,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,superscript letters and exponentials are denoted by x4 ,for example1 ,dr and 7a b7#b4 ,basic fractions are displayed in the text and tables as etc2 other fraction are shown in the form a_/b as #e_/ab or #b-e_/g for example4 ,fractions in algabraic expressions have been left in the a_/b form4 ,vinculums have been replaced by parentheses 774 ,musical sharp1 flat1 natural are represented by the ,unicode characters 1 1 4 ,for readability the underscores 7italic7 have been removed from algebraic expressions and equations4 ,variables and simple expressions embedded in the text still have the underscores4 ,this book contains the first four issues of the ,journal1 each with its own ,table of ,contents3 ,vol4 #a ,no4 #a ,pages #a through #ajd ,vol4 #a ,no4 #b #aje through #bjh ,vol4 #a ,no4 #c #bji through #caf ,vol4 #a ,no4 #d #cag through #ddb ,in issue ,no4 #b1 the incorrect numbering of ,articles in the text has been left unchanged4 ,the ,table of ,contents for this issue is correct4 ,this error is noted in an ,addendum1 ,footnote #af1 by the publisher4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,more detail can be found at the end of the book4 ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 ,,more ,,especially ,,of ,,mineralogy1 ,,geology1 ,,and ,,the ,,other ,,branches ,,of ,,natural ,,history2 ,,including ,,also ,,agriculture ,,and ,,the ,,ornamental ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,conducted ,,by ,,benjamin ,,silliman1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,mineralogy1 c4 in ,yale ,college2 ,author of ,travels in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,holland1 c42 and ,member of various ,literary and ,scientific ,societies4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,new-,york3 ,,published ,,by ,j4 ,,eastburn ,,and ,,co4 ,,literary ,,rooms1 ,,broadway1 ,,and ,,by ,,howe ,,and ,,spalding1 ,,new-,,haven4 ,sold by ,ezekiel ,goodall1 ,hallowell1 ,maine2 ,daniel ,stone1 ,brunswick1 ,maine2 ,cummings ,hilliard1 and ,wells ,lilly1 ,boston2 ,simeon ,butler1 ,northampton2 ,samuel ,g4 ,goodrich1 ,hartford2 ,clark ,lyman1 ,middletown2 ,russell ,hubbard1 ,norwich2 ,o4 4 ,l4 ,goodwin1 ,litchfield2 ,w4 ,e4 ,norman1 ,hudson2 ,william ,williams1 ,utica2 ,e4 ,f4 ,backus1 ,albany2 ,s4 ,potter1 ,philadelphia2 ,e4 ,j4 ,coale1 ,baltimore2 ,w4 ,h4 ,fitzwhylsonn1 ,richmond2 ,w4 ,f4 ,gray1 ,fredericksburgh2 ,caleb ,atwater1 ,circleville2 ,william ,poundsford1 and ,james ,collord1 ,cincinnati2 ,john ,guirey1 ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c42 ,w4 ,t4 ,williams1 ,savannah2 ,henry ,wills1 ,edenton2 ,john ,mill1 ,charleston2 ,samuel ,s4 ,spencer1 and ,john ,menefee1 ,natchez2 ,benjamin ,hanna1 ,new-,orleans4 ,,printed ,,by ,,abraham ,,paul4 #ahai4 ,,advertisement4 ,in the following plan of this ,work1 we trust it will be understood1 that we do not pledge ourselves that all the subjects mentioned shall be touched upon in every ,number4 ,this is plainly impossible1 unless every article should be very short and imperfect4 ,all that the ,public are entitled to expect is1 that in the progress of the ,journal1 the various subjects mentioned may occupy such an extent as our communications and resources shall permit4 ,we have been honoured by such a list of names of gentlemen who are willing to be considered as contributors to this ,journal1 that the publication of it would afford us no ordinary gratification1 did we not feel that it is more decorous to allow their names to appear with their communications1 without laying them under a previous pledge to the ,public4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,work4 ,this ,journal is intended to embrace the circle of ,,the ,,physical ,,sciences1 with their application to ,,the ,,arts1 and to every useful purpose4 ,it is designed as a deposit for original ,american communications2 it will contain also occasional selections from ,foreign ,journals1 and notices of the progress of ,science in other countries4 ,within its plan are embraced ,,natural ,,history1 in its three great departments of ,,mineralogy1 ,,botany1 and ,,zoology4 ,,chemistry and ,,natural ,,philosophy1 and their various branches3 and ,,mathematics1 pure and mixed4 ,it will be a leading object to illustrate ,,american ,,natural ,,history1 and especially our ,,mineralogy and ,,geology4 ,the ,,applications of these sciences are obviously as numerous as physical arts1 and physical wants2 for no one of these arts or wants can be named which is not connected with them4 ,while ,,science will be cherished for its own sake1 and with a due respect for its own inherent dignity2 it will also be employed as the hand-maid to the ,arts4 ,its numerous applications to ,,agriculture1 the earliest and most important of them3 to ,,manufactures1 both mechanical and chemical2 and1 to ,,domestic ,,economy1 will be carefully sought out1 and faithfully made4 ,it is within the design of this ,journal to receive communications likewise on ,,music1 ,,sculpture1 ,,engraving1 ,,painting1 and generally on the fine and liberal1 as well as useful arts2 ,on ,military and ,civil ,engineering1 and the art of ,navigation2 ,notices1 ,reviews1 and ,analyses of new scientific works2 accounts of ,inventions1 and ,specifications of ,patents2 ,biographical and ,obituary ,notices of scientific men2 essays on ,,comparative ,,anatomy and ,,physiology1 and generally on such other branches of medicine as depend on scientific principles2 ,meteorological ,registers1 and ,reports of ,agricultural ,experiments3 and interesting ,miscellaneous ,articles1 not perhaps exactly included under either of the above heads4 ,communications are respectfully solicited from men of science1 and from men versed in the practical arts4 ,learned ,societies are invited to make this ,journal1 occasionally1 the vehicle of their communications to the ,public4 ,the ,editor will not hold himself responsible for the sentiments and opinions advanced by his correspondents3 he will consider it as an allowed liberty to make slight verbal alterations1 where errors may be presumed to have arisen from inadvertency4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,introductory ,remarks #a ,art4 ,i4 ,essay on ,musical ,temperament1 by ,professor ,alex4 ,m4 ,fisher #i ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,art4 ,,ii4 ,review of ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy #ce ,art4 ,,iii4 ,new ,locality of ,fluor ,spar1 c4 #eb ,art4 ,,iv4 ,carbonat of ,magnesia1 c4 discovered by ,j4 ,pierce1 ,esq4 #ed ,art4 ,v4 ,native ,copper1 near ,new-,haven #ee ,art4 ,,vi4 ,petrified ,wood from ,antigua #ef ,art4 ,,vii4 ,american ,porcelain ,clays1 c4 #eg ,art4 ,,viii4 ,native ,sulphur from ,java #eh ,art4 ,,ix4 ,productions of ,wier's ,cave1 in ,virginia #ei ,art4 ,x4 ,mineralogy and ,geology of part of ,virginia and ,tennessee1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,kain #fj ,art4 ,,xi4 ,notice of ,professor ,mitchill's edition of ,cuvier's ,geology #fh ,art4 ,,xii4 ,notice of ,eaton's ,index to the ,geology of the ,northern ,states1 c4 #fi ,art4 ,,xiii4 ,notice of ,m4 ,brongniart on ,organized ,remains #ga ,,botany4 ,art4 ,,xiv4 ,observations on a species of ,limosella1 by ,professor ,e4 ,ives #gd ,art4 ,,xv4 ,notice of ,professor ,bigelow's ,memoir on the ,floral ,calendar of the ,united ,states1 c4 #gf ,art4 ,,xvi4 ,journal of the ,progress of ,vegetation1 c4 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #gg ,,zoology4 ,art4 ,,xvii4 ,description of a new ,species of ,marten1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #hb ,art4 ,,xviii4 ,natural ,history of the ,copper-,head ,snake1 by the same #hd ,,physics ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,art4 ,,xix4 ,on a ,method of augmenting the ,force of ,gunpowder1 by ,colonel ,g4 ,gibbs #hg ,art4 ,,xx4 ,on the connexion between ,magnetism and ,light1 by the same #hi ,art4 ,,xxi4 ,on a new means of ,producing ,heat and ,light1 by ,j4 ,l4 ,sullivan1 ,esq4 #ia ,art4 ,,xxii4 ,on the ,effects of the ,earthquakes of #ahaa1 #ahab1 on the ,wells in ,columbia1 ,south ,carolina1 by ,professor ,edward ,d4 ,smith #ic ,art4 ,,xxiii4 ,on the ,respiration of ,oxygen ,gas in an ,affection of the ,thorax #ie ,,miscellaneous4 ,art4 ,,xxiv4 ,on the ,priority of ,discovery of the ,compound ,blowpipe1 and its ,effects #ig ,art4 ,,xxv4 ,on the ,northwest ,passage1 the ,north ,pole1 and the ,greenland ,ice #aja ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 c4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,the age in which we live is not less distinguished by a vigorous and successful cultivation of physical science1 than by its numerous and important applications to the practical arts1 and to the common purposes of life4 ,in every enlightened country1 men illustrious for talent1 worth1 and knowledge1 are ardently engaged in enlarging the boundaries of natural science2 and the history of their labours and discoveries is communicated to the world chiefly through the medium of ,scientific ,journals4 ,the utility of such ,journals has thus become generally evident2 they are the heralds of science2 they proclaim its toils and its achievements2 they demonstrate its intimate connexion as well with the comfort1 as with the intellectual and moral improvement of our species2 and they often procure for it enviable honours and substantial rewards4 ,in ,england the interests of science have been1 for a series of years1 greatly promoted by the excellent ,journals of ,tilloch and ,nicholson2 and for the loss of the latter1 the scientific world has been fully compensated by ,dr4 ,thomson's ,annals of ,philosophy1 and by the ,journal of ,science and the ,arts1 both published in ,london4 ,in ,france1 the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 the ,journal des ,mines1 the ,journal de ,physique1 c4 have long enjoyed a high and deserved reputation4 ,indeed1 there are few countries in ,europe which do not produce some similar publication2 not to mention the transactions of learned societies and numerous medical ,journals4 ,from these sources our country reaps1 and will long continue to reap1 an abundant harvest of information3 and if the light of science1 as well as of day1 springs from the east1 we will welcome the rays of both2 nor should national pride induce us to reject so rich an offering4 ,but can we do nothing in return8 ,in a general diffusion of useful information through the various classes of society1 in activity of intellect1 and fertility of resource and invention1 characterizing a highly intelligent population1 we have no reason to shrink from a comparison with any country4 ,but the devoted cultivators of science1 in the ,united ,states1 are comparatively few2 they are1 however1 rapidly increasing in number4 ,among them are persons distinguished for their capacity and attainments1 and notwithstanding the local feelings nourished by our state sovereignties1 and the rival claims of several of our larger cities1 there is evidently a predisposition towards a concentration of effort1 from which we may hope for the happiest results1 with regard to the advancement of both the science and the reputation of our country4 ,is it not1 therefore1 desirable to furnish some rallying point1 some object sufficiently interesting to be compassed by common efforts1 and thus to become the basis of an enduring1 common interest8 ,to produce these efforts1 and to excite this interest1 nothing1 perhaps1 bids fairer than a ,,scientific ,,journal4 ,hitherto nearly all our exertions1 of this kind1 have been made by medical gentlemen1 and directed primarily to medical objects4 ,we are neither ignorant nor forgetful of the merits of our various ,,medical ,,journals1 nor of the zeal with which1 as far as consistent with their main object1 they have fostered the physical sciences4 ,we are aware1 also1 that ,journals have been established1 professedly deriving their materials principally from foreign sources2 that our various literary ,magazines and ,reviews have given1 and continue to give1 some notices of physical and mathematical subjects1 and that some of them seem even partial to these branches of knowledge3 that various limited efforts have been made1 and are still making1 to publish occasional or periodical papers1 devoted to mathematical or physical subjects1 and that even our newspapers sometimes contain scientific intelligence4 ,we are aware1 also1 that some of our academies and societies of natural history1 either in ,journals of their own1 or through the medium of existing magazines1 communicate to the public the efforts of their members in various branches of natural science4 ,but all these facts go only to prove the strong tendency which exists in this country towards the cultivation of physical science1 and the inadequacy of the existing means for its effectual promulgation4 ,although our limits do not permit us1 however much inclined1 to be more particular in commemorating the labours and in honouring the performances 7often marked by much ability7 of our predecessors and cotemporaries1 there is one effort which we are not willing to pass by without a more particular notice2 and we are persuaded that no apology is necessary for naming the ,journal of the late ,dr4 ,bruce1 of ,new-,york1 devoted principally to mineralogy and geology4 ,no future historian of ,american science will fail to commemorate this work as our earliest purely scientific ,journal1 supported by original ,american communications4 ,both in this country and in ,europe1 it was received in a very flattering manner2 it excited1 at home1 great zeal and effort in support of the sciences which it fostered1 and1 abroad1 it was hailed as the harbinger of our future exertions4 ,the editor was honoured with letters on the subject of his ,journal1 and with applications for it from most of the countries in ,europe2 but its friends had to regret that1 although conducted in a manner perfectly to their satisfaction1 it appeared only at distant intervals1 and1 after the lapse of several years1 never proceeded beyond the fourth number4 ,the hopes of its revival have now1 unhappily1 become completely extinct1 by the lamented death of ,dr4 ,bruce4#a ,this gentleman1 with an accomplished education1 with extensive acquirements in science1 and great zeal for promoting it in his own country2 advantageously and extensively known in ,europe1 and furnished with a correct and discriminating mind1 and a chaste1 scientific taste1 was so well qualified for the task which he had undertaken1 that no one can attempt to resume those scientific labours which he has now for ever relinquished1 without realizing that he undertakes an arduous enterprise1 and lays himself under a heavy responsibility4 ,american science has much to lament in the death of ,dr4 ,bruce4 ,no one1 it is presumed1 will doubt that a ,journal devoted to science1 and embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure to its support the principal scientific men of our country1 is greatly needed2 if cordially supported1 it will be successful1 and if successful1 it will be a great public benefit4 ,even a failure1 in so good a cause1 7unless it should arise from incapacity or unfaithfulness17 cannot be regarded as dishonourable4 ,it may prove only that the attempt was premature1 and that our country is not yet ripe for such an undertaking2 for without the efficient support of talent1 knowledge1 and money1 it cannot long proceed4 ,no editor can hope to carry forward such a work without the active aid of scientific and practical men2 but1 at the same time1 the public have a right to expect that he will not be sparing of his own labour1 and that his work shall be generally marked by the impress of his own hand4 ,to this extent the editor cheerfully acknowledges his obligations to the public2 and it will be his endeavour faithfully to redeem his pledge4 ,most of the periodical works of our country have been short-lived4 ,this1 also1 may perish in its infancy2 and if any degree of confidence is cherished1 that it will attain a maturer age1 it is derived from the obvious and intrinsic importance of the undertaking2 from its being built upon permanent and momentous national interests2 from the evidence of a decided approbation of the design1 on the part of men of the first eminence1 obtained in the progress of an extensive correspondence2 from assurances of support1 in the way of contributions1 from men of ability in many parts of the union2 and from the existence of such a crisis in the affairs of this country and of the world1 as appears peculiarly auspicious to the success of every wise and good undertaking4 ,as regards the subjects of this work1 it is in our power to do much in the department of the natural history of this country4 ,our ,zoology has been more fully investigated than our mineralogy and botany2 but neither department is in danger of being exhausted4 ,the interesting travels of ,lewis and ,clark have recently brought to our knowledge several plants and animals before unknown4 ,foreign naturalists frequently explore our territory2 and1 for the most part1 convey to ,europe the fruits of their researches1 while but a small part of our own productions is examined and described by ,americans3 certainly1 this is little to our credit1 and still less to our advantage4 ,honourable exceptions to the truth of this remark are furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal cities1 and in various other parts of the ,union4#b ,our botany1 it is true1 has been extensively and successfully investigated2 but this field is still rich1 and rewards every new research with some interesting discovery4 ,our mineralogy1 however1 is a treasure but just opened4 ,that both science and art may expect much advantage from this source1 is sufficiently evinced by the success which has crowned the active efforts of a few ardent cultivators of this science3 several new species of minerals have been added to it in this country2 great numbers of ,american localities discovered1 and interesting additions made to our materials1 for the useful and ornamental arts4 ,the science of mineralogy is now illustrated by courses of lectures1 and by several good cabinets in the different states4 ,among the cabinets1 the splendid collection of ,colonel ,gibbs1 now in ,yale ,college1 7a munificent ,,deposit for the benefit of his country17 stands pre-eminent3 it would be considered as a very noble cabinet in any part of ,europe3 and its introduction into the ,united ,states1 and its gratuitous dedication to the promotion of science1 are equally advantageous to the community1 and honourable to its patriotic and enlightened proprietor4 ,mineralogy is most intimately connected with our arts1 and especially with our agriculture4 ,such are the disguises worn by many most useful mineral substances1 that an unskilful observer is liable to pass a thing by1 as worthless1 which1 if better informed1 he would seize with avidity2 and1 still more frequently1 a worthless substance1 clothed perhaps in a brilliant and attractive exterior1 excites hopes altogether delusive1 and induces expense1 without a possibility of remuneration4 ,a diffusion of correct knowledge on this subject is the only adequate remedy for either evil4 ,our geology1 also1 presents a most interesting field of inquiry4 ,a grand outline has recently been drawn by ,mr4 ,maclure1 with a masterly hand1 and with a vast extent of personal observation and labour3 but to fill up the detail1 both observation and labour still more extensive are demanded2 nor can the object be effected1 till more good geologists are formed1 and distributed over our extensive territory4 ,to account for the formation and changes of our globe1 by excursions of the imagination1 often splendid and imposing1 but usually visionary1 and almost always baseless1 was1 till within half a century1 the business of geological speculations2 but this research has now assumed a more sober character2 the science of geology has been reared upon numerous and accurate observations of facts2 and standing thus upon the basis of induction1 it is entitled to a rank among those sciences which ,lord ,bacon's ,philosophy has contributed to create4 ,geological researches are now prosecuted1 by actually exploring the structure and arrangement of districts1 countries1 and continents4 ,the obliquity of the strata of most rocks1 causing their edges to project in many places above the surface2 their exposure in other instances1 on the sides or tops of hills and mountains2 or1 in consequence of the intersection of their strata1 by roads1 canals1 and river-courses1 or by the wearing of the ocean2 or their direct perforation1 by the shafts of mines2 all these causes1 and others1 afford extensive means of reading the interior structure of the globe4 ,the outlines of ,american geology appear to be particularly grand1 simple1 and instructive2 and a knowledge of the important facts1 and general principles of this science1 is of vast practical use1 as regards the interests of agriculture1 and the research for useful minerals4 ,geological and mineralogical descriptions1 and maps of particular states and districts1 are very much needed in the ,united ,states2 and to excite a spirit to furnish them will form one leading object of this journal4 ,the science of natural philosophy1 with its powerful auxiliary1 mathematics1 and the science of chemistry1 the twin sister of natural philosophy1 are of incalculable importance to this country4 ,a volume would not suffice to trace their applications1 and to enumerate the instances of their utility4 ,as one which may be allowed to stand1 instar omnium1 we may mention the steam engine2 that legitimate child of physical and chemical science--at once more powerful than the united force of the strongest and largest animals1 and more manageable than the smallest and gentlest2 raising from the bowels of the earth the massy treasures of its mines1 drawing up rivers from their channels1 and pouring them1 in streams of life1 into the bosom of cities2 and1 above all1 propelling against the currents1 the winds1 and the waves of the ocean1 those stupendous vessels1 which combine speed with certainty1 and establish upon the bosom of the deep the luxuries and accommodations of the land4 ,the successful execution of this magnificent design was first witnessed upon the waters of the ,hudson1 but is now imitated in almost every civilized country2 and it remains to be seen whether they will emulate us by transporting1 by the same means1 and against the same obstacles1 the most formidable trains of artillery4 ,the mechanical inventions of this country are numerous2 many of them are ingenious1 and some are highly important4 ,in no way can a knowledge of them be so readily and extensively diffused as in a scientific journal4 ,to this object1 therefore1 a part of our labours 7should there be a call for it17 will be devoted1 and every necessary aid will be given by plates and descriptions4 ,science and art mutually assist each other2 the arts furnish facts and materials to science1 and science illuminates the path of the arts4 ,the science of mathematics1 both pure and mixed1 can never cease to be interesting and important to man1 as long as the relations of quantity shall exist1 as long as ships shall traverse the ocean1 as long as man shall measure the surface or heights of the earth on which he lives1 or calculate the distances and examine the relations of the planets and stars2 and as long as the iron reign of war shall demand the discharge of projectiles1 or the construction of complicated defences4 ,in a word1 the whole circle of physical science is directly applicable to human wants1 and constantly holds out a light to the practical arts2 it thus polishes and benefits society1 and every where demonstrates both supreme intelligence1 and harmony and beneficence of design in ,,the ,,creator4 ,,art4 ,i4 ,essay on ,musical ,temperament4#c ,by ,professor ,,fisher1 of ,yale ,college4 ,it is well known to those who have attended to the subject of musical ratios1 that a fixed scale of eight degrees to the octave1 which shall render all its concords perfect1 is impossible4 ,it has been demonstrated by ,dr4 ,smith1 from an investigation of all the positions which the major1 the minor1 and the half-tone can assume1 that the most perfect scales possible1 of which there are two equally so1 differing only in the position of the major and the minor tone above the key note1 must have one ,vth and one #c;d too flat1 and consequently the supplementary #dth and ,v,ith too sharp1 by a comma4 ,in vocal music1 and in that of perfect instruments1 this defect in the scale is not perceived1 because a small change may be made in the key1 whenever the occurrence of either of those naturally imperfect intervals renders such a change necessary to perfect harmony4 ,but in instruments with fixed scales1 such as the guitar1 the piano-forte1 and the organ1 if we begin with tuning as many concords as possible perfect1 the resulting chords above-mentioned will be necessarily false in an offensive degree4 ,hence it is an important problem in practical harmonics1 to distribute these imperfections in the scale among the different chords1 in such a manner as to occasion the least possible injury to harmony4 ,but this is not the only nor the principal difficulty which the tuner of imperfect instruments has to encounter4 ,in order that these instruments may form a proper accompaniment for the voice1 and be used in conjunction with perfect instruments1 it is necessary that music should be capable of being executed on them1 in all the different keys in common use2 and especially that they should be capable of those occasional modulations which often occur in the course of the same piece4 ,now only five additional sounds to the octave are usually inserted for this purpose1 between those of the natural scale1 which1 of course1 furnish it with only three sharps and two flats4 ,hence1 when a greater number of flats or sharps is introduced1 the music can be executed only by striking1 in the former case1 the sharp of the note next below2 and1 in the latter1 the flat of the note next above4 ,but as the diatonic semitone is more than half the major1 and much more than half the minor tone1 if the additional sounds in the common artificial scale be made perfect for one of the above employments1 they must be extremely harsh for the other4 ,hence arises the necessity of adjusting the position of these five inserted sounds so that they may make tolerable harmony1 whichever way employed4 ,a change in these will require corresponding changes in the position of the several degrees of the natural scale2 so that it is highly probable that the best scheme of temperament will leave no concord1 either of the natural or artificial scale1 absolutely perfect4 ,in adjusting the imperfections of the scale1 the three following considerations have been usually taken into view4 ,i4 ,one object to be aimed at is1 to make the sum of the temperaments of all the concords the least possible4 ,since experience teaches us that the harshness of a given concord increases with its temperament1 it is obvious that of two systems which agree in other respects1 the best is that in which the sum of the temperaments is least4 ,,ii4 ,when other things are equal1 the best adjustment of the imperfections of the scale is that which diminishes the harmoniousness of all the different concords proportionally4 ,the succession of a worse to a better harmony1 is justly regarded by several of the best writers on this subject1 as one of the principal causes of offence to the ear1 in instruments imperfectly tuned4 ,,iii4 ,when different chords of the same kind are of unequally frequent occurrence1 there is an advantage1 cteris paribus1 in giving the greatest temperament to that which occurs most seldom4 ,this important consideration has indeed been neglected by ,dr4 ,smith1 in the systems which he recommends1 both for his changeable and the common fixed scale2 as it is1 also1 by the numerous advocates of the system of equal semitones4 ,but many authors on temperament1 and most instrument-makers1 pay a vague regard to it4 ,their aim has been1 although in a loose and conjectural manner1 to make the prominent chords of the simplest keys the nearest to perfection1 whilst a greater temperament is thrown upon those which occur only in the more complex keys4 ,thus ,dr4 ,young1 in the ,philos4 ,trans4 for #ahjj1 recommends a scheme which increases the temperament of the ,i,i,ids1 on the key note of the successive keys1 as we modulate by fifths from ,c1 nearly in arithmetical progression4 ,earl ,stanhope assigns as a reason for the small temperament which is given to several of the ,i,i,ids in his system1 that they are on the tonic of the simpler keys4 ,the irregularities in ,mr4 ,hawkes's scheme may be traced to the same cause4 ,and1 with the instrument-makers1 it is a favourite maxim to lay the wolf1 as they term it1 where it will be most seldom heard4 ,but if the above consideration deserves any weight at all1 it deserves to be accurately investigated4 ,not only ought the relative frequency of different chords to be ascertained with the greatest accuracy1 of which the nature of the subject is susceptible1 but the degree of weight which this consideration ought to have1 when compared with the two others above-mentioned1 should be determined3 for it is plain that neither of them ought to be ever left out of view4 ,accordingly1 the principal design of the following propositions will be to investigate the actual frequency of occurrence of different chords in practice2 and from this and the two other above-mentioned considerations united1 to deduce the best system of temperament for a scale1 containing any given number of sounds to the octave1 and particularly for the common ,douzeave1 or scale of twelve degrees4 ,,proposition ,i4 ,all consonances may be regarded1 without any sensible error in practice1 as equally harmonious in their kinds1 when equally tempered2 and when unequally tempered1 within certain limits1 as having their harmoniousness diminished in the direct ratio of their temperaments4 ,as different consonances1 when perfect1 are not pleasing to the ear in an equal degree1 some approaching nearer to the nature of discords than others1 so a set of tempered consonances1 cteris paribus1 will be best constituted when their harmoniousness is diminished proportionally4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the agreeable effects of the ,vth1 ,i,i,id1 and #c;d1 when perfect1 are as any unequal numbers1 a1 b1 and c2 the best arrangement of a tempered scale1 other things being equal1 would be1 not that in which the agreeable effect of the ,vth was reduced to an absolute level with that of the ,i,i,id1 or #c;d1 but when they were so tempered that their agreeable effects on the ear might be expressed by 7m_/n7a1 7m_/n7b1 and 7m_/n7c4 ,that different consonances1 in this sense1 are equally harmonious in their kinds1 when equally tempered1 or1 at least1 sufficiently so for every practical purpose1 may be illustrated in the following manner3 ,illustration ,let the lines ,,ab1 ab1 represent the times of vibration of two tempered unisons4 ,whatever be the ratio of ,,ab to ab1 whether rational or irrational1 it is obvious that the successive vibrations will alternately recede from and approach each other1 till they very nearly coincide2 and1 that during one of these periods1 the longer vibration1 ,,ab1 has gained one of the shorter4 ,let the points1 ,a1 ,b1 c4 represent the middle of the successive times of vibration of the lower2 and a1 b1 c4 those of the higher of the tempered unisons4 ,let the arc ,,agn44,,va be a part of a circle1 representing one period of their pulses1 and let the points ,a1 a1 be the middle points of the times of those vibrations which approach the nearest to a coincidence4 ,it is obvious that the dislocations b,b1 c,c1 c4 of the successive pulses1 increase in a ratio which is very nearly that of their distances from ,a1 or a4 ,now if the pulses exactly coincided1 the unisons would be perfect2 and the same would be equally true1 if the pulses of the one bisected1 or divided in any other constant ratio1 those of the other2 as clearly appears from observation4 ,it is1 therefore1 not the absolute magnitude1 as asserted by ,dr4 ,smith1 but the variableness of the successive dislocations1 ,bb1 ,cc1 c4 which renders the imperfect unisons discordant2 and the magnitude of the successive increments of these dislocations is the measure of the degree of discordance heard in the unisons4 ,if now the time of vibration in each is doubled1 ,,ac1 ac1 c4 will represent the times of vibration of imperfect unisons an octave below1 and the successive dislocations will be ,cc1 ,ee1 c4 only half as frequent as before4 ,but the unisons ,,ae1 ae1 will be equally harmonious with ,,ab1 ab2 because1 although the successive dislocations are less frequent than before1 yet the coincidences ,cc1 ,ee of the corresponding perfect unisons are less frequent in the same ratio4 ,suppose1 in the second place1 that the time of vibration is doubled1 in only one of the unisons1 ab2 and that the times become ,,ab and ac1 or those of imperfect octaves4 ,these will also be equally harmonious in their kind with the unisons ,,ab1 ab4 ,for1 although the dislocations ,cc1 ,ee1 c4 are but half as numerous as before1 the coincidences of the corresponding perfect octaves will be but half as numerous4 ,the dislocations which remain are the same as those of the imperfect unisons2 and if some of the dislocations are struck out1 and the increments of successive ones thus increased1 no greater change is made in the nature of the imperfect than of the perfect consonance4 ,if1 thirdly1 we omit two-thirds of the pulses of the lower unison1 retaining the octave ac of the last case1 we shall have ,,ad1 ac1 the times of vibration of imperfect ,vths1 to which1 and to all other concords1 the same reasoning may be applied as above4 ,it may be briefly exhibited thus2 since the intermission of the coincidences ,cc1 ,ee of the perfect unisons1 an octave below ,a,b1 does not render the ,vth ,a,d,g aceg less perfect than the unison ,ac ac1 each being perfect in its kind2 so neither does the intermission of the corresponding dislocations ,cc1 ,ee1 of the tempered unisons1 in the imperfect ,vth1 ,,adg1 aceg1 render it less harmonious in its kind than the tempered unison ,,ab1 ab1 from which it is derived in exactly the same manner that the perfect ,vth is derived from the perfect unison4 ,the consonances thus derived1 as has been shown by ,dr4 ,smith1 will have the same periods1 and consequently the same beats1 with the imperfect unisons4 ,it is obvious1 likewise1 that they will all be equally tempered4 ,let m ,,ab1 and n ab1 be a general expression for the times of vibration of any such consonance4 ,the tempering ratio of an imperfect consonance is always found by dividing the ratio of the vibrations of the imperfect by that of the corresponding perfect consonance4 ,but 7m,a,b7_/7nab7 m_/n ,,ab_/ab2 which is evidently the tempering ratio of the imperfect unisons4 ,hence1 so far as any reasoning1 founded on the abstract nature of coexisting pulses can be relied on1 7for1 in a case of this kind1 rigid demonstration can scarcely be expected17 we are led to conclude that the harmoniousness of different consonances is proportionally diminished when they are equally tempered4 ,the remaining part of the proposition1 viz4 that consonances differently tempered have their harmoniousness diminished1 or their harshness increased1 in the direct ratio of their temperaments1 will be evident1 when we consider that the temperament of any consonance is the sole cause of its harshness1 and that the effect ought to be proportioned to its adequate cause4 ,we may add1 that the rapidity of the beats1 in a given consonance1 increases very nearly in the ratio of the temperament2 and universal experience shows1 that increasing the rapidity of the beats of the same consonance1 increases its harshness4 ,this is on the supposition that the consonance is not varied so much as to interfere with any other whose ratio is equally simple4 ,cor4 ,we may hence infer1 that in every system of temperament which preserves the octaves perfect1 each consonance is equally harmonious1 in its kind1 with its complement to the octave1 and its compounds with octaves4 ,for the tempering ratio of the complement of any concord to the octave1 is the same with that of the concord itself1 differing only in its sign1 which does not sensibly affect the harmony or the rate of beating2 while the tempering ratio of the compounds with octaves is not only the same1 but with the same sign4 ,scholium #a4 ,there is no point in harmonics1 concerning which theorists have been more divided in opinion than in regard to the true measure of equal harmony1 in consonances of different kinds4 ,euler maintains1 that the more simple a consonance is1 the less temperament it will bear2 and this seems to have ever been the general opinion of practical musicians4#d ,dr4 ,smith1 on the contrary1 asserts1 and has attempted to demonstrate1 that the simpler will bear a much greater temperament than the more complex consonances4 ,the foregoing proposition has1 at least1 the merit of taking the middle ground between these discordant opinions4 ,if admitted1 it will greatly simplify the whole subject1 and will reduce the labour of rendering all the concords in three octaves as equally harmonious as possible1 which occupies so large a portion of ,dr4 ,smith's volume1 to a single short proposition4 ,dr4 ,smith's measure of equal harmony1 viz4 equal numbers of short cycles in the intervals between the successive beats1 seems designed1 not to render the different consonances proportionally harmonious1 but to reduce the simpler to an absolute level1 in point of agreeableness1 with the more complex2 which1 as has been shown1 is not the object to be aimed at in adjusting their comparative temperaments4 ,but1 in truth1 his measure is far more favourable to the complex consonances than equal harmony1 even in this sense1 would require2 and1 in a great number of instances1 leads to the grossest absurdities4 ,two consonances1 according to him1 are equally harmonious1 when their temperaments are inversely as the products of the least numbers expressing their perfect ratio4 ,if so1 the ,,viii #c;d1 whose ratio is #e_/ab1 when tempered #a_/bj of a comma1 and the unison1 whose ratio is #a_/a1 when tempered #c commas1 are equally harmonious4 ,but all who have the least experience in tempered consonances will pronounce1 at once1 that the former could scarcely be distinguished by the nicest ear from the corresponding perfect concord1 while the latter would be a most offensive discord4 ,one instance more shall suffice4 ,the temperaments to render the ,,viii ,vth1 and the ,,viii #fth equally harmonious1 are laid down in his tables to be as #hj 3 #c4 ,we will now suppose an instrument perfectly tuned in ,dr4 ,smith's manner1 and furnished with all the additional sounds which constitute his changeable scale4 ,in this system1 the ,i,i,ids1 and consequently the ,,viii #fths1 are tempered #a_/i of a comma2 which1 so far from being offensive1 will be positively agreeable to the ear4 ,this cannot be doubted by those who admit that the ,,viii #fths in the common imperfect scales1 when tempered at a medium nearly seven times as much1 make tolerable harmony4 ,yet1 according to the theory which we are opposing1 the ,,viii ,vth will be equally harmonious when tempered nearly a minor semitone4 ,now let any one1 even with the common instruments1 whenever an ,,viii ,vth occurs1 strike the semitone next above or below3 for example1 instead of playing ,c1 g1 let him play ,c1 g2 instead of ,a1 e1 let him play ,a1 e1 c4 and compare the harmony of these with that of the ,,viii #fths1 if he wants any farther evidence that ,dr4 ,smith's measure of equal harmony is without foundation4 ,it may be thought1 that even the measure of equal harmony laid down in the proposition1 is more favourable to the complex consonances than the conclusions of experience will warrant4 ,but when it is asserted by practical musicians1 that the octave will bear less tempering than the ,vth1 the ,vth less than the ,i,i,id1 c41 they doubtless intend to estimate the temperament by the rate of beating1 and to imply1 that when different consonances to the same base are made to beat equally fast1 the simpler are more offensive than the more complex consonances4 ,this is entirely consistent with the proposition2 for when equally tempered1 the more complex consonances will beat more rapidly than the more simple2 if on the same base1 very nearly in the ratio of their major terms4 7,smith's ,har4 ,prop4 ,,xi4 ,cor4 #d47 ,if1 for example1 an octave1 a ,vth1 and a ,i,i,id on the same base were made to beat with a rapidity which is as the numbers #b1 #c1 and #e1 no unprejudiced ear would probably pronounce the octave less harmonious in its kind than the ,i,i,id4 ,to those1 on the other hand1 who may incline to a measure of equal harmony between that laid down in the proposition and that of ,dr4 ,smith1 on account of the rapidity of the beats of the more complex consonances1 it maybe sufficient to reply1 that if the beats of a more complex consonance are more rapid than those of a simpler one1 when both are equally tempered1 those of the latter1 cteris paribus1 are more distinct4 ,it is the distinctness of the undulations1 in tempered consonances1 which is one of the principal causes of offence to the ear4 ,scholium #b4 ,it will be proper to explain1 in this place1 the notation of musical intervals1 which will be adopted in the following pages4 ,it is well known that musical intervals are as the logarithms of their corresponding ratios4 ,if1 therefore1 the octave be represented by 4#cjajc1 the log4 of #b1 the value of the ,vth will be expressed by 4#ageji2 that of the major tone by 4#jeaae2 that of the comma by 4#jjedj1 c4 ,but in order to avoid the prefixed ciphers1 in calculations where so small intervals as the temperaments of different concords are concerned1 we will multiply each of these values by #ajj1jjj1 which will give a set of integral values having the same ratio4 ,the octave will now become #cjajc1 the comma #edj1 c42 and1 in general1 when temperaments are hereafter expressed by numbers1 they are to be considered as so many #edjths of a comma4 ,had more logarithmic places been taken1 the intervals would have been expressed with greater accuracy2 but it was supposed that the additional accuracy would not compensate for the increased labour of computation which it would occasion4 ,this notation has been adopted by ,dr4 ,robinson1 in the article ,temperament1 7,encyc4 ,brit4 ,supplement27 and for every practical purpose1 is as much superior to that proposed by ,mr4 ,farey1 in parts of the ,schisma1 lesser fraction and minute1#e as all decimal measures necessarily are1 to those which consist of different denominations4 ,,proposition ,,ii4 ,in adjusting the imperfections of the scale1 so as to render all the consonances as equally harmonious as possible1 only the simple consonances1 such as the ,vth1 ,i,i,id1 and #c;d1 with their complements to and compounds with the octave1 can be regarded4 ,it has been generally assigned as the reason for neglecting the consonances1 usually termed discords1 in ascertaining the best scheme of temperament1 that they are of less frequent occurrence than the concords4 ,this1 however1 if it were the only reason1 would lead us1 not to neglect them entirely1 but merely to give them a less degree of influence than the concords1 in proportion as they are less used4 ,a consideration which seems not to have been often noticed1 renders it impossible to pay them any regard in harmonical computations4 ,all such computations must proceed on the supposition that within the limits to which the temperaments of the different consonances extend1 they become harsher as their temperaments are increased4 ,it is evident that any consonance may be tempered so much as to become better by having its temperament increased1 in consequence of its approaching as near to some other perfect ratio1 the terms of which are equally small2 or perhaps much nearer some perfect ratio whose terms are not proportionally larger4 ,for example1 after we have sharpened the ,vth more than #c commas1 it becomes more harmonious1 as approaching much nearer to the perfect ratio #e_/f4 ,in this1 however1 and the other concords1 the value of the nearest perfect ratios in small numbers1 varies so much from the ratios of these concords1 and the consequent limits within which the last part of ,prop4 ,i4 holds true1 are so wide that there is no hazard in making it a basis of calculation4 ,and if there be a few exceptions to this1 in some systems1 in which the temperaments of a few of the concords become so large as to approach nearer to some other perfect ratio1 whose terms are nearly as small as those of the perfect concord1 although they might become more harmonious1 by having their temperament increased1 yet their effect in melody would be still more impaired2 so that the concords may all be considered as subjected to the same rule of calculation4 ,but the limits within which the second part of ,prop4 ,i4 holds true1 with regard to the more complex consonances1 are much more limited4 ,we cannot1 for instance1 sharpen the #gth1 whose ratio is #i 3 #af more than a comma1 without rendering it more harmonious1 as approaching nearer another perfect ratio which is simpler2 that of #e 3 #i4 ,yet the difference between these two #gths is so trifling that they have never received distinct names2 and1 indeed1 their effect on the ear in melody would not be sensibly different4 ,again1 the #eth1 whose perfect ratio has been generally laid down as #de 3 #fd1 but which is in reality #be 3 #cf1f cannot be sharpened more than of a comma1 before it becomes more harmonious by having its temperament increased1 as approaching nearer the simpler ratio #g 3 #aj4 ,at the same time1 the effect of this interval in melody would not be sensibly varied4 ,the limits1 within which the harmoniousness of the ,i,vth is inversely as its temperament1 are still narrower4 ,hence it appears that no inference can be drawn from the temperaments of such consonances as the #gth1 #eth1 ,i,vth1 c4 respecting their real harmoniousness4 ,the other perfect ratios which have nearly the same value with those of these chords1 and which are in equally simple terms1 are so numerous that by increasing their temperament they alternately become more and less harmonious2 and in a manner so irregular1 that to attempt to subject them to calculation1 with the concords1 would be in vain4 ,even when unaltered1 they may be considered either as greater temperaments of more simple1 or less temperaments of more complex ratios4 ,suppose the #eth1 for example1 to be flattened of a comma3 shall it be considered as deriving its character from the perfect ratio #be 3 #cf1 and be regarded as flattened #ajh2 or shall it be referred to the perfect ratio #g 3 #aj1 and considered as sharpened #bci8 ,no one can tell4--,on the whole1 it is manifest that no consonances more complex than those included in the proposition1 can be regarded in adjusting the temperaments of the scale4 ,,proposition ,,iii4 ,the best scale of sounds1 which renders the harmony of all the concords as nearly equal as possible1 is that in which the ,vths are flattened #b_/g1 and the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds1 each #a_/g of a comma4 ,the octave must be kept perfect1 for reasons which have satisfied all theoretical and practical harmonists1 how widely soever their opinions have differed in other respects4 ,admitting equal temperament to be the measure of equal harmony1 the complements of the ,vth1 ,i,i,id1 and #c;d1 to the octave1 and their compounds with octaves will be equally harmonious in their kinds with these concords respectively2 according to the corollary of ,prop ,i4 ,hence we have only to find those temperaments of the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds1 in the compass of one octave1 which will render them all1 as nearly as possible1 equally harmonious4 ,the temperaments of the different concords of the same name ought evidently to be rendered equal2 since1 otherwise1 their harmony cannot be equal4 ,this can be effected only by rendering the major and minor tones equal1 and preserving the equality of the two semitones4 ,if this is done1 the temperament of all the ,i,i,ids will be equal1 since they will each be the sum of two equal tones4 ,for a similar reason the #c;ds1 and consequently the ,vths1 formed by the addition of ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds1 will be equally tempered4 ,illustration3 x - c x 7#c;c - #ex7_/#b x - c x x - c 7#c;c - #ex7_/#b ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,a ,b c ,in order to reduce the octave to five equal and variable tones1 and two equal and variable semitones1 we will suppose the intervals of the untempered octave to be represented by the parts ,,cd1 ,,de1 c4 of the line ,cc4 ,denoting the comma by c1 we will suppose the tone ,,de1 which is naturally minor1 to be increased by any variable quantity1 x2 then1 by the foregoing observations1 the other minor tone1 ,,ga1 must be increased by the same quantity4 ,as the major tones must be rendered equal to the minor1 their increment will be x - c4 ,as the octave is to be perfect1 the variation of the two semitones must be the same with that of the five tones1 with the contrary sign2 and as they are to be equally varied1 the decrement of each will be 7#ex - #c;c7_/#b2 or what amounts to the same thing1 the increment of each will be 7#c;c - #ex7_/#b4 ,the several concords of the same name in this octave are now affected with equal and variable temperaments4 ,the common increment of the ,i,i,ids will be #bx - c2 that of the #c;ds 7c - #cx72 and consequently that of the ,vths 7x - c74 ,in adjusting these variable temperaments1 so as to render the harmony of the concords of different kinds1 as nearly equal as possible1 we immediately discover that1 as the ,vth is composed of the ,i,i,id and #c;d1 the temperaments of the three cannot all be equal4 ,when the temperaments of the ,i,i,id and #c;d have the same sign1 that of the ,vths must be equal to their sum2 and1 when they have contrary signs1 to their difference4 ,hence the temperament of one of these three concords is necessarily equal to the sum of that of the other two4 ,this being fixed1 the temperaments1 and consequently1 7by ,prop4 ,i47 the discordance of the different consonances is the most equably divided possible1 when the two smaller temperaments1 whose sum is equal to the greater1 are made equal to each other4 ,the problem contains three cases4 #a4 ,when the temperaments of the ,i,i,id and #c;d have the same sign1 they ought to be equal to each other4 ,making #bx - c 7c - #cx71 we obtain x #c_/g c1 which1 substituted in the general expressions for the temperaments of the ,vth1 ,i,i,id1 and #c;d1 makes their increments equal to -#b_/g c1 -#a_/g c1 -#a_/g c1 respectively4 #b4 ,let the temperaments of the ,i,i,id and #c;d have contrary signs3 and first1 let that of the ,i,i,ids be the greater4 ,then the former ought to be double of the latter1 in order that the temperament of the ,vths and and #c;ds may be equal4 ,hence we have #bx - c - #b 7c - #cx72 whence x is found #j2 and by substitution as before1 the required temperament of the ,i,i,id - c2 of the ,vth - c1 and of the #c;d c4 #c4 ,let the temperaments of the ,i,i,id and #c;d have contrary signs1 as before2 and let that of the #c;d be the greater4 ,making 7c - #cx7 -#b 7#bx - c71 we obtain x #c_/e c2 which gives1 by substitution1 the temperaments of the #c;d1 ,vth1 and ,i,i,id - #b_/e c1 - #a_/e c1 and #a_/e c1 respectively4 ,each of these results makes the harmony of all the consonances as nearly equal as possible2 but as the sum of the temperaments in the first case is much the least1 it follows that the temperaments stated in the proposition constitute the best scheme of intervals for the natural scale1 in which the harmony of all the different consonances is rendered as nearly equal as possible4 ,cor4 #a4 ,in the same manner it may be shown that these temperaments are the best1 among those which approach as nearly as possible to equal harmony1 for the artificial scale2 provided that it is furnished with distinct sounds for all the sharps and flats in common use4 ,by inserting a sound between ,f and ,g1 making the interval ,f,g equal to either of the semitones found above1 the intervals1 reckoned from ,g as a key note1 will be exactly the same in respect to their temperaments1 as the corresponding ones reckoned from ,c4 ,the same thing holds1 whatever be the number of flats and sharps4 ,it is supposed1 however1 that the flat of a note is never used for the sharp of that next below1 or the contrary2 and hence this scheme of temperament would only be adapted to an instrument1 furnished with all the degrees of the enharmonic scale2 or1 at least1 with as many as are in common use4 ,cor4 #b4 ,this scale will differ but little in practice from the one deduced1 with so much labour1 by ,dr4 ,smith1 from his criterion of equal harmony2 which flattens the ,vths #e_/ah1 the ,i,i,ids #a_/i1 and the #c;ds #a_/f of a comma4 ,the several differences are only #a_/abf1 #b_/fc1 and #a_/db of a comma4 ,hence1 as his measure of equal harmony differs so widely from that of ,proposition ,i4 we may infer that the consideration of equalizing the harmony of the concords of different names can have very little practical influence on the temperaments of the scale4 ,should it1 therefore1 be maintained that the criterion laid down in ,prop4 ,i4 is not mathematically accurate2 yet1 as it must be allowed1 in the most unfavourable view1 to correspond far better with the decisions of experience than that of ,doctor ,smith1 the chance is1 that1 at the lowest estimate1 the temperaments deduced from it approach much more nearly to correctness4 ,hence it is manifest that equal temperament may be made1 without any sensible error in practice1 the criterion of equal harmony4 ,scholium #c4 ,although the foregoing would be the best division of the musical scale1 if our sole object were to render the harmony of its concords as nearly equal as possible1 yet the two other considerations1 stated at the beginning of the essay1 must by no means be neglected1 as has been done by ,dr4 ,smith4 ,it seems to be universally admitted1 that the sum of the temperaments may be increased to a certain extent1 in order to equalize the harmony of the concords2 otherwise the natural scale of major and minor tones1 which makes the sum of the temperaments of the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds but #b commas1 ought to be left unaltered4 ,yet how far this principle ought to be carried1 may be a matter of doubt4 ,if we make the ,i,i,ids perfect1 and flatten the ,vths and #c;ds each c1 according to the old system of mean tones1 we shall have the smallest aggregate of temperaments which admits of the different concords of the same name being rendered equally imperfect2 but this amounts to #b commas4 ,thus far1 however1 it seems evidently proper to proceed4 ,if we go still farther1 and endeavour to equalize the harmony of the concords of different names1 it may be questioned whether nearly as much is not lost as gained2 for the aggregate temperaments are increased1 in ,dr4 ,smith's scale1 to #b c1 and in that of the above proposition to #b-e_/g c4 ,the system of mean tones1 although more unequal in its harmony when but two notes are struck at once1 yet when the chords are played full1 as they generally are on the organ1 never offends the ear by a transition from a better to a worse harmony4 ,for every triad is equally harmonious2 being composed of a perfect ,i,i,id1 and a ,vth and #c;d1 tempered each c1 or of their complements to1 or compounds with octaves1 which1 in their kinds1 are equally harmonious4 ,again1 if different chords1 in practice1 vary in the frequency of their occurrence1 this will be a sufficient reason for deviating from the system of equal temperament4 ,suppose1 for example1 that a given sum of temperament is to be divided between two ,vths1 one of which occurs in playing ten times as often as the other3 there can be no doubt that the greater part of the temperament ought to be thrown upon the latter4 ,hence it becomes an important problem to ascertain1 with some degree of precision1 the relative frequency with which different consonances occur in practice4 ,before proceeding to a direct investigation of this problem1 it may be observed1 in general1 that such a difference manifestly exists4 ,in a given key1 it cannot have escaped the most superficial observer1 that the most frequent combination of sounds is the common chord on the tonic2 that the next after this is that on the dominant1 and the third1 that on the subdominant4 ,perhaps scarcely a piece of music can be found1 in which this order of frequency does not hold true4 ,it is equally true that some signatures occur oftener than others4 ,that of one sharp will be found to be more used1 in the major mode1 than any other2 and1 in general1 the more simple keys will be found of more frequent occurrence than those which have more flats or sharps4 ,these differences are not the result of accident4 ,the tonic1 dominant1 and subdominant1 are obviously the most prominent notes in the scale1 and must always be the fundamental bases of more chords than either of the others2 while the greater ease of playing on the simpler keys will always be a reason with composers for setting a larger part of their music on these1 than on the more difficult keys4 ,it is observable1 that the greater part of musical compositions1 whether of the major or minor mode1 is reducible to two kinds3 that in which the base chiefly moves between the tonic and its octave1 and that in which the base moves between the dominant and subdominant of the key4 ,the former class1 in the major mode1 are almost universally set on the key of one sharp2 the latter1 generally on the natural key1 or that of two sharps4 ,in the minor mode1 the former class have usually the signature of two flats1 or the natural key2 the latter1 that of one flat4 ,hence the three former keys will comprise the greater part of the music in the major mode1 and the three latter1 of that in the minor mode1 in every promiscuous collection4 ,but if we were even to suppose each of the chords in the same key1 and each of the signatures1 of equally frequent occurrence1 some chords would occur much oftener1 as forming an essential part of the harmony of more keys than others4 ,the ,vth ,,da1 for example1 forms one of the essential chords of six different keys2 while the ,vth ,g,d forms a part only of the single key of four sharps4 ,,proposition ,,iv4 ,to find a set of numbers1 expressing the ratio of the probable number of times that each of the different consonances in the scale will occur1 in any set of musical compositions4 ,this can be done only by investigating their actual frequency of occurrence in a collection of pieces for the instrument to be tuned1 sufficiently extensive and diversified to serve as a specimen of music for the same instrument in general4 ,this may appear1 at first view1 an endless task2 and it would be really such1 were we to take music promiscuously1 and count all the consonances which the base makes with the higher parts1 and the higher parts with each other4 ,but it appears1 from ,prop4 ,i4 ,cor4 that all the positions and inversions of a chord1 when the octaves are kept perfect1 are equally harmonious with the chord itself4 ,the ,vth1 for example1 which makes one of the consonances in a common harmonic triad1 is equally harmonious in its kind1 with the ,v ,,viii1 which takes its place in the #c;d position of this triad1 and with the #dth in its second inversion4 ,hence1 instead of counting single consonances1 we have only to count chords2 and this is done with the greatest ease1 by means of the figures of the thorough base4 ,the labour will be still farther abridged by reducing the derivative chords1 such as the #f1 the #f_/d1 c4 to their proper roots1 as they are taken down4 ,but even after these reductions1 the labour of numbering the different chords in a sufficiently extensive set of compositions1 to establish1 with any degree of certainty1 the relative frequency of the different signatures1 would be very irksome4 ,a method1 however1 presents itself1 which renders it sufficient to examine the chords in such a set of pieces only as will give their chance of occurrence in two keys--a major1 and its relative minor4 ,it will be evident to all who are much conversant with musical compositions1 that the internal structure of all pieces in the same mode1 whatever be their signature1 is much the same4 ,there is scarcely more difference1 for example1 in the relative frequency of different chords in the natural key1 and in that of two sharps1 or two flats1 than there is in different pieces on the same key4 ,if the ,vth ,,cg on the tonic has to the ,vth ,,eb on the mediant in the natural key1 any given ratio of frequency m 3 n1 the relative frequency of the ,vth ,,da on the tonic1 and the ,vth ,f ,c on the mediant in the key of two sharps1 will not sensibly differ from that of m 3 n4 ,hence1 if we examine a sufficient number of pieces to establish the relative frequency of the different consonances in one major and its relative minor key1 and1 by a much more extensive investigation1 ascertain the relative frequency of occurrence of the different signatures1 it is evident1 that by multiplying this last series of numbers into the first1 and adding those products which belong to chords terminated by the same letters1 we shall have a series of numbers expressing the chance of occurrence in favour of each of the consonances of the scale1 when all the keys are taken into view4 ,it was judged that #bjj scores1 taken promiscuously from all the varieties of music for the organ1#g would afford a set of numbers expressing1 with sufficient accuracy1 the chance that a given consonance will occur in a single major1 and its relative minor key4 ,accordingly #bjj scores were examined1 #aej in the major1 and #ej in the minor mode1 7as it will appear hereafter that this is nearly the ratio of their frequency7 of the various species of music for the organ1 comprising a proper share both of the simpler and of the more rapid and chromatic movements4 ,as the selecting and reducing to their proper keys all the occasional modulations which occur in the same piece would render the labour of ascertaining the relative frequency of different signatures very tedious1 it was thought best to consider all those modulations which are too transient to be indicated by a new signature1 as belonging to the same key4 ,this will account for the occurrence of the chords in the following table1 which are affected by flats and sharps4 ,the minim1 or the crotchet1 was taken for unity1 according to the rapidity of the movement4 ,bases of greater or less length had their proper values assigned them2 although mere notes of passage1 which bore no proper harmony1 were generally disregarded4 ,the scores were taken promiscuously from all the different keys2 and were reduced1 when taken down1 to the same tonic2 the propriety of which will evidently appear from the foregoing remarks4 ,the following table contains the result of the investigation4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,common ,chords4 ,flat ,fifths4 #gths4 #i-sevenths4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,bases4 ,major ,minor ,major4 ,minor4 ,major4 ,minor4,major4,minor4 mode4 mode4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,b ,,iii #e #h -- -- #g -- -- -- ,b #c -- #afc #ee #aa #ag #b -- ,b #d #d -- -- -- -- -- -- ,a ,,vii -- -- -- -- -- -- #c -- ,a ,,iii #ai #h -- -- #g #b -- -- ,a #aff #ehh #b #a #bf #e #b -- ,g -- -- #c #ch -- -- -- -- ,g #c #ah #ae -- -- -- -- -- -- ,g #ife #ic -- -- #agh #ae #c -- ,f -- -- #df #d #aa #b -- -- ,f #ceb #fj -- -- #aa #ab #g #c ,e ,,iii #bf #bga -- -- #a #be -- -- ,e #cb #be #e #a #h -- #a #d ,d ,,iii -- -- #b #a -- -- -- -- ,d -- -- -- #d -- -- -- -- ,d ,,iii #bi #d -- -- #di #g -- -- ,d #abj #abi -- -- #ee #ah #f #a ,c -- -- #b #d #a -- -- -- ,c #c #b -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,c #agfi #bge -- -- #e #a #d #a ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the following anomalous chords were found in the major mode1 and are subjoined1 to make the list complete3 #h #eths on ,c1 and #a on ,d4 #e #e_/dths on ,d1 #b on ,e1 and #a on ,g4 ,the left hand column of the foregoing table contains the fundamental bases of the several chords4 ,when any number is annexed to the letter denoting the fundamental1 it denotes the quality of some other note belonging to the chord4 ,e ,,iii1 for example1 denotes that the various chords on ,e1 which stand against it1 have their third sharped2 ,g #c1 that the third1 which is naturally major1 is to be taken minor1 c4 ,of the two columns in each of the four remaining pairs1 the left contains the number of chords belonging to each root1 of the kind specified at the top1 which were found in #aej scores in the major mode2 and the right1 the corresponding results of the examination of #ej scores in the minor mode4 ,the diminished triad1 which is used in harmonical progression like the other triads1 has its lowest note considered as its fundamental4 ,the diminished #gth1 in the few instances in which it occurred1 was considered as the first inversion of the #i_/gth1 agreeably to the ,french classification1 and was accordingly reduced to that head4 ,from this table1 the number of times that each consonance of two notes would actually occur1 were the #bjj scores played1 is easily computed4 ,we will suppose three notes1 besides octaves1 to be played to each chord4 ,the octaves played it is unnecessary to take into the computation1 as it would only multiply the number of consonances whose temperament is the same1 in the same ratio1 and would have no effect on the ratio of the numbers expressing the frequency of the different consonances4 ,in the chord of the #gth1 which naturally consists of four notes1 we will suppose1 for the sake of uniformity1 that one is omitted2 and as the #gth ought always to be struck1 we will suppose the ,vth and ,i,i,id of the base to be omitted1 each half the number of times in which this chord occurs4 ,considered as composed of three distinct notes1 neither of which is an octave of either of the others1 each chord will contain three distinct consonances4 ,the common chord on ,c1 for example1 will contain the ,vth ,,cg1 the ,i,i,id ,,ce1 and the #c;d ,,eg4 ,the #i_/g on ,c will contain the ,,vii ,,cb1 the ,,ix1 or 7which must have the same temperament7 the ,i,id ,,cd1 and the #c;d ,,bd4 ,reducing all these consonances to their proper places1 and adding those of the same name which have the same degree for their base1 we obtain the following results3 ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,vths1 #dths1 and ,i,i,ids1 #fths1 and #c;ds1 ,v,iths1 and ,bases4 ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,major4 ,minor4 ,major4 ,minor4 ,major4 ,minor4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,b #h #h #aj #h #aada #bad ,b #c #f #bb #ai ---- ---- ,a #aie #fjg #bb #aj #fbf #ffc ,g ---- ---- ---- ---- #cb #caj ,g #ajhh #aaf #ajij #abe #bb #bc ,f ---- ---- ---- ---- #gh #aj ,f #cie #gh #dhf #cja ---- ---- ,e #ei #cjh #dj #bhd #ahbh #cjh ,e ---- ---- #b ---- ---- ---- ,d ---- ---- ---- ---- #g #i ,d #aig #aef #fj #g #djc #bac ,c ---- ---- ---- ---- #bf #ab ,c #ahjg #bgh #aiei #hgj #d #a #eths1 ,i,vths1 and #gths1 ,i,ids1 and ,v,i,iths1 #b;ds1 and ,bases4 ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,major4 ,minor4 ,major4 ,minor4 ,major4 ,minor4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,b #bef #bfe #be #ag ---- ---- ,b ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,a #b #a #cd #g #c ---- ,g #aj #ec ---- ---- ---- ---- ,g ---- ---- #ahh #bj ---- ---- ,f #gd #g #a #b ---- ---- ,f ---- ---- ---- ---- #ag #af ,e #aj #a #bj #bg ---- ---- ,e ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ,d #g #e ---- ---- ---- ---- ,d ---- ---- #abc #bg ---- ---- ,c #i #aj #a ---- ---- ---- ,c ---- ---- #e #a #aj #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,besides the following chromatic intervals3 #h extreme sharp #eths on ,c ,major mode4 #a --------------------- ,d #a extreme flat #gth ---- ,g #d extreme sharp #fths on ,f ,minor mode4 #d extreme flat #gths on ,c #c --------------------- ,g ,it was thought best to exhibit a complete table of all the consonances which occurred in the #bjj scores examined2 although 7,prop4 ,,ii47 only the concords in the upper half of the table can be regarded in forming a system of temperament4 ,for the more frequent consonances1 this table may be regarded as founded on a sufficiently extensive induction to be tolerably accurate4 ,for the more unfrequent chords1 and especially for those which arise from unusual modulations1 it expresses the chance of occurrence with very little accuracy2 and it is doubtless the fact that a more extensive investigation would include some chords not found at all in this list4 ,but it must be recollected1 on the other hand1 that the influence of these unusual chords on the resulting system of temperament would be insensible1 could their chance of occurrence be determined with the greatest accuracy4 ,but none of the numbers in the foregoing table by any means expresses the chance that a given interval will occur1 considering all the keys in which it is found4 ,for example1 the ,vth ,,cg on the tonic of the natural key1 in music written on this key1 is the one of most frequent occurrence1 its chance being expressed by #ahjg2 but in the key of two flats1 it becomes the ,vth on the supertonic1 and its chance of occurrence is only as #aig4 ,hence the problem can be completed only by finding a set of numbers which shall express1 with some degree of accuracy1 the relative frequency of different signatures4 ,an examination of #afjj scores1 comprising four entire collections of music for the organ and voice1 by the best ,european composers1 besides many miscellaneous pieces1 afforded the results in the following table3 ,,table ,,iii4 --------------------------------------- ,signatures4 ,major ,mode4 ,minor ,mode4 --------------------------------------- #ds #db #b #cs #ie #f #bs #bjj #ac #a #cbb #gb #agf #aba #a #ahj #ig #bs #gj #gg #cs #aaf #h #ds #j #c --------------------------------------- ,ratio of their sums #abja 3 #cii ---------------------------------------- - ,the chance of occurrence for any chord varies as the frequency of the key to which it belongs1 and as the number belonging to the place which it holds1 as referred to the tonic1 in ,table ,,ii41 jointly4 ,hence the chance of its occurrence in all the keys in which it is found1 is as the sum of the products of the numbers in ,table ,,iii41 each into such a number of ,table ,,ii4 as corresponds to its place in that key4 ,to give a specimen of the manner in which this calculation is to be conducted1 the numbers belonging to the major mode in the three first divisions of ,table ,,ii4 are first to be multiplied throughout by #agf1 which expresses the relative frequency of the major mode of the natural key4 ,they are then to be multiplied throughout by #cbb1 which expresses the frequency of the key of one sharp4 ,but the first product1 which expresses the frequency of the ,vth on the tonic1 now becomes ,,gd1 and must be added1 not to the first1 but to the fifth1 in the last row of products4 ,the product into #ei1 expressing the frequency of the ,vth on the mediant1 becomes ,,bf1 an interval not found among the essential chords of the natural key4 ,in general1 the products of the numbers in ,table ,,iii4 into those in ,table ,,ii4 are to be considered as belonging1 not to the letters against which these multipliers stand1 but to those which have the same position with regard to their successive tonics1 as these have with regard to ,c4 ,whenever an interval occurs1 affected with a new flat or sharp1 it is to be considered as the commencement of a new succession of products4 ,the ,i,i,id ,c,e1 for example1 does not occur at all till we come to the key of two sharps1 and even then only in occasional modulations1 corresponding to the ,i,i,id on ,b in the natural key1 whose multiplier is #aj4 ,in the key of #c sharps it becomes another accidental chord1 answering to the ,i,i,id on ,e in the key of ,c1 and consequently has #dj for its multiplier4 ,it is only in the key of #f sharps1 that it becomes a constituent chord of the key2 when if that key were ever used1 it would correspond to the ,i,i,id ,,gb on the dominant of the natural key4 ,after all the products have been taken and reduced to their proper places1 in the manner exemplified above1 a similar operation must be repeated with the numbers in the second column of ,table ,,iii4 and those in the second columns in the three first divisions of ,table ,,ii4 ,the necessity of keeping the major1 and its relative minor key1 distinct1 will be evident1 when we consider that the several keys in the minor mode do not follow the same law of frequency as in the major2 as is manifest from the observations in ,schol4 ,prop4 ,,iii4 and as clearly appears from an inspection of ,table ,,iii4 ,but in order to discover the relative frequency of the different chords on every account1 the results of the two foregoing operations must be united4 ,now1 as the numbers in the two columns of ,table ,,ii4 at a medium1 are as #c 3 #a1 and those in ,table ,,iii4 are in the same ratio1 although the factors are to each other in only the simple ratio of the relative frequency of the two modes1 yet their products will1 at a medium1 be in the duplicate ratio of that frequency4 ,hence1 to render the two sets of results homologous1 so that those which correspond to the same interval may be properly added1 to express the general chance of occurrence for that interval in all the major and minor keys in which it is found1 this duplicate ratio must be reduced to a simple one1 either by dividing the first1 or by multiplying the last series of results1 by #c4 ,we will do the latter1 as it will give the ratios in the largest1 and1 of course1 the most accurate terms4 ,then adding those results in each which belong to the same interval1 and cutting off the three right hand figures1 7expressing in the nearest small fractions those results which are under #ajjj7 which will leave a set of ratios abundantly accurate for every purpose2 the numbers constituting the final solution of the problem will stand as follows3 ,,table ,,iv4 -------------------------------------- ,vths and ,i,i,ids and #c;ds and ,bases4 #dths4 #fths4 ,v,iths4 -------------------------------------- ,f #fg #bi #ajgb ,f #fci #ibd #ff ,e ---- ---- #ab ,e #edh #cbc #aaea ,e #bfe #cfc ,d #add ,d #aaff #idc #efi ,d #a #f ---- ,c #be #ab #eha ,c #haf #aaca #ahj ,b ---- ---- #d ,b #bba #ace #aafa ,b #dah #fed #e ,a ---- ---- #bi ,a #hgj #efh #ajhe ,a #eb #gh ,g #e #d #cfe ,g #abjg #aaig #efg ,f ---- ---- ,g ---- ---- -------------------------------------- ,,note4 ,in this table1 as well as the last1 the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds are to be taken above1 and the #dths1 #fths1 and ,v,iths1 their complements to the octave1 below the corresponding degrees in the first column4 ,and1 in general1 whenever the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds are hereafter treated as different classes of concords1 each will be understood to include its complement to the octave and its compounds with octaves4 ,scholium4 ,the foregoing table exhibits1 with sufficient accuracy1 the ratio of the whole number of times which the different chords would occur1 were the #afjj scores1 whose signatures were examined1 actually played in succession1 on the keys to which they are set1 and with an instrument having distinct sounds for all the flats and sharps4 ,had the examination been more extensive1 the results might be relied on with greater assurance as accurate2 but the general similarity1 not only in the structure of different musical compositions1 but in the comparative frequency of the different keys in different authors2 is so great1 that a more extensive examination was thought to be of little practical importance4 7,to be continued47 ,,art4 ,,ii4 ,review of an elementary ,treatise on ,mineralogy and ,geology1 being an introduction to the study of these sciences1 and designed for the use of pupils2 for persons attending lectures on these subjects2 and as a companion for travellers in the ,united ,states of ,america--,illustrated by six plates4 ,by ,,parker ,,cleaveland1 ,professor of ,mathematics and ,natural ,philosophy1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,mineralogy in ,bowdoin ,college1 ,member of the ,american ,academy1 and ,corresponding ,member of the ,linnan ,society of ,new ,england4 ----itum est in viscera terr3 ,quasque recondiderat1 ,stygiisque admoverat umbris1 ,effodiuntur opes---- ,,ovid4 ,boston1 published by ,cummings and ,hilliard1 ,no4 #a1 ,cornhill4 ,printed by ,hilliard ,metcalf1 at the ,university ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,new ,england4 #ahaf4 ,this work has been for some time before the public1 and it has been more or less the subject of remark in our various journals4 ,it is1 however1 so appropriate to the leading objects of this ,journal1 that we cannot consider ourselves as performing labours of supererogation while we consider the necessity1 plan1 and execution of the treatise of ,professor ,cleaveland4 ,an extensive cultivation of the physical sciences is peculiar to an advanced state of society1 and evinces1 in the country where they flourish1 a highly improved state of the arts1 and a great degree of intelligence in the community4 ,to this state of things we are now fast approximating4 ,the ardent curiosity regarding these subjects1 already enkindled in the public mind1 the very respectable attainments in science which we have already made1 and our rapidly augmenting means of information in books1 instruments1 collections1 and teachers1 afford ground for the happiest anticipations4 ,those sciences which require no means for their investigation beyond books1 teachers1 and study--those which demand no physical demonstrations1 no instruments of research1 no material specimens3 we mean those sciences which relate only to the intellectual and moral character of man1 were early fostered1 and1 in a good degree1 matured in this country4 ,hence1 in theology1 in ethics1 in jurisprudence1 and in civil policy1 our advances were much earlier1 and more worthy of respect1 than in the sciences relating to material things4 ,in some of these1 it is true1 we have made very considerable advances1 especially in natural philosophy and the mathematics1 and their applications to the arts2 and this has been true1 in some good degree1 for very nearly a century4 ,natural history has been the most tardy in its growth1 and no branch of it was1 till within a few years1 involved in such darkness as mineralogy4 ,notwithstanding the laudable efforts of a few gentlemen to excite some taste for these subjects1 so little had been effected in forming collections1 in kindling curiosity1 and diffusing information1 that only fifteen years since1 it was a matter of extreme difficulty to obtain1 among ourselves1 even the names of the most common stones and minerals2 and one might inquire earnestly1 and long1 before he could find any one to identify even quartz1 feldspar1 or hornblende1 among the simple minerals2 or granite1 porphyry1 or trap1 among the rocks4 ,we speak from experience1 and well remember with what impatient1 but almost despairing curiosity1 we eyed the bleak1 naked ridges1 which impended over the valleys and plains that were the scenes of our youthful excursions4 ,in vain did we doubt whether the glittering spangles of mica1 and the still more alluring brilliancy of pyrites1 gave assurance of the existence of the precious metals in those substances2 or whether the cutting of glass by the garnet1 and by quartz1 proved that these minerals were the diamond2 but if they were not precious metals1 and if they were not diamonds1 we in vain inquired of our companions1 and even of our teachers1 what they were4 ,we do not forget that ,dr4 ,adam ,seybert1 in ,philadelphia2 ,dr4 ,samuel ,l4 ,mitchill1 in ,new-,york2 and ,dr4 ,benjamin ,waterhouse1 in ,harvard ,university1 began at an earlier period to enlighten the public on this subject2 they began to form collections2 ,harvard received a select cabinet from ,france and ,england2 and ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,philadelphia1 7although1 returning from ,europe fraught with scientific acquisitions1 he perished tragically near his native shores17 left his collection to enrich the ,museum of the ,american ,philosophical ,society4 ,still1 however1 although individuals were enlightened1 no serious impression was produced on the public mind2 a few lights were indeed held out1 but they were lights twinkling in an almost impervious gloom4 ,the return of the late ,benjamin ,d4 ,perkins1 and of the late ,dr4 ,a4 ,bruce1 from ,europe1 in #ahjb and #c1 with their collections1 then the most complete and beautiful that this country had ever seen2 the return of ,colonel ,gibbs1 in #ahje1 with his extensive and magnificent cabinet2 his consequent excursions and researches into our mineralogy2 the commencement1 about this time1 of courses of lectures on mineralogy1 in several of our colleges1 and of collections by them and by many individuals2 the return of ,mr4 ,maclure1 in #ahjg2 his ,herculean labour in surveying the ,united ,states geologically1 by personal examination2 and the institution of the ,american ,journal of ,mineralogy1 by ,dr4 ,bruce1 in #ahaj2--these are among the most prominent events1 which1 in the course of a few years1 have totally changed the face of this science in the ,united ,states4 ,during the last ten years1 it has been cultivated with great ardour1 and with great success3 many interesting discoveries in ,american mineralogy have been made2 and this science1 with its sister science1 ,geology1 is fast arresting the public attention4 ,in such a state of things1 books relating to mineralogy would of course be eagerly sought for4 ,no work1 anterior to ,kirwan1 could be consulted by the student with much advantage1 on account of the wonderful progress1 which1 within forty or fifty years1 has been made in mineralogy4 ,even ,kirwan1 who performed a most important service to the science1 was become1 in some considerable degree1 imperfect and obsolete2 the ,german treatises1 the fruitful fountains from which the science had flowed over ,europe1 were not translated2 neither were those of the ,french2 and this was the more to be regretted1 because they had mellowed down the harshness and enriched the sterility of the ,german method of description1 besides adding many interesting discoveries of their own4 ,it is true we possessed the truly valuable treatise of ,professor ,jameson1 the most complete in our language4 ,but the expense of the work made it unattainable by most of our students1 and the undeviating strictness with which the highly respectable author has adhered to the ,german mode of description1 gave it an aspect somewhat repulsive to the minds of novices1 who consulted no other book4 ,we are1 however1 well aware of the value of this work1 especially in the improved edition4 ,it must1 without doubt1 be in the hands of every one who would be master of the science2 but it is much better adapted to the purposes of proficients than of beginners4 ,the mineralogical articles dispersed through ,aikin's ,dictionary are exceedingly valuable2 but1 from the high price of the work1 they are inaccessible to most persons4 ,the most recent of the ,french systems1 that by ,brongniart1 seemed to combine nearly all the requisites that could be desired in an elementary treatise2 and a translation of it would probably1 ere this1 have been given to the ,american public1 had we not been led to expect the work of ,professor ,cleaveland1 which1 it was anticipated1 would at least possess one important advantage over the work of ,brongniart1 and every other2 it would exhibit1 more or less extensively1 ,american localities1 and give the leading features of our natural mineral associations4 ,thus it appears#h that the work of ,professor ,cleaveland was eminently needed2 the science1 at large1 needed it2 and to ,american mineralogists it was nearly indispensable4 ,it appeared too at a very opportune moment4 ,had it come a few years sooner1 it might not have found many readers4 ,now it is sustained by the prevailing curiosity1 and diffused state of information regarding mineralogy2 and1 in turn1 no cause could operate more effectually to cherish this curiosity1 and to diffuse this information still more widely1 than this book4 ,professor ,cleaveland is therefore entitled to our thanks for undertaking this task2 and1 in this age of book-making1 it is no small negative praise if an author be acquitted of unnecessarily adding to the already onerous mass of books4 ,with respect to the ,,plan of this work1 ,professor ,cleaveland has1 with good judgment1 availed himself of the excellencies of both the ,german and ,french schools4 ,mr4 ,werner1 of ,fribourg1 in some sense not only the founder of the modern ,german school of mineralogy1 but almost of the science itself1 is entitled to our lasting gratitude for his system of external characters1 first published in #aggd4 ,in this admirable treatise he has combined precision and copiousness1 so that exact ideas are attached to every part of the descriptive language1 and every character is meant to be defined4 ,it is intended that a full description of a mineral upon this plan shall entirely exhaust the subject1 and that although many properties may be found in common among different minerals1 still every picture shall contain peculiar features1 not to be found in any other4 ,it would certainly appear1 at first view1 that this method must be perfect1 and leave nothing farther to be desired4 ,it has1 however1 been found in practice1 that the full descriptions of the ,wernerian writers are heavy and dry2 they are redundant also1 from the frequent repetition of similar properties2 and from not giving due prominence to those which are peculiar1 and therefore distinctive1 they frequently fail to leave a distinct impression of any thing on the mind1 and thus1 in the midst of what is called by the writers of this school a full oryctognostic picture1 a student is sometimes absolutely bewildered4 ,some of the modern ,french writers1 availing themselves of ,mr4 ,werner's very able delineation of the external characters of minerals1 have selected such as are most important1 most striking1 distinctive1 and interesting2 and drawing a spirited and bold sketch1 have left the minuter parts untouched3 such a picture1 although less perfect1 often presents a stronger likeness1 and more effectually arrests the attention4 ,this is the method of description which has been1 as we think1 happily adopted1 to a great extent by ,mr4 ,cleaveland4 ,mr4 ,werner1 availing himself of the similarities in the external appearance of minerals1 has 7excepting the metals7 arranged them also upon this plan1 without regard to their constitution2 that is1 to their real nature1 or1 at least1 making this wholly subservient to the other3 this has caused him1 in some instances1 to bring together things which are totally unlike in their nature1 and1 in other instances1 to separate those which were entirely similar4 ,whatever may be said in favour of such a course1 considered as a provisional one1 while chemical analysis was in its infancy1 the mind can never rest satisfied with any arrangement which contradicts the real nature of things2 in a word1 the composition of minerals is the only correct foundation for their classification4 ,this classification has been adopted by several of the ablest modern ,french writers4 ,it is believed1 7says ,professor ,cleaveland1 ,preface1 p4 #g47 that the more valuable parts of the two systems may be incorporated1 or1 in other words1 that the peculiar descriptive language of the one may1 in a certain degree1 be united to the accurate and scientific arrangement of the other4 ,this union of descriptive language and scientific arrangement has been effected with good success1 by ,,brongniart1 in his ,system of ,mineralogy--an elementary work1 which seems better adapted both to interest and instruct1 than any which has hitherto appeared4 ,the author of this volume has1 therefore1 adopted the general plan of ,brongniart1 the more important parts of whose work are1 of course1 incorporated with this4 ,a happier model could not1 in our opinion1 be chosen2 and we conceive that ,professor ,cleaveland is perfectly consistent1 and perfectly perspicuous1 when1 adopting the chemical composition of minerals as the only proper foundation of arrangement1 and1 of course1 rejecting the principle of ,mr4 ,werner1 which arranges them upon their external properties1 he still adopts his descriptive language as far as it answers his purpose4 ,for to elect a principle of arrangement1 and to classify all the members of a system so as to give each its appropriate place1 is obviously quite a different thing from describing each member1 after its place in a system is ascertained4 ,in doing the latter1 characters may be drawn from any source which affords them4 ,in his ,introduction to the ,study of ,mineralogy1 the author has given a view at once copious1 condensed1 and perspicuous1 of all that is necessary to be learned previously to the study of particular minerals4 ,he begins with definitions and general principles1 which are laid down with clearness4 ,by way of engaging the attention to the study of this department of nature1 he remarks3 ,from a superficial view of minerals in their natural depositories1 at or near the surface of the earth1 it would hardly be expected that they could constitute the object of a distinct branch of science4 ,nothing appears farther removed from the influence of established principles and regular arrangement1 than the mineral kingdom when observed in a cursory manner4 ,but a closer inspection and more comprehensive view of the subject will convince us1 that this portion of the works of nature is by no means destitute of the impress of the ,deity4 ,indications of the same wisdom1 power1 and benevolence1 which appear in the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 are also clearly discernible in the mineral4 ,it may also be remarked1 continues the author1 that several arts and manufactures depend on mineralogy for their existence2 and that improvements and discoveries in the latter cannot fail of extending their beneficial effects to the aforementioned employments4 ,in fine1 the study of mineralogy1 whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth1 to improve and multiply arts and manufactures1 and thus promote the public good2 or as affording a pleasant subject for scientific research1 recommends itself to the attention of the citizen and scholar4 ,this introductory view of the importance and interest of the science cannot be charged with the fault of exaggeration1 since it is most evident that neither civilization1 refinement in arts1 nor comfort1 can exist where the properties of mineral substances are but imperfectly understood4 ,as regards this country1 the argument admits of much amplification4 ,the more our mineral treasures are explored1 the more abundantly do they repay the research2 and we trust that the period is not far distant1 when we shall no longer ignorantly tread under our feet minerals of great curiosity and value1 and import from other countries1 at a great expense1 what we1 in many instances1 possess abundantly at home4#i ,but to return to the plan of the author's work4 ,few persons1 unacquainted with the science of mineralogy1 would suspect that mere brute matter could exhibit many strong marks1 capable of discrimination4 ,it may1 however1 be confidently affirmed1 that there is no mineral which1 if carefully studied1 may not be distinguished by characters sufficiently decisive from every other mineral2 an account of these characters ought1 therefore1 to precede every system of mineralogy4 ,professor ,cleaveland has1 with entire propriety1 included them under the heads of crystallography1 physical and external characters1 and chemical characters4 ,he has given a clear view of the ,abb ,hay's curious discoveries regarding the six primitive figures or solids which form the bases of all crystals--the three integrant particles or molecules which constitute the primitive forms1 and of the theory by which it is shown how the immensely numerous and diversified secondary or actual forms arise out of these few elementary figures4 ,this is certainly one of the most singular and acute discoveries of our age4 ,it is true1 there is a difference of opinion among mineralogists as to the practical use of crystallography in the discrimination of minerals4 ,some dwell upon it with excessive minuteness1 and others seem restless and impatient of its details4 ,the truth seems to be1 that those who understand it1 derive from it 7wherever it is applicable7 the most satisfactory aid2 and it requires only a moderate knowledge of geometry to understand its principal outlines4 ,on the other hand1 it is no doubt possible1 in most instances1 to dispense with its aid1 and to discriminate minerals by their other properties4 ,of the external and physical characters of ,mr4 ,werner1 ,mr4 ,cleaveland has given a clear account1 combining into the same view the fine discriminations of the ,french authors1 particularly regarding refraction1 phosphorescence1 specific gravity1 electricity1 chatoyement1 and magnetism4 ,the same may be said of the chemical characters4 ,we do not know a more satisfactory and able view of the characters of minerals than ,professor ,cleaveland has exhibited4 ,we would however ask1 whether1 in enumerating the kinds of lustre1 the term adamantine should not be explained1 as it is not understood by people in general1 while the terms denoting the other kinds are generally intelligible2 whether in the enumeration of imitative forms1 lenticular and acicular should not rather be referred to the laws of crystallization2 whether reniform and mamillary are synonymous2 whether sandstone1 as being a mere aggregate of fragments1 is a good instance of the granular fracture2 whether in its natural state 7at least the common ore of nickel7 is ever magnetic1 till purified1 and whether cobalt is ever magnetic unless impure4 ,professor ,cleaveland's remarks on fracture are uncommonly discriminating and instructive1 and would lead a learner to a just comprehension of this important point in the characters of minerals4 ,the section relating to the chemical characters is concise1 and professedly proceeds upon the principle of selection4 ,it might perhaps have been1 to some extent1 advantageously enlarged2 although1 it is true1 the author refers us to the particular minerals for individual instances2 still it might have been well to have illustrated the general principles by a few well-chosen instances1 e4 g4 how1 by the blowpipe1 galena is distinguished from sulphuret of antimony2 carbonat of lead from sulphat of barytes1 or carbonat of lime2 garnet from titanium2 plaster of ,paris from soapstone1 c42 and1 among trials in the moist way1 how by nitric acid and ammonia1 iron pyrites is distinguished from copper pyrites2 and how1 by acids1 sulphat of lime is known from carbonat of lime4 ,as the acids are used principally for trials on the effervescence of carbonats1 most of which form with sulphuric acid1 insoluble compounds1 we should doubt whether sulphuric acid is so advantageously employed as the nitric or muriatic1 in such cases1 on account of the clogging of the effervescence by the thick magena1 produced by a recently precipitated and insoluble sulphat4 ,according to our experience1 the nitric or muriatic acid1 diluted with two or three parts of water1 is most eligible4 ,with respect to the blowpipe3 it is a convenience to have a mouth-piece of wood1 or ivory1 joined to a tube of metal1 as ,mr4 ,cleaveland recommends2 and some authors direct to have the tube attached to a hollow ball1 for the sake of condensing the moisture of the breath2 but every thing which adds to the expense and complication of the instrument will tend to discourage its use2 we have never found any difficulty in performing every important experiment with the common goldsmith's brass blowpipe2 and are confident1 that1 after the learner has acquired the art1 or knack1 of propelling a continued stream of air from his mouth1 by means of the muscles of the lips and cheeks1 while his respiration proceeds without embarrassment through the nostrils1 he will need no other instrument than the common blowpipe4 ,indeed it is a truly admirable instrument1 instantly giving us the effect of very powerful furnaces1 the heat being entirely under command1 the subject of operation and all the changes in full view1 and the expense and bulk of the instrument being such that every one may possess it1 and carry it about his person4 ,the chapter on the principles of arrangement is worthy of all praise4 ,this difficult subject is here discussed with such clearness1 comprehensiveness1 and candour1 as prove the author to be completely master of his subject2 and we are persuaded1 that1 on this topic1 no author can be studied with more advantage4 ,we forbear to extract1 because the whole should be attentively perused in connexion1 and scarcely admits of abridgement4 ,we entirely agree with ,professor ,cleaveland1 as we have already said1 that the chemical composition of minerals is the only just foundation of their arrangement2 that next in importance is the crystalline structure1 including a knowledge of the primitive form1 and integrant molecule2 and last and least important1 in fixing the arrangement1 are the external characters3 these last should be only provisionally employed1 where the two first are not ascertained1 or the second is not applicable4 ,when the arrangement is once made1 we may1 however1 and we commonly shall1 in describing minerals1 pursue precisely the reverse order2 the external characters will usually be mentioned first1 the crystalline characters next1 and the chemical last of all4 ,in description1 the external characters are often the most valuable2 if judiciously selected and arranged1 they will always prove of the most essential service1 and can rarely be entirely dispensed with4 ,with regard to the ,,nomenclature of minerals1 we feelingly unite with ,professor ,cleaveland in deploring the oppressive redundancy of synonymes4 ,few minerals have only one name1 and usually they have several4 ,with ,count ,bournon we agree1 that the discoverer of a mineral has the exclusive right of naming it1 and that the name once given should not be changed without the most cogent reasons4 ,what then shall we say of the ,,abb ,,ha,y1 of whom1 whether we speak of his genius1 his learning1 his acuteness1 his discoveries1 his candour1 and love of truth1 or his universally amiable and venerable character1 we can never think without sentiments of the highest respect and admiration8 ,more than any modern writer he has added to the list of synonymes1 often exchanging a very good name1 derived perhaps from the locality or discoverer of a mineral1 for one professedly significant1 but connected with its subject by a chain of thought so slight1 that considerable knowledge of ,greek etymology1 and still more explanation1 is necessary to comprehend the connexion2 and thus1 after all1 it amounts1 with respect to most readers1 only to the exchange of one arbitrary name for another4 ,what advantage1 for instance1 has grammatite1 alluding to a line often obscure1 and still oftener wholly invisible1 over the good old name tremolite1 which always reminds us of an interesting locality2 how is pyroxene better than augite1 amphibole than hornblende1 amphigene than leucite1 or disthene than sappar4 ,some of the ,abb ,hay's names are1 however1 very happily chosen1 especially where new discriminations were to be established1 or errors corrected1 or even a redundant crop of synonymes to be superseded by a better name4 ,epidote is an instance of the latter1 and the new divisions of the old zeolite family into four species1 mesotype1 stilbite1 analcime1 and chabasie1 afford a happy instance of the former4 ,it were much to be wished1 that by the common consent of mineralogists1 one nomenclature should be universally adopted3 for its uniformity is of much more importance than its nature4 ,in expressing our approbation of the principles of arrangement adopted by ,professor ,cleaveland1 we have of course espoused those of his ,,tabular ,,view1 which is perhaps as nearly as the state of science will admit1 erected upon a chemical basis1 like that of ,brongniart1 to which it bears a close resemblance4 ,some of the subordinate parts1 we could have wished had been arranged in a manner somewhat different4 ,in the genus lime1 it appears to us better to describe the species carbonat first2 because1 being very abundant1 and its characters clear1 it forms a convenient point of departure and standard of comparison1 in describing the other species which have lime for their basis1 and some of which are comparatively rare4 ,the same remark we would make upon quartz1 and its concomitant1 pure silicious stones4 ,there appears to us a high advantage in making these minerals clearly known first1 before we proceed to those which are much more rare1 and especially which are much harder1 and possess the characters of gems4 ,for example1 if a learner has become acquainted with quartz1 chalcedony1 flint1 opal1 chrysoprase1 and jasper1 he will much more easily comprehend the superior hardness1 c4 and different composition of topaz1 sapphire1 spinelleruby1 chrysoberyl1 and zircon1 which we should much prefer to see occupying a later1 than the first place in a tabular arrangement2 and1 although topaz1 by containing fluoric acid1 appears to be in some measure assimilated to saline minerals1 it is in its characters so very diverse from the earthy salts1 that we have fair reason to conclude that the fluoric acid does not stamp the character2 and1 as it bears so close a resemblance to the ruby and sapphire1 which evidently derive their principal characters from the argillaceous earth1 we perhaps ought to infer that this 7the topaz17 does so too4 ,indeed ,professor ,cleaveland has sufficiently implied his own opinion1 by giving these minerals a juxtaposition in his table1 although the same reasons which induced the placing of the topaz next to the earthy salts1 could not have justified the placing of the sapphire there4 ,on these points we are not1 however1 strenuous2 they are of more importance if the work be used as a text-book for lectures1 than as a private companion4 ,with respect to the completeness of ,professor ,cleaveland's tabular view1 we have carefully compared it with the third edition of ,jameson's mineralogy2 and although a few new species1 or sub-species1 and varieties have been added in this last edition1 they are in general of so little importance1 that ,professor ,cleaveland's work cannot be considered as materially deficient2 and the few cases in which it is so1 are much more than made up by his entirely new and instructive views of ,american mineralogy1 to which no parallel is to be found in any other book1 and which give it peculiar interest to the ,american1 and even to the ,european1 reader4 ,in another edition1 7which we cannot doubt will speedily be called for17 he will of course add whatever is omitted in this1 and we should be gratified to see a good article on the subject of the rolites or stones which have fallen from the atmosphere4 ,this subject is one1 in our view1 of high interest2 and although in strictness it may not claim a place in a tabular view of minerals1 7we must confess1 however1 that we see no important obstacle to its being treated of under the head of native iron17 there can be no objection to its being placed in an appendix4 ,the fall of stones from the atmosphere is the most curious and mysterious fact in natural history4 ,it may seem perhaps too trivial to remark1 that the annexation of numbers1 referring to the pages1 would be a serious addition to the utility of the tabular view4 ,very few inadvertencies have been observed--the following may be mentioned3 ,amenia1 in the ,state of ,new-,york1 is printed 7by a typographical error we presume7 ,armenia2 and ,menechan1 where the menechanite is found1 is mentioned as occurring in ,scotland1 but it is in ,cornwall4 ,authors seem agreed that the black-lead ore is an altered carbonat1 but they seem not to have been so well agreed as to the nature of the blue-lead ore4 ,in the cabinet of ,colonel ,gibbs1 there are specimens which appear satisfactorily to illustrate both these subjects4 ,the black-lead is by the blowpipe alone reducible to metallic lead2 there is one specimen in the cabinet referred to1 which is blackened on what appears to have been the under side1 and seemingly by the contact of sulphuretted hydrogen gas2 that which was probably the upper part remains unaltered1 and is beautiful white carbonat of lead2 this appearance is the more striking1 because the piece is large and full of interstices1 by which the gas appears to have passed through4 ,the blue ore is in large six-sided prisms of a dark blue or almost black colour2 where the prisms are broken across1 they present an unequal appearance2 sometimes they are invested2 and sometimes slightly1 and at other times deeply1 penetrated by sulphuret of lead1 having the usual brilliant foliated fracture4 ,the part which looks like sulphuret of lead is easily reducible by the blowpipe1 but not the whole crystal1 as authors appear to imply2 for if that part of the crystal which does not present the appearance of galena is heated by the blowpipe flame1 it is not reduced1 but congeals into the garnet dodecahedron1 with its colour unaltered3 these crystals are therefore phosphat of lead1 and they appear to be either an original mixture of phosphat and sulphuret of lead1 or the phosphat has somehow in part given up its phosphoric acid1 and assumed in its stead sulphur1 perhaps from the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,professor ,cleaveland will1 of course1 add new localities1 even foreign ones1 where they are interesting1 and domestic ones1 where they are well authenticated4 ,among the former1 we trust he will mention the lake of sulphuric acid contained in the crater of ,mount ,idienne1 in the ,province of ,bagnia ,vangni1 in the eastern part of ,java1 and also the river of sulphuric acid which flows from it and kills animals1 scorches vegetation1 and corrodes the stones4#aj ,among ,american localities1 we beg leave to mention violet fluor spar1 abundant and very handsome1 near ,shawnee ,town1 on the ,ohio1 in the ,illinois ,territory1 and galena1 of which this fluor is the gangue2--sulphat of magnesia1 perfectly crystallized1 in masses composed of delicate white prisms1 in a cave in the ,indiana ,territory1 not very remote from ,louisville1 in ,kentucky2 it is said to be so abundant that the inhabitants carry it away by the wagon load2--pulverulent carbonat of magnesia1 apparently pure1 found by ,mr4 ,pierce at ,hoboken1 in serpentine1 where the hydrate of magnesia was found2--chabasie1 agates1 chalcedony1 amethyst1 and analcime1 at ,deerfield1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,hitchcock2--agates in abundance at ,east-,haven1 near ,new-,haven1 in secondary greenstone1 like the above-named minerals at ,deerfield2--saline springs1 covered with petroleum1 and emitting large volumes of inflammable gases1 numerous in ,new-,connecticut1 south of ,lake ,erie2--magnetical pyrites1 abundant in the bismuth vein1 at ,trumbull1 ,connecticut3--very brilliant fine-grained micaceous iron1 in large masses near ,bellows' ,falls2 yellow foliated blende1 in ,berlin1 ,connecticut1 and near ,hamilton ,college--the latter discovered by ,professor ,noyes2 it is in veins in compact limestone2--red oxid of titanium1 often geniculated1 at ,leyden1 in ,massachusetts1 discovered by ,mr4 ,e4 ,hitchcock2--red oxid of titanium1 in very large crystals and geniculated1 imbedded in micaceous schistus1 at ,oxford1 #bj miles north from ,new-,haven2--silicious petrifactions of wood1 abundant in the island of ,antigua1 recently brought by ,mr4 ,pelatiah ,perit1 of ,new-,york2--sulphuret of molybdena1 at ,pettipaug1 and at ,east-,haddam1 ,connecticut2--prehnite abundant and beautiful1 in secondary greenstone1 at ,woodbury1 #bd miles north of ,new-,haven1 discovered by ,mr4 ,elijah ,baldwin2--black oxid of manganese1 in great abundance1 and of an excellent quality1 near ,bennington1 ,vermont1 and plumose mica1 in a very fine graphic granite1 in a hill two miles north of ,watertown1 ,connecticut4 ,the introduction to the ,,study ,,of ,,geology1 deserves a more extended series of remarks than it would now be proper to make1 after so full a consideration of the previous parts of the work4 ,professor ,jameson's elaborate exposition of the ,wernerian system1 is too full1 and too much devoted to a particular system1 for beginners3 the sketches of geology contained in the systems of ,chemistry by ,murray and ,thomson1 and in ,phillips's mineralogy1 are too limited1 although useful3 the excellent account of the ,wernerian system1 contained in an ,appendix to ,brochant's ,mineralogy1 has1 we believe1 never been translated2 and we need not say that ,professor ,playfair's illustrations of the ,huttonian ,theory1 ,de ,luc's ,geology1 and ,cuvier's ,geology1 are not well adapted to the purposes of a beginner2 neither is ,delametherie's1 nor has it been translated4 ,an introduction to geology was1 therefore1 hardly less needed than one to mineralogy4 ,professor ,cleaveland has performed this difficult duty with great ability1 and has brought this interesting branch of science fairly within the reach of our students4 ,although adhering substantially to the ,wernerian arrangement of rocks1 he has1 so to speak1 blended ,werner's three classes of primitive1 transition1 and secondary rocks1 into one class2 and where the same rock occurs in all the three classes1 or in two of them1 he mentions it in giving the history of the particular rock4 ,this method simplifies the subject very much to the apprehensions of a learner4 ,a rigid ,wernerian would probably revolt at it1 but the distinctions of ,mr4 ,werner may still be pointed out1 and1 we should think1 ought to be1 at least by all teachers4 ,in ,mr4 ,cleaveland's account of the trap rocks1 we should almost imagine that some typographical error had crept into the following paragraph3 ,but in modern geological inquiries1 the word trap is usually employed to designate a simple mineral1 composed of hornblende nearly or quite pure1 and also those aggregates in which hornblende predominates4 ,hence1 the presence of hornblende1 as a predominating ingredient1 characterizes those ,,minerals to which most geologists apply the name trap4 ,now1 it is not accordant with our apprehensions that trap is ever at the present time employed to designate a simple mineral1 nor has ,professor ,cleaveland himself used it in his tabular view1 or in his description of simple minerals4 ,in our view1 it is the classical word of modern geology1 to designate that description of rocks in which hornblende predominates1 and perhaps a few others of minor importance usually associated with them4 ,it is true1 a rock composed of pure hornblende may be called trap1 but it is not true1 vice versa1 that this rock1 considered in its character of a simple mineral1 is called trap4 ,if our views are correct1 the section which is headed trap or hornblende1 should be trap or hornblende rocks1 and greenstone should come in as a subdivision1 and not form a distinct section4 ,with these alterations1 and with the substitution of rock in the first1 and rocks in the second instance1 in the paragraph above quoted1 instead of mineral and minerals1 we apprehend the view of this family of rocks would be much more clear1 and a degree of confusion1 which learners now experience from the paragraph1 would be prevented4 ,if we are wrong1 we are sure ,professor ,cleaveland will pardon us2 if right1 his candour will readily admit the correction4 ,as to the manner in which the work of ,professor ,cleaveland is executed1 the remarks which we already made1 have in a good degree anticipated this head4 ,we cannot1 however1 dismiss the subject without adding that1 in our opinion1 this work does honour to our country1 and will greatly promote the knowledge of mineralogy and geology1 besides aiding in the great work of disseminating a taste for science generally4 ,our views of the plan we have already detailed4 ,the manner of execution is masterly4 ,discrimination1 perspicuity1 judicious selection of characters and facts1 and a style chaste1 manly1 and comprehensive1 are among the characteristics of ,professor ,cleaveland's performance4 ,it has brought within the reach of the ,american student the excellencies of ,kirwan1 ,jameson1 ,hay1 ,brochant1 ,brongniart1 and ,werner2 and we are not ashamed to have this work compared with their productions4 ,in our opinion ,professor ,cleaveland's work ought to be introduced into all our schools of mineralogy1 and to be the travelling companion of every ,american mineralogist4 ,we trust that all cultivators of mineralogy and geology in this country1 will willingly aid ,professor ,cleaveland in enlarging his list of ,american localities for a second edition2 and we hope that he will repay them1 at a future day1 by giving us a distinct treatise on geology1 with as particular a delineation as possible of the geological relations of the great ,north ,american formations4 ,mr4 ,maclure has1 with great ability1 sketched the outline2 but much labour is still needed in filling up the detail4 ,,art4 ,,iii4 ,new ,locality of ,fluor ,spar1 or ,fluat of ,lime and of ,galena1 or ,sulphuret of ,lead4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,baldwin1 formerly of ,connecticut1 now residing near ,shawnee ,town1 in the ,illinois ,territory1 has given us some interesting specimens of fluor spar4 ,they are found not far from ,shawnee ,town1 on the banks of the ,ohio2 and a few miles below where the ,wabash joins the ,ohio4 ,the fluor forms the gangue of a lead vein1 and we have pieces in which the lead and fluor are intimately blended4 ,the lead ore is the common galena1 or sulphuret1 with a broad1 foliated1 or laminated fracture1 and a high degree of metallic splendour4 ,we reduced it to the metallic state1 and it yielded a large product of very soft lead4 ,on dissolving it in nitric acid1 and applying the muriatic acid till precipitation ceased1 the precipitate formed was all redissolved by boiling water2 nor1 when submitted to cupellation did the lead leave any thing upon the cupel4 ,we1 therefore1 conclude that it contained no appreciable quantity of silver4 ,it is said to be very abundant at ,shawnee ,town4 ,the fluor spar is very beautiful4 ,its colours1 chiefly1 very deep purple and violet2 but still highly translucent2 one specimen was entirely limpid4 ,both kinds1 when thrown in coarse powder1 on a red-hot shovel1 in a dark place1 phosphoresced1 and the violet specimens in a very striking manner4 ,of the violet kind1 we have a specimen nearly as large as a man's fist1 which is perfectly pure and sound1 and appears to have been a single crystal2 the natural faces and angles were unfortunately obliterated by grinding on a common grindstone4 ,we have others which are decidedly crystals of perfect regularity2 cubes1 and passages between the cube and octahedron4 ,in some of the specimens1 the disposition of colours1 and the transmission of light is such as to show very clearly that the octahedron lies in the centre1 as the nucleus or primitive form4 ,the size and beauty of the specimens1 and the abundance of this mineral near ,shawnee ,town1 7provided there is no mistake in the case7 clearly entitle this to be considered as the most interesting ,american locality of this beautiful mineral4 ,measures have been taken to investigate the subject more fully1 and to obtain a supply of specimens4 ,quartz crystals appear to abound at the same place1 besides various other minerals4 ,,art4 ,,iv4 ,carbonate of ,magnesia1 and very uncommon ,amianthus1 discovered near ,new-,york4--,extract of a ,letter from ,mr4 ,james ,pierce to the ,editor4 ,new-,york1 ,may #ah1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i forward you specimens of straw and rose-coloured amianthus ,i recently met with on ,staten-,island1 which ,i detached1 in strips1 from a rock2 it not appearing1 as is usual1 in veins4 ,it breaks up like flax1 and may be spun and wove without the aid of moisture2 and in respect to tenacity1 flexibility1 and length of fibre1 it may be considered the best found in this country1 and perhaps equal to any hitherto discovered4 ,staten-,island exhibits many minerals worthy of examination4 ,i subjoin1 as requested1 the following geological description1 c4 ,hoboken1 where ,i discovered native carbonate of magnesia1 is situated opposite the city of ,new-,york1 on the western or ,new-,jersey bank of the ,hudson4 ,it is a primitive1 insulated elevation1 with a nucleus of serpentine2 the ground gradually descends in every direction except on the river side1 where mural precipices of serpentine rock are observed1 extending about #ajj rods parallel with the water1 and elevated from #fj to #ajj feet above its level4 ,the carbonate of magnesia ,i found in horizontal veins of nearly two inches in breadth1 and of unknown depth1 in a midway region of this serpentine ledge2 ,i extracted a considerable quantity with a spoon4 ,when first taken out it was soft1 white1 and very slightly adhesive1 from a little moisture2 but1 when dry1 fell to powder without friction4 ,the nature of the mineral ,i immediately conjectured1 and treated it with diluted sulphuric acid1 in which it entirely dissolved with effervescence1 forming a bitter fluid1 and leaving no sediment4 ,upon evaporation1 well-defined crystals of ,epsom salts were formed4 ,it differs little from the manufactured carbonate of magnesia of the shops2 but is rather a super than a sub-carbonate4 ,it has been analyzed by ,professor ,mitchill1 who found it exclusively composed of magnesia and carbonic acid4 ,carbonates of magnesia1 hitherto discovered1 have been1 ,i believe1 found impure1 and in a state of rock1 requiring chemical process to render them serviceable2 this is1 perhaps1 fit for immediate use4 ,when ,i first mentioned the discovery to mineralogists1 they were incredulous1 supposing it did not natively exist in this state1 but ,i convinced them by uniting it with sulphuric acid4 ,,remarks4 ,the specimen of amianthus1 referred to in ,mr4 ,pierce's communication1 is uncommon4 ,the fibres measure from #ab to #ae inches in length1 and are as soft and flexible as fine human hair4 ,it will be remembered1 that in the rocks at ,hoboken1 ,dr4 ,bruce discovered the hydrate of magnesia1 or magnesia combined with nothing but water1 in the proportion of about #gj per cent4 of magnesia4 ,this discovery gave a new and interesting species to mineralogy2 it is now admitted in the systematical works on mineralogy4 ,mr4 ,pierce's discovery is not less interesting2 and we presume he will be deemed correct in the opinion1 that pure native carbonate of magnesia has not been discovered before4 ,the serpentine of ,hoboken1 then1 is memorable for affording these two new species4 ,,art4 ,v4 ,native ,copper4 ,in ,bruce's ,journal1 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #adi47 mention is made of a remarkable piece of native copper1 found near ,new-,haven many years ago1 and weighing about #ijlbs4 ,we have now to add1 7and the fact is1 indeed1 mentioned in ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy17 that another piece has been recently found half a mile west of the ,hartford turnpike road1 opposite the town of ,wallingford1 and twelve miles from ,new-,haven4 ,it was turned up in ploughing to repair a road4 ,the country is of the secondary trap formation1 and the rocks1 at the particular place1 are the old red sandstone of ,werner1 which here occupies the plains1 and runs under the trap4 ,the piece weighs almost six pounds2 it is fine virgin copper1 with rudiments of large octahedral crystals of native copper upon its surface1 which is more or less incrusted with green carbonate of copper and ruby oxid1 very much resembling that of ,cornwall3 the ruby oxid is particularly remarkable in the cavities of the piece4 ,as it was found within three or four miles of the place where the large piece of ninety pounds weight was discovered1 and as copper is known to exist in many places in these hills1 the facts should be kept in view1 and may lead to something of importance4 ,,art4 ,,vi4 ,petrified ,wood from ,antigua4 ,the mineralogy and geology of the ,west-,india islands has been1 as yet1 but little explored4 ,the scientific world has1 however1 been favoured with some interesting articles from the pen of ,dr4 ,nugent2 and we are informed that he has described also the geology of the island of ,antigua4 ,we have recently become acquainted with one interesting production of this island1 and without waiting for ,dr4 ,nugent's account1 7which we believe has not yet reached this country7 we shall lay it before our readers4 ,we are under obligations to ,mr4 ,pelatiah ,perit1 of ,new-,york1 for a collection of specimens of silicious petrifactions of wood from ,antigua4 ,their characters are indubitable2 the distinct ligneous layers corresponding with the annual growth1 the medullary prolongations1 the knots formed by branches1 the cracks and the bark1 are all distinctly visible4 ,some of the pieces are ponderous portions of large trees4 ,as to the mineralizing matter1 it is evidently silicious1 and the specimens are principally the holzstein of ,werner2 crystals of quartz are apparent in the cavities2 some parts are agatized1 and veins of chalcedony occasionally pervade the fissures3 they are not impressible by steel1 and give fire with it4 ,according to the information of ,mr4 ,perit1 they are scattered over the surface of the ,island of ,antigua1 with a profusion hardly less than that which ,horneman observed of the same mineral during his travels over the eastern part of the great ,african desert4 ,it is much to be wished that our numerous intelligent navigators and travelling merchants would1 in imitation of this and of a similar example1 mentioned below1 bestow some share of their attention on the natural productions of the countries which they visit4 ,in this way they might1 on their return1 render very essential services to the science of their own country4 ,,art4 ,,vii4 ,porcelain and ,porcelain ,clays4 ,through the kind offices of a friend1 we have been furnished1 from one of the great porcelain manufactories in the vicinity of ,paris1 with a series of specimens1 to illustrate the elegant art of fabricating porcelain4 ,the specimens begin with the raw materials1 and exhibit them in all their principal stages of advancement up to the perfect vessel1 including the materials for the glazing1 and the colours for the painting1 and the application of both4 ,at the request of the manufacturer1 through whose liberality we were indulged with this gratification1 we transmitted to ,paris various specimens of ,american porcelain clays4 ,this gentleman has caused them to be subjected to trials in the porcelain furnaces1 and he finds that some of them are equal to the ,french porcelain clays1 and some superior4 ,as our specimens were all labelled with the names of the places1 in this country1 from which they were obtained1 we hope soon to learn where to look for porcelain clays1 equal or superior to those celebrated ones from which the superb ,french porcelain is manufactured4 ,as this subject is one of much practical importance to the rising arts of this country1 and as much interest has been excited in ,paris concerning our porcelain clays1 we should feel greatly obliged by the transmission to us of any specimens of ,american porcelain clays1 with memoranda of the place1 the quantity1 the depth at which obtained1 the difficulty of obtaining1 and1 generally1 all the peculiar circumstances4 ,we will take care that their value shall be ascertained1 if they appear promising1 and a proper return shall be made to the proprietor4 ,to those of our readers who may not be familiar with this subject1 we would however take the liberty to remark1 that porcelain clays generally arise from the decomposition of granite1 and particularly of that kind which is denominated graphic granite1 and which abounds with feldspar4 ,it is1 therefore1 in the primitive countries that we are chiefly to expect them--such as ,new-,england1 and part of the high country of the middle and southern states4 ,it should be observed1 that if a clay1 otherwise apparently good1 burns red1 it contains iron1 and is unfit for porcelain2 although it may serve well enough for more common and coarse earthen ware4 ,,art4 ,,viii4 ,native ,sulphur from ,java4 ,through the kindness of ,mr4 ,i4 ,huntington1 recently returned from ,java1 we have received from that ,island some fine specimens of native sulphur4 ,they are very pure1 of an orange yellow1 slightly shaded with white1 and occasionally with red2 some of the cavities are lined with delicate crystals4 ,what gives them particular interest is1 that they are believed to be from that large1 and now nearly extinct1 volcano1 about sixty miles from the town of ,batavia1 at the bottom of which 7of the crater7 lie large quantities of native sulphur1 even many hundred tons4 ,it is in the crater of this volcano that the famous lake of sulphuric acid exists1 and from which it flows down the mountain1 and through the country below1 a river of the same acid4 7,see ,tilloch's ,phil4 ,mag4 ,vol4 ,,xlii4 p4 #ahb47 ,it is a most curious phenomenon1 and we believe entirely without a parallel4 ,another river1 called the ,white ,river1 unites with this some miles below its origin3 this river1 which is so called from the turbidness of its waters1 its salutary to men and animals2 fishes live in it1 and vegetation is nourished by its waters2 but after the junction it becomes clear2 the acid dissolving the earthy particles which discoloured it1 and it now becomes fatal to living beings3 kills the fish1 destroys the vegetation1 and corrodes the stones in its channel4 ,this remarkable river flows from ,mount ,idienne1 in the province of ,bagnia ,vangni1 in the eastern part of ,java4 ,,art4 ,,ix4 ,productions of ,wier's ,cave1 in ,virginia4 ,we are indebted to the ,reverend ,elias ,cornelius1 and to ,mr4 ,john ,h4 ,kain1 for a collection of the calcareous incrustations of ,wier's ,cave1 in ,virginia4 ,the stalactites1 and stalagmites1 and various incrustations1 are of uncommon size and beauty4 ,some of the stalactites have a delicate whiteness1 and a brilliancy arising from their crystallized structure1 which1 with the regularity of their forms1 give them a fair title to rank with those of the famous caverns in the ,peak of ,derbyshire1 in the island of ,antiparos1 c4 ,in these stalactites1 the structure is most remarkably distinct1 both in the fibrous and concentric lamellar form4 ,in this collection were observed many forms of the crystallized hard carbonates of lime1 of ,count ,bournon4 ,for a description of the cavern from which these specimens came1 we refer to the succeeding memoir1 by ,mr4 ,kain4 ,,art4 ,x4 ,remarks on the ,mineralogy and ,geology of the ,northwestern part of the ,state of ,virginia1 and the ,eastern part of the ,state of ,tennessee4 ,by ,mr4 ,,john ,h4 ,,kain1 of ,tennessee4 ,the most prominent as well as the most beautiful feature of this country1 is that succession of mountain and valley1 ridge and vale1 which we meet with in traversing its surface4 ,the grand range of ,alleghany mountains enters ,virginia about the #cith degree of north latitude2 and1 pursuing a southwestern course1 spreads out upon the east end of ,tennessee1 and terminates near the southern boundary line of that state1 in the ,alabama territory2 and about the #cdth parallel of north latitude4 ,in this view are included the ,blue ,mountains1 the ,north ,mountains1 the ,allegheny1 7properly so called7 the ,cumberland1 ,clinch1 ,iron1 and ,smoky mountains1 together with a variety of smaller mountains1 spurs1 and ridges1 all running parallel to each other1 from the northeast to the southwest2 and all1 ,i believe ,i may say1 covered with forests1 and presenting to the eye of the naturalist a most interesting field for speculation and improvement4 ,with a few exceptions1 the geologist meets with none of those remarkable appearances which indicate the changes and convulsions which have been wrought by time1 the great enemy of nature4 ,occasionally we are presented with a view of a sublime precipice1 formed by a section which a river appears to have made for itself through an opposing mountain2 and the large masses of ruins1 which lie scattered around such a place1 seem1 to the imagination of the solitary traveller1 the historical records of commotions1 awful even in retrospect4 ,most commonly1 however1 the mountains seem to have lain for ages in undisturbed repose2 and the streams of water1 when they have crossed them1 have sought an easy passage through the ravines1 which do not so often divide a mountain1 or ridge1 at right angles1 as wind between the ends of two opposing spurs1 which pass each other1 gradually declining into the champaign country at their mutual base4 ,through this whole extent of country we rarely meet with any remarkable falls of water2 the obvious reason of which is1 that the rocks are so soft that they are easily worn down to the level of the beds of rivers4 ,but shoals1 or shallows1 are frequent1 and are formed by beds of rounded sandstone1 spread out into a broad base1 over which the water often rushes with no small violence and noise4 ,the mountains are generally1 though not always1 sterile1 and produce nothing but forest trees2 but the valleys are1 with hardly an exception1 rich1 and productive of every variety of grass and herb yielding seed1 and fruit-tree yielding fruit4 ,nor are they less favoured in the mineral kingdom2 possessing the greatest abundance of all the most useful and necessary minerals1 of which we shall now proceed to speak in order4 ,all the country included under the boundaries mentioned above1 with the exception of some primitive ranges of mountains on the southeastern side1 is apparently transition4 ,this1 it will be seen by a reference to ,mr4 ,maclure's excellent map1 will extend the boundary of his transition class considerably farther northwest1 and make it include ,cumberland ,mountain and all ,east ,tennessee4 ,this would be evident from comparing the northwestern part of ,virginia1 which ,mr4 ,maclure has included in his transition tract with all ,east ,tennessee4 ,every mineralogist must observe the identity of the minerals of the two countries as well as that of their stratification and general formation4 ,the limestone in the valleys1 and the sandstone on the mountains1 lie in strata which make an angle of from #be to #de degrees with the horizon4 ,the limestone bears the impressions of shells1 but rarely1 if ever1 of vegetables1 and contains beds of hornstone1 but not of flint1 or what can properly be called flint4 ,the rock which lies in the lowest valleys1 and often rises into pretty high hills1 and is seen forming bluffs on the banks of the rivers1 is limestone3 it is of a dark blue1 approaching to a gray1 as it is exposed to the air1 and often appearing quite white4 ,its fracture is compact in one direction2 in another it is more or less slaty in its structure4 ,it is interspersed with veins of the crystallized carbonate of lime1 more or less perfect1 and of a pure but opaque white4 ,another variety of this limestone1 not so abundant1 is that which is white and red1 having the white and red spots intimately mingled4 ,its structure is similar to the other kind4 ,lying in beds of this limestone1 parallel to1 and imbedded in1 its strata1 is a stone1 which1 from its globular form1 its hardness1 and its colour1 has been usually mistaken for flint4 ,on comparing it with the flint of chalk-beds1 we find it much less translucent1 its colour darker1 and its hues duller2 and its rough and irregular fracture1 compared with the easy1 smooth1 and conchoidal cleavage of the true flint1 decides it to be hornstone4 ,it is found also forming considerable distinct beds on the hills2 and is seen in detached pieces1 and irregular pebbles1 covering many of the ridges4 ,alternating with the beds of limestone1 and possessing the same formation1 is a soft clay slate4 ,soapstone is found in it4 ,as soon as we ascend the mountains1 we meet with a slaty sand-stone of various compactness1 as it possesses more or less iron1 often forming an excellent iron ore4 ,a variety of this iron ore has been lately turned to a good use1 in the manufacture of a red paint1 near ,knoxville1 ,tennessee4 ,different varieties of this sandstone possess different qualities4 ,it is converted by the inhabitants into millstones1 grindstones1 and whetstones4 ,interspersed among the sandstone of the mountains we often find very beautiful and interesting specimens of hornstones1 assuming a resemblance to all the silicious stones1 from the chalcedony to the jasper4 ,in this extensive range of mountains1 many other minerals exist1 of which we shall treat more particularly hereafter4 ,the limestone1 slate1 and sandstone1 as far as the writer's knowledge extends1 so to speak1 form the country2 the limestone and clay slate dipping under the sandstone4 ,gypsum1 coal1 sulphate of barytes1 c4 are found in these1 and we shall now speak of their localities4 ,gypsum4--,this valuable mineral production exists in ,washington ,county1 ,virginia1 #bj miles north of ,abingdon1 in the vicinity of ,saltville4 ,it is similar1 in every respect1 to the plaster of ,nova ,scotia1 and devoted by the farmers of that part of ,virginia1 and ,tennessee1 to similar purposes4 ,coal is said to exist in immense quantities in the ,cumberland ,mountain4 ,a bed of it is wrought near ,knoxville1 ,tennessee4 ,it is of an excellent quality2 but wood is so abundant that it is used only in forges4 ,sulphate of ,barytes4--,this mineral is found in ,bottetourt ,county1 ,virginia1 near ,fincastle2 and in ,sevier ,county1 ,tennessee4 ,hard ,carbonates of ,lime4--,stalactitical concretions abound in all the caves so often described as existing in this country4 ,those of ,virginia are more perfectly crystallized than those of ,tennessee4 ,under the head of hard carbonates should be mentioned an extensive bed or vein in ,montgomery ,county in the ,state of ,virginia1 near the seat of ,colonel ,hancock4 ,it appears to have been formed in a chasm1 in the common limestone of the country1 by a calcareous deposition which resembles1 exactly1 in all its characters1 the calcareous concretions which are found forming in the caves of the country4 ,the whole bed may1 in fact1 be regarded as a cave which has been filled up in the progress of time1 by this curious process4 ,its width is various1 from two feet to ten1 or more1 extending along the side of a very steep ridge1 for at least #ej yards1 and it is said to be continued seven miles farther4 ,the silicious carbonate of lime may be worth distinguishing from the common limestone4 ,it is found in a bed near ,colonel ,hancock's1 and was supposed to be gypsum4 ,it phosphoresces beautifully2 it is white1 and confusedly crystalline in its structure1 and much harder than the common limestone4 ,indeed the limestone generally1 on the east of the ,alleghany1 is somewhat harder than that on the west4 ,lead4--,there are several localities of this mineral4 ,a mine of it is wrought near ,new ,river1 #ae miles from ,wythe1 ,virginia4 ,another locality of the ore of lead is said to have been discovered in ,granger ,county1 ,tennessee1 on land belonging to ,general ,cocke4 ,it exists also1 very near the surface1 on the plantation of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,craighead1 near ,nashville2 which1 however1 is out of our boundary4 ,other metallic ores are said to have been found among these mountains1 and particularly those of gold and silver2 but the accounts are vague and uncertain1 and not to be credited4 ,the numerous ,caves of this country present attractions to every1 the least curious1 traveller2 and1 in an eminent degree1 to the mineralogist4 ,they are crevices1 or large chasms1 probably worn in the rocks by the passage of water4 ,this will1 at first view1 perhaps appear a bold assertion2 but if it be recollected that they occur only in limestone1 which is a soft rock1 and 7under certain circumstances17 soluble in water2 that the rocks bear every mark of having been worn by water2 and that streams of water are always found in them1 it will not appear an improbable hypothesis4 ,it is by no means difficult to believe that a stream1 after having worn such a chasm as a cave presents1 in the solid rock1 may have found another channel2 and1 forsaking the old1 have left room for nature to display some of her most beautiful works4 ,a description of one of these caves will be a description of all2 and we shall select ,wier's ,cave1 in ,rockingham ,county1 ,virginia1 as it is the most curious of any with which we are acquainted4 ,the entrance of the cave is narrow and difficult4 ,when the cave was first discovered1 the passage into it was impeded by stalactites1 which had formed perpendicular columns across it2 but these are now removed4 ,as we advance1 our course is at first horizontal1 but we soon descend fifteen or twenty feet by a ladder1 and find ourselves in a large echoing cavern4 ,stalactites of a silvery whiteness are suspended from above1 and pillars of stalagmites are rising around us4 ,ledges of rocks form our floor1 and the uneven walls are incrusted over with a beautiful brown spar1 which is sometimes suspended from the canopy in thin1 shining1 and translucent sheets4 ,in passing on over the rugged rock of our pathway1 our attention is divided between a care for our safety1 and an admiration of the surrounding wonders4 ,proceeding on through a narrower crevice in the rocks1 we are soon introduced into other apartments1 differing in shape and size from the first1 but resembling it in the irregularity of its walls1 floor1 and covering1 and in the calcareous incrustations and concretions1 which1 assuming a thousand fantastic shapes1 and displaying a sparkling lustre1 the more vivid as the light is stronger1 give to this whole grotto the power of charming every beholder4 ,the cave is a mile and a half in extent1 and extremely irregular in its course and shape4 ,its perpendicular height varies from three to forty feet1 and its breadth from two to thirty4 ,its dividing branches are numerous1 forming a great variety of apartments4 ,the blue limestone appears frequently enough to satisfy us that it is the groundwork of the whole2 but it is almost every where covered with incrustations of the hard carbonates4 ,these hang from the arched vault above in clusters1 and often reach the ground1 forming massive columns4 ,stalagmites again rise from the floor like so many statues2 the irregular sides of the ledges of rocks are often incrusted over with white crystals of the carbonate of lime1 and have the appearance of banks of salt3 at times we seem to walk on diamond pavements2 again our footway is of rounded pebbles1 and seems the bed of a river which had deserted its channel4 ,often we pass small streams of water2 and the water is continually dripping from the ends of the stalactites1 the echoing sound of which1 when it drops1 forms the only interruption to the profound silence which reigns throughout the cavern4 ,to give an idea of the diversified shapes which these concretions assume in the progress of their formation1 7and they are constantly forming17 would be impossible4 ,suffice it to say1 that there is scarcely any thing on earth to which they may not be supposed to form a resemblance2 and yet1 in fact1 they are unlike any thing but themselves4 ,it is generally known that the earth in these caves contains the nitrates of lime1 and potash1 and other salts4 ,the numerous caves which have been found in the ,cumberland mountains and other parts of ,tennessee1 have been very productive of the nitrate of potash4 ,in the investigation of the causes which have given origin to these salts1 it may be recollected1 that wild animals burrow in these caves2 that when pursued by the hunter1 they make them the places of their retreat1 and probably die there2 that the aborigines have made them a place of burial2 and that the streams of water which flow through them in wet weather1 carry with them not only great quantities of leaves but many other vegetable productions4 ,the natural bridge is celebrated as one of the greatest curiosities of the world4 ,viewed by a geologist1 it would probably be considered as a cave 7so to speak7 unroofed in all but one place4 ,it seems improbable that if the ravine had been made by a convulsion1 which had split and separated the rock to the distance of fifty or sixty feet1 any part of it1 and particularly so large a mass as that which forms the bridge1 should have been left1 without exhibiting any marks of violence4 ,the rock is limestone4 ,it is known that this rock wears away rapidly under the attrition of water2 and the supposition does not appear improbable1 that1 in the lapse of ages1 so large a creek as that which flows below the bridge1 may have worn as deep a ravine as that which now strikes us with so much surprise1 ,in short1 may not a cave have been originally formed where the ravine is now1 and the pending portion of it have fallen in at every place except that which now forms this celebrated natural curiosity8 ,mineral ,springs4--,the mineral springs of this region are numerous and diversified4 ,chalybeate springs are promiscuously scattered over the whole of it2 and springs impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen are quite common4 ,salt springs and licks are found more in the western than the eastern range of mountains4 ,that which was first wrought by ,william ,king1 is well known4 ,the salt here is associated with gypsum4 ,in the same range of mountains1 farther to the southwest1 there are now several other salt-works1 and also one to the west1 on ,goose ,creek1 in ,kentucky1 which has been very productive4 ,the ,warm ,springs4--,these springs are situated in a country which presents many attractions to the travelling geologist2 and much light1 it is hoped1 will yet be thrown on the geology of our country1 by a more minute and accurate examination of it than has yet been made4 ,the warm springs ooze through the sand on the south bank of the ,french ,broad river1 in the mountains which divide the state of ,tennessee from her parent state1 about the #cfth parallel of latitude4 ,the temperature of the water is about #ie of ,fahrenheit4 ,on the opposite side of the river from the springs is a geological curiosity4 ,a limestone rock is seen dipping under the sandstone which forms the country4 ,limestone is nowhere else to be seen within six miles of this place4 ,in this limestone rock is a cave similar to others already described4 ,paint ,rock1 in the vicinity of the ,warm ,springs1 is interesting on many accounts4 ,it is a bold precipice on the bank of ,french ,broad river4 ,at this place the river passes with a very rapid current directly across the course of a mountain1 which terminates abruptly1 and forms the precipice on the north bank of the river4 ,on looking at the rock1 the opposite end of the mountain1 and the ruins around it1 the mind is insensibly carried back to the contemplation of some dreadful commotion in nature1 which probably shook these mountains to their bases4 ,the rock is composed of a clay slate2 and it is here again remarkable1 that this stone is not to be seen in any other place within some miles4 ,it has received its name from some red paintings1 7probably left on it by the ,indians17 which have the appearance of hieroglyphics4 ,to conclude4 ,it will be seen from the above observations1 that this country presents a vast field of most interesting research1 and claims the attention of every traveller who is interested at all in geological inquiries4 ,if what has been said will at all contribute to the enlargement of the general stock of our knowledge on these subjects1 the writer will be much gratified2 and it is his sincere wish1 that the accuracy of his remarks may be tried1 and his mistakes corrected1 by the researches of succeeding travellers4 ,,art4 ,,xi4 ,notice of ,professor ,mitchill's ,edition of ,cuvier's ,essay on the ,theory of the ,earth4 ,the ,american scientific public are under obligations to ,professor ,mitchill for bringing this book within their reach4 ,it is one of the most eloquent1 impressive1 and instructive works on this grand but obscure subject1 with which the world has ever been favoured4 ,the reader is no sooner drawn within the current of ,cuvier's eloquence1 than he is borne along almost without the power or wish to escape4 ,it is believed there are few intelligent and enlightened persons1 whether geologists or not1 who would fail to be gratified by a book which secures the understanding by a strict course of reasoning from facts1 and delights the taste by a style bold1 terse1 and lucid1 but at the same time rich and flowing4 ,the analysis of this work has been ably performed in ,europe1 and there is1 therefore1 the less necessity to attempt it here4 ,while we take the liberty thus to recommend it1 we do not hold ourselves strictly bound to the admission of every one of ,cuvier's doctrines2 and might1 perhaps1 wish that in a few instances he had been somewhat more explicit1 or somewhat more qualified4 ,the additions by ,professor ,jameson1 of ,edinburgh1 are valuable and interesting1 and are retained in the present edition4 ,those by ,professor ,mitchill will be perused with pleasure and advantage4 ,the learned author has assembled1 in one view1 a great mass of facts1 partly resulting from his own journeys and observations1 and partly deduced from other respectable sources4 ,we have no doubt that most of these facts will be considered by the scientific world as very interesting1 whatever views they may entertain of the conclusions built upon them4 ,the author has occupied himself principally upon those portions of the ,united ,states1 which1 by the organized remains both of animals and vegetables1 with which they more or less abound1 exhibit the most decisive and interesting evidence of changes and catastrophes1 whose history is to be sought in the memorials entombed in the strata themselves4 ,we give no opinion regarding the theories of ,professor ,mitchill1 not intending to review the work1 but merely to aid1 as far as in our power1 in drawing the public attention to the interesting subjects about which it is occupied4 ,if we have any remark to add1 it is1 that an adherence to the technical precision with which most rocks are at the present day described1 appears desirable in mineralogical and geological descriptions4 ,when in the valuable additions before us we read of schorl rock1 we gain only the idea of a rock containing that mineral2 but as it occurs occasionally in several of the primitive rocks1 we are at a loss which is intended2 we believe it never forms a rock by itself4 ,so with the slate rocks3 there are several varieties of them--mica slate1 clay slate1 greenstone slate1 c4 besides some subdivisions2 and the mere word slate does not always give us the precise idea4 ,but we are aware that1 in the present case1 it was less in view to go into all the details of geological description1 than to give a view of our organized remains and of their supposed origin4 ,,art4 ,,xii4 ,notice of ,eaton's ,index to the ,geology of the ,northern ,states1 together with a ,transverse ,section of the ,catskill ,mountain to the ,atlantic4 ,the extensive collection of facts in this little book of fifty-four pages1 is creditable to the author's industry and discernment3 he informs us that he has travelled #ajjj miles on foot1 while investigating the geology of the district concerning which he has written4 ,this district is certainly interesting1 and every attempt to diffuse correct information concerning it1 deserves encouragement4 ,mr4 ,eaton's account of the regions he has explored1 has every mark of verisimilitude2 and we commend his efforts to diffuse geological information1 by short courses of lectures1 in different towns4 ,in his arrangement of rocks1 he has deviated from ,werner--has adopted some views of ,bakewell1 and some of his own4 ,werner's arrangement of rocks has1 undoubtedly1 its imperfections and its redundancies2 and yet it may be questioned how far his system has been really improved by its different emendators4 ,if ,werner1 by mentioning argillaceous schistus only in the primitive class of rocks1 left us to dispose of it where we might1 when we find it at one time1 covering or sustaining anthracite1 with impressions of ferns1 and at another with impressions of fish and vegetables1 and in contact with bituminous coal2 still those who1 with ,mr4 ,eaton1 throw argillaceous slate into the transition class1 and omit it in the primitive and secondary1 embarrass us with an equal difficulty2 for we find argillaceous slate in contact1 and alternating with1 mica slate1 and without any impressions of organized bodies1 when we must1 without a doubt1 call it primitive4 ,this is the fact with the clay slate of the ,woodbridge hills1 near ,new-,haven1 which is primitive2 that of ,rhode-,island1 with anthracite1 is transition2 and that at ,middlefields1 west of ,middletown1 with impressions of fish1 is secondary4 ,slate then appears to belong to all these three great classes of rocks4 ,as to the metalliferous limestone1 we do not so much object to the introduction of this term by ,bakewell1 although it appears to us quite as well to say that certain limestones1 those of the transition class for example1 are metalliferous4 ,but is ,eaton correct in referring such limestone as that of which the ,new-,york ,city-,hall is built1 to a metalliferous class8 ,is not that limestone decidedly primitive8 ,the fact mentioned of its containing pyrites1 hardly proves it to be metalliferous2 since most rocks contain more or less of pyrites4 ,some other remarks of less importance we might add1 but we prefer concluding by recommending this tract to the perusal of those who wish for information respecting the geological structure of ,new-,england2 and we think that ,mr4 ,eaton is seriously aiding the progress of geology in the interior of ,new-,england4 ,,art4 ,,xiii4 ,notice of ,m4 ,brongniart on ,organized ,remains4 ,this distinguished mineralogist1 so advantageously known by his excellent work on mineralogy--his researches in company with ,cuvier1 into the subterranean geography of the environs of ,paris1 and his superintendence of the great porcelain manufactory at ,sevres1 is attempting to form an extensive collection of organized remains4 ,through ,professor ,cleaveland1 we have received from him the following ,,notice ,concerning the method of collecting1 labelling1 and transmitting specimens of fossil organized bodies1 and of the accompanying rocks1 solicited by ,m4 ,,brongniart4 ,the study of fossil organized bodies appears to be of the utmost importance in determining the relations of different formations1 one of the principal objects of geology4 ,in order more effectually to appreciate the value of this method of investigation1 it is necessary to multiply observations--to endeavour to render them exact and precise--and especially to make them upon a general plan4 ,m4 ,brongniart has been long occupied in such researches4 ,the essay published by ,m4 ,cuvier and him1 upon the geology of the environs of ,paris1 has afforded an example of their use4 ,he has laboured since this period to apply this method to other formations1 which contain the relics of organized bodies2 but he stands in need of much assistance1 and he presumes to ask it1 not only of naturalists1 but even of all persons interested in the sciences4 ,by means of the following instructions1 he endeavours to avail himself of the kindness of persons the least conversant in the discrimination of fossils4 #a4 ,to collect all the fossil organized bodies which can be obtained2 especially the distinguishable impressions and remains of vegetables from coal countries1 and beds of wood1 coal1 and others4 ,the shells1 crustace1 madrepores1 fishes1 c4 ,it is not necessary that these bodies should be either large or entire1 but they must be sufficiently characterized to be capable of being recognized4 ,it is useless to transmit large unmeaning pieces1 which are recommended only by their size--such as large ammonites--large madrepores--large pieces of petrified wood--fragments of the one1 or small individuals of the other1 are often sufficient4 ,we may avoid also collecting the inner moulds 7des moules interieurs7 of shells1 because they are almost invariably incapable of being recognized4 #b4 ,petrifactions1 isolated and detached from their rock1 are the most convenient in the determination of species2 but when they cannot be separated from the rock1 we need not hesitate to send them engaged2 it is sufficient if a portion large enough for discrimination is visible4 ,among shells1 those are preferable which have the mouth or hinge in view2 among madrepores1 those on whose surface the figures 7les toiles7 are distinguishable2 among vegetables1 those whose leaves are distinctly expanded1 7expalmes47 #c4 ,upon the objects transmitted it is desirable to have1 at least in part1 the following notices3 #a4 ,the exact place from which the object comes3 this is the most important circumstance1 and the easiest to obtain4 #b4 ,the kind of formation in which it is found1 and a specimen of the stratum1 or at least of the rock1 which contained it4 ,it is desirable that this rock exhibit remains of petrifactions similar to those found in the stratum from which it has been drawn4 #c4 ,the nature of the formation of which this stratum or rock composes a part1 and specimens of as many of the superior and inferior strata as can be obtained1 designating the order of superposition of the strata4 #d4 ,it is important to designate1 by the same mark1 all the petrifactions unquestionably found in the same stratum1 or at least in the same formation4 ,the specimens ought to be almost square--about three inches or more on a side1 and one and a half thick4 #e4 ,it is equally important not to mix petrifactions found in different formations1 or in different strata of the same formation2 or if they are packed together1 to distinguish them by numbers1 marks1 or labels4 ,when the preceding notices cannot be obtained1 the first will suffice4 ,in order to collect the petrifactions1 and to render them useful1 it is not necessary to know them1 nor to be perplexed to find them out2 nor to be afraid of sending objects already known or of little note4 ,a part of the preceding indications1 connected with the most common petrifactions1 will always render them useful4 ,the important point then is1 not to mix those which are found separate1 nor to separate those which are found associated in the same stratum4 ,this is easily attained1 by designating by a common number1 letter1 or any sign whatever1 one particular formation or stratum1 and by marking with the same sign all the petrifactions which are evidently found together4 ,the labels designating the place or the geological situation1 may be placed in the papers which envelope the specimens1 or a number1 referring to an explanatory catalogue1 may be attached to each specimen4 ,as far as possible1 it is necessary to stick the labels or numbers to the pieces1 by pasting2 and the surest way is1 to write upon the piece itself1 #ast1 the place where it is found2 #b;d1 the number by which it is indicated in the historical notes above requested4 ,if there is not time to make out as many numbers or labels as there are pieces1 it will be sufficient to unite in one box or packet all the petrifactions of one particular stratum1 and to designate them by a general label4 ,it is necessary to pack the shells and other fragile pieces in separate boxes1 and to wrap each piece in a separate paper4 ,m4 ,brongniart cannot allow himself to prefer such requests1 except under the express condition1 that a memorandum of all the expenses which the transportation and packing of the specimens may create shall accompany the letter of advice4 ,the objects destined for him may be sent by the common modes of conveyance1 with a letter of advice1 to the following address3 ,mr4 ,a4 ,,brongniart1 ,member of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 ,engineer of ,mines1 etc4 ,rue ,saint-,dominique1 ,faubourg ,saint-,germain1 ,no4 #ga1 ,paris4 ,,art4 ,,xiv4 ,observations on a species of ,limosella1 recently discovered in the ,united ,states1 by ,dr4 ,eli ,ives1 ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,botany1 in the ,medical ,institution of ,yale ,college4 ,this small plant was observed in flower in ,july1 #ahaf1 by ,mr4 ,horatio ,n4 ,fenn 7now of ,rochester1 ,state of ,new-,york7 in company with ,dr4 ,leavenworth4 ,the plant and the seeds have been preserved by me1 in a flower-pot1 from that time to the present4 ,the plant was taken a few rods south of ,mr4 ,whitney's gun manufactory1 on the margin of the river1 where it was covered by every tide4 ,i have since observed the plant in great abundance on the margin of the ,housatonuck1 in ,derby1 and in those small streams in ,east ,haven1 ,branford1 and ,guilford1 which empty into ,long-,island ,sound4 ,a specimen of the limosella 7with some specimens of the tillea7 was sent to ,z4 ,collins1 ,esq4 of ,philadelphia1 who wrote me that ,mr4 ,nuttall had found the same plant1 a few days previous to the receipt of my letter1 and that they had no question on the subject of the generic character1 but that it would probably prove to be a new species4 ,in the transactions of the ,medico-,physical ,society of ,new-,york1 page #ddj1 it is described under the name of limosella subulata4 ,a description of the plant was published about the same time1 by ,mr4 ,nuttall1 in the ,journal of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia4 7,see ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #f4 p4 #aae47 ,in the paper written by ,mr4 ,nuttall is the following query3 ,does this plant1 with a lateral mode of growth and alternate leaves1 germinate with two cotyledons8 ,the following observations were made in answer to this question4 ,in the winter of #ahaf-ag this plant was kept in a situation exposed to severe frost2 yet whenever the weather became warm for two or three days1 it became quite green1 but for the last winter there was no appearance of life in the plant4 ,in ,march #ahah1 the vessel in which the limosella had been preserved for two summers preceding1 and in which were a great quantity of seeds1 was exposed in a warm situation to the sun4 ,there was no appearance of vegetation until the last of ,march1 when were observed several cylindrical leaves1 some of them evidently arose from bulbs which had formed the last summer1 on account of the dryness of its situation1 which frequently occurs when plants are removed from a moist to a dry situation4 ,in other instances single cylindrical leaves arose from the earth1 where no bulbs were to be found2 these cylindrical leaves were thought to arise from seeds1 which1 if it was a fact1 would prove that the plant vegetated with but one cotyledon4 ,in a short time the vessel was crowded with the seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons4 ,these were carefully observed1 and in every instance1 when the coat of the seed was cast off1 two linear cotyledons were observed1 soon a cylindrical leaf arose from the centre of the cotyledons1 and when this leaf had grown to the length of half an inch1 a leaf of a similar kind arose laterally to a line made by the first leaf and the cotyledons4 ,from the facts above stated1 it is thought to be proved that the limosella vegetates with two cotyledons4 ,this was the fact in every instance where the husk of the seeds was obviously attached to the cotyledons1 and in the few instances where the plants appeared to vegetate with but one cotyledon1 it is probable that it arose from a bulb or some portion of the old plant1 in which life had not been extinguished1 during the past winter1 which was made more probable by the fact that several of the leaves arose obviously from bulbs4 ,this limosella1#aa with its congeners1 hence will take its place in the natural order of ,jussieu lysimachi4 ,,art4 ,,xv4 ,professor ,,bigelow on the comparative ,forwardness of the ,spring in different ,parts of the ,united ,states1 in #ahag4 ,we have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this subject1 by the author1 ,professor ,bigelow of ,boston2 it is a part of the fourth volume of the ,memoirs of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences4 ,professor ,bigelow1 availing himself of a hint given him some years ago by the late venerable ,dr4 ,muhlenberg of ,pennsylvania1 ascertained1 through the medium of correspondence with accurate observers in different parts of ,north ,america1 the time of flowering1 for #ahag1 of the common fruit-trees and a few other plants--found in most parts of the ,united ,states4 ,the peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned1 and the following table exhibits the time of its flowering1 in places sufficiently numerous and remote1 to afford a fair specimen of these observations3 ,places4 ,lat4 ,long4 ,peach-tree in blossom4 ,fort ,claiborne1 ,alab4 ,ter4 #ca #ej #hg #ej ,march #d ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c4 #cb #dd #hj #ci #f #ab ,richmond1 ,va4 #cg #dj #gg #ej #bc ,ap4 #f ,lexington1 ,ky4 #ch #f #he #h ,april #f #ae ,baltimore1 ,md4 #ci #ba #gg #dh #i ,philadelphia1 ,p4 #ci #ef #ge #h #ae ,new-,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #dj #db #gd #i #ba #bf ,boston1 ,mass4 #db #bc #gj #eb ,may #i ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 #dc #ci #gc #cj #ab ,brunswick1 ,me4 #dc #ec #fi #ee #aeab ,montreal1 ,can4 #de #ce #gc #aa #ab ,professor ,bigelow infers1 that the difference of season between the northern and southern extremities of the country is not less than two months and a half4 ,difference of longitude does not seem very materially to affect the ,floral ,calendar within the ,united ,states4 ,it appears1 that in the same year peach-trees were in blossom at ,valencia1 in ,spain1 about the #aith of ,march2 the apple-tree near ,london1 ,may #hth2 the cherry-tree and pear-tree at ,geneva1 in ,switzerland1 ,april #c;d4 ,we hope that this research will be prosecuted in the manner it has thus been happily begun4 ,it evidently affords an excellent criterion of the actual temperature1 on a scale more extensive than it is practicable to obtain from thermometrical registers4 ,floral ,calendars kept in various parts of the ,united ,states would afford very interesting information1 as to the changes of climate in particular places2 a common topic of popular remarks but generally with few and inaccurate data4 ,,art4 ,,xvi4 ,a ,journal of the ,progress of ,vegetation near ,philadelphia between the #bjth of ,february and the #bjth of ,may1 #ahaf1 with occasional ,zoological ,remarks4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 ,the importance of observations on the annual progress of vegetation is obvious1 and1 as connected with agriculture1 gardening1 c41 eminently useful4 ,comparative observations acquire a particular degree of interest1 when made by skilful observers1 at the same time1 but at different places4 ,dr4 ,bigelow1 of ,boston1 issued a circular1 proposing that such contemporaneous observations should be made in the spring of #ahag2 and ,i wish that his request may have been attended to1 when the collection of those observations may afford valuable materials for an ,american ,calendar of ,flora4 ,the blossoming of plants is easily watched1 but their foliation and budding ought not to be neglected4 ,having been prevented1 by various causes1 from keeping an exact record of the progress of vegetation near ,new-,york in #ahag1 ,i submit an accurate journal which ,i had kept the year before1 at ,philadelphia1 in which ,i hope that some interesting facts may be noticed4 ,dr4 ,benjamin ,barton has published a sketch of a ,calendar of ,flora for ,philadelphia1 in his ,fragments on the ,natural ,history of ,pennsylvania2 by comparing it with mine1 many material differences may be traced1 which evince a gradual change of temperature1 although the spring of #ahaf was remarkably cold and late4 ,the greater quantity of species observed by me may1 besides1 render this journal a sort of vernal ,flora of the neighbourhood of ,philadelphia2 and many species found by me are not to be met in the ,flora ,philadelphica of ,dr4 ,william ,barton4 ,february #bj4 ,the ,hyacinthus orientalis begins to show its flowers1 and on the #bd4 ,in full blossom1 as well as ,convallaria majalis1 in rooms4 #be4 ,the grass begins to look greenish in some parts4 #bf4 ,seen the first larva of insect in a pond4 #bg4 ,the ,motacilla sialis1 or bluebird1 is heard for the first time4 #bh4 ,the first shad 7,clupea sapidissima7 is taken in the ,delaware1 while on the same day1 the first smelt 7,salmo eperlanoides7 was taken in the ,raritan1 at ,new-,brunswick4 ,march #a4 ,the ,tulipa gesneriana1 and ,hesperis matronalis1 are in blossom at the windows3 the suckers 7genus ,catostomus7 appear in the fish-market4 #b4 ,the catkins of the ,alnus serrulatus begin to swell4 #c4 ,those of ,salix ,caprea begin to appear4 #d4 ,the grass looks green by patches in the country4 #e4 ,the leaves of ,veronica officinalis1 ,plantago virginiana1 ,saxifraga virginica1 c4 are quite unfolded4 #f4 ,the new leaves of ,kalmia latifolia begin to appear4 #g4 ,the spathas of ,spathyema fetida1 or ,fothos fetida1 begin to appear in blossom4 #h4 ,the ,alnus serrulatus is in full blossom4 #aj4 ,found several mosses and ferns in blossom2 these last were covered with capsules or old fructification3 they were ,asplenium ebeneum1 ,aspidium marginale1 ,asp4 acrostichoides1 ,polypodium medium1 ,n4 ,sp41 c4 #aa4 ,seen the first spider1 in the country1 brown1 oblong1 walking4 ,a fall of snow at night4 #ab4 ,seen in blossom1 at the windows1 ,narcissus tazzetta1 ,n4 janguilla1 and several saffrons1 genus ,crocus1 c4 #ad4 ,the grass looks quite green2 the ,draba verna8 is in blossom in the ,state-,house garden1 the ,viburnum tinus1 ,primula acaulis1 c4 in the rooms1 c4 ,the following fish are at market3 white perch1 7,perca mucronata1 ,raf47 yellow perch1 7,polyprion fasciatum1 ,raf47 mamoose sturgeon1 7,accipenser marginatur1 ,raf47 elk-oldwives1 7,sparus crythrops1 ,raf47 c4 #ae4 ,the ,populus fastigiata1 ,lombardy poplar1 begins to show its catkins4 #ag4 ,the big-eye herring 7,clupea megalops7 begin to be seen at the fish-market4 #ah4 ,many plants begin to grow and show their leaves4 #ai4 ,a fall of snow4 ,the first shad 7,clupea sapidissima7 appear in ,new-,york3 they are now common here4 #bj4 ,crocus aureus in blossom in gardens2 likewise ,iris persica1 c4 #ba4 ,betula lenta begin to show the catkins4 #bb4 ,galanthus nivalis1 and ,lamium amplexicaule1 are in blossom in gardens at ,cambden4 #bd4 ,populus fastigiata1 and ,salix caprea1 are in full bloom4--,the gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves4 #be4 ,populus angulata in blossom at ,cambden4 #bf4 ,salix babylonica begins to blossom and shoot the leaves4 ,viburnum prunifolium is budding4 #bg4 ,draba verna8 is in seed already in ,cambden3 the ,rhododendron maximum begins to shoot in gardens4 #bh4 ,juniperus virginiana is in bloom4 ,saxifraga virginica begins to show its flowers4 ,laurus benzoin1 and ,cornus florida1 are budding4 ,april #a4 ,in the morning1 a large flight of wild geese went over the city northwards1 making a great noise4 ,in the afternoon there was a thunder storm from the southwest4 #b4 ,the frogs begin to croak4 ,found in blossom near ,cambden1 ,arabis rotundifolia1 ,raf41 ,a4 lyrata1 ,saxifraga virginica1 ,draba verna8 ,betula lenta1 c4 ,pinus inops is budding4 #c4 ,seen the first swallow4 ,found in blossom on the ,schuylkill1 ,fumaria cucullaria1 ,anemone thalictroides1 ,saxifraga virginica1 many ferns and mosses4 #d4 ,the fresh-water turtle 7,testudo picta7 begins to show itself4 #g4 ,found in blossom to-day1 ,hepatica triloba1 ,laurus benzoin1 ,sanguinaria canadensis1 ,spathyema fetida1 ,acer rubrum1 c4 ,the first bee is seen4 #aj4 ,in blossom at the woodlands1 ,viola blanda1 ,luzula filamentosa1 ,raf41 ,gnaphalium8 plantageneum1 c4 #ab4 ,in blossom at ,cambden1 ,viola lanceolata1 and ,houstonia cerulea4 #ad4 ,the apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens4 ,acernegundo is in bloom at ,gray's ,ferry4 #ae4 ,seen the first butterfly--it was small and gray4 ,found in blossom1 near ,cambden1 ,phlox subulata1 ,arabis parviflora1 ,raf41 and ,vaccinium ligustrinum4 #ah4 ,seen in blossom1 ,epigea repens1 ,carex acuta1 and ,taraxacum dens-leonis4 ,in gardens1 the peach and cherry trees are in bloom4 ,observed many insects4 ,the ,camellia1 the ,magnolia chinensis1 c4 are seen in the hot-house of the ,woodlands4 #bj4 ,the first snake is seen1 ,coluber trivittata1 ,raf4 ,also a beautiful large butterfly1 red and black4 ,the ,salix vitellina1 and ,capsella bursa4 7,thlaspi bursa-pastoris17 are in blossom4 #ba4 ,found in blossom1 near ,gray's ,ferry1 ,narcissus pseudo-narcissus1 and ,sedum ternatum1 both naturalized4 ,likewise the ,populus tremuloides1 and ,mespelus canadensis4 ,the leaves of ,podophyllum pettatum are fully expanded4 #bc4 ,seen in full bloom in gardens1 the pear-tree1 plum-tree1 ,riber grossularia1 and ,r4 rubrum4 #bd4 ,found in blossom along the ,schuylkill1 ,aguilegia canadensis1 ,hyacinthus botryoides1 ,ranunculus fascicularis1 ,violapapilionacea4 ,v4 decumbens1 ,raf41 ,houstonia cerulea1 ,cerastium pumilum1 ,raf4 #be4 ,found in blossom near ,cambden1 ,viola pedata1 ,v4 lanceolata1 ,v4 ovata1 ,raf41 ,v4 primulifolia1 ,arabis parviflora1 ,raf41 ,cerastium pumilum1 ,raf41 ,carex acuta1 ,meopilus botryapium1 ,laurus sassafras1 ,cercis canadensis1 ,potentilla simplex1 ,andromeda racemoca4 #bh4 ,seen in blossom in gardens1 ,calycanthus floridus1 ,syringa persica1 ,phlox pilosa1 c4 ,the leaves of ,liriodendron tulipifera1 sculus hippocastanum1 ,populus fastigiata1 ,p4 angulata1 are unfolded4 #cj4 ,in blossom on the ,schuylkill1 ,obolaria virginiana1 ,anemone trifolia1 ,hydrastis canadensis1 c4 ,may #a4 ,in blossom in the ,neck1 ,cerastium vulgatum8 ,veronica serpyllifolia1 ,v4 arvensis1 ,ranunculus bulbosus1 ,viola cucultata4 #c4 ,found above the ,falls of the ,schuylkill1 ,viola striata1 ,v4 concolor1 ,v4 primulifolia1 ,v4 blanda1 ,fumaria aurea1 ,f4 cucullaria1 ,charophyllum procumbens1 ,uvularia sessitifolia1 ,u4 perfoliata1 ,cercis canadensis1 ,arabis falcata1 ,stellaria pubera1 ,erigeron pulchellum1 ,orchis spectabilis1 ,hydrastis canadensis1 ,dentaria diphylla1 ,azalea nudiflora1 c4 #d4 ,found on the ,vissahikon1 ,arabis bulbosa1 ,panax trifolium1 ,viola pectata1 ,v4 rotundifolia1 ,cardamine pennsylvanica1 ,krigia virginica1 and several grasses4 #g4 ,found in blossom over the ,schuylkill1 ,laurus sassafras1 ,viburnum prunifolium1 ,aronia arbutifolia1 ,a4 melanocarpa1 ,fragaria virginica1 ,cerastium nutans1 ,raf41 ,convallaria majalis1 naturalized1 and several species of the genus ,vaccinium4 #aj4 ,found below the falls of the ,schuylkill1 ,floerkea uliginosa1 ,viburnum acerifolium1 ,oxalis violacea1 ,cerastium tenuifolium1 lechoma hederacea1 c43 and the following above the ,falls--,trillium cernuum1 ,viola pubescens1 ,v4 pennsylvanica1 ,hydrophyllum virginicum1 ,polemonium reptans1 ,senecio aureus1 ,saxifraga pennsylvanica1 ,staphylea trifoliata1 ,obolaria virginica1 ,caltha palustris1 ,ranunculus abortivus1 c4 #aa4 ,seen the first bat4 #ab4 ,near ,haddonfield1 ,bartsia coccinea1 ,helonias bullata1 ,trifolium repens1 c4 #ae4 ,found between ,cambden and ,haddonfield1 ,trifolium pratense1 ,silene virginica1 ,antirrhinum canadense1 ,lithospermum tenellum1 ,raf41 ,festucatenella1 ,seleranthus annuus1 ,oxalis biflora1 ,raf41 ,poa rubra1 ,vaccinium corymbosum1 ,viola palmata1 ,v4 parvifolia1 ,raf41 ,rubus flagellaris1 c4 ,also in blossom1 ,quercus rubra1 ,q4 obtusiloba1 ,q4 alba1 c4 #bj4 ,found near ,burlington1 ,plantago virginica1 ,euphorbia ipecacuanha1 ,comptonia asplenifolia1 ,myosotis lappula1 ,senecio obovatus1 ,scirpus acicularis1 ,lithospermum trinervum1 ,raf41 ,l4 tenellum1 ,raf41 c42 besides several ,carex4 ,,art4 ,,xvii4 ,description of a ,new ,species of ,north ,american ,marten1 7,mustela vulpina7 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 ,the regions watered by the ,missouri are inhabited by many animals1 as yet unknown to the zoologists1 although many have been noticed by travellers4 ,a species of marten has lately been presented to the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history in ,new-,york1 which was brought from that country1 and appears to belong to a peculiar species1 very different from the common martens of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 although it has1 in common with it1 the character of the yellow throat2 but the head1 feet1 and tail1 afford so many peculiar characters1 that no doubt can be entertained of its diversity4 ,i have1 therefore1 given to it the name of ,mustela vulpina1 or ,fox ,marten1 owing to its head and tail being somewhat similar to that of a fox4 ,mustela ,vulpina4 ,definition--,brown1 three large yellowish spots underneath on the throat1 breast1 and belly2 cheeks1 inside of the ears1 and a spot on the nape1 white2 tail tipped with white one-third of total length2 feet blackish1 toes white4 ,description4--,this animal is of a fine shape3 its size is rather above mediocrity1 being about half a foot high1 and the total length being twenty-seven inches1 whereof nine form the tail4 ,the general colour of the fur is of a drab brown1 and it is neither coarse nor very fine4 ,the head is elongated1 oblong1 about four inches long1 shaped like that of a fox2 the snout is narrow2 the nose is black1 notched1 and granulated1 furnished on each side with black whiskers1 two inches long3 there are three long black hairs1 or vibrissa1 above each eye1 and a few shorter ones scattered behind them on the cheeks1 chin1 and tip of the lower jaw1 which is white3 the cheeks are whitish1 and there is a white spot on the nape of the neck3 the ears are large1 broad1 and white inside4 ,there are three large1 oblong spots1 on the throat1 breast1 and belly2 this last is the largest2 that on the breast the smallest4 ,the fore legs are shorter than the hind ones1 and have1 behind1 three very long hairs or vibrissa3 the feet and toes of all the legs are covered with long fur2 the former have a dark brown or blackish ring1 and the latter are of a dirty white3 there are five long toes to all the feet1 of which the inner one is the shortest2 the nails are white1 retractible1 and shorter than the fur4 ,the teeth are as in the genus ,mustela1 and white2 those of the lower jaw are larger and stronger3 the grinders are four on each side2 they are broad1 trifid1 with the middle lobe sharp and very long3 the tusks1 or dogteeth1 are very strong1 curved1 and approximated1 leaving a very small place for the incisores1 which are very small1 very short1 and flat2 the two lateral ones on each side are situated diagonally1 the second behind1 and the two middle ones are only half the size of the others4 ,the tail is bushy1 particularly at the top1 where there is a white pencil of long hairs2 the brown of the remainder is darker than on the body4 ,from the above accurate description1 it will appear evident that this animal is very different from the common marten of ,north ,america4 ,it must be a ferocious little animal1 and very fierce2 which is indicated by the strength of the teeth4 ,,art4 ,,xviii4 ,natural ,history of the ,scytalus ,cupreus1 or ,copper-head ,snake4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 ,after the rattlesnake1 the copper-head snake is the most dreaded in the northern states1 being the next largest venomous snake3 he is also more common in the cold parts1 where the former is very rare4 ,strange as it may seem1 this conspicuous and dangerous animal has escaped the notice of naturalists1 and is not found described in ,shaw nor ,lacepede4 ,having seen two of them near ,fishkill1 in the summer of #ahag1 ,i endeavoured to describe them completely1 and investigate their history4 ,they were both killed in a meadow1 and one of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence2 a slight stroke of a rod was sufficient1 as usual with venomous snakes4 ,it appears that they are killed much easier than the innocent snakes2 these are often seen to revive after an apparent death1 and do not really die until the next sunset2 while venomous snakes do not easily revive1 particularly if the head is slightly bruised4 ,this snake is known by a variety of names in different parts of the ,state of ,new-,york1 since he has every where attracted the attention of the inhabitants3 these names are1 copper-head1 copper-snake1 chunk-head1 copper-adder1 copper-viper1 copper-belly1 pilot-snake1 deaf-adder1 deaf-snake2 and in ,new-,england1 by the names rattlesnake's mate and red adder1 c4 ,they have all been given in reference to his colour1 or to some presumed peculiarities in his manners1 c4 ,chunk-head is a vulgar expression1 meaning thick-head or blunt-head4 ,he has been called sometimes pilot-snake1 on a false supposition that he was the pilot or guide of the rattlesnake2 and he has been considered as deaf1 because he is easily surprised1 and does not appear to hear the noise of your approach4 ,it belongs to the genus scytalus of ,daudin1 c41 which differs from the ,boa of ,linnus1 as the genus ,vipera does from ,coluber1 being provided with fangs4 ,i have given to it the name of ,scytalus ,cupreus1 which means coppered scytalus4 ,the following definition of the species may be considered as comparative and characteristic4 ,scytalus ,cupreus4 ,tail one-eighth of total length1 with #de caudal plates entirely brown2 #aej abdominal plates1 the last very broad2 head oval1 coppered above1 yellow underneath2 scales carinated on the back1 which is coppered1 with reddish brown rings cross-shaped2 belly variegated of brownish4 ,description4 ,total length about three feet2 body thicker than in the innocent snakes4 ,head large1 broad1 oval1 obtuse1 very distinct from the neck1 nearly two inches long1 flattened1 coppered brown above1 and covered with large1 smooth scales2 yellow underneath1 as well as the neck1 and with rhomboidal smooth scales4 ,mouth very large2 fangs yellowish white4 ,back flattened anteriorly1 a little angular in the middle1 covered with small rhomboidal1 obtuse1 keeled scales2 those of the sides larger and smooth1 not keeled2 centre of the back of a brownish copper colour2 sides of a bright copper2 broad bands or rings1 becoming forked on each side1 and assuming nearly the shape of a ,st4 ,andrew's cross2 they are of a reddish brown3 there is a round spot opposite to the sinusses1 and the scales of the sides are minutely dotted of brown4 ,the abdominal plates are #aej1 beginning under the head2 the last1 covering the vent1 is very broad1 double the other3 they are of a shining1 pale copper colour1 with two longitudinal and lateral rows of great1 irregular1 brown spots1 with some light brownish clouds between them1 and each plate is marginated of whitish4 ,the belly is very flat and broad1 about #a inch in diameter2 and the skin may be distended on the sides1 when1 the animal is not fed4 ,tail short1 tapering gradually1 about four inches long1 cylindrical1 brown1 without spots1 with #de plates underneath1 and having at the end a small1 obtuse1 horn claw1 of an oblong1 compressed1 obtuse shape1 and carinated underneath4 ,this snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake2 he is very slow in his motions1 rather clumsy1 owing to his thick shape and short tail4 ,he retires in winter into caves1 hollow rocks1 and trees1 where he lies1 in a torpid state1 from ,november to ,april2 several have been found coiled up together1 the head lying over the back3 it is in the same situation he sleeps in the fields4 ,when found in the torpid state1 they may be carried without waking2 but might wake in a warm room4 ,they do not eat during all that time3 their food consists of birds1 frogs1 mice1 and even squirrels1 which they catch by surprise1 as they do not climb on trees4 ,they kill their large prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia1 crushing it in their folds1 and they swallow it whole after covering it with their clammy saliva4 ,they can remain a very long time without a meal1 and one meal is a long time digesting4 ,they are generally found in meadows1 pastures1 and the edge of woods4 ,they creep slovenly through the grass1 and if surprised by the sight of man1 they assume an erect and threatening posture1 darting their tongue and swelling their head2 but they do not attack men1 unless alarmed and struck4 ,they are considered more dangerous than the rattlesnake1 because they do not give notice of their vicinity1 and lie concealed in the grass2 but they are easily killed1 when assuming the threatening posture1 by a slight touch of a cane1 spade1 or any other instrument4 ,the effects of their bite is similar to that of the rattlesnake1 and cured in the same way1 by the prompt application of the ,aristolochia serpentaria1 ,polygala senega1 ,prenanthes serpentaria1 ,macrotry serpentaria1 c4 and other plants1 bearing in consequence the name of snakeroots4 ,this snake is found in ,new-,england1 ,new-,york1 ,new-,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 c41 and perhaps all over the ,united ,states4 ,,art4 ,,xix4 ,on a ,method of ,augmenting the ,force of ,gunpowder4 ,extract of a ,letter to the ,editor1 from ,colonel ,,george ,,gibbs4 ,i employed1 the last year1 a man in blowing rocks1 and having seen an account of a method of substituting a portion of quick lime for a part of the gunpowder usually employed1 ,i was induced to make a number of experiments upon it4 ,i now send you the results in the certificate of the person employed1 whose statement might be relied on1 even if ,i had not superintended myself a number of the experiments4 ,sunswick ,farms1 ,oct4 #ai1 #ahag4--;,i certify that1 having been employed by ,colonel ,gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm1 ,i1 by his orders1 made use of a composition of one part quick lime and two parts gunpowder1 and uniformly found the same charge to answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder4 ,i made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner1 as well as several hundreds in the usual way1 and can therefore depend upon the accuracy of this statement4 ,i found1 however1 that when the powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before1 that the effect was diminished4 ,it should be always used the day it is mixed4 7,signed7 ,t4 ,,pomeroy4 ,this preparation was made generally in the morning1 put in a bottle and well corked1 to prevent the access of the external air4 ,the rationale of the process was not explained in the original recommendation1 but it soon occurred to me1 that it must be owing to the desiccation of the gunpowder by the lime4 ,the attraction of moisture by gunpowder1 is known to be very great3 according to ,rees's ,cyclopedia1 upwards of #af per cent4 has been absorbed1 and that the removal1 simply1 from near the fire to the corner of the room1 produces a considerable change in its weight4 ,i presume1 therefore1 that the lime1 which in its caustic state has also a great affinity to water1 attracts a portion of it from the powder1 and leaves it in a state of dryness best fitted for inflammation4 ,but if the lime should remain too long mixed with the powder1 it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre1 and1 according to ,count ,rumford's idea1 destroy a great part of the power4 ,if also left exposed1 attractions of moisture would take place from the atmosphere1 the gunpowder would remain surcharged with humidity as before1 and the lime would be only an inert mass4 ,the examination of this subject led me to consider the increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations1 and of its use in the field4 ,it is well known that after a few discharges a cannon becomes heated1 and the range is much greater1 as well as the recoil4 ,the charge of powder is therefore reduced about one quarter1 to produce the original effect4 ,as ,i have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact ,i shall take this opportunity of mentioning1 that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first explained1 viz4 the desiccation of the powder4 ,no person will dispute the heat acquired by a cannon1 or even a musket1 after repeated discharges2 and this heat must volatilize or destroy a great portion of the moisture combined with the powder1 assist its speedy inflammation1 and perhaps add to its power1 by causing a more perfect combustion of the inflammable parts of the gunpowder4 ,this would cause a much greater volume of gas to be produced1 and the high temperature would also greatly augment its elasticity2 and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder depend upon the rapid production and high degree of elasticity of a great quantity of aeriform fluids or gases4 ,,art4 ,,xx4 ,on ,the ,connexion between ,magnetism and ,light4 ,by ,col4 ,,gibbs4 ,extract from a ,letter to the ,editor4 ,i visited1 the last year1 the mine of magnetic iron at ,succassunny1 belonging to ,governor ,dickerson of ,new-,jersey4 ,the mine had not been worked for a year past1 and ,i did not descend it4 ,the proprietor1 a gentleman of distinguished science1 informed me of a singular circumstance attending it1 which was too important to be left unnoticed4 ,the mine is worked at the depth of #ajj feet2 direction of the bed1 northeast and southwest2 inclination nearly perpendicular4 ,the ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic1 and has polarity2 but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism at first1 but acquires it after it has been some time exposed to the influence of the atmosphere4 ,this fact1 of which there is no doubt1 struck me as most singular4 ,i could not recollect any similar observation2 and it is only lately that ,i have found that ,werner had observed1 that iron sand1 raised from the depth of #ajj feet1 had no magnetism4 ,see ,rees's ,cyclopedia1 ,art4 ,sand4 ,i could only account for this circumstance by supposing that magnetism existed not in the interior of the earth1 as was supposed1 but only on the surface1 and in such bodies as received this principle from atmospheric1 or celestial influence4 ,the late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet rays of light1 by ,m4 ,morechini1 a notice of which has since reached us in the journals1 connected with the above fact1 leads me to believe that light is the great source of magnetism4 ,a learned foreigner1#ac whose residence in this country has contributed much to its scientific improvement1 has also informed me that other substances than metallic have been found1 by compression1 to be magnetic4 ,it is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible1 or has the most attraction to matter4 ,but there are other rays1 which ,herschel1 who some years since discovered them1 calls invisible rays1 which are still more refrangible1 are next beyond the violet1 when refracted1 and partake of most of its properties1 except that they are invisible4 ,i have not yet seen any account of the experiments of ,m4 ,morechini1 other than the notice in the journal2 but ,i trust ,i shall soon be able to determine whether those invisible rays do not possess the magnetic power as well as the violet2 or1 perhaps1 possess it exclusively4 ,as the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles1 is at least ten times greater than in the tropics1 a greater quantity of the magnetic rays will there be separated and combined than elsewhere2 and of course arises excess of magnetism4 ,hence the direction of magnetic bodies towards the northern and southern extreme regions4 ,the great absorption and emission of light in the polar regions1 by the ice and snow1 may cause the extraordinary illumination of that country during the absence of the sun1 and the emission of the magnetic rays with electricity may1 perhaps1 give us the aurora borealis4 ,the coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with the solar influence1 deserves particular notice1 and will have considerable weight on this subject4 ,that there are many facts which cannot readily be explained by the theory of light1 ,i shall not deny2 but in the infancy of this system we may be allowed to hope that future observations may enable us to remove present difficulties4 ,one thing must be admitted1 that no theory has heretofore been published relating to magnetism1 which has received or seems entitled to much confidence4 ,in your next number ,i hope to be able to furnish you with further remarks on this subject2 but1 ,i have no doubt that philosophy will finally determine that we owe to the solar ray light1 heat1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,g4 ,,gibbs4 ,sunswick1 ,january1 #ahah4 ,,art4 ,,xxi4 ,on a new ,means of producing ,heat and ,light1 with an ,engraving1 by ,j4 ,l4 ,sullivan1 ,esq4 of ,boston4 ,,boston1 ,may #g1 #ahah4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,,sir1 ,if the following account of a method of using tar and steam as fuel1 recently invented by ,mr4 ,samuel ,morey1 should be found sufficiently interesting to occupy a place in the ,journal of ,science1 ,i am sensible its usefulness will be much extended through that medium of information4 ,the inventor1 not unskilled in chemistry1 and aware of the attraction of oxygen for carbon1 conceived it practicable to convert the constituents of water into fuel1 by means of this affinity4 ,whatever may be the fact1 chemically considered1 the operation1 in various experiments1 promises to afford a convenient method of applying to use several of the most combustible substances1 not hitherto employed as fuel4 ,by the process ,i shall briefly describe1 all carbonaceous fluids may be conveniently burnt1 and derive great force from their combination with the oxygen and hydrogen gases of water or steam1 before or at the moment of ignition4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,fire ,,apparatus4 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a tight vessel1 cylindrically shaped1 was first employed1 containing rosin1 connected with a small boiler by a pipe which entered near the bottom1 and extended nearly its length1 having small apertures1 over which were two inverted gutters1 inclining or sloping upwards over each other2 the upper one longer than the other1 intended to detain the steam in the rosin1 in its way to the surface4 ,the rosin being heated1 carburetted hydrogen gas would issue from the outlet1 or pipe1 inserted near the top of the vessel1 and being ignited1 afforded a small blaze1 about as large as that of a candle2 but1 when the steam was allowed to flow1 this blaze would instantly shoot out many hundred times its former bulk1 to the distance of two or three feet4 ,it is presumed the steam was decomposed1 and carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide1 or carbonic acid1 produced as the steam passed1 very near the hot bottom of the vessel4 ,another apparatus was constructed1 consisting of two vessels1 one within the other1 having a cover common to both2 the inner one to contain tar1 7as a more convenient substance than rosin27 the outer vessel to contain water1 which surrounds the other1 and lies under its bottom2 or1 in other words1 a vessel of tar set into a vessel of boiling water4 ,the boiler has a lining of sheet copper1 or tin1 to promote the ebullition4 ,the tar vessel being riveted to the cover1 holes are made through its sides1 near to the cover1 to allow the steam to pass in1 and act on its surface4 ,the cover being secured on1 a safety valve is provided for the steam vessel1 and two cocks2 one over the tar1 the other over the water1 are fixed contiguously2 the first has a tube1 or is elongated to reach nearly to the bottom of the tar1 which ascends1 and is driven out by the pressure of the steam on its surface4 ,both cocks conduct to a pipe1 wherein is placed a large wire1 or metallic rod1 which about fills the tube1 and is perforated obliquely1 or zig zag1 to increase the length of the passage1 and to mingle the tar and steam more intimately4 ,the gases1 or vapours1 issue from a small orifice at the end of the pipe2 and1 being ignited by a little fire1 into which it is directed1 an intense and voluminous blaze is produced1 and continues as long as the materials remain unexhausted4 ,a hot brick1 instead of the fire1 answers the same purpose4 ,this apparatus contained but about one quart of tar1 7which must always be nicely strained17 and it lasted one and a half hour1 and the flame was sufficient to fill a common fireplace1 if not allowed to escape1 by its violence1 up the chimney4 ,its force will be according to the elasticity of the steam4 ,i regret being unable1 since1 to make more exact and varied experiments1 to demonstrate the economy of this fuel4 ,this point1 however1 and the chemical facts1 will be the subject of a future communication4 ,and probably a form of a stove may be devised1 wherein it may be used for the purposes of warmth1 light1 and cooking2 and another apparatus to light streets4 ,but this invention will be of more special use as fuel for steam engines applied to navigation--the purpose principally for which ,i have purchased the patent right4 ,this may be the subject of another communication4 ,,art4 ,,xxii4 ,on the ,changes which have taken place in the ,wells of ,water situated in ,columbia1 ,south-,carolina1 since the ,earthquakes of #ahaa-ab4 ,by ,,edward ,,darrell ,,smith1 ,m4 ,d41 ,professor of ,chemical and ,experimental ,philosophy and ,mineralogy in the ,south-,carolina ,college4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,in answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells1 since the memorable period of the earthquakes1 ,i would make the following observations3 ,these tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in ,december1 #ahaa1 and were continued1 at intervals1 until the latter end of the succeeding month of ,march1 with different degrees of violence1 in this and some of the adjacent states4 ,in ,november1 #ahab1 ,i visited this town1 and then understood that the wells1 which are generally very deep1 had an abundance of water in them4 ,this continued to be the case for about one year after2 and in the ,college well1 in particular1 which was a remarkably fine one1 there were always about twelve feet of water1 notwithstanding its daily consumption by more than two hundred persons4 ,shortly after this time1 many of the wells in the town began to fail in their usual supply of water1 although they were frequently cleaned out and occasionally deepened4 ,their state became worse every year1 until1 at length1 about three years since1 some of them proved to be entirely dry1 and most of the others had their water turbid1 and diminished to the depth of only two or three feet4 ,a little anterior to this period1 what were called the dry years had commenced1 and there were1 comparatively1 very scanty falls of rain until the last spring2 since when there has been a very large quantity4 ,to elucidate the subject more fully1 it may not be amiss to give some topographical account of the town of ,columbia4 ,about a mile from the eastern bank of the ,cogaree the town begins to be thickly built up1 and at this distance the elevation of ground is supposed to be one hundred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary state4 ,the hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or more in its western extent1 and its soil is principally composed of a loose1 porous sand1 with which few1 if any1 stones are intermixed at any depth that has yet been penetrated4 ,in attempting to account for the failure of the well-waters1 it was supposed by some that the earthquakes had produced such changes in the loose texture of the soils1 that the veins of water which used to supply the wells1 had sunk beneath the level of these reservoirs2 but on this head it is to be observed1 that there was no remarkable failure of water for one or two years after these changes were supposed to have been effected4 ,others again1 connecting the greatest failure of water with the concurring dearth of rain1 conceived that the fact might be explained by the droughts occasioning a deficiency in the river-water1 and thus cutting off the supply which they supposed had heretofore percolated from the margin of the river into the wells4 ,if their hypothesis was correct1 it was believed that the difficulty would be removed1 either by deepening the wells1 or by subsequent large supplies of rain4 ,many wells were immediately deepened from two to eight or ten feet1 but the remedy proved very inadequate4 ,and since the great falls of rain1 within a year past1 although there are somewhat larger supplies of water in some wells1 yet there is not the half as much as existed before the earthquakes4 ,the ,college well1 although deepened several feet1 does not now contain generally more than four or five feet of water4 ,i must not omit to remark1 that two wells1 situated in a longitudinal line from north to south1 with regard to each other1 and also in a lower spot of ground1 never failed entirely1 although they diminished considerably1 and now yield more copious supplies than any others4 ,whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon1 the effects are so inconvenient1 and it is so generally believed that they are likely to be permanent1 that the inhabitants of the town are beginning to build cisterns1 in order to accumulate artificial reservoirs of water4 ,,art4 ,,xxiii4 ,respiration of ,oxygen ,gas4 ,it is not extraordinary1 when oxygen gas was first discovered1 and found to be the principle of life to the whole animal creation1 that extravagant expectations should have been formed as to its medicinal application4 ,disappointment followed of course1 and naturally led to a neglect of the subject2 and1 in fact1 for some years1 pneumatic medicine has gone into discredit1 and public opinion has vibrated to the extreme of incredulity4 ,partaking in a degree in this feeling1 we listened with some reluctance to a very pressing application on this subject during the last summer4 ,a young lady1 apparently in the last stages of decline1 and supposed to be affected with hydrothorax1 was pronounced beyond the reach of ordinary medical aid4 ,as she was in a remote town in ,connecticut1 where no facilities existed towards the attainment of the object1 we felt no confidence that1 even if oxygen gas were possessed of any efficacy in such cases1 it would actually be applied in this case1 in such a manner as to do any good4 ,yielding1 however1 to the anxious wishes of friends1 we furnished drawings for such an apparatus as might be presumed attainable1 and also written and minute directions for preparing1 trying1 and administering the gas4 ,it was obtained from nitrate of potash1 7saltpetre17 not because it was the best process1 but because the substance could be obtained in the place1 and because a common fire would serve for its extrication4 ,the gas obtained had1 of course1 a variable mixture of nitrogen or azot1 and probably on an average1 might not be purer than nearly the reversed proportions of the atmosphere--that is1 #gj to #hj per cent4 of oxygen to #bj or #cj nitrogen2 and it is worthy of observation1 whether this circumstance might not have influenced the result4 ,contrary to our expectations1 the gas 7as we are since informed by good authority7 was skilfully prepared and perseveringly used4 ,from the first1 the difficulty of breathing and other oppressive affections were relieved3 the young lady grew rapidly better1 and in a few weeks entirely recovered her health4 ,a respectable physician1 conversant with the case1 states1 in a letter now before us1 that the inhaling of the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of breathing1 increased the operation of diuretics1 and has effected her cure4 ,whether her disease was hydrothorax1 or an anasarcous affection of the lungs1 is a matter ,i believe not settled4 ,should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of oxygen gas appear to be desired1 it would not be difficult to simplify the apparatus and operations so as to bring them within the reach of an intelligent person1 even although ignorant of chemistry3 and this task1 should there be occasion1 we would cheerfully undertake to perform4 ,this interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed1 not with the spirit of quackery1 or of extravagant expectation1 but with the sobriety of philosophical research2 and it is more than probable that the nitrous oxyde which is now little more than a subject of merriment and wonder1 if properly diluted and discreetly applied1 would be productive of valuable effects4 ,,art4 ,,xxiv4 ,on the ,compound ,blowpipe4 ,extract from the ,journal de ,physique1 of ,paris1 for ,january #ahah4ad ,,concerning ,,heat4 ,heat1 considered as one of the most important agents1 especially in relation to chemistry1 and even to mineralogy1 has also been the subject of numerous labours1 both with regard to the means of augmenting and of diminishing its effects4 ,to the former belong the numerous experiments made1 especially in ,england1 with the blowpipe1 supplied by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases4 ,mr4 ,clarke has evidently been more extensively engaged in these researches than any other person1 as our readers have perceived in the extracts which we have given from the labours of this learned chemist2 but it is proper also to give publicity to the protest 7rclamation7 made to us in favour of ,mr4 ,silliman4 ,we have already stated that ,mr4 ,hare1 of ,philadelphia1 first conceived the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas2 but as we have not been conversant with the memoirs of the ,society of ,arts and ,sciences of ,connecticut1 we have not made mention of ,mr4 ,silliman4 ,the fact is1 that this chemist1 ,professor at ,new-,haven1 published1 on the #gth of ,may1#ae #ahab1 a memoir containing the results of experiments made upon a very great number of bodies1 until that time reputed to be infusible2 and1 among others1 upon the alkaline earths1 the decomposition of which he effected4 ,the experiments of ,mr4 ,clarke were therefore subsequent2 but1 having been made upon a still more extensive list of substances1 they are scarcely less interesting4 ,it results then1 from the experiments of ,messrs4 ,hare1 ,silliman1 ,clarke1 ,murray1 and ,ridolfi1 that there is really no substance which is infusible in the degree of heat produced by this kind of blowpipe4 ,in this new department of physics1 it is attempted not only to apply the blowpipe to a very great number of bodies1 but so to modify the instrument or apparatus as to give it the highest degree of convenience1 and especially to obviate the danger of explosion4 pp4 #ch #ci4 ,,remarks4 ,as the results produced by ,mr4 ,hare's ,compound ,blowpipe1 fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases1 continue to be mentioned in ,europe1 in many of the ,journals1 without any reference to the results long since obtained in this country1 we republish the following statement of facts1 which was1 in substance1 first published in ,new-,york1 more than a year since4 ,it should be observed1 that ,mr4 ,tilloch has since published1 in the ,philosophical ,magazine in ,london1 the memoir which contained the ,american results1 and there have been some other allusions to it in different ,european ,journals1 and to ,mr4 ,hare's previous experiments2 but still this interesting class of results continue to be attributed to others than their original discoverers4 ,yale ,college1 ,april #g1 #ahag4 ,various notices1 more or less complete1 chiefly copied from ,english newspapers1 are now going the round of the public prints in this country1 stating that a new kind of fire has been discovered in ,england1 or1 at least1 new and heretofore unparalleled means of exciting heat1 by which the gems1 and all the most refractory substances in nature1 are immediately melted1 and even in various instances dissipated in vapour1 or decomposed into their elements4 ,the first glance at these statements1 7which1 as regards the effects1 ,i have no doubt are substantially true17 was sufficient to satisfy me1 that the basis of these discoveries was laid by an ,american discovery1 made by ,mr4 ,robert ,hare of ,philadelphia1 in #ahja4 ,in ,december of that year1 ,mr4 ,hare communicated to the ,chemical ,society of ,philadelphia his discovery of a method of burning oxygen and hydrogen gases in a united stream1 so as to produce a very intense heat4 ,in #ahjb1 he published a detailed memoir on the subject1 with an engraving of his apparatus1 and he recited the effects of his instrument2 some of which1 in the degree of heat produced1 surpassed any thing before known4 ,in #ahjb1 and #ahjc1 ,i was occupied with him1 in ,philadelphia1 in prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale2 and a communication on the subject was made to the ,philosophical ,society of ,philadelphia4 ,the memoir is printed in their transactions2 and ,mr4 ,hare's original memoir was reprinted in the ,annals of ,chemistry1 in ,paris1 and in the ,philosophical ,magazine1 in ,london4 ,mr4 ,murray1 in his ,system of ,chemistry1 has mentioned ,mr4 ,hare's results in the fusion of several of the earths1 c4 and has given him credit for his discovery4 ,in one instance1 while in ,europe1 in #ahjf1 at a public lecture1 ,i saw some of them exhibited by a celebrated ,professor1 who mentioned ,mr4 ,hare as the reputed author of the invention4 ,in ,december1 #ahaa1 ,i instituted an extended course of experiments with ,mr4 ,hare's blowpipe1 in which ,i melted lime and magnesia1 and a long list of the most refractory minerals1 gems1 and others1 the greater part of which had never been melted before1 and ,i supposed that ,i had decomposed lime1 barytes1 strontites1 and magnesia1 evolving their metallic basis1 which burnt in the air as fast as produced4 ,i communicated a detailed account of my experiments to the ,connecticut ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 who published it in their ,transactions for #ahab2 with their leave it was communicated to ,dr ,bruce's ,mineralogical ,journal1 and it was printed in the #dth number of that work4 ,hundreds of my pupils can testify that ,mr4 ,hare's splendid experiments1 and many others performed with his blowpipe1 fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases1 have been for years past annually exhibited1 in my public courses of chemistry in ,yale ,college1 and that the fusion and volatilization of platina1 and the combustion of that metal1 and of gold and silver1 and of many other metals2 that the fusion of the earths1 of rock crystal1 of gun flint1 of the corundum gems1 and many other1 very refractory substances2 and the production of light beyond the brightness of the sun1 have been familiar experiments in my laboratory4 ,i have uniformly given ,mr4 ,hare the full credit of the invention1 although my researches1 with his instrument1 had been pushed farther than his own1 and a good many new results added4 ,it is therefore with no small surprise that1 in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 for ,september1 #ahaf1 ,i found a translation of a very elaborate memoir1 from a ,scientific ,journal1 published at the ,royal ,institution in ,london1 in which a full account is given of a very interesting series of experiments performed by means of ,mr4 ,hare's instrument2 or rather one somewhat differently arranged1 but depending on the same principle4 ,mr4 ,hare's invention is slightly mentioned in a note1 but no mention is made of his experiments1 or of mine4 ,on a comparison of the memoir in question with ,mr4 ,hare's and with my own1 ,i find that very many of the results are identical1 and all the new ones are derived directly from ,mr4 ,hare's invention1 with the following differences4--,in ,mr4 ,hare's1 the two gases were in distinct reservoirs1 to prevent explosion2 they were propelled by the pressure of a column of water1 and were made to mingle1 just before their exit1 at a common orifice4 ,in the ,english apparatus1 the gases are both in one reservoir1 and they are propelled by their own elasticity1 after condensation1 by a syringe4 ,professor ,clarke1 of ,cambridge ,university1 the celebrated traveller1 is the author of the memoir in question2 and we must presume that he was ignorant of what had been done by ,mr4 ,hare and myself1 or he would candidly have adverted to the facts4 ,it is proper that the public should know that ,mr4 ,hare was the author of the invention1 by means of which1 in ,europe1 they are now performing the most brilliant and beautiful experiments2 and that there are very few of these results hitherto obtained there1 by the use of it1 7and the publication of which has there excited great interest17 which were not1 several years ago1 anticipated here1 either by ,mr4 ,hare or by myself4 ,as ,i have cited only printed documents1 or the testimony of living witnesses1 ,i trust the public will not consider this communication as indelicate1 or arrogant1 but simply a matter of justice to the interests of ,american science1 and particularly to ,mr4 ,hare4 ,,benjamin ,,silliman1 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,mineralogy in ,yale ,college4 ,,art4 ,,xxv4 ,the ,northwest ,passage1 the ,north ,pole1 and the ,greenland ,ice4 ,in looking over the foreign journals1 we find no articles of intelligence so interesting as those which respect the three subjects mentioned above4 ,indeed1 as they have found their way into most of our newspapers1 it is now generally known in this country1 that1 in consequence of the reported breaking up of the ,greenland ice1 an expedition has already left ,england1 in two divisions1 the one for the purpose of exploring a northwest passage to ,asia1 around the ,north ,american continent1 by the way of ,davis's ,straits2 the other1 for effecting the same object by passing over the north pole4 ,if ,horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first adventured upon the open sea1 what shall we say of the hardihood of the attempt to visit ,,the ,,pole8--the pole1 which it is impossible to contemplate without awe--which1 in all probability1 has never been visited by any living being--where the dreary solitude has never been broken by human voice--where the sound of war has never been heard1 and darkness and cold exert an almost undisputed dominion6 ,what must be the emotions of that man who first stands upon the point of the earth's axis6 ,who1 no longer partaking of the revolution1 in circles of latitude1 slowly revolves on the axis of his own body1 once in twenty-four hours--to whom the sun does not rise or set1 but1 moving in a course very oblique to the horizon1 makes scarcely a perceptible progress in twenty-four hours1 and at the end of three months1 when he has attained his noon1 is only #bc #bh1 on the arc of a vertical circle1 above the horizon--to whom longitude is extinct1 and who can move in no possible direction but south--to whom the stars are a blank1 and to whom the polar star1 could he see it1 would appear in the zenith4 ,such are some of the most obvious results of a position on the pole4 ,the man who first establishes himself on this sublime point1 will have more reason for self-congratulation than he who led the ,persian myriads into ,greece1 or he who pushed the ,macedonians to the ,indus4 ,on these interesting subjects1 we beg leave to refer our readers to a very able treatise in the ,quarterly ,review for ,february1 #ahah1 where all the topics at the head of this article are discussed with much learning and ability4--,we extract the following passage3 ,if an open navigation should be discovered across the polar basin1 the passage over the pole or close to it1 will be one of the most interesting events to science that has ever occurred4 ,it will be the first time that the problem was practically solved with which the learners of geography are sometimes puzzled--that of going the shortest way between two places lying east and west1 by taking a direction of north and south4 ,the passage of the pole will require the undivided attention of the navigator4 ,on approaching this point1 from which the northern coasts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 and every part of them1 will bear south of him1 nothing can possibly assist him in determining his course1 and keeping on the right meridian of his destined place1 but a correct knowledge of the time3 and yet no means of ascertaining that time will be afforded him4 ,the only time he can have1 with any degree of certainty1 as long as he remains on or near the pole1 must be that of ,greenwich1 and this he can know only from good chronometers2 for1 from the general hazy state of the atmosphere1 and particularly about the horizon1 and the sameness in the altitude of the sun at every hour in the four-and-twenty1 he must not expect to obtain an approximation even of the apparent time1 by observation1 and he will have no stars to assist him4 ,all his ideas respecting the heavens and the reckonings of his time will be reversed1 and the change not gradual1 as in proceeding from the east to the west1 or the contrary1 but instantaneous4 ,the magnetic needle will point to its unknown magnetic pole1 or fly around from the point of the bowl in which it is suspended1 and that which indicated north will now be south2 the east will become the west1 and the hour of noon will be that of midnight4 ,these curious circumstances will probably be considered to mark the passage by the pole1 as the most interesting of the two1 while it will perhaps be found equally easy4 ,we have1 indeed1 very little doubt1 that if the polar basin should prove to be free from land about the pole1 it will also be free of ice4 ,a sea of more than two thousand miles in diameter1 of unfathomable depth1 7which is the case between ,greenland and ,spitzbergen17 and in constant motion1 is not likely to be frozen over at any time4 ,but if all endeavours to discover a passage to the ,pacific by either route should prove unavailing1 it will still be satisfactory to have removed every doubt on this subject by ascertaining the fact4 ,in making the attempt1 many objects interesting and important to science will present themselves to the observation of those who are engaged in the two expeditions4 ,that which proceeds up ,davis's ,straits1 will have an opportunity of adjusting the geography of the northeast coast of ,america1 and the west coast of ,greenland2 and of ascertaining whether the latter be not an island or an archipelago of islands2 and much curious information may be expected from both4 ,they will ascertain1 what is as yet but very imperfectly known1 the depth1 the temperature1 the saltness1 and the specific gravity of the sea-water in those high latitudes--the velocity of the currents1 the state of atmospherical electricity in the arctic regions1 and its connexion1 at which we have glanced1 with the inclination1 declination1 and intensity of force of the magnetic needle2 on which subject alone1 a collection of facts towards the upper part of ,davis's ,straits would be worth a voyage of discovery4 ,it has1 indeed1 been long suspected that one of the magnetic poles will be found in this neighbourhood1 as in no part of the world have such extraordinary phenomena been observed1 or such irregularities in the vibration and the variation of the needle4 ,a comparison of the magnetic influence near the pole1 with what it has been observed to be on the equator1 might lead to important results2 and the swinging of a pendulum as near the pole as can be approached1 to compare with the oscillations observed in the ,shetland ,islands1 and in the southern hemisphere1 would be a great point gained for science4 ,we have no room in this ,number to consider the probability of success in this attempt1 nor the question1 whether the breaking up of the ,greenland ice1 and its passage to1 and dissolution in1 the south1 have been attended with a chilling influence on the continents4 ,that such a chilling effect might be extensively exerted1 is certainly credible4 ,approaching some of the icebergs1 in ,april #ahje1 on the shoals of ,newfoundland1 we were rendered very sensible of the vicinity of such dangerous neighbours1 by the great chill in the air1 long before they were visible2 and when we had passed them1 the weather again grew milder4 ,perhaps it militates against the probability of finding the northern polar basin free of ice1 that ,captain ,cook1 in his approximation to the southern pole1 in ,january1 #aggc1 when in latitude #fg #ae south1 could proceed no farther2 the ice being entirely closed to the south1 in the whole extent from east to west-southwest1 without the least appearance of any opening4 ,the advanced season of the year did not1 however1 permit ,captain ,cook to ascertain whether he could coast around this ice--whether it was ultimately attached to land1 or was a part of a vast field extending to the south pole4 ,this last is however highly improbable1 because being found about #bc from the pole1 it is hardly credible that it would occupy so extensive a region as to embrace the pole1 and1 perhaps extend as much farther beyond2 especially as in similar latitudes in the opposite hemisphere1 navigation is comparatively free1 and has been pushed even to more than #hj of north latitude4 ,the scientific1 as well as the commercial world1 will wait with no small impatience for the termination of the two grand arctic expeditions1 which are among the most original and daring1 and may be among the most interesting and momentous hitherto undertaken by man4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i trust the public will pardon me for stating1 that various scientific friends1 despairing of the revival of the ,journal of ,dr4 ,bruce1 had1 for some time1 pressed me to undertake the editing of a ,journal of ,science4 ,considerations of personal friendship prevented me from listening to such proposals till the decline of ,dr4 ,bruce's health1 attended by the most alarming symptoms1 rendered it very obvious that his ,journal would not be revived4 ,towards the close of last ,november1 in a personal interview1 ,i communicated to him the design of the present work1 at the same time offering to waive it1 provided he considered it as probable that his own ,journal would be resumed4 ,of this1 however1 he gave no encouragement2 but1 on the contrary1 expressed his warm approbation of my undertaking1 authorized me to consider him as a contributor1 and to make public use of his name as a patron4 ,it was not till after this that the annunciation of this work took place2 and it is certain that had not all hope of the resumption of ,dr4 ,bruce's ,journal been completely cut off1 this would not have appeared4 #b ,the efforts of ,stephen ,elliott1 ,esq4 of ,south ,carolina1 in regard to the botany of the ,southern ,states1 are particularly worthy of imitation and praise4 #c ,from the ,,ms4 papers of the ,connecticut ,academy1 now published by permission4 #d ,see ,kollmann's ,harmony1 p4 #ac1 c4 #e ,tilloch's ,phil4 ,mag4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4 p4 #adj4 #f ,the propriety of making #be 3 #cf the true ratio of the #eth will be manifest1 when it is considered that this is the value of that interval as sounded by voices and perfect instruments2 when the #c;ds which compose it are made perfect4 ,this interval1 as found in the scale which has the fewest tempered concords possible referred to at the beginning of this essay1 ought to be regarded as the true #eth1 flattened by a comma1 in the same manner as one of its component #c;ds will be allowed by all to be flattened4 #g ,the propriety of this limitation will be manifest1 when we consider that in organ music1 the chords are generally played more full1 and are more protracted1 than in music for other keyed instruments4 ,it is harmony which constitutes its character1 in a higher degree than in music for other instruments4 ,hence the harmony of the organ ought not to be impaired by including in our computations any music not adapted to it4 ,if a similar examination of music for the piano-forte would afford a set of results essentially different from those of this proposition1 this is no proof that it ought to have any concern in a system of temperament designed primarily for the organ1 but merely that the same temperament cannot be equally adapted to different instruments4 ,if1 as is probable1 such an examination would give essentially the same results1 to introduce them would be superfluous4 #h ,the smaller works of ,phillips and ,aikin were not then published2 had they been1 they could not have superseded ,cleaveland2 the same may be said of the respectable work of ,professor ,kidd1 of ,oxford ,university4 #i ,a vast region in the interior of ,new-,york and ,pennsylvania is now fertilized by inexhaustible beds of sulphat of lime1 7plaster of ,paris17 which1 till a very few years since1 were not even known to exist4 ,near ,new-,haven immense beds of green marble were discovered in #ahaa1 during a mineralogical excursion3 this beautiful material1 closely resembling the verd antique1 is now1 on the spot1 wrought into tables1 fireplaces1 and many other ornamental forms2 and although the farmers had made fences of it for #aej years1 no one suspected what it was till the study of mineralogy1 in ,yale ,college1 brought it to light4 #aj ,see ,tilloch's ,phil4 ,mag4 ,vol4 ,,xlii4 p4 #ahb4 #aa ,in the ,journal of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia this plant is called limosella tenuifolia4 #ab ,no return of this tree was made from ,brunswick4 ,the date of the cherry-tree is therefore substituted1 which is usually in blossom at the same time4 #ac ,mr4 ,correa de ,serra1 ,minister of the ,king of ,portugal4 #ad ,communicated by a friend at ,paris4 #ae ,see ,transactions of the ,connecticut ,academy1 and ,bruce's ,journal1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aii4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,art4 ,i4 ,remarks on the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a section of ,massachusetts1 on ,connecticut river1 with a part of ,new-,hampshire and ,vermont1 by ,edward ,hitchcock1 ,a4,m4 ,principal of ,deerfield ,academy #ajf ,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,prairies and ,barrens of the ,west1 by ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 #aaf ,art4 ,,iii4 ,account of the ,coal ,mines in the vicinity of ,richmond1 ,virginia1 by ,mr4 ,john ,grammer1 ,jun4 #abe ,art ,,iv4 ,sketch of the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a part of the ,state of ,indiana1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,stilson #aca ,art4 ,v4 ,new localities of ,agate1 ,chalcedony1 ,chabasie1 ,stilbite1 ,analcime1 ,titanium1 ,prehnite1 c4 #acd ,art4 ,,vi4 ,account of the ,strata perforated by1 and of the ,minerals found in1 the great adit to the ,southampton ,lead ,mine1 by ,mr4 ,amos ,eaton1 ,lecturer on ,geology1 ,botany1 c4 #acf ,art4 ,,vii4 ,on the ,peat of ,dutchess ,county1 by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,c4 ,schaeffer #aci ,art4 ,,viii4 ,notices of ,geology in the ,west-,indies1 by ,dr4 ,nugent #adj ,art4 ,,ix4 ,discovery of ,native ,crystallized ,carbonate of ,magnesia on ,staten-,island1 with a ,notice of its ,geology1 by ,james ,pierce1 ,esq4 #adb ,art4 ,x4 ,on a curious substance found with the native ,nitre of ,kentucky and of ,africa1 by ,samuel ,brown1 ,m4,d4 #adf ,,botany4 ,art4 ,,xi4 ,description of species of ,sponges observed on the shores of ,long-,island1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #adi ,art4 ,,xii4 ,memoir on the ,xanthium maculatum1 by the same #aea ,,zoology4 ,art4 ,,xiii4 ,description of the ,phalna ,devastator--the ,insect that produces the ,cut-worm1 by ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,brace #aed ,art4 ,,xiv4 ,description of the ,exoglossum1 a new genus of ,fresh-water ,fish1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #aee ,,physics1 ,,mechanics1 ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,art4 ,,xv4 ,on the ,revolving ,steam-,engine of ,mr4 ,samuel ,morey1 communicated by ,john ,l4 ,sullivan1 ,esq4 #aeg ,art4 ,,xvi4 ,cautions regarding ,fulminating ,powders #afh ,,useful ,,arts4 ,art4 ,,xvii4#af ,account of a ,parisian method of obtaining ,gelatine from bones1 by ,mr4 ,isaac ,doolittle #agj ,art4 ,,xviii4 ,on the use of ,distilled ,seawater for domestic purposes--from the ,annales de ,chimie1 c4 #agb ,,fine ,,arts4 ,art4 ,,xix4 ,essay on ,musical ,temperament1 by ,professor ,fisher #agf ,art4 ,,xx4 ,notice of ,col4 ,trumbull's ,picture of the ,declaration of ,independence #bjj ,,intelligence4 ,art4 ,,xxi4 ,an ,address to the ,people of the ,western ,country #bjc ,art4 ,,xxii4 ,extract of a letter from ,col4 ,gibbs1 on the effect of light on the ,magnetical power #bjg ,art4 ,,xxiii4 ,on a new ,lamp1 without flame--from the ,annals of ,philosophy ibid4 ,,footnotes3 #af ,,erratum4 ,in the text this ,article was1 by inadvertence1 numbered ,,xix1 and all the succeeding ,articles of this ,number are marked two higher than they ought to be4 ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 c4 ,,mineralogy ,,and ,,geology4 ,,art4 ,i4 ,remarks on the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a ,section of ,massachusetts on ,connecticut ,river1 with a ,part of ,new-,hampshire and ,vermont2 by ,,edward ,,hitchcock1 ,a4 ,m4 ,principal of ,deerfield ,academy4 ,the geology of this tract1 from a few miles south of ,northampton in ,massachusetts1 to the north boundary of ,brattleborough in ,vermont1 and of ,chesterfield in ,new-,hampshire1 is shown on the subjoined map4 ,the primitive formation1 except the argillite1 is coloured vermilion2 the secondary1 blue2 and the alluvial1 gamboge yellow1 according to ,cleaveland4 ,the alluvial part is elevated above the bed of ,connecticut river from #aj to #ajj feet1 and1 in most places1 reposes on red sandstone4 ,the soil in the northern part is generally argillaceous2 but in the southern more siliceous4 ,the secondary formation consists chiefly of detached eminences that rise abruptly from the plain1 and are composed of red sandstone and puddingstone alternating1 except the elevations ,a and ,b1 7,holyoke and ,tom7 and a part of the range ,,cd1 passing through ,deerfield and ,greenfield1 which are greenstone4 ,the part coloured rose-red consists of argillite1 sometimes alternating with mica slate1 siliceous slate1 or chlorite slate4 ,it is thus coloured to show the extent of the argillite1 and not from a belief that this rock is of the transition class2 for in this region the argillite is undoubtedly primitive4 ,some quarries of this rock have been opened in ,massachusetts2 and in ,vermont are extensively wrought4 ,i have not learnt how far the argillite extends northward in ,vermont and ,new-,hampshire4 ,its strata are almost perpendicular1 inclining a few degrees to the west4 ,the primitive region on the west side of ,connecticut river1 included by the map1 is made up of mica slate1 as a prevailing rock1 particularly in the northern part4 ,hornblende slate sometimes alternates with this1 and sienite appears in various places1 though its strata are generally thin4 ,limestone also occurs in ,deerfield1 ,conway1 ,colrain1 c4 of a dull brown colour4 ,it contains so large a proportion of silex that it is often but little removed from granular quartz4 ,lime for building has sometimes been obtained from it4 ,a range of granite1 containing veins of lead ore1 appears at ,southampton1 and proceeds to ,hatfield4 ,north of this1 the other rocks cover it1 and it does not again rise within the limits of the map4 ,sienite is the prevailing rock on the east side of ,connecticut river in the primitive region1 more particularly in the southern part4 ,in some places a narrow stratum of mica slate lies next to the conglomerate of the secondary formation1 and a low range of graphic and common granite has been observed in ,amherst and ,leverett1 lying next to the mica slate4 ,other veins of granite also traverse the sienite2 and gneiss occurs in many places4 ,the proportion of hornblende in the sienite is generally small1 and mica is often present in considerable proportion4 ,porphyritic sienite is common in this quarter1 and steatite occurs in its eastern part4 ,most of the primitive region on the map is broken and mountainous1 being made up of parallel ridges and detached eminences4 ,the strata run nearly north and south1 and dip to the east at angles between #bj and #fj4 ,it would be easy to extend the map on the west to the top of ,hoosack mountain1 since the country is all primitive2 and on the east the primitive continues1 with a few exceptions1 to the ocean4 ,the map might also be extended to the boundary of ,connecticut1 by prolonging the primitive ranges with some divergency1 and colouring the intermediate space secondary1 except a narrow tract on the east side of ,connecticut river1 which is alluvial4 ,these extensions were not thought necessary4 ,in the town of ,gill1 at ,e1 there is a cataract in ,connecticut river1 from #cj to #dj feet in height2 and it is believed that the alluvial region1 and part of the secondary shown on the map from this fall to the place where the river passes between mount ,holyoke and ,tom1 was formerly the bed of a lake3 for the logs are still found undecayed in many places1 from #aj to #bj feet below the surface2 the river has evidently worn a passage between ,holyoke and ,tom3 many of the hills on the northern part1 and the sandstone on the plain1 bear the marks of having been washed by water1 and the channels of two rivers are still visible in ,deerfield1 the one #cj1 and the other #ajj feet above the present bed of ,connecticut river4 ,between mount ,tom and the mountains west1 there is a secondary plain of sufficient height to throw back the water over the supposed bed of the lake1 before a passage was worn between ,holyoke and ,tom4 ,south of these hills commences another alluvial and secondary tract1 extending on both sides of the river to ,haddam1 in ,connecticut1 where the river passes between mountains1 and perhaps this region also was the bed of a lake4 ,the plain on which the village of ,deerfield stands1 with the adjoining meadows1 is sunk #ej or #fj feet below the general alluvial tract1 and was undoubtedly the bed of a pond1 or small lake1 that remained after the larger one of which we have spoken had subsided4 ,when this larger lake decreased1 ,deerfield river was cut off from a communication with the ,connecticut by the mountain ,,cd1 and the plain extending westward from this mountain4 ,there is a tradition1 derived from the aboriginals of ,deerfield1 that the passage in which ,deerfield river now runs through the mountain ,,cd1 was begun by a squaw with a clam-shell4 ,on the margin of these meadows1 at considerable elevation1 numerous small conical excavations appear4 ,on digging below the surface1 stones are found calcined by fire4 ,these are probably the spots where ,indian wigwams formerly stood4 ,many vestiges of the aboriginals are frequently found in ,deerfield1 such as beads1 stone pots1 mortars1 pipes1 axes1 and the barbs of arrows and pikes4 ,near the village they had a burial-ground1 where many skeletons have been uncovered4 ,a roll of human hair was lately found here1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,hoyt of ,deerfield1 three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 and three inches long1 closely tied by a string made of the hide of some animal1 which string was encircled by brass or copper clasps greatly oxidized2 but the hair and string were in a good state of preservation1 though they must have lain there more than a century4 ,in the meadows1 logs1 leaves1 butternuts1 and walnuts are found undecayed1 #ae feet below the surface2 and stumps of trees have been observed at that depth standing yet firmly where they once grew4 ,in the same meadows1 a few years since1 several toads were dug up from #ae feet below the surface1 and three feet in gravel4 ,they soon recovered from a torpid state1 and hopped away4 ,the small range of hills beginning at the south line of ,deerfield1 and terminating in ,gill1 deserves description4 ,at its commencement on the south1 a conical hill1 called ,sugar ,loaf1 of red conglomerate1 rises abruptly from the plain #ejj feet4 ,the appearance of this hill1 as you come from the south1 is picturesque1 and it is an interesting feature of the country4 ,the range becomes higher for three miles1 where1 at its greatest elevation1 it is #gcj feet above the bed of ,deerfield river4 ,the west side of the mountain is precipitous1 and in some places naked4 ,the ascent on the other side is gentle4 ,both sides of this hill are sandstone and puddingstone1 frequently alternating3 though these are most extensive on the west side1 and as we rise the puddingstone predominates4 ,the strata dip to the east about #aj degrees4 ,near the centre of this range is a ridge of greenstone1 with a mural face on the west1 and amorphous masses lying at the base1 half way up to its summit4 ,this ridge does not rise so high as the puddingstone on the west of it1 as may be seen in the view of strata with the map4 ,it commences on the west bank of ,connecticut river1 about a mile north of the hill ,c1 and increases in elevation nearly to the spot where it disappears at the fall of the river in ,gill4 ,this rock does not appear to rest on sandstone1 but to descend through it1 where there is an opportunity for observation4 ,deerfield river has worn a passage through the sandstone and greenstone #aej feet deep1 and the greenstone passes under its bed1 and the sandstone1 at a few rods distant lies on each side of the greenstone4 ,a similar fact has been noticed at the fall in ,connecticut river1 in ,gill4 ,yet ,i have coloured this greenstone secondary on the map2 for it is certain that ,mount ,tom rests on sandstone1 and it is stated by ,professor ,silliman1 that the same rock does in ,connecticut4 ,could we penetrate deeper below the surface1 it is probable the same would be found to be the case with this greenstone4 ,as stated above1 this rock disappears near the cataract in ,gill1 and it is succeeded by puddingstone4 ,but four miles farther north1 it again emerges in ,bernardstone1 though it rises but little above the surface4 ,here its character is changed4 ,the hornblende is more crystalline1 and the rock becomes decidedly primitive1 as you approach a mountain of argillite and mica slate1 into which it passes1 and no greenstone has been observed north of this4 ,it terminates not far from the line of ,vermont4 ,the red sandstone and conglomerate also terminate on the opposite side of the river in ,northfield4 ,the greenstone in the above described range1 is of a finer texture than the same rock in ,connecticut2 and the feldspar1 in some specimens1 is scarcely discernible with a microscope4 ,indeed1 in many instances1 the eye would decide the rock to be basalt4 ,much of it is fissile1 the lamin varying from half an inch to a foot in thickness4 ,this is most perceptible among the loose masses2 but it exists also in that in place4 ,whether this circumstance be accidental1 ,i will not attempt to decide4 ,a large proportion of the greenstone of our vicinity constitutes the base of amygdaloid4 ,the imbedded substances are calcareous spar1 quartz1 chalcedony1 analcime1 prehnite1 c4 as will be more particularly mentioned hereafter4 ,globular concretions of greenstone are common in this amygdaloid1 several inches in diameter1 and of greater specific gravity than the other parts of the rock4 ,a great number of columns occur in the same range1 having from three to six sides4 ,some of them are quite regular1 and are well articulated1 exhibiting at their joints considerable concavities and convexities4 ,they are from one to thirty feet long1 and1 in their natural position1 incline a few degrees to the east1 as may be seen in the view of strata with the map2 ,a few have been noticed that make lateral curves4 ,one of these hexagonal columns measures at one end as follows3--,diagonals1 #bg1 #bi1 and #bi inches2 sides1 #af1 #ac1 #aa1 #ag1 #aa1 and #af inches4 ,the convexity of this column is a little more than an inch4 ,the best instances of these prisms occur one mile east from the village of ,deerfield4 ,masses of greenstone are found at considerable distance from the range1 among the puddingstone4 ,one has been noticed weighing many tons1 a hundred rods from the range of greenstone1 and on much higher ground4 ,some of these scattered fragments contain chalcedony4 ,a specimen of petrosiliceous porphyry has been found among the same puddingstone1 and also a mass of singular1 though not well defined1 amygdaloid1 whose base is similar to wacke1 and imbedded substances are calcareous spar1 chlorite1 and green earth4 ,the elevation in the north part of ,sunderland1 called ,toby1 from #hjj to #ijj feet high1 is chiefly conglomerate1 red1 brown1 or greenish1 which1 in some parts1 alternates with chlorite slate1 secondary argillite1 and a sandstone that seems to be passing into gray wacke slate4 ,some of the imbedded masses in this puddingstone are quite large1 its cement is frequently calcareous1 its aspect is singular1 and it is very different from the puddingstone before described1 ,on the opposite side of the river4 ,at the foot of this mountain1 in the bottom of ,connecticut river1 distinct impressions of fish are found on a schistose rock1 like the one above mentioned as passing into gray wacke slate4 ,this same species of slate occurs in several other places at the bottom of ,connecticut river1 as at the fall in ,gill4 ,in this last place bituminous shale has been noticed4 ,in ,mount ,toby1 in ,sunderland1 is a cave nearly #aej feet above the bed of ,connecticut river4 ,it opens to the north and west1 forming a quarter of a circle1 is #acj feet in extent1 #fj feet deep1 and from #c to #bj wide4 ,a little to the south of it1 is a fissure in the puddingstone1 formed by a separation of the rock1 ten feet wide1 and as deep as the cave4 ,so perfect is this division1 that it appears as if cloven down by the sword of some ,titan4 ,perhaps this cave and fissure were formed by the washing of the waters of the lake we have mentioned on the sandstone and conglomerate beneath2 thus causing the superincumbent rock to fall and separate4 ,there is no appearance of any other convulsion4 ,imperfect1 calcareous stalactites are found in this cave4 ,the falls in ,connecticut river1 at ,e1 are not unworthy of notice4 ,the river here is about #dj rods wide1 and the height of the main cataract1 raised considerably by an artificial dam1 is #cj feet4 ,the fall continues two miles4 ,on the north bank you view the cataract from elevated ground1 and can see the river nearly a mile above and below--above1 perfectly smooth and calm1 below1 forming a quarter of a circle1 and tumbling among the broken rocks4 ,on the opposite side of the river are a few buildings1 the commencement of a canal1 and1 behind these1 moderately elevated hills1 covered with woods4 ,two rocky islands near the middle of the descending sheet1 and another thirty rods below1 add much to the beauty of the view4 ,looking from the southeast shore1 you have a partial prospect of the falls1 and a view of an amphitheatre of greenstone hills1 through which a small river empties4 ,the pleasure derived from the view proceeds more from its wildness than its sublimity4 ,the position of the hills1 boundaries1 and rivers1 on the accompanying map1 may not1 in all cases1 be precisely correct4 ,the general outlines were enlarged by a pentegraph from ,carleton's map of ,massachusetts1 and the intermediate objects were placed chiefly by the eye2 their relative situations being determined by travelling over the ground1 and viewing them from different elevations4 ,the boundaries of the several formations have not been so carefully noticed near the angles of the map as in the central parts4 ,of their correctness generally1 however1 ,i am confident4 ,the latitude and longitude of ,deerfield1 from which those on the map were marked1 were obtained by taking a mean of the observations given by ,gen4 ,e4 ,hoyt1 in the ,transactions of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 and of twelve lunar observations since made4 ,the result is1 ,lat4 #db #cb' #cb4 ,long4 #gb #ci' from ,greenwich4 ,with the map is given a view of the strata of rocks from ,hoosack mountain to eleven miles east of ,connecticut river1 on a line nearly east and west1 passing through ,deerfield4 ,the horizontal distances are laid down from a scale3 the elevations are assumed4 ,the principal rocks only are coloured2 for it is very difficult to determine the breadth of many1 since they frequently alternate with one another4 ,i have not examined the country on the east side of ,connecticut river with sufficient care to be able to extend the section on that side more than a few miles4 ,it may not be amiss to mention1 that ,mount ,holyoke1 so much celebrated for the delightful view from its top1 has been found1 with a sextant1 to be #hcj feet above ,connecticut river4 ,its height has been frequently overrated4 ,the mineralogy of this section of the country has been but imperfectly explored4 ,i shall mention those minerals only of which ,i have obtained specimens1 and whose localities have not been noticed by mineralogists4 ,quartz--several varieties4 #a4 ,rock ,crystal--abundant4 ,some good specimens are found in ,conway1 on feldspar1 with the usual hexagonal1 prismatic crystals1 and these crystals cross each other in all directions4 #b4 ,irised ,quartz--found in ,leyden4 #c4 ,granular ,quartz--in ,deerfield4 #d4 ,radiated ,quartz--in ,whately and ,shelburne4 #e4 ,blue ,quartz--in rolled masses on the banks of ,deerfield river4 #f4 ,greasy ,quartz--in same place4 #g4 ,pseudomorphous ,quartz--in greenstone1 ,deerfield4 #h4 ,lamellar ,quartz--in same place4 ,the lamin sometimes penetrate crystals of common quartz4 #i4 ,tubular1 or ,pectinated ,quartz--in same place4 #aj4 ,quartz ,geodes--in same place4 ,prase--in the north part of ,sunderland4 7,not good specimens47 ,amethyst--in ,greenstone1 ,deerfield3 the colour is not deep1 but delicate4 ,chalcedony--in same place--considerably abundant1 but generally in small masses4 ,carnelian--in same place1 not plenty4 ,the chalcedony1 in some specimens1 seems to be passing into cacholong1 and the carnelian into sardonyx4 ,agate--in same place4 ,it is made up of chalcedony1 carnelian1 and quartz4 ,they are generally small1 but some are elegant4 ,jasper1 red1 and yellow--found in rolled masses on the banks of ,deerfield river and in ,leyden4 ,some have been found imperfectly striped4 ,it occurs frequently as it was formed by the aboriginals into barbs for pikes and arrows4 ,petrosilex--on the banks of ,deerfield river--not good specimens4 ,feldspar--the red variety occurs in puddingstone1 ,deerfield4 ,it is not necessary to mention any other locality of a mineral so common4 ,hornblende--very abundant--mostly black in this vicinity4 ,mica--this is very abundant on the east side of ,connecticut river4 ,some crystals of it have been found in ,amherst4 ,talc--in ,shutesbury4 ,steatite4 ,the localities of this are seen on the section4 ,the aboriginals formed many articles from this mineral1 as pots1 pipes1 c4 ,chlorite--in ,shutesbury3 also in amygdaloid1 ,deerfield4 ,in ,deerfield academy there are some ,indian pipes of this mineral1 well wrought4 ,green ,earth--in small quantities1 in amygdaloid1 ,deerfield4 ,schorl--the black variety occurs in ,pelham1 ,shutesbury1 and ,orange1 ,mass41 and in ,brattleborough1 ,vermont4 ,epidote--in ,deerfield1 ,shutesbury1 ,leyden1 and ,pelham1 and in ,athol1 ,worcester county4 ,the specimens poor4 ,tremolite--in the west part of ,leyden1 near ,green river4 ,the rock in this region is chiefly mica slate1 and the quantity of tremolite is very great4 ,tons of it might be easily collected4 ,cyanite1 or ,sappare--in ,deerfield1 in mica slate2 discovered by ,dr4 ,s4 ,w4 ,williams4 ,actynolite--rare1 found in ,shutesbury4 ,serpentine--found in ,leyden in rolled masses4 ,some of the specimens admit a fine polish1 and the ground is handsomely variegated4 ,it has not been noticed in situ4 ,asbestus--compact1 in ,pelham4 ,garnets--very plenty in ,conway1 ,deerfield1 ,shelburne1 c4 ,good specimens of the melanite occur in ,conway4 ,native ,alum--in ,leyden1 in small quantities1 efflorescing on argillaceous slate4 ,sulphur--in ,conway1 ,shelburne1 and ,warwick1 efflorescing on mica slate4 ,prehnite--in greenstone1 ,deerfield1 encrusting the columns and in radiated masses1 but rarely crystallized4 ,the veins of it1 when in place1 are nearly perpendicular4 ,zeolite--in same place1 not abundant4 ,some good specimens of the radiated variety are found4 ,chabasie--in same place1 considerably abundant4 ,no crystals have yet been found whose sides exceed a quarter of an inch4 ,it occurs in the veins of the greenstone1 in geodes1 on balls of zeolite1 on chalcedony1 on lamellar quartz1 c4 ,stilbite--in same place1 not abundant4 ,it is commonly associated with chabasie1 and the crystals1 though small1 are well defined4 ,analcime--in same place1 very abundant1 and is associated with quartz and amethyst1 which are sometimes enclosed by analcime4 ,it generally occurs in cylindrical1 reniform1 and radiated masses4 ,a few perfect crystals only have been observed4 ,laminated ,calcareous ,spar--in the same place1 not uncommon4 ,chalcedony1 carnelian1 agate1 amethyst1 prehnite1 zeolite1 chabasie1 stilbite1 and analcime1 have been found nearly in the same place2 and it may not be amiss to observe1 that this spot is distant from ,deerfield ,academy about one mile1 and bears from the same1 by a true meridian1 ,e4 #b1 #ae ,s4 ,iron ,sand--found in considerable quantity near the falls in ,connecticut river1 on the ,montague shore4 ,sulphate of ,iron--in ,conway1 in small quantities1 efflorescing on mica slate4 ,sulphuret of ,iron--in ,halifax1 ,vermont1 in abundance2 also in ,charlemont1 ,mass41 ,deerfield1 c4 ,magnetic ,oxide of ,iron--very common in the region west of ,connecticut river4 ,i have observed it in ,athol1 ,worcester county4 ,specular ,oxide of ,iron--some veins of this ore occur in ,hawley1 ,bernardstown1 and ,warwick1 and have been wrought to a small extent4 ,micaceous ,oxide of ,iron--in the iron mine in ,hawley4 ,green ,carbonate of ,copper--in greenstone1 in ,greenfield4 ,this ore constitutes a vein on the bank of ,connecticut river1 passing into the hill on one side1 and under the river on the other4 ,it has never been wrought1 nor1 indeed1 is its locality publicly known4 ,copper ,pyrites--in the same vein1 not abundant1 at the surface4 ,sulphate of ,barytes--in the same place1 constituting the immediate walls of the vein4 ,its breadth on the wall varies from an inch to a foot1 and the breadth of the vein is #f or #h feet4 ,galena--in ,whately4 ,this is probably from a continuation of the vein of this ore that appears at ,montgomery1 ,southampton1 and ,hatfield4 ,a single crystal has been found in the same range1 in ,greenfield1 twelve miles north of ,whately2 but it was not in place4 ,red ,oxyde of ,titanium--in ,leyden1 crystallized on quartz and tremolite1 chiefly on the latter2 colour brownish red--specific gravity #d4bcb2 scratches glass1 handsomely geniculated1 and sometimes several geniculations in the same specimen2 in one as many as six could be perceived4 ,eagle ,stone1 or ,nodular argillaceous ,oxide of ,iron--one specimen on the banks of ,deerfield river4 ,rose-red ,quartz--a loose mass in alluvial soil1 ,deerfield4 ,red ,oxide of ,titanium--in ,shelburne4 ,i would acknowledge my peculiar obligations to ,professor ,silliman1 of ,new-,haven1 and to ,dr4 ,david ,hunt1 of ,northampton1 ,mass4 for the very generous assistance they have given me in a commencement of the study of mineralogy1 and for their liberal aid in this particular communication4 ,their kindness1 it is believed1 will not soon be forgotten4 ,to several others1 also1 ,i am indebted for communicating facts of importance4 ,deerfield1 ,october1 #ahag4 ,,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,prairies and ,barrens of the ,west1 by ,,caleb ,,atwater1 ,,esq4 in ,letters to the ,editor4 ,,circleville1 ,ohio1 ,may #bh1 #ahah4 ,dear ,sir1 ,i send you for publication in the ,journal of ,science1 an ,essay on the ,prairies and ,barrens found in this country4 ,description of the ,prairies4 ,prairie is a ,french word1 signifying a meadow1 but is here applied only to natural meadows4 ,they are found in all the states and territories west of the ,allegany mountains1 more or less numerous1 of greater or less extent4 ,they are covered with a coarse kind of grass1 which1 before the country is settled in their vicinity1 grows to the height of six or seven feet4 ,after these natural meadows are fed upon by domestic animals1 the grass does not grow to a greater height than it does in common pastures4 ,sometimes this grass is intermixed with weeds and plum-bushes4 ,some of those prairies are dry1 while others are moist4 ,pickaway ,plains1 in ,pickaway county1 in the ,state of ,ohio1 lying a small distance south of this place1 are nearly seven miles in length1 and about three miles in width1 on ground considerably elevated above the ,scioto river1 almost perfectly level1 and1 in their native state1 were covered with a great quantity of grass1 some weeds and plum-bushes2 and in the most elevated places1 there were a few trees4 ,this was one great prairie4 ,sandusky ,plains1 lying on the high ground between the head waters of the ,whetstone branch of the ,scioto river1 and the waters of streams running into ,lake ,erie1 are still more extensive than those of ,pickaway1 covered with a coarse1 tall grass1 intermixed with weeds1 with here and there a tree1 presenting to the eye a landscape of great extent4 ,the moist prairies generally lie along some stream1 or at the head of one1 on level land1 or on that which gently descends4 ,the moist prairies are too wet for trees to grow on them2 and whether moist or dry1 the soil1 for a greater or less depth1 is always alluvial1 resting on pebbles and sand1 such as are found at the bottom of rivers1 ponds1 and lakes4 ,in some instances1 the writer is credibly informed1 that the shells of muscles are found imbedded in the pebbles and sand4 ,that these shells1 such as abound in our rivers1 ponds1 and lakes1 should be found in low prairies along the banks of waters which frequently overflow them1 excites no wonder1 nor even surprise2 but that these shells should be found thus imbedded in pebbles and sand underneath several feet of alluvial soil1 in situations more than one hundred feet above the waters of any stream now in existence1 is calculated to perplex the mind of the superficial observer4 ,these prairies are found in the western half of the ,state of ,ohio1 and north of the hills adjacent to the river of that name4 ,they are also found in every state and territory west of the ,alleganies1 from the great northern lakes on the north1 to the ,mexican ,gulf on the south2 from the western foot of the ,allegany mountains1 to the eastern one of the ,rocky mountains1 up the ,missouri4 ,in summer1 the grass which spontaneously covers them1 feeds immense herds of cattle2 in winter1 the hay that is cut on them1 with a little ,indian corn or maize1 feeds and fattens the same herds4 ,some of these prairies extend as far as the eye can reach2 others contain only a few perches of ground4 ,description of the ,barrens4 ,but besides these prairies1 there are also extensive tracts of country in this part of the ,union which deserve and shall receive our notice2 they are called ,barrens4 ,from their appellation1 barrens1 the person unacquainted with them is not to suppose them thus called from their sterility1 because most of them are quite the reverse4 ,these barrens are found in a level country1 with here and there a gentle rise1 only a few feet higher than the land around it4 ,on these little rises1 for they are not hills1 trees grow1 and grass also2 but grass and weeds are the only occupants of the soil where there is no rise of ground4 ,the soil is alluvial to greater or less depth in these barrens1 though on some of the highest rises there is little or none2 the lower the ground the deeper the alluvion4 ,on these gentle rises1 where there is no alluvion1 we find stiff1 blue clay1 and no pebbles4 ,under the alluvial black soil1 in the lower grounds1 we find pebbles similar to those in the prairies1 owing to similar causes4 ,on the little ridges1 wherever the land is not too moist1 the oak or the hickory has taken possession1 and there grows to a moderate height1 in clusters4 ,it would seem1 that whenever the land had become sufficiently dry for an acorn or a hickory-nut to sprout1 take root1 and grow1 it did so2 and from one or more of these trees1 in time1 others have grown around them in such clusters as we now behold4 ,where the land is lower1 the soil deeper1 more moist and more fertile1 the grass was too thick1 and the soil too wet1 for such kind of trees to grow in as were found in the immediate vicinity4 ,imagine1 then1 natural meadows1 of various dimensions1 and of every figure which the imagination can conceive1 with here and there a gentle rise of ground1 decked with a few scattering trees or a thick cluster of them1 and bearing a tall1 coarse grass1 which is thin on the rises1 but on the lower grounds thick and luxuriant2 imagine1 also1 a rill of a reddish colour scarcely meandering through ground a little lower than the surrounding plain1 and you will have a very correct idea of the appearance of these barrens4 ,they are generally 7not always7 found on what1 in our western dialect1 is called second bottom1 and not on a level with any streams of magnitude1 but rather at their sources4 ,to mention all the counties of this ,state where these prairies and barrens are found1 would be too tedious1 and illy comport with the object which we have in view4 ,we shall therefore content ourselves with describing those found in the north half of ,fayette county1 and the adjoining county of ,madison1 which may be said to be almost entirely one great barren of more than forty miles extent from north to south1 and generally half as much in breadth from east to west4 ,the great barren in ,fayette1 ,madison1 and1 we may add1 in the counties still north of them1 is on land elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the level of the ,scioto river1 into which the streams that have their sources in this tract of country generally run4 ,this land lies so level that the waters stand on it too long for grain to thrive equally with grass1 unless1 indeed1 the farmer should dig a long drain1 which is easily effected by the plough1 with a little assistance from the hoe and the spade4 ,but as nature seems to have intended this tract of country for the raising of cattle instead of grain1 the husbandman has listened to the suggestion1 and in this great barren are found some thousands of the finest cattle which the ,state affords4 ,here the horse1 the ox1 and the swine feed1 thrive1 and fatten with little expense to their owner2 but sheep do not1 and never will1 thrive on prairie grass1 or wet grounds4 ,fruit-trees1 the peach1 the apple1 the plum1 c4 do very well when planted on the gently rising grounds1 where the hickory or the oak had once stood4 ,fruit-trees1 such as have been named1 thrive very well also on the dry prairies4 ,on the eastern side of the ,allegany mountains there neither is1 nor was there ever1 any thing like these prairies and barrens1 if we except those found in the western part of ,new-,york1 in the ,genesee country1 and in the vicinity of the lakes in that quarter4 ,these1 the writer of this saw nearly thirty years since1 and before that country was much settled4 ,those prairies were similar in appearance to ours in the west1 and were1 beyond doubt1 formed by similar means4 ,speculations on the ,origin of the ,prairies and ,barrens4 ,what were the causes which contribute to form these natural meadows8 ,that water was the principal agent in their formation1 we very little doubt2 but this is not the common opinion4 ,according to that opinion1 our prairies and barrens1 and especially the latter1 were occasioned entirely by the burning of the woods by the ,indians1 in order to take the wild game4 ,let us try this opinion by the indubitable appearances exhibited by these prairies and barrens4 ,they are invariably found in a level country1 or in one which is nearly so2 and the soil is generally1 if not always1 more moist than that which is uneven and hilly4 ,would not the leaves1 where the land is dry1 burn over with as great facility1 or even with greater facility1 than the grass would where the land is wet8 ,would there not be more wild game where they could find their food in plenty1 such as acorns and hickory nuts1 on which they feed in winter1 than on land where no food1 except dry grass and weeds1 were to be found8 ,it is well known that these prairies and barrens could not be burnt over when the vegetable productions which cover them were growing4 ,at the only season when it is possible to burn them1 that is in winter1 to what kind of regions do the wild animals resort8 ,is it not to the thick woods8 ,every hunter will answer in the affirmative4 ,for the space of twenty-five years1 the writer of this lived in the vicinity of ,indians1 and from information on which he relies1 as well as from his own actual observation1 he confidently avers that the ,indians neither are1 nor ever were1 in the habit of firing the woods in order to take game4 ,erroneous information first propagated such an opinion1 and blind credulity has extended it down to us4 ,another opinion1 equally groundless1 prevails to a considerable extent2 and that is1 that these prairies have all been heretofore cultivated by the aborigines1 and that the grass having overspread these plains1 prevented the growth of trees on them4 ,the ,indians1 it is to be presumed1 never cultivated any other grain than maize1 or ,indian corn1 and yet we see few or no corn-hills in any part of this country4 ,in the western part of ,new-,york1 before it was settled by its present inhabitants1 thousands and thousands of acres were to be seen1 where the trees were as large as any in the forest1 and yet the rows of corn-hills were plainly discernible4 ,i refer in a particular manner to what is now called ,cayuga county4 ,there the growth of grass had not prevented the growth of trees1 nor did it here4 ,we know that some of these prairies were cultivated by the ,indians1 but never to any very considerable extent4 ,this country never was thickly settled by ,indians1 like the shores of the ,atlantic and the banks of the rivers running into it4 ,no1 it was the ancestors of the ,peruvians and the ,mexicans who lived here in great numbers1 before they migrated to ,south ,america4 ,the question then recurs1 by what powerful means were these prairies and barrens formed8 ,that water was the principal agent1 we infer from the fact1 that the soil is always alluvial to greater or less depth2 the former we call prairie1 the latter barren4 ,but how could the country from the southern shore of ,lake ,erie to ,chillicothe1 a distance of more than one hundred and fifty miles from north to south1 ever be covered with water long enough to form alluvial soil1 in many places from four to six feet in depth8 ,i answer1 that the ,niagara river1 the present outlet of ,lake ,erie1 has worn away several hundred feet1 and in that way the lake is lowered in the same proportion4 ,the high land1 composed entirely of sand1 originally extending from the ,ohio northerly upwards of forty miles1 to ,chillicothe1 has been worn through by the ,scioto river2 and the waters which once for ages covered the whole country north of the hills along the ,ohio river have been drained off1 and the dry land appears where once stood the waters of lakes ,erie and ,michigan1 then forming but one great lake4 ,i am fully impressed with the belief1 that were the bottom of ,niagara river as high as it once was1 the upper lakes would now1 as formerly1 empty themselves into the ,ohio by the ,scioto and ,miami rivers1 and into the ,mississippi by the ,illinois4 ,i might proceed to examine every part of the country where prairies and barrens are found2 but they have all been formed by the same agent1 and that is water4 ,an objection to this opinion may be raised by some1 that these prairies and barrens are frequently found in the counties of ,delaware1 ,champaign1 ,madison1 ,fayette1 c4 on ground considerably elevated4 ,are they higher than the hills near ,chillicothe8 ,from a careful inspection1 but without any instruments1 ,i am convinced that they are none of them as high4 ,there is no perpendicular fall of water1 but merely a gradual descent1 from ,columbus to the ,ohio2 nay1 there is no fall from the very source of the ,scioto to its mouth4 ,every one acquainted with hydrostatics1 knows that water will run briskly where the descent is only a few inches in a mile4 ,the writer believes that the ,scioto1 from its source to the ,ohio river1 does not descend more than one hundred feet1 and that the present surface of ,lake ,erie is about on a level with the ,ohio in a freshet2 that before the channel of ,niagara river was deepened1 as it evidently has been1 by the attrition of that mighty stream2 and before the hills adjacent to the ,ohio were worn down by the waters of the ,scioto1 the whole country north of ,chillicothe1 where these hills commence1 to ,lake ,erie inclusive1 was covered with water1 except the very highest hills in the counties of ,greene1 c4 which were then islands4 ,what tends to corroborate this opinion is1 that on these high grounds we find limestone and other rocks1 and indications of gypsum2 but no alluvion1 and none of those fragments and ruins which are produced by water acting mechanically upon a country for a long space of time4 ,we might mention other parts of country where prairies and barrens abound1 and which have been formed by water4 ,those along ,greene river1 in ,kentucky1 have evidently been covered by the waters of that river4 ,the bed of that stream has been deepened by the constant flowing of the water along its channel2 the water is drained off1 and the prairies and barrens now occupy the soil which the water had made and formerly covered4 ,the prairies above the falls of ,hockhocking1 along that river1 have evidently been formed in the same way1 and owe their origin and appearances to similar causes4 ,there is near ,lancaster1 on the last-mentioned river in the ,state of ,ohio1 and near the great road1 a gentle rise of ground in the prairie1 which has every appearance of having been an island1 and is so called by the people of the vicinity4 ,in fine1 wherever prairies and barrens are found1 there1 for a long space of time1 water once stood1 but was gradually drained off4 ,else why alluvial soil to such a depth1 in low situations1 and growing thinner as we ascend on ground more elevated8 ,else why do we find rocks in more elevated tracts of country1 and not in prairies or barrens8 ,else why do we find no alluvion1 no grass1 but a thick growth of ancient forest-trees on the higher lands8 ,else why do we find beneath the alluvion of the prairies1 pebbles and shells similar to those at the bottom of lakes and ponds8 ,else why do the higher grounds to this moment present the appearances of so many islands8 ,and all these indications where no stream now in existence could by possibility have reached them8 ,that the waters which once covered so great a part of this ,state 7,ohio7 were drawn off gradually1 we infer from the fact1 that there is not a single indication of the effects of an earthquake or volcano1 from the foot of the ,allegany to the banks of the ,mississippi3 in this region not a stone nor a layer of earth has been misplaced1 nor its position changed4 ,but an interesting inquiry here presents itself4 ,were the hills along the ,ohio1 before they were worn away by the streams which now empty themselves into that river1 ever high enough to raise the water to the north of them to such a degree that it would overspread the country where the prairies and barrens are now found8 ,although the height of these hills has not been ascertained by the proper instruments1 yet from appearances1 not to be mistaken by any person who examines them and the country towards ,lake ,erie1 these hills are much higher than any land between them and that lake4 ,and from certain indications1 7as already remarked17 had not the bed of the ,niagara been deepened by the running of that mighty river1 ,lake ,erie1 as formerly1 would empty itself into the ,ohio by the ,scioto and ,miami2 and the great northern lakes would once more discharge themselves into the ,mississippi by the ,illinois4 ,lake ,ontario1 from some cause1 7possibly an earthquake1 or the wearing away of its outlet1 or both17 is considerably lower than it was formerly3 in that way the land along its banks1 once covered by its waters1 is drained1 presenting appearances exactly similar to those seen in many of our prairies4 ,miscellaneous ,remarks on the ,prairies and ,barrens relative to their ,picturesque ,features1 and to ,agriculture and ,health1 as affected by the peculiarities of these ,tracts4 ,to the traveller1 who for several days traverses these prairies and barrens1 their appearance is quite uninviting1 and even disagreeable4 ,he may travel from morning until night1 and make good speed1 but on looking around him1 he fancies himself at the very spot whence he started4 ,no pleasant variety of hill and dale1 no rapidly running brook delights the eye1 and no sound of woodland music strikes the ear2 but1 in their stead1 a dull uniformity of prospect spread out immense4 ,excepting here and there a tree1 or a slight elevation of ground1 it is otherwise a dead level1 covered with tall weeds and coarse grass4 ,the sluggish rivulets1 of a reddish colour1 scarcely move perceptibly1 and their appearance is as uninviting to the eye1 as their taste is disgusting to the palate4 ,such are the prairies and barrens of the west2 but1 in order to make ample amends for any deficiency1 nature has made them exuberantly fertile4 ,the farmer who settles upon them1 by raising cattle1 becomes rich with little labour4 ,he ditches those which are too moist for grain2 he ploughs and fences them1 and raises from seventy to one hundred bushels of maize or ,indian corn to the acre1 without ever hoeing it4 ,the ,united ,states own thousands and thousands of acres of such land in these western ,states and territories1 which1 for prompt payment1 may be purchased for one dollar and sixty-two and a half cents an acre4 ,one objection to these lands is1 the want of timber for fuel and other purposes2 and another is1 that they are unhealthy3 but in many places there is an abundance of peat in the wet prairies1 and cultivation will every year render them more and more healthy4 ,some of them have been cultivated for fifteen or twenty years past with grain1 and are as fertile as they ever were4 ,as ,m4 ,volney says1 ,they are the ,flanders of ,america4 ,yours1 c4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,art4 ,,iii4 ,account of the ,coal ,mines in the vicinity of ,richmond1 ,virginia1 communicated to the editor in a letter from ,mr4 ,,john ,,grammer1 ,jun4 ,,petersburgh1 ,virg4 ,jan4 #bhth1 #ahah4 ,dear ,sir1 ,in compliance with your request1 that ,i would send you some account of the ,virginia coal pits1 ,i paid a visit to them soon after my return1 in company with ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,withers1 and ,i will now proceed to give you the account proposed4 ,the pits1 which we made the particular object of our visit1 are situated in the county of ,chesterfield1 about #ad miles distant1 in a direction ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 from ,richmond1 and #c miles south of ,james' ,river4 ,the country rises gradually from ,richmond to the pits2 and1 from its sandy appearance1 is evidently an alluvial deposit1 although its substratum is the granite mentioned by ,mr4 ,m',clure1 as extending through this state from ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 ,the coal is found on the western or upper surface of the granite1 coincident with it both in direction and inclination2 but whether they come immediately in contact or not1 has not yet been ascertained4 ,the 'bed' of coal is supposed by the miners to be coextensive with the granite1 and ,i can discover no very good reason for disagreeing with them in this particular2 but1 on the contrary1 many circumstances concur to strengthen the opinion that it is really coextensive with the granite4 ,the coal is now procured from at least #be different pits1 opened at convenient distances through an extent of from #ej to #gj miles4 ,it every where commences at the upper surface or termination of the body of granite4 ,some suppose that it is imposed on the granite2 and others1 that a thin stratum of slate is interposed between the coal and granite4 ,it is always found covered by the slate4 ,the granite is inclined to the horizon at an angle of #de1 and the coal has the same inclination4 ,and since the coal1 as far as it has been discovered1 is found to accompany and correspond with the granite1 why may we not suppose that it continues to accompany the granite1 where it has not yet been discovered8 ,at ,heth's pits1 the coal is #ej feet thick1 measured on a line perpendicular to the surfaces of the extreme strata4 ,at some of the pits between ,heth's and ,james' ,river1 it is #cj feet thick2 and at the river1 not more than #be feet4 ,the thickness of the coal on the north side of ,james' ,river1 at the pits in ,henrico and ,hanover counties1 is variable1 but at no place greater than #be feet2 and to the south of ,heth's1 in the pits extending to the ,appomatox river1 it is still less thick4 ,these facts would induce the supposition1 that the coal was deposited in a bed1 near the centre of which ,heth's pits were sunk4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the coal is distinctly stratified1 and the number of strata increases as the coal proceeds from the surface of the earth2 of course1 therefore1 the farther you proceed from the outer extremity of the coal1 the thicker the body of it will be found2 and from the inclination of the coal1 the farther you are from its outer extremity the deeper it must be under the surface of the earth4 ,heth's pits are #ajj feet deeper than any that have yet been sunk2 and all the pits1 that ,i have seen1 appear to be nearer to the outer extremity of the coal4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that if the others had been sunk as far from the outer extremity1 they would have been as deep1 and the coal would have been found as thick in them as in ,heth's4 ,heth's pits1 now so called1 were first opened about #cj years since1 and worked to some considerable extent4 ,experiencing1 however1 much inconvenience from the near approach of the works to a part of the coal which was on fire2 and finding1 from their unskilful mode of mining1 that the business was not profitable1 they abandoned the works1 and filled up their shaft4 ,some few years after1 ,mr4 ,heth obtained possession of the land2 and1 having imported two ,scotch miners1 commenced working the coal again4 ,he has now three shafts open1 in a line with each other1 in the direction of the vein4 ,they are sunk near the brink of a steep hill1 which rises about #ahj feet from the western bank of a small brook4 ,the depth of one of the shafts is #cej feet4 ,the other two are about #cjj feet deep1 each4 ,a steam-engine1 constructed by ,bolton ,watt1 is erected at the middle and deepest shaft4 ,it is used exclusively for pumping out water2 but ,i will not trouble you with an account of the modus operandi1 as it would be only a repetition of your own description of the same operation at the ,cornwall mines4 ,the coal is raised in a box1 called by the miners a cowe4 ,these cowes contain about two bushels each1 and two of them are alternately rising and descending in each shaft4 ,they are raised by means of ropes1 fastened to a simple wheel and crank1 which is turned by mules4 ,in sinking their shafts1 they cut1 in the first place1 perpendicularly 7i4 e4 to the surface of the earth7 through the coal1 to its lower surface2 and then turning westwardly1 they open a horizontal gallery through the inclination of the vein1 to its upper surface2 by this means1 to use their own terms1 gaining a double cut on it4 ,their principal gallery passes 7in the direction of the vein17 by the mouth of each shaft4 ,its length is #acej feet1 and it is terminated at each end by a hitch or dyke of hard sandstone4 7,the passage was stopped with rubbish in such a manner as to prevent me from seeing the stone myself1 and the gentleman who escorted me through the mines is my authority for its being sandstone2 he might possibly1 however1 have been mistaken1 as it is difficult to ascertain what a stone is1 in such a place1 until it is broken47 ,when ,i was at the pits1 they were preparing to blast through this rock4 ,at right angles to the principal gallery1 they have opened1 at convenient distances apart1 shorter galleries1 running westwardly1 and these are again connected by passages parallel to the first or principal gallery4 ,pickaxes are the only tools used in working the coal1 as it breaks very readily1 in the direction of the strata4 ,the roofs of some of the passages are perfectly smooth2 and in such1 the light of the lamps1 reflected from the great variety of colours in the coal1 presents a very brilliant sight4 ,the gloomy blackness1 however1 of most of the galleries1 and the strange dress and appearance of the black miners1 would furnish sufficient data to the conception of a poet1 for a description of ,pluto's kingdom4 ,a strong sulphurous acid ran down the walls of many of the galleries2 and ,i observed one of the drains was filled with a yellowish gelatinous substance1 which ,i ascertained1 on a subsequent examination1 was a yellow1 or rather a reddish1 oxide of iron1 mechanically suspended in water4 ,i mentioned above that a part of the coal was on fire3 ,i could not ascertain when this fact was first observed to exist2 and it is not impossible that the coal may have been burning a century1 or more4 ,it is highly probable1 however1 that a comparatively small quantity of the coal is consumed1 as the combustion must be greatly retarded by the absence of a sufficient portion of atmospheric air4 ,a strong sulphurous fume issues from an irregular hole in the side of the hill of about #b feet diameter4 ,the hole appears to be only #d or #e feet deep1 and the smoke rises into it from cracks1 partly filled with loose clay4 ,the earth is very much cracked around the hole1 to the distance of #ab or #ae feet2 and these cracks are from #a to #d inches wide4 ,the mouth of the hole is encrusted with acicular crystals of pure sulphur4 ,attempts were formerly made to extinguish the fire1 by turning water into this hole2 and1 after every attempt1 there was a temporary disappearance of the smoke for several weeks2 but never longer than three months4 ,for several years1 however1 they have desisted from such vain attempts1 and have taken advantage of the facility afforded1 by the existence of this fire1 for ventilating the mines1 in the following manner3--,they opened a passage from their present1 to the old deserted1 works2 this they can open or shut1 by means of a close door4 ,as the old works are very near the fire1 the air in them becomes very much rarified by the heat2 and probably a considerable portion of it is consumed 7as the principal pabulum for the combustion17 and a partial vacuum is produced4 ,when the air in their present works1 therefore1 becomes impure1 they open the door1 and a strong current rushes into the old works2 its place is again supplied with fresh air through the shafts4 ,previous to the adoption of this mode of ventilation1 they experienced great inconvenience from carbonic acid gas2 and some of the workmen had been killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen gas4 ,since this mode has been adopted1 they have experienced no inconvenience at all from noxious gases4 ,on inquiry1 ,i was told that the substances passed through1 in getting to the coal1 varied in the different pits4 ,as far1 however1 as ,i could learn by inquiry1 and an examination of the heaps of rubbish1 the following substances1 in the order in which they stand1 have been found in ,heth's pits3--mould1 clay1 gravel1 fuller's earth1 sandstone1 7at first extremely coarse and friable1 but becoming more compact and hard1 and having an appearance somewhat stratified as they descended17 gray and bluish clay slate1 hard bluish sandstone1 shale1 or1 as they term it1 shiver1 white micaceous sandstone1 extremely hard2 blue slate and shale intermixed1 black slate1 and then the coal4 ,the depth of these strata differed so much in different pits1 that their individual thickness could not be ascertained4 ,vegetable impressions are very common in the slate next the coal2 and they have found the impression of a fish4 ,pieces of pure charcoal1 in the form of sticks1 or logs1 are frequently found in or on the coal4 ,in sinking one of the pits they met with a perpendicular column1 #h inches in diameter1 extending through the slate into the coal2 in all about #ej feet4 ,its surface was distinctly serrated1 and at intervals of about #b inches it appeared jointed1 breaking easily at the joints4 ,for the want of a better name ,i must call it a lusus natur2 for it is neither clay-slate nor mica-slate1 nor shale1 nor sandstone2 but appears to be composed of them all4 ,masses of a black oxide of iron are sometimes found in the slate2 and from its weight and hardness the miners very properly call it ironstone4 ,iron pyrites are very abundant in the slate1 and the heaps of rubbish are white with the sulphate of alumine2 yellow ochre is found among the rubbish1 but ,i could not ascertain its relative position with any precision4 ,the side of the hill at the pits is covered with quartz pebbles2 some of which are as transparent and beautiful as ,i ever saw4 ,the country1 for several miles around the pits1 7i4 e4 as far as ,i have seen17 appears to be entirely destitute of rocks or pebbles1 and is covered with a light sandy soil4 ,i am unable to inform you of the number of hands employed at1 or of the quantity of coal annually furnished from1 these pits1 as a part of my notes has1 by an accident1 been rendered illegible4 ,thus1 sir1 ,i have endeavoured to comply with my promise of giving you an account of the coal pits4#ag ,in doing this1 ,i have only attempted to state facts as they existed2 although ,i have no doubt that my imperfect acquaintance with geology has occasioned many omissions which might have been interesting4 ,to the same cause must be attributed the use of language not always strictly scientific1 and a method less exact than might have been desired4 ,with all its imperfections1 however1 if you can1 from the mass of facts1 cull any one which may be useful or interesting1 ,i shall be fully compensated by the pleasure of having furnished it1 for any trouble ,i may have been at in doing so4 ,and1 if at any time ,i should be able to furnish you with any information relative to the mineralogy or geology of this part of the country1 ,i hope you will let me know it4 ,,art4 ,,iv4 ,sketch of the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a part of the ,state of ,indiana1 communicated in a letter to the ,editor1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,,stilson4 ,,louisville1 7,ken47 ,august #aa1 #ahah4 ,dear ,sir1 ,i have employed a short period of leisure in passing over a portion of the state of ,indiana4 ,among other objects1 ,i was not wholly inattentive to the mineralogical and geological features of the country4 ,i now1 with diffidence1 transmit to you the result of my inquiries4 ,,sketch1 c4 ,the secondary formation of the state of ,indiana is abundantly evident4 ,the surface of the soil is undulating1 and marked with few elevations which deserve the name of mountains4 ,the rocks are sandstone1 limestone1 and clay-slate2 all of which are disposed in horizontal strata4 ,the sandstone presents nothing remarkable in its appearance4 ,its colours are various shades of gray and brown4 ,the principal hills are of this formation4 ,the principal colours of the limestone are blue and gray1 and their various mingled and intermediate shades4 ,its secondary formation is very manifest from its almost earthy appearance4 ,in innumerable instances1 the limestone rocks contain immense quantities of imbedded shells1 of great similarity in form and appearance1 and having considerable resemblance1 to the common escallop-shell of the ocean4 ,owing to the easy decomposition of these rocks1 and the horizontal position of their strata1 they afford many subterranean passages for water4 ,a considerable stream1 called ,lost ,river1 runs into a cave in the side of a precipitous hill2 and1 after a passage of #f or #g miles under the earth1 again makes its appearance1 with a large accession to its waters4 ,the traveller's attention is continually excited by cavities in the earth1 where the temporary rivulets1 proceeding from rains1 make a sudden exit through perpendicular perforations in the upper stratum of the rock4 ,there are many such cavities1 which do not receive any water from the surface4 ,some of them are many yards in diameter1 forming a regular circular concave1 of considerable depth towards the centre4 ,they are vulgarly known among the inhabitants by the name of sink-holes4 ,the localities of slate are few1 and present nothing uncommon4 ,with regard to the particular minerals4 ,on ,sand ,creek1 #fj miles from ,white ,river1 is an interesting locality of that variety of silex1 commonly called burrstone4 ,it has been examined by several practical millers1 who do not hesitate to pronounce the specimens which it affords1 equal1 if not superior1 to the ,french burrs4 ,the locality is twenty acres in extent1 and appears to be inexhaustible4 ,the mineral varies very much in its appearance2 it is generally porous1 and appears to have been puffed up by the escape of some gas1 while it was in a state of fusion4 ,a mass of well-raised bread gives no inadequate idea of its configuration4 ,it produces most vivid sparks with steel4 ,some labourers are employed in procuring millstones from this place2 and1 such is the size of the siliceous rocks1 that they are under no necessity of constructing them of detached masses4 ,they form1 of a single rock1 millstones of five and a half feet in diameter1 which are not defaced by any irregularity1 or even earthy cavity4 ,these millstones may be carried down the ,white1 ,wabash1 ,ohio1 and ,mississippi rivers1 to ,new-,orleans1 with great facility4 ,and if they should prove as excellent as it is expected they will1 this discovery will shed new lustre upon the accumulating evidence of the mineralogical resources of this republic4 ,many other varieties of silex are common3 rock crystal1 agate1 and chalcedony1 are often found in the beds of rivulets4 ,i passed a considerable distance upon the banks of a small stream1 called ,leather-wood creek3 the bottom of the creek was covered1 the whole distance1 with siliceous masses1 shaped like oblate spheroids1 and of every size1 from that of a large melon downwards4 ,on being broken1 they presented beautiful geodes of crystallized quartz1 amethyst1 c4 ,the outside was often fine chalcedony1 and sometimes the interior was the same substance1 in the form of balls2 all these were sometimes combined1 forming agates of great beauty4 ,carbonate of lime1 crystallized1 is sometimes found2 and many of the caves afford fine stalactites4 ,there is a large cave near ,corydon1 celebrated for the production of sulphate of magnesia1 or ,epsom salts4 ,it has been explored for the distance of several miles4 ,when it was first discovered1 the bottom1 in many places1 was covered to the depth of several inches1 with pure1 brilliant1 needle-shaped crystals of sulphate of magnesia4 ,by some mysterious process of nature1 or rather of ,divine benevolence1 the production of this useful salt is continually going on4 ,this cave also produces some other salts in small quantities3 nitrate of lime1 nitrate of magnesia1 sulphate of lime1 c4 ,where the basis of the country is limestone1 the waters always take up a great quantity of lime1 and some of them possess great petrifying powers4 ,i saw many specimens of petrifactions3 a tuft of moss1 the form perfectly preserved2 leaves1 bark1 and branches of trees2 insects1 and many others4 ,many of the springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur1 and some of them are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,i found the opinion universally prevalent among the people of this state1 that the first appearance of these sulphur springs was immediately subsequent to the earthquakes of #ahab4 ,they say1 that then new springs1 impregnated with sulphur1 broke out1 and the waters of some old springs1 for the first time1 gave indications of this mineral4 ,a sensible farmer1 who has a large sulphur-fountain1 boiling up from the bottom of a river near its bank1 assured me1 that there was no trace of this spring until after the period to which ,i have alluded4 ,he could have no interest in deceiving me2 and if he did deceive me1 his conduct could originate only in that love of the marvellous which is so characteristic of the human mind4 ,he moreover assured me that the water had been growing weaker1 7to use his phrase7 ever since its first appearance4 ,i have room only to mention1 among the minerals of ,indiana1 many varieties of clay1 ochres1 gypsum1 alabaster1 muriat of soda1 7very common17 iron ore1 and antimony4 ,,art4 ,v4 ,new localities of ,agate1 ,chalcedony1 ,chabasie1 ,stilbite1 ,analcime1 ,titanium1 ,prehnite1 c4 ,deerfield1 c4 ,in the account of the ,mineralogy and ,geology of ,deerfield1 by ,mr4 ,hitchcock1 in the present ,number1 it will be seen1 that these interesting minerals 7with the exception of titanium7 exist in the secondary greenstone of that place4 ,we have specimens1 7through the kindness of ,mr4 ,hitchcock17 and observe that the agates1 chalcedony1 analcime1 and prehnite1 are imbedded in the trap2 the agates are in some instances very delicate in the disposition of their bands1 and need nothing but polishing to make them beautiful2 the same is true of the chalcedony4 ,the chabasie and stilbite occupy cavities1 and the chabasie is often distinctly crystalized in a rhomboid1 so nearly approaching a cube1 in the quantity of its angles1 that the mistake is easily committed of supposing them to be cubes2 the crystals are sometimes transparent1 and the largest a quarter of an inch in diameter4 ,titanium is found in ,leyden2 it is the red oxide--very well characterized--in reddish brown crystals as large as a common goose quill1#ah and1 in some instances1 perfectly geniculated4 ,it is rare to see finer specimens4 ,east-,haven4 ,it will be observed1 that the great ranges of secondary greenstone1 which cut ,connecticut and ,massachusetts in two1 terminate at ,new-,haven1 on the one hand1 and some way above ,deerfield on the other4 ,by comparing the account of the termination at ,new-,haven 7,bruce's ,journal1 v4 i4 p4 #aci47 with that now published1 of the termination at or near ,deerfield1 it will be seen that the geology and imbedded minerals are very similar4 ,at ,east-,haven1 7one of the branches of the greenstone of ,new-,haven1 and within from three to four miles of the latter town17 chalcedony is often found1 sometimes imbedded in the trap1 7but perhaps more frequently loose among the fallen stones17 which1 although in small pieces1 is as perfect in its characters as the chalcedony of the ,feroe ,islands4 ,it is of a delicate gray1 translucent1 mamillary1 botryoidal1 stalactitical1 or impressed by crystals of quartz1 which have usually fallen out2 sometimes these crystals incrust the chalcedony4 ,agates also are found in considerable numbers1 both imbedded and loose4 ,they usually consist of bands of chalcedony and quartz1 and sometimes of the latter only1 variously striped or spotted1 or interlaced with jasper1 carnelian1 and cacholong4 ,the form of the imbedded agates at ,east-,haven is commonly ovoidal1 or egg-shaped1 and frequently it is conical4 ,some portions of pure chalcedony occur1 which are shaped like a long1 slender carrot or parsnip1 and the situation of the latter in the ground would exactly represent that of the chalcedony or agate in the rock4 ,the imbedded masses are frequently altogether quartz1 and then they are most commonly geodes or hollow balls lined with crystals1 commonly very perfect and brilliant1 although rarely large4 ,these crystals are commonly transparent and colourless--but they exhibit also most of the varieties of colour which quartz assumes--the amethyst--the smoky--yellow1 c41 and occasionally they are tipped and spotted with red jasper4 ,the spontaneous decay of these trap rocks causes many specimens to be found among their ruins1 and many more are imbedded in the solid rock2 but the industry of successive classes from the neighbouring college1 issuing from ,col4 ,gibbs's cabinet1 has now made specimens more scarce4 ,woodbury4 ,twenty-four miles from ,new-,haven1 ,n4,w4 ,in a geological sketch of parts of the counties of ,new-,haven and ,litchfield1 which may appear in a future ,number1 it will be seen that prehnite1 stilbite1 and agate are found at ,woodbury1 in the little basin of secondary greenstone which exists there2 the prehnite is abundant--it is not known whether the agates are so1 although it is asserted to be the fact2 the stilbite was not observed to be abundant1 although it was well characterized4 ,,art4 ,,vi4 ,account of the ,strata perforated by1 and of the ,minerals found in1 the great adit to the ,southampton ,lead ,mine4 ,communicated to the ,editor by ,mr4 ,,amos ,,eaton1 ,lecturer on ,geology1 ,botany1 c4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,after a laborious geological excursion along ,m',clure's ,springfield section1 for about one hundred miles1 ,i visited ,dr4 ,d4 ,hunt1 at ,northampton4 ,he observed that you had expressed an opinion1 that an attentive examination of all the strata constituting the walls of the artificial avenue or drift at the ,southampton mines1 would bring facts to knowledge1 which might1 in some degree1 subserve the cause of geological science4 ,i am now at the mouth of the drift1 having just completed the labour which you had marked out4 ,i employed two miners to commence with me1 at the termination of the drift1 which is now extended #hjj feet into the hill4 ,we broke off large specimens1 at very short intervals1 throughout the whole extent of the drift4 ,we arrived at its mouth with almost a boat load of specimens4 ,i kept a memorandum of every thing which occurred1 while under ground2 and ,i have now arranged the specimens1 before the mouth of the drift1 in the same order in which they were situated in the earth4 ,fatigued as ,i am1 ,i will make my remarks here1 in the field1 lest something should hereafter escape me1 which is now fresh in my recollection4 ,beginning with the greatest distance to which the miners have penetrated1 ,i will set down my remarks1 in fact1 in reversed order4 #hjj feet4 ,the rock is fine-grained gray granite1 traversed by veins1 lined with quartz crystals1 and mostly filled with calcareous spar1 often beautifully crystallized4 ,in the same veins blue and purple fluate of lime and copper pyrites frequently occur4 #gij feet4 ,the same fine-grained granite is continued1 occasionally traversed by veins lined with crystals of quartz2 but containing no other minerals4 #ggd feet4 ,a narrow vein of sulphuret of lead1 with walls lined with crystals of quartz4 ,the fairest cubic crystals are slightly attached to the points of the quartz crystals4 ,yellowish crystals of carbonate of lime are often interspersed among the lead4 ,sulphate of barytes occurs here also2 sometimes in plates meeting at various angles1 and forming chambers lined with minute crystals of quartz4 ,minute crystals of copper pyrites and a little fluate of lime have been found here2 also fine specimens of bitter spar4 ,the walls are very compact1 fine-grained granite4 #gfj feet4 ,coarse1 parti-coloured granite4 ,the felspar is flesh-coloured and white2 the quartz often bluish or greenish2 the mica silvery1 greenish1 or purplish4 #gbe feet4 ,a stratum of gray-wacke slate4 ,texture less firm than of the same rock at the west of ,pittsfield4 ,this stratum is very distinct1 and about two feet thick4 #gbc feet4 ,a stratum of serpentine rock1 containing very red quartz imbedded in various directions4 ,it is very compact1 and mostly green4 ,here it is but about three feet thick4 ,about ten miles south of this place1 on ,maclure's ,springfield section1 near the line between ,westfield and ,russel1 and four miles west from ,westfield ,academy1 ,i found this same stratum of very great breadth4 ,i say the same stratum1 because it is situated in the granitic hill1 east of the highest ridge of granite1 which is evidently a continuation of this range4 ,perhaps ,i may1 hereafter1 give you an account of my excursion along that section of ,maclure1 in which ,i may give you a more particular description of the ,westfield serpentine4 #gbj feet4 ,coarse granite1 with white and flesh-coloured felspar1 black and silvery mica4 #gjj feet4 ,a stratum of red mica slate1 about four feet thick4 #fid feet4 ,coarse1 flesh-coloured granite4 ,this is the handsomest granite in the whole drift4 ,here we find the most beautiful specimens of graphic granite1 both flesh-coloured and gray4 #fhj feet4 ,a stratum of ,kirwan's stell-stein4 ,that is1 an aggregate of fine-grained quartz and mica1 without any felspar4 ,the quartz is mostly greenish1 probably coloured by the next stratum4 #fgj feet4 ,beautiful green soapstone4 ,very compact1 but rather softer than that kind in common use for inkstands4 #fff feet4 ,a green1 granular aggregate4 ,it seems to be made up of fine fragments of quartz1 soapstone1 and mica1 rarely a little felspar1 slightly compacted together4 ,remark4 ,all the strata1 from the inner termination of the drift to this place1 a distance of one hundred and thirty-four feet1 are nearly vertical1 or a very little inclined4 ,here they begin to approach a horizontal position4 ,the green aggregate continues as far as the air-well1 a distance of #ff feet1 with some trifling variations in the size and proportions of the aggregated fragments4 #ejj feet4 ,a granulated1 schistose aggregate1 chiefly of quartz and mica4 ,though the constituents and the form of the rock correspond very nearly with mica slate1 it cannot be considered as the primitive mica slate rock4 ,it is so slightly compacted that it can scarcely be kept from falling to pieces4 ,its position is nearly horizontal4 #dhj feet4 ,a stratum of coal1 half an inch thick4 ,this stratum may be traced1 at different intervals1 one hundred and eighty feet along the drift towards its mouth4 ,it lies between the strata of the last described schistose aggregate4 #djj feet4 ,an aggregate appears1 alternating with the loose schistose rock1 which resembles the red sandstone1 but is of a less firm texture4 ,from this place all the strata1 east of the soapstone1 occasionally appear1 for the distance of about three hundred feet4 ,this is probably on account of their undulatory forms and horizontal position4 ,most of the way we find the lower part of the walls to consist of a kind of semi-indurated puddingstone4 ,sometimes a thin stratum of fine1 loose sand occurs4 ,at #cjj feet the coal stratum disappears1 passing below the bottom of the drift4 ,the last hundred feet is chiefly gravel1 which is now supported by timbers4 ,southampton1 ,aug4 #bf1 #ahah4 ,,art4 ,,vii4 ,on the ,peat of ,dutchess ,county--read before the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history1 in ,new-,york1 by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,c4 ,,schaeffer1 of ,new-,york1 and by him communicated to the ,editor4 ,in ,may1 #ahag1 ,i brought specimens of marl and peat from ,dutchess county1 which were taken from a fen or bog occupying an area of some acres4 ,these fens occur frequently in the towns of ,rhinebeck1 ,northeast1 ,clinton1 c4 in ,dutchess county4 ,during a part of the year they are covered with water4 ,a pit was dug in the bog from which ,i procured the specimens4 ,the order and depth of the well-defined strata which were exhibited by this excavation1 ,i noted in my memorandum book1 from which ,i extract the following3 ,after clearing away the fresh sod and recent vegetable mould1 there appeared1 #a4 ,a stratum or bed of peat commonly called turf1 varying in depth from three to four feet4 #b4 ,a stratum of peat and marl commingled2 depth two feet4 #c4 ,a stratum of pure marl1 from two to three feet4 ,below these there was an appearance of sand and blue clay4 ,the first1 or upper stratum1 consists of compact peat4 ,this substance1 when first taken up1 is of a dark brown colour1 soft1 and rather viscid4 ,some vegetable fibres and vacuous seeds are distributed throughout the mass4 ,it may be moulded to any convenient form4 ,when perfectly dry1 the texture of this variety1 of which there is a specimen before you1 acquires a high degree of solidity4 ,its fracture is earthy2 the colour is lighter4 ,i should not have offered more on this subject than the labelled specimen1 had ,i not made a most satisfactory experiment with this kind of fuel1 which may be obtained in great abundance in our own ,state4 ,it is easily kindled2 burns with a bright flame2 yields a bluish smoke1 and produces an odour similar to that which attends the combustion of gramineous substances4 ,but this is momentary4 ,when thoroughly kindled1 it burns with less flame1 yields a small proportion of blackish smoke1 and sulphurous acid gas is evolved1 though ,i cannot discover any pyrites4 ,it burns for a long time1 and emits a great body of heat4 ,it leaves a very small proportion of light1 grayish white ashes2 on which ,i have as yet made no experiments1 having this day1 for the first time1 paid particular attention to this substance1 attracted by the unusual hardness which it acquired since it is in my possession3 and not many hours have elapsed since ,i subjected it to combustion4 ,the attempt succeeded so well1 that ,i cannot refrain from expressing my opinion1 that this variety of peat will answer as an excellent substitute for the best ,liverpool coal4 ,,art4 ,,viii4 ,notices of ,geology in the ,west-,indies4 ,,remarks4 ,in the former ,number of this work1 a notice was published respecting siliceous petrifactions of wood1 from ,antigua4 ,we now publish a geological sketch of the island1 with notices of some other parts of the ,west ,indies4 ,this communication is made by a friend1 with permission to publish it4 ,it is a production of the pen of ,dr4 ,,nugent1 of ,st4 ,johns1 ,antigua1 a gentleman of eminent scientific acquirements1 who1 it is hoped1 will continue his laudable and able efforts to illustrate the natural history of the ,west-,indies4 ,memorandum concerning the ,geology of ,antigua1 c4 ,the southern and more mountainous part of the island consists of trap rocks2 more particularly of trap breccia and wack-porphyry4 ,on these beds rests a series of very peculiar stratified conglomerate rocks4 ,these strata vary exceedingly in colour and thickness1 but all dip1 at a considerable angle1 to the northwest4 ,the more usual character of this rock1 is that of a clayey basis1 with minute particles of felspar1 and small spots of grnerde#ai 7or chlorite ,baldoge47 ,this latter is frequently diffused over the whole1 and gives it a green tinge3 the colour has been thought by some to proceed from the impregnation of copper1 but ,i am rather of opinion that is owing to manganese and iron4 ,the conglomerate character of this rock1 is derived from its having imbedded in it1 or incorporated with it1 numerous fragments1 of all sizes1 of petrified wood1 chert1 with and without coralline impressions1 agate1 jasper1 amygdaloid1 greenstone1 hornstone1 porphyry1 porphyry slate1 and other substances4 ,on this singular class of strata1 reposes an extensive calcareous formation1 occupying the northern and eastern part of the island1 having subordinate to it1 and at its lowest part1 where it is in contact with the conglomerate1 large beds and patches of chert1 which contains also a vast variety of petrified woods1 several of which are of the palm tribe1 with silicified shells1 chiefly cerithea2 though at the ,church-hill1 at ,st4 ,johns1 formed of this chert1 casts of bivalve and ramose madrepores are likewise found4 ,the calcareous beds are principally of a friable marl1 with blocks and layers of limestone irregularly included4 ,in this formation#bj are many fossil shells1 both in the calcareous and siliceous state2 and there appear to be some beds1 wherein is a mixture of shells of marine1 and others of a fresh water1 or at least a terrestrial origin4 ,the coralline agates found in nodules and patches therein1 and which may readily be distinguished from the coralline chert of the previous beds1 are the most beautiful which have any where been yet noticed2 and when well selected and polished1 make very pleasing ornaments4 ,the island1 as well as ,barbuda1 thirty miles to the northward1 the ,grande ,terre part of ,guadaloupe1 at a similar distance to the southward and eastward1 with several others of the ,west-,india ,islands1 give proof of an extensive formation1 more recent than those to which naturalists have heretofore principally confined their' attention2 and which is1 perhaps1 contemporaneous with1 if not later than1 the ,paris ,basin1 so well described by ,cuvier and ,brongniart4 ,april #ajth1 #ahah4 ,n4 ,n4 ,n4 ,b4 ,a few specimens are sent4 ,,remarks4 ,if the above paper be read attentively1 in connexion with that in ,no4 #a4 on the petrified wood of ,antigua1 it will afford some very curious information to the geologist respecting these petrifactions1 and must lead to interesting speculations respecting their origin1 under circumstances so very peculiar1 and to which we do not recollect to have heard of any parallel4 ,,art4 ,,ix4 ,discovery of ,native ,crystallized ,carbonate of ,magnesia on ,staten-,island1 with a ,notice of the ,geology and ,mineralogy of that ,island1 by ,,james ,,pierce1 ,,esq4 of ,new-,york1 in a ,letter to the ,editor4 ,,new-,,york1 ,october #ai1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i forward you a few mineral specimens characteristic of ,staten-,island1 including native carbonate of magnesia1 in acicular crystals4 ,i discovered this new form and locality of magnesia in examining the strata exhibited in an excavation now making1 under the delusive expectation of finding gold1 about three miles from the ,quarantine4 ,in descending the shaft1 sunk perpendicularly in steatite1 magnesite1 veins of talc1 and green translucent asbestus were observed at depths from six to thirty-five feet4 ,the magnesite was found to embrace veins and cavities containing native carbonate of magnesia1 in very white acicular crystals1 grouped in minute fibres radiating from the sides1 but not always filling the veins and cavities4 ,the crystals were1 in some instances1 suspended1 assuming a stalactical form4 ,this carbonate of magnesia dissolves entirely in diluted sulphuric acid1 with considerable effervescence and chemical action1 producing a bitter compound1 from which salts of easy solution are formed by evaporation4 ,the magnesite in which these crystals are found1 appears to be composed of carbonate of magnesia1 steatite1 and talc1 disintegrating readily upon exposure to air and moisture3 it effervesces considerably in sulphuric acid1 forming a very bitter fluid that soon exhibits crystals1 indicating that magnesia enters in large proportion into its constitution4 ,magnesite may perhaps be found at this place in quantity sufficient for a successful manufacture of ,epsom salts4 ,small regular hexaedral crystals of mica1 were noticed in steatite4 ,chromate of iron was sparingly diffused through the different minerals raised from various depths4 ,a few remarks and facts respecting the geology and mineralogy of ,staten-,island1 may1 perhaps1 give some additional interest to the specimens presented4 ,staten-,island 7which constitutes ,richmond county7 is situated about seven miles southwest of the city of ,new-,york1 extends from northeast to southwest about fifteen miles1 in a straight line1 with an average width of six4 ,it exhibits a considerable diversity of surface4 ,the eastern part is composed principally of elevated ground3 a mountain chain is observed to take its rise in the vicinity of a narrow sound called the ,kills1 and sweep1 in a semicircular form1 near the eastern shore2 it then ranges southwest1 parallel with1 and distant from ,amboy ,bay1 about two miles1 terminating near the centre of the island1 and forming1 with the exception of some passages1 a continued chain1 which1 on the eastern and southern sides1 is very steep1 but not precipitous2 it gradually declines to the west and north1 and1 in some places1 it presents on its summit table land of considerable extent4 ,a prominent ridge crosses the island1 connecting the elevated ground of the south1 with the hills of the northern part4 ,a species of steatite1 containing veins of common1 indurated1 and scaly talc1 amianthus1 and most of the varieties of asbestus1 and some chromate of iron1 constitutes the nucleus of the whole mountain range and elevated ground of the eastern division1 stamping it as primitive4 ,this steatite approaches1 in most places1 within a foot and a half of the surface1 and appears in small angular loose blocks1 wherever the soil has been removed4 ,its colour is a greenish yellow2 it is brittle1 very adhesive to the tongue1 but little unctuous1 and probably contains more alumine and less magnesia than steatites in general4 ,much of it decomposes when exposed to air and moisture1 and forms a good mould1 whenever the descent of ground permits an accumulation of earth4 ,it is not improbable1 that in most places of the ,staten-,island hills1 when magnesia constitutes a considerable ingredient of the rock1 it will be found saturated with carbonic acid1 obviating the objection to common magnesian minerals in agriculture4 ,the minerals observed on the surface of the northeast part of this chain of hills are1 secondary greenstone1 asbestoid1 sandstone1 granite1 and gneiss1 sparingly scattered in rolled masses4 ,in addition to these rocks1 in the middle and western part of the chain1 a mineral of uncommon appearance is observed4 ,it is composed principally of quartz1 rough1 with numerous cells of various forms1 in which small siliceous crystals are generally found3 the veins or plates of quartz that intersect each other1 often embrace talc and oxide of iron1 which1 decomposing1 gives some specimens the appearance of volcanic origin4 ,associated with this cellular ferruginous quartz1 brown hmatite is often observed2 this valuable ore often yields eighty per cent4 of iron of best quality2 its fibres assume a variety of shapes2 they were observed at ,staten-,island1 straight and curved1 radiating from a centre1 and exhibiting the stalactical1 cylindrical1 and botryoidal forms1 often displaying a black polished surface and glistening lustre4 ,ferruginous minerals are abundant on the mountain for several miles4 ,a granular oxide1 called by miners shot-ore1#ba from its being principally composed of spherical grains of various sizes1 was often noticed1 and appears in some places in extensive beds3 it is easily fused1 and affords a large per centage of good iron for castings4 ,a heavy ore1 with a smooth surface and some lustre1 bearing a considerable resemblance to native iron1 is sometimes seen4 ,banks of white sand1 resembling the siliceous particles of the seashore1 are noticed on the mountain tops1 containing masses of compact1 heavy ferruginous sandstone1 similar to the rocks of our alluvial seaboard4 ,large beds of water-worn siliceous pebbles1 in no way differing from those washed by the ocean1 are seen on the height of the ridge1 in which excavations have been made several feet1 leaving the depth of the mass uncertain4 ,on some of the eminences1 for a considerable extent1 vegetation is entirely excluded by an iron-bound soil4 ,iron ore1 imbedded in an earth coloured by1 and partly composed of1 oxide of iron1 occupies the surface2 and chalcedony and radiated quartz are sometimes observed on the primitive ridge4 ,prospects from many of these eminences are extensive and diversified4 ,on one side1 the ocean and a great extent of coast are in view2 on the other1 a rich landscape of hills and plains1 the eye resting on the highland-chain and the mountains bordering ,pennsylvania2 the harbour1 at your feet1 presents a busy1 ever-varying scene1 and the city of ,new-,york appears to great advantage from this point of observation4 ,the district between the mountain and the narrows1 the thickly settled and well-cultivated plain bordering ,amboy bay1 and much of the western division of the island1 are decidedly alluvial4 ,adjacent to ,fort ,tompkins1 detached pieces of copper ore have been found4 ,i have observed petrifactions of marine shells in rocks excavated in that neighbourhood1 twenty feet from the surface1 and sixty above the ocean4 ,the western part of the island presents moderate elevations2 the soil1 a good medium of sand and clay1 is in general fertile2 but a tract near the termination is sandy and barren4 ,some creeks penetrate to near the centre of the island1 and are bordered by extensive salt meadows4 ,except at the primitive range1 ,i have observed in no part of the island large beds of rock that can be called in place2 but rolled masses of greenstone1 sandstone1 gneiss1 granite1 red jasper1 and indurated clay1 appear in general sparingly1 but sometimes in abundance1 on the surface4 ,lignite has been found in small quantities in the western part of the island4 ,a chalybeate spring1 of no great strength1 is the only mineral water met with in ,richmond county4 ,the ponds1 wells1 and streams1 contain a soft water1 holding no lime in solution4 ,,remarks4 ,we have already published 7p4 #ed47 ,mr4 ,pierce's discovery of the pulverulent carbonate of magnesia1 and have pointed out its connexion with ,dr4 ,bruce's previous discovery of the hydrate of magnesia1 or pure magnesia combined with water only4 ,mr4 ,pierce has now added another important link to this chain1 and future mineralogists may quote the vicinity of ,new-,york as affording1 #a4 ,pure magnesia1 crystallized and combined with water only4 #b4 ,carbonate of magnesia1 pulverulent and white4 #c4 ,carbonate of magnesia1 in very delicate and perfectly white acicular crystals4 ,we possess specimens of them all4 ,,art4 ,x4 ,on a curious substance which accompanies the native ,nitre of ,kentucky and of ,africa4 ,communicated in a letter to the ,editor1 from ,,samuel ,,brown1 ,m4 ,d4 late of ,kentucky1 now of the ,alabama ,territory4 ,,remarks4 ,the scientific public were several years ago laid under obligations to ,dr4 ,brown1 for a very interesting and instructive account of the nitre caverns1 c4 of ,kentucky1 published in the ,transactions of the ,philosophical ,society1 in ,philadelphia1 ,vol4 ,,vi41 and in ,bruce's ,journal1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ajj4 ,the following communication arose from a conversation on that subject between ,dr4 ,brown and the ,editor4 ,new-,haven1 ,july #bg1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i have just found the passage ,i referred to the other day1 relative to the existence of native or sandrock nitre in the interior of ,southern ,africa4 ,it is in ,barrow1 and not in ,vaillant1 as ,i thought when ,i had the pleasure of conversing with you concerning it4 ,i am much obliged to you for recalling my attention to that curious subject1 as it has brought to my recollection a fact1 which ,i believe ,i omitted to mention in my memoir1 7viz47 the existence of a black substance in the clay under the rocks1 of a bituminous appearance and smell4 ,this ,i remember to have seen in a rock-house1 near the ,kentucky river1 where very considerable quantities of sandrock nitre had been obtained4 ,this substance was found in masses of a few ounces weight1 and in the crevices of the rocks near the basis of the side walls4 ,the smell was not wholly bituminous1 but resembled that of bitumen combined with musk4 ,i am quite unable to account for the formation of the nitre1 or the production of this black substance which sometimes accompanies it1 both in ,africa and ,america4 ,had ,i seen ,mr4 ,barrow's travels1 when ,i noticed the bitumen1 ,i should certainly have paid more attention to it4 ,but perceiving no relation between the rock nitre and the masses of this substance1 my examination of it was much too superficial4 ,i do not very well understand what ,mr4 ,barrow means by saying1 that many wagon loads of animal matter lay on the roof of the caverns in ,africa4 ,i saw no such matter on the roof of the rock-houses in ,kentucky4 ,certainly the caverns have been the habitations of wild beasts1 and great quantities of leaves1 c4 have been mixed with the debris of the superincumbent rocks1 but it does not seem probable1 that much animal matter could be filtrated through a roof of rock1 perhaps forty or fifty feet in thickness4 ,the subject1 however1 is very curious1 and deserves much more attention than any of us have bestowed upon it4 ,extract from ,barrow's ,southern ,africa1 p4 #bia4 ,new-,york edition4 ,about #ab miles to the eastward of the wells1 7,hepatic wells17 in a kloof of the mountain1 we found a considerable quantity of native nitre4 ,it was in a cavern similar to those used by the ,bosgesmans for their winter habitations1 and in which they used to make the drawings above mentioned4 ,the under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous stone1 and the sides that supported it1 were incrusted with a coating of clear1 white saltpetre1 that came off in flakes1 from a quarter of an inch to an inch or more in thickness4 ,the fracture resembled that of refined sugar1 it burnt completely away without leaving any residuum2 and if dissolved in water1 and thus evaporated1 crystals of pure prismatic nitre were obtained4 ,this salt1 in the same state1 is to be met with under the sandstone strata of many of the mountains of ,africa2 but1 perhaps1 not in sufficient quantities to be employed as an article of export4 ,there was also in the same cave1 running down the sides of the rock1 a black substance1 that was apparently bituminous4 ,the peasants called it the urine of the das4 ,the dung of this gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the amount of many wagon loads4 ,the putrid animal matter1 filtrating through the rock1 contributed1 no doubt1 to the formation of the nitre4 ,the ,hepatic wells and the native nitre rocks were in the division of ,agster ,sneuwberg1 which joins the ,tacka to the southwest4 ,should ,i ever visit ,kentucky again1 ,i hope that ,i shall be able to give a better account of these caverns1 which certainly are highly deserving of the attention of naturalists4 ,in ,philadelphia you may have an opportunity of seeing some small specimens of the sandrock1 containing nitre1 now in the cabinet of the ,philosophical ,society4 ,,botany4 ,,art4 ,,xi4 ,descriptions of species of ,sponges observed on the shores of ,long-,island4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque1 ,esq4 ,the sponges are one of the most singular productions of nature2 and1 even to this time1 naturalists are divided in opinion respecting their real rank in the scale of organized beings4 ,some believe that they are animals1 belonging to the class of polyps1 next to the genus of alcyonium1 while many contend that they are not animals1 but plants1 of the tribe of fuci1 or marine vegetables4 ,i am inclined to adopt this latter opinion1 since in all those which ,i have seen1 in ,europe and ,america1 no perceptible motion nor sensibility was to be discerned in any stage of their existence2 and those who have acknowledged their animality1 bring no stronger proof thereof than an occasional slight shrinking under the hand1 and an animal smell1 which are common to some marine plants4 ,whatever be the truth on the subject1 these doubtful opinions prove that they are of the many connecting links between animals and plants4 ,this is not a proper place to decide this controversy2 ,i mean merely to make known new species of this tribe of beings1 which ,i observed last year1 on the shores of ,long-,island4 ,such a fragment will be1 perhaps1 the first attempt of the kind2 when more species shall be known1 the subject may be investigated with more certainty and accuracy4 #a4 ,spongia albescens1 ,raf4 7,whitish sponge47 ,effuse1 compressed1 irregular1 perforated1 somewhat branched1 unequally lobed1 whitish1 smooth2 lobes truncated2 cells porose1 very minute1 nearly equal2 small unequal cells inside4 ,found near ,bath and ,gravesend1 in sandy bottoms4 ,a large species1 sometimes over a foot broad1 of quite an irregular shape1 rather flattened1 about one inch thick2 partly gibbose2 concave now and then1 and with large1 irregular openings1 as if large branches were anastomosed2 circumference branched or lobed1 very jagged1 sinus obtuse1 lobes elongated obtuse1 truncate or flat1 unequally divided4 ,the substance is entirely of a cinereous white1 outside and inside1 of a soft and brittle nature1 rather friable2 covered outside with minute pores of an oblong or round shape1 and full of small unequal cells inside4 #b4 ,spongia ostracina1 ,raf4 7,oyster sponge47 ,very branched1 erect1 red1 papillose2 branches unequal1 often dichotome1 obtuse2 cells porose1 oblong1 nearly equal4 ,it is often found on the common oyster4 7,ostrea virginica47 ,it rises from four to six inches1 the colour is a fine red1 it branches from the base2 the branches are unequal1 straight1 cylindrical1 or compressed4 ,substance stupose4 ,surface covered with small papilla and small oblong unequal pores4 #c4 ,spongia cespitosa1 ,raf4 7,bushy sponge47 ,branched1 cespitose1 yellowish1 rough1 papillose2 branches fasciculated1 upright1 unequal1 flexuose1 compressed1 slightly anastomosed1 nearly dichotome upwards2 cells porose1 oblong1 nearly equal1 margin lacerated4 ,found also on the oyster1 but more seldom than the foregoing2 the specimens which ,i saw was found on the ,bluepoint oysters1 by ,dr4 ,eddy4 ,it becomes brown by drying4 ,it rises from four to six inches1 the margin of the cells or pores is torn into papillar1 stiff processes1 which produce a rough surface4 ,substance stripose4 ,internal cells oblong1 very small4 #d4 ,spongia cladonia4 7,cladonian sponge47 ,branched effuse1 smooth1 pale fulvous1 stem procumbent1 branches distichal1 one-sided1 erect1 simple or divided1 obtuse2 cells porose1 minute2 some larger round4 ,i have found this species at ,bath and at ,sandy-,hook1 on ,sandy bottoms4 ,length about six inches4 ,stem and branches cylindrical or compressed4 ,substance fibrose1 anastomed1 branches divaricate1 ascendent1 semi dichotomose or simple1 unequal1 thicker towards the top4 #e4 ,spongia virgata4 7,slender sponge47 ,nearly branched1 smooth1 fulvous1 stem divided1 slender1 cylindrical1 knobby1 branches erect1 slender1 nearly heads acute2 pores unequal1 irregular1 small4 ,a small species1 three inches high1 found at ,oysterbay1 on rocky bottoms1 rare2 stem with few branches1 and imperfect ones1 like knobs4 ,substance stupose4 ,branches round1 alternate1 small4 ,pores without any determinate shape4 ,,art4 ,,xii4 ,memoir on the ,xanthium maculatum1 a ,new ,species from the ,state of ,new-,york1 c4 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque1 ,,esq4 ,pursh and ,michaux mention only one species of ,american ,xanthium1 the ,x4 strumarium1 while there are three noticed in the catalogue of ,dr4 ,muhlenberg1 the above species1 and the ,x4 orientale1 and ,x4 spinosum4 ,the first and the last are natives of ,europe1 and have been naturalized in the ,united ,states1 with many other plants4 ,the species called ,x4 orientale by ,dr4 ,muhlenberg1 appears however to be a native2 but the ,x4 orientale of ,linnus1 is a native of ,siberia1 ,japan1 and the ,east-,indies2 and when plants are found to grow in such opposite quarters of the globe1 a strong presumption arises that they are not identical species1 which presumption has been confirmed by experience in many instances1 whenever the plants of both countries have been accurately examined4 ,decandolle1 in the ,french ,flora1 7#b;d edit1 of #ahae47 vol4 #f4 p4 #cef1 describes1 under the name of ,x4 macrocarpon1 a species found in ,france1 and which he takes to be the real ,x4 orientale of ,linnus4 ,he has changed its name1 because1 he says1 that it is not certain that the ,x4 orientale grows in ,asia2 or1 if any grows there1 that it is identic with his species2 which1 however1 is really the ,x4 orientale of ,linnus1 ,son1 ,lamark1 and ,gaertner4 ,he adds1 that he possesses in his herbarium1 a species from ,canada1 different from his ,x4 macrocarpon which has been figured by ,morison1 on whose authority some authors have asserted that the ,x4 orientale grew in ,canada1 mistaking his figure for that plant4 ,from the above statement1 it appears that much obscurity and difficulty arises in botany1 when errors creep into the distinction of species3 to detect those errors1 and to ascertain the synonyme of obscure species1 is not one of the least useful botanical labours4 ,having found1 last year and this year1 in the neighbourhood of ,new-,york1 a species of ,xanthium different from any described by the authors1 and intermediate between the ,x4 strumarium and ,x4 orientale of ,linnus1 ,i presume that it may be the ,x4 orientale of ,muhlenberg1 ,leconte1 and ,morison1 and the ,xanthium of ,canada1 mentioned by ,decandolle1 ,dumont1 c4 ,i have given to it the name of ,x4 maculatum1 since the stem is spotted like the ,conium maculatum4 ,none of those authors having described it1 ,i suppose that its description will be acceptable1 and will serve to fix this new species among the ,american botanists4 ,therefore it will appear1 that the ,x4 orientale1 which had been considered as a native of ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,america1 is composed of at least three species2 the ,european species1 which has been called ,x4 macrocarpon by ,decandolle1 the ,american species1 which ,i have called ,x4 maculatum1 and the ,asiatic species1 to which the name of ,x4 orientale ought to remain2 but which ought to be better described1 and more fully distinguished from the ,x4 macrocarpon by those who may chance to meet with it4 ,i even suspect that many species grow in ,asia1 since that of ,ceylon may be different from the ,chinese and ,siberian species4 ,xanthium ,maculatum4 ,definition4 ,stem flexuous1 round1 rough1 spotted with black2 leaves long-petiolate1 cuneate-reniform1 nearly trilobe1 sinuate-toothed1 obtuse1 rough1 and thick2 fruits elliptic1 obtuse muricate2 thorns rough4 ,description4 ,the root is annual1 thick1 and white4 ,the stem rises from one to two feet2 it is upright1 without thorns1 very thick1 and with few branches2 it is covered with oblong1 black1 and rough spots4 ,the leaves are few1 but large1 with very long petiols2 they are nearly reniform1 with an acute base1 and have three nerves2 the teeth are unequal1 large1 and obtuse4 ,the flowers and fruits are disposed as in ,x4 strumarium2 but the fruits are generally solitary2 they are half an inch long1 nearly cylindrical obtuse1 with the two beaks scarcely perceptible and bent in1 covered with short1 thick1 and rough thorns1 rather soft1 and not uncinate4 ,the whole plant has a peculiar smell1 not unpleasant1 somewhat between the camphorate and gravulent odour1 but weaker than in ,conysa camphorata1 c4 ,history4 ,this plant grows on ,long-,island1 near the seashore and marshes4 ,i have found it common near ,bath1 on the downs1 and in ,new-,jersey1 near ,bergen1 and ,powles ,hook1 on the margin of marshy meadows4 ,according to ,dr4 ,mulenberg1 it grows also in ,pennsylvania2 ,messrs4 ,torrey and ,leconte found it on the island of ,new-,york2 and by ,morison and ,decandolle's account1 it is found as far north as ,canada4 ,it blossoms in ,august and ,september1 but the fruits remain on the plant till the severe frosts of ,december4 ,observations4 ,this species differs from the ,x4 macrocarpon of ,decandolle1 by having smaller fruits1 without horns1 and whose thorns are neither hooked nor hispid2 by not having an angular stem1 but a round1 spotted one1 and by its leaves being broader1 and not serrate1 c4 ,nearly all those differences exist between it and the ,x4 orientale of ,asia1 which has not yet been isolated from the ,x4 macrocarpon4 ,the ,x4 edrinatum differs from this by having oval fruits1 with aggregated1 echinate1 and hooked thorns2 and the ,x4 strumarium1 by having cordate hirsute leaves1 the fruits aggregated1 with hooked thorns and horned tops4 ,the ,x4 spinosum1 and ,x4 fruticosum1 ate so totally different that they need not be compared4 ,,zoology4 ,,art4 ,,xiii4 ,description of the ,phalaena ,devastator1 7the ,insect that produces the ,cut-worm17 communicated for the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c4 by ,mr4 ,,john ,p4 ,,brace1 of ,litchfield1 ,conn4 ,this moth1 whose larva is one of our most destructive enemies1 belongs to the ,linnan family noctua1 in the genus phalaena4 ,its specific characters are as follow3 ,wings incumbent and horizontal1 when at rest2 body long and thin2 thorax thick1 but not crested2 head small2 eyes prominent and black2 antenn setacious1 gradually lessening towards extremities1 and slightly ciliated2 palpi two1 flat1 broad in the middle1 and very hairy2 tongue rolled up between them1 not very prominent2 clypeus small1 legs long1 small and hairy2 wings long as body2 under wings shortest2 colour a dark silvery gray1 with transverse dotted bands of black on upper wings4 ,the insect lays its eggs in the commencement of autumn1 at the roots of trees and near the ground3 they are hatched early in ,may4 ,the habits of the cut-worm have been often and fully detailed4 ,they eat almost all kinds of vegetables1 preferring beans1 cabbages1 and corn4 ,they continue in this state about four weeks2 they then cast their skin and enter the pupa state1 under ground4 ,this is a crustaceous covering1 fitted to the parts of the future insect4 ,in this they continue for four weeks longer1 and come out in the fly1 or insect state1 about the middle of ,july4 ,all those chrysalids that ,i exposed to the sun1 died2 and all those that were kept cool under earth1 produced an insect3 hence ,i infer1 that the heat of the sun will kill the chrysalids4 ,if1 then1 the ground be ploughed about the first of ,july1 many of those insects might be destroyed1 and the destruction of the productions of the next year prevented2 for the pupa is never more than a few inches under ground4 ,the phalaena devastator is never seen during the day2 it conceals itself in the crevices of buildings1 and beneath the bark of trees4 ,about sun-down it leaves its hiding-place1 is constantly on the wing1 and very troublesome about the candles in houses4 ,it flies very rapidly1 and is not easily taken4 ,such is the description of this formidable enemy to vegetation4 ,no efficacious method has yet been taken to prevent its ravages1 but the one who could accomplish it1 would do the cause of agriculture an essential service4 ,,art4 ,,xiv4 ,description of a ,new ,genus of ,north ,american ,fresh water ,fish1 ,exoglossum1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque1 ,,esq4 ,mr4 ,lesueur has published1 in the #eth ,number of the ,journal of the ,academy of ,sciences of ,philadelphia1 for ,september1 #ahag1 the description of a new fish1 which he calls ,cyprinus maxillingua3 he considers it as a very singular and anomalous species1 owing to the peculiar structure of its lobed lower jaw and tongue1 which is external1 and situated as an appendage to the former4 ,it was discovered in ,pipe-creek1 ,maryland1 in ,june1 #ahaf1 by said author1 who confesses that he does not consider it as properly belonging to the genus ,cyprinus1 and presumes that when other species shall be discovered1 possessing the same character1 they will constitute a separate genus4 ,although this principle and presumption is correct1 it was wrong to delay the formation of such a distinct genus1 because only a species was then known1 since so many genera are composed of single species4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,lesueur's expectation was verified even before he wrote it1 since in ,may1 #ahag1 ,i had discovered in the ,fishkill1 ,state of ,new-,york1 another1 species1 evidently congenerous with the ,cyprinus maxillingua1 having the same structure of the mouth1 c4 ,i therefore venture to establish a separate genus for those two species1 having no doubt that many more will hereafter be added to it by accurate observers1 and ,i give to it the name of ,exoglossum1 meaning outside tongue4 ,it will belong to the same natural order and family of the genera ,cyprinus1 ,catostomus1 c4 ,,exoglossum4 ,generic ,definition4--,body oblong1 thick1 and scaly2 head without scales1 mouth without lips or teeth1 upper jaw longer1 entire2 the lower trilobed1 middle lobe longer1 performing the office of tongue2 dorsal fin opposite to the abdominal fins2 three rays to the branchial membrane4 ,remarks4 ,besides the above characters1 the two species known at present have1 in common1 the lateral line ascending upwards at the base1 the tail forked1 c4 #a4 ,species4 ,exoglossum vittatum1 ,raf4 ,cyprinus maxillingua1 ,lesueur4 ,specific ,definition4--,back brownish olive2 sides blue1 with a brownish band2 a black spot at the base of the caudal fin1 lower parts silvery gray2 lateral line ascending upwards at the base2 dorsal and anal fins with nine rays2 tail forked4 ,remarks4 ,length four inches2 vulgar name little sucker4 ,for further particulars1 see ,lesueur's description1 p4 #he4 cum4 ic4 ,i have been obliged to change the specific name of maxillingua1 since it has the same meaning as the generic name4 #b4 ,species4 ,exoglossum annulatum1 ,raf4 ,head black above1 cheeks and gills olivaceous1 back blackish olive1 sides olivaceous1 lower parts olive gray2 a black ring at the base of the tail2 lateral line ascending upwards at the base1 tail forked1 dorsal and anal fins with nine rays4 ,remarks4 ,length from three to six inches2 vulgar name1 ,black chub4 ,head broad and flat above1 iris large and gray2 fins olivaceous1 abdominal distant and with nine rays1 pectoral with fifteen1 caudal with twenty-four4 ,,physics1 ,,mechanics1 ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,,art4 ,,xv4 ,on the ,revolving ,steam-,engine1 recently invented by ,,samuel ,,morey1 and ,patented to him on the #adth ,july1 #ahae1 with four ,engravings4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,,sir1 ,the successful employment of the steam-engine1 in navigating the rivers and inland waters of the ,united ,states1 and the probable extension of this mode of conveyance of persons and property1 makes those improvements desirable which adapt the steam-engine to this purpose with less complication and expense1 placing it more within reach of individual enterprise1 and rendering it even useful on our small rivers and canals4 ,the steam-engine1 though often seen in operation1 is not readily understood by an observer1 without an acquaintance with the facts in natural philosophy on which its power depends3 and it may elucidate the subject of this communication to advert1 for a moment1 to the gradations by which this important machine has attained its present perfection4 ,it will be recollected that as early as #affc1 the ,marquis of ,worcester published some obscure hints of a mechanical power derived from the elastic force of steam4 ,in #affi1 ,savary1 availing himself of the suggestion1 and pursuing the subject more scientifically1 invented his engine1 consisting of an apparatus to cause a vacuum by the condensation of steam1 so that the water to be raised would thereupon1 by the external weight of the atmosphere1 rise into the chamber of the apparatus1 which the steam had occupied4 ,as caloric becomes latent in the steam which it forms at #bab of ,fahrenheit1 and the steam thus formed occupies #ahjj times the bulk of the water composing it2 and as it returns instantly to a state of water on losing its heat1 by contact with any thing cold1 ,savary easily produced his vacuum by the injection of a little cold water4 ,he also used 7though in a very disadvantageous manner7 the expansive force of steam to drive the water out of the chamber1 through a pipe different from that by which it entered4 ,it is doubtful whether this kind of engine was ever erected on a scale of any magnitude2 for1 a few years later1 ,newcomen and ,crawley invented the first engine with a cylinder and piston2 and ,savary1 abandoning his own1 united with them in bringing their engine into use4 ,as steam drives out air1 the principle of this engine was to let steam into the cylinder beneath the piston1 where 7the piston having risen to the top of the cylinder7 a jet of cold water#bb condensed the steam1 produced a vacuum1 and the piston1 working air tight1 descended by the pressure of the atmosphere upon it1 this pressure being a weight of nearly fifteen pounds to each square inch2 so that if the cylinder were two feet diameter1 it would amount to a weight of three tons4 ,this mode of operation prevailed for about fifty years1 and though much used to pump water from mines1 was found to have great inconveniences and defects2 till1 in the year #agfb1 ,mr4 ,watt1 being employed to repair a working-model of an engine at the ,university of ,glasgow1 was led to direct his mind to the improvement of the machine2 and from his experiments sprung the most essential change1 viz4 the condensation of the steam in the cylinder1 by opening a communication with a separate vessel1 into which the injection of cold water was made1 thus allowing the cylinder to remain hot4 ,on opening that communication1 the steam instantly rushes to the cold1 or rather is destroyed by the instant loss or reduction of its heat1 and the vacuum thus made allows the piston to descend as before mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,i4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,mr4 ,watt soon added the airpump to the condenser1 to extract the air extricated from the water in boiling1 together with the water injected4 ,the next step was to close the upper end of the cylinder1 the piston-rod working through a tight packing to exclude the air1 letting the steam in above1 as well as below the piston1 by an alternate communication1 and then condensing it in both cases alternately1 thus producing a double stroke2 at the same time deriving some aid from the expansive force of the steam on the side of the piston opposite to the vacuum4 ,this is essentially the form of all the engines in use at the present day4 ,the minor parts devised by ,mr4 ,watt1 as the working of the valves1 c4 were such as would readily occur to a scientific mechanician4 ,while he was bringing the engine to its present perfection1 and furnishing it for the numerous mines1 manufactories1 and breweries in ,great ,britain1 variations were devised by ,cartwright1 by ,hornblower1 ,woolf1 and others in ,england1 and more recently by ,evans and by ,ogden in ,america1 evincing much ingenuity1 but 7with the exception of ,evans's1 which is a simple engine of high pressure7 making the machine more complex4 ,watt and ,bolton's engine1 as most generally used1 being properly an atmospheric engine1 or working with steam so low as merely to produce a vacuum in the cylinder1 became of enormous dimensions1 when the power required was that of an hundred horses3 a scale of estimate adapted to the comprehension of those who had before used the labour of that animal1 and preferred to substitute the steam-engine4 ,it had not1 however1 escaped the notice of ,mr4 ,watt1 that there existed in steam another source of power besides that of atmospheric pressure4 ,the experiments of his learned friend1 ,dr4 ,black1 of ,glasgow1 as well as those of the ,french chemists1 and of ,papin1 in the instance of his digester1 had ascertained the laws of its expansive force1 and amongst other interesting facts1 those subservient to our present purpose2 viz4 ,that after water has reached the boiling point1 #bab of ,fahrenheit1 the caloric which enters it no longer becomes latent1 but sensible in the steam1 which thereupon acquires expansive force to an unlimited degree3 that this force increases geometrically2 or1 that every accession of about #cj of heat1 nearly doubles its power at those stages of progression2 that when the pressure at a high temperature is taken off1 or the steam allowed to flow1 there is an instantaneous and rapid production of steam2 a fact which proves there can be no necessity of a large space for the steam to form in above the water1 provided it be sufficient to prevent water from issuing with the steam1 and1 therefore1 that boilers of a small cylindrical form are best4 ,it may be a fair question1 why ,mr4 ,watt did not further employ this principle of expansive force8 ,we may readily conceive of several motives to the contrary4 ,watt and ,bolton's engines were in great demand2 they gave entire satisfaction1 and the work they performed saved so much labour as to afford the purchase at a high price4 ,the public had gained immensely by this better form of the engine1 and ,mr4 ,watt enjoyed the benefits of the patent he had obtained2 and1 at a later period1 this preference was increased by an accident which happened to ,trevethick's engine1 though caused by gross mismanagement1 that would have been equally fatal to any other4 ,from an investigation1 by a committee of parliament1 into the causes of the several fatal explosions of steam-engine boilers within a few years1 published in ,tillock's ,magazine1 vol4 #a41 it appears that in every instance the accident was fairly attributable to neglect or mismanagement4 ,many competent persons were summoned to give their opinions2 and through the contrariety of their testimony1 the prevalent opinion appears to have been1 that cast-iron boilers cannot be safe2 that as many engines of high steam as of low are now used in ,england1 but that the high are much the most economical in fuel and cost2 that they are more safe1 if properly constructed2 it being argued by some1 that boilers for steam of #ajj pounds to the inch1 are easily made of strength to sustain #ejj pounds2 this excess being much greater than in those constructed for low steam1 makes them comparatively the safest1 as the safety valves are less liable to be accidentally prevented from venting the steam4 ,in the ,united ,states1 instances are not wanting of the successful operation of high steam2 of which the engine at the mint is a conspicuous example4 ,there can1 indeed1 be no good reason why this great power should not be employed to an extent within the limits of safety1 if more economical and convenient4 ,if boilers can bear 7as they are usually made of iron7 #ejj pounds1 there can be no danger in using them with fifty2 and this gives an increase of power1 with a condenser1 fourfold1 or makes a ten horse power forty4 ,the economy1 therefore1 of high steam1 hardly admits of a question4 ,it seems unphilosophical to neglect a power so great1 merely because it is so4 ,mr4 ,watt was desirous of an improvement by which to obtain a direct rotatory motion4 ,his experiments1 resembling those of ,curtis1 at ,new-,york1 were not found permanently practicable4 ,it was probably perceived to be a great object to get rid of a reciprocating movement of large masses1 on the well-known mechanical principle1 that it consumes power to check momentum1 as well as to give it--to drag an inert mass into motion rapidly1 in opposite directions4 ,and in engines for navigation this is more disadvantageous than for land uses1 as the foundation of the engine cannot be perfectly substantial4 ,an engine1 therefore1 that possesses the cylinder and other members of ,watt's engine1 working with or without a condenser1 at pleasure--having a rotatory movement--requiring no ponderous balance-wheel--adapted to high steam--attended by no inconvenience from the rapidity of its stroke or movement--having no inert mass of machinery to move reciprocally--more powerful1 proportionately1 from its using steam as strong as that in the boiler--of a simple and durable construction1 and by a combination of two similar machines attached to the same common intermediate axis1 operating so as to give nearly an equal power at every moment of its operation1 seems to combine every thing desirable in an engine for the purposes of navigation4 ,such appears to be the revolving engine invented by ,mr4 ,morey4 ,when those who are acquainted with steam-engines of the atmospheric kind only1 are told that ,morels cylinder revolves1 their imaginations may suppose a moving mass as large as the enormous cylinders they have been accustomed to see3 but it is not so2 the elastic force of steam requires machinery but of comparatively small dimensions4 ,the revolving engine makes up in activity what in other engines is supplied by magnitude4 ,we will take for example the engine working at the glass manufactory1 in this vicinity1 the cylinder of which has one foot stroke and nine inches diameter1 and is at least a ten horse power1 working with fifty pounds--or1 the engine now building for the ,hartford boat4 ,this engine will have two cylinders of seventeen inches diameter and eighteen inch stroke2 they will revolve fifty times a minute4 ,the area of the piston in each being #bbg inches1 steam at fifty pounds will give an hundred horse power4 ,this boat is seventy-seven feet long1 twenty-one feet wide1 and measures one hundred and thirty-six tons4 ,the engine1 with its boilers1 will occupy sixteen feet by twelve1 or one-eighth only of the boat2 the cylinders being hung on the timbers of the deck over the boilers4 ,she is principally intended to tow vessels up the river to ,hartford4 ,in towing1 it is of importance that the engine admit of any inferior velocity or power1 till some momentum is had4 ,an engine working by atmospheric pressure does not admit of this4 ,and as the boat herself1 at the moment of commencing the operation1 may have no steerage-way1 by placing two blade-rudders at the sides1 behind the water-wheel1 where a current is occasioned by them1 the boat is kept in her relative position4 ,the application of the steam-engine to the towing of other vessels was fully appreciated by the late ,mr4 ,fulton1 whose conspicuous labours and enterprise1 in the establishment of steam-boats1 the public duly honours4 ,his active mind had conceived of its utility2 and he would have obtained a patent1 had not the previous employment of steam in this way1 and the award of arbitrators on the question been in my favour2 which ,i mention merely in reference to the supposed utility of this mode of operation1 in connexion with ,morey's engine4 ,morey's engine should rather be denominated a revolving engine than a rotatory one1 especially as it is essentially different from one so called invented by ,mr4 ,curtis4 ,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #e1 represents the arrangement of a double engine for a boat1 with its cylinders in different positions4 a a a1 boilers2 b b1 tar-vessel2 c1 valve-box2 d1 cylinders in different positions2 e1 piston-rod2 f1 pitman2 h1 centre-piece2 i i1 shaft2 k1 valve2 l1 steam-pipe2 m1 escape-pipe2 n1 condensers2 t1 water-wheel2 v1 face of the valves2 x1 tar-fire4 ,the frame1 holding the cylinder 7d7 is1 by its opposite sides1 so hung as to revolve4 ,to the end of the axis of one side1 extended over the cylinder1 is fixed the centre-piece 7h7 resembling a crank1 from which the bar or pitman 7f7 communicates to the cross-piece of the piston-rod4 ,on this same axis1 but outside the frame1 is placed two circular pieces1 one of brass1 the other of iron1 7k7 which we may call the valves4 ,one is fixed on the axis1 the other moves1 and accompanies the frame and cylinder in its revolution2 from it1 at opposite sides1 pipes lead the steam to each end of the cylinder4 ,it has a smooth face1 which applies1 and is kept by springs close to that of its counterpart fixed on the said axis4 ,steam-pipes lead from the boilers through the counterpart into the moving valve4 ,on the opposite side of the fixed piece the eduction-pipe 7o o7 leads to the condensers4 ,the condensers 7p7 are upright vessels1 two to each cylinder1 connected at top by a sliding valve box1 so that the steam enters them alternately4 ,at bottom are two valves1 kept closed by weights4 ,a stream of water is injected into the condensers1 which escapes by the bottom valves 7p p7 by which also the air is blown out1 at every stroke1 in the same manner the engine is cleared of air at first4 ,there are also two cocks and cross-pipes seen1 ,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #d1 to change the steam from one side to the other of the valve1 to give a reversed motion of the engine4 ,the power is communicated to its object from the opposite side of the frame by the axis attached thereto1 and supported on bearings4 ,this axis 7i i7 may be of any length2 may terminate in a crank or cog-wheel1 or another cylinder 7as here represented7 may be attached thereto at right angles to the first1 to co-operate and produce1 at every moment1 equal power4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #f4 ,profile of the above4 a a1 the boiler2 c1 valve2 d e g1 cylinder and frame2 f1 valve2 h h1 cog-wheels2 i1 cog-wheels to move the pumps2 k k1 condensers2 m m1 coverings in2 o o1 gas-fire flue4 ,fig4 #a4 a1 steam-pipe2 b1 escape-pipe2 c1 fixed valve2 d1 moving valve2 e1 axis2 f1 a washer2 g1 section of frame2 h1 a washer2 i1 centre-piece2 l l1 steam-pipe2 k k1 springs to keep the valves together4 ,the canal-boat has her wheel in the stern4 7,see ,plate ,,iv47 ,the motion is given by a cog-wheel upon its axis 7g7 played upon by another1 upon a shaft1 at right angles1 to which the engine communicates motion4 ,the wheel being divided by a space of two or three inches1 into two parts1 to allow room for this shaft1 and for the support of its end4 ,fig4 #c1 represents the arrangement of the machinery1 occupying the after-part of the boat4 ,an engine of twenty horse power may thus occupy half a canal-boat1 can tow a number of others at such rate as may be proper on canals4#bc b b1 the boilers2 c1 tar-vessel2 d1 the cylinder2 f1 water-wheel4 ,the supply of water to the boilers is either by a pump1 in usual form1 or by the supply-chamber of my invention1 7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #b47 which consists simply of a pipe having two stop-cocks1 one end in a reservoir1 the other opening into the boiler at top1 sloping downward for a foot or two4 ,the cocks are in the sloping point4 ,the operation commences1 by opening the cock nearest the boiler1 the steam drives the air out of the pipe through the water into the reservoir2 shut the cock1 and the water rises from the reservoir to fill it2 shut the second cock1 and open the first1 the water discharges from the chamber into the boiler2 repeated by a movement from the engine1 when in motion1 the supply continues with more certainty than by a pump1 because it is difficult to pump hot water1 on account of the elasticity of the steam arising from it1 which obstructs the operation of the valves4 ,and it is important not to have to pump against the pressure of high steam4#bd ,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #d4 ,the mode of changing the passage of the steam to the opposite sides of the valves1 in order to get a reversed motion of the engine4 a a1 the fixed part1 or valves2 c d1 the pipes2 f g1 the cross pipes2 e e1 the cocks1 which are represented open1 to pipes c and d--turn them half round1 they close c and d1 and open f and g4 ,fig4 #a shows the side-rudders1 d1 e1 c4 ,to this engine is conveniently applied the gas-fire1 in the following manner4 ,the boilers being cylindrical1 with an inside flue for fuel1 two or three are placed close together1 and set in the following manner3 ,first1 cross-bars of iron are laid on the timbers1 a platform of sheet-iron is laid on these bars1 coated over with clay mortar1 or cemented1 to keep out the air4 ,upon the sheet-iron1 and over the bars below1 are placed cast-iron blocks in shape to fit the curve of the boiler1 so as to raise it three or four inches above the platform4 ,the sheet-iron is continued up the outsides of the outer boilers1 so as to enclose them2 and at one end1 between the boilers1 there are small grates for coal or other fuel4 ,the tar vessel or vessels1 as the case may be1 are lodged in the space between and upon the boilers1 and a small fire may be made under them1 if necessary4 ,a pipe leads steam in at one end1 two pipes at the other2 one near the bottom1 and one near the top1 lead out the tar and steam4 ,these pipes unite below2 the steam and tar1 thus mingled in suitable proportions1 flow to the main fire1 or the flues of the boilers1 as well as to the coal-fire below1 where the gas and tar are ignited4 ,the fireman judges of the proportion of each1 by the effect2 the object being to produce a nearly white flame without appearance of tar4 ,thus flame is applied to the greatest possible surface1 and the apparatus adds very little to the cost of the engine4 ,there are also two improvements in the boiler1 which ,i deem it important to mention4 ,first1 the lining or covering of the flue within with sheet-iron or copper1 perforated with small holes1 reaching down its sides1 nearly to the bottom4 ,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #b4 a the boiler2 b the flue2 d the grate2 c c the lining4 ,this causes the water to circulate rapidly between them to the top of the flue1 and protects it from being run dry1 or heated red hot1 when the water gets1 by accident1 too low4 ,the lining also causes the steam to form much faster1 in consequence of this circulation4 ,the other is the interior boiler4 ,a vessel occupying the back part of the flue4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #h4 7d7 communicating downwards with the water1 and upwards with the steam of the main boiler4 ,the fire acts upon it very forcibly1 surrounding it on all sides4 ,i have said there is no reciprocating movement in ,morey's engine4 ,should it be objected that the piston moves in the cylinder as usual1 it must be apparent that it also moves circularly2 it is in fact the cylinder that moves1 carrying the piston with it1 which gives and keeps up the motion1 by drawing and pressing on the centre-piece1 and communicating the resistance thence to the guides of the cross-piece on the insides of the frame1 which thus receives its motion4 ,in fact1 this form of the engine seems divested of all the usual drawbacks on its power1 and leaves it to act freely with any velocity1 according to the strength of the steam in the boilers4 ,such it appears in principle1 and such thus far in practise4 ,i have therefore preferred it for the purposes of navigation1 and have purchased the patent right4 ,but1 though interested to recommend it1 ,i cannot expect it to be preferred by the intelligent1 if there is not merit in the invention1 and great economy in its use4 ,it may be considered the most direct application of the power1 and the most unexceptionable mode of using the expansive force of high steam4 ,and from the nature of its movement the most applicable to boats and vessels4 ,your ,journal being the intended medium of information to promote the useful arts1 ,i hope it may be consistent with this object to explain the manner in which these improvements may be made extensively useful4 ,it being necessary to supply the engines at a reasonable rate1 ,i have established a manufactory for this kind only4 ,the great expense of steam-boats hitherto1 has confined their use too exclusively to the accommodation of passengers4 ,there is a wide field opening for their use1 in freighting1 on all our waters2 and it is often of importance to a community1 when great savings can be made1 that large capitalists should be induced to engage that such savings may be greater4 ,where companies are formed for an extensive operation1 the legislature may1 with propriety1 grant an extension of the time for patents to run1 that such persons may be duly remunerated for their enterprise1 by the duration of the service4 ,our laws do not yet make a proper distinction between patents of a large and expensive kind and those requiring little or no capital to go into operation4 ,the period of fourteen years remunerates the inventor of those improvements only that require no capital1 and involve no risk4 ,on this ground several of the ,state legislatures have1 with good policy1 given encouragement to this kind of enterprise4 ,they suspend the free use of the invention a few years1 rather than loose its immediate operation on a large scale of public benefit4 ,the constitutionality of the measure plainly appears by its not interfering with the laws of the ,united ,states4 ,it is not an act exclusive of1 or in opposition to1 patents1 but acknowledging and confirming them4 ,it is furthering and giving effect to the intentions of the general government1 in the encouragement of useful inventions4 ,for their own particular section of the union1 a ,state legislature may thus provide for the protection of capital1 engaged in enterprise of uncommon risk1 as well as of uncommon usefulness1 without excluding other and better inventions1 should they arise4 ,i shall ask leave to communicate1 for some future ,number1 the results of experiments1 now making1 with the gas fire applied to engines4 ,i am your most respectful humble servant1 ,,john ,l4 ,,sullivan ,,art4 ,,xvi4 ,cautions regarding ,fulminating ,powders4 ,fulminating ,mercury4 ,during a late lecture in the laboratory of ,yale ,college1 a quantity of fulminating mercury1 probably about #ajj or #aej grains1 lay upon a paper1 the paper lay on a small stool1 which was made of pine plank1 one inch and a half thick2 a glass gas receiver1 #e or #f quarts capacity1 stood over the powder1 as a guard1 but without touching it1 and stool and all stood on one of the shelves of the pneumatic cistern1 surrounded by tall tubes and other glasses1 several of which were within #f or #h inches4 ,a small quantity of the fulminating powder1 at the distance of a few feet1 was merely flashed1 by a coal of fire1 but without explosion4 ,in a manner1 not easily understood1 the whole quantity of powder under the large glass instantly exploded with an astounding report2 but the glass was not exploded--it was merely thrown up a little2 in its fall it was shattered1 and broke a glass which it hit1 but no fragment was projected1 and none of the other contiguous tubes and glasses were even overset1 nor were any of a large audience1 and some of them very near1 even scratched2 but the plank1 one and a half inch thick1 on which the powder lay1 had a hole blown quite through1 almost as large as the palm of one's hand4 ,this is a striking instance to prove that the initial force of this powder1 when exploded1 is very great1 but that it extends but a very little way4 ,if it be strewed through a glass tube of three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 and exploded by a coal of fire or hot iron1 the tube may be held in the naked hand1 and the powder only flashes without breaking the tube1 and merely coats it over inside1 and that very prettily1 with the revived quicksilver4 ,fulminating ,silver4 ,chemists are too well acquainted with the tremendous energy of this preparation1 to make any comment upon its powers necessary4 ,unhappily1 however1 it is now made a subject of amusement2 it is prepared for sale by those who know nothing of it1 except as a nostrum1 and it is bought by others who have not even this degree of knowledge4 ,it is true it is put up in small quantities1 in the little toys called torpedoes1 and1 if exploded one by one1 they will ordinarily do no harm2 but as they fall into the hands of children1 we can never be secure that they will be discreetly used4 ,a very severe accident1 from the unexpected explosion of this substance1 occurred some years since in the laboratory of ,yale ,college4 7,see ,bruce's ,journal1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #afc47 ,and1 notwithstanding that this occurrence was well known in ,new-,haven1 the same accident1 only under a severer form1 has again occurred in that town4 ,a man who had bought the secret of making fulminating silver1 had prepared as much as resulted from the solution of one ounce and a half4 ,apparently1 in a great measure1 unaware of the nature of the preparation1 he had placed it1 unmixed with any thing1 on an earthen plate1 which stood on a table2 his wife and children being around1 he sat down to distribute the powder upon several papers which he had prepared for the purpose2 sand and shot are mixed with the powder in the papers for the purpose of giving momentum1 and of producing attrition when the torpedo is thrown1 in order to ensure its explosion4 ,probably also the sand1 looking not very unlike the powder1 may be intended to screen it from view1 and thus to preserve the secret1 should the papers be opened4 ,the unhappy man no sooner touched the fulminating silver with a knife1 than it exploded with its usual violence2 the table was split in two2 blood issued copiously from every part of his face1 not from wounds1 for it does not appear that the fragments hit him1 but1 according to the opinion of a competent judge1 the blood was actually forced through the pores of the skin by the power of the explosion1 which very nearly destroyed his eyes4 ,he suffered immensely1 but now1 at the end of eight months1 sees partially with one eye1 but the other is nearly1 if not quite1 destroyed4 ,should not the tampering with such dangerous substances by ignorant people be prevented by law8 ,in a late lecture in the laboratory of ,yale ,college1 some fulminating silver1 on the point of a knife1 was in the act of being put upon a copper-plate connected with one pole of a galvanic battery in active operation1 the other pole was not touched by the experimenter2 but it seems that the influence which was communicated through the floor of the room was sufficient instantly to explode the powder1 as soon as the knife touched the copper-plate2 the knifeblade was broken in two1 and one half of it thrown to a distance among the audience4 ,recently also1 we are informed1 in one of the foreign journals1 that a man in ,england1 who accidentally trod on a quantity of fulminating silver1 had his foot nearly destroyed by the explosion4 ,,useful ,,arts4 ,,art4 ,,xix4 ,account of an economical method of obtaining ,gelatine from bones1 as practised in ,paris4 ,communicated to the ,editor by ,mr4 ,,isaac ,,doolittle4 ,paris1 #afth ,may1 #ahah4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir1 ,a few days since ,i visited the very interesting establishment of ,m4 ,robert1 for the extraction of the gelatinous matter from bones4 ,the bones used for this purpose are those only which answered no useful purpose 7except for the fabrication of phosphorus or ammoniac7 before this discovery1 such as those of the head1 the ribs1 c4 c41 the legs of sheep and calves1 c4 ,those formerly used by toysmen 7,tabletiers7 are still used for that purpose1 after extracting so much of the gelatine as can be done by ebullition4 ,when the heads of oxen are to be operated upon1 they begin by extracting the teeth1 7these are reserved for the fabrication of ammoniac1 as affording a greater proportion of that alkali than any of the other bones17 they then break the skull1 in such manner as to preserve all the compact parts in as regular forms as possible2 these pieces present a surface of #bj to #cj square inches1 and are put to soak in a mixture of muriatic acid and water4 ,the muriatic acid used bears about twenty-three degrees o the aeromtre1 and is diluted by water to about six degrees--four parts of the liquor is used to one part of bones4 ,they are left in this state1 in open vessels1 until a complete solution of the phosphate of lime has taken place1 and the gelatinous part of the bone remains in its original shape and size1 and is perfectly supple4 ,when this operation is finished1 which commonly lasts six or eight days1 the gelatine is put into baskets1 being first drained1 and immersed a short time in boiling water1 in order to extract any small remains of grease1 which would deteriorate the gelatine1 and also to extract any of the acid which might be lodged in the pores4 ,it is then carefully wiped with clean linen1 and afterward washed in copious streams of cold water1 to whiten it1 and render it more transparent2 it is then put to dry in the shade4 ,two ounces of this gelatine are said to be equal to three pounds of beef in making soup--that is1 three pounds of beef and two ounces of gelatine will make as much soup1 and of as good quality1 as six pounds of beef4 ,it is constantly used in some of the hospitals of the capital1 particularly in the lying-in-hospital4 ,the ends of the bones1 and such parts as from their porosity might still retain a portion of the acid1 are separated1 and used for making glue of a very superior quality4 ,the inside of the bones of sheep's legs furnish a sort of membranous glue1 which supplies1 with advantage1 the place of isinglass in the fabrication of silk stuffs4 ,i give you these particulars1 not because ,i think they contain any thing new to you1 in principle1 but because ,i may have hit upon some details with which you were unacquainted4 ,,art4 ,,xx4 ,experiments made in ,france upon the ,use of ,distilled ,seawater for domestic purposes1 and its ,effects on the ,constitution1 when taken as a ,beverage4#be ,in consequence of the great want of good fresh water in many of the maritime parts of ,france1 the government some time since ordered some experiments to be made1 upon an extensive scale1 in order to ascertain how far seawater1 when distilled1 could be used with success4 ,little or no use had hitherto been made of water so prepared1 except in long voyages1 and chiefly then only as a matter of necessity4 ,there are above two hundred leagues of seacoast in ,france1 where1 to the breadth of many miles1 the inhabitants are compelled to make use of bad and impure water1 which1 in many cases1 is injurious to the health of themselves and their animals4 ,in similar cases1 it was the custom of the ancients to construct cisterns2 but these are not only expensive in themselves1 but their utility depends upon the quantity of rain that falls2 while upon the shores of the most barren places1 nature has supplied a variety of vegetable matter1 which1 when dried1 would not only serve as a fuel for the purposes of distillation1 but from the ashes of which might be obtained a saline substance1 sufficient to repay the expense of collecting1 drying1 and burning4 ,thus the fuel for the distillation of seawater would1 in reality1 cost nothing1 while its preparation would employ many individuals1 particularly women and children4 ,before1 however1 erecting any apparatus for this purpose1 it was necessary to ascertain both the utility and salubrity of the water thus prepared4 ,it is well known that ,bougainville1 ,phipps1 ,homelin1 c4 had employed this water with much success2 but they1 like most of the chemists of the last age1 did not endeavour to imitate the process of nature in all its simplicity1 but mixed various substances with the seawater1 in order to take away or lessen the effect of the empyreuma arising from the distillation1 and which was so unpleasant to the smell and taste4 ,and it is this which in general renders sailors so averse to it1 and excites a prejudice very unfavourable to the salubrity of distilled seawater4 ,one of the great objects to be ascertained was1 whether this disagreeable smell and taste was peculiar to seawater or arose from the act of distillation4 ,in the month of ,july1 last year1 the king ordered some experiments to be made1 upon a large scale1 at the three ports of ,brest1 ,rochefort1 and ,toulon4 ,the instructions given were as follows3 ,that a sufficient quantity of seawater should be distilled to prepare1 for the space of a month1 bread and other food for a certain number of criminals1 who were employed on the works of these ports1 and also to supply them with drink1 keeping from them during that period every other liquid4 ,ten or twelve persons at each part voluntarily came forward and offered themselves for the experiment4 ,the persons employed by government first distilled a sufficient quantity of seawater1 without the admixture of any other substance4 ,this produce dissolved soap1 dressed vegetables1 produced the same appearances1 with the aerometer1 as that distilled from spring water4 ,there was no difference between the one and the other4 ,but the distilled seawater had always that empyreumatic taste and smell1 of which we have before spoken2 and it was so strong1 that the commission at ,toulon called it odeur de marine1 and odeur de marecage4 ,but this is not peculiar to seawater1 for the result of a distillation of fresh water had always the same taste and smell4 ,neither of these liquids immediately loses this by being filtered through charcoal2 but by being exposed for some time to the air1 the distilled seawater loses this unpleasant quality1 and then it does not differ from fresh water derived from the purest source2 and both have equally stood every chemical test to which they have been exposed4 ,the chemical properties of this water having thus been determined1 it remains to give an account of the effects upon the individuals who underwent the experiment4 ,these are the principal results3 ,brest4 ,during the first days1 those who drank the water complained of a weight upon the stomach4 ,this indisposition1 which was the only one they experienced1 soon decreased upon taking exercise1 and totally went off by an additional ounce of biscuit added to their common ration4 ,one of them1 on the #bith day1 had a few symptoms1 but which he himself attributed to an indigestion1 from some bacon he had eaten4 ,eight individuals drank twenty-five pints a day1 rather more than three pints each1--7,n4 ,b4 ,the ,french pint contains very near fifty-seven cubic inches of ,english measure1 and is the regulation size for the claret or ,bordeaux bottle2 but in general the bottles are rather smaller4 ,the ,french pint is therefore equal to rather more than nineteen-twentieths of an ,english quart1 wine measure47 ,toulon4 ,the results obtained at the arsenal of this town1 were not less decisive or satisfactory4 ,the six persons who made the experiment acquired a greater degree of freshness in their appearance1 and were much fatter4 ,their daily consumption of distilled water was nine pounds 7poids de marc7 for drink1 and eleven pounds for cooking4 ,this is nearly the same relative quantity as those at ,brest4 ,rochefort4 ,the experiments here have not been made with the same regularity2 because the fifteen persons fixed upon had all agreed to say that they were very ill4 ,the two principal ones complained of violent cholics and diarrhas3 but the plot was discovered1 and upon being put upon the sick-list1 7 la dite17 they were laughed at by their companions4 ,no one of them was really indisposed2 on the contrary1 many thought they experienced some good effect in regard to some infirmities under which they had long laboured4 ,the above are not1 however1 the only experiments which have been made upon this beverage4 ,several persons wishing to ascertain its effects by individual experience1 have voluntarily confined themselves to its use2 and the members of the commission of inquiry are almost in the daily practice of taking it4 ,the captain of the ,duclat has taken it every day at his meals for twenty days1 and has experienced not the smallest inconvenience from its use4 ,m4 ,m4 ,vasse1 and ,chatelain1 apothecaries to the marine at ,brest1 have occasionally kept the water in their mouths for four hours1 by constantly renewing it1 and have not found either the sharp taste1 or other caustic qualities1 which have been said to be peculiar to it4 ,and here it may be proper to state1 that the mouths of all the individuals who had taken the water for a length of time were examined1 without the detection of any thing in them either of a swollen or inflammatory appearance4 ,such are the reports of commissioners employed to investigate the effects of distilled seawater1 who1 although separated at a great distance from each other1 and having no communication1 all agree in the inference1 that it may be employed without any injury to the health1 both as a beverage and in cookery1 for the space of at least a month2 and the fair presumption is1 that it may be employed for a much longer time2 and that in consequence1 it must be considered as a very happy resource in long voyages of discovery4 ,,fine ,,arts4 ,,art4 ,,xxi4 ,essay on ,musical ,temperament4 ,by ,professor ,,fisher1 of ,yale ,college4 ,concluded from page #ce4 ,,proposition ,v4 ,to determine that position of any degree in the scale1 which will render all the concords terminated by it1 at a medium1 the most harmonious2 supposing their relative frequency given1 and all the other degrees fixed4 ,the best scheme of temperament for the changeable scale1 on supposition that all the concords were of equally frequent occurrence1 is investigated in ,prop4 ,,iii4 ,but it is shown1 in the last ,proposition1 that some chords occur in practice far more frequently than others4 ,hence it becomes necessary to ascertain what changes in the scale above referred to1 this different frequency requires4 ,any given degree1 as ,c1 terminates six different concords2 a ,vth1 ,i,i,id1 and #c;d above1 and the same intervals below it4 ,let the numbers denoting the frequency of these chords below ,c be denoted by a1 b1 and c1 and their temperaments1 before the position of ,c is changed1 by m1 n1 and p3 and let the frequency of the chords above ,c be denoted by a1 b1 and c1 and their temperaments by m1 n1 and p1 respectively4 ,if1 now1 we regard any two of these #f chords1 whose temperaments would be diminished by moving ,c opposite ways1 and of which the sum of the temperaments is consequently fixed1 it is manifest that the more frequent the occurrence1 the less ought to be the temperament4 ,were we guided only by the consideration of making the aggregate of dissonance heard in them in a given time1 the least possible1 we should make the one of most frequent occurrence perfect1 and throw the whole of the temperament upon the other4 ,let1 for example1 a be greater than a1 and let x be any variable distance to which ,c is moved1 so as to diminish the temperament m1 of the chord whose frequency is expressed by a4 ,then the temperament of a will become m x1 and that of a m x4 ,hence1 as the dissonance head in each1 in a given time1 is in the compound ratio of its frequency of occurrence and its temperament1 their aggregate dissonance will be as a 7m x7 a 7m x72 a quantity which1 as a is supposed greater than a1 evidently becomes a minimum when x m1 or the chord1 whose frequency is a1 is made perfect4 ,but in this way we render the harmony of the chords very unequal1 which is1 cteris paribus1 a disadvantage4 ,as these considerations are heterogeneous1 it must be a matter of judgment1 rather than of mathematical certainty1 what precise weight is to be given to each4 ,we will give so much weight to the latter consideration1 as to make the temperament of each concord inversely as its frequency4 ,we have then a 3 a 33 #a_/7m - x7 3 #a_/7m x72 which gives x 7am - am7_/7a a74 ,but there are six concords to be accommodated1 instead of two2 and it is evident that all the pairs cannot have their temperament inversely as their frequency1 since the numbers a1 b1 c4 and m1 n1 c4 have no constant ratio to each other4 ,this1 however1 will be the case1 at a medium1 if x be made such1 that the sum of the products of the numbers expressing the frequency of those chords whose temperaments are increased by x1 into their respective temperaments1 shall be equal to the sum of the corresponding products belonging to those chords whose temperaments are diminished by x4 ,applying this principle to the system of temperament in ,prop4 ,,iii1 which flattens all the concords1 it is plain that raising any given degree by x will increase the temperaments of the concords above that degree1 and diminish those of the concords below it4 ,hence it ought to be raised till 7m - x7 a 7n - x7b 7p - x7c 7m x7a 7n x7b 7p x7c2 from which x is found 7am - am bn - bn cp - cp7 _/ 7a a b b c c7 ,should either of the temperaments be sharp1 the sign of that term of the numerator1 in which it occurs1 must be changed2 and should the total value of the expression be negative1 x must be taken below ,c4 ,,proposition ,,vi4 ,to determine that system of temperaments for the concords of the changeable scale1 which will render it1 including every consideration1 the most harmonious possible4 ,we can scarcely expect to find any direct analytical process1 which will furnish us with a solution of this complicated problem1 at a single operation4 ,we shall therefore content ourselves with a method which gradually approximates towards the desired results4 ,the best position of any given degree1 as ,c1 supposing all the rest fixed1 is determined by the last proposition4 ,in the same manner it is evident that the constitution of the whole scale will be the best possible1 when no degree in it can be elevated or depressed1 without rendering the sums of the products there referred to1 unequal4 ,we can approximate to this state of the scale1 by applying the theorem in ,prop4 ,v4 to each of the degrees successively4 ,it is not essential in what order the application is made2 but for the sake of uniformity1 in the successive approximations1 we will begin with that degree which has the greatest sum a a b c4 belonging to it1 and proceed regularly to that in which it is least4 ,making the equal temperament of ,prop4 ,,iii41 7in which the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds are flattened1 #aed1 #gg and #gg1 respectively47 the standard from which to commence the alterations in the scale required by the unequal frequency of different chords1 and beginning with ,d1 the theorem gives x #e4 ,hence supposing the rest of the degrees in the scale unaltered1 it will be in the most harmonious state1 when ,d is raised #e_/edj of a comma4 ,for by the last proposition1 the temperament of the six concords affected by changing the place of ,d is best distributed1 and that of the other concords is not at all affected4 ,we will now proceed to the second degree in the scale1 viz4 ,a2 in which the application of the theorem gives x #ac4 ,in this application1 however1 as ,d was before raised #e1 m1 the temperament of the ,vth below ,a1 must be taken #aed #e2 and in all the succeeding operations1 when the exterior termination of any concord has been already altered1 we must take its temperament1 not what it was at first1 but what it has become1 by such previous alteration4 ,in this manner1 the scale is becoming more harmonious at every step1 till we have completed the whole succession of degrees which it contains4 ,let us now revert to ,d1 the place where we began4 ,as each of the outer extremities of the chords which are terminated by ,d has been changed1 a new application of the theorem will give a second correction for the place of ,d2 although1 as the numbers a1 a'1 b1 c4 continue the same1 it will be less than before4 ,continue the process through the whole scale1 and a second approximation to the most harmonious state will be obtained4 ,in this manner let the theorem be applied1 till the value of x is exhausted1 for every degree2 and it will then be in the most harmonious state possible4 ,three operations gave the following results3 ,,table ,v4 --------------------------- #ast #b;d4 #c;d4 ,bases4 ,operation4 --------------------------- ,f #ah #e #a ,f -#bj -#f -#a ,e #ah #e #j ,e #ad #e #j ,e -#fi -#h -#a ,d #ai #e #a ,d #e #b #a ,d -#de -#g -#b ,c #ah #f #j ,c -#e -#e -#b ,b #ah #e #j ,b #ai #e #j ,b -#bc -#aj -#a ,a #ah #g #j ,a #ac #d #a ,a -#ga -#g -#b ,g #ag #e #j ,g -#ad #j #j ,f #dd #e #j ,g -#df -#e #j --------------------------- ,the sign plus denotes that the degree to which it belongs is to be raised1 and minus1 that it is to be depressed4 ,the corrections in each succeeding operation are to be added to those in the preceding4 ,the errors1 in the #c;d approximation1 are so trifling1 that a #dth would be wholly useless4 ,,note4 ,the foregoing calculations will be rendered much more expeditious and sure1 by reducing the theorem1 in some sense1 to a diagram1 as in the first of the following figures2 and by applying the successive corrections to the circumference of a circle divided into parts proportioned to the intervals of the enharmonic scale1 as in the second4 ,illustration ,,proposition ,,vii4 ,to determine the temperaments and beats of all the concords1 together with the values of the diatonic and chromatic intervals1 and the lengths and vibrations per second of a string producing all the sounds1 of the system resulting from the last proposition4 ,the temperaments of all the concords are easily deduced from ,table ,v4 ,the ,vth ,,cg1 for example1 has its lower extremity lowered #ab1 and its upper extremity #ad4 ,hence it is flatter by #b than at first1 and consequently its temperament#aef4 ,the temperaments of all the concords1 thus calculated1 will be found in the #b;d1 #c;d1 and #dth columns of ,table ,,vii4 ,having ascertained the temperaments1 the value of the diatonic and chromatic intervals may be found4 ,the ,vth ,,cg being flattened #aef1 and the ,vth ,,fc #aci1 the major tone ,,fg must be diminished #aef #aci1 or be #dhbj4 ,by thus fixing the extent of one interval after another1 from the temperaments of either of the different kinds of concords1 as is most convenient1 the intervals in question will be found to have the values exhibited in ,table ,,vi4 ,let the numbers in this table be added successively1 beginning at the bottom1 to the log4 of #bdj1 the number of vibrations per second of the tenor ,c1 7see ,rees's ,cyc4 ,art4 ,concert ,pitch17 and the numbers corresponding to these logarithms will be the vibrations in a second1 of a string sounding the several degrees of the scale4 ,they are shown in col4 #f1 ,table ,,vii4 ,since the length of a string cteris paribus is inversely as its number of vibrations1 the lengths in col4 #e may be deduced from the vibrations in col4 #f2 or more expeditiously1 by subtracting the numerical distances from ,c of the several degrees in ,table ,,vi4 from ,o1 and taking the corresponding numbers1 from the table of logarithms4 ,these numbers1 when used as logarithms1 must be brought back to the decimal form1 agreeably to ,scholium #b4 ,prop4 ,i4 ,to find the number of beats made in a second by any concord1 it is only necessary to take from col4 #e the numbers belonging to the degrees which terminate that concord1 and to multiply them crosswise into the terms of its perfect ratio4 ,the difference of the products will be the number of beats made in a second4 ,the #c last columns contain the beats made by each of the concords1 in #aj seconds4 ,,table ,,vi4 ,c ------------------ ,c #biih #biih ------ ,b #aggb ,b ------------------ ,b #ahca #cjcc ,b------ #dhac ------ ,a #bihb #aghj ,a ------------------ ,a #ahga #cjcj ,a------ #dhci ------ ,g #bifh #ahji ,g ------------------ ,g #ahad ------ ,f #agih ,g------ #dhbj ------ ,f #cjjf #ahbd ,f ------------------ ,f ------ ,e #bihh #bihh #aggg ,e ------------------ ,e #ahgj #cjbh ,e------ #dhah #bidh ------ ,d #agij ,d ------------------ ,d #ahce #cjah ,d------ #dhbg ------ ,c #biib #ahji ,c ------------------ ,c ,,table ,,vii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,temperaments of the,lengths,vibrations,beats in #aj ,s4 of the ,bases------------------- of in a ------------------- ,vths,i,i,ids#c;ds,string4 ,second4 ,vths4 ,i,i,ids4 #c;ds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,b #gg #eadca #dff1fd #dc1d ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,b #aed #gf #ic #ecegd #ddg1ih #dg1d #ci1j #eg1h ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,b #adg #ce #ig #eehhj #dbi1di #dc1e #ag1g #eg1d ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,a #aef #gh #egddh #dag1gg #de1a #df1b ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,a #aec #ga #ajg #eiheb #djj1ii #db1e #cc1e #ei1d ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,a #aed #i #fbdhg #chd1jh #dj1d #d1j ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,g #aea #gf #ge #fdagg #cgc1ig #ci1a #cb1i #ci1b ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,g #acb #ci #ig #ffijg #ceh1ga #cb1i #af1c #dh1a ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,f #aja #fhggh #cdh1ie #dh1e ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,g #ef #figfj #cdd1jc #ba1i ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,f #aed #gf #hc #gafhe #ccd1hj #cf1j #bi1b #ch1e ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,f #aci #cb #acj #gdgfj #cba1jc #cj1i #aa1i #eg1h ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,e #aed #gh #gfhgd #cab1bj #cc1b #cc1e ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,e #adi #gd #aaj #hjjhe #bii1fh #cj1h #be1b #de1c ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,e #aaj #ac #ed #hcfjh #bhg1je #ba1g #d1a #ba1e ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,d #aed #ec #gh #hehfh #bgi1ej #bi1f #ag1j #cj1j ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,d #add #fa #aab #hidhj #bfh1ba #bf1e #ah1e #da1a ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,d #ahj #ej #iccdb #beg1ab #cb1j #ad1h ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,c #aef #gh #hb #ieibj #bej1bj #bf1f #bb1j #bh1j ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,c #aef #df #adc #ajjjjj #bdj1jj #be1h #ab1h #dg1e ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,proposition ,,viii4 ,to compare the harmoniousness of the foregoing system with that of several others1 which have been most known and approved4 ,the aggregate of dissonance1 heard in any tempered concord1 is as its temperament 7,prop4 ,i47 when its frequency of occurrence is given1 and as its frequency of occurrence1 when its temperament is given3 hence1 universally1 it is as the product of both4 ,the whole amount of dissonance heard in all the concords of the same name must consequently be as the sum of the products of the numbers denoting their temperaments1 each into the number in ,table ,,iv4 denoting its frequency4 ,these products1 for the scale of ,huygens which divides the octave into #ca equal parts1 of which the tone is #e and the semi-tone #c2 for the system of mean tones1 and for ,dr4 ,smith's system of equal harmony1 compared with the scale of the last proposition1 7cutting off the three right-hand figures7 stand as follows3 ,,table ,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,systems4 ,huygen's4,dr4 ,smith's4,mean ,tones4,new ,scale4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,dissonance ,vths #hbe #ide #hej #ghf of the ,i,i,ids #aba #chb #j #bdj #c;ds #ajdi #fbi #idd #fhc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,total #aiie #aief #agid #agji ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,were we to adhere to ,dr4 ,smith's measure of equal harmony1 the rows of products belonging to the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds1 must be divided1 respectively1 by 1 #a_/aj1 and #a_/ac 7the reciprocals of half the products of the terms of their perfect ratios17 before they could be properly added to express the whole amount of dissonance heard in all the concords2 but1 according to ,prop4 ,i4 the simple products ought to be added1 and the sums at the bottom of the table will express the true ratio of the aggregate dissonance of the systems under which they stand4 ,the last has decidedly the advantage over the first1 both in regard to the aggregate dissonance1 and the equality of its distribution among the different classes of concords4 ,it has nearly an equal advantage over the second in regard to the first of these considerations2 although in regard to the equality of distribution1 the latter has slightly the advantage4 ,it has1 in a small degree1 the advantage over the third1 in regard to the aggregate dissonance2 while1 as it respects the equality of its distribution1 it has the decided preference4 ,it is true that the temperaments of the concords of the same name1 in the new scale1 are not as in the others1 absolutely equal2 but no one of them is so large as to give any offence to the nicest ear4 ,the largest in the whole scale exceeds the uniform temperament of ,dr4 ,smith's ,vths by only #a_/ah of a comma4 ,scholium #a4 ,the above system may be put in practice on the organ1 by making the successive ,vths ,,cg1 ,,gd1 ,,de1 c4 beat flat at the rate contained in ,table ,,vii41 descending an octave1 where necessary1 and doubling the number of beats belonging to any degree in the table1 when the ,vth to be tuned has its base in the octave above the treble ,c4 ,the tenor ,c must first be made to vibrate #bdj in a second1 the methods of doing which are detailed at length in various authors4 ,whenever a ,i,i,id results from the ,vths tuned1 its beats ought to be compared with those required in the table1 and the correctness of the ,vths thus proved4 ,this system is as easy1 in practice1 as any other2 for no one can be tuned correctly except by counting the beats1 and rendering them conformable to what that system requires4 ,the intervals of the first octave tuned ought to be adjusted with the utmost accuracy1 by a table of beats4 ,when this is done1 the labour of making perfect the other octaves of the same stop1 and the unisons1 octaves1 ,vths1 c4 of the other stops1 is the same in every system4 ,this last1 indeed1 is so much the most laborious part of the tuning of the organ1 that if even much more labour were required than actually is1 in adjusting the intervals of the octave first tuned it would occasion little difference in the whole4 ,scholium #b4 ,the harmony of the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds in any of the foregoing systems for the changeable scale is so much finer than it can possibly be in the common ,douzeave1 that it seems highly desirable that this scale should be introduced into general use4 ,but the increased bulk and expense attendant on the introduction of so many new pipes or strings1 together with the trouble occasioned to the performer1 in rectifying the scale for music in the different keys1 have hitherto prevented its becoming generally adopted4 ,to multiply the number of finger keys would render execution on the instrument extremely difficult2 and the apparatus necessary for transferring the action of the same key from one string or set of pipes to another1 besides being complicated and expensive1 requires such exactness that it must be continually liable to get out of order4 ,this latter expedient1 however1 has been deemed the only practicable one1 and has been carried into effect1 under different forms1 by ,dr4 ,smith1 ,mr4 ,hawkes1 ,m4 ,loeschman1 and others4 ,but ,dr4 ,smith's plan 7which is confined to stringed instruments7 requires only one of the unisons to be used at once2 while those of the two latter nearly double the whole number of strings or pipes4 ,it deserves an experiment1 among the makers of imperfect instruments1 whether a changeable scale cannot be rendered practicable1 at least on the piano forte1#bf without increasing the number of strings1 and at the same time allowing both the unisons to be used together--either by an apparatus for slightly increasing the tension of the strings1 or by one which shall intercept the vibrations of such a part of the string1 at its extremity1 as shall elevate its tone1 by the diesis of the system of temperament adopted4 ,were only #d degrees to the octave1 furnishing the instrument with #e sharps and #d flats1 thus rendered changeable1 there is little music which could not be correctly executed upon it4 ,scholium #c4 ,in the same general manner1 may be found the best system of intervals1 for a scale confined to a less number of degrees than that of the complete ,enharmonic scale4 ,in such an investigation1 the numbers in ,table ,,iv4 expressing the frequency of all such adjacent degrees as have but one sound in the given scale1 must be united2 and the temperaments m1 n1 c4 of the theorem1 when belonging to concords whose terminating degrees are united to those adjacent1 must be taken1 not what they were in the complete scale1 but what they become1 considering them as terminated by the substituted adjacent degree4 ,if1 for example1 the best temperaments were required for a scale of #ae degrees to the octave1 such as is that of some ,european organs1 or in other words1 having no ,enharmonic intervals except ,d ,e1 and ,g ,a1--the numbers in ,table ,,iv4 belonging to ,c and ,d1 ,e and ,f1 ,f and ,g1 c4 must be united1 and their sums substituted when they occur1 for a1 a1 b1 c4 in the theorem2 while the temperament1 for example1 of the ,i,i,id on ,c must not be reckoned #gg as in the complete scale1 but #abfa - #gg sharp1 since its upper termination has become ,f1 instead of ,e4 ,with these variations let the same theorem be applied as before1 till no value of x can be obtained1 and the temperaments for that scale will be the best adjusted possible4 ,but as the scale which contains but #ac degrees1 or #ab intervals1 to the octave1 is in much more general use than every other1 we shall content ourselves with stating how the problem may be solved for scales containing any intermediate number of degrees1 and proceed directly to the consideration of that which is so much the most practically important4 ,,lemma4 ,no arrangement of the intervals in the common scale of #ab degrees1 which renders none of the ,vths or #c;ds sharp1 and none of the ,i,i,ids flat1 can make any change in the aggregate temperaments of all the concords of the same name4 ,we will conceive the #ab ,vths of the ,douzeave scale to be arranged in succession1 as ,,cg1 ,,gd1 ,,da1 c4 embracing #g octaves4 ,let them at first be all equal3 they will each be flattened #di4 ,i say that no change in these ,vths which preserves the two extreme octaves perfect1 and renders none of them sharp1 can alter the sum of their temperaments4 ,let a1 b1 c1 c4 be any quantities1 positive or negative1 by which the points ,c1 ,g1 ,d1 c4 may be conceived to be raised above the corresponding points1 belonging to the scheme of equal ,vths4 ,then as the mean temperament ,vth ,v - #di1 the first ,vth in the supposed arrangement will be ,v - #di a4 ,the distance from ,c to ,d will be1 in like manner1 #b 7,v - #di7 b2 and consequently the ,vth ,,gd will be ,v - #di b - a4 ,in the same manner the third ,vth ,,de will be ,v - #di c - b1 c4 ,hence the temperament of ,,cg -#di a1 of ,,gd -#di b - a1 of ,,da -#di c - b1 c4 ,adding the #ab temperaments together1 we find their sum -#ab #di a b c4 - a - b - c4 in which all the terms except the first destroy each other1 and leave their sum -#ab #di which is the aggregate temperament of the twelve equal ,vths in the scheme of equal semitones4 ,the same reasoning holds good if we bring these ,vths within the compass of an octave2 since1 if the octave be kept perfect1 all the ,vths on the same letter1 in whatever octave they are situated1 must have the same temperament4 ,the reasoning is precisely the same for the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds1 considering the former as forming #d distinct series of an octave each1 beginning with ,c1 ,c1 ,d and ,e2 and the latter as forming #c distinct series of an octave each1 beginning with ,c1 ,c and ,d4 ,if the former be made all equal1 each will be sharpened #cdc2 if the latter be made equal1 each will be flattened #cib4 ,in every system which renders none of the former flat1 and none of the latter sharp1 the sum of their temperaments will be #ab #cdc1 and #ab #cib1 respectively4 ,cor4 ,the demonstration holds equally true1 whatever be the magnitude of a1 b1 c1 c43 only if they be such that the difference -a b1 -b c1 c4 of any two successive ones be greater than the temperament of the corresponding concord in the system of equal semitones1 the temperament of that chord must be reckoned negative1 and the sum1 in the enunciation of the proposition1 must be considered as the excess of those temperaments which have the same sign with those of the same concords in the system of equal semitones1 above those which have the contrary sign4 ,hence it is universally true that the excess of the flat above the sharp temperaments of the ,vths is equal to #ab #di2 that the excess of the sharp above the flat temperaments of the ,i,i,ids is equal to #ab #cdc2 and that the excess of the flat above the sharp temperaments of the #c;ds is #ab #cib4 ,hence likewise we have a very easy method of proving whether the temperaments of any given system have been correctly calculated4 ,it is only to add those which have the same sign2 and if the differences of the sums be equal to the products just stated1 the work is right4 ,,proposition ,,ix4 ,if all the concords of the same name1 in a scale of twelve intervals to the octave1 were of equally frequent occurrence1 the best system of temperament would be that of equal semitones4 ,it is evidently best1 so far as the concords of the same name are concerned1 that if of equal frequency1 they should be equally tempered1 unless by rendering them unequal1 their medium temperament could be diminished2 but this appears1 from the ,lemma1 to be impossible4 ,by tempering them unequally1 the aggregate dissonance heard in a given time1 by supposition of their equal frequency1 would not be diminished1 whilst the disadvantage of a transition from a better to a worse harmony would be incurred4 ,some advocates of irregular systems of temperament have1 indeed1 maintained this irregularity to be a positive advantage1 as giving variety of character to the different keys4 ,but this variety of character is obviously neither more nor less than that of greater and less degrees of dissonance4 ,now1 what performer on a perfect instrument ever struck his intervals false1 for the sake of variety8 ,who was ever gratified by the variety produced in vocal music by a voice slightly out of tune8 ,if this be absurd1 when applied to instruments capable of perfect harmony1 it is scarcely less so to urge variety of character as being of itself a sufficient ground for introducing large temperaments into the scale4 ,for these large temperaments will have nearly the same effect1 compared with the smaller ones1 that small temperaments would have1 when compared with the perfect harmony of voices and perfect instruments4 ,possibly a discordant interval1 or a concord largely tempered1 might1 in a few instances1 add to the resources of the composer4 ,but when an instrument is once tuned1 the situation of these intervals is fixed beyond his control1 and by occurring in a passage where his design required the most perfect harmony1 it might as often thwart as favour the intended effect4 ,since1 then1 the proposition is true in reference to the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds1 when separately considered1 it will be equally true when they are considered jointly1 that is1 as formed into harmonic triads1 unless1 by rendering the concords of the same name unequal in their temperament1 the mean temperament of the ,vths could be increased1 and that of the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds proportionally diminished4 ,could this be done1 it might be a question whether the more equal distribution of the temperament among the concords of different names1 might not justify the introduction of some inequality among those of the same name4 ,but it is demonstrated in the ,lemma1 that the sum of the temperaments of each parcel of concords1 in the system of equal semitones1 is the least possible4 ,hence no changes in the ,vths can diminish the average temperaments of the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds4 ,cor4 ,hence we derive an important practical conclusion3 that whatever irregularities are introduced into the scale1 must be such as are demanded by the different frequency of occurrence of the several concords4 ,if we make any alterations in the scale of equal semitones1 this must be our sole criterion4 ,a given system of temperament is eligible1 in proportion to the accuracy with which it is deduced from the different frequency of the different concords4 ,and those who maintain that the frequency of different intervals does not sensibly vary1 or that it is of such a nature as not to be susceptible of calculation1 must1 to be consistent1 adhere to the scale of equal semitones4 ,,proposition ,x4 ,to determine the best distribution of the temperaments of the concords in the ,douzeave ,scale4 ,as the scale of equal semitones has been demonstrated to be the best1 on supposition that all the concords of the same name occurred equally often1 it ought to be made the standard from which all the variations1 required by their unequal frequency1 are to be reckoned4 ,to find a set of numbers expressing the relative frequency of the several concords in the common scale1 we have only to unite the numbers in ,table ,,iv4 standing against those adjacent degrees which have but one sound in this scale4 ,they will then stand as in the following table3 ,,table ,,ix4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,vths1 #dths1 ,i,i,ids1 #fths1 #c;ds1 ,v,iths1 ,bases4 and and and ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ,octaves4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,b #bba #ace #aafa ---------------------------------------- --- ,b #dah #fed #cd ---------------------------------------- --- ,a #hgj #efh #ajhe ---------------------------------------- --- ,g #eg #hb #cfe ---------------------------------------- --- ,g #abjg #aaig #efg ---------------------------------------- --- ,f #fg #bi #ajgb ---------------------------------------- --- ,f #fci #ibd #gh ---------------------------------------- --- ,e #edh #cbc #aaea ---------------------------------------- --- ,e #bfe #cfc #add ---------------------------------------- --- ,d #aaff #idc #efi ---------------------------------------- --- ,c #bf #ah #eha ---------------------------------------- --- ,c #haf #aaca #ahd ---------------------------------------- --- ,the general theorem of ,prop4 ,v4 is equally applicable to the determination of the approximate place for any degree in this scale1 considering the numbers in the above table as those to be substituted for a1 a1 b1 c42 and m1 n1 and p1 in the first instance1 as #di1 -#cdc and #cib1 the uniform temperaments of the ,vths1 ,i,i,ids1 and #c;ds1 in the scale of equal semitones4 ,since1 however1 the temperaments of the ,i,i,ids in this scale are sharp1 which would require the signs of the #c;d and #dth terms in the numerator of the general formula to be continually changed1 it will be rendered more convenient for practice1 if they are changed at first1 so that it will stand thus3 x 7am - am - bn bn cp - cp7 _/ 7a a b b c c7 ,three successive applications of this theorem to each degree in the scale1 in the manner described ,prop4 ,,vi41 will bring them very near to the required position1 as appears by the smallness of the corrections in the #c;d column below1 where the results of the several operations are exhibited at one view4 ,,table ,x4 ------------------------------------ ,bases4 ,first ,second ,third ,operation4,operation4,operation4 ------------------------------------ ,b -#adj -#ce -#b ------------------------------------ ,b #cjh #cc -#a ------------------------------------ ,a -#h -#bc #b ------------------------------------ ,g -#beg -#bb -#b ------------------------------------ ,g #ajg #bd -#h ------------------------------------ ,f -#bfd -#g #j ------------------------------------ ,f #bch #dj #f ------------------------------------ ,e -#hj -#cd -#d ------------------------------------ ,e #aeg #b -#d ------------------------------------ ,d #eh #h #j ------------------------------------ ,c -#ceb -#bi -#a ------------------------------------ ,c #agf #bi #d ------------------------------------ ,cor4 ,hence we may deduce1 in the same manner as in ,prop4 ,,vii41 the diatonic and chromatic intervals1 the lengths of a string and their vibrations in a second1 and the temperaments and beats of all the concords for the scale which results from the foregoing computations4 ,they may be seen in the two following tables3 ,,table ,,xi4 ,,diatonic ,,and ,,chromatic ,,intervals4 ,c ------------ ,c #bhie #bhie ,b ------------ ,b #aiia #dhfi ------ ,b #bhgh ,a ------------ ,a #bgfa #dhfe ------ ,g #bajd ,g ------------ ,g #bijc #dhef ------ ,f #aiec ,f ------------ ,f #biaa #biaa ,e ------------ ,e #bbce #dhcc ------ ,e #beih ,d ------------ ,d #bieg #dhgd ------ ,c #aiag ,c ------------ ,c ,,table ,,xii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,temperaments of the ,lengths,vibrat- ,beats in #aj ,secs4 of the ,bases4------------------ of ions per---------------------- ,vths,i,i,ids #c;ds,strings4,second ,vths ,i,i,ids #c;ds ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,b #adc #fge #adi #ecddf #ddi1jd #dd1j #ceb1h #ib1d ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,b #aje #fi #aaad #eeied #dbh1ib #cj1h #cd1j #aee1b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,a #ach #aj4 #aed #eighg #dja1db #ch1f #d1f #he1b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,g #chg #hcc #bhh #fcgab #cgf1gi #ih1g #cfj1e #aee1d ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,g #ajf #dc #age #ffhgd #ceh1hh #bf1d #ag1f #hf1h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,f #afj #ied #aej #gadif #cce1fh #cg1b #cgb1h #fi1h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,f #abd #cj #ieg #gdghf #cbj1ib #bg1f #aj1h #adc1j ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,e #ajh #ahj #aea #giigj #cjj1aj #bb1b #ff1f #fb1j ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,e #acf #caa #hah #hdaid #bhe1jf #bf1f #ajb1b #ahf1f ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,d #add #f #agd #hichd #bfh1ej #bf1f #b1b #fd1j ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c #eb #ajji #abh #iefhb #bej1hc #aj1i #bie1c #dd1h ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c #ace #af #ddf #ajjjjj #bdj1jj #bb1d #d1j #adg1j ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,nothing in the above tables will need explanation1 except the anomalous sharp beats of the #c;ds1 in the last column4 ,these are derived from the perfect ratio #f 3 #g1 because these #c;ds are1 in reality1 much nearer to the ratio of #f 3 #g than to that of #e 3 #f2 and hence could their beats be counted1 they would be those of the table1 and not those which would be derived from considering these #c;ds as having flat temperaments of the ratio #e 3 #f4 ,but although the beats are slower1 the nearer they approach the ratio #f 3 #g1 this ought not to be regarded as any sufficient reason for admitting so large temperaments into the scale1 were it not absolutely necessary1 in order to accommodate those #c;ds which are of far more frequent occurrence4 ,although the beats of these #c;ds grow slower as their temperaments are increased1 yet they are losing their character in melody2 and become1 in this respect1 more and more offensive1 the more they are tempered4 ,hence the harmony and melody of the several intervals1 jointly considered1 are to be judged of rather from their temperaments1 in the three first columns1 than from their beats1 in the three last4 ,scholium #a4 ,it will be perceived1 from a comparison of the temperaments in ,table ,,xii4 with the corresponding numbers in ,table ,,ix41 that the harshness of the several concords1 especially of the ,i,i,ids and #c;ds1 is1 in general1 nearly in the inverse ratio of their frequency4 ,the contending claims of the different concords render it impossible that this ratio should hold exactly4 ,including the ,vths1 the harmony of the concords is much more nearly equal1 than the principle of rendering the temperament of each inversely as its frequency1 could it be carried into complete effect1 would require4 ,scholium #b4 ,the foregoing system may be put in practice1 on the organ1 by making the ,vths beat flat1 with the exception of those on ,c1 ,e1 and ,g1 which must beat sharp1 at the rate required in the table2 proving the correctness of the temperaments of the ,vths1 by comparing the beats of the ,i,i,ids1 as they rise1 with those required by column two4 ,should less accuracy be required1 the ,i,i,ids on ,c1 ,d1 and ,a1 might be made perfect1 without producing any essential change in the system4 ,this would reduce the labour of counting the beats to eight degrees only4 ,scholium #c4 ,to show that the computations of the different frequency of occurrence of the different concords1 on which this system of temperament is founded1 may be relied on as practically correct1 for music in general1 it may be proper to state1 that a similar series of calculations had been before made1 from an enumeration of the concords in fifty scores of music entirely different from that made use of in ,prop4 ,,iv4 ,they were not1 indeed1 made with the same accuracy1 for the music of which the chords were counted1 was too generally of the simpler kind1 and the numbers corresponding to those in the two columns under each concord in ,table ,,ii41 and those belonging to the major and to the minor signatures1 corresponding to the numbers in ,table ,,iii41 were added1 before the products were taken1 instead of keeping the modes distinct1 which is necessary to perfect accuracy4 ,yet the resulting scheme of temperament was essentially the same throughout1 with the one which has been just described4 ,it had the same anomalous temperaments1 viz4 the ,vths on ,c1 ,e1 and ,g2 and the ,i,i,id on ,a2 and these anomalies were similar in degree4 ,the greatest difference between any two corresponding temperaments1 was between those of the #c;d on ,e2 the first computation making it only #gjb1 while the last has it #hah4 ,,proposition ,,xi4 ,the aggregate of dissonance1 heard in a given time1 in the system of temperament unfolded in the last ,proposition1 will be less than in either of the systems generally practised4 ,in order to compare the foregoing system with those which have been most generally approved1 the temperaments of all the concords have been calculated1 in the system of equal semitones2 in that of ,earl ,stanhope1 which has had considerable celebrity2 in that of ,dr4 ,t4 ,young2 in that of ,mr4 ,hawkes2 in that of ,kirnberger1 which has been extensively adopted in ,germany2 and in that which is described by ,rousseau and ,d',alembert as generally practised in ,france4 ,if these temperaments be multiplied into the corresponding numbers of ,table ,,ix41 agreeably to what was shown under ,prop4 ,,viii41 and those products which belong to the several concords of the same name be added1 the sums1 after the three right-hand figures are cut off1 will be as follows3 ,,table ,,xiii4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,systems4 ,mean ,young's4,kirnber-,french4 ,stan- ,hawkes'4 ,new ,temp4 ger's4 hope's4 ,scale4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,dissonance of the ,vths #cji #did #fha #efa #eie #ffe #haj ,i,i,ids #bahd #aeda #acig #acdf #aage #ibe #ecj #c;ds #bgdj #bddh #bjai #baba #aiib #afgf #acfc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #ebcc #ddhc #djig #djbh #cgfb #cbff #bgjc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,from an inspection of the sums at the foot of the table1 it will be seen that the amount of dissonance heard in a given time is decidedly less in the new scale than in either of the others2 and that it is scarcely more than half as great as in the scale of equal semitones4 ,on the other hand1 the temperament is very unequally distributed1 which must be admitted1 cteris paribus1 to be a disadvantage4 ,it is even somewhat greater than in the scheme of ,mr4 ,hawkes1 although by no means in the same ratio1 as the aggregate dissonance is less4 ,it contains one ,vth1 which will be somewhat harsh1 and four ,i,i,ids and three #c;ds1 which will be quite harsh4 ,but these1 as will appear from an inspection of ,table ,,ix41 are1 of all others1 of by far the most unfrequent occurrence2 so that the unpleasant effect of a transition from a better to a much worse harmony will be very seldom felt4 ,in the six simplest keys of the major1 and in the three of most frequent occurrence in the minor mode1 they are never heard1 except in occasional modulations2 and even then1 generally no one1 and rarely more than one is heard4 ,now these nine keys1 as will appear from ,table ,,iii41 comprise more than five times as much of the music examined as all the rest4 ,the same remarks might be extended to three other minor keys1 were it not that the sharp seventh is so generally used1 that it deserves to be considered as an essential note of the key4 ,but there are two important considerations1 more than counterbalancing the objection to this system1 derived from the greater inequality in the distribution of its temperaments1 which have not been hitherto noticed1 as not being susceptible of mathematical computation4 #ast4 ,we have gone on the supposition that tunes on the more difficult keys are as often performed1 according to their number1 as those on the simpler keys2 and have taken for the measure of dissonance1 in different systems1 what would be actually heard1 if the #afjj scores1 whose signatures were examined1 were all played in succession1 and on the keys to which they are set4 ,but the fact is1 that those pieces which are set to the simpler keys are oftener played1 and with fuller harmony1 on account of the greater ease of execution1 than those in which many of the short finger keys must be used4 #b;d4 ,pieces on the more difficult keys are often played on the adjacent easier keys1 but the contrary is seldom or never done4 ,giving to these two considerations no more than a reasonable weight1 they will counterbalance the objection1 and will render it evident that the sums under the several systems in the table may be taken as a true exhibition of their respective merits1 without any injustice to the more equal systems at the left-hand of the table4 ,cor4 ,we may hence draw a comparison between the systems in common use4 ,their merits1 when every consideration is taken into view1 are nearly in the inverse ratio of the sums denoting their aggregate dissonance4 ,that of ,mr4 ,hawkes is the best1 and1 in many respects1 has a remarkable analogy to the one derived from the preceding investigations4 ,cor4 #b4 ,as the aggregate dissonance of the changeable scale is calculated on the same principles1 in ,prop4 ,,viii41 as that of the ,douzeave in this1 a comparison of the results in ,table ,,viii4 with those in ,table ,,xiii41 will furnish us with the relative dissonance of different systems for these different scales4 ,the relative dissonance of the two systems which form the object of this essay1 is nearly as #ag 3 #bg4 ,hence it appears1 that by inserting eight new sounds between those of the common octave1 the harshness of the music executed1 at a medium of all the keys1 may be diminished by more than one third of the whole1 while the transition from a better to a worse harmony will never be perceived4 ,,art4 ,,xxii4 ,notice of ,colonel ,trumbull's ,picture of the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,it is proper that some mention of this great national work should be made1 in publications less transient than newspapers2 and as the fine arts are included within the design of this ,journal1 it may with propriety be noticed here4 ,this is the greatest work which the art of painting has ever produced in the ,united ,states4 ,the picture is magnificent both in size and in execution4 ,the dimensions of the canvass are eighteen feet by twelve4 ,this picture forms one of a series long since meditated by ,mr4 ,trumbull1 in which it was intended to represent the most important events1 civil and military1 of the ,american revolution1 with portraits of the most distinguished actors in the various scenes4 ,the materials for this purpose were collected many years ago1 and two plates have been engraved from paintings of the deaths of ,gen4 ,warren and ,gen4 ,montgomery2#bg but the work was suspended1 in consequence of the political convulsions1 which1 during twenty-five years1 were so fatal to the arts of peace4 ,the government of the ,united ,states have ordered four of the subjects originally proposed by ,mr4 ,trumbull1 to be painted by him1 and to be deposited in the capitol4 ,no event in human history ever shed a more salutary influence over the destinies of so great a mass of mankind3 the wisdom of no political act was ever so soon and so powerfully demonstrated1 by such magnificent consequences4 ,and justly may the nation be proud of the act itself2 and of those eminent men1 its authors1 whose patriotism 7rising above enthusiasm1 and the passions which have so often bewildered mankind7 was calm1 dignified1 persevering1 and always under the guidance of reason and virtue4 ,the painting represents the congress at the moment when the committee advance to the table of the president to make their report4 ,it contains faithful portraits of all those members who were living when the picture was begun1 and of all others of whom any authentic representation could be obtained4 ,of a small number1 no trace could be discovered2 and nothing was admitted which was not authentic4 ,this picture is now1 by permission of government1 exhibited in the ,academy of ,arts in ,new-,york1 and will probably be shown in some of our other principal cities1 before it receives its final location at ,washington4 ,it exhibits the interior of the then ,congress ,hall at ,philadelphia4 ,most of the members are represented as sitting in their respective chairs1 or1 in various instances1 as standing in different parts of the room4 ,almost all the portraits were taken by ,colonel ,trumbull from the living men1 and their accuracy may therefore be relied on4 ,the president1 ,john ,hancock1 sitting at a table1 and elevated somewhat by a low platform1 is receiving the report of the committee declaring the independence of the colonies2 that committee1 individually illustrious1 and in this august transaction collectively memorable1 was composed of ,franklin1 ,adams1 ,sherman1 ,jefferson1 and ,livingston4 ,mr4 ,jefferson1 in the prime of life1 is in the act of laying upon the table the great charter of a nation's liberties2 while his companions support him by their silent but dignified presence1 and the venerable ,franklin1 in particular1 imposes new obligations on his country's gratitude4 ,the figures are as large as the life2 and it may safely be said1 that the world never beheld1 on a similar occasion1 a more noble assemblage4 ,it was the native and unchartered nobility of great talent1 cultivated intelligence1 superior manners1 high moral aim1 and devoted patriotism4 ,the crisis demanded the utmost firmness of which the human mind is capable--a firmness not produced1 for the moment1 by passion and enthusiasm1 but resting on the most able comprehension of both duties and dangers1 and on a principled determination to combat the one and to fulfil the other4 ,this moral effect has been produced in the fullest and finest manner by this great painter2 and no true ,american can contemplate this picture without gratitude to the men who1 under ,god1 asserted his liberties1 and to the artist who has commemorated the event1 and transmitted the very features and persons of the actors to posterity4 ,such efforts of the pencil tend powerfully also to invigorate patriotism1 and to prompt the rising generation to emulate such glorious examples4 ,the composition and execution in this picture are in a masterly style4 ,the grouping of so many full length portraits1 in a scene in which there could scarcely be any action1 and in such a manner as to dispose of them without monotony1 was an attainment of no small difficulty4 ,the painter could not even avail himself of the adventitious relief of splendid costume and furniture1 and of magnificence or rich decorations in architecture2 for on this occasion both were characterized by an elegant simplicity only1 such however as became the actors and the crisis4 ,the composition has all the variety of which it is susceptible2 and there is also enough of it in the style of dress and of features to relieve the eye from any danger of satiety4 ,it is believed1 that in this picture1 the ,united ,states possess a treasure to which there is no parallel in the world4 ,in no instance1 within our knowledge1 is there an exhibition to an equal extent1 of the actual portraits of an illustrious assembly1 concerned in so momentous a transaction4 ,it was a great thing to assert1 in principle1 the liberties of this country2 but it was also a great thing to vindicate them by arms2 and we rejoice that ,colonel ,trumbull is still to proceed1 under the sanction of government1 to delineate other scenes1 in which ,washington and his illustrious ,american coadjutors1 and the flower of ,french chivalry1 were the actors4 ,in the maturity of his experience1 skill1 and fame--possessed1 as he is1 of the portraits of most of the great men of that period1 taken principally from the life1 and having been himself largely and personally conversant with them in their great deeds1 we trust that the government will promptly second what we doubt not the united voice of the nation will demand--that the illustrious artist should dedicate the evening of his life to his country's honour and glory4 ,,intelligence4 ,,art4 ,,xxiii4 ,an ,address to the ,people of the ,western ,country4 ,a number of the citizens of ,cincinnati have recently instituted a society for the collection1 preservation1 exhibition1 and illustration of natural and artificial curiosities1 particularly those of the western country4 ,the first efforts of the managers will be directed to the establishment of a permanent museum1 on a scale so comprehensive as to receive specimens of every thing curious which they may be able to procure4 ,in attempting to form this repository1 they must of course solicit the aid of their fellow-citizens in all quarters of the extensive region1 whose ancient works and natural history they propose to illustrate4 ,the following are the classes of objects that will especially attract their attention1 and to which they are desirous1 at an early period1 of directing the views of the community3 #a4 ,our metals and minerals generally1 including petrifactions4 #b4 ,our indigenous animals1 embracing the remains of those which are now extinct4 #c4 ,the relics of the unknown people who constructed the ancient works of the western country4 #d4 ,the various articles manufactured1 for ornament or use1 by the present savage tribes4 ,the subjects of the first class are considered by the ,society as extremely interesting4 ,every citizen of the western country must feel the necessity of a speedy developement of its mineral resources4 ,to find beneath our own soil an adequate supply of the various minerals which are now imported at an enormous expense1 must be regarded by all as a matter of the first and greatest importance4 ,the managers are anxious to be instrumental in the advancement of this useful work1 and earnestly solicit the co-operation of the public4 ,they will be thankful for specimens of all the rare or curious minerals that may be discovered in this country4 ,to every specimen that may be transmitted1 a label should be attached1 stating either the kind of rock or stratum to which it belonged1 or its precise locality4 ,whenever it is required1 the managers will have a part of any specimen which is sent to them1 analyzed1 and a correct report made of its nature1 thus affording to the discoverer a full opportunity of availing himself of all the pecuniary advantages that may attend the discovery4 ,as objects of scientific interest1 the managers intend1 as early as possible1 to commence the formation of a cabinet of petrifactions4 ,the rocks of few other countries contain a greater number and variety of these animal remains of the ancient ocean1 than the limestone districts of the ,ohio and ,mississippi4 ,they both astonish and confound most of the travellers through this region2 and although objects of familiar examination to ourselves1 they have not been collected or described by our citizens4 ,an extensive and well arranged cabinet of these extraneous fossils would afford1 both to the zoologist and geologist1 an exquisite feast4 ,it is hoped that every specimen sent to the ,society will be accompanied by a label1 stating the place where it was found4 ,it is the wish of the ,society to obtain and preserve specimens of all the native animals of this country4 ,most of the larger quadrupeds having receded before the unceasing extension of our settlements1 are now so rare as to be unknown to all but our oldest emigrants4 ,measures will be taken by the managers to procure from the general retreat in the northwest1 and exhibit to the people in the ,ohio countries1 a specimen of every quadruped which lately inhabited them2 and while engaged in this enterprise1 they hope to import from the same distant wilderness1 a variety of the animals which are peculiar to it4 ,our native birds have not retreated1 like our quadrupeds1 and are1 therefore1 within our reach4 ,the managers hope to see the ,society1 in due time1 in possession of a large collection of these beautiful animals4 ,in the accomplishment of this undertaking1 it is easy to perceive that the ,society may be powerfully aided by the community3 and a sanguine hope is entertained1 that no backwardness or indifference will be manifested by those who may fortunately have it in their power to forward specimens4 ,in collecting the fishes and reptiles of the ,ohio1 the ,mississippi1 and the ,lakes1 the managers will likewise need all the aid which their fellow-citizens may feel disposed to give them4 ,although not a very interesting department of zoology1 no object of the ,society offers so great a prospect of novelty as that which embraces these animals4 ,the managers1 therefore1 flatter themselves that they will not be suffered to proceed unaided in this portion of their labours4 ,the obscure and neglected race of insects will not be overlooked1 and any specimens sufficiently perfect to be introduced into a cabinet of entomology1 will be thankfully received4 ,the western country1 from having afforded some of the most gigantic and curious remains of land animals which have yet been discovered1 seems entitled to a museum of such relics4 ,a collection of this kind will be one of the earliest objects of the ,society4 ,its funds will be liberally expended for the purpose2 and if aided by those who may be so fortunate as to discover any of the great bones which lie buried in our alluvial or bottom lands1 the managers hope1 at no distant period1 to repair1 in some degree1 the losses which have been repeatedly sustained by exportation of these interesting fossils4 ,the third class comprises objects of very little utility1 but of extraordinary interest4 ,nothing1 indeed1 presented by the western country seems to excite in a higher degree the curiosity of strangers1 than the relics and vestiges of the extinct and comparatively civilized population with which it abounds4 ,the managers will make every possible effort to form an extensive collection of these remains4 ,it is extremely unfortunate for those engaged in researches concerning the objects of this class1 that so many of them have been disseminated abroad4 ,to study them successfully1 it is necessary that they should be compared1 and for this purpose they must be brought together4 ,the managers hope1 therefore1 that such persons as now hold1 or may hereafter possess any of these antiquities1 will dispose of them to the ,society1 instead of sending them out of the country4 ,in this way1 and in this only1 can a valuable collection of these unique curiosities be formed4 ,the remaining class comprehends the weapons1 utensils1 trinkets1 and other manufactures of our neighbouring ,indians1 of which the managers hope1 in a short time1 to be able to exhibit a great variety4 ,the curiosities of this country are the primary1 but not the exclusive objects of the ,society4 ,it proposes in due time to open a gallery of paintings1 and thus offer to the lovers and cultivators of the fine arts1 a few of those models which are absolutely necessary to the gratification and improvement of their taste4 ,the managers will be happy1 moreover1 to receive from such of their eastern brethren as are desirous of contributing to the amelioration and advancement of a new and remote community1 any of the productions of foreign countries that may be calculated to promote this object2 and will1 in return1 cheerfully exchange any specimens of the curiosities of this country which they can spare without injury to their collection4 ,they will1 if required1 pay a reasonable price for every article which may be deemed worthy of introduction into the museum4 ,they intend to publish1 annually1 a catalogue of all the more valuable donations which may be made to the museum1 with the names of the donors4 ,,elijah ,,slack1 ,,james ,,findlay1 ,,william ,,steele1 ,managers4 ,,jesse ,,embree1 ,,daniel ,,drake1 ,cincinnati1 ,sept4 #ae1 #ahah4 ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville1 ,ohio1 is engaged in writing ,notes on the ,state of ,ohio1 a work which is intended to embrace the most important features and interests of this new and rising ,state4 ,to this laudable effort1 and to that of the ,western ,museum ,society1 whose address is published above1 we cordially wish success4 ,from the zeal1 talent1 and industry of the gentlemen concerned1 we have every reason to expect a happy result4 ,we view1 with much satisfaction1 the efforts which have been already made1 and are rapidly increasing1 to bring to light the resources1 and to develope the history1 of the western ,states2 and it will always give us pleasure1 if through the medium of this ,journal1 or in any other manner1 we can contribute to promote them4 ,,art4 ,,xxiv4 ,extract of a ,letter from ,colonel ,gibbs to the ,editor4 ,,sunswick1 ,june1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,since ,i saw you1 ,i have made only one experiment on magnetism4 ,i determined the power of my magnet1 as it had been shut up in the dark for a long time1 and lying down4 ,i then exposed it to the rays of the sun1 also lying down1 and remote from the iron support1 and ,i found that it had gained #ab oz4 power in #dj minutes1 and #ad oz4 power only in five hours4 ,,art4 ,,xxv4 ,a ,new ,lamp1 without ,flame4 ,from the ,annals of ,philosophy for ,march1 #ahah4 ,communicated by ,mr4 ,,thomas ,,gill4 ,this lamp is one of the results of the new discoveries in chemistry4 ,it has been found1 by ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 that a fine platina wire1 heated red hot1 and held in the vapour of ether1 would continue ignited for some time2 but1 ,i believe1 no practical use has been made of this fact4 ,if a cylindrical coil of thin platina wire be placed1 part of it round the cotton wick of a spirit lamp1 and part of it above the wick1 and the lamp be lighted1 so as to heat the wire to redness2 on the flame being blown out1 the vapour of the alcohol will keep the upper part of the wire red hot1 for any length of time1 according to the supply of alcohol1 and with little expenditure thereof2 so as to be in constant readiness to kindle ,german fungus1 or paper prepared with nitre1 and1 by this means1 to light a sulphur match at pleasure4 ,this lamp affords sufficient light to show the hour of the night by a watch1 and to perform many other useful services2 but does not hinder the repose of persons unaccustomed to keep a light burning in their bed-room1 nor does it require to be snuffed4 ,the proper size of the platina wire is the #a_/ajjth part of an inch3 a larger one will only yield a dull1 red light1 and a smaller one is difficult to use4 ,about #ab turns of the wire will be sufficient1 coiled around any cylindrical body suited to the size of the wick of the lamp2 and four or five coils should be placed on the wick1 and the remainder of the wire above it2 and which will be the part ignited4 ,a wick1 composed of twelve threads of the ordinary sized lamp cotton yarn1 with the platina wire coiled around it1 will require about half an ounce of alcohol to keep it alight for eight hours4 ,an agreeable and slightly acid smell arises from this lamp during its ignition4 ,it is perfectly safe1 as nothing can fall from it2 and its novel appearance1 in a wick's keeping red hot for such a length of time1 is very surprising to persons unacquainted with its nature4 ,p4,s4--,when the wire has become oxided1 it will be necessary to uncoil it1 and rub it bright again with fine glass-paper2 which will cause it to act again with increased effect4 ,,remark4 ,such wire as is here described may1 probably1 be obtained in ,philadelphia4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,in using the word pit1 instead of mine1 ,i have accommodated my language to the custom of the country4 #ah ,since the above article was written we have received some as large as a finger4 #ai ,the green earth of most mineralogists4 ,,editor4 #bj ,formation--a geological phrase1 of ,german origin4 #ba ,doubtless the pea ore of the ,wernerians4 ,,editor4 #bb ,this jet of cold water being let into the cylinder itself1 necessarily cooled it at every stroke2 and then it was necessary to heat it again to the boiling point1 before the piston would reascend1 and thus a vast loss of heat occurred4 ,,editor4 #bc ,but it is not necessary 7as in the plate7 to crowd the engine into the after-part of the boat1 the boilers maybe placed forward1 and near them1 or over them1 the cylinder1 c4 ,the power is then communicated to the stern-wheel by a long shaft1 supported on1 or immediately under1 the deck4 ,this arrangement gives room for loading both behind and before the boilers and engine1 and equalizes the burden4 ,this is the actual arrangement of the ,merrimack boat4 #bd ,it is found with very high steam that the source of supply must be above the chamber1 or a small quantity of cold water introduced to condense the steam therein4 #be ,taken from the ,philosophical ,magazine1 and by that work from the ,annales de ,chimie and de ,physique1 for ,january1 #ahah4 #bf ,a method of rendering changeable the sound of the same pipes in the organ1 which had occurred to the writer1 but which was not inserted above on account of the supposed difficulty of making the change sufficient in degree1 he has since found to have been executed by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,liston1 who has succeeded1 by means of shaders capable of being brought before the mouths of his pipes by the action of pedals1 in giving them three distinct sounds each1 varying by two commas4 7,see the description of his ,enharmonic organ1 in ,rees' ,cyc4 or ,tilloch's ,phil4 ,mag47 ,his scale embraces #ei intervals to the octave1 and is intended to produce perfect harmony in all the keys4 ,but as it will require the use of pedals perpetually1 even on the same key1 and a ready and perfect knowledge of small musical intervals1 which practical musicians can seldom possess1 there is no probability that it will ever be extensively adopted4 ,perhaps1 however1 four or five sounds1 such as ,d1 ,e1 ,a1 ,d1 might be added to the common scale of #ab intervals by means of his mechanism1 with advantage4 ,an instrument thus furnished would require the use of pedals but seldom1 and would contain chromatic degrees sufficient for the accurate performance of the great mass of organ music4 #bg ,these picture1 as is well known1 represent the assault on ,quebec1 and the battle of ,bunker's ,hill4 ,,contents4 ,,geology1 ,,mineralogy1 ,,topography1 ,c4 ,page ,art4 ,i4 ,hints on some of the ,outlines of ,geological ,arrangement1 with particular ,reference to the ,system of ,werner1 in a letter to the ,editor1 from ,william ,maclure1 ,esq4 dated ,paris1 #bb;d ,august1 #ahah #bji ,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,scenery1 and ,curiosities of ,parts of ,virginia1 ,tennessee1 and the ,alabama and ,mississippi ,territories1 c4 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 in a letter to the ,editor4 ,by the ,rev4 ,elias ,cornelius #bad ,art4 ,,iii4 ,notice of the ,scenery1 ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,botany1 c4 of ,belmont ,county1 ,ohio1 by ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville #bbf ,art4 ,,iv4 ,remarks on the ,structure of the ,calton ,hill1 near ,edinburgh1 ,scotland2 and on the ,aqueous ,origin of ,wacke2 by ,j4 ,w4 ,webster1 ,m4,d4 of ,boston #bcj ,art4 ,v4 ,localities of ,minerals #bcf #a4 ,localities by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,c4 ,schaeffer ibid4 #b4 ,minerals of ,guadaloupe and ,porto ,rico #bcg #c4 ,molybdena in ,shutesbury1 ,mass4 #bch ---- ,pettipaug1 ,con4 #bdb #d4 ,rose ,quartz in ,southbury1 ,con4 #bch ,limpid ,quartz in ,west ,canada ,creek1 ,n4 ,y4 #bda #e4 ,plumbago in ,cornwall1 ,con4 #bci #f4 ,coal at ,zanesville1 ,ohio ibid4 ---- in ,muskingum1 ,ohio ibid4 ---- in ,suffield1 ,southington1 c4 ,con4 #bci #bdj #g4 ,mammoth's ,tooth1 from ,st4 ,francis ,river #bci #h4 ,shells south of ,lake ,erie ibid4 #i4 ,minerals of the ,blue ,ridge1 c4 ibid4 #aj4 ,sulphat of ,barytes1 ,southington1 ,con4 #bdj #aa4 ,scintillating ,limestone1 from ,vermont #bda #ab4 ,beryl1 in ,haddam1 c4 #bdb #ac4 ,limpid ,gypsum1 near ,cayuga ,lake #bdc #ad4 ,amianthus in the anthracite of ,rhode ,island ibid4 #ae4 ,red ,pyroxene ,augite1 near ,baltimore #bdd ,,botany4 ,art4 ,,vi4 ,a ,list of ,plants found in the neighbourhood of ,connasarga ,river1 7,cherokee ,country7 where ,springplace is situated2 made by ,mrs4 ,gambold1 at the request of the ,rev4 ,elias ,cornelius #bde ,art4 ,,vii4 ,description of a new species of ,asclepias4 ,by ,dr4 ,eli ,ives1 ,professor1 c4 in the ,medical ,institution of ,yale ,college #beb ,art4 ,,viii4 ,description of a ,new ,genus of ,american ,grass4 ,diplocea ,barbata1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 ibid4 ,art4 ,,ix4 ,floral ,calendar1 c4 #bed ,,zoology4 ,art4 ,x4 ,notes on ,herpetology1 by ,thomas ,say1 of ,philadelphia #bef ,,physics ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,art4 ,,xi4 ,outline of a ,theory of ,meteors4 ,by ,wm4 ,g4 ,reynolds1 ,m4,d4 ,middletown ,point1 ,new-,jersey #bff ,art4 ,,xii4 ,observations upon the prevailing ,currents of ,air in the ,state of ,ohio and the ,regions of the ,west1 by ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville1 ,ohio2 in ,letters addressed to ,his ,excellency ,de ,witt ,clinton1 ,,ll4,d4 ,governor of the ,state of ,new-,york1 and ,president of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society #bgf ,art4 ,,xiii4 ,on a singular ,disruption of the ,ground1 apparently by ,frost1 in ,letters from ,edward ,hitchcock1 ,a4 ,m4 late ,principal of ,deerfield ,academy #bhf ,art4 ,,xiv4 ,on a ,new ,form of the ,electrical ,battery1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,dana1 ,m4 ,d4 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college #bib ,art4 ,,xv4 ,chemical ,examination of the ,berries of the ,myrica ,cerifera1 or ,wax ,myrtle1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,dana1 ,m4 ,d4 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college #bid ,art4 ,,xvi4 ,analysis of ,wacke1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,webster1 of ,boston #bif ,,agriculture ,,and ,,economics4 ,art4 ,,xvii4 ,on the ,comparative ,quantity of ,nutritious ,matter which may be obtained from an ,acre of ,land when cultivated with ,potatoes or ,wheat1 by ,dr4 ,eli ,ives1 ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,botany in ,yale ,college #big ,,miscellaneous4 ,art4 ,,xviii4 ,biographical ,notice of the late ,archibald ,bruce1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,mineralogy in the ,medical ,institution of the ,state of ,new-,york1 and ,queen's ,college1 ,new-,jersey2 and ,member of various ,learned ,societies in ,america and ,europe #bii ,,intelligence4 ,art4 ,,xix4 #a4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,webster's ,lectures #cjd #b4 ,dr4 ,webster's ,cabinet #cje #c4 ,supposed identity of ,copal and ,amber #cjf #d4 ,the ,necronite4--7,a supposed new mineral47 ibid4 #e4 ,preservation of dead ,bodies #cjg #f4 ,matches kindling without fire #cjh #g4 ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy ibid4 #h4 ,a new ,alkali #cji #i4 ,ignited ,platinum ,wire ibid4 #aj4 ,red ,rain ibid4 #aa4 ,gnephalium #caj #ab4 ,augite ibid4 #ac4 ,a ,new ,vegetable ,alkali ibid4 #ad4 ,new ,minerals ibid4 #ae4 ,new ,metal ibid4 #af4 ,pure ,alumine ibid4 #ag4 ,collections of ,american ,minerals ibid4 #ah4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #caa #ai4 ,medical ,college of ,ohio ibid4 #bj4 ,notes on ,ohio ibid4 #ba4 ,discovery of ,american ,tungsten and ,tellurium #cab #bb4 ,mr4 ,sheldon's application of ,chesnut ,wood to the arts of ,tanning and dying ibid4 #bc4 ,additional note concerning the ,tungsten and ,tellurium #caf ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 c4 ,,geology1 ,,mineralogy1 ,,topography1 c4 ,,art4 ,i4 ,hints on some of the ,outlines of ,geological ,arrangement1 with particular ,reference to the ,system of ,werner1 in a letter to the ,editor1 from ,,william ,,maclure1 ,esq4 dated ,paris1 #bb;d ,august1 #ahah4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,some years since1 during ,mr4 ,maclure's geological survey of the ,united ,states1 the editor had the pleasure of passing a few days1 in company with that gentleman1 in exploring the geology of the vicinity of ,new-,haven4 ,near that town1 junctions1 on an extensive scale1 between widely different formations1 are to be observed4 ,a radius of ten miles1 with ,new-,haven for a centre1 will describe a circle within which the geological student may find 7with the exception of formations1 unquestionably volcanic7 most of the important rocks of the globe1 and a radius of even six or seven miles will include the greater number of these4 ,at1 and near the terminations of the primitive ranges1 there are rocks which appear to have1 in a high degree1 the characters of the transition class4 ,among them is the beautiful green marble of the ,milford ,hills1 seven miles from ,new-,haven4 ,mr4 ,maclure visited that district1 and even suggested the first hint which afterward led to the discovery of the marble4 ,doubts being entertained concerning some of the geological relations of those rocks1 a letter was addressed to ,mr4 ,maclure 7then in ,philadelphia7 on the subject4 ,his answer is subjoined4 ,in giving it to the public1 the editor takes a liberty which he hopes the respectable author will pardon1 because his production1 although evidently never intended for the public eye1 contains statements and opinions of no small importance to the young geologist1 especially of this country4 ,geology1 at the present day1 means not a merely theoretical and usually a visionary and baseless speculation1 concerning the origin of the globe2 but1 on the contrary1 the result of actual examination into the nature1 structure1 and arrangement of the materials of which it is composed4 ,it is therefore obvious1 that the opinions of those men1 who1 with competent talent and science1 have1 with a direct reference to this subject1 explored many countries1 and visited different continents1 are entitled to pre-eminent respect4 ,,saussure1 by his scientific journeys among the ,alps1 7although a limited district7 has given deserved celebrity to his own name1 and1 if it were possible1 has thrown an additional charm of attraction over those romantic and sublime regions4 ,dolomieu has made us familiar with the productions and phenomena of volcanoes1 those awful and mysterious laboratories of subterranean fire4 ,humboldt has surveyed the sublimest peaks of both continents1 and examined the structure of the globe amidst the valleys of ,mexico and the snows of ,chimborazo and ,pinchinca2 and ,werner1 with opportunities much more limited1 7confined indeed to his native country1 ,saxony7 but with astonishing sagacity and perseverance1 deduced from what he saw1 a classification of the rocks of our globe1 which1 although not perfect1 has done immense service to the science of ,geology4 ,in this distinguished group 7to which other important names might be added7 ,mr4 ,maclure has unquestionably a right to be placed4 ,few men have seen so much of the structure of our globe1 and few have done so much with such small pretensions4 ,his work on ,american ,geology is noticed with becoming respect even in ,edinburgh1#bh that focus of geological science4 ,his opinions on some of the more obscure and doubtful parts of the ,wernerian geology are worthy of peculiar consideration2 for they are founded on a course of observations vastly more extensive than ,werner ever had it in his power to make4 ,the name of ,werner will always be venerated as long as geological science shall be cultivated1 for geology owes more to him than to any other man2 but his pupils should not now demand that implicit and unqualified adoption of ,,all his opinions1 which will allow no other question to be raised1 than what ,werner taught or believed4 ,with these explanatory remarks1 the following extract of ,mr4 ,maclure's letter is now subjoined3 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,your letter of the #bfth ,june came just as ,i was embarking for ,europe4 ,the information it requires concerning the primitive trap and flint slate1 the transition and secondary rocks1 c4 c4 is difficult to give without the aid of specimens1 and frequently requires the examination of the relative position of the strata before any correct idea can be formed4 ,i will1 however1 endeavour to give you the little my experience has brought me acquainted with4 ,following the nomenclature of ,werner1 ,i have given a list of his rocks2 but in describing them there are many of his names which ,i do not use2 because ,i never met with them4 ,primitive trap is one instance--,i do not use trap as a substantive1 except in describing that kind of trap which ,werner calls the newest fltz trap1 the nearest to which is your trap1#bi which covers the oldest red sandstone4 ,the primitive flint slate is in the same predicament4 ,i have always found it on the borders of the transition1 between it and the secondary4 ,primitive gypsum ,i have not found4 ,what ,werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact hornblende1 or perhaps the newest fltz trap1 when it happens to cover the primitive2 for1 this species of trap1 like the currents of lava1 covers indiscriminately all classes of rocks1 and is one reason why ,i consider it as the remains of ancient lava4 ,transition trap is a rock that ,i have not met with1 and may perhaps be a part of the fltz trap that happened to cover the transition1 without any immediate connexion1 but like a current of lava1 overlying all the classes of rocks it meets with4 ,this misapplication of names naturally arises from the system of neptunian origin1 on which the nomenclature of ,werner is founded4 ,greywake and greywake slate are aggregates of rounded particles of rocks1 evidently the detritus of more ancient formations1 and differ from the aggregates of pudding and sandstone of the secondary class1 in the following properties1 viz4 ,the aggregates of transition are harder and much more compact1 than the secondary2 they are also cemented by argil1 taking a slaty form4 ,this cement is in much greater quantity1 in proportion to the particles cemented1 and has the appearance as if the cement at the time of formation1 had a consistence sufficient to prevent the particles from touching each other4 ,they have1 in common with all the transition rocks1 a regular and uniform dip from the horizon1 from #aj to #dj degrees2 and sometimes more4 ,this is perhaps the strongest mark of distinction which separates them from the secondary1 which are horizontal1 or follow the inequalities of the surface on which they were deposited4 ,the transition are distinguished from the primitive in being aggregates of rounded particles1 having little or no crystallization1 and containing1 or alternating with strata1 which contain organic matter4 ,the oldest red sandstone1 with all its accompanying strata1 ,i should incline to put into the transition1 as having many of the properties of that class1 and occupying the same relative situation in the stratification of the globe4 ,it is at a constant dip 7although small7 from the horizon2 the cement is in greater quantities in proportion to the particles cemented than in any of the secondary aggregates1 c4 c4 ,the character of the secondary is a horizontal position1 that perhaps does not admit of the same facility of examining the relative situation of its stratification4 ,the compact limestone is1 probably1 with reason1 considered as the lowest of the secondary formation1 and always under the coal formation1 but it appears to me that the secondary is deposited in basins alongside of one another1 and that each basin has a different order of superposition1 according to the nature of the agents employed in the deposition2 that it is a partial1 and by no means a general deposition4 ,the secondary aggregates of sandstone and puddings have been evidently beds of sand or gravel1 and of course1 in that state would be called alluvial1 but when cemented together by the infiltration of water1 carrying along with it lime1 iron1 or any other body capable of agglutinating the particles together1 become rocks1 and may alternate in all proportions4 ,i am therefore inclined to think1 that in geology the best mode for the greatest part of the secondary would be to give the relative position of the strata of each valley or basin2 and ,i am rather of opinion that they would all differ from one another4 ,the ,french and ,english basin having chalk for the lowest stratum1 which has occupied the geologists of both countries for these #aj or #ae years1 is perhaps the best known2 yet they do not know the relative position of the chalk and coals1 because coals have not been found in the same basin with chalk3 coals occupy basins filled with different kinds of rocks1 and have no resemblance to the rocks found covering the chalk4 ,,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,scenery1 and ,curiosities of ,parts of ,virginia1 ,tennessee1 and the ,alabama and ,mississippi ,territories1 c4 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 in a letter to the ,editor4 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,elias ,,cornelius4 ,to ,benjamin ,silliman1 ,professor1 c4 ,,sir1 ,having recently returned from a tour of considerable extent in the ,united ,states1 ,i avail myself with pleasure of the first leisure moment1 to communicate1 agreeably to your request1 some facts1 relative to the ,mineralogy and ,geology of that part of the country through which ,i passed4 ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,before doing this1 you will permit me to premise1 that in consequence of my limited acquaintance with these branches of ,natural ,science1 and the still more limited time1 which other and important concerns allowed me to devote to the subject1 ,i can do little more than give a general description4 ,what my eye could catch1 as ,i travelled from one country and wilderness to another1 preserving occasionally a few of the most interesting specimens1 was all ,i could do4 ,the specimens you have received4 ,the narrative ,i am about to give1 is drawn principally from the notes which were taken on the journey1 and will be confined to a simple statement of such facts as were either observed by myself1 or derived from good authority4 ,their application to preconceived theories1 ,i leave to those who have more leisure and disposition for speculation than myself4 ,a description of a few natural and artificial curiosities which came under particular notice1 will not1 ,i trust1 be thought an improper digression4 ,the whole is committed to your disposal2 and if it shall add but one mite to the treasury of ,american ,natural ,history1 ,i shall be gratified1 and rejoice to have made even this small remuneration for your unwearied efforts1 to impart to one1 formerly your pupil1 a love for ,natural ,science4 ,the ,author's ,route4 ,my route was in a line nearly direct from ,boston to ,new-,orleans2 passing through the principal cities to ,washington2 thence1 diagonally1 through ,virginia1 ,east ,tennessee1 and the northwestern angle of ,georgia2 in a western course through the north division of the ,territory of ,alabama1 to the northeastern boundary of the ,state of ,mississippi2 and thence in a line nearly southwest to ,natchez4 ,from this last place ,i descended the river ,mississippi to ,new-,orleans4 ,on my return ,i frequently varied from this course1 and had increased opportunities for surveying the country4 ,in both instances ,i passed through the countries belonging to the ,cherokee1 ,chickesaw1 and ,choctaw tribes of ,indians1 and travelled among them1 in all1 about one thousand miles4 ,geology of ,virginia4 ,as others have described more minutely and accurately than ,i can1 the country north of ,virginia1 ,i shall begin with a few remarks on the geological character of that ,state4 ,it is there that the traveller1 in passing from the ,atlantic to the interior1 crosses successively the most important formations of the earth1 from the most recent alluvial to the oldest primitive4 ,for a considerable distance from the coast1 the country is alluvial4 ,it then assumes an older secondary formation#cj--;and sandstone and puddingstone are frequent4 ,this is the character of the ,district of ,columbia1 and indeed of a great part of the valley of the ,potomac4 ,sandstone of the ,capitol1 c4 ,in this valley1 and adjacent to the river1 is found the sandstone of which the ,president's house1 and the ,capitol are constructed4 ,it is composed of fine silicious grains1 is easily wrought1 and from its colour1 has the appearance at a small distance of white marble4 ,beautiful ,breccia4 ,it is also in the valley of this river1 and not far from its famous passage through the ,blue ,ridge1 that immense quarries of beautiful ,breccia have been opened4 ,this rock was first brought into use by ,mr4 ,latrobe1 for some years employed by the government as principal architect4 ,it is composed of pebbles1 and fragments of silicious and calcareous stones of almost every size1 from a grain1 to several inches in diameter1 strongly and perfectly cemented4 ,some are angular1 others rounded4 ,their colours are very various1 and often bright4 ,red1 white1 brown1 gray1 and green1 are alternately conspicuous1 with every intermediate shade4 ,owing to the silicious stones which are frequently imbedded through the mass1 it is wrought with much difficulty2 but when finished1 shows a fine polish1 and is unquestionably one of the most beautifully variegated marbles1 that ever ornamented any place4 ,it would be difficult to conceive of any thing more grand than the hall of the ,representatives1 in the ,capitol1 supported as it is by twenty or thirty pillars formed of the solid rock1 and placed in an amphitheatrical range2 each pillar about three feet in diameter1 and twenty in height4 ,some idea of the labour which is employed in working the marble may be formed from the fact1 that the expense of each pillar is estimated at five thousand dollars4 ,the specimens in your possession1 are good examples of its general structure1 but convey no adequate idea of its beauty4 ,petrifaction of ,wood4 ,it will be proper to notice in this place1 a petrifaction of wood which is found on the road from ,washington to ,fredericksburgh1 #af miles from the latter1 and four miles north of the court-house in ,stafford county4 ,it is remarkable for its size1 rather than for any singularity in the composition4 ,it was found by digging away the earth on the side of the road1 and appears to have been the trunk of a considerable tree4 ,it is firmly fixed in the ground1 and penetrates it obliquely2 how far has not yet been ascertained4 ,at the time ,i saw it about two feet had been exposed4 ,the diameter is about eight inches4 ,its colour is white1 sometimes resembling that of wood4 ,the fibres are well preserved1 and so is the general structure4 ,it is much to be desired1 that some one would clear it from its bed1 and give it entire to one of our mineralogical cabinets4 ,geological ,features4 ,next to the alluvial and secondary formations1 as you pass to the west and northwest1 are to be found ranges of granite and shistose1 and other primitive rocks2 interspersed with these may be seen sandstone1 clay1 slate1 quartz1 and limestone4 ,granite ranges were particularly seen in the neighbourhood of ,fredericksburgh1 crossing the ,rappahannock2 and in ,orange and ,albemarle counties1 extending nearly to the ,blue ,ridge4 ,great quantities of quartz and quartz rock1 sometimes covering with their fragments the sides of hills1 are frequent4 ,another1 and more interesting rock in the same connexion1 is found in ,albemarle county4 ,for some time ,i doubted to what class to refer it4 ,but from its resemblance to the rocks of the east and west mountains near ,new-,haven1 ,i ventured to call it trap or whinstone4 ,it becomes more abundant as you approach the ,blue ,ridge1 and the granite disappears4 ,on the sides and summit of the mountain1 its appearance is more decidedly that of greenstone4 ,in crossing the southwest mountain1 the range to which ,monticello belongs1 and distant from the ,blue ,ridge about #be miles1 ,i observed the same rock4 ,whether this opinion is just1 you will be able to decide from the specimens which have been forwarded4 ,blue ,ridge4 ,i have repeatedly named the ,blue ,ridge4 ,it is the first of those long and parallel ranges of mountains1 called the ,alleghany2 and constitutes one of the most prominent features in the geology of the ,united ,states4 ,its height ,i cannot determine with accuracy4 ,probably it would not average more than one thousand feet4 ,its base may extend in diameter from one to two miles2 and yet such is the influence it has on the climate1 that vegetation on the eastern1 is usually two weeks earlier than on the western side4 ,and what is remarkable1 this difference obtains1 on the former side at least1 until you arrive within a few hundred yards of the summit4 ,i crossed the mountain in two places1 distant from each other one hundred miles1 but observed nothing essentially different in their mineralogy4 ,at one of them called the ,rockfish-,gap1 on the road from ,charlotteville to ,staunton1 ,i spent a few hours1 and brought away specimens of all the varieties of minerals which ,i could find4 ,these have been submitted to your inspection4 ,among them1 you will1 ,i think1 see greenstone1 epidote1 and slate more or less allied to the first4 ,these are the most common rocks1 and excepting the second1 are usually stratified4 ,the epidote is generally associated with quartz1 and sometimes is imbedded in it4 ,in some instances it has a porphyritic appearance1 and is very beautiful4 ,in others1 it is coated with small filaments of a greenish asbestos4 ,other minerals were found1 whose nature ,i could not so easily determine4 ,i regret exceedingly1 that ,i cannot furnish you with a more complete description of this interesting mountain4 ,that its character is peculiar1 or different from the country on either side of it1 must be obvious to the most superficial observer4 ,its principal rock does indeed bear a resemblance to the trap or whinstone of ,albemarle county1 and yet ,i think you will say it is not the same4 ,one fact of importance cannot be mistaken2 this mountain constitutes the great dividing line between the granite and limestone countries4 ,for you no sooner reach its western base1 than the greenstone and epidote disappear2 and limestone pervades the country for hundreds of miles in every direction4 ,in all the distance from this mountain to ,new-,orleans1 ,i did not find a single specimen of granite1 or greenstone4 ,this may appear singular1 since ,mr4 ,maclure and ,professor ,cleaveland have a granite range on their maps1 immediately west of the ,blue ,ridge2 and even that mountain is on those maps1 in some parts of it1 covered with the granitic tinge4 ,this may be true4 ,i can answer for only two points of it1 and for that part of the country beyond1 lying near the main road to ,tennessee4 ,in this route ,i descended almost the whole length of the great valley included between the ,blue ,ridge on the east1 and the north mountain on the west4 ,but in no instance did ,i meet with specimens of granite2 nor west of the ,blue ,ridge with any prevailing rock but limestone4 ,i know of no reason why the ,blue ,ridge should not be regarded as the first great dividing line between the granite and limestone countries4 ,the change in the geological formation is so sudden and striking1 that it would be difficult for the most careless traveller with his eyes open1 not to observe it4 ,the face of nature1 he cannot but perceive1 wears a different aspect2 the air is more cool and lively2 even the water which he drinks possesses new properties perceptible to his taste4 ,the inhabitants no longer speak of their sandstone water2 but every where he hears of limestone water4 ,indeed for #hjj miles in the direction which ,i travelled1 he tastes no other water4 ,every spring and every rivulet1 is strongly impregnated with carbonate of lime4 ,the vessels in which it is prepared for culinary use1 soon become lined with a white calcareous crust4 ,nor is its taste the only inconvenience experienced by the traveller unaccustomed to it4 ,it often injures the health of a stranger1 and covers the surface of the body with cutaneous eruptions4 ,limestone country in inclined ,strata4 ,the geological observer has now entered upon a very interesting field4 ,its great extent1 and its wonderful uniformity1 give new facilities to investigation4 ,two divisions of it seem to have been made in nature4 ,the first is that which includes the limestone lying in ,,inclined ,,strata4 ,this division extends from the ,blue ,ridge1 to the ,cumberland mountain in ,east ,tennessee1 a distance in the direction of my route of #ejj miles4 ,of course it includes all the ranges1 five in number1 of the ,alleghany mountains4 ,the strata lie in a course northeast and southwest1 the same as the general course of the mountains4 ,the angle which they make with the horizon is very variable1 from #be to #de4 ,the colour of the rock varies from blue1 and pale blue1 to gray1 or grayish white1 frequently it presents a dull earthy appearance4 ,the fracture is more or less conchoidal4 ,sometimes the rock assumes a different character1 and the fracture is uneven1 and the texture firm4 ,this last is distinguished from the former1 not only by the fracture1 but by the colour4 ,it is usually spoken of by the inhabitants as the gray limestone1 the colour of the other being usually of a bluish cast4 ,it differs from that also by being less brittle1 and possessing the quality denominated by stonecutters1 tough4 ,in consequence of this1 and its enduring heat better1 it is more frequently used in building than the other4 ,this variety of limestone is not uncommon4 ,its colour is not always gray1 sometimes it is a reddish brown1 and sometimes white4 ,immense quantities of it1 possessing either a grayish or reddish brown colour1 are found in the vicinity of ,knoxville1 ,east ,tennessee4 ,one range of it is crossed by every road1 passing to the south and east of ,knoxville4 ,its appearance is that of some variegated marbles2 white veins penetrate it1 and wind through it in every direction4 ,whether any part of it has a texture sufficiently fine and firm to be wrought to advantage1 is yet to be determined4 ,to the eye of a superficial observer1 there are many indications that it has4 ,a specimen of very fine white marble1 resembling the ,italian white1 was shown me in ,augusta county1 ,virginia1 which was found #ae miles from ,staunton1 where there is said to be a considerable quantity of it4 ,limestone country in ,horizontal ,strata4 ,the second great division of the limestone country extends1 on the route which ,i took1 two hundred miles from the ,cumberland mountain1 and others associated with it southwest1 as far as the ,dividing ,ridge1 which separates the waters flowing into the ,tennessee from those which proceed direct to the gulf of ,mexico4 ,the grand circumstance which distinguishes the limestone of this division from that already described1 is this1 ,,its ,,strata ,,are ,,horizontal4 ,frequently immense piles may be seen forming bold precipices1 but always in horizontal layers1 differing in thickness1 from a few inches to many feet4 ,how far this arrangement extends to the west and north1 ,i have not yet been able to learn4 ,travellers always speak of the limestone rocks in ,west ,tennessee and ,kentucky as flat1 from which circumstance ,i conclude that the ,cumberland mountain forms for a considerable distance at least1 the eastern boundary4 ,i have observed but three other particulars in which the strata of the horizontal differ from those of the inclined limestone4 #a4 ,its colour is not so strongly marked with the bluish tinge4 #b4 ,it is not so commonly penetrated with white veins of a semicrystallized carbonate of lime2 nor is it so frequently associated with the uneven fractured species4 #c4 ,petrifactions are oftener found in it4 ,i will here take the liberty to suggest1 whether in our maps of geology1 some notice should not be taken of this very important division in the limestone country4 ,such a division exists in fact2 nature has made it2 and if geology depends on nature for its only legitimate inductions1 there can be no reason why a feature so prominent as this1 should be overlooked4 ,i shall not undertake to account for their difference3 but would not every geological theorist consider them as distinct formations8#ca ,cumberland ,mountain4 ,the ,cumberland mountain1 which forms a part of this dividing line1 is itself a singular formation4 ,it belongs to the class called ,table mountains4 ,its width varies from a few miles1 to more than fifty4 ,its height is not perceptibly different from that of the ,blue ,ridge4 ,it forms a circuit1 in a shape somewhat resembling a half moon4 ,winding to the southwest1 it keeps a course north of the ,tennessee river1 in some places nearly parallel with it2 passes a few miles to the southeast of ,huntsville in the ,alabama ,territory1 and not long after terminates4 ,at one part1 over which ,i crossed1 the mountain is eighteen miles wide4 ,this is about #aej miles southwest of ,knoxville1 a little north of the #ceth degree of ,n4 ,lat4 ,i had not ascended the mountain more than halfway1 before ,i found sandstone begin to intermingle with limestone strata4 ,as ,i drew near the summit1 the limestone disappeared entirely1 and sandstone prevailed in abundance1 with no other mineral associated until ,i reached the western descent1 where ,i met bold precipices of horizontal limestone1 reaching from the base to the summit4 ,i examined several sandstone rocks while crossing the mountain1 found them usually imbedded in the earth1 generally with flat surfaces1 of a fine grain1 and strong texture4 ,the colour is usually a reddish brown1 or grayish red4 ,the specimen which you have received is a good example4 ,i crossed this mountain in the vicinity of ,huntsville1 not less than one hundred miles southwest of the place above-mentioned1 and found it not wider than mountains commonly are4 ,its height had also become less1 and horizontal limestone in regular strata prevailed in every part4 ,although this mountain forms a part of the dividing line which has been mentioned1 it does not exclusively so3 for the ,rackoon mountain1 which crosses the ,tennessee river1 at the place so well known by the name of the ,suck1 and the ,look-,out mountain1 which terminates abruptly about #f miles to the left of the ,suck1 form an acute angle with the ,cumberland1 and are composed of horizontal strata of limestone4 ,thus it would appear the line which divides the two kingdoms of this rock1 is nearly north and south1 inclining perhaps a few points to the east and west4 ,scenery4 ,and here ,i cannot forbear pausing a moment to call your attention to the grand and picturesque scenery which opens to the view of the admiring spectator4 ,the country is still possessed by the aborigines1 and the hand of civilization has done but little to soften the wild aspect of nature4 ,the ,tennessee ,river1 having concentrated into one mass1 the numerous streams it has received in its course of three or four hundred miles1 glides through an extended valley with a rapid and overwhelming current1 half a mile in width4 ,at this place1 a group of mountains stand ready to dispute its progress4 ,first1 the ,look-,out1 an independent range1 commencing thirty miles below1 presents1 opposite the ,river's course1 its bold and rocky termination of two thousand feet4 ,around its brow is a pallisade of naked rocks1 from seventy to one hundred feet4 ,the ,river flows upon its base1 and instantly twines to the right4 ,passing on for six miles further it turns again1 and is met by the side of the ,rackoon mountain4 ,collecting its strength into a channel of seventy yards1 it severs the mountain1 and rushes tumultuously through the rocky defile1 wafting the trembling navigator at the rate of a mile in two or three minutes4 ,this passage is called ,the ,suck4 ,the summit of the ,look-,out mountain overlooks the whole country4 ,and to those who can be delighted with the view of an interminable forest1 penetrated by the windings of a bold river1 interspersed with hundreds of verdant prairies1 and broken by many ridges and mountains1 furnishes in the month of ,may1 a landscape1 which yields to few others in extent1 variety or beauty4 ,even the aborigines have not been insensible to its charms2 for in the name which they have given to the ,look-,out mountain we have a laconic1 but very striking description of the scenery4 ,this name in the ,cherokee language1 without the aspirated sounds1 is ,o-tull-ton-tann-t-kunn-2 literally1 mountains looking at each other4 ,i have already remarked that the limestone of this mountain lies in horizontal strata3 one mile east from its base it is inclined4 ,like the ,cumberland1 it contains immense rocks of sandstone1 but of a coarser grain1 verging occasionally into pudding stone4 ,i was told by a white man1 a professed millwright1 that among these sandstone rocks1 he knew of many which were suitable for millstones4 ,at the missionary establishment1 called ,brainerd1 eight miles east of the mountain1 ,i saw one of them which was used for this purpose to much advantage4 ,it is composed of fine and large grains of silicious stones1 nearly white1 and resembling pebbles of white quartz3 the texture is firm4 ,silicious ,minerals1 c4 ,i will now notice an important fact1 applicable to the whole extent of limestone country1 which has come under my observation4 ,it is its association with a description of minerals1 all of which appear to be silicious4 ,to describe them minutely1 would require several pages4 ,from the time ,i entered the limestone country till ,i left it this association was observed4 ,the minerals included in it differ much in their external character4 ,their size varies from that of rocks to the smallest fragments4 ,usually they lie loose upon the earth1 in angular forms1 having the appearance of a stone that has been broken in pieces by the hammer4 ,sometimes they cover the sides of hills and mountains in such abundance as to prevent or impede vegetation4 ,when the disintegration is minute1 they are serviceable rather than otherwise2 and the farmer talks of his good black1 or white gravel land4 ,it renders this service1 ,i presume1 not by decomposition1 but by preventing the soil and its manure from being washed away4 ,indeed the different varieties of it are generally scattered over the surface1 in pieces so small1 that for convenience sake1 the whole may be denominated a silicious gravel4 ,sometimes the mineral is imbedded in limestone1 in the form of nodules1 thus indicating their original connexion with it4 ,the varieties1 so far as ,i have observed1 are quartz1 hornstone1 flint1 jasper1 and semi-opal2 and several1 which to me are non-descripts4 ,quartz is the most abundant4 ,it is found of different colours2 compact1 and porous or cellular2 of every size2 simple and associated with other silicious stones2 massive and crystallized4 ,in ,augusta and ,rockbridge counties in ,virginia1 beautiful crystals of quartz1 of a singular form1 are found4 ,they are six-sided prisms1 with double acuminations1 that is1 with six-sided pyramids1 mounted on the opposite ends of the prism4 ,a specimen of two such crystals united1 you have received4 ,it was found near ,lexington4 ,a curious variety of the quartz gravel-stone occurs on both sides of ,elk ,river1 a few miles above its junction with the ,tennessee1 in the ,alabama territory4 ,as you travel to the west from ,huntsville1 it appears first in the neighbourhood of ,fort ,hampton1 two miles east of ,elk ,river1 and may be seen for ten miles west of that river4 ,the mineral is remarkable for containing a curious petrifaction4 ,its first appearance is that of a solid screw4 ,on examination1 however1 you find it is not spiral2 but consists of parallel concentric layers4 ,their diameter varies in different specimens1 from that of a pin to half an inch4 ,they stand in the centre of a hollow cylinder1 extending its whole length1 and occupying about one-third of its dimensions4 ,the stone is sometimes perfectly filled with these forms4 ,the petrifaction ,i could not have named1 had you not pronounced it the ,entrochite4 ,hornstone1 next to quartz1 is the most abundant of the silicious minerals associated with limestone4 ,it is very often seen imbedded in rounded masses1 both in the inclined and horizontal strata4 ,flint is more rare4 ,several fine specimens were observed on the western declivity of the ,look-,out ,mountain1 but in no instances in large masses or quantities4 ,semi-,opal was found in one instance on the dividing ridge1 which constitutes the southwestern boundary of the limestone strata4 ,of the non-descripts you have several specimens4 ,one variety strikes fire with steel1 is a milk-white colour1 adheres slightly to the tongue1 and has no degree of translucency on its edges4 ,as ,mr4 ,kain has furnished you with an interesting detail of particular minerals found in ,east ,tennessee and ,western ,virginia1 ,i need not recapitulate what he has so well said4 7,to be continued47 ,,art4 ,,iii4 ,notice of the ,scenery1 ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,botany1 c4 of ,belmont ,county1 ,ohio1 by ,,caleb ,,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville4 ,belmont county is bounded on the north by ,jefferson and ,harrison1 on the west by ,guernsey1 and south by ,monroe county1 and on the east by the ,ohio river4 ,it is #bg miles in length1 and #ba in breadth1 containing #ece square miles4 ,its name1 ,belmont1 or beautiful mountain1 indicates its situation1 for it contains within its boundaries a fine body of land1 rising gradually as you are travelling from the ,ohio to the west1 until you arrive at about the middle of it1 where1 from the elevation on which you stand1 the eye in an eastern direction1 beholds one of the most charming prospects in the state4 ,looking towards the east1 in a pleasant morning1 you behold a beautiful country of hill and dale spread out before you1 divided into convenient and well-cultivated farms1 intersected by glittering streams1 meandering through them towards the ,ohio4 ,you hear the lowing of numerous herds around you1 the shrill matin of the songsters of the forest1 and the busy hum of the industrious husbandman2 you see here and there a clump of trees interspersed among the cultivated parts of the country2 you see the comfortable dwelling-house1 the substantial barn1 and hear the rumbling noise of the mill2 and when you reflect that those who dwell here are industrious and enterprising1 virtuous1 free1 and happy1 you behold with pleasure1 and listen with delight1 while reflecting on the objects around you4 ,geology and ,mineralogy4 ,on the surface is seen a rich vegetable mould1 made by the decay and putrefaction of vegetable substances4 ,along the ,ohio1 a wide intervale of the richest alluvion is found1 which produces as luxuriant a growth of vegetation as any in the world4 ,on the banks of the creeks which pass through this country the alluvial soil is not so wide as that on the river1 but equally rich and productive4 ,on the hills 7and there are many of them7 there are two kinds of soil1 the silicious and the argillaceous1 the first is formed from the decomposition of the rocks which once covered the surface1 the latter from the slate which lay under them4 ,where these rocks are decomposed1 and the country is hilly1 it will readily be believed that the two kinds of soil are frequently blended together4 ,in some places we see the best of clay for bricks2 whilst in other places1 and those in the vicinity of the former1 we find the best of sand to mould them in when manufactured4 ,hard limestone of the very best quality is found in detached fragments in the sides of hills1 and in strata1 in abundance1 along the beds of streams4 ,the ruins of the sandstone formation are here seen scattered about in fragments1 or decomposed and intimately blended with those of other formations4 ,fossil coal is every where found under the hills1 of the very best quality1 and in sufficient quantity not only for the fuel of the present1 but many future generations1 and is so easily obtained that the expense of fuel is a mere trifle4 ,the oxide of iron1 or iron ore variously combined1 is recognized in many places1 and water combined with muriate of soda1 or common salt1 is as common4 ,salines or licks are found in many places1 where animals also1 both wild and domesticated1 resort in great numbers to drink the waters4 ,these are frequently near some little water-course4 ,several sulphur and chalybeate springs are known to exist in this county1 and some which throw out considerable quantities of petroleum4 ,in a country where iron and fossil coal exist1 it is no wonder that copperas should be found4 ,there are places where copperas exudes in a state sufficiently pure in quality1 and in quantities sufficient for several families1 who collect and use it in dying4 ,the same may be said of alum1 which is collected in the same way for similar purposes4 ,botany4 ,though this county is very rich in the mineral1 yet it is not less so in the vegetable kingdom1 as may be seen by a reference to the subjoined catalogue1 although numbers of trees1 shrubs1 and plants1 are purposely omitted1 which are known to exist here4 ,family4 ,species4 ,classical name4 ,remarks4 ,oak1 ,white1 ,quercus ,alba1 ,abundant4 ---- ,black1 ---- ,nigra1 ,do4 ---- ,meadow1 ---- ,aquatica1 ,along the streams4 ---- ,chesnut1 ---- ,prunus1 ,scarce4 ,maple1 ,sugar1 ,acer ,saccharinum1 ,abundant4 ---- ,white1 ---- ,alba4 ,poplar or ,white1 ,liriodendron1 ,abundant4 ,tulip1 ---- ,yellow4 ,walnut1 ,black1 ,juglans ,nigra4 ---- ,white1 ---- ,alba4 ---- ,shellbark ,hickory1 ---- ,albaovata4 ---- ,pignut1 ---- ,minima4 ---- ,bitternut1 and probably several other species4 ,beach1 ,two species1 ,fagus4 ---- ,chesnut1 ---- ,americana4 ,ash1 ,white1 ,fraxinus ,alba4 ---- ,blue1 ---- ,purpurea4 ---- ,black1 ---- ,nigra4 ---- ,swamp1 ---- ,aquatica4 ,elm1 ,two or three ,ulmus4 species1 ,buckeye1 ,common1 sculusflava ,lutea8 ---- ,sweet1 ---- ,maxima8 ,locust1 ,four species1 ,robinia ,pseud ,acacia1 c4 ,persimmon1 ,diospyros ,virginica4 ,linn or ,bass ,tilia ,europea4 ,wood1 ,cucumber1 ,cucuminis ,sylvestris4 ,dog ,wood1 or ,two species4 ,american ,box1 ,sycamore1 ,two species1 ,platanus ,occidentalis1 c4 ,plum1 ,several species4 ,thorn1 do4 do4 ,the red bud2 the pawpaw2 grape-vines of several species1 and growing to a great size2 sassafras2 the black willow1 confined to the streams2 the box elder1 the common elder1 of two species2 the sumach1 of two species2 several species of gooseberries2 and a great many others too numerous to be mentioned here4 ,among the herbaceous plants we must not omit the ginseng1 the ,virginia snakeroot1 the columbo1 and the puccoon1 two or three thousand pounds of the roots of which are annually carried by the inhabitants to our ,atlantic cities4 ,among the trees1 those belonging to the oak family are the most numerous1 if not the most valuable4 ,split into rails1 the farmer builds fences with them1 and sawed into plank1 boards1 and scantling1 they furnish materials for houses and barns4 ,the sugar maple is sufficiently abundant1 so that brown sugar enough is manufactured for domestic purposes4 ,the sycamore is the largest tree along the river1 and the poplar is the largest on the hills4 ,the latter grows by the side of the maple and the beach1 and is a most valuable wood for the house-builder and the cabinetmaker4 ,this tree is frequently four and five feet in diameter1 and continues of nearly the same size as it ascends1 #dj1 #ej1 and sometimes even #fj feet4 ,streams4 ,the ,ohio is the eastern boundary of this county1 forming wide intervales along its banks4 ,indian ,wheeling is a fine mill stream rising in ,harrison county1 and after crossing this1 empties into the ,ohio1 opposite the town of ,wheeling1 which stands on the ,virginia side4 ,captina is another excellent mill stream1 which after running about #ag or #ah miles in this county1 puts into the ,ohio #bc miles by water below ,wheeling4 ,these streams visit and fertilize a considerable part of ,belmont4 ,from the view we have taken of this county1 its geology1 mineralogy1 and botany1 the reader will probably be prepared with us to conclude1 that no part of the union1 of equal extent1 contains within it greater natural resources1 or can support a more dense population4 ,the seat of justice is ,st4 ,clairsville1 situated ten miles from the ,ohio river1 at ,wheeling4 ,it contains three houses for public worship1 #ae stores1 a printing-office1 a bank1 and #gjj inhabitants4 ,many of the inhabitants of this county are ,quakers or ,friends1 who are charitable1 humane1 frugal1 enterprising1 industrious1 and strongly opposed to slavery4 ,from such a population1 possessing such advantages1 what may we not hope and expect from their exertions8 ,their fertile valleys will be turned into meadows1 and their hills into pastures2 the ox will fatten in the former1 whilst the flocks of ,andalusia will whiten the latter4 ,,art4 ,,iv4 ,remarks on the ,structure of the ,calton ,hill1 near ,edinburgh1 ,scotland2 and on the ,aqueous origin of ,wacke2 by ,j4 ,w4 ,,webster1 ,m4,d4 of ,boston4 ,the country around ,edinburgh is extremely interesting to the geologist1 and presents numerous instances of the junction of rocks to which the advocates of the ,neptunian system have referred in support of their opinion as to the aqueous origin of greenstone1 basalt1 and wacke2 while the same examples have been cited by the ,volcanists1 and by those who hold an intermediate opinion4 ,the structure of a portion of ,calton hill1 where the most distinct alternations of substances 7whose aqueous origin none can dispute17 with pure and well characterized wacke are displayed1 has not1 as yet1 ,i believe been particularly described4 ,edinburgh is situated nearly in the centre of an extensive coal formation1 where the usual sandstones and other coal measures are connected with the newer rocks of transition4 ,from the coal field rise in many places beds of greenstone1 in general forming small conical and round-backed hills4 ,other eminences are composed of amygdaloid1 claystone1 and other porphyries2 and basalt and trap tuff occur in an overlying position4 ,of these1 it is not my intention to speak otherwise than as conveying a general idea of the geological relation of the wacke above referred to4 ,the structure of ,calton hill has been exposed by the recent improvements1 and in particular by a section made in the construction of the new road to ,london4 ,the rock occurring in greatest abundance1 and which is probably the fundamental bed1 is a porphyry1 the basis of which in general is claystone1 which in many places passes into felspar1 in others becomes a distinct greenstone4 ,numerous veins of calcareous spar traverse it in different directions1 and ,i am lately informed1 that very beautiful examples of veins of greenstone of contemporaneous formation with the rock itself1 have been discovered in the greenstone4 ,upon the porphyry rests a bed of trap tuff1 upon this other beds of the two rocks repose1 that at the summit being porphyry4 ,the back of the hill 7as we pass from the city7 is a spot of peculiar interest1 consisting of alternate thin beds of bituminous shale1 sandstone1 wacke1 and clay ironstone1 disposed in a manner which will be best understood by a rough outline taken on the spot4 ,illustration3 ,monument to ,,nelson4 ,a ,porphyry4 ,b ,trap tuff4 ,c ,porphyry4 ,d ,trap tuff4 ,e ,porphyry4 ,f ,beds of wacke1 c4 upper part concealed by vegetation4 #a ,bituminous shale4 #b ,wacke4 #c ,sandstone4 #d ,bituminous shale1 with clay ironstone4 #e ,wacke4 #f ,bituminous shale4 #g ,wacke1 with calc4 spar4 #h ,bituminous shale4 #i ,wacke4 #aj ,bituminous shale passing on both sides into #aa ,wacke--and calc4 spar4 #ab ,bituminous shale4 #ac ,wacke4 #ad ,bituminous shale4 #ae ,wacke4 #af ,bituminous shale4 #ag ,sandstone4 ,the wacke has a greenish gray colour1 which is pretty uniform4 ,the fracture is nearly even and earthy1 it is soft1 yielding readily to the nail1 and has a feebly shining streak4 ,a slight stroke with the hammer causes the mass to separate in fragments of various size1 the surfaces of which are often smooth and shining1 each bed being composed of large distinct concretions1 having a tendency to the prismatic form4 ,this wacke fuses with difficulty before ,brooke's blow-pipe4 ,specific gravity not determined1 as it falls to pieces on being moistened4 ,the sandstone is for the most part gray1 in some parts spotted red and brown1 forming1 as the section represents1 the last stratum seen2 the beds of sandstone are but a few inches in thickness1 and the last 7#ag7 becomes less than an inch2 it is probable1 however1 from the relative situation1 from the dip and direction1 that these strata are a continuation of others seen on the other side of the hill1 where they are of sufficient thickness to have been quarried for the purposes of architecture4 ,the beds of all rocks we know vary greatly in different parts1 and it is not unusual for them to be some feet at one extremity1 gradually decreasing till less than an inch in thickness at the other1 or they may even be lost entirely1 and gradually regain their former size2 and it is not improbable that these beds of sandstone will be found to continue on towards the adjoining hills of ,salisbury ,craig and ,arthur's ,seat1 passing under the greenstone and trap tuff4 ,the bituminous shale presents the usual characters2 intermixed with it are numerous nodules of the common clay ironstone1 the colour of which is a yellowish brown1 these also frequently present characters common to the three substances1 and throughout the beds1 the passage from the one to the other is distinct4 ,whatever may be the opinions in regard to the origin of bituminous shale1 there can be but one in regard to that of sandstone2 and this has lately received no feeble support from the account given us by ,dr4 ,paris1 of a formation of this rock on the coast of ,cornwall1 where1 says he1 we actually detect nature at work1 and she does not refuse admittance into her manufactory1 nor conceal1 with her accustomed reserve1 the details of the operations in which she is engaged4 ,from the appearances which have been thus briefly noticed1 no impartial geologist1 we should imagine1 would infer the volcanic origin of any portion of this formation2 and if the aqueous origin of sandstone can be established1 that of the wacke must be the same4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from its intimate connexion with the preceding subject1 ,dr4 ,webster subjoins the following3 ,extract from a ,paper on a recent formation of ,sandstone1 occurring in various parts of the ,northern coast of ,cornwall2 by ,,john ,,ayston ,,paris1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,l4,s41 c4 c4 ,published in the ,transactions of the ,geological ,society of ,cornwall1 #ahah4 ,a very considerable portion of the northern coast of ,cornwall1 is covered with a calcareous sand1 consisting of minute particles of comminuted shells4 ,that part which lies between ,st4 ,ives and ,padstow is more immediately the subject of the present inquiry2 a tract which1 with a few exceptions1 is entirely covered with this species of sand2 and which in some places1 has accumulated in quantities so great as to have formed hills of from forty to sixty feet in elevation4 ,a considerable area1 for instance1 in the parishes of ,gwythian and ,phillack has been thus desolated1 and several churches have been inundated4 ,in digging into these sand hills1 or upon the occasional removal of some part of them by the winds1 the remains of houses may be seen2 and in some places1 where the churchyards have been overwhelmed1 a great number of human bones may be found4 ,the sand is supposed to have been originally brought from the sea by hurricanes1 probably at a remote period4----,the sand first appears in a slight but increasing state of aggregation on several parts of the shore in the bay of ,st4 ,ives2 but on approaching the ,gwythian river1 it becomes more extensive and indurated4 ,on the shore opposite to ,godrevy ,island1 an immense mass of it occurs1 of more than a hundred feet in length1 and from twelve to twenty feet in depth1 containing entire shells and fragments of clay slate2 it is singular that the whole mass assumes a striking appearance of stratification4 ,in some places it appears that attempts have been made to separate it1 probably for the purpose of building2 for several old houses in ,gwythian are built of it4----,it is around the promontory of ,new ,kaye that the most extensive formation of sandstone takes place4 ,here it may be seen in different stages of induration2 from a state in which it is too friable to be detached from the rock upon which it reposes1 to a hardness so considerable1 that it requires a very violent blow from a sledge to break it4----,but it is on the western side of the promontory of ,new ,kaye1 in ,fistril ,bay1 that the geologist will be most struck with the formation2 for here no other rock is in sight4 ,the cliffs1 which are high1 and extend for several miles1 are entirely composed of it4----,the beach is covered with disjointed fragments1 which have been detached from the cliff above1 many of which weigh two or three tons4 ,there are three modes by which ,dr4 ,paris conceives the lapidification of calcareous sand may be effected4 #ast4 ,by the percolation of water through a hill of calcareous sand1 by which it becomes impregnated with carbonate of lime4 #b;d4 ,the percolation of water through strata containing pyritical substances1 by which it becomes impregnated with sulphuric salts4 #c;d4 ,the percolation of water through decomposing slate1 or any ferruginous strata1 by which it becomes impregnated with iron alumina1 and other mineral matter4 ,,art4 ,v4 ,localities of ,minerals4 ,to the ,editor of the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c4 ,,new-,,york1 ,dec4 #ba1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,it is desirable that some mode should be adopted by which the public may become acquainted with all the ,new ,american ,localities of ,minerals1 as they are discovered from time to time4 ,with deference ,i would suggest1 that in each number of your ,scientific ,journal1 new localities might be recorded in alphabetical order1 for present information and future reference4 ,the following localities1 which have come under my observation1 and which are probably not noticed in any work1 are at your service4 #a4 ,agate4 ,rolled mass3 occurred near ,powles ,hook1 ,new-,jersey4 #b4 ,apatite4 ,truncated crystals of one inch1 and amorphous2 occurs in granite1 chiefly in the felspar4 ,corlaer's ,hook1 vicinity of ,new-,york4 #c4 ,brown ,mammillary ,hematite1 covering quartz crystals4 ,perkiomen lead-mine4 ,montgomery county1 ,pennsylvania4 #d4 ,carbonate of ,magnesia4 ,structure earthy4 ,apparently a pure carbonate of magnesia4 ,in mica slate1 and granite2 chiefly in the quartz4 ,roxborough1 ,philadelphia county4 #e4 ,common ,jasper4 ,traversed by veins of semi-opal4 ,small detached masses1 frequently waterworn4 ,rhinebeck1 ,dutchess county1 ,new-,york4 #f4 ,compact ,malachite4 ,perkiomen lead-mine4 #g4 ,fetid ,carbonate of ,lime4 ,in ridges2 and strata nearly vertical1 sometimes containing petrifactions4 ,very frequent in ,dutchess county1 particularly in the neighbourhood of ,rhinebeck ,flats1 and near ,hyde ,park4 #h4 ,fibrous ,talc4 ,in granite4 ,roxborough4 #i4 ,graphic ,granite4 ,north ,river1 near the city of ,new-,york4 #aj4 ,graphite4 ,in a calcareo-siliceous gangue4 ,corlear's ,hook4 #aa4 ,native pulverulent 7or rather granular7 ,sulphur4 ,in pyritical quartz4 ,barren ,hill1 ,montgomery county1 ,pennsylvania4 #ab4 ,plumose ,asbestus4 ,corlaer's ,hook4 #ac4 ,semi-opal4 ,in common ,jasper--7which see47 #ad4 ,scaly ,talc4 ,in granite4 ,roxborough4 #ae4 ,stellated ,quartz4 ,perkiomen lead-mine4 #af4 ,sulphate of ,barytes4 ,in sulphuret of lead and silver4 ,livingston's lead-mine1 ,columbia county1 ,new-,york4 #ag4 ,sulphuret of ,silver4 ,with sulphuret of lead4 ,same locality4 #ah4 ,tourmalin4 ,in masses of crystalline quartz4 ,rhinebeck4 ,very respectfully1 ,f4 ,c4 ,,schaeffer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following notices were prepared before the receipt of the above letter4 ,other ,localities of ,minerals and of ,,animal ,,remains1 and acknowledgments of ,specimens received4 ,guadeloupe4--,native sulphur1 obsidian1 pitchstone1 native alum1 basaltic hornblende1 alum covered with sulphur4 ,porto ,rico4--,hexagonal crystals of mica4 ,specimens of the above minerals are in the cabinet of ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,brace1 at ,litchfield1 ,connecticut4 ,molybdena is found in ,shutesbury1 ,massachusetts1 near ,northampton1 east of ,connecticut ,river1 on the land of ,william ,eaton4 ,it is the common sulphuret1 but remarkably beautiful and well characterized4 ,its colour is nearly that of bright lead1 very brilliant1 smooth1 and almost unctuous2 soft1 flexible1 distinctly foliated1 and the folia are very thin1 and easily separable1 almost like mica4 ,it gives the usual greenish trace on white pottery1 while a line drawn parallel on the same basis1 by a piece of plumbago or black-lead1 is black2 this being 7as pointed out by ,brongniart7 the easiest criterion1 by which to distinguish between molybdena and plumbago1 or black-lead4 ,we have many times applied it with entire success4 ,this molybdena1 from ,shutesbury1 is chiefly crystallized1 and the crystals are1 in some instances1 very distinct2 their form is that of a flat six-sided prism1 or what is commonly called a table4 ,the rock1 from which they were obtained1 is a granitic aggregate1 7judging from the specimen sent1 it may be a true granite7 and the forms of the crystals are very distinctly impressed in the stone1 so that when removed they leave an exact copy or crystal mould4 ,in a letter from the proprietor of the land1 it is said that the molybdena is found in a ledge of rocks1 six or seven feet above the surface of the earth1 and about ten or twelve feet above the level of the water2 the direction of the rocks is from ,s4 to ,n4 ,e4 by ,n42 the metal is in a vein1 running ,e41 and was discovered in small pieces in the top of the ledge4 ,after putting in two blasts1 some large pieces were obtained4 ,from this account1 and from the specimens1 7some of the crystals being an inch or more in length7 this must be one of the most interesting localities of molybdena hitherto observed in this country2 and it is hoped ,mr4 ,eaton will take some pains to procure and furnish specimens4 ,rose ,quartz4--,from ,southbury1 ,connecticut1 not far from ,woodbury1 and from the ,housatonick ,river1 two young men1 of the name of ,stiles1 have brought us specimens of rose quartz1 of delicate and beautiful colour4 ,it is said to be abundant in a ledge of the same substance4 ,plumbago4--,in ,cornwall1 ,litchfield county1 ,connecticut1 plumbago is found1 of a good quality1 and in considerable masses1 in a vein contained in a rock of gneiss1 or mica-slate4 ,it has been known a good while1 and is said to have been exported anterior to the ,american revolutionary war4 ,coal1 c4 in ,zanesville1 ,ohio4 ,through the kindness of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,bronson1 ,principal of the ,cheshire ,academy1 we have received the following information4--,in cutting a canal in the above town1 in the spring of #ahag1 through freestone1 trees1 and fish1 and other substances1 both animal and vegetable1 were taken out1 alike petrified to a freestone1 excepting the bark of a beach tree1 which was very perfect and beautiful coal--7as we have had an opportunity of ascertaining1 from an examination of the specimens47 ,coal1 in the county of ,muskingum1 ,ohio4 ,common stone-coal1 highly bituminous1 7the slaty or black coal of ,werner17 is found abundantly4 ,south of ,lake ,erie1 about #be miles1 in the bed of ,rocky ,river1 are found shells1 and other animal remains1 imbedded in argillaceous iron2 the specimens were collected in #ahag1 by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,searle4 ,mammoth's ,tooth1 from the ,river ,st4 ,francis1 west of ,mississippi4 ,return ,j4 ,meigs1 ,esq4 has transmitted1 through the ,rev4 ,e4 ,cornelius1 a mammoth's tooth1 apparently not mineralized4 ,it appears to have belonged to a very old animal1 as the processes1 7which1 it is well known1 are commonly very prominent7 are worn down smooth1 and some of them almost obliterated4 ,blue ,ridge1 ,tennessee1 and ,mississippi ,territory4--,through the kindness of the ,rev4 ,e4 ,cornelius1 and of ,mr4 ,john ,h4 ,kain1 we have received a considerable collection of specimens1 illustrative of the mineralogy and geology1 and ,indian antiquities of these regions2 they may be1 on a future occasion1 the subject of more particular remarks4 ,coal1 in ,suffield1 ,connecticut1 on the river of the same name4 ,from ,mr4 ,nathan ,stedman1 we have received specimens of coal1 found in thin veins1 in rocks of slate1 and argillaceous sandstone1 on the banks of the river4 ,the veins are thin1 but considerably numerous2 the coal is very glossy and black2 breaks with a smooth and almost conchoidal fracture1 and very much resembles jet4 ,it is very much intersected by thin veins--7not thicker than a knife-blade7--of white crystallized calcareous spar4 ,this coal is bituminous1 and burns pretty freely4 ,it has not been explored1 except superficially4 ,coal1 in ,southington1 ,connecticut4 ,beds of slate are found more or less bituminous2 and1 at the bottom of some of the wells1 the slate begins to exhibit thin veins of coal1 distributed in great numbers through the substance of the slate1 which is the shale of the miners4 ,the coal is from the thickness of a knife-blade to that of a finger2 it is highly bituminous1 and burns with great freedom4 ,even the entire masses of the stone burn brilliantly1 when ignited on a common fire2 and1 after exhaustion of the coally matter1 leave the slate of a grayish colour4 ,the locality from which the specimens were taken1 is on the land of ,roswell ,moore1 ,esq4 about midway between ,hartford and ,new ,haven4 ,the spot was lately examined by ,col4 ,gibbs1 ,eli ,whitney1 ,esq4 ,professor ,olmstead1 and others2 and arrangements are making to bore the strata1 to the depth of several hundred feet1 if necessary4 ,these localities are in what may1 with propriety1 be called the coal formation of ,connecticut4 ,coal has been found in several other places in that state2 and the peculiar geological features of the region in which it is contained1 are very interesting1 and may hereafter be described in form4 ,sulphat of ,barytes1 with ,coal1 c4--,sulphat of barytes exists abundantly in ,southington1 on what is called the ,clark ,farm4 ,with quartz1 carbonate of lime1 c4 it forms the gangue of a metallic vein1 containing galena1 or sulphuret of lead1 copper pyrites1 c4 ,the sulphat of barytes is more or less crystallized1 and principally in the form that is called the coxcomb spar4 ,the same vein1 although it is in the side of a mountain1 several hundred feet above the flat country adjacent1 and two or three miles from the coal strata above mentioned1 contains numerous spots and patches of coal1 very much resembling that at ,suffield4 ,it is of a most brilliant black1 and contrasted with the white1 stony matrix1 7principally quartz and sulphat of barytes7 in which it is enveloped1 it forms elegant specimens4 ,scintillating ,limestone4--,in ,vermont1 a singular scintillating limestone is found1 of which an account is given in the following extract of a letter from ,mr4 ,george ,chase1 dated ,randolph1 ,february #ai1 #ahah4 ,the object of the present letter is to acquaint you with a circumstance relating to the limestone that abounds in this primitive country1 which to me is inexplicable4 ,this carbonate of lime is of a pale sky-blue colour2 effervesces strongly with nitric acid2 and1 by burning1 produces lime1 so that there is no question as to the identity of the mineral4 ,but it likewise gives forth sparks with steel3--this ,i concluded1 at first1 to be an accidental circumstance2 but every specimen that ,i have tried1 from various quarters of the country1 uniformly gives fire with steel4 ,the limestone is found in layers1 in blocks1 and masses1 disseminated among the clay-slate that covers the greatest part of the townships in this vicinity4 ,when first taken from the earth1 and exposed to the air1 it is covered with an incrustation of a dark reddish-brown colour1 that crumbles easily between the fingers1 and is generally from one inch to a foot in thickness4 ,this incrustation1 however1 hardens on a long exposure to the air4 ,this led me to think that the incrustation was owing to the decomposition of the limestone1 which was produced by the sulphuret of iron1 intimately disseminated through the rock1 which would also explain the singular circumstance of its striking fire4 ,but on dissolving a small quantity of the mineral in nitric acid1 and adding a drop or two of the decoction of gallnut1 no discolouring of the liquor was produced4 ,limpid ,quartz4--,west ,canada ,creek1 a northern branch of the ,mohawk1 affords1 in its sands1 small crystals of quartz1 limpid1 and terminated at both ends by pyramids of six sides2 we are indebted for specimens to ,professor ,fisher4 ,fetid ,primitive ,limestone1 c4--,from the vicinity of ,williamstown ,college1 through the kindness of ,professor ,dewey1 we have received specimens illustrative of the geology of that region4 ,among them is limestone from ,stockbridge1 crystallized in large plates and rhomboids1 almost white1 and still fetid on being rubbed1 which is very different from most fetid limestones1 which are dark coloured1 and even black1 and do not belong to primitive formation4 ,molybdena4--,in ,pettipaug1 ,saybrook1 ,connecticut1 molybdena occurs4 ,it is mentioned in the ,review of ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy1 and is here cited again for the purpose of pointing out its locality more exactly4 ,it is found about half a mile to the ,e4 of the ,turnpike leading from ,saybrook to ,middletown1 on the first road on the right hand above the turnpike gate1 near the house of the widow ,pratt4 ,it is not far from ,pettipaug meeting-house1 in a northern direction4 ,beryl4--,in ,haddam1 ,connecticut1 are found many beryls1 and some of uncommon size2 an account of one of the most remarkable localities is contained in the following memorandum from the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,mather1 to whom we are indebted for specimens4 ,the place in which the beryls are found is in the town of ,chatham1 about one mile and a half north from ,middle-,haddam landing2 about half of a mile ,s4 ,w4 of a large hill1 on which is the cobalt mine4 ,the rock in which the beryls are contained is granite2 the parts of which are very large1 especially the felspar and the mica4 ,large masses of shorl are also found in these rocks4 ,beryls have also been found in other parts of ,middle-,haddam1 amongst rocks of the same description4 ,the greatest diameter of the largest beryl is four inches2 the least three inches4 ,the beryls are numerous1 and of different sizes2 though few are less than an inch1 or two inches in diameter4 ,the length of the longest beryl is five inches4 ,clay4--,near ,delhi1 ,new-,york1 a few rods from the ,delaware river1 are found beds of clay1 of which specimens have been transmitted by ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,foote1 of ,new-,york4 ,we are of opinion that they are not porcelain clay4 ,gypsum4--,cayuga ,lake4 ,we are informed by ,dr4 ,l4 ,foot1 that the workmen who have excavated about #bj feet on the border of the lake1 in gypsum1 which is generally of a dark brown1 or black colour1 when they come to a transparent crystallized piece1 call it isinglass1 and reject it as worthless3 the hint should be remembered by mineralogists1 that the specimens may be saved for their cabinets4 ,,asbestos ,,in ,,anthracite4 ,extract of a letter from ,dr4 ,i4 ,w4 ,webster4 ,,boston1 #bgth ,nov4 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,in examining some masses of the anthracite from ,rhode ,island1 one piece attracted my attention1 from the waved structure of the lamell into which it separated4 ,the fragments of this were wedge-shaped1 and ,i found the space between some of the lamin filled up by a fibrous1 silky substance1 which induced me to break up other masses1 in one of which ,i discovered an abundance of amianthus2 the filaments are of a light-green colour in some parts of the mass--in others presenting different shades of brown4 ,with a microscope1 ,i found the fibres intermixed with the anthracite2 or forming thin layers1 and these sometimes parallel to1 at others crossing1 in different directions1 the course of the lamin4 ,how far the presence of this mineral may influence the ignition or combustion of the coal1 is a question1 perhaps1 worth determining4 ,should my engagements permit1 ,i shall make further examination1 and inform you4 ,in the mean time1 the notice of this fact may call the attention of some of your readers to the subject4 ,at any rate1 this substance has1 ,i believe1 never before been noticed in connexion with anthracite1 and is highly interesting in a geological point of view4 ,,remarks4 ,we have been familiar with the ,rhode ,island anthracite1 and with the formation of rocks in which it is found2 and1 long since1 observed the fact mentioned by ,dr4 ,webster4 ,the asbestos often is in the form of the most delicate amianthus1 frequently blended also with the slate rocks1 which form the roof and pavement of this coal4 ,a specimen now lies before us1 in which a complete vein of this amianthus1 with fibres nearly two inches in length1 connects and pervades a mass of slate1 supposed to be of the transition class4 ,similar facts are mentioned also by ,dr4 ,meade1 in his account of the ,rhode ,island coal4 ,,red ,,pyroxene ,,augite4 ,extract of a letter to the ,editor1 from ,dr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,hayden of ,baltimore4 ,i have very lately discovered a couple of small specimens of the transparent red pyroxene1 resembling fine crystals of titanium1 which ,i1 at first1 mistook it for4 ,one of them is contained in the middle of a large crystal1 like the rubellite in the green tourmalins of ,massachusetts1 but it is not the same substance4 ,the pyroxene1 which ,i have reference to1 is the olive-coloured epidote of some1 pistazite of others1 but resembles1 in this instance1 the sahlite2 the crystals being divisible longitudinally4 ,some of them are five inches long1 and half an inch diameter1 hexaedral and double2 that is1 two joined together1 as described by ,brochant in particular4 ,some other localities1 of which we have received notices1 may be mentioned in a future number4 ,,botany4 ,,art4 ,,vi4 ,a ,list of ,plants found in the neighbourhood of ,connasarga ,river1 7,cherokee ,country7 where ,springplace is situated2 made by ,,mrs4 ,,gambold1 at the request of the ,rev4 ,elias ,cornelius4#cb ,a4 ,acer rubrum and ,sacharium ,acanitum uncinatum ,acta racemosa ,adianthum ,capillus ,veneris ,aesculus ,pavia ,agave ,agrimonium ,eupatorium ,aira pallens ,aletris farinosa ,alisma ,plantago ,allium1 #b sp4 ,amasonia latifolia ,anchusa ,andromeda arborea and other sp4 ,andropogon alopecuides and ambiguum ,anemone hepatica1 ,thalictroides1 virginiana1 and pennsylvania ,angelica lucida and other sp4 ,annona ,antirrhinum elatine ,apocynum cannabinum ,aquilegia canadensis ,arabis ,aralia spinosa ,arctatis caroliniana ,arethusa parviflora ,aristoloichia serpentaria1 #c sp4 ,arum sagittfolium and triphyllum ,arundo tecto ,asarum virginicum ,aselepias purpurascens1 variegata1 verticillata and others1 tuberosa ,ascyrum ,asplenium ,aster concolor1 linarifolius1 and many others ,avena palustrio and spicata ,azalea viscosa1 and others4 ,b4 ,berberis canadensis ,betula alnus ,bidens pusilla ,n4 ,s4 ,muhlenb4 ,bignonia crucigera and radicans ,bucknera americana4 ,c4 ,cacalia ,calycanthus floridus ,campanula perfoliata and divaricata ,clematis ochraleuca and virginiana ,clitoria mariana and virginiana ,collinsonia virginica ,cardumine virginica ,carduus1 several sp4 ,carex1 ,n4 ,s4 ,cassia chamcrista1 marilandica1 nictitans1 and ,tora ,ceanothus americanus ,cephalanthus occidentalis ,cerastium arvense ,cercis canadensis ,chelone glabra and ,penstemon ,chenopodium ambrosioides and anthelminticum ,chionanthus virginicus ,chironia campanulata and other sp4 ,chrysogonum virginicum ,cimicifuga pulmata ,circea lutetiana ,cissampelos smilacine ,claytonia virginica ,commelina erecta1 longifolia virginica ,convallaria multiflora and racemosa ,conyza linifolia ,coreopsis auriculata1 bidens1 senifolia1 tripteris1 alternifolia and verticillata ,cornus florida ,corylus americana ,crtgus apiifolia ,crotallaria sagittalis ,cucubalus behen ,cuscuta americana ,cynanchum ,cynoglossum officinale and virginicum ,cynosurus indicus and sparsus ---- filiformis 7,muhlenb47 ,cypripedium acaule1 alba and calceolus ,d4 ,delphinium exaltatum ,dentaria multifida ,diodia ,n4 ,s4 and virginica ,dioscorea ,diospyros virginiana ,dodecatheon media ,dracocephalon virginianum ,e4 ,echium vulgare ,elephantopus caroliniensis ,eleusine filiformis ,epilobium coloratum ,erigeron pulchellum1 and other sp4 ,eryngium aquaticum ovalifolium and yuccfolium ,erythronium dens canis ,eupatorium clestinum1 perfoliatum1 and urticfolium ,euphorbia colorata1 ipecacuanha1 and other sp4 ,evonymus virginicus ,f4 ,fagus castanea dentata sylvatica atropunicea ,festuca nutans1 palustris and sylvatica ,fragaria vesca ,fumaria ,n4 ,s4 ,g4 ,galactia mollis ,galax aphylla ,galega hispidula and virginica ,galium1 several sp4 ,gerardia asgelia1 hydrophylla1 lancifolia and purpurea ,geum rivale ,gleditsia spinosa ,gaura sp4 ,gentiana saponaria1 and others ,geranium1 #b sp4 ,glycine apios and tomentosa parabolica 7,muhlenb47 ,gnaphalium germanicum1 and others ,h4 ,hedyotis sp4 ,hedysarum prostratum1 and others ,helianthus angustifolius4 sp4 nova4 ,heuchera ,hibiscus ,houstonia crulea1 purpurea1 and varians ,hydrangea glauca ,hypericum fasciculatum1 nudiflorum1 prolificum1 and others ,hypnum sp4 ,hypoxis erecta4 ,i4 ,ilex aquifolium sp4 ,impatiens noli tangere ,inula graminifolia and mariana ,ipoma1 sky blue1 and other sp4 ,iris1 low1 sweet-smelling blossoms in spring1 and other sp4 ,j4 ,jutropha stimulosa ,juglans alba acuminata ---- ---- ovata ,juglans nigra ---- oblonga alba ,juncus bicornis and tenuis ,k4 ,kalmia latifolia ,kyllingia triceps ,l4 ,laurus benzoin and sassafras ,lechea minor ,lepidium sp4 ,liatris graminifolia1 spicata and squarrosa ,lilium martagen ,limodorum tuberosum ,linum virginicum ,liquidamber styraciflua ,liriodendrum tulipifera ,lobelia cardinalis1 inflata1 kalmii1 puberula and siphylitica ,lonicera erecta and symphoricarpos ,ludugia alternifolia jussioides ,lupinus sp4 ,lycopodium apodum and rupestre ,lycopsis ,lycopus virginicus ,lysimachia quadrifolia and punctata ---- sp4 ,lythrum lineare and strictum4 ,m4 ,malaxis unifolia ,marchantia polymorpha ,mimosa horridula ,mimulus ringens ,melanthium latum ---- sp4 ,melica speciosa ,melissa nepeta ,menispermum carolinianum ,mespilus several sp4 ,mitchella repens ,momordica sp4 ,monarda punctata ,monotropa several sp4 ,morus4 ,o4 ,oenothera biennis1 lineanis1 and others ,ophioriza mitreola ,ophrys cernua ---- sp4 ,orchis ciliaris unifolia ,orobanche uniflora ,oxalis1 #b sp4 ,p4 ,panax ginseng ,panctratium carolinianum ,pancium nitidum ,parietaria pennsylvanica ,parnassia caroliniana ,parthenium integrifolium ,passiflora incarnata and lutea ,paspalium ciliatifolium ,pedicularis canadensis ,penstemon lvis ,penthorum sedoides ,phlox ovata1 paniculata and pilosa ,phryma liptostachia ,physalis pubescens1 several sp4 ,phytolacca decandra ,pinus1 several sp4 ,plantago major and virginica ,poa nervata ,podophyllum peltatum ,polygala cruciata1 incarnata and lutea ,polygonum hydropiper1 and other sp4 ,potentilla reptans ,prenenthes trifida ,prunella vulgaris ,prunus cerasus virginiana1 and others ,psoralea melilotoides ,pyrola1 #b sp4 ,pyrus malus coronarius ,q4 ,quercus alba1 #b sp4 ---- nigra1 various sp4 ---- rubra ,quercus prinus ---- ,phellos ,queria canadensis ,r4 ,ranunculus bulbosus1 and other sp4 ,rhexia mariana ,rhus toxicodendron1 and others ,ribes sp4 ,rosa1 several sp4 ,rubus fruticosus1 hispidus and occidentalis ,rudbeckia fulgida1 hirta and purpurea ,ruellia ,s4 ,sagittaria sagittifolia ,salix tristis and others ,sisyrinchium ,bermudiana ,sisymbrium nasturtium ,salvia lyrata and urticfolia ,sambucus nigra ,sanicula marilandica ,sanguinaria canadensis ,saururus cernuus ,scabiosa sp4 ,schisandra ,schoenus sparsus ,scirpus retrofractus ,sentellaria hyssoppifolia1 parviflora1 and others ,sedum1 a low plant1 fl4 white ,senecio sp4 ,serratula pralta1 scariosa and spicata ,sida rhombifolia and spinosa ,silene antirrhina1 and another sp4 ,sium sp4 ,smilax sarsaparilla and other sp4 ,smyrnium aureum ,solanum nigrum ,solidago nova boracensis1 rigida1 virga aurea and others4 ,sonchus sp4 ,sophora fl4 purple ,spigelia marilandica ,spira aruncus1 apulifolia1 stipulaica1 tomentosa and trifoliata ,staphyla trifoliata ,stellaria sp4 ,styrax sp4 ,sylphium ,n4 ,s4 ---- compositum4 ,t4 ,tabernamontana latifolia ,teverium canadense ,thalictrum1 various sp4 ,thlaspi burs pastoris ,thymus virginicus ,tradescantia virginica ,tragopogon dandelion ,trichodium laxiflorum and procumbens ,trichostema dichotoma ,trifolium 7,buffalo7 ,trillium cernuum1 luteum1 sessile1 and another sp4 ,triosteum angustifolium ,u4 ,ulmus1 #b sp4 ,uniola latifolia ,uvularia sessilifolia4 ,v4 ,vaccinium1 several sp4 ,verbascum lychnitis ,verbena officinalis ,verbesina sp4 ,veronica virginica ,viburnum1 several sp4 ,viola1 several sp4 ,viscum ,vitis1 several sp4 ,x4 ,xanthium strumarium ,xantoxylon tricarpon ,y4 ,yucca filamentosa4 ,acer rubrum4--,the inner bark boiled to a sirup1 made into pills1 and these dissolved in water1 is used in cases of sore eyes2 the eyes washed therewith4 ,acta racemosa4--,the root in spirits1 these made use of in rheumatic pains4 ,adianthum ,capillus ,verenis4--,a decoction of the whole plant1 used as an emetic in cases of ague and fever4 ,a very strong medicine4 ,aesculus ,pavia4--,the nuts pounded1 are used in poultices4 ,agave4--,the root is chewed in obstinate cases of diarrha with wonderful success4 ,it is1 however1 a very strong medicine4 ,allium4--,the ,indians are fond of1 for culinary purposes4 ,angelica4--,the same4 ,annona4--,of the bark they make very strong ropes4 ,aralia spinosa4--,a decoction of the roots roasted and pounded1 7green1 they are poisonous7 is given as an emetic4 ,a very strong one4 ,asarum virginicum4--,the leaves dried and pounded1 are used for snuff2 fresh1 they are applied to wounds4 ,bignonia crucigera4--,tea made of the leaves cleanses the blood4 ,calycanthus floridus4--,the roots are used as 7though very strong7 emetics4 ,the seeds to poison wolves4 ,carduus4--various species4 ,the roots used in poultices4 ,cercis canadensis4--,children are fond of eating the blossom4 ,coreopsis auriculata4--,the whole plant is much used in colouring4 ,it affords a red colour4 ,cornus florida4--,the bark of the root is used to heal wounds1 and in poultices4 ,ilex4--,of the wood1 spoons are made4 ,the berries of service in colics4 ,juglans oblonga alba4--,a kind of pills are prepared from the inner bark1 and used as a cathartic4 ,liquidamber styraciflua4--,the gum is used for a drawing plaster4 ,of the inner bark a tea is made for nervous patients4 ,liriodendrum tulipifera4--,of the bark of the root a tea is made1 and given in fevers4 ,it is also used in poultices4 ,melanthium4--,the root is a crow poison2 and a sure1 but severe cure for the itch4 ,pinus4--,boil the root1 skim off the turpentine1 spread it on ,deer's skin 7tanned17 for a drawing plaster4 ,podophyllum peltatum4--,a sirup is boiled of the root1 and given for a purgative1 two pills at a time4 ,a drop of the juice of the fresh root in the ear1 is a cure for deafness4 7,so ,i have been told1 ,i never witnessed it47 ,potentilla reptans4--,a tea of it is given in fevers4 ,prunus cerasus virginiana4--,of the bark a tea is made1 and drunk in fevers4 ,quercus alba4--,the bark is used for an emetic4 ,quercus nigra and rubra4--,a die for leather4 ,rosa4--,the roots boiled1 and drunk in cases of dysentery4 ,rubus fruticosus4--,the root good to chew in coughs4 ,sanguinaria canadensis4--,the root is used for the red die in basket making4 ,saururus cernuus4--,the roots roasted and mashed1 used for poultices4 ,solanum nigrum4--,when young1 made use of as the best relished potherb4 ,solidaga virga aurea4--,a tea much made use of in fevers4 ,sophora4--,a blue die4 ,spigelia marilandica4--,in cases of worms4 ,spira stipulaica and trifoliata4--,the whole plant a very good emetic4 ,of a strong tea or decoction thereof1 a pint is drunk at a time4 ,tradescantia virginica4--,the leaves much relished greens for the table4 ,yucca filamentosa4--,the roots pounded and boiled1 are used instead of soap to wash blankets2 likewise to intoxicate fishes1 by strewing them pounded on the water4 ,the same is done with sculus4 ,,art4 ,,vii4 ,description of a new species of ,asclepias4 ,by ,dr4 ,,eli ,,ives1 ,professor1 c4 in the ,medical ,institution of ,yale ,college4 7,with a ,plate47 ,the plant1 which is the subject of the following observations1 is found growing abundantly on the sandy plains east of ,cedar ,hill1 in ,new-,haven4 ,it is locally associated with the asclepias viridiflora and verticillata4 ,when this species of asclepias was first noticed by me1 it was supposed to be a variety of viridiflora of ,rafinesque and ,pursh2 but after examining a great number of specimens1 it was found that the varieties did not blend themselves4 ,the leaves of the viridiflora being uniformly oblong and obtuse1 the leaves of the other uniformly lanceolate and acute4 ,to this new species ,i purpose to give the name ,lanceolata4 ,specific character of the asclepias lanceolata3--,stem decumbent1 hirsute2 leaves opposite1 lanceolate1 acute1 sub sessile1 hirsuit umbels lateral1 solitary1 sessile1 nodding1 subglobose1 dense-flowered2 appendage none4 ,see the plate4 ,the asclepias lanceolata is allied to the asclepias longifolia and viridiflora by the absence of appendage or horn of the nectary4 ,it is distinguished from the longifolia1 which is characterized by alternate linear leaves1 and umbels erect4 ,illustration3 ,asclepias lanceolata4 ,the asclepias lanceolata and asclepias viridiflora belong to ,mr4 ,elliott's genus acerates4 ,in both1 the nectary or stamineous crown is short concave1 and oppressed to the angles of the filaments4 ,,art4 ,,viii4 ,description of a ,new ,genus of ,american ,grass4 ,,diplocea ,,barbata1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque1 ,esq4 ,diplocea4 ,generic definition4 ,flowers paniculated monoical or polygamous4 ,exterior glumes membranaceous bivalve one to three flowered1 valves subequal emarginated mutic4 ,anterior glumes bivalve unequal1 the largest notched1 notch aristated1 the smallest mutic entire bearded4 ,additional characters4 ,flowers when single sepile with a lateral jutting peduncle1 when double1 one sepile and one pedunculated1 when three two are pedunculated and alternate4 ,the hermaphrodite and male flowers are similar3 the female are nearly clandestine1 inferior4 ,stamens #c1 styles #b4 ,seeds ovate oblong4 ,observations4 ,this genus is intermediate between amphicarpon1 ,raf4 7,milium amphicarpon1 ,pursh7 and aira1 ,l4 ,it differs from this last by its polygamy1 variable number of flowers1 notched valves1 c4 ,the generic name means double notch4 ,its type is the following species1 which had been ranged with the aira1 by ,walter1 and considered doubtful by ,pursh4 ,diplocea ,barbata4 ,specific definition4 ,stems cespitose1 articulations bearded2 leaves rough glaucous1 neck ciliated2 panicles1 few flowered1 female axillary2 largest valvet rinervate1 and ciliated as well as the awl4 ,latin definition4 ,caulibus cespetosis1 geniculis barbatis1 collo ciliato1 foliis scabris glaucis1 paniculis paucifloris1 femineis axillaribus2 valva majore trinerva1 aristaque ciliata4 ,description4 ,roots1 annual fibrous3 stems many1 unequal1 rather procumbent at the base1 next assurgent1 rising one foot at utmost2 they are geniculated1 slender1 brittle1 weak1 and smooth4 ,the knees or joints are bearded1 the sheaths are split1 the neck ciliated1 the leaves short1 stiff1 rough glaucous1 linear acute1 obscurely striated4 ,the panicles have few flowers1 particularly the female ones1 which are axillary coarctated almost hidden1 while the male are terminal and divaricate3 some hermaphrodite flowers are occasionally1 but seldom found among both panicles2 they are all similar1 differing only in the want of stamina or pistils4 ,the valves of the exterior glumes are nearly equal oblong notched obtuse1 mutic and oneneroed4 ,the valvules or valves of the glumule 7corolla or interior glume7 are unequal1 the largest is ciliated trinerve bifid1 with a soft ciliated awl in the notch1 as long as the valve3 the small valve is ovate acute concave1 very hairy on the back4 ,the colour of the flower is reddish or pale red2 but variable4 ,observations4 ,this plant is probably the aira purpurea of ,walter1 ,pursh1 ,elliott1 c4 but does not belong to that genus4 ,it was found in ,carolina1 but ,i have found it on ,long-,island1 near ,gravesend1 ,bath1 ,oyster-,bay1 c4 on the sandy and gravelly sea-shore3 it grows probably in the intermediate states4 ,it blossoms in ,august and ,september1 has no particular beauty1 but a very singular appearance4 ,the specific name of purpurea was improper1 since the colour of the flowers is variable from whitish to red4 ,,art4 ,,ix4 ,floral ,calendar1 c4 ,to the ,editor of the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c4 ,,plainfield1 ,october #ag1 #ahah4 ,,sir1 ,should the following calendar be thought worthy of a place in your ,journal1 you will please to insert it4 ,though very brief1 it will show that vegetation is considerably later on the range of mountains1 on which this place is situated1 than in the level parts of our country4 ,yours truly1 ,j4 ,,porter4 ,floral ,calendar for ,plainfield1 ,massachusetts1 #ahah4 ,by ,,jacob ,,porter4 ,march #ac4 ,robins and bluebirds appear4 ,april #be4 ,claytonia in flower4 ,a considerable part of the ground is covered with snow1 which1 in many places1 is #b or #c feet deep4 ,april #bg4 ,observed the claytonia1 blue violet1 strawberry1 and a species of sedge1 in blossom1 at ,worthington4 ,may #a4 ,hepatica1 roundleaved violet1 and erythronium in flower4 ,may #aj4 ,chrysosplenium1 or golden saxifrage1 in flower4 ,may #ae4 ,the large trillium1 or purple wakerobin1 in flower4 ,may #ah4 ,uvularia1 or cellwort1 and white violet1 in flower4 ,may #ai4 ,a fall of snow1 so that the ground at night was almost covered with it4 ,may #bb4 ,the beautiful coptis1 or goldthread1 in flower4 ,may #be4 ,ash and beech in flower4 ,may #bf4 ,sugar-maple1 viburnum1 threeleaved arum1 blue violet1 small panax1 prostrate mitella1 fly honeysuckle1 white berried gaultheria1 and umbelled ,solomon's seal1 in flower4 ,june #ag4 ,absent1 since my last date1 on a tour to ,new-,york4 ,four other specimens of ,solomon's seal1 trientalis1 azalea1 #b species of crowfoot1 blue-eyed grass1 medeola1 moose-bush1 and several species of vaccinium1 in flower4 ,the small trillium1 or smiling wakerobin1 sarsaparilla1 and dentaria1 blossomed during my absence4 ,june #bb4 ,small enothera1 #b species of veronica1 and the golden senecio1 in flower4 ,june #bc4 ,mountain ash1 ,norway potentilla1 sanicle1 and the lovely linnea in flower4 ,june #bh4 ,prunella1 and red and white clover1 in flower4 ,june #bi4 ,mitchella1 in flower4 ,june #cj4 ,yellow diervilla1 in flower4 ,july #a4 ,climbing corydalis1 in flower4 ,july #d4 ,the fimbriate archis1 and roundleaved pyrola1 in flower4 ,july #e4 ,spiked epilobium1 and roundleaved mallows1 in flower4 ,july #f4 ,mullen1 in flower4 ,july #g4 ,small geranium in flower4 ,july #h4 ,another species of epilobium1 in flower4 ,august #ah4 ,frost this morning4 ,,zoology4 ,,art4 ,x4 ,notes on ,herpetology1 by ,,thomas ,,say1 of ,philadelphia4 7,communicated by the ,author47 ,although ,i have not devoted a particular study to this department of the science of nature1 yet ,i have been amused and instructed by casually observing many of the subjects of it1 when ,i have been rambling in their native haunts1 pursuing objects more particularly interesting to me4 ,but when perusing1 the other day1 the account of the copper-head of our country1 by ,mr4 ,rafinesque1 ,i was impelled to ask for information on the subject1 through your useful publication1 in which that account appeared1 and to make1 at the same time1 a few miscellaneous remarks or notes4 ,these are in part included in the present essay1 and if they should have a tendency to incite attention to the reptilia of the ,united ,states1 at present in a state of confusion and incertitude1 some portion of benefit will be rendered to the great cause of science4 ,i think that a moderate degree of labour and observation bestowed upon the investigation of the species already described1 would prove the unity in nature of some species which have been considered as distinct by all the authors1 would detect many errors in observation1 expose some deceptions practised on credulity by the designing1 and would enable us to fix1 with some degree of accuracy1 our knowledge of truth and of the species4 ,a work devoted particularly to this class1 by some one adequate to the task1 who could have in his view all the known species1 is indeed a desideratum4 ,scytale cupreus1 ,copper-head1 c4 of ,mr4 ,rafinesque4 ,i have always considered the ,copper-head to be no other than the ,cenchris mockeson of authors1 and ,boa contortrix of ,linn4 v4 ,latr4 ,lacep4 ,shaw1 ,daudin1 c4 ,agkistrodon mokasen of ,beauvois2 which opinion is not a little corroborated by an actual comparison of one of these animals in ,peale's ,museum1 with the descriptions of the authors above mentioned4 ,it may be objected to me1 that the mockeson of those naturalists is a ,cenchris1 and not a ,scytale1 therefore generically distinguished from the ,copper-head2 but on the other hand1 we know that the genus ,cenchris does not exist in nature1 that the individual upon which it was founded1 was either a fortuitous variety1 or that the illustrious naturalist was deceived by the desiccation of his specimen1 giving to the basal caudal plates a bifid aspect4 ,that the former was the case ,i analogically infer1 from having seen1 in the collection of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 a ,coluber heterodon1 of which the fifth and sixth pairs of caudal scales were entire1 and not as usual bifid4 ,an additional corroboration of the truth of this inference is derived from the circumstance of the ,scytale of ,peale's ,museum1 having the ten or eleven apical caudal plates bifid1 precisely as in the genus ,acanthophis1 to which it seems closely affianced1 and to which it would be referred if this character was a permanent one4 ,in every other character this specimen coincides with the ,s4 mockeson of authors1 and in every necessary respect with the ,s4 cupreus of ,mr4 ,r4 with the sole exception of the calcarate termination of the tail4 ,this caudal horn seems to approximate ,mr4 ,r's4 animal to the ,s4 piscivorus or true horn-snake1 about which the credulous have so absurdly alarmed themselves1 and which was arranged with the ,crotali by ,lacepede1 in consequence of having a horn on the tail an inch long4 ,we find sometimes a small indurated tip to the tail of ,coluber melanoleucus1#cc at least upon some full grown specimens1 formed by the elongation and appression of the terminal scales2 a larger one on that of the ,european viper1 and of the ,acanthophis cerastes1 and ,brownii4 ,mr4 ,peale's specimen certainly has not the horn1 but it has at the termination of the tail a scale somewhat longer and more indurated than the others1 the individual had not attained his full growth4 ,if then this species 7and some others7 is subject to vary in the form of its caudal plates1 from which the generic characters are in part estimated1 may it not also vary in the armature of the tail1 which at most can only be considered as specific4 ,the ,copper-belly is a very distinct species4 ,if the ,s4 cupreus is1 notwithstanding the above observations1 considered a distinct species1 it would gratify those who cultivate natural history1 to have some good discriminative characters of it4 ,much has been said and written about antidotes to the venomous bites of snakes1 and ,mr4 ,rafinesque enumerates over again several plants which have been said to be1 and which he appears to believe to be specifics4 ,if the case was my own1 ,i would be very unwilling to rely upon either of the #bj or #cj medicinal plants1 dubiously mentioned by the late ,professor ,barton1 as reputed antidotes for this poison4 ,it would be more prudent to resort unhesitatingly to a more certain remedy1 in the ligature1 and immediate excision of the part1 where such an operation was practicable1 or to cauterization1 if the part could not be removed by the knife4 ,in conversation with ,professor ,cooper upon this subject1 he informed me that in his domestic medical practice he applied common chalk to the wounds occasioned by the stings of hymenopterous insects4 ,that in consequence of this mode of treatment1 the pain was immediately allayed1 and the consequent inflammation and intumescence were prevented4 ,the experiment which led to this result was induced by the supposition that the venomous liquid might be an acid1 which opinion was1 in some degree1 justified by the event4#cd ,upon the same neutralizing principle it must be supposed that any alkali would be beneficial4 ,the learned ,professor supposed1 that the venom of the poisonous reptilia may1 in like manner1 be an acid secretion1 and recommends this to be ascertained by experiments upon the liquid itself4 ,if this inference proves correct1 the same alkaline remedy may be employed to neutralize1 or so modified as to stimulate1 in case1 as is supposed by some1 the poison produces upon the system a typhoid action4 ,an instance however is related in the ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 of ,lond4 of the unsuccessful administration of the vol4 alkali in case of the bite of a ,rattle-snake2 and an intelligent physician of ,georgia informed me1 that he had applied the same stimulant in vain for the cure of the bites of poisonous snakes1 but that being once stung by a ,scorpion1 he was instantaneously relieved by the topical use of this liquid4 ,he further related to me a cure performed under his observation1 by means of the singular antidote1 which has often been resorted to in case of snake bites1 that of the application of a living domestic fowl or other bird directly to the wound2 three fowls were applied in this instance1 of which two died in a few minutes1 it was supposed1 by the poison extracted from the wound4 ,this account1 from an observant medical professor1 7who may nevertheless have been deceived7 acquires some additional title to consideration by a similar event which lately occurred at ,schooley's ,mountain1 ,new-,jersey4 ,we are informed from a respectable source1 that a boy was there bitten by a ,copper-head1 7,scytale mockeson47#ce ,the part was immediately painful1 became swollen and inflamed1 and the sufferer had every appearance of having received a dangerous wound4 ,a portion of the breast of a fowl was denudated of feathers1 and applied to the wound2 in a few minutes the fowl died1 without having experienced any apparent violence or injurious pressure1 from the hand of the applicant1 the breast exhibiting a livid appearance4 ,another living fowl was then laid open by the knife1 and the interior of the body placed upon the wound4 ,the wound was subsequently scarified1 and variously administered to4 ,the boy however recovered1 and his cure was generally attributed1 at least in part1 to the application of the birds4 ,i am as far as any one from relying implicitly upon this mode of treatment1 and would only resort to it when the part bitten could not be extirpated1 and when a cautery was not at hand4 ,yet it must be confessed1 that from the numerous attestations to its efficacy we should be almost led to suppose a very strong affinity to exist between the venom and the animal thus applied4 ,that so numerous a catalogue of plants have gained credit with the uninformed as specifics1 will not be surprising1 when we know that the reservoir of the venom is very readily exhausted and slowly replenished4 ,when this reservoir is vacated1 the reptile is of course innoxious1 and the most inert plant would then stand a good chance of gaining reputation with the credulous as a specific4 ,for a similar reason we have so many cures for the bite of a rabid animal2 and it may be for a similar reason that the body of an animal has acquired repute as an antidote1 against the venom of a serpent4 ,coluber trivittata of ,mr4 ,r4 p4 #hj1 of this work4 ,judging from the descriptive name and the locality1 is the ,c4 sirtalis of authors1 or possibly the ,c4 saurita or ,c4 ordinatus4 ,these serpents have each the three vitt1 though in the two former this trait is much more striking4 ,i know of no other serpent in our vicinity to which the name can be characteristically applied4 ,the ordinatus has been called bipunctatus and ibibe by the ,french school4 ,what is the difference between sirtalis and saurita8 they must be very closely allied1 if not synonymous4 ,coluber getulus1 ,lin4 ,this species attains to a more considerable magnitude than authors have stated4 ,i saw a specimen on ,cumberland ,island1 ,georgia1 at least five feet long4 ,the ground colour1 by the direction of light in which ,i viewed him1 was deep glaucous or livid1 he was much more robust than ,c4 ,constrictor4#cf ,he permitted my near approach1 without agitating his tail in the menacing manner of the serpent just mentioned1 and of the crotali1 or manifesting any signs of fear4 ,in my anxiety to secure him1 he eluded my grasp1 and by a sudden and rapid exertion1 disappeared1 with all the rapidity of movement so remarkable in the constrictor4 ,this last1 from his celerity1 is known in many districts by the name of ,racer4 ,coluber heterodon4 ,this viperine species1 of which ,latreille has formed a genus under the name of ,heterodon1 varies considerably in its markings1 and like most of our serpents1 is not constant in the number of its plates and scales1 7#abf1 #dh-ach1 #db-ada1 #db1 c47 perhaps too much reliance has been placed upon colour1 and upon the number of the plates and scales beneath the body1 of the ,ophidi generally4 ,in the form of the anterior termination of the head1 the heterodon is remarkable1 and a good specific character may be obtained from the orbital scales1 which are eleven or twelve in number2 the parabolic curve which passes through the eyes1 and terminates at the maxillary angles1 is also generally present4 ,this same serpent was figured in ,deterville's ed4 of ,buffon1 under the name of ,coleuvre cannelee4 ,the heterodon abounds in many sandy situations1 and near the sea-shore4 ,several persons pursuing a pathway1 passed within a few inches of one of them without his betraying any emotion1 but the moment he perceived me advancing with my eye fixed upon him1 he with a sudden exertion assumed a defensive attitude1 by elevating the anterior portion of his body1 flattening his head1 and #c or #d inches length of his neck2 these he waved with a steady and oblique motion from side to side1 uttering at the same time an audible sibilation1 he made no attempt to escape1 and seemed absolutely fearless until taken4 ,they have the habit of the vipera1 but not the fangs4 ,it seems to be synonymous with ,coluber simus4 ,this species is often called mockeson4 ,dr4 ,shaw's description of ,boa contortrix seems to indicate this species4 ,was he deceived by an erroneous reference to ,catesby's figure of this ,hog-nose8 or by ,forster's catalogue8 ,coluber punctatus4 ,a good diagnostic character of this species1 in addition to the cervical cestus1 rests in the triple series of abdominal dots2 but these are often wanting or obsolete in the young specimen1 in which state it is probably the torquatus of ,shaw4 ,sometimes the dots are wanting on the neck and near the cloaca2 and in one aged individual1 the intermediate line occurred double1 and confluent on the throat4 ,coluber fulvius1 this species is said by ,daudin to be closely allied to his ,c4 coccineus1 notwithstanding the difference in plates and scales4 ,but it is certainly very distinct by other characters1 and strikingly so in its perfectly annular black and red bands2 the latter are margined with yellowish and spotted with black4 ,a specimen has #bbd plates and #cb scales1 total length #ba inches1 length of the tail #a-i_/aj inch4 ,the coccineus has the under part of the body whitish1 immaculate4 ,the fulvius seems to belong to the genus vipera2 it has the fangs1 but not the orifice behind the nostril1 which communicates with the reservoir of venom1 so conspicuous in the crotali1 c4 ,ophisaurus ventralis4 ,the tail of this snake not only breaks in pieces when struck with a weapon1 but portions of it are thrown off at the will of the serpent4 ,this singular fact ,i witnessed in ,georgia4 ,this is one of the many which are called horn-snakes4 ,a tip of the tail of one of them was once brought to me as having been taken from a recently withered tree1 which the bearer assured me was destroyed by the insertion of this formidable instrument1 and it was not without considerable difficulty he was convinced of the innocence of the tail1 and of having been the dupe of a knave4 ,there seems to be a peculiar character in the mode of imbrication of the scales of this species1 each one of these at the lateral edges1 passes beneath the lateral scale on one side1 and over the edge of the opposite one4 ,it has been described under five different generic names1 and four different specific ones4 ,the ,crotali do not gain a single joint only to the rattle annually1 as is generally supposed4 ,they gain more than one each year1 the exact number being probably regulated in a great measure by the quantity of nourishment the animal has received4 ,rattle-snakes in ,peale's ,museum have been observed to produce #c or #d in a year1 and to lose as many from the extremity during the same time4 ,hence it is obvious1 that the growth of these curious appendages is irregular1 and that the age of an individual cannot be determined from their number4 ,mr4 ,rubens ,peale informed me1 that a female of ,crotalus horridus1 ,beauv4 durissus1 ,daud4 which lived in his ,museum more than fourteen years1 had eleven joints to her rattle when first in his possession2 that several joints were acquired and lost annually1 and that at her death1 which occurred last year1 she had the same number as when brought to the ,museum2 she had1 however1 during that time received an accession of four inches to her length4 ,her death was occasioned by an abortion4 ,the ,c4 adamanteus1 ,beauvois4 ,rhombifer1 ,daud4 is by much the largest of our ,north ,american serpents1 and doubtless is the species which ,catesby saw a specimen of1 eight feet long4 ,crotalus miliarius varies in some characters from those laid down by authors4 ,a specimen within my view has five dorsal series1 of alternate1 irregularly orbicular black spots1 those of the intermediate series are obsolete1 and slightly connected across the back1 those of the vertebral series have not red centres1 and are edged with a white line2 the ventral spots are disposed adventitiously1 so as not to be traced into longitudinal series2 they are large1 black1 irregularly orbicular1 and occupy about one half of the surface1 which is white4 ,ventral plates #adj2 subcaudal1 #cc1 of which the six terminal ones are bifid4 ,joints of the rattle with but one transverse contraction on the middle of each1 besides the terminal contraction4 ,total length #a foot #d inches1 tail two inches4 ,it appears to be more vindictive than the two species before mentioned4 ,the individual here noticed we encountered in ,east ,florida2 he struck at ,mr4 ,w4 ,maclure and myself successively as we passed by him1 without any previous intimation of his presence1 owing to the inaudible smallness of his rattle1 and its having but three joints2 he was killed by ,mr4 ,t4 ,peale1 7whom we preceded7 while preparing for another assault4 ,this incident is noted as a contrast to the anecdote of the ,coluber heterodon4 ,salamandra alleganiensis1 ,daud4 appears to be synonymous with ,s4 gigantea of ,dr4 ,barton4 ,it was first described by ,mr4 ,latreille in ,deterv4 ,ed4 of ,buffon1 tom4 #aa4 ,the name alleganiensis1 although defective1 as it indicates no character1 has however the unalienable right of priority4 ,salamandra subviolacea1 ,barton4 ,this name has been rejected by ,mr4 ,daudin1 and substituted by that of venenosa1 ,i do not know for what reason1 as none is assigned4 ,salamandra punctata1 ,gmel4 ,this appellation was originally given and restricted to the stelio of ,catesby4 tab4 #aj4 7represented in the bill of ,ardea ,herodias7 and was adopted by many subsequent authors1 but was finally rejected by ,daudin1 who considered the species the same as ,barton's subviolacea4 ,he concurred with ,mr4 ,latreille in appropriating the name thus rejected to var4 of ,lacerta1 aquatica of ,gmel4 ,notwithstanding this high authority ,i cannot but coincide with ,professor ,barton in this instance1 in believing it altogether distinct4 ,the single character of the subocellate spots1 though not remarked by this author1 is a sufficiently discriminative one2 these ocell are always present1 and in no one of the varieties ,i have seen has the approximation to the subviolacea been so considerable as to render a specific discrepance equivocal4 ,catesby's variety with the ocell on the tail seems to be the least common2 in general these spots1 or epupillate ocell1 are exclusively confined to a line on each side of the back1 about six in each1 extending from the base of the head to the origin of the tail1 though there are sometimes scattered smaller ones on each side of the body1 and upon the vertex of the head1 they are of a beautiful reddish colour1 enclosed by a definite black areola2 the upper part of the body is brownish1 with numerous1 distant black points1 and a slight vertebral1 obtuse carina1 the inferior surface of the body of a fine yellow or orange1 with distant black points1 the tail#cg is compressed1 ancipital1 attenuated to an obtuse tip1 longer than the body1 and punctured with black in like manner4 ,the younger specimens vary considerably1 in being1 on many parts of the body1 destitute of black punctures1 and in having the dorsal and ventral colour1 of the same pale orange4 ,it is decidedly aquatic4 ,several specimens are preserved in the collection of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 and from these it is evident that the reddish colour of the subocellate spots is destroyed by the action of the antiseptic liquid2 to this circumstance it is probably owing that these spots have been hitherto described as white4 ,after stating these differential traits1 it may be proper to observe1 that the ,s4 maculata of ,shaw is synonymous with the above4 ,but ,i think it most proper to restore ,gmelin's name punctata1 which will afford an opportunity to do justice to the memory of ,laurenti1 by reviving the original name by which he distinguished the ,var4 4 of ,lacerta1 aquatica1 ,gmel41 that of parisinus4 ,bufo cornuta4 ,this animal1 which has been stigmatized as the most prodigiously deformed creature known to exist66 is generally supposed to inhabit ,north ,america as well as ,surinam4 ,i do not think it has ever been found in ,north ,america4 ,shaw1 in ,nodder's ,nat4 ,misc4 says it is principally found in ,virginia1 but in his ,general ,zoology1 ,i think he says that ,seba was in error when he represented its native country to be ,north ,america4 ,two other species of ,bufo have been correctly stated to inhabit this country1 viz4 ,b4 musicus1 and ,crapaud rougetre1 ,daud4 7,b4 rubidus7 first noticed as distinct by ,mr4 ,william ,bartram4 ,i discovered a third species on the banks of ,st4 ,john's river1 ,east ,florida1 which1 as ,i am not at present prepared to describe1 ,i shall not surreptitiously name4 ,it is1 ,i conceive1 an incumbent duty on the describer of a natural object1 to deposit his specimen1 or a duplicate1 when practicable1 in some cabinet or museum1 to which he should refer1 in order that subsequent writers may be satisfied with the accuracy of his observations1 by examining for themselves4 ,by such reference1 and by the re-examination of the same objects by others1 the plethoric redundance of synonyma1 that prolific source of accumulating error1 will be banished or elucidated1 and naturalists will most readily arrive at the knowledge of truth1 which is1 or ought to be1 the grand leading object of their labours4 ,,physics ,,and ,,chemistry4 ,,art4 ,,xi4 ,outline of a ,theory of ,meteors4 ,by ,,wm4 ,g4 ,,reynolds1 ,m4,d4 ,middletown ,point1 ,new-,jersey4 ,should the progress of science1 for a century to come1 keep pace with its rapid advancement for the last fifty years1 many appearances in the physical world1 now enveloped in obscurity1 will then admit of as easy solution as the combustion of inflammable substances1 or any familiar process in chemistry does at this day4 ,among the many subjects from which the veil of mystery would thus be raised1 we may include those luminous appearances1 in the aerial regions1 called meteors1 which ,i am about to consider in the following essay2 and which seem to constitute a distinct class of bodies of considerable variety4 ,meteors were regarded by the ancients as the sure prognostics of great and awful events in the moral and physical world2 and were divided by them into several species1 receiving names characteristic of the various forms and appearances they assumed2 but of their opinions1 as to the physical cause of these phenomena1 the ancients have left us nothing solid or instructive4 ,the moderns1 more enlightened1 have ceased to regard these bodies with the superstitious awe of former ages2 but in respect to the cause thereof1 are perhaps but little in advance of their predecessors1 having1 ,i believe1 produced nothing yet that will bear the test of philosophical investigation4 ,doctor ,blagden 7,philosophical ,transactions1 #aghd17 considers electricity as the general cause of these phenomena2 ,doctor ,gregory1 and others1 think they depend upon collections of highly inflammable matter1 as phosphorus1 phosphorated hydrogen1 c4 being volatilized and congregated in the upper regions of the air4 ,doctor ,halley ascribes them to a fortuitous concourse of atoms1 which the earth meets in her annual track through the ecliptic2 and ,sir ,john ,pringle seems to regard them as bodies of a celestial character1 revolving round centres1 and intended by the ,creator for wise and beneficent purposes1 perhaps to our atmosphere1 to free it of noxious qualities1 or supply such as are salutary4 ,many other theories1 as ingenious as fanciful1 might be enumerated2 but without commenting on their comparative merit1 ,i must acknowledge that none of them have yet impressed my mind with a conviction of their truth4 ,a series of observations1 however1 have enabled the moderns to ascertain1 with apparent accuracy1 several particulars relative to these stupendous bodies1 which add much to our knowledge of their general character3--their velocity1 equal to #cj1 and even #dj miles in a second of time2 their altitude1 from #bj to #ajj miles2 and their diameter1 in some instances1 more than a mile1 are facts we derive from respectable authority1 and may aid us1 essentially1 in forming just conceptions of their nature and properties4 ,i believe meteoric stones to result from all meteoric explosions2 limiting1 however1 the term meteor to those phenomena1 in the higher regions of the air1 denominated fire-balls1 shooting-stars1 c4 ,that these bodies move in a resisting medium1 must be evident to every attentive observer2 and that this medium is our atmosphere1 is pretty certain1 #ast4 ,because we know of no other resisting medium round the earth2 #b;dly4 ,because the same kind of resistance is apparent at every intermediate altitude1 from their greatest to their least1 which last we know to be far within our atmospheric bounds2 and1 #c;dly4 ,calculation has1 in no instance1 assigned them an elevation beyond the probable height of the atmosphere4 ,that meteors proceed from the earth1 that they arise from certain combinations of its elements with heat1 and that meteoric stones are the necessary result of the decompositions of these combinations1 are opinions ,i will endeavour to support1 by the following considerations4 #ast4 ,the properties and habitudes of matter1 under certain conditions and combinations4 #b;dly4 ,the situation of the earth's surface in respect to the sun1 the influence of his rays thereon1 and the nature of the elements or compounds on which these rays act3 ,and #c;dly4 ,the identity that exists between the component parts of meteoric stones1 and the elements that enter abundantly into the composition of our globe2 and1 by several other facts and arguments4 ,under my first general specification1 ,i will select such principles from the established doctrines of philosophy1 as have an immediate bearing on the subject2 without engaging in any of those subtle speculations in which certain recondite properties of matter1 or the identities of quality and body are affirmed or denied4 ,thus1 #ast4 ,heat is the universal cause of fluidity and volatility in bodies2 hence no solid can assume the state of gas1 until it absorbs1 or unites with1 a certain portion of caloric2 and the subtilty and volatility of compounds thus formed1 will be in a due ratio to the quantity of caloric they employ4 #b;dly4 ,the heat employed to maintain a body in the gaseous state1 is said to be latent or fixed1 and may be regarded as an ocean or atmosphere of fire1 holding the ultimate particles of the body in a state of extreme division1 and wide separation1 from which they can be driven only by some change in the affinities or condition of the compound4 #c;dly4 ,if the latent heat in a gaseous compound be suddenly abstracted1 as in explosion1 its escape is attended with the emission of light and sensible heat1 when the volatilized particles held in solution being no longer able to maintain the state of gas1 suffer approximation in a due proportion to the quantity of caloric they have lost4 #dthly4 ,caloric1 in reducing solids to the state of gas1 lessens1 but cannot in any case1 as far as we know1 totally destroy their gravitating force2 the diminution of this force1 however1 being in a direct proportion to the quantity of heat employed4--,hence the following inferences may be fairly drawn1 as they seem to be in unison with the relative dependence and harmony existing between the material elements of this globe1 and1 ,i believe1 are contradicted by no direct experiments2 viz4 that the expansion of volume1 specific levity1 and subtilty of artificial gases1 are in a direct proportion to the absolute quantity of caloric they employ2 and the caloric is in the same proportion to the insolubility of the substance with which it unites4 #ethly4 ,when the specific gravity of bodies on the surface of the earth1 is reduced below that of the superincumbent atmosphere1 they ascend to media of their own density1 in obedience to the laws of ,aerostatics2 thus we raise balloons by filling them with light air1 and the carbon of pit coal and common wood exposed to combustion1 and water to the sun's rays1 will rise until they reach a medium of like specific gravity with themselves4 #fthly4 ,mechanical agitation and division assist the solution of solids1 by bringing fresh portions of the menstruum into successive contact with their fragments1 and thus exposing a larger surface4 ,under the second head ,i proceed to notice the situation of the earth's surface in respect to the sun1 c4 ,the atmosphere is a thin1 elastic1 gravitating fluid1 that completely envelopes the earth1 to which it may be considered a kind of appendage or external covering2 its base resting on the earth's surface1 is of an uniform density1 growing rare as it recedes therefrom1 in a due ratio to the diminution of its gravitating force1 until it is lost in empty space4 ,the atmosphere is estimated on certain data to be about #dd or #de miles high1 but we have good reasons to believe it fills a much wider circle1 though too thin to reflect the rays of light above its reputed height4 ,the earth presents one whole hemisphere to the sun in unerring daily succession2 and those parts of it which have the least protection against his rays1 will1 cteris paribus1 suffer the greatest intensity of their action4 ,within the tropics1 the atmosphere opposes less resistance to the sun's rays than in the temperate zones2 and in both large tracts of cultivated land1 the summits and sides of great ranges of mountains1 margin of oceans1 rivers1 c4 present an almost naked surface to their influence4#ch ,the exterior strata of the earth1 and especially the more exposed parts thereof1 envelope in their compounds1 elements of an identity of character with those composing meteoric stones4 ,the atmosphere is the great recipient of all volatilized bodies2 it possesses but feebly the powers of a solvent1 unaided by heat or moisture1 but when these are adjuvants1 no body in nature can totally resist their action for a long time4 ,now if the above principles are admitted1 we have in their application a reasonable solution of most meteoric phenomena4 ,thus1 the rays of the sun darting through the atmosphere reach the surface of the earth1 where1 by accumulation1 they produce sensible heat1 which though not intense1 is steady and uniform1 for many hours every day2 minute portions of the earthy and metallic compounds exposed to the sun's influence1 will be volatilized by the absorption of heat1 and thereby assuming the state of elastic fluids1 will ascend until they arrive at media of their own density4 ,the atmosphere in contact1 will have some of its particles blended in these compounds1 will ascend with them1 and to supply the vacuum1 new portions of air will rush in and ascend1 and the process will continue until the sun's rays are withdrawn1 or interrupted by some of the common occurrences of nature4 ,the utmost height to which these elastic fluids ascend1 may be estimated at something more than one hundred miles2 and they float at every intermediate distance between their greatest elevation and the clouds1 but rarely below the latter1 except their course is directed towards the earth in their explosions4 ,they probably ascend at first in small daily detached portions of gaseous clouds1 and are diffused over wide regions2 but having no sensible resistance opposed to their mutual attraction1 they will by the laws of their affinities congregate into immense volumes of highly concentrated elastic fluids1 which on exploding will exhibit all the phenomena of bursting meteors in the following manner1 viz4 the latent heat on escaping will manifest itself in the form of fire and light1 the force with which it strikes the atmosphere1 or the rebound of the latter to fill the vacuum1 or both1 will occasion sound more or less detonating or hissing1 as the escape is more sudden1 or the atmosphere more dense2 the earthy and metallic particles on the escape of caloric1 will obey the laws of cohesive attraction1 clash together1 recover their gravity1 and descend to the earth in masses1 or shattered fragments4 ,meteoric stones frequently bear the marks of violence1 which is doubtless owing to the conflict sustained at the moment of explosion2 their difference in size depends on the difference of magnitude in the disploding volumes2 something like regular arrangement is frequently perceived in the structure of these stones1 because in all productions of solid from fluid matter1 the consolidating particles possess a tendency to arrange themselves in the order of their affinities4 ,it is thus the various arrangements in saline crystallization1 the freezing of water1 and cooling of melted metals1 may be accounted for4 ,there is a real1 as well as an apparent difference in the velocity of meteoric bodies2 the first arising from their difference of magnitude and the violence of the explosion1 as well as from the resistance they meet2 the latter1 from the different distances at which they are seen4 ,the gradation of colour1 from a bright silvery hue to a dusky red1 is owing1 in a certain degree1 to the state of the atmosphere refracting different coloured rays1 and also to the materials in the compound1 similar to the different hues in artificial fireworks4 ,reddish and white nebicula are sometimes left in the tracks of meteors1 which are nothing but ignited vapours1 or the particles brushed off the burning body by the resisting atmosphere4 ,the velocity or motion and direction of meteors1 depend upon principles well known and daily practised by engineers1 and the constructors of fireworks4 ,the immediate cause of these explosions is a little obscure1 and merits a fuller detail than is compatible with my present limits2 their analogy to the electric phenomena in the clouds1 leaves room to suppose they are effected by certain modifications of electricity4 ,clouds of opposite electricities will approach each other and explode1 by the positive imparting as much electrical fire to the negative cloud as will make them equal1 when just as much water as the imparted fire held in solution1 will be set at liberty and descend to the earth4 ,if1 however1 this solution be deemed inapplicable1 perhaps the following may be admitted4 ,thus1 when heat is urged upon incombustible#ci bodies with a force that overcomes the cohesive property by which their particles are tied together1 it unites with them in large quantities1 and becomes latent1 by which union they are reduced to the state of elastic fluids2 and as it is a universal property of heat to counteract the gravitating force of bodies1 these compounds must necessarily become volant1 and ascend as above stated4 ,it is only thermometrical or sensible heat1 that destroys the attraction of cohesion existing between the particles of bodies1 the repulsive power of latent heat being barely able to counteract this property1 when the elements under its dominion are removed beyond a certain distance from each other2 now the very reduced temperature in the high regions to which these gaseous clouds will ascend1 may admit their earthy and metallic particles within the sphere of cohesive or aggregative attraction1 when the caloric will be expelled like water from a sponge1 accompanied by all the phenomena above stated4 ,the third general head of my subject leads me to inquire into the constituent principles of meteoric stones3 sundry papers on the analysis of these productions1 have been furnished us by chemists of acknowledged reputation and ability1 and in none of these that ,i have seen1 was there any element described that had not been previously known4 ,but should it hereafter be found that air stones contain matters not found on our globe1 the fact will afford no absolute proof of the foreign origin of these stones1 as we are successively discovering earthy and metallic principles of distinct characters from those already known4 ,a portion of one of these stones that fell in the town of ,weston1 7,connecticut7 examined by the late ,dr4 ,woodhouse1 gave the following results in a hundred parts1 viz4 ,silex #ej ,iron #bg ,sulphur #g ,magnesia #aj ,nickel #a inferred from chemical tests4 ,loss #e ---- #ajj ,the sulphur was seen by the naked eye distributed through the silex in round globules the size of a pin's head1 after dissolving the powdered stone in diluted nitric acid4 ,all specimens of these stones do not afford precisely similar results1 but differ in their constituent elements and relative proportions2 their component parts1 however1 are to be found abundantly in schist1 schorl1 pyrites1 pebble1 granite1 c4 on which the sun must daily act4 ,the following facts go to strengthen the above theory1 viz4 ,meteors are most frequent and stupendous in tropical countries1 where the heat of the sun is most intense2 and less frequent in our climate in the winter and spring1 while1 and after the earth has been covered with snow for many weeks in succession2 and they are most frequent in the higher latitudes towards autumn1 after a continuation of hot dry weather3 out of the whole number 7#agi7 of shooting stars ,i have noted during the last twelve years1 #adi appeared between ,june and ,december1 inclusive4 ,if it be said that the specific gravity of meteoric stones being several times that of water1 it is absurd to suppose they can rise1 7if even reduced to the state of gas7 to the elevated stations here assigned them1 seeing the vapours of water can ascend only one or two miles above the earth4 ,to this ,i reply1 that the doctrine of heat is not yet so thoroughly understood1 as to acquaint us with all its habitudes with natural bodies1 but we infer from analogy1 that the more refractory a body is in the fire1 the greater in a due ratio is the absolute quantity of heat required to reduce it to1 and retain it in1 the state of gas1 and the greater1 in a corresponding degree1 will be the dilatation of its particles and decrease of its specific gravity4 ,hence1 if water reduced to vapour by heat1 be capable of assuming an altitude of two miles1 it follows that more refractory substances reduced to a similar state1 will suffer expansion and fugacity in a due proportion to the quantity of caloric they employ1 and will assume a corresponding elevation1 as already inferred under my first head4 ,another objection may be1 that though high degrees of heat affect certain solids as above stated1 yet these cannot be sensibly acted on by such feeble agents as atmospheric air and the rays of the sun4 ,i answer1 if it be admitted that sensible heat acts on solids in an increasing ratio to its intensity1 it follows that lower degrees1 though acting in an inverse ratio to higher1 must affect the same bodies in a conceivable degree at any temperature above their natural zero3#dj and though the heat of the sun beating on a plane surface for several hours is feeble1 compared with that produced by a burning lens1 or air furnace1 yet if it be sufficient to detach from one square foot of the earth's surface the #ajdjbc part of a grain in twenty-four hours1 the quantity taken from #ajj square miles1 in the same time and proportion1 would amount to ten pounds1 which is abundantly sufficient for all meteoric phenomena2 and the loss to each square foot1 supposing the process to be uninterrupted1 would be no more than one grain in #bhd years4 ,when we advert to the intense heat produced by concentrating a few of the sun's rays in a burning lens1 the whole quantity daily sent to the earth must strike us forcibly4 ,if collected in a lens of sufficient magnitude1 they might volatilize a space equal to the state of ,new-,york in a moment of time6 ,as all bodies possess a limited capacity for heat1 does it not follow that there must be some outlet to its perpetual accession to our globe1 or the earth would soon become so highly ignited as to glow with the fulgour of a meteor8 ,and may not this outlet be found in the above described compounds8 which serve as conductors of the surplus of heat from the earth to the higher regions of the air1 where on being freed by displosion1 from the grosser matters incumbering it1 it finds a rapid passage to its great archetype and parent1 the ,,sun4 ,thus his daily waste may be restored1 and an equilibrium1 by the return of his own emanated particles1 preserved1 between the sun and the earth1 and probably all the planets of our system4 ,the last consideration ,i shall offer in favour of the domestic or earthly origin of meteoric phenomena1 is the difficulties that present to our granting them a foreign one4 ,though ,i am well aware of the respectability of the names which the theory of moonstones can summon to its support1 yet ,i have always regarded it as unfounded and unphilosophical for the following reasons1 viz4 #ast4 ,whether the moon has an atmosphere or not1 we will all admit that she has attraction1 which must extend to many thousands of miles from her surface4 ,no projectile force that we are acquainted with can throw a heavy body #ajj miles1 even though no atmospheric1 or other resistance than its own gravity1 were present2 hence the idea of that force extending to thousands of miles from the moon's surface1 is gratuitous and nugatory4 #b;dly4 ,the products of volcanoes bear no similarity of origin1 or kindred resemblance to meteoric stones2 those are lavas of different kinds1 pumicestone1 scoria1 ashes1 c4 these solid masses of matter1 with some degree of regularity in the arrangement of their constituent particles4 #c;dly4 ,the descent of these stones has no coincidence in point of time with the position of the moon4 ,she is as often in their nadir as their zenith4 ,we also witness in all cases1 explosion and light in our own atmosphere1 at the time of the descent of these stones4 ,this could not be the case if they proceeded from the moon1 for obvious reasons4 #dthly4 ,the heat adequate to such projectile force as would carry a body from the moon's surface beyond the sphere of her attraction1 would volatilize the matter of meteoric stones in a moment2 hence they would not be projected from the ,lunarian crater in solid masses1 but in elastic vapour4 ,in conclusion1 although the theory which ,i have endeavoured to elucidate and establish1 be subject to some difficulties and objections which science may hereafter remove1 it appears to me perfectly consonant with the relative dependence and harmony of our system1 and by no means at variance with the infinite wisdom and power by which it was originated4 ,,art4 ,,xii4 ,observations upon the prevailing ,currents of ,air in the ,state of ,ohio and the ,regions of the ,west1 by ,,caleb ,,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville1 ,ohio2 in ,letters addressed to ,his ,excellency ,de ,witt ,clinton1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,governor of the ,state of ,new-,york1 and ,president of the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society4 7,communicated for the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c47 ,circleville1 ,ohio1 ,july #bc1 #ahah4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,with pleasure1 ,i acknowledge the receipt of the circular letter bearing date the #eth instant1 which you addressed to me1 for which you will be pleased to accept my warmest acknowledgments for yourself personally1 and the ,philosophical ,society of which you are the president4 ,to answer all the questions which are put to me in that letter1 is not at present within my limited means1 either as it respects the leisure or the ability4 ,i shall therefore1 at this time1 confine myself to observations upon the prevailing currents of air in the state of ,ohio4#da ,these observations will be wholly founded on personal experience1 during the four years in which ,i have traversed this state1 from ,lake ,erie to the ,ohio river1 whilst attending on the several courts1 in all seasons and in all the changes of weather4 ,the prevailing currents of air1 one of which generally obtains in ,ohio1 are three4 ,the first comes from the ,mexican ,gulf1 ascending the ,mississippi and its larger tributary branches quite to their very sources4 ,the second proceeds from the back of mountains to the west1 descends the ,missouri to its mouth1 and then spreads over a vast extent of country4 ,the third comes down the great northern and northwestern lakes to the south end of ,lake ,michigan and the southern shore of ,lake ,erie1 where it spreads over the region of country lying to the south of them4 ,that current of air which comes from the ,mexican ,gulf1 is warmer1 and perhaps more moist1 than any other which prevails here4 ,after a few days prevalence1 it uniformly brings rain along with it4 ,that this current of air should be very warm may be readily conceived1 when we reflect that it comes from a hot tropical region2 and that it should be very moist1 excites no surprise1 when it is considered1 that in its passage upwards it passes wholly over water1 and through the warm mists and fogs constantly ascending from the ,mississippi and its tributaries4 ,this current prevails much more along the ,ohio river than it does at any considerable distance from it4 ,one consequence is1 that the climate in the immediate vicinity of the ,ohio river is warmer1 than it is either north or south of it1 unless you go to the southward a considerable distance4 ,other causes may1 and probably do1 in a greater or less degree1 contribute to produce this result1 and ,i will here state them3 ,first1 ,the ,ohio runs on a surface less elevated above the sea than the country1 either north or south of it1 but this difference is trifling through the whole of the sandstone formation4 ,this formation prevails from the head of the ,ohio to ,aberdeen1 which is opposite to ,marysville in ,kentucky1 at least two-thirds of the distance which that river washes the southern shore of this state4 ,the reason is obvious1 because there are no falls in a sandstone formation4 ,another cause which contributes to produce a warmer climate1 especially in the winter season1 in the valley of the ,ohio1 is1 that several considerable streams which empty themselves into the ,ohio1 have their sources on the highlands1 a great distance to the south of it2 for instance1 the ,great and ,little ,sandy1 and the ,great and ,little ,kenhawa1 which descending from a warm region of country1 their waters contribute to keep the ,ohio open in winter4 ,but these causes are by no means sufficient to produce the one half of the comparative warmth of climate observable in the immediate vicinity of this invaluable river4 ,to prove that the climate is much milder in the southern than in the northern part of this state1 ,i will proceed to mention several facts1 which have fallen under my own observation4 ,in the latter part of last ,february ,i was at the town of ,delaware1 on the ,whetstone ,branch of the ,scioto river1 between eighty and ninety miles south of ,lake ,erie1 and twenty-five miles north of ,columbus1 the seat of government1 which is near the centre of the state1 where ,i saw a number of gentlemen direct from ,detroit1 by the way of ,lower ,sandusky1 who informed me that the snow at that time was eighteen inches in depth and upwards all along the lake shore1 but gradually decreased as they came south until they arrived at ,delaware4 ,at that place it was then about twelve inches deep in the open fields1 and somewhat deeper in the woods4 ,i descended the road along the ,whetstone to ,columbus1 the snow decreasing in depth all the way as ,i proceeded4 ,at ,columbus it wholly disappeared in the fields1 and only ice was found in the road1 which also decreased until ,i came to the ,big ,walnut ,creek1 thirteen miles south of ,columbus1 where it disappeared1 and the road began to be muddy4 ,as ,i still proceeded south1 the mud increased in depth until ,i came to ,chillicothe1 about thirty-two miles south of ,big ,walnut1 where the frost was entirely out of the ground1 and the roads were almost impassable4 ,as ,i still descended southward1 along the ,scioto1 ,i found that at ,piketon1 on the ,scioto1 nineteen miles south of ,chillicothe1 the road had considerably improved4 ,i proceeded onwards to ,portsmouth on the ,ohio river1 at the mouth of the ,scioto1 about twenty-six miles south of ,piketon1 where the ground was entirely settled1 and the innkeeper1 where ,i lodged1 was making his garden1 sowing his sallad seed1 and planting his peas4 ,this journey was performed in three days1 and in travelling only one hundred and fifteen miles from north to south1 this extraordinary difference of climate was observed4 ,a traveller may leave ,portsmouth when the farmer is beginning to hoe his corn the first time1 and travel with good speed to ,delaware1 and find the husbandman just beginning to plant4 ,instances which have fallen within my own personal observation might be multiplied to a great extent1 but a few may suffice4 ,generally speaking1 there is a difference in the beginning and ending of the warm season of about two weeks between ,portsmouth and ,delaware1 or of three weeks between the former place and ,lower ,sandusky4 ,in relation to the warmth of the climate1 ,i will state two other facts1 originating1 as ,i believe1 in the prevalence of the southern current of air from the ,mexican ,gulf along the ,ohio river4 ,first1 ,in the summer months the paroquet ascends the ,scioto more than one hundred miles from its mouth1 and until within a few years past1 wintered at ,miller's ,bottom1 and at other places along the banks of the ,ohio1 near its great southern bend in latitude #ch north1 in ,gallia and ,lawrence counties1 in the state of ,ohio4 ,i have seen them there in all the winter months in considerable numbers1 but few however now winter there2 and probably if the cold northwestern current of air from the great lakes becomes more and more prevalent in the winter months1 these birds will migrate altogether to a more southern clime4 ,are these birds found as far to the north on the east side of the ,alleghany by at least three degrees8 ,monsieur ,volney1 ,mr4 ,jefferson1 and others1 say not4 ,it has been denied that this fact proves any thing more than that this bird frequented these parts in quest of its favourite food4 ,this food is grass and other vegetable matter in summer1 and the cockle bur1 and the balls of button-wood1 or1 as by a perversion of language1 it is called in this country sycamore4#db ,but this bird may find its favourite food as well east as west of the ,alleghanies4 ,the grasses and trees alluded to1 flourish as ,i have observed in forty-five degrees of north latitude1 and ,i am credibly informed that they are abundant as far north as ,quebec1 and even around ,hudson's ,bay4 ,wherever waters run and trees grow on their banks1 7if low and wet17 on the ,american continent1 even as high as eighty degrees of north latitude1 there the paroquet may find its food in abundance4 ,another fact tending to establish the same point is1 that the reed cane1 before this country was much settled1 grew in a higher latitude by several degrees on this than it did on the other side of the ,alleghany mountains4 ,it has indeed been said1 that this cane was never found north of the ,ohio1 nor above the mouth of the ,big ,sandy ,river1 which empties into the ,ohio1 on the line which separates ,virginia and ,kentucky4 ,this however is incorrect2 for within a few years it was growing in abundance at ,miller's ,bottom1 twenty-six miles above the mouth of ,big ,sandy4 ,it grew at ,lancaster1 on the ,hockhocking1 northward of the mouth of the ,big ,sandy1 in a direct line1 at least one hundred and fifty miles1 and it now grows on the ,whetstone branch of the ,scioto1 more than two degrees of latitude above the lowest bend of the ,ohio1 which is at the mouth of the ,big ,sandy4 ,before the white people settled there1 ,i have every reason to believe1 that the cane grew in great plenty at ,delaware1 where there are more signs of buffaloes than at any other place within my knowledge4 ,it has been conjectured1 that the seed of the cane was brought down and scattered by the ,big ,sandy2 but granting this1 in what way could that stream carry this seed up the ,hockhocking and ,scioto to their sources8 to places several hundred feet above the highest freshes ever known in this country8 ,with a knowledge of these facts1 cast your eye at the map of ,ohio4 ,proofs within my reach might be multiplied to a much greater extent1 but they are probably unnecessary4 ,but another current of air prevails here1 especially in the cold months1 coming from the mouth of the ,missouri1 which is a little to the south of west of this place4 ,this current is colder than the preceding one1 and though moist1 yet not as much so as the one already described4 ,it prevails generally in ,october and ,november1 before our warm weather is over1 and produces frosts and a chilly dampness1 and what ,i have observed nowhere else1 especially on the east side of the ,alleghanies1 it produces a kind of faintness at the breast4 ,people of delicate habits1 coming here from the northern and eastern states1 uniformly complain of this faintness4 ,it is not perhaps extraordinary that this current of air should be cold1 proceeding as it does from a high northern latitude1 along the great chain of rocky mountains in the northwest2 that it should be moist1 and perhaps also that it should affect the animal economy unpleasantly1 may possibly be attributed to its passing such a length of way over the waters of the ,missouri1 and the wet prairies and barrens lying so extensively between us and the head waters of that stream4 ,the luxuriant vegetation which covers these prairies and barrens at that season of the year1 begins to putrefy1 and fills with unhealthy exhalations every gale of wind which passes over them4 ,at the mouth of this river 7,missouri17 which is in about latitude #ch north1 this current of air is extremely cold in the winter months4 ,it diverges from this point1 and produces extreme cold at a considerable distance to the south of it on the ,mississippi river4 ,general ,rector1 the present surveyor general of the ,united ,states1 who keeps his office at ,st4 ,louis1 informs1 that he has known the ,mississippi at ,st4 ,genevieve1 in latitude about #cg1 so firmly covered with ice in one night1 as to be able to bear horses and cattle the ensuing day4 ,this circumstance must have been owing to the sudden change of the current of air from south to the northwest1 descending the ,missouri river from the cold regions at its sources4 ,from several gentlemen1 residents for many years in ,illinois and ,missouri ,territories1 ,i have been informed1 that changes of weather in that region of country are1 especially in winter1 very frequent and great2 that one day the moist south wind from the ,mexican gulf will prevail1 and produce quite warm and mild weather for the season2 on the very next1 or frequently in the latter part of the same1 the current of air from the sources of the ,missouri will prevail1 and block up the streams with ice4 ,there is a third current of air which prevails during our winter months1 more and more1 annually1 as the country becomes cleared of its forests in the direction alluded to2 it proceeds from the great lakes to the northwest of us1 and even beyond them4 ,proceeding as it does from the north and northwest of lake ,superior1 and crossing the great expanse of water in this direction1 it rushes down these great lakes to the south end of lake ,michigan in latitude about #da north1 diverges from that point1 and spreads over the immense regions lying to the south1 where the air is more rarefied by reason of its warmer climate4 ,this current of air brings along with it intense cold1 and extended last winter even to ,new-,orleans1 where the snow fell to such a depth1 that sleighs were seen passing in every part of the city4 ,the more the forests are cleared away between any place in this country and the northern lakes1 the more this cold current of air will prevail4 ,this current also diverges from the southern shore of ,lake ,erie1 but is not so strong as that part of it which diverges from the south end of ,michigan1 and of course does not extend as far to the south4 ,when this part of this state was first settled1 this current of air was hardly felt at this place1 and then only for a short time in the winter months1 and hardly ever reached the ,ohio river2 but last winter it continued three weeks at one time1 and produced good sleighing2 and also caused rheumatisms1 pleurisies1 peripneumonies1 c4 which proved mortal to some4 ,in this place1 which is in latitude about #ci #bj north1 the thermometer of ,fahrenheit1 hanging in an entry of a dwelling-house with closed doors1 sunk to #bd degrees below zero4 ,this extreme cold may be attributed to general1 rather than to local causes1 and it may be said that the winters all over the world have been colder of late years than formerly4 ,but on the very day1 when it was thus cold1 7if newspapers can be believed7 a great number of vessels put to sea from ,reedy ,island in the ,delaware below ,philadelphia1 and about thirty sail of vessels went to sea from ,new-,york harbour4 ,all our streams were at the same time bridged with ice of great firmness as well as thickness1 and continued to be so for a considerable time afterward1 until the warmer current of air from the south prevailed over the current from the lakes4 ,it will be proper1 and may be necessary1 here to state1 that the latitudes of several places in this country are very different from what you would be led to believe from examining any map or chart now or ever in existence4 ,for instance1 ,lake ,michigan extends farther south than ,fort ,wayne1 which place by actual survey is in this state2 ,st4 ,louis is not #ch1 and the most southern point or bend of the ,ohio river1 is not more than latitude #ch north4 ,i state merely what ,i am informed of by those who have ascertained these facts by actual observation and survey4 ,the place opposite the mouth of the ,big ,sandy1 is nearly as for south as ,lexington in ,kentucky4 ,the south end of ,michigan lake ought to be laid down on the map #da north4 ,prevailing currents of air 7not every breath of air which moves over the surface7 ,i have attempted to describe4 ,it may be well enough1 however1 to mention some other currents which sometimes prevail for a few days4 ,and here ,i will mention what our oldest settlers along the ,ohio have observed1 that is1 that whenever in a dry time1 there is a current of air proceeding down the river for three or four days in succession1 the current from the ,gulf of ,mexico is sure to drive it back with redoubled force1 and after blowing a day or two1 it is equally sure to bring rain with it4 ,it is easy to assign a cause for it2 for meeting the trade winds in the ,gulf1 it is driven back with redoubled violence to the sources of the larger streams which empty themselves into the ,gulf4 ,when a thunder storm1 proceeding in either a western or eastern direction1 as the case may be1 happens to strike a large water-course running either north or south1 and when also there happens to be a large branch emptying into the stream1 within a few miles either above or below the point where the storm approaches it1 ,i have uniformly observed the storm to cross the large stream at the point where the large branch unites with it1 and ascend the branch4 ,where there are two large tributaries about equi-distant from the point of approach1 the storm frequently divides and follows each of them4 ,the reason why it should be so1 this is not the place to discuss2 but the ,wisdom and ,goodness which so ordered it1 are too apparent to every rational mind to be overlooked4 ,it may be asked if the difference in latitude and elevation between the ,ohio and lake regions of country1 does not produce a great difference in the climates of those respective regions8 ,these causes certainly produce some difference1 but not all4 ,it is my object to establish facts1 rather than any favourite theory4 ,the difference of latitude between the ,ohio river at the mouth of the ,scioto1 and lake ,erie at the mouth of the ,maume or ,sandusky1 is nearly three degrees1 and the difference of elevation above the sea is trifling1 if any4 ,from the mouth of the ,scioto to ,columbus1 about #ij miles in a direct line1 the water1 where there is what is commonly called a ripple1 runs briskly1 and these ripples happen1 perhaps1 one to a mile2 but they are in a sandstone region1 and the fall of course is trifling4 ,let us suppose then1 that the river ,scioto descends one hundred feet from the mouth of the ,whetstone1 which empties into that river at ,columbus1 to the ,ohio1 and that the ,whetstone which runs through a limestone formation1 descends another hundred feet1 which would make ,upper ,sandusky two hundred feet higher than the ,ohio river4 ,from this highest ground between the ,ohio and the lake1 it is a well-known fact1 that the land descends towards the north much more in a given distance1 than it does towards the south1 and the distance is not half as far4 ,the ,maume and other streams putting into the lake1 are full of rapids4 ,admitting for argument's sake1 that the ,sandusky or ,maume descend only #ajj feet1 then the surface of the lake is #ajj feet higher than the ,ohio river4 ,would three degrees of latitude1 and #ajj feet greater elevation produce three weeks difference in the seasons8 ,is there that difference between ,baltimore in ,maryland1 and ,wilkesbarre in ,pennsylvania8 ,is there that difference between ,new-,york and ,fort ,edward on the ,hudson8 ,it is believed that there is not one half that difference4 ,i have referred but little to thermometers1 because they are kept in so many different situations by their owners1 that ,i have known no less than #h degrees of difference between several of them kept in one town1 within almost a stone's throw of each other1 at one and the same moment of time4 ,every allowance being made for other causes1 ,i am still of the opinion that the difference in the climates of the ,ohio and lake regions of country1 is to be attributed chiefly to the prevalence of different currents of air4 ,the southern current rarely1 if ever1 reaches the northern lakes1 and the northern1 until lately1 never reached the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,but as the country is cleared of its native forests1 we may reasonably conclude this cold current of air will prevail more and more1 until we shall have snow enough for sleighs1 at least two months in every winter2 the summers will be shorter1 the extremes of heat and cold will be greater than at present1 and those clouds which formerly obscured the sun almost continually during the summer months1 will be chased away1 and with them the pale cheek1 the sallow hue1 the oppression at the breast1 and the difficulty of respiration1 the headache1 and the thousand ills which many of the first emigrants have experienced in our climate4 ,we shall probably then have fewer diseases1 and more acute ones4 ,the storms will probably be fewer1 more severe1 and not continue as long as at present4 ,there are still further views which might be taken of this subject1 but they are left to abler pens and future observations4 ,thus ,i have endeavoured to give my opinion on a subject of some interest to the present1 as well as future generations2 in doing which1 ,i have not sought for flowers which might have been gathered by stepping out of my path1 but the fruit rather of my own observation and experience3 ,i have not wandered through the fields of imagination1 invoking the poetic muse1 but addressed myself chiefly ,to him who soars on golden wing1 ,guiding his fiery-wheeled throne1 ,the cherub contemplation4 ,,art4 ,,xiii4 ,on a singular ,disruption of the ,ground1 apparently by ,frost1 in ,letters from ,,edward ,,hitchcock1 ,a4,m4 ,principal of ,deerfield ,academy4 7,with a ,plate47 ,to the ,editor of the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c4 ,,sir1 ,i have lately examined a singular disruption in the earth1 discovered a few days since in the northerly part of an extensive meadow in this town1 about ten rods from ,deerfield river4 ,the soil on the spot is alluvial1 consisting of a dry1 rich1 vegetable mould1 with a large intermixture of sand2 and the field1 elevated #ad feet above the bed of the river1 is annually mowed4 ,a valley encircles the ruptured spot on the east1 south1 and west1 only five feet lower1 yet so marshy and soft1 as to render draining necessary to make it passable2 and immediately back of this valley1 on the south1 rises a hill #ajj feet high1 at whose foot are several springs4 ,north of the rupture1 also1 between it and the river1 is a gradual descent of three feet3 indeed1 the ground slopes from it on every side except the northwest4 ,a fissure one inch wide and fourteen deep1 forming an almost perfect ellipsis1 whose diameters are #i and #e rods1 marks the exterior limit of the convulsion4 ,within this curve are several others nearly concentric to it1 some forming a quarter1 and some half an ellipsis1 and near the longer axis are others1 running in various directions4 ,on this transverse diameter1 which lies near the highest part of the swell above described1 and in its longest direction1 or parallel to the river1 the greatest effect of the convulsion appears4 ,the earth1 to the depth it has frozen the past winter1 #ad inches1 is broken on a straight line above #f rods1 and the south edge of the fissure1 having been forced up1 overlaps the other1 three feet4 ,where one edge does not thus overreach1 the tables of earth1 which at a small distance resemble masses of ice1 are raised up so that their faces form an isosceles triangle1 leaving a cavity beneath4 ,about the extremities of the transverse axis1 is also an overlapping of two feet1 which continues nearly two rods on the curve each way from the axis1 and in most places is double1 overreaching internally and externally1 exhibiting likewise1 some irregularity where the compressing forces acted at right angles to each other4 ,the edges of these elevated masses of earth1 which are yet frozen1 are quite smooth1 and the angles but little fractured4 ,i have dug into the earth about four feet underneath the longer axis of the ellipsis1 and thrust down a bar in other places1 but cannot perceive that the soil has been moved below where it was frozen4 ,it is1 however1 not the most favourable season for ascertaining this fact4 ,every appearance on the spot will justify this conclusion1 that the frozen surface of the earth around1 has pressed with great force from every direction to this ellipsis as a centre2 for1 were every fissure in the ellipsis to be filled by replacing the earth1 there must remain on its longer axis and at the extremities of this1 an overplus of surface two feet wide4 ,the month of ,february last has been unusually cold4 ,its mean temperature in ,deerfield1 by ,fahrenheit's scales1 is as follows4 #g;h4 ,a4 ,m4 #a;h4 ,p4 ,m4 #aj;h4 ,p4 ,m4 #f #bd #aa ,the extremes were #be below1 and #di above zero4 ,on the last day but one of the month1 the cold suddenly relaxed2 and on the #ast and #b;d of ,march1 a heavy and warm rain succeeded4 ,this produced an uncommon rise in ,deerfield river1 and on the #c;d of ,march1 it had overflowed the ground where the above described phenomenon occurred1 and did not recede from it for #bd hours4 ,its greatest depth there1 was five feet4 ,the snow was nearly one foot deep when the flood happened1 and being a nonconductor of heat1 the temperature of the surface of the ground was not probably much changed from its state in ,february1 until the water came in contact with it4 ,it may not be amiss to give the state of the thermometer on the last of ,february and beginning of ,march4 #g;h4 ,a4 ,m4 #a;h4 ,p4 ,m4 #aj;h4 ,p4 ,m4 ,wind1 weather1 c4 ,feb4 #bgth1 #ae below #j4 #bh above #j4 #cb above #j4 ,south1 clear4 #bhth1 #ca above #de ----- #ca ----- do4 do4 ,march #ast1 #bi ----- #df ----- #cg ----- ,n4 ,e4 rain4 #b;d1 #df ----- #di ----- #cg ----- do4 do4 #c;d1 #cj ----- #ce ----- #bi ----- do4 rain clear4 ,on the third of ,march1 about sunset1 some lads were sailing near the spot where the disruption appears1 and saw the water in considerable agitation1 with much bubbling1 and at short intervals it was thrown up in several places to the height of #c or #d feet4 ,they saw no rupture in the earth1 although they came within two or three rods of the spot1 and state the water to have been two feet deep4 ,about one o'clock on the morning of ,march #dth1 ,mr4 ,seth ,sheldon and family1 living one mile south from this spot1 and being awake1 were alarmed by a loud report from the north1 by which their house and furniture were much shaken4 ,they compared the sound1 though louder by far than they had ever heard from this cause1 to that of a cracking in the earth by frost in severe weather4 ,some others living rather nearer the spot1 were awakened by the same report4 ,that the rupture in the earth was made at that time is probable1 though not certain4 ,it may be proper to state1 that during the flood1 no ice1 except a few loose masses1 was carried over1 or near the spot where the disruption appears4 ,this1 therefore1 could not have produced it4 ,illustration3 ,disruption of the ,ground by ,frost4 ,n4 ,s4 ,s4 ,jocelyn ,sc4 ,n4,h4 ,fig4 #a4 is a transverse section1 taken with a theodolite1 from ,deerfield river #bh rods south1 crossing the longer axis of the disruption at right angles4 ,the scale is #d rods to an inch1 although in laying off the heights and levels1 the exact proportion was a little varied1 to render the irregularities of surface more distinct4 ,the letters of reference correspond to those on fig4 #b1 and need no explanation4 ,fig4 #b4 is a bird's-eye view of the disruption and the adjoining region1 very obligingly sketched by ,mr4 ,derick ,barnard of ,troy1 ,new-,york4 ,the surrounding country is somewhat contracted to bring more of it into view4 ,these are all the facts ,i am able at present to collect concerning this phenomenon4 ,i have been particular as to the temperature of the air1 and the situation of the adjacent country1 from an idea that frost was a principal agent in producing it2 and that1 therefore1 these circumstances would be important in fixing a theory4 ,i will not1 however1 hazard any hypothesis on the subject2 but if you deem the fact of sufficient importance1 your opinion1 ,sir1 is respectfully solicited4 ,your humble ,servant1 ,,edward ,,hitchcock4 ,deerfield1 ,mass4 ,march #bfth1 #ahah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,deerfield1 ,june #c;d1 #ahah4 ,,sir1 ,since ,i sent you a description of a singular disruption in the earth in this town1 another has been observed in the same meadows1 about one mile from the former4 ,this is less than the one of which ,i sent you an account1 but its situation is almost exactly similar2 it being on a small elevation1 on the sides of which1 at a few rods distant1 is low wet ground4 ,indeed1 the general description which ,i sent you will answer for this smaller disruption4 ,the diameters of this last1 are only #g and #h paces1 and the curve is not perfect4 ,there appears to have been an expansion of the earth's surface around both these spots1 or disruptions1 by which it was forced to give way at the point where there was the least resistance1 which1 of course1 would be on the highest ground4 ,the more ,i observe of this phenomenon1 the more ,i am inclined to impute it to the agency of frost4 ,it may be proper to observe1 that in neither of these disruptions has the general mass of the hills sunk in the least4 ,had this been the case1 it might perhaps have accounted for them4 ,it is also certain1 that the soil below where it was frozen the past winter1 has not been moved4 ,i mentioned this fact in my first communication1 though with some suggested doubt4 ,,remarks4 ,an opinion having been requested by ,mr4 ,hitchcock on the above facts1 it may be observed1 that there appears in the statement sufficient evidence that the phenomenon 7as the author has suggested7 is attributable to frost4 ,it is a fact1 established equally by common experience and by numerous experiments1 that water1 in freezing1 expands4 ,it is generally estimated that #h cubic inches of water1 become #i by the act of congealing4 ,the expansion is attributed1 with sufficient evidence1 to a crystalline arrangement arising from a kind of polarity in the particles of water exerted when they are near congealing1 by which they attract one another in certain points1 and not in others4 ,dr4 ,black1 with his usual felicity1 has illustrated this tendency1 by supposing a great number of small magnetized needles1 thrust through corks1 so that they will float parallel to the surface of water1 to be thrown promiscuously into a vessel of that fluid4 ,they will not remain in the situation in which they are thrown in1 but1 in consequence of their polarity1 attractions and repulsions will be immediately exerted2 they will rush together1 with a force equal to the overcoming of a certain resistance2 they will arrange themselves in pairs and groups1 and finally1 in a connected assemblage4 ,the particles of water attract each other with a prodigious force1 when resistance is opposed2 for it is well known that domestic utensils1 trees1 rocks1 and even cannon1 and bomb-shells1 are burst with explosion1 when water confined within them is frozen4 ,there is force enough then exerted by the expansion of freezing water1 to produce all the mechanical violence1 whose effects were so striking in the instance at ,deerfield4 ,in the common cracking of the ground by frost1 so extensively observed in cold climates1 the effect appears to result in the following manner4 ,the water contained in the ground1 7that is1 in that part which is within the reach of a freezing temperature7 by congealing1 expands and demands more space2 a movement must necessarily take place in the direction where there is the least resistance2 this will evidently be upward1 because the atmosphere1 the only counteracting power in this direction1 cannot resist the expansion of the freezing water as much as it is resisted by the earth below the freezing stratum4 ,consequently1 the freezing earth is forced upward1 but being of unequal strength in different places1 it cracks at the weakest spot2 and the earth1 for some distance on the sides of the fissure1 is thrown into the position of two planes gently inclined1 their relative position resembling that of a very flat roof1 and the more they are lifted by frost1 the more they will decline from one another1 and the wider will be the fissure4 ,but why1 in the instance which ,mr4 ,hitchcock has related1 did they overlap8 ,the explanation appears to result from the circumstances of the case1 as far as they can be understood without ocular inspection of the ground4 ,the elevated spot which cracked in so remarkable a manner1 being nearly surrounded by a belt of low wet ground1 the congelation of the water in this ground by the intense cold1 would of course produce a very great expansive effort towards the elevated ground4 ,this1 not only on account of its elevation1 but from its containing less water1 would not be able to exert an equal counteracting effort4 ,the surface of the ground1 therefore1 7without at all disturbing the unfrozen earth below17 was1 by the expansive effort of the freezing water1 pushed along towards the elevated spot4 ,this spot being possessed of a certain power of resistance derived from its gravity1 and from the freezing of the water in it1 would not immediately give way2 but the whole surface1 it is probable1 gradually rose for some time1 while the expansion was going on and increasing4 ,a cavity would thus be produced between that superficial layer of frozen ground which was rising1 and the unfrozen ground below4 ,this cavity would of course be filled with air derived from the atmosphere1 and from the porousness of the ground below4 ,when the place came to be overflowed1 water would immediately rush in through any fissure1 and this hydraulic and hydrostatic effort would force the air out at any orifice1 and thus blow the water up with it4 ,this was probably the cause of the agitation of the water1 and of the bubbling of air1 and of the throwing up of the water at intervals1 observed by the boys on the #c;d of ,march4 ,the effect of the water covering the ground1 would be to weaken its cohesion derived from frost1 and as there were probably hundreds of tons of pressure1 the vaulted ground1 when sufficiently weakened1 gave way with a loud explosion and a violent concussion1 as heard by ,mr4 ,sheldon's family1 a few hours after the facts observed by the boys4 ,the parts of the arch now fallen in1 7so to speak7 necessarily either overlapped1 or rose in ridges1 piece being pressed against piece1 as described and figured by ,mr4 ,hitchcock4 ,we are indebted to this gentleman for his delineation of this singular case4 ,the freezing of water1 and its attendant expansion1 are productive of multiplied and very diversified phenomena upon our globe1 whether we contemplate them in the delicate spicul of hoarfrost1 the six-rayed stars of snow1 or in the stupendous glaciers of the ,alps1 and the awful icebergs of ,greenland4 ,cambridge1 ,january #be1 #ahai4 ,,professor ,,silliman4 ,dear ,sir1 ,if the following observations are worthy of a place in your valuable ,journal1 please to insert them1 and oblige yours1 with real esteem1 ,j4 ,f4 ,,dana4 ,,art4 ,,xiv4 ,on a ,new ,form of the ,electrical ,battery1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,,dana1 ,m4 ,d4 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college4 ,the ,electrical ,battery in its common form is an unmanageable and inconvenient apparatus4 ,when the coated surface is comparatively small1 the instrument occupies a large space1 and it cannot be readily removed from place to place without much trouble and risk2 the apparatus is1 moreover1 very expensive1 and when one of the jars is broken1 another of the same dimensions cannot readily be found to supply its place4 ,it occurred to me1 that a ,battery might be constructed of plates of glass and sheets of tinfoil1 in which the same extent of coated surface should occupy a much smaller space1 and consequently that the apparatus would be more convenient and more portable4 ,i selected several panes of glass1 the surfaces of which coincided closely with each other1 and then arranged them with sheets of tinfoil in this order1 viz4 pane of glass1 sheet of tinfoil1 then another pane of glass1 then a second sheet of tinfoil1 and so on2 the sheets of foil being smaller than the plates of glass by two inches all around2 the glass being #aj by #ab1 and the foil #f by #h4 ,this apparatus contained six plates of tinfoil1 and the lowest plate being numbered one1 was connected with the ground1 and by slips of tinfoil passing over the edges1 with the third plate1 and this1 in like manner with the fifth4 ,the second plate was connected with the fourth1 and this with the sixth1 which communicated with the conductor of the machine2 in this manner each plate positively electrified will be opposed by one negatively electrified1 and vice versa2 the #fth1 #dth1 and #b;d plates positive1 and the #eth1 #c;d1 and #ast1 negative4 ,into this apparatus ,i could introduce a powerful charge1 but not possessing a battery of the common form1 could not make comparative experiments4 ,the annexed figures will explain the construction of this apparatus4 7,see ,plate47 ,illustration3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,dana's ,electrical ,battery4 ,fig4 #a4 a #a1 a #b1 c4 the tinfoil4 b b b1 plates of glass4 c1 the intermediate slips connecting the plates #f1 #d1 and #b4 d1 the slips connecting #e1 #c1 #a1 and the ground4 ,fig4 #b4 a1 the intermediate slips passing over the edges of the glass and connecting plates1 #a1 #c1 and #e4 b1 the slip which connects the upper sheet of foil with the #dth1 c4 ,in a battery of the ordinary form1 it is evident that a much less surface is coated than in one of the above construction2 in a battery of the common form1 two feet long1 one foot wide1 and ten inches high1 and containing #ah coated jars1 there will be no more than #cejj square inches of coated surface1 while in a battery of the same dimensions on the proposed construction1 there will be no less than #hjjj square inches covered with tinfoil1 allowing the sheet of glass and of foil to be inch thick4 ,when plate glass is employed for making this battery1 the ring of glass exterior to the tinfoil may be covered with varnish1 and then the next plate laid over it2 the tinfoil will then be shut out for ever from the access of moisture1 and the insulation will remain perfect4 ,this form of the ,electrical ,battery is very portable1 may be packed in a case with the machine1 and indeed a powerful battery occupies no greater space than a quarto volume4 ,it is cheap and easily constructed4 ,,art4 ,,xv4 ,chemical ,examination of the ,berries of the ,myrica ,cerifera1 or ,wax ,myrtle1 by ,j4 ,f4 ,,dana1 ,m4 ,d4 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college4 7,communicated for this ,journal47 ,the myrtle wax of commerce has been examined by ,dr4 ,bostock and by ,m4 ,cadet2 the entire berry not having been made the subject of analysis1 ,i have been induced to examine it1 with a view to ascertain the proportion of wax4 ,i4 ,fifty grains of the most perfect berries were digested in repeated portions of warm alcohol1 until the fluid appeared to exert no further action4 ,the first portions of alcohol were tinged of a green colour1 but the last portions remained colourless4 ,,ii4 ,the alcoholic solutions were poured into a small retort of known weight2 the alcohol was carefully distilled off1 and the residuum dried2 deducting the weight of the retort1 there remained #ah4e grs4 for the weight of the matter dissolved by the alcohol4 ,,iii4 ,the substances which had been dissolved by the alcohol consisted of two portions1 viz4 the wax1 which was of an apple-green colour1 and a reddish brown substance2 this substance was supposed to be resinous1 and the contents of the retort were therefore digested in acetic acid2 the acid soon became of a reddish brown colour1 and dissolved nearly the whole of the matter in the retort1 leaving the wax4 ,the acid solution1 together with a small portion of insoluble reddish matter1 were carefully separated from the wax4 ,the wax being dried and melted1 weighed #af grains4 ,,iv4 ,the acetic acid solution was evaporated to dryness1 and a dark brown matter was obtained2 it was almost totally soluble in warm alcohol1 from which it was precipitated by water2 it was supposed therefore to consist chiefly of resin1 with a small portion of extractive matter1 and may be called resino-extractive2 it weighed #b4e grains4 ,v4 ,the matter insoluble in alcohol consisted of two parts1 viz4 the kernels and a fine-grained black powder1 having very much the appearance of fine gunpowder2 the powder was carefully separated from the kernels by a wire sieve1 and weighed #g4e grains4 ,the kernels were found to weigh #bc4ge grains4 ,from this analysis it appears that the entire berries consist of ,wax #cb4jj ,resino-extractive #e4jj ,black powder #ae4jj ,kernels #dg4jj ------ #ii4ej ,loss 4#ej ------ #ajj4jj ,the chemical properties of the wax and of the black powder may be made the subject of another communication4 ,earthy phosphate of iron has recently been found at ,hopkinton1 ,mass4 ,it exists there in large quantities1 and is employed as a pigment4 ,the gentleman on whose grounds it was found sent me several pounds of it4 ,j4 ,f4 ,d4 ,,art4 ,,xvi4 ,analysis of ,wacke1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,webster1 of ,boston4 ,one hundred parts exposed to a red heat in a platina crucible lost #ah4e1 acquired an umber brown colour1 and a degree of hardness sufficient to scratch glass4 ,one hundred parts reduced to fine powder were mixed with four times the weight of soda1 and exposed to heat1 gradually increased for three quarters of an hour2 at the expiration of which time1 the whole had acquired a pasty consistence4 ,the crucible was now removed from the fire1 its outer surface carefully wiped4 ,muriatic acid was poured on till all effervescence ceased4 ,the solution obtained was evaporated to dryness1 gradually assuming an orange red colour4 ,water was now poured upon the mass1 after which it was filtered1 and the powder remaining carefully dried2 after ignition1 and while warm1 it weighed #bh parts4 ,this powder was insoluble in muriatic acid1 and of a white colour4 ,to the filtered solution1 reduced by evaporation1 carbonate of potash was added1 the precipitate was collected on a filter1 washed and dried2 it weighed #bc parts4 ,this powder was redissolved in sulphuric acid1 sulphate of potash added1 and crystals of alum finally obtained2 hence this powder was alumine4 ,to the liquor from which the silex and alumine had thus been separated1 acetic acid was added2 the whole evaporated to dryness2 the excess of acid being removed1 a small quantity of water was poured on1 and after strong ignition1 the precipitate weighed #d4e4 ,into a very small tubulated retort ,i introduced a portion from the same mass1 whence the piece submitted to analysis was broken1 and obtained over mercury the carbonic acid in the usual manner4 ,this was equal to #b4cb2 by deducting this from #ah4e the loss during exposure to red heat1 we shall have #af4ah1 the proportion of water4 ,the oxide of iron was separated from the solutions after the addition of acetic acid1 by ammonia1 and weighed #bf parts4 ,silex #bh4 ,alumine #bc4 ,lime #d4e ,carbonic acid #b4cb ,water #af4ah ,oxide of iron #bf4 ------ #ajj ,,agriculture ,,and ,,economics4 ,,art4 ,,xvii4 ,on the ,comparative ,quantity of ,nutritious ,matter which may be obtained from an ,acre of ,land when cultivated with ,potatoes or ,wheat1 by ,dr4 ,,eli ,,ives1 ,professor of ,materia ,medica and ,botany in ,yale ,college4 ,in a good season an acre of suitable land well cultivated will produce #djj bushels of potatoes4 ,in ,woodbridge1 a town adjoining ,new-,haven1 a crop of #fjj bushels of potatoes has been obtained from a single acre4 ,a bushel of potatoes weighs #ef pounds4 ,multiply #djj1 the number of bushels1 by #ef1 the weight of a single bushel1 gives #bbdjj1 the number of pounds of potatoes produced upon one acre4 ,thirty bushels of wheat are considered a good crop as the product of one acre of land4 ,about of wheat may be considered as nutritious matter4 ,according to the experiments of ,dr4 ,pearson and ,einhoff1 about one-third of the potato is nutritious matter4 ,from the analysis of ,einhoff1 #gfhj parts of potatoes afforded #aaec parts of starch--fibrous matter analogous to starch #edj parts--albumen #ajg parts--mucilage #cab parts4 ,the sum of these products amounts to about one-third of the potatoes subject to the experiment4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy observes1 that one-fourth of the weight of potatoes at least may be considered nutritious matter4 ,one-fourth of #bbdjj1 the product of an acre of ground1 cultivated with potatoes1 is #efjj4 ,the whole weight of a crop of wheat calculated at #cj bushels to the acre1 and at #fj pounds to the bushel1 gives #ahjj4 ,deducting one-sixth from the wheat as matter not nutritious1 and the weight is reduced to #aejj4 ,the nutritious matter of the crop of potatoes to that of wheat is as #efjj to #aejj1 or as #ef to #ae4 ,the starch might be obtained by a very simple machine1 recommended by ,parmentier2 and in seasons when potatoes are abundant1 the potatoes might be converted to starch1 and the starch preserved for any length of time1 and used as a substitute for wheaten flour4 ,the machine alluded to is a cylinder of wood about three feet long and six inches in diameter1 covered with sheet tin1 punched outward so as to form a coarse grater1 and turned by a crank4 ,this cylinder is placed in a box of boards whose sides slope a little inward upon the principle of a hopper1 and a tub of water is placed beneath3 ,the potatoes are thrown into this box1 and as the crank is turned they are crushed1 and the starch or fecula subsides to the bottom of the water4 ,it is well known1 that potatoes are largely used in ,england mixed with flour to form a very good bread2 the starch of the potato would of course answer much better4 ,,miscellaneous ,,art4 ,,xviii4 ,biographical ,notice of the late ,,archibald ,,bruce1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,materia ,medica1 and ,mineralogy in the ,medical ,institution of the ,state of ,new-,york1 and ,queen's ,college1 ,new-,jersey2 and ,member of various ,learned ,societies in ,america and ,europe4 ,with a ,portrait4 7,communicated47 ,doctor ,archibald ,bruce1 7the subject of this ,memoir7 was a native of the city of ,new-,york1 in ,north ,america4 ,he was born in the month of ,february1 in the year seventeen hundred and seventy-seven4 ,his father was1 at that time1 at the head of the medical department of the ,british army1 7then stationed at ,new-,york7 to which he had been attached from his youth1 having been many years previously resident at ,new-,york1 as surgeon to the artillery department2 where he was married1 in or about the year seventeen hundred and sixty-seven1 to ,judith1 a daughter of ,nicholas ,bayard1 formerly of the same city1 at that time the widow of ,jeremiah ,van ,rensselaer of ,greenbush2 by whom he had another son1 7who died an officer in the ,british army in ,ireland7 and a daughter1 who died while a child4 ,william ,bruce1 7the father above-mentioned17 and his brother ,archibald1 together with a sister1 were natives of the town of ,dumfries in ,scotland1 where their father was many years resident as the parochial clergyman2 and so continued until his decease1 much respected4 ,both sons applied themselves to the science of medicine and surgery4 ,william1 as above stated1 became a physician in the ,british army1 and died1 in that station1 of the yellow fever1 in the island of ,barbadoes4 ,and ,archibald received a commission of surgeon in the ,british navy1 in which he continued until disqualified by old age1 when he retired from business1 and died a few years since in ,london4 ,for many years he acted as surgeon to the several ships commanded by ,sir ,peter ,parker1 captain1 and afterward admiral4 ,doctor ,william ,bruce1 before his final separation from his family1 on the occasion of his being ordered to the ,west-,india station1 had always declared that his son ,archibald should never be educated for the medical profession2 and finally enjoined such instruction upon his wife and friends1 to whom the charge of the boy was committed4 ,after his decease1 the same injunction was repeated by the uncle1 then in ,europe1 who was ever averse to his nephew's making choice of this profession3 much pains were therefore early exerted to divert him from such inclination4 ,the momentous state of political affairs1 induced his mother to send him to ,halifax1 under the care of ,william ,almon1 ,m4 ,d4 a particular friend of her husband1 with whom1 however1 remaining but a short time1 he returned to ,new-,york2 and was placed at a boarding-school at ,flatbush1 ,long ,island1 under the direction of ,peter ,wilson1 ,,ll4,d4 who was in high standing as a teacher of the languages4 ,illustration3 ,,archibald ,,bruce ,m4 ,d4 ,in #agia1 he was admitted a student of the arts in ,columbia college4 ,nicholas ,romayne1 ,m4,d4 was at this time among the physicians of highest consideration in ,new-,york1 and was engaged in delivering lectures on different subjects of medical science in ,columbia ,college4 ,having pursued the early part of his medical studies with ,dr4 ,william ,bruce1 he felt a generous gratitude for the instruction and attention which he had received from him1 and endeavoured to requite them by advising with his son1 and promoting his views1 as far as lay in his power4 ,here commenced a friendship which increased with advancing years1 and terminated but with life4 ,at this period1 young ,bruce began to evince a desire to oppose the inclination of his father and friends by studying medicine2 this study1 without their knowledge1 and while a student of the arts in the senior class1 he commenced by attending ,dr4 ,romayne's lectures4 ,such was the strong bent of his mind towards the study of medicine1 and its collateral physical pursuits1 that the persuasion and remonstrances of his friends proved alike ineffectual1 and he soon gave free scope to the prevailing inclination4 ,the collection and examination of minerals1 a pursuit not then at all attended to in this country1 was his particular relief from other studies2 for even during his recreation1 he was ever on the look-out for something new or instructing in mineralogy4 ,dr4 ,romayne being about visiting ,europe1 young ,bruce pursued his studies with ,samuel ,bard1 ,m4,d42 and having attended the usual courses in ,columbia ,college1 he left the ,united ,states for ,europe in #agih1 and in #ahjj he obtained the degree of doctor in medicine from the ,university of ,edinburgh1 after defending a ,thesis1 ,de ,variola ,vaccina4 ,having now finished his medical studies1 he was prepared to visit the continent of ,europe with peculiar advantage2 for his continued attachment to mineralogy1 a liberal distribution of ,american specimens then comparatively new in ,europe1 and his social habits and dispositions1 which were very conciliating1 secured him the best introductions from ,edinburgh1 and laid the foundation of permanent friendships4 ,during a tour of two years1 he visited ,france1 ,switzerland1 and ,italy2 and collected a mineralogical cabinet of great value and extent4 ,after his return to ,england1 he married in ,london1 and came out to ,new-,york in the autumn of #ahjc1 to enter on the active duties of a practitioner of medicine4 ,previous to the year #ahje1 the practice of physic in the state of ,new-,york was regulated by no public authority1 and of course was not in the happiest condition to promote the respectability and usefulness of the profession4 ,to remove1 as far as possible1 the existing inconveniences1 ,dr4 ,bruce became an active agent1 and in conjunction with ,dr4 ,romayne and other medical gentlemen of ,new-,york1 succeeded in establishing the state and county medical societies1 under the sanction of the state legislature4 ,this act may be considered among the first efforts made in this country to reduce medicine to a regular science1 by investing the privileges of medical men in the body of the members of the profession4 ,in the organization of the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons of the state of ,new-,york1 ,dr4 ,bruce and ,dr4 ,romayne were eminently active1 and by their united exertion and perseverance1 7opposed by much professional talent7 they obtained a charter from the regents4 ,in this new institution1 as professor of the materia medica1 and of his favourite pursuit1 mineralogy1 he exhibited the fruits of arduous study1 with a dignity of character1 and urbanity of manner1 which commanded the respect of the profession1 and the regard of the students4 ,the ruling passion in ,dr4 ,bruce's mind1 was a love of natural science1 and especially of mineralogy4 ,towards the study of this science1 he produced in his own country a strong impulse1 and he gave it no small degree of eclat4 ,his cabinet1 composed of very select and well characterized specimens2 purchased by himself1 or collected in his own pedestrian and other tours in ,europe1 or1 in many instances1 presented to him by distinguished mineralogists abroad2 and both in its extent1 and in relation to the then state of this country1 very valuable1 soon became an object of much attention4 ,that of the late ,b4 ,d4 ,perkins1 which1 at about the same time1 had been formed by ,mr4 ,perkins in ,europe1 and imported by him into this country1 was also placed in ,new-,york1 and both cabinets 7for both were freely shown to the curious1 by their liberal and courteous proprietors7 contributed more than any causes had ever done before1 to excite in the public mind an active interest in the science of mineralogy4#dc ,dr4 ,bruce1 while abroad1 had been personally and intimately conversant with the ,hon4 ,mr4 ,greville1 of ,paddington ,green1 near ,london1 a descendant of the noble house of ,warwick1 the possessor of one of the finest private cabinets in ,europe1 and a zealous cultivator of mineralogy4 ,count ,bournon1 one of those loyal ,french exiles1 who found a home in ,england1 during the storm of the ,french revolution1 was almost domesticated at ,mr4 ,greville's1 and was hardly second to any man in mineralogical1 and particularly in crystallographical knowledge4 ,his connexions with men of science on the continent1 were of the first order1 and to be familiar at ,mr4 ,greville's1 and with ,count ,bournon1 was to have access to every thing connected with science in ,england and ,france4 ,dr4 ,bruce was also at home at ,sir ,joseph ,banks's1 the common resort of learned and illustrious men4 ,thus he enjoyed every advantage in ,england1 and when he went to the continent1 the abundant means of introduction which he possessed1 brought him into contact with the distinguished men of ,paris1 and of other cities which he visited4 ,the learned and estimable ,abb ,hay was among his personal friends and correspondents2 and many others might be mentioned in the same character1 whose names are among the first in the ranks of science1 in various countries of ,europe4 ,returned to his own country1 after being so long familiar with the fine collections in natural history1 and especially in mineralogy1 in various countries in ,europe1 ,dr4 ,bruce manifested a strong desire to aid in bringing to light the neglected mineral treasures of the ,united ,states4 ,he soon became a focus of information on these subjects4 ,specimens were sent to him from many and distant parts of the country1 both as donations and for his opinion respecting their nature4 ,in relation to mineralogy he conversed1 he corresponded extensively1 both with ,europe and ,america2 he performed mineralogical tours2 he kindly sought out and encouraged the young mineralogists of his own country1 and often expressed a wish to see a journal of ,american mineralogy upon the plan of that of the ,school of ,mines at ,paris4 ,this object1 it is well known1 he accomplished1 and in #ahaj1 published the first number of this work4 ,owing to extraneous causes1 it was never carried beyond one volume2 but it demonstrated the possibility of sustaining such a work in the ,united ,states1 and will always be mentioned in the history of ,american science1 as the earliest original purely scientific journal of ,america4 ,dr4 ,bruce had1 in a high degree1 the feelings of a man of science4 ,he was ever forward to promote its interests1 and both at home and abroad1 was considered as one of its most distinguished ,american friends4 ,many strangers of distinction came introduced to him1 and his urbanity and hospitality rarely left him without guests at his board4 ,during the latter part of his life1 he seems to have been less interested in science4 ,his journal had been so long suspended1 that it was considered as virtually relinquished2 his health was undermined by repeated attacks of illness1 and science and society had to lament his sudden departure1 when he had scarcely attained the meridian of life4 ,he died in his native place on the #bb;d of ,february1 #ahah1 of an apoplexy1 in the #dast year of his age4 ,,intelligence4 ,,art4 ,,xix4 #a4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,webster',s ,lectures4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,webster1 some months since1 commenced a course of ,lectures in the town of ,boston1 on ,geology and ,mineralogy4 ,having finished his first course1 he is now occupied with a second on the same subjects1 and we understand receives the patronage of some of the most respectable citizens of ,boston and its vicinity4 ,he makes ,geology the groundwork of his plan1 and fills up by describing the metals and minerals met with in each class of rocks1 after the rock has been noticed4 ,a pretty full account is given of the coal formations1 7several of which ,dr4 ,w4 has visited7 and of the modes of searching and boring4 ,a view is given of the formations of ,paris and the ,isle of ,wight1 with specimens from those districts4 ,in the volcanic part1 a description 7from personal observation7 is given of ,st4 ,michael's4 ,the structure of veins2 the forming and destroying effects of water2 the physiognomy of the dry land and submarine2 the origin of islands and coral reefs1 and a view of the principal mountain ranges throughout the world conclude the course4 #b4 ,dr4 ,webster's ,cabinet4 ,dr4 ,webster1 having spent two or three years in ,europe1 in professional studies1 during which time he devoted much attention to mineralogy and geology1 with the ample aids afforded by the cabinets and distinguished teachers in ,scotland1 ,france1 and ,england1 has recently returned to his own country1 and has brought with him a very select and considerably extensive cabinet of minerals1 with which1 and with ,american specimens1 he illustrates his lectures4 ,we understand that the collection contains some thousand specimens1 and is good in the ,english and ,scotch minerals2 also in the ,siberian coppers2 it contains a suite of three hundred geological specimens from ,freyberg1 from granite to gravel4 ,the geological part is extensive1 and was increased by numerous pedestrian tours in ,england and ,scotland2 most of the geological specimens have been examined1 in company with ,professor ,jameson4 ,the volcanic part is good1 from the extensive opportunities which ,dr4 ,webster enjoyed in the ,azores1 in which1 on his return to this country1 he spent some time1 and found much to interest him4 ,his observations will soon be given to the public1 in a work entitled ,remarks on the ,azores or ,western ,islands4 ,it is well known that they are volcanic1 and of course afford the usual volcanic substances4 ,the most interesting part is that occupied by the boiling fountains1 in many respects similar to the ,geysers of ,iceland1 excepting that the water is not ejected to any considerable height2 but the incrustations1 the sinter1 and sulphur1 are every way equal to any specimens which ,dr4 ,webster saw in ,sir ,g4 ,mackenzie's collection4 ,we are much gratified in noticing both what ,dr4 ,webster has done and is still doing4 ,we are persuaded that he will do much towards promoting the cultivation of ,american mineralogy and geology1 and especially in the enlightened community in which he resides4 ,we cordially wish him success1 and trust that it will be ensured by the patronage of the citizens of ,boston4 #c4 ,supposed identity of ,copal and ,amber4 ,a correspondent1 whose paper is withheld from publication till some additional experiments can be made1 conceives that copal and amber are originally the same substance1 and the product of the same tree4 #d4 ,,the ,,necronite4--7,a supposed new mineral47 ,extract of a letter from ,dr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,hayden of ,baltimore1 to the ,editor1 dated ,january #e1 #ahai4 ,it 7the necronite7 occurs in a primitive marble1 or limestone1 which is obtained #ba miles from ,baltimore1 and a small distance from the ,york and ,lancaster road4 ,it was first noticed by myself at ,washington's monument1 in which this marble is principally employed4 ,it occurs1 for the most part1 in isolated masses in the blocks1 or slabs1 both in an amorphous and crystallized state4 ,it is most commonly associated with a beautiful brown mica1 of the colour of titanium2 small but regular crystals of sulphuret of iron1 tremolite1 and small prismatic crystals of titanium1 which are rare4 ,the form of the crystals is a rhomboid1 approximating very much to that of the felspar1 and which has inclined some to consider it as such4 ,also1 the hexaedral prism1 resembling that of the beryl4 ,this form is rare1 and has not1 as yet1 ,i believe1 been found complete4 ,its colour is a bluish white1 and clear white4 ,its structure much resembles felspar1 being lamellar2 sometimes opaque1 semi-transparent and transparent1 at least in moderately thin pieces4 ,it scratches glass1 carbonat of lime1 and even felspar1 in a slight degree4 ,in all our efforts1 it has been found infusible1 per se1 or with borate of soda1 and even from all the force of heat that could be excited in a smith's furnace1 it came out unchanged in any degree4 ,the acids seem to have no sensible effect upon it1 either cold or hot4 ,this is all that ,i can say of it at present1 except that it possesses a most horrid smell4#dd ,i have since found in a marble of the same kind1 but from a different quarry1 and a few miles distant from the first1 a quartz almost as fetid as the necronite1 and likewise associated with small prisms of titanium4 ,these substances carry with them a degree of interest in another point of view4 ,they seem to invalidate the opinion that the fetid smell of secondary limestone1 slate1 c4 is derived from the decomposition of animal matter4 ,as their gangue is decidedly a rock of primitive formation4 ,another new mineral observed by ,dr4 ,hayden4 ,exclusive of the interest which the necronite has excited with me and several others1 ,i have besides stumbled upon another substance1 if possible still more interesting4 ,i discovered it in an imperfect state1 about #d years since1 but not until recently have ,i been able to find it perfect1 in beautiful garnet coloured cubic crystals of an inch square or nearly4 ,these crystals are very liable or subject to decomposition1 in which state they present a perfect but spongy cube4 ,although they resemble the cubic zeolite1 yet they have nothing of its character with them besides4 ,remark4 ,dr4 ,hayden without doubt alludes to the chabasie of the ,abb ,hay1 formerly but inaccurately called the cubic zeolite2 for it is really a rhomboid very nearly approaching a cube--its angles being #ic #dh1 and #hf #ab4 #e4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,dead ,,bodies4 ,from ,thenard's ,chemistry1 vol4 iii4 ,paris ed4 p4 #gac4 ,the author declines describing the methods of embalming commonly employed1 and proceeds to describe the mode which was for the first time employed by ,dr4 ,chaussier4 ,this process consists in placing the dead body thoroughly emptied and washed1 in water kept constantly saturated with corrosive sublimate4 ,this salt gradually combines with the flesh1 gives it firmness1 renders it imputrescible1 and incapable of being attacked by insects and worms4 ,i have seen1 7adds the author7 a head thus prepared1 which had been exposed alternately to the sun and rain during several years1 without having suffered the slightest change4 ,it was very little deformed1 and easily recognized1 although the flesh had become as hard as wood4 #f4 ,,matches ,,kindling ,,without ,,fire4 7,from ,thenard's ,chemistry1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #ebe47 ,this match is prepared by mingling two parts of the oxymuriate of potash and one of sulphur1 which by means of a little gum is attached to a common sulphur match4 ,this match on being dipped into1 or rather slightly wet with1 strong sulphuric acid1 7oil of vitriol7 immediately catches fire4 ,the author has not added the caution that the sulphur and salt should be pulverized separately2 if rubbed together in a mortar1 they will explode with some danger to the operator1 provided the quantity be over a few grains4 ,matches made upon this principle1 have been for some time made and sold in this country4 ,they are sometimes put up in little japanned cases with a small phial1 from which when inverted with the mouth open1 nothing will drop1 and yet the match kindles on being thrust in quite to the bottom4 ,the truth is1 these bottles contain a little amianthus moistened with sulphuric acid1 which thus kindles the match1 but as the acid soon weakens by attracting water from the air1 it is better to use a phial of the acid in the liquid state4 ,a few drops answer the purpose1 and when this is weakened1 it is easily renewed4 #g4 ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy4 ,our opinion of this work was fully expressed in the review of it in our first number4 ,in the ,edinburgh ,review for ,september1 #ahah1 this work is again reviewed1 and in a manner which must gratify every friend to ,american science4 ,it will be necessary to cite only a single sentence4 ,after commending the condensed and honest manner in which the work is printed1 7for they say1 that the same matter which here fills one volume would in ,england have been spread over three17 the reviewer adds1 ,we should be glad to see it reprinted exactly upon the plan of the original2 and we have no doubt that it would be found the most useful work on mineralogy in our language4 ,more need not be--more scarcely could be said4 #h4 ,a new ,alkali4 ,a new alkali has recently been discovered in ,sweden1 by ,m4 ,arfwedson4 ,it is found in the petalite1 a mineral from ,utoen1 in ,sweden1 in a proportion not over #e pr4 ct42 also in the triphane or spodumene1 in the proportion of #h per cent4 and in what is called crystallized lepidolite1 in the proportion of #d per cent4 ,in its general properties it very nearly resembles the other alkalies4 ,when heated in contact with platinum it acts on it4 ,in the galvanic circuit it was decomposed with bright scintillations1 and the reduced metal being separated1 afterward burnt4 ,this metal resembles sodium4 ,the new alkali has been called lithia4 7,jour4 of ,science of the ,roy4 ,inst47 #i4 ,ignited ,platinum ,wire4 ,in our last we mentioned the lamp without flame1 the ignition of platinum wire being sustained by means of the vapour of alcohol4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy has discovered that the vapour of camphor answers the same purpose3 ,if a piece of camphor1 or a few small fragments in a heap1 be placed in any convenient situation1 as on a shilling1 the bottom of a glass1 c4 and a piece of platinum wire1 either coiled or pressed up together1 be heated and laid upon it1 the platinum will glow as long as any camphor remains1 and will frequently light it up into a flame4 ,jour4 ,roy4 ,inst4 #aj4 ,red ,rain4 ,a red rain fell in ,naples1 7,march #ad1 #ahah17 the common people were much alarmed1 and called it blood or fire4 ,an earthy powder was collected1 which when dry was yellow1 unctuous1 and of an earthy taste2 its specific gravity #b4jg4 ,its analysis presented silex #cc--;alumine #ae4e--;chrome #a4-- iron #ad4e--;carbonic acid #i41 and a combustible substance of a carbonaceous nature4 ,it is thought that this powder had not a volcanic origin1 and that the presence of chrome assimilates it with meteoric stones4 ,ibid4 #aa4 ,gnephalium4 ,professor ,ives has discovered a new species of gnephalium with decurrent leaves1 of which a plate and description will appear in our next number4 #ab4 ,augite4 ,m4 ,hay has united the fassalite and the bakalite with the sahlite1 a sub-species of augite4 7,see ,mem4 of the ,museum of ,nat4 ,hist4 vol4 #c47 #ac4 ,a ,new ,vegetable ,alkali1 ,has been found by ,messrs4 ,pelletier and ,caventon in the ,feve ,st4 ,ignace and the ,nux ,vomica4 ,it has been named the vaucquelin1 in honour of ,m4 ,vaucquelin4 7,journal de ,physique1 for ,aug4 #ahah47 #ad4 ,new ,minerals4 ,two new mineral species have been discovered1 the scorrodite from ,schnuburg in ,saxony1 and the tungstate of lead from ,zinnwald in ,bohemia4 ,ibid4 #ae4 ,new ,metal4 ,a new metal has been discovered by ,berzilius1 in the mines of ,fahlun in ,sweden1 to which he has given the name of ,selenium4 ,ibid4 #af4 ,pure ,alumine4 ,a large bed of this substance1 perfectly pure1 has been found at ,argenton1 ,department de ,l',endre4 ,ibid4 #ag4 ,collections of ,american ,minerals4 ,we are informed that under the auspices of ,col4 ,gibbs1 a collection of ,american minerals by states1 according to the arrangement of the minerals of the departments of ,france1 in the cabinet of the school of mines at ,paris1 was begun some time since1 at the rooms of the ,hist4 ,society in ,new-,york2 and recently in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,in the arrangement of the latter1 he has been assisted by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,webster1 lecturer on mineralogy and geology in ,boston4 #ah4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,esq4 ,we are requested to announce that a ,journal of this gentleman's ,travels and ,discoveries in the ,west1 will be published this year by ,cramer and ,spear of ,pittsburg1 and that the results of his zoological and botanical labours consist in the discovery of about #ae new genera1 and #ahj new species of plants2 about #ge new genera1 and #fjj new species of animals1 whereof nearly #gj are new fishes1 #bj new quadrupeds1 #cj new reptiles1 #aab new shells1 #bej new fossils1 c4 ,he has inquired how the deep valleys have been excavated1 where lakes existed1 where the old falls of the ,ohio were1 the extent and origin of the coal region1 c4 #ai4 ,medical ,college of ,ohio4 ,extract of a letter from ,cincinnati1 ,jan4 #ajth1 #ahai4 ,the legislature of the state of ,ohio have just established a medical college in this city1 and have by an unanimous vote passed a law incorporating the ,faculty4 ,in the act1 ,dr4 ,samuel ,brown of ,alabama is named as ,professor of ,anatomy1 ,dr4 ,daniel ,drake of ,cincinnati1 ,professor of the ,institutes and ,practice of ,medicine1 ,dr4 ,coleman ,rogers1 ,professor of ,surgery1 and ,dr4 ,slack1 ,professor of ,chemistry4 ,the other ,professors are to be appointed by the ,faculty1 and it is believed that ,dr4 ,richardson of ,lexington1 ,kentucky1 will be called to the ,obstetrical chair4 ,very high expectations are entertained of the importance of this institution in the west4 #bj4 ,notes on ,ohio4 ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 of ,circleville1 ,ohio1 has issued proposals for publishing the above work1 7mentioned in our last number7 with a prospectus exhibiting its principal features4 ,we doubt not it will contain valuable information concerning a very interesting portion of the ,united ,states1 and every effort on the part of men of intelligence and enlarged views1 to make the western and southwestern states better known1 deserves1 and it is believed will receive1 adequate support4 #ba4 ,discovery of ,american ,tungsten and ,tellurium4 ,neither of these metals1 so far as we are informed1 has been announced as existing in either of the ,americas4 ,it is well known to mineralogists1 that tungsten is very rare1 and that tellurium is found only in ,transylvania4 ,we have now the pleasure to state that both these metals exist in the ,bismuth mine1 in the town of ,huntington1 parish of ,new ,stratford1 in ,connecticut1 #bj miles west of ,new-,haven4 ,during the examination of some ores1 brought to us by ,mr4 ,ephraim ,lane1 the proprietor of this mine1 we obtained the tungsten in the state of yellow oxid1 and the tellurium in the metallic state4 ,the tungsten is stated to be abundant in the mine2 it is the ferruginous species1 known to mineralogists by the name of wolfram4 ,we cannot yet say whether the tellurium is abundant1 having obtained it from only two pieces2 from these we extracted also tungsten1 so that it may possibly constitute a new mineral species4 ,further particulars will be given in our next ,number4 #bb4 ,mr4 ,sheldon's ,application of ,chesnut ,wood to the ,arts of ,tanning and ,dying4 ,,remarks4 ,a considerable time since1 we were confidentially made acquainted with the discovery detailed in the following letter4 ,we have repeated the most important of ,mr4 ,sheldon's experiments1 both in relation to tanning and dying1 and are well satisfied that the discoverer has not overrated1 or erroneously estimated1 the value of his own results4 ,we are persuaded that the highly useful arts alluded to1 will derive important aid from the use of a material so abundant and cheap as chesnut wood4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,feb4 #bg1 #ahai4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i send you a more particular account of the newly discovered properties of the chesnut4 ,this tree1 ,fagus ,castanea1 ,linn4 is very abundant in ,new-,england and the middle states2 and occurs in the mountainous districts1 as far southward as ,south-,carolina1 or perhaps even ,georgia4 ,it is one of the stateliest trees of the forest2 scarcely less distinguished by the beauty of its foliage1 than by the durability of its wood4 ,by repeated analyses1 conducted with the minutest attention to every circumstance which could ensure accuracy1 it appears1 incredible as it may seem1 that the chesnut wood contains twice as much tannin as ross'd#de oak bark1 and six-sevenths as much colouring matter 7which gives a black with iron17 as logwood4 ,i am aware that nothing could be farther from the common apprehension than such results2 but the uniform success of a great variety of experiments in tanning and dying1 in addition to the other kind of evidence1 should satisfy the most incredulous4 ,the leather tanned with it1 has1 in every instance1 been superior to that tanned in a comparative experiment1 with oak bark2 being firmer1 less porous1 and at the same time more pliable4 ,the reason for this difference1 will probably be found in the high state of oxygenizement of the bark1 particularly of the epidermis1 by which it is rendered to a certain degree acrid and corrosive4 ,dr4 ,bancroft was perhaps the first who noticed the oxygenizement of barks4 ,he attributes the dark brown colour of the epidermis of his quercitron1 to this cause2 and as a confirmation of the idea1 ,i have observed that ink made of the epidermis of another kind of bark1 though at first not to be distinguished by the colour from that made of the cellular and cortical parts1 is incomparably less permanent4 ,as a material for making ink1 the wood of the chesnut is probably unrivalled4 ,combined with iron in any proportion1 it gives1 as it is dilute or concentrated1 a pure blue or blue-black2 while galls1 sumach1 c4 c4 unless combined with a greater proportion than is consistent with the highest degree of permanency1 afford a black more or less inclining to a reddish brown4 ,the lake of the chesnut is indeed a blue1 and not to be distinguished by the eye from indigo2 but when diffused on paper1 this same substance becomes an intense shining black4 ,in dying1 little difference is observable between the chesnut and galls1 and sumach1 except that the former has a rather greater affinity for wool1 c4 than the latter1 and of course requires less boiling4 ,its permanency has been completely tested by long exposure to the sun and the weather2 but no doubt can exist on this head1 if the position of ,berthollet be true1 that permanent blacks are formed only by the combination of iron and tannin4 ,to prepare the chesnut wood for the purposes of tanning1 a mode has been devised for reducing it to a suitable degree of fineness4 ,this method consists in the application of knives1 either in the direction of1 or transversely to the grain1 by a rotatory motion4 ,this mode obviously involves the greatest possible economy of moving power4 ,messrs4 ,b4 and ,m4 ,stebbins1 of ,west-,springfield1 who are making arrangements for going largely into the exportation of the article1 have in construction a machine upon this plan4 ,as might be expected1 the inspissated aqueous extract of the chesnut1 bears a near resemblance in many particulars1 to catechu4 ,professor ,dewey1 of ,william's ,college1 who at my request1 has gone through an extensive and elaborate course of experiments1 informed me that he obtained a quarter more of the gelatinous precipitate from the former1 than from the latter4 ,by the taste1 the two substances are not to be distinguished1 except that the former is more pungent4 ,it leaves upon the tongue1 the same permanent and refreshing sweetness1 for which the other is so much prized in the east2 where it is used as an article of luxury1 with betel nut4 ,might not the extract be advantageously substituted for catechu1 in the celebrated life preserving composition of ,dr4 ,pearson2 the object being to concentrate the greatest possible quantity of nutritious and tonic substances in the smallest weight4 ,the colouring properties of the two substances1 are entirely different4 ,after the discovery1 twelve or fifteen years since1 of the composition of the terra japonica1 attempts were made in ,england to introduce it into the materia tingentia1 as a substitute for galls2 but unfortunately1 like the extract of quercitron1 it affords with iron nothing but a meagre olive2 and ,dr4 ,bancroft states1 that in a great number of trials1 he was unable1 by the greatest accumulation1 to produce any thing like a black1 even upon wool1 much less upon cotton and silk4 ,a singular fact1 which ,i observed in the course of my experiments1 is worthy of notice4 ,i had prepared for a certain purpose1 solutions from the wood of the trunk of a tree1 about three feet1 and from that of a limb about three inches in diameter4 ,the same quantity of wood and of the solvent was employed in both cases4 ,on adding to each the same quantity of the solution of gelatine1 abundant precipitates immediately appeared1 as usual1 apparently much the same in quantity2 but to my astonishment1 the size of the several congeries in each1 bore a near proportion to that of the sticks from which they were obtained1 not differing much from that of middling and of very small flakes of snow4 ,is not this an extraordinary fact1 evincive of a complication in the arrangement of these bodies hitherto unsuspected4 ,may it not at some future period1 lead to a nomenclature of precipitates2 affording1 like the crystallography of ,hay1 a new and accurate mode of determining the compositions of substances2 and perhaps throwing light upon the obscure subject of chemical1 or if you please1 electro-chemical affinities4 ,the size of a stick might probably be ascertained with almost as much precision1 as by actual admeasurement4 ,the solutions in this experiment1 were formed by maceration in cold water4 ,when hot water was employed1 and the process was completed in two or three hours1 the appearance of the precipitate was very different1 the congeries being smaller1 irregular1 and not well defined4 ,i have only to add1 that having taken measures to secure the discovery1 both in this country and ,europe1 it is my wish to bring it into general use as speedily as possible4 ,i am1 ,sir1 very respectfully1 ,your obedient servant1 ,,william ,,sheldon4 ,p4 ,s4 ,in a short article for some future number1 ,i may send you an account of the operation of the machine1 and of some other particulars4 #bc4 ,additional note concerning the ,tungsten and ,tellurium4 ,we have not room to insert in the present number1 a description and a chemical examination of the ores of tungsten and tellurium recently discovered in ,connecticut2 they will appear in our next4 ,in the mean time it may be stated1 that the tungsten and tellurium are found blended in the same pieces1 but whether in mere mixture1 or in chemical combination1 is not yet quite determined4 ,many specimens of the tungsten exist without the tellurium1 but every piece which has afforded tellurium has also afforded tungsten1 and in greater abundance4 ,even in well defined crystals1 both metals have been found in the same crystal1 and where the external appearance was homogeneous4 ,in other specimens a difference seems to be apparent1 and a proper ore of tellurium appears to be blended with a proper ore of tungsten4 ,this latter ore is the wolfram1 composed of oxid of tungsten1 or as some choose to say1 tungstic oxid combined with iron and manganese4 ,the crystals1 however1 are octahedral1 a fact which we believe is not mentioned of this species by authors1 although this form is found in the calcareous tungsten4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bismuth mine in which these ores are found is the property of ,mr4 ,ephraim ,lane4 ,letters addressed1 post paid1 to him at ,new ,stratford1 town of ,huntington1 ,connecticut1 will find him through the ,post ,office2 and he will1 for a reasonable compensation1 pack boxes more or less extensive1 for mineralogists and others4 ,as ,mr4 ,lane is by occupation a farmer1 and is obliged to blast a quartz gangue in order to obtain his specimens1 he cannot be expected to transmit them gratis4 ,his mine1 which has been sunk only ten feet1 affords native bismuth1 native silver1 magnetical and common iron pyrites1 and copper pyrites1 7the two latter crystallized7 galena1 blende1 tungsten1 tellurium1 c4 ,it is expected that the shaft will soon be sunk deeper1 when probably a more abundant supply of good specimens will be obtained4 ,n4 ,b4 ,the silver and galena are the least abundant4 ,march #hth1 #ahai4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,vide ,edin4 ,review for ,sept4 #ahah4 p4 #cgd4 #bi ,referring to the ridges of ,greenstone near ,new-,haven4 #cj ,or1 according to the ,wernerian ,geologists1 ,transition8 ,editor4 #ca ,the modesty of the writer has prevented him from applying to the formations which he has well described1 the terms transition and secondary1 which there can be little doubt do in fact belong to them4 ,his strata of highly inclined limestone1 appear to belong to the transition class of ,werner1 and his flat strata1 to the secondary4 ,it may be observed in this place1 that the specimens alluded to in the text 7passim17 appear to be correctly described by ,mr4 ,cornelius1 and to justify his geological inferences as far as hand-specimens seen at a distance from their native beds1 can form a safe basis for general geological inductions4 ,editor4 #cb ,copied partly from ,manuscripts of the late ,dr4 ,muhlenberg1 of ,lancaster1 ,pennsylvania4 #cc ,this large species ,i understand has been mistaken by a writer on ,natural ,history for ,boa constrictor3 this is mentioned to show how remotely it is possible to diverge from accuracy in this science4 #cd ,i have been since informed by ,mr4 ,lesueur1 that to his taste the poison was bitter4 #ce ,the terminal caudal plates of this individual were bifid1 as in the one of ,peale's ,museum4 #cf ,this last is the animal1 beyond a doubt1 judging from the detailed description and plate1 which has lately been erected into a new genus1 under the name of ,scoliophus44444444444444444444444444444 4the identity is immediately obvious1 to any one acquainted with the specific characters of the above-mentioned coluber4 ,and ,i presume it can be made apparent1 to any one tolerably versed in the science1 should proof be thought necessary4 #cg ,dr4 ,barton remarked that this part is rounded1 7cauda teres17 this observation was not autoptical1 but dictated most probably by the appearance of ,catesby's figure4 ,in the young animal the tail is less compressed than in the old one4 #ch ,here we might properly enough notice the high-ways1 streets1 and pavements of cities1 c4 on which the materials being minutely divided by attrition1 are in a better state for the sun to act freely on1 and will consequently yield greater products than equal areas of undisturbed surface1 under like circumstances of heat4 #ci ,perhaps there is no body in nature absolutely incombustible1 but ,i use the term here in common acceptation4 #dj ,it may be easily proved that water evaporates 7though slowly7 at a temperature many degrees below its freezing point2 and these vapours are more subtle and elastic than those formed at the boiling point of that fluid4 ,,remark4 ,it is indeed proved that vapour is formed from water at the lowest temperatures1 but is less elastic1 the lower the temperature1 as appears from its sustaining a continually decreasing column of mercury1 the lower the temperature at which the vapour is formed4 ,vide ,dalton's and ,gay ,lussac's experiments4 ,editor4 #da ,we have taken the liberty to give ,mr4 ,atwater's ,memoir a more extensive ,title1 for reasons that will be obvious on a perusal of the piece4 #db ,genus1 platanus--species1 occidentalis1 popular name1 sycamore1 or button-wood4 #dc ,the collection of ,mr4 ,perkins became1 in #ahjg1 7partly by the liberality of its possessor1 and partly by purchase17 the property of ,yale ,college1 and is now in the cabinet of that institution4 ,it is believed that few cabinets of equal extent1 ever contained more instructive and beautiful specimens1 with less that is unmeaning or superfluous4 ,the cabinet of ,dr4 ,bruce has1 since his death1 been purchased by a gentleman in ,new-,york1 for #ejjj dollars4 ,editor4 #dd ,on account of its peculiar cadaverous odour ,dr4 ,hayden proposes to call this mineral 7should it prove to be a new one7 ,necronite1 from the ,greek 4 #de ,that is1 the inner bark deprived of the epidermis or outer bark1 by the shaving knife4 ,,contents4 ,,geology1 ,,topography1 ,,and ,,mineralogy4 ,page ,art4 ,i4 ,on the ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,scenery1 and ,curiosities of ,parts of ,virginia1 ,tennessee1 and of the ,alabama and ,mississippi ,territories1 c4 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 c4 ,in a ,letter to the ,editor4 ,by the ,rev4 ,elias ,cornelius #cag ,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,origin of ,prairies4 ,by ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,wells #cca ,art4 ,,iii4 ,sketch of the ,mineralogy and ,geology of the ,vicinity of ,williams' ,college1 ,williamstown1 ,mass4 ,by ,professor ,dewey1 of ,williams' ,college1 in a letter to the ,editor #ccg ,art4 ,,iv4 ,on the ,tourmalines and other ,minerals found at ,chesterfield and ,goshen1 ,massachusetts1 by ,col4 ,george ,gibbs #cdf ,art4 ,v4 ,observations on the ,minerals connected with the ,gneiss range of ,litchfield county1 by ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,brace1 of ,litchfield1 ,conn4 #cea ,,botany4 ,art4 ,,vi4 ,an ,account of two ,north ,american ,species of ,rottbllia1 discovered on the ,sea-coast in the ,state of ,georgia1 by ,dr4 ,william ,baldwin1 of ,philadelphia #cee ,art4 ,,vii4 ,floral ,calendar kept at ,deerfield1 ,massachusetts1 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 by ,dr4 ,stephen ,w4 ,williams1 of ,deerfield #cei ,art4 ,,viii4 ,description and ,natural ,classification of the ,genus ,floerkea1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 ,professor of ,botany and ,natural ,history in the ,transylvania ,university1 ,lexington1 ,ken4 #cgc ,art4 ,,ix4 ,descriptions of ,three ,new ,genera of ,plants1 from the ,state of ,new-,york4 ,cylactis1 ,nemopanthus1 and ,polanisia1 by ,professor ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque #cgg ,art4 ,x4 ,notice on the ,myosurus ,shortii1 by the same #cgi ,art4 ,,xi4 ,description of a ,new ,species of ,gnaphalium1 by ,professor ,e4 ,ives #chj ,,fossil ,,zoology1 ,c4 ,art4 ,,xii4 ,observations on some ,species of ,zoophytes1 ,shells1 c4 principally ,fossil1 by ,thomas ,say #cha ,,physics1 ,,chemistry1 ,c4 ,art4 ,,xiii4 ,observations on ,salt ,storms1 and the ,influence of ,salt and ,saline ,air upon ,animal and ,vegetable ,life4 ,read before the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history of ,new-,york1 ,march #g1 #ahai1 by ,john ,b4 ,beck1 ,m4 ,d4 #chh ,art4 ,,xiv4 ,thoughts on ,atmospheric ,dust4 ,by ,professor ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque #cig ,art4 ,,xv4 ,on the ,effect of ,vapour on ,flame4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,dana1 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college #dja ,art4 ,,xvi4 ,analysis of the ,harrodsburg ,salts1 by ,edward ,d4 ,smith1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,mineralogy in the ,south-,carolina ,college #djc ,art4 ,,xvii4 ,additional ,notice of the ,tungsten and ,tellurium1 mentioned in our last ,number #dje ,art4 ,,xviii4 ,a ,substitute for ,woulfe's or ,nooth's ,apparatus1 by ,robert ,hare1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and ,member of various ,learned and ,scientific ,societies #daj ,art4 ,,xix4 ,a ,new ,theory of ,galvanism1 supported by some ,experiments and ,observations made by means of the ,calorimotor1 a new ,galvanic ,instrument4 ,read before the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia1 by ,robert ,hare1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and ,member of various ,learned ,societies #dac ,,mathematics4 ,art4 ,,xx4 ,an improved ,method of obtaining the ,formul for the ,sines and ,cosines of the ,sum and ,difference of two ,arcs1 by ,professor ,strong1 of ,hamilton ,college1 c4 #dbd ,,miscellaneous4 ,art4 ,,xxi4 ,an ,account of several ,ancient ,mounds1 and of two ,caves1 in ,east ,tennessee1 by ,mr4 ,john ,henry ,kain1 of ,knoxville #dbh ,art4 ,,xxii4 ,facts illustrative of the ,powers and ,operations of the ,human ,mind in a ,diseased ,state #dca ,,intelligence4 ,art4 ,,xxiii4 #a4 ,discovery of ,american ,cinnabar and ,native ,lead #dcc #b4 ,theoretical ,views of ,professor ,hare of ,philadelphia #dcd #c4 ,new ,work on ,chemistry ibid4 #d4 ,botanical #dce #e4 ,staurotide ibid4 #f4 ,supplement to the ,remarks on the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a ,section of ,massachusetts1 on ,connecticut ,river1 c4 contained in ,no4 #b1 ,art4 ,i1 of this ,journal1 by ,e4 ,hitchcock1 ,a4 ,m4 #dcf #g4 ,new ,process for ,tanning #dci #h4 ,connexion between ,chemistry and ,medicine ibid4 #i4 ,brucite ibid4 #aj4 ,lithography ibid4 ,conclusion #ddj ,postscript4--,american ,geological ,society #ddb ,index #ddc ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,science1 c4 ,,geology1 ,,topography1 ,,and ,,mineralogy4 ,,art4 ,i4 ,on the ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,scenery1 and ,curiosities of ,parts of ,virginia1 ,tennessee1 and of the ,alabama and ,mississippi ,territories1 c4 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 c4 ,in a ,letter to the ,editor4 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,elias ,,cornelius4 7,concluded from page #bbf47 ,i will conclude this part of the narrative with a brief notice of a few curiosities occurring in the region which has been described4 ,caves4 #a4 ,it is well known that it furnishes a great number of interesting caves4 ,they are found alike in the inclined and horizontal strata4 ,some of them are several miles in extent1 and afford fine specimens of earthy and alkaline salts4 ,wier's cave in ,virginia has been described by ,mr4 ,kain4 ,i have in my possession a map of its most important apartments1 including its whole length1 copied from a survey made by ,mr4 ,j4 ,pack in ,oct4 #ahjf2 also the notes of another survey made in ,may #ahaf1 by the ,rev4 ,conrad ,speece of ,augusta county1 and ,mr4 ,robert ,grattan2 which1 with an explanation1 and particular description1 ,i hope to be able to transmit to you at a future time4 ,from these surveys1 it appears that the whole extent of the cave1 hitherto discovered1 does not exceed eight hundred yards4 ,this was the length stated to me by the guide1 when ,i visited it in ,august1 #ahag4 ,i cannot but think there is some mistake in ,mr4 ,kain's remark1 that it is a mile and a half in extent4 ,i spent four hours in examining every accessible part1 and by permission of ,mr4 ,henry ,bingham1 the owner1 made a large collection of specimens1 which were transmitted for the ,cabinet of ,yale ,college4#df ,the ,natural ,bridge4 #b4 ,my object m naming this celebrated curiosity1 is not to give a new description of it1 but merely to furnish a correct account of its dimensions4 ,i visited it in company with the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,huson1 who had previously found its height by a cord1 to be two hundred and ten feet4 ,we now found it by the quadrant1 to be two hundred and eleven feet1 and the arch through the centre about forty feet4 ,some have attempted to account for this great curiosity1 by supposing that a convulsion in nature may have rent the hill1 in which it stands1 asunder2 thus forming the deep and narrow defile1 over which the rocky strata were left1 which constitute its magnificent arch4 ,if so2 the sides should have corresponding parts4 ,at a distance from the base1 no such correspondence is perceptible4 ,at the base1 the rocks are more or less craggy and irregular4 ,this led me to take the courses and distances of each side4 ,the following was the result4 ,eastern side presents #d angular points4 #a4 ,n4 #ee ,w4 #a chain4 #ji links4 #b4 ,n4 #gb ,w4 #a ------ #je ------ #c4 ,n4 #eg ,w4 #a ------ #ab ------ #d4 ,n4 #ej ,w4 #j ------ #cc ------ ,western side presents #c angular points4 #a4 ,n4 #ej ,w4 #j chain4 #de links4 #b4 ,n4 #fg ,w4 #a ------ #ab ------ #c4 ,n4 #gg ,w4 #a ------ #dd ------ ,the chain used contained #ej links1 equal to #cc feet and 4 ,the distance between the abutments at the north end of their bases1 is #hj feet2 at the south end1 #ff feet4 ,as they ascend1 the distance is greater4 ,these data give the following diagram4 ,illustration ,although considerable resemblance appears at the base1 yet as no such correspondence is visible #dj feet above it1 and the sides for the whole remaining distance to the arch1 one hundred and thirty feet1 lose their craggy appearance entirely1 and present the smooth1 irregular surface of the oldest rocks4 ,i am led to think that the natural bridge is coeval with a very remote period of time4 ,nor is there any difficulty even in supposing it to have proceeded from the hand of the ,almighty1 as it is2 for great and marvellous are all his works6 ,the following anecdote will evince the effect which the sight of the natural bridge produced on a servant1 who1 without having received any definite or adequate ideas of what he was to see1 attended his master to this spot4 ,on the summit of the hill1 or from the top of the ,bridge1 the view is not more awful than that which is seen from the brink of a hundred other precipices4 ,the grand prospect is from below4 ,to reach it you must descend the hill by a blind path1 which winds through a thicket of trees1 and terminates at the instant when the whole bridge with its broad sides and lofty arch1 all of solid rock1 appears perfectly in sight4 ,not one in a thousand can forbear to make an involuntary pause3 but the servant1 who had hitherto followed his master1 without meeting with any thing particularly to arrest his attention1 had no sooner arrived at this point1 and caught a glance of the object which burst upon his vision1 than he fell upon his knees1 fixed in wonder and admiration4 ,a ,river flowing from a ,cave4 #c4 ,i will next mention a singular cave1 which ,i do not remember ever to have seen described4 ,it is situated in the ,cherokee country1 at ,nicojack1 the north-western angle in the map of ,georgia1 and is known by the name of the ,nicojack cave4 ,it is #bj miles ,s4 ,w4 of the ,look-,out mountain1 and half a mile from the south bank of the ,tennessee ,river4 ,the ,rackoon mountain in which it is situated1 here fronts to the northeast4 ,immense layers of horizontal limestone form a precipice of considerable height4 ,in this precipice the cave commences2 not however with an opening of a few feet1 as is common2 but with a mouth fifty feet high1 and one hundred and sixty wide4 ,its roof is formed by a solid and regular layer of limestone1 having no support but the sides of the cave1 and as level as the floor of a house4 ,the entrance is partly obstructed by piles of fallen rocks1 which appear to have been dislodged by some great convulsion4 ,from its entrance1 the cave consists chiefly of one grand excavation through the rocks1 preserving for a great distance the same dimensions as at its mouth4 ,what is more remarkable than all1 it forms for the whole distance it has yet been explored1 a walled and vaulted passage1 for a stream of cool and limpid water1 which1 where it leaves the cave1 is six feet deep and sixty feet wide4 ,a few years since1 ,col4 ,james ,ore of ,tennessee1 commencing early in the morning1 followed the course of this creek in a canoe1 for three miles4 ,he then came to a fall of water1 and was obliged to return1 without making any further discovery4 ,whether he penetrated three miles up the cave or not1 it is a fact he did not return till the evening1 having been busily engaged in his subterranean voyage for twelve hours4 ,he stated that the course of the cave after proceeding some way to the southwest became south2 and southeast by south1 the remaining distance4 ,natural ,nitre4 ,the sides of the principal excavation present a few apartments which are interesting1 principally because they furnish large quantities of the earth from which the nitrate of potash is obtained4 ,this is a circumstance very common to the caves of the western country4 ,in that at ,nicojack1 it abounds1 and is found covering the surfaces of fallen rocks1 but in more abundance beneath them4 ,there are two kinds1 one is called the clay dirt1 the other the black dirt2 the last is much more strongly impregnated than the first4 ,for several years there has been a considerable manufacture of saltpetre from this earth4 ,the process is by lixiviation and crystallization1 and is very simple4 ,the earth is thrown into a hopper1 and the fluid obtained1 passed through another of ashes1 the alkali of which decomposes the earthy nitrate1 and uniting with its acid1 which contains chiefly nitrate of lime1 turns it into nitrate of potash4 ,the precipitated lime gives the mass a whitish colour1 and the consistence of curdled milk4 ,by allowing it to stand in a large trough1 the precipitate1 which is principally lime1 subsides1 and the superincumbent fluid1 now an alkaline1 instead of an earthy nitrate1 is carefully removed and boiled for some time in iron kettles1 till it is ready to crystallize4 ,it is then removed again to a large trough1 in which it shoots into crystals4 ,it is now called rough shot-petre4 ,in this state it is sent to market1 and sells usually for sixteen dollars per hundred weight4 ,sometimes it is dissolved in water1 reboiled1 and recrystallized1 when it is called refined1 and sells for twenty dollars per hundred4 ,one bushel of the clay dirt yields from #c to #elbs4 and the black dirt from #g to #ajlbs4 of the rough shot-petre4 ,the same dirt1 if returned to the cave1 and scattered on the rocks1 or mingled with the new earth1 becomes impregnated with the nitrate again1 and in a few months may be thrown into the hopper1 and be subjected to a new process4 ,the causes which have produced the nitric salts of these caves1 may not yet have been fully developed4 ,but it is highly probable1 they are to be ascribed to the decomposition of animal substances4 ,it is reasonable to suppose1 that in an uncultivated country they would become the abodes of wild animals1 and even of savage men4 ,that they have been used by the natives as burial places1 is certain4 ,in one which ,i entered1 ,i counted a hundred human skulls1 in the space of twenty feet square4 ,all the lesser and more corruptible parts of each skeleton had mouldered to dust1 and the whole lay in the greatest confusion4 ,i have heard of many such caves1 and to this day some of the ,indians are known to deposit their dead in them4 ,from the decomposition of such substances1 it is well known the acid of the nitric salts arises1 and it would of course unite with the lime every where present1 and form nitrate of lime4 ,mounds4 #d4 ,i have but one more article of curiosity to mention under this division4 ,it is one of those artificial mounds which occur so frequently in the western country4 ,i have seen many of them1 and read of more4 ,but never of one of such dimensions as that which ,i am now to describe4 ,it is situated in the interior of the ,cherokee nation1 on the north side of the ,etowee1 vulgarly called ,hightower ,river1 one of the branches of the ,koosee4 ,it stands upon a strip of alluvial land1 called ,river ,bottom4 ,i visited it in company with eight ,indian chiefs4 ,the first object which excited attention was an excavation about twenty feet wide1 and in some parts ten feet deep4 ,its course is nearly that of a semicircle2 the extremities extending towards the river1 which forms a small elbow4 ,i had not time to examine it minutely4 ,an ,indian said it extended each way to the river1 and had several unexcavated parts1 which served for passages to the area which it encloses4 ,to my surprise1 ,i found no embankment on either side of it4 ,but ,i did not long doubt to what place the earth had been removed2 for ,i had scarcely proceeded two hundred yards1 when1 through the thick forest trees1 a stupendous pile met the eye1 whose dimensions were in full proportion to the intrenchment4 ,i had at the time no means of taking an accurate admeasurement4 ,to supply my deficiency1 ,i cut a long vine1 which was preserved until ,i had an opportunity of ascertaining its exact length4 ,in this manner ,i found the distance from the margin of the summit to the base1 to be one hundred and eleven feet4 ,and judging from the degree of its declivity1 the perpendicular height cannot be less than seventy-five feet4 ,the circumference of the base1 including the feet of three parapets1 measured one thousand one hundred and fourteen feet4 ,one of these parapets extends from the base to the summit1 and can be ascended1 though with difficulty1 on horseback4 ,the other two1 after rising thirty or forty feet1 terminate in a kind of triangular platform4 ,its top is level1 and at the time ,i visited it1 was so completely covered with weeds1 bushes1 and trees of most luxuriant growth1 that ,i could not examine it as well as ,i wished4 ,its diameter1 ,i judged1 must be one hundred and fifty feet4 ,on its sides and summit1 are many large trees of the same description1 and of equal dimensions with those around it4 ,one beach-tree1 near the top1 measured ten feet nine inches in circumference4 ,the earth on one side of the tree1 was three and a half feet lower than on the opposite side4 ,this fact will give a good idea of the degree of the mound's declivity4 ,an oak1 which was lying down on one of the parapets1 measured at the distance of six feet from the butt1 without the bark1 twelve feet four inches in circumference4 ,at a short distance to the southeast is another mound1 in ascending which ,i took thirty steps4 ,its top is encircled by a breastwork three feet high1 intersected through the middle with another elevation of a similar kind4 ,a little farther is another mound1 which ,i had not time to examine4 ,on these great works of art1 the ,indians gazed with as much curiosity as any white man4 ,i inquired of the oldest chief1 if the natives had any tradition respecting them2 to which he answered in the negative4 ,i then requested each to say what he supposed was their origin4 ,neither could tell3 though all agreed in saying2 they were never put up by our people4 ,it seems probable they were erected by another race1 who once inhabited the country4 ,that such a race existed1 is now generally admitted4 ,who they were1 and what were the causes of their degeneracy1 or of their extermination1 no circumstances have yet explained4 ,but this is no reason why we should not1 as in a hundred other instances1 infer the existence of the cause from its effects1 without any previous knowledge of its history4 ,in regard to the objects which these mounds were designed to answer1 it is obvious they were not always the same4 ,some were intended as receptacles for the dead4 ,these are small1 and are distinguished by containing human bones4 ,some may have been designed as sites for public buildings1 whether of a civil or religious kind2 and others no doubt were constructed for the purposes of war4 ,of this last description1 is the ,etowee mound4 ,in proof of its suitableness for such a purpose1 ,i need only mention that the ,cherokees in their late war with the ,creeks1 secured its summit by pickets1 and occupied it as a place of protection for hundreds of their women and children4 ,gladly would ,i have spent a day in examining it more minutely2 but my companions1 unable to appreciate my motives1 grew impatient1 and ,i was obliged to withdraw1 and leave a more perfect observation and description to some one else4 ,alluvial ,formation4 ,i will now call your attention to the last geological division which came under my observation4 ,it is the alluvial tract1 extending from the ,dividing ,ridge already mentioned1 to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,this ,ridge is the last range of high land which ,i crossed on the journey to ,new ,orleans1 and lies about six hundred miles north of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,its course at the place ,i crossed it1 is a little south of west4 ,it divides the waters of the ,tennessee from those which proceed directly to the gulf4 ,travellers always observe it4 ,they often mentioned it to me as the southern boundary of the stony country4 ,after crossing it1 you see no more limestone2 and1 which excites more joy in the traveller1 no more of the silicious gravel1 with which it is associated1 and which is so troublesome to the feet of horses4 ,the soil consists of a soft clay1 or light sand1 on which you seldom meet with a stone of any kind4 ,the surface of the earth is undulating and hilly1 but not mountainous4 ,the water-courses do not move rapidly and tumultuously1 as in the limestone country2 but form in the soft earth1 deep trenches1 through which they glide smoothly and silently along4 ,the smallest rivulet often has a trench ten feet deep2 and the earth over which it passes1 is continually yielding to its gentle attrition4 ,the only minerals which ,i observed1 are sandstone1 common and ferruginous2 silicious pebbles in beds of creeks1 and occasionally on the uplands2 earthy ores of iron1 particularly red oxides1 and petrifactions of shells1 wood1 c4 ,in addition to these1 it may here be mentioned that galena has been found in small quantities at ,gibson's ,port1 and at ,ellis's ,cliffs1 in the ,state of ,mississippi3 a crystal of amethyst1 in the same state1 by ,mr4 ,blannerhassett2 and a great variety of useful ochres1 in many places on the banks of the ,mississippi4 ,in the geological map attached to ,professor ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy1 the alluvial country bordering on the ,gulf of ,mexico1 is represented as terminating at ,natchez4 ,but why its termination is placed here1 ,i am unable to understand4 ,the country above and below ,natchez1 so far as it has come under my observation1 presents no difference of appearance in its geology1 or mineralogy4 ,i am aware that at ,natchez1 when the water of the ,mississippi is lowest1 a soft rock is seen1 from which lime has been obtained4 ,but this rock is two hundred feet below the surface of the adjoining country2 and admitting that it is a limestone rock1 there is no difficulty in supposing it may constitute the basis of the alluvial deposit which rests upon it4 ,that the incumbent earth is alluvial1 can be doubted1 ,i think1 by no one who has had an opportunity of examining it4 ,by means of a road1 which has been cut obliquely down the side of the bluff1 distinct layers of clay1 sand1 and pebbles1 have been exposed for the whole distance from the summit to the base4 ,the same character is observed at a distance from the river1 where the earth has been excavated by washing1 or digging4 ,in the vicinity of the town1 there is a curious exhibition of the fact4 ,a stream of water has worn away the earth to the depth of fifteen or twenty feet1 and is continually lengthening the chasm1 in the direction opposite to its own course4 ,thus1 as the water flows from the town1 the chasm approaches it4 ,in examining the cause of this fact1 ,i perceived it was owing chiefly to the difference of cohesion in the alluvial deposits1 of which the earth is formed4 ,that at the surface1 being a thick loam1 wears away with more difficulty than the deposit below it1 which consists of a loose sand4 ,the consequence is1 that the water1 which has once obtained a perpendicular passage of a few inches through the first1 washes away the second with such rapidity1 that it is constantly undermining it4 ,this occasions a perpetual caving in of the surface1 in a direction opposite to the course of the stream4 ,the same fact is observed in many parts of the country for a great distance above ,natchez4 ,if there be wanting any other fact to prove that the earth on which the town of ,natchez stands1 is alluvial1 it is found in the effect which the ,mississippi has upon the base of the ,natchez bluff4 ,in consequence of a bend in the river1 the whole force of its current is thrown against this base4 ,if it consisted of solid rock1 the river would probably have no effect upon it2 but of such loose and friable materials is it composed1 that the river is continually undermining it1 and producing effects not less to be dreaded than those of an earthquake4 ,several years ago1 a great number of acres sunk fifty feet or more below the general surface of the hill2 and in #ahje1 there was another caving of that part directly over the small village at the landing4 ,several houses were buried in consequence of it1 and strong fears are entertained by the inhabitants1 that the same cause will yet submerge in the ,mississippi1 the whole of the present landing-place4 ,these facts1 ,i think you will say1 furnish satisfactory evidence of the alluvial character of the country at ,natchez4 ,the same character belongs to the whole extent south of the ,dividing ,ridge4 ,this may be safely inferred from the general features of the country4 ,but ,i have two facts1 of a geological kind1 to mention1 both of which go to confirm the opinion4 #a4 ,a well was dug in the ,choctaw nation1 at the agency of the ,united ,states1 in the year #ahab or #ahac1 under the direction of ,silas ,dinsmore1 ,esq4 the agent4 ,the excavation was continued to the depth of one hundred and seventy-two feet4 ,no water was found4 ,at no great distance from the surface1 marine exuvi were found in abundance4 ,the shells were small1 and imbedded in a soft clay1 similar to marine earth4 ,this formation continued till the excavation ceased4 ,dispersed through it1 were found lumps of selenite1 or foliated gypsum1 some of which were half as large as a man's fist4 ,specimens of the earth1 the exuvi1 and the selenite1 have been transmitted for your examination4 ,this excavation was made one hundred and twenty miles north northeast of ,natchez4 ,the ,pearl ,river is four miles to the east of the place1 and is the only considerable stream in this part of the country4 #b4 ,in the ,chickasaw nation1 one hundred and seventy miles north of the ,choctaw agency1 commence beds of oyster-shells1 which continue to be seen at intervals for twelve miles4 ,four miles from the first bed1 you come to what is called ,chickasaw ,old ,town1 where they are observed in great abundance4 ,they are imbedded in low ridges of a white marl4 ,they appear to be of two kinds4 ,specimens of each1 and also of the marl1 you have received4 ,chickasaw ,old ,town1 is a name now appropriated to a prairie1 on a part of which there formerly stood a small village of ,chickasaws4 ,the prairie is twenty miles long1 and four wide4 ,the shells occur in three places as you cross it1 and again1 on two contiguous hills to the east of it1 at the distance of four miles4 ,they do not cover the surface merely4 ,they form a constituent part of the hills or plains in which they are found4 ,wherever the earth has been washed so as to produce deep gutters1 they are seen in greatest abundance4 ,nor are they petrifactions1 such as are found in rocks4 ,they have the same appearance as common oyster-shells1 they lie loose in the earth1 and thus indicate a comparatively recent origin4 ,they occur three hundred miles northeast of ,natchez1 and but sixty miles south of the ,dividing ,ridge4 ,if the country north of ,natchez is alluvial1 no one will doubt it is so from this place to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,at ,baton ,rouge1 one hundred and forty miles north of ,new ,orleans1 you meet the first elevated land in ascending from the gulf4 ,the banks of the ,mississippi are higher than the interior1 and would be annually overflowed by the river1 but for a narrow embankment of earth about six feet high1 called the ,levee4 ,by means of this1 a narrow strip of land1 from half a mile to a mile in width1 is redeemed1 and cultivated with cotton and the sugar cane1 to the great advantage of the planter4 ,generally1 within one mile from the river1 there is an impenetrable morass4 ,the country has every where the appearance of an origin comparatively recent4 ,not a rock on which you can stand1 and no mountain to gladden the eye2 you seem to have left the older parts of creation to witness the encroachments which the earth is continually making upon the empire of the sea2 and on arriving at the mouth of the ,mississippi1 you find the grand instruments of nature in active operation1 producing with slow1 but certain gradations1 the same results4 ,a destructive ,insect4 ,but ,i will not enlarge on a fact already familiar4 ,i will ask your further indulgence only1 while ,i communicate an authentic and curious fact for the information of the zoologist4 ,in the ,choctaw country1 one hundred and thirty miles northeast of ,natchez1 a part of the public road is rendered famous on account of the periodical return of a poisonous and destructive fly4 ,contrary to the custom of other insects1 it always appears when the cold weather commences in ,december1 and as invariably disappears on the approach of warm weather1 which is about the first of ,april4 ,it is said to have been remarked first in the winter of #ahjg1 during a snowstorm2 when its effects upon cattle and horses were observed to be similar to those of the gnat and musqueto1 in summer1 except that they were more severe4 ,it continued to return at the same season of the year1 without producing extensive mischief1 until the winter of #ahaf1 when it began to be generally fatal to the horses of travellers4 ,so far as ,i recollect1 it was stated1 that from thirty to forty travelling horses were destroyed during this winter4 ,the consequences were alarming4 ,in the wilderness1 where a man's horse is his chief dependence1 the traveller was surprised and distressed to see the beast sicken and die in convulsions1 sometimes within three hours after encountering this little insect4 ,or if the animal were fortunate enough to live1 a sickness followed1 commonly attended with the sudden and entire shedding of the hair1 which rendered the brute unfit for use4 ,unwilling to believe that effects so dreadful could be produced by a cause apparently trifling1 travellers began to suspect that the ,indians1 or others1 of whom they obtained food for their horses1 had1 for some base and selfish end1 mingled poison with it4 ,the greatest precaution was observed4 ,they refused to stop at any house on the way1 and carried1 for the distance of forty or fifty miles1 their own provision2 but after all suffered the same calamities4 ,this excited a serious inquiry into the true cause of their distress4 ,the fly1 which has been mentioned1 was known to be a most singular insect1 and peculiarly troublesome to horses4 ,at length it was admitted by all1 that the cause of the evils complained of could be no other than this insect4 ,other precautions have since been observed1 particularly that of riding over the road infested with it in the night2 and now it happens that comparatively few horses are destroyed4 ,i am unable to describe it from my own observation4 ,i passed over the same road in ,april last1 only two weeks after it disappeared1 and was obliged to take the description from others4 ,its colour is a dark brown2 it has an elongated head1 with a small and sharp proboscis2 and is in size between the gnat and musqueto4 ,when it alights upon a horse1 it darts through the hair1 much like a gnat1 and never quits its hold until removed by force4 ,when a horse stops to drink1 swarms fly about the head1 and crowd into the mouth1 nostrils1 and ears2 hence it is supposed the poison is communicated inwardly4 ,whether this be true or not1 the most fatal consequences result4 ,it is singular1 that from the time of its first appearance1 it has never extended for a greater distance than forty miles1 in one direction1 and usually1 it is confined to fifteen miles4 ,in no other part of the country has it ever been seen4 ,from this fact1 it would seem probable that the cause of its existence is local4 ,but what it is1 none can tell4 ,after the warm weather commences1 it disappears as effectually from human observation1 as if it were annihilated4 ,towards the close of ,december it springs up all at once into being again1 and resumes the work of destruction4 ,a fact1 so singular1 ,i could not have ventured to state1 without the best evidence of its reality4 ,all the circumstances here related1 are familiar to hundreds1 and were in almost every man's mouth1 when ,i passed through the country4 ,in addition to this1 they were confirmed by the account which ,i received from ,col4 ,john ,m',kee1 a gentleman of much intelligence and respectability1 who is the present agent of the general government for the ,choctaw nation4 ,he has consented to obtain specimens of the insect for your examination1 when it returns again2 and will1 ,i hope1 accompany the transmission with a more perfect description than it has been possible for me to communicate4 ,in concluding this narrative of facts1 ,i should be glad to take a comprehensive view of the whole4 ,the bold features in the geology of the ,united ,states1 as they are drawn by the ,blue ,ridge1 the ,cumberland with its associated mountains1 and the ,dividing ,ridge1 deserve to be distinctly and strongly impressed upon the mind4 ,such is the order and regularity of their arrangement1 that they can hardly fail to conduct the attentive observer to important results4 ,what has now been said of them1 is but an epitome of the whole4 ,i trust the public will soon read1 in the pages of your ,journal1 a detail more perfect and more interesting4 ,and allow me to suggest1 whether1 under the auspices of our learned societies1 some men of science might not be employed and supported in exploring the country1 with the prospect of greatly enlarging the science of our country1 and of enriching our ,journals and ,cabinets of ,natural ,history4 ,tours of discovery have often been made for other objects1 and with success4 ,our country yields to no other in the variety1 or the value of its natural productions4 ,we owe it to ourselves and to the world1 to search them out with diligence and without delay4 ,somers1 7,n4 ,y47 ,oct4 #ahah4 ,,art4 ,,ii4 ,on the ,origin of ,prairies4 ,st4 ,louis1 7,missouri ,ter47 ,march #c1 #ahai4 ,,sir1 ,the probable cause of the origin and continuance of prairies has been the subject of much speculation among the learned and curious4 ,the inquiry is interesting2 and many theories have arisen2 but although plausible and ingenious1 they are1 in my opinion1 unfounded in fact4 ,i should be glad to see the following remarks1 which were called forth more particularly by the speculations of ,caleb ,atwater1 ,esq4 7,see ,no4 #b4 p4 #aaf4 of this work7 appear in your valuable ,journal of ,science2 and they are1 for that purpose1 at your service4 ,with high respect1 ,i am1 ,sir1 your's1 ,r4 ,w4 ,,wells4 ,benjamin ,silliman1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,atwater1 after describing the prairies and barrens1 says1 that according to the common opinion1 they were occasioned entirely by the burning of the woods1 but1 erroneous information first propagated such an opinion1 and blind credulity has extended it down to us4 ,mr4 ,a4 goes on to affirm that1 wherever prairies and barrens are found1 there1 for a long space of time1 water once stood1 but was gradually drained off4 ,the writer of this having often visited and observed with attention the nature and appearance of the prairies on the ,alleghany mountains1 in the states of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 and having long been employed by the ,united ,states as a surveyor in the prairie country of the ,missouri and ,missisippi1 thinks he may venture to oppose these speculations without being thought presumptuous4 ,he is of opinion1 that the vast prairies and barrens1 extending over the greater part of the western states1 and over nearly all ,louisiana1 were primitively occasioned1 and have been since continued1 by the combustion of vegetables1 and that water had no agency in their formation4 ,in order to prove the high prairies of the state of ,ohio to have been once covered by the waters of ,lake ,erie1 ,mr4 ,a4 maintains1 that the channel of the ,niagara river has been worn down several hundred feet by the attrition of its waters4 ,mr4 ,a4 should have shown1 that the banks of the ,niagara are1 at this time1 several hundred feet high1 or1 like the ,potomac1 at ,harper's ,ferry1 has broken through a mountain several hundred feet high2 but neither the one nor the other is the fact2 the face of the country1 on either side of the river1 is comparatively low and champaign2 and were it possible for the waters of the lake to rise considerably above their present level1 they would meet with no obstruction or impediment1 for many miles on either side the river1 but would be precipitated over the cataract1 into ,ontario1 and down the ,st4 ,lawrence to the ,atlantic4 ,but supposing there had been a mountain running between ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario of sufficient height to prevent the water of the former from passing into the latter1 it must evidently have found other places through which to escape1 and before it would rise high enough to overflow the elevated region of ,madison and ,fayette counties1 in ,ohio1 it would have passed over into the heads of the ,alleghany4 ,but it is impossible to imagine this1 unless we suppose the ,atlantic to have been six or seven hundred feet higher than at present1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,a4 would have made prairie of all the ,atlantic states4 ,the fact of shells and other marine substances having been found in a few places1 by digging in the prairies1 proves nothing1 or proves too much1 for they are found in equal or greater quantities all over ,america1 in the sides and near the summit of the ,alleghany mountains2 on the ,andes1 in ,south ,america1 and the ,alps1 in ,europe4 ,the resemblance which the soil1 in the low prairies1 and not in the high1 bears to the alluvial1 can justly be attributed1 it is presumed1 to the leaves and other vegetables and light materials of which they are composed1 having been washed by heavy rains1 for ages past1 from the higher to the lower places4 ,this will also account for the circumstance of trees growing upon the summits of the hills of steep ascent3 being thin and poor1 the grass neither grows sufficiently long or thick to kill the timber when fired4 ,they could not have been islands in this fairy lake2 because their summits are frequently much lower than high prairie flats a few miles distant4 ,these are facts which will be recollected by those who have ever travelled through a prairie country of any extent4 ,but suppose it to have been proved1 that the waters of ,lake ,erie once overspread the state of ,ohio1 from its present shore to ,chillicothe1 7a supposition which ,i trust has however been shown to be visionary7 does it follow that the prairies were occasioned by such overflowing8 ,if the water1 by covering the country1 prevented the timber from growing1 should we not naturally look for the largest timber on the higher grounds which would be first forsaken by the waters1 and for small timber on the low grounds1 where the water remained longest8 ,if this be true1 7and it is unquestionable7 we should then look for prairies on the low grounds bordering on ,lakes ,erie1 ,huron1 and ,michigan2 and the thickly timbered country would be on the high land1 near the sources of the rivers4 ,but the contrary is absolutely the fact3 we find heavy timbered land1 and no prairies1 in the low countries north of the lakes1 and none south1 either in ,michigan territory or elsewhere1 until we arrive near the sources of the rivers4 ,it is true1 that the water standing in ponds will prevent the timber from growing2 but the difference is readily observed between prairies1 properly so called1 and those bogs4 ,but to prove farther that water had no agency in bringing the prairies into existence1 we may mention those on and near the summit of the ,alleghany mountains1 7principally in ,alleghany ,county4#dg7 ,many of those prairies are ten or twelve miles in length1 and three or four in width4 ,will it be pretended that the sides of those mountains were also lakes8 ,farther--the most extensive prairies known1 are the very high plains immediately west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and east of the mountains near the sources of the ,arkansaw and ,missouri rivers1 extending even on the spurs of those mountains2 a country the highest perhaps in ,north ,america1 with a great and continued descent to the ,pacific on the one side1 and to the ,gulf of ,mexico on the other4 ,the barrens1 also1 found in ,kentucky1 are another evidence that water had no agency in their formation--they are situate1 it is believed1 in the elevated parts of the country exclusively4 ,the writer of this1 deeming it unnecessary to say more1 or to produce more facts1 7although much more may be said1 and many more facts produced7 to prove that prairies were not lakes1 will now endeavour to prove that they were occasioned by the combustion of vegetables4 ,prairies are found in those countries only that are congenial to the growth of grass1 and only where the soil is sufficiently rich to produce it luxuriantly--they are found commonly on high plains1 sufficiently drained to prevent water from remaining on them the whole year2 for it is by no means necessary that they should be always dry2 on the contrary1 if they are sufficiently level to prevent the rains from running off immediately1 the grass will grow thicker and higher--but they must be sufficiently dry to burn1 at least once in two or three years1 during the long1 dry season1 called ,indian summer4 ,it has been universally remarked1 that these seasons are much longer as we proceed westerly--commencing usually in ,october1 and continuing a month and a half or two months1 during which the vegetation is killed by the frosts1 and dried by the sun2 the wet prairies are also dried1 and before the season has expired1 the grass is perfectly combustible4 ,the ,indians1 it is presumed1 7and the writer1 from a residence in their country and with them1 is well acquainted with their customs7 burn the woods1 not ordinarily for the purpose of taking or catching game1 as suggested by ,mr4 ,a4 but for many other advantages attending that practice4 ,if the woods be not burned as usual1 the hunter finds it impossible to kill the game1 which1 alarmed at the great noise made in walking through the dry grass and leaves1 flee in all directions at his approach4 ,also the ,indians travel much during the winter1 from one village to another1 and to and from the various hunting grounds1 which becomes extremely painful and laborious1 from the quantity of briers1 vines1 grass1 c4 ,to remedy these and many other inconveniences1 even the woods were originally burned so as to cause prairies1 and for the same and like reasons they continue to be burned towards the close of the ,indian summer4 ,woodland is not commonly changed to prairie by one burning1 but by several successive conflagrations2 the first will kill the undergrowth1 which causing a greater opening1 and admitting the sun and air more freely1 increases the quantity of grass the ensuing season3 the conflagration consequently increases1 and is now sufficiently powerful to destroy the smaller timber2 and on the third year you behold an open prairie4 ,ordinarily1 all the country1 of a nature to become prairie1 is already in that state2 yet the writer of this has seen1 in the country between the ,missouri and ,mississippi1 after unusual dry seasons1 more than one hundred acres of woodland together converted into prairie4 ,and again1 where the grass has been prevented from burning by accidental causes1 or the prairie has been depastured by large herds of domestic cattle1 it will assume1 in a few years1 the appearance of a young forest4 ,numerous proofs of this fact can be adduced1 but a few shall suffice4 ,the vicinity of ,st4 ,louis and ,st4 ,charles affords instances4 ,both these beautiful places are situated on what are termed first and second bottoms1 or flats--the former on the ,missisippi1 the latter on the ,missouri2 the second or upper bottoms1 in both1 are high plains1 that commence within a few hundred yards of the rivers1 and extend back many miles2 all the old ,french inhabitants will tell you1 that the prairies formerly came immediately up to those places4 ,now the surrounding country for several miles is covered with a growth of trees of four or five inches diameter1 near the towns where the burning first ceased1 and gradually diminishing in size as you recede1 until you at length gain the open prairies4 ,so the barrens in ,kentucky2 many of the first settlers of that state distinctly recollect when many of those barrens were clear prairies1 now partially covered with small trees4 ,it is deemed unnecessary to offer more proofs1 or additional arguments1 in support of the opinion that the prairies were occasioned by fire1 and not by water4 ,indeed one glance at the maps of those extensive prairie countries1 surveyed by order of government1 where the prairies and woodland are distinguished and correctly delineated1 should carry conviction4 ,the timber will be there observed to skirt the rivers2 in the country near their sources a few solitary trees are seen1 close on the banks1 secure from the fires1 and increasing in numbers as the rivers increase in size1 and the low grounds become more extensive4 ,the view given of the prairies by ,mr4 ,a4 is correct2 but was certainly painted in the winter season--they are1 at that season1 bleak and uncomfortable both to the feelings and sight2 but a full return is made to both when the spring opens4 ,the prairies 7particularly to the west7 are then covered with the richest verdure1 interspersed with an immense variety of wild flowers1 that send forth the most grateful odours4 ,ascend one of the small hills1 and you have a prospect as delightful as it is possible for the imagination to conceive4 ,far as the eye can carry you1 a delightful country extends1 through which numerous streams wind their serpentine courses1 with groves and clumps of trees at intervals upon their banks4 ,on one hand1 at an immense distance1 the small hills and groves are seen rising above the blue horizon2 on the other1 the view is pleasantly terminated by the wood on the low grounds skirting the river to which the smaller streams are tributary--while herds of buffalo1 elk1 deer1 and other animals1 are frequently seen slowly travelling to and from the watering-places1 or grazing on the plains4 ,the inhabited parts of the country present a prospect still more pleasing2 around the margin of those extensive rich prairies1 numerous habitations are seen1 withdrawn a short distance in the wood1 from the winter's cold and summer's heat--their finely cultivated fields lie in the prairies1 which yield at once to the plough1 without the previous ,herculean labour of demolishing the forest4 ,the area between the farms is a common of pasture to the numerous herds during the spring1 summer1 and autumn1 and a small part mowed affords hay for the winter4 ,the farmer who takes up his habitation in the neighbourhood of the prairies1 has many of the advantages of an old inhabited country1 and all the advantages of the new4 ,,art4 ,,iii4 ,sketch of the ,mineralogy and ,geology of the ,vicinity of ,williams' ,college1 ,williamstown1 ,mass4 ,by ,,professor ,,dewey1 of ,williams' ,college1 in a letter to the ,editor4 ,the following sketch includes a space extending from ,hoosack mountain on the east1 to the ,state of ,new-,york on the west1 and a small distance into ,vermont on the north4 ,the accompanying map shows the relative situation of the streams1 and the principal hills and mountains4 ,the map is an enlarged copy of ,carleton's map of this part of the state1 with one or two corrections1 which truth required4 ,the latitude and longitude are probably not perfectly accurate4 ,illustration3 ,a ,geological ,,map of a part of ,massachusetts on ,connecticut ,river #ahag4 ,illustration3 ,transverse ,section of ,rock ,strata from ,hoosack ,mountain to ,eleven ,miles ,east of ,connecticut ,river4 ,williams' ,college is situated in a valley1 having on the west the hills of the ,taconick#dh range2 on the east1 ,saddle ,mountain1 which separates it for the most part from ,adams2 and on the north1 and northeast1 two hills which belong to the southwestern part of the range of the ,green ,mountains4 ,hoosack ,river1 rising several miles at the southeast1 and passing through the northeastern part of ,williamstown1 winds its course northwest1 to the ,hudson4 ,it is an inconsiderable stream1 about six rods in width1 and its current is rapid4 ,from the south1 runs ,green ,river1 a smaller stream1 and enters the ,hoosack one mile northeast of the college4 ,the green colour of this stream1 appears to be caused by a magnesian clay1 which is washed from its banks at the south part of the town4 ,at the west is ,westbrook1 rising in ,williamstown1 and entering the ,hoosack one mile and a half northwest of the college4 ,the soil in this whole tract is generally clayey1 rather light for such a soil1 and very rich4 ,a gravelly soil appears in a few places1 especially at the northern part4 ,the interval on the ,hoosack extends only a small distance from its banks1 rarely exceeding1 and often much less1 than half a mile1 and presents the common appearances of alluvial land4 ,rising from ten to twenty feet above this interval1 the soil is in various places filled with rolled stones of quartz and limestone1 as if the ,hoosack had once been much above the banks which confine it at present4 ,it is not improbable that its waters were formerly intercepted by the hills in ,pownal1 five miles at the northwest1 forming a small lake in this valley4 ,the hills of the ,taconick range1 7,a#di7 on which passes the line between ,massachusetts and ,new-,york1 have generally an elevation from twelve hundred to fourteen hundred feet2 ,pownal ,mountain 7,b7 on the north1 about fourteen hundred2 and ,oak hill 7,d7 on the northeast1 twelve hundred feet above the east college 7,c47 ,saddle ,mountain 7,,ef7 is an insulated mass1 separated from the ,taconick range by the valley of ,williamstown1 and from ,hoosack ,mountain1 by the valley in ,adams4 ,it lies about south southwest1 and is nearly eight miles in length1 and two in breadth4 ,it is composed of two ranges1 the eastern and highest 7,,fg7 being in ,adams4 ,the mountain has its name from two of its peaks1 which present at a distance the appearance of the two elevations of a saddle4 ,the west range 7,e7 is divided into two parts quite to its base1 which with the slope of the east range encloses1 on three sides1 an irregular hollow1 called the ,hopper47,h7 ,the northern part 7,e7 of the west range is nearly two miles in length1 and rises to the height of eighteen hundred feet2 the southern 7,i7 rises abruptly into a peak of the elevation of seventeen hundred feet4 ,the height of the valley between the two ranges is about fourteen hundred feet4 ,you enter the ,hopper from the west1 passing along a branch of ,green ,river1 and a romantic1 wild1 and sublime prospect opens before you4 ,nearly east of the entrance into the ,hopper1 lies the highest point of the ,saddle1 familiarly called ,gray ,lock1 7,f7 being about twenty-eight hundred feet above the college1 and probably four thousand feet above the tide-water of the ,hudson at ,troy4 ,this is the highest land in ,massachusetts4 ,about two miles north northeast1 is the northern peak 7,g7 elevated twenty-three hundred feet4 ,the valley in ,adams is bounded on the east by ,hoosack mountain1 7,k7 elevated from fourteen hundred to eighteen hundred feet1 and extending several miles west of south3 it forms a part of the range which commences at ,west ,rock in ,connecticut4 ,the country included in this sketch is principally primitive2 lying on the west of the summit of the primitive range1 which passes southerly into ,connecticut4 ,the rocks and minerals will be mentioned in the following order4 #a4 ,granite4 ,a few pieces have been found at the foot of ,oak hill1 one mile northeast of the college4 ,it consists principally of feldspar4 ,four miles east1 are large masses of granite on both sides of the ,hoosack1 and on ascending ,hoosack mountain they become more numerous4 ,the principal part of this is quartz1 often of a purple colour2 the mica black1 and the rocks exceedingly hard4 ,i have never noticed any minerals imbedded in it4 ,the vortex of ,pownal mountain is also granitic4 #b4 ,gneiss and ,mica ,slate4 ,i connect these two1 because they are not often distinct1 and appear to pass into each other4 ,they are found in large strata on ,hoosack ,mountain1 on a hill 7,l7 connected with ,saddle ,mountain1 and on the east side of ,saddle ,mountain4 ,the highest and the west ridge of ,saddle ,mountain are mica slate4 ,the ,hopper shows the inclination of the strata quite to the base of the mountain4 ,the inclination is to the east and northeast1 from ten to forty degrees4 ,on the southwest mountain of ,saddle1 the strata are bare to the summit for a considerable distance1 and are very fine grained mica slate1 having somewhat the appearance of a soapstone slate4 ,by this name they are called in ,mr4 ,eaton's ,index to ,geology4 ,some of the rocks appear to be talcose4 ,i have been able1 however1 to detect but a very minute quantity of magnesia in any specimens ,i have tried1 though ,i obtained a considerable proportion of alumine4 ,the higher hills of the ,taconick range are composed principally of a similar slate1 lying in the same direction1 and with similar inclination2 but it appears to have passed still farther from mica slate4 ,at the northwest corner of the state1 which is near the foot of the ridge in this place1 the rock is very similar to some of that on the southwest mountain mentioned above4 ,about a mile northwest of this corner1 the rocks are cleft in several places1 and in one1 to such a depth1 that the snow and ice remain here through the year4 ,the ,snow ,hole 7,m7 is about thirty feet long1 and nearly as deep at the east end1 ascends to the west1 or towards the summit of the ridge1 and is from ten to twenty feet wide4 ,when ,i visited it in ,june1 the snow was six feet deep on ice of unknown depth4 ,the rock is here passing into argillaceous slate2 and in many places it becomes argillaceous and chlorite slate4 ,for the other rock1 you have1 ,i believe1 proposed the name talcose slate4 #c4 ,quartz4 ,though quartz is scattered through all the preceding rock in masses of different sizes1 it is found in great quantity on the northeast part of ,saddle ,mountain1 #cjj or #djj feet above the college1 and thence to the ,hoosack along the side of the hill 7,l47 ,it is granular1 often white and translucent1 and often coloured with oxyd of iron4 ,it forms ,stone ,hill1 7,n7 a mile southwest of the college1 on the vertex of which is argillaceous slate4 ,this hill slopes to ,west ,brook1 where quartz often forms perpendicular banks from #ej to #ajj feet high4 ,here also argillaceous slate rests on the quartz1 as well as on the vertex1 and on the east side of ,stone ,hill4 ,quartz appears again on the opposite side of ,west ,brook1 but further north1 on a hill connected with the ,taconick range4 ,on these two hills1 it lies in large strata1 inclining1 like the mica slate1 to the east and northeast1 often divided by veins into rhomboidal masses4 ,on the east side of ,stone ,hill1 it is more granular1 and may perhaps be called arenaceous quartz1 containing a larger proportion of iron4 ,near the base of ,hoosack ,mountain1 similar quartz is found1 which extends round the north side of the ,hoosack to ,oak ,hill1 7,d7 which is wholly composed of it4 ,it lies in rounded fragments1 called hardheads1 through the northern part of the valley1 and on the sides of ,oak ,hill in huge rocks1 presenting nearly perpendicular fronts from #bj to #ej feet in height1 and many rods in length4 ,the strata are in some places horizontal1 and in others nearly perpendicular4 ,in one place it forms plates1 from #b to #e feet on a side1 and from half an inch to several inches in thickness1 which are nearly perfect rhomboids1 the edges never being perpendicular to the sides4 ,most of the quartz1 except the white1 yields a small portion of lime1 and has been called calcareous quartz4 ,greasy quartz1 rose quartz1 hornstone1 and rock crystal1 are occasionally found2 the last in considerable quantity south of ,stone ,hill4 ,on the stream which issues from the ,hopper1 is arenaceous quartz of a slaty structure1 which is an excellent stone for sharpening the chisels used by stonecutters4 #d4 ,granular ,limestone is abundant at the ,cave or ,falls1 in ,adams1 and on both sides of the ,hoosack4 ,the ,cave or ,falls1 7,o7 is a singular chasm between limestone rocks4 ,a small stream1 which appears once to have run on the surface of the hollow between two small elevations1 has now worn a passage many feet in depth through the limestone4 ,the chasm is narrow1 winding in its course several rods long1 and its opposite sides were connected1 till four years ago1 by a natural bridge of limestone4 ,from the bridge to the water is #gj feet4 ,there is a dark cavern of several feet diameter1 and some passages into the rocks4 ,the white marble walls1 the foaming of the water below1 the piles and irregularity of the rocks1 and the thick overhanging trees1 make the scene very wild and interesting4 ,the limestone rests on mica slate4 ,on the west bank of the ,hoosack1 and east base of the hill1 7,l7 the same coarse-grained and white limestone is found1 resting on the mica slate at the west of it4 ,at the north and west base of ,saddle ,mountain1 7,e7 and at a less elevation than the quartz1 are extensive strata of limestone1 inclining the same way as the mica slate of the mountain4 ,it is less distinctly granular1 and less white than the other1 but belongs to the same rock4 ,it forms tolerably good marble4 ,between the strata are crystals of carbonate of lime1 rhomboidal1 and tending to the lenticular form4 ,some of these strata appear to be composed of blended crystals of this kind4 ,in one place are strata of several rods in length and breadth1 which are inclined to the southwest1 and thus lie against the mica slate of the mountain4 ,the inclination is about forty-five degrees4 ,unless this limestone be connected with that on the east of ,saddle ,mountain1 7and no connexion has yet been traced17 it must be considered as lying on both sides of the mica slate1 or alternating with it4 #e4 ,argillaceous ,slate rests on quartz on ,stone ,hill1 and is also found low down in the valley connected with limestone4 ,it constitutes the hill 7,p7 connected with the ,taconick range1 and also ,northwest hill1 7,q7 whose base is compact limestone4 ,a few miles north1 this slate is distinctly marked1 and in about #ab miles1 forms hills of roof slate in ,hosack1 ,new-,york4 ,it is annually carried in large quantities to ,albany4 ,on the first-mentioned hill1 it contains some talc4 #f4 ,aluminous slate4 ,this is found in argillaceous slate1 in ,pownal1 #e miles north1 at the base of a hill east of the ,hoosack4 ,it is used to set colours4 #g4 ,chlorite4 ,in rounded masses1 generally with quartz1 scattered through the valley in ,williamstown1 and found at an elevation of some hundred feet on the hills of the ,taconick range4 ,chlorite slate has already been mentioned as occurring on the same range4 #h4 ,rubble ,stone4 ,in rounded masses through the valley4 #i4 ,compact ,limestone4 ,in several places low in the valley4 ,near the college it is white and deep gray4 ,in the veins of the latter1 talc is diffused in all directions4 ,it contains silex1 often from #c to #ae per cent41 and sometimes gives fire with steel4 ,in some cases it is earthy4 ,on ,green ,river1 one and a half mile south of the college1 it lies in thin strata1 which are divided by seams into very regular rhomboidal plates of various sizes4 ,on some scattered fragments on this river1 are found carbonate of lime in crystals1 with pieces of white feldspar4 ,on ,west ,brook1 this gray limestone is traversed by a vein of quartz1 containing sulphuret of iron4 ,the strata of this rock are almost invariably inclined to the east4 ,a coarse soapstone is found in the limestone near the college1 and a vein made up of brown argillaceous slate1 soapstone1 quartz1 and sulphuret of iron1 passes through it4 ,this limestone appears to be very different from that at the base of ,saddle ,mountain1 and from that which yields the marble of ,berkshire county4 ,it may still be primitive1 but primitive compact limestone4 #aj4 ,granitell of ,kirwan1 ,quartz1 and ,feldspar4 ,this aggregate forms extensive strata at the east base of ,stone ,hill4 ,the feldspar is diffused in grains through the quartz1 and sometimes crystalline1 forming porphyritic quartz4 ,this aggregate is often compact and very hard1 but frequently it is porous and hard1 forming good millstones4 ,sometimes the quartz appears in such fragments1 that the stone resembles breccia4 #aa4 ,black ,tourmaline4 ,in beautiful small six-sided prisms1 in scattered pieces of mica slate at the base of ,stone ,hill4 #ab4 ,amianthus4 ,only a small specimen1 attached to argillaceous slate4 #ac4 ,bitter ,spar4 ,on compact limestone at ,west ,brook4 ,some of the crystals are rhomboids1 and some appear to be the half of rhomboids split through their longer diagonal4 #ad4 ,jasper4 ,the common brown or red1 and black1 in small rounded masses1 and also a piece of variegated or striped jasper4 #ae4 ,galena4 ,only a specimen in the limestone on ,west ,brook4 #af4 ,iron ,ore4 ,bog ore on the ,hoosack1 a mile northeast of the college4 ,yellow earth1 from which yellow ochre is obtained in great quantity1 in a hill 7,r7 on the bank of ,green ,river1 #b miles south of the college4 ,at the north end of ,saddle ,mountain1 but low down1 yellow earth is connected with reddle1 or a substance much resembling it4 ,it is less hard than the common reddle1 but is composed of the same ingredients4 ,magnetic ,oxyd of ,iron1 regular octahedrons1 in mica slate at the base of ,stone ,hill4 ,supersulphuret of ,iron1 massive and crystallized1 in argillaceous slate1 mica slate1 compact limestone1 and quartz4 #ag4 ,prase4 ,beautiful1 and containing sulphuret of iron2 lately found by ,mr4 ,eaton1 a little east of the summit of ,hoosack ,mountain1 in ,florida4 #ah4 ,puddingstone4 ,where ,pownal ,mountain reaches the ,hoosack1 7,t7 #c miles north of the college1 are some hills of this aggregate4 ,it is composed of rounded masses of quartz1 chlorite1 and limestone1 of various sizes1 connected by an argillaceous cement4 #ai4 ,potters' ,clay4 ,excellent for vessels of common pottery4 ,the minerals of this section1 it is obvious1 are not very important2 but as connected with a transverse section of the country1 they possess considerable interest4 ,for this reason they have been particularly mentioned4 ,in the north part of ,williamstown is a mineral spring1 familiarly called the ,sand ,spring 7,s47 ,the water rises from several places in a reservoir of about a rod in diameter1 and from one to three feet deep4 ,it is very soft and warm1 but contains very little saline or earthy matter4 ,gas continually rises in it4 ,it appears much to resemble the spring at ,new ,lebanon1 ,new-,york1 and has proved useful in the cure particularly of some cutaneous diseases4 ,the transverse section1 connected with the map1 passes over ,stone ,hill1 and the north part of ,saddle ,mountain4 ,the different rocks are shown in the section1 directly below their places on the map1 by drawing lines from the several strata parallel to the sides of the map4 ,this section is connected with that given by ,mr4 ,hitchcock1 in the #b;d number of this ,journal4 ,it ought perhaps to be mentioned1 that according to ,mr4 ,eaton's account1 the granite of this section sinks under gneiss to the east1 and rises again in ,hampshire ,county1 supporting the same rock of gneiss2 but where it reappears1 the granite contains many imbedded minerals4 ,this section corresponds generally to the place and character of the minerals in any section across ,berkshire county4 ,there are1 however1 some peculiarities which may be mentioned at a future day4 ,the colouring corresponds to that on the geological map in ,cleaveland's ,mineralogy4 ,c4 ,,dewey4 ,williams' ,college1 ,jan4 #bg1 #ahai4 ,p4,s4 ,i have a part of a rock crystal1 which contains1 in a hollow1 a liquid and a little air1 and some black or brown particles1 which just sink in the liquid4 ,it was found several years since at ,diamond ,hill in ,catskill4 ,this hill is only a small eminence on the bank of the creek at that place1 composed of limestone1 7if ,i have been correctly informed17 between the strata of which1 and on the side next the creek1 this and other rock crystals were found4 ,i believe1 ,sir1 you have one like the above1 obtained from the same place4 ,the crystal1 which was generously given me by ,mr4 ,van ,loon1 who found it1 is only a part of two crystals connected at their bases4 ,partly under one of the solid angles formed by the united pyramids1 is the hollow1 about inch long1 about filled with the air1 and about inch wide4 ,the principal curiosity about it is the liquid4 ,it has never been known to freeze4 ,it was exposed yesterday morning an hour to an atmosphere #d and #e degrees below zero4 ,it became less fluid1 for the bubble of air moved with less ease and rapidity4 ,still the liquid was fluid4 ,its colour1 which is naturally white1 had a slight tinge of yellow4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,schaeffer of ,new-,york supposes the black particles are bitumen4 ,is it possible the liquid is naptha8 ,this oil is sometimes colourless1 and does not congeal at zero1 and that which ,i distilled from the ,seneca oil1 does congeal at some degrees below zero4 ,it can hardly be salt water1 unless it be very salt1 and even then1 it would have congealed at the temperature of the air yesterday4 ,what way can be devised to ascertain what it is8 ,jan4 #cj1 #ahai4 ,after seeing the notice of the crystals found at ,hudson by ,mr4 ,schaeffer1 ,i wrote to a member of the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history1 ,new-,york1 rather more full an account than the above1 of my crystal1 c4 ,i hope to ascertain1 whether the liquid will congeal at #aj or #bj below #j1 but have some fear lest the crystal should be injured4 ,c4 ,d4 ,,art4 ,,iv4 ,on the ,tourmalines and other ,minerals found at ,chesterfield and ,goshen1 ,massachusetts1 by ,col4 ,,george ,,gibbs4 7,for the ,american ,journal of ,science47 ,the schorl of the mineralogists of the last century united a variety of substances which subsequent observations have separated into several species4 ,the green schorl is now the epidote1 or the ,vesuvian1 or the actynolite4 ,the violet schorl1 and the lenticular schorl1 are the axinite4 ,the black volcanic schorl is the augite4 ,the white ,vesuvian schorl is the sommite4 ,the white grenatiform is the leucite4 ,the white prismatic is the pycnite1 a species of the topaz1 and another is a variety of feldspar4 ,of the blue schorl1 one variety is the oxyd of titanium1 another the sappare1 and another the phosphate of iron4 ,the schorl cruciform is the granatite4 ,the octahedral schorl is the octahedrite1 or anatase4 ,the red schorl of ,hungary1 and the purple of ,madagascar1 are varieties of the oxyd of titanium4 ,the spathique schorl is the spodumen4 ,the black schorl1 and the electric schorl1 only remained1 and to avoid the confusion created by the use of the term schorl1 the name of tourmaline was given to this species by that celebrated mineralogist1 the ,abb ,hay4#ej ,the tourmaline is found of almost every colour1 and this variety of colour caused at first a number to be formed into new species2 which are now considered only as varieties of the tourmaline3 such as the rubellite1 the tourmaline apyre1 and indicolite4 ,the different analyses of the tourmaline1 however1 affords a greater variety of results than is known in almost any other mineral4 ,the specific gravity of the black varies from #c4jh to #c4cf ,green from #c4ae to #c4cf ,red from #b4hg to #c4aj ,analysis gives ,silex from #ce to #eh ,alumine #bj to #dh ,magnesia #j to #aj ,iron #j to #bc ,manganese #j to #ac ,alkali #j to #aj ,water #j to #d ,these differences must be in some measure ascribed to a defect in the accuracy of some of the analyses4 ,but it appears that iron has not been discovered in the red tourmaline4 ,it is not unworthy of notice1 that the red tourmaline is considered as infusible1 but the others fusible4 ,the red tourmaline has been the most valued1 from its scarcity1 its employment in jewelry1 and the beauty of its crystals4 ,it has been discovered in ,siberia1 in ,moravia1 in the ,east-,indies1 and in ,massachusetts4 ,in ,siberia it is found in a vein of decomposed feldspar in a fine-grained granite1 with black tourmaline4 ,in ,moravia with quartz and lepidolite 7or rose-coloured mica7 in gneiss4 ,in the ,east-,indies1 at ,ava and ,ceylon1 but its geological situation is not known1 though it is probably in gneiss or granite4 ,the red or rose tourmaline of ,massachusetts1 is found chiefly at ,chesterfield1 in a subordinate bed of granite1 contained in mica slate4 ,the mica slate is the predominant rock of the country4 ,it is fine grained1 and contains an abundance of small garnets4 ,direction of the strata north and south1 varying a little easterly2 inclination perpendicular4 ,the bed of granite is about three hundred feet long1 and from five to twenty feet broad4 ,it is contained in a narrow ridge of mica slate1 which descends into1 and is lost in1 a valley4 ,the sides are precipitous2 the highest part is about forty feet high4 ,on the east side a considerable part of the granite has been destroyed by natural causes1 leaving the granite bare4 ,the granite consists chiefly of granular feldspar1 with grains of white quartz1 and a little light coloured mica1 is moderately fine grained1 and of a grayish white colour4 ,in addition to tourmaline1 it contains also emerald1 some of the crystals of which are from three to five inches in diameter4 ,i succeeded in getting one out of its matrix1 which is three and a half inches in diameter1 and its summit 7which is a plane without any additional facettes7 is perfect4 ,the tourmalines are contained chiefly in a false vein of silicious feldspar and quartz1 which begins in the centre of the upper edge of the bed of granite1 and passes obliquely1 descending to the northeast1 about twenty feet1 where it is intercepted from sight by the mica slate4 ,the vein is about one and a half foot thick in the upper part1 and not more than six or eight inches where it is lost4 ,this vein of silicious feldspar contains also a vein of bluish white transparent quartz1 which is from three to eight inches thick1 and passes through the centre of the vein of feldspar4 ,when ,i first examined this rock1 soon after its discovery by ,dr4 ,hunt1 of ,northampton1 ,i determined the feldspar to be a new variety1 which has been since confirmed by ,professor ,hauffman1 and now ranks as a new sub-species1 under the name of silicious feldspar4 7,p4 #da1 of the ,mineralogical ,table47 ,the analysis of ,professor ,stromeyer1 of ,gottingen1 gives1 ,silex #gj4fh ,alumine #ai4hj ,soda #i4je ,iron1 ,mag4 and ,lime 4#ch ----- #ii4ia ,the chief difference between this and the adularia is1 that one contains fourteen potash and the other nine soda4 ,between this and the saussurite1 or tenacious feldspar1 the one contains eleven of lime1 and the other only a trace4 ,the silicious feldspar1 which ,i suspect to be the basis of the granite1 crystallizes in thin rhomboidal tables4 ,they are very frangible1 and have one clivage perpendicular to the faces of the tables4 ,sometimes the tables have one lateral edge or more truncated4 ,in one fragment of a crystal ,i observed a very obtuse acumination on the table1 which appeared to be diedral1 the sides being placed on the obtuse lateral edges of the tables4 ,on account of the extreme frangibility of the crystals1 it is certainly extremely difficult to seize their characters4 ,specific gravity only #b4ccc1 probably owing to interstices between the tables4 ,the colour is white1 translucid1 passing to semi-transparent2 lustre sometimes dull1 at others shining4 ,the tables are sometimes so aggregated that their edges being exposed1 offer wedge-shaped and stelliform figures4 ,the tourmalines are chiefly contained in this vein4 ,they are red1 or green1 rarely blue or black4 ,the green tourmalines vary from one-eighth of an inch to one inch in diameter2 they are sometimes four inches in length1 and are entirely confined to the inner vein of quartz4 ,they are triedral prisms1 with convex faces1 striated longitudinally1 and generally traversed perpendicularly to the axis1 with very small fissures filled by some silicious substance1 probably feldspar4 ,these green crystals are opaque4 ,the red tourmaline is frequently enclosed in the green4 ,in certain parts of the vein almost every green crystal encloses a red one1 which always corresponds by its sides and angles with the exterior crystal4 ,sometimes a thin layer of talc intervenes between the outer and inner crystal4 ,in one specimen ,i found three crystals of the red aggregated together1 and enclosed in one of the green4 ,in another crystal ,i found pyrites in the place of the red tourmaline4 ,the largest crystal of the red was one quarter of an inch in diameter1 and four inches long4 ,the red tourmalines vary in intensity of colour1 and frequently 7particularly in the interior7 pass into violet4 ,they pass from translucid to semi-transparent4 ,i have found some that were terminated by triedral pyramids4 ,the crystals are generally perpendicular to the sides of the vein4 ,small crystals of the red often run from the vein of quartz into the adjoining feldspar4 ,the granite also contains minute crystals of dark and light blue tourmaline1 and pale green emerald1 with a very few garnets and pyrites4 ,in the lower part of the vein1 five to six feet from its interruption by the mica slate1 the red tourmaline scarcely appears1 and the vein contains chiefly bluish amorphous quartz and green tourmaline4 ,it is therefore probable that this vein will not afford henceforward a great supply of this beautiful mineral4 ,about six miles from ,chesterfield1 in ,goshen1 is found the rose mica1 with tourmalines and emeralds interspersed in the granite4 ,unfortunately the bed of granite has not been discovered1 and the specimens we possess are taken from loose rocks1 scattered over a small extent of ground in a valley1 in the neighbourhood of mica slate4 ,the rose mica is found in a large grained granite with amorphous quartz and silicious feldspar1 crystallized and amorphous4 ,the mica is generally of a rose red1 sometimes yellowish green4 ,it crystallizes in rhomboidal tables1 rarely truncated on the acute angles1 passing into the hexaedral table4 ,the tourmalines are light and dark green and blue1 of various shades of intensity1 frequently acicular and stellated4 ,the black1 the red1 and the violet tourmalines also occur1 but more rarely4 ,sometimes the green prisms enclose others of blue and black4 ,specific gravity of these varieties from #c4 to #c4a4 ,the green and blue crystals in this locality are translucid or semi-transparent4 ,the feldspar is generally white1 rarely light blue4 ,there are some emeralds in the granite4 ,among some specimens which ,mr4 ,weeks of ,new-,york1 who discovered this locality1 was so good as to give me1 ,i found a beautiful rose emerald in its matrix4 ,it is a hexaedral prism1 about one and a quarter inch in diameter1 the summit a plane1 one of the lateral edges has a truncature4 ,about half of the diameter of the prism is free from the matrix1 and half an inch of the prism4 ,the colour is a pale rose1 rather more transparent than the emerald4 ,the colour of the mica of the ,goshen granite calls to mind the lepidolite or lilalite1 which 7formerly considered as a distinct species7 has now been united to mica4 ,the lepidolite of ,rosena is also accompanied by the tourmaline apyre1 now the red tourmaline4 ,,art4 ,v4 ,observations on the ,minerals connected with the ,gneiss range of ,litchfield county1 by ,mr4 ,,john ,p4 ,,brace1 of ,litchfield1 ,conn4 ,the gneiss formation is the most extensive of any in ,litchfield county1 and embraces a number of very interesting minerals4 ,it extends east into ,hartford county4 ,on the north it runs into ,massachusetts1 though frequently interrupted by the limestone formation1 which rests upon it4 ,it forms the principal1 and in many cases the only rock of the eastern and northeastern sections of the county1 and of the towns of ,litchfield1 ,goshen1 ,warren1 ,cornwall1 and ,norfolk4 ,in ,washington and ,canaan1 it constitutes the rock of the high mountains1 and is a part of the same range in the other towns1 while the valleys and the more moderate elevations are covered with limestone4 ,the river ,housatonic appears to have made its way through this range1 for the same rock continues on the western side of the river parallel to it in the mountains of ,kent1 ,sharon1 and ,salisbury4 ,in ,litchfield commences a range of porphyritic granite1 or porphyritic gneiss1 which alternates with the common gneiss1 and in some instances rests upon it4 ,this rock begins at ,mount ,prospect1 between ,litchfield and ,warren1 and runs through ,south ,farms1 ,bethlem1 and ,watertown4 ,the crystals of feldspar in it1 are often very perfect4 ,the primitive granite1 as a rock1 is not found1 though it lies scattered on the surface in great quantities1 and large masses4 ,the graphic granite in this region is often remarkably fine4 ,mica slate constitutes a considerable part of those rocks that rest on the gneiss1 though never found in such elevated situations4 ,the mica slate rocks are always inclined at a great angle with the horizon1 and follow the direction of the other range4 ,litchfield village1 ,chesnut hill1 and great part of ,harwington1 are entirely composed of this rock4 ,the ,bantum and the ,waterbury rivers have their bottoms of it4 ,some of the brooks entering the ,waterbury1 have cut their passage through the mica slate1 leaving walls of #dj or #ej feet on each side1 traversed by veins of a very coarse-grained granite1 and often much mixed with sulphuret of iron4 ,the slate near ,harwington meeting-house contains a great quantity of sulphuret of iron4 ,mica slate likewise lies on the sides of the gneiss range in ,canaan and ,salisbury1 where it dips under the limestone4 ,sienite is scattered on the surface in large masses1 especially where the porphyritic gneiss is found4 ,sometimes1 however1 the masses are so large as to form mountains4 ,mount ,tom1 between ,litchfield and ,washington1 is of this nature1 being entirely composed of sienite1 resting on gneiss4 ,slaty sienite is frequently found1 having a very large proportion of hornblende4 ,the minerals that are found in this region1 are much more interesting than its geology4 ,in describing them1 ,i shall confine myself to the district east of the limestone range1 intending at some future time to investigate and describe the limestone country4 ,carbonate of lime1 the granular limestone1 is scattered over the whole of this region4 ,it often is found in the cavities of decayed quartz rocks1 and contains tremolite and augite4 ,cyanite or ,sappar1 is found in great quantities1 especially in ,harwington and ,litchfield4 ,a crystalline mass of this was found a few years ago1 weighing probably #ae cwt42 it lay on a mica slate ridge1 and undoubtedly had been formerly imbedded in the slate4 ,beautiful white talc1 and small crystals of sulphuret of iron1 are disseminated in the mass4 ,specimens of this mass are in almost all the cabinets in ,america4 ,smaller masses have been found associated with feldspar4 ,small crystals of this mineral are very common in mica slate1 with staurotide and garnet4 ,two of these crystals are often arranged at right angles with each other4 ,in ,cornwall it is found in small crystals in the gneiss containing graphite4 ,staurotide is very common and very beautiful4 ,it is found principally in mica slate1 and exhibits often the cross4 ,it most generally is crystallized in four-sided prisms4 ,quartz1 of course1 is common4 ,cornwall particularly is distinguished for the smoky variety4 ,ferruginous quartz is found in rolled masses in the whole of this range4 ,petro silex1 in rolled masses with ferruginous quartz1 containing veins of chalcedony and hornstone1 and geodes of quartz crystals1 are common in ,litchfield and ,goshen4 ,sometimes these masses in the interior assume the appearance of ,burrstone4 ,common opal has been found in ,litchfield1 though rarely4 ,it was part of a mass of ferruginous quartz1 with indelible dendritic impression4 ,it is very hard1 and its fracture is conchoidal4 ,mica is very common4 ,it is found green1 white1 and perfectly black4 ,it generally occurs in blocks of granite4 ,schorl1 in rounded crystals1 is found in all the granite in this range2 in radiating crystals on quartz2 and in acicular crystals on mica slate4 ,the large crystals are so brittle1 that few of them can be obtained perfect4 ,i once found it in ,litchfield1 near ,plymouth1 in prismatic crystals on earthy graphite4 ,feldspar is very common and beautiful in all the towns4 ,it is usually found in rhomboidal fragments1 and has a fine lustre4 ,it is blue1 white1 and red4 ,some of the granite of ,torringford is very beautiful1 being composed of white and smoky quartz1 red feldspar1 and green mica4 ,in the porphyritic gneiss1 feldspar is in six-sided prisms4 ,one small crystal of adularia1 well defined1 has been found by ,e4 ,wilkins1 ,esq4 ,beryl1 both crystallized and massive1 is often found in ,litchfield in granite4 ,its colours are green1 greenish yellow1 pale yellow1 and brown4 ,its crystals are often very perfect4 ,garnets are common in all the towns of this range4 ,epidote4 ,very beautiful crystals of this mineral have been found in ,washington1 associated with feldspar4 ,they are so rounded as to render it very difficult to discover their form4 ,they have a very fine lustre1 and are of an olive green2 in ,litchfield1 in crystals with hornblende1 and graphic granite1 and in veins in sienite4 ,perhaps no region can be found containing more beautiful tremolite4 ,all its varieties occur2 the fibrous of ,litchfield and ,bethlem is very distinguished4 ,in ,canaan1 it is found containing crystals of sulphuret of iron4 ,i do not speak here of the tremolite found in the limestone range4 ,common asbestus exists in ,washington and ,new ,milford4 ,the white augite is a mineral found in this range2 in ,litchfield1 in six-sided prisms very much flattened1 on quartz1 and carbonate of lime with tremolite4 ,they sometimes occur several inches long4 ,the lamellar and slaty varieties of common hornblende are very common4 ,radiated actynolite of a beautiful bluish green in ,litchfield2 in ,canton of a brownish green4 ,steatite is common1 and is quarried in ,litchfield4 ,the varieties of talc are very common1 connected with steatite1 cyanite1 and chlorite4 ,chlorite in ,litchfield1 is found on quartz1 with talc4 ,porcelain clay in ,litchfield in small quantities1 and in ,washington4 ,graphite is found in ,cornwall in great quantities4 ,its gangue is gneiss and sienite4 ,it is lamellar1 and has a metallic lustre2 is easily obtained1 and might be made useful4 ,epidote and cyanite are found with it4 ,ores are not common4 ,oxides of iron1 and sulphuret of iron are scattered over the whole range4 ,near ,mount ,prospect in ,litchfield1 sulphuret of iron in mass is in great quantities2 and sulphate of iron on the surface of the ground near it4 ,a stone containing a few grains of native copper was found in ,litchfield4 ,the red oxyde of titanium occurs in ,litchfield sparingly4 ,a very handsome specimen of the reticulated oxyde of titanium1 was picked up4 ,it was on mica1 and the mica had an evident tendency towards the same form4 ,,botany4 ,,art4 ,,vi4 ,an ,account of two ,north ,american ,species of ,rottbllia1 discovered on the ,sea-coast in the ,state of ,georgia1 by ,dr4 ,,william ,,baldwin1 of ,philadelphia4 ,flowers in pairs1 or two from each joint of the rachis1 one neutral4 ,the neutral1 or imperfect flowers1 pedicillate4 ,rottbllia corrugata4 ,culmo erecto1 compresso1 sulcato1 glabro1 ramoso3 foliis longis angustisque3 spicis sub-compressis1 nudis super uno latere1 solitariis et terminalibus1 supremis approximatis3 calycis bivalvis1 valva exteriori transvers corrugata et longitudinaliter rugosa3 corolla trivalvis4 ,culm erect1 compressed1 sulcate1 smooth1 ramose3 leaves long and narrow3 spikes slightly compressed1 naked on one side1 solitary and terminal1 approximating towards the summit3 calyx #b-valved1 the exterior valve transversely corrugate1 and longitudinally wrinkled3 corolla #c-valved4 ,vid4 ,nuttall's ,north ,american ,genera1 v4 ,i4 p4 #hd4ea ,culm two to three feet high1 with a very solid exterior1 but spongy within1 compressed1 and deeply grooved on its inner angle the whole length between the joints4 ,leaves long1 narrow1 and acute1 scabrous on the margin and midrib4 ,sheaths compressed1 corresponding with the culm1 shorter than the internodes1 open1 with membraneous margins4 ,peduncles short1 clothed with a thin membraneous acute pointed sheath1 which generally encloses also the base of the spike4 ,spikes two to three inches long4 ,the flowers are arranged in alternate order1 but occupy only one side of the rachis1 as in the ,r4 dimidiata4 ,the neutral florets1 or clavate pedicels1 are joined laterally to the perfect flowers4 ,articulations of the rachis remarkably tumid1 attenuated beneath1 flat on the interior side1 exteriorly convex1 scabrous1 and longitudinally striate4 ,the exterior valve of the calyx1 in the perfect flowers1 is ovate1 obtuse1 very thick1 cartilaginous1 the inner margin inflected1 and deeply marked on its outer surface with from three to five corrugations1 with longitudinal ridges between them2 the interior valve is smaller1 of equal length1 acute1 ruled1 coriaceous1 smooth1 and with the inner margin also inflected4 ,the valves of the corolla are membraneous1 ovate1 acute1 white1 shorter than the calyx1 the exterior one the longest4 ,the neutral florets are sometimes male1 but most commonly consist of nothing more than a #b-valved calyx1 the valves equal1 gaping1 scabrous1 and much smaller than those of the perfect flower4 ,stamens #c1 very short4 ,anthers twin1 yellow4 ,styles #b1 rather longer than the stamens4 ,stigmas small1 plumose1 dark purple4 ,discovered between ,st4 ,mary's and ,jefferson1 in ,camden county1 ,georgia1 on the #acth of ,july1 #ahac4 ,inhabits flat1 moist pine barren4 ,i have not seen it on the sea-coast of ,florida4 ,,observations4 ,it will be perceived that my description of this plant differs materially from that of ,mr4 ,nuttall4 ,this has unavoidably arisen from my having attended to it in its living state1 and from his not availing himself of the information which it would have afforded me pleasure to have communicated1 had he done me the favour to have requested it1 or informed me of his wish to publish an account of plants thus obtained4 ,he has called the culm solid1 leaves rather short1 spikes cylindric1 axillary1 the flowers and rachis entirely smooth1 pedicel of the neutral flower emarginate1 outer valve of the hermaphrodite calyx acute1 the valves of the corolla obtuse1 and the styles very short4 ,i have not been able to confirm the above characters1 nor do ,i find them even in the dried specimens4 ,besides1 he has omitted to inform us that the rachis is naked on one side4 ,this is a most important and prominent specific character1 the omission of which would necessarily lead to much doubt in identifying the species4 ,what he means by stating that the outer valve of the hermaphrodite flower is #c-valved1 ,i cannot imagine1 nor do ,i comprehend what is intended by an exterior auxiliary valve1 or neutral rudiment2 nearly the length of the calyx4 ,i have noticed in a single instance1 connected laterally with the corolla of the perfect flower1 two very delicate1 narrow1 acute pointed bodies1 the length of the outer valve1 and of the same quality and appearance2 but these ,i have considered as accidental1 and cannot perceive any thing about them like neutral rudiments4 ,nor can ,i consider the articulations of the rachis as deeply excavated4 ,they are1 as already stated1 flat on the inner side1 and constitute from their flexuous form1 position1 and connexion with the pedicels of the neutral florets1 an arch1 in which the perfect flowers are situated4 ,rottbllia ciliata4#eb ,culmo erecto1 tereti1 glabro1 ramoso3 foliis angustissimis1 brevibus3 spicis cylindricis super pedunculis teretibus longis1 solitariis terminalibusqu3 calycis bivalvis1 margine valva exteriori ciliata3 corolla bivalvis4 ,culm erect1 terete1 smooth1 ramose3 leaves very narrow1 short3 spikes cylindrical upon long terete peduncles1 solitary and terminal1 calyx #b-valved1 the margin of the exterior valve ciliate3 corolla #b-valved4 ,root perennial4 ,culm two to four feet high1 generally ramose1 solid1 and terete1 except that between the joints where the branches originate1 it is grooved on the inner side1 and often ciliate on its angles near the joints4 ,the branches originate towards the extremity1 commonly from two to three in number1 each supporting a single terminal spike4 ,leaves very narrow1 acute1 comparatively short1 those beneath much the longest1 rigid1 somewhat involute1 and sharply serrulate towards the apex4 ,sheaths rather shorter than the internodes1 open to the base1 but closely embracing the culm4 ,spikes #c to #e inches long1 the peduncles clothed with a very delicate acute pointed sheath1 which embraces it so closely as almost to elude observation1 varying much in length1 but seldom extending to the base of the spike4 ,peduncles scabrous near the spike4 ,flowers alternate1 the male or neutral florets situated on one side of the rachis4 ,rachis compressed1 slender1 flexuous1 hairy on its exterior surface4 ,pedicel of the neutral florets also compressed1 and hairy on its exterior surface4 ,valves of the calyx nearly equal1 lanceolate1 acute1 coriaceous1 polished1 the inner margin of each inflected4 ,the exterior margin of the outer valve finely ciliate towards the apex4 ,valves of the corolla lanceolate1 acute1 membraneous1 nearly the length of the calyx4 ,the male or neutral1 are rather smaller than the hermaphrodite flowers4 ,stamens #c1 very short4 ,anthers twin1 purple4 ,styles #b1 excerted1 plumose1 dark brown4 ,discovered in flat pine barren on the north side of ,satilla river1 in ,georgia1 on the #bast of ,october1 #ahae4 ,,general ,,observations4 ,these plants are unquestionably allied to andropogon in their mode of flowering1 but have nevertheless sufficient essential characters to distinguish them4 ,in habit1 they appear but slightly similar4 ,they differ principally from their congeners in the pedicellate character of their neutral florets4 ,the spikes are not axillary in either of them4 ,the branches are axillary1 of which several sometimes originate from the same axil in the ,r4 corrugata4 ,each spike1 when fully evolved1 is not only pedicellate1 but the pedicel1 or peduncle1 is connected with a culm containing one1 two1 or more joints4#ec ,the culm is not compressed1 nor the leaves long in the ,r4 ciliata1 as stated by ,mr4 ,nuttall1 who appears to have confounded the two species in these1 and some other instances4 ,the joints of the rachis in both are fragile1 the joints of the culm in neither4 ,another species noticed by ,michaux1 and included in all our books as the ,r4 dimidiata1 ,l4 has long been familiar to the southern botanists4 ,whether this be the dimidiata found also on the sandy shores of ,india1 or the compressa of the same country1 as suggested by ,mr4 ,elliott1 or a species distinct from either1 ,i am not prepared to determine4 ,but ,i have collected this plant in the ,bermudian ,isles1 at ,rio de ,janeiro1 and ,bahia1 on the ,brazilian coast1 and lastly on the island of ,flores1 near one hundred miles from the mouth of the ,rio de la ,plata1 as well as on the main in the ,banda ,oriental4 ,,art4 ,,vii4 ,floral ,calendar kept at ,deerfield1 ,massachusetts1 with ,miscellaneous ,remarks1 by ,dr4 ,,stephen ,w4 ,,williams1 of ,deerfield4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,,sir1 ,any thing which has a tendency to elicit facts with regard to the climate of a country must be interesting4 ,i believe that observations upon the time of the germination1 foliation1 florification1 and fructification of plants1 afford a much more correct criterion respecting climate than thermometrical1 or other meteorological journals4 ,they should be made at the same time in various parts of the country1 and for several years in succession4 ,i send you a ,calendarium ,flor1 with miscellaneous remarks1 made in ,deerfield1 ,massachusetts1 during a part of the years #ahaa1 #ahab1 and #ahah1 which1 if you please1 you may insert in your valuable ,journal4 ,latitude of ,deerfield1 #db #cb #cb1 longitude #gb #da4 #ahaa4 ,march #a4 ,blackbirds arrived4 #ae4 ,black ducks arrived4 ,bees out of the hive4 #bj4 ,early garden peas1 lettuce1 and peppergrass sown4 #bh4 ,the woods were swarming with pigeons4 ,wild geese passed over4 ,the greater part of the month of ,march was warm and pleasant4 ,the sugar-maple yielded its sap profusely for a few days1 but the nights were so warm that much less than the usual quantity of sugar was made this year4 ,april #a4 ,frogs begin to sing4 ,peas and oats sown4 #h4 ,buds of the lilac1 7,syringa vulgaris7 the small red rose1 the elm1 7,ulmus ,americana7 the apple1 and the peas considerably swoln4 #ad4 ,dandelion 7,leontodon taraxicum7 in full flower4 #bj4 ,indian corn planted2 a few garden seeds sown4 ,martins and bank swallows arrived4 ,leaves of the currant and gooseberry expanded4 ,weather for a few days past sultry and smoky4 #ba4 ,blue violet 7,viola cucullata7 in full flower4 ,shad-bush 7,aronia ,botryapium7 in blossom4 ,flower-buds of the lilac swoln2 likewise the flower-buds of the cherry1 pear1 and apple4 #bc4 ,blood-root 7,sanguinaria ,canadensis7 in full flower4 #be4 ,asparagus fit for the table4 #bf4 ,chili strawberries in flower2 this plant begins to blossom early1 and continues to flower late in the season4 ,english cherry1 black heart 7,prunus cerasus7 in full flower4 #bg4 ,garden violet 7,v4 tricolor7 in full flower4 ,april #bi4 ,flower-buds of the peach expanded4 ,large white plum 7,prunus domestica7 in full flower4 ,winter pear 7,pyrus communis7 in flower4 ,may #a4 ,red and white currants in flower4 #b4 ,leaves of the ,lombardy poplar 7,populus dilatata7 expanded4 #c4 ,english and field strawberries in blossom4 #d4 ,butternut 7,juglans cinerea7 in blossom4 #f4 ,house flies arrived4 #g4 ,apple-trees in full flower4 #h4 ,lilac in full flower4 ,red-headed woodpecker arrived4 #ae4 ,rye 7,secale cereale7 beginning to head4 ,pleasant days and cold nights4 ,hard frosts for a few nights past4 #ah4 ,honeysuckle 7,azalea nudiflora7 in full flower4 #ai4 ,small red rose in flower4 ,choke cherry 7,prunus ,serotina7 in full flower4 #be4 ,common red clover 7,trifolium pratense7 in full flower4 #bf4 ,garden peas in full flower4 ,hummingbird arrived4 #bg4 ,night-hawks arrived4 #cj4 ,sugar-maple in flower4 ,june #b4 ,locust-tree 7,robinia pseudacacia7 in flower4 #c4 ,field strawberries beginning to ripen4 ,piony in flower4 #d4 ,high blackberry 7,rubus villosus7 in full flower4 ,broad-leafed laurel 7,kalmia latifolia7 beginning to blossom4 #g4 ,snow-ball1 guelder-rose 7,viburnum opulus7 in full flower4 ,radishes fit for the table4 #ab4 ,our farmers begin to mow their first crop of grass in low land4 ,large white rose 7,rosa alba7 in full flower4 #ba4 ,red currants beginning to ripen in plenty4 ,blackberried elder 7,sambucus canadensis7 beginning to blossom4 #bg4 ,indian corn tasseling4 ,black raspberries beginning to ripen4 ,nodding lily 7,lilium canadense7 in flower4 #bi4 ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 in full flower4 ,july #a4 ,red raspberry 7,rubus strigosus7 beginning to ripen4 ,poppy 7,papaver somniferum7 in flower4 ,july #e4 ,chestnut-tree 7,castanea ,americana7 flowering4 #f4 ,large red cherry 7,prun4 ceras47 fully ripe4 ,string beans fit for the table4 ,perhaps we never experienced a greater degree of heat in this part of the country than has been felt for three days past4 ,a number of hives of honey have melted during the heat4 #ad4 ,cucumbers fit for the table4 #ae4 ,rye fit for the sickle4 #af4 ,black whortleberries 7,vaccinium resinosum7 ripening4 #ai4 ,early potatoes fit for the table4 ,indian corn 7green7 fit for the table4 #bj4 ,jenneting apples ripe4 #ba4 ,choke cherries 7,prun4 serotina7 ripe4 #bf4 ,gooseberries ripening4 ,august #a4 ,martins departed4 #e4 ,barn and bank swallows collecting in millions1 upon our islands in the river1 to depart4 #ab4 ,blackberries ripe4 #bj4 ,thorn apple 7,datura stramonium7 in full flower4 ,elderberries fully ripe4 ,september #a4 ,common pear fully ripe4 ,rare-ripe peaches fully ripe4 #f4 ,bergamot pears fully ripe4 #ag4 ,great grapes 7,vitis stivalis7 fully ripe4 ,frost grapes 7,vitis cordifolia7 ripening4 #ba4 ,butternuts beginning to fall from the tree4 #bd4 ,our farmers busily engaged in harvesting their corn4 #bf4 ,butternut defoliating4 #bh4 ,elm beginning to defoliate4 ,october #b4 ,chestnut burrs opening4 ,tree defoliating4 #h4 ,sugar-maple and sycamore defoliating4 #bf4 ,blackbirds arrived again4 ,squirrels in plenty in our woods1 though chestnuts and walnuts are scarce4 ,butternuts plenty4 ,cider and apples in great abundance4 ,november #bj4 ,wild geese returning to the southern regions4 #ahab4 ,march #ba4 ,blackbirds1 woodpeckers1 and robins arrived4 ,wild geese passed over4 #bc4 ,bees out of the hive4 ,april #c4 ,black ducks arrived4 ,large flocks of pigeons passed over4 #i4 ,flower-buds of the elm considerably swoln4 #aa4 ,skylarks arrived4 #ab4 ,frogs begin to sing4 #ac4 ,leaf-buds of the soft maple 7,acer rubrum7 much swoln4 #ac4 ,leaf-buds of the gooseberry much swoln4 #af4 ,early garden peas sown4 #ai4 ,dandelion 7,leon4 tarax47 in full flower4 ,blue or meadow violet 7,v4 cucullata7 in flower4 ,leaves of the lilac beginning to expand4 ,our farmers busily engaged in ploughing for sowing4 #bc4 ,peas and oats sown1 and ,indian corn planted4 #be4 ,swallows arrived1 and whippoorwills begin to sing4 #bg4 ,leaves of the gooseberry1 and willow 7,salix ,muhlenbergii7 beginning to expand4 ,may #e4 ,martins arrived4 #aj4 ,asparagus fit for the table4 ,blood-root 7,sang4 canadensis7 in full flower4 #aa4 ,chili garden strawberries beginning to blossom4 ,flower-buds of the lilac swoln4 #ab4 ,elm in full flower4 ,leaves of the meadow violet beginning to expand4 #ac4 ,garden violet 7,v4 tricolor7 in flower4 #ad4 ,field strawberries in full flower4 ,shad-bush 7,aronia botryapium7 in blossom4 #ae4 ,english cherry beginning to flower4 #ai4 ,winter pear beginning to blossom4 #bb4 ,hummingbirds arrived4 ,large white plum 7,prunus domestica7 in full flower4 ,butternut beginning to flower4 #bc4 ,flower-buds of the peach 7,amydalus persica7 beginning to expand4 ,gooseberry in flower4 ,may #bg4 ,apple-trees beginning to blossom4 #bi4 ,early garden lettuce 7,lactuca sativa7 fit for the table4 #cj4 ,apple-trees in full flower4 #ca4 ,night-hawks arrived4 ,vegetation has put forth more to appearance in three days past than in all the spring before4 ,nature seems to revive from a state of torpidity1 from the warm and invigorating rays of the sun4 ,the month of ,may has been more backward than the month of ,april1 #ahaa4 ,the observation of elderly people1 that the month of ,april1 old style1 was never known to terminate without producing apple-blossoms1 has by no means been verified this year1 they being now 7,june #ast47 in full flower4 ,the snow upon the mountains1 thirty or forty miles back1 is at a great depth2 so deep1 that on the warm day of the #bith our river rose a foot from its melting4 ,diseases of the chronic kind have been peculiarly severe for three months past4 ,the gladsome return of the cheering warmth will probably renovate the enfeebled constitutions of many of our aged people4 ,june #a4 ,house flies arrived4 #e4 ,choke cherry 7,prun4 serotin47 in full flower4 ,honeysuckle apple 7,azalea nudiflora7 in full flower4 #h4 ,piony in full flower4 ,snowball 7,viburnum opulus7 in full flower4 ,flower-de-luce 7,iris versicolor7 in blossom4 #aa4 ,early peas in blossom4 ,carraway 7,carum carui7 in flower4 #ae4 ,locust-tree 7,robin4 pseudacac47 in full flower4 ,field strawberries beginning to ripen4 #ah4 ,common red clover in full flower4 ,cranesbill 7,geranium maculatum7 in blossom4 ,red raspberry in full flower4 #bc4 ,chili strawberries beginning to ripen4 ,garden sage 7,salvia officinalis7 in full flower4 #bi4 ,our farmers busily engaged in haying4 #cj4 ,large red rose1 large white rose1 and damask rose 7,rosa damascena7 in flower4 ,july #a4 ,white pond lily 7,nympha odorata7 in flower4 #d4 ,black elder 7,sambucus canadensis7 in full flower4 #g4 ,early peas fit for the table4 ,red and white currants ripening4 #h4 ,nodding lily 7,lilium canadense7 in flower4 #aa4 ,garden beans 7,phaseolus vulgaris7 in full flower4 ,chestnut in flower4 ,black raspberries ripening4 #bj4 ,early corn tasseled 7,zea mays4 ,variety prcox47 ,red raspberries fully ripe4 #bb4 ,whortleberries ripe 7,vaccin4 resinos47 #bd4 ,cucumbers fit for the table4 #bh4 ,early potatoes fit for the table4 #bi4 ,rye fit for the sickle4 ,early garden squashes 7,cucurbita ,melo-pepo7 fit for the table4 ,august #b4 ,jenneting apples ripening4 #e4 ,early corn fit for the table4 #h4 ,wheat 7,triticum hyburnum7 fit for the sickle4 #bh4 ,summer peas ripening4 ,september #d4 ,watermelons and muskmelons ripe4 #e4 ,swallows departed4 #f4 ,elderberries fully ripe4 #aa4 ,choke cherries and wild cherries 7,prunus virginiana7 ripe4 #ab4 ,yellow plum 7,prunus chicasa7 fully ripe4 #ae4 ,butternut beginning to fall from the tree4 #af4 ,our farmers making their first cider4 #bb4 ,great grapes ripe4 ,october #b4 ,butternut and elm beginning to defoliate4 ,chestnut-burrs beginning to open4 #i4 ,our farmers beginning to harvest their ,indian corn4 #ahah4 ,march #aa4 ,bluebirds arrived4 #ac4 ,woodpeckers1 robins1 and blackbirds arrived4 ,bees out of the hive4 ,march #ad4 ,broad-leaved panic grass 7,panicum latifolium7 beginning to sprout on a southern exposure1 while there is sleighing in the street4 ,a solitary spathe of skunk-cabbage 7,pothos ftida7 beginning to show itself on the same exposure4 ,leaves of curled dock 7,rumex crispa7 appeared in the same place4 ,maple-trees tapped for sugar4 #af4 ,pothos ftida in full flower4 #be4 ,black ducks arrived4 ,catkins of the poplar-tree 7,populus tremuloides7 expanded4 ,catkins of the speckled willow 7,salix ,muhlenbergiana7 expanded4 #cj4 ,wild geese arrived4 ,phbe arrived4 ,it began to rain hard on the first of ,march1 and continued raining two days and a half1 which nearly carried off an immense body of snow which enveloped the ground4 ,our rivers1 which were more firmly locked with ice than they had been before known for many years to be1 rose above their usual bounds1 and swept the ice with such rapidity down their channels as to destroy most of the bridges on ,connecticut river1 besides doing immense damage in other respects4 ,our meadows were nearly all under ice and water2 and at that time a great explosion was heard in the north meadows1 two miles from the street1 similar to the noise of a cannon4 ,it was occasioned by the throwing up of an immense quantity of frozen ground1 which is a great curiosity4 ,the cause is not yet satisfactorily explained4 ,the weather was very warm and pleasant from the #dth to the #bb;d4 ,what snow the rain did not carry off was melted by the sun during the pleasant weather4 ,vegetation had begun to put forth rapidly1 and many of our birds of passage had arrived4 ,a storm1 which commenced on the #bb;d1 as rapidly retarded the progress of vegetation as it was before accelerated1 and the remainder of the month was gloomy and uncomfortable4 ,mud mid-leg deep in the streets4 ,april #g4 ,flower-buds of the elm 7,ulmus americana7 beginning to swell4 ,april #h4 ,leaf-buds of the lilac 7,syring4 vulg47 beginning to swell4 #aj4 ,leaf-buds of the soft or meadow maple 7,acer rubrum7 beginning to swell4 ,black alder 7,alnus serrulata7 in flower4 ,american hazel 7,corylus americana7 in flower1 and its catkins appearing4 #aa4 ,fair and pleasant1 after a long storm4 ,it has rained sixteen days in succession4 ,frogs begin to sing4 ,leaf-buds of the ,english cherry 7,prunus cerasus7 black heart beginning to swell4 ,garden peas sown4 #ab4 ,flies in myriads arrived in our streets4 ,catkins of the butternut 7,juglans cinerea7 beginning to swell4 ,saxifrage 7,saxifraga virginiensis7 in flower4 #ac4 ,skylarks arrived4 #ad4 ,sweet fern 7,comptonia asplenifolia7 in flower4 ,white birch 7,betula populifolia7 in flower4 #af4 ,our farmers beginning to plough for spring wheat4 #ah4 ,bank swallows arrived4 #ai4 ,leaf-buds of the currant1 the gooseberry1 and the apple1 considerably swoln4 #bj4 ,dandelion 7,leon4 tarax47 beginning to flower4 ,viola cucullata beginning to blossom4 #bb4 ,our farmers ploughing for peas and oats4 ,the snow upon the hills #bj miles north and west from ,deerfield is two feet and a half deep1 and the winds from those quarters are so chilly as to retard the progress of vegetation4 ,icicles scarcely melted upon the south side of buildings in ,halifax1 ,vermont2 and it is too cold for making sugar4 #be4 ,blood-root 7,sanguinaria canadensis7 in flower on a warm south side hill4 ,leaves of the ,english gooseberry beginning to expand4 ,venus's pride 7,houstonia crulea7 in flower4 ,early life-everlasting1 7,gnaphalium plantagineum7 crowfoot1 7,ranunculus fascicularis7 tooth-root1 7,dentaria laciniata7 and meadow-rue 7,thalictrum cornutum7 in full flower4 #bf4 ,trailing arbutus 7,epigaea repens7 in full flower4 ,leaves of the barberry 7,berberis vulgaris7 beginning to expand4 ,five-finger1 7,potentilla pumilla7 adder's-tongue1 7,erythronium dens-canis7 liver-leaf1 7,hepatica triloba7 and wind-flower1 7,anemone nemorosa7 in flower4 ,april #bg4 ,early potatoes and early corn planted4 ,elm in full flower4 #bi4 ,water crowfoot 7,ranunculus sceleratus7 and ,american cowslip 7,caltha palustris7 in full flower4 #cj4 ,daffodil 7,narcissus pseudo-narcissus7 and rue-anemone 7,anemone thalictroides7 in flower4 ,may #a4 ,soft maple 7,acer rubrum7 in flower4 #b4 ,martins arrived4 #c4 ,leaves of the gooseberry beginning to expand4 #d4 ,leaves of the currant and lilac beginning to expand4 ,pigeons arrived4 #e4 ,wood bulrush 7,juncus sylvaticus7 in flower4 ,a great freshet in our meadows1 from the melting of the snow upon the mountains1 and from the great rain which has continued nearly a month4 ,beth4 nodding trillion 7,trillium rhomboideum7 in flower4 #g4 ,flowers of the garden violet 7,v4 tricolor7 beginning to expand4 #h4 ,the young heads of asparagus breaking the ground4 #i4 ,our farmers busily engaged in planting their ,indian corn1 though the weather is excessively cold4 ,sowed onions1 parsnips1 c4 #aj4 ,bobylincolns 7,bob of lincolns7 arrived4 ,flower-buds of the lilac appearing4 #aa4 ,field strawberries 7,fragaria virginiana7 in full flower4 ,colts-foot 7,tussilago farfara7 in flower4 #ab4 ,whip-poor-wills begin to sing4 #ac4 ,spice-bush 7,laurus benzoin7 in full flower4 ,a freshet in the meadows4 #ad4 ,goldthread 7,coptis trifolia7 in full flower4 #ae4 ,rattlesnake violet 7,viola primulifolia7 in full flower4 #af4 ,chimney swallows arrived4 #ag4 ,leaves of the apple-tree expanding4 ,sugar maple 7,acer saccharinum7 in full flower4 ,garden daisy 7,bellis perennis7 in full flower4 ,may #ah4 ,asparagus fit for the table4 #ai4 ,smooth gooseberry 7,ribes uva-crispa7 in flower4 #bj4 ,shad-bush 7,aron4 botryap47 in flower4 #ba4 ,house wrens arrived4 ,moose-wood 7,dirca palustris7 in flower4 #bb4 ,garden currant 7,ribes rubrum7 beginning to flower4 #bd4 ,wake-robin 7,trillium cernuum7 and peas 7,pyrus communis7 in flower4 #be4 ,our mountain scenery diversified4 ,weather very warm4 ,garden potatoes and garden corn1 planted on the #bgth ,april1 breaking the ground4 ,garden beans1 cucumbers1 squashes1 watermelons1 c4 planted4 #bf4 ,damson plum 7,prunus domestica7 and yellow or wild plum 7,prunus chicasa7 in flower4 ,elder 7,sambucus canadensis7 in flower4 ,carolina chatterer arrived4 #bg4 ,garden gooseberry 7,ribes grossularia7 and avens 7,geum rivale7 in blossom4 ,weather intensely warm4 ,thermometer at #hf at #b o'clock1 ,p4 ,m4 yesterday4 #bi4 ,apple-trees in full flower4 ,night-hawk arrived4 #cj4 ,choke cherries 7,prun4 ,serotin47 in flower4 #ca4 ,lilac in full flower4 ,the weather till the last week in ,may was very cold and rainy4 ,perhaps we have never known more gloomy weather than that of the first twenty days of the month4 ,the last week in the month of ,may was unusually warm and fine4 ,vegetation has put forth more within this week than it has in all the season before4 ,the blossoms on apple-trees are scanty1 and there is but little prospect of fruit4 ,peach-trees in the vicinity of this place were all killed by the extreme cold winter4 ,june #a4 ,hummingbirds arrived4 #b4 ,honeysuckle apple 7,azalea nudiflora7 in full flower4 #c4 ,blue-eyed grass1 7,sisyrinchium anceps7 ,krigia virginica1 and thorn-bush 7,cratgus coccinea7 in flower4 ,garden seeds1 planted on the #beth ult4 have vegetated #c or #d inches high4 ,garden rhubarb 7,rheum tataricum7 in flower4 ,june #d4 ,garden rocket 7,hesperis pinnatifida7 in flower4 #f4 ,yellow water lily 7,nuphar advena7 in full flower4 ,flower-de-luce 7,iris virginica7 in flower4 ,garden peas in full flower4 ,the weather for twelve days past has been unusually warm and sultry4 ,the thermometer1 much of the time in the middle of the day1 has stood at #hd1 and vegetation has put forth with astonishing rapidity4 #h4 ,house-flies arrived4 #i4 ,horse-radish 7,cochlearea armoracea7 and peony in full flower4 #aj4 ,chives 7,allium schnoprasum7 in full flower4 #aa4 ,smooth stem lichnidea 7,phlox maculata7 in full flower4 ,our farmers busily engaged in hoeing their corn4 #ab4 ,fumitory 7,fumaria officinalis7 in full flower4 #ac4 ,field strawberries beginning to ripen4 #ad4 ,locust-tree 7,robinia pseudacacia7 in full flower4 #ae4 ,locusts appearing in the south part of the town4 ,the last time of their appearance here was in the year #ahja4 ,their periodical returns are once in seventeen years4 ,their appearance in the years #agcc1 #agej1 #agfg1 #aghd1 and #ahja1 is recorded on the town-book4 ,they first attack the leaves of the black oak 7,quercus nigra47 #af4 ,small red rose in flower4 #ag4 ,rosa caroliniensis in full flower4 #ah4 ,garden sage 7,salvia officinalis7 in flower4 #ai4 ,mock syringa 7,philadelphus coronarius7 in flower4 #bj4 ,tulip-tree1 commonly called cypress or white-wood 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 in blossom4 #ba4 ,carnation pink 7,dianthus caryophyllus7 in flower4 #bb4 ,our farmers commenced haying4 ,an immense crop of grass on the ground4 #bc4 ,side-saddle flower 7,sarracenia purpurea7 in flower4 #bd4 ,common ,st4 ,john's wort 7,hypericum perforatum7 in full flower4 ,june #bf4 ,garden radishes fit for the table4 #bg4 ,early garden peas fit for the table4 ,weather intensely warm4 #bh4 ,american lime or linden-tree 7,tilia americana7 in flower4 #cj4 ,flax 7,linum usitatissimum7 in full flower4 ,thermometer in the shade at #b ,p4 ,m4 #ajj4 ,vegetation has put forth and increased with a more astonishing rapidity this month than has ever been known4 ,notwithstanding the spring was very backward1 the season now is forward4 ,our farmers commenced their first haying about a week earlier than they did last year4 ,july #a4 ,white water lily 7,nympha odorata7 in flower4 #c4 ,red and white currants ripening4 ,yellow day lily 7,hemerocallis flava7 and ,lilium canadense in full flower4 #d4 ,cucumbers and watermelons in flower4 ,early summer corn 7,zea mays1 variety prcox7 beginning to tassel4 ,garden rue 7,ruta graveoleus71 mustard 7,sinapis nigra71 motherwort 7,leonorus cardiaca7 and mullein 7,verbascum thapsus7 in full flower4 ,blue whortleberries 7,vaccinium frondosum7 beginning to ripen4 ,dewberry 7,rubus trivialis7 ripening4 #e4 ,poppy 7,papaver somniferum7 in flower4 #f4 ,garden squashes 7,cucurbita ,melo-pepo7 in flower4 #g4 ,red raspberry fully ripe4 #aj4 ,black raspberry fully ripe4 #aa4 ,string-beans fit for the table4 #ab4 ,unicorn plant 7,martinia proboscidea7 in full flower4 #ac4 ,thorn apple 7,datura stramonium7 and marygold 7,tagetes erecta7 in full flower4 #ae4 ,great water plantain 7,alisma plantago7 and field clover 7,trifolium arvense7 in flower4 #ag4 ,mad dog weed 7,scutellaria lateriflora7 and purple vervain 7,verbena hastata7 in blossom4 ,the weather for three weeks past has been excessively warm4 ,the thermometer1 for several days1 has stood above #ie1 part of the time at #ih4 ,our lands are now parching with drought4 ,our grass fields are completely embrowned4 ,our farmers beginning to reap their rye4 ,july #ai4 ,cucumbers fit for the table4 ,early corn 7green7 fit for the table4 #ba4 ,mother of thyme 7,thymus vulgaris7 in full flower4 #bb4 ,fig-wort 7,scrophularia marylandica7 and loosestrife 7,lysimachia stricta7 in flower4 #bd4 ,morning-glory 7,convolvulus sepium7 and ,orchis ciliaris in full flower4 #bf4 ,whortleberries 7,vaccinium resinosum7 ripe4 ,single-seeded cucumber 7,sicyos angulata7 in flower4 #bh4 ,garden lettuce and hop 7,humulus lupulus7 in full flower4 #cj4 ,our farmers reaping their wheat--a tolerable crop4 ,buckwheat 7,polygonum fagopyrum7 in flower4 ,we had a great rain about the #bjth1 which restored the parched vegetation4 ,the latter part of the month was1 however1 warm and dry4 ,august #a4 ,grasshoppers begin to sing4 ,crickets arrived4 #b4 ,larkspur 7,delphinium consolida7 in flower4 #c4 ,sunflower 7,helianthus annuus7 and pigweed 7,chenopodium album7 in flower4 #f4 ,broom-corn 7,sorghum saccharatum7 and lavender 7,lavendula spica7 in flower4 #g4 ,early jenneting apples ripe4 ,ambrosia trifida and ,american senna 7,cassia marylandica7 in flower4 #aa4 ,muskmelon ripe4 ,garden squashes and shelled beans fit for the table4 #ac4 ,seed-box 7,ludwigia alternifolia7 in flower4 ,garden gooseberries fully ripe4 #ad4 ,our farmers gathering their peas and oats--an indifferent crop4 ,weather warm and dry4 #af4 ,martins departing4 ,bush clover 7,lespedeza capitata7 in flower4 #ah4 ,our farmers beginning to mow their second crop of hay4 ,jerusalem oak 7,chenopodium botrys7 in flower4 #bj4 ,houseleek 7,sempervivum tectorum7 in flower4 #ba4 ,herb clarry 7,salvia sclarea7 in blossom4 #bb4 ,swallows collecting in thousands to depart4 ,toothed coral 7,cymbidium odontorhizom7 in flower4 ,saw bats for the first time this year4 #bd4 ,lopseed 7,phryma leptostachia7 and ladies' traces 7,neottia pubescens7 in flower4 #bg4 ,gay mallows 7,lavatera thuringiaca7 and ,solanum nigra in full flower4 #cj4 ,burnet saxifrage 7,sanguisorba canadensis7 and water horehound 7,lycopus europus7 in full flower4 ,,stephen ,w4 ,,williams4 ,deerfield1 7,mass47 ,jan4 #be1 #ahai4 ,,art4 ,,viii4 ,description and ,natural ,classification of the ,genus ,floerkea1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 ,this genus was discovered in ,pennsylvania1 near ,lancaster1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,muhlenberg1 who communicated the same to ,wildenow of ,berlin4 ,this celebrated botanist ascertained that it was a new genus1 to which he gave the name of a ,german botanist1 7,floerke7 and published it in the third volume of the transactions of the society des ,curieux de la ,nature of ,berlin1 for #ahja1 under the name of ,floerkea proserpinacoides1 which long and uncouth specific name has been changed by every subsequent author4 ,michaux has omitted it altogether1 7with many more ,american species7 in his ,flora ,boreali ,americana1 published in #ahjc4 ,persoon calls it ,floerkea lacustris1 in ,syn4 plant4 #a4 p4 #cic4 ,muhlenberg ,floerkea uliginosa1 in ,cat4 pl4 ,amer4 ,sept4 p4 #cf4 and ,pursh1 in ,flora ,amer4 ,sept4 #a4 p4 #bci1 unites it with the genus ,nectris1 and calls it ,nectris pinnata1 putting it therefore in the ,hexandria digynia of ,linnus1 while all the preceding authors had classed it in the ,hexandria monogynia4 ,i will show presently which among them appear to be wrong2 but ,i must notice before1 that no botanist had1 ,i believe1 endeavoured to class it naturally1 until ,mr4 ,correa de ,serra1 who in his reduction of ,american genera to the natural families of ,jussieu1 attempted1 without having had an opportunity to see the plant1 to place it in the family of ,junci1 taking it therefore to be a monocotyle plant2 being led into this error by a mistaken idea1 that all hexandrous plants must be monocotyle6 ,but in the spring of #ahaf1 ,i found this plant in the neighbourhood of ,philadelphia1 7near the falls of the ,schuylkill7 where it had escaped the attention of all the botanists of that city1 and in particular of ,dr4 ,william ,barton1 who has therefore omitted it in his ,prodr4 fl4 ,philad4 and having communicated it to ,mr4 ,correa1 he acknowledged that it was dicotyle1 of which fact ,i was aware1 even before seeing the plant and dissecting its seed1 by attending to its habit4 ,the following exact description of this genus will enable the reader to ascertain how far ,i am correct in my presumptions towards its natural arrangement4 ,floerkea4 ,perigone double persistent1 sixpartite2 the exterior calicinal #c partile1 sepals acute2 the interior shorter1 coloured #c partile1 sepals petaloid1 oblong1 obtuse4 ,six stamens perigyne1 filaments filiform1 of the length of the interior sepals1 anthers round4 ,one free ovarium1 rounded and bilobed1 one central and bifod style1 two capitated stigmas4 ,fruit a bilobed atricule1 tuberculated and bilocular dispermous1 sometimes round1 unilocular and monospermous by abortion of one lobe and cell4 ,seeds attached to the centre near the bottom1 nearly lenticular1 smooth albuminous1 easily divided in two lobes4 ,habit4 ,small1 delicate1 annual1 and glabrous plant1 with alternate polytome pinnated leaves1 flowers axillar1 solitary1 pedunculated4 ,floerkea uliginosa4 ,caule tenello flaccido erecto simplex1 foliis #d petiolatis imis ternatis1 summis pinnato1 quinatis1 pinnulis lineari oblongis obtusis1 integris floribus axillaris1 solitaris pedunculis longis apice incrastatis4 ,stem delicate1 soft1 upright1 and simple1 leaves petiolated1 the inferior ternated1 the superior pinnated1 quinate1 pinnules linear-oblong obtuse1 flowers axillar1 solitary1 and on long peduncles1 swelled under the flower4 ,among the several specific names given to this plant1 ,i prefer ,muhlenberg's1 as it expresses exactly the kind of situations where it grows1 say in moist grounds1 occasionally swampish or overflowed2 those ,i found near ,philadelphia1 grew by thousands on the banks of a small brook in a wood below the left side of the falls of ,schuylkill4 ,persoon's name of lacustris1 being wrong1 as it would seem to imply that it grows in lakes only2 and ,wildenow's name being too long and illusive1 its similarity of habit with the genus ,proserpinaca not being very striking4 ,however1 even the name of uliginosa is liable to some slight objection2 and did ,i think myself permitted to coin a new name1 while so many have been proposed already1 ,i should have called it either ,f4 tenella1 or ,f4 flaccida1 or ,f4 olitoria1 being a very delicate and tender plant1 and very good to eat in sallad1 as ,i have tried it myself1 its taste is sweet and pleasant1 the whole plant may be eaten1 7even the root7 being all juicy and tender3 it grows in such an abundance in some spots1 that it might occasionally afford a most precious and delightful sallad1 but if cultivated for that purpose1 it might be found an agreeable addition to our culinary herbs4 ,in addition to my above definition1 it will be proper to state that the stem of this plant rises from #d to #h inches1 it is cylindrical1 smooth1 and yellowish1 the middle leaves are the largest1 the lower peduncles are longer than the leaves1 and the upper ones shorter1 the petals or interior sepals1 and the stamens are yellow4 ,it blossoms in ,may1 and is annual1 it even lasts only three months4 ,it will be perceived that ,i do not agree with ,mr4 ,pursh1 in uniting this plant with the genus ,nectris3 he owns himself that it deviates a little from the generic character of ,nectris1 but these deviations appear to me very material2 they exist in the pistils and fruits1 the most essential parts of the flowers1 since they agree in the perigone and stamens4 ,the genus ,nectris 7or ,calomba of ,aublet7 has two ovaries1 two styles1 and two polispermous capsules1 or achens6 and belongs therefore to the second order ,perimesia1 7class ,eltrogynia7 eighth family ,achenopsia next to the genus ,myriophyllum3 while the genus ,floerkea which has a bilobed ovary1 one central style1 two stigmas1 and one bilocular dispermous achen1 must belong to the eleventh order of the same class2 ,isostimia1 which is characterized by having more than one stigma1 the stamens in regular number1 and not central2 it will form a connecting link between this order and the foregoing ,polymesia1 by its affinity with many genera of the ,euphorbia's tribe1 such as ,callitriche1 ,tragia1 ,mercurialis1 c4 from which it differs merely by having hermaphrodite flowers1 and perispheric regular stamens4 ,it will at present stand nearly isolated in this order1 where it may form the small family ,galenidia1 along with the genus ,galenia1 c4 and which shall have much affinity with the family ,phytolacia2 but this differs by having a multilocular berry1 while the ,galenia merely differs by having a #d sided perigone1 #h stamens1 and #b styles4 ,i admit1 however1 that there is a strong affinity between the genera ,floerkea and ,nectris1 but stronger affinities often exist in plants of different classes4 ,if1 however1 it should happen that ,aublet#ed might have been mistaken in describing the ovaries and capsules of the ,nectris as double1 if they should prove to be simple but bilobed1 then the ,nectris would belong to the same family as the ,floerkea2 but yet stand as a peculiar genus distinguished by having #b styles1 and the achens not monospermous6 ,it was insinuated to me by ,mr4 ,correa1 that the ,floerkea might have some affinity with the tribe of ,ranunculaceous1 but ,i cannot discover any1 since that tribe is widely different1 by having many ovaries1 stamens1 and fruits1 each ovary with #a style or stigma1 a deciduous perigone1 the anthers adnate1 c4 ,the analogy in the structure of the seed and habit1 is too slight to be taken in consideration4 ,,art4 ,,ix4 ,descriptions of ,three ,new ,genera of ,plants1 from the ,state of ,new-,york4 ,cylactis1 ,nemopanthus1 and ,polanisia1 by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 #a4 ,n4 ,g4 ,cylactis4 ,calyx campanulated #f to #aj fidus1 sepals a little unequal4 ,petals #d to #f equal4 ,many perigynous stamens4 ,pistils #h to #ab1 ovaries sessile ovate1 styles elongated1 stigmas capitated4 ,berries few1 distinct1 one seeded4 ,this new genus belongs in the analytical and natural method1 7see ,analysis of ,nature7 to the first natural class ,eltrogynia1 first natural order ,rhodanthia1 second natural family ,senticosia1 next to the genera ,rubus1 ,oligacis1 c4 ,it would range itself into the artificial class ,icosandria of the ,linnan sexual system2 but not properly into any of its orders1 since the number of pistils is variable1 and never above #ab4 ,only one species belongs to it1 which ,i have discovered in company with ,mr4 ,knevels1 on the ,catskill mountains4 ,the etymology of the name derives from two ,greek words meaning radiated calyx4 ,it differs essentially from ,rubus by the unequal many cleft calyx1 variable petals1 and few pistils4 ,cylactis montana4 ,mountain cylactis--,stem herbaceous upright1 unarmed1 pubescent2 leaves quinate1 nearly smooth1 upper ones sessile1 stipules oblong1 folioles ovate acuminate1 incised1 serrated1 ciliated1 base acute1 entire1 the middle one petiolated3 flowers few corymbose1 peduncles erect elongated bracteolated2 calyx pubescent1 sepals lanceolate acute1 nerved1 reflexed2 petals cuneate-obovate1 longer than the calyx4 ,it is a small perennial plant1 rising about half a foot2 flowers white1 blossoming in ,june4 ,on the ,catskill mountains near the great falls1 c4 #b4 ,n4 ,g4 ,nemopanthus4 ,dioical4 ,m4 flowers calyx #e phylle1 equal1 deciduous4 ,no corolla4 ,stamina #e hypogynous1 alternating with the calyx4 ,fem4 fl4 calyx deciduous #e phylle8 ,ovary ovate1 stigma sessile #d lobed4 ,berry #d celled #d seeded4 ,the name means flower with a filiform peduncle4 ,a shrub forms this genus1 which had perhaps been united with ilex by ,michaux1 c42 but it differs altogether from it by the want of corolla1 hypogynous stamens1 sessile1 style1 c4 it does not even belong to the same family1 but to the natural family ,rhamnidia1 natural order ,plynontia1 and natural class ,eltrogynia1 next to the genus frangula4 ,in the sexual system it would belong to ,dioecia pentandria1 very far apart from ,frangula4 ,nemopanthus fascicularis4 ,fascicled nemopanthus4 ,shrubby1 leaves fasciculated1 petiolate1 oblong1 mucronate1 entire1 rather undulated1 membranaceous1 smooth2 flowers axillary fasciculated1 peduncles filiform1 shorter than the leaves4 ,it forms a small shrub from #e to #h feet high1 covered with gray bark1 and with slender upright branches2 the flowers are greenish1 very small1 the female flowers have shorter and thicker peduncles2 they blossom in ,june4 ,it grows on the ,catskill mountains near the two lakes4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the ,ilex canadensis8 of ,michaux and ,pursh4 ,and it has some analogy with the ,frangula alnifolia4 #c4 ,n4 ,g4 ,polanisia4 ,calyx #d phylle1 phylles coloured unequal1 the upper one unguiculated spatulated4 ,corolla with #d unequal petals1 the two upper ones larger and unguiculated4 ,a nectarium upwards glandular1 broad1 and truncated4 ,stamina #i to #ad1 unequal1 erect1 hypogynous4 ,ovary oblong on a short pedicel1 one style1 one truncated stigma4 ,fruit a follicular capsule1 one celled1 two valved1 many seeded1 seeds inserted on each side of each suture1 nearly snail-shaped4 ,the type of this genus is the ,cleome dodecandra of ,linnus1 under which denomination many species were blended1 which have no similitude with the real genus cleome1 differing in the calyx1 corolla1 nectarium1 stamina1 and fruit4 ,i shall describe here that of ,north ,america1 where #b or #c species exist1 besides those of the ,west ,indies1 ,africa1 and ,asia1 which are totally different4 ,the etymology of the name which ,i have given to it1 derives from many irregularities4 ,it belongs in the analytical method of botany1 to the first natural class ,eltrogynia1 ninth natural order ,monostimia1 natural family ,capparidia4 ,it can find no place in the sexual system since the number of stamina varies from #i to #ad1 unless it be forced into ,dodecandria4 ,polanisia graveolens4 ,clammy polanisia--hairy and glutinous all over1 stem upright1 leaves alternate1 petiolate1 ternated1 folioles sessile1 the intermediate longest1 oblong1 obtuse1 entire1 hairy on the margin and nerves3 flowers racemose erect1 bracteas petiolate1 ovate1 obtuse1 calyx hairy1 petals emarginate1 crenate1 capsules divaricate glutinous4 ,it is the ,cleome dodecandra of ,michaux and ,pursh4 ,it grows on the banks of rivers and lakes1 on the ,hudson near ,newburgh1 on the ,susquehannah near ,harrisburg1 on ,lake ,erie1 on the ,ohio1 and ,mississippi1 c4 ,it blossoms in ,july and ,august1 the stem rises about #a foot1 the petals are white1 or slightly red4 ,the whole plant has a strong graveolent smell1 similar to that of ,erigeron graveolens4 7,received ,january1 #ahah4 ,editor47 ,,art4 ,x4 ,notice on the ,myosurus ,shortii4 ,i have the pleasure to announce to the botanists1 that the genus ,myosurus1 hitherto thought an ,european genus1 and composed of a single species1 has been detected in the ,united ,states by ,dr4 ,short of ,kentucky1 who has discovered it in the neighbourhood of ,hopkinsville1 in ,christian county1 ,west ,kentucky1 and has communicated me specimens of it2 by which1 on comparing them with the ,european ,myosurus1 figured in ,flora ,danica1 ,lamarck's ,illustrations1 c4 ,i have been enabled to ascertain1 that the ,american plant must form a second species of that genus1 which ,i have accordingly dedicated it to the discoverer1 by naming it ,myosurus ,shortii4 ,this adds another genus and another new species to our ,flora4 ,i add the comparative definitions of the two species1 exhibiting2 their different characters and diagnosis4 ,myosurus minimus4 ,lin4 c4 ,leaves linear-cuneate1 broader near the top1 and acute4 ,scapes as long as the leaves1 thickened towards the upper part4 ,calix #e leaved1 ,spurs consimilar3 petals #e4 ,stamens #e to #h4 ,carpophore as long as the scapes4 ,myosurus ,shortii4 ,raf4 ,leaves linear obtuse1 hardly attenuated below4 ,scapes shorter than the leaves1 and filiform4 ,calix #c to #e leaved1 spurs membraneous3 petals #c to #e4 ,stamens #aj to #ab4 ,carpophore shorter than the scapes4 ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque4 ,philadelphia1 ,may #a1 #ahai4 ,,art4 ,,xi4 ,description of a ,new ,species of ,gnaphalium1 by ,professor ,e4 ,,ives4 ,to ,b4 ,silliman1 ,esq4 ,m4,d41 c4 ,the following description of a new species of ,gnaphalium1 accompanied with a drawing1 has been in my possession for two years4 ,if the subsequent observations will be of use to correct error1 or solve doubts which may have existed concerning some species of gnaphalium1 they are at your service4 ,e4 ,,ives4 ,this plant was first observed by me1 in company with ,mr4 ,c4 ,whitlow1 in ,july1 #ahag1 by the margin of a brook1 a few rods north of ,mr4 ,e4 ,whitney's gun manufactory1 near ,new-,haven4 ,it is also found on the margin of the ,housatonick1 about thirty miles from ,long ,island sound1 where it was observed by ,dr4 ,alfred ,monson1 the last summer4 ,specimens of this plant were sent to ,z4 ,collins1 ,esq4 of ,philadelphia1 for the purpose of comparing it with the species of gnaphalium in ,muhlenberg's herbarium1 more particularly with the luteo-album and ,pennsylvanicum1 which ,i had not seen4 ,illustration3 ,gnaphalium decurrens4 ,i am indebted to the politeness of ,mr4 ,collins1 for the facts on this subject relative to ,muhlenberg's herbarium4 ,he observes1 your ,gnaphalium is certainly not the luteo-album of ,muhlenberg1 which may not strictly be a native1 but introduced4 ,yours most approaches ,g4 polycephalum ,mx4 ,still1 from the decurrent leaves and other differential marks1 it appears to me to be a new species4 ,muhlenberg's collection has it not4 ,as the luteo-album is said to grow in ,new-,england1 yet so far as my observation has extended it has not been found by any of the botanists1 ,i am induced to believe that this opinion has arisen from some erroneous description of the plant which is the subject of this paper4 ,as the decurrent leaves of this ,gnaphalium distinguish it so obviously from all the other ,american species of ,gnaphalium1 ,i propose to give it the specific name of decurrens4 ,specific description of ,gnaphalium ,decurrens 7large life everlasting47 ,leaves lanceolate1 broad at base1 acute1 decurrent1 somewhat scabrous above1 tomentose beneath2 stem leafy branched spreading1 about three feet high4--,see the plate4--,the plate represents a section of the upper part of the plant4 ,,fossil ,,zoology1 c4 ,,art4 ,,xii4 ,observations on some ,species of ,zoophytes4 ,shells1 c4 principally ,fossil1 by ,,thomas ,,say4 ,if the following descriptions and notices of some of the animal productions of our country1 chiefly fossil1 and of which some are but little known1 should be found of sufficient interest to occupy a place in the ,journal of ,science1 they are very much at your service for that work4 ,the greater portion of them are extracted1 with some modification1 from an essay which ,i read about three years ago1 to the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 without any intention at the time of giving publicity to them4 ,but the rapid diffusion of a taste for geological research1 seems to require corresponding exertions on the part of those who have attended to fossil remains1 inasmuch as geology1 in order to be eminently furnished with every advantage that may tend to the developement of many important results1 must be in part founded on a knowledge of the different genera and species of reliqui1 which the various accessible strata of the earth present4 ,the accessory value of this species of knowledge1 is now duly estimated in ,europe1 as affording the most obvious means of estimating1 with the greatest approximation to truth1 the comparative antiquity of formations1 and of strata1 as well as of identifying those with each other which are in their nature similar4 ,certainly very little is yet known about the fossils of ,north ,america1 and very little can be known accurately1 until we shall have it in our power to compare them with approved detailed descriptions1 plates1 or specimens of those of ,europe2 which have been made known to the world by the indefatigable industry1 and scientific research of ,lamarck and other naturalists4 ,america is rich in fossils4 ,in many districts of the ,united ,states1 vast beds of fossil shells1 zoophytes1 c4 are deposited1 which1 for the most part1 are concealed from the inquiring eye1 offering superficially a mere confused mass of mutilated fragments4 ,these rich repositories must finally be exposed to view1 by the onward pace of improvement1 and the more interior strata will be unveiled by some fortunate profound excavations1 the result of enterprise in the pursuit of gain4 ,the very surface of the country in many regions1 is almost overspread with the abundance of casts1 or redintigrate fossils1 many of which are apparently specifically anomalous1 and some generically so4 ,the correct1 and only useful mode in which the investigation of our fossils can be conducted1 is attended with some difficulty and labour4 ,the task presumes the knowledge1 not only of fossils in all their different states1 from the apparently unchanged specimen1 to the fragment or section of a cast uninsulably imbedded in its rocky matrix1 but it also requires an adequate acquaintance with recent specimens1 or those of which the inhabitants are not yet struck from the list of animated beings1 in other words those of the present1 as well as those of the former world4 ,due advantage being taken of the many opportunities which are from time to time offered to us1 of obtaining knowledge in this department1 will probably be the means of producing a list of ,american animal reliqui1 coextensive with that of ,europe at the present day4 ,in the present state of the science1 however1 the correct naturalist will feel it a duty which he owes to his colaborators to proceed with the utmost caution1 that he may not add unnecessarily to the already numerous species4 ,genus ,alveolites1 ,lam4 ,coral lapideous1 covering extraneous bodies1 or in a simple mass1 formed of concentric strata2 strata composed each of a union of numerous alveoles1 which are very short1 contiguous1 reticulate1 and generally parallel4 ,species4 ,a4 glomeratus1 alveoles vertical1 subequal1 oval1 or obsoletely hexagonal1 much shorter than the diameter1 parallel2 paries simple2 strata numerous1 forming a rounded mass4 7,cabinet of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences47 ,found often on the coast of ,north ,america1 cast up by the waves1 the animals sometimes still living4 ,forms masses of various sizes and figures1 generally more or less rounded or lobed1 and composed of a great number of concentric layers4 ,the number of these strata seems to be regulated in some degree1 by the quantity of surface they have to cover4 ,thus if the nucleus happens to be a small shell1 such as the ,natic1 ,nass1 c4 of our coast1 or even the oyster1 7,o4 virginica17 clam1 7,v4 mercenaria17 c4 the strata are often very numerous2 but on the thoracic plate of ,limulus polyphemus1 having a considerable space over which to extend themselves1 the strata are but few1 not more than #b or #c4 ,i have seen the thoracic plate of this animal so entirely covered by the ,alveolite1 as to have the eyes and stemmata concealed so as to be perfectly blind4 ,when composed of a single layer only1 it much resembles a ,flustra1 or a ,cellapore of which the convex surfaces have been removed by attrition4 ,the animal ,i have not yet examined4 ,the alveoles or cells of a layer1 are arranged in lines of different degrees of curvature1 obscurely radiating from different centres2 these lines are placed side by side1 the alveoles alternating with each other throughout the layer in a quincunx manner2 the thickness of the paries is somewhat equal to one half of the conjugate diameter of the alveole1 the length of which1 or thickness of the layer1 is scarcely more considerable2 but these proportions vary4 ,the species to which it seems allied1 are madreporacea and incrustans4 ,the former is fossil1 and differs in being subramose2 the latter forms but a single expansion4 ,genus ,favosites1 ,lam4 ,coral lapideous1 simple1 of a variable form1 composed of parallel prismatic and fasciculated tubes2 tubes contiguous1 pentagonal1 or hexagonal1 more or less angular1 rarely articulated4 ,species4 ,f4 striata1 more or less turbinate2 paries of the alveoles longitudinally striated within1 and fenestrate with minute osculi2 alveoles with very numerous sept4 7,cabinet ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sciences2 and ,peale's ,museum--common47 ,found fossil in various parts of the ,united ,states1 at the falls of the ,ohio2 ,genessee1 ,new-,york2 ,pittsburg and ,wilksbarre1 ,pennsylvania2 ,missouri1 c4 c4 but not yet in the alluvial deposit of ,new-,jersey4 ,the tubes are generally1 partially1 or entirely filled with silicious matter1 sometimes so completely so1 as to resemble in miniature1 basaltic columns2 when the alveoles are free on the surface1 these fossils are known by the name of petrified wasp-nests1 from the resemblance they bear to the nests of those insects4 ,the silex is usually only infiltrated into the cavities1 leaving the substance of the coral in its original calcareous state1 but the specimens which are found amongst the rolled pebbles of the ,delaware ,river1 near ,philadelphia1 are completely silicified4 ,the size varies from one fourth of an ounce1 to two hundred pounds or more1 and the tubes occur of every intermediate diameter1 from the fortieth to one fourth of an inch4 ,it is not common to find any two specimens of like form1 they are1 however1 ordinarily more or less turbinate1 but are sometimes depressed or compressed1 and the tubes rectilinear or excurved1 and of various lengths4 ,the dilated summit is not so much the effect of a gradual enlargement of the tubes1 as of the frequent and adventitious interposition of young ones1 which of course renders the openings of the tubes unequal4 ,the tubes or alveoles1 vary in the same coral1 being #e or #f1 rarely seven sided1 but the hexagonal form is most common2 the interior of a tube is divided into a great number of apartments or cells1 by approximate transverse sept1 each of the cells appears to be connected with the corresponding cells of the surrounding tubes1 by lateral orifices in the dividing paries2 these orifices are minute1 inequidistant1 orbicular1 their margins slightly prominent1 and forming from one to three longitudinal series on each side of the tube2 each row is separated from the adjoining one by an impressed line4 ,by means of these osculi it seems probable that all the animals inhabiting a common coral1 were connected together1 or had free communication with each other1 but whether by means of a common organ as in ,pyrosoma1 ,stephanomia1 c4 or simply by contact as in the aggregating ,salpa1 c4 we have no means of determining4 ,the striata differs from ,madrepora truncata1 ,esper4 7,f4 alveolata1 ,lam47 in not being exts transvers sulcata4 ,it seems to be allied to ,corallium ,gothlandicum1 ,amn4 ,acad4 v4 #a4 p4 #ajf1 and it is possible it may prove synonymous1 or very similar to it1 when that species becomes better known2 the latter has been taken for ,basalt1 and ,m4 ,lamarck when describing it1 inquires ,est-ce un polypier8 ,madrepora fascicularis1 of ,volck4 and ,parkin4 in common with ,f4 striata and ,f4 ,gothlandicum1 is distinguished by the transverse septa1 a character which induced me to refer the species here described to ,favosite2 they seem therefore to be congeneric1 as analogy indicates a participation in the character of osculated paries4 ,amongst the great variety exhibited by this species1 we have to remark more particularly the following1 viz43 #ast4 ,alveoles perfectly free1 that is1 destitute of aciculi or lamell1 the septa wanting1 and sometimes the osculi obsolete4 #b;d4 ,alveoles filled almost to the summit with the septa1 and resembling those combs of the bee-hive which are filled with honey and covered over4 #c;d4 ,paries beset with very numerous1 interrupted1 alternating1 transverse lamell1 which are denticulated at their tips1 and project towards the centre with various degrees of prominence and irregularity4 ,the first variety corresponds with the generic character1 and the third approaches the genus ,porites2 yet so unequivocally identical are they1 that ,i have seen them all united in the same mass1 and perforated throughout by the osculi4 ,the identity is further obvious by the perfect gradation which renders them inseparable4 ,with respect to the transverse septa1 ,i think their presence may be accounted for by supposing that as the animal elongates its tube in consequence of an increase of growth1 or in order to maintain an equal elevation with the adjacent tubes1 7rendered necessary by the origin of young tubes in the interstices7 it gradually vacates the basal portions of its tube1 and sustains itself at the different elevations1 by successively uniting the parietal lamell so as to exclude the vacuity4 ,that this is probable1 we may infer from a similar procedure on the part of several species of testaceous mollusca4 ,thus some ,linnan ,serpula become camerated1 and a familiar instance presents itself in the ,triton tritonis1 the animal of which adds successive partitions to the interior of the spire1 as that part becomes too strait for the increasing volume of its body4 ,if the above supposition proves correct1 the organs of communication which pass through the osculi1 can hardly be in common1 but must rather connect the animals by simple contact only1 otherwise these parts would be broken when the animal changes its place by vacating the inferior part of the tube4 ,the third variety is then the state of that portion of the tube which is inhabited by the body of the animal1 and not yet interrupted by the sept4 ,from the above observations1 it is evident that this species1 and probably the entire genus ,favosite under which ,i have placed it1 will not arrange properly with the ,tubipores1 ,millepores1 c4 but must be transferred to the ,polypiers ,lamellifres of ,lamarck4 ,and if the ,madrepora retepora of ,solander and ,ellis1 is a true ,porites1 as ,m4 ,lamarck supposes it to be from the appearance of its tubes1 ,i should conclude this genus to be very proximately allied to ,favosites1 by that species and the ,f4 striata having in common the remarkable character of fenestrated paries4 ,but to this character ,i should conceive a generic importance ought to be attached1 as indicating a differential organization of the artificers4 ,i have no doubt that on close inspection of a perfect specimen1 the same character will be found to exist in ,f4 ,gothlandicum1 and possibly also in ,f4 truncata1 if not in the latter only1 it may be proper to separate the genus and to withdraw from ,porites the forementioned species1 retaining to striata as specifically essential1 the second member of the differential description4 7,to be continued47 ,,physics1 ,,chemistry1 c4 ,,art4 ,,xiii4 ,observations on ,salt ,storms1 and the ,influence of ,salt and ,saline ,air upon ,animal and ,vegetable ,life4 ,read before the ,lyceum of ,natural ,history of ,new-,york1 ,march #g1 #ahai1 by ,,john ,b4 ,,beck1 ,m4 ,d4 7,communicated for this ,journal47 ,meteorology is a science of so much general concern1 that it seems to be incumbent upon every member of society to aid in augmenting the stock of facts1 which the labours of ingenious and scientific men have already accumulated on that subject4 ,under this impression ,i propose to devote the following paper to some observations on salt winds or storms1 as they have occurred in this country and in ,europe--a subject1 which although presenting many phenomena of a more than temporary interest1 has as yet excited but little attention4 ,indeed1 the opportunities for observation have occurred so rarely as readily to account for its having in a great measure escaped the philosophical acumen of the present age4 ,it must have been early observed that the atmosphere in the vicinity of the sea frequently becomes impregnated with saline materials2 but the first and only account of a salt storm that ,i have met with1 is to be found in the ,transactions of the ,linnan ,society of ,london4 ,the #hth volume of that work gives an interesting narration of the effects of a storm of this description1 which occurred in ,england1 in ,january1 #ahjc4 ,it was occasioned by an east wind1 which blew for some days1 and which1 in its passage over the ocean1 had imbibed large quantities of salt water1 which were afterward deposited upon the land4 ,in most cases these depositions proved fatal to the plants and vegetables which received them4 ,so extensive were the effects of this singular storm1 that they were felt in the vicinity of ,london1 at a distance of about seventy miles from the ocean1 and in all the intermediate country4 ,in most instances1 the leaves of the plants1 which suffered from it1 appeared as if they had been scorched1 and in some places even the tops of the branches mortified4 ,a storm of the same kind took place in ,england1 in ,february1 #ahjd2 and the memoir states1 that ,sir ,joseph ,banks had noticed another some years before in ,lincolnshire4#ee ,a storm attended with similar effects occurred in this country in #ahae1 and vented its fury upon the eastern states4 ,it commenced on the #bc;d of ,september1 between eight and nine o'clock1 ,a4 ,m4 with the wind from the east4 ,in about two hours the wind shifted to southeast1 and blew a perfect hurricane4 ,the extended devastation which ensued1 is still in the recollection of every person4 ,the tides rose from nine to twelve feet higher than ordinary1 and in many of the principal cities and towns along the coast of ,new ,england1 churches1 houses1 bridges1 wharves1 and in some instances valuable citizens1 were buried in one common ruin4 ,in less than three hours the gale abated1 and before sunset there was a perfect calm4 ,such were the more striking features of this tremendous gale--but other effects were observed more peculiarly interesting to the philosopher4 ,at ,new-,london1 ,salem1 and other places1 both on the coast1 and several miles in the interior1 the air was found to be loaded with salt2 and the leaves of many trees appeared1 a few hours after the storm1 as if they had been scorched4 ,besides this effect upon vegetables1 there were additional evidences of the saline quality of the wind4 ,at ,salem and some other places an incrustation of salt was perceived on the windows1 and the fruit in several gardens had a perceptible taste of salt on their surface4 ,at ,new-,london it was remarked that the air in the eddies was extremely hot and suffocating4 ,other facts of a similar nature might be collected1 but these it is presumed are sufficient to characterize the state of the atmosphere during that storm4 ,several interesting inquiries arise from the consideration of the foregoing facts4 #a4 ,in what way does the salt exist in the atmosphere in these storms8 ,on this point there are two different opinions4 ,the most prevalent is1 that it is merely the spray of the sea driven onward by the force of the wind4 ,this opinion has received the sanction of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1#ef and also of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 if we may judge from an incidental expression in his ,agricultural ,chemistry4#eg ,another opinion#eh is1 that muriate of soda is continually rising into the atmosphere from the surface of the ocean1 and that the air1 in all maritime situations1 is thus constantly more or less impregnated with salt4 ,the most striking fact in support of this doctrine1 7so opposite to the commonly received views on the subject of the evaporation of sea water7 is the actual existence of muriate of soda in the rain and snow which fall in the vicinity of the ocean4#ei ,the experiments of ,vogel and ,bouillon ,lagrange1 on the distillation of sea water1 are also in favour of the position1 that salt may be carried into the air in the ordinary process of evaporation4 ,on distilling salt water they found a considerable quantity of muriate of soda in the receiver4#fj ,admitting the correctness of these experiments1 still it is not easy to conceive1 how they will account satisfactorily for the large quantities of salt found in the air during the storms under consideration4 ,whichever of these solutions may be adopted1 it is unquestionably a fact that salt does1 in some way or other1 exist in the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of the sea4 #b4 ,the next object of inquiry is1 the influence which this saline air has upon vegetable life4 ,independently of the facts already stated1 there are many others which prove its deleterious agency upon the vegetable creation4 ,dr4 ,mitchill informs me1 that in some parts of the south side of ,long-,island fruit trees do not thrive well1 except at a distance of thirty miles from the sea1 and even the sturdy oak does not extend its branches towards the ocean4#fa ,if ,i am correctly informed1 it was with great difficulty1 that the trees on our ,battery were made to accommodate themselves to a situation so near the salt water4 ,it is also well known1 that when plants are taken to sea1 they speedily perish1 if exposed but a short time to a wind1 which is sufficiently strong to turn over the tops of the waves into white caps1 as they are called by the sailors4 ,in order to ascertain positively1 whether these effects were to be attributed to the operation of salt1 ,i made a solution of muriate of soda in common rain water2 with this ,i watered for a couple of days the leaves of different plants4 ,in a short time they began to dry up1 and in a few days were completely dead4 ,it appears from ,volney1 that the ,egyptian air is strongly charged with salts4 ,the evidences of it are to be found even at ,cairo4#fb ,it is this property of the air1 which this philosophical traveller considers1 as one of the causes of the rapid vegetation in that country4 ,he mentions1 however1 that exotic plants will not thrive there4 ,it is found necessary to renew the seeds of them every year4 ,may not this be occasioned by the saline quality of the air8 ,the native plants are doubtless accustomed to its action1 and do not so sensibly feel its injurious effects4 ,and if the ,egyptian air is so very penetrating from this very cause1 as to produce ophthalmia1 may we not rationally conclude1 that its influence must be equally injurious to plants not accustomed to it4 ,another illustration of the influence of salt on vegetation is to be found in the ,dead ,sea1 or ,lake ,asphaltites4 ,in ,lake ,asphaltites1 says ,volney1 there is neither animal nor vegetable life4 ,no verdure is to be seen on its banks1 nor fish to be found within its waters2 but it is not true1 that its exhalations are pestiferous1 so as to destroy birds flying over it4 ,it is not uncommon to see swallows skimming its surface1 and dipping for the water necessary to build their nests4 ,the true cause which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the extreme saltness of the water1 which is vastly stronger than that of the sea4 ,the soil around it1 equally impregnated with this salt1 produces no plants1 and the air itself1 which becomes loaded with it from evaporation1 and which receives also the sulphureous and bituminous vapours1 cannot be favourable to vegetation2 hence the deadly aspect which reigns around this lake4#fc #c4 ,in what way does the salt operate in producing its deleterious effects on the leaves of vegetables8 ,it is by no means easy to answer this question4 ,it cannot be by shutting up the pores of the leaf1 and thus obstructing its perspiration4 ,it is well known that when the surfaces of leaves are covered with oil1 they will soon die4#fd ,but salt water is certainly not sufficiently viscid to act in a similar way4 ,nor can it be satisfactorily attributed to the difference of structure between maritime and land plants4 ,there is some difference indeed between many of these1 maritime plants being generally covered by a pubescence1 of which most land plants are destitute4 ,it is idle however to suppose that the object of this covering is to protect maritime plants from the action of the salt air1 as there are many of them which do not possess it4 ,besides1 is it not rational to conclude1 from the large quantities of soda which are always found in sea plants1 that this saline atmosphere is rather propitious than otherwise to their growth1 and that it only proves injurious to plants accustomed to the unadulterated air of the land4 ,again1 ,i do not think that it can be explained by supposing1 that the salt is absorbed into the plant1 and thus acts as a poisonous substance4 ,we know1 that in land plants which are cultivated in the neighbourhood of the sea1 salt is absorbed through their roots4#fe ,it must of course circulate with the juices through the whole plant2 and yet in these cases the leaves are not destroyed by it4 ,the most plausible method of explaining it appears to be this3 that the salt1 by its irritating or corrosive power1 destroys the small vessels in the leaf which are necessary for the circulation going on in it during health4 ,dr4 ,darwin has ingeniously shown the analogy between the functions of the leaves of plants1 and the lungs of animals4 ,if this be admitted1 it will not be difficult to account for the action of salt upon leaves4 ,this substance1 when taken into the stomach1 proves not merely innocuous1 but wholesome2 but when accidentally introduced into the lungs1 irritation1 inflammation1 and death are the consequences4 ,so with plants--when admitted into them in combination with their juices1 it may be harmless2 but when applied to the lungs or leaves1 death ensues4 #d4 ,i shall devote the remainder of this paper to a few concise observations on the effects of salt1 and a saline atmosphere1 upon animal life4 ,upon the more imperfect animals1 such as slugs1 worms1 toads1 c4 it is well known that salt proves speedily destructive of life4 ,it is not my intention to attempt an explanation of this singular fact4 ,but it is remarkable that it should not have been turned to better account in the treatment of those worms1 which infest the human body4 ,although used for that purpose by the common people in ,ireland as well as in this country1 ,i believe it has not1 until very lately1 claimed the attention of the profession1 as an anthelmintick4 ,a late ,english journal#ff contains a notice of some cases which satisfactorily prove its efficacy1 when administered with this intention4 ,this fact1 in addition to numerous others1 strikingly illustrates the advantages which the healing art might derive from a careful observation of the phenomena daily developed by the collateral sciences4 ,in cases of hmoptysis and hmatemesis1 common salt has been used with decided success4 ,the public is indebted to ,dr4 ,rush1 for the introduction of this remedy into general practice4 ,dr4 ,hosack informs me1 that he has found sea air extremely salutary in remittent fever1 cholera infantum1 and dyspepsia4 ,among the deleterious effects caused by a saline atmosphere1 may be mentioned the ophthalmia of ,egypt4 ,this disease is so common there1 that out of a hundred persons1 says ,volney1 ,i have met while walking the streets of ,cairo1 twenty have been quite blind1 ten wanting an eye1 and twenty others have had their eyes red1 purulent1 or blemished4#fg ,throughout the ,delta1 and at ,cairo1 this complaint is more prevalent than in any other part of ,egypt4 ,in ,syria it is also common1 although less so than in ,egypt1 but it is only met with on the sea-coast4 ,the reasoning of ,volney on this subject1 is decisive of the position1 that the prevalence of this complaint1 in these regions1 is owing to their proximity to the ocean4 ,in confirmation1 he states that he has himself experienced the irritating effects of the air of the ,delta upon the organ of vision4#fh ,in those cases of scurvy which occur in long voyages1 the saline nature of the atmosphere co-operates very powerfully with salt provisions and bad water1 in producing that general vitiation of the system which characterizes this disorder4 ,of all diseases1 however1 those of the lungs appear to be most affected by a saline air4 ,i have known a lady of this city who had been afflicted for many years with asthma1 to be essentially benefited by a voyage across the ,atlantic4 ,another case has fallen under my observation1 of a lady troubled with asthma1 being much relieved by removing from the interior to this city4 ,what proves beyond a doubt that her relief is owing to the air she breathes1 is1 that whenever she takes a jaunt into the country1 she is sure to suffer a paroxysm of her old complaint4 ,pulmonary consumption certainly prevails more on the sea-coast1 than in the interior4 ,in all our sea-port towns1 it is this disorder which so frightfully augments the catalogue of our bills of mortality4 ,according to ,dr4 ,rush1 in ,salem1 in the state of ,massachusetts1 which is situated near the sea1 and exposed1 during many months of the year1 to a moist east wind1 there died in the year #agii1 #afj persons2 fifty-three of whom died of the consumption4#fi ,in ,philadelphia1 which is more remote from the sea1 the deaths from consumption are much less numerous than in ,new-,york1 or the other cities immediately on the coast4 ,in ,great ,britain1 which is exposed to the sea on all sides1 it is calculated that about #ee1jjj die annually from this disease4 ,such are some of the facts on this subject2 but the conclusion does not appear to be warranted1 that these pulmonary affections arise from the irritating quality of the air4 ,in ,holland1 the ,west ,indies1 as well as in other countries and islands1 exposed to the sea air1 consumption is of rare occurrence4 ,in ,syria1 ,volney even states that the air of the coast is particularly favourable to those labouring under this malady4 ,accordingly they are in the habit of sending such patients from ,aleppo to ,latakia1 or ,saide1 where they may enjoy the benefit of sea air4#gj ,again1 we know that many persons suffering from this affection1 have been completely cured by a voyage1 after all the resources of medicine had been exhausted upon them in vain4 ,it is evident then1 that a pure sea air is not detrimental in cases of consumption4 ,dr4 ,rush1 with his usual ingenuity1 explains the prevalence of this complaint in our sea-ports1 by attributing it to the mixture of land and sea air2 and in confirmation observes1 that those situations which are in the neighbourhood of bays and rivers1 where the fresh and salt waters mix their streams together1 are more unfavourable to consumptive patients than the seashore1 and therefore should be more carefully avoided by them in exchanging city for country air4#ga ,independently1 however1 of these causes1 ,i think the frequent and sudden vicissitudes of temperature1 which we suffer on the coast1 are alone sufficient to account for the prevalence of catarrhal and pneumonic affections1 which most commonly are the precursors of consumption4 ,i trust the foregoing observations have not been considered too medical to comport with the objects of this ,society4 ,natural history is only useful in its practical applications2 and if it can be shown to throw any light upon an art1 which contributes so much to the comfort and happiness of man1 we have established one of the strongest considerations1 which can recommend it to general patronage and investigation4 ,physicians ought in an especial manner to set a high value upon the researches of naturalists4 ,the aid they have already given is sufficient to entitle them to the lasting gratitude of our profession4 ,it was one of the merits of that illustrious physician of our own time and country1 ,dr4 ,rush1 that he seized with avidity every fact1 from whatever quarter it might be drawn1 to elucidate his favourite science4 ,if ever medicine shall attain to the elevation of a truly philosophical science1 it must be accomplished1 in part at least1 by imitating his example1 and by developing the infinite and diversified associations which exist between it and the other sciences4 ,,art4 ,,xiv4 ,thoughts on ,atmospheric ,dust4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,rafinesque1 ,esq4 #a4 ,when we find the ruins of ancient cities buried under ground2 when the plough uncovers the front of palaces and the summit of old temples1 we are astonished3 but we seldom reflect why they are hidden in the earth4 ,a sort of imperceptible dust falls at all times from the atmosphere1 and it has covered them during ages4 #b4 ,these are the words of the worthy and eloquent philosopher ,,virey1 in his article ,nature1 ,vol4 ,,xv4 p4 #cgc1 of the ,french ,dictionary of ,natural ,history4 ,even before reading them ,i had observed the same phenomenon1 and ,i have since studied their effects in various places4 ,i could quote one thousand instances of the extensive and multifarious operations of this meteoric dust3 but ,i mean to give the results merely of those that fall daily under notice1 and are yet totally neglected2 wishing to draw on them the attention of chemists1 philosophers1 and geologists4 #c4 ,whenever the sun shines in a dark room1 its beams display a crowd of lucid dusty molecules of various shapes1 which were before invisible as the air in which they swim1 but did exist nevertheless4 ,these form the atmospheric dust2 existing every where in the lower strata of our atmosphere4 ,i have observed it on the top of the highest mountains1 on ,mount ,etna1 in ,sicily1 on the ,alps1 on the ,alleghany and ,catskill mountains in ,america1 c4 and on the ocean4 #d4 ,it deserves to be considered under many views3 which are its invisibility1 its shape and size1 its formation and origin1 its motion1 its deposition and accumulation1 its composition1 its uses1 and its properties4 #e4 ,this dust is invisible1 owing to the tenuity of its particles1 but they become visible in the following instances2 when the sun shines on them1 since they reflect the light1 when their size is increased1 and when they are accumulated any where4 #f4 ,the size of the particles is very unequal1 and their shape dissimilar2 the greatest portion are exceedingly small1 similar to a whitish or grayish spark1 without any determinable or perceptible shape2 the larger particles are commonly lamellar or flattened1 but with an irregular margin1 and the largest appear to be lengthened or filiform2 the gray colour prevails4 ,other shapes are now and then perceptible with the microscope4 #g4 ,among the properties of atmospheric dust are those of being soft1 as light as atmospheric air1 of reflecting the rays received directly from the sun1 of possessing a kind of peculiar electricity1 which gives it a tendency to accumulate on some bodies more readily than on some others1 and of forming an earthy sediment1 which does not become effervescent with acids4 #h4 ,this dust is either constantly or periodically formed1 but chemically in the atmosphere like snow1 hail1 meteoric stones1 honey-dew1 earthy rains1 c4 by the combination of gaseous and elementary particles dissolved in the air4 ,its analysis has never been attempted by chemists2 but the earthy sediment which is the result of its accumulated deposition1 proves that it is a compound of earthy particles in a peculiar state of aggregation1 and in which alumine appears to preponderate1 rather than calcareous or silicious earths or oxides4 #i4 ,its motion in calm weather1 or in a quiet room1 is very slow2 the particles appear to float in the air in all directions1 some rising1 some falling1 and many swimming horizontally1 or forming a variety of curved lines2 what is most singular1 is that no two particles appear to have exactly the same direction2 yet after awhile the greatest proportion fall down obliquely1 somewhat in the same manner as a light snow in a calm day4 ,when a current of air is created naturally or artificially in the open air or in a room1 you perceive at once an increased velocity in their motion2 they move with rapidity in all directions2 but when a strong current or wind prevails1 they are carried with it in a stream1 preserving however1 as yet1 their irregular up and down motion4 #aj4 ,its formation is sometimes very rapid1 and its accumulation very thick in the lower strata of our atmosphere1 but the intensity is variable4 ,whenever rain or snow falls1 this dust is precipitated on the ground by it1 whence arises the purity of the air after rain and snow2 but a small share is still left1 or soon after formed4 ,in common weather it deposits itself on the ground by slow degrees1 and the same in closed rooms4 ,it forms then the dust of our floors1 the mould of our roofs1 and ultimately the surface of our soil1 unless driven by winds from one place to another4 #aa4 ,i have measured its accumulation in a quiet room1 and have found it variable from one-fourth of an inch to one inch in the course of one year2 but it was then in a pulverulent fleecy state1 and might be reduced by compression to one-third of its height1 making the average of yearly deposit about one-sixth of an inch4 ,in the open air this quantity must be still more variable1 owing to the quantities carried by the winds and waters to the plains1 valleys1 rivers1 the sea1 c4 or accumulated in closed places or against walls1 houses1 c4 ,i calculate1 however1 that upon an average1 from six to twelve inches are accumulated over the ground in one hundred years1 where it mixes with the soil and organic exuvi1 to form the common mould4 #ab4 ,the uses of this chronic meteor are many and obvious4 ,it serves to create mould over rocks1 to increase their decomposition1 to add to our cultivable soil1 to amalgamate the alluvial and organic deposits1 to fertilize sandy and unfruitful tracts in the course of time1 to administer to vegetable life1 c4 ,it does not appear that it has any bad influence on men and animals breathing it along with air1 unless it should be accumulated in a very intense degree4 #ac4 ,at ,segesta1 in ,sicily1 are to be seen the ruins of an ancient temple2 the steps1 which surround it on all sides below the pillars1 are built on a rock1 on the top of a hill detached from any other higher ground4 ,yet now all the steps and the base of the pillars are under the ground1 which has accumulated from this dust and the decay of plants 7not trees7 to which it has afforded food4 ,there are from five to eight feet from the rock to the surface of this new soil1 which has chemically combined in a variety of hardness4 ,this soil has arisen there in about #bjjj years1 notwithstanding the washings of rain4 ,i quote this as a remarkable instance of the increase of soil by aerial deposits1 among many which have fallen under my personal examination4 #ad4 ,it is commonly believed that the dust of our rooms is produced by the fragments of decomposed vestments1 beddings1 furnitures1 c42 this cause increases it1 and produces a different dust1 which mixes with the atmospheric dust2 but it is very far from producing it4 #ae4 ,the dust of the open air is ascribed to that raised from roads and fields1 by the pulverization of their surface2 but this secondary and visible dust is only a consequence of the first4 ,from whence could arise the dust observed by the means of the sunbeams in a dark corner1 in winter1 when the ground is frozen1 or when it is wet and muddy1 or at sea1 or on the top of rocky mountains8 #af4 ,it is therefore a matter of fact1 worth taking into consideration by geologists1 that the air still deposits a quantity of dust1 which must have been much greater in former periods4 ,just the same as the sea deposits still a quantity of earthy and saline particles dissolved in it1 and which were superabundant at the period when the rocky strata were formed on its bottom4 ,water being more compact1 deposits rocks4 ,air1 which is less dense1 deposits a pulverulent matter6 ,,art4 ,,xv4 ,on the ,effect of ,vapour on ,flame4 ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,,dana1 ,chemical ,assistant in ,harvard ,university1 and ,lecturer on ,chemistry and ,pharmacy in ,dartmouth ,college4 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,february #e1 #ahai4 ,to ,professor ,silliman4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,about a year since ,i made some experiments on the effect of steam on ignited bodies1 with a view to learn the theory of the action of the ,american water-burner4 ,these experiments were published in an anonymous paper in the ,north ,american ,review1 and have been published in ,london1 without an acknowledgment of their source4 ,the effect of them concerning bodies is peculiar1 and it probably admits of more extensive application to the arts than in the above named instrument alone4 ,when a jet of steam1 issuing from a small aperture1 is thrown on burning charcoal1 the brightness is increased1 if the coal be held at the distance of four or five inches from the pipe through which the steam passes2 but if the coal be held nearer it is extinguished1 a circular black spot first appears where the steam is thrown on it4 ,the steam in this case does not appear to be decomposed1 and the increased brightness of the coal depends probably on a current of atmospheric air1 occasioned by the steam4 ,but when a jet of steam1 instead of being thrown on a single coal1 is made to pass into a charcoal fire1 the vividness of the combustion is increased1 and the low attenuated flame of coal is enlarged4 ,when the wick of a common oil lamp is raised1 so as to give off large columns of smoke1 and a jet of steam is thrown into it1 the brightness of the flame is increased1 and no smoke is thrown off4 ,when spirits of turpentine is made to burn on a wick1 the light produced is dull and reddish1 and a large quantity of thick smoke is given off2 but when a jet of steam is thrown into this flame1 its brightness is much increased2 and when the experiment is carefully performed1 the smoke entirely disappears4 ,when the vapour of spirits of turpentine is made to issue from a small orifice1 and inflamed1 it burns1 and throws off large quantities of smoke2 but when a jet of steam is made to unite with the vapour1 the smoke entirely disappears4 ,when vapour of spirits of turpentine and of water are made to issue together from the same orifice1 and inflamed1 no smoke appears4 ,hence its disappearing1 in the above experiment1 cannot be supposed to depend on a current of atmospheric air4 ,when a jet of steam is thrown into the flame of a spirit of wine lamp1 or into flames which evolve no smoke or carbonaceous matter1 the same effect is produced as by a current of air4 ,it appears1 from these experiments1 that in all flames which evolve smoke1 steam produces an increased brightness1 and a more perfect combustion4 ,now1 with a very simple apparatus1 steam might be introduced into the flames of street lamps1 and that kind of lamp which is used in butchers' shops in ,london1 and in all flames which evolve much smoke4 ,the advantage of such an arrangement would be a more perfect combustion1 and a greater quantity of light from the same materials4 ,the flame of the lamps1 to which steam is applied1 might be made to keep the water boiling which supplies the steam4 ,i hope the above may not be altogether uninteresting and useless to the readers of your ,journal4 ,very respectfully1 your obedient servant1 ,j4 ,f4 ,,dana4 ,,art4 ,,xvi4 ,analysis of the ,harrodsburg ,salts1 by ,,edward ,d4 ,,smith1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,mineralogy in the ,south-,carolina ,college4 ,more than a year since ,i received a quantity of a white earthy substance1 which was said to be obtained by the evaporation of certain mineral waters at ,harrodsburg1 ,kentucky1 and there vended at a considerable price1 under the name of ,epsom salts4 ,the respectable character who presented this powder to me1 requested that ,i would make an analysis of it2 but ,i had not sufficient leisure until lately1 to pay the requisite attention to this subject4 ,the results of my examinations are now submitted to the public eye4 ,the external qualities of this substance are as follow3 small white lumps1 hard to the touch1 but dry and easily yielding to pressure1 somewhat gritty to the teeth1 and imparting an earthy and saline taste to the tongue4 #a4 #abj grains of the powder were put into about a half ounce of alcohol1 digested for six hours1 then1 washed with more alcohol1 filtered and carefully dried4 #b4 ,on weighing the dry powder1 the loss appeared to be but one grain1 so that it contains very little of any substance which is soluble in alcohol4 #c4 #aae grains 7four grains having been lost in the transfer from the filter7 were collected and put into rather more than eight times their weight of cold distilled water1 and digested for two hours4 #d4 ,this watery solution was then filtered1 and on weighing1 the residue appeared to be #dh grains1 so that #fg grains must have been dissolved4 #e4 #aj grains of the insoluble residue 7#d7 were put into a flask1 with #aj ounces of distilled water1 and boiled for #a hour4 #f4 ,a small portion of this solution1 on being tested with nitrate of barytes1 gave a copious white precipitate1 with oxalic acid1 a white cloud2 with ammonia1 a slight white cloud2 with muriatic acid1 a slight bluish tinge4 ,from these tests it was inferred that sulphate of lime was present1 with perhaps a slight trace of muriate of lime4 #g4 ,the remainder of this solution was filtered1 and on weighing the dried residuum1 the loss appeared to be #b grains1 so that sulphate of lime probably constitutes nearly of the insoluble residence 7#dh grains4 #d47 #h4 ,the watery solution1 7#d7 which was supposed to contain #fg grains1 was evaporated1 and left a residue that weighed but #cd grains1 so that #cc grains must have disappeared in the process4 #i4 ,some of this residue dissolved in distilled water1 was tested with carbonate of soda1 forming an immediate white cloud2 with nitrate of barytes1 the same2 with ammonia1 the same2 but with oxalate of ammonia1 it did not form any cloud until it had stood some time1 and then it was slight4 ,from these tests it was inferred that sulphate of magnesia was present4 #aj4 ,a portion of the dried residuum 7#g7 was treated with diluted muriatic acid1 which dissolved nearly the whole of it1 with considerable effervescence4 ,the new compound1 on examination1 proved to be muriate of lime2 so that it may be concluded the residuum 7#g7 was principally carbonate of lime4 ,on considering the results of the preceding experiments1 it will appear that more than one half of the substances submitted to analysis1 was easily soluble in water1 and from the chemical tests used1 that it was composed principally of sulphate of magnesia1 7,epsom salt7 with perhaps a small portion of muriate of lime or magnesia1 that of the remainder1 about was sulphate of lime1 and difficultly soluble in water2 and that the rest was perfectly insoluble in water1 and consisted principally of carbonate of lime4 ,there can be no doubt then1 that the ,harrodsburg salt1 in its present state1 is very improperly prepared1 containing in its composition a large proportion of matter1 that is not only inert1 but which may produce considerable inconvenience and injury in the stomach and bowels1 from its ponderous nature and tendency to form mechanical obstructions4 ,perhaps the occurrence of such injury may not be frequent1 from the circumstance of a large portion of the salt being so insoluble2 but admitting this to be the fact1 there is a manifest impropriety in offering to the public1 as medicine1 an article which cannot be used as such4 ,probably the proprietors of this manufactory are not aware of the real nature of the case1 and of the facility with which1 by a little additional trouble1 they could separate the useful and valuable material1 from that which is at least useless1 and which might also be pernicious4 ,south-,carolina ,college1 ,march1 #ahai4 ,,art4 ,,xvii4 ,additional ,notice of the ,tungsten and ,tellurium1 mentioned in our last ,number4 ,,part ,i4 ,description of the ,ore4 ,colour1 dark brown1 almost black2 brittle1 powder a lighter shade of brown than the mineral2 hard1 scratches glass1 scintillates with steel1 with a red spark2 a degree of polish produced1 where the steel strikes1 and when the steel is impressed upon it4 ,structure compact1 in some places slightly porous2 lustre1 generally dull1 sometimes glimmering1 and almost resinous4 ,crystals octahedral4 ,specific gravity of three massive pieces1 #e4g1 #f4 and #f4dd mean1 #f4je nearly2 probably that of the crystals would be higher4 ,infusible by the blow-pipe even with borax1 and does not by strong ignition impart any colour to it or to potash2 not magnetic1 even in fine powder1 nor after being heated red hot on charcoal1 and in contact with burning grease4 ,many specimens decrepitate violently under the blow-pipe4 ,when heated on coals in pieces of considerable size1 they often explode with a smart report1 and are thrown in fragments sometimes several yards from the fire4 ,gangue quartz2 accompanying minerals in the same vein1 native bismuth1 native silver1 galena1 iron and copper pyrites1 much magnetic pyrites1 blende1 c4 ,geological relations4 ,the country is primitive1 and the immediate rock which forms the walls of the vein is said to be gneiss2 7we have not seen it47 ,locality1 town of ,huntington1 parish of ,new ,stratford1 county of ,fairfield1 #bj miles west from ,new-,haven1 ,connecticut4 ,remark4 ,native bismuth in small quantities1 has been for several years obtained from this mine1 but the shaft has been sunk only about ten feet4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,a variety of the ,ore4 ,general characters as above1 but on some parts1 there is seen a whitish1 or yellowish1 or sometimes darkish metallic substance2 it is in thin plates1 like the leaf metals1 and sometimes reticulated1 and graphic in its disposition2 it is soft and easily cut with the knife4 ,in the specimens examined1 it was so much blended with the other ore1 and so trifling in quantity1 that it was not possible to separate it mechanically1 so as to examine it separately4 ,,part ,,iii4--,a4 ,chemical ,trials4 #a4 ,muriatic acid1 hot or cold1 produces no effect2 hot nitro-muriatic dissolves the ore with energy1 red fumes are evolved1 and generally a red solution obtained1 from which ammonia precipitates red oxyd of iron abundantly4 #b4 ,a heavy lemon-yellow powder remains1 insoluble of course in acids1 but easily and completely soluble in warm ammonia4 #c4 ,a dark powder1 in diminished quantity1 again appears1 more acid dissolves it in part1 and again reveals the yellow powder1 which ammonia again dissolves1 and so on1 till nothing remains but some portion of the gangue4 #d4 ,the ammoniacal solution1 which contains the oxyd of tungsten1 is decomposed by acids1 and by heat1 and instantly deposits a white heavy powder1 becoming yellowish by standing1 and full yellow by heat4 #e4 ,this powder is infusible by the blow-pipe1 but ignited with borax in a platinum crucible1 it became of a superb blue1 like smalt1 or between that and ,prussian blue4 #f4 ,the quantity obtained was too small to make it convenient to attempt its reduction to the metallic state2 no doubt remained1 however1 that it was oxyd of tungsten1 or as it is sometimes called1 tungstic acid4 #g4 ,there were traces of manganese1 and all the facts perhaps justify the conclusion1 that the ore is very similar to the ferruginous tungsten or wolfram4 #h4 ,the calcareous tungsten occurs in octahedral crystals1 but we have not before heard of this form in the ferruginous species1 which generally affects the prismatic forms4 ,b4 ,,remark4 ,we had been for some time inclined to believe1 that the above ore was ferruginous tungsten1 but although fortified by the opinion of ,col4 ,gibbs1 we were withheld from announcing it1 because the form of the crystals1 the specific gravity1 the colour1 and perhaps some other characters1 were not perfectly accordant with ,european descriptions1 and with the specimens in our possession1 which are from ,saxony and ,cornwall4 ,during the necessary chemical trials 7which have1 we trust1 established the correctness of the above opinion17 we very unexpectedly discovered in some of the ores of tungsten1 proofs of the existence of tellurium4 ,the conclusion was induced by the phenomena1 for nothing was farther from our expectations4 ,two fragments were pulverized by an assistant1 and we therefore cannot say whether they had any external characters different from those of the other pieces2 they came1 however1 from the same part of the vein1 and their powder resembled that of the other pieces4 #a4 ,digested in nitro-muriatic acid1 a straw-yellow solution1 slightly inclining to green1 was obtained1 and a black powder was left behind4 #b4 ,more acid digested on this powder1 gave a deep red solution of iron1 and left the yellow oxyd of tungsten1 which being dissolved in ammonia1 the black powder again appeared1 and so on1 as under #c4 ,part ,,iii4 #c4 ,the solution #a1 diluted largely with water1 deposited an abundant white precipitate1 which was very heavy and rapidly subsided4 #d4 ,alcohol and ammonia1 respectively produced the same effect1 only more decidedly4 #e4 ,this precipitate1 evidently an oxyd of a metal1 being collected on a filter and dried1 exhibited the following properties4 #f4 ,heated by the blow-pipe on charcoal1 it was instantly volatilized in part1 and in part decomposed1 with an almost explosive effervescence2 numerous ignited globules of metal appeared on the charcoal1 and burned with an abundant flame of a delicate blue colour1 edged occasionally with green4 #g4 ,in many trials1 these results always occurred1 and sometimes a peculiar odour was perceived1 at first thought to be owing to arsenic1 but it was incomparably feebler1 and somewhat resembled that of radishes4#gb #h4 ,zinc1 iron1 and tin1 plunged into separate portions of the nitro-muriatic solution1 precipitated abundantly a black flocculent substance4 #i4 ,on charcoal before the blow-pipe1 this substance was very combustible1 with a blue flame1 and was completely dissipated in the form of white oxyd1 with the above smell4 #aj4 ,some of it was obtained on the charcoal in metallic globules2 it was a brittle metal1 white1 with a tinge of red1 and foliated1 but not so distinctly as bismuth and antimony4 #aa4 ,the filters on which the white oxyd had been deposited1 burned almost with explosion1 nearly as rapidly as if they had been soaked with nitrate of potash1 or of ammonia1 and the characteristic blue flame appeared while the burning lasted4 #ab4 ,other experiments were made upon the metal1 7not the oxyd47 ,it gave to strong sulphuric acid1 7simply by standing in it in the cold7 an amethystine colour1 which disappeared as the acid grew weaker1 by attracting water from the air4 #ac4 ,with nitric acid it formed a colourless solution1 not decomposed by water4 #ad4 ,it did not dissolve in muriatic acid1 till a few drops of nitric acid were added4 #ae4 ,the white oxyd heated with charcoal in a small coated recurved glass tube1 afforded brilliant metallic globules1 which rose by distillation1 collected in the bend of the tube1 and resembled drops of quicksilver1 except that they were solid4 ,c4 ,,remark4 ,the above facts having induced the conclusion that the metal1 thus unexpectedly discovered in the ores of tungsten1 was tellurium1#gc we were led to search for external characters by which to judge what specimens contained it4 ,the ores from ,transylvania1 7the only telluric ores with which we are acquainted17 bearing no analogy in appearance or composition to those before us1 we were led to inquire whether the tellurium in these latter ores was in combination with tungsten1 or merely in mixture4 ,the external characters detailed in part ,,ii1 tend perhaps to fortify the latter opinion4 ,if we mistake not1 we there found a proper ore of tellurium mixed with a proper ore of tungsten1 but we have also by chemical means1 found tellurium where similar external characters were not apparent4 ,before the appearance of our next ,number1 we hope to obtain purer and better specimens4 ,in the mean time we add the following facts4 #a4 ,a crystal1 and a massive piece of the kind described under part ,i1 and specimens of two varieties of those described under part ,,ii1 were digested in nitro-muriatic acid4 #b4 ,both oxyd of tungsten1 and oxyd of tellurium were obtained from all of them4 #c4 ,many specimens have been examined which have afforded tungsten only1 and no tellurium4 ,at a convenient time1 it is hoped that a more complete examination of this subject may be presented to the public4 ,in the mean time1 we may submit to mineralogists and chemists1 whether if this is not a new mineral1 it is not at least a new association of two minerals before known4 ,it has not been forgotten that gold and silver are frequently combined with tellurium3 neither of them has1 however1 been discovered1 7although sought after by proper tests7 during the above trials4 ,yale ,college1 ,march1 #ahai4 ,,art4 ,,xviii4 ,a ,substitute for ,woulfe's or ,nooth's ,apparatus1 by ,,robert ,,hare1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and ,member of various ,learned and ,scientific ,societies4 ,with a ,plate4 ,few subjects have more occupied the attention of chemists1 than the means of impregnating fluids with gaseous substances4 ,the contrivances of ,woulfe and ,nooth1 especially the former1 have been almost universally used2 and have gained for the inventors merited celebrity4 ,various improvements in ,woulfe's bottles have been devised4 ,still ,i believe an apparatus replete with similar advantages1 but less unwieldy1 less liable to fracture2 and having fewer junctures to make at each operation1 has been a great desideratum with every practical chemist4 ,it has1 however1 ceased to be so with me1 since ,i contrived the apparatus which ,i am about to describe4 ,fig4 #a4 represents #c jars placed concentrically within each other1 and so proportioned and situated1 as to admit #b open-necked concentric bell glasses alternately between them4 ,the neck of the exterior bell glass is introduced into the tubulure of the receiver above1 and receives the neck of the interior bell glass4 ,into this is inserted a trumpet-shaped tube4 ,the two interior jars are furnished with feet ,f1 f4 ,in order to put this apparatus into operation1 remove 7without taking them apart7 the bell glasses1 receiver1 and tube from the jars4 ,pour into the latter the fluid1 to be impregnated1 till it reaches the height marked by the dots4 ,the funnel mouth1 m1 of the receiver being provided with a suitable cork soaked in wax1 fasten into it firmly the beak of the retort1 containing the generating materials4 ,the bell glasses are then to be replaced in the jars1 and arranged as in the figure4 ,it must be self-evident that the gas proceeding from the retort1 7if the juncture at m be air tight7 must press on the fluid in the innermost jar1 through the trumpet-shaped tube4 ,if not imbibed with adequate speed1 it must soon press on the fluid at a1 causing it to subside to the narrow part of the foot f1 and thus to expose a much larger surface4 ,if the absorption be still inadequate1 a further subsidence must ensue1 and the gas escaping round the brim of the interior bell glass will act on the fluid at b1 and enlarge its surface by depressing it to the narrow part of the foot ,f4 ,should the increased pressure and more extended contact thus obtained1 be still incompetent to effect a complete absorption1 the excess of the gas may escape round the brim of the external bell glass into the atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #b4 ,drawn ,engraved by ,kneass1 ,young ,co4 ,but so effectual is this process in promoting impregnation1 that ,i have obtained strong muriatic acid in the central jar1 without producing any sensible acidity in the outside one4 ,absorption into the retort or receiver1 is prevented by not allowing as much fluid to be above the mouth of the trumpet-shaped tube1 as would be competent to fill the cavity between it1 and the termination of the open neck of the exterior bell glass at t4 ,as this neck rises about #b or #c inches into the receiver1 it prevents any foul matter which may condense or boil over1 from getting into the jars4 ,if practicable1 it would be better that the bell glasses1 and tube1 and receiver1 should be united together while hot1 at the glass-house4 ,if all could not be joined in this way1 it would still be advantageous to unite thus the receiver1 and the exterior bell glass4 ,the interior bell and tube might then be fastened together1 by grinding or luting4 ,as yet ,i have only used lutings of waxed cloth1 or cork4 ,it may be proper to point out1 that #c or more concentric bell glasses1 and #d or more jars1 might be used4 ,the union of the bells1 receiver1 and tube once effected1 it is hardly more troublesome to use #c than #b4 ,when the fluid in the central jar is saturated1 this may be emptied and replenished from the middle jar1 the latter from the external one4 ,then supplying the external jar anew1 the process may be continued4 ,the other figures are to explain an apparatus on the same principle1 constructed of hollow1 oblong paralellopipeds1 differing in length more than in breadth2 so as to allow a serpentine tube to wind into the interior1 and deliver gas under a vessel shaped like a ,t4 ,fig4 #b4 represents a vertical section of the whole as when situated for use4#gd ,fig4 #c4 a vertical section of the lower vessels only4 ,fig4 #d4 a vertical section of the covers alone4 ,fig4 #e4 a horizontal section1 or ground plan of the lower vessels4 ,the upper vessels are so proportioned as to divide the distances between the lower ones equally4 ,it may be well to mention1 that this apparatus1 from the facility with which it may be cleaned and inspected internally1 admits of being made of porcelain or stone ware4#ge ,i have had a cylindrical one constructed of the latter material1 in which the covers are in one piece1 with a tube in the centre for introducing gas4 ,the apparatus may be made more efficacious1 by drilling a series of small holes round the brims of the bell glasses or covers1 so as to cause the gas1 instead of passing round the brims in large bubbles1 to divide itself into very small ones4 ,by this means it will be more thoroughly intermingled with fluid4 ,,art4 ,,xix4 ,a ,new ,theory of ,galvanism1 supported by some ,experiments and ,observations made by means of the ,calorimotor1 a new ,galvanic ,instrument4 ,read before the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia1#gf by ,,robert ,,hare1 ,m4 ,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and ,member of several ,learned ,societies4 7,with an ,engraving47 ,i have for some time been of opinion that the principle extricated by the ,voltaic pile is a compound of caloric and electricity1 both being original and collateral products of ,galvanic action4 ,the grounds of this conviction and some recent experiments confirming it1 are stated in the following paper4 ,it is well known that heat is liberated by the ,voltaic apparatus1 in a manner and degree which has not been imitated by means of mechanical electricity2 and that the latter1 while it strikes at a greater distance1 and pervades conductors with much greater speed1 can with difficulty be made to effect the slightest decompositions4 ,wollaston1 it is true1 decomposed water by means of it2 but the experiment was performed of necessity on a scale too minute to permit of his ascertaining1 whether there were any divellent polar attractions exercised towards the atoms1 as in the case of the pile4 ,the result was probably caused by mechanical concussion1 or that process by which the particles of matter are dispersed when a battery is discharged through them4 ,the opinion of ,dr4 ,thomson1 that the fluid of the pile is in quantity greater1 in intensity less1 than that evolved by the machine1 is very inconsistent with the experiments of the chemist above mentioned1 who1 before he could effect the separation of the elements of water by mechanical electricity1 was obliged to confine its emission to a point imperceptible to the naked eye4 ,if already so highly intense1 wherefore the necessity of a further concentration8 ,besides1 were the distinction made by ,dr4 ,thomson correct1 the more concentrated fluid generated by a galvanic apparatus of a great many small pairs1 ought most to resemble that of the ordinary electricity2 but the opposite is the case4 ,the ignition produced by a few large ,galvanic plates1 where the intensity is of course low1 is a result most analogous to the chemical effects of a common electrical battery4 ,according to my view1 caloric and electricity may be distinguished by the following characteristics4 ,the former permeates all matter more or less1 though with very different degrees of facility4 ,it radiates through air1 with immeasurable celerity1 and distributing itself in the interior of bodies1 communicates a reciprocally repellent power to atoms1 but not to masses4 ,electricity does not radiate in or through any matter2 and while it pervades some bodies1 as metals1 with almost infinite velocity2 by others1 it is so far from being conducted1 that it can only pass through them by a fracture or perforation4 ,distributing itself over surfaces only1 it causes repulsion between masses1 but not between the particles of the same mass4 ,the disposition of the last-mentioned principle to get off by neighbouring conductors1 and of the other to combine with the adjoining matter1 or to escape by radiation1 would prevent them from being collected at the positive pole1 if not in combination with each other4 ,were it not for a modification of their properties1 consequent to some such union1 they could not1 in piles of thousands of pairs1 be carried forward through the open air and moisture2 the one so well calculated to conduct away electricity1 the other so favourable to the radiation of caloric4 ,pure electricity does not expand the slips of gold-leaf1 between which it causes repulsion1 nor does caloric cause any repulsion in the ignited masses which it expands4 ,but as the compound fluid extricated by ,galvanic action1 which ,i shall call electro-caloric1 distributes itself through the interior of bodies1 and is evidently productive of corpuscular repulsion1 it is in this respect more allied to caloric than to electricity4 ,it is true1 that when common electricity causes the deflagration of metals1 as by the discharge of a ,leyden jar1 it must be supposed to insinuate itself within them1 and cause a reaction between their particles4 ,but in this case1 agreeably to my hypothesis1 the electric fluid combines with the latent caloric previously existing there1 and1 adding to its repulsive agency1 causes it to overpower cohesion4#gg ,sir ,humphry ,davy was so much at a loss to account for the continued ignition of wire at the poles of a ,voltaic apparatus1 that he considers it an objection to the materiality of heat2 since the wire could not be imagined to contain sufficient caloric to keep up the emission of this principle for an unlimited time4 ,but if we conceive an accumulation of heat to accompany that of electricity throughout the series1 and to be propagated from one end to the other1 the explanation of the phenomenon in question is attended by no difficulty4 ,the effect of the ,galvanic fluid on charcoal is very consistent with my views1 since1 next to metals1 it is one of the best conductors of electricity1 and the worst of heat1 and would therefore arrest the last1 and allow the other to pass on4 ,though peculiarly liable to intense ignition1 when exposed between the poles of the ,voltaic apparatus1 it seems to me it does not display this characteristic with common electricity4 ,according to ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 when in connexion with the positive pole1 and communicating by a platina wire with the negative pole1 the latter is less heated than when1 with respect to the poles1 the situation of the wire and charcoal is reversed4 ,the rationale is obvious3 charcoal1 being a bad conductor1 and a good radiator1 prevents the greater part of the heat from reaching the platina1 when placed between it and the source whence the heat flows4 ,i had observed that as the number of pairs in ,volta's pile had been extended1 and their size and the energy of the interposed agents lessened1 the ratio of the electrical effects to those of heat had increased2 till in ,de ,luc's column they had become completely predominant2 and1 on the other hand1 when the pairs were made larger and fewer 7as in ,children's apparatus7 the calorific influence had gained the ascendancy4 ,i was led to go farther in this way1 and to examine whether one pair of plates of enormous size1 or what might be equivalent thereto1 would not exhibit heat more purely1 and demonstrate it1 equally with the electric fluid1 a primary product of ,galvanic combinations4 ,the elementary battery of ,wollaston1 though productive of an evanescent ignition1 was too minute to allow him to make the observations which ,i had in view4 ,twenty copper and twenty zinc plates1 about nineteen inches square1 were supported vertically in a frame1 the different metals alternating at one half inch distance from each other4 ,all the plates of the same kind of metal were soldered to a common slip1 so that each set of homogeneous plates formed one continuous metallic superficies4 ,when the copper and zinc surfaces1 thus formed1 are united by an intervening wire1 and the whole immerged in an acid1 or aceto-saline solution1 in a vessel devoid of partitions1 the wire becomes intensely ignited2 and when hydrogen is liberated it usually takes fire1 producing a very beautiful undulating1 or coruscating flame4 ,i am confident1 that if ,volta and the other investigators of ,galvanism1 instead of multiplying the pairs of ,galvanic plates1 had sought to increase the effect by enlarging one pair as ,i have done1 7for ,i consider the copper and zinc surfaces as reduced to two by the connexion7 the apparatus would have been considered as presenting a new mode of evolving heat1 as a primary effect independently of electrical influence4 ,there is no other indication of electricity when wires from the two surfaces touch the tongue1 than a slight taste1 such as is excited by small pieces of zinc and silver laid on it and under it1 and brought into contact with each other4 ,it was with a view of examining the effects of the proximity and alternation in the heterogeneous plates that ,i had them cut into separate squares4 ,by having them thus divided1 ,i have been enabled to ascertain that when all of one kind of metal are ranged on one side of the frame1 and all of the other kind on the other side of it1 the effect is no greater than might be expected from one pair of plates4 ,volta1 considering the changes consequent to his contrivance as the effect of a movement in the electric fluid1 called the process electro-motion1 and the plates producing it electro-motors4 ,but the phenomena show that the plates1 as ,i have arranged them1 are calori-motors1 or heat movers1 and the effect calori-motion4 ,that this is a new view of the subject1 may be inferred from the following passage in ,davy's ,elements4 ,that great chemist observes1 ,when very small conducting surfaces are used for conveying very large quantities of electricity1 they become ignited2 and of the different conductors that have been compared1 charcoal is most easily heated by electrical discharges1#gh next iron1 platina1 gold1 then copper1 and lastly1 zinc4 ,the phenomena of electrical ignition1 whether taking place in gaseous1 fluid1 or solid bodies1 always seem to be the result of a violent exertion of the electrical attractive and repellent powers1 which may be connected with motions of the particles of the substances affected4 ,that no subtile fluid1 such as the matter of heat has been imagined to be1 can be discharged from these substances1 in consequence of the effect of the electricity1 seems probable1 from the circumstance1 that a wire of platina may be preserved in a state of intense ignition in vacuo1 by means of the ,voltaic apparatus1 for an unlimited time2 and such a wire cannot be supposed to contain an inexhaustible quantity of subtile matter4 ,but ,i demand where are the repellent and attractive powers to which the ignition produced by the ,calorimotor can be attributed8 ,besides1 ,i would beg leave respectfully to inquire of this illustrious author1 whence the necessity of considering the heat evolved under the circumstances alluded to as the effect of the electrical fluid2 or why we may not as well suppose the latter to be excited by the heat8 ,it is evident1 as he observes1 that a wire cannot be supposed to contain an inexhaustible supply of matter however subtile2 but wherefore may not one kind of subtile matter be supplied to it from the apparatus as well as another2 especially1 when to suppose such a supply is quite as inconsistent with the characteristics of pure electricity1 as with those of pure caloric8 ,it is evident from ,mr4 ,children's paper in the ,annals of ,philosophy1 on the subject of his large apparatus1 that the ignition produced by it was ascribed to electrical excitement4 ,for the purpose of ascertaining the necessity of the alternation and proximity of the copper and zinc plates1 it has been mentioned that distinct square sheets were employed4 ,the experiments have since been repeated and found to succeed by ,dr4 ,patterson and ,mr4 ,lukens1 by means of two continuous sheets1 one of zinc1 the other of copper1 wound into two concentric coils or spirals4 ,this1 though the circumstance was not known to them1 was the form ,i had myself proposed to adopt1 and had suggested as convenient for a ,galvanic apparatus to several friends at the beginning of the winter2#gi though the consideration above stated induced me to prefer for a first experiment a more manageable arrangement4 ,since writing the above1 ,i find that when1 in the apparatus of twenty copper and twenty zinc plates1 ten copper plates on one side are connected with ten zinc on the other1 and a communication made between the remaining twenty by a piece of iron wire1 about the eighth of an inch in diameter1 the wire enters into a vivid state of combustion on the immersion of the plates4 ,platina wire equal to ,no4 #ah 7the largest ,i had at hand7 is rapidly fused if substituted for the iron4 ,this arrangement is equivalent to a battery of two large ,galvanic pairs2 excepting that there is no insulation1 all the plates being plunged in one vessel4 ,i have usually separated the pairs by a board1 extending across the frame merely4 ,indeed1 when the forty plates were successively associated in pairs1 of copper and zinc1 though suspended in a fluid held in a common recipient without partitions2 there was considerable intensity of ,galvanic action4 ,this shows that1 independently of any power of conducting electricity1 there is some movement in the solvent fluid which tends to carry forward the ,galvanic principle from the copper to the zinc end of the series4 ,i infer that electro-caloric is communicated in this case by circulation1 and that in non-elastic fluids the same difficulty exists as to its retrocession from the positive to the negative end of the series1 as is found in the downward passage of caloric through them4 ,it ought to be mentioned1 that the connecting wire should be placed between the heterogeneous surfaces before their immersion1 as the most intense ignition takes place immediately afterward4 ,if the connexion be made after the plates are immersed1 the effect is much less powerful2 and sometimes after two or three immersions the apparatus loses its power1 though the action of the solvent should become in the interim much more violent4 ,without any change in the latter1 after the plates have been for some time suspended in the air1 they regain their efficacy4 ,i had observed in a ,galvanic pile of three hundred pairs of two inches square1 a like consequence resulting from a simultaneous immersion of the whole4#hj ,the bars holding the plates were balanced by weights1 as window-sashes are1 so that all the plates could be very quickly dipped4 ,a platina wire1 ,no4 #ah1 was fused into a globule1 while the evolution of potassium was demonstrated by a rose-coloured flame arising from some potash which had been placed between the poles4 ,the heat however diminished in a few seconds1 though the greater extrication of hydrogen from the plates indicated a more intense chemical action4 ,agreeably to an observation of ,dr4 ,patterson1 electrical excitement may be detected in the apparatus by the condensing electroscope2 but this is no more than what ,volta observed to be the consequence of the contact of heterogeneous metals4 ,the thinnest piece of charcoal intercepts the calorific agent1 whatever it may be4 ,in order to ascertain this1 the inside of a hollow brass cylinder1 having the internal diameter two inches1 and the outside of another smaller cylinder of the same substance1 were made conical and correspondent1 so that the greater would contain the less1 and leave an interstice of about one-sixteenth of an inch between them4 ,this interstice was filled with wood1 by plugging the larger cylinder with this material1 and excavating the plug till it would permit the smaller brass cylinder to be driven in4 ,the excavation and the fitting of the cylinders was performed accurately by means of a turning lathe4 ,the wood in the interstice was then charred by exposing the whole covered by sand in a crucible to a red heat4 ,the charcoal1 notwithstanding the shrinkage consequent to the fire1 was brought into complete contact with the inclosing metallic surfaces by pressing the interior cylinder further into the exterior one4 ,thus prepared1 the interior cylinder being made to touch one of the ,galvanic surfaces1 a wire brought from the other ,galvanic surface into contact with the outside cylinder1 was not affected in the least1 though the slightest touch of the interior one caused ignition4 ,the contact of the charcoal with the containing metals probably took place throughout a superficies of four square inches1 and the wire was not much more than the hundredth part of an inch thick1 so that unless it were to conduct electricity about forty thousand times better than the charcoal1 it ought to have been heated2 if the calorific influence of this apparatus result from electrical excitement4 ,i am led finally to suppose1 that the contact of dissimilar metals1 when subjected to the action of solvents1 causes a movement in caloric as well as in the electric fluid1 and that the phenomena of ,galvanism1 the unlimited evolution of heat by friction1 the extrication of gaseous matter without the production of cold1 might all be explained by supposing a combination between the fluids of heat and electricity4 ,we find scarcely any two kinds of ponderable matter which do not exercise more or less affinity towards each other4 ,moreover1 imponderable particles are supposed highly attractive of ponderable ones4 ,why then should we not infer the existence of similar affinities between imponderable particles reciprocally8 ,that a peculiar combination between heat and light exists in the solar beams1 is evident from their not imparting warmth to a lens through which they may pass1 as do those of our culinary fires4 ,under this view of the case1 the action of the poles in ,galvanic decomposition is one of complex affinity4 ,the particles of compounds are attracted to the different wires agreeably to their susceptibilities to the positive and negative attraction1 and the caloric leaving the electric fluid with which it had been combined1 unites with them at the moment that their electric state is neutralized4 ,as an exciting fluid1 ,i have usually employed a solution of one part sulphuric acid1 and two parts muriate of soda with seventy of water2 but1 to my surprise1 ,i have produced nearly a white heat by an alkaline solution barely sensible to the taste4 ,for the display of the heat effects1 the addition of manganese1 red lead1 or the nitrates1 is advantageous4 ,the rationale is obvious4 ,the oxygen of these substances prevents the liberation of the gaseous hydrogen1 which would carry off the caloric4 ,adding to diluted muriatic acid1 while acting on zinc1 enough red lead to prevent effervescence1 the temperature rose from #gj to #aaj ,fahrenheit4 ,the power of the calorimotor is much increased by having the communication between the different sheets formed by very large strips or masses of metal4 ,observing this1 ,i rendered the sheets of copper shorter by half an inch1 for a distance of four inches of their edges1 where the communication was to be made between the zinc sheets2 and1 vice versa1 the zinc was made in the same way shorter than the copper sheets where these were to communicate with each other4 ,the edges of the shortened sheets being defended by strips of wood1 tin was cast on the intermediate protruding edges of the longer ones1 so as to embrace a portion of each equal to about one quarter of an inch by four inches4 ,on one side1 the tin was made to run completely across1 connecting at the same time ten copper and ten zinc sheets4 ,on the other side there was an interstice of above a quarter of an inch left between the stratum of tin embracing the copper1 and that embracing the zinc plates4 ,on each of the approaching terminations of the connecting tin strata was soldered a kind of forceps1 formed of a bent piece of sheet brass1 furnished with a screw for pressing the jaws together4 ,the distance between the different forceps was about two inches4 ,the advantage of a very close contact was made very evident by the action of the screws2 the relaxation or increase of pressure on the connecting wire by turning them being productive of a correspondent change in the intensity of ignition4 ,it now remains to state1 that by means of iron ignited in this apparatus1 a fixed alkali may be decomposed extemporaneously4#ha ,if a connecting iron wire1 while in combustion1 be touched by the hydrate of potash1 the evolution of potassium is demonstrated by a rose-coloured flame4 ,the alkali may be applied to the wire in small pieces in a flat hook of sheet iron4 ,but the best mode of application is by means of a tray made by doubling a slip of sheet iron at the ends1 and leaving a receptacle in the centre1 in which the potash may be placed covered with filings4 ,this tray being substituted for the connecting wire1 as soon as the immersion of the apparatus causes the metal to burn1 the rose-coloured flame appears1 and if the residuum left in the sheet iron be afterward thrown into water1 an effervescence sometimes ensues4 ,i have ascertained that an iron heated to combustion1 by a blacksmith's forge fire1 will cause the decomposition of the hydrate of potash4 ,the dimensions of the ,calorimotor may be much reduced without proportionably diminishing the effect4 ,i have one of sixty plates within a cubic foot1 which burns off ,no4 #af1 iron wire4 ,a good workman could get #abj plates of a foot square within a hollow cube of a size no larger4 ,but the inflammation of the hydrogen which gives so much splendour to the experiment1 can only be exhibited advantageously on a large scale4 ,illustration3 ,,calorimeter ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d4 ,drawn ,engraved by ,kneass1 ,young ,co4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plate4 ,a a1 ,fig4 #ast1 two cubical vessels1 #bj inches square1 inside4 b b b b a frame of wood containing #bj sheets of copper1 and #bj sheets of zinc1 alternating with each other1 and about half an inch apart4 ,t ,t t t masses of tin cast over the protruding edges of the sheets which are to communicate with each other4 ,fig4 #b1 represents the mode in which the junction between the various sheets and tin masses is effected4 ,between the letters z z1 the zinc only is in contact with the tin masses4 ,between c c the copper alone touches4 ,it may be observed1 that1 at the back of the frame1 ten sheets of copper between c c1 and ten sheets of zinc between z z1 are made to communicate1 by a common mass of tin extending the whole length of the frame1 between ,t ,t3 but in front1 as in fig4 #a1 there is an interstice between the mass of tin connecting the ten copper sheets1 and that connecting the ten zinc sheets4 ,the screw forceps1 appertaining to each of the tin masses1 may be seen on either side of the interstice3 and likewise a wire for ignition held between them4 ,the application of the rope1 pulley1 and weights1 is obvious4 ,the swivel at ,s permits the frame to be swung round and lowered into water in the vessel a1 to wash off the acid1 which1 after immersion in the other vessel1 might continue to act on the sheets1 encrusting them with oxide4 ,between p p there is a wooden partition which is not necessary1 though it may be beneficial4 ,fig4 #c1 represents an apparatus alluded to1 page #dai4 ,it consists of a couronne des tasses1 reduced to a form no less compact than that of the trough4 ,hollow parallelopipeds of glass are substituted for tumblers or cells4 ,the plates are suspended to bars counterpoised like window-sashes4 ,the advantages are as follows4 ,the material is one of the best non-conductors1 is easily cleansed1 and is the most impervious to solvents4 ,the fracture of one of the cups is easily remedied by a supernumerary4 ,they may be procured 7as in the ,united ,states7 where porcelain cannot be had4 ,the shock from #cjj pairs is such as few will take a second time4 ,some of the effects have already been stated4#hb ,at ,fig4 #d1 one of the hollow glass parallelopipeds on an enlarged scale is represented4 ,,mathematics4 ,,art4 ,,xx4 ,an improved ,method of obtaining the ,formul for the ,sines and ,cosines of the ,sum and ,difference of two ,arcs1 by ,,professor ,,strong1 of ,hamilton ,college4 ,illustration ,in the circle ,,abcd let ,,ab and ,,bc denote any two arcs contiguous to each other4 ,draw their limiting diameters ,aa1 ,cc2 their sines ,bx1 ,by2 and join x1 y4 ,then will xy sine of 7,,ab ,,bc73 for if upon ,,ob as a diameter we describe a circle1 it will manifestly pass through the points x and y1 7since the angles ,ox,b1 ,oy,b are right1 see ,euc4 #ca4 #c47 therefore ,ox,by is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle described on ,,ob as a diameter1 and the angle y,ox at the circumference stands upon an arc whose chord is xy4 ,again1 if from a we draw ad perpendicular to ,cc1 it will be the sine of the arc ac 7 ,,ab ,,bc74 ,if now we describe a circle on a,o as diameter1 it will pass through d1 7see ,euc4 #ca4 #c47 therefore ad is the chord of an arc on which the angle a,oc stands in the circle described on a,o4 ,but in equal circles the chords of arcs on which equal angles at the centres or circumferences stand are equal2 7see ,euc4 #bf4 and #bi4 #c47 hence xy ad sin7,,ab ,,bc74 ,now sine ,ox,by is a quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on ,,ob as diameter1 we shall have 7,euc4 ,d4 #f47 ,,ob xy ,bx ,oy ,by ,ox sin,a,b cos,c,b sin,c,b cos,a,b4 ,if ,,ob be denoted by r1 we shall have xy1 or sin7,,ab ,,bc7 7sin,a,b cos,c,b sin,c,b cos,a,b7_/r4 ,if ,,ab ,a1 ,,bc ,b1 and the radius r #a1 sin7,a ,b7 sin,a ,cos,b sin,b cos,a2 which is the known formula for the sine of the sum of two arcs1 to the radius #a4 ,again1 if through ,o we draw the diameter ,,de perpendicular to ,aa1 then will ,,dc be the complement of 7,,ab ,,bc74 ,draw ,cp1 the sine of ,,dc cos7,,ab ,,bc74 ,through ,b draw the diameter ,bb2 from b1 draw the sines bz1 br1 of the arcs bc1 b,e respectively1 and join z1 r4 ,then by describing two circles1 one on b,o as diameter1 the other on ,,oc1 it may be proved as before that the circle described on b,o passes through the points z and r1 and that the circle described on ,,co passes through p3 and hence1 by the same reasoning as before1 zr ,cp cos7,,ab ,,bc74 ,now ,obzr being a quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on b,o1 we have 7by the prop4 before cited7 b,o zr ,or bz br ,oz2 and hence b,o zr br ,oz - ,or bz4 ,but br sine arc b,e sine arc ,,bd2 and since ,,bd is the complement of ,,ab1 br cos,a,b4 ,in like manner ,oz cos,b,c1 ,or sin,a,b1 and bz sin,b,c2 hence by substitution1 b,o zr cos,a,b cos,b,c - sin,a,b sin,b,c4 ,by using the same notation as before1 we have cos7,a ,b7 7cos,a cos,b - sin,a sin,b7_/r 7if r #a7 cos,a cos,b - sin,a sin,b1 which is the known formula for the cosine of the sum of two arcs4 ,the same construction will answer for the two remaining cases3 for if we suppose that b,e and bc are two arcs1 then will c,e be their difference1 and zr the sine of c,e1 as proved above2 hence zr 7 sin7b,e - bc77 7br ,oz - ,or bz7_/b,o4 ,but br sinb,e1 and ,or its cosine2 and bz sine bc1 and ,oz its cos41 hence if b,e be denoted by a1 bc by b1 and ,ob as before1 then will sin7a - b7 7sina cosb - sinb cosa7_/r 7if r #a7 sina cosb - sinb cosa4 ,again1 ,,ab ,,bc is the complement of ,,dc or c,e2 hence by the first part of the above investigation1 xy sin7,,ab ,,bc7 cosc,e3 but xy or sin7,a ,b7 cos7a - b7 7sin,a cos,b sin,b cos,a7_/r2 and as sin,a or ,,ab cos,b,d cosb,e1 ,ox cos,a or ,,ab sin,b,d sinb,e1 ,by bz sinbc1 and ,oy ,oz cosbc1 we shall have1 by substitution1 cos7a - b7 7cosa cosb sina sinb7_/r1 7if r #a7 cosa cosb sina sinb4 ,from what has been said it appears1 that if ,a and ,b be any two arcs1 of which ,a is the greatest1 then ,sin7,a ,b7 7sin,a cos,b sin,b cos,a7_/r2 ,cos7,a ,b7 7cos,a cos,b sin,a sin,b7_/r4 ,when the radius r is supposed #a1 the denominators in these formul disappear4 ,in the latter1 ,a and ,b are used for a and b1 for the sake of homogeneity4 ,the propriety of this is manifest2 for as a and b denote two indefinite arcs1 the same reasoning will apply to ,a and ,b1 as to a and b1 the first being supposed in each case the greatest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following ,diophantine ,problem was proposed for solution some months ago in a ,periodical ,journal1 which has since been discontinued4 ,to those who are interested in speculations of this nature1 we presume that the following solution1 forwarded by ,professor ,,strong1 of ,hamilton ,college1 will not be unacceptable4 ,,problem4 ,to find three positive rational ,numbers1 x1 y1 and z1 such that x#b - y1 x#b - z1 y#b - x1 and y#b - z may all be squares4 ,assume x - ay for the root of the square x#b - y3 then x#b - y 7x - ay7#b1 whence x 7a#by #a7_/b;a4 ,in like manner1 by assuming x - bz for the root of the square x#b - z1 we find z 7#b;bx - #a7_/;b#b4 ,but y#b - x y#b - 7a#by #a7_/b;a1 7since x 7a#by #a7_/b;a72 and as this is to be made a square1 assume y - c77a#by #a7_/b;a7 for its root2 whence1 by proceeding as before1 we find y 7#b;a c#b7_/7d;ca - a#b;c#b74 ,but x 7a#by #a7_/b;a 7by substituting for y its value7 7a#b #b;c7_/7#d;ca - c#b;a#b74 ,again z 7#b;bx - #a7_/;b#b 7by substituting for x its value7 #b;b77a#b #b;c7_/7#d;ca - c#b;a#b77 - #a_/;b#b2 hence y#b - z 77#b;a c#b7_/7d;ca - c#b;a#b77b b#b - #b;b77a#b #b;c7_/7#d;ca - c#b;a#b77 #a_/;b#b 7by substituting for y and z their values27 and as this also is to be made a square1 assume for its root 7be - #a7_/;b4 ,then we shall have 77#b;a c#b7_/7d;ca - c#b;a#b77b b#b - #b;b77a#b #b;c7_/7#d;ca - c#b;a#b77 #a 7be - #a7b2 from which1 by reduction1 b #b e7#d;ca - c#b;a#b7b - 7a#b #b;c77#d;ca - c#b;a#b7 _/ e#b7d;ca - c#b;a#b7b - 7#b;a c#b7b4 ,hence the values of the required numbers are as follows3 z 7#b;bx - #a7_/;b#b1 7in which the value of b is to be found from the last equation17 x 7a#b #b;c7_/7#d;ca - c#b;a#b71 and y 7#b;a c#b7_/7d;ca - c#b;a#b74 ,the numbers a1 c1 and e1 are to be so assumed that x1 y1 and z may come out positive4 ,if a #a1 c #b1 and e #b1 then will x #e_/d1 y #c_/b1 and z #ad_/i1 which numbers will be found upon trial to satisfy the question4 ,it may also be observed that c and a being positive1 ca must not exceed #d2 but the form of the above expressions for x1 y1 z1 will be sufficient to direct us how a1 c1 and e1 are to be assumed4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,,art4 ,,xxi4 ,an ,account of several ,ancient ,mounds1 and of two ,caves1 in ,east ,tennessee1 by ,,mr4 ,,john ,,henry ,,kain1 of ,knoxville4 7,communicated for the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c47 ,mounds4 ,on the plantation of ,mr4 ,john ,kain of ,knox county1 near the north bank of the ,holston ,river1 #e miles above its junction with the ,french ,broad1 is a curious collection of mounds of earth1 evidently the work of art1 but of an almost antediluvian antiquity1 if we may form any conjecture of their age1 from that of the forest which grows around and upon them4 ,they are about half a dozen in number1 and arise on about half an acre of level ground without any seeming regularity4 ,they are pyramidal in their shape1 or rather sections of pyramids1 whose bases are from #aj to #cj paces in diameter4 ,the largest one in this group rises about #aj feet above the level ground1 and is remarkably regular in its figure4 ,a perpendicular section of this mound was made about a year since1 but no important discovery was made4 ,it was found to consist of the surface thrown up1 and contained a good deal of ashes and charcoal4 ,this group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch1 which can be distinctly traced on three sides1 and enclosing besides the mounds1 several acres of ground4 ,it is like the mounds covered with trees1 which grow in it and about it4 ,at every angle of this ditch1 it sweeps out into a semicircle1 and it appears in many respects well calculated for defence4 ,there are many other mounds of the same form in ,tennessee4 ,at the junction of the ,french ,broad with the ,holston1 there is one in which human bones are said to have been found4 ,farther up ,french ,broad1 near ,newport1 is a very large mound4 ,it reposes on a very level and extensive plain1 and is itself the largest ,i ever saw4 ,it is thirty feet high1 and its base covers half an acre of ground4 ,as it ascends from its base1 there is a slight inclination from a perpendicular on all sides1 and the upper surface is as level as the rest is regular4 ,from the great size of this mound1 its commanding situation1 and the mystery which veils its history1 it is a most interesting spot of ground4 ,there are many other mounds of this description in the ,state of ,tennessee1 but ,i have not visited them4 ,though not immediately connected with this subject1 ,i take the liberty to subjoin an account of a remarkable cave or grotto1 in a bluff of limestone1 on the south bank of the ,holston ,river1 opposite the mounds first described4 ,the bluff is perhaps #ajj feet high and #ej wide4 ,the grotto is a large natural excavation of the rock1 #fj feet high and #cj feet wide4 ,it is very irregular1 and to the very top bears marks of the attrition of waves4 ,the river to have been so high1 must have covered the valley through which it now winds its quiet way4 ,the excavation gradually diminishes in size as you proceed backward1 till at #ajj feet from the entrance1 it terminates4 ,a remarkable projection of the rock divides the back part into two stories4 ,this grotto1 whose walls are hung with ivy1 and the bluff crowned with cedars1 and surrounded by an aged forest1 on which the vine clambers most luxuriantly1 viewed from the river which winds slowly around it1 and reflects its image1 is more than beautiful3 it is even venerable4 ,but what renders it most interesting to many visitors1 is a number of rude paintings1 which were1 as tradition reports1 left on it by the ,cherokee ,indians4 ,these ,indians are known to have made this cave a resting-place1 as they passed up and down the ,river ,holston4 ,these paintings are still distinct1 though they have faded somewhat within my remembrance4 ,they consist of representations of the sun and moon1 of a man1 of birds1 fishes1 c4 ,they are all of red paint1 and resemble in this respect1 the paintings on ,paint ,rock near the warm springs4 ,much has been said of the objects of curiosity in the country north of us2 and ,i took the liberty to describe some of them in my preceding communication4 ,indeed we may say1 without danger of exaggeration1 that the range of ,alleghany ,mountains presents a variety of the most curious features1 and many objects of beauty and sublimity4 ,i have noticed a few of the most prominent1 but the half is not told4 ,extract of a ,letter1 c4 ,knoxville1 ,nov4 #bd1 #ahah4 ,i was on a visit to a friend a few days since1 about #cj miles to the north of this1 and was invited by him to visit an interesting curiosity in the neighbourhood4 ,we crossed the ,clynch ,river where it is much confined by mountains1 and banks as high as mountains4 ,our guide conducted us to the foot of a steep declivity1 where we left our horses1 and with some difficulty ascended about #gj yards4 ,here we came to the mouth of a cave which had been stopped up by a stone wall4 ,the wall was made of limestone and mortar1 which is now harder than the stone itself4 ,it is1 without a doubt1 artificial1 for besides the evidence afforded by its structure1 it contains bones and animal remains4 ,what was this wall built for8 ,there was a tradition among the inhabitants that it contained money1 and they were much disappointed on opening it1 not to find any4 ,like other caves1 it contains a variety of calcareous concretions1 and ,i obtained some fine specimens of brown spar1 which ,i will take the first opportunity to send you4 ,i remain your ,friend1 ,,john ,h4 ,,kain4 ,n4 ,b4 ,this wall is #aj feet thick4 ,for the ,american ,journal of ,science1 c4 ,,benjamin ,,silliman1 ,,esq4 ,dear ,sir1 ,should you think the facts detailed in the following statement worthy of publication1 you are at liberty to publish them4 ,the knowledge of the first1 ,i derived in the year #ahjb1 from a gentleman and a lady1 both inhabitants of the town where the person whose case is detailed1 lived3 of the third in #ahjb1 from the same lady3 and of the second in #ahjb1 from a lady1 a near relative of ,mrs4 ,s4 ,when the facts were communicated to me1 ,i immediately committed them to writing1 and to avoid mistakes1 read what ,i had written to the persons communicating them4 ,i am very respectfully1 ,your ,friend1 and obedient ,servant1 ,,benjamin ,w4 ,,dwight4 ,,art4 ,,xxii4 ,facts illustrative of the ,powers and ,operations of the ,human ,mind in a ,diseased ,state4 #a4 ,some years ago a farmer of fair character1 who resided in an interior town in ,new ,england1 sold his farm1 with an intention of purchasing another in a different town4 ,his mind was naturally of a melancholy cast4 ,shortly after the sale of his farm1 he was induced to believe that he had sold it for less than its value4 ,this persuasion brought on dissatisfaction1 and eventually a considerable degree of melancholy4 ,in this situation1 one of his neighbours engaged him to enclose a lot of land1 with a post and rail fence1 which he was to commence making the next day4 ,at the time appointed he went into the field1 and began with a beetle and wedges to split the timber1 out of which the posts and rails were to be prepared4 ,on finishing his day's work1 he put his beetle and wedges into a hollow tree1 and went home4 ,two of his sons had been at work through the day in a distant part of the same field4 ,on his return1 he directed them to get up early the next morning1 to assist him in making the fence4 ,in the course of the evening he became delirious1 and continued in this situation several years2 when his mental powers were suddenly restored4 ,the first question which he asked after the return of his reason1 was1 whether his sons had brought in the beetle and wedges4 ,he appeared to be wholly unconscious of the time that had elapsed from the commencement of his delirium4 ,his sons1 apprehensive that any explanations might induce a return of his disease1 simply replied that they had been unable to find them4 ,he immediately arose from his bed1 went into the field where he had been at work a number of years before1 and found the wedges1 and the rings of the beetle1 where he had left them1 the beetle itself having mouldered away4 ,during his delirium1 his mind had not been occupied with those subjects with which it was conversant in health4 #b4 ,mrs4 ,s41 an intelligent lady1 belonging to a respectable family in the ,state of ,new-,york1 some years ago undertook a piece of fine needlework4 ,she devoted her time to it almost constantly for a number of days4 ,before she had completed it1 she became suddenly delirious4 ,in this state1 without experiencing any material abatement of her disease1 she continued for about seven years2 when her reason was suddenly restored4 ,one of the first questions which she asked after her reason returned1 related to her needlework4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that during the long continuance of her delirium she said nothing1 so far as was recollected1 about her needlework1 nor concerning any such subjects as usually occupied her attention when in health4 #c4 ,a lady in ,new ,england1 of a respectable family1 was for a considerable period subject to paroxysms of delirium4 ,these paroxysms came on instantaneously1 and after continuing an indefinite time1 went off as suddenly2 leaving her mind perfectly rational4 ,it often happened that when she was engaged in rational and interesting conversation1 she would stop short in the midst of it1 become in a moment entirely delirious1 and commence a conversation on some other subject1 not having the remotest connexion with the previous one1 nor would she advert to that during her delirium4 ,when she became rational again1 she would pursue the same conversation in which she had been engaged during the lucid interval1 beginning where she had left off4 ,to such a degree was this carried1 that she would complete an unfinished story or sentence1 or even an unfinished word4 ,when her next delirious paroxysm came on1 she would continue the conversation which she had been pursuing in her preceding paroxysm2 so that she appeared as a person might be supposed to do1 who had two souls1 each occasionally dormant1 and occasionally active1 and utterly ignorant of what the other was doing4 ,,intelligence4 ,,art4 ,,xxiii4 #a4 ,discovery of ,american ,cinnabar and ,native ,lead4 ,extract of a letter from ,dr4 ,comstock of ,hartford1 to the ,editor4 ,,sir1 ,in answer to your inquiry concerning the discovery of sulphuret of mercury and native lead in this country1 ,i send you the following summary of a letter ,i received from ,b4 ,f4 ,stickney1 ,esq4 ,indian agent1 dated ,fort ,wayne1 ,dec4 #a1 #ahah4 ,mr4 ,stickney states1 that the situation of ,fort ,wayne1 and the country surrounding1 is a high level1 probably about #hjj feet above the sea4 ,from this place the water-courses divide and take different directions1 on the one hand falling into the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and on the other into the ,bay of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the whole country is of secondary formation1 chiefly calcareous and aluminous4 ,bitumen and sulphur are every where to be found1 and as usual1 accompanied by the metals4 ,in speaking of the cinnabar1 his words are1 ,i have found a black and garnet-coloured sand1 in great abundance on the shores of the ,lakes ,erie and ,michigan1 this is a sulphuret of mercury1 and yields about sixty per cent4 ,it is so easy to be obtained1 and in so convenient a form for distillation1 that it must become an important article of commerce4 ,the native lead was found on the ,anglaize ,river1 at a considerable distance from the fort4 ,of this he says1 metallic lead is so interspersed with galena1 as to prove incontestably the existence of native lead4 ,respectfully1 ,your obedient ,servant1 ,j4 ,l4 ,,comstock4 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,feb4 #ag1 #ahai4 ,benjamin ,silliman1 ,m4 ,d41 c4 #b4 ,theoretical views of ,professor ,hare of ,philadelphia4 ,we are authorized to mention1 that ,dr4 ,robert ,hare has taught in his lectures during the last eighteen months1 that acid properties never appearing in the absence of water1 this fluid or its elements are most entitled to be considered as the acidifying principle3 but that probably it does not exist in acids as water1 but is decomposed when added to them1 the particles of hydrogen and oxygen by their different polarities taking opposite sides of those composing the base4 ,the extrication of hydrogen by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on iron or zinc1 being the consequence of a previous1 not simultaneous decomposition of water4 ,hence when sulphuric or nitric acids are so concentrated as to char or ignite1 they are not acids really4 #c4 ,new ,work on ,chemistry4 ,dr4 ,john ,gorham of ,boston1 ,professor of ,chemistry in ,harvard ,university1 c4 has published the first volume of his ,elements of ,chemical ,science4 ,the work will be comprised in two volumes1 and its completion will be anticipated with interest by the scientific public4 #d4 ,botanical4 ,dr4 ,romer of ,zurich1 has begun1 since #ahae1 to publish a new edition of the ,systema ,vegetabilium of ,linnus2 he proceeds in its publication2 it will form several volumes4 ,robert ,brown of ,london1 is endeavouring to group the natural orders of plants into natural classes1 or rather into larger natural orders1 with determinate characters3 he has communicated some parts of his labour to the botanists of ,paris4 ,he has been the first to employ as a new character in the distinction of natural orders1 the estivation of flowers1 or the manner in which they are folded in the buds4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rafinesque1 in his ,analysis of ,nature1 has adopted a new practice1 that of giving single substantive ,latin names to the natural orders and families of plants4 ,mirbel has proposed a new nomenclature of fruits in his ,elements of ,botany4 ,decandolle1 after publishing the principles of the science in his ,theory of ,botany1 has begun to undertake a general species plantarum1 according to the natural classification4 ,three splendid ,floras of the south of ,europe have been undertaken4 #a4 ,flora ,grca1 by ,sibthorp and ,smith in ,england4 #b4 ,flora ,lusitanica1 by ,link and ,hoffmansegg in ,germany4 #c4 ,flora ,nepolitana1 by ,tenore in ,naples4 ,they are very expensive works1 and are not yet terminated4 ,received in ,january1 #ahai4 #e4 ,staurotide4 ,extract of a letter to the ,editor1 from ,john ,torrey1 ,m4,d41 of ,new-,york4 ,illustration ,mr4 ,pierce and myself lately found staurotide on the island of ,new-,york4 ,it occurs in considerable quantity in a rock of mica slate1 on the banks of the ,hudson1 about three and a half miles from the city4 ,the crystals very seldom form the perfect cross1 though many were found1 intersecting each other imperfectly at angles of #fj4 ,several single crystals were obtained exceedingly perfect4 ,they were short #d-sided prisms1 with the acute lateral edges truncated at each extremity on the two solid angles of the most obtuse lateral edges1 forming diedral terminations at each extremity of the prism4 ,the faces of these terminations were inclined to each other at an angle of #fg and a few minutes4 ,the annexed figure shows the form of the crystal4 #f4 ,supplement to the ,remarks on the ,geology and ,mineralogy of a ,section of ,massachusetts1 on ,connecticut ,river1 c4 contained in ,no4 #b1 ,art4 ,i1 of this ,journal1 by ,e4 ,,hitchcock1 ,a4 ,m4 ,the following minerals1 found in the region above named1 were either omitted in the former list1 or have been noticed since that was made out4 ,bog-iron ,ore4 ,in ,greenfield and ,warwick4 ,hornstone4 ,rare2 in ,deerfield and ,conway4 ,silicious ,slate4 ,in rolled pieces1 on the banks of ,deerfield river2 not abundant4 ,basanite1 or ,lydian ,stone4 ,same locality4 ,augite4 ,in an aggregate of greenstone1 quartz1 and calcareous spar1 in the greenstone range1 ,deerfield4 ,colour black1 and the crystals usually imperfect1 or broken4 ,staurotide4 ,in mica slate1 ,northfield1 one mile east of the village1 on the turnpike to ,boston4 ,the crystals observed were six-sided prisms4 ,the same rock contains reddish garnets4 ,,the ,,leverett ,,range ,,of ,,granite4 ,this name is given to a granite range that emerges from the puddingstone near the centre of ,amherst1 and extends northerly1 with some interruption1 nearly thirty miles1 through ,leverett and ,montague to ,northfield4 ,and1 indeed1 there is some reason to suppose that it again appears to the north of ,northfield4 ,the range is widest in ,leverett1 where its breadth is more than a mile4 ,it is noticed in the ,remarks1 ,no4 #b1 ,art4 ,i1 of this ,journal1 and may be seen on the section accompanying that communication4 ,but on further examination it has been found to be more extensive than was supposed4 ,the texture of the rock is coarse4 ,plates of mica1 #c or #d inches across1 are common in it2 and one specimen of a beautiful blue feldspar1 the fragment only of a crystal1 measured in one direction #h inches4 ,two circumstances in this range give it an interest in the eye of a geologist4 ,the one is its proximity to sandstone and puddingstone2 and the other1 its small elevation in comparison with the surrounding rocks of later formations4 ,in some places no other rock could be found lying between the granite and puddingstone2 though the soil prevented my observing whether there is an actual contact4 ,but in general there is a stratum of mica slate a few rods wide between these rocks1 and not unfrequently gneiss lies between the mica slate and granite4 ,standing on this range in ,leverett1 you have on the west1 at about #ajj rods distant1 a precipitous mountain of sandstone and puddingstone1 five or six hundred feet higher than the granite4 ,on the east1 a mile or two distant1 a mountain of sienite gradually rises to a still greater height than the puddingstone2 and on the southwest1 at nearly the same distance1 you can see an alluvial formation4 ,in general this granite does not rise so high as the adjacent rocks1 whether secondary or primitive4 ,,veins ,,of ,,ore ,,in ,,this ,,granite4 #a4 ,of ,galena in ,leverett4 ,this ore forms a narrow vein in the southwest part of the town1 on land of ,moses ,smith1 two miles from the ,congregational meeting-house4 ,the direction of the vein is nearly north and south1 and where ,i saw it1 only a foot wide4 ,the gangue is sulphate of barytes4 #b4 ,of ,galena1 ,copper ,pyrites1 and ,blende4 ,this vein is a little more than a mile north of the one above described1 and it may be a continuation of the same vein4 ,the gangue is nearly an equal admixture of sulphate of barytes and quartz2 and galena and sulphuret of copper are disseminated through it in about the same1 that is1 equal proportions4 ,the blende1 which is of a yellowish aspect when the fractured crystal is held in a certain position1 appears only occasionally4 ,this vein is several feet wide1 has been wrought to a small extent in two places1 and its direction is nearly north and south4 ,it is on land of ,mr4 ,field4 ,radiated quartz4 ,in the above vein4 ,a considerable tendency to crystallization appears at this place1 not only in the quartz1 but in the foliated structure of the barytes4 ,brown spar4 ,in the same place4 ,but little of this mineral was noticed4 ,it exfoliated before the blowpipe1 turned black1 and became magnetic4 #c4 ,of ,specular ,oxide of ,iron in ,montague4 ,this is found in a partially detached eminence1 #ajj feet high1 near the north line of ,montague1 on land of ,mr4 ,taft1 a little southwest from the confluence of ,miller's river with the ,connecticut4 ,the whole hill1 not less than #ajj rods in circumference at its base1 is traversed by numerous veins of this ore2 and scarcely a foot of the rock is to be seen that does not contain these1 varying in width from a mere line to several inches4 ,the principal vein appears on the top of the hill2 and is1 as nearly as ,i could determine1 not less than ten feet wide1 lying in a north and south direction4 ,the ore seems to be abundant1 and generally pure4 ,masses1 that have been separated by blasting1 and weighing from #ajj to #bjj pounds1 lie on the surface4 ,a small proportion of sulphuret of iron was observed in some specimens4 ,the gangue is quartz1 and the walls and hill granite4 ,no opinion is here intended to be offered concerning the probable value of these ores1 if worked4 ,if they be useless to the present generation1 they may not be so to some future one1 when labour shall be cheaper2 and therefore it was thought to be of some consequence to point out their localities4 ,in the remarks1 to which this paper is a supplement1 blue quartz was inadvertently put down among the minerals found in ,deerfield4 ,i presume it does not exist there4 ,it is also probable that the variety of garnets found in ,conway1 is not1 as formerly stated1 the melanite4 #g4 ,new ,process for ,tanning4 ,a process for effecting the tanning of leather in a neat1 expeditious1 and thorough manner1 has been discovered by a ,mr4 ,steel1 of ,connecticut3 some account of it may be given hereafter4 #h4 ,connexion between ,chemistry and ,medicine4 ,this subject has been discussed in an able and interesting manner by ,professor ,cooper1 of ,philadelphia1 in a public discourse1 which has now been some months before the public4 #i4 ,brucite4 ,a new ,species in ,mineralogy1 discovered by the late ,dr4 ,bruce4 ,we hope to publish in the next ,number a description and analysis of it4 #aj4 ,lithography4 ,we are promised for our next ,number1 a full account of this art1 of which we have received a beautiful specimen1 ,a ,minerva1 executed by ,mr4 ,bates ,otis1 an ingenious and enterprising artist of ,philadelphia1 who1 under the patronage of ,dr4 ,samuel ,brown1 is preparing to disseminate the productions of his skill1 and to make this important art 7executed with ,american materials17 extensively useful in this country4 ,n4 ,b4 ,as this number has already much exceeded its proper size1 we are obliged to suppress many articles of domestic1 and all those of foreign intelligence4 ,,conclusion4 ,in the prospectus of this work1 the expectation was expressed that each ,number would contain from #fd to #hj pages2 that as many as four ,numbers might be issued within the year1 and engravings were promised for such subjects as might require them4 ,the ,numbers published1 have actually contained from #ajd to #acb pages1 the four have been issued within a period of ten months1 and twelve copper-plate engravings and several woodcuts1 illustrate the present volume4 ,of the subjects proposed in the plan of the work1 our pages contain notices1 more or less extensive1 of ,geology1 ,mineralogy1 ,botany1 ,zoology1 ,chemistry1 ,natural ,philosophy1 ,mathematics1 ,useful ,arts1 ,fine ,arts1 ,inventions1 ,reviews1 ,biography1 and ,intelligence4 ,how far then we have redeemed our pledge1 we leave it for our readers to decide4 ,in the commencement of an enterprise1 for the first time attempted in this country1 an enterprise arduous in its nature and uncertain in its issue1 it will not be doubted that considerable solicitude was experienced4 ,to concentrate ,american efforts in science and the arts1 by furnishing a ,journal to record their proceedings1 will1 in our view1 not only have a direct influence in promoting the honour and prosperity of the nation as connected with its physical interests1 but will also tend in no small degree to nourish an enlarged patriotism1 by winning the public mind from the odious asperities of party4 ,that entire success will attend our efforts1 it would perhaps be presumptuous to expect1 but we trust that the interesting previous question1 whether such a work can be adequately sustained1 by appropriate materials1 may be considered as now decided4 ,the support which we have received1 and for which we are deeply grateful1 has been far beyond our most sanguine hopes1 and has caused us to dispense with no small portion of those less important efforts of our own1 with which we were prepared to succour our infant undertaking4 ,if we may be allowed to express a wish relative to the nature of future communications1 it would be1 that those of a scientific nature should not be diminished1 while those relating to the arts1 to agriculture1 and to domestic economy1 should be increased2 we particularly solicit the communications of practical men1 versed in the useful and ornamental arts1 and they will be acceptable should they not even be clothed in a scientific dress4 ,arrangements have been made for the reception of an increased number of the best ,european ,journals1 both from the continent and from ,britain2 they have already begun to arrive1 and we hope to give in future numbers1 more full details of foreign scientific intelligence1 although it is true that this species of information has hitherto been stinted1 not from poverty of materials1 but from the pressure of original ,american communications4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in justice to the publishers of this work1 we add1 that this publication is an expensive one2 very heavy advances have been already made by them1 while only a trivial amount has been received in return4 ,it is hoped1 therefore1 that subscribers will promptly remit1 free from postage1 the small stipulated sum1 and also make the required advance for the succeeding volume4 ,this last is not due till the first number of that volume has been issued1 but it would save postage to remit both sums at once1 and thus also it will be known what subscriptions are continued4 ,in a subscription so widely dispersed over a large portion of the ,united ,states1 an inattention to punctual payment1 must soon put in hazard the existence of a work1 having otherwise the fairest prospects of continuance1 and we hope of usefulness4 ,should this appeal be promptly answered1 the first number of the next volume 7already in considerable forwardness17 will be published in the course of the summer2 and should men of ability continue to furnish communications1 and the public be willing to pay for the work1 it is our wish to publish future numbers with greater frequency1 and to complete our volumes whenever we are prepared1 without confining ourselves to particular periods of time4 ,new-,haven1 ,conn4 ,may #ag1 #ahai4 ,,postscript4 ,,american ,,geological ,,society4 ,we have the pleasure to announce1 that an ,american ,geological ,society has been recently organized by an association of gentlemen1 residing in various parts of the ,united ,states4 ,an ,act of ,incorporation1 conferring the necessary powers1 has been granted by the ,legislature of ,connecticut1 and farther accounts of the plan and progress of the ,society may be expected in future numbers of this work4 ,,footnotes3 #df ,see ,number #a4 page #ei4 #dg ,the proper name of these prairies1 and of one of the places where they are found1 being illegible in the ,,ms1 we were obliged to omit those names2 we believe however that the sense is not injured4--,editor4 #dh ,former orthography1 ,toghconnuck and ,toghconnuc4 ,that of the text deviates farther from the ,indian1 but is later and preferable4 #di ,see ,map4 #ej ,if this memoir should ever meet the eye of this amiable man1 ,i trust he will excuse the notice to which his labours so justly entitle him4 ,to him we are indebted for a complete science of crystallography1 and for having determined the existence and limit of species1 which mineralogists had not obtained1 and chemists could not determine4 ,he has devoted a long life to the improvement of science1 and it is his praise1 that he has preserved the meekness of religion amidst the most flattering success4 ,our scientific countrymen1 who have visited ,paris1 have been particularly indebted to him2 and this notice is1 in their behalf1 both the tribute of justice and gratitude4 #ea ,mr4 ,nuttall will excuse me for retaining my own specific name4 ,his knowledge of this plant was derived from my ,herbarium1 where he found it under the name of tripsacum cylindricum1 ,mich8 ,although it can hardly be the plant of ,michaux1 it was so considered by the late ,dr4 ,muhlenberg1 when specimens were first communicated to him4 ,it remains under this name in his ,herbarium1 but is not included in his work on the grasses4 ,he left it for me to describe along with other new and doubtful plants from the south4 #eb ,this is the specific name found in my ,herbarium by ,mr4 ,nuttall1 under which it had been previously transmitted to ,mr4 ,elliott4 ,vid4 ,nuttall's ,north ,american ,genera1 v4 ,i4 p4 #hc4 #ec ,mr4 ,nuttall was probably deceived from having examined the spikes before they were fully evolved4 #ed ,mr4 ,stephen ,elliott has confirmed the description of ,aublet1 in his ,botany of the ,southern ,states4 7,received ,january1 #ahah4 ,editor47 #ee ,i refer the scientific reader for further particulars to ,an account of a storm of ,salt1 which fell in ,january1 #ahjc4 ,by ,richard ,salisbury1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,l4,s4 in the ,transactions of the ,linnan ,society of ,london4 ,vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bjg-aj4 #ef ,linnan ,transactions4 ,vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bhi4 #eg ,p4 #cci4 ,lond4 ed4 #eh ,maintained by ,dr4 ,mitchill4 #ei ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,john ,torrey1 has favoured me with the following results of some experiments1 which he made at my request upon the last snow which fell4 ,a pint and a half of snow water was reduced by evaporation to a few drops4 ,on testing this with vegetable blue infusions no alteration of colour took place4 ,it was afterward evaporated to dryness1 and about a quarter of a grain of a solid residuum was obtained4 ,this was redissolved in a small quantity of pure rain water1 and prussiate of potash added to it1 without occasioning any precipitate4 ,nitrate of silver produced a white precipitate so copious1 that the solution was thick with it4 ,carbonate of soda produced no effect4 ,the transparency of a solution of muriate of barytes was not disturbed by it4 ,these experiments prove1 that a free acid does not exist in snow water1 but that the muriate exists in it combined with an alkali1 which is most probably soda4 #fj ,mr4 ,j4 ,murray1 of ,london1 considers this to be a mistake4 ,free muriatic acid1 and not muriate of soda1 he says1 will be found in the recipient4--,elements of ,chemistry4 ,part ,i4 p4 #bab4 ,lond4 ed4 #ahah4 #fa ,that is1 in those oaks which grow near the salt water1 the branches that directly face the sea do not attain so great size and strength as those on the opposite side2 this has also been observed on the south side of ,long-,island4 #fb ,volney's ,travels in ,syria and ,egypt4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dh4 ,perth ed4 #fc ,volney's ,travels in ,syria and ,egypt4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bag4 #fd ,darwin's ,botanic ,garden4 ,p4 #bef4 #fe ,to prove that salt is absorbed into land plants growing near the sea1 the following facts1 for which ,i am indebted to my friend1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,v4 ,knevels1 are conclusive4 ,the fruit of those cocoa-nut trees which grow near the seashore in the ,west-,indies is generally found to have a saltish taste2 and even the milk in the nut is perceptibly impregnated with it4 ,those trees on the contrary which grow in the interior1 beyond the influence of salt water1 have their fruit perfectly fresh and sweet4 ,the same gentleman informs me1 that in a plantation of his father's1 in the ,west-,indies1 situated on the seashore1 a whole crop of the cane was rendered unfit for the purpose of making sugar1 in consequence of the great quantity of salt which it had imbibed4 #ff ,journal of ,science and the ,arts4 ,no4 ,x4 #fg ,volney's ,travels in ,syria and ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #afg4 #fh ,on the subject of the ,egyptian ophthalmia1 it may be asked why it does not appear in innumerable other situations1 equally exposed to salt air1 as ,cape ,cod1 and the ,west-,india ,islands8 ,to this it may be replied1 that in the production of any disease whatever1 a predisposing state of the system is as necessary as an exciting cause4 ,this predisposition appears to exist in a great degree among the ,egyptians1 and depends upon the nature of their climate1 their habits1 and mode of living1 all of which have a tendency to produce debility of the eyes1 and thus render them more susceptible of the impression of those causes which excite inflammation4 #fi ,rush's ,medical ,observations and ,inquiries1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acb4 #gj ,volney's ,travels1 ,vol ,i4 p4 #bbf4 #ga ,rush's ,observations and ,inquiries1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acc4 #gb ,this was most remarkably perceived on one occasion1 where1 under the idea that possibly chrome might exist in the ores1 they had been intensely heated in a forge along with pearl ashes4 ,the mass1 when lixiviated1 gave only a greenish solution1 becoming colourless by nitric acid1 and again greenish by an alkali2 this was supposed to be owing to iron and manganese4 ,no metal was obtained1 except a few minute globules of attractable iron1 but the laboratory was filled with white fumes1 having the peculiar odour alluded to4 #gc ,several of the facts1 we are aware1 accord with the properties of bismuth1 between which and tellurium there are several strong points of resemblance1 but a number of other facts appear irreconcilable with the properties of that metal1 and of every other except tellurium4 #gd ,excepting1 that the covers ought to be so depressed1 as that their brims may be lower than the bottoms of the interior vessels over which they are placed respectively4 ,this is necessary to prevent the gas from escaping1 ere it have access to the surface of the fluid beneath those bottoms4 #ge ,the apparatus may also be made of glass bottles1 duly proportioned1 and cut 7truncated7 alternately near the shoulder and near the bottom4 #gf ,in whose ,journal it was ordered to be printed1 but1 to prevent delay1 it was published1 by the ,author1 in a separate paper1 and forwarded by him to the ,editor of this ,journal4 #gg ,possibly the electric fluid causes decompositions when emitted from an impalpable point 7as in the experiments of ,wollaston7 because its repulsive agency is concentred between integral atoms1 in a mode analogous to that here referred to2 a filament of water in the one case1 and of wire in the other1 being the medium of discharge4 #gh ,the conclusions are drawn from experiments made by the electricity of the ,voltaic apparatus4 #gi ,especially to ,dr4 ,t4 ,p4 ,jones1 and ,mr4 ,rubens ,peale1 who remember the suggestion4 #hj ,see ,plate4 ,fig4 #c4 #ha ,this evidently differs from the common mode of decomposing the fixed alkalies by galvanism3 there the effect depends on electrical attractions and repulsions--here on the chemical agency of ignited iron produced extemporaneously in the galvanic circuit3 this mode of operating appears to be new4 ,editor4 #hb ,the glasses may be had by applying to ,edw4 ,a4 ,pearson1 ,no4 #ga ,cornhill1 ,boston4 ,,index4 ,accidents from fulminating powders1 #afh4 ,acid1 7sulphuric7 lake of1 #di1 #eh river of1 #ei4 ,address to the people of the ,western ,country1 #bjc4 ,agates1 #di1 #acd1 #bcf4 ,alkali1 a new one1 #cji1 #caj4 ,alleghany mountains1 #fj4 ,alluvial formation1 #cbd4 ,alveolites1 #chc4 ,alumine1 pure1 #caj4 ,american ,geological ,society1 #ddb4 ,amianthus1 #ee4 ,analcime1 at ,deerfield1 #acd4 ,antigua1 silicious petrifactions of1 #ef --geology of1 #ada4 ,apatite1 #bcf4 ,apparatus1 improvement on ,woolf's1 c41 #daj4 ,asbestos1 #bcg1 #bdc4 ,asclepias lanceolata1 #beb4 ,atwater1 7,caleb1 ,esq47 on prairies1 #aaf --on ,ohio1 #bjg --on ,belmont county1 #bbf --on winds of the west1 #bgf4 ,augite1 #bdd1 #caj4 ,b4 ,baldwin1 7,dr4 ,william7 on ,rottbllia1 #cee4 ,barbuda1 7island of7 its geology1 #adb4 ,barrens and ,prairies of the ,west1 #aaf4 ,barrow's travels1 extract from1 #adh4 ,barytes1 7sulphat of7 #fc1 #bcg1 #bdj4 ,basins1 peculiar formation of1 #bac4 ,battery1 7electrical7 of ,dr4 ,dana1 #bib4 ,beck1 7,dr4 ,john ,b47 on salt storms1 #chh4 ,belmont county1 ,ohio1 its geology1 c41 #bbg4 ,beryl of ,haddam1 #bdb4 ,bigelow1 7,prof47 on ,american climate1 #gf4 ,blende1 #ej4 ,blow-pipe1 compound1 priority of discovery and use of1 #ig4 ,boats1 steam1 #h4 ,bodies1 dead1 preservation of1 #cjg1 #h4 ,bones1 extraction of gelatine from1 #agj4 ,botany1 ,american1 #e4 ,brace1 7,mr4 ,john ,j47 on cut-worm1 #aed --on minerals of ,litchfield county1 c41 #cej4 ,breccia of the ,potomack1 #baf4 ,brest1 experiments at1 #agd4 ,bridge1 natural1 #ff1 #cai4 ,brongniart on organized remains1 #ga --his address in ,paris1 #gd4 ,brown1 7,dr4 ,samuel7 #adg1 #dci4 ,bruce1 7,dr47 #c1 #cg1 #bee1 #bii1 #dci4 ,bufo cornuta1 #bfe4 ,burial ground of the ,aborigines1 #ajh4 ,burrstone of ,indiana1 #acb4 ,c4 ,cabinet of ,col4 ,gibbs1 #f --of ,b4 ,d4 ,perkins and ,dr4 ,bruce1 #cg4 ,calendar1 floral1 of ,united ,states1 #gf --near ,philadelphia1 #gg --of ,plainfield1 #bee --of ,deerfield1 #cei4 ,calorimotor of ,prof4 ,hare1 #dac4 ,calton hill1 its structure1 #bcj4 ,carbonats1 hard1 of lime1 #fc --of magnesia1 pulverulent1 at ,hoboken1 #ed --crystallized1 #adb4 ,cave1 ,wier's1 #ei1 #fd1 #cag --in ,mount ,toby1 #aaa --at ,corydon1 with ,epsom salt1 #acc4 ,caves1 in ,tennessee1 #dbi4 ,chabasie1 at ,deerfield1 #di1 #acd4 ,chalcedony in silicious wood1 #eg1 at ,deerfield and ,east ,haven1 #acd4 ,characters of minerals1 #dc-de4 ,cinnabar1 in ,michigan1 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transition1 #bab4 ,trumbull1 7,col47 his picture of ,independence1 #bjf4 ,tungsten and ,tellurium1 ,american1 #cab1 #caf1 #dje4 ,v4 ,vapour1 effects of1 on flame1 #dja4 ,vauquelin1 a new alkali1 #caj4 ,vegetables1 effects of their combustion1 #ccd4 ,vegetation1 ,journals of1 #gf1 #gg1 #bef1 #cei4 ,view1 tabular1 #df4 ,virginia1 geology and mineralogy of1 c41 #fj4 ,w4 ,wacke1 of aqueous origin1 #bcc --analysis of1 #bif4 ,warm springs1 #ff4 ,waterhouse1 7,dr4 ,benjamin7 #cg4 ,webster 7,dr4 ,i4 ,w47 on ,calton ,hill1 #bcj --letter from1 #bdc --on wacke1 #bif --his lectures1 #cjd --cabinet1 #cje4 ,wells 7,mr4 ,r4 ,w47 on ,prairies1 c41 #cca --of ,columbia affected by earthquakes1 #ic4 ,western ,museum ,society1 #bjc4 ,williams1 7,dr4 ,stephen7 his calendar1 c41 #cei4 ,williamstown1 its geology1 c41 #ccg4 ,winds of the ,west1 #bgf4 ,wood1 petrifactions of1 #ej-ef --chesnut applied to tanning1 #cac4 ,woolf's apparatus1 substitute for1 #daj4 ,works 7elementary7 on mineralogy1 #ch4 ,x4 ,xanthium maculatum1 #aea4 ,z4 ,zoology1 ,american1 #e --fossil1 #cha4 ,zoophytes1 c41 #cha4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,four illustrations have been moved from their book location to be close to the text describing them4 ,one from page #bhi to p#bic2 another from p#dac to p#ccg2 another from p#dad to p#dbc2 another from p#ddh to p#ia4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,for example1 knifeblade1 knife-blade2 ,new ,england1 ,new-,england2 carbonat1 carbonate2 musqueto2 illy2 chesnut2 connexion4 ,pg #b1 'these scources' replaced by 'these sources'4 ,pg #ac1 'arch ,,agn 44 ,,va' replaced by 'arc ,,agn44,,va'4 ,pg #ad1 ',vth ,a,d,g' replaced by ',vth ,a,d,g'4 ,pg #ci1 'sooner1 in might' replaced by 'sooner1 it might'4 ,pg #ej1 'are two limited' replaced by 'are too limited'4 ,pg #ea1 'importance usally' replaced by 'importance usually'4 ,pg #eh1 'shall be acertained' replaced by 'shall be ascertained'4 ,pg #fj1 ',geology of the the' replaced by ',geology of the'4 ,pg #gg1 '#bjth of ,ferbuary' replaced by '#bjth of ,february'4 ,pg #ij1 'than elswhere2' replaced by 'than elsewhere2'4 ,pg #ia1 'convenient mothod' replaced by 'convenient method'4 ,pg #id1 'heretofore peccolated' replaced by 'heretofore percolated'4 ,pg #ajd ,footnote #af1 'by inadventence' replaced by 'by inadvertence'4 ,pg #ajh1 'aud three feet' replaced by 'and three feet'4 ,pg #aac1 ',some has' replaced by ',some have'4 ,pg #acc1 'tress2 insects' replaced by 'trees2 insects'4 ,pg #ach1 'three huudred feet' replaced by 'three hundred feet'4 ,pg #adg1 'quantitites of sandrock' replaced by 'quantities of sandrock'4 ,pg #adi1 'is is not a proper' replaced by 'is not a proper'4 ,pg #aeh1 ,illustration caption1 ',p4 ,,iv' replaced by ',pl4 ,,iv'4 ,pg #aga1 'much of the gelantine' replaced by 'much of the gelatine'4 ,pg #agc1 'empyxeuma arising' replaced by 'empyreuma arising'4 ,pg #bjd1 'unknown to to all' replaced by 'unknown to all'4 ,pg #bch1 ',honsatonuck ,river' replaced by ',housatonick ,river'4 ,pg #bdg1 ',inis1 low' replaced by ',iris1 low'4 ,pg #bdi1 ',yacca filamentosa' replaced by ',yucca filamentosa'4 ,pg #beg1 'eleven apicial' replaced by 'eleven apical'4 ,pg #bfa1 'the tripple series' replaced by 'the triple series'4 ,pg #bfi1 'situation of of the' replaced by 'situation of the'4 ,pg #bhe1 'my own observatiou' replaced by 'my own observation'4 ,pg #bij1 'thrown purmiscuously' replaced by 'thrown promiscuously'4 ,pg #cjh1 'for sometime made' replaced by 'for some time made'4 ,pg #cae1 'chrystallography of ,hay' replaced by 'crystallography of ,hay'4 ,pg #cae1 'in cold weather4' replaced by 'in cold water4'4 ,pg #caf1 'common iron pyrytes' replaced by 'common iron pyrites'4 ,pg #cdd1 'regular octaedrons' replaced by 'regular octahedrons'4 ,pg #cde1 ',hill in ,cattskill' replaced by ',hill in ,catskill'4 ,pg #cdf1 ',the schorl cruciforn' replaced by ',the schorl cruciform'4 ,pg #cei1 ',deerfield1 ,massachuchusetts1' replaced by ',deerfield1 ,massachusetts1'4 ,pg #cfc1 ',humingbirds arrived' replaced by ',hummingbirds arrived'4 ,pg #cfg1 ',american hazle' replaced by ',american hazel'4 ,pg #cgj1 'been unusully warm' replaced by 'been unusually warm'4 ,pg #cga1 'and mullin' replaced by 'and mullein'4 ,pg #dji1 'appear irreconcileable' replaced by 'appear irreconcilable'4 ,pg #dae1 'inerposed agents' replaced by 'interposed agents'4 ,pg #daf1 'corruscating flame' replaced by 'coruscating flame'4 ,pg #dbi1 'to many visiters' replaced by 'to many visitors'4 ,index4 ',diploca barbata1 #bhb4' replaced by ',diplocea barbata1 #beb4'4 ',localites' replaced by ',localities'4 ',rafinesque'1 'on ,diploca barbata1 #ceb' replaced by 'on ,diplocea barbata1 #beb'4 ',slate'1 '#gj--cdb4' replaced by '#gj1 #cdb4'4 ',torrey' page number '#dcg' added4