes ( m9ute bodies travell+ r\nd ! sun2 b ,h]r ,gronemann has lately fully discuss$ ! obs]vations1 & ! drift ( 8 cont5tion is "u /at$3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eea4--,sol> prom95ces4 ,!re are valid obs]vations aga9/ two items 9 ! support ( ! old !ory--viz41 ! affirm$ connection ( ! ev5+ & morn+ cones se5 on ! same night 7if ! correspond+ sides be prolong$71 & ! p>ticipation ( ! cones 9 ! daily motion ( ! heav5s4 ,! zodiacal light is sometimes se5 :5 daylight has n yet disappe>$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 x sometimes fails to appe>1 ?\gh !re is complete d>kness4 ,!re w\ld seem to be a real l5g!n+ & %ort5+4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ by ,s*iap>elli1 t ! light is mu* m difficult to make out :5 x passes ?r\gh ! m]idian1 ?an :5 x is only #cj above ! horizon1 & is less easily se5 :5 ! air is cle>e/ ?an :5 a sort ( mi/ is pres5t4 ,inde$1 ! bright p>ts ( ! ,milky ,way may be se5 to be weak5$ by mi/1 :ile ! zodiacal light at ! same height is unaffect$4 ,! zodiacal light has tempor>y v>iations ( light int5sity1 & x %[s f "t to "t rem>kable *anges ( =m & position1 s sudd5 & %ort z to be h>d to expla9 on ! planet>y hypo!sis4 ,! elongations ( ! cones %[ a half-ye>ly p]iod1 :i* is indep5d5t ( ! transp>5cy ( ! air4 ,! cone foll[s ! obs]v] nor?w>ds or s\?w>ds1 s t !re is no p>allactic action2 & ?is peculi>ity 7s adv]se to ! extra-t]re/rial hypo!sis7 _c be expla9$ by reflection or absorption ( light4 ,z to spectroscopic obs]vations1 ! au?or f9ds 7#a7 t ! zodiacal light consi/s p>tly ( prop] light2 7#b7 t its connection ) pol> light is b second>y1 tempor>y1 & accid5tal2 7#c7 t ! cause ( ! second ph5om5on is su* t x may /r5g!n ! zodiacal light & modify its spectrum2 & 7#d7 t ! results ( spectrum analysis rank ) o!r argum5ts t5d+ to f9d ! s\rce ( ! zodiacal light 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! e>? 7l ! pol> light74 ,h]r ,gronemann1 !n1 ?9ks ! zodiacal light a t]re/rial ph5om5on1 ?\gh he w n say t x _c be influ5c$ by cosmic action4 ,he ?r[s out ! sugge/ion t ! cone may be a k9d ( optical illusion1 aris+ f "s f9e matt]--gas or du/--be+ m accumulat$ ne> ! obs]v] 9 "o direction ?an ano!r4 ,! app>5t l5g? ( ! cone might be condition$ by ! conical %ad[ ( ! e>?1 & ! *anges ( l5g? be due to cosmic & electric influ5ces4 ,9 any case1 !re is ne$ ( a m sci5tific !ory ?an ! old "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eeb4--,on ! sun's disc4 ,we may conclude our brief notice ( ! great lum9>y to :i* we are indebt$ = ev]y?+1 by a resum ( 8 di/ance f u1 8 diamet]1 & a few o!r pla9 facts & figures4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! actual di/ance ( ! sun f ! e>? has nev] accurately be5 det]m9$1 b p]haps ! next transit ( ,v5us w assi/ ! obs]v]s to a ne>] e/imate4 ,x is q suffici5t = our purpose1 h[ev]1 to /ate t ! sun's di/ance f ! e>? is #ib1jjj1jjj ( miles4 ,! di/ance v>ies 9 w9t] & summ]4 ,9 ! =m] p]iod ! sun is ne>] ?an 9 summ]1 & yet z ! rays /rike ov] u1 & pass u1 z x 71 we feel less heat4 ,:51 z 9 summ]1 we are m 9 ! focus ( ! rays1 we feel ! great] heat4 ,we h already spok5 ( p>allax1 & x is by f9d+ ! sol> p>allax t ! di/ance ( ! sun f u is f\nd4 ,?is p>allax has n be5 exactly asc]ta9$1 or r au?orities diff]1 & z diff]5ce ( #jja 9 ! sol> p>allax means some?+ ov] #ajj1jjj miles ( di/ance1 x is evid5t t exactness is almo/ impossible4 ,if #hhj be settl$ z ! sol> p>allax1 #ib1hhj1jjj miles is ! di/ance ( ! sun f ! e>?4 ,if #hhh be tak5 we h ne>ly #ib1jjj1jjj exactly4 ,! volume ( ! sun is #a1bec1jjj times t ( ! e>?1 & yet ! d5sity ( ! =m] is only ab\t "o-f\r? ( ! latt]1 s ! attraction ( gravitation at ! sun mu/ be m ?an t ( ! e>?'s surface tw5ty-sev5 times4 ,a body dropp$ ne> ! surface ( ! sun w\ld fall #dcf feet 9 ! fir/ second1 & h atta9$ a velocity ( t5 miles a m9ute at ! end ( ! fir/ second4 ,! diamet] ( ! sun dep5ds 9 our calculations ^u its di/ance f ! e>?4 ,if we suppose t to be #ib1hhj1jjj miles1 ! diamet] is #hff1jjj miles4 ,if we take #ia1jjj1jjj ( miles z ! di/ance f ! e>? ! diamet] is #hej1dfg miles4 ,! sun makes 7app>5tly7 ! circuit ( ! heav5s 9 #cfe days1 #f h\rs1 #i m9utes1 & #if seconds2 ! transit f "o v]nal equ9ox to ! next be+ only #cfe days1 #e h\rs1 #dh m9utes1 #dhf seconds1 ow+ to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes already m5tion$4 ,:5 we consid] ! p[] & gr&eur ( ! sun we may well feel lo/ 9 ! contemplation4 ,! sun balances ! planets & keeps !m 9 _! orbits4 ,he gives u ! light & heat we enjoy1 & coal-gas is m]ely 8bottl$-up sunlight40 ,9 d>kness no?+ w come to maturity4 ,we obta9 ra9 & dew ow+ to ! sun's evaporative p[]2 & no action c\ld g on ^u e>? )\t ! sun2 & yet we receive only ab\t #a_/bjgjfejjjj "p ( its heat & light4 ,z to ! col\r ( ! sun1 ,pr(essor ,langley /ates t x is really blue1 & n ! :ite disc we see4 ,! :it5ess is due to ! effect ( absorption ex]t$ by ! vap\r\s metallic atmosph]e surr\nd+ our lum9>y2 & if t atmosph]e 7 remov$1 8 col\r w\ld *ange4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,! bright "p ( ! sun4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,=m ,,( ,,! ,,e>?--,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,globe--,,rate ,,& ,,mann] ,,( ,,progression--,,latitude ,,& ,,longitude--,,! ,,seasons4 ,we h le>nt f our books on ,geography t ! e>? is %ap$ l an orange1--t is1 our globe is r\nd & flatt5$ slightly at ! 8poles10 & we c easily see t ! e>? curves away1 if we only try ! exp]im5t m5tion$ 9 a =ego+ *apt]--viz41 h[ f> a p]son /&+ 7or ly+7 on ! gr\nd c see on a level4 ,our p[] ( eyesight is n limit$ to ?ree or f\r miles1 b a man ( ord9>y height /&+ on ! pla9 _c see m ?an ?ree miles1 because ! e>? is curv+ away f him4 ,we "k t at ! seaside we c see %ips gradually appe> & disappe>4 ,:5 approa*+ u ! ma/s & top-sails appe> fir/1 !n ! ma9-sails1 & !n ! %ip itself4 ,a sailor climb+ up ! ma/ c see f>!r ?an ! capta9 on deck1 because he c see ov] ! curve1 z x 74 ,:5 ! vessel is at a consid]able di/ance we see h] 8hull d[n0 z x is t]m$1--t is1 only h] sails are visible to u1 & at la/ !y disappe> also4 ,if we want any o!r pro( t ! e>? is r\nd we c see :5 an eclipse takes place t ! %ad[ on ! moon is circul>4 ,s we may be c]ta9 ( "o fact2 ! e>? is r\nd1 x is a globe4 ,s mu* = ! rotundity ( ! e>?4 ,b ! e>? appe>s to u1 except 9 v m\nta9\s di/ricts1 z be+ almo/ a plane4 ,?is is because ( its ext5t2 & ev5 f v high m\nta9s we c only see a v small portion ( ! e>?1 & s1 on a globe sixte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 ! highe/ hills w\ld be only ab\t #a_/ajj ( an in*1 l a gra9 ( s&4 ,! motion ( ! e>? is kn[n to mo/ p1 ?\gh z ev]y?+ ^u ! globe passes ) x1 & a relative fixity is app>5t1 ?is is1 ( c\rse1 n real re/4 ,! e>? is mov+ f we/ to ea/ at a trem5d\s rate1--viz41 ne>ly n9ete5 miles a second6 ,we ?9k a tra9 at sixty miles an h\r a fa/ tra92 b :at %\ld we ?9k ( an express go+ m ?an #fh1jjj miles an h\r6 ,yet ?is is ab\t ! rate at :i* our globe :irls ar\nd ! sun4 ,h] fa/e/ pace is really #ahe miles a second2 ! lea/ ab\t "o mile p] second less4 ,t is "o motion ( ! e>?2 ! o!r is its motion on its axis4 ,if we s5d a skittle ball roll+ we p]ceive x turns r\nd z x proce$s4 ,s ! e>? rotates on its axis1 ,n ,s1 9 ! accompany+ diagram2 ! extremities ( ! axis are call$ ! poles4 ,! l9e 9 ! middle is ! equator1 :i* is divid$ into #cfj equal p>ts1 ea* be+ #fi-a_/aj miles 9 l5g?2 s !re are #ahj l9es1 or r+s1 drawn ^u ! globe f ,n to ,s1 & ^! are m]idians4 ,9 ,engl& ! degrees are calculat$ f ! ,gre5wi* m]idian4 ,we c ?us obta9 ! di/ance ( localities ea/ or we/1 z we may briefly %[ 7fig4 #eed74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eec4--;,evid5ce ( ! sph]ical =m ( ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eed4--,latitude & ,longitude4 ,! di/ance ( any m]idian f ! fir/ m]idian is t]m$ ! longitude1 & x is employ$ 9 describ+ ! situation ( a place on ! e>?'s surface4 ,suppose ,l 7fig4 #eed7 a city1 its longitude w be #cj1 s9ce x lies on a m]idian :i* is #cj f ! fir/4 ,s1 = example1 ! longitude ( ,oporto is #h #cg we/1 ,p>is #b #bb ea/1 ,vi5na #af #af ea/1 ,bagdad #dd #de ea/1 reckon$ f ! m]idian ( ,gre5wi*1 & s on4 ,at ! #ahj? degree we h proce$$ half r\nd ! globe1 & rea*$ ! f>!/ di/ance f ! fir/ m]idian1 & are n[ on ! opposite side ( ! e>?1 & proce$+ 9 a simil> mann] 9 ! opposite direction we get we/ longitude4 ,x w readily be p]ceiv$ t a k ( ! longitude alone is n suffici5t to det]m9e ! situation ( a place on ! e>?'s surface4 ,:5 we say1 = example1 t ! longitude ( a place is #cj1 x may lie on any po9t :atev] ( ! l9e1 ,n ,l ,s1 on ! :ole hemisph]e 7fig4 #eed74 ,?is po9t mu/ !re=e be det]m9$ m accurately1 & h5ce ! fir/ m]idian is divid$ into #ij equal p>ts nor? & s\? ( ! equator t[>ds ! poles4 ,^! are call$ degrees ( latitude1 & ! l9es drawn ?r\gh ^! r\nd ! globe1 p>allel to ! equator1 are call$ circles or p>allels ( latitude1 & dim9i% z !y approa* ! poles4 ,h5ce1 by ! latitude ( a place we mean its di/ance f ! equator t[>ds ! poles1 & we speak ( nor? & s\? latitude accord+ z ! place is situat$ 9 ! nor!rn or s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,s1 = example1 ! po9t ,l 7fig4 #eed71 :i* has #cj longitude & #fj ,n4 latitude is 9 ,sw$54 ,! latitude is also obs]vable by asc]ta9+ ! altitude ( ! pol> /> above ! horizon :5 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! longitude is f\nd by ! *ronomet]2 = if we "k ! "t at ,gre5wi* we c calculate h[ f> we are ea/ or we/ ( x by see+ :e!r ! local "t be an h\r 7say7 e>li] or lat]1 & t diff]5ce %[s we are #ae to ! ea/ or ! we/ z ! case may be4 ,! e>?'s rotation1 accord+ to sid]eal "t1 is less ?an sol> "t1 z we h se51 s we h #cfe sol> days & #cff sid]eal days2 s a p]son go+ r\nd ! _w ga9s or loses a day z he travels ea/ or we/ accord+ to 8 reckon+1 z comp>$ ) ! reckon+ ( 8 fri5ds at home4 ,we c easily asc]ta9 ! e>?'s motion by wat*+ ! />s rise & set4 ,n[ ! pa? 9 :i* ! e>? moves is call$ an ellipse1--v ne>ly a circle1--b x does n always move at ! same rate exactly4 ,we w n[ look at ! relations ( ! sun & ! e>?4 ,let u take an example4 ,suppose we h a rod1 at ea* end ( :i* we fix a ball 7see diagram71 & let "o ball be ?ree times z l>ge z ! o!r1 ! common c5tre ( gravity w be at c1 at "o qu>t] ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres1 & !re ! bodies w be 9 equilibrium4 ,if ^! masses be set sp9n+ into space !y w revolve at t di/ance f ea* o!r1 ! attraction ( gravitation & ! =ce 9 opposition to x equaliz+ ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eee4--;,e>? & ,sun4 ,! e>?1 z we "k1 proce$s ) a trem5d\s =ce ar\nd ! sun1 n 9 a circle1 rememb]1 b 9 an ellipse or oval track1 f :i* x nev] moves ye> by ye> 9 any appreciable degree4 ,n[ :at prev5ts ?is e>? ( ours f ru%+ (f by itself into space8 ,:y %\ld n ! e>? fly away 9 a direct l9e8 ,! reason is because ! sun holds x back4 ,! =ce ( ! sun's gravitation is j suffici5t1 or we may say s enorm\sly great1 t x suffices to reta9 our globe & all ! o!r planets 9 _! v>i\s orbits at ! v same di/ance1 & to c\nt]act ! =ce :i* laun*es !m ?r\gh space4 ,!re=e1 z we h already notic$ :5 consid]+ ! sun1 x is to t rul] ( ! day t we are indebt$ = ev]y?+4 ,:at w\ld happ51 !n1 if ! e>? 7 sudd5ly to increase h] velocity1 or ! sun to contract 8 mass8--,we %\ld be flung into inf9ite space1 & 9 a %ort "t w\ld be froz5 up completely4 ,our pres5t diurnal c\rse w\ld probably proce$1 b all life & exi/5ce w\ld cease z we :irl$ ) di/ant planets ?r\gh inf9ity4 ,suppose1 on ! contr>y1 we 7 to /op sudd5ly4 ,we h "s ( u read 9 a =ego+ "p ( ?is volume t heat is ! motion ( molecules 9 e!r1 & t :5 a body /rikes ano!r heat is develop$ by contact & friction4 ,if ! e>? 7 to be /opp$ sudd5ly1 8an am\nt ( heat w\ld be develop$ suffici5t to raise ! temp]ature ( a globe ( lead ( ! same size z ! e>? #chd1jjj ( ! ,c5tigrade !rmomet]4 ,! great] "p1 if n ! :ole ( our planet1 w\ld be r$uc$ to vap\r01 z ,pr(essor ,tyndall says4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eef4--,transit ( e>? across ,sun1 se5 f ,m>s4 ,9 ! diagram 7fig4 #edf1 on page #dig7 we %all at once f9d ! explanation ( ! con/antly-recurr+ seasons1 & ! am\nt ( our globe :i* is illum9at$ by ! sun at v>i\s times4 ,x w be easily und]/ood t ! poles h six mon?s day & six mon?s night4 ,:5 ! e>? is at an equ9ox1 "o half ( ! surface is illum9at$ & ! o!r half 9 %ade1 !re=e ! days & nights are equal4 ,b :5 ! nor? pole turns m & m t[>ds ! sun1 ! s\? pole is turn+ away f x 9 ! same ratio1--! days & nights respectively are gett+ long] & long]1 & at ! nor? & s\? poles day & night are cont9u\s1 = ! small spaces r\nd ! poles are1 dur+ a c]ta9 p]iod1 :olly 9 sun%9e & %ade respectively4 ,9 ,m>* 79 ! diagram1 fig4 #edf7 we see t exactly "o half ( ! e>? is illum9at$1 & ! o!r is d>k5$4 ,s 9 ,septemb]1 :5 we h ! opposite view4 ,9 ,june ! e>? is m incl9$ app>5tly to ! sun1 & m ( ! surface is expos$ to x1 s ! days are long] 9 "s p>ts4 ,! opposite effect is visible 9 ,decemb]4 ,! summ] heat & w9t] cold are acc\nt$ = by ! m or less direct =ce ( ! sun's rays1 = ! m ! angle ( incid5ce is incl9$ ! few] rays rea* ! object2 & if ! rays fall at an angle ( #fj1 ! heat is only half :at x w\ld be if !y came v]tically4 ,:5 ! days are %orte/ ! sun is l[e/1 & !re=e gives less heat to ! e>? at c]ta9 p]iods4 ,! wond]ful precision :i* has adapt$ ! position ( ! e>? on its axis1 w be app>5t f ! illu/ration 7fig4 #eeg74 ,"h we h a table & "s bottles1 a c&le to repres5t ! sun1 & a ball ( wor/$ & a knitt+-ne$le to repres5t ! e>? & its axis4 ,suppose we place ! ball 9 ! position at a1 ) its axis p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( ! orbit4 ,z ! e>? w\ld turn & g r\nd ! sun 9 ?is suppos$ case1 we %\ld f9d ! days & nights equal1 & ! sun w\ld quickly scor* up ! tropics1 & ! o!r portions w\ld h a nev]-*ang+ spr+ or w9t] all ! ye> = ev]4 ,?is w\ld n be s pleasant1 = v>iety is ! *>m ( nature1 & ! salt ( life4 ,s we may put a aside1 z ! e>? w\ld be sc>cely habitable "u ! suppos$ conditions1 & try b4 ,"h we f9d ! poles direct$ to ! sun4 ,! :ole nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld ?us be illum9at$ "o half ye>1 & ! s\!rn simil>ly2 su* rapid *anges f heat to cold & back aga9 w\ld n suit u4 ,s we fall back ^u c1 ! actual appe>ance ( ! position ( ! e>?1 & "h we f9d all ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances exi/+ = u4 ,?is incl9ation gives rise to all ! v>i$ ph5om5a ( ! pleasant gradations ( heat & cold1 summ] & w9t]1 ! *>m+ *anges ( season1 & ! wond]ful results ( ! ev]-recurr+ days & nights1 mon?s & ye>s1 z ! e>? sp9s r\nd4 ,s we see t ! sun does n really rise & set ^u ! e>?2 ! globe rotates1 & br+s u into view ( ! sun1 & z we turn we lose 8 light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eeg4--;,incl9ation ( ,axis4 ,9 ! =ego+ brief description we h le>nt "s few facts conc]n+ our e>?4 ,we h asc]ta9$ t ! planet we inhabit is r\nd2 we h also se5 t ! e>? moves ar\nd ! sun & ar\nd its own axis1 & also t x moves at a trem5d\s rate2 we "k t t rate is j c\nt]balanc$ by ! attraction ( gravitation1 & ! c\rse r\nd ! sun gives u v>y+ seasons1 day & night4 ,!re are _m subjects relat+ to ! e>? :i* w be m prop]ly includ$ "u ,physical ,geography4 ,we may "h j add ! diamet] ( ! e>?1 & proce$ to inquire conc]n+ ! moon4 ,! pol> diamet] ( our globe is #g1hii miles2 ! equatorial diamet] #g1ibe miles4 ,x is di/ant f ! moon #bch1ejj miles4 ,we w close ?is *apt] ) ! lett]s & *>act]s ( ! ,greek alphabet us$ 9 a/ronomical works to designate ! />s4 ,alpha ,beta ,gamma ,delta ,epsilon ,zeta ,eta ,!ta ,iota ,kappa ,lambda ,mu ,nu ,xi ,omicron ,pi ,rho ,sigma ,tau ,upsilon ,phi ,*i ,psi ,omega ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eeh4--;,a %ip disappe>+ bel[ ! horizon4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,! ,,moon4 ,,:at ,,is ,,x ,,l8--,,moon ,,sup]/itions--,,description ,,( ,,! ,,moon--,,phases--,,tides--,,eclipses4 ,f ! e>ly days ( *ildhood e man & woman has be5 famili> ) ! moon4 ,?is satellite ( e>? has be5 dome/icat$1 s to speak1 among/ u2 & :ile ! sun & o!r />s h be5 glorifi$ 9 poetic & prose effusions1 ! moon has be5 always m t5d]ly address$4 ,! s(t 7reflect$7 light ( our att5dant moon is mu* m attractive ?an ! brilliancy ( ! great] light 8t rules ! day40 ,! moon is reg>d$ z our p>ticul> prop]ty1 & has awak5$ an int]e/ 9 our m9ds s9ce ! "t t we c\ld1 z we fanci$1 see ! 8,man 9 ! ,moon40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eei4--,! e>? z se5 f ! moon4 ,9 anci5t times ! moon 0 suppos$ to possess "s light ( h] own1 & to be inhabit$ by imm5se creatures2 & v>i\s !ories cont9u$ to be promulgat$ respect+ h]1 until ! telescope came into use1 & !n a/ronom]s began to f9d out _m new ?+s conc]n+ ,luna4 ,n[1 :at has ! telescope told u reg>d+ our moon8--,x %[s u t !re are m\nta9s & crat]s1 & num]\s traces ( volcanic action4 ,at "o "t x 0 suppos$ t ! d>k masses app>5t 9 ! surface ( ! moon1 & :i* c easily be di/+ui%$ by ! nak$ eye1 7 seas1 & maps ( ! moon 7 made1 m>k+ cont95ts & crat]s4 ,if x 7 possible to rea* ! moon1 z ,m4 ,jules ,v]ne's travell]s did1 we %\ld f9d a v irregul> & corrugat$ surface--pla9s & m\nta9s )\t wat]4 ,we %\ld be able to see ! />s 9 ! daytime1 because !re is no atmosph]e ar\nd ! moon1 & !re is a sil5ce t 8might be felt40 ,! appe>ance ( our e>? f ! moon1 & ! beauty ( ! />s 9 ! uncl\d$ & wat]less space ar\nd ! satellite1 mu/ be v gr&1 & has be51 9 a measure1 depict$ 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #eei7 on ! opposite page4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efj4--,! ,moon3 ! r+ pla9 ,cop]nicus4 ,9 ?is illu/ration 7fig4 #efj7 we h "s idea :at ! moon is l4 ,we see ! rugg$ & crat]$ appe>ance ( ! disc2 x is a des]t wa/e1 s f> z we c asc]ta91 )\t inhabitants1 &1 9 all probability1 )\t vegetation4 ,= !re be+ no moi/ure among/ ! pla9s & crat]s & m\nta9s ( our satellite1 we mu/ conclude t ! moon is dead4 ,x is a v int]e/+1--nay1 a fasc9at+ /udy4 ,:5 we take up our telescope & look f ! w9d[ at ! heav5s ! mo/ beautiful object )9 our small telescopic vision is ! moon %9+ l a silv] plate1 & we wond] :at is up !re4 ,) a small telescope ev5 we c disc]n _m int]e/+ features 9 ! moon at ! full1 :i* w assi/ u 9 v]ify+ ! diagrams 9 books & _! explanations4 ,z ! moon is only a few miles away1 comp>atively speak+1 & z ! l>ge telescopes n[ 9 use br+ u )9 a measurable di/ance ( ! surface1 we are enabl$ to speak m positively ab\t our *angeable satellite ?an ( any ( ! planets4 ,:5 we look /eadily at ! full moon we p]ceive ^u its surface d>k & light tracts call$ 8seas10 ?\gh !y are dri$ up n[4 ,?us we he> ( ! 8,sea ( ,s]5ity10 ! 8,sea ( ,/orms10 & ! 8,sea ( ,tranquillity02 & 9 ! map ^u a subsequ5t page y may see ! names ( ! seas1 m\nta9s1 & ! g5]al =mations ( ! surface ( ! moon4 ,maps ( ! moon are n[ to be procur$1 ?\gh no p]sonal visits c be made to ! satellite4 ,x is v int]e/+ to obs]ve or to read ab\t ! /ructure ( ! moon1 = we may ?us le>n h[ simil> ! e>? & h] att5dant are 9 =mation2 b "o important ag5cy--t ( wat]--has made a consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance ( ! =mations4 ,9 ! moon we h m\nta9s1 pla9s1 & rugg$ crat]s2 ! surface is n level1 because ! sunlight is visible soon] at "s po9ts ?an o!rs4 ,! *ief m\nta9 *a9 is ! ,ap5n9es1 & has a great elevation2 _m traces ( volcanic ag5cy are discov]able amid ! great desolation1 & awful sil5ce reigns ?r\gh\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efa4--,telescopic appe>ance ( ! ,moon4 ,z is well kn[n1 wat] has a great erosive p[]1 & its action dis9tegrates ! surface ( ! e>? ) rapid p]si/5cy4 ,s ! physical appe>ance ( ! globe has become mu* *ang$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages3 rav9es exi/ :]e pla9s us$ to ext5d1 & riv]s cut _! way ?r\gh deep gorges to ! sea4 ,! s&s & o!r deposits are ov]laid1 & ?us ! :ole outw>d appe>ance has be5 alt]$4 ,n s ! moon4 ,) a v att5uat$ atmosph]e )\t cl\ds or ra91 !re is no moi/ure1 no lake1 no wat] 9 ! moon n[4 ,:at may h be5 we c only conjecture4 ,if !re ev] h be5 lakes or seas !y h all be5 absorb$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efb4--;,=mations ne> ,mo/ig4 ,l[ p[]4 ,! heat ^u "o side ( ! moon mu/ be v great at "o p]iod1 & ! cold on ! opposite side int5se1 z "o w\ld ?9k--yet ^u ?is fact au?orities diff] some:at4 ,if ! moon possess no atmosph]e ( any k9d x w\ld be fe>fully cold & extremely hot at int]vals1 b a surr\nd+ m$ium1 ev5 ( v little d5sity1 w\ld modify ! extremes2 & :ile we mu/ accept ! fact t ! temp]ature v>ies v mu* we ne$ n place x above #ajj ( heat1 nor bel[ #bj ( cold4 ,s f close obs]vation & comp>ison we are enabl$ to =m a v fair op9ion ( ! 8pa/0 ( ! moon1 & to asc]ta9 t ! same =ces ( nature :i* h m\ld$ ! planet we inhabit1 h be5 at "w 9 ! moon also4 ,:5 we /udy 8,sel5ography10 !re=e1 we %all f9d a record ( a hi/ory :i* may "s day be> a p>allel to ! hi/ory ( our physical _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efc4--,! r+-pla9 ,cop]nicus1 z se5 ) small magnify+ p[]4 ,! moon1 z all are aw>e1 moves r\nd ! e>? att5dant ^u u1 b entirely "u ! control ( ! sun2 our satellite1 moreov]1 has be5 ! subject ( _m sup]/itions4 ,a great _m rites & ev5 dome/ic actions--su* z ! kill+ ( f[ls--7 regulat$ by ! moon2 & 9 ,scotl&1 ,sc&9avia1 & o!r portions ( ,europe1 %e has always be5 reg>d$ z effect+ de/9y4 ,!re are _m int]e/+ my?s connect$ ) ! moon1 & inde$ ) a/ronomy g5]ally1 & f a volume entitl$ 8,notes on ,unnatural ,hi/ory10 "s v amus+ extracts might be made4 ,x w n be out ( place to m5tion a few ( ^! my?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efd4--,! wall$-pla9 ,plato4 ,! ,*9ese h an idea t a rabbit exi/s 9 ! moon1 & is ! cause ( ! %ad[s we see4 ,! ,buddhi/s ?9k a holy h>e is up !re4 ,9 ! ,pacific ,isl&s !re is a belief ( a woman 9 ! moon2 %e 0 s5t !re because %e wi%$ h] *ild to h a bit ( x to eat2 & ,mr4 ,bu*anan has v]sifi$ ! old ,sc&9avian my? ab\t ! two *ildr5 kidnapp$ by ! moon z !y return$ f a well ) a bucket ( wat] slung ^u a pole4 ,! ,jews plac$ ,jacob 9 ! moon1 & ! ,italians say t ,ca9 inhabits ! lum9>y ) a dog & a ?orn bu%4 ,9 ! ,inf]no ( ,dante ?is is ref]r$ to1 & we "k t 9 ,a ,midsumm] ,night's ,dream we h ! moon com+ out to %9e ^u ! loves ( ,pyramus & ,?isbe ) ! dog & ! ?orn-bu%2 & 9 ! ,tempe/ ! same idea is m5tion$ by ,caliban4 ,read]s ( ,longfell[ w recall ! l9es h[ 8! good ,nokomis answ]$0 ,hiawa?a1 :o ask$ ab\t ! moon-- 8,once a w>rior1 v angry1 ,seiz$ 8 gr&mo!r1 & ?rew h] ,up into ! sky at midnight4 ,"r aga9/ ! moon he ?rew h]1 #8,tis h] body t y see !re40 ,b mod]n sci5tific rese>* has explod$ all ^! *>m+ old my?s1 & laid b>e ! facts = u4 ,we mu/ n[ resume4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efe4--,map ( ,moon %[+ pr9cipal =mations4 ,a ,m>e ,crisium4 ,b ,palus ,somnii4 ,c ,m>e ,s]5itatis4 ,d ,m>e ,tranquillitatis4 ,e ,m>e ,fcunditatis4 ,f ,m>e ,nect>is4 ,g ,s9us ,m$ii4 ,h ,m>e ,vaporum4 ,i ,lacus ,mortis4 ,j ,m>e ,frigoris4 ,k ,m>e ,imbrium4 ,l ,oceanus ,procell>um4 ,m ,m>e ,humorum4 ,n ,m>e ,nubium4 ,o ,s9us ,iridium4 a ,ap5n9e ,mts4 b ,caucasus4 c ,c>pa?ians4 d ,pyr5ees4 e ,altai ,mts4 f ,ripha5 ,mts4 g ,do]fel ,mts4 h ,leibnitz ,mts4 i ,cord]illas4 j ,d',alemb]t ,mts4 k ,taurus ,mts4 l ,hmus ,mts4 m ,alps4 #a ,clavius4 #b ,mag9us4 #c ,maurolycus4 #d ,/fl]4 #e ,ty*o4 #f ,longomontanus4 #g ,wilhelm ,i4 #h ,s*ill]4 #i ,s*ickh>dt4 #aj ,ha9zel4 #aa ,furn]ius4 #ab ,metius4 #ac ,fabricius4 #ad ,riccius4 #ae ,piccolom9i4 #af ,zagut4 #ag ,apianus4 #ah ,walt]4 #ai ,hell4 #bj ,pitatus4 #ba ,hesiodus4 #bb ,capuanus4 #bc ,ramsd54 #bd ,vieta4 #be ,petavius4 #be ,v5del9us4 #bg ,langr5us4 #bh ,fraca/orius4 #bi ,!ophilus4 #cj ,cyrillus4 #ca ,ca?>9a4 #cb ,sacrobosco4 #cc ,almanon4 #cd ,albuf$a4 #ce ,albategnius4 #cf ,hipp>*us4 #cg ,ptolemy4 #ch ,alphonsus4 #ci ,purba*4 #dj ,regiomontanus4 #da ,!bit4 #db ,arza*el4 #dc ,bullialdus4 #dd ,lal&e4 #de ,m/+4 #df ,h]s*el4 #dg ,gass5di4 #dh ,m]s5ius4 #di ,sirsalis4 #ej ,grimaldi4 #ea ,riccioli4 #eb ,hevelius4 #ec ,condorcet4 #ed ,t>untius4 #ee ,proclus4 #ef ,cleom$es4 #eg ,rom]4 #eh ,posidonius4 #ei ,pl9ius4 #fj ,julius ,cs>4 #fa ,manilius4 #fb ,god94 #fc ,agrippa4 #fd ,triesneck]4 #fe ,bode4 #ff ,gamb>t4 #fg ,erato/h5es4 #fh ,cop]nicus4 #fi ,re9hold4 #gj ,l&sb]g4 #ga ,encke4 #gb ,kepl]4 #gc ,m>ius4 #gd ,ar*im$es4 #ge ,timo*>is4 #gf ,eul]4 #gg ,ari/>*us4 #gh ,h]odotus4 #gi ,/ruve4 #hj ,messala4 #ha ,m>e ,humboldtanius4 #hb ,atlas4 #hc ,h]cules4 #hd ,endymion4 #he ,eudoxus4 #hf ,ari/oteles4 #hg ,l9ne4 #hh ,autolycus4 #hi ,ari/illus4 #ij ,cass9i4 #ia ,plato4 #ib ,helicon4 #ic ,py?agoras4 ,! moon moves ar\nd u 9 #bg;d #g;h #dcm #aadfas4 ,its diamet] is ab\t #b1afj miles1 & x is mu* less d5se ?an our e>?1 & s ! =ce ( gravity is less !re ?an "h4 ,its mean di/ance f u is #bch1hcc miles4 ,! moon goes ?r\gh c]ta9 *anges or phases e tw5ty-n9e days or s2 & :ile rotat+ on its own axis our satellite goes r\nd ! e>?1 s t we only see "o side ( ! moon1 inasmu* z ! two motions occupy almo/ exactly ! same space ( "t4 ,s we g5]ally see ! same space ( ! moon1 ?\gh !re is a slight v>iation at times4 ,?is movem5t or sway+ ( ! c5tral po9t is call$ ! moon's 8libration10 & is an optical effect1 due to ! inequalities 9 ! motion ( ! moon 9 its orbit1 & to ! incl9ation ( its equator & orbit to ! ecliptic4 ,we app5d a map ( ! moon1 on :i* ! m\nta9s1 seas1 & crat]s c be p]ceiv$1 accord+ to ! li/4 ,! hill ranges ext5d = hundr$s ( miles1 & ! elevation rea*es #cj1jjj feet1 & ev5 m 9 places4 ,! s-call$ crat]s d n resemble volcanoes :5 view$ closely1 b take ! =m ( bas9s or valleys surr\nd$ by l(ty hills4 ,"o great pla9 call$ ,cop]nicus is m ?an fifty miles across4 ,respect+ ! appe>ance ( ! moon let u quote ,mr4 ,locky]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eff4--,! ,ap5n9es & wall$ pla9 ,ar*im$es4 8,fancy a _w )\t wat]1 & !re=e )\t ice1 cl\d1 ra91 sn[2 )\t riv]s or /reams1 & !re=e )\t vegetation to support animal life2--a _w )\t twilight or any gradations betwe5 ! fi]ce/ sun%9e & ! blacke/ night2 a _w also )\t s\nd1 = z s\nd is c>ri$ by ! air1 ! highe/ m\nta9 on ! airless moon might be riv5 by an e>?quake inaudibly40 ,,phases ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,we h said t ! moon revolves ar\nd ! e>? 9 ! same "t z %e turns ^u h] own axis1 & always pres5ts "o side to u :5 %e appe>s4 ,any "o c asc]ta9 ?is by putt+ a c&le ^u a r\nd table1 & walk r\nd x fac+ ! c&le4 ,! exp]im5tali/ w f9d t he w turn ^u 8 own axis z well z turn ar\nd ! table4 ,?us we %all see h[ ! moon *anges1 = to be z *angeable z ! moon is prov]bial4 ,^! diff]5t aspects or phases we %all n[ proce$ to expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efg4--,phases ( ! ,moon4 ,! "t int]v5+ betwe5 "o 8new0 moon & ano!r is #bi;d1 #ab;h1 #ddm1 #bs1 & is t]m$ a synodic revolution4 ,?is is long] ?an ! sid]eal revolution1 because ! e>? is also mov+ 9 ! same direction & ! moon has to make up ! "t ! e>? has got on 9 front1 z x 74 ,s ! moon travels ne>ly ?irte5 times r\nd ! e>? :ile ! latt] is go+ r\nd ! sun4 ,! revolutions ( ! moon h be5 a measurem5t ( "t = ages1 & h] v>y+ appe>ances dur+ lunation are always obs]v$ ) int]e/4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #efg7 w assi/ u mat]ially4 ,! sun's rays fall 9 a p>allel direction ^u ! e>? & moon1 & let u suppose t ,s is ! sun 9 ! diagram & ,t ! e>?2 ,c at ! v>i\s po9ts is ! moon1 ! capital lett]s1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 indicat+ ! planet z %e appe>s f ! sun1 & ! small lett]s %[ h[ %e appe>s to u f ! e>?4 ,let u suppose t ! sun1 e>?1 & moon are 9 conjunction--or 9 a direct l9e4 ,! phases1 ,c & ,g1 are ! moon's 8quadratures40 ,at ,a we see ! sun %9+ on ! moon1 b we only h ! d>k side4 ,x is !n 8new0 moon2 b by degrees1 z %e goes r\nd 9 h] orbit1 we p]ceive a small cresc5t-%ap$ portion1 light$ up by ! sun at ,b & b4 ,at c we h ! fir/ qu>t] or half-moon4 ,:5 %e is 9 opposition %e is at full moon1 & s on to ! la/ qu>t] & conjunction aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efh4--;,cresc5t ,moon4 ,! moon's phases may be easily %[n by means ( a m$ium-siz$ lamp to repres5t ! e>?1 a small] "o to s]ve z moon1 & a light to act z sun all at ! same height4 ,col\r ! 8lun>0 globe :ite1 & if we move x ab\t ! 8e>?0 globe1 we %all see ! v>i\s phases ( ! moon 9 ! %>p %ad[s4 ,,! ,,tides4 ,! ebb & fl[ ( our tidal wat]s dep5d ^u ! moon to a great ext5t4 ,! ph5om5on is s common1 t we ne$ only ref] to x1 b ! cause ( ! tides may be /at$4 ,twice e day we h ! tides twelve h\rs ap>t1 & ! fl[ & ebb are m]ely examples ( ! attraction ( gravitation1 :i* is ex]cis$ ^u all bodies1 ei!r liquid or solid4 ,! tides are highe/ at ! equator & l[e/ at ! poles1 because ! tropics are m expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ! lun> attraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #efi4--,moon's attraction4 ,by ! small diagram 7fig4 #efi7 we %all be able to see 9 a mom5t h[ ! moon acts4 ,! moon be+ ne>] to ! e>? at b1 ! wat] w be naturally attract$ to ! ball1 m1 & cause high wat] 7a72 & a simil> effect w be produc$ opposite1 because ! e>? is attract$1 s ! waves are high] ?an ! gr\nd :i* has be5 attract$ away f ! wat]1 & ! wat]s w fl[ 9 & cause a high tide at d1 b n s high a tide z at ! opposite po9t1 a4 ,x c !n be und]/ood t !re w be l[ wat] at ! o!r two sides1 e & f1 because ! wat] has be5 tak5 away1 s to speak1 = ! high tides at a & d4 ,we %all le>n m ( ?is "u ,physical ,geography4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egj4--,new ,moon4 ,! moon revolves r\nd ! e>? 9 a *angeable elliptical orbit1 int]sect+ ! ecliptic at c]ta9 po9ts call$ ,nodes4 ,:5 ! moon is ne>e/ to ! ,e>? %e is said to be 9 p]igee :5 f>!/ f u %e is 9 apogee 7! l9e unit+ ^! po9ts is ! l9e ( apsides71 ! diff]5ce 9 di/ance be+ ab\t #d1jjj miles4 ,%e passes ! sun p]iodically1 & s if ! moon mov$ 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic !re w\ld be eclipses ( ! sun & moon twice a mon?2 b z ! orbit is incl9$ a little1 %e escapes by mov+ nor? or s\?4 ,we w n[ endeav\r to expla9 ?is !ory4 ,,eclipses4 ,we h briefly consid]$ ! ,,sun & ,,e>? & ! ,,moon sep>ately4 ,we are n[ ab\t to reg>d ! effects produc$ by !m :5 !y come 9 ea* o!r's way & cause ,,eclipses1 :i* are obs]v$ ) s mu* int]e/4 ,!re are eclipses ( ! sun & ( ! moon4 ,! =m] occur at ! "t ( new moon1 & ! latt] at full moon2 & ?is w be at once und]/ood :5 we rememb] t ! sun is eclips$ by ! moon pass+ betwe5 u & ! sun2 & ! moon is eclips$ because ! %ad[ ( ! e>? falls ^u h] :5 %e is opposite ! sun1 & !re=e 8full40 ,read]s ( ! voyages ( ,columbus w rememb] t he manag$ to obta9 supplies f negatively ho/ile ,jamaica savages by pret5d+ to cause an eclipse ( ! moon1 :i* he knew 0 ab\t to take place1 & to ! anci5ts eclipses 7 ( dire port5t4 ,ev5 9 enlight5$ ,rome1 to ascribe an eclipse to ! causes ( nature 0 a crime4 ,! ,*9ese h an idea t great dragons are dev\r+ ! moon :5 %e is eclips$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ega4--,sol> eclipse ) corona4 ,!re are total1 p>tial1 & annul> eclipses4 ,! =m] t]ms speak = !mselves2 ! latt] "n is d]iv$ f 8annulus10 a r+2 = a r+ ( light is left ar\nd ! d>k portion eclips$1 & is only se5 9 sol> eclipses4 ,9 "o s5se ! eclipse ( ! sun is really an eclipse ( ! e>?1 because x is caus$ by ! %ad[ ( ! moon fall+ ^u ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egb4--,umbra & p5umbra4 ,if a bright body1 ,a1 be l>g] ?an ! d>k body1 ,b1 !re w be two k9ds ( %ad[s--viz41 ! umbra & ! p5umbra4 ,= in/ance1 ! umbra is ! c5tral d>k "p 9 ! cut 7fig4 #egb71 & ! p5umbra is ! light] portion4 ,z soon z ! eye is plac$ on ! umbra1 x c p]ceive no "p ( ! s\rce ( light1 ,a1 :i* appe>s to be eclips$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p5umbra orig9ates 9 t locality :]e only a portion ( ! light proce$+ f a lum9\s object c fall2 h5ce an eye 9 ! p5umbra w\ld see a "p1 b n ! :ole ( ! illum9at+ body4 ,?is %ad[ also =ms a cone1 ! apex ( :i*1 if ext5d$1 w fall be=e ! opaque body4 ,if we receive ! %ad[s s project$ at m n1 = example1 on a :ite %eet1 we h 9 ! c5tre a d>k circle1 :i* is ! umbra1 surr\nd$ by ! p5umbra1 :i* gradually decreases 9 int5sity t[>ds ! ext]ior 7see fig4 #egc74 ,! f>!r we hold ! %eet f ! body produc+ ! %ad[1 ! umbra decreases1 & ! p5umbra is enl>g$4 ,= :]e 79 sol> eclipses7 ! umbra falls !re is totality2 )9 ! p5umbra p>tial eclipse only4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egc4--,lun> eclipse4 ,lun> ,eclipse4--,let ,a 7fig4 #egc7 be ! sun1 & ,b ! e>?1 ! l5g? ( ! umbra ( ! latt] w exce$ #ajh diamet]s ( ! e>?4 ,s9ce ! moon is only ab\t ?irty t]re/rial diamet]s di/ant f ! e>?1 & z ! diamet] ( ! e>?'s %ad[1 at ?is di/ance1 is ne>ly ?ree times z l>ge z ! app>5t diamet] ( ! moon1 x foll[s t :5 ! latt] ent]s ?is %ad[1 %e mu/ be totally eclips$1 = at ^? places :]e ! moon's %ad[ falls !re is total eclipse4 ,if ! moon's orbit 7 co9cid5t ) ! ecliptic1 or if bo? moon & e>? mov$ r\nd ! sun 9 ! same plane1 !re w\ld be an eclipse at e conjunction1 & at e opposition1--i4e41 a sol> eclipse w\ld happ5 at e new moon1 & a lun> eclipse at e full moon4 ,b we h se5 t ! lun> orbit cuts ! ecliptic only 9 two po9ts2 consequ5tly an eclipse ( ! moon is possible only :51 at ! "t ( opposition1 ! moon is 9 "o ( h] nodes1 or 9 close proximity to x1 :i* c only occur tw5ty-n9e times 9 ! space ( eighte5 ye>s4 ,a lun> eclipse beg9s on ! ea/]n m>g9 ( ! moon1 & is ei!r total1 :5 h] :ole disc ent]s ! umbra1 or p>tial1 :5 only "p ( h] disc is 9 ! %ad[4 ,a total eclipse may la/ = two h\rs4 ,we %all und]/& ?is bett]1 p]haps1 ) ! diagrams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egd4--,sol> eclipse4 ,sol> ,eclipses4--,:5 ! moon & ! sun are 9 conjunction1 ! moon's place may be repres5t$ by ,m 7fig4 #egd7 betwe5 ! e>?1 ,t1 & ! sun1 ,s4 ,if ?is conjunction occur :5 ! moon is 9 "o ( h] nodes1 or )9 #af ( x1 ! %ad[ ( ! moon w fall ^u ! e>?1 & ! sun w be eclips$4 ,at o!r places ! sun w n be entirely cov]$2 & if ! moon be mov$ f>!r (f1 s t its %ad[ w n rea* ! e>?1 & s n cov] ! sun up completely1 we %all h an annul> eclipse1 because a rim ( ! sun w be visible4 ,! lun> umbra ext5ds f ! moon by a space ab\t equal to h] di/ance f ! e>?1 & h5ce only a small portion1 d1 ( ! e>?'s surface ent]s ! lun> umbra4 ,to ! inhabitants ( ?is "p ( ! e>? ! sun w be totally eclips$1 & ! eclipse w be annul> if only ! m>g9 ( ! sun's disc rema9 uneclips$ by ! lun> %ad[4 ,?is is only possible :5 ! moon is 9 h] apogee1 or greate/ di/ance f ! e>?1 :]e h] app>5t diamet] is less ?an t ( ! sun1 :i* x _c 9 g5]al exce$ m ?an #a #ch4 ,h5ce ! duration ( a total eclipse ( ! sun _c be m ?an #c m9utes4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! p5umbra ( ! moon is diffus$ ov] a mu* l>g] portion1 n m1 ( ! surface ( ! e>?1 s9ce its section is five-n9?s ( ! e>?'s diamet]4 ,! inhabitants ( ?is portion ( ! e>? d n receive light f all p>ts ( ! sun1 consequ5tly a "p ( ?is lum9>y is invisible to !m1 & ! eclipse is said to be p>tial4 ,sol> eclipses comm5ce on ! we/]n m>g9 ( ! sun1 & advance to ! ea/]n4 ,on acc\nt ( ! proximity ( ! moon to u1 an eclipse ( ! sun is1 9 all places above ! horizon ( :i* ! sun appe>s1 visible nei!r at ! same "t1 nor is x ( equal duration1 nor ( equal ext5t3 9 "s p>ts x may n be visible at all4 ,9 fav\rable situations1 ! diamet] ( ! umbra1 :]e x rea*es ! e>?1 am\nts to ab\t #afg miles1 & on ?is small /rip ( ! e>?'s surface only c ! sun appe> totally eclips$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ege4--,"l ,rosse's mon/] telescope4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,,! ,,planets ,,& ,,a/]oids4 ,,m]cury4 ,includ+ our own globe !re are eight pr9cipal planets--viz41 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 & ,neptune4 ,! two fir/-nam$ be+ betwe5 u & ! sun1 are t]m$ int]ior planets2 ! o!rs are ext]ior4 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 & ,m>s are small] ?an ,e>?4 ,! o!r f\r are mu* l>g]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egf4--;,an ,orr]y4 ,we h already describ$ ! planets z bodies w&]+ ?r\gh ! zodiac1 & reflect+ ! sun's light4 ,_! orbits are v diff]5t f ! moon's2 = in/ance1 planets take a retrograde motion z well z a direct "o4 ,! sun & ! planets revolv+ ar\nd him con/itute ! sol> sy/em4 ,we w comm5ce our brief consid]ation ( !m ) ,m]cury1 ! planet ne>e/ to ! sun4 ,! di/ance ( ,m]cury f ! sun is #ce1jjj1jjj ( miles1 less ?an half ! di/ance our e>? is f him1 & s receives mu* m heat & light ?an we d4 ,! sun to ! ,m]curians1 if !re be any inhabitants ^u ! planet1 mu/ appe> ab\t sev5 times l>g] ?an he does to u4 ,m]cury's ye> is ab\t eighty-five days 9 l5g?1 s ! seasons mu/ be %ort] if !y foll[ ! same rotation z ours4 ,x passes ?r\gh space ) an exce$+ly rapid motion1 & s probably ! anci5ts call$ ! swift planet ,m]cury aft] ! w+$ mess5g] ( ,jove4 ,m]cury is n an easy planet to obs]ve1 ow+ to its proximity to ! sun1 yet ! anci5ts manag$ to descry x4 ,b x c be se5 j be=e sunrise & sunset 9 autumn1 & 9 spr+ if ! wea!r be cle>4 ,x possesses phases simil> to our moon4 ,"s au?orities h /at$ t ,m]cury has an atmosph]e1 b ?is circum/ance1 z well z its =mation1 is /ill %r\d$ 9 my/]y4 ,m]cury's day is a few m9utes long] ?an ours4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egg4--,transit ( ,m]cury4 ,a transit ( ,m]cury is repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #egg74 ,?is ph5om5on took place 9 #ahde1 b !re h be5 _m o!rs notic$4 ,! fir/ record$ took place 9 ,novemb] #afca1 & ^! transits always occur 9 ,may or ,novemb]4 ,,v5us4 ,v5us is ! planet next 9 ord]1 & revolves ab\t #ff1jjj1jjj ( miles f ! sun4 ,x is ! ne>e/ planet to ! e>?1 & is some:at small] ?an ! latt]4 ,?is planet is bo? a morn+ & ev5+ />1 & is v brilliant--s mu* s1 t any close obs]vation ) ! telescope is n possible2 & :5 at h] ne>e/ po9t %e is invisible z %e passes betwe5 u & ! sun1 & ( c\rse :5 fully illum9at$ %e is directly beyond ! sun1 & enclos$ 9 8 rays4 ,b "u o!r circum/ances %e is di/9ctly visible z a cresc5t 9 ! ev5+1 & ne>ly full z a morn+ />4 ,v5us goes r\nd ! sun 9 #bbd days1 & h] day is r less ?an ours4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egh4--,orbit ( ,v5us4 ,v5us has long be5 celebrat$ z ! morn+ & ev5+ />1 z 8,lucif]0 & 8,hesp]us40 8,lucif]1 son ( ! morn+10 is m5tion$ by ,isaiah4 ,t ,v5us possesses an atmosph]e d5s] ?an our own c sc>cely be d\bt$4 ,! obs]vations made dur+ ! successive transits1 p>ticul>ly ! la/ 7#ahgd71 seem to h e/abli%$ ! fact t aque\s vap\r exi/s ar\nd1 & wat] 91 ,v5us4 ,no satellite c be f\nd1 ?\gh ! anci5ts report$ su* an att5dant ^u ?is planet4 ,! app>5t diamet] ( ,v5us v>ies consid]ably 9 consequ5ce ( h] v>y+ di/ances at ! inf]ior & sup]ior conjunction4 ,:5 ne>e/ ! e>?1 if %e pres5t$ h] fully illum9at$ disc to our gaze1 we %\ld see a m9iature moon1 & ev5 "u ! circum/ances ,v5us ?r[s a %ad[1 s brilliant is h] light4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #egi4--,v5us1 at quadrature4 ,! transits ( ,v5us h be5 ref]r$ to1 &1 l ^? ( ,m]cury1 are simply a pass+1 or 8transit10 ( ! planet across ! illum9at$ disc ( ! sun4 ,! transits af=d means to asc]ta9 ! volume & di/ance1 etc41 ( ! sun1 & ?is ye> 7#ahhb7 ! next transit is expect$4 ,!re w n be ano!r = m ?an "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehj4--,v5us1 ne> inf]ior conjunction4 ,:e!r ,v5us has a con/itution simil> to our globe is ( c\rse d\btful4 ,! matt] is less d5se ?an ! e>?1 & !re is an atmosph]e half z d5se aga9 z ours4 ,spots h be5 notic$ cross+ ! planet1 :i* may h be5 vap\rs or cl\ds1 & ! rotation ( ,v5us on its axis 0 calculat$ f ^! spots z be+ #bc;h #bam #bbs4 ,! seasons 9 ,v5us mu/ be v diff]5t f ours1 z h] incl9ation is great] ?an our e>?1 & z ! sun is s mu* ne>] to h] ?an to u h] tropical & pol> regions are close1 & a v]tical sun is sc>cely enjoy$ by two places = ?ree successive days1 & %e may h two w9t]s & summ]s1 two spr+s & autumns6 ,,m>s4 ,hav+ already consid]$ ! e>?1 we pass on f ,v5us to ,m>s4 ,! orbit ( ! latt] planet is ext]ior to ! e>?'s1 z is prov$ by 8 nev] appe>+ 8horn$10 nor ev] pass+ across ! sun's disc4 ,!re=e no 8transits0 ( ,m>s c take place z transits ( ,v5us & ,m]cury4 ,yet ,m>s is mo/ fav\rably situat$ = a/ronomical obs]vation by u1 because x turns its full disc to u4 ,v5us is ne>] to u ?an ,m>s--b1 z we h expla9$1 :5 %e comes ne>e/ to u %e is q invisible4 ,a/ronom]s h be5 enabl$ to asc]ta9 a good deal conc]n+ ! planet ( w>--8! r$ planet ,m>s40 ,m>s has be5 consid]$ v l ! e>?4 ,we p]ceive seas & cont95ts1 & ! %ape ( ,m>s is l ! e>?4 ,b our globe is l>g] ?an ,m>s1 :i* is mu* less d5se1 s ! =ce ( gravitation is less also4 ,m>s moves ^u 8 axis 9 ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs & a half1 & takes r m ?an #fhf days to revolve r\nd ! sun4 7,see page #dhi47 ,?us its days are a little long] ?an1 & its ye>s twice z long z our days & ye>s4 ,:5 9 8opposition10 or on ! opposite side ( u f ! sun1 ,m>s is at 8 brighte/4 ,?is happ5$ 9 ,septemb] #ahgg4 ,he w come close aga9 to u 9 #ahib4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eha4--,m>s se5 f ! e>?4 ,all planets are w&]]s1 b ( all ! w&]]s ,m>s has ! mo/ ecc5tric orbit4 ,he curls ab\t1 s to speak1 9 loops & curves 9 a v irregul> mann]1 & !re=e 8 di/ance f ! e>? v>ies v consid]ably2 & ?is ecc5tric behavi\r ( ! w>like planet mu/ h1 z we believe x did1 puzzl$ ! anci5ts v mu*4 ,b--& "h reason came to human aid--?is v fact1 ?is great ecc5tricity ( ! planet>y motions1 caus$ ,cop]nicus to inve/igate ! subject ) great att5tion1 & he at l5g? expla9$ ! true reason ( ^! irregul> orbits f ! hypo!sis t x 0 ar\nd ! sun1 & n ar\nd ! e>? t ! planets mov$ 9 regul> orbits4 ,x is q asc]ta9$ t ,m>s is v l our e>? 9 m9iature4 ,we annex a diagram ( ! planet1 & :5 x is exam9$ ) a good telescope ! seas & cont95ts c be q di/9ctly p]ceiv$4 ,at ! poles !re appe>s to be a :ite or sn[y region at v>y+ p]iods1 :i* w\ld lead u to ! conclusion t ! atmosph]ic *anges & ! seasons are simil> to our own2 & z ! incl9ation ( ! planet is ne>ly ! same z ! e>?1 ?is supposition may be accept$ z a fact4 ,?us we see t ,m>s is ! mo/ l e>? ( all ! planets1 & its inhabitants--if1 inde$1 x is n[ inhabit$--mu/ h a beautiful view ( u :5 ! wea!r is f9e1 = we are s mu* l>g]4 ,m>s is also att5d$ by two satellites1 or moons1 z ,pr(essor ,hall report$ f ,wa%+ton 9 #ahgg4 ,^! moons h be5 nam$ ,deimos & ,phobos1 & are bo? v small1 _! diamet] be+ only ab\t six miles2 b late a/ronom]s h reason$ t !y mu/ be ?ree times ?is diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehb4--;,e>? se5 f ,m>s4 ,!re h be5 num]\s !ories conc]n+ ,m>s be+ inhabit$1 & ( c\rse ^! sugge/ions made respect+ life on "o planet may1 ) v>y+ circum/ances1 be appli$ to ano!r4 ,ea* planet may h _h1 or may yet h1 to pass ?r\gh :at has be5 t]m$ a 8life-be>+ /age40 ,we on e>? are at pres5t 9 ! enjoym5t ( t /age4 ,s f> z we c tell1 !re=e1 ,m>s may be inhabit$ n[1 z he be>s mu* ! same appe>ance z our planet4 ,c]ta9 *anges are go+ on 9 ,m>s1 & all planets1 j z !y g on "h 9 our e>?1 & z !y did long1 long ages be=e ! e>? 0 populat$1 & :i* w cont9ue to g on aft] life on ! e>? has ceas$ to exi/4 ,m>s is1 z we "k1 mu* fur!r away f ! sun ?an e>? is1 & mu/ receive less direct heat4 ,:5 he 0 creat$1 or =m$1 we c only conjecture1 b 9 all probability he cool$ be=e ! e>? did1 z he is small]4 ,"h ano!r !ory conc]n+ ! /ate ( ,m>s arises1 & 9 support ( x we may quote an ,am]ican au?ority ^u ! planet4 8,8 mass is n mu* m ?an "o-n9? ( ! e>?'s1 :ile 8 surface is ab\t "o-?ird ( h]s4 ,!n1 if orig9ally =m$ ( ! same temp]ature1 he _h only "o-n9? h] am\nt ( heat to di/ribute4 ,if he _h radiat$ x away at "o-n9? ( h] rate1 8 supply w\ld h la/$ z long1 b radiation takes place f ! surface 9 proportion to ! surface1 h5ce he p>t$ ) x ?ree times z fa/ z he %\ld h done to cool at ! same rate z ! e>?1 & mu/ h atta9$ a condition :i* %e w n atta9 until ?ree times z long an int]val has elaps$ f ! era ( h] fir/ exi/5ce ?an has already elaps$4 ,geologi/s agree t ! la/-nam$ p]iod mu/ be measur$ by _m millions ( ye>s2 h5ce x foll[s t twice z _m millions ( ye>s mu/ elapse be=e our e>? w be 9 ! same condition z ,m>s1 & ,m>s mu/ be ?ree times z f> on ! way t[>d planet>y decrepitude & dea? z our e>?4 ,!n assign+ two hundr$ ?\s& ye>s z ! extreme duration ( ! p]iod dur+ :i* m5 capable ( /udy+ ! problems ( ! univ]se h exi/$1 & w exi/ on ?is e>?1 ! !ory holds t ,m>s w\ld h ent]$ on t /age ( 8 exi/5ce _m millions ( ye>s ago1 & t ! appe>ance ( ! planet itself implies a mu* lat] /age ( planet>y exi/5ce40 ,m>s is a v int]e/+ /udy1 & ! r$di% hue :i* is s di/9ctive is p]ceiv$ 9 c]ta9 spots :5 exam9$ by ! telescope's aid4 ,^! r$ places 7 discov]$ by ,cass9i4 ,mr4 ,dawes made draw+s ( ,m>s1 & ,mr4 ,proctor has by _! aid con/ruct$ a regul> map ( ,m>s1 & a *>t ( ! surface ( ! planet4 ,!re is mu* m l& ?an wat] on ,m>s1 z ! bright surfaces :i* indicate l& are mu* m ext5sive ?an ! d>k] portions :i* betok5 ! exi/5ce ( wat]4 ,b ^! 8m>k+s0 are n always visible1 9 consequ5ce ( some?+ com+ betwe5 u & ! l& on ,m>s1 & ?is has be5 attribut$ to ! production ( vegetation1 :i* a ,fr5* savant decl>$ 0 ruddy-col\r$1 & t ?is autumnal t9t dep>t$ 9 ! w9t]4 ,! seasons ( ,m>s are n equal1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 w&]+ prop5sities1 & w9t] is w>m] up !re ?an our w9t]1 :ile summ] is cool] ?an our summ]4 ,t !re are cl\ds & an aque\s atmosph]e surr\nd+ ,m>s we le>n f spectroscopic obs]vation & analysis1 & 9 f9e we may look ^u ,m>s z simil> to our e>?4 ,respect+ ! "q ( its habitation we take ! lib]ty to quote ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,proctor3-- 8,i fe> my own conclusion ab\t ,m>s is t 8 pres5t condition is v desolate4 ,i look on ! rudd9ess ( t9t to :i* ,i h ref]r$ z "o ( ! signs t ! planet ( w> has long s9ce pass$ its prime4 ,!re are l&s & seas 9 ,m>s1 ! vap\r ( wat] is pres5t 9 8 air1 cl\ds =m1 ra9s & sn[s fall ^u 8 surface1 & d\btless brooks & riv]s irrigate 8 soil1 & c>ry d[n ! moi/ure collect$ on 8 wide cont95ts to ! seas :5ce ! cl\ds _h orig9ally be5 =m$4 ,b ,i d n ?9k !re is mu* vegetation on ,m>s1 or t _m liv+ creatures ( ! high] types ( ,m>tian life z x once exi/$ /ill rema94 ,all t is kn[n ab\t ! planet t5ds to %[ t ! "t :5 x atta9$ t /age ( planet>y exi/5ce ?r\gh :i* our e>? is n[ pass+ mu/ be set millions ( ye>s1 p]haps hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s ago4 ,he has n yet1 inde$1 rea*$ t airless & wat]less condition1 t extremity ( int]nal cold1 or 9 fact t utt] unfitness to support any k9d ( life1 :i* w\ld seem to prevail 9 ! moon4 ,! planet ( w> 9 "s respects resembles a desolate battle-field1 & ,i fancy t !re is n a s+le region ( ! e>? n[ inhabit$ by man :i* is n inf9itely m com=table z an abode ( life ?an ! mo/ fav\r$ regions ( ,m>s at ! pres5t "t w\ld be = creatures l ourselves40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehc4--;,,*>t ,,( ,,m>s 7,names accord+ to ,proctor & ,gre574 ,a ,pe] ,cont95t4 ,b ,h]s*el ,cont95t4 ,c ,fontana ,l&4 ,d ,sec*i ,cont95t1 ,ea/4 ,e ,sec*i ,cont95t1 ,c5tral4 ,f ,sec*i ,cont95t1 ,we/4 ,g ,mdl] ,cont95t4 ,h ,lev]ri] ,l&4 #a ,h]s*el ,/rait4 #b ,dawes ,ocean4 #c ,m>aldi ,sea4 #d ,oudemans ,sea4 #e ,tr\velot ,bay4 #f ,fun*al ,bay4 #g ,campani ,sea4 #h ,de la ,rue ,ocean4 ,,! ,,moons ,,( ,,m>s4 ,we mu/ devote a few l9es to ! satellites ( ,m>s1 :i* dur+ ! la/ f\r ye>s h prov$ a v int]e/+ /udy = ! a/ronom]s1 & "s v int]e/+ facts h be5 asc]ta9$ conc]n+ ! ruddy planet1 :i* is n[ prov$ n to be 8moonless ,m>s10 z ! poet decl>$4 ,!re are two satellites1 :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( _! di/ance f him1 be+ s diff]5t1 v>y 9 app>5t size4 ,! out] "o is twelve ?\s&1 ! inn] "o ab\t ?ree ?\s& five hundr$ miles f ! planet1 s ! =m] w\ld revolve 9 ab\t ?irty h\rs 9 a direction f we/ to ea/1 & ! inn] moon goes r\nd 9 ! same way 9 ab\t sev5 h\rs & a half4 ,m>s revolves 9 tw5ty-f\r & a half h\rs f we/ to ea/4 ,s ! out] moon rises = him 9 ! ea/1 & ! inn] "o 9 ! we/4 ,?is is acc\nt$ = by ! fact t "o travell+ sl[] ?an ,m>s rises 9 ! ea/1 ! o!r outruns him1 & comes up 9 ! we/4 ,b if we suppose ourselves ^u ,m>s we %all f9d t1 aft] all1 we h only "o moon prop]ly s call$4 ,! out] satellite is v small & v f> away1 s x is useless to give light--at mo/1 x is no bigg] ?an ,m>s appe>s to u on e>?4 ,s ! ,m>tians d n see two moons pass+ ea* o!r 9 ! sky--t is1 unless _! eyes are ( great] range & p[] ?an ours4 ,?us !y h "o moon ris+ 9 ! we/1 appe>+ 9 all its phases e night1 :ile our moon takes tw5ty-eight days to pass ?r\gh h] phases2 = we mu/ rememb] t ,m>s' moon takes only sev5 h\rs & =ty m9utes to pass ?r\gh its orbit1 & !re=e ea* qu>t] w n occupy q two h\rs4 ,,! ,,m9or ,,planets1 ,,or ,,a/]oids4 ,pass+ onw>d f ,m>s t[>ds ,jupit] we arrive at a numb] ( small] planets1 :i* w n conc]n u v mu*1 z !y are v small & sc>cely visible )\t a good telescope4 ,b a v int]e/+ *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy 0 comm5c$ :5 ! discov]y ( ^! bodies 0 begun4 ,9 old times a/ronom]s notic$ a v consid]able gap betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]1 :i* 0 rem>kable :5 ! regul> progression ( ! di/ances betwe5 ! planets 0 rememb]$4 ,s ,kepl] 0 ( op9ion t "s planet w\ld be discov]$ hav+ its orbit 9 t space betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to ,piazzi1 ! ,italian1 t ! discov]y ( ! zone ( a/]oids is due4 ,illu/ration3 ,dec4 #h?4 ,dec4 #i?4 ,fig4 #ehd4--;,field ( view %[+ motion ( m9or planets among/ ! />s4 ,piazzi 0 survey+ ! con/ellation ,taurus1 :]e he fanci$ he _h discov]$ a *ange ( place 9 a /> :i* he _h obs]v$ on ! #a/ ( ,janu>y 9 t ye> 7#ahja74 ,he 0 q sure ( ?is *ange next day 7! #crd ( ,janu>y71 & he express$ 8 op9ion to ,bode & ,oriani4 ,b lett]s took a long "t to pass 9 ^? days1 & :5 ! o!r a/ronom]s _h receiv$ ! advices ! new /> _h be5 lo/ 9 ! sun's glory4 ,b aft] a ye>1 on ! #ca/ ,decemb]1 #ahja1 ! planet 0 aga9 se5 & ! discov]y 0 prov$4 ,! new planet 0 nam$ ,,c]es4 ,! discov]y ( ,c]es l$ to o!r discov]ies4 ,=1 :ile se>*+ = h]1 ,olb]s f\nd o!r m9or planets1 & s on to ! pres5t day4 ,n[ we h ne>ly two hundr$ a/]oids1 & m are probably to be f\nd 9 ! zone beyond ,m>s4 ,x w\ld answ] no purpose to give a li/ ( ! a/]oids4 ,we ne$ only rem>k t ! fir/ f\r 7 discov]$ 9 quick succession1 & !n a lapse ( ?irty-eight ye>s occurr$ be=e ! fif? 0 f\nd1 ?us-- ,,c]es1 discov]$ by ,piazzi at ,pal]mo1 ,janu>y #a/1 #ahja4 ,,pallas1 8 ,olb]s at ,brem51 ,m>* #bh?1 #ahjb4 ,,juno1 8 ,h>d+ at ,lilli5?al1 ,septemb] #bnd1 #ahjd4 ,,ve/a1 8 ,olb]s at ,brem51 ,m>* #bj?1 #ahjg4 ,,a/r,a1 8 ,h5cke at ,driess51 ,decemb] #h?1 #ahde4 ,s9ce #ahdh !re h be5 num]\s m9or planets discov]$ e ye>4 ,! hypo!sis t all ^! a/]oids are fragm5ts ( "o l>ge planet :i* has be5 de/roy$ 0 />t$ by ,olb]s2 & 9 confirmation ( ?is view x has be5 det]m9$ t ! a/]oids h ess5tially ! same "*4 ,! orbits ( ^! m9or planets are diff]5t f ! l>g] 8w&]]s10 & cross ea* o!r1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ diagram1 s t a collision may "o day ensue4 ,planetoids & extra zodiacal planets are titles :i* h be5 be/[$ ^u ^! bodies1 ( :i* ,,ve/a is ! fir/ 9 ord] 9 ! sy/em1 & revolves 9 #a1cbe days1 at a mean di/ance ( #bbe1jjj1jjj ( miles f ! sun4 ,,juno & ,,c]es take ea* ab\t f\r ( our ye>s to revolve 9 _! orbits1 at great] di/ances /ill1 av]ag+ #bfj1jjj1jjj ( miles4 ,pallas & ,c]es are mo/ alike 9 _! p]iods & di/ance f ! sun2 ! pr9cipal a/]oids are only ab\t #cjj miles 9 diamet]1 :ile ! small] are v t9y inde$1 & "o c]ta9ly has q disappe>$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehe4--,orbit ( a/]oids4 ,,jupit]1 ,,! ,,giant4 ,jupit] has be5 well nam$ ! ,giant planet1 s9ce 8 diamet] is elev5 times great]1 & he is ?irte5 hundr$ times l>g] ?an our planet4 ,8 incl9ation is v small1 & y n[ "k t "u su* circum/ances he enjoys v small *anges ( seasons4 ,jupit] has f\r moons1 or satellites1 & an illu/ration ( ! 8,jovian ,sy/em0 is h]e) giv54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehf4--,! ,jovian ,sy/em4 ,jupit] himself 0 well kn[n to ! anci5ts1 b ,galileo 0 ! discov]] ( ! 8moons40 ,8 telescope 01 ( c\rse1 a v imp]fect in/rum5t1 & :ile he 0 gaz+ at ! planet he notic$ ?ree />s close by ! bright disc1 two on "o side1 b next day ,galileo p]ceiv$ !m all at ! same side4 ,next "t he look$ !re 7 only two1 & aft] _m anxi\s obs]vations he f\nd out1 n only t ,jupit] _h ?ree att5dant />s1 b f\r6 ,^! moons 7 f\nd to revolve r\nd ,jupit] 9 times v>y+ f ne>ly two days to ne>ly sixte5 days1 accord+ z !y 7 at a less or great] di/ance f him4 ,!y 7 f\nd to h _! times ( eclipses & transits1 etc41 also4 ,^! moons act ) respect to ,jupit] v mu* z ! inn] planets act ) respect to ! sun1 = obs]vation %[$ ,galileo t ! satellites sometimes appe>$ on "o side ( ! planet1 & at o!r times on ! opposite side4 ,f ! diagram ( ! ,jovian ,sy/em we %all und]/& ! orbits ( ! moons1 :i* are all ( ne>ly equal size1--two ?\s& miles 9 diamet]1--& cause eclipses ( ! sun to ,jupit]4 ,if ! e>? be 9 ! same direction z ! sun ! moons are lo/ to view4 ,! satellites disappe> into ! %ad[1 & are eclips$ at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 respectively1 b !y d n always come into view aga9 imm$iately !y h pass$ ?r\gh ! planet's %ad[1 because ! e>? is a little at "o side ( ! sun4 ,s :5 ! satellite gets beh9d ! edge ( ,jupit]1 8 %ad[ be+ on ! opposite side to ! satellite's1 x is said t ! 8moon0 is 9 8occultation02 :5 x disappe>s 9 ! %ad[ x is 8eclips$40 ,cass9i discov]$ ! 8transit0 ( ,jupit]'s moons4 ,! annex$ diagram illu/rates ! eclipses1 etc41 v cle>ly4 ,at ! f\r po9ts1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 we h ! e>?2 ,j is ,jupit] ) 8 moons2 #a #b #c #d is _! orbits4 ,at a moon ,no4 #a ent]s 8 %ad[1 & em]ges at b4 ,f ! e>? at ,d a w be visible1 b n b1 because ,jupit] is 9 ! way4 ,s at ,b1 ! com+ out1 or em]sion1 w be visible1 b n ! entrance into ! %ad[1 or imm]sion4 ,at ,a ! satellite is 9 transit d1 on ! disc ( ! planet1 ,j4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehg4--,satellite 9 ,transit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehh4--;,eclipses ( ,jupit]'s ,moons4 ,f ! obs]vation ( ! eclipses ( ,jupit]'s moons ! rate ( ! transmission ( light 0 discov]$ by ,rom] 9 #afge1 & its progressive motion 0 calculat$4 ,! eclipses 7 notic$ to take place lat] ?an ! calculat$ "t1 :5 ! planet 0 approa*+ conjunction4 ,rom] sugge/$ t ! delay 0 ow+ to ! great] di/ance ! light _h to travel--a di/ance equal to ! diamet] ( ! e>?'s orbit1 or ab\t #aij1jjj1jjj ( miles4 ,! "t 0 ab\t sixte5 m9utes4 ,light 0 f\nd to travel at ! rate ( ne>ly #ab1jjj1jjj ( miles a m9ute4 ,let u n[ endeav\r to picture ,jupit] himself4 ,"h we h an illu/ration ( ! planet4 ,he is ! bigge/1 & ! brighte/1 except ,v5us1 ( all ! planets4 ,he revolves at a di/ance ( #dgf1jjj1jjj ( miles f ! sun1 & 8 ye> is equal to ne>ly twelve ( ours1 :ile 8 day is sc>cely t5 h\rs long1 %[+ a rapidity m ?an tw5ty times ! rate ( our e>?4 ,jupit]1 !re=e1 mu/ h a v mu* great] diamet] ?an ! e>?4 ,!re is mu* less sunlight & heat f\nd on ,jupit] ?an ^u ,e>?1 because he is s mu* f>!r f ! sun ?an we are1 b at ! same "t ! heat comes at less int]vals ?an ) u4 ,& "h ! !ory already notic$ respect+ ! gradual cool+ ( ! planets w be rememb]$4 ,jupit]1 we c easily imag9e1 w\ld take mu* long] to get cool ?an ,m>s or ! e>?1 &1 ?\gh 8 rapid rotation w\ld assi/ him1 he mu/ be /ill 9 ! mid/ ( a gl[+ atmosph]e )\t =m & void--p]haps a furnace = cl\d & vap\r g5]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ehi4--;,jupit]4 ,n[ :5 ,jupit] is exam9$ ) ! telescope x w be se5 t he is cross$ by belts ( vap\r 7see also page #dhi72 & :5 we consid] ! results ( ! spectrum analysis ( ! planet1 we may fairly assume t ,jupit] is 9 a v heat$ /ate1 & t we _c really p]ceive ! actual body ( ! planet at all yet4 ,!re is an imm5se quantity ( wat] ?us surr\nd+ ,jupit]1 & he is /ill 9 ! condition 9 :i* our e>? 0 be=e geology grasps its /ate1 & long ere vegetation or life appe>$4 ,! wat]s h yet to be 8ga!r$ toge!r into "o place10 & ! dry l& has yet to appe> ^u ,jupit]1 :o is a v juv5ile1 if a v enorm\s planet4 ,"u ^! conditions we c safely assume t !re are no inhabitants ( ,jupit]4 ,! belts1 or zones1 ( ,jupit] v>y 9 hue1 & ! cont9ual *anges :i* are tak+ place 9 ?is cl\d region t5d to %[ t di/urbances ( great magnitude & importance are occurr+4 ,x is useless to speculate ^u :at w happ5 9 ,jupit] :5 ! disc is ev5tually cool$4 ,! planet1 we "k1 has n ne>ly rea*$ maturity2 ! e>? is 9 ! full prime ( its life1 & ! moon is dead & des]t$4 ,:at ! millions ( ye>s :i* mu/ elapse be=e ,jupit] has cool$ may br+ =? we ne$ n try to f9d out4 ,! e>? w !n1 9 all probability1 be z dre>y z ! moon is n[1 & we %all h return$ to du/4 ,,saturn4 ,we n[ come to ! mo/ curi\s ( all ! planets--,saturn1 :i* is an imm5se globe surr\nd$ by a beautiful bright r+1 or r s]ies ( r+s1 & att5d$ by eight moons4 ,he appe>s to possess mu* ! same con/itution z ,jupit]1 b envelop$ 9 an ev5 d5s] atmosph]e ?an ! latt]4 ,saturn's diamet] is ab\t n9e times great] ?an ! e>?2 he revolves on an incl9$ axis 9 ab\t t5 h\rs1 & has seasonal alt]nations ( unequal l5g?4 ,8 ye> is ab\t ?irty ( ours 7#aj1gei days74 ,! mo/ /rik+ ph5om5a 9 connection ) ,saturn are 8 r+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eij4--,saturn4 ,saturn's r+s are suppos$ to be a close agglom]ation ( />s1 or satellites1 revolv+ ar\nd ! planet & encircl+ him 9 a belt4 ,! r+s are app>5tly broad & flat & ?91 resembl+ r\ghly ! horizon ( a globe4 ,! globe ( ! planet is n exactly 9 ! c5tre ( ! r+s1 :i* h be5 measur$1 & are approximately z bel[3-- ,diamet] ( ext]ior r+ #afi1jjj miles4 ,diamet] ( int]ior r+ #abd1jjj 8 ,diamet] ( inn]mo/ r+ #ajj1jjj 8 ,int]val betwe5 inn]mo/ r+ & ,saturn #ai1jjj 8 ,int]vals betwe5 ! r+s #ah1jjj 8 ,?ickness ( ! r+s #acj 8 ,bread? ( ! r+s #cg1jjj 8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eia4--,saturn's r+s at ,equ9ox4 ,! r+s 7 fir/ recognis$ z su* by ,huygh5s 9 #afei1 b ,galileo _h rem>k$ ! curi\s appe>ance ! planet pres5t$4 ,cass9i confirm$ ,huygh5s' discov]y1 & f\nd t ! r+ 0 duplicat$1 & ,mr4 ,ball made ! same discov]y4 ,! two out]mo/ r+s are v bright1 ! inn] r+ be+ d>k] & p>tially transp>5t1 = ! ball ( ,saturn c be p]ceiv$ ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eib4--;,enl>g+ r+4 ,b ! r+s are n always s pla9ly se5 z 9 ! =ego+ diagram4 ,sometimes !y appe> z a m]e l9e ( light on ea* side ( ! planet1 z %[n 9 ! m>g94 ,?is occurs at ! "t ( ! equ9ox 7fig4 #eia74 ,by degrees1 h[ev]1 z !y become incl9$1 !y appe> broad] 7fig4 #eib74 ,! inn] r+ may be =m$ ( vap\r1 b ! out] ones are ( some?+ m solid1 z ! %ad[s !y ca/ ^u ! planet1 & x ca/s ^u !m1 at c]ta9 times 7figs4 #eic & #eid74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eic4--,r+ %ad[4 ,saturn possesses eight moons1 sev5 ( !m revolv+ 9 orbits on ! plane ( ! r+s1 b "o is m incl9$4 ,^! eight satellites h be5 nam$ z foll[s3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,"n4 ,di/ance f ,saturn 9 ,"t ( ,discov]]4 radii ( ,saturn4 ,miles4 ,revolution4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- d4 h4 m94 #a ,mimas #ccf 7ab\t7 #abj1jjj #bb #cg ,h]s*el4 #b ,enceladus #dcj 8 #aej1jjj #a #h #ec ,h]s*el4 #c ,te?ys #ecd 8 #aij1jjj #a #ba #ah ,cass9i4 #d ,dione #fhd 8 #bdj1jjj #b #ag #da ,cass9i4 #e ,rhea #iee 8 #cdj1jjj #d #ab #be ,cass9i4 #f ,titan #bbae 8 #gij1jjj #ae #bb #da ,huygh5s4 #g ,hyp]ion #bfgh 8 #ide1jjj #ba #g #g ,lassel & ,bond4 #h ,iapetus #fdcf 8 #b1bej1jjj #gi #j #h ,cass9i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,b ^! eight moons are n s int]e/+ z ^? belong+ to ,jupit]1 because ! great di/ance !y are away precludes mu* exam9ation ( !m4 ,!y v>y mu* 9 size1 ,titan be+ ! l>ge/1 & p]haps equal to ,m>s1 ,iapetus be+ next 9 magnitude4 ,! light ( ^! satellites & ! r+s is no d\bt v great 9 ! aggregate1 & mu/ h a magnific5t appe>ance 9 ! heav5s 7comp>e page #dic74 ,v likely !re are o!r att5dants ^u ,saturn1 b ow+ to ! brilliancy ( ! r+s x is impossible to di/+ui% !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eid4--,r+ %ad[4 ,,uranus4 ,uranus 0 discov]$ by ,h]s*el 9 #agha1 & has be5 call$ aft] its discov]]1 & sometimes ! 8,georgium ,sidus40 ,x revolves at an enorm\s di/ance f ! sun--viz41 #a1gec1jjj1jjj ( miles4 ,x takes ab\t eighty-f\r ( our ye>s 7#cj1fhf days7 to g r\nd ! sun1 & possesses f\r moons4 ,x is v mu* l>g] ?an ! e>?--ab\t f\r times ! diamet]1 & =ty times its volume4 ,we c only speculate conc]n+ its physical con/itution1 :i* is assum$ to be simil> to t ( ,jupit]1 :ile ! *anges ( temp]ature & seasons mu/ v>y imm5sely4 ,! names ( ! moons are ,ariel1 ,umbriel1 ,titania1 & ,ob]on4 ,! out] pair c be se5 )\t mu* difficulty4 ,,neptune4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is planet 0 det]m9$ by calculation be=e x _h be5 se5 at all4 ,uranus 0 obs]v$ to be di/urb$ 9 8 orbit1 mov+ sometimes fa/] ?an at o!rs2 & ev5 be=e ,uranus _h be5 discov]$ ,saturn & ,jupit] _h be5 se5 to be affect$ by "s body 9 ! sy/em4 ,m4 ,lev]ri] det]m9$ to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ?is1 & came to ! conclusion t "s o!r planet 0 influ5c+ ,uranus4 ,! ,newtonian !ory "h receiv$ a mo/ conv9c+ pro(4 ,:ile ,lev]ri] 0 calculat+1 ,mr ,adams ( ,cambridge leap$ to ! same conclusion1 & wrote ! result ( 8 calculations to ,pr(essor ,airy1 & ! planet 0 se51 b n report$ ^u4 ,meantime ,lev]ri] publi%$ 8 calculations1 & ! obs]v]s at ,b]l9 detect$ ! new planet 9 ,septemb] #ahdf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eie4--,neptune 9 field ( view ) />s ( #f?1 #g?1 #h?1 & #i? magnitudes4 ,v little c be said conc]n+ ,neptune1 z its di/ance is too great = obs]vation4 ,x is at #b1gdf1jjj1jjj ( miles f ! sun1 & takes #afd ye>s to g r\nd x 7#fj1abf days74 ,x is ab\t ! same size z ,uranus4 ,x has "o moon1 :i* moves r\nd ! planet 9 #e;d #ba;h1 & is ( great size4 ,,*apt] ,,xl4 ,,! ,,fix$ ,,/>s4 ,,fix$ ,,/>s--,,magnitude ,,( ,,! ,,/>s--,,con/ellations--,,descriptions ,,( ,,! ,,zodiacal ,,con/ellations--,,nor!rn ,,& ,,s\!rn ,,/> ,,gr\ps--,,di/ance ,,( ,,/>s4 ,we h be5 consid]+ ! planets s f> z !y are kn[n to a/ronom]s1 b no d\bt we %all f9d out o!rs "s day beyond ,neptune 9 space1 = x mu/ be assum$ t !re are o!r planets w&]+ ab\t 9 ! inf9ite firmam5t4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 we _c sp>e "t = su* speculation2 we h got to peep at ! />s & _! gr\p+s4 8,:at little bits ( ?+s ! />s are10 a *ild said once 9 our he>+2 & !re 7 o!rs pres5t :o 7 incl9$ to believe t ! t9y light spots we c\ld see look$ small--n because !y 7 di/ant1 b because !y 7 ( no great magnitude2 & :5 ^? *ildr5 7 told t ! t9y />s 7 8suns0 l our sun1 giv+ heat & light millions & millions ( miles away1--&1 s f> z we c tell1 "s are mu* bigg] & hott] ?an our own sun1--!y 7 v mu* surpris$ inde$1 & "o little girl aptly quot$ ,dr4 ,watts3-- 8,tw9kle1 tw9kle1 little />1 ,h[ ,i wond] :at y are06 ,n[ let u endeav\r to le>n some?+ ab\t ^! app>5tly t9y specks1 & :y !y 8tw9kle40 ,at a v e>ly p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy ! obs]v]s ( ! heav5s gr\p$ />s toge!r 9 fanci$ resemblances to m5 or animals2 & ^! 8con/ellations10 z !y are t]m$1 are comb9ations ( fix$ />s--t is1 ( />s :i* d n w&] ab\t z ! planets d4 ,b ^! s-call$ fix$ />s h motions2 !y are only relatively fix$ ) ref]5ce to _! positions to ea* o!r z !y appe> to revolve daily r\nd ! e>?4 ,b />s h a movem5t ( _! own1 :i* is t]m$ _! 8prop] motion40 ,x is to ,halley t ! discov]y ( ^! real /> motions is due4 ,he saw ?ree v bright />s 7,sirius1 ,aldeb>an1 & ,arcturus7 7 n 9 ! places !y _h be5 assign$4 ,! sun also has be5 f\nd to possess a 8prop] motion10 &1 ) ! planets1 is travell+ z det]m9$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 to a p>ticul> place 9 ! con/ellation call$ ,h]cules4 ,!re are n[ /> catalogues & /> maps1 = ! heav5s h be5 z closely survey$ z ! e>?1 & by accurate obs]vations x has n[ become possible to f9d ! position ( e /> usually visible4 ,"s ( ! />s are us$ z 8clock0 />s1 by :i* sid]eal "t c be calculat$ accurately1 & ! clocks !reby correct$4 ,! />s1 ?\gh t]m$ 8fix$10 are 9 p]petual movem5t--,arcturus at ! rate ( fifty miles a second1 & o!rs less4 ,only ! rates ( a few are kn[n4 ,! numb] ( ! />s is beyond our calculation1 & ev5 ! numb] ( />s only visible 9 ! telescope am\nt to millions1 & ^! are call$ telescopic />s4 ,! visible />s am\nt to ab\t six ?\s&1 & ( c\rse ^! are ! brighte/ up to ! six? magnitude4 ,!re are m visible 9 ! s\!rn ?an 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! magnitudes ( ! />s range 9 classes accord+ to ! brightness ( ! />s obs]v$1 = ?is is really ! te/ f ! fir/ magnitude to ! six?2 aft] t ! telescopic />s are se5 up to ! fifte5? or sixte5?4 ,we c only see ab\t ?ree ?\s& />s at any "o "t f any place1 al?\gh1 z rem>k$ above1 _m millions may be obs]v$ ) a good telescope1 & z _m m1 probably tw5ty millions1 are invisible4 ,we w n[ proce$ to detail ! con/ellations1 :i* are famili> by "n to ev]ybody4 ,we h already giv5 ! names ( ! zodiacal gr\ps1 :i* consi/ ( _m />s1 ea* designat$ by a lett] ( ! ,greek alphabet s f> z possible1 !n ! ,roman lett]s & num]als are employ$4 ,?us 7,alpha7 is ! mo/ brilliant />2 7,beta7 ! next bright 7,gamma7 ! next1 & s on2 s ! relative brilliancy ( ! />s 9 ! con/ellation is indicat$1 b n ! v bigge/ /> ( ! fir/ magnitude is int5d$ by 1 = ! /> 9 "o con/ellation may equal 9 ano!r4 ,john ,bay] orig9at$ ?is me?od 9 #afjc4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! con/ellations is plung$ 9 ! obscurity ( ages1 b ,b4,c4 #cgj !re 7 =ty-five ?us gr\p$4 ,!re are nor!rn & s\!rn con/ellations :i* are visible above our old fri5ds ,aries1 ,taurus1 ,canc]1 etc4 ,we w1 z 9 duty b\nd1 consid] our old acqua9tances fir/1 & !n give a li/ ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn gr\ps ( />s2 b we %all f9d t ! =ms are 9 ! great] "p due to ! imag9ation ( ! anci5ts1 & d n be> out our ideas ( ! animals !y are suppos$ to repres5t1 :ile at ! same "t !y cross & recross ) o!r con/ellations 9 ! skies 9 a v puzzl+ way4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eif4--;,aries4 ,! fir/ con/ellation is ,,aries1 ! ,ram1 :i* is celebrat$ 9 my?ology z ! pr\d possessor ( ! ,gold5 ,fleece1 :i* we may rememb] 0 seiz$ & c>ri$ away by ,jason & ! ,argonauts4 ,! ,hellespont is s call$ f ,helle1 :o fell f ! ,ram's back :5 be+ c>ri$ ^u x ov] ! ,black ,sea4 ,! ,ram is "h repres5t$ ) ! equ9octial r+4 ,we p]ceive 9 ,aries two v bright />s ne> ! head4 ,^! are 77 ,arietis & 77 ,%]etan4 ,! signs & con/ellations d n n[ correspond z !y us$ to d1 because ( ! *ange 9 ! position ( ! />s1 :i* gives rise to ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes 7vide ante41 p4 #dig71 s t ! />s :i* two ?\s& ye>s ago 7 9 conjunction ) ! sun1 are mu* m to ! ea/w>d4 ,9 old5 "t 7:5 a/ronomy 0 "y71 ! sun ent]$ ,aries on ! #ba/ ,m>*1 & n[ a *ange has tak5 place4 ,b 9 ab\t ano!r tw5ty ?\s& ye>s1 !y w all come "r aga94 ,?is w be p]ceiv$ by ref]5ce to ! cele/ial globe4 ,! ,ram has sixty-six />s 9 8 con/itution4 ,,taurus1 ! ,bull1 is ! next con/ellation4 ,he receiv$ 8 "n f ! celebrat$ animal into :i* ,jupit] trans=m$ himself :5 he wi%$ to c>ry away ,europa4 ,! /> ,aldeb>an 77 is ! end ( a k9d ( ,v 9 ! ,bull's face4 ,! ,pleiades are on ! %\ld] to ! "r4 ,?is clu/] ( tw9kl+ />s is well kn[n1 & w guide ! obs]v] t[>ds ! imag9>y ,bull1 :i* we mu/ n[adays describe z r a fanciful del9eation4 ,europe is call$ aft] ,europa1 because ,jupit]1 z a ,bull1 c>ri$ h] to ?is cont95t4 ,!re are #ada />s 9 ,taurus1 accord+ to ! numb] f\nd 9 ! li/ ( ,aratus1 & probably m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eig4--,taurus4 ,,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 :i* are suppos$ to be ,ca/or & ,pollux1 ?\gh x is believ$ t two goats 7 ! orig9al sign--:i* /atem5t1 tak5 9 connection ) ! ram & ! bull1 t 7 also turn$ out 9 ! spr+-"t1 may h some?+ to recomm5d x4 ,b n[ ,ca/or & ,pollux are g5]ally recogniz$ z ! con/ellation4 ,dur+ ! exp$ition = ! ,gold5 ,fleece1 ! electric appe>ance1 n[ kn[n z ,/4 ,elmo's ,fire1 became visible ^u !m1 & _! effigies 7 plac$ 9 ! =ep>t ( %ips z a good om54 ,?is l$ to ! adoption ( ! 8figure-head40 ,!y 7 made into />s :5 ,pollux 0 immortaliz$ by ,jupit]1 = he divid$ ! boon ) 8 bro!r4 ,! planet ,uranus 0 discov]$ ne> ?is con/ellation1 :i* conta9s eighty-five />s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eih4--;,gem9i4 ,,canc]1 ! ,crab1 is ! next 9 ord]1 & ! only d]ivation we c f9d = ?is is t ,juno s5t a crab to attack ,h]cules :5 he 0 busily engag$ ) ! _m-head$ ,hydra4 ,! crab 0 direct$ to p9* ! h]o's foot1 b x appe>s r a lame device = ! ,que5 to adopt4 ,! crab1 h[ev]1 0 kill$ by ,h]cules1 & plac$ among/ ! />s by ,juno z a rew>d2 s he ga9$ immortality *eaply4 ,he1 ,canc]1 conta9s m ?an eighty />s1 b none ( !m ( any p>ticul> note4 ,"s writ]s expla9 ! sign z rem9d+ ! anci5ts ( 8! retrograde movem5t ( ! sun to ! nor?02 b z a crab does n move 8backw>ds10 we w /ill adh]e to my?ology z equally satisfactory at any rate4 ,canc]1 h[ev]1 0 t]m$ ! 8nor!rn gate ( ! sun40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eii4--;,canc]4 ,! next is ,,leo1 ! ,lion1 :i* came r\nd 9 summ] & at ! p]iod ( mu* heat1 s ?is fi]ce animal may h be5 *os5 to repres5t t season4 ,b my?ology w h u cr$it ! ,neman ,lion s5t aga9/ ,h]cules by ,juno z ! orig9 ( ?is con/ellation4 ,! lion 01 l ! crab1 plac$ among/ ! />s :5 he 0 kill$4 ,he is a v brilliant con/ellation1 & a v bright /> call$ ,regulus is to be se5 9 8 *e/--8,cor ,leonis40 ,ano!r v f9e /> ( ! second magnitude is obs]vable 9 ! tail4 ,! ,lion consi/s ( n9ety-five />s1 ! pr9cipal ones be+ ( ! fir/ & second magnitudes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjj4--,leo4 ,,virgo is suppos$ to be outl9$ by a v ri* clu/] ( />s1 & "o ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,! ,virg9 is by "s suppos$ to be ,a/ra1 ! goddess1 b is m likely ref]able to a girl glean+1 or hold+ an e> ( corn 9 semblance ( ! h>ve/4 ,?is con/ellation conta9s m ?an "o hundr$ />s4 ,"o ( !m 9 ! :eat-e> is a p>ticul>ly brilliant "o1 & not$ = its 8solit>y spl5d\r10 z no /> ( l>ge magnitude is ne> x4 ,! ,arabs us$ to call x ! ,solit>y ,simak2 ,spica ,virg9is is ! mod]n "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fja4--,virgo4 ,,libra1 :i* foll[s1 may ei!r indicate ! balance1 or scales ( ju/ice1 ( ,a/ra1 or ! equal day & night at ! autumnal equ9ox4 ,virgil m5tions ,a/ra's balance1 & ?us we h a classical au?ority = ! v my?ological view ( ! two =ego+ con/ellations4 ,libra is n v di/9ct2 x conta9s fifty-"o />s1 f\r ( :i* are v bright4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjb4--,libra4 ,,scorpio1 ! ,scorpion1 accord+ to classical writ]s1 enc\nt]$ ,orion1 :o is also met ) 9 ! /ell> univ]se4 ,! scorpion /ung ,orion because he decl>$ !re 0 no liv+ creature he c\ld n ov]come by =ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is sign may h "s ref]5ce to ! unheal?y "t ( ye>1 & ! preval5ce ( disease ab\t ! "t t ,scorpio appe>$4 ,a beautiful /> ( r$di% hue & ( ! fir/ magnitude is prom95t among/ ! brilliant assembly ( ! ,scorpion's =ty-f\r />s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjc4--,scorpio4 ,,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]1 is1 z "o c see1 a ,c5taur1 & said to be ,*iron1 :o 0 w\nd$ by ,h]cules1 & cur$ by be+ tak5 up to ,heav5 by ,jupit]4 ,?is ,*iron is repres5t$ z a great patron ( ! arts1 & ?us ! fable may be said to exemplify ! prov]b1 8,art is long1 "t is fleet+02 = read]s ( my?ology w f9d mu* m 9 ! leg5ds ?an is app>5t on ! surface4 ,b we c n[ only reg>d ! ,c5taur f an a/ronomical1 & n a philosophical /&po9t4 ,sagitt>ius has no v brilliant />s4 ,he is close to ! ,milky ,way1 & conta9s sixty-n9e />s1 five =m+ a sort ( ,v 9 ! b[1 sometimes comp>$ to a ladle or 8dipp]40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjd4--,sagitt>ius4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fje4--;,capricornus4 ,,capricornus1 ! ,goat1 is suppos$ to be ,pan--8! great god ,pan10 :o turn$ himself into a goat4 ,! sun 0 9 ,capricornus at mid-w9t]1 s ! 8s\!rn gate ( ! sun0 0 a title be/[$ ^u him4 ,b n[ ! con/ellation is lat]4 ,x does n include any v /rik+ />s1 ( :i* !re are fifty-"o 9 ! 8,goat40 ,,aqu>ius1 or ! ,wat]be>]1 may h ref]r$ to wet wea!r1 or z o!rs decl>e1 to ,ganym$e1 ! ,cupbe>]4 ,!re are f\r />s 9 ! wat]pot l a ,y2 & m ?an "o hundr$ />s ( small brilliancy are includ$ 9 ?is con/ellation4 ,b "h aga9 fancy mu/ come to our assi/ance1 = )\t a diagram ! ord9>y obs]v] c\ld n di/+ui% ! ,wat]be>]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjg4--;,aqu>ius4 ,,pisces1 ! ,fi%es1 are n pla9ly def9$4 ,x is suppos$ t ,v5us & ,cupid turn$ !mselves into fi% :5 ! ,titans assail$ ,heav54 ,?is ,con/ellation occupies a triangle 9 ! sky4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjf4--,pisces4 ,! =ego+ are ! zodiacal con/ellations1 & may be m easily rememb]$ by repeat+ an old rhyme1 :i* runs z foll[s3-- 8,! ,ram1 ! ,bull1 ! ,heav5ly ,tw9s2 ,!n1 next ! ,crab1 ! ,lion %9es1 ,! ,virg91 & ! ,scales2 ,! ,scorpion1 ,ar*]1 & ! ,goat1 ,! ,man :o holds ! ,wat]+ ,pot1 ,! ,fi% ) ,glitt]+ tails40 ,! arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s ,con/ellations at :i* we h s rapidly glanc$1 z well z ( ^? t foll[1 has be5 ! "w ( _m diff]5t p]iods4 ,aratus & ,ptolemy are ! olde/ enum]ators1 b mod]n rese>* has add$ imm5sely to ! /ore ( k4 ,_m ( ! mo/ prom95t />s 7 nam$ by ,grecian & ,arabian obs]v]s1 & _m ( ! names are /ill reta9$--su* z ,arcturus1 ,rigel1 ,capella1 & o!rs4 ,,! ,,nor!rn ,,con/ellations4 ,!re are1 altoge!r1 ?irty-five ( ^!1 z p] li/ on next page4 ,x is ( c\rse impossible to describe !m all1 b we w make a few rem>ks respect+ ^? :i* w be di/+ui%$ mo/ readily1 & ! mann] ( f9d+ out p>ticul> />s4 ,!re are /> maps publi%$1 & ) a little att5tion & read+1 a great _m v pleasant ev5+ excursions may be made across ! sky1 ) or )\t a telescope4 ,! foll[+ is ! li/ ( ! nor!rn con/ellations4 ,we h put !m 9 v>i\s types to indicate ! mo/ important4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,no4 ,,( ,,"n ,,( ,,con/ellation4 8,,au?or40 ,,/>s4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,ursa ,,major ,! ,great ,be> ,aratus #hg ,ursa ,m9or ,! ,less] ,be> 8 #bd ,p]seus ,p]seus 8 #ei ,auriga ,! ,waggon] 8 #ff ,botes ,! ,h]dsman 7,botes7 8 #ed ,draco ,! ,dragon 8 #hj ,cepheus ,cepheus 8 #ce ,canes ,v5atici ,! ,greyh\nds ,hevelius #be ,hunt+ ,dogs ,cor ,c>oli ,he>t ( ,*>les ,halley #c ,triangulum ,! ,triangle ,aratus #af ,triangulum ,m9or ,! ,little ,triangle ,hevelius #aj ,musca ,! ,fly ,bode #f ,lynx ,! ,lynx ,hevelius #dd ,leo ,m9or ,! ,less] ,lion 8 #ec ,coma ,b]5ices ,b]5ice's ,hair ,ty*o ,brah #dc ,camelop>dalis ,! ,giraffe ,hevelius #eh ,mons ,m5elaus ,m\nt ,m5alaus 8 #aa ,corona ,borealis ,! ,nor!rn ,cr[n ,aratus #ba ,s]p5s ,! ,s]p5t 8 #fd ,scutum ,sobieski ,sobieski's ,%ield4 ,hevelius #h ,h]cules ,h]cules ,aratus #aac ,s]p5t>ius ,! ,s]p5t-be>] 8 #gd ,taurus ,poniat[ski ,poniat[ski's ,bull ,poczobat #g ,,lyra ,! ,h>p1 or ,lyre ,aratus #bb ,vulpecula et ,ans] ,fox & ,goose ,hevelius #cg ,sagitta ,! ,arr[ ,aratus #ah ,,aquila ,! ,eagle 8 #ga ,delph9us ,! ,dolph9 8 #ah ,cygnus ,! ,swan 8 #ha ,,cassiopeia ,! ,lady's ,*air 8 #ee ,equuleus ,! ,little ,horse ,ptolemy #aj ,lac]ta ,! ,liz>d ,hevelius #af ,pegasus ,pegasus 7,fly+ ,horse7 ,aratus #hi ,&rom$a ,&rom$a 8 #ff ,t>&us ,! ,re9de] ,lem\ni] #ab 7,!re are a few o!rs m>k$ 9 cont95tal maps47 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! ,,great ,,be>1 or 8,*>les's ,wa910 or ! 8,pl\gh10 z ,ursa ,major is v>i\sly call$1 is ( great value 9 indicat+ ! pole />1 :i*1 :5 once kn[n1 c nev] be mi/ak54 ,?is con/ellation has also be5 t]m$ ! 8,dipp]10 & is v conspicu\s 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! ?ree />s =m ! be>'s tail1 or ! h&le ( ! 8pl\gh02 ! o!rs =m ! body1 ,*>les's ,wa91 or 8,k>l-,wag510 ! ,g]man t]m = peasant's c>t1 is repres5t$ by ! quadrangle =m+ ! c>t1 & ! o!r ?ree />s are ! horses4 ,! 8,po9t]s0 are ! two end />s1 & if a l9e be foll[$ nor?w>ds f !m x w lead close to ,pol>is1 ! pr9cipal /> 9 ! less] be>4 ,?is pole /> is ( a v great brightness1 & peeps out1 almo/ isolat$1 ) a pure lu/re4 ,! names ( ! po9t]s are ,dubhe & ,m5ak4 ,! /> at ! tail-tip is ,b5etnas*1 !n ,miz> & ,alio?4 ,megrez & ,phad are ! rema9+ pair4 ,we app5d a r\gh outl9e ( ! be>1 = ! in=mation ( ^? :o h n yet notic$ x4 ,! ,less] ,be> is n s important z 8 eld] bro!r z reg>ds size1 b he is v useful to a/ronom]s4 ,he resembles ! ,great ,be> 9 appe>ance1 b is small]1 & ! positions ( ! />s are inv]t$4 ,9 ! cut on page #eee 7fig4 #fbi7 y see ! little be> sw++ r\nd ! pol> />1 :i* is at ! tip ( ! ,less] ,be>'s tail1 s any "o w be enabl$ to f9d him if !y look = ! pol> />1 & !n c\nt ! ?ree />s away f x1 & ! f\r 9 ! body4 ,! ,great ,be>'s tail po9ts 9 ! o!r direction4 ,?is movem5t ( ! e>?'s axis by displac+ ! equ9octial po9ts1 alt]s ! 8decl9ation0 & 8"r asc5sion0 ( ! />s 7comp>e page #dgc74 ,s ,pol>is is gradually approa*+ ! actual pol> po9t4 ,9 ab\t #bjj ye>s he w h got z close z he c1 & w !n beg9 to rec$e f x1 & 9 ab\t #ab1ejj ye>s aft] he w rea* 8 mo/ di/ant po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fjh4--,! ,great ,be>4 ,,pol>is1 ! ,pole ,/>1 0 call$ 8,cynosure0 by ! anci5ts1 & ?us we c und]/& ! quotation1 8,cynosure ( neighb\r+ eyes10 :5 a p]son or object is v attractive4 ,! pole /> 0 ! po9t to :i* all look$4 ,!re are "s o!r v important />s 9 ^! con/ellations4 ,= in/ance1 9-- ,p]seus we h ,alg5ib & ,algol1 ( second magnitude4 ,auriga we h ,capella1 ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,botes we h ,arcturus1 ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,lyra we h ,vega1 a v l>ge & bright />4 ,aquila1 ,altair1 also a v beautiful />4 ,9 ,cygnus !re is ,d5eb1 ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,^! />s are also designat$ by ! ,greek lett]s--1 lyr1 or ! fir/ 9 ! ,lyre--t is1 ,vega2 & s on = all1 accord+ to rank1 z already expla9$4 ,,s\!rn ,,con/ellations4 ,we mu/ pass on to ! s\!rn con/ellations1 ( :i* !re are =ty-six2 ! pr9cipal ones are 9 capital lett]s3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,no4 ,,( ,,"n ,,( ,,con/ellation4 8,,au?or40 ,,/>s4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ 99 ,phnix ,! ,phnix ,bay] #ac ,app>atus ,sculptoris ,! ,sculptor's ,tools ,lacaille #ab ,eridanus ,fluvius ,! ,riv] ,po ,aratus #hd 99 ,hydrus ,! ,wat]-snake ,bay] #aj ,cetus ,! ,:ale ,aratus #ig ,=nax ,*emica ,! ,furnace ,lacaille #ad 99 ,horologium ,! ,clock 8 #ab 99 ,rheticulus ,rhomboidialus ,! ,rhomboidal ,net 8 #aj 99 ,xiphias ,dorado ,! ,sword-fi% ,bay] #g 99 ,celapraxitels ,! ,engrav]'s ,tools ,lacaille #af ,lepus ,! ,h>e ,aratus #ai ,columba ,noa*i ,noah's ,dove ,halley #aj ,,orion ,orion ,aratus #gh ,argo ,navis ,! %ip ,argo 8 #fd ,,canis ,,major ,! ,great ,dog 8 #ca ,equuleus ,pictoris ,! ,easel ,lacaille #h ,monoc]os ,! ,unicorn ,hevelius #ca ,canis ,m9or ,! ,less] ,dog ,ptolemy #ad 99 ,*ameleon ,! ,*ameleon ,bay] #aj ,pyxis ,nautica ,! ,m>9]'s ,compass ,lacaille #d 99 ,piscis ,volans ,! ,fly+ ,fi% ,bay] #h ,hydra ,! ,snake ,aratus #fj ,sextans ,! ,sextant ,hevelius #da 99 ,rob] ,c>ol9um ,*>lie's ,oak ,halley #ab ,antlia ,pneumatica ,! ,air ,pump ,lacaille #c ,crat] ,! ,cup ,aratus #ca ,corvus ,! ,cr[ 8 #i 99,crux ,au/ralis ,! ,s\!rn ,cross ,roy] #f ,apis ,musca ,! ,s\? ,fly ,bay] #d 99 ,avis ,indica ,! ,bird ( ,p>adise 8 #aa 99 ,circ9us ,! ,compass ,lacaille #d ,c5taurus ,! ,c5taur ,aratus #ce ,lupus ,! ,wolf 8 #bd ,norma ,! ,squ>e ,lacaille #ab 99 ,triangulum ,au/ralis ,! ,s\!rn ,triangle ,bay] #e 99,ara ,! ,alt> ,aratus #i 99 ,telescopium ,! ,telescope ,lacaille #i ,corona ,au/ralis ,! ,s\!rn ,cr[n ,ptolemy #ab 99 ,pavo ,! ,peacock ,bay] #ad 99 ,indus ,! ,indian 8 #ab ,microscopium ,! ,microscope ,lacaille #aj 99 ,octans ,hadli5sis ,hadley's ,octant 8 #dc 99 ,grus ,! ,crane ,bay] #ad ,t\can ,! ,t\can 8 #i ,pisces ,au/ralis ,! ,s\!rn ,fi% ,aratus #bd 99 ,mons ,m5sa ,table ,m\nta9 ,lacaille #cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,we ne$ only describe ,orion & ,canis ,major1 ! pr9cipal gr\ps4 ,! =m] c]ta9ly con/itutes ! mo/ glori\s gr\p1 & x is visible to all ! _w1 because ! equ9octial passes ?r\gh x4 ,,orion1 z we h said1 c be view$ f ei!r hemisph]e1 & s c "s o!rs2 b ^? m>k$ ) an a/]isk 9 ! =ego+ li/ are n visible 9 ! latitude ( ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fji4--,orion4 ,orion is a v brilliant con/ellation1 & conta9s two f9e />s ( ! fir/ magnitude1 & "s ( ! second4 ,! =m] are ,betelgeux & ,rigel4 ,bellatrix is ! ?ird 9 ord]4 ,! 8belt0 is =m$ ( ?ree bright />s1 & ! sword is visible z five />s j bel[4 ,canis ,major possesses ,sirius1 a v f9e /> 7! dog />74 ,canis ,m9or has two ( ! fir/ & second magnitude1 & ,hydra has "o ( ! fir/4 ,! ,s\!rn ,cross is a beautiful con/ellation1 invisible 9 our latitude1 b famili> to sailors 9 ! ,s\!rn ,seas4 ,,! ,,/>s' ,,di/ance ,,& ,,magnitude4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #faj4--,pol>is4 ,:5 we gaze up into ! sky at night1 we see ! />s tw9kl+ f> away1 & we may rem>k "h t ?is tw9kl+ ( ! />s is due to ! atmosph]e & ! *anges 9 its p[] ( refraction1 & ( c\rse ! />'s light *anges its direction4 ,b if we asc5d 9 a balloon into v high & r>efi$ /rata ( ! air1 we w f9d ! tw9kl+ less4 ,we h giv5 ! numb] ( ! />s accord+ to ,flam/ead1 b ! l>g] ! telescope ! great] w be ! numb] ( />s we %all see1 numb]s aga9 be+ too f> ev5 = our p]fect$ in/rum5ts4 ,b we c ga9 "s idea ( ! magnitude ( ! />s :5 we consid] ! di/ance to arrive at1 :i* is a mo/ difficult task1 = figures seem sc>cely long en\gh to c\nt ! millions ( miles1 & no in/rum5t c detect ! p>allax4 ,ev5 suppos+ ! p>allax to be a v small fraction ( a degree we %\ld get a result equall+ trillions ( miles4 ,,no4 #fa 9 ,cygni 0 at "o "t cont9ually obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,bessel1 & he f\nd t its di/ance--& x is ! ne>e/ />--is sixty-two & a half trillions ( miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #faa4--,! ,s\!rn ,cross4 ,let u consid] :at ?is means4 ,light comes to u f ! sun 7#ia1jjj1jjj ( miles7 9 ab\t eight m9utes1 & travels at ! rate ( some?+ l #ahf1jjj miles 9 a second4 ,b ev5 at t a/\nd+ rate ! light f ! /> call$ #fa ,cygni took t5 ye>s to rea* ! e>?2 & !re are />s ^: light has nev] yet rea*$ ! e>?1 al?\gh ! gleam may h be5 travell+ at #ahf1jjj miles a second = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,& we may presume t ?\gh we /ill see ! light ( />s1 "s ( !m may be dead1 b ! light left is /ill progress+ to u ?r\gh space4 ,s we mu/ conclude t "s />s :i* look l>ge1 z d ,vega & ,sirius = in/ance1 mu/ be enorm\s 8suns10 a great deal l>g] ?an our sun1 & ! />s are ea* ! c5tre ( invisible sy/ems j z our sun is ! c5tre ( ! 8sol>0 sy/em4 ,vega is a trem5d\s />1 & %9es ) h] own light z d all o!r visible />s2 = reflect$ light1 s v visible 9 ! moon1 :i* is close to u1 w\ld be q invisible at su* trem5d\s di/ances4 ,s we mu/ call ^! />s 8suns10 & may add an app>5tly a/oni%+ fact1 t our own sun is m]ely "o ( ! />s 9 ! ,galaxy1 or 8,milky ,way06 ,,*apt] ,,xli4 ,,! ,,/>s--7cont9u$74 ,,d\ble ,,& ,,multiple ,,/>s--,,col\r$ ,,& ,,v>iable ,,/>s--,,clu/]s1 ,,gr\ps1 ,,& ,,nebul--,,! ,,galaxy1 ,,or ,,milky ,,way--,,h[ ,,to ,,f9d ,,out ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,/>s4 ,al?\gh n v cle>ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 !re are 9 ! sky "s pairs ( />s v close toge!r app>5tly2 b :5 ^! d\ble />s are exam9$ ) a good telescope we f9d t ?\gh we fancy !y are two />s v close1 9 reality an imm5se di/ance sep>ates !m4 ,by ,vega1 :i* we h already m5tion$1 !re is app>5tly a />1 :i* on exam9ation w be f\nd really to be two />s4 ,x is also 9 ! con/ellations ( ! ,lyre1 b ( mu* l[] magnitude ?an ,vega4 ,b 9 "s in/ances !re are ?ree or f\r />s ?us plac$ toge!r1 & ! frequ5cy ( ! occurr5ce ( ?is fact e/abli%es ! f>!r fact t ^! comb9ations are n accid5tal--t ! />s are int]dep5d5t & physically connect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fab4-- ,leonis4 ,!re are n[ at lea/ six ?\s& d\ble />s kn[n1#bg & ?is is a v small proportion ( ! =ty millions or s ( suns :i* are believ$ to exi/ 9 space4 ,b ( ^! six ?\s& a l>g] proportion h be5 asc]ta9$ to be physically connect$4 ,m ?an six hundr$ ( ^! pairs are d\ble suns1 :ile aga9 !re are o!r comb9ations ( ?ree & p]haps m4 ,:5 two are ?us connect$ we h :at are t]m$ b9>y sy/ems1 & :5 m are associat$ !y are call$ triple & multiple />s4 ,an example ( ! la/-m5tion$ class is ! small /> above m5tion$ ne> ,vega4 ,x is ,lyr1 & is a d\ble ( a d\ble4 ,9 ord9>y telescopes ?is w n be p]ceiv$1 b ) a high p[] ! comb9ation w be notic$4 ,! same ph5om5on is obs]vable 9 "o ( ! />s ( ,h]cules & 9 ,&rom$a4 ,! revolution ( ^! d\ble suns1 or b9>y sy/ems1 has be5 closely obs]v$1 & ,pr(essor ,newcomb has giv5 u a li/ ( ! b9>y sy/ems ( %ort p]iod :i* are well det]m9$4 ,^! are z foll[s3-- #db ,coron #bf ye>s4 ,h]culis #ce ye>s4 ,/ruve #c1aba #dj ye>s4 ,coron #dj ye>s4 ,sirius #ej ye>s4 ,cancri #eh ye>s4 ,urs ,majoris #fc ye>s4 ,coron ,borealis #fg ye>s4 ,c5tauri #gg ye>s4 ,ophiu*i #ib ye>s4 ,ophiu*i #if ye>s4 ,scorpii #ih ye>s4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t al?\gh ^! d\ble />s appe> close toge!r f our /&po9t1 !y may be f> ap>t--"o beh9d ! o!r 9 a /raight l9e4 ,:5 su* 8pairs0 exi/ !y are kn[n z optical pairs1 or optically d\ble />s1 z di/+ui%$ f ! actually physical 8pairs0 :i* revolve r\nd ! c5tre ( a sy/em4 ,9 ,orion !re has be5 discov]$ a regul> sy/em1 & ! 9 ,orion1 :i* appe>s 9 a common telescope a mod]ate />1 & to ! unaid$ eye only a speck ( light1 is really compos$ ( sev5 />s--f\r are set 9 ! =m ( a trapezium1 z figur$ 9 ! diagram 9 ! m>g9 by dots & a/]isks4 ,two ( ^! h be5 asc]ta9$ to possess att5dants indicat$ by dots1 & a sev5? /> 0 discov]$ by ,lassell1 & ,humboldt rem>ks t 9 all probability ?is app>5tly t9y /> 9 ! con/ellation ,orion con/itutes a real sy/em1 = ! five small] />s h ! same prop] motion z ! pr9cipal "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fac4--,monoc]otis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fad4--,trapezium ( ,orion 7,h]s*el74 ,?us our imag9ation almo/ fails to grasp ! inf9ity ( ! sy/ems ) our s+le sun1 & ) ! di/ant d\ble & ev5 triple suns r\nd :i* planets revolve p]fectly indep5d5t ( ! o!r sy/ems1 z we are indep5d5t ( !m possess+ heat & light f _! own sun or suns z we receive x f ours1 day & night seasons succe$+ ea* o!r1 & ! wondr\s v>ieties ( ! light produc$ by ! appe>ance or )drawal ( a sun or two 9 ! firmam5t ( ^? mo/ di/ant planets4 ,^! suns be+ d\ble or triple w\ld affect ea* o!r2 ! composition ( ! light giv5 =? w\ld produce--z we may assume--v>y+ effects4 ,we "k some?+ ab\t ! light ( ! />s by ! spectroscope1 & ! col\rs ( />s are due to ! vap\r :i* takes away a c]ta9 "p ( ! light emitt$1 leav+ ! rema9d] to desc5d ?r\gh ! atmosph]e to u4 ,b9>y />s are mo/ num]\s ( ! d\bles2 = in/ance ,ca/or1 ,coron1 ,rigel1 ,pol>is1 ,mivac1 ,leonis1 ,virg9is1 ,urs ,majoris1 ,h]cules1 #cf ,&rom$1 ,ophiu*i1 & ,aquil4 ,! illu/ration 9 ! m>g9 is ,ca/or 7or ,gem9orum71 ! mo/ nor!rly ( ! ,tw9s4 ,! ,coron is also figur$1 z are ,pol>is 7see fig4 #faj ante471 ,botes1 ,rigel1 & ,leonis4 ,! cuts h]e) illu/rate ! relative positions at ! p]iods nam$ ( ! 8d\bles10 & ( ! revolution ( suns ar\nd o!r suns z m5tion$4 ,z a consequ5ce ( _! prop] motion ! b9>y />s appe> to v>y 9 _! di/ances f ea* o!r1 z 9 ! topmo/ ( ! ?ree cuts on ! 7opposite7 page repres5t+ ,virg9is4 ,! />s h gradually approa*$ ea* o!r1 & s are ! />s 9 ,ca/or approximat+1 & :5 !y h clos$1 & h appe>$ almo/ z a s+le />1 z !y w d1 !y w take op5 ord] aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fae4-- ,coron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #faf4--;,botes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fag4--;,ca/or4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fah4--,rigel4 ,! %orte/ "t occupi$ by a d\ble /> 9 its revolution is ?irty-five ye>s1 & we h already giv5 "s ( ^? :i* h be5 asc]ta9$4 ,we w close ?is section ) a few o!r examples4 ,= in/ance1 ,virg9is revolves 9 "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s1 ,ca/or 9 two hundr$ & =ty ye>s1 #d ,aqu>ii 9 ?ree hundr$ ye>s1 #cg ,pegasi 9 five hundr$ ye>s4 ,!re are num]\s o!r in/ances up to a p]iod ( ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 & ab\t eight hundr$ ( ^! b9>y sy/ems are kn[n4 ,we h m5tion$ t !re are two or m suns 9 ! multiple sy/ems4 ,^! suns are ! cause ( ! diff]5t col\rs ( ! />s4 ,,col\rs ,,( ,,! ,,/>s4 ,! "q ( />-col\r foll[s naturally ! consid]ation ( ! multiple />s2 = al?\gh s+le />s h be5 obs]v$ ( a ruddy col\r1 !re are no in/ances ( a blue or gre5 "o unatt5d$ by a companion4 ,?is col\r+ has be5 attribut$ to ! contra/ betwe5 multiple />s1 = ! col\rs are frequ5tly complem5t>y2 b inve/igation has %[n t ?is _c be ! case4 ,= in/ances h be5 kn[n 9 :i*1 :5 two are ?us associat$1 & "o is conceal$ f u1 ! o!r is j z bright1 & reta9s its =m] col\r4 ,( c\rse 9 cases 9 :i* col\r is app>5t to ! unaid$ vision1 only ! brighte/ />s betray col\r4 ,ant>es1 ,betelgeuse & ,aldeb>an are r$ 7orange7 col\r4 ,sirius & ,canopus are :ite4 ,arcturus & ,capella are yell[i%1 s is ,pollux4 ,vega is blui%-:ite4 ,^! appe>ances are1 ( c\rse1 mu* m m>k$ :5 ! />s are exam9$ ?r\gh ! telescope1 & telescopic />s--:i* are />s unobs]vable )\t a glass--are v mu* col\r$1 & ! multiple />s give u blue1 gre51 violet1 & o!r t9ts1 besides ^? already m5tion$4 ,aga91 ^! col\r$ />s d n always rema9 ! same col\r4 ,sirius 0 once r$2 ,m>s 0 at times :ite4 ,spectrum analysis %[s t ! col\rs ( _m are due to absorption by ! vap\rs ( "s ( ! rays2 & ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 vap\rs may cut (f "s1 & at o!r times o!r vap\rs may exi/ & cut (f o!r rays1 & s ! col\rs may be *ang$4 ,/ruve gives ! foll[+ li/ ( b9>y complem5ts ( 8multiple0 />s3-- ,pairs consi/+ ( a blue & :ite pr9cipal /> #ec 8 8 & a light yell[ pr9cipal /> #eb 8 8 a yell[ or r$ pr9cipal /> #eb 8 8 a gre5 pr9cipal /> #af ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fai4--,position ( ! two />s ( ,virg9is499 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbj4--,position ( ! two />s ( ,ca/or499 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fba4--,position ( ! two />s ( ,urs ,majoris499 ,we ne$ sc>cely pursue ?is "q f>!r1 ?\gh _m ideas conc]n+ ! col\r$ />s w arise 9 e ?\ghtful read]'s m9d4 ,suppos+ t e sy/em has its sun or suns1 c we fancy ! effects ( a gre5 or blue or violet sunlight--a light unmix$8 ,to employ ! words ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el--8,x may be m easily sugge/$ 9 words ?an conceiv$ 9 imag9ation :at v>iety ( illum9ation two suns1 a r$ & a gre51 or a yell[ & blue "o1 mu/ af=d to a planet circulat+ r\nd ei!r--or :at *>m+ contra/s & graceful vicissitudes a r$ & a gre5 day1 = in/ance1 alt]nat+ ) a :ite "o & ) d>kness1 might arise f ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( "o or o!r or bo? above ! horizon40 ,,lo/ ,,& ,,new ,,/>s4 ,we may h p]haps read ! 8,lo/ ,pleiad10 & wond]$ :at has become ( ! /> suppos$ to h dropp$ out ( ! clu/] s well kn[n 9 ! con/ellation ,taurus--! ,pleiades4 ,!re are sev5 />s1 ( :i* six are visible to ! av]age eye1 & ! anci5ts us$ to decl>e t "o ( ! sev5 si/]s 7! daught]s ( ,atlas & ,pleione7 hid h]self because %e _h m>ri$ a mortal1 :ile all h] si/]s w$d$ gods4 ,x is n improbable t "o ( ! sev51 =m]ly di/+ui%able ) ! unassi/$ eye1 may h disappe>$ or be5 lo/2 b x is c]ta9 t /rong eyesight c see m ?an sev5 n[1 & 9 ! telescope !re are ab\t "o hundr$4 ,& x is a fact t "s />s ^: places h be5 c>efully m>k$ 9 ! catalogue h subsequ5tly disappe>$4 ,_m errors may h be5 made1 & />s put d[n :]e no /> exi/$1 s a succe$+ obs]v] has n be5 able to f9d ! /> indicat$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we may admit t />s h be5 lo/ to sight1 & to comp5sate u = any su* disappe>ances new />s are frequ5tly obs]v$1 & ^! are v rem>kable ph5om5a4 ,ab\t #aba ,b4,c4 ,hipp>*us p]ceiv$ a new />1 :i* 0 visible ev5 9 ! daytime1 & on subsequ5t occasions o!rs came into exi/5ce--viz41 9 ! ye>s #ide1 #abfd1 & #aegb4 ,9 ! la/-m5tion$ ye> ,ty*o ,brah sudd5ly p]ceiv$ ! new />1 :i* 0 at fir/ v brilliant4 ,x grew fa9t] & fa9t]1 aft] fir/ ga9+ 9 int5sity1 & disappe>$ entirely 9 #aegd2 & at o!r times />s h be5 se5 :i* rema9$ only = a %ort "t1 & !n disappe>$4 ,! /> discov]$ by ,ty*o ,brah 0 se5 by him :5 walk+ across ! fields "o night1 & he enc\nt]$ peasants :o 7 gaz+ at ! new lum9>y4 ,x 0 s bright t x ?rew a %ad[ f ,brah's /ick4 ,! new arrival appe>$ 9 8,cassiopeia10 "u ! lady's *air1 =m+1 z pictur$ 9 ! diagram1 an irregul> squ>e4 ,! /range /> is ! l>ge/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbb4--;,cassiopeia4 ,"s />s exhibit extraord9>y fluctuations1 & "o discov]$ by ,mr4 ,birm+ham 9 #ahff1 decreas$ rapidly & sank away to ab\t ! t5? magnitude1 & !n got bright]1 & aga9 dim9i%$ 9 spl5d\r4 ,! 8,eta0 ,args has also be5 subject$ to _m fluctuations likewise1 & su* alt]ations h ga9$ = ^! lum9>ies ! "n ( 8,v>iable ,/>s40 ,9 ! accompany+ little *>t !re w be p]ceiv$ two p>ticul> />s1 nam$ ,algol1 8! demon10 & ,mira 8! wond]ful40 ,! latt] is ! mo/ celebrat$ = its v>iable qualities1 & its cycle ( *ange occupies ne>ly "o ( our ye>s4 ,= a few days x appe>s v bright1 & !n fades away = ab\t ?ree mon?s1 to disappe> = five mon?s1 & !n x reappe>s aga91 increas+ 9 brilliancy up to ! second magnitude = ano!r ?ree mon?s or s4 ,"s p acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a by /at+ t ! sides ( ! /> be+ less lum9\s pres5t ! d>k & light portions 9 rotation2 b we c give no satisfactory explanation ( ! reason1 unless x be caus$ by an aggregation ( spots ^u its surface1 l sun-spots on our sun1 or p]haps by eclipse4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbc4--,/>-,map4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbd4--,nebul 9 ,pegasus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbe4--;,dumb bell ,nebul4 ,,/>-,,clu/]s ,,& ,,nebul4 ,,nebul & ,,/>-,,clu/]s are num]\s 9 ! heav5s4 ,! mo/ important are ! ,great ,nebul 9 ,orion & 9 ,&rom$a4 ,b !re are o!r v beautiful 8pat*es0 ( lum9\s matt] or cl\d appe>ances compos$ ( m9ute />s invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,we annex specim5s ( ! ,nebul1 "o or two hav+ be5 already ins]t$4 ,!re mu/ be ?\s&s ( ^! />-cl\ds1 & !y h be5 classifi$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el f ,sir ,william's discov]ies z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,clu/]s ( />s1 9 :i* ! />s are cle>ly di/+ui%able1 divid$ aga9 into regul> & irregul> clu/]s4 7#b7 ,resolvable ,nebul1 :i* may be sep>at$ into di/9ct />s "u p[]ful telescopes4 7#c7 ,nebul1 9 :i* !re is no appe>ance :atev] ( />s1 divid$ into classes accord+ to brightness1 etc4 7#d7 ,planet>y ,nebul4 7#e7 ,/ell> ,nebul4 7#f7 ,nebul\s ,/>s4 ,we le>n also f ! =ego+ au?ority t ,nebul affect a c]ta9 di/rict2 t is1 !y h1 z x 71 a pref]5ce = x1 & are n di/ribut$ 9 a r&om mann] ov] ! heav5s1 & are f\nd 9 ,leo1 ,leo ,m9or1 ,ursa ,major1 ,canes ,v5atici1 ,coma1 ,botes1 & ,virgo1 & m sp>+ly 9 ,aries1 ,taurus1 ,orion1 ,p]seus1 ,draco1 ,h]cules1 ,lyra1 etc4 ,nebul are f\nd associat$ ) />s1 z is ! case ) ,argus2 ^! are call$ nebul\s />s1 & 9 ! case ( ?is p>ticul> /> _m v int]e/+ inve/igations h be5 made4 ,! ,nebul are z equally v>iable z ! />s !y surr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbf4--,nebul 9 ,p]seus4 ,:at is t]m$ ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis 0 put =w>d by ,la ,place1 & by x he endeav\r$ to acc\nt = ! regul> developm5t ( ! /ell> sy/em1 :i* is suppos$ to h orig9at$ f an imm5se nebul> cl\d4 ,?is imm5se mass w\ld rotate & contract1 & ! out] portions w\ld sep>ate & develop 9 r+s l ,saturn's r+s4 ,!n ! r+s break into sep>ate portions1 & ea* portion cond5ses into a planet1 or ! small 8bits0 travel r\nd ! sun l a/]oids1 & 9 ?is mann] v>i\s sy/ems 7 =m$4 ,?is !ory 0 consid]$ to be q explod$ :5 />s 7 disc]n$ 9 nebul by ! m rec5t telescopes2 b !n ! spectroscope came to our aid1 & x 0 discov]$ t !re 7 "s nebul :i* are simply masses ( gl[+ gas or aggregations ( /ones :i* are da%+ aga9/ ea* o!r 9 s =cible a mann] z to produce heat & lum9osity4 ,mr4 ,locky] appe>s to fav\r ! latt] !ory z to nebul4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbg4--,nebul 9 ,canes ,v5atici4 ,mr4 ,proctor1 h[ev]1 has put =w>d a hypo!sis t ! /> or meteor %[]s are ! orig9al cause ( ! sid]eal sy/em1 & ?is ra9 ( meteors has fall5 = all "t1 gradually consolidat+ into orbs4 ,! fact t ! con/itu5ts ( sun1 e>? & planets1 comets & meteors be+ fundam5tally ! same l5ds probability to ?is hypo!sis1 :i* is fully expla9$ by ! au?or4 ,,! ,,milky ,,way4 ,! ,galaxy is famili> to all read]s1 & al?\gh visible all ! ye> r\nd1 is p]ceiv$ m pla9ly 9 ,augu/1 ,septemb]1 & ,octob]1 or at ! beg9n+ & end+ ( t p]iod4 ,?is zone ( />s 0 ( c\rse well kn[n to ! anci5ts1 b x is to ,galileo t we owe ! fir/ important in=mation ab\t ! ,galaxy2 he decid$ t x 0 =m$ ( />s4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el inve/igat$ ! subject v closely1 & to him mu* ( ! in=mation conc]n+ ! ,milky ,way is due4 ,x is n v di/9ct 9 ! nor?1 b z x advances f ,cepheus s\?w>ds by ! ,unicorn1 x gets cle>]1 & op5s out 9 ,argo1 & desc5ds /ill s\?1 becom+ bright] ne> ! ,s\!rn ,cross4 ,x !n passes nor?w>d aga91 divid+ into two bran*es1 "o ( :i* dies out1 & !n ov] ,sagitt>ius1 & s on to ,cygnus1 !n to ,casseopeia & ! />t+-po9t4 ,! numb] ( />s 9 ! ,galaxy is ab\t #ah1jjj1jjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbh4--,! ,milky ,way4 ,9 ?is wond]ful zone ( />s ! c5tre ( our sy/em1 ! sun1 is plac$4 ,x 0 suppos$ to be divid$ z 9 ! diagram above2 ! inn] portion be+ ! />s se5 9 _! ?ickness1 & ! out] r+ repres5t+ ! />s view$ 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? & bread?4 ,b aft]w>ds1 ,h]s*el modifi$ 8 op9ions respect+ ! ,milky ,way1 & s9ce 8 dea? _m a/ronom]s--& ,mr4 ,proctor m p>ticul>ly--h devot$ consid]able "t to an exam9ation ( ?is wond]ful zone ( />s2 :i*1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is n a cont9u\s /ream2 x is a s]ies ( lum9\s pat*es4 ,on ?is po9t ,pr(essor ,ni*ol says3-- 8,x is only to ! mo/ c>eless glance t ! ,milky ,way appe>s a cont9u\s zone4 ,let ! nak$ eye re/ ?\ghtfully on any "p ( x1 & if circum/ances are fav\rable1 x w /& out r z an accumulation ( pat*es & /reams ( light 9 e conceivable v>iety ( =m & brightness2 n[ side by side1 n[ heap$ on ea* o!r1 aga9 spann+ across d>k spaces 444 & at o!r times d>t+ (f into ! neighb\r+ skies 9 bran*es ( caprici\s l5g? & %ape1 :i* gradually ?9 away & disappe>40 ,! ,milky ,way has its greate/ bread? 9 ! 8,swan10 & 9 ! 8,eagle0 con/ellation x divides itself4 ,9 ! 8,s\!rn ,triangle0 ! zone is brighte/1 & 9 ! 8,s\!rn ,cross0 ! hole or space1 t]m$ by sailors ! 8,coal ,sack10 is v di/9ct4 ,x !n contracts & exp&s1 & !re is 9 ,argo ano!r gap4 ,!n x is lo/ = a space1 !n x bran*es out1 & soon crosses ! ,equator1 dilates1 contracts1 op5s out aga91 & s returns to ! 8,swan0 aga94 ,philosoph]s h frequ5tly disc\rs$ ^u ?is ph5om5on1 b all /atem5ts mu/ rema9 m or less speculative4 ,f ,kepl]'s to ! pres5t "t a/ronom]s h be5 consid]+ ! ,milky ,way1 & :5 ! ,nebul> !ory 0 giv5 up1 :5 ! ,galaxy 0 f\nd to be compos$ ( />s1 !re 01 z we h notic$1 ! idea ( ! r+ & ! clov5 disc4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,proctor has lik5$ ! ,galaxy to a coil$ s]p5t1 & consid]s ! op5+s 9 ! ,milky ,way z evid5ce t ! /ratum ( />s is limit$1 & t "h we c see beyond x4 ,9 fact1 x w\ld appe> t x is a v complicat$ "q2 & z ! zone itself is complicat$ 8) outly+ bran*es beyond ! range ( our mo/ p[]ful telescopes10 s an actual k ( ! ,milky ,way is beyond u at pres5t4 ,x is compos$ ( mo/ extraord9>y aggregations ( />s1 :i* appe> n only impossible to c\nt1 b ea* "o to be indep5d5t ( ! o!r4 ,?us we mu/ conclude our rapid survey ( ! ,milky ,way1 & close ) ,mr4 ,proctor's rem>k 9 8 8,univ]se ( ,/>s40 8,! sid]eal sy/em10 he says1 8is altoge!r m complicat$1 altoge!r m v>i$ 9 /ructure ?an has hi!rto be5 suppos$4 ,)9 "o & ! same region co-exi/ />s ( _m ord]s ( real magnitude1 ! greate/ be+ ?\s&s ( times l>g] ?an ! lea/4 ,all ! ,nebul hi!rto discov]$1 :e!r gase\s or /ell>1 irregul>1 planet>y1 r+-=m$1 or elliptic1 exi/ )9 ! limits ( ! sid]eal sy/em4 ,!y all =m "p & p>cel ( t wond]ful sy/em1 ^: ne>] & bright] p>ts con/itute ! glories ( our nocturnal heav5s40 ,& a little reflection w %[ h[ true ?is is4 ,n v long ago 9 ! _w's life ! sol> sy/em 0 suppos$ to consi/ ( "o sun ) a few planets w&]+ ar\nd him4 ,!n "s m 7 f\nd1 & !y 7 call$ 8satellites40 ,= a long "t man fanci$ he _h rea*$ ! 8ultima ?ule0 ( a/ronomy 9 ^! dep?s2 b ! :ole idea 0 *ang$ :5 x 0 discov]$ t beyond ,m>s !re lie ! a/]oids & ! ho/ ( bodies 9 ?is sol> sy/em :i* we _c d m ?an allude to4 ,!n :5 we consid] t ?is 8sun0 ( ours1 :i* we ?9k s enorm\s1 & :i* keeps 9 subjection s _m heav5ly bodies1 & illum9ates !m2 :5 we reflect t !re are 9 space1 & visible1 />s _m times l>g] ?an our rul+ />1 ea* a sun1 & t our sun w\ld1 if put :]e ! great ,sirius gl[s1 be b a speck 9 ! firmam5t1 & 8 sy/em invisible to our eyes1 we may well wond] at ! magnitude ( ! subject1 & ! ,inf9ite ,wisdom & ,p[] 8t telle? ! numb] ( ! />s1 & calle? !m all by _! names40 ,,h[ ,,to ,,read ,,! ,,sky4 ,a few p>ticul>s1 to enable a read] to id5tify ! mo/ prom95t />s1 may be giv5 z />t+-po9ts f :i* "s few excursions into ! spangl$ heav5s may be attempt$4 ,b ! sugge/ions mu/ be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! ev]-v>y+ directions ( ! suppos$ l9es 9 consequ5ce ( ! daily revolution ( ! sph]e4 ,we h illu/rat$ ?is 9 ! cut 9 ! m>g91 :]e9 ! ,less] ,be> is %[n z sw++ r\nd ! ,pol> ,/> 9 diff]5t positions4 ,sometimes ! l9es ( direction w be v]tical1 sometimes incl9$1 b all reta9+ _! relative positions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fbi4--,! 8,sw+0 ( ! ,less] ,be>4 ,we h already le>nt t ! 8po9t]s0 ( ! ,great ,be> indicate ! ,pol> ,/> 9 ! ,less] ,be>1 & we c 7r\ghly7 e/imate ! di/ance betwe5 ! po9t]s z #e4 ,?is w give u ! di/ance betwe5 ! po9t]s & ! ,pol> ,/> z #bi4 ,by foll[+ an imag9>y l9e ?r\gh ! two nor!rn />s ( ! 8,waggon0 7! ,be>7 away f ! 8horses10 we %all f9d ,capella ab\t #ej away4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcj4--;,diagram ( ! ,pole ,/>4 ,if we pass f ! fir/ /> next ! waggon ( 8,*>les's ,wa90 to ! ,pole ,/>1 & pa/ x1 we %all arrive at an irregul> ,w4 ,?is is ,cassiopeia1 ab\t z f> beyond ,pol>is z ! ,be> is bel[ x4 ,:5 ! latt] is l[1 ! =m] is at ! z5i?1 & s on4 ,a l9e drawn f ! ,pole ,/> ?r\gh ! end /> ( ! ,great ,be> leads to ,arcturus4 ,a l9e tak5 f ,arcturus = ab\t an equal di/ance w1 ) ! ,pole ,/>1 make a triangle ) ,vega4 ,! ,pol> ,/> may be call$ ! ,apex4 ,regulus may be f\nd s\?w>ds by draw+ a l9e ?r\gh ! two fir/ />s ( ! squ>e 9 ! ,be> 7opposite ! po9t]s74 ,f ,vega1 almo/ opposite ! ,pole ,/>1 & ?r\gh x ab\t twice z f> away on ! o!r side1 is ,sirius1 a brilliant 8sun40 ,procyon w be f\nd to ! we/w>d ( ,regulus ab\t #cj4 ,f ,procyon to ! ,pole ,/> a l9e w pass ?r\gh ,pollux & ,ca/or4 ,ano!r l9e f ! pole /> ?r\gh ! middle ( ! ?ree 8horses0 9 ! 8,wa90 w rea* ,spica ,virg9is ab\t #gj beyond4 ,s we c describe a l>ge triangle ) ,spica1 ,regulus1 & ,arcturus1 at ! angles4 ,regulus is ! apex1 ,spica & ,arcturus a %ort base l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fca4--;,diagram ( ,sirius1 etc4 ,f ! pole /> ?r\gh ,capella1 pass+ betwe5 ,betelgeux & ,bellatrix1 we %all describe a l9e lead+ to ! ?ree />s ( ,orion's belt4 ,betwe5 x & ! ,pleiades is ,aldeb>an4 ,!re are _m o!r />s :i* c\ld be indicat$2 b on a f9e ev5+1 if ! obs]v] w m>k !m ^u a piece ( pap]1 plac+ ! pole /> 9 ! c5tre1 he w be able to add to 8 /> map v rapidly4 ,9 ! =ego+ *apt]s ( ,a/ronomy we h se5 h[ ! e>? & o!r planets move ar\nd ! sun2 we h glanc$ at ! 8fix$0 />s & _! gr\ps1 t]m$ ! con/ellations1 & h not$ ! planets & _! *>act]i/ics1 ) _m o!r int]e/+ facts4 ,!re is yet a great deal to be le>nt1 & mu* /udy w be requir$ ) daily 7nightly7 obs]vations be=e ! "y read] w obta9 success z a /ud5t ( a/ronomy2 b !re is no /udy s int]e/+4 ,we h se5 :at a v small portion ( ! univ]se is occupi$ by our sol> sy/em1 & :at a speck our e>? is on ! pla9 ( creation4 ,we f9d ourselves on ! bord]-l& ( ! incompreh5sible1 & we are lo/ 9 speculations ^u ! unse54 ,,footnotes3 #bg ,mr4 ,burnham has lately giv5 a li/ ( two hundr$ & fifty-"o new d\ble />s1 & 9 ! ,a/ronomical ,society's proce$+s !re is a li/ ( t5 ?\s&4 ,,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,,new ,,a/ronomical ,,appliances4 ,a ,,cele/ial ,,indicator--,,a/ronomical ,,or ,,cosmographical ,,clock--,a ,,simple ,,globe--,a ,,sol> ,,*ronomet]4 ,hav+ said some?+ conc]n+ a/ronomy1 we w give a few in/ructions respect+ ! in/rum5ts n already describ$1 & make "s obs]vations1 supplem5t+ our directions 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 = _m p w be glad to le>n h[ to read ! ev5+ skies4 ,"h we h an app>atus :i* w prove useful to amateurs2 x is a sort ( cele/ial indicator by ,maup]91 & w facilitate ! f9d+ ( e /> or con/ellation1 :5 ! app>atus has be5 made ready by po9t+ ! rod1 ,t1 9 ! direction ( ! object x is desir$ to view4 ,?is rod is m\nt$ ^u a rod1 ,s1 & is movable upw>ds or d[nw>ds or sideways1 & 9 ! la/-nam$ movem5t x w c>ry ) x an indicator1 ,i1 :i* slides ov] ! *>t or diagram ( ! heav5s4 ,! two arms ( ?is indicator are always p>allel to ! plane ( ! rod1 ,t1 no matt] 9 :at position !y may be on ! *>t or ! incl9ation ( ! rod4 ,! extremities ( ?is rod are t]m9at$ by an eye-slit1 & by a cresc5t respectively4 ,:5 ! app>atus is set1 all "o has to d is to look ?r\gh ! eye ap]ture1 ,o1 & view ! /> :i* we h *os5 9 ! c5tre ( ! cresc5t1 ,c4 ,?is /> w be f\nd nam$ 9 ! space betwe5 ! arms ( ! slid+ indicator1 ,i4 ,x is easy to p]=m ! op]ation inv]sely--t is to say1 to f9d 9 ! sky1 by means ( ! sight+-rod1 ,t1 ! />s we h *os5 on ! *>t betwe5 ! prongs ( ! indicator4 ,! *>t repres5ts exactly ! heav5s z we see !m1 & ?is new mode is oppos$ to ! mann] g5]ally adopt$ ) cele/ial *>ts1 & is v important1 = x obviates ! necessity ( hold+ ! map above "o's head1 its face d[nw>ds4 ,z we h already %[$1 x is n difficult to f9d ! ,pol> ,/> & ! ,great ,be>4 ,! latt] is readily recognis$ by its sev5 />s1 & ! ,less] ,be> glides ar\nd ! pole z %[n 9 ! diagram on ! prec$+ page 7fig4 #fbi74 ,n[ let u see h[ ! cele/ial indicator w "w4 ,let u take ! app>atus into ! op5 air1 & place x ^u its tripod /&4 ,! upp] portion w be f\nd movable by loos5+ ! screw1 ,v4 ,by ano!r simple arrangem5t ! table c be slant$1 & by turn+ a screw we c entirely slope ! side ( ! *>t :]e midnight 7m9uit7 is writt54 ,be+ plac$ opposite ! pol> /> we take ! upp] "p ( ! *>t by ! button1 ,g1 & br+ x be=e u by a horizontal rotative movem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcb4--;,cele/ial ,indicator4 ,we n[ place ! slid+ indicator ^u midday 7midi71 & keep x 9 t position :ile work+ ! app>atus--t is1 until we h caught sight ( ! pol> /> 9 ! c5tre ( ! cresc5t1 ,c1 by means ( ! eye ap]ture1 ,o4 ,we h n[ obta9$ ! m]idian1 & c>e %\ld be tak5 to tight5 ! screw1 ,v4 ,!n ! table is rais$ to its fix$ place ^u ! support2 x is regulat$ accord+ to ! latitude ( ! place1 & ! app>atus is !n 8ori5t$40 ,! upp] disc is an elliptical op5+1 or ap]ture1 :i* conta9s = e mom5t ! />s visible ^u ! horizon1 & ! circumf]5ce is furni%$ ) a graduat$ scale ( h\rs divid$ into five-m9ute divisions1 & ?is is fix$ ^u ! app>atus4 ,! dott$ l9e betwe5 ! midday & midnight po9ts gives ! m]idian4 ,! disc plac$ und]nea? is ! cele/ial *>t1 on ! circumf]5ce ( :i* we %all f9d ! days ( ! mon?s4 ,x c be mov$ ar\nd ! rod1 ,s1 :i* repres5ts ! axis ( ! e>? ar\nd :i* ! heav5s are suppos$ to revolve4 ,:5 ! />s h to be obs]v$1 ! day ( ! mon? has to be br\ght to ! "t at :i* ! obs]vation is ab\t to be made4 ,we c easily read (f ! *>t by look+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece z already expla9$4 ,e five m9utes x is necess>y to move ! *>t "o division1 :i* indicates t five m9utes h pass$2 7o!r />s are1 ( c\rse1 arriv+74 ,! app>atus c be pack$ away :5 done )1 or ! be>+s tak51 & !n ! tr\ble ( gett+ x into position aga9 ne$ n be repeat$4 ,a small lamp1 ,l1 ?r[s its light ^u ! *>t 9 su* a way t ! eyes ( ! obs]v] are n incommod$1 :ile ! table is fully illum9at$4 ,x c be plac$ at ,l if necess>y4 ,! incl9ation v>ies accord+ to ! latitude ( ! place :5 ! obs]vations are made4 ,!re is an arrangem5t und]nea? :i* admits ( ?is incl9ation accord+ to longitude4 ,! app>atus c also be made available to asc]ta9 :at ! aspect ( ! heav5s w be ^u any p>ticul> ev5+ ( ! mon?4 ,we h only to place ! *>t at ! day & h\r1 & we %all !n see ^u x all ! />s visible above ! horizon4 ,we c ?us f9d out at :at "t ! />s rise & set1 & ^? :i* d n set--to f9d ! h\r at :i* !y pass ! m]idian 7! l9e drawn betwe5 midday & midnight ^u ! *>t71 & ! "t ( _! appe>ance on ! horizon4 ,:5 ! slid+ indicator1 ,i1 does n %[ a /> t is discov]able 9 ! sky1 ! obs]v] may conclude t he is view+ a planet4 ,?is app>atus is well adapt$ = beg9n]s 9 a/ronomy1 z no deep prep>atory /udy is necess>y1 & ! tyro c read ! sky z easily z he c\ld read a book4 ,a ,,cosmographical ,,clock4 ,we h1 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s ^u ,a/ronomy1 endeav\r$ to give ! read] "s idea respect+ ! incl9ation ( ! e>? & its rotation1 & writ]s h (t5 endeav\r$ to devise an app>atus :i* %all %[ ! position ( ! globe 9 space1 its diurnal motion--ev5 its incl9ation & ! succession ( seasons 9 its revolution r\nd ! sun4 ,b su* reproductions ( simultane\s movem5ts h hi!rto be5 obta9$ only on a v l>ge scale1 :i* f9d _! place well en\gh 9 ! museum or lecture-room1 b :i* x is q impossible to utilize 9 our sitt+-rooms1 on our tables1 or *imney-pieces4 ,besides1 ! usual app>atus employ$ is a v co/ly "o1 & only s]ves = occasional repres5tation2 x w n keep ! facts con/antly be=e ! obs]v] 9 ! mann] ( a clock %[+ ! "t4 ,b = all :o are int]e/$ 9 ,a/ronomy1 or 9 ,cosmography1 or ev5 = a "y p]son :o desires m]ely to und]/& ! reality ( ! e>?'s motion & h[ our e>? is plac$ 9 ! univ]se--= any "o :o deems x ( use t he or %e %\ld be able to see ! signs & ! seasons1 & ! days & ye>s1 & h[ ! e>? revolves1 may obta9 an a/ronomical or cosmographical clock1 :i* w tell him or h] h[ ! 8_w wags02 a useful z well z an ornam5tal timepiece4 ,n[ ?is is precisely ! result :i* ! tal5t$ inv5tor ( ! a/ronomical clock has arriv$ at4 ,m4 ,m\ret devot$ a great portion ( 8 life & all 8 available means to ! realization ( 8 great idea1 &1 sad to say1 he di$ mis]ably 9 an attic ! v day be=e 8 great & des]v+ ef=t br\ght him ! rew>d = :i* he _h s pa9fully /riv5 & devot$ himself to by a life ( self-d5ial & lab\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcc4--;,cosmographical clock4 ,m4 ,m\ret communicat$ to 8 globe ! a/ronomical movem5t1 :i* our e>? possesses1 by ! aid ( clock-"w1 :i* conveys to x1 second by second1 at ea* /roke ( ! p5dulum1 ! d\ble movem5t ( rotation & progression4 ,! globe turns ^u its axis 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ?us "o c p]ceive1 )\t any m5tal ef=t1 ! rotation ( our planet1 & ! portions ( ! globe :i* come "u ! influ5ce ( ! sun 9 rotation1 j z !y d actually on ! e>?4 ,n ! lea/ int]e/+ attribute ( ?is +5i\s arrangem5t is ! fact t dur+ breakfa/ or d9n] "o c see ! displacem5t & revolution ( ! e>? ) ref]5ce to ! sun to all p 9 ! _w4 ,"h1 on ! m]idian1 all are at midday4 ,!re1 on ! left1 ne> ! circle :i* def9es ! limit betwe5 day & night1 ! sun is ris+ & day is beg9n+2 opposite1 on ! "r1 ! sun is sett+ & day is clos+4 ,yond] is ! ,pacific ,ocean 9 full daylight1 :ile almo/ e cont95t is 9 d>kness & ! inhabitants wrapp$ 9 slumb]4 ,n[ ! ,*9ese are op5+ _! eyes1 & ! ,asiatic & ,european cont95ts w soon be illum9at$ & awake4 ,?is is ! movem5t ( ! _w z x has ev] be5 s9ce "t came into its calculations4 ,! +5i\s inv5tor1 :o wi%$ to make a clock ( 8 app>atus1 & n be+ able to *ange its place on ! e>? f day to day z ! "t *ang$1 v clev]ly reproduc$ ! sun's movem5t ( decl9ation by mak+ x describe a d\ble cone at ! axis ( ! globe4 ,at ! equ9oxes ! poles are 9 a plane1 & equal day & night are %[n4 ,at ! w9t] sol/ice ! nor? pole is incl9$ backw>ds at an angle #bc #bh1 & our hemisph]e is 9 ! w9t] season4 ,we h !n only eight h\rs' daylight & sixte5 ( d>kness2 six mon?s lat] ! pole is incl9$ t[>ds ! sun1 & ! s\!rn pole is plung$ 9 d>kness4 ,we h ! long days & ! s\!rn]s ! long nights4 ,an upright dial %[s ! "t ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* ! globe may happ5 to be1 & "o c asc]ta9 at any mom5t :at "t x is any:]e else4 ,a horizontal dial indicates ! day ( ! mon?1 & *anges e day 9 a mann] correspond+ ) ! movem5t ( ! e>? ar\nd ! sun1 reproduc$ by means ( ! arrangem5t ) ! d\ble cone4 ,! spectator is suppos$ to be turn+ 8 back to ! sun4 ,we may add t ^! movem5ts are all self-act+1 & !re is no ne$ to int]f]e ) ! clock1 :i* is w\nd up l ord9>y timepieces4 ,by an +5i\s =e?\ght ! inv5tor provid$ t ! sph]e %\ld be indep5d5t ( ! o!r movem5ts1 & x c be us$ = demon/ration 9 ! h&s ( ! lectur]1 & be expla9$ ) all its motions )\t 9 any way dis>rang+ ! clock-"w4 ,! globe mu/1 ( c\rse1 :5 replac$1 be put exactly at ! correct day & h\r4 ,a ,,simple ,,t]re/rial ,,globe4 ,a t]re/rial globe )\t any me*anism1 s long z its axis is p>allel to t ( ! e>?1 expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! sun1 repres5ts our planet ) its recurr5ce ( day & night4 ,! figure 7#fcd7 %[s u a globe )\t any support4 ,! axis is nor? & s\?1 & makes1 ) ! horizon1 an angle equal to ! latitude ( ,p>is1 if ! support1 ,a ,b1 be horizontal4 ,to make ! axis ( ! globe p>allel to ! axis ( our e>?1 ! l9e1 ,n ,s1 mu/ correspond to ! m]idian ( ! place2 ?is c be done ) ! compass1 = in/ance4 ,! sol> rays always illum9ate "o-half ( a sph]e1 no matt] :at its dim5sions4 ,if we look at ! illu/ration we %all see t ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! light & d>k portions ( ! globe corresponds ) t 9 our e>?4 ,?is globe1 !n1 tells u ! passage ( light & d>kness = ! day1 & ev5 = ! mom5t ( ! day1 :5 x is turn$ z ! e>? moves4 ,! place exam9$ %\ld be plac$ 9 ! m]idian ( t place 7,p>is1 = in/ance71 & occupy ! mo/ elevat$ spot on ! globe4 ,! e>? is !n 9 j ! same position1 & daylight & d>kness are %[n exactly z !y exi/ on ! e>? at ! "t4 ,if ?is globe be !n obs]v$ = a few m9utes1 ! sun w be se5 ris+ & sett+1 z x 71 9 v>i\s places 7we mu/ rememb] we h conc5trat$ ! sun's rays1 n a lamp1 ^u ! globe74 ,! places on ! "r1 if ! obs]v] be plac$ fac+ ! sun1 w come out ( ! %ade1 & ^? on ! left w ent] x4 ,! =m] are !n really enjoy+ ! sunrise1 & ! o!rs are actually witness+ 8 sett+4 ,! globe repres5t$1 mak+ ! d\ble revolution ( our planet 9 ! ye>1 w reproduce all ! actual ph5om5a ( day & night z tak+ place on ! e>? itself if we /& at a little di/ance s z to obs]ve x all at once4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcd4--;,a simple t]re/rial globe4 ,( c\rse1 ! employm5t ( ?is simple app>atus %\ld n exclude m complicat$ ones1 = ! =m] c only be us$ on a f9e bright day4 ,b ! advantage claim$ = x is t 9 x we c imitate nature exactly4 ,illum9at$1 z x is1 by ! real sun1 ! portions ( light & %ade are indicat$ by ! rays & n by a metallic circle4 ,9 ord] t ! l9e ( dem>cation may be exactly def9$1 x w be necess>y t ! sun's rays be conc5trat$ ^u ! globe1 & t no lat]al or v]tical light be admitt$4 ,! curta9s %\ld !re=e be s arrang$1 & ! bl9ds pull$ d[n to a c]ta9 po9t1 & if ! /& or support be pa9t$ black x w be f\nd an advantage4 ,if ! globe be a small "o1 x w be suffici5t to place ! /& ^u an ord9>y table1 )\t v]ify+ ! horizontal plane4 ,) a l>ge globe ! arrangem5t mu/ be v exact4 ,a ,,sol> ,,*ronomet]4 ,m4 ,fle*et's *ronomet]1 ( :i* we give an illu/ration1 is a k9d ( equitorial r$uc$ to its mo/ simple =m4 ,x is possible to asc]ta9 ! exact "t by x v easily4 ,x consi/s ( a disc1 ,,ab1 divid$ into tw5ty-f\r h\rs & fractions ( h\rs4 ,?is disc turns ^u itself ar\nd an arc1 ,,cd1 :i* has a direction p>allel to ! axis ( ! _w1 & c be mov$ on a jo9t1 ,e1 accord+ to ! latitude ( ! place2 ,f is a l5s :i* c be mov$ & pres5t$ to ! sun at any "t1 =m+ ! c5tre ( a concave & exactly sph]ical plate repres5t$ at ,,gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fce4--,sol> *ronomet]4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t is fix$ s t ! axis1 ,,cd1 is p>allel to ! axis ( ! globe1 ! disc1 ,,ab1 is turn$ s t ! c5tre ( ! image ( ! sun1 produc$ by ! l5s1 %all fall at m4 ,! real "t is f\nd by an exam9ation ( ! position ( ! index1 ,a1 ^u ! h\r graduations ( ! disc4 ,a ,fr5* writ]1 ,*4 ,del\nay1 has m5tion$ ?is in/rum5t1 & consid]s x easy ( arrangem5t1 exact 9 "t1 & v useful4 ,,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,,physical ,,geography4--,i4 ,,geology4 ,,geography ,,& ,,geology--,,! ,,e>?',s ,,cru/--,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,e>?--,,d5udation ,,& ,,excavation ,,by ,,wat]--,,rocks1 ,,gravel1 ,,& ,,s&--,,classes ,,( ,,rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcf4--;,cliffs worn by ! sea4 ,:5 we 7 at s*ool1 & le>nt ! v>i\s c\ntries ( ,europe1 we _h maps %[+ u ! sev]al divisions ( "o realm f ano!r2 ! m\nta9s1 lakes1 & o!r prom95t features ( ! cont95t 7 le>n$ & repeat$1 b we1 maybe1 seldom1 p]haps nev]1 be/[$ a ?\ght ^u ! =mations ( ! m\nta9s1 & ! mann] 9 :i* riv]s ran d[n into & ?r\gh lakes to ! ocean4 ,!re 7 ! m\nta9s1 !re 7 ! lakes & riv]s1 & capes1 & headl&s1 & !re !y are /ill1 to all int5ts & purposes1 ! same to see1 to climb up1 to sail d[n1 z ! case may be4 ,b ! map ( ,europe has und]gone a visible *ange4 ,t]ritory has *ang$ h&s4 ,g]many has gripp$ ,france1 ,engl& has got ,cyprus1 ,turkey has be5 dismemb]$1 & ,au/ria is annex+ t]ritory4 ,?is /udy is call$ ,geography1--,,political ,,geography1--= x m>ks ! political b\nd>ies4 ,! k ( ! =mation ( hills1 headl&s1 lakes1 riv]s1 seas1 _! causes1 con/itution1 & effects1 h[ !y rose1 h[ !y exi/ & wax or wane dur+ ! c\rse ( c5turies is ,,physical ,,geography1 :i* we propose to consid]4 ,?is tree ( k includes "s v important bran*es1 almo/ p>5t /ems4 ,z a magnific5t oak spreads =? its brawny arms1 ) small] bran*es & twigs1 ea* ( ^! great bran*es be+ z l>ge z an ord9>y tree1 s ,physical ,geography includes o!r arms su* z ,geology1 ,meteorology1 ,botany1 & ,physiology--ev5 ,a/ronomy 9 its compreh5sive embrace4 ,we f9d x is a difficult task to sep>ate ^! k9dr$ sci5ces f ! great tree4 ,we may h !re=e to ref] to e>?1 air1 & wat]1 & _! v>i\s =ms 9 hills & m\nta9s1 w9d1 vap\r1 ra91 glaci]s1 & sea4 ,we mu/ le>n h[ ?is e>? has be5 gradually cool$1 & :at ! v>i\s /ages ( its gr[? h done4 ,we mu/ consid] plant & animal life ^u our planet1 & h[ ! atmosph]e affects !m4 ,all ?is is ,physical ,geography1 & its satellite sci5ces ( ,geology1 ,meteorology1 8,climatology10 ,botany1 & ,physiology4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fcg4--;,dis9tegrat$ granite4 8,ev]y?+ mu/ h a beg9n+10 & ! e>? mu/ h _h a beg9n+1 al?\gh ! actual mann] ( ! physical creation ( ! planet is a disput$ fact4 ,we are n ab\t to discuss ! religi\s side ( ! "q1 al?\gh we %\ld und\bt$ly f9d t ,biblical & ,geologic tea*+ run side by side t[>ds ! same end1 & ! te/imony ( ! e>? & sky be>s witness to ! ,div9e h& t creat$ ! univ]se1 :i* we c trace back to ! dim & di/ant ages :5 8! e>? 0 )\t =m & void1 & d>kness 0 ^u ! face ( ! deep40 ,) ?is brief preface1 let u consid] "s ( ^! aspects1 & pick up int]e/+ facts f ! gr\nd4 ,,geology4 ,9 ! *emical & m9]al sections ( ?is volume we h he>d some?+ conc]n+ ! =mation ( ! globe & its composition1 its clays1 rocks1 etc4 ,) ^! int]nal arrangem5ts ,*emi/ry & ,m9]alogy h dealt4 ,geology tells u ab\t ! ext]nal surface ( ! e>?1 its /ones & rocks1 & h[ !y 7 =m$1 & g5]ally some?+ ab\t ! con=mation ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & its hi/ory4 ,:5 we speak ( 8cru/0 ( ! e>?1 we d n simply mean ! ext]ior lay] ( gravel1 clay1 or /one4 ,! cru/ is a ?ick "o1 & our cru/ ext5ds j s f> z we c cut into x4 ,! surface ( ! sea c sc>cely be t]m$ a cru/1 b we mu/ p5etrate t ev]-mov+ liquid b\nd>y1 & t\* ^u 7& exam9e7 :at lies d[n bel[ f> beyond ! 8full fa?om five0 ( ! lead l9e4 ,9 ?is /udy we mu/ n =get our ,book ( ,nature1 :i* is always op5 & invit+ u to read4 ,we %all see h[ ?+s are produc$1 & h[ our physical surr\nd+s w cont9ue to be produc$ until ! age ( miracles returns1 & ,provid5ce sees fit to int]f]e ) ! o!rwise immutable laws :i* ,he 9 ,8 wisdom has laid d[n = ! univ]se4 ,x w be ( no use to g back into space & imag9e ! _w a r$-hot fragm5t ( matt]1 :irl+ ?r\gh ! heav5 ar\nd ! sun :i*1 z a l>g] aggregation ( burn+ atoms1 kept x1 z x n[ keeps x1 9 its place4 ,! e>? 0 a globe ( liquid fire1 or 9 gase\s /ate1 & ! atoms gradually cool$ on ! surface2 ! fire is /ill "u our feet4 ,! out] "p w\ld by degrees lose all its heat1 :ile ! int]ior rema9$ hot2 ! planet mu/ !n h be5 surr\nd$ by a /eamy atmosph]e1 & envelop$ 9 vap\rs cond5s$ f ! air ?r\gh :i* no light ( ! sun c\ld by any appreciable degree p5etrate4 ,we c give an example ( ?is1 & x w be se5 h[ ! surface ( ! e>? gradually became =m$ f ! vapor\s condition4 ,if any "o w take ! pa9s to evaporate any sal9e solution 9 a capsule till x is ab\t to cry/allise1 & obs]ve att5tively ! pellicle ( salt z x =ms on ! surface2 fir/ a p>tial film w %[ itself 9 a few places1 float+ ab\t & jo9+ ) o!rs1 !n :5 ne>ly ! :ole surface is coat$1 x w break up 9 "s places & s9k into ! liquid b5ea?1 ano!r pellicle w =m & jo9 ) ! rema9s ( ! fir/1 & z ?is ?ick5s x w pu% up ridges & inequalities ( ! surface f op5+s & fissures 9 :i* little jets ( /eam & fluid w escape2 ^! little ridges are *a9s ( m\nta9s1 ! little jets ( /eam ^? volcanic eruptions :i* 7 at t p]iod s frequ5t1 ! surface ( ! capsule is ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ! five m9utes :i* ! obs]v] has contemplat$ x1 a million ye>s4 ,! next effect ( ! cool+ ( ! e>? w\ld be ! gradual cond5sation ( ! vap\r ( wat] ) :i* x 0 surr\nd$2 ?is fall+ ^u ! e>? =m$ seas & oceans1 leav+ only ! high] portions expos$ above its level4 ,! cle>+ up ( ! d5se d>k cl\ds = ! fir/ "t let 9 ^u ! e>?'s surface ! glori\s & vivify+ rays ( ! sun1 & ?is great effect possibly accords ) ! e>lie/ record 9 ! ,bible ( ! acts ( creation3 8,& ,god said1 let !re be light1 & !re 0 light40 ,?is cle>+ up ( ! vap\rs & ! subsequ5t ra9 no d\bt gave rise to t]ribly gr& electrical ph5om5a--?und]+s & lightn+s4 ,by degrees ! wat]s got _! own way1 & !n _m *anges took place1 l& & wat] fight+1 z x 71 = ! ma/]y1 z !y are fight+ to ?is day4 ,b p]haps "s read] may n ?9k t ! l& & wat] ( our e>? are ?us engag$4 ,a v few m9utes' reflection w suffice to confirm our ass]tion4 ,look at ! l(ty crags 9 ! ,alps1 = in/ance2 :at has %att]$ ^? peaks1 & s5t ! masses toppl+ d[n 9 /one avalan*es to ! l[] slopes1 & !n into ! valleys8--,wat]4 ,wat] has be5 9 ! crevices1 & 0 froz5 !re2 9 freez+ x exp&$ & loos5$ ! crags1 :i*1 =c$ asund]1 gave an op5+ to m sn[ & ice1 & s ?is p[]ful lev]age1 aid$ by ! w9d & /orm1 is dis9tegrat+ our m\nta9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fch4--;,break]s on ! coa/ ( ,cornwall4 ,x is ! same by ! sea%ore2 ! cliffs are we>+ away1 & ! sea approa*es2 at o!r places ! sea rec$es f ! l&1 z coral =mation & embryo *alk cliffs are ris+ "u ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,lakes dry up1 & ! mead[ or f>m arises on ! site1 :ile o!r old spots are subm]g$4 ,no re/1 no *ange ( idea1 b ev] *ang+ 9 physical appe>ance1 ,nature goes on h] wondr\s way1 work+ n[ z /eadily1 z h>moni\sly1 & z surely z %e did be=e "t 01 & z %e w cont9ue to d :5 "t %all be no m6 ,9 our inve/igations into ,geology we _c ent] into _m te*nical details4 ,our object 9 ^! pages is recreation2 b we %all1 ev5 "u ^! circum/ances1 f9d pl5ty to int]e/1 & suffici5t to lead any "o :o wi%es to pursue ! /udy = himself4 ,we w endeav\r s to put ! features ( ! /ones & rocks be=e him t !y w be recogniz$ by ! pass] by4 ,we w try to %[ h[ ! e>? has be5 built up1 & h[ ! great & t]rible *anges ?r\gh :i* our little globe has pass$ h be5 effect$4 ,9 our own isl&s1 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 we %all f9d traces ( all ! mat]ials likely to be useful to u 9 our que/1 ,z has be5 well said1 8,geology is ! ,physical ,geography ( ! pa/40 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fci4--,%ells 9 *alk4 ,! desc5t f rocks to /ones1 f /ones to gravel1 f gravel to s&1 is evid5t to ev]yone1 s we ne$ n insi/ ^u ! fact t s& is p[d]$ rock1 & t an aggregation ( s& p>ticles makes /ones4 ,we h he>d 9 ! ,m9]alogy section t !re are c]ta9 8e>?s0--silica1 alum9a1 lime1 etc4 ,( ^! 8e>?s10 ! two =m] con/itute ! great] portion ( ! ,,rocks4 ,lime1 also1 is v evid5t1 & 9 lime/ones fossils or organic rema9s are abundant4 ,n[ we mu/ entirely put away f our m9ds ! old idea t ! e>? we live on 0 creat$ at once1 or z x appe>$ to ! fir/ human be+s4 ,our planet 0 prep>$ = man by degrees dur+ millions ( ye>s4 ,we conclude t ! e>? 0 orig9ally compos$ ( c]ta9 elem5ts1 & we f9d ! same elem5ts 9 ! sun4 ,!re=e1 suppos+ 7z is suppos$7 t ! e>? came f ! sun1 we h all ! mat]ial ( ! globe 9 a fus$ /ate4 ,z ! e>? cool$1 rocks 7 =m$ by pressure1 & !n wat] came1 & n[ we c read 8books 9 ! runn+ brooks1 & s]mons 9 /ones0 at our leisure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdj4--,! /reamlet4 ,p]haps z someone reads ?is he may be walk+ by ! sea%ore kick+ ! pebbles or seat$ ^u ! s&s1 ! gra9s ( :i* are s v t9y4 ,he w probably f9d s&1 %+le1 & gravel )9 rea*1 & p]haps ! curi\s-look+ 8pudd+ /one40 ,n[ :at c we le>n f ^! /ones or s& gra9s or t curi\s bit ( conglom]ate8 ,p]haps ! read] may be at ,ramsgate or ,m>gate or ano!r place :]e ! 8:ite cliffs ( ,albion0 gli/5 9 ! sun4 ,take up a piece ( *alk & exam9e x4 ,x is s(t & soils y\r h&s1 & y w ?r[ x away1 p]haps--b don't4 ,take x home & put x "u ! microscope or a good magnify+ glass4 ,:at d y see8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fda4--;,cliffs %[+ /rata4 ,y w f9d ! rema9s ( animals--t is1 %ells & t9y bits ( coral pack$ close toge!r4 ,"u ! microscope !y w become m sep>at$1 & ! gra9s w be di/9ct fragm5ts ( %ells1 etc4 ,if ?is little bit ( *alk be compos$ ( m>9e animals' %ells1 ( c\rse ! :ole cliff is compos$ ( ! same k9d ( mat]ial4 ,b h[ did ! %ells get into ! *alk8 ,%ells are *alk--c>bonate ( lime2 lime 0 deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & ! inf9ite millions ( m9ute animals =m$ !mselves %ells1 & left !m to be pil$ up by ,nature's =ces into cliffs dur+ c\ntless ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdb4--,lime/one ) encr9ites4 ,yes1 b h[ did ! lime get into ! wat] to make ! %ells8 ,we w endeav\r to expla94 ,ra91 :5 fall+1 takes "s c>bonic acid f ! air1 :i* we "k conta9s x4 ,?is acts ^u ! lime 9 ! rocks 7lime is oxide ( calcium1 & calcium is an elem5t 9 ! e>?71 s we get a bi-c>bonate ( lime 7soluble 9 wat]71 :i* rises f ! rocks 9 spr+s4 ,^! spr+s & _! /reams deposit lime1 z we c see 9 cav]ns :]e we f9d /alactites & /alagmites4 ,! lime is transmitt$ to ! ocean1 & absorb$ by ! cr9oideans & molluscs :i* produc$ %ells4 ,^! %ells h>d5$ & cry/alliz$ became lime/one1 & :ole m\nta9s are =m$ ( ?is 8organic0 rock1 :i* is us$ = s _m purposes4 ,we h spok5 ( ,,organic ,,rocks1 b !re are o!rs1 & we ought1 p]haps1 to h spok5 ( t k9d be=e ! *alk put !m aside4 ,let u g back to our s&y %ore aga9 & look at ! ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks1 :i* are ! v fir/ =mation4 ,we h all se5 s&/one1 & visitors to ! ,s\? ,devon ,coa/ w rememb] ! r$ cliffs ne> ,dawli% & ,teignm\?4 ,^! are r$ s&/one--n ! v 8old r$0 s pleasantly writt5 ( by ,hugh ,mill]1 b at any rate s&/one1 & compos$ ( gra9s ( s&4 ,:5 we 7 at ,dawli% la/ ye> a piece ( ! s&/one _h fall5 on to ! bea*1 & :5 ! waves came up t /one 0 no d\bt gradually wa%$ away into s&1 & !n fell to ! e>? z s$im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdc4--;,*alk cliff4 ,we said some?+ a few pages back ab\t ! we> & te> :i* is always go+ on3 ! m\nta9 is worn away--a mass falls1 x is brok5 into small] pieces2 ^! are c>ri$ by a riv]2 ! mud is deposit$1 & ! f9] p>ticles are gr\nd & r\nd$ into gravel1 & f9ally s&4 ,b5ea? ! curr5t ( ! riv]1 & at ! bottom ( a lake or sea1 ^! s$im5ts 7mud1 etc47 accumulate "o on ! top ( ! o!r 9 regul> s]ies call$ /rata1 & !n ! weight & pressure act+ ) ! soluble m9]al deposits always wa%+ d[n1 consolidate & b9d ! loose s&-gra9s into /one1 :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 h>d5s4 ,! /ones ?us =m$ f s$im5ts su* z gravel1 mud1 & s&1 are t]m$ ,s$im5t>y ,rocks2 !y h become rocks by enorm\s & cont9u\s pressure4 ,?us3-- ,s&s h become 8,s&/ones02 ,gravel has become 8,pudd+-/one0 7,conglom]ate72 ,mud & clay h become 8,%ale02 ,calc>e\s deposits h become 8,lime/one02 ,vegetable deposits h become 8,coal40 ,s we h s&y1 clayey1 limy1 fl9ty1 & corally rocks "u long names respectively--,ar5>i\s1 ,argillace\s1 ,calc>e\s1 ,silici\s2 & we may add ,bitum5\s & ,f]rug9\s--,irony ,rocks--to ! li/4 ,speak+ ( s$im5ts1 x is curi\s to note ! diff]5t col\rs ( ! ,arve & ! ,rhone :i* meet ne> ,g5eva4 ,! :ite s$im5t>y ,arve c be trac$ = a long di/ance beside1 n mix+ )1 ! blue ,rhone4 ,! same effect c be trac$ :]e ! latt] riv] ent]s ! ,lake ( ,g5eva4 ,s ! l& is be+ p]petually c>ri$ away & deposit$2 & :]e wat] ga9s on l& !re is some:]e else always a correspond+ elevation to comp5sate x4 ,?us places disappe>1 & ! sea wa%es ov] ! site1 z on ! ,k5ti% ,coa/1 :]e ,e>l ,godw9's l& 0 inundat$1 & new l& is reclaim$ or is elevat$ f ! sea to make up ! balance4 8,!re rolls ! deep1 :]e grew ! tree2 ,oh1 e>?1 :at *anges ha/ ?\ se56 ,!re1 :]e ! long /reet ro>s1 has be5 ,! /illness ( ! c5tral sea40 ,we h spok5 ( s$im5t>y & organic rocks4 ,!re is yet ano!r k9d call$ igne\s1 or fi]y rocks--^? uprais$ by volcanic action4 ,( ! igne\s rocks ! cry/all9e h be5 evid5tly 9 a fus$ condition4 ,granite is an example2 lava or basalt is ! usual t]m = volcanic rock1 & ! basaltic caves ( ,/affa & ! ,giants' ,causeway be> te/imony to ! igne\s or volcanic orig9 ( ! surr\nd+s4 ,! pill>s & fanta/ic rocks ( ,irel& & ,scotl& :i* are s rem>kable1 are simply lava1 :i* 0 erupt$ 9 a molt5 /ate1 n[ cool$ & contract$ into blocks ( curi\s regul>ity ( =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdd4--,trap rock 7,/affa74 ,granite1 already ref]r$ to1 is ano!r igne\s rock1 & mu/ h be5 =c$ upw>ds2 = z an igne\s rock granite has cool$ b5ea? ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 ?r[+ out arms1 :ile melt+1 into o!r =mations1 & frequ5tly be+ f\nd 9 m\nta9s4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( igne\s rocks =m$ by ! cont9u\s accumulation ( ! a%es1 etc41 vomit$ =? f volcanoes4 ,masses ( m\nta9 are ?us produc$ 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s1 & ! mat]ial ?us =m$ is call$ tufa1 or tuff1 :5 consolidat$2 & ?is 7n[ solidifi$7 is :at caus$ ! de/ruction ( ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fde4--;,eruption ( granite4 ,s we h two classes ( ,,igne\s ,,rocks1 ! ,cry/all9e & ,fragm5tal 7or ! 8,plutonic0 & 8,volcanic071 includ+ basalts1 pit*/ones1 pumice1 tra*ytes1 granite1 sy5ite1 etc42 &1 on ! o!r h&1 tuff & 8volcanic0 breccia1 ) fel/ones1 porphyries1 etc41 :i* h be5 class$ z int]m$i>y4 ,( ^! ?ree classes ( rocks1 ! s$im5t>y & ! organic compose ! great] portion ( ! e>?4 ,we w n[ glance at ! cru/ ( ! e>? & its v>i\s =mations4 ,illu/ration3 ,volcanic eruption4 ,,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?--,,geological ,,sy/ems--,,eozoic1 ,,prim>y1 ,,second>y1 ,,t]ti>y1 ,,prehi/oric ,,=mations4 ,! cru/ ( ,great ,brita9 has be5 c>efully exam9$1 & f ! results ( inve/igations at v>i\s p]iods1 ! e>? has be5 divid$ into a s]ies ( /rata :i* foll[ ! same ord] ( succession4 ,sometimes c]ta9 /rata may n be pres5t1 & !y may be replac$ by o!rs1 b ! same ord] ( succession w be f\nd4 ,! ord] is z foll[s1 comm5c+ at ! l[e/4 ,! illu/ration is tak5 9 ! opposite direction3-- ,laur5tian ,until rec5tly believ$ to 8,eozoic40 ,cambrian be )\t traces ( liv+ creatures2 h5ce 8,eozoic40 ,palzoic1 ,silurian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,%ell-fi%1 seawe$1 ,prim>y4 ,c>bonif]\s f]ns1 fi%1 l[ reptiles4 ,p]mian ,mesozoic1 ,triassic 7,upp] or ,r$ ,s&/one7 ,second>y4 ,oolitic ,birds1 m>supials1 reptiles4 ,cretace\s ,ka9zoic1 ,eoc5e ,sup]ior life4 ,mammals1 or ,mioc5e ) great vegetable life1 on ,t]ti>y4 ,plioc5e to plants & animals n[ ,po/-t]ti>y exi/+4 ,man4 ,quat]n>y4 ,rec5t--,prehi/oric ,illu/ration3 ,,t]ti>y ,,/rata4 ,,upp] ,,& ,,middle ,,second>y ,,/rata4 ,,l[] ,,second>y ,,/rata4 ,,prim>y ,,/rata4 ,fig4 #fdf4--,sy/ems4 ,,! ,,pal,,zoic ,,sy/ems4 ,,laur5tian ,,sy/em4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ f ! above li/ t ! ,laur5tian ,rocks are ! olde/4 ,! "n is d]iv$ f ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce =mations1 & 0 giv5 to ! /rata by ,sir ,william ,logan4 ,!y are metamorphos$ rocks old] ?an ! ,cambrian4 ,^! rocks are s$im5t>y1 ( v old deposition1 & ( a cry/all9e nature1 consi/+ ( qu>tz1 gneiss1 etc4 ,! granite 0 probably =m$ by ! fusion ( its compon5t con/itu5ts1 qu>tz1 mica1 & felsp>1 :i* become cry/alliz$ by ! excessive heat4 ,= a long "t no traces ( organisms c\ld be detect$ 9 ?is or ! ,cambrian sy/ems1 b mod]n rese>* has be5 rew>d$ ) a little success4 ,! orig9al deposits ( micace\s gneiss1 etc41 h be5 alt]$1 & _m true igne\s rocks1 su* z sy5ite & granite1 are f\nd 9 !m4 ,^! v old rocks mu/ h be5 orig9ally deposit$ 9 /rata conv]t$ by heat & pressure into cry/all9e rocks4 ,^! rocks h be5 divid$ into two s]ies1 "u ! names ( l[] & upp] ,laur5tian4 ,!y are metamorphic1 & consi/ 8ma9ly ( gneiss int]/ratifi$ ) mica-s*i/1 ) great b$s ( qu>tz1 & massive b$s ( cry/all9e lime/one1 ( :i* "o v>ies f #gjj to #a1ejj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,conglom]ates also occur1 & !re are va/ deposits ( magnetic & specul> iron4 ,graphite1 or blacklead1 is dissem9at$ 9 /r+s1 ve9s1 & b$s ?r\gh hundr$s ( feet ( ! l[] ,laur5tian1 & its am\nt is calculat$ by ,dr4 ,dawson to be equal 9 quantity to ! coal seams ( an equal area ( ! c>bonif]\s rocks0 7,ni*olson74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdg4--,upw>d ,granite 7,section74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdh4--;,con=mable ,/rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fdi4--,uncon=mable ,/rata4 ,hi!rto1 no di/9ctly recognisable fossil has be5 discov]$1 ) ! important exception ( ! ,eozon ,canad5se1 :i* has be5 pron\nc$ to h be5 a gigantic =am9if]1 gr[+ lay] ^u lay]1 & ?us =m+ reefs ( lime/one2 ! subject1 h[ev]1 is /ill a matt] ( dispute4 ,! eozon 0 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,m',mull5 9 #aheh 9 ,canada4 ,granite 0 at "o "t consid]$ to be ! true primitive rock4 ,gneiss is a ^w ( ,saxon orig91 & consi/s ( ! same mat]ials z granite 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,mica-s*i/ is made up ( two ( ! same con/itu5ts z ! granite & gneiss4 ,!y are )\t fossil traces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fej4--,n]eites ,cambr5sis4 ,! ,,cambrian sy/em ( aque\s orig9 may be said to conta9 evid5ce ( ! dawn ( organic life4 ,x is "p ( ! clay-slate sy/em1 & ! t]m 8,cambrian0 is tak5 f ! anci5t "n ( ,wales1 :]e slate is pl5tiful4 ,mica-slate is also v important4 ,^! ,cambrian rocks are ( ! next olde/ =mation to ! ,laur5tian1 & all ! v>i\s deposits may be exam9$ 9 ,wales1 :]e also traces ( volcanic & ice action may readily be p]ceiv$4 ,9 ! pass ( ,llanb]is "o imm5se ice-borne block is v prom95t2 no ag5cy b ice c\ld h put x !re z x re/s4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! ,cambrian & 8,l[]0 ,silurian rocks are f #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & mu/ embrace a v l5g!n$ p]iod4 ,! fossils ( ^! =mations %[ t zoophytes & c]ta9 primitive cru/acea liv$ 9 ! remote ages :5 ^! rocks 7 =m$ by s$im5t>y deposition4 ,we h sc>ce a trace ( plant-life4 ,! organic rema9s include annul> worms1 ! fir/ arrangem5t ( ! articulat$ animals accord+ to ,cuvi]4 ,! flora & fauna are1 ( c\rse1 v l[ 9 ! scale ( creation1 :5 l& & sea 7 s diff]5tly arrang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fea4--,section across ,sn[don4 ,a1 ,fossilif]\s grits 7,bala s]ies72 ,b1 ,gre5/one 7intrusive72 ,c1 ,porphyry2 ,d1 ,volcanic a%es1 sometimes calc>e\s & fossilif]\s ,bala lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #feb4--,silurian fossil4 ,! ,,silurian sy/em 0 s nam$ by ,sir4 ,r4 ,mur*ison1 aft] ! t]ritory =m]ly occupi$ by ! ,silures1 b ! sy/em is1 ( c\rse1 univ]sal4 ,we h "h s&/ones1 lime/ones1 & %ales1 deposits ly+ ^u ! ,wel% slate4 ,! ,upp] & ,l[] ,ludl[ b$s1 & ! 8,may ,hill0 s&/one1 !n ! ,l[] ,silurian1 ) ,c>adoc b$s1 & ! ,tremadoc slate1 etc4 ,9 ?is sy/em volcanic action is obs]vable1 & all ! organic rema9s are ^? ( m>9e animals1 su* z corals1 %ell-fi%1 m>9e worms1 encr9ites1 molluscs1 & o!r zoophytes 9 great v>iety4 ,we f9d also a numb] ( graptolites1 trilobites1 e*9us 7sea-ur*971 t]ebratula1 & _m o!r =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fec4--,trilobite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fed4--,t]ebratula4 ,! ,trilobites 7 among/ ! fir/ creatures inhabit+ our globe1 & x is a curi\s fact to contemplate1 t _! eyes 7fig4 #fee7 %\ld h be5 pres]v$ p]fect2 !y pres5t "o ( ^? wond]ful objects :i* c>ry "o's ?\ghts backw>ds to ! e>ly ages ( ! _w1 probably _m millions ( ye>s1 & yet x is f\nd by ! peculi> /ructure ( ! eyes ( ^! ,trilobites t !y 7 plac$ at ! bottom ( ! sea ) p]fect p[] to look upw>ds at ! light ( ! sun ?r\gh ! transp>5t wat]s4 ,! same h& & ! same p[] _h !n ,div9e c>e & solicitude = ! well-be+ ( ,8 creatures1 z great z ,he has = ^? ( lat] ages1 & ^! animals are m5tion$ 9 ,g5esis--8,let ! wat]s br+ =? abundantly ! mov+ creature t ha? life40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fee4--;,eye ( ,trilobite4 ,?us we see t ages ( comp>ative quiet succe$$ ! fir/ great contraction ( ! e>?'s cru/1 probably millions ( ye>s1 dur+ :i* "t ! tides & curr5ts ( ! ocean _h to wa% & we> d[n all ! ?\s&s ( project+ rocks or inequalities1 & dissolve 7z be=e describ$7 all ! lime1 deposit+ ! s& & clay 9 ^? imm5se /rata :i* =m ! old-nam$ 8transition s]ies02 ?is appe>s to h tak5 place ov] ne>ly ! :ole _w at t "t1 & ages ^u ages mu/ h elaps$ to =m su* deposits z ! s&/one1 clay/one1 & lime/one1 9 alt]nation1 =m+ ! 8,ll&ilo10 8,c>adoc10 & 8,w5lock0 /rata1 m ?an a mile 9 ?ickness2 ^! are by "s geologi/s reckon$ among ! prim>y s]ies 7by "s call$ ! 8transition rocks071 & 9 ,engl& =m ! 8,cambrian0 & 8,silurian0 sy/ems :i* are s ri* 9 m9]als & metallic ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fef4--,lime/one made up ( encr9ite4 ,! ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one1 or ,,devonian ,sy/em1 is ! next ( ! s]ies ( lay]s :i* built up our e>?1 b a great gap ( ye>s sep>ates x f ! ,silurian4 ,we f9d ! 8,old ,r$0 9 ! ,m5dips & 9 ,scotl&4 ,! rocks 9 ! ,we/ ( ,engl& are app>5tly ( lat] deposition & ( m>9e orig91 :ile ! 8,old ,r$0 is app>5tly a fre%-wat] deposit4 ,x is v 8ar5ace\s10 & owes its t9t *iefly to iron1 al?\gh !re are circum/ances 9 :i* x appe>s nei!r z a s&/one nor ) a r$ col\r2 b r$ s&/one describes ! true =mation v accurately4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #feg4--;,graptolites4 ,9 ?is wat]-deposit$ sy/em1 :e!r 9 lakes or by ! sea1 we f9d a consid]able advance ^u ! ,silurian4 ,we h flora 9 m v>iety--seawe$s & f]ns4 ,! rema9s are all aquatic4 ,we h no?+ high] 9 ! scale ( creation ?an ! fi%1 ! fir/ v]tebrates2 & judg+ by v>ieties a v consid]able "t mu/ h elaps$ dur+ :i* ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 0 deposit$4 ,! dipt]us--or d\ble-w+$--is h]e) %[n z an example ( ! fossil fi% ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #feh4--8;,d\ble-w+$0 ,fi%4 ,x is curi\s t no rema9s ( any l&-inhabit+ animals h be5 discov]$ 9 ?is sy/em--:e!r 9 ! ,old ,r$ or ! ,devonian =mations 7! ,l[] & ,upp] ,r$ ,s&/ones74 ,we c only di/+ui% ! rema9s ( aquatic animals or plants4 ,we may picture ! great cuttle-fi%1 ! nautilus1 & ! dipt]us1 ) v>i\s ord]s ( mollusca1 & ! gradual approa* to ! cru/acea1 b no t]re/rial animals h be5 discov]$4 ,we may take x = grant$ !n t ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ,devonian sy/ems are diff]5t--! =m] be+ f\nd 9 ,scotl& & p>ts ( ,engl&1 & =m$ ( deposits 9 fre% or bracki% wat]1 :ile 9 ! ,devonian sy/em ! m>9e deposits are corals1 & all ! indications ( ocean life1 sep>at$ f ! great inl& lakes by a range ( hills4 ,nei!r ( ! t]ms 7,old ,r$ ,s&/one or ,devonian7 limit geographically or descriptively ! =mations ( ?is sy/em4 ,all ! rocks are cle>ly di/ribut$ betwe5 ! ,silurian & ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! inv]tebrates 9 ?is la/ sy/em h n develop$ v mu*1 b corals are v abundant1 & fi% ( "s arm\r$ species are pl5tiful & curi\s1 :ile ! cru/acea 7 enorm\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fei4--,palozoic ,fi%4 ,trilobites1 ,bra*iopods1 ,coral & ,graptolite4 ,we n[ arrive at ! mo/ important ( all ! rock =mations1 ! "o to :i* we owe our national prosp]ity--we mean ! ,,coal ,sy/em4 ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,=mation4 ,:ile ! =ego+ depositions 7 be+ made ! e>? 0 /ill und]go+ *anges4 ,! s&/ones 7 deposit$1 & ! corals mak+ use ( ! lime c>ri$ into ! wat]s began to build & =m masses ( lime/one "u ! sea1 pu%+ back ! wat] & *ang+ ! =ms & positions ( l& & wat]4 ,all ?is w5t on app>5tly v quietly--volcanic action 0 n v frequ5t--! wat] 0 w>m4 ,b sometimes e>?quakes w\ld heave up ! subm>9e =mations into m\nta9s1 & !re=e we f9d ! fossils ( ! t9y sea-animals on ! hills4 ,ext5sive swamps 7 =m$ by p>tially retreat+ sea-wat]1 & _! vegetation became luxuriant4 ,tree f]ns & all ! floral appe>ance ( ! tropics grew up & =m$ d5se =e/s1 f> ?ick] ?an any we "k ( at ! pres5t "t4 ,x w readily be und]/ood t ! condition ( ! atmosph]e mu/ h be5 p>ticul>ly fav\rable to ! gr[? ( plants1 & !re=e n suitable = air-brea?+ animals4 ,heat & c>bonic acid mu/ h be5 greatly develop$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffj4--,tree ,f]ns4 ,we c n[ p]ceive h[ ! gradual fill+ up ( ! e>? = man's reception 0 tak+ place4 ,! ra9 0 tak+ c>bonic acid f ! air1 = ! dead plants gave x out 9 enorm\s volumes4 ,! c>bonate ( lime dissolv$ 9 ! wat]-spr+s1 etc41 0 c>ri$ to ! sea = polypi to build %ells f4 ,! trees 7 absorb+ c>bonic acid1 too1 & :ile purify+ ! air1 7 reta9+ ! c>bon 9 _! /ems & leaves & bran*es1 :i* 7:5 !y decay$7 rema9$ unt\*$1 & accumulat$ 9 ?ick lay]s to s9k d[n1 & by pressure be turn$ into coal4 ,?is great effect 0 c>ri$ out sev]al times2 & x is a rem>kable fact t we f9d coal1 lime/one1 & iron/one s ne> toge!r1 all useful to u & to ea* o!r 9 ! c\rse ( ! work+ ( ! m9]als--s we come to ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffa4--,lime/one made up ( corals 7,favosites polymorpha74 ,coal we h already treat$ ( 9 ,m9]alogy1 & coal looks at times v diff]5t f our preconceiv$ ideas ( a s$im5t>y rock1 :i* we "k is regul>ly deposit$ 9 lay]s4 ,b :5 we split or break ! coal we f9d its cleavage 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,coal is wood squeez$ & petrifi$ by ages betwe5 enorm\s lay]s ( s$im5t>y rocks1 & ! coal-seam re/s ^u ! soil 9 :i* ! plants once grew--p]haps m ?an six hundr$ ?\s& ye>s ago6 ,( c\rse coal1 z we burn x1 0 n all made at once4 ,we c trace x f ! swamp z ,peat1 on to 8,lignite10 or woody coal1 ?r\gh ! ,t]ti>y & ,new ,r$ ,s&/one to ! coal measures !mselves4 ,ev5 l[] d[n we f9d ! rema9s 9 m or less pure c>bon =ms--! an?racite & ! graphite ( ! prim>y =mations4 ,coal appe>s n to h be5 =m$ equally 9 all places dur+ ! p]iod 9 :i* x orig9at$4 ,! rema9s ( plants f\nd 9 ^! /rata lead u to inf]1 t1 dur+ t p]iod !re exi/$ an exce$+ly vigor\s & cr[d$ vegetation1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( tree f]ns & equisetace1 ( :i* ! ,sph5opt]is ,hn+hausii 7fig4 #ffb71 ,pecopt]is aquil9a 7fig4 #ffc71 & ,neuropt]is ,lo%ii 7fig4 #ffd71 are among/ ! mo/ beautiful t h be5 f\nd1 & ! flora & fauna ( ?is p]iod 7 ( a m or less primitive k9d or l[ ord]1 b v luxuri\s4 ,! =m] display a decid$ advance1 & reptiles ( aquatic =ms appe> ) l>ge & pr$ace\s fi%es4 ,m\nta9 lime/one1 :i* is usually f\nd 9 ! coal =mations1 includes metallic deposits1 & organic rema9s are v abundant 9 x4 ,! foll[+ are specim5s ( ! fossils-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffe4-- #a4 ,bell]ophon co/atus4 #b4 ,spirif] glab]4 #c4 ,productus ,m>t9i4 #d4 ,or?oc]as lat]alis4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em is a v important "o1 z may be se54 ,9 ^! b$s we h coal1 lime/one1 s&/one1 & %ale4 ,! ,coal ,measures consi/ ( grit & s&/one & %ale1 ) coal seams4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 or 8,m\nta90 ,lime/one1 has no coal 9 x4 ,! s&/one has be5 t]m$ 8,mill/one ,grit10 because mill/ones are made f x4 ,we !n h lime/one %ales1 & ! s&/one b$s4 ,ea* coal seam indicates a subsid5ce ( ! l& & a regul> s]ies ( und]clay or soil 9 :i* ! plants grew1--! plants !mselves1--iron1 coal1 & !n ! %ale1 & s on aga91 indicat+ frequ5t *anges & a long lapse ( ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fff4--;,f]n 7,pecopt]is ligata7 f upp] %ale1 ,sc>bor\gh4 ,^! 8,coal ,measures0 occupy an area ( five hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ,great ,brita9 alone2 & z we h already said1 ! p]iod :i* elaps$ :ile ^! deposits 7 be+ laid d[n repres5ts hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,! deposit w\ld increase at ! rate ( ab\t ?ree feet 9 a ?\s& ye>s4 ,& ?is is only "o p]iod ( ! _m *anges to :i* our _w has be5 subject$ s9ce x fir/ began its revolution 9 space ar\nd ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffg4--,section across ! c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,d]by%ire & ,lanca%ire 7,aft] ,ramsay74 #a4 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 #b4 ,yor$ale ,%ales4 #c4 ,mill/one ,grit4 #d4 ,coral ,measures4 #e4 ,p]mian ,lime/one4 #f4 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,coal is usually f\nd 9 8bas9s0 or depressions--a sort ( tr\gh ow+ to ! upheaval ( surr\nd+ /rata :i* became 9 "t d5ud$ 7or wa%$ away7 ) any coal t 0 !re4 ,s x is 9 places :]e x is conceal$ by ov]ly+ b$s t protect x1 t we n[ f9d ! coal sav$ f di/urbance4 ,:5 we se>* & come ^u r$ s&/one & grey-wacke1 we may be almo/ c]ta9 t we are ne> coal1 p>ticul>ly if ! surr\nd+ rocks =m a 8bas940 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffh4--,labyr9?odon4 ,we h n[ briefly sket*$ ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 = 9 our recreations we c d little m4 ,we %all f9d 9 _m places 9 ,engl& tree trunks 9 ! s&y %ore1 & ample evid5ce t a =e/ has be5 at "o "t subm]g$ 9 t spot4 ,s inl& ! l& sank d[n aga9 & aga9 9 successive p]iods--wat]1 mud1 soil1 vegetable gr[? succe$$1 to be aga9 subm]g$ & =m a new coal seam = ! use ( man1 :o 0 de/9$ to appe> aft] ! lapse ( ages4 ,,! ,,p]mian ,,p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ffi4--;,impressions ( feet ( ,*eiro!rium4 ,at l5g? ! l& rema9$ undi/urb$4 ,x sank no m1 & ! trees wav$ luxuri\sly ov] ! buri$ =e/s ( pa/ ages1 & ano!r cycle set 9 call$ ! ,,p]mian1 f ! anci5t k+dom ( ,p]mia1 :]e all ! features ( t p]iod are exhibit$ on a v gr& scale1 & :i* ext5d$ = sev]al hundr$ miles betwe5 ! ,ural m\nta9s & ! ,volga4 ,9 ! ,p]mian p]iod we h ! progression ( animal life m di/9ctly develop$ ?an 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 :i* imm$iately prec$$ x4 ,x is true !re are indications 9 ! latt] t curi\s animals1 call$ ! ,*eiro!rium & ! ,labyr9?odon1 7 alive !n1 & ! rema9s ( num]\s insects1 su* z beetles & crickets1 h be5 f\nd2 b ! ,p]mian develop$ !m1 & reptiles1 saurians1 & liz>ds h be5 trac$2 b z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison /ates1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ext5t ! animals are ( a s+le type4 ,we h ! h&-l impressions ( ! feet ( ! ,*eiro!rium1 s call$ f ! ,greek 8*eir10 a h&4 ,! soil appe>s to h be5 v s(t1 & peculi>ly adapt$ to receive impressions1 & :i* hav+ be5 9 _m places cov]$ ov] ) a /ratum ( f9e s&1 & !n ab&on$ by ! sea1 ! :ole has h>d5$ into /one1 & be+ n[ sep>at$1 ! "o conta9s _! footpr9ts1 & ! o!r p]fect ca/s ( !m6 ,nor are ^! footm>ks all t ^! s&/ones h to tell u ( _! day2 = ! ripples ( ! waves1 & ev5 ! little pits made by drops ( ra9 z !y fell1 are 9 ?is mo/ m>vell\s mann] pres]v$1 =m+ objects ( wond] & admiration4 ,! organic rema9s dur+ ?is p]iod are n v abundant1 & _m ( ! fauna ( ! previ\s sy/ems appe> to h di$ out1 :ile o!rs appe>$ to meet ) full] developm5t 9 succe$+ ages4 ,! ,p]mian is also kn[n z ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 or ,magnesian ,lime/one gr\p4 8,dias0 has also be5 sugge/$ ) ref]5ce to ! 8,trias0 gr\p1 8! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one10 :i* comes next4 ,! ,p]mian rocks are v v>i$1 & conta9 m9]als1 su* z copp] & sulphur4 ,z ! /rata bel[ ! new s&/one =mation 0 call$ ! 8,c>bonif]\s0 sy/em1 f its conta9+ mu* c>bon 9 ! =m bo? ( coal & c>bonic acid1 s ?is has be5 call$ ! 8,salif]\s0 sy/em1 f ! occurr5ce 9 _m places ( /rata ( 8rock-salt10 or cry/allis$ *loride ( sodium1 & 7:]e ! ra9 f9ds its way d[n & dissolves x7 ( br9e spr+s2 ^! 79 ,engl&7 exi/ *iefly 9 ,*e%ire & ,w>wick%ire1 b 9 ,pol& & ,hung>y !y exi/ on a mu* l>g] scale1 ! rock-salt be+ ne>ly a ?\s& feet ?ick4 ,x has be5 said t ^! /rata ( salt 7 =m$ by ! evaporation ( salt lakes1 b x is mu* m probable t salt is "o ( ! natural mat]ials ( ! e>?1 & t bo? salt lakes & oceans h become salt f dissolv+ out ^! /rata :]ev] !y h come into contact4 ,x is suppos$ t dur+ ! ,p]mian p]iod ! great] portion ( ! cont95t ( ,europe 0 rais$ above ! ocean1 & ! deposits 7 =m$ 9 salt lakes1 = ! appe>ance ( ! organic rema9s t5ds to e/abli% ! fact t ! creatures ( t p]iod 7 n f> f dry l& ev5 9 _! wat]y exi/5ce1 & ! reptiles f\nd confirm ?is view4 ,we h n[ to exam9e ! ,mesozoic1 or ,second>y ,sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,d9o!rium giganteum4 ,,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,,! ,,mesozoic ,,sy/em--,,! ,,triassic1 ,,oolitic1 ,,& ,,cretace\s ,,=mations--,,! ,,eoc5e1 ,,mioc5e1 ,,& ,,plioc5e--,,! ,,glacial ,,p]iod--,,pre-,,hi/oric ,,man4 ,we tru/ t ! g5]al read] has glean$ f ! =ego+ *apt] "s few ideas conc]n+ ! gr[? ( plant & animal life 9 ! e>ly p]iods ( ! _w's exi/5ce4 ,f ! ,laur5tian ,sy/em we h briefly trac$ ! con=mation ( ! globe at ! dawn ( organic life ?r\gh ! ,silurian ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ,c>bonif]\s =mations1 indicat+ z we proce$$ ! *ief po9ts 9 ! _w's hi/ory1 & ! gradual developm5t ( life ?r\gh _m ages4 ,!re is no real or bold l9e ( dem>cation drawn betwe5 ^! sy/ems4 ,z seam unites to seam1 & lay] to lay]1 /ratum ^u /ratum1 s ! sy/ems almo/ ins5sibly unite1 & =ms ( life appe>1 mature1 & die away z ! babe gr[s into ! man1 & dies away aga9 to old age & f9al ext9ction4 ,s "o sy/em m]ges into ano!r1 ea* & all a factor 9 ! great "w :i* 0 int5d$ to prep>e ! e>? = ! greate/ & late/ developm5t ( ,nature--,,man6 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgj4--;,fossils ( ! ,trias ,gr\p4 #a4 ,ammonites nodosus4 #b4 ,avicula socialis4 #c4 ,possidonia m9uta4 #d4 ,encr9ites monili=mis4 ,b all ?is :ile ! e>? _h be51 z x /ill is1 und]go+ cont9ual *ange4 ,sometimes gradually1 9 ! we>+ away1 or elevation ( bea* or headl&2 sometimes sudd5ly1 z :5 mighty hills 7 upheav$ & ! deeply-laid granite or lime/one 0 lift$ to ! summits ( ! m\nta9s f ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,l& & wat] came & w5t1 & ! ev]-*ang+ e>? /ill br\ght =? abundantly 8! h]b yield+ se$ aft] its k9d10 & ! 8mov+ ?+s ^u ! gr\nd aft] _! k9d10 ev] improv+ & develop+ till !y culm9at$ 9 ! spl5did vegetation & imm5se animals ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & lay sil5t aft]w>ds 9 ! cold grasp ( ! great ice age = ! ?\s&s ( ye>s ( ! glacial epo*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fga4--,plesiosaurus4 ,we n[ ent] ^u ! ,,trias1 or ,new 7,upp]7 ,r$ ,s&/one1 :i* is divid$ into ,upp] & ,l[] ,trias1 8,keup]0 & 8,bunt]40 ,we h ?ree pr9cipal head+s 9 ! ,second>y ,sy/em--! ,,triassic 7! olde/71 ! ,,oolitic1 & ! ,,cretace\s4 ,9 ! fir/ we f9d r$ s&/ones & %elly lime/one2 9 ! second1 clays & %ale2 9 ! la/1 *alk1 or :ite lime/one4 ,9 "s di/ricts !re are traces ( volcanic action4 ,on ! top ( ! 8,upp] ,trias10 or 8,keup]0 =mation1 we h ! ,lias1 :i* succe$s ! ,rhtic b$s1 & 9 ?is we f9d _m ri* traces ( reptiles & birds :i* come n[ be=e u 9 ! ris+ scale ( creation4 ,9 ! seas ( ?is p]iod we h num]\s cru/acea1 ! nautilus & ! cuttle-fi%4 ,! ,saurians n[ come be=e our retrospective vision4 ,x is ! 8,reptile ,age0 9 all its developm5t1 & ! huge labyr9?odon1 ! iguanodon1 pt]odactyle1 & i*?yosaurus te/ify to ! magnitude ( ! fauna ( ! p]iod4 ,! fir/ mammal specim51 a m>supial1 has be5 trac$ back to ?is "t2 & ! tropical temp]ature 0 fav\rable = luxuriant vegetation1 p9es1 & palms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgb4--,re/orations ( ,saurians1 etc4 ,9 ! swamps or %all[ wat]s ! great reptiles disport$ !mselves1 & seiz$ _! prey1 ! wat]-f[l1 :i* n[ appe>$ 9 numb]s1 & ( enorm\s size4 ,nor 7 insects abs5t4 ,numb]s ( rema9s h be5 discov]$2 beetles1 dragon-flies1 gras%opp]s1 etc41 9 multitudes yield u in=mation1 :ile ! m>9e fossils1 />-fi%1 mollusca1 & v>i\s fi%es1 are ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,animal & vegetable life dur+ ?is p]iod mu/ h be5 v ri* & v>i$--lit]ally leav+ 8footpr9ts 9 ! s&s ( "t40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgc4--,pt]odactylus longiro/ris4 ,! 8,blue ,lias0 is a t]m famili> to e read]4 ,x is a k9d ( lime/one mix$ ) clay1 ( a blue col\r1 & ^u ?is we f9d ! ,oolitic1 or ,oolite ,sy/em--s call$ because x some:at resembles ! roe ( a fi%4 ,! ,lias clays are us$ = bricks1 & ,:itby 8jet0 is also obta9$ f ! ,upp] ,lias4 ,jet is really a lignite1 or wood 9 ! process ( transmutation4 ,9 ?is ,lias =mation1 besides ! num]\s fossil rema9s already m5tion$1 we f9d ! 8snake/ones0 7ammonites71 ! /one-lily1 & belemnites1 ) _m nautili & %ells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgd4--;,i*?yosaurus4 ,! ,,oolite1 or ,,jurassic1 und]lies ! *alk1 & ov]lies ! ,trias =mation4 ,! t]m 8,jurassic0 orig9ates f ! ,jura range1 :i* is almo/ entirely compos$ ( ,oolitic /rata4 ,^! /rata are greatly di/ort$ by pressure1 & :5 we rea* ,switz]l& & ! famili> ,alps1 we f9d gneiss1 cry/all9e1 lime/ones1 & s*i/s1 into :i* ! ,oolite has be5 metamorphos$4 ,! ,oolite is divid$ into ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[]1 consi/+ ( ! foll[+3-- ,pembroke ,b$s4 ,upp] ,oolite ,portl& 8 ,kimm]idge ,clay4 ,calc>e\s ,grit4 ,middle ,oolite ,coral ,rag4 ,ox=d ,clay4 8,cornbra%0--,=e/ ,m>ble4 ,/ansfield ,slate4 ,l[] ,oolite ,ba? ,oolite4 ,full]'s ,e>?4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fge4--,sket*-map ( v>i\s geological =mations4 ,! ,oolite =mation 7see ,map7 occupies a /ret* ( c\ntry 9 ,engl& ext5d+ f ,york%ire into ,dorset4 ,! ,great ,oolite holds ! ,full]'s e>?1 & ! ,ba? /one is also well kn[n4 ,! ,/onesfield slate holds _m rema9s ( reptiles4 ,x is a k9d ( %elly lime/one1 & is us$ = ro(+ purposes4 ,! ,=e/ ,m>ble 7s call$ f ,wy*wood ,=e/7 is a s&y lime/one hold+ m>9e fossils4 ,x is us$ = ornam5ts4 ,! ,coral ,rag & ,ox=d clay are ri* 9 fossils1 & ! =m]1 z its "n implies1 is compos$ ( anci5t coral reef4 ,! ,portl& b$s produce ! well-kn[n build+ /one4 ,! ,purbecks1 ( :i* !re are ?ree divisions1 appe> to h be5 deposit$ 9 fre% wat]1 & occur 9 ,dorset%ire4 ,all ! ,oolite /rata supply organic rema9s4 ,we h plants & f]ns1 reptiles1 & a numb] ( new g5]a ( con*if]a & cephalopods1 />-fi%1 ur*9s1 & ! enorm\s bats1 & ! t]rible megalosaurus1 & ! cetiosaurus1 /5eosaurus1 & pliosaurus1 ( enorm\s size4 ,"o v rem>kable bird has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,bav>ian lime/one ( ?is p]iod2 x is call$ ! ,ar*opt]yx1 :i* is describ$ z hav+ a leg-bone & foot l ! famili> birds1 b ! tail is liz>d-l1 ) fea!rs spr++ f ea* jo9t4 ,sponges1 corals1 & fi%1 & _m o!r =ms ( animal life are f\nd 9 ! ,oolites4 ,! reptiles mu/ h _h x all _! own way 9 ?is p]iod1 = !re 7 bo? c>nivor\s & vegetable fe$]s1 & tee? ( ! pliosaurus h be5 f\nd :i* measure fifte5 in*es1 ! jaws be+ six feet long4 ,we h se5 t corals mu/ h built up _! reefs 9 ! wat]s1 :i* !n ov]laid ! l& we call ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,!re mu/ h be5 great *anges dur+ ?is p]iod1 & ! /rata are *iefly m>9e4 ,! ,weald5 =mations are ! exceptions1 & 9 ! fre%-wat] deposits insect =ms ab\nd4 ,! appe>ance & v>iety ( animal & vegetable life mu/ h be5 curi\s & int]e/+4 ,! ,weald or 8,wold0 ( ,k5t is (t5 spok5 (1 & x ext5ds ) ! ,surrey & ,sussex ,weald5 =mations = "s di/ance4 ,! /rata are ( fre%-wat] deposition1 diff]+ 9 ?is f ! *alk1 al?\gh ! ,weald5 b$s are includ$ 9 ! ,cretace\s ,gr\p1 :i* is compos$ z foll[s3-- ,weald54 ,l[] ,gre5s&4 8,gault40 ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,*alk ,m>l4 ,upp] ,*alk 7)\t ,fl9t74 ,*alk 7) ,fl9t74 ,mae/ri*t4 ,! 8,weald50 =mation is divid$ into ,ha/+s s& & ,weald clay4 ,! =m] consi/s ( clay & s&y b$s1 & is obs]vable at ,ha/+s1 & 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,tunbridge4 ,! ,weald clay consi/s ( blue & br[n clays1 ) s&/one1 & ! lime/one kn[n z 8,sussex ,m>ble10 :i* is =m$ by ! palud9a ( ! riv]s4 ,!re is ano!r division (t5 se5 9 ,dorset%ire1 & call$ ! ,punfield b$s1 :i* p>take bo? ( m>9e & fre%-wat] rema9s1 :i* are di/9ct 9 ! true ,weald5 & cretace\s =mations1 ! =m] be+ ( fre%1 & ! latt] ( salt-wat] orig94 ,! rema9s ( enorm\s reptiles are num]\s 9 ! ,weald5 =mations2 crocodiles1 liz>ds1 turtles ( gigantic size h be5 discov]$1 & mo/ curi\s fossils h be5 dis9t]r$ 9 ! ,ha/+s di/rict4 ,! 8,gre5s&s0 are sep>at$ by :at is t]m$ gault1 a /iff blue clay f\nd 9 ,norfolk1 ,essex1 & ,k5t4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& includes ! well-kn[n ,k5ti% rag1 or lime/one1 ( :i* s _m *ur*es are built4 ,! ,upp] ,gre5s& is suppos$ to be a sea%ore deposit on ! sides ( an ext5sive ocean or sea1 at ! bottom ( :i* ! *alk 0 =m$4 ,aft] ! ,weald5 b$s 7 =m$1 !y 7 cov]$ by ^! gre5s& e/u>y-b$s1 or littoral /rata4 ,9 ^! s]ies new =ms ( life appe>$1 & ! wat]s became ! receptacle ( myriads ( mollusca1 etc41 :i* 9 "t =m$ ! great *alk cliffs & d[ns s (t5 ref]r$ to4 ,! *alk is int]/ratifi$ ) s&1 :i* z 8gault0 & 8gre5s&0 0 probably ! s& ( ! ocean b$ be=e ! *alk 0 =m$ ^u x1 & ! seas mu/ h support$ _m m>9e reptiles1 = /ony 8nodules10 or coprolites1 :i* are ! fossil excreta ( ! animals1 are f\nd1 & n[ us$ = manure1 aft] be+ buri$ = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,exam9ation ( ^! rema9s has result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! tee? & bones ( fi% :i* _h be5 dev\r$ by ! gigantic reptiles4 ,an illu/ration ( a %ell ?us discov]$ is annex$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgf4--;,e*9us 7,hemicid>us int]m$ia1 ,*alk74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgg4--,nautilus ,inequalis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgh4--;,ammonite f ! *alk4 ,we h 9 a =m] *apt] spok5 ( ! *alk & its =mation4 ,we "k t x is compos$ ( ! m9ute =am9if]a4 ,! fossil rema9s are v num]\s 9 *alk & all ( a m>9e k9d1 su* z ! ammonites1 belemnites1 & su* cephalopods1 & ! e*9us1 bivalve mollusca1 cru/acea1 etc4 ,we h occasionally fl9ts appe>+ 9 ! *alk1 & ?is circum/ance has giv5 rise to "s speculation z to h[ ! fl9ts got !re1 = !y consi/ ( ne>ly pure silica2 & ! !ory ( ! petrifaction ( sponges1 madrepores1 etc41 has be5 />t$ to acc\nt = _! pres5ce4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says3 8,x may be /at$1 z a fact beyond all "q1 t nodul> fl9t & o!r analog\s concretions 7su* z agates7 may g5]ally be consid]$ z fossilis$ sponges or alcyonian zoophytes1 s9ce n only are _! ext]nal =ms & _! sup]ficial m>k+s (t5 highly *>act]i/ic ( ^? organisms1 b :5 sections ( !m are made suffici5tly ?9 to be transp>5t1 a spongy texture may be mo/ di/9ctly recognis$ 9 _! int]ior40 ,x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t ! decay+ animal matt] acts ^u ! silici\s spicul ( sponges1 etc41 & ! silica is ?us deposit$4 ,we may !n surmise t at "s v di/ant p]iod ! :ole ext5t ( ! ,briti% ,isles 0 subm]g$1 z well z portions ( ! cont95t1 & aft] ! /rata _h be5 deposit$ ! sea & l& 7 di/urb$ by volcanic action4 ,:ile ! second>y /rata 7 be+ deposit$1 v little relative alt]ation took place1 z ! deposits are se5 to lie 8con=mably40 ,b :5 ! great convulsion :i* upheav$ ! ,ap5n9es occurr$1 ! *alk 0 rais$ z we f9d x 9 ! cliffs & d[ns1 :i* 7 ! b$s ( seas4 ,?is is ! la/ ( ! great convulsions :i* ! e>? has und]gone1 = ! t]ti>y /rata1 :i* aft]w>ds began to be deposit$1 re/ 9 ! holl[s or bas9s 7*iefly 9 ! *alk7 !n left2 ! alt]ations 9 & s9ce ^! deposits appe> to consi/ *iefly ( ! upheaval ( c]ta9 localities1 ! depression ( o!rs1 ! evaporation ( inl& lakes1 & ! we> & te> ( ! l& f ^! causes1 :i* are /ill 9 cont9u\s action 7z f ! wa%+ d[n ( cliffs by ! sea1 & ! =mation ( mud deposits at ! m\?s ( riv]s71 or ! volcanic ag5cies :i* 9 "s places 7z 9 ,irel&7 h ca/ up basalt ov] ! *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fgi4--,mosasaurus 7,mae/ri*t74 ,!re is a sort ( transition =mation :i* is class$ ) ! ,cretace\s ,sy/em1 & t]m$ 8,mae/ri*t10 aft] ! t[n 9 ,belgium4 ,x appe>s t ?is is an upp] *alk lay]1 an int]m$i>y betwe5 ! ,second>y & ,t]ti>y1 & "h on ! banks ( ! ,meuse we f9d ! ,mosasaurus1 ! 8liz>d ( ! ,meuse10 ( ^: rema9s we give specim5s 9 ! illu/ration4 ,?is transition *alk--z we may call x to di/+ui% x--mu/ h be5 laid d[n at a lat] p]iod ?an ! fl9ty *alk1 & we f9d x 9 _m places4 ,x s]ves !re=e z a fitt+ introduction to ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod ( ,geological "t4 ,,! ,,t]ti>y ,,p]iod4 ,we n[ ent] ^u a p]iod :5 ! animal creation atta9$ its greate/ developm5t1 ! 8,age ( ,mammals02 = !y 7 !n ! k+s ( creation4 ,! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod is divid$ into ?ree /ages1 viz4-- ,! ,,eoc5e1 or ! ,dawn+ ( ! n[ exi/+ creation4 ,! ,,mioc5e1 or ! ,middle1 or 8m9ority0 ( exi/+ creation4 ,! ,,plioc5e1 or ! ,rec5t1 or /ill m develop$ p]iod4 ,we w glance at !m 9 t ord]1 :i* ,sir ,c4 ,lyell introduc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhj4--,skull ( ! ,d9o!rium4 ,! ,eoc5e =mation is %[n 9 :at is t]m$ ! 8,london ,bas910 "h illu/rat$ by a section 9 :i* we f9d s(t s&s )\t fossils 7,?anet ,b$s71 & a k9dr$ k9d 9 ,surrey1 9 :i* fossils 7m>9e7 are f\nd4 ,aft] ^! we get ! 8,read+ & ,woolwi*0 b$s z we asc5d4 ,^! are ( clay & pebbles1 etc41 ) riv] fossils4 ,! ,oldhav5 b$s are includ$ on ! map2 !y occur t[>ds ,blackhea? & ,h]ne ,bay4 ,! ,london clay is v /iff1 & 9 "s places blue4 ,x is full ( fossils ( birds1 bea/s1 fruits1 & vegetables1 trees1 reptiles1 & fi%1 & ! v>iety ( ! organic rema9s appe>s to indicate ! fact t at "o "t ! ,?ames fl[$ ?r\gh swampy gr\nd to ! sea1 9 :i* dwelt1 9 a w>m climate1 imm5se mammalia1 su* z ! mega!rium1 glyptodon1 tapir1 etc41 & "s turtles ( enorm\s size4 ,x is also on record f late obs]vations t ^! imm5se animals 7 ev5 mix$ up1 & almo/ fabul\s creatures inhabit$ ! l& :]e ,engl& n[ is4 ,we read ( antelope-horses1 lion-l be>s1 & camel-/ags4 ,! vegetation 0 !n ( a tropical k9d1 & 9 ! deep =e/s & jungles ^! enorm\s animals--! mammo? d9o!rium1 & su* species--roam$ & plung$ 9 ! swamps at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames4 ,at l5g? ^! types di$ away1 & gave place to ! elephant & ! hippopotamus1 & ! climate by degrees became less w>m1 & /ill sl[ly decreas$ 9 temp]ature4 ,a glance at ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 w %[ u h[1 z we exam9e ! m mod]n /rata1 we f9d a great increase 9 ! ,european l&s1 :i* may h be5 comp5sat$ by ! subm]sion ( ! ,pacific isl&s4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( ! vegetation ( ! ,second>y epo*s1 our climate 7betwe5 ! lias & ! *alk7 0 fav\rable to a tropical gr[?4 ,enorm\s riv]s fl[$ ?r\gh our isl&s1 & gigantic crocodiles1 etc41 ) fly+ reptiles1 7 ma/]s ( ! l&4 ,!re 7 num]\s fi%es1 b ! reptiles did n appe> 9 su* v great numb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fha4--,section across ! ,london ,bas9 7,w4 ,:itak]74 a ,l[] ,bag%ot s& 7( ,hamp/ead74 b ,london ,clay4 c ,read+ & ,woolwi* b$s 7includ+ ! ,oldhav5 b$s1 :i* occur 9 ! s\? only74 d ,?anet s& 7crops out on ! s\? only74 e ,*alk ) fl9ts4 f ,*alk )\t fl9ts4 g ,upp] ,gre5s& 7crops out on ! s\? only74 h ,gault4 i ,l[] ,gre5s&4 k ,weald5 b$s 7on ! s\? only74 l ,oolitic clays 7%[n only on ! nor?1 b prov$ to occur on ! s\? beyond ! range ( ! section1 by ! sub-,weald5 bor+1 ne> ,battle1 9 ,sussex74 x ,old rocks1 %[n by bor+s at ,k5ti% ,t[n & at ,meux's ,brew]y1 to pass "u ! ,london bas94 ,^! l>ge & elephant9e animals mu/ h exi/$ :ile ! climate ( ,nor!rn ,europe und]w5t "s v consid]able *anges4 ,we read ( ! woolly rh9oc]os1 & ! hairy elephant1 or ma/odon1 :i* has be5 f\nd 9 ,sib]ia4 ,re9de] appe>$ 9 ,engl&1 & we "k n[ t ^! animals inhabit cold c\ntries4 ,! m\nta9s 7 consid]ably elevat$ dur+ ! latt] ,t]ti>y p]iod2 sn[ fell & ice =m$ ^u ! summits ( ! m\nta9s1 :ile glaci]s crept d[n ! sides4 ,! w>m1 almo/ tropical climate ( ! prior ages 0 gradually b surely giv+ way to ! ,ice ,age2 ! e>? 0 sl[ly dipp+1 & ! sun's rays _h less p[]4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay says ! 8assemblage ( fossils f\nd 9 ! ,london clay po9t to ! fact t ! :ole ( ^! /rata 7 deposit$ 9 ! e/u>y ( a great cont95tal riv] comp>able to ! ,amazon & ! ,ganges4 ,! palm-nuts & ! ho/ ( o!r plants help to prove x1 & ! rema9s ( riv] tortoises1 crocodiles1 snakes1 m>supials1 & sev]al tapir-l mammals1 all po9t 9 ! same direction4 ,! e/u>9e conditions begun dur+ ! deposit ( ! ,woolwi* & ,read+ b$s 7 /ill go+ on :5 ! ,london clay 0 ?r[n d[n2 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t by s9k+ ( ! area ! e/u>y _h become long]1 wid]1 & deep]1 b /ill rema9$ connect$ ) a va/ cont95t1 ?r\gh :i* ! ,eoc5e riv] fl[$40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhb4--;,anoplo!rium commune3 palo!rium magnum & m9us2 & crocodile4 ,! ,mioc5e deposits are n s g5]ally important 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 b 9 ,am]ica v valuable fossils h be5 discov]$ 9 ^! /rata4 ,! ,plioc5e /rata ext5d along ! ea/ ( ,great ,brita91 :]e !y are d5om9at$ 8,crag10 z ,norfolk ,crag1 ,r$ ,crag1 ,corall9e ,crag4 ,und]nea? ^! mammalian rema9s h be5 discov]$4 ,aft] ! ,plioc5e we come to ! ,po/-,plioc5e1 :i* really closes ! long ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,dur+ ^! ages ! gradual developm5t ( creat$ be+s app>5tly rea*$ its height4 ,x 0 t[>ds ! end ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e t ! great m\nta9 *a9 ( ,europe came into exi/5ce1 :i* is connect$1 z any casual obs]v] may see1 ) ! ,himalaya4 ,9 fact1 ! :ole *a91 f ! ,?ibetian range ?r\gh ,india1 ! ,caucasus1 ,alps1 & ,pyr5ees1 is cont9u\s1 & =m$ ( ! same mat]ial 78nummulitic lime/one074 ,!re is no d\bt t ! :ole nor!rn hemisph]e enjoy$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod a w>m1 n to say tropical1 climate1 :i* got cold] & cold]4 ,we f9d ! increase ( animals & plants m fitt$ to ! requirem5ts ( man & our pres5t climate4 ,!re are _m signs ( ! successive increase ( l& 9 ,europe g5]ally1 :ile ! contra/ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod be>s to ! ,second>y is v m>k$4 ,9 ! =m] we h ext5sive deposits 9 ! wat]s ( wide1 op5 seas2 9 ! latt] ! depositions 7 evid5tly made :]e dry l&1 ) its accompany+ bays & lakes1 7 ext5sive & num]\s4 ,! =m] is m>9e1 ! latt] lacu/r9e & m>9e4 ,! seas ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod h lately be5 def9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhc4--,mega!rium cuvi]i 7po/-,plioc5e71 ,s4 ,am]ica4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 9 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 %[s u ?is1 & def9es ! ,european features at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,at t "t1 ! ,briti% isl&s1 ) ! exception ( ! bas9s ( ,london1 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & ,norfolk1 _h :olly em]g$ f ! deep4 ,b a ?ird "p ( ,france 0 /ill "u wat]4 ,italy consi/$ only ( a long & n>r[ ridgy p59sula1 bran*+ (f f ! ,alps ne> ,savona4 ,turkey & ,greece1 s\? ( ! ,danube1 7 laid dry2 & a tract ( l& ext5d$ f ! ,vosges1 ?r\gh c5tral ,g]many1 ,bohemia1 & ! nor? ( ,hung>y1 p]haps to ! ,balkan4 ,b ! :ole ( ! nor? ( ,europe & ,asia1 f ,holl& ea/w>d to c5tral ,t>t>y1 & f ,saxony & ! ,c>pa?ians nor?w>d to ,sw$51 ,lapl&1 & ! ,ural *a91 lay b5ea? ! ocean4 ,! same subt]ranean movem5ts1 :i* h subsequ5tly rais$ ! wide pla9s ( our nor!rn cont95ts above ! sea-level1 h giv5 great additional elevation to ! !n exi/+ l&4 ,?us ! ,alps h c]ta9ly acquir$ an increas$ height ( f two ?\s& to f\r ?\s& feet s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! ,pyr5ees1 ^: highe/ ridge consi/s ( m>9e calc>e\s b$s1 ( ! age ( our *alk & gre5s& s]ies1 :ile ! ,t]ti>y /rata at _! foot are horizontal1 & rea* only ! height ( a few hundr$ feet above ! sea1 seem to h be5 entirely upheav$ 9 ! comp>atively brief int]val betwe5 ! deposition ( ! *alk & ^! ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,! ,jura1 also1 owe a great "p ( _! pres5t elevation to convulsions :i* happ5$ aft] ! deposition ( ! ,t]ti>y gr\ps4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is possible t "s m\nta9-*a9s may h be5 l[]$ by subsid5ce1 z well z by meteoric degradation1 dur+ ! same s]ies ( ages 9 ?is qu>t] ( ! globe2 & on "s po9ts %all[s may h be5 depress$ into deep abysses4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 ev]y?+ t5ds to %[ t ! great pr$om9ance ( l& :i* n[ di/+ui%es ! nor!rn hemisph]e has be5 br\ght ab\t only at a rec5t p]iod1 & ,sir ,*>les holds t ! %ift+ ( ! cont95ts is suffici5t to acc\nt = ! v>iations ( climate4 ,we h e reason to believe t be=e ! ,glacial epo* ,engl& & ! ,cont95t 7 unit$1 & dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod ,engl& & ,nor? ,am]ica 7 jo9$1 vi ,gre5l& & ,irel&4 ,mr4 ,dawk9s says t ,engl& at t "t 0 six hundr$ feet above its pres5t level4 ,if s--& we _c "q 8 conclusions--! ,*annel 0 !n dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhd4--;,c]vus ,megac]os 7,megac]os ,hib]nicus73 ,iri% ,elk4--,po/-,plioc5e4 ,! 8,great ,ice ,age0 !n came ^u ! _w4 ,= ! in=mation ( read]s :o wi% to p]use ! :ole hi/ory ( ?is epo* & its causes1 we may add t 9 ,pr(essor ,geikie's mo/ int]e/+ "w1 !y w f9d full details4 ,we c only ref] to x4 ,! gradual decrease ( temp]ature ^u ! e>?1 :i* 0 ! cause ( ! ,glacial p]iod ext5d+ ov] ! nor? ( ,europe1 has be5 attribut$ to ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit2 & "h a/ronomy /eps 9 to our assi/ance4 ,we h read 9 ! *apt]s on ,a/ronomy1 h[ ! movem5t ( ! e>?1 l a top ne> ! end ( its 8sp910 causes ! 8precession ( ! equ9oxes10 & 9 connection ) ?is ph5om5on ! e>?'s orbit becomes m & m circul> at c]ta9 p]iods ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 & goes away f ! sun4 ,we !re=e receive ! light & heat at a great] angle4 ,consequ5tly1 less heat is receiv$1 & ice is =m$1 z at ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,poles at pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhe4--;,drift ,ice4 ,doctor ,croll has po9t$ out t ! great ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit exi/$ ab\t #baj1jjj ye>s ago1 :5 !re 0 a diff]5ce betwe5 ! ne>e/ & f>!/ position ( ! e>? & ! sun ( #ab1jjj1jjj ( miles at lea/4#bh ,?is is a v consid]able di/ance ev5 9 ! enorm\s spaces :i* int]v5e betwe5 u & ! o!r planets ( ! sol> sy/em1 & ab\t t "t ! ,glacial p]iod arriv$4 ,p]haps we may make ?is cle>] by go+ back to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,! e>? moves 9 an orbit call$ an ellipse1 & ! sun is n 9 ! c5tre ( ?is ne>ly circul> pa?4 ,we c n[ und]/& t ! e>? comes ne>] to ! sun sometimes & rec$es at o!rs4 ,^! po9ts ( ne>e/ approa* & greate/ di/ance are t]m$ p]ihelion & aphelion4 ,9 ! latt] case we are ab\t #i1jjj1jjj ( miles f>!r f ! sun ?an :5 9 p]ihelion--t is1 :5 ! greate/ 8ecc5tricity0 is rea*$4 ,9 addition to ?is ! axis ( ! e>? is cont9ually *ang+ 9 direction by reason ( sol> attraction at ! equator4 ,?is %ift+1 z expla9$ 9 ! a/ronomical section1 is v slight e ye>1 & 9 ! c\rse ( #bd1jjj ye>s ! conditions ( ! seasons w h completely *ang$ r\nd & back aga91--= ! nor!rn & s\!rn conditions w be rev]s$ 9 our hemisph]e4 ,day & night come tw5ty m9utes e>li] e ye>4 ,we are n[ ne>] ! sun 9 w9t] z %[n 9 diagram 7page #dig72 :5 we *ange we %all be ne>e/ ! sun 9 summ] & f>!/ 9 w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhf4--,! ,m] de ,glace4 ,doctor ,croll1 :o has done mu* 9 8 mo/ int]e/+ pap] on *anges ( climate#bi1 tells u h[ ?is ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit produc$ indirectly ! ,glacial epo*4 ,he %[s h[1 if 9 a p]iod ( ! greate/ 8ecc5tricity0 our w9t] came 9 aphelion1 we %\ld receive "o-fif? less heat ?an n[1 b a correspond+ly great] heat 9 summ]4 ,b if our w9t] "u su* circum/ances fall 7z n[7 9 p]ihelion1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 w9t] & summ] w\ld be practically nil1 because ! sun dur+ a p]iod ( ! e>?'s great ecc5tricity 8c\ld n w>m ! hemisph]e ^: summ] happ5$ to arrive 9 p]ihelion40 ,no d\bt ! sun's rays w\ld be v p[]ful1 b ! e>? be+ cov]$ ) ice & sn[ c\ld n be w>m$2 fogs w\ld accrue & hide ! sun1 z at pres5t 9 ,ant>ctic summ]s1 :5 ! cold is v great4 ,! w>m ocean curr5ts w\ld be /opp$1 & ! nor!rn portion ( our hemisph]e w\ld be1 z x und\bt$ly 01 froz5 ov] & cov]$ ) sn[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhg4--,mammo? & ,iri% ,elk4 ,:5 we consid] ! millions ( ye>s s9ce ! e>? is suppos$ to h be5 laun*$ into space1 we c imag9e t ! ,glacial p]iods w\ld occur frequ5tly1 & consid]+ ! v sl[ 8precession0 movem5t !re1 & ! alt]nat+ tropical climate ) graduations ( temp]ature = ?\s&s ( ye>s !y w\ld la/ long4 ,! great ,glacial p]iod is comput$ to h begun #bdj1jjj ye>s ago & la/$ #afj1jjj ye>s ) alt]nations ( comp>ative summ]2 & s ! ye>s w5t on1 season succe$+ season1 alt]+ ! appe>ance ( ! e>?1 & caus+ successive *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( animal & vegetable life4 ,!n ! great mammalia1 ! mammo? & hippopotamus1 ) ! hyna1 lion1 & o!r felid came1 & w5t :5 ,arctic animals usurp$ _! places4 ,at ! lat] ,glacial epo* man mu/ h arriv$ 9 ,brita91 & 8?is be+ s10 says ,pr(essor ,geikie1 8x is />tl+ to recall 9 imag9ation ^? gr& geological revolutions ( :i* he mu/ h be5 a witness4444 ,he ent]$ ,brita9 at a "t :5 our c\ntry 0 jo9$ to ,europe across ! b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean2 at a "t :5 ! w9t]s 7 /ill sev]e en\gh to freeze ov] ! riv]s 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&2 at a "t :5 glaci]s ne/l$ 9 our upl& & m\nta9 valleys1 & ! ,arctic mammalia occupi$ ! l&4 ,he liv$ "h long en\gh to witness a complete *ange ( climate1 to see ! ,arctic mammalia vani% f ,engl&1 & ! hippopotamus & its cong5]s take _! places4 ,at a lat] date1 & :ile a mild & g5ial climate /ill cont9u$1 he beheld ! sea sl[ly ga9 ^u ! l&1 until1 little by little1 /ep by /ep1 a l>ge portion ( our c\ntry 0 subm]g$--a subm]g5ce :i*1 z we "k1 rea*$ 9 ,wales to ! ext5t ( #a1cjj feet or !reab\ts40 ,we f9d t ! l& und]w5t _m subsequ5t *anges2 x rose f ! sea1 0 aga9 cov]$ ) ice1 & _m p>ts ( ,europe 7 deva/at$ by imm5se glaci]s--t ( ! ,rhone ext5d+ = m ?an two hundr$ miles4 ,!n came vegetation z ! ice gave way1 & luxuriance ( ! tropics reign$2 m cold aft] t1 !n m heat1 till ! ice 0 f9ally driv5 to its m\nta9 fa/nesses1 & 8,brita9 = ! la/ "t became cont95tal4 ,neoli?ic man came ^u ! sc5e2 8 paloli?ic pr$ecessor _h1 z f> z ,brita9 & nor!rn ,europe are conc]n$1 vani%$ = ev]40 ,! inquiry respect+ ! arrival & pres5ce ( man 9 ,brita9 w\ld lead u too f> 9 pursuit4 ,! fact has be5 e/abli%$ t man 0 liv+ 9 ! ,?ames valley :ile tropical animals 7 9 ! c\ntry1 & he has be5 class$ by ,pr(essor ,boyd-,dawk9s among/ ! mid-plei/oc5e mammalia1 & at t di/ant p]iod1 man z man1 & n z an int]m$iate =m connect+ ! human race ) ! l[] animals1 0 pres5t 9 ,europe4 ,! /one implem5ts :i* h be5 f\nd 9 riv] b$s & 9 cav]ns1 associat$ ) ! bones ( v>i\s animals1 su* z ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hyna1 be>1 & o!rs prove ?is4 ,^! v anci5t & rudely-fa%ion$ implem5ts h be5 divid$ into two classes1 ! ,paloli?ic & ! ,neoli?ic1 by ,sir ,john ,lubbock4 ,fir/ ! /one implem5ts 7 us$1 & /one 0 sup]s$$ by bronze & iron4 ,!n we come to ! hi/oric p]iod4 ,9 ! neoli?ic p]iod we f9d /one implem5ts 9 ! lake dwell+s ( ,switz]l& & ,con/ance 7z well z ! ,lake ( ,neu*atel71 all ( :i* h lately develop$ _m treasures4 ,bronze tools h also be5 f\nd1 & s ! gradual progress ( man z a fa%ion] ( weapons c be trac$ f age to age4 ,f ! 8riv]-drift0 man we desc5d to ! cave-man1 :o is suppos$ to h be5 id5tical ) ! ,esquimaux4 ,:5 ,brita9 became an isl& ! cave-man seems to h disappe>$ f our c\ntry1 & 9 ! prehi/oric age ! e>lie/ ( ! pres5t inhabitants came "h1 & br\ght ) !m dome/ic animals2 !n ! ,celts ( ! bronze age1 & !n ! iron4 ,! wild bea/s gradually disappe>$1 & dome/ic ones occupi$ _! places "u civiliz$ conditions4#cj ,s we come f ! 8,glacial p]iod0 to ! op5 door ( hi/ory ?r\gh ! ante*amb] ( ! prehi/oric "t4 ,! prehi/oric is ! arbitr>y division betwe5 ! po/-plioc5e or plei/oc5e & ! kn[n 8hi/oric0 p]iods ( ! _w's hi/ory1 & we mu/ dismiss x ) a few g5]al rem>ks1 = ! *anges :i* we h attempt$ to foll[ are /ill tak+ place 9 ! e>?2 volcanoes & e>?quakes are unsettl+ ! /rata1 & add+ to ! physical & geographical record :i* w "s day h to be writt5 by po/]ity & future geologi/s4 ,we c see 9 ^? prehi/oric times traces ( m5 7hunt]s & fi%]s7 exi/+ ) difficulty1 mayhap1 9 ! mid/ ( enorm\s quadrup$s1 & fight+ = exi/5ce ) ! be>s & _m o!r =midable foes4 ,we h notic$ ! /one ages1 ! r\gh & ! smoo? z !y may be call$1 & we c picture ! primitive agriculture & "w ( ! neoli?ic man4 ,b x is by no means to be believ$ t neoli?ic man 9 ,brita9 0 a race all ov] ! _w4 ,we may assume t 9 ea/]n climes ! human race 7 9 a m civiliz$ condition z improvem5ts made _! way sl[ly we/w>d4 ,our isl& hi/ory comm5ces 9 ! "t ( ,julius ,cs>4 ,ea/]n *ronicles g back _m ?\s&s ( ye>s f>!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhh4--;,c>bonif]\s ,flora4 ,x is s %ort a "t1 geologically speak+1 s9ce man appe>$ )9 ! limits ( hi/ory1 t ! e>?'s *anges1 except f direct volcanic action or wat] erosion1 are v trifl+4 ,! *ange is1 z we said1 cont9ually proce$+2 ceaselessly ! e>? is we>+ away1 & deposit+ h] ri*es :]e %e is undi/urb$ by civilization & man's excavations & intrusions4 ,! rock is worn by wat]2 ! grit is c>ri$ d[n & deposit$ to =m s$im5t>y rocks z ( old2 ! lime w cont9ue to assi/ ! coral to be built up2 & ! *alk cliffs w be born "u ! sea1 & our organic rema9s %all be f\nd to tell remote ages t we 7 an enlight5$ p4 ,= all we c tell1 & x is by no means unlikely ano!r recurr+ cycle ( ,arctic & ,tropical p]iods w 9 "t pass ov] our e>?2 ! be> & re9de]1 ! hippopotamus & ! rh9oc]os1 may aga9 inhabit our isl&s4 ,if our g5]ation be de/roy$1 ! purely animal creation ) ! vegetable _w w reign ov] ! l&1 & new =e/s w deposit new coal measures = ! support & com=t ( a new g5]ation ( highly organiz$ be+s1 :5 our rema9s %all h pass$ away to ! bord]s ( a 8prehi/oric0 age4 ,we h se5 9 ! =ego+ brief sket* h[ ! _w has arriv$ at its pres5t beautiful condition1--h[ x has be5 /ep by /ep prep>$ = u1 h[ nature's =ces h be5 & are /ill work+ accord+ to ! immutable laws ( ! ,univ]se4 ,&1 aft] all1 h[ little we "k6 ,:at scraps ( intellig5ce only are we able to ga!r up f ! b\ndless quantity ( mat]ial :i* mu/ h be5 laid d[n1 yet :at wondr\s results sci5ti/s h be5 able to adduce f ev5 ^! comp>atively scanty specim5s6 ,! sea & l& are ev] tell+ u ! same old /ory4 ,man's rese>* & ,bible tea*+ are f\nd h& 9 h& 9 cordial & rev]5t agreem5t4 ,no?+ is alt]$ s9ce ! day t ! ,div9e comm&1 8,let !re be light10 w5t =? into space1 & till ! e>? be de/roy$ ! same =ces w cont9ue 9 op]ation1 guid$ by ! ,h& t made x--8ev] fai?ful1 ev] sure40 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,x might rea* #ad1jjj1jjj ( miles at a maximum4 #bi 8,physical ,causes ( ,*ange ( ,climate10 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfd4 #cj ,see ,dawk9s' 8,e>ly ,man 9 ,brita940 ,,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,igne\s ,,rocks--,,l& ,,& ,,wat]--,,spr+s1 ,,wells1 ,,& ,,geys]s--,,sn[ ,,& ,,ice--,,_! ,,effects4 ,9 ! =ego+ pages we h *iefly consid]$ ! /ratifi$ rocks1 b we are n[ approa*+ ano!r bran* ( our subject--viz41 8,physiography10 :i*1 z di/+ui%$ f ! usual s-call$ ,physical ,geography1 w deal ) ! ph5om5a ( ! e>?1 air1 & wat]1 ?us lead+ u to ,meteorology z a conclusion4 ,we h arriv$ at a c]ta9 k conc]n+ ! ,e>? z a planet1 h] place 9 ! univ]se1 & ! composition ( ! 8,cru/10 z x is t]m$4 ,we h exam9$ ! /ratifi$ rocks1 :i* include s& & gravel1 /ones1 & b\ld]s equally4 ,to a geologi/ !y are all 8rocks40 ,we mu/ n[ exam9e ! igne\s rocks1 :i* be> an important "p 9 ! /ructure ( ! ,e>?1 ^: surface we h n[ m m9utely to exam9e4 ,x has already be5 /at$ 7p4 #ega7 t igne\s rocks h be5 upheav$ :ile 9 a /ate ( fusion--t is1 :ile 9 a melt$ condition4 ,^! igne\s1 or fire-produc$ rocks1 are divid$ into classes1 j z ! un/ratifi$ rocks are1 & ! divisions are call$ ! ,,volcanic & ,,plutonic1 includ+ 8,basic0 & 8,acidic10 accord+ z !y are possess$ ( less silica or m4 ,sometimes ! igne\s rocks are class$ z volcanic1 trappean 7f trappa1 a /air1 su* z 9 ! ,giant's ,causeway71 & granitic4 ,! volcanic 9 su* case be+ ! mod]n or upp] rocks1 su* z lava1 scoria1 etc41 :i*1 hav+ be5 ca/ up by volcanoes1 are ( comp>atively rec5t =mation4 ,! ,,volcanic rocks1 !n1 are ( rec5t date1 comp>atively speak+2 !y =m ! con/itu5t portions ( ! volcanoes ( ! pres5t day1 & are f\nd z basaltic =mations4 ,!y are trac$ z f> back z ! ,t]ti>y p]iod ( ! globe4 ,among/ ! volcanic rocks we f9d basalt1 augite1 porphyry1 s]p5t9e1 pumice1 pit*/one1 felsp>1 etc4 ,b no d\bt volcanic action has be5 go+ on ev] s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! _w z x is n[1 & w cont9ue to d4 ,x is some:at curi\s t ! v old igne\s rocks %\ld n be m evid5t4 ,! ,,plutonic rocks d n diff] ess5tially f ! =ego+4 ,!re is less qu>tz & m hornbl5de2 & if ! ages dur+ :i* ^! =mations h be5 exi/5t 9 ! e>?-dep?s aft] !y became solidifi$ be consid]$1 ! diff]5ces w be fully acc\nt$ =4 ,! gre5/ones & sy5ites are prom95t among/ ! plutonic s]ies4 ,^! plutonic & volcanic rocks are sep>at$ into basic & acidic1 z already rem>k$1 b ! l9e _c be drawn v di/9ctly4 ,granite is ! *ief plutonic 7acidic7 rock1 & we frequ5tly f9d x =c$ upw>ds into o!r /rata1 its ess5tially eruptive "* be+ ?us decid$4 ,t granite mu/ h tak5 an imm5se "t to solidify & cry/allize is evid5t1 = no new granites are ev] f\nd4 ,we f9d granite 9 all ! old m\nta9 *a9s--su* z ! ,grampians 9 ,scotl&1 & ! ,wickl[ m\nta9s4 ,our *ief ,european 7active7 volcanoes are1 s to speak1 mod]n1 z may be suppos$ :5 _! con/itu5ts are kn[n4 ,x may be said t granite 0 fir/ deposit$ z s$im5t heat$ by subt]ranean fire1 & =c$ up by !rmal action ( wat] to ! m\nta9s1 :]e x is uncov]$ by a sl[ process ( d5udation & surface wa%+s ( ! e>?4 ,n[ )\t at pres5t go+ any f>!r into ! causes ( volcanoes we c see at a glance t ! eruption ( ! igne\s rocks mu/ h creat$ a m>k$ & ess5tial diff]5ce 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,x is to ^! eruptions t ! dislocation & di/urbance ( ! /ratifi$ =mations are due4 ,! igne\s rocks pres5t ridges 9 ! m\nta9s2 sometimes !y are r\nd$ at ! summits1 :ile ! aque\s & metamorphic rocks are dispos$ 9 lay]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fhi4--;,crat] ( ,popocatapetl4 ,^! two classes 9 _! v>ieties =m ! l& & ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 :i* is ev] be+ act$ ^u by air & wat]4 ,! ice1 aga91 poli%es & scrat*es ! valleys 9 :i* x moves4 ,! loos5$ b\ld]s t tumble f ! m\nta9s are c>ri$ d[n by ! ice1 & deposit$ 9 ! glaci] mora9e1 :5ce fl[s a /ream4 ,by degrees ! /one is gr\nd up1 & c>ri$ away 9 ! wat] to =m s$im5t 9 a 8delta0 at ! emb\*ure1 or to lie b5ea? ! surface & =m rock once m4 ,! igne\s rocks1 compos$ ( lavas & a%es1 are volcanic rocks1 deposit$ deep d[n1 & !n aft] ! lapse ( ages disclos$ by ! action ( air & wat]4 ,! consid]ation ( ! l& & wat] ^u ! globe %[s u t !y are di/ribut$ ov] ! e>? v unequally4 ,!re is ne>ly ?ree times z mu* wat] 9 our planet z !re is l&1 & ^! proportions c\ld n be alt]$ )\t giv+ rise to ph5om5a1 ! results ( :i* _c be prop]ly e/imat$4 ,our e>? has an area ( #aig1jjj1jjj ( squ>e miles2 ab\t #eb1jjj1jjj ( ?is is l&1 & ab\t #ade1jjj1jjj ( x wat]2 s ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! globe is made up ( wat]4 ,! fir/ portion ( our subject !re=e %\ld be direct$ to ! exam9ation & consid]ation ( wat]1 & ! ph5om5a :i* arise f its pres5ce ^u ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fij4--;,di/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,we ne$ n g into details :i* e geography indicates4 ,we w try to trace ! s\rces1 n ! pla9 effects1 :i* all c aft]w>ds /udy f special books4 ,9 a prec$+ portion ( ?is volume we h expla9$ ! *emical composition ( wat]1 & we %[$ by exp]im5t t x is a fluid compos$ ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases1 9 ! proportions ( "o to two volumes respectively4 ,no matt] 9 :at =m wat] may appe>1--z wat]1 z ice1 or z /eam1--^! proportions nev] v>y 9 pure wat] 7see p4 #ceb74 ,b wat] on ! e>? is seldom1 or nev]1 pure4 ,we "k ! difficulty we h to procure good dr9k+ wat]1 & ?\gh x may be filt]$1 !re w rema9 natural salts1 :i* are f\nd 9 diff]5t degrees 9 all wat] ^u ! globe4 ,we "k ! ra91 :i* is p]fectly pure :5 cond5s$ f ! cl\ds1 absorbs c>bonic acid1 etc41 f ! atmosph]e4 ,we h %[n h[ ?is wat] z soon z x comes ^u ! e>? attacks ! rocks1 & z x progresses c>ries away lime4 ,aft] desc5d+ deep d[n1 x rises aga9 9 ! =m ( ,,spr+s4 ,n[ :at are ^! spr+s8 ,!y are ! result ( p]colation ( ra9-wat] ?r\gh c]ta9 /rata4 ,:5 wat] falls x is absorb$ into ! gr\nd1 unless x happ5s to re/ ^u an imp]meable rock1 9 :i* case x becomes a rivulet4 ,b x c p5etrate betwe5 ! atoms ( _m rocks1 & ?us falls ?r\gh s& & h>d] rocks1 till x rea*es a /ratum :i* w n receive x--l clay4 ,we !n f9d t x w fl[ away 9 a spr+1 or if tapp$ w be an ,artesian well4 ,^! wat]-wells are ( v anci5t date1 b ! "n is m mod]n4#ca ,! spr+s fl[ out1 & develop1 ) ! assi/ance ( tribut>ies1 into riv]s4 ,^! aga9 receive m tribut>ies1 :i* swell ! volume ( _! wat]s1 & wid5 out1 c>ry+ millions ( gallons h\rly to ! sea ) s$im5t & gravel & /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fia4--;,di/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,wat] has enorm\s p[] ( dis9tegration4 ,we h only to ca/ our eyes ^u ! illu/rations 9 any volume ( cont95tal travel 9 ,europe or ,am]ica to p]ceive ! gorges & caons worn out by ! resi/less & frequ5tly g5tly-fl[+ riv] to e/imate ! "p :i* wat] plays 9 ,physical ,geography & ,meteorology4 ,b spr+s occur n only 9 ! case m5tion$2 !re are m9]al spr+s1 hot spr+s1 & oil spr+s1 all foll[+ ! same rules ( nature4 ,! ,artesian well has be5 m5tion$4 ,! ,geys]s ( ,icel& h (t5 be5 portray$1 & are among/ ! mo/ wond]ful ph5om5a ( nature4 ,^! w s]ve z a type ( ! o!r !rmal spr+s1 ( :i* ! di/ricts ( ! ,yell[/one 9 ,nor? ,am]ica af=d p]haps ! mo/ extraord9>y in/ances4 ,^! are int]mitt5t spr+s1 & ! wat] rises to a great height1 at int]vals ( ab\t an h\r & a half2 & aft] _m successive attempts1 or trials1 z x 71 ! geys] %oots up to a great height envelop$ 9 /eam4 ,! cause ( ^! well-kn[n ph5om5a h be5 expla9$ by ,buns51 & x has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,we "k t at a c]ta9 air-pressure wat] boils at #bab 7,fahr471 b on m\nta9s at less pressure x w boil be=e t degree1 because ! air is r>efi$4 ,s conv]sely1 "u ! gr\nd1 x may rea* #bab )\t boil+4 ,s ! surface 7w>m7 wat] falls1 & rea*es a high temp]ature be=e x is conv]t$ into /eam4 ,:5 x is s conv]t$1 ! vap\r is =m$ v rapidly1 & ! expansive =ce is trem5d\s1 %oot+ up ! wat] & all ! cont5ts ( ! tube ) t]rific viol5ce1 & ) a beautiful effect4 ,pressure !re=e alt]s ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fib4--;,geys] ( ! ,yell[/one4 ,! m9]al spr+s ( ,ba? & _m cont95tal t[ns owe _! prop]ties to ! solv5t p[] ( wat]1 :i* assimilates ! m9]al atoms & gases4 ,!y arise j 9 ! same way z ! ord9>y spr+1 ! ta/e & smell dep5d+ ^u ! soil & /rata4 ,p]haps ! oil wells are ! mo/ curi\s ph5om5a ( ?is k9d4 ,!y are excavat$ ^u ! ,artesian pr9ciple4 ,! petroleum is bor$ =1 z we bore = wat]1 & ! oil ru%es up ) great =ce1 & 9 enorm\s quantities4 ,gas wells are also to be f\nd 9 ,p5nsylvania1 & h suppli$ t[ns ) gas = ye>s4 ,bo? ^! ,artesian wells are caus$ by ! decay ( vegetation4 ,! gas is 9 ! coal =mation1 & ! oil has be5 press$ out f vegetable deposit1 & z an?racite is a /ony coal1 petroleum is a k9d ( coal-t>1 ( natural =mation4 ,we h allud$ to ! riv]1 :i* em]ges f ! spr+1 :i* has fall5 z ra94 ,b !re is ano!r1 &1 to _m m9ds1 a mu* m int]e/+ =m ( ! univ]sal fluid we call wat]4 ,?is is ice4 ,famili> z ice is1 ei!r to ! /ay-at-home invalid1 ! skat]1 & ! travell]1 !re is a great deal to be said ab\t x4 ,x is a subject we w\ld dwell ^u _h we space1 = ! remembrance ( _m a pleasant h\r pass$ ^u sn[ & glaci] call ^u u to g back aga91 ev5 ?\gh only 9 imag9ation4 ,no "o :o has n climb$ ! glaci]--ev5 ! ,m] de ,glace to ! ,j>d91 n[ su* a common excursion--c fail to be /ruck ) ! beauty & gr&eur ( ! sc5e pres5t$ to him1 & to c>ry away a fond recollection ( ! icy regions he p5etrat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fic4--;,colorado ,caon 7effects ( wat] erosion74 ,= ! ord9>y h>d-work+ man !re is no *ange1 no re/ s truly b5eficial z a trip among/ ! m\nta9s & sn[fields ( ,europe4 ,he ne$ n be a climb]2 t is1 a climb] l ,tyndall or ,:ymp]1 ^? giants ( ! ,alp9e ,club4 ,b a /roll up to ! ,bel ,alp1 ! ggi%horn1 ! ,riffel1 ! ,montanv]t1 or ! ,grimsel1 w give ! av]age p$e/rian "s ( ! f9e/ glaci] sc5]y 9 ,europe1 & :i* may1 we believe1 comp>e ) any 9 ! _w = beauty4 ,^! glaci]s--ice-riv]s--we w n[ consid] briefly4 ,we may take ! ,m] de ,glace z an example 7see ! illu/ration1 p4 #eif74 ,t gives u a v fair idea ( ! ice-riv]1 b ! cut bel[ is a good specim5 ( a glaci]4 ,suppose we />t up f ,*am\ni1 or come across f ,arg5tires1 we %all rea* ! ,montanv]t by asc5d+ ?r\gh ! wood1 or by ! 8,*apeau10 across ! ice-sea4 ,z we take ! =m] c\rse1 we walk alongside a :ite-fl[+ & rapid riv]1 ! ,arve1 :i* unites ) ! ,rhone bel[ ,g5eva4 ,?is riv] divides1 & if we keep alongside "o 7! "r or s\? bran*71 we %all rea* ! mora9e & ! icy grotto1 f :i* ! wat] issues4 ,x is 9 ?is way _m l>ge riv]s are born4 ,! ,rh9e1 ! ,rhone1 ! ,a>1 ! ,tic9o1 h all ( !m _! s\rces 9 ! ice4 ,! ,visp & ! ,sass wat]s are o!r almo/ equally well-kn[n examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fid4--,s\rce ( ! ,rh9e4 ,!re us$ to be a grotto or cav]n1 into :i* ! t\ri/ c\ld ent] at ! s\rce ( ! ,arveiron1 & "h ! beautiful blue ( ! ice c\ld be /udi$4 ,f ?is place ! ,*apeau is rea*$1 up a /ony pa? amid ! trees1 & f ! top outside ! hut we c see ! ,m] de ,glace all brok5 & contort$4 ,! frequ5tly occurr+ ro> ( a fall+ rock :i* heat has depriv$ ( its icy support1 or ! crack+ & tumbl+ ( ice-blocks1 may be se5 & he>d 9 ! =5oon4 ,b ! gr&eur & maje/y ( ! ice & sn[-clad m\nta9s is be/ enjoy$ by moonlight4 ,on ! ice we %all see huge /ones & gravel & grit1 :i* h be5 c>ri$ d[n by ! ev]-mov+ glaci]1 :i* is d5ud$ 9 its c\rse1 & worn d[n ^u ! surface z x slides1 scrap+ & gr9d+ ! valley ?r\gh :i* x fl[s4 ,by pass+ along a pa? n[ made easy by irons1 b =m]ly )\t supports or gu>ds1 ! surface ( ! glaci] w be rea*$1 & a man ) a hat*et w cut /eps = ! timid travell]4 ,we are n[ ^u ! deep ice-riv]1 :i* has its spr+s 9 ! sn[y regions ( ! ,col de ,gant1 9 ! sn[ :i* is cont9ually fall+ ^u ! heights1 & dra9+ away to wat] aga9 to =m a riv]4 ,?us ! circle ( ev5ts is complet$1--sn[1 nv1 ice 7glaci]71 wat]1 :i* la/ is aga9 absorb$ into ! atmosph]e1 & aga9 desc5ds z ra9 or sn[4 ,& ?is is always go+ on by ! action ( ! sun4 ,x may "h fairly be ask$ h[ sn[ becomes ice4 ,:y does n ! sn[ turn into ice at once1 & =m a glaci] at ! top ( ! m\nta9 z well z at ! bottom8 ,we w endeav\r to make ?is cle>4 ,sn[ is compos$ ( cry/als1 :i* assume c]ta9 def9ite =ms1 & :5 fir/ ! flakes fall !y are s(t & p[d]y4 ,by degrees !y melt a little1 & :5 unconsolidat$ =m :at is t]m$ nv1 ! bord] l9e betwe5 ice & sn[4 ,?is semi-icy sn[ desc5ds "u pressure1 &1 z x increases1 ! glaci] is =m$ by huge blocks & masses be+ press$ toge!r on ! /eep slopes ( ! m\nta9s4 ,?us ! glaci] desc5ds1 r\nd+ (f rocks1 & sc\r+ z x goes1 mov+ at a c]ta9 e/imat$ rate daily1--ab\t tw5ty in*es on ! av]age1--c>ry+ /ones & dbris :i* =m ! mora9e1 & f9ally :5 ! high temp]ature 9 ! valley melts ! ice1 x issues =? z a riv] into ! pla91 or b\nds d[n ! m\nta9 side 9 a cascade4 ,an excursion--& "o by no means dang]\s if a guide be tak5--to ! ,j>d91 ne> ,*am\ni1 w reveal _m int]e/+ features ( glaci] =mation1 & ( ! glaci]s !mselves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fie4--;,glaci] table4 ,physical ,geography is !re=e v mu* indebt$ to ! action ( wat] z a fluid or z a solid4 ,9 ! =m] condition x erodes ! rocks1 c>ries d[n ! /ones & gravel & s&1 =ms deltas at ! m\?s ( riv]s1 & elevates pla9s by ov]fl[+ its banks & deposit+ s$im5t4 ,wat] gives beautiful sc5]y1 & ! ev]-*ang+ features ( ! l&scape are due to x4 ,f ! "t ! spr+ em]ges to ! "t :5 x has develop$ into a riv]1 be>+ f9e %ips ^u its re/less wat]s1 ! univ]sal fluid is always at its "w ( de/ruction & b5efit comb9$4 ,f ! limpid /ream we pass to ! salt ocean1 ! res]voir ( all ! wat]s ( ! globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fif4--,life "u wat]4 ,we h 9 ?is *apt] briefly consid]$ two v important =ces :i* h mu* to d ) ! v>y+ con=mation ( ! e>?--viz41 fire & wat] 9 _! results ( volcanic action & erosion4 ,! sea w tell u some?+ m4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,f ,artois1 :]e ! fir/ ,european well ( ?is k9d exi/$4 ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,,! ,,sea ,,& ,,! ,,sky4 ,,! ,,sea--,,salt ,,wat]--,,waves ,,& ,,_! ,,effects--,,"u ,,wat]--,,! ,,floor ,,( ,,! ,,ocean4 ,f our *ildhood ! sea has be5 ! companion & playmate ( ?\s&s1 ! sea%ore _! playgr\nd4 ,m5 h select$ x = _! pr(essional tra9+ & livelihood4 ,au?ors write ( x1 poets apo/rophize1 sci5ti/s lecture ^u x1 & fa?om x1 br++ up f its dep?s _m a new fact & illu/ration = ^? :o _c /udy x = !mselves4 ,!re is no?+ l x1 no?+ m maje/ic1 m beautiful1 m life-giv+ ?an ! ocean--no?+ s *angeable nor s true4 ,f ! days :5 we c\ld toddle along ! bea*1 pick+ up ! %ells1 we h wond]$ at ! ocean--,:at 0 beyond x8 ,:at did x conceal8 8,:at hide/ ?\ 9 ?y treasure-caves & cells1 ,?\ holl[-s\nd+ & my/]i\s ma980 ,let u endeav\r to f9d out4 ,! fir/ ?+ t /rikes u is ! saltness ( ! sea4 ,sea wat] is salt4 ,:y8 ,"o reason is because salts are c>ri$ into x by riv]s1 & besides1 x is m b5eficial z salt wat]4 ,b let u look at ! facts4 ,we "k t ! e>? conta9s _m 8salts10 z we c see by ! sal9e spr+s4 ,we h already giv5 ! *emical con/itution ( sea wat]1 b x w be useful to repeat ! proportions4 ,wat] #ifdgdcgb gra9s4 ,salt 7,*loride ( ,sodium7 #bhjeidh 0 ,*loride ( ,potassium #jgfeeb 0 ,*loride ( ,magnesium #cfffeh 0 ,bromide ( ,magnesium #jjbibi 0 ,sulphate ( ,magnesia #bbiegh 0 ,sulphate ( ,lime #jdjffb 0 ,c>bonate ( ,lime 7) traces ( ,iod9e & ,ammonia7 #jjccja 0 ---------- #ajjjjjjjj 0 ---------- ,"s portions ( ! sea are n s salt z o!rs1 or1 9 o!r words1 n s d5se1 & ! saltness ( ! wat] prev5ts x be+ froz5 s quickly z fre% wat]1 :i* freezes at #cb4 ,salt wat] requires to be r$uc$ to #bh be=e x freezes4 ,besides ! v>i\s con/itu5ts m5tion$ above1 sea wat] has be5 f\nd to conta9 boron1 brom9e1 /rontia1 etc41 & ev5 silv]1 = ! copp] ( %ips has be5 f\nd to be impregnat$ ) t metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fig4--;,go+ out4 ,if !re is s mu* salt 9 ! sea1 x may be ask$1 :y does x n cont9ually become greatly salti] by additions4 ,! reason is because tons ( fre% wat] are cont9ually p\r+ 91 & ?\gh we c sc>cely d\bt t ! sea is becom+ gradually m salt z ye>s pass away1 ! increase is v slight4 ,on ! o!r h&1 evaporation is c>ry+ wat] into ! air & leav+ ! salt beh9d x4 ,9 seas l ! ,r$ ,sea1 :]e !re is a great deal ( evaporation & v little addition ( fre% wat] 9 comp>ison1 ! wat] is extremely salt & bitt]4 ,! ,baltic has little salt relatively to "s p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,suppos+ t1 z "s allege1 !re are rocks ( salt at ! bottom ( ! sea1 we mu/ rememb] t spr+s ( fre% wat] frequ5tly bubble up to ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,?is is a v curi\s ph5om5on1 & has be5 atte/$ by ,humboldt4 ,he /ates t ne> ,cuba ^! spr+s arise ) consid]able =ce1 & ! vessels trad+ on t coa/ get supplies ( fre% wat] f ^! ocean spr+s4 ,!re is1 or 01 a simil> upris+ 9 ! ,gulf ( ,spezzia1 & fre% wat] cru/acea inhabit ^! localities4 ,^! occurr5ces prev5t ! sea f becom+ too salt by evaporation4 ,:5 salt wat] becomes ta9t$ x is v (f5sive--mu* m s ?an fre% wat]4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! ocean 7 n cont9ually 9 movem5t1 x w\ld be v injuri\s4 ,s mu* = ! wat] ( ! sea2 let u n[ see :at x does4 ,we w glance at ! surface ere we plunge into ! dep?s4 ,9 *ildhood1 & ev5 9 aft] ye>s1 we mo/ ( u delight 9 wat*+ ! waves ( ! sea4 ,:at f9] sight ?an t we c obta9 on ! bold ,corni% coa/ ) a we/]ly w9d1 :5 ! great ,atlantic waves come roll+ 9 & da%+ up to ! tops ( ! ,t9tagel cliffs1 we>+ & gr9d+ !m away2 hiss+ up ! s&s at ,new ,quay1 or ?und]+ on ! %ores ( 8,bude & ,boss06 ,!n ! w9d abates1 ! sea goes d[n1 ! bill[s become waves1 ! waves to wavelets gr[1 less & less1 until !re is a m]e ripple on ! surface :i* is nev] /ill4 ,! mighty heav+ ( ! ocean brea/ is ! peculi>ity ( ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fih4--,sea waves4 ,yet1 aga91 z we /& to wat* ! waves1 or run f !m z !y sweep 9 foam ^u ! slop+ s&1 we %all f9d t !y increase or decrease 9 =ce1 & ! level ( ! wat] rises or s9ks by degrees4 ,! tide is fl[+ or ebb+ z ! case may be4 ,s we "k ! surface has ano!r--a curr5t motion--besides ! undulation ( ! wat]4 ,! curr5ts ( ! ocean are v valuable attributes1 ! ,gulf ,/ream 9 p>ticul> br++ u w>m? &1 inde$1 ra94 ,!re are ?ree movem5ts ( ! ocean--waves1 curr5ts1 & tides4 ,! waves1 p]haps1 int]e/ u mo/1 z !y come roll+ 9 ) irregul> =ce1 b all mightily impell$ by ! w9d4 ,we h all notic$ ! ripples on a puddle2 ! same action ( ! w9d produces ! gr&eur ( ! waves ( ! ocean4 ,! wave comes roll+ 9 be=e ! w9d to break aga9/ ! rocks or bea*1 & ano!r =ms to break 9 its place2 ! high] ! waves ! m quickly !y appe> to move4 ,b :5 ! w9d has subsid$ ! roll+1 or 8swell10 rema9s1--a long1 lazy1 undulat+ motion--a rock+ to sleep ( ! bill[s ( ! sea4 ,)\t a ripple on ! surface ^! huge roll]s w glide t[>ds ! %ore & break ^u ! %+le ) a ro>+ s\nd :i* c be he>d = miles1 dragg+ ! pebbles aft] !m z !y rec$e ) a rattl+ l bones & m>bles4 ,! pebble ridge at ,we/w>d ,ho6 w illu/rate ?is vividly at times1 ! s\nd be+ he>d f> inl& l cont9u\s ?und]1 & on a calm night1 :5 !re is no w9d /irr+1 ! ro> ( ! gr\nd swell is weird & my/]i\s 9 ! gloom4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fii4--,! ,piroroco on ! ,amazon4 ,! height ( waves is v v>i$4 ,obs]v]s say t =ty-f\r feet is ab\t ! highe/-kn[n wave f holl[ to cre/4 ,waves ( ?irty-five feet h be5 (t5 met )1 & (f ! ,iri% coa/ & 9 ! ,atlantic sailors tell ( waves 8z big z h\ses40 ,b h\ses diff] 9 size z d waves4 ,! rate :i* waves are e/imat$ to travel v>ies ) ! w9d-propell+ =ce4 ,! av]age hurricane wave travels at ab\t =ty-five miles an h\r4 ,b e>?quake waves--^? set 9 motion by subaque\s di/urbance--h be5 kn[n to travel at ! rate ( six hundr$ feet 9 a second = ?\s&s ( miles across ! ocean4 ,su* a "o occurr$ aft] ! e>?quake :i* de/roy$ ! t[n ( ,arica 9 ,augu/ #ahfh1 & ! wave cross$ ! ,pacific to ,*e?am ,isl&s1 #e1ebj miles1 9 fifte5 h\rs & tw5ty m9utes4 ,we h _m ( u se5 ! great tidal waves1 or 8bores10 :i* at c]ta9 seasons ru% up our riv]s--! ,sev]n1 = in/ance--) great viol5ce1 & at times =ty feet high4 ,^! tidal waves are also exp]i5c$ 9 ! ,ganges1 ! ,amazon1 & at ,bordeaux1 z well z 9 ,*9a & else:]e4 ,x may well be imag9$ t ! tides also affect ! l&1 & ! !ory ( ^! ocean movem5ts is a v int]e/+ /udy4 ,we h already ref]r$ to x "u ,,a/ronomy1 = ! ,sun's & ,moon's attraction is ! ma9 cause ( ! ph5om5on1 :i* is s famili> & yet s /range4 ,b ! consid]ation ( ! tides mu/ be aga9 ent]$ ^u "h ere we proce$ to view ! effects ( ! sea ^u ! l&1 & h[ ! physical geographical features alt]4 ,isaac ,newton rightly attribut$ ! cause ( ! tides to ! attraction ( ! moon & sun4 ,spr+ tides occur :5 bo? lum9>ies are above ! m]idian1 & ! neap1 or l[ tides1 happ5 :5 ! sun & moon are f>!/ ap>t4 ,! highe/ tides are p]ceiv$ aft] a new or full moon2 ! l[e/1 aft] %e has pass$ ! fir/ or ?ird qu>t]4 ,9 ,janu>y ! spr+ tide is highe/ ( all1 because ! e>? is ne>e/ to ! sun !n1 & 8 =ce ( attraction1 add$ to t ( ! moon1 causes a v high tide4 ,) ! assi/ance ( ! accompany+ diagrams we %all be able to make ! tidal ph5om5a cle>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjj4--,tidal ,attraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gja4--,tidal ,attraction4 ,suppose ! moon to be at ,m1 ! po9t ,j 7! sea7 w be ne>e/ to ! moon & w be attract$1 :ile ! e>? w ex]cise a ret>d+ p[] to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,?is attraction ( ! wat] f its usual level causes a k9d ( vacuum1 into :i* ! surr\nd+ wat] fl[s & causes a high tide at ,h4 ,at ! opposite side ! e>?1 n ! wat]1 is mo/ attract$1 & !n ! wat] ru%es 9 to a c]ta9 ext5t to fill ! vacancy left by ! e>?'s movem5t t[>ds ! moon4 ,ano!r high tide is !re=e caus$ at ,l1 b n s high z ! tide ^u ! opposite side1 z ! ,moon is s mu* ne>] ! latt]4 ,! tide1 !n1 is only ! natural movem5t ( ! sea wat] to fill up ! space ! e>? & o!r portions ( ! wat]y mass h vacat$ 9 ob$i5ce to lun> & sol> attraction1 :i* is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 c\nt]balanc$ by ! attraction & resi/ance ( ! e>?4 ,! neap tides are caus$ by ! oppos+ =ces ( attraction ( ! sun & moon4 ,! sun1 z x 71 pulls "o way1 ! moon ! o!r4 ,! latt] 7be+ ne>]7 hav+ twice ! p[] ( ! =m]1 causes a tide inde$1 b x is a l[ "o4 ,! spr+ tide occurs :5 sun & moon toge!r attract ! wat]4 ,! effects ( ! rise ( ! tide are sometimes v disa/r\s1 & :5 ! w9d assi/s ! sea1 & heaps up ! wat]1 ! sight is gr& 9 ! extreme4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,s*leswig1 at ,hall+51 ! sea has wa%$ away a :ole clu/] ( isl&s1 & n[ ! waves cause trem5d\s inundations4 ,ab\t e six ye>s1 on ! av]age1 a great flood happ5s = su* trifles z a high tide are ( no acc\nt4 ,9 #acfb & 9 #ahcd t]rible de/ruction 0 wr\ght2 ! c(f9s & bodies 7 wa%$ out ( ! graves4 ,piles ( dbris are !n wa%$ up1 & s& & gravel accumulates = a "t till aga9 c>ri$ away4 ,travell]s to ,france w notice ! 8dunes10 or s&hills ( ,calais1 z ! tra9 w9ds its way to ,b\logne4 ,we f9d t :5ev] ! %ore is flat ! %+le & s& are bl[n inw>ds & =m 8dunes10 & ! s& is di/ribut$ f> inl&1 *eck+ all vegetation1 & alt]+ ! features ( ! c\ntry4 ,! we>+ away ( rocks by ! wat]1 ! cont9ual und]m9+ ( !m by ! waves1 & sometimes ! dis5gagem5t ( great blocks weigh+ _m tons--all ^! effects ( ! sea t5d to alt] ! appe>ance ( ! l&4 ,we may obs]ve ! d5udation 9 _m places along ! coa/--! caves1 holes1 & tunnels eat5 out by ! wat]4 ,9 ,norway ! 8,fiords0 are v rem>kable4 ,!y 7 =m$ by ! upheaval ( ! l&1 & tell u ( ! glaci]s :i* once fill$ !m up4 ,?us by ice & wat] ! solid l& is gr\nd d[n & eat5 away h\rly1 daily1 & = c\ntless c5turies1 *ang+ ! place ( ! h>d rock into a /&+ wat]1 & ! fl9t/one into a spr++ well4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjb4--,! ,dunes4 ,we mu/ n[ plunge b5ea? ! waves1 nev] fe>+ ! r\gh surface2 we %all f9d all smoo? & quiet at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,,! ,,bottom ,,( ,,! ,,sea4 ,:at c we tell ab\t ! bottom ( ! sea to :i* no man has ev] rea*$ liv+1 & f :i* we h no in=mation8 ,we c lay our telegraph or telephone l9es b5ea? ! waves1 & f> f ! re/less waves 9 ^? quiet dep?s :]e no bill[s c rea*4 ,:at treasures mu/ lie hidd5 at ! bottom ( ! sea6 ,! treasures1 ! gold & silv]1 ! m]*&ize1 ! weal? ( c5turies4 ,! sailor lies sleep+ !re 444 8,s]5e & safe ,f tempe/ & f bill[2 ,! /orms t high above him *afe ,ne'er rock 8 peaceful pill[06 ,:at c we hope to f9d at ! bottom ( ! sea we _c rea*8 ,yes1 b we c rea* x4 ,by s\nd+ ) ,brooke's lead 7a cannon ball1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration71 we c arrive at a c]ta9 k ( ! composition ( ! ocean b$4 ,! "r-h& figure ( ! two is ! lead :5 be+ l[]$1 & :ile x is s9k+ ! cord rema9s tight4 ,s soon z x t\*es ! bottom ! weight ( ! cannon ball divides ! l9e1 & ! tube is easily drawn up aga94 ,x has be5 well greas$1 & s 9 ! cavity ( ! rod "s %ells & s& are f\nd adh]+4 ,^! fragm5ts tell u ! composition ( ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,"h we f9d t9y %ells1 j z we f9d !m 9 *alk1 ! same =mation z t :i* pil$ up ! cliffs :i* h ris5 f1 or be5 discov]$1 by ! sea4 ,by o!r +5i\s contrivances wat] c be fet*$ up f ! bottom ( ! ocean1 & ! temp]ature c be gaug$ all along ! s\nd+ l9e4 ,! exp$ition ( ! ,*all5g] br\ght _m int]e/+ facts to light4 ,f> d[n 9 ^! solitudes are m>9e animals1--cru/acea1 />-fi%1 seawe$s1 & %ells1--all ( :i* are c>ri$ up by ! dr$ge work$ by a /eam eng9e2 = ! resi/ance is v great1 & ! weight support$ at ! dep? ( two miles mu/ be consid]able1 & is equal to f\r atmosph]es4 ,a !rmomet] has come up cru%$ ev5 9 its iron case1 & s ! creatures :i* inhabit & f9d means to live at ! bottom ( ! sea mu/ be specially fitt$ by ,nature = ! locality4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjc4--;,brooke's ,lead4 ,! configuration ( ! ocean b$ has giv5 rise to _m diff]5t op9ions4 ,x has be5 ma9ta9$ t !re are m\nta9s & valleys1 hills & dales und]nea? ! wat]1 all clo!d ) m>9e vegetation1 equal 9 height & dep? to ! t]re/rial hills & vales4 ,aga9 x has be5 decl>$ t ! ocean b$ is level2 b we f9d rais$ portions1 :i* we call isl&s1 :i* may be ! tops ( m\nta9s1 or portions ( ! ma9l& sep>at$ f _! p>5t cont95t by an inroad ( ! sea1 z are our isl&s ( ,great ,brita94 ,! sea-b$1 h[ev]1 is v irregul>4 ,we f9d deep & /eep valleys1 & high hills1 b ! picturesque peaks caus$ by ! action ( air1 fro/1 & wat] on e>? are n1 ( c\rse1 repres5t$ "u wat]4 ,betwe5 ! ,iri% coa/ & ,newf\ndl& we are told ! b$ is level = ne>ly f\r hundr$ miles4 ,!re is a deep declivity be=e we rea* ?is pla94 ,! c5tre ( ! ,atlantic is a pla91 & on x ! mo/ volcanic isl&s rise1 su* z ,asc5sion & ! ,azores4 ,betwe5 ,engl& & ,gre5l& !re 0 at "o "t a l& communication1 z we h rem>k$ "u ,,geology1 & !re are subm>9e t]races n[4 ,an imm5se riv] once ran ?r\gh ,we/]n ,europe some:]e ab\t :]e our isl&s are4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjd--,! ,drag ,net4 ,"u ! ,atlantic we h rema9s ( =am9if]a & o!r t9y animals1 ) r$ clay & volcanic rema9s :i* mu/ h be5 ( subm>9e orig94 ,! ,pacific %[s u tops ( m\nta9s z isl&s 7,hawaii ,isles71 & an enorm\s range mu/ be hidd5 b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,:at a *ange 9 ! physical geography ( ! e>? a slight s9k+ ( ! wat] ( ! ocean w\ld make2 ,engl& & ! ,cont95t w\ld be unit$1 & _m sea-m\nta9s 7isl&s7 discov]$4 ,! greate/ ocean dep? is f\r miles & a half1 b 9 _m places a few hundr$ feet less dep? ?an at pres5t w\ld reveal _m *anges 9 ! l&4 ,e ye> s9ce ! _w has ga9$ its pres5t =m ! /reams & riv]s h be5 p\r+ wat]1 & c>ry+ mud1 /ones1 & gravel ceaselessly into ! ocean4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! surface wat] wa%es ! /ones away1 animals 7corals7 build up isl&s f ! dep?s1 & take up space 9 ! ocean4 ,we "k t if we put our h& 9 a bas9 full ( wat] we displace a quantity ( ! fluid2 s we might imag9e t1 ! sea be+ already full1 e isl& =m$ w\ld t5d to an ov]fl[ ( ! sea1 & ! l& w\ld be !reby buri$4 ,t ! sea does encroa* ^u ! e>? we "k1 b x also rec$es4 ,"h is ! balance ( ,nature4 ,riv]s p\r 9 wat] & mat]ial4 ,! sun absorbs ! wat] & prev5ts ov]fl[2 t9y animals make %ells f ! mat]ial4 ,all ! causes we h m5tion$ t5d to p]mit ! encroa*m5t ( ! wat]s1 b volcanic action & ev5 e>?quakes act also to neutralize ?is t5d5cy by upheav+ hills & m\nta9s1 :i* prev5t ! invasion ( ! sea by its elevation or by l& depression4 ,we h se5 9 our *apt]s ^u ,,geology h[ ! ocean b$s h be5 upheav$1 & rema9s ( m>9e animals are daily f\nd ^u our highe/ hills4 ,?us ! =ces :i* sometimes cause su* de/ruction 9 ! e>? are ! means :]eby ! wat]s are kept 9 _! places4 ,b = volcanic action ! l& might all disappe> by d5udation & cont9ual we> & te>1 & be deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea6 ,if x 7 n = curr5ts1 ( :i* _m def9$ ones exi/ 9 ! ocean1 & ! nev]-ceas+ fl[ & ebb ( ! tides1 ! sea w\ld soon lose its purity & cle>ness4 ,?\gh ! wat] is salt & becom+ salt]1 animalcul & all k9ds ( plant-animals w\ld /ill increase & multiply2 s ! decay ( animal & vegetable matt] w\ld quickly r5d] ! ocean a s\rce ( pe/il5ce & dea? to mank9d1 & be mo/ injuri\s to animal life g5]ally4 ,b ! movem5t is s ceaseless1 & ! v>i\s fi% & mammalia 7:ales1 = in/ance71 by prey+ ^u ea* o!r1 z o!r animals on e>? d1 keep up ! balance ( production1 & ! organic matt] deposit$ 9 ! sea is also cle>$ away4 ,t ! con/ant curr5ts ( ! sea prev5t ! =mation & gr[? ( seawe$ is cle>ly %[n by ! great 8,s>gasso ,sea10 or tract ( we$ 7,fucus natans71 call$ ! ,gulf-we$4 ,?is great tract embraces ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 & is situat$ 9 ! v middle ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 :]e !re are b few curr5ts2 b surr\nd+ x is ! ,gulf-,/ream1 an enorm\s curr5t ( wat] runn+ at a regul> rate ( f\r or five miles an h\r4 ,?is ,gulf-,/ream is suppos$ to be caus$ by ! same laws & influ5ces :i* det]m9e ! trade-w9ds--namely1 a con/ant r>efaction ( ! wat] at ! tropical p>ts ( ! e>?1 & a correspond+ cond5sation at ! ,arctic portions1 = w>m wat] is mu* light] ?an cold1 & :5 ! wat]s ( ! tropical regions become light]1 ! heavi] wat]s ( ! cold regions press+ d[n m =cibly t5d to raise !m above _! prop] level2 !y !re=e fl[ t[>ds ^? v p>ts :i* h sunk d[n by _! contraction1 & a con/ant curr5t takes place2 ?is curr5t is ! ,gulf-,/ream4 ,x runs f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico nor?w>ds t[>ds ,newf\ndl&1 turn+ by ,icel& t[>ds ! ,briti% ,isles1 by ,france & ,spa91 onw>ds to ! coa/s ( ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,we/ ,indies1 & aga9 to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 al?\gh ! return curr5t does n g by ! "n ( ,gulf-,/ream4 ,?is great /ream ( wat]1 w>m$ by ! tropical sun1 s]ves ! same two purposes fulfill$ by ! trade-w9ds--namely1 a circulation & di/ribution ( ! sup]flu\s heat ( ! equatorial regions1 w>m+ ! nor!rn c\ntries2 & cool+1 by ! return ( "u-curr5ts1 ^? 9 ! tropics4 ,! fogs ( ,newf\ndl& are caus$ by ! great curr5t ( w>m wat] ent]+ ! cold region & c>ry+ ) !m surface-curr5ts ( moi/ air1 :i* ! cold cond5ses into fog1 j z ! brea? is visible 9 a cold atmosph]e4 ,engl& owes its moi/ & mild climate to ! same cause4 ,! dep? ( ! ,gulf-,/ream itself is v little4 ,x is a m]e lay] ( w>m wat]4 7,see ,sir ,george ,n>es' reports ( ! ,*all5g] exp$ition47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gje4--;,atoll1 or ,coral ,isl&4 ,9 ! =ego+ pages y h n[ se51 &1 we hope1 ga9$1 "s in=mation conc]n+ ! sea suffici5t1 at any rate1 to induce y to ent] m deeply into ! subject ?an we c at pres5t d4 ,we h le>nt h[ ! sea wat] is compos$1 & :at goes on on ! surface4 ,we h discuss$ waves1 & ref]r$ to tides & curr5ts1 ! we>+ away & ! r5ewal ( l& by ! sea2 we h div$ b5ea? ! surface1 & f\nd some?+ to int]e/ u at ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,z we come up aga9 we are surpris$ to f9d isl&s or reefs :]e none exi/$ :5 we w5t d[n4 ,:at has caus$ ?is sudd5 appe>ance8 ,!y may h be5 sl[ly rais$ to ! surface by coral insects1 or sudd5ly by volcanic action4 ,let u consid] ! coral1 :i* plays a v important "p 9 our ,physical ,geography1 be=e we proce$ to ! volcanic isl&4#cb ,! l[-ly+ isl&s are ^? =m$ by ! skeletons ( ! coral insects1 & ! ,corall9e ,isl&s are "s ( ! mo/ wond]ful productions ( nature4 ,!y are only f\nd 9 w>m climates1 betwe5 ! tw5ty-eigh? degrees ( nor? & s\? latitude1 & lime/one pure & simple is ! *ief compon5t ( ! coral reef1 z x is ( ! m\nta9s erupt$ f ! dep?s ( ! sea4 8,! detritus ( corals1 e*9od]mata %ells1 reticul>ia1 & o!r liv+ creatures10 says a writ] on ?is subject1 8deposit n only ! salts ( lime extract$ f ! ocean1 b _! own dead bodies to =m ! h>d sub/ance ( ! rock40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjf4--;,gorgonia guttata 7natural size74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjg4--;,coral 7,madrepora bra*iata74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gjh4--,spicules ( ,gorgonia 7magnifi$74 ,! coral insect is a zoophyte 7,an?ozoa71 :i*1 z may be se5 f ! illu/rations1 assumes curi\s & elegant =ms1 & ! coral x produces is a limy or calc>e\s deposit1 :i* is fix$ ^u a rocky base4 ,z ye>s g on ^! accretions become great] & great]1 & at l5g? rise above ! wat]4 ,:5 a little di/ance bel[ x1 ! reefs =m dang]\s & frequ5tly unsuspect$ b>ri]s1 ^u :i* %ips are wreck$4 ,! r$ coral is dr$g$ up f ! ,m$it]ranean1 :]e !re are ext5sive coral fi%]ies4 ,?is coral is f\nd deep 9 ! wat]1 & nev] rises to ! surface4 ,=m]ly !re 7 coral reefs 9 ! ,european seas1 b ! *anges ( temp]ature /opp$ _! production4 ,! 8atolls10 or circul> coral reefs ) an op5+ at "o side1 h be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,d>w94 8,:o10 says ! great naturali/1 8w\ld n be /ruck ) wond] & admiration on cat*+ sight = ! fir/ "t ( ?is va/ r+ ( coral rock1 (t5 _m miles 9 diamet]8 ,sometimes a l[ gre5 isl& is se5 beyond x1 ) a %ore ( dazzl+ :it5ess2 outside is ! foam+ surf ( ! ocean1 & )9 x a broad expanse ( tranquil wat]1 ( pale gre5 col\r & exquisite purity40 ,^! 8atolls0 m>k ! situation ( sunk5 isl&s1 & ! ext5sion ( !m & ! b>ri] reefs w\ld seem to indicate a sl[ b decid$ s9k+ ( ! bottom ( ! ,indian & o!r oceans2 b ! 8reefs0 tell u t ! l& to :i* !y are atta*$ has n become depress$1 & may h become elevat$4 ,we may !n conclude t a cont9ual ris+ & depression ( ! l& is tak+ place 9 v>i\s oceans1 indicat+ a s9k+ ( ! ocean b$ 9 "o locality & ! result ( volcanic activity 9 ano!r1 = no active volcanoes are f\nd 9 ! regions ( depression4 ,we mu/ n[ leave ! sea & come to l& aga91 to consid] volcanoes & volcanic action !re4 ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,e>?quakes4 ,! v>i\s ph5om5a ( volcanoes =m a subject v difficult to be expla9$1 z x is impossible to asc]ta9 positively ! cause ( volcanic action4 ,:e!r ! e>? is int]iorly a mass ( molt5 rock & fire1 or :e!r ! heat is creat$ by ! int5se contractile =ce & movem5t ( rocks1 & _! motion ?us develop$ into heat aid$ by *emical comb9ation1 we _c absolutely det]m9e4 ,! !ory re/rict+ volcanic ph5om5a to ! upp] cru/ ( ! e>?1 by suppos+ ! local accumulations ( hot liquid masses ( rock1 :i* are =cibly empti$ by ! expansion ( vap\rs1 may p]haps be f\nd ! true "o4 ,! majority ( ! volcanoes are f\nd ne>1 or at no v great di/ance f1 ! sea4 ,we may !re=e expect to f9d t wat] has some?+ to d ) ! eruptions z x has 9 ! case ( ! ,geys]s4 ,b ?is hypo!sis w sc>cely hold good 9 e case1 ?\gh volcanoes ( lat] ages are limit$ to regions v diff]5t f ^? 9 :i* volcanic action us$ to be4 ,= in/ance1 9 ,am]ica we h only volcanoes on ! ,pacific side1 & ! ,&es furni% sev]al4 ,mexico1 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 & ,cali=nia possess _m volcanoes1 & z f> nor? z ,alaska we f9d ,m\nt ,elias4 ,!re are pl5ty ( ext9ct volcanoes 9 ,europe1 b ! ,m$it]ranean produces ! active v5ts2 & ab\t ! ,r$ ,sea & ! ,caspian1 & ev5 9 ! c5tral *a9 ( ,asia1 !re are volcanoes f> f wat]4 ,! ,hawaii isles1 on ! o!r h&1 are all volcanic1 & ,au/ralasia furni%es u ) rem>kable specim5s2 s altoge!r ! te/imony t5ds to prove t :]e volcanic rema9s are app>5t ! sea _h at "o "t be51 or n[ is1 ne> at h&4 ,burn+ m\nta9s h be5 famili> to u f our *ildhood 9 pictures1 & by /irr+ n>rative ( de/ruction wr\ght by !m4 ,! volcano is g5]ally a m\nta9 ris+ to a cone1 b ,vesuvius pres5t$ q ! appe>ance ( a holl[ bas9 at ! top1 be=e x sudd5ly broke =? & buri$ ,h]culaneum 9 a%es4 ,von ,buck visit$ x 9 #agii1 & decl>es x _h at "o "t ris51 l an isl&1 f ! sea4 ,!re are ab\t two hundr$ & sev5ty volcanoes at pres5t 9 activity2 f\r 9 ,europe2 elev5 9 ,icel& & ,jan ,mey5's l&2 9 ,asia1 n9ety-?ree2 9 ,africa1 tw5ty-six2 =ty-six 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,aleutian ,isles2 tw5ty-sev5 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica & ! ,antilles2 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?irty-"o2 & tw5ty-f\r isl&s ) volcanic t5d5cies l>gely develop$4 ,!re may be _m m 8re/+40 ,volcanoes1 !n1 are op5+s or v5ts :i* communicate ) ! melt$ rock )9 ! e>?1 & ! conical =m ( volcanoes is ow+ to ! deposits ( volcanic matt] z x falls f ! op5+ call$ ! crat]4 ,if we let a small spade full ( m\ld run ?r\gh our h&s1 or f ! spade1 x w =m a small cone1 ! heavi] p>ticles slid+ to ! base at a c]ta9 slope4 ,?us ! volcano builds its own hill1 & inside ! crat] we f9d cones f :i* smoke & /eam issue4 ,^! cones )9 ! cone are ! po9ts ( issue ( vap\r & smoke1 m9iature volcanoes mak+ up a :ole4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gji4--;,eruption ( ,vesuvius1 ,augu/ #bf?1 #ahgb4 ,! signs ( eruptions are mu* ! same1 & usually occur a c\ple ( days be=e ! actual outbreak takes place4 ,fir/ smoke is p]ceiv$1 p]haps1 & ! escape ( v>i\s noxi\s gases accompani$ by e>?quakes occur4 ,n[ ! eruption may comm5ce & bl[ away ! summit ( ! m\nta91 z 9 ! case ( ! comm5cem5t ( ! cata/rophe ( ,a4,d4 #gi1 :5 ! :ole side ( ,vesuvius 0 torn away1 & cont9u\s %[]s ( a%es fell = days & nights1 bury+ ev]y?+1 :ile ! hot lava p\r$ d[n ! sides4 ,/ones & a%es ) vap\rs are hurl$ into ! air4 ,cl\ds ( /eam are =m$1 & vivid electrical dis*>ges take place 9 ^! cl\ds1 :ile wat] da%es d[n1 c>ry+ /ones 78volcanic bombs071 & reflect$ lurid flames f )9 are ca/ on ! /eam+ cl\ds1 :i* look l fi]y columns4 ,!n ! lava issues 9 a :ite1 hot1 /eady1 irresi/ible /ream1 cov]+ ev]y?+1 & burn+ up all vegetation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gaj4--;,bir? ( a volcano4 ,new volcanoes are cont9ually 9 process ( =mation1 & at ,santor9 = hundr$s ( ye>s volcanic action has be5 busy 9 =m+ isl&s4 ,^! viol5t ef=ts ( ,nature frequ5tly give rise to e>?quakes1 :i* are ! mo/ de/ructive ( natural convulsions4 ,! records ( late occurr5ces are fre% 9 ! m9ds ( all read]s1 & ne$ n be specifi$4 ,! sl[ subsid5ce & gradual upheaval ( ! l& is /ill go+ on1 b we are frequ5tly />tl$ by ! acc\nt ( a rupture ( ! gr\nd or ! de/ruction ( a portion ( a city4 ,! motion ( ! e>?quake is g5]ally 9 a direct l9e1 & undulat+4 ,sometimes :at are t]m$ v]tical %ocks arise & de/roy solidly-built edifices4 ,m\nta9s h be5 ov]turn$ by e>?quake %ocks1 & trees h be5 twi/$ r\nd4 ,sometimes ! gr\nd yawns into enorm\s fissures4 ,! sea is toss$ into great waves & encroa*es ^u ! l&1 & :5 ! sea rec$es ! recession ( ! wat] is foll[$ by a m t]rible invad+ wave sweep+ all be=e x4 ,e>? trembl+s (t5 occur f> away f volcanoes1 & )\t any visible connection ) volcanic action4 ,!re are _m aspects ( l& & wat] :i* ! /ud5t ( geography w rememb]1 b :i* ne$ n be sep>ately treat$ (4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 ref] to pla9s1 plateaus1 & lakes4 ,! m\nta9s also play a mo/ important "p 9 ,physical ,geography & 9 8,climatology10 z !y collect ! vap\rs = ra91 & make ! valleys f]tile1 & ?ick ) vegetation4 ,we h spok5 ( ! m\nta9s "u ,,geology1 & ! v>i\s =mations & /rata w be f\nd enum]at$ !re1 b n[ we h to d ) ! m\nta9 *a9s 9 _! physical aspect z reg>ds _! %ape & appe>ance on ! globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gaa4--;,e>?quake fissures4 ,any elevation ris+ f a base m ?an #a1jjj feet may fairly be t]m$ a m\nta91 & solit>y m\nta9s are usually volcanic1 because eruptive rock does n produce *a9s ( m\nta9s4 ,! orig9 ( m\nta9s is probably due to ! contraction & compression ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?--n m]ely ! surface1 b ! :ole ?ickness betwe5 u & ! suppos$ molt5 int]ior4 ,m\nta9s did n exi/ f ev]la/+1 = ! v good reason t !y are 79 mo/ cases7 compos$ ( /ratifi$ rocks4 ,/ratifi$ rocks are s$im5t>y rocks1 & mu/ h be5 deposit$ bel[ wat]1 & h>d5$ long be=e !y 7 ?ru/ up by pressure4 ,moreov]1 we f9d 7z has already be5 expla9$7 %ells & rema9s ( m>9e animals on ! high] summits1 :i* prove to demon/ration t ^! m\nta9s are compos$ ( rocks :i* 7 laid d[n "u ! sea4 ,pr(essor ,dana 0 "o ( ! fir/ geologi/s to advance ! !ory t contraction & lat]al displacem5t are ! causes ( ! elevation ( m\nta9s4 ,a v good illu/ration ( ?is !ory 0 made by ,*amonti]1 :o cov]$ an india-rubb] balloon ) a ?ick lay] ( wax1 & :5 x _h h>d5$ suffici5tly he prick$ a hole 9 ! bladd]1 :i* imm$iately contract$1 & ! wax at once rose up into t9y similitudes ( m\nta9s1 %[+ 9 a suffici5tly cle> mann] t su* protub]ances may be produc$ by ! pressure ( ! e>?'s contraction1 & 9 su* a mass z our e>? ! elevations w\ld naturally be v great4 ,pr(essor ,geikie has %[n h[1 by a v simple exp]im5t1 ! contortion ( m\nta9 /rata is effect$ by pressure4 ,a numb] ( clo?s or t[els plac$ flat on a table repres5t ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,place a bo>d ) a weight on ! top1 & ! t[els w rema9 flatt5$4 ,b by hold+ two bo>ds at ! sides & press+ !m toge!r 7! weight$ bo>d /ill rema9+71 we %all f9d ! t[els crumpl$ & upheav$ l ! ,jurassic /rata %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #gab74 ,pr(essor ,heim calls ! c5tral masses wr9kles ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,s ! ,alps 7 press$ up or heav$ into ! air1 ! wea!r--ra91 fro/1 sn[1 & sun%9e--imp>t+ ! inf9ite v>iety ( 8,horn10 8,ne$le10 & 8,peak10 s expressively appli$ 9 ,alp9e nom5clature2--! ,matt]horn1 ,wett]horn1 ,weis%orn2 ! ,pic du ,midi1 ,aiguille de ,dru1 ,aiguille ,v]te1 & _m o!r m\nta9s 9 well-trodd5 ,switz]l& w occur to ! read] at once4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gab4--;,anticl9al & syncl9al curves ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s4 ,! slopes ( m\nta9s--?\gh to ! casual obs]v] !y may appe> v mu* ! same--are v diff]5t4 ,we sometimes f9d a long1 easy asc5t1 --m usually a /eepi% incl9ation1 p]haps #bj2--;9 o!r places1 su* z on ! ,matt]horn1 an almo/ p]p5dicul> face4 ,=ty-five degrees rise is v /eep1 & #ec is ! limit ( any great m\nta9's slope4 ,cliffs & precipices !re are1 ( c\rse2 witness ! t]rible fall f ! ,matt]horn to ! glaci] bel[--?\s&s ( feet ) "o trem5d\s leap f ! rock to ! ice und]nea?2 b m\nta9 slopes are n precipices4 ,z a rule1 we f9d t "o side ( a m\nta9 *a9 is /eep] ?an ! opposite "o4 ,x is h>d] to climb up f ,italy to ,switz]l& ?an to asc5d 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! ,pyr5ees are also /eep] on ! s\? side4 ,! ,sc&9avian m\nta9s likewise are /eep] 9 ! we/4 ,! ,himalaya are /eepe/ t[>ds ! sea1 s are ! ,ghauts4 ,we "h f9d a diff]5ce betwe5 ! slopes ( ! ,,new & ,,old ,,worlds4 ,9 ! =m] we h ! less precipit\s m\nta9 slopes t[>ds ! ea/2 9 ! old _w !y are t[>ds ! nor?1 & an inspection ( a physical map ( ! _w leads u to ! conclusion t ! ,atlantic & ,pacific ,oceans are ! b\nd>ies ( entirely diff]5t degrees ( slopes4 ,! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans w\ld appe> to bord] ! m precipit\s m\nta9 sides2 ! ,atlantic & its connections ^? less /eep4 ,z a rule1 we h ! mo/ elevat$ portions ( ! e>?1 m\nta9s1 & high tablel&s1 9 equatorial regions2 & )9 ! torrid zone e t]re/rial climate is to be f\nd1 ow+ to ! sn[s ( ! high m\nta9s & ! heat ( ! valleys1 :i* are naturally closely connect$ ) ! upheaval ( m\nta9 ranges4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! nev]-ceas+ influ5ces ( ! air & wat] ^u ! rocks1 & we ne$ say little ab\t valleys4 ,!re are valleys ( dislocation1 d5udation1 & undulation4 ,! great valley ( ,we/]n ,asia1 :]e9 lie ! ,caspian & ,aral seas1 seems to h be5 caus$ by ! upheaval ( ! ,caucasus & ! ,p]sian plateau4 ,,pla9s are v v>i$4 ,we h ,european ,hea?s & ,l&es2 ,am]ican ,savannahs1 ,prairies1 & ,pampas2 ,asian ,/eppes1 & ,african ,des]ts4 ,all ( ^! possess c]ta9 features 9 common1 m or less vegetation1 & sometimes absolute /]ility4 ,,plateaus1 or ,tablel&s1 are elevat$ pla9s frequ5tly undulat+ 9 "*4 ,! ,plateau ( ,bolivia is #ac1jjj feet high1 & ext5ds along by ! ,&es4 ,! tablel& ( ,quito is ne>ly #aj1jjj feet high1 & bord]s on ! giants ,cotopaxi & ,*imb>azo4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gac4--,! ,/aubba* 7,laut]brunn574 ,riv]s & lakes add n only to ! weal? ( nations by _! usefulness1 b1 by ! additional picturesqu5ess ( _! appe>ance1 to ! beauty ( ! l&scape4 ,! velocity ( riv]s w\ld be v mu* increas$ if x 7 n = ! /rong resi/ance (f]$ by ! banks & ! /ones to ! curr5t1 & by friction4 ,! ,rh9e & ! ,rhone1 if ?us unimp$$1 w\ld fl[ at a rate consid]ably ov] "o hundr$ miles an h\r2 & our own little /ream 7! ,?ames71 in/ead ( eddy+ peacefully & twirl+ gracefully by ,m$m5ham or ,cookham1 w\ld ru% along at ! spe$ ( ! tra9 :i* s (t5 crosses x on its way to ! sea4 ,! slopes ( riv]-b$s1 l ! slopes ( m\nta9s1 v>y v consid]ably1 & ! incl9ation ( a riv] v>ies at diff]5t places2 9 a di/ance ( sev5 hundr$ miles ! ,amazon only falls twelve feet1 & ! curr5t fl[s *iefly by impetus already acquir$4 ,a slope ( "o foot 9 two hundr$ precludes all navigation1 & at /ill great] incl9es rapids & cat>acts are =m$--! great falls we>+ away ! riv]-b$ by degrees2 s x is calculat$ t hundr$s ( ye>s ago ,niag>a ,fall 0 mu* f>!r d[n ! riv]1 & ! cat>act is sl[ly mov+ up /ream4 ,9 "t1 z ! rock we>s away1 ! height w disappe> z ! celebrat$ 8,falls10 & w become a rapid )9 a few miles ( ! lake4 ,lakes are d]iv$ f riv]-dra9age & spr+s4 ,"s are v salt1 ow+ to evaporation c>ry+ away s mu* wat]1 & leav+ ! accumulat$ m9]al salts4 ,^! v salt lakes are likely to dry up1 z ! supply ( wat] is n equal to ! dem&s ( evaporation4 ,float+ isl&s appe> & disappe> on _m lakes4 ,d]w5twat] is "o in/ance4 ,on ! uses ( lakes & riv]s x w\ld be sup]flu\s to dwell4 ,we are m conc]n$ to exam9e _! influ5ce on climate1 & 9 ?is s5se we mu/ also consid] m\nta9s4 ,b we w n[ gr\p all ! ph5om5a ( ! air & wat]1 & _! effect ^u climate1 "u 8,meteorology0 9 ! *apt]s next foll[+4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,^? :o wi% to /udy ! subject fully %\ld read 8,corals & ,coral ,reefs10 by ! late ,*>les ,d>w91 & ,dana's 8,coral ,isl&s40 ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,meteorology4 ,,! ,,atmosph]e--,,w9ds ,,& ,,air ,,curr5ts--,,w9d ,,pressure--,,/orms--,,ra9-,,cl\ds--,,wa t]-,,sp\ts--,,atmosph]ical ,,ph5om5a4 ,"u ?is head+ we %all f9d ! atmosph]e play+ a v important "p4 ,! air is compos$ ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 ) "s c>bonic acid gas & aque\s vap\r4 ,we h1 "u ! ,*emi/ry section1 discuss$ ^! con/itu5ts :i* unite to make up ! air or atmosph]e 9 ! foll[+ proportions3-- ,oxyg5 #bajj ,nitrog5 #ggej ,aque\s ,vap\r #adb ,c>bonic ,acid #jh ------- #ajjjj ,x is a fact t all ov] ! _w ! same *emical result is f\nd4 ,:e!r we bottle up ! air 9 ! valley1 or1 z ,gay-,lussac did1 g up to an elevation ( #ba1jjj feet 9 a balloon1 we %all f9d ! air ( ! same *emical composition4 ,9 ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica1 x is all ! same4 ,! pressure is less z we asc5d1 & we _c manage to brea! 9 v high altitudes s well z ^u ! gr\nd = :i* we 7 fitt$1 b ! air is ! same4 ,! atmosph]e1 !n1 is n always equal 9 d5sity1 nor is x q transp>5t4 ,! light f sun & />s is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 lo/1 & x has be5 calculat$ t ! sun's rays lose "o-fif? "p ( _! brightness pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e4 ,we all "k :at ! air is4 ,we brea! x1 we feel x bl[+1 we witness its effects4 ,7 x n compos$ z x is we %\ld die or g mad2 plants w\ld n live1 & ! e>? w\ld become a des]t4 ,air is ev]y:]e--invisible2 a s-call$ empty vessel is full ( air because an animal w live 9 x till ! atmosph]e has become vitiat$ by ! c>bonic acid f ! lungs4 ,yet air1 or r its wat]y portion1 is visible :5 cond5s$4 ,vap\r is n p]ceptible4 ,b h[ does x become s8 ,we _c see ! air1 h[ c we see a portion ( x8 ,we c answ] ?is "q by illu/ration4 ,! /eam f an eng9e is n visible on a v hot day4 ,b :5 ! day is damp & dull ! vap\r is cond5s$1 & becomes visible2 !n air appe>s & is resolv$ into vap\r aga94 ,?is *ange 0 effect$ by heat+ wat] & !n cool+ x1 :5 x came back to wat] aga94 ,?is wat]y vap\r is always pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,heat1 also1 is pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ! sun is ! orig9 ( t heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gad4--;,high tide & /orm on ! coa/ ( ,s*leswig4 ,heat1 we "k1 is ! effects ( ! rapid motion ( small p>ticles ( matt]1 & is radiat$ f our bodies--s we feel cold2 x rea*es our bodies1 & we feel w>m4 ,s air is heat$ or cool$ by ! sun1 n 9 its abs5ce1 except :5 ! e>? & air h be5 s w>m$ dur+ ! day t ! heat is giv5 out by !m long aft] sunset4 ,we h read ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! ,,physics section1 & t w>m air is light] ?an cold air1 z %[n 9 ! asc5sion ( ! ,montgolfi] balloon4 ,x is ?is v>iation ( temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e t gives bir? to "o great meteorological ag5t--viz41 ! ,,w9d1 :i* we w n[ consid]4 ,,w9ds ,,& ,,air ,,curr5ts4 ,we c easily illu/rate ! cause ( w9ds4 ,suppose we h a hot room & a cold "o1 & we sudd5ly op5 ! door ( communication betwe5 !m1 ! heat$ air :i* has ris5 to ! ceil+ ( "o room w ru% out ?r\gh ! upp] "p ( ! op5+ ( ! door1 & ! cool] curr5t w fl[ 9 j above ! floor4 ,if we place a light$ c&le 9 ! upp] & l[] "p ( ! op5+ we %all see ! flame t5d+ outw>ds f ! heat$ room1 & 9 an opposite direction f ! cold room4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! op5 door !re w be b slight di/urbance4 ,s x is 9 nature4 ,! w>m air asc5ds1 cool] air ru%es 9 to fill ! space1 & a /orm or a breeze is creat$4 ,! balance mu/ be re/or$4 ,! upp] curr5t probably moves "o way1 & ! l[] ! o!r way4 ,?us cl\ds are said to be 8com+ up aga9/ ! w9d0 :5 !y are mov+ 9 an upp] curr5t1 or 9 a diff]5t direction to t ! w9d is bl[+ j above ! e>?'s surface4 ,! w9d moves1 ) v>y+ velocity4 ,we h a g5tle breeze :5 ! motion ( ! air is ab\t five or six miles an h\r1 a good breeze at tw5ty-five miles an h\r1 a high w9d at ?irty-five1 & a gale at fifty4 ,hurricanes travel at sixty & sev5ty miles an h\r1 & d enorm\s damage4 ,ne> ! ,equator we d n f9d mu* w9d1 & ?is fact has caus$ ! "n ( ! ,region ( ,calms1 or 8,! ,doldrums0 ( sailors1 to be be/[$ ^u t portion ( ! globe1 b ?is belt ( calm has no fix$ position4 ,x foll[s ! sun's c\rse1 & is ! region ( greate/ heat1 &1 z x 71 ! c5tre ( a conc5tric circle ( curr5ts4 ,! hot air rises & goes away2 air ru%es 9 nor? & s\?1 & causes :at are call$ ! ,nor?-,ea/ & ,s\?-,ea/ ,trades1 or ,trade ,w9ds1 ow+ to _! be+ s useful 9 comm]ce = %ips1 or to ! old mean+ ( ! ^w trade1 a 8regul> c\rse40 ,! calms ( ! ,tropic ( ,canc] are call$ ! 8,horse ,latitudes40 ,read]s ( ! life ( ,columbus w rememb] h[ 8 crew 7 affright$ at ! p]si/5cy ( ! w9d :i* bore him across1 = no sail requires %ift+1 nor is a %eet alt]$ :ile ! vessel is mak+ way ) ! 8,trades40 ,7 ! e>? cov]$ ) wat]1 we %\ld f9d ! trade-w9ds bl[+ equally ov] ! surface1 b ! v>y+ temp]ature ( ! l& div]ts !m4 ,! r>efaction ( ! air 9 ! ,sah>a causes a we/]ly w9d to prevail1 :i* bl[s t[>ds ! l&1 in/ead ( ! trade w9d we might expect to f9d4 ,! ,,monsoons1 aga91 are caus$ 9 l mann]1 = ! ord9>y 8trade0 f ! s\?-ea/ is *ang$ by ! elevation ( ! heat$ air 9 ,c5tral ,asia into a s\?-we/ w9d1 & s 9 ! s\?1 9 consequ5ce ( ! heat$ air f ,au/ralia1 ! nor?-we/ trade appe>s z a nor?-ea/ monsoon1 b is alt]$ to a nor?-we/ w9d4 ,ne>ly all ! ye> r\nd1 !re=e1 we f9d ! two w9ds1 :i* are modifications ( ! 8trades10 bl[+ 9 diff]5t directions & f diff]5t qu>t]s4 ,f ,novemb] to ,m>* !re is a nor?-ea/ w9d nor? ( ! ,equator1 & a nor?-we/ w9d bl[s s\? ( ! ,equator4 ,f ,april to ,septemb] a s\?-we/ w9d bl[s at ! nor?1 & a s\?-ea/ w9d at ! s\? ( ! l9e4 ,! t]m monsoon signifies a 8season10 & ! *anges ( ^! w9ds give rise to trem5d\s /orms caus+ great havoc4 ,,sea & ,,l& breezes are really little monsoons2 !y are caus$ by ! heat ( ! sun 9 j ! same way1 b ) m9iature results4 ,we all "k ! sea-breeze :i* comes 9 z ! l& gets hot dur+ ! day1 = ! l& w>ms m quickly ?an ! sea "u equally exi/+ circum/ances4 ,s aga91 9 ! ev5+1 ! l& loses its heat m quickly1 & !n ! cool air fl[s out aga9 to take ! place ( ! w>m] sea air :i* is cont9u+ to asc5d4 ,! int5sity & regul>ity v>ies :5 ! degrees ( heat are mo/ diff]5t betwe5 l& & sea & 9 tropical regions2 & ! v>i$ coa/ =mation w ( c\rse affect ! w9d1 b z a rule ! fact may be accept$ z pla9ly expla9$1 sea-breeze 9 ! morn+1 l&-breeze at night1 & amateur sailors 9 boats at our wat]+-places w d well to be> ?is 9 m9d4 ,!re are a great numb] ( local w9ds d]iv+ _! names f _! direction or influ5ce4 ,we may m5tion !m briefly4 ,! special t]ms = w9ds are-- ,! ,nor? ,w9d1 or ,tramontana4 ,! ,nor?-,ea/ ,w9d1 or ,greco4 ,! ,ea/ ,w9d1 or ,levant]4 ,! ,s\?-,ea/ ,w9d1 or ,sirocco4 ,! ,s\? ,w9d1 or ,o/ro4 ,! ,s\?-,we/ ,w9d1 or ,libeccio4 ,! ,we/ ,w9d1 or ,pon5te4 ,! ,nor?-,we/ ,w9d1 or ,mae/ro-,mi/ral4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gae4--,on a lee %ore4 ,! ,mi/ral1 or ,mae/rale1 is well kn[n at ,nice z ! nor? w9d1 :ile at ,t\lon x is a nor?-ea/ w9d4 ,! o!r w9ds1 su* z ! ,sirocco1 :i* 9 "s places is a w>m1 damp w9d1 9 ,madeira is a hot w9d1 & likewise 9 ,sicily1 :]e x is equally w>m & damp l /eam4 ,x has diff]5t names 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 su* z ,samiel 9 ,turkey1 & sometimes z ,fhn 9 ,switz]l&1 :]e x may1 h[ev]1 be a nor? w9d--:i*1 z all travell]s "k1 is a dry & a hazy-wea!r breeze1 yet sometimes moi/4 ,! ,simoon is a v hot w9d rais+ s&-/orms 9 ! des]ts1 & exp]i5ce has %[n x to be v prejudicial to life 9 consequ5ce ( ! f9e s& & ! trem5d\s heat x c>ries ) x4 ,egypt is subject to ano!r hot w9d1 call$ ! ,khams91 & ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa is subject to ! ,h>mattan1 a dry1 ea/]ly w9d4 ,! cold1 dry w9d ( ! ,himalaya is kn[n z ! ,t]5o4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica !re is ! same w9d1 ! ,pamp]o bl[+ ea/ & s\?-ea/4 ,! ,euroclydon1 m5tion$ by ,/4 ,paul1 is ! mod]n bora ov] ! ,adriatic4 ,malta rejoices 7or lam5ts7 9 ! ,gregale1 a nor?-ea/ w9d4 ,!re are sev]al o!r t]ms1 su* z ! ,puna ( ,p]u1 a v dry+ w9d2 ! ,purgas 9 ,labrador1 ! ,t\rm5te 9 ,france1 & ,gux5 9 ,switz]l&4 ,!n we h ! ,hurricane1 f 8,ouracan0 ( ! ,c>ibs2 ! ,typhone1 or ,tae-fun ( ,*9a1 s call$ f ! dread$ god ,typhon ( ,egypt2 & ! ,tornado--all v viol5t w9ds1 & circl+ r\nd1 caus+1 s to speak1 :irlw9ds1 by :i* trees are uproot$1 & h\ses de/roy$4 ,! measure ( ! velocity ( w9d is p]=m$ by anemomet]s1 :i* record ! velocity 9 feet p] second1 & ! am\nt ( pressure4 ,! anemomet] is a well-kn[n app>atus1 ) its f\r arms t]m9at+ 9 8cups0 & a 8tablet0 anemomet]1 :i* is m or less di/urb$ or deflect$ f ! v]tical l9e by ea* gu/ ( w9d1 & ?us ! score ( degrees is m>k$ by an indicator1 :i* is mov$ z ! tablet is deflect$4 ,we annex a table ( w9d pressure & velocity-- ,,pressure ,,( ,,! ,,w9d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,velocity4 ,pressure p] ----------------- sq4 foot4 ,miles ,feet p] ,r\se & ,description ( w9d4 p] h\r4 second4 ,smeaton4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #a #adg #jjje ,v g5tle4 #b #bic #jjbj #c #ddj #jjdd ,light airs4 #d #ehg #jjgi #e #gcc #jabc ,light breeze4 #aj #adfg #jdib #ae #bbjj #aajg ,brisk breeze4 #bj #bicd #aifh #be #cifg #cjge ,/rong breeze4 #cj #ddja #ddbi #ce #eacd #fjbg ,high w9d4 #dj #ehfh #ghgc #de #ffja #iifc ,gale4 #ej #gcce #abcjj #fj #hhjb #aggae ,heavy ,gale4 #hj #aagcf #cadij ,hurricane4 #ajj #adfgj #dibjj ,tornado4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,! s\?-we/ w9d is m con/ant ?an any o!r1 & ! we/ w9d 9 our isl&s is m frequ5t ?an ! ea/2 tables h be5 compil$ %[+ ! av]age numb] ( days ^u :i* ! w9ds bl[ f diff]5t qu>t]s1 b ne$ n be quot$4 ,/orms c g5]ally be anticipat$ by ! b>omet]1 :i* falls v quickly = 8w9d40 ,! qu>t] :5ce ! breeze may be expect$ is (t5 indicat$ by ! /ream]s ( cl\ds1 or 8m>e's tails10 across ! sky2 ?\gh we mu/ admit ! opposite direction to t anticipat$ by casual obs]v]s may (t5 prove ! "r "o4 ,hurricanes & tornadoes are really :irlw9ds 9 motion4 ,! rotatory movem5t ( ! air is f "r to left 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & f left to "r 9 ! s\!rn--t is1 9 ! opposite & same directions respectively z ! h&s ( a wat* move4 ,! :irlw9ds are caus$ by two curr5ts ( air meet+ at a c]ta9 angle1 j z a :irlpool is ! result ( oppos+ curr5ts ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gaf4--;,effects ( /orm at ,hallig5 9 #ahcd4 ,! use ( ! w9d 9 nature _c be ov]-e/imat$4 ,x is frequ5tly de/ructive & t]rible 9 its effects1 b ^! comp>atively trifl+ damages are z no?+ :5 weigh$ aga9/ ! advantages conf]r$ ^u mank9d by ! w9d & ! curr5ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! nor? cold is temp]$ by ! w>m s\? w9d4 ,! poll5 & ! se$s ( plants are borne on ! w+s ( ! w9d1 & ! cl\ds are c>ri$ ov] ! l& to 8drop fatness0 ^u our fields4 ,! want ( free circulation ( air is v injuri\s4 ,witness ! t]rible affliction ( goitre1 s preval5t 9 ! closely %ut-9 valleys su* z ! ,rhone ,valley1 :]e cret9ism or cong5ital idiotcy is di/ress+ly preval5t4 ,,vap\r ,,& ,,cl\ds4 ,vap\r1 z we h he>d1 is invisible1 & is produc$ by heat4 ,z ! visible /eam 7:i* is invisible z x issues f ! safety valve at ! actual ap]ture1 & ne>ly invisible altoge!r on a hot day7 is produc$ by combu/ion1 s vap\r is produc$ by ! heat ( ! sun's rays4 ,b !re are "s obs]vations to be made respect+ ^! rays1 :i* are ! cause ( vap\r1 & !re=e ( cl\d1 ra91 dew1 fro/1 ice1 sn[1 & wat] all ov] ! e>?2 & we mu/ look at ! circum/ances closely4 ,^? :o h foll[$ u ?r\gh ?is volume w rememb] t at ! end ( ,*apt] ,,viii4 we rem>k$ ^u ! spectrum1 & made a few obs]vations respect+ ! heat spectrum1 & ! velocity ( light rays1 :i* became too rapid to be obs]v$1 & !n !y develop$ heat--invisible heat--produc$ by non-lum9\s waves1 :i* proce$ f ! sun z surely z visible rays or light4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall has writt5 v pleasantly ^u ?is subject1 &1 ) 8 cle> lead+1 any read] c /udy = himself4 ,we h n[ arriv$ at ! conclusion t !re are visible & invisible rays giv+ u respectively light & heat4 ,^! latt] are ! means :]eby ! ice is melt$1 & by :i* wat] is evaporat$ to vap\r1 & =m$ into ,,cl\ds :5 x is *ill$ or cond5s$4 ,"h is ano!r l9k 9 ! beautiful *a9 con/ruct$ by ,nature4 ,we _c p5etrate f> into any portion ( ! sy/em ( ! univ]se )\t be+ /ruck ) ! wondr\s h>mony t exi/s betwe5 e portion ( x4 ,?us heat & light1 vap\r1 cl\d1 ra91 dew1 & ice are all intimately connect$4 ,a cl\d1 !n1 is a visible body ( vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e1 :i* is support$ by an invisible body ( vap\r4 ,x w rema9 ?us invisible s long z ! atmosph]e is n saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,! air c conta9 a great quantity ( moi/ure )\t its be+ r5d]$ visible1 & s :5 ! day is hot we see no /eam f ! locomotive4 ,x is absorb$ into ! dry atmosph]e4 ,b :5 ! day is 8damp0 we f9d t ! air has ne>ly z mu* moi/ure z x c c>ry1 & ! /eam is cond5s$1 a portion fall+ 9 t9y drops l ra94 ,?is is prov$ e day 9 cold wea!r :5 ice is f\nd 9 ! w9d[s--! cold air has cond5s$ & froz5 ! wat] brea!d out f our lungs1 & sn[ has be5 kn[n to fall 9 a ball-room :5 a cold curr5t ( air 0 admitt$4 ,p are sometimes apt to ?9k t if ! sun 7 v hot1 glaci]s1 & su* icy masses1 w\ld dim9i%2 b we ?9k aft] :at has be5 said respect+ ! p[] ( ! sun's rays to evaporate wat]1 all w see t ! contr>y is ! fact4 ,)\t sun-heat we %\ld h no cl\d1 & z cl\ds give u ra9 & sn[ & ice & glaci]1 we mu/ come quickly to ! conclusion t glaci]s & sn[ are ! direct results ( ! heat ( ! sun4 ,! 8light0 rays ( ! sun d n p5etrate sn[1 & t is :y our eyes are s affect$ 9 sn[y regions4 ,! poor ,jeannette suff]]s a %ort "t s9ce 7 bl9d$ by reflect$ light1 & d>k spectacles are worn on all ,alp9e exp$itions4 ,! invisible rays1 z we h said1 dissolve ! ice into riv]s4 ,! atmosph]e produces cl\ds by expansion ( vap\r1 :i* *ills or cools x1 & x desc5ds z ra94 ,to prove t expansion cools air is easy by exp]im5t1 b if we h no app>atus we mu/ make use ( our m\?s4 ,9 ! body ! brea? is w>m1 z we c assure ourselves by op5+ our m\?s wide & brea?+ ^u our h&s4 ,b close ! m\? & bl[ ! same brea? outw>ds ?r\gh a v small ap]ture4 ,x is 9 a slight degree compress$ z x issues f ! lips1 & exp&+ aga9 9 ! atmosph]e feels cold]4 ,air compress$ into a ma*9e & p]mitt$ to escape w =m ice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gag4--;,cumulus cl\d4 ,wat] is pres5t 9 cl\ds :i* assume v fanta/ic & beautiful =ms4 ,we "k no?+ m enjoyable ?an to sit wat*+ ! masses ( cumuli on a f9e aft]noon4 ,! gr& masses built up l ! ,alps appe> to be actual m\nta9s1 & yet we "k !y are b vap\r float+ 9 ! air1 & pres5tly to meet ) cl\ds ( an opposite disposition1 & produce a ?und]/orm ) torr5ts ( ra94 ,^? :o w devote a few m9utes e day to ! /eady exam9ation ( cl\ds1 w n be disappo9t$4 ,!y give u all ! gr&eur ( t]re/rial sc5]y4 ,m\nta9s1 pla9s1 :ite 8fleecy seas10 ^u :i* t9y cl\dlets float1 & l[ ^u ! imag9>y yet app>5t horizon1 rise o!r cl\ds & mimic m\nta9s f> & f>!r away 9 nev]-end+ di/ance4 ,a pretty1 light1 fea!ry cl\d1 ) curl+ tips & fibres1 is kn[n z cirrus1 & exi/s at a v great elevation4 ,gay-,lussac w5t up 9 a balloon #bc1jjj feet1 & ev5 at t height ! cirri 0 f> above him 9 space4 ,we c readily und]/& t at su* an extreme elevation !y mu/ be v cold1 & !y are suppos$ to consi/ ( t9y p>ticles ( ice4 ,su* cl\ds z ^! are v frequ5tly obs]v$ at night1 z cirro-cumulus ar\nd ! moon1 & a yell[i% halo1 app>5t to all obs]v]s1 is ?\ght to be col\r$ by ! icy p>ticles ( ! l(ty cirrus4 ,! beautiful & v>i$ ph5om5a ( p]ihelia1 etc41 are due also to ! sn[y or icy flakes ( ! cirri & cirri-cumuli1 caus$ by ! refraction ( light f ! froz5 p>ticles4 ,^! cirri cl\ds are indicative ( *angeable wea!r z 8,m>es' tail0 skies1 & long wisps ( cl\d1 =etell+ /orm4 ,! cirro-cumulus is ! true 8mack]el0 sky1 & is =m$ by ! cirri fall+ a little & break+ (f into small pieces ( cumulus1 :i* is a summ] 7day7 cl\d g5]ally1 & appe>s 9 ! beautifully massive & r\nd$ =ms s famili>4 ,! /ratus is1 z its "n implies1 a cl\dy lay] =m$ l /rata ( rock4 ,x is g5]ally obs]vable at night & 9 ! w9t]4 ,x (t5 appe>s sudd5ly 9 ! sky consequ5t ^u dim9i%$ pressure or a rapid fall ( temp]ature4 ,x is l[-ly+ cl\d sometimes1 & at night =ms fogs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gah4--;,cirrus cl\d4 ,! cirro-/ratus is p]ceiv$ 9 long p>allel l9es1 & indicates ra92 :5 made-up r[s ( little curv$ cl\ds x is a c]ta9 prophet ( /orm1 & :5 view$ z haze is also indicative ( ra9 or sn[4 8,mock-suns0 & halos are (t5 obs]v$ 9 ! cirro-/ratus4 ,! nimbus is ! ra9-cl\d1 or condition ( a cl\d 9 :i* ra9 falls f x4 ,x is ^u ?is ra9-cl\d we c p]ceive ! ra9b[1 & on no o!r cl\d1 b o!rwise only 9 ! sky4 ,we h n[ se5 ! v>ieties ( cl\d & _! common orig9 ) fogs & mi/s1 :i* diff] f !m only 9 ! elevation at :i* !y come into exi/5ce1 accord+ to ! condition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! uses ( cl\ds are _m & v>i$4 ,_! fir/ & mo/ app>5t use seems to be ! collection & di/ribution ( ra9 ^u ! e>?4 ,b besides ?is1 !y %elt] u f ! too great heat ( ! sun1 & *eck ! evaporation at night4 ,suppos+ we _h no cl\ds we %\ld h no ra94 ,if we _h no ra9 ! e>? w\ld dry up1 & ! globe w\ld appe> z ! side ( ! moon appe>s--a wat]less des]t4 ,! invisible vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e w produce cl\d1 b ! moon c h no atmosph]e 9 t s5se4 ,vap\r w also absorb heat1 & int]cept ! sun's heat rays1 act+ mu* z cl\ds d 9 prev5t+ radiation & great *anges ( temp]ature4#cc ,all animals & plants dep5d ^u moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e z mu* z ^u ! v>y+ degrees ( w>m?4 ,a dry ea/ w9d effects u all prejudicially2 w>m1 s(t airs influ5ce u aga9 9 o!r ways4 ,air w be f\nd dri] z a rule 9 cont95ts ?an 9 isl&s or m>itime di/ricts1 & ?is w acc\nt = ! cle>ness ( ! sky 9 cont95tal regions4 ,fogs & mi/s arise :5 ! air is :at is t]m$ saturat$ ) moi/ure1 & cold] ?an ! e>? or wat]s ^u x4 ,s ! celebrat$ & dang]\s fogbanks ( ,newf\ndl& arise f ! w>m wat] ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 :i* is high] 9 temp]ature ?an ! air already saturat$4 ,& ! same effect is produc$ :5 a w>m w9d bl[s aga9/ a cold m\nta92 ! air is cool$1 & cond5ses 9 cl\d4 ,! cool+ ( ! brea? by ! ext]ior air is exemplifi$ 9 w9t] :5 we c p]ceive ! vap\r issu+ f our m\?s z we speak4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gai4--,/orm cl\ds4 ,,ra91 ,,sn[1 ,,& ,,dew4 ,ra9 is produc$ by ! cond5sation ( vap\r4 8,vesicul> vap\rs1 or m9ute globules ( wat] fill$ ) air10 compose ! cl\ds1 & at la/ ^! vesicles =m drops1 & get heavy en\gh to come to ! gr\nd4 ,p]haps !y are n suffici5tly heavy to d s1 & !n !y are absorb$ or resolv$ into vap\r aga9 be=e !y c get s f>1 because ! l[] /rata ( air are n yet saturat$1 & c !re=e conta9 m moi/ure4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we may exp]i5ce ra9 f a cl\dless sky4 ,?is is no v uncommon case1 & occurs 9 consequ5ce ( ! di/urbance ( ! upp] /rata :5 w>m & cold curr5ts come into collision & cond5se ! vap\rs4 ,ra9 is v unequally di/ribut$4 ,we %all f9d t ! region ( calms1 :i* we m5tion$ 9 a =m] page1 is also ! zone ( ! greate/ am\nt ( ra94 ,! heat$ air rises & falls back aga91 !re be+ little or no w9d to c>ry x away4 ,! ra9y season1 !re=e1 sets 9 :5 a place ent]s ! zone ( calms4 ,equatorial di/ricts h two ra9y seasons1 z !y ent] twice a ye> into ! region ( calms1 b mo/ places h only a wet & dry season1 :ile nor? & s\? ( ! calm region we f9d ra9less di/ricts1 or zones temp]$ by ! trade w9ds1 :i* are dry w9ds4 ,b if we suppose--z inde$ is ! case 9 ,s\? ,am]ica--t ^! dry w9ds happ5 to come 9 contact ) a cool m\nta91 ! moi/ure ( ! air is precipitat$ 9 ra94 ,9 ,au/ralia1 on ! contr>y1 we h portions ( l& actually burnt up = want ( ra91 because ! m\nta9 *a9 breaks ! cl\ds1 s to speak1 on a limit$ corn] ( ! isl&1 :ile ! int]ior is p>*$4 ,! w9ds also com+ ov] ,india f ! ,bay ( ,b5gal dis*>ge cl\ds & ra9 9 ! ,himalayan slopes4 ,s we p]ceive t ! situation ( m\nta9 *a9s h mu* to d ) ! ra9-fall1 & ( necessity1 !re=e1 ) ! vegetation & f]tility ( ! l&4 ,?is is ano!r noticeable l9k 9 ! great *a9 ( ,nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbj4--,meteorological ,obs]vatory1 ,pic du ,midi4 ,p]haps x may n[ be und]/ood :y we/]ly & s\?-we/]ly w9ds br+ ra9 ^u our isl&s1 & :y ! c\nties su* z ,we/morel& & ,cumb]l& & ^? 9 ,wales receive m ra9 ?an any o!r "p ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,sea?waite1 s well kn[n to t\ri/s 9 ! lake di/rict1 has ! pr\d position ( ! wette/ place 9 ^! isl&s4 ,we f9d t :5 ! we/]ly w9d sets 9 x has come across ! w>m ,atlantic wat] & become lad5 ) moi/ure1 :i*1 :5 *ill$ by ! m\nta9s1 is precipitat$ z ra94 ,! am\nt ( ra9 t falls 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom is c>efully measur$ by ra9-gauges1 "s ( :i* are extremely simple4 ,! wat] is caught 9 a funnel-m\!d tube1 & measur$ 9 a measur+ glass e f\r-&-tw5ty h\rs4 ,!reby we c tell ! annual ra9fall 9 any giv5 di/rict1 :e!r x be tw5ty in*es or a hundr$4 ,"o in* ( ra9 actually means "o hundr$ tons ( wat] fall+ ^u "o acre ( l&4 ,!re=e1 if ! annual report ( ra9fall 7includ+ all moi/ure7 be tw5ty in*es1 we h an aggregate ( #b1jjj tons ( wat] ^u e acre ( surface )9 ! di/rict4 ,tw5ty in*es is a v l[ e/imate4 ,"s places h an annual ra9fall ( =ty or fifty in*es4 ,9 ,cumb]l& we f9d #afe in*es has be5 record$6 ,if we !n multiply ^! la/ figures we get ! enorm\s quantity ( #af1ejj tons ( wat] ^u e acre ( l& 9 ! di/rict 9 "o ye>4 ,x is report$ f ,india t 9 ! ,khasia ,hills ! av]age is #faj in*es1 :i* mu/ be ! maximum ra9fall 9 ! _w4 ,at o!r places1 9 ! nor?-we/ prov9ces1 ! fall is only sev5 in*es4 ,sometimes 9 tropical ra9s we f9d fifte5 in*es ( ra9 9 a day1 & t has be5 exce$$4 ,we c n[ judge ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( moi/ure c>ri$ up by ! sun & disp]s$ ov] ! e>? 9 ra91 :i* swells our brooks & riv]s1 cleanses ! air ( its impurities1 supplies our spr+s1 c>ries ) x into ! sea lime f ! rocks = ! %ells ( m>9e animals1 & !n leav+ its salts1 is aga9 evaporat$ to =m cl\ds1 :i* dis*>ge ! fre% wat] cont9ually ^u ! e>? 9 a nev]-ceas+ rotation4 ,,sn[4 8,we all "k :at ,,sn[ is10 y w say1 p]haps4 ,well1 !n1 w any ord9>y "y read] tell me :at he kn[s ab\t sn[8 8,x falls f ! sky 9 :ite flakes10 says "o4 8,x's froz5 ra910 rem>ks ano!r4 8,:y1 sn[ is sn[10 says a ?ird4 8,!re's no?+ l x2 x's :ite ra9-wat] froz540 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gba4--;,cry/als ( sn[4 ,! la/ answ] we receiv$ is ! ne>e/ ( all4 ,sn[ is n sn[1 p>adoxical z t s\nds4 ,sn[ is ,ice6 ,flakes ( sn[ are ice-cry/als--:ite1 because reflect+ light4 ,9 ! section ( ,,m9]alogy we m5tion$ cry/als1 :i* are c]ta9 def9ite %apes assum$ by all sub/ances1 & we gave _m examples ( !m4 ,j z alum cry/allizes & rock cry/al assumes v>i$ & beautiful =ms1 s ice cry/allizes into six-ray$ />s4 ,x is to ,pr(essor ,tyndall t ! _w is *iefly indebt$ = ! descriptions ( sn[ cry/als & ice fl[]s4 ,9 8 "w ^u 8,heat z a ,mode ( ,motion10 ?is *>m+ writ] %[s u ! /ructure ( ice fl[]s4 ,he describes a sn[ %[] z a 8%[] ( froz5 fl[]s40 8,:5 sn[ is produc$ 9 calm air10 he says1 8! icy p>ticles build !mselves into /ell> %apes1 ea* /> possess+ six rays40 ,we annex "s draw+s ( sn[ cry/als1 :i* are1 inde$1 wond]fully made4 ,he> ,pr(essor ,tyndall once aga93-- 8,let u imag9e ! eye gift$ ) a microscopic p[] suffici5t to enable u to see ! molecules :i* compose ^? />ry cry/als3 to obs]ve ! solid nucleus =m$ & float+ 9 ! air2 to see x draw+ t[>ds x its alli$ atoms1 & ^! arrang+ !mselves z if !y mov$ to music1 & end$ by r5d]+ t music concrete40 ,?is 8six-ray$ />0 is typical ( lake ice also4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbb4--;,ice cry/al4 ,sn[ sometimes rea*es u 9 a p>tly melt$ condition2 "u ^! circum/ances x is call$ sleet1 & sn[ be+ mu* light] ?an ra9 7ice is light] ?an wat]71 x desc5ds less directly1 & repres5ts ab\t "o-t5? ! dep? ( ! ra9-fall4 ,! use ( sn[ 9 w>m+ ! e>? is univ]sally ackn[l$g$1 & z x is su* a bad conductor1 a man 9 a sn[ hut w soon become unpleasantly w>m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbc4--;,ice cry/al4 ,ice is only wat] 9 ano!r =m1 & sn[ is ice2 & x is ! air 9 ! sn[ t gives x w>m+ prop]ties4 ,^! are all simple facts1 :i* any "o by obs]vation & c>eful read+ & /udy may soon asc]ta9 = himself4 ,we h ano!r froz5 fall ( wat] f ! cl\ds--viz41 hail1 :i* may possibly be ! developm5t ( sleet4 ,,hail is =m$ by ! fall+ ra9 be+ froz5 9 its desc5t1 or :5 diff]5t curr5ts meet 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,a hail-/orm is accompani$ ) a ru%+ s\nd1 z if ! hail-/ones 7 /rik+ aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,!y are v de/ructive1 & actual hail %[]s occur 9 summ] m frequ5tly ?an 9 w9t]1 & a peculi>ity noticeable ) reg>d to hail is its infrequ5t occurr5ce dur+ ! night4 ,records ( de/ructive hail /orms are pl5tiful4 ,! hail assumes a great size1 weigh+ sometimes z mu* z two ounces1 & measur+ sev]al in*es r\nd4 ,?und] & lightn+ are v frequ5t accompanim5ts ( hail %[]s4 ,,dew is moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e deposit$ on a cool surface--ano!r =m ( cond5sation1 9 fact4 ,cold wat] 9 a tumbl] w produce a 8dew0 ^u ! outside ( ! glass :5 c>ri$ into a w>m atmosph]e4 ,su* is ! dew ^u ! grass4 ,x is produc$ by ! air deposit+ moi/ure z x becomes cold] aft] a w>m day :5 mu* vap\r 0 absorb$4 ,w>m air c hold m wat] ?an cold air1 &1 ! saturation po9t be+ rea*$1 ! excess falls z dew at ! dew 7or saturation7 po9t4 ,we h previ\sly rem>k$ t "o use ( cl\ds 0 to prev5t rapid radiation ( heat :i* !y keep bel[4 ,"u ^! circum/ances--viz41 :5 a night is cl\dy--we %all f9d mu* less dew ^u ! grass ?an :5 a night has be5 q cle>1 because ! heat has left ! atmosph]e = ! high] regions1 & has !n be5 kept d[n by ! cl\ds2 b on a cle> night ! air has become cool$ rapidly by radiation1 & hav+ arriv$ at saturation po9t1 cond5sation takes place4 ,dew does n fall1 x is deposit$2 & may be m or less accord+ to circum/ances1 = %elt] imp$es ! radiation1 & "s objects radiate less heat ?an o!rs4 ,h5ce "s objects w be cov]$ ) dew & o!rs sc>cely wett$4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! air is v l[1--d[n to freez+ po9t1--! p>ticles ( moi/ure become froz51 & appe> z ho>-fro/ ^u ! gr\nd4 ,?us dew & ho>-fro/ are ! same ?+ "u diff]5t atmosph]ic conditions1 z are wat] & ice & vap\r4 ,we h n[ come r\nd aga9 almo/ to :5ce we />t$4 ,we h se5 ! l& & wat]1 & ! p>ts t wat]1 9 its v>i\s =ms1 plays ^u ! l&1 & its effects 9 ! air z ra91 etc4 ,we h notic$ ! w9ds & air curr5ts z well z ! ocean & its curr5ts4 ,we "k :at becomes ( ra9 & h[ x is produc$1 & h[ ! sea works ^u ! %ore1 & h[ cl\ds b5efit u4 ,!re are besides "s less common ph5om5a :i* we w n[ proce$ to exam9e4 ,,footnotes3 #cc ,see 8,molecul> ,physics0 7,tyndall74 ,,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,meteorology 7cont9u$74 ,,atmosph]ic ,,ph5om5a--,,?und] ,,& ,,lightn+--,,aurora ,,borealis--,,! ,,ra9b[--,,mock ,,suns ,,& ,,mock-,,moons--,,halos--,,fata ,,morgana--,,reflection ,,& ,,refraction--,,mirage--,,spectre ,,( ,,! ,,brock54 ,!re are a great numb] ( int]e/+1 & to inhabitants ( ^! isl&s uncommon1--p]haps we might say =tunately uncommon1--ph5om5a1 :i* ov]take ! travell] 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,we h ref]r$ to :irlw9ds & tornados1 & w n[ m5tion two ph5om5a connect$ ) ^! /orms4 ,!re is ! wat]-sp\t1 = in/ance1 & s&-pill>s 9 ! des]t1 :i* are :irl$ up by ^! w9ds 9 spiral columns ( wat] & s& respectively4 ,! t9y :irlw9d at cross-roads1 :i* picks up /raws & leaves1 is ! common appe>ance ( :irl+ or cross+ curr5ts ( air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbd4--,! ,wat]sp\t4 ,wat]sp\ts1 :5 !y are p]mitt$ to come ne> a %ip at sea1 or :5 !y break ^u l&1 :i* is seldom1 are v de/ructive4 ,! wat]sp\t is begun g5]ally by ! agitation ( ! sea1 & ! cl\d above drops to meet ! wat]1 :i* at la/ unites ) x1 & !n ! column ( :irl+ liquid1 trem5d\sly di/urb$ at ! base1 advances ) ! prevail+ w9d4 ,its c\rse is frequ5tly *ang$1 & %ips )9 its influ5ce w\ld be spe$ily wreck$4 ,! only way to save ! vessel is to fire a cannon ball ?r\gh ! column & break x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbe4--,?und]/orm & %[] ( a%es f ,vesuvius4 ,a wat]sp\t once deva/at$ a di/rict 9 ! ,h>tz m\nta9s ( ,saxony4 8,a long tube ( vap\r desc5d$ to ! e>?1 & sev]al times 0 drawn upw>d aga92 b at la/ x rea*$ ! gr\nd1 & travell$ along at ! rate ( f\r-&-a-half miles 9 eight m9utes1 de/roy+ ev]y?+ 9 its way40 ,on ano!r occasion at ,c>cassonne 9 #ahbf1 8a r$di% column 0 se5 desc5d+ to ! gr\nd1 & a "y man 0 caught up by x & da%$ aga9/ a rock40 ,8 dea? 0 in/antane\s4 ,! cause ( ^! :irl+ w9ds is suppos$ to be 9 ! action ( v]tical curr5ts ( air :i* asc5d heat$1 & return rapidly z cold air4 ,! 8wat]sp\ts10 etc41 are quickly =m$4 ,! tornado is a mon/] :irlw9d l a wat]sp\t 9 =m1 & advances at a trem5d\s rate--ea/w>d z a rule4 ,x moves 9 leaps & b\nds1 pass+ ov] "s portions ( ! gr\nd & desc5d+ aga94 ,! curr5t ( air is direct$ to ! c5tre2 ! cyclone1 z m5tion$1 has a spiral or rotatory movem5t4 ,?und] & lightn+ h be51 to "s ext5t1 describ$ "u ! head ( ,,electricity1 b "s obs]vations may also be introduc$ "h1 z /orms ( t nature app]ta9 to meteorology di/9ctly4 ,electricity is always pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 & arises f evaporation & cond5sation z well z f plants4 ,z ! air becomes moi/1 ! int5sity ( ! s-call$ 8fluid0 increases1 & m 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,cle> skies are positively electric1 & :5 l>ge1 heavy cl\ds are p]ceiv$ 9 process ( =mation 9 a sky up to t "t cle>1 a /orm is almo/ c]ta9 to foll[4 ,^! 8?und] cl\ds10 9 :i* a quantity ( electricity exi/s1 attract or repel ea* o!r respectively4 ,! cl\d attracts ! opposite k9d ( electricity to t )9 x2 & :5 at la/ a trem5d\s am\nt has be5 /or$ up 9 ! cl\d & 9 ! air1 or 9 ano!r cl\d1 ! diff]5t k9ds seek ea* o!r1 & lightn+ is ! result1 accompani$ by a rev]b]ation & commotion ( ! air /rata1 call$ ?und]4 ,lightn+ mo/ frequ5tly d>ts f cl\d to cl\d1 b (t5 /rikes ! gr\nd1 :]eon & 9 :i* are good conductors1 su* z wet trees1 metals1 runn+ wat]1 etc4 ,! 8electric fluid0 assumes diff]5t =ms--8=k$10 8%eet10 & 8globul>40 ,! second is p]haps ! mo/ famili> to u1 & ! ?ird k9d is ! lea/ kn[n ( all4 ,!re are _m well-au!nticat$ in/ances on record 9 :i* lightn+ ) ! =m & appe>ance ( fireballs has ent]$ or /ruck h\ses & %ips4 8,fulg>ites0 are vitre\s tubes =m$ 9 s&y soils by ! lightn+ 9 se>* ( subt]ranean wat]-c\rses1 = runn+ wat] is a great conductor ( electricity4#cd ,! fire-ball =m ( lightn+ has be5 kn[n to ent] a s*ool-h\se :]e a numb] ( *ildr5 71 & to s+e ! g>m5ts ( "s1 kill+ o!rs4 ,! ball pass$ out ?r\gh a pane ( glass1 9 :i* x bor$ a hole1 break+ e o!r pane1 h[ev]1 9 its transit4 ,ano!r in/ance occurr$ 9 :i* ! lightn+ ran ab\t ! floor ( a room1 & desc5d+ ! /airs1 explod$ )\t do+ any injury4 ,lightn+1 l ! electric curr5t ( ! laboratory1 w n always set fire ev5 to inflammable objects4 ,an electric sp>k c be pass$ ?r\gh gunp[d] )\t sett+ fire to x1 & lightn+ w (t5 %att] ! object )\t fir+ x4 ,dea? by lightn+ is in/antane\s1 & 9 all probability q pa9less2 = we may argue f analogy1 t z ^? :o h be5 r5d]$ ins5sible by lightn+ h _h no remembrance ( see+ ! fla% :i* /rikes s in/antane\sly1 nor ( he>+ ?und] aft] x1 x is in/antane\s 9 its effects4 ,besides1 ! natural attitude is pres]v$1 & ! face is usually peaceful & limbs uncontort$ aft] dea? by lightn+4 ,!re are "s curi\s electrical ph5om5a1 su* z ,/4 ,elmo's ,fire1 already notic$ "u ,,electricity2 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,am]ica1 9 v hot wea!r1 su* a light is p]ceiv$ to issue f trees z ! fire glides ?r\gh ! =e/4 ,_m in/ances are on record conc]n+ ! lum9osity ( po9t$ /icks1 & ev5 ( ! tails & manes ( horses 9 c]ta9 conditions ( ! atmosph]e1 & ( ! univ]sal p[] ( electricity & its p]vad+ influ5ce 9 nature4 ,! b5efits conf]r$ by ?und]/orms 9 purify+ ! air1 & 9 ! production ( ozone & nitric acid1 are v great1 & ap>t f ! magnific5t ph5om5a exhibit$1 are well wor? our att5tion1 ?\gh beyond our rea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbf4--;,aurora ,borealis4 ,t]re/rial magnetism1 h[ev]1 is /ill m puzzl+ 9 its action ?an is electricity1 & ! /udy ( ! ne$le1 its de/9ation1 incl9ation1 & int5sity1 :i* are m>k$ ^u *>ts1 j z are ! wea!r reports ( ! ,times1 is an int]e/+ "o4 ,^! magnetic maps are t]m$ ! *>ts ( ,,isocl9ic & ,,isodynamic l9es4 ,! decl9ation ( ! magnetic ne$le f ! true nor? is its deviation f t po9t1 & ! 8incl9ation0 is its dip t[>ds ! horizon4 ,! l9e ( its direction be+ kn[n z ! magnetic m]idian1 its div]g5ce f ?is l9e con/itutes its decl9ation4 ,!re are places :]e x does n deviate1 & ^!1 9 direction nor? & s\?1 are call$ l9es ( 8no v>iation40 ,!re are also places 9 ! equatorial regions :]e ! ne$le does n 8dip40 ,! l9e connect+ su* places is t]m$ ! ,magnetic ,equator1 & nor? or s\? ( ?is ! ne$le dips respectively to nor? or s\? 9 degrees co9cid+ ) ! di/ance f ! equator4 ,! e>?1 !n1 acts z a magnet1 & attracts ! ne$le1 b ! magnetic poles are n id5tical ) ! t]re/rial poles4 ,! nor? magnetic pole 0 rea*$ 9 #ahca by ,sir ,james ,ross1 :5 ! dip 0 only "o m9ute less ?an #ij1 & ! s\? magnetic pole 0 v ne>ly rea*$ also by him 9 #ahdj4 ,! magnetic equator passes betwe5 ^! two po9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbg4--,p>asel51 or mock moons4 ,x is to magnetic atmosph]ical di/urbance t ! aurora is due4 ,^! nor!rn 7or s\!rn7 ph5om5a are extremely brilliant & div]sifi$4 ,9 temp]ate regions ! aurora does n pres5t su* gr& =ms z 9 ! extreme nor?4 ,!re ! spectacle is a/oni%+ly beautiful4 ,! sky at fir/ cl\ds ov]1 & mi/ is develop$4 ,humboldt has eloqu5tly describ$ ! aurora borealis1 & ! beautiful *anges ( light1 ! con/ant movem5t1 fla%es1 etc41 d5ot+ a 8magnetic0 /orm1 z electrical dis*>ges indicate an electric /orm1 al?\gh ! area affect$ by ! =m] is f> m ext5sive ?an t ( ! latt]1 & !re is no ?und] accompany+ ! magnetic /orm1 ) ! production ( :i* ! electricity ( ! e>? is unassociat$4 ,to ! cont9u\s fl[ ( ?is electricity ! aurora is due1 & ! fla%es are only ! electric curr5t desc5d+ t[>ds ! e>?4 ,b ! true reason ( ! ph5om5a may h to be yet discov]$1 = no?+ absolutely c]ta9 is kn[n z to ! orig9 ( ! aurora4 ,among/ ! num]\s effects ( refraction & reflection ( light ! ,,ra9b[ is mo/ common & ! mo/ beautiful4 ,if we hold a *&eli] 8drop0 9 ! sunlight1 we %all see a brilliant repres5tation ( ! ra9b[ on ! wall or on ! c>pet4 ,! ?ree col\rs--r$1 yell[1 & blue--m+le or %ade away into sev5--r$1 orange1 gre51 blue1 yell[1 indigo1 & violet4 ,^! col\rs are all f\nd 9 ! ra9b[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbh4--,p>helia1 or mock suns4 ,! col\r ( ! atmosph]e--! usual blue t9t ( ! sky--arises f ! blue rays ( ! spectrum be+ reflect$ m ?an ! re/ by ! a]ial p>ticles1 & ! less vap\r ! blu] ! sky1 because ! vap\r gives x a :iti% or mi/y t9t4 ,at sunset & sunrise ! sky is r$ or yell[1 l gold1 or ( crimson hue4 ,?is is because ! sun's rays h s mu* f>!r to come to u at sunrise or sunset1 z y w readily p]ceive if y draw a l9e f ! sun to ! sides & !n to ! top ( ! arc ( ! heav5s4 ,! blue rays are ?us lo/ 9 space1 :ile r$ & yell[1 :i* travel s mu* fa/] ?an blue1 are transmitt$ to ! eye1 n giv+ ! air "t to absorb !m4 ,if y g "u wat] & look at ! sun x w appe> v fi]y inde$1 & we may likewise imag9e t fi]y crimson rays1 :i* betok5 atmosph]ical di/urbance1 v (t5 are due to ! moi/ure ?r\gh :i* !y are transmitt$4 ,wet & /orm frequ5tly succe$ a crimson sunset1 :i* betok5s mu* moi/ure 9 ! air4 ,! sun is simil>ly se5 ?r\gh ! /eam issu+ f an eng9e1 & ! col\rs v>y accord+ to ! d5sity ( ! /eam 9 its /ages ( cond5sation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gbi4--,mirage at sea4 ,vap\r1 we "k1 is invisible & transp>5t1 b :5 x has be5 cond5s$ into ra9-drops1 & ! sun is %9+1 if we /& ) our backs to ! sun we see :at we call ! ra9b[1 because a ray ( light ent]+ ! drop is reflect$1 & z all rays are n ( equal refrangibility1 ! light1 :i* is compos$ ( ?ree simple rays1 is divid$ & reflect$ into ^? & ! complem5t>y col\rs4 ,:5 ! sun is at ! horizon1 ! ra9b[1 to an obs]v] on ! e>? 7b n on a m\nta971 w appe> to be a semi-circle4 ,! high] ! sun rises ! l[] is ! c5tre ( ! ra9b[4 ,s we c nev] see ra9b[s at noon 9 summ] because ! sun is too high4 ,a second ra9b[ is n uncommon1 ! second reflection produc+ ! col\rs 9 a diff]5t ord]4 ,! col\rs 9 ! 8orig9al0 range f violet to r$2 9 ! 8copy0 !y ext5d f r$ to violet4 8,ra9b[s0 are (t5 visible 9 ! spray ( wat]falls & f\nta9s4 ,,halos are frequ5tly obs]v$ surr\nd+ ! moon1 & !n we are apt to progno/icate ra94 8,! ne>] ! wane ,! f>!r ! ra910 is an old c\plet ref]r+ to ! appe>ance ( ! moon1 & is suppos$ to =e%ad[ ! wea!r by ! size ( ! halo1 :i* is caus$1 z we "k1 by ! exi/5ce ( vesicul> vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,,mock ,,suns1 or p>helia1 & mock-moons1 or p>asel51 are cont9ually obs]v$ 9 cold climates1 :]e ! t9y ice p>ticles are s abundant 9 ! air4 ,^! ph5om5a 7 recogniz$ by ! anci5ts1 & halos r\nd ! sun c be obs]v$ by means ( d>k5$ glasses4 ,we annex an illu/ration ( a mock sun & moon se5 on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,read]s ( ,mr4 ,:ymp]'s 8,scrambles 9 ! ,alps0 w rememb] ! gorge\s1 & to ! guides my/]i\s1 fog-b[ or sun-b[ se5 z ! survivors ( ! fir/ & mo/ fatal asc5t ( ! ,matt]horn 9 #ahfe 7 trembl+ly pursu+ _! desc5t ov] ! upp] rocks ( t m\nta94 ,! ,,mirage1 or ,fata ,morgana1 is a v curi\s b suffici5tly common ph5om5a1 & 9 ! ,asiatic & ,african pla9s x is frequ5tly obs]v$4 ,:5 ! wea!r is calm & ! gr\nd hot1 ! ,egyptian l&scape appe>s l a lake1 & ! h\ses look l isl&s 9 ! mid/ ( a widely-spread+ expanse ( wat]4 ,?is causes ! mirage1 :i* is ! result ( evaporation1 :ile ! diff]5t temp]atures ( ! air /rata cause an unequal reflection & refraction ( light1 :i* give rise to ! mirage4 ,travell]s are frequ5tly deceiv$1 b ! camels w n quick5 _! usual pace until !y sc5t wat]4 ,! ,fata ,morgana & ! inv]t$ images ( %ips se5 at sea are n uncommon on ,european coa/s4 ,betwe5 ,sicily & ,italy ?is effect is se5 9 ! ,sea ( ,reggio ) f9e effect4 ,palaces1 t[]s1 f]tile pla9s1 ) cattle graz+ on !m1 are se51 ) _m o!r t]re/rial objects1 ^u ! sea--! palaces ( ! ,fairy ,morgana4 ,! inv]t$ images ( %ips are frequ5tly p]ceiv$ z %[n 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #gbi71 & _m mo/ extraord9>y b p]fectly au!ntic tales h be5 relat$ conc]n+ ! reflection & refraction ( p]sons & objects 9 ! sky & on l&1 :5 no human be+s nor any ( ! actual objects 7 )9 ! range ( vision4 ,x w be well to expla9 ?is ph5om5on1 & ! diagrams w mat]ially assi/ u 9 s do+1 = ! appe>ances are c]ta9ly />tl+ :5 realiz$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,! ,spectre ( ! ,brock5 we see mimics our movem5ts1 & we c und]/& x4 ,b :5 app>5tly solid build+s appe> :]e no build+s h be5 erect$1--:5 we see--z has be5 p]ceiv$--soldi]s rid+ across a m\nta9 by a pa?1 or l$ge1 p]fectly inaccessible to human be+s ev5 on foot1 we hesitate1 & ?9k !re is some?+ uncanny 9 ! sight4 ,let u n[ endeav\r to expla9 ! mirage4 ,suppose t 9 ! annex$ diagram ! space enclos$ betwe5 ! lett]s ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 be a glass vessel full ( wat]4 ,! %ip is bel[ ! horizon1 ! eye be+ situat$ at ,e--! glass vessel ( c\rse repres5t+ ! atmosph]e *>g$ ) moi/ure4 ,! eye at ,e w p]ceive ! top ( ! ma/ ( ! %ip1 ,s1 & we may imag9e a l9e drawn f ,e to ,s4 ,!n put a 7%ort focus7 convex l5s at a j above ?is 7imag9>y7 l9e1 & a concave "o1 b1 j ov] x4 ,?r\gh ! =m] an inv]t$ %ip w be se51 & an erect "o ?r\gh ! latt] at ,s & ,s respectively4 ,we n[ h ! effect 9 ! air j z reproduc$ 9 nature by ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature 9 air /rata1 :i* cause x to act l a concave l5s :5 ! d5sity ( ! wat] dim9i%es t[>ds ! c5tre1 & l a convex l5s :5 x is increas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcj4--;,explanation ( ,mirage4 ,?is c be prov$ by heat+ ! air 7by hot irons7 above ! glass vessel fill$ ) oil1 & ! effects w be j ! same z ?r\gh ! l5ses4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on obta9$ ! mirage by us+ a cle> syrup1--ab\t "o-?ird ( ! vessel full1--& fill+ x ) wat]4 ,! gradual m+l+ ( ^! fluids w produce ! ph5om5on4 ,! illu/ration 9 ! m>g9 7fig4 #gca7 %[s u ! rays proce$+ f ! %ip's hull1 & refract$ into ! l9e rea*+ ! eye1 above ! l9e proce$+ f ! ma/1 s ! %ip appe>s hull upp]mo/2 ! rays cross at x4 ,b if !y did n cross be=e !y rea* ! eye1 ! image w\ld appe> z at s p 9 an erect position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gca4--,! ,mirage4 ,! ,spectre ( ! ,brock5 arises f a diff]5t cause4 ,su* appe>ances are only %ad[s1--project$ on ?9 cl\ds or d5se vap\rs at sunrise1 or :5 ! sun's rays are direct$ horizontally1--= ( c\rse v]tical rays w ?r[ ! %ad[ on ! gr\nd on to ! z5i?4 ,balloons are also reflect$ ?us1 & mu* int]e/ has be5 caus$ by ! appe>ance ( a tw9 balloon1 until ! a]ial voyag]s h discov]$ ! *eat by see+ ! %ad[y a]onaut imitat+ _! actions1 & ! second balloon has be5 discov]$ to be an airy no?+4 ,,footnotes3 #cd 8,fulg>ites0 are compos$ ( melt$ qu>tz1 & on ,m\nt ,ar>at _m h be5 f\nd :i* give a "* to ! =mation ( ! less] ,ar>at4 ,,*apt] ,l4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,climatology4 ,,wea!r1 ,,climate1 ,,& ,,temp]ature--,,iso!rmal ,,l9es--,,isob>s1 ,,wea!r ,,=eca/s1 ,,& ,,signs ,,( ,,! ,,sky4 ,x is usually consid]$ a sign ( a paucity ( ideas :5 "o beg9s a conv]sation ab\t ! 8wea!r10 b !re c be no d\bt t !re is no m int]e/+ "q 9 social life at c]ta9 times z to :e!r x w or w n ra94 ,our outdoor amusem5ts are all dep5d5t ^u wea!r1 & a little cl\d may ?r[ a deep %ad[ ov] all our pleasure if we neglect to br+ out an umbrella1 or to c>ry a wat]pro(4 ,we are nev] indep5d5t ( :at we t]m ! 8caprici\s0 climate1 b 9 reality ! laws ( 8! ,wea!r10 ?\gh s imp]fectly und]/ood1 are fix$ & inv>iable1 & if we c\ld read ! signs 9 ! sky & le>n ! condition ( ! atmosph]e1 we might leave ! 8pray]s = ra90 & 8= f9e wea!r0 out ( ! ,*ur* s]vice1 = !n we %\ld und]/& t unless miracles are p]=m$ = u ! laws ( ,nature c 9 no wise be alt]$4 ,( late ye>s wea!r =eca/s 7n prophecies7 h come be=e u 9 our newspap]s aft] ! mann] in/itut$ by ! late ,admiral ,fitzroy1 ^: "n has become a h\sehold ^w 9 ,engl&4 ,b at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,*ri/ian era & be=e t "t ! signs ( ! heav5s & ! behavi\r ( animals & birds 7 not$ ) ref]5ce to *anges ( wea!r4 ,if we read ,virgil we %all f9d num]\s ref]5ces to ^! port5ts1 & ! translation usually quot$ w furni% u ) in=mation :i* mu/ be z true n[adays z x 0 9 ,virgil's "t1 = wild animals d n *ange _! habits4 ,speak+ ( wet wea!r 9 ! ,georgics ! poet wrote3-- 8,! w>y crane =esees x fir/1 & sails ,above ! /orm1 & leaves ! holl[ vales2 ,! c[ looks up1 & f af> c f9d ,! *ange ( heav51 & sniffs x 9 ! w9d2 ,! swall[ skims ! riv]'s wat]y face1 ,! frogs r5ew ! croaks ( _! loquaci\s race2 ,! c>eful ant h] secret cell =sakes1 ,& draws h] eggs along ! n>r[ tracks2 ,huge flocks ( ris+ rooks =sake _! food1 ,&1 cry+1 seek ! %elt] ( ! wood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! owls1 t m>k ! sett+ sun1 decl>e ,a />light ev5+ & a morn+ fair40 ,we might quote fur!r selections respect+ ! signs 9 ! heav5 & e>? m5tion$1 b ! =ego+ v]ses w be suffici5t to illu/rate our position1 & to %[ u t wea!r =eca/+ is1 at any rate1 z old z ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! moon is g5]ally suppos$ to influ5ce ! wea!r--a 8,saturday's ,moon0 be+ p>ticul>ly objectionable1 or :5 %e appe>s anew at "s h\rs aft] midnight ?us-- 8,:5 fir/ ! moon appe>s1 if !n %e %r\ds ,h] silv] cresc5t1 tipp$ ) sable cl\ds1 ,conclude %e bodes a tempe/ on ! ma91 ,& brews = fields impetu\s floods ( ra940 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcb4--;,9 ! nor!rn ,seas4 ,wea!r p]mitt+1 we c g out & /udy ! cl\ds z describ$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s1 or consult ! b>omet]1 & see :i* way ! w9d bl[s4 ,! *ild w tell u t a high 8glass0 means f9e wea!r1 & a l[ b>omet] indicates ra91 b ?is is only relatively true4 ,a high glass may be fall+1 a l[ glass may be ris+4 ,a sudd5 fall or a sudd5 rise are indicative ( bad1 w9dy wea!r1 or a %ort-liv$ f9e p]iod4 ,! glass may rise ) a nor!rly w9d1 & ra9 w sup]v5e1 s c>eful obs]vation is necess>y be=e "o c obta9 ev5 a sup]ficial k ( ! wea!r4 7,see subsequ5t obs]vations on 8,wea!r407 ,! ,am]icans telegraph ! results ( _! obs]vations ( com+ /orms across ! ,cont95t1 correct$ by ! signs notic$ & record$ by vessels arriv+ 9 ,new ,york4 ,?us !y are frequ5tly v accurate2 /eady application & obs]vation at ,s&y ,hook mu/ give !m a great deal ( useful in=mation = ! 8=eca/s40 ,! ^w ,,climate is d]iv$ f ! ,greek klima1 a slope2 & ?us at a glance we p]ceive h[ ! aspect x pres5ts to ! rays ( ! sun 9 ! e>?'s revolutions1 mu/ affect ! 8climate0 ( a c\ntry4 ,( c\rse ! position ( any portion1 ! elevation & locality ( ! m\nta9s1 h also a %>e ) ! soil1 w9ds1 ra9s1 & sea-bo>d1 9 det]m9+ ! climate ( any region4 ,_m po9ts h already be5 t\*$ ^u 9 =m] *apt]s4 ,temp]ature1 moi/ure1 & vegetation are ! *ief natural features :i* det]m9e climate1 & we mu/ f9d out ! position ( ! l& ) ref]5ce to ! sun fir/1 to asc]ta9 ! climate4 ,! m v]tical ! sun is ! hott] ! atmosph]e1 = ! rays /rike directly ^u ! e>?1 :i* radiates ! w>m? receiv$4 ,^! heat rays are1 z we "k1 invisible4 ,! hotte/ portion ( ! e>? mu/ be at ! equator = ! sun is ov]head1 & ! rays beat d[n directly ^u ! e>?4 ,! sun is also ne>] ?an :5 at ! horizon1 & less rays are absorb$ by ! atmosph]e4 ,! long] ! day ! great] ! heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcc4--;,9 ! s\!rn /eppes4 ,temp]ature is regi/]$ by obs]vation ( ! !rmomet]1 & ! di/ribution ( heat is repres5t$ ^u a *>t across :i* l9es are drawn at places ( equal temp]ature4 ,^! l9es are call$ 8iso!rmal40 ,!re are also t]ms to d5ote equal w9t] temp]ature & ! av]age summ] heat--iso*im9es & iso!res respectively4 ,temp]ature decreases z we asc5d f1 & increases z we desc5d into1 ! e>?4 ,?is fact proves t ! air is n w>m$ by ! sun's heat1 b by radiation f ! gr\nd4 ,z we asc5d we rea* ! l9e ( p]petual sn[1 :i* v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe4 ,9 ! tropics x ext5ds f #ae1jjj to #ah1jjj feet2 b x v>ies ev5 9 places ( ! same latitude1 accord+ z ! t[ns are inl& or on ! coa/1 z 9 ! ,pyr5ees & ,caucasus1 :]e !re is a diff]5ce ( ?ree ?\s& feet 9 ! sn[ limit4 ,! l9e ( ! sn[ limit1 z a rule1 gets l[] z we j\rney f ! equator to ! poles4 ,exception w be f\nd 9 ! ,himlaya1 :]e ! sn[ l9e is high] on ! nor!rn side1 9 consequ5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,?ibetan tablel&1 :i* causes a high] temp]ature ?an t exi/+ ^u ! abrupt s\!rn slope4 ,c\ntries1 !re=e1 ?\gh 9 ! same latitude1 may h diff]5t climates accord+ to ! elevation ( ! l&4 ,! proximity to ! sea is ano!r reason = climatic diff]5ce4 ,wat] takes "s "t to become w>m1 b :5 x has once become s x w n readily "p ) its heat4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream1 ) its w>m curr5t beat+ along our %ores1 gives u a high temp]ature & a moi/ climate--a v diff]5t condition to ,newf\ndl& or ,nova ,scotia1 :i* are 9 mu* ! same latitude z ,engl& & ,irel&4 ,by ! sea ! climate is m uni=m1 & ! extremes ( heat & cold are n s di/ant4 ,we s5d invalids to ! seaside to save !m ! effects ( su* viol5t *anges4 ,w9t]s are mild] & summ]s cool] by ! sea4 ,we c readily und]/& h[ su* circum/ances affect ! vegetation1 & places :i* 9 w9t] may enjoy a mild & g5ial climate 7comp>atively speak+71 may h a cold summ]4 ,f]ns may fl\ri% 9 w9t] out ( doors1 b :eat w n rip5 9 ! autumn ow+ to ! want ( heat4 ,! w9ds also1 & ! soil & aspect ( a region1 all h a %>e 9 det]m9+ its climate4 ,trees br+ ra9 by evaporation1 & a wood$ c\ntry is a bless+ to its inhabitants1 def5d+ _! habitations f w9d & avalan*es 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts4 ,b ! climatic conditions are alt]+4 ,! gr\nd is be+ m & m cle>$2 ! soil is m cultivat$1 & moi/ure is be+ m elim9at$ f x4 ,!re=e ! air becomes w>m] by ! radiation ( ! gr\nd1 & cl\ds are =m$ :i* keep ! w>m lay]s d[n ne>] ! e>?4 ,m\nta9s1 z we h se51 affect ! ra9-fall 9 di/ricts2 & 9 ,sc&9avia--9 ,norway *iefly--! av]age ra9-fall is v high4 ,! %elt]+ effects ( m\nta9s f ea/ or nor!rly w9ds also alt] ! climate1 :ile clay or gravel soils are cold or w>m inasmu* z !y absorb1 or evaporate1 moi/ure4 ,"s surfaces be+ diff]5t f o!rs give out m heat4 ,9 "s m\nta9\s di/ricts we %all f9d e v>iety ( climate f ! sea-level tropical heat to ! rig\rs ( ! pole4 ,! greate/ av]age temp]ature is nor? ( ! equator 9 ,africa2 ! l[e/ 9 ! nor?1 to ! we/ ( ,gre5l&4 ,masses ( l& act 9 a diff]5t mann] to ! oceans1 & ! =m] become heat$ & cool$ ) equal rapidity1 :ile ! sea1 z already m5tion$1 is sl[ to lose its heat4 ,our l& enjoys a mild & equable climate z a rule1 because x is surr\nd$ by wat]1 & ! ,gulf ,/ream w>ms x4 ,! ,european climate1 tak5 altoge!r1 may be consid]$ ! be/ on ! globe4 ,we w n[ pass on to a few obs]vations conc]n+ ! wea!r1 & ! means ( det]m9+ x be=eh&4 ,x is always a dang]\s ?+ to act ! "p ( a prophet1 & ! unc]ta9ty att5d+ an un9spir$ =etell]'s pr$ictions mu/ 9 "t disp>age him 9 ! e/imation ( 8 he>]s & disciples4 ,b !re are signs 9 ! sky :i* we c disc]n & r5d] valuable by ! aid ( in/rum5ts4 ,we mu/ h a reliable b>omet] & !rmomet]1 & keep a record ( ! av]age conditions ( ! wea!r1 if we wi% to we> ! mantle ( ! wea!r-prophet--a t]m n[1 9 ,am]ica1 appli$ 7jok+ly1 no d\bt7 to p :o are n p>ticul> 9 _! /atem5ts ( facts4 ,b )\t ent]+ ^u any sci5tific discussion1 we may /ate a few pla9 rules :i* c be obs]v$1 besides ! indications ( a ris+ or fall+ b>omet]4 ,hav+ frequ5tly /udi$ ! aspects ( ! cl\ds1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! h9ts f ! w9d-curr5ts1 we c fairly progno/icate or sugge/ probable *anges ( wea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcd4--,wea!r *>t4 ,we h already rem>k$ ^u ! col\rs ( ! sunset1 :i* are attributable to ! vap\rs 9 ! atmosph]e1 & we say a r$ sky =etells f9e wea!r2 a yell[ sky *ang+ into gre5 means ra91 or ra9 & w9d2 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! r$ rays appe> we may anticipate f9e wea!r1 z ! atmosph]e is becom+ less & less moi/4 ,a 8l[0 dawn is kn[n z a good sign2 s :5 ! fir/ rays appe> at1 or ne> ! horizon1 we may anticipate a f9e day1 z we may :5 ! morn+ is grey4 8,ev5+ r$ & morn+ grey0 are almo/ unfail+ tok5s ( f9e wea!r4 ,v (t5 a yell[ sunset means w9d2 a wild1 crimson sky means a gale4 ,on ! aft]noon 7,saturday7 be=e ! ,eurydice f\nd]$ (f ! ,isle ( ,wight1 we p>ticul>ly not$ ! sunset at ,graves5d2 & x 0 evid5t 79 our e/imation7 t a sudd5 /orm 0 imm95t1 & we rem>k$ x to our companions4 ,! sudd5 fall ( ! b>omet]1 & ! appe>ance ( ! ris+ cl\ds e>ly on t sad ,sunday aft]noon1 approa*+ 9 d>k masses f ! we/ & nor?-we/1 spoke ( ra9 & 7possibly7 sn[4 ,h[ true ! =eca/ 0 ! ev5t prov$4 ,:5 cl\ds are s(t & ?9 we expect f9e wea!r2 :5 !y are d>k & h>d1 ra9 & w9d4 ,a ragg$-edg$ & heavy cl\d indicates ?und] & lightn+1 ) squalls :5 we see d>k cl\ds fly+ rapidly across ! mass ( cumuli4 ,a 8mack]el0 sky & 8m>es' tails0 g5]ally =etell w9d1 ! direction & ! upp] curr5ts be+ not$4 ,! long] ! w>n+ giv5 by ! heav5s1 ! long] ! bad 7or f9e7 wea!r w la/2 & ! conv]se is also true4 8,ev5+ grey & morn+ r$1 ,put on y\r hat1 y'll wet y\r head40 ,! cirrus is a wispy cl\d1 & is (t5 obs]v$ ext5d+ across ! sky on a f9e aft]noon4 ,?is may or may n indicate ra92 x g5]ally po9ts to w9d4 ,if its direction be nor!rly & we/ to s\!rly & ea/1 x is a good sign1 b f we/ to ea/ x is a bad sign4 ,! habits ( birds & animals1 & _! anxiety = %elt]1 8pigs runn+ ) pieces ( /raw 9 _! m\?s10 & ! l[-fly+ swall[1 are all signs ( approa*+ ra9 & bad wea!r1 & ! sc9tillation ( />s betok5s moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,^! are well-kn[n appe>ances1 b !re are o!rs reg>d+ ! w9ds & curr5ts ( air :i* require ! assi/ance ( ,admiral ,fitzroy's book4 ,= in/ance1 a fall+ b>omet] ) ris+ temp]ature means s\!rly w9ds & ra92 9 w9t]1 ) l[ temp]ature1 sn[4 ,b a ris+ b>omet] ) nor!rly w9d (t5 means ra94 ,a ris+ glass aft] a l[ fall may1 & (t5 does1 indicate m w9d f ! nor?1 & aft] t f9e wea!r1 if l[] temp]ature also sup]v5e4 ,if w>m wea!r cont9ue "u ! circum/ances1 ! w9d may back & bl[ f ! s\?w>d4 8,! mo/ dang]\s %ifts ( w9d happ5 soon aft] ! b>omet] rises f a v l[ po9t1 or if ! w9d ve]s gradually %ortly aft] ) a ris+ b>omet]40 ,if ! b>omet] rises ) a s\!rly w9d f9e wea!r may be expect$1 & if x falls ) a nor!rly w9d ra91 hail1 & sn[ are imm95t1 = ! rule is a fall = s\!rly1 & a rise = nor!rly w9ds4 ,a sudd5 fall ) we/ w9d indicates /orm f nor!rly qu>t]s 7,n4,e4 to ,n4,w474 ,an ea/ gale ve]+ s\?w>ds ) fall+ glass indicates a *ange ( /orm-direction to a po9t f ,n4,w4 or ,n4,e41 sudd5ly & viol5tly1 ?\gh a *ange might h be5 expect$ f ! appe>ance ( ! glass4 ,a calm frequ5tly occurs betwe5 ^! di/urbances4 ,a back+ w9d--t is1 a w9d go+ 9 a direction oppos$ to ! sun's c\rse 7& ) ! e>?7--is a bad sign aft] unsettl$ wea!r4 ,! w9d is said to 8ve]0 :5 x goes ) ! sun4 ,! s\?-ea/ w9d1 ) cle> sky1 w>m wea!r1 & l[ cl\ds on ! horizon1 is a sign ( wet4 ,a dry ea/ w9d means f9e wea!r4 ,heavy cl\ds 9 ! nor?-we/ g5]ally br+ a ?und]/orm4 ,:5 really di/ant objects look v ne> ra9 mu/ be expect$4 ,!re are _m exceptions to wea!r rules1 & none c be laid d[n z inv>iable4 ,! ev]-*ang+ curr5ts ( air1 & v>y+ moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e1 give rise to b>ometric *anges1 :i* %\ld be c>efully not$4 ,a little exp]i5ce & close obs]vation = "o ye>1 ) notes ( signs1 & indications ( temp]ature1 w assi/ any "o to tell ! probable *ange t is approa*+4 ,!re are a great numb] ( signs ( wea!r :i* are obs]vable 9 ! animal & ev5 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 z well z 9 ! moon & />s4 ,_m fl[]s close _! petals be=e ra9 comes on1 & ! behavi\r ( dome/ic animals (t5 =etells /orm4 ,%eep huddl+ toge!r 9 a corn] tell u ! direction f :i* ! tempe/ is approa*+2 sea birds fly to %ore1 & l& birds become re/less4 ,! naturali/ w obs]ve ! dome/ic animals :i* become uncom=table & sniff ! air2 ! cat lies ) h] head d[n1 ! bra9 l[e/2 & frequ5tly wa%es h] face1 or scamp]s ab\t aimlessly4 ,spid]s disappe>1 & worms come up to seek ! expect$ wat]4 ,:5 f9e wea!r is com+ all nature appe>s glad1 b lee*es s9k into ! wat] z f> z !y c4 ,! above are "s ( ! dome/ic & common signs ( com+ ra91 & conv]sely = f9e wea!r4 ,a wail+ w9d1 a cl\dy m\nta91 a gre5i% ra9b[ or too r$ a "o1 a pale moon ) indi/9ct po9ts1 or a halo r\nd x1 are all signs ( ra9 & possibly w9d4 ,s ! mo/ sup]ficial obs]v] may ) ^! few sugge/ions in=m himself ( ! *ances ( f9e or wet wea!r4 ,,*apt] ,,li4 ,,biology4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,botany4 ,,plants ,,& ,,animals--,,/ructure ,,( ,,plants--,,fl[]+ ,,plants--,,! ,,/em--,,! ,,leaves--,,=ms ,,( ,,leaves4 ,,biology is d]iv$ f ! ,greek ^w ,bios1 8life10 & loge91 8to speak10 & con/itutes ! sci5ce ( ,,organic ,,life4 ,?is sci5ce is divid$ into two bran*es3 ,,botany1 relat+ to ! life ( plants2 ,,zoology1 to ! animals4 ,plants1 !n1 are liv+ ?+s1 & z we proce$ we %all f9d !m born1 or 8g]m9at+10 gr[+ up z "y plants1 matur+ z adults1 & f9ally dy+1 & _! p>ticles resolv+ into _! elem5ts4 ,!re is m ?an "o application ( ! text1 8,man is b z a fl[] ( ! field40 ,9 ! ,,geological section we notic$ ! progressive /ages ( ! vegetable creation1 & if we turn back to ^? pages :]e9 ! v>i\s epo*s ( ! e>?'s =mation are enum]at$1 we %all see h[ plant-life develop$4 ,?us we f9d 9 ! ,cambrian ! fir/ traces ( vegetable life 9 ! we$s ( primeval seas4 ,! ,silurian /rata & ! ,devonian furni% u ) _m fossils ( m>9e alg1 & if we exam9e ! succe$+ p]iods we %all f9d a progressive increase & developm5t2 p9es & tree-f]ns 9 ! s&/one1 & mo/ ( ! plants 7by :i* t]m we include all v>ieties7 7 diff]5t f ^? at pres5t exi/+ 9 ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gce4--;,bran* ( ! oak4 ,we spoke ( climate lately1 & ref]r$ to ! vegetation hav+ an influ5ce ^u x4 ,! same is true ( ! effect ( climate ^u vegetation4 ,! conditions ( plant-life dep5d ^u climate1 z x p>tly dep5ds ^u plant-life4 ,b ( all ! necess>y conditions ! fir/ creat$ ?+ is ! mo/ necess>y--light4 ,)\t light ! plant is no?+4 ,plants h _m po9ts ( simil>ity ) animals4 ,!y live1 !y possess organs1 _! compositions conta9 simil> sub/ances1 su* z c>bon & album51 & close *emical analyses h f\nd ! exi/5ce ( ! elem5ts oxyg51 nitrog51 hydrog51 & c>bon 9 animals & plants4 ,!re=e wat] mu/ play a conspicu\s "p 9 all4 ,pr(essor ,huxley puts ?is "q 9 8 usual cle> fa%ion4 ,he says3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcf4--,! p9e4 8,x is a v rem>kable fact t n only are su* sub/ances z album51 glut51 fibr91 & synton9 kn[n exclusively z products ( animal & vegetable bodies1 b t e animal & e plant at all p]iods ( its exi/5ce conta9s "o or o!r ( !m1 ?\gh 9 o!r respects ! composition ( liv+ bodies may v>y indef9itely4 ,?us "s plants conta9 nei!r />* nor cellulose1 ?\gh ^! sub/ances are f\nd 9 "s animals2 :ile _m animals conta9 no horny matt] & no gelat9e-yield+ sub/ance4 ,s t ! matt] :i* appe>s to be ! ess5tial f\ndation ( bo? ! animal & ! plant1 is ! proteid unit$ ) wat]1 ?\gh x is probable t 9 all animals & plants ^! are associat$ ) m or less fatty & amyloid 7/>*y & sac*>9e7 sub/ances1 & ) v small quantities ( c]ta9 m9]al bodies1 ( :i* ! mo/ important appe> to be phosphorus1 iron1 lime1 & pota%4 ,?us !re is a sub/ance compos$ ( wat]1 plus proteids1 plus fat1 plus amyloids1 plus m9]al matt]s1 :i* are f\nd 9 all animals & plants4 ,:5 ^! are alive ?is sub/ance is t]m$ ,,protoplasm40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gcg4--,! fir4 ,we h tak5 ! lib]ty to extract ! above p>agraph1 z x expresses 9 a few words1 & v cle>ly1 ! common orig9 ( plants & animals4 ,we w n[ consid] ! conditions ( plant life4 ,heat1 light1 & moi/ure are ! pr9cipal necess>ies1 ) ( c\rse air & c]ta9 e>?y matt]4 ,"s plants1 l "s few animals1 live 9 d>kness1 su* z truffles & fungi1 z d cave-fi% & bats4 ,b ?is is ! exception1 & ! s5se 9 :i* plants 7or animals7 c exi/ )\t light is a v re/rict$ "o1 & only to be su/a9$ at ! exp5se ( ! plant mat]ial1 :i* mu/ orig9ally h be5 d]iv$ by ! action ( light4 ,light1 !re=e1 is ! great 8produc]40 ,x gives life to plants ^u :i* animals fe$1 & !re=e light is 9 "o s5se ! beg9n+ ( all ?+s4 ,we c n[ und]/& :y light mu/ h be5 creat$ fir/4 ,_m int]e/+ exp]im5ts c be made to obs]ve ! effect ( d>kness & diff]5t col\r$ light 7transmitt$ ?r\gh col\r$ glasses7 ^u plants2 & x w be obs]v$ t al?\gh ! leaves may n develop ! natural gre5 t9t1 ! fl[]s w exhibit _! usual col\r4 ,"o effect ( light ^u plants is to make !m gre54 ,we all admire ! beautiful gre5 ( ! spr+ leaves1 & ! fre%ness ( ! col\rs ( ! trees & grass4 ,b if we pluck up a plant its root is n gre54 ,:y !n is ! clean$ root n z gre5 z ! upp] portion8--,because ( ! abs5ce ( light4 ,!re is a sub/ance call$ ,*lorophyl :i*1 :5 act$ ^u by light1 becomes gre54 ,?is is conta9$ 9 plants1 & :5 ! daylight falls ^u x ! sub/ance turns gre54 ,s1 z we said above1 plants are n gre5 :5 kept 9 ! d>k4 ,cel]y is a common in/ance4 ,heat1 ( c\rse1 has mu* to d ) ! activity or vitality ( plants1 & ! range ext5ds f j above freez+ po9t to #abb ,fahr4 ,we f9d t9y plants blossom+ 9 ,alp9e regions close to ! sn[1 & o!rs 9 full life 9 ! tropics1 protect$ f ! fi]ce rays by scaly cov]+s & huge leaves4 ,9 ! nor!rn regions buds appe> z soon z ! surface w>m? is felt1 & ev5 :5 no heat c yet p5etrate to ! roots4 ,?us we see t ,nature fits ! animal & ! plant to ! localities 9 :i* !y live1 & !y exi/ int]dep5d5tly4 ,"s c defy cold1 o!rs fl\ri% 9 dr\ght2 "s love moi/ure1 o!rs live 9 great heat encas$ 9 prickly arm\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gch4--;,bran* ( elm4 ,) ?is introduction to biology we may n[ pass on to speak ( ! se$s & g]m9ation ( plants1 :i* we divide into ! fl[]+ & non-fl[]+ species4 ,we suppose t ! appe>ance ( v>i\s organs ( plants are famili> to our read]s1 & ! root1 ! /em1 ! leaves1 & ! fl[] itself1 z well z ! se$s1 are well kn[n1 & _! uses und]/ood g5]ally4 ,n[ if we comp>e a m9]al--say a cry/al ( qu>tz--) a plant1 we f9d ! cry/al uni=m1 consi/+ ( small p>ticles ( qu>tz ?r\gh\t1 & x appe>s an aggregation f outside ( ^! p>ticles 9 a p>ticul> =m4 ,x _c gr[ f )94 ,b a plant c2 & x is v diff]5t 9 /ructure & appe>ance4 ,x receives n\ri%m5t f outside also1 b x assimilates ! mat]ials1 :i* are n ! same z ^? we meet ) 9 ! plant itself4 ,! m9]al1 on ! contr>y1 is ess5tially ! same ?r\gh\t2 x c only gr[ by aggregation ( atoms l itself4 ,a plant1 !re=e1 l an animal1 mu/ h organs )9 x1 & mu/ be capable ( *ange 9 itself2 x has p[]s ( reproduction1 & 9 "s few in/ances ( locomotion2 x c eat flies1 & assimilate !m z an animal does4 ,a plant1 !re=e1 is an organiz$ body )\t ext]nal volunt>y movem5t2 & h]eby x is ess5tially di/9ct f an animal1 ) :i*1 9 organization1 x is closely connect$4 ,! simple/ =m ( ! animal z ( ! plant1 is t ( a m9ute vesicle or cell1 conta9+ a fluid 9 :i* are "s granul> sub/ances4 ,at ?is /age x c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f ! simple/ plant1 if x _h n ! faculty ( volunt>y movem5t--! p[] ( *ang+ its place4 ,! animal has a locomotive p[]4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 x is a v limit$ sph]e to :i* x is conf9$2 yet x may *ange its place = ano!r m conducive to ! exig5cies ( its be+4 ,x is suffici5t = ! pres5t to h giv5 ! mo/ g5]al *>act]i/ics by :i* plants are di/+ui%$ f ! o!r objects t1 ) !m1 compose ! great k+dom ( ,nature4 ,a precise & cle> appreh5sion ( _! v>i$ =ms & wond]ful ph5om5a c only be obta9$ by a c>eful analysis ( ! nature & /ructure ( ! subjects ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! cell is ! fundam5tal or elem5t>y organ ( plants1 & ! k ( its metamorphoses & functions con/itutes ! f\ndation ( botany4 ,we mu/ !re=e fir/ consid] ! simple organs ( plants4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,plants4 ,x w be necess>y = ! read] to ga9 "s little k ( ! tissues & cells ( plants be=e he proce$s to exam9e ! organs ( developm5t1 & a microscopic exam9ation w soon disclose ! few simple tissues :i* are t]m$ cells & vessels4 ,^! exi/ 9 all plants ( :atev] nature4 ,plants are aggregations ( cells1 8e "o ( :i* has its little p>ticle ( protoplasm enclos$ by a cas+ ( ! sub/ance call$ cellulose1 a non-nitrog5\s sub/ance ne>ly alli$ 9 *emical composition to />*40#ce ,! tissues are 8cellul>0 & 8vascul>0 respectively4 ,! cells h an out] sac or cov]+ :i* is transp>5t1 & ?is cov] is ! cellulose above m5tion$4 ,x conta9s 7#a7 ! protoplasm1 a k9d ( jelly-l sub/ance 7:i* holds ! prote9e or basis ( life72 7#b7 wat] or cell-sap2 7#c7 ! nucleus2 & 7#d7 *lorophyl4 ,?is protoplasm is app>5t 9 bo? plants & animals4 ,! cells conta9+ ^! v>i\s sub/ances--9 :i* we f9d oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog51 sulphur1 & c>bon1 ) phosphorus p]haps--are divid$ to =m new cells1 & s on ) mo/ a/oni%+ rapidity1 am\nt+ 9 "s in/ances to millions 9 a day1 & a case ( ?is nature w readily be recogniz$ 9 ! mu%room4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,b ,c ,fig4 #gci4--,plant cells4 ,cellul> tissue is compos$ ( ^! cells1 & vascul> tissue is compos$ ( vessels or tubes l coil$ spr+s1 :i* are cells )\t divisions or p>titions4 ,^! tissues w be ref]r$ to f>!r on z dott$ ducts or tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdj--;,=m ( cells4 ,9 mo/ ( ! spongy p>ts ( plants1 z 9 ! pulp ( fruits & pi? ( eld]1 ! cells pres]ve ! globul> or oval %ape repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gci ,a4 ,b ! cells1 9 consequ5ce ( t mutual pressure1 m frequ5tly assume ! =m ( a polygon 7fig4 #gci ,b71 ! section ( :i* is g5]ally hexagonal4 ,! cellul> tissue may g5]ally be comp>$ to ! bubbles produc$ by bl[+ ?r\gh a /raw or tobacco-pipe into soap & wat]2 or x may be illu/rat$ by plac+ balls ( moi/ clay toge!r1 & !n press+ !m m or less /rongly4 ,9 ?is mann] e individual ball assumes a polygonal %ape correspond+ to ! =m ( ! cells repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gci ,c1 & :i* disposition is1 9 _m plants1 pres]v$ ) ! utmo/ regul>ity4 ,su* cells z are1 ) tol]able equality1 ext5d$ 9 all directions1 are nam$ p>5*yma1 & ( ^! are compos$ ! tub]\s p>ts ( plants1 z ! potato1 dahlia-roots1 etc41 & especially ! s(t1 spongy p>ts ( ! pi?1 b>k1 leaves1 etc4 ,we frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 meet ) cells :i* are ext5d$ longitud9ally1 & po9t$ at bo? extremities1 z 9 fig4 #gdj4 ,! sections ( ^! cells1 :i* are compactly arrang$1 h ! appe>ance ( a hexagon4 ,!y are t]m$ woody cells1 or woody tissue 7pros5*yma71 & con/itute ! *ief portions ( ! m solid p>ts ( plants1 z ! ligne\s p>ts ( trees1 %rubs1 etc4 ,v long1 flexible cells1 z ^? :i* con/itute ! fibres ( flax & hemp1 are call$ ba/-cells1 & appe> "u ! microscope z r\nd ?reads ( uni=m ?ickness1 :]eas ! fibres ( cotton wool1 :i* r>ely exce$ "o or two in*es 9 l5g?1 :5 magnifi$1 pres5t ! appe>ance ( flatti% b&s ) some:at r\nd$ m>g9s4 ,by ^! m>ks1 ! union ( flax & cotton 9 ! same web or piece ( clo? may be detect$4 ,occasionally ! cells assume v abnormal %apes1 z ! /ellate or />-=m$ cells4 ,^! are describ$ z irregul> cells4 ,z e plant1 :e!r small or great1 is only an aggregate ( a great numb] ( cells1 s1 also1 ! life ( a plant is no?+ else b ! sum ( ! activities ( all ! cells ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! special prov9ce ( ! cells is to receive f ! soil or atmosph]e ! wat] necess>y = ! v>i\s vegetative purposes1 toge!r ) ! nutriti\s mat]ials dissolv$ 9 ! wat]y & a]ial fluids1 & to circulate !m ?r\gh ! :ole body ( ! plant4 ,! circulation )9 a plant is n c>ri$ on ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( tubul> *annels1 b only by ! passage ( sap 9 all directions f "o cell to ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gda4--,vascul> tissue4 ,s9ce ! cells h no op5+s1 x is some:at difficult to und]/& 9 :at mann] ! fluid c ent] into ! plant f )\t1 & by :at means x c inw>dly pass f cell to cell4 ,?is ph5om5on1 h[ev]1 is dep5d5t on ! peculi> quality bo? ( vegetable & animal membranes & fibres--viz41 t !y are p]meable by _m fluids1 )\t be+ dissolv$ by !m4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t ?is p]meative action is c>ri$ on 9 accordance ) def9ite laws4 ,:5 two fluids ( unequal d5sities--z1 = example1 an aque\s solution ( sug> & m]e wat]--are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a diaphragm ( pig's bladd]1 we p]ceive a con/ant t5d5cy on bo? sides to re/ore ! equilibrium 9 ! d5sity ( ! two fluids4 ,a portion ( ! wat] p5etrates ! bladd]1 mix+ ) ! solution1 & a portion ( ! latt] f9ds its way to ! =m] by ! same m$ium4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t "o important fact is to be obs]v$--viz41 t ! light] fluid always passes ?r\gh ! sep>at+ m$ium m rapidly to ! d5s] ?an vice v]s2 consequ5tly1 9 ?is exp]im5t m ( ! wat] passes ?r\gh ! bladd] to ! sac*>9e solution ?an ( ! latt] to ! wat]4 ,?is p]meative capability ( ! tissue ( vegetables & animals is call$ endosmose4 ,! cells bo? circulate ! sap & alt] its condition1 s we f9d diff]+ sub/ances 9 ! same plant4 ,! cell z describ$ creates new cells1 & ! =ce ) :i* ! sap rises is r great] ?an ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! vascul>1 or fibr\s tissues1 are illu/rat$ 9 ! m>g9 7fig4 #gda74 ,!y usually conta9 air4 ,"s plants h no vascul> tissue1 & are t]m$ cellul> plants--su* z mu%rooms1 fungi1 mosses1 & seawe$s4 ,_m conta9 bo? tissues1 & ^! are ! m highly develop$ k9ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdb4--;,cells ( epid]mis 7leaf74 ,sometimes we f9d a milky juice 9 plants4 ,?is is call$ latex2 & ca\t*\c is always pres5t 9 x4 ,?is juice is conta9$ 9 t9y tubul> vessels1 :i* h _! orig9 9 ! new cellul> tissue ( ! lactif]\s plants4 ,! tissue ( ! cuticle1 or epid]mis1 :i* ext]nally cov]s all p>ts ( ! plant :ile !y rema9 gre51 is ( a peculi> nature1 & dem&s special consid]ation4 ,x is =m$ ( flat tubul> cells1 v mu* compress$1 & 9 close contact1 ) ! exception ( "s p>ts :]e ! /omata1 or m\?s1 are plac$4 ,9 fig4 #gdb a section ( ! leaf is repres5t$1 ! l>ge transp>5t empty cells ( ! epid]mis1 & above ^! ! p>5*ymat\s cells ( ! leaf fill$ ) gre5i%-col\r$ granules4 ,9 f\r places 7fig4 #gdc7 /omata 7s s s s7 are se51 :i* h _! op5+s surr\nd$ by p>5*ymat\s cells dispos$ 9 semilun> =ms4 ,"u ea* /oma 7m\?7 !re is a holl[ space :i* is connect$ ) ! int]cellul> passages ( ! leaf4 ,^! /omata1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gdc1 are s num]\s on ! "u side ( ! leaf1 t hundr$s h be5 c\nt$ 9 ! space ( a squ>e l9e4 ,?r\gh ^! m9ute organs an intimate connection exi/s betwe5 ! int]ior ( ! plant & ! ext]nal air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdc4--,/omata4 ,! epid]mal cells n unfrequ5tly exhibit v abnormal =mations4 ,:5 mu* ext5d$ 9 l5g? !y appe> z hairs :i* are frequ5tly bran*$1 & 9 _m plants !y conta9 an irritat+ sap 79 ! nettle1 = example74 ,bri/les1 prickles1 gl&s1 w>ts1 & especially ! sub/ance :i* =ms ! well-kn[n cork1 are all due to ! metamorphosis ( ?is ext]ior integum5t4 ,,fl[]+ ,,plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdd4--,wat] lily4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gde4--,trans=mation ( petals into /am5s 9 :ite wat] lily4 ,fl[]+ plants h c]ta9 di/9ct features :i* _c be mi/ak51 = !y gr[ well above gr\nd1 & c easily be exam9$4 ,!re are a hundr$-?\s& diff]5t species ( fl[]+ plants1 & a visitor to ,kew c /udy !m !re4 ,any *ild c tell a fl[] :5 he sees x1 b a fl[]+ plant is no m re/rict$ 9 ,,botany to actual bright blossom+ plants1 ?an ! t]m rock 9 ,,geology means a mass ( /one only4 ,fl[]+ plants may be ei!r v gorge\s or v simple2 & s long z !y conta9 a reproductive app>atus !y are fl[]+ plants4 ,! rose is a fl[]+ plant1 b ! oak is equally "o4 ,! bee* tree & ! primrose are class$ "u ! same head+4 ,fl[]+ plants mu/ possess /am5s & pi/ils1 :i* br+ =? se$s :i* conta9 an embryo1 & ! g]m9ation ( se$s c be easily p]ceiv$ by any "o :o w take ! tr\ble to soak !m 7say 8sc>let runn]s07 9 w>m wat]1 & keep !m w>m 9 moi/ flannel4 ,! process may !n be exam9$ at leisure4 ,we ne$ h>dly insi/1 aft] :at we h said1 ^u ! necessity = "s air & light1 or rem9d ! read] t he mu/ n keep ! se$s 9 a close1 d>k place1 ?\gh light is n s necess>y at fir/ z air4 ,! embryo connects ! 8cotyl$ons0 or halves ( ! se$1 & ?is develops into a t9y rootlet or 8radicle10 & upw>ds into ! /em1 ! comm5cem5t ( :i* is kn[n 9 botany z a 8plumule40 ,! rootlet seeks n\ri%m5t f ! gr\nd4 ,! album5 secret$ 9 ! cotyl$ons fe$s ! embryo1 until 79 "s cases7 x is exhau/$ & !y die away4 ,9 o!r cases !y gr[ up & obta9 food = ! "y plant 9 ! air4 ,"s plants h 7l :eat7 only "o se$-leaf1 or cotyl$on2 & ^! k9ds are call$ monocotyl$ons1 or endog5s1 9 :i* ! gr[? is upright4 ,! o!rs are call$ dicotyl$ons1 or exog5s4 ,s f> n[1 p]haps1 y may und]/& t ! out] cov]+ ( ! se$ is call$ ! te/a2 ! op5+ :i* may be p]ceiv$ 9 ! ord9>y bean ne> ! d>k spot is ! micropyle1 or little gate2 t ! halves ( ! cov]+ are t]m$ cotyl$ons1 or cups1 & t ! embryo spr\ts upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 ! upp] "p ( ! /em be+ ! plumule1 & ! l[] portion ! radicle4 ,ev5 if ! se$ be put micropyle upw>ds into ! gr\nd1 or betwe5 lay]s ( flannel1 to g]m9ate1 y w f9d t ! radicle w always curve d[nw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdf4--,pi/ils ( violet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdg4--,tetradynam\s /am5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdh4--,polyadelph\s /am5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gdi4--,pi/il ( primrose4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gej4--;,diadelph\s /am5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gea4--;,fibr\s root4 ,! root !n be+ display$1 x pu%es its way into ! gr\nd to seek = n\ri%m5t1 & :5 ! prop] moi/ure has be5 admitt$ to ! se$l+1 :i* has be5 repos+ 9 ! cotyl$ons all ! "t1 x spr\ts up rapidly4 ,! root & its fibr\s extremities h be5 pu%+ & ins9uat+ !mselves into & ?r\gh ! gr\nd1 & by small knobs or suck]s kn[n z spongioles1 ! rootlets or fibr\s p>ts ( ! root pick up su/5ance = ! plant1 & x is !n c>ri$ by tubes to ! root1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! plant1 & ) air ducts s]ve to keep ! plant alive4 ,! /em emanates f ! plumule1 & 9 a %ort "t little knots develop ^u x1 :i* are ! incipi5t leaves4 ,! knots are divid$ into nodes & int]nodes1 because !y appe> on diff]5t sides ( ! /em & int]m$iate1 s z to alt]nate ) ea* o!r1 & are really buds4 ,! issues unite also into leaf-/alks or petioles1 & ext5d into ! leaf-frame or skeleton z we see x :5 ! leaf has decay$4 ,s ?us we h an upw>d & a desc5d+ gr[?1 :i* respectively con/itute ! /em & root ( a fl[]+ plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #geb4--,tub]\s 7fasciculat$7 root4 ,"s trees h roots gr[+ f ! /em1 z 9 ! banyan tree1 & roots c produce /ems z well z ! latt] c =m roots4 ,! uses ( roots are s well und]/ood t we ne$ n p>ticul>ize !m4 ,9 _m trees we f9d :at are t]m$ l5ticell1 l holes 9 ! b>k4 ,^! fissures w put =? roots "u fav\rable circum/ances4 ,^! /em roots are call$ adv5titi\s1 & by tak+ 8cutt+s0 f plants we make good use ( !m = propagation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gec4--;,banyan tree4 ,b !re are und]gr\nd /ems z well z ^? :i* fl\ri% & climb above x4 8,bulbs0 & 8tub]s0 are common in/ances ( ^! und]gr\nd /ems1 or 8rhizoma10 :i* are horizontal4 ,! ord9>y /ems are t]m$ 8a]ial0 /ems to di/+ui% !m f ! e>?y & subt]ranean4 ,! a]ial roots ( ivy are only us$ = support1 & are n its prop] roots1 ?\gh "s p>asitic plants /rike into ! trees & are n\ri%$ by !m4 ,,! ,,/em4 ,! /em is t portion ( ! plant-axis :i* gr[s upw>ds or above gr\nd1 & may be1 z we h j read1 subt]ranean4 ,z ! great function ( ! root is to procure su/5ance = ! plant1 ! /em assi/s 9 c>ry+ ! n\ri%m5t ?r\gh ! bran*es & leaves4 ,we %all f9d two =ms ( /em--! und]gr\nd1 or root-/ock1 & ! /em prop]4 ,!re are 9 ^! two =m] sev]al v>ieties z "u3-- #a4 ,! ,,bulb1 :i* is a %ort globul> /em surr\nd$ by ?ick leaves1 & produc+ buds--z1 = example1 ! onion4 #b4 ,! ,,tub]1 simil> to ! =ego+ 9 %ape1 hav+ no leaves1 h[ev]2 ! potato is an in/ance4 #c4 ,! ,,rhizome 7root-/ock71 l a root only produc+ buds1 :i* roots d n4 ,! iris w s]ve z an example4 ,! v>ieties ( ! /em-prop] are3-- 7#a7 ,fili=m1 or ?read-l1 simple1 or bran*$1 z 9 mosses4 7#b7 ,! culno1 a ?91 holl[1 & frequ5tly-jo9t$ /em4 7#c7 ,! palm or simple /em1 se5 9 tree-f]ns & palms4 ,x is m>k$ by ! sc>s ( dropp$ leaves4 7#d7 ,! /alk1 v common1 ( a gre5 hue1 & its life is limit$ to a twelve-mon? z a rule4 ,! s-call$ 8/em0 ( ! hyac9? is n a /em1 x is a /alk1 or fl[]-/alk1 pu%$ =? = a tempor>y purpose4 7#e7 ,! ligne\s /em is ! p]fect$ k9d1 & an example w be app>5t 9 e tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ged4--,transv]se section ( exog5\s wood1 %[+ ! gr[? ( n9e ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gee4--,section 7magnifi$ portion7 ( ! small cut a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gef4--,section ( an endog5\s /em4 ,! duration ( ! /em ( a plant is usually ! same z ( ! plant--s we h annuals1 bi5nials1 & p]5nials4 ,! sub/ance ( ! /em det]m9es its "*1 s we may h x solid1 or s(t1 holl[1 tubul>1 flexible1 rigid1 or a t\gh /em4 ,!re are fibr\s1 h]bace\s1 & juicy /ems4 ,!y may be direct$ uprightly1 /raight1 procumb5tly1 ar*$1 or creep+1 above1 or und]gr\nd1 climb+1 cl++1 float+1 or tw9+4 ,!re are _m plants ) little or no /em des]v+ ! "n1 z 9 ! onion2 & we mu/ all rememb] :5 /udy+ botany t x is n ! place :]e a portion ( a plant may be f\nd t con/itutes x a root or a /em4 ,! =m & /ructure %\ld be /udi$1 & its purpose 9 creation4 ,s /ems may be und]gr\nd & roots above x4 ,! root & /em1 briefly treat$ ( 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs1 h c]ta9 po9ts ( resemblance1 inasmu* z bo? consi/ ( a ma9 or trunk l9e1 s to speak1 f :i* bran*es div]ge z 8rootlets0 & 8twigs02 & h[ beautiful ! latt] are any "o c see 9 a good photograph ( a w9try l&scape4 ,b /ems h nodes & int]nodes1 & roots h n1 & ?is is ! great & app>5t diff]5ce4 ,! cov]+ ( plant-/ems is v>i$1 & _m in/ances ( su* clo?+ w occur4 ,we h woolly /ems & hairy /ems1 :i* develop into ?orny ones--= ?orns are only /rong hairs4 ,sp9es & /+s & prickles def5d ! /ems1 & keep rude h&s f m$dl+4 ,we w n[ cut ! /em & see :at x is compos$ (1 & h[ x looks inside4 ,we h only to cut x across & aga9 p]p5dicul>ly to f9d out a great deal ab\t ! int]ior /ructure ( ! /ems ( bran*+ plants 7exog5s74 ,! eld]1 f :i* ! :i/le ( our boyi% days is fa%ion$ ) a p5knife1 w s]ve any lad = an illu/ration4 ,inside we f9d :at is call$ 8pi?10 :i* is cellul> tissue4 ,r\nd ?is is fibre1 & outside is a sk91 or ! plant-cuticle4 ,we may rem>k t ! tissues ( fl[]+ plants are *>act]i/ic ( ! monocotyl$on\s & ! dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,( ! =m] we app5d an illu/ration1--a section ( palm-/em1--& we f9d bundles ( vascul> tissue disp]s$ app>5tly at r&om among/ ! cellul> tissue ( ! p>5*yma1 or cellul> tissue4 ,^! /ems d n gr[ by ! increase ( ! exi/+ vascul> tissue1 b by _! new production at ! circumf]5ce1 & s !y gr[ 9 bo? directions1 lat]ally & uprightly4 ,^! plants belong to ! ,,endog5s1 & if ,indian corn be gr[n we %all h full opportunity to /udy ! =mation4 ,9 cutt+ a f]n /em we are famili> ) ! 8oak0 patt]n ( ! matt] x conta9s4 ,we h few specim5s ( endog5s 9 ,engl&4 ,! dicotyl$on\s /ems are common to our trees & mo/ plants1 & may !re=e be consid]$ ) advantage4 ,! /em consi/s ( ! vascul> tissue call$ 8pi?10 & we give an illu/ration ( ! cells magnifi$ v consid]ably4 ,! arr[ indicates ! outw>d direction 7fig4 #geg74 ,we "h p]ceive ! vascul> bundle prop] surr\nd$ by a v l>ge-cell$ tissue1 aabef4 ,! almo/ squ>e cells1 aa 1 =m ! epid]mis on :i* foll[s ! less d5se cellul> tissue ( ! b>k4 ,! latt] surr\nds a half-moon-%ap$ bundle ( ba/-cells1 c1 :i* are sep>at$ 9 ! direction t[>ds ! int]ior1 by a lay] ( cambium1 ddd1 f ! bundles ( vascul> tissue1 consi/+ ( vessels & longitud9al cells4 ,! latt] tissues may be di/+ui%$ 9 ! transv]se section by ! ?ick] walls1 gg1 & by _! great] bread?1 hh4 ,x is fur!r to be rem>k$ t ! cambium transp>5t tissue1 dd1 appe>s on bo? sides ( ! bundles ( vascul> tissue1 & ext5ds to ! next bundle1 & ?us pres5ts an un9t]rupt$ circle ?r\gh\t ! entire circumf]5ce ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #geg4--;,dicotyl$on\s /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #geh4--,/em "o ye> old4 ,on exam9+ ! section ( a "o-ye>-old dicotyl$on\s /em1 magnifi$ six times1 z 9 fig4 #geh1 we p]ceive sev]al p>ts cle>ly di/+ui%able f ea* o!r1 correspond+ ) ! arrangem5t ( ! bundles ( vascul> tissue4 ,enclos$ by ! epid]mis1 a1 is a l>ge-cell$ tissue1 b f & m1 9 :i* a numb] ( vascul> bundles =m a circle4 ,9 ea* ( ^! we notice t ! out] portion1 consi/+ ( ba/-%ell1 c1 is sep>at$ by ! cambium1 d1 f ! inn] woody portion1 e4 ,! cambium =ms a clos$ circle :i* p5etrates ?r\gh all ! vascul> bundles4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! fur!r developm5t ( ! /em1 ! p>ts1 a b c1 con/itute ! b>k1 ! vascul> bundles1 e1 ! wood1 & ! cellul> tissue1 f1 its pi?4 ,! tissues1 m1 p5etrat+ betwe5 ! vascul> bundles1 are call$ ! m$ull>y rays4 ,! cambium is to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ important "p1 s9ce x is ! s\rce ( new bundles ( vascul> tissue :i* ye> by ye> increase ! circumf]5ce ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gei4--,/ems ?ree & five ye>s old4 ,! gr[? ( a dicotyl$on\s /em is cont9u$ by ! =mation ( a new circle ( vascul> bundles on ! circumf]5ce ( ! /em 9 ! second ye>4 ,ea* new bundle1 z has already be5 %[n1 is produc$ 9 ! cambium1 & consequ5tly is deposit$ betwe5 ! wood & inn] b>k4 ,?us e ye> a new lay] is deposit$ betwe5 ! previ\s =mation & ! b>k2 & a section w exhibit ^! conc5tric r+s ( wood obvi\sly di/9ct f ea* o!r2 & z "o ye> is requisite = ! =mation ( a s+le lay] ( wood1 ^! depositions are nam$ annual lay]s or r+s4 ,9 fig4 #gei we h a repres5tation ( a /em ?ree ye>s old1 & "o ( five ye>s ( age4 ,! numb] ( r+s 9 ! /em d n inv>iably agree ) ! numb] ( ye>s ! tree has be5 gr[+1 b x may be accept$ z a rule4 ,! /em is ! m$ium ( communication betwe5 ! roots & leaves at fir/2 b aft] a ye> ?is important duty is deput$ to ! cambium lay]s ( new woody tissue1 etc41 & z "t goes on ! liv+ p[] has accumulat$ imm$iately "u ! b>k4 ,s al?\gh ! tree be q holl[ x w live4 ,! int]ior has be5 clos$ up by deposition ( wood & has decay$2 b ! life functions be+ relegat$ to ! b>k1 ! old tree lives on4 ,if we remove ! r9d all r\nd a tree x w die4 ,,! ,,leaves4 ,:5 9 ! spr+ ! "y leaves appe> ^u ! trees1 & z summ] advances !y become fully develop$1 we are all grateful = ! beautifully v>i$ t9ts ( gre51 & = ! %ade we c s fully enjoy4 ,! /udy ( leaves is a mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive "o1 & nobody %\ld omit to exam9e !m4 ,_! =ms are inf9ite1 or1 at any rate1 c\ntless2 _! size z v>i$ z _! =ms4 ,_m attributes ( ! leaf w occur to e read]1 & we w briefly describe ^! ess5tial organs ( plants4 ,air & light are necess>y to ! developm5t ( leaves1 & _! pr9cipal use is to pres5t a surface to ! food mat]ial :i* ! plant absorbs4 ,!y brea!1 z x 71 & absorb ! c>bonic acid f ! atmosph]e4 ,^! functions are call$ 8assimilation10 8transpiration10 & 8respiration10 :i* we w detail by-&-by4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfj4--;,comp\nd leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfa4--,simple leaf4 ,leaves are di/+ui%$ accord+ to position & duration4 ,"s leaves h v simple =ms1 o!rs are comp\nd1 s to speak4 ,"s are pla9 & r\nd$1 o!rs are too!d1 l ! holly4 ,! skeleton ( a leaf is a v int]e/+ /udy1 & x w %[ ! beautiful /ructure ( ^! common objects4 ,! delicate l9es ( ! gre5 leaf are 8ve9s10 or sap-vessels1 :i* convey ! necess>y n\ri%m5t4 ,! leaves are call$ ! 8embryonic0 7se$-l71 ! radicle1 or root-leaf1 ! /alk-leaf1 & ! /ipules1 :i* gr[ at ! base ( /em-leaves1 & ! floral leaves1 :i* be> ! fl[]s or fruit buds4 ,leaves :i* are develop$ at ! end ( a *ief axis are t]m$ blossoms4 ,( c\rse x mu/ be und]/ood t all ! diff]5t k9ds ( leaves d n occur ^u ! same plant4 ,! leaf may be accept$ to mean ! /em-leaf4 ,leaves are fold$ up 9 v>i\s ways1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ?is is accompli%$ is t]m$ ! v]nation ( ! plant4 ,! leaves ( endog5s & exog5s diff] 9 _! ve9+4 ,! =m] ve9s d n t\*2 !re is none ( t beautiful int]lac+ :i* we f9d 9 ! exog5\s leaves4 ,9 ! =m] ! ve9s rise f base to apex1 curv+ z !y advance1 z 9 ! well-kn[n lily ( ! valley4 ,?is 8n]v\s sy/em0 ( ! leaf is its 8v5ation10 & ! ve9s di/ribut$ 9 ! blade or lam9a ( ! leaf are tw(old1--z rem>k$1--asc5d+ 9 curves1 or div]g+ f a c5tral n]ve call$ ! 8mid-rib40 ,^! lat]al n]ves are ei!r p>allel or 8reticulate0--t is1 net-l4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfb4--,net-ve9$ leaf4 ,we w n[ exam9e ! =ms ( leaves :i* are regulat$ by ! div]g5ce & ext5sion ( ! divisions ( ! mid-rib4 ,?us we get an orbicul>1 or peltate leaf2 palmate1 digitate1 & p$ate =ms also occur1 z may be se5 9 ! illu/rations1 pages #fgb & #fgc1 :]e all ! v>i$ %apes c be /udi$4 ,! leaf consi/s ( a petiole or /alk1 & ! lam9a or blade4 ,! petiole is compos$ ( bundles ( vascul> tissue2 ! lam9a is =m$ by _! ext5sion1 ! int]/ices be+ fill$ ) cellul> tissue4 ,s we p]ceive t ! leaves & /ems are compos$ ( simil> mat]ials4 ,to def5d ! tissue a sk91 or epid]mis1 is plac$ ^u ! surface ( ! leaf1 & ?is epid]mis is full ( brea?+ holes1 or pores1 call$ /omates 7comp>e page #ffd74 ,!re are also cells fill$ ) *lorophyl1 :i* gives ! leaf its gre5 t9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfc4--,l9d5 tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfd4--,/omates1 highly magnifi$4 ,! petiole may be abs5t 9 a leaf1 & :5 x is ! leaves are t]m$ sessile1 or sitt+ leaves4 ,^! leaves sometimes coil r\nd ! /em1 & are call$ 8amplexicaul10 or /alk embrac]s4 ,^! are simple leaves4 ,comp\nd leaves are compos$ ( sev]al blades or lam9 on a /alk1 & are seldom sessile4 ,,simple ,,leaves are almo/ innum]able 9 =m & v>iety4 ,leaves may be equal or unequal1 acicul> or l9e>1 r\nd$ or oval1 cordate or obcordate1 r5i=m or sagittate1 p]foliate or connate1 crisp1 :orl$ or truncate1 retuse1 acum9ate or mucronate4 ,! m>g9s ( simple leaves aga9 are entire1 deft1 not*$1 cr5at$1 cr5ulat$1 s9u\s1 or d5tat$4 ,!y are p9natifid1 multifid1 or lob$1 accord+ to ! divisions ( ! leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,leaves4 ,i4 ,,dep5d+ ,,on ,,=m4 ,lanceolate 7,privet74 ,ovate 7,fu*sia fulg5s74 ,oblong 7,primrose74 ,cordate 7,:ite ,bryony74 ,palmate 7v9e74 ,,ii4 ,,dep5d+ ,,on ,,m>g9 ,,& ,,arrangem5t4 ,s]rate 7,rose74 ,bis]rate 7,elm74 ,cr5ate 7,betony74 ,entire 7,lilac74 ,digitate 7,lup974 ,p9nate 7,vet*74 ,bip9nate 7,acacia74 ,p9natifid 7,crepis74 ,t]nate 7,clov]74 ,bit]nate 7,columb9e74 ,,iii4 ,,dep5d+ ,,on ,,po9t4 ,obtuse 7,dock74 ,mucronate 7,holly74 ,retuce 7,sn[ball74 ,em>g9ate 7,bladd] ,s5na74 ,comp\nd leaves are also divid$ into classes4 ,! p9nate1 z ! rose-leaf1 ! clov] trefoil4 ,!re are 8d\bly p9nate10 ! digitate1 z 9 ! horse *e/nut4 ,comp\nd & simple leaves c be readily di/+ui%$ by inspection1 = ! =m] are 8articulat$0 to ! /alk & c be sep>at$1 b ! simple leaves w be torn1 = !y are conflu5t ?r\gh\t4 ,leaves are ev]gre5 or decidu\s1 accord+ly z !y reta9 or %$ !mselves4 ,! ord9>y leaf is decidu\s2 ! fir & ! yew & ! import$ laurel are ev]gre5s4 ,we h v few ( ^! z natives ( ,engl&1 ! ivy1 yew1 & fir be+ ! ?ree mo/ common4 ,sometimes a plant peculi> to ,kill>ney1 & kn[n z ! arbutus1 is includ$ 9 ! li/4 ,b ! ,scot* fir & ! yew are di/9ctly native ev]gre5s4 ,! detail$ *>act]i/ics ( leaves mu/ be pass$ ov] until we come to ! fly-cat*+ leaves--su* z ,v5us' fly-trap1 ! dros]as1 & nep5!s1 :i* appe> to cat* & dev\r insects = food4 ,! ,v5us' fly-trap may be exam9$1 & we %all f9d ! leaves cov]$ ) t9y & v s5sitive hairs4 ,(t5 a fly happ5s to alight ^u ! leaf1 :i* is ext5d$ 9 a mo/ innoc5t mann] 7see illu/ration74 ,z soon z ! fly settles ! leaves close1 & ! digits lock tightly toge!r1 ?us prev5t+ ! escape ( ! prey4 ,! dros]as1 s>rac5ias1 & nep5!s also kill _! food4 ,! s>rac5ias =m curi\s cups1 into :i* insects are entic$ 9 se>* ( fluid1 & !n1 z 9 ! case ( ! h\se-haunt+ cockroa*1 !y _c get out aga94 ,! nep5!s h a cup & lid = insect-cat*+1 & )9 ! cup a liquid is secret$4 ,we w close ?is portion ( our subject ) a quotation f a rec5t article ^u botany ref]r+ to leaf arrangem5t4 ,! writ] says3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfe4--,leaf ( ,dion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #gfg4--,leaf ( ,nep5!s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gff4--,s>rac5ia4 8,ef=ts h be5 made to det]m9e ! laws to :i* ^! v>i\s modes ( leaf-arrangem5t may be ref]able4 ,! result is f\nd 9 ! doctr9e ( #8,phyllotaxy1' z x is call$1 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! :ole be+ t ,nature1 9 ! disposition ( ! leaves ^u ! /em1 works ^u precisely ! same idea z t :i* is set =? s di/9ctly & elegantly 9 ! common p9e-cone2 &1 on a m9or scale1 9 ! beautiful cone ( ! female hop2 n to m5tion ! quasi-cones ( _m species ( tropical palm1 su* z ! ,sagus & ! ,mauritia2 nor to m5tion ei!r1 ! v delicate repetition ( ! :ole s]ies 9 ! florets ( ! ,rudbeckia & ! rip5+ fruits ( ,*auc]'s daisy4 ,9 e "o ( ! fl[] & fruit arrangem5ts m5tion$1 ! idea is ! spiral1--! same sweet old fa%ion :i* we h _h 9 ! tw9+ /ems ( ! convolvulus1 ! woodb9e1 & ! sc>let bean2 :i* comes out aga9 9 _m a sea-%ell1 & 9 human r+lets2 & ?is idea1 accord+ to #8,phyllotaxy1' gov]ns ! position ( ! leaves4 ,foll[+ alt]nate leaves up ! /em1 _! sequ5ce is cle>ly spiral4 ,?r\gh ! non-developm5t ( int]nodes1 !y are br\ght clos] & clos] toge!r2 & ev5 :5 ! entire mass ( foliage is conc5trat$ & cond5s$ into ! rosulate =m1 z 9 ! h\seleek & ! ,e*ev]ias1 ! spiral prototype is /ill di/+ui%able4 ,! :ole matt] has be5 r$uc$ to "o ( ari?metical exactitude2 & = ^? :o love calculations & 8fractions10 ! det]m9ation ( ! spirals1 _! cont9uity & int]mixture1 supplies abundance ( curi\s ent]ta9m5t4 ,all ?ree modes ( leaf-arrangem5t are f\nd 9 c]ta9 h]bace\s plants1 none disclos+ ?is p>ticul> k9d ( playfulness m pla9ly ?an ! common pyramidal ,loose/rife1 ,lysima*ia vulg>is1 & ! purple ,ly?rum ( ! wat]side1 9 ea* ( :i* v h&some wild fl[]s1 alt]nate1 opposite1 & :orl$ leaves may be f\nd 9 ne> neighb\rhood4 ,alt]nate & opposite leaves are also met )1 side by side1 9 v>i\s species ( ,myrtace2 & imp]fectly1 ^u "y %oots ( ! common a%-tree4 ,! rule is1 nev]!less1 t !re %all be uni=mity1 & 9 _m ( ! l>ge/ natural ord]s ! rule is nev] brok54 ,9 ! ,rosace ! /em leaves are inv>iably alt]nate2 9 ! ,g5tianace !y are inv>iably opposite40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfh4--;,bran* ( horse *e/nut4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,,*apt] ,,lii4 ,,fl[]+ ,,plants4 ,,organs ,,( ,,increase ,,& ,,reproduction--,,! ,,fl[]--,,! ,,calyx--,,! ,,corolla--,,! ,,/am5--,,! ,,pi/il4 ,"s ( ! simple/ plants are propagat$ by spores1 :i* are deta*$1 & fall ^u ! gr\nd to vegetate2 b 9 ! case ( ! high] ord]s ! reproduction ( species is a mu* m elaborate process1 & is c>ri$ on by means ( c]ta9 organs call$ fl[]s4 ,small buds1 or ovules1 are =m$1 :i* develop into se$4 ,plants also produce buds1 :i* gr[ ^u v>i\s p>ts ( x1 & are capable ( reproduc+ _! species4 ,we w fir/ speak ( ,,fl[]s4 ,fl[]s are n only ! lovely blossoms we cut & place 9 our rooms1 b ! reproductive organs ( plants :i* may be v pla9 & simple or gorge\s & fragrant1 & 9 all probability ! s-call$ fl[]s are few 9 comp>ison to ! unrecogniz$ fl[]s4 ,trees & bu%es fl[] equally ) ! rose & ! p9k & c>nation4 ,vegetables fl[] z well z ! lily1 ?\gh we d n recognize x s well4 ,let u n[ exam9e ! 8fl[]40 ,fl[]s may consi/ ( f\r p>ts1 b x is n absolutely necess>y t !y %\ld conta9 m ?an two4 ,! f\r portions ( a complete fl[] are-- #a4 ,,! ,,calyx4 #b4 ,,! ,,corolla4 #c4 ,,! ,,/am54 #d4 ,,! ,,pi/il4 ,! two la/ m5tion$ are ess5tial4 ,! f\r organs are plac$ ar\nd a p$icel or p$uncle 7fl[] /alk71 & are kn[n z floral :orls4 ,! ,,calyx is ! out]mo/ :orl ( all :5 all exi/4 ,! portions ( ! calyx are kn[n z sepals4 ,! ,,corolla is usually ! %[y portion--! attraction ( ! fl[]4 ,! pieces ( ! corolla are call$ petals4 ,! sweet fluids ( ! plant are "h conceal$4 ,^! p>ts--! calyx & corolla--are kn[n z ! floral envelopes1 or 8p]ian?40 ,! tulip has "o :orl only1 & x is call$ ! envelope4 ,! calyx sometimes falls be=e ! fl[] is full bl[n1 z 9 ! poppy4 ,its l[] portion is ! 8?roat10 & ! %ape ( ! organ v>ies1 z w be se5 by ! illu/rations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gfi4-- #a4 ,tubul>4 #b4 ,clavate1 or club-%ap$4 #c4 ,tub9ate1 or top-%ap$4 #d4 ,campanulate1 or bell-%ap$4 #e4 ,funnel-%ap$4 #f4 ,urceolate1 or urn-%ap$4 #g4 ,globul>4 ,! sepals are usually ?ree to five 9 numb]4 ,! poppy has two1 & ! well-kn[n wall-fl[] f\r free--t is1 disunit$--sepals4 ,! primrose possesses five4 ,! calyx is ! outside rim ( all1 & we may ?us rememb] x1 because its sepals alt]nate ) ! petals ( ! corolla4 ,! petals may be =m$ cup-fa%ion1 z 9 ! lily ( ! valley1 & "h we h ^! sepals & petals 9 gr\ps ( ?ree ea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggj4--,trim]\s corolla4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gga4--,tetram]\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggb4--,p5tam]\s corolla4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggc4--,monopetal\s corolla4 ,! petals diff] f ord9>y leaves1 & 9 !m we f9d all ! beautiful t9ts & ! od\r we imbibe f blossoms4 ,! =ms ( corolla correspond to ^? ( ! calyx1 & are call$ by ! same names4 ,b :5 corollas are abs5t ! petals ( c\rse _c provide ! necess>y col\rs = ! fl[]4 ,!n ! calyx is gift$1 & ! sepals are brilliant4 ,?us ,nature provides = ev]y?+4 ,corollas are f\nd ) five or t5 petals1 & sometimes ) ?ree1 six1 & n9e--! numb]s always d\bl+ or add+ ! orig9al numb]4 ,!re may be f\r petals or eight1 z 9 ! 8tetram]\s0 corolla 7fig4 #gga74 ,in/ances ( o!rs are illu/rat$1 & a plant ^: petals1 sepals1 & /am5s are num]ically equal1 or are multiples ( ea* o!r1 are t]m$ 8symmetrical40 ,! 8regul>0 fl[] does n v>y mu*1 z ! petals are ( ! same size & %ape1 b !re are _m 8irregul>0 fl[]s--z ! pea--9 :i* portions ( ! calyx or corolla are ( diff]5t %apes4 ,! 8labiate0 & ! 8campanulate0 are illu/rat$ 9 figs4 #ggd1 #gge1 includ+ ! convolvulus & ! snap-dragon4 ,^! are b a few examples ( an almo/ endless div]sity4 ,! 8regul>0 fl[]s--exemplifi$ 9 ! butt]cup & convolvulus--always pres5t ! same figure to ! obs]v]4 ,to ! petals ! beautifully-v>i$ col\rs ( plants are due1 & ?\gh x is n possible to ent] ^u ! subject "h1 we may conclude t ! v>i\s beauties ( ! col\rs ( fl[]s are ow+ to light & air act+ ^u ! v>i\s 8col\r+ matt]s0 conta9$ 9 ! plant4 ,se$s plant$ 9 a d>k cell> w spr+ up pale2 admit light1 & !y w become gre51 = light ?us acts ^u ! *lorophyl4 ,b ! fl[]s ( ! plant are n s dep5d5t ^u light1 z c easily be prov$4 ,_m int]e/+ exp]im5ts h be5 made ^u fl[]s by acids & gases4#cf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggd4--,labiate corolla4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gge4--;,campanulate4 ,! ,,/am5s are ! next 9 ord] = our consid]ation4 ,!y are f\nd )9 ! petals 7or ! calyx if no petals be pres5t74 ,/am5s v>y v mu* 9 diff]5t plants bo? 9 numb] & g5]al features--b1 z 9 ! case ( petals1 !y keep1 z a rule1 to c]ta9 numb]s & d\bles ( !m4 ,! /am5 consi/s ( two portions--a l[]1 ?read-l "p call$ ! filam5t1 & an oblong bag or head1 t]m$ ! an!r4 ,?is conta9s a p[d]y matt] call$ poll51 & is ! ess5tial "p ( ! /am54 ,! filam5t1 :i* corresponds to ! petiole ( ! leaf1 may be abs5t1 9 :i* case ! an!r is call$ sessile4 ,a lily w %[ ! /am5s p]fectly1 ! an!r be+ prom95t 9 _m o!r plants also1 su* z daffodils & fu*sias4 ,! /am5s are v important organs ) reg>d to ! classification ( plants--= numb]1 l5g?1 & position1 :e!r free or unit$1 are all *>act]i/ic features4 ,! l5g? ( filam5ts is always ! same 9 ! same k9d ( plant1 & !re=e is a v palpable te/4 ,! an!r conta9s ! poll51 a p[d]y matt]1 usually yell[-col\r$1 b sometimes also r$1 br[n1 violet1 or gre5-col\r$4 ,poll5-gra9s v>y f #a_/bj to #a_/cjj ( a l9e 9 diamet]4 ,"u a p[]ful microscope !y appe> z ellipsoidal1 or sometimes sph]ical1 triangul>1 polyh$ral vesicles1 fill$ ) a granul> semi-fluid matt]4 ,to effect fecundation1 ! poll5-gra9s mu/ come into contact ) a c]ta9 "p ( ! plant :i* is int5d$ to receive !m1 & :i* is call$ ! ovule1 & is f\nd 9 ! f\r? or inn]mo/ v]ticil ( ! fl[]1 ! pi/il4 ,( ! fur!r developm5t ( ! ovule1 we %all h occasion to speak 9 ! p>agraph treat+ ( ! se$4 ,at ! prop] "t ! an!r op5s & dis*>ges its cont5ts1 ! poll5-gra9s1 "s ( :i* rea* ! place ( _! de/9ation4 ,! position ( ! /am5s to ! pi/il is usually su* t ! latt] c readily receive ! poll5-gra9s4 ,9 _m plants1 h[ev]1 ! /am5s are too %ort to rea* ! pi/ils2 or ! two ess5tial organs ( reproduction are 9 sep>ate fl[]s1 or ev5 on diff]5t plants4 ,9 su* cases1 ! conveyance ( ! poll5 f ! an!rs to ! pi/ils is effect$ by ! ag5cy ( ! w9d1 or by t ( insects1 & m p>ticul>ly by ! bee4 ,if ! an!rs are remov$ f ! fl[] previ\sly to _! op5+1 no fruit is produc$4 ,v>ieties ( fl[]s & fruits are produc$ artificially1 by %ak+ ! poll5 ( "o plant ^u ! fl[]s ( ano!r1 depriv$ ( ! /am5s4 ,_m e/eem$ sorts ( /ock-gillifl[]s & p9ks h be5 produc$ 9 ?is way4 ,! pi/il con/itutes ! f\r? & inn]mo/ :orl1 & occupies accord+ly ! c5tre ( ! fl[] & ! apex ( ! axis1 ^: gr[? is t]m9at$ ) ! production ( ! fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggf4--,pi/il4 ,! pi/il also is =m$ by "o or sev]al modifi$ leaves1 call$ c>pels1 9 ?is "p ( ! fl[]1 & :i* exhibit a m m>k$ resemblance 9 col\r & /ructure to ! ord9>y leaves ?an ! /am5s & petals d4 ,! =mation ( ! pi/il f ! leaf may be consid]$ to proce$ 9 ?is mann]3 t ! edges ( ! leaf are fold$ inw>ds & unite1 :il/ ! mid-rib is prolong$ upw>ds 7fig4 #ggf;,a74 ,! place :]e ! m>g9s ( ! fold$ leaves are unit$ is call$ suture or seam 7v5tral suture1 9 contradi/9ction to ! mid-rib1 :i* is call$ ! dorsal suture72 & x is "h t ! se$-buds or ovules are develop$4 ,! pi/il consi/s ( two p>ts--viz41 ! ov>y or g]m51 :i* conta9s ! ovules or "y se$s1 a1 & ! /igma1 b1 ei!r plac$ ^u ! ov>y1 or ^u ! /yle1 or /alk1 :i* is betwe5 ! /igma & ! ov>y4 ,a pi/il may be ( "o c>pel 7simple71 or ( m ?an "o 7comp\nd74 ,! c>pels or ! c>pell>y leaves are ! 8ov>ies40 ,! pi/il is a v important te/ = ! classification ( plants2 "s trees h no pi/ils1 & ! ovules are consequ5tly nak$4 ,su* plants are call$ gymnosp]m4 ,! conif] 7firs & p9es7 are ?us recognizable1 & ! position ( ! ovule is v mu* t ( ! ord9>y bud4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,respect+ artificial col\r+ ( fl[]s1 see page #cbi4 ,,*apt] ,,liii4 ,,fl[]+ ,,plants 7cont9u$74 ,,! ,,floral ,,axis--,,infloresc5ce--,,fruit--,,se$-- ,,nutrition ,,( ,,plants--,,absorption ,,( ,,con/itu5ts4 ,!re are c]ta9 arrangem5ts & mutual relations ( ! v>i\s portions ( ! fl[]s :i* we h m5tion$ t x is useful to consid]4 ,! floral axis ref]s to ! position ( ! v]ticils1 & infloresc5ce signifies ! arrangem5t ( ! fl[]s on ! /em4 ,fl[]s :i* possess bo? /am5s & pi/il are h]maphrodite2 ^? ) only /am5s are male2 ^? ) ! pi/il female fl[]s4 ,if bo? organs be abs5t ! fl[] is neutral4 ,plants be>+ fl[]s 9 clu/]s =m sev]al di/9ct gr\ps1 to :i* appropriate t]ms are appli$ indicative ( _! respective =m ( flora arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggg4--7a7 ,spike4 7#b7 ,catk94 7#c7 ,spadix4 7#d7 ,cone4 ,9 ! exam9ation ( ?is k9d ( infloresc5ce 7indef9ite or axill>y infloresc5ce71 ! fir/ object ( rem>k is ! g5]al or prim>y p$uncle1 t]m$ ra*is1 & :i* be>s num]\s leaflets call$ bracteoles or bractlets1 f ^: axils arise ! p$icellate or sessile fl[]s4 ,! l[] bracts (t5 produce no fl[]-buds 9 _! axils1 & =m in/ead a :orl surr\nd+ ! heads ( fl[]s on ! prim>y axis1 & :i* is call$ involucre 7z 9 ! sun-fl[]1 = in/ance74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggh4--,raceme4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ggi4--,panicle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghj4--;,corymb4 ,! diff]5t v>ieties ( axill>y infloresc5ce are det]m9$ pr9cipally by ! elongation or depression ( ! axis1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( /alks to ! fl[]s1 & ! =m & nature ( ! bracts4 ,we di/+ui%-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gha4--,umbel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghb4--;,capitulum or ball4 #a4 7#a7 ,! spike 7fig4 #ggg74 ,9 ?is =m ( infloresc5ce1 sessile or %ort-/alk$ fl[]s are arrang$ along ! ra*is 9 ! axils ( ! bracts2 ! spike is said to be comp\nd :5 small spikes or spikelets arise aga9 f ! bracts ( ! second>y axis4 7#b7 ,! catk9 or am5tum 7fig4 #ggg #b72 a spike1 usually p5dul\s1 :i* falls (f1 ra*is & all1 by an articulation1 z 9 ! will[ or hazel4 #c4 ,! spadix1 a ?ick fle%y spike 7fig4 #ggg #c72 examples1 arum & calamus4 #d4 ,! cone1 a fruit-be>+ spike1 cov]$ ) scales 7fig4 #ggg #d72 examples1 ! conif]4 #e4 ,! raceme or clu/]1 a spike ) ! fl[]s on long] p$icels 7fig4 #ggh72 examples1 ! currant4 #f4 ,! panicle1 a bran*+ raceme 7fig4 #ggi1 ,yucca gloriosa74 #g4 ,! ?yrsus1 a d5se panicle1 ) long] p$uncles 9 ! middle ?an at ! extremities2 example1 lilac4 #h4 ,! corymb1 a raceme1 9 :i* ! l[] fl[] /alks are elongat$ & rais$ to ne>ly a level ) ! upp] 7fig4 #ghj7--;example1 c]asus mahaleb4 #i4 ,! comp\nd or bran*+ corymb1 a corymb 9 :i* ! second>y axis aga9 sub-divides2 example1 ,pyrus t]m9alis4 #aj4 ,! umbel3 9 ?is =m ! prim>y axis is greatly depress$1 & ! p$uncles arise f a common po9t1 & spread out l radii ( ne>ly equal l5g?1 a :orl ( bracts 7involucre7 surr\nd+ ! common base4 ,9 ! comp\nd umbel 7fig4 #gha71 ,daucus c>ota1 ! second>y axis ends 9 small umbels surr\nd$ by bracts1 :i* is t]m$ an involucel4 ,?is is obs]vable 9 ! umbellif]\s plants--c>rot1 p>sley1 hemlock1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghc4--;,infloresc5ce4 ,a v peculi> k9d ( infloresc5ce1 :i* *>act]ises ! great family ( ! composit1 is illu/rat$ by fig4 #ghc4 ,we see "h ! enl>g$ floral axis or receptacle1 a1 surr\nd$ by sev]al :orls or bracts1 b b1 :i* con/itute a g5]al involucre2 ! membran\s bracts1 7pale71 b b1 se5 9 ! receptacle1 be> 9 _! axils ! sessile florets1 c & d1 :i* ei!r h a calyx1 e e1 or n4 ,! florets on ! receptacle are ei!r all ( !m tubul> 7d7 or ligulate 7tongue or /rap-%ap$72 florets 7c7 are associat$ ) ! tubul> ones4 ,! receptacle is n always flat1 b frequ5tly pres5ts a convex1 globul>1 conical1 concave1 etc41 %ape4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( pale ! receptacle is said to be nak$4 ,! florets at ! m>g91 or circumf]5ce1 are t]m$ m>g9al fl[]s1 or fl[]s ( ! ray2 ! florets 9 ! disc 7c5tre71 c5tral fl[]s1 or fl[]s ( ! disc4 ,"s plants be> male & female fl[]s on ! same /em4 ,^! are t]m$ monci\s plants4 ,! oak is an in/ance4 ,! dici\s plants are ^? :i* be> /am5s & pi/il1 or sep>ately1 on diff]5t plants1 l will[s4 ,we w n[ glance at ! functions ( ! /am5s & pi/il4 ,! ovule has be5 m5tion$ z a t9y body 9 ! ov>y1 & x consi/s ( a nucleus1 & cellul> tissue surr\nd x1 leav+ a small hole call$ ! micropyle1 into :i* ! poll5 tube ent]s aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! ov>y4 ,z 9 ! animal creation1 ! unions ( diff]5t families succe$ be/2 no close relation%ip w f]tilize s well z ) o!r fl[]s4 ,f]tilization is accompli%$ 9 two ways2 7#a7 by ! action ( ! w9d1 by :i* ! poll5 is c>ri$ away to o!r plants2 & 7#b7 by means ( insects--! bee p>ticul>ly4 ,^! fl[]s h di/9ctive qualities relatively4 ,9 ! case ( ! p9e ! poll5 is p[d]y2 s ^? plants :i* are ?us f]tiliz$ are ! dici\s species1 :i* include ! popl>1 ! oak1 & ! bir*1 z well z ! p9es4 ,^! are all w9d-c>ri$ poll5 plants4 ,! nettle is illu/rat$ "h ) male & female fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghd4--,male fl[] ( nettle4 ,plants f]tiliz$ by insects are visit$ by !m1 & !y c>ry away ^u _! heads1 or bodies1 ! poll51 :i* is !n ?ru/ into ! /igma by ! insect2 or p]haps birds may c>ry ! poll5 9 ! same way aft] sipp+ ! nect>1 & ?us play+ an unconsci\s1 b mo/ important1 "p 9 ! economy ( nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghe4--;,female fl[] ( nettle4 ,we always f9d ! ovule at ! t]m9ation ( an axis2 x is unable to =m a se$ alone4 ,! poll5 gra9s mu/ f]tilize x1 & 9 consequ5ce _m ovules come to n\ght4 ,! ovule is produc$ 9 ! pi/il1 :i*1 z be=e /at$ consi/s ess5tially ( two p>ts--! ov>y & ! /igma2 ! latt] secretes a fluid to hold ! poll54 ,we annex ! repres5tation ( a highly-magnifi$ pi/il 7v]tical section1 fig4 #ghf;a74 ,! poll5 gra9s are indicat$ by d1 atta*$ to /igma1 c1 project+ ?r\gh ! /yle1 b1 into ! ov>y1 a1 & pass+ ?r\gh ! ovules4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghf4--;,erect ovule4 ,) ! transmission ( ! poll5 to ! ov>y ( ! pi/il1 ! functions ( ! an!r & /igma t]m9ate2 accord+ly ^! p>ts ( ! fl[] rapidly )] & decay aft] f]tilization4 ,! filam5ts1 ! /yle1 & ! petals spe$ily p>ticipate 9 ! decay1 b ! sepals rema9 sometimes p]si/5t 9 an alt]$ =m4 ,! ov>y & its cont5ts alone proce$ 9 _! fur!r developm5t1 & und]go mat]ial *anges1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 ! bracts & ! calyx (t5 p>ticipate4 ,! fully develop$ & matur$ ovule1 ! se$1 is1 ( c\rse1 reg>d$ z ! ess5tial "p ( ! fruit2 ! enl>g$ ov>y =ms ! p]ic>p1 enclos+ ! se$4 ,! =m ( ! p]ic>p det]m9es ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! d5om9ation ( ! fruit4 ,! /ructure ( ! fruit1 & ! arrangem5t ( its p>ts dep5ds 9 a great measure ^u ! numb] & position ( ! c>pell>y leaves 9 ! pi/il1 & ! mann] & ext5t ( _! union1 & ! ext5t to :i* _! edges are fold$ inw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghg4--;,dor/5ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghh4--;,d&elion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ghi4--;,apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gij4--;,follicles ( l>kspur4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gia4--,sycamore fig4 ,! c>pell>y leaves occupy ! summit ( ! floral axis4 ,! axis t]m9ates ei!r 9 "o s+le c>pel1 9 :i* case ! ov>y is "o-cell$1 or unilocul>2 or ! axis is surr\nd$ by sev]al c>pels1 9 :i* case ! mann] ( _! union det]m9es ! numb] ( cells 9 ! ov>y4 ,,! ,,fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gib4--,sycamore fig4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gic4--;,fruit ( a composite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gid4--,section ( a b]ry4 ,! c>pels are ! *ief ag5ts 9 ! =mation ( ! fruit1 & !y =m ! endoc>p 7core71 & sometimes ! :ole p]ic>p1 or se$-vessel4 ,^u ! nature ( ! v>i\s p>ts & ! *anges !y und]go dur+ ! rip5+ ( ! se$s ! nature ( ! fruit dep5ds4 ,! fruits are classifi$1 "s be+ ! produce ( a s+le c>pel1 o!rs ( sev]al unit$ c>pels4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gie4--,umbellif]\s plant & its fruit4 ,fruit1 9 botany1 is by no means limit$ to ! juicy products ( trees or plants :i* are s refre%+ 9 ! summ] wea!r1 & s acceptable 9 any =m4 ,9 plant life ! h]b yield+ se$ produces a fruit equally ) ! orange or ! apple4 ,! fruit is ! outcome ( ! v>i$ processes ( ! plant4 ,we may trace ! plant f its t9y1 sometimes v m9ute se$1 ?r\gh /em to fl[] & se$ aga94 8,9 ! f9al /ruggle1 ev5 :5 life is hopeless1 & />vation1 9 consequ5ce ( dr\ght1 is imm95t--:5 all is hopeless & b>r51 ! plant w make an ef=t to produce its fruit & fl[]40 ,?is is a v t\*+ & int]e/+ fact 9 nature--?is la/ attempt to beautify ! e>? & to propagate its species = ! use ( man4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gif4--,?ree-cell$ capsule4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gig4--,poppy4 ,fruit1 !n1 is n limit$ to ! m>ket & ! /all4 ,?is /atem5t sc>cely ne$s pro(2 b if we consid] = a mom5t ! numb] ( 8wild0 fruits--! p>5ts1 probably1 ( our table-fruits--we f9d _m we _c eat4 ,9 %ort1 out ( ! hundr$ ?\s& plants :i* be> fl[]s sc>ce "o two-hundr$? "p s]ve u z produc]s ( edible fruits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gih4--,?ree-cell$ capsule4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gii4--,wat] melon4 ,! fruit is ! result ( ! fl[]1 & if any objection be made by read]s on ! "p ( ! common fig1 x w be f\nd t ?is appreciat$ fruit really consi/s ( male & female fl[]s t are f]tiliz$ by ! action ( m9ute insects1 :i* ent] & dep>t 7sometimes !y die1 & are f\nd dead & black 9 ! figs74 ,no blossom is p]ceiv$ on ! tree1 because )9 ! gre5 sac ! s-call$ 8se$s0 7really ! fruits7 are develop+4 ,a fig is a sac full ( fruits4 ,! legume or pod is =m$ ( a s+le c>pel be>+ se$s4 ,we annex illu/rations ( ! pod4 ,! cov]+ is call$ ! p]ic>p1 & ! p>ts :5 op5$ sep>ate into valves4 ,dehisc5t fruits %$ _! se$s1 indehisc5t fruits d n2 !y lie )9 ! se$-vessel1 l ! acorns & nuts4 ,^! are dry fruits1 b !re are o!rs ( a s(t nature1 su* z apples or gooseb]ries4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjj4--,legume4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hja4--,legume op5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjb4--,legume 7pea74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjc4--;,gl& 7acorn74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjd4--,/obule 7hop74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hje4--;,drupe 7plum74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjf4--;,b]ry 7currant74 ,fruits are v>i\sly nam$1 & und]nea? w be f\nd a li/4 ,we h ! aggregate1 l ! mulb]ry1 etc42 ! dehisc5t fruit ( "o c>pel l ! pea1 etc42 ! simple fruits z *]ry1 nettle1 :eat1 etc4 ,! d&elion fruit is (t5 a preci\s object 9 *ildr5's e/imation1 z x is bl[n away to asc]ta9 ! "t4 ,!re are indehisc5t fruits ) _m c>pels1--! common butt]cup1 = in/ance1 & ! /rawb]ry4 ,a li/ is add$4 a4 ,,fruits ,,:i* ,,are ,,! ,,produce ,,( ,a ,,solit>y ,,c>pel4 #a4 ,! gymnosp]m\s fruit1 :]e ! se$ lies nak$ 9 ! axils ( ! ligne\s bracts1 z 9 ! cone ( ! fir & spruce tribe4 #b4 ,! legume or pod1 :i* is =m$ ( a solit>y c>pel be>+ se$s on ! v5tral suture4 ,x *>act]ises ! pea & bean tribe 7legum9os74 #c4 ,! follicle is a mature c>pel conta9+ sev]al se$s1 & op5+ by ! v5tral suture4 ,!re are usually sev]al follicles aggregat$ toge!r2 examples1 l>kspur1 monk%ood1 ev]gre54 b4 ,,fruits ,,:i* ,,are ,,! ,,produce ,,( ,,sev]al ,,c>pels ,,unit$4 #d4 ,! capsule consi/s ( two or m c>pels1 ei!r simply lat]ally unit$ 7"o-cell$ or unilocul> capsule71 or fold$ inw>ds t[>ds ! axis1 b )\t rea*+ x 7spuri\sly multilocul> capsule71 or unit+ ) ! axis 7bilocul>1 trilocul>1 multilocul> capsule74 ,examples ( capsul> fruit--mignonette1 balsam1 violet1 poppy1 etc4 #e4 ,! siliqua or long pod is =m$ ( two c>pels1 & longitud9ally divid$ into two p>ts by a spuri\s dissepim5t call$ ! replum2 examples--cabbages1 /ock1 wallfl[]1 etc4 ,! silicula is a broad & %ort pod2 examples--,ib]is1 %eph]d's-purse1 etc4 #f4 ,! c>iopse 7c>yopsis1 hav+ ! appe>ance ( a nut71 is a monosp]m\s or "o-se$$ fruit1 ) an indehisc5t membran\s p]ic>p1 closely inve/+ ! se$ or incorporat$ ) x2 examples--rye1 :eat1 & o!r gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjg4--;,capsule 7poppy74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hjh4--,siliqua 7%eph]d's purse1 wallfl[]74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hji4--;,c>yopsis 7:eat74 #g4 ,! a*nium is a dry1 monosp]m\s1 indehisc5t fruit ) "o se$2 examples--ca%ew1 ranunculus1 /rawb]ry1 etc4 #h4 ,! nut or glans is a "o-cell$1 indehisc5t fruit1 ) a h>d5$ coriace\s or ligne\s p]ic>p2 examples--hazel-nut1 acorn1 etc4 ,! nucula1 or little nut1 is a c>iopse1 ) a solid coriace\s p]ic>p2 examples--buck:eat hemp1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #haj4--,nut 7hazel-nut74 #i4 ,! b]ry 7bacca7 is a pulpy1 succul5t fruit1 ) s(t r9d2 examples--! gooseb]ry & ! currant4 ,! pepo or peponida 7pumpk971 illu/rat$ by ! fruit ( ! g\rd & melon1 & ! hesp]idium1 illu/rat$ by ! fruit ( ! orange & lemon1 are modifications ( ! b]ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #haa4--,/rawb]ry4 #aj4 ,! drupe 7drup1 unripe olives72 ! mesoc>p is g5]ally pulpy & succul5t1 ! endoc>p h>d2 examples--! *]ry1 ! pea*1 ! plum1 etc4 #aa4 ,! pome 7pomum1 or apple72 ! out] p>ts ( ! p]ic>p =m a ?ick cellul>1 eatable mass2 ! endoc>p 7core7 is scaly or horny1 & encloses ! se$s )9 sep>ate cells2 examples--! apple1 pe>1 etc4 ,fruits consi/+ ( ! floral envelopes & ! ov>ies ( sev]al fl[]s unit$ into "o1 are t]m$ multiple or an?oc>p\s2 ! sorosis 7clu/]-fruit3 example--! p9e-apple1 ! breadfruit1 ! mulb]ry71 ! sycosis 7fig-fruit71 & ! /robilus 7fir-cone71 =m v>ieties ( ! an?oc>p\s or multiple fruit4 ,,non-,,fl[]+ ,,plants4 ,! cryptogamia or acrog5s is ! botanical t]m = ^! plants1 ( :i* we mu/ be v brief 9 our description1--n t ! subject is n wor?y ( a mu* l>g] space ?an we c devote to x1 b our pages are n ela/ic4 ,!re are numb]s ( plants )\t pi/ils or /am5s prop]ly s call$4 ,!y are hidd5 f human obs]vation--buri$ out ( sight2 & 9 ! f]n1 moss1 & o!r primitive plants !y are ?us hidd54 ,!re are sev]al families ( ! cryptogamia1 b two ma9 sections include !m all--viz41 ! cormog5s & ?allog5s4 ,^! are sometimes kn[n z cormophytes & ?allophytes1 b ! =m] w be our t]ms1 & !y include ! f]ns1 alg1 li*5s1 & mosses1 ) _m o!r families1 :i* we d n propose to exam9e 9 ?is summ>y sket*4 ,! microscope w "h be a great aid if n always absolutely necess>y = any close inve/igation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hab4--,liv]wort4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hac4--;,hypnum4 ,we are all famili> ) ! appe>ance ( f]ns1 & we may comm5ce ) a few obs]vations conc]n+ !m4 ,!y are an ext5sive family & v beautiful1 "s ( ! tropical species be+ p>ticul>ly noticeable = elegance4 ,we are "h mo/ly conc]n$ ) ! developm5t ( ! plant4 ,! polypod f]ns fructify "u ! leaves or 8fronds10 :i* op5 f a ball4 ,! se$-cases or sorri are situat$ at ! back ( ! fronds 9 br[n spots1 & :5 exam9$ !y w be f\nd to be collections ( capsules l t9y cases4 ,!re is a k9d ( b& at ! upp] "p :i* at ! prop] "t is ext5d$1 & te>+ op5 ! capsule releases ! se$s4 ,^! se$s or 8spores0 are v m9ute1 & n prop]ly se$s b buds1 e "o ( :i* c g5]ate se$s4 ,s if we try to grasp 9 imag9ation ! g5]at+ p[]s ( a few f]n fronds1 we %all mis]ably fail 9 ! attempt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #had4--;,horsetail4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hae4--;,bryum4 ,"s f]ns h ! 8spores0 ^u ! summit ( ! frond4 ,! osmundas belong to ?is family1 & are kn[n to all z ! 8fl[]+ f]n10 a contradiction palpable en\gh "u ! circum/ances4 ,! beautiful du/ ^u "s f]ns has be5 mi/ak5 = 8spores0 by _m p1 b x is m]ely a natural ornam5t ( ! plant4 ,! v5ation & v]nation ( f]ns are v curi\s1 b 9 ! det]m9ation ( f]ns ! only sure way is to consid] ! sorri & ! v5ation4 ,! diff]5ces t puzzle may be little or great1 b :5 ! sorri h be5 exam9$ all d\bts w be set aside4 ,!re are ab\t ?ree ?\s& v>ieties ( f]ns kn[n1 & we give a few illu/rations ( !m1 al?\gh any detail$ description is out ( ! "q1 = we h to m5tion ! beautiful mosses ( :i* !re are 9 ,brita9 m ?an five hundr$ diff]5t species1 all extremely beautiful1 p]fectly innocu\s1 & ev5 b5eficial4 ,,! ,,mosses ,,& ,,alg4 ,^! plants are extremely l[ly 9 ! score ( creation1 & also 9 /ature4 ,v few mosses atta9 any elevation1 only ! 8sporangia0 %oot up1 & ! plants are v delicately =m$1 ! leaves be+ all ( ! same patt]n4 ,!y are common 9 damp situations1 & ?rive 9 woods1 /reams1 & banks4 ,! ,font9alis is a riv] moss1 :ile ! ,hypnum is f\nd 9 h$ges4 ,! ,lycopodiace or ! club-moss family is int]m$iate betwe5 f]ns & mosses4 ,!y are f\nd 9 w>m1 moi/ climates1 & conta9 a sort ( brim/one4 ,!y gr[ well ) f]ns "u glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #haf4--;,diatoma vulg>is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hag4--;,club-moss4 ,! ,musci or moss-family prop] are useful 9 v>i\s ways4 ,we h also ! liv]worts1 :i* be> "s resemblance to li*5s4 ,!y gr[ betwe5 /ones ne> wat]1 or 9 damp situations4 ,!re are two di/9ct families1 bo? beautiful :5 exam9$1 & are nam$ ,m>*antiace1 & ,jung]amanniace1 or scale moss4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hah4--,scale-moss4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hai4--,v>i\s diatomace4 ,! ,?allog5s or ,?allog5 include alg1 li*5s1 & fungi1 :i* are ! l[e/ ( ! plants1 & all v mu* alike4 ,! alg are t]m$ 8protophytes10 & consi/ ( liv+ cells propagat+ by subdivision1 or union4 ,! ?allog5s h !re=e no di/9ct axes1 leaves1 or /omata4 ,! alg are ?us simply cellul> plants f\nd 9 salt or fre% wat]1 hot & cold4 ,!y sometimes appe> z 8slime40 ,"s conta9 silicia1 & are t]m$ ,diatomace1 & ^! propagate by subdivision1 & :5 !y die _! %elly cov]+ rema9s1 & we f9d ! %ells or cases 9 all e>?y =mations4 ,^! diatomace h be5 rais$ f ! b$s ( oceans1 & ,atlantic s\nd+s h reveal$ _! pres5ce1--z mud1 :5 exam9$1 proves to be ^! rema9s ( vegetable %ells4 ,?us ! inf9itely little 9 ! animal & vegetable worlds meet at ! bottom ( ! sea1 z well z on dry l&4 ,!re are m>9e & fre%-wat] alg--! =m] famili> to u z seawe$s :i* possess air-bladd]s t *ildr5 love to explode1 & :i* assi/ ! alg to float4 ,!y atta* !mselves to rocks1 g5]ally at ! base2 ! lovely col\rs ( seawe$s are well kn[n4 ,!y w be recogniz$ "u ! "n ( 8tangle0 7fucus71 :i*1 :5 burn$1 gives kelp & b>illa1 :i* is full ( iodide & sodium4 ,! ,s>gasso ,sea is compos$ ( miles ( alg :i* live 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,! ,c>rage5 or ,iri% moss is v nutriti\s & useful 9 consumptive cases4 ,inde$1 all alg1 if n absolutely useful1 are c]ta9ly n delet]i\s4 ,! 8bladd]-wrack0 0 =m]ly useful = ! production ( soda4 8,! life-hi/ory ( "o ( ^! uni-cellul> plants 9 its mo/ simple =m1 c sc>cely be bett] exemplifi$ ?an 9 ! ,palmogea macrococca1 "o ( ^? humble =ms ( vegetation :i* spreads itself z a gre5 slime ov] damp /ones1 walls1 etc4 ,:5 ?is slime is exam9$ ) a microscope1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( a multitude ( gre5 cells1 ea* surr\nd$ by a gelat9\s envelope2 ! cell :i* does n seem to h any di/9ct membran\s wall is fill$ ) granul> p>ticles ( a gre5 col\r1 & a #8nucleus' may sometimes be di/+ui%$ ?r\gh ! mid/ ( ^!4 ,:5 treat$ ) t9cture ( iod9e1 h[ev]1 ! gre5 cont5ts ( ! cell are turn$ to a br[ni% hue1 & a d>k-br[n nucleus is di/9ctly %[n4 ,o!r cells are se51 :i* are consid]ably elongat$1 "s ( !m beg9n+ to pres5t a sort ( h\r-glass contraction across ! middle2 9 ^! is comm5c+ t curi\s multiplication by duplicative subdivision :i* is ! mode 9 :i* increase ne>ly always takes place ?r\gh\t ! vegetable k+dom40#cg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbj4--;,bladd] wrack4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hba4--,li*54 ,,li*5s are num]\s1 & may be f\nd ^u ! b>k ( trees 9 dry =ms ( grey & yell[ gr[?1 & on walls & old /ones 9 our gravey>ds4 ,on ! hills we f9d !m gr[+ ^u ! granite1 & x w\ld appe> t !y pref] /one to any o!r hold+ gr\nd4 ,! ,arctic li*5s =m ! pr9cipal food ( ! useful re9de]1 & 8,icel& moss0 is repres5t$ z :olesome = man4 ,li*5 is d]iv$ f ! ,greek t]m = 8w>t40 ,! ,,fungi are v important1 & ) !m we w close our summ>y4 ,!y include ! fav\rite mu%rooms & poison\s toad-/ools1 ) _m o!r 8fung\s gr[?s10 f ! 8m\ld0 on ! jam pot to ! mu%room4 ,"s ( ^! fungi are peculi> to ! sub/ances ^u :i* !y exi/1 & are 9 num]\s in/ances de/ructive4 ,! microscopic fungus ,pucc9ea gram9is is ! p>asite :i* fixes itself to corn1 & produces ! disease kn[n z mildew1 & ! ,ur$o segetum 7ano!r microscopic fungus7 causes ! 8smut02 ! 8bunt0 is caus$ by ! ,ur$o ftida1 & ! 8spur0 or 8ergot10 :i* attacks rye1 is caus$ by ! ,ac9ula clavis4 ,^! fungi completely de/roy ! gra9 ( corn 9 :i* !y =m1 & propagate 9 ! mo/ rapid mann]2 ! ergot is moreov] a dang]\s poison to ^? :o eat ! bread made ( rye infect$ by x4 ,! truffle is a k9d ( und]gr\nd fungus1 & is e/eem$ a da9ty4 ,mu%rooms are also fungi1 & sev]al species are suffici5tly :olesome2 ^! are ! field mu%room & ! fairy-r+ mu%room4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbb4--;a a1 ,m\ld f an old bone2 b1 ,m\ld f jam4 ,any organic sub/ance w %ortly become cov]$ ) ?is 8m\ld0 or mildew4 ,! air is s full ( ! g]ms ( animal & vegetable life t1 z x p5etrates ev]y:]e1 ! smalle/ supply mu/ conta9 "s g]ms2 & ^!1 "u a p[]ful microscope1 pres5t mo/ beautiful =ms & col\rs4 ,we annex 7fig4 #hbb7 "s ( ^! =ms highly magnifi$4 ,!y are deposit$ by ! air1 & ! sub/ance into :i* !y happ5 to fall det]m9es ! k9d ( life :i* is to inhabit x4 ,a few ( ^! spores only come to maturity4 ,we aga9 take ! lib]ty to quote ,dr4 ,c>p5t] on ?is subject4 ,he says3-- 8,!re are sc>cely any microscopic objects m beautiful ?an "s ( ^? =ms ( m\ld or mildew :i* are s commonly f\nd gr[+ ^u ! surface ( jams & pres]ves1 especially :5 !y are view$ ) a l[ magnify+ p[] & by reflect$ light2 = !y pres5t !mselves z a =e/ ( /ems & bran*es ( extremely v>i$ & elegant =ms1 load$ ) fruit ( s+ul> delicacy ( con=mation1 all gli/5+ brightly on a d>k gr\nd4 8,! univ]sality ( ! appe>ance ( ^! simple =ms ( fungi ^u all spots fav\rable to _! developm5t1 has giv5 rise to ! belief t !y are spontane\sly produc$ by decay+ sub/ances1 b !re is no occasion = ?is mode ( acc\nt+ = x1 s9ce ! extraord9>y means adopt$ by nature = ! production & diffusion ( ! g]ms ( ^! plants adequately suffices to expla9 ! facts ( ! case4 8,! numb] ( sporules :i* any "o fungus may develop is almo/ incalculable2 a s+le individual ( ! 8puff-ball0 tribe has be5 comput$ to s5d =? no few] ?an t5 millions4 ,& _! m9ut5ess is su* t !y are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! air 9 ! f9e/ possible du/1 s t x is difficult to conceive ( a place f :i* !y %\ld be exclud$40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbc4--;,eatable mu%room 7,ag>icus campe/ris74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbd4--,se$s ) pappi4 ,pure wat] expos$ to ! air does n af=d n\ri%m5t to ! g]ms :i* fall into x1 till a suffici5t numb] ( !m %all h be5 deposit$ to =m a food = ^? :i* come aft] !m2 b if we mix ) ! wat] any soluble vegetable or animal matt]1 9 a %ort "t ! microscope w detect ! gr[? ( ! g]ms t are be+ deposit$1 = :]e n\ri%m5t is1 !re only c !y be develop$4 ,^! g]ms are capable ( exi/+ = an indef9ite p]iod1 ei!r float+ 9 ! wat]1 or bl[n ab\t by ! air1 & h be5 detect$ hundr$s ( miles f l&2 ! rigg+ & sails ( %ips f> away f %ore are (t5 cov]$ ) :at sailors suppose to be s& bl[n f ! l&1 b :i* are organic sub/ances1 ei!r vegetable or animal4 ,accord+ to ,humboldt1 ! ,r$ ,sea has d]iv$ its "n f ! fact t at c]ta9 seasons ! surface ( ! wat] has a r$di% appe>ance1 & ?is 7z he says7 he 0 =tunate en\gh to obs]ve1 :i* col\r he f\nd to be due to myriads ( r$ fungi1 :i* _h =m$ on ! surface4 ,! se$s ( "s plants are furni%$ ) m9ute w+s or plumes1 :i* cause !m to be borne on ! air or float$ on ! wat] 7fig4 #hbd71 to f]tilise "s b>r5 spot1 p]haps a coral reef1 :i* has at l5g? rea*$ ! surface ( ! wat]1 & :i* asc5ds no high]1 = ! little creatures :i* built x are aquatic1 & _c live expos$ to ! air2 ?is coral reef n[ becomes a receptacle = seawe$ & fungi1 :i* float on ! surface ( ! ocean are wa%$ on to ! reef1 die1 decay1 & leave beh9d a ?9 lay] ( m\ld1 :i* process be+ repeat$ aga9 & aga91 =ms an elevat$ edge to ! reef1 enclos+ a lake1 or 8lagoon0 z x is call$1 ! wat]s ( :i* evaporate1 & ! space is fill$ up 9 ! same way z ! edge 0 =m$1 toge!r ) ! excrem5ts ( birds1 etc41 =m+ lay] aft] lay] ( m\ld1 & ! surface becomes fit = ! gr[? ( l>g] se$s1 z ! cocoa-nut1 banana1 etc41 :i* are drift$ on to x by ! waves2 9 ?is way a coral reef becomes an isl& fit to be inhabit$ by man & o!r animals4 ,x is impossible = any p]son n accu/om$ to obs]ve ! mann] ( ! propagation ( ! fungi1 to und]/& a writt5 description1 = ! fructification ( ^! plants are v v>i$ 9 ! mann] ( ! developm5t ( ! spores4 ,!y are n g5]ally hurtful1 b mu* caution %\ld be obs]v$ 9 ! matt] ( ! mu%room1 :i* may be di/+ui%$ by ! pale p9k & black ( ! "u "p4 ,!re are _m poison\s fungi1 b ! great] numb] are h>mless1 ?\gh !y are n int5d$ = food4 ,!y simply cle> away ! decay+ gr[?s1 & act z safety-valves to ,nature by c>ry+ away :at is n requir$1 to give x to ! air aga9 to be r5ew$ into life4 ,! vegetable k+dom =ms ! l9k betwe5 ! m9]als & ! animals4 ,! vegetable d]ives food & n\ri%m5t f wat]1 c>bonic acid1 & ammonia1 :i* are1 z we already "k1 made up ( c]ta9 elem5ts1 & ?us supply u all ) food4 ,!y give out oxyg5 = ! use ( animals1 & are ?us1 9 ano!r s5se1 ! s\rce ( life4 ,! gr[? ( a plant is v int]e/+1 & we may conclude by foll[+ x4 ,! se$ is s[n1 & ! cells ( ! 8cellul> tissue0 become develop$1 pass+ "s upw>ds1 "s d[nw>ds1 to =m a radicle or plumule1 z expla9$4 ,! latt] c>ries up ! cotyl$on1 :i* beg9s to decompose c>bonic acid f ! atmosph]e1 & fix+ ! c>bon z woody fibre4 ,! leaves are !n =m$ & m fibres1 & s on = e leaf2 ?us ! numb] ( woody fibres :i* =m ! trunk ( a tree is 9 proportion to ! numb] ( leaves :i* t tree has borne1 f :i* we come to ! conclusion t ! size ( ! trunk ( a tree is ! sum ( all its bran*es4 ,:ile all ?is is go+ on1 ! cellul> tissue ( ! d[nw>d "p or radicle also becomes develop$ & divides out into roots1 on ! surface & at ! extremities ( :i* are m9ute cellul> bodies call$ 8spongioles0 7f _! p[] ( absorb+ moi/ure71 :i* take up ! fluid ( ! e>? :i* surr\nds !m2 ?is moi/ure asc5ds ?r\gh ! vessels ( ! plant till x arrives at ! surface ( ! leaves1 :]e x is expos$ to ! action ( light & sun%9e4 ,! asc5t ( ! moi/ure ( ! e>? 0 fir/ correctly expla9$ by ,du ,tro*et1 & is ow+ to a peculi> p[] :i* he discov]$1 & :i* is call$ 8,endosmose02 ?is consi/s 9 ! t5d5cy :i* a fluid has to p5etrate a membrane on ! o!r side ( :i* is a fluid ( great] d5sity ?an itself4 ,?is may be se5 by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 obta9 a piece ( glass tub+ ab\t a foot long1 hav+ ! end bl[n out into ! =m ( a bell1 z 9 fig4 #hbe1 tie a piece ( bladd] ov] ! exp&$ end & fill x p>tly ) syrup or gum-wat]1 s t ?is %all rise 9 ! /alk ab\t an in*2 place ?is 9 a glass ( wat] ) ! bladd] d[nw>ds1 & ! fluid w be se5 sl[ly to rise 9 ! /alk1 s t 9 p]haps an h\r x w rise to ! top4 ,?is app>atus resembles "o ( ! spongioles at ! extremity ( ! fibre ( a root4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbe4--;,endosmose4 ,! ra9 fall+ ?r\gh ! air c>ries ) x a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic acid & ammonia1 :i* ! air always conta9s1 & x is ! :ole s\rce ( ! nitrog5 :i* =ms a v important "p ( ! bodies ( plants & animals4 ,:5 ! ra9 arrives at ! surface ( ! e>?1 x s9ks d[n into x & c>ries ) x all soluble vegetable or animal matt] :i* x meets )1 toge!r ) any soluble e>?y matt] :i* may exi/ 9 ! soil2 ?is =ms ! sap ( ! tree4 ,:5 x arrives at ! surface ( ! leaf1 ! wat]y "p ( x comb9es ) ! c>bonic acid ( ! air 7?r\gh ! influ5ce ( light71 & appropriat+ its c>bon1 gives out ! oxyg52 ?is is ! true respiration ( plants1 & is exactly ! rev]se ( :at takes place dur+ ! respiration ( animals1 9 :i* case oxyg5 is absorb$ & c>bonic acid giv5 (f4 ,! c>bon ?us reta9$ by ! plant comb9es ) ! elem5ts ( ! wat] to =m ! solid gre5 sub/ance call$ *lorophyl1 :i* is ! basis ( all ! tissues ( ! plant2 ! ammonia is also decompos$1 & its nitrog5 comb9+ ) ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 ( ! wat]1 & ! c>bon ( ! c>bonic acid =ms ^? comp\nds :i* con/itute ! mo/ n\ri%+ p>ts ( vegetables1 su* z album51 glut51 etc41 & ( :i* all ! animal tissues are built up1 = ! production ( ^! organic sub/ances takes place 9 ! vegetable only1 animals simply appropriat+ !m = _! food4 ,! sap :i* rea*es ! leaf is n all conv]t$ into *lorophyl1 b also into ^? peculi> juices :i* are f\nd 9 plants1 "s ( :i* conta9 sug>1 "s gum1 o!rs 7z ! p9e tribe7 turp5t9e1 & 9 ! laurel tribe camphor1 all ( :i* are sub/ances conta9+ mu* c>bon2 moreov] ! solid wood & b>k are deposit$ f ^! juices z !y desc5d f ! leaf aft] hav+ be5 act$ on by light 7or ! act9ic p[] associat$ ) x74 ,n[1 z ! wat]1 ammonia1 & c>bonic acid :i* desc5d ) ! ra9 are f ! air1 & z ! vegetable is =m$ :olly by _! absorption1 x may be fairly said t ! vegetable k+dom 7& !re=e ! animal7 fe$s ^u ! air1 & t ! trees d n gr[ out ( ! e>?1 b into x4 ,,classification ,,( ,,plants4 ,= ! gr\ndwork ( ! sy/em ( classification :i* univ]sally obta9s at pres5t1 we are indebt$ to ,l9nu1 a ,sw$e1 born 9 #agjg4 ,9 8 classification ( plants1 ,l9nu foll[$ two diff]5t me?ods4 ,9 ! "o1 he bas$ 8 division ( plants 9 classes & ord]s1 ^u c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 ! floral organs4 ,?is sy/em1 be+ ?us f\nd$ on *>act]s tak5 f c]ta9 p>ts ( ! plant only1 )\t ref]5ce to o!rs1 & hav+ some?+ artificial 9 x1 has = t reason be5 t]m$ ! artificial sy/em1 b x is n[ m g5]ally kn[n z ! ,l9nan sy/em4 ,9 ! o!r me?od1 he arrang$ ! plants accord+ to c]ta9 g5]al resemblances & aff9ities1 9 natural ord]s or families4 ,?is sy/em1 :i* is kn[n z ! natural sy/em1 has subsequ5tly be5 mu* improv$4 ,we use ! t]m species1 to designate a numb] ( individual plants1 :i*1 9 all ess5tial & unv>y+ *>act]s1 resemble ea* o!r m closely ?an !y d any o!r plant2 ! t]m g5us or k9d1 to designate an assemblage ( ne>ly alli$ species1 agree+ ) "o ano!r 9 g5]al /ructure & appe>ance m closely ?an !y d ) any o!r species4 ,"h1 too1 x mu/ be obvi\s1 t :ile all p>ts ( ! plant may furni% specific *>act]s1 ! "* ( ! g5]a are tak5 exclusively f ! p>ts ( fructification4 ,9 ! "n ( a plant bo? ! g5us & ! species are giv54 ,! "n designat+ ! g5us is call$ ! g5]ic "n ( ! plant1 ! "o designat+ ! species1 ! specific or trivial "n4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 we h ! g5us ,viola1 :i* includes ! species ,viola odorata1 sweet violet2 ,viola can9a1 dog violet2 ,viola tricolor1 he>t's-ease4 ,x is necess>y to give ! ,lat9 names ( plants1 z ! common "n diff]s1 n only 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 b ev5 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same c\ntry4 ,an assemblage or gr\p ( alli$ g5]a1 agree+ 9 _! g5]al *>act]s1 ?\gh diff]+ 9 _! special con=mation1 is call$ an ord] or family ( plants4 ,! sunfl[]1 ! daisy1 ! a/]1 & ! dahlia1 are1 = example1 plants ( diff]5t g5]a1 b :i*1 all ( !m1 belong to ! same ord] or family4 ,all plants are divid$ into ?ree prim>y classes--viz41 ,dicotyl$ons1 ,monocotyl$ons1 & ,acotyl$ons1 z has be5 /at$ already4 ,a prop] degree ( famili>ity ) ! sy/ematic classification ( plants is ( ! v highe/ importance to ! /ud5t4 ,a successful pursuit ( ?is bran* ( ! botanical sci5ce presupposes a ?or\gh k ( ! /ructure & physiology ( plants1 & requires1 moreov]1 ! aid ( att5tive obs]vation1 & also "s dilig5ce 9 collect+ & arrang+ plants4 ,,! ,,artificial ,,or ,,l9n,,an ,,sy/em ,,( ,,classification4 ,9 ?is sy/em plants are divid$ into tw5ty-f\r classes2 tw5ty-?ree ( ^! conta9 ! ,dicotyl$ons & ,monocotyl$ons indiscrim9ately2 ! tw5ty-f\r? class conta9s ! ,acotyl$ons4 ,! fir/ tw5ty-?ree classes are f\nd$ on ! numb]1 position1 relative l5g?s1 & connection ( ! /am5s4 ,! tw5ty-f\r? comprises ! plants ) inconspicu\s fl[]s4 ,e class is subdivid$ aga9 into sev]al ord]s4 ,?is division dep5ds1 9 ! fir/ ?irte5 classes1 on ! numb] ( ! /yles2 9 classes ,,xiv4 & ,,xv4 on ! nature ( ! fruit2 9 classes ,,xvi4 to ,,xviii4 & ,,xx4 to ,,xxii4 on ! numb] ( /am5s2 9 classes ,,xix4 & ,,xxiii4 on ! p]fection ( ! fl[]4 ,9 class ,,xxiv4 ! ord]s are =m$ accord+ to natural aff9ities4 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,l9n,,an ,,sy/em ,,( ,,classification4 ,a4--,,fl[]s ,,pres5t 7,phan]ogamia74 ,i4 ,/am5s & pi/il 9 e fl[] 7h]maphrodite74 #a4 ,/am5s free4 a4 ,/am5s ( equal l5g?1 or n diff]+ 9 def9ite proportions4 ,numb] ( ,/am5s4 #a ,class #a4 ,mon&ria4 #b 0 #b4 ,di&ria4 #c 0 #c4 ,tri&ria4 #d 0 #d4 ,tetr&ria4 #e 0 #e4 ,p5t&ria4 #f 0 #f4 ,hex&ria4 #g 0 #g4 ,hept&ria4 #h 0 #h4 ,oct&ria4 #i 0 #i4 ,enne&ria4 #aj 0 #aj4 ,dec&ria4 #aa-ai 0 #aa4 ,dodec&ria4 #bj or ins]t$ on calyx 0 #ab4 ,icos&ria4 m 0 receptacle 0 #ac4 ,poly&ria4 b4 ,/am5s ( diff]5t l5g?s1 two long & two %ort 0 #ad4 ,didynamia4 f\r long & two %ort 0 #ae4 ,tetradynamia #b4 ,/am5s unit$ by filam5ts 9 "o bundle 0 #af4 ,monadelphia4 0 0 9 two bundles 0 #ag4 ,diadelphia4 0 0 9 m ?an two bundles 0 #ah4 ,polyadelphia4 0 by an!rs 7comp\nd fl[]s7 0 #ai4 ,syng5esia4 0 ) pi/il on a column 0 #bj4 ,gyn&ria4 ,,ii4 ,/am5s & pi/il 9 diff]5t fl[]s 7unisexual7 on ! same plant 0 #ba4 ,moncia4 on diff]5t plants 0 #bb4 ,dicia4 ,,iii4 ,/am5s & pi/il 9 ! same or 9 diff]5t fl[]s1 on ! same or on diff]5t plants 0 #bc4 ,polygamia4 ,b4--,,fl[]s ,,abs5t 0 #bd4 ,cryptogamia ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,classes ,,& ,,ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,classes4 ,ord]s4 ,examples4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,i4--,,mon&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,hippuris4 ,"o /am54 ,digynia two /yles ,callitri*e4 ,,ii4--,,di&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,syr+a4 ,two /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,an?oxan?um4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,,iii4--,,tri&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,iris4 ,?ree /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,hordeum4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,holo/eum4 ,,iv4--,,tetr&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,scabiosa4 ,f\r /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,g5tiana4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,v4--,,p5t&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,borago4 ,five /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,fniculum4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,sambucus4 ,tetragynia f\r d4 ,p>nassia4 ,p5tagynia five d4 ,l9um4 ,polygynia six & m d4 ,myosurus4 ,,vi4--,,hex&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,lilium4 ,six /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,oxyria4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,rumex4 ,tetragynia f\r d4 ,alisma4 ,polygynia _m d4 ,,vii4--,,hept&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,tri5talis4 ,sev5 /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,heptagynia sev5 d4 ,,viii4--,,oct&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,daphne4 ,eight /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,*rysospl5ium4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,polygonum4 ,tetragynia f\r d4 ,p>is4 ,,ix4--,,enne&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,n9e /am5s4 ,trigynia ?ree /yles ,hexagynia six d4 ,butomus4 ,x4--,,dec&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,pyrola4 ,t5 /am5s4 ,digynia two /yles ,dian?us4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,sil5e4 ,p5tagynia five d4 ,ly*nis4 ,decagynia t5 d4 ,,xi4--,,dodec&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,ly?rum4 ,twelve to n9ete5 ,digynia two /yles ,agrimonia4 /am5s4 ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,res$a4 ,p5tagynia five d4 ,dodecagynia twelve d4 ,semp]vivum4 ,,xii4--,,icos&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,prunus4 ,tw5ty or m ,digynia two /yles ,cratgus4 /am5s ins]t$ ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,sorbus4 on ! calyx4 ,p5tagynia five d4 ,polygynia _m d4 ,rosa4 ,,xiii4--,,poly&ria ,monogynia "o /yle ,papav]4 ,_m /am5s ,digynia two /yles ,ponia4 ins]t$ on ! ,trigynia ?ree d4 ,aconitum4 receptacle4 ,tetragynia f\r d4 ,p5tagynia five d4 ,nigella4 ,hexagynia six d4 ,polygynia _m d4 ,ranunculus4 ,,xiv4--,,didynamia ,gymnosp]mia f\r nak$ se$s ,lav&ula4 ,two long & two ,angiosp]mia se$s 9 capsules ,l9>ia4 %ort /am5s4 ,labiate & ,p]sonate ,fl[]s4 ,,xv4--,,tetradynamia ,siliculosa broad & %ort pod ,capsella4 ,f\r long & two 7silicula71 & %ort /am5s4 /yle ,crucif]\s ,siliquosa long pod 7siliqua72 ,brassica4 ,fl[]s4 /igma sessile ,,xvi4--,,monadelphia ,p5t&ria five /am5s ,erodium4 ,/am5s unit$ 9 ,enne&ria n9e d4 "o bundle4 ,dec&ria t5 d4 ,g]anium4 ,dodec&ria #aa-ai d4 ,malva4 ,poly&ria _m d4 ,,xvii4--,,diadelphia ,p5t&ria five /am5s ,/am5s unit$ 9 7two above & ?ree bel[47 two bundles 7"o ,hex&ria six /am5s ,fum>ia4 g5]ally 7?ree "r1 ?ree left1 or conta9+ n9e ?ree above & ?ree bel[47 enclos$ 9 a ,oct&ria eight /am5s ,polygala4 tube1 & "o 7f\r above & f\r bel[1 free74 all unit$ at ! base47 ,papilionace4 ,dec&ria t5 /am5s ,pisum1 ,trifolium 7"o above & n9e bel[1 ,g5i/a4 unit$ 9 a cleft tube surr\nd+ ! ov>y47 ,,xviii4--,,polyadelphia ,p5t&ria five bundles ,/am5s unit$ 9 7ea* bundle be>+ five m ?an two an!rs #be /am5s47 bundles4 ,dodec&ria twelve /am5s 7ea* bundle be>+ ?ree an!rs #cf /am5s47 ,icos&ria _m /am5s 9 ,citrus4 bundles1 ins]t$ on ! calyx 7#bj /am5s 9 bundles be>+ an unequal numb] ( an!rs47 ,poly&ria _m /am5s 9 ,hyp]icum4 ?ree1 five1 & n9e bundles1 ins]t$ on ! receptacle4 ,,xix4--,,syng5esia ,polygamia qualia1 florets all ,lactuca4 ,five /am5s1 h]maphrodite4 filam5ts free1 ,polygamia sup]flua1 florets ( ,a/]4 an!rs unit$1 ! disc h]maphrodite1 ^? fl[] ( ! ray pi/illif]\s & monopetal\s1 f]tile4 florets unit$ on ,polygamia fru/ranea1 florets ,helian?us4 a disc4 ,composit4 ( ! disc h]maphrodite1 ,9 ! fir/ f\r ^? ( ! ray neutral4 ord]s only a ,polygamia necess>ia1 florets ,cal5dula4 common calyx4 ( ! disc /am9if]\s1 ( ! ray pi/illif]\s4 ,polygamia segregata1 a common ,e*9ops4 calyx includ+ all ! florets1 & a sep>ate involucre = ea*4 ,monogamia1 an!rs unit$1 fl[]s n comp\nd4 ,,xx4--,,gyn&ria ,di&ria two an!rs ,or*is4 ,/am5s & ,tri&ria ?ree d4 pi/il unit$4 ,tetr&ria f\r d4 ,p5t&ria five d4 ,hex&ria six d4 ,ari/olo*ia4 ,dec&ria t5 d4 ,dodec&ria #aa-ai d4 ,poly&ria tw5ty or m d4 ,,xxi4--,,mon,,cia ,mon&ria "o /am5 ,arum4 ,/am5s & pi/ils ,di&ria two /am5s ,lemna4 9 diff]5t ,tri&ria ?ree d4 ,c>ex4 fl[]s on ! ,tetr&ria f\r d4 ,urtica4 same plant4 ,p5t&ria five d4 ,am>an?us4 ,hex&ria six d4 ,hept&ria sev5 d4 ,poly&ria m ?an sev5 d4 ,qu]cus4 ,monadelphia /am5s unit$ ,p9us4 ,syng5esia /am5s unit$ by _! an!rs4 ,gyn&ria /am5s & /yles unit$ ,,xxii4--,,di,,cia ,mon&ria "o /am5 ,salix4 ,/am5s & pi/ils ,di&ria two /am5s 9 diff]5t ,tri&ria ?ree d4 ,ficus4 fl[]s on ,tetr&ria f\r d4 ,viscum4 diff]5t plants4 ,p5t&ria five d4 ,cannabis4 ,hex&ria six d4 ,loran?us4 ,oct&ria eight d4 ,populus4 ,enne&ria n9e d4 ,laurus4 ,dec&ria t5 d4 ,dodec&ria #aa-ai d4 ,/ratiotes4 ,poly&ria _m d4 ,monadelphia /am5s unit$ 9 ,junip]us4 "o bundle4 ,syng5esia /am5s unit$ by ! an!rs4 ,gyn&ria /am5s & /yles unit$4 ,,xxiii4--,,polygamia ,moncia1 h]maphrodite1 ,ac]4 ,/am5s & pi/il /am9if]\s1 & 9 ! same1 or 9 pi/illif]\s fl[]s on ! diff]5t fl[]s1 same plant4 on ! same or on ,dicia on two plants ,frax9us4 diff]5t plants4 ,tricia on ?ree plants ,,xxiv4--,,cryptogamia ,filices ,f]ns ,aspidium4 ,organs ( ,musci ,mosses ,spagnum4 fructification ,hepatic ,liv]worts ,m>*antia4 conceal$ 7fl[]s ,li*5es ,li*5s ,cetr>ia4 inconspicu\s74 ,alg ,seawe$s ,fucus4 ,fungi ,mu%rooms ,ag>icus4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,) all its imp]fections1 ! artificial sy/em has ?is advantage1 t ! "* on :i* x is f\nd$ is suffici5tly conspicu\s 7t is1 ( c\rse1 ) ! plants 9 full fl[]7 to r5d] x g5]ally easy to asc]ta9 ! class & ord] ( a plant4 ,at all ev5ts1 x may s]ve z a useful artificial key1 & z su* may be comb9$ advantage\sly ) ! natural sy/em4 #aad4 ,,natural ,,sy/em 7,,jussieu',s74 ,classes4 ,i4 ,acotyl$ons #a/ ,class4 ,,ii4 ,monocotyl$ons ,mono-hypogyn 7/am5s hypogyn\s7 #bnd 0 ,mono-p]igyn 7/am5s p]igyn\s7 #crd 0 ,mono-epigyn 7/am5s epigyn\s7 #d? 0 ,,iii4 ,dicotyl$ons4 ,monocl9es1 fl[]s h]maphrodite4 ,epi/am9e 7/am5s epigyn\s7 #e? 0 ,apetal 7no petals7 ,p]i/am9e 7/am5s p]igyn\s7 #f? 0 ,hypo/am9e 7/am5s hypogyn\s7 #g? 0 ,monopetal 7petals unit$7 ,hypocoroll 7corolla hypogyn\s7 #h? 0 ,p]icoroll 7corolla p]igyn\s7 #i? 0 ,epicoroll 7corolla epigyn\s7 ,synan!r 7an!rs unit$7 #aj? 0 ,*orisan!r 7an!rs free7 #aa? 0 ,polypetal 7petals di/9ct7 ,epipetal 7petals epigyn\s7 #ab? 0 ,p]ipetal 7petals p]igyn\s7 #ac? 0 ,hypopetal 7petals hypogyn\s7 #ad? 0 ,dicl9es1 fl[]s unisexual1 or )\t a p]ian?4 #ae? 0 ,?is sy/em1 be+ likewise f\nd$ p>tly on individual organs1 is also1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 artificial2 &1 /rictly speak+1 e natural me?od ( botanic classification mu/ p>take m or less ( an artificial "*1 z _m ord]s ( plants m]ge s ins5sibly into o!rs t _! respective limits _c be accurately or rigor\sly def9$4 ,,footnotes3 #cg ,c>p5t] on ! ,microscope4 ,,*apt] ,,liv4 ,,zoology4 ,,classification ,,( ,,animals--,,v]tebrates ,,& ,,inv]tebrates--,,protozoa--,,hydrozoa-- ,,act9ozoa4 ,zoology treats ( life--( organiz$ be+s :i* are capable ( volunt>y motion4 ,plants exi/1 animals live & move4 ,bo? are organic be+s1 b ! latt] possess ! faculty ( w & spontane\s movem5t4 ,! animal c leave a place & enjoy o!r surr\nd+s1 ! plant _c4 ,we h already cross$ ! bord]l& :i* connects ! plant & ! animal4 ,we h se5 plants almo/ animals4 ,we c\ld comm5ce ?is section ) animals :i* are almo/ plants1 s closely d ! divisions approa* ea* o!r4 ,,zoology is ! sci5ce ( ! k ( animals z ,,botany is ( ! k ( plants4 ,:]e !re is vegetation !re are animals1 n quadrup$s or bip$s necess>ily1 b numb]s ( small1 x may be invisible1 creatures :i* exi/ ^u ! vegetable k+dom--! alg & m9ute creations ( globules & cells1 ! infusoria already m5tion$1 ! corals1 etc4 ,& 9 ! 8protozoa10 or fir/ specim5s ( animal life1 we h a simil>ity to ! vegetable k+dom2 we !n get by gradual /eps to o!r m p]fect be+s1 ea* aft] 8 k9d1 till we arrive at ! mo/ p]fect animal--,,man4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbf4--;,e*9us1 or ,sea-,ur*94 ,animals are divid$ into two families1 ! ,,inv]tebrate & ! ,,v]tebrate4 ,! =m] has no sp9e nor skeleton2 ! latt] has bo?4 ,^! aga9 are divid$ into sub-families1 classes1 & ord]s1 z foll[s4 ,man is an animal--b :at is an animal8 ,we c sc>cely tell 9 a few words4 ,l9nu def9$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! animal & ! plant1 = ! =m]1 said he1 live1 gr[1 & feel1 :ile ! latt] live & gr[4 ,we h protozoa 9 ! animal k+dom consi/+ ( a s+le cell or blood corpuscle1 "s o!rs )\t m\?s or dige/ive organs1 "s h no head2 "s1 z 9 ! tape-worm1 only a s-call$ head1 ) suck]s or atta*m5ts1 aft] :i* x develops jo9ts1 :i* are at fir/ imp]fect1 b gradually mature z !y are pu%$ f>!r away by new-issu+ jo9ts4 ,animals1 !re=e1 d n all possess organs1 nor is !re any common organ by :i* all animals c be class$4 ,! indisp5sable 9 "o is abs5t 9 ano!r1 & :ile our m\?s & dige/ive app>atus are all important1 9 o!r animals suck]s & no dige/ive app>atus at all is q suffici5t4 ,"s h "o m\?1 "s sev]al2 "s h m\?s & a proboscis to assi/ !m1 "s only ! trunk & no m\?--s call$--at all1 z 9 "s insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbg4--,polypidom4 ,! organisms :i* c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f vegetables 7 t]m$ zoophytes1 or plant animals1 &1 7 space available1 a comp>ison might be in/itut$ betwe5 ! extremes ( gr[? ( ! animals & plants1 f ! l>ge/ :ales to ! t9y microscopic protozoa1 & f ! m\ld ^u jam to ! gigantic trees ( ,cali=nia1 "o leaf ( :i* x is said w %elt] tw5ty m5 f ra94 ,cuvi] sp5t _m ye>s 9 p]fect+ 8 sy/ematic arrangem5ts ( animals1 & ?is classification1 ?\gh _m re>rangem5ts h be5 made z mod]n discov]y progress$1 may be reg>d$ z ! fundam5tal sy/em ( all4 ,pr(essor ,agassiz adopt$ x ) modifications4 ,pr(essor ,ni*olson has made a some:at diff]5t arrangem5t1 b ess5tially !re w be f\nd b slight diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,we app5d bo? ^! arrangem5ts = comp>ison3-- ,,agassiz-,,cuvi]4 ,,inv]tebrata4 ,,bran* ,i4--,,radiata4 ,class ,i4--,polypi #b ord]s ,includ+ act9oids & halcyonoids4 0 ,,ii4--,acalephs #c 0 hydroids1 discophor1 ct5ophor4 0 ,,iii4--,e*9od]ms #d 0 cr9oids1 a/]oids1 e*9oids4 ,,bran* ,,ii4--,,mollusca4 ,class ,i4--,acephala #d ord]s bryoza1 bra*iopods1 tunicata1 & lamellibran*iata4 0 ,,ii4--,ga/]opoda #c 0 pipt]opoda1 het]opoda1 & ga/]opoda 7prop]74 0 ,,iii4--,cephalopoda #b 0 tetrabran*iata1 & dibran*iata4 ,,bran* ,,iii4--,,articulata4 ,class ,i4--,worms #c ord]s trematods 7includ+ lee*es1 etc471 nematoids1 & annelides4 0 ,,ii4--,cru/acea #d 0 rotif]a1 cr9opods1 tetradecapods1 & decapods4 0 ,,iii4--,insects #c 0 myriapods1 ara*noids1 & insects prop]4 ,,bran* ,,iv4--,,v]tebrata4 ,class ,i4--,myzontes #b ord]s myx9oids & cyclo/omes4 0 ,,ii4--,fi%es prop]4 0 ,,iii4--,ganoids #c 0 clacan?s1 axip5s]oids1 & sauroids4 0 ,,iv4--,sela*i5s #c 0 *imr1 galeodes1 & batides4 0 ,v4--,amphibians #c 0 ccili1 i*?yodi1 & an\ra4 0 ,,vi4--,reptiles #d 0 s]p5ts1 saurii1 rhizodontes1 & te/ud9ata4 0 ,,vii4--,birds #d 0 natatores1 grall1 rasores1 & incessores4 0 ,,viii4--,mammalia #c 0 m>supiaia1 h]bivora1 & c>nivora4 ,9 ! v]tebrat$ animals ! blood is r$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! m9ute cells 7corpuscles7 :i* conta9 ! col\r+ matt]4 ,9 inv]tebrate animals ^! r$ cells are abs5t1 & s ! animals are :ite-blood$4 ,"s animals1 aga91 are cold-blood$ l ! fi%2 birds & mammalia h w>m blood4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t ! high] we advance 9 ! scale ! few] ! (fspr+ ( ! animal4 ,! animalcules multiply at ! rate ( _m billions a day1 & ev5 "o codfi% is /at$ to conta9 m ?an n9e millions ( eggs4 ,a mack]el w produce #ejj1jjj2 & s on1 z we rise1 we f9d mammals ) seldom m ?an t5 "y at a "t1 d[n to "o s+le (fspr+4 ,we c\ld fill pages ) ! acc\nt ( ! diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 animals creat$ = su* diff]5t purposes & fitt$ to inhabit diff]5t climates1 _! mode ( fe$+ & cat*+ prey4 ,! mann] ( br++ =? & re>+ ! "y1 & ! temp]am5t & temp] ( ! animal creation w\ld fill a volume1 b we _c n[ /ay to exam9e ^! v>i\s *>act]i/ics4 ,! foll[+ is ! arrangem5t n[ usually adopt$3-- ,,ni*olson4 ,,inv]tebrates4 ,,protozoa4 ,! l[e/ =ms ( animal life--microscopic animals4 ,greg>9ida ,cell =ms2 worm-l4 ,rhizopoda ,ameb1 =am9if]a1 radiol>ia1 sponges4 ,infusoria4 ,suctoria1 ciliata1 etc4 ,c,,l5t]ata 7,,! ,,old ,,radiata74 ,,hydrozoa4 ,int]m$i>y1 hav+ a m\? & receptacle sep>at$ by no alim5t>y canal4 ,polypes & ,zoophytes1 ,act9ozoa4 ,m$us1 millipores1 corals1 sea-anemones1 tubipora1 siphonoph]a1 etc4 ,,e*9od]mata4 ,/>-fi%es1 sea-ur*9s1 sea-cucumb]s1 & cr9oids4 ,,annulosa4 ,entozoa ,tape-worms1 etc4 ,rotif]a ,:eel-,animalcul4 ,annelida ,worms1 lee*es4 ,c]ripida ,b>nacles4 ,cru/acea ,%ell-fi%4 ,insecta ,v>i\s insects4 ,ara*nida ,spid]s1 scorpions1 etc4 ,,mollusca4 ,,mulloscoida--,,polyzoa4 ,acephala ( headless pupa4 ,tunicata ,bra*iopoda ,lamellibran*iata 7bivalves74 ,encephala ) head4 ,pt]opoda4 ,ga/]opoda 7univalves74 ,cephalopoda1 cuttle-fi%1 etc4 ,,v]tebrata4 ,,i*?yopsida4 ,class ,i4--,fi%es ,v>i\s ord]s4 0 ,,ii4--,amphibia ,frogs1 toads1 salam&]s1 etc4 ,,sauropsida4 0 ,,iii4--,reptilia ,tortoises1 small] snakes1 liz>ds1 etc4 0 ,,iv4--,birds ,v>i\s ord]s4 ,,mammalia4 ,class ,i4--,non-,plac5tal ,m>supials4 0 ,,ii4--,plac5tal ,ed5tata1 cetacea1 ungulata1 quadrumana1 bimana1 etc4 ,we w adopt ! latt] ord] z be+ ! m mod]n1 & endeav\r to make ! v>i\s classes ( ! inv]tebrates cle> to ! m9d1 if we _c pres5t !m to ! vision1 ( ! read]4 ,9 our sket* ( ,botany we rem>k$ ^u ! simil>ity exi/+ betwe5 ! cells ( plants & animals1 & al?\gh !re are1 ( c\rse1 diff]5ces1 !re are _m po9ts ( resemblance 9 ^! cells4 ,plants h _! l[e/ repres5tatives call$ ,protophytes4 ,animals :i* correspond to ?is class are t]m$ ,protozoa1 f ! ,greek1 proton1 fir/1 & zon1 animal4 ,! =m] are1 z already m5tion$1 se5 among/ ! alg1 consi/+ ( simple cells1 & protozoa _c easily be di/+ui%$ f !m except 9 ! matt] ( nutrim5t1 = "s protozoa h no m\? except 9 ! infusoria class4 ,! cells are v mu* alike1 & ,dr4 ,c>p5t] sums !m up briefly z foll[s3-- 8,! animal cell1 9 its mo/ complete =m1 is comp>able 9 mo/ p>ts ( its /ructure to t ( ! plant1 b diff]s f x 9 ! entire abs5ce ( ! #8cellulose wall' or ( any?+ t repres5ts x1 ! cell-cont5ts be+ enclos$ 9 only a s+le limit>y membrane1 ! *emical composition ( :i*1 be+ album9\s1 indicates its correspond5ce ) ! primordial utricle4 ,9 its "y /ate x seems always to conta9 a semi-fluid plasma1 :i* is ess5tially ! same z ! protoplasm ( ! plant1 save t x does n include *lorophyl granules1 & ?is may ei!r cont9ue to occupy its cavity 7:i* is ! case 9 cells ^: entire en]gy is direct$ to gr[? & multiplication71 or may give place1 ei!r :olly or 9 "p1 to ! special product :i* x may be ! function ( ! cell to prep>e4 ,l ! vegetable cell1 t ( animals v commonly multiplies by duplicative subdivision1 x also 7especially among protozoa7 may give orig9 to new cells by ! break+ up ( its cont5ts into sev]al p>ticles40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbh4--;,animalcul f\nd 9 /agnant wat]4 ,a1 ,cyclops ,quadracornis4 ,b1 ,anguillula4 ,fluviatillis4 ,c1 ,act9ophrys4 ,sol4 ,d1 ,coleps ,hirtus4 ,e1 ,vorticella4 ,f1 ,ambba pr9ceps4 ,g1 ,ac9eta my/ac9a4 ,h1 ,oxytry*a4 ,i1 ,trioph?alamus dorsalis4 ,j1 ,poly>?ra4 ,! protozoa are microscopic creatures consi/+ ( "o or m cells1 & are inf9itely little1 ?\s&s exi/+ 9 a drop ( wat]4 ,!y h no di/9ction ( sexes1 & _! g5]ation takes place by subdivision or bl5d+ ( cells4 ,! infusoria are ! highe/ ( ! protozoa1 & 7 =m]ly includ$ among/ ! radiata4 ,_! numb]s are inf9ite1 & 9 a drop ( wat] 7see fig4 #hbh7 "s v int]e/+ specim5s w be f\nd4 ,^! infusoria are m]ely s>code1 or a jelly-l sub/ance1 & "s h cilia1 or hairy app5dages1 ) :i* !y agitate ! wat] & cause a k9d ( curr5t :i* br+s !m food4 ,x is ?is p>tak+ ( food :i* has s]v$ to divide ! l[e/ animal f ! l[e/ vegetable creations4 ,!re is no progressive increase ( developm5t f ! l[e/ plant to ! highe/ animal4 ,! animal beg9s by himself1 z x 71 z ! plant1 & bo? gr[ up 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! protozoa exi/ ^u organic sub/ances1 :ile plants absorb inorganic sub/ances & assimilate !m4 ,! ,greg>9id are v t9y cells1 & ?\gh microscopically m9ute1 !y sometimes develop into worm-l or elongat$ oval bodies4 ,!y inhabit ! inte/9es ( cru/acea1 worms1 & cockroa*es1 z well z ( high] animals4 ,!y are capable ( c]ta9 motion1 b are n furni%$ ev5 ) ! 8false feet0 7pseudo podia7 ( ! rhizopoda1 ! next animal 9 ^! v l[ scales ( creation4 ,( ! ,rhizopoda ! ,,ameb are v int]e/+1 & we f9d !m 9 our ve9s z well z 9 ! /agnant gre5 wat] ( ! pond4 ,!y are simply s>code or jelly1 &1 z ! "n implies1 ! ameb c *ange _! appe>ance 7amoibos1 *ang+74 ,!y possess a k9d ( crawl+1 progressive motion1 & "u ! microscope w be p]ceiv$ to develop a t9y bud1 z x 71 :i* is ! 8false foot0 t assi/s its progress4 ,^! ameb are 9 our blood mov+ ab\t1 & are always alt]+ _! =m1 & :5 w>m !y move m quickly 9 ! r$ blood corpuscles or cells1 b excessive heat w kill !m4 ,^! curi\s creatures fe$ by ! foot !y protrude2 & by draw+ 9 ! 8process0 z x is t]m$1 !y c collect )9 !mselves ! n\ri%m5t !y require4 ,( c\rse !y h no m\?1 & if we c conceive a creature ( ?is k9d :i* ?ru/s out f a jelly-bag a t9y lump1 & pulls x 9 aga9 at any "t & place x likes1 we h an idea ( an ameba4 ,! pond ameba is some:at diff]5t f ! o!rs1 inasmu* z x possesses an out] & inn] portion or lay] :i* are diff]5t 9 d5sity4 ,!re is :at is t]m$ a contractile vesicle :i* 8beats0 z a he>t beats1 b ?is is v primitive4 ,!re is really no /ructure :atev] 9 ^! rhizopoda1 &1 z we h se51 _! %ape is always und]go+ *ange4 ,! out] & inn] lay]s ( ! ameb are call$ 8! ectos>c0 & 8endos>c0 respectively2 ! latt] conta9s ! d>k] portion--! nucleus4 ,! ,=am9if]a h already be5 m5tion$ 9 ! *apt]s on ,geology4 ,we f9d ^! m9ute creatures mu/ h _h a great deal to d ) ! build+ up ( rocks1 z !y h ! p[] to make t9y cov]+s = !mselves1 :i* h be5 built into rocks by ! addition ( s&y p>ticles1 & consolidat$ by pressure4 ,"h we h a mo/ wond]ful in/ance ( ! t9ie/ creatures produc+ ! greate/ masses ( ! e>?4 ,! body is m]ely s>code1 ! %ell is c>bonate ( lime4 ,! =am9if]a produce false feet 9 abundance1 :i* surr\nd ! cell l f9e hairs or rays4 ,!y live 9 ! sea1 & :5 !y die ! %ells desc5d ^u ! ocean floor1 :]e !y und]go _m *anges & become conv]t$ into rock4 ,! ooze ( ! great oceans is compos$ ( ^! %ells1 & is practically a *alky deposit2 ! %ells are be+ built up z 9 =m] ages ) ! curi\s nummulites ( ! ,eoc5e =mation1 :i* are among/ ! mo/ int]e/+ ( fossils4 ,,sponges4 ,we mu/ g on at once to ! ,sponges1 :i* =m su* an int]e/+ subject z !y are s famili> to u all4 ,sponge is n (t5 reg>d$ by ! public z an animal1 & ?\gh p]haps au?orities may n h yet conclud$ 9 :at category !y %\ld be plac$1 we may consid] !m "h accord+ to ! li/4 ,we f9d ! spongida bo? 9 fre% & salt wat]1 & !y h giv5 rise to mu* discussion z to :e!r !y %\ld be class$ z animals at all4 ,b t "q hav+ be5 f9ally settl$1 we c proce$ to exam9e a sponge 9 its native /ate1 & we %all f9d bo? skeleton & 8fle%40 ,! skeleton is h>d & compos$ ( ne$les ( 8t9y0 texture4 ,! fle% is 8s>code10 & ! animal possesses no m\?1 b is full ( holes 7pores7 & canals ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is cont9ually di/ribut$4 ,! out] lay] ( ! sponge is =m$ ( ultimate compon5ts ( ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! sponge 7l ! ameb we h be5 consid]+74 ,ea* conta9s a nucleus1 & :5 jo9$ toge!r =m ! out] lay] ( ! body4 ,b5ea? is a wide cavity communicat+ ) ! ext]ior by means ( m9ute holes1 & fill$ ) wat]4 ,! cavity sep>ates ! sup]ficial lay] f ! deep] sub/ance1 :i* is ( ! same "*4 ,9 ! wat] passages ( ! sponge are cilia :i* induce a cem5t1 & ! int]ior canals develop into *amb]s l9$ ) sponge p>ticles1 & ! wat] c>ries p>ticles to ! sponge1 :i* repres5ts a k9d ( sub-aque\s city1 :]e ! p are arrang$ ab\t ! /reets & roads 9 su* a mann] t ea* c easily appropriate 8 food f ! wat] z x passes along4#ch ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hbi4--;,fragm5t ( sponge 7magnifi$74 ,sponge1 !n1 is a mass ( liv+ organisms--t9y liv+ creatures capable ( fe$+ & ( movem5t1 resembl+ ameb or p]haps infusoria1 ) cilia1 to enable !m to obta9 n\ri%m5t by a k9d ( inhalation or respiration4 ,!y are reproductive by sexual & a-sexual processes :i* produce spongell4 ,! liv+ sponge is a beautifully col\r$ animal1 & gr[s ^u almo/ any solid f\ndation2 & 9 ! autumn ! p>5t sponge displays a numb] ( yell[ dots or 8gemmules10 :i* are ! "y4 ,^! are soon ca/ (f & left to %ift = !mselves1 & seek _! =tunes1 helpless z !y appe>1 9 ! wide & /ormy sea4 ,at la/ !y f9d a re/+-place1 & fix !mselves = ev]1 gr[+ up & reproduc+ _! species until !y are c>ri$ (f to be sold & us$ 9 civiliz$ c\ntries = dome/ic purposes4 ,we mu/ leave ^! curi\s animalcul & glance at ! ,,infusoria1 :i* con/itute a high] bran*1 b microscopic & univ]sal1 & include ^? call$ ,flagellate1 ,ciliate1 & ,t5taculate4 ,! fir/ h :ip-l cilia1 or feel]s1 or filam5ts1 :i* are ev] 9 motion to cause a movem5t ( ! wat] & c>ry food to ! animal4 ,y w f9d pl5ty ( infusoria 9 any /agnant wat]1 & :5 plac$ "u ! microscope a m\? may be p]ceiv$1 b no /oma*1 nor any app>5t receptacle = food1 :i* appe>s to ent] at once into ! body sub/ance4 ,! o!r k9ds capture _! food by seizure by ! t5tacles1 or by agitat+ ! cilia1 l ! flagellata1 & ?us :ipp+ ! n\ri%m5t t[>ds ! m\?1 z *ildr5 w draw 9 a toy boat to l& by agitat+ ! wat] 9 ! giv5 direction4 ,^! cilia1 or hairs1 s]ve = organs ( locomotion z well z ( capture4 ,^! creatures are call$ ,infusoria1 because !y exi/ 9 vegetable 8infusions0 expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcj4--,/ructure ( polypidoms4 ,decay+ vegetable or animal sub/ances1 su* z ! leaves ( trees1 grass1 a piece ( fle%1 etc41 affus$ ) wat] & expos$ to air & w>m?1 w spe$ily1 ^u microscopic exam9ation1 be f\nd peopl$ ) numb]s ( mo/ active m9ute creatures ( ! mo/ v>i$ =ms4 ,^! animalcules are f\nd also 9 ! /agnant pools ar\nd our cities1 9 ! wat]s ( riv]s1 h>b\rs1 & lakes1 & ev5 9 ! ocean4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! orig9 ( ^! animalcules1 ! view 0 long ent]ta9$ t !y 7 g5]at$ spontane\sly1 t ! decay+ vegetable & animal sub/ances 7 decompos$ & resolv$ into ^! simple be+s4 ,m accurate exp]im5ts h %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! infusoria are produc$ f ova1 or g]ms1 :i* are probably c>ri$ ab\t 9 ! dri$-up /ate1 9 ! =m ( m9ute p>ticles ( du/1#ci ready to develop !mselves 9 any spot :i* may af=d !m ! requisite moi/ure & nutrim5t4 ,9 ?is respect !y resemble ! microscopic fungi1 ^: g]ms are diffus$ 9 ! same way4 ,:5 once !y h obta9$ ! means ( developm5t1 !y multiply ) incr$ible cel]ity4 ,if ! decay+ vegetable or animal sub/ances be c>efully exclud$ f contact ) ! air1 or if ! air be heat$ be=e x is admitt$ to !m1 no infusoria w appe>4 ,!y are r>ely develop$ on m\nta9s ( a c]ta9 height1 :]e ! atmosph]e is free f =eign bodies4 ,?\gh ^! animalcules are s exce$+ly m9ute1 yet ! =ms exhibit$ by !m are extremely v>i\s1 & "s ( !m pres5t also consid]able v>iety 9 ! =ms assum$ by ! same individual "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,9 _m species ! s(t body is enclos$ 9 a firm integum5t1 /r5g!n$ by a deposit ( silice\s matt]2 ^! envelopes1 :i* are (t5 pres]v$ aft] ! dea? ( ! animals1 are t]m$ ! %ields1 & ! animalcules encas$ 9 !m are call$ loricat$ infusoria4 ,! rem>kable discov]y has be5 made t l>ge di/9ct b$s ( =m] =mations are entirely made up ( ! accumulat$ rema9s ( ^! animalcules4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hca4--,volvox globator4 ,we arrive at ! ,,hydrozoa aft] leav+ ! ,infusoria1 & f9d ourselves 9 ! sea1 & f> f l&1 :]e x w be difficult = u to asc]ta9 ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! int]e/+ animals4 ,b =tunately we c obta9 mu* ne>] home1 & occasionally 9 a private aqu>ium1 a specim5 ( ! hydrozoa :i* w s]ve our purpose1 z x has s]v$ be=e to introduce read]s to ! /udy ( ^! wat]-polypes1 "s ( :i* are s l plants t !y are frequ5tly mi/ak5 = !m4 ,! hydrozoa pres5t a 8def9ite hi/ological /ructure10 says ,pr(essor ,huxley2 8! body always exhibits a sep>ation into at lea/ two di/9ct lay]s ( tissue1 an out] & an inn]40 ,! ,hydras1 or fre%-wat] polypes1 :i* may be f\nd 9 ne>ly e pond adh]+ to ! duckwe$1 appe>s l tubes1 & if t\*$ w curl up into t9y knobs4 ,b if let alone !y w adh]e to a glass by _! s+le foot1 or suck]1 :i* c be mov$ at pleasure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcb4--,! hydra4 ,! foot1 or suck]1 is cont9u$ to a sl5d] cyl9drical /alk1 f ! end ( :i* radiate a numb] ( t5tacles1 or 8feel]s10 gr[+ ar\nd ! m\?1 & s]v+ to convey or attract food to ! animal :i* is1 s to speak1 all /oma*4 ,!re is no brea?+ app>atus1 & :at food x _c dige/ is expell$ f ! m\?4 ,! peculi>ity :i* has giv5 ! hydra its "n is1 t no matt] into h[ _m pieces y cut ?is polype1 ! p>ts cut (f w all develop into little polypes p]fect z _! p>5t4#dj ,b g]m9ation is c>ri$ on naturally by buds ?r[n out1 & ca/ 7by 8gemmation071 or by ! ord9>y sexual production ( ova4 ,! out] & inn] sk9s ( ! hydra are call$ ! ectod]m & endod]m1 & ! animal is q capable ( locomotion1 walk+1 or r mov+1 backw>ds1 by rais+ & plant+ its suck] or foot1 & by swimm+4 ,! prey is captur$ by ! t5tacles & by ! d>t+ out ( t9y spe>s f ! cells or 8?read cells0 :i* conta9 !m on ! surface ( ! body4 ,! well-kn[n 8,portuguese man-(-w>10 an ocean polype1 has ^! 8h>poons0 greatly develop$1 & c inflict s]i\s pa9 z ( _m /++ nettles2 ! s5sation is exce$+ly pa9ful1 & la/s "s "t4 ,! ,,m$usid are kn[n to ! seaside visitor z ! jelly-fi%1 & ! o!r ,acaleph1 ! 8hidd5-ey$0 m$us1 include ! ,portuguese man-(-w> m5tion$ above1 & _m o!r umbrella-l animals4 ,!y h receiv$ ! "n ( m$us f ,m$usa1 ^: long1 snaky locks ! t5tacles ( ! animals are suppos$ to be l4 ,"s ( ^! 8float+ umbrellas0 are v dang]\s1 & w inflict sev]e /+s ^u any "o 9 _! vic9ity4 ,! t5tacles or filam5ts ext5d = a long di/ance1 & ba!rs %\ld be cauti\s4 ,we h (t5 wat*$ !m1 & !y are beautiful to contemplate p>ticul>ly at night1 & 9 ,k+/[n ,h>b\r1 ne> ,dubl91 _m exce$+ly f9e specim5s h be5 obta9$4 ,! pulsation ( ! 8umbrella0 or bell1 enables ! animal to swim1 & ! ev5 undulations ( ?is beautiful cov]+ are app>5tly caus$ by n]v\s contractions4 ,! jelly-fi% h no resemblance to 8fi%10 & sc>cely appe> to exi/2 !y are ( no use to man1 & :5 remov$ f ! wat] dw9dle by little & little to a t9y film & no?+ m--!y dissolve into air & wat]4 ,cases h be5 kn[n & tales told ( h[ f>m]s collect$ hundr$s ( ^! jelly-fi% = manure1 & :5 ! c>t rea*$ ! field1 to ! man's a/oni%m5t1 no?+ 0 left b :at appe>$ cobweb 9 ! place ( ! load ( fi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcc4--,m$usa4 ,! ,cyclippe is a v common specim51 & moves by means ( its cilia2 ,ce/um ,v5]is--! zone or girdle ( ,v5us--is ano!r curi\s example4 ,x appe>s l a glass ribbon ab\t five in*es wide & p]haps f\r or five feet long4 ,! cilia :5 9 motion are v brilliant 9 col\r+1 & ! creature undulates ?r\gh ! wat] 9 a rem>kable mann]4 ,! lum9osity ( ! m$us is cle>ly p]ceiv$1 ! s-call$ phosphoresc5ce be+ due *iefly to ! m9ute jelly-fi% :i* ab\nd ne> ! surface ( ! sea4 ,x appe>s impossible1 = mo/1 at any rate1 if n all1 ^! m$us to s9k b5ea? ! surface1 = !y c be f\nd 9 hundr$s ca/ a%ore1 melt+ away into film4 ,we might imag9e t !y w\ld be provid$ ) "s means ( s9k+ !mselves1 b be+ app>5tly only air & wat]1 x is necess>y = !m to rema9 ^u ! surface to exi/ at all4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcd4--,sea cucumb]4 ,! t]m ,acaleph1 by :i* !y are kn[n1 means 8/++0 fi% or sea-nettles1 ! ,greek ^w mean+ nettle4 ,! ,,act9ozoa comprise corals & ! popul> sea anemones 7act9id74 ,!y resemble ! hydrozoa 9 possess+ t5tacles1 & also ! two inn] & out] tissues ( ! body4 ,b !y diff] f ! hydrozoa 9 _! int]ior arrangem5t 9 ! possession ( a k9d ( /oma* betwe5 ! 8body cavity0 & ! m\? :i* ! hydrozoa d n possess4 ,! appe>ance ( ! sea anemone is well kn[n4 ,x fixes itself by ! flat base & hangs out its t5tacles to obta9 food4 ,:5 we t\* an anemone ) a /ick we p]ceive h[ x contracts itself1 b !re is no n]v\s sy/em nor any respiration4 ,! reproduction ( its species is c>ri$ on )91 n z 9 o!r animals1 l ! hydra1 by ext]ior budd+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hce4--;,coral4 ,! corals belong to ! same class z ! sea anemones1 & are call$ zoan?id4 ,we h already 9 previ\s portions ( ?is volume m5tion$ ! 8coral0 build+ polypes1 b we may aga9 describe !m "h4 ,we h ! black coral or antipa?id1 :i* live 9 masses & are unit$ by a /em4 ,!y gr[ ^u ?is fle%y trunk & cov] x 9 "t 8j z a trunk ( a tree is cov]$ by ! b>k40 ,?is /em is call$ a cnos>c1 :i* secretes ! coral1 or skeleton4 ,! madrepores are ! greate/ produc]s ( ! coral ( comm]ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcf4--;,coral4 8,if we exam9e a simple coral ( ?is gr\p10 says ,pr(essor ,ni*olson1 8we f9d t we h to deal ) an animal 9 all important respects id5tical ) an ord9>y sea anemone1 b hav+ a m or less complicat$ skeleton develop$ 9 its int]ior40 ,?is skeleton is ! corallum1 & x is compos$1 z mo/ p are aw>e1 ( calc>e\s matt] deposit$ )9 ! polype itself2 9 ! =m] case ! developm5t or =mation is ext]ior to ! polype4 ,a s+le polype w ?us secrete a deposit1 & a colony ( !m produce a comp\nd skeleton1 & z !y ?r[ out buds or "y polypes1 ! manufacture ( skeletons goes on by secretion4 ,! ,tubipores are l pipes1 & ! coral has be5 t]m$ ! 8organ-pipe40 ,x is =m$ cyl9drically & jo9$ ext]nally4 ,z "u ,,geology we h exam9$ ! "q ( coral reefs1 we ne$ n "h recapitulate ! descriptions giv5 9 t section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hcg4--;,coral4 ,doctor ,b>iel writes ( ^! animals z foll[s3--8,by f> ! great] "p ( ! ,zoan?oid polypes1 z !y gr[1 deposit 9 ! cellul> sub/ance ( ! fle% ( _! back an imm5se quantity ( calc>e\s matt] :i* enl>ges z ! animal increases 9 size1 &1 9 fact1 fills up ^? portions ( ! sub/ance ( ! animal1 :i* by ! gr[? ( new p>ts are no long] want$ = its n\ri%m5t1 & 9 ?is mann] !y =m a h>d & /rong case1 among/ ! folds ( :i* !y contract !mselves s z to be protect$ f ext]nal injury1 & by ! same means !y =m = !mselves a p]man5t atta*m5t :i* prev5ts _! be+ toss$ ab\t by e wave ( ! elem5t 9 :i* !y live4 ,! /ony sub/ances s =m$ are call$ corals1 & _! mode ( =mation causes !m exactly to repres5t ! animal :i* secretes !m4 ,! upp] surface is always furni%$ ) radiat+ plates1 ! rema9s ( ! calc>e\s p>ticles :i* are deposit$ 9 ! longitud9al folds ( ! /oma*40 ,,footnotes3 #ch ,huxley4 8,classification ( ,animals40 #ci ,t ! pres5ce ( millions ( su* ova 9 ! air %\ld n be detect$1 w appe> v natural inde$1 if we reflect t ! animalcules are only #a_/aejj to #a_/bjjj "p ( a l9e 9 diamet]1 & t ! ova are a ?\s& times small]4 #dj ,h]cules conqu]$ ! 8,hydra10 :i* is repres5t$ 9 my?ology z capable ( reproduc+ two heads = ea* "o cut (f by ! w>rior4 ,,*apt] ,,lv4 ,,e*9od]mata--,,annulosa--,,entozoa--,,i nsecta4 ,,sea-,,ur*9s--,,/>-,,fi%es--,,fea!ry ,,/>s--,,sea-,,cucumb]s--,,worms--,,lee* es--,,rotif]s--,,tape ,,worms--,,insects4 ,! ,,e*9od]mata or sp9y-sk9n$1 are mo/ commonly repres5t$ by ! sea-ur*9s & />-fi%es ( our coa/s4 ,9 "s ( ! classes locomotion is p]=m$ by means ( ^! sp9es or prickles1 :i* s]ve z legs4 ,9 o!rs1 movem5t is c>ri$ on by suck]s & tubes z 9 ! />-fi%es1 ^! tubes be+ also ! means :]eby ! animal obta9s its food4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hch4--,sea-ur*9 7e*9us71 ) & )\t sp9es4 ,!y h a dige/ive sy/em1 & possess a curi\sly horny sk9 ev5 :5 sp9es are abs5t4 ,! m\? is 9 ! c5tre4 ,we give an illu/ration ( ! sea-ur*91 & ( a section ( a sp9e1 :i* is a beautiful object :5 se5 "u ! microscope1 = ^! sp9es c be made q transp>5t :5 cut across & gr\nd4 ,! %elly cov]+ is por\s1 & z ! animal gr[s ! %ell is add$ to at ! edges4 ,und]nea? w be f\nd ! m\?1 :i* has tee? fitt$ = dev\r+ ! small cru/acea4 ,^! sea-ur*9s ab\nd1 & _! por\s %ells may be pick$ up frequ5tly aft] a /orm4 ,! />-fi%es are well kn[n to all se>*]s among/ ! rocks & ^? :o /udy ! %ore1 & are (t5 tak5 home = an aqu>ium4 ,!y are v voraci\s1 h[ev]1 & :5 "o is exam9$ 9 a glass ( sea-wat]1 ! obs]v] w detect _m suck]s protrud+ f ea* ( ! rays4 ,x is by means ( ^! suck]s1 :i* are put =? f innum]able little holes call$ 8ambulacral ap]tures10 t ! />-fi% makes 8 way up ! rocks & along ! ocean b$4 ,! /oma* ( ! />-fi% is ext5sive1 & situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! rays :]e9 is a dige/ive app>atus4 ,! rays are compos$ ( deta*$ b beautifully fitt$ pieces1 s unit$ z to be flexible1 & ar\nd ! m\? & 9 /rong frame-"w4 ,! />-fi% has no tee?1 b manages to dispose ( a va/ quantity ( matt]1 :i* if left alone w\ld be injuri\s 9 decay4 ,?us ,nature has provid$ a %ore scav5g] to dev\r :at w\ld be h>mful1 j z ! vulture on l& eats ! c>rion4 ,besides ?is k9d ( refuse food1 ! />-fi% eats small cru/aceans1 & oy/]s fall victims to him4 ,by embrac+ ! %ell ! />-fi% manages to ins]t itself1 & if x _c br+ ! oy/] out to its m\?1 x w quietly turn out its m\? into ! oy/]-%ell1 & save ! bivalve any tr\ble 9 ! matt]4 ,"s writ]s decl>e t ! />-fi% /upefies or poisons its victim1 & !n ! %ell op5s4 ,^! a/]oidea c reproduce a ray t has be5 injur$ or cut (f1 or !y c break !mselves to pieces if caught4 ,! brittle />s & fea!r />s app]ta9 to ! ord] ( ! ,ophiuroida or 8s]p5t-arm$10 because ! rays are m flexible & ?9 ?an ! common />-fi%4 ,b !y diff] v mu* f ! />-fi% 9 ! arrangem5t1 z well z 9 ! %ape ( _! arms4 ,! =m] possesses rays :i* =m an app5dage ( ! /oma* & enclose x4 ,9 ! brittle />s ! rays are limbs1 & c\ld be deta*$ )\t tak+ ! life ( ! animal1 except 9 s f> z to deprive x ( means to obta9 its food4 ,! body is q indep5d5t ( ! rays1 ! m\? occupy+ ! c5tre1 & is surr\nd$ by m9ute suck]s4 ,! />s are mu* m flexible ?an ! />-fi%es1 _! rays are long]1 & s]ve ei!r z feet1 f9s1 t5tacles1 or arms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hci4--,sp9e ( e*9us 7,a1 natural size2 ,b1 a section magnifi$74 ,! cr9oids also belong to ! ,e*9od]mata1 & resemble plants m ?an />-fi%4 ,!y are fix$ ^u a /alk l a fl[]1 gr[+ upright f ! sea-bottom1 & ! body is call$ a calyx1 :i* is compos$ ( a v5tral & dorsal surface4 ,! arms bran* out f ! calyx1 j z a small tree does1 & if we c imag9e "o ( ! la/ plant$ trees on ! ,?ames embankm5t r$uc$ to half a f+]'s l5g? or less1 we h a sort ( idea ( ! cr9oid 89 ! r\gh40 ,a polype support$ on a /em bran*+ out 9 fea!ry1 grassy-look+ arms repres5ts ! ,encr9ites1 ! rema9s ( :i* are f\nd z fossils4 ,! arms ( ! cr9oids are subdivid$1 & q a fl[]y cr[n may 9 "t result4 ,! animal obta9s its food by ! motion ( cilia4 ,! /em & ! bran*es are jo9t$1 z x 71 & capable ( flexible movem5t 9 any direction4 ,! cr9oids rema9 /ation>y dur+ _! lives4 ,! c>e tak5 by ! />-fi% ( its "y is rem>kable4 ,x c>ries ! eggs ab\t 9 its suck]s & ) great caution4 ,! "y rema9 atta*$ to ! "m until !y are able to g ab\t alone1 & !n ! physical atta*m5ts die (f1 & ! a/]oidea goes =? to seek its =tune 9 ! sea4 ,! e*9us1 already m5tion$1 is a mo/ elaborately con/ruct$ animal2 ! plates be+ secret$ f ! s(t p>ts are ev] be+ r5ew$ z ! animal gets old] & l>g]4 ,! :ole subject is well wor? a long indep5d5t /udy1 ( :i* x is "h impossible = u to give ! results4 ,! sea-cucumb]s are m l ! famili> g>d5 slug ?an any o!r animal1 & are surm\nt$ by a fr+e r\nd ! m\? :i* looks l leaves4 ,! surface is moi/1 & has no horny cov]+ l ! 8ur*910 or /> fi%1 b ! suck]s are pres5t & are us$ = locomotion4 ,! t5tacles r\nd ! m\? s]ve z preh5sile organs4 ,! 8alim5t>y canal0 is mo/ curi\sly curv$1 & ( great l5g?1 & ! animal c turn itself 8inside out0 ) great facility if al>m$4 ,x possesses a k9d ( brea?+ app>atus1 & may be class$ z ! mo/ highly organiz$ ( all ! ,e*9od]mata4 ,^! cucumb]s are mu* e/eem$ by ! ,*9ese1 & 8trepang10 z !y are call$1 are caught by ?\s&s 9 ,au/ralian wat]s4 ,,annulosa4 ,! worm-l animals are divid$ into sections1 :i* include inte/9al worms1 entozoa1 annelida1 & cru/acea1 ) ! worms1 spid]s1 & insects class$ 9 ea* section4 ,we may at once p]ceive :at a v ext5sive division ! ,annulosa is1 & we mu/ devote "s space to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdj4--;,e>? worm 7lumbricus t]re/ris71 lee* 7hirudo m$ic9ale74 ,! ,rotif]s1 or 8:eel animalcul10 are includ$ 9 ?is class2 !y /& almo/ alone1 & c]ta9ly invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,!y are v curi\s animals1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ illu/ration4 ,! motion ( ! cilia ar\nd ! m\? gives ! :irl+ movem5t f :i* _! "n is d]iv$ 7fig4 #hda74 ,! ,,annelides1 or worms1 include e>?-worms1 wat]-worms1 lee*es1 etc4 ,! appe>ance ( ! e>?-worm is s common t few p comp>atively /udi$ x until ,mr4 ,d>w9's book took ! amateur read] by surprise & delight$ him1 & to t volume we mu/ ref] our read]s = details ( ^! v int]e/+ animals1 t]m$ annelides because ( ! r+s appe>+ ^u _! bodies4 ,! common lee* is well kn[n 9 m$ic9e4 ,x is curi\sly en\gh an inhabitant ( ponds & lakes1 & 9 su* conditions has no opportunities = ta/+ ! w>m blood = :i* x develops su* a lik+ :5 opportunity (f]s4 ,?is is really a rem>kable fact1 t ! animal %\ld be plac$ 9 a position naturally 9 :i* its mo/ natural t5d5cies %\ld rema9 unsatisfi$4 ,! progression ( ! lee* is p]=m$ by undulat+ movem5ts & ! preh5sile action ( ! suck]s--head & tail4 ,! eyes are t5 9 numb]1 ne> ! m\? & at ! top ( ! head4 ,! m\? is furni%$ ) num]\s tri-radiate tee?1 b 9 "s lee*es !y are n %>p1 z 9 ! 8m$ic9al0 v>iety4 ,x is kn[n t bo? sexes are repres5t$ 9 e lee*1 b !y are n self-reproductive4 ,! e>?-worm1 s famili> to all1 has be5 lately rais$ into importance4 ,x lives 9 clay1 & bores its way ?r\gh ! gr\nd4 ,x fe$s ^u organic matt] conta9$ 9 ! e>?1 & :5 x has assimilat$ ! n\ri%+ p>ticles1 x ejects ! rema9d] 9 small heaps ( s(t dirt1 :i* are visible aft] ra9 p>ticul>ly4 ,! worm1 by its burr[+1 turns up ! l&1 & va/ly increases its f]tility4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hda4--,:eel animalcule 7rotif] vulg>is74 ,! e>?-worm 9 its out] /ructure resembles ! lee*1 b1 z any "o w at once p]ceive1 ! worm is n furni%$ ) suck]s by :i* x c assi/ itself to move4 ,in/ead ( ^! r\nd$ t]m9als ! worm is f9ely po9t$1 & ?us capable ( bor+ its way ?r\gh ! e>?4 ,progression is accompli%$ by mov+ fir/ ! head portion & !n ! next1 s t a regul> s]ies ( movem5ts is necess>y4 ,! m9ute sp9es or bri/les ( ! worm prev5t its body be+ retract$ by muscul> ef=t4 ,! vital organs are r =w>d ( ! c5tre ( ! body1 & s if a worm be cut beh9d !m x w survive & reproduce a tail4 ,b ! portion cut (f w n be f\nd alive1 nor is x capable ( =m+ a new p]fect worm z g5]ally suppos$4 ,!re are _m o!r ord]s ( worms :i* we c only indicate--viz41 ! ,tubicol :i* surr\nd !mselves ) a h>d case2 ! ,errantia1 or sea-worms1 s&-worms1 etc41 l ! lobworm us$ = bait1 & ! naiads ( our fre%-wat] ponds1 all ( :i* are suit$ to ! aquatic life !y lead4 ,inde$1 ( all ! annelides1 ! e>?-worm is ! only specim5 t is suit$ = liv+ ^u l&4 ,z reg>ds ! la/ m5tion$1 we may add t worms d n prey ^u dead bodies z is s g5]ally imag9$4 ,!y are vegetable fe$]s1 & d n burr[ v deeply4 ,! transp>5t condition ( ! ,rotif]s r5d]s !m easy ( obs]vation "u ! microscope1 & we f9d a n]v\s sy/em1 inte/9es1 & a develop$ /oma*4 ,!y are fre%-wat] inhabitants4 ,! ,entozoa or 8inte/9al0 worms claim a brief notice at our h&s4 ,! entozoa are ^? be+s :i* inhabit1 z p>asites1 ! inte/9es & o!r p>ts ( animals4 ,_! hi/ory is /ill obscure1 b !re seems to be ab\t tw5ty v>ieties ( ^! creatures1 & a great numb] ( animals h _! peculi> entozoa4 ,! be/ kn[n 9 ! human subject are ! 8,asc>is0 or ?read-worm1 ! 8,lumbricus ,t]es0 or long-worm1 & ! 8,tnia0 or tape-worm2 ?is la/ is jo9t$1 & gr[s to sev]al y>ds 9 l5g?4 ,! developm5t ( ^! ,tnia is "o ( ! mo/ curi\s p]=mances ( nature4 ,ea* ( ! jo9ts %[n 9 ! illu/ration bel[ 7fig4 #hdb7 is a p]fect$ & mature proglottis1 conta9+ ! ova or eggs1 :i* c only be br\ght to p]fection :5 swall[$ by a w>m-blood$ animal 7n ! same f :i* !y emanat$74 ,! head )9 ! embryo !n holds to ! tissues & p5etrates to ! alim5t>y canal1 :]e only x c r$evelop jo9ts f ! s-call$ head1 :i* has no organs & m]ely pu%es out immature jo9ts :i* are cont9u$1 & !y become m mature ! f>!r !y are pu%$ out by ! new ones4 ,! 8measles0 ( ! pig are produc$ by ! ova ( ^! worms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdb4--,tape worm 7proglottides74 ,,myriapoda4 ,! 8_m-foot$0 annulosa include ! c5tip$es & millip$es1 & may be reg>d$ z a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! worms & ! insects4 ,! heads ( ^! animals are di/9ct f ! body4 ,! millip$es c be any day f\nd "u a l>ge /one 9 a field :i* has n be5 till$1 or any place :]e a /one has be5 suff]$ to rema9 = "s "t undi/urb$4 ,^! specim5s are ( ! pill-millip$e ord]1 because !y roll !mselves up into a ball :5 di/urb$4 ,! myriapods ( ?is c\ntry are n ( l>ge dim5sions1 b 9 tropical climates !y atta9 a great size4 ,! giant c5tip$e has be5 f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica m ?an a foot long1 & is capable ( inflict+ sev]e w\nds1 its t5acity be+ extraord9>y & equall+ t ( ! bull-dog :5 once x has gripp$ its enemy4 ,! myriapods h no w+s2 !y possess ant5n1 & num]\s1 nev] less ?an eighte51 feet1--frequ5tly tw5ty pairs1 b nev] a ?\s&1 mu* less 8t5 ?\s&0 feet1 z ! class "n indicates4 ,!y are provid$ ) /rong =ceps or 8foot-jaws10 :i* supply a poison = kill+ _! enemies4 ,! millip$es & c5tip$es are kn[n sci5tifically z ,iulid & ,scolop5drid respectively1 & 9 mo/ po9ts ( int]nal arrangem5t resemble insects1 su* z brea?+ by spiracles or 7/omates71 & tra* or tubes4 ,"s ( ! c5tip$es possess electric qualities1 & c adm9i/] a %ock to an oppon5t4 ,,insecta4 ,insects inhabit ! _w ar\nd u 9 myriad =ms 9 air & e>? & wat]4 ,"s exi/ = a v brief space 9 ! air2 o!rs live "u wat]1 or 9 trees1 or 9 ! gr\nd2 "s burr[ & hide 9 *9ks ( rocks & "u /ones4 ,! numb]s are c\ntless1 & all h "s function to p]=m z palpably z ! busy honey-bee1 or z my/]i\sly z ! giddy1 c>eless butt]fly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdc4--;,anatomy ( ! ext]nal skeleton ( an insect4 ,insects are divid$ into ?ree di/9ct p>ts1--viz41 ! head1 ! ?orax1 & ! abdom51 & ea* ( ^! p>ts has a pair ( legs atta*$ to x1 z w be p]ceiv$ f ! accompany+ diagram4 ,along ! body are tubes call$ tra*1--= insects d n brea! by lungs1--by :i* ! air is c>ri$ into ! sy/em ( ! insect1 by ! 8spiracles0 or op5+s ( f9e network1 to prev5t du/ ent]+ ! air-passages4 ,! head is jo9$ to ! body by a con/rict$ neck1 ! "p ( ! body to :i* x is jo9$ is call$ ! ?orax1 & to ?is is add$ ! po/]ior "p or abdom52 ?is "p is extremely v>i\s 9 =m 9 diff]5t insects2 9 "s x is r\nd & full1 9 o!rs long & ext5d$4 ,! ant5n arise f ! head1 & are g5]ally compos$ ( elev5 pieces v>i\sly dispos$2 ^! wond]ful organs are possess$ ( great s5sibility1 & !y c]ta9ly s]ve to convey in=mation to ! insect1 ( ! nature ( "o ( ! special s5ses2 x 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be simply t ( t\* v mu* ref9$1 or ( smell1 b x is n[ g5]ally consid]$ to be t ( he>+1 or a modification ( x4 ,! =ms ( ! ant5n are v v>i\s2 fig4 #hde repres5ts t ( ! cock*af] 7,melolon?a vulg>is74 ,! legs proce$ f ! ?orax z d ! w+s1 ! abdom5 giv+ rise to none ( ! extremities2 ! feet ( insects are all pretty mu* ^u ! same model1 "s be+ m develop$ ?an o!rs1 !y h a pair ( hooks or claws = cat*+ & cl++ to r\gh surfaces1 & a pair ( cu%ions or pads1 cov]$ 9 "s cases ) suck]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdd4--,spiracle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hde4--;,ant5na ( cock*af] 7melolon?a vulg>is74 ,! foot ( ! common h\se-fly is mo/ beautifully fitt$ = its progression & support4 ,we h (t5 wond]$ h[ ! fly manages to support itself back d[nw>ds on ! ceil+1 or walk up glass4 ,we give a cut ( ! fly's foot 7fig4 #hdf74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdf4--;,foot ( fly1 magnifi$4 ,! eyes ( insects are also m>vell\s4 ,!re are only two1 b ea* "o is compos$ ( num]\s cells 7ocelli71 & look l a honey-comb4 7,see illu/ration1 fig4 #hdg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdg4--;,comp\nd eye4 #a4 ,p]p5dicul> section2 #b4 ,surface4 ,insects sw>m 9 innum]able companies1 & no "o :o has n se5 ! locu/s desc5d+ ^u ! e>? c =m m ?an a fa9t idea ( ! deva/ation !y occasion 9 an incr$ibly %ort "t4 ,^!1 z well z ?\s&s ( o!r insects1 exi/ 9 myriads1 & we mu/ cont5t ourselves1 on ?is occasion1 by m]ely not+ ! diff]5t ord]s & _! *>act]i/ics1 aft] we h m5tion$ "s ( ! attributes common to all4 ,! t]m 8insect0 means cut into or divid$1 & s ! insecta are divid$1 z already m5tion$1 into ?ree p>ts1--head1 ?orax1 & abdom51--! ?orax be+ subdivid$ into ?ree r+s1 pro-?orax1 meso-?orax1 & meta-?orax--beg9n+1 middle1 & end4 ,all insects h six legs1 & usually two or f\r w+s1 ?\gh "s h no w+s at all4 ,! legs are unit$ to ! ?orax1 ! ant5n & eyes to ! head4 ,! abdom5 conta9s ! important sexual organs1 a /+ or def5sive weapon1 & 9 females ! egg *amb]4 ,insects brea! by tubes 9 ! sides1 & consume a great quantity ( air4 ,_! p[]s ( fly+ & leap+ are too famili> to ne$ dwell+ ^u4 ,! w+s display beautiful col\rs l ^? obs]vable 9 ! soap-bubble1 o!rs are cov]$ ) scales or hairs4 ,! m\?s v>y v mu* ) ! species1 z ! mann] ( obta9+ food is by suction or gnaw+4 ,! blood ( insects is pale & ?94 ,! v>i\s trans=mations :i* insects und]go are always a subject ( int]e/ = ! "y /ud5t4 ,! ugly =ms :i* develop 9 beautiful creations are m a/oni%+ ?an ! *ange ( ! 8ugly duckl+0 into ! graceful swan4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdh4--,l>va4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hdi4--,pupa4 ,insects come to maturity only aft] und]go+ successive *anges f ! egg to ! p]fect animal4 ,! eggs 7"s ( :i* are v beautiful7 are fir/ deposit$ 9 "s safe place1 ei!r atta*$ to a leaf or ti$ up 9 a small bundle by silk5 ?reads spun by ! p>5t insect1 & 9 "s nutriti\s sub/ance1 s t :5 x comes to life x may at once h food2 ?is is sometimes 9 manure1 sometimes 9 fle%1 & sometimes "u ! sk9 ( a liv+ animal 7few are exempt f ?is infliction71 :]e !y rema9 = a "t & !n come =? z maggots1 cat]pill>s1 etc42 9 ?is /ate !y are call$ l>v1--^! are g5]ally active creatures & eat mo/ voraci\sly1 :i* seems to be ! pr9cipal act ( ?is /ate ( _! exi/5ce4 ,^! l>v frequ5tly *ange _! sk9s z !y gr[1 & at la/ !y assume ! next /age ( _! life1 ! pupa or *rysalis /ate1 :i* is "o g5]ally ( complete inactivity2 _m ( ^! l>v weave !mselves a cov]+ ( a sort ( silk1 to def5d !m :ile 9 ! pupa /ate1--su* z ! silkworm1 ^: cov]+ 7cocoon7 is ! s\rce ( all ! silk ( comm]ce1--o!rs m]ely place !mselves 9 a situation ( security4 ,! pupa rema9s dormant = a c]ta9 "t1 & !n becomes ! imago or p]fect insect 7! la/ /ate ( its exi/5ce71 su* z a mo?1 a butt]fly1 a beetle1 etc4 ,^! are ( diff]5t sexes1 & 9 due "t produce a bat* ( eggs & !n die2 ^! eggs are (t5 incr$ible 9 numb]s1 am\nt+ to _m ?\s&s--b few escape ! wat*ful eyes ( o!r insects & ( birds :o fe$ ^u !m4 ,b !re are "s ( ! insecta :i* d n und]go metamorphosis2 ! ,,apt]a or w+less insects include ^!1 z ! flea & su* p>asites :i* bore into o!r animals1 & deposit _! eggs )9 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hej4--;,imago4 ,insects h v little means = mak+ !mselves audible1 at lea/ s f> z c be asc]ta9$4 ,! humm+ ( bees & flies & o!r insects are1 ( c\rse1 n int5d$ to repres5t ! voice4 ,! cricket's 8*irp10 z p commonly imag9e1 b ! s\nd is attributable to ! rubb+ toge!r ( ! w+s or w+-cases1 z is ! noise produc$ by ! field-cricket4 ,!re is a v peculi> s\nd attributable to ! 8,dea?-,wat*10 a tick+1 & to n]v\s p t]rible w>n+ ( dissolution4 ,x may reassure "s "o1 p]haps1 to "k t ?is 8une>?ly s\nd0 is caus$ simply by ! insect beat+ its head aga9/ a piece ( wood to attract its mate1 z ! female gl[-worm lights h] lamp to guide h] "l to h] b[]4 ,! ,,insecta may simply be divid$ into n9e ord]s3-- #a ,,coleopt]a4 ,beetle tribe4 ,case-w+$4 #b ,,or?opt]a4 ,locu/s1 crickets1 etc4 ,/raight-w+$4 #c ,,neuropt]a4 ,dragon-flies1 etc4 ,n]ve-w+$4 #d ,,hym5opt]a4 ,bees1 ants1 wasps1 etc4 ,membrane-w+$4 #e ,,/repsipt]a4 ,p>asites ( ! =ego+4 ,twi/$-w+$4 #f ,,lepidopt]a4 ,mo?s & butt]flies4 ,scale-w+$4 #g ,,hemipt]a4 ,bugs1 wat]-boatm54 ,half-w+$4 #h ,,dipt]a4 ,h\se-fly1 gnat4 ,two-w+$4 #i ,,apranipt]a4 ,fleas1 8*igos40 ,w+less4 7,( ^! ! metamorphoses ( #a1 #c1 #d1 #f1 & #h are complete74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hea4--,! ,/ag-,beetle 7,lucanus c]vus74 ,! ,,coleopt]a are well repres5t$ 9 ,engl& z beetles4 ,!y h f\r w+s1 b ! out] pair s]ve z cov]+s to ! inn] ones4 ,!y are t]m$ ,elytra1 & are horny 9 texture4 ,^! beetles are %ort-liv$1 b useful z scav5g]s1 & s]ve to manure ! gr\nd by bury+ objectionable matt]4 ,! l>v ( beetles eat trem5d\sly4 ,! /ag-beetle is a =midable-look+ animal1 & ! lady-bird is well kn[n z an enemy to ! aphides on our rose trees4 ,! tig]-beetle1 cock*af]1 & v>i\s wat]-beetles belong to ?is family4 ,! sc>abee1 or sacr$ ,egyptian beetle1 also w be f\nd class$ ) ! coleopt]a4 ,_m ( ^! beetles are excell5t scav5g]s1 & "s call$ bury+ beetles remove ! soil und]nea? ! c>cases ( birds & o!r small dead animals1 lett+ !m fall d[n bel[ ! gr\nd level2 ! beetles !n lay _! eggs 9 ! body1 s t su/5ance may be at h& = ! "y :5 hat*$4 ,! ,,or?opt]a include our cockroa*es1 miscall$ 8black beetles10 ! locu/s1 crickets1 etc4 ,! ravages ( ! locu/ are well kn[n4 ,! l>v ( ! or?opt]a has no w+s1 b o!rwise is v l ! gr[n insect4 ,!y *ange _! sk9s frequ5tly be=e !y become p]fect insects4 ,pass+ ! 8n]ve-w+$0 dragon-flies & caddis1 ^: l>v case is s famili> & useful z bait1 we come to ! v important & int]e/+ ord] ( ,,hym5opt]a1 ) f\r membran\s w+s4 ,9 ?is rank we f9d bees1 wasps1 & ants1 ! fir/ & la/ nam$ be+ prov]bial = indu/ry & examples ( almo/ sup]human reason+ p[]s1 & a similitude to man's arrangem5ts 9 lab\r & h\se-build+ m>vell\s to contemplate4 ,a /udy ( ! habits ( ants1 bees1 & wasps w reveal a /ate ( society exi/+ among/ !m :i* m ne>ly resembles man 9 feel+s & habits1 = ^! insects possess means ( oral communication4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #heb4--;,honey-lapp+ app>atus ( wild sea-bee 7,halictus71 7a1 magnifi$2 a b1 m highly magnifi$74 ,all ^! insects are arm$ ) a /+1 or o!r (f5sive weapon4 ,! ant possesses ! 8=mic0 acid1 :i* d]ives its "n f ! possessor4 ,! de/ructive :ite ants w eat away a wood5 h\se v quickly1 sapp+ & m9+ x 9 all directions till x is a m]e skeleton4 ,! habits ( bees are s well kn[n & h be5 s (t5 describ$ t we ne$ n detail !m4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! ants 8milk0 ! aphides is curi\s & int]e/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hec4--,scales f mo?'s w+ 7magnifi$74 ,! ,,/repsipt]a ord] includes v few species1 s we may pass quickly to ! ,,lepidopt]a1 ! butt]flies & mo?s1 ^: beautiful col\r+s & m>k+s h attract$ u all f *ildhood4 ,!re are ab\t #ab1jjj species ( ! lepidopt]a1 & !y are divid$ into 8mo?s0 & 8butt]flies10 ! =m] be+ se5 9 twilight1 or d>kness1 ! latt] 9 sunlight4 ,!y c readily be di/+ui%$ by ! ant5n1 ^? ( ! butt]fly be+ tipp$1 or knobb$4 ,! silkworm belongs to ?is family4 ,^! insects und]go complete metamorphosis4 ,! rema9+ two ord]s ( insects include ! h\se-flies & gnats2 & ! flea1 & jigg]1 or *igo1 :i* p5etrates ! sk9 & lays its eggs 9 ! fle%1 caus+ !reby dang]\s inflammation4 ,,cru/acea4 ,?is class includes a numb] ( famili> animals su* z ! b>nacle1 ! crab1 ! lob/]1 %rimp1 etc42 & curi\s z x may appe> are closely relat$ to our spid]s4 ,_! cases or cov]+s are all articulat$ or dispos$ 9 di/9ct segm5ts4 ,!y brea! ?r\gh gills or by tubes1 & possess legs1 or app5dages = walk+1 eat+1 or guidance4 ,!y are g5]ally m>9e creatures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hed4--;,cru/acea4 #a4 ,lob/] 7,a/acus m>9us72 #b4 ,cray-fi% 7,a/acus fluviatilis72 #c4 ,crab 7,canc] pagurus72 #d4 ,%rimp 7,crangon vulg>is72 #e4 ,prawn 7,palmon s]ratus74 ,! %ell ( ! cru/acea is compos$ l>gely ( lime1 & ( c\rse becomes v h>d 9 "t4 ,x is =m$ f ! sk94 ,! body1 l t ( an insect1 is compos$ ( head1 ?orax1 & abdom51 divid$ into tw5ty-"o segm5ts1 ( :i* sev5 occupy ! head1 sev5 ! ?orax1 & ! rema9d] ! abdom54 ,tw5ty segm5ts are furni%$ ) legs1 or feel]s1 or claws--a pair to a segm5t4 ,! lob/] or crayfi% w give excell5t examples ( ! anatomy ( ! macrura or lob/] k9d ( cru/acea4 ,! he>t is situat$ 9 ! back4 ,! foll[+ table giv5 by ,pr(essor ,ni*olson w expla9 ! 8segm5ts & app5dages0 ( ! lob/]3-- #a/ ,segm5t1 ,eyes4 #bnd 0 ,less] ant5n #crd 0 ,great] ant5n4 ,head #d? 0 ,pair ( bit+ jaws4 #e? 0 ,fir/ pair ( *ew+ jaws4 #f? 0 ,second pair ( *ew+ jaws4 #g? 0 ,fir/ pair ( foot jaws4 #h? 0 ,second pair ( foot jaws4 #i? 0 ,?ird pair ( foot jaws4 #aj? 0 ,fir/ pair ( legs 7claws74 ,?orax #aa? 0 ,second pair ( legs 7small claws74 #ab? 0 ,?ird pair ( legs 7small claws74 #ac? 0 ,f\r? pair ( legs4 #ad? 0 ,fif? pair ( legs4 #ae? 0 ,gr\nd app5dages4 #af? 0 ,swimm]ets4 #ag? 0 0 ,abdom5 #ah? 0 0 #ai? 0 0 #bj? 0 ,l>ge swimm]ets4 #ba/ 0 ,no app5dages 7tail f974 ,! tail is1 z may be suppos$1 ! great aid to locomotion 9 ! lob/] family1 & !y c swim backw>ds ) great rapidity by its assi/ance4 ,lob/]s %$ _! claws :5 al>m$1 & are easily caught by a glitt]+ bait4 ,! h]mit crabs are int]e/+ creatures1 b d n possess ! horny coat ( ! crab or lob/]4 ,!y are !re=e compell$ to inhabit an empty %ell1 into :i* !y ?ru/ !mselves1 hold+ to ! bottom ( x by _! tail1 :ile a l>ge claw gu>ds ! entrance4 ,:5 ! animal gets too big = 8 h\se he moves to ano!r1 leav+ ! old home = ano!r h]mit ( ! %ore4 ,! crabs h no develop$ tails1 & are !re=e call$ bra*yura--8%ort-tail$10 & !y are walk+ creatures4 ,!re are k+ crabs1 l& crabs1 & ! common swimm+ crab4 ,^! animals c %$ _! %ells z o!r cru/aceans1 & a curi\s fact is !y %$ !m :ole4 ,h[ ! claws come out mu/ rema9 m or less a my/]y4 ,raumur inve/igat$ ! action ( ! crayfi%1 & notic$ t z ! ca/+ "t approa*$ ! cru/acea retir$ to "s hid+-place & rema9$ )\t eat+4 ,! %ell becomes gradually loos5$1 & at la/ by putt+ its feet aga9/ a /one & pu%+ backw>ds ! animal j]ks himself away4 ,x mu/ be a pa9ful op]ation1 = ! mill-l tee? ( ! /oma* are also reject$1 & ! jo9ts d n give way4 ,aft] a :ile a new %ell appe>s1 & is ca/ 9 due "t z be=e4 ,! eyes ( ! cru/acea are situat$ 9 front1 & are compos$ l ! insects1 or are simple1 l spid]s4 ,!y possess a s5se ( he>+ evid5tly4 ,! eggs ( ! lob/] are c>ri$ by ! female1 & !y are t]m$ ! 8coral0 9 consequ5ce ( _! r$ & beadlike appe>ance4 ,our space w n admit ( our say+ mu* m conc]n+ ! int]e/+ cru/acea1 ?\gh ! b>nacles1 s well kn[n by sight by all dwell]s at ! sea1 & call$ ,cirrip$ia1 :i* fix !mselves to rocks & %ips1 des]ve notice4 ,! "y are capable ( movem5t1 & ?is fact 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 #ahcj4 ,x resembl$ a mussel1 b :5 kept 9 sea-wat] x adh]$ to ! vessel :i* reta9$ x4 ,! cirrip$ia are s call$ f ! cirri or arms :i* !y possess1 & by :i* !y are enabl$ to entangle or cat* _! food1 z 9 a net4 ,!y hold !mselves by a 8foot /alk40 ,! goose-mussel1 or b>nacle1 is v common1 b mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! limpet4 ,dr4 ,baird gives ! foll[+ description ( !m3--8,! cirrip$s are articulat$ animals conta9$ )9 a h>d cov]+ compos$ ( sev]al pieces & consi/+ ( calcifi$ *it9e4 ,! body ( ! animal is enclos$ 9 a sac l9$ ) ! mo/ delicate membrane ( *it9e1 :i* 9 "o gr\p is prolong$ into a p$uncle & conta9s ! ova2 ! body is di/9ctly articulat$ & plac$ ) ! back d[nw>ds4 ,,ara*nida--,,spid]s4 ,!re are _m families ( ara*nida besides ! well-kn[n g>d5 & h\se spid]s4 ,! sea spid]s1 ?\gh class$ ) ! ara*nida1 are sometimes plac$ among/ ! cru/acea4 ,we h ! 8tick0 & ! *eese-mite & ! scorpions2 all ( :i* belong to ! spid] family4 ,b ! true spid]s are kn[n by ! jo9+ ( ! two upp] segm5ts1 ! ?orax & head be+ unit$ 7cephalo-?orax74 ,! pretty & m>vell\s webs are spun f abdom9al gl&s ?r\gh small ap]tures4 ,! fluid h>d5s 9 its passage suffici5tly to be wov5 into ?reads to resi/ ! /ruggles ( ! captur$ prey4 ,! =ms ( ^! webs v>y1 b "s spid]s d n cat* _! victims 9 ! net2 !y p\nce ^u !m cat fa%ion4 ,! l>ge h\se spid] is well kn[n to all4 ,! g>d5 spid] is se5 9 ! illu/ration 7fig4 #hee7 ) ! scorpion4 ,! habits ( spid]s w be f\nd a v int]e/+ /udy1 & _m volumes h be5 devot$ to !m4 ,! wat] spid] is a frequ5t inmate ( an aqu>ium1 & ! bubble ( air he takes d[n ) him to brea! s]ves z a means ( liv+ :ile he is seek+ 8 aquatic prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hee4--;,ara*nida4 #a4 ,spid] 7,epeira diadema72 #b4 ,scorpion 7,scorpio74 ,we w close our rapid survey ( ! inv]tebrate animals ) a glance at ! ,,mollusca1 :i* are divid$ into six classes 7see page #gjc74 ,! fir/ is ! ,tunicata1 :i* h no %ell or h>d cov]+1 & come "u ! d5om9ation ( molluscoids1 & belong to a l[] ord]4 ,! true mollusca include ! ,bra*iopoda1 :i* h a pair ( %ells4 ,!y are call$ 8arm-foot$0 because a long cord or t5don passes ?r\gh "o ( ! %ells1 & fixes ! mollusc to ! rock4 ,! ,l+ula ( ?is class h be5 discov]$ 9 v old =mations su* z ! ,devonian p]iod1 & inde$ appe> to h be5 among/ ! fir/ creat$ animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hef4--,mollusca4 #a4 ,nautilus 7,argonauta72 #b4 ,clio ,borealis2 #c4 ,mussel 7,mytilus edule74 ,! ,lamellibran*iata include ! oy/]1 cockle1 mussel1 etc4 ,!y are well kn[n1 & sc>cely ne$ description4 ,! ,pt]opoda h no %ell4 ,! ,ga/]opoda are v num]\s1 & p]iw9kles1 :elks1 snails1 etc41 belong to ?is class4 ,!y progress by a muscul> 8mantle10 :i* is ext5d$ & contract$4 ,! 8horns0 h eyes at ! extremities4 ,:5 !y retire into _! 8h\ses0 !y c close ! door by a k9d ( lid call$ ! 8op]culum40 ,! ,cephalopods include ! nautilus & ! cuttle fi%1 ! t]rible squid1 or octopus1 etc4 ,wond]ful tales are told ( ! t5acity & f]ocity ( ! 8,p\lpes10 & no d\bt 9 long-pa/ ages ^! animals atta9$ a gigantic gr[?4 ,!y are v unpleasant enemies1 & ! cold1 slimy grasp ( ! long t5tacles is apt to give "o ! 8horrors10 :ile ! t]rible head & beak fill "o ) dismay4 ,! p\lpes are v =midable oppon5ts1 & discretion w c]ta9ly be ! bett] "p ( val\r :5 !y appe> 9 our vic9ity4 ,we mu/ "h close our sket* ( ! ,inv]tebrates1 & we regret t ! limits ( our volume w n p]mit u to cont9ue ?is int]e/+ subject1 nor c we f9d space1 at pres5t1 = ev5 ! b>e/ description ( ! ,v]tebrate animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,! sun-fi% 7,or?agoriscus74 ,,*apt] ,,lvi4 ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,*ance ,,& ,,ma!matical ,,games4 ,,magic ,,squ>es--,,! ,,sixte5 ,,puzzle--,,solitaire--,,equival5ts4 ,we w n[ proce$ to draw our read]s' att5tion to sev]al exp]im5ts v fam\s at a =m] p]iod1 b :i* our own g5]ation has completely ov]look$4 ,we ref] to ! ,analysis ( ,*ance1 a sci5ce /ill kn[n "u ! title ( ,calculation ( ,probabilities1 =m]ly cultivat$ ) s mu* ard\r1 b to-day almo/ fall5 into oblivion4 ,orig9at+ 9 ! caprice ( ! clev] ,*evali] de ,mr1 :o 9 #afed sugge/$ ! game to ,pascal1 ! analysis ( *ance has giv5 rise to inve/igations ( an entirely novel k9d1 & attempts h be5 made to measure ! ma!matical degree ( cr$5ce to be giv5 to simple conjectures4 ,we w fir/ recapitulate ! pr9ciples laid d[n by ,laplace on ?is subject4 ,we "k t ( a c]ta9 numb] ( ev5ts1 "o only c happ51 b no?+ leads u to ! belief t "o w happ5 m ?an ! o!r4 ,! !ory ( *ance consi/s 9 r$uc+ all ! ev5ts ( ! same k9d to a c]ta9 numb] ( equally possible cases1 su*1 t is to say1 t we are equally undecid$ ab\t1 & to det]m9e ! numb] ( cases fav\rable to ! ev5t1 ^: probability we are seek+4 ,! ratio ( ?is numb] to t ( all possible cases is ! measure ( ?is probability1 :i* is ?us a fraction1 ! num]ator ( :i* is ! numb] ( fav\rable cases1 & ! d5om9ator ! numb] ( all possible cases4 ,:5 all ! cases are fav\rable to an ev5t1 its probability *anges to c]ta9ty1 & x is !n express$ by ! unit4 ,probabilities increase or dim9i% by _! mutual comb9ation2 if ! ev5ts are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 ! probability ( ! exi/5ce ( _! :ole is ! product ( _! p>ticul> probabilities4 ,?us ! probability ( ?r[+ an ace ) "o dice be+ #a_/f1 t ( ?r[+ two aces ) two dice is #a_/cf4 ,ea* ( ! sides ( "o dice comb9+ ) ! six sides ( ! o!r1 !re are ?irty-six possible cases1 among :i* "o only gives ! two aces4 ,:5 two ev5ts dep5d on ea* o!r1 ! probability ( ! d\ble ev5t is ! product ( ! probability ( ! fir/ ev5t by ! probability t1 t ev5t hav+ occurr$1 ! o!r w occur4 ,?is rule helps u to /udy ! influ5ce ( pa/ ev5ts on ! probability ( future ev5ts4 ,if we calculate priori ! probability ( ! ev5t t has occurr$ & an ev5t compos$ ( ?is & ano!r expect$ ev5t1 ! second probability divid$ by ! fir/1 w be ! probability ( ! expect$ ev5t1 inf]r$ f ! obs]v$ ev5t4 ,! probability ( ev5ts s]ves to det]m9e ! hope or fe> ( p]sons int]e/$ 9 _! exi/5ce4 ,! ^w hope "h expresses ! advantage :i* someone expects 9 suppositions :i* are only probable4 ,?is advantage 9 ! !ory ( *ances is ! product ( ! hop$-= sum by ! probability ( obta9+ x2 x is ! p>tial sum :i* %\ld arise :5 "o does n wi% to run ! risks ( ! ev5t1 suppos+ t ! apportionm5t corresponds to ! probabilities4 ,?is apportionm5t is only equitable :5 we ab/ract f x all =eign circum/ances2 because an equal degree ( probability gives an equal title to ! hop$-= sum4 ,?is advantage is call$ ma!matical hope4 ,nev]!less1 ! rigor\s application ( ?is pr9ciple may lead to an inadmissible consequ5ce4 ,let u see :at ,laplace says4 ,paul plays at heads & tails1 on ! und]/&+ t he receives two %ill+s if he succe$s at ! fir/ ?r[1 f\r %ill+s if he succe$s at ! second1 eight at ! ?ird1 & s on4 ,8 /ake on ! game1 accord+ to calculation1 mu/ be equal to ! numb] ( ?r[s2 s t if ! game cont9ues indef9itely1 ! /ake also cont9ues indef9itely4 ,yet1 no reasonable man w\ld v5ture on ?is game ev5 a mod]ate sum1 #b = example4 ,:5ce1 !re=e1 comes ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! result ( ! calculation1 & ! indication ( common-s5se8 ,we soon p]ceive t x proce$s f ! fact1 t ! moral advantage :i* a b5efit procures = u is n proportional to ?is advantage1 & t x dep5ds on a ?\s& circum/ances1 (t5 v difficult to def9e1 b ! *ief & mo/ important ( :i* is *ance4 ,9 fact1 x is evid5t t a %ill+ has mu* great] value = "o :o has b a hundr$ ?an = a millionaire4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 di/+ui% 9 ! hop$-= good betwe5 its absolute & its relative value2 ! latt] regulates itself accord+ to ! motives :i* cause x to be desir$1 :ile ! =m] is indep5d5t4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a g5]al pr9ciple to appreciate ?is relative value1 we give a sugge/ion ( ,daniel ,b]n\illi :i* has be5 g5]ally admitt$4 ,! relative value ( an extremely small sum is equal to its absolute value1 divid$ by ! total advantage ( ! int]e/$ p]son4 ,on apply+ ! calculus to ?is pr9ciple1 x w be f\nd t ! moral hope1 ! gr[? ( *ance due to expectations1 co9cides ) ! ma!matical hope1 :5 *ance1 consid]$ z a unit1 becomes inf9ite 9 proportion to ! v>iations x receives f expectations4 ,b :5 ^! v>iations are a s5sible portion ( ! unit1 ! two hopes may diff] v greatly f ea* o!r4 ,9 ! example cit$1 ?is rule leads to results con=mable to ! indications ( common-s5se4 ,we f9d1 9 po9t ( fact1 t if ,paul's =tune am\nts only to #h1 he _c reasonably /ake m ?an #gs4 on ! game4 ,at ! mo/ equal game1 ! loss is always1 relatively great] ?an ! ga94 ,suppos+1 = example1 t a p]son possess+ a sum ( #d1 /akes #b on a game ( heads or tails1 8 money aft] plac+ 8 /ake w be morally r$uc$ to #c #aas4 #j;d4--t is to say1 ?is latt] sum w procure him ! same moral advantage z ! condition ( 8 funds aft] 8 /ake4 ,:5ce we draw ?is conclusion3 t ! game is disadvantage\s1 ev5 9 ! cases :]e ! /ake is equal to ! product ( ! sum hop$ = by ! probability4 ,we may1 !re=e1 =m an idea ( ! immorality ( games 9 :i* ! hop$-= sum is bel[ ?is product4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #heg4--,! game ( ! ne$le4 ,jacques ,b]n\illi has ?us laid d[n ! result ( 8 inve/igations on ! calculation ( probabilities4 ,an urn conta9+ :ite & black balls is plac$ 9 front ( ! spectator1 :o draws out a ball1 asc]ta9+ its col\r1 & puts x back 9 ! urn4 ,aft] a suffici5t numb] ( draws1 ! total numb] ( extract$ balls divid$ by ! total numb] ( balls repres5ts a fraction v ne> to t :i* has = a num]ator ! real numb] ( :ite balls exi/+ 9 ! urn1 & = ! d5om9ator ! total numb] ( balls4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ratios ( ! numb] ei!r ( extract$ :ite balls1 or ! :ole ( ! :ite balls to ! total numb]1 t5d to become equal2 t is1 ! probability d]iv$ f ?is exp]im5t approa*es indef9itely t[>ds a c]ta9ty4 ,! two fractions may diff] f ea* o!r z little z possible1 if we increase ! numb] ( draws4 ,f ?is !orem we d$uce sev]al consequ5ces4 #a4 ,! relations ( natural effects are ne>ly con/ant :5 ^! effects are consid]$ 9 a great numb]4 #b4 ,9 a s]ies ( ev5ts indef9itely prolong$1 ! action ( regul> & con/ant causes affects t ( irregul> causes4 ,applications4--,! comb9ations pres5t$ by ^! games h be5 ! subject ( =m] rese>*es reg>d+ probabilities4 ,we w complete our exposition ) two m examples4 ,two p]sons1 ,a & ,b1 ( equal skill1 play toge!r on ! und]/&+ t :i*ev] beats ! o!r a c]ta9 numb] ( times1 %all be consid]$ to h won ! game1 & %all c>ry (f ! /akes4 ,aft] sev]al ?r[s ! play]s agree to give up )\t f9i%+ ! game2 & ! po9t !n to be settl$1 is 9 :at mann] ! money is to be divid$ betwe5 !m4 ,?is 0 "o ( ! problems laid be=e ,pascal by ! ,*evali] de ,mr4 ,! %>es ( ! two play]s %\ld be proportional to _! respective probabilities ( w9n+ ! game4 ,^! probabilities dep5d on ! numb] ( po9ts :i* ea* play] requires to rea* ! giv5 numb]4 ,a's probabilities are det]m9$ by />t+ ) ! smalle/ numb]s1 & obs]v+ t ! probability equals ! unit1 :5 play] ,a does n lose a po9t4 ,?us1 suppos+ ,a loses b "o po9t1 8 *ance is #ab1 #cd1 #gh1 etc41 accord+ z ,b misses "o1 two1 or ?ree po9ts4 ,suppos+ ,a has miss$ two po9ts1 x w be f\nd t 8 *ance is z #ad1 #ab1 #aaf1 etc41 accord+ z ,b has miss$ "o1 two1 or ?ree po9ts1 etc4 ,or we may suppose t ,a misses ?ree po9ts1 & s on4 ,we %\ld note1 en passant1 t ?is solution has be5 modifi$ by ,daniel ,b]n\illi1 by ! consid]ation ( ! respective =tune ( ! play]s1 f :i* he d$uces ! idea ( moral hope4 ,?is solution1 fam\s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 be>s ! "n ( ! ,pet]sburgh problem1 because x 0 made kn[n = ! fir/ "t 9 ! 8,memoires de l',acadmie de ,russie40 ,we w n[ describe ! game ( ! ne$le4 ,x is a g5u9e ma!matical amusem5t1 & its results1 indicat$ by !ory1 are c]ta9ly calculat$ to excite a/oni%m5t4 ,! game ( ! ne$le is an application ( ! diff]5t pr9ciples we h laid d[n4 ,if we trace on a %eet ( pap] a s]ies ( p>allel & equi-di/ant l9es1 ,,aa#a1 ,,bb#a1 ,,cc#a1 ,,dd#a1 & ?r[ d[n on ! pap] at haz>d a p]fectly cyl9drical ne$le1 a b1 ! l5g? ( :i* equals half ! di/ance betwe5 ! p>allel l9es 7figs4 #heh & #hei71 we %all discov] ?is curi\s result4 ,if we ?r[ d[n ! ne$le a hundr$ times1 x w come 9 contact ) "o ( ! p>allel l9es a c]ta9 numb] ( times4 ,divid+ ! numb] ( attempts ) ! numb] ( successful ?r[s1 we obta9 z a quoti5t a numb] :i* approa*es ne>] ! value ( ! ratio betwe5 ! circumf]5ce & ! diamet] 9 proportion z we multiply ! numb] ( attempts4 ,?is ratio1 accord+ to ! rules ( geometry1 is a fix$ numb]1 ! num]ical value ( :i* is #cadaeibf4 ,aft] a hundr$ ?r[s we g5]ally f9d ! exact value up to ! two fir/ figures3 #ca4 ,h[ c ?is unexpect$ result be expla9$8 ,! application ( ! calculus ( probabilities gives ! reason ( x4 ,! ratio betwe5 ! successful ?r[s & ! numb] ( attempts1 is ! probability ( ?is successful ?r[4 ,! calculation endeav\rs to e/imate ?is probability by enum]at+ ! possible cases & ! fav\rable ev5ts4 ,! enum]ation ( possible cases exacts ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( comp\nd probabilities4 ,x w be easily se5 t x suffices to consid] ! *ances ( ! ne$le fall+ betwe5 two p>allel l9es1 ,,aa#a & ,,bb#a 7fig4 #heh71 & !n to consid] :at occurs 9 ! int]val1 m n1 equal to ! equi-di/ance4 ,to obta9 a successful ?r[1 x is necess>y !n3-- #a4 ,t ! middle ( ! ne$le %\ld fall betwe5 m & l1 ! c5tre ( m o4 #b4 ,t ! angle ( ! ne$le ) m o w be small] ?an ! angle1 m c b4 ,! calculation ( all ^! probabilities & _! comb9ation by multiplication1 accord+ to ! rules ( comp\nd probabilities1 gives z ! f9al expression ( probability ! numb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #heh4--,! ne$le game4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hei4--,! ne$le game4 ,?is curi\s example ju/ifies ! !orem ( ,b]n\illi relat+ to ! multiplication ( ev5ts2 !re is no limit to ! approximation ( ! result1 :5 ! attempts are suffici5tly prolong$4 ,:5 ! l5g? ( ! ne$le is n exactly half ! di/ance betwe5 ! p>allel l9es1 ! practical rule ( ! game is z foll[s3 ,! ratio betwe5 ! numb] ( ?r[s & ! numb] ( successful attempts mu/ be multipli$ by d\ble ! ratio betwe5 ! l5g? ( ! ne$le & ! di/ance betwe5 ! p>allel l9es4 ,9 ! case cit$ above1 ! d\ble ( ! latt] ratio equals ! unit4 ,we w give an application to ?is4 ,a ne$le two in*es long is ?r[n #aj1jjj times on a s]ies ( p>allel l9es1 two-&-a-half in*es ap>t2 ! numb] ( successful ?r[s has be5 f\nd to equal #ejjj4 ,we take ! ratio #ajij_/ejji1 & multiply x by ! ratio #ajjj_/fcf & ! product is #cadba4 ,! true value is #cadae4 ,we h an approximation ( #f_/ajjjj4 ,! dim5sions indicat$ 9 ?is exp]im5t are ^? :i* pres5t 9 a giv5 numb] ( attempts ! mo/ *ances ( obta9+ ! greate/ possible approximation4 ,we w conclude ^! rem>ks on games by "s obs]vations borr[$ f ,laplace4 ,! m9d has its illusions l ! s5se ( sight2 & j z ! s5se ( t\* corrects ! latt]1 reflection & calculation correct ! =m]4 ,! probability f\nd$ on an e-day exp]i5ce1 or exagg]at$ by fe> or hope1 /rikes u z a sup]ior probability1 b is only a simple result ( calculation4 ,9 a long s]ies ( ev5ts ( ! same k9d1 ! m]e *ances ( accid5t sometimes (f] ^! curi\s ve9s ( good or bad =tune1 :i* _m p]sons d n hesitate to attribute to a k9d ( fatality4 ,x (t5 happ5s 9 games :i* dep5d bo? on *ance & ! clev]ness ( ! play]s1 t he :o loses1 ov]:elm$ ) 8 want ( success1 seeks to repair ! evil by ra% play+1 :i* he w\ld avoid on ano!r occasion2 he ?us aggravates 8 own mis=tune & prolongs x4 ,x is !n1 h[ev]1 t prud5ce becomes necess>y1 & t x is desirable to rememb] t ! moral disadvantage atta*+ to unfav\rable *ances is increas$ also by ! mis=tune itself4#da ,ma!matical games1 =m]ly s mu* /udi$1 h rec5tly obta9$ a new addition 9 ! =m ( an int]e/+ game1 kn[n z ! 8,boss0 puzzle4 ,x has be5 introduc$ f ,am]ica1 & consi/s ( a squ>e box1 9 :i* are plac$ sixte5 small wood5 dice1 ea* be>+ a numb] 7fig4 #hfj74 ,no4 #af is tak5 away1 & ! o!rs are plac$ haphaz>d 9 ! box1 z %[n 9 fig4 #hfa4 ,! po9t is !n to move ! dice1 "o by "o1 into diff]5t positions1 s t !y are at la/ arrang$ 9 _! natural ord]1 f "o to fifte52 & ?is mu/ be accompli%$ by slipp+ !m f squ>e to squ>e )\t lift+ !m f ! box4 ,if ! sixte5? dice is add$1 ! game may be v>i$1 & we may seek ano!r solution ( ! problem1 by arrang+ ! numb]s s t ! sum ( ! horizontal1 v]tical1 & diagonal l9es gives ! numb] #cd4 ,9 ?is =m ! puzzle is "o ( ! olde/ kn[n4 ,x dates f ! "t ( ! primitive ,egyptians1 & has (t5 be5 inve/igat$ dur+ ! la/ few c5turies1 belong+1 z x does1 to ! category ( fam\s magic squ>es1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* we w describe4 ,! foll[+ is ! def9ition giv5 by ,ozanam1 ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 at ,p>is1 at ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! t]m magic squ>e is giv5 to a squ>e divid$ by sev]al small equal or brok5 squ>es1 conta9+ t]ms ( progression :i* are plac$ 9 su* a mann] t all ^? ( "o r[1 ei!r across1 f top to bottom1 or diagonally1 make "o & ! same sum :5 !y are add$1 or give ! same product :5 multipli$4 ,x is !re=e evid5t f ?is def9ition1 t !re are two k9ds ( magic squ>es1 "s =m$ by t]ms ( ari?metical progression1 o!rs by t]ms ( geometrical progression4 ,we mu/ also di/+ui% ! equal f ! unequal magic squ>es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfj4--,! sixte5 puzzle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfa4--,! numb]s plac$ at haz>d1 & ,no4 #af remov$4 ,we give "h sev]al examples ( magic squ>es ) t]ms ( ma!matical progression1 among !m ! squ>e ( #cd1 giv+ "o ( ! solutions to ! puzzle j describ$ 7fig4 #hfb74 ,we also give an example ( a magic squ>e compos$ ( t]ms ( geometrical progression4 ,! d\ble progression = examples #a1 #b1 #d1 #h1 #af1 #cb1 #fd1 #abh1 #bef1 z "h arrang$ 7fig4 #hfc71 =ms su* a squ>e t ! product obta9$ by multiply+ ! ?ree t]ms ( "o r[1 or "o diagonal1 is #d1jif1 :i* is ! cube ( ! mean t]m #af4 ,! squ>es h be5 t]m$ magic1 because1 accord+ to ,ozanam1 !y 7 held 9 great v5]ation by ! ,py?agoreans4 ,9 ! "t ( al*emy & a/rology1 c]ta9 magic squ>es 7 d$icat$ to ! sev5 planets1 & engrav$ on a metal blade :i* sympa?iz$ ) ! planet4 ,to give an idea ( ! comb9ations to :i* ! /udy ( magic squ>es l5ds itself1 x is suffici5t to add t ma!maticians h writt5 :ole treatises on ! subject4 ,frnicle de ,bessy1 "o ( ! mo/ em95t calculators ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 consecrat$ a "p ( 8 life to ! /udy ( magic squ>es4 ,he discov]$ new rules1 & f\nd out ! means ( v>y+ !m 9 a multitude ( ways4 ,?us = ! magic squ>e1 ! root ( :i* is #d1 only sixte5 diff]5t arrangem5ts 7 kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfb4--;,examples ( magic squ>es =m$ by t]ms ( ari?metical progression4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfc4--,magic squ>e =m$ by t]ms ( geometrical progression4 ,frnicle de ,bessy f\nd #hhj new solutions4 ,an important "w f ! p5 ( ?is le>n$ ma!matician has be5 publi%$ "u ! title ( 8,c>rs ou ,tables ,magiques10 9 ! 8,memoirs de l',acadmie ,royale des ,sci5ces10 f #afff-afii1 vol4 v4 ,amateurs1 !re=e1 :o are accus$ ( occupy+ !mselves ) a useless game1 unwor?y ! att5tion ( s]i\s m9ds1 w d well to be> 9 m9d ! works ( ,frnicle1 & bett] /ill1 to consult !m4 ,we h s f> consid]$ only ! fir/ "p ( ! puzzle4 ,we may n[ exam9e ! problem to :i* specially x has giv5 rise4 ,we are q 9 accord ) ,m4 ,pi>ron de ,mondesir1 :o has be5 s good z to enlight5 u ^u ! subject1 :i* is really mu* m difficult ?an x appe>s4 ,a ,fr5* pap] once propos$ to give a prize ( #ejj francs to any individual :o w\ld solve ! foll[+ problem3-- ,?r[ ! numb]s out ( ! box1 replace !m at haz>d1 !n 9 arrang+ !m place !m 9 ! foll[+ ord] 7,a fig4 #hfd74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfd4--,! ,sixte5 ,puzzle4 ,n[ nobody solv$ ?is problem1 because 9 n9e cases out ( t5 x is impossible to d s4 ,! fir/ twelve numb]s w come correctly into _! places1 & ev5 #ac c be put 9 its place )\t mu* tr\ble2 b1 in/ead ( gett+ ! la/ r[ "r we %all f9d x w come out l ,b1 viz41 #ad1 #ae1 #ac1 9 ! l>ge majority ( in/ances4 ,s any case c be solv$ 9 "o ( ! two results giv5 above1 & we c tell 9 advance1 )\t displac+ a numb]1 9 :i* way ! puzzle w ev5tuate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfe4--;,example #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hff4--;,example #b4 ,let u give ?is problem our att5tion = a few m9utes1 & we %all n f9d x difficult4 ,take ! fir/ example4 ,we w ?r[ ! cubes out ( ! box & put !m back 9 ! ord] %[n 9 fig4 #hfe4 ,we see n[ t #a occupies ! place ( #aa1 #aa t ( #g1 #g t ( #h1 #h t ( #f1 #f ( #ae1 #ae ( #a4 ,?is mu* is evid5t )\t any /udy4 ,we =mulate ^! figures z foll[s1 beg9n+ ) #a & work+ f figure to figure till we are l$ to #a aga91 & s on4 #a/4 ,s]ies4--#a1 #aa1 #g1 #h1 #f1 #ae1 #a 7#f7 ev54 ,c\nt+ ! numb] ( diff]5t cubes we h #f2 & we put 7#f7 9 a p>5!sis4 ,we call ! fir/ s]ies ev5 because #f is an ev5 numb]4 ,we n[ e/abli%1 by ! same =mula1 a second s]ies comm5c+ ) #b1 & go+ back to x1 ?us-- #bnd ,s]ies4--#b1 #d1 #b 7#b7 ev54 #crd ,s]ies4--#c1 #e1 #aj1 #ab1 #c 7#d7 ev54 #d? ,s]ies4--#i1 #ac1 #ad1 #i 7#c7 unev54 ,we h n[ f\r s]ies1 ! total numb] ( po9ts equal #ae1 z !re ought to be1 = "o cube is abs5t4 ,let u n[ take ano!r example 7see fig4 #hff71 & by work+ z be=e we h f\r s]ies aga91 viz3-- #a/ ,s]ies4--#a1 #g1 #a 7#b7 ev54 #bnd ,s]ies4--#b1 #aa1 #c1 #h1 #d1 #ae1 #b 7#f7 ev54 #crd ,s]ies4--#e1 #ab1 #ac1 #e 7#c7 unev54 #d? ,s]ies4--#i1 #ad1 #aj1 #i 7#c7 unev54 ,?is gives u only #ad z a total1 because #f has n be5 t\*$ at all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,& n[ = ! rule1 s t we may be able to asc]ta9 9 advance1 :5 we h e/abli%$ our s]ies1 :e!r we %all f9d our puzzle "r or wrong at ! end4 ,we mu/ put aside all unplac$ numb]s & take no notice ( unev5 s]ies4 ,only ! ev5 s]ies mu/ be reg>d$4 ,?us if we d n f9d #a1 or if we f9d #b1 #d1 or #f1 ! problem w come into ,a z a result4 ,if we f9d #a1 #c1 #e1 or #g1 ! case w ev5tuate z 9 ,b 7fig4 #hfd74 ,let u apply ! rule to ! problems we h work$1 & !n ! reason w be app>5t4 ,9 ! fir/ we f9d ?ree ev5 s]ies2 ! problem w !n end z 9 ,b diagram 7fig4 #hfd71 = ! numb] ( l s]ies is odd4 ,9 ! second we f9d two ev5 s]ies 7pairs72 we %all f9d our problem "w out z 9 diagram ,a 7fig4 #hfd71 = ! numb] ( l s]ies is ev51 "o pair 9 ea*4 ,we are n[ 9 possession ( a simple rule1 bo? rapid & infallible1 & :i* w save consid]able tr\ble1 z we c always tell be=eh& h[ our puzzle w come out4 ,any "o c te/ ! practicability ( ! rules = himself1 b we may w>n ! read] t he w nev] be able to v]ify e possible in/ance1 = ! possible cases are repres5t$ by ! foll[+ sum-- #bcdefghiajaaabacadae4 ,t is to say1 #a1cjg1fgd1cfh1jjj 9 all4 ,,solitaire4 ,?is some:at anci5t amusem5t is well kn[n1 & ! app>atus consi/s ( a bo>d ) holes to receive pegs or cups to receive ! balls1 z 9 ! illu/rations 7figs4 #hfg & #hgj47 ,! usual solitaire bo>d conta9s ?irty-sev5 pegs or balls1 b ?irty-?ree c also be play$ v well4 ,_m sci5tific p h made q a /udy ( ! game1 & h publi%$ pap]s on ! subject4 ,m4 ,pi>ron de ,mondesir has giv5 two rules :i* w prove int]e/+4 ,! fir/ is call$ t ( equival5ts1 & supposes ! game to be play$ out to a conclusion2 ! second1 call$ ! r+-game1 admits ( a calculation be+ made s t ! prospects ( success c be gaug$ be=eh&4 ,! me?od ( play is famili>1 s we ne$ n detail x4 ,x is simply 8tak+0 ! balls by pass+ ov] !m 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! me?od ( 8equival5ts0 consi/s 9 replac+ "o ball ) two o!rs1 z we w proce$ to expla9 by ! diagram 7fig4 #hfh74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfg4--,solitaire4 ,suppose we try ! #cc game1 :i* consi/s 9 fill+ e hole ) ! exception ( ! c5tre "o1 & 9 8tak+0 all ! balls1 leav+ "o solit>y 9 ! c5tre at ! la/4 ,suppose an inexp]i5c$ play] arrives at an impossible solution ( five balls 9 #d1 #aa1 #ae1 #bh1 & #cj4 ,to r5d] ! problem soluble1 & to w9 8 game1 ,i w replace ,no4 #aa by two equival5ts1 #i & #aj1 ! ball #bh by two o!rs1 #bc & #af1 & ! ball #cj by #be & #ah4 ,^! sub/itutions w n *ange ! 8tak+ (f10 = ,i c take #aj ) #i1 #bc ) #af1 & #be ) #ah4 ,b by s do+ ,i sub/itute = an irr$ucible solution ( five balls a new sy/em ( eight 7^? %[n ) ! l9e drawn ?r\gh !m 9 ! diagram71 :i* c easily be r$uc$ to ! desir$ conclusion1 & ! game w be a*iev$4 ,!re are 9 reality ?ree t]m9ations possible to ! problem--! s+le ball1 ! c\ple1 & ! ti]ce2 t is1 y may h only "o left1 or two plac$ diagonally1 su* z #i-ag1 #be-bi1 or a sy/em ( ?ree 9 a /raight l9e1 #i-af-bc4 ,by ! 8equival5ts0 y c always succe$ 9 solv+ ! problem desir$4 ,we w n[ po9t out f\r trans=mations :i* are v easy to effect1 & result f ! rule ( 8equival5ts40 #a4 ,replacem5t ( ! two balls1 situat$ on ! same l9e & sep>at$ by an empty cup1 by "o put into t cup4 ,?us ,i c replace #bc & #be by a s+le ball at #bd4 #b4 ,suppression ( ti]ces4 ,& by ! above movem5t ,i suppress ! ti]ce #i-af-bc4 #c4 ,correspond5t 8cases0 are two holes situat$ 9 ! same l9e & sep>at$ by two cups4 ,if two correspond+ cups are fill$1 ,i c suppress ! balls :i* occupy !m4 ,s ,i c put aside #d & #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfh4--;,correspond5ts & equival5ts4 #d4 ,x is p]missible to move a ball into "o ( ! correspond5t cups if x be vacant2 ?us ,i c put #aj into #bi4 ,^! are ! f\r trans=mations :i* c be made evid5t ) ! r+s1 )\t displac+ ! balls4 ,to d ?is we ne$ h only sev5 r+s l>ge en\gh to pass ov] ! balls & to surr\nd ! holes 9 :i* !y re/4 ,let u take an example4 ,solitaire ) #cc holes 7fig4 #hfi74 ,f9al solution ( ! s+le ball4 #a/ ,v]tical r[3 #g & #ba are occupi$1 & ! int]m$iate hole #ad1 be+ empty1 ,i place a r+ ^u #ad4 #bnd ,v]tical r[3 ,no4 #h takes #ae1 & comes into #bb2 ,i place a r+ on #bb4 #crd ,v]tical r[3 ,i suppress ! correspond+ balls1 #d-bc & #af-ca1 !re n[ only rema9s #i1 s ,i place a r+ on #i4 #d? ,v]tical r[3 ,i suppress ! correspond5ts #aj-bi1 put #b into #ag1 & ,i place a r+ ^u #ag4 #e? ,v]tical r[3 ,i suppress correspond5ts #f-be1 put #cc into #ah1 & ,i place a r+ ^u #ah4 #f? ,v]tical r[3 ,no4 #ab takes #ai & comes to #bf2 ,i place a r+ on #bf4 #g? ,v]tical r[3 ,no4 #bj is ! only ball2 ,i place a r+ on #bj4 7,x mu/ be und]/ood t ^! op]ations %\ld be proce$$ ) m5tally2 ! balls mu/ n be di/urb$47 ,we h ?us r$uc$ ! problem to sev5 r+$ balls1 :i* are #ad1 #bb1 #i1 #ag1 #ah1 #bf1 & #bj :i* are indicat$ on ! diagram by ! l9e drawn ?r\gh ea* v]tically4 ,!y are all compris$ 9 ! ?ree horizontal r[s1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hfi4--,s+le ball solution4 ,we c n[ set to "w ^u ^! ?ree r[s 9 ! same mann] z be=e1 consid]+ ! r+s z balls4 #crd r[3 ,we f9d 7& leave7 a r+ ^u #i4 #d? r[3 ,! two correspond+ r+s1 #ag-bj1 neutralize ea* o!r1 & we suppress !m4 ,we c>ry #ad to #ag1 & take #ag ) #ah1 :i* comes into #af4 ,we leave a r+ on #af4 #e? r[3 ,c>ry ! r+ #bf to #bc1 take #bc ) #bb1 :i* comes ?us to #bd1 & we leave a r+ on #bd4 ,we n[ h r$uc$ our problem to ?ree r+s1 #i1 #af1 & #bd1 all 9 ! c5tral squ>e1 indicat$ 9 ! diagram by horizontal b>s4 ,x is easy to see t #i w take #af & #bd & come into #be1 & #be w rema9 alone--z 0 int5d$ to be done--a s+le ball ^u ! bo>d1 indicat$ by ! circle ar\nd x 9 ! cut4 ,by play+ ! 8equival5t0 me?od y w always arrive at ?is result--a s+le ball 9 ,no4 #be4 ,x may n[ be p]ceiv$ h[ we _c only arrive at a satisfactory solution1 b by means ( ! r+s asc]ta9 :e!r we %all succe$ 9 our game )\t di/urb+ a s+le ball4 ,aft] "s exp]i5ce we may ev5 le>n to disp5se ) ! r+s altoge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgj4--,solitaire bo>d4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,f 8,la ,nature40 ,notice ( ,m4 ,*4 ,b\temps4 ,,*apt] ,,lvii4 ,,! ,,magic ,,top--,,! ,,gyroscope ,,& ,,sci5tific ,,games ,we w n d our read]s ! inju/ice to suppose t !y are n famili> ) ! ord9>y top1--! delight ( all s*ool-boys & "y p1--( :i*1 !re=e1 we =be> giv+ any description2 b we n[ desire to give "s details ( ! con/ruction ( ! wond]ful magic top4 ,x is compos$ ( a l>ge disc1 ) an axis turn+ on two pivots connect$ ) a circle ( iron4 ,:5 9 repose1 ?is play?+ exhibits no?+ ( a rem>kable "*2 x is completely in]t1 obey+1 l all o!r bodies1 ! laws ( gravity4 ,b :5 we come to give ! disc a movem5t ( rapid rotation1 ?is in]t in/rum5t seems to assume a vitality ( its own if we attempt to move x2 x resi/s1 & seems to ?ru/ back ! h&1 & executes movem5ts ev5 9 a contr>y direction4 ,besides ?is1 x appe>s to be fre$1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 f ! laws ( gravity2 if we place x on its pivot1 in/ead ( fall+1 z x w\ld :5 ! disc is motionless1 x pres]ves ! upright or incl9$ position 9 :i* we place x1 ! upp] extremity ( ! axis sl[ly describ+ a horizontal circle r\nd ! fulcrum ( ! o!r extremity4 ,few p]sons are suffici5tly famili> ) ! !ory ( me*anics to und]/& ^! ph5om5a1 & x (t5 happ5s t su* a top pur*as$ to amuse a *ild becomes an object ( wond] & int]e/ to 8 s5iors4 ,we d n pret5d "h to expla9 ma!matically ! reason ( ! facts be=e u1 b ! me*anical pr9ciple on :i* ?is top is con/ruct$ is ( su* great sci5tific importance1 t we w1 9 a few words1 expla9 x to our read]s4 ,x is suffici5t to h a little k ( me*anics to be aw>e t a body 9 motion1 subject$ to ! action ( a =ce t5d+ to give x a directly contr>y motion1 w foll[ a movem5t 9 a ?ird direction1 :i* is t]m$ ! resultant ( ! two o!rs2 & ?is resultant approa*es ne>] to "o ( ! orig9al directions1 9 proportion z ! correspond+ movem5t is m rapid 9 relation to ! o!r4 ,if1 = example1 y /rike a billi>d ball1 :i* is roll+ pa/ y1 9 su* a mann] t y drive x regul>ly along 9 ! same direction1 x appe>s only to obey a "p ( ! giv5 impulsion1 & cont9ues its c\rse 9 an oblique direction1 ! spe$ ) :i* x comm5c$ roll+ comb9+ ) ! impulsion to produce a resultant movem5t4 ,if x is roll+ v quickly1 & y /rike x g5tly1 x w sc>cely turn out ( its c\rse4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x is mov+ sl[ly1 & receives a viol5t %ock1 x w run (f almo/ exactly 9 ! direction 9 :i* x has be5 /ruck4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hga4--,! magic top4 ,n[ t :i* occurs 9 ?is example ( a body t5d+ to two movem5ts at ! same "t1 is also produc$ :5 x is a "q ( movem5ts ( rotation1 s t if a =ce acts ^u a body 9 rotation 9 su* a mann] z to give x a movem5t ( ! same k9d r\nd ano!r axis1 a ?ird movem5t w be orig9at$ r\nd a ?ird axis1 ! direction ( :i* w be ne>e/ to t 9 :i* ! rotation is mo/ rapid4 ,let u apply ?is v simple pr9ciple to our top1 & we %all see t magic has no?+ :atev] to d ) ^! movem5ts1 :i* at fir/ glance appe>s s extraord9>y4 ,hav+ set x 9 motion1 we re/ x on its pivot1 its axis 9 a horizontal position2 we !n f9d t we h two movem5ts be=e u2 fir/1 t :i* we gave ! top ourselves1 & secondly1 ! movem5t ( rotation :i* occurs r\nd a second axis equally horizontal pass+ ?r\gh ! fulcrum & p]p5dicul> l9e to ! fir/4 ,a movem5t ( rotation !re=e orig9ates r\nd a ?ird axis plac$ betwe5 ! two fir/1 b :il/ ! real axis ( ! top1 obey+ ?is resultant movem5t1 takes up its new position1 ! law ( gravity cont9u+ to act1 displaces & moves x a little fur!r1 s t 9 endeav\r+ to rea* its c5tre ( gravity1 x turns r\nd its fulcrum 7fig4 #hga74 ,f ?is explanation1 x w be easily se5 t ! m rapid ! movem5t giv5 to ! top1--t due to gravity rema9+ con/ant1--! ne>] w be ! axis ( ! resultant movem5t to its real axis1 & consequ5tly ! sl[] w be ! movem5t ( rotation ( ! :ole r\nd ! pivot4 ,?us ?is app>5tly incompreh5sible ph5om5on is easily expla9$ by gravity1 v]tical =ce produc+ a movem5t ( rotation 9 a horizontal plane4 ,"o c also expla9 by analog\s reason+1 & calculation ( passive resi/ance1 :y ! axis ( ! top gradually incl9es 9 proportion z ! spe$ ( ! latt] dim9i%es1 & ! spe$ ( rotation r\nd ! fulcrum increases2 :y x falls imm$iately if an ob/acle is oppos$ to ! latt] movem5t1 & f9ally1 :y x produces on ! h& :i* holds x1 movem5ts :i* a/oni% p]sons s int5sely :o behold x = ! fir/ "t4 ,! pr9ciple we h j describ$ is (t5 enunciat$1 by say+ t e body 9 rapid rotation re/s 9 its plane1 & c only be driv5 out by a consid]able =ce2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is a defective =mula4 ,! pr9ciple %\ld be /at$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,a body 9 rapid rotation t5ds to rema9 9 its plane2 t is1 its axis re/s p>allel ) itself1 & in/ead ( obey+ any =ce t5d+ to div]t its direction1 x produces 9 consequ5ce ( ! comb9ation ( two simultane\s movem5ts1 a displacem5t ( ! axis1 g5]ally mu* feebl] & ( a diff]5t k9d f t :i* ?is =ce ex]cises on ! same body 9 repose4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>m+ applications ( ?is !ory is due to ,m4 ,f\cault4 ,! ,gyroscope1 :i* be>s 8 "n1 is a heavy disc1 ! axis ( :i* is support$ by a 8,c>dan0 balance1 s t1 :atev] is ! position ( ! contrivance1 x is possible to pres]ve x 9 a con/ant direction4 ,!re=e if ! disc is1 by means ( special me*anism1 put 9 rapid rotation1 we may give x all k9ds ( possible displacem5t )\t *ang+ ! plane 9 :i* ! gyroscope moves4 ,suppos+ !n t its connection ) ! susp5sion is fix$ 9 a relatively immovable mann]1 b attract$ by a movem5t t[>ds ! gr\nd1 ! plane ( rotation ( ! disc w n entirely p>ticipate 9 ?is movem5t4 ,x is true1 x w be c>ri$ into ! movem5t ( g5]al removal1 b x w rema9 con/antly p>allel ) itself1 & only appe>s displac$ 9 comp>ison ) ! surr\nd+ objects1 :i* obey m completely ?an itself ! movem5t ( ! globe's rotation r\nd its poles4 ,?us c we demon/rate ! movem5t ( our planet4 ,9 virtue ( ! same pr9ciple1 we see e day pass+ be=e our eyes a cr[d ( ph5om5a ) :i* we are s famili> t !y d n excite our att5tion4 ,?us x is because ! hoop t5ds to rema9 9 its plane ( rotation t x rolls on )\t fall+ or deviat+1 & = ! same reason t tops rotate v]tically on _! po9ts1 or :5 !y are runn+ d[n1 describe a s]ies ( conc5tric circles2 & = ! same reason aga91 a juggl] is able s easily to hold on ! po9t ( a /ick a plate :i* he puts 9 rapid rotation1 etc4 ,x is also ow+ to ?is prop]ty ( rotat+ bodies t we h be5 enabl$ to make use ( cyl9drical or conical projectiles 9 artill]y4 ,! coil$ rifl+s ( ! cannon caus+ ! projectiles to turn r\nd v rapidly1 _! axis pres]ves an inv>iable direction dur+ _! :ole c\rse1 until !y f9ally /rike ! object at :i* !y are aim$4 ,)\t ?is rotation !y w\ld pir\ette 9 an irregul> mann] 9 ! air1 & besides any precision 9 fir+ be+ impossible1 ! resi/ance ( ! air w\ld dim9i% _! range to an enorm\s ext5t4 ,! ,gyroscope1 an in/rum5t n[ famili> to mo/ sci5tific p]sons1 is /ill a problem ( :i* ! solution has n yet be5 f\nd4 ,x may be call$ ! p>adox ( me*anics1 = al?\gh x dep5ds on gravitation1 x appe>s to be entirely indiff]5t to x4 ,an ,am]ican sci5ti/ has appli$ electricity to ! gyroscope1 s z to make its movem5ts z cont9u\s z possible1 & to enable u to /udy x m at leisure & ) bett] results4 ,! gyroscope is m\nt$ on a p$e/al :i* tap]s to a po9t1 & supports ! in/rum5t4 ,! b> ( ! gyroscope on :i* ! electro-magnets are fix$ re/s ^u ! top ( ! p$e/al4 ,"o ( ! extremities ( ! bobb9 is fix$ to ! cavity1 :5 ! b> & support jo91 ! o!r extremity communicates ) ! b> :i* jo9s ! nuts ( ! magnets4 ,an insulator ( h>d5$ ca\t*\c is s plac$ t x j t\*es ! axis ( ! :eel twice 9 e revolution ( t :eel4 ,its plane ( rotation is at "r angles to ! magnets1 & c>ries an armature ( s(t iron :i* turns v close to ! magnet )\t t\*+ x4 ,! armature is put en rapport ) ! surface ( contact ( ! cyl9d]1 s t :5 ! armature approa*es x is attract$2 b imm$iately aft]w>ds1 z x rea*es ! opposite side1 ! curr5t is int]rupt$1 & ! impulse acquir$ is suffici5t to move ! :eel to ! spot :]e ! armature c aga9 come "u ! influ5ce ( ! magnet4 ,! magnets1 ! :eel1 & all ! p>ts ( ! in/rum5t toge!r c move ar\nd 9 any direction4 ,:5 two or f\r ,buns5 cells are put 9 connection ) ! gyroscope1 ! :eel turns ) trem5d\s rapidity1 & by p]mitt+ ! magnets to "w 7an op]ation :i* requires "s little dext]ity71 ! :eel n only su/a9s itself1 b also ! magnets & ! o!r subjects :i* are betwe5 x & ! extremity ( ! p$e/al--9 opposition to ! laws ( gravitation4 ,! :eel1 besides turn+ rapidly ar\nd its axis2 revolves sl[ly ar\nd ! po9t ( ! column 9 ! same direction tak5 by ! l[] "p ( ! :eel4 ,:5 atta*+ ! arms & c\nt]-poise ( ! ma*9e1 s t ! :eel & ! magnets may balance !mselves exactly on ! po9t$ p$e/al1 ! ma*9e rema9s /ation>y4 ,b if we give any prepond]ance to ! :eel & magnets ! rotation ( ! app>atus is 9 a direction opposite to t :i* w\ld result f turn+ ! upp] "p ( ! :eel4 ,! gyroscope illu/rates ! p]si/5ce ) :i* a body t submits to rotation ma9ta9s itself 9 ! plane ( its rotation1 not)/&+ ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,x also %[s ! result ( ! comb9$ action ( two =ces t5d+ to produce rotation ar\nd two sep>ate axes1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 situat$ 9 ! same plane4 ,! rotation ( ! :eel r\nd its axis is produc$ 9 ! pres5t case by ! electro-magnet2 & ! t5d5cy ( ! :eel to fall1 or to turn 9 a v]tical plane p>allel to its axis1 results 9 ! rotation ( ! entire in/rum5t ^u a new axis1 :i* co9cides ) ! po9t$ p$e/al4 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,money-,,box4 ,dur+ a rec5t visit to ,london1 z ,i 0 "o day walk+ 9 ! ,cry/al ,palace1 my att5tion 0 attract$ by a curi\s money-box1 surm\nt$ by a pictorial repres5tation ( "o ( ! ,london /reets4 ,! c>riages1 horses1 & p$e/rians 7 repres5t$ by figures cut out ( c>dbo>d1 arrang$ 9 a groove4 ,a l>ge plac>d bore ?is inscription3 8,notice to visitors3 ,?r[ a p5ny 9 ! money-box2 & ! figures w p]=m40 ,i at once respond$ to ?is invitation1 & imm$iately beheld ! little tableaux become mov+ & life-l2 ! cabs roll$ along1 & ! pass]s-by walk$ up & d[n ! /reet4 ,a numb] ( visitors foll[$ my example1 & !re is no d\bt ! money-box 0 full at ! end ( ! day4 ,?is +5i\s contrivance = obta9+ money 9 s easy a mann]1 & )\t hav+ rec\rse to a 8%[-man10 appe>$ to me wor?y ( inve/igation & description4 ,! ,sci5tific ,am]ican 7,new ,york7 has rec5tly giv5 an explanation ( ?is curi\s contrivance1 & we w "h quote :at has be5 publi%$ on ! subject4 8,among ! inv5tions int5d$ to obta9 contributions ( money f ! visitors at ! ,philadelphia ,exhibition10 says ! ,am]ican writ]1 8we w describe ! s+ul> money-boxes plac$ 9 ! salons ( ! pr9cipal hotels & ! gall]ies ( ! exhibition1 etc4 ,^! contrivances all consi/$ ( a case or box1 ) a glass front1 ?r\gh :i* c be se5 a l&scape 9 m9iature1 ) trees1 h\ses1 figures1 etc41 all cut out ( c>dbo>d1 & pa9t$ ) great nicety4 ,on ! box 0 a label reque/+ ! visitor to drop a co9 into x & await ! result ( ! contribution4 ,:5 ! p5ny has fall5 9 x puts 9 motion "s hidd5 ma*9]y1 & !n we see ! p 9 ! m9iature l&scape all 9 motion1 rid+ or walk+ or hunt+1 z ! case may be40 ,ano!r box is ev5 m successful1 = x places 9 ! h&s ( ! contributor a photograph ( "s celebrat$ p]son4 ,b to obta9 ! photograph we mu/ contribute six p5nies4 ,! c>te w n come out if we d n put 9 ! prop] co9s1 & ! app>atus is p]fectly fair & hone/4 ,! illu/ration1 fig4 #hgb1 %[s ! app>atus1 :i* is v simple4 ,on ! left ! ord9>y box is se51 on ! "r !re is a longitud9al section ( x4 ,at ! top ( ! l[] portion1 :]e ! money is receiv$ 91 is a holl[ support1 ,a1 :i* su/a9s ! box 9 :i* ! photographs are plac$ ^u an incl9$ plane1 & re/+ aga9/ ! glass4 ,! pieces ( money1 9 fall+1 /rike ! extremity ( a v]tical balance1 :i* imm$iately turns a too!d :eel1 ,c4 ,?is :eel has z _m tee? z !re are pieces ( money necess>y to pur*ase ! photograph or c>te de visite4 ,^u ! escapem5t :eel is a rat*et arrangem5t1 ,d1 ! %aft be+ mov$ by a cord roll$ ar\nd x & atta*$ to a spr+1 ,e4 ,a bolt1 ,f1 mov$ by a spr+1 is kept con/antly press$ aga9/ ! 8snail10 ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgb4--;,am]ican money-box4 ,?us at ea* revolution1 z ! p>ts ( ! ma*9]y are animat$ by ! same movem5t1 ! bolt is )drawn suffici5tly to p]mit a c>te to fall1 & !n ! c>d next foll[+ w be ready re/+ ^u ! bolt4 ,! photographs be+ plac$ ^u an incl9$ plane1 are pu%$ =w>d by a movable frame1 ,g1 :i* has a roll] at ! base4 ,s z "o c>d falls out ano!r is imm$iately replac$ close to ! glass4 ,we h rem>k$ t ! :eel has six tee?1 s t z "o piece ( money dropp$ 9 moves x "o-six? ( its revolution1 six pieces w be necess>y to produce ! c>d4 ,( c\rse :eels c be made ) "o or m tee?1 & ! paym5t may be v>i$ = valuable objects at ! desire ( ! possessor4 ,! inv5tion is n only a play?+4 ,x c be made useful 9 ! di/ribution ( pamphlets1 or newspap]s1 :i* c be introduc$ into ! box fold$ uni=mly4 ,!y c also be us$ 9 omnibuses or tram-c>s1 & tickets may be giv5 by ! ma*9e on paym5t ( ! prop] sum ( money4 ,we w close ?is *apt] ) an illu/ration ( a spiral bottle1 :i* c be done 9 ! mann] n[ to be describ$1 s t ! bottle w actually become a glass spr+4 ,take a mixture ( #ahj grammes ( lampblack1 #fj grammes ( gum arabic1 #bc grammes ( adragan?1 & #bc grammes ( b5zo94 ,make ^! +r$i5ts into a pa/e by ! addition ( wat]1 & fa%ion a p5cil ( ! *>coal ?us obta9$4 ,?is p5cil1 :5 heat$1 w cut ! glass :]ev] x is appli$4 ,! process is comm5c$ by scrap+ ! bottle ) a file & foll[+ ! in/rum5t ) ! r$-hot p5cil4 ,:]ev] ! hot p5cil is appli$1 ! glass w be cut z %[n 9 ! illu/ration h]e)4 ,x w be necess>y to bl[ ^u ! heat$ p5cil to ma9ta9 ! inc&esc5ce z long z possible4 ,! bottle z cut & repres5tations ( ! in/rum5ts are giv5 9 ! cut 7fig4 #hgc74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgc4 ,spiral bottle4 ,,*apt] ,,lviii4 ,,sci5tific ,,objects ,,= ,,! ,,h\sehold4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgd4--,read+ :eel desk4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury !re 0 at ,lyons a v rem>kable mansion built by a man nam$ ,ni*olas ,grolli] de ,s]vire4 ,?is h\se 0 fill$ ) all ! mo/ rem>kable curiosities & inv5tions ( ! p]iod4 ,! own] belong$ to an anci5t family4 ,8 great-uncle1 ,jean ,grolli]1 _h amass$ a magnific5t libr>y1 ! be/ 9 ,france4 ,8 fa!r 0 also a celebrat$ adh]5t ( ,h5ry ,,iv41 & ,m4 ,s]vire himself _h inh]it$ mu* sci5tific ta/e & intellig5ce f 8 ance/ors4 ,8 h\se 0 full ( curiosities1 +5i\s ma*9es1 & my/]i\s clocks1 conc]n+ "s ( :i* ?+s we %all h some?+ to say 9 ?is *apt]4 ,m4 de ,s]vire's +5uity 0 fir/ app>5t 9 ! circul> read+ desk1 or :eel-desk1 on :i* he put all ! books he 0 likely to require )9 a c]ta9 "t4 ,he seat$ himself by ?is revolv+ desk1 & !n 0 enabl$ to read any book or pap] he desir$ by m]ely turn+ ! :eel ) 8 h&s & ?us br++ x "u 8 vision4 ,9 ^! days x is equally possible to collect useful articles ei!r ( an electric nature or o!rwise4 ,we h already describ$ ! electric p5 & ! writ+ ma*9e1 ) "s o!r ?+s :i* might be includ$ 9 our li/ ( dome/ic appliances1 b ! ,*romograph has n be5 yet illu/rat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hge4--,! *romograph4 ,,! ,,*romograph4 ,:5 we h writt5 ) a c]ta9 well-kn[n violet 8ink0 ^u a %eet ( pap] & appli$ x to a s(t gelat9\s surface & rubb$ x a few times1 we %all obta9 an impression ( ! writ+ on ! gelat9e4 ,by press+ blank %eets ( pap] ^u ?is we may pull (f q a numb] ( copies ( our lett] or circul>4 ,?is practice is n[ s well kn[n t x is sc>cely necess>y to detail x4 ,! lay] ( gelat9e is made up z foll[s1 & any ( ! recipes w suffice4 #a4 ,gelat9e #ajj grammes1 wat] #cge grammes1 glyc]9e #cge grammes1 kaol9 #ej grammes4 7,lebaigue47 #b4 ,gelat9e #ajj grammes1 dextr9e #ajj grammes1 glyc]9e #ajjj grammes1 sulphate ( b>yta q4s4 7,w4 ,w>?a47 #c4 ,gelat9e #ajj grammes1 glyc]9e #a1bjj grammes1 b\illie de sulphate de b>yta1 /ra9$1 #ejj cubic c5timtres4 7,w4 ,w>?a47 #d4 ,gelat9e #a gramme1 glyc]9e #cj #d grammes1 wat] #b grammes4 7,kwayss] & ,husak47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgf4--,! *romograph4 ,! 8mixture0 is %ak5 until x cools to ! po9t ( ?ick5+1 & !n p\r$ into a z9c vessel4 ,! kaol9 or ! sulphate ( b>yta makes ! composition :ite4 ,x c be treat$ aga9 ) gelat9e & molasses employ$ = pr9t+ roll]s4 ,:5 ! pro(s h be5 tak5 f ! frame ! surface may be rubb$ ) a damp sponge1 & !n x w be ready = use aga9 imm$iately4 ,! introduction ( dextr9e facilitates ! cleans+ ( ! surface plate4 ,,! ,,campylomet]4#db ,?is in/rum5t1 con/ruct$ by ,lieut5ant ,gaumet1 is v easily c>ri$ 9 ! pocket1 & by a v simple process gives 7#a7 ! l5g? ( any l9e1 /raight or curv$1 trac$ on a map or plan2 7#b7 ! actual l5g? correspond+ to a 8graphical0 l5g? on maps ( ! scale ( #a_/hjjjj or #a_/ajjjjj1 or on maps :i* are multiples ( ^! numb]s4 ,! in/rum5t consi/s ( a too!d disc1 ! circumf]5ce ( :i* is d5tat$ exactly 9 five c5timtres4 ,! faces ( ?is disc ea* c>ry a sy/em ( divisions2 "o is divid$ into f\r p>ts1 ! o!r into five4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ! disc 7#e c5timtres7 corresponds to ! #d kilomtres ( ! scale ( #a_/hjjjj1 & to #e kilomtres ( t ( #a_/ajjjjj4 ,! division #a_/dj ( ! disc 9 ! =m] scale measures #ajj mtres1 & is 9 x ! same z #a_/ej ( ! o!r scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgg4--,! campylomet]4 ,! too!d disc moves ^u a micro-metric screw1 ! m>k+s ( :i* are #jjjae ( a mtre1 & a small 8rule0 or 8reglet0 c>ries equal graduations1 z ! screw repres5t+ l5g?s s foll[3-- #a4 #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj #ej c5ti4 accord+ to metric scale4 #b4 #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj #ej kil4 scale #a_/ajjjjj2 #c4 #d1 #h1 #ab1 #af #dj kil4 #a_/hjjjj2 ,! micro-metric screw is fix$ 9 a frame s made z to =m a k9d ( indicator or guide at "o side4 ,to make use ( ! campylomet]1 br+ ! z]o ( ! disc opposite ! z]o ( ! rule 7reglet71 !n place ! in/rum5t on ! map 9 a p]p5dicul> position2 ! po9t w s]ve z guide1 & move ! disc ^u ! l9e1 :e!r direct or s9u\s1 ( :i* y wi% to asc]ta9 ! l5g?4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done1 note ! la/ graduation ( ! 8reglet0 beyond :i* ! disc has /opp$1 add to ! value ( ?is graduation ! complem5t>y l5g? %[n by ! division ( ! disc :i* is opposite ! 8reglet40 ,to f9d ! l5g? ( a mat]ial l9e we mu/ add to ! numb] ( c5timtres %[n by ! upp] graduation ! complem5t 9 millimtres furni%$ by ! division to ! #a_/ej?4 ,= example1 suppose we read #bj ^u ! upp] scale1 #ce ! division to ! #a_/ej opposite ! 8reglet02 ! l5g? obta9$ is #bj c5timtres plus #ce millimtres1 or #jbce mtres4 ,if we are measur+ ^u a map on ! #a_/ajjjjj scale1 ! upp] graduations repres5t kilomtres1 ! complem5t>y divisions on ! #a_/ej scale hundr$?s ( mtres4 ,= example1 suppose aga9 #bj be ! sup]ior graduation1 #ce ! division to ! #a_/ej ( ! disc z be=e2 ! di/ance measur$ is #bj kilomtres plus #c1ejj mtres1 or #bc1ejj mtres4 ,on ! map ! l[] graduation ( ! 8reglet0 is us$4 ,= in/ance1 if #ab be ! upp] graduation ( ! division to #a_/dj ( ! di/ance opposite to ! 8reglet10 ! di/ance measur$ w be #ab1gjj mtres4 ,! campylomet] has be5 specially con/ruct$ = maps on ! #a_/hjjjj & #a_/ajjjjj scales1 & calculations c be made easily = any maps ^: scales are multiples or sub-multiples ( ^!4 ,b ! in/rum5t w s]ve equally well = all maps or plans ( :i* ! num]ical scale is kn[n4 ,we mu/ multiply ! l5g? ( ! l9e express$ 9 millimtres by ! d5om9ator ( ! scale divid$ by #a1jjj4 ,s ^u an ,engli% map to ! #a_/fccfj1 a l5g? ( #aee millimtres corresponds to a 8natural0 l5g? ( #fc1cfj multipli$ by #aee1 or #ihbjhj mtres4 ,?us we p]ceive t ! employm5t ( ! campylomet] does n necessitate ! trac+ ( a graphic scale1 b only ! k ( ! num]ical scale4 ,:5 ! =m] only is kn[n1 ! campylomet] may be us$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- ,hav+ trac$ ) ! disc ! l9e y wi% to measure1 c>ry ! in/rum5t to ! z]o ( ! scale & let x run inv]sely ! l5g? ( t scale1 until ! z]o ( ! disc returns opposite to ! z]o ( ! 8reglet40 ,! po9t at :i* ! disc is /opp$ on ! scale indicates ! l5g? ( ! l9e measur$ ^u ! map4 ,if ! scale be small] ?an ! l9e measur$1 repeat ! op]ation z _m times z may be necess>y4 ,if x is desirable to asc]ta9 ^u a map ( a scale ( #a_/bjjjj ! di/ance repres5t$ by #a1bjj mtres1 we h only to place ! too!d disc s t its position m>ks f\r times ! requir$ di/ance--t is1 #d1hjj mtres on ! map ( #a_/hjjjj 7= #d times #bj #hj74 ,!n move ! disc 9 ! giv5 direction until ! z]o returns opposite ! z]o ( ! 8reglet02 ?is limit w m>k ! extremity ( ! l5g? requir$4 ,explanations are n easy ^u pap]1 b ! in/rum5t is f\nd v easy 9 actual use4 ,x is employ$ by ! milit>y /aff = calculat+ di/ances ( any k9d1 curves or /raight l9es4 ,on ! m>*1 or ev5 on horseback1 ! campylomet] c be employ$4 ,,my/]i\s ,,clocks4 ,! clocks repres5t$ 9 ! two foll[+ illu/rations 7figs4 #hgh & #hgi71 are well wor?y ( be+ plac$ 9 ! h\se ( any amateur ( sci5ce4 ,!y are made ( transp>5t cry/al1 & ?\gh all me*anism is clev]ly conceal$ !y keep capital "t4 ,! =m] clock 7fig4 #hgh7 is ! inv5tion ( ,rob]t ,h\d91 & consi/s ( two cry/al discs sup]pos$ & enclos$ 9 ! same frame4 ,"o c>ries ! usual num]als1 ! o!r moves ^u its c5tre ) ! m9ute h& atta*$1 & its rotation induces by ! ord9>y me?od ! movem5t ( ! h\r h&4 ,! requisite motion is transmitt$ to ! dial by ge> dispos$ along ! circumf]5ce & hidd5 )9 ! metallic frame1 & is itself put 9 motion by clockwork1 enclos$ 9 ! p$e/al ( ! timepiece4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgh4--;,h\d9's clock4 ,m4 ,cadot1 9 8 clock 7fig4 #hgi71 reta9s ! plates1 b adopts ! rectangul> =m1 s z to preclude all idea ( rotation1 & to puzzle ^? :o are acqua9t$ ) ! work+ ( ,h\d9's clock4 ,! m9ute h& _c1 9 ?is in/ance1 be fix$ to ! second glass plate1 x pres]ves its indep5d5ce4 ,?is movable plate has only a v slight angul> movem5t ar\nd its c5tre1 :i* oscillation or 8play0 is p]mitt$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! rectangul> dial4 ,a little spr+ movem5t1 hidd5 9 ! c5tral nut ( ! 8h&10 provides 9 progressive rotation ! oscillation ( ! transp>5t plate1 :i* _c be p]ceiv$ to move4 ,to produce ?is 8balance0 motion ! plate is support$ ^u a b> 9 ! l[] "p ( ! metal frame4 ,aft] ! direct oscillation ( :i* we h spok51 a little spr+ puts ! ma*9]y back4 ,! direct displacem5t is produc$ by a v]tical pi/on :i* raises ! end ( ! b>4 ,?is pi/on re/s ^u a b5t lev] communicat+ ) a :eel ) ?irty triangul> tee?4 ,f9ally ?is :eel turns ^u its axis once 9 an h\r by a clockwork arrangem5t 9 ! p$e/al ( ! clock4 ,ea* too? takes two m9utes to pass1 & ! movem5t is communicat$ to ! m9ute h&1 :i* ?us goes r\nd ! dial 9 ! h\r4 ,! h\r h& is controll$ by a delicate arrangem5t hidd5 9 ! base4 ,! illu/ration & notes w expla9 ! work+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hgi4--,m4 ,cadot's clock4 ,m4 ,h5ri ,rob]t has also inv5t$ a v int]e/+ clock1 & "o calculat$ to excite mu* curiosity 7fig4 #hha74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhj4--a4 ,front view4 #b4 ,pr(ile4 #c4 ,detail ( movem5t betwe5 ! glasses4 #d4 ,detail ( movable plate4 a4 ,base ( clock4 b4 ,framework4 c4 ,space = movem5t4 d4 ,:eel support4 e4 ,cog:eel4 ,we c see no?+ b a cry/al dial1 p]fectly transp>5t1 ^u ! surface ( :i* two 8h&s0 move1 z ^u an ord9>y clock face4 ,!re is no ma*9]y visible1 & electricity may be cr$it$ ) ! motive p[]1 because ! dial is susp5d$ by two wires4 ,b !y w soon be p]ceiv$ n to be connect$ ) ! h&s1 & all se>* = ! me*anism w be fruitless4 ,! h&s1 moreov]1 turn backw>ds or =w>ds1 & may be mov$ by a trea*]\s f+]1 b w always return z by a balanc$ motion to _! position1 n ! h\r :i* !y 7 at1 b to ! "t :i* x actually is4 ,!y w take _! prop] place not)/&+ all ef=ts to ! contr>y1 & w !n1 if let alone1 indicate ! "t z /eadily z ev]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hha4--,m4 ,rob]t's clock4 ,! h&s ( ?is v my/]i\s timepiece c>ry _! own motive p[]1 & consi/ ( unequally balanc$ lev]s1 s to speak1 9 :i* ! clockwork arrangem5t is int5d$ to di/urb ! equilibrium4 ,?is prop]ty is employ$ to indicate ! h\r & ! m9ute1 z we w attempt to %[4 ,! m9ute h& is ! balance1 & x is v exactly pois$4 ,9 ! r\nd box fitt$ to ! end ( ?is h& a plate ( plat9um is displac$ by clockwork4 ,! c5tre ( gravity be+ displac$ e in/ant by ! revolution ( ! weight :i* goes r\nd once 9 an h\r1 ! m9ute h& is =c$ to foll[1 & c>ries ! h\r h& ) x4 ,by ! hidd5 arrangem5ts ! h&s are dep5d5t "o ^u ! o!r1 b rema9 indep5d5t 9 movem5t4 ,if !y be mov$ backw>ds or =w>ds !y w return automatically to _! respective places1 & if turn$ quickly r\nd ! m9ute h& w return to ! prop] m9ute1 & ! h\r h& to ! h\r4 ,! me*anism is simple & +5i\s2 ! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 is n absolutely novel1 & be=e ,m4 ,rob]t appli$ x _m attempts _h be5 made to move indicators by ! ma*9]y !y !mselves conta9$4 ,b ,m4 ,rob]t has succe$$ 9 adapt+ ! idea b5eficially & usefully1 giv+ x a practical z well z an elegant %ape4 ,a ,,new ,,calculat+ ,,dial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhb4--;,a new calculat+ dial4 ,fig4 #hhc4--,rev]se view4 ,! small in/rum5t h]e) illu/rat$ 7figs4 #hhb & #hhc7 is v s]viceable = calculators1 & its size adapts x = ! wai/coat pocket4 ,x c be us$ to calculate by addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 & division4 ,log>i?ms c be f\nd1 & ! p[]s & roots ( numb]s--ev5 trigonometrical calculations may be made by its aid4 ,we ne$ n g into any details reg>d+ ! pr9ciple ( ! little 8circle40 ,su* explanations are only we>y+ & unsatisfactory at be/4 ,! pr9ciple is1 simply /at$1 ! !orem t ! log>i?m ( ! product ( two numb]s is equal to ! sum ( _! logs4 ,! size ( ! dial w ( c\rse regulate ! l5g? ( ! calculation4 ,! in/rum5t depict$ p]mits ( calculation to ?ree figures ) exactitude4 ,m4 ,b\*]1 ! inv5tor1 hopes to succe$ 9 p]fect+ an in/rum5t ( small size :i* w comb9e all desid]ata1 & calculate to high p[]s4 ,,! ,,p$omet]4 ,we all "k h[ useful x is to be able to calculate di/ances approximately :5 ^u an excursion or walk+ t\r1 & mu* tr\ble is tak5 by _m t\ri/s to asc]ta9 ! numb] ( miles !y may h walk$ 9 a c]ta9 "t4 ,! rapid success :i* ! ,p$omet] has ga9$ is a te/imony to ! ne$ x has adapt$ itself to fill4 ,! p$omet] is mu* l an ord9>y wat* 9 appe>ance & size4 ,we p]ceive a dial ) figures & spaces to %[ ! numb] ( paces walk$4 ,! cut repres5ts ! me*anism1 :i* is exce$+ly simple4 ,9 ! fig4 #hhd1 ,b is a c\nt]-poise at ! extremity ( a lev]1 :i* oscillates ar\nd an axis1 ,a4 ,a screw1 ,v1 s]ves to limit ! ext5t ( ^! oscillations1 & a spr+ :i* acts ^u ! c\nt]-poise holds ! latt] to ! upp] end4 ,! app>atus is complet$ by a movem5t :i* c\nts ! numb] ( oscillations ( ! lev]4 ,s mu* be+ und]/ood1 x w be presum$ t if we give to ! in/rum5t an 8up-&-d[n0 movem5t1 ! spr+ :i* holds ! c\nt]-poise1 ,b1 be+ too weak to comp5sate ! =ce ( in]tion ( ! latt]1 x gives way & presses aga9/ ! screw1 ,v4 ,:5 ! opposite movem5t takes place ! c\nt]-poise is at ! end ( its c\rse1 & s on4 ,?us dur+ a walk ea* /ep produces an oscillation :i* ! c\nt] regi/]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhd4--,p$omet]4 ,9 ! h&s ( a c>eful obs]v]1 su* a p$omet] is capable ( regi/]+ exact results1 & ! numb] ( paces be+ c\nt$1 a v good idea ( ! numb] ( y>ds & miles pass$ ov] c be arriv$ at4 ,,footnotes3 #db ,kampulos1 a curve2 metron1 measure4 ,,*apt] ,,lix4 ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,dome/ic ,,economy4 ,all bran*es ( appli$ sci5ce are capable ( giv+ u important h9ts & r5d]+ u great s]vice 9 all ! conditions ( our daily life1 & z we h at v>i\s times ?r\gh\t ?is volume m5tion$ useful dome/ic inv5tions applicable = use by means ( wat]1 air1 etc41 we may describe "s m p>ticul>ly relat+ to ! inside ( ! h\se1 & ! sci5ce ( dome/ic economy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhe4--;,d\ble w9d[4 ,sometimes dur+ ! w9t] we may feel x v difficult1 if n impossible1 to keep ! room w>m4 ,?is we c d1 h[ev]1 by means ( d\ble w9d[s4 ,:y is x t ! d\ble w9d[ z us$ 9 ,russia keeps out ! cold s well8 ,is x because ! room is def5d$ aga9/ fro/ by two w9d[s in/ead ( !re be+ only "o to resi/ x8--,n entirely4 ,su* an explanation is n suffici5t4 ,if "o be protect$ aga9/ ! ext]ior cold1 x is1 ?anks to ! mass ( air :i* is imprison$1 betwe5 ! two w9d[s4 ,extraord9>y z x may appe>1 ! air is a v bad conductor ( heat1 & =ms ! be/ insulator t "o c f9d4 ,! heat ( ! ap>tm5t is !n p]fectly reta9$ by means ( ! air betwe5 ! d\ble w9d[s4 ,9 ! same way ! d\ble w9d[ is n less useful dur+ ! summ]1 = x prev5ts ! entrance ( ! heat$ air into ! h\se4 ,! d\ble w9d[ may !re=e be comp>$ to ! b\rn\s ( ! ,arab & ! cloak ( ! ,spani>d1 :i* pres]ves f heat z well z gu>ds aga9/ cold4 ,! d\ble w9d[s also p]=m ano!r s]vice4 ,! glasses =m a hot-h\se4 ,! sun heats ! air :i* is enclos$1 & ?us betwe5 ! panes f]ns & ev5 v9es w fl\ri%4 ,! w9d[s are v easy to make1 & 9 ! ev5t ( any read] desir+ to con/ruct "o or m1 we give ! dim5sions4 7,see fig4 #hhe47 ,t ,t1 is ! ext]ior frame ( ! w9d[4 ,! two panes are m\nt$ on a frame ( wood1 & are repres5t$ by ,a ,a & ,b ,b ,! sa%es are repres5t$ ap>t1 ,p & ,p are ! %utt]s ( %eet iron1 :i*1 if ! walls be n s ?ick z repres5t$1 c be replac$ by a spr+-bl9d1 :i* desc5ds betwe5 ! w9d[s4 ,,sew+ ,,ma*9e ,,work$ ,,by ,a ,,dog4 ,animals h be5 employ$ = all "t to draw c>riages & ! pl\gh1 etc4 ,b ^! animal 8motors0 are usually employ$ "u defective conditions1 & !re=e )\t full pr(it4 ,! in]t mass ( ! animals rema9s q unutiliz$1 8 =ce only is employ$1 & !re are _m objections on ! score ( humanity1 z well z f a me*anical /&po9t1 & great muscul> t5sion ) suff]+ may be inflict$ ^u an animal :i* is cont9ually m\nt+ a :eel or su* contrivance = rais+ wat]4 ,!re 0 9 ! ,p>is ,exhibition a ?re%+ ma*9e put 9 motion by a horse walk+ ^u a pair ( roll]s :i* con/itut$ an 8endless0 way1 & we w n[ briefly describe a ma*9e :i* utilizes animal =ce & weight4 ,x is ! inv5tion ( ,m4 ,ri*>d ( ,p>is1 :o has made _m me*anical app>atus = indu/rial purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhf4--,sew+ ma*9e work$ by a dog4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! inv5tion 7fig4 #hhf7 consi/s 9 ! animal utiliz+ all ! =ce result+ f 8 dead-weight4 ,a small box conta9s ! dog v easily4 ,9 ! illu/ration we see ! dog at re/1 & 9 t case he ma9ta9s 8 c5tre ( gravity & ex]cises no =ce ^u ! :eel4 ,b :5 ! box is incl9$1 ! m]e weight ( ! animal is suffici5t m]ely to turn ! :eel 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,! dog1 f9d+ himself slid+ away1 naturally endeav\rs to move =w>d1 & ! rotation ( ! :eel is cont9u$2 ! be/ results are obta9$ :5 ! body is plac$ entirely ^u ! desc5d+ l9e1 & ?is result is ow+ only to ! weight ( ! animal4 ,!re is a re/+-place1 j above & outside ! 8endless0 way trav]s$ by ! dog4 ,a bas9 ) wat] is also provid$ = ! animal4 ,m4 ,rob]t 0 let to ?is discov]y 9 ! foll[+ way3--,he employs a l>ge numb] ( sew+-ma*9e h&s1 & f9d+ t ! work+ ( ! ma*9es _h an injuri\s effect ^u ! heal? ( ! work]s1 he det]m9$ to sub/itute1 9 "p1 o!r lab\r = t ( female h&s4 ,he !n ?\ght out 8 8quadrup$al motors10 :i* are work$ by intellig5t dogs4 ,!re is v little tr\ble or exp5se connect$ ) ! work+1 s a great sav+ is effect$1 z ! dogs co/ little1 & are *eaply f$4 ,! result is t ,m4 ,rob]t has f\r heavy ma*9es occasionally at "w1 :i* are kept 9 motion by dogs at a v small exp5se4 ,a ,,clock-,,lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhg4--;,a clock-lamp4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #hhg7 repres5ts an +5i\s arrangem5t1 :i*1 by means ( combu/ion ( oil 9 a lamp1 indicates ! h\r ( ! night4 ,! design expla9s itself4 ,two v]tical tubes are fix$ above ! res]voir ( oil4 ,! left tube conta9s oil1 & is m>k$ ) ! h\rs2 ! "r tube burns ! oil z a lamp4 ,! app>atus is s con/ruct$ by ! inv5tor1 ,m4 ,h4 ,behn1 t a c]ta9 quantity ( oil is consum$ exactly 9 "o h\r betwe5 two graduations ( ! h\r-tube4 ,a reflector plac$ beside ! lamp enables "o to see ! "t by night v pla9ly4 ,,an 8,,al>um0 ,,lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhh4--;,an 8al>um0 lamp4 ,! app>atus repres5t$ bel[ 7fig4 #hhh7 is an ord9>y 8al>um0 lamp4 ,x is surm\nt$ by a petroleum lamp1 :i* c>ries a burn] t rema9s light$ all night1 & :i* s]ves z a night-light4 ,! 8al>um0 c>ries an index1 repres5t$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 ! illu/ration1 & ! h&s are fix$ 7) ! index7 to ! h\r y wi% to rise 9 ! morn+4 ,! index is fitt$ ) an arrangem5t :i* lets loose a v]tical b> repres5t$ on ! "r ( ! figure4 ,?is b> is held by a spr+1 & c>ries a too!d rack :i* acts ^u & raises ! wick4 ,at ! prop] "t ! b> is loos$1 & ! lamp-wick is rais$1 diffus+ a /rong & sudd5 light ?r\gh ! ap>tm5t4 ,?is illum9ation1 9 conc]t ) an al>um-bell1 g5]ally succe$s 9 awak+ ! heavie/ sleep]4 ,a ,,good ,,petroleum ,,lamp4 ,?is lamp 7fig4 #hhi7 burns gazol9e )\t ! lea/ od\r or dang] ( explosion4 ,x w s]ve equally well = petroleum or naph?a4 ,! gazol9e us$ ought to be #ffj grammes weight to ! litre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hhi4--;,a good petroleum lamp4 ,! c5tral portion ( ! lamp "u consid]ation has an orifice1 ,a ,b1 :i* ext5ds ?r\gh ! upp] "p1 & by :i* ! air is admitt$ to ! c5tre ( ! flame4 ,two v]tical plates divide ! air-curr5t into f\r portions4 ,! *imney-re/1 or gall]y1 =ms ) ! glass ?ree conc5tric envelopes1 s arrang$ 9 /ages t ! air1 :5 x rea*es ! plates1 may be m & m c>ri$ "u ! flame4 ,! orifices1 a b1 c>efully regulat$1 give access to ! ext]ior air4 ,includ+ ! c5tral "o1 !re are f\r curr5ts ( air1 ( :i* ?ree /rike aga9/ ! flame4 ,^! are v excell5t conditions = obta9+ p]fect combu/ion1 &1 consequ5tly1 !re is an entire abs5ce ( smell & smoke1 :ile ! light is v p[]ful4 ,we may add t any glass w be f\nd suitable to ?is lamp1 & t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! sep>ation ( ! hot air by ! curr5ts m5tion$1 all dang] ( ! glasses break+ f ov]-heat+ is avoid$4 ,9 prov9cial di/ricts1 :]e lamp-glasses are n pl5tiful1 ?is *>act]i/ic w be appreciat$4 ,! lamp c only be fill$ :5 x is ext+ui%$1 & ?us ! *ances ( explosion are practically obviat$4 ,a burn] ( twelve l9es w give d\ble ! light ( a mod]ator ( ! same capacity1 & co/ only a p5ny or less p] h\r4 ,! light is p]fectly /ill & cle>4 ,a ,,new ,,tap4 ,?is new tap is ! inv5tion ( ,m4 ,guyonnet1 a ,fr5*man4 ,! illu/ration 7fig4 #hij7 gives a v good idea ( its con/ruction1 & x p]mits ! gradual release ( ! liquid )\t any ( ! sudd5 ru% :i* ord9>y taps1 or 8bungs10 are apt to d4 ,! plug is cov]$ ) indi>ubb]1 & foll[s a d\ble curve1 :i* r$uces ! =ce ( ! liquid1 & ! indi>ubb] removes any incru/ation f ! bung hole into :i* x may be fitt$1 & closes ! ap]ture effectively )\t =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hij4--;,a new tap4 ,9 ord] to gu>d aga9/ a cont+5cy1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is an unlikely "o1 ! 8envelope0 7cas+7 has be5 made 9 two pieces1 "o ( :i* c nev] be displac$2 ! head only c be mov$1 & x is easily deta*$4 ,! plug adapts itself to ! ap]ture z a button to ! buttonhole1 & only co/s ab\t ?ree halfp5ce 7#ae c5times74 ,ice has no effect ^u ! ap]ture ( ! b>rel1 ?anks to ! indi>ubb] cov]+ ( ! plug4 ,s1 altoge!r1 su* a tap w be f\nd useful & v *eap4 ,,! ,,trapeze ,,& ,,sw+4 ,we may "h notice ! simple trapeze & sw+ = *ildr51 :i* c be easily fitt$ up 9 any h\se betwe5 two rooms4 ,! advantages ( gymna/ics = ! "y are inconte/able1 b practically !re are difficulties 9 ! way1 p>ticul>ly = ^? liv+ 9 t[ns1 b a skilful ,am]ican has solv$ ! problem 9 an +5i\s way4 ,he has f\nd means to susp5d ! trapeze & a sw+ betwe5 ! doorpo/s ( a room )\t nails or any unsightly wood supports4 ,! trapeze is simply susp5d$ z repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ illu/rations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hia4--,! h\se sw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hib4--,! h\se trapeze4 ,! b>1 ,b 7see fig4 #hib71 is ( wood1 t]m9at+ 9 screws enclos$ 9 ! grooves ( ! wood1 at ! extremity ( :i* indi>ubb] discs are fix$ 7,c & ,c74 ,:5 ! b> is plac$ betwe5 ! side po/s ( ! op5 door & ) ! indi>ubb] 9 contact ) ! sides1 ! b>1 ,b1 is vigor\sly screw$ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 & ?is motion is transmitt$ to ! indi>ubb] discs :i* press aga9/ ! door1 & ! app>atus rema9s fix$4 ,! trapeze cords1 or ! sw+ ropes1 c be fa/5$ to ! b> ) hooks1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration1 & ! solidity & safety ( ! b> may be te/$ by putt+ heavy weights ^u ! ropes be=e v5tur+ ^u ! sw+1 or trapeze4 ,ev5 viol5t ex]cises may be indulg$ 9 )\t any fe> ( fall+ if ! b> be firmly screw$ aga9/ ! sides ( ! door4 ,,simple ,,toys4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration %[s u a circlet ( pap]1 v ?91 fa/5$ ^u a frame1 ) pap] w+s fix$ to ! radii4 ,?is 8screw0 fa%ion$ w+s & ! circlet c be kept up 9 ! air by means ( a h& scre54 ,! effect w be obs]vable 9 ! rapid revolution ( ! little pap] :eel1 :i* mu/ be v light & ?94 7,see fig4 #hic47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hic4--,! pap] :eel4 ,!re are _m toys :i* c be controll$ by ! use ( indi>ubb] spr+s4 ,! bicycli/ 9 ! cut 7fig4 #hid7 is an in/ance 9 po9t4 ,he turns ar\nd a pivot1 & ! t5sion ( ! spr+ keeps ! ma*9e 9 its place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hid4--,! bicycle toy4 ,! swimm+-fi% 7fig4 #hie7 is mov$ by an indi>ubb] spr+1 mu* z ! draw+-room kite is elevat$ 9 ! air4 ,! spr+ ( indi>ubb] is twi/$ to make ! fi% swim1 & ! ca\t*\c is adapt$ to a too!d :eel :i* has a clock-"w motion t gives ! tail a motion sideways & r\nd1 act+ l a propell]1 & ?us ! fi% swims4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hie4--,! fi%4 ,x is p]haps z well to say h[ ^! fi% are manag$1 because !n *ildr5 w n break !m1 :5 !y h be5 pur*as$1 to see :at is inside4 ,v "y /ud5ts are v fond ( analyses ( ?is nature1 b syn!sis1 or putt+ toge!r1 is a f> sup]ior occupation 9 ^! circum/ances to analysis1 & to put toge!r m lawful ?an to pull asund]4 ,,tree-,,fell+ ,,by ,,/eam4 ,! ma*9e con/ruct$ a few ye>s ago by ,messrs4 ,ransome1 & :i* 0 tri$ at ,r\pell ,p>k1 ne> ,london1 seems to comb9e all ! desid]ata 9 ! matt] ( me*anical tree-fell+4 ,_m exp]im5ts h be5 previ\sly made by p to cut d[n trees by means ( /eam ma*9]y1 b none ( !m includ$ all ! conditions necess>y = success4 ,! ,ransome ,ma*9e cut d[n f\r l>ge trees 9 =ty m9utes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hif4--,ransome's tree-fell+ ma*9e4 ,! app>atus1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration1 is n unlike1 9 appe>ance1 ! p]=at+ ma*9es employ$ 9 bor+ rocks1 9 :i* ! drill is replac$ by a saw4 ,! cyl9d] is small1 & works at high pressure2 a pi/on moves ! saw 9 a guide-frame4 ,! ma*9e is firmly fix$ aga9/ ! tree1 & ! support is fa/5$ by a *a94 ,a rack arrangem5t provides = ! turn+ ( ! ma*9e z ! saw cont9ues to cut its way ?r\gh ! trunk ( ! tree4 ,! weight is n excessive1 & ! necess>y /eam is suppli$ by a portable furnace & boil]1 :i* communicates ) ! saw-motion by a flexible tube4 ,! saw c cut ?r\gh a horizontal z well z ?r\gh a p]p5dicul> trunk--?us timb] c be rapidly cut up4 ,ano!r +5i\s saw+ ma*9e is t inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,giles1 ( ,*icago1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,am]ica4 ,?is app>atus is ab\t eight feet long1 & "o extremity is fix$ to ! trunk ( ! tree to be op]at$ on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hig4--,saw+ ma*9e4 ,! op]ator sits ^u a l$ge or saddle at ! opposite end1 & putt+ 8 feet ^u ! treadles1 pu%es !m & ! saw =w>d2 ?is movem5t is assi/$ by ! weight ( ! h&s on ! lev]4 ,! saw1 "u ^! circum/ances1 cuts into ! wood ) great =ce1 & :5 ! op]ator pu%es ! lev] =w>d he br+s ! =ce ( 8 legs to be> at ! same "t1 & c>ries ! saw back aga94 ,s feet1 h&s1 dead weight ) ! saw itself1 comb9e at once ^u ! tree1 & ! blade quickly does its "w4 ,! saw is ?ree feet long & is v easily manipulat$4 ,a ,,way ,,( ,,pres]v+ ,,grapes4 ,rem>kable progress has be5 made ( late ye>s 9 ! cons]vation ( v>i\s articles ( food1 & we may "h speak ( ! pres]vation ( ! grape4 ,we w fir/ m5tion ,m4 ,r4 ,*>m\x's me?od1 :i* is call$ ! 8,fre% ,grape0 sy/em4 ,! portion ( ! build+ us$ = ! bus9ess is on ! fir/ floor1 z ne>ly z possible 9 ! c5tre ( ! build+1 s z to be gu>d$ f damp4 ,two w9d[s are suffici5t = all purposes1 "o to ! nor?1 & "o to ! s\?4 ,!y may be m]ely kept %ut on ord9>y occasions1 b :5 fro/ comes !y mu/ be drap$ & 8pack$0 ) nets fill$ ) moss or dri$ seawe$4 ,! pr9cipal "o ( ! w9d[s is to admit ( ! cleans+ ( ! room & = ! admission ( air 9 ! summ] "t1 :5 !re are n _m grapes left4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hih4--;,grape pres]v+4 ,9 w9t] ! ap>tm5t may be w>m$ by hot air1 & if ?is _c be manag$ ! ord9>y means mu/ be resort$ to to keep up ! temp]ature4 ,! upp] clu/]s ( grapes %\ld fir/ be pick$1 = %ade conduces to longevity ( ! fruit1 & ! #bj? ,octob] is ab\t ! "t to comm5ce4 ,a f9e day %\ld be *os52 a cl\dy day w suit provid$ !re is no dew or dampness 9 ! air4 ,! f9e/ bun*es are cut fir/1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 to sep>ate !m at ! end ( ! /alk1 hav+ ?ree 8eyes0 "u ! grape & two above x4 ,! leaves %\ld be at once cut (f1 & ! grapes put ) great caution into boxes or baskets to be tak5 to ! pres]v+ h\se1 :]e ea* /alk is plung$ into a phial hold+ ab\t #abe grammes ( wat]1 into :i*1 two or ?ree days previ\sly1 a teaspoonful ( wood *>coal has be5 put4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hii4--;,hang+ ! grapes4 ,! phials are susp5d$ z %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #hii71 & !n c]ta9 precautions mu/ be obs]v$3 !y mu/ n be di/urb$1 nor mu/ any draught be admitt$1 z ! temp]ature mu/ n desc5d bel[ #a to #b c5t4 ,!re is no necessity to *ange ! wat] 9 ! bottles2 v little w evaporate betwe5 ,novemb] & ,may1 :5 ! process ought to be f9i%$1 b ! phials mu/ nei!r be cork$ nor conceal$4 ,9 ! dry process ! same h\se c be us$1 & /ag+s are employ$4 ,^! frames are furni%$ ) groov$ boxes incl9$ t[>ds ea* o!r1 & l9$ ) v dry f]n-leaves or /raw 7fig4 #ijj74 ,"s days aft] ! phials h be5 fill$ cut ! grapes successively at ! fir/ "t1 :i* g5]ally beg9s ab\t ! #f? to ! #ab? ( ,novemb]4 ,! grapes are !n put 9 baskets & c>efully c>ri$ to ! pres]v+ room1 :]e !y are rang$ 9 ! boxes s z n to t\*4 ,ea* box conta9s ab\t six kilogrammes ( grapes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ijj4--;,dry+ process4 ,all ! "t ( ! cons]vation process c>e mu/ be tak5 to eradicate all grapes :i* *ange col\r or alt] 9 any way4 ,if dampness be fe>$ h a light$ /ove 9 ! room = a "t4 ,grapes are also pres]v$ en espali]1 b n s well4 ,sometimes a m\ldy smell w be p]ceiv$ 9 ! room2 to prev5t ?is v5tilators %\ld be plac$ 9 ! ceil+1 :i* mu/1 h[ev]1 nev] be op5$ until ! m\ldy smell r5d]s su* a proce$+ absolutely necess>y4 ,,*apt] ,,lx4 ,,"s ,,curi\s ,,modes ,,( ,,transit4 ,we h already notic$ "s novel means ( locomotion 9 ! wat] & 9 ! air1 & n[ a few ( ! means :]eby locomotion is atta9$ z a recreation or z an exhibition may be m5tion$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ija4--,new c>4 ,= in/ance1 "h is a v curi\s vehicle1 & ! explanation ( x we give 9 ! words ( ! anonym\s inv5tor3-- 8,my vehicle w c>ry f\r p )\t c\nt+ ! driv]4 ,x is /rong1 easy to draw1 & c turn 9 a horse's l5g?4 ,! driv] completely controls ! animal1 & no du/ is ?r[n up to inconv5i5ce ! sitt]s1 = by ! "t x rises ! c> is well 9 advance ( x4 ,x is *eap2 ! h>ness is simple & safe4 ,! horse is %elt]$ f heat & ra9 & flies4 ,if he %\ld fall1 !re is no m ?an ord9>y dang] to life & limb ?an if he fell 9 a c>riage2 &1 la/ ( all1 no v %[y animal is ne$$1 s long z 8 w9d is s\nd1 & 8 legs & tail respectable4 ,travell]s 9 ?is 8trap0 c sit 9 any position1 back to back1 or face to face1 two & two4 ,! weight is all ne> ! coll>1 & ! animal is "u control mo/ p]fectly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ijb4--,side view ( vehicle4 8,! e/imat$ co/ is #dj2 ! horse ab\t #dj1 or less2 h>ness 7say71 #g1 :i* contra/s fav\rably ) ! exp5ses ( an ord9>y "o horse vehicle40 ,,endless ,,rails4 ,^! adjuncts to locomotion c be adapt$ to any k9d ( vehicle1 & are 9 pieces ab\t two feet long1 articulat$1 & re/+ ^u a base to give ! necess>y /ability4 ,! endless rail entirely envelopes ! :eels all along ! tra91 & ! "r & left rails are q indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 & z ! vehicles advance ! rails are put d[n & rais$ aga9 :5 ! c>riages h pass$4 ,9 front !re are two di/ribut+ :eels gov]n$ by ! tractive p[]1 s t z ! eng9e1 or ! animal draw+ ! tra9 turns aside1 ! rails are /ill laid d[n p>allel z be=e1 b ! h9d :eels w n p]mit ( v %>p curves4 ,!re are :eels also at ! re> ( ! tra91 & z on curves "o :eel w pass ov] m rail ?an ano!r1 & 9 ! h9d] :eels a diff]5tial arrangem5t is us$1 & :5 "o goes back ! o!r advances z mu*1 & s ! relative di/ance is kept up1 = ! rail does n alt] 9 l5g? at all4 ,! :eels h d\ble flanges to reta9 !m on ! l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ijc4--;,endless rails4 ,! sy/em1 consid]$ f a me*anical po9t ( view1 gives /rik+ results1 & v little ef=t is requir$ to put ! tra9 9 motion4 ,! resi/ance is v small1 & mu* great] weights c1 ( c\rse1 be transport$ ^u ! endless rail ?an ^u ! ord9>y road4 ,! exp]im5t has be5 tri$ 9 ! ,tuill]ies ,g>d5s 9 ,p>is4 ,?ree c>riages fill$ ) *ildr5 are drawn by two goats )\t any fatigue1 & 9 ! ord9>y goat c>riages at lea/ twelve ( ! animals w\ld be necess>y--t is1 f\r to ea* c>riage4 ,! economy ( ?is mode ( transport is !re=e inconte/able4 ,! usual rate is ab\t ?ree-&-a-half to f\r miles an h\r1 s x is n adapt$ = travell]s1 b = m]*&ise4 ,! sy/em might be appli$ to num]\s vehicles on all k9ds ( roads = horses & ox51 9 m9es & factories1 & 9 colonial plantations4 ,m4 ,ad]1 ! inv5tor1 int5d$ ! sy/em to be appli$ 9 ! ,l&es1 :]e ! rails w\ld lie close ^u ! s&y soil1 & ! exp5se ( 8metall+0 roads w\ld be entirely done away )4 ,! adoption ( ! endless rail me?od ( conveyance w\ld prove a =tune to ! ,l&es1 :]e p9e =e/s ab\nd1 & ! wood & res9 :i* is lo/ = want ( transport c\ld be remov$ & sold to advantage4 ,! endless rail may also be us$ ^u ! ord9>y road 9 places :]e ! highways are out ( repair4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ijd4--,! ,n9a4 ,,! ,,smalle/ ,,/eamboat ,,9 ,,! ,,_w4 ,! picture 7fig4 #ijd7 %[s u ! ,n9a1 ! t9ie/ /eam] afloat4 ,! keel is some:at ov] twelve feet 9 l5g?1 & ab\t ?ree feet wide1 ! dep? ( wat] t5 in*es4 ,a spe$ ( ab\t five-&-a-half miles an h\r c be obta9$ ) a pressure ( "o hundr$ p\nds4 ,x is a tw9-screw 8%ip0 ) propell]s ( ?ree blades4 ,! ,n9a 0 built on ! l9es ( ! ,nautilus1 ( c$> & oak1 & copp]$4 ,x is /at$ to be a m>vel ( solidity & lightness4 ,! *imney is movable1 & c be l[]$ at pleasure if a bridge be too l[4 ,!re is ample room = provisions = ! occupant 9 a frame :i* c be atta*$ to ! sides or fix$ a/]n4 ,! boat is easily c>ri$ 9 sections1 & c be transport$ easily f place to place4 ,! weights ( ! v>i\s portions are z foll[s3--,! hull #ij lb41 boil] #hj lb41 eng9e #be lb41 ma*9]y #bj lb42 total1 #bae lb4 ,=ty p\nds ( good *>coal c be pack$ into ! sides ( ! boat 9 racks4 ,! rudd] c be s connect$ by wires t ! feet w p]=m ! function ( /e]+1 ?us leav+ ! h&s free to att5d to ! eng9e1 s ! occupant is p]fectly at lib]ty to g :]e & h[ he pleases4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ije4--;,an old *aise4 ,= riv] navigation or calm sea-/eam+ ! ,n9a is admirably adapt$1 & any "o :o c be /ok]1 /e]sman1 & eng9e]1 z well z pass5g] & crew1 w enjoy a trip 9 su* a boat4 ,su* a /eam] co/s ab\t #bej1 b x might be less4 ,x may be add$ t ! ,n9a has uni=mly behav$ well1 & 0 built by ,=dham ( ,new ,york4 ,a ,,me*anical ,,c>riage4 ,a di/+ui%$ savant ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ,ozanam by "n1 a memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ce1 gave 9 #afic a curi\s description ( a me*anical c>riage1 :i* may p]haps be reg>d$ z ! p>5t ( ! velocip$e & ! bicycle4 ,we "h reproduce ! engrav+s f ,ozanam's "w & 8 words4 8,"s ye>s ago10 wrote ! philosoph] 9 #afic1 8!re may h be5 se5 9 ,p>is a *aise10 z 9 ! picture1 8& :i* a s]vant1 by press+ alt]nately ^u treadles0 7z 9 ! detail71 8caus$ to progress by turn+ two small :eels hidd5 9 a frame betwe5 ! h9d] pair ( :eels ( ! *aise4 ,! description ,i give z ,i receiv$ x f ,m4 ,ri*>d1 ! doctor ( ,ro*elle4 8,a ,a is a roll] atta*$ to ! box beh9d ! vehicle1 ,b is a pulley1 ov] :i* ! cord t works ) ! treadles passes2 ,c & ,d are ! treadles1 ) p$als1 ,f ,f4 ,! :eels1 ,h ,h1 be+ ?us put 9 motion1 ! l>ge :eels are mov$1 & :5 ! h9d :eels move =w>d1 ! =emo/ ones mu/ advance also1 & ! sitt] has only to guide ! ma*9e by ! re9s he holds atta*$ to ! 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air1 #bd4 0 same 9 all bodies1 #bd4 ,gre5 fire1 #cic4 ,grit1 ,mill/one1 #eha4 ,grotto del ,cave1 ,!1 #cgd4 ,gulf ,/ream1 ,!1 #fah4 ,gum1 #dah4 ,gymnotus1 ,electricity ( !1 #bhd4 ,gyroscope1 ,pr9ciple ( !1 #bgg4 0 ,!1 #gdb4 0 ,! electric1 #gdc4 ,hail1 ,dew &1 #fda4 ,halos1 ,lun>1 #fdh4 ,h>monograph1 ,con/ruction1 #age4 ,havre1 ,mirage at1 #ai4 ,heat1 a s]ies ( vibrations1 #gd4 0 ,absorption (1 #ge4 0 ,conduction (1 #hi4 0 ,def9ition (1 #gb4 0 ,developm5t (1 #gg4 0 ,expansion by1 #ha1 #hb4 0 ,g5]ation (1 #gg4 0 ,h[ to /udy1 #ge4 0 ,lat5t1 #hi4 0 light &1 ,connection (1 #id4 0 ,me*anical equival5ts1 #gd4 0 ,mat]ial !ory (1 #gb4 0 produces *anges ( /ate1 #hi4 0 ,radiant1 #ij4 0 ,reflection & refraction1 #ib4 0 ,sci5ce (1 #gb4 0 ,s\rces (1 #gg4 0 ,specific1 #hh4 0 spectrum1 ,!1 #adf4 0 ! movem5t ( p>ticles1 #ia4 0 ,!ory (1 #gb4 ,hi/ory1 ,natural1 #d4 ,holl&1 ,sail+ on l& 91 #dfc4 ,home-made aqu>ium1 ,a1 #i4 ,hope1 ,ma!matical1 #gbg4 0 ,moral1 #gbg4 ,horn1 ,alex&]'s1 #ahc4 ,hornbl5d1 #dci4 ,horoscopes1 ,e>ly /udy (1 #dfg4 ,horses1 ,electric gov]nm5t (1 #bej4 ,h\d9's clock1 #geb4 ,h\sehold1 ,sci5tific objects =1 #gdg4 ,hydraulic ,lift1 ,!1 #ga4 0 press1 ,!1 #fa4 ,hydraulics1 #gj4 ,hydrog51 ,app>atus =1 #cbb4 0 ,bubbles (1 #cea4 0 ,h[ to g5]ate1 #cej4 ,hydromet]s1 ,table (1 #dbj4 ,hydrophilus1 ,!1 #aj4 ,hydro/atics1 ,pr9ciples (1 #fa4 ,hydrozoa1 ,!1 #gjh4 ,hym5opt]a1 ,!1 #gba4 ,hypnotism1 #ac4 ,ice1 ,h[ to freeze1 #gf4 0 ,! age (1 #eie4 ,ice-riv]s1 ,glaci]s &1 #fjf4 ,ice-ya*ts1 ,canadian1 #dfc4 ,icel&1 ,geys]s 91 #fje4 ,igne\s rocks1 #ega4 ,illusions1 ,optical1 #aaf4 0 0 ,m ab\t1 #abi4 ,images1 ,accid5tal1 #aab4 ,implem5ts1 ,neoli?ic1 #eih4 0 ,paloli?ic1 #eih4 ,incl9ation1 ,magnetic1 #bef4 ,indicator1 ,use ( ! cele/ial1 #eeh4 ,in]tia1 ,def9ition (1 #e4 0 ,exp]im5ts 91 #cg4 0 ,friction &1 #ce1 et sq4 0 ,laws (1 #ce4 ,infloresc5ce1 #fgi4 0 ,v>ieties (1 #fhj4 ,infusoria1 ,divisions ( !1 #gjg4 0 ,h[ to capture1 #ae4 0 ,orig9 (1 #gjg4 0 ,/udy (1 #g4 ,inks1 h[ made1 #dad4 ,insects1 #gag4 0 ,anatomy (1 #gag4 0 ,collection (1 #h4 0 ,eyes (1 #gah4 0 ,feet (1 #gah4 0 ,ord]s (1 #gbj4 0 ,palace =1 #aj4 0 ,pres]vation (1 #h4 0 ,trans=mations (1 #gai4 ,insulators1 electric1 ,li/ (1 #baj4 ,integrator1 ,boys' me*anical1 #bfd4 ,int5sity ( s\nd1 #aga4 ,iod9e1 #cfh4 ,iron age1 ,!1 #eih4 0 ,b>1 #cig4 0 ,m9]al nature (1 #ddc4 0 ,ores (1 #ddd4 0 ,pig or ca/1 #cig4 0 ,pyrophoric1 #cbb4 0 unites ) oxyg51 #cba4 0 :5ce obta9$1 #cif4 ,irradiation1 ,laws (1 #ajf4 ,isl&s1 ,corall9e1 #fai4 ,isocl9ic l9es1 #beg4 ,isodynamic l9es1 #beg4 ,isog5ic l9es1 #beg4 ,j>1 ,leyd51 ,home-made1 #aii4 ,j>d91 ,!1 ne> ,*am\ni1 #fjg4 ,jelly-fi%1 #gji14 ,j]sey1 ,mirage 91 #ai4 ,juggl+1 ,balance exp]im5ts1 #ca4 ,juno1 ,discov]y (1 #ebh4 ,jupit]1 ,appe>ance (1 #ecj4 0 ,moons (1 #ebi4 0 ,! planet1 #ebh4 ,jurassic =mation1 ,!1 #ehf4 ,keup] =mation1 ,!1 #ehe4 ,k9etic !ory1 ,!1 #gb4 ,kite1 ,a new1 #ddh4 0 ,frankl9's1 #bhf4 ,knots & cords1 ,puzzle (1 #gge4 ,laboratory1 ,*emi/ry )\t1 #cac4 ,lactoscope1 ,!1 #aeg4 ,ladd1 ,lont9 &1 #bge4 ,lakes1 #fbg4 ,lamp1 ,a good petroleum1 #gfa4 0 ,a new al>um1 #gfj4 0 ,dob]e9]'s1 #djh4 0 ,gay-,lussac's1 #cbg4 0 ,! ,edison1 #bfi4 0 ,! safety1 #cdg4 0 ,! ,swan1 #bga4 ,l&1 ,sail+ on1 #dfc4 0 ,wat] &1 #fjc4 ,lant]n1 ,magic1 #aeh4 ,lapis-lazuli1 #ddb4 ,lat5t heat1 #hi4 ,latex1 :at x is1 #ffc4 ,latitude1 ,longitude &1 #eje4 ,laugh+ gas1 #cfa4 ,laur5tian sy/em1 ,!1 #egc4 ,lead1 #dja1 #ddf4 0 ,cry/allization (1 #cbc4 ,lean+1 ,laws conc]n+1 #cc4 0 t[]s1 ,laws (1 #cc4 ,leaves1 ,anatomy (1 #fga4 0 ,arrangem5t (1 #fgc4 0 ,!1 #fgj4 0 ,v>ieties (1 #fga4 0 ,v>i\s1 #aej4 ,lee*1 ,!1 #gad4 ,l5ses1 ,description ( v>i\s1 #aej4 ,leo1 ,con/ellation1 #ech4 ,lepidopt]a1 ,!1 #gba4 ,leyd5 j>1 ,to make a1 #aii4 ,lias1 ,!1 #ehf4 ,libra1 ,con/ellation1 #eci4 ,li*5s1 #fhi4 ,lift1 ,hydraulic1 #ga4 ,light1 a vibratory motion1 #ic4 0 ,absorption (1 #ie4 0 & its s\rces1 #ic4 0 ,co/ (1 #aja4 0 ,decomposition (1 #adc4 0 ,def9ition (1 #ic4 ,lightn+1 ,diff]5t k9ds (1 #bhi4 ,light di/ribut$ 9 rays1 #id4 0 electric1 ,h[ to produce1 #bfe4 0 0 ,fir/ discov]y (1 #bba4 0 heat &1 ,connection (1 #id4 0 9 ! eye1 #adb4 0 ( an electric sp>k1 #aai4 0 oxy-hydrog51 ,!1 #afj4 0 ,pol>ization (1 #aee4 0 produc] ( life1 #ffj4 0 ,reflection (1 #ie4 0 ,refraction (1 #if4 0 ,velocity (1 #id4 0 :at made up (1 #adc4 0 ,zodiacal1 #ejj4 ,lightn+1 ,=k$ & %eet1 #bhi4 0 ,col\r (1 #bhh4 ,lights1 ,b5gal1 h[ made1 #djd4 0 ,comp>ison (1 #ii4 ,lime1 ,salts (1 #cic1 #dcg4 ,l9es1 ,isocl9ic1 #beg4 0 ,isodynamic1 #beg4 0 ,isogonic1 #beg4 0 ,iso!rmal1 #fec4 0 oblique1 ,influ5ce (1 #aba4 ,l9nan sy/em1 ,!1 #fie4 ,liquids1 ,def9ition (1 #d4 0 ,displacem5t (1 #fi4 0 ,gases &1 #dd4 ,li?ium1 #cic4 ,longitude1 ,latitude &1 #eje4 ,lont91 ,ladd &1 #bge4 ,ludion1 ,!1 #eg4 ,lum9\s pa9t1 #afj4 0 surfaces1 ,laws (1 #ajg4 ,ma*9e1 electric1 ,to make an1 #bjg4 0 ,tree-fell+1 #gfg4 0 ,writ+1 #bdf4 ,ma*9es1 ,electro-magnetic1 #bgb4 ,mae/ri*t =mation1 ,!1 #eij4 ,magic squ>es1 #gcb4 0 top1 ,!1 #gdj4 ,magnesian lime/one1 ,!1 #ehc4 ,magnesium1 #cie1 #dci4 ,magnet1 ,a natural1 #bca4 0 ,def9ition ( a1 #bca4 ,magnetic dip1 ,!1 #bef4 0 incl9ation1 #bef4 ,magnetism1 ,electro1 #bee4 0 ,t]re/rial1 #fde4 ,magnetization1 #bcb4 ,magnets 9 anci5t times1 #bed4 ,magnitude1 ,c5tre (1 #cd4 ,man1 cave1 ,!1 #eih4 0 dur+ ! ,glacial ,p]iod1 #eig4 0 prehi/oric1 #eig4 0 riv]-drift1 ,!1 #eih4 ,manganese1 #djj1 #dde4 ,m>s1 ,moons r\nd1 #ebf4 0 ,! planet1 #ebc4 ,ma!matical games1 #gbf4 ,matt]1 ,def9ition (1 #d4 ,m$ull>y rays1 ,!1 #ffi4 ,m$us1 ,!1 #gji4 0 ,phosphoresc5ce (1 #gdj4 ,megaphone1 ,mr4 ,edison's1 #ahc4 ,membrane tympani1 ,!1 #aff4 ,m5ag]ie = insects1 #aj4 ,m5isques 9 a b>omet]1 #fe4 ,m]cury1 ,all ab\t1 #eba4 0 ,fulm9at+1 #dbj4 0 ,uses (1 #dje1 #ddf4 ,mesozoic p]iod1 ,!1 #ehd4 ,metals1 ,*>act]i/ics (1 #chh4 0 ,classification (1 #chi1 #dji4 0 ,common & preci\s1 #cbj4 0 9 ! spectroscope1 #adf4 0 ,noble1 #dje4 0 ,specific gravity (1 #chi4 0 :at !y are1 #chh4 ,meteorites1 a]olites1 or1 #dic4 ,meteorology1 #fbh4 0 ,ph5om5a (1 #bj4 ,meteors1 :at are !y8 #dij4 ,mica1 #ddc4 ,microscope1 ,inv5tion ( !1 #adi4 0 p]iscopic1 ,!1 #aej4 0 ,! spectrum1 #adg4 ,microscopes1 ,reflect+1 #aej4 ,milk1 ,con/itu5ts (1 #dbb4 0 ,sug> (1 #dbc4 ,milky way1 ,!1 #eec4 ,mill/one grit1 #eha4 ,m9]alogi/s1 ,app>atus =1 #ag4 ,m9]alogy1 ,cry/allography1 #dbd4 ,m9]al wat]s1 #cgb4 ,m9]als1 ,amorph\s1 #dca4 0 ,classification (1 #dbd1 #dbe4 0 ,def9ition ( ! t]m1 #dbd4 0 ,synoptical table ( !1 #dce4 ,mioc5e =mation1 ,!1 #eic4 ,mirage at ,havre1 #ai4 0 ,cause (1 #fdi4 0 9 ,j]sey1 #ai4 0 on bea*es1 #ah4 ,mirrors1 ,rem>ks on1 #ie4 ,mi/ral1 ,!1 #fca4 ,mixtures1 ,freez+1 #hi4 ,molecule1 ,def9ition ( a1 #cji4 ,molluscs1 #gbd4 ,money-boxes1 ,sci5tific1 #gde4 ,montgolfi]1 ,discov]y (1 #b4 0 ,e>ly balloons (1 #bie4 ,monsoon1 ,!1 #fcj4 ,moon1 ,description ( !1 #eaj4 0 ,eclipses ( !1 #eai4 0 ,influ5ces ( on wea!r1 #feb4 0 its influ5ce on ! tides1 #eag4 0 ,motion ( !1 #eac4 0 ,phases ( !1 #eae4 0 ,rate ( progression ( !1 #eac4 0 ,sup]/itions conc]n+1 #eaj1 #eac4 0 ,surface ( !1 #eaa4 0 ,planet>y1 #dhi4 ,morph9e1 #daf4 ,morse sy/em1 ,!1 #bda4 ,morse's telegraph1 #bcc4 ,mosses1 ,alg &1 #fhh4 ,motion1 ,causes (1 #dj4 0 ,def9ition (1 #dj4 0 ,p]petual1 #da4 ,m\ld1 ,vegetable1 #fij4 ,m\nta9 /rata1 ,contortion (1 #fbe4 0 ,:at is a1 #fbd4 ,m\nta9s1 ,causes (1 #fbd4 0 ,slopes (1 #fbe4 ,movem5ts1 ,syn!sis (1 #abd4 ,multipli]1 ,fir/ use ( !1 #bcb4 ,mural circle1 ,!1 #dgh4 ,musical pit*1 #aic4 ,musl91 ,incombu/ible1 #cac4 ,myriapoda1 ,!1 #gaf4 ,natural ,hi/ory1 #d4 0 ,philosophy1 #d4 0 sy/em1 ,!1 #fii4 ,nature1 ,balance (1 #fag4 0 ,=ces (1 #bb4 0 ,ne$ = kn[+ ab\t1 #c4 0 ,no?+ mute 91 #ba4 0 ,smoo? poli% (1 #ad4 0 ,ph5om5a (1 #c4 0 :at x is1 #b4 ,ne>-sight$ness1 #adj4 ,nebul1 #eea4 ,ne$le1 ,game ( !1 #gbi4 0 ,! magnetic1 #bca4 0 ma*9e1 ,!1 #bch4 ,negative & positive electricity1 #bjb4 ,neptune1 ,! planet1 #ecd4 ,ni*ol's prism1 #aef4 ,ni*olson's classes ( plants1 #gjb4 ,nickel1 cobalt &1 #dja1 #dde4 ,nicot9e1 #daf4 ,n9a1 ,!1 #ggc4 ,nitrog51 #cei4 0 ,comp\nds (1 #cei4 0 ,monoxide1 #cfa4 ,nitrog5\s sub/ances1 #dbb4 ,nodal po9ts1 ,!1 #aid4 ,nodes ( s\nd waves1 #afi4 ,noise di/+ui%$ f s\nd1 #afg4 ,nom5clature1 ,a/ronomical1 #dga4 ,norm&y1 ,a trip 91 #f4 ,object1 ,a natural1 #c4 ,oils1 ,fats &1 #dba4 0,old ,r$0 a fre%-wat] deposit1 #egg4 ,oolite =mation1 ,!1 #ehf4 ,opium1 #daf4 ,optical cab9ets1 #ih4 ,optics1 ,! sci5ce (1 #ic4 ,organic *emi/ry1 #daj4 ,orion con/ellation1 #edd4 ,or?opt]a1 ,!1 #gba4 ,oxidation1 #cdi4 ,oxyg51 ,discov]y (1 #cdh4 0 consum$ by brea?+1 #cdb4 0 ,h[ to obta91 #cdh4 ,oy/]s1 ,light f %ells (1 #afj4 ,ozone1 ,use (1 #cdd4 ,pa9t1 ,lum9\s1 #afj4 ,palace1 ,insects1 #aj4 ,palozoic sy/ems1 #egc4 ,pallas1 ,discov]y (1 #ebh4 ,pap] :eel toy1 #gfd4 ,p>a*utes1 ,desc5ts by1 #cjd4 ,p>allax1 ,explanation (1 #dhd4 0 ,illu/rations (1 #dhc4 0 ,use (1 #dhe4 ,p>a-magnetic & dia-magnetic1 #beh4 ,p>asel51 ,cause (1 #fdh4 ,p>is1 ,great sn[fall 91 #bj4 ,p$omet]1 ,!1 #gef4 ,peiff]'s electrophorus1 #bgi4 ,p51 electric1 ,!1 #bdh4 ,p5cil1 ,edison's ,pneumatic1 #ded4 ,p5dulum1 ,description ( !1 #db4 0 ,!1 #dha4 0 ,v>iations 9 !1 #db4 ,p]iod1 ,! ,glacial1 #eie4 ,p]mian =mation1 ,!1 #ehb4 0 0 ,fauna (1 #ehb4 ,phantom b&1 ,a1 #aif4 ,ph>aoh's s]p5ts1 #cae4 ,phases ( ! ,moon1 #eae4 ,ph5aki/oscope1 ,!1 #aaj1 #aba4 ,ph5om5a1 ,atmosph]ic1 #fdb4 0 ,*emical1 #bb4 0 ,meteorological1 #bj4 0 ,nature1 #c4 0 ( contra/1 #aab1 #aac4 0 ,physical1 #bb4 ,phial ( ! f\r elem5ts1 #dg4 ,philosophy1 ,natural1 #d4 ,phonograph1 ,edison's1 #aij4 ,phosphoresc5ce1 #cca4 ,phosphorus1 ,bologna1 #ccc4 0 h[ obta9$1 #cha4 ,photography1 ,cam]a =1 #aea4 0 ,in/antane\s1 #aec4 ,photomet]s1 #aja4 ,photometry1 #aja4 ,photophone1 ,!1 #aee4 ,photosph]e1 ,!1 #dii4 ,phraseology1 ,*emical1 #cch4 ,physics1 ,mean+ (1 #bb4 0 ,me*anical1 #ca4 ,pile1 ,a microscopic1 #bjj4 0 h]metic1 ,!1 #bhc4 0 ,volta's fir/1 #bai4 0 ,zamboni1 #bba4 ,p9s1 sc>f1 ,electrical1 #bha4 ,pisces1 ,con/ellation1 #edj4 ,pi/il1 ,!1 #fgh4 ,pi/ils1 ,use (1 #ffe4 ,pit*1 ,musical1 #aic4 ,pla9s1 #fbf4 ,planet1 ,! giant1 #ebh4 ,planets1 ,comp>ative sizes (1 #dhg4 0 ,li/ ( !1 #dhg4 0 ,m9or1 #dhi1 #ebg4 0 ,moons ( !1 #dhi4 ,plant1 ,def9ition ( a1 #ffa4 ,plants1 ,classification (1 #fid4 0 ,fl[]+1 #ffd4 0 ,gr[? (1 #ffe4 0 ,monci\s1 #fha4 0 ,non-fl[]+1 #fhf4 0 ,simil>ity (1 to animals1 #feh4 0 ,/ructure (1 #ffa4 ,plateaus1 ,tablel&s or1 #fbf4 ,plat+1 ,electro1 #bbg4 ,plat9um1 ,all ab\t1 #cbg4 0 ,uses (1 #djh1 #ddg4 ,plumbago1 ,graphite or1 #cgj4 ,plutonic rocks1 ,!1 #fja4 ,pneumatic despat*1 ,!1 #eg4 ,pol>is1 ,! />1 #edb4 ,pol>ization ( light1 #aee4 ,pol>iz]1 ,use ( a1 #aef4 ,poles1 ,electrodes or1 #bba4 ,pompeii1 ,pa9t+s at1 #aba4 ,porcela91 ,manufacture (1 #dda4 ,porosity1 ,def9ition (1 #e4 ,positive & negative electricity1 #bjb4 ,portuguese man-(-w>1 ,!1 #gji4 ,potassium1 #cij1 #dcg4 0 ,comp\nds (1 #cia4 ,prax9oscope1 ,!1 #aaj1 #abc4 0 !atre1 ,!1 #abf4 ,prehi/oric man1 #eig4 ,pres]vation ( insects1 #h4 ,press1 ,hydraulic1 #fa4 ,pressure1 ,fluid application (1 #fc4 0 on ! ocean b$1 #faf4 ,prism1 ,ni*ols'1 #aef4 ,probabilities1 ,sci5ce (1 #gbf4 ,protoplasm1 ,def9ition (1 #fei4 ,protozoa1 ,def9ition (1 #gjd4 ,protractor1 ,use ( !1 #dge4 ,pump1 ,! common1 #eg4 ,punctum ccum1 ,!1 #acd4 ,puzzle1 ,! 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sea1 #faa4 0 hot1 gr[s light]1 #ha4 0 ,l& &1 #fjc4 0 ,m9]al1 #cgb4 0 ,petrification (1 #ceg4 0 ,pressure (1 #fj4 0 ,sea1 composition (1 #faj4 0 ,spr+1 #cec4 0 su/a9$ by air1 #ei4 0 ,! =ce (1 #fj4 0 ! unit ( specific gravity1 #gj4 ,wat]-press1 ,!1 #fa4 ,wat]-ram1 ,!1 #ga4 ,wat]sp\t1 ,cause ( !1 #fdc4 ,wat]sp\ts1 ,h[ to de/roy1 #fdc4 ,wat]-:eels1 #ga4 ,waves1 ,height ( !1 #fac4 0 ,hurricane1 #fac4 0 ,movem5t ( !1 #fab4 0 ,/&+ & progressive1 #afi4 0 ,tidal1 #fac4 ,way1 ,milky1 #eec4 ,weald5 =mations1 ,!1 #ehh4 0 0 ,fauna (1 #ehi4 0 0 ,flora (1 #ehi4 ,wea!r1 ,dang] ( =eca/+1 #fee4 0 =eca/s1 #fea4 0 indications1 #fef4 0 ,rules = prophesy+1 #fef4 ,wea!r-glass1 ,!1 #ec4 ,weight1 ,comb9+ or atomic1 #cji4 0 ,def9ition (1 #bb4 ,well tube1 ,!1 #dee4 ,wells1 ,artesian1 #fjd4 0 ,gas1 #fjf4 0 ,in/antane\s1 #deg4 0 ,oil1 #fjf4 ,:eat/one's telegraph1 #bdb4 ,:isp]+ gall]ies1 #agb4 ,w9d1 ,pressure ( !1 #fcb4 0 ,use ( !1 #fcc4 ,w9d1 ,velocity ( !1 #fcj4 ,w9d[s1 ,d\ble1 #geg4 ,w9ds1 ,air curr5ts &1 #fbi4 0 ,cause (1 #fbi4 0 ,li/ ( local1 #fca4 0 ,trade1 #fcj4 ,w9e1 ,spirits (1 #dah4 ,wire-draw+1 #cih4 ,wolla/on's bulb1 #ia4 ,_w1 ,/udy ( !1 #a4 ,worms1 ,!1 #gad4 ,writ+ ma*9e1 ,!1 #bdf4 ,w+s1 ,be/ =m =1 #dej4 ,ya*ts1 ,canadian ice1 #dfc4 0 ,d\ble sail+1 #dfb4 ,yell[ spot1 ,!1 #adj4 ,zamboni pile1 #bba4 ,zeolites1 #ddj4 ,z9c1 ,use (1 #djc1 #ddf4 ,zodiac1 ,signs ( !1 #dga4 ,zodiacal light1 ,!1 #ejj4 ,zoology1 ,def9ition (1 #gjj4 ,zootrope1 ,!1 #aba4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$ b v>iations 9 hyph5ation & all o!r spell+ & punctuation rema9s un*ang$4 ,italics are repres5t$ ?us italic & bold ?us bold4 ,! 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